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Ex  Libris 
C.  K.  OGDEN 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


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PUBLISHERS'    NOTE 

The  publishers  desire  to  express  their  regret  for  the  delay 
which  has  taken  place  in  the  appearance  of  this,  the  final,  volume 
of  the  "  British  Empire  Series."  The  work  has  been  one 
of  great  difficulty,  articles  having  been  secured  from  writers  in 
all  parts  of  the  world ;  and  the  passage  of  proofs  to  regions 
often  almost  inaccessible  to  the  post  has  caused  frequent  in- 
terruption in  the  progress  of  the  zvork.  They  are  now  glad  to 
have  concluded  the  zvork  upon  the  scheme  originally  laid  doivn 
and  think  they  may  justly  claim  that  the  Series,  in  its  complete 
form,  constitutes  a  library  of  Imperial  interest  and  importance 
which  is  entirely  unique  in  aim  and  comprehension. 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  SERIES 


VOL.  V 


KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.   L™ 
NEW  PUBLICATIONS. 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  SERIES. 
In  Five  Volumes,  with  Twelve  Maps.     Large  post  8vo. 

VOL.   I.— INDIA,    Ceylon,    Straits    Settlements,    British    North 
Borneo,  Hong-Kong.    Two  Maps. 

VOL.  II.— BRITISH  AFRICA.     Four  Maps. 

VOL.  III.— BRITISH  AMERICA.     Two  Maps. 

VOL.  IV.— AUSTRALASIA.     Two  Maps. 

VOL.  v.— GENERAL.     Two  Maps. 

The  Volumes  will  he  itsnued  mtccessively  at  intervals  of  about  one  month. 


THE  LAST  BOER  WAR.  By  H.  Rider  Haggard.  Paper 
Cover.    Is. 

CETYWAYO  AND  HIS  WHITE  NEIGHBOURS;  or  Re- 
marks on  Recent  Events  in  Zululand,  Xatal,  and  the  Transvaal.  By 
H.  Rider  Haggard.  New  and  Cheaper  Edition.  Crown  8vo.  3s.  6d. 
Paternoster  Library. 


THE  WOLSELEY  SERIES  OF  MILITARY'  WORKS. 

Edited  by  Captain  W.  H.  James,  late  R.E. 

New  Volumes.    Uniform.    Demy  Svo. 

THE  CONDUCT  OF  WAR.     By  Baron  von  der  Goltz.     10s.  6d. 

CROMWELL  AS  A  SOLDIER.     By  Lt.-Col.  T.  S.  Baldock. 
R.A.    With  Twelve  Maps  and  Plans.     15.s. 

NAPOLEON     AS     A     GENERAL.      By    Count    Yorck    von 
Wartenburg.    Two  Vols. 

GOURKO'S  RAID.     By  Colonel  Epauchin,  of  the  Russian  Staff. 
London  :  PATKUNObTKU  Housk,  Chaking  Cross  Road,  W.C. 


THE  ISLE  OF  MAN,  GIBRALTAR, 

MALTA,  ST  HELENA,  BARBADOS, 

CYPRUS,  THE  CHANNEL  ISLANDS, 

THE  BRITISH  ARMY  &f  NAVY 


HISTORICAL,  POLITICAL,  AND 
GEOGRAPHICAL     HISTORY 


IVITN  TWO  MAPS 


LONDON 
KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.,  LTD 

PATERNOSTKR  HOUSE,  CHARING  CROSS  ROAD 
1902 


\OX7 

H77 


b 


PKEFATOEY   NOTE 

The  papers  comprised  in  these  volumes  were  most  of 
them  given  originally  as  lectures  in  the  Sunday  After- 
noon Course  at  the  South  Place  Institute,  Finsbury,  from 
1895  to  1898,  with  the  object  of  affording  trustworthy 
information  concerning  the  various  colonies,  settle- 
ments,  and  countries  scattered  over  the  world  which 
go  to  form  the  whole  known  as  "  The  British  Empire." 
It  was  thought  that  a  wider  and  deeper  knowledge  of 
the  growth,  present  condition,  and  possibilities  of  each 
integral  part  of  our  Empire  would  tend  to  strengthen 
the  sympathetic,  material,  and  political  ties  wdiich 
unite  the  Colonies  to  the  Mother  Country. 

The  generous  response  to  the  invitation  to  lecture 
was  very  gratifying  ;  travellers,  natives,  and  those  to 
whom  had  been  given  the  onerous  task  of  governing  the 
various  provinces  of  our  Empire,  vied  with  one  another 
in  their  willingness  to  impart  the  special  knowledge 
Avhich  they  had  acquired. 

The  lecturers  were  asked,  when  possible,  to  give  a 
short  account  of  the  country  prior  to  its  incorporation, 
its  colonial  history,  the  effect  of  the  British  connection 
on  the  country  and  the  natives,  and  the  outlook  for 
the  future.  To  these  topics  were  added  the  conditions 
for  colonisation,  of  trade  and  commerce,  the  state  and 
local  government,  and  the  laws  of  the  country,  especi- 


1001925 


Ti  PREFATORY  NOTE 

ally  where  there  was  any  great   difference  from  those 
of  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  task  has  demonstrated  the  many  and  various 
interests  contained  in  this  vast  subject,  and  has  far  ex- 
ceeded the  original  limit.  It  is,  however,  hoped  that 
the  wider  public  to  which  the  articles  now  appeal  will 
be  as  sympathetic  as  the  original  audiences. 

WM.  SHEOWRING, 

Hon,  Sec.  Institute  Committee. 

South  Place  Isstttute, 
FrssBCKT,  LoxDox,  E.C. 


The  Editor  and  Publishers  of  the  British  Empire  Series 
desire  to  express  their  obligations  to  the  Pabhshers  of  the 
following  works,  from  which  many  of  the  facts  and  statistics 
ia  the  Appendices  have  been  gathered. 

Statistical  Abstract  for  the  several  Colonial  and  other  Possessions  of 

the  United  Kingdom.    Annual,  is.  4d. 
Statistical  Abstract  relating  to  British  India.     Annual,  is.  3d. 
Statistical  Abstract  for  the  Principal  and  other  Foreign  Countries. 

Annual,  is.  6d. 
Annual  Statement  of  the  Trade  of  the   United   Eongdoin  with 

Foreign  Countries  and  British  Possessions,  compiled  at  the 

Custom  House. 

***  These  four  Blue-books  are  pubhshed  for  His  Majesty's 
Stationery  Office  by  Wyman  &  Sons,  and  can  be  purchased  of 
Eyre  &  Spottiswoode. 

Colonial  Office  List,  containing  Historical  and  Statistical  Informa- 
tion of  the  Colonial  Dependencies  of  Great  Britain.  With 
maps  of  each  Colony.  Also  a  record  of  the  Public  Services  of 
the  several  Colonial  Governments  and  other  persons  connected 
with  the  Colonies.  An  invaluable  annual  of  the  Colonies. 
Pnblished  by  Harrison  &  Sons.     Price  los.  6d. 

Indian  Office  List.     Also  published  annually  by  Harrison  &  Sons. 


PREFATORY    NOTE  vii 

Statesman's  Year-Book.  A  Statistical  and  Historical  Adnual  of  the 
States  of  the  World  and  their  Colonies.  Contains  a  valuable 
account  of  the  British  Colonies  and  those  attached  to  Foreign 
Countries.  Edited  by  Dr.  J,  Scott  Keltie.  Published  by 
Macmillan  &,  Co.     Price  ids.  6d. 

Whitaker's  Almanack.  Contains  among  the  many  useful  articles  an 
account  of  the  Colonies  of  Great  Britain  and  other  Countries. 
Price  2s.  6d. 

Hazell's  Annual  also  contains  an  annual  statement  of  the  Colonies. 
Price  3s.  6d. 

The  Historical  Geography  of  the  British  Colonies,  by  C.  P.  Lucas, 
B.A.,  of  the  Colonial  Office,  contains  an  exhaustive  resume  of 
the  history  and  geography  of  the  British  Colonies.  VoL  V. 
Part  I.  is  just  published  by  the  Clarendon  Press.  6s.  The 
prices  vary  from  5s.  to  9s.  6d.  a  volume. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Introduction      ......■•        xiii 

By  The  Right  Hon.  Lord  Avebuuy  (Sir  John  Lubbock), 
F.R.S.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D. 

Isle  of  Man        ......-•         i 

By  J.  R.  CowELL,  J. P.  {Member  of  the  House  of  Keys). 

TiiK  Channel  Islands 27 

By  Percy  Edward  Amy,  F.R.G.S.  {Author  of  "Sunny 
Jersey,"  '^Beautiful  Jersey,"  dr.). 

Gibraltar    ........  60 

By  Sir  Cavendish  Boyle,  K.C.M.G.,  C.M.G.  (late  Colo- 
nial Secretary,  Gibraltar). 

The  Maltese  Islands  .         .         .         .         •         .82 

By  Claude  Lyon  {of  Malta). 

Cyprus  and  some  op  its  Possibilities         .         .         .101 
By  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Patrick  Geddes. 

St.  Helena  .         .         .         .         .         •         ■         .110 

By  Robert  Armitage  Sternuale  {Governor  of  St.  Helena; 
Author  of  ^'Mammalia  of  British  India  and  Ceylon," 

<i-c.). 

The  Negro  in  Barbados     .         ,         .         .         .         .127 
By  "Walter  Merivale,  Menih.  Inst.  C.E.  {late  Managimj 
Director  of  the  Barbados  Railway). 

The  British  Empire  of  To-day  and  To-morrow  .     148 

By  Sir  C.  E.  Howard  Vincent,  K.C.M.G.,  C.B.,  M.P. 

The  British  Navy       .......      154 

By  J.  Cornelius  Wheeler. 

Naval  Bases  and  Coaling  Stations  .         .         .         .178 
By  C.  H.  Crofts  {Author  of  "Britain  On  and  Beyond 
the  Sea  "). 


X  CONTENTS 

PAOE 

The  British  Army 205 

By  Captain  H.  R.  Beddoks. 

The  Law  affecting  Natives  of  the  United  Kingdoji 

IN  other  parts  of  the  British  Empire       .         .227 
By  F.  H.  M.  Corbet. 

The  Railway  Systems  of  Greater  Britain — 

(a)  Introduction  .......     242 

By  R.  W.  Murray. 
(/;)  India ■         .         .     252 

By  A.  K.  CONNELL. 

(c)  Africa    ........     256 

By  the  Hon.  Sir  David  Tennant,  K.C.M.G. 

(d)  Canada  ........     263 

By  Sidney  G.  B.  Coryn. 

(e)  Australasia    .         .         .         .         .         .  .266 

By  the  Hon.  D.  W.  Carnegie. 

Production  of  Gold  in  Greater  Britain  .         .         .276 

By  .T.  W.  Broomhead. 

Britain's  Share  in  Polar  Discovery  .         .         .     285 

By  Millar  Christy,  F.L.S. 

The  Postal  Communications  of  the  Empire        .  -313 

By  L.  T.  Horne. 

Electric  Telegraph  Service — 

(a)  Carle  and  Colonial  Telegraphs  .         .  332 

By  Ferdinand  E.  Kappey. 

(h)  Indian  Telegraphs         .         .         .         •         -353 
By  C  H.  Reynolds,  C.I.E. 

Thic   IIkitish   Mercantile  IMarine         ....     387 
r.y  R.  .1.  Coknewall-Jones. 

Tnter-1>ritish  Trade  and  its  Dkvklopment  434 

Bv  T.  B.  Browning,  M.A. 


CONTENTS 


XI 


Sport  and  Athletics,  and  the  British  Empire 

By  Eustace  H.  Miles,  M.A.  (Amateur  Tennis  Champion, 
Author  (if  "  A  History  of  Rome"). 

Mohammedanism  and  the  British  Empire  . 
By  R.  G.  Corbet. 

Christian  Missions     ....... 

By  the  Rev.  G.  Smith,  CLE  .,  LL.D. 

Duties  of  Empire         ....... 

By  John  M.  Robertson. 

Imperial  Federation  ....... 

]]y    Herman    W.    Marcus    {Editar    of    "  The  British 
Empire  Rcviexv"). 


PAGE 

489 


542 


APPENDIX 

Duties  of  Empire  (Note)      .         .  .         .  .         -615 

Isle  op  Man,   Channel  Islands,   Gibraltar,   Malta, 

Cyprus,  St.  Helena,  Tristan  da  Cunha         .         .617 

The  British  Empire    .         .         .         .         .         .         .623 

Patents  ........      629 

International  Copyright  .  .  .  .  .629 

Weights,  Measures  and  Coinage  (by  H.  J.  Chaney) .     629 

Foreign  Colonial  Possessions — 

Spain    .  .  .         .  .         .         .         .632 

Portugal        ........     633 

Holland  ........      635 

France  .         .         .  .         .  -637 

Belgium         ........     643 

Denmark       ........     644 

Germany        .  .  .  .  .  .645 

Russia  .         .         .  .         .  .  647 

Italy 648 

United  States  of  America  ....     648 

Japan    ......  .         .     649 


xii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Statistical  Tables — 

British  Empire       .          .         .          .          .  .          .650 

Trade  of  United  Kingdom  with  Foreign  Countries 

which  have  Colonies        .          .          .  .          .654 

Colonising  Countries       .          .          .          .  .656 

Colonial  Chronological  Table .         .         .  .         -663 

Census  Keturns     .         .         .         .         .  .         .681 


INTEODUCTION 


By  the  right  HON.  LORD  AVEBURY,  F.R.S., 
D.C.L.,   LL.D.,   Etc.   Etc.   Etc. 

Messrs.  Kegan  Paul  &  Co.  have,  I  think,  done  a  good 
service  in  pubHshiiig  this  Series.  If  our  great  Empire 
is  to  be  preserved,  it  must  be  understood ;  and  some 
of  our  wars  would  have  been  avoided  if  others  had 
understood  us  better.  The  Boers  of  the  Transvaal  and 
the  Orange  Free  State  would  never  have  attacked  us  if 
they  had  not  been  grievously  and  wickedly  misled  as 
to  our  intentions,  and  grossly  ignorant  of  our  strength 
and  resources. 

The  rapidity  with  which  we  have  placed  an  im- 
mense and  well-equipped  force  in  the  field  at  a  distance 
of  6000  miles  has  indeed  been  a  surprise  to  every 
one,  and  even  I  think  to  ourselves,  though  we  knew  that, 
in  the  words  of  an  American  statesman,  "  our  flag 
waves  on  every  sea  and  in  every  port,  and  the  morning 
drum-beat  of  her  soldiers,  following  the  sun  and  keep- 
ing company  Avith  the  hours,  circles  the  earth  with 
one  continuous  strain  of  the  martial  airs  of  England." 

To  maintain  that  Army  and  Navy  in  full  efficiency 
is  a  duty  which  I  doubt  not  we  shall  perform  ;  but  if 
our  Empire  is  to  be  permanent  it  nuist  rest  not  on 
force,  but  on  justice,  and  be  held  together  by  the  sym- 
pathy and  goodwill  of  all  its  parts. 

The  history  of  the  world  is  full  of  warnings.  Other 
great  empires  have  risen  and  fallen  again,  and  if  we 
are  to  escape  their  fate,  we  must  avoid  their  errors. 

Recent  events  have  shown  that,  whether  from  our 


xiv  INTRODUCTION 

own  fault  or  more  probably  from  ignorance,  we  are 
not  popular  with  foreign  countries,  though  happily 
there  are  exceptions,  and  we  shall  always  remember 
the  expressions  of  goodwill  which  we  have  received 
fi'om  Italy,  Greece,  Scandinavia,  and  some  other 
countries. 

The  dangers  of  the  future  are  not,  however,  perhaps 
so  much  from  without  as  from  within. 

The  different  sections  of  our  widespread  community 
have  not  in  all  respects  identical  interests,  we  must  all 
be  prepared  to  meet  some  sacrifices ;  we  cannot  be 
independent  of,  if  we  are  to  be  united  to,  one  another. 
Again,  there  are  profound  differences  of  religion  and  of 
race.  The  centre  of  gravity  of  our  Empire  is  English, 
but  the  majority  of  our  people  are  Asiatics,  and  it  is 
not  easy  for  an  Asiatic  to  understand  the  views  of  an 
Englishman,  or  an  Englishman  those  of  an  Asiatic. 

Their  customs  have  the  force  of  laAv.  and  many  have 
continued  from  time  immemorial.  We  have  done  our 
best  to  respect  their  wishes,  and  even  their  prejudices ; 
and  we  may,  I  thiifk,  fairly  claim  that  we  have  exercised 
our  power,  not  as  a  privilege,  but  as  a  trust. 

The  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  has  been  mainly 
due  to  our  efforts,  and  cost  us  not  less  than 
;^  1 00,000,000. 

If  we  look  back  to  ancient  times,  among  the  Greeks 
the  colonies  were  expected  to  bear  not  only  their  own 
expenditure,  but  a  large  part  of  that  of  the  mother 
city :  the  Romans  made  it  a  principle  that  the  pro- 
vinces should  bear  the  expense  of  the  empire.  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  Holland  have  all  exacted  large  revenues 
from  their  colonial  possessions — revenues,  however, 
which  have  often  been  obtained  at  great  expense. 
France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States  impose  pro- 
tective dues  for  the  benefit  of  home  manufacturers 
and  shipowners.  France,  for  instance,  has  imposed 
almost     j)rohibitive    duties    in    Madagascar,    and    the 


INTRODUCTION  xv 

United  States,  as  soon  as  they  annexed  Porto  Rico, 
excluded  from  the  carrying  trade  all  shipping  except 
that  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  case  of  the  great  self-governing  Colonies,  our 
statesmen  seem  to  have  devised  a  system  by  which  the 
advantages  of  union  with  the  Empire  have  been  com- 
bined with  those  of  practical  self-government.  They 
have  their  own  Government,  they  make  their  own 
laws,  we  do  not  interfere  in  their  internal  affairs,  and 
yet  we  are  knit  together  into  one  community,  and 
united  by  feelings  of  affection  and  sympathy  which 
are  both  deep  and  of  great  practical  importance. 
Why  is  it  that  the  Press  of  France  and  Russia — even 
of  Germany — teems  with  attacks  on,  and  calumnies 
of,  England  ?  Why  have  we  constantly  bitter  questions 
and  rumours  of  war,  Avhile  with  our  Colonies  and 
India  we  are  on  the  most  friendly  footing,  animated 
by  feelings  of  sympathy  and  goodwill,  war  is  never  so 
much  as  thought  of,  and  any  attack  on  one,  as  recent 
events  have  shown,  is  felt  as  an  attack  on  all. 

If  a  country  becomes  part  of  the  British  Em- 
pire, restrictions  on  trade  and  commerce,  foreign 
and  domestic,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum ;  popular 
government,  in  which  all  nationalities  are  allowed 
to  participate,  is  gradually  introduced,  with  English 
common  law  as  its  basis. 

As  soon  as  the  community  has  become  sufficiently 
numerous  and  strong,  self-government  is  established, 
the  bond  with  the  Mother  Country  being  retained  by 
the  right  of  appeal  to  the  Privy  Council,  and  by  the 
necessity  for  the  Queen's  assent  to  bills  before  they 
become  law.  The  latter  is  practically  never  withheld, 
but  the  power  is  nevertheless  of  great  importance. 

The  Mother  Country  claims  no  special  advantages 
in  trade,  and  in  the  only  case  when  such  are  voluntarily 
given — that  of  Canada,  though  the  inducement  has 
no  doubt  been  in  great  measure  the  love  for  the  old 


xvi  INTRODUCTION 

country,  and  the  desire  to  knit  together  the  ties  which 
bind  us  to  one  another,  still  there  is  another  logical 
reason,  for  as  ive  admit  Canadian  products  to  the  British 
market  on  more  favourable  terms  than  she  receives 
from  any  other  country,  it  is  only  natural,  apart  from 
feeling,  that  she  should  ofier  us  some  corresponding 
advantages.  She  has,  moreover,  announced  that  she 
will  extend  those  advantages  to  any  other  country  which 
Avill  admit  her  products  on  the  same  terms  as  we  do. 

Let  me  in  support  of  these  views  refer  to  three 
eminent  foreign  authorities. 

The  North  American  Revieiv  for  April  i  896  contains 
an  admirable  article  by  the  great  American  economist, 
Mr.  Wells,  on  the  Imperial  policy  of  Great  Britain, 
with  reference  to  Mr.  Cleveland's  wicked  threat 
of  war  in  reference  to  the  Venezuela  dispute,  in 
which  the  arbitration  has  clearly  shown  that  he  was 
wrong  and  Lord  Salisbury  was  right.  Mr.  Wells 
refers  first  to  our  exertions  for  the  abolition  of  slavery. 
Passing  on  to  Egypt,  he  points  out  that  "  at  no  pre- 
vious period,  since  Egypt  began  to  have  a  name,  has 
the  fellah  lived  under  a  government  so  careful  to 
protect  his  rights." 

"  Under  such  circumstances  Egypt  has  never — 
certainly  not  within  a  recent  period — enjoyed  so  large 
a  measure  of  prosperity." 

Mr.  Wells  then  proceeds  to  discuss  our  government 
of  India.  After  referring  to  the  tyranny  and  con- 
stant war  in  former  times,  he  continues  :  "  To-day  the 
humblest  Indian  peasant  is  secure  in  the  possession 
and  control  of  his  property,  and  if  wronged  in  any 
way  can  appeal  to  and  find  protection  in  the  courts 
which  England  has  established.  As  one  result  of  this 
policy,  the  buried  treasures  of  India  are  beginning  to 
come  forth  and  seek  investinent  in  England's  interest- 
bearing  securities.  Under  native  and  Mogul  rulers, 
the   only  (compulsory  contribution  was  an   assessment 


INTRODUCTION  xvii 

on  laud,  which  averaged  about  12s.  per  acre.  To-day 
the  hind-tax  of  India,  which  the  Government  has  been 
obliged  to  maintain  for  general  revenue  purposes,  does 
not  average  more  than  2s.  per  acre. 

"  The  present  population  of  India  would  not  have 
found  food  under  any  previous  government  of  that 
country,  and  its  very  existence  has  been  made  possible 
only  through  the  conditions  of  food  production  and 
distribution  established  by  England's  Government. 

"  In  short,  there  is  no  Government  in  the  world 
whose  administration  is  more  honestly  conducted  and 
which  is  doing  more  for  the  material  good  of  the 
governed  than  the  present  English  Government  of 
India." 

Mr.  Wells  then  proceeds  to  discuss  our  commercial 
policy.  "  Fifty  years  ago,"  he  says,  "  the  commercial 
policy  of  all  countries  claiming  to  be  in  any  degree 
civilised,  was  based  on  the  theory  that  commerce 
could  benefit  one  country  only  to  the  extent  that  it 
injured  another,  and  this  is  the  theory  that  to-day 
characterises  the  commerce  and  trade  policy  of  all 
nations — especially  the  United  States — except  Eng- 
land. Great  Britain  alone  opens  her  ports,  and  im- 
poses no  restrictions  on  the  trade  of  other  countries, 
nor  seeks  to  exclude  their  productions." 

"  In  this  respect  England  stands  alone.  No  other 
nation  that  has  ever  existed,  or  now  exists,  has  ever 
adopted  a  similar  policy." 

We  owe  to  my  friend  the  late  M.  Barthelemy  de 
St.  Hilaire,  who  was  Foreign  Secretary  for  France  in 
M.  Thiers'  Government,  an  excellent  work  on  India,  in 
which  he  bears  generous  testimony  to  the  beneficence 
and  justice  of  our  rule  in  India,  which,  he  says, 
"  merite  que  tous  les  amis  de  I'liumanite  et  de  la 
civilisation  en  souhaitent  le  succes.  Faire  I'educa- 
tion  politique  et  morale  de  deux  cent  cinquante 
millions  de  nos  semblables  est  ime  tache  prodigieuse, 

h 


xviii  INTRODUCTION 

qui,  noblement  commencee  avec  ce  siecle,  exigera,  pour 
etre  entierement  accomplie,  une  suite  d'efforts  dont  on 
ne  saurait  preciser  la  duree."  We  have  to  face,  he 
truly  says,  a  difficult  problem,  but  it  is  very  gratifying 
to  be  assured  that  we  have  the  "  applaudissements 
sinceres  de  tons  les  esprits  eclaires  et  impartiaux," 

As  regards  Canada,  I  may  invoke  Bishop  Whipple 
of  Minnesota,  who  commends  us  as  having  "  not  spent 
one  dollar  in  Indian  wars,  and  have  had  no  Indian 
massacres.  Why  ?  In  Canada  the  Indian  treaties 
call  these  men  '  the  Indian  subjects  of  her  Majesty.' 
When  civilisation  approaches  them  they  are  placed  on 
ample  reservations,  receive  aid  in  civilisation,  have 
personal  right  in  property,  are  amenable  to  law,  and 
protected  by  law,  have  schools,  and  Christian  people 
send  them  the  best  teachers." 

Moreover,  there  is  other  testimony  more  conclusive 
than  the  opinion  of  any  individuals,  however  eminent 
and  impartial. 

When  the  sepoy  soldiers  mutinied,  and  we  vv^ere 
holding  our  own  in  India  with  a  mere  handful  of 
troops,  we  must  have  been  swept  into  the  sea  if  the 
people  of  India  had  risen  against  us.  So  far  from 
that  they  took  no  part  in  the  revolt,  and  their  be- 
haviour in  that  terrible  crisis  was  a  striking  testimony 
to  the  justice  and  beneficence  of  our  rule. 

Similar  evidence  is  afforded  by  the  history  of  such 
places  as  Hong  Kong  and  Singapore.  The  former 
before  its  cession  to  England  was  a  barren  island, 
inhabited  by  a  few  fishermen.  It  is  now  croAvded  by 
thousands  of  Chinese,  attracted  there  by  the  mildness, 
justice,  and  Avisdom  of  British  rule. 

For  the  same  reason  the  almost  uninhabited  island 
of  Singapore  now  teems  with  a  dense  population  drawn 
by  the  same  causes  from  all  the  countries  round. 

Mr.  Wells  sums  up  the  admirable  article  from 
which  I  have  already  quoted  as  folloAvs : — 


INTRODUCTION  xix 

"  Wherever  sovereignty  of  England  has  gone,  two 
blades  of  grass  have  grown  where  one  grew  Ijefore. 
Her  flag,  wherever  it  has  been  advanced,  has  benefited 
the  country  over  which  it  floats,  and  has  carried  Avith 
it  civilisation,  the  Christian  religion,  order,  justice,  and 
prosperity.  England  has  always  treated  a  conquered 
race  with  justice,  and  what  under  her  rule  is  the  law 
for  the  white  man  is  the  law  for  his  black,  red,  or 
yellow  brother.  And  here  we  have  one  explanation 
for  the  fact  that  England  alone  of  the  nations  has  been 
successful  in  establishing  and  maintaining  colonies ; 
and  of  the  further  extraordinary  fact  that  a  compara- 
tively small  insular  country,  containing  less  than 
40,000,000  inhabitants,  can  successively  preside  over 
the  destinies  of  about  360,000,000  other  members  of 
the  human  race." 

Well  then  may  we  all  join  in  Milton's  prayer: 
"  O  Thou,  who  of  Thy  free  grace  didst  build  up  this 
Brittanick  Empire  to  a  glorious  and  enviable  height, 
with  all  her  daughter  islands  about  her,  stay  us  in  this 
felicitie." 

We  may  join  in  it,  not  only  in  our  own  interests, 
but  in  those  of  the  civilised  world.  Considering  the 
complete  power  of  self-government  enjoyed  by  our 
great  colonies,  I  cannot  but  think  that  many  other 
communities,  now  separate  from  us,  would  hnd  that 
they  could  enjoy  all  the  real  advantages  of  independ- 
ence, and  yet  obtain  the  inestimable  benefits^  of  union, 
if  they  were  to  combine  with  us,  and  thus  secure  for 
themselves  the  advantages  of  citizenship  in  this  great 
Empire. 


ISLE     OF    MAN 

By  J.  R.  COWELL 

{Member  of  the  House  of  Keyx) 


History. 

The  early  history  of  the  Isle  of  Man  is  shrouded  in 
a  dense  mist  of  myth  and  tradition.  All  that  we  can 
say  is,  that  there  is  but  little  doubt  that  the  earliest 
inhabitants  of  Man  were  of  non-Aryan  race,  because 
there  are  distinct  traces  of  a  cranial  development 
typical  of  such  a  race  among  Manxmen  at  the  present 
day. 

Then,  as  in  Ireland,  came  the  Aryan  Gaels,  so  that 
in  the  fifth  century,  when  it  is  probable  that  the  Manx 
were  converted  to  Christianity,  it  would  seem  that  the 
population  was  composed  of  those  two  races,  the  latter 
preponderating.  As  regards  the  conversion  of  the 
Manx,  it  is  clear  that  from  the  fifth  to  the  eighth 
centuries  they  were  mainly  Christianised  by  Irish 
missionaries,  as  some  of  those  missionaries  have  left 
their  names  to  our  ancient  kccills  and  churches. 
There  are  also  recorded  in  the  same  way  a  few  names 
of  missionaries  belonging  to  the  Gallwegian  and 
Columbian  Churches,  which  would  tend  to  show  a 
connection,  though  probably  a  less  intimate  one,  with 
Galloway  and  the  Western  Isles  of  Scotland.  These 
Celtic  influences,  though  weakened  by  Norse  incursions 
and  settlements,  did  not  entirely  cease  till  the  English 
connection  was  finally  established  under  the  Stanleys. 
So  firmly,  indeed,  Avere  they  implanted,  that  as  late  as 

V  A 


2  GENERAL 

the  eighteen  til  century  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Isle  of  Man  still  spoke  their  native  tongne. 
Early  in  the  ninth  centnry  the  emigration  from  Scan- 
dinavia began.  It  took  two  directions :  one,  mainly 
Danish,  to  the  north-east  of  England,  and  the  other, 
mainly  Norwegian,  to  the  coasts  of  the  Shetlands, 
Orkneys,  northern  Scotland,  the  Western  Isles,  Ireland, 
and  the  Isle  of  Man.  The  annals  of  Ulster  tell  us 
that  the  earliest  incursion  of  the  Vikings  took  place 
in  A.D.  794,  and  that,  in  798,  they  burned  Inispatrick, 
probably  identical  with  Peel.  These  visitors  seem  at 
first  to  have  mainly  used  the  Isle  of  Man  as  a  con- 
venient centre  for  their  forays  upon  the  adjacent 
coasts,  and  as  a  depot  for  storing  their  spoil  till  they 
conveyed  it  home  before  the  winter  set  in ;  but,  in  the 
year  852  the  Norse  Viking,  Olave  the  White,  reached 
Ireland  with  a  large  fleet  and  founded  a  Noi'se  princi- 
pality at  Dublin. 

At  the  same  period  the  Isle  of  Man  must  also  have 
received  numerous  Scandinavian  colonists,  but  they  do 
seem  to  have  been  strong  enough  to  subdue  the  native 
inhabitants  till  about  the  end  of  the  ninth  century. 

From  this  period  till  1079  t'he  island  was  mainly 
ruled  by  the  Norsemen  of  Dublin,  though  there  Avere 
intervals  of  independence  and  also  of  close  connection 
with  Norway.  In  that  year  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Icelander,  Godred  Crovan,  who  founded  a  dynasty  that 
reigned  not  only  over  Man  but  most  of  the  Western 
Scotch  Islands,  under  tlic  suzerainty  of  Norway  for 
nearly  two  hundred  years. 

It  was  in  connection  with  the  kingdom  of  Man  and 
the  Isles,  as  it  Avas  called,  that,  in  1 1  54,  Ihe  diocese  of 
Sodor  and  Man,  i.e.  the  South  Isles  (of  Scotland)  and 
Man,  whicli  was  under  the  archiepiscopal  rule  of  Dron- 
thcim  in  Norway,  Avas  founded.  Soon  after  the  battle 
of  Largs,  in  1263,  this  kingdom  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Scotch.      So  ends  the  epoch  of  Norse  rule  in  Man. 


ISLE    OF    MAN  3 

Its  ohicf  claim  to  remembrance  is  that,  duiiiig 
it,  the  constitution  which  has  remained,  in  form  at 
least,  to  the  present  day,  was  established.  For  nearly 
eighty  years  alter  it  the  unfortunate  Island  of  Man 
was  an  object  of  contention  between  the  Scotch  and 
the  Ennlish. 

Finally  the  latter  prevailed,  but  there  was  no 
period  of  settled  government  till  1406,  when  Henry 
IV.  presented  Man  to  Sir  John  Stanley.  It  remained 
in  the  hands  of  his  descendants  till  the  execution  of 
the  seventh  Earl  of  Derby  in  1 6  5 1 ,  w' hen  it  was 
handed  over  by  the  Parliament  to  Lord  Fairfax. 

At  the  Restoration  it  reverted  to  the  Stanleys,  who 
held  it  till  the  death  of  the  tenth  Earl  without  issue  in 
1735.  During  the  brief  interval  between  1735  and 
1765,  when  the  English  Crown  again  took  possession 
of  it,  it  was  ruled  by  the  Atholls,  who  were  descended 
from  a  daughter  of  the  seventh  Earl. 

It  is  impossible  in  so  brief  a  sketch  to  give  even 
an  idea  of  the  course  of  Manx  history  during  this 
period  of  360  years  between  1406  and  1765,  but  w-e 
may  remark  that,  generally  speaking,  it  was  largely 
occupied  by  struggles  between  the  lord  and  his  officials 
on  one  side  and  the  people  on  the  other. 

Into  the  determined  struggle  between  the  Church 
and  State,  which  went  on  at  the  same  time,  and  which 
ultimately  ended  in  favour  of  the  latter,  Ave  cannot 
enter  here.  At  first  it  seemed  as  if  the  lord  would 
have  it  all  his  own  way,  as  the  Keys,  or  Manx  House 
of  Connnons,  who  appear  to  have  been,  occasionally 
at  least  Avhen  acting  in  a  legislative  capacity,  elected 
by  the  people,  had  become  his  nominees,  and  the 
ancient  customary  tenants  had  been  changed  into  mere 
leaseholders.  But  by  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  Keys  began  to  claim  the  curious  privilege 
of  self-election  which  a  century  later  they  had  fully 
established,  and,  by   the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 


4  GENERAL 

century,  the  people  had  obtained  a  perpetual  tenure  at  a 
fixed  quit-rent,  which  the  change  in  the  value  of  money 
has  since  rendered  almost  nominal.  In  1765,  the 
English  Crown,  having  bought  the  sovereign  rights  of 
the  AthoUs  for  ;!^70,ooo  and  an  annuity  of  ;^2  0oo 
(their  remaining  interests  and  rights  were  purchased  in 
1829  for  ^417,144),  resumed  its  direct  rule  of  the 
island.  The  immediate  reason  for  this  transfer  was  the 
prevalence  of  smuggling,  which  had  greatly  increased 
since  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  till  be- 
tween 1755  and  1765  it  was  estimated  that  it  caused  a 
loss  of  about  ^300,000  a  year  to  the  Imperial  revenue. 

The  constitution  of  the  island  remained  nominally 
unaffected  by  its  change  of  rulers,  but  practically  the 
result  was  to  deprive  the  Keys  of  the  share  of  the 
control  of  the  insular  Customs,  which  they  had  for 
the  first  time  obtained  in  1737.  In  fact,  during  the 
period  between  1765  and  1867,  the  Manx  people 
were  in  a  state  of  political  and  commercial  bondage, 
and  it  was  not  till  the  greater  part  of  it  had  elapsed 
that  they  made  any  effective  struggle  for  freedojn. 
As  a  result  of  this  they,  in  1844  and  1853,  secured 
the  spending  of  a  larger  share  of  the  insular  revenue 
in  the  island,  and  obtained  some  other  important  fiscal 
concessions;  and  between  the  latter  date  and  1867, 
though  they  were  still  denied  a  representative  House 
of  Keys,  they  established  the  germ  of  municipal  self- 
government,  and  initiated  reforms  in  such  matters  as 
sanitation  and  the  care  of  lunatics,  which  had  hitherto 
been  totally  neglected. 

The  climate  of  the  Isle  of  Man  may  be  fitly  de- 
scrib(.'d  as  follows :  Its  temperatin-e  is  more  equable 
than  that  of  tlio  neighbouring  coasts,  being  somewhat 
higher  in  autumn  and  winter,  similar  in  spring,  and 
lower  in  sumuicr.  Tlie  fact  that  fuchsias,  myrtles  and 
other  exotics  flourish  throughout  the  year  in  the  open 
air,  show  that  there  is  comparatively  little  frost. 


ISLE    OF    MAN  5 

Its  simshiiic  is  much  greater  than  in  any  surround- 
ing district.  Its  winds  appear  to  be  niucli  the  same 
in  strength  and  frequency,  but,  as  the  island  is  more 
exposed,  they  are  felt  more  than  on  the  mainland. 
The  question  of  its  rainfall  is  a  more  complex  one,  as 
the  fall  in  the  various  parts  of  the  island  varies  so 
considerably.  Generally  speaking,  however,  the  rain- 
fall is  rather  greater  and  more  frequent  than  on  the 
adjacent  coasts,  but  much  less  than  in  the  mountainous 
districts  beyond  these  coasts.^ 

We  may  say,  then,  that  the  Manx  climate  is  equable 
and  sunny,  and,  though  humid,  decidedly  invigorating ; 
that  its  rainfall,  though  never  excessive,  varies  con- 
siderably in  its  different  districts ;  and  that  it  is  much 
exposed  to  winds,  which  are,  for  the  most  part,  mild 
and  damp. 

Entomology. 

As  regards  its  entomology,  and  more  especially 
amongst  the  Lepidopterous  order  of  insects  known  as 
Heterocera,  the  Isle  of  Man  is  strikingly  rich  in  local 
form  and  variety,  its  mountains,  bogs,  heaths,  and 
coast  all  opening  up  and  affording  to  the  student  a 
magnificent  field  for  investigation  and  research.  Among 
some  of  the  rarer  species  to  be  found  in  the  Isle  of 
Man,  and  which  are  prized  by  English  and  other  col- 
lectors, may  be  enumerated  the  following :  Seria  Phi- 
lanthiformis,  Dianthcecia  Ccesia,  Diantha'cia  Capsoj^ihila, 
Folia  Nifjroscincta,  Cirrhoe.dia  Xerampelina,  and  numerous 
others.  In  certain  instances  the  Isle  of  Man  is  richer 
in  variety  than  any  other  known  British  locality.  A 
list  of  the  Heterocera  of  the  island   (to    the   end   of 

^  In  the  north  of  the  island,  at  Point  of  Ayre,  the  total  rainfall  in 
1896  was  22.S50  inches,  while  seven  miles  off,  at  foot  of  mountains,  it 
was  as  high  as  43.143.  This  outline  of  history,  &c.,  has  been  kindly 
contributed  by  Mr.  A.  W.  Moore,  author  of  the  "  Diocese  of  Sodor  and 
Man,"  &c. 


6  GENERAL 

the  Noctua3),  by  Mr.  H.  Sliortridge  Clarke,  F.E.S.,  of 
Douglas,  was  some  years  ago  publislied  in  the  British 
Naturalist  magazine.  Since  then,  however,  a  number 
of  other  species  have  been  found,  and  Mr.  Clarke 
intends  publishing  in  book  form  at  an  early  date  a 
revised  list  with  copious  notes,  as  to  habitat  of  each  of 
the  species  named,  which  will  prove  useful  and  interest- 
ing to  the  collector. 

Geology. 

Mr.  G.  W.  Lamplugh,  of  the  Geological  Survey,  has 
for  the  last  two  or  three  years  been  engaged  upon  the 
survey  of  the  island,  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  excur- 
sion from  the  British  Association  in  September  last,  he 
contributed  an  original  and  up-to-date  sketch  of  its 
geology,  and  the  handbook  which  was  presented  to  the 
members  of  the  excursion.  The  framework  of  the 
island  consists  of  slaty  rocks,  which  Mr.  Lamplugh 
thinks  "  are  not  of  later  age  than  Cambrian."  This 
mass  is  traversed  by  innumerable  small  dykes  of 
igneous  material,  mostly  pre-carboniferous,  and  is  in 
some  places  punctiu^cd  by  larger  intrusive  bosses  of  the 
same.  The  slates  are  folded  and  refolded  in  an  extra- 
ordinary manner,  presenting  many  interesting  problems 
for  the  student. 

A  critical  examination  of  them  by  Mr.  Lamplugh 
has  caused  to  bo  adopted  an  entirely  new  reading  of 
the  origin  and  nature  not  only  of  these,  but  of  similar 
rocks  in  the  .Lake  District  and  elsewhere. 

The  slates  arc  traversed  by  valuable  metalliferous 
lodes,  the  great  lead  mines  at  Foxdale  and  Laxey  hav- 
ing been  among  the  most  successful  in  the  United 
Kingdom. 

Between  this  series   and  the   carboniferous    epoch 

there  is  an  al)solute  gap.      The  latter  is  represented  by 

the  basal  beds  at  Lanijfness  in  the  south  and   Peel  in 
o 

the  west,  by  sandstone  and  limestone  at  the  Point  of 


ISLE    OF    MAN  7 

Ayro  in  the  north,  and  the  limestone  about  Castletown 
in  the  south.  From  the  latter  series  were  quarried  the 
steps  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  presented  by  the 
celebrated  Bishop  Wilson. 

The  volcanic  series  of  this  period  is  represented  by 
the  stack  of  Scarlet  and  Pooilvaish  Bay,  and  of  it  Mr. 
Lamplugh  writes  :  "  For  the  student  of  volcanic  pheno- 
mena no  finer  display  could  be  desired  than  is  afforded 
by  this  strip  of  the  Manx  coast  line,  for  here  he  sees  a 
small  ancient  volcano  dissected  and  laid  bare."' 

Recent  borings  for  coal  in  the  north  of  the  island 
have  revealed  beneath  an  imusual  thickness  of  glacial 
deposits  a  varied  series  of  Permian  and  Triassic  strata 
on  the  eroded  edges  of  the  upturned  carboniferous 
rocks.  Though  coal  has  not  yet  been  reached,  it 
seems  possible  that  the  salt  marls  may  develop  a  ncAV 
and  important  industry  in  the  island. 

An  important  discovery  has  recently  been  made  at 
Kirk  Michael  of  fuller's  earth  of  excellent  quality. 

Glacial  geology  is  well  illustrated  in  the  island. 
Its  drift  sections  are  of  unrivalled  extent  and  interest. 
The  foreign  boulders  are  chiefly  from  the  neighbouring 
parts  of  Scotland  and  the  Lake  District.  The  general 
distribution  of  the  drift  deposits  and  of  the  boulders, 
the  direction  of  the  glacial  strides  to  be  found  in 
almost  every  part,  even  near  the  summits  of  the 
highest  hills,  and  the  character  and  arrangement  of  the 
late  glacial  and  post-glacial  deposits,  are  among  the 
indications  which  combine  to  force  the  conclusion  that 
the  basin  of  the  Irish  Sea  was  entirely  filled  up  by 
an  ice-sheet  from  looo  to  2000  feet  above  sea-level, 
having  a  general  motion  of  flow  from  N.  or  NNW.,  sweep- 
ing southwards  round  and  along  the  flank  of  the  island. 

Since  the  disappearance  of  this  ice-sheet  many 
changes  have  taken  place.  The  streams  have  lost 
much  of  their  former  volume,  the  lakes  have  been 
drained,  Sulby,  the  largest  river,  has  diverted  from  its 


8  GENERAL 

former  nortlierly  course  to  tlie  Lhen  eastwards  to 
Ramsey.  The  forests  which  sheltered  the  great  Elk, 
and  the  bogs  which  ensculfed  these  animals,  have  alike 
disappeared.  For  all  these  changes  Mr.  Lamplugh 
thinks  a  long  stretch  of  time  must  be  allowed,  dis- 
countenancing the  opinion  that  the  interval  since  the 
glacial  period  may  have  been  comparatively  short. 


Biology. 

The  small  size  and  isolated  condition  of  the  island, 
cut  off  at  an  early  date  from  the  surrounding  lands, 
explain  the  peculiarities  of  the  Manx  fauna  and  flora, 
e.g.  the  remarkable  paucity  of  land  forms,  the  presence 
of  certain  species  as  well  as  the  absence  of  others,  and 
the  peculiar  variations  met  with. 

Out  of  only  twelve  land  mammals,  at  least  five 
have  been  introduced.  There  are  but  two  indio-enous 
reptiles.  Of  birds,  provided  as  they  are  with  greater 
powers  of  locomotion,  we  have  about  150  species. 
While  over  80  marine  fish  have  been  taken  from 
immediately  around  our  coast,  the  fresh -water  forms 
do  not  exceed  half-a-dozen.  Our  entomology  is  varied 
and  interesting.  Mr.  Wallace,  in  his  "  Island  Life,"  has 
called  attention  to  peculiarities  of  the  Manx  Lepidop- 
tera,  due  to  conditions  of  exposure  and  insulation.  For 
example,  the  cominon  Tortoise-shell  Butterfly  (Vanessa 
Urtica)  is  remarkably  small,  many  others  are  afiected 
in  size  and  colour,  while  some  forms  are  almost  peculiar 
to  the  island. 

Flowering  plants  are  fcAv,  but  the  lower  forms  of 
plant  life  are  well  represented — mosses,  fungi,  lichens, 
alg£e. 

Our  seas  are  classic  gruimd  to  the  marine  biologist 
as  being  the  scene  of  the  pioneer  dredging  work  of 
Professor  Edward  Forbes,  more  than  sixty  years  ago. 
In  1892,  Dr.  llcrdman  established  a  marine  laboratory 


ISLE    OF    MAN  9 

at  Port  Erin,  where  already  iiiucli  good  work  lias  been 
done.  He  thinks  that,  "  probably  on  account  of  the 
purity  and  salinity  of  the  water  and  of  the  abundance 
of  Pelagic;  life,  the  south  end  of  the  Isle  of  Man  Avould 
be  the  most  suitable  spot  in  the  Irish  Sea  for  a  sea- 
fish  hatchery." 

Archjsology. 

The  earliest  remains  of  inhabitants  are  neolithic. 
Flint  implements,  knives,  axes,  arrows,  awls,  and 
scrapers  are  scattered  abundantly  over  the  island, 
and  traces  of  settlements  are  not  infrequent.  Polished 
stone  implements  are  less  numerous  ;  most  of  these  are 
of  foreign  material,  evidently  introduced  by  invaders 
or  secured  by  barter.  Some  of  the  sepulchral  monu- 
ments appear  to  belong  to  the  transition  period  be- 
tween the  end  of  this  and  the  beginning  of  the  Bronze 
Age. 

The  Mull  circle  above  Port  Erin,  "King  Orry's 
Grave"  at  Laxey,  and  the  Cashtal  at  the  Dhoon,  are 
of  special  interest,  the  former  in  particular  being  abso- 
lutely unique  in  design.  Below  it,  around  the  hill,  are 
clustered  hut  foundations,  in  which  have  been  found 
fragments  of  pottery  and  flints  similar  to  those  mot 
with  in  the  cists  composing  the  circle. 

The  Bronze  period  is  poorly  represented  in  imple- 
ments, but  sepulchral  remains  are  numerous  through- 
out the  island,  on  the  mountain  slopes  and  around  the 
coast.  A  fine  camp  on  the  summit  of  South  Barrule, 
some  remarkable  alisfnments  at  Braddan  Church,  some 
small  earthwork  fortifications  on  hilltops  and  rocky 
promontories  may  date  back  to  this  period  in  their 
origin,  though  they  were  probably  in  continued  use 
within  historic  times. 

A  remarkable  breed  of  tailless  cats  is  not  un- 
common, and  also  barn-door  fowls  without  tails. 


lo  GENERAL 


Political. 

The  political  constitution  of  the  Isle  of  Man  to-day 
may  be  said  to  consist  of  the  Governor,  the  Council  or 
Upper  Chamber,  and  the  House  of  Kej^s — the  people's 
representatives.  The  Governor  is  the  appointment  of 
the  British  Crown,  and  is  under  the  Home  Department. 
The  Council  consists  of  nine  members :  the  Lieut. - 
Governor,  the  Bishop  (we  have  the  State  Church 
in  Man),  the  Archdeacon,  the  Vicar-General,  two 
Deemsters,  the  common  law  Judares,  the  Clerk  of 
the  Rolls  (Judge  of  Chancery  Court),  the  Attorney- 
General  and  the  Receiver-General.  These  are  paid 
officials,  who  form  the  Upper  House,  and  to  many 
Radicals  (for  want  of  a  better  name)  the  Council  is 
generally  the  object  of  criticism,  and  is  one  of  those 
institutions  which  all  Radicals  and  many  leading 
Manxmen  are  anxious  to  have  reformed.  To  the 
House  of  Keys  twenty-four  representatives  of  the 
people  arc  elected  once  in  seven  years  by  the  follow- 
ing franchise :  in  the  country  a  £4  valuation  for 
occupiers,  or  a  30s.  ownership  of  land.  And  here,  in 
the  centre  of  this  great  empire,  I  may  tell  you,  that 
while  I  have  frequently  seen  it  remarked  in  the  press 
that  in  the  far-off  colony  of  New  Zealand  they  have 
lately  been  sufficiently  advanced  to  grant  the  parlia- 
mentary franchise  to  women,  the  fact  has  been  over- 
looked that  we  in  the  Isle  of  Man  conceded  the 
parliamentary  franchise  to  ladies  more  than  fifteen 
years  ago.  And  (1  am  sure  you  will  pardon  this  little 
expression  of  vanity  if  you  like)  the  first  lady — and  a 
very  good-looking  lady  she  was — who  ever  voted  for 
a  Member  of  Parliament  in  the  civilised  world,  voted 
for  the  lecturer.  Knowing  when  the  Act  was  passed 
that  the  franchise  could  be  exercised  by  ladies,  she 
was  clever  enough  to  be  early  at  the    poll,  and  the 


ISLE    OF    MAN  ii 

uioiiicnt  that  the  clock  struck  eight  she  recorded  her 
vote,  and  thus   gained   this    distinguished  honour.     I 
have    often    read   the    debates   in  this   parhament    of 
yours  up  here  on   the  subject  of  Home  Rule.     And 
it  has  struck  me  more  than  once  as  being  somewhat 
remarkable   that,  in  the  British   House  of  Commons, 
when    the    heat   has  been    at  an  extreme  point,  and 
when  all  kinds  of  arguments  for  and  against  have  been 
introduced  into  the  debate,  the  members  have  seemed 
to  iafnoro  the  fact   that  in   the  centre  of  the  British 
Isles   there   is   a    little    country,    with   a    system   not 
absolutely  perfect  but  as  near   perfection   as   possible, 
under    a    Home    Rule    government.       It   is    remark- 
able that,  notwithstanding  all  the  discussion  there  has 
been  on  the  subject  of  Home  Rule,  this  little  country 
of  ours  has  not  been  brought  in  as  an  object-lesson, 
and    that  the  conditions  which  obtain  in  our  island 
have  not  been  more  frequently  referred  to  in  debate. 
Allow  me  to  say  as  a  Manxman,  and  as  one  proud  of 
belonufino-   to   the  ancient   Kingdom  of  Man,  that  we 
hold  our  Home  Rule  government  in  the  highest  pos- 
sible  esteem.      We  know   its   value,  and   should   not 
allow,  under  any  conceivable  circumstances,  our  bigger 
brothers  on  this  side  ever  to  deprive  us  of  it.     We 
make  our   own  laws,  and  have  the   spending  of  our 
own  taxes.     We  use  our  surplus  revenue  upon  public 
schemes  of  usefulness,  such  as  harbours,  roads,  educa- 
tion, and  advertising  the  isle  as  a  health  resort.     For 
instance,  we  build  our  own  harbours  and  piers,  and  we 
have  some  of  the  finest  solid  work  in  the  shape  of  land- 
ing-piers to  be  found  in  the  British  Isles.     These  works 
have  been  constructed  out  of  surplus  revenue,  and  a 
small  capital  debt  which  has  been  created,  the  interest 
of  Avhich  we  can  well  meet,  and  have  a  good  deal  to 
spare.     Allow  me  to  point  out  one  or  two  features  of 
our  Home  Rule  government.     In  the  first  place,  legis- 
lation  amongst   us   is   cheap.     Suppose   a   gas,  water, 


12  GENERAL 

railway,  tramway,  or  any  other  similar  company  wish 
to  seek  for  powers  to  carry  out  one  of  these  works  of 
public  utility.  They  can  come  to  their  own  parlia- 
ment, and,  after  an  expenditure  in  many  cases  of  only 
a  few  pounds,  they  can  obtain  legislative  authority  to 
acquire  the  land  and  carry  out  the  schemes  in  which 
they  are  concerned.  And  I  venture  to  say  that  where 
any  such  scheme  has  not  been  opposed  by  a  competing 
company,  or  by  some  other  interested  persons,  ;^20 
will  in  many  instances  suffice  to  cover  the  expenses 
incurred  in  connection  with  procuring  Parliamentary 
powers.  Now  compare  that,  if  you  like,  with  private 
bill  legislation  in  the  British  House  of  Commons. 

Our  parhamentary  procedure  is  cheap,  in  the  first 
place,  and,  in  the  second  place,  it  is  prompt.  A  bill 
is  introduced  after  leave  is  given  and  witnesses  are 
called.  We  stand  no  nonsense  in  the  examination  of  the 
witnesses.  They  are  called,  they  are  examined  by 
counsel,  we  examine  them,  and  Ave  do  not  alloAv  counsel 
to  consume  too  much  time,  or  to  Avaste  our  time  and 
their  client's  time.  To  use  an  Americanism,  Avhicli  I 
have  picked  up  lately  in  a  journey  to  California,  Ave 
"  go  straight  doAvn  to  bed  rock,"  and  Ave  ask  such  perti- 
nent questions  as  very  soon  establish  the  real  facts  of 
the  case,  and  the  bill  is  introduced,  and  may  even  be 
passed,  in  one  day.  And  I  may  point  out  further,  that 
the  bill  is  considered  and  dealt  Avith  by  men  Avho,  by 
reason  of  their  residence  in  the  immediate  locality, 
knoAv  the  subject-matter  Avhich  is  brought  before  them, 
and  if  they  have  not  had  the  opportunity  of  making 
themselves  acquainted  Avith  the  merits  of  the  case,  Avhat 
do  Ave  do  ?  We  adjourn  the  House  of  Keys,  sometimes 
for  a  Aveek  or  ten  days,  and  in  the  meantime  Ave  make 
inquiries,  and  haA^ng  ascertained  the  facts,  we  are  in  a 
position  to  appreciate  any  objections  Avhich  may  have 
been  raised.  Then,  at  the  next  sitting  of  the  House 
the  bill  is  introduced  again,  and  very  promptly  passed 


ISLE    OF    MAN  13 

or  rejected.  The  affairs  which  concern  any  part  of  the 
island  are  dealt  with  by  men  who  know  best  the 
requirements  of  the  locality,  and  that,  I  say,  is  a 
method  of  legislation  and  of  government  of  which  we 
have  every  .reason  to  be  proud.  Each  year,  on  the 
5  th  of  July,  we  have  the  ancient  ceremony  of  promul- 
gation. Here  the  old  custom  continues.  In  the  old  days 
the  twenty-four  Keys  had  no  written  or  printed  statutes, 
but  they  met  from  time  to  time  to  consider  such  laws 
as  they  deemed  best  for  the  welfare  of  the  people. 
Later  the  law  was  not  always  written.  It  was  what 
was  commonly  called  "  breast  law."  It  was  in  the 
minds  of  the  judges  whose  duty  it  was  to  administer  it. 
Here  was  the  theory.  The  people  in  those  days  had 
no  books,  and,  of  course,  there  was  no  education.  How 
were  the  people  to  know  the  laws  that  existed  ?  The 
following  method  was  resorted  to.  Once  a  year,  in  a 
central  part  of  the  island,  the  Manx  people  gathered 
together  in  the  open  air  at  the  foot  of  a  little  hill 
known  as  Tynwald  Hill.  Here  the  Lord,  or  his  Lieu- 
tenant, the  Judges,  and  the  twenty-four  Keys  assembled. 
The  laws  agreed  upon  in  the  past  year  were  read  aloud 
in  the  Manx  tongue  in  the  hearing  of  the  people ; 
and  the  moment  the  law  Avas  promulgated  it  was 
enforced,  and  every  man  had  to  abide  by  it.  The  theory 
was  that  no  one  was  called  upon  to  obey  a  laAv  until  it 
was  first  published  and  made  known  to  him.  And  we 
keep  up  that  custom  still.  Every  5  th  of  July  there  is 
a  general  holiday,  and  the  Manx  people  in  their  tens  of 
thousands,  together  with  English  visitors,  assemble  to 
witness  the  ancient  ceremony.  The  Manx  Parliament, 
public  officers,  and  State  clergy  march  in  procession 
to  Tynwald  Hill.  The  Governor  sits  in  state,  the 
various  officers  of  the  law  are  present,  and,  though 
we  do  not  now  read  the  whole  contents  of  the  bills 
that  have  been  passed,  wc  read  tlie  marginal  notes 
and    a    brief  description   of    the   object   of  each    Act. 


14  GENERAL 

This  information  is  read  in  the  open  ab-.  In  the 
common  hxw  com'ts  the  usual  fee  of  a  lawyer  is 
I  OS.  6d.  The  Chancery  Court  is  presided  over  by 
the  Clerk  of  the  Rolls.  There  is  a  general  gaol  de- 
livery or  Assize  Court  presided  over  by  the  Governor 
and  three  Judges,  and  I  am  very  glad  to  say  they 
have  very  little  to  do.  Then  we  have  an  Appeal  Court, 
which  also  consists  of  all  the  Judges  and  the  Governor. 
Then  there  is  the  Vice-General's  Court,  a  remnant  of 
old  ecclesiasticism,  which  deals  with  a  few  effete  eccle- 
siastical matters.  Let  me  assure  you  again  we  feel  far 
ahead  of  you  English  people.  For  instance,  a  will  has 
to  be  proved  and  probate  granted.  The  fees  for  grant- 
ing probate  range  from  5s.  to  a  maximum  of  25s.  How 
will  that  do  for  a  comparison  with  your  system  ?  We 
have  no  succession  or  legacy  duty,  and  no  receipt 
stamps.  These  sources  of  revenue  are  held  in  reserve. 
If  at  any  time  we  want  to  raise  a  large  capital  sum 
for  useful  public  works,  here  we  have  an  ample  field 
in  which  to  levy  taxes. 

With  regard  to  revenue,  the  ordinary  gross  revenue 
for  1895 — the  last  return  available — was  ;^7 1,733. 
To  this  spirits  contributed  £T,2,y2g]  tobacco  and 
cigars,  .^19,680;  tea,  £66yi  ;  beer  and  malt,  .^4930; 
wine,  £gzS'i  coffee  and  chicory,  £^2\  allowance  on 
imperial  duty-paid  goods  imported,  i!^3 8 30;  fees  and 
miscellaneous  receipts,  ^^^63 2 8.  The  expenditure  is,  I 
am  glad  to  say,  considerably  less  than  the  revenue, 
although  it  is  by  no  means  above  criticism.  In  1895 
the  expenditure  was  ^^65,593,  against  a  revenue  of 
'^7i>733-  The  expenditure  was  thus  accounted  for  : 
customs  service,  £27^6;  salaries  and  pensions  on  civil 
list,  ;^9947  ;  police  force  and  police  stations,  ^^5698  ; 
gaol,  including  criminal  lunatics  and  criminal  prosecu- 
tions, ^^"968  ;  harbours,  maintenance  and  repair,  ;{S^32 5  i ; 
pubHc  education,  ;^  11,636;  volunteer  service,  ;^4i5  ; 
public    buildings,    maintenance    and    repair,    ^^^1551; 


ISLE    OF    MAN  15 

Manx  Northern  Railway,  guarantucd  interest,  -£551; 
interest  on  and  repayment  of  debt,  iJ^  15,672  ;  Imperial 
Exchequer,  ^10,000  ;  and  miscellaneous,  £^3098.  So 
you  see  we  spend  only  ^968  on  our  criminals,  and 
£1  1,636  upon  public  education.  We  pay  out  of  our 
little  island  into  your  exchequer  every  year  £  1 0,000. 
What  is  the  object  of  this  ?  I  never  could  find  it 
out.  I  presume  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  protection.  I 
think  we  might  save  that  money,  and  I  think  you 
might,  in  all  reason,  waive  the  sum,  because  if  Germany 
or  France  or  some  other  country  ever  get  as  far  as  the 
Isle  of  Man,  it  would  be  a  case  of  God  help  England. 
You  see  we  are  a  long  way  up  the  channel,  and,  there- 
fore, to  protect  yourselves  you  must  protect  us.  We 
used  to  have  twenty-five  soldiers  on  the  island,  but  the 
British  Government  have  withdrawn  even  that  force, 
and  we  are  left  without  a  single  British  soldier  to  de- 
fend us.  Our  public  debt  is  incurred  very  largely  in 
connection  with  the  construction  of  public  works,  such 
as  piers  and  harbours  and  such  other  works  of  public 
utility.  We  have  now,  for  the  purposes  of  the  magnifi- 
cent fleet  of  steamers  coming  to  the  Isle  of  Man  and 
for  the  use  of  our  home  fishing  floet,  some  of  the 
finest  harbours  and  piers  in  the  British  Islands.  So 
the  money  is  not  wasted. 

The  highways  of  the  isle  are  in  an  excellent  state. 
There  are  no  finer  roads,  I  venture  to  say,  in  the  British 
Isles  for  cyclists  and  tourists  than  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Isle  of  Man.  The  highways  are  maintained  by  a 
rate  on  land,  by  public-house  licence  fees,  by  a  dog  tax, 
a  wheel  tax,  &c. 

Of  course  the  poor  wo  always  have  with  us.  1 
think  I  may,  hoAvevcr,  Avithout  any  undue  vanity,  pomt 
to  the  Isle  of  Man  as  an  example  in  regard  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  poor.  Only  a  few  years  ago  we 
passed  a  bill  through  our  insular  Legislature  granting 
permissive  option  to  towns  and  localities  to  levy  a  rate 


1 6  GENERAL 

in  aid  for  the  maintenance  of  the  poor.  That  was 
some  seven  or  eight  years  since ;  but  from  that  day  to 
this  only  three  localities  have  adopted  the  Act.  With 
those  exceptions  the  whole  cost  of  the  maintenance  of 
our  Manx  poor  is  borne  by  voluntary  contributions,  and 
by  legacies  left  from  time  to  time  by  charitable  Manx- 
men. There  is  no  portion  of  the  British  Isles  where 
the  poor  are  so  much  regarded  and  cared  for  as  they 
are  in  the  Kingdom  of  Man,  owing  to  the  generous 
sympathies  of  the  Manx  people.  I  am  sorry  to  say 
that  in  the  island  the  percentage  of  lunatics  is  rather 
high,  and,  if  you  consider  this  matter,  you  will  find  good 
reason  for  it.  I  dare  say  that  in  isolated  spots  and  in 
small  islands  there  is  inore  intermarriage  than  in  larger 
communities.  I  do  not  say  that  this  is  common  to- 
day, but  in  the  days  gone  by  it  was  somewhat  too 
common  for  blood  relations  to  intermarry;  and  I  am 
afraid  this  has  had  something  to  do  with,  perhaps,  a 
little  excess  in  the  number  of  lunatics.  There  is  a 
lunatic  asylum  rate,  and  these  unfortunate  brethren 
are  well  cared  for. 

The  population  of  the  Isle  of  Man  in  1891  was 
53,608.  There  were  26,329  males,  and  29,279 
females.  The  births  in  1894  numbered  1336,  and  the 
deaths  for  the  same  year  were  1091.  The  marriages 
in  1894  were  411.  The  Isle  of  Man  is  remarkable 
for  one  particular  feature,  and  were  it  not  for  this  the 
island  population  would  grow  enormously.  We  have 
sent  more  emigrants  to  the  British  Colonies  and  to  the 
United  States  of  America  than  any  other  spot  of  equal 
area,  with  the  possible  exception  of  Ireland.  In  one 
city  in  the  United  States  which  I  recently  visited 
there  were  5000  people  of  our  race  who,  on  the  testi- 
mony of  Americans,  make,  with  the  Germans,  the  finest 
American  citizens.  But  this  constant  emigration  of  the 
very  best  of  our  young  people  ot  both  sexes  drains  and 
keeps  our  population  down. 


ISLE    OF    MAN  17 

With  regard  to  land  we  have  a  custom,  1  suppose, 
somewhat  distinct  from  yours.  In  the  old  times,  under 
the  reign  of  the  Stanleys  and  Atholls,  all  the  land  of 
the  island  belonged  to  the  Lord  of  the  Isle.  He 
allowed  his  tenants  to  attach  mountain  and  bog,  and 
place  them  under  cultivation,  as  in  Ireland,  for  so 
many  years.  But  as  the  years  rolled  on,  and  the  land 
became  valuable,  and  the  nominal  rent  paid  by  the 
tenant  for  possession  became  insignificant  by  com- 
parison, the  tenants  started  an  agitation  in  favour  of 
some  settlement  of  the  land ;  and  after  a  great  deal  of 
disturbance,  protracted  for  a  number  of  years,  an  Act 
was  passed  called  the  Act  of  Settlement,  by  which  all 
the  tenants  then  in  possession  of  the  lord's  land  were 
to  become  the  customary  tenants — really  and  truly 
the  owners.  A  farm  of  one  hundred  acres,  at  one 
time  bog  and  moorland,  would  be  let  say  at  twenty 
shillings  a  year.  Of  course  twenty  shillings  then  was 
different  to  twenty  shillings  now.  But  that  land  came 
down  from  father  to  son  many  times,  and  to-day  the 
tenure  upon  Avhich  it  is  held  is  this :  one  has  to 
perform  certain  specified  duties  as  a  citizen — various 
obligations  of  a  merely  traditional  kind  are  laid  upon 
the  holders  of  the  land — and  the  lord's  rent  is  still 
paid.  Thus  the  Manxmen  became  owners  of  their 
farms ;  and  the  lawyers  tell  us  there  is  no  safer  or 
better  tenure  than  that  on  which  the  Manx  projirietor 
holds  his  land.  With  regard  to  the  quality  of  the 
land,  I  do  not  know  that  it  is  remarkably  rich,  but  I 
say  this — having  seen  many  parts  of  the  British 
Islands — I  do  not  think  there  are  to  be  found  anywhere 
a  more  hard-working  class  of  farmers  than  are  to  be 
found  in  our  country.  It  is  not  because  the  land  is 
rich,  but  bjcausc  of  the  economy,  skill,  and  labour 
with  which  the  Manx  farmer  cultivates  his  land, 
crops  arc  produced  which  compare  very  favourably 
with  those  on  this  side.  Manx  farmers  as  a 
V  13 


I 8  GENERAL 

class  rank  amongst  the  most  prosperous  of  agri- 
culturists. 

With  regard  to  our  fishing — a  most  important 
industry — allow  me  to  give  you  a  few  statistics.  From 
the  port  of  Peel  and  Port  St.  Mary  there  go  forth  in 
the  season  some  hundreds  of  fishing-boats.  In  the 
early  spring  many  of  the  boats  go  mackerel  fishing, 
as  far  as  Kinsale  in  the  extreme  south-west  of  Ireland. 
As  the  summer  advances  they  fish  herring  nearer 
home.  In  1895  the  number  of  boats  was  365,  with 
a  tonnage  of  6382.  These  boats,  carried  1820  men 
and  273  boys,  and  would  bring  a  large  sum  of  money 
into  the  island.  But  I  regret  exceedingly  that  during 
the  last  few  years  this  industry  has  been  under  a 
cloud,  and  has  fallen  off  very  considerably  in  con- 
sequence of  the  migration  of  the  fish  to  other  grounds. 
This,  we  hope,  may  soon  change,  and  the  fish  return 
to  their  old  haunts. 

As  to  the  mining  industry,  though  we  are  a 
small  country  we  can  show  creditable  results.  In 
1 89 1  the  mining  products  were  valued  at  £1 12,6^0, 
viz.:  lead,  £y  1,864;  zinc,  ^17,230;  and  silver, 
-^23,536.  In  1894,  this  industry  having  declined, 
the  total  value  was  ^64,252.  There  are  three  Manx 
banks.  One  of  them  pays  25  per  cent.,  another  16 
per  cent.,  and  the  third,  and  youngest,  6  per  cent. 
They  have  large  reserves,  and  the  total  amount  on 
deposit  is  now  nearly  ;^  1,5 00,000  sterling.  2h  to  3 
per  cent,  is  allowed  by  the  banks  for  money  on  deposit. 
We  have  about  forty-three  miles  of  single  line  rail- 
ways in  the  island,  the  greater  part  of  which  pays 
exceedingly  well ;  but  one  section  is  unfortunate.  We 
have  fourteen  miles  of  double  tramways,  with  the 
electric  overhead  system.  The  electric  as  well  as  the 
horse  trams  pay  remarkably  well.  There  is  an  electric 
railway  to  the  top  of  Snaefell — the  highest  mountain, 
with  an  elevation   of  2000   feet — and  this  is  the  first 


ISLE    OF    MAN  19 

successful  electric  railway  to  the  top  of  any  nioimtain 
in  the  British  Isles.  The  gradient  is  one  in  twelve. 
There  is  a  special  arrangement  for  descending — a 
centre  rail  with  a  grippcr  upon  it.  We  do  not  go  up 
straight,  as  you  may  suppose,  but  simply  make  a 
circuit  of  the  mountain,  and,  looking  out  of  one  of 
the  windows,  the  whole  island  is  brought  into  view  ; 
and  on  a  clear  day,  as  you  reach  the  top,  England, 
Wales,  Scotland  and  Ireland  can  be  seen  in  one  "lance 
— the  only  spot  in  the  British  Isles  where  an  equally 
extensive  view  can  be  obtained.  Some  years  ago  while 
I  was  seated  in  the  smoke-room  of  a  London  hotel  I 
got  into  conversation  with  an  intelligent  gentleman,  and 
ultimately  it  came  out  that  I  lived  in  the  Isle  of 
Man.  He  put  on  his  glasses  and  looked  with  a 
somewhat  astonishing  and  critical  gaze  at  me.  He 
said :  "  Isle  of  Man  !  what  a  remarkable  thing.  I  re- 
member one  time  passing  that  island,  but  it  was  in  the 
night,  and  I  heard  some  one  say  we  were  passing  by  the 
Point  of  Ayre  lighthouse.  I  say,  what  do  you  do  in  the 
Isle  of  Man ; — go  fishing  and  keep  sheep  ?  "  Go  fish- 
ing and  keep  sheep  !  He  evidently  thought  we  were 
a  semi-barbarous  people.  "  But  would  you  be  sur- 
prised to  learn  that  we  have  a  fleet  of  eleven  steamers 
running  daily  to  the  Isle  of  Man  from  British  ports, 
and  that  the  number  of  benighted  Englishmen  who 
come  to  us  every  year  is  now  considerably  over 
300,000.  They  come  to  us  to  spend  their  holida}-." 
And  his  jaw  dropped.  Keep  sheep !  I  venture  to 
tell  this  audience  that  we  have  the  finest  fleet  of 
coasting  steamers  in  the  British  Isles.  The  best  of 
them  are  paddle  steamers,  and  if  any  of  you  gentlemen 
have  given  yourselves  the  pleasure  of  visiting  the  Isle  of 
Man  by  the  Prince  of  Wales  or  the  Queen  Victoria, 
you  have  travelled  on  the  fastest  passenger  steamers 
afloat.  Their  capacity  is  from  1600  to  1700  passen- 
gers, and  at  the   present  moment  there  is  now  being 


2  0  GENERAL 

completed  in  Fairfield  Co.'s  shipbuilding  yard  in  Glasgow 
a  steamer  that  will  beat  any  paddle  steamer  in  the  world 
— any  passenger  steamer — with  a  capacity  for  carrying 
2  000  people.  She  will  be  completed  within  the  next 
few  weeks.  When  you  come  over  to  see  us,  as  I  am 
sure  you  will  all  do  after  this,  you  will  have  a  most 
enjoyable  passage  on  one  of  the  fastest  steamers  in 
the  world.  The  capital  of  this  steamboat  company  is 
i^400,ooo  sterling,  and  3^ou  can  cross  from  Liverpool 
to  the  Isle  of  Man  twice  a  day  during  the  summer 
season,  the  average  length  of  the  journey  being  about 
three  and  a  half  hours.  There  are  boats  running 
daily  from  Fleetwood  and  Barrow,  and  we  have  also 
a  connection  Avith  Dublin  and  Glasgow  and  other 
ports.  In  1895  the  number  of  passengers  carried 
was  332,914,  and  last  year  this  number  was  largely 
increased. 

Now  there  can  be  no  question  whatever  that  the 
peculiar  feature  of  the  island  to-day  is  that  it  is  a 
great  health  and  pleasure  resort  for  the  people  of 
Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  and  of  the  midland  coun- 
ties ;  but  efforts  are  being  made  to  inform  the  people 
of  this  village  (London)  of  the  attractions  of  the  Isle 
of  Man.  We  have  opened  an  office  in  London  for  this 
purpose.  The  island  is  unquestionabl}'  one  of  the 
healthiest  spots  in  the  world.  It  is  warmer  in  Avinter 
and  cooler  in  suiinner  than  most  pleasure  resorts. 
Leaving  a  city  like  London  and  crossing  to  the  Isle 
of  Man,  you  will  be  struck  during  the  summer  with 
the  marvellous  change  experienced  in  passing  from  the 
hot,  suffocating  conditions  of  a  big,  crowded  city  to  the 
purest  and  most  refreshing  atmosphere  imaginable. 

There  arc  four  towns  in  the  island :  Douglas,  with 
a  resident  population  of  20,000,  increased  during  the 
season  by  2  5 ,000  visitors ;  Ramsey,  with  a  population 
of  5000;  Peel,  3500;  Castletown,  2000.  Then  there 
are  smaller  places — Laxey,   Port  St.   Mary,  and  Port 


ISLE    OF    MAN  21 

Erin.  Then  the  country  itself  is  fairly  populated  by 
industrious  farmers  and  others.  With  rcijard  to  the 
cost  of  living.  On  the  whole  rents  are  about  one- 
third  of  what  they  are  in  the  suburbs  of  London 
or  of  any  great  English  city.  In  Douglas,  of  course, 
with  a  frontage  to  the  sea  the  rents  arc  con- 
siderably advanced,  but,  generally  speaking,  retired 
business  men  who  come  to  the  island  to  settle — and 
there  are  many  who  come  to  spend  their  declining 
years  in  the  Isle  of  Man — retired  business  men  who 
seek  villas  and  smaller  houses  with  gardens  find  that 
the  rents  are  remarkably  low.  There  is  an  impression 
abroad  that  the  island  is  only  the  resort  of  the  rough 
and  rowdy  element.  I  want  to  deny  this.  I  am  one 
of  those  Avho  believe  that  the  workini;  man  has  as 
nnich  right  to  have  his  holiday  as  a  prince.  And  if 
the  tired  and  wearied  sons  of  labour  in  Lancashire 
and  Yorkshire  find  in  the  Isle  of  Man — as  they  do 
find — the  health  and  invigorating  pleasure  they  need, 
by  all  means  let  them  come.  While  there  they  con- 
duct themselves  in  a  respectable  and  orderly  manner. 
Drunkenness  amongst  our  visitors  is  rarely  seen  in 
the  island.  A  few  years  ago  a  small,  noisy  element 
was  to  be  seen  on  the  island ;  the  stern  hand  of  the- 
police  soon  put  an  end  to  this,  and  to-day  the  vast 
body  of  working  men  and  women  who  come  to  the 
Isle  of  Man  to  spend  their  summer  holiday,  are  as 
respectable  and  well-conducted  as  can  be  found  any- 
where in  the  British  Islands.  And  it  is  surprising 
what  effect  the  island  atmosphere  has  upon  them.  It 
is  marvellous  to  see  how  much  energy  and  enthusiasm 
a  Lancashire  or  Yorkshire  worker  can  get  up  on  a 
glass  of  ale.  But  it  is  not  the  glass  of  ale  that  creates 
their  good  spirits.  The  atmosphere,  the  freedom  and 
glorious  surroundings  they  simultaneously  enjoy,  com- 
bine to  produce  that  exhilaration  of  spirits  which  is 
so  marked.     The  visitor  becomes  intoxicated  with  the 


2  2  GENERAL 

freedom  and  pleasure  and  pure  mountain  air  he  enjoys. 
Let  any  one  who  toils  for  eleven  and  a  half  months  in 
the  year  in  mill,  factory,  shop,  or  office  come  to  our 
beautiful  island  and  ride  or  roam  over  our  mountains 
and  through  the  wooded  glens,  and  it  is  marvellous 
how  he  or  she  will  appreciate  and  enjoy  the  change. 
Occasionally  you  will  see  some  sober-minded  shop- 
keeper or  merchant,  who  seldom  laughs  at  home,  some 
sober-minded  head  of  a  family  gaily  wending  his  way 
over  our  mountains  with  a  great  fern  leaf,  two  feet 
long,  in  his  hat,  and  a  wild  flower  about  the  size  of  a 
cabbage  in  his  coat.  All  this  is  simply  the  natural 
effect  of  the  flow  of  animal  spirits  in  a  man  freed 
from  that  groove  in  which  he  is  for  the  most  of  his 
time  cribbed,  cabined  and  confined,  and  for  the  nonce 
revelling  in  a  pure  atmosphere  and  amid  delightful 
surroundings.  For  boating,  fishing,  cycling,  every 
facility  is  afforded.  All  our  mountains  are  free ;  you 
can  go  where  you  like  so  long  as  you  don't  break 
down  the  fences.  If  you  belong  to  the  class  who 
desire  to  take  their  holiday  quietly,  and  do  not  care  to 
be  mixed  up  with  the  hurly-burly  of  the  nniltitude 
that  visit  Man  in  July  or  August,  then  I  would  advise 
you  to  come  in  May,  June,  or  September,  when  you 
will  find  the  isle  quiet  and  only  the  select  visitors 
present.  Then  you  can  have  the  quiet  and  retirement 
you  wish — in  fact  you  can  practically  have  the  whole 
place  to  yourselves. 

As  I  told  you,  wo  have  the  State  Church  in  our 
isle.  We  have  a  Bishop  with  a  nominal  salary  of 
.^2000  a  year.  Actually  it  is  not  more  than  about 
£1600.  The  vicars  and  curates,  I  am  sorry  to  say, 
arc  very  much  underpaid.  The  Manx  people  are  ex- 
ceedingly hospitable.  I  don't  care  who  you  may  be, 
but  should  you  bo  touring  in  the  island  and  over- 
come by  the  heat,  you  have  only  to  enter  a  Manxman's 
farm-house  to  receive  a  cordial  welcome   and  hearty 


ISLE    OF    MAN  23 

hospitality.  And  the  same  in  the  case  of  the  labourer's 
cottage.  If  you  ask  for  water  you  will  get  milk,  and 
also  some  native  griddle  cake  probably.  Among  the 
richer  class  of  farmers  their  hospitality  is  proverbial. 
The  farmers  are  mostly  in  comfortable  circumstances. 
There  is  very  little  poverty  in  the  island,  and  although 
there  is  not  much  great  wealth,  there  is  that  general 
average  condition  of  comfort  which  we  think  is  most 
desirable. 

The  agricultural  depression  which  has  so  seriously 
affected  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  though  it  has  been 
felt  in  the  Isle  of  Man  somewhat,  has  not  had  the 
same  results.  The  Manx  larmer  has  adapted  himself 
to  the  new  circumstances,  and  the  enormous  number 
of  visitors  to  the  island  have  created  for  him  a  market 
for  the  dairy-farm  products  to  which  he  has  turned  his 
attention.  Manx  lamb  is  a  delicacy  you  can  enjoy  if 
you  come  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  and  there  is  no 
such  lamb  anywhere  else. 

With  regard  to  politics  the  Manx  people  are,  as  a 
rule,  rather  behind  the  age.  It  was  not  until  1866 
that  the  franchise  was  granted  to  the  Manx  people. 
Prior  to  this  for  many  centuries  the  House  of  Keys 
existed,  but  up  to  1 866  they  were  a  self-elected  body. 
When  one  of  their  number  died  or  retired  the  re- 
mainder chose  his  successor.  In  1866  the  franchise 
was  granted  to  the  Manx  people ;  it  has  been  extended 
since,  and  now,  of  coiu-se,  the  members  of  the  House 
of  Keys  are  elected  by  the  votes  of  the  people.  The 
fact  that  before  1866  they  had  little  political  experi- 
ence or  knowledge  has  kept  the  Manx  people  back 
from  taking  that  intensely  interested  part  in  politics 
which,  I  am  told,  you  take  on  this  side  of  the  water. 
But  we  are  rapidly  coming  to  the  front.  A  reforming 
spirit  is  abroad,  a  desire  to  take  a  deeper  interest  in 
our  own  affairs  is  manifest  on  every  hand,  and  there  is 
no  question  that  the  younger  people  now  growing  up 


24  GENERAL 

are  becoming  very  active  and  intelligent  politicians. 
The  language  of  the  island  is  Gaelic,  But  this  is 
rapidly  dying  out.  The  children  are  not  taught  it. 
But  if  you  come  to  the  island  now  you  may  yet  hear  a 
man  preach  and  pray  in  Manx,  I  do  not  know  that  I 
have  ever  heard  anything  which  sounds  so  eloquent  or 
forcible  as  to  hear  a  Manx  fisherman,  rugged,  stern, 
with  massive  features,  broad  shoulders,  and  grisly 
beard,  pour  forth  his  soul  in  prayer.  It  is  marvellous 
the  effect  produced  by  his  utterances.  The  Manx 
people  are  yet  to  some  extent  a  superstitious  people.. 
The  insularity  of  the  lives  of  the  people  for  so  many 
centuries  led  to  the  growth  of  superstition  and  a  belief 
in  ghosts,  bogaanes,  fairies  and  witches.  Belief  of  this 
kind  was  common  in  my  young  days,  but  it  is  now 
dying  out.  One  cannot  go  into  any  parish  or  district 
but  one  hears  some  dreadful  blood-curdling  stories 
peculiar  to  the  locality.  You  may  laugh,  but  if  these 
stories  are  told  you  on  some  dark  winter's  night  as  you 
nestle  to  the  fire  and  hear  the  wind  howling  without 
and  in  the  chimney,  and  then  it  is  when  you  leave 
you  have  to  traverse  a  road  in  the  darkness,  with  a 
ridge  on  one  side  and  old  ivy-covered  buildings  on 
the  other,  and  as  you  go  groping  along  you  hear  the 
Avhistling  of  the  wind  in  the  bare  trees  and  see  a  danc- 
ing light  in  the  bog,  and  when  further  you  have  to  pass 
through  a  churchyard — I  tell  you,  you  would  not  laugh 
then.  All  these  things  to  our  old  folk  were  real.  I 
have  met  many  of  these  old  people — God  bless  them  ! — 
and  they  would  say,  "  Oh,  don't  go  down  that  road  at 
night  on  any  account.  There  is  a  fairy  there."  I 
have  been  told  how  Avhcn  the  old  folks  have  gone  to 
bed,  first  leaving  the  door  on  the  latch — as  the  custom 
is  in  the  country — they  have  heard  the  fairies  enter 
the  kitchen  and  knock  the  pipe  left  for  them  on  the 
kitchen  table.  They  knocked  it  if  there  was  not 
cnoufjh   tobacco  in  the  bowl  to  suit  them.       And   the 


ISLE    OF    MAN  25 

old  people  would  point  out  to  me  as  a  boy  the  circles 
on  the  grass  where  the  fairies  had  been  dancing  in 
glee  during  the  night.  I  was  told  of  a  woinan 
being  followed  for  half  a  mile  on  a  country  road 
because  she  had  forgotten  to  sprinkle  with  salt  the 
mutton  she  was  conveying  home.  On  the  ist  of 
May  every  year  when  the  hills  are  glorious  with  gorse, 
boiiHres  were  lighted  to  burn  the  witches.  May- 
flowers are  strewn  carefully  across  the  threshold  to 
keep  the  wicked  fairies  from  coming  into  the  houses. 
Some  of  these  old  customs  are  dying  out,  yet  others 
survive,  and  I  am  glad  they  linger,  for  they  are  enter- 
taining, and,  as  matters  go,  we  can  ill  afford  to  lose  them. 
Allhouij^h  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  iofnoranco  and 
romance  in  connection  with  some  of  these  old  tales 
and  old  customs,  we  like  to  hear  the  story  and  witness 
the  performance.  Among  the  old  customs  of  the  isle 
which  yet  survive  are  "  hunt-the-wren  "  and  "  op-tu-naa," 
in  connection  with  which  the  boys  go  round  and  sing. 
This  they  formerly  did  for  the  love  of  the  thing,  but  now 
money  is  their  object.  There  is  one  beautiful  custom 
with  the  fishing  fleet  of  some  250  boats,  perhaps  with  a 
venerable  Manxman  as  their  admiral.  As  the  sun  set 
low  in  the  west  and  the  vessels  were  rounding  the 
ancient  castle  of  Peel,  the  admiral  would  raise  his  eyes 
to  the  setting  sun  and  pray  for  a  blessing  on  the 
night's  venture ;  and  it  was  not  until  that  prayer  was 
uttered  and  over  that  any  one  ventured  to  cast  his  net 
into  the  deep.  A  large  number  of  the  Manx  are  Non- 
conformists, mostly  Wesleyan  and  Primitive  Methodists. 
There  are  over  300  local  or  lay  preachers.  The  effect 
of  this  upon  the  Manx  character  is  somewhat  marked. 
I  do  not  know  any  spot  of  its  size  where  so  many  men 
are  able  to  take  part  in  public  meetings  as  in  the  Isle 
of  Man.  If  a  political  or  local  question  has  to  be  dis- 
cussed you  will  always  get  a  number  of  men  trained  as 
speakers   capable    of   expressing    an  opinion  upon    it. 


26  GENERAL 

One  anecdote  of  a  fine  old  lay  preacher  I  may  tell 
you.  Speaking  of  Samson  slaying  so  many  with  the 
jawbone  of  an  ass,  he  said,  "An  ass's  jawbone  was  too 
short  a  weapon  for  such  deadly  work,  and  that  the 
Scripture  really  meant  that  Samson  picked  up  an  ass 
somewhere  and  took  it  by  the  hind  legs,  killed  his  foes, 
and  so  made  a  very  wide  circle  and  kept  off  his 
enemies."  Now  I  think  I  have  detained  you  long 
enough.  I  hope  you  will  come  and  see  the  Isle  of 
Man  for  your  pleasure  and  profit.  We  have  many 
ancient  and  beautiful  remains  in  which  the  anti- 
quarian will  feel  a  delight,  as  well  as  charming  scenery 
and  beauties  of  nature,  which  are  a  source  of  joy  to 
the  many  thousand  visitors  who  yearly  visit  our  shores. 


THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS 

By    PERCY    EDWARD    AMY,    F.R.G.S.,    &c. 

[AaUior  of  "Sunny  Jcrsci/,"  "Beautiful  Jersey,"  ttc.) 

Introductory — General, 

Geographically  French,  yet  constitutionally  English, 
the  Channel  Islands  claim  special  interest  as  the  last 
relics  of  the  ancient  Dukedom  of  Normandy  now 
appertaining  to  England. 

They  have  been  described  as  follows :  ( i )  A  nor- 
thern group,  including  Alderney,  Burhou,  and  the 
Casqucts,  together  with  several  rocky  ledges;  (2)  a 
north-central  group,  including  Guernsey,  Herm,  Jethou, 
Sark,  and  a  singular  complication  of  rocks  and  islets ; 
(3)  a  south-central  group,  including  Jersey,  three 
groups  of  shoals  and  rocky  islands  connecting  the 
north  of  Jersey  with  France,  and  some  others,  running 
out  from  the  north  -  east  of  Jersey,  also  towards 
France ;  (4)  a  southern  group,  including  the  Min- 
quiers,  the  Chausey  Islands,  and  some  outlying  rocks 
to  the  far  west. 

The  same  authority  aptly  added :  "  Few  parts  of 
the  world  present,  in  so  small  a  space,  so  much  variety 
as  is  the  case  with  this  archipelago ;  and  few  groups  of 
islands  are  so  remarkable  for  then*  great  political  and 
historical  interest,  combined  with  singular  natural 
beauty." 

Briefly  stated,  Jersey  contains  some  39,580  Eng- 
lish acres,  or  about  62  square  statute  miles  (of  which 
about    25,000    acres    are    under    cultivation),  and    it 


2  8  GENERAL 

declines  to  tlie  south,  the  hio^hest  ground  beuig  at 
"  Les  Platons,"  on  the  northern  side,  485  feet  above 
the  sea-level.  About  12  statute  miles  in  length, 
from  east  to  west,  it  is  in  some  parts  about  half 
that  width. 

Guernsey  is  triangular  in  shape,  the  hypotenuse 
bearing  nearly  south-west  and  north-east,  and  measur- 
ing about  gh  statute  miles  in  length,  while  from  south 
to  north  (east  side)  it  is  about  6h  miles  in  length,  and 
from  east  to  west  (south)  some  7  miles.  Its  total  area, 
land  and  rock,  at  low  water,  is  over  24  square  miles, 
or  I  5,560  English  acres,  of  which  two-thirds  are  under 
cultivation.  Its  highest  part  is  at  "  Haut-nez,"  above 
Icart  Point,  being  349  (or,  some  say,  363)  feet  above 
mean  tide. 

Alderney — which,  as  a  military  position,  has  been 
described    as    "  the    Ehrenbreitstein    of    the    Enolish 

o 
Channel  " — is  oblong,  or  long  oval,  in  form  ;  its  length 

from  north-east  to  south-west  being  about  3^  miles, 
and  its  width  about  one  mile,  much  being  flat  table- 
land, more  or  less  cultivated. 

Sark  consists  of  Great  Sark  and  Little  Sark,  con- 
nected by  a  natural  causeway  at  an  elevation  of  nearly 

3  00  feet  above  the  sea ;  Great  Sark  being  rather  over 
two  miles  in  length  (north  to  south),  and  Little  Sark 
somewhat  less  than  a  mile. 

Hcrm  is  an  irregular  oval,  measuring  ih  miles 
from  south  to  north  and  half  as  nuich  across.  Jcthou 
is  about  half  a  mile  in  diameter;  Brechou,  1200  yards 
in  length  (east  to  west),  and  250  yards  Avide ;  while 
there  are  smaller  islets. 

As  to  the  geology  of  the  group  it  has  well  been 
written :  "In  no  part  of  Europe,  and  in  no  group  of 
islands  readily  accessible,  are  the  physical  geography 
and  geology  more  closely  related  than  in  the  Channel 
Islands."  The  rocks  consist  of  many  varieties  of 
syenite,  cherts  and  hornstones,  quartzosc  conglomerates, 


THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS  29 

clay-stones,  porphyry  and  diorite :  and  many  sliow 
truly  remarkable  contortions  of  the  strata. 

The  testimony  quoted  above,  coming  from  such 
an  undoubted  authority  as  Pere  C,  Noury,  S.J.,  is 
a  convincing  proof  in  itself,  and  personal  observation 
more  than  confirms  its  justice. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  dilate  on  the  scenic  charms 
of  these  Nature-favoured  isles ;  nor  to  do  more  than 
mention  their  exceptional  climatic  advantages,  which 
have  led  to  such  an  extraordinary  development  of  the 
growing  industry — Jersey's  early  potatoes  and  Guern- 
sey's tomatoes  being  far-famed.  Only  recently,  indeed 
(May  30,  1 901),  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 
replying  to  a  memorial  from  the  Chambers  of  Com- 
merce of  Jersey  and  Guernsey  anent  the  coal  duty, 
wrote  that  "  their  climate  gives  the  industry  said  to 
be  chiefly  affected  by  the  coal  duty  a  practical  mono- 
poly of  early  produce  in  the  English  market." 

The  growing  of  early  potatoes  is  the  main  in- 
dustry in  Jersey,  and  some  8000  acres  are  annually 
devoted  to  that  crop.  As  H.  Rider  Haggard  recently 
put  it :  "  As  Guernsey  lives  and  prospers  upon  fruits, 
daffodils,  and  arums,  so  Jersey  grows  rich  upon  the 
potato." 

As  regards  the  export  trade  of  the  Channel  Islands, 
it  has  been  summarised  as  consisting  of  "  Granite,  for 
paving  purposes  ;  fruit  and  vegetables ;  fish  and  crus- 
taceans ;  cows  and  heifers."  The  stone  is  chiefly  from 
St.  Sampson,  Guernsey ;  early  jDotatoes  mainly  from 
Jersey,  tomatoes  grown  under  glass  from  Guernsey, 
grapes  and  pears  from  both  islands. 

Climatically,  Jersey  and  Guernsey  run  one  another 
close  in  the  matter  of  sunshine,  though  for  several 
years  past  the  former  isle  has  maintained  its  reputa- 
tion as  the  "  Sunniest  spot  in  the  United  Kingdom." 
Its  record  for  1900  was  thus  2003.2  hours,  Guern- 
sey following  with   1965.9  hours,  the  next  stations  in 


30  GENERAL 

the  South  of  England  being  Falmouth  (1927.5  hours) 
and  Torquay  (1898.6  hours). 

While  the  mean  temperatures  of  Jersey  and 
Guernsey  are  the  same,  it  is  usually  warmer  in  the 
larger  isle  in  spring,  summer,  and  autumn,  the  climate 
being  generally  drier  and  warmer  than  that  of 
Guernsey,  which,  on  the  other  hand,  is  cooler  in 
summer  and  warmer  in  winter;  and  altogether  more 
bracinof — thouoh  not  so  much  so  as  Sark  and 
Alderney.  Snow  rarely  falls,  and,  when  it  does,  never 
lies  on  the  ground  for  any  length  of  time.  The 
islands  are  famous  for  their  long  autumns,  while  some 
maofniticent  sunset  effects  are  to  be  seen. 

Owing  to  their  equability  of  temperature  the 
islands  may  well  claim  to  be  all-the-year-round  health 
and  holiday  resorts,  though  as  yet  scarcely  sufficiently 
known  to  those  seeking  a  wintering  place  with  all 
home  comforts  and  without  the  disconvenience  of 
foreign  travel.  Sir  Benjamin  Brodie  has  written:  "If 
you  want  health  for  the  body,  rest  for  the  mind,  pure 
air,  and  splendid  scenery,  all  of  God's  gifts  which  go 
to  make  a  terrestrial  Paradise,  I  emphatically  advise 
you  to  go  to  Jersey  ;  "  while  much-travelled  "  Dagonet " 
wrote :  "  To  all  who  want  a  menial,  bracin<)f  climate, 
and  fine  bold  romantic  scenery,  and  cheap,  good 
living,  I  would  say  '  Try  Guernsey.' " 

The  flora  of  the  Channel  Islands  has  been  esti- 
mated to  consist  of  1862  species;  while  there  are  no 
fewer  than  190  kinds  of  birds  (of  which  90  may  be 
set  down  as  permanent  residents) ;  the  land  mauunalia 
is  represented  by  9  genera  and  14  species;  but  no 
venomous  reptile  of  any  sort  exists  in  the  islands.  It 
has  lately  been  estimated  there  arc  2360  species  of 
plants  and  1770  species  of  insects  in  Guernsey.  One 
authority  has  issued  a  list  of  636  flowering  plants,  18 
ferns,  and  9  fern-alHcs,  as  comprising  the  indigenous 
flora  of  Guernsey.      This  is  also  a  rich  field  for  marine 


THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS  31 

zoology,  for  in  one  order  ol"  the  crustaceans  alone  we 
have  no  fewer  than  90  of  the  100  (approximately) 
species  recorded  as  found  in  British  waters ;  there 
are  i  20  species  of  sponges  and  1 80  of  sea-slugs  and 
sea- worms. 

The  islands,  having  retained  many  privileges, 
provide  object-lessons  in  self-government — as  also  in 
peasant  proprietary — while  pauperism  and  crime  are 
practically  unknown  therein.  They  have,  in  fact, 
always  enjoyed,  subject  to  the  paramoimt  authority 
of  the  Sovereign  in  Council,  what  is  really  complete 
independence  in  matters  of  legislation,  finance,  &c. ; 
and  have  never  been  represented  in  the  British 
Parliament.  Among  other  jealously-guarded  local 
privileges,  moreover,  arc  perfect  freedom  from  Customs' 
duties,  and  all  other  taxation  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Imperial  Government.  H.  Rider  Haggard,  in  his 
series  of  "  Back  to  the  Land "  articles  in  the  Daily 
Express  (London)  this  year,  eulogistically  said  :  "  The 
islands  are  a  shining  example  of  successful  Home 
Rule,  and  yet  of  a  loyalty  so  fervent  that  it  has 
almost  passed  to  a  proverb." 

Owing  to  their  early  connection  with  Normandy, 
these  islands,  alike  in  language,  literature,  laws,  and 
customs,  have  retained  much  that  affords  opportunity 
of  interesting  study  to  the  ethnologist,  philologist,  the 
lawyer,  and  the  student  of  history.  To  this  day  the 
quaint  Norman-French  is  still  heard  in  many  rural 
homesteads,  though  everywhere  being  gradually  dis- 
placed by  "  the  King's  English,"  Avhich  is  generally 
understood  by  all. 

Both  Jersey  and  Guernsey  are,  in  proportion  to 
their  size,  densely  peopled,  this  year's  census  showing 
the  population  of  Jersey  to  be  52,645,  while  that  of 
Guernsey  is  set  down  at  40,300,  a  decrease  in  one  case 
of  almost  2000,  and  in  the  other  an  increase  of  just 
over    5000.      The   population    of   Alderney   was    then 


32  GENERAL 

found  to  be  2054;  of  Sark,  506;  of  Herm,  25;  and 
of  Jethou,  3,  making  a  total  for  what  may  be  styled  the 
Guernsey  group  of  42,888. 

There  are  various  routes  to  Jersey  and  Guernsey, 
but  the  chief  of  these  are  via  Southampton  (per 
London  and  South- Western  Railway)  and  Weymouth 
(Great  Western  Railway).  Both  Companies  run  ex- 
press trains  and  steamships  in  connection  with  the 
principal  towns,  the  services  being  altogether  admir- 
able. 

It  would  be  idle  to  attempt  within  the  limits  of 
available  space  the  task  of  describing  the  many  pleasing 
features  of  the  islands,  however  congenial  that  task 
might  be. 

Much  might  be  said  of  the  larger  islands,  Jersey 
and  Guernsey,  with  their  quaint  historic  ruins  and 
venerable  churches  as  links  with  the  past  on  one  hand, 
and  many  evidences  of  up-to-date  modernity  on  the 
other.  Their  educational  advantages,  splendid  facili- 
ties for  sea-bathing,  fine  markets  and  public  parks, 
&c.,  all  prove  how  the  islands  and  islanders  have 
moved  with  the  times  ;  while,  as  I  have  written  else- 
where, "  The  town  of  St.  Helier  rightly  claims  attention 
as  a  modern,  enterprising,  and  prosperous  commercial 
centre,  well  paved  and  adequately  lit,  and  containing 
some  fine  public  buildings  and  trading  establishments, 
being  thus  quite  the  reverse  to  the  insignificant  fishing 
hamlet  Avhich  some  seem  to  expect  to  see."  St.  Peter 
Port,  the  "  capital "  of  Guernsey,  is  more  Continental- 
looking  in  aspect,  especially  from  the  sea  ;  and  also 
possesses  many  excellent  features. 

Aldorncy  claims  attention  perhaps  principally  for 
its  breakwater,  all  that  exists  of  a  proposed  naval  har- 
bour of  refuge  commenced  in  1847,  but  abandoned 
after  an  expenditure  by  the  British  Government  of  over 
one  and  a  lialf  millions  stcrlinti;.  Larcfe  sums  wore 
also  spent  in  building  a  series  of  forts  to  command  the 


TIIK    CllANNKL    ISLANDS  33 

harbour   in    the    event    of    hostilities,    but    these    jire 
naturally  now  practically  useless  ! 

Sark,  "  The  Pearl  set  in  the  Silver  Sea,"  is  particu- 
larly attractive  to  the  lover  of  the  picturesque  in 
Nature,  to  the  artist  and  to  the  naturalist,  its  bijou  bays, 
fantastically  fashioned  rocks,  and  natural  caverns  surely 
appealing  to  one  and  all,  while  those  devoted  to  marine 
zoology  here  find  much  to  interest  them.  "  Mais, 
c'est  magnifiquc,"  exclaimed  Victor  Hugo  when  he 
first  saw  Sark  ;  while  an  appreciative  writer  contends 
that  "  On  the  whole  it  may  safely  be  said  that  there 
are  very  few  islands,  even  though  many  times  larger 
than  Sark,  that  contain  so  much  of  beauty,  romantic 
scenery,  and  interest." 

In  Herm's  famous  shell-beach  have  been  found 
over  40  genera  with  about  200  varieties — the  bay 
being  thus  richer  in  species  than  any  other  place  on 
the  shores  of  the  British  Isles, 

There  are  many  curious  insular  customs  and 
peculiarities,  but  these  the  exigencies  of  space  pre- 
clude our  dealing  with.  Wc  might  just  say  that  in 
Guernsey  a  British  sovereign  is  worth  21s.  currency, 
or  25  francs  2d.;  I2kl.  being  given  for  a  shilling.  In 
Jersey  is.  was  worth  13d.  till  1876,  when  this  absurd 
anomaly  was  wisely  altered.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
Guernsey  will  soon  follow  suit. 

History. 

The  history  of  tlu;  islands  cannot  easily  be  sum- 
marised, though  it  may  well  be  said  to  be  replete  with 
interest.  It  is  certain  they  were  inhabited  long  years 
ago  probably  by  Bretons,  or  natives  of  Brittany,  while 
there  are  indications  of  their  probable  occupation  by 
the  Romans. 

Christianity    was    introduced    into   the   islands   in 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixth   century,  St.  Sampson, 
V  c 


34  GENERAL 

the  first  missionary,  being  followed  by  St.  Marculf,  St. 
Helerius  (from  whom  St.  Helier  takes  its  name),  and 
St.  Magloire.  Though  originally  connected  ecclesiasti- 
cally with  Brittany,  they  were  afterwards  annexed  to 
the  Diocese  of  Coiitances,  and  subsequently  to  the 
Dioceses  of  Salisbury  (1496)  and  finally  to  Winchester 
(1568). 

The  Northmen  made  frequent  incursions  in  the 
ninth  century ;  and  in  9 1 2  Charles  the  Simple,  who 
then  ruled  France,  weakly  ceded  the  Province  of 
Neustria  and  Dukedom  of  Normandy  to  Rollo,  who 
left  his  mark  in  more  ways  than  one. 

It  is  sometimes  semi-seriously  clainjed  by  the 
Channel  islanders  that  they  conquered  England ;  and 
certain  it  is  tliey  were  never  conquered  by  what  they 
now  loyally  regard  as  the  Mother  Country.  The  islands 
were  naturally  attached  to  the  English  Crown  by 
the  Conquest ;  though  on  the  death  of  the  victorious 
William  they  lost  their  connection  therewith,  though 
again  united  when  Henry  I.  became  king.  During 
Stephen's  reign  this  connection  ceased,  they  being- 
Norman  again,  as  under  Rufus ;  but  since  the  ac- 
cession of  Henry  II.  they  have  been  part  and  parcel 
of  the  English  realm,  and  by  treaties  dated  1259  and 
1360  the  French  Sovereigns  recognised  this  fact. 
King  John,  who  as  Count  of  Mortain  was  made  Lord  and 
Governor  of  the  islands,  lost  continental  Normandy  to 
Philip  Augustus,  but  the  French  failed  to  conquer  insu- 
lar Normandy  or  the  Norman  Archipelago,  which  thus 
for  ever  severed  the  ties  which  had  hitherto  bound  it 
to  the  Continent — though  the  isles  remained  ecclesias- 
tically connected  with  Coutances  till  the  Reformation, 
when  they  were  transferred  by  Queen  Elizabeth  to 
the  See  of  Winchester,  though  in  those  times  many 
Huguenot  refugees  had  there  made  their  home. 
•Jersey  formally  threw  in  its  lot  with  the  Church  of 
England  in    1623,  but  Guernsey   adhered  to  Prcsby- 


THE    CHANNRL    ISLANDS  35 

terianisin — this  cxpliiining  how  iu  the  Civil  Wars 
Jersey  sided  with  the  King  whilst  Guernsey  declared 
for  Cromwell. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  King  John  took  keen 
interest  in  the  islands  and  made  careful  provision  for 
their  good  government  and  due  defence. 

The  French  still  coveted  the  islands,  making  un- 
successful attempts  on  Jersey  in  the  reigns  of  Henry 
III.,  Edward  I.,  and  Edward  II.,  and  again  in  that  of 
Edward  III.,  when  Castle  Cornet  was  captured  and 
Mont  Orgueil  Castle  was  besieged  (1338),  though  with- 
out result ;  as  again  in  i  374,  when  it  is  stated  Bertrand 
du  Guesclin,  the  famous  Constable  of  France,  also 
failed  to  reduce  that  fortress,  which  held  out  till 
the  English  came  to  the  relief.  In  1343  '^^  i'li- 
portant  naval  battle  had,  let  it  be  said,  been  fought 
off  Guernsey;  while  later  on  (1372)  Ivan  de  Galles 
invaded  that  island,  though  he  too  failed  to  reduce 
Castle  Cornet. 

In  1404  Jersey  was  once  more  invaded,  when  the 
natives  sustained  temporary  defeat ;  and  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VI.  the  Comte  de  Maulevrier  successfully 
stormed  Mont  Orgueil,  that  grand,  "  weather-beaten, 
ivied  pile "  —  by  collusion,  on  dit,  Avith  the  then 
Governor.  From  1460  to  1466  a  curious  state  of 
afiairs  existed,  Maulevrier  ruling  one  half  of  the 
island,  while  the  remainder  Avas  bravely  defended 
by  Sir  Philip  de  Carteret ;  but  in  the  following  year 
Sir  Rd.  Harliston  (Vice- Admiral  of  England),  after  a 
six  months'  siege,  regained  possession  of  Mont  Orgueil 
for  the  English.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  islands  were 
granted  the  privilege  of  neutrality  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV. 

Passing  on  to  the  time  of  the  Civil  Wars,  much 
might  be  written  thereon,  for  these  were  naturally 
moving  times,  though  Jersey  only  played  a  minor  part 
in  the  famous  quarrel  between  Crown  and  Commons ; 


36  GENERAL 

tliougli  in  1643  the  island  was  divided  into  fierce 
factions — Sir  Philip  de  Carteret  bombarding  St.  Holier 
from  Elizabeth  Castle  and  the  Parliamentarians  shel- 
ling that  island-fortress  from  batteries  raised  on  the 
Mont  de  la  Villa.  Captain  George  Carteret,  Sir  Philip's 
nephew,  succeeded  in  restoring  tranquillity  however, 
when  the  King's  power  was  everywhere  recognised. 
At  this  time  Castle  Cornet  in  Guernsey  was  being 
defended  for  the  Stuarts,  practically  against  the  people, 
by  Sir  Peter  Osborne,  to  whom  Carteret  sent  relief 
from  Jersey,  he  having  been  a  guest  here  in  1643, 
when  what  may  be  called  the  Guernsey  rebellion 
occurred.  In  1646  the  Prince  of  Wales  took  up 
his  residence  at  Elizabeth  Castle — where,  by  the  way, 
Sir  Edward  Hyde  (Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer)  after- 
wards wrote  the  main  portion  of  his  "  History  of  the 
Great  Rebellion." 

Elizabeth  Castle  and  Castle  Cornet  were  actually 
the  last  fortresses  to  hold  out  for  the  Stuarts, 
though  when  Prince  Charles  came  to  Jersey  danger 
was  apprehended  from  Guernsey  more  than  anywhere 
else.  In  1649  Charles  II.  and  the  Duke  of  York, 
his  brother,  again  visited  Jersey,  and  in  October  23rd 
of  that  year,  in  Elizabeth  Castle,  signed  the  historic 
declaration  asserting  his  rights  to  the  Crown  of 
England,  and  pledging  himself  to  avenge  the  death 
of  his  father.  In  165 1  the  Parliamentarians  made 
a  final  effort,  and,  landing  troops  in  Jersey,  soon 
reduced  St.  Aubin's  Fort  and  Mont  Orgueil  Castle,  and 
on  December  15th  Elizabeth  Castle  was  evacuated 
— the  same  day,  by  a  curious  coincidence,  marking  the 
capitulation  of  Castle  Cornet,  the  terms  of  the  sur- 
render being,  in  either  case,  honourable  to  all  parties. 
Though  Guernsey  fared  fairly  Avell  during  the  Protec- 
torate, the  Restoration  was  welcomed  by  both  the 
Jersey  and  the  Guernsey  people,  and  Charles  granted 
the  former  a  mace  '■  as  a  proof  of  his  Royal  affection" 


THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS  37 

— this  much  prized  memento  being  even  now  borne 
and  placed  before  the  Bailiff  in  the  Royal  Court  and 
States'  sittings,  &c.  During  the  whole  dccenniuni 
internal  faction  had,  it  nuist  be  said,  run  high  in 
Guernsey. 

Coming  to  the  time  of  William  IIL,  we  find  the 
abolition  of  the  privilege  of  neutrality ;  while  in 
those  of  George  III.,  two  more  attempts  were  made 
upon  Jersey  by  the  French.  The  first  was  under  the 
Prince  of  Nassau,  in  1779;  and  the  second,  and  more 
serious  one,  in  178  i.  On  the  latter  occasion  a  body 
of  French  troops,  under  the  self-styled  Baron  do  Rulle- 
court,  landed  in  Grouville  Bay  and  marched  upon 
St.  Holier,  taking  the  Lieutenant-Governor  (Major 
Moses  Corbet)  a  prisoner,  and  forcing  him  to  sign  a 
surrender.  The  officer  in  charge  of  Elizabeth  Castle 
declined  to  follow  this  ignoble  example ;  and  in  the 
meanwhile  the  regular  and  militia  troops  had  been 
got  together,  and,  with  Major  Frs.  Peirson  of  the  95th, 
marched  on  the  French  in  the  Royal  Square,  then  the 
Market-place,  where  was  fought  what  is  known  as 
"  The  Battle  of  Jersey,"  both  Peirson  and  Rullecourt 
being  killed  in  the  action.  The  death  of  Jersey's 
gallant  hero  is  commemorated  in  a  fine  painting  by 
Copley  now  hanging  in  the  National  Gallery.  Corbet, 
let  us  just  add,  was  tried  by  court-martial  and  sus- 
pended in  his  commission. 

The  year  1767  was  important  for  the  islands 
commercially,  particularly  as  regards  Guernsey,  where 
smuggling  flourished  even  more  than  in  the  larger 
isle.  The  Guernsey  States  had  resisted  attempts 
made  to  introduce  an  English  custom-house  in  1709, 
1 7 17,  1720,  and  1722,  but  in  1767  a  commissioner 
was  sent  over  and  the  registry  regulations  enforced. 
Guernsey  combined  smuggling  and  privateering  during 
the  American  and  French  wars  and  prospered,  the  law 
of    1767    having    become  a   dead   letter;    though   in 


38  GENERAL 

1800  the  Imperial  Government  determined  to  enforce 
even  more  stringent  reo-ulations. 

A  mutiny  broke  out  in  Guernsey  on  2  4tli  Marcli 
1783,  the  nmtineers  being  Irish  soldiers  stationed  at 
Fort  George ;  but  the  outbreak  was  soon  quelled. 

The  French  Revolution  did  not  affect  the  islands, 
except  that  many  refugees  were  there  hospitably 
received.  Though  the  islands  refrained  from  fitting- 
out  privateers  when  Prussia  and  Austria  declared  war 
against  the  Republic,  matters  changed  when  England 
joined  in  the  struggle. 

During  the  last  thirty  years  of  the  eighteenth 
century  many  forms  of  dissent  were  introduced  and 
developed,  John  Wesley  visiting  the  islands  in  1787, 
whilst  the  English  Independents  had  a  chapel  in 
Guernsey  as  early  as  1796.  It  Avas  when  the  decree 
against  the  French  clergy  was  passed  by  the  National 
Convention,  in  1793,  that  the  Abbe  Coulon  opened  a 
Roman  Catholic  chapel  in  the  Bordage  (St.  Peter  Port). 

In  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  as  we  have  already 
said,  the  popidation  of  both  Jerse}'  and  Guernsey  was 
considerably  augmented ;  and  trade  prospered  exceed- 
ingly. Printing  was  introduced  in  1784,  and  several 
news])a])ers  were  founded ;  while  new  ports  were  built 
and  coiimnmication  Avith  England  became  more  regular, 
two  Post-Office  packets  commencing  in  1794  to  run 
weekly  between  Weymouth  and  the  Channel  Islands. 
In  I  806,  the  foundation  stone  of  Fort  Regent  (Jersey) 
was  laid  by  Lieulcnant-General  George  Don,  then 
Lieutenant-Governor,  who  also  commenced  building 
main  roads.  While  shipping  and  shipbuilding  have 
much  declined  since  the  time  when  Jersey  ranked  as 
fifth  port  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  the  aggregate  of 
its  tonnage,  agriculture  has  steadily  improved,  and 
prosperity  in  both  islands  increased  materially. 

Indeed,  as  has  been  aptly  written,  "  Since  the  peace 
of  181 4,  the  history  of  the  Channel  Islands  has  been 


THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS  39 

that  of  a  thriving  and  progressive  population,  suffi- 
ciently isolated  to  be  free  from  the  political  storms 
which  visited  England,  and  sufficiently  in  contact  with 
both  England  and  France  to  partake  of  the  movement 
by  which  the  civilisation  of  the  present  century  is  dis- 
tinguished. ,  .  .  Wealth  has  increased — agriculture 
has  improved — knowledge  has  been  diffused,  with  the 
same  results,  and  from  the  same  causes,  as  in  England." 
We  have  dealt  mainly  with  Jersey  and  Guernsey 
in  our  r^sumS  of  the  history  of  the  Channel  Islands, 
yet  it  might  be  added  that  during  the  Civil  Wars  the 
natives  of  Alderney  sided  with  the  Parliamentarians, 
and  at  the  Restoration  the  island  was  granted  by 
King  Charles  to  Edward  de  Carteret  and  others, 
being  governed  independently  of  Guernsey  till  1825, 
when  Major-General  Le  Mesurier,  the  last  hereditary 
Governor,  ceded  his  patent  to  the  Crown.  As  to  Sark, 
which  originally  contained  a  small  monastic  establish- 
ment, it  was  taken  by  the  French  in  the  time  of 
Edward  IV.  and  recovered  by  stratagem  in  that  of 
Queen  Mary.  In  that  of  Elizabeth  (1565)  it  was 
granted  to  Helier  de  Carteret,  who  brought  over  forty 
families  from  Jersey,  the  manorial  rights  being  trans- 
ferred in  1730  to  the  Le  Pelley  family,  in  whose  hands 
the  island  remained  for  a  prolonged  period,  passing  in 
1852  to  the  family  of  the  present  Seigneur  (W.  F. 
Collings). 

Constitutions,  Judicatures,  and  Laws. 

The  rise  and  progress  of  the  system  of  self-govern- 
ment enjoyed  by  the  Channel  Islands,  and  the  position 
which  these  islands  occupy  with  respect  to  the  Crown 
of  England,  though  subjects  of  considerable  mystery  to 
most  people,  are  of  great  historical  interest,  offering  a 
study  that  will  repay  not  only  the  antiquarian  but  tlie 
politician. 


40  GENERAL 

Originally  part  of  the  Duchy  of  Normandy,  as 
founded  by  Rollo,  the  Channel  Islands  were  the  special 
appanage  of  its  Dukes.  It  is  not  easy  to  account  for 
the  fact  that  when  the  Duchy  was  lost  by  King  John, 
they  were  retained,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  that 
the  French  King  made  to  capture  them.  John,  in- 
deed, seems  to  have  shown  a  certain  amount  of  spirit 
and  energy  in  their  defence,  and  rewarded  the  loyalty 
of  the  islanders  by  granting  them  a  Charter,  which  has 
ever  since  been  the  security  for  their  self-government 
and  for  the  many  other  privileges  and  immunities  that 
they  enjoy.  This  Charter  exempted  the  islands  from 
taxation  without  their  consent ;  it  secured  to  them  the 
right  of  importing  into  England  all  goods  of  island 
ujanufacture  free  of  duty;  it  established  local  judica- 
tures, their  Bailiff  or  chief  magistrate  to  be  appointed 
by  the  Crown,  but  twelve  Jurats  elected  by  the  in- 
habitants to  be  entrusted  with  jurisdiction  in  all 
matters  civil  and  criminal;  and,  finally,  it  secured 
them  from  encroachments  of  English  Law,  by  con- 
firming their  own  customs  and  laws,  i.e.  those  which 
then  obtained  in  Normandy. 

The  original  of  this  Charter  is  lost.  The  record  we 
possess  is  of  a  much  later  period.  It  is  probable  that 
John's  Charter  merely  confirmed  the  previously  exist- 
ing state  of  things,  for  we  know  that  elective  judges  or 
Jurats  existed  in  Aquitaine  and  other  parts  of  France 
before  that  period.  The  separation  from  Normandy, 
however,  placed  the  islands  in  a  peculiar  position. 
They  belonged  to  the  Crown,  but  formed  no  part  of 
the  reahn,  and  were  not  represented  in  the  English 
Parliament.  It  became  very  necessary,  therefore,  to 
secure  them  in  their  new  relation  to  the  Sovereign, 
and  this  is  very  likely  what  John  did,  thereby  gaining 
amongst  the  islanders  a  more  popular  reputation  than 
he  possessed  with  liis  subjects  at  home. 

However  this  ma}'  be,  it  is  certain  th;vt  from  John's 


THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS  41 

reign  downwards  almost  every  Sovereign  of  England 
has  granted  fresh  Charters  to  the  islanders,  confirming 
their  privileges  and  their  right  to  self-government,  and 
in  every  one  of  those  Charters  will  be  found  reference 
to  the  loyalty  of  the  Jerseymen  and  Guernseymen  to 
the  Crown.  That  they  have  well  earned  these  favours, 
no  one  who  reads  their  history  can  doubt. 

For  the  purposes  of  government  the  Channel 
Islands  are  divided  into  the  two  Bailiwicks  of  Jersey 
and  Guernsey,  the  latter  including  as  dependencies  the 
islands  of  Alderney,  Sark,  Herm,  and  Jethou.  Both 
Bailiw'icks  arc  entirely  distinct  and  independent  of  one 
another.  They  have  separate  Lieutenant-Governors, 
separate  Parliaments  or  States,  and  separate  Judica- 
tures. Each  has  gone  its  own  way  from  the  time  oi" 
John  to  the  present  day ;  there  is  no  connection  be- 
tween them  save  that  of  the  Sovereign  as  representa- 
tive of  the  old  Dukes  of  Normandy.  Their  internal 
Constitutions  difl'er  considerably,  though  the  principles 
underlying  them  are  of  course  the  same.  The  rights 
and  attributions  of  the  various  Assemblies  in  either 
Bailiwick  vary  to  a  great  degree,  and  these  divergencies 
are,  curiously  enough,  not  entirely  the  result  of  modern 
developments  and  the  influence  of  present-day  ideas  of 
government,  but  are  noticeable  in  the  early  history  of 
the  islands. 

Before  proceeding  to  explain  the  organisation  of  the 
governing  bodies,  it  will  be  well  to  examine  briefly  the 
position  of  the  principal  public  functionaries  and  the 
attributes  of  their  respective  offices. 

The  Lieutenant-Governor  now  replaces  the  Gover- 
nor, formerly  a  high  officer  of  State.  He  is  a  General 
Officer  in  the  Army,  holds  the  position  of  Commander- 
in-chief  of  the  forces,  and  exercises  certain  civil  rights 
and  duties.  There  is  always  a  separate  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Jersey  and  of  Guernsey,  and  they  usually 
hold  the  appointment  for  five  years. 


42  GENERAL 

The  Bailitf  {Bailli  in  Jersey ;  Baillif  in  Guernsey), 
or  Chief  Magistrate,  is  the  highest  ciA^l  authority  in 
each  BaiHwick.  Appointed  by  the  Crown,  he  generally 
retains  office  during  life.  He  is  President  of  the  Royal 
Court  and  takes  the  opinions  of  the  Jurats,  and,  when 
their  opinions  are  equal,  he  has  a  casting  vote  both  in 
civil  and  criminal  matters.  He  is  also  President  of 
the  States  or  local  Legislature.  The  Bailiff  is  usually 
appointed  from  amongst  the  Crown  officers,  who  have 
in  turn  practised  at  the  local  Bar. 

The  Jurats  ( Jure- Just iciers)  are  twelve  in  number 
in  each  island.  In  Jersey  they  are  elected  by  universal 
suffrage  ;  in  Guernsey,  indirectly  by  the  ratepaj^ers,  by 
means  of  what  may  be  termed  an  electoral  college 
known  as  the  States  of  Election.  No  special  legal 
training  is  requisite  for  the  candidate  to  the  office, 
Avhicli  is  purely  honorar}^  The  Jurats  sit  in  all  the 
Courts  and  have  a  voice  in  all  deliberations.  They, 
moreover,  are  life-members  of  the  States.  The  origin 
of  this  strange  incompatibility  of  functions  is  most 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  States  as  legislative 
bodies  had  their  origin  in  the  Royal  Courts,  as  we 
shall  see  later  on. 

The  Royal  Courts  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey  consist 
of  their  respective  Bailiffs  and  the  twelve  Jurats.  The 
Bailiff  appoints  a  Lieutenant-Bailiff,  usually  one  of  the 
Jurats,  to  act  in  his  absence  or  in  case  of  indisposition. 
These  Courts  have  under  them  certain  ministerial 
officers,  viz. :  An  Attorney-General  {P'rocareur-Geniral), 
a  Solicitor-General  {Avocat-G6n6ral  in  Jersey ;  Controle 
de  la  Heine  in  Guernsey),  a  High-Sheriff  ( Vicomte  in 
Jersey ;  FHv6t  in  Guernsey),  a  Grcffier  or  Clerk,  a  staff 
of  Advocates  and  Solicitors,  besides  in  Jersey  two 
Sub-sheriffs  called  IMnoncialeurs.  These  Courts  are 
courts  of  full  jurisdiction — subject  to  the  right  of 
appeal  to  the  Privy  Council  in  certain  cases. 

The  Rectors  of  the  different  parishes  are  appointed 


THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS  43 

by  tlic  Crown,  and  have  scats  in  the  States.  In  Jersey 
there  are  twelve  Rectors,  there  being  twelve  parishes ; 
in  Guernsey  ten,  for  the  ten  parishes.  One  of  the 
Rectors  is  generally  appointed  Dean,  and  each  island 
has  its  Dean. 

Before  considering  the  composition  of  the  States, 
we  must  briefly  examine  the  attributes  of  the  municipal 
or  parochial  officers.  The  parish  is  the  unit.  In  Jer- 
sey each  parish  elects  for  a  term  of  three  years  a 
Constable  {Connetable),  who  represents  his  parish  in  the 
States.  He  is  Mayor  of  the  parish,  and  also  chief  of 
the  Honorary  Police.  To  assist  him  in  this  latter 
capacity  there  are  elected  (knteniers,  Vingteniers,  and 
Oj/iciers  du  Connetable  (Constable's  Officers). 

The  origin  of  the  words  Centenier  and  Vingtenier 
are  worth  noting.  The  Centenier  was  anciently  ap- 
pointed to  supervise  a  district  of  one  hundred  {cent) 
families,  and  was  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of 
good  order.  Similarly  the  Vingtenier  had  under  him 
twenty  {vingt)  families,  being  the  head  of  the  vingtaine. 

Each  parish  has  tAvo  Centeniers,  except  St.  Helier, 
Avhere  six  are  elected.  The  Centeniers  are  also  elected 
for  three  years,  and  have  full  powers  of  arrest,  the 
senior  Centenier  acting  as  Deputy-Mayor  in  the  absence 
of  the  Constable.  The  Vingteniers  and  Constable's 
Officers  are  subordinate  officials,  with  more  limited 
powers.  All  these  officials,  who  are  honorary,  together 
with  other  officers,  such  as  the  Churchwardens  and 
the  Principals,  or  chief  ratepayers  {i.e.  of  a  certain 
qualification),  form  what  is  known  as  the  Parisli 
Assembly,  or  managing  body.  Each  parish  has  thus 
its  Assembly. 

In  Guernsey  the  parochial  system  is  somewhat 
different.  Each  parish  elects  two  Constables  (for  tAvo 
years),  but  they  do  not  sit  in  the  States.  On  the 
other  hand,  each  parish  also  elects  a  council,  termed 
the  Douzaine  (or  dozen),  originally  so-called   from   the 


44  GENERAL 

number  of  representatives.  The  parishes,  however, 
now  elect  representatives  to  a  certain  extent  on  the 
basis  of  population.  Thus  the  town  proper  of  St. 
Peter  Port  elects  twenty  Douzeniers,  whilst  the  suburbs 
are  divided  into  four  districts,  each  of  which  elects 
twelve.  In  the  Vale  parish  the  Douzaine  consists  of 
sixteen  members,  and  in  the  other  country  parishes 
of  twelve  each.  The  Douzenier  is  elected  for  life, 
and  is  the  conservator  of  parish  rights  and  the  regu- 
lator of  parochial  expenditure. 

Since  1844  the  Douzaines  have  been  represented 
in  the  States  of  Deliberation  by  Deputies,  who  are 
special  delegates  rather  than  representatives.  Prior 
to  1 844  the  senior  Constable,  who  still  presides  over 
the  Douzaine,  represented  that  body  in  the  States. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  examine  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  States.      In  Jersey  it  is  as  follows : — 

The  Lieutenant-Governor  .....        i 

The  Bailiff- i 

The  twelve  Jurats  of  the  lioyal  Court         .  .12 

The  Rectors  of  the  twelve  parishes     .  .  .12 

The  Constables  of  the  twelve  parishes         .  .12 

The  Deputies    .         .         .         .         .         .         -14 

52 

The  Attorney-General,  the  Solicitor-General,  and  the 
Viscount  (or  High  Sheriff)  possess  seats  in  the  States, 
but  not  votes.  The  two  former  may  speak ;  the  latter 
may  not.  The  Lieutenant-Governor  may  take  part 
in  the  debates,  but  he  has  no  vote.  The  Bailiff  has 
two  votes.  He  may  vote  first,  and,  on  an  equal 
division,  exercises  his  casting  vote.  The  fourteen 
Deputies  form  a  modern  additicm  to  the  States,  being 
elected  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Constables,  for 
thi-ee  years,  under  a  Law  passed  in  1856.  St.  Holier, 
as  tlic  capital  town,  elects  three,  and  the  remaining 
parishes  each  one — a  somewhat  unfair  representation, 


THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS  45 

considering  that  St,  Helier  contains  half  the  population 
of  the  island. 

The  States  of  Jersey  cannot  be  convened  without 
the  consent  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor — now  a  mere 
matter  of  form;  lor,  since  1866,  they  sit  periodically 
twice  a  week  from  January  to  the  middle  of  April.  The 
Jjailifif  or  his  Lieutenant  presides,  and  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor  possesses  the  power  of  veto,  whilst  tlie 
Bailiff  has  also  the  right  and  duty  to  suspend  in 
certain  cases  the  decisions  of  the  Assembly.  In 
exercising  these  rights  of  veto  and  dissent  they 
must  report  their  reasons  for  so  doing  to  the  Home 
Secretary. 

The  States  of  Jersey  pass  Acts  or  Regulations 
which  have  force  of  law  for  three  years,  and  are  re- 
newable at  their  expiration.  When  the  States  pass 
permanent  laws  they  must  be  submitted  to  the 
Sovereign  in  Council  for  sanction.  Much  of  the 
public  business  is  transacted  by  means  of  standing 
Committees. 

The  French  language  still  remains  the  official 
language  in  the  Legislative  Assemblies  of  the  Channel 
Islands ;  but  the  use  of  English  is  now  optional  (in 
Jersey  only  since  8th  February  1900),  and  this  equally 
applies  to  the  Courts  of  Justice,  except  in  Jersey, 
where  the  proceedings  are  still  conducted  in  French. 
The  Enoflish  lanofuafje,  which  is  in  oeneral  use  amongst 
all  classes,  has  made  vast  strides  of  late  years,  and 
now  that  its  use  is  permitted  in  the  Legislatures,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  but  that  its  influence  will  continue 
to  increase,  and  wdll  ultimately  dominate,  becoming 
the  official  language.  The  native  patois,  though  gradu- 
ally dying  out,  will  nevertheless  for  many  years  to 
come  continue  to  be  spoken  in  the  country  parishes. 
The  rustic  population  are  much  attached  to  their 
curious  and  venerable  dialect ;  but,  at  the  same  time, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  find  a  native,  even  in  the  country 


46  GENERAL 

districts,  who  cannot  converse  with  the  greatest  facihty 
in  English. 

In  Guernsey  the  constitution  of  the  States  is 
different.  It  consists  of  two  bodies,  Ivuown  as  the 
States  of  Election  and  the  States  of  Deliberation,  the 
latter  corresponding  with  the  States  of  Jersey,  and 
being  the  legislative  bod3^ 

The  States  of  Election,  which  date  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century,  being  interposed 
between  the  body  of  the  ratepayers  and  the  adminis- 
trative body  or  States  of  Deliberation,  is  constituted 
as  follows  : — 

The  Bailiff i 

The  twelve  Jurats  of  the  Royal  Court       .  .        12 

The  Rectors 10 

The  Attorney-(  xeueral      .....  i 

The  Central  Douzaine  of  8t.  Peter  Port  and  its 

two  Constables         .  .  .  .  .22 

The  four  sulmrban  districts  of  8t.  Peter  Port  .  48 
The  Douzaine  and  Constables  of  the  Yale  parish  1 8 
The    Douzaines    and    Constables   of  the   other 

country  parishes       .  .  .  .  .112 


Total         .  .224 

The  business  of  the  States  of  Election  is  confined 
to  the  election  of  the  Jurats  and  the  Sheriff  (IWvdi). 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  Jurats  or  judges  are, 
contrary  to  the  Jersey  system,  elected  by  a  mixed 
assembly,  partly  popular ;  but  that  popular  element 
passing  through  a  medium. 

The  Guernsey  States  of  Deliberation  is  a  much  more 
important  body.  The  year  1900  witnessed  a  change 
in  the  constitution  of  tliis  Assembly.  Formerly  it 
consisted  of  only  thirty-seven  members.  By  a  law 
coming  into  operation  on  ist  January  1900,  the  States 
of  Deliberation  now  consists  of  forty-eight  members, 
as  follows  : — 


THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS  47 

The  I'.ailiir  (haviiif^  only  a  casliiiff  vote)    .          .  i 

'J'lie  twelve  Jurats  of  tlie  R(jyal  Court      .          .  12 
The  Rectors    .         .         .         .         .                   .10 

The  Attorney-General      .....  i 

The  Controller  or  Solicitor-General  .  .  .  i 
The  Deputies  from  the  Douzaines  of  St.  Peter 

Port 6 

The  Deputies  from  the  ])ouzaines  of  the  country 

parishes  .......  9 

Deputies  elected  to  represent  the  whole  island  9 

Total  .  .        48 

Tlic  object  of  this  cliange  in  the  Constitution, 
the  most  important  part  of  which  is  the  addition  of 
the  last-named  nine  Deputies  representative  of  the 
electorate  of  the  Avhole  island,  is  to  increase  the 
popular  representation,  previously  very  limited — the 
Jurats,  Rectors,  and  Crown  officers  being  life  members. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  Crown  officers  possess 
votes  in  the  States  of  Guernsey,  whereas  in  Jersey  the 
Attorney-General  and  Solicitor-General  only  have  the 
right  to  address  the  House. 

The  States  of  Deliberation  are  convened  by  a 
notice,  called  the  Billet  d'etat,  issued  by  the  Bailiff 
and  circulated  to  each  member,  including  the  members 
of  the  Douzaines.  The  notice  contains  not  only  the 
Bills  and  propositions  to  be  discussed,  but  official 
correspondence,  to  which  are  sometimes  added  general 
and  even  argumentative  remarks  by  the  Bailiff.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  all  propositions  are  formally  brought 
forward  by  the  Bailiff,  although  they  may  have  origi- 
nated with  some  member  or  wdth  the  Royal  Court. 
The  propositions  or  Bills  are  submitted  to  the  States 
as  a  whole  for  their  acceptance  or  rejection,  and  no 
amendments  of  any  great  importance  can  be  intro- 
duced. By  the  Billet  d'Eiat,  or  convening  notice,  being 
issued  beforehand,  the  Douzaines  have  an  opportunity 
afforded  to  meet  to  discuss  the  questions   submitted, 


48  GENERAL 

and  then,  after  voting  on  each  detail,  to  choose  one  of 
their  body  to  act  for  the  occasion  as  their  deputy  or 
representative,  who  is  instructed  to  vote  in  the  States 
of  DeHberation  according  to  the  directions  which  may 
be  given  to  him. 

A  very  remarkable  feature  in  the  Constitution  of 
Guernsey  must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  The  Royal  Court, 
consisting  of  the  Bailift'  and  Jurats,  still  possesses  its 
ancient  power  of  enacting  Ordinances  at  the  sittings 
known  as  the  Chief  Pleas,  or  the  opening  of  the  Law 
terms,  three  times  a  year.  These  Ordinances,  or  Orders 
of  the  Court,  are  proposed  by  the  Crown  officers,  the 
enacting  power  resting  entirely  with  the  Bailiff  and 
the  Jurats.  They  take  effect  without  the  sanction  of 
the  Crown,  Avithout  even  the  assent  of  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor,  and  without  the  voice  or  concurrence  of  the 
ratepayers,  though  the  latter  may  be  heard  by  counsel 
before  the  Court  if  they  think  any  of  these  Orders 
may  affect  their  interests.  This  extraordinary  legis- 
lative power  is  somewhat  ill-defined,  but  in  practice  is 
tolerably  well  understood.  The  Ordinances  refer  to 
a  variety  of  subjects,  such  as  law  proceedings,  roads, 
the  levying  of  taxes,  and  the  discipline  and  duties  of 
the  local  Militia. 

The  Royal  Ct)urt  of  Jersey  formerly  possessed 
similar  powers  to  the  Court  of  the  sister  isle,  but 
they  were  withdrawn  in  1771,  when  a  so-called  code 
of  laws  was  drawn  up  for  the  island. 

Starting  from  similar  institutions  we  have  thus 
been  able  to  gather  some  idea  of  how  widely  the 
two  principal  islands  have  diverged.  The  origin  of 
the  States  in  both  islands  is  somewhat  obscure.  To 
enter  into  an  inquiry  on  this  interesting  historical 
[)oint  is  beyond  our  province.  It  nuist  suffice  to  say 
that  these  assemblies  first  appear  by  that  name 
towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  were 
in    all    probability   developments   of  \hv  Royal  Courts. 


THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS  49 

In  early  times  Ave  have  seen  that  these  Courts  possessed 
powers  not  merely  judicial,  but  ministerial  and  ad- 
ministrative— powers  still  })ossessed  by  the  Guernsey 
Judicature.  From  a  very  early  period  we  find  these 
Courts  enacting  bye-laws  or  ordinances  for  the  good 
order  of  the  islands,  and  it  gradually  became  the 
custom  for  the  Bailiti'  and  Jurats,  when  any  important 
measure  required  to  be  carried,  to  consult  the  Clergy 
and  the  Constables,  as  being  not  only  officials  but  the 
best  educated  and  the  most  representative  and  in- 
fluential men  of  the  land  —  a  practice  which  in 
the  course  of  time  became  settled  and  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a  matter  of  right,  Avith  the  result  that 
the  powers  originally  vested  in  the  Royal  Courts 
alone  became  undermined  and  Avere  usurped  by  the 
States. 

In  comparing  the  Constitutions  of  these  tAvo 
islands,  it  Avill  be  seen  that  the  States  of  Jersey 
are  nearly  independent,  and  certainly  more  democratic 
than  those  of  Guernsey.  The  Jersey  States  possess 
more  extensive  legislative  poAvers  than  those  of  the 
sister  island,  for  they  have  long  ago  been  freed  from 
the  tutelage  of  the  Royal  Court ;  Avhereas  the  Guernsey 
States  are  still  greatly  influenced  by  the  extraordinary 
legislative  poAvers  of  the  Royal  Court,  Avhich  has  un- 
doubtedly proved  a  hindrance  to  the  development  of 
the  Assembly.  In  the  Jersey  States  individual  members 
may  bring  in  Bills  on  any  subject,  and  these  are  tabled 
and  discussed  in  turn ;  Avhilst,  as  Ave  have  seen,  in 
Guernsey,  all  measures  must  originate  Avitli  the  Bailiff 
or  the  Court. 

The  sources  of  the  laAvs  of  the  Channel  Islands 
may  be  said  to  be  five  : — 

( 1 )  The    ancient    Customary    LaAV   of    Normandy, 

and  Judiciary  LaAV ; 

(2)  Royal  Charters  ; 

(3)  Orders  of  the  SoA^ereign  in  Council ; 

^'  D 


so  GENERAL 

(4)  LaAvs  passed  by  the  States  and  sanctioned  by 

the  Privy  Council ;  and 

(5)  Ordinances  or  bye-laws  passed  by  the  States 

(or  in  Guernsey  by  the  Court)  but  not  re- 
quiring the  Royal  sanction. 

The  ancient  Customary  Law  of  Normandy  served 
as  the  foundation  of  the  laws  of  the  Channel  Islands. 
By  degrees  an  assimilation  has  taken  place  of  the 
local  law  to  that  of  Enoland,  as  regards  most  of  the 
modern  requirements  of  trade  and  commerce.  In 
respect,  however,  of  their  land  laws,  the  tenure  of 
property,  and  the  law  of  inheritance  or  bequest,  very 
little  change  has  been  effected,  and  to  find  a  full  ex- 
planation of  those  laws  recourse  must  be  had  to  such 
treatises  as  the  Grand  Coustumier,  and  the  works  of 
Terrien,  Basnao-e,  and  other  commentators.  The  feudal 
laws  of  Normandy  have  left  slight  traces,  but  did  not 
exercise  on  the  Channel  Islands  as  pronounced  an 
influence  as  one  might  have  expected,  this  probably 
being  due  to  the  fact  that  at  the  period  of  the  separa- 
tion from  Normandy  most  of  the  nobles  having  property 
on  the  mainland  threw  in  their  lot  with  the  French, 
and  their  manors  in  the  islands  were  confiscated  by 
John.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  only  one  or  two  important 
manors  were  retained  by  their  lords,  and  these  retain 
to  this  day  the  privileges  of  primogeniture  and  other 
feudal  rights. 

Judiciary  law  is  law  generated  indirectly  by  the  de- 
cisions of  tlie  Royal  Courts,  or  of  the  Privy  Council  as 
the  final  Court  of  Appeal.  This  creation  of  Judiciary  law 
is  increased  by  the  fa(;t  that  these  Courts  enjoy  a  species 
of  equitable  jurisdiction  in  the  exercise  of  which  they 
indirectly  promulgate  new  law  by  adapting  existing 
rules  to  the  changiug  re({uirements  of  society. 

Of  Royal  Charters  there  are  many  granting  rights 
and  [)rivileges  to  the  islanders,  one  of  the  most  im- 
[)i)rtunt    being    that  of  John    already   referred    to,   by 


THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS  51 

which  the  local  Courts  have  jurisdiction  in  all  cases 
arising  in  the  islands,  whether  of  a  civil  or  of  a 
criminal  nature. 

As  to  Orders  in  Council,  there  is  a  certain  obscurity. 
The  Crown  had,  no  doubt,  in  olden  times  the  right  to 
legislate  for  the  islands,  but  prescription  seems  to  now 
avail,  and  the  theory  generally  accepted  by  present-day 
authorities  is  that  the  Crown  may  not  initiate  laws 
without  the  consent  of  the  States.  In  1852  the 
question  was  amply  debated  before  the  Privy  Council, 
but  the  Lords  of  the  Council  avoided  giving  any  direct 
decision  on  the  point,  though  expressing  their  serious 
doubts  as  to  whether  such  legislation  would  be  con- 
sistent with  the  Constitutional  rights  of  the  islands. 
Acts  of  the  British  Parliament,  which  are  intended  to 
apply  to  the  Channel  Islands,  are  transmitted  by  Order 
in  Council  to  the  Royal  Courts  for  registration.  The 
theory  in  favour  in  the  islands  is  that  an  Act  of 
Parliament  is  inoperative  until  so  transmitted ;  whilst 
the  theory  held  by  the  Council  is  set  forth  in  every 
Order  sent  down.  It  is  that  the  Act  is  directed  to  be 
registered,  not  in  order  to  give  it  validity,  but  that  the 
people  may  know  its  contents.  The  Courts  sometimes 
suspend  registration  of  such  Acts,  if  it  is  considered 
that  the  local  law  or  any  of  the  privileges  of  the 
islands  are  being  inl'ringed.  The  precise  Hmits  of 
the  Crown's  power,  and  the  conditions  under  which 
it  can  be  duly  exercised,  romain  therefore  somewhat 
undefined. 

In  considering  the  external  relations  of  the  Channel 
Islands  to  the  Imperial  Government,  and  their  con- 
stitutional position  in  the  British  Empire,  Ave  must 
remember  that  a  wide  difference  exists  between  these 
relics  of  the  ancient  Norman  Duchy  and  the  rest  of  the 
empire  as  regards  the  origin  of  its  attachment  to  Great 
Britain.  The  islands  are  neither  a  colony  nor  a  con- 
quest ;  and  herein  is  to  be  found  the  keynote  of  many 


5  2  GENERAL 

of  the  peculiarities  of  their  Constitutions.  It  is  right 
to  say  that  •  the  Channel  Islands  are  held  by  Great 
Britain  in  right  of  the  Sovereign.  An  able  writer  has 
recently  pointed  out  that  to  maintain  her  late  Majesty 
had  no  status  in  these  islands,  except  as  Duchess  of 
Norinandy,  was  an  untenable  proposition,  bej'ond  the 
range  of  the  practical  present-day  politics ;  and  he 
claimed  that  the  ultimate  sovereignty  rests  with  the 
Sovereign  and  the  Imperial  Parliament.  The  origin  of 
an  institution  is  one  thing,  the  reason  for  its  con- 
tinuance another.  Thus,  although  the  Channel  Islands 
became  united  to  England  as  personal  possessions  of 
the  Sovereign,  yet,  being  so  united,  they  umst  take 
their  place  as  integral  portions  of  the  empire.  This 
view  is  worthy  of  consideration.  It  may  well  be  that 
the  power  of  the  present  occupant  of  the  British 
Throne  does  not  extend  as  far  as  that  of  his  pre- 
decessors ;  for  the  Channel  Islands  Constitutions,  like 
that  of  Great  Britain,  have  grown  and  developed,  and 
the  position  of  the  Crown  has  also  undergone  changes, 
as  it  has  in  Great  Britain. 

What  is  certain  is  this,  that  if  this  view  be  correct, 
and  that  if  theoretically  an  Act  of  the  British  Parlia- 
ment in  which  the  islands  are  named  takes  effect 
inmiediately,  it  would  be  considered  highly  unconstitu- 
tional to  enforce  such  an  Act  until  transmitted  for 
registration  by  the  Privy  Council,  which,  as  has  been 
already  explained,  is  the  usual  course  adopted.  It  can 
hardly  be  maintained  that  the  British  Parliament 
would  have  the  right  to  legislate  specially  for  the 
Ciiannel  Islands,  seeing  that  they  are  in  no  way 
i-cpresonted  therein.  Such  a  course  might  be  legal,  but 
woidd  be  eminently  unconstitutional.  After  all,  the 
exact  position  is  probably  this,  that  in  all  matters  of 
Imperial  concern  the  British  Parliament  is  supreme, 
and  tliis  theory  is  one  favoured  by  some  of  the  best 
local  itulliorit  ics. 


TIIK    ("HAXNKL    ISLANDS  53 

Tliu  i.sltmds  arc  a  brit^ht  and  hapj^y  example  of 
local  government.  Whether  they  be  subject  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Imperial  Parliament,  or  whether 
they  regard  the  Sovereign  as  representing  the  ancient 
Dukes  of  Normandy  as  their  supreme  head,  in  practice 
they  enjoy  almost  absolute  autonomy  and  independ- 
ence, under  the  special  supervision  of  the  Privy 
Council,  contributing  nothing  to  the  Imperial  ex- 
chequer (if  we  except  the  compulsory  military  service 
obtaining  in  the  islands),  and  yet  sharing  in  the 
beneficent  protection  afforded  by  the  British  Navy  and 
Army, 

It  still  remains  to  deal  with  the  Constitution  and 
Judicatures  of  Aldcrney  and  Sark,  both  of  which 
islands  are  dependencies  of  Guernsey. 

The  Court  of  Alderney  consists  of  a  President, 
called  the  Judge,  and  of  six  Jurats  elected  by  the 
people,  together  with  an  Attorney-General,  a  Greffier, 
and  a  Sheriff'.  This  Court  has  jurisdiction  without 
appeal  where  the  sum  in  dispute  does  not  exceed  ten 
pounds.  Above  that  amount  an  appeal  lies  to 
Guernsey.  In  matters  of  correctional  police  the  Coiu't 
may  sentence  to  one  month's  imprisonment,  or  to  a 
fine  not  exceeding  five  pounds  (;^5).  If  the  case  be  of 
a  more  serious  nature  it  must  be  referred  to  the 
Guernsey  Court.  The  Alderney  Court,  like  the  Guern- 
sey Court,  holds  Chief  Pleas,  and  enacts  thereat  local 
ordinances  or  bye-laws. 

The  States  of  Alderney  consist  of  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Guernsey,  or  usually,  in  his  absence,  of  the 
senior  officer  commanding  the  troops,  acting  as  Deputy- 
Governor  ;  the  Judge,  the  Jurats,  the  officials  of  the 
Court,  and  the  twelve  Douzeniers,  elected  by  the 
inhabitants,  as  in  Guernsey. 

The  Constitution  of  Sark  is  of  a  different  nature. 
The  island  has  no  legislative  body  similar  to  the 
States  in   the   other   islands ;  but   possesses   a   Court, 


54  GENERAL 

the  origin  and  vicissitudes  of  which  are  interesting. 
It  must  in  the  first  place  be  explained  that  Sark 
was  colonised  from  Jersey  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign 
by  Helier  de  Carteret,  to  whom  that  Sovereign  granted 
the  island,  then  the  haunt  of  pirates,  as  a  fief.  In 
1579  the  inhabitants  assembled  with  their  Seigneur 
and  founded  a  Constitution  for  the  island,  adopting 
the  principles  of  that  of  Jersey  and  establishing  a 
Court,  to  consist  of  a  Bailiff  and  twelve  Jurats.  Sark 
being  a  dependency  of  Guernsey  we  find,  two  years 
later,  the  Guernsey  authorities  demanding  by  what 
right  the  Sark  Court  had  been  set  up.  After  an 
inquiry  the  Court  was  abolished,  but  in  1583  the 
Privy  Council  established  a  Court  of  five  Jurats,  the 
senior  to  preside.  This  Court  existed  until  1672, 
when,  during  the  religious  troubles  of  that  period,  all 
the  Jurats  were  displaced  owing  to  their  refusing  to 
adhere  to  the  Anglican  form  of  worship ;  but  a  diffi- 
culty then  arose ;  for  it  was  found  impossible  to  find 
sufficiently  capable  men  in  the  island  to  replace  t-hem, 
and  three  years  later  the  Seigneur,  or  Lord  of  Sark, 
was  ordered  to  constitute  a  feudal  Court  and  to 
appoint  a  Seneschal  as  judge.  This  is  the  origin  of 
the  present  Sark  Court. 

The  Court  has  its  Greffier,  and  a  Sheriff',  both 
also  appointed  by  the  Seigneur.  The  Court  is  sub- 
ordinate to  that  of  Guernsey,  and  has  very  limited 
powers  in  criminal  matters,  but  in  civil  the  Seneschal's 
power  is  unrestricted.  The  Court  holds  Chief  Pleas  at 
which  all  the  tenants  holding  land  froiJi  the  Seigneur 
have  a  right  to  vote.  This  Assembly  sits  twice  a 
year  and  enacts  ordinances.  The  Seigneur  nmst  be 
present,  and  his  consent  is  necessary  to  any  enactment. 
The  small  islands  of  Herjii  and  Jcthou  are  entirely 
governed  from  Guernsey. 

The    laws    of    the    Channel    Islands    offer    many 
peculiarities,  Avhich  do  not  come  within  the  scope  of 


THE    CHANNEL   ISLANDS  55 

this  article  to  notice.  By  far  the  Diost  important  for 
us  to  consider  are  those  affecting  the  tenure  of  laud, 
which  undoubtedly  have  caused  much  of  the  general 
prosperity  and  of  the  widely-diffused  wealth,  not  to 
mention  the  miivcrsal  industry  and  thrift  characteristic 
of  the  inhabitants,  so  remarkable  in  these  islands. 
The  Land  Laws  aim  at  the  distribution  and  division  of 
property,  and,  being  thus  opposed  to  its  accumulation, 
have  exercised  a  stimulating  influence  and  have  en- 
couraged the  existence  of  a  numerous  proprietary. 
On  the  death  of  the  owner  of  land,  his  property 
must  be  divided  among  the  children  in  a  certain  pro- 
portion, and  there  is  no  power  of  disposing  of  it  by 
will,  if  there  be  issue.  In  addition  to  this,  the  Land 
Laws  facilitate  the  creation  or  maintenance  of  small 
ownerships,  by  a  curious  system  under  which  land  and 
houses  can  be  charged  with  the  payjnent  of  "  rentes," 
which  form  a  permanent  charge  on  the  property,  and 
are  regarded  as  real  property.  Whilst  the  owner  of 
the  land  pays  the  annual  interest  on  these  "  rentes," 
he  cannot  be  dispossessed ;  on  the  other  hand,  he  can 
disencumber  himself  of  the  debt  by  paying  off  at  his 
discretion  portions  of  tlie  "  rente,"  and  that  by  very 
small  sums.  The  "rente"  owner  has  no  actual  estate 
in  the  land  itself  corresponding  with  the  legal  estate 
of  an  English  mortgagee.  This  system  of  "  rentes " 
has  thus  the  advantage  of  offering  the  means  of  in- 
vesting small  sums  in  the  purchase  of  real  property, 
without  the  inconvenience  of  such  sums  as  may  be 
due  on  the  property  being  liable  to  be  paid  off  like 
a  mortgage.  All  property  in  the  islands  is  thus  a 
species  of  freehold,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  a 
perpetual  lease,  and  its  disposal  under  such  a  system 
is  greatly  facilitated,  inasmuch  as  the  sphere  of 
competition  is  thereby  extended,  and  many  are  enabled 
to  become  landowners  who  could  not  do  so  under  a 
different   order  of  things.     Most  of  the  freeholds  in 


56  GENERAL 

the  islands  are  more  or  less  encumbered  with  these 
"  rentes,"  but  if  the  owner  be  a  thrifty  man,  he  can 
gradually  reimburse  them,  and,  instead  of  being  liable, 
as  he  would  be  under  the  English  law,  to  be  turned 
out  of  his  farm,  he  has  afforded  to  him  all  the  security 
desired  and  every  incentive  to  improve  his  position. 

As  a  result  of  its  Land  Laws,  we  find  the  land  of 
the  Channel  Islands  parcelled  out  amongst  a  vast 
number  of  small  proprietors.  The  largest  cultivator 
in  Jersey  owns  probably  about  one  hundred  acres  ;  in 
Guernsey  not  more  than  fifty.  In  practice,  it  is  well 
to  point  out,  the  Law  has  little  or  no  tendency  to 
divide  up  the  land  into  smaller  properties  than  at 
present  obtain,  for  the  custom  is  generally  resorted  to 
of  the  younger  children  selling  their  shares  to  the 
eldest  whenever  land  is  too  small  for  division. 

Moreover,  another  sfreat  advantasje  results  from  the 
system.  It  is  obvious  that  the  properties  being  of 
small  extent  Avill,  as  a  rule,  be  cultivated  by  their 
owners.  What,  therefore,  represents  the  rent  is  thus 
expended  in  improving  the  property  and  the  well- 
being  of  its  owner. 

The  Clmnnel  Islander  thus  practically  combines  in 
one  person  the  three  functions  of  landowner,  capitalist, 
and  labourer.  It  is  by  reason  of  this  combination  that 
there  exists  no  opposition  of  interest  between  these 
functions.  In  England,  and  particularly  in  Ireland, 
we  see  these  three  classes,  viz.,  the  landowner,  the 
capitalist,  and  the  tenant  separated,  and  in  a  certain 
sense  in  opposition,  for  their  interests  are  not  the  same. 
The  results  of  the  Land  Laws  of  those  countries  are 
seen  in  the  rural  depopulation  of  England  and  the 
Irish  agrarian  difficulties. 

Property  is  the  great  natural  educator.  By  re- 
moving all  legalised  hindrances  to  the  acquisition  of 
land,  you  pave  the  way  for  a  self-respecting,  thrifty, 
and  enterprising  p()])ulation  of  peasant — or  yeomen — 


THE    CHANNPJL    ISLANDS  57 

proprietors,  Avlicre  you  now  have  a  class  teeiiiiug  with 
discontent. 

The  Land  Laws  of  the  Channel  Islands  have  pro- 
duced remarkable  results.  Without  those  laws  it  is 
doubtful  whether  they  would  have  attained  the  pros- 
perity they  have  enjoyed,  and  still  enjoy — a  prosperity 
which  has  permeated  through  every  class  of  society, 
for  nowhere  will  you  find  so  great  an  absence  of  real 
pauperism ;  and  nowhere  will  you  find  so  high  a  sense 
of  citizenship,  of  equality  and  pride  in  ownership.  It 
does  not  seem  wrong  to  assume  that,  if  these  Land 
Laws  have  done  so  much  to  contribute  to  the  pros- 
perity of  these  islands  on  their  limited  scale,  a  similar 
system  on  an  Imperial  scale  should  be  fraught  with 
beneficent  results. 

The  marriage  laws  deserve  a  passing  notice.  Mar- 
riage settlements  are  unknown.  The  widow  is  entitled 
to  one-third  of  the  real  estate  which  her  husband  pos- 
sessed at  the  time  of  the  marriage,  or,  at  her  option,  on 
all  the  estate  that  her  husband  died  possessed  of.  The 
husband's  realty  can  never  be  freed  of  these  liabilities, 
except  by  the  wife's  consent  formally  expressed  in  a 
deed  of  sale.  A  widower  enjoys  his  deceased  wife's 
estate,  if  there  has  been  issue  of  the  marriage,  and  so 
long  as  he  remains  unmarried ;  whilst  in  Jersey  the 
wife,  who  is  separated  as  regards  property,  may  by  will, 
if  there  be  no  children,  bequeath  the  usufruct  or 
enjoyment  of  her  property  to  her  husband  after  her 
death  during  his  lifetime. 

We  have  stated  that  marriage  settlements  are  not 
in  use,  but  after  marriage  a  husband  and  Avifo  can 
obtain  what  is  known  as  a  separation  as  regards  pro- 
perty by  applying  to  the  Courts.  The  wife  thus 
obtains  full  power  over  her  property  as  if  she  were 
a  feme  sole.  In  "Jersey,  marriage  with  a  deceased 
wife's  sister  is  permissible  under  a  recent  law  (1896), 
but   this   is   not   so   in   Guernsey,   the   Court   of  that 


58  GENERAL 

island  having  refused  to  entertain  the  question.  Al- 
derney  passed  the  Marriage  with  a  Deceased  Wife's 
Sister  Bill  unanimously  on  2nd  October  1899. 

The  laws  relating  to  the  alienation  of  property  by 
will  have  been  extended  greatly  of  late  years,  but 
the  island  laws  on  the  subject  of  testamentary  powers 
differ  considerably  from  those  of  England. 

A  great  manj'^  Englishmen  reside  in  these  islands, 
and  it  is  to  be  wished  that  legislation  might  be  intro- 
duced with  the  object  of  bringing  about  more  uniformity 
as  to  testamentary  power,  thereby  avoiding  constantly 
recurring  difficulties  as  to  domicile  and  the  conflict  of 
laws,  whether  it  be  under  a  will  or  under  an  intestacy. 

Voting  by  ballot  now  exists  in  both  Jersey  and 
Guernsey.  The  system  was  adopted  in  the  former 
island  in  1891,  but  is  of  quite  recent  introduction  in 
Guernsey.  The  Jersey  Ballot  Law  is  an  admirable 
piece  of  legislation,  having  been  drafted  on  all  that  is 
best  in  the  English,  French,  and  American  systems. 
The  Guernse}^  law  is  somewhat  incomplete,  and  in 
certain  cases,  such  as  an  election  for  Constable,  is 
optional,  i.e.  the  ballot  is  not  put  in  operation  unless 
demanded  by  the  electors. 

Education  is  compulsory  in  Jersey,  and,  under  a 
new  law  passed  in  1899  and  just  come  into  operation, 
is  being  placed  on  a  sound  footing.  The  elementary 
schools  are  subject  to  the  inspectorship  of  the  English 
Education  Department.  Victoria  College  (Jersey)  and 
Elizabeth  College  (Guernsey)  are  public  schools  of  great 
promise.  Their  students  possess  considerable  advan- 
tages at  the  Universities  in  the  form  of  Scholarships  and 
Exhibitions  at  Pembroke,  Exeter,  and  Jesus  Colleges. 

A  very  valuable  and  reliable  report  on  the  laws  of 
Jersey  was  issued  in  i860  by  Royal  Commissioners 
appointed  for  that  purpose.  The  inquiry,  which  was 
conducted  by  the  Earl  of  Devon,  Sir  John  Awdry,  and 
Mr.  Richard  Jebb,  was  most  exhaustive,  and  the  report 


THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS  59 

is  often  cited  in  the  Courts  cas  of  authority,  whilst 
several  of  their  recommendations  have  been  carried 
out.  Previous  to  this  (in  1 846)  another  Royal  Com- 
mission had  sat  to  inquire  into  the  Criminal  Laws  of 
Jersey  and  Guernsey.  A  separate  report  was  issued 
for  each  island. 

The  peculiar  Constitutions  of  these  islands  stand 
alone.  In  practice,  they  are  to  a  great  degree  oligarchies 
checked  by  public  opinion  and  the  Crown  and  Privy 
Council.  We  find  the  judges  popularly  elected  and 
exercising  legislative,  as  well  as  administrative  and 
judicial  functions ;  we  find  a  convocation,  as  shown  by 
the  Rectors  sitting  ex  oficio  in  the  States,  largely  repre- 
sented in  the  local  Parliaments ;  and  furthermore,  the 
municipal  element  has  in  many  respects  a  great  and 
an  increasing  preponderance,  for  we  have  seen  that 
to  the  Guernsey  States  of  Deliberation  were  added 
only  last  year  nine  more  direct  representatives  of  the 
people.  The  working  of  these  systems  of  govern- 
ment may  appear  complex,  but  their  complexities  are 
familiar  to  the  islanders.  They  may  not  be  model 
Constitutions,  but  still,  having  stood  the  wear  and 
tear  of  eight  centuries,  they  daily  evince,  with  the 
right  men  at  the  wheel,  a  strong  tendency  and  a 
capability  to  adjust  themselves  to  the  exigencies  of 
modern  society. 

[The  A^ifJior  of  the  above  (Mr.  P.  Edward  Amy, 
F.R.G.S.)  desires  to  convey  his  cordial  acknoivledgments  and 
sincere  appreciation  of  invaluable  assistance  rendered  him, 
more  particularly  in  the  Constitutional  and  Judicicd 
section,  by  Ed.  Toulmin  Nicolle,  Esq.  {Barristcr-at-Law 
and  Advocate  of  the  Royal  Court  of  Jersey),  the  able  Editor 
of  the  third  edition  of  that  standard  work,  Messrs.  Ansted 
and  Latham's  "  The  Channel  Islands " ;  also  Author  of 
"  Jersey — Desc7'iptive  and  Historical "  in  "  The  Court 
Ciiide,"  &c.] 


GIBRALTAR 

By   Sir   CAVENDISH   BOYLE 

In  the  extent  of  territory  over  which  floats  the  flag 
of  Great  Britain  there  is  perhaps  no  spot  of  higher 
historical  importance,  of  greater  strategical  value,  than 
the  rock  of  Gibraltar.  And  the  word  "  spot "  is  ad- 
visedly used.  Let  us  look  for  a  moment  at  the  map 
of  the  world,  contemplate  the  huge  areas  coloured  red 
thereon,  and,  turning  to  the  entrance  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean,  observe  the  tiny  patch  which  notifles  that 
British  rule  obtains,  that  the  Queen's  subjects  are 
within  Her  Majesty's  dominions  the  moment  they  set 
foot  on  that  little  "  spot "  in  the  province  of  Andalusia. 
To  the  ancients  this  remarkable  excrescence,  for  it 
is  nothing  else,  was  known  as  Mons  Calpe,  otherwise 
one  of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  its  fellow  being  Abyla, 
now  Ape's  Hill,  which  is  situate  on  the  opposite  coast 
of  Morocco.  The  modern  name  Gibraltar  originates  in 
the  Moorish  chieftain  Tarik-Ibn-Zcynd,  who  landed  at 
Algeciras  in  a.d.  7 1  i  with  a  considerable  force,  and 
shortly  afterwards  established  himself  on  the  other 
side  of  the  bay,  fortifying  the  face  of  the  hill,  Gibal- 
Tarik,  or  the  mountain  of  Tarik,  thereafter  to  bear  the 
world-famous  name  of  Gibraltar,  the  scene  of  numerous 
sieges,  the  fortress-home  of  successive  thousands  of 
defenders,  the  spot  on  which  have  been  spent  millions 
of  treasure  and  the  life-blood  of  many  a  stalwart 
soldier.  But  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  Moor 
was  first  to  realise  the  high  importance  of  the  position. 

Pha'uiciaiis  and  Carthaginians,  Romans  and  Visigoths, 

60 


GIBRALTAR  6i 

succeeded  each  other  iu  its  possession ;  and  of  tliese 
the  men  of  Carthage  appear  to  have  been  the  most 
active,  for  on  the  Rock  they  erected  watch-towers, 
whence  to  observe  the  movements  of  the  Roman 
galleys.  In  the  year  7 1  o  the  Gothic  power  began  to 
wane,  and  Julian,  the  disaffected  governor  of  Ceuta, 
through  his  overtures  to  the  Moorish  chiefs,  brought 
about  the  invasion  by  Tarik  in  the  following  April. 
For  upwards  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty  years,  although 
not  continually,  the  Moorish  power  predominated  on 
the  Rock,  the  point  of  their  first  foothold  in  Spain, 
the  scene  of  their  final  departure.  Tarik  built  a  fine 
castle  on  Mons  Calpe,  and  there  yet  remain  in  the 
stone  and  "  tapia "  Avails  of  the  Moorish  castle,  noAv 
used  as  the  Civil  Prison,  enduring  evidences  of  his 
work.  Near  Medina-Sidonia  Tarik  met  Roderick  with 
his  army  of  Visigoths,  and  after  a  furious  contest 
defeated  him,  obtaining  possession  of  the  whole  pro- 
vince of  Andalusia.  Space  Avould  not  allow,  even  if 
records  could  furnish,  any  detailed  account  of  the 
many  vicissitudes  of  the  fortress  and  its  inhabitants 
during  the  earlier  centuries  succeeding  the  first 
Moorish  occupation.  Under  the  rule  of  the  Chief 
Taxfin,  the  Spanish  Moors  sought  the  aid  of  their 
African  allies  and  connections,  and  a  great  fio'ht  took 
place  in  1086  at  Badajos  between  the  Christian  and 
Moslem  forces,  the  latter  being  largely  strengthened 
by  an  army  sent  across  the  Straits,  with  the  result 
that  the  invading  conquerors  soon  turned  against  the 
Moorish  residents  in  Spain  and  occupied  the  laud. 
In  1309  Guzman  the  Good  laid  siege  to  and  cap- 
tured the  Rock  of  Gibraltar  from  the  Moors,  and 
Ferdinand  IV.  granted  a  constitution  to  the  town. 
In  1333  the  Moors  recaptured  it,  and  in  1462  Arcos, 
Ponce  de  Leon,  and  the  Duke  John  de  Guzman  of 
Medina-Sidonia  finally  wrenched  it  from  the  Moslem 
power.      From  the  last-mentioned  date  Gibraltar  was 


62  GENERAL 

possessed  and  governed  by  the  Medina-Sidonia  family 
until  1502,  when  it  was  annexed  by  the  Spanish 
Crown.  In  1609  the  final  departure  of  the  Moor 
from  Spain  took  place,  and,  as  above  stated,  the  point 
of  that  departure  was  the  Rock  on  which  Tarik  had 
landed  nine  centuries  previously.  On  24th  July 
1704,  the  fortress  was  taken  from  the  Spanish  by 
Sir  George  Rooke  after  a  three  days'  siege,  and  from 
that  time  British  supremacy  has  been  maintained 
there,  although  repeated  attempts  were  made  to  re- 
capture it,  the  first  of  which  took  place  Avithin  the 
same  year  of  Rooke's  victory.  The  Treaty  of  Utrecht, 
1 71 3,  ceded  the  fortress  to  Great  Britain,  but  the 
Spaniards  sought  fourteen  years  later  to  recover  its 
possession  in  the  thirteenth  siege,  which  lasted  five 
months.  Between  that  year  and  1779,  when  the 
fourteenth  or  great  siege  commenced,  many  attempts 
were  made  by  the  Spanish  nation  to  regain  possession 
of  the  Rock ;  but,  in  spite  of  plots,  of  treachery,  and  of 
diplomatic  endeavour,  the  British  flag  continued  to 
fly  on  its  summit,  and  much  was  done  to  strengthen 
its  defences  and  Anglicise  its  customs. 

From  the  i  ith  July  1779  i^ii^til  the  12th  March 
1783  the  combined  forces  of  Spain  and  France  be- 
leaguered the  fortress,  and  heroic  was  the  defence,  and 
beyond  praise  the  endurance,  of  General  George  Eliott, 
afterwards  Lord  Heathfield,  and  those  who  served  under 
hiin. 

■'  I  am  honoured  with  His  Majesty's  commands  to 
assure  you  in  the  strongest  terms  that  no  encourage- 
ment shall  be  wanting  to  the  brave  officers  and  soldiers 
under  your  command.  His  royal  approbation  of  the 
past  will  no  doubt  be  a  powerful  incentive  to  further 
exertions,  and  [  have  the  King's  authority  to  assure  you 
that  every  distinguished  mark  of  emulation  and  gal- 
lantry whicli  shall  be  performed  in  the  course  of  the 
siege,  by  any,  even  of  the  lowest  rank,  Avill  meet  with 


^ 


GIBRALTAR  63 

ample  reward  from  bis  generous  protection  and  I'avour/' 
So  wrote  Lord  Melbourne  to  General  Eliott  in  July 
1782.  They  were  great  words,  but  not  too  great  for 
the  noble  deeds,  for  the  sturdy  bravery  of  those  for 
whom  they  were  intended,  of  him  to  whom  they  were 
addressed. 

The  besieging  forces  of  France  and  Spain  num- 
bered 61,000,  the  garrison  contained  5300,  reinforced 
in  1780  by  1050,  and  in  October  1782  by  1600 
men.  A  naval  brigade  of  900  men  was  also  on  duty 
on  shore,  landed  from  Admiral  Dufi's  fleet,  which  con- 
sisted of  H.M.  ships  Panther,  Enterprise^  Childers,  Gib- 
raltar, and  Fortune. 

In  the  summer  of  1780  a  fleet  of  gunboats  belong- 
ing to  the  enemy  commenced,  from  the  26-pounder 
guns  carried  by  each,  a  persistent  and  harassing  bom- 
bardment of  the  town,  and  this  was  contmued  nightly 
during  the  remainder  of  the  siege.  In  January  1780 
Admiral  Rodney,  and  in  April  1781  Admiral  Darby, 
brought  relief  to  the  garrison.  On  the  latter  occasion 
the  soldiers  were  within  measurable  distance  of  starva- 
tion— stores  had  been  exhausted,  famine  was  imminent, 
and  matters  looked  black  indeed  for  the  defenders.  It 
is  related  that  General  Eliott  himself  lived  for  eight 
days  during  the  extremity  on  four  ounces  of  rice 
per  day.  A  frantic  bombardment  following  Admiral 
Darby's  timely  relief  lasted  for  six  weeks. 

The  town  was  abandoned  by  the  civil  population, 
who  sought  refuge  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Rock. 
The  result  was  a  revelation  of  accumulated  provisions 
and  liquors  which  some  of  the  merchants  had  hoarded, 
and  this  discovery  naturally  led  to  acts  of  plunder  by 
the  soldiers. 

In  November  1781  a  sortie  of  2160  oflicers  and 
men  under  Clcueral  Ross  Avas  organised,  and  was  com- 
pletely successful.  This  small  force  at  night  attacked 
the    enemy's    lines    and     advanced    trenches    on     the 


64  GENERAL 

North  Front,  containing  an  army  14,000  strong  and 
mounting  130  heavy  guns  ;  destroyed  works  which  had 
cost  millions  of  treasure  and  the  lives  of  thousands  to 
erect ;  spiked  nearly  all  the  mortars  and  cannon,  and 
exploded  the  magazines.  The  British  casualties  were 
one  officer  and  twenty-five  men  wounded  and  four  men 
killed.  The  Spaniards,  however,  lost  no  time  in  re- 
pairing their  siege  lines,  and  these  again  were  destroyed 
by  means  of  red-hot  shot  which  was  poured  into  them 
from  the  Rock  batteries.  In  1782  rewards  for  the  best 
scheme  of  reducing  the  fortress  Avere  freely  offered  by 
the  enemy,  and  a  plan  formulated  by  a  French  engineer, 
Chevalier  D'Arcon,  was  adopted.  This  plan  embraced 
a  combined  attack  by  sea  and  land.  Floating  batteries 
of  an  averao-e  of  1000  tons  burden,  ten  in  number,  were 
constructed.  They  mounted  in  all  138  guns,  and 
carried  crews  aggregating  5200  men.  The  land  bat- 
teries mounted  240  guns,  and  were  manned  by  an  army 
of  40,000  rank  and  file.  The  fleet  in  the  bay,  French 
and  Spanish,  consisted  of  forty-seven  sail  of  the  line,  in 
addition  to  the  ten  batteries  above  mentioned,  besides 
a  flotilla  of  small  vessels.  Five  hundred  guns  played 
on  the  Rock  at  one  time,  and  from  the  9th  to  the  1 4th 
of  April  a  furious  bombardment  was  maintained  ;  but 
even  this  supreme  effort  was  of  no  avail,  for  the  garrison 
held  its  own,  and  again  the  use  of  red-hot  shot  brought 
discomfiture  on  the  attacking  force,  although  but  ninety- 
six  guns  wore  available  for  the  defence. 

The  defeat  of  the  enemy  Avas  complete.  All  the 
floating  batteries  were  destroyed,  and  many  of  the  ships 
of  the  lino  were  disabled  or  burnt.  Two  thousand  men 
at  least  Avcrc  lost,  of  whom  i  5  00  were  on  the  batteries. 
In  Gibraltar  one  officer  and  fifteen  men  were  killed,  and 
sixty-eight  rank  and  file  wounded.  The  attack  had 
been  witnessed  from  the  land  side  by  thousands  of 
Spanish  spectators  confident  that  the  fall  of  the  de- 
voted fortress  was  imminent.     Their  disappointuient  at 


GIBRALTAR  65 

the  failure  of  the  action  may  well  be  iiiiagined,  and  the 
result  on  the  nation  itself  produced  a  feeling  of  con- 
sternation and  dismay.  In  October  of  this  year,  1782, 
Lord  Howe  partially  relieved  the  garrison,  landing  pro- 
visions and  a  draft  of  1600  men.  A  most  skilful 
manoeuvre  was  this,  for  the  English  Heet  failing  through 
stress  of  weather  to  effect  a  landing  at  the  first  attempt, 
ran  out  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rock,  then,  refusinar 
to  give  battle  with  the  enemy,  slipped  back  to  the 
Moorish  coast  and  anchored  off  Tetuan.  From  this 
position  Lord  Howe  sent  two  frigates  and  twelve  trans- 
ports into  the  bay,  and  having  safely  landed  men  and 
provisions,  the  whole  fleet  retired  to  Cadiz,  where  a 
naval  engagement  took  place,  the  English  ships  after- 
wards continuing  their  homeward  voyage. 

The  expenditure  of  Spain  and  France  in  blood  and 
treasure  during  this  long  and  fruitless  siege  was  enor- 
mous. The  former  admitted  a  loss  of  6000  men — it 
must  have  been  considerably  more  —  and  the  cost 
must  have  been  nearly  i  5,000,000  dollars.  In  January 
1783  the  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed,  and  in 
March  of  that  year  visits  were  exchanged  l)etween 
General  Eliott  and  the  Due  de  Crillon,  who  had  been 
in  supreme  connnand  of  the  besieging  forces.  The 
garrison  lost  in  killed,  wounded,  sick,  and  discharged 
1200  all  told,  205,000  rounds  of  shot  were  fired,  8000 
barrels  of  powder  were  consumed,  and  53  pieces  of 
cannon  were  destroyed  within  the  fortress.  General 
Eliott  was  honoured  with  a  Knight-Commandership  of 
the  Bath,  and  given  a  pension  of  ;^i5oo  per  annum. 
Four  years  later  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  under 
the  title  of  Baron  Heathfield. 

The  story  of  this  the  latest  siege  of  Gibraltar  is 
one  of  the  brightest  pages  in  British  history.  The 
resistance  of  the  defenders,  almost  miraeulous  in  its 
endurance  and  result,  exhiliits  an  unparalleled  record  of 
sturdy  heroism  under  terrible  circumstances,  and  against 
v  E 


66  GENERAL 

odds  apparently  overwhelming.  The  duration  of  the 
siege,  too,  is  a  matter  of  wonder.  As  weeks  grew  into 
months,  and  months  into  years,  there  was  no  thought 
of  yielding  in  the  minds  of  the  imprisoned  garrison, 
hut,  under  a  continuous  storm  of  shot  and  shell,  works 
of  magnitude  were  devised  and  completed.  Short 
rations,  scant  water,  frequent  sickness  were  cheerfully 
endured,  and  superhuman  efforts  were  made,  and  were 
successful,  in  preserving  to  the  British  Crown  the  most 
valuable  of  Britain's  military  possessions.  Small  blame 
is  it,  therefore,  to  any  British  subject  that  he  should 
dwell  with  pride  on  the  record  of  Heathfield's  heroic 
defence  and  the  magnificent  bravery  of  those  under 
his  command. 

From  the  termination  of  the  siege  writers  are 
comparatively  silent  as  to  the  work  of  the  garrison  and 
the  doings  of  the  civil  population,  which  latter  at  the 
period  may  be  roughly  estimated  to  amount  in 
number  to  3000,  until  1802,  when  we  find  that  the 
Duke  of  Kent  was  appointed  Governor  of  Gibraltar, 
with  express  powers  to  put  down  numerous  abuses 
which  had  sprung  up  within  the  fortress  and  town. 
His  Royal  Highness  appears  to  have  set  to  work  with  a 
will  in  his  endeavour  to  reform  the  condition  of  affairs 
and  to  re-establish  discipline  and  control.  Within  a 
year,  however,  the  Duke  left  the  command,  Ministers, 
yielding  to  the  representations  of  the  disaffected  in  the 
garrison  and  amongst  the  numerous  retailers  of  liquor 
in  the  town,  apparently  ignored  the  good  work  of 
reform  which  had  earned  the  gratitude  and  esteem  of 
all  the  respectable  communit}^  on  the  Rock  under  the 
short  residential  rule  of  His  Royal  Highness. 

In  1830  a  Charter  of  Justice  was  given  to  the 
city  of  Gibraltar,  and  the  inhabitants  were  granted 
civil  liberty.  The  story  of  the  resident  population  of 
the  Rock,  with  its  limited  habitable  area,  and  the  re- 
quirements of  the  force  of  armed  men  necessary  for  its 


GIBRALTAR  6y 

defence,  the  repeated  attempts  to  control  the  numbers, 
increasing  from  the  3000  recorded  by  Ayala  in  1724, 
and  composed  of  Genoese,  Jewish,  and  EngHsh  settlers, 
until  the  present  date,  when  the  returns  show  some 
19,800  inhabitants,  exclusive  of  a  military  and  naval 
force  of  nearly  6000  men,  would  till  a  bulky  volume. 
In  1 79 1  the  principles  laid  down  would  seem  to  have 
gone  so  far  as  to  declare  that  even  natural-born  British 
subjects  could  not  claim  the  right  of  residence  ;  whilst 
in  1 8  I  2  the  chief  duty  of  the  then  newly  established 
military  police  appeared  to  have  been  the  control  of 
the  admission  of  foreigners  and  the  prevention  of  over- 
crowding. This  establishment  of  police  was  brought 
about  by  the  epidemic  fever  first  appearing  in  1 8 1  o, 
which  between  that  year  and  1 8 1 4  attacked  no  less 
than  14,000  persons  and  caused  the  deaths  of  more 
than  half  that  number.  In  the  last-mentioned  year 
the  civil  population  numbered  close  on  10,000.  In 
1822  licenses  to  marry  amongst  the  aliens  were  only 
granted  on  condition  that  the  newly-wedded  left  the 
city.  Although  in  1828  another  epidemic  decimated 
the  overcrowded  city,  the  census  of  1829  showed  that 
there  were  upwards  of  12,000  persons  resident  therein 
on  "  permit."  In  1 830,  by  order  from  the  Home  Govern- 
ment, the  granting  of  "  permits  "  was  greatly  restricted, 
the  returns  showing  that  the  population  had  increased 
to  17,000,  including  7000  who  could  not  claim  British 
origin.  In  1873  an  Order  in  Council  was  passed 
dealing  with  the  question  of  the  admission  of  aliens 
temporarily  or  for  residential  purposes,  the  general 
principles  of  this  and  all  previous  enactments  on  the 
subject  being  that  the  requirements  of  the  fortress  and 
the  limited  habitable  area  of  Gibraltar  rendered  neces- 
sary exceptional  measures  to  restrict  the  increase  of  the 
permanent  population. 

During  the  present  century  the  defences  of  Gib- 
raltar  have  constantly  occupied  attention,  and  modern 


68  GENERAL 

iuiprovements  in  ordnance  have  caused  frequent 
changes  in  its  heavy  armament.  At  the  present 
time  extensive  works  are  in  progress  m  the  Bay  and 
on  the  Rock.  Moles  for  defence  and  for  commercial 
purposes  are  under  construction,  as  well  as  three 
ffravinof  docks.  Electric  liohting  has  been  installed, 
and  the  difficult  question  of  a  sufficient  water-supply 
has  been  taken  in  hand.  Under  a  Board  of  Com- 
missioners the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  town  and 
fortress  are  carefully  guarded,  and  no  endeavour  to 
secure  the  health  and  well-being  of  the  militar}^  and 
civilian  residents  is  neglected.  Nor  can  any  surprise 
be  felt  at  all  this.  Apart  from  its  strategical  value 
from  a  purely  military  and  naval  point  of  view,  as  a 
trade  centre  and  port  of  call  Gibraltar  is  of  high 
importance,  a  fact  which  none  have  recognised  more 
fully  than  the  law-abiding  and  loyal  residents  who 
have  made  their  homes  and  who  pursue  their  avoca- 
tions therein. 

How  the  Moor  succeeded  the  Goth,  how  Spain  re- 
covered her  possession  only  to  yield  finally  to  Great 
Britain,  has  been  briefly  shown  above.  A  few  words — '■ 
surmises  perhaps  would  be  more  fitting — as  to  the 
origin  of  the  rock  itself  may  not  here  be  out  of  place. 
During  the  secondary  period  of  the  earth's  story,  mas- 
sive beds  of  limestone  were  formed  beneath  the  ocean, 
to  be  uplifted  by  natural  force,  volcanic  probably,  acting 
from  below.  Around  the  base  so  formed  fresh  beds 
of  stone  collected,  to  be  further  lifted  by  a  second 
upheaval,  which  may  be  said  to  have  broken  the  rock 
in  two,  as  is  evidenced  in  the  gulleys  and  ravines 
which  separate  the  northern  from  the  southern  por- 
tion. And  alit)ut,  this  time  the  eastern  sands  must 
have  been  formed  and  raised  inio  their  present  position 
round  tlu;  little  sctl lenient  now  known  as  Catalan  Hay. 
A  lliird  nplil'ting  tollowcd,  indenting  the  ridge  to  the 
s<Mitli    of  th(,'   present  signal  station,  and   the  result  is 


GIBRALTAll  69 

that  the  outline  of  the  Rock  itself"  is  markctUy  irrc<,ailar, 
giving  it  the  appearance  and  earning  ior  it  the  name 
of  the  "  Crouching  Lion  :  "  form  and  name  alike  signi- 
ficant of  Britain's  great  sentinel  tower  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. As  there  were  upheavals,  so  too  there  must 
have  been  subsidences,  borne  out  by  the  erosion  of 
ledges  and  deposit  of  calcareous  sandstone.  The  most 
recent  upheaval  it  is  thought  may  possibly  have  joined 
Europe  once  more  with  Africa,  and  this  again  was 
followed  by  another  depression  separating  the  two 
pillars,  and  leaving  them  as  guardian  towers  over  the 
Straits  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Adown  the  western  side  of  the  Rock  is  a  sloping 
plain  of  stratified  siliceous  deposit,  known  as  the  Red 
Sands,  and  on  this  the  town  itself  stands.  The  Genista 
caves,  which  Captain  Brome  explored  in  the  years 
1 863—68,  gave  a  rich  return  of  mammalian  remains, 
including  bones  of  the  bear,  hyaena,  panther,  rhino- 
ceros, ibex,  hare,  and  rabbit.  A  full  account  of  these 
valuable  discoveries  is  given  in  Mr.  G.  Busk's  "  Quater- 
nary Fauna  of  Gibraltar,"  published  in  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  Part  ii.  vol.  x., 

1877. 

Oblong  in  form,  Gibraltar  juts  into  the  sea,  running 
nearly  due  north  and  south  lengthwise  for  about  three 
miles ;  its  greatest  breadth  is  three-quarters  of  a  mile ; 
in  circumference  it  measures  about  seven  miles,  and  it 
contains  1266  acres,  in  which  are  included  that  portion 
on  the  isthmus  known  as  the  North  Front. 

Although  Gibraltar  cannot  be  classified  in  the  list 
of  agricultural  dependencies  of  the  Crown,  at  one  time, 
and  not  many  years  ago,  there  existed  three  "  farms  " 
on  the  western  slope  of  the  Rock,  '•  Ince's,"  "  Bruce's," 
and  "  Porral's."  These  small  freeholds  were  allotted, 
in  recognition  of  special  acts  of  bravery,  to  non-com- 
missioned officers  who  had  survived  the  dangers  of 
the  great  siege.     They  changed  hands  several  times, 


70  GENERAL 

and  eventually  were  resumed  on  payment  by  the  War 
Department.  But  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  Gib- 
raltar, although  a  rock,  is  devoid  of  vegetation.  Indeed 
it  boasts  of  more  than  four  hundred  flowering  plants 
and  ferns  which  are  indigenous,  and  it  possesses  one 
pretty  flower,  the  Gibraltar  candytuft,  which  is  to  be 
found  nowhere  else  in  Europe.  Many  beautiful  trees 
and  shrubs  are  to  be  seen  growing  luxuriantly  in  the 
well-kept  gardens  of  the  Convent,  the  Alameda,  and 
the  Mount.  The  aloe,  the  prickly  pear,  and  the  great 
scarlet  geranium  flourish  as  hedgerows,  and  the  grounds 
of  the  Governor's  residence  and  of  the  senior  naval 
officers'  quarters  are  gay  in  spring  and  early  summer 
with  brightness  and  colour. 

Foxes,  badgers,  rabbits,  and  the  genet -cat  share 
the  hillside  with  the  far-famed  Rock  monkeys  {Macacus 
inuus  of  Linn(^).  The  latter  are  undoubtedly  descended 
from  an  ancestry  brought  by  the  hand  of  man  from 
the  Barbary  coast  opposite,  and  all  legends  of  natural 
tunnels  beneath  the  Straits,  created  for  their  special 
use,  or  of  the  Rock  apes  having  survived  one  of  the 
great  depressions  dividing  the  two  coasts,  must  be  put 
aside.  Still  there  they  are,  a  great  and  protected 
curiosity,  for  nowhere  else  in  Europe  are  they  to  be 
found.  The  guard  on  the  highest  post,  namely,  the 
signal  station,  have  strict  orders  to  chronicle  their 
movements,  and  to  register  their  births  and  deaths 
in  the  several  troops;  and  even  when  their  numbers 
have  so  greatly  increased  and  their  manners  so  depre- 
ciated as  to  render  a  little  thinning  out  desirable, 
special  warrants  from  high  home  authorities  are  re- 
quired ere  an  official  may  "  have  it  in  command  "  to 
give  the  quietus  to  a  small  percentage  of  the  family. 

The  bright  and  pretty  market  of  Gibraltar,  situate 
near  the  Waterport  gate,  is  well  worth  a  visit.  The 
Prince  of  Wales  laid  the  foundation-stone  in  April 
1876,    and    it    was    finished    in    the    following    year 


GIBRALTAR  7 1 

under  the  supervision  of  the  designer,  the  late 
Colonial  Engineer,  at  a  cost  of  ;^  10,000.  Meat 
comes  from  Northern  and  Southern  Spain,  and  from 
Morocco.  The  latter  country  also  supplies  large 
quantities  of  poultry  and  eggs ;  and  the  waters  of  the 
Bay  and  of  the  eastern  side  furnish  a  considerable 
quantity  of  fish,  such  as  red  mullet,  sole,  turbot, 
anchovy,  bonita,  John  dory,  and  ranger.  The  tunny 
fisheries,  which  formerly  yielded  a  large  revenue,  and 
for  which  many  of  the  watch-towers  were  used  as 
points  of  observation,  have  dwindled  into  insignificance. 
Fruit,  vegetables,  and  flowers  are  to  be  found  in 
Southern  abundance ;  oranges,  melons,  figs,  and  mus- 
catel grapes  are  plentiful,  and  very  cheap  in  their 
respective  seasons,  and  the  little  Spanish  artichoke  is 
largely  sold.  Partridges,  woodcock,  snipe,  and  wild 
duck  can  also  be  obtained  in  the  autumn  and  winter 
months,  whilst  one  of  the  sights  of  the  Rock  town  is  a 
Spaniard  driving  without  efibrt  a  flock  of  turkeys 
through  the  narrow  streets,  and  offering  them  for  sale 
from  house  to  house. 

Trade,  although  not  what  it  was  in  former  days,  is 
still  considerable  in  Giljraltar.  As  a  coaling-station 
and  port  of  call  for  ships  entering  and  leaving  the 
Mediterranean,  the  Bay  is  of  much  commercial  value. 
The  total  tonnage  of  ships  entered  and  cleared,  by  the 
more  recent  returns,  is  given  at  eight  and  three- 
quarter  millions,  of  which  over  six  and  a  half  millions 
were  British.  Gibraltar  is  practically  a  free  port. 
The  tariff  is  very  light,  and  only  moderate  duties  of 
Customs  are  levied  on  wines,  spirits,  beer,  and  tobacco, 
other  articles  of  consumption  being  free.  There  is 
still  an  appreciable  volume  of  business  done  Avith 
Morocco,  and  although  the  profits  from  tobacco  are  no 
longer  as  great  as  in  past  years,  employment  is  still 
found  for  upwards  of  450  persons  in  the  manufacture 
of  cheap  cigars  and  cigarettes;    whilst    1200   persons 


72  GENERAL 

are  employed  in  the  coaling  trade,  which,  pending  the 
construction  of  the  new  wharves,  is  carried  on  from 
hulks  anchored  in  the  Bay. 

The  currency  question  of  Gibraltar  is  full  of  com- 
plexities, and  this  should  not  cause  surprise  when  the 
position  of  the  town  and  fortress  and  the  nature  of 
the  business  transacted,  and  the  nationality  of  many 
engaged  therein,  are  duly  considered.  Payment  for  sup- 
plies from  Spain  and  Morocco  must  be  made  in  the  coin 
of  the  first-named  country,  and  these  coins  have  been 
made  and  are  leo-al  tender,  although  British  orold  and 
silver  are  taken  at  the  daily  rate  of  exchange.  Spanish 
coins  consist  nominally  of  gold  pieces  of  lOO,  50,  25, 
10,  and  5  pesetas.  The  only  gold  of  Spain,  however, 
seen  on  the  Rock  are  the  2  5 -peseta  pieces  known  as 
"  Doblons  de  Isabel,"  and  they  are  not  common.  The 
silver  coins  in  chculation  are  dollars  or  5 -peseta  pieces, 
and  lesser  denominations,  such  as  the  2  and  i  peseta, 
and  the  50  and  25  centime  pieces.  In  bronze  there 
are  10,  5,  2,  and  i  centime  pieces.  A  British  penny- 
piece  is  taken  at  10  centimes.  Other  forms  of  legal 
tender,  but  rarely  seen,  are  the  2  and  i  escudos,  value 
respectively  one  and  a  half  of  one  hard  dollar — 
duro  peso.  Accounts  are  generally  kept  in  dollars, 
pesetas,  and  centimes,  but  calculations  are  also  made  in 
reals  de  vellon,  which  value  20  to  the  dollar  or  4  to 
the  peseta,  and  also  in  the  more  confusingly  reals  of 
plate,  I  2  of  which  make  one  dollar.  The  soldier  and 
sailor  are  paid  in  British  coin,  and  it  has  lately  been 
arranged,  under  the  administration  of  the  present 
Governor  and  Commander-in-Chief,  Sir  Robert  Bid- 
dulpli,  that  all  official  salaries  shall  be  calculated  and 
drawn  in  the  same  currency.  The  rate  of  exchange 
now  ruling  is  about  3  1.05  pesetas  to  the  pound  sterling. 
It  has  been  very  much  more,  a  sovereign  at  one  time, 
and  not  very  long  ago,  being  exchangeable  for  con- 
siderably nearer  50  tlian  40  pesetas,  and  the  par  rate 


GIBRALTAR  73 

of  25  pesetas  to  the  pound  has  not  been  heard  of  lor 
many  a  long  year.  It  speaks  well  for  British  credit  and 
administration,  as  well  as  for  the  methods  adopted  in 
business  and  banking  circles,  that  under  conditions 
often  presenting  considerable  difficulty  the  course  of 
finance  on  the  Rock  should  run  as  smoothly  as  it  does. 

The  principal  unofticial  financial  establishment  is  a 
branch  of  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Bank,  which  has  amal- 
gamated with  and  taken  over  the  bank  founded  by 
the  late  Jerome  Saccone,  whose  name  is  still  a  house- 
hold word  on  the  Rock,  and  whose  general  business 
flourishes  there  under  the  able  management  of  his 
heirs  and  assigns.  Many  of  the  leading  merchants, 
however,  are  also  bankers,  and  visitors  to  the  town  and 
those  quartered  in  the  fortress  will  find  every  facility 
in  this  connection  which  they  may  require. 

The  temperature  on  the  Rock  for  eight  months  of 
the  year,  or  even  nine,  from,  say,  October  to  June, 
is  most  pleasant,  and  there  can  be  but  little  doubt 
that,  if  space  permitted,  it  would  be  a  favourite  resort 
for  crowds  of  wealthy  travellers  who  now  go  farther 
up  the  Mediterranean  for  their  winter  visits.  In  the 
remaining  portion  of  the  year  considerable  heat  is 
experienced,  and  the  east  wind,  or  Levanter,  brings  a 
certain  amount  of  damp  discomfort,  which  is  felt  by 
beast  as  well  as  by  man.  Snow  is  unknown,  although 
hail-storms  occasionally  occur.  The  mean  temperature 
is  about  62°,  the  maxinuim  which  has  been  registered 
is  92°2o'  and  the  minimum  33°.  The  pruicipal  rahi- 
fall  is  l)ctween  September  and  May;  the  average  is 
about  34  inches,  although  great  variations  have  oc- 
curred, as  small  an  amount  as  i  5  inches  having  been 
recorded,  whilst  79^  inches  fell  in  1855.  For  a  long 
time  it  was  thought  that  nuich  of  the  surface  water  of 
the  Rock  itself  found  its  way  into  caves,  and  remaining 
stored  there,  ct)uld,  if  properly  tapped,  be  utilised. 
This  idea,  however,  has  so  far  been  proved  groundless, 


74  GENERAL 

for  the  caves,  through  which  a  tunnel  lias  now  been 
bored  from  the  western  to  the  eastern  side  (and 
through  the  very  heart  of  the  rock),  have  been  found 
to  be  dry— from  the  fact  of  their  being  bottomless. 
The  extraordinary  rapidity  with  which  the  water  from 
an  almost  tropical  downpour  disappears  is  very  remark- 
able, and  many  have  been  the  attempts  to  conserve 
this  gift  of  the  clouds  and  thus  provide  a  sufficiency 
for  the  inhabitants.  As  it  is,  the  majority  of  houses 
are  provided  with  large  tanks — ^there  are  wide  "  catches" 
on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Rock — ^and  a  certain  amount 
of  more  or  less  brackish  water  is  supplied  for  sanitary 
purposes  from  the  shallow  wells  on  the  North  Front. 
Large  condensing  engines,  too,  have  been  erected,  and 
are  available  in  time  of  need  ;  and  it  is  now  believed 
that  the  inconvenience  and  dangers  of  the  worst  of  all 
famines,  namely,  the  want  of  a  sufficiency  of  water 
potable  and  for  drainage  purposes,  may  never  again  be 
felt  as  they  have  been  felt  at  times  in  the  past.  Under 
the  improved  conditions  and  under  the  excellent  Avork 
of  the  Board  of  Sanitary  Commissioners  the  health  of 
the  town  and  garrison  has  greatly  unproved.  This 
Board  is  composed  partly  of  official  and  partly  of 
civilian  members,  and  they  have  under  their  charge 
the  general  management  of  lighting,  paving,  draining, 
and  water-supply,  as  well  as  all  matters  relating  to  the 
housing  of  the  inhabitants  other  than  the  military  and 
naval  forces  on  the  station.  The  death-rate  in  con- 
sequence shows  a  very  considerable  improvement, 
whilst  epidemic  sickness  is  unknown.  Indeed  it  has 
been  said  that  in  no  other  place  in  the  world  where 
English  soldiers  serve  does  a  regiment  improve  so 
thoroughly  and  so  rapidly.  Rock-fever,  so  called,  it  is 
true  exists — a  species  of  enteric — but  the  majority  of 
cases  are  generally  traceable  to  want  of  care  on  the 
part  of  those  whom  it  attacks,  and  to  neglect  of  the 
ordinary  precautions  necessary  when  out-of-door  work 


OTBRALTAR  75 

is  perfonned  under  a  hot  sun  and  where  chills  are 
frequent  toward  nightfall.  "  Sentry  go  "  has,  however, 
none  of  the  disadvantages  of  an  inclement  climate, 
and  the  soldier  who  finds  outside  his  purely  military 
duties  constant  employment  "  on  the  works  "  is  as  well 
placed  as  in  any  other  portion  of  Her  Majesty's  wide 
dominions. 

The  sights  on  the  Rock  itself  are  many  and  full  of 
interest.  The  upper  portions  of  the  hill  are,  it  is  true, 
closed  on  sound  military  considerations ;  but  in  the  old 
and  far-famed  galleries,  which  can  be  viewed  under 
permit,  in  the  Moorish  castle,  Avith  its  battle-Avorn  walls 
of  stone  and  "  tapia  "  cement  (a  lost  art  the  construc- 
tion of  this  latter),  in  the  various  guard-houses  and 
barracks,  in  the  Convent  grounds  and  the  beautiful 
Alameda  gardens,  in  the  several  churches  and  gates 
of  the  fortress,  in  the  lower  lines  of  fortification,  in  the 
dockyard  and  in  the  moles  and  landing-places,  in  the 
bastions  and  casemates,  in  the  well-furnished  garrison 
library,  in  the  commodious  and  picturesque  dwellings 
of  the  leading  residents,  there  is  ample  to  occupy  the 
attention  of  a  visitor  for  many  an  enjoyable  day,  and 
food  for  reflection  on  the  story  of  this  famous  strong- 
hold of  our  nation  which  commands  and  dominates 
the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

To  many  of  the  farmers  and  herdsmen  of  the 
neicfhbourhood,  both  in  Andalusia  and  in  Northern 
Morocco,  Gibraltar  under  British  occupancy  affords  a 
profitable  means  of  livelihood.  Therein  they  find  a 
steady  market  and  prompt  payment  for  their  produce. 
Then  the  constant  inflow  of  ships  of  war  and  of  com- 
merce into  the  Bay  means  an  equally  constant  demand 
for  supplies — coal,  water,  and  fresh  provisions.  That 
this  is  fully  appreciated  by  those  who  are  engaged  in 
the  trade  is  shown  in  the  goodwill  which  exists  between 
the  owners  of  the  soil  outside  and  the  residents  within 
the  town  and  fortress.     The  gates  of  the  garrison  by 


76  GENERAL 

land  and  sea  are  open  daily,  under  necessary  but  by 
no  means  irksome  regulations,  to  all  wbo  bave  any 
business  to  transact  therein ;  and  in  turn  tbe  sur- 
rounding country  is  practically  free  to  those  from  tbe 
Rock  wbo  bave  dealings  witb  tbeir  Spanish  or  Moorish 
neighbours,  or  who  may  seek  exercise  and  sport  in  the 
fiin  fields  of  Spain  or  the  wild  lands  which  border  on 
Tangier. 

Spanish  courtesy  is  proverbial,  and  the  Andalusian 
countryman — farmer,  innkeeper,  muleteer — is  no  ex- 
ception to  this  rule.  If  the  foreigner,  be  he  travelling 
for  a  few  hours  or  for  a  month  in  the  country,  will 
bear  in  mind  that  he  should  address  those  whom  he 
meets  as  "  caballeros  "  (gentlemen),  he  will  find  many 
rough  places  made  smooth,  many  difficulties  and  dis- 
comforts overcome  and  avoided.  "  Courtesy  of  speech 
avails  much  and  costs  little  "  is  a  well-known  saying  in 
Spain,  and  it  is  a  truth  which  should  never  be  for- 
gotten. The  Spaniard,  once  his  sensitive  nature  and 
self-esteem  have  been  conciliated,  will  be  quick  to 
return  the  compliment,  and  will  render  every  assist- 
ance in  his  power  to  the  visitor  by  whom  he  has  been 
placed  on  a  footing  of  equality.  Bully  him  or  brow- 
beat him,  and  failure  to  attain  the  desired  end  will  be 
the  inevitable  result ;  whereas  careful  civility  will  elicit 
that  which  is  needed,  and  will  secure  hospitality  and 
attention.  "  Esta  su  casa,  senor "  ("  This  house  is 
yours,  sir ")  is  the  form  of  welcome  which  is  ever 
tendered  to  the  visitor  when  once  the  Spaniard  has 
made  up  his  mind  to  receive  him,  but  all  the  moral 
battering-rams  in  the  world  will  fail  if  oft'ence  has  been 
caused  by  brusqucness  in  speech  or  manner. 

A  shooting  party  from  Gibraltar  were,  not  many 
years  ago,  making  their  way  from  Algeciras  to  Casas 
Viejas  with  a  team  of  four  horses.  Just  beyond 
Tarifa  one  of  the  animals  jibbed  hopelessly.  A  country 
carrier  came  by  witli  his  long  tandem  of  horses  and 


GIBRALTAR  77 

mules  and  saw  tlioir  (lilciiiina.  A  kindly-spoken  word 
of  sympathy  by  the  Spaniard  was  courteously  acknow- 
ledged, and  then  his  best  animal  was  unhitched  and 
speedily  harnessed  into  the  place  of  the  unwilling  horse. 
Arranyfements  were  made  for  the  restoration  of  the 
carrier's  property,  and  for  picking  up  the  exchanged 
horse  at  the  next  stafje,  some  ten  miles  farther  on  the 
road  ;  a  couple  of  cigars  were  offered  to  the  carrier  and 
accepted  with  courtly  grace.  No  question  of  payment 
Avas  raised — it  would  have  been  indignantly  refused 
had  it  been  proposed ;  but  hats  were  lifted  on  both 
sides,  hopes  were  expressed  for  a  successful  journey 
and  a  heavy  bag,  the  thanks  of  the  party  were  ten- 
dered, and  they  went  their  way  with  the  musical 
tinkle  of  bells  and  the  cheery  '•  Arre  "  ("  get  on  ")  of 
this  kind-hearted  countryman,  who  was  withal  and  in 
truth  one  of  Nature's  "  Caballeros,"  ringing  in  theh' 
ears. 

The  Andalusian  farmer,  as  a  rule,  raises  no  diffi- 
culties to  those  who  ask  to  shoot  over  his  land,  and  is 
willing  to  afford  them  accommodation  in  his  house  for 
a  consideration.  Although  he  cannot  quite  see  the 
reason  of  the  British  love  for,  and  method  of,  hunting 
the  fox,  and  whilst  hitherto  all  etfbrts  to  induce  the 
Spanish  officers  and  residents  in  the  neighbourhood  to 
join  in  that  sport  have  practically  failed,  the  farmers 
and  landowners  smile  not  unkindly  at  the  "  mad 
Ingleses,"  who  spend  their  money  so  i'reely  in  chasing 
with  horse  and  hound  the  animal  which  otherwise 
might  be,  and  occasionally  has  been,  rolled  over  with 
powder  and  shot.  Then  there  is  the  perennial  damage 
bill,  a  matter  of  consideration  and  moment  alike  to 
growers  of  crops  and  the  management  of  the  Calpe 
Hunt. 

The  actual  origin  of  this  well-known  institutit>n  is 
somewhat  obscure.  In  i  8  i  4,  when  the  British  garrison 
were  leaving  Cadiz,  the  members  of  the  ''  Real  Isla  de 


78  GENERAL 

Leon  Hunting  Club"  offered  tlieir  hounds  to  the  29th 
Regiment  and  the  officers  quartered  at  Gibraltar.  But 
before  this  date  the  fox  had  been  hunted  on  the  Rock 
itself.  Two  hounds  had  been  imported  from  England 
for  the  purpose,  and  on  the  departure  of  the  French 
from  the  neighbourhood  this  pack  was  enlarged  by 
further  drafts  from  the  old  country,  and  the  sport  was 
systematically  established,  the  early  subscribers  consti- 
tuting themselves  into  a  club  under  the  name  of  the 
Civil  Hunt,  with  their  kennels  at  San  Roque,  a  few 
miles  north  of  the  Rock.  The  garrison  was  not  slow 
to  join  the  scheme,  and  it  was  probably  in  the  above- 
mentioned  year  that  the  title  of  the  club  was  changed 
to  what  it  is  to-day,  namely,  the  Calpe  Hunt.  It  is  on 
record  that  during  the  quarantine  restrictions  of  1 8 1 4, 
hounds,  which  were  still  kennelled  at  San  Roque,  and 
were  followed  almost  exclusively  by  officers  of  the 
British  fleet — the  garrison  were  hard  and  fast  within 
the  cordon  of  Lines — found  a  large  grey  wolf  in  the 
cork-woods,  and,  after  an  exciting  run,  killed  in  the 
open.  Admiral  Fleming,  the  commander  of  the  British 
fleet,  being  in  at  the  death. 

When  the  cordon  was  removed,  hounds  were  brought 
into  Gibraltar  territory,  and  the  kennels  were  estab- 
lished on  the  North  Front.  The  present  buildings  were 
erected  in  1  884,  and  are  satisfactory  and  complete.  In 
December  1853  quarantine  again  put  a  stop  to  hunt- 
ing in  Spain,  and  the  pack  was  allowed  to  visit  Bar- 
bary,  being  conveyed  across  the  straits  to  Tangier.  The 
Moorish  owners  of  the  land  joined  con  amove  in  the 
sport,  and  vied  with  the  English  Minister,  Mr.,  afterwards 
Sh,  John  Drummond  Hay  in  giving  a  cordial  recep- 
tion to  the  visitors.  Foxes  were  numerous,  and  again 
a  wolf  gave  an  excellent  run  of  over  forty  minutes  and 
a  distance  of  nine  miles,  to  be  lost  eventually  in  the 
rocks  of  Cape  Spartel. 

Many  liave  been  the  vicissitudes  of  the  Calpe  Hunt : 


GIBRALTAR  79 

the  sickness  produced  by  hot  summers,  the  consequent 
necessity  of  annual  drafts  of  hounds  from  England,  and 
the  heavy  drain  for  damages,  have  at  times  threatened 
it  with  extinction  from  lack  of  necessary  funds.  Means, 
however,  have  been  found  to  prevent  this  calamity,  for 
it  would  be  nothing  less  to  the  pent-up  garrison  and 
sporting  residents  on  the  Rock,  and  the  Hunt  still 
survives.  Formerly  all  the  officers  of  the  club  were 
elected  from  the  Imperial  services.  About  1893,  how- 
ever, the  mastership  passed  into  the  hands  of  Mr,  Larios, 
a  leading  resident  in  Gibraltar,  a  proprietor  of  nuicli 
land  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  the  head  of  a  family  of 
"  all-round  sportsmen."  Under  his  generous  leadership 
excellent  sport  is  shown,  and  the  hounds  and  the  hunt 
are  not  less  welcome  throughout  the  country  than  they 
were  in  former  days  and  under  previous  conditions. 
Horse-flesh  is  cheap  in  Gibraltar ;  Spanish-bred  ponies 
and  Barbs  are  there  in  plenty,  and  the  British  subal- 
tern, even  when  not  over-richly  endowed,  has  little 
difficulty  in  getting  his  two  days  a  week  hunting  during 
the  winter  months,  and  is  able  to  take  part  in  polo, 
which  is  played  on  the  ground  leased  at  Campamento 
almost  daily  throughout  the  summer. 

The  birds  of  the  Rock,  transient  and  remaininsf 
there,  have  been  well  described  in  Colonel  Irby's 
"  Ornithology  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar."  The  osprey, 
the  vulture  (Egyptian),  and  Bonelli's  eagle  are  amongst 
the  latter,  and  their  nests  are  not  uncommon  in  the 
southern  heights.  Then  there  are  always  to  be  found 
on  the  hillside  the  Barbary  partridge,  as  well  as  some 
few  hoopoes,  golden  orioles,  and  the  fast-flying  blue- 
rock  or  wild  pigeon.  The  great  bustard  is  occasionally 
shot  on  the  plains  between  San  Roque  and  Algeciras, 
whilst  quail,  golden  plover,  wild  duck  in  considerable 
variety,  and  the  grey  lag  goose  are  to  be  had  during 
their  respective  seasons.  The  cabra  montesa,  or  ibex 
of  the  Sierras  sloping  down  to  Estepona  and  Marbella, 


8o  GENERAL 

have  not  infrequently  attracted  ambitious  sportsmen 
from  Gibraltar.  These,  the  wariest  and  most  shy  of  all 
mountain-sheep,  are  hard  to  get  near,  and  it  has  been 
said  that  every  ibex  killed  by  a  party  from  the  Rock 
has  cost  not  less  than  ^loo.  But  those  who  are  sound 
of  limb  and  wind,  and  who  can  obtain  permission  to 
try  their  luck,  or  may  be  favoured  with  an  invitation 
to  shoot  with  the  owners  of  the  preserved  country,  will 
be  rewarded  by  a  most  enjoyable  week  or  ten  days 
amidst  magnificent  scenery,  and  in  a  climate  unsur- 
passed in  Southern  Europe. 

On  the  Moorish  shore  the  Barbary  partridge  {Caeca - 
his  petrosa)  in  the  autumn,  and  snipe  in  the  winter 
months,  frequently  yield  heavy  bags  to  those  who  know 
the  ground,  who  have  made  friends  with  its  owners, 
and  who  are  not  averse  to  hard  work  and  rough 
living. 

But  undue  prominence  may  seem  to  have  been 
given  to  the  subject  of  sport ;  and  if  so,  the  only  ex- 
cuse to  be  offered  is  the  recollection  of  many  a  trip  of 
bygone  years  taken  with  keen  companions  —  some, 
alas  !  have  sped  for  aye  to  the  unknown  hunting-fields 
— the  memory  of  happy  days  spent  under  conditions 
of  nature  to  be  found  at  best  in  the  country-side 
environing  the  old  Rock  of  Gibraltar. 

In  1 892  the  Bobadilla-Algeciras  Railway  was  opened 
throughout,  and  by  this  means  the  Rock  can  be  reached 
from  London  in  less  than  three  days  without  encounter- 
ing the  discomforts  of  steamer  passage  through  the 
Bay  of  Biscay ;  whilst  Cordova,  Malaga,  and  Granada 
have  been  brought  Avithin  a  journey  of  less  than  twelve 
hours  from  Gibraltar. 

The  road,  i  i  o  miles  in  length,  is  a  wonderful  piece 
of  engineering  skill,  winding  its  way  past  brawling 
streams,  around  rocky  clifis,  and  plunging  at  short  in- 
tervals into  the  heart  of  the  Andalusian  hills.  From 
Algociras  to  Bonda  the  scenery  is  wild  and  picturesque. 


(ITBRALTAll  Si 

At  the  liisL-niiincd  place,  perhaps  one  of  the  most 
romantic  spots  in  all  Southern  Spain,  travellers  can 
break  their  journey,  and  a  stay  of  a  day  or  two  in  its 
invigorating  air  will  amply  reward  them.  Thence  to 
Bobadilla  the  route  is  less  mountainous,  but  is  still  full 
of  natural  beauty.  Shortly  before  Bobadilla,  Teba  is 
passed,  the  birth^ilace  of  the  Empress  Eugenie;  and 
finally  junction  is  made  with  the  Andaluces  railway 
system,  connecting  with  all  parts  of  Spain.  To  the 
resident  on  the  Rock  the  opening  of  the  Algeciras  Rail- 
way is  of  inestimable  benefit.  Visits  to  famous  historic 
scenes,  such  as  Seville,  Cordova,  and  Granada,  can  be 
made  with  ease  and  at  a  reasonable  expenditure  of  time 
and  money,  Madrid  can  be  reached  in  less  than 
twenty-four  hours,  and  the  homeward  boimd  can,  at 
moderate  cost  and  in  comfort,  find  their  way  through 
that  town  and  through  Bt)rdeaux  and  Paris  to  English 
shores  and  London  streets. 

In  this  attempt  to  furnish  a  few  simple  observa- 
tions on  the  Rock  and  its  surroundings,  recourse  has 
frequently  been  had  to  the  condensed  history  and 
elaborate  notes  compiled  by  the  late  Colonel  G.  J.  Gil- 
bard,  who  founded  the  annual  publicati(m  known  as 
the  "Gibraltar  Directory."  This  work,  from  1888  to 
I  S92,  was  edited  for  Mrs.  Gilbard  by  the  present  writer, 
in  collaboration  with  Mr.  R.  Bandury,  the  genial  and 
popular  Deputy  of  the  Garrison  Library,  and  in  the 
last-mentioned  year  the  book  passed  entirely  into  their 
hands.  Since  1894  Mr.  Bandury,  who  then  became  its 
sole  proprietor,  has  conducted  its  publication.  Colonel 
Gilbard's  history  and  notes  were  revised  and  partially 
rewritten  between  1889  and  1893,  but  it  woukl  be  a 
graceless  act  to  allow  the  present  article  to  go  to  press 
without  the  writer's  fullest  acknowledgment  to  his 
late  coadjutor,  and  without  a  word  of  gratitude  to  the 
memory  of  him  who  originated  the  "  Directory,"  and 
who  coinpilcd  a  volume  replete  with  information. 
V  r 


THE  MALTESE   ISLANDS 

By  CLAUDE  LYON  (of  Malta) 

Open  a  map  of  the  world  and  you  will  see  in  the 
middle  of  the  Mediterranean,  between  Sicily  and 
Tripoli,  a  tiny  spot  no  larger  than  a  pin's  head.  This 
is  Malta,  an  island  which,  though  it  looks  so  small 
and  insigniticant  on  the  map,  is  really  a  place  of  very 
considerable  importance,  not  onlj^  in  the  estimation 
of  the  islanders,  but  also  in  the  opinion  of  our  highest 
naval  and  military  authorities.  The  Maltese  islands 
may  be  said  to  form  a  little  world  in  themselves;  a 
world  in  which  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  East 
arc  curiously  mixed  up  with  those  of  the  West. 

It  is  usual  to  speak  of  "  Malta  and  its  Dependen- 
cies " :  the  Dependencies  consist  of  Gozo,  Comino, 
Cominotto,  and  Filfala.  Gozo  and  Comino  are  in- 
habited, but  Cominotto  and  Filfala  are  mere  rocks, 
the  former  lying  off  the  west  coast  of  Comino,  and 
the  latter  off'  the  south  coast  of  Malta. 

Malta,  as  every  one  knows,  is  the  Melita  of  the 
Bible  :  it  was  called  Melita  by  the  Greeks,  from  the 
wild  honey  it  produced,  the  name  being  derived  either 
from  mdi  (honey)  or  from  melita  (a  bee).  It  retained 
this  name  for  several  centuries.  The  modern  name  is 
derived  from  a  Hebrew  or  Arabic  Avord  meaning  refuge 
or  asylum.  It  has  also  the  poetical  designation  of  the 
"  Fior  del  Hondo"  or  "  Flower  of  the  World." 

The  distance  from  London  to  Malta  is,  approxi- 
mately, 2280  miles  by  sea,  and  2000  by  the  Con- 
tinent.      The  faro  is  about  the  same  by  both  routes, 


THE    MALTESE    ISLANDS  83 

namely,  £  1 6  iirst  class  ;  the  sea  voyage  takes  about  a 
week,  and  the  land  journey  about  4^  days.  The  islands 
lie  about  58  miles  south  of  Sicily,  and  180  north  of 
the  African  coast.  Malta  is  an  irregular  oval  in  shape, 
about  i8i  miles  long  by  8|  broad,  with  an  area  of 
95  square  miles,  and  a  population,  exclusive  of  the 
garrison,  of  i  54,000  in  1 896,  or  with  the  Dependencies, 
174,000.  In  1 89 1  the  total  population  was  165,000, 
and  in  1881,  149,000.  It  may  be  interesting  to  com- 
pare these  figures  with  those  of  former  periods.  When 
Napoleon  took  the  islands  a  century  ago  the  total 
population  was  about  1 1  5 ,000  ;  but  in  the  subsequent 
struggle  20,000  of  the  islanders  perished,  chiefly  by 
disease,  and  in  two  years  the  population  fell  to  less 
than  100,000.  The  islands  at  the  present  day  enjoy 
the  distinction  of  being  the  most  densely  populated 
in  the  world.  The  figures  give  an  average  of  162  i  per 
square  mile  for  Malta,  and  1000  for  Gozo.  Belgium, 
the  most  densely  inhabited  country  on  the  Continent, 
has  only  about  563.  I  may  add  that  there  are  about 
2500  more  females  than  males,  which  is  probably 
owing  to  the  larger  emigration  of  the  latter.  The 
garrison  comprises  about  10,000  men,  including  the 
Royal  Malta  Artillery  and  the  newly  raised  Royal 
Malta  Regiment,  together  about  1500  strong. 

Both  revenue  and  expenditure  are  increasing,  but 
it  is  satisfactory  to  note  that  whereas  the  exjienditure 
used  often  to  exceed  the  revenue,  the  revenue  now 
usually  exceeds  the  expenditure.  In  i  88  i  the  revenue 
was  £i?>6,ooo,  and  the  expenditure  iJ^i  88,000;  in 
1 89 1  they  were  respectively  ^^263,000  and  ;i^2 70,000  ; 
and  in  1896,  ;!^3  13,680  and  ;^3o8,902.  The  public 
debt  is  under  ;^8o,ooo.  There  are  no  direct  taxes ; 
the  revenue  is  derived  from  import  duties,  port  dues, 
rents  of  Government  property,  licences,  stamps,  &c. 
The  proportion  received  from  customs  amounts  to 
more  than  half  of  the  whole,  and  the  amount  grew  in 


84  GENERAL 

the  ten  years,  1881-90,  from  ;i^  103,000  to  ^160,000. 
In  1896  it  was  i^i  76,457.  The  duties  on  the  whole 
are  low,  and  are  little  felt  by  the  people.  They  are 
levied  on  wheat  (is.  3d.  a  bushel),  flour  (3s.  lod.  a 
cwt.),  Indian  corn,  rice,  olive  oil  (other  oils  are  free), 
cattle,  meat,  &c.,  and  on  beer  and  ale,  wine  and  spirits. 
Tobacco,  both  raw  and  manufactured,  is  free.  As 
regards  all  other  articles  the  islands  enjoy  absolutely 
free  trade,  and  hence  become  a  great  distributing  centre 
for  the  products  of  our  factories.  The  value  of  the 
imports  and  exports  were  in  1896,  ;£^842.039  and 
about  ^43,000  respectively;  the  former  is  chiefly 
made  up  of  coal  from  Great  Britain,  and  cattle  and 
grain  from  foreign  countries ;  the  latter  of  potatoes, 
fruit,  and  lace.  The  tonnage  of  vessels,  mostly  British 
steamers,  entering  and  leaving  the  port  was  6,584,000 
in  1896;  7,033,000  in  1895;  8,100,000  in  1891: 
the  falling  off  is  due  partly  to  the  economy  in  fuel 
consumption  owing  to  improvements  in  marine  engines, 
which  enables  vessels  to  go  greater  distances  without 
recoaling,  and  partly,  and  as  I  believe  chiefly,  to  the 
vexatious  quarantine  regulations  so  frequently  imposed. 
In  this  respect  the  island  is  more  behind  the  times 
than  even  Ital}^  Malta  is  an  important  station  of  the 
Eastern  Telegraph  Company,  whose  cables  come  in  here 
from  all  parts  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  local  tele- 
gra[)h  lines  have  a  total  length  of  65  miles,  and  the 
telephone  lines  of  276  miles.  Mails  for  England  and 
the  Continent  are  made  up  every  day,  except  Sunday, 
and  are  received  and  distributed  every  day ;  also  at 
frequent  intervals  to  and  from  Egypt,  India,  &c.  The 
number  of  letters  and  postcards  passing  annually 
through  the  Post  Oflico  is  now  nearly  a  million,  and 
of  newspapers  346,000.  The  receipts  from  the  Post 
Office  were  iJ^  13,200  in  1896,  and  the  disbursements 
somewhat  more ;  so  that  it  is  not  yet  quite  sclf- 
supporliiig,  thougli  it  is  believed    that  it  soon  will   be. 


THE    MALTESE    ISLANDS  85 

The  total  deposits  in  the  savings'  banks  are  now  ahnost 
;6^ 5 00,000.  Turning  to  the  criminal  statistics,  the 
figures  are  highly  satisfactory,  for  though  there  was  a 
slight  increase  in  the  number  of  convictions  in  1896 
over  1895,  there  was  a  steady  decline  in  the  figures 
each  year  IVom  1891  to  1895. 

About  a  third  of  the  total  acreage  of  the  island 
is  Government  property ;  of  the  remaining  two-thirds, 
about  half  belongs  to  the'  Church,  and  the  rest  to 
private  individuals.  The  revenue  from  Government 
lands  and  house  property  is  about  -^41,000  per  annum, 
two-thirds  of  which  is  from  house  property. 

There  is  a  narrow  gauge  railway,  eight  miles  long, 
connecting  Valetta  with  the  former  capital,  Notabile. 
The  line  was  constructed  b}^  a  company  and  worked 
by  them  at  first,  but  was  taken  over  by  the  Govern- 
ment in  1890,  and  is  now  worked  by  them  at  a  profit 
of  over  £  1 000  a  year. 

The  government  of  the  islands  is  carried  on  by  an 
Executive  and  Legislative  Council,  called  the  Council 
of  Government,  with  the  Governor  as  cx-ofjicio  Presi- 
dent or  a  Vice-President.  Twenty  members  compose  the 
Council,  of  whom  six  are  ofiicial  and  fourteen  elected. 
Ten  of  the  elected  members  are  elected  by  the  general 
electors,  of  whom  there  are  about  1  0,000,  and  four  by 
special  electors  chosen  from  the  general  electors.  The 
qualification  to  become  a  special  elector  is  an  income 
of  £60  per  annum,  or  the  payment  of  rent  to  that 
amount.  The  qualification  to  become  a  general  elector 
is  an  income  of  £6,  or  a  payment  of  a  like  sum  in  rent, 
or  the  age  of  twenty-one  and  the  right  to  serve  as  a 
conunon  juror.  The  four  members  elected  by  the 
special  electors  represent  the  Ecclesiastics,  the  Nobles, 
the  University,  and  the  Borsa  or  Chamber  of  Conunerce. 
The  islands  are  divided  into  ten  electoral  districts,  and 
owQ  member  is  therefore  returned  for  each  district. 
The  Council  meets  once  a  week  during^  the  season  in 


86  GENERAL 

a  room  set  apart  for  the  purpose,  called  the  Council 
Chamber,  ui  the  Governor's  Palace  m  Valetta.  The 
Council  may  last  three  years  without  re-election.  There 
is  nothing  in  Malta  corresponding  to  our  county  council, 
no  school  board,  and  no  local  rates. 

Malta  is  inadequately  provided  with  school  accom- 
modation, and  the  number  of  inalfebeti,  i.e.  illiterate 
persons,  though  less  in  proportion  to  the  total  population 
than  it  was  a  few  years  ago,  is  still  greater  than  one  would 
expect  to  find  in  so  important  a  colony.  Indeed,  nothing 
surprises  the  visitor  more  on  his  first  acquaintance 
with  the  place  than  the  number  of  inalfebeti  he  is 
continually  coming  in  contact  with.  It  is  not  only 
the  peasants  who  are  uneducated,  but  a  large  number 
of  the  servants,  both  men  and  women,  boatmen,  cab- 
drivers,  Qfardeners,  and  artisans,  and  even  some  of  the 
shopkeepers.  So  unsatisfactory  is  the  present  condition 
of  affairs  in  this  respect  in  the  islands  that  a  Select 
Committee  has  been  appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
matter,  and,  as  the  Chief  Secretary  says  in  his  report, 
"  It  is  hoped  that  the  earnest  labours  of  the  Committee 
.  .  .  will  finally  lead  to  a  satisfactory  solution  of  this 
vital  question,  in  the  interest  both  of  the  present  and  of 
the  future  generations  of  the  people  of  Malta."  What, 
as  it  seems  to  me,  is  required  is  a  complete  reorgani- 
sation of  the  present  system,  the  building  of  more 
schools,  and  the  passing  of  a  compulsory  Education  Act. 
Meanwhile  the  children  in  their  thousands  are  loft  to 
run  wild  about  the  streets  of  the  towns,  a  veritable 
nuisance  to  themselves  and  everybody  else.  The 
total  expenditure  on  education  is  about  ;^2i,ooo  a 
year.  There  are  99  elementary  day  schools,  and 
29  night  schools  supported  by  the  Government.  The 
University  and  iho  Lyceum  are  also  supported  by  the 
Governijient ;  the  former  costs  £^600  a  year,  and  is 
attended  by  132  students;  the  latter  cost  ^^2900, 
and  is  attendotl  by  447  students.      There  are  several 


THE    MALTESE    ISLANDS  87 

private  scholastic  establishments,  including  a  college 
conducted  by  Jesuit  fathers.  I  should  add  that  the 
education  of  the  people  is  largely  controlled  by  the 
priests. 

The  Maltese  are  a  strong,  healthy,  hard-working 
race,  passionately  attached  to  their  island  home.  They 
are  a  very  frugal  people,  and  no  matter  how  low  their 
wages  may  bo,  or  how  largo  a  family  they  may  have  to 
support,  they  always  contrive  to  save  something.  This 
seems  to  have  been  characteristic  of  the  people  for 
many  generations.  When  the  knights  took  possession 
of  Malta,  Ave  are  told  that  the  people  were  noted 
for  their  frugality.  The  food  of  the  peasants  consists 
of  coarse  brown  bread,  or  pasta,  a  kind  of  macaroni, 
olives,  and  olive  oil  with  a  simple  milk  cheese,  ma(^e 
in  the  island,  and  sometimes  a  little  fish  and  fruit. 
On  this  simple  fare  they  do  well.  For  drink  they 
have  a  thin  coffee  in  the  morning,  and  water,  or  a 
little  of  the  light  Sicilian  wine  with  their  midday 
meal.  They  rarely  eat  meat,  as  it  is  too  expensive ; 
but  if  they  do,  it  is  generally  pork  in  some  form. 
They  have  not  the  objection  of  other  Eastern  people 
to  the  llesh  of  the  pig ;  on  the  contrary,  they  look 
upon  it  as  a  delicacy.  The  hours  of  labour  are  long, 
but  the  people  rest  for  a  couple  of  hours  in  the  middle 
of  the  day,  when  they  take  the  siesta,  or  after-dinner 
sleep.  This  is  indulged  in  by  all  classes.  The  gentry 
retire  to  their  rooms,  but  the  peasants  lie  doAvn  on 
the  ground  in  the  nearest  shady  spot  and  sleep  soundly 
till  it  is  time  to  resume  work.  The  ambition  of  every 
peasant  is  to  become  the  owner  of  a  little  plot  of 
ground  on  which  to  build  himself  a  cottage.  This 
he  often  manages.  Sometimes  he  builds  his  cottage 
with  his  own  hands,  assisted  by  his  neighbours,  Avhom 
he  assists  in  return.  The  houses  are  all  built  of  stone, 
which  is  often  quarried  on  the  spot.  It  is  got  out  in 
blocks  a  couple  of  feet    long,  by  a  foot   in  width   and 


88  GENERAL 

height.  It  is  easily  cut  to  the  required  shape,  and 
phiced  in  position.  The  mortar  is  frequently  only  lime 
and  earth — very  little  lime  to  a  good  deal  of  earth. 
The  roofs  are  flat,  and  are  formed  of  slabs  of  the  same 
stone,  supported  on  cheap  iron  girders.  Before  the 
introduction  of  the  present  girders,  which  come,  I 
believe,  from  Belgium,  wooden  beams  were  used,  and 
were  much  more  expensive.  The  doors  and  windows 
are  the  work  of  the  nearest  carpenter.  They  are 
strongly  but  roughly  made.  The  village  blacksmith 
supplies  the  locks  and  hinges,  Avhich  are  very  roughly, 
not  to  say  badly,  made.  The  walls  are  not  papered, 
but  colour  washed.  The  woodwork  is  painted  with  a 
very  cheap  bad  paint,  which  often  does  not  dry  for 
Av^eks.  This  completes  the  house;  the  furniture  for 
which  is  of  the  simplest  description.  Nothing  is  pro- 
vided but  what  is  absolutely  necessary.  Carpets  are 
unknown ;  so,  too,  are  curtains  and  table  linen.  The 
hatterie  de  cuisine  consists  of  a  few  pots  and  pans.  The 
cooking  is  done  on  a  charcoal  brazier ;  the  washing  in 
any  old  pan  or  bucket. 

The  dress  of  the  peasants  may  be  practical,  but  it  is 
certainly  not  picturesque.  As  a  ride  the  men  do  not 
wear  a  coat,  even  in  the  street.  Their  nether  gar- 
ments are  made  of  a  coarse  blue  cotton  cloth,  and  are 
always  so  patched  that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  tell 
how  much  of  them  represents  the  original  garment. 
They  wear  neither  shoes  nor  stockings ;  but  some  now 
Avear  a  kind  of  sandal.  The  women  of  this  class  are 
no  better  dressed  than  the  men ;  and  they,  too,  go 
barefoot  all  the  year  round.  Their  headdress,  how- 
ever, is  peculiar.  It  consists  of  a  kind  of  mantle  or 
long  hood,  called  the  faldeJta,  and  reaching  to  about 
the  waist.      It  is  the  Sunday  headdress  of  all  classes. 

The  Maltese  Jiiake  good  servants  ;  they  often  attach 
tlieiiiselves  to  their  master  and  Jiiistress,  and  will 
do    anything    tor    them.       Those    who    speak   English 


THE    MALTESE    ISLANDS  89 

eoimuaiid  good  wages  in  English  households.  Women 
servants  will  get  from  jL'^  to  £^  a  month,  and  men 
Iron  I  £^  to  £z^.  Out  of  this  they  have  to  feed  and 
elothe  theniselves;  but  it  is  high  as  wages  go  in  Malta. 
They  all  have  their  own  homes,  to  which  they  return 
when  the  day's  work  is  over.  If,  as  I  have  said, 
the  desire  of  the  peasant  is  to  become  a  houseowner, 
the  desire  of  the  servant  is  to  become  a  shopkeeper. 
To  get  the  requisite  capital  he  saves  up  the  greater 
portion  of  his  wages,  and  as  soon  as  he  can  he  makes 
a  start.  Once  started  it  is  not  often  that  he  does  not 
succeed  in  making  the  shop  pay.  His  favourite  shop 
is  a  small  grocery  with  a  licence  to  sell  drink.  The 
result  is,  that  there  is  an  immense  number  of  these 
drinking  dens — for  they  are  nothing  else — and  most 
of  them  do  an  excellent  business.  Their  chief  patrons 
are  our  soldiers  and  sailors,  who  thus  have  temptations 
to  drink  thrown  in  their  way  which  should  not  be 
tolerated  for  a  moment.  AVe  make  every  effort  to 
keep  the  men  sober  while  serving  in  Great  Britain, 
and  in  places  like  Malta,  where  the  evil  effects  of  over- 
indulgence in  drink  are  far  worse  than  in  our 
temperate  climate,  we  leave  them  to  the  tender 
mercies  of  these  grasping  publicans.  This  is  a  matter 
that  demands  the  immediate  attention  of  the  Liiperial 
Government. 

The  Maltese  are  believed  to  be  descended  from  the 
Phu.^uicians,  who  first  settled  in  the  islands  about  i  500 
B.C.  They  have  been  Christians  since  the  early  days 
of  Christianity.  They  are  nearly  all  Roman  Catholics, 
and  very  nuich  attached  to  their  Church.  Their  lan- 
guage is  thought  by  some  to  be  a  survival  of  the  Punic 
tongue ;  but  it  is  more  probably  a  dialect  of  Arabic, 
introduced  by  the  Saracenic  invaders.  At  all  events 
if  not  an  Arabic  dialect,  it  is  so  closely  allied  to  Arabic 
that  the  people  have  no  difliculty  in  conversing  with 
the  Arabs.     The  purest  Maltese  is  now  spoken  in  Gozo 


90  GENERAL 

and  the  country  districts  of  Malta.  In  Valetta  and 
the  large  towns,  it  has  been  much  corrupted  by  the 
introduction  of  foreign,  principally  Italian,  words  and 
phrases.  Until  comparatively  recently  it  was  not 
possible  to  write  Maltese,  but  now  the  Latin  characters 
have  been  adapted  to  express  the  various  sounds  of  the 
Arabic  characters,  and  books  and  papers  are  printed  in 
the  vernacular.  The  literature,  however,  is  confined 
to  school  books  and  religious  works  translated  from 
English  or  Italian.  Italian  is  the  official  laniruage,  and 
it  is  spoken  by  all  the  upper  classes.  Most  of  them 
speak  English  as  well.  In  fact  our  language  is  gaining 
ground  every  day,  and  seems  destined  at  no  distant 
date  to  supersede  Italian. 

Geologically  the  Maltese  islands  belong  to  the  late 
Eocene  period.  The  rocks  are  coralline  and  calcareous 
limestone,  with  beds  of  greensand  and  blue  clay  or 
marl.  As  in  all  limestone  formations  there  are 
numerous  caves  and  grottos,  in  many  of  which  the 
remains  of  various  extinct  animals  have  been  found ; 
the  most  remarkable  are  the  bones  of  two  kinds  of 
pigmy  elephants.  Of  these,  one,  Elephas  MeHtensis,  was 
only  from  4  to  5  feet  high,  and  the  other,  Elephas 
Falconera,  only  about  3  feet.  These  remains  prove 
that  the  islands  were  once  united  to  the  mainland. 
They  are,  in  fact,  the  most  elevated  parts  of  the  ridge 
which  once  united  Europe  and  Africa.  This  ridge  is 
now  easily  to  be  traced  between  Sicily  and  Malta  by 
the  comparative  shallowness  of  the  water  overlying  it. 
The  fauna  and  flora  belong  })artly  to  Europe  and 
partly  to  Africa.  The  domestic  animals  include  all 
those  with  which  we  are  familiar.  The  famous  Maltese 
doy-,  however,  is  extinct  in  Malta.  The  ijoats  are  a 
speciality  of  the  place,  and  are  a  source  of  considerable 
profit  to  their  owners.  They  su[)ply  most  of  the  milk 
Cfjusniiicd.  The  amount,  of  milk  given  by  a  good  goat 
is   lar<;e,  sometimes,  indeed,  as  much  as  tlie  lliii'd   of  a 


THE    MALTESE    ISLANDS  91 

gallon  a  day.  The  animals  are  driven  into  the  towns 
in  flocks  every  morning  and  evening,  and  milked  at  the 
customers'  doors.  Cattle  are  imported  from  North 
Africa  and  Russia,  horses  from  Barbary.  Donkeys  are 
bred  in  the  islands.  They  are  a  small  but  useful 
breed,  the  best  trotting  as  fast  as  a  pony.  Besides  the 
above  there  are  rabbits  and  weasels,  hedgehogs  and 
bats.  Of  reptiles  there  are  lizards  in  considerable 
numbers,  and  two  or  three  species  of  snakes.  The 
latter  are  fairly  numerous,  but  are  seldom  seen. 
None  are  poisonous.  According  to  a  Maltese  legend, 
St.  Paul  did  for  Malta  what  St.  Patrick  is  credited 
with  having  done  for  Ireland ;  that  is  to  say,  he  ex- 
pelled the  venomous  reptiles.  The  sea  round  the 
Malta  coast  is  fairly  well  stocked  with  fish.  The  most 
esteemed  fish  are  the  John  dory  and  the  red  mullet. 
Tunny,  sardines,  and  grey  mullet  are  common.  The 
octopus  is  frequently  caught,  and  is  eaten  by  the  fisher- 
folk.  More  than  250  species  of  migratory  birds  visit 
the  islands  on  their  way  to  and  from  the  north.  The 
most  prized  is  the  quail,  which  is  shot  and  trapped  in 
large  numbers.  But  all  birds  are  looked  upon  as 
"game"  by  the  Maltese  sportsman;  and  every  winged 
creature,  from  the  hawk  to  the  robin,  from  the  owl  to 
the  linnet,  is  ruthlessly  shot,  and  sold  or  eaten.  The 
markets,  during  the  migratory  season,  are  a  sad  but 
instructive  sight ;  every  kind  of  bird  common  to 
Europe  being  exposed  at  different  times  for  sale  on  the 
stalls.  Mr.  A.  L.  Adams,  in  his  valuable  "  Notes  of  a 
Naturalist,"  observes,  "  Nowhere  are  the  feathered  tribe 
more  persecuted  than  in  Malta,"  and  he  estimates  that 
"  half  the  migratory  birds  are  shot  or  captured  "  on  the 
islands,  an  estimate  which  I  am  sure  is  no  exaggera- 
tion. Of  the  resident  birds  there  are  not  more  than 
a  dozen  species,  the  commonest  being  the  ubiquitous 
sparrow.  Canaries  are  bred  for  sale  to  visitors,  and  par- 
rots are  brought  over  from  Africa  for  the  same  purpose. 


92  GENERAL 

The  flora  is  extensive.  Nearly  all  our  vegetables 
grow  well :  the  fruits  are  those  of  Southern  Europe, 
the  most  important  being  the  orange,  of  which  there 
are  half-a-dozen  varieties,  the  lemon,  the  fig,  and  the 
almond.  Strawberries  are  plentiful  in  the  spring,  a 
small  wild  strawberry  of  excellent  flavour ;  other  fruits 
are  the  nestboli  or  Japanese  medlar  {Eryobotrya  Japonica), 
the  melon,  and  the  prickly  pear.  The  vine  is  culti- 
vated, but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  formerly.  Flowers 
are  abundant.  Malta  was  famous  for  its  roses  in  Roman 
times,  and  they  are  still  grown  in  large  quantities. 
The  chief  agricultural  products  are  potatoes,  which  are 
exported  in  the  winter  and  spring,  corn,  sidla,  cummin, 
aniseed,  onions,  and  olives.  Sulla  is  a  tall  red  clover 
{Hedysarium  Coronarmm),  and  grows  luxuriantly  all  over 
the  island.  Cotton  used  to  be  grown  for  export,  but 
the  export  has  now  ceased.  Garlic  is  another  product. 
It  grows  wild  everywhere,  and  is  eaten  as  a  stomachic 
by  all  classes.  There  are  no  woods  or  forests,  as  there 
is  not  sufiicient  depth  of  soil  for  forest  trees  to  grow. 
The  cultivated  trees  are  all  of  a  low  growing  order  and 
are  mostly  evergreens.  They  are  the  orange,  the  lemon, 
the  olive,  the  caruba,  &c.  The  last  named  is  the  tree 
which  produces  the  locust  bean,  now  used  for  fatten- 
ing cattle.  Its  botanical  name  is  Ceratonia  siliqua. 
While  speaking  of  the  flora  I  must  not  omit  to  men- 
tion a  very  curious  and  interesting  plant,  said  to 
be  indigenous.  This  is  the  fungus  Melitensis,  or 
Cynomoriiim  Coccineuin.  It  is,  as  the  name  implies,  a 
fungus-like  plant,  and  is  chiefly  found  growing  on  a 
rocky  islet  off  the  coast  of  Gozo,  called  the  General's 
Rock.  It  was  highly  prized  by  the  knights,  who  used 
it  as  a  styptic  and  a  cure  for  dysentery.  Another  in- 
digenous plant  grows  on  the  south  cliffs.  It  is  called 
(Jcaldii.rca  Crassi/ulia. 

The  soil  is  very  fertile,  though  nowhere  of  any 
depth.     The  average  deptli  is  in  fact  only  a  few  inches. 


TIIK    MALTESE    ISLANDS  93 

ll  is  rciiUy  liulo  more  than  a  .sprinkling  of  soil  up(»n 
the  surface  of  the  limestone  rock  ;  but  it  is  capable 
of  yielding  two  crops  a  year.  The  farming  imple- 
ments are  of  the  most  primitive  kind.  The  plougli 
is  like  ihe  one  that  has  been  in  use  in  the  East 
from  time  immemorial.  The  frame  is  formed  of  a 
single  curved  piece  of  wood.  Through  this  a  spike 
is  driven,  and  it  is  with  this  spike  the  soil  is  turned 
up,  or  rather  furrowed.  The  plough  can  be  guided 
with  one  hand,  and  drawn  by  a  cow  or  a  donkey ; 
by  any  draught  animal,  indeed,  that  is  available. 
The  harrow  is  of  equally  simple  construction,  and 
both  implements  are  so  light  that  they  can  be  car- 
ried by  the  farmer  on  his  shoulder.  They  seem  to 
answer  their  purpose  well,  and  have  the  great  advan- 
tage of  being  easily  made  and  easily  repaired.  The 
land  is  divided  into  quite  small  plots  by  stone  Avails. 
These  stone  walls  are  met  with  all  over  the  islands, 
and  are  the  most  conspicuous  feature  in  the  landscape. 
They  are  of  great  importance  in  keeping  in  the  soil, 
Avhich  woidd  otherwise  in  many  places  be  washed 
away.  The  great  drawback  to  farming  in  Malta  is  the 
want  of  water.  If  water  were  available  for  irrigating 
the  fields,  Malta  would  probably  be  the  most  fertile 
island  in  the  world.  As  it  is  there  is  neither  lake  nor 
stream,  and  though  there  are  springs  in  the  hills  they 
only  yield  enough  water  for  domestic  purposes. 

The  climate  is  delightfid  in  the  spring.  It  is  wet 
and  windy  in  the  winter  and  hot  and  dusty  in  the 
summer.  The  winter  temperature  varies  from  about 
45°  to  60°,  seldom  falling  below  42°.  The  summer 
temperature  varies  from  about  70°  to  90°,  occasionally 
rising  to  92°  or  93°.  The  coldest  month  is  generally 
January,  and  the  wettest  November.  Frost  and  snow 
are  unknown,  but  hail  sometimes  falls.  There  are  no 
fogs,  but  there  is  a  good  deal  of  wind.  Tlie  prevalent 
winds  are  the  north-cast,  called  the  grcgalr,  and    the 


94  GENERAL 

south-east,  called  the  sirocco.  The  former  is  a  cold 
Avind  blowing  down  from  the  Adriatic,  and  raising  a 
heavy  sea  along  the  northern  coast.  It  usually  blows 
for  three  days,  and  is  frequently  accompanied  by  heavy 
showers  of  rain :  it  is  the  Euroclydon  of  the  Bible. 
The  sirocco  is  the  prevalent  wind  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean :  it  is  a  debilitating  wind,  and  seems  to  afl'ect 
both  the  spirits  and  the  temper.  It,  too,  blows  for 
three  days  at  a  time  and  at  all  seasons.  Its  debilitat- 
ing eftects  are  most  noticeable  in  September.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  is  about  20";  but  too  often 
the  amount  registered  is  very  much  less,  which  means, 
of  course,  a  short  supply  in  summer.  Provision  is 
made  for  storing  the  winter  rainfall  to  supplement  the 
supply  from  the  springs.  In  many  parts  of  the  island 
this  rain-water  is  all  the  inhabitants  have  to  depend 
upon.  On  the  whole  Malta  is  a  healthy  place,  though 
there  is  a  kind  of  malarial  fever,  called  "  Malta  Fever," 
which  is  rather  prevalent.  The  death-rate  is  not  high 
(last  year  28  per  1000),  and  it  would  be  low  were  it 
not  for  the  very  high  rate  of  infant  mortality.  In 
point  of  cleanliness,  Valetta  compares  very  favourably 
with  the  winter  resorts  of  France  and  Italy,  and  the 
city  itself  is  well  drained.  The  climate  is  beneticial  to 
sufferers  from  insomnia  and  nervous  complaints. 

Valetta  is  situated  in  N.  lat.  35°  44'  and  E.  long. 
14°  31^  It  has  been  described  as  a  city  "built  by 
gentlemen  for  gentlemen."  It  occupies  the  whole  of 
the  rocky  ridge  called  Mount  Sceberras,  which  separates 
the  Grand  Harbour  on  the  cast  from  the  Quarantine 
Harbour  on  the  west.  The  ridge  itself  rises  to  a 
height  of  over  100  feet  above  the  sea,  and  has  been 
likened  to  an  elephant's  body.  The  main  street,  Strada 
Kcalc,  runs  along  the  crest  of  the  ridge  in  a  straight 
line  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  and  forms,  as  it 
were,  the  backbone  of  the  elephant,  wliile  the  side 
streets  which  run  down  both  sides  of  the  ridge  to  the 


THE    MALTESE    ISLANDS  95 

two  harbours  are  the  ribs.  Tlic  chief  buildings  are  the 
Governor's  Palace,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  Grand 
Masters,  St.  John's  Cathedral,  the  Auberge  de  Castile, 
and  the  Opera  House,  St.  John's,  the  work  of  a 
Maltese  architect,  Girolamo  Cussar,  is  noted  for  its 
beautiful  inlaid  pavement  of  coloured  marbles  ;  before 
the  French  robbed  it  of  its  most  valuable  treasures 
it  was  accounted  the  richest  church  in  Christendom. 
The  knights  had  their  clubs,  or  auberges,  one  for  each 
nation.  The  Auberge  de  Castile,  the  resort  of  the 
Castilian  knights,  was  the  largest  and  finest ;  the  Aiiberge 
(VAugletcrre  was  the  poorest,  and  has  been  pulled  down. 
The  Opera  House  is  a  modern  building.  Valetta  is 
supplied  with  water  from  springs  in  the  centre  of  the 
island  by  aqueducts  and  tunnels,  forming  a  conduit 
eight  miles  long,  constructed  by  Grand  Master  Vigna- 
court.  Mount  Sceberras  is  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the 
island  by  a  ditch  90  feet  deep,  which  extends  almost 
from  harbour  to  harboin*.  This  ditch  is  crossed  l»y 
a  drawbridge;  beyond  it  is  the  populous  suburb  of 
Floriana,  with  its  parade  ground  and  gardens.  The 
fortifications  here  are  very  remarkable.  In  the  olden 
days  they  were  regarded  as  impregnable,  and  it  is 
related  of  Napoleon  that  when  he  first  passed  through 
them  to  take  possession  of  the  city,  he  turned  to  one 
of  his  generals  and  observed,  "  It  is  fortunate  we  had 
friends  inside  to  open  the  gates  for  us " ;  the  French 
knights  having,  it  is  said,  forced  the  Grand  Master  Von 
Hompesch  to  capitulate.  The  population  of  Valetta 
is  about  25,000,  and  of  the  populous  suburb  known 
as  "  The  Three  Cities,"  25,000.  The  Three  Cities  are 
really  three  contiguous  towns,  called  Vittoriosa,  Cos- 
picua,  and  Senglea.  Besides  these  there  are  six  towns 
and  upwards  of  twenty  villages  in  Malta. 

None  of  the  local  industries  are  of  much  importance. 
In  ancient  times  Malta  was  famous  for  its  cotton 
manufactures.       Cotton    goods    are    still    made,    but 


96  GENERAL 

only  on  a  small  scale  and  for  local  use.  The  chief 
industry  now  is  that  of  lace  making.  The  lace  is  made 
mostly  in  Gozo,  and  gives  employment  to  from  4000 
to  5000  Avomen  and  girls.  Other  industries  are  those 
of  cigar  and  cigarette  making,  gold  and  silver  filigree 
work,  soap-boiling,  match-making,  straw-plaiting,  basket- 
weaving,  &c.  There  are  boat-building  yards,  carriage 
works,  flour  mills,  and  a  brewery,  also  ice  works  and 
cold  stores  for  frozen  meat. 

Gozo  lies  to  the  north-west  of  Malta.  It  is  a  much 
smaller  island,  having  an  area  of  only  about  20  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  about  20,000.  On  three 
sides  it  rises  abruptly  from  the  sea  ;  it  is  only  on  the 
side  facing  Malta  that  a  landing  is  possible.  It  is 
more  verdant  and  productive  than  Malta  in  proportion 
to  its  size.  The  Maltese  name  for  it  is  Ghandex, 
which  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of  Codex,  the  name 
given  to  it  by  the  Romans  to  show  that  it  is  a  tail  or 
appendage  of  the  sister  island,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  a  channel  2^  miles  wide.  The  capital  of 
Gozo  is  a  small  town  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  which 
used  to  be  called  Rabato,  but  was  changed  by  desire  of 
the  inhabitants  into  Vittoria  in  1887  in  honour  of  the 
Queen's  Jubilee.  The  female  portion  of  the  inhabi- 
tants are  engaged  to  a  large  extent,  as  I  have  said,  in 
lace  making.  The  men  are  agriculturalists  and  fisher- 
men. The  island  is  famous  for  honey,  fruit,  and 
vegetables,  and  a  peculiar  kind  of-  cheese  made  of 
sheep's  milk. 

Comino  lies  in  the  channel  lictween  Malta  and 
Gozo ;  it  is  only  about  one  square  mile  in  extent,  and 
can  boast  of  only  a  solitary  farm  and  chapel.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  cummin  seed.  It  will  long 
be  remembered  as  the  island  off  which  the  Sultan 
grounded  in    1889. 

The  history  of  the  islands  extends  back  to  the 
time  of  the  PhfKnicians,  who  formed  a  settlement  here 


THE    MALTESE    ISLANDS  97 

between  1400  and  1500  B.C.     They  remained   in  sole 
possession  of  the  place  lor  over  700  years,  and  appear 
to    have    brought    it   to    a   high    state    of    prosperity. 
Remains  of  thuir  temples  are  still  to  be  seen  in  both 
islands,  the  most  interesting  being  the  megalithic  ruins 
of    Hagiar   Kem   and   Mnaidra  in   Malta,  and   the   so- 
called  Giant's  Tower  in  Gozo.     The  Greeks  followed  the 
Phoenicians,  and   Averc    themselves   succeeded   by   the 
Carthaginians,    under    whom     the     islands     prospered 
exceedingly.      During  the  wars  between  the  Romans 
and  the  Carthaginians  Malta  seems  to  have  been  taken 
and  retaken,  remaining  finally  in  the  possession  of  the 
Romans.     A  Roman  governor  administered  the  islands, 
but  a  large   amount  of    liberty  was  accorded  to  the 
people,   who   retained    their    own    laws,   customs,   and 
institutions.     The  Romans  remained  masters  of  Malta 
until  the  break  up  of  the  Empire.     The  most  notable 
event  during  their  occupation  was  the  landing  of  St. 
Paul  in  A.D.  58,  and  the   conversion  of  the  people  to 
Christianity.      From  870  to  1090  the  islands  were  in 
the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  from  whom  they  were  con- 
quered by  Count  Roger,  otherwise  Roger  the  Norman, 
in  the  latter  year.     He  added  them  to  his  Sicilian  do- 
minions, and  they  remained  subject  to  the  sovereigns  of 
Sicily  for  nearly  a  hundred  years,  when,  through  the 
marriage  of  the  sister  of  King  Tancred,  a  descendant 
of  Count  Roger,  with  the  Emperor  Henry  VL,  they 
passed  under  the  sway  of  Germany.      In    1266   they 
were  seized  by   the  notorious   Charles  of  Anjou,  and 
remained  a  French  possession  until  shortly  after  the 
Sicilian   Vespers.      During    this   period   the   unhappy 
islanders   suffered    terribly   from    misgovernmcnt    and 
oppression,  but  worse  was  in  store  for  them  under  their 
new  masters,  the   Aragonese.     The   kings  of  Aragon, 
ever    in   want   of    money,   mortgaged    the    islands   to 
various  feudal  lords  who,  under  the  title  of  Viceroys, 
oppressed    the  people  beyond    endurance,  and  finally 


98  GENERAL 

drove  them  into  revolt.  An  arrangement  was  tlien 
come  to  for  incorporating  the  islands  with  the  kingdom 
of  Sicily,  and  giving  the  people  the  same  privileges  as 
the  Sicilians.  In  i  5  1 9  the  islands  passed  by  inheritance 
to  the  great  Emperor  Charles  V.  Eleven  years  later 
Pope  Clement  VII.  induced  Charles  to  cede  them  to 
the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  who  had  been 
driven  out  of  Rhodes  eight  years  previously.  The 
deed  of  gift  is  preserved  in  the  Armoury  of  the 
Palace  in  Valetta,  signed  by  Charles  and  bearing  his 
seal.  L'Isle  Adam,  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Order, 
landed  in  Malta  on  the  26th  of  October  1530,  and 
took  formal  possession  of  the  islands.  The  rule  of  the 
knights  lasted  from  that  time  until  June  1798,  when 
Malta  was  seized  by  the  French,  and  Von  Hompesch, 
the  last  of  the  Grand  Masters,  left  with  a  few  followers 
for  Trieste,  The  two  most  important  events  in  the 
history  of  the  islands  during  the  rule  of  the  knights 
were,  first,  the  Great  Siege  in  1565,  when  the  knights 
under  La  Valette  succeeded  in  defending  the  place 
against  the  repeated  attacks  of  the  Turkish  fleet.  After 
four  months'  siege  the  invaders  were  obliged  to  retire, 
with  the  loss  of  three-fourths  of  their  men.  This 
victory  was  an  event  of  far  more  than  local  importance, 
and  gained  for  the  gallant  defenders  the  applause  and 
thanks  of  the  whole  Christian  world.  The  second 
great  event  was  the  founding  of  the  modern  capital. 
The  foundation-stone  is  said  to  have  been  laid  at  eii^ht 
o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  28th  of  March  1566, 
and  the  city  was  named  after  its  founder  the  hero  of 
the  siege,  Jean  Parisot  de  la  Valette,  whose  statue  now 
adorns  one  side  of  Porta  Reale,  the  main  entrance 
gateway. 

Early  in  June  1798,  Napoleon,  in  command  of  the 
fleet  intended  for  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  appeared  ofl' 
Malta  and,  inventing  a  pretext  for  quarrelling  with  the 
Grand  Master,  landed   a   force  and   took  possession  of 


THE    MALTESE    ISLANDS  99 

thu  islands  without  opposition.  Alter  luniaining  a  few 
days  in  Valetta  to  establish  a  new  government  and 
collect  all  the  treasure  he  could  lay  his  hands  on,  he 
set  sail,  leaving  General  Vaubois  in  cuniniand  with 
some  three  thousand  men  to  garrison  the  forts.  The 
force,  though  small,  would  have  been  sufficient  had 
the  people  been  friendly;  but  the  French  had  outraged 
their  feelings  by  plundering  their  churches,  and  the 
woi-k  of  spoliation  was  continued  by  Vaubois's  men. 
The  inevitable  result  followed.  The  Maltese  rose  in 
revolt,  massacred  the  troops  garrisoning  Citta  Vecchia, 
and  besieged  Valetta.  Nelson  was  appealed  to,  and 
sent  a  fleet  to  their  assistance.  For  two  years  the 
siege  lasted,  then  General  Vaubois  surrendered.  That 
was  in  September  1800,  and  on  the  19th  of  February 
I  801,  General  Pigott,  in  command  of  the  British  troops 
then  in  the  island,  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  effect 
that  "  His  Britannic  Majesty  took  the  Maltese  under 
his  protection  and  granted  them  t;lie  full  enjoyment  of 
their  religion,  property,  and  liberties."  Our  permanent 
occupation  of  the  islands  was  agreed  to  by  Europe  in 
Article  VIL  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris  of  181 4.  That, 
the  Maltese  have  greatly  benefited  by  their  connection 
with  this  country  no  one  can  deny ;  that  they  are 
freer,  happier,  and  better  off  gencrall}'  now  than  they 
ever  w'cre  before  in  all  their  long  history  is  equally  incon- 
testible.  Tiiey  are  allowed  full  liberty  in  the  manage- 
ment of  their  own  affairs,  and  they  are  looked  after 
and  protected  by  us  at  no  cost  to  themselves.  And 
though  there  are  in  Malta,  as  in  most  other  places, 
agitators  and  sedition-mongers,  they  have  never  had 
any  real  following.  These  men,  lor  their  own  selfish 
ends,  have  made  a  clamour  for  the  expulsion  of  the 
"stranger,"  meaning  the  British;  but  the  cry  was 
never  well  received  by  any  section  of  the  people,  and 
is  now  seldom  heard.  The  great  nuxss  of  Maltese  are 
far  too  sensible  to  be  taken  in  by  so  silly  a  cr}-.      They 


loo  GENERAL 

know  that  tlio  departure  of  the  "  stranger "  would 
mean  the  ruin  of  the  place,  and,  knowing  this,  there  is 
little  likelihood  of  their  advocating  so  suicidal  a  policy. 
The  majority  —  the  great  majority  — are  amongst 
the  most  loyal  of  the  Queen's  subjects,  as  was  shown 
by  the  enthusiasm  of  all  classes  during  the  recent 
jubilee  festivities. 

In  conclusion,  I  cannot  do  better  than  quote  the 
words  of  a  very  intelligent  Maltese.  Writing  to  the 
Times  not  longf  ajjo  on  Malta,  the  Rev.  A.  Camillin 
says :  "  Never  at  any  historical  period  have  the  Maltese 
been  richer,  freer,  happier,  and  better  governed  than 
they  have  been  ever  since  the  British  flag  waved  on 
the  island  and  the  Maltese  merchant  vessels."  He 
adds :  "  The  one  thing  they  might  wish  to  have  is 
time,  experience,  and  more  extended  knowledge  of  the 
English  tongue." 


CYPRUS  AND  SOMK  OK  ITS  POSSIBIMTIi:S 

J5v  Mu.  AND  Mrs.   PATRICK  GEDDES 

The  whole  island  is  not  much  larger  than  a  large 
Scottish  county;  it  has  no  large  towns,  and  no  impor- 
tant town  industries,  but  depends  almost  exclusively 
on  agriculture.  To  send  immigrants  there  in  great 
numbers,  especially  any  without  agricultural  aptitudes 
or  training,  would  therefore  be  only  to  court  that  dis- 
appointment, which  the  unemployed  Armenian  immi- 
grants already  there  are  actually  now  experiencing. 

There  is  no  sufficient  extent  of  wholly  unoccupied 
land,  as  in  Canada  for  instance,  from  which  grants 
could  be  made  to  settle  immitjrants,  and  the  native 
population  is  already  so  poor  and  so  heavily  burdened 
by  the  annual  tribute,  that  it  is  needful  to  be  cautious 
before  introducing  the  unemployed,  who  tend  of  course 
to  become  (or  at  least  to  be  dreaded  as)  a  new  burden. 
The  problem,  then,  is  not  without  difficulties. 

On  the  other  hand,  Cyprus  needs  an  increase  of 
population  to  develop  its  resources,  which  are  as  yet  to 
a  large  extent  unworked.  The  present  population  is 
less  than  a  fifth  of  what  it  was  under  the  Venetians ; 
a  little  over  200,000  now  as  against  over  a  million 
then ;  and  the  land  is  in  some  parts  entirely  unculti- 
vated, in  others,  much  less  intensively  cultivated  than 
it  would  admit  of — for  lack  of  hands  and  capital  and 
skill.  Hence  land  can  be  purchased  or  leased  on 
reasonable  terms,  and  as  capital  and  organising  power 
become  available,  the  colonists  can  be  settled  on  it. 

Now  a  word  as  to  the  methods  of  organising  such 


I02  GENERAL 

settlements.  While  it  is  quite  natural  that  national 
and  individual  sympathy  and  help  should  go  out  in  the 
first  place  to  the  orphans  and  widows,  thereafter  to  the 
general  mass  of  destitute  refugees,  and  only  lastly  to 
the  competent  leaders  amongst  these,  yet  this  philan- 
thropic method  is  not  the  best  in  practice ;  for  to  re- 
organise labour  we  must  begin  from  the  opposite  end. 
Imagine  a  rout,  such  as  that  which  the  recent  Graeco- 
Turkish  war  news  has  brought  so  vividly  before  us. 
Must  not  the  leaders  (or  whoever  seek  to  replace  them) 
begin  by  rallying  the  officers  first,  and  through  them 
the  rank  and  file  of  troops,  only  thereafter  the  helpless 
fugitives,  the  women  and  children  ?  So  it  should  be 
with  Armenian  or  any  other  refugees.  We  must  first 
find  and  utilise  the  captains  of  industry,  of  Avhom  there 
are  not  a  few.  Find  industrial  leaders,  then  depend- 
able foremen,  and  set  them  to  manage  the  available 
workers ;  and  this  even  in  the  best  interests  of  the 
orphans  and  widows. 

We  are  not  now  treating  of  the  question  of  im- 
mediate relief,  but  of  that  of  providing  permanent 
industrial  openings  for  those  whom  we  now  go  on 
relieving,  and  at  the  same  time  demoralising — a  pro- 
cess in  active  operation — for  many  a  lost  leader  has 
by  this  time,  thanks  to  our  uneconomic  philanthropy, 
settled  down  to  become  a  begging-letter  writer,  since 
we  did  not  set  him  to  work.  Cyprus  might  have 
become  one  of  the  best  of  rallying  centres,  and  this  for 
all  the  refugees  it  contained,  provided  the  available 
leaders  had  been  utilised  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
capital  to  start  them  been  forthcoming  on  the  other. 

The  greater  part  of  our  three  months'  stay  was 
occupied  in  a  study  of  the  island,  its  needs  and  possi- 
bilities ;  in  which  we  received  the  most  friendly  and 
valuable  assistance  and  information  as  well  as  en- 
couragement from  the  officials,  from  the  High  Com- 
missioner downwards. 


CYPRUS  103 

Cyprus,  allliougli,  as  we  have  said,  not  much  larger 
than  the  largest  of  our  counties,  has  a  much  greater 
variety  of  agricultural  possibilities  and  resources.  This 
is  largely  owing  to  the  difference  in  level  from  the 
almost  subtropical  plain  to  cool  temperate  heights  (the 
principal  range  rising  to  6400  feet).  Given  water,  any- 
thing from  dates  and  cotton  up  to  apples  and  oats  can 
thus  be  grown.  The  main  products  of  the  island,  beside 
cereals,  beans,  pulse,  &c.,  are  olives,  carobs  or  locust 
beans  (largely  used  for  cattle  food),  the  vine,  orange, 
pomegranate,  and  other  fruits,  with  mulberries  for  silk. 
Stock  raising  and  mule-breeding  might  also  be  profit- 
ably carried  on,  especially  for  the  Egyptian  market.  In 
spite  of  the  ruin  brought  about  by  the  centuries  of 
disforesting,  during  Avhich  time  torrential  rivers  have 
been  carrying  down  the  soil  mto  the  sea,  or  to  form 
the  unhealthy  marshes,  &c.,  too  common  in  all  Mediter- 
ranean countries,  there  still  remains  a  great  deal  of 
fertility  in  the  island,  and  with  improved  irrigation, 
tree-planting,  and  skilled  farming,  Cyprus  can  be  made 
to  yield  much  more  abundantly  than  it  does  under 
the  present  circumstances,  the  ground  being  merely 
scratched  with  a  primitive  wooden  plough,  the  olives, 
vines,  &c.,  either  left  unpruned,  or  overpruned,  and 
so  on. 

In  agriculture  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
almost  every  conceivable  mistake  is  made,  every  sin  of 
omission  and  commission,  and  the  field  for  improve- 
ment is  thus  correspondingly  great. 

One  of  the  first  things  was  the  need  of  improving 
the  silk  industry.  This  forms  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant possible  sources  of  wealth  of  the  island,  for  the 
native  Cyprus  cocoon  is  both  larger  than  any  other 
and  gives  a  stronger  thread;  hence  it  is  likely  that 
Cyprus  silk,  if  properly  produced  and  wound,  will  com- 
pete favourably  with  other  kinds,  and  Avith  the  imi- 
tations   or    substitutes   for   silk,   even    if    these   latter 


I04  GENERAL 

should  succeed  as  well  as  is  jDredicted  by  their  pro- 
moters. 

At  the  present  moment  owing  to  ignorance  and 
carelessness,  silk  culture  in  Cyprus  has  so  declined  that 
where  a  French  peasant  would  produce  forty  cocoons, 
a  Cypriote  will  often  only  succeed  in  rearing  six ;  so 
that  in  some  parts  the  peasants  had  in  despair  begun 
to  cut  down  their  valuable  mulberry  trees.  In  co- 
operation with  Mr.  van  Millingen,  manager  of  the 
Imperial  Ottoman  Bank  in  Cyprus,  himself  almost  an 
expert  in  silk  and  a  resourceful  organiser  of  Arme- 
nian labour,  a  School  of  Sericulture  was  opened  at 
Nicosia,  with  a  branch  at  Larnaka  — ■  both  under 
the  direction  of  an  Armenian  silk  expert,  with 
the  assistance  of  a  young  compatriot  from  Broussa. 
The  school  opened  in  spring  1897  with  over  40 
students,  i.e.  15  or  16  native  Cypriotes,  and  about  2  5 
Armenians.  Instruction  was  given  in  the  Pasteurian 
methods  of  eliminating  disease,  and  on  other  important 
and  hitherto  neglected  points ;  and  the  students  took 
turns  under  supervision  in  the  rearing  of  silk-worms, 
which  during  the  greater  part  of  the  six  weeks  or  two 
months  of  their  development  require  constant  atten- 
tion and  feeding  both  night  and  day.  No  fees  were 
asked,  the  students  giving  their  services  in  return  for 
instruction ;  while  to  the  Armenian  students  who  had 
not  the  means  of  subsistence  during  this  period  several 
small  bursaries  (of   is.  per  day)  were  given. 

Thus  many  of  these  students  have  become  qualified 
to  be  sent  out  into  the  villages  where  silk-rearing  is 
practised,  to  spread  this  so  much  needed  instruction  in 
scientific  methods,  which  mainly  consist  in  microscopic 
examination  to  guarantee  the  eggs,  and  in  antiseptic 
cleanliness  during  the  rearing.  (What  a  reforination 
might  be  la-ought  about  in  the  East  were  this  habit  of 
cleanliness  necessary  to  silk-rearing  once  learned  and 
applied    to   daily    life !)       In    time    every   Silk    School 


CYPRUS  105 

should  even  pay  its  way,  from  the  sale  of  eggs  of 
guaranteed  quality. 

You  will  have  noted  that  in  our  little  Silk  School 
Cy[)riotcs  and  Armenians  were  working  together,  a  point 
we  should  like  to  emphasise.  For  just  as  it  seems  to 
us  that  we  help  the  helpless  best  by  helping  and  rally- 
ing the  competent  leaders  first,  so  we  are  also  convinced 
that  if  we  are  to  do  the  best  permanently  for  the 
Armenians,  we  must  not  isolate  them  from  the  com- 
munity amidst  which  they  are  to  settle,  thereby 
inevitably  arousing  dislike  and  opposition  to  them. 
Taking  this  concrete  case  of  the  little  Silk  School  at 
Nicosia,  had  Ave  admitted  Armenians  only  we  should 
have  run  great  risk  of  arousing  jealousy  and  ill-will  in 
the  minds  of  the  Cypriotes  against  the  Armenians ; 
and  we  should  not  have  had  help  or  encouragement 
from  the  island  government,  which  is  naturally  one  of 
and  for  Turks  and  Greeks  mainly.  Let  the  Armenians 
show,  as  they  can  do  in  Cyprus,  that  their  presence 
there  Avill  be  a  benefit  to,  not  a  drain  upon,  the  already 
heavily  taxed  island,  and  they  will  be  welcomed  and 
themselves  prosper  accordingly,  just  as  did  the  Hugue- 
nots silk-weavers  two  centuries  ago  in  this  country. 
Such  trained  and  disciplined  workers  may  later  on  do 
good  service  to  their  countrymen  in  Armenia,  when  the 
country  is  more  settled  and  they  can  return  in  safety. 
In  this  way  then  too,  Cyprus  inay  become  a  rallying 
(ientre  from  which  to  send  out  captains  of  industry, 
who  unite  (as  the  best  Armenians  do)  with  Western 
science  that  comprehension  of,  and  sympathy  with. 
Eastern  needs  and  habits,  which  we  Westerns  at  first 
naturally  lack,  and  which  we  can  never  hope  completely 
to  supply. 

Tn  addition  to  silk-rearing,  the  other  processes  of 
winding,  spinning,  and  weaving  are  all  in  the  same 
need  of  being  improved. 

In  regard  to  silk-winding,  Mr.  van  Millingen  started 


io6  GENERAL 

on  a  very  small  scale  a  better  machine  than  any  exist- 
ing in  the  island.  The  machine  was  made  by  an 
Armenian  carpenter,  and  afterwards  improvements  were 
added  by  Mr.  van  Millingen  and  by  Sir  Walter  Sendall 
(the  High  Commissioner),  who  interested  himself 
keenly  in  this  department  of  the  work,  and  others. 
Encouraged  by  the  success  of  this  experiment,  Mr. 
Bunting's  Committee  hopes  to  provide  funds  for  the 
starting  of  silk-winding  on  a  larger  scale. 

One  branch  of  our  Cyprus  work,  which  may  not 
be  without  suggestiveness  to  other  centres  elsewhere, 
is  the  formation  of  a  village  colony.  A  hundred  acres 
were  oft'ered  to  us  by  the  trustees  of  the  Armenian 
Monastery  of  the  island,  rent  free,  for  a  period  of  five 
years,  on  the  condition  of  its  being  reclaimed  and  cul- 
tivated. We  afterwards  arranged  for  eight  years  instead 
of  five,  with  the  understanding  also  that  the  colonists 
should  at  the  end  of  this  period  be  kept  on  at  a  fair 
rent.  Our  Armenian  manager  estimated  that  ;^5oo 
would  be  required  to  start  a  small  group  of  families 
upon  this  land,  to  build  houses,  buy  seed,  implements, 
&c.,  and  pay  wages  to  keep  them  going  until  their  first 
crops  were  up;  for  it  was  then  too  late  to  have  the 
ground  ready  for  a  summer  crop.  Canon  Rawnsley's 
Keswick  Committee,  with  a  promptitude  for  which  we 
are  very  grateful,  wired  us  the  ^^500  required,  and  so 
enabled  us  before  leaving  the  island  to  accept  this  offer 
and  sot  going  the  preparations  for  starting  the  colony.^ 

'  Perhaps  it  has  not  been  made  sufficiently  clear  that  this  is  no  new 
initiative  of  settling  of  Armenians  in  a  strange  country,  but  simply  the 
renewal  of  one  of  their  oldest  centres  of  religion  and  of  refuge  which 
has  served  them  in  former  persecutions  again  and  again.  'J'radition- 
ally  founded  by  St.  Maghar  in  the  third  century,  its  authentic  records 
date  from  the  twelfth.  In  1 140  the  son  of  the  king  of  Armenia,  Leo  I., 
was  taken  captive  by  the  Emperor  to  Constantinople,  but  escaped 
to  Cyprus  and  stayed  here  for  some  time  along  with  some  of  his 
countrymen,  who  were  suffering  persecution  by  tlie  Greeks  of  Cyprus. 
Hidden  in  its  mouiitahis,  it  is  an  ideal  refuge.  In  1159  the  superior  of 
the  convent  was  a  member  of  the  Church  council  in  Asia  Minor,  and 


CYPRUS  107 

More  capital  could  be  carctully  employed  in  this 
way,  for  the  Monastery  owns  about  3000  acres,  and 
would  prol)ably  be  willing  to  have  more  of  it  worked 
on  similar  terms.  Personal  inspection  on  our  visit  in- 
dicated that  the  principal  spring  was  capable  of  great 
improvement,  and  a  little  work  at  once  proved  this. 
We  have  consequently  obtained  a  survey  of  the  whole 
set  of  springs  upon  which  the  fertility  of  this  estate  so 
largely  depends,  with  a  result  that  a  gradual  expendi- 
ture of  about  ^200  (which  would  of  course  employ  as 
many  men  in  relief  works  as  the  corresponding  sum 
anywhere  else)  would  not  only  permanently  enhance 
the  fertility  of  the  existing  cultivated  area,  but  notably 
extend  this. 

It  cannot  be  too  clearly  understood  that  along  this 
whole  mountain  range  the  mountain  springs  have  for 
ages  been  sealing  themselves  up  with  a  thick  deposit 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  just  as  a  kettle  in  any  limestone 
district  at  home  becomes  gradually  spoiled  by  a  limy 
deposit.  It  only  needed  a  little  geological  instruction 
in  the  field,  and  one  or  two  practical  experiments  to 
satisfy  those  we  left  in  charge,  that  here,  as  so  often 
elsewhere,  modern  science  is  but  recoverinof  the  know- 

o 

up  to  the  Turkish  occupation  in  1571,  it  frequently  served  as  a  place 
of  refuge  for  priests  and  sometimes  people  from  persecutions  on  the 
mountain.  In  1692  a  conference  with  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  was 
held.  After  the  Turkish  conquest,  Sultans  Mustapha  and  Mahraoud 
issued  several  firmans  exempting  the  convent  lands  from  taxation.  In 
1850  the  convent  became  a  dependence  of  the  Armenian  Church  at 
Nicosia  ;  its  monks  died  out  and  it  became  a  simple  farm,  and  that 
falling  out  of  cultivation.  Thus  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  in  planting 
a  colony  of  refugee  Armenians  on  the  lands  of  St.  Maghar,  there  is  no 
danger  of  exciting  race  animosities  in  Cyprus  ;  for  both  Greeks  and 
Turks,  most  respectful  of  tradition  in  all  things,  readily  admit  and 
acquiesce  in  the  prescriptive  rights  of  the  Armenians  to  their  ancient 
home.  Now  that  these  beginnings  are  made,  it  is  very  desirable  that 
some  Armenian  who  appreciates  these  traditions  of  his  people  should 
return  to  St.  Maghar — as  a  modern  abbot,  in  short.  There  is  already 
one  such  Greek  abbot  in  the  island — agriculturalist,  educationist,  and 
statesman,  as  well  as  churchman.  Have  the  Armenians  not  one  such 
somewhere  ? 


io8  GENERAL 

ledge  and  the  practical  "  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians," 
and  that  here  at  theu'  disposal  is  the  very  miracle  of 
Moses'  rod ;  for  the  geological  agriculturalist  has  again 
but  to  smite  the  rock  in  the  right  place,  and  the  waters 
gush  forth  as  of  old. 

How  much  such  an  improved  water  supply  would 
mean  for  agricultural  prosperity — in  other  words,  what 
water-springs  and  brooks  mean  in  these  thirsty  lands 
— cannot  be  adequately  realised  even  by  the  Eastern 
traveller,  not  even  by  the  Biblical  student,  save  as  he 
brings  an  increasing  study  of  the  climate  and  geology, 
agriculture  and  economics  of  the  East  to  the  interpre- 
tation of  its  literature,  its  history  on  one  hand,  of  its 
present  troubles  on  the  other.  As  one  does  this,  what 
he  may  once  have  thought  of  as  but  the  vivid  meta- 
phors of  jDoetic  expression  or  of  spiritual  teaching 
become  permanent  realities ;  as  true,  perhaps  truer 
now  than  ever.  Thus  even  the  highest  associations  of 
Water,  as  with  Peace  and  Life  in  the  highest  senses, 
are  seen  to  have  arisen  from  their  elemental  and  literal 
association — that  constant  normal  association  of  irriga- 
tion and  intensive  agriculture,  not  only  with  external 
peace  and  material  prosperity,  but  also  with  internal 
social  order,  and  with  individual  and  general  moral 
progress,  which  is  the  vital  history  of  the  East ;  and 
this  whether  Ave  read  it  in  the  Biblical  descriptions  of 
Eden  or  of  Palestine,  from  the  literature  of  ancient 
Egypt  or  from  the  teaching  of  Confucius.  "  II  faut 
cultiver  son  jardin." 

Here  then  is  one  way,  we  venture  to  say  an  impor- 
tant and  an  essential  way,  in  which  Cyprus  can  become 
a  centre  of  help  alike  i"or  the  Armenians  and  for  the 
East.  All  industry  is  no  doubt  good  in  its  way,  and 
to  encourage  needlework,  metal  work,  good  work  of  all 
kinds  is  excellent  and  desirable;  to  import  Eastei'n 
goods  for  snch  as  desire  them,  excellent  also;  and  with 
each  and  all  of  these  lines  of  work  we  have  actually 


CYPRUS  109 

been  endeavouring  in  Cyprus  to  bear  a  hand.  But  all 
such  matters  are  subsidiary  and  minor  ones,  and  will 
be  mischievous  if  they  disguise  from  us  (as  in  our 
Western  world  of  mechanical  industry,  of  manufac- 
tures and  of  commerce  they  constantly  do  disguise) 
the  fundamental  agricultural  order  of  the  East.  In  a 
word,  we  must  not  forget  that  Ave  have  first  to  aid  to 
reconstitute  the  self-supporting  agricultural  village,  in 
Cyprus,  in  Armenia,  everywhere  through  the  ruined 
East,  before  we  seek  to  reproduce  a  miniature  manu- 
facturing and  exporting  town. 


ST.    HELENA 


By  E.  a.  STERXDALE 


(Governor  of  St.  Helena  ;  Author  of  "  Mammalia  of  British 
India  and  Ceylon,"  d-c.) 


On  the  21st  day  of  May  a.d.  1502,  Joao  da  Nova, 
the  commodore  of  a  Portuguese  fleet  sailing  homeward 
from  the  East  Indies,  discovered  a  lofty  volcanic  island 
right  in  the  track  of  the  SE.  trade  winds,  in  latitude 
15°  55'  S.  and  longitude  5°  49'  W. 

The  day  of  discovery  being  that  recorded  as  the 
birthday  of  St.  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantine  the 
Great,  he  called  the  island  after  her. 

It  was  not  then  so  barren  as  it  appears  now  from 
the  sea,  for  the  frowning  cliffs  Avere  crowned  with  the 
foliage  of  indigenous  vegetation  which  has  now  almost 
disappeared,  or  has  been  supplanted  by  an  alien  flora. 
Clear  rivulets  ran  down  the  gorges  through  forests  of 
the  native  gumwood  and  ebony.  The  rivulets  remain, 
but  the  foliage,  alas  !  has  gone,  except  in  the  interior, 
where  the  luxuriance  of  the  vegetation  caused  a  recent 
traveller  to  describe  St,  Helena  as  an  emerald  set  in 
granite.  Few  people  imagine,  from  a  passing  glance, 
that  so  forbidding  an  exterior  contains,  like  a  rugged 
walnut,  so  fair  a  kernel. 

Viewed  from  the  deck  of  a  ship  it  is  certainly  not 
prepossessing.  Lofty  barren  hills  split  up  and  divided 
by  deep  gorges,  with  a  total  absence  of  verdure  beyond 
a  few  patches  of  samphire  and  cactus,  for  from  the  sea 
the  wooded  peaks  of  the  interior  are  shut  out  from 
view   by   the    })recipit«)us  clilils.       In  Joao   da   Nova's 


ST.    HELENA  i  i  i 

day  the  woods  ran  down  to  the  sea,  and  what  is 
now  a  dreary  waste  of  bare  rock  with  patches  of 
cactus  extending  from  Ladder  Hill  to  High  Knoll,  was 
then  a  dense  forest  in  which  the  earlier  settlers  used 
to  lose  their  way.  This  deforesting  arose  from  the 
cutting  down  of  the  trees,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  first 
settlements,  for  firewood  and  building  timber  ;  then  the 
goats,  which  were  imported,  bred  to  such  an  extent 
that  in  the  old  records  it  is  stated  that  the  herds  ex- 
tended for  a  mile  long.  These  devoured  the  young- 
plants,  and,  deprived  of  the  protecting  intluences  of 
leaf  and  branch,  the  heavy  rains  washed  away  the  thin 
coating  of  soil  and  exposed  the  barren  rock. 

In  the  interior  the  soil  being  of  greater  depth  and, 
where  not  covered  by  trees,  protected  by  grass,  the 
luxuriance  of  tlie  vegetation  is  in  striking  contrast  to 
the  outer  zone  of  lava. 

Melliss  in  his  admirable  work  on  the  island  says : 
"  Its  isolated  position,  its  peculiar  fauna,  and  its 
very  remarkable  insular  fiora,  together  with  its  geo- 
logical character,  present  strong  reasons  for  placing 
St.  Helena  amongst  the  oldest  land  now  existing  on 
the  face  of  the  globe." 

The  island  is  bisected  by  a  semicircular  ridge,  of 
which  the  highest  point,  Diana's  Peak,  is  2740  feet 
above  the  sea.  To  the  south  of  this  ridge  lies  an 
enormous  basin,  measuring  about  four  miles  across, 
which  forms  part  of  the  huge  crater  which  existed  at 
the  volcanic  period,  the  southern  edge  of  this  crater 
now  being  submerged  in  Sandy  Bay.  The  view  from 
the  central  ridge,  or  from  the  high  road  above  Mount 
Pleasant,  is  one  not  easily  to  be  surpassed,  and  I  hope 
it  will  at  some  future  time  tempt  artists  of  note  to 
come  and  place  it  on  the  Avails  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
From  the  latter  point  of  view  rise  to  the  left  the  peaks 
of  Acta3on  and  Diana  clothed  in  a  forest  of  the  old- 
world   Hora — tree  ferns,  dogwood,  gumwood,  and  cab- 


1 1  2  GENERAL 

bage  trees.  Away  to  the  right  is  a  grand  range  of 
rocks,  to  describe  which  I  will  quote,  to  me,  an  unknown 
writer,  a  few  scraps  of  whose  graphic  pictures  I 
found  not  long  ago.  "  On  the  right,"  he  says,  "  great 
rugged  mountains,  black  and  naked,  stretch  their  craggy 
peaks  heavenward,  the  rocky  summits  being  spht  and 
rent  into  the  most  fantastic  outline,  and  seeming  in 
their  huge  uprising  to  have  shivered  the  strata  through 
Avhich  they  forced  their  way,  and  sent  the  boulders 
rolling  into  the  vast  abyss  below  in  all  directions — 

'Crags,  knolls,  and  inouuds  confusedly  hnrl'd, 
The  fragments  of  an  earlier  world.' 

"  Conspicuous  in  the  centre  of  the  chasm  the 
rocky  pyramid  of  Lot  shoots  its  weather-Avorn  pinnacle 
abruptly  out  of  the  surrounding  scoria ;  while  to  wind- 
ward, in  an  opening  of  the  cliffs,  is  seen  the  bay  with 
its  narrow  fringe  of  surf;  and  beyond  all  the  vast 
expanse  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  where,  ever  and  anon, 
favoured  by  the  trade  wind  from  the  Cape, 

'  The  stately  ships  move  on 

To  their  haven  under  the  hill.' " 

No  description  of  mine  could  improve  on  the  above 
bit  of  word-painting.  The  Lot  mentioned  is  a  huge 
monolith  of  hard  grey-stone  shaped  like  a  cone,  situated 
on  a  ridge  about  1440  feet  above  the  sea,  and  rising 
from  a  base  100  feet  in  diameter  to  a  height  of  nearly 
300  feet.  About  a  mile  farther  to  the  south-west  is 
Lot's  Wife,  another  monolith,  about  260  feet  high  and 
1550  feet  above  the  sea,  which  has  the  peculiarity  of 
being  narrower  at  the  base  than  at  the  top.  I  have 
not  space  for  a  geological  sketch  of  the  island,  but 
every  turn  is  full  of  interest,  and  the  newcomer,  in 
going  from  Jamestown  up  the  road  to  Ladder  Hill, 
looks  with  a  shudder  at  the  masses  of  overhauging 
rocks  which  ages  ago  were  streams  of  molten  lava 
cooling  into  most  weird  and  fantastic  forms. 


ST.    HELENA  i  i  3 

St.  Helena  is  very  well  watered,  and  in  this  it 
favourably  contrasts  with  the  volcanic  island  of  Ascen- 
sion. There  are  over  two  hundred  springs  discharging 
fresh  water  into  the  ocean.  The  best  testimony  to  the 
generosity  of  soil  and  climate  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  trees  from  all  parts  of  the  world  have  been 
successfully  introduced,  and  have  flourished  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  drive  back  the  indigenous  flora  to  the 
central  mountains.  The  extensive  grounds  of  Govern- 
ment House  contain  trees  from  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
Australia,  and  Polynesia.  The  Araucaria  excelsa,  or 
Norfolk  Island  Pine,  so  commonly  seen  as  a  pot  plant 
in  English  conservatories,  grows  here  to  a  height  of 
over  100  feet.  Side  by  side  with  a  tree  from  Ceylon 
is  t  he  South  Sea  Island  pawhtnus  or  screw  pine ;  the 
oak  and  the  bamboo,  the  apple  and  the  banana, 
mingle  their  foliage ;  here  and  there  an  indigenf)us 
tree  stands  amid  a  host  of  aliens.  The  English  furze 
and  blackberry  have  overrun  the  island,  but  every 
marshy  valley  is  white  with  the  snowy  blooms  of  the 
Arum  lily.  ^  All  the  mammals  on  the  island  have  been 
imported — the  ubiquitous  rat,  the  pest  of  the  place, 
not  excepted.  In  Jofio  da  Nova's  day  the  only 
mammal  was  the  manatee  or  sea-cow  (Manatus  amtralis 
or  JA  Scncgalensis),  the  former  being  the  American  and 
the  latter  the  African  species.  It  may,  however,  have 
been  peculiar  to  the  island,  but  for  centuries  it  has 
been  killed  when  found  ashore,  and  the  last  one  was 
destroyed  in  1 8 1  o,  and  there  is  not  even  a  bone  left 
for  a  naturalist  to  speculate  upon.  The  only  indigenous 
land-bird  is  a  small  one  of  the  plover  family  {Au/ia(ifis 
Snndce  Hdencc),  or  "  wire-bird,"  as  it  is  locally  called, 
the  other  birds  being  imported  ones,  and  are  mostly 
of  the  finch  family.  Canaries  are  wild  and  numerous, 
and  are  charming  songsters ;  and  there  is  a  beautiful 
little  crimson  bird  called  the  cardinal  finch.  Avaduvats 
and  Java  sparrows  abound,  a  small  ground  dove,  a 
v  H 


114  GENERAL 

pheasant  from  China,  and  a  partridge  from  India. 
There  are  no  birds  of  prey,  but  insectivorous  birds  are 
greatly  wanted  to  keep  down  numerous  insect  pests. 
There  are  no  snakes  nor  any  noxious  reptile,  reptilia 
being  represented  only  by  a  harmless  little  lizard,  two 
enormous  tortoises  of  fabulous  age^it  is  said  over  i  5  o 
years — and  a  small  species  of  frog  introduced  lately, 
and  which  has  now  spread  marvellously  all  over  the 
island. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  history  of  the  place,  I 
must  briefly  mention  its  inhabitants.  The  Portu- 
guese left  no  trace  of  their  occupancy,  nor  did  the 
Dutch,  so  I  allude  to  the  present  people  of  St.  Helena 
— not  the  English  descendants  of  the  old  colonial 
officials  who  settled  in  the  island,  the  gentry  of  the 
place,  but  to  the  St.  Helenians  proper.  Sixty-five 
years  ago  they  were  slaves,  and  consisted  of  a  mixture 
of  Europeans,  Asiatics  (including  Chinese),  and  Africans. 
I  am  of  opinion  that  the  majority  of  the  people  are 
descended  from  the  Malayo  -  Polynesians  imported 
from  Madasrascar,  which  used  to  be  the  favourite 
source  of  slave  supply  in  the  old  days.  In  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  they  were  cruelly 
treated,  as  the  records  of  the  time  amply  shoAv,  but  in 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century  their  condition 
was  much  ameliorated,  and  their  emancipation  was 
conducted  with  a  wise  and  gradual  progression.  The 
initiative  was  due  to  Sir  Hudson  Lowe,  the  well-known 
custodian  of  Napoleon,  who,  after  mucli  deliberation, 
induced  the  proprietor  inhabitants  to  agree  that  after 
Christmas  Day  1818,  all  children  born  of  slave  parents 
should  be  free.  The  cause  of  the  slaves  was  still 
further  advanced  by  the  philanthropic  treatment  of 
General  Alexander  Walker,  who  became  Governor  in 
March  1823,  and  wlio  made  great  efforts  to  improve 
their  religious  and  moral  condition,  and  so  fit  them 
for  their  final  emancipation  in  1832,  when,  at  a  cost  of 


ST.    HELENA  115 

i^2  8,000,  they  wore  made  free.  It  may  take  some 
generations  to  eradicate  habits  of  dependence  and  in- 
dolence, which  are  the  hereditary  results  of  so  long 
a  period  of  slavery,  but  education  has  told  and  is 
telling  on  them,  and,  as  Melliss  writes  of  them,  "  they 
are  a  very  quiet,  tractable,  inoffensive  people,  amongst 
whom  crime  is  small,  nuu'der  unknown,  and  burglary 
so  little  thought  of  that  doors  and  windows  of  houses 
are  not  secured  by  bolts  and  bars,  or  even  locks  and 
keys."  I  can  confirm  this,  for  during  fourteen  criminal 
sessions,  over  which  I  presided  as  Chief-Justice,  I  had 
white  gloves  presented  to  me  on  all  but  two  occasions. 
They  are  very  steady  churchgoers,  and  most  of  them 
belong  to  benevolent  and  other  charitable  societies. 
The  two  great  denominations  are  Church  of  England 
and  Baptists.  The  Salvation  Army  is  also  represented. 
The  first  is  presided  over  by  the  bishop,  assisted  by 
the  vicars  of  the  three  parishes  of  St.  James',  St.  Paul's, 
and  St.  Matthew's,  who  are  also  Canons  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral.  Besides  these  churches  there  is  a  Garrison 
church  in  Jamestown,  built  at  the  time  when  the 
military  force  was  too  large  to  be  accommodated  in  St. 
James'  Church.  None  of  the  churches  can  lay  claim 
to  any  architectural  beauty ;  the  most  imposing  is  that 
of  St.  James,  which  I  think  should  have  been  the 
cathedral,  preference  having  been  given  to  St.  Paul's 
on  account  of  its  central  position  I  suppose,  for  St. 
James'  must  have  been  built  on  the  site  of  the  chapel 
erected  by  the  Portuguese,  from  which  the  valley  Avas 
called  Chapel  Valley,  subsequently  named  James' 
Valley,  and  Jamestown  after  King  James  II. 

The  present  Cathedral  of  St.  Paul  was  erected  in 
1847—48  on  the  site  of  an  older  country  church,  the 
memory  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  monuments  trans- 
ferred to  the  walls  of  the  existin<>-  edifice.  St.  Paul's 
is  utterly  devoid  of  architectural  beauty  outside  or  in. 
The  addition  of  a  tower  or  spire  would  add  greatly  to 


ii6  GENERAL 

its  appearance,  and  it  is  commandingly  situated  on  a 
hill  at  the  back  of  the  Government  House,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  the  principal  cemetery  of  the  island ;  it  is 
roomy,  and  that  is  all  that  can  be  said  of  it,  but  is 
capable  of  much  improvement  in  the  way  of  orna- 
mentation, but,  alas,  there  are  no  funds  available,  nor 
likely  to  be  for  some  time.  When  I  arrived  in  the 
island  I  found  that  there  was  not  an  organ  in  any 
of  the  churches,  the  one  in  St.  James'  having  been 
entirely  destroyed  by  the  white  ants  which  devastated 
the  town  about  thirty-five  years  ago.  In  the  cathedral 
the  services  were  conducted  with  a  very  indifterent 
harmonium,  but  I  found  a  little  old  organ  all  in  ruins ; 
it  had  one  tiny  keyboard,  no  pedals. 

We  were  fortunate  in  having  some  one  on  the 
island  who  understood  organ-building,  so  we  had  it 
repaired,  as  the  tone  was  good.  But  it  is  very  desir- 
able that  the  principal  place  of  worship  in  the  island 
should  possess  an  organ  even  as  good  as  most  country 
villages  in  England  have.  In  no  place  in  the  world 
would  it  be  more  appreciated,  for  the  St.  Helenians 
are  devoted  to  music.  I  found  the  local  band  in  a 
moribund  condition,  but  by  the  purchase  of  some  new 
instruments  and  a  more  liberal  patronage  it  has  revived. 
The  performers  are  mostly  labourers  and  out-door 
servants,  and  it  is  a  pleasant  sight  to  me  to  see  the 
men  after  then*  day's  work  trudging  down  to  James- 
town to  attend  the  evening  practices.  The  church 
choirs  are  also  popular  with  them,  and  some  of  the 
voices,  though  untrained,  are  very  good.  In  the  funeral 
services  the  organ  would  bo  greatly  appreciated,  for  the 
St.  Helenians  dearly  love  a  funeral,  and  always  demand 
a  hymn  to  bo  sung  at  the  side  of  the  grave.  I  think 
the  late  bishop  was  right  in  liis  opinion  when  he  told 
me  that  the  love  of  the  St.  Helenians  for  a  grand 
funeral  had  its  origin  in  the  old  slave  days.  In  those 
days  the  slaves  were  ])uricd  anywhere  and  anyhow.     In 


ST.    HELENA  117 

the  Government  House  grounds,  near  some  large  clumps 
of  Indian  bamboos,  in  a  valley  where  the  Chinese  had 
their  Joss-house,  are  a  couple  of  small  headstones,  one 
of  which  is  dated  1777,  and  a  few  others  in  fragments, 
and  in  many  places  in  the  island  are  to  be  found  traces 
of  slave  burial ;  but  their  masters  had  imposing  funerals, 
which  they  had  to  attend,  and  then  when  emancipation 
came  they,  too,  went  in  for  a  more  ceremonious  way  of 
disposing  of  their  dead.  The  St.  Helenian  is  very  loyal. 
Away  in  his  island  honie,  in  the  very  centre  of  the  wide 
Atlantic,  he  is  no  politician ;  he  knows  nothing  of  party 
feeling,  and  cares  little  about  other  countries  save  Eng- 
land and  England's  Queen,  who  is  also  his  Queen,  re- 
presented by  the  Governor  she  sends  out  to  look  after 
his  interests,  and  he  is  not  chary  of  the  little  money  he 
has  when  any  loyal  demonstration  calls  for  it,  as  on  the 
Jubilee  of  her  Majesty's  Accession  in  1887,  and  again 
on  the  occasion  of  the  Diamond  Jubilee  of  1897. 

His  lot  is  very  different  now  to  what  it  was  in  the 
old  days  of  slavery. 

Owing  to  the  wise  and  gradual  process  of  emanci- 
pation adopted  here,  the  free  children  growing  up  with 
their  slave  parents,  the  evils  of  sudden  manumission 
so  disastrously  felt  in  the  West  Indies  were  avoided  in 
St.  Helena,  and  the  result  is  a  manly,  civil,  and  honest 
people,  quite  as  well  educated  as  the  same  class  in  the 
United  Kingdom  (in  fact,  the  English  tongue  is  spoken 
by  them  with  greater  purity  than  in  most  of  our  rural 
districts  in  England),  living  in  comfortable  cottages,  in 
many  cases  with  productive  little  gardens  attached. 
Contrast  this  life  with  that  of  the  seventeenth  and 
ciijhteenth  centuries : — 

Slaves  were  judicially  tortured,  hung,  drawn  and 
quartered,  and  burnt  alive  on  mere  circumstantial  evi- 
dence, whilst  for  open  acts  of  diabolical  cruelty  their 
masters  were  acquitted  or  slightly  punished.  I  take 
the  follow ino-  instances  from  the  records : — 


ii8  GENERAL 

"January  2,  1693. —  J  amy,  a  slave  of  Deputy-Gover- 
nor Keeling,  found  guilty  of  sorcery  and  burnt  to 
death." 

"In  November  1687  Peter,  and  December  1689 
Job  and  Derick,  slaves,  convicted  of  poisoning  tbeir 
masters  out  of  revenge,  were  burnt  to  death ;  all  other 
slaves  to  be  present,  and  to  bring  down  a  turn  of  wood 
for  the  purpose." 

"  A  black  who  was  tried  before  a  jury  and  acquitted, 
was  ordered  to  be  flogged  before  being  discharged  ! " 

"  For  stealing  a  piece  of  cloth  from  a  sailor  in  the 
street,  William  Whaley  was  hung  on  the  24th  July 
1789;  and  on  the  15  th  January  1800,  Job,  Mr. 
Defountain's  slave,  was  hung  for  snatching  a  bottle  of 
liquor  from  a  drunken  soldier.  Both  these  cases  were 
looked  upon  as  highway  robbery." 

"  A  young  girl  was  found  guilty  of  burglary ;  the 
jury  were  told  to  reconsider  their  verdict,  but  they 
adhered  to  it,  and  she  was  sentenced  to  death.  She 
was  respited  for  a  time,  but  hung  herself  in  prison." 

But  the  times  were  cruel,  and  we  must  remember 
that  in  England  highway  robbery,  sheep-stealing,  and 
forgery  were  capital  offences. 

Even  the  Avhites  in  St.  Helena  suffered  cruel 
punishments.  In  1684  Elizabeth  Starling  was  flogged 
and  ducked  three  times.  In  November  1728,  Ensign 
Slaughter,  accused  of  slandering  the  Governor,  was 
flogged  ;  and  later  in  the  records  is  a  reference  to  this 
whipping,  which,  it  is  stated,  was  done  Avith  wire- 
whips  and  fish-hooks  tied  to  a  cord ! 

As  regards  the  history  of  the  island,  the  first  pur- 
pose to  which  St.  Helena  was  put  in  i  5  i  3  was  to  make 
it  a  place  of  exile  for  a  Portuguese  noble  named  Fernao 
Lopez,  who,  having  been  disgraced  and  mutilated,  was 
left  here  with  a  few  slaves  and  a  stock  of  pigs,  goats, 
and  poultry. 

Heiict'ldrtli  tlio    Portuguese  made  it  a  port  of  call; 


ST.    HELENA  119 

and  by  the  end  ot"  the  century  there  was  a  considerable 
settlement  there  with  a  church ;  but  the  attention  of 
tlie  Mother  Country  having  been  diverted  into  other 
channels,  St.  Helena  was  neglected  and  finally  aban- 
doned. The  Dutch  then  took  possession  of  it  and 
retained  it  till  165  i,  when  they  left  it  in  order  to  con- 
centrate themselves  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the 
island  was  at  once  appropriated  by  the  English  East 
India  Company,  who  improved  the  place  much,  and 
strengthened  the  fortifications  in  Chapel  Valley,  which 
original  name  they  changed  to  James'  Valley,  in  honour 
of  the  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.  Fort  James 
gave  in  recent  years  its  name  to  Jamestown,  the  pre- 
sent capital.  It  is  stated  in  Melliss'  book  that  the 
Dutch  captured  the  island  in  1665,  and  it  is  so  asserted 
in  Anderson's  "  History  of  Commerce,"  but  there  is  no 
proof  or  contemporary  record  of  such  an  occurrence. 

The  Dutch,  however,  made  a  strong  attempt  to 
regain  the  place,  and  in  1672,  after  a  severe  repulse 
in  Lemon  Valley,  they  succeeded  in  landing  500  men 
at  Bennett's  Point  and  penetrated  inland  nearly  to 
High  Peak,  where  they  were  met  by  a  small  force 
from  the  island  garrison.  An  engagement  ensued 
which  ended  in  victory  on  the  side  of  the  invaders, 
who  then  marched  upon  Fort  James,  which  capitulated 
after  long  and  tedious  attacks.  The  Governor  and 
most  of  the  English  inhabitants  escaped  with  their 
goods  on  board  the  sliips  which  were  in  the  harbour, 
and  making  for  the  Brazilian  coast  they  fell  in  with  a 
British  squadron  under  the  command  of  Captain  (after- 
wards Sir  Richard)  Munden,  wdio  immediately  bore  up 
for  St.  Helena  and,  unperceived  by  the  Dutch,  landed 
a  force  of  200  men  at  a  spot  on  the  east  coast,  to 
make  their  way  across  whilst  he  sailed  round  to  James' 
Bay.  The  little  force  which  had  been  landed  was 
guided  by  Oliver,  an  island-born  slave,  through  the 
rugged   ravines    till    at    last   farther    progress   seemed 


I20  GENERAL 

to  be  stayed  by  an  insurmountable  barrier.  A  sailor 
named  Tom  volunteered,  however,  to  scale  the  preci- 
pice, and  amid  the  encouraging  shouts  of  "  Hold  fast, 
Tom ! "  from  his  comrades  he  succeeded,  taking  with 
him  a  ball  of  twine  by  means  of  which  he  was  enabled 
to  haul  up  ropes.  The  rock  is  called  "  Holdfast  Tom  " 
to  this  day  in  memory  of  the  gallant  action  by  which 
the  little  force  was  enabled  to  gain  the  heights  of 
Longwood,  and  thence  to  march  on  to  the  top  of 
Rupert's  Hill  overlooking  James'  Valley.  Captain 
Munden  appearing  at  the  same  time  in  the  Bay, 
the  Dutch  were  so  surprised  at  being  taken  in  front 
and  rear  that  they  surrendered  at  once.  Captain 
Munden  erected  the  fortification  known  as  Munden's 
Battery,  and  otherwise  strengthened  the  place ;  and  he 
had  the  satisfaction  of  taking  prisoner  the  Dutch 
Governor  who  had  been  sent  out  to  assume  the 
charge  of  the  island,  and  also  of  securing  several 
richly-laden  Dutch  vessels  which,  not  suspecting  that 
an  enemy  was  in  possession,  had  put  in  on  their 
homeward  way.  Since  then  St.  Helena  has  remained 
undisturbed  in  British  hands. 

Three  years  later  the  island  was  visited  by  the 
celebrated  astronomer  Halley,  in  memory  of  whom 
the  high  ridge  on  which  he  pitched  his  tent  has  been 
named  "  Halley 's  Mount." 

The  East  India  Company  were  determined  to  make 
the  place  iuiprcguable  for  the  future,  and  batteries 
were  built  to  command  every  weak  point  and  the 
garrison  increased.  For  nearly  two  centuries  it  was 
looked  upon  as  a  valued  possession,  and  a  sum  of 
between  eighty  and  ninety  thousand  pounds  was 
annually  spent  on  it.  Of  local  forces,  there  were 
three  companies  of  St,  Helena  Artillery  and  the 
St.  Helena  Regiment  of  Infantry,  700  strong,  besides 
Militia. 

No    wonder,    then,    that    the   British    Government 


ST.    HELENA  121 

casting  their  eyes  about  for  a  safe  place  in  which 
to  confine  the  Great  Emperor,  fixed  upon  the  Gib- 
raltar of  the  South  Atlantic  as  a  fitting  prison ;  and 
accordingly  Napoleon  was  conveyed  there  in  October 
1 8  I  5  ;  and  there  he  died  in  May  i  8  2  i . 

In  1 832,  the  East  India  Company  abolished  slavery 
at  a  cost  of  ;!^2  8,000. 

The  first  blow  to  the  prosperity  of  the  St. 
Helenians  came  in  the  following  year,  when  the  island 
was  transferred  from  the  East  India  Company  to  the 
Home  Government.  Some  little  time  elapsed  ere  the 
transaction  was  completed;  but  on  the  24th  February 
1836,  Major-General  Middlemore  took  formal  posses- 
sion in  the  name  of  his  Majesty,  William  IV. 

The  change  told  heavily  on  the  official  residents ; 
for  the  Company's  staff'  was  greatly  reduced,  and  many 
who  had  been  in  receipt  of  good  salaries  found  them- 
selves cut  down  to  comparative  penury. 

The  salary  of  the  Company's  Governors  had  been 
about  ;i^5ooo  per  annum  ;  that  of  the  Crown  Governor 
was  fixed  at  about  one-half.  Still  a  considerable  civil 
staff  was  kept  up ;  and  in  1 840  a  Vice- Admiralty 
Court  for  the  trial  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  slave 
trade  was  established,  which,  with  the  working  of  the 
Liberated  African  Depot  and  the  frequent  visits  of  the 
naval  squadron  employed  in  the  suppression  of  the 
slave  trade,  brought  into  circulation  a  considerable 
amount  of  money  and  furnished  employment  to  the 
islanders,  though  unfortunately  of  a  kind  to  cause 
them  to  neglect  the  diligent  cultivation  of  their  fertile 
soil,  which  would  have  been  ultimately  of  greater 
benefit  to  them.  The  total  extinction  of  the  slave 
trade  after  the  American  War  led  to  the  reduction 
of  the  West  African  Squadron  and  the  abolition  of  the 
Liberated  African  Establishment ;  and  then  truly  hard 
times  began  to  fall  on  the  poor  little  island. 

This  time  it  was  an  invasion  of  an  enemy  which 


122  GENERAL 

did  infinitely  more  harm  than  did  the  earlier  invaders, 
the  Dutch.  In  the  debris  of  a  condemned  vessel  there 
happened  to  be  a  colony  of  white  ants ;  and  these 
grew  and  multiplied  in  their  new  home  to  such  an 
extent  that  Jamestown  was  almost  ruined.  When  I 
visited  the  island  in  1861,  I  was  shown  some  of  the 
ravages  committed  by  this  wicked  little  insect,  of 
which  I  had  seen  a  good  deal  in  India,  but  of  whose 
iniquities  1  had  not  till  then  formed  an  adequate 
conception.  However,  in  justice  to  our  Indian  termite, 
I  may  say  that  the  St.  Helenian  pest  was  many  years 
afterwards  identified,  by  means  of  specimens  taken  to 
England  by  Mr.  Melliss,  as  belonging  to  a  South 
American  species,  and  was  probably  introduced  in  the 
timbers  of  a  Brazilian  slaver. 

Still  the  St.  Helenians  jogged  on  comfortably 
enough  in  the  little  world  of  their  own  in  spite  of 
failing  sources  of  revenue  and  white  ants  and  a  negro 
element  in  the  population,  which  they  would  rather 
have  done  without ;  and  though  some  of  the  wiser 
ones  may  have  looked  anxiously  ahead  in  anticipation 
of  evil  times  to  come,  still  the  majority  knew  little 
and  cared  less  for  the  Suez  Canal,  and  were  happj- 
enough  in  the  custom  of  the  thousand  ships  which 
annually  cast  anchor  in  their  harbour.  But  the  Canal 
was  at  last  finished,  and  ruin  was  hastened.  Year  by 
year  saw  the  lessening  of  the  talc  of  vessels.  The 
old  familiar  names  of  the  great  passenger  liners  ceased 
to  gladden  the  eyes  of  those  who  used  to  look  out  for 
them.  Few  passengers  went  to  India  round  the  Cape ; 
so  the  ships  were  sent  to  Australia  and  other  distant 
lands,  or  were  l>roken  up  as  they  got  old  and  were 
replaced  by  powei-ful  steamers  or  great  four-masted 
vessels  fitted  with  all  the  modern  ap})liances  that 
obviated  the  necessity  for  their  putting  in  anyAvhere 
during  the  voyage  for  water  or  fresh  provisions.  And 
so,  year  by  year,  the  numb(!r  of  vessels  lessened,  till  at 


ST.    HELENA  123 

last  not  one-fourth  anchored  in  the  almost  deserted 
hiirbour. 

Now  became  apparent  the  foll}'^  of  neglecting  the 
natural  capabilities  of  the  soil  for  the  doubtful  advan- 
tages of  an  outside  traffic.  St.  Helena  had  no  export 
trade.  She  imported  everything,  even  to  the  food 
which  she  oucdit  to  have  been  able  to  otow  for  her 
own  people.  If  her  arable  land  was  not  extensive,  her 
population  was  in  ratio  not  excessive.  Montserrat,  an 
island  of  the  same  area  and  of  like  mountainous  char- 
acter, has  a  thriving  export  trade,  and  supports  a  popu- 
lation now  three  times  as  great  as  that  of  St.  Helena. 
But  in  the  case  of  the  latter  her  exports  are  nil,  and 
her  population  is  yearly  decreasing  by  emigration. 

Such,  briefly,  is  the  history  of  one  of  the  most 
charming  of  our  smaller  colonies.  As  I  have  remarked 
elsewhere,  there  was  a  time  when  St.  Helena  was  a 
household  word  in  the  mouths  of  Englishmen  and  their 
children. 

"  But  now,  beyond  the  fact  of  its  having  been  the 
prison  of  Napoleon,  and  a  vague  idea  that  it  is  a  barren 
volcanic  rock  somewhere  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean, 
and  that  it  had  a  green  spot  with  a  weeping  willow- 
tree  hanging  over  the  grave  that  once  held  the  Great 
Emperor,  few  people  know  anything  about  the  island. 
That  it  over  had  a  past  beyond  the  historical  incident 
just  alluded  to,  or  that  it  is  capable  of  a  future,  enters 
not  into  the  minds  of  men.  Old  Anglo- Indians  used 
to  know  something  of  it  when  the  only  route  to  India 
was  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  and  even  up  to 
the  time  of  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  when  sail- 
ing-vessels ceased  to  carry  passengers  to  the  East,  it 
was  visited  by  some,  like  myself,  who,  for  considera- 
tions of  health,  took  the  longer  sea  voyage.  Now  a 
few  passengers  to  the  Cape  touch  there ;  but  the  time 
allowed  is  so  short  that  but  little  of  the  island  can  be 
seen,  and  many  content  themselves  with  a  view  of  the 


124  GENERAL 

outside  which,  Uke  the  rugged  walnut,  contains  so  fau- 
a  kernel."  ^ 

As  regards  climate  St.  Helena  has  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  world  ;  I  think  even  preferable  to  Madeira, 
bemg  drier  in  parts,  and  its  effect  on  weak-chested 
and  consumptive  patients  has  been  most  beneficial. 
A  steady  cool  trade-wind  from  the  south-east  blows 
all  the  year  round  and  keeps  down  the  heat  of  the 
tropics.  Europeans  go  about  with  small  caps  on  their 
heads,  yet  sunstroke  is  not  known.  I  have  experi- 
enced much  hotter  summers  in  England  than  in  St. 
Helena.  The  maximum  temperature  in  Jamestown, 
a  confined  valley  near  the  sea,  is  84°,  whilst  up  in  the 
interior  it  is  ten  degrees  cooler ;  the  minimum  cold  in 
winter  on  the  high  lands  is  about  50°. 

The  rainfall  varies  very  much  according  to  locality. 
Taking  last  year  (1898)  as  an  average,  it  was  36.06 
inches  at  Mount  Pleasant,  but  only  4.82  in  Jamestown. 
The  population  is  about  4000,  and  the  death-rate  is 
about  14  per  1000,  including  seamen  landed  seriously 
ill.  Many  of  the  latter,  however,  recover,  there  being  an 
excellent  hospital  with  a  most  careful  staff  of  nurses. 

The  longevity  of  the  inhabitants  is  remarkable, 
many  of  whom  over  eighty  years  of  age  continue 
working,  and  think  nothing  of  walking  miles  up  the 
steep  roads.  The  late  Bishop  was  still  actively  con- 
trolling his  diocese  when,  in  his  eighty-ninth  year,  he 
was  killed  in  a  carriage  accident.  Lately  there  died 
at  the  Castle,  aged  over  ninety,  an  old  lady  (Miss  E.  P. 
Bagley)  who  had  been  custodian  of  that  building  for 
many  years.  She  belonged  to  one  of  the  old  families 
of  the  island  who  wore  well-to-do  in  the  East  India 
Company's  time ;  though  contincd  to  her  bed  for  years 
and  unable  to  move  she  Avas  of  a  most  bright  and 
cheeitul  disposition,  and  was  possessed  to  the  last  of 

'   From   an  article  by   the  writer  in  tlie  Asialir  QiKirlerJij    Review, 
entitled  '•  St  Helena  :  1'he  Liibrallar  of  the  youth  Atlantic." 


ST.    HELENA  125 

all  her  mental  t'aculUcs.  She  used  to  receive  her 
friends  daily,  and  all  visitors  of  note  were  to  be  found 
at  her  bedside  ;  admirals  and  generals  and  officers  of 
the  army  and  navy  were  her  especial  favourites,  and 
they  used  to  please  her  greatly  when  they  went  in 
uniform.  She  was  full  of  anecdotes  and  reminiscences 
of  the  past,  and  remembered  the  landing  of  Napoleon, 
and  was  present  at  his  funeral  and  exhumation.  Her 
death  last  year  severed  a  most  interesting  link  willi 
that  historic  period. 

The  island  has  again  lately  come  to  the  front  as 
a  State  prison,  General  P.  A.  Cronje  and  2000  of  his 
Boer  followers  having  been  sent  here  after  the  sur- 
render at  Paardeberg.  With  him  came  also  Colonel 
Schiel,  the  Comte  de  Breda,  and  a  number  of  the 
officers  of  the  Transvaal  army,  and  later  on  Eloft'  and 
others  who  were  taken  at  Mafcking. 

General  Cronje'  with  liis  wife,  grandson,  secretary, 
and  adjutant  reside  in  a  small  house,  called  Kent 
Cottage,  under  a  guard.  The  rest  of  the  war  prisoners 
are  in  camp  five  miles  off,  near  Longwood,  on  a  healthy 
breezy  plateau  called  Deadwood  Plain.  They  are  en- 
camped in  a  large  enclosure  surrounded  by  barbed 
wire  fencing.  They  have  good  tents,  plenty  of  good 
food,  excellent  water,  and  room  for  recreation — such 
as  cricket,  football,  &c.  Some  of  the  officers  are  on 
parole,  and  such  men  as  like  to  work  arc  employed  on 
fixed  wages.  On  the  whole,  I  do  not  think  they  will 
look  back  on  their  imprisonment  here  with  feelings  of 
animosity. 

There  are  no  industries  at  present  in  St.  Helena,  but 
there  are  capabilities  of  a  good  business  in  fish-curing 
and  of  preparing  fibre  from  the  Ficrcrcea  gigantea,,  an  aloe 
which  grows  wild  all  over  the  island,  Avith  leaves  vary- 
ing fi'om  three  to  eight  feet  long,  which  yield  a  fibre 
equal  to  Manilla  hemp,  conunanding  a  good  price. 
Coffee  of  an  excellent  quality  is  also  grown,  and  the 


126  GENERAL 

cultivation  is  capable  of  much  extension.  The  pas- 
sage troni  England  by  mail  steamer  takes  sixteen  days, 
the  greater  part  of  the  voyage  being  in  beautiful  calm 
weather. 

The  island  has  a  submarine  cable  to  the  Cape, 
and  has  lately  been  connected  directly  Avith  the  United 
Kingdom  via  Ascension. 

As  a  place  of  resort  for  invalids  and  artists  in 
search  of  health  and  the  beautiful  in  scenery,  I  think 
there  is  a  chance  of  St.  Helena  becoming  a  favourite  in 
the  future  when  it  sets  better  known. 


THE     NEGRO     IN     BARBADOS 

By    WALTKI;     MERIVALE,   Mkmb.    Inst.    C.E. 
I^Late  Managiiui  Director  of  the  Barbados  Railway) 

There  is  little  in  the  history  of  the  world  that  o})tiiins 
as  much  attention  from  students  as  the  development 
of  the  various  races  of  man  from  their  primitive  con- 
dition of  savagery  into  their  supreme  station  of  civilisa- 
tion and  their  gradual  return  to  barbarism.  In  a 
greater  or  lesser  degree  this  rise  and  fall  is  the  history 
of  every  race,  so  far  as  it  is  known,  and  there  may  be 
something  of  the  selfish  pleasure  one  feels  in  reading- 
one's  family  history  in  thus  studying  the  history  of  our 
species.  The  consciousness  that  the  life  of  our  own 
nation  nuist  be  lived  within  lines  parallel  to  those  of 
the  lives  of  the  nations  we  read  about,  gives  us  a  s2Jecial 
interest  in  the  account  of  their  doings,  the  causes  of 
their  rise,  and  the  reasons  of  their  fall.  It  is  with 
difficulty  that  with  rough  pick  and  shovel,  with  photo- 
graphy, with  chemical  analysis,  and  with  etymological 
science  we  trace  the  rough  outlines  of  the  early 
scenes  of  the  life  of  great  nations,  often  smearing  out 
the  tentative  sketches  of  our  predecessors  as  the  de- 
velopment of  a  photograph,  or  the  turn  of  a  shovel, 
enables  us  to  fill  in  some  detail  in  the  scene,  until  at 
last  the  canvas  is  full.  Often  however  we  nuist  rely 
upon  imagination  for  the  filling  up  of  gaps  that  are 
far  wider  than  the  part  painted.  What  can  we  say 
of  the  ancestors  of  even  such  a  modern  nation  as  the 
English  before  the  time  when  Julius  Caasar  found 
them    wandering    about    the    island,    painted    savages 


128  GENERAL 

with  stone  hatchets  ?  And  yet,  to  have  arrived  at 
even  that  degree  of  civiHsation,  they  must  have  toiled 
patiently  upwards  for  many  centuries,  and  that  they  did 
so  the  little  Ave  can  find  out  about  them  from  their 
tombs  tells  us.  And  the  earlier  pages  of  the  history 
even  of  Caesar's  own  great  nation  are  very  blank. 
It  is  with  a  greater  interest,  then,  that  we  may  turn 
to  the  history  of  the  West  Indian  negro,  who  has 
orown  from  a  savage  into  a  man  of  culture  in  four 
hundred  years.  His  compatriots  are  still  wandering 
about  the  primeval  forests  of  Africa  precisely  as  he 
left  them  between  one  hundred  and  four  hundred 
years  ago ;  but  he  is  walking  erect,  in  top-hat  and 
trousers,  administering  justice  in  silk  to  European 
litigants,  or  in  bands,  gaiters,  and  lawn-sleeves  giving 
his  blessing  to  his  kneeling  iiock  in  an  English  church. 
His  ancestors  are,  so  to  speak,  still  with  us,  and 
we  can  study  them  at  our  case  ;  we  need  no  con- 
jecture to  enable  us  to  paint  the  picture  of  their  daily 
lives.  But  our  savage  forefathers  went  to  their  graves 
two  thousand  years  ago,  leaving  nothing  but  their 
graves  behind  them  to  tell  us  how  they  lived.  It  is 
the  object  of  the  following  pages  to  describe  one 
country  out  of  the  dozen  or  so  inhabited  by  negroes 
in  the  West  Indies,  which  they  have  made  almost 
their  own,  and  it  is  hoped  that  thcrcb}^  some  of 
the  many  misconceptions  about  the  virtues  and  vices 
of  the  West  Indian  negro  may  be  removed.  I  have 
chosen  Barbados,  partly  because,  having  never  be- 
longed to  any  other  nation  but  the  British,  its  negroes 
offer  a  simpler  case  to  describe,  and  partly  because 
Barbados  is  an  island  in  which  I  have  lived  for  some 
years,  and  am  therefore  enabled  to  speak  of  things 
which  I  have  seen  myself,  and  am  not  obliged  to 
depend  upon  the  reports  of  others. 

Barbados  is  an  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  stand- 
ing out,   iiI)out    1  oo   miles    tVoin    llic    onrvcd    chain    of 


THE    NEGRO    IN    BARBADOS  129 

the  Antilles.  It  is  just  opposite  St,  Vincent ;  St.  Lucia 
lying  a  little  to  the  NW.,  and  Grenada  about  the  same 
distance  to  the  SW. ;  Trinidad  is  about  300  miles 
to  the  south.  Barbados  is  shaped  like  a  j)ear,  the 
stalk  to  the  north,  and  in  a  dent  on  the  bulged  end, 
on  the  leeward  side,  lies  Bridgetown,  the  port  and  chief 
town,  of  the  island.  The  ships  anchor  in  an  open 
roadstead  called  Carlisle  Bay,  after  Lord  Carlisle,  who 
bought  the  island  from  the  Earl  of  Marlborough  in  the 
time  of  James  I.,  as  will  presently  be  related.  Eleven 
miles  farther  north,  on  the  leeward  coast,  is  a  small 
town  called  Speightstown,  at  which  sailing  ships  used 
to  call  for  sugar  in  the  old  days,  but  noAv  that  steamers 
carry  so  much  of  the  freight  it  is  all  shipped  in  small 
sailing  barges,  called  droghers,  to  Bridgetown,  and 
there  transferred  to  the  steamers.  There  are  no  other 
towns,  nor  are  there  any  villages  as  we  know  them 
in  England,  but  the  1 200  people  who  cover  each 
square  mile  of  this  crowded  little  island  live  in 
collections  of  huts  on  the  different  estates.  There 
is  no  "  village  community "  and  no  village  common, 
though  here  and  there  there  are  ponds  of  stagnant 
water  which  used  to  serve  the  negroes  for  drinking 
and  washing  purposes  before  the  establishment  of  the 
exceedingly  good  water  service  by  the  Government 
and  local  capitalists.  This  is  however  still  in  course  of 
construction,  and  in  a  few  places  the  negroes  still  resort 
to  the  ponds  or  to  the  (estate  windmill  for  their  water; 
but  along  almost  all  the  main  roads — and  there  are 
hundreds  of  miles  of  them — there  are  standpipes  of 
fresh  clear  water  every  ndle  or  so. 

According  to  Foyer,  who  wrote  a  history  of 
Barbados  in  1  808,  the  island  does  not  appear  on  any 
chart  before  the  year  1600.  It  was  conjectured  by 
Ligon,  who  visited  the  island  abi)Ut  1650,  that  the 
"  Portugals  "  had  made  use  of  it  as  a  depot,  according 
to  their  custom,  and  U)V  this  jiurpose  had  stocked  it 
V  I 


I30  GENERAL 

with  swine  and  with  a  iew  vegetables  for  the  use 
of  their  ships  on  their  voyages  to  the  gold-bearing 
islands  farther  west.  It  is  natural  that  both  they 
and  the  Spaniards  should  have  neglected  to  acquire 
possession  of  a  country  that,  having  no  precious  metals 
or  inhabitants  who  could  be  made  use  of  as  slaves, 
was  of  no  manner  of  use  to  them  except  for  the 
purpose  above  mentioned. 

But  in  1605  the  Olive,  belonging  to  Sir  Oliver 
Leigh,  happened  to  put  in  to  Barbados  on  her  return 
from  Guinea.  Her  sailors  found  no  inhabitants  in  the 
island,  but  thick  forest  well  stocked  with  wild  hog, 
esteemed  by  Ligon,  forty  years  later,  to  afford  the 
sweetest  flesh  in  the  world.  With  these  they  provi- 
sioned the  Olive,  and  having  erected  a  cross  upon  the 
coast  and  carved  upon  a  tree  the  words  "  James,  King 
of  England  and  of  this  Island,"  and  so  taken  possession 
of  it  in  his  name,  they  returned  to  London  and 
made  a  report  of  all  that  they  had  seen.  Twenty 
years  later,  a  Dutch  ship  returned  to  Flanders  with 
such  a  brilliant  account  of  the  island  that  Sir  William 
Courteen,  a  great  London  merchant,  hearing  about 
it  through  his  correspondent  in  Flanders,  decided  to 
send  out  a  settlement.  This  he  accordingly  did,  in 
two  ships,  but  of  these  one  only,  the  John  and  William, 
arrived.  This  expedition,  though  sent  at  the  expense 
of  Sir  William  Courteen,  was  under  the  patronage  of 
the  Earl  of  Marlborough,  who  had  obtained  a  patent, 
or,  as  we  should  say  now,  the  concession,  for  ex- 
ploiting the  island.  But  the  Earl  of  Carlisle  owned 
the  concession  of  the  Caribbee  Islands,  and  claimed 
that  the  Earl  of  Marlboi'ough's  operations  would 
interfere  with  his ;  and  on  the  accession  of  Charles  I., 
litigation  was  begun  between  the  two  Earls,  which 
was  settled  for  the  time  by  the  Earl  of  Carlisle  agree- 
ing to  pay  to  the  Earl  of  Marlborough  the  sum  of 
;^300  a  year  in  ))orpetuity  for  the  island  of  Barbados. 


THE    NEGRO    IN    BARBADOS 


I  ^  I 


The  Earl  of  Curlislc  departing  on  a  diplomatic 
mission,  that  astute  monarch  Charles  I.  presented 
the  concession  to  Sir  William  Courteen,  and  on  the 
Earl's  return  gave  it  back  to  him.  The  only  result 
to  Sir  William  of  this  connection  with  tiie  aristocracy 
Avas  the  sowing  in  the  island  of  the  seeds  of  civil 
dissension,  which  sprang  into  life  and  flourished  for 
many  a  long  year,  until  finally  stamped  out  by  Oliver 
Cromwell.  The  story  of  the  growth  of  this  little 
commonwealth  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  is  interesting, 
but  it  need  not  be  continued  here ;  it  is  enough  for  us 
to  notice  that  Barbados  was  first  colonised  by  English- 
men, and  has  never  belonged  to  any  other  Power.  There 
is  no  evidence  even  to  show  that  there  has  ever  been 
an  indigenous  population  in  the  island.  Carib  remains, 
such  as  earthenware  pots  and  shell  hatchets,  &c.,  have 
been  frequently  found  there,  and  some  few  of  the 
places  used  in  earlier  days  to  be  still  called  by  their 
Indian  names ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  Indians 
ever  lived  there  for  more  than  a  couple  of  months 
at  a  time,  when  they  used  to  visit  the  island  for  the 
sake  of  the  fishing.  This  fact  has  an  important  bear- 
ing on  the  subject  of  this  paper,  for  with  no  native 
population  accustomed  to  the  tropical  heat  to  assist 
them  in  their  field-work,  the  English  settlers  found 
themselves  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  importation 
of  slaves  from  the  other  islands,  both  African  and 
Indian,  and  on  the  introduction  of  the  susrar-cane 
the  labour  became  so  severe  that  African  slaves  had  to 
be  imported  from  Guinea. 

To  the  Portuguese  belongs  the  credit,  or  discredit, 
of  exporting  the  first  slaves  from  Africa.  In  1503  a 
few  were  sent  from  their  African  settlements  to  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  America.  In  i  5  i  i  Ferdinand  V. 
of  Spain  allowed  a  larger  trade  in  this  article  to  spring 
up,  an(,l  after  his  death  the  humane  Bishop  of  Chiapa, 
Bartholomew  de  Las  Casas,  to  ease  the  sad  case  of  the 


132  GENERAL 

Indian  in  the  Spanish-American  gold  mines,  proposed 
to  Cardinal  Ximenes,  Regent  of  Spain  for  Charles  V., 
a  regular  sj^stem  by  which  negroes  might  be  carried 
across  from  Africa  and  sold  to  the  Spanish  colonists. 
But  Cardinal  Ximenes  refused,  on  the  ground  of 
humanity,  to  adopt  the  course  of  action  which  Las  Casas 
had  proposed.  Charles  V.,  however,  on  the  death  of 
the  Cardinal,  permitted  a  friend  of  his  own  to  convey 
4000  negroes  annually  to  the  colonies ;  that  was  in 
1517,  and  in  1540  he  revoked  his  permission,  and 
ordered  all  the  slaves  to  be  set  at  liberty  !  It  is  mar- 
vellous how  business  could  ever  have  been  successfully 
conducted  in  those  good  old  days.  If  only  2000 
negroes  had  been  imported  every  year,  from  i  5  1 7  to 
1540,  at  such  a  moderate  value  as  ^^^15  apiece,  here 
Avas  property  to  the  value  of  some  i^7 00,000  suddenly 
lost  in  slaves  alone,  without  countings  all  the  accessories 
such  as  ships  and  slave  warehouses,  and  the  difficulty 
of  replacing  46,000  servants.  However,  although  the 
slaves  were  dutifully  set  free,  in  obedience  to  the  orders 
of  the  Royal  Commissioner  Gasca,  yet  the  moment 
he  set  out  on  his  return  to  Spain  they  were  all  re- 
captured and  set  to  work  again  as  slaves.  Shortly 
afterwards  the  king  retired  into  a  monastery,  and  from 
that  time  till  the  latter  part  of  this  century  slavery 
flourished  practically  undisturbed  in  the  Spanish 
colonies. 

But  the  conscience  of  the  world  never  wholly 
slept.  There  seem  always  to  have  been  some  good 
men  who  refused  to  believe  that  any  man  has  the 
right  to  become  the  absolute  proprietor  of  another. 
Pope  Leo  X.  was  one  of  these,  though  he  does  not 
seem  to  have  done  more  than  publish  his  sentiments 
upon  the  subject.  Queen  Elizabeth  went  a  little 
further,  and  plainly  told  Captain  Hawkins  what  she 
thought  about  it,  and  forced  him  to  declare  he  would 
never  import  auollicr  negro  into  the  West  Indies;  but 


THE    NEGRO    IN    BARBADOS  133 

he  did  not  keep  his  promise.  Louis  XIII.  inquired 
into  the  matter,  but  being  told  that  this  was  the 
best  way  of  making  them  Christians,  issued  an  edict 
that  every  negro  coming  into  French  territory  should 
become  ijiso  facto  a  slave.  But  as  time  went  on  the 
public  conscience  was  thoroughly  roused,  and  at  last  it 
spoke  out  through  the  months  of  Pope,  Baxter,  Sterne, 
Warburton,  Addison,  Postlethwaite,  and  Adam  Smith, 
and  from  the  poet,  the  parson,  the  man  of  business, 
and  the  thinker  was  evolved  the  philanthropist  in  the 
persons  of  Granville  Sharp,  Clarkson,  and  AVilberforce, 

The  terrible  legacy  which  this  disgraceful  traffic 
has  left  us  will  be  examined  later.  It  is  necessar}' 
here  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  arguments  that  were 
brought  forward  for  it  and  against  it,  a  hundred  years 
ago,  when  the  trade  was  finally  stopped,  as  far  as 
England  was  concerned,  by  Act  of  Parliament  (1806). 

It  nmst  be  remembered  that  the  West  Indian 
colonies  in  those  days  were  a  very  long  way  from  the 
Mother  Country,  There  were  no  tourists  spending 
three  weeks  on  a  continent,  and  writing  a  vohnne  about 
it  on  the  vt)yage  home.  Scarcely  any  one  visited 
the  West  Indies  who  was  not  pecuniarily  interested 
in  the  sugar  plantations,  and  so  in  the  price  of  labom*. 
so  that  it  is  not  sur[)riKing  that  objections  to  the  slave- 
trade  should  come  almost  entirely  from  the  poets,  and 
thinkers,  and  preachers.  These  three  classes,  but 
especially  perhaps  the  poets,  are  generally  the  first  to 
discover  a  public  sin ;  but  the  public  look  upon  the 
poets  as  dreamers,  the  thinkers  as  madmen,  and  the 
preachers  as  paid  to  preach  to  them,  and  they  heed 
very  little  what  they  say.  Thus  the  unfortunate 
slave — for,  in  spite  of  what  I  shall  say  later  of  the 
advantages  to  the  negro  of  slavery,  any  person  Avho 
is  the  property  of  another  must  bo  regarded  as  un- 
fortunate— came  but  little  before  the  public  eye, 
except  in  so  far  as  he  furnished  a  subject  which  the 


134  GENERAL 

poet  might  work  up  into  a  liarrowing  story  of  innocent 
suffering,  like  Addison  with  "  Inkle  and  Yarico,"  or  as 
offering  a  proof  to  the  political  economist  that  free 
labour  is  cheaper  than  forced  labour.  He  was,  in 
fact,  to  the  public  an  abstract  idea,  and  it  Avas  not 
until  a  planter  named  David  Lisle  ill-treated  his  slave, 
Jonathan  Strong,  in  London,  and  so  brought  Granville 
Sharp  down  upon  him,  that  the  facts  of  slavery  took  con- 
crete form  in  England  at  all.  It  is  worth  recording 
this  incident  somewhat  fully,  for  it  was  the  horror 
aroused  in  the  public  mind  by  the  story  of  Lisle's 
cruelty  that  made  emancipation  possible.  The  slave- 
owners did  not  encourage  their  slaves  to  become 
Christians,  because,  as  Ligon  relates  of  one  of  them, 
they  knew  it  was  the  law  of  the  land  that  no  Christian 
can  be  made  a  slave ;  therefore  if  a  slave  be  made  a 
Christian  he  may  cease  to  be  a  slave.  But  it  so 
frequently  happened  that  slaves  who  were  brought 
over  to  England  to  wait  on  their  masters  got  them- 
selves baptized  and  then  claimed  their  freedom,  that 
at  last,  in  1729,  the  planters  obtained  an  opinion 
from  Messrs.  York  and  Talbot,  the  Attorney-General 
and  the  Solicitor-General,  upon  the  question  of  their 
ceasing  to  be  slaves  as  soon  as  they  were  baptized. 
These  lawyers  decided  against  the  slaves,  and  slave- 
hunts  became  general  in  London  from  that  time  till 
1765,  when  David  Lisle  brought  Jonathan  Strong 
over  to  London,  and  there  so  ill-treated  him  that  his 
market  value  was  destroyed,  and  he  was  not  worth 
taking  back  to  the  plantations.  Granville  Sharp,  how- 
ever, came  across  the  poor  wretch,  took  care  of  him, 
and  in  time  completely  cured  him  His  old  master 
learning  this,  now  claimed  him  as  his  own,  and  had 
him  kidnapped  in  Fenchurch  Street,  and  sold  him 
to  John  Kerr  for  ;i^30  at  the  Poultrey  Compter. 
With  great  difficulty  Sharp  got  the  case  brouglit 
before    the    Lord    Mayor,    when    York    and    Talbot's 


THE    NEGRO    IN    BAKHADOS  135 

opinion  had  such  weight  that  the  decision  would 
have  been  in  favour  of  Kerr  but  tliat  Strontj  had 
been  apprehended  without  a  warrant.  On  this  ground, 
jealous,  no  doubt,  of  his  own  prerogative,  the  Lord 
Mayor  discharged  him.  In  consequence  of  his  success 
in  tliis  case,  Sharp  was  so  frequently  called  upon  to 
interfere  between  master  and  slave  that  he  decided  to 
read  the  law  on  the  subject,  to  enable  him  to  confute 
the  York  and  Talbot  opinion,  which  he  felt  could  not 
be  the  law  of  England.  For  three  years  then  he  read 
the  law,  and  he  embodied  all  he  had  learnt  in  a  book, 
which  came  to  be  cited  by  counsel  in  all  slave  cases 
in  the  London  courts.  Finally  occurred  the  well-known 
case  of  Somerset,  when  the  lawyers,  determined  not 
to  rest  content  with  magisterial  rulings  any  longer, 
carried  the  case  to  the  highest  court,  and  obtained  the 
judicial  ruling  that  will  last  as  long  as  the  British 
Empire  endures,  that  no  man  who  sets  his  foot  upon 
British  soil  can  remain  a  slave.  In  1806  an  Act  of 
Parliament  was  passed,  the  credit  of  which  is  due  pre- 
eminently to  Clarkson,  putting  a  stop  to  the  trade,  and  in 
I  834,  b}^  a  further  Act,  a  four  years'  apprenticeship  was 
granted  as  a  first  instalment  of  the  complete  emanci- 
pation which  followed  in  British  colonies  in  1838. 

LTndoubtedly,  as  in  all  other  great  reformations, 
the  reformers  were  led  into  very  considerable  exag- 
geration of  the  evils  against  which  they  struggled, 
and  a  great  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  the 
capture  and  importation  of  slaves  and  the  continuance 
of  slaves  in  a  state  of  slavery.  It  may  well  be  doubted 
whether  the  horrors  of  the  middle  passage  were  exag- 
gerated even  by  Clarkson,  but  that  the  lot  of  the 
children  and  grandchildren  of  slaves  born  on  a  planta- 
tion was  worse,  or  even  as  bad,  as  that  of  the  free 
indcntiu-ed  servant  on  the  same  estate,  is  more  than 
doubtful,  and  it  could  certainly  not  have  been  more 
miserable   than    that   of  the    agricultural   labourer   in 


136  GENERAL 

Europe  at  that  time.  Hear  what  Ligon  says  in  1650  : 
"  The  slaves  and  their  posterity,  being  subject  to  their 
masters  for  ever,  are  kept  and  preserved  with  greater 
care  than  the  servants,  who  are  theirs  but  for  five 
years,  according  to  the  hiw  of  the  land,  so  that  for  the 
time  the  servants  have  the  worser  lives,  for  they  are 
put  to  every  hard  labour,  ill  lodging,  and  their  dyet  is 
very  sleight."  There  are  few  persons,  even  to-day, 
that  will  take  as  much  care  of  a  hired  hack  as  they 
will  of  their  own  horse.  Ligon  represents  them  as  a 
happy  faithful  lot,  and  he  is  much  more  surprised  at 
the  intelligence  some  of  them  exhibit  than  at  their 
ignorance.  They  were  looked  upon  as  cattle,  and  were 
accounted  for  in  the  stock-book  as  such,  their  pedigree 
being  written  up  as  carefully  as  that  of  a  prize  bull, 
and  their  offspring  recorded  with  the  name  and  age 
both  of  sire  and  dam.  Ligon  speaks  of  them  as  being 
married,  but  it  was  not  by  a  church  ceremony.  In 
those  early  days,  however,  it  seems  as  if  the  husbands 
had  some  right  over  their  wives,  for  if  the  unfortunate 
woman  chanced  to  have  twins  it  was  reckoned  a  certain 
proof  of  her  infidelity,  and  her  husband  promptly 
killed  her. 

Against  this  idyllic  state  of  happiness  may  be  set 
off  the  legal  status  of  the  slave.  Poyer,  writing  in 
1808,  when  the  slave-trade  had  just  been  abolished 
and  the  agitation  for  emancipation  was  increasing, 
quotes  a  portion  of  the  slave  law  of  Barbados,  enacted 
in  1688,  and  still  in  force  at  the  time  he  wrote.  He 
condemns  the  outcry  against  slavery,  a  system  which 
is  capable  of  producing  such  a  humane  law  as  the 
following :  "  If  any  slave  under  punishment  shall  suffer 
in  life  or  member,  no  one  shall  be  liable  to  any  fine 
for  it.  But  if  any  person  wantonly  or  cruelly  kill  his 
own  slave,  ho  shall  pay  into  the  Treasury  ;^i  5."  Com- 
Jiicnting  on  this  law  Poyer  remarks  that  the  punish- 
ment on  tlie  white  mu)derer  is  greater  than  it  appears 


THE    NEGRO    IN    BARBADOS  137 

to  be,  for  he  has  ah-eady  lost  his  slave,  a  property 
which  no  reasonable  man  would  wilfully  destroy.  Ho 
says,  moreover,  that  white  men  murder  each  other  in 
Barbados  far  more  often  than  they  murder  black  men. 
In  fact,  "  in  thirty-four  years  there  have  been  no 
authentic  accounts  of  more  than  sixteen  negroes  killed 
by  white  men,  and  of  these  only  six  came  within  the 
legal  description  of  that  species  of  homicide  which 
even  the  English  criiniiial  judicature  would  punish 
with  death." 

The  negro  was  of  course  bought  and  sold  like 
cattle.  He  was  not  allowed  to  marry  or  to  become  a 
Christian ;  but  unions  that  the  master  thought  would 
be  profitable  to  himself  were  arranged,  sometimes  be- 
tween black  men  and  woiiu'n,  sometimes  between  black 
women  and  white  men,  and  sometimes  between  black 
men  and  white  Avomen.  The  subject  is  an  unpleasant 
one,  but  the  condition  of  the  coloured  popidation 
caimot  be  understood  without  a  thorough  grasp  of  the 
facts  connected  with  its  origin.  If  the  progeny  result- 
ing from  the  union  of  black  and  white  were  white  and 
well-favoured,  it  was  sometimes  acknowledged,  and,  in 
Demerara,  it  might  be  legitimatised,  but  if  it  was 
dark  and  unlikely-looking,  it  was  raised  in  the  negro 
barracks  as  a  slave.  The  brutal  instincts  of  the  slave- 
owner sometimes  led  him  into  still  more  horrible 
practices,  many  of  which  are  to  be  read  in  old  books, 
leaving  the  certain  inference  that  far  more  brutality 
escaped  the  knowledge  of  contemporaries  than  was 
chronicled  by  them.  Of  the  200000  people  in 
Barbados,  probably  not  200  are  able  to  trace  their 
parentage  on  both  sides  for  more  than  two  generations 
back,  and  of  those  200  it  is  probable  that  not  fifty  can 
do  so  without  finding  a  drop  of  coloured  blood  amongst 
them.  There  is  said  to  be  a  far  larger  percentage  of 
pure  whites  in  Barbados  than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  West  Indies. 


138  GENERAL 

English  people  will  find  it  hard  to  realise  the  state 
of  mind  induced  by  these  circumstances,  where  so 
many  people  know  that  they  are  ignorant  of  the 
details  of  their  ancestry  and  are  suspected  by  their 
friends  of  being  coloured.  And  although  the  brutality 
which  produced  many  of  the  coloiu*ed  people  was  by 
no  means  accountable  for  the  production  of  all,  yet  it 
deepened  the  feeling  of  shame  that  was  attached  to 
slave  parentage.  Every  coloured  person  has  slave 
blood  in  him,  but  the  only  shameful  fact  about  their 
parentage,  in  many  cases,  is  that  the  marriage  was 
polygamous,  and  legalised  by  custom,  not  by  law  or 
church.  A  similar  shame  attaches  to  the  parentage  of 
many  of  our  great  nobility  in  England.  Nowadays, 
and  for  many  generations  back,  the  coloured  people 
live,  and  have  lived,  lives  as  respectable  as  those  of 
their  white  neighbours,  so  that  it  seems  hard  to  re- 
member the  sins  or  misfortunes  of  such  remote  fathers 
upon  their  children.  Remembered,  however,  they  are, 
and  probably  for  a  long  time  will  be,  and  it  is  with 
this  great  fact  we  have  to  contend.  The  example  of 
the  English  in  Barbados  is  decidedly  a  strong  factor  in 
breaking  down  the  barrier  between  white  and  coloured. 
The  English  have  no  fear  that  by  mixing  with  coloured 
people  they  will  fall  under  the  suspicion  of  being 
coloured  themselves,  consequently  where  a  coloured 
family  is  otherwise  agreeable  (and  frequently  this  is 
the  case)  they  mix  with  them  as  freely  as  they  do 
with  the  white  people,  and  a  few  Barbadian  families 
are  beginning  to  folloAv  their  example,  but  unfor- 
tunately this  is  not  always  so,  and  cases  are  not 
unfrequent  where  a  very  white  Barbadian  family  has 
been  guilty  of  the  most  atrocious  rudeness  to  avoid 
meeting  coloured  people,  even  though  the  coloured 
fainily  may  have  been  more  highly  cultivated  and 
better  bred  than  itself.  The  result  of  this  feeling  is 
til  at   the  coloured  people,  by  nature  self-conscious,  live 


THE    NEGRO    IN    BARBADOS  139 

in  a  state  of  constant  suspicion  of  the  motives  of  the 
white  people.  TIk'J  are  ready  to  discover  in  every 
httle  trifle  a  covert  sneer  at  their  colour,  or  a  belittling 
of  them  before  the  public.  This  is  most  unfortunate, 
as  it  is  the  earnest  desire  of  every  prudent  white  man 
in  the  island  to  work  harmoniously  with  the  coloured 
people,  even  if  he  does  not  wish  to  mix  with  all  of 
them  socially.  But  no  one  can  blame  the  latter  for 
being  apt  to  misinterpret  what  is  said  and  done  by  the 
whites;  contempt  is  the  characteristic  of  the  white 
man's  attitude  towards  the  coloured  people,  and  those 
amongst  them,  who  take  the  higher  stand  of  showing 
to  the  coloured  people  the  same  respect  that  they 
show  to  the  white ;  are  hated  by  the  one  set  as  black- 
legs, and  by  the  other  as  humbugs. 

What  the  number  of  pure  blacks  is  in  Barbados 
it  is  impossible  to  say ;  there  is  probably  a  greater  per- 
centage of  pure  blacks  amongst  the  blacks  than  there 
is  of  pure  whites  amongst  the  whites.  It  is  an  object  of 
great  ambition  amongst  the  black  women  to  have  a 
"  clear-skinned  "  child ;  the  legitimacy  or  illegitimacy 
of  the  means  they  adopt  to  this  end  does  not  appear 
to  trouble  them  at  all ;  a  mother  will  readily  forgive 
her  daughter's  errors  from  the  path  of  virtue  if  the 
result  is  "  clear-skinned,"  and  the  whiter  it  is  the  more 
readily  the  forgiveness  is  granted,  but  errors  of  this 
sort  with  black  men  are  looked  upon  as  bad  for)n. 
But  this  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  black  women  to 
raise  themselves  in  the  social  scale  through  the  colour 
of  their  children  by  no  means  prevents  them  from 
presenting  their  lawful  husbands  with  their  full  share 
of  black  babies,  and,  judging  by  colour  and  by  shape 
of  features,  I  am  inclined  to  think,  as  stated  above, 
that  the  number  of  full  blacks  is  considerable,  thougfh 
nothing  like  so  great  as  that  of  the  coloured  people. 
In  this  matter  I  doubt  whether  statistics  are  very 
reliable,  since,  as  we  have  seen,  the  desire  is  very  strong 


I40  GENERAL 

among  these  people  to  make  themselves  out  either 
white  or  "  clear-skinned,"  The  proportion  of  children 
born  in  wedlock  to  those  born  out  of  it  is  three  to 
seven  in  Jamaica,  and  I  believe  Barbados  is  as  free 
from  conventional  usage  in  this  matter  as  any  other 
island.  The  women  dislike  matrimony,  which  state  of 
mind  is  contrary  to  the  nature  of  their  European 
sisters  (I  am  speaking  of  course  of  the  black  and 
coloured  working-classes).  They  complain  that  as 
soon  as  the  law  has  made  them  the  chattel  of  their 
husbands,  and  they  are  no  longer  free  to  change  owners, 
their  husbands,  no  longer  anxious  as  to  their  claim  to 
the  property,  are  apt  to  wander  off  and  enjoy  the  society 
of  their  unconventional  sisters,  which  no  black  man 
would  dare  to  do  if  his  regular  companion  instead  of 
beinsf  his  lesfal  wife  was  free  to  forsake  him  at  the  least 
sign  of  ill-treatment.  It  is  the  husband  who,  tired  of 
being  stretched  continually  on  the  rack  of  good  be- 
haviour, exerts  himself  to  secure  freedom  by  submitting 
to  the  yoke  of  matrimony.  It  is  to  be  observed  that 
he,  on  his  part,  does  not  feel  obliged  to  remain  with  the 
lady  a  moirient  longer  than  he  pleases,  whether  he  is 
married  to  her  or  not.  This  relaxation  from  legal 
restraint  and  conventional  usage  is  recognised  by  the 
law,  which  gives  a  status  to  the  "  reputed  wife  "  only  a 
little  lower  than  that  of  the  "  legal  wife." 

Before  we  condemn  the  negroes  for  this  failure  to 
reach  our  high  standard  in  civilisation  we  must  reflect 
that  they  have  only  left  the  forests  of  Africa  at  the 
outside  400  years — most  of  them  have  been  with 
us  a  much  shorter  time — and  that  the  i^crmission 
to  marry  was  only  recently  granted  to  them.  It  is 
unreasonable  to  expect  negroes  in  three  generations 
to  assimilate  the  manners  and  customs  which  it  has 
taken  us  thirty  generations  to  form.  It  is  true  that 
our  actual  lives  arc  not  always  in  accordance  with 
the  high   [)rinciples  wliicli  wo  profess,  but  the  point  is 


THE    NEGRO    IN    BARBADOS  141 

that  we  liave  arrived  at  that  stage  in  civihsation 
where  these  high  principles  are  professed.  The  negro 
lias  not.  When  'Ave  arrive  at  the  stage  where  high 
principles  are  invariably  followed,  the  millennium  will 
have  arrived,  and  the  conditions  of  life  as  we  now 
know  them  will  have  ceased  to  be.  The  point  that 
I  wish  to  emphasise  is  that  we  must  not  expect  from 
negroes  the  same  manner  of  life  that  w^e  expect  from 
Europeans. 

A  hundred  years  ago,  as  we  have  seen,  the  world 
woke  up  to  the  fact  that  negroes  were  men  and  not 
cattle,  and  that  they  had  the  same  hopes  of  eternal  life 
that  we  had ;  that  the  Redemption  of  Jesus  Christ  was 
as  important  to  them  as  it  was  to  us  ;  and  from  this 
now  undenied  fact  it  was  deduced  they  deserved  the 
same  political  privileges  as  ours.  But  the  world  did 
not  find  this  deduction  as  easy  of  assimilation  as  the 
principle  from  which  it  was  deduced.  Some  people 
even  objected  to  their  being  granted  souls.  But  the 
granting  of  a  soul,  being  a  more  remote  transaction, 
was  more  easily  concurred  in  than  the  granting  of  a 
vote.  A  seat  in  Heaven  did  not  jar  so  harshly  on  our 
feelings  as  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Assembly.  Even  the 
seat  in  the  House  of  God  Avas  grudgingly  given,  and 
placed — where  it  still  is — well  at  the  back  of  the 
church.  Since  those  days,  however,  emancipation  has 
continued  its  course,  and  the  seat  in  the  House  of 
Assembly  has  been  given  also,  and  the  negro  maintains 
that  he  is  perfectly  fit  to  fill  it.  Arguing  from  the 
particular  to  the  general,  he  points  with  reasonable 
exultation  to  the  achievements  of  individuals  of  his 
race,  which,  if  they  were  common  amongst  it,  would 
justify  his  argument  that  political  power  can  be  en- 
trusted as  safel}'  to  blacks  as  to  whites.  He  points  to 
the  admitted  failure  of  one  amongst  a  thousand  whites, 
and  compares  his  folly  and  his  wrongdoings  with  the 
virtuous  prudence  of  one  black  brother  amongst  half- 


142  GENERAL 

a-dozen.  He  receives  your  reluctant  admission  of  the 
justice  of  his  comparison,  and  expects  you  to  admit,  in 
consequence,  the  deduction  that  he  makes  from  it,  that 
all  black  men  are  equal  to  all  white  men.  Your  refusal 
to  do  so  is  a  further  proof  to  him  that  you  share  the 
deplorable  prejudice  entertained  by  the  whites  against 
the  blacks.  It  is  a  misfortune  that  neither  in  our  com- 
mercial nor  in  our  governmental  representatives  do  we 
always  show  to  our  West  Indian  fellow-subjects  the 
most  favourable  types  of  our  race.  In  the  present  un- 
interesting condition  of  the  West  Indies  this  is,  perhaps, 
unavoidable ;  but  when  Africa  has  been  tilled  u]),  and 
Canada  and  Australia  no  longer  call  for  more  capital, 
the  world  will  remember  that  the  West  Indies  and  the 
Spanish  Main  are  still  the  richest  countries  in  the 
world,  and  will  return  thither.  Then,  no  doubt,  if 
England  still  exists  as  an  empire,  as  much  care  will  be 
exercised  in  the  choice  of  West  Indian  governors  as  is 
now  used  in  the  appointments  to  Australia  oi-  South 
Africa.  The  West  Indies,  at  present,  are  in  the  posi- 
tion of  a  poor  relation :  we  cannot  pretend  that  we  do 
not  see  them  as  we  pass  them  in  the  street,  but  they 
can  be  of  no  service  to  us,  and  we  res^ret  their  exist- 
ence,  for  our  dignity  requires  that  they  should  be  kept 
out  of  the  bankruj)tcy  court,  so  we  throw  them  an 
occasional  dole,  and  we  ask  them  to  come  in  after 
dinner  on  any  specially  big  family  festivity  like  the 
Jubilee,  but  that  is  about  as  far  as  we  care  to  go. 
There  are  amongst  us,  however,  some  who  have  theories, 
and  who  are  thereby  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
black  people  are  increasing  and  the  whites  diminishing, 
and  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  the  West 
Indies  will  be  one  big  black  Re})ub]ic  or  set  of  Re- 
publics. Others  fear  that  the  hurricanes  that  periodi- 
cally visit  these  islands,  and  the  disaster  that  has 
overtaken  the  sugar  industry,  are  a  danger  to  the 
black  people  whom  we  have  placed  whei'e  they  are. 


THE    NECIKO    IN    JiAllJJADUS  143 

and  for  wliose  safety  and  well-being  we  are  therefore 
responsible.  To  these  two  sets  of  theorists,  both  of 
which  cannot  be  correct  in  their  forecast,  the  West 
Indies  are  still  of  interest. 

That  the  blacks  are  increasing,  though  it  is  gene- 
rally asserted  they  are,  is  to  n\y  mind  exceedingly 
doubtful,  and,  if  they  arc,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow 
that  they  will  continue  to  increase.  In  1834  there 
were  83,176  slaves  for  whom  compensation  was  given 
at  the  emancipation.  Did  that  include  children  ? 
There  are  now  about  105,000  black  persons,  a  very 
small  increase  considering  the  circumstances.  Doctors 
in  the  West  Indies  seem  to  incline  to  the  opinion 
that  they  have  reached  that  point  in  national 
life  when,  whatever  the  number  of  births,  the 
vitality  of  those  born  is  low.  They  seem  to 
suffer  greatly  from  consumption.  Amongst  the 
soldiers  five  die  of  this  disease  to  one  of  any  other. 
They  also  die  of  yellow  fever  and  of  malaria,  which 
last  they  get  in  the  cold  weather,  not,  as  the  whites  do, 
in  the  latter  months  of  the  hot  weather.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  in  their  own  country,  unfettered  by  the 
clothes  and  other  restraints  of  civilisation,  they  are 
much  more  free  from  these  diseases  than  arc  the 
Europeans ;  it  is  only  when  they  have  lived  a  few 
generations  in  civilised  countries  that  they  are  affected. 
It  is  suggested  that  the  tight  uniform  of  the  soldiers 
increases  their  liability  to  consumption,  which  begins 
at  the  base  of  the  lungs ;  but  I  believe  the  civilian 
blacks  are  just  as  liable  to  it  as  the  soldiers,  and  their 
clothing  is  loose  enough.  The  civilians  are  accustomed 
to  sleep,  ten  or  fifteen  together,  in  a  small  hut  ten  feet 
square,  with  every  aperture  carefully  shut  and  closed 
with  rags  to  keep  out  the  fresh  air,  and  their  con- 
sumption has  been  attributed  to  this  cause.  But  it 
cannot  be  this  that  affects  the  soldiers,  sleeping  as 
they  do  in   airy,   well-ventilated   barracks,   and  I  am 


1 44  GENERAL 

ratlier  inclined  to  look  to  their  sudden  transplantation 
from  Africa  for  the  cause  of  the  lessened  vitality 
amongst  the  blacks.  Naturalists  say  that  man  is 
the  only  animal  that  can  live  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  without  changing  his  looks  or  his  nature. 
Sheep  transplanted  to  the  West  Indies  lose  their  wool 
in  a  generation  or  two,  English  potatoes  become  sweet 
in  a  couple  of  years,  but  the  descendants  of  Cromwell's 
deported  prisoners,  who  never  mixed  with  the  black 
people,  are  still  fishing  on  the  coast  of  Barbados.  The 
people,  it  is  true,  are  many  of  them  scrofulous  now, 
but  I  imagine  that  is  from  the  continual  intermarriage 
of  four  centuries.  The  negro,  however,  is  so  infinitely 
below  the  European  in  the  scale  of  humanity,  that  it 
is  quite  possible  he  has  not  the  distinctly  human 
quality  of  adaptability  to  varying  climates.  I  say  this 
with  the  greatest  deference  to  that  part  of  the  mis- 
sionary world  which  stays  at  home,  whose  cry  that  the 
negro  is  a  man  and  a  brother  I  can  accept  only  in  its 
Pickwickian  sense.  Whether  he  has  or  has  not  as 
perfect  a  soul  as  the  white  man  I  do  not  know,  and 
I  should  imagine  it  would  be  an  extremely  difficult 
thing  to  prove  or  to  disprove  ;  nor,  perhaps,  is  it  of 
great  importance  to  the  present  purpose  ;  but  that,  as 
a  man,  he  is  physically  inferior  to  Europeans  can  be 
seen  in  the  records  of  any  West  Indian  hospital.  This 
being  so,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  need  to  fear 
his  overrunning  the  West  Indies.  I  am  more  inclined 
to  fear  that  he  Avill  die  out  altogether.  It  nmst  not 
])(i  foigotten  that  the  experiment  of  leaving  him  to 
shift  for  himself  is  a  new  one.  Even  in  Barbados 
there  are  plenty  of  men  living  who  were  born  slaves, 
and  there  are  very  few  black  men  whose  parents  were 
not  slaves.  Now  the*  slave  had  by  no  means  such  a 
bad  time  of  it  as  peo])]o  in  England  imagine.  "  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin,"  from  which  we  got  our  ideas  of  slavery, 
))icturefl  one  side  of  it,  in  a  inastcrly  way,  and  attained 


THE    NEGRO    IN    BARBADOS  145 

the  object  fur  which  it  was  written.  I  read  the  book 
as  a  boy,  and  cried  over  it.  I  took  it  up  the  other 
day,  and  finding  negroes  depicted  with  strong  family 
affection,  I  put  it  dow^n  again.  Negroes  have  no  family 
affection.  On  the  morning  after  the  hurricane  in 
September  1898  some  negroes,  passing  by  a  heap  of 
fallen  huts,  found  a  crowd  at  work  on  it,  and  the  pro- 
prietor sitting  on  a  log  smoking.  "  Whar's  your  wife, 
Gustus  ? "  they  asked.  The  smoker  pointed  with  his 
pipe  to  the  ruins.  "  Dere,  the  roof  have  fall  on  she  ; 
dey  still  diggin'  she  out."  A  nurse,  Avho  was  remark- 
ably gentle  and  kind  to  her  wdiitc  mistress's  children, 
used  to  ask,  very  occasionally,  for  leave  to  go  and  see 
her  old  mother.  Once  tindiny'  she  had  not  asked  for 
leave  for  a  long  time,  her  mistress  said,  "  How's  your 
mother,  Margaret  ?  Don't  you  want  to  go  and  see 
her  ? "  The  old  woman  burst  into  a  laugh  and  said, 
"  Why,  she  in  bed  now.  She  don't  know  nobody. 
She  no  good  now."  And  a  coachman,  who  went  to 
attend  to  his  dying  mother,  returned  after  a  week  dis- 
gusted, and  complained  that  "she  won't  dead,  so  I  come 
back."  But  it  was  in  his  family  affections  that  it  was 
thought  the  slave  was  hardest  hit.  The  slave  had  to 
work,  but  his  owner  had  to  maintain  him,  and  give 
him  clothes  and  shelter  when  he  was  ill  and  when  he 
was  old.  The  free  labourer  is  free  to  change  his  em- 
ployers, but  if  work  is  scarce  he  is  also  free  to  starve ; 
nor  is  he  of  such  value  to  his  temporary  master. 
The  negroes  still  work  in  gans'S  under  an  overseer  with  a 
whip,  though  the  whip  is  more  a  badge  of  office  than  a 
weapon.  The  place  of  the  whip,  however,  has  been 
taken  by  the  police  court,  and  that  weapon  is  employed 
in  a  manner  and  to  an  extent  that,  to  any  one  but  a 
negro,  would  be  galling  in  the  extreme.  Slavery 
had  its  bad  points,  but  I  am  doubtful  whether, 
from  the  slave's  point  of  view,  they  were  not  fully 
compensated  for  by  its  good  points.  It  was  the 
V  K 


146  GENERAL 

masters  who  suffered.  Slave  labour  was  much  more 
expensive  than  free  labour,  and  he  suffered  morally  in 
the  degrading  influence  that  absolute  authority  over 
his  fellow-creatures  always  has  upon  men.  Some 
aspects  of  this  degradation  have  already  been  men- 
tioned. The  imported  slave,  on  the  other  hand,  had 
been  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  (in  spite  of  Longfellow)  a 
slave  in  his  own  country ;  and  slavery  in  his  own 
country,  besides  the  usual  troubles  attendant  on  being 
the  property  of  some  one  else,  implied  this  further  in- 
convenience, that  he  was  liable  to  be  roasted  or  boiled, 
or  impaled,  or  buried  alive,  or  anything  else  that  suited 
his  master's  fancy.  He  would  certainly  not  be  fed 
when  he  was  old  or  useless.  It  was  no  degradation  to 
him  and  his  womenkind,  in  his  eyes,  to  be  sold  at 
public  auction ;  he  was  used  to  it.  He  did  not  feel  the 
separation  from  his  wife  and  family  any  more  than  a 
dog  does.  His  women  probably  felt  the  separation 
from  their  young  children  in  much  the  ^me  way,  and 
for  the  same  time,  that  a  cow  does  when  her  calf  is 
taken  from  her.  The  slaves  bred  on  a  plantation  had 
never  known  any  other  existence,  and,  according  to  the 
universal  law,  were  content  with  their  lot.  The  im- 
ported slaves  appear  to  me  to  have  been  raised,  rather 
than  lowered,  by  their  transplantation  into  the  West 
Indies.  The  owners  were  the  losers  by  the  transaction. 
Probably  nothing  in  the  history  of  the  world  illustrates 
better  Gibbon's  saying  that  a  conquering  race  always 
assimilates  the  vices  of  the  conquered  than  the  degra- 
dation of  the  slave-owners  by  their  own  slaves. 

Now  the  slaves  are  free,  and  they  have  to  compete 
for  existence  with  their  former  masters.  It  remains  to 
be  seen  what  success  they  will  have.  T,  certainly,  am 
not  one  of  those  who  believe  that  the  white  race  is 
played  out  in  the  West  Indies,  still  loss  that  the  blacks 
are  ready  to  take  our  place,  or  indeed  to  assist  us  in 
any  way  but  as  hewers  of  wood  utkI  drawers  of  water. 


THE    NEGRO    IN    BARBADOS  147 

and  tliiit  for  even  these  purposes  they  are  becommg  in 
every  generation  less  fit  seems  evident. 

What  our  duty  to  these  black  people  may  be  is  the 
second  question  that  is  agitating  the  minds  of  some  of 
us.  It  seems  to  me  to  depend  a  good  deal  upon 
whether  our  fathers  did  them  any  harm  by  bringing 
them  over  to  the  West  Indies,  and  whether,  if  our 
fathers  did  wrong  them,  we  are  liable  to  provide  com- 
pensation. That  they  have  as  great  a  claim  on  the 
protection  of  the  Empire  as  their  fellow-subjects  is,  of 
course,  obvious,  but  some  well-meaning  people  seem  to 
believe  that  they  have  a  greater  claim  on  our  assist- 
ance than  their  fellow-subjects  have.  The  negro  has 
not  advanced  far  in  morality  beyond  the  condition  of 
his  savage  fathers,  and  his  physical  health  has  dete- 
riorated, but  his  condition  seems  still  to  be  better  than 
it  used  to  be  in  Africa  ;  he  is  certainly  happy  enough, 
if  that  is  any  criterion,  so  it  is  difficult  to  understand 
how  any  compensation  can  be  claimed  for  him,  or  what 
form  it  should  take  if  it  could.  If  I  supported  the 
claim  that  he  deserves  special  protection  from  us,  it 
would  only  be  on  the  plea  that  he  is  as  fully  entitled 
to  citizenship  as  we  are  (by  our  own  voluntary  act), 
but  is  in  every  way  so  greatly  inferior  to  us  that,  as 
men,  we  must  consider  his  infirmities  and  be  gentle  to 
him,  as  we  are  to  our  own  women  and  children.  But 
if  the  negro  insists  upon  being  treated  as  an  equal,  let 
him  take  his  chance. 


THE   BRITISH   EMPIRE  OF  TO-DAY 
AND  TO-iAIORROW 

By  Sir  C.  E.  HOWARD  VINCENT,  K.C.M.G.,  C.B.,  M.P. 

The  only  condition  precedent  to  our  subject  of  the 
Empire  of  to-morrow  is  that  those  of  to-day  should 
recognise  their  duty,  not  to  themselves  alone,  but  to 
those  who  will  come  after  them.  What  is  the  heritage 
to  which  we  have  succeeded  ?  Whether  it  be  sur- 
veyed by  its  territorial  extent,  by  the  numbers  of  its 
peoples,  by  the  diversity*  of  its  climates,  by  the  mag- 
nitude of  its  commerce,  by  the  liberty  and  loyalty  of 
its  inhabitants,  nothing  that  has  ever  been  in  the 
past,  nothing  that  appears  possible  in  the  future,  can 
in  any  way  compare  to  it.  Greece  and  Rome  were  in- 
significant in  comparison,  Spain  and  the  Netherlands 
were  as  nothing  by  the  side  of  the  Britain  of  to-day. 
The  Caesars  were  as  careless  of  to-morrow  as  the  Court 
of  Madrid.  Our  chance  is  now.  The  occasion  is  ripe. 
The  fruit  is  ready  to  our  hand.  We  grasp  it,  and 
leave  for  to-morrow  an  Empire  in  the  homogeneous 
strength  of  which  that  of  to-day  shall  pale  and 
which,  self-sustaining,  self-supporting,  shall  eclipse  all 
the  world  and  be  Mistress  of  the  Land  as  well  as, 
now,  Mistress  of  the  Sea. 

Ere  we  see  what  needs  to  be  done  to  accomplish 
this  end — an  end  there  is  none  worthy  to  boar  the 
name  of  Englishman  who  will  not  sacrifice  everything 
l.(j  attain — let  us  briefiy  look  at  the  Em])ire  of  to-day. 
It  is  a  study  wliicli  nil  may  indulge  in  willi  advan- 
tage, which  it    is  the  boundcn  duty  of  every  fatlier  of 


THE    BUITISH    EMPIRE  149 

a  family,  every  manager  of  a  school,  to  inculcate  on 
all  within  their  spheres  of  influence.  The  classics 
are  being  fast  displaced  in  education  by  the  modern 
school,  and  Greek  play  and  Latin  verse  are  yielding 
to  French  colloquial  style  and  German  composition. 
This  is  something  to  be  thankful  for.  But  many  a  boy 
and  girl  leaves  the  British  schoolroom  with  but  hazy 
ideas  of  the  lands  they  were  born  to  share  with 
the  Queen's  subjects.  On  the  walls  of  every  school- 
room should  hang  Keith  Johnson's  map  of  the  Empire, 
so  that  it  may  become  impressed  on  young  eyes  and 
young  hearts. 

See  the  three  million  square  miles  in  British 
North  America,  stretching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  through  endless  forest,  through  mountains  of 
precious  ores,  and  yet  with  a  virgin  wheat  land, 
destined  for  the  granary  of  Britain — a  territory  larger 
than  the  United  States,  with  people,  the  bravest  and 
the  most  loyal  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 

See  the  three  million  square  miles  in  Australasia, 
teeming  with  gold  and  coal,  with  unequalled  pastures 
for  the  meat  supply  of  the  old  land,  with  every  ad- 
vantage, natural  or  artificial,  the  ingenuity  of  man  can 
imagine  or  devise. 

See  the  vast  territories  on  the  East  and  West  and 
in  the  South  of  Afiica.  Shall  we  be  turned  aside  by 
a  chapter  of  accidents,  by  the  headlong  impetuosity  of 
one  man,  by  the  obstinacy  and  hostility  of  another,  by 
the  difficulties  of  an  hour,  from  recognising  all  that  the 
future  has  in  store  for  that  vast  region  ? 

See  the  Empire  of  India,  nineteen  hundred  miles 
in  length,  as  much  in  breadth,  and  ever  increasing  its 
lateral  frontiers.  The  five  hundred  allied  princes,  their 
three  hundred  millions  of  people,  disagreeing  among 
themselves,  with  religion  against  religion,  race  against 
race,  but  united  in  affection  and  loyal  obedience  to  the 
Imperial  Crown  set  on  the  head  of  Victoria  Empress. 


I50  GENERAL 

See  the  islands,  the  fortified  posts,  the  coahng 
stations  in  every  sea.  We  need  not  the  stirring  words 
of  the  American  Statesman  to  fill  us  with  pride  and 
admiration  at  possessions  so  matchless — and  this 
whether  the  survey  be  of  the  beautiful  West  Indian 
Ocoana  set  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  or  of  the  continents 
and  territories  in  the  Old  World  and  the  New. 

We  see  the  whole  connected  with  each  other  and 
the  Mother  Country,  if  not  always  by  fortress,  like 
Gibraltar  holding  the  key  of  the  Mediterranean,  like 
Aden  holding  the  key  of  the  Red  Sea,  like  Singapore 
and  Hong  Kong  in  the  Indian  Ocean  and  China  Sea, 
at  least  by  coaling  stations  holding  the  reserves  of  fuel 
without  which  neither  France  nor  Germany,  neither 
Holland  nor  Spain,  can  reach  their  oversea  possessions. 

Small  wonder  that  any  Empire  such  as  this  should 
excite  the  envy  and  the  admiration  of  the  world.  But 
is  it  in  such  state  that  wo  of  to-day  can  leave  things 
as  they  are.  Should  not  we  strive  every  nerve  to  in- 
crease and  improve  mutual  trade,  to  perfect  defences, 
to  make  the  Empire  more  independent,  a  greater  power 
than  now  in  peace  and  in  war  ?  It  is  our  duty  to  act 
while  we  may,  to  strike  while  the  iron  is  hot  in  the 
fashioning  of  the  Empire  of  to-morrow. 

First  as  to  defence.  The  United  Kingdom,  the 
Mother  Country,  finds  the  sea  defences  for  the  whole, 
save  that  of  the  ports  in  Australasia  and  India.  The 
land  defences  are  provided  locally,  save  that  in  any 
emergency  the  reinforcement  by  Imperial  troops  is 
essential.  Some  have  sought  to  place  this  matter  ot" 
defence  upon  a  mere  pecuniary  basis.  A  league  indeed 
exists  to  impress  upon  the  British  PnhHo  that  they 
should  call  on  the  Colonies  to  pay  for  the  protection 
afforded  in  colonial  waters,  in  the  same  way  that  India 
pays  for  the  English  army  of  defence  within  the 
Indian  frontier.  This  view  may  have  something  to 
commend  itself  upon  a  strict  commercial  basis,  but  it 


THE    BRITISH    EMPIRE  151 

is  too  narrow,  savours  too  much  of  self-interest,  to 
serve  as  a  foundation  upon  which  to  build  a  greater 
Empire.  Far  better  would  it  be  for  us  to  choose  or 
to  recommend  the  very  best  officers  available  for  the 
organisation  of  colonial  land  and  sea  forces,  and  to 
make  all  the  armies  of  the  Empire,  and  all  the  vessels 
of  war  equipped  by  colonial  governments,  as  uniform 
and  efficient  as  possible,  and  to  take  care  that  no 
punctilious  etiquette,  that  no  divided  authority,  should 
serve  the  future  enemies  of  England,  by  neglect  of  the 
smallest  precaution  to  keep  inviolate  and  secure  not 
alone  the  territory  of  the  Empire,  but  also  the  trade 
routes  which  constitute  its  life. 

But  cannot  more  be  done  than  this  ?  Most 
assuredly  yes.  It  is  true  that  the  United  Empire 
Trade  League  has  not  been  afraid  to  seize  the  nettle. 
It  had  its  origin  in  the  emphatic  declaration  of  the 
most  eminent  representatives  of  the  Empire  at  the  first 
Colonial  Conference  in  1887.  Victoria  and  Cape 
Colony,  South  AustraUa  and  Natal,  New  Zealand  and 
Queensland  were  all  equally  eloquent,  equally  convinced 
that  the  closer  union  of  the  Empire  must  be  sought  in 
trade,  and  in  trade  alone.  Efforts  failing  to  convince 
the  Council  of  the  Imperial  Federation  League  a  new 
organisation  became  essential,  and  its  strength  Avas 
soon  demonstrated  in  the  speedy  demise  of  its  elder 
sister.  Lord  Salisbury  invited  the  League  "  to  go  forth 
to  fight."  It  obeyed.  Town  after  town,  constituency 
after  constituency  in  Great  Britain,  in  Canada,  and 
to  some  extent  in  Australia  and  South  Africa  too, 
was  assailed  and  carried.  The  Dominion  Government 
in  1894  convened  a  Colonial  Conference  at  Ottawa. 
The  result  left  nothing  to  be  desired.  There  was  great 
enthusiasm  and  absolute  unanimity  upon  the  main 
question,  "  That  any  provisions  in  existing  treaties 
between  Great  Britain  and  any  foreign  Power  which 
prevent  the  self-governing  dependencies  of  the  Empire 


I  5  2  GENERAL 

from  enterino-  into  ao-reements  Avith  each  other  or  with 

o  O 

Great  Britain  should  be  removed." 

This  has  been  done.  On  August  i,  1S98,  the 
treaties  with  Belgium  and  Germany  came  to  an  end. 
That  day  British  goods  entered  Canada  at  one-fourth 
reduction  in  the  duties  on  foreisfn  groods,  and  in  the 
first  year  their  sale  was  increased  22  per  cent. 

And  now  what  do  we  find  ?  Not  only  that  all 
men's  minds  within  the  Empire  have  been  directed  to 
the  position  of  the  Empire  by  the  menacing  attitude  of 
foreign  Powers,  by  the  near  approach  of  war  not  from 
one  quarter  but  from  many,  but  also  by  the  outbreak 
of  war  within  the  Empire. 

The  question  is  now  the  centre  pivot  of  practical 
politics.  A  considerable  motive  power  has  been  the 
perceptive  and  statesman  mind  of  Mr.  Secretary 
Chamberlain.  A  great  party  and  capable  leaders  are 
working  heart  and  soul  together.  The  troops  of 
Canada  and  Australasia  are  fighting  by  the  side  of 
those  of  Great  Britain,  vexed  only  to  be  limited  as 
to  numbers  and  the  extent  of  the  freely  furnished. 

But,  nevertheless,  there  is  the  Empire  of  to-day, 
immense  in  population,  in  extent,  in  trade,  in  wealth, 
in  loyalty,  and  in  liberty,  but,  save  as  regards  the 
noble  Dominion  of  Canada,  with  no  permanent  union 
between  its  widely  scattered  areas,  save  that  of  affec- 
tion for  the  One  Sovereign,  and  the  feeUng  of  kinship ; 
with  no  organised  system  of  nuitual  trading,  or  of 
mutual  defence  able  to  sustain  itself  in  peace  or  in 
war,  the  superfluities  of  the  one  part  able  to  supply 
the  deficiencies  of  another,  but  offering,  save  in 
Canada,  no  greater  advantages  to  the  British  people 
who  founded  it,  than  to  foreigners  who  opposed  its 
creation  and  are  envious  of  its  progress. 

The  Empire  of  to-morrow  should  see  all  this  welded 
into  a  homogeneous  and  systcmatised  whole,  the  British 
people  utilising  to  the  full  for  their  own  benefit  and 


THE    BRITISH    EMPIRE  153 

adviiuUigc  the  advantages  ready  to  their  liand,  the 
Colonies  feeding  the  Mother  Country,  the  Mother 
Country  enjoying  in  return  a  trading  advantage  in 
the  Colonics. 

Noto,  separation,  independence,  means  what  ?  a 
pang  of  regret  for  a  day,  but  little  more. 

llien  it  would  mean  the  loss  of  the  greatest  and 
most  material  interests. 

Sentiment  is  good,  but  interest  is  better.  Thus  may 
an  United  Empire  "  be  organised,  one  may  almost  say 
created,"  to  use  Mr.  Chamberlain's  words,  "  greater  and 
more  potent  for  the  peace  and  civilisation  of  the  world 
than  any  that  history  has  ever  known." 

This  is  the  task  of  the  United  Empire  Trade 
League.  Heads  are  wanted,  hands  are  wanted,  in 
every  town,  in  every  village,  in  every  hamlet,  in  every 
mansion,  in  every  cottage  of  the  Empire.  We  call 
upon  to-day  to  work  for  to-morrow — to  realise  a  dream 
if  you  like,  but  a  dream  of  which  no  man  need  be 
ashamed,  to 

"Unite  the  Empire,  make  it  .stand  compact. 
Shoulder  to  shoulder,  let  its  members  feel 
The  touch  of  liritish  brotherhood  ;  and  act 
As  one  great  nation — strony:  and  true  as  steel." 


THE    BRITISH    NAVY 

By  J.  CORNELIUS  WHEELER 

There  is  nothing  more  extraordinary  in  the  history 
of  great  nations  than  the  apathy  and  ignorance  which 
existed  until  a  few  years  ago  in  this  country  upon  all 
things  connected  with  the  history  and  position  of  the 
British  navy.  We  had  a  huge  empire,  and  we  did  not 
seem  to  be  aware  of  it.  We  had  vast  colonial  posses- 
sions, and  if  we  thought  of  them  at  all,  it  was  merely 
coupled  with  the  wish  that  the  day  should  dawn  when 
we  could  finally  get  rid  of  them.  The  marvellous  elas- 
ticity and  magnitude  of  our  commerce  did  indeed  thrill 
the  average  Briton  with  a  certain  amount  of  patriotic 
pride,  because  it  enabled  him  to  count  up  his  money- 
bags and  contemplate  his  material  prosperity.  We 
sang  "  Britannia  Rules  the  Waves,"  and  imagined  that 
it  was  a  law  of  Nature,  forgetful  of  the  fact  that  it 
depended  upon  our  ships,  our  guns,  our  coaling  stations, 
our  coal  supplies,  our  armour,  our  men,  and  the  spirit 
that  actuated  them  from  the  quarter-deck  to  the 
forecastle. 

Fifteen  years  ago  the  fleet  was  less  tlian  half 
its  present  strength,  and  Lord  Northbrook,  at  that 
time  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  speaking  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  declared  that  if  he  had  another 
million  of  money  to  spend  on  the  navy  he  should  not 
know  what  to  do  with  it,  and  within  a  month  of  that 
time  he  asked  for  five  millions  ! 

There  is  a  story  told  of  another  First  Lord  who 
was    asked    by    sonic    Member   of    Parliament    of    an 


THE    BRITISH    NAVY  155 

inquiring  turn  of  mind  whether  certain  guns  wliich 
had  been  ordered  some  years  before  for  the  defence  of 
Singapore  had  ever  been  sent  out  there.  The  minister 
knew  perfectly  well  that  they  were  lying  in  the  dock- 
yard at  Sheerness,  and,  according  to  the  way  which 
they  have  in  the  House  of  Commons  when  a  minister 
is  asked  inconvenient  questions,  he  requested  notice  of 
it.  He  went  to  his  office  the  next  day  and  ordered 
these  guns  to  be  put  upon  lighters  in  the  Thames,  and 
that  night,  from  his  seat  on  the  Treasury  Bench, 
replying  to  the  question  in  the  presence  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people,  and  through  them  speaking 
to  the  nation,  whose  best  interests  were  committed  to 
his  care,  he  stated  that  the  guns  were  on  their  way  to 
Singapore !  Everybody  was  perfectly  contented,  for 
did  not  Britannia  rule  the  waves  ? 

No  doubt  the  state  of  affairs  which  made  that  kind 
of  thing  possible  has  by  this  time  passed  away,  but  it 
was  only  owing  to  the  action  of  a  few  individuals  and 
of  an  enterprising  newspaper  or  two,  who  looked 
beyond  the  House  of  Commons  and  the  Board  of 
Admiralty  to  the  outside  public,  that  a  sounder  and  a 
saner  line  of  policy  is  now  adopted  by  whatever 
government  may  be  in  power  at  the  time.  So  soon 
as  public  interest  in  these  questions  begins  to  flag,  so 
soon  will  the  Treasury  once  more  bear  down  the 
requirements  of  the  nation ;  and  so  long  as  there  are 
ministers  who  will  endeavour  to  make  up  for  their 
deficiency  in  one  department  by  economies  at  the 
expense  of  the  fleet,  so  long  it  is  essential,  if  we  are 
to  continue  our  existence  as  a  great,  world-wide  empire, 
that  we  must  see  to  it  that  far  and  above  all  questions 
of  party  politics  and  all  the  issues  upon  Avhich  so  many 
an  election  has  turned,  and  will  continue  to  turn,  lies 
the  supremacy  of  the  British  fleet  and  the  safety  of 
the  British  race. 

We  have  lately  seen  an  extraordinary  manifestation 


156  GENERAL 

of  the  best  side  of  the  imperiahst  idea,  not  in  any  Avay 
aggressive,  and  in  no  manner  endeavouring  to  threaten 
the  interests  of  other  nations ;  but  the  whole  of  the 
EngHsh  people  has  been  suddenly  roused  to  the  idea 
of  what  it  is  that  the  courage  and  energy  of  their 
ancestors  have  won  for  them,  and  the  meaning  of  the 
splendid  possibilities  that  lie  in  front  of  us.  No  inci- 
dent in  the  Diamond  Jubilee  celebrations  more  closely 
touched  the  popular  imagination  than  the  spectacle 
of  armed  men,  representatives  of  the  soldiers  of  the 
Queen  in  the  lands  from  which  they  came,  hurrying 
by  every  route  on  British  ships  across  the  connecting 
link — the  ocean — in  order  to  lay  their  tribute  of 
loyalty  at  the  feet  of  their  sovereign  in  the  very  central 
city  of  the  empire. 

"  I  have  to-day  received  the  offer  of  a  British 
ironclad  from  the  hands  of  a  British  colony,"  were  the 
words  uttered  by  Lord  Goschen  at  a  club  in  London  one 
night  in  that  famous  June,  and  they  are  words  that 
ought  to  be  engraved  in  letters  of  gold  "  plain  for  all 
folk  to  see,"  as  the  most  epoch-making  announcement 
that  a  minister  has  ever  yet  been  privileged  to  pro- 
nounce. It  is  probable  that  there  are  Kaisers  and 
Czars  who  would  give  many  a  Pomeranian  grenadier 
for  a  colony  that  can  mean  so  great  an  increase  in  the 
offensive  and  defensive  resources  of  an  empire.  It  is 
incidents  of  this  kind,  which  are  being  repeated  from 
time  to  time  with  ever-increasing  emphasis,  that  show 
us  that  the  English  people  have  at  last  appreciated 
what  the  influence  of  sea  power  means  to  them  and 
the  part  that  it  is  going  to  enable  them  to  play  in  the 
future  development  of  the  race,  which  of  all  others 
is  destined  to  be  the  predominant  race  in  l>oth 
hemispheres. 

Now  foreign  nations  are  following  very  closely 
(and  have  for  a  long  time  past)  the  efforts  made  by 
this  country  to  put  itself  in  such  a  position  that  it  will 


THE    BRITISH    NAVY  157 

be  able  to  defend  its  interests  in  case  of  war ;  and  the 
foreign  service  papers  from  time  to  time  are  good 
enough  to  tell  us  what  is  the  plan  of  campaign  by 
which  it  is  probable  that  we  shall  be  brought  most 
quickly  to  our  knees.  It  is  recognised  that  to  attack 
us  in  the  open,  and  to  bear  us  down  by  sheer  force 
in  battle,  is  not  a  policy  which  is  likely  to  lead 
to  success,  and  a  school  of  naval  strategists  has 
arisen  whose  idea  is  to  build  fast  cruisers  with  an 
enormous  coal  capacity,  which  shall  prey  upon  our 
commerce,  and  in  that  way  force  us  to  terms ;  and  they 
even  confer  an  additional  obligation  upon  us,  do  some 
of  these  gentlemen,  because  they  tell  us  what  are  the 
terms  which  the}'  will  be  good  enough  to  grant  when, 
having  beaten  us,  we  beg  for  peace  upon  our  knees. 

A  French  paper,  called  Essai  de  Stratdgie,  after 
stating  that  there  are  no  laws  of  war  but  those  of 
the  strongest,  and  that  generosity  is  only  cowardice, 
feebleness,  or  folly,  lays  down  the  French  campaign  as 
follows:  (i)  Raid  the  Bristol  Channel,  the  Channel, 
and  the  Thames  with  fast  cruisers ;  (2)  Destroy  English 
shipping  in  the  Mediterranean;  (3)  Plunder,  burn, 
and  sink  English  shipping  on  the  distant  seas ;  (4) 
Bombard  at  night  defenceless  towns,  such  as  Brighton 
or  Hastings.  Since  we  wish  it,  they  tell  us,  their 
cruisers,  their  gunboats  and  their  torpedo  boats  shall 
burn  our  towns. 

Plus  d'Augleterre  gives  the  terms  upon  which  we 
shall  be  able  to  purchase  peace :  Every  English  war- 
ship aHoat,  or  on  the  stocks,  to  be  surrendered  to 
France.  Not  more  than  fifty  warships  to  be  main- 
tained by  us  in  the  future.  Our  army  not  to  exceed 
50.000  men.  An  indemnity  of  ;^5 60,000,000  to  be 
paid.  Dover  to  be  surrendered  to  France  in  per- 
petuity. The  Channel  Isles,  Gibraltar,  Malta,  Cyprus, 
Sierra  Leone,  the  Gold  Coast,  the  Cape,  Mauritius,  the 
Seychelles,  Amirantes  and  Chagos,  Aden,  Perim,  Soco- 


158  GENERAL 

tra,  Ceylon,  Hong  Kong.  New  Guinea,  New  Zealand, 
Tasmania,  Fiji,  Vancouver,  Britisli  Guiana,  the  British 
West  Indies,  Quebec  and  Newfoundland  to  be  ceded 
to  France.  Egypt  to  be  evacuated.  The  Egyptian 
Antiquities  and  Elgin  Marbles  in  the  British  Museum 
to  be  given  up  to  France.  It  is  added  that  Russia 
had  made  herself  mistress  of  the  best  part  of  India 
Avhilst  we  were  thus  fighting  for  our  lives,  and  that 
Ireland  had  become  an  independent  republic  under 
the  protection  of  France.  When  the  terms  were  read 
out  at  the  Guildhall  "  there  followed  the  deep  silence 
of  the  grave,  there  were  tears  in  the  eyes  of  the 
English."     And  well  there  might  be. 

You  may  say  that  these  terms  are  preposterous, 
and  that  it  is  impossible  that  we  should  be  reduced 
to  such  straits,  but  at  any  rate,  whether  that  be 
so  or  no,  the  fact  remains,  that  these  are  only  some 
of  the  vast  territories  that  we  have  to  defend,  and 
if  no  terms  so  humiliating  have  ever  before  been 
made  to  a  conquered  people,  it  is  only  that  never 
before  in  the  history  of  the  world  has  any  nation  had 
so  much  to  lose. 

You  will  recollect  that  navies  nowadays  are 
divided  practically  into  four  classes.  There  is  the 
ironclad,  or  battleship  of  various  ranks,  upon  the 
efficiency  of  whicli  the  pitched  battles  at  sea  will 
depend.  There  are  the  cruisers,  of  various  classes, 
which  are  meant  to  protect  trading  ships  on  the 
high  seas,  and  to  take  the  place  of  the  frigate  of 
bygone  days.  There  is  the  torpedo  boat,  which  is 
designed  to  destroy  indiscriminately  either  battleships 
or  cruisers  whenever  it  can  come  up  to  them  ;  and 
there  is  the  English  antidote  to  the  torpedo  boat, 
called  tlie  "  torpedo  boat  destroyer,"  whose  purpose  it 
is  to  chase  the  torpedo  boats  and  overtake  them,  for 
which  purpose  they  are  of  extraordinary  speed. 

Tlif    total    munber   of   torpedo   boat  destroyers  is 


THE    BRITISH    NAVY  159 

now  1 1 3.  Forty-two  have  trial  speeds  of  twenty-six 
to  twenty-seven  knots,  and  the  Avhole  of  the  1 1 3 
now  have  water- tube  boilers  of  the  small  tube,  or 
Express  type.  Of  the  thirty-knot  vessels  fift3'-eight 
have  been  delivered.  Five  destroyers  have  done  over 
thirty  knots  on  their  trial  speeds,  the  Vrpcr,  fitted 
with  the  Parsons'  steam  turbine,  attaining  33I  knots/ 
combined  with  an  entire  absence  of  vibration. 

The  Naval  Estimates  for  1901-2  provide  for  five 
submarine  vessels  of  the  Holland  type,  and  this  is  the 
first  time  in  the  history  of  the  English  navy  that  any 
attempt  has  been  made  by  the  Admiralty  to  seriously 
consider  the  question  of  submarine  boats.  The  French 
navy  have  thirty-seven  submarine  boats,  built  and 
building. 

The  efficiency  of  a  fleet  to  a  very  large  extent 
depends  upon  the  amount  of  time  that  it  can  keep 
at  sea,  and  that  is  a  question  of  its  coal  capacity, 
although  speed  is  also  of  the  utmost  importance.  In 
the  old  days  a  fleet  could  remain  at  sea  almost  indefi- 
nitely. Nelson,  for  instance,  was  two  years  outside 
Toulon  harbour  watching  the  French  fleet ;  and  al- 
though it  is  true  that  at  the  end  of  that  time  some  of 
his  ships  were  scarcely  seaworthy,  still  they  managed 
to  keep  afloat  and  to  prove  of  very  great  service  when 
the  need  arose,  because  all  that  they  required  from 
the  shore  was  supplies  of  food  and  ammunition,  which 
were  obtained  by  despatching  ships  from  time  to  time  to 
get  them.  In  fact,  Trafalgar  was  brought  on  by  Nelson 
despatching  half-a-dozen  of  his  ships  to  obtain  food 
supplies  and  repairs  which  were  absolutely  essential  and 
could  not  be  done  at  sea,  and  the  French  Admiral  Ville- 
neuve  took  advantage  of  this  as  the  most  favourable 
time  to  come  out  of  harbour  and  meet  the  English 
admiral.       Fleets    will    act    very    differently    in    the 

^  This  vessel  was  totally  wrecked  o(Y  the  Channel   Islands  in    the 
naval  manoeuvres  of  1901. 


i6o  GENERAL 

future.  You  have  read  of  the  Powerful  consum- 
ing something  hke  1 2,000  tons  of  coal  on  her  way 
to  China.  Well,  the  Powerful,  with  her  sister  ship 
the  Terrible,  has  a  greater  coal  capacity  than  any 
other  ship  in  the  world.  They,  both  of  them, 
carry  3000  tons  in  their  bunkers;  but  even  that  pre- 
vents them  going  for  any  length  of  time  away  from 
their  coaling  stations  wherever  they  may  be,  and 
severely  restricts  their  usefulness  in  time  of  war. 
Luckily  the  best  coaling  stations  all  over  the  world 
are  in  our  hands ;  and  if  we  were  at  war  with  any 
other  nation,  by  refusing  to  sell  that  essential  com- 
modity to  them,  we  could  make  it  impossible  for 
many  of  them  ever  to  get  back  to  their  native  land 
at  all.  And  in  this  way  the  task  of  the  British 
navy  is  very  considerably  simplified,  because  by 
watchint)'  the  entrance  to  the  enemies'  harbours  we 
know  perfectly  well  that  we  are  bound  to  come  up 
with  their  fleets  sooner  or  later,  and  we  should  not 
have  to  spend  months  of  weary  watching  looking  out 
for  their  ships  as  Nelson  had  to  do  in  that  historic 
but  heart-breaking  chase  which  only  ended  in  the 
sublime  triumph  of  the  Nile  itself. 

When  the  Kaiser,  at  that  time  not  on  very  good 
terms  with  the  English  people,  sent  out  the  mailed 
fist,  in  the  shape  of  the  Gcfion,  to  vindicate  his  dignity 
in  China,  it  was  only  by  a  frequent  resort  to  English 
coaling  stations  and  English  dockyards  that  the  ship 
managed  to  get  to  her  destination  at  all.  So  you  will 
see,  should  a  foreign  country  be  at  war  with  us  the 
seas  would  be  closed  to  an  enemy  who  had  not 
coaling  stations  and  dockyards  at  convenient  points. 

In  foreign  navies  you  lind  tlic  liossia  and  Rurik, 
which  are  Russian  ships  witli  a  coal  capacity  of  2500 
tons.  The  Columhia  and  Minneapo/ is  in  the  Unitod 
States  navy,  tlio  Chaiaiu  Jlcnauh  and  the  Guichau  in 
the  Frcncli   navy  are  of  the  same   type,  but   none  of 


TIIK    I'.RITISII    NAVY  i6i 

them  have  such  hirge  coal  capacities  as  the  Poivcrful 
or  the  Terrible,  and  therefore  their  usefulness  is 
greatly  diminished.  In  the  wars  of  the  future,  the 
nation  which  is  able  to  stay  at  sea  the  longest,  and 
which  has  well-fortitied  harbours  and  coaling  stations  at 
the  strategic  points  of  the  world,  Avill  have  an  enormous 
advantage  when  the  fighting  begins.  Not  only  have 
we  got  coaliijg  stations  at  strategic  points,  but  we  also 
have  docks  and  ports  in  strength  and  in  importance 
infinitely  greater  than  those  of  any  other  nation,  with 
the  exception  of  France  in  the  Mediterranean.  In 
the  Mediterranean,  the  French  have  their  splendid 
series  of  harbours  along  the  coast.  They  have  great 
harbours  at  Tunis,  and  others  along  their  North 
African  possessions,  in  many  of  which  their  fleets 
can  lie  in  safety.  We  have,  it  is  true,  Gibraltar  with 
two  docks,  which  takes  in  the  biggest  ironclad  afloat ; 
and  in  a  few  years  time  we  shall  have  four  there. 
Our  next  large  dock  is  at  Malta,  a  thousand  jiiiles 
away  from  Gibraltar,  and  the  nearest  home  port  is 
Devonport,  which  is  farther  still  where  two  ships  of 
the  largest  class  only  can  be  docked. 

It  is  in  that  sea  and  off  the  coast  of  Spain  that 
many  of  the  great  battles  of  the  past  have  been  fought, 
and  where,  in  any  European  Naval  War,  a  pitched 
battle  for  the  supremacy  of  the  seas  will,  probably, 
bo  lost  or  won.  We  know  what  happened  after  Tra- 
falgar. Scarcely  any  of  the  prizes  that  were  taken 
were  retained,  because  in  the  gale  that  sprang  up 
immediately  after  the  battle  they  went  to  the  bottom ; 
and  if  this  is  the  case  with  a  wooden  ship,  how  much 
more  likely  is  it  to  bo  the  case  with  the  far  more  ex- 
pensive ironclads  of  the  present  day.  When  one 
reflects  that  convenient  harbours  into  which  to  run  the 
injured  vessels  after  an  engagement  may  mean  the 
salvation  of  half-a-dozen  great  ironclads,  which  cost 
something  like  a  milliou  of  money  each,  it  is  clear 
V  L 


1 62  GENERAL 

that  no  more  important  problem  faces  the  Board  of 
Admiralty  than  this ;  and  even  if  it  costs  large  sums 
of  money  to  secure  it,  it  will  be  money  well  spent, 
and  as  vital  to  the  success  of  a  great  war  as  proper 
hospital  accommodation  and  a  medical  staff  would  be 
to  an  army.  We  were  told  not  long  ago  that  the 
Polyphemus  was  leaking  badly  when  she  put  in  at 
Devonport,  but  there  was  no  available  dock  there  for 
her,  and  she  was  accordingly  sent  up  Channel  in  a 
gale  of  wind  to  Portsmouth.  Providentially  she  arrived 
safely  at  her  destination,  but  it  emphasises  the  point 
which  I  am  endeavouring  to  make,  that  to  subject 
ships  that  have  just  come  out  of  action  to  a  long  sea 
voyage,  perhaps  in  bad  weather,  before  they  can  arrive 
at  places  where  the  repairs  can  be  effected  which  are 
essential  to  keep  them  afloat,  is  folly  so  pronoimced  as 
to  have  no  words  to  adequately  describe  it. 

I  stated  just  now  that  it  is  probable  that  the  fate 
of  England  will  one  day  be  decided  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  is  a  great  trade  route ;  one  of  the  greatest 
in  the  world,  a  highway  to  the  "  gorgeous  East." 
Gibraltar,  Malta,  and  Alexandria  are  three  vital  links 
in  the  chain  that  holds  the  Empire  together.  Its  im- 
portance has  been  recognised  by  every  European 
statesman  for  two  hundred  years  and  more,  and  that 
is  why  of  your  small  army  you  have  some  9000  men 
at  Malta  and  5000  or  6000  at  Gibraltar. 

We  have  endeavoured  for  over  a  hundred  years 
to  keep  Russian  fleets  from  coming  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean down  the  Bosphorus.  It  was  one  of  the 
provisions  of  the  treaty  after  the  Crimean  War  which 
the  Russians  broke  without  a  protest  from  this 
country  when  France  was  flghting  Prussia  in  1870. 
There  is  an  intimate  alliance  between  France  and 
Russia  at  the  present  day,  and  at  one  end  of  that 
narrow  sea  w(j  are  exposed  to  the  attack  of  the 
Russian   fleet,  with  its  base  in   the   Black  Sea,  at  the 


THE    BRITISH    NAVY  163 

other  end  of  it  the  French  fleet,  with  all  the  crreat 
natural  advantages  I  have  mentioned  to  you. 

Take  a  map  in  your  hand  and  look  then  how 
easy  it  would  be  for  either  of  these  two  allied  Powers, 
neither  of  which  is  very  friendly  to  this  country,  to 
cut  the  line  of  your  communications  by  falling  on  a 
British  fleet  cruising  in  the  Mediterranean,  anywhere 
from  Gibraltar  to  Alexandria ;  to  attack  them  with 
the  certain  knowledge  tliat  if  tlie  attack  was  successful 
an  irreparable  blow  would  have  been  struck  at  our 
supremacy  on  the  seas,  and  our  connection  with  the 
outlying  portions  of  our  empire. 

It  is  known  that  the  admiral  in  command  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  his  second  in  command  have  both 
of  them,  during  this  year,  in  the  strongest  "  Anglo- 
Saxon  at  their  disposal,"  called  the  attention  of  the 
Admiralty  to  the  fact  that  our  position  during  the  last 
two  or  three  years  in  that  part  of  the  world  has 
altered,  and  altered  for  the  worse,  and  we  are  not 
strouy  enough  to  face  a  combined  Franco-Russian 
attack  ;  and  when  the  question  was  raised  in  the  House 
of  Commons  neither  the  First  Lord  (Selborne)  nor  the 
Secretary  of  the  Admiralty,  Mr.  Arnold  Forster,  could 
deny  that  wo  were  woefully  short  in  torpedo-boat 
destroyers — the  Government  were  going  to  send  some 
more  there  directly  they  were  built ;  and  that  the 
percentage  of  battleships  which  the  Admiralty  them- 
selves laid  down  as  being  the  minimum  had  not  been 
maintained,  but  that  it  was  owing  to  the  engineers' 
strike  of  a  few  years  ago  which  had  delayed  the  com- 
pletion of  a  number  of  our  first-class  battleships. 

Years  ago  it  was  discovered  that  a  breakwater  at 
Malta  was  essential  to  the  security  of  the  fleet  to 
protect  it  from  an  enemy's  torpedo  attack.  There  is 
no  breakwater  at  Malta  at  this  moment,  although 
there  is  a  French  torpedo  station  at  Bizerta,  2 1  o 
miles  away. 


1 64  GENERAL 

The  recent  manoeuvres  liave  emphasised  the  fact 
that  cruisers  are  as  essential  to  a  fleet  to-day  as  they 
were  when  Nelson  uttered  his  historic  cry  for  more 
frigates.  The  cruisers  are  not  being  supplied  because 
the  Admiralty  won't  spend  the  money.  Indeed  the 
Vulcan,  which  was  fitted  as  a  repairing  ship  and  sent 
to  the  Mediterranean  in  that  capacity,  has  had  to  be 
used  as  a  cruiser  in  order  to  make  up  for  the  deficiency. 
No  adequate  provision  has  been  made  for  the  first 
essentials  of  sufficient  fighting,  namely,  telescopic  sites, 
gyroscopes,  smokeless  powder  for  the  i  3. 5 -inch  guns, 
armoured  piercing  shells,  breech-loading  field  guns, 
wireless  telegraphy,  and  when  these  matters  were 
publicly  debated  in  the  House  of  Commons  not  one  of 
the  statements  I  have  just  made  was  disputed  by  Lord 
Selborne,  who  began  his  speech  by  stating  that  he  had 
not  been  in  office  long  enough  to  have  earned  the 
confidence  of  the  country !  It  will  be  a  fatal  day  for 
this  country  if  the  electorate  ever  has  confidence  in 
either  the  Secretary  for  War  or  the  first  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty,  because  the  experience  of  many  years 
teaches  us  that  it  is  only  by  the  nation  keeping  awake 
and  compelling  attention  to  these  matters  that  you  are 
ever  likely  to  have  a  fleet  or  an  army  which  the  nation 
can  rely  upon  to  do  the  work  which  one  day  they 
may  be  called  upon  to  do. 

It  is  a  commonplace  of  English  strategy  that,  im- 
mediately upon  the  declaration  of  war,  the  Avork  of  the 
English  fleet  will  be  to  search  for  the  enemy  and  to  fight 
him  on  the  high  seas  wherever  he  can  come  up  with 
him  ;  and  in  the  leading  article  in  The  Standard — a 
newspaper  which  is  supposed  to  be  to  some  extent  repre- 
sentative of  the  views  of  the  Government,  as  it  probably 
is  to  a  large  section  of  public  opinion — on  the  morning 
after  the  debate  in  the  House  of  Lords,  when  Lord  Sol- 
borne  made  his  annual  statcinent,  we  were  told  that  it 
did  not  matter  if,  at  tiie  iii(»iiioiit,  the  Mediturraiican  fleet 


THE    l^RTTrSH    NAVY  165 

was  inferior  to  the  enemy's,  because  they  could  easily 
go  into  harbour  under  the  shelter  of  British  forts  and 
wait  for  reinforcements  to  arrive.  If  an  English  fh^et 
ever  had  to  do  that,  the  supremacy  of  the  seas  woidd 
be  gone  and  a  large  portion  of  our  over  sea  trade 
would  be  handed  over  to  the  ravages  of  the  enemy. 
It  is  for  the  public — it  is  for  the  men  who,  after  all, 
control  ministries  in  this  country  to  see  to  it  that  the 
Mediterranean  fleet  is  the  structure  upon  which  our 
empire  rests,  and  that  the  admiral  in  command  of  it 
immediately  war  is  declared,  instead  of  sneaking  about 
in  harbours  in  the  hope  that  reinforcements  may 
elude  the  enemy's  fleets  and  pick  him  up,  shall  be  able 
to  strike  the  first  blow — to  strike  it  at  once  and  to 
strike  it  home. 

There  is  another  very  serious  question,  and  that 
is  the  condition  of  the  Naval  Reserve  and  the  number 
of  foreigners  in  our  Mercantile  Marine.  In  1876, 
according  to  Mr.  Clark  Hall's  return,  we  had  16,51  1 
enrolled  apprentices  in   the    Mercantile    Marine.       In 

1896  there  were  only  7280,  and  only  1535  enrolled 
in  that  year  at  all,  which  means  that  there  was  a  de- 
crease of  9231  in  twenty  years.  Now  we  have  1605 
boys  at  sea,  and  there  are  65,090  officers  and  seamen 
in  the  Mercantile  Marine.     In  the  Navy  Estimates  of 

1897  and  1898  provision  is  made  for  62,087  petty 
officers  and  men.  For  this  6000  boys  must  be 
annually  trained,  and  at  least  1 0,000  ought  to  enter 
the  Merchant  Service  annually,  instead  of  the  1535 
enrolled  in  1896.  In  1887,  15  per  cent,  of  the 
crews  in  the  merchant  service  were  foreigners.  In 
1897  it  was  18.46  per  cent.,  which  is  double  what  it 
was  thirty  years  ago.  Of  these  30  per  cent,  are  sailors 
alone.  We  have  47,884  seamen  in  our  home  and 
foreign  sailing  and  steam  vessels,  and  deducting  14,316 
who  are  foreigners,  this  leaves  us  with  only  33,568 
who  are  of  British   nationality.      Deducting  this  latter 


1 66  GENERAL 

figure  from  the  47,884,  leaves  us  with  only  16,000 
men  to  draw  upon  and  carry  on  our  trade  after  allow- 
ing 24,000  to  the  Naval  Reserve.  (These  figures  do 
not  include  the  fishing  population.)  In  the  last  five 
years  there  has  been  a  decrease  of  5558  British 
seamen  coupled  with  an  increase  of  3562  foreign 
seamen  in  the  Mercantile  Marine.  We  have  this 
alarming  and  distressing  fact,  that  as  the  num- 
ber of  the  Britishers  goes  down  the  number  of  the 
foreigners  goes  up — men  who  come  from  Sweden, 
Germany,  Norway,  and  the  United  States,  manning 
the  ships  on  which  our  safety  in  the  long  run  de- 
pends, and  doing  the  work  which  of  all  other  work 
should  be  done  by  British  muscle,  pluck,  and  en- 
durance. Many  remedies  have  been  suggested  to 
cope  with  this  very  serious  evil.  Sir  Edward 
Reed's  Manning  Committee  favoured  training  ships, 
and  in  this  Lord  Brassey  and  Sir  John  Hay 
concur.  It  has  been  sugfsj^ested,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  we  should  have  apprentices  in  selected  vessels 
or  training  ships,  upon  which  boys  could  be  drafted 
from  the  Board  Schools,  and  this  would  cost  the 
country  ^^250,000  per  annum  for  the  next  ten 
years ;  but  whatever  be  the  remedy  and  whatever  be 
the  expense,  it  is  a  question  which  will  have  to  be 
faced  and  have  to  be  dealt  with  unless  the  efficiency  of 
the  Navy  and  of  the  Mercantile  Marine,  from  which  we 
get  our  reserve,  is  to  be  very  gravely  impaired. 

The  value  of  sailing  ships  is  recognised  in  every 
foreign  navy,  and  as  an  encouragement  to  their  employ- 
ment in  the  Mercantile  Marine,  in  which  to  rear  their 
reserves  of  men,  subsidies  are  paid  to  the  owners  of 
sailing  ships  on  a  liberal  scale.  The  North  German 
Lloyd  receives  ^250,000  a  year  from  the  German 
Government,  and  the  Messagcries  Mari times  ;ii^i  25,000 
from  the  French  Government.  As  a  result,  the  con- 
struction  of  sailing  ships    in   those  countries   showed 


THK    BRITISH    NAVY  167 

considerable  progress  at  a  time  when  sailing  vessels 
were  disappearing  altogether  from  beneath  the  British 
Flag.  As  all  the  authorities  will  tell  you  that  sailing 
ships  are  the  only  real  nurseries  for  seamen,  it  would 
probably  bo  found  not  antagonistic  to  the  interests 
of  the  shai-cholders  in  our  great  steamship  companies 
if  they  would  follow  the  example  of  the  North  German 
Lloyd  and  fit  up  a  training  ship  with  an  experienced 
officer  of  the  Royal  Navy  to  conduct  the  school  work, 
embracing  all  branches  of  a  practical  nautical  educa- 
tion. To  the  great  service  lines,  such  as  the  Peninsular 
and  Oriental,  the  AVhite  Star,  the  British  India  or  the 
Union  Companies,  it  would  be  a  small  matter  to  equip 
a  training  ship  under  their  own  flag,  following  the  lead 
of  their  foreign  rivals,  and  thus  seize  the  opportunity 
of  carrying  on  the  training  of  officers  and  seamen  on  a 
scale  commensurate  with  the  great  fleet  which  foreign 
nations  have  compelled  us  to  build  during  the  last  few 
years.  In  the  session  of  1898  the  Government  intro- 
duced a  clause  into  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act  of  that 
year  providing  for  a  reduction  of  the  Light  dues  in 
favour  of  the  owners  of  ships  carrying  apprentices,  but 
the  scheme  failed  because  the  inducements  held  out 
were  inadequate.  The  amount  refunded  in  respect  of 
Light  dues  to  owners  of  ships  carrying  boy  sailors 
during  the  year  from  ist  April  1899  ^'*  ^^^  April 
1900  was  £6Si,  8s.  lod.  only. 

Lord  Selborne  stated  in  the  annual  Naval  State- 
ment submitted  to  Parliament  in  March  1901,  that 
negotiations  for  the  establishment  of  a  branch  of  the 
Royal  Naval  Reserve  in  the  North  American  Colonies 
have  been  proceeded  with  during  the  past  year,  and 
fifty  seamen  from  Newfoundland  have  been  embarked 
in  his  Majesty's  ships  on  the  station  for  six  months' 
training.  The  question  of  the  part,  that  probably  will, 
and  certainly  ought  to,  be  played  in  the  defence  of  the 
Empire  by  the  far  distant  portions  of  it,  is  outside  the 


1 68  GENERAL 

subject  we  have  to  discuss  to-day,  but  no  scheme  of 
naval  or  military  defence  can  be  considered  adequate 
which  does  not  provide  that  the  resources  of  the 
Empire  all  over  the  world  shall  be  drawn  upon  as  the 
occasion  may  require,  and  each  unit  of  the  hetero- 
geneous mass  of  men  called  the  Imperial  Forces  shall 
know  where  his  duties  call  him  to  stand  in  the  event 
of  war. 

I  should  like  to  give  you  the  figures  showing  the 
number  of  men  on  whom  we  depend  to  man  our  Hoet. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  when  our  popu- 
lation was  relatively  small  and  our  commerce  insigni- 
ficant as  compared  with  what  it  is  to-day,  Parliament 
voted  120,000  seamen  and  marines  for  the  fleet;  in 
1885  the  numbers  were  61,000;  in  1895,  88,000,  or 
an  increase  of  27,000  in  ten  years.  The  total  number 
of  officers,  seamen,  boys,  coastguards  and  marines  pro- 
posed for  the  year  1 90 1—2  is  i  i  8,63  5 ,  being  an  increase 
of  3745  ujDon  last  year. 

Let  us  now  turn  from  this  branch  of  the  subject 
and  look  at  the  position  Ave  occupy  from  being  an 
island. 

It  is  a  very  charming  idea,  that  of  being  "  set  in 
the  silvery  sea."  It  probably  would  have  spared  us 
from  many  a  European  entanglement  had  it  not  been 
for  our  national  characteristic  of  insisting  on  taking  a 
hand  whenever  there  was  any  fighting  to  bo  done,  but 
it  has  its  drawbacks  as  well.  As  a  nation,  Ave  live  by 
making  finished  articles  and  carrying  them  over  the 
seas,  and  this  is  a  perfectly  sound  position  so  long  as 
the  finished  article  can  be  exchanged  for  food  and 
other  raAv  material.  I  say  for  food,  because,  finding 
we  possess  large  quantities  of  coal  and  iron,  Ave  turn 
our  attention  to  manufacturing  rather  than  groAving 
corn.  Free  trade  sacrificed  the  farmer  and  gave  us 
Avool  and  cotton  at  the  cheapest  possible  prices,  and, 
in  addition  to  sacrificinjj  the  farmer,  it  Avas  a  bonus  to 


TIIK    HlilTISIJ    NAVY  169 

the  shipping  world,  iusomucli  as  food  makes  but  oiu^ 
voyage  whereas  materials  make  two — imported  in  the 
raw  state  and  exported  as  the  finished  article.  Wo 
import  cotton,  wool,  tlax,  silk,  hemp,  leather  and  wot)d, 
and  if  these  importations  were  stopped  from  any  cause 
whatever,  5,000,000  heads  of  families  would  be  affected 
in  this  country.  Now  we  can  gather  some  idea  of 
what  this  stoppage  means  by  recollecting  the  efi'ect 
of  the  cotton  famine  in  Lancashire  in  1862,  It  is 
reckoned  that  it  cost  the  nation  sixty-six  millions  of 
money,  half  of  which  is  represented  by  the  wages  that 
otherwise  the  working-classes  would  have  earned  and 
one- tenth  of  it  the  profit  of  the  shopkeepers.  Pauperism 
in  Lancashire  went  up  140  per  cent.,  but  it  was  only 
one  trade  that  was  aflected,  and  the  rest  of  England  came 
to  the  support  of  the  cotton  trade.  What  would  have 
been  the  position  if  every  industry  had  been  in  a 
similar  plight ;  if  the  raw  material  of  every  trade 
had  ceased  to  flow  into  the  country,  not  because  of  a 
famine,  but  because  the  enemies'  fleets  were  sufficiently 
strong  upon  the  seas  to  say  that  none  of  these  things 
should  be  allowed  to  be  imported  into  England  at  all  ? 
Whether  the  raw  material  is  stopped  because  it  does 
not  grow  for  twelve  months,  or  whether  it  is  stopped 
because  it  is  intercepted  before  it  reaches  English 
shores,  will  matter  not  in  the  least  to  the  classes  who 
depend  upon  fre(!  importations  for  their  existence,  and 
will  be  equally  disastrous  to  the  nation  the  moment 
this  country  ceases  to  be  so  predominant  at  sea  as  to 
keep  the  ocean  highways  open. 

Rut  there  is  another  very  important  way  of  looking 
at  this  question,  and  that  is  the  question  of  the  foreign 
food  we  import.  In  1895  only  one  person  out  of 
every  five  in  these  islands  ate  English  bread ;  the  rest 
of  them  had  to  feed  on  wheat  that  was  imported 
into  the  country.  Our  chief  food  imports  for  that 
year    were:     grain     and     flour,    ^^48, 200,000 ;     dead 


lyo  GENERAL 

meat,  ;6^2 2,700,000  ;  sugar,  iJ^ 1 9, 1 00,000  ;  butter, 
;^i6,5oo,ooo  ;  tea,  ;6^9, 8 00,000  ;  animals,  ;^9,ooo,ooo  ; 
fruit  and  hops,  ^6,270,000;  cheese,  ;if  5,500,000.  In 
the  year  1 800  we  practically  fed  ourselves,  at  any  rate 
to  the  extent  of  nineteen-twentieths  of  our  require- 
ments. But  in  1795  the  harvest  failed.  A  bounty 
was  put  on  imported  corn  of  i6s.  to  20s.  a  quarter. 
The  quartern  loaf  was  up  to  is.  lod.  In  18 12  it 
was  IS.  8d.  for  months  together  at  a  time  when  wages 
in  the  north  were  only  30s.  a  week,  the  famous  Lud- 
dite  Riots  being  to  a  large  extent  the  consequence; 
but  in  1795  and  1812  we  were  able  to  feed  ourselves, 
and  our  supremacy  at  sea  was  unquestioned.  A  nation 
dependent  upon  food  which  it  cannot  obtain,  dependent 
upon  manufactures  which  have  ceased  to  exist,  let  its 
patriotism  be  what  it  may,  Avould  be  incapable  of  con- 
tinuing a  war  for  a  week.  We  can  imagine  what 
would  be  the  position  in  this  country  under  such 
circumstances  to-day. 

It  is  the  close,  let  us  suppose,  of  our  second  month 
of  war.  The  fleet  has  been  neglected,  and  has  been 
overwhelmed,  unready  and  unprepared.  We  have 
been  beaten  twice  at  sea,  and  our  enemies  have  estab- 
lished no  accidental  superiority,  but  a  permanent  and 
overwhelming  one.  The  telegraph  cables  are  severed ; 
these  islands  are  in  darkness,  under  a  heavy  cloud 
of  woe.  Invasion  is  in  the  air ;  our  armies  are  mus- 
tering in  the  south.  We  are  cut  off  from  the  world, 
and  can  only  fitfully  perceive  what  is  happening. 
Our  liners  have  been  captured  or  sunk  on  the  high 
seas ;  our  ocean  tramps  arc  in  the  enemies'  hands ; 
British  trade  is  dead,  killed  by  the  wholesale  ravages 
of  the  hostile  cruisers.  Our  ports  are  insulted,  or  held 
up  to  ransom ;  when  news  reaches  us  from  India  it  is 
to  the  effect  that  the  enemy  is  before  our  troops,  a 
native  insurrection  behind.  Malta  has  fallen,  and  our 
outlying  possessions  are  passing  from  our  hands.      Food 


THE    BRITISH    NAVY  171 

is  contraband  and  may  not  be  imported.  Amid  the 
jeers  of  Europe  "  the  nation  of  shopkeepers  "  is  writhing 
in  its  death  agony. 

And  what  of  the  internal,  of  the  social  position  ? 
Consols  have  fallen  to  near  30;  our  vast  investments 
in  India  have  been  lost ;  trade  no  longer  exists,  and 
every  industry  but  shipbuilding  is  paralysed.  The 
Avoollen  mills  of  Yorkshire  arc  running  no  longer ;  the 
cotton  mills  of  Lancashire  are  silent ;  wages  are  falling 
fast,  as  they  fell  in  our  last  great  war,  and  concurrently 
the  price  of  every  kind  of  provision  is  rising.  The 
railways  have  no  traffic  to  carry,  for  nothing  is  being 
produced,  and  they  are  dismissing  their  employees. 
Banks  and  companies  are  failing  daily.  The  restricted 
income  of  the  wealthy  is  restricting  in  its  turn  the  pro- 
fits of  the  shopkeeper  and  the  wages  of  the  working  man. 

The  east  end  of  London  is  clamouring  for  bread 
and  peace  at  any  price.  The  working-men  of  the 
north  are  starving,  as  they  starved  in  the  cotton 
famine  of  1862.  Then  it  was  only  the  supply  of 
cotton  which  was  cut  off:  food  could  at  least  be  freely 
imported.  To-morrow,  if  we  are  beaten  at  sea,  we 
shall  have  neither  raw  materials  nor  food,  and  our 
sufferings  will  be  multiplied  fifty-fold.  Our  dockyards, 
private  and  public — if,  indeed,  they  have  been  spared 
by  the  hostile  Meets — will,  it  is  true,  be  full  of  ships. 
The  ministry  will  have  endeavoured  to  calm  public 
alarm  and  to  allay  the  want  of  food  by  tabular  state- 
ments proving  that  we  shall  have  two  hundred  new 
ships  in  two  years'  time.  And  we  shall  be  crushed  in 
a  fortnight !  The  ships  building  will  go  to  swell  our 
enemies'  total.  All  our  enormous  resources,  all  our 
great  wealth  will  be  useless,  if  we  have  not  that 
staying  power  which  is  needful  to  carry  us  safely 
through  the  first  six  months  of  war,  and  the  strength 
required  to  take  the  offensive,  directly  it  has  been 
declared. 


1/2  GENERAL 

This  picture  may  bo  perhaps  highly  coloured,  but 
there  is  no  man  who  will  deny  that  behind  it  all 
lie  strong  and  undeniable  facts,  the  contemplation  of 
which,  forgotten  or  overlooked  as  they  were  for  many 
years,  has  caused  men  of  all  parties  in  the  state  to 
agree  that,  let  the  sacrifices  be  what  they  may, 
the  only  thing  that  stands  between  it  and  England 
is  a  fleet  powerful  enough  to  keep  the  enemy  from 
our  doors  and  the  great  trade  routes  as  safe  as  an 
English  highway.  In  truth,  history  does  not  show 
another  instance  of  a  nation  so  supremely  dependent 
upon  the  supremacy  of  the  seas  as  we  are.  Other 
nations  may  suffer  and  be  beaten  and  other  capitals 
may  be  occupied  by  foreign  enemies,  and  after  they 
have  paid  the  price  of  defeat  they  can  begin  to  recoup 
themselves.  But  England,  as  Lord  Beaconsfield  once 
said,  '•  England  cannot  beofin  ag-ain." 

At  the  beginning  of  the  century,  in  spite  of  the 
undisputed  supremacy  which  Trafalgar  had  gained  for 
us,  our  shipping  suffered  very  severely.  There  were 
many  commercial  failures,  and  the  Treasury  gave  grants 
of  ;^5, 000,000  of  money  by  way  of  assistance.  In 
1805  the  Rochefort  squadron  took  four  ships  of  war  and 
forty- two  merchantmen  in  five  months,  and  nearly 
one  hundred  French  privateers  were  swarming  in  the 
Channel.  In  the  ufreat  war,  the  French  took  i  i  ,000 
ships,  worth  ^200,000,000  of  money,  which  worked 
out  at  555  ships  per  annum  on  an  average,  being 
equal  to  a  tax  of  2  h  per  cent,  on  our  trade ;  and  this  is 
a  point  which  is  very  often  lost  sight  of,  viz.,  the 
enormous  losses  sustained  by  our  Mercantile  Marine 
in  the  days  when  the  enemies'  fleets  were  comparatively 
impotent.  The  same  risks  will  attend  the  Mercantile 
Marine  to-day  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  English 
navy  possesses  far  more  commerce-protecting  cruisers 
than  any  other.  All  we  can  hope  to  do  is  to  reduce 
this    loss    to   a    iiiiniimiin,   so    that    the    inducements 


THE    BlUTTSH    NAVY  173 

shiill  be  as  little  as  possible  to  transfer  any  part  of  the 
English  trade  to  neutral  bottoms,  because  the  experi- 
ence of  the  past  shows  us  that  trade  once  transferred 
to  another  flag  very  seldom  comes  back  again,  and 
of  this  the  history  of  the  United  States  is  one  of  the 
most  striking  instances. 

But  sea  power  is  of  importance  from  the  strategic 
point  of  view  as  well.  We  were  able  to  do  what  all 
the  great  armies  of  the  Continent  failed  to  do  in 
the  Napoleon  Avars,  because  we  were  unbeaten  at  sea. 
Our  base  was  the  ocean,  and  whatever  might  be  our 
fortunes  on  land,  we  had  only  to  retire  to  our  base 
and  the  enemy  could  not  touch  us.  It  is  true  we 
were  beaten  in  the  Corunna  campaign.  We  retired 
to  our  ships  and  chose  our  own  time  to  make 
another  descent  upon  the  land,  and  had  wo  been 
beaten  a  dozen  times,  we  could  always  withdraw 
behind  our  lines,  and  after  having  recruited  our 
strength,  land  again.  Captain  Mahan  says  in  his 
great  naval  work,  referring  to  the  fleet  with  which 
Lord  Nelson  blockaded  Toulon,  "  Those  weather-beaten 
ships  on  which  the  Grande  Armee  never  looked  stood 
between  it  and  the  dominion  of  the  world."  We  have 
lately  had  questions  of  great  moment  in  dispute  in 
Africa  with  France  and  with  Germany.  What  could 
either  of  these  great  nations  do  if  they  found  them- 
selves at  war  with  us  ?  They  could  send  no  re- 
inforcements of  men,  guns,  supplies,  amnmnition,  or 
stores  of  any  sort  to  any  of  then*  colonies.  They 
could  not  attack  any  of  oiu-  Colonial  possessions,  be- 
cause so  long  as  we  had  an  unbeaten  fleet  at  sea,  they 
would  not  dare  to  risk  the  existence  of  an  army  by 
putting  it  on  board  ship  until  that  fleet  was  dis])osed 
of.  1  remember  once  talking  about  the  British  occu- 
pation of  Egypt  with  Mr.  Spencer  Wilkinson,  who 
is  a  high  authority  on  naval  strategy,  and  I  asked 
him    whether   he   did   nut   think   that   our   locking   up 


1 74  GENERAL 

some  5000  Britisli  troops  in  Egypt  would  be  a  source 
of  weakness  to  us  in  a  great  war,  because  an  enemy 
might  slip  in  an  army  and  land  it  there,  to  whom  we 
should  be  bound  to  capitulate  ?  He  answered — and 
this  is  the  true  answer — that  they  would  not  dare  to  do 
anything  of  the  kind,  because  we  should  absolutely 
cut  off  the  invading  army  from  their  base  and  their 
supplies,  and  they  in  turn  would  be  forced  to  capitulate 
to  us.  It  was  the  great  mistake  which  Napoleon 
made  over  a  hundred  years  ago.  He  sent  an  army 
to  Egypt,  and  forty  centuries  looked  down  upon  his 
prowess ;  but  they  also  looked  down  upon  his  escape 
from  the  country  the  best  way  he  could,  because  there 
was  an  unbeaten  British  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean. 
We  had  an  instance  of  this  in  the  late  war  be- 
tween Japan  and  China.  There  3^ou  saw  Japan  after 
first  crumpling  up  the  miserable  Chinese  fleet,  in 
which  every  principle  I  have  here  been  inculcating 
had  been  ignored,  landing  their  army  at  will  at  any 
part  of  the  Chmese  coast  which  they  saw  fit,  and 
proving  the  enormous  strategic  advantage  Avhich  lies 
with  any  nation  who  is  stronger  at  sea  than  its 
opponents ;  and  when  I  hear  of  the  nations  of  Europe 
rushing  in  mad  haste  to  create  colonial  empires  in  any 
unappropriated  part  of  the  world,  raising  forces  in  the 
Now  World  to  redress  the  balance  of  the  Old,  I  cannot 
help  thinking,  whether  that  empire  be  in  Siam  or  in 
Africa  or  in  China,  or  wherever  it  may  be,  they  are 
possessions  which  are  only  held  on  suflerance,  and 
which  nmst  inevitably  go  to  swell  the  final  triumph  of 
the  nation  stronger  than  themselves  at  sea  with  Avhom 
they  engage  in  a  conflict,  although  the  beaten  Power 
may  have  an  army  of  2,000,000  of  men  at  home, 
who  have  not  bad  the  chance  of  firing:  a  shot  in 
the  campaign.  These  possessions  are  held,  therefore, 
by  the  suflerance  of  the  stronger  naval  Power,  and  are 
tbe  best  guarantees  of  peace  that  you  could  desire. 


THE    BR[TTSH    NAVY  175 

We  now  have  fiDnuiilly  in  London  a  celebration 
of  the  man  whose  name  will  stand  for  all  time 
as  the  embodiment  of  sea  power,  and  of  all  tjiat 
it  means  to  this  Empire,  and  to  whom  we  owe  a 
debt  which  we  can  never  repay,  and  there  has  been 
some  hostile  criticism  directed  against  the  fact  that 
that  celebration  also  appears  to  hurt  the  feelings  of  a 
great  naval  Power  with  whom  we  are,  and  always 
wish  to  be,  at  peace.  It  is  true,  that  if  we  celebrated 
every  victory  life  would  be  one  long  carnival.  One 
day  is  Trafalgar,  the  next  is  Agincourt  and  Balaclava, 
but  Trafalgar  stands  apart  from  all  the  victories  on 
om*  scroll  of  fame,  and  represents  not  merely  a 
triumph  over  an  enemy,  but  the  triumph  of  what 
is  essential  to  our  existence.  Germany  celebrates 
Sedan,  not  because  Napoleon  III.  surrendered  so 
nmcli  as  because  it  symbolises  United  Germany. 
America  celebrates  Washington,  not  so  much  be- 
cause he  beat  the  English,  but  because  he  stands 
for  the  United  States,  and  for  all  that  made  them 
possible.  The  French  have  lately  been  celebrat- 
iny-  Joan  of  Arc,  not  so  much  because  she  beat  the 
English,  but  because  through  her  genius  and  inspira- 
tion she  finally  freed  the  national  soil  from  the  foot  of 
a  foreign  invader ;  and  what  Sedan  is  to  Germany,  and 
Washington  is  to  the  United  States,  and  Joan  of  Arc 
is  to  France,  Trafalgar  is  to  this  people.  It  meant 
liberty  to  us  and  to  Europe.  It  meant  a  colonial 
empire ;  it  meant  that  the  great  ocean  trade  routes 
should  be  British  highways.  It  rendered  possible 
that  progress  and  advancement  which  have  raised  us 
to  the  position  we  occupy  to-day.  Unless  I  have 
sadly  misread  the  history  of  my  country,  when  our 
possessions  in  America  were  small  and  weak  and 
struggling,  the  French  had  a  very  considerable  colony 
there.  I  dare  say  you  remember  that  story  of  General 
Wolfe  at  Quebec,  which  I  always  think  the  most  touch- 


176  GENERAL 

ing  in  our  history.  Rowing  down  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  with  muffled  oars,  we  are  told  that  he  recited,  in 
the  still  night  air,  Gray's  "  Elegy  in  a  Country  Church- 
yard " : 

"  The  boast  of  heraldrv,  the  pomp  of  power, 

And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave, 
Awaits  alike  the  inevitible  hour, 

The  piths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave," 

and  when  he  came  to  those  words  he  tiu-ned  to  a 
young  aide-de-camp  and  said  he  would  rather  have 
written  that  poem  than  take  Quebec  upon  the  morrow. 
He  little  knew  the  path  he  was  taking  that  night  was 
to  lead  to  his  own  OTave,  but  the  great  fact  for  us  to 
remember  is  that  the  victory  he  Avon  at  Quebec  meant 
that  for  all  time,  as  far  as  human  eye  can  see,  it 
should  be  the  English  language,  English  institutions, 
English  laws,  the  English  faith  that  should  be  supreme 
from  one  end  of  that  continent  to  the  other. 

And  so  it  was  in  Asia.  The  French  had  a  great 
colonial  empire  there  when  we  occupied  only  a  few 
miles  of  country  on  the  sea-border,  and  clerks  of  the 
old  East  India  Company  coming  down  from  their 
high  desks,  and  forced  by  circumstances  to  be 
•  ^enerals,  foufyht  and  overthrew  the  best  marshals 
of  France,  and  added  to  the  English  possessions  what 
is  noAv  called  the  brightest  jewel  in  the  Queen's  croAvn. 
But  all  these  things  Avcre  possible  only  because  Ave 
had  won  the  supremacy  of  the  seas.- 

History  has  a  way  of  repeating  itself,  although  the 
struggles  of  the  future  appear  to  be  shifting  to  another 
continent.  I  am  convinced  that  this  generation  is  pre- 
pared to  do  in  the  tAvcntieth  century  for  their  grand- 
sons in  Africa  Avhat  our  grandfathers  in  the  eighteeiitli 

'  Since  tliis  lias  been  passinj^  tlirouf^h  the  press  tlie  ]5oer  W;ir  lias 
been  fought,  and  st  ill  further  onipliiisises  the  importance  of  sea  j)Ower 
to  IIS,  because  it  is  the  licet  that  has  kept  the  high  road  to  Africa  safe 
for  the  passage  of  the  British  army. 


THE    BRITISH    NAVY  177 

century  did  for  us  in  Asia  and  in  America.  And 
because  the  Navy  League  tries  to  bring  liomc  these 
truths  to  the  people  there  are  those  who  see  in  them 
only  something  provocative  to  other  nations.  If  I 
want  to  contemplate  the  lives  and  be  inspired  by  the 
examples  of  the  heroes  of  the  past,  it  is  probable  I 
should  not  go  to  Trafalgar  Square  on  a  day  which 
had  been  set  apart  purposely  to  draw  a  London  crowd 
there.  I  would  rather  go  to  the  Minster  in  the  west, 
or  to  your  great  cathedral  in  this  City  of  London, 
where  over  ninety  years  ago, 

"  To  the  sound  of  mullled  drums, 
To  thee,  the  greatest  sailor  conies. 

Where  the  sound  of  those  he  fought  for. 
And  the  feet  for  those  he  wrought  for. 
Echo  round  his  bones  for  evermore." 

But  however  this  may  be,  the  life  of  Lord  Nelson 
is  now  the  most  priceless  national  possession.  "  Thank 
God,  I  have  done  my  duty,"  was  all  he  said  as  the 
seventeenth  ship  struck  its  colours  to  him  in  suc- 
cession ;  and  he  died,  knowing  he  had  won  that 
consummate  victory  that  has  already  given  us  an 
unbroken  peace  of  over  ninety  years  upon  the  ocean, 
by  virtue  of  which  the  commerce  of  England  is  to-day 
carried  into  all  lands,  and  her  flag  flies  supreme  on 
every  sea  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 


M 


NAVAL  BASES  AND  COALING  STATIONS 

By  C.  H.  crofts 

"  These  stations  I  hold  to  be  vital  to  us  in  time  of  war.  If  you 
allow  your  ships  to  be  deprived  of  coal  they  will  lie  useless  on 
the  water.  In  the  old  days  the  wooden  ships  might  be  repaired 
by  the  ships'  carpenters  after  a  general  action  ;  but  your  iron 
ships  must  go  to  places  where  there  are  docks,  and  means  by 
which  they  can  be  j^roperly  i^epaired.  At  the  principal  of  these 
coaling  stations  there  are  those  facilities  which  would  enable  the 
refitting  to  be  undertaken.  But  it  is  perfectly  necessary  to  defend 
those  places,  and  if  you  leave  them  exjjosed,  you  leave  them  to  be 
taken  possession  of  by  the  enemy.  If  you  have  no  place  at  which 
your  ships  can  adequately  refit  and  recoal,  you  must  double  or 
treble  your  ships,  and  they  may  be  perfectly  useless.  Tlierelbre,  it 
is  for  the  Government  to  determine  what  the  number  of  tliose  dif- 
ferent stations  should  be,  and  then  adequately  to  jirovide  for  their 
defence.  Upon  that  question  depends  not  only  the  keeping  afloat 
of  her  Majesty's  navy,  but  tlie  whole  maintenance  of  the  trade  of 
this  country  ;  and,  inasmuch  as  the  life  of  this  country  is  com- 
merce, our  national  existence  itself  may  l)e  said  to  depend  on  the 
number  of  our  well-defended  stations." — Lord  Carnarvon  :  Si^eech 
in  the  House  of  Lords. 

In  estimating  the  value  of  the  various  coaling  stations 
and  naval  bases  scattered  over  the  British  Empire, 
two  points  of  view  from  which  the  question  should 
be  considered  have  been  confused  in  the  minds  of 
some  of  the  writers  on  this  important  subject. 

The  result  of  this  confusion  has  been  that  certain 
deductions  have  been  drawn  as  to  the  character  and 
extent  of  the  protection  necessary  for  these  stations 
which   arc   not  warranted   by  the   teachings  of  history, 

and  are  in  some  cases  illogical. 

178 


NAVAL    BASES  179 

This  twofold  point  of  view  arises  from  the  double 
duty  that  our  fleet  would  have  to  perform  in  time  of 
war. 

The  first  duty  of  our  navy  is  to  seek  out  and 
destroy  if  possible  the  enemy's  Heet,  for  it  must  never 
be  forgotten  that  our  frontier  is  not  our  own  coast-line 
hut  that  of  the  enemy.  This  definition  of  our  frontier, 
though  its  truth  was  vaguely  recognised  by  some  of  our 
great  sea  captains  of  early  days,  notably  Lord  Hawke, 
as  seen  in  his  determined  blockade  of  Brest,  followed 
by  the  important  battle  of  Quiboron  Bay,  did  not 
become  a  cardinal  point  in  naval  strategy  until  the 
times  of  Lord  St.  Vincent  and  of  Nelson. 

It  is  to-day  recognised  as  a  correct  definition  by 
our  naval  strategists,  but,  of  course,  it  must  not  be 
taken  to  refer  to  times  of  peace.  If  carried  to  its 
logical  conclusion  it  would  amount  to  stating  that 
the  existence  of  any  Hoet  but  our  own  on  tlie  high 
seas  was  an  invasion  of  our  territory  ;  and  though  it 
has  been  so  stated  by  some  with  whom  the  wish 
may  be  father  to  the  thought,  it  is  asking  too  much 
to  expect  that  no  other  fleet  but  ours  should  be  at 
liberty  to  use  the  great  waterways  of  the  globe. 
The  theory  applies  only  to  the  time  of  war;  when 
we  are  in  a  state  of  openly  declared  hostility  with 
another  maritime  nation  Ave  should,  if  in  sufficient 
strength,  blockade  that  enemy's  fleet ;  and  if  that 
fleet  escaped  from  our  blockading  squadron,  then,  and 
then  only,  can  the  existence  of  this  fleet  on  the  high 
seas  be  regarded  as  an  "  invasion  of  our  territory." 

By  "  blockade "  is  meant  military  blockade — the 
blockade  of  warships  by  warships.  Civil  or  commer- 
cial blockade,  though  a  military  operation,  is  sanctioned 
by  law,  and  is  hardly  germane  to  the  subject.  Military 
blockade  is  sanctioned  only  by  force.  Even  in  this 
latter  sense,  however,  one  can  differentiate  between 
three  different  kinds  of  blockade. 


i8o  GENERAL 

Strictly  speaking,  the  blockade  of  a  port  means 
the  prevention  both  of  ingress  or  egress  of  any  ships 
to  or  from  that  port ;  but  both  mashing  and  observing  as 
well  as  this  sealing-iip  of  fleets  are  included  in  the  term, 
and  hence  confusion  arises.  Instances  will  occur  to 
all  readers  of  naval  history  in  which  the  blockade  can 
clearly  be  classified  under  one  or  other  of  the  above 
heads. 

For  an  exhaustive  discussion  on  "blockade,"  students 
are  referred  to  Admiral  Colomb's  essay,  in  which  he 
instances  Nelson's  blockade  of  Corsica  (1794)  as  an 
example  of  sealing-up  ;  his  blockade  of  Cadiz  (1805) 
as  mashing ;  and  CoUingwood's  blockade  of  the  same 
port  before  Nelson's  arrival  as  observing} 

In  order  that  all  our  maritime  interests  may  be 
properly  protected,  our  fleet  will  have  to  attempt  the 
blockade  of  the  hostile  squadrons  in  their  own  ports, 
usincj  the  word  in  its  strictest  sense.  Whether  we  are 
strong  enough  to  do  so  is  more  than  questionable. 
The  introduction  of  steam,  and  the  invention  of  tor- 
pedo-boats, submarine  craft,  and  other  weapons  of 
defensive  warfare,  render  it  extremely  improbable  that 
an  effective  blockade  (i.e.  sealing-up)  can  be  maintained. 
The  experiences  of  the  Americans  at  Santiago  confirm 
this  opinion.  Even  before  the  improvement  of  the 
submarine,  it  was  considered  that  "  under  the  altered 
conditions  which  steam  and  the  development  of  attack 
by  locomotive  torpedoes  have  introduced  into  naval 
warfare,  it  will  not  be  found  practicable  to  maintain  an 
eflective  blockade  of  an  enemy's  squadron  in  strongly- 
fortified  ports,  without  the  blockading  battleshijjs  being 
in  the  proportion  of  at  least  Jive  to  three,  to  idlow  suffi- 
cient margin  for  casualties."  ^ 

Suf'h  a  proportion  of  ships  Ave  do  not  possess  when 

'   "  Blockade  :    Under  Existing  Conditions  of  Warfare."     Admiral 
Colomb.     1887. 

"^  Government  Kc[)ort,      1888, 


NAVAL    BASES 


ISI 


our  navy  is  compared  to  the  combination  of  the  next 
two  most  powerful  European  navies,  the  standard  of 
comparison  which  has  been  accepted  by  our  statesmen. 

One  can,  therefore,  in  the  future,  expect  that  block- 
ade will  consist  in  maskiiuj,  or  possibly  only  in  ohserviny, 
in  either  of  which  cases  some  of  the  enemy's  cruisers 
are  bound  to  create  enormous  havoc  in  our  sea-borne 
trade.  That  is  only  another  mode  of  stating  that  our 
command  of  the  sea  is  not  assured  in  the  event  of 
Avar. 

Nelson  won  for  us  the  sovereignty  of  the  seas, 
though  we  had  at  earlier  periods  of  our  history  both 
claimed  this  sovereignty,  and  had  indeed  for  longer  or 
shorter  periods  certainly  established  it.  This  sovereignty 
is  our  birthright,  and  to  maintain  it  at  all  costs  is  our 
duty  and  privilege.  The  destruction  of  the  enemy's 
navy  will  be  the  first  duty  of  our  fleet  on  the  outbreak 
of  war  with  any  naval  Power,  or  combination  of  Powers, 
that  think  themselves  strong  enough  to  dispute  this 
supremacy  on  the  oceans.  Consequently  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  enemy's  fleet  is  the  best  possible  protection 
for  our  sea-borne  trade,  and  for  the  continuance  of  our 
food  supply.  Any  attempt  to  transport  the  enemy's 
troops  would  thus  be  rendered  impracticable,  and  our 
communications  with  all  parts  of  our  Empire  would  be 
safeguarded.  It  is  clear,  then,  that  in  every  possible 
war  in  which  Great  Britain  could  be  engaofed,  the 
primary  function  of  the  British  Navy  is  to  attack,  and, 
if  possible,  to  destroy  the  organised  naval  forces  of  the 
enemy.^ 

Taking  this  as  the  first  duty  of  the  fleet,  our  vari- 
ous naval  coaling  stations  are  bases  of  support  to  the 
fighting  line.      As   such    they   should    be   so    strongly 

^  For  detailed  information  on  the  "Command  of  the  Sea,  and  its 
vital  necessity  to  Great  Britain,"  consult  the  works  of  Spenser  Wilkin- 
son, Admiral  Colomb,  Captain  Mahan,  Sir  Charles  Dilke,  Sir  George 
Clarke,  H.  W.  Wilson,  and  other  naval  writers. 


1 82  GENERAL 

fortified  and  so  fully  provided  with  granaries  and 
other  sources  of  food  supply,  that  it  would  be  im- 
possible for  an  enemy,  even  in  great  force,  to  capture 
them  or  to  do  much  material  damage  to  them. 
Further,  they  should  be  fully  equipped  with  dock- 
yards and  the  various  machinery  for  refitting  battered 
vessels,  and  should  have  lars^e  stores  of  ammunition 
and  spare  guns.  But  this  fortification  of  bases  should 
be  kept  within  strictly  defined  limits.  There  should 
be  only  a  few  of  such  chief  bases,  fewer  than  we 
possess  at  this  moment,  and  these  should  be  assumed 
to  be  impregnable,  self-supporting,  and  independent,  or 
nearly  so,  of  our  fleet.  There  are  always  a  few  false 
policies  current  in  reference  to  our  needs  in  the  matter 
of  Imperial  defence,  and  one  false  policy  that  often  gains 
many  adherents  is  the  multiplication  of  these  so-called 
fortified  naval  bases.  The  craze  for  fixed  defences 
occurs  in  cycles,  and  will  always  do  so.  It  appeals  to 
the  first  natural  instinct,  namely,  that  of  self-preserva- 
tion, and  not  to  the  noble  idea  that  certain  men  and 
certain  places  must  be  sacrificed  in  order  that  the 
whole  may  be  preserved.  The  only  idea  the  ignorant 
have  of  Imperial  defence  is  to  lock  up  troops  in  iso- 
lated forts,  forgetting  that  if  the  enemy  once  obtains 
command  of  the  sea  the  forts  must  fall  in  the  end. 
As  has  been  said,  a  few  bases  which  are  valuable 
strategic  points  should  bo  most  strongly  fortified,  but 
only  a  few,  and  these  must  be  completely  self-support- 
ing in  every  way,  capable  of  resisting  a  determined 
siege  for  months  if  not  for  years.  But  another  equally 
important  duty  of  our  navy  on  an  outbreak  of  war 
with  a  great  naval  Power,  will  be  to  protect  our  com- 
merce until  such  time  as  the  enemy's  cruisers  are 
driven  off  the  seas.  And  not  only  our  commerce, 
but  our  coal.  On  this  we  are  de})ondent  for  our 
motive  power.  Most  of  the  coal  stored  at  our  various 
bases  has  to  be  carried  across  the  seas  from  the  home 


NAA^AL    BASES  183 

coalfields,  so  that  it  must  bo  efficiently  guarded,  not 
only  in  store  but  also  in  transit.  This  will  be  ac- 
complished either  by  the  convoy  system  or  by  the 
patrol  system/ 

According  to  the  former  system  our  merchant- 
ships  will  be  gathered  together  in  certain  ports  whence 
they  will  steam  for  their  destination  under  the  pro- 
tection of  a  squadron  sufficiently  strong  to  shield  them 
from  the  attacks  of  the  enemy's  cruisers.  This  squadron 
will  not  leave  them  till  they  are  safe  in  port.  Accord- 
tng  to  the  latter  system  squadrons  of  British  warships 
will  be  assigned  definite  spheres  of  action,  and  will 
escort  the  merchant-ships  through  their  own  sphere 
until  the  next  patrol  ground  is  reached. 

From  this  point  of  view  our  foreign  naval  bases 
become  simply  ports  of  call  for  the  protecting  battle- 
ships and  for  the  merchant-ships  under  their  escort, 
and  will  not  play  the  same  role  in  a  war  that  they  would 
when  considered  as  bases  to  which  big  fighting  fleets 
may  repair  after  an  important  action  at  sea.  These 
ports  should  be  stocked  with  ammunition,  spare  guns, 
and  other  material,  but  should  not  contain  such  large 
supplies  of  coal  or  other  naval  necessaries  as  would 
induce  the  enemy's  fleet  to  risk  bringing  on  a  general 
action  when  attacking  them,  nor  should  they  contain 
any  material  of  so  great  value  that  their  loss  would  be 
an  irreparable  one  to  our  naval  strength. 

It  is  difficult  to  state  what  amount  of  protection 
such  stations  require  without  running  the  risk  of  ap- 
pearing unduly  dogmatic.  The  fortifications  should,  at 
all  events,  be  such  as  could  be  adequately  manned  by  a 
small  garrison,  and  their  armament  should  be  sufficient 
to  drive  off"  an  attack  from  two  or  three  cruisers  that 
might  attempt  a  raid."      It  would  not  be  necessary  to 

^    Vide  Malian's  '■  Iiiducnci;  of  Sea  Power  in  tlic  French  R(!vohition." 
-  For   technical    discussion    of   this   point   see    Brassey's    "Naval 
Annual,"  1899. 


1 84  GENERAL 

have  heavy  armour-piercing  guns,  as  these  stations 
would  not  be  expected  to  sink  battleships,  but  only  to 
protect  themselves  against  capture  by  a  landing  party 
or  by  attacking  cruisers. 

From  these  preliminary  remarks  it  follows  that 
naval  bases  and  coaling  stations  should  be  divided 
into  two  distinct  classes  :  i  st,  Primary  bases ;  by  which 
we  mean  bases  fully  equipped  and  rendered  practically 
impregnable.  All  our  home  dockyards,  and  a  few  of 
our  foreign  bases,  such  as  Malta,  Gibraltar,  Hong  Kong, 
Singapore,  and  Esquimalt,  should  answer  this  descrip-* 
tion,  but  unfortunately  at  the  present  time  cannot  he  said 
fully  so  to  do.  2nd,  Secondary  bases ;  these,  though 
useful  to  our  fleet,  should  not  be  so  valuable  as  to 
render  their  capture  an  irreparable  loss  to  ourselves 
or  a  very  great  advantage  to  the  enemy. 

It  has  been  often  taken  for  granted  that  the  more 
bases  an  empire  has,  the  stronger  its  position  will  be. 
This  is  not  the  truth.  The  value  of  our  naval  bases 
is  very  much  overestimated  by  casual  critics,  and  the 
unnecessary  multiplication  of  such  bases  is  really  a 
source  of  weakness.  Any  such  station,  if  it  is  un- 
necessary, causes  useless  expenditure,  complicates  the 
question  of  storage  in  time  of  peace,  and  may  become 
dangerous  in  time  of  war.  The  disadvantages  of  weak 
naval  bases  were  well  illustrated  in  the  late  Spanish- 
American  war.  Both  at  Manilla  and  at  Santiago  de 
Cuba  the  harbours  proved  traps  to  the  Spanish  fleet, 
and  the  capture  of  Cavite,  with  its  equipment  of 
machine  shops  and  its  supply  of  stores,  meant  addi- 
tional strength  to  the  Americans,  and  a  corresponding 
loss  to  the  Spaniards.^ 

It  is  quite  clear  from  this  war,  and  indeed  a  study 
of  previous  naval  history  teaches  us  the  same,  that 
the  mere  existence  of  naval  bases,  whether  adequately 
fortified    or    not,    and    whatever    their    situation    and 

'  See  H.  W.  Wilson's  "Downfall  of  Spain." 


NAVAL    BASES  185 

equipment  may  be,  will  never  convert  a  weak  navy 
into  a  strong  one.  On  the  other  hand,  they  may  be  a 
serious  disadvantage  to  the  more  powerful  fleet,  in- 
asmuch as  its  commander  may  consider  it  his  duty 
to  protect  such  places  from  raids  when  his  true  policy 
would  be  to  seek  the  enemy  at  some  other  point, 
e.g.  the  necessity  of  relieving  Gibraltar  in  1780,  1781, 
and  1782.  Further,  it  is  quite  possible  that  warlike 
operations  may  be  brought  on  at  some  place  on  the 
oceans  which  is  so  distant  from  any  of  our  bases  that 
they  will  be  of  no  use.  Under  these  circumstances 
it  is  quite  possible  that  a  British  squadron  may  have 
to  take  action  in  waters  so  far  removed  from  all 
existing  bases  that  it  will  be  found  advantageous 
to  establish  a  new  temporary  base  rather  than  to 
attempt  to  utilise  any  existing  one.  The  fact  is,  that 
these  naval  bases  are  often  matters  more  of  con- 
venience in  time  of  peace  than  of  necessity  in  time 
of  war ;  and  their  great  value  Avhen  the  naval  Powers 
are  at  peace  is  very  apt  to  engender  an  exaggerated 
view  of  their  importance  to  our  fleets  when  hostilities 
have  actually  begun. 

We  are  told,  for  instance,  that  after  a  naval  battle 
our  ships  could  take  shelter  and  repair  their  injuries 
at  such  places  as  Hong  Kong,  Esquimalt,  &c.  This  is 
extremely  doubtful.  In  the  old  days  of  muzzle- 
loaders,  especially  before  the  rifled  muzzle-loaders 
came  in,  and  when  ships  were  l)uilt  almost  entirely 
of  wood,  and  had  no  machinery  in  the  modern  sense 
of  the  term,  ships  could  repair  almost  anywhere  if 
wood  could  be  bought.  But  nowadays  the  destruc- 
tion wrought  by  the  12 -inch  breech-loader,  and  by 
the  6-inch  quick-firer,  is  such  that  after  a  severe 
naval  action  none  of  these  bases,  with  the  doubtful 
exception  of  Malta,'  could  repair  the  battered  hulls  in 
reasonable  time,  nor  would  it  be  possible  to  equip  our 

'  Even  ^lalta  would  be  unable  to  repair  heavy  damage. 


1 86  GENERAL 

bases  witli  all  that  is  necessary  to  repair  such  a  wreck 
as  was  the  Bel/eisle  after  her  treatment  by  the 
Majestic,  without  such  enormous  expenditure  that  it 
would  be  preferable  to  spend  the  money  on  additional 
ships.  But  regarded  as  ports  of  call  for  cruisers 
guarding  convoys  of  merchantmen,  or  as  bases  for 
the  protecting  squadrons  under  the  patrol  system,  a 
supply  of  well-situated  coaling  stations  is  of  immense 
importance.  For  from  this  point  of  view  they  are  no 
longer  a  convenience,  but  a  necessity.  If  we  do  not 
possess  a  sufficient  number  of  such  places  at  the 
outbreak  of  war,  we  shall  either  have  to  make  them, 
or  else  take  them  from  our  enemies  if  they  possess 
any.  Having  made  them,  or  having  taken  them, 
their  protection  must  be  arranged  for,  and  that  is 
really  the  whole  question.  The  lines  on  which  they 
should  be  protected  have  already  been  indicated, 
but  there  are  twx)  more  points  that  deserve  passing 
notice.  These  are  their  proximity  to  the  main  home 
bases  of  a  possible  enemy,  and  the  strength  of  that 
enemy's  offensive  forces  likely  to  be  exerted  against 
them.  It  would  not  bo  difficult  for  a  Power  weak 
at  sea  but  strong  on  land  to  fit  out  an  expedi- 
tion to  attack  and  destroy  a  base  situated  within 
a  few  hours  steaming  distance  of  its  own  base 
without  running  any  great  risk.  This  would  not  be 
attempted  if  there  was  any  danger  of  being  caught, 
owing  to  the  distance  of  the  object  of  attack.  As  a 
case  in  point,  it  would  be  comparatively  easy  for 
Germany  to  attempt  a  raid  on  Sheerness,  Chatluvm, 
and  Woolwich,  whereas  an  attack  on  Hong  Kong  or 
Esquimalt  would  not  be  dreamt  of.  Indeed,  it  is 
openly  said  that  one  of  the  first  objects  of  a  certain 
continental  naval  Powei'  would  be  a  raid  on  some  of 
our  home  dockyai-ds.  These,  then,  should  first  of  all 
be  rendered  safe  from  an  attack,  and  the;  obsolete 
forts    and    the  antiquated    armaiuents  of  certain  home 


NAVAL    BASES  187 

dockyards  should  be  put  in  order  and  brought  up  to 
date  without  delay. 

With  our  Channel  Fleet  watching  the  entrance  to 
the  Mediterranean,  as  it  probably  would  have  to  do  in 
the  case  of  war,  our  so-called  licserve  Fleet  ^  would  be 
utterly  incapable  of  dealing  with  the  squadrons  that 
could  be  assembled  by  our  friends  across  the  Channel 
at  places  within  a  few  hoiu-s  steam  of  our  great 
southern  dockyards  and  arsenals.  Enormous  damage 
could  be  done  in  a  very  short  time,  and  the  aggressors 
could  cfct  back  safe  before  the  Channel  Fleet  could 
come  up.  The  home  bases  must  therefore  be  ren- 
dered impregnable,  oven  to  the  attack  of  a  fleet,  so 
that  there  may  be  no  anxiety  on  this  account. 

Important  as  our  permanent  fixed  naval  bases  are, 
whether  primary  or  secondary,  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  temporary  bases  would  in  war  time  be- 
come of  great  use.  By  this  term  is  meant  not 
only  actual  ports  which  might  be  occupied,  or 
towns  on  the  seaboard  where,  owing  to  the  nature 
of  the  commerce  or  industries  of  the  place,  it 
would  be  advantageous  to  establish  a  staticm  during 
the  continuance  of  hostilities,  but  rather  smooth- 
Avater  anchorasfes,  which  should  be  seized  and  held 
against  the  enemy,  and  whither  the  accessory  ships 
of  a  fleet  should  be  sent.  We  ought  to  have  a 
much  better  equipment  of  colliers,  supplying  ships, 
repairing  ships,  and  factory  ships,  which,  if  properly 
oro-anised,  would  form  a  mobile  base,  if  the  term  is 
permissible.  There  has  been  but  little  effort  made 
of  late  years  to  provide  or  organise  such  a  necessar}' 
addition  to  a  fleet  like  our  own,  owing  partly  to  the 
self-satisfied  apathy  of  the  public,  and  partly  to  the 
want  of  energetic   and   thorough  men  in  official  posi- 

'  Km-  justification  of  "so-called"  one  need  only  study  the  composi- 
tion of  this  squadron,  and  the  scattered  positions  of  the  stations  of 
its  component  parts. 


1 88  GENERAL 

tions.  But  tliere  is  no  doubt  that  it  would  be  of 
immense  value  to  us  to  have  a  good  supply  of  such 
ships,  which  would  enable  an  admiral  to  use  to  the 
fullest  extent  a  smooth-water  anchorage  as  a  tem- 
porary base  when  it  has  been  seized  or  occupied. 
We  can  never  tell  beforehand  what  points  it  may 
be  necessary  in  war  to  occupy  as  naval  bases,  and 
the  mere  provision  of  fixed  places  to  which  ships 
will  be  forced  to  go  for  supply  and  repair  is  only 
a  one-eyed  policy,  which  may  result  in  much  wasted 
expenditure.  Let  these  fixed  bases  be  provided  by 
all  means,  but  let  us  also  lose  no  time  in  creating 
a  '■  mobile   base."  ^ 

Garrisons. — Hardly  less  important  than  the  forti- 
fication and  the  armament  of  our  naval  bases  is  the 
question  of  the  garrisons.  At  present  the  Admiralty 
is  responsible  for  the  security  of  the  water  area,  while 
the  War  Ofiice  is  responsible  for  the  security  of  the  port 
which  constitutes  the  naval  base  of  that  water  area.  This 
system  of  dual  control  gives  rise  to  many  anojualies.  A 
great  amount  of  interesting  information  on  this  point  is 
to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  various  service  critics,  of 
which  perhaps  the  most  exhaustive  is  Sir  John  Colomb's 
letter  to  the  President  of  the  Defence  Committee  of 
the  Cabinet."  The  advantages  of  one  department  sup- 
plying the  fleet  and  the  garrison  at  a  distant  base  are 
so  obvious  that  the  point  need  not  be  laboured  here. 
Since  the  Admiralty  is  responsible  for  securing  freedom 
of  water  transit  to  and  from  any  naval  base,  it  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  garrisons  being  provided  with  stores, 
ammunition,  and  other  things  necessary  to  preserve 
the  efficiency  of  that  garrison.  Failure  to  do  this 
would  render  the  garrison  useless.  If,  therefore,  the 
Admiralty  are  boinid   to  maintain  the  communications 

'  Vide  Admiral  Colomb's  "Naval  Warfare." 

'  "Army  Organisation  in  Kelation  to  Naval  Necessities."     A  letter 
to  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  by  Sir  Jolin  Colomb,  K.C.M.G  ,  M.P.     1S98. 


NAVAL    BASES  189 

of  the  garrison,  it  may  well  be  asked  why  the  Admiralty 
should  not  take  over  the  whole  responsibility  instead 
of  sharing  it  with  the  War  Office.  Such  places  as  Malta, 
Gibraltar,  Hong  Kong,  and  some  others  are  of  course 
to  be  regarded  as  something  more  than  naval  bases. 
They  are  not  only  coaling  stations  and  places  of  repair 
for  the  lleet,  they  are  outposts  of  the  Empire  in  the 
broadest  sense,  and  as  such  should  have  large  army  garri- 
sons ;  but  all  those  bases  which  are  merely  naval  stations 
should  have  their  garrisons  provided  by  the  Admiralty, 
while  the  great  outposts  should,  in  addition  to  their 
military  garrisons,  have  their  local  defences  provided 
to  some  extent  by  (he  navy.  The  reorganisation  of 
the  Royal  Marines  for  this  purpose  would  siinplify 
matters  considerably,  and  would  not  necessitate  service 
on  land  of  the  seamen  themselves.  Further,  the 
provision  of  submarine  mines,  which  is  from  its  nature 
a  branch  of  defence  more  closely  connected  with  the 
Royal  Navy  than  with  the  Army,  should  be  undertaken 
by  the  Admiralty. 

If,  however,  the  objections  to  Sir  John  Colomb's 
suggestion  that  the  Admiralty  should  be  responsible 
for  the  manning  and  provisioning  of  the  coaling  bases 
are  insuperable,  which  is  not  the  case,  would  it  not  be 
possible  to  come  to  some  arrangement  by  which  the 
War  Office  should  obtain  for  its  Royal  Regiment  of 
Artillery  some  training  on  board  our  battleships  as 
naval  gunners  ?  The  guns  of  position  with  which  our 
Ixjrtitied  bases,  such  as  Gibraltar  and  Singapore,  are 
armed,  are  similar  to  the  heavy  ordnance  of  our  first- 
class  battleships,  and  it  might  be  extremely  useful  to 
be  able  to  draft  a  few  garrison  gunners  into  the  ships 
in  case  of  need. 

The  difficulty  arising  from  the  difference  in  the 
type  of  gim,  the  method  of  mounting,  and  the  drill  in 
connection  with  bringing  the  gun  its  ammunition  and 
so  on  would  be  comparatively  slight. 


I90  GENERAL 

The  chief  obstacle  probably  would  lie  in  the  fact 
that  our  garrison  gunners  are  at  present  not  seamen, 
by  which  is  meant  that  if  put  on  battleships  to  work 
the  guns  in  rough  weather  they  would  probably  be 
incapacitated  by  sea-sickness.  If  the  officers  and  men 
of  the  garrison  artillery  could  be  given  a  slight  addi- 
tional payment  as  an  inducement  to  them  to  serve  a 
certain  number  of  weeks  every  year  on  battleships  at 
sea,  the  men  who  availed  themselves  of  this  oppor- 
tunity could  be  drafted  if  necessary  on  to  the  ships. 
The  duties  of  this  valuable  branch  of  the  service  are 
apt  to  become  monotonous.  Shut  up  for  years  in 
some  desolate  spot  like  Aden,  it  is  only  natural  to 
suppose  that  they  would  welcome  the  change  that  a 
fortnight's  cruise  would  bring;  and  as  the  main  object 
of  the  cruise  would  be  to  give  them  sea  legs  and  a 
sea  stomach,  the  training  could  be  taken  on  board  any 
kind  of  ship,  and  not  necessarily  one  armed  with  the 
guns  that  they  would  have  to  manipulate.  To  such 
highly-trained  scientific  men  as  our  garrison  artillery, 
officers  and  men,  are,  there  would  be  but  slight  diffi- 
culties to  overcome  in  the  actual  manipulation  of  the 
guns ;  what  they  want  in  order  to  become  efficient  seamen 
gunners  is  the  experience  and  training  of  sea  life. 

The  details  of  the  idea,  the  amount  of  extra  pay  if 
any,  the  time  of  sea  service,  are  beyond  the  scope  of 
this  paper,  but  the  idea  is  thrown  out  as  a  possible 
solution  of  a  real  difficult3^ 

Steam  Cumviunication  and  Tdegraiihs. — Before  pass- 
ing on  to  discuss  separately,  but  very  briefly,  the  ex- 
isting state  of  the  defences  of  our  most  important 
stations,  there  are  two  minor  points  connected  with  the 
general  question  that  are  not  usually  made  sufficiently 
clear  to  the  average  person. 

The  first  is  the  want  of  regular  and  quick  steam 
communication  with  some  of  the  smaller  naval  bases. 
Even   Malta,   whose  importance   can  hardly   be    over- 


NAVAL    BASES  191 

estiinatod,  is  not  in  frequent  and  rogulai-  direct  com- 
munication by  steam  with  the  chief  city  of  the  Empire. 
Certain  boats  of  the  P.  &  O.  stop  there,  but  the  inter- 
vals between  the  calls  are  long,  and  the  greater  portion 
of  the  tratlic  is  in  the  hands  of  an  Italian  company. 
The  mail  naturally  comes  overland  to  the  south  of 
Ital}',  then  crosses  the  Straits  of  Messina  to  Sicily,  and 
after  traversing  that  island  is  brought  by  an  Austrian 
company's  boat  to  Valetta.  But  there  are  many 
islands  belonging  to  this  Empire  which  are  shut  off 
from  all  communication  with  England  for  months  and 
even  years.  It  is  hardly  germane  to  the  subject  to 
discuss  the  couununications  of  such  places  as  Nightin- 
gale Island  or  Inaccessible  Island.  But  take  the 
case  of  the  Falkland  Islands.  The  population  of  these 
islands  is  entirely  British,  and  lives  by  sheep-farming 
and  seafaring  industries.  Some  few  years  ago  an 
attempt  was  made  to  export  meat  to  the  United 
Kingdom.  This  was  for  a  time  successful,  but  in  the 
past  year  the  trade  has  been  interrupted  owing  to  the 
falling  off  of  the  number  of  British  ships  calling  at 
Stanley.  In  1898  forty-six  vessels  of  62,131  tons 
called  at  the  port,  but  only  five  of  these  Avere  steamers 
flying  the  red  ensign.  In  1899  only  one  British 
steamer  made  the  port,  and  she  put  in  for  repairs, 
being  in  a  disabled  condition. 

German  enterprise,  backed  up  by  subsidies  from 
a  Government  that  fosters  the  industries  of  the  coun- 
try it  rules,  has  driven  British  trade  out  of  many  a 
foreign  town,  and  the  attack  on  our  sea-borne  trade 
is  now  being  actively  carried  on.  The  great  liners 
from  Hamburg  and  Bremen  are  supplemented  by 
smaller  steamers  that  are  successfully  competing  for 
ocean  traffic  to  out-of-the-way  places  like  the  Falklands, 
just  as  the  liners  are  emptying  the  P.  &  0.  passenger 
ships.  In  addition  to  this  lack  of  steam  communica- 
tion with   the  home  country,  we  have  also  to  deplore 


192  GENERAL 

the  isolated  state  of  some  of  our  outposts  with  regard 
to  cable  communication.  The  telegraph  system  may 
be  not  inaptly  compared  to  the  nervous  system  of  the 
human  body.  The  British  Empire,  regarded  as  a  cor- 
porate entity,  has  its  railway  and  steamships  comnumi- 
cation  corresponding  to  the  arterial  system,  while  the 
nerves  are  represented  by  the  telegraphic  cables. 

It  is  essential  that  the  most  outlying  places  of  the 
Empire  should  be  in  telegraphic  communication  with 
the  brain,  just  as  they  should  be  in  steamship  com- 
munication with  the  heart.  But  there  is  many  an 
isolated  outpost  which  will  be  first  informed  of  an  out- 
break of  war  between  Great  Britain  and  some  Conti- 
nental naval  Power  by  a  cruiser  of  that  Power  appearing 
in  the  harbour  and  demanding  the  speedy  delivery  of 
the  coal  stored  there,  and  the  surrender  of  its  forts. 
Cases  in  point  are  Brunei,  Sarawak,  British  Hon- 
duras, Fiji,  nearly  all  the  Pacific  Islands  over  which 
British  protection  has  been  declared  at  one  time  or 
another,  and  the  Falkland  Islands. 

Leaving  the  general  discussion  of  the  subject,  and 
coming  to  the  naval  bases  and  coaling  stations  of  the 
Empire  as  they  now  exist,  a  selection  must  be  made, 
as  it  is  impossible  in  this  article  to  treat  of  all  coaling 
stations  used  by  British  ships.  The  following  table 
deals  with  the  chief  bases,  but  is  not  intended  to  be 
a  complete  list  of  stations  owned  by  Great  Britain. 
There  are  also  many  stations,  such  as  Rio  do  Janeiro, 
where  there  are  coaling-sheds  and  docks  owned  by  the 
British  Admiralty  (Cobras  Island),  though  part  of  a 
foreign  country.  Further  instances  are  Shanghai  and 
Cape  de  Verde  Islands,  at  both  of  which  the  Admiralty 
own  coaling-sheds,  and  Coquimbo,  where  they  have  a 
coal-hulk  (The  Lifey).  There  are  also  a  large  nundjer 
of  coaling  stations  where  the  coal  is  the  property  of 
private  firnis,  and  where  only  merchant-ships  coal  as 
a  rule,  cjj.  Rio  do  la  Plata,  St.  Louis,  Gaboon,  Caldcra, 


NAVAL    BASES  193 

Liis  Palraas,  a  complete  list  of  which  can  be  found  in 
Lloyd's  Register  of  Shipping. 

Principal  British  Coaling  Stations  and  Bases. 

On  the  Mediterranean  Station  the  chief  naval  bases 
are  Gibraltar  and  Malta,  while  Port  Said  is  used  for 
coaling  purposes. 

On  the  North  American  and  West  Indian  Station 
the  chief  are  : — St.  Johns  (Newfoundland),  Halifax 
(Nova  Scotia),  Bermuda  (Bermudas),  Port  Royal 
(Jamaica),  Port  Castries  (St.  Lucia,  in  the  Windward 
Lslands),  Port  of  Spain  (Trinidad),  St.  John  (Antigua). 
Tobago  Island,  in  the  West  Indies,  is  also  used  for  this 
purpose. 

On  the  South  American  Station  the  only  Britisli 
possession  is  the  group  of  tlie  Falkland  Islands  and 
South  Georgia,  in  the  former  of  which  is  situated  Port 
Stanley. 

Use  is  made  of  the  coaling  facilities  at  Rio  de  la 
Plata  and  Rio  Janeho. 

On  the  Wed  Coast  of  Africa  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  Station  are  Sierra  Leone,  Cape  Coast  Castle,  Cape 
Town  and  Simons  Bay,  and  the  islands  of  Ascension 
and  St.  Helena. 

On  the  Pacific  Station  is  Esquimalt  on  Vancouver 
Island,  and  Coquimbo  on  Chilian  territory. 

On  the  Eccst  Indian  Station  are  Aden,  Bombay, 
Colombo,  Trincomalee,  Port  Louis  (Mauritius),  Zanzi- 
bar, and  Port  Victoria  or  Mah^,  the  largest  of  the 
Seychelles  Islands. 

On  the  Australian  Station  are  Sydney,  Melbourne, 
Albany,  Hobart  (Tasmania),  Wellington,  Auckland  and 
Christchurch  (New  Zealand),  and  Suva,  the  capital  of 
the  Fiji  Islands,  situated  on  the  south  coast  of  Vita 
Levu,  the  chief  island  of  the  group. 

V  N 


194  GENERAL 

Some  of  these  are  so  important  that  we  will  give 
fm'ther  details,  taking  them  alphabetically : — 

Aden. 

Aden  is  a  most  valuable  coaling  station  on  the 
highway  to  the  East,  and  occupies  a  position  of  great 
importance  in  naval  strategy.  On  the  land  side  it  is 
well  defended,  and  the  fortifications  built  in  the  last 
twenty  years  are  probably  strong  enough  to  beat  off 
any  hostile  vessel  that  is  likely  to  appear  in  the  Red 
Sea.  The  harbour  has  been  much  improved  lately  by 
dredging  operations,  which  are  being  continued.  The 
srovernment  of  Aden,  which  includes  the  islands  of 
Perini  and  Socotra,  is  carried  on  by  the  Political  Resi- 
dent, who  is  subject  to  the  government  of  Bombay. 
It  is  also  srarrisoned  from  India. 


Bermuda. 

A  full  description  of  this  naval  station  will  be 
found  in  the  third  volume  of  the  scries.  Being  situ- 
ated behind  a  barrier  of  coral  reefs,  through  which 
access  can  only  be  gained  by  the  passage  of  the  Nar- 
rows, this  station  is  as  well  protected  as  any  base  in 
the  Empire.  The  passage  is  fortified  with  a  series  of 
cascmated  batteries,  whose  guns,  though  not  of  the 
heaviest  or  of  the  most  modern  character,  are  probably 
sufficient  to  guard  the  entrance.  There  are  over 
2000  regulars  for  the  defence  of  the  island,  all  of 
whom  would  be  wanted  to  man  the  extensive  fortifica- 
tions. The  position  of  Bermuda,  being  about  midway 
between  the  cruising  grounds  of  the  northern  and 
southern  divisions  of  our  squadron  in  those  waters, 
renders  it  one  <»f  the  most  convenient  of  our  stations. 
It  is  connected  by  telegrapii  with  Halifax  and  Jamaica. 


NAVAL    BASES  195 

Gibraltar. 

This  naval  base  is  of  great  strategetic  importance 
owing  to  the  coninianding  position  it  occupies.  Under 
the  Naval  Works  Bill,  both  its  strength  and  its  useful- 
ness are  being  largely  increased.  The  existing  mole  is 
being  considerably  extended,  and  a  ncAv  detached  one 
is  being  built.  A  deep  harbour  of  260  acres  is  thus 
being  formed,  and  50  acres  of  the  foreshore  and  water 
area  arc  being  reclaimed  to  make  the  new  dockyard. 
A  new  coal  store  is  also  in  process  of  erection.  There 
are  to  be  three  new  docks,  one  850  feet,  one  550  feet, 
and  one  450  feet,  and  the  arrangements  are  such  that 
merchant-ships  will  bo  able  to  load  and  unload  along- 
side piers  at  the  water  port  end  of  the  new  harbour. 

The  necessity  of  increasing  the  usefulness  of  Gib- 
raltar is  very  urgent,  and  is  partly  caused  by  the  fact 
that  our  needs  in  the  Mediterranean  have  outgrown 
the  capacity  of  Malta. 

Gibraltar  is  often  described  as  commanding  the 
entrance  to  the  Mediterranean.  This  phrase  is  some- 
what misleading,  and  does  not  mean  that  the  guns 
mounted  in  the  fort  command  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar, 
so  that  no  ship  could  pass  without  coming  under  tire. 
The  real  meaning  is  that  Gibraltar  is  so  situated  that 
it  is  a  safe  base  where  a  fleet  may  lie  in  harbour,  and 
whence  it  may  emerge  to  guard  the  Straits. 

In  the  same  way,  Malta  cannot  be  said  to  "  com- 
mand "  the  route  to  India,  but  to  afford  our  fleet  the 
opportunity  of  commanding  it. 

It  may  be  permissible  here  to  point  out  that  the 
large  increase  now  being  made  in  the  accommodation 
of  Gibraltar  and  Malta  ought  to  be  supplemented  by 
the  creation  of  a  fresh  naval  base  at  Alexandria.  It  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  Mediterranean  Fleet 
should  be  free  to  act  without  having  any  undefended 
important  position  such  as  Alexandria  to  protect,  and 


196  GENERAL 

that  place  ought  to  be  made  self-supporting  strategeti- 
cally  without  delay. 

As  England,  however,  is  only  occupying  Egypt  for 
temporary  purposes,  it  may  be  impossible  to  undertake 
such  measures,  but  the  gradual  development  of  Bizerta 
as  a  great  French  naval  base  renders  it  imperative 
that  we  should  make  greater  efforts  to  strengthen  our 
stations  in  the  Mechterranean,  and  should  considerably 
augment  our  fleet  in  those  waters. 

Hong  Kong. 

This  great  centre  of  British  commerce  with  China 
and  Japan  has  been  fully  described  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  series,  in  which  Dr.  J.  Cantlie  gfives  most  inter- 
esting  information  on  the  value  to  us  of  this  first-class 
military  and  naval  station,  as  it  was  in  the  year  1896. 
Recent  extensions  of  the  colony,  however,  necessitate 
a  slight  addition  to  his  description.  As  a  naval  station 
and  arsenal  for  the  supply  of  our  ships  in  the  East, 
Hong  Kong  had  become  utterly  unsafe,  owing  to  the 
increased  effectiveness  of  modern  artillery.  Its  two 
weakest  points  were  that  the  island  and  harbour  are 
completely  dominated  by  the  hills  on  the  mainland, 
which  run  along  the  whole  of  the  northern  boundary, 
and  that  the  sea  to  the  south  and  west  is  full  of  islands, 
mountainous  in  character,  affording  shelter  in  innumer- 
able bays  and  creeks  for  an  enemy's  vessels.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  drawbacks  the  island  itself  has  no  defences 
to  the  south,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  coast-line 
is  easily  accessible  for  troops  and  guns.  In  1898 
China  leased  to  Great  Britain  '^y6  square  miles  of 
additional  territory,  known  as  the  Kowloon  extension, 
consisting  of  the  mainland  up  to  an  imaginary  line 
drawn  from  Deep  Bay  to  Mirs  Bay,  and  the  island  of 
Lantao.  This  extension  undoubtedly  strengthens  our 
position,   but   thoso   (jualified    to   judge  still    njgard    a 


NAVAL    BASES  197 

further  extension  as  necessary,  both  for  the  safety  of 
Honi;-  Kong  itself  and  for  tlie  security  of  the  sources  of 
supply  for  the  garrison  that  guards  this  important 
base.  The  existing  fortifications  are  not  only  insuffi- 
cient in  extent,  but  are  inadequate  in  character  for  the 
defence  of  the  colony.  Their  armament  consists  partly 
of  muzzle-loading  guns,  of  which  there  are  over  a 
dozen,  while  the  movable  armament  of  the  colony 
consists  chiefly  of  eighteen  muzzle-loaders.  Under  the 
Naval  Works  Bill  provision  is  made  for  an  extension 
of  the  defensive  works  of  the  colony,  and  also  for  a 
new  dock,  as  well  as  for  the  improvement  of  the  exist- 
ing dock3^ard  accouunodation.  Unfortunately,  improve- 
ments are  often  decided  on  in  such  matters  but  are  not 
carried  out  till  too  late.  Two  64-pounders  on  one  of 
the  islands  adjoining  Hong  Kong  were  dismounted  in 
1898  with  the  intention  of  putting  breech-loaders  in 
their  place,  but  the  new  guns  have  not  been  mounted 
to  this  day  (November  1900). 

At  present  Victoria  could  be  knocked  to  pieces, 
the  docks  on  which  large  sums  have  been  spent  could 
be  destroyed,  and  the  coal  and  other  supplies  could 
be  burned  Avithout  hope  of  effective  resistance,  if 
attacked  by  a  small  squadron  of  ships  of  war. 

Malta. 

The  port  of  Malta  is  the  chief  base  and  port  of 
call  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  grand  harbour,  where 
the  Mediterranean  fleet  is  often  to  be  seen  at 
anchor,  is  surrounded  b}"  rocky  shores  that  rise 
abruptly  from  the  water,  thus  enabling  ships  of  great 
draught  to  approach  close  alongside.  This  rocky 
amphitheatre  is  surmounted  by  enormous  stone  forts 
whose  walls  are  immensely  thick,  the  chief  being 
Fort  St.  Elmo,  Ricasoli,  and  St.  Angelo.  There  are 
numerous   detached  batteries,   and   the  island  is  con- 


198  GENERAL 

sidered  almost  impregnable,  tlioiigli  there  are  many 
muzzle-loaders  that  ought  to  be  replaced  by  more 
modern  ordnance.  Though  the  harbour  is  large  and 
well  provided  with  side  creeks,  suitable  for  repairing 
and  coaling  purposes,  the  requirements  of  our  fleet 
are  such  that  the  accommodation  is  insufficient.  An 
addition  is  to  be  made  to  the  four  existing  docks  by 
the  construction  of  a  large  double  dock,  which  will 
necessitate  the  removal  of  an  immense  quantity  of 
rock,  since  the  shore  rises  so  abruptly.  Apart  from 
the  fortifications  of  Valetta  there  are  many  other 
well-fortified  positions  at  other  points  on  the  island, 
so  that  an  enemy  would  find  it  difficult  to  effect 
a    landing    should    he    wish    to    attack    Valetta  from 

O 

the  land  side.  About  10,000  troops  are  usually 
stationed  at  Malta.  The  w^eak  spot  in  Malta  is 
tx>  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  island  is  not  self- 
supporting.  The  whole  island  is  one  enormous  sterile 
rock,  which  at  first  sight  appears  entirely  destitute  of 
vegetation,  since  the  stone  Avails  hide  all  the  fields 
and  gardens  from  view.  The  inhabitants,  however,  by 
dint  of  great  industry  have  succeeded  in  converting  a 
fair  proportion  of  the  total  area  into  fertile  well- 
cultivated  land ;  but  as  the  population  is  nearly 
200,000,  and  the  demand  for  food  owing  to  the  calls 
made  by  ships  is  very  great,  the  corn  produced  on  the 
island  is  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  population. 
Thus  there  is  danger  of  the  place  being  starved  into 
submission.  There  are  huge  underground  granaries, 
but  the  supply  of  corn  and  other  food  stuffs  is  not 
kept  at  a  sufficiently  generous  standard  to  maintain 
the  population  for  any  length  of  time  if  the  islands 
were  suddenly  cut  off  from  their  sources  of  supply. 
Tlicrc  is,  indeed,  at  the  time  of  writing,  good  cause  to 
believe  that  the  supply  of  food  and  stores  generally 
has  been  recently  allowed  to  fall  too  low.  With  whom 
does  the  responsibility  for  this  rest  ? 


NAVAL    BASES  199 

Singapore. 

The  town  of  Singapore,  situated  on  the  southern 
shore  of  the  island  of  the  same  name,  is  the  seat  of 
government  of  the  Straits  Settlements,  and  is  one  of 
the  great  centres  of  the  world's  commerce. 

The  island  is  twenty-six  miles  long  by  fourteen 
wide,  and  is  separated  from  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  Malay  Peninsula  by  a  strait  about  three-quarters 
of  a  mile  wide.  The  situation  of  this  port  renders  it 
readily  accessible  to  the  trade  of  Europe,  China, 
Australia,  and  India,  so  that  its  commercial  impor- 
tance is  considerable.  Nearly  10,000  merchant-vessels 
are  cleared  annually,  and  there  are  always  immense 
stores  of  coal  kept  both  for  her  Majesty's  navy  and 
for  the  great  liners.  The  port  is  very  well  supplied 
with  docks,  which  are  owned  by  private  companies, 
and  all  necessary  arrangements  for  effecting  repairs 
are  in  good  order.  The  harbour  has  been  strongly 
fortified  in  the  last  few  years,  and  the  forts  have  been 
supplied  with  modern  heavy  and  medium  artillery, 
and  a  system  of  submarine  mines  has  been  com- 
pleted. These  defensive  measures  were  carried  out  at 
the  expense  of  the  colony,  the  Imperial  Government  pro- 
viding the  guns  and  annnunition.  As  to  the  garrison, 
there  are  two  separate  colonial  forces,  one  being  an 
armed  police  force  of  about  two  thousand  officers  and 
men,  and  the  other  a  volunteer  battery  of  artillery 
about  one  hundred  strong.  In  addition  to  these  local 
forces  there  is  one  battalion  of  infantry,  two  batteries 
of  the  Royal  Regiment  of  Artillery,  some  fortress 
engineers,  and  a  company  of  Malay  submarine  miners, 

St.  Helena  and  Ascension  Island. 

These  two  islands  are  perhaps  the  best  known  of 
any  of  the  isolated  islands  in  the  world,  and,  as  such. 


2  00  GENERAL 

need  no  historical  or  topographical  description.  Of 
great  importance  as  ports  of  call  in  the  days  before 
the  overland  route  to  India  and  the  opening  of  the 
Suez  Canal,  their  strategic  value  has  largely  dimi- 
nished. But  if  in  time  of  war  the  Suez  Canal  were  to 
be  blocked  or  rendered  in  any  way  useless  for  our 
ships  both  these  islands  would  become  of  considerable 
value  to  us. 

Ascension  Island  has  recently  been  strongly  forti- 
fied, and  is  being  connected  by  the  Eastern  Telegraph 
Company  with  the  Cape,  St.  Helena,  and  Sierra 
Leone.  It  is  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  Ad- 
miralty, being  rated  on  the  books  as  a  man-of-war, 
and  is  used  as  a  coaling,  victualling,  and  store,  depot 
for  her  Majesty's  ships.  There  is  also  an  excellent 
sanatorium  for  sailors  at  an  altitude  of  nearly  3000 
feet. 

St.  Helena  has  also  been  recently  fortified,  and  it 
is  intended  to  make  it  a  regular  coaling  station  and  to 
build  a  sanatorium  there  as  well.  At  present  the  coal 
supply  is  far  too  short  at  both  these  stations,  as  enor- 
mous demands  would  be  made  on  both  depots  in  time 
of  war  both  by  her  Majesty's  .ships  and  merchant- 
vessels. 

Wei-Hai-Wei. 

This  lately-acquired  base  is  situated  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li,  distant  about  i  i  5  miles 
from  Port  Arthur  on  the  north-west,  and  about  the 
same  from  the  German  port  of  Kiao-Chau  on  the 
south-west.  It  is  in  the  Chinese  province  of  Shantung, 
near  the  extremity  of  the  promontory  of  that  name,  and 
has  mountainous  covmtry  immediately  behind  it.  The 
harbour  is  formed  by  a  shallow  bay,  which  is  sheltered 
by  the  island  of  Liu-Kung,  about  1 1  miles  long,  rising 
to  a  height  of  500  feet.  The  entrance  to  the  harbour  on 
the  west  of  this  island  is  only  three-quarters  of  a  mile 


NAVAL    BASES  201 

in  breadth,  the  entrance  on  the  east  is  2|  miles  broad 
at  the  narrowest  part.  This  entrance  has  the  island  of 
Tih-Tao  right  in  the  centre.  The  greater  part  of  the 
harbour  is  shallow,  the  depth  being  from  three  to  four 
fathoms.  The  territory  was  leased  to  Great  Britain  in 
July  1898,  for  as  long  a  period  as  Russia  shall  remain 
in  possession  of  Port  Arthur,  and  comprises  in  addition 
to  the  port  and  islands  in  the  bay,  a  belt  of  land  ten 
miles  broad  all  along  the  bay.  As  a  naval  base  it  is 
not  to  be  compared  to  Port  Arthur  at  present,  inasnmch 
as  the  latter  is  already  fully  equipped  with  a  large  dock, 
workshops,  and  strong  fortifications.  Wei-Hai-Wei,  on 
the  other  hand,  has  none  of  these  things,  though  there 
is  a  coaling  jetty  on  Liu-Kung,  and  a  large  portion  of 
the  harbour  has  been  dredged  and  buoys  laid  down. 
Indeed,  its  possession  is  a  very  questionable  advantage 
to  the  Empire  so  long  as  only  half-hearted  measures 
are  taken  to  develop  its  resources.  On  the  other  hand, 
with  a  considerable  expenditure,  it  could  be  made  into 
an  invaluable  base  in  the  case  of  war  with  either  of  the 
two  Powers  whose  fleets  are  most  in  evidence  in  those 
northern  waters.  Its  position,  standing  as  it  does  in 
comparative  proximity  to  Russia's  only  ice-free  naval 
harbour,  would  render  it  most  valuable  to  us,  more 
especially  as  we  are  dependent  on  the  goodwill  of  the 
Japanese  for  coaling,  docking,  and  repairing  as  soon  as 
our  fleet  steams  north  of  Hong  Kong. 

A  breakwater  enclosing  a  large  basin  in  which  ships 
could  be  secure  from  torpedo-boat  attack  should  bo 
constructed  immediately,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
island  of  Liu-Kung  should  be  strongly  fortified  with 
guns  of  sufficient  power  to  command  the  range  of  hills 
that  surround  the  harbour.  This  would  render  it  im- 
possible for  an  enemy  attacking  on  the  mainland  to 
get  heavy  guns  in  position  on  the  hills.  A  dry  dock 
capable  of  receiving  our  biggest  ships,  well-protected 
coal  and  anniiunition  stores,  should  also  be  constructed. 


202  GENERAL 

By  means  of  a  cable  laid  down  to  connect  the  place 
with  Hong  Kong,  and  some  torpedo-boat  destroyers 
stationed  there  in  troublous  times,  we  should  convert 
this  white  elephant  into  a  most  valuable  naval  base, 
which  Avould  be  a  great  benefit  to  the  navy  instead  of 
a  hindrance  to  it.  If  it  is  worth  our  while  to  employ 
our  ships  north  of  the  Yaug-tze-Kiang,  then  it  is  worth 
our  while  to  spend  three  or  four  millions  on  making 
Wei-Hai-Wei  self-supporting  and  an  additional  source 
of  strength ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  we  do  not  mean  to 
equip  it  properly  it  would  be  better  to  retire  and  hand 
it  over  to  Japan.  Our  present  policy  seems  to  be  to 
hold  it  with  a  few  native  troops  under  some  British 
officers  imtil  a  war  shall  break  out  in  those  waters, 
and  then,  when  that  occurs,  we  shall  find  ourselves 
obliged  either  to  sacrifice  our  men  and  money  and 
damage  our  prestige  by  leaving  it  to  its  fate,  or  to 
hamper  ourselves  by  expending  some  of  the  strength 
of  our  mobile  forces  in  relieving  another  Ladysmith. 

It  is  therefore  clear  that  though  our  coaling  stations 
and  naval  bases  can  be  defended  to  a  certain  extent  by 
local  fortification,  yet  their  real  defence  is  the  existence 
of  a  supreme  British  navy.  The  naval  question  lies  at 
the  base  of  all  principles  that  concern  either  the  de- 
fence of  the  Empire  as  a  whole  or  the  particular  subject 
with  which  we  are  now  dealing.  The  maintenance  of 
our  communications  all  over  the  globe  is  our  primary 
condition  of  life  as  a  nation,  and  it  is  on  the  navy,  and 
on  the  navy  alone,  that  ice  must  depend  to  satisfi/  this  con- 
dition} Supremacy  at  sea  cannot  be  obtained  merely 
by  defensive  action.  Our  navy  must  act  on  the  offen- 
sive ;  it  must  compel  the  enemy  to  a  fleet  action ;  it 
nmst  hunt  down  their  commerce-destroyers,  and  must 
provide  convoys  or  patrols  to  protect  our  own  merchant- 
ships.     It  would  therefore  be  a  waste  of  money  to  do 

'  "We  have  no  defence,  or  hope  of  defence,  excepting  in  our  fleet." 
The  Duke  of  Wellington,  1S47. 


NAVAL    BARES  203 

more  than  protect  our  stations  locally  against  isolated 
attacks  of  occasional  enemies.  The  money  should 
rather  be  spent  on  the  offensive  strength  of  our  fight- 
ing line.  And  lastly,  while  fully  admitting  the  con- 
venience, nay,  even  in  some  cases  the  necessity,  of  well- 
situated  coaling  stations  and  other  naval  bases,  it  would 
be  a  fatal  error  to  suppose  that  they  in  themselves, 
however  numerous  and  however  strongly  fortified,  could 
ever  convert  an  inefficient  and  numerically  weak  navy 
into  one  sufficiently  strong  to  guard  the  Empire  of  the 
seas. 

With  these  remai-ks  we  must  leave  this  very  in- 
teresting subject,  once  more  stating  that  these  naval 
bases  and  coaling  stations  do  not  in  themselves  form 
an  element  of  strength,  nor  can  any  number  of  them, 
however  great,  make  up  for  the  defects  of  an  inferior 
navy.  It  is  only  when  they  are  strong  enough,  though 
unsupported,  to  resist  attack,  and  when  the  navy  even 
without  them  is  unquestionably  superior  to  the  enemy's 
navy,  that  they  become  supremely  valuable  and  useful 
in  a  scheme  of  Imperial  defence. 

No  naval  student  can  agree  with  the  doctrine  enun- 
ciated by  Captain  Stone,  "  That  the  possession  of  naval 
arsenals,  dockyards,  and  coaling  stations  must  prac- 
tically decide  the  question  of  naval  supremacy."  ^  On 
the  contrary,  the  true  theory  of  defence  is  to  be 
found  in  the  following  extract  from  Admiral  Colomb's 
essays,  which  succinctly  sums  up  the  question  before 
us :  "  So  long  as  we  clearly  understand  that  our  fixed 
local  defences  are  subordinate  to,  and  assistant  to, 
maintained  lines  of  communication,  and  that  purely 
naval  force  is  never  to  be  absent  long  enough  to  per- 
mit communication  to  be  cut,  we  shall  not  allow  much 
waste  of  money  on  what  is  not  of  the  essence  of  Im- 
perial defence.     But   if  we   suppose   that   local   fixed 

1  Paper   read  at  the  United  States   Institute   by  Captain   Stone, 
January  1889. 


204  GENERAL 

defences  will  relieve  the  navy  of  any  part  of  its  histori- 
cally defensive  character,  and  assume  that  fixed  de- 
fences are  a  real  substitute  for  naval  defence,  and  Avill 
either  strengthen  the  navy  for  purely  offensive  warfare 
or  enable  us  to  maintain  a  less  complete  fleet,  then  it 
should  seem  that  we  are  not  readins'  at  all,  or  not 
reading  aright,  the  teachings  of  naval  history."  ^ 

^   "  Essavs  on  Naval  Defence."     Bv  Vice-Admiral  P.  H.  Colomb. 


THE     BRITISH     ARMY 

By  Captain  H.  R.  BEDDOES 

For  convenience  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  may  be  taken 
as  the  point  from  which  to  trace  the  evohition  of  the 
army  to  its  present  condition.  When  he  ascended  the 
throne,  every  citizen  Avas  compelled  to  bear  arms  in  his 
county  force  or  trained  bands ;  in  addition  landowners 
had  a  further  obligation  to  personal  service  in  the 
king's  wars,  or  in  some  cases  to  provide  means  of 
subsistence  for  his  forces.  During  this  reign  there 
were  continual  disputes  between  the  King  and  the 
Houses  of  Parliament  as  to  the  authority  of  the  Crown 
to  punish  offences  by  soldiers ;  and  they  steadily 
declined  to  grant  him  the  powers  which  by  an  order 
of  both  Houses,  dated  8th  September  1642,  were 
entrusted  to  the  Earl  of  Essex  for  the  maintenance  of 
discipline  in  the  Parliamentary  Army. 

It  may  be  noticed  as  a  curious  circumstance  that 
in  the  ordinance  under  which  the  Parliamentary  Army 
was  raised,  sergeant-majors  appear  to  rank  after 
lieutenant-colonels  and  before  captains.  Another  point 
which  is  well  worthy  of  grave  consideration  is  the 
undoubted  fact  that  the  officers  in  the  Parliamentary 
Army  were  drawn  from  an  extremely  low  social  scale, 
and  in  consequence  of  their  poverty  steadily  opposed 
all  efforts  to  disband  them.  On  the  other  hand  the 
officers  of  the  Royal  Army  could  and  did  forbear  their 
claims  to  pay  on  disbaudment,  in  marked  contrast  to 
the  rebel  officers,  who  were  entirely  dependent  on  their 
salaries. 


2o6  GENERAL 

The  control  by  the  Houses  of  Parhament  over  the 
forces  of  the  Crown  is  so  greatly  maintained  by  their 
power  to  vote  or  refuse  supplies  that,  if  this  did  not 
exist,  to  all  practical  purposes  their  influence  would  be 
nil.  Their  authority  is  greatly  increased  by  their 
right  to  insist  that  sums  voted  are  spent  as  ordered 
and  not  as  other  items. 

At  first  the  amount  necessary  for  the  pay,  equip- 
ment, &c.,  of  regiments  was  handed  over  to  the 
commanding-officer,  who  was  supposed  to  maintain 
the  establishment  ordered  by  the  Crown.  If  this 
was  done  the  system  worked  admirably,  but  in 
practice  was  found  unsatisfactory  and  liable  to  fraud. 
The  other  charges,  which  are  inseparable  from  military 
expenditure,  were  classed  under  the  head  of  extra- 
ordinaries,  and  were  made  by  the  Paymaster-General 
under  the  authority  of  the  Commander-in-Chief.  The 
Paymaster-General,  being  a  Parliamentary  officer, 
would  not  recognise  a  military  officer's  warrant  as  an 
adequate  discharge,  and  had  to  apply  for  further 
powers. 

The  expense  of  the  army  being  defrayed  by 
Parliament  did  not  mean  that  the  amounts  were  to 
be  spent  as  the  Commander-in-Chief  might  think 
fit,  but  that  the  Crown  through  the  Cabinet  was 
responsible  for  the  correct  disbursements.  This  is 
clearly  shown  by  the  reports   of  the  Commons  with 

reward  to  the  action  of  William  III.  and  the   Duke   of 

o 

Marlborough,  whose  irregular  expenditures  were 
continually  being  noticed.  The  Commons  further 
maintained  the  right  of  auditing  the  public  accounts 
by  members  of  their  own  House,  or  else  by  individuals 
nominated  by  themselves. 

The  first  acts  of  the  Parliamentary  Commissioners 
appointed  on  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne  were  to 
inquire  into  Lord  Ranelagh,  the  Paymaster-General's 
account.       'I'hcy     found     him    guilty    of    misapplying 


THE    BRITISH    ARMY  207 

several  sums  of  public  money,  and  he  was  expelled 
from  the  House. 

Subsequent  inquiries  discovered  that  the  system, 
however  bad  as  applied  to  the  Queen's  own  troops, 
was  infinitely  worse  amongst  the  foreign  subsidised 
forces.  They  appear  never  to  have  been  mustered 
while  pay,  &c.,  was  drawn  for  regiments  which  were 
non-existent.  It  is  hardly  to  be  wondered  at  that  the 
National  Debt,  under  this  system  of  auditing  the  public 
accounts,  rose  from  rather  more  than  sixteen  millions 
to  something  over  fifty-four  millions. 

The  interest  and  influence  of  Parliament  gradually 
sank,  until  in  1778  Lord  North  opposed  the  printing 
of  the  accounts  for  the  financial  year  1778-79.  A 
storm  arose  which  the  Ministry  was  unable  to  resist, 
and  commissioners  for  auditing  the  public  accounts 
were  appointed,  but  the  Commons  lost  the  right  of 
auditing  by  their  own  members  or  by  their  own 
nominees.  Lord  North  announced  that  the  names  of 
the  commissioners  would  be  selected  by  himself. 

The  report,  which  was  furnished  about  four  years 
later,  found,  as  might  reasonably  be  expected,  great 
waste  was  taking  place,  the  officers  of  the  commissariat 
and  other  departments  acting  in  a  dual  capacity  and 
owning  the  waggons,  &c.,  which  they  hired  for  the 
public  use,  the  private  interests  being  directly  opposed 
to  then  public  duties.  The  committee  reported  that 
the  best  security  to  the  public  would  be  to  entrust  the 
expenditure  to  civil  servants  not  under  the  orders  of 
the  War  Ofiice,  but  directly  under  the  Treasury. 

After  the  adoption  of  this  report  it  was  found  the 
control  of  Extraordinaries  was  by  no  means  complete, 
and  it  was  left  to  the  Reform  Government  of  1834  to 
originate  a  plan  for  laying  before  Parliament  an  esti- 
mate of  the  whole  proposed  military  expenditure. 

Gradually  the  financial  control  became  absolutely 
vested  in  the  Treasury,  with  the  result  that  the  War 


2o8  GENERAL 

Office  instead  of  being  an  independent  department  of 
the  public  service  answerable  to  the  Treasury  merely 
for  the  correctness  of  its  disbursements,  eventually  be- 
came entirely  subordinate,  and  with  financial  Treasury 
experts  rested  the  final  decision  for  the  expenditure 
necessary  on  military  grounds. 

The  course  of  events  has  from  time  to  time  given 
rise  to  grave  doubts  as  to  the  wisdom  of  this  result. 

The  distrust  of  the  army  as  a  profession,  which  is 
still  unfortunately  found  among  the  class  from  which 
recruits  are  drawn,  dates  from  this  period,  and  is  due 
to  the  harsh  treatment  which  was  then  prevalent,  and 
the  knowledge  that  neither  the  soldier  nor  the  Crown 
received  fair  treatment  from  those  through  whom  pay- 
ments were  made.  ''  The  pay  was  small,  punishments 
severe,  and  service  abroad  was  equal  to  transportation. 
In  addition,  the  national  feeling  was  as  strongly  against 
the  army  as  it  was  in  favour  of  the  navy  and  militia." 
The  term  of  enlistment  was  for  life,  but  subject  to  fre- 
quent modifications.  Under  Queen  Anne  a  three 
years'  term  was  usual,  and  in  special  circumstances 
two  years. 

The  severe  strain  caused  by  the  wars  of  the  French 
Revolution  was  met  by  special  Acts  which  allowed  men 
to  pass  from  the  militia  into  the  regular  army,  con- 
trary to  the  previous  regulations.  In  1797,  fifteen 
thousand  had  volunteered.  The  area  of  service  was 
limited  to  Europe,  and  a  bounty  of  ten  guineas  was 
given.  The  threatened  invasion  of  England  by  Napo- 
leon was  met  by  several  Acts  for  the  better  defence  of 
the  kingdom,  the  principal  of  which  was  Mr.  Pitt's 
Additional  Forces  Act,  establishing  second  battalions 
to  regiments  abroad.  The  drain  caused  by  the  Avar  is 
clearly  shown  by  the  variation  in  the  standard  of 
lieight  for  the  recruit.  In  i  802  it  was  five  feet  seven 
inches,  and  in  i  8  i  3  was  five  feet,  and  men  were  ad- 
mitted up  fo   forty  years  of  ago.      At   Waterloo   it   is 


THE    BRITISH    ARMY  209 

usually  adniittcd  that  our  soldiers  compared  unfavour- 
ably with  those  of  the  allies,  and  that  they  were,  in 
fact,  little  more  than  boys.  This  fact  should  at  least 
have  some  weight  with  those  who  rail  at  the  youthful 
appearance  of  the  recruit  in  the  present  day. 

At  the  peace,  the  array  entered  upon  a  period  of 
neglect,  when  everything  Avas  starved  with  a  view  to 
economy.  This  lasted  until  the  Crimean  War  in 
1854. 

In  the  early  part  of  last  century,  and  until  1879, 
the  law  for  the  punishment  of  breaches  of  discipline 
and  kindred  offences  was  contained  in  a  variety  of 
Acts,  the  principal  of  which  was  the  Mutiny  Act. 
This  led  to  considerable  confusion,  to  obviate  which 
in  1879  the  various  powers  were  concentrated  into 
one  Act,  that  did  not  become  effective  until  brought 
into  action  by  an  Army  Annual  Act,  which  had  to  be 
passed  every  year.  In  1 8  8 1  this  Act,  generally 
known  under  the  name  of  the  Army  Discipline  Act, 
was  repealed,  and  a  fresh  one  enacted  containing 
several  amendments,  and  it  is  under  this  Act  that  the 
army  is  at  present  governed.  Like  the  former,  it  is 
brought  into  force  by  an  Army  Annual  Act,  by  which 
also  any  sections  that  become  unnecessary  are  repealed 
or  fresh  ones  introduced. 

The  present  conditions  under  which  discipline  is 
maintained,  and  the  terrible  severity  formerly  con- 
sidered requisite,  are  conspicuously  shown  by  com- 
parison with  the  scale  of  punishment  in  force  now 
and  formerly.  Then  flogging  was  resorted  to  for 
offences  which  would  at  the  present  day  be  adequately 
met  by  light  imprisonment.  Sentences  of  2000  lashes 
were  legal,  but  Avere  unable  to  prevent  the  crime  of 
desertion.  In  1825  a  man  received  as  many  as  1200 
lashes,  and  the  sentence  was  then  not  completed. 

Before  passing  on  to  the  various  branches  of  the 
service,  it  will  be  Avell  to  give  a  short  account  of  the 


2IO  GENERAL 

War  Office.  It  is  the  great  directing  department 
containing  the  heads  of  the  various  sections  and 
supervising  the  routine  throughout  the  Empire.  "  The 
Army  Book  of  the  British  Empire  "  terms  it  "  the  focus 
of  the  miUtary  administration."  The  head  of  the 
War  Office  is  the  Secretary  of  State,  who  is  responsible 
to  the  Crown  for  the  efficiency  of  the  forces,  to  the 
Treasurer  for  the  correct  method  of  expenditure,  and 
to  ParHament  that  he  maintains  a  correct  force,  that 
the  estimates  are  correctly  prepared,  and,  again,  that 
the  sums  voted  are  spent  in  accordance  with  the 
votes.  The  chief  divisions  of  the  War  Office  are 
command,  pay,  and  supply.  These  departments  in  an 
embryonic  stage  may  be  traced  at  an  early  period  of 
our  history,  but  in  times  of  peace  were  almost 
dormant.  The  first  department  which  appears  to 
have  been  permanently  established  was  the  Board  of 
Ordnance,  commenced  in  the  Tower  during  1455. 
The  necessity  for  arms,  &c.,  at  the  outbreak  of  war 
made  some  previous  preparation  necessary,  and  the 
Board  of  Ordnance  was  entrusted  with  these  duties, 
which  they  continued  to  exercise  until  1855,  exactly 
four  hundred  years  from  their  inauguration.  In 
addition,  the  engineers  and  artillery  were  under  their 
control. 

The  Crimean  War  found  the  army  administration 
in  a  state  of  complete  confusion.  When  Lord  Pan- 
mure  was  appointed  Secretary  of  War,  his  first  efforts 
were  directed  to  concentrating  the  entire  direction  of 
the  military  forces  in  one  office.  Previously  the 
Treasury  had  been  responsible  for  the  commissariat, 
and  the  Home  Office  for  the  yeomanry  and  militia. 
He  then  abolished  the  Board  of  Ordnance. 

In  1870  Mr.  Card  well  distributed  the  various 
duties  among  three  departments,  and  this  lasted  until 
1888,  when,  by  an  Order  in  Council,  the  whole  was 
reduced  into   two  divisions — (i)  The  Commander-in- 


THE    BRITISH    ARMY  211 

Chief,  responsible  for  everything  connected  with  the 
efficiency  of  the  force;  (2)  the  Financial  Secretary, 
under  whose  charge  is  everything  relating  to  pro- 
duction, and  all  arrangements  relating  to  expenditure. 
At  present  the  result  is,  therefore,  that  there  are  two 
departments — the  military  under  the  Commander-in- 
Chief,  and  the  civil  under  the  Financial  Secretary, 
with  the  Secretary  of  State,  to  whom  both  are  answer- 
able. These  two  subdivisions  are  mutually  dependent 
upon  one  another.  The  Commander-in-Chief  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  personnel  of  the  army,  that  it  is  fed, 
clothed,  properly  commanded  and  stationed  at  suitable 
spots,  and  prepared  for  any  eventuality.  He  has  also 
the  right  of  testing  all  stores  as  supplied  by  the  other 
department.  The  Financial  Secretary  is  answerable 
for  contracts  and  that  all  expenses  are  defrayed.  He 
also  checks  the  accounts  to  be  submitted  to  Parlia- 
ment, and  sees  that  the  principles  sanctioned  by  the 
Treasury  and  ordered  by  the  royal  warrant  are  adhered 
to  in  all  expenditure. 

The  military  side  of  the  War  Office  is  again  sub- 
divided into  ten  main  departments,  each  usually  with 
a  staff  officer  at  the  head,  who  is  responsible  to  the 
Adjutant  -  General  for  the  efficient  working  of  his 
division.  The  civil  side,  presided  over  by  the  Financial 
Secretary,  is  subdivided  into  five  main  divisions.  As 
this  is  the  side  which  usually  attracts  the  most  interest, 
it  may  be  well  to  enter  into  its  arrangements  Avith 
some  little  detail.  The  duties  of  the  military  side 
being  entirely  concentrated  on  the  administration  of 
military  details  hardly  appeals  in  the  same  way  to  the 
general  public.  The  five  great  divisions  are  the  tinance, 
contracts,  clothing,  ordnance,  control.  TIic  finance  is 
under  the  Accountant-General,  who  in  the  absence  of 
the  Financial  Secretary  signs  for  him.  This  branch 
is  divided  again  into  fourteen  divisions,  and  is  by  far 
the  largest  in  the  War  Office. 


2 1 2  GENERAL 

The  Accountant-General  is  the  adviser  of  the 
Financial  Secretary  on  all  matters  relating  to  finance. 
He  prepares  the  account  for  submission  to  the  Houses 
of  Parliament,  and  deals  with  every  branch  of  ex- 
penditure throughout  the  service.  The  army  pay  de- 
partment, although  distinctly  an  executive  function, 
is  also  under  his  control,  but  will  probably  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  military  side  in  course  of  time. 

The  Contracts  division  is  under  the  Director- 
General  of  Contracts,  who  is  responsible  for  purchases 
and  sales,  and  supervises  such,  which  are  from  their 
nature  best  made  locally.  He  is  also  to  some  extent 
a  check  on  the  Ordnance  division,  as  he  compares  and 
reports  upon  the  cost  of  articles  manufactured  by  it  as 
compared  with  the  same  articles  if  obtained  from  the 
public. 

The  Clothing  department  is  under  the  Director- 
General  of  Clothing,  who  is  answerable  that  adequate 
supplies  arc  maintained  not  only  for  the  forces  on  the 
active  list,  but  also  for  such  as  may  be  required  by 
the  volunteers,  &c.,  and  for  all  troops  that-  would  be 
required  on  mobilisation.  The  adequate  and  econo- 
mical working  of  the  clothing  factory  is  also  under 
his  charge,  and  all  articles  bought  from  the  public 
have  to  be  to  a  standard  fixed  by  him. 

The  Director-General  of  the  Ordnance  Factories  is 
the  adviser  of  the  Financial  Secretary  on  all  questions 
of  manufacture.  All  warlike  stores  not  provided  by 
contract  are  made  under  his  direction.  One  of  the 
main  principles  upon  which  the  factories  are  conducted 
is  that  they  must  be  self-supporting. 

The  question  of  Government  factories  has  been  a 
subject  of  much  discussion,  their  opponents  main- 
taining that  the  public  should  be  relied  upon  to  supply 
all  stores,  upon  the  principle  that  the  demand  would 
always  compel  an  adequate  supply  by  the  competition 
amongst  the  various  lirms.      The  answer  is  that,  grant- 


THE    BRITISH    ARMY  213 

ing  this  to  be  the  case  in  time  of  peace,  it  is  hardly 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  private  enterprise  can  be 
expected  to  maintain  in  idleness  enough  capital  sunk 
in  buildings  and  machinery  to  cope  with  the  enormous 
output  which  would  be  necessary  immediately  a  de- 
claration of  war  was  made.  Further,  the  Government 
factories  afford  an  excellent  standard  by  which  to 
compute  the  prices  to  be  paid  for  articles  obtained  by 
contract.  The  present  arrangement  is  that  the  Govern- 
ment factories  supply  about  one-third  of  the  warlike 
stores  required,  while  the  remainder  is  obtained  by 
public  tender.  This  proportion,  however,  entails  the 
employment  by  the  Crown  of  nearly  i  5,000  men. 

The  Central  division  is  practically  the  channel 
through  which  the  Secretary  of  State  obtains  any  in- 
formation on  any  subject  that  requires  elucidation, 
and  notably  the  means  by  which  he  is  enabled  to 
answer  the  numerous  questions  asked  in  the  Houses  of 
Parliament.  Through  this  division  is  carried  on  the 
correspondence,  &c.,  upon  matters  which  affect  the 
various  other  departments  of  State,  and  there  is  hardly 
one  with  which  the  War  OiOfice  is  not  in  almost  con- 
tinuous communication. 

Questions  of  military  interest  which  trench  upon 
other  State  affairs,  if  they  rise  beyond  matters  of  mere 
detail,  are  referred  to  either  one  or  both  of  the  two 
great  standing  committees — the  Defence  Committee, 
or  the  Colonial  Defence  Committee. 

The  former — necessarily  most  cursory — sketch  of 
the  civil  side  of  the  War  Office  has,  it  is  hoped,  given 
some  idea  how  the  department  is  worked.  The  exi- 
gencies of  space  prevent  the  military  side  being  treated 
in  even  such  slight  detail,  but  the  different  branches 
of  the  forces  will  be  treated  as  fully  as  possible, 
and  the  duties  of  the  military  side  may  be  con- 
sidered to  be  their  mamtenance  and  harmonious  com- 
bination. 


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THK    BRITISH    ARMY  215 

The  Militia  is  the  constitutional  force  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  kingdom.  By  Statute  1285,  every  freeman 
between  fifteen  and  sixty  years  of  age  was  obliged  to  be 
provided  with  armour,  but,  except  "  upon  the  coming 
of  strange  enemies  into  the  realm,"  Avas  protected  from 
leaving  his  county.  The  authority  was  vested  in  lords- 
lieutenant  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  although  altered 
under  Queen  Mary,  was  revived  during  the  following 
reign,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Arjiiada  they 
were  recognised  as  the  legal  military  heads  of  the  vari- 
ous counties.  After  the  Restoration  the  Militia  was 
placed  on  a  constitutional  basis.  It  was  then  laid 
down  that  "  the  sole  supreme  command  and  disposition 
of  the  Militia,  and  of  all  forces  by  land  and  sea,  is,  and 
by  the  laws  of  England  ever  was,  the  undoubted  right 
of  the  Crown."  The  offences  of  militiamen  were  to  be 
punished  by  the  civil  magistrate.  Trained  bands,  ex- 
cept in  the  city  of  London,  were  abolished,  and  the 
lord  -  lieutenant,  imder  the  authority  of  Parliament, 
became  in  his  county  an  officer  of  the  highest  rank. 
The  Militia  was  carefully  fostered  by  Parliament  as  a 
counterpoise  to  the  army ;  the  CroAvn,  having  no  power 
to  reduce  its  numbers,  could  only  exert  influence 
through  the  lords-lieutenants  or  their  deputies,  who 
were  always  men  of  position  and  rank  in  their  respec- 
tive counties. 

The  Volunteers  have  for  some  time  been  very  pro- 
minently before  the  public.  In  1803  ^^  very  large 
force  was  raised,  but  disappeared  after  Waterloo.  As 
now  constituted  the  force  may  be  assumed  to  have 
originated  in  1859,  '^^^^^  was  due  to  the  violent  language 
used  by  the  French  press  after  the  attempt  by  Orsini 
upon  the  life  of  Napoleon  III. 

The  discipline  of  the  force  is  provided  for  by  an 
Act  passed  in  1863  for  ordinary  purposes  and  under 
normal  conditions.  When  working  with  regular  troops 
or  embodied  for  active  service,  the  Army  Act  applies 


2i6  GENERAL 

to  volunteers  with  the  same  effect  as  to  the  regular 
forces.  The  regulations  dealing  with  the  training  of 
the  volunteers  are  as  lenient  as  they  can  possibly  be, 
and  perhaps  err  somewhat  on  that  side,  but  it  must  be 
recollected  that  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  those 
enrolled  render  themselves  much  more  than  merely 
efficient.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether  a  higher  mini- 
mum standard  would  have  any  real  effect  in  raising 
the  efficiency  of  the  force. 

The  more  serious  question  is,  how  the  instruction 
which  is  absolutely  necessary  in  working  in  large 
bodies  can  be  more  thoroughly  imparted.  At  present 
opportunities  are  rare  for  corps  to  operate  in  combina- 
tion, and  until  this  can  be  arranged  the  training  cannot 
be  considered  otherwise  than  as  incomplete.  Another 
very  serious  drawback  from  which  the  volunteers  suffer 
is  the  dearth  of  officers.  They  are  very  little  less  than 
one-third  of  their  strength  deficient,  and  the  tendency 
is  for  the  proportion  rather  to  increase  than  lessen. 
The  cause  of  this  condition  is  somewhat  complex,  but 
the  principal  reason  is  the  expenses,  which  are  un- 
avoidable in  many  corps.  A  more  stringent  supervision 
by  commanding-officers  over  their  corps'  expenditure 
would  doubtless  to  a  great  extent  remedy  this  state 
of  affairs,  which  at  the  present  day  is  a  very  serious 
drawback  to  the  efficiency  of  the  whole  force. 

Crime,  in  the  military  sense  of  the  term,  is  very 
rare.  Commanding -officers  have  very  considerable 
powers  with  which  to  deal  with  it  ivhen  arising.  Their 
great  difficulty  is  to  deal  with  those  members  who  join 
on  the  spur  of  a  momentary  zeal,  and  whose  ardour, 
having  evaporated,  fail  to  make  themselves  efficient. 
All  he  can  do  is  to  dismiss  the  offender,  which, 
unless  he  has  a  number  of  recruits  anxious  to  be 
enrolled,  means  a  reduction  in  the  strength  of  his 
command.  The  fear  that  if  occasion  arose  when  the 
services  of  the  volunteers  became  necessary,  resigna- 


THE    BRITISH    ARMY  217 

tions  would  become  numerous  is  probably  groundless, 
and  in  any  case  is  of  no  consequence,  as  the  force 
when  called  out  would  be  then  under  the  Ai-my  Act, 
and  no  one  able  to  resign  without  permission.  Every 
efficient  volunteer  earns  annually  for  his  corps  ;^i,  i  8s., 
and  officers  who  have  passed  certain  examinations  very 
much  larger  amounts. 

The  question  of  finance  is  one  of  the  great  diffi- 
culties which  a  corps  has  to  meet,  and  the  Government 
grant  can  hardly  be  considered  as  sufficiently  generous. 
It  is  certainly  to  be  hoped  that  volunteering  will  in 
the  near  future  be  more  popular  than  at  present,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  see  why  all  able-bodied  men  should 
not  be  compelled  to  serve  in  their  local  force.  It 
would  cause  little  or  no  dislocation  in  the  labour 
market,  and  the  enormous  advantage  of  such  an  im- 
mense body  of  men  to  some  extent  acquainted  with 
drill  and  discipline  can  hardly  be  over-estimated. 

Infantry  is  imdoubtcdly  the  backbone  of  all 
modern  armies,  and  although  the  prestige  of  the 
cavalry  allows  it  to  assume  a  position  which  is  hardly 
justified  by  its  real  importance,  it  is  universally  ad- 
mitted that,  since  the  introduction  of  gunpowder  it 
occupies  the  second  instead  of  the  most  prominent 
place  among  the  various  arms. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  that  the  vari- 
ous branches  of  the  service  exist  merely  to  assist  the 
infantry  in  delivering  a  crushing  blow,  and  that  how- 
ever brilliant  the  subsidiary  arms  may  be,  a  force  with- 
out good  infantry  offers  but  slight  real  danger  to  any 
foe  well  equipped  in  this  respect. 

The  infantry  of  our  army  is  organised  upon  what 
is  called  the  territorial  system.  It  must  not  be  as- 
sumed because  a  regiment  is  called  after  a  certain 
county  that  the  regular  battalions  when  at  home  are 
quartered  in  their  own  localities.  From  the  position 
of  barrack  accommodation  and  the  exigencies  of  the 


2l8 


GENERAL 


service  this  has  been  found  not  practicable,  but  as  a 
rule  it  may  be  noted  that  on  return  from  a  term  of 
foreign  service  a  battalion  is  stationed  as  near  as  pos- 
sible to  its  own  district. 

In  order  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  three  arms 
a  short  sketch  will  be  given  of  each,  tracing  the  in- 
fantry from  its  lowest  tactical  unit,  the  company,  to 
the  brigade  or  largest  which  has  no  portion  of  the 
other  arms  with  it.  Then,  in  the  same  way  the  artil- 
lery will  be  dealt  with  from  battery  to  brigade  division 
and  cavalry  from  squadron  to  cavalry  brigade.  Be- 
yond these  are  Divisions,  which  is  the  smallest  unit  in 
which  all  three  arms  work  together  as  a  tactical  unit, 
and  army  corps,  which  is  the  biggest  unit  recognised. 

In  all  cases  the  various  arms  are  assumed  to  be  on 
war  footing. 

The  infantry  consists  of  Line,  Militia  and  Volun- 
teer Guards,  and  Riflo  Battalions. 

Guards  battalions  .......       lo 

Line  and  Kifie  battalions       ......     157 


Total 


167 


Each  battalion  consists  of  eight  companies  and  two 
depot  companies. 


Company  of  Infantry — War  Strength. 


Offlcers. 

Sergeants. 

Bnglers. 

Bank  and 

Kile. 

Total. 

Major  or  Captain 
Subalterns  .     .     . 
Sergeants     .     .     . 

I 
2 

5 

2 

106 

I 
2 

5 

2 

106 

Rank  and  file   .     . 

Total    .     . 

3 

5 

2 

106 

116 

The  next  higher  unit  in  Infantry  is  the  battalion, 
as  given  on  next  page. 


THE    BRITISH    ARMY 

War  Strength  of  a  Battalion. 


2  ig 


Ranks. 


Lieutenant-Colonel    . 

Jlajor  (second  in  command) 

Adjutant    . 

Quartermaster    . 

Medical  officer   . 

Sergeant-major  . 

Sergeants  . 

Machine-gun  detachment 

Pioneers 

Band. 

Drivers  and  waggon-men 

Orderlies,  batmen,  and  servants 

Total  battalion  staff  . 

Eight  companies 

Total  battalion  in  the  field 

Left  at  base        .... 

Total  embarked 


S 

24 
29 

r 
30 


a  V 
11 


40 

3 

54 


16 
16 


16 


23 


65 


913 


Total. 


23 


82 
928 

i,oro 
102 

1,112 


The  Infantry 

Bri 

gade 

is  as 

follows 

: — 

Detail. 

D 
0 

E 

0 

3 

*^            TO 

1 

0 

w 

II 

0) 

c   ■ 
|0 

s 

c 

.  0 

W  bo 

.  W) 

I 

is 

I 

staff 

24 

27 

Four  battalions     . 

116 

2,924 

4,040 

168 

4 

4 

20 

16 

44 

Supply  column 

5 

116 

121 

no 

4 

19 

23 

Bearer  comjiany    . 

3 

Q4 

97 

S^ 

S 

10 

IS' 

Field  hospital  .     .     . 
Total  with  field  force 

5 

56 

61 
4.346 

28 

373 

4 

4 

2 
31 

4 
40 

10 

61 
89 

132 

4,214 

Total  left  at  base  .     . 

4 

426 

430 

1  Numbers  include  personnel  of  Army  Service  Corps. 

This  is  the  largest  body  of  Infantry  without  the 
addition  of  the  other  arms.  Treating  Artillery  in  the 
same  manner,  there  are : — 

28  batteries. 

•     151 


Horse  Artillery,  of 

Field 

Garrison  mountain 

Mountain  batteries 


Total 


i 


104 


114 


293 


2  20  GENERAL 

The  war  strength  of  a  battery  is  as  follows  :- 

War  Strength  of  Batteries. 


Ranks. 


OflBcers  

Sergeants 

Artificers 

Trumpeters      .... 

Corporals 

Bombardiers   .... 

Gunners 

Drivers 

Total  all  ranks     .     .     . 

Horses 

Mules 

Guns 

Ammunition  waggons  . 

Forge 

Ammunition  and  store . 

Store,    waggons,    and  ) 

limbers    .     .     .     .    j" 


u 

u 

^ 

^ 

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■«   . 

S 

ct: 

sa 

0.2 

Kfe 

a 

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c 

0 

5 

S 

5 

5 

8 

8 

8 

8 

lO 

9 

9 

10 

2 

2 

2 

2 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

9 

6 

74 

76 

8.S 

90 

68 

59 

71 

57 

179 

171 

19s 

184 

191 

131 

156 

18 
208 

6 

6 

6 

\    -73 

6 

6 

9 

(U 

I 

I 

I 

2 

2 

I 

-a 

I 

I 

I 

0 
^  12; 

Remarks. 


1  The  mountain 
battery  has  in  addi- 
tion no  muleteers, 
I  per  ordnance  mule 
(second  line),  i  per 
3  baggage  mule,  and 
5  x>er  cent,  to  spare. 


Two  Garrison  Artillery  companies  in  war  strength 
number  199  of  all  ranks. 

The  next  higher  unit  for  artillery  is  the  Brigade 
Division,  and  for  the  R.H.A.  is  as  follows : — 


A  Brigade  Division  of  Horse  Artillery  in  the  Field. 


Staff 

Two  R.H.A.  bat-  ) 
teries    .     .     .     f 

Total   .     .     . 

Officers. 

Warrant 
Officer. 

Sergeants. 

Other 
Ranks. 

II 
332 

Total.    Horses. 

4 
10 

I 

I 

3 
16 

19 

19 
358 

1 
20 

382 

14 

343 

377 

402 

Transport,  lo  carts. 

The  Brigade  Division  for  Field  Artillery  consists 
of  three  batteries  instead  of  two  as  in  above. 


>  Officers 


I  Sergeants   and   Staff- 
(        Sergeants 


THE    BRITISH   ARMY  221 

The  details  for  cavalry  arc,  for  tlic  squadron,  as 
follows : — 

The  Sqtuuiron —  War  iStretujth. 

Major  .... 
Captain 
Subalterns  . 

Squadron  Sergeant-major 
,,  Q.-M.-sergeant 

Sergeants    . 
Farrier-sergean  t 
Corporal  shoeiug-sniith 
Shoeing-smitlis 
Saddler 
Trumpeters 
Corporals    . 
Privates 
Drivers 
Batmen  ,     , 
Cooks . 
Waggon-men 

Total  all  ranks 
Horses — 
Private    . 
Public  riding  . 
„      pack     . 
„       draught 

Total 


Artificers 


2     Trumpeters 


108 

4 


2j 
160 


■  Rank  and  file 


136 


18 
134 


Transport — 

I  G.  S.  waggon  (4-liorse)  baggage. 
I      ,,  ,,  ,,         supplies. 


161      i  Total,  2  vehicles. 

After  the  squadron  the  next   higher  unit   is   the 
regiment,  and  that  is  composed  as  under : — 

Regiment  of  Cavalry  EstahUshment. 


£ 

S 

Horses. 

Public. 

Ranks. 

3  ^ 

i2 

a 

p. 

a 

<u 

5 

ti 

0 

0 

7 

I 

4) 

5 

S 
< 

4 

a 

e 

a 
34 

3 

SI 

> 

17 

•3 
12 

1 
24 

53 

Regimental  staff  . 

Three    service ) 
squadrons     .      ) 

18 

30 

18 

6 

408 

480 

54 

402 

24 

3 

483 

Total  in  field    .     . 
Left  at  base      .     . 

25 

I 

I 

35 

22 

6 

442 

531 

S4 

71 

414 

48 

3 

536 

Total  embarked    . 

26 

I 

38 

22 

6 

492 

,S8.S 

71 

414 

48 

3 

536 

Reserve  squadron  ( 

8 

at  home    .     .      j 

i'/ 

7 

4 

^75 

312 

21 

199 

2 

222 

Total  on  mobili-  ) 
satiou  .     .     .      j 

34 

2 

55 

29 

10 

767 

897 

92 

613 

50 

3 

758 

222 


GENERAL 


Still  a  step  higher  in  the  organisation  of  cavalry 
is  the  Cavalry  Brigade,  which  is  given  below.  Strictly 
speaking,  it  is  not  purely  cavalry,  as  both  artillery  and 
mounted  infantry  form  part  of  its  establishment,  but 
they  are  so  entirely  subservient,  and  only  intended  to 
support  the  cavalry,  that  this  unit  is  justly  considered 
as  purely  cavalry. 

The  Cavalry  Brigade. 


Staff  .... 
Three   cavalry  ) 

regimeuts.  | 
One    battalion  ) 

R.H.A.  .  f 
Ammunition  ) 

column      .     ) 

Two  companies  ) 
M.I.     .     .     ) 

Supply  column. 


Bearer  company 
Field  ho.spital   . 

Total  with  field  ) 
force     .     .     ) 

Total    left    at  I 
base      .     .     \ 


Vehicles. 

ID 
O 

e 

o 
4 

■3 

0) 

0 

W 

1 

0 

H 
I 

0 

U    1) 

o-S 

> 

I 

19 

23 

22 

75 

1,518 

1.593 

1,608 

3 

39 

42 

6 

176 

182 

19s 

6 

II 

17 

4 

106 

no 

i°S 

18 

18 

12 

294 

306 

310 

2 

9 

n 

5 

120 

125 

124 

26 

26 

3 

94 

97 

56 

15 

IS 

5 

56 

61 
2,497 

28 
2,448 

6 

5 

6 
124 

6 
136 

114 

2.383 

3 

242 

245 

Remarks. 


(  Has    a    niachine- 
N    gun  action  ;  two 
(,   machine-guns. 
(  ist  line  of  supply 
\    column. 
1st  line  of  assist- 
ance ;     among 
vehicles  are  ten 
ambulances. 
2nd    line    of    as- 
sistance. 


Having  dealt  with  the  previous  miits  composed 
entirely  of  one  arm,  the  next  step  is  the  smallest  unit 
in  which  they  are  all  combined,  and  this  is  the  Divi- 
sion, with  the  following  establishment: — 


THE    BRITISH    ARMY 


223 


The  Infantry  Division. 


Detail. 

Cm 

a 

0 

s  u  a> 

i 

w 

i2 
18 

S   . 

.-  c 

c  0 

3  M 

H^ 
^"^ 

18 
18 

0  5 
<) 

8 
8 

32 
12 

44 

> 

2 
128 

2 

14 
29 

II 

16 
6 

218 

2.1 

2 

128 

2 

50 
41 

III 
16 

6 
306 

Staff 

Two  infantry  brigades 
One  squadron  cavalry 
One  brigade  division  field  ) 

artillery          .         .         ) 
Ammunition  column 
Regimental  staff  division  ) 

Engineers       .         .         j 
One  field  company  Koyal  ) 

Engineers       .         .         ) 
Supply  column . 
Field  hospital    . 

Total  with  field  hospital   . 

Total  left  at  base 

12 

264 
6 

19 

5 
2 

7 
6 

5 

55 
8,428 

154 

5" 

201 

5 
205 

93 

56 

67 

8,692 

160 

530 
206 

7 

212 

99 
61 

46 

746 
161 

409 

236 

4 

63 

87 
28 

326 

9 

9,708 

10,034 

1,780 

18 

963 

972 

1  Carries  2  pontoons,  3  superstructures,  420  lbs.  gun  cotton. 

Having  dealt  with  the  Division,  only  one  other 
unit  remains,  and  that  is  the  Army  Corps,  as  below. 
When  a  force  in  the  field  consists  of  more  than  one 
Army  Corps  it  is  considered  as  composed  of  the 
number  of  Army  Corps  it  contains,  and  would  be 
described  as  an  army  of  two  or  three  Army  Corps,  as 
the  case  might  be. 

In  the  details  enumerated  on  p.  224  will  bo  seen 
Corps  Artillery,  which  is  as  follows : — 


} 


Corps  Artillery. 

One  brigade  division  R.H.A.  of  two  batteries 

Tliree  brigade  divisions  Field  Artillery  of  three  batteries  each 

Total  with  Arniy  Corps  ....         20 

The  necessary  transport  for  a  battalion  is  carried 
in  eleven  carls,  requiring,  with  spare  men  and  horses, 
sixteen  drivers  and  thirty-two  horses  and  two  pack 
animals  each  with  a  driver. 


224 


GENERAL 


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THE    BRITISH    ARMY  225 

Throughout  the  service  the  term  of  enhstment  is, 
as  a  rule,  for  twelve  years,  of  which  seven  are  with  the 
colours  if  at  home,  and  eight  if  abroad,  the  remainder 
being  in  the  first-class  reserve. 

In  addition  to  this,  in  time  of  war  or  great  national 
emergency,  men  can  be  retained  with  the  colours  for  a 
further  period  of  twelve  months.  As  a  rule,  after  five 
years'  colour-service,  should  a  man  desire  to  return  to 
civil  life,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  his  transfer  to  the 
Reserve  for  the  remainder  of  his  term. 

Although  cavalry  have  long  ceased  to  occupy  the 
pre-eminent  position  they  held  in  the  Middle  Ages,  it 
would  be  a  fatal  error  to  underrate  their  importance  in 
modern  warfare.  The  main  duties  which  fall  to  their 
lot  are  the  searching  out  of  the  opposing  force  and 
maintaining  a  continuous  contact  with  it  when  found, 
and  at  the  same  time  forming  a  netw^ork  round  their 
own  army  behind  which  it  can  move  in  comparative 
safety,  secure  in  the  knowledge  that  no  enemy  can 
attack  without  ample  warning  being  received  from  the 
vedettes. 

Until  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
artillery  and  engineers  were  in  one  body,  when  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  in  17  16,  formed  two  companies 
for  the  special  purpose  of  working  guns.  Even  at  the 
present  day  their  duties  to  some  extent  overlap,  as  the 
engineers  are  in  charge  of  the  submarine  defences. 

Upon  the  Army  Service  Corps  devolves  the  duty 
of  supplying  the  army  with  all  requisites  both  during 
peace  and  in  war  time.  The  immense  labour  this 
entails  is  perhaps  best  realised  by  considering  that 
an  army  in  the  field  of  100,000  men  contains  more 
individuals  than  the  entire  population  of  either  York 
or  Doncaster. 

In  addition  to  these  various  portions  of  the  army 
there  are  several  others  of  less  apparent  importance, 
but  which   are  necessary  if  the  whole  is  to  form  an 
V  p 


2  26  GENERAL 

effective  fighting  niacliine.  Amongst  these  the  Royal 
Army  Medical  Corps  is  the  most  conspicuous ;  then  the 
Ordnance  Store,  Judge,  Advocate-General's,  Chaplains', 
Pay,  and  Veterinary  Departments, 

To  supply  the  constant  drain  which  must  of  neces- 
sity occur  immediately  a  force  takes  the  field  there  is 
the  Reserve,  and  behind  that  again  the  Militia  Reserve. 
That  these  together  are  insuflicient  for  the  purpose  is 
evident  from  the  number  of  volunteers  who  have  had 
to  be  enlisted  during  the  South  African  War.  The 
preceding  is  necessarily  a  most  cursory  sketch  of 
the  army,  but  space  does  not  permit  a  further  expan- 
sion. The  war  has  shown  up  certain  weaknesses  and 
deficiencies  in  our  military  requirements,  and  it  is  a 
question  of  most  serious  public  moment  what  would 
have  been  the  result  if  our  enemy  had  been  a  first- 
class  European  Power.  Where  Avould  the  necessary 
men  have  been  found  ?  The  Navy  is  presumably 
adequate  to  protect  our  shores  and  commerce,  but 
without  the  efficient  co-operation  of  land  forces  loses  a 
vast  portion  of  its  power.  In  our  early  history  every 
free  man  had  to  be  armed,  and  it  is  difficult  to  realise 
any  reason  why  all  able-bodied  men  within  certain 
ages  should  not  bo  called  upon  to  join  the  volunteers 
and  make  themselves  efficient  for  home  defence,  so 
that  in  the  event  of  a  European  war  the  regular  army 
might  be  relieved  from  the  care  of  the  Kingdom  and 
at  the  same  time  supplied  with  a  vast  source  of  trained 
men,  many  of  whom  would  doubtless  be  prepared  to 
temporarily  join  any  force  in  the  field. 

The  principal  authorities  consulted  have  been 
"  Military  Forces  of  the  Crown  "  (Clodc),  "  The  Army 
Book  of  the  British  Empire,"  and  "  Notes  on  Organi- 
sation and  Equipment"  (Lieut.-Coloncl  Brunker). 


THE   LAWS   OF   THE   EMPIRE; 

MORE    ESPECIALLY    IN    THEIR    RELATION   TO 

NATIVES    OF    THE    UNITED    KINGDOM 

GOING  TO  THE  BRITISH  DOMINIONS 

BEYOND  THE  SEAS 

By  FREDERICK  U.  M.  CORBET 

( Barrister -at- Lmo  ;  M.  Council  Soc.  Comparative  Legislation  ; 
M.  Council  British  Empire  League,  dx.  <fcc.) 

This  article  is  intended  to  present  merely  a  rough  out- 
line of  the  subject  it  treats  of,  for  limitations  of  time 
and  space  forbid  any  more  ambitious  undertaking.  It 
is  written  for  the  information  of  the  "  mere  layman  " 
only ;  and  it  is  little  more  than  an  attempt  to  state  in 
a  short  and  popular  form  the  result  of  some  of  the 
learned  disquisitions  contained  in  well-known  publica- 
tions, such  as  Clark's  "  Colonial  Law,"  Burke's  "  Com- 
mentaries  on  Colonial  and  Foreign  Laws,"  Lewis' 
•'  Government  of  Dependencies "  (in  Lucas'  excellent 
edition),  Tarring's  "  Law  Relating  to  the  Colonies " 
and  the  "  Journal  of  Comparative  Legislation. ' 

Througfhout  this  article  a  liberal  use  of  the  leijal 
lore  enshrined  in  these  works  will  be  made,  and  many 
an  abridged  quotation  and  paraphrase  from  them  will 
be  given.  For  all  of  these  a  grateful  acknowledgment 
now  in  general  terms  must  suffice,  as  it  would  be  im- 
possible, without  a  multitude  of  notes,  to  give  chapter 
and  verse  in  each  instance. 

The  average  native  of  the  British  Isles — if  he  is  not 
aware  of  the  difference  between  English  and  Scottish 
law  at  his  very  doors — when  contemplating  a  visit  to, 


2  28  GENERAL 

or  a  prolonged  residence  in,  any  portion  of  that  vastly 
greater  Britain  which  lies  beyond  the  seas,  might 
reasonably  flatter  himself  that  he  can  go  from  one 
part  of  the  Empire  to  another  Avithout  alteration  in  his 
legal  relations  with  his  fellow-subjects.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  case,  for  wherever  he  may  go  he  will 
find  himself  subject  to  fresh  laws,  more  or  less  different 
from  those  of  the  place  he  left.  The  varieties  are 
almost  infinite  in  number.  Not  only  are  the  systems 
of  jurisprudence  of  five  nationalities  —  the  Dutch, 
English,  French,  Sicilian,  and  Spanish — in  force  in 
different  parts  of  the  British  Dominions,  and  applicable 
to  him,  but  the  stage  of  development  attained  by  any 
particular  system  at  the  time  of  its  introduction  into 
different  places  may  vary.  Thus  in  Quebec  the  old 
French  law,  the  Coutume  de  Paris,  is  the  foundation 
of  the  present  jurisprudence,  whilst  in  Mauritius  it  is 
the  Code  Napoleon.  Added  to  this,  the  King  in 
Council,  occasionally,  and  some  sixty  separate  Legis- 
latures, year  by  year,  are  at  work  piling  up  Orders 
and  Statutes  upon  every  conceivable  subject,  almost 
all  these  enactments  being  in  some  respects  peculiar 
and  adapted  to  local  circumstances. 

For  our  present  purpose  the  British  Dominions 
beyond  the  seas  may  be  divided  into 

(A)  Those  acquired  by  occupancy. 

(i>)  Those  acquired  by  cession  or  conquest. 

The  distinction  will  be  seen  to  be  one  of  the 
greatest  practical  importance. 

The  first  class  comprises  those  countries  which, 
being  entirely  unpeopled,  or  ])eopIed  only  by  savage 
tribes  not  constituting  a  State,  are  occupied  by  British 
subjects,  and  become  incorporated  into  the  Empire 
rather  through  the  enterprise  of  individuals  than  by 
the  deliberate  action  of  the  Government. 

With  regard  to  colonies  of  this  type,  the  general 
principle    is    that    where    an    uninhabited   country    is 


THE    LAWS    OF    THE    EMPIRE  229 

discovered  and  planted  by  English  subjects,  all  the 
Enijdish  laws  then  in  being  are  immediately  there  in 
force.  But  this  must  be  understood  with  many  and 
great  restrictions.  Such  colonists  carry  with  them 
only  so  much  of  the  English  law  as  is  applicable  to 
their  own  situation  and  the  conditions  of  an  infant 
colony ;  for  instance,  the  general  rules  of  inheritance 
and  of  protection  I'rom  personal  injuries.  The  artificial 
refinements  and  distinctions  incident  to  the  property  of 
a  great  and  commercial  people,  the  laws  of  police  and 
revenue — such  especially  as  are  enforced  by  penalties — 
the  mode  of  maintenance  of  the  established  clergy,  the 
jurisdiction  of  spiritual  courts,  and  a  multitude  of 
other  provisions,  are  neither  necessary  nor  convenient 
for  them,  and  therefore  are  not  in  force.  It  has  been 
tersely  said  :  Let  an  Englishman  go  where  he  will,  he 
carries  as  much  of  law  and  liberty  with  him  as  the 
nature  of  things  will  bear. 

This  view  was  succinctly  expressed  in  the  following 
solenm  declaration  made  by  the  Legislature  of  the 
Bahamas  in  the  preamble  to  a  local  Act,  passed  in  the 
year  1799  •  — 

"  The  common  law  of  England  is  the  best  birth- 
right of  Englishmen  and  their  descendants." 

Thus  Lord  Kingsdown  observed  in  1863  (Advocate 
General  of  BeiKjal  v.  llanee  Surnomoye  Dossee),  that  when 
Englishmen  establish  themselves  in  an  uninhabited 
or  barbarous  country,  they  carry  with  them  not  only 
the  laws,  but  the  sovereignty  of  their  own  State ;  and 
those  who  live  amongst  them  and  become  members 
of  their  conununity  become  also  partakers  of,  and 
subject  to,  the  same  laws. 

Recent  examples  of  the  creation  of  Colonies  by  the 
action  of  private  persons  are  to  be  found  in  the  history 
of  the  Chartered  Companies  operating  in  Africa  and 
the  Pacific. 

In    Colonies   acquired   by    occupancy    the     intro- 


2  30  GENERAL 

duction  of  the  law  in  force  here  is  almost  a  matter 
of  course,  the  Diajority  of  the  inhabitants,  or,  at  any 
rate,  the  most  powerful  and  civilised  portion,  having 
been  born  and  bred  in  the  United  Kingdom.  It  is,  per- 
haps, an  unconscious  acknowledgment  of  the  position 
of  the  '■  predominant  partner,"  and  it  certainly  is 
curious,  even  where  the  bulk  of  the  new  settlers  are 
Scots  or  Irish,  that  one  does  not  hear  of  any  claim  by 
them  to  be  governed  by  the  law  of  their  native  land, 
and  that  English  law  is  accepted  without  a  murmur. 

But,  even  so,  we  are  still  far  from  uniformity. 
The  Colonies  acquired  by  occupancy,  having  been 
settled  at  various  times,  differ  greatly  among  them- 
selves with  regard  to  the  amount  of  English  statute 
law  in  force  there. 

Lord  Mansfield  laid  it  down,  in  1769  {Bex  v. 
Vaughan),  that  no  Act  of  Parliament  made  after  a 
Colony  is  planted  is  construed  to  extend  to  it  without 
express  words  showing  the  intention  of  the  Legislature 
to  be  that  it  should  apply. 

Lord  Blackburn  remarked,  in  1885  {The  Lmiderdale 
Peerage),  that  "  When  the  province  of  New  York  was 
founded  by  the  English  settlers  who  went  out  there, 
those  English  settlers  carried  with  them  all  the  im- 
immities  and  privileges  and  laws  of  England.  The 
Englishmen  in  a  province  which  had  been  so  settled 
were  as  free  Englishmen,  with  as  much  privilege,  as 
those  that  remained  in  England.  It  is  true  that  it  is 
only  the  law  of  England  as  it  was  at  that  time  Avhich 
such  settlers  carry  with  them ;  subsequent  legislation 
in  England  altering  the  law  does  not  affect  their 
rights  unless  it  is  expressly  made  to  extend  to  the 
province  or  the  colony." 

The  date  of  the  settlement,  in  almost  all  cases,  thus 
determines  the  time  after  which  the  statutes  passed  in 
the  Mother  Country,  except  Avhere  specially  so  pro- 
vided, cease  to  be  applicable  to  the  Colony;   and  these 


THE    LAWS    OF    THE    EMPIRE  23 j 

dates  range  over  a  period  of  more  than  two  hundred 
years,  from  1624,  as  regards  Barbados,  to  1889,  as 
regards  Britisli  New  Guinea. 

The  second  class  of  Colonies  to  be  considered  are 
those  obtained  by  conquest  or  cession ;  and  there  the 
laws  in  force  at  the  time  of  the  change  of  Government 
are  maintained  until  they  are  altered  by  competent 
authority.  This  matter  has  been  the  subject  of  some 
discussion,  and  it  is  interesting  to  trace  the  develop- 
ment of  judicial  opinion  thereon. 

The  rule  was  broadly  laid  down  in  Calvin's  Case, 
in  1609,  by  Lord  Chancellor  EUesmere  and  twelve 
Judges,  that,  if  a  king  come  to  a  Christian  kingdom 
by  conquest,  seeing  that  he  hath  vitce  et  necis  potestatem, 
he  may  at  his  pleasure  alter  and  change  the  laws  of 
that  kingdom  ;  but  until  he  doth  make  an  alteration 
of  those  laws,  the  ancient  laws  of  that  kingdom  re- 
main. But  if  a  Christian  king  should  conquer  a 
kingdom  of  an  infidel,  and  bring  it  under  his  sub- 
jection, there,  ipso  facto,  the  laws  of  the  infidel  are 
abrogated,  for  that  they  be  not  only  against  Chris- 
tianity, but  against  the  laws  of  God  and  nature  con- 
tained in  the  Decalogue,  and  in  that  case,  until  certain 
laws  be  established  amongst  them,  the  king  by  himself, 
and  such  judges  as  he  shall  appoint,  shall  judge  them 
and  their  causes  according  to  natural  equity,  in  such 
sort  as  kings  in  ancient  times  did  Avith  their  kingdoms 
before  any  certain  municipal  laws  were  given. 

In  1693,  Sir  John  Holt,  Chief  Justice  {Blanhard  v, 
Galdy),  observed  that,  where  it  was  said  in  Calvin's  Case 
that  the  laws  of  a  conquered  heathen  country  do  im- 
mediately cease,  that  may  be  true  of  laws  for  religion, 
but  it  seems  otherwise  of  laws  touching  the  govern- 
ment; and  that  in  such  cases,  Avhere  the  laws  are 
rejected  or  silent,  the  conquered  country  shall  be 
governed  according  to  the  rule  of  natural  equity. 

The  Lords  of  the    Privy   Council,  as  Sir  Thomas 


232  GENERAL 

Sewell,  Master  of  the  Rolls,  stated  in  1722  (2  Peere 
Williams,  p.  75),  have  determined  that,  where  the 
King  of  England  conquers  a  country,  there  the 
conqueror,  by  saving  the  lives  of  the  people  con- 
quered, gains  a  right  and  property  in  such  people ;  in 
consequence  of  which  he  may  impose  upon  them  what 
laws  he  pleases.  But  until  such  laws  are  given  by 
the  conquering  prince,  the  laws  and  customs  of  the 
conquered  country  shall  hold  place,  unless  where  these 
are  contrary  to  our  religion,  or  enact  anything  that  is 
malum  in  se,  or  are  silent ;  for  in  all  such  cases  the 
laws  of  the  conquering  country  shall  pi-evail. 

The  opinion  of  Lord  Mansfield,  as  expressed  in 
1774  in  a  famous  judgment  {Campbell  v.  Hall),  was 
that  the  laws  of  a  conquered  country  continue  in  force 
until  they  are  altered  by  the  conqueror ;  and  he  speaks 
of  "  the  absurd  exception  as  to  Pagans  mentioned  in 
Calvin's  Case." 

The  views  of  Lord  Ellenborough,  as  indicated  in 
the  course  of  the  trial  of  a  Colonial  Governor  in  1 8  i  o 
{Rex  V.  Picton),  seem  to  have  been  in  accordance  with 
the  opinion  just  quoted,  and  he  was  much  impressed 
with  the  practical  difficulty  of  deciding  according  to 
the  tests  proposed,  what  portion  of  the  law  of  a 
conquered  country  was  in  force,  and  what  not. 

Lord  Stowell,  on  the  other  hand,  when  a  question 
of  the  kind  came  before  him  in  182  i  {Ending  v.  Smith), 
said  that,  even  with  respect  to  the  ancient  inhabitants, 
no  small  portion  of  the  ancient  law  is  unavoidably 
superseded  by  the  revolution  of  government  that  has 
taken  place.  The  allegiance  of  the  subjects,  and  all  the 
law  that  relates  to  it,  must  undergo  alterations  adapted 
to  the  change.  The  laws  which  prevailed  in  the  con- 
quered territory  may  be  harsh  and  oppressive  in  the 
extreme — iriay  contain  institutions  abhorrent  to  the 
feelings  and  opinions  and  habits  of  the  conquerors, 
and  can  "be  but  imperfectly  understood ;  and  that  they 


THE    LAWS    OF    THE    EMPIRE  233 

should  all  of  them  instantaneously  attach  and  con- 
tinue obligatory  upon  them,  was  a  proposition  wliicli  he 
thought  a  professor  of  general  law  would  be  inclined 
to  consider  cautiously  before  it  could  be  universally 
accepted.  The  case  which  Lord  Stowell  had  to  deal 
with,  however,  was  one  of  an  exceptional  character, 
where  the  proposition  referred  to,  if  strictly  enforced, 
would  have  worked  injustice. 

Mr.  Clark  {Colonial  Law,  1834,  p.  4),  after  referring 
to  some  of  these  decisions,  said  that  the  doubt  thrown 
upon  the  somewhat  sweeping  terms  of  the  doctrine  as 
stated  in  Calvin's  Case  might  be  justified  not  only  on 
principles  of  reason,  but  even  by  the  practice  of  the 
English  Government.  If  unchristian  or  immoral  in- 
stitutions were  i'pso  facto  abrogated,  then  it  would  have 
been  out  of  the  power  of  the  English  to  have  tolerated 
them  even  for  a  moment.  Yet  they  had  done  so  in 
their  East  Indian  possessions  in  the  case  of  the  Suttee 
and  the  barbarous  rite  of  Jugsfernaut.  The  immoral 
or  unchristian  nature  of  such  customs  afforded  a  reason 
for  abrogating  them,  but  then  such  abrogation  must 
be  the  effect  of  the  declared  will  of  the  conqueror,  and 
could  not  take  place  as  of  course  and  unavoidably  on 
the  instant  of  the  conquest. 

Lord  Stowell's  objections  arc  met  by  the  modern 
theory  of  territorial  rather  than  personal  application 
of  laws.  Lord  Mansfield,  indeed,  had  already  held  in 
1774  {Campbell  v.  Hall)  that  "the  law  and  legisla- 
tive government  of  every  dominion  equally  affects 
all  persons  and  all  property  within  the  limits  thereof; 
and  is  the  rule  of  decision  for  all  questions  which  arise 
there.  Whoever  purchases,  lives,  or  sues  there,  puts 
himself  under  the  law  of  the  place.  An  Englishman 
in  Ireland,  Minorca,  the  Isle  of  Man,  or  the  planta- 
tions, has  no  privilege  distinct  from  the  natives." 

It  is  well  that  this  should  be  so,  and  that  both 
under   the    common    law,   in    the    case   of  conquered 


2  34  GENERAL 

Colonies,  and  by  express  provision,  in  the  case  of 
ceded  Colonies,  the  pre-existing  laws  should  remain 
in  force.  It  is  sufficient  that  they  can  be  altered 
and  amended  subsequently  by  special  legislation  as 
occasion  may  arise.  To  endeavour  at  the  outset  to 
force  a  new  system  of  law  upon  a  conquered  people,  or 
upon  one  wdiich  has  (probably  unwillingly)  come  under 
the  dominion  of  the  British  Crown  by  virtue  of  a 
treaty  or  capitulation,  would  tend  to  create  grave  dis- 
satisfaction and  seriously  aggravate  the  difficulties  of 
absorbing  an  alien  population  into  the  Empire.  The 
less  disturbance  of  pre-existing  laws,  the  less  difficulty 
in  accepting  a  foreign  government.  And  the  advan- 
tage of  the  system  of  territorial  jurisdiction  is  seen  not 
only  in  the  case  of  the  newly- conquered  or  ceded 
population,  but  also  in  that  of  the  alien  who  finds 
himself  in  British  territory.  He  becomes  temporarily 
a  subject  of  the  Crown  ;  bound  by,  subject  to,  and 
entitled  to  the  protection  of,  the  local  law.  on  the  same 
footing  as  if  he  were  a  British  subject. 

The  maintenance  of  the  systems  of  law  which  were 
found  in  force  in  certain  of  the  Colonies,  has  had 
another  and  an  inestimable  advantage  for  the  Empire 
at  large,  in  that  it  has  helped  us  to  understand  and 
a.pprcciate  the  greatest  of  the  legacies  left  to  us  by 
Imperial  Rome — the  Civil  Law^ — and  has  forced  us  to 
learn  something  of  the  defects  of  our  Common  Law, 
and  to  see  our  deficiencies  as  legislators. 

English  law  may  still  be  described  in  the  words 
of  Lord  Tennyson  as 

"  TliL'  lawless  science  of  our  law, 
That  codeless  myriad  of  precedent, 
That  wilderness  of  single  instances." 

It  may  be  said  tliat  tlie  determination  of  any  given 
question  frequently  tm-ns  upon  a  reconciliation  of,  or 
a   compromise   between,   the   sometimes   contradictory 


THE    LAWS    OF    THE    EMPIRE  235 

and  genoriilly  inconsistent  views  of  Mr.  Justice  A.  and 
Mr.  Justice  B.  on  particular  facts ;  never  exactly  the 
same  as,  but  bearing  some  analogy  to,  the  facts  in- 
volved in  the  question.  It  is  given  only  to  the  most 
gifted  of  mortals  to  discover  the  juristic  notions — the 
principles  of  justice — underlying  these  decisions.  One 
is  bound  to  suppose  they  are  there ;  but  the  word 
"  principle "  seldom  occurs.  The  learned  judges  ex- 
pend themselves  upon  the  difficulties  thrown  in  their 
path  by  their  predecessors.  Or  they  stumble  after  some 
great  judge  who,  rising  above  the  petty  details  of  the 
case  before  him,  has,  with  rare  courage,  taken  upon 
himself  the  neijlected  functions  of  the  leo-islator,  and 
has  laid  down  a  rule  of  general  application,  or  fornm- 
lated  a  wide  legal  proposition.  There  is  often  no 
authority  on  which  one  can  rely,  and  to  the  ordinary  lay 
mortal  it  is  all  sheer  chaos.  The  practitioner  breathes 
a  sigh  of  relief  when  he  finds  that  in  some  past  genera- 
tion, provided  it  is  not  too  remote,  some  eminent  lawyer 
and  man  of  genius,  like  Lord  Mansfield,  or  Baron  Parke, 
having  broken  through  the  trammels  of  precedents  or 
extracted  something  tangible  from  them,  has  enun- 
ciated a  principle  of  law.  But  his  sense  of  confidence 
may  prove  a  treacherous  lure  if  he  takes  his  case  to 
the  House  of  Lords,  where  the  decisions  even  of  great 
Chief  Justices  and  Lord  Chancellors  are  sometimes 
overruled  or  explained  away — "  distinguished  "  is  the 
polite  term  for  the  latter  process.^ 

It  is  true,  of  course,  that  immense  strides  have 
been  mad^  in  the  last  hundred  years  in  the  reform  of 
English  law,  and  that  a  few  branches  of  it  have  been 
admirably  codified,  but  as  a  system  (Heaven  save  the 
mark !)   it    is   still   far   from  satisfactory   to    the   least 

'  The  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England  made  some  weighty  observa- 
tions on  the  danger  of  paying  too  inucli  regard  to  precedents  and  too 
little  to  principles  in  a  speech  delivered  at  Glasgow  in  August  1901, 
when  this  article  was  already  in  type. 


2  36  GENERAL 

exacting  of  critics.  And  one  shudders  to  think  how 
Httle  removed  we  are  in  point  of  time  from  the  bar- 
barous criminal  law  of  the  first  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  or  the  desperately  stupid  state  of  affairs  so 
vividly  described  by  Dickens,  when  Law  and  Equity 
were  administered  by  different  and  antagonistic  courts ! 

That  much  still  remains  to  be  done  is  well  illus- 
trated by  recent  judicial  statistics,  which  show  that 
in  a  large  percentage  of  the  cases  carried  from  the 
Court  of  Appeal  to  the  House  of  Lords,  the  judgments 
appealed  against  were  reversed.  With  the  vicissitudes 
which  beset  the  earlier  stages  of  litigation  in  the 
English  Courts,  and  with  the  interesting  (and  costly) 
differences  of  opinion  on  points  of  law  among  counsel, 
between  them  and  the  judges,  and  among  the  judges 
themselves,  many  people  have  been  privileged  to  be- 
come familiar  from  personal  experience.  They  need 
no  statistics  beyond  those  contained  in  their  cheque 
books  to  enable  them  to  realise  "  the  glorious  un- 
certainty of  the  law." 

How  different  is  the  picture  drawn  by  Sir  Henry 
de  Villiers  ("  Journal  of  Comparative  Legislation," 
1 90 1,  p.  i)  of  the  state  of  affiiirs  where  the  Roman- 
Dutch  law  is  in  force.  "  Every  practising  lawyer  in 
South  Africa  knows  .  .  .  that  he  possesses  in  the 
jurisprudence  of  Rome,  which  had  been  silently  trans- 
ferred into  the  Dutch  law  before  its  introduction  at 
the  Cape,  a  treasure-house  of  principles  to  assist  and 
guide  him  where  other  recognised  authorities  fail  him. 
A  difference  of  opinion  among  judges  in  the  South 
African  Courts  upon  dis})ute(l  questions  of  law  is  of 
rare  occurrence,  and  the  number  of  appeals  from  the 
Cape  Supreme  Court  to  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the 
Privy  Council  bears  a  very  small  proportion  to  the 
a[)pea]s  from  other  Colonies  where  the  English  Common 
Law  prevails." 

Roman  law  being  the  basis  of  the  jurisprudence 


THE    LAWS    OF    THP:    EMPIRE  237 

of  some  of  our  most  important  Colonies,  including 
those  in  South  Africa,  it  is  worth  while  to  consider 
a  few  opinions  of  men  qualified  to  pronounce  upon  it. 
The  contrast  with  English  law  is  not  soothing  to  one's 
national  pride,  but  we  must  reconcile  ourselves  to  the 
fact  that  the  British  do  not  shine  as  law-makers. 

The  historian  Gibbon  ( '  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire  ")  begins  his  famous  chapter  on  Roman 
Law  with  the  following  eloquent  passage : — 

"  The  vain  titles  of  the  victories  of  Justinian  are 
crumbled  into  dust ;  but  the  name  of  the  legislator  is 
inscribed  on  a  fair  and  everlastinsf  monument.  Lender 
his  reign,  and  by  his  care,  the  civil  jurisprudence  was 
digested  in  the  inunortal  works  of  the  Code,  the  Pan- 
dects, and  the  Institutes;  the  public  reason  of  the 
Romans  has  been  silently  or  studiously  transfused  into 
the  domestic  institutions  of  Europe ;  and  the  laws  of 
Justinian  still  command  the  respect  or  obedience  of 
independent  nations." 

A  learned  lawyer  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Sir 
Robert  Wiseman  ("The  Law  of  Laws,"  1686),  speak- 
ing of  the  Civil  Law,  observes : — "  Anything  that  is 
irrational,  unnatural,  absurd,  partial,  unjust,  inmiodest, 
ignoble,  treacherous,  or  unfaithful,  that  law  abhorreth  ; 
and  ...  it  is  the  more  perfect  image  and  representa- 
tion of  nature,  and  of  the  equity  and  reason  nature 
prescribes  to  human  actions,  that  was  ever  yet  pre- 
sented or  set  forth  to  the  world  in  a  law." 

Mr.  Burge  ("Colonial  and  Foreign  Laws,"  1838) 
says: — "The  observation  of  a  jurist,  '  Servatur  ubiqne 
jns  liomanum  non  ratione  imjjerii  sed  rationis  imperio,'  ^ 
expresses  the  authority  which  the  jurists  of  Holland, 
France,  and  the  other  States  of  Europe  ascribe  to  it." 

Sir  Nicolas  Tindal,  Chief  Justice,  in  1843  (Acton  v. 
Blundell)  declared  : — '"  The  Roman  Law  forms  no  rule 

^  Roman   law  has  been   everywhere  preserved  not  by  reason   of 
authority,  but  by  the  authority  of  reason. 


238  GENERAL 

binding  in  itself  on  the  subjects  of  tliese  realms"  (i.e. 
except  in  Scotland  and  in  certain  colonies) ;  "  but  in 
deciding  a  case  upon  principle,  where  no  direct  autho- 
rity can  be  cited  from  our  books,  it  affords  no  small 
evidence  of  the  soundness  of  the  conclusion  at  which 
we  have  arrived  if  it  prove  to  be  supported  by  that 
law — the  fruit  of  the  researches  of  the  most  learned 
men,  the  collective  wisdom  of  ages,  and  the  ground- 
work of  the  municipal  law  of  most  of  the  countries  of 
Europe." 

Lord  Mackenzie  ("Roman  Law,"  7th  ed.  1898) 
tells  us  that  '■  in  the  cultivation  of  law  the  Romans 
carried  oft'  the  palm  from  all  nations  of  antiquity " 
(p.  33).  He  speaks  of  "  the  excellence  of  their  private 
law,  the  value  of  which  is  acknowledged  by  the  most 
eminent  English  jurists  "  (p.  46).  He  says  that  "  the 
Roman  law  not  only  possesses  a  universal  scientific 
value  which  it  can  never  lose,  but  preserves  also  in- 
directly a  practical  value,  in  this  sense,  that  it  forms 
the  basis  of  the  new  civil  codes  of  different  States, 
besides  furnishino-  an  inexhaustible  store  of  general 
principles  for  the  decision  of  questions  constantly 
occurring  in  daily  practice  which  are  not  settled  by 
statute,  precedent,  or  usage  "  (p.  48).  And  he  refers 
to  the  famous  Roman  lawyers  Avho  built  up  the  Civil 
Law,  "as  the  great  lights  of  jurisprudence  for  all  time" 

(P-  17)- 

Sir  Robert  Phillimore  has  this  appreciation  in  his 
"Commentaries  upon  International  Law"  (3rd  ed, 
1879):— 

"  And  to  all  nations,  whatsoever  and  wheresoever, 
tliis  law  presents  the  unbiassed  judgment  of  the 
calmest  reason,  tempered  by  equity,  and  rendered 
perfect,  humanly  speaking,  by  the  most  careful  and 
patient  industry  that  has  ever  been  practically  applied 
to  the  affairs  of  civilised  man  (p.  34).  .  .  .  Besides  the 
actual  compilations  of  I^ornan  Law,  the  Commentaries 


THE    LAWS    OF    THE    EMPIRE  239 

upon  them — for  the  hke  reason  of  their  comprehen- 
siveness, impartiality,  wisdom,  and  enlarged  equity — 
are  of  great  use  and  constant  service  in  elucidating  the 
rules  of  justice"  (p.  36). 

It  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said  that  natives  of 
the  United  Kingdom  going  to  the  British  Dominions 
beyond  the  seas  will  find  there  either  English  law, 
more  or  less  modified  by  local  enactments,  or  else 
some  system  of  jurisprudence  based  on  the  Roman 
Civil  Law,  and  therefore  in  nowise  inferior. 

In  the  following  rough  list  the  British  Dominions 
have  been  grouped  according  to  the  laws  in  force  there 
with  which  the  European  inmiigrant  is  concerned.  In 
many  cases  there  are,  of  course,  indigenous  laAvs  and 
customs  as  well,  but  these  are  applicable  to  the  original 
inhabitants  only,  and  need  not  be  considered  here. 

A. — Colonics,  &c.,  ivhere  Natives  of  the  United  Kingdovi 
are  under  English  Law,  tentatively  shoiving  the  dates 
after  ivhich  the  siibsequent  Acts  of  the  Imperial  Par- 
liament are  not  applicaMe  unless  specially  made  to 
apply. 

Antigua 1632  ? 

Bahamas  .......  1629 

Barbados        1624  ? 

Bermuda 1 609  1 

British  Columbia    ....  November  19,  1858 

British  Honduras    .     .      .     .  1888? 

British  New  Guinea     .     .     .  1889 

Cyprus December  21,  1878 

Dominica October  7,  1763 

Falkland  Islands Tanuary  i,  1850 

Fiji January  2,  1875 

Gambia 1816? 

Gibraltar December  31,  1883 

Gold  Coast July  24,  1874 

Grenada Tanuary  10,  1784 


240  GENERAL 

Hong  Kong April  5,  1 843 

India 1726? 

Jamaica 1655 

Labuan 1846 

Lagos Ji^ily  24,  1874 

Manitoba July  15,  1870 

Montserrat 1632  ? 

Nevis 1628'? 

New  Brunswick      .     .     .  17 13 

Newfoundland 1833 

New  South  Wales  ....      1828 

New  Zealand January  14,  1840 

Nigeria 1900? 

North-West  Territories     .  July  15,  1870 

Nova  Scotia 17 13 

Ontario October  15.  1791 

Prince  Edward  Island  .      17 13 

Queensland 1828 

St.  Christopher 1623? 

St.  Helena 1651 

St.  Lucia Theoretically    French    law 

should  apply,  but  in 
practice  English  law  has 
been  introduced  by  the 
judges  in  most  cases. 
See  class  B. 

St.  Vincent 1763 

Sierra  Leone 1787 

South  Australia December  28,  1S36 

Straits  Settlements      .  1826 

Tasmania 1828 

Tobago All  "suitable"  statutes  for 

the  time  being  in  force  in 
England  are  applicable 

Trinidad English     law     governs    all 

recent  transactions,  and 
Spanish  law  applies  only 
to  some  previous  to  1847. 
See  class  I>. 


THE    LAWS    OF    THE    EMPIRE  241 

Victoria 1828 

Virgin  Islands 1672? 

AVestern  Australia  .     .     .     .      1829 
Western  Pacific  (within   the 
jurisdiction    of    the    High 

Commissioner)     ....     All  statutes  for  the  time 

being  in  force  in   Eng- 
land are  applicable 

B. — Colonies,  c&c,  lohere  the  Roman  Civil  Law  prevails  as 
the  basis  of  the  jurisprudetice  applicable  to  A^atives  of 
the  United  Kingdom. 

British  liechuanaland  .  .     Roman  Dutch  Law 

British  Guiana Roman  Dutch  Law 

Cape  of  Good  Hope      .      .     .     Roman  Dutch  Law 

Ceylon Roman  Dutch  Law 

Malta Sicilian  Law 

Mauritius French  Codes  of  18 14 

Natal Roman  Dutch  Law 

Orange  River  Colony    .     .     .     Roman  Dutch  Law 

Quebec French    Law  :     Coulumes 

de  Paris 

Rhodesia Roman  Dutch  Law 

St.  Lucia French    Law :     Coutumes 

de    Paris.      See  also  in 
class  A, 
Seychelles  Islands   ....     French  Codes  of  18 14 

Transvaal Roman  Dutch  Law 

Trinidad Spanish    Law     as    regards 

certain  transactions  be- 
fore 1847.  See  also  in 
class  A. 


\_See  Note,  p.  237.] 


THE  RAILWAYS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

INTRODUCTION 
By    R.   W.    MURRAY 

It  is  gratifying  to  those  avIio  have  for  many  years 
studied  the  Imperial  question  from  distant  lands  to 
find,  that  what  is  called  the  Imperial  idea  has  at  last 
caught  the  grip  of  the  people  of  England.  It  is  well 
within  a  quarter  of  a  century  that  the  most  eloquent 
Englishman  of  liis  day  nearly  persuaded  the  people  of 
the  British  Isles  to  shake  off  all  Imperial  responsi- 
bilities, so  as  to  make  Great  Britain  happy  and  con- 
tented by  isolation  from  the  responsibilities  of  Empire, 
and  to  let  the  people  of  her  isles  grow  fat  and  con- 
tented on  free  trade.  It  was  indeed  bringino-  Eng^land 
down  somewhat  to  the  level  of  what  Holland  is  at  the 
present  day.  The  common-sense  of  Great  Britain, 
however,  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  welfare  and 
the  strength  of  these  islands,  asserted  itself.  It  is  to 
the  honour  of  Lord  Roscbery  that,  before  passing  an 
opinion  upon  colonial  questions,  he  visited  the  Colonies, 
and  on  his  return  he  said  he  thought  that  no  person 
was  qualified  to  be  a  Minister  of  the  Crown  unless  he 
had  visited  the  Colonies. 

We  have  now  happily  come  to  this  stage  that 
whatever  may  bo  the  opinion  respecting  domestic 
legislation,  the  Imperial  connection  with  England's 
Colonies  and  her  Dependencies  have  become  a  national 
creed.  It  is  well  that  it  should  be  so,  and  I  think  I 
shall  be  able  to  show  you  in  some  degree  the  heritage 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITAIN    243 

you  hold  through  tho  self-denying  eflbrts  of  your 
missionaries  and  the  bravery  of  your  race. 

Of  course  I  am  not  going  to  take  you  through  all 
the  elaborate  statistics  which  prove  how  vast  is  the 
railway  systems  of  Greater  Britain.  For  the  purpose 
of  my  argument  I  will  condense  the  result  of  a  study 
of  the  Blue  Books.  The  National  Debt  of  Great 
Britain  is  something  just  under  ^650,000,000,  The 
money  invested  in  the  railways  of  Greater  Britain,  in- 
cluding India,  is  just  under  ^^5 90,000,000.  The  mile- 
age of  the  railways  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  a  little 
over  20,000  miles,  and  the  mileage  of  Greater  Britain, 
including  India,  is  just  over  54,000  miles.  Now  what 
docs  all  this  mean  ? 

In  the  first  place,  you  may  take  it  that  the  expen- 
diture on  railways  brought  to  English  industries  a 
preponderating  amount  of  profit  in  their  construction. 
When  British  workmen  will  permit  it,  Great  Britain 
will  always  supply  her  Colonies  with  the  material  for 
railway  construction,  such  as  sleepers,  rails,  and  car- 
riages. When  the  workmen  of  Great  Britain  are  so 
blind  as  to  give  other  markets  the  o])portunities  of 
stepping  in.  Great  Britain  will  lose  nmch  of  her  trade, 
consequently  of  her  prosperity.  Again,  in  the  Colonies 
and  Dependencies  it  is  a  happy  state  of  things  that 
nearly  all  the  railways  are  State  railways.  This  means 
that  the  people  are  the  oAvners  of  the  railways,  and  are 
able  to  bring  pressure  upon  the  Government  when  it 
is  needed  in  case  of  neglect  of  the  comfort  of  the 
passengers,  or  anything  happens  which  affects  the 
traffic.  It  would  be  a  good  thing  for  England  if  her 
railways  were  all  State  raihvays  ;  but  I  suppose  there 
is  no  statesman  who  will  ever  grapple  with  the  great 
monopolies  held  by  the  railway  companies  of  Great 
Britain,  which,  after  all,  do  their  work  exceedingly  well, 
and  give  such  conveniences  to  the  British  public  in 
every  way. 


244  GENERAL 

It  is  not,  however,  upon  the  railway  workings  of 
England  that  I  am  asked  to  speak.  I  only  wish  to 
draw  comparisons,  and  the  comparisons  are  not  to  the 
disadvantage  of  the  Colonial  systems. 

We  have  no  strikes  in  the  Colonies,  There  was 
one  attempted  some  years  back  in  one  of  the  great 
Continents,  which  proudly  recognises  Great  Britain  as 
the  Mother  Country.  The  Government  at  that  place 
utilised  the  machinery  for  keeping  order,  and  made 
the  men  obey  the  law,  for  the  law  was  made  by  the 
men ;  that  is  to  say,  they  elected  their  representatives 
to  Parliament  and  had  a  free  hand  in  the  methods  of 
government  which  they  liked  best,  and  the  Govern- 
ment said  :  'As  you  have  made  the  laws  you  must 
obey  them,  and  we  are  not  going  to  allow  you  to  be  so 
wanton  and  so  wilful  as  to  injure  yourselves  individu- 
ally, as  well  as  the  country  in  which  you  live." 

In  respect  of  the  railways  of  Greater  Britain  I 
have  indicated  to  you  how  great  is  the  paymefit  to 
English  industry  by  the  construction  of  railways  in 
Greater  Britain.  Then  you  have  to  remember  that 
this  large  loan  is  raised  in  Great  Britain,  which  has 
been  styled,  and  with  good  reason,  the  banking-house 
of  the  world.  In  addition,  therefore,  to  the  earnings 
obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  railway  plant,  there 
are  a  number  of  investors  who  get  their  profit  on 
Colonial  and  other  loans  under  the  British  flag.  You 
will  see,  therefore,  that  the  interest  on  ;^5 90,000,000 
gives  to  England  every  year,  from  an  investor's  point 
of  view,  taking  it  all  round,  say  at  4  per  cent.,  some- 
where about  ;^2 3,600,000. 

I  think  these  figures  will  speak  so  strongly  them- 
selves that  it  would  be  idle,  as  it  would  be  presnuip- 
tuous,  of  111c  to  add  anything  to  them. 

Going  back  to  the  original  text  on  which  I  propose 
to  address  you,  I  should  Uke  to  confine  myself  for  the 
moment  to   Africa.      Africa,  like  India  and  the  East, 


thp:  railways  of  greater  Britain  245 

is  a  large  problem.  It  can  only  be  solved  upon  com- 
mercial lines  well  adjusted  and  fair  all  round  ;  that  is 
to  say,  if  the  Government  of  the  British  Isles  under- 
takes responsibilities,  it  improves  the  conditions  of  the 
peoples  it  has  under  its  protection  and  for  whose 
welfare  it  is  responsible.  The  history  of  Great  Britain 
shows  that  its  government  has  never  left  a  country, 
the  future  of  which  it  associated  itself  with,  poorer 
than  it  fovmd  it.  We  have  that  fact  in  a  very  re- 
markable degree  in  the  occupation  of  Egypt,  and 
perhaps  in  a  more  remarkable  degree  in  respect  of 
India.  As  far  as  the  Colonies  are  concerned  they 
have  built  up  their  own  destinies,  greatly  stimulated 
by  the  sympathy  and  support  of  the  mother  land.  It 
is  very  often  asserted  by  those  who  attempt  to  rival 
Great  Britain  in  her  commercial  relations  with  the 
world,  that  she  has  been  too  grasping  in  her  greed 
for  extension  of  her  empire.  It  might  be  argued,  from 
the  British  point  of  view,  that  she  has  been  often  very 
neglectful.  But  whenever  she  has  made  mistakes,  she 
has  paid  for  those  mistakes  with  great  good  temper 
and  much  kindness. 

Rome  flourished  by  being  a  military  power,  and  it 
ceased  to  exist  because  the  lust  of  power  and  the 
glory  of  conquest  could  not  last  for  ever.  The  stability 
of  the  British  Empire  is  based  upon  its  humanitarian 
consideration  and  its  commercial  instincts.  You  will 
see  how  these  commercial  instincts  act  through  the 
capital  which  is  employed  in  the  construction  of  rail- 
ways in  what  were  once  thought  sterile  as  well  as 
barbaric  lands.  What  were  once,  and  not  many  years 
ago,  described  as  great  deserts  in  Africa  we  now  find 
fertile  plains.  Where  there  was  no  water  Ave  have 
found  that  water  is  obtainable  in  the  deserts  of  Egypt 
at  no  great  depth,  as  is  found  everywhere  south  of  the 
Zambesi.  With  sunshine  and  water  almost  anything 
can  be  grown.     Just  think  what  will  happen  in  Egypt 


246  GENERAL 

when  modern  work  will  not  only  bring  about  an  oasis 
in  the  desert,  but  will,  by  a  system  of  irrigation,  make 
great  stretches  of  land  basking  in  fertility  to  the 
happiness  of  its  people.  Africa,  which  has  always 
been  considered  a  land  of  mystery,  has  in  a  few  years 
sprung  to  considerable  importance  in  the  imagination 
and  the  desire  of  the  great  governing  powers  of  the 
earth. 

When  Stanley  went  into  Africa  to  find  whether 
Livingstone  was  alive  or  dead  it  was  indeed  a  Dark 
Continent,  which  any  European  Power  which  had  the 
will  or  the  money  might  have  helped  itself  to  with- 
out trouble  south  of  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  To-day 
we  find  great  Powers  trying  to  get  some  footing  in 
Africa  as  in  Asia. 

I  think  in  the  figures  which  I  gave  you  at  the 
beginning  of  my  remarks  you  will  see  what  this 
scramble  for  territorial  expansion  means.  It  means  in 
a  homely  expression  nothing  more  nor  less  than  bread 
and  butter,  and  something  more  for  those  who  live  at 
home.  There  is  nothing  about  that  to  be  ashamed  of 
from  the  point  of  a  national  sentiment.  If  the  people 
at  home  like  to  live  at  home  and  like  to  husband  the 
resources  earned  to  the  British  Isles  by  its  adventurers 
or  whatever  else  you  may  call  them,  they  are  fairly 
entitled  to  all  profit  which  may  be  earned  through 
their  thrift. 

In  respect  of  South  Africa  I  know  it  is  popular  to 
abuse  the  German  Government  of  to-day  for  its  activity 
and  its  desire  to  have  Colonies,  but  it  occurs  to  me 
that  Germany  has  done  great  good  to  England  in 
awakeninij  the  British  Government  and  the  British 
people  to  the  fact  that  South  African  territory  is  not  so 
valueless  as  British  statesmen  in  the  past  conceived  it 
to  be.  Let  us  hope  it  will  be  good  for  Africa  as  a 
whole.  The  genius  of  finance  and  the  national  com- 
mercial aptitude   which   formed  the  British  character 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITAIN    247 

will  do  for  Africa  generally  what  has  already  been 
achieved  for  Egypt. 

It  is  perfectly  certain  that  the  French  shareholders 
in  the  Suez  Canal  at  the  bottom  of  their  hearts  are 
delighted  at  the  British  occupation  of  Egypt.  It  is 
also  a  fact  that  thousands  of  Germans  have  gladly 
lived,  and  are  gladly  living,  under  British  rule  in  South 
Africa  and  under  the  British  flag  in  various  parts  of 
the  world.  It  is  not  German  character  which  colonists 
object  to,  but  the  methods  of  government  of  German 
iron  rule. 

Now  if  you  will  glance  at  a  map  of  Africa  let  ns 
see  where,  how.  and  by  whom  the  conquest  of  that 
land  is  to  be  achieved  by  the  aid  of  railways.  You 
will  see  that  in  South  Africa  the  railway  is  creeping  up, 
or  rather  it  is  going  very  fast  ahead,  to  the  great  water- 
way of  the  Zambesi.  You  will  sec  that  from  the  north 
the  railway  is  being  pushed  ahead  with  marvellous 
strides  towards  the  lake  regions  of  Central  Africa.  On 
the  east  of  Africa  you  will  see  striking  into  the  tropical 
region  opposite  Zanzibar  a  railway  to  the  healthy  and 
productive  highlands.  On  the  west  coast  you  have  a 
railway  following  a  bank  of  the  Congo,  some  200  miles 
being  already  constructed,  on  its  way  to  the  lake  regions 
of  Central  Africa,  where  natives  have  lived  throusfh 
goodness  knows  how  long  a  period  of  time,  fed,  so  to 
say,  by  the  bounteous  gifts  of  Nature  that  their  only 
conception  of  life  was  indolent  luxury  or  cruel  and 
merciless  warfare.  The  adaptability  of  the  native  to 
work  is  very  remarkable.  I  am  speaking  precisely  of 
the  African  native.  We  find  him  most  amenable  to 
discipline.  We  have  illustrations  of  that  in  what  has 
happened  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa  a  few  months 
back.  We  have  it  in  the  peaceful  settlements  of  the 
Cape  Colony.  We  find  the  fidelity  of  the  native  proved 
to  us  by  the  way  in  which  native  carriers  accompanied 
Stanley  from  East  to  West  of  Central  Africa. 


248  GENERAL 

We  have  the  knowledge  of  the  wealth  of  Africa, 
of  its  immense  labour  capabilities,  and  of  the  produc- 
tiveness of  the  ground  on  which  labour  can  be  utilised. 
There  is  no  more  wild  dream  about  a  railway  and  lake 
communication  being  complete  in  a  very  short  period 
from  Alexandria  to  Cape  Town,  than  there  was  in  the 
dream  of  the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal  or  the 
railway  through  Canada  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  And  now  that  Australian  Federation 
is  accomplished,  it  is  hoped  intercommunication  will 
grow  apace,  but  it  is  a  pity  a  common  gauge  was  not 
agreed  upon,  before  the  first  line  was  laid. 

In  South  Africa,  as  in  Canada  and  elsewhere  under 
the  British  flag,  some  very  remarkable  railway  feats 
have  been  achieved.  From  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
to  Bulawayo  the  land  rises  in  terraces  or  plateaus,  and 
when  mountain  ridges  have  been  climbed  long  stretches 
of  flat  lands  exist,  so  that  after  the  mountain  and 
valleys  have  been  passed  railway  construction  is  very 
easy. 

I  will  now  shoAv  you  how  railways  are  being  con- 
structed on  the  level  plains  of  Africa.  There  is  not 
much  trouble  if  there  is  good  system  in  laying  down 
over  a  mile  a  day.  This  has  been  done  on  Avhat  is 
called  the  northern  extension  of  the  Cape  Railway. 
It  is  highly  creditable  to  the  military  authorities  in 
Egypt  that,  perhaps  seeing  Avhat  had  been  accomplished 
down  South,  they  had  surpassed  in  speed  the  construc- 
tion of  their  railway  as  compared  with  the  rapid  work 
of  the  Bechuanaland  Railway  Company.  The  process 
of  laying  the  rails  on  these  level  lands  is  very  easy. 
The  material  train  supplies  to  the  men  the  rails  and 
the  sleepers,  one  set  of  men  measures  the  distances  at 
which  the  sleepers  should  be  placed,  when  they  are 
placed  another  set  of  men  lay  the  rails  on  the  sleepers, 
another  set  of  men  follow  on  and  fasten  up  the  rails 
to    the    sleepers,   the    material    train    conies   over    the 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITAIN    249 

newly  laid  section,  and  in  this  way  rtiilways  are  now 
being  made  in  Africa. 

It  has  been  asserted,  and  reference  to  returns  will 
prove  the  truth  of  the  assertion,  that  railways  in  South 
Africa  have  been  undertaken  on  sound  commercial 
lines — this,  notwithstanding  the  fact  of  the  bravery 
with  which  the  mountain  barriers  were  assailed.  About 
100  miles  from  Cape  Town  the  great  wall-like  range 
of  mountains  which  seemed  to  be  placed  by  Nature  to 
protect  the  native  tribes  from  the  advance  of  civilisa- 
tion has  been  conquered  by  the  skill  of  engineers. 
The  railway  works  its  way  up  the  mountain  side,  soar- 
ing above  fertile  valleys  through  which  the  Hex  River 
supplied  by  mountain  torrents  rushes  to  the  sea,  until 
the  summit  of  the  mountain  range  has  been  reached, 
covering  a  distance  of  about  thirty-six  miles  from  the 
valley  to  the  summit  in  two  or  three  hours,  an  altitude 
of  over  3000  feet. 

In  the  way  of  mountain  scenery,  I  who  have 
travelled  somewhat  know  of  nothing  very  much  more 
grand  than  going  up  by  rail  these  Hex  River  mountains, 
especially  in  the  Avinter  season  of  the  year.  Then 
when  the  days  are  line — and  there  are  more  fine  days 
than  cloudy  days  in  South  Africa — the  sky  is  cloudless 
and  the  sun  shining  out  of  the  azure  of  the  heavens 
lights  up  the  bold  ridges  of  the  snow-clad  mountains. 
It  is  a  strange  country  which  the  railway  traverses  after 
this.  To  those  who  do  not  know,  the  land  misfht,  in 
the  words  of  Sir  George  Cathcart,  be  described  as  a 
howling  wilderness,  yet  in  the  summer-time,  when  the 
rains  have  fallen  and  the  plains  are  ablaze  with 
gorgeous  colouring  of  wild  flowers  which  carpet  the 
land  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  nothing  more  beautiful 
could  well  be  conceived.  Yet  this  land,  so  barren-lookinsf 
in  the  winter  season,  is  one  of  the  finest  sheep-walks 
in  the  world.  In  the  valleys  comfortable  homesteads 
nestle  with  fruit-trees  and  crops  in  their  seasons,  indi- 


2  50  GENERAL 

eating  what  sunshine,  soil,  and  water  can  do.  Then 
on  the  coast-lines  of  East  South  Africa  there  is  some 
exquisite  scenery.  After  leaving  Port  Elizabeth  by 
steamer  for  some  hundreds  of  miles,  when  the  day  is 
tine  and  the  ship  is  close  to  shore,  even  the  coasts  of 
Devon  would  not  seem  more  beautiful  than  the  land 
which  lies  between  Port  Elizabeth  and  Natal. 

Whilst  the  main  trunk  line  of  railway  proceeds 
direct  from  Cape  Town  to  the  north,  we  tind  important 
harbours  along  the  coast,  such  as  Port  Elizabeth,  East 
London,  and  Natal,  by  their  railways  already  in  exis- 
tence, aiming  not  only  at  reaching  the  far  interior 
trade,  but  naturally  developing  the  country  through 
which  they  pass.  In  addition  to  the  railways  which 
already  exist  there  are  several  projected  ones,  and  the 
one  which  will  proceed  from  St.  John's  River  mouth 
throu«?h  the  maofniticent  forests  and  the  ever  crrass- 
clad  plains  of  Pondoland  and  East  Griqualand  will 
charm  the  tourist  as  it  will  enrich  the  land.  This  line 
Avill  join  the  Natal  and  Cape  Colony  systems.  Other 
lines — as  the  south-coast  line,  which  will  bring  Cape 
Town  and  Port  Elizabeth  into  more  direct  communi- 
cation, Kroonstad  and  Harrismith  line  in  the  Orange 
River  Colony,  and  the  Salisbury  and  Bulawayo  line 
in  Rhodesia — are  being  constructed. 

I  mention  this  to  show  you  that  South  Africa  is  not 
devoid  of  beautiful  scenery  ;  indeed,  the  surroundings  of 
Cape  Town  are  grand.  Behind  the  ports  of  Port  Eliza- 
beth, East  London,  and  Durban,  there  is  country  not 
only  beautiful  to  look  at,  but  of  great  productiveness, 
and  the  traveller  may  go  all  the  world  over  in  vain  to 
find  anything  more  entrancing  than  the  scenery  of 
St.  John's  River. 

It  is  well  for  Englishmen  at  home  to  know  that  in 
the  British  Empire  there  are  countries  such  as  this, 
and  I  think  you  will"  agree  with  me,  that  if  England 
had  been  led  astray  so  as  to  give  up  the  responsibilities 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRTTATN    251 

of  Empire  and  to  have  lost  such  Lands,  she  would  have 
fallen  away  from  her  very  high  estate. 

There  is  one  remarkable  thing  about  the  difficulties 
which  those  who  honestly  strive  to  grapple  with  Ln- 
perial  questions  after  long  stndy  have  to  face.  It  is 
the  haste  of  visitors  and  others  in  jumping  at  con- 
clusions. Some  twenty  years  ago  we  were  told  that 
Australia  was  going  to  have  a  flag  of  its  own  and, 
therefore,  was  going  to  sever  its  connection  with  the 
British  Empire  ;  Canada,  we  were  told,  because  of  the 
large  leaven  of  French-born  colonists  there,  would  also 
desire  to  sever  her  connection  with  Great  Britain,  and 
as  Australia  and  Canada  have  both  shown  by  acts  and 
deeds  they  do  not  intend  to  do  anything  of  the  sort, 
that  their  loyalty  to  the  British  flag  is  as  intense  as  it 
is  with  home-staying  people,  the  charge  of  disloyalty  is 
now  being  hurled  at  South  Africa.  No  greater  mis- 
take can  be  made.  South  Africa  is  loyal  to  the  British 
connection,  but  what  it  does  want  is  to  be  left  alone  to 
its  own  domestic  legislation ;  and  if  there  are  trouble- 
some questions  in  the  country  to  solve,  they  have  been 
created  by  the  ignorance  or  indifference  of  British 
statesmen  in  the  past.  It  is  a  very  hard  task  for  the 
statesmen  of  the  present  day  to  clear  up  past  misunder- 
standings caused  by  others.  But  I  take  upon  myself 
to  say,  after  very  long  and  intimate  acquaintance  with 
Africa,  that  I  believe  South  Africa,  as  a  whole,  is  as 
loyal  to  her  Majesty  the  Queen  of  England  as  any 
of  the  Colonies  or  Dependencies  of  Great  Britain.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  in  South  Africa  during  the 
last  twenty  years  there  has  been  a  great  infusion  of 
energy  through  the  marvellous  discovery  of  mineral 
wealth,  and  it  is  well  known  that  in  all  countries  which 
bound  ahead  in  this  manner  there  are  feverish  moods, 
arrogant  pretensions,  and  wild  escapades.  All  this 
settles  down  in  time  to  the  survival  of  the  fittest. 

Railways  are  not  only    civilisers,  but  pacificators ; 


25  2  GENERAL 

they  mean  in  barbaric  countries  the  placing  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Government  means  of  defence  against 
lawlessness.  When  the  land  has  emerged  from  bar- 
barism into  a  civilised  condition  it  brings  what  were 
distant  communities  into  closer  communication.  Mis- 
understandings disappear  through  friendly  intercourse. 
I  have  always  held  that  railways  by  bringing  people 
together,  which  leads  so  often  to  matrimony,  is  the 
true  solution  of  what  is  called  the  South  African 
problem.  Probably  the  same  solution  is  being  and 
will  be  effected  in  other  parts  of  the  Empire. 

The  railways  of  Greater  Britain  are,  therefore,  the 
mainstay  of  the  Empire  taken  in  connection  with  the 
steamships  which  are,  by  their  ever-increasing  speed, 
bringing  England  in  closer  and  closer  communication 
with  not  only  her  colonies  but  with  other  parts  of  the 
world. 


INDIAN    RAILWAYS 
By  a.  K.  CONNELL 

Of  all  the  consequences  of  the  establishment  of  British 
rule  in  India  the  construction  of  railways  is  the  most 
far-reaching.  By  their  means  a  vast  continent  with  an 
area  of  over  1,500,000  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  nearly  290,000,000,  or  about  one-fifth  of  that  of 
the  inhabited  world,  has  within  the  short  period  of 
fifty  years  been  brought  within  the  range  of  the  com- 
mercial competition  of  the  Western  world.  Half  a 
century  ago,  except  in  those  parts  which  by  being  on 
the  coast  or  adjacent  to  navigable  rivers,  India  was 
economically  and  industrially  self-sufficing.  Its  popula- 
tion fed  and  clothed  itself  with  home-grown  and  home- 
made products,  and  whatever  trade  went  on  beyond  the 
local  exchange  of  village  commodities  was  chiefly 
internal,    and    carried    on    along   a   few    great    routes. 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITAIN    253 

Only  the  most  valuable  and  portable  products,  such  as 
the  finest  woven  articles,  Avere  brought  down  from  the 
interior,  and  it  was  Bengal  proper  with  its  great  river 
systems  that  alone  was  able  to  exchange  its  rice, 
opium,  indigo,  silks  and  muslins.  Not  only  was  the 
country  as  a  whole  self-sufficient,  but  each  district  of  a 
few  square  miles,  if  not  each  village,  provided  all  that 
was  necessary  for  the  support  of  its  population.  Petite 
culture  and  land  industries  had  from  time  iumiemorial 
been  the  chief  means  of  employment,  and  in  many 
parts  the  revenues  were  still  levied  in  kind.  The  sur- 
plus grain  of  a  plenteous  harvest  was  stored  in  pits  or 
in  jars  against  the  time  of  dearth,  while  the  weaver, 
the  worker  in  metal  or  clay,  and  the  carpenter  depended 
for  their  livelihood  on  the  agriculturists  whom  they 
supplied  with  the  goods.  At  the  centres  of  Government 
or  sacred  places  of  religion  there  were  larger  industries, 
but  their  existence  had  very  little  influence  on  the 
workaday  lives  of  the  great  body  of  the  peasantry. 
An  enormous  number  of  more  or  less  self-contained 
village  communities,  surrounded  by  their  cultivated 
acres  and  uncultivated  jungle-land,  sending  off 
emigrants  to  form  similar  centres  of  agriculture  and 
industry,  village  population  pressed  on  subsistence 
was  the  ever-prevailing  feature  of  the  country.  War, 
famine,  and  pestilence  from  time  to  time  disturbed  for 
a  while  the  uniform  round  of  existence,  but  these 
calamities  made  no  permanent  change  in  the  customary 
conditions  of  existence.  The  development  of  railway 
communications  has  in  many  ways  revolutionised  the 
economic  condition  of  the  country,  and  has  seriously 
affected  social  relations.  India,  as  a  whole,  is  no 
longer  self-sufficing  for  the  ordinary  necessities  of 
existence.  Each  village  in  good  3^ears  raises  sufficient 
food  supplies,  with  the  exception  of  salt ;  but  when 
cotton  goods  are  in  demand  they  are  supplied  from 
external  sources,  whether  those  sources  of  supply  are 


2  54  GENERAL 

in  manufacturing  centres  in  India,  such  as  Bombay  and 
Calcutta,  or  outside  India,  such  as  Manchester.  Salt, 
which  used  to  be  obtained  from  Indian  sources,  either 
in  the  shape  of  salt  mines  or  salt  pans  on  the  sea- 
shore, or  saline  soil  to  be  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
continent,  is  now  entirely  supplied,  owing  to  salt  excise 
regulations,  fi'om  Indian  or  foreign  (chiefly  English) 
salt  mines.  And  in  exchange  for  these  goods  the 
surplus  agricultural  produce,  such  as  wheat,  rice,  seeds, 
cotton,  and  opium,  is  no  longer  consumed  in  the 
agricultural  districts  or  adjacent  market  towns,  but  is 
sent  away  to  quiet  trade  centres,  whence  it  is  trans- 
ported either  for  export  to  foreign  countries  or  for 
consumption  in  Indian  centres  of  manufacture.  But 
while  the  internal  and  external  trade  in  those  and  other 
immemorial  products  of  India  has  been  enormously 
developed,  one  new  up-country  product — tea — has  been 
created  by  Western  enterprise  ;  and  without  the  help  of 
railway  transport  this  enterprise  would  not  probably 
have  reached  its  present  proportions. 

This  great  development  of  commerce  has  neces- 
sitated and  facilitated  the  introduction  of  a  larger 
cash  medium  of  exchange.  Throughout  the  length 
and  breadth  of  India  the  Government  now  levies  its 
revenues  in  the  shape  not  of  kind,  but  cash ;  land- 
owners do  the  same ;  and  rupees  at  some  time  or 
other  of  the  year  are  a  necessity  for  the  Indian  culti- 
vator. India  from  time  immemorial  has  been  a  great 
absorber  of  silver,  but  during  the  last  fifty  years  this 
absorption  has  been  necessarily  accelerated  by  the 
extension  of  the  cash  nexus  in  business.  Another 
symptom  of  the  same  change  is  to  be  seen  in  the  larger 
quantity  of  jewellery  worn  by  the  better  to  do.  This 
has  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  easiest  savings-bank. 
Owing  to  these  two  economic  facts,  the  direct  result  of 
British  rule,  the  currency  question  has  become  one  of 
vital  importance  for  the  whole  population. 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITAIN    255 

According  to  the  latest  official  returns,  the  mileage 
of  Indian  railways  now  reaches  21,156  miles.  Of  these 
12,240  miles  are  standard  gauge,  8631  metre,  and 
318  special.  Of  these  10,622  miles  are  State  lines 
worked  by  companies,  5  1 6 1  State  lines  worked  by  the 
State,  2588  worked  by  guaranteed  companies,  894  by 
assisted  companies,  2018  by  native  States,  and  73 
by  foreign  States,  French  and  Portuguese.  The  number 
of  persons  employed  by  the  railways  were  about 
283,000,  of  whom  about  4600  were  Europeans,  6700 
Eurasians,  and  272,000  natives.  The  fuel  for  the 
engines  is  coal,  coke,  patent  fuel,  and  wood,  the  re- 
spective quantities  being  1,280,638,  4344,  1664,  and 
321,052  tons  of  the  coal.  The  Indian  collieries  turn 
out  about  3,800,000  tons  in  the  year,  the  chief  ones 
being  in  Bengal ;  Assam,  the  Central  Provinces, 
Hyderabad,  Burmah,  and  the  Punjab  only  yielding 
about  800,000  tons  out  of  the  total  output.  There 
are  about  60,000  colliers. 

In  order  to  keep  the  railways  working,  stores  to 
the  amount  of  about  iJ^  1,1 00, 000  are  purchased  each 
year  in  England,  and  most  of  the  capital  for  plant  has 
been  expended  in  this  country,  which  has,  therefore, 
reaped  an  enormous  advantage  from  Indian  railways. 

The  capital  outlay  on  the  lines  has  reached  about 
259,500,000  Rs.,  and  to  this  has  to  be  added  about 
65,000,000  Rs.  paid  by  the  Indian  Exchequer  to  meet 
interest  charges  not  caused  by  the  railways.  No 
interest  has  been  charged  on  this  sum,  but  it  has  been 
paid  annually  by  the  Indian  taxpayers.  The  financial 
result  to  the  Indian  taxpayer  is  to  be  seen  in  an  annual 
loss  of  about  2,000,000  Rs.  to  1,300,000  Rs.  Some  of 
the  lines  like  the  East  Indian,  which  serves  Bengal 
and  the  North- Western  Provinces,  and  the  Rajputana 
railway,  which  serve  the  North-Wcstern  Provinces  and 
Rajputana,  have  paid  well ;  but  others  like  the  Madras, 
the  Midland,  and   the   North-Western   systems  do  not 


2  56  GENERAL 

pay  their  way.  They  have  been  built  for  mihtary  and 
protection  {i.e.  famine)  reasons,  but  they  constitute  a 
heavy  burden  on  the  Indian  Exchequer. 


GENERAL  AND  SOUTH  AFRICAN 

By  the  Hon.  Sir  DAVID  TENNANT,  K.C.M.G. 

[Afjent-General  for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  formerhj  Speaker  of  the  Cape 
House  of  Assembly) 

The  Romans  knew  the  vakie  as  well  as  the  need  of 
good  and  substantial  roads.  They  were  skilled  in  the 
science  of  road-making  for  the  purposes  of  conquest 
and  for  the  maintenance  of  communication  between 
distant  portions  of  the  empire. 

Proofs  of  their  labours  in  this  respect  (as  also  in  the 
building  of  the  Roman  walls)  are  still  visible  in  some  of 
the  countries  once  held  in  subjection  to  the  dominion 
of  the  Ctesars.  These  slender  traces  of  ancient  roads, 
which  have  survived  centuries  of  time  and  change  in 
Europe,  Northern  Africa,  and  Great  Britain,  are  at  the 
present  day  prized  for  their  historic  interest,  and  are 
cherished  as  mementoes  of  the  vastness  of  Rome's 
sovereignty. 

The  system  of  road-making,  early  inaugurated  by 
Rome,  was,  on  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  pursued  with  vigour  and  vast  improvement 
by  the  countries  chiefly  interested  in  the  construction 
of  roads.  Their  needs  demanded,  and  their  ofrowingf 
prosperity  exacted,  better  and  more  speedy  means  of 
transport  and  inter-comnumication. 

The  wonderful  discovery  of  steam  as  a  motive-power 
in  the  traction  of  carriages  for  purposes  of  inland  traffic 
revolutionised  tlie  old-establisliod  method  of  transport, 
and  the  substitution  of  iron  rails  with  its  locomotive  for 
the  gravelled  roads  achieved  an  extraordinary  degree  of 
success.   , 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITAIN    257 

We  now  recognise  the  fact  that  railways  are  the 
great  civilising  agency  of  the  age,  and  also  the  main 
arteries  which  feed  and  further  the  development  and 
progress  of  a  country. 

The  construction  of  railways  in  Great  Britain  is 
undertaken  by  private  enterprise,  through  the  medium 
of  Railway  Companies,  who  obtain  the  sanction  of  Par- 
liament therefor,  by  means  of  private  bills  mtroduced 
for  that  purpose.  In  nearly  all  the  colonies,  more  espe- 
cially in  the  important  self-governing  colonies  of  Greater 
Britain,  each  colonial  government  has  committed  to  it 
the  construction  of  railways,  and  in  addition  thereto  the 
responsibility  for  their  maintenance  and  working. 

A  Department  of  Public  Works,  or  one  of  railways 
exclusively,  is  represented  by  a  responsible  Colonial 
Minister,  who  controls  a  system  which  is  at  all  times 
subject  to  Parliamentary  supervision.  Thus  any  new 
line  of  colonial  railway  intended  to  be  constructed  must 
receive  Parliamentary  sanction,  and  the  proposal  there- 
for can  only  be  submitted  through  a  responsible  mini- 
ster. This  process,  however,  does  not  exclude  the  right 
of  individuals  or  companies  to  apply  for  Parliamentary 
powers  in  the  building  of  railways,  but  in  such  cases 
conditions  are  imposed  which  give  the  Government  the 
option  of  purchasing  the  lines  on  the  terms  prescribed 
in  the  Act.  We  need  not  debate  the  question  as  to 
which  is  the  most  desirable  mode  of  securing  Parlia- 
mentary sanction  for  railway  construction,  or  the  reason 
for  a  depai'ture  by  the  colonies  from  the  procedure  in 
vogue  in  the  mother  country ;  sufHce  it  to  say  that  the 
colonies  regard  their  system  of  ministerial  and  Parlia- 
mentary control  as  best  suited  to  colonial  requirements. 

The  colonies  could  not  have  undertaken  the  con- 
struction of  their  railways,  nor  can  they  now  extend 
the  same,  without  the  pecuniary  aid  of  the  capitalists 
of  England.  The  loans  so  raised  for  these  colonial 
public  works  exhibit  an  indebtedness  which  binds  the 
V  R 


258  GENERAL 

colonies  in  a  closer  union  to  the  mother  country.  In 
the  same  Avay  the  purchases  made  for  railway  material, 
as  well  as  the  employment  of  skilled  labour  from  Eng- 
land on  these  railways,  form  an  additional  link  in  this 
union. 

It  is,  however,  a  subject  of  regret  that  of  late,  owing 
to  the  frequency  of  strikes  in  England,  and  the  con- 
sequent difficulty  of  satisfying  colonial  demands  for 
supplies  of  railway  material,  some  of  the  colonies  had 
been  compelled  to  seek  for  such  supplies  from  foreign 
countries. 

The  progress  of  railways,  in  India  and  the  colonies, 
has,  since  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  been  very 
marked.  In  India  the  presidencies,  as  well  as  the  im- 
portant portions  of  that  empire,  have  been  brought 
into  closer  communication.  Canada  has,  in  addition 
to  the  many  lines  in  that  extensive  territory,  connected 
the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  Oceans  by  a  grand  trunk  line 
running  across  the  Dominion.  Australasia  (including 
Tasmania  and  New  Zealand)  has  brought  the  difterent 
colonies  in  that  region  into  touch  with  each  other. 

And  South  Africa  has,  in  like  manner,  secured  to  its 
states  and  colonies  a  commercial  and  social  intercourse, 
which,  but  for  railways,  would  have  been  impossible  of 
attainment. 

We  will  now  dwell  more  particularly  on  the  South 
African  railways. 

Prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  iron  road  as  a  means 
of  communication  and  transport  the  Cape  Colony  had 
its  traffic,  whether  of  produce,  imported  goods,  or  pas- 
sengers, carried  over  and  along  gravelled  as  well  as  sandy 
roads  at  considerable  cost  and  delay. 

The  necessity  for  easier  and  more  rapid  communica- 
tion was  fully  recognised  by  the  Cape,  when  in  1859 
the  first  sod  was  turned  for  a  railway  of  some  fifty- 
eight  miles  in  length.  This  first  railway  venture  having 
proved  a  success,  an  extension  of  the  line  was  in  1875 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITAIN    259 

determined  on  in  a  northerly  direction,  so  as  eventually 
to  reach  the  higher  altitudes  of  the  colony  up  to  and 
bey(^nd  its  late  boundary  at  the  Orange  River. 

The  discovery  of  the  Kimberley  diamond  fields  re- 
sulted in  a  line  to  that  region,  and  later  on  the  Transvaal 
gold  fields  produced  a  Cape  line  through  the  Orange 
Free  State  to  the  Vaal  River  on  the  borders  of  the 
South  African  Republic ;  from  thence  the  latter  state 
built  and  regulated  its  own  line  to  the  rich  gold  tracts 
of  Johannesburg  and  also  to  Pretoria,  with  an  outlet  at 
Delagoa  Bay.  A  detailed  description  of  the  routes  to 
these  termini,  with  the  names  of  places  unknoAvn  to  the 
multitude,  would  be  uninteresting,  and  the  statistics  of 
cost  and  other  particulars  in  relation  thereto  would 
prove  wearisome  to  most  readers.  It  need  only  be 
added  that  the  value  of  these  lines  is  apparent  in  the 
shape  of  large  returns,  facility  of  transport,  and  social 
advantages  of  passenger  trafKc.  The  Orange  Free  State 
was  so  assured  of  the  benefits  of  railway  communica- 
tion that  it  not  only  took  over  by  purchase  from  the 
Cape  Government  the  line  which  the  latter  had  built 
through  that  state,  but  it  has  also  added  to  these 
benefits  by  the  building  of  short  additional  lines  radiat- 
ing from  its  main  or  trunk  line.  The  Cape  Colony, 
however,  did  not  rest  contented  with  its  northern  line. 
It  connected  Port  Elizabeth  Avith  Grahamstown,  brought 
King  William's  Town  and  East  London  into  touch  Avith 
the  border  districts  between  the  Orange  Free  State  line 
and  the  coal  fields  in  the  eastern  province ;  and  opened 
up  the  country  to  the  bewitching  influence  of  a  closer 
union,  commercially  and  socially;  and  an  area,  which 
before  was  considered  difficult  of  access,  or  of  being 
travelled  through  within  anything  like  a  reasonable 
time,  and  Avhich  had  its  distances  calculated  by  days 
and  weeks,  had  these  latter  now  subjected  by  the  rail- 
way to  the  magical  limitations  of  hours. 

The    modest   length   of   58    miles   of  railway  com- 


2  6o  GENERAL 

menced  in  1859,  had  in  1893  increased  to  2253  miles, 
and  continued  progress  is  still  being  made  in  the  exten- 
sion of  new  lines,  either  in  connection  with  existing 
ones,  or  as  separate  ones  stretching  towards  new  portions 
of  the  colony,  for  the  purpose  of  opening  up  its  trade 
and  for  the  development  of  its  great  and  hidden  re- 
sources ;  in  fact,  a  network  of  railwa}^  lines  intersects 
the  colony  at  present. 

The  impetus  to  trade  and  commerce  is  visible  on 
all  sides.  The  old  sluggish  team  of  twenty  or  more 
oxen  toiling  with  a  heavily-laden  waggon  up  some  steep 
ascent  or  ploughing  the  moving  sand  has  made  way 
for  the  brisk  and  safer  railway  train,  whilst  the  loco- 
motive's whistle,  heard  along  the  plain  or  echoed  in  the 
mountain  gorges,  proclaims  an  era  of  progress  and  the 
advent  of  greater  activity  in  all  the  relations  of  social 
and  commercial  life.  The  dawn  of  greater  physical  and 
mental  activity  noticeable  in  those  remoter  portions  of 
the  colony,  Avliich  heretofore  had  been  almost  forcibly 
excluded  from  closer  intercourse  with  the  more  active 
centres  of  trade,  must  be  ascribed  to  the  potency  of 
railway  communication ;  whilst  the  improvement  in  the 
condition  of  the  people,  materially  as  well  as  socially,  is 
to  be  attributed  to  the  same  cause. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  Natal.  That  territory,  once  a 
portion  of  the  Cape,  became  in  1856  a  separate  British 
colony,  and  within  three  years  thereafter,  that  is  to  say, 
almost  as  soon  as  in  the  older  colony,  were  railways 
there  introduced,  the  pioneer  line  being  that  which 
connects  the  port  of  Durban  witli  Pietermaritzburg. 
The  subsequent  extension  of  a  line  to  the  borders  of 
Natal,  Ti-ansvaal,  and  the  Orange  Free  State,  and 
anotlier  running  parallel  with  the  coast,  as  well  as  one 
to  the  coal  fields,  are  evidences  of  the  progress  of  this 
colony.  That  these  lines  are  paying  is  evidenced  by 
the  fact  that  extensions  thereof  continue  to  be  under- 
taken. 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITAIN    261 

The  Oranij^e  Free  State,  next  in  order  of  progress  in 
regard  to  railway  extension,  permitted,  as  before  stated, 
under  a  convention  entered  into  with  the  Cape  Colony, 
a  line  from  the  Cape  border  to  Bloemfontein  and  thence 
to  the  Vaal  River,  on  the  Transvaal  border;  and  the 
success  of  this  undertaking  has  proved  so  remunerative, 
that  the  purchase  of  the  line  from  the  Cape  Colony  and 
the  subsequent  extension  by  this  state  of  its  internal  rail- 
way policy  has  secured  for  it  advantages  which  it  would 
never  have  possessed  without  this  railway  system. 

The  Transvaal  has  not  only  joined  the  Orange  Free 
State  border  line  on  the  Vaal  River,  as  well  as  the  Natal 
line  on  the  border  of  that  colony,  to  the  principal  towns 
of  the  republic,  but  has  also  secured  an  outlet  in  the 
Indian  Ocean  by  a  terminus  at  Delagoa  Bay,  whilst  a 
further  expansion  of  its  railway  system  has  been  con- 
tinued to  the  great  advantage  of  trade.  The  Rhodesian 
line  is  the  last  and  not  the  least  important  one  to  be 
included  in  this  rehearsal  of  South  African  lines.  From 
the  border  of  the  Cape  Colony  to  Buluwayo  the  line  is 
completed  and  worked  by  and  under  a  special  agreement 
with  the  Cape  Colony.  Another  line  from  Beira  on  the 
east  coast  to  Salisbury  is  nearing  completion,  and  this 
will  eventually  be  extended  to  Buluwayo ;  whilst  from 
the  last-named  place  we  look  for  a  farther  extension 
to  the  Zambesi,  where  the  coal  fields  will,  it  is  said,  be 
powerful  adjuncts  in  the  support  of  a  system  so  pregnant 
with  great  results. 

May  we  not  contidentl}-  hope  that  Mr.  Rhodes'  aspira- 
tion for  a  route  through  Central  Africa  will  eventually 
find  its  accomplishment  in  the  all-desired  Cape  to  Cairo 
line.  The  Pharaohs  of  Egypt  left  the  Pyramids  as 
monuments  of  enduring  fame,  but  these  will  become 
secondary  objects  of  interest  when  once  science  has 
accomplished  its  august  task  of  piercing  regions  un- 
known to  ancient  Egypt,  by  traversing  the  Nile  from  its 
actual  and  not  its  old  mythical  source  to  Cairo,  and  by 


262  GENERAL 

bringing  the  north  and  south  of  this  large  continent 
into  direct  communication.  The  African  Continental 
Telegraph,  meanwhile  marching  with  rapid  strides,  will 
soon  accomplish  this  desirable  object  of  through  com- 
munication. The  African  Continent  will  no  longer 
deserve  the  prefix  of  "  Dark,"  when  the  electric  current 
flashes  news  from  north  to  south  of  it,  along  its  entire 
length.  Light  will  pierce  its  darkest  part,  unexplored 
regions,  the  quaint  and  barbarous  names  of  which  are 
now  known  only  to  the  few,  will  become  as  familiar  to 
us  as  those  of  the  largest  European  states ;  and  African 
aborigines  will,  with  wondering  gaze,  behold  the  results 
produced  by  the  discoveries  of  science,  and  learn  to 
appreciate  the  advantages  of  civilisation. 

Let  me  summarise  the  value  of  the  South  African 
railways.  A  large  system  embracing  many  thousands 
of  miles,  controlled  by  six  states  and  colonies  (including 
the  Portuguese  portion  of  Delagoa  Bay),  provides  for  the 
advancement  and  progress  of  South  Africa  as  a  whole 
by  means  of  their  difterent  railways.  We  rejoice  in  the 
existence  of  the  federation  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
We  hope  that  Australasia  is  on  the  eve  of  declaring  its 
faith  in  the  establishment  of  a  connnonwealth  bound 
together  for  mutual  protection  and  advancement,  and, 
like  Canada,  maintaining  its  unswerving  attachment  and 
loyalty  to  the  British  Crown.  May  we  not  indulge  the 
hope  of  a  United  South  Africa  under  obligations  and  with 
intentions  similar  to  those  of  Canada  and  Australasia? 
We  found  this  hope  on  what  has  already  been  accom- 
plished. The  British  dependencies  in  South  Africa  and 
the  Orange  Free  State  have  already  agreed  to  a  Customs 
Union.  All  the  colonies  and  states  there  habitually  send 
delegates  to  railway  conferences,  and  a  South  African 
Postal  Union  has  now  existed  for  two  years. 

The  Cape,  Natal,  and  Rhodesia  can — if  they  have 
not  already  done  so — form  the  nucleus  of  su(;h  a  federa- 
tion.    We  feel  assured  no  ))roniptings  of  loyalty  need  be 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITAIN    263 

urged  for  this  course,  nor  can  any  reason  be  suggested 
against  a  federation  which,  while  it  would  ensure  in- 
calculable benefits  to  those  embraced  within  its  fold, 
would,  in  unmistakable  terms,  prove  to  the  world  at 
large  that  the  strength  of  Queen  Victoria's  Empire  is 
due  to  the  spontaneous  determination  of  her  people,  in 
all  their  component  parts,  to  unite  for  its  consolidation, 
preservation,  and  defence. 


THE   RAILWAYS   OF   CANADA 
By  SIDNEY  G.  B.  CORYN 

On  the  confederation  of  the  British  North  American 
provinces  in  1867,  it  at  once  became  apparent  that  the 
railways  of  Canada  were  altogether  insufficient  for  the 
political  needs  of  the  country,  or  for  its  colonisation. 
The  eastern  provinces  of  Quebec  and  Ontario  were 
already  largely  settled.  The  Grand  Trunk  Railway, 
with  its  Atlantic  termini  at  Levis  (Quebec)  and  at 
Portland,  Maine,  extended  westward  to  Chicago,  supply- 
ing the  great  centres  of  Montreal,  Kingston,  Toronto, 
and  embracing  Buffalo,  Detroit,  and  Toledo  in  its  net- 
work of  lines.  But  with  the  north  shore  of  Lake 
Superior,  with  Winnipeg,  the  Prairie  Provinces,  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  far  distant  British  Columbia, 
there  was  no  direct  raihvay  connection,  and  Avithout  a 
transcontinental  line  the  confederation  of  the  provinces 
seemed  to  be  de  jure  only.  In  the  year  of  the  con- 
federation the  Canadian  Government  set  to  work  to 
supply  the  deficiency,  and  to  connect  by  railway  the 
east  and  the  west,  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific. 

But  in  I  8  8 1  it  became  evident  that  the  work  of 
construction  could  better  be  carried  on  by  the  con- 
tinuity of  private  energy  than  by  a  government  ex- 
posed to  political  vicissitudes,  and  whose  undertakings 


264  GENERAL 

were  necessarily  thrown  into  the  arena  of  party  strife. 
In  this  year,  with  the  goodwill  and  aid  of  the  Govern- 
ment, the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Company  came  into 
existence,  taking  over  those  parts  of  the  line  already 
constructed,  amounting  to  nearly  400  miles,  other  parts 
still  under  construction  of  over  600  miles  in  extent 
— which,  however,  were  to  be  tinished  by  the  Govern- 
ment— and  making  themselves  responsible  for  the 
completion  of  the  entire  line.  Work  of  the  most 
energetic  description  was  immediately  inaugurated. 
Across  the  prairie,  west  of  Winnipeg,  the  rails  were 
laid  at  a  rate  varying  from  three  to  six  miles  a  day. 
In  the  mountains,  obstacles  Avhich  with  reason  had 
been  pronounced  insurmountable,  gave  way  before  the 
unremitting  attacks  of  the  engineers.  On  the  7  th 
November  1885,  the  construction  parties  from  the  east 
and  from  the  west  met  at  Craigellachie,  in  Eagle  Pass, 
and  the  completed  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  had  taken 
its  place  in  the  commerce,  the  politics,  and  the  social 
life  of  the  world. 

But  construction  did  not  stop  with  the  fulfilment 
of  the  Government  contract.  Branch  lines  were  pushed 
out  in  every  direction.  As  an  immediate  result,  coloni- 
sation proceeded  apace.  The  industrious  and  the 
enterprising  from  all  lauds  were  attracted  to  the 
enormous  stretch  of  prairie  lands  in  the  North- West 
of  Canada.  The  territories  immediately  contiguous  to 
the  railway  rose  in  value,  and,  as  colonisation  extended 
itself  northwards,  the  branch  lines  Ibllowed,  aidini^:  tln)se 
already  there  and  encouraging  others  to  follow.  From 
Regina  a  line  went  north,  connecting  with  Prince 
Albert  and  Battleford.  Another  line  north  from 
Calgary  opened  up  the  wheat  land  as  far  as  Edmonton. 
South  of  the  main  line  a  network  of  branch  lines  made 
available  the  extraordinary  fertility  of  Southern  Mani- 
toba, while  the  continual  discoveries  of  gold  in  the 
mountains  have  called   into   existence  the  lines  neces- 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITALN    265 

sary  for  their  workini,'-.  At  the  time  of  writing,  the 
actual  mileage  worked  by  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway 
and  in  course  of  construction  is  y6y6. 

But  not  content  with  its  victories  by  land,  the 
Company  has  laid  its  hand  also  upon  the  sea.  Con- 
necting with  the  railway  terminus  at  Vancouver,  a 
Heet  of  high-class  passenger  steamers  connects  the  new 
world  with  the  old  world  of  China  and  Japan  and  with 
Australasia.  The  developments  of  the  future  are  largely 
obvious,  but  whatever  they  may  be,  they  can  but  tend 
to  make  the  railway  system  of  Canada  ever  more  and 
more  the  highway  to  the  Orient. 

The  Canadian  Pacitic  Railway  may  be  said  to  contain 
within  itself  examples  of  almost  every  kind  of  engineer- 
ing work,  and  to  represent  a  successful  conflict  with 
almost  every  engineering  difficulty.  In  the  Selkirk 
and  Rocky  Mountains  these  difficulties  reached  their 
culmination,  and  are  sufficiently  evident  even  to  the 
inexperienced  eye.  Elsewhere  the  difficulties  were 
none  the  less  real,  although  not  so  obvious.  To  the 
present  day  a  constant  struggle  is  maintained  to 
counteract  the  shelving  tendency  of  the  subsoil  on  the 
north  shore  of  Lake  Superior.  The  long  prairie  stretch 
of  line,  600  miles  long,  produces  difficulties  peculiar  to 
itself,  and  in  part  dependent  upon  the  more  or  less 
sudden  changes  of  temperature.  But  when  the  line 
reaches  the  mountain  district  the  most  hardened 
traveller  becomes  awed  at  the  splendour  of  the  scenery 
and  at  the  engineering  patience  and  skill  which  have 
placed  a  railway  line  where  a  mountain  goat  could 
have  barely  found  a  passage.  For  hour  after  hour  the 
train  wends  its  way  through  this  scenery,  and  every 
five  minutes  its  nature  changes.  At  one  moment  the 
train  is  passing  along  the  face  of  a  precipice  with  i  5  00 
feet  of  rock  above  and  below.  It  is  running  on  an 
artificial  road  bed,  in  parts  so  narrow  that  the  traveller 
looking    down    from    the    car    window    sees    only  the 


266  GENERAL 

mountain  torrent  below.  Then,  again,  we  are  running 
through  miles  of  snow-sheds,  wooden  structures  of 
enormous  strength,  and  so  desisfned  as  to  resist  the 
heaviest  avalanche.  Through  ravines  and  gorges  into 
whose  depths  the  sunlight  barely  penetrates,  skirting 
the  edges  of  precipices,  plunging  into  the  tunnelled 
mountain  sides,  winding  in  and  out  of  valleys,  turning 
back  upon  parallel  track,  the  line  threads  its  way 
through  the  mountain  fastnesses,  and  every  hour  in- 
creases the  wonder  at  a  work  so  stupendous  and  so 
successful.  Nor  does  Nature  remain  quiescent  under 
her  subjection.  An  army  of  watchers  and  workers  is 
ever  toiling  to  repair  the  road  bed,  the  bridges,  and 
the  snow-sheds.  Every  five  miles  we  meet  the  solitary 
patrol  whose  endless  duty  it  is  to  note  and  to  report 
every  defect  and  every  variation.  And  as  a  result  of 
this  ceaseless  care,  the  history  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  has  been  unmarred  by  any  preventible  mis- 
hap, and  the  efficiency  of  the  lino  stands  unsurpassed 
among  the  railways  of  the  world. 


thp:  railway  systems  of  Australia 

By  the  Hon.  D.  AV.  CARNEGIE 

New  South  Wales. — In  considering  the  railways  of 
Australia  it  seems  natural  that  one  should  begin  with 
that  of  New  South  Wales,  the  "  Mother  Colony  of  the 
Australias' — the  first  turf  of  which  was  turned  on  3rd 
July  1850,  by  the  daughter  of  the  then  governor,  His 
Excellency  Sir  Charles  Augustus  Fitzroy,  at  Sydney. 

The  railways  of  the  colony  have,  so  to  speak,  been 
put  together  piecemeal,  as  the  growing  wants  of  the 
colony  increased,  otherwise  they  would  have  followed 
different  routes. 

They  consist — all  connecting  with  Sydney — of  the 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    JJKITAIN    267 

Sydney  and  Suburban,  the  Southern  Line  and  its 
branches  to  the  Victorian  border,  868i  miles;  the 
Western  Line  to  Bourke,  on  the  River  DarUng,  and 
its  branches,  Sjg\  miles;  the  South  Coast  Line,  94 j 
miles,  connecting  with  Newcastle ;  the  Northern  Line 
and  its  branches  to  the  Queensland  border,  494I  miles; 
Sydney  to  Newcastle,  93  miles;  unconnected  Northern 
Branch,  63I  miles;  that  is,  a  total  mileage,  with  other 
short  lines,  of  2639}  miles,  constructed  at  a  capital 
outlay  of  i^3 2,024,5  3 8.  The  rolling  stock,  with  work- 
shops, &c.,  is  valued  at  ;^5.2  33,865,  making  a  total 
cost  of  ;!^  1 4,463  per  mile. 

These  are  Government  railways,  with  the  English 
gauge  of  4  ft.  Sh  in.  In  addition  to  these  there  are 
private  lines.  One  from  Deniliquin  to  Moama,  45 
miles,  feeding  the  Victorian  system,  on  a  gauge  of 
5  ft.  3  in. ;  another  connecting  Broken  Hill  with  the 
South  Australian  railways,  35!  miles  long,  with  a  3  ft. 
gauge.  Other  extensions  are  in  contemplation,  but  are 
all  of  the  "  light  railway "  character.  The  system  is 
under  the  control  of  commissioners :  Mr.  E.  M.  G.  Eddy, 
Chief  Commissioner,  Mr.  Charles  Oliver  and  Mr.  W. 
Fehon,  to  whose  foresight  and  energy  the  facts  arc 
due  that  the  railways  of  New  South  Wales  are  the 
most  efficiently  maintained,  the  best  managed,  and  the 
most  protitable  of  all  the  State  railways  of  Australasia. 
It  is  said  that  there  are  in  the  United  Kingdom  no 
locomotives  so  powerful  as  the  New  South  Wales 
consolidation  engines.  It  is  necessary  to  have  such 
powerful  engines,  because  on  most  lines  the  gradients 
are  very  steep,  varying  on  631  miles  from  i  in  30  to 
I  in  75. 

Rates  for  passengers  and  goods  are  much  the  same 
as  in  England.  First-class  passenger  tickets  cost  from 
|d.  to  |d.  per  mile ;  a  parcel  of  i  1 2  lbs.  is  carried 
5  o  miles  for  i  s.  9d. ;  a  ton  of  hay  goes  for  less  than 
M.  per  mile ;  a  ton  of  grain  or  flour  for  less  than  |d. 


2  68  GENERAL 

The  Government  works  the  railways  less  for  profit  to 
themselves  than  for  the  convenience  of  up-country 
producers  and  the  public  generally.  M.P.'s  and  others 
are  entitled  to  free  passes  over  all  lines. 

The  accident  statistics  show  that  the  average  of 
killed  and  injured  per  million  passengers  is  o.i  killed 
and  3.6  injured,  as  against  o.  i  killed  and  1.6  injured 
in  the  United  Kingdom. 

Victoria. — The  central  portion  of  this  colony  is 
well  supplied  Avith  a  choice  network  of  railways,  which 
branches  out  in  long  lines  to  the  more  sparsely  popu- 
lated districts  east  and  west.  In  1887  there  was  a 
total  length  of  1880  miles  open  for  traffic,  the  average 
cost  being  ^11,748  per  mile;  but  up  to  1896  the 
length  opened  amounted  to  3122}  miles,  at  a  cost  per 
mile  of  ;^i  2,272,  the  whole  of  the  capital  cost  being 
;!^38,io8,i  5  I,  which  includes  the  value  of  the  rolling 
stock. 

There  are  263  passenger  engines,  254  goods 
engines,  1075  passenger  vehicles,  8546  goods  and 
other  vehicles,  and  473  vans,  while  during  the  year 
1895-96  (the  year  on  which  these  statements  are 
calculated)  40,993,798  passengers  were  carried,  and 
the  freight  amounted  to  2,163,722  tons.  The  total 
receipts  from  both  sources  amounted  to  ^^^2,401,392, 
averaging  £y6g  per  mile  open.  The  total  train  miles 
run  reached  8,989,391,  giving  gross  receipts  per  train 
mile  of  a  little  over  5  s.  4(1.  The  net  protit  for  the 
year  amounted  to  ^854,917. 

The  railways  are  all  laid  down  on  a  uniform  gauge 
of  5  ft.  3  in.  They  are  the  property  of  the  State,  and 
are  managed  like  the  lines  of  New  South  Wales  by  a 
special  board  of  three  coimiiissioners. 

The  average  of  killed  and  injured  on  tlio  Victorian 
lines  is  o.  i  for  the  former,  and  3.2  for  the  latter  per 
iiiillion    passengers.       Sydney    may    be    reached    from 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    i;i;iTA[N    269 

Melliourne  in  17I  hours,  a  distance  of  576.',  miles, 
an  average  of  33.4  niilos  per  hour.  Many  of  the 
gradients  on  the  way  are  exceedingly  steep.  At  Exeter 
a  height  of  2348  feet  and  at  Cullerin  2392  feet  is 
reached.  The  cost  of  a  journey  from  Melbourne  to 
Sydney  is  a  little  over  £4  first  and  £2>  second  class 
— the  refurn  fares  being  a  little  over  £6  first  and  £4 
second  class. 

South  Australia.  —  In  South  Australia  the  first 
railway  opened  was  that  between  Adelaide  and  Port 
Adelaide  in  1856.  This  was  followed  by  the  line 
between  Adelaide  and  Kapunda  in  1857.  At  first 
a  gauge  of  5  ft.  3  in.  was  adopted,  but  in  1867  a 
gauge  of  3  ft.  6  in.  was  also  adopted.  The  broad 
gauge  runs  from  Adelaide  I47i  miles  north  to 
Terowie,  and  south-east  on  the  road  to  Melbourne, 
where  at  Serviceton,  196}  miles  from  Adelaide,  it 
crosses  the  boundary  line.  At  Serviceton,  passengers 
are  notified  that  the  time  changes  one  hour,  Victorian 
time  being  one  hour  in  advance  of  South  Australian 
time.  A  broad  gauge  line  also  runs  south  to  Port 
Victor.  With  these  exceptions,  all  the  lines  are  of 
3  ft.  6  in.  gauge. 

In  all,  there  are  1722]  miles  of  railway  open  for 
traffic,  1229I  being  3  ft.  6  in.  gauge,  and  493] 
of  5  ft.  3  in.  The  capital  cost  on  this  mileage, 
reckoned  up  to  1897,  was  £"12,599,892,  an  average 
of  ;^73  10  per  mile. 

The  runnber  of  passengers  carried  amounted  to 
5,799,928,  paying  ^^297,026.  The  freight  carried 
reached  1,146,293  tons. 

The  average  payment  per  mile  for  passengers  comes 
out  (1896-97)  at  •68d.  per  mile,  and  the  average  pay- 
ment per  ton  of  goods  per  mile  i.o5d. 

The  rolling  stock  consists  of  i  5  3  engines,  mostly  of 
English  type,  with  98  tenders.  186  passenger  coaches, 


2  70  GENERAL 

and  30  intercolonial  passenger  coaches,  while  of  goods 
and  live-stock  waggons  there  are  2278. 

The  net  revenue  for  1896-97  was  ;^4io,78o. 

Convenient  trains  are  run  to  various  Avatering-places 
and  points  of  interest,  as  the  National  Park,  Belair, 
Gawler,  termed  the  "  Modern  Athens,"  the  Naracoorte 
Caves,  and  other  points  of  interest. 

Western  Aiistralia. — This  province  had  on  3  oth  June 
1 897,  1 36 1  miles  of  railway  open  for  traffic.  Of  these 
970  miles  are  Government  lines,  and  391  miles  of 
private  lines. 

The  first  consist  of: — 

Miles. 

1.  Eastern  Railway  .  ....     453 

2.  South-Western    .         .         .         .         -165 

3.  Great  Southern    .  .  .  .  .243 

4.  Northern     .  .  .  .  .  .109 

The  private  lines  are : — 

1.  The  Midland  Railwa}^  of  West  Australia,  con- 
structed under  a  concession  on  the  land  grant  system, 
the  company  receiving  i  2,000  acres  for  every  mile  of 
line  constructed.  Starting  10  miles  out  of  Perth,  it 
runs  277  miles  to  AValkaway,  where  it  joins  the  Govern- 
ment line  to  Geraldtown. 

2.  The  Denmark  Railway,  constructed  by  Messrs. 
Millar's  Karri  and  Jarrah  Forests,  Limited,  under  a 
special  concession,  60  miles  in  all. 

3.  Yarloop  Railway,  constructed  by  the  same  com- 
pany, 16  miles  in  length. 

4.  The  Upper  Darling  Range  Railway,  the  property 
of  the  Canning  Jarrah  Timber  Company,  3  5  miles  hi 
length.  On  this  line  there  is  a  passenger  service  twice 
a  week,  on  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays. 

5.  The  Jarrahdale  Railway  has  a  total  run  of  52 
miles,  and  was  constructed  by  the  Jarrahdale  Company 
under  a  special  timber  concession  agreement. 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITAIN    271 

6.  The  Qiiindalup,  14  miles  in  length,  under  a 
special  timber  concession  to  H.  J.  Yelverton. 

7.  M.  C.  Diivies  Company,  Limited,  has  constructed 
a  20-mile  line,  also  under  a  timber  concession. 

These  lines,  with  the  exception  of  the  Upper  Darling 
line,  are  used  for  timber  traffic  from  the  forests  to 
ports  and  the  main  lines. 

The  Government  railway  returns  show  a  gradual 
increase  in  passenger  traffic,  freightage,  and  receipts 
since  their  first  establishment,  the  percentage  of  work- 
ing expense  to  gross  earnings  being  49.79  in  1895-96, 
as  against  114.46  in  1890,  the  net  profit  in  1895-96 
being  ;^265,9i  i. 

The  rolling  stock  consists  of  214  locomotives,  184 
passenger  carriages,  and  4265  brake-vans  and  waggons. 
Most  of  the  lines  are  single  and  terminal,  and  are  of 
a  standard  gauge  of  3  ft.  6  in. 

Queensland. — In  this  colony  as  in  the  others  the 
railways  are  Government  property,  and  are  administered 
by  three  commissioners  ;  the  powers  of  the  Chief  Com- 
missioner (who  makes  a  full  report  quarterly  and  one 
annually  to  the  Minister  at  the  head  of  the  Railway 
Department  of  the  Government)  are  very  considerable, 
and  in  fact  are  limited  only  by  his  inability  to  make 
contracts  outside  the  colony.  The  mileage  open  to 
traffic  in  1896-97  was  2505!,  and  was  comprised  in 
eight  separate  systems — 


Southern  Railways  and  branches 


Central 

do. 

Mackay 

do. 

Bowen 

do. 

Northern 

do. 

Cairns 

do. 

Cooktown 

do. 

Normanton  do. 

do. 
and  brancli 


1399! 

miles 

559 

M 

31 

)) 

48 

)> 

260 

•I 

47 

)) 

67 

M 

94 

!> 

272  GENERAL 

The  gauge  adopted  is  that  of  3  ft.  6  in.,  which  in 
Queensland  at  least,  it  has  been  shown,  enabled  a 
greater  mileage  of  line  to  be  constructed  at  a  less  cost, 
and  the  fares  also  compare  favourabl}'  Avith  those  of 
the  other  colonies,  Avhile  the  freiehtage  rates  are,  with 
slight  exceptions,  more  in  favour  of  Queensland  than 
even  the  passenger  rates. 

The  net  revenue,  1896-97,  notwithstanding  cheap 
rates,  amounted  to  ^495,127. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  interesting  to  make  some 
comparison  between  the  systems  in  the  various  colonies. 
The  proposal  to  federate  has  been  the  means  of  intro- 
ducing the  question  of  establishing  a  uniform  gauge 
for  the  whole  of  the  railways.  At  present  the  gauges 
and  the  average  cost  per  mile  are  as  under — 

Queensland  Gauge,  3  ft.  6  in.  av.  cost  per  mile,     ;^7o28 

New  South  Wales       ,,       4  ft.  Sh  in.  „  14,160 

Victoria  .  .     ,,       5  ft.  3  in.  „  12,271 

c       1     A      i    1-  (  ^  ft.  6  in.  I 

oouth  Australia       .     ,,    •<  "^  ^         .      >  ,.  7^02 

1  5  ft.  3  ni.  j  '^ 

West  Australia       .      ,,       3  ft.  6  in.  ,,  3847 

Tasmania       .  .     ,,       3  ft.  6  in.  „  8985 

New  Zealand  .      ,,       3  ft.  6  in.  ,,  7719 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  question  of  uniform 
gauge  presents  considerable  difficulty,  and  if  alterations 
were  made  the  younger  colonies  would  probably  have 
to  adopt  that  of  the  older  and  more  populous  ones. 
Though  uniformity  of  gauge  would  doubtless  give  great 
advantages,  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  new 
countries  length,  not  width,  gives  the  greatest  benefit. 

There  arc  many  points  I  slioiild  like  to  discuss,  but 
I  liave  already  overrun  the  limits  assigned.  Tlicrc  is, 
however,  one  thing  I  should  like  to  say  in  conclusion. 
In  coimection  with  State  railways  no  provision  is  made 
for  writing  oH"  capital  lost  in  faihu'es.  The  capital 
charge  constantly  accumulates,  and  interest  upon  it  is 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITAIN    273 

looked  for.  If  a  lino  built  by  a  private  company  fails, 
the  shareholders  bear  the  loss  once  and  for  all ;  and  if 
the  company  is  reconstructed  on  purchase  at  a 
nominal  price  (comparatively)  of  the  assets,  interest 
only  has  to  be  paid  on  the  reduced  capital. 

The  average  dividends  paid  by  United  Kingdom 
railways  is  4  per  cent.  There  can  be  no  doubt  this 
would  be  reduced  considerably  if  net  profits  were 
hampered  with  the  total  cost  of  construction  to  date. 

Of  the  Australian  railways,  that  of  West  Australia 
alone  made  a  net  profit  over  all  of  4  per  cent.  The 
others  made  an  average  loss  of  29.5  per  cent.  This  is 
brought  about  by  the  necessity  of  paying  interest  on 
the  cost  of  construction. 

Tasmania. — The  lines  of  railway  in  working  in  the 
State  of  Tasmania  are  the  Launceston  and  Western 
RaUway,  from  Launceston  to  Formby ;  the  Main  line, 
froin  Hobart  to  Launceston,  and  branches  from  Laun- 
ceston ;  the  Sorell  line,  from  Bellerive  to  Sorell ;  and 
on  the  east  coast,  Strahan  to  Zeehan ;  Ringville  to 
North-East  Dundas.  The  total  expenditure  on  the 
Government  line  which  had  been  opened  for  traffic  to 
1900  was  ^8189  per  mile.  The  gross  revenue  earned 
in  1899  was  ^^193,158,  and  the  working  expenses 
^^152,798.  The  gross  revenue  for  1899  was  more 
than  that  of  1898  by  ;^  14,97 8.  The  profit  for  the 
year's  work  was  ^40,360,  an  increase  of  ;^33  59  over 
1898. 

Neiv  Zealand. — The  New  Zealand  railway  system, 
which  connects  all  the  capitals  of  the  provincial  districts, 
affords  examples  of  both  State-owned  and  private 
lines. 

Of  the  former,  there  was  open  for  traffic  in  March 
1900,  2104  miles,  the  cost  of  construction  being 
;^i6,703,887,  an  average  per  mile  of  £7g2>9-  The 
V  s 


274 


GENERAL 


former  sum,  however,  includes  over  half  a  million 
spent  on  the  construction  of  lines  not  yet  open  for 
traffic  on  that  date. 

The  cash  revenue  for  the  year  1899  to  1900  was 
^1,623,891,  and  the  expenditure  for  the  same  period 
^1,052,358,  leaving  a  net  revenue  of  ^571,583,  equal 
to  a  rate  of  £1,  8s.  5d.  per  cent,  on  the  capital  cost — 
percentage  of  expenditure  to  revenue,  64.80.  The 
earnings  of  some  lines,  however,  ranged  as  high  as 
£1^,  3s.  6d.  per  cent. 

The  following  table  shows  at  a  glance  the  increase 
in  the  nine  years  1889  to  1898  : — 


Year. 

Length  of           ^    , 
Line  open         ^/j'^'" 
for  Traffic.  !      J^l^^age. 

^Passengers 
Carried. 

Season         Goods  and 
Tickets        Live  Stock 
Issued.          Carried. 

1889-90    . 
1898-99    . 

Miles.             Miles. 
1,813          2,868,203 

2,090          3,968,708 

S. 376,459 
4.955.553 

12,311 
55.027 

Tons. 
2,112,734 

2,744,41^1 

The   private   lines   of  New   Zealand   consisted,   in 
March  1899,  ^^  ^^7  ^niles,  viz.: — 


1.  The  Wellington-Manawatu  Railway 

2.  The  Kaitangata  Railway 

3.  The  Midland  Railway    . 


Miles. 
84 
4 
79 


Of  the  first  of  these,  the  Wellington-Manawatu 
Railway,  the  cost  of  construction  was  £y6y ,66$,  a  rate 
of  £g  139  per  mile ;  the  revenue  for  the  year  ending 
February  1899,  ^^86,119;  and  the  working  expenses, 
-^39.310 — a  percentage  of  45.64  to  the  revenue. 

The  Midland  Railway  of  New  Zealand  cost  to  con- 
struct, ^760,000 ;  its  revenue  for  the  year  ending 
March  1899  was  ;^20,204  ;  the  expenses,  ii^20,ooo — 
giving  a  percentage  of  99.99  to  the  revenue.  This 
r;iilway  has  lately  been  taken  over  by  the  Government. 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    GREATER    BRITAIN    275 


CoMi'AiiATivE  Table  of  the  Australasian  Railways, 
FOR  THE  Year  ending  June  iSgg. 


Mileage.          Cost. 

Gross 
Earnings. 

E™el      ^--Sers.      Gauge.   ' 

!                  i            1 

New  South  ) 
Wales        i 

Queensland  . 

South  Aus-  ( 
tralia   .      j 

Tasmania     . 

Victoria 

West    Aus-  \ 

tralia  .      ( 

New  Zealand 

2,706        37,992,276 
2,745        18,670,208 
1,724        12,886,352 
438          3.585.039 
3.143        39.056,451 
1.355          6,427,370 
2,090        15.993.903 

£ 
3.145.273 
1.373.475 
1.058,379 
178, 180 
2,873.729 
1,004,620 
1,469,665 

^    ! 

1,690,442      24.726,067 
784,811        3,716,425 
617.380        6,171,081 
141,179           617,643 

1,716,441      45,805,043 

712,329        5,872,200 
929.737        4,955,553 

Ft.  In. 
4    8i 
3    6 

J5    3 
I3    6 
3    6 
is     3 
1  2     6     1 

3     6 

3    6 

PRODUCTION   OF   GOLD   IN   GREATER 
BRITAIN 

ITS   INFLUENCE   IN  THE   DEVELOPMENT 
OF  THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 

By  J.   W.  BROOMHEAD 

The  history  of  the  British  Empire  would  be  incom- 
plete without  any  account  of  the  important  part  plaj^ed 
by  gold  mining  and  its  developments.  The  progress 
of  Great  Britain  may  be  said  to  be  founded  on  its  coal 
and  iron ;  of  Greater  Britain  on  its  gold.  In  the  early 
history  of  the  human  race,  war  and  the  quest  of  food 
scattered  the  people  over  the  earth ;  but  in  later 
times  the  quest  of  gold  has  considerably  promoted  and 
greatly  aided  in  the  occupation  of  vast  areas  of  the 
globe,  by  an  industrious  and  enterprising  population, 
mainly  of  British  origin.  Over  these  new  regions, 
covering  one-fifth  of  the  globe,  the  British  language, 
British  freedom,  law  and  justice,  as  well  as  the 
inherited  colonising  energy  of  the  Briton,  prevail. 

Australasia  and  British  North  America  had  not 
been  previously  exploited  by  ancient  miners,  as  is  the 
case  with  India  and  Rhodesia.  In  the  former  virgin 
countries  the  golden  sands,  or  alluvial  gold  formed  by 
Nature's  mills — the  slow  but  sure  action  of  climatic 
influences — were  already  prepared  for  the  hand  of 
man  to  reap  the  yellow  harvest ;  and  the  pick  and 
shovel,  tin  dish  and  cradle  were  all  the  equipment 
necessary  to  win  the  golden  grain.  Nature  had  al- 
ready sunk    the   shafts,  driven  the   levels,  stoped  and 

276 


GOLD    IN    GREATER    HKTTAIN  277 

raised  the  ore,  as  well  as  oxidised,  crushed,  aud  con- 
centrated it  for  man,  so  that  it  might  be  foimd  in  the 
most  easily  recoverable  form.  Consequently  in  the 
early  days  of  virgin  countries  men  frequently  made 
fortunes  with  little  labour ;  and  news  of  rich  finds, 
including  the  occasional  discovery  of  a  big  nugget, 
reaching  the  Mother  Country,  multitudes  had  their 
imagination  fired  with  dreams  of  untold  wealth,  and 
made  all  haste  for  the  new  El  Dorado.  In  time  these 
easily  treated  rich-surface  deposits  became  exhausted ; 
but  they  had  served  to  bring  in  a  large  working  popu- 
lation, who  with  the  money  so  easily  gained,  in  many 
cases  remained,  either  to  exploit  the  reef  formations — 
the  original  sources  of  the  alluvial  deposits — or,  find- 
ing land  cheap  and  good,  and  trade  more  prosperous 
than  in  the  old  country,  to  turn  their  attention  to 
other  sources  of  wealth.  Some  British  possessions 
were,  however,  so  inaccessible  and  had  to  contend  with 
such  great  difficulties  in  regard  to  transport,  that  even 
the  stimulus  of  rich  alluvial  finds  was  insufficient  to 
overcome  the  initial  difficulties  connected  with  the 
development  of  their  quartz  mines.  This  was  the 
case  in  British  Columbia,  where  in  the  early  sixties 
large  quantities  of  alluvial  gold  were  produced,  but 
natur;\l  conditions  were  at  that  time  so  adverse  that 
even  rich  quartz  mines  could  not  be  worked  at  a 
profit.  Now  that  this  section  of  country  has  been 
opened  up  by  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  with  its 
branches,  and  smelters  have  been  erected  at  con- 
venient centres,  British  Columbia  is  rapidly  coming 
into  prominence  as  a  quartz-mining  country  of  great 
promise.  When  it  is  considered  that  one  of  our  most 
richly  mineralised  colonies,  even  with  the  aid  of  large 
alluvial  deposits,  was  for  thirty  years  delayed  by 
natural  conditions  from  working  quartz  mines  known 
to  be  rich,  from  grass  roots,  there  is  no  cause  for 
surprise   in  the   lack   of   progress   displayed  by   such 


278  GENERAL 

countries  as  Rhodesia.  The  latter,  besides  having  to 
contend  with  adverse  natural  conditions,  has  at  some 
previous  epoch  not  only  been  deprived  of  its  alluvials, 
but  also  of  its  oxidised  surface  ore  down  to  water 
level.  After  the  alluvials  are  exhausted,  the  oxidised 
surface  ores,  which  are  generally  free  milling,  can  be 
inexpensively  treated ;  but  to  do  this  it  is  necessary  to 
erect  crushing  mills  and  heavy  equipment.  In  British 
Columbia  the  difficulty  in  getting  plant  into  the  heart 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  was  formerly  insurmountable, 
while  in  the  Australian  colonies,  where  transport  diffi- 
culties were  not  great,  quartz-mining  folloAved  closely 
upon  alluvial,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  the  money 
won  from  the  latter  was  devoted  to  the  equipment  of 
the  quartz  mines.  In  time,  however,  deep  shafts  have 
to  be  sunk,  the  ore  becomes  refractory,  heavy  bodies 
of  water  need  to  be  pumped,  so  that  the  ground  re- 
quires either  to  be  rich  or  worked  upon  a  large  scale 
to  yield  payable  results. 

The  richest  mining  area  yet  found  is  situated  in 
the  centre  of  the  Kalgoorlie  district  of  Western 
Australia,  but  its  discovery  is  of  so  recent  a  date  that 
it  may  be  said  to  be  merely  in  its  infancy.  The  most 
prolific  area  is  the  Witwatersrandt  district  of  the 
Transvaal,  whose  development  is  due  to  British,  enter- 
prise, and  some  of  the  mines  situated  in  British 
possessions  are  amongst  the  most  productive  in  the 
world.  Amongst  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Broken 
Hill  Proprietary  Mine,  which,  from  1885  to  end  of  May 
1897,  yielded  87,526,567  ounces  of  silver,  326,060 
tons  of  lead,  besides  a  considerable  amount  of  gold  and 
copper,  the  total  value  behig  ^17,133,184  sterling. 
The  Mount  Morgan  in  Queensland  has  since  1887 
returned  gold  to  the  value  of  ;if6, 5 00,000  sterling, 
while  the  Mysore  Mine  in  India  has  in  nine  years 
yielded  gtjld  to  the  value  of  £^2,600,000  sterling. 
The  Wiiihi  Mine  in  the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand 


GOLD    IN    GREATER    BRITAIN  279 

may  also  be  mentioned  amongst  the  greatest  gold 
mines  of  the  world.  Although  it  has  only  yet 
attained  to  a  comparatively  small  equipment,  develop- 
ments are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  leave  no  doubt 
regarding  its  future.  It  is,  however,  to  the  Transvaal 
that  we  must  turn  for  the  greatest  results  of  all.  The 
whole  area  forming  the  Main  Reef  scries  of  the  Wit- 
watersrandt  is  actually  one  mine,  which  is  cut  up  into 
a  great  number  of  companies,  each  holding  a  number 
of  claims.  This  goldfleld  in  the  month  of  October 
1898  produced  over  400,000  ounces  of  gold,  or  equal 
to  an  annual  output  exceeding  ;^  17,000,000  sterling. 
In  1887  its  output  was  i^8 1,000,  and  the  aggre- 
gate output  during  the  past  decade  approximates 
;^64, 000,000.  This  places  it  at  the  head  of  the  list 
of  gold-producing  countries.  It  is  estimated  that 
-^3,250,000  will  be  disbursed  in  dividends  by  the 
mining  companies  in  this  district  during  1898.  In 
1897  there  were  over  8000  whites  and  5000  natives 
employed,  and  over  5 ,000,000  tons  of  ore  were  crushed. 
In  August  1898  the  number  of  natives  employed 
had  increased  to   81,203. 

Reference  to  the  history  of  the  various  Colonies 
forming  the  British  Empire  will  demonstrate  to  what  a 
large  extent  these  countries  have  been  indebted  to  gold- 
mining  for  their  earlier  developments,  and  in  many 
cases  the  industry  still  retains  an  important  position. 

During  the  first  half-century  preceding  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  Australia  extremely  slow  progress 
was  made,  the  total  increase  in  population  during  that 
period  not  exceeding  85,000,  New  Zealand  and  Tas- 
mania included,  while  the  total  revenue  of  the  Colony 
of  Victoria  was  only  ^304,000,  but  the  discovery  of 
gold  in  1 8  5  I  had  a  magical  eftect.  From  1852  to 
1 86 1  over  two  million  ounces  of  gold  were  annually 
produced  by  this  single  colony,  and  in  1856  Victoria 
produced   over   three   million   ounces   of   gold.      This 


2  8o  GENERAL 

great  accession  of  wealth  revolutionised  the  colony, 
and  in  the  early  days  immigrants  poured  into  it  by 
thousands  weekly  from  the  Mother  Country  and  neigh- 
bouring colonies. 

Similarly  in  the  history  of  New  Zealand  progress 
was  very  slow  until  the  large  finds  of  gold  in  1861 
created  a  rush.  Although  gold  was  discovered  in  New 
Zealand  nine  years  earlier,  it  was  not  till  1861  that  the 
discoveries  assumed  important  dimensions.  The  pro- 
duce of  the  Otago  goldfield  alone  in  1861-62  amounted 
to  1,020,000  ounces  of  gold,  having  a  value  of  over 
;!^4,ooo,ooo  sterling,  and  the  total  value  of  gold  ex- 
ported from  New  Zealand  between  1857  and  1897 
exceeded  i^5  3,000,000  sterling,  the  bulk  of  this  gold 
being  obtained  fi'om  alluvials  and  surface  workings. 
As  these  are  now  to  all  appearance  worked  out,  future 
developments  will  have  to  depend  upon  deep  exploita- 
tion of  quartz  lodes  and  upon  river  dredging. 

The  liistory  of  West  Australia  as  a  gold- producing 
country  may  be  said  practically  to  date  from  the  dis- 
covery in  1893  of  the  rich  ground  subsequently  known 
as  Bayley's  ReAvard  Claim,  and  situated  in  the]Coolgardie 
district.  Now,  however,  interest  in  the  gold-mining 
industry  of  the  colony  is  centred  mainly  in  the  Kal- 
goorlie  district  owing  to  the  great  width  and  the  rich- 
ness of  its  lodes,  which  carry  sulphide  and  telluride 
ores.  Recent  discoveries  of  alluvial  have  also  been 
made,  and  the  geological  formation  of  the  country 
indicates  that  a  heavy  denudation  has  taken  place ; 
hence  prospecting  may  be  expected  to  result  in  the 
discovery  of  alluvial  deposits  of  much  larger  dimensions 
than  any  .so  far  encountered. 

It  has  been  for  years  my  opinion  that  large  alluvial 
deposits  would  be  found  either  in  situ  as  the  result  of 
recent  erosions,  or  farther  afield  from  the  lode  forma- 
tions, as  the  result  of  earlier  denudations.  Discovery 
of  these  deposits  may  be  difficult  on  account  of  the 


GOLD    IN    GREATER    BRITAIN 


281 


superimposed    detritus    and    the    obliteration    of    the 
ancient  river  systems. 

The  total  gold  production  of  the  various  Australasian 
Colonics,  from  the  first  discovery  in  1 8  5  i  to  the  end  of 
1897,  is  shown  in  the  following  table: — 


Quantity. 

Value. 

Victoria  .... 
New  Zealand   .     . 
Queensland .     .     . 
New  South  Wales 
Western  Australia 
Tasmania     .     .     . 
South  Australia    . 

Australasia    . 

Oz. 

61,847,448 

13,565,552 

12,006,918 

11,982,851 

1,642,620 

940,659 

498,884 

L 

247,389,792 

53,372,634 

41,749,606 

44,488,361 

6,241,957 

3,541,625 

1,817,433 

102,484,932 

^398,601,408 

The  value  of  the  mineral  production  of  British 
Columbia  increased  from  $2,608,608  in  1890  to 
$10,456,268  in  1897,  and  developments  in  progress 
indicate  a  much  greater  expansion  in  the  future. 

What  has  already  taken  place  in  other  colonies  will 
take  place  in  Rhodesia.  This  territory  has  laboured 
under  disadvantages  of  distance  from  the  seaboard, 
rebellion,  raid  and  rinderpest,  as  well  as  having  its 
alluvials  and  more  easily  worked  surface  ores  extracted 
by  the  ancients ;  but,  with  the  railway  completed  to 
Buluwayo,  Rhodesia  will  figure  as  a  gold  producer  in 
time.  Upon  no  other  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  do 
such  extensive  old  workings  exist ;  but  modern  mining 
will  have  to  commence  where  the  ancients  were  com- 
pelled by  water  to  leave  off.  It  cannot  be  doubted 
that  an  enormous  quantity  of  gold  must  have  been 
extracted  from  these  workings  by  the  ancient  miners, 
whoever  they  were,  otherwise  they  Avould  not  have 
done  so  much  work  with  such  rudimentary  appliances 
as  are  found  in  or  about  the  old  shafts  over  this  large 


2  82  GENERAL 

area.  Evidence  is  now  fortlicoming  that  gold  deposits 
of  a  payable  nature  exist  in  depths,  and  the  search  for 
gold  will  play  an  important  part  in  the  opening  up  of 
Rhodesia,  as  it  has  done  in  the  case  of  other  British 
colonies. 

I  understand  a  new  goldfield  of  considerable  pro- 
mise has  recently  been  located  in  Ashanti,  on  the 
coast  of  West  Africa  in  British  territory.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Adansi  Mountains,  midway  between  Kumasi 
and  the  coast.  Mr.  E.  A.  Cade,  with  a  fully- equipped 
expedition,  arrived  on  the  fields  on  the  ist  of  January 
1898,  and  to  the  end  of  June,  with  a  five-stamp 
battery,  380  lbs.  each,  crushed  262  tons  for  617 
ounces  of  gold,  leaving  1 1  dwts.  per  ton  in  the  tailings. 
The  formation  consists  of  banket  or  conglomerate  and 
quartz  lodes,  one  of  which  so  far  averages  an  ounce 
per  ton  over  the  width  of  25  feet.  In  the  smaller 
reefs  richer  stone  is  found.  Of  this  district  Mr.  Cade 
says :  "  You  can  hardly  by  chance  take  up  and  wash  a 
pan  of  soil  without  also  getting  a  show  of  gold."  It 
is  situated  on  the  Hinterland  of  the  Gold  Coast,  and 
has  extensive  ancient  workings,  from  which  there  is 
little  doubt  the  gold  came  which  gave  the  name  to 
this  part  of  the  coast. 

In  1883  the  world's  total  production  of  gold  fell  to 
^19,000,000,  chiefly  through  the  decline  in  the  yield 
from  alluvial. 

In  1886  the  Witwatersrandt  field  was  discovered, 
and  has  since  been  shown  to  contain  an  innnense 
quantity  of  low-grade  ore.  The  best  mining  engineers, 
mine  managers,  assayers,  chemists  and  inetallurgists 
the  world  produces  have  been  there  employed  to  dis- 
cover the  most  economical  method  of  treating  this 
low-grade  ore  with  results  beneficial,  not  to  this  field 
only,  but  to  gold-mining  in  general.  The  use  of 
cyanide  of  potassium  as  a  gold  solvent  was  quickly 
followed  by  the  discovery  of  the   l)romo-cyanidc  pro- 


GOLD    IN    GREATER    BRITAIN  283 

cess,  and  the  evoliitidn  of  many  mechanical  improve- 
ments and  lal)Our-saving  appliances.  These  advances 
in  the  science  of  gold- getting  have  not  only  enabled 
refractory  ores  to  be  profitably  treated,  but  have  also 
enabled  a  much  higher  percentage  of  the  gold  contents 
of  all  classes  of  ore  to  be  saved  at  a  lower  cost.  The 
result  has  been  a  largo  increase  in  the  world's  gold 
production,  which  now  approximates  ;^ 5 6,000.000 
sterling  per  annum,  or  something  less  than  is.  for 
each  inhabitant  of  the  globe.  Of  the  total  production 
the  British  Empire,  including  the  Transvaal,  which  is 
under  British  suzerainty,  at  present  produces  more 
than  one-half,  and  its  gold-mining  industr}^  will  in 
the  future  be  an  even  more  important  branch  of  the 
national  industry  than  it  has  been  in  the  past.  All 
our  colonies  are  laying  themselves  out  to  give  every 
encouragement  to  this  class  of  mining,  and  several 
have  taken  extensive  space  in  the  mining  section  of 
the  Greater  Britain  Exhibition  to  be  held  at  Earl's 
Court  in  1899.  Developments  progressing  in  the 
Transvaal,  Western  Australia,  the  deep  leads  of  Vic- 
toria, Queensland,  New  Zealand,  Ontario,  Klondyke, 
British  Columbia,  and  Rhodesia  all  point  to  a  large 
increase  in  gold  production  in  the  near  future. 

In  1897  the  United  States  of  America  produced 
gold  to  the  amount  of  ^12,208,600;  the  Transvaal 
came  second  with  ;^i  1,694,873  ;  Australia  third  with 
iJ^ 1 0,78 5,266  ;  and  Russia  fourth  with  £4,440.g26; 
while  the  gold  production  of  the  world  was  in  that 
year  ^^49, 199,209.  The  increase  in  the  yield  of  the 
United  States  over  1896  was  only  ;^  1,3 44,000,  whereas 
the  Transvaal's  increase  for  that  period  Avas  more  than 
i^3,ooo,ooo.  In  the  present  year  it  will  be  greater 
than  in  1897  by  iJ^4,ooo,ooo.  It  may  therefore  safely 
be  predicted  that  for  some  considerable  number  of 
years  at  least  the  British  Empire  Avill  continue  to  yield 
more  gold  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world. 


2  84  GENERAL 

Seeing  that  gold  mining  will  have  to  deal  with 
deeper  workings  in  the  future  than  it  has  done  in  the 
past,  it  will  be  instructive  to  note  the  depths  at  which 
successful  mining  is  being  prosecuted  in  various  parts 
of  the  world.  In  the  Bendioo  district  of  Victoria, 
eighteen  mines  have  found  payable  gold  at  a  depth 
of  over  1800  feet,  Avhile  the  Shenandoah  Mine  is 
working  at  a  depth  of  2756  feet,  and  Lansell  at  over 
3000  feet  in  depth  in  the  same  district,  and  both  are 
in  payable  gold.  In  Charters  Towers,  in  Queensland, 
payable  gold  is  being  obtained  at  over  a  depth  of 
2000  feet,  while  the  deepest  mine  in  New  South  Wales 
has  only  attained  a  depth  of  about  1 1 00  feet.  The 
deepest  mines  in  the  world  are  the  Przibram,  a  silver 
mine  in  Austria,  which  has  reached  a  depth  of  3900 
feet ;  the  Sainte  Henriette,  a  coal  mine  in  Belgium, 
has  also  reached  a  depth  of  3900  feet,  while  the 
Calumet  and  Hecla  copper  mine,  on  Lake  Superior, 
is  working  at  a  depth  of  4550  feet.  As  the  chief 
obstacle  to  very  deep  working  will  arise  from  increase 
in  temperature,  it  may  be  noted  that  B.  H.  Brough  in 
1896  found  the  mean  increase  to  be  1°  Fahr.  for  every 
65  feet  in  depth,  from  observations  made  in  forty-seven 
different  mines  and  deep  wells  throughout  the  world.  A 
good  many  of  these  observations  were  made  where  arti- 
ficial ventilation  did  not  exist,  and  it  may  be  assumed 
that  the  increase  will  be  less  where  such  exists. 

In  the  Witwatersrandt  district  of  the  Transvaal,  the 
leading  mining  engineers  consider  it  practicable  to 
exploit  the  banket  beds  to  a  depth  of  6000  feet.  At 
present  very  few  mines  arc  working  at  a  great  depth, 
but  there  are  a  large  ninnber  approaching  a  depth  of 
1000  feet.  With  the  aid  of  artificial  ventilation  and 
improved  appliances  for  controlling  heavy  bodies  of 
water  mucli  greater  depth  will  be  attained,  and  deep- 
level  mining  will  present  no  insuperable  difficulties  to 
the  progress  of  this  im])()rtant  industry. 


BRITAIN'S    SHARE    IN    POLAR 
DISCOVERY 

By  MILLER   CHRISTY,  F.L.S. 

Part  I. — The  Search  for  North-East  and  North- 
west Passages 

For  close  upon  three  centuries,  the  people  of  England 
took  a  very  keen  and  active,  if  somewhat  intermittent, 
interest  in  solving  the  problem  of  the  existence  of 
a  navigable  sea-passage  from  the  European  to  the 
Chinese  seas. 

The  great  object  of  the  search  was  to  discover 
better  trade  routes  to  the  vast  wealth  and  treasure 
of  China,  India,  and  Japan,  which  had  been  first  re- 
vealed to  Western  nations  by  the  overland  travels  of 
Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian  merchant,  at  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  Expedition  after  expedition  was 
sent  out,  undeterred  by  the  fact  that  one  after  another 
was  forced  to  give  up  the  search  as  fruitless.  Never,  in 
short,  was  any  quest  of  the  kind  so  long  maintained, 
so  often  abandoned  as  altogether  hopeless,  or  so  fre- 
quently revived  with  sanguine  expectations  of  success. 

Prince  Henry  of  Portugal,  known  as  "  The  Navi- 
gator," sought,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  what  may  be 
called  a  "  South-Eastern  Passage."  He  sent  out  ex- 
peditions to  test  the  possibility  of  rounding  the 
southern  end  of  Africa,  and  so  to  open  up  a  trade 
route  with  the  Indies  and  China.  By  the  year  1487, 
the  "  Cape  Route "  was  an  accomplished  fact ;  but  it 
proved  to  be  very  long  and  very  costly. 

Columbus,  never  dreamino-  of  the  existence  of  such 

28s 


286  GENERAL 

a  continent  as  America,  next  conceived  tlie  idea  of 
searching  for  a  shorter  route  round  the  world,  directly 
westward,  across  the  Atlantic ;  and  this  was  his  object 
when  he  set  out  on  his  epoch-making  voyage  which 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  America.  As  he  himself 
expressed  it,  his  aim  was  "  to  reach  the  East  by  sailing 
West."  Columbus,  on  sighting  land,  believed  himself 
nearing  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia.  He  had  failed  in 
his  avowed  object,  the  discovery  of  a  western  sea-route 
to  China,  but  had  achieved  the  discovery  of  America — 
certainly  the  greatest  event  in  the  world's  history. 

But  this  vast  continent,  the  tremendous  extent  of 
which  was  realised  but  slowly,  blocked  the  way  to  the 
riches  of  Eastern  Asia.  It  was  found  to  stretch  in 
unbroken  line  almost  from  Pole  to  Pole.  Ferdinand 
Magellan  was  the  first  to  get  round  the  southern 
extremity  in  1520;  but  this  "  South- West  Passage" 
(as  it  may  be  called)  proved  even  longer  than  the  older 
"  South-East  Passage  "  round  the  Cape.  Obviously,  a 
passage  westward  round  the  northern  end  of  the 
new  continent — a  "  North- West  Passage,"  if  such  there 
were — would  be  shorter  and  present  greater  advan- 
tages. 

Up  to  this  time,  the  search  had  been  maintained 
mainly  by  the  Port,uguese  and  Spaniards;  but,  in  the 
endeavour  to  find  a  northern  passage,  England  came 
to  the  front,  and  the  search  for  passages,  both  by  the 
North-East  and  the  North- West,  was  undertaken  and 
carried  on  mainly  by  Englishmen. 

In  I  5  5  3,  an  expedition  under  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby 
and  Sir  Richard  Chancellor  sailed  from  English  shores. 
The  route  by  wliicli  tluy  hoped  to  reach  the  East  was 
between  Greenland  ;iiid  the  northern  coast  of  Asia; 
but  the  ice  of  the  Polar  seas  proved  impenetrable,  and 
Willoughby  himself  perished  in  the  uttcmpt. 

The  North-East ern  Route  having  thus  proved  disas- 
trous, attention  was  directed  to  the  North-Western;  and. 


POLAR   DISCOVERY  287 

in  1576,  there  commenced  that  long  series  of  expedi- 
tions— about  seventy-live  in  all — which  were  sent  out 
between  the  years  1576  and  1859. 

This  first  systematic  English  attempt  to  discover  a 
"  North-West  Passage "  was  made  in  the  year  above 
named  under  Sir  Martin  Frobisher.  He  discovered 
the  inlet  on  the  north-east  coast  of  North  America, 
which  still  bears  his  name.  In  two  succeeding  years, 
he  revisited  the  same  region  for  the  purpose  of  bring- 

iuQ'  home  certain  ore  Avhich  he  believed  to  be  rich  in 

o 

gold,  but  which  proved  to  be  of  no  value. 

After  an  interval  of  about  seven  years.  Captain 
John  Davis  spent  three  successive  summers  exploring 
what  we  know  as  Davis  Strait,  but  his  confidence  that 
the  Strait  would  prove  to  be  the  hoped-for  passage 
was  ill-placed.  On  his  return  to  England  in  1587,  the 
threatened  invasion  of  England  by  the  Spanish  Armada 
prevented,  for  a  time,  any  further  thought  of  Arctic 
exploration. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
search  was  renewed,  and,  during  the  first  thirty  years, 
no  less  than  eleven  voyages  were  made.  The  most 
important  of  these  voyages  was  that  made  in  1 6 1  o  by 
Henry  Hudson,  which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  that 
vast  inland  sea  since  called  Hudson's  Bay.  The  voyage 
had  a  terribly  tragic  end,  for  Hudson's  crew  mutinied, 
set  their  captain  and  his  son,  with  six  others,  adrift  in 
a  boat,  and  themselves  returned  to  England.  Of  the 
occupants  of  that  small  boat,  nothing  more  was  ever 
heard. 

The  mutineers,  on  their  return  to  England,  caused 
great  excitement  by  relating  the  circumstance  of  their 
600-miles  sail  in  a  westward  direction  in  open  water. 
They  and  all  the  geographers  of  the  time  believed 
fully  that  the  much-desired  passage  to  the  Pacific,  and 
thence  to  the  East,  was  actually  discovered.  Nothing 
seemed  necessary  but  to  fit  out  another  expedition  to 


2  88  GENERAL 

sail  triumphantly  through  it.  This  new  expedition 
was  equipped  by  a  great  trading  company,  specially 
chartered,  under  Royal  patronage,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Button  was  appointed  commander.  Button  sailed,  in 
1 6 1  3 ,  right  across  the  Bay  until  stopped  by  its  western 
shores,  but  long  search  revealed  no  opening  in  the 
coast  by  which  he  might  continue  to  sail  westward. 
After  wintering  in  great  distress,  he  turned  homewards. 
His  arrival  in  England  caused  bitter  disappointment, 
for  his  seventeen-months  absence  had  given  rise  to 
the  belief  that  he  had  actually  reached  the  Pacific. 

Notwithstanding  Button's  failure,  the  North- West 
Passage  Company  fitted  out  other  expeditions.  One  of 
these  resulted,  in  i6i6,  in  the  discovery,  by  By  lot  and 
Baflin,  of  Baffin's  Bay.  The  only  other  attempts  at 
this  period  were  two  made  in  1631 — one  by  a  York- 
shire seaman,  Luke  Fox  (to  whom  Charles  I.  granted 
the  use  of  a  vessel  too  old  and  rotten  for  the  naval 
service) :  the  other  by  Captain  Thomas  James,  of 
Bristol,  for  whom  the  merchants  of  that  city  furnished 
a  ship.  They  both  made  further  search  in  Hudson's 
Bay,  but  without  success.  Their  return,  in  1632, 
largely  convinced  the  nation  that  further  search  was 
useless,  and  the  troublous  times  which  followed  drew 
off  public  attention  to  other  matters. 

A  third  series  of  expeditions  was  commenced  in 
the  year  17 19;  and,  between  that  year  and  1747,  no 
less  than  five  further  attempts  were  made  to  discover 
a  North-West  Passage  by  way  of  the  Avestern  shores 
of  Hudson's  Bay.  Three  of  the  five  were  organised  by 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  All  were  quite  unsuccess- 
ful ;  and  one  ended  most  disastrously,  for  the  vessels 
were  wrecked  and  every  soul  perished.  In  1 74 1 ,  the 
Admiralty  despatched  Captain  Christopher  Middlcton, 
who,  on  his  return  empty-handed,  was  accused  by  his 
chief  promoter  (an  Irishman  named  Dobbs)  of  conceal- 
ing, for  his  own  ends,  the  discovery  of  a  passage.      After 


POLAR    DISCO VP]RY  289 

much  controversy,  Dobbs  roused  the  public  to  sub- 
scribe i^  1 0,000  for  another  expedition,  and  was  also 
instrumental  in  persuading  the  Government  to  offer 
a  reward  of  i^2 0,000  for  the  discovery  of  a  passage 
through  Hudson's  Bay  to  the  Pacific  ;  and  so,  in  1746, 
a  last  attempt  was  made  by  this  route — an  attempt 
equally  fruitless  with  those  that  had  gone  before  it. 

Next,  a  certain  element  of  novelty  was  introduced 
into  the  method  of  attacking  the  problem  which  had 
baffled  so  many.  Although  the  new  project  was  short- 
lived, nmch  hope  was  placed  in  it  at  the  time.  Hitherto, 
all  explorers  had  endeavoured  to  sail  iVom  east  to  Avest 
through  the  Polar  Seas  :  Why  not  try  next  from  west 
to  east — from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  ?  In  pursuit 
of  this  new  plan  was  engaged  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious of  England's  navigators,  Captain  Cook.  During 
the  summer  of  1778,  Cook  explored  and  mapped  the 
far  north-western  coast  of  America,  forcing  his  way  as 
far  north  as  possible.  At  what  he  called  Icy  Cape, 
he  could  penetrate  no  farther,  and  so  made  for  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  intending  to  winter  there  ;  but,  in  an 
encounter  with  the  natives  of  the  Islands,  he  lost  his 
life,  adding  yet  another  tragedy  to  the  long  roll  of 
disaster  connected  with  Arctic  Discovery. 

In  the  early  part  of  last  century,  after  the  long 
and  costly  war  with  France,  England  once  more  ad- 
dressed herself  to  Arctic  problems,  very  largely  through 
the  influence  of  Sir  John  Barrow,  Secretary  to  the 
Admiralty.  Parliament  again  offered,  under  new  con- 
ditions, a  reward  of  ;^20,ooo  for  the  discovery  of  a 
North- West  Passage,  as  well  as  a  smaller  reward  of 
;^5ooo  to  any  one  who  should  reach  a  certain  point, 
to  the  north  of  America,  about  half-way  between  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Pacific. 

In  the  spring  of  18 18,  two  Arctic  expeditious, 
lavishly  equipped  by  the  British  Government,  set  forth 
for  the  Polar  Seas.      One  was  commanded  by  Captain 

V  T 


290  GENERAL 

(afterwards  Sir)  John  Ross,  under  whom  served  Lieu- 
tenant Parry.  It  re-explored  the  great  Bay,  discovered 
by  Baffin  in  1616,  which  had  remained  unvisited  for 
two  hundred  years.  By  a  series  of  unfortunate  bhm- 
ders,  Ross  mistook  Smith's  Sound  and  Lancaster  Sound 
(through  the  hitter  of  which  nearly  all  later  searchers 
endeavoured  to  find  a  passage)  for  mere  inlets  of  the 
sea,  filled  with  ice,  and  therefore  not  worth  further 
exploration.  Upon  Ross's  return,  some  of  his  officers 
declared  themselves  unsatisfied  with  his  conclusions. 
The  Government  then  sent  out  Parry  to  further  ex- 
amine Lancaster  Sound.  As  he  sailed  farther  and 
farther  westward  through  this  broad  open  channel, 
naming  capes,  bays,  straits,  and  islands  on  either  side, 
the  more  sanguine  members  of  his  party  began  to  cal- 
culate the  distance  to  Cook's  Icy  Cape,  near  the  north- 
western extremity  of  America,  knowing  that,  when 
they  reached  that  point,  they  would  be  entitled  to 
claim  the  reward  for  the  discovery  of  a  North- West 
Passage.  When,  five  hundred  miles  from  the  en- 
trance to  Lancaster  Sound,  the  ships  reached  the  point 
which  entitled  their  crews  to  the  ;^5000  reward,  they 
felt  that  the  remaimng  iJ^  15,000  was  well  withhi  their 
reach.  But,  only  a  day  or  two  later,  the  ships  were 
stopped  by  the  ice  and  soon  became  firmly  fixed.  The 
dreary  winter  ensued,  and  the  following  sumincr  saw 
them  back  in  England  with  their  task  still  unachieved. 
Twice  did  Parry  return  to  tlie  attack,  losing,  on  one 
occasion,  his  vessel,  the  /'Vr//,  on  what  has  since  been 
known  as  Fury  Beach,  Avlicro  all  lier  stores  were 
landed;  but  finally  he  had  to  abandon  the  quest. 

[t  was  now  clear  that,  a  North- West  Passage,  even 
if  lound,  (;ould  have  little  commercial  value.  The 
Government  reward  of  i^20,ooo  was,  tliercfore,  with- 
di'awn,  and  national  expeditions  temporarily  ceased, 
r.ut  Ca]itain  Ross  was  eager  to  retrieve  his  tarnished 
n])iii;iti(»n.     In  F828,  having  obtained  the  assistance  of 


POLAR    DISCOVERY  291 

Mr.  Felix  Booth,  he  started  on  another  Arctic  voyage, 
sailintr  in  a  small  steamer — the  first  ever  used  in  Polar 
exploration.  For  three  years  the  vessel  remained 
firmly  fixed  in  the  ice  on  the  coast  of  Boothia  Land, 
and  the  crow  must  have  starved  had  they  not,  by  means 
of  a  longf  march  across  the  ice,  fallen  back  on  the  stores 
left  by  Parry  at  Fvn-y  Beach.  Ultimately,  a  whaling 
vessel  rescued  and  brought  them  home,  nearly  four 
years  and  a  half  after  their  departure.  The  most  im- 
portant result  attained  was  the  determination  of  the 
actual  position  of  the  North  Magnetic  Pole.  Captain 
Ross  was  rewarded  by  a  knighthood  and  his  crew 
received  a  monetary  grant. 

For  several  years,  activity  in  Polar  research  Avas 
confined  to  an  expedition,  in  1839,  to  the  Antarctic 
Region.  On  the  return  of  this  expedition,  Sir  John 
Barrow  again  urged  the  Government  to  renew  its 
endeavour,  pointing  out  that  nothing  was  needed  but 
to  overhaul  the  ships  just  returned.  This  was  done 
at  comparatively  small  cost.  Sir  John  Franklin  was 
chosen  commander,  and  the  Erebus  and  the  Terror, 
with  three  years'  provisions  on  board,  sailed  on  May 
19,  1845.  This  was  the  last  expedition  ever  sent  out 
solely  in  search  of  a  North-West  Passage. 

Franklin  was  instructed  to  pass  through  Lancaster 
Sound  and  make  the  best  of  his  way  southward  and 
westward  towards  Bering  Strait.  In  Melville  Bay  the 
ships  made  fast  to  the  ice,  which  barred  their  progress, 
and  there,  on  July  26,  they  were  seen  by  the  captain  of  a 
Hull  whaler.  Then  they  disappeared  into  the  desolate 
Polar  wastes. 

Three  years  passed  and, as  no  news  had  been  received, 
anxiety  as  to  the  fate  of  the  explorers  became  intense. 
For  twelve  long  years,  the  search  for  a  North- West 
Passaofe  was  forofotten  and  a  search  for  Franklin  took 
its  place. 

In  1848,  three  relief  expeditions  were  sent  out  by 


292  GENERAL 

different  routes;  but,  at  the  close  of  1849,  the  fate  of 
FrankHn  and  his  party  was  still  unknown.  Govern- 
ment and  private  rewards  were  offered  to  the  amount 
of  ;;/^23,ooo.  In  1850,  no  less  than  fifteen  vessels 
were  actively  engaged,  while  land  expeditions  were  also 
out.  Tt  was  not  until  1852  that  Dr.  John  Rae,  retm-n- 
ing  from  his  land  expedition,  brought  the  first  conclusive 
evidence  of  the  tragic  fate  of  Franklin's  crews.  On 
this,  Government  efforts  ceased ;  but  the  search 
was  maintained  by  private  enterprise,  till,  in  1859.  the 
steam  yacht  Fox,  sent  out  by  Lady  Franklin  and  under 
the  command  of  Captain  (now  Admiral  Sir  Leopold) 
M'Clintock,  gathered  together  all  the  melancholy 
tidings  that  will  ever  be  gleaned  of  the  fate  of  Sir 
John  Franklin  and  his  men. 

After  Avintering  at  Beechy  Island,  Franklin  had 
turned  south-westward  down  Peel  Strait,  where,  in  the 
autumn  of  1846,  his  ships  had  been  frozen  in  on  the 
shores  of  Kin''  William  Land,  7iever  agfain  to  be  released. 
During  the  summer  of  1847,  by  means  of  sledges,  the 
party  had  pushed  on  westward,  and  sighted  a  point  on 
the  northern  coast-line  of  the  American  Continent, 
which  Franklin  himself,  travelling  from  the  eastward, 
had  reached  some  years  previously.  Thus,  at  last,  the 
discovery  of  a  North- West  Passage  was  finally  achieved, 
after  a  search  of  just  271  years.  The  brave  old  Sir 
John  died  almost  directly  after,  proud  to  have  seen,  if 
not  to  have  travelled  through,  the  long-sought  Passage. 
His  men  retreated  southward,  but  every  one  of  the 
1 34  souls  perished  on  the  way.  Only  a  few  relics,  some 
l)ones,  and  a  single  written  paper,  found  hidden  in  a 
cairn,  remain  to  tell  the  tale. 

Although  Franklin's  expedition  discovered  a  Nortli- 
Wost  Passage,  it  still  remained  for  some  one  to  pass 
through  it.  This  Avas  actually  accomplished,  in  the  years 
1850-54,  by  Captain  M'Clure,  albeit  the  reverse  Avay, 
fntiii  the  Pacific  to  tlie  Atlantic:   but  ho  liad  to  uban- 


POLAR    DISCOVERY  293 

don  his  ship  and  take  to  sledges,  and  Avas  rescued  by 
another  vessel,  which  brought  him  to  England. 

To  this'  day,  no  vessel  of  any  kind  has  actually 
passed  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  or  vice  versci, 
round  the  North  of  America. 

And  now  we  have  to  recognise  that  the  necessity 
which  originally  gave  rise  to  the  search  no  longer 
exists.  The  old  Cape  Route  to  India  and  China  was 
shortened  enormously,  in  1869,  by  the  opening  of  the 
Suez  Canal :  whilst  the  Canadian-Pacific  and  other 
North  American  trans-continental  railways  now  enable 
us  to  travel  from  London  to  Japan  in  twenty  days. 

It  may  be  asked  Avhether  all  the  enterprise  and 
outlay  has  been  justified  by  the  results.  Directly, 
perhaps,  no  :  indirectly,  undoubtedly,  yes.  The  Arctic 
whale  and  seal  fisheries,  for  250  years  a  great  and 
flourishing  British  industry,  and  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company's  trade,  carried  on  for  230  years  and  still 
existing,  are  both  obvious  results. 

Over  and  above  these  material  advantages  must 
be  recognised  the  scientific  yains  to  the  world,  which 
could  not  otherwise  have  been  secured.  Then,  too, 
there  was  that  fostering  of  the  spirit  of  national  enter- 
prise which  brought  gallant  men  to  the  front,  and 
developed  in  them  the  persistency  and  pluck  which 
has  made  us,  as  a  people,  what  we  are,  and  has  placed 
our  little  northern  isle  foremost  among  the  nations  of 
the  world. 


Part  II. — Attempts  to  Reach  the  North  and 
South  Poles 

The  old  search  for  a  passage  to  the  Orient  by 
the  North-East  or  North- West  was  almost  wholly  com- 
mercial in  its  oriijin  and  aim.  The  much-more- 
modern  attempts  to  reach  the  Earth's  Poles  have  a 
wholly    scientific   object,   and   their   successful   accom- 


2  94  GENERAL 

plisliment  would  exercise  little  or  no  influence  upon 
trade.  The  two  quests  have,  in  fact,  no  direct  connec- 
tion, except  that  each  is  a  form  of  Polar  Exploration. 

At  the  outset,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  two 
Poles  of  our  Earth  differ,  in  one  respect,  very  widely. 

One  Pole  (the  Northern)  lies,  so  far  as  has  yet  been 
ascertained,  near  the  centre  of  a  large  ocean  (of 
which  an  area  about  half  the  size  of  Europe  still  re- 
mains unexplored),  surrounded  by  three  of  the  world's 
greatest  continents. 

The  other  Pole  (the  Southern)  lies,  so  far  as  we  knoAv, 
in  the  midst  of  a  huge  unexplored  land-mass,  some 
four  millions  of  square  miles  in  area — a  sixth  con- 
tinent, in  fact — whose  shores  are  washed  by  the  three 
largest  oceans  of  our  globe.^ 

These  vast  uncharted  Polar  areas — the  Southern 
especially — form  the  only  really- extensive  portions  of 
the  Earth's  surface  which  man  has  not  been  able,  as 
yet,  to  explore.  Each  presents  innumerable  problems 
— meteorological,  geological,  geographical,  biological, 
and  magnetic — of  the  highest  interest  to  scientific 
men,  who  are  anxiously  awaiting  their  solution.  The 
solution  of  these  problems  and  the  natural  ambition  of 
man  to  become  familiar  with  all  parts  of  the  world 
he  inhabits  (especially  those  which  have  baffled  all 
attempts  hitherto  made  to  reach  them),  afford  the  only 
tangible  objects  of  Polar  Exploration;  for  the  actual 
reaching  of  either  of  the  exact  mathematical  points 
which  form  the  Earth's  axes  or  "  Poles "  is,  in  itself, 
of  no  practical  importance  whatever,  though,  to  the 
popular  mind,  always  the  main  object. 

The  attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole  originated 
ill  1772,  when  the  Hon.  Dainos  liarrington — Gilbert 
White's  friend  and  correspondent — collected  and  piih- 

'  Thr;re  is,  it  in  true,  no  conclusive  evidence  of  tlie  existence  of  tiiis 
reputed  Antarctic  Continent,  sometimes  called  "Antarctica"  :  but  tliere 
are  good  reasons  for  thinking  it  exists.  In  any  case,  it  is  certain  that 
huge  land-masses  exist  within  the  Antarctic  Circle. 


POLAR    DISCOVERY  295 

lished  the  narratives  of  whalers  and  others  who  had 
previously  approached  the  Pole.  In  the  following 
year,  an  expedition  fitted  out  at  the  national  expense, 
and  commanded  by  Captain  Phipps,  set  sail  from 
England  in  order  to  reach  the  Pole.  It  was  the 
first  ever  sent  out  solely  with  that  object.  Though 
well  conducted,  it  achieved  little  of  importance,  and 
is  now  of  interest  chiefly  from  the  fact  that  Nelson 
served  on  it  as  a  midshipman. 

In  1776,  Parliament  offered  a  reward  of  ^^5000 
to  any  one  who  should  approach  within  one  degree 
of  the  Pole — a  reward  which  has  never  yet  been 
claimed.  No  one,  in  fact,  approached  the  Pole  nearer 
than  Phipps  until  1806,  when  Captain  Scoresby,  a 
well-known  whaling  captain,  sailing  to  the  north  of 
Spitzbergen,  reached  81°  30' — the  highest  latitude 
until  then  attained. 

In  1 8 18,  interest  in  the  matter  revived,  and  a 
national  expedition  under  Captain  Buchan  was  des- 
patched. It  was  stopped  by  the  ice  between  Green- 
land and  Spitzbergen,  sustaining  severe  injuries  to 
the  two  ships  engaged.  It  accomplished  nothing ; 
but  it  crave  Franklin,  who  served  as  a  lieutenant,  his 
first  experience  of  Arctic  exploration. 

The  failure  of  these  well-thought-out  expeditions 
showed  that  it  was  impossible  to  reach  the  Pole  by 
sailing  through  the  ice;  and,  in  1827,  Parry  essa3'ed 
a  novel  plan.  Sailing  to  the  north  of  Spitzbergen,  he 
there  left  his  ship  and  started  towards  the  Pole  in 
boats  fitted  with  runners,  so  that  they  might  be  used 
either  as  sledges  for  passing  over  the  ice  or  as  boats 
for  navigating  open  water.  He  proceeded  until  he 
attained  a  point  more  than  a  degree  north  of  any 
before  reached,  when  he  found  that  the  ice  was  drift- 
ing southward  more  rapidly  than  he  was  travelling 
northwards  over  it,  so  that  he  was  actually  losing 
ground.     He,  therefore,  turned  back. 


296  GENERAL 

After  this,  the  enterprise  Avas  neglected  for  many 
years,  and  nothing  further  Avas  done  in  this  country, 
till  after  the  long  search  for  Franklin  had  ended. 

In  1875,  however,  another  great  national  expedi- 
tion was  despatched  in  H.M,  ships  Alert  and  Discovery, 
under  Captain  (now  Admiral  Sir  George)  Nares  and 
Captain  (now  Admiral  A.  H.)  Markham.  The  expedition 
was  intended  to  proceed  by  way  of  the  narrow  strait 
known  as  Smith's  Sound,  to  the  North  of  Baffin's  Bay. 
Smith's  Sound  had  been  explored  by  the  American 
Expeditions  under  Hall  and  Kane,  one  of  which  had 
wintered  at  a  higher  latitude  than  had  ever  before 
been  reached  by  any  shi/p.  On  May  1 2  th,  in  the 
following  year,  Markham,  when  in  charge  of  a  sledg- 
ing party,  advanced  over  the  ice  to  a  point  just 
within  400  miles  of  the  Pole  itself,  thus  breaking, 
by  about  forty  miles,  the  record  established  by  Parry 
fifty  years  earlier. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  "  Britain's 
Share  in  Polar  Discovery  "  has  been  a  very  small  share 
indeed  compared  with  that  taken  by  the  people  and 
Governments  of  other  nations — especially  the  Ameri- 
cans, Norwegians,  and  Swedes.  So  far  as  the  attempt 
to  reach  the  North  Pole  is  concerned,  that  share  is, 
indeed,  almost  confined  to  Mr.  Harmsworth's  expedi- 
tion under  Mr.  F.  G.  Jackson,  which  carried  on  a  good 
deal  of  useful  local  exploratory  work  in  Franz  Josef 
Land,  from  1894  to  1896,  but  did  little  towards 
reaching  the  Pole,  though  intended  originally  for  that 
purpose. 

Three  of  the  more  importiint  attempts  made  re- 
cently by  foreigners  may  be  alluded  to  bi-iefly,  although, 
strictly  speaking,  they  do  not  fall  under  the  title  chosen 
for  these  remarks. 

First  comes  that  of  PI  err  S.  A.  Andre,  a  well- 
known  Swedish  scientist,  wIkj,  in  1897,  started  from 
Spitsbergen   in  a  balloon  fitted  with  a  special  steering 


POLAR   DISCOVERY  297 

apparatus  of  his  own  invention.  Nothing  is  known  of 
his  fate,  and  it  is  now  impossible  to  doubt  that  he 
has  perished. 

In  all  respects  the  most  important  attempt  ever 
made  to  reach  the  North  Pole  or  to  explore  thoroughly 
any  considerable  portion  of  the  region  surrounding  it, 
was  that  made  in  the  years  1893-96  by  Dr.  Fridtjof 
Nansen,  a  Norwegian  of  Danish  descent. 

Recognising  that  the  old  methods  of  procedure  had 
failed,  Nansen  thought  out  a  new  plan.  He  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  drift-timber  and  other  objects  from 
the  Sil)erian  coast  are  thrown  up  continually  on  the 
East  side  of  Greenland,  that  there  exists  a  current 
which  flows  across  the  Polar  Ocean  in  the  direction 
indicated ;  and  it  seemed  clear  to  him  that,  if  a 
ship  could  be  built  strongly  enough  to  withstand 
the  pressure  of  the  Polar  ice,  this  ship  might  drift 
easily,  in  time,  with  the  ice,  across  the  Polar 
Ocean — perhaps,  even,  across  the  very  Pole  itself. 
Accordingly,  he  built  the  Fram  (that  is,  Forward), 
probably  the  strongest  vessel  ever  until  then  con- 
structed. She  was  fashioned  also,  below  the  water- 
line,  of  such  shape  that  ice-pressure,  instead  of 
crushing  her,  should  merely  force  her  upwards  until 
she  lay  upon  the  surface. 

The  Fram,  provisioned  for  five  years,  and  manned 
by  a  picked  Norwegian  crew  of  twelve  hands,  sailed 
from  Christiania  in  June  1893,  crossed  the  Kara  Sea, 
crept  along  the  northern  coasts  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  reached,  that  autumn,  the  New  Siberian  Islands, 
where  she  was  forced  into  the  Arctic  ice-pack.  Slowly 
she  commenced  to  drift  north-westward,  as  Nansen 
had  anticipated.  This  continued  all  the  following  year 
(1894),  until,  shortly  after  Christmas,  Lat.  83°  23' 
(the  highest  previous  record)  was  passed.  On  March 
1 4th  1895,  deeming  the  Fram  to  have  passed  the 
most  northerly  point  she  was  likely  to  reach,  Nansen 


298  GENERAL 

left  her,  with  Lieutenant  Johansen  as  his  sole  com- 
panion, in  order  to  attempt  a  nearer  approach  towards 
the  Pole  by  means  of  dog-sledge  and  canoe.  Three 
weeks  later,  on  April  7th,  the  two  reached  Lat.  86°  14', 
a  point  about  226  geographical  miles  from  the  Pole 
— as  far,  that  is,  as  Newcastle  is  from  London.  Here 
the  extreme  roughness  of  the  ice  compelled  return. 
After  an  exceedingly  perilous  journey  over  the  ice, 
Nansen  and  his  companion  at  last  reached  Franz 
Josef  Land,  where  they  passed  the  winter  of  1895-6, 
in  a  hut  they  built  of  earth,  stones,  and  moss,  and 
roofed  with  walrus  hides.  They  lived,  meanwhile, 
on  bear's  meat.  In  the  spring  (that  of  1896),  they 
started  southwards  for  Spitzbergen,  but  soon  came 
upon  Mr.  Jackson's  camp  at  Cape  Flora,  whence  they 
proceeded  to  Norway  in  Mr.  Harmsworth's  relieving- 
vessel  Windward,  arriving  on  the  13  th  of  August.  A 
week  later,  the  Fram  (from  which  Nansen  and  Johansen 
had  been  separated  seventeen  months)  also  arrived, 
and  Nansen's  remarkable  expedition,  extending  over 
more  than  three  years,  came  to  an  end. 

Nansen  achieved  practically  all  that  he  attempted. 
He  approached  nearly  two  hundred  miles  nearer  to 
the  Pole  than  any  one  before  him  ;  and,  in  so  doing,  he 
explored  a  vast  region  which  had  previously  been  so 
utterly  unknown  that  no  one  could  say  whether  it 
was  sea  or  land.  He  showed  that  there  was  probably 
no  land  on  this  side  of  the  Pole,  and  that  the  Polar 
Ocean  was  of  a  depth  previously  unsuspected.  All 
this  he  did  without  serious  injury  to  his  ship  or  the 
loss  of  a  single  one  of  his  companions.  Never  were 
good  management  and  good  luck  so  happily  combined. 

Tlic  latest  attempt  to  reach  the  Pole  was  organised 
by  an  Italian — the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi,  cousin  of  the 
present  King  of  Italy.  The  Duke  purchased  a  well- 
known  Norwegian  whaHng-vessel,  and  re-named  her 
the  Stella  Polare  (Polar  Star).      In  her.  ho  left  Cln-isti- 


POLAR   DISCOVERY  299 

ania  in  June  1899,  with  a  mixed  crew  of  Italians 
and  Norwegians,  and  victualled  for  several  years. 
No  precaution  which  forethought  could  suggest  was 
neglected.  The  Duke's  plan  was  to  proceed  in  his 
ship  to  Franz  Josef  Land  and  thence  to  send  out 
a  series  of  sledge  expeditions  northward — those  going 
out  first  being  intended  to  carry  forward  and  cache 
supplies  for  those  going  later.  He  took  out  a  large 
number  of  dogs  for  use  on  these  expeditions.  Franz 
Josef  Land  was  reached  without  serious  difficulty,  and 
the  ship  attained  Lat.  82°  5' — a  higher  latitude  than 
a  ship  had  ever  reached  before  by  sailing,  though  the 
Fram  had,  of  course,  drifted  farther  north.  Early  in 
September,  although  efforts  had  been  made  to  berth 
the  ship,  she  sustained  from  the  ice  injuries  so  severe 
as  to  render  her  uninhabitable,  and  the  members  of  the 
expedition  were  obliged  to  Avinter  in  huts  they  built 
on    shore.       In    the    middle    of     March,    a    sledgfiniif 

'  on 

party  started  northwards.  It  was  found,  however,  to 
be  too  large ;  and,  at  different  times,  two  detachments 
(one  of  which  was  lost)  were  sent  back.  The  re- 
mainder, consisting  of  four  Italians  led  by  Captain 
Cagni,  persisted.  Ultimately,  in  spite  of  enormous 
difiiculties,  they  reached  Lat.  86°  33' — a  few  miles 
farther  north  than  the  point  reached  by  Nansen. 
The  return  presented  still  greater  difficulties  and 
dangers ;  but,  in  tlie  end,  the  explorers  reached  theii" 
base  in  safety,  after  a  highly  remarkable  sledging 
journey  of  some  750  miles.  Meanwhile,  the  ship 
had  been  repaired  sufliciently  for  the  return  voyage, 
which  was  commenced  as  soon  as  possible.  Norway 
was  reached  in  the  autunm  of  1900.  Thus  the  expe- 
dition was  able  to  accomplish  one  season's  work  only, 
instead  of  several,  as  had  been  intended;  but  the  results 
achieved  were  remarkable  so  far  as  they  went. 

What  has  been  accomplished  so   far  leaves  little 
doubt    that,   within   a  comparatively   short  time,   not 


300  GENERAL 

only  will  tlie  North  Pole  itself  be  reached,  but  the 
unknown  region  around  it  will  be,  by  some  means, 
more  or  less  thoroughly  explored. 

The  plan  of  procedure  devised  by  Nansen  seems  to 
be,  on  the  whole,  the  surest  and  best.  It  offers, 
apparently,  the  greatest  possible  safety  and  comfort 
to  those  engaged,  and  gives,  therefore,  better  facilities 
than  any  other  plan  for  carrying  on  the  main  work 
of  any  such  expedition — namely,  accurate  and  thorough 
scientific  investigation  of  the  region  traversed.  The 
chief  objections  to  the  adoption  of  this  plan  are  the 
great  length  of  time  it  must,  necessarily,  occupy — 
probably  four  or  five  years  —  and  the  consequent 
heavy  expense. 

The  Fram  (or  a  vessel  built  on  similar  lines) 
should  be  sent  round  to  the  Pacific,  and  the  real 
starting-point  of  the  expedition  should  be  Vancouver 
in  British  Columbia.  She  should  proceed  thence  to 
Bering's  Strait  and  be  forced  into  the  Polar  ice  at  a 
point  much  farther  north-west  than  that  at  which 
Nansen  entered  it.  If  this  were  done,  there 
seems  a  probability  that  the  vessel  might  drift 
with  the  ice  either  across  the  Pole  or  on  the 
farther  (that  is,  the  American)  side  of  it,  where 
by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  still  unexplored  area 
lies,  and  where  unknown  land  may  exist.  It  is 
now  practically  certain  that  no  unknown  land  exists 
on  this  (that  is,  the  European  and  Asiatic)  side  of 
the  Pole. 

Not  impossibly,  the  desired  result  may  be 
attained  much  more  quickly — in  a  single  season, 
in  fact  —  by  some  such  attempt  as  that  made 
during  the  past  summer  in  the  wonderful  Russian 
ice -breaking  steamer  Ermack.  This  extraordinary 
vessel  —  undoubtedly  the  strongest  afloat  —  has 
more  than  answered  the  expectations  of  her  de- 
signer    in     the    way     of     keeping     open      the     ice- 


POLAR    DISCOVERY  301 

blocked  Baltic  ports.  During  an  experimental  trip 
imdcrtakon  by  her  among  tlio  Arctic  ice  in  the 
vicinity  of  Spitzbergen,  she  dealt  easily  with  tlie 
heaviest  ice  that  was  opposed  to  her  ;  but  her 
voyage  itself  was  a  failure.  Even  supposing,  how- 
ever, that  the  Pole  will  be  reached  some  day  in 
such  a  ship,  the  voyage  (however  sensational  it 
may  be)  Avill  hardly  present  those  opportunities  for 
making  the  necessary  laborious  scientific  observa- 
tions on  the  region  crossed  which  a  more  leisurely 
voyage  would  afford. 

National  pride  leads  us  to  hope  that  the  exploration 
of  the  still  unknown  North  Polar  area  may  be  accom- 
plished by  our  own  countrymen ;  but  it  is  to  be  feared 
that,  if  England  continues  to  show  the  apathy  she  has 
shown  lately  in  this  matter,  the  honour  for  which 
she  was  the  first  to  strive  will  fall  to  some  other 
nation. 

Turning  now  to  the  attempts  made  to  reach  the 
South  Pole,  we  find  that  extremely  little  is  known  of 
the  region  surrounding  it.  Its  desolate  nature,  rigor- 
ous climate,  vast  size,  and  extreme  remoteness  fi-om 
the  chief  centres  of  civilisation,  have  led  to  its  receiv- 
ing, hitherto,  very  little  attention  from  explorers.  Of 
late,  however,  the  growing  importance  of  the  scientific 
problems  connected  with  it  has  attracted  attention  to 
it ;  and,  for  some  years  to  come,  the  question  of  South 
Polar  Exploration  is  likely  to  remain  prominently 
before  the  public. 

In  1773,  the  Antarctic  Circle  was  first  crossed  by 
Cook  during  the  second  of  his  two  famous  voyages  of 
exploration.  But  Cook  never  got  within  1 1 00  miles 
of  the  Pole,  and  the  appearance  of  desolation  he  saw 
all  around  liim  led  him  afterwards  to  express  the 
belief  that,  if  any  land  lay  farther  south,  it  would  not 
be  worth  exploring.  Nevertheless,  his  voyage  (which 
extended    over    three    years)    Avas    one    of    the    most 


302  GENERAL 

important  ever  made,  and  has  formed  the  basis  of  ail 
later  Antarctic  voyages  of  discovery. 

After  Cook's  time,  little  was  done  for  a  long 
period.  Many  things  (particularly  the  disturbed  state 
of  Europe,  owing  to  the  Napoleonic  wars)  tended  to 
check  further  discovery.  The  more  accessible  of  the 
islands  lying  around  the  Antarctic  Circle  were,  how- 
ever, visited  with  some  regularity  by  English  and 
American  seal-hunters,  who  made  occasionally  small 
additions  to  geographical  knowledge  in  South  Georgia, 
the  South  Shetlands,  and  what  is  now  called  the  Dirk 
Gerritz  Archipelago. 

In  1820  and  1821,  some  valuable  exploration  was 
carried  on  within  the  Antarctic  Circle  by  the  Russian 
National  Expedition  under  Bellingshausen,  but  no 
high  latitudes  were  attained. 

In  February  1823.  James  Weddell,  an  experienced 
English  whaling  captain,  with  two  small  ships,  not 
specially  equipped  for  exploring,  attained  with  ease  the 
remarkably  high  latitude  of  74°  1 5'  S.  (or  three 
degrees  farther  than  Cook's  highest  point),  to  the  south 
of  the  South  Sandwich  Group,  and  in  the  sea  now 
known  as  Weddell's  Sea.  He  encountered  no  ice  in 
the  highest  latitudes  attained,  but  sickness  in  his 
crew  compelled  him  to  turn  back  before  sighting 
any  land. 

After  this,  for  some  years,  little  progress  of 
importance  was  made,  though  various  captains  of 
sealers,  chiefl}'  English,  sighted  land  at  various  points 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  Antarctic  Circle.  Kemp,  for 
instance,  in  1833,  discovered  the  land  now  called  after 
him  ;  and,  in  1839,  l^allcny  discovered  what  arc  now 
called  the  Ballcny  Islands, 

Tlio  close  of  the  fourth  decade  of  the  past  century 
was  marked  by  extraordinary  activity  in  Antarctic 
PJxploration.  For  this,  the  growing  importance  of  the 
stutly   (»f   Terrestrial    Magnetism    iind     the    need    for 


POLAR    DISCOVERY  303 

making  observations  in  high  southern  hititiides  were 
mainly  responsible.  Three  nations — France,  America, 
and  England — sent  out  expeditions,  all  about  the 
same  time,  to  assist  in  the  work. 

The  French  expedition,  consisting  of  two  vessels, 
under  Dumont  d'Urville,  left  France  in  1837.  It  Avas 
not  intended  specially  for  South  Polar  Exploration,  and 
was  not  particularly  well  fitted  therefor.  Early  in 
1838,  however,  D'Urville  attempted  to  follow  up  and 
improve  upon  Weddcll's  discoveries,  but  without 
achieving  any  important  result.  Later,  early  in  1840, 
he  returned  to  the  Antarctic  Region  —  prompted, 
probably,  by  the  knowledge  that  it  Avas  to  be  visited 
by  other  expeditions,  which  he  hoped  to  forestall.  On 
this  occasion  he  explored  (and,  in  part,  discovered)  a 
portion  of  the  coast  of  what  is  now  called  Wilkes 
Land.  His  name  of  Adelie  Land  still  stands  for  the 
portion  he  examined.  D'Urville  had  not,  however, 
pushed  his  discoveries  very  far  before  sickness  among 
his  crews  compelled  him  to  return  to  France. 

Meanwhile,  an  American  Expedition,  consisting  of 
no  fewer  than  five  vessels,  under  Charles  Wilkes,  had 
started  in  1838.  It,  too,  was  not  intended  specially 
for  Antarctic  Exploration,  having  been  fitted  out 
mainly  to  make  certain  scientific  investigations 
elsewhere,  especially  in  the  Pacific.  Neverthe- 
less, Wilkes  made  an  important  voyage,  extending 
knowledge  of  the  South  Polar  area  in  several  direc- 
tions, and  exploring  especially  the  coast-line  of  the 
land  now  called  after  him. 

This  brings  us  to  the  British  National  Expedition 
of  1839-43,  under  Captain  (afterwards  Sir)  James 
Clark  Ross,  a  nephew  of  Sir  John  Ross  of  Arctic 
fame.  This  rejuains.  the  only  great  and  adequately- 
equipped  expedition  which  has  ever  yet  made  a 
thorough  and  extended  scientific  examination  of  the 
Antarctic  Region,  and  is  one  of  the  most  famous  and 


304  GENERAL 

successful  voyages  of  exploration  ever  undertaken  by 
any  nation.  To  notice  its  achievements  in  detail 
here  is  impossible.  To  it  the  world  is  indebted  for  a 
great  share  of  its  knowledoe  of  the  re<jfion  visited : 
while,  from  the  scientific  point  of  view,  it  is  still  a 
classic  voyage. 

Ross  spent  three  southern  summers  in  the  work 
of  exploration,  hut  was  compelled  to  retreat  north- 
wards, to  Australia  or  the  Falkland  Islands,  to  pass 
the  winters,  being  unable  to  discover  any  suitable 
winter  harbour  in  high  southern  latitudes.  During 
each  of  these  summers,  he  made  important  geogra- 
phical discoveries  and  innumerable  observations  of 
great  interest  in  every  branch  of  science ;  but  the 
most  important  discoveries  were  those  made  during 
the  first  season  (that  of  1840-41),  when  he  discovered 
the  land  now  known  as  Victoria  Land ;  explored  its 
coast-line  for  some  hundreds  of  miles;  passed,  as  he 
calcidated,  within  160  miles  of  the  Southern  Magnetic 
Polo ;  discovered  two  lofty  volcanic  mountains,  Avhicli 
he  named  (after  his  two  ships)  JMount  Erebus  and 
Mount  Terror — the  former,  at  the  time,  belching  forth 
flames  and  smoke  at  a  height  of  over  i  2,000  feet ;  and 
ultimately  attained  Lat.  78°  10' — a  record  which  was 
not  surpassed  for  nearly  sixty  years.  Everywhere  he 
saw  desolation — huge  icefields  and  icebergs  on  the 
sea,  vast  snowfields  and  glaciers  on  the  land.  No- 
Avhere  was  he  able  to  effect  a  landing  on  the  coast  of 
the  mainland,  though  twice  he  obtained  a  footing  on 
rocky  islets  near  the  shore. 

Ross  returned  to  England  in  September  1843, 
after  an  absence  of  four  years,  all  but  a  few  days, 
having  completed  his  voyage  without  serious  injury 
to  his  ships  and  with  the  loss  «f  only  one  man,  who 
fell  overboard.  Among  explorei's  of  the  South  Polar 
area,  he  stands  to  this  day  pre-cnninent.  His  great 
voyage  throws  completely  into  the  shade  all  that  was 


POLAR    DISCOVERY  305 

done  in  the  way  of  South  Polar  Exploration 'from  his 
time  up  to  the  last  few  years. 

Within  the  period  indicated  (the  half-century  from 
1843  to  1893),  no  expedition  of  any  kind  was  de- 
spatched to  the  Antarctic  Region  solely  to  continue 
exploration,  and  the  little  that  Avas  accomplished  was, 
almost  wholly,  the  casual  work  of  those  who  went 
thither  to  hunt  seals  or  whales.  Even  of  these  men. 
more  were  of  foreign  than  of  British  nationality ; 
whilst  the  results  achieved  by  them  have  been,  though 
useful  enough,  so  extremely  small  as  not  to  need 
special  notice  here. 

It  is  true  that  the  famous  voyage  of  the  Chal- 
lenger (commenced  in  1872)  falls  within  the  period 
under  notice ;  but  the  Challenger  was  neither  equipped 
nor  intended  for  exploration  in  the  narrower  sense, 
and  she  made  no  new  geographical  discoveries,  though 
she  spent  a  few  days  within  the  Antarctic  Circle.  She 
made,  however,  an  immense  number  of  extremely 
valuable  scientific  observations  in  what  may  be  called 
the  Sub- Antarctic  Region  ;  and  the  fact  that  such  a 
voyage  was  made,  with  purely  scientific  objects,  reflects 
high  credit  on  the  British  Government  of  the  period. 

The  smallness  of  the  change  made  in  the  South 
Polar  chart  during  the  half-century  in  question  well 
shows  the  extremely  small  amount  of  exploration 
accomplished. 

Within  the  last  seven  or  eight  years,  however,  we 
have  entered  upon  what  seems  likely  to  prove  a  now 
era  in  Antarctic  Exploration,  for  the  demands  of 
science  have  now  become  too  pressing  to  be  ignored. 
Within  the  few  years  indicated,  two  expeditions,  both 
essentially  scientific  in  their  aims,  have  been  sent  out 
and  have  returned,  whilst  two  other  expeditions  of  the 
highest  importance  are  now  out.  These  nuist  be 
noticed  briefly. 

In  1894,  Mr.  C.  E.  Borchgrevinck,  a  young  Aus- 
V  u 


3o6  GENERAL 

tralian  naturalist,  of  Norwegian  birth,  full  of  enthusiasm 
for  Antarctic  research,  shipped  as  one  of  the  crew  of  a 
steam  whaler  about  to  sail  for  the  South.  The  results 
were  interesting,  if  not  highly  important ;  for  Borch- 
grevinck  formed  one  of  a  party  which,  in  January  i  895, 
effected  a  landing  on  Cape  Adare,  Victoria  Land,  where 
he  collected  geological  specimens  and  a  species  of 
lichen.  Never  before  had  any  human  being  set  foot 
on  any  portion  of  the  mainland  of  the  reputed  Antarctic 
Continent. 

The  next  attempt  to  explore  the  Antarctic  Region 
was  not  British.  It  was  organised  through  the  per- 
sistent efforts  of  M.  Adrien  de  Gerlache,  a  Belgian ; 
but,  though  a  private  venture,  it  was  patronised  by  the 
Belgian  Government.  M.  de  Gerlache,  thousrh  ham- 
pered  by  very  inadequate  means,  purchased  in  Norway 
an  old  steam  whaler,  which  he  refitted  and  re-named 
La  Bdgica.  In  her  he  sailed  in  the  autumn  of  1897. 
After  spending  some  time  in  exploring  work,  the  vessel 
was  caught  in  the  pack  off  Alexander  Land,  and  was 
there  obliged  to  pass  the  winter  of  1898,  during  which 
one  member  of  the  expedition  fell  overboard  and  Avas 
lost,  whilst  another  died.  To  the  survivors  belongs  the 
honour  of  being  the  first  human  beings  to  pass  a 
winter  within  the  Antarctic  Circle,  but  the  expedition 
reached  no  farther  south  than  Lat.  7  i  °.  Great  diffi- 
culty was  experienced  in  extricating  the  vessel  from 
the  pack,  but  this  was  accomplished  at  last,  and  she 
returned  to  Europe  in  November  1899.  The  expedi- 
tion succeeded  in  making  many  meteorological  and 
other  scientific  observations,  but  the  amount  of  geo- 
graphical discovery  achieved  Avas  small. 

MeauAvhilc,  an  English  expedition  had  sailed.  Mr. 
Borchgrevinck,  ever  since  his  return  to  England  from 
his  visit  to  Cape  Adare  in  1895,  had  sought  with 
energy  to  obtain  the  jiieaus  of  renewing  exploration 
ill  the  same  vicinity.      Af"t<'r  many  disappointments,  he 


POLAR    DISCOVERY  307 

was  at  last  enabled,  through  the  munificence  of  Sir 
George  Newnes,  to  leave  England,  in  August   1898,  in 
the  converted  whaler  Southern  Cross,  specially  equipped 
for  a  voyage  of  exploration  and  scientific  observation. 
On  the   14th  of  the  following  February  (1  899),  after 
meeting  with  many  difficulties,  the  vessel  approached 
Cape  Adare  and  there  landed  ]\Ir.  Borchgrevinck,  nine 
companions,  and  some  seventy  Siberian  dogs,  with  the 
stores  and  equipment  necessary  for  a  wintering.     Then 
the  ship  sailed   away  north,   not  to  return   until    the 
following  southern  summer.      A  camp  (named  Camp 
Ridley)  was  formed  at  a  small  distance  back  from  the 
beach;  a  hut  was  built;  and  the  stores  Avere  brought 
up  after  great  labour,  owing  to  the  steepness  of  the 
beach  and   the   frightful  gales.      Here   the   winter   of 
1899  was  passed  amidst  all  the  monotony  inseparable 
from  the  long  dark  Polar  winter.     Such  meteorological 
observations  as  were  possible  were  regularly  made,  but 
the  darkness  and   the   extreme   prevalence  of  terrific 
Avind-storms  often  rendered  out-of-door  work  all  but 
impossible.     Early  in  the   spring,    Mr.    Borchgrevinck 
attempted  to  explore  the  vicinity  of  his  camp  by  means 
of  sledge-trips  with  dogs,  but  the  cold,  the  high  winds, 
the  many  glaciers,  the  absence  of  terrestrial  life,  and 
the  unevenness  of  the  country  prevented  progress.     In  • 
October,  one  of  the  party  (Hanson,  the  zoologist)  died. 
At    the   end   of   January   (1900),   the   Southern    Cross 
returned  and,  taking  on  board  the  party  which  had 
wintered,    proceeded    southward,    along    the    coast    of 
Victoria  Land,  in  order  to  explore.     Mr.  Borchgrevinck 
landed    several    times    and    examined    the   coast  line. 
Landinsf,   on    one   occasion,   near   the    foot   of   Mount 
Terror,   he   nearly   lost   his   life    through   being   over- 
whelmed by  a  "  tidal "  wave  caused  by  a  neighbouring 
glacier  discharijinGr  an  iceberg  into  the  sea.      In  this 
vicinity,  discovering  a  gap  in  the  Great  Ice  Barrier, 
Mr.  Borchgrevinck   landed    and,  travelling    inland    on 


3o8  GENERAL 

snow  shoes,  with  one  companion,  succeeded  in  reaching 
Lat.  78°  50', — that  is,  forty  minutes  farther  south  than 
Ross  in  1842,  and,  therefore,  a  record  in  the  advance 
towards  the  Pole,  Mr.  Borchgrevinck  reached  New 
Zealand,  on  his  return  to  civilisation,  in  March  1900. 

Not  only  did  Mr.  Borchgrevinck  attain  a  point 
slightly  farther  south  than  any  one  before  him,  but 
his  party  was  the  first  to  pass  a  winter  on  land  within 
the  Antarctic  Circle.  Moreover,  he  and  his  companions 
made  an  extensive  and  valuable  series  of  observations 
in  many  branches  of  science.  He  accomplished,  there- 
fore (in  spite  of  many  difficulties  and  somewhat  meagre 
resources),  a  voyage  of  considerable  importance  in  itself 
and  of  great  interest  as  showing  Avliat  an  immense 
amount  of  valuable  work  might  be  achieved  by  a 
larger  and  more-adequately-equipped  National  Expedi- 
tion which  should  continue  its  investigations  for  several 
years. 

It  is  gratifying  to  know  that,  at  last,  such  an 
expedition — in  fact,  two  such  expeditions — are  actually 
upon  their  way,  though  the  backwardness  of  our 
own  country  in  the  matter  is  far  from  gratifying  to 
Englishmen. 

For  years  past,  scientific  men  of  all  shades  of 
opinion  and  in  all  civilised  countries  have  persistently 
urged  the  pressing  need  for  further  Antarctic  explora- 
tion on  an  adequate  scale.  It  has  been  felt  strongly 
throusj^hout  the  world  that  Eny'land,  with  her  wealth,  her 
reputation  for  enterprise,  her  great  naval  traditions,  and 
her  extensive  possessions  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere 
— vaster,  by  far,  in  that  region,  than  the  possessions 
of  any  other  nation — ought,  for  every  reason,  to  take 
the  lead.  Yet  we  hesitated  so  long  that  it  was  left  for 
Germany,  not  England,  to  take  the  first  practical  steps. 

Prompted  by  the  strenuous  advocacy  of  Dr.  Georg 
Neumayer,  the  eminent  head  of  the  German  Naval 
Observatory  at  Hamburg,  and  one  of  the   most  per- 


POLAR    DISCOVERY  309 

sistont  scientific  advocates  of  further  South  Polar 
Research,  two  learned  bodies  in  Berlin  (the  Geo- 
graphical Society  and  the  German  Colonial  Society) 
made  the  first  move.  Their  efforts  were  promptly 
seconded  by  the  German  Government,  which  readily 
granted  a  sum  of  ^60,000  towards  the  expenses  of 
the  expedition  and  lent  officers  of  the  German  Navy 
to  command  it.  The  status  of  the  enterprise  is, 
therefore,  truly  national.  A  suitable  vessel  was 
built  at  Bremerhaven,  and  sailed  during  the  past 
summer,  under  the  command,  so  far  as  scientific 
matters  are  concerned,  of  Dr.  Eric  von  Drygalski, 
The  expedition  will  probably  advance  southward  along 
the  meridian  of  Kc]"guelen  Land,  and  devote  special 
attention  to  that  part  of  the  South  Polar  Region  thus 
reached. 

We  turn  now  to  what  has  been  done  in  England. 
In  October  1897,  the  Royal  Geographical  Society 
approached  Lord  Salisbury  to  urge  that  the  time  had 
come  for  the  British  Government  to  despatch  a  National 
Exploring  Expedition,  not  only  to  act  on  its  own 
account,  but  also  to  co-operate  with  the  intended 
German  Expedition.  The  proposition  was  refused 
point-blank  b}^  the  Government,  though  backed  by  all 
the  leading  British  scientific  societies  with  a  unanimity 
seldom  or  never,  before  attained. 

The  Royal  Geographical  Society  then  decided  to 
endeavour  to  raise  the  needful  funds  by  public  sub- 
scription, and  itself  voted  ;i^5ooo  for  that  purpose. 
Funds  came  in  slowly,  hoAvever,  till,  in  March  1899, 
a  magnificent  donation  of  ;^2 5,000  from  Mr.  L.  W. 
LongstafF  was  announced.  Later,  the  Society  again 
approached  the  Government — this  time  Avith  greater 
success ;  for,  in  July,  the  Government  at  last  agreed 
to  grant  a  sum  of  ^^45,000,  on  condition  that  at  least 
an  equal  sum  Avas  forthcoming  from  other  sources. 
This  condition  has  since  been  complied  Avith.     There 


3IO  GENERAL 

was,  therefore,  at  last,  an  assurance  that  an  adequate 
expedition  would  be  despatched.  One  feels  regret, 
however,  that  it  will  be,  of  necessity,  on  a  somewhat 
inadequate  scale ;  for  (as  in  the  case  of  the  German 
expedition)  a  single  vessel  only  will  be  employed  (at 
first,  at  any  rate),  instead  of  the  two  of  which  such 
expeditions  should  always  consist;  but  this  short- 
coming may  be  neutralised  to  some  extent  by  the  close 
co-operation  which  will  take  place  between  the  English 
and  the  German  expeditions. 

A  suitable  vessel,  called  the  Discovery — a  name 
famous  in  the  annals  of  English  Exploration — was 
built  and  fitted  at  Dundee.  She  is  the  first  vessel 
ever  built  in  this  country  solely  for  the  purposes  of 
Polar  Exploration.  She  sailed  in  August  last  under 
the  command  of  Commander  Robert  Scott,  R.N.,  a 
young  officer  of  proved  ability.  By  the  time  this  is 
in  the  hands  of  readers  she  will  be,  if  all  goes  well, 
among  the  Antarctic  ice.  The  expedition  will  be 
absent  from  two  to  three  years,  and  is  intended  to 
explore  chiefly  that  portion  of  the  Antarctic  Region 
which  lies  in  the  vicinity  of  Victoria  Land  and  Wilkes 
Land.  The  result  can  hardly  fail  to  be  of  immense 
scientific  interest. 

Whilst  it  is,  of  course,  highly  satisfactory  that  the 
despatch  of  a  great  National  Exploring  Expedition 
should  at  last  have  been  achieved,  the  difficulties  en- 
countered in  the  early  stages  and  the  parsimony  of 
the  British  Government  are  not  calculated  to  add  any- 
thing to  the  national  pride  of  Englishmen.  At  least 
throe -fourths  of  all  Polar  Exploration  accomplished 
during  the  last  three  centuries  has  been  achieved  by 
England.  In  this  particular  case  there  Avere  special 
and  obvious  reasons  why  she  should  not  have  held 
back.  Yet  she  did  so  for  so  long  that  Germany — a 
nation  comparatively  in  its  infancy,  and  a  novice  so 
far  as  Polar  Exploration  is  concerned — not  only  took 


POLAR    DISCOVERY  311 

the  lead,  but  remains  on  an  equality  with  us  in  the 
present  effort.  Such  facts  nuist  cause  the  thoughtful 
man  to  ask  himself — Are  we,  as  a  nation,  becoming 
decadent,  or  is  it  our  Government  merely  ? 

One  final  word  as  to  the  value  of  Polar  P^xplora- 
tion. 

The  Mau-iu-thc-Street,  if  he  takes  any  interest  at 
all  in  the  matter,  is  usually  attracted  by  its  sporting 
aspect,  regarding  it  as  an  exciting  and  hazardous  con- 
test, in  which  man  and  his  contrivances  are  pitted 
against  Nature  in  one  of  her  sternest  moods.  More 
often,  however,  the  Man-in-the-Street  is  unable  to  view 
Polar  Exploration  favourably,  even  to  this  extent,  and, 
in  that  case,  he  regards  it  merely  as  a  stupid  waste  of 
human  energy  and  wealth — often,  even,  of  human  life 
— merely  to  gratify  unreasoning  curiosity.  He  may 
be  left  in  his  ignorance. 

Polar  Exploration  is  almost  wholly  scientific  in  its 
aims,  and  scientific  men  alone  are  competent  to  ap- 
praise its  value.  That  value  is,  in  any  case,  seldom  or 
never  directly  pecuniary,  though  it  may  be  said  with 
truth  that  few  important  acquisitions  of  knowledge, 
even  of  the  most  purely  scientific  kind,  have  ever  been 
made  which  have  not  been  turned,  sooner  or  later, 
to  practical  account ;  for  all  the  Sciences  are,  in 
reahty,  one,  and  any  important  advance  that  is  made 
in  one  branch  inevitably  affects  and  advances — often 
in  most  unexpected  ways — various  (perhaps  many) 
other  branches. 

The  Man  of  Science  does  not,  therefore,  feel  it  in- 
cumbent upon  him  to  justify  his  demand  for  further 
Antarctic  Exploration  by  the  production  of  definite 
reasons  or  the  statement  that  there  is  a  practical  end 
in  view.  It  is  sufficient  for  him  that  our  ignorance  of 
the  natural  conditions  prevailing  over  the  vast  Antarctic 
Region  is  so  colossal  that  any  well-considered  voyage 


3  I  2  GENERAL 

of  exploration  to  that  region  cannot  fail  to  produce 
results  of  incalculable  scientific  value.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  the  information  which  will  be  obtained 
as  to  the  magnetic  conditions  existing  in  that  region 
will  be  capable  of  being  turned  to  immediate  practical 
account. 

In  any  case,  it  is  absurd  to  take  a  narrow  utilitarian 
view  as  to  the  value  of  Scientific  Exploration,  whether 
in  the  Polar  Regions  or  elsewhere.  In  all  human 
aftairs,  prestige  counts  for  much ;  and,  but  for  the 
many  voyages  of  exploration  which,  in  the  past,  this 
country  has  equipped  and  sent  forth,  with  little  or  no 
hope  of  direct  and  immediate  practical  return,  our 
national  prestige  (to  say  nothing  of  our  scientific  pre- 
eminence) would  stand  immeasurably  lower  than  it 
now  does.  In  the  Navy,  it  has  often  been  said  that 
those  who  have  served  on  Polar  voyages  make  by  far 
the  best  officers ;  and,  in  a  hundred  other  ways,  these 
voyages  have  returned  valuable  results.  It  may  be 
said,  indeed,  that  the  readiness  or  otherwise  of  any 
great  nation  to  despatch  such  expeditions  is,  in  most 
cases,  an  infallible  sign  of  national  progress  or  national 
decadence,  as  the  case  may  be. 


THE   POSTAL   COMMUNICATIONS 
OF   THE   EMPIRE 

By  L.  T.  HORNE 

(Of  the  General  Post  Office) 

No  description  of  the  British  Empire  would  bo  com- 
plete without  some  account  of  its  Intelligence  Depart- 
ment, the  postal  system.  The  posts  are  part  of  the 
machinery  of  government,  carrying  as  they  do  des- 
patches between  the  Secretary  of  State  and  the  Queen's 
deputies  abroad.  They  are  part  of  the  machinery  of 
trade,  maintaining  communication  between  the  colonial 
producer  of  raw  material  and  the  manufacturer  at 
home,  between  the  English  merchant  and  his  cus- 
tomers over  the  seas.  And  even  though,  for  purposes 
of  government  and  for  the  larger  operations  of  com- 
merce, the  telegraph  has  largely  superseded  the  letter 
post,  the  latter  has  still,  and  probably  always  will  have, 
the  important  function  of  maintaining  the  ties  of  social 
intercourse,  cheering  the  lonely  emigrant  with  news  of 
those  he  has  left  behind,  keeping  in  touch  far-scattered 
families  and  friends,  and  contributing  in  countless  ways 
to  the  feelings  of  unity  and  kinship  which  are,  after 
all,  the  strongest  bond  between  the  various  parts  of 
this  scattered  Empire.  The  motto  of  the  British  Post 
Office  might  well  be  that  of  its  famous  ally,  the 
P.  &  O.  Company,  "  Quis  sejM^xibit  ?  " 

Not  until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century 
was  any  attempt  made  by  the  British  Government  to 
provide  postal  communication  between  the  Mother 
Country  and  the  Colonies.     Before  that  time  every  one 


314  GENERAL 

who  had  a  letter  to  send  to  North  America  or  the 
West  Indies  had  to  make  his  own  arrangements  for 
its  conveyance.  For  a  gratuity  the  captain  of  an 
outward-bound  ship  would  carry  the  letter  across  the 
sea ;  and,  as  time  went  on,  regular  arrangements  for 
the  collection  of  such  letters  were  made,  bags  for  their 
reception  being  hung  up  at  Lloyds  and  the  other 
coffee-houses  in  London  frequented  by  sea-captains. 
The  law  which  gave  the  Post  Office  a  monopoly  of 
the  conveyance  of  inland  letters  did  not  apply  to 
letters  for  places  abroad,  and  such  letters  rarely  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  department. 

Letters  from  places  abroad  had  by  law  to  be  handed 
over  to  the  Post  Office  at  the  port  of  arrival,  and  the 
captain  of  the  ship  which  brought  them  was  entitled 
to  a  gratuity  of  id.  a  letter.  Moreover,  in  London 
two  men  were  appointed  to  visit  incoming  ships  and 
collect  the  letters  from  them.  Such  letters  were  de- 
livered by  the  Post  Office,  and  the  inland  postage  was 
collected  on  delivery.  Even  at  the  present  time  no 
ship  is  allowed  to  land  cargo  at  a  port  in  the  United 
Kingdom  unless  the  captain  has  signed  a  declaration 
that  he  has  given  up  to  the  Post  Office  all  letters  on 
board,  with  a  few  exceptions  allowed  by  law. 

The  first  local  post  offices  in  the  Colonies  were 
set  up  for  the  purpose  of  dealing  with  letters 
passing  to  and  from  places  abroad.  Thus  in  1639 
the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  published  the 
following  ordinance : — 

"  It  is  ordered  that  notice  be  given  that  Richard 
Fairbanks  his  house  at  Boston  is  the  place  appointed 
for  all  letters  which  arc  brought  from  beyond  tlie  seas  or 
arc  sent  thither  to  be  lelt  with  him ;  and  he  is  to  take 
care  that  they  are  to  be  delivered  or  sent  according  to 
dire<;tion,  and  ho  is  allowed  for  every  letter  a  penny ; 
and  lie  inust  answer  all  messages  through  his  neglect 


POSTAL  COMMUNICATIONS   OF  EMPIRE      315 

In  Virginia,  according  to  a  law  of  1657,  every 
planter  had  to  provide  a  messenger  to  carry  despatches 
as  far  as  the  next  plantation,  on  pain  of  forft.'iting  a 
hogshead  of  tobacco  in  default.  The  first  colonial 
inland  post  of  any  extent  appears  to  date  from  1672, 
when  the  Government  of  New  York  established  a 
monthly  mail  to  and  from  Boston.  In  1683  William 
Penn  not  only  set  up  a  post  office  at  Philadelphia,  but 
arranged  for  the  conveyance  of  mails  in  some  parts 
of  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland.  With  none  of  these 
arrangements  had  the  Imperial  Government  anything 
to  do ;  but  by  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century 
communication  between  the  Mother  Country  and  the 
Colonies  was  becoming  too  important  to  escape  Govern- 
ment supervision. 

Accordingly,  in  1688,  James  II.,  by  an  Order  in 
Council,  authorised  the  setting  up  of  a  Post  Office  in 
Jamaica,  and  "  in  such  other  of  his  Majesty's  planta- 
tions in  America  ...  as  shall  be  found  convenient  for 
his  Majesty's  service  and  the  ease  and  benefit  of  his  sub- 
jects." The  postage  between  the  United  Kingdom  and 
Jamaica  was  fixed  at  6d.  for  a  single  letter  (i.e.  a  single 
sheet  of  paper  without  an}^  enclosure),  is.  for  a  double 
letter  (i.e.  a  letter  with  enclosures  but  weighing  under 
an  ounce),  and  2  s.  an  ounce.  It  is  not  clear  when  and 
in  what  conditions  a  Post  Office  Avas  actually  established 
in  Jamaica,  but  in  1692  a  licence  to  set  up  posts  in 
North  America  was  granted  to  one  Thomas  Neale,  and 
he  delegated  the  work  to  an  energetic  man  named 
Andrew  Hamilton,  who  was  appointed  Deputy  Post- 
master-General. In  1693  Hamilton  arranged  a  regular 
postal  service  between  the  principal  places  in  the  scat- 
tered settlements  on  the  American  coast  from  Ports- 
mouth in  New  Hampshire  down  to  Virginia,  employing 
five  men  on  horseback  to  cover  five  stages  twice  a 
week  in  summer  and  once  a  fortnight  in  winter.  The 
enterprise  proved  an  unprofitable  one  to  Neale,  whose 


3i6  GENERAL 

expenses  largely  exceeded  the  revenue  from  the  postage, 
and  in  1707  he  surrendered  his  patent  to  the  Crown 
for  £1664.  The  posts  in  America  were  thereafter 
administered  as  a  branch  of  the  British  Post  Office 
down  to  the  Revolution,  at  which  time  one  of  the  joint 
Deputy  Postmasters-General  of  America  was  Benjamin 
Franklin.  Even  at  that  time  the  operations  of  the 
Post  Office  were  practically  confined  to  places  on  the 
Atlantic  coast.  As  to  Canada,  Franklin  stated  in  1760 
that  '•  there  is  only  one  post,  between  Quebec  and 
Montreal ;  the  inhabitants  live  so  scattered  and  remote 
from  each  other  in  that  vast  country  that  the  posts 
cannot  be  supported  among  them." 

While  in  ordinary  times  there  were  sufficient 
private  ships  sailing  to  and  from  the  Colonies  to  carry 
the  few  letters  then  sent,  in  time  of  war,  when  over- 
aea.  trade  was  almost  at  a  stand-still,  the  need  arose 
for  some  other  means  of  communication.  It  was  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  with  France  in  1702  which  called 
into  being  the  first  mail-packet  service  with  the 
Colonies,  sloops  of  war  being  provided  by  the  Admi- 
ralty to  carry  the  mails  to  and  from  the  AVest  Indies. 
These  vessels  sailed  at  uncertain  intervals,  and  the 
voyage  out  and  home  occupied  from  90  to  116  days. 
Mr.  Dummer,  Surveyor  of  the  Navy,  was  so  pleased 
with  the  result  that  he  undertook  a  contract  for  the 
service.  For  ;^  12,500  a  year  he  was  to  build  five 
boats  of  1 40  tons  each  (about  twice  the  size  of  a  large 
fishing-boat),  carrying  26  men  and  10  guns.  These 
boats  were  to  sail  to  and  from  the  West  Indies  once 
a  month.  A  comparison  with  the  present  West  India 
mail  service  is  interesting.  Nowadays  the  steamships 
of  the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company,  which 
carry  mails  regularly  once  a  fortnight  to  and  from 
Barbados  and  Jamaica,  are  from  five  to  six  thousand 
tons  burden.  The  voyage  to  Jamaica  occupies  sixteen 
days,  and   the    answer    to    a   letter  addressed  to  that 


POSTAL   COMMUNICATIONS   OF   EMPIRE      317 

colony  can  be  received  in  London  within  thirty-tive 
days. 

Dumnier's  venture  proved  to  be  an  unfortunate 
one.  Tlie  first  packet  under  the  contract  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy ;  a  few  months  later  a  second  was 
wrecked,  and  a  third  captured  by  a  privateer.  By 
1 7 1  o  he  had  lost  nine  vessels,  six  to  privateers. 
His  traffic  receipts  were  disappointing,  and  in  1 7 1 1 
the  service  was  discontinued.  Some  other  similar  ser- 
vices were  projected  about  the  same  time.  For  example, 
in  1703  Sir  Jeftery  Jefferys  received  permission  to 
establish  a  packet  to  sail  from  the  Isle  of  Wight  to 
New  York,  two  voyages  to  be  performed  every  six  or 
seven  months;  and  in  17 10  the  Post  Office  made  a 
contract  for  a  monthly  service  between  Bristol  and  New 
York.  This  service  came  to  an  end  in  17 14,  two  years 
after  the  Peace  of  Utrecht ;  and  from  that  time  to  the 
war  of  1 744,  and  again  during  the  few  years  of  peace 
after  1749,  there  were  no  colonial  packets. 

The  permanent  establishment  of  a  regular  mail 
service  to  and  from  the  West  Indies  and  America  dates 
from  1755.  The  number  and  size  of  the  packets  were 
gradually  increased,  so  that  they  might  be  better  able 
to  escape  from  storms  and  privateers ;  and  some  of 
their  adventurous  and  often  heroic  doings  in  the 
following  years  are  narrated  in  Mr.  Norway's  "  History 
of  the  Packet  Service." 

The  postal  communication  with  India  was  at  first 
maintained  chiefly  by  the  ships  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, which  called  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
Mauritius,  and  conveyed  letters  to  and  from  those 
places  also ;  and  when,  towards  the  end  of  George  the 
Third's  reign,  the  Post  Office  tried  to  get  into  its  hands 
all  correspondence  for  places  abroad,  it  naturally  got 
into  difficulties  with  the  Company.  In  the  end,  by  an 
Act  of  181 9,  it  was  laid  down  that  letters  for  the  East 
Indies,  the  Cape,  Ceylon,  and  Mauritius  might  be  sent 


3  1 8  GENERAL 

otherwise  than  through  the  post ;  at  the  same  time 
every  ship  saiHng  to  those  places  was  bound  to  convey 
mails  thither  free  of  charge,  and  very  low  rates  of  sea 
postage  were  fixed  for  correspondence  entrusted  to 
the  Post  Office  for  transmission. 

Formerly,  the  owners  of  private  ships  could,  and 
sometimes  did,  decline  to  take  charge  of  mails,  but  an 
Act  of  1 8 1  5  gave  the  Post  Office  power  to  send  a  mail 
by  any  private  ship  leaving  a  port  of  the  United  King- 
dom, and  made  it  obligatory  on  the  captain  of  such 
ship  to  deliver  the  mail  to  the  Postmaster  of  the  port 
of  destination.  The  Postmaster-General  was  authorised 
to  pay  for  the  conveyance  of  ship  letters  certain  fixed 
gratuities.  It  now  became  unnecessary  for  persons 
wishing  to  send  letters  to  countries  not  served  by 
Government  packets  to  search  out  a  ship  going  thither 
and  arrange  with  tlie  captain  to  take  charge  of  their 
missives.  The  Post  Office  in  most  cases  would  and 
could  find  the  ship  and  arrange  for  the  conveyance  of 
the  letters.  The  arrangement  influenced  the  establish- 
ment of  colonial  posts  in  another  way.  Persons  had 
to  be  appointed  in  the  chief  ports  of  the  colonies  to 
receive  the  mails  from  incoming  ships.  Thus  a  Mr. 
Nichols  was  designated  by  the  Governor  to  act  as  post- 
master at  Sydney  in  i8io,  and  a  Mr.  Beaumont  at 
Hobart,  Tasmania,  in  1812,  though  there  were  no 
inland  posts  in  any  part  of  Australia  until  nnich  later. 
Such  men  as  a  rule  made  their  own  charges  for  the 
letters  which  they  received  and  despatched,  and  as  the 
Colonies  developed  they  arranged  posts  between  the 
ports  and  places  inland. 

This  state  of  things  lasted  until  the  application  of 
steam  to  naviiration,  and  the  immense  increase  in  trade, 
travel,  and  emigration  Avhich  accoiii]iaiiied  that  revohi- 
tion.  Conmiunication  between  the  Mother  Country  and 
the  Colonies  was  slow  and  generally  infrequent  and 
irregular ;   the  postage  on  letters  was  liigh  and  gene- 


POSTAL   COMMUNICATIONS   OF   EMPIRE      319 

rally  carried  only  to  the  port  of  arrival ;  but  the  system 
was  probably  fairly  adequate  to  the  needs  of  the  time. 
Judged  by  a  modern  standard,  the  total  amount  of  the 
correspondence  was  very  small.  Prol)ably  that  with 
India  was  the  greatest :  in  1833  there  were  no  less 
than  427  ships  by  which  mails  were  sent  to  and  from 
that  country ;  and  the  postage  was  exceptionally  low 
for  that  time  (letters,  2d.  for  3  oz.  and  is.  for  each 
additional  ounce ;  newspapers,  i  d.  per  oz.,  in  addition 
to  the  British  inland  postage,  which  varied  according 
to  the  distance) ;  but  the  total  amount  carried  for  the 
Post  Office  in  these  ships  was  only  : — 


Outwards. 

Inwards. 

Number  of  letters 

■  87,514 

281,090 

Number  of  newspapers 

•  70,746 

5,086 

Evidently  most  of  the  outward  letters  did  not  pass 
through  the  post.  The  figures  for  the  Indian  mail 
service  in  the  year  i  899-1  900  were:— 


Outwards. 

Inwards. 

Weight  of  letters  and  jjost-cards   . 

140,900  lbs. 

107,100  lbs. 

Weight  of  printed  matter  and 

samples  .         .         .         .         . 

2,118,000    ,, 

301, 3C0    „ 

Number  of  parcels 

108,359 

71,415 

[A  pound  of  letters  and  post-cards  would  contain  on  the  average 
about  30  outwards  and  about  40  inwards.] 

In  1842  the  number  of  letters  sent  by  post  to  and 
from  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  the  South  Seas  was 
— outwards,  79,1  58  ;   inwards,   148,625. 

The  figures  for  1899- 1900  wore: — 

Outwards.         Inwards. 
Weight  of  letters  and  post-cards   .        114,000  lbs.       86,200  lbs. 
Weight  of  printed  matter  and 

samples 2,101,500    ,,  667,500    „ 

In  1791-92  the  total  amount  of  postage  collected 
in  Canada  was  only  ^2229.  and  in  1838  it  had  risen 
to    about   ;^44,ooo    a   year;    while    in     1899    the   re- 


3  20  GENERAL 

venue  of  the  Canadian  Post  Office  was  nearly  a  million 
sterling. 

The  change  in  the  route  of  the  Indian  Mail  from 
the  Cape  to  Suez  is  associated  with  the  name  of 
Thomas  Waghorn,  who  first  made  his  appearance  at 
the  Post  Office  in  1827  with  a  scheme  for  building 
a  steamship  to  ply  between  this  country  and  India  via 
the  Cape.  He  found  that  by  an  Act  of  Parliament, 
above  referred  to,  the  owners  of  vessels  sailing  to  and 
from  India  had  to  carry  mails  free,  and  that  the 
Government  were  not  disposed  to  pass  a  special  Act 
relieving  him  from  this  obligation,  so  that  he  might 
receive  a  subsidy  for  the  mails  he  carried.  After  two 
years'  agitation  against  what  he  no  doubt  considered 
"  red-tape  obstruction,"  Waghorn  developed  a  more 
fruitful  idea,  that  of  reaching  India  vid  Egypt.  Hear- 
ing that  a  steamship  was  about  to  be  sent  from 
Bombay  to  Suez  and  back,  he  started  from  London 
on  the  ist  of  October  1829,  travelled  vid  Trieste  to 
Alexandria,  across  Egypt  to  Suez,  and,  not  finding  the 
expected  steamer,  made  his  way  down  the  Red  Sea  by 
native  boat,  and  finished  the  voyage  in  a  man-of-war. 
This  journey  showed  Waghorn  the  practicability  of 
the  Suez  route,  and  henceforward  his  efforts  were 
mainly  directed  to  its  development.  The  British  Mail 
packets  already  went  to  Malta,  and  it  was  only  neces- 
sary that  they  should  go  on  to  Alexandria.  Between 
Suez  and  Bombay  the  East  India  Company  nmst 
establish  steamers.  Several  years  passed  before  the 
British  Government  and  the  Company  could  make  up 
their  minds  to  .spend  ;^  100,000  a  year  on  the  con- 
veyance of  mails,  which  had  until  then  cost  them  next 
to  nothing;  but  in  1837  the  overland  mail  service 
was  at  lenfrtli  established,  the  arranwrnents  for  the 
transit  of  the  mails  across  Egypt  being  entrusted  to 
Mr.  Waghorn.  Very  little  experience  showed  that  the 
best   route    for    the   mails   between    this   country   and 


POSTAL   COMMUNICATIONS   OF    EMPIRE      321 

Egypt  was  through  France,  instead  of  by  steamer  all 
the  way  between  Falmouth  and  Alexandria ;  and  a 
special  Indian  mail  service,  under  the  charge  of  a 
British  officer,  was  set  up  between  Calais  and  Mar- 
seilles in  1839.  The  mail  was  packed  in  iron  boxes. 
Its  total  weight  was  about  400  lbs.  A  special  coach 
was  provided  once  a  month  for  its  conveyance  between 
Calais  and  Paris.  Between  Calais  and  Marseilles,  which 
was  reached  on  the  fifth  day  after  leaving  London,  suffi- 
cient room  was  found  in  the  ordinary  mail-coach  by 
excluding  passengers  from  the  inside.  Nowadays  a 
train  of  a  dozen  vans  is  drawn  up  on  the  quay  of 
Calais  every  Friday  night  to  receive  the  mail,  most 
of  which  is  brought  by  special  steamer  from  Dover 
or  Folkestone.  The  total  weight  averages  about 
100,000  lbs.  The  special  train,  with  two  mail 
officers  for  sole  passengers,  runs  direct  to  Brindisi, 
which  is  reached  on  Sunday  night,  and  where  the 
mail  is  put  on  board  a  fast  P.  &  0.  steamer  for 
Port  Said. 

The  constitutional  question  of  the  control  of  the 
Imperial  Post  Office  over  posts  in  the  Colonies  was 
settled  by  a  long  controversy  which  took  place  in 
reference  to  British  North  America  from  about  1830 
to  1850.  In  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  Nova  Scotia, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Prince  Edward  Island  (then 
separate  Colonies),  and  in  Jamaica,  the  inland  posts, 
and  not  merely  the  service  to  and  from  the  Mother 
Country,  were  managed  by  deputies  appointed  by  the 
Postmaster-General.  The  postage  was  regulated  by  an 
Act  passed  in  1765,  and  was  very  high.  For  example, 
to  send  a  letter  from  Quebec  to  Montreal  cost  gd. ; 
from  Quebec  to  Toronto,  is.  6d. ;  and  from  Toronto  to 
Halifax,  2s.  9d.  Where  the  revenue  exceeded  the 
expenditure,  the  surplus  was  remitted  to  London. 
The  dissatisfaction  aroused  by  this  state  of  things  was 
fomented    by  the    newspapers,   which    had    a    special 


322  GENERAL 

ground  of  complaint  against  the  Deputy  Postmaster- 
General,  who,  under  an  arrangement  of  old  standing 
but  very  doubtful  authority,  charged  newspapers  trans- 
mitted through  the  post  about  id.  each  and  pocketed 
the  proceeds.  Accordingly,  about  1830  the  Canadian 
Legislatures  began  to  agitate  for  the  control  of  the 
Post  Office.  They  urged  that  the  Act  passed  in  1778 
giving  the  local  authorities  in  the  Colonies  the  net 
produce  of  internal  taxation  ought  to  apply  to  postage. 
The  law  officers  of  the  Crown,  consulted  in  1832  on 
this  point,  thought  that  the  claim  could  not  be  success- 
fully attacked  at  law.  The  Imperial  Post  Office,  con- 
sidering its  control  of  the  posts  throughout  British 
North  America  important,  in  the  interests  of  uniformity 
of  postage  and  regulations,  and  in  order  to  prevent 
rival  Colonies  taxing  each  other's  letters,  wished  to 
meet  the  discontent  by  introducing  lower  rates  of  post- 
age, but  was  met  with  the  difficulty  that  Parliament 
had  renounced  the  right  to  impose  new  taxes  in  the 
Colonies.  It  was  held  that  any  alteration  by  Parlia- 
ment of  the  existing  rates  fixed  at  the  beginning  of 
Georsfe  the  Third's  reitrn  Avould  constitute  a  new  tax. 
In  these  circumstances  an  Act  was  passed  in  1834, 
which,  while  leaving  the  management  of  the  North 
American  posts  in  the  hands  of  the  Postmaster-General, 
gave  the  Colonial  Legislatures  the  power  to  fix  postage, 
and  provided  that  the  net  produce  of  the  inland  rates 
should  be  divided  proportionately  among  the  Colonies. 
The  whole  arrangement  was,  however,  dependent  on 
Acts  being  passed  by  the  Colonial  Legislatures  in 
accordance  witli  a  model  sent  from  England  and  de- 
signed to  secure  unitbrmity  of  charges  and  regulations. 
But  the  Legislatures  in  question,  which  were  at  the 
time  seriously  embroiled  with  the  Home  Government 
and  with  one  another,  declined  to  comply  with  the 
prescribed  conditions,  and  the  Act,  therefore,  was  of 
no  etlect. 


POSTAL   COMMUNICATIONS   OF   EMPIRE      323 

In  1845,  it  being  desired  that  the  Postmaster- 
General  should  assume  control  of  the  Australian  posts 
(a  project  which  was  never  fully  carried  out),  an  Act 
was  passed  i,nving  her  Majesty's  Treasury  power  to  fix 
Colonial  postage  and  to  extend  the  provisions  of 
British  Post  Office  Acts  to  any  Colony.  The  postal 
revenue,  after  meeting  expenses,  was  to  be  applied  to 
the  development  of  the  service,  and  any  surplus  was  to 
be  handed  over  to  the  Colonial  Government.  Appli- 
cations from  the  North  American  Colonies  for  a  reduc- 
tion of  postage  now  became  still  more  pressing,  and  it 
Avas  clear  that  concessions  would  have  to  be  made. 
But  it  was  estimated  that  with  the  lower  rates  the 
revenue  would  no  longer  cover  the  expenditure  ;  and, 
rather  than  carry  on  a  losing  business,  the  Postmaster- 
General  preferred  to  hand  over  the  internal  posts 
entirely  to  the  Colonial  Governments.  Accordingly, 
an  Act  of  1 849  provided  that  the  Legislatures  of 
Colonies  might  establish  posts  within  such  Colonies; 
but  that,  if  the  Postmaster-General  had  already  set 
up  posts  in  any  Colony,  the  Legislature,  before  taking 
such  action,  nuist  get  the  consent  of  her  Majesty, 
wherevipon  the  Postmaster-General's  powers  should 
cease  as  regards  inland  posts,  to  which  alone  the  powers 
of  the  Colonial  Legislature  were  to  extend.  This  is 
the  Act  on  the  basis  of  whic^h  the  postal  systems  of 
the  British  Colonies  have  grown  up.  The  control  of 
the  posts  between  the  Colonies  and  places  outside  them 
thus  remains  constitutionally  with  the  Postmaster- 
General — a  state  of  things  which  corresponds  with  the 
fact  that  in  many  cases  the  communication  of  the 
Colonies  with  the  outer  world  depends  to  a  great  extent 
on  contract  packet  services  controlled  by  the  Post- 
master-General. However,  as  the  external  postal  rela- 
tions of  the  Colonies  are  in  the  main  regulated  by  the 
International  Convention  of  the  Universal  Postal 
Union,  it  is  seldom  that  a  case  arises  in  which  it  is 


324  GENERAL 

necessary  for  the  Postmaster-General  to  exercise  his 
statutory  rights  in  the  interests  of  the  Empire  as  a 
whole. 

The  North  American  posts  passed  out  of  the  man- 
agement of  the  British  Post  Office  in  i  8  5  i  ;  the  same 
course  was  followed  in  i860  in  regard  to  the  West 
Indies  and  Hong  Kong ;  and  finally  as  regards  Malta 
and  Gibraltar  in  1 884-1 886.  In  accordance  with  the 
principles  of  self-government  on  which  the  British 
Empire  is  based,  the  Colonies  have  been  left  to  develop 
their  internal  postal  service  to  suit  their  own  peculiar  re- 
quirements. At  the  same  time  the  Imperial  Post  Office, 
with  its  wider  experience  and  outlook,  watches  over 
their  external  postal  relations,  is  always  ready  to  help 
with  advice,  and  is  often  called  on  to  supply  trained 
administrators. 

To  return  to  the  packet  service.  The  introduction 
of  steamships  at  once  made  the  sailing  packets  obso- 
lete, and  to  maintain  a  fleet  of  Government  vessels 
which  should  be  at  least  equal  in  speed  to  those  of 
private  owners  soon  proved  an  expensive  business. 
Accordingly  a  now  system  was  initiated  in  the  case 
of  the  mails  for  and  from  the  British  possessions  in 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  overland  mails  for  and  from 
India,  the  conveyance  of  which  by  Government  packets 
was  slow,  the  voyage  between  Falmouth  and  Alexandria 
often  occupying  from  three  weeks  to  a  month.  In  1837  a 
contract  for  the  service  between  Falmouth  and  Gibraltar 
was  made  with  the  Peninsular  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany. The  arrangement  proved  a  success,  and  in  1840 
the  contract  service  was  extended  to  Malta  and  Alex- 
andria. In  the  same  year  the  company  determined  to 
establish  steam  communication  witli  India.  They  there- 
fore obtained  incorporation  under  the  title  (now  famous 
tin-ougliont  the  world)  of  the  "Peninsular  and  Oriental 
Stoani  Xiivigation  Company,"  and  proceeded  to  build 
steamers  f(jr  the  service  beyond  Suez. 


POSTAL  COMMUNICATIONS   OF  EMPIRE      325 

At  that  time  the  Indian  mails  were  conveyed 
between  Suez  and  Bombay  once  a  month  by  steamers 
belonging  to  the  Indian  Government,  and  in  1845  the 
P.  &  O.  Company  undertook  to  supplement  this 
service  by  a  line  of  steamers  between  Suez  and  Cal- 
cutta, with  a  branch  line  between  Ceylon  and  China. 
In  1854  the  company  took  over  the  Suez  and  Bombay 
service,  and  in  1859  established  a  branch  service  to 
Australia,  the  first  regular  and  rapid  mail  service  with 
that  continent.  The  position  of  the  company  as  the 
principal  carriers  of  her  Majesty's  mails  to  and  from 
India,  Australia,  and  the  Far  East  has  not  since  then 
been  shaken,  though  often  attacked.  On  all  the  lines 
the  time  of  transit  has  been  steadily  decreased,  and 
though  the  mails  have  increased  enormously,  the 
Government  now  pays  to  the  company  only  ^^3  3  0,000 
a  year  for  a  service  far  superior  to  that  for  which  it 
paid  nearly  iJ^6oo,ooo  thirty  years  ago.  Instead  of 
the  William  Faicccti  of  200  tons  and  60  horse-power, 
the  first  mail  steamer  of  the  company,  we  have  now 
the  rapid /sts  and  Osiris  of  1700  tons  and  6500  horse- 
power, which  run  from  Brindisi  to  Port  Said  (930 
miles)  in  about  forty-eight  hours ;  while  the  Hindustan, 
of  2000  tons  and  520  horse-power,  the  first  of  the 
company's  steamers  to  be  placed  on  the  line  between 
Suez  and  India,  and  considered  a  marvel  in  1842, 
is  now  represented  by  vessels  like  the  Persia,  of 
8000  tons  and  11,000  horse-power,  by  means  of 
wliicli  the  mails  reach  Bombay  in  fourteen  days,  and 
Shanghai  and  Sydney  in  thirty-two  days  after  leaving 
London. 

In  1 840  the  West  India  packets  were  abolished,  a 
contract  for  the  conveyance  of  mails  to  and  from  all 
the  places  served  by  them  being  made  with  the  Royal 
Mail  Steam  Packet  Company,  At  the  same  time  Mr. 
(afterwards  Sir  Samuel)  Cunard  undertook  to  carry  the 
mails  by  his  steamships  twice  a  month  to  and  from 


326  GENERAL 

New  York,  Boston,  Halifax,  and  Quebec,  thus  super- 
seding tlie  American  packets  of  the  Government,  The 
West  India  mail  service  has  often  since  then  been  put 
up  to  public  tender,  but  it  has  always  been  secured 
by  the  Royal  Mail  Company,  whose  latest  successive 
contract  was  entered  into  this  year  (1900).  The 
Cunard  steamers  are  still  the  fastest  British  mail 
steamers  crossing  the  Atlantic,  and  though  they  no 
longer  call  at  Canadian  ports,  they  still  carry  to 
and  from  New  York  a  great  part  of  the  Canadian 
mails. 

To  refer  briefly  to  the  other  main  lines  of  mail 
comnumication  of  the  Empire.  The  first  contract  for 
the  conveyance  of  mails  to  and  from  the  West  Coast 
of  Africa  was  made  in  1852  with  the  African  Steam- 
ship Company,  which  became  associated  with  the 
British  and  African  Steam  Navigation  Company  in 
1869.  These  two  lines  serve  Sierra  Leone,  Gambia, 
Laoros,  the  Gold  Coast,  and  Nigeria. 

The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  mails  have  been  carried 
by  the  Union  Steamship  Company  since  1858,  and  by 
the  Castle  Line  since  1876.  The  time  of  transit, 
which  was  forty-two  days  originally,  has  now  been 
reduced  to  seventeen. 

In  1883  the  Orient  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany commenced  to  carry  the  Australian  mails  in 
alternate  weeks  with  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
Company. 

The  Post  Office  has  boon  fortunate  in  its  con- 
tractors, and  the  long  duration  of  its  connections  with 
the  companies  mentioned  above  is  one  indication  that 
those  connections  are  advantageous  to  both  parties. 
The  mails  are  carried  by  sea  with  almost  the  same 
regularity  as  on  land  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
mail  subsidies  have  helped  to  build  up  the  British 
mercantile  marine.  Considerable  sums  arc  contri- 
buted   by    India    and    the    principal   Colonics    towards 


POSTAL  COMMUNICATIONS  OF   EMPIRE      327 

the  cost  of  their  ocean  mail  services.  For  example, 
of  the  sum  of  ^^4 14,700  paid  in  1899  for  the 
sea  conveyance  of  mails  to  and  from  India,  the 
Far  East,  and  Australia,  India  contributed  ;6 4 8,000, 
the  Australian  Colonies  ^71,868,  and  the  Eastern 
Colonies  £\  3,400.  The  South  African  Colonies  defray 
nearly  half  the  cost  of  their  mail  service  to  and  from 
England. 

In  1850a  low  and  uniform  postage  having  been 
established  in  this  country,  Mr.  Rowland  Hill  turned 
his  attention  to  the  colonial  posts.  A  sum  of  8d.  or 
IS.  was  then  required  to  carry  a  letter  to  the  shores  of 
a  colony  ;  and  in  nearly  every  case  there  were  addi- 
tional charges  for  conveyance  or  delivery  within  the 
colony.  An  inclusive  charge  of  6d.  was  proposed,  and 
by  1857  had  been  universally  adopted.  Cheap  rates 
for  books  were  introduced  at  the  same  time.  But  in 
1 86 1  a  reaction  set  in.  The  authorities  became 
alarmed  at  the  loss  on  the  packet  service,  the  cost  of 
which,  they  held,  should  be  covered  by  the  postage. 
Accordingly  in  1862  the  postage  to  the  Cape  and  the 
West  Indies  was  raised  to  is.  the  half-ounce,  and  a 
similar  increase  took  place  in  other  cases.  In  1874 
the  great  international  Federation  of  Post  Offices, 
known  as  the  Postal  Union,  was  founded  ;  and  during 
the  next  few  years  most  of  the  British  Colonies,  with 
the  exception  of  those  in  Australasia  and  South  Africa, 
became  members  of  the  Union.  A  reduction  of  postage 
was  the  result  of  this  measure.  Within  a  short  time 
the  rate  per  half-ounce  to  and  from  Canada  and  New- 
foundland became  2 id.,  to  and  from  India  and  the 
Eastern  Colonies  5d.,  and  to  and  from  the  Cape  and 
Australia  6d.  At  last  in  1891  uniformity  of  postage 
was  again  secured,  the  rate  of  2-^d.  the  half-ounce  being 
applied  to  letters  sent  from  the  United  Kingdom  to 
any  other  part  of  the  Empire. 

Seven  years  later  came  a   further   change.     At  a 


328  GENERAL 

conference  held  in  London  in  the  autumn  of  1898 
between  representatives  of  the  Home  Government  and 
the  Colonies  it  was  determined  to  adopt,  as  far  as 
practicable,  the  rate  of  i  d.  the  half-ounce  for  the  trans- 
mission of  letters  from  one  part  of  the  Empire  to 
another,  and  the  change  was  carried  out  generally  on 
Christmas  Day  in  that  year.  The  South  African 
Colonies  did  not  come  into  the  arrangement  until  a 
few  months  later.  New  Zealand  has  only  just  given 
notice  of  her  intention  to  do  the  same  on  the  ist  of 
January  1901.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the 
Australian  Colonies  will  follow  suit. 

The  parcel  post,  which  commenced  with  India  in 
1885,  was  soon  extended  to  all  the  Colonies.  Apart 
from  the  benefit  of  the  parcel  post  to  trade,  a  cheap 
and  accessible  means  of  sending  small  presents  and 
mementos  between  friends  in  distant  lands  has  its 
importance  in  keeping  fresh  the  ties  of  sentiment,  as 
witness  the  thousands  of  parcels  of  plum  pudding,  holly 
and  mistletoe  despatched  from  England  about  Christ- 
mas time,  and  the  heather  which  finds  its  way  in  the 
late  summer  to  Scotsmen  who  are  building  up  the 
Empire  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  A  similar  service  is 
rendered  by  the  colonial  money  order  system,  which 
dates  from  an  arrangement  made  with  Canada  in  1859, 
and  which  is  largely  used  by  hardworking  sons  and 
daughters  in  distant  colonies  to  send  money  for  the 
support  of  those  they  have  left  behind  in  the  old 
country. 

The  postal  relations  between  the  British  Empire 
and  other  countries  are  regulated  by  the  Convention  of 
the  Postal  Union,  of  which  all  the  civilised  and  half 
civilised  countries  of  the  world  are  members,  with  the 
exception  of  China.  All  important  questions  are  settled 
at  a  great  international  congress  which  meets  every  six 
years.  In  that  congress  delegates  from  Australia, 
Canada,  British   South   Africa,  and   India   sit  side  by 


POSTAL   COMMUNICATIONS   OF    EMPIRE      329 

side  with  the  representatives  of  the  British  Post  Office 
in  what  is  the  nearest  approach  yet  reaHsed  to — 

"The  Parliament  of  man,  tlie  Federation  of  the  world." 

The  internal  development  of  the  post  offices  of 
the  Colonies  has  been  remarkable.  To  take  a  few 
examples : — 

In  1840  there  were  54  post  offices  open  in  New 
South  Wales,  which  in  those  days  included  what  is  now 
the  Colony  of  Victoria;  in  1898  there  were  1500,  not 
counting  receiving  offices.  Sixty  years  ago  the  revenue 
was  ;^4300  and  the  expenditure  ;^3900;  in  1898  the 
revenue  was  ^^920, 000  and  the  expenditure  ^^^848, 000. 
The  bulk  of  the  mails  half  a  century  ago  is  indicated 
by  the  statement  in  a  report  of  1845  that  "  The  mails 
are  conveyed  to  and  from  the  harbour  (at  Sydney)  in 
the  mail  cart,  if  the  horse  is  not  otherwise  employed  or 
the  mail  too  bulky."  In  1899  there  were  despatched 
from  New  South  Wales  for  the  United  Kingdom  alone 
180,000  lbs.  of  ordinary  mail  matter,  and  9000 
parcels.  The  average  number  of  letters,  newspapers, 
&c.,  sent  and  received  in  New  South  Wales  is  about 
1 00  per  annum  for  each  man,  woman,  and  child.  This 
is  almost  the  highest  average  for  any  country  in  the 
world.  For  the  United  Kingdom,  for  instance,  the 
corresponding  number  is  88. 

In  1824  there  were  sixty-nine  post  offices  in  the 
Canadas — that  is  to  say,  in  the  present  provinces  •  of 
Ontario  and  Quebec — where,  in  1899,  there  were 
5000  offices.  In  the  whole  of  the  Dominion  there 
are  now  9500  offices,  or  one  for  every  500  inhabitants. 
The  mail  routes  over  Canadian  territory  are  of  great 
extent,  even  the  remote  district  of  Klondike  getting  a 
mail  once  or  twice  a  week. 

The  postal  service  in  the  Cape  Colony  dates  from 
1806,  when  correspondence  began  to  be  forwarded 
from  and  to  Cape  Town  by  relays  of  Hottentots,  the 


330  GENERAL 

postage  ranging  from  6d.  for  a  single  sheet  to  or  from 
Simon's  Bay,  to  2s.  for  a  single  sheet  to  or  from  Graaf- 
Reinet,  Algoa  Bay,  &c.  In  that  year  the  total  revenue 
was  ;^38.  Six  years  later  it  is  recorded  that  the 
weekly  post  to  Graham's  Town  covered  the  distance 
of  nearly  600  miles  in  eight  days,  and  that  to  Graaf- 
Reinet  (about  500  miles)  was  due  to  arrive  in  seven 
days.  These  places  are  now  only  forty-three  and 
thirty  hours  respectively  distant  by  mail  train  from 
Cape  Town.  Now  there  are  nearly  a  thousand  post 
offices  in  the  colony,  and  the  organisation  of  the  mail 
service  is  very  complete.  Before  the  war,  which  broke 
out  in  October  1899,  and  ended  in  the  annexation  of 
the  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free  State  to  the  British 
Empire,  travelling  post  offices  ran  between  Cape  Town 
and  Johannesbvu'g  in  the  Transvaal ;  the  thinly- popu- 
lated territory  is  covered  by  a  network  of  cart  and 
mounted  posts ;  and  even  if  the  stories  of  mail-carts 
drawn  by  zebras  and  ostriches  are  mythical,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  in  some  districts  near  the  Kalahari  Desert  the 
mails  are  carried  on  camel-back.  The  revenue  of  the 
post  office  in  1898  exceeded  ^600,000,  showing  a 
surplus  over  expenditure  of  nearly  ^^9000. 

All  the  principal  Colonies,  besides  providing  for  the 
carriage  and  delivery  of  correspondence,  have  their 
money  order,  postal  order,  and  savings  bank  services, 
and  give  all  the  other  facilities  expected  from  the 
post  office  in  these  days.  Indeed  postal  reformers  are 
beginning  to  hold  up  the  colonial  post  offices  as  an 
example  in  some  respects  to  the  post  office  of  the 
Mother  Country.  The  latter,  naturally  more  conser- 
vative and  slow-moving,  will  probably  in  the  future 
have  nuich  to  learn  from  its  progressive  offspring. 
Should  it,  for  example,  ever  be  called  upon  to  arrange 
for  the  payment  of  old  age  pensions,  it  will  profit  by 
the  experience  of  New  Zealand,  where  the  post  office 
already  performs  that  function.      Inspired   thus  by  a 


POSTAL   COMMUNICATIONS   OF    EMPIRE      331 

spirit  of  healthy  rivalry  in  their  separate  spheres  of 
operation,  and  heartily  co-operating  in  all  matters  of 
joint  utility,  the  post  offices  of  the  several  parts  of  the 
British  Empire  may  be  expected  to  move  forward  in 
their  ijreat  work  of  maintaining^  the  social,  commercial, 
and  political  conmiunications  of  that  Empire  through- 
out the  world. 


ELECTEIC    TELEGEAPH    SEEVICE 

CABLE  AND   COLONIAL  TELEGRAPHS 
By  FERDINAND  E.  KAPPEY 

For  Great  Britain,  at  least,  that  mighty  electric  nerve- 
system,  known  as  the  submarine  telegraph,  may  be  said 
to  stand  as  a  concrete  definition  of  Imperial  unity ; 
and  for  the  world,  as  an  earnest  of  that  mutual  under- 
standing and  oneness  of  purpose  by  which  alone  the 
advancement  of  the  race  is  possible.  Regarded  merely 
as  the  most  potent  factor  in  the  maintenance  of  Empire, 
the  submarine  cable  would  more  than  justify  its  exist- 
ence, though  to  narrow  the  issues  to  this  extent  would 
argue  a  poor  appreciation  of  the  immense  benefits  which 
have  otherwise  accrued  from  its  employment.  It  is, 
perhaps,  natural  that  the  vast  material  interests  which 
are  fostered  by  its  means  should  claim  prior  con- 
sideration. As  the  controlling  instrument  of  national 
aggrandisement  and  individual  enterprise,  the  tremen- 
dous powers  for  good  or  ill  which  it  exercises  throughout 
the  civilised  world  are  at  once  obvious  and  insistent ; 
while  its  ethical  significance  is  all  too  easily  lost  sight  of. 
So  that,  to  show  something  more  than  an  intelligent 
apprehension  of  this  mystery  of  instantaneous  inter- 
communication, it  is  necessary  to  touch  upon  the 
various  spheres  of  interest  which  its  use  involves,  and 
to  estimate  as  far  as  possible  its  influence  on  modern 
life  and  modern  thought.  To  cover  the  whole  field  in 
anything  like  detail  would,  of  course,  be  impossible  in 
tlie  space  at  our  command,  but  some  indication  will  be 
given  later  on  of  its  general  effects  upon  the  political  and 


CABLE    AND    COLONIAL    TELEGRAPHS      333 

commercial  tendencies  of  the  age,  and  the  morahties  of 
our  daily  intercourse. 

It  will  be  of  interest  if,  before  considering  the 
leading  submarine  cables  and  their  principal  land 
communications  in  their  special  relation  to  our  colonies, 
we  briefly  record  the  "  first  beginnings," — those  experi- 
ments which  ultimately  led  to  the  gigantic  undertakings 
which  are  now  among  the  everyday  commonplaces ; 
for,  like  all  great  epoch-making  enterprises,  enormous 
difficulties  were  encountered  only  to  be  overcome, 
and  the  final  triumph  achieved  when  failure  appeared 
inevitable. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  credit  of  the 
inspiration  falls  wholly  to  the  nineteenth  century,  for 
we  find  that  as  far  back  as  1793,  Salva,  a  Spanish 
scientist  who  is  best  remembered  in  this  regard,  read 
a  paper  before  the  Barcelona  Academy  of  Sciences,  in 
which  he  suggested  the  possibility  of  submarine  tele- 
graphy, although  he  does  not  appear  to  have  troubled 
himself  about  demonstrating  the  practicability  of  his 
theories.  This  apparently  was  left  to  Aldini,  a  nephew 
of  the  great  Galvani,  who  in  1803  is  said  to  have 
successfully  conducted  a  series  of  experiments  off  Calais, 
and  also  across  the  river  Marne ;  while  Sommering  and 
Schilling  in  1 8  1 1,  with  the  benefit  of  Aldini's  experience 
to  work  upon,  succeeded  in  obtaining  fairly  satisfactory 
results  across  the  Isar  near  Munich.  Their  experiments, 
as  Mr.  C.  Bright  points  out  in  his  work  upon  this 
subject,  were  mainly  concerned  with  the  adoption  of 
some  soluble  insidating  material,  the  precise  nature  of 
which  is  at  present  doubtful,  but  which  nevertheless 
proved  practicable  for  the  short  distance  operated  over. 
Two  years  later,  John  Robert  Sharpe  took  the  work  in 
hand,  and  was  successful  in  transmitting  a  code  of 
signals  through  seven  miles  of  insulated  wire.  Of  all 
the  experiments  referred  to  however,  particulars  are 
wanting,  for  beyond  their  mere  mention  there  does  not 


334  GENERAL 

appear  to  be  any  trustworthy  account  as  to  their 
conduct.  The  first  really  important  experiment,  be- 
cause the  fullest  recorded,  Avas  undertaken  at  Chatham 
in  I  8  3  8  by  Colonel  Pasley  (afterwards  Sir  F.  C.  Pasley). 
His  experiments  were  mainl}^  conducted  from  Upnor — 
facing  the  dockyard — and  the  results  achieved  were 
regarded  as  eminently  successful.  He  not  only  sent 
and  received  messages  through  various  lengths  of  wire, 
but  is  reputed  to  have  established  a  temporary  connec- 
tion with  his  barracks  whence  he  took  orders  from  his 
commanding  officer.  In  the  absence  of  gutta-percha, 
which  was  then  unknown,  the  materials  he  employed 
for  insulating  purposes  were  essentially  crude, — con- 
sisting, indeed,  of  strands  of  pitched  yarn  and  tarred 
rope  firmly  encasing  the  wire.  It  was  by  means  of  this 
"  cable  "  that  he  afterwards  established  communication 
with  the  wreck  of  the  Hoi/al  George  off  Spithead,  during 
the  diving  operations  in  connection  with  that  ill-fated 
ship. 

From  this  stage  forward  until  1845  a  number  of 
experiments  were  conducted  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  with  almost  uniform  success.  The  variations 
adopted  on  Sh  F.  C.  Pasley 's  principle  Avere  slight, 
until  the  advent  of  those  "  elect  few  "  who  gave  the 
best  of  their  time  and  talent  towards  the  solution  of 
submarine  telegraphy.  Such  names  as  Professor  Morse, 
Sir  C.  Wheatstone,  Ezra  Cornell,  and  Charles  West  will 
readily  occur  as  among  those  Avho  did  most  to  solve 
the  difficulties  of  that  most  difficult  problem.  Great 
as  their  services  were  however,  their  efforts  fell  short 
in  point  of  practical  application.  To  the  brothers 
Brett,  more  than  to  any  others,  and  to  Jacob  Brett 
in  particular,  belongs  the  credit  of  having  first  brought 
about  international  commimication.  The  Bretts  ob- 
tained a  concession  from  the  French  Government 
to  establish  cable  connection  between  France  and 
England,  and  a  company  was  duly  registered  for  that 


CABLE    AND    COLONIAL    TELEGRAPHS      33  5 

purpose  and  the  funds  provided.  Unfortunately  the 
time  stipulated  by  the  French  Government  for  the 
completion  of  the  line  did  not  provide  for  the  failures 
and  disappointments  inevitable  in  a  new  enterprise 
involving  so  many  risks  and  unknown  factors,  with  the 
consequence  that  the  concession  was  withdrawn.  A 
new  concession  was  solicited  and  granted  early  in 
I  8  5  I ,  and  on  the  1 9th  October  of  that  year  the  first 
submarine  cable  was  open  to  the  public  for  traffic.  It 
was  about  this  time  also  that  an  English  telegraph 
engineer  resident  in  Nova  Scotia,  a  Mr.  F.  N.  Gisborne 
— whether  acting  on  independent  initiative,  or  indebted 
to  Bishop  Mullock,  who  a  year  previously  had  sug- 
gested the  scheme  in  a  letter  addressed  to  the  American 
Courier — lent  his  whole  energies  to  the  establishment 
of  telegraphic  communication  between  Newfoundland 
and  New  York.  As  Mr.  George  Saward  pointed  out 
in  his  narrative  of  the  Trans- Atlantic  Submarine  Tele- 
graph, which  was  published  for  private  circulation  in 
1878,  Mr.  Gisborne's  scheme  coincided  with  that  of 
the  Bishop,  whose  plan  was  to  unite  St.  Johns  to 
Cape  Ray  by  land-wire,  extend  the  line  of  connnunica- 
tion  by  submarine  telegraph  from  Cape  Ray  to  St.  Paul's 
Island,  thence  to  Cape  North  (Cape  Breton),  and  from 
that  point,  by  a  route  to  be  subsequently  determined, 
to  the  American  mainland,  where  existing  land-wires 
could  be  met,  and  communication  with  New  York  at 
once  effected.  The  details  of  the  project,  taking  into 
consideration  the  fact  that  grave  doubt  existed  as  to  the 
practicability  of  submarine  cables,  included  a  proposal 
to  utilise  steamers  and  carrier  pigeons  as  a  temporary 
means  of  communication  between  Cape  Ray  and  Cape  Bre- 
ton, until  the  possibility  of  the  cable  scheme  was  fully 
demonstrated.  In  his  relations  with  the  Newfound- 
land Legislature  Mr.  Gisborne  was  entirely  successful. 
He  obtained  an  Act  of  Incorporation  conferring 
important  concessions  of  land,  besides  the    '  exclusive 


336  GENERAL 

riglit  of  erecting  telegraphs  in  tlie  Colony  during  a 
period  of  thirty  years."  Ai'med  with  these  powers  he 
went  to  New  York  and  interested  various  capitalists  in 
the  scheme.  The  encouragement  he  received  on  all 
hands  was  such  that  he  set  to  Avork,  and,  in  the  words 
of  Mr.  Saward,  "  in  spite  of  formidable  engineering 
difficulties  and  great  personal  dangers  and  privations, 
he  bravely  persevered  in  making  a  survey  of  the 
hitherto  unexplored  country  westward  of  St.  Johns, 
and  commenced  the  erection  of  an  electric  telegraph 
by  land  in  the  direction  of  Cape  Ray."  The  idea  of 
the  steamers  and  the  carrier  pigeons  was  by  this  time 
abandoned,  since  various  cables  had  been  landed  in 
Europe  and  were  operating  without  their  use.  The 
land-wires  being  completed,  Mr.  Gisborne  purchased 
and  shipped  from  England  a  cable  sufficiently  long 
for  the  purpose  immediately  in  view,  and  succeeded 
for  a  short  time  in  bringing  Prince  Edward  Island 
and  New  BrunsAvick  into  direct  communication.  The 
breaking  of  this  cable  shortly  after,  and  the  financial 
difficulties  into  which  Mr.  Gisborne  was  subsequently 
involved,  practically  decided  the  future  history  of  sub- 
marine telegraphy  ;  for,  visiting  New  York  in  January 
1854,  with  the  desired  completion  of  his  work  still 
uppermost  in  his  mind,  he  there  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Mr.  Cyrus  W.  Field,  whose  sympathies  he  speedily 
enlisted,  and  who  was  soon  to  throw  his  whole  weight 
into  the  enterprise,  with  the  object,  doubtless,  of  assist- 
ing the  more  important  project  of  trans-Atlantic  com- 
munication suggested  by  the  lesser  undertaking. 

From  that  date  forward,  and  for  twelve  years,  Mr. 
Field  laboured  with  untiring  energy  and  devotion  to 
complete  the  great  work.  There  is  no  need  to  tra- 
verse more  than  the  main  incidents  comprised  within 
that  fruitful  period.  Bitter  disappointments  were  for 
the  most  part  the  interim  rewards  of  his  labour,  and 
but  for  the  boundless  confidence  of  Mr.  Jolm  Pender 


CABLE    ANU    COLONIAL    TELEGRAPHS      337 

(afterwards  Sir  John  Pender,  G.C.M.G.)  in  its  ultimate 
success,  the  scheme  Avould,  in  all  probability,  have  been 
indefinitely  postponed.  At  the  outset,  and  following 
Mr,  Field's  visit  to  this  country  in  search  of  support, 
345  gentlemen  were  found  willing  to  contribute  iJ^iooo 
each  towards  the  expenses  incurred  in  the  initial  ex- 
periment, of  whom  Mr.  Pender  was  one.  When  the 
effort  had  failed,  and  two  cables  of  the  Atlantic  Com- 
pany (as  the  undertaking  was  then  styled)  had  been 
lost  within  less  than  a  mile  of  the  Irish  coast,  the 
Great  Eastern  steamship  was  chartered  to  attempt 
the  laying  of  a  third  and  specially  constructed  cable ; 
but  when  this,  too,  had  parted  in  mid-ocean,  the 
financial  ruin  of  the  Company  was  complete. 

Nothing  daunted,  Mr.  Field  and  Mr.  Pender  again 
pressed  forward,  only  to  find  that  much  of  the  con- 
fidence which  they  had  previously  inspired  in  the 
public  was  shattered,  and  that  the  funds  deemed 
necessary  were  far  in  excess  of  the  offers  of  assistance 
which  now  came  to  them.  It  was  then  that  Mr. 
Pender,  meeting  the  emergencies  of  the  moment  in 
full  flood,  offered  the  "  Gutta-Percha  Company"  his 
personal  guarantee  of  a  quarter  of  a  million  sterling 
upon  their  undertaking,  in  conjunction  with  Messrs. 
Glass,  Elliot  &  Co.,  to  supply  the  material  for  the 
cable.  The  offer  was  accepted,  and  in  1866  the  new 
cable  was  successfully  laid,  and  the  old  one  recovered 
from  a  depth  of  1950  fathoms,  or  nearly  two  miles. 
Public  confidence  being-  thus  restored,  other  grreat 
cable  lines  were  projected,  and  in  1869  a  series  of 
companies  were  registered  to  acquire  the  rights  of 
establishing  and  extending  conununications  between 
Great  Britain  and  her  Eastern  Colonies.  Private 
enterprise  was  alone  responsible  for  the  remarkable 
results  that  ensued,  the  Government  refraining  from 
lending  any  assistance  whatever  in  the  shape  of  sub- 
sidies   or    guarantees, — a    significant    fact    when    we 

V  Y 


3  38  GENERAL 

consider  that  the  "  Red  Sea  and  Telegraph  to  India 
Company"  of  1858,  an  undertaking  of  far  less  import- 
ance to  the  general  community,  had  the  benefit  of 
such  assistance — as,  indeed,  did  all  the  Mediterranean 
Cable  Companies  prior  to  the  agitation  for  an  exten- 
sion of  the  cable  service  to  the  Far  East, 

The  British  India  Company ;  the  Marseilles, 
Algiers,  and  Malta  Company ;  and  the  Falmouth,  Gib- 
raltar, and  Malta  Telegraph  Company,  were  the  initial 
outcome  of  the  demands  which  now  existed  ;  and  by 
means  of  land-lines  between  London  and  Land's  End, 
and  cables  touching  Lisbon,  Gibraltar,  and  Malta, 
direct  communication  with  our  Eastern  possessions 
was  effected.  The  China  Telegraph  Company  was 
also  registered  about  this  time  with  the  object  of  con- 
necting Singapore,  Hong  Kong,  and  Shanghai ;  and  in 
1870  the  British  Australia  Telegraph  Company  was 
formed  to  establish  connections  between  Singapore  and 
Batavia.  The  cable  to  Australia  was  laid  in  1 8  7 1 ,  but 
it  was  not  until  1872  that  regular  traffic  with  the 
Australian  continent  was  promoted,  owing  to  the  im- 
perfect land-wire  system,  and  the  breakdown  of  the 
Banjoewangie-Port  Darwin  Cable.  The  subsequent 
amalgamation  of  the  four  companies  operating  this 
side  of  India,  and  their  registration  under  the  name 
of  the  Eastern  Telegraph  Company,  conduced  to  bring 
about  a  thoroughly  efficient  working.  The  further 
registration  in  1873  of  The  Eastern  Extension 
Australasia  and  China  Telegraph  Company,  absorb- 
ing the  Companies  which  existed  eastward  of  India, 
and  the  duplicate  and  triplicate  lines  since  submerged 
between  many  points,  decided  the  system  which  to-day 
enables  us  to  comiiuuiicatc  with  our  remotest  colonies 
with  such  admirable  facility.  Briefly  summarising 
these  achievements,  the  far  Eastern  countries  (beyond 
India)  were  brouglit  into  direct  telegraphic  communi- 
cation   with    Great    Britain    on    the    following    (bites: 


CABLE    AND    COLONIAL    TELEGRAPHS     339 

Penang,  1871  ;  Singapore,  1870;  Hong  Kong,  1871  ; 
Saigon,  1871;  Java,  1870;  Australia,  1872. 

It  will  be  seen  that  these  places  are  given  in  the 
order  of  tlieir  distance  from  Great  Britain,  and  that 
the  lines  accomplished  in  1870  therefore  involved  the 
use  of  land-lines  vid  Bangkok — Bombay. 

Having  briefly  traced  the  results  achieved  during 
the  earlier  career  of  submarine  telegraphy,  we  may 
now  proceed  to  touch  upon  the  system  at  present 
obtaining,  with  sole  reference,  of  course,  to  our  Colo- 
nics,— including,  as  far  as  possible,  a  rapid  survey  of  the 
principal  land-line  schemes  and  their  ramifications. 

Beginning  with  Canada,  Avhich,  as  we  have  slioAvn, 
was  brought  into  comuumication  with  the  Mother 
Country  at  the  outset,  the  total  mileage  of  telegraph 
linos  is  given  at  32,891,  including  cable  lines,  showing 
a  steady  yearly  increase  since  1886.  Before  that  date 
the  returns  are  oflicially  stated  as  defective.  In  1886, 
however,  the  number  of  miles  was  given  at  25,336, 
making  a  total  increase  over  the  years  intervening  of 
7  5  5  5-  O^  the  gross  total  only  2990^  miles  are  Govern- 
ment property.  The  balance,  comprising  as  it  does 
nearly  30,000  miles,  is  conducted  by  the  Great 
Western  Telegraph  Company  and  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  Company  from  Quebec  westward ;  and,  in  the 
maritime  provinces,  by  the  Western  Union  Telegraph 
Company.  The  yearly  average  number  of  messages 
sent  over  the  Government  lines  alone  is  42,550;  and, 
in  1898,  the  expenditure  over  revenue  in  regard 
thereto  amounted  to  45,982  dollars.  The  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway,  operating  these  lines,  retains  the 
revenue.  Government  reimbursing  the  excess.  The 
number  of  messages  sent  over  the  entire  system 
during  the  year  stated  amounted  to  4.407,265.  It 
would  be  interesting  to  compare  this  with  the  number 
of  messages  sent  prior  to  the  landing  of  the  submarine 
cable.     Unfortunately,  no  reliable  data  can  be  obtained 


340 


GENERAL 


farther  back  than  1882,  but  it  is  at  least  affirmed  that 
the  traffic  more  than  doubled  itself  in  the  five  years 
followino-  the  first  cable  connections. 

The    following    table  will    show   at   a    glance    the 

o  o 

mileage  of  land  and  cable  lines  owned  by  private 
companies  and  Government  in  the  several  Provinces 
in  the  Dominion  : — 


Government. 


Location  of  Lines. 

Land-lines. 

Cables. 

Miles. 

Knots. 

Newfoundland  ..... 

14 

— 

Nova  Scotia 

229i 

22| 

New  Brunswick 

76 

IOI4 

Quebec 

1142I 

1 64! 

Ontario      . 

■  ;           24I 

9I 

North- We.st 

.  1         698 

British  Columbia 

567 

— 

Private. 


Companies. 


Miles  of  Line. 


Miles  of  Wire. 


Great  Ncnlh-Western  Telegraph  Co. 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Co.   . 
Western  Union         .        .        .        . 


18,228 
2,935 


34,545 

33,'43 

8,386 


From  Halifax  direct  cable  communication  is  ex- 
tended to  Bermuda,  and  from  Bermuda  to  Jamaica — 
which  can  also  be  reached  in  one  transmission  from 
Halifax  over  The  Halifax  and  Bermudas  and  Direct 
West  India  Cables.  Almost  all  the  West  Indian 
Islands  are  embraced  in  the  system  l)y  means  of 
the  West  India  and  Panama  Company's  cables,  as  far 
as  Bcrbice  and  Demerara  in  British  Guiana. 

Africa. — Our  African  possessions  are  all  in  direct 


CABLE    AND    COLONIAL    'rKLEGRAPHS      341 

touch  with  the  Mother  Country  and  with  each  other 
by  various  systems  and  routes,  which  are  yearly  ex- 
tending their  ramifications  to  the  very  heart  of  the 
Bhick  Continent,  Wholly  circumscribed  by  the  sub- 
marine cable,  there  is  no  port  or  coast-town  of  import- 
ance which  is  not  in  direct  or  indirect  communication 
with  all  parts  of  the  world.  Cape  Colony,  "  our  chiefest 
interest,"  may  claim  our  first  attention.  At  this  mo- 
ment we  are  able  to  include  the  Transvaal  and  the 
Orange  Free  State  (with  some  modifications  in  the 
names  of  these  late  Hepublics)  under  this  heading. 

From  Durban  the  Cape  Government  lines  radiate 
in  all  directions,  taking  in  Natal  and  the  two  States 
mentioned  in  one  comprehensive  system.  Cape  Town 
and  Port  Elizabeth,  two  equally  important  cable  stations, 
also  extend  land-wires  as  far  north  as  Mafeking,  and 
combine  at  various  points  Avitli  the  lines  concentrating 
at  Durban. 

During  the  year  1898,  forty-nine  new  telegraph 
offices  were  opened  in  Cape  Colony,  fourteen  by  the 
British  South  Africa  Company  within  the  area  of  their 
operations,  thirty  in  Natal,  and  eleven  by  the  African 
Trans-Continental  Telegraph  Company,  which  suffi- 
ciently indicates  the  rapid  growth  of  the  S3^stem  and 
the  demands  which  make  that  growth  a  necessity.  A 
third  route  will  shortly  connect  South  Africa  with  Great 
Britain,  extending  to  St.  Vincent  (Cape  Verde),  Al- 
ready the  section  between  Cape  Town,  St.  Helena,  and 
Ascension  is  open  for  traffic. 

The  construction  of  the  African  Trans- Continental 
telegraph  system  is  still  in  active  progress,  and  its  com- 
pletion may  be  looked  for  at  no  very  distant  date. 
Already  over  1000  miles  are  finished,  the  Karonga- 
Abercorn  section  being  the  last  officially  reported  com- 
plete and  in  Avorking  order.  The  undertaking  stands 
as  follows  :  Cape  Town  can  work  to  Salisbury  direct,  a 
distance  of  1634  miles,  with  two  relay  stations  between. 


342  GENERAL 

"  From  Salisbury  there  should  be  little  difficulty  in 
opening  communication  with  Abercorn — 1225  miles; 
and  taking  these  two  sections  as  a  basis,  three  more 
stretches  of  some  1270  miles  each  would  complete  the 
through  distance — Cape  to  Caho  and  Alexandria,  with 
five  transmitting  offices."  It  will  therefore  be  possible, 
on  the  completion  of  the  trans-Continental  scheme,  to 
send  a  telegram  from  Cape  Town  to  Loiidon  overland, 
excepting  only  some  thirty  miles  of  geographically 
inevitable  water.  The  undertakinef  is,  of  course,  one 
of  colossal  magnitude,  and  was  to  have  been  completed 
in  1902.  But  the  South  African  war  has  so  delayed 
the  operations  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  when  its  accom- 
plishment may  be  looked  for. 

It  is  proposed,  and  we  believe  that  the  work  is 
already  in  hand,  to  lay  a  cable  from  Durban  to 
Mauritius,  Mauritius  to  Cocos  and  Keeling  island, 
thence  to  Perth  (Australia),  and  thence  to  Adelaide, 
so  that  South  Africa  will  be  in  direct  communication 
with  the  Australian  continent.  An  alternative  route 
to  Australia  from  Great  Britain  will  thus  be  effected 
vid  Cape  Town. 

Our  East  African  possessions  are  directly  connected 
by  three  cables  belonging  to  the  African  Direct,  Spanish 
National,  and  West  African  Companies.  The  Eastern 
Company  takes  up  with  the  West  African  Company's 
cables,  which  starts  from  St.  Vincent,  at  Lisbon,  and 
with  the  Brazilian  Submarine  Company's  cable  vid 
Lisbon — Madeira. 

India. — The  cable  connections  of  India  arc  made  at 
Bombay  on  tlie  cast  and  Madras  cm  the  west,  complete 
comnumication  being  established  with  all  the  provinces, 
from  Nagarcoil  on  the  extreme  south  to  Cabul  on  the 
extreme  north,  the  Indo-European  and  tlie  Eastern 
Companies  being  jointly  responsible  for  the  submarine 
undertakings.  The  land-lines,  all  of  which  can  be 
operated   to   connect   with    the   cables,   are   estimated 


CABLE    AND    COLONIAL    TELEGRAPHS      343 

at  50,306  miles,  mostly  the  property  of  the  Indian 
Government ;  and  in  a  country  which  is  held  by  force, 
the  absolute  necessity  of  State  control  over  the  various 
circuits  is  obvious.  Little  need  be  said  concerning  the 
Inland  Telegraphic  Department  of  India,  as  the  subject 
has  been  ably  and  exhaustively  treated  elsewhere  by 
Mr.  C.  H.  Reynolds,  CLE.  Suffice  to  say  that  there  is 
scarcely  a  township  throughout  that  enormous  territory, 
and  scarcely  an  outpost  in  the  fever-stricken  swamps 
and  jungles  that  abound  in  many  provinces,  which  is 
not  in  telegraphic  communication  with  the  world, 
Ceylon  is  connected  with  the  Indian  mainland  at 
Ramnad  by  a  double  cable,  the  main  Island  connec- 
tions concentrating  at  Kandy,  from  which  Colombo, 
Point  do  Galle,  Batticaloa,  and  Trincomalee  can  be 
communicated  with. 

Australasia. — The  coast  of  Western  Australia  is 
touched  by  the  cables  {yid  Java)  at  Broome  on  the 
extreme  west,  and  at  Port  Darwin  on  the  extreme 
north.  The  bulk  of  the  Australian  traffic  passes  over 
the  trans-Continental  line  erected  between  Port  Darwin 
and  Adelaide,  begun  in  1870  and  completed  in  1872. 
The  immense  hardships  encountered  in  the  construction 
of  this  line  renders  it  one  of  the  most  remarkable  feats 
in  the  history  of  land-line  undertakings.  The  line 
covers  a  distance  of  no  less  than  1973  miles,  and  passes 
through  almost  unknown  territory,  with  little  if  any 
surface  water,  and  formidable  natural  obstacles  which 
rendered  the  transport  a  matter  of  almost  insuperable 
difficulty. 

With  the  exception  of  two  comparatively  short 
strips  on  the  coast-line — Burketown  to  Palmerston, 
and  Palmerston  to  Derby — Australia  is  circumscribed 
by  the  telegraph.  Every  coast  town  from  Broome  to 
Somerset  is  readily  accessible  from  any  station  through- 
out the  five  colonies  which  constitute  the  continent; 
and  as  the  history  of  the  four  main  colonies — Western 


344  GENERAL 

Australia  being  the  least  known  of  the  quintet,  as  also 
the  most  barren — may  be  said  to  run  parallel,  it  will 
be  sufficient  if  we  indicate  the  inception  and  growth  of 
the  electric  telegraph  in,  say  New  South  Wales,  which 
may  be  taken  as  representative  of  Victoria,  Queensland, 
and  Southern  Australia,  making  due  regard,  of  course, 
for  their  size  and  relative  importance.  On  26th 
January  1858  the  first  telegraph  was  employed  in  this 
colony  between  Sydney  and  Liverpool,  a  distance  of 
twenty-two  miles.  From  this  beginning  the  system 
increased  with  enormous  rapidity,  and  shows  to-day  a 
mileage  of  13,242  open  lines,  with  35,630  miles  of 
wire  in  actual  use,  and  some  700  miles  in  course  of 
construction. 

Compared  with  Queensland,  which  is  more  than 
double  the  area  of  New  South  Wales,  these  totals  may 
seem  at  first  sight  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  10,088 
miles  of  line  and  18,565  miles  of  wire  contained  in  the 
former  colony.  But  the  geographical  positions  and  the 
natural  resources  of  the  tAvo  colonies  iiuist  be  considered 
in  the  estimate,  when  the  actual  differences  will  be 
easily  accounted  for. 

Ne^u  Zealand. — From  Sydney  a  double  cable  con- 
nects New  Zealand  at  Nelson  on  the  north  of  South 
Island,  and  thence  by  single  cable  to  Wanganni  on 
south  of  North  Island  ;  North  and  South  Islands  being 
further  connected  by  double  cable  between  Wellington 
and  Blenheim,  Avith  land-line  connections  to  Mongonni 
on  the  extreme  north,  and  Campbelltown  on  the  extreme 
south.  The  number  of  miles  of  line  in  1899  was 
6736,  with  18.746  miles  of  wire  throughout  the  system, 
or  just  double  tlie  mileage  that  existed  in  1882,  an 
eloquent  tribute  to  the  advance  which  New  Zealand 
has  made  in  the  space  of  eighteen  years. 

The  statistical  al)stract  for  the  year  ending  1898 
gives  the  following  total  mileage  of  telegraph  lines  open 
in  our  various  colonial  possessions. 


CABLE   AND    COLONIAL   TELEGRAPHS     345 


Possessions. 

Mileage. 

India         .... 

50.306 

Straits  Settlements  . 

Not  received 

Ceylon        .... 

1,161 

Excluding  cable  lines 

Mauritius  .... 

135 

Labuan       .... 

Not  received 

Hong  Kong 

/Cannot  be"! 
1,     given      / 

AUSTRALASIA  :— 

New  South  Wales  . 

13.242 

I  Excluding  railwaj'  tele- 
1      graph  lines 

Victoria  .... 

6,599 

South  Australia 

5.514 

I  Including  the  Northern 
1      Territory 

Western  Australia . 

5,886 

Tasmai)ia 

1,927 

Excluding  cable  lines 
(  Excluding  railway  tele- 

New  Zealand  . 

6,736 

<      graph    lines   and    in- 
(      eluding  cable  lines 

Queensland    . 

10,088 

Natal         .... 

801  i 

Zululand    .... 

159 

Annexed  to  Natal 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  . 

7.224 

St.  Helena 

30 

Lagos          .... 

230 

Gold  Coast 

688 

NORTH  AMERICA  :— 

Canada  .... 

32,891 

Including  cable  lines 

Newfoundland 

1,314 

Government  lines  only 

West  India  Islands  :— 

Bermuda .... 

44 

Excluding  cable  lines 

Bahamas. 

6 

Do. 

Jamaica    .... 

635 

Excluding  railway  tele- 

graph lines 

Trinidad  .... 

94 

i  Including  railway  tele- 
)      graph  lines 
I  Excluding  railway  tele- 
■|      graph  lines  and"  cable 

British  Guiana  . 

476 

(      lines 

Malta          .... 

65 

The  long  contemplated  All-British  cable  scheme, 
known  as  the  Pacific  cable,  the  construction  of  which 
has  now  been  definitely  decided  upon,  may  claim  our 
attention  for  a  few  moments  in  view  of  its  importance 
as  a  prospective  "  weapon  "  of  innnense  strategic  possi- 
bilities, and  an  instrument  of  the  highest  commercial 
value.     The  route  suggested  by  Sir  Sandford  Fleming, 


346  GENERAL 

and  ultimately  decided  on  by  the  Governments  con- 
cerned, is,  viti  Canada,  Norfolk  Island,  Fanning  Island, 
and  Fiji,  whence  it  would  bifurcate,  one  branch  extending 
to  New  Zealand  and  the  other  to  the  eastern  coast 
of  Australia,  where  the  land-lines  would  complete 
communication  with  the  western  coast.  From  some 
convenient  point — King  George's  Sound  for  preference 
— the  cable  would  be  carried  on  to  Cocos  Island,  and 
from  here  to  the  Island  of  Mauritius,  and  so  to  Natal 
or  Cape  Town.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  Cocos 
would  so  become  an  important  telegraph  centre  ;  it 
would  be  a  convenient  point  for  connecting  Singapore 
by  a  branch  cable.  Singapore  is  already  in  connection 
with  Hong  Kong  by  an  All-British  cable  vid  Labuan. 
India  could  be  reached  by  a  branch  cable  from  Cocos 
to  Colombo  or  Trincomalee  in  Ceylon.  At  Mauritius  a 
connection  could  be  formed  with  the  existing  cable  to 
Seychelles,  Aden,  and  Bombay.  In  order  to  avoid  the 
shallow  seas  along  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  France,  it  is  proposed  that  the  cable 
should  extend  from  Cape  Town  to  Bermuda,  touching 
at  St.  Helena,  Ascension,  Barbados,  as  niid-occan 
stations.  At  Bermuda  a  connection  would  be  formed 
with  the  existing  cable  to  Halifax,  and  from  that 
point  with  the  Canadian  and  Trans-Atlantic  lines.  Sir 
S.  Fleming  estimated  that  the  total  distance  for  which 
new  cables  would  be  required — of  which  20,250  knots 
would  be  in  the  main  line,  and  2600  in  branches — 
might  be  roughly  placed  at  23,000  knots;  and  the 
cost,  including  the  branch  to  Hong  Kong,  between 
i!^ 5, 000,000  and  .1^6,000,000  sterling. 

The  principal  objection  formulated  against  the 
scheme  at  the  time  of  its  inception — among  other 
difficuhies  raised  on  various  grounds,  and  the  vexa- 
tious conditions  and  restrictions  imposed  by  the  Home 
Government — was,  that  whereas  an  extensive  and  con- 
stantly   increasing    trade    was    likely    to    ensue    with 


CABLE    AND    COLONIAL    TELEGRAPHS     347 

South  Africa  in  the  near  future,  no  trade  of  great 
importance  could  reasonably  be  hoped  for  between 
Canada  and  Australia. 

In  connection  with  the  attitude  taken  by  the 
Government,  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies 
pointed  out  that : — 

(i)  Her  Majesty's  Government  have  never  con- 
cealed their  opinion  that  the  constitution  of  a  PacifiG 
Cable  is  of  greater  importance  to  Australasia  and 
Canada  than  to  the  United  Kingdom,  and  that  they 
would  not  have  been  disposed  to  recommend  Parlia- 
ment to  aid  it,  but  for  their  desire  to  afford  the 
support  and  assistance  of  the  Mother  Country  to  her 
great  self-governing  colonies  in  a  project,  the  success 
of  which  cannot  fail  to  promote  Imperial  Unity. 

(2)  That  Her  Majesty's  Government  consider  the 
responsibility  of  constructing  and  working  the  cable 
should  be  borne  by  the  Governments  of  Canada  and 
Australasia,  to  whom  any  profits  that  may  hereafter 
accrue  from  the  undertaking  would  consequently  fall. 

Upon  the  foregoing  it  was  remarked  that  the 
cable  would  furnish  an  alternative  route  to  the  East, 
passing  entirely  through  territory  under  British  con- 
trol, while  its  other  advantages,  both  strategical  and 
commercial,  were  referred  to  by  the  supporters  of  the 
scheme.  The  injustice  of  the  proposition  that  Canada 
and  Australasia  should  be  held  responsible  for  raising 
the  money  to  carry  out  the  work  was  also  insisted 
upon,  and  a  hope  expressed  that  the  British  Govern- 
ment might  ultimately  see  their  way  "  to  yield  to  the 
wishes  of  Canada  and  the  Australian  Colonies  with 
regard  to  the  joint  ownership  and  working  of  the 
cable." 

In  point  of  fact  the  British  Government  did  yield, 
and  Great  Britain  and  the  Colonies  interested  will 
share  the  expenses  and  the  profits  in  their  due  pro- 
portions. 


348  GENERAL 

We  may  now  proceed  briefly  to  estimate  the  ad- 
vantages to  the  civilised  world,  for  which  submarine 
telegraphy  is  mainly  responsible.  At  the  banquet 
given  at  the  Imperial  Institute  on  20th  July  1894,  to 
celebrate  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the  Establish- 
ment of  Submarine  Telegraphy  with  the  Far  East,  Lord 
Wolseley  said :  "  I  have  often  thought  of  the  great 
difficulties  that  exist  in  the  art  of  war  now  compared 
with  the  days  of  the  great  Duke  of  Wellington. 
Think  of  the  immense  difficulties  under  which  he 
carried  on  his  great  campaigns.  ...  I  have  often,  in 
reading  of  those  campaigns,  tried  to  calculate  to 
myself  what  would  have  been  the  result  of  the  great 
Napoleonic  campaigns,  had  the  present  scientific 
means  of  locomotion  existed  in  those  days.  Think, 
for  example,  what  would  have  been  the  result  of  his 
great  campaign  in  Russia  if  he  had  been  in  commimi- 
cation  with  Paris  by  railways  and  the  telegraph.  .  ,  . 
Perhaps  it  is  not  generally  known  that  we  were  the 
first  people  who  made  use  of  telegraphy  in  war — in 
the  Crimea.  We  also  laid  down  a  line  of  submarine 
telegraph  between  Varna  and  the  Crimea,  and  I 
believe  that  that  was  the  first  time  that  submarine 
telegraphs  were  made  use  of  for  the  purposes  of  war." 

In  proof  of  the  strategic  value  of  cables  in  the 
estimation  of  the  Powers,  the  International  Telegraph 
Conference,  held  at  Paris  in  1884,  in  considering  the 
necessities  of  their  protection  in  time  of  war,  adopted 
a  clause  in  Article  XV.  of  the  Convention,  which  was 
agreed  to  by  about  twenty  Powers,  to  the  effect  that 
the  stipulations  of  the  treaty  do  not  in  any  respect 
restrict  the  freedom  of  action  of  belligerents, — so  that 
the  cutting  of  the  cables  (with  very  doubtful  prospects 
of  compensation  for  the  companies  that  might  suffer) 
may  be  looked  for  in  tlio  event  of  future  hostilities. 
It  was  stated  not  long  since  by  one  ol"  the  best  known 
and  most  authentic  of  the  French  papers — though  how 


CABLE    AND    COLONIAL    TELEGRATHS      349 

such  a  fact  concerning  the  prospective  operations  of  the 
fleet  should  be  given  to  the  world  it  is  difficult  to  con- 
ceive— that  every  ship  in  the  French  navy  is  supplied 
with  secret  orders  which  it  is  the  duty  of  the  com- 
manding officer  to  open  and  immediately  act  upon 
in  time  of  war.  Among  the  orders  contained  are 
"  minute  instructions  as  to  the  routes  and  exact  posi- 
tions of  the  leadino'  cables  of  the  world,  and  also  the 
necessary  information  as  to  the  best  means  of  de- 
stroying them."  What  the  effects  of  cable  interrup- 
tion would  be  in  war  time  may  be  readily  inferred 
when  we  endeavour  to  estimate  the  cable  advantages 
lately  and  at  present  afforded  in  our  relations  with 
South  Africa.  Imagine  the  state  of  the  public  mind 
which  any  prolonged  suspense  as  to  the  issues  of  our 
extensive  operations  would  produce !  The  fact  is  that 
we  are  so  accustomed  to  keep  pace  with  every  move- 
ment of  the  forces  engaged, — that  the  progress  of 
every  battle,  the  losses  entailed,  and  the  results 
achieved,  are  matters  of  such  momentary  and  com- 
monplace availability,  that  we  cease  to  marvel  at  or 
even  to  feel  thankful  for  the  mighty  and  mysterious 
means  employed  to  this  end.  It  will  be  remembered 
how,  during  the  bombardment  of  Alexandria,  the 
Eastern  Telegraph  Company's  s.s.  Ohiltern  took  on 
board  the  Alexandria  end  of  one  of  the  cables,  and 
kept  the  Government  and  the  people  in  immediate 
touch  with  the  operations  in  progress.  These  illus- 
trations might  easily  be  multiplied,  for,  from  then  till 
now,  the  growth  of  our  Empire,  and  the  campaigns 
resulting  in  its  expansion,  have  been  watched  and 
endorsed  "  over  the  wire."  An  illustration  of  the 
economic  value  of  the  cable  in  war  has  often  been 
cited  in  connection  with  the  Indian  Mutiny,  when  a 
single  telegram  sent  through  the  first  Atlantic  cable  is 
said  to  have  saved  the  Government  no  less  a  sum  than 
i^ 5  0,000.     As  showing,  too,  the  possibilities  of  the  sul)- 


350  GENERAL 

marine  telegraph  as  a  war-averting  factor,  the  late  Hon. 
T.  F.  Bayard,  at  that  time  the  American  Ambassador 
to  the  Com't  of  St.  James,  in  his  speech  delivered  at 
the  anniversary  banquet  already  referred  to,  gave  an 
instance  which  cannot  fail  to  impress  the  imagination. 
He  said :  "  There  was  a  war,  and  please  God,  it  shall 
be  the  last  war,  between  England  and  the  United 
States,  eighty  years  ago.  A  most  unnecessary  battle 
was  fought,  and  blood  was  shed  that  all  must  res'ret, 
for  the  want  of  a  submarine  telegraph.  The  battle  of 
New  Orleans  was  fought  in  1815,  on  8th  January,  and 
peace  had  been  declared  in  the  month  of  December 
previous  at  Ghent,  and  yet  there  was  no  means  of 
communicating  the  fact.  There  was  an  unnecessary 
battle.  A  gallant,  able  general,  and  his  equally  gallant 
associates,  fell  uselessly  before  those  piles  of  cotton 
bales  in  New  Orleans,  and  they  fell  because,  in  the 
providence  of  God,  the  light  had  not  yet  dawned  on 
the  brain  of  man  that  peace  could  be  proclaimed  to 
the  end  of  the  world.  And  this  peace  had  been 
agreed  on,  but  there  was  no  means  of  carrying  the 
glad  tidings  across  the  Atlantic," 

As  a  peace-promoting  agent,  then,  the  Submarine 
Telegraj)h  must  be  regarded  as  incomparably  great; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  least  abuse  of  the  power 
it  affords  by  those  who  have  been  called  upon  to 
undertake  the  exceptional  responsibilities  of  Empire, 
and  to  lend  a  guiding  hand  in  the  destinies  of  the 
race,  might  precipitate  the  most  disastrous  results,  and 
turn  what  has  hitherto  proved  a  blessing  into  an  unquaH- 
fied  misfortune.  Happily,  our  inherent  qualities  may 
be  trusted  to  gain  always  the  surer  and  higher  ground 
of  righteousness  and  self-restraint,  enabling  us  to  enjoy, 
with  a  due  sense  of  appreciation,  that  greatest  of  the 
knf)vvn  forces,  the  use  of  which  lias  been  so  painlully 
and  liiboriously  acquired. 

In  the  arts  of  peace  tlic  Submarine  Telegraph  has 


CABLE    AND    COLONIAL    TELEGRAPHS      351 

been  equally  fruitt'ul.  Formerly  the  gains  of  inter- 
colonial and  international  commerce  were  to  those 
whose  means  were  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  launch 
their  argosies  and  wait.  Enterprises  entailing  vast 
sums  of  money  were  embarked  upon  and  entrusted 
more  or  less  to  the  caprice  of  fortune.  The  winds  and 
the  tides  were  the  sole  trustees  of  the  commercial 
adventurer,  and  to  these  he  was  subject  for  all  that  he 
aspired  to.  Without  considerable  capital  he  was  im- 
potent to  move  in  the  marts  of  the  world.  It  is 
otherwise  to-day.  The  submarine  telegraph  has 
changed  the  very  basis  of  mercantile  methods,  and 
men  who,  vmder  the  old  system,  ventured  no  farther 
than  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  can  fare  forth  into  lands 
which  were  once  little  more  to  them  than  a  name. 

And  again,  the  purely  social  intercourse  which  we 
daily  hold  with  our  remote  possessions,  and  the  sense 
of  security  which  the  facility  of  that  intercourse  in- 
spires, has  modified  if  not  wholly  eliminated  the  doubts 
and  fears  which  the  prospect  of  a  long  journey  formerly 
engendered.  The  distances  separating  om-  far-eastern 
dependencies  from  the  Mother  Country,  and  the  long 
weary  months  which  elapsed  before  tidings  could  be 
brought  from  one  to  the  other,  were  facts  which 
constantly  acted  against  the  desire  for  travel,  and  kept 
within  doors  the  less  venturesome  among  those  who 
had  ambitions  beyond  the  seas.  To-day,  thousands  of 
people  undertake  the  most  distant  voyages  with  the 
knowledge  and  assurance  that  an  hour  at  most  is  the 
distance  in  time  which  separates  them  from  kith  and 
kin.  To  whatever  obscure  town  in  whatever  country 
business  or  pleasure  may  take  them,  the  pulse  of  the 
world  is  at  their  disposal,  and  with  the  swiftness  of 
thought  they  can  put  themselves  into  sympathetic 
communication  with  whomsoever  they  will. 

The  handsome  souvenir,  distributed  to  those  who 
had    the    privilege  of   attending    the   commemoration 


352 


GENERAL 


proceedings  at  the  Imperial  Institute,  gives  a  list  of 
the  telegrams  of  congratulation  despatched  on  that 
occasion  by  the  Prince  of  Wales,  together  with  the 
time   occupied    in    receiving    replies.     Among   others, 


the  following  are  recorded 


Time 

Time 

Time 

The  Prince  of  Wales  to  :— 

sent. 

received. 

occupied. 

Viceroy  of  India 

11.46  P.M. 

11.58  P.M. 

12  rain. 

Governor,  N.  S.  Wales 

11.48     „ 

12.17  -^-M. 

29    ,. 

„           S.  Australia 

))                5) 

12.15     » 

27    » 

„           Victoria . 

>»              5) 

12.19     „ 

31     » 

„           Tasmania 

5'              )) 

12.10     „ 

22     „ 

„           N.  Zealand 

))              )) 

12.14    „ 

26     „ 

„           Queensland 

))              5> 

12.9       „ 

21      „ 

„           W.  Australia 

?J              5> 

12.12     „ 

24     ,, 

„           Hong  Kong 

)5              >> 

12.8        „ 

20     „ 

„           Singapore 

)>              )> 

12.5        „ 

17     „ 

„           Natal      . 

11.51         „ 

11.57  P.M. 

6    „ 

High  Commissioner,  Cape 

11.50        „ 

12.  II  A.M. 

21    „ 

Governor-Gen.,  Canada 

12.25  A.M. 

12.33     » 

8    „ 

It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  the  lines  were 
cleared  to  achieve  these  extraordinary  results,  but  they 
represent  little  less  than  the  normal  time  required  to 
conmiunicate  in  the  ordinary  way.  Contrasting  the 
times  occupied  in  the  transit  of  the  traffic  when  the 
lines  were  first  opened  with  those  of  the  present  day, 
we  find  astounding  difierences.  Five  hours  was 
formerly  the  average  time  for  a  cablegram  to  reach 
India;  to-day  it  is  35  minutes.  Australia  was  com- 
municated with  in  10  hours;  to-day  a  little  over  Ih 
hours  is  considered  the  normal.  It  is,  therefore,  no 
idle  phrase  when  we  speak  of  the  practical  annihilation 
of  time  and  space,  and  nothing  perhaps  has  done  so 
much  to  bring  about  the  union  of  hearts  throughout  the 
scattered  dominions  of  this  our  mighty  Empire  than 
those  girdles  of  steel  which  compass  the  ends  of  the 
earth. 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      353 

THE   ELECTRIC   TELEGRAPH  IN  INDIA 
By  C.  H.  REYNOLDS,  CLE. 

(Late  Director-General  of  Telegraphs  in  India) 

Among  the  various  branches  of  the  pubUc  service 
which  have  grown  up  in  India  under  British  rule, 
the  Telegraph  Department  may  fairly  claim  an  honour- 
able place,  both  on  account  of  the  services  it  has 
rendered  to  the  civil  and  military  administration  of 
the  country,  and  the  benefits  it  has  conferred  on 
the  people  of  India  in  their  social  and  commercial 
relations. 

The  existence  of  the  telegraph  in  India  synchro- 
nises almost  exactly  with  the  second  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  and,  during  these  fifty  eventual 
years,  the  wires  have  been  steadily  spreading  over  the 
land,  from  the  snow-covered  mountains  of  Kashmir 
in  the  north  to  the  cocoa-nut  groves  of  Madras  and 
Malabar  in  the  south,  and  from  the  barren  hills  of 
Baluchistan  on  the  west  to  the  jungles  and  swamps 
of  Assam,  Burma,  and  Tonasserim  on  the  east.  The 
pioneers,  not  merely  of  the  railways  but  in  many  parts 
of  the  roads  also,  the  wires,  wherever  they  have  pene- 
trated, bear  witness  to  the  far-reaching  power  of  the 
great  Sircar,  and  are  a  visible  pledge  of  security  and 
protection  to  even  the  remotest  districts  through  Avhicli 
they  pass.  In  185  i  the  first  telegraph  line  in  India 
was  opened  between  Calcutta  and  Diamond  Harbour, 
a  distance  of  thirty  miles;  in  April  1899  there  were 
over  160,000  miles  of  wire  working,  and  4699  tele- 
graph offices.  The  closing  year  of  the  century  appears, 
therefore,  to  be  a  fitting  time  to  tell  something  of  the 
story  of  the  growth  of  the  telegraph  system  in  India 
from  its  birth  to  its  present  large  proportions,  and  to 
make  easily  accessible  much  information  regarding  it, 
V  z 


354  GENERAL 

hitherto  to  a  great  extent  buried  in  official  reports. 
This  paper  does  not  deal  with  the  history  of  the  tele- 
graphic connections  of  India  with  the  west  and  with 
the  world  generally,  as  this  is  a  subject  deserving  of  a 
place  to  itself,  but  it  will  be  confined  to  a  brief  account 
of  the  internal  telegraphs  of  the  British  Empire  in 
India. 

The  father  of  the  electric  telegraph  in  India  was 
the  late  Sir  William  B.  O'Shaughnessy  Brooke,  F.R.S,, 
a  member  of  the  Bengal  medical  establishment  of 
the  Honourable  East  Indian  Company's  Service,  who 
landed  in  India  in  December  1833.  So  long  ago  as 
1839,  we  find  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy,  as  he  was  then 
known,  a  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Medical  College 
at  Calcutta,  occupying  all  his  leisure  in  telegraphic 
experiments,  and  in  April  and  May  of  this  year  he 
erected  in  the  vicinity  of  Calcutta,  quoting  his  own 
words,  "  the  first  long  line  of  telegraph  ever  con- 
structed in  any  country.  The  line  was  twenty-one 
miles  in  length,  embracing  7000  feet  of  river  cu-cuit. 
The  experiments  performed  on  this  line  removed  all 
reasonable  doubts  regarding  the  practicability  of  work- 
ing electric  telegraphs  through  enormous  distances,  a 
question  then  and  for  three  years  later  disputed  by 
high  authority  and  regarded  generally  with  contemp- 
tuous scepticism." 

These  experiments  are  described  by  Dr.  O'Shaugh- 
nessy in  the  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal 
for  September  1839,  and  in  a  scries  of  lectures  delivered 
by  him  .shortly  afterwards  and  published  in  1841. 
The  surroundings  of  an  Indian  official  are  not  favour- 
able to  original  researcli.  Cut  ofi'  from  direct  inter- 
course with  the  scientific  world  of  Europe,  engaged  in 
public  duties  which  leave  him  scanty  leisure,  working 
in  an  exhausting  tropical  climate,  which  renders  periods 
of  rest,  relaxation,  and  daily  exercise  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  healtli,  it  is  only  to  be  expected  that,  in  modern 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      355 

scientific  advance  India  should  follow  rather  than  lead 
the  progress  achieved  in  more  favoured  countries.  Dr. 
O'Shaughnessy's  researches  in  telegraphy  in  1839  were, 
however,  a  good  deal  more  than  up  to  date,  and  it  is 
to  his  ability,  energy,  and  public  spirit,  exercised  under 
great  disadvantages,  that  India  can  claim  among  the 
nations  of  the  world  to  have  been  one  of  the  pioneers 
of  telegraphy. 

In  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy's  experiments  he  not  only 
connnunicated  through  twenty-one  miles  of  iron  wire, 
and  proved  that  with  similar  copper  wire,  which  was 
beyond  his  means  to  employ,  he  could  have  communi- 
cated through  seven  times  that  distance,  but  he  also 
showed  that  the  cu'cuit  could  be  completed  without 
a  return  wire,  if  a  river  or  canal  was  available,  and 
that  under  any  circumstances  the  return  ware  need 
not  be  insulated.  He  thus,  at  this  early  date,  fore- 
shadowed the  use  of  earth  as  a  return,  and  the  neces- 
sity for  only  one  wire  as  a  means  of  connnunication ; 
he  also  recognised  that  by  increasing  his  battery  power, 
or  increasing  the  diameter  of  his  wire,  or  by  making 
his  receiving  instrument  more  sensitive,  he  could  in- 
crease the  distance  through  Avhich  direct  working 
would  be  possible  to  an  unknown  extent.  The 
experiments  were  characterised  by  great  originality, 
boldness  of  design  and  indomitable  perseverance, 
qualities  which  later  on  Di-.  O'Shaughnessy  found 
ample  scope  for  in  the  initiation  and  development 
of  telegraphy  over  long  distances  in  India. 

Successful  as  had  been  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy's  first  ex- 
periments, they  were  at  the  time  far  in  advance  of  the 
views  of  the  Board  of  the  East  India  Company  and  of 
the  authorities  in  India  as  to  the  actual  requirements 
of  the  country,  and  it  was  not  till  1 849,  by  which  time 
telegraphy  had  made  considerable  advances  in  Europe, 
that  wo  find  any  move  made  in  the  development  of 
telegraphy  in  India.     On  the  26th  September  in  lliat 


3  56  GENERAL 

year,  the  Court  of  Directors  addressed  the  Government 
of  India  on  the  subject,  and  after  referring  to  Dr. 
O'Shaughnessy's  experiments  in  1839,  stated  that 
"  while  the  estabhshment  of  communication  by  means 
of  the  electric  telegraph  would  be  highly  advantageous 
to  the  state  and  the  community,  many  serious  con- 
siderations were  involved,"  and  they  finally  asked  the 
opinion  of  the  Government  of  India  on  the  expediency 
of  establishing  a  system  of  electric  telegraphs  indepen- 
dent of  any  that  might  be  made  Avith  the  construction 
of  each  railroad.  In  1850,  Colonel  Forbes  of  the 
Royal  Engineers  and  Dr.  O'Shaughness}^  submitted 
reports  to  Government  on  these  points,  with  the  result 
that  preliminary  sanction  was  accorded  to  an  experi- 
mental line,  half  subterranean  and  half  overground, 
thirty  miles  in  length.  This  work  was  undertaken  at 
the  commencement  of  185  i,  and  on  the  30th  March 
1852,  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy  submitted  a  full  report  to 
Government  on  the  progress  made,  showing  that  by 
that  date  he  had  opened  for  public  business  eighty-two 
miles  of  line  and  six  offices  between  Calcutta  and 
Kedgeree,  including  the  cabling  of  the  Huldi  and 
Hughli  rivers,  the  latter  being  6200  feet  wide.  The 
first  four  offices  on  this  line  between  Calcutta  and 
Diamond  Harbour  were  opened  on  the  4th  October 
1851  ;  the  shipping  reports  were  then  experimentally 
sent  by  electric  telegraph,  and  on  the  5th  December 
1 85 1,  the  old  semaphore  signalling  service  on  this 
route  was  finally  abolished  in  favour  of  its  youthful 
rival.  On  the  3rd  February  1852,  the  extension  from 
Diamond  Harbour  to  Kedgeree  was  opened,  thus  placing 
an  important  but  very  isolated  place  of  call  for  ships 
at  the  mouth  of  llie  Hiiglili  in  direct  communication 
with  Calcutta. 

Although  this,  the  first  telegraph  line  in  India,  was 
not  of  any  great  length,  it  deserves  something  more 
than   a   passing    notice,   as    its    construction   involved 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      357 

peculiar  difficulties  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  country 
traversed.  Moreover,  it  was  the  first  telegraph  line 
erected  in  any  tropical  country,  and  the  methods 
adopted  have,  consequently,  a  certain  historical  interest. 
The  low-lying  delta  of  the  Ganges  is  exposed  to  violent 
thunder-storms  with  squalls,  commonly  known  as  Nor- 
Westers,  and  to  periodical  cyclones  of  terrific  force  ; 
the  rainfall  is  considerable,  with  the  result  that  the 
country  is  to  a  great  extent  under  water  during  the 
south-west  monsoon,  while  in  the  cold  weather  heavy 
dews  and  fogs  prevail  during  the  night  and  early 
mornings,  a  condition  very  inimical  to  good  insula- 
tion of  telegraph  wires.  Moreover,  the  river  Hughli  is 
not  only  a  broad  and  rapid  stream  with  ever-shifting 
bottom,  but  is  the  thoroughfare  of  navigation  to  the 
port  of  Calcutta,  and  telegraph  cables  in  it  were, 
especially  before  the  days  of  steam,  peculiarly  liable  to 
damage  from  the  anchors  of  ships  and  small  craft,  the 
danger  of  the  navigation  often  rendering  the  dragging 
of  anchors  by  ships  a  necessity. 

With  these  difficulties  to  face.  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy 
had  little  in  European  practice  to  guide  him  in  the 
selection  of  materials.  Instead  of  the  comparatively 
light  wire  used  in  Europe,  he  considered  it  necessary, 
in  order  to  secure  both  strength  and  conductivity,  to 
use  for  his  land  lines  wire  rods  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  welded  together.  The  subterranean 
portion  consisted  of  these  rods  buried  in  a  cement  of 
melted  rosin  and  sand,  while  on  the  overhead  sections 
similar  rods  were  carried  on  wooden  poles,  a  large  pro- 
portion being  bamboos,  and  it  will  give  some  idea  of 
the  difficulty  of  construction,  that  in  parts  of  the  line 
the  weldingf  had  to  be  done  from  canoes.  No  insula- 
tors  were  used.  The  river  cables  gave  great  trouble. 
Dr.  O'Shaughnessy  had  some  copper  wire  from  England 
covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  gutta-percha  :  but  his  task 
was    to    protect   the   slender   insulated  wire   from   the 


3  5  8  GENERAL 

effects  of  the  tropical  climate  and  from  chemical  and 
material  injury  when  buried  in  the  ground  on  the 
banks  or  sunk  in  the  beds  of  the  rivers  to  be  crossed. 
In  covering  the  gutta-percha  with  lead,  with  local  and 
rough  appliances,  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy,  who  was  a  skilful 
chemist  as  well  as  a  telegraph  engineer,  hit  upon  a 
plan  which  is  being  more  and  more  adopted  at  the 
present  day  to  preserve  the  insulation  of  subterranean 
cables.  Against  mechanical  injury  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy 
tried  various  forms  of  wire  guards,  but  where  the 
drao-Qfine  anchors  were  a  constant  and  imminent  danger 
he  advocated  the  plan  of  securing  his  insulated  core 
in  the  angles  of  a  heavy  chain  cable.  His  first  two 
cables  were  strengthened  in  this  way,  though  subse- 
quently Avire  guards,  at  first  bound  on  longitudinally 
and  afterwards  with  the  guards  laid  on  spirally,  were 
adopted.  After  trying  all  patterns  of  instruments  in 
use  in  England  and  America,  he  discarded  them  as 
too  elaborate,  having  found  that  a  simple  galvanometer 
coil,  with  a  horizontal  needle,  delicately  pivoted,  and 
provided  with  a  light  pointer,  gave  him  a  most  sensi- 
tive receiving  instrument  with  which  he  could  work  in 
all  weathers,  and  which  could  be  easily  replaced,  in  case 
of  damage  by  lightning,  by  the  most  inexperienced 
operator.  Such  was  the  first  telegraph  line  in  India — 
very  rudimentary,  no  doubt,  but  wonderfully  eflicient. 
Dr.  O'Shaughnessy  thus  describes  one  of  the  early  im- 
portant messages  sent  along  it.  "  The  Rattler,  steam- 
frigate,  bringing  intelligence  of  the  first  operations  of 
the  war  (Burma),  had  not  passed  the  flagstaft'  at 
Kedgeree  on  the  19th  April  1852,  when  the  news 
of  the  storming  and  capture  of  Rangoon  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  Governor-General  in  Calcutta  and 
posted  on  the  gates  of  the  telegraph  oftice  for  the 
infonnation  of  the  public." 

The  success  of  the  line  was  so  convincing  that  on 
the  i4Lh  of  April  1852,  Lord  Dalhousie,  in  forwarding 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      359 

Dr.  O'Shaughnessy's  report  to  the  Court  of  Directors, 
recommended  that  sanction  should  be  accorded  to 
the  immediate  construction  of  hnes  from  Calcutta  to 
Peshawar,  Calcutta  to  Bombay,  and  Calcutta  to  Madras. 
He  further  recommended  that  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy  should 
proceed  to  England  to  arrange  for  the  necessary  stores, 
and  that  he  should  be  wanted  a  bonus  of  Rs.2 0,000. 
The  following  extract  from  the  Governor-General's 
despatch  indicates  the  value  placed  on  Dr.  O'Shaugh- 
nessy's services :  "  I  believe  I  am  doing  no  more  than 
expressing  the  universal  opinion  of  the  community 
when  I  say  that  for  them  (the  results  obtained)  the 
Government  of  India  is  indebted  to  the  ability,  the 
undaimted  energy,  the  perseverance  and  skill  of  Dr. 
W.  O'Shaughnessy.  He  has  accomplished  the  whole 
unaided,  within  a  comparatively  short  time,  in  the 
midst  of  other  important  duties  and  without  any  re- 
muneration whatever." 

Lord  Dalhousie's  prompt  decision  to  extend  the 
telegraph  in  India  without  delay  had  an  importance 
that  he  little  dreamt  of  at  the  moment.  Had  this 
extensive  scheme  been  discussed  in  the  usual  leisurely 
official  way,  valuable  years  would  have  slipped  by,  and 
the  telegraph  service  would  not  have  been  the  orga- 
nised and  efficient  aid  it  proved  to  be  when,  in  1857, 
the  Mutiny  burst  over  the  land.  Nor  were  the  Court 
of  Directors  wanting  in  equal  promptness.  Within  a 
week  of  the  receipt  of  Lord  Dalhousie's  eloquent  and 
enthusiastic  despatch,  his  proposals  had  received  the 
sanction  of  the  Court  of  Directors  and  the  approval  of 
the  Board  of  Control.  Well  might  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy 
put  on  record  that  "  such  rapidity  in  the  despatch  of  an 
important  measure  is  perhaps  without  a  parallel  in  any 
department  of  Government." 

On  the  20th  of  June  1852,  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy 
reported  his  arrival  in  London,  and  he  was  at  once 
busily  engaged  in  submitting  his  detailed  proposals  to 


S6o  GENERAL 

the  Court  of  Directors,  arranging  for  the  stores  for 
over  three  thousand  miles  of  hne,  training  enHsted 
artificers  in  telegraph  construction  at  Warley,  inspecting 
home  and  foreign  telegraph  lines,  making  a  collection  of 
patterns  of  all  telegraph  instruments  in  use,  and  pre- 
paring a  manual  of  instructions  in  the  erection  and 
working  of  telegraphs.  The  Government  of  India  was 
meanwhile  arranging  the  routes  to  be  followed,  in  con- 
sultation with  the  local  Governments  concerned ;  and 
on  the  7th  May  1853,  Lord  Dalhousie  recorded  a 
valuable  minute  detailing  the  decisions  that  had  been 
arrived  at  for  a  first  instalment  of  about  3500  miles 
of  telegraph,  connecting  Calcutta  with  Peshawar  vid 
Agra,  with  Bombay  vid  Agra  and  Indore,  and  connect- 
ing Bombay  and  Madras  vid  the  Deccan,  Bellary,  and 
Bangalore.  The  direct  connection  between  Calcutta 
and  Madras  was  postponed ;  but  Lord  Dalhousie  indi- 
cated the  desirability  of  an  early  extension  from  Cal- 
cutta to  Burma,  and  also  an  extension  that  would 
include  Nagpur  and  Hyderabad  (Deccan). 

Dr.  O'Shaughnessy  returned  to  India  in  July  1853, 
and  set  to  work  at  once  on  this  extensive  programme, 
and  in  the  organisation  of  the  department  of  which  he 
had  been  apf)ointed  the  head.  Some  idea  of  the  mag- 
nitude of  his  task  may  be  formed  by  a  consideration 
of  the  facts  that  PeshaAvar,  one  only  of  the  points  to 
be  reached,  was  nearly  sixteen  hundred  miles  from  its 
sea-base,  Calcutta  ;  that  there  were  no  railways  ;  that 
means  of  transport  and  communication  were  slow  and 
primitive;  that  the  wires  had  to  be  carried  across, 
either  under  or  over,  numerous  wide  unbridged  rivers, 
with  ill-defined  banks — rivers  that  often  became  tor- 
r(3nts  in  the  rainy  season,  or  when  the  snows  were 
melting  on  the  Himalayas;  that  unhealthy  jungles 
had  to  be  traversed  in  places;  and,  finally,  that  the 
wr^rk  was  of  an  entirely  new  nature  to  the  staft'  em- 
ployed.     Construction  commenced   in  the  autumn  of 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      361 

1853,  ^ii(^  by  the  24tli  of  March  1854  connection  had 
been  estabUshed  with  Agra,  a  distance  of  eight  hundred 
miles.  On  the  27th  November  the  Bombay  Govern- 
ment reported  that  communication  with  Calcutta  had 
been  completed.  The  lines  from  Agra  to  Peshawar 
and  from  Bombay  to  Madras  were  finished  somewhat 
later,  and  by  the  i  st  February  1855  the  system  was 
sufficiently  established  to  admit  of  the  wires  being 
thrown  open  to  the  use  of  the  public. 

Space  would  not  admit  of  anything  like  a  detailed 
account  in  this  article  of  the  lines  constructed,  the 
methods  adopted,  and  the  difficulties  overcome.  Dr. 
O'Shaughnessy  mentions  twenty- four  rivers  that  had  to 
be  crossed  by  massive  cables,  to  a  great  extent  made 
up  with  the  roughest  appliances  on  the  banks ;  forty 
rivers  had  also  to  be  crossed  by  spans,  posts  of  iron- 
wood  from  Arakan,  of  toddy-palm,  sal,  teak,  black- 
wood  and  fir,  granite  and  sandstone  obelisks  and 
masonry  pillars  had  all  to  be  employed  according  to 
the  locality.  A  heavy  iron  wire,  weighing  from  1000 
to  1200  lbs.  a  mile,  was  principally  used,  with  brackets 
and  msulators  of  various  kinds  then  in  vosfue.  Weather 
decay,  white  ants,  and  lightning  soon  proved  destruc- 
tive agencies  that  gradually  compelled  the  use  of  iron, 
first  as  a  base,  some  years  afterwards  as  half,  three- 
quarter,  and  whole  posts,  and  at  the  present  day, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  small  proportion  of  posts  of 
specially  durable  timber,  iron  is  exclusively  used,  either 
in  the  form  of  tubular  posts  or  rails,  for  all  important 
telegraph  construction  in  India.  Among  the  officers 
specially  mentioned  by  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy  as  having 
had  their  share  as  pioneers  of  telegraph  construction  in 
India  are  Lieutenants  P.  Stewart  and  A.  Chauncey,  Dr. 
Green,  Messrs.  Brunton,  O'Donnell,  Todhunter,  and 
Wickham.  A  native  gentleman  of  Bengal,  Babu  Shib 
Chunder  Nundy,  was  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy's  earliest  as- 
sistant, having  joined  the  department  at  its  origin.     He 


362  GENERAL 

carried  out  many  useful  experiments,  besides  construc- 
tion work,  in  1850-51,  and  was  favourably  reported 
on  to  Government.  Later  on  he  was  employed  on 
important  works  of  construction,  and  by  his  energy 
and  pluck  set  an  excellent  example  to  his  fellow- 
countrymen.  He  still  enjoys  a  well-earned  pension, 
and  has  been  created  a  Rai  Bahadur  by  Government 
in  recognition  of  his  long  and  exemplary  services,  goi^ 

In  December  1854,  the  Government  of  India  passed 
Act  XXXIV.  for  regulating  the  establishment  and 
management  of  electric  telegraph  lines  in  India ;  and, 
as  stated  above,  the  telegraph  was  thrown  open  to  the 
public  on  the  ist  February  1855.  A  tariff  of  one  rupee 
for  sixteen  words  per  zone  of  four  hundred  miles  was 
fixed,  and  the  Telegraph  Department  of  India  was 
thus  fairly  launched.  In  February  1856,  Lord  Dal- 
housie  minuted  at  length  on  the  result  of  the  first 
year's  working.  He  states  that  nearly  four  thousand 
miles  of  line  had  been  completed,  at  an  average  cost  of 
about  Rs.500  per  mile,  that  the  receipts,  Rs.202,789, 
were  steadily  increasing,  and  already  amounted  to  two- 
thirds  of  the  estimated  working  expenses,  that  the 
Government  and  people  of  India  had  profited  largely 
by  Dr.  W.  O'Shaughnessy's  services,  and  that  it  had 
been  his  pleasing  duty  to  recommend  that  officer  "  for 
higher  honours  than  any  praise  of  him  which  the  East 
India  Company  can  inscribe  upon  its  records  or  any 
other  reward  that  it  can  bestow  on  him  from  its 
coffers."  Shortly  afterwards  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy,  who 
proceeded  to  England  in  March  1856,  was  created  a 
Knight  Bachelor  by  her  Majesty,  a  fitting  recognition 
of  the  work,  now  crowned  with  acknowledged  success, 
begun  by  him  seventeen  years  before  in  his  experiments 
in  the  Botanical  Gardens  at  Calcutta. 

Sir  W.  O'Shaughnessy  was  in  England  from  March 
1856  to  December  1857,  Lieut.  Patrick  Stewart,  R.E., 
acting    for    liim    in    India   as    Superintendent   of    the 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      363 

Department.  During  his  absence  nearly  one  thousand 
miles  of  new  line  were  constructed,  revenue  was  increas- 
ing, and  progress  generally  is  described  as  satisfactory 
in  every  respect.  In  May  1857,  the  Sepoy  Mutiny 
broke  out,  peaceful  expansion  was  stopped,  and  the 
Department  was  called  on  to  perform  duties  and  face 
difficulties  of  a  very  different  nature  from  any  met 
with  in  its  previous  peaceful  experience. 

The  services  rendered  by  the  electric  telegraph  in 
the  suppression  of  the  Mutiny  have  been  borne  witness 
to  by  the  highest  civil  and  military  authorities.  And 
while  space  forbids  any  lengthened  account  here  of 
the  various  operations  undertaken,  the  history  of  the 
Department  would  be  incomplete  without  a  brief  record 
of  some  of  the  main  events  of  the  time,  in  which  the 
telegraph  played  an  important  part. 

On  Sunday  afternoon,  the  loth  of  May  1857,  the 
mutineers  at  Meerut,  having  first  interrupted  tele- 
graphic connnunication  with  Delhi,  broke  into  re- 
bellion. Mr.  C.  Todd,  the  Telegraph  Master  at  Delhi, 
met  his  death  early  on  the  morning  of  the  i  ith,  at 
the  hands  of  the  first  arrivals  from  Meerut,  on  the 
bridge  of  boats  over  the  river  Jumna,  when  testing  the 
line  to  ascertain  where  the  fault  was  between  Delhi 
and  Meerut.  The  remaining  staff  of  the  Delhi  tele- 
graph office  consisted  of  two  European  lads,  Pilkington 
and  Brendish,  the  only  persons  in  the  whole  city  and 
cantonments  who  could  use  the  telegraph.  Throughout 
the  morning  the  city  was  in  confusion,  the  mutineers 
had  arrived,  bungalows  were  burning,  firing  was  going 
on  continuously,  many  Europeans,  including  the  Com- 
missioner, had  been  nmrdered,  the  arsenal  was  being 
besieijed,  the  native  resjfiments  had  refused  to  act 
against  the  mutineers,  and  all  order  was  at  an  end. 
Fortunately  the  telegraph  office  was  some  little  distance 
outside  the  walls,  but  the  two  signallers  were  informed 
of  what  was  going  on  by  fugitives  from  the  city,  and 


364  GENERAL 

they  were  warned  to  hide  by  native  shopkeepers  and 
others,  who  told  them  that  even  they  were  being 
murdered  and  pillaged,  and  there  was  no  chance  for 
Europeans.  The  signallers,  however,  stuck  to  their 
post  of  duty,  and  reported  to  Umballa  the  substance 
of  what  they  had  heard.  These  informal  reports  took 
shape  in  two  somewhat  incoherent  messages,  on  which 
the  military  authorities  acted.  The  first  telegram,  as 
given  in  a  letter  from  General  Anson,  the  Commander- 
in-Chief,  to  Lord  CanninsT  ran  thus :  "  We  must  leave 
office.  All  the  bungalows  are  on  fire — burning  down 
by  the  sepoys  of  Meerut.  They  came  in  this  morning. 
We  are  off.  Mr.  C.  Todd  is  dead,  I  think.  He  went 
out  this  morning  and  has  not  yet  returned.  We 
learnt  that  nine  Europeans  are  killed."  This  was 
received  at  3  p.m.,  a  subsequent  somewhat  more  ex- 
plicit telegram  followed  an  hour  later,  and  both  were 
despatched  by  the  General  Commanding  at  Umballa 
to  the  Commander-in-Chief  at  Simla,  by  the  hands  of 
his  son  Lieut.  Barnard,  and  by  wu"e  to  the  authorities 
at  Lahore,  Rawal  Pindi,  and  Peshawar. 

As  the  afternoon  advanced  and  the  danger  of 
remaining  momentarily  increased,  the  signallers,  ac- 
companied by  Mrs.  Todd,  who  still  hoped  for  her 
husband's  return,  took  refutje  at  the  Flas^staff  Tower, 
where  many  fugitives  from  the  city  and  cantonments 
were  congregating.  From  this  place  Pilkington  is 
reported  to  have  been  sent  back  to  the  office  with 
a  guard  by  a  military  officer  with  a  telegram  which 
he  despatched,  probably  the  second  message  referred 
to  above.  The  signallers  escaped  during  the  night, 
and  eventually  reached  Umballa  safely,  where  they 
liiid  l)een  given  up  for  lost.  Very  shortly  after  they 
bad  quitted  the  office  it  Avas  burned  by  the  nmtineers 
or  riiljble. 

Referring  to  the  message  quoted  above.  Sir  Herbert 
Edwardes,   Commissioner    of    Peshawar    at    the    time, 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      365 

thus  describes  its  result  :  "When  the  message 
reached  Lahore,  it  enabled  Mr.  Montgomery  and  the 
General  to  disarm  the  native  troops  before  they  had 
received  one  word  of  intelligence  on  the  subject. 
The  same  message  was  flashed  from  Lahore  to  Pesha- 
war, and  we  took  our  measures  there  in  the  same 
way ;  and  before  any  of  the  mutineers  and  Hindustani 
reguncnts  had  the  opportunity  of  laying  their  plans, 
we  had  taken  all  ours,  and  were  able  to  defeat  them 
when  the  hour  of  difficulty  arose.  I  do  not  hesitate 
to  add  that  the  message  was  the  means  of  salvation 
of  th'e  Punjab."  Sir  W.  O'Shaughncssy  thus  describes 
the  matter  in  his  official  report:  "Mr.  Charles  Todd, 
the  assistant  in  charge  at  Delhi,  had  fallen  in  the 
general  massacre,  but  not  until  his  office  had  signalled 
to  the  Punjab  the  terrible  events  at  Meerut  and  the 
march  of  the  mutineers  on  Dehli.  The  value  of  that 
last  service  of  the  Delhi  office  is  best  described  in 
the  words  of  the  Judicial  Commissioner,  Mr.  Mont- 
gomery— 'The  Electric  Telegraph  has  saved  India.'" 

The  services  of  the  two  signallers  were  duly 
rewarded  by  Government.  Pilkington  died  many 
years  ago,  but  Brendish  only  recently  retired  from 
the  telegraph  service,  a  full  instead  of  a  half  pay 
pension  having  lieen  granted  him  as  a  final  recog- 
nition of  his  work  at  Delhi  on  the  terrible  day  of 
the  massacre.  A  granite  obelisk,  subscribed  for  by 
the  members  of  the  Telegraph  Department  in  1899, 
is  about  to  be  erected,  with  the  approval  of  Govern- 
ment, in  front  of  the  present  telegraph  office  at  Delhi 
in  commemoration  of  the  events  above  described. 

Delhi,  as  is  well  known,  was  besieged  and  taken 
by  troops  from  the  Pvmjab,  from  which  province  every 
available  fighting  man  was  sent  by  Sir  John  Lawrence. 
It  would  be  superfluous  to  attempt  to  describe  the 
value  of  the  telegraph  on  the  long  road  of  six 
hundred    miles   between   Peshawar    and    Delhi,   Avhen 


366  GENERAL 

every  nerve  was  being  strained  to  send  down  troops, 
guns,  and  stores  for  the  siege.  Much  of  the  country 
was  far  from  safe,  but  the  telegraph  from  Delhi  north- 
ward was  kept  constantly  open.  Sir  W.  O'Shaughnessy 
thus  reports  on  this  point :  "  As,  by  the  gallant  and 
indefatigable  services  of  Mr.  Inspector  Brown,  the  line 
from  Delhi  to  the  Punjab  was  kept  open  during  the 
whole  time  of  the  siege  of  Delhi,  the  lines  and  inter- 
mediate offices  rendered  inestimable  service  to  the 
Government  of  India  and  to  the  highest  interests  of 
the  whole  Empire." 

To  the  south  of  Meerut,  however,  the  maintenance 
of  the  telegraph  service  at  once  became  an  impossi- 
bility. Before  May  was  over  the  line  from  Agra  to 
Meerut  had  been  destroyed,  early  in  June  Agra  was 
cut  off  from  Calcutta,  and  on  the  1 4th  of  June  com- 
munication with  Indore  and  Bombay  was  also  severed. 
It  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate  all  the  events  that 
followed.  Hundreds  of  miles  of  telegraph  lines  were 
destroyed  between  Agra  and  Indore  and  between  Agra 
and  Benares ;  the  staff  at  Cawnpore,  consisting  of  five 
members,  were  all  cruelly  nuirdered  ;  and  a  similar  fate 
befell  the  staff'  of  four  at  Indore  with  their  families. 
But  while  the  work  of  destruction  went  on  apace,  the 
work  of  restoration  never  slackened,  whenever  the  state 
of  the  country  permitted.  It  was  of  vital  importance 
that  telegraphic  communication  between  Bengal,  the 
North- West  Provinces,  and  the  Punjab  should  be 
restored  as  soon  as  possible,  and  Sir  W.  O'Shaughnessy 
reports  that  this  was  accomplished  "with  extraordinary 
ra|)idity  and  determination,  by  Captain  P.  Stewart,  Mr. 
Harrington  and  others  by  the  29th  of  January  1858," 
the  through  service  on  this  main  route  having  thus 
been  suspended  for  about  eight  months.  Similar  work 
of  restoration  of  lines  and  maintenance  of  communica- 
tion, often  carried  out  under  circuinstMnces  of  great 
danger,  went  on  according  to  the   varying  fort.inu^s   of 


THE    ELECTRIC   TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      367 

the  campaign  io  the  native  states  of  Central  India,  and 
in  parts  of  Bengal,  the  North-West  Provinces,  and 
Oudh ;  but  it  must  suffice  to  quote  here  the  following 
extract  on  operations  in  Oudh.  Sir  W.  O'Shaughnessy 
writes  :  "  By  far  the  most  interesting  occurrence  in 
the  story  of  the  restoration  of  our  lines  is  found  in  the 
dashing  exploit  of  Captain  Stewart,  Mr.  Harrington, 
Mr.  M'Intyre,  and  Mr.  Devin  in  running  up  a  Hying 
line  from  Cawnpore  to  Lucknow  in  the  last  advance  of 
the  Commander-in-Chief  on  that  city.  The  cool  intre- 
pidity and  ready  resources  displayed  by  Captain 
Stewart  on  this  occasion  gained  for  him  the  hearty 
applause  of  the  whole  army.  His  report  is  one  of  the 
best  proofs  yet  given  of  the  value  of  the  (telegraph) 
Department  in  military  operations  as  well  as  in  its 
political  and  civil  bearings." 

The  Mutiny  having  clearly  proved  the  value  of 
the  telegraph  in  India,  the  system  was  rapidly  ex- 
tended, and  within  the  next  three  years  lines  were 
constructed  down  the  whole  length  of  the  east  and 
west  coasts  of  the  peninsula.  Rangoon  was  con- 
nected with  Calcutta  via  Arakan  and  Dacca,  lines 
were  erected  from  the  extreme  north  to  the  south 
of  the  Island  of  Ceylon,  Karachi  was  connected  with 
Bombay  and  Lahore,  and  extensions  were  made  to 
most  large  towns  of  political  or  military  importance 
alongr  the  main  routes  of  travel.  The  main  arteries 
having  been  thus  completed,  there,  of  course,  still 
remained,  as  there  still  remain  even  to  the  present 
day,  after  forty  years  of  ceaseless  progress,  immense 
tracts  of  country  to  be  opened  up  to  telegraphic 
communication,  to  keep  pace  with  the  development 
of  the  country  and  the  extension  of  the  frontiers  of 
the  Empire. 

Among  the  notable  events  of  the  period  was  the 
laying  of  a  gutta-percha  insulated  cable  about  twenty- 
five  miles  in  lencjth  across  Palk's  Straits  between  India 


368  GENERAL 

and  Ceylon  in  September  1858.  Sir  W.  O'Shaughnessy 
thus  describes  the  operation :  "  I  have  also  to  advert 
to  the  masterly  feat  Mr.  Wickham  has  performed  in 
placing  the  telegraph  cable  across  the  Gulf  of  Manaar 
in  a  native  sailing  vessel,  and  during  bad  weather. 
The  operation  was  as  difficult,  the  line  as  long,  and 
the  navigation  at  least  as  dangerous  as  that  of  placing 
the  cable  across  the  Straits  of  Dover,  for  which  a 
squadron  of  steamers  and  costly  machinery  was 
employed.  Mr.  Wickham  performed  his  task  under 
sail,  and  with  no  other  apparatus  than  the  rude 
windlass  of  a  native  vessel."  The  cable  thus  laid 
with  such  slender  appliances  did  excellent  service  for 
many  years,  carrying  all  the  traffic  between  Ceylon 
and  the  rest  of  the  world. 

An  important  measure,  due  to  the  foresight  of 
Sir  W.  O'Shaughnessy,  and  one  which  gave  a  great 
impetus  to  telegraphy  in  India,  was  the  early  intro- 
duction of  the  Morse,  or  American,  system  of  signalling. 
In  1854-55,  Sir  W.  O'Shaughnessy  had  made  up  his 
mind  on  the  "  immeasurable  superiority "  of  this 
system  over  other  more  elaborate  methods  which  had 
to  some  extent  secured  the  field  in  England  and  on 
the  Continent.  In  1856,  he  was  sent  to  England  to 
arrange  for  its  introduction.  Seventy-four  officers  were 
instructed  in  London  in  the  use  of  the  instrument,  and 
sent  to  India  in  the  following  two  years.  They  at  once 
took  a  prominent  position  in  the  Department,  several 
arrived  in  time  to  do  good  service  during  the  Mutiny, 
and  in  after  years  many  of  them  rose  to  the  highest 
appointments  in  the  service.  The  Morse  instruments 
were  rapidly  introduced,  and,  as  in  America,  the 
indented  tape  on  which  the  messages  were  first  read 
was  soon  discarded,  in  the  interests  of  speed,  accuracy, 
and  economy,  for  reading  by  sound.  In  1859,  receiv- 
ing by  ear  only  had  made  great  progress,  and  in  i860, 
Sir  W,  O'Shaughnessy  reported  that  the  system  of  ear 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      369 

reading  was  general.  It  made  but  little  progress  in 
Europe  for  many  years,  and  India  may  claim  second 
honours  with  America  in  adopting  the  simple  and 
now  so  widely-used  instrument  known  as  the  Morse 
sounder.  The  operators  in  India  have  for  many 
years  justly  prided  themselves  on  their  proficiency  in 
the  art  of  reading  by  ear,  and  many  natives,  to  whom 
English  is  a  foreign  language,  have  attained  almost 
equal  facility  with  their  European  and  Eurasian 
colleagues. 

Sir  W.  O'Shaughnessy  left  India  in  bad  health 
in  June  i860,  and  shortly  afterwards  retired  from  the 
service.  In  closing  this  brief  account  of  the  early 
history  of  the  telegraph  in  India,  the  following  extract 
from  his  last  report  to  Government,  dated  17th  May 
i860,  will  be.  read  with  sympathetic  interest.  Refer- 
ring to  the  progress  and  development  of  the  telegraph, 
and  to  the  great  future  before  it  in  India,  he  writes  : 
"  We  have  at  our  disposal  at  a  moderate  cost  an  in- 
strument of  such  mu'aculous  power,  that  by  a  single 
message  it  has  already  saved  our  Indian  Empire, 
while  day  by  day,  and  hour  by  hour,  it  is  busy  in  the 
promotion  of  commerce  and  the  furtherance  of  public 
interests  of  every  kind.  In  my  extended  tours  over 
all  parts  of  India  I  have  seldom  met  a  family  who 
had  not  some  anecdote  to  tell  of  the  services  the 
telegraph  had  done  them.  There  are  few  Europeans 
in  India  who  have  not  experienced  a  thrill  of  pleasure 
when  they  met  our  masts  and  wires  on  the  margin  of 
every  road,  and  know  that  these  true  tokens  of  science 
and  civilisation  and  power  traverse  our  Indian  Empire 
to  its  uttermost  limits.  Should  I  see  them  no  more, 
I  can  truly  say  that  I  shall  ever  continue  to  take  the 
most  heartfelt  interest  in  the  prosperity  and  improve- 
ment of  the  Department,  and  feel  proud  and  happy 
that  it  has  been  my  lot  to  bring  it  even  to  its  present 
imperfect  state." 

V  2  A 


370  GENERAL 

In  dealing  with  the  first  ten  years  of  Indian  tele- 
graphy, the  subject  has  necessarily  been  treated  at 
some  length.  Telegraphy  was  in  its  infancy  as  a 
science  even  in  Europe  and  America,  while  telegraphy 
in  the  tropics  was  unborn.  India  itself  was  unopened 
by  railways,  scarcely  touched  by  Western  civilisation, 
and  the  interior  of  the  country  was  but  little  known. 
The  task  undertaken  by  Lord  Dalhousie  and  carried 
out  by  Sir  W.  O'Shaughnessy  and  his  co-operators,  to 
carry  the  telegraph  in  the  early  fifties  through  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  immense  territories  of  the 
East  India  Company,  was  therefore  one  which  has 
had  no  parallel  elsewhere,  and  the  manner  in  which 
that  task  was  completed  forms  a  brilliant  chapter  in 
the  annals  of  our  Indian  Empire  worthy  of  being 
better  known. 

The  history  of  the  telegraph  during  the  forty  years 
that  have  passed  since  Sir  W.  O'Shaughnessy  left 
India,  though  one  of  uninterrupted  progress,  of  hard 
devoted  work,  administrative  and  executive,  and  of 
many  interesting  episodes,  would  be  too  long  to  be 
treated  with  the  same  detail,  and  naturally  possesses 
less  general  interest. 

Year  by  year  the  lines  were  extended  into  new 
districts.  With  every  extension  of  our  frontier  the 
telegraph,  first  as  a  military  line,  then  as  a  permanent 
institution,  quietly  took  possession  of  the  new  territory ; 
railways  and  canals  required  wires  for  their  operations ; 
the  taritis  had  to  be  adjusted  from  time  to  time;  the 
staff  reorganised  and  maintained  in  a  state  of  efiiciency. 
India  had  to  take  her  place  in  the  councils  of  the 
telegraphic  world  as  represented  at  the  conferences 
of  the  International  Telegraphic  Union ;  the  ever- 
growing traffic  called  for  the  latest  types  of  instru- 
ments and  methods  of  working  to  enhance  the 
carrying  power  «»l'  the  wires;  and  the  general  de- 
velopment of  the  country  called   lor  measures  for  the 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRArH    IN    INDIA      371 

extension  of  telegraphic  facilities,  without  burden  to  the 
Imperial  revenue,  not  only  to  the  outlying  quarters  of 
large  towns,  but  to  small  towns  and  villages,  at  a  cost 
commensurate  with  the  traffic  expected  from  these 
lesser  important  localities.  Problems  such  as  these 
have  occupied  the  attention  of  the  several  Directors- 
General  who  have  succeeded  Sir  W.  O'Shaughnessy, 
and  some  brief  description  of  them  is  necessary  to 
complete  this  sketch  of  the  telegraph  in  India. 

The  progress  of  the  Department  received  a  great 
impetus  under  the  vigorous  administration  of  the  late 
Major-General  D.  G.  Robinson,  R.E.,  who  held  the 
appointment  of  Director-General  for  the  long  period  of 
twelve  years — 1865-77.  ^^  i  865  this  officer,  recognis- 
ing that  a  contented,  efficient  staff"  was  necessary  to 
provide  an  efficient  telegraph  service,  thoroughly  re- 
organised the  whole  establishment,  both  superior  and 
subordinate.  Salaries  were  increased,  promotion  regu- 
lated, the  signalling  staff  obtained  many  j^rivilegcs,  and 
by  the  division  of  the  signallers  into  grades,  paid  accord- 
ing to  qualifications,  a  great  incentive  was  given  to 
self-improvement  by  private  study,  resulting  in  a  more 
intelligent  performance  of  their  duties.  To  encourage 
the  signalling  staff  still  further,  two  instructors  were 
sent  out  from  Ens^land  in  1868,  to  travel  from  office  to 
office  in  order  to  give  lectures  on  telegraphy  and  to 
personally  instruct  the  men  in  the  scientific  branch 
of  their  duties.  One  of  these  instructors,  Mr.  Louis 
Schwendler,  left  a  lasting  mark  on  the  Department. 
Not  only  did  he  prove  himself  a  most  enthusiastic  and 
inspiriting  teacher,  but  he  attained  considerable  emin- 
ence in  the  scientific  world  in  Europe  as  one  of  the 
most  advanced  authorities  on  telegraphy.  His  early 
death,  after  giving  fifteen  years  of  his  life  to  India, 
evoked  widespread  regret. 

Another  important  administrative  measure  given 
effect   to   by  Colonel  Robinson,   as  his  rank  then  was, 


372  GENERAL 

was  tlie  engagement  and  despatch  to  India,  between 
1868  and  1 87 1,  of  seventy- two  officers  for  the  superior 
service  of  the  Department.  These  officers  were  carefully 
selected  by  examination,  and  afterwards  trained  in  prac- 
tical telegraphy,  mainly  by  the  present  well-known  and 
eminent  engineer  and  electrician,  Sir  W.  Preece,  F.R.S., 
who  has  ever  since  not  only  taken  the  greatest  interest 
in,  but  has  rendered  very  valuable  service  to,  the  cause 
of  telegraphy  in  India.  Several  of  the  older  officers  of 
the  Department  were  also  enabled  by  Colonel  Robinson 
to  visit  England  and  bring  then  knowledge  up  to  date 
under  similar  favourable  conditions.  Of  late  years  the 
superior  staff  has  been  mainly  recruited  from  the  Royal 
Engineering  College  at  Cooper's  Hill,  and,  in  addition, 
appointments  in  the  provincial  service  of  the  Depart- 
ment are  conferred  on  alumni  of  the  Thomason  En- 
gineering College  at  Rurki,  and  on  deserving  officers 
who  have  risen  from  the  subordinate  ranks. 

Colonel  Robinson  also  directed  much  attention  to 
the  welding  of  the  various  telegraph  systems  that  had 
grown  up,  under  licences  from  Government,  along  the 
Indian  railways  into  one  harmonious  whole  with  the 
Imperial  system ;  thus  securing  to  the  public  the  great 
advantages  of  uniformity  of  charges  and  procedure, 
and  the  free  interchange  of  traffic. 

He  also  made  many  changes  and  experiments  in 
the  internal  tariff,  which  was  gradually  made  uniform 
for  the  whole  country,  but  it  was  not  till  1882  that 
the  present  excellent  tariff  was  established  by  Colonel 
R.  Murray,  then  Director-General.  Under  this  tariff, 
which  was  mainly  devised  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Lane,  Director 
of  Traffic,  messages  are  divided  into  three  classes, 
urrjent,  ordinari/,  and  deferred,  at  charges  well  suited  to 
the  Indian  currency.  The  charges  vary  with  the  speed, 
and  thus  meet  the  differing  wants  of  the  community  in 
a  country  so  vast  as  India,  where  the  unavoidably  long 
postal  times  of  transit  of  letters  afford  a  useful  Held  for 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      373 

slow  but  cheap  telegraph  messages,  as  an  intermediary 
between  the  ordinary  telegram  and  the  post.  A  feature 
of  Indian  telegraphy  is  the  free  address,  a  great  boon 
to  the  natives,  especially  of  the  poorer  classes,  whose 
names  and  residences  arc  often  obscure,  and  whose 
telegrams  would  run  great  risk  of  non-delivery  unless 
a  full  address  were  given.  In  practice,  the  free  and 
often  very  long  address  brings  down  the  tariff  per  word 
to  as  cheap  a  level  as  obtains  in  the  comparatively 
small  countries  of  Europe,  and  though  the  concession 
of  free  address  is  opposed  to  the  ordinary  canons  of 
telegraphy,  the  circumstances  of  the  natives  fully  jus- 
tify the  Govcrnmeut  in  its  wise  and  liberal  policy  in 
this  matter.  Considering  the  size  of  our  Indian  Em- 
pire, the  uniform  internal  telegraph  tariff,  with  free 
address,  compares  favourably  in  cheapness  with  the 
tariffs  of  any  country  in  the  world. 

After  an  abortive  and  costly  attempt  in  1859  to 
connect  Great  Britain  and  India  by  means  of  a  cable 
through  the  Red  Sea,  India  first  joined  hands  with  the 
Western  world  in  international  telegraphy  very  early  in 
iS6s,'vid  Karachi  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  On  the  26th 
March  1870  the  cable  between  Bombay  and  Suez  was 
thrown  open  to  the  Indian  public,  and  on  the  4th 
January  1871  an  eastward  connection  w^as  made  by  the 
cable  from  Madras  to  Penang.  A  land  line  connection 
through  most  difficult  country  was  established  between 
Maulmain  and  Siam  on  the  i8th  May  1885,  and 
another  land  connection  with  China  vid  Bhamo  in 
March  1895.  In  1868,  India  was  first  formally  re- 
presented at  the  International  Telegraphic  Conference 
at  Vienna,  and  she  has  taken  an  important  part  at  all 
subsequent  conferences  in  matters  connected  Avith 
extra-European  telegraphy.  At  St.  Petersburgh,  in 
1876,  India  was  represented  by  Colonel  Robinson,  and 
largely  through  his  efforts  the  tariff*  in  extra-European 
telegraphy,  which    is   necessarily  costly,  was   fixed  by 


374  GENERAL 

word  instead  of  hij  group  as  hitherto.  This  regulation, 
coupled  with  the  use  of  code  words,  which  may  stand 
for  long  sentences,  and  the  registration  of  abbreviated 
code  addresses,  has  materially  cheapened  telegraphy, 
but  the  tariff  of  four  shillings  a  word  between  England 
and  India,  unchanged  since  1886,  presses  very  heavily 
on  small  traders  and  private  individuals,  and  there  is 
a  strong  feeling  in  India  that  a  cheaper  tariff  should 
be  faii'ly  tried.  At  the  International  Conference  of 
Buda-Pest  in  1895,  the  Government  of  India  made 
an  earnest  effort  to  secure  this  boon  for  India,  but  the 
private  companies  interested,  in  view  of  the  stationary 
nature  of  the  traffic,  declined  to  face  the  risk.  No 
reduction  has  yet  been  possible,  but  with  the  example 
of  what  a  cheap  tariff  has  done  between  Europe  and 
Australia,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  reductions  may 
soon  be  found  possible  without  any  serious  call  on  the 
revenues  of  India  in  the  shape  of  guarantees,  to  be 
paid  almost  entirely  in  the  interests  of  the  wealthier 
classes,  and  of  only  a  remote  and  indirect  value  to  the 
great  mass  of  the  Indian  people. 

A  very  important  and  far-reaching  measure,  which 
has  proved  fruitful  of  good  to  the  comuumity  at  large, 
and  which,  at  the  same  time,  has  been  very  beneficial 
to  the  postal  and  telegraph  departments,  was  inaugu- 
rated in  1883  under  the  orders  of  the  Directors- 
General  of  the  two  departments  respectively,  Mr.  (now 
Sir)  Frederick  Hogg,  and  Mr.  (now  Sir)  A.  Leppoc 
Cappel.  Tlie  organisation  of  the  two  departments  is 
quite  distinct,  and  each  has  an  unlimited  field  for 
expansion  in  its  own  special  work,  wliilo  amalgama- 
tion presents  many  fundamental  difficulties.  The 
Telegraph  Department  has  been  to  a  great  extent  de- 
signed to  carry  out  the  engineering  and  scientific  work 
of  construction  and  maintenance,  not  only  for  the 
system  it  works  itself,  but  also  for  railways  and  canals, 
and    for   the   defence   and  military  operations  of   the 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      375 

country ;  it  has  also  to  deal  with  the  whole  of  the 
through  traffic,  both  foreign  and  inland,  a  great  pro- 
portion of  which  has  to  be  despatched  with  rapidity 
and  accuracy  across  the  breadth  and  length  of  the 
country,  involving  special  arrangements  and  delicate 
instruments  for  long-distance  telegraphy  and  fast  work. 
For  these  duties,  it  is  necessary  that  the  operating 
staff  should  be  highly  qualified,  and  available  for 
transfer  to  any  part  of  the  country  where  their  services 
may  be  required.  A  higher  scale  of  remuneration  is 
therefore  paid  than  would  be  necessary  for  operators 
working  only  at  the  simplest  instruments  in  small 
offices  on  short  branch  and  local  circuits  as  feeders  to 
the  important  offices  on  the  trunk  lines.  For  these 
feeder  offices,  the  cheap  native  agency  of  the  Postal 
Department  has  been  utilised,  thus  enabling  the  tele- 
graph to  be  extended  economically,  to  the  great  con- 
venience of  tlie  residents,  into  localities  which  would 
otherwise  have  been  deprived  of  telegraphic  facilities. 
The  Telegraph  Department  provides  lines  and  instru- 
ments, and  instructs  the  postal  stafi'  in  telegraphy ; 
the  Postal  Department  manages  the  offices  and  their 
discipline,  and  furnishes  the  necessary  accommodation. 
All  expenses  connected  with  the  telegraph  branch  of 
each  office  is  borne  by  the  Telegraph  Department, 
which  is  credited  with  the  telegraph  revenue,  while 
the  Postal  Department  is  enabled  to  utilise  all  the 
spare  time  of  the  telegraph  statlf  in  ordinary  postal 
work.  The  details  of  the  scheme  presented  many 
difficulties,  involving  as  they  necessarily  did  a  certain 
amount  of  divided  responsibility  and  control,  but 
owing  to  the  admirable  spirit  in  Avhicli  the  scheme 
was  conceived  and  has  since  been  worked  by  the 
officers  of  both  departments,  the  result  has  been  an 
unqualified  success.  On  the  31st  March  1899,  no 
less  than  1472  of  these  joint  offices  were  open,  which 
booked    and    despatched   during    the  previous  twelve 


ne  GENERAL 

months  2,050,553  paid  messages  of  the  vahie  of 
Rs. 1, 8 7 2, 5  56.  The  Post  Office  of  India  bears  a  well- 
deserved  reputation,  and  is  second  to  none  in  the 
world  in  enterprise  and  progress.  Though  its  tele- 
graph work  forms  an  insignificant  portion  of  its  other 
immense  and  multifarious  operations,  the  invalu- 
able help  it  has  given  to  the  spread  of  telegraphy 
among  the  people  of  India  is  deserving  of  the  fullest 
recognition. 

In  a  country  like  India,  garrisoned  with  a  large 
European  army  and  frequently  engaged  in  warfare  on 
its  frontiers,  military  telegraphy  has  naturally  taken  a 
leading  position.  The  Telegraph  Department  has  to 
train  annually,  and  keep  in  practice  in  its  offices  in 
actual  work,  a  large  number  of  British  soldiers  ready 
to  be  drafted  into  the  field-telegraph  ofiices  on  the 
outbreak  of  war.  With  the  same  object,  squads  of 
oflficers,  British  non-commissioned  officers,  and  native 
Sappers  of  the  Bengal,  Bombay,  and  Madras  Sappers 
and  Miners,  are  constantly  undergoing  periods  of 
training  in  the  service  of  the  Telegraph  Department, 
and  for  this  purpose  the  lines  and  offices  in  certain 
districts  of  the  Punjab  are  allotted  to  the  special 
charge  of  Royal  Engineer  officers.  The  Department 
is  also  charged  with  the  construction  and  supervision 
of  telegraphic  and  telephonic  communications  in  con- 
nection with  the  defence  of  the  frontiers  and  the  ports 
of  the  country.  It  has  to  maintain,  at  suitable  positions 
near  the  frontiers,  large  arsenals  of  field-telegraph 
material  containing  everything  required  for  a  campaign, 
ready  for  immediate  issue  on  mobilization  being 
ordered. 

At  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  the  Department  has 
at  once  to  send  its  staff  of  officers,  signallers,  civil  and 
military,  and  native  line  staff  to  take  up  their  duties 
under  the  orders  of  the  General  Officer  Commanding, 
while  at  the  same  time    it   has  to  meet  at  the  base 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      ^7-] 

of  operations,  and  at  all  the  large  military  stations,  a 
rush  of  traffic,  Avliich  strains  its  resources  to  the  utter- 
most. Every  department  of  the  army  is  in  a  hurry, 
troops  are  in  motion  from  even  the  most  distant 
stations,  the  civil  officers  and  the  connnissariat  are 
collecting  animal  transport,  supplies,  and  native  staff; 
officers  and  men  have  to  be  recalled  from  leave, 
garrisons  rearranged,  and  everywhere  the  utmost 
activity  prevails.  As  nearly  all  the  orders  are  given 
by  wire,  the  Telegraph  Department,  in  addition  to 
having  its  own  mobilization  arrangements  to  see  to, 
has  to  work  its  staff  night  and  day  to  meet  the  calls 
on  it  caused  by  the  rush  of  traffic.  The  frequent  re- 
currence of  these  periods  of  strain  has  done  much  to 
raise  the  standard  of  efficiency  of  the  Department  and  to 
maintain  it  in  that  state  of  preparedness,  which  has  so 
often  won  the  recognition  of  the  Government  and  of 
the  highest  military  authorities  in  India.  Notwith- 
standing the  hard  work,  military  service  is  most 
popular  with  officers  and  subordinates  of  all  grades, 
suitable  military  rank  is  conferred  on  all  civilians 
employed  in  the  field,  the  Government  has  been  liberal 
in  the  scales  of  field  and  travelling  allowances,  the 
civil  staff  are  eligible  for  medals,  and  for  death  and 
wound  gratuities.  At  the  close  of  the  campaign  the 
distinction  of  a  Companionship  of  the  Order  of  the 
Indian  Empire  has  several  times  been  conferred  on 
the  principal  telegraph  officer  employed,  while  the 
General  Officers  in  the  field,  the  Commander-in-Chief, 
and  the  Government  of  India  have  accorded  generous 
and  unstinting  praise  for  the  hard  work  done  by  all, 
and  for  the  valuable  aid  the  Department  has  rendered. 
Any  record  of  the  frontier  work  of  the  Telegraph  De- 
partment would  be  incomplete  without  mention  of  the 
conspicuous  services  of  Mr.  W.  Bignell,  for  a  quarter  of 
a  century  the  chief  administrative  officer  in  the  Punjab. 
All  the  arrangements  connected  with  the  military 


378  GENERAL 

work  of  the  Department  have  been  the  outcome  of  much 
thought  and  practical  experience,  extending  as  far  back 
as  the  administration  of  Colonel  Robinson,  who  first 
arranged  for  the  training  of  soldiers  in  telegraphy,  thus 
preparing  them  for  use  as  signallers  in  time  of  war, 
while  providing  them  with  congenial  and  remunerative 
occupation  in  periods  of  peace — a  welcome  relief  to 
the  tedium  of  the  long  hot  days  in  barracks.  Field- 
Marshal  Lord  Roberts,  when  Commander-in-Chief  in 
India,  took  great  interest  in  this  question,  giving  the 
Department  every  facility  for  its  work,  and  his  succes- 
sors have  continued  the  same  policy.  In  the  design 
of  telegraph  line  material,  tents,  instruments,  and  office 
fittings  suited  to  the  animal  transport,  rough  usage, 
rugged,  roadless  country,  and  extremes  of  climate  of 
an  Indian  frontier  campaign,  the  names  of  Colonel 
H.  A.  Mallock,  Director-General,  1 889-90,  Messrs.  P.  V. 
Luke,  CLE.,  C.  E.  Pitman,  CLE.,  and  H.  A.  Kirk,  are 
deserving  of  special  mention,  as  having  brought  sound 
practical  experience  to  bear  on  a  subject  presenting 
many  difficulties. 

Space  does  not  permit  of  anything  in  the  shape  of 
a  detailed  account  in  this  article  of  the  actual  work 
done  by  the  Department  in  the  various  campaigns  of 
recent  years,  to  do  justice  to  which  a  volume  would  be 
necessary.  It  must  suffice  to  say  that  the  telegraph 
has  rendered  valuable  service  in  every  campaign  of  any 
importance  since  the  Mutiny,  while  in  the  Afghan  war 
of  1878-80,  the  conquest  and  pacification  of  Upper 
Burmah,  including  the  Chin-Lushai  campaigns  in 
1886-90,  the  Chitral  Expedition  in  1895,  and  the 
Tirah  and  North-West  Frontier  operations  in  1 897, 
the  work  done  was  of  a  specially  important  nature,  not 
only  in  the  conduct  of  the  operations,  but  in  meeting 
the  requirements  of  the  press  and  ministering  to  the 
private  wants  of  the  army  in  the  field. 

In  owcry  campaign  the  Telegraph  Department,  in 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      379 

carrying  its  wires  and  maintaining  its  communications 
tbrough  the  densest  jungles,  across  malarious  swamps, 
and  over  rugged  mountains/  has  taken  its  full  share 
with  other  branches  of  the  service  in  the  hardships 
and  dangers  of  Indian  warfare.  It  is  also  the  proud 
boast  of  the  Department  that  the  wires  have  never 
lagged  behind  the  advance,  except  where  the  zeal  of 
its  officers  has  had  to  be  restrained  by  superior  military 
considerations.  In  the  larger  campaigns  the  Depart- 
ment has  had  the  assistance  of  the  corps  of  Royal 
Engineers,  and  all  branches  of  the  army  have  been 
represented  amongst  the  soldier  signallers.  Whether 
soldiers  or  civilians,  Europeans  or  natives,  all  ranks 
have  by  their  courage,  loyalty,  and  endurance  well- 
merited  the  thanks  of  Government  that  have  been  so 
often  and  so  cordially  expressed  at  the  close  of  the 
various  campaigns. 

On  the  1 3th  of  March  1893,  Lord  Roberts,  when  lay- 
ing down,  after  seven  years  tenure,  the  office  of  Com- 
mander-in-Chief in  India,  brought  to  the  notice  of  the 
Government  of  India  in  the  most  public  manner  the 
"  admirable  work  of  the  Telegraph  Department  for 
many  years  past,"  in  connection  with  the  instruction 
of  the  army  in  telegraphy,  the  telegraphic  arrange- 
ments in  connection  with  harbour  defence,  and  the 
services  the  Department  had  already  rendered  in  the 
field.  At  the  time  this  gratifying  testimony  was 
received  the  Department  was  under  the  administration 
of  Mr.  (now  Sir)  W.  R.  Brooke.  The  Department  has 
been  fortunate  in  earning  similar  praise  from  Lord 
Roberts'  successor,  Sir  George  White,  and  from  Sir 
William  Lockhart,  the  late  Commander-in-Chief. 

'  It  is  worthy  of  record  in  connection  with  mountain  warfare,  that 
in  the  Sikkim  Expedition  in  iS88,  the  Department  maintained  a  field 
telegraph  oflice  at  Bhutong  in  Thibet,  at  a  height  of  13,500  feet  above 
sea-level,  from  the  12th  November  to  the  6th  December  ;  no  eas)'  task, 
considering  the  season  and  the  conditions  that  had  to  be  met,  and  one 
that  has  had  few,  if  any,  parallels. 


38o  GENERAL 

In  more  peaceful  fields,  the  Department  has  a  wide 
scope  for  usefulness.  In  the  organisation  and  distri- 
bution of  famine  relief  it  has,  since  the  Bengal  Famine 
of  1873-74,  been  able  to  afford  valuable  aid  to  the 
civil  officers  engaged  in  combating  these  terrible  cala- 
mities. It  has  also  conferred  benefits  on  the  country, 
by  enabling  the  great  canal  systems  of  Upper  India  to 
be  worked  to  an  advantage  that  was  not  contemplated 
when  these  systems  were  designed.  The  controlling 
authority  of  each  canal,  by  means  of  the  telegraph  or 
telephone,  is  now  able  to  receive  timely  intimation  of 
storms  and  floods,  and  is  in  a  position  to  take  prompt 
measures  to  prevent  damage  to  banks,  and  to  regulate 
the  supply  and  discharge  of  water  in  a  manner  most 
satisfactory  both  to  the  finances  of  the  canal  and  to 
the  interests  of  the  cultivators.  The  use  of  the  tele- 
graph in  working  the  larger  canals  has  made  very  rapid 
strides  of  recent  years,  and  promises  soon  to  become 
universal.  It  is  not  necessary  to  speak  of  the  use  of 
telegraphy  in  the  working  of  railwaj^s,  but  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  the  Telegraph  Department  supplies 
and  maintains  the  wires  for  nearly  all  the  railways  in 
India,  and  for  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  railways 
it  also  supplies  and  looks  after  the  instruments.  In 
telephonic  enterprise  it  supplies  the  Government, 
municipal  corporations,  and  private  individuals  with 
local  exchanges  or  private  linos ;  and  in  Calcutta, 
Bombay,  Madras,  llangoon,  and  one  or  two  other 
places,  private  telephone  companies  have  been  granted 
licences  for  their  operations,  and  large  exchanges, 
mainly  for  tlic  use  of  the  mercantile  community,  have 
been  estal)lislied,  the  right  of  purchase  by  Government 
having  been  reserved  in  each  case. 

It  would  not  l)e  possible  to  enter  into  details  re- 
garding the  extension  of  the  wires  over  all  j)arts  of 
the  country,  a  process  which  has  gone  on  uninter- 
ruptedly since  tlie  Mutijiy,  to  such  extent  annually  as 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      381 

the  general  finances  of  the  country  permitted ;  but 
a  few  of  the  frontier  extensions  of  recent  years  may 
be  mentioned  as  possessing  some  features  of  special 
interest. 

In  1888,  communication  was  established  between 
Upper  Burma  and  Assam  through  the  valleys  of  the 
Chindwin  and  Yu  Rivers,  thence  northward  vid  Tummoo 
and  Manipur  to  Assam.  The  wires  run  through  a 
country  parts  of  which  were  almost  unknown  at  the 
time  the  line  was  undertaken,  and  on  the  outbreak  of 
rebellion  at  Manipur,  in  March  1891,  which  resulted  in 
the  murder  of  the  Chief  Commissioner  of  Assam  and 
many  other  officers,  the  telegraph  materially  assisted  in 
the  military  operations  undertaken  Tor  the  reconquest 
of  the  Manipur  State.  The  Department  lost  two  of  its 
servants  in  this  outbreak,  Mr.  W.  B.  Melville,  super- 
intendent of  the  Assam  Division,  and  Mr.  James  O'Brien, 
signaller,  who  were  both  murdered  at  Myankhoung, 
near  Manipur,  in  the  execution  of  their  duty.  The 
line  connecting  Assam  with  Upper  Burma  has  since 
attained  great  importance  as  an  alternative  route  for 
traffic  between  Calcutta  and  Mandalay,  these  two 
stations  being  maintained  in  constant  direct  com- 
munication over  some  twelve  hundred  miles  through 
as  diversified  and  difficult  a  country  for  telegraphy  as 
can  well  be  imagined. 

The  extension  of  the  telegraph  in  the  State  of 
Kashndr  has  also  had  important  results,  and  is  one  of 
general  interest.  Unlike  the  Native  States  of  India 
the  semi-independent  State  of  Kashmir  has  been 
allowed  by  the  British  Government  to  establish  tele- 
graph lines  of  its  own.  In  1878,  Mr.  J.  W.  Duthy, 
an  officer  of  the  Indian  Telegraph  Department,  was 
lent  to  the  Kashmir  State  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
structing telegraph  lines,  and  the  Department  supplied 
wire  and  other  stores  for  the  purpose.  The  difficulty 
of  maintaining  telegraphs  in  Kashmir  lies  in  the  fact 


382  GENERAL 

that  the  country  is  to  a  very  great  extent  under  deep 
snow  durmg  the  winter,  which  not  only  breaks  down 
the  wires,  but  renders   travelHng   for   the  purpose   of 
repairs  almost  impracticable.      To  minimise  these  diffi- 
culties everything  depends  on  the  selection  of  the  best 
route  and   on  the  use   of  very  strong  material.      Mr. 
Duthy,  after  much  hard  work  and  exposure,  started 
the  State  telegraph  system,  but  under  native  manage- 
ment it  gradually  became  little  more  than  a  summer 
line,  and  the  service  could  not  be  relied  on.      In  i  8  9 1 , 
political    conditions   called   for   the    extension   of    the 
British  frontier  to  Gilgit,  the  garrisoning  of  that  place 
by  Indian  troops,  the  reorganisation  of  the  Kashmir 
army  and   the   appointment  of   a   political    agent    at 
Gilgit.     As  a  necessary  consequence  of  these  measures, 
a  reliable  telegraph  line  was  required  between  India, 
Srinagar,  the  capital  of  Kashmir,  and  Gilgit,  and  the 
Indian  Government  called  on  the  Telegraph  Depart- 
ment  to  undertake  the   work,   taking  over   from   the 
Maharajah  a  portion  of  the  State  lines  that  followed  the 
route  selected.     The  problem,  by  many  good  authorities 
considered   impracticable,   of    maintaining   telegraphic 
communication    throughout  the    winter,  was   a    most 
difficult  one,  as  high  passes,  the  Tragbal  and  Burzil, 
the  latter  13,500  feet  altitude,  had  to  be  crossed,  which 
owins:  to  snow  are  closed  to  all  traffic  throuochout  the 
winter    and    spring.      Not    only  had    the    line   to   be 
designed  of  sufficient  strength  to  resist  the  snow,  but 
it  had  to  follow  a  route  where  it  would  be  as  much  as 
possible  out  of  the  track  of  the  avalanches,  which  at 
certain  seasons  constantly  sweep  down  the  mountain 
sides  carrying  everything  before  them.     To  admit  of 
repairs  being  undertaken,  stations  had  to  be  fixed  at 
frequent   intervals,  where    the    staff   pass   the   winter 
entirely  isolated  from  the  outer  world,  having  to  be 
provided  with  provisions  and  all  the  necessaries  of  life 
by  September  in  each  year,  Avhich  supplies  have  to  last 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA      383 

till  the  snow  is  sufficiently  melted  in  the  following  spring 
to  allow  of  the  road  being  opened.  The  officer  who 
carried  out  this  important  work  is  Mr.  H.  S.  Cipher t, 
and  adjuirably  has  he  succeeded  in  his  task,  which 
occupied  a  period  of  about  four  years.  The  selection 
of  the  position  of  each  post  in  the  difficult  parts,  the 
transport  of  the  massive  deodar  posts  to  almost  in- 
accessible positions,  where  the  wire  would  be  high  above 
the  avalanches,  these  and  other  construction  details, 
involved  an  amount  of  mountain  climbing,  fatigue,  and 
exposure  which  cannot  be  done  justice  to  by  mere 
description.  The  damage  done  each  winter  was  re- 
paired at  the  time  with  little  delay,  and  during  each 
succeeding  summer  the  alignment  was  year  by  year 
improved,  with  the  result  that  when  trouble  broke  out 
in  Chitral  in  1894-95,  the  Government  of  India, 
thanks  to  Mr.  Olphert  and  his  staff,  possessed  a 
splendid  telegraph  line  from  Murree  in  the  Punjab  to 
Gilgit,  nearly  four  hundred  miles  in  length,  which 
worked  winter  and  summer,  and  proved  of  inestimable 
value  during  the  military  operations  in  Chitral  in 
1895.  The  maintenance  of  the  line  during  the  winter 
is  a  service  of  ever-present  danger.  On  the  14  th 
January  1897,  a  repairing  party  was  overwhelmed 
by  an  avalanche  with  the  loss  of  five  lives,  and  on 
New  Year's  Day  1 900,  a  similar  misfortune  exacted 
a  penalty  of  eight  lives,  including  Mr,  Scott,  the 
signaller  in  charge.  Such  accidents,  which  cannot 
be  guarded  against,  are  always  liable  to  occur,  and 
they  are  illustrations  of  the  sacrifices  necessary  for 
the  protection  of  the  rugged  north-west  frontier  of 
India. 

Amid  very  different  scenes,  some  thousands  of 
miles  from  Gilirit,  on  the  extreme  eastern  frontier  of 
the  Empire,  the  Telegraph  Department  was  called  upon, 
at  the  worst  season  of  the  year,  between  May  and 
August    1895,   to    establish    communication    between 


384  GENERAL 

Taungwi  and  Keng  Tung,  a  small  military  outpost  in 
the  Southern  Shan  States,  near  the  Mekong  River,  and 
not  far  from  the  point  where  the  three  empires  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  China  meet.  The  work  was  urgent 
and  of  political  importance,  and  though  the  country  is 
most  unhealthy  and  difficult  when  the  rains  have  set 
in,  the  task  was  duly  performed  at  the  cost  of  much 
sickness  and  some  loss  of  life,  amid  incessant  ram,  over 
steep  forest-clad  mountains  and  through  malarious 
valleys,  which  are  deserted  even  by  their  inhabitants 
at  the  season  when  the  line  .had  to  be  constructed. 
The  rapid  completion  of  this  arduous  task  won  special 
congratulations  from  the  Viceroy  and  a  bonus  of  pay 
for  the  staff  employed.  In  1898,  the  telegraph  was 
extended  from  Tavoy  to  Mergui,  a  place  of  some  impor- 
tance in  connection  with  pearl  fishery,  and  an  instal- 
ment of  the  international  telegraph  line  that  may 
hereafter  connect  Burma  with  the  Straits  Settlements. 
A  careful  survey  of  the  two  hundred  miles  of  almost 
unknown,  and  in  parts  uninhabited,  country  between 
Mergui  and  Point  Victoria,  the  extreme  limit  of  the 
Indian  Empire  in  this  direction,  tends,  however,  to 
show  that  the  line  will  be  most  costly  to  construct 
and  maintain. 

On  the  extreme  west  of  the  Empu-e  we  have  the 
frontier  post  of  Chaman,  only  eighty  miles  from 
Kandahar,  and  from  Quetta  the  telegraph  line  is 
making  its  way  westward  towards  Seistan,  with  the 
probable  ultimate  result  of  effecting  a  junction  with 
the  telegraph  lines  in  Persia,  and  obtaining,  vid  Meshed 
and  the  Imperial  Russian  Telegraphs,  a  through  line 
to  Europe,  which  may  give  India  a  cheaper  tariff  than 
.she  now  has. 

Many  similar  works  illustrating  the  far-spreading 
and  varied  duties  of  the  Telegraph  Department  of 
I  ndia  could  be  mentioned,  but  enough  has  been  written 
l(»  sliow  the  important  part  .the  Department  plays  in 


THE    ELECTRIC    TELEGRAPH    IN    INDIA     385 

the  great  civilising  work  that  England  is  carrying  out 
in  her  eastern  empire. 

The  history  of   the  first  fifty  years  of  telegraphy 
in  India  may  be  fittingly  closed    by  a  few   statistics, 
showing    not   only   the   magnitude   of    the   operations 
that    have   been    carried   out,   but   the    financial   suc- 
cess that  has   attended   them.      On   the    31st   March 
1899,    there    were    51,768    miles    of     line,     160,925 
miles    of    wire   and   cable,  4699    telegraph  offices,  of 
which    2970    were    railway    telegraph    offices.       The 
capital   expended  up   to   the  above  date,  exclusive  of 
a  considerable  sum  written  off  as  the  value  of  lines 
abandoned  or  destroyed,  amounted  to  Rs.6  5  2,1  54,052. 
On   the  capital   sunk    the   Government  has  obtained, 
after    paying    all  working  expenses,    surplus    revenue 
during  the  past  ten  years,  averaging  4.8  per  cent,  per 
annum,  if  the  receipts  for  State  messages  are  included, 
or  at  the  rate  of  2.2  per  cent,  if  revenue  from  private 
messages   and   wire   and  instrument  rentals  only  are 
considered.      The   gross   revenue   receipts   during  the 
five  years  ending  1898-99  aggregated  Rs.45,899,419, 
and   the   revenue  charges  for   the   same   period  were 
Rs.30,371,829,  leaving    a    surplus   of  Rs.i  5,527,590. 
During  the  same  five  years  25,367,371  paid  messages 
were    despatched,    of    the    value    of    Rs.36,684,524. 
Considered,  therefore,  only  in  a  narrow  financial  aspect, 
the  telegraph  is  no  burden  to  the  taxpayers  of  India, 
a  result  which  few  countries  can  show. 

Gratifying  as  this  financial  success  unquestionably 
is,  and  indicating  as  it  does  the  skill  and  prudence 
with  which  the  Department  has  been  administered,  the 
real  value  of  the  electric  telegraph  to  India  is  not  to 
be  found  in  these  figures,  but  in  the  aid  it  has  un- 
obtrusively contributed  to  the  safety,  progress,  and 
prosperity  of  the  Empire.  Forty  years  ago  Sir  W. 
O'Shaughnessy  prophesied  a  great  future  for  the  tele- 
graph in  India ;  if  in  its  first  fifty  years  this  beneficent 

V  2  B 


386  GENERAL 

invention  has,  through  the  wise  liberality  of  Govern- 
ment and  the  zealous  labours  of  its  servants,  achieved 
much,  a  still  greater  future  may  confidently  be  hoped 
for  in  the  new  century,  which  starts  on  its  career  with 
the  foundations  broadly  and  deeply  laid  for  further 
growth  and  progress. 


THE   BRITISH   MERCANTILE   MARINE 

By  K.  J.  CORNEWALL-JONES 

(Authiir  of  "The  British  Merchant  Service,"  "Ships,  Suitors, 
and  the  Sea,"  <£'C.  ttr. ) 

At  the  present  time  more  than  one-half  of  the  mer- 
chant tonnage  of  the  enth'c  world  sails  under  the 
British  flag.  Excluding  all  vessels  of  less  than  one 
hundred  tons  burden,  the  total  number  of  merchant 
ships  owned  by  all  the  countries  of  the  world  put 
together  is  28,180,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of 
27,673,528  tons;  the  number  of  such  merchant  ships 
belonging  to  the  United  Kingdom,  and  to  the  British 
colonies,  being  10,998,  with  a  united  tonnage  of 
13,988,508  tons. 

To  compress  anything  like  an  adequate  and  an 
intelligible  account  of  so  vast  an  industry  as  that  of 
the  British  Mercantile  Marine  into  a  single  article  is 
obviously  a  somewhat  difficult  task ;  but  the  following 
pages  will  help  to  convey  a  fair  idea  of  the  marvellous 
growth  of  the  British  merchant  navy  from  very  early 
times  down  to  the  present  date. 

Even  before  the  Norman  Conquest  there  was  a  con- 
siderable British  maritime  trade  with  France,  British 
ships  from  Rouen  and  other  ports  coming  up  the 
Thames  to  "  Billing's  Gate  "  to  land  their  wines,  where 
as  early  as  979,  or  during  the  reign  of  Ethelred,  a 
small  vessel  paid  one  halfpenny  as  a  toll ;  a  larger 
vessel,  bearing  sails,  one  penny ;  a  keel  or  hulk,  four- 
pence,  and   so    on.      During   the    thirteenth    and    the 

387 


388  GENERAL 

foiirteentli  centuries  the  English  monarchs,  constantly 
engaged  in  continental  wars,  had  entirely  to  rely 
upon  merchant  ships  for  fighting  purposes;  but  as 
the  office  of  the  ship  was  simply  to  convey  the 
archers  and  the  other  soldiers  who  were  the  real 
combatants,  the  particular  kind  of  vessel  employed 
was  of  no  very  particular  moment,  and  British 
merchant  ships  which  were  quietly  engaged  in  com- 
merce during  times  of  peace  became  armed  transports 
upon  the  occasion  of  war. 

When  Edward  III.,  in  the  summer  of  1338,  com- 
menced the  war  with  Philip  VI.  of  France,  since 
known  as  the  Hundred  Years'  War,  and  when  he  had 
determined  upon  the  siege  of  Calais,  he  ordered  a  roll 
to  be  prepared  of  all  the  British  merchant  ships  that 
might  be  available  for  the  blockade  and  for  the  siege ; 
and  from  this  roll  we  obtain  the  first  reliable  informa- 
tion with  regard  to  the  extent  of  the  mercantile  ship- 
ping of  this  country.  The  relative  importance  of  the 
dififerent  British  ports  may  be  inferred  from  the 
number  of  the  ships  that  they  supplied  to  the  king, 
and  the  results  are  not  a  little  curious.  Thus  London 
would  not  appear  to  have  been  at  that  time,  by  any 
means,  the  most  important  port  of  the  realm,  being 
largely  exceeded  in  importance  by  such  towns  as 
Dartmouth,  Plymouth,  Fowey,  and  Yarmouth ;  the 
latter  port  contributing  nearly  twice  as  many  ships 
and  more  than  three  times  as  many  men  as  London. 
On  the  other  hand,  many  ports  that  are  now  great 
maritime  centres  were  then  but  very  insignificant 
[)l!ices,  whilst  other  ports — Liverpool,  for  instance — 
did  not  exist  at  all. 

The  following  arc  a  few  of  the  figures  taken  from 
the  complete  lists  of  the  fieet  of  Edward  III.  preserved 
among  the  Harlcian  MSS. : — 


THE   BRITISH    MP:R('ANTILE    i\IARINE      389 

.Slii])S.  Sailors. 

Yarmouth 43 1950 

Fowey 47 770 

Dartmoutli 32 756 

Plymouth 26 603 

London 25 662 

Bristol 22 608 

Cardiil' i 51 

Swansea i 29 

Portsmouth 5 96 

Margate 15 160 

Hartlepool 5 145 

Hastings 5 96 

The  short  reign  of  Richard  III.  was  marked  by 
one  very  important  change  in  a  matter  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  Mercantile  Marine.  Until  this  time 
the  merchant  and  the  shipowner  were  always  one  and 
the  same  person ;  hut  now,  for  the  first  time,  a  dis- 
tinction was  made  between  the  business  of  the  ship- 
owner and  the  business  of  the  merchant,  many  vessels 
being  engaged  in  the  trade  with  the  Mediterranean 
as  carriers  alone,  deriving  their  profits  entirely  from 
the  amount  of  the  freight  that  they  carried,  quite  apart 
from  any  consideration  of  the  profits  or  otherwise  as 
derived  from  their  cargoes. 

The  fifteenth  century  was  pre-eminently  the  age  of 
maritime  discovery.  In  14 18,  Madeira  was  discovered 
by  the  Portuguese,  and  was  at  once  added  to  the  pos- 
sessions of  Portugal ;  in  1 446  the  mariners  of  the  same 
country  discovered  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  and  three 
years  subsequently  the  Azores.  By  1463,  the  full 
knowledge  of  the  West  African  coast  had  been  pushed 
southwards  as  far  as  the  Equator,  and  the  project  of 
reaching  the  Indies  by  sailing  round  the  continent  of 
Africa  was  seriously  occupying  the  minds  of  the 
Portuguese.  In  1487,  Bartholomew  Diaz  actually  suc- 
ceeded in  doubling  the  Capo  of  Good  Hope,  and  in 
reaching  the  neighbourhood  of  Algoa  Bay ;  and  ten 
years  later  Vasco  da  Gama  ultimately  reached   India 


390  GENERAL 

by  way  of  the  Cape.  The  opening  of  this  route  to 
India,  and  the  discovery  of  the  West  India  Islands, 
and  ultimately  the  discovery  of  the  continent  of 
America  itself,  by  Christopher  Columbus,  in  1492, 
gave  an  immense  impetus  to  English  maritime  affairs, 
and  as  a  consequence  made  the  reign  of  the  first  Tudor 
king  perhaps  more  important  to  English  shipping  than 
any  reign  preceding, 

Henry  VII.,  like  some  of  his  predecessors  upon  the 
English  throne,  was  himself  a  great  merchant,  and  he 
not  only  owned  and  fitted  out  many  ships  on  his  own 
private  account,  simply  for  commercial  purposes,  but 
he  endeavoured  to  promote,  in  many  ways,  the  interests 
of  maritime  commerce.  Although  parts  of  the 
American  continent  had  by  this  time  been  discovered, 
yet  the  general  configuration  of  the  new  continent,  and 
the  fact  that  it  extended  to  within  the  Arctic  circle, 
were  utterly  unlaiown  to  the  civilised  world,  and  the 
probability,  or  at  least  the  possibility,  of  a  north-west 
passage  to  India  was  seriously  entertained  by  English 
mariners  for  three  whole  centuries. 

The  voyages  of  discovery  initiated  by  England  at 
that  time  all  tended  in  this  direction,  and  while  they 
were  all  consequently  unsuccessful  in  their  immediate 
object — that  of  finding  a  north-west  passage  to  India 
— yet,  on  the  other  hand,  they  were  eminently  suc- 
cessful in  opening  up  many  new  branches  of  trade  and 
in  greatly  extending  the  knowledge  of  navigation.  The 
first  expedition  that  sailed  from  England  for  this  pur- 
pose Avas  fitted  out  at  Bristol,  imdcr  the  authority  of  a 
charter  from  King  Henry  VII.,  dated  the  5tli  of  March 
1495,  by  John  Cabot  and  his  three  sons,  the  king 
taking  a  fifth  part  of  the  profits.  Cabot,  sailing  from 
Bristol  in  a  small  ship  called  the  Matthew,  sighted  the 
coast  of  Newfoundland  on  the  24th  of  June  1497 — 
St.  John's  Day — hence  the  name,  St.  John's,  New- 
founflland.      He  found  only  a  bleak,  cold,  inhospitable 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     391 

country,  but  still  one  whose  shores  swarmed  with  fish 
of  every  kind — with  seals,  walruses,  and  whales ;  and  it 
was  from  this  voyage  that  dates  the  commencement  of 
the  important  cod  fishery  on  the  Banks  of  Newfound- 
land, and  the  still  larger  and  more  important  indus- 
tries of  the  seal  and  whale  fisheries,  so  largely  pursued 
ever  since  by  the  hardy  mariners  of  Hull,  and  of  the 
northern  ports. 

At  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  the 
population  of  the  whole  of  England  did  not  greatly 
exceed  five  millions,  and  the  population  of  London  was 
not  more  than  i  50,000.  The  greater  part  of  the  mari- 
time commerce  of  the  country  was,  however,  by  this 
time  centred  in  London,  the  customs  of  the  port  of 
London  being  seven  times  greater  than  those  of  all  the 
rest  of  the  kingdom  put  together.  The  second  mercan- 
tile port  of  this  country  then  was  Bristol,  which,  with 
a  population  of  about  30,000,  had  even  in  those  days 
some  considerable  commerce  Avith  the  West  Indies,  and 
for  two  centuries  afterwards  held  practically  a  mono- 
poly of  the  West  Indian  trade. 

After  London  and  Bristol,  the  chief  mercantile  ports 
of  England  were  Newcastle,  Hull,  Yarmouth,  Harwich, 
Boston,  King's  Lynn,  Southampton,  and  Plymouth ; 
Liverpool  having  even  then  but  a  few  hundred  inhabit- 
ants, and  those  chiefly  fishermen  and  persons  engaged 
in  a  very  small  way  in  the  coasting  trade.  From  a 
return  made  to  an  order  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  in  the 
year  1565,  it  appears  that  the  total  number  of  vessels 
belonging  to  the  river  Mersey  was  fifteen,  and  the  total 
amount  of  their  tonnage  267  tons,  no  vessel  being 
greater  than  40  tons.  The  largest  of  these  Liverpool 
ships,  the  Eagle,  was  of  40  tons  burden,  and  her  crew 
consisted  of  twelve  men  and  a  boy;  the  other  Liver- 
pool vessels  ranging  from  three  tons  up  to  thirty. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  in 
1702,  560  vessels  of  an  average  burden  of  150  tons 


392  GENERAL 

and  manned  by  1 0,06  5  seamen,  belonged  to  the  port  of 
London.  During  the  last  three  months  of  that  year 
413  vessels  were  entered  mwards  at  the  Custom-house, 
London,  and  256  vessels  cleared  outwards;  whilst,  in 
addition  to  these  foreign-going  vessels,  there  was  a  very 
considerable  number  of  coasters,  colliers,  and  fishing- 
boats.  By  this  time  coal  was  becoming  largely  used  in 
London,  and  in  the  year  1702  no  less  than  250,000 
tons  of  coal  were  brought  to  London  from  the  north  by 
sea,  the  shipping  employed  in  the  coal  trade  between 
the  North  of  England  and  London  being  then  regarded 
as  especially  the  nursery  for  seamen. 

All  through  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies  the  ships  of  the  East  India  Company  were  by  far 
the  finest  vessels  out  of  the  port  of  London ;  although 
at  the  commencement  of  that  period  they  were  but  of 
very  small  tonnage.  When  the  lucrative  trade  with 
the  East,  which  for  some  time  had  been  carried  on, 
originally  by  the  Portuguese  and  the  Spaniards,  and 
afterwards  by  the  Dutch,  first  engrossed  the  attention 
of  England,  a  number  of  merchants  in  London,  being 
of  opinion  that  sooner  or  later  a  north-west  passage  to 
India  would  be  discovered,  by  means  of  Avhich  both  the 
Spanish  and  the  Dutch  traders  might  be  circumvented, 
fitted  out  two  small  vessels — the  Sunshine,  of  50  tons, 
with  twenty-three  hands,  and  the  Moonshine,  of  3  5  tons, 
and  nineteen  men.  The  command  of  this  expedition 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  John  Davis,  a  mariner  of 
some  considerable  repute,  who  embarked  in  the  Sun- 
shine; and  the  two  vessels  sailed  from  Dartmouth  on 
the  7th  of  June  1585,  reaching  as  far  north  as  66°  40', 
and  discovering  the  straits,  since  known  as  Davis's 
Straits. 

The  following  year  a  second  voyage  was  tried,  but 
with  no  further  result.  In  his  third  voyage  Davis 
sailed  up  the  same  straits,  with  open  water  in  Baffin's 
Bay  as  far  as  73°  north  latitude,  attaining  the  point  on 


I'llE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE      393 

the  western  coast  of  Greenland,  which  he  named  San- 
derson's Hope,  from  a  wealthy  merchant  who  had 
largely  contributed  to  the  funds  of  the  expedition. 
He  tried  a  fourth  voyage,  but  it  was  equally  unsuc- 
cessful, so  that  the  owners  of  the  ships  at  last  gave  up 
all  idea  of  searching  for  a  north-west  passage,  and 
determined  to  send  Davis,  in  1589,  to  the  East  Indies 
by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  the  destruction  of 
the  Spanish  Armada,  and  the  consequent  weakening  of 
the  maritime  power  of  Spain,  having  made  a  passage 
to  India  by  way  of  the  Cape  a  less  perilous  undertak- 
ing than  it  had  hitherto  been.  Davis  successfully 
made  four  voyages  to  India  by  this  route,  but  on  his 
fifth  voyage  he  was  unfortunately  killed  by  pirates  off 
the  coast  of  Malacca  in  December  1605. 

In  the  year  1600,  the  English  East  India  Com- 
pany, then  recently  established,  determined  to  despatch 
from  London  their  first  ships  to  open  the  trade  with 
the  East ;  and  the  record  of  that  expedition  enables  us 
to  form  a  fairly  accurate  idea  of  the  sizes  of  the  very 
best  types  of  British  merchant  ships  of  that  age.  The 
East  India  Company's  fleet  consisted  of  five  ships. 
They  were  the  Dragon,  of  600  tons,  her  commander, 
according  to  the  custom  of  the  time,  being  styled 
"  Admiral  of  the  Squadron  "  ;  the  Hector,  of  300  tons  ; 
the  Susan,  of  240  tons;  the  Ascension,  of  200  tons; 
and  a  storeship  of  130  tons.  The  men  employed  in 
the  expedition  were  480,  all  told;  and  the  cost  of  the 
vessels  and  their  equipment  was  ^45,000.  They  had 
on  board  twenty  merchants  as  supercargoes,  and  the 
vessels  were  all  well  armed.  The  fleet  sailed  from 
Woolwich  on  the  13  th  of  February  1601,  and  returned 
in  1603.  The  voyage  proved  to  be  an  entire  success, 
the  ships  returning  safely  to  England  laden  with 
valuable  cargoes. 

British  ships  at  that  time  were,  however,  very 
much  inferior  to  the  ships  of  many  of  the  Continental 


394  GENERAL 

nations — notably  the  Dutch — for  in  1603  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  in  a  report  that  he  made  to  King  James  I., 
says  that  "  the  merchant  ships  of  England  were  not  to 
be  compared  with  those  of  the  Dutch ;  and  that  while 
an  EngHsh  ship  of  one  hundred  tons  required  a  crew 
of  thirty  men,  the  Dutch  would  sail  a  ship  of  the  same 
size  with  one-third  that  number."  British  merchant 
shipping,  however,  during  the  reigns  of  the  Stuarts  was 
steadily  improving,  larger  and  better  vessels  being 
every  year  added  to  the  mercantile  navy  ;  and  Sir 
William  Monson  states  that  "  the  shipping  of  the  port 
of  London  had  so  ausfmented  durin^  the  first  fifteen 
years  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  that  it  Avas  now  able  to 
supply  a  hundred  sail  of  stout  vessels  capable  of  being 
converted  into  men-of-war." 

It  was  at  about  this  time  that  Anthony  Deane  and 
Phineas  Rett  were  entrusted  by  the  English  Govern- 
ment with  the  desioningr  and  the  construction  of  a 
number  of  new  ships  for  the  Royal  Navy  of  England, 
and  they  performed  these  duties  with  such  marked 
success  that  the  wooden  vessels  built  by  them  served 
as  models  not  only  for  naval,  but  also  for  mercantile 
ships  of  the  better  class,  for  several  succeeding  genera- 
tions to  copy,  without  alteration  or  attempt  at  im- 
provement until,  indeed,  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century. 

During  tlie  first  twenty  years  or  so  of  the  exist- 
ence of  the  East  India  Company  they  were  not,  on  the 
whole,  particularly  successful  with  their  ships.  From 
a  return  presented  to  Parliament  in  November  1 6  2 1 , 
there  is  an  account  of  the  trade  carried  on  by  the 
Company  during  the  whole  time  that  they  had  held 
their  charter,  from  which  it  appears  that  out  of  eighty- 
six  ships  which  had  been  despatched  to  the  East, 
eleven  were  surprised  and  seized  by  the  Dutch,  nine 
had  been  lost  at  sea,  five  had  become  worn  out  with 
long  service,  and  only  thirty-six  had  returned  home 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MAR  INK      395 

with  cargoes;  the  remaining  twenty-five  being  reckoned 
as  then  in  India  or  else  at  sea.  As  time  went  on, 
however,  the  Company  did  better,  and  during  the 
twenty  years  succeeding  the  Restoration  the  vakie  of 
the  annual  imports  from  Bengal  alone  rose  from  ;i^8ooo 
to  ;6^3 00,000,  and  the  gains  of  the  Company  from  their 
monopoly  of  East  Indian  produce  had  then  become 
almost  incredible. 

Such  success  naturally  excited  intense  jealousy, 
and  the  most  energetic  attempts  were  made  to  share 
profits  so  enormous;  but  it  was  not  until  1698  that 
the  Government,  being  in  want  of  money,  resolved  to 
throw  the  trade  of  India  open  to  the  highest  bidder. 
The  existing  Company  was  outbid  by  a  new  company, 
whose  tender  was  accepted  by  the  Government,  but 
the  old  Company  was  to  have  three  years  grace  in 
which  to  wind  up  its  affairs.  No  fcAver  than  sixty 
ships  were  now  employed  by  the  rival  companies,  a 
number  vastly  in  excess  of  the  requirements  of  the 
trade,  so  tliat  the  competition  was  ruining  everybody 
concerned,  and  tlie  iJ^ioo  shares  of  the  old  Company, 
which  had  previously  stood  at  over  i>2  00,  fell  to  £^,7. 
In  1708,  a  stop  was  put  to  this  scandal  by  an  amalga- 
mation of  the  two  companies,  and  the  East  India 
Company  from  that  date  practically  assumed  the 
position  that  it  occupied  until  1858. 

Although  during  the  greater  part  of  the  last  cen- 
tury the  East  Indiamen  Avere  vessels  of  but  small 
tonnage,  as  we  now  reckon  the  tonnage  of  ships,  yet 
they  were  always  well  armed,  and  that  not  only  for 
defensive,  but  very  frequently  for  offensive  purposes. 
The  ships  ranged  from  450  to  500  tons;  those  of  the 
latter  tonnage  carrying  from  thirty  to  thirty-foiu'  guns, 
and  being  manned  by  ninety-eight  seamen.  From 
time  to  time  the  losses  of  the  Company,  from  the 
number  of  their  ships  taken  by  the  enemy,  lost  at  sea 
or   burnt,  were  exceedingly   heavy.       From   the  year 


396  GENERAL 

1702  to  the  year  18 18,  no  less  than  169  ships  of 
the  Company  were  thus  lost ;  43  being  taken  by  the 
enemy,  of  which  number  7,  however,  were  afterwards 
retaken;  18  were  burnt  or  blown  up,  and  108  were 
lost  at  sea. 

During  the  years  1808  and  1809,  the  Company 
were  particularly  unfortunate  with  theu'  ships,  having 
lost  in  those  two  years  four  outward-bound,  and  ten 
homeward-bound  ships ;  the  value  of  one  of  these  ships 
and  her  cargo  amounting  together  to  ;:^  1,048,077. 

The  East  India  Company  possessed  some  of  the 
finest  merchant  ships  afloat  at  the  time,  but  they 
always  paid  heavily  for  them.  It  was  said  that  for 
ships  similar  to  those  for  which  private  firms  were 
paying  £2$  a  ton,  the  Company  was  pa3dng  ;^40  a 
ton ;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Company's 
ships  were  practically  armed  cruisers,  and  were  often 
obliged  to  be  in  action  with  the  enemy,  of  whom  they 
not  unfrequently  were  able  to  give  a  very  good  account. 
The  greater  number  of  their  ships  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  last  century  and  the  commencement  of 
this  were  handsome  frigate-built  ships,  whilst  some  of 
the  larger  ones  had  a  double  row  of  ports,  and  were 
precisely  like  two-decked  line-of-battle  ships.  Such  a 
ship  was  the  Uarl  of  Balcarrcs,  which  may  be  taken  as 
a  type  of  the  finest  of  the  Company's  ships.  She  was 
built  at  Bombay  in  i  8 1  5,  and  Avas  of  1 4 1 7  tons  burden  ; 
carried  26  guns,  and  was  manned  by  a  crew  of  130. 
She  was  sold  out  of  the  Company's  service  in  i  8  3  i 
for  £io,yoo.  Her  crew  consisted  of  the  conmiander, 
six  mates,  surgeon  and  assistant-surgeon,  six  midship- 
men, purser,  bo'sun,  gunner,  carpenter,  master-at- 
arms,  armourer,  butcher,  baker,  poulterer,  caulker, 
cooper,  two  stewards,  two  cooks,  eight  bo'suns,  gun- 
ner's, carpenter's,  cooper's,  and  caulker's  mates ;  six 
quarter-masters,  one  sailmakcr,  seven  oflScers'  servants, 
and  seventy-eight  seamen. 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     397 

The  command  of  tlie  Company's  ships  was  abnost 
invariably  sold  to  the  highest  bidder  competent  to  till 
the  post,  the  price  averaging  about  ;^3000.  The 
captain  oi"  an  East  Indiaman  enjoyed  so  many 
privileges  and  perquisites  that  the  amount  of  his  pay, 
which  was  supposed  to  be  ;^  i  o  a  month,  was  really 
but  a  very  small  part  of  his  income :  indeed  it  was 
always  reckoned  that  after  being  in  connuand  for  five 
voyages  to  the  East  Indies  a  man  would  have  made 
sufficient  to  retire  upon.  Including  the  amount  of 
cargo  space  that  was  allowed  him,  all  his  perquisites, 
and  his  pay,  it  was  supposed  that  he  usually  made  from 
;^3000  to  i^5ooo  each  voyage;  but  the  real  amount 
was  often  very  much  in  excess  even  of  this,  a  good 
deal  of  illicit  trade  and  smuggling  being  systematically 
carried  on.  Indeed,  to  so  large  an  extent  was  this  the 
case  that  the  Company  at  last  resolved  to  put  a  stop  to 
it,  and  advertised  very  substantial  rewards  to  all  such 
as  would  give  information. 

The  internal  economy  and  the  discipline  on  board 
the  Company's  ships  was  far  in  advance  of  that  of 
other  merchant  ships  of  the  same  time.  The  crew 
were  divided  into  port  and  starboard  watches  as  usual, 
but  the  officers  had  three  watches,  as  in  the  great 
ocean  liners  of  to-day.  At  five  bells  in  the  morning 
watch  (half-past  six)  the  duties  of  the  day  commenced 
by  the  watch-  on  deck  washing  down  and  cleaning 
the  decks.  At  half-past  seven  hammocks  were  piped 
up  and  stowed  by  the  quarter-masters  in  the  hammock- 
nettings  in  the  waist.  At  eight  o'clock  breakfast  Avas 
served  to  all  hands,  and  then  commenced  the  ordinary 
day's  work  at  sea,  similar  to  that  of  the  present  tune. 
Dinner  was  at  noon,  and  then  work  was  resumed 
until  four  o'clock,  the  men  being  allowed  durmg  the 
dog-watches  to  do  as  they  hked  :  to  mend  their  clothes, 
to  smoke,  or  to  spend  the  time  in  games  or  other 
amusements.     Twice  every  week — on  Wednesdays  and 


398  GENERAL 

Saturdays — the  'tween-decks,  where  the  men  slept  and 
had  their  meals  between  the  guns,  man-of-war  fashion, 
were  cleaned  and  holystoned,  and  afterwards  inspected 
by  the  commander  and  the  surgeon ;  and  the  Company's 
ships  being  to  a  certain  extent  men-of-war,  the  men 
had  very  frequently  to  go  through  cutlass  and  small- 
arms  drill,  and  were  exercised  at  the  guns  as  oppor- 
tunity offered. 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  ships  engaged 
in  the  foreign  trade  entering  the  port  of  London  during 
the  eighteenth  and  the  nineteenth  centuries,  and  also 
the  steady  increase  in  their  tonnage,  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  figures : — 

Tonnage  Entering  the  Port  of  London. 
(Foreign  Trade  only.) 


Ships.               Tons. 

Average  Tonnage 
per  Ship. 

In  tlie  year  1 702 

839      .        80,040 

•       95 

•751      • 

.       1498       .      198,053 

•      132 

1794      • 

.       2219       .     429,715 

•      193 

Tons. 

In  the  year  1 889  the 

tonnage  entering  the  port 

of  London  amounted  to    . 

10,400,000 

In  the  year  1890  (the 

!  year  of  the  Dock  strike) 

8,700,000 

1891       . 

8,400,000 

1892      . 

8,245,000 

1893      • 

8,121,000 

1899      . 

9,244,593  ' 

Until  the  year  1789,  all  ships  entering  the  port  of 
London  discharged  their  cargoes  as  they  lay  in  the 
river,  there  being  then  no  docks  to  receive  the  steadily 
increasing  amount  of  shipping.  Property  of  the  most 
valuable  description  was  always  lying  exposed  in 
barges  and  in  open  boats,  and  the  robberies  were  so 
enormous  that  they  Avcre  cstiinated  as  annually  ex- 
ceeding half  a  iiiillioii  sterling.  In  the  above  year  the 
'  Figures  furnished  by  the  Board  of  Trade. 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     399 

number  of  bari^'cs,  lighters,  and  similar  craft  employed 
in  the  loading  and  unloading  of  ships  in  the  river  was 
2503,  about  half  that  number  being  engaged  in  the 
coal  trade.  Previous  to  the  construction  of  the  docks 
it  was  reckoned  that  an  East  Indiaman  of  800  tons 
took  a  month  to  unload,  whilst  one  of  1200  tons  took 
six  weeks.  When  the  St.  Katherine's  Docks,  which  were 
fitted  with  all  the  best  appliances  then  known,  were  first 
opened  in  1828,  the  average  time  occupied  in  discharg- 
ing a  vessel  of  250  tons  was  twelve  hours,  and  a  ship 
of  500  tons  two  or  three  days.  Last  year  (1899),  on 
Wednesday  the  4th  of  October,  at  twelve  o'clock  noon,  one 
of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  steamers,  which  had  been 
taken  up  by  the  Government  for  the  transport  of  troops  to 
the  Cape,  arrived  in  the  Royal  Albert  Docks  from  Yoko- 
hama, Avith  6000  tons  of  cargo  on  board.  By  noon  on 
Saturday  the  7  th  she  had  entirely  finished  discharging, 
and  the  same  afternoon  went  into  dry  dock  to  have 
her  bottom  cleaned  and  painted.  This  work  was  done 
between  Saturday  evening  and  Monday  morning,  and 
by  noon  on  Monday  she  was  again  alongside  the  quay 
in  the  Albert  Docks,  with  an  army  of  carpenters  and 
painters  on  board  getting  her  ready  for  the  troops; 
so  great  has  been,  of  late  years,  the  acceleration  of  all 
matters  connected  with  the  loading  and  the  unloading 
of  ships. 

Several  different  circumstances  conduced  to  the 
fact  that  the  first  quarter  of  the  present  century  was 
an  exceedingly  dull  time  in  the  annals  of  British  ship- 
ping. For  the  first  fifteen  years  of  the  century  the 
country  was  engaged  in  a  great  and  costly  European 
war,  with  disastrous  effects  upon  all  branches  of  mari- 
time commerce.  At  this  time,  too,  England  was  feeling 
the  effects  of  the  loss  of  her  American  colonies.  So 
long  as  the  American  colonics  were  a  portion  of  the 
British  Empire,  English  and  American  vessels  sailed 
freely  between  English  and  American  ports  ;  but  after 


400  GENERAL 

the  declaration  of  independence  by  the  United  States, 
American  ships  were  treated  by  England  as  foreign 
vessels,  and  were  subjected  to  precisely  the  same  re- 
strictions as  the  vessels  of  other  foreign  countries.  As 
a  set-off  against  this,  English  ships  were  prohibited 
from  importing  British  goods  into  the  United  States ; 
and  matters  so  continued  until  after  the  American 
War  of  1812.  The  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  during 
the  early  years  of  the  century  had  also  a  very  marked 
effect  upon  British  shipping. 

In  the  year  1562,  John  Hawkins  (afterwards  Sir 
John),  a  native  of  Plymouth,  learning  that  "  negroes 
were  very  good  merchandise  to  Hispaniola,  and  that 
store  of  them  might  easily  be  had  upon  the  coast  of 
Guinea,"  started  upon  an  expedition  to  the  Gold  Coast 
with  three  small  vessels — the  Solomon,  of  120  tons; 
the  Swallow,  100  tons;  and  the  Jonas,  of  40  tons;  and 
there  embarked  a  cargo  of  three  hundred  slaves,  which 
he  carried  to  the  West  Indies ;  thus  having  the  honour 
of  beginning  the  disgraceful  traffic  in  negroes  carried 
on  by  British  merchant  ships,  which  lasted  until  early 
in  the  present  century.  He  received  from  the  Spaniards 
in  exchange  for  his  three  hundred  slaves,  pearls,  ginger, 
sugar,  and  hides,  enough  not  merely  to  freight  his  own 
three  vessels,  but  two  others  besides,  and  "  thus  with 
prosperous  success,  and  much  gain  to  himself  and  the 
aforesaid  adventurers,  he  came  home,  and  arrived  in 
September  1563." 

The  two  ports  most  interested  in  this  iniquitous 
trade  were  Bristol  and  Liverpool.  By  the  year  1772, 
Liverpool  had  become  as  important  a  port  as  Bristol ; 
and  at  that  time  the  ships  of  these  tAvo  ports  alone, 
engaged  in  the  slave  trade,  carried  annually  50,000 
negro  slaves  from  the  African  coast  to  the  British 
])lantati()ns  in  the  West  Indies.  It  was  in  this  year 
t,hat,  after  a  long  agitation  by  the  Society  of  Friends  in 
favour  of  the    total    abolition   of  slavery,  the  famous 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     401 

decision  of  Lord  Mansfield  was  obtained,  "  that  a  slave 
becomes  free  at  the  moment  of  his  setting  his  foot  on 
British  soil."  The  most  violent  opposition  to  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  slave  trade  was  offered  by  the  merchants 
and  the  shipowners  of  Liverpool ;  but  with  the  ultimate 
passing  of  the  measure  for  negro  emancipation,  in 
March  1807,  the  trade  was  declared  to  be  finally 
abolished.  By  this  Act,  however,  only  a  small  fine 
was  exacted  from  offenders,  and  it  consequently  had  but 
very  little  effect.  The  trade  was  manifestly  far  too  profit- 
able to  be  stopped  by  a  mere  money  penalty,  so  in  1 8  1 1 
a  further  Act  was  passed  declaring  its  pursuit  by  British 
subjects  "  a  felony,"  punishable  by  fourteen  years'  trans- 
portation, or  imprisonment  with  hard  labour.  In  course 
of  time  even  this  was  not  found  to  be  sufficiently  deter- 
rent, and  accordingly  in  1824,  the  act  of  trading  in 
slaves  was  pronounced  a  "  ph-acy,"  and  punishable  by 
death  if  committed  within  the  Admiralty  jurisdiction, 
and  then  this  disgraceful  traffic  came  to  an  end. 

The  commencement  of  the  present  century  wit- 
nessed the  application  of  steam  to  the  purposes  of 
navigation,  but  for  the  first  twenty-five  years  without 
its  producing  any  effect  whatever  upon  merchant 
shipping ;  and  during  the  second  twenty-five  years 
without  its  producing  any  very  marked  eflfect  upon 
long-voyaged  foreign-going  ships.  As  the  middle  of 
the  century  was  approached  British  shipowners  were 
still  building  magnificent  sailing-ships  for  the  East 
Indian  and  the  then  newly-developed  Colonial  trade ; 
and  although  steam  was  already  making  rapid  progress, 
and  Avas  steadily  threatening  the  sailing-ship  with 
ultimate  extinction,  yet  never  had  the  world  seen  such 
perfect  specimens  of  sailing-ships  as  the  frigate-built 
ships  that  Green,  Money  Wigram,  and  others  were 
sending  out  in  the  passenger  trade  to  India  and  to 
the  Australian  colonies.  But  the  first-class  "  river- 
built  "  ships,  as  those  constructed  on  the  Thames  were 
V  2  c 


402  GENERAL 

called,  were  always  expensive  and  could  not,  from  a 
money  point  of  view,  compete  witli  the  cheaper  ships 
that  were  being  built  in  America,  so  that  at  one  time 
it  seemed  as  though  a  very  large  part  of  the  carrying 
trade  of  the  world  was  about  to  be  transferred  from 
Great  Britain  to  the  United  States. 

Like  many  other  useful  arts,  that  of  building  fast- 
sailing  clipper-ships  came  to  this  country  from  America, 
the  shipbuilders  of  Baltimore  claiming  the  honour  of 
being  the  first  to  turn  out  these  swift  and  handsome 
vessels.  From  the  Potomac  issued  the  particular  kind 
of  craft  that  soon  became  famous  throughout  the  world, 
under  the  name  of  "Baltimore  clippers," not  only  for  their 
astonishing  speed,  but  also  for  the  exceeding  beauty  of 
their  model.  New  York  and  Boston  next  turned  their 
attention  to  the  building  of  an  improved  type  of  ship, 
and  it  was  not  long  before  a  fleet  of  handsome  clippers 
hailed  from  these  two  ports  also.  The  first  of  the 
famous  American  clippers  built  at  New  York  was  the 
Sea  Witch,  of  907  tons  register,  which  was  launched  in 
1 844.  She  was  the  fastest  sailing-ship  afloat  at  the 
time,  and  is  believed  to  have  had  more  influence  on 
the  form  of  deep-sea  vessels  than  any  other  merchant 
ship  ever  built  in  the  United  States  of  America. 
With  her  the  full  bow  and  the  long  sharp  run  aft 
went  out  of  fashion,  and  the  long  sharp  bow  with  a 
fuller  stern  came  into  permanent  use,  the  world  over, 
for  fast  ships  of  the  Mercantile  Marine.  Her  speed 
was  surprising ;  although  she  Avas  exceedingly  unstable 
without  a  good  deal  of  ballast,  and  she  rolled  very 
considerably  in  a  sea-way. 

The  Sat  Witch  was  speedily  followed  by  larger  and 
swifter  clippers,  many  of  them  being  specially  built 
for  the  China  tea  trade ;  among  these  ships  were  the 
Oriental  and  the  Celestial,  and  after  them  the  Challcmjc 
and  the  Smyrise,  with  very  many  others.  Among  the 
many    splendid    passages    made    by    these    American 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     403 

clippers,  those  of  the  Oriental  and  the  Celestial,  belong- 
ing to  New  York,  perhaps  stand  pre-eminent.  The 
Oriental  accomplished  the  distance  from  New  York  to 
Hong  Kong — 14,521  miles  by  log,  and  14,160  by 
observation — in  less  than  7 1  days,  her  average  rate 
of  sailing  being  200  miles  a  day.  The  Celestial  made 
the  passage  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  in  95 
days,  Avhich  was  two  days  quicker  than  the  Sea  Witch 
had  done,  which  until  that  time  had  been  the  shortest 
passage  on  record. 

English  shipowners  were,  however,  not  disposed 
quietly  to  see  the  honours  of  the  ocean  carrying  trade 
pass  entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  Americans,  and  in 
1850  Mr.  Richard  Green,  of  the  famous  Black  wall 
Line,  built  the  Challenger,  to  rival  the  New  York 
Challengr,  whilst  Messrs.  Jardine,  Matheson  &  Co.  sent 
out  the  Aberdeen-built  clippers,  Chrysolite  and  Stornoway. 
In  their  first  race,  however,  the  British  ships  were  de- 
feated, the  American-built  clipper  Challenge  making  the 
passage  from  Canton  to  Deal  in  105  di2iy&,\h.Q  Stornoway 
taking  1 09  days  ;  and  while  the  Challenger  was  1 1 3  days 
coming  from  Shanghai  to  Deal,  the  American  clipper 
Nightingale  took  only  1 1  o  days  to  do  the  same  distance. 

The  Nightingale  was  one  of  the  fastest  of  the 
American  clippers.  In  this  race  from  Shanghai,  on 
one  day  she  ran  336  nautical  miles  in  the  twenty-four 
hours,  or  at  the  rate  of  rather  more  than  sixteen 
statute  miles  an  hour.  The  next  year,  1854,  she  ran 
from  New  York  to  Melbourne  in  76  days. 

The  years  from  1850  to  1855  were  noted  for  the 
number  of  fast  clippers  tvu^ned  out  from  the  building- 
yards  of  the  United  States,  and  the  demand  for  such 
vessels  became  so  great  that  they  were  frequently  very 
hastily  constructed.  As  a  case  in  point,  the  John 
Bertram,  i  100  tons  register,  a  clipper  well  known  for 
a  few  years,  was  launched  in  only  sixty  days  from  the 
laying  down  of  her  keel,  and  in  thirty  days  more  was 


404  GENERAL 

speeding  on  her  way  from  Boston  to  San  Francisco  with 
a  full  cargo  of  goods  at  forty  dollars  per  ton  freight. 
This  reckless  mode  of  construction  soon  told  its  tale, 
more  particularly  in  the  case  of  the  China  tea  clippers 
of  American  build,  which,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
they  were  exceedingly  beautiful  vessels,  and  admirable 
in  point  of  speed,  were  notoriously  so  slightly  built 
that  on  arrival  their  cargoes  were  frequently  found  to 
be  very  seriously  damaged. 

In  1 8  5  I ,  Donald  M'Kay,  of  East  Boston,  a  name 
destined  to  become  famous  in  connection  with  fast- 
saihng  ships,  built  the  Flying  Cloud,  a  clipper  of  1782 
tons  register.  She  made  her  first  voyage  from  New 
York  to  San  Francisco,  doing  the  passage  out  in 
90  days.  Upon  one  day  she  ran  427  nautical  miles, 
then  the  very  fastest  time  on  record. 

The  next  year,  1852,  Mr.  Donald  M'Kay  built  the 
clipper,  Sovereign  of  the  Seas.  She  was  245  feet  in  length 
and  2421  tons  register,  and  was  the  largest,  sharpest, 
and  longest  sailing-ship  in  the  world  at  the  time  of  her 
construction.  Upon  one  occasion  she  ran  1367  miles 
in  four  days,  thus  keeping  up  a  continuous  rate  of  over 
fourteen  miles  an  hour.  Once  she  made  436  nn'les  in 
twenty-four  hours,  or  over  eighteen  miles  an  hour. 

The  original  "  White  Star  "  Line  was  composed  of  a 
fleet  of  these  fast-sailing  American  clippers,  and  among 
their  ships  were  the  Champion  of  the  Seas,  the  Blue  Jacket, 
the  Sardinian,  the  While  Star,  the  Shalinar,  the  Salamis, 
the  Patriarch,  with  many  other  equally  well-known  ships, 
sailing  to  Australia.  Of  these,  perhaps,  the  Patriarch 
was  the  fastest  ship,  making  in  1868  the  run  home 
from  Sydney  to  the  West  India  Docks  in  68  days. 

When  steam  was  first  being  employed  lor  the 
Transatlantic  voyage,  the  Yankees  tried  tlicir  level 
best,  with  these  fast-sailing  and  handsoTue  clippers,  to 
beat  the  steamers,  which  then  were  taking  some 
15  or  16  days  to  cross,  so  that  the  case  at  that  time 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     405 

did  not  look  so  very  hopeless.  One  of  these  clippers, 
the  DreadiwiKjlit,  actually  came  across  from  New  York 
to  Queenstown  in  9  days  1 7  hours,  which  was  much 
faster  than  the  steamers,  and  which  is  probably  the 
fastest  sailing  time  on  record,  being  at  the  rate  of  at 
least  twelve  knots  an  hour  the  whole  distance.  The 
Ashhurton  crossed  from  New  York  to  Liverpool  in 
1 2  days  and  the  Princeton  in  1 6  days.  The  Gleniffer 
made  four  voyages  to  Quebec  and  back,  thus  crossing 
the  Atlantic  eic^ht  times  durinc;  eitjht  months,  her 
fastest  passage  being  from  Quebec  to  Greenock  in  i  5 
days ;  but  the  days  of  the  Transatlantic  passenger 
trade  were  obviously  over  for  sailing-ships,  which  had 
at  last  to  haul  down  their  colours  to  the  steamers. 

During  the  whole  of  the  "  fifties  "  and  the  "  sixties," 
the  average  Australian  passage  of  the  regular  English 
frigate-built  ships  was  from  90  to  100  days,  so  that 
no  small  sensation  was  created  at  Liverpool  by  the 
American-built  clipper  Marco  Polo  making  the  passage 
from  Melbourne  in  the  then  unprecedentedly  short 
time  of  75  days.  In  1854,  Messrs.  Baines  &  Co.,  of 
the  Black  Ball  Line,  put  on  two  splendid  ships,  the 
Lightning  and  the  Red  Jacket,  followed  shortly  after  by 
the  equally  celebrated  clipper,  James  Baines.  All  these 
fine  ships  used  to  make  the  Australian  passage  in 
from  60  to  70  days,  so  that  upon  one  occasion  when 
the  James  Baines  and  the  Liyhtniny  left  Melbourne  the 
same  month,  and  when  the  former  ship  was  over 
100  days  coming  home,  there  was  something  like  a 
panic  in  Liverpool.  The  James  Baines  left  Melbourne 
on  the  7th  of  August  1856,  having  on  board  174.000 
ounces  of  gold  dust,  worth  about  i^7 00,000.  Not 
having  arrived  at  Liverpool  on  the  14th  of  November, 
being  then  99  days  out,  insurances  were  effected  upon 
her  at  £'S,  per  cent,  (her  usual  terms  for  specie  being 
from  35s.  to  40s.  per  cent);  and  being  still  unheard 
of  on  the  20th  of  November,  then  105  days  out,  £1^ 


4o6  GENERAL 

per  cent,  was  paid.  On  the  next  day,  the  21st,  she 
Avas  towed  up  the  Mersey. 

Some  Aberdeen-built  cUppers  were,  however,  by 
this  time  making  their  appearance,  whose  performances 
quite  equalled  those  of  the  American  ships.  The  Maid 
of  Judalh,  1200  tons  register,  made  the  passage  from 
London  to  Sydney,  in  i  860,  in  78  days  ;  whilst  the  Star 
of  Peace,  of  2000  tons,  made  four  consecutive  passages 
from  London  to  the  same  port  respectively  in  yj ,  yy,  78, 
and  79  days.  The  British  clipper-ship  Hurricane  was 
also  an  exceedingly  fast  sailer.  She  came  home  from 
Melbourne  in  74  days;  and  upon  one  occasion  ran 
270  nautical  miles  in  16%  hours,  thus  keeping  up  a 
continuous  speed  of  nearly  1 9  statute  miles  an  hour. 

In  1856,  Messrs.  Scott  &  Co.  of  Greenock  built  the 
Lord  of  the  Isles,  to  compete  with  the  American  tea 
clippers,  and  in  the  next  race  home  from  China  she 
beat  the  Americans  in  point  of  speed,  besides  possessing 
the  additional  quality  of  being  better  built  than  they 
Avere,  and  in  consequence  bringing  her  cargo  home 
entirely  uninjured.  For  some  years  the  honours  of 
this  race  were  pretty  equally  divided,  the  palm  of 
victory  falling  sometimes  to  the  British  ships,  some- 
times to  the  American ;  but  before  the  "  sixties  "  were 
out  the  blue  ribbon  of  the  China  tea  race  was  finally 
wrested  from  the  Americans,  and  carried  off  by  the 
British  ships,  some  very  smart  sailing  constantly  taking 
place  between  the  competitors.  In  the  race  of  1866 
the  Ariel,  750  tons,  of  London;  the  Toepiii//,  y6y  tons, 
of  Glasgow  ;  the  Scrica,  708  tons,  of  Greenock,  with 
two  other  famous  clippers,  left  Foo-chow-foo  together 
for  London.  At  nightfall  on  the  first  day  out  they  all 
lost  sight  of  each  other,  and  during  the  entire  distance 
from  China  to  England  they  never  met  again  until  off' 
the  mouth  of  the  Channel.  The  Ariel  and  the  Taepiiuj 
then  came  up  tlio  Channel  neck  and  neck,  but  the 
Ariel  getting  in  advance  of  the  Taeping  in  towing  up 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     407 

the  river,  was  the  first  to  arrive  off  Blackwall.  In 
consequence,  however,  of  there  not  beinjj^  sufficient 
depth  of  water  at  the  dock  entrance  of  the  West  India 
Docks,  she  could  not  be  hauled  into  the  docks  the  same 
day,  and  had  to  let  go  her  anchor  in  the  stream  and  to 
wait  till  the  next  tide ;  meanwhile  the  Taeping  passed 
her,  and  succeeded  in  getting  into  the  London  Docks  the 
moment  she  came  up,  and  thus  claimed  the  prize. 

A  very  characteristic  anecdote  of  American  'cute- 
ness  is  told  in  connection  with  one  of  these  races  home. 
The  celebrated  Baltimore  clipper  Sea  Serpent  sailed  from 
Shanghai  for  London  in  company  with  the  British 
clipper  Crest  of  the  Wave.  A  premium  of  thhty 
shillings  a  ton,  over  and  above  the  amount  of  the 
freight,  had  been  offered  to  the  vessel  first  in,  and 
this  was  quite  sufficient  inducement  for  both  skippers 
to  crack  on.  The  two  ships  were  fairly  near  together 
all  the  way  home,  and  they  actually  hove  to  for  pilots, 
off  the  Isle  of  Wight,  withm  an  hour  of  each  other. 
The  American  captain  determined  that  he  would  not 
be  outdone  by  the  Britisher,  so  leaving  his  ship  in  the 
hands  of  the  mate,  he  came  ashore  in  the  boat  that 
brought  out  his  pilot,  took  the  steamer  from  Cowes  to 
Southampton,  and  the  train  up  to  Waterloo.  From 
thence  he  took  a  cab  to  the  Custom-house,  and 
reported  the  Sea  Serpent  as  "  arrived,"  while  each  ship 
was  carrying  on  all  she  knew  in  order  to  get  into  the 
Thames  before  the  other. 

Two  of  the  most  celebrated  British  clippers  of  the 
time  were  the  Sir  Lancelot,  750  tons,  of  Greenock,  and 
the  Thermopylae,  948  tons,  of  Aberdeen.  The  one  idea 
in  the  construction  of  the  Sir  Laneclot  was  speed,  and 
every  pains  were  taken  to  achieve  that  result.  Before 
the  copper  was  put  on  to  her  bottom,  her  plunks  from 
the  water-line  downwards  were  planed  oft",  and  the  hard 
teak  rendered  as  smooth  as  a  ball-room  ftoor.  In  order 
to  give  the  vessel  greater  stability,  and  to  enable  her 


4o8  GENERAL 

to  carry  her  immensely  tall  masts,  which  exceeded 
200  feet  in  height,  nearly  100  tons  of  iron  pigs  were 
fitted  into  the  open  spaces  along  the  keelson  between 
her  frames.  That  she  needed  some  such  dead  weight 
as  this  to  keep  her  steady  may  well  be  supposed  when 
it  is  stated  that,  in  racing  trim  and  under  all  sail,  the 
Si?-  Lancelot  spread  upwards  of  46,000  square  feet,  or 
considerably  over  an  acre,  of  canvas. 

This  ship  made  some  exceedingly  fast  passages,  of 
which  perhaps  the  fastest  was  the  run  home  from 
Foo-chow-foo,  in  1869.  Upon  that  occasion  she  left 
Foo-chow-foo  on  the  17  th  of  July.  On  the  7  th  of 
August  she  made  Anjer  Light,  in  Sunda  Strait;  on  the 
28th  of  the  same  month  she  sighted  the  South  African 
coast,  near  East  London ;  on  the  i  i  th  of  September 
she  passed  St.  Helena;  on  the  loth  of  October  she 
was  signalled  off  the  Lizard ;  and  on  the  1 4th  was 
berthed  in  the  West  India  Docks,  having  made  the 
passage  of  14,000  miles  in  89  days  against  the  pre- 
vailing monsoon.  Her  best  day's  run  was  made  while 
crossing  the  Indian  Ocean,  when  on  one  occasion  she 
did,  by  observation,  354  statute  miles  in  the  twenty- 
four  hours  ;  whilst  for  one  whole  week  she  kept  up 
an  average  daily  run  of  300  miles. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  year  1869  the  Suez 
Canal  was  opened  for  traffic,  and  this  ultimately 
caused  important  alterations  in  the  trade  to  Chma 
and  to  the  East;  the  steamers  entirely  superseding 
the  sailing-ships.  For  the  Australian  and  the  colonial 
trade  generally,  the  day  of  these  magnificent  sailing- 
ships  was  fast  drawing  to  a  close.  For  the  conveyance 
of  passengers  and  mails  the  time  of  sailing-ships  was 
certainly  over,  and  much  of  the  poetry  of  the  sea  was 
lost  for  ever.  The  graceful  clipper- ship,  with  her  tall 
and  tapering  spars  and  her  acre  of  canvas,  had  to  give 
place  to  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental,  the  Orient,  or 
tlie   Cunard   steamer,  five   or   six  hundred  feet   long. 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     409 

and  built  of  steel,  with  her  great  funnels  continuously 
belching  forth  vast  volumes  of  black  smoke.  The 
skipper  of  the  Sir  Lancelot,  or  the  Thermopylce ,  who 
got  an  extra  knot  out  of  his  ship  by  the  smartest  sea- 
manship, or  by  the  most  careful  trinmiing  of  his  sails, 
is  replaced  by  the  engineer  of  the  Campania  or  the 
Teutcnic,  who  effects  the  same  result  by  shovelling  on 
more  coals,  or  by  turning  on  more  steam. 

Accuracy  of  navigation  is,  of  course,  common  to 
both  steam  and  sails ;  but  smart  seamanship  was,  and 
is,  the  special  characteristic  of  the  sailing-ship,  and 
records  of  smart  passages  are  conmion  enough  even 
at  the  present  day  among  vessels  that  still  trust  to 
their  canvas  and  not  to  their  steam.  To  give  one  or 
two  instances  out  of  many  that  occur  every  year : 
On  4th  February  1895,  the  Cambrian  Monarch,  a  full- 
rigged  ship  of  1 200  tons,  with  a  cargo  of  grain,  left 
Geelong  for  Queenstown  for  orders.  Twenty-four 
hours  afterwards  the  Mandalay,  a  Glasgow  barque  of 
9 1 2  tons,  also  with  grain,  left  Geelong  for  Queens- 
town  for  orders.  The  Cambrian  Monarch  crossed  the 
meridian  of  the  Horn  exactly  twenty-four  hours  before 
the  Mandalay ;  she  crossed  the  Line  also  twenty-four 
hours  before  the  Mandalay;  and  exactly  twenty-four 
hours  before  the  arrival  of  the  Mandalay  she  let  go 
her  anchor  in  Queenstown  Harbour,  although  neither 
vessel  had  sighted  the  other  from  the  time  of  leaving 
Geelong  until  the  time  of  arrival  at  Queenstown.  The 
same  barque,  the  Mandalay,  left  Timaru,  Now  Zealand, 
with  the  new  season's  wool,  on  the  2nd  of  February 
I  897,  in  company  with  the  Nelson,  also  with  wool.  As 
darkness  came  on  the  two  ships  lost  sight  of  each 
other,  and  neither  ship  ever  sighted  the  other  again 
until  their  arrival  in  the  river,  when  the  Mandalay 
towed  up  one  tide  and  the  Nelson  the  next. 

But  although,  to  a  large  extent,  canvas  has  been 
superseded  by  the  propeller;   and   although,  as  above 


4IO  GENERAL 

stated,  the  days  are  certainly  over  for  tlie  conveyance 
of  passengers  and  the  mails  in  sailing-ships ;  yet  there 
are,  happily,  still  many  avenues  of  trade  left  in  which 
the  sailing-ship  may  be  employed  more  profitably  than 
the  steamer,  and  numbers  of  great  four-masted,  steel- 
built  sailing-ships  still  find  ample  employment;  only 
instead  of  carrying  passengers  to  the  colonies,  they  are 
taking  cargoes  of  coal  to  Rio,  or  are  bringing  home 
their  three  or  four  thousand  tons  of  wool  from 
Australia,  or  of  nitrate  from  the  West  Coast. 

In  the  year  1 8 1 2  steam  made  its  first  appearance 
in  this  country  as  the  antagonist  of  sails,  when  the 
first  British  passenger  steamer,  the  Comet,  was  launched 
on  the  Clyde.  She  was  only  of  about  2  5  tons  burden, 
40  feet  long,  10^  feet  beam,  and  she  drew  4  feet  of 
water.  Her  engine,  which  cost  ^192,  was  of  3  horse- 
power, the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  being  1 1  inches, 
and  the  stroke  16  inches.  She  was  not,  however,  an 
entire  success,  her  speed  at  the  best  being  not  more 
than  three  miles  an  hour,  whilst  occasionally  she  would 
break  down  altogether. 

In  1 8 1 4  a  vessel  called  the  Marjorii  was  built  at 
Dumbarton,  and  was  fitted  with  a  side-lever  engine  of 
1 4  horse-poAver.  She  made  her  way  round  from  Dum- 
barton to  the  Thames,  being  taken  south  along  the 
east  coast,  having  come  through  the  Forth  and  Clyde 
Canal,  ^\'^hcn  she  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Thames 
the  ficet  were  lying  at  anchor  there,  and  she  passed 
through  the  lines  of  ships,  exciting  the  greatest  com- 
motion among  officers  and  men,  who,  none  of  them 
having  ever  seen  a  steamer  before,  took  her  for  some 
novel  description  of  fire-ship.  She  was  hailed  by  the 
nearest  man-of-war,  and  asked  what  she  was,  those 
on  board  replying  that  '  she  was  a  skarnrr,  and  from 
Scotland."  Soon  after  her  arrival  in  the  Thames  she 
commenced  ruiming  to  Margate  with  passengers.  On 
Ikt  first  voyage  to  Margate  only  ten  people  were  found 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     411 

adventurous  enough  to  trust  themselves  on  board ;  but 
before  the  end  of  the  sunnner  she  was  running  with 
a  much  larger  number  of  passengers  every  trip ;  and 
this  would  appear  to  mark  the  real  connnencomont  of 
the  passenger  steamer  in  this  country.  The  Marjory 
was  63  feet  long,  and  19  feet  beam.  She  continued 
for  many  years  to  ply  on  the  Thames,  and  was  finally 
broken  up  in  1858. 

In  1 8 1 8  the  Rob  Boy  was  built  at  Dumbarton. 
She  was  of  90  tons  burthen,  and  was  fitted  with  an 
engine  of  30  horse-power.  She  was  the  first  steamer 
to  ply  between  Glasgow  and  Belfast.  After  running  for 
some  time  on  this  service  she  was  sent  round  to  Dover, 
her  name  being  altered  to  the  Henri  Quatre,  and  she  was 
the  first  Channel  steamer  between  Dover  and  Calais. 

In  18  19  Mr.  Napier  built  the  Talbot,  of  150  tons. 
The  Talbot  was  fitted  with  a  pair  of  engines,  each  of 
30  horse-power,  and  was  the  first  steamer  to  be  placed 
on  the  Dublin  and  Holyhead  service. 

In  1822  a  still  larger  steamer,  the  James  Watt, 
was  built.  She  was  146  feet  long,  and  25  feet  beam, 
and  was  fitted  with  a  pair  of  engines,  each  of  5  o  horse- 
power. Her  speed  was  said  to  have  been  ten  miles  an 
hour.  She  was  the  first  steamer  to  be  entered  in  Lloyd's 
books.  By  1830  the  number  of  steamers  so  enterod 
had  increased  to  81,  and  the  number  of  steamers 
entered  in  Lloyd's  books  in  1832  was  exactly  1 00, 

People  now  began  to  talk  about  the  possibility  of 
crossing  the  Atlantic  by  steam,  but  many  persons  in 
this  country  denounced  the  proposal  as  absolutely  im- 
practicable, chiefly  because  it  Avas  thought  that  no 
vessel  could  carry  sufficient  coal  for  steaming  such  a 
voyage.  In  these  early  steamers  the  amount  of  coal 
consumed  was  frequently  as  much  as  9  lbs.  per  horse- 
power per  hour,  so  that  the  objection  would  seem  to 
have  been  not  altogether  an  unreasonable  one.  At 
the  present  time,  as  the  result  of  the  great  improve- 


412  GENERAL 

ments  that  have  been  effected  in  furnaces,  boilers,  and 
machinery,  the  high  speeds  of  our  ocean  steamers  are 
attained  on  a  consumption  in  many  cases  of  less  than 
a  poimd  and  a  half  of  coal  per  horse-power  per  hour. 
Dr.  Lardner,  a  well-loiown  scientist,  in  the  course  of  a 
lecture  he  delivered  at  Liverpool,  spoke  as  follows : 
"  As  to  the  project,  however,  which  has  been  lately 
announced  in  the  newspapers — that  of  crossing  the 
Atlantic  by  steam — I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that 
it  is  perfectly  chimerical,  and  that  people  might  just 
as  well  talk  about  making  a  voyage  from  New  York 
or  Liverpool  to  the  moon."  In  spite,  however,  of  Dr. 
Lardner,  in  1817,  a  Mr.  Scarlborough,  of  Savannah, 
Georgia,  United  States,  determined  to  make  the  attempt 
to  cross  from  America  to  Europe  by  steam.  He 
accordingly  purchased  a  vessel  of  300  tons  that  was 
then  building  at  New  York,  fitted  her  with  engines, 
and  named  her  the  Savannah.  On  the  19th  of  May 
1 8 1 9  she  left  the  port  of  Savannah  for  Liverpool,  which 
was  safely  reached  on  the  20th  of  June.  She  did  not, 
however,  steam  the  entire  way  across  the  Atlantic,  as 
she  ran  short  of  fuel,  so  that  the  latter  part  of  the 
passage  had  to  be  accomplished  under  canvas  only. 

In  1825  the  first  attempt  was  made  to  reach  India 
l^  steam,  and  a  small  steamer,  the  Enterprise,  122  feet 
long  and  27  feet  beam,  left  London  for  Calcutta,  which 
port  she  reached,  partly  under  steam  and  partly  under 
sail,  in  113  days.  In  1829  the  Citraroa,  an  English- 
built  steamer  of  350  tons  and  100  horse-power,  made 
several  voyages  across  the  Atlantic  between  Holland 
and  the  West  Indies ;  but  little  more  was  done  in  the 
way  of  Transatlantic  steam  navigation  until  the  year 
1837,  when  the  Sirius,  which  Avas  built  at  Leith  for 
the  Irish  trade,  was  purchased  and  was  specially 
altered  for  this  purpose.  She  was  of  703  tons,  178 
feet  in  length,  with  a  beam  of  25  feet  8  inches,  so 
that  in  her  proportions  she  was  not  very  unlike  the 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     413 

present  type  of  ocean  steamer — that  is  to  say,  she  had 
a  length  of  about  seven  beams.  The  Slriics  left  Cork 
at  ten  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  4th  of  April, 
with  ninety-four  passengers  for  New  York,  which  port 
she  safely  reached  after  a  run  of  18  days  on  the  23  rd 
of  the  same  month. 

Three  days  after  the  Sirius  left  Cork  another 
steamer,  the  Great  IVestern,  built  at  Bristol,  left  that 
port  also  for  New  York,  where  she  arrived  only  an 
hour  or  tAvo  after  the  Sirius,  having  made  the  passage 
in  14?,  days.  The  Great  Western  was  a  much  larger 
vessel  than  the  Sirius,  having  a  tonnage  of  i  340  tons. 
She  was  2 1  2  feet  long  between  perpendiculars,  3  5  feet 
4  inches  beam,  with  23  feet  depth  of  hold.  She  was 
exceedingly  strongly  built,  her  frame- timbers  being  as 
heavy  as  those  of  a  first-class  linc-of-battlo  ship,  and 
they  were  placed  so  close  together  that  they  Avere 
caulked,  both  inside  and  out,  before  the  planking  was 
put  on.  Her  engines  were  of  440  horse-poAver,  and 
the  paddle-Avheels  were  28  feet  in  diameter,  making 
from  1 2  to  I  5  revolutions  per  minute.  Her  average 
speed  during  her  first  passage  from  Bristol  to  New 
York  AA^as  208  miles  per  day,  or  at  the  rate  of  8.6 
knots  per  hour,  and  she  consumed  on  the  passage  655 
tons  of  coal.  The  Great  Western  ran  regularly  across 
the  Atlantic  from  1838  to  1843,  making  in  all  sixty- 
four  passages.  In  1847  she  was  sold  to  the  West 
India  Mail,  and  she  remained  in  their  service  for  many 
years,  being  finally  broken  up  at  Vauxhall  in  1857. 

The  same  Company  that  OAvned  the  Sirius — the 
British  and  American  Steam  Navigation  Company — 
at  once  commenced  building  tAvo  vessels  larger  than 
the  Sirius :  the  British  Queen  and  the  President.  They 
were  each  of  1863  tons,  with  a  length  of  275  feet,  37 
feet  6  inches  beam,  and  Avith  engines  of  500  liorse- 
poAver,  the  diameter  of  the  paddle-Avheels  being  30 
feet.     The  Sirius,  being  considered   too  small  for  the 


414  GENERAL 

Atlantic  trade,  was  withdrawn  from  that  service  and 
was  used  for  some  years  in  the  home  coasting  trade. 
She  was  wrecked  in  1847. 

The  British  Queen  left  Portsmouth  for  New  York 
on  the  1 2th  of  July  1839,  ^^^  made  her  first  passage 
across  in  14  days  8  hours.  She  crossed  the  Atlantic 
six  times  in  1839,  and  the  following  year  made  five 
voyages  out  and  home ;  but  financially  she  was  a 
failure,  and  ultunately  was  withdrawn  from  the  service, 
being  sold  in  1841  to  the  Belgian  Government.  Her 
sister  ship,  the  President,  made  only  three  passages. 
She  left  New  York  for  Liverpool  with  a  large  number 
of  passengers  and  a  valuable  cargo  on  the  loth  of 
March  1841  and  was  never  heard  of  again. 

The  oldest  of  the  Transatlantic  lines  of  steamers 
existing  at  the  present  time  is  the  Cunard  Line. 
The  Company  was  floated  in  1 840,  Avith  a  capital  of 
^270,000,  and  was  at  first  styled  "The  British  and 
North  American  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company," 
but  this  cumbrous  title  soon  gave  way  to  the  shorter 
and  now  well-known  designation  of  "  The  Cunard  Line." 
The  four  paddle-wheel  steamers  with  which  the  Cunard 
Line  was  first  started  were  the  Britannia,  Columbia, 
Acadia,  and  Caledonia,  ea,Gh  of  about  11  50  tons,  206 
feet  in  length,  with  engines  of  425  horse-power,  and 
all  of  them  keeping  ujj  a  imiform  speed  of  8i  knots. 
After  ten  years  had  passed,  and  the  Company  had  had 
to  fight  against  the  most  formidable  opposition,  parti- 
cularly from  the  American  shipowners,  who  had  de- 
termined to  "  run  the  Cunarders  off  the  Atlantic,"  it 
became  necessary  to  put  on  much  larger  and  much  more 
powerful  steamers,  and  the  Asia,  the  Africa,  and  other 
magnificent  ships  were  built  for  the  mail  service.  The 
Asia  and  the  Africa,  sister  ships,  were  each  of  2128 
tons.  They  were  267  feet  in  length,  40  feet  beam, 
with  engines  of  814  li()rsc-])()wer,  the  paddle-wheels 
l>cing   T,j  feet  6  inches  in  diamoter.      The  vessels  were 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     415 

entirely  built  of  oak,  planked  double,  both  outside  and 
inside,  the  intervening  space  being  filled  up  with  rock 
salt,  from  keel  to  gunwale,  to  preserve  the  timbers 
from  dry  rot. 

As  showing  what  was  being  done  by  other  great 
ocean  steam  companies,  mention  should  be  made  of" 
the  Amazon,  built  in  185  i  by  Messrs.  R.  &  H.  Green, 
at  Blackwall,  for  the  Royal  Mail  Steam- Packet  C(nn- 
pany,  for  the  service  between  Southampton  and  the 
West  Indies,  and  which  ship  was  unfortunately  burnt 
on  her  first  voyage,  with  fearful  loss  of  life.  The 
Amazon  was  the  largest  Av^ooden  merchant  ship  that 
had  been  constructed  up  to  that  time,  being  300 
feet  long,  4 1  feet  beam,  and  3  2  feet  in  depth.  She 
was  2256  tons  register,  and  was,  like  all  her  pre- 
decessors, a  paddle-wheel  steamer.  Her  engines,  con- 
structed by  Seaward  &  Capel  of  Millwall,  were  of 
800  horse-power,  the  diameter  of  the  cylinders  being 
96  inches,  and  the  stroke  9  feet.  The  paddle-wheels 
were  41  feet  in  diameter,  and  made  fourteen  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  giving  a  mean  speed  of  eleven  knots 
per  hour.  Her  coal-bunkers  on  the  main  deck  were 
constructed  to  carry  1 000  tons  of  coal ;  and  as  she 
was  reckoned  to  burn  sixty  tons  a  day  in  her  twenty- 
six  furnaces,  it  Avas  calculated  that  she  would  carry 
over  sixteen  days'  supply  if  she  Avere  going  at  full 
speed.  She  was  magnificently  fitted  up,  and  had  cost 
Avhen  ready  for  sea  rather  over  £  1 00,000. 

In  1862,  the  Scotia  Avas  built  for  the  Cunard 
Company.  She  was  of  3871  tons  and  975  horse- 
poAver;  her  length  was  367  feet,  Avith  a  beam  of  47 
feet  6  inches.  The  engines  Avorked  up  to  an  indicated 
horse-poAver  of  4200,  the  diameter  of  the  cylinders 
being  100  inches,  A\'ith  a  stroke  of  12  feet.  The 
diameter  of  the  paddle-Avheels  Avas  40  feet.  The 
Scotia,  Avhich  crossed  from  Ncav  York  to  Liverpool 
in  8  days  22  hours,  Avas  undoubtedly  the  most  magni- 


4i6  GENERAL 

ficent  ocean  steamer  of  that  date.  She  was  the  last 
paddle-wheel  steamer  built  by  the  Cunard  Company ; 
and  indeed  was  the  last  ocean  paddle-wheel  steamer 
ever  built. 

Two  most  important  revolutions  in  matters  con- 
nected with  shipping  had  by  this  time  taken  place. 
One  was  the  substitution  of  the  propeller  for  the 
paddle-wheel,  the  other  the  introduction  of  iron,  and 
more  recently  that  of  steel,  for  the  construction  of 
the  ship  itself.  As  the  necessity  for  increase  in  the 
length  and  in  the  speed  of  vessels  arose,  experi- 
ence showed  that  the  requisite  strength  of  structure 
could  not  be  efficiently  maintained  in  wooden  ships. 
The  practical  difficulties  in  the  way  of  making  the 
connections  of  the  frames  and  the  planking  strong 
enough  were  insurmountable  when  the  length  reached 
about  300  feet.  Vessels  of  this  length,  when  built 
of  wood,  soon  showed  serious  signs  of  weakness ;  but 
with  an  iron  ship  the  simple  connection  of  the  iron 
plates  and  bars  to  each  other  by  means  of  suitable 
straps  of  the  same  material,  and  by  the  use  of  rivets, 
would  obviously  so  lend  itself  to  the  construction  of 
the  iron  vessel  that  there  need  be  absolutely  no  limit 
as  regards  her  length  or  her  size.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  length  of  iron  steamers  appears  to  be  always 
steadily  increasing.  At  first  the  length  increased  very 
gradually  from  about  360  feet,  the  maxinuim  in  the 
year  i  86 1 ,  to  400  foot  in  1 870  ;  but  since  that  time  the 
progress  has  been  much  more  rapid.  At  the  present 
time  there  are  plenty  of  steamers  exceeding  500  feet 
in  length.  The  two  latest  additions  to  the  fleet  of  the 
Cunard  Line,  the  Cam/xmia  and  the  Liicanm,  are  each 
620  feet  in  length,  whilst  the  last  ship  built  for  the 
White  Star  Lino,  tlu'  Ocr.avic,  has  a  length  over  all  of 
704  feet,  or  considcrabl}^  more  than  a  furlong. 

The  great  alteration,  however,  involved  by  the 
substitution  of  iron  for  wood  in  shipbuilding  did  not 


THE    BRITISPI    MEPiCANTTLE    MARINE     417 

take  place  without  very  considerable  opposition,  and 
no  one  more  strenuously  opposed  it  than  did  the 
Government  of  the  day.  It  was  a  long  time  before 
the  authorities  of  the  Post  Office  would  give  their 
consent  to  iron  ships  being  used  instead  of  wooden 
ones  for  the  conveyance  of  the  ocean  mail ;  and  a 
still  longer  time  elapsed  before  the  Admiralty  con- 
sented to  the  change  of  material  for  the  ships  of 
the  Royal  Navy.  Wooden  paddle-wheel  steamers 
continued  to  be  used  in  the  Royal  Navy  for  many 
years  after  everybody  else  had  given  them  up ;  but 
when  at  last  it  was  found  that  paddle-wheels  for  war- 
ships must  of  necessity  be  abandoned  on  account  of 
their  liability  to  destruction  in  time  of  war ;  and 
when  it  was  found  that  it  was  perfectly  impossible  to 
construct  a  wooden  ship  sufficiently  strongly  to  resist 
the  vibration  of  the  powerful  engines  that  are  used  in 
the  larger  vessels,  then  paddle-wheels  and  wooden 
ships  had  to  disappear  together. 

Besides  its  greater  strength  there  is  another  great 
advantage  on  the  side  of  iron,  and  to  a  still  larger 
extent  in  the  case  of  steel,  and  that  is  its  greater 
lightness.  The  iron  vessel  is  far  lighter  than  the 
wooden  vessel  of  equal  size,  a  strong  iron  ship  not 
weighing  one-half  of  the  same-sized  wooden  ship. 
The  averatjc  weight  of  iron  steam-vessels  is  from  six 
to  eight  hundredweight  per  register  ton;  a  wooden 
ship  will  weigh  twenty  hundredweight,  and  often 
more.  The  lighter  ship  is,  of  course,  more  easily 
propelled  than  the  heavier  ship  ;  less  engine-power  is 
required ;  therefore,  besides  being  stronger  and  lighter, 
she  is  at  the  same  time  nuich  more  economical.  One 
advantage,  however,  undoubtedly  the  wooden  ships 
possessed  over  the  iron  ones,  and  that  Avas  that  their 
bottoms,  when  sheathed  with  metal,  never  became 
foul  so  quickly  as  the  iron  ships'  bottoms  do  from 
marine    growths.     Many    proposals    have    been    made 

V  2D 


4i8  GENERAL 

from  time  to  time  with  the  object  of  preventing 
fouhng,  for  it  is  obvious  that  serious  loss  of  speed 
results  from  much  fouling  of  the  bottom ;  but  it 
cannot  yet  be  said  that  any  of  the  paint  compositions, 
or  other  plans  to  keep  the  bottoms  of  iron  vessels 
clean,  have  been  entirely  successful,  and  this  renders 
it  necessary  to  place  every  iron  or  steel  vessel  in  dry 
dock  for  cleaning  and  painting  at  intervals  of  from 
six  to  twelve  months. 

Soon  after  the  building  of  iron  ships  was  com- 
menced, the  system  of  construction  known  as  the 
composite  system  was  adopted,  and  some  of  the  fine 
and  notable  China  tea  clippers,  among  them  the  cele- 
brated Sir  Lancelot  and  the  Thermopylae,  were  so  built. 
The  iron  framing  and  the  wood  skin  planking  admitted 
of  considerable  strength  being  attained ;  while  the 
possibility  of  sheathing  the  bottom  with  metal  to 
avoid  fouling  appeared  to  arrive  at  and  attain  the 
end  that  the  promoters  of  composite  shipbuilding  had 
in  view.  This  was  to  produce  a  vessel  that  should 
have  all  the  strength  of  an  iron  ship,  whilst  at  the 
same  time  obtaining  the  freedom  from  fouling  of  a 
wooden  one.  Experience  soon  showed,  however,  that 
the  galvanic  action  set  up  between  the  copper  or  the 
yelloAv  metal  sheathing  and  the  iron  frames  of  the 
vessel  tended  rapidly  to  deteriorate  the  ironwork,  and 
sooner  or  later  to  involve  the  destruction  of  the  ship. 
So  rapid,  indeed,  was  in  some  instances  the  wasting  of 
the  iron  frames,  that  composite  sliipbuilding  has  for 
some  time  past  been  almost  entirely  given  up  for 
merchant  ships.  As  five-and-twenty  years  ago  iron 
was  taking  the  place  of  wood  in  the  construction  of 
ships,  so  now,  at  the  close  of  the  century,  steel  is 
steadily  superseding  iron  for  the  same  purpose,  and 
at  the  present  day  for  every  iron  ship  that  is  built 
eight  steel  ships  are  constructed. 

Ahout  the  year  1890  another  very  mai'ked  change 


THE    BUTTTSH    MERCANTILE    MARLNE     419 

Tiiiinifosted  itself  in  tlic  construction  of  ocean  steam- 
ships. Up  till  that  time  every  large  ocean-going 
steamer   was   practically   more   or   less   a  sailing-ship, 

with  steam-power  added.     She  was  heavily  sparred 

Avith  three,  sometimes  four,  masts ;  with  yards,  and  all 
the  appliances  of  standing  and  running  rigging.  The 
length  of  steamers  was  constantly  increasing,  whilst  it 
was  obviously  impossible  that  the  due  proportion  be- 
tween the  length  of  the  ship  and  the  height  of  the 
masts  could  increase  in  a  like  ratio.  As  a  result,  in 
the  case  of  these  excessively  long  ships,  if  their  engines 
should  accidentally  have  broken  down,  the  amount  of 
canvas  they  could  have  spread  would  not  have  mate- 
rially helped  them  ;  indeed,  it  would  scarcely  have  given 
them  steerage  way.  The  twin  screw,  therefore,  afforded 
the  opportunity  for  discarding  masts  and  sails  alto- 
gether. In  a  ship  fitted  with  twin  screws  it  is  ex- 
tremely unlikely  that  both  propellers  and  both  sets  of 
engines  and  boilers  will  break  down  at  one  and  the. 
same  time,  and  the  ship,  although  of  course  capable 
of  less  speed,  is  yet  perfectly  safe,  and  is  still  under 
absolute  control  so  long  as  one  propeller  is  working. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  Board  of  Trade  do 
not  require  vessels  fitted  with  twin  screws  to  carry 
masts  and  canvas,  so  that  now  a  great  number  of  ocean 
steamers  have  merely  light  pole  masts  for  signalling 
purposes,  and  for  use  as  derricks  in  loading  and  dis- 
charging cargo.  This  is  a  practical  and  a  common- 
sense  arrangement,  the  vessel  being  now  treated  as — 
what  she  really  is  intended  to  be — a  vessel  propelled 
by  steam,  and  not  a  sailing-ship  fitted  with  steam- 
power. 


The  following  interesting  statistics  have  been 
kindly  supplied  specially  i'or  this  article  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  Lloyd's  Register  : — 


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THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     425 


Table  No.  III. —  Vessels  under  Construction,  exclusive  of 
Warships. 

From  the  Returns  compiled  by  Lloyd's  Register  of  ShijJinmj,  it 
ajipears  that,  excluding  war^^hips,  there  were  558  vessels  of  1,347,549 
tons  gross  under  construction  in  the  United  Kingdom  at  the  close 
of  the  quarter  ended  30th  September  1899.  'I'he  i.arliculars  of  the 
vessels  in  (piestion  are  as  follows,  similar  details  being  given  foi'  the 
corresponding  periods  in  1875  and  1898  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
parison : — 


To  man  this  very  large  number  of  Britisli  merchant 
ships  considerably  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million 
men  and  boys  are  employed,  divided  into  two  distinct 
sections :  deck  hands,  or  the  actual  mariners,  and  the 
engine-room  crews,  consisting  of  engineers  and  stokers 
or  firemen.  The  deck  hands,  or  navigating  crew, 
broadly  are  divided  into  two  classes — the  officers  and 
the  men — but  these  two  classes,  to  a  certain  extent, 
overlap  each  other,  as  the  foremast  hand  of  to-day 
may  possibly  become  an  officer  in  the  future,  whilst 
an  unsuccessful  or  an  unfortunate  officer  may  have  to 
ship  again  as  a  hand  before  the  mast.  The  men, 
again,  are  divided,  or  are  supposed  to  be  divided,  into 
two   distinct   classes — the  A.B.s  (able-bodied  seamen) 


42  6  GENERAL 

and  O.S.  (ordinary  seamen).  An  able  seaman  should 
be  able  to  "  hand,"  "  reef,"  and  "  steer  "  :  that  is  to  say, 
he  should  be  able  to  set,  take  in,  and  secure  the  sails, 
and  to  reef  them ;  and  he  should  also  be  able  to  steer. 
Besides  these  things  he  should  be  capable  of  perform- 
ing all  the  handicraft  Avork  connected  with  the  ship's 
sails,  and  with  the  standing  and  running  rigging;  he 
should  know  how  to  use  the  lead,  and  should  under- 
stand all  the  ordinary  duties  of  a  seaman. 

As  some  previous  experience  is  necessarily  required 
for  the  proper  performance  of  these  various  duties,  the 
Merchant  Shipping  Act  of  1894  enacts  that  "a  seaman 
shall  not  be  entitled  to  the  rating  of  A.B. — that  is  to 
say,  to  the  rating  of  an  able-bodied  seaman — unless  he 
has  served  at  sea  for  four  years  before  the  mast " ;  but 
this  clause  of  the  Act  has  rarely  been  acted  upon,  and 
has  now  become  practically  a  dead  letter,  with  the 
result  that  numbers  of  men  now  call  themselves  A.B.s, 
and  ship  as  such,  who  are  in  every  respect  totally  un- 
qualified. From  figures  supplied  by  the  Chamber  of 
Shipping,  the  total  number  of  seamen  afloat  in  British 
ships  is,  in  round  numbers,  235,000,  of  whom  80,000 
are,  or  are  supposed  to  be,  A.B.s ;  but  no  less  than 
27,000  of  these  A.B.s  are  foreigners,  leaving  the  total 
number  of  British  A.B.s  as  53,000,  a  very  large  pro- 
portion of  whom  are  quite  untrained,  and  are  more  or 
less  incompetent.  Of  British  A.B.s  with  four  years 
service  at  sea  there  are  at  present  certainly  not  more 
than  26,000. 

An  Ordinary  seaman  is  simply  a  mariner,  and  he 
may  be  good,  bad,  or  indifferent.  He  may  have  been 
at  sea  for  a  year  or  two,  or  he  may  have  been  afloat 
only  since  the  day  before  yesterday.  Any  one,  in  fact, 
who  takes  a  fancy  to  go  to  sea  may  call  himself  an 
"  ordinary  seaman,"  and  there  is  nothing,  so  far  as  the 
law  is  concerned,  to  prevent  any  landsman,  if  he  can 
got  a  mate  to  take  him,  turning  sailor,  and  sliipping  as 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     427 

an  "  ordinary  seaman " ;  and  then  after  a  voyage  to 
Sydney  and  back  he  may,  if  he  chooses,  "  sign  on,"  the 
Merchant  Shipping  Act  notwithstanding,  as  A.B.,  and 
so  help  to  swell  the  number  of  the  untrained  and  the 
incompetent. 

Much  has  been  said,  more  particularly  of  late,  as 
to  the  increasing  number  of  foreigners  now  employed 
on  board  British  merchant  ships,  and  various  proposals 
have  been  made  with  a  view  to  invoking  legislation  on 
the  subject,  but  it  is  extremely  unlikely  that,  in  a 
free-trade  coiuitry  such  as  England,  the  policy  of 
bolstering  up  a  declining  industry  by  measures  of  pro- 
tection will  ever  be  permitted.  Undoubtedly  this  is  a 
question  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  and  if  foreigners, 
who  arc  at  all  events  in  some  respects  quite  as  good 
sailors  as  English  seamen,  and  who  do  not  get  drunk 
to  anything  like  the  extent  that  English  seamen  do, 
are  willing  to  work  for  less  money  than  English  sea- 
men will,  small  blame  to  the  shipowners  for  taking 
them.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  nonsense  talked  and 
written  about  the  "  British  tar,"  but  the  fact  is  that  all 
the  Scandinavian  nations  produce  excellent  seamen, 
and  for  certain  kinds  of  work  very  few  English  sea- 
men can  beat  the  Lascars.  All  the  Peninsular  and 
Oriental  ships  are  manned  by  Lascars,  and  for  the 
particular  kind  of  work  required  of  them  on  board 
these  steamers  they  are  quite  as  good  as  English  sea- 
men. For  work  aloft — for  taking  in  topsails  in  a  gale 
of  wind — the  Lascar  is  not  of  much  use,  but  for  all 
deck  work  no  one  is  better,  and  he  is  always  sober  and 
always  civil.  If  British  mercantile  Jack  wants  to  keep 
his  place  on  board  British  ships  he  must  give  the 
public-house  a  very  much  wider  berth  than  he  does  at 
present,  and  he  must  take  more  than  one  leaf  out  of 
the  "  Dutchman's  "  book.  Then  we  shall  see,  and  not 
till  then,  what  we  should  all  like  to  see,  namely, 
British    ships   manned    by   British    sailors ;  but    most 


42  8  GENERAL 

assuredly    no     amount    of    protection     is     going    to 
do  it. 

A  good  deal  lias  lately  been  written  on  the  subject 
of  undermanning  in  the  British  Mercantile  Marine 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  excessive  competition  has, 
in  the  shipping  industry  as  in  all  other  industries,  so  cut 
do^\^l  profits  that  no  shipowner  can  now  afford  to  put 
even  one  man  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary  on 
board  his  ship.  Most  nautical  authorities  are,  however, 
agreed  that  British  merchant  ships  are  at  least  as  well 
manned  as  the  merchant  ships  of  other  nations,  and 
very  much  better  than  many  foreign  ships — notably 
American  and  Norwegian  vessels. 

There  is  one  particular  pomt  connected  with  the 
merchant  service  that  presents  very  serious  difficulties, 
and  about  which  opinions  are  very  much  divided,  and 
that  is  the  proper  training  of  boys  for  the  mercantile 
navy.  Previous  to  the  repeal  of  the  Navigation  Laws 
in  1849,  it  Avas  compulsory  for  every  vessel  to  carry  a 
certain  number  of  apprentices,  according  to  her  tonnage; 
and  for  every  apprentice  that  the  ship  was  deficient  a 
substantial  fine  was  imposed.  Since  the  repeal  of  the 
Navigation  Laws,  when  the  carrying  of  apprentices 
ceased  to  be  any  longer  compulsory,  the  number  of 
apprentices  has,  year  by  year,  steadily  declined.  In 
1848,  the  number  of  apprentices  enrolled  was  15,704  ; 
since  that  year  the  numbers  have  gradually  dimi- 
nished, and  since  1890  the  annual  number  has  never 
exceeded  2200.  In  the  old  time  numbers  of  the 
poorer  class  of  boys  were  apprenticed  to  the  sea 
service  by  Boards  of  Guardians,  and  others,  with 
the  ultimate  aim  and  object  of  the  boys  becoming 
A.B.s,  and  nothing  more.  At  the  present  time,  when 
a  boy  is  apprenticed  it  is  usually  with  a  view  to 
his  ultimately  becoming  an  officer;  the  poorer  lad,  on 
the  other  hand,  now  generally  shipping  as  "  boy,"  and 
after  he   has  been   a  year  or  so  at  sea  becoming  an 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     429 

ordinary  seaman,  and  after  that  an  A.B.  A  great  work 
has  been  done  in  this  matter  by  the  public  spirit  of  the 
Liverpool  shipowners  in  establishing  the  training-ship 
Indefatif/ahle,  which  in  thirty-four  years  has  prepared 
upwards  of  2300  boys  for  the  sea.  A  similar  Avork 
has  been  done  by  a  London  Poor-Law  Authority,  the 
Metropolitan  Asylums  Bt)ard,  in  their  training-ship 
Exmuuth,  moored  in  the  Thames  oft'  Grays,  and  which 
in  twenty-three  years  has  sent  no  less  than  4200  boys 
into  the  Royal  Navy  and  the  Mercantile  Marine ;  the 
bulk,  however,  going  to  the  navy,  a  certain  amount  of 
pressure  being  brought  to  bear  on  the  boys  with  that 
particular  object. 

The  present  treatment  of  apprentices,  and  appren- 
tices whose  friends  have  paid  premiums,  has  doubtless 
much  to  do  with  the  falling  off  in  the  number  under 
indentures.  In  the  majority  of  ships  where  apprentices 
are  now  carried,  they  are  carried  merely  as  a  cheap 
way  of  getting  hands,  and  no  pains  at  all  are  taken  to 
teach  the  boys  their  profession.  The  apprentice,  accord- 
ing to  the  advertisements,  is  "  to  be  berthed  apart  from 
the  crew,"  "  will  be  taught  navigation,"  and  "  have  the 
same  food  as  the  officers."  But  what  are  the  real  hard 
facts  of  the  case  ?  The  apprentices,  in  the  ordinary 
run  of  sailing-ships,  are  treated  precisely  as  the  hands 
— neither  better  nor  worse.  They  have  probably  a 
deck-house,  but  it  is  as  often  as  not  shared  with  the 
carpenter  or  the  sailmaker,  and  their  work  is  with,  and 
the  same  as,  that  of  the  men.  As  to  the  apprentice 
being  properly  taught  his  profession,  so  long  as  he 
tars  or  greases  down  with  the  rest,  or  chips  rust  in  the 
fore-peak,  or  slung  over  the  side  does  his  share  of  the 
painting,  or  properly  cleans  the  ship's  lamps  or  the 
brass-work  on  the  poop,  or  cleans  out  the  pig-sties 
and  closets,  not  one  skipper  in  twenty  ever  troubles 
his  head  about  him.  This  miserable  treatment  of 
apprentices    naturally  results   in   a   number   of   high- 


430  GENERAL 

spirited  lads,  after  one  voyage,  throwing  the  whole 
thing  up  in  disgust  and  taking  to  something  ashore ; 
while  many  of  those  who  remain  among  such  sur- 
roundings sink  down  in  the  social  scale,  and  under  the 
present  wretched  system  make  coarse,  foul-mouthed, 
bullying  men ;  the  ultimate  residuum  that  make  really 
good  seamen  and  gentlemanly  officers  being,  unfortu-  - 
nately,  but  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  entire  number 
of  those  who  originally  joined  the  service. 

There  are,  of  course,  the  two  admu'able  training- 
ships  for  lads  who  intend  to  become  officers  in  the 
Mercantile  Marine — the  Worcester,  in  the  Thames,  and 
the  Conicay,  in  the  Mersey  —  and  there  are  also  the 
two  large  and  splendid  sailing-ships  which  owe  their 
existence  in  a  great  measure  to  the  exertions  of  Lord 
Brassey — the  Hesperus  and  the  Macquarrie — each  of 
which  carries  a  number  of  young  gentlemen  as  first- 
class  cadets,  besides  taking  a  certain  number  of  appren- 
tices. But  all  these  are,  to  some  extent,  expensive, 
and  are  therefore  out  of  the  reach  of  many  parents 
who  have  several  sons  to  provide  for ;  so  that  without 
any  doubt  the  great  majority  of  boys  who  are  appren- 
ticed go  straight  to  sea,  and  too  frequently  receive  but 
a  very  indifferent  training  for  their  future  career. 

Besides  the  seamen,  we  have  in  steamships  a  totally 
distinct  class  of  men — the  engine-room  crew,  consist- 
ing (jf  the  engineers,  the  firemen  or  stokers,  and  the 
coal-trimmers,  whose  duty  it  is  to  attend  to  the  engines, 
the  boilers,  and  the  furnaces.  Until  the  year  1862, 
the  law  had  in  no  way  interfered  with,  or  controlled, 
tliis  part  of  the  ship's  company,  and  the  appointment 
and  the  position  of  the  engineers  was  entirely  depen- 
dent upon  the  will  and  pleasure  of  the  owners,  who 
were;  perfectly  free  to  employ  any  one  wliom  they 
iiiiglit  think  fit.  Now,  before  any  man  is  allowed  to  be 
entrusted  with  the  charge  of  valuable  machinery,  and 
in  a  secondary  degree  with  the  safety  of  the  ship  and 


THE    BRITISH    MERCANTILE    MARINE     431 

the  lives  of  those  on  board,  lie  must  successfully  have 
passed  a  very  thorough  Board  of  Trade  examiuation, 
and  have  obtained  the  proper  Board  of  Trade  certifi- 
cate ;  the  first  four  or  five  years  of  his  professional  life 
having  been  already  passed  ashore  in  an  engine  shop 
or  a  factory.  The  stokers  and  the  coal-trimmers, 
who  are  labourers  rather  than  mechanics,  are  for  the 
most  part  drawn  from  shore  labourers,  loafers,  and  the 
like ;  but  their  ranks  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  recruited 
from  men  of  the  seamen  class,  who  are  often  tempted 
by  the  higher  wages  that  stokers  receive,  to  forsake 
the  deck  for  the  stokehold. 

The  officers  in  the  merchant  service  are  the 
Second  mate,  the  Chief  mate,  and  the  Master.  Many 
ships,  however,  carry  a  third  mate,  and  the  great 
liners  frequently  a  fourth  and  even  a  fifth  mate ;  but 
the  law  recognises,  besides  the  Master,  only  the  Chief 
mate  and  the  Second  mate,  certificates  for  each  of 
which  grades  are  provided  by  the  Marine  Department 
of  the  Board  of  Trade.  When  a  lad  has  been  four 
years  at  sea,  whether  as  an  apprentice  or  merely  as  an 
ordinary  "boy,"  he  is  competent  to  present  himself  to 
the  examiners  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  to  pass  for 
Second  mate,  the  examination  being  a  fairly  stiff  one, 
embracing  navigation  and  seamanship,  including  the 
Rule  of  the  Road  and  other  kindred  subjects.  Having 
obtained  his  Second  mate's  certificate,  if  he  be  fortu- 
nate enough  to  obtain  employment  as  a  Second  mate, 
with  the  command  of  a  watch,  at  the  expiration  of  a 
year  he  may  go  up  for  his  Chief  mate's  certificate, 
passing  another  examination  very  similar  to  the 
previous  one,  except  that  it  is  very  considerably 
stiffer.  If  he  successfully  passes  this  examination 
and  obtains  his  certificate  he  may  take  the  position 
of  a  Chief  mate,  which  he  must  occupy  for  at  least  a 
year  before  he  can  go  up  to  pass  for  Master. 

A  Chief  mate  occupies  a  very  arduous  and  a  very 


43  2  GENERAL 

responsible  position  on  board  a  ship.  He  is  the  re- 
presentative in  everything  of  the  Master,  who  intimates 
to  him  what  he  wishes  to  have  done,  and  then  leaves 
it  to  the  Mate  to  carry  it  out.  The  Mate  engages  the 
crew,  superintends  the  stowing,  the  safe  keeping,  and 
the  delivery  of  the  cargo — seeing  that  the  tallying-out 
corresponds  with  the  tallying-in,  and  not  infrequently 
having  to  pay  for  any  deficiency — and  he  is  responsible 
for  anything  and  everything  about  the  ship,  from  a 
rope-yarn  to  an  anchor.  By  law  he  is  the  successor 
to  the  Master — that  is  to  say,  should  the  Master  die 
during  the  voyage  the  command  of  the  ship  legally 
devolves  upon  the  Chief  mate ;  and  that  he  should  be 
competent  to  fill  that  position  is  one  of  the  objects  of 
the  Board  of  Trade  examination  and  of  the  certificate. 

The  Master — by  courtesy  the  "  Captain,"  Avith  the 
sailors  universally,  whatever  his  age,  "  the  old  man " 
and  familiarly  the  "  Skipper " — is  lord  paramount, 
absolutely  an  autocrat  on  board  his  own  ship.  His 
word  is  law,  which  nobody  must  dispute  and  which 
permits  of  no  argument.  He  must  be  obeyed  in 
everything  without  a  question,  even  by  his  first  oflScer. 
He  stands  no  watch,  comes  and  goes  when  he  pleases, 
and  is  accountable  to  no  one  except  to  his  owners. 
He  has  entire  control  of  the  discipline  of  the  ship,  and 
has  to  be  informed  of  everything  of  importance  that 
takes  place  on  board  ;  and  such  things  as  descrying  a 
sail,  a  light,  or  land,  or  the  sudden  shoaling  of  the 
water,  or  signs  of  any  change  in  the  Aveathcr,  or  in  the 
direction  of  the  wind  nuist  be  instantly  reported  to  the 
Master.  He  nuist  possess  a  sufficient  knowledge  of 
what  he  is  required  to  do  by  law,  as  to  entry  and 
discharge  and  the  management  of  his  crew ;  he  must 
have  a  knowledge  of  invoices,  charter-party,  bills  of 
lading,  and,  indeed,  of  everything  ])ertaining  to  the 
business  relations  of  the  ship.  In  everything  the 
Master  represents  the  owners,  and  very  frequently  has 


THE    BRITISH    MEKCANTILIO    MARINE     433 

to  arrange  for  cargo,  to  decide  questions  of  freight,  and 
sometimes,  if  not  in  telegraphic  communication  with 
the  owners,  actually  to  settle  the  future  destination  of 
the  ship.  His  position,  therefore,  is  one  of  very  con- 
siderable responsibility.  The  Board  of  Trade  certificate 
for  Master  is,  of  course,  precisely  the  same  whether  it 
be  in  the  case  of  the  Master  of  the  ordinary  tramp  or 
of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  mail  steamer;  but  the 
social  positions  of  the  owners  of  the  certificates  are 
as  wide  asunder  as  the  poles.  Still,  whether  it  be  in 
the  polished  gentleman  who  commands  the  great  mail 
steamer  or  in  the  rough-and-ready  skipper  of  the  little 
five-hundred-ton  barque,  equally  sliall  we  find  the  skil- 
ful 2iavigator  and  the  sturdy  and  the  experienced  sea- 
man who  has  always  rendered  conspicuous  the  annals 
of  the  British  Mercantile  Marine. 


2  E 


INTER-BRITISH  TRADE  AND  ITS 
DEVELOPMENT' 

By  T.  B.  browning,  M.A. 

[Of  the  Canadian  Bar) 

The  magnitude  of  the  trade  of  the  Empire,  its  wealth 
and  adequate  defence,  are  now  commonplaces  in 
pohtics,  and  are  held,  in  almost  equal  estimation,  by 
Conservatives  and  Unionists,  by  Liberals  and  Radicals. 
I  wish  to  call  attention  to  a  phase  of  the  subject  that 
is  rising  into  importance,  and  has  already  made  its 
appearance  in  Parliament ;  that  bears  within  it,  I 
believe,  the  destiny  of  the  Empire,  and  bids  fair  to  be 
the  question  of  the  immediate  future.  You  may  call 
it  the  internal  group  trade  of  the  Empire.  While  it 
does  not  exclude  but  rather  promotes  commercial 
relations  with  foreign  peoples,  it  lays  special  stress 
upon  the  interchange  of  the  United  Kingdom  with 
the  Colonies  in  the  widest  sense  of  that  term,  of  the 
Colonies  with  each  other,  and  the  means  of  developing 
that  world-wide  commerce.  The  subject  has  many 
ramifications,  and  my  space  is  limited.  I,  therefore, 
take  three  points  only,  points  from  which,  as  from 
different  pinnacles,  one  may  obtain,  I  will  not  say  a 
detailed,  but  a  comprehensive  and,  for  practical  pur- 
poses, an  accurate  view  of  the  vast  landscape.  The 
first  is.  What  is  the  general  nature  or  character  of 
Inter-British  trade  as  it  now  exists  ?     The  second  is, 

'  'J'he  above  article,  which  appeared  in  "Sell's  Dictionary  of 
the  World's  i'ress"  for  1899,  and  is  here  reprinted  with  the  kind 
permission  of  the  proprietor  of  that  annual,  has  been  revised  for  this 
publication.     October  i,  1900. — T.  B.  13. 

434 


INTER-BRTTISH    TRADE  435 

What  is  the  economic  principle  whicli  at  once  under- 
lies and  governs  the  trade  ?  The  third  deals  with 
special  means  whereby  the  principle  may  be  applied 
to  the  common  benefit  of  all  parts  of  her  Majesty's 
dominions. 


I. — The  Character  of  Inter-British  Trade. 

I.  Tu  the  first  place,  let  us  call  to  mind  what  is 
the  relative  standing  of  the  chief  trading  connuunities 
in  the  world.  The  most  comprehensive  and  detailed 
tables  I  find  on  this  question  are  those  of  Herr 
Sundbiirg,  Actuary  of  the  Government  Statistical 
Department  at  Stockholm.  They  cover  the  years 
from  1 8  7 1  to  1895,  are  divided  into  periods  of  five 
years  each,  and  give  the  annual  average  of  each  prin- 
cipal country  for  each  period.  Assuming  the  test  of 
value  to  be  sufficient  for  our  purposes,  and  restrictmg 
ourselves  to  the  last  quinquennial  period,  the  commerce 
of  nations  stands  as  follows  :  ^ — • 

(i)  Great  Britain  and  Ireland        .         .         . /589,i66,666 

(2)  British  Colonies  and  Dependencies  .         .     404,249,999 

(3)  Germany 3S'^^777^777 

(4)  United  States  of  America         .         .         .     347.333.333 

(5)  France 296,833,333 

The  trade  of  this  country  last  year,  import  and 
export,  according  to  the  revised  figures  just  published, 
was  i^8  14,570,241  against  ^^764, 5  58,690  in  1898. 
The  returns  for  the  British  Possessions  in  the  year 
last-named  was  i^5  5  5,647,369,'-  inchiding  gold  and 
silver  bullion,  which  is  a  product  of  the  Colonies  in 
the  same  sense  as  tin,  copper,  wheat  are  products.  In 
a  very  interesting  article  in  the  Cu/itemporari/  Review 
for   March    1900,    Mr.    Michael    G.    Mulhall    reviews 

'  Compare  tables  5  and  8  in  Mr.  Consul  Constable's  Report  {1S9S), 
No.  467. 

-  Stat.  Abstract  (Colonies),  1898,  pp.  IjO-Sj- 


436  GENERAL 

the  commerce  of  this  country  during  the  last  forty 
years.  Great  Britain's  trade  with  the  principal 
communities  for  the  decade  1 889-1 898,  was  as 
follows : — 

British  Colonies  as  a  whole         .         .         ./ 1,788, 000,000 

The  United  States 1,399,000,000 

Germany 824,000,000 

France 682,000,000 

Her  interchange  with  the  Colonies  for  the  forty 
years  was  in  millions  ^6043  5  ^^^d.  with  the  United 
States,  ^4192.  Again,  during  the  decade  1889-98, 
England  bought  from  the  United  States  goods  to  the 
value  of  ;^  1,0 1 9,000,000,  and  sold  to  that  country  goods 
to  the  value  of  i^3  80,000,000  only.  During  the  same 
period  her  purchases  from  the  Colonies  reached 
;^949,ooo,ooo,  and  her  sales  to  ;^8  3 9,000,000.  The 
total  trade,  therefore,  with  which  we  propose  to  deal 
is,  from  an  international  point  of  view,  the  largest  in 
the  world;  it  is  likewise  the  most  important  trade 
of  this  country. 

Now,  what  are  the  trade-factors  of  the  Empire  ? 
Here  we  may  leave  out  of  view  a  number  of  islands 
which,  as  they  are  situated  in  diti'erent  parts  of  the 
world,  scarcely  lend  themselves  to  geographical  classifi- 
cation, and,  as  they  are  small  in  area  and  population, 
have  no  determining  influence  on  the  question  of  trade 
policy,  no  matter  how  important  they  may  be  for  pur- 
poses of  administration  or  how  necessary  they  may  be 
for  offence  and  defence  in  modern  conditions.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  must  add  certain  territories  which  are, 
strictly  speaking,  outside  the  Empire,  because  the 
administration  of  their  trade  is  intimately  bound  up 
with  our  trade-policy.  With  these  qualifications,  the 
factors  of  Inter-British  trade  resolve  themselves  into 
geographical  groups  whose  area  and  i)opulation  are  as 
follows : — 


1 


TNTER-BIUTTSIT    TRADE 


437 


Groups. 

(i)  European 

(2)  North  American 

(3)  Australasian    . 

(4)  West  Indian    . 

(5)  South  African 


Area  in 
Square 
Miles. 

121,511 
3>498,383 
3.173.198 

128,626 

707,449 


Ai-ea.     Popuhition. 
{(i)  Transvaal      .         .  \  113,642      769,000) 
(b)  Orange  Free  State  \    48,326      207,503  )         '" 

(6)  Indian  Empire  Group     ....  964,993 
{a)  Native  States 595, 167 

(7)  Straits  Settlements  ....  86,993 

(8)  Red  Sea  and  Mediterranean  .         .         .  85,182 
[it)  Egypt 394,240 

(9)  East  and  Central  Africa  Protectorates  .       1,500,000 

(10)  West  Africa  Protectorates      .         .         .  750,000 

(11)  West  Africa  Colonies      ....  58,771 


PojiulutioM 

at  last 

Census  (1891). 

38,037,029 
5,031,173 
4,793,533 
1,666,933 

1,530,687 


976,503 

221, 172,952 

66,050,479 

4,378,767 

434,474 

9,000,000 

28,000,000 
1,647,000 


Total 


12,225,481     382,724,530 


I  have  compiled  the  table  chiefly  from  the  data 
given  in  the  Statistical  Abstract  (1897).  For  the 
reasons  given,  they  differ  somewhat  from  the  results 
set  forth  in  the  "  Statesman's  Year-Book "  for  1 900, 
which  (p.  xxvi)  says  that  the  Empire,  considered  in 
itself,  contains  11,726,217  square  miles,  nearly  one- 
fifth  of  the  land-superficies  of  the  earth,  and  that  its 
population  amounts  to  385,782,293,  a  little  more  than 
one-fourth  of  the  human  family  according  to  Wagner 
and  Supan's  estimate. 

A  word  in  further  explanation  of  the  classification. 
Group  ( I )  includes  the  British  Islands,  Man,  the  Chan- 
nel Islands,  &c.  In  the  second,  I  rank  Canada  and 
Newfoundland.  The  seven  Australian  Colonies  and 
Tasmania,  now  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  Fiji,  and  the  British  part  of  New  Guinea 
fall  under  the  third.  The  fourth  contains  Hon- 
duras, Guiana,  Jamaica,  with  twenty  principal  islands. 
Cape  Colony  and  its  dependencies,  Natal  and  Rho- 
desia,  make    up    the    fifth.      In    the    Straits    Settle- 


438  GENERAL 

ments  Group  I  have  included,  besides  the  place 
of  that  name,  Ceylon,  which  some  might  rank  Avith 
the  Indian  Empire,  Labuan,  North  Borneo,  and  Hong 
Kong  without  its  recent  accession,  the  population  of 
which  is  not  yet  definitely  ascertained.  Under  the 
eighth  group  fall  the  Somali  Protectorate,  Aden, 
Cyprus,  Malta,  and  Gibraltar,  Numbers  (9)  and  (10) 
are  under  the  administration  for  the  most  part  of 
companies,  and  call  for  no  special  remark  in  this 
place.  Again,  I  have  ranked  the  Orange  Free  State 
and  the  Transvaal  in  group  (5).  They  were  incorpo- 
rated into  the  Empire  this  year  by  Lord  Roberts' 
Proclamations.  Notwithstanding  recent  troubles,  the 
same  commercial  forces  which  brought  together 
the  fiercely  contending  provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada  in  1841  Avill,  no  doubt,  in  time  amalga- 
mate all  South  Africa  for  the  purposes  of  traffic, 
if  not  otherwise.  I  have  reckoned  the  Feudatory 
States  of  India  with  the  British  Provinces.  These 
States  are  not  British  property,  but  are  subject  to 
British  over-rule.  Their  status  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  States  formerly  subject  to  the  Roman  Empire 
along  the  Mediterranean  and  in  the  East.  Any  way 
their  external  trade  is  in  British  hands.  A  some- 
Avhat  formidable  objection  may  be  taken  to  the  in- 
clusion of  Egypt  in  the  Red  Sea  group.  England's 
rights  in,  to,  or  over  Egypt  may  bo  difiicult  of  de- 
finition in  accepted  terms  of  international  law,  but 
her  rights  in  respect  of  trade  and  finance  are  definite, 
effective,  and  predominant.  That  is  sufficient  for  us. 
So  long  as  the  control  continues,  the  land  of  the 
Pharaohs  may  not  unfairly  be  considered  to  I'all  Avithin 
the  scope  of  the  Empire  in  its  commercial  aspect.  Is 
the  valley  of  the  Yang-tzc-Kiang  to  lie  tlic  next 
accession  ? 

2.  The  same  abstract  enables  us  to  iind  what  arc 
the   exports  and    imports   of  each   group,   tliat,  is,  tli<; 


I 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE 


439 


amount  and  volume  of  its  foreign  trade.  In  the 
following:  table  I  set  in  one  column  the  returns  of 
foreign  trade  for  several  independent  nations  in  terms 
of  total  value  for  1896,  and,  in  the  other,  the  returns 
for  the  same  year  for  several  British  Empire  groups. 
I  omit  group  ( i )  because  its  trade  is  beyond  compari- 
son. I  also  exclude  Egypt  and  its  group  with  East 
and  West  Africa,  because  they  are  secondary  and  not 
primary  factors  within  the  Empire,  With  these  de- 
ductions we  may  get  a  fair  general  average.  The  first 
part  is  taken  from  pages  29  and  34  of  the  Statistical 
Abstract  for  the  Colonies,  i  898  ;  the  second  from  the 
"Statesman's  Year-Book"  for  i  899  : — 

I.  British  Empire  Groups.  Tot.il  Trade. 


Indian  Empire  Group 

.    /i98,22i,5i3 

Australasian  Group     .... 

130,097,124 

North  American  Group 

51,729,536 

Straits  Settlements  Grou^J  . 

56,011,170 

South  African  Group  .... 

39,872,223 

"West  Indian  Group     .... 

14,930,883 

Total  . 

.     ^490,862,449 

Average 

^81,810,408 

II.  Foreign  States. 

Total  Trade. 

1896. 

Russian  Empire 

.    ;{:2i3,ii9,375 

Italy 

112,409,876 

Spain 

68,731,085 

Japan           

57,503,446 

Denmark     ...... 

37,100,000 

Sweden 

36,429,141 

Norway 

21,554,980 

Portugal 

15,710,000 

Total    . 

•     ^^562,557,903 

Averaire 

•       i;7o,3i9,73S 

The  return  for  the  Indian  Empire  is  exceeded  only  by 
nations  of  the  first  class,  as  the  German  Empire,  France, 
the  United  States.     The  trade  of  the  West  Indies,  the 


440  GENERAL 

smallest  in  the  list,  exceeds  that  of  Greece,  Bulgaria, 
Roumania,  not  to  mention  South  American  Republics. 
The  average  commerce  of  a  British  Empire  group  on 
these  figures  amounts  to  ^8  1,810,408,  and  the  average 
for  the  independent  States  enumerated  is  ^^^70,319,738. 
These  States  were  selected  because  they  were  consi- 
dered to  be  fairly  representative.  On  the  whole,  there- 
fore, one  may  say,  Avithout  straining  the  argument, 
that  the  trade  of  the  several  British  Empire  groups 
attains  international  proportions,  and  compares  favour- 
ably with  that  of  kingdoms  of  the  second  rank. 

3.  Now  take  a  globe  or  Mercator's  projection  and 
follow  the  groups  around  the  world ;  from  England  to 
the  West  Indies,  from  the  West  Indies  to  Canada,  from 
Canada  along  the  All-Britannic  cable  line  to  Austral- 
asia, from  Australasia  to  the  Straits  Settlements,  thence 
to  India  from  Bombay,  avoiding  Egypt  and  the  Pro- 
tectorates, to  South  Africa,  and  so  homewards.  You 
have  completed  the  circuit  of  the  globe.  You  have 
found  the  groups  separated  from  each  other  by  vast 
distances,  varying  from  2000  to  6000  miles.  You 
liave  found  the  groups  themselves  to  be  relatively 
compact,  notwithstanding  their  vast  areas.  Now 
these  are  the  natural  or  geographical  conditions  of  an 
international  trade :  compactness  within  the  group, 
distance  between  group  and  group.  Professor  Bast- 
able,  speaking  on  this  subject  from  tlie  standpoint  of 
this  country,  uses  these  words  in  his  latest  volume : 
"  The  trade  between  England  and  her  Colonics  is  un- 
doubtedly international."  ^  The  argument  is,  if  possible, 
still  stronger  for  us  because  we  take  the  standpoint, 
not  of  a  group,  no  matter  how  great  it  be,  but  of  the 
whole  Empire.  Our  query,  then,  what  is  the  character 
of  Inter-British  trade,  might  seem  to  be  answered. 
It  is  an  international  trade. 

4.  But,  the  Professor  adds,  "in  all  cases,  the  political 

'  "'J'lic  Theory  of  Inleriiation.nl  'J'radc,"  p.  ii,  note. 


TNTER-BRITTSH    TRADE  441 

element  is,  to  some  extent,  to  be  found."  In  numy 
cases  the  political  element  determines  the  situation. 
What  is  its  operation  on  our  Empire  Groups  ?  It  re- 
inforces their  natural  or  geographical  condition.  They 
are,  or  are  becoming,  political  units.  The  United 
Kingdom  is  one  since  1801,  and  her  solidarity  for 
purposes  of  trade  is  growing  greater  year  by  year. 
India  is  practically  one.  British  North  America  is 
federated  except  as  to  Newfoundland,  and  her  accession 
to  the  Dominion  is  a  question  of  terms  and  is  imminent, 
Australia  has  completed  her  scheme  of  union  which 
the  necessities  of  the  situation  Avill,  no  doubt,  extend 
to  the  Australasian  group.  The  Straits  Settlements  is 
already  the  centre  of  a  considerable  Confederacy  whose 
circumference  is  rapidly  widening.  The  progress  of 
events  is  less  marked  in  the  West  Indies.  There  are 
many  causes  for  it,  and  many  remedies  are  suggested 
for  her  almost  desperate  condition.  I  do  not  wish  to 
enter  into  the  discussion,  but  this  point  is  clear ;  her 
many  and  highly-salaried  governors,  her  isolated  and 
costly  administrations,  her  high  and  mutually  hostile 
tariffs  must  go,  and  some  substantial  measure  of  con- 
solidation be  introduced.  The  same  forces  Avhich 
unified  Canada,  which  are  now  unifying  Australia,  in 
great  measure  trade-forces,  are  at  work,  and  may  be 
expected  to  produce  the  same  result  in  the  West 
Indies.  South  Africa,  also,  has  many  difficulties  to 
overcome,  but  she  is  cognisant  of  them,  and  her 
Customs-Union  is  an  earnest  of  better  things.  Leaving 
aside  the  Red  Sea  Group  and  the  Protectorates  and 
viewing  the  subject  broadly,  one  may  say  then  that  the 
movement  of  the  Empire  is  towards  aggregation  in 
laro[e  masses  around  local  centres  far  removed  one 
from  another.  In  other  words,  the  political  element  is 
intensifying  the  international  or  group-character  of 
inter-British  trade. 

The  consideration  of  mass  is  almost  as  important 


442  GENERAL 

in  politics  and  commerce  as  it  is  in  physics.  It  is  hard 
for  us  to  realise  the  actual  magnitude  and  significance 
of  the  local  masses  of  the  Empire,  whether  for  trade 
or  otherwise.  I  have  already  given  some  figures,  but 
figures  when  they  mount  to  millions  and  become 
familiar  cease  to  carry  with  them  any  definite  con- 
ception. By  way  of  illustration,  let  me  refer  to  the 
current  discussions  on  Imperial  Federation.  The  most 
advanced  of  these  that  have  come  to  my  notice  picture 
a  combination  of  the  Mother  Country  and  the  Colonies 
somewhat  on  the  scale  of  the  United  States.  The 
political  union  of  70,000,000  of  people,  a  territorial 
jurisdiction  that  embraces  3,000,000  of  square  miles, 
is  no  doubt  a  vast  achievement  and  is  worthily  held 
up  as  an  object  for  emulation.     The  advantage  which 

commerce  gains    under    these    conditions    is    obvious. 

o 

But,  in  the  purview  of  the  British  Empire,  the  forma- 
tion of  a  United  States,  or  a  series  of  them,  does  not 
approach  the  dignity  of  an  Imperial  question ;  it  is 
distinctly  local.  When  Canada  excogitated  her  plan 
of  union  in  1867,  she  had  as  large  a  population  as  the 
United  States  possessed  at  the  adoption  of  the  present 
constitution.  The  Dominion  has  to  -  day  a  vaster 
territory  than  her  neighbour.  The  merits  or  demerits 
of  her  federation-scheme  was,  and  was  deemed  to  be, 
a  question  primarily  for  her.  No  British  statesman 
interfered  with  Australia  in  the  construction  of  her 
Commonwealth  Avhich  will  be  the  United  States  of  the 
far  south.  Only  one  clause  of  the  bill  Avas  questioned 
— the  appeal  clause.  Here  the  interests  of  the  Empire 
as  a  whole  were  directly  affected.  The  negotiations 
resulted  in  a  compromise  so  far  forth  as  concerns  the 
Commonwealth  Act.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  Kingdom  has  undertaken  to 
establish  one  appeal  tribunal  for  all  parts  of  the 
Empire.  In  like  manner  South  Africa  and  the  West 
hidi(3S  liavo  their  destinies  in  their  own  hands.      The 


I 


INTER-BRTTTSH    TRADE  443 

same  remark  m.iy  apply  to  the  Straits  Settlcineiits  and 
to  India,  though  in  a  lesser  degree.  When  Imperial 
Federation,  then,  arises  or  demands  treatment,  the 
problem  will  not  be  how  to  organise  a  United  States 
from  primary  elements,  but  a  problem  on  a  far  vaster 
scale,  how  to  weld  into  one  dominion  in  addition  to  the 
United  Kingdom  and  India,  five  or  six,  it  may  be  seven 
or  eififht,  combinations  of  the  rank  of  the  American 
Union.  It  will  be  a  new  problem  in  the  world's 
history,  a  new  problem  in  the  world  of  commerce.  To 
put  the  same  view  in  another  form,  it  will  be  the  con- 
solidation, as  it  were,  of  so  many  Europes,  in  each  of 
which  first-class  Powers  as  Germany,  France,  Austria, 
in  respect  of  territory,  will  rank  as  provinces.  The 
foundations  for  that  time  are  being  laid,  and  laid 
solidly.  I  have  no  doubt  the  fitting  superstructure  will 
arise  in  due  course,  for  the  British  peoples  are  seldom 
wanting  to  the  exigencies  of  their  day.  But,  meantime, 
its  precursor  is  trade,  and  our  views  of  inter-British 
trade  should  expand  to  meet  the  conditions  of  the 
present  and  immediate  future. 

5 .  The  practice  and  policy  of  England  in  regard  to 
Colonial  tariffs  are  in  accord  with  the  geographical, 
international,  or,  as  I  would  prefer  to  say,  the  group- 
situation.  The  self-governing  Colonies  are  naturally 
the  test  on  this  phase  of  the  question.  Canada  and 
Australia,  Natal  and  Newfoundland,  Cape  Colony  and 
New  Zealand  may  regulate  their  taxation  according 
to  their  own  exigencies  or  their  own  views  of  these 
exigencies.  If,  with  the  physiocrats  of  the  last 
century,  they  think  that  a  single  tax  is  the  least 
oppressive  mode  of  raising  revenue,  and  that  land  is 
the  most  proper  object  to  be  charged,  they  may  make 
the  experiment.  They  may  assess  income  or  leave  it 
free.  If  they  approve  indirect  taxation,  as  the  majority 
of  Colonies  do,  they  may  distribute  their  customs-duties 
over  many  articles,  or  limit  them  to  narcotics.     If  they 


444  GENERAL 

are  inclined  to  protection,  incidental  or  explicit,  the 
Empire  is  wider  than  the  Cobden  Club  and  is  broad 
enough  to  give  them  scope.  At  the  same  time,  it 
casts  the  responsibilities  for  their  actions  on  their  o^vn 
shoulders.  The  situation  is  international  in  the  econo- 
mic sense  of  the  word,  and  the  communities  to  which  it 
applies  have  under  their  control  seven  million  square  miles 
of  territory,  and  are  that  portion  of  the  Empire  which 
is  developing  most  rapidly  in  wealth  and  population. 

But  it  may  be  asked,  Does  the  same  rule  apply  to 
Protectorates,  Crown  Colonies,  and  India  ?  The  essen- 
tial portion  of  it  does.  This  country  does  not  impose 
her  tariff  on  her  dominions  oversea ;  neither  does  she 
exact  tribute  or  revenue  from  them.  The  recent  cotton 
duties  are  a  case  in  point  in  regard  to  India.  They 
called  forth  a  protest  from  Lancashire  on  the  score 
of  protection,  but  the  late  Government  declined  to 
intervene,  and  the  late  Parliament  approved  their 
abstinence.  The  present  Government  disallowed  the 
particular  duties,  but  consented  to  others  in  substitu- 
tion, which,  whether  they  be  better  or  Avorsc,  are  no 
less  protectionist.  If  one  may  gather  the  sense  of  the 
community  from  the  declarations  of  the  press,  the 
general  attitude  of  this  country  towards  India  might, 
I  think,  be  expressed  somewhat  thus :  that  while  broad 
questions  of  policy  are  properly  subject  to  Parlia- 
mentary discretion,  the  experienced  men,  in  whose 
hands  is  the  actual  administration  of  the  great  de- 
pendency, are  in  the  best  position  to  judge  both  as 
to  the  necessity  and  expediency  of  particular  imposts. 
Crown  Colonies  are  a  late  innovation  in  this  Empire, 
and,  1  fear,  an  unhappy  one.  Some  other  machinery 
of  government  is  eagerly  desired,  but  meantime  the 
scale  of  duties  they  impose  is  very  greatly  in  the  hands 
of  local  authorities.  Their  action  may  be  supervised, 
but  is  supervised  not  for  the  benefit  of  this  country, 
but    to   meet  more   effectually   the   real   or   supposed 


INTER-BRTTTSTI    TRADE  445 

requirements  of  the  locality.  If  the  Protectorates  and 
Spheres  of  Influence  be  taken  into  accoimt,  we  should 
remember  that  trade  with  them  differs,  and,  from  the 
circumstances  of  the  case,  can  differ  in  nothing  from 
foreign  trade  with  peoples  in  a  low  stage  of  civilisation, 
whether  protected  or  unprotected.  It  is  necessarily  in- 
ternational in  the  broadest  sense  in  which  that  term 
is  used  in  political  economy. 

6.  Imperial  practice  goes  still  further.  The  general 
position  is  that  a  treaty  with  a  foreign  nation  which  is 
to  bind  a  Colony  shall  be  ratified  by  the  colonial  legis- 
lature. It  has  been  exemplified  time  and  again  in  the 
case  of  Canada  and  Newfoundland,  and  was  officially 
declared  by  Lord  Palmerston  in  1857.  Such  self- 
governing  Colonies  as  may  desire  to  enjoy  the  benefits 
of  a  treaty  of  commerce  which  her  Majesty  may  con- 
clude with  any  Power,  may  enjoy  them  by  making 
application  through  the  proper  channels.  An  enabling 
clause  for  the  purpose  is  now  generally  included  in 
treaties,  as  may  be  seen  in  any  late  volume  of  Hertslet's 
"  Collection."  Again,  the  power  of  a  Colony  to  make 
commercial  arrangements  with  outside  nations,  and 
the  procedure  in  that  case  to  be  adopted,  engaged  the 
attention  of  the  Colonial  Conference  at  Ottawa  in 
1894.  Lord  Ripon  devotes  a  circular  letter  to  the 
subject,  which  is  dated  28th  of  June  1895.  By  de- 
spatch of  the  same  date  he  deals  with  the  ques- 
tion of  differential  trade  -  arrangements  as  between 
Colony  and  Colony.  Now  that  all  legislative  restric- 
tions are  removed  by  the  Australian  Colonies  Duties 
Act,  1895  (58  and  59  Victoria,  c.  3),  the  two  sub- 
jects fall  under  the  same  rules.  The  identity  of  the 
rules  is  itself  a  striking  evidence  that  the  Empire 
admits  of  internationalism  within  its  own  bounds. 
Generally  expressed,  these  rules  are :  "  The  strict 
observance  of  existing  international  obligations,  and 
the    preservation  of   the   unity  of  the  Empire."     To 


446  GENERAL 

come  to  particulars,  a  Colony  may,  with  the  assent  of 
her  Majesty's  Government  and  by  means  of  her  Am- 
bassador, with  such  assistance  as  may  be  thought 
needful,  make  trade-arrangements  with  a  foreign  State. 
Thus  Canada  concluded  a  treaty  with  France  two  or 
three  years  ago,  and  a  Commission  is  appointed  to 
deal  with  outstanding  questions  as  between  the  United 
States  and  British  North  America.  But  no  arrangement 
so  made  shall  be  allowed  to  go  into  operation  which 
discriminates  against  the  Mother  Country  or  another 
Colony,  or  injuriously  affects  "  the  most  favoured 
nation  "  standing  of  other  States  within  the  negotiating 
Colony.  The  Blaine-Bond  Treaty  between  the  United 
States  and  Newfoundland  was  disallowed  on  this  ground 
at  the  instance  of  Canada.  Similarly,  tAvo  or  more 
Colonies  may  conclude  commercial  agreements,  but 
they  may  not  thereby  prejudice  the  Mother  Country, 
another  Colony,  or  a  foreign  Power.  In  each  case, 
and  as  the  ultimate  test  of  sovereignty,  the  Imperial 
Government  reserves  to  itself  the  right  of  determining 
what  is  discrimination,  what  is  prejudice.  There  is  no 
substantial  disagreement  on  the  question  between  Lord 
Ripon  and  the  Ottawa  Conference,  between  parties  in 
the  Colonies  or  parties  in  this  country.  His  lordship's 
statement  of  principles  is  accepted,  and  marks  an  epoch 
in  the  evolution  of  the  Empire,  for  two  reasons :  be- 
cause (i)  it  sums  up  the  Empire's  policy  and  practice 
in  regard  to  (a)  the  Colonial  groups,  (h)  their  mutual 
trade-relations,  and  (c)  their  relations  to  external  govern- 
ments ;  and  (2)  because  it  sets  forth  explicitly  the 
principles  that  now  govern  and  are  to  obtain  in  future. 
These  principles  consecrate  on  one  side  the  essential 
clement  of  inter-British  union,  and,  by  giving  free  play 
to  local  activities  upon  the  other,  they  preserve  the 
international  character  of  inter-British  trade. 

7.   Some  persons  fear  to  look  on  the  commercial 
system  of  the  Empire  as  it  exists,  because  they  think  it 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE  447 

tends  to  dissolution ;  and  ihoy  date  the  process  of 
disinte{i:ration  from  tlio  inconiin<^  of  free  trade  in 
England.  They  forget  two  facts.  They  forget  that 
the  Empire  in  its  vastness,  the  Empire  as  it  was 
exhibited  at  the  Jubilee,  is  essentially  modern.  One 
may  almost  say  that  it  is  the  creation  of  her  Majesty's 
reign.  It  matters  little  from  what  year  you  count  the 
introduction  of  free  trade,  from  the  end  of  the  second 
Peel  adndnistration  or  from  its  beginning,  from  1 846 
or  1842  ;  or  whether,  as  seems  to  me  more  proper,  yovi 
go  back  to  1823,  the  date  when  Huskisson  first 
assumed  the  post  of  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
upon  whose  fiscal  measures  Sir  H.  Parnell  founded  his 
"  Financial  Reform "  and,  with  wonderful  prescience, 
forecast  the  course  of  English  trade-policy ;  which- 
ever time  you  prefer,  it  was  the  day  of  small  things  in 
so  far  as  concerns  the  Colonies.  India  was  under  the 
rule  of  a  company.  The  West  Indies  were  isolated 
and  unimportant.  Canada  was  little  noted  except  for 
the  disturbances  she  created  or  might  at  any  moment 
occasion.  The  Cape  was  a  conquest  with  a  small 
Dutch  population,  a  half-way  station  to  India,  and 
Australasia  was  valued  (ihicHy  as  a  convict  compound. 
Statesmen  of  both  parties  talked  familiarly  of  "  those 
wretched  Colonies,"  and  asked  each  other  how  they 
might  get  rid  of  them.  In  none  were  the  native 
energies  called  forth  or  the  native  resources  developed. 
The  era  of  colonial  activity,  of  colonial  expansion,  had 
not  begun,  or  was  only  beginning.  The  necessities 
which  call  so  loudly  to-day  for  some  scheme  of  union, 
some  plan  of  welding  the  Empire  together,  of  consoli- 
dating the  British  peoples  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  had 
not  arisen. 

They  forget  likewise  that  England's  colonial  policy 
is  not  a  thing  of  late  date.  While  its  modern  develop- 
ments have  been  great  and  rapid,  its  main  features  are 
of  venerable  aspect.      You  can  draw  no  sharp  division- 


448  GENERAL 

line  between  her  practice  of  to-day  and  laer  practice  in 
former  years.  The  proper  contrast  lies,  not  as  between 
two  systems  of  English  policy,  but  between  the  system 
of  France  on  the  one  hand  and  the  system  of  England 
on  the  other,  as  well  in  the  centuries  that  are  past  as 
in  the  century  that  now  is. 

A  French  Colony  may  to-day  have  municipalities, 
communes,  syndics,  and  may  enjoy  representation  in 
the  National  Assemblies ;  but  otherwise  its  government 
follows  the  model  formulated  by  Louis  XIV.  Thus 
the  cost  of  military  services  within  the  Colony  is 
defrayed  by  the  Metropolis.  Canada  bore  the  expenses 
of  her  North-West  Expedition  just  as  the  old  Thirteen 
Colonies  were  accustomed  to  wage  war  with  the 
Abenikis  and  pay  its  cost.  South  Africa  and  New 
Zealand  have  knowledge  of  the  same  responsibility 
and  of  the  privileges  it  confers.  The  civil  officers  of 
a  French  Colony  are  appointed  by  the  central  govern- 
ment, and  its  administration  is  moulded  on  the  formula 
and  proceeds  according  to  the  same  rules  as  the  internal 
administration  of  the  Republic.  The  present  Colonial 
Minister  might  copy  verhatim  Colbert's  directions  to 
Frontenac  and  send  them  to  Algeria :  "  Vous  devez 
toujours  suivre  dans  la  gouvernement  et  la  conduite 
de  ce  pays-la  les  formes  qui  se  pratiquent  ici."  ^  The 
budget  of  the  Colony  is  framed  in  France,  and  is 
governed  by  the  policy  and  exigencies  of  the  Mother 
Country.  The  Governor-General  of  Algeria  and  his 
Council  have  no  more  power  over  the  local  tariff  than 
had  the  Governor-General  of  New  France  and  his 
Council.  Even  local  taxation  for  purposes  civil  is 
sn])plcmcnted  by  metropolitan  subsidies.  Warburton 
t<'lls  us  that  the  revenue  of  Now  France,  immediately 
before  the  last  war  (1756),  amounted  to  i^  14,000,  and 
that  its  siip))lcmeut  from  t-lie  King's  treasm-y,  apart 
from  military  expenditure,  was  .^4670.      The  Colonial 

'  Lareau,  "  Hist,  du  Droit  Can.,"  tome  i.  p.  233. 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE  449 

civil  list  imposes  on  France  to-day  a  burden  of 
89,768,262  francs.^  You  do  not  find  anything  similar 
to  this  in  English  history.  The  author  of  "  Les 
Colonies  Francjaises  Illustrees "  sums  up  the  general 
situation  when,  speaking  of  Algeria,  he  says  :  "  Elle  ne 
constituc  pas  un  etat  ayant  son  gouvernement  propre, 
son  autonomic ;  elle  fait  partie  de  la  France  "  (p.  60). 
Even  M.  Rameau,  who  is  thoroughly  cognisant  of  the 
failure  of  French  colonisation  in  the  past,  cannot  raise 
himself  out  of  the  trammels  of  officialism  and  depen- 
dence. In  his  book,  on  "  France  aux  Colonies,"  he 
undertakes  to  susrgest  means  of  better  success,  but  his 
suggestions  are  confined  to  increased  home  expenditure, 
State  deportation  of  settlers,  trade-preferences.  From 
end  to  end  of  the  French  method  there  is  no  provision 
for  local  eftbrt,  local  initiative,  self-help,  self-taxation, 
self-development  ;  the  Colony  must  adapt  itself  not  to 
its  immediate  environment,  but  to  the  conditions  of  the 
Mother  Country.  To-day,  as  two  centuries  ago,  "  il 
n'est  pas  meme  permis  aux  habitans  des  Colonies  de 
s'im poser  eux  memes  "  ;  "  c'est  un  droit  de  souverainete 
que  Sa  Majeste  ne  communique  a  personne."""  A 
century  and  a  half  of  preferences  and  subsidies  on  the 
one  side,  and  administrative  uniformity  on  the  other, 
left  French  Canada  with  a  population  of  only  65,000 
persons,  including  enfranchised  Indians,  in  i  763,  a  date 
when  the  old  Thirteen  Colonics  of  England  numbered 
nearly  3,000,000  of  inhabitants.  Under  substantially 
the  same  form  of  rule,  the  French  Colonies  of  to-day- — 
Algeria,  Reunion,  Guadaloupe,  Martinique,  Tonquin,  &c. 
— have  less  than  900,000  French  subjects,  including 
naturalised  citizens,  but  excluding  indigenous  tribes.^ 
European  subjects  in  the  present  English  Colonies 
number  i  2,000,000  in  round  numbers. 

^  "Statesman's  Year-Book,"  1900,  p.  525. 
-  Lareau,  "  Hist,  du  Droit  Can.,"  tome  i.  p.  358. 
•*  "Statesman's  Year-Book,"  1S95,  p.  511. 
V  2  F 


4  50  GENERAL 

The  American  Revolution  is  sometimes  said  to  cut 
English  colonial  history  into  two  periods.  But  in 
neither  period  did  any  Colony  form  a  part  of  the 
"  realm  of  England  "  in  the  legal  acceptation  of  that 
term — a  part  of  the  state,  to  use  the  French  word. 
The  early  charters  may  appear  defective  in  constitu- 
tional machinery,  but  express  provisions  were  made  for 
their  liberal  interpretation,  and  the  legal  officers  of  the 
day  knew  well  that,  while  the  patents  were  granted  for 
the  regulation  of  trading  companies,  they  were  applied 
to  the  government  of  peoples.  The  new  settlements 
moulded,  and  were  allowed  to  mould,  themselves  after 
the  British  pattern,  and  soon  there  appeared  a  single 
executive,  a  legislature  of  two  branches,  and  a  judiciary 
more  or  less  independent.  Rhode  Island  was  so  well 
content  with  the  powers  of  her  charter  that  she  retained 
it  unaltered  till  the  middle  of  this  century.  You  may 
say  that  a  limitation  was  placed  on  their  legislative 
authority,  that  their  laws  should  not  be  contrary  to 
those  of  England ;  but  how  was  this  a  restraint  upon 
the  colonists  ?  Their  chief  desire  was  to  realise  the 
laws  of  England— the  privileges  of  Englishmen — in 
their  new  homes.  Again  it  is  said  that  the  Navigation 
Acts  extended  to  them,  and  other  taxing  laws  were 
passed  by  Parliament  "  for  the  regulation  of  their  com- 
merce "  ;  what  then  ?  Hutchinson  tells  us  that  there 
were  no  custom-houses  in  America  for  the  collection  of 
taxes  till  near  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.^  Grenville, 
Avriting  at  so  late  a  date  as  1765,  says  that  the  average 
amount  of  taxes  collected  yearly  "  in  all  the  Colonies 
for  thirty  years  is  not  above  ;!fi900,  Avliilc  it  costs 
£y6oo  per  annum  to  collect  them." "  The  burden  on 
the  Colonies  was  not  great.  Their  principal  products, 
as  fish  and  sugar,  "  were  unenumerated,"  that  is,  did 
not  come   within  the  scope  of  the  Navigation  Laws. 

'  "  Hist,  of  Mass.  Bay,"  ii.  p.  447. 

'  Regulations  with  Respect  to  the  Colonies  Considered,  p.  57. 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE  451 

Walpolo  added  timber  to  the  list  of  exemptions,  so 
that  their  commerce  in  staples  was  practically  free. 
While  the  bulk  of  their  transactions  was  necessarily 
with  England,  and  did  not  offend  against  any  restric- 
tion, they  enlarged  their  foreign  trade  in  "  enumerated  " 
articles  by  extensive  smuggling,  and  Avere  enabled  to 
do  so  the  more  easily  because  that  branch  of  their 
business  was  carried  on  by  means  of  British  capital. 
Professor  Seeley  says  "  the  Colonial  system  hampered 
them  but  slightly."  One  might  go  further  and  say 
that  in  many  respects  it  was  a  gain,  and  was  so  esteemed 
in  New  England  ;  for  it  kept  the  Dutch  out  of  their 
carrying-trade,  and  fostei'ed  their  shipbuilding  at  no 
cost  to  them.  But  the  chief  point  for  us  is  this,  that 
their  power  of  self-taxation  for  internal  administration 
and  defence,  for  roads,  bridges,  and  improvements  gene- 
rally, was  unrestrained,  and  became  effective  by  increase 
of  their  wealth,  their  population,  and  their  necessities. 
9.  The  great  schism  in  the  Empire  which  began  so 
unfortunately  and  ended  so  disastrously  in  the  last 
century  does  not  particularly  concern  us  here,  because 
the  present  Colonies  come  under  the  "  Supremacy  Act " 
of  1778  (18  Geo.  III.  c.  12).  Its  provisions  are  three. 
There  is  first  a  declaration  that  "  the  King  and  Parlia- 
ment of  Great  Britain  will  not  impose  any  duty,  tax,  or 
assessment  whatever,  payable  in  any  part  of  his 
Majesty's  Colonies."  This  general  position  is  limited 
by  an  exception :  "  except  only  such  duties  as  it  may 
be  deemed  expedient  to  impose  for  the  regulation  of 
commerce."  It  thus  puts  an  end  to  the  archaic  con- 
ception of  tribute,  of  a  "  revenue  from  America  trans- 
ported hither,"  for  the  payment  of  Imperial  liabilities 
without  consent.  The  exception  itself  is  limited  by  a 
proviso :  "  the  net  proceeds  of  such  duties  to  be 
always  paid  and  applied  to  and  for  the  use  of  the 
Colony,  Province,  or  Plantation  in  which  the  same 
shall  bo  respectively  levied,  in  such  manner  as  other 


452  GENERAL 

duties,  collected  by  the  authority  of  the  respective 
General  Courts  or  General  Assemblies  of  such  Colonies, 
Provinces,  or  Plantations  are  ordinarily  paid  and 
applied."  The  proceeds  of  Imperial  taxes  raised  in  a 
Colony  are  thus  subject  to  the  disposition  of  the  local 
authorities.  These  terms  'were  acceptable  to  the 
"  Loyalists,"  became  the  rule  of  government  in  British 
North  America,  and,  had  they  been  formulated  earlier, 
might  have  averted  the  great  disaster.  They  are  not 
a  new  law,  but  a  declaration  of  ancient  practice. 

The  declaratory  Act  did  not  restrict  the  self-taxing 
powers  of  the  colonists.  Thus,  it  was  quite  competent 
for  Upper  Canada,  established  under  Pitt's  Statute 
(1790),  to  raise  the  greater  portion  of  her  revenue  by 
direct  taxation.  She  Avas  within  her  right  also  in 
levying  duties  on  imports,  no  matter  from  Avhat  part  of 
the  world  the  goods  may  have  come,  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  fact  that  they  had  already  paid  toll  in  New 
York.  The  Upper  Province  had  no  sea-board.  The 
operation  of  Lnperial  taxation  may  be  seen  more 
broadly  in  the  history  of  Lower  Canada,  for  there  the 
Crown  and  Parliament  entered  on  the  full  prerogatives 
of  the  French  king.  Till  1791  all  imposts  were 
Imperial ;  but,  in  inaugurating  the  new  system  the 
Governor,  by  instruction,  informed  the  Assembly  that 
the  existing  Acts  would  be  repealed  as  soon  as  the 
House  made  suitable  provision  for  their  displacement. 
Ill  fact,  they  were  not  repealed  till  the  Union  (1841), 
because  the  taxes  imposed  were  ecpiitablc  in  the  (dr- 
cumstances  of  the  country  ;  but  they  were  added  to. 
Thus  the  net  revenue  for  1 791  92  was  ;^5ooo,  of 
which  100  per  cent,  was  Imperial.  By  181  i,  the 
income  had  risen  to  ^^70,000,  and  the  Imperial  share 
hud  fallen  to  18  per  cent.  It  fell  to  8  per  cent,  in 
1835,  when  the  total  taxation  realised  ;^i  50,000.^ 

'  Clirisiic's  Hist,  of  L.  C,  vol.   i.  i)p.    152,  164,  186,   212;  vol.  iv. 
p.  141. 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE  453 

Again,  special  taxation  under  Act  of  this  country 
even  "  for  the  regulation  of  commerce "  was  quickly 
found  to  be  a  crude  mode  of  procedure,  and  fell  to  the 
ground.  A  more  effectual  means  to  obtain  the  same 
end  was  discovered  in  the  revising  or  disallowance 
power  over  colonial  tariffs,  which  continued  in  more 
or  less  active  use  till  after  the  union  of  the  Canadas. 
As  Great  Britain  sought  no  revenue  from  her  Colonies, 
as  the  proceeds  of  taxation  must  be  applied  to  local 
purposes,  as  the  interests  of  trade  did  not  depend  on 
the  Imperial  taxing  or  revising  power  so  much  as  on 
provincial  good  government,  the  framing  of  the  tariff 
and  the  disposition  of  the  revenues  passed  into  colonial 
hands  subject  to  a  "  permanent  civil  list."  Again,  as 
the  list  was  not  for  Imperial  purposes,  but  for  the 
support  of  the  Canadian  administration,  chiefly  the 
judges,  it  was  properly  remitted  to  Canadian  hands 
under  responsible  government.  The  "  civil  list  "  portion 
of  the  Union  Act  was  repealed  in  1846.  By  1849  the 
older  theories  of  commerce  and  its  regulation  lost  their 
hold  on  this  country,  the  Navigation  Laws  and  differ- 
ential arrangements  were  abolished,  and  colonial  com- 
merce opened  to  the  world  on  equal  terms.  Thus  the 
power  of  taxation,  originating  in  necessity  in  the 
English  colonies  and  at  first  indefinite,  developed  step 
by  step,  covering  first  internal  taxation,  then  external 
taxation,  until  of  late  years  it  has  become  exclusive 
and  extends  to  all  matters  that  affect  commerce.  The 
system  of  local  trade-autonomy,  established  in  its 
present  form  first  in  Canada,  has  become  the  natural 
incident  of  a  self-governing  Colony,  and  may  now  be 
said  to  be  the  rule  of  the  whole  P^mpire. 

I  o.  The  broad  distinction, then,  between  the  colonial 
policy  of  France  and  the  colonial  policy  of  England  is 
this.  France  has  administered,  and  now  administers, 
her  Colonies  as  part  of  her  home  territory.  She  ignores, 
or  endeavours  to  override,  geographical  conditions  as 


454 


GENERAL 


well  as  economical  theory ;  hers  is  a  fight  at  once 
against  nature  and  science.  England,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  use  the  broad  language  of  Viscount  Bury, 
"  always  treated  her  Colonies  on  the  same  footing  as 
foreign  nations ;  "  ^  in  other  words,  she  has  recognised 
their  international  standing,  implicitly  if  not  explicitly. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  in  this  connection  that  the  era  of 
colonial  prosperity  and  expansion  dates,  not  from  the 
incoming  of  Free  Trade  in  England,  but  from  1859, 
when  the  policy  I  speak  of  was  elaborated  on  both 
sides,  in  the  Mother  Country  and  the  Colonies,  It 
has  since  been  marked  with  almost  uninterrupted  pro- 
gress except,  probably,  in  Newfoundland  and  the  West 
Indies,^  whose  conditions  are  peculiar,  Mr,  Mulhall 
draws  up  a  minute  of  those  portions  of  the  outside 
Empire  where  the  international  principle  is  most  de- 
veloped— Canada,  Australasia,  South  Africa — and,  treat- 
ing them  as  groups  as  we  do,  contrasts  their  position 
in  1873  with  their  position  in  1893.  I  take  from  his 
interesting  article  the  following  table : — 


Australasia     . 

Population, 

1873. 

1,925,000 

Population, 
1893. 

4,070,000 

Canada   .         .         .         . 
South  Africa  . 

3,830,000 
870,000 

5,030,000 
2,210,000 

Totals 

.    ^6,625,000 

;^  I  1,310,000 

Australasia 

Itevenue,  1873. 
.  ^12,400,000 

Itevenue,  1893. 
/  2  8, 2  00,000 

Canada  .        .         .        . 
South  Africa  . 

4,300,000 
2,300,000 

7,800,000 
6,100,000 

Totals 


^19,000,000       ^42,100,000 


He  adds :  "  In   the  hurly-burly  of  British  politics,  the 
incessant  cares  and  occupations  of  everyday  life,  we 

'  "  Exodus  of  Western  Nations,"  ii.,  c.  2,  p.  32. 

'■'  Sec  the  following  papers  in  the  "British  Empire  Series,"  vol.  iii. : 
"The  West  Indies:  General,"  by  Mrs.  Ernest  llart ;  and  "  Newfound- 
land," by  the  writer  of  this  paper. 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE  455 

are  apt  to  lose  sight  of  the  inarvellous  advauceirient  of 
these  three  great  Colonial  settlements,  which  are  in 
some  respects  without  parallel  in  ancient  or  modern 
times."  ^ 


II. — The  Economic  Principle  and  Degrees  of 
Internationalism. 

II .  I  have  dwelt  thus  far  on  the  international 
character  of  Inter-British  trade,  not  merely  because 
the  fact  is  frequently  lost  sight  of,  not  merely  because 
internationalism  is  the  most  prominent  feature  of 
Imperial  commerce,  but  because  it  determines  what 
principle  applies  to  the  present  situation,  and  provides 
us  with  a  key  to  the  practical  problem,  how  may  the 
trade  be  best  developed  ?  Inasmuch  as  the  trade- 
problem  of  the  Empire  is  a  problem  of  international 
trade,  the  theory  to  be  applied  to  its  solution  is  neces- 
sarily the  international  trade-theory.  I  purposely 
abstain  here  from  a  verification  of  the  doctrine  in  a 
theoretical  point  of  view ;  the  argument  would  lead  us 
far  afield.  What  I  have  to  say  upon  it  will  appear  in 
another  form  in  the  course  of  the  article.  For  a  full 
discussion  of  the  questions  involved,  I  must  refer  to 
the  labours  of  Mill  and  Cairnes,  Edgeworth  and  Bast- 
able.  Probably  Part  III.  of  Professor  Cairncs's 
"  Political  Economy "  contains  the  most  popular  ex- 
position of  the  doctrine.  Professor  Bastable  discusses 
its  latest  phases  in  his  "  Theory  of  International 
Trade."  Those  who  desire  mathematical  proof  with 
cases  and  deductions  scientifically  rigorous,  would  do 
well  to  consult  Professor  Edgeworth's  articles  on  the 
subject  in  the  Economic  Journal  for  1894,  pages  35, 
424,  606. 

The  general  principle  is  well  established.       Inter- 

1   "Our   Colonial   Empire,"   Conieinporary  Ucview  (1895).   '^'o'-  Ixvii. 
p.  632. 


456  GENERAL 

national  trade  is  an  extended  barter,  tlie  oldest  form  of 
traffic,  and  its  basis  is,  in  its  main  aspect,  the  anti- 
thesis of  the  basis  of  a  domestic  or  strictly  national 
trade.  Thus,  where  Article  A  is  produced  in  a  civil 
community,  a  nation  unified,  a  group  consolidated,  the 
exchange  value  of  that  article  depends  directly  on  the 
cost  at  which  it  is,  or  may  be,  produced  in  the  domestic 
market.  Whatever  A  be,  whether  coal  or  iron,  boots 
or  shoes,  hats  or  caps,  that  statement  holds  good  so 
long  as  the  domestic  market  furnishes  it.  Inter- 
national trade  is  much  more  complicated.  Here  you 
must  consider  three  points :  ( i )  The  cost  of  producing 
A  in  the  home  market — its  exchange  being  represented 
by  two  terms ;  (2)  the  cost  of  producing  in  the  foreign 
market  the  articles  for  which  A  is  exchanged — the 
whole  transaction  being  represented  by  at  least  four 
terms;  (3)  the  difference  of  these  respective  costs. 
To  use  Mr.  Cairnes's  nomenclature,  domestic  or  national 
trade  is  governed  by  "  cost  of  production,"  foreign  or 
international  trade  by  "  comparative  cost  of  produc- 
tion." The  ultimate  profit  of  tlie  latter  consists  in  the 
respective  local  advantages,  original  or  acquired,  in 
the  accumulated  residts  of  these  advantages,  and  in 
the  enlarged  means  given  for  their  utilisation.  On 
the  other  hand,  its  development  may  depend  on  the 
removal  of  hindrances  or  the  facilitating  of  intercourse. 
The  difference  between  the  two  becomes  practical  when 
you  ask  the  question,  Hoav  shall  Inter-British  trade  be 
furthered  ?  Shall  it  be  on  a  national  basis  or  on  a 
basis  international,  in  the  view  of  economic  science  ? — 
along  the  lines  of  French  policy,  or  upon  those  which 
we  have  seen  to  be  English  ? 

1 2.  Trade-internationalism  may  admit  of  degrees. 
Tims,  when  the  organisation  of  society  was  tribal,  the 
trading  unit  was  the  blood  -  comnmnity,  and  tribe 
dealt  with  tribe  in  an  international  way.  When  many 
tribes  were  brought  under  the  power  of  (jnc  ruler,  trade 


INTER-BRITISH   TRADE  457 

did  not  cease  at  once  to  be  international.  In  Western 
Europe,  long  after  the  tribal  rc'ginie  had  given  way  to 
the  territorial,  we  find  the  internal  traffic  of  a  political 
unit  retain  many  characteristics  of  internationalism, 
for  it  was  under  the  control  of  local  sections,  or 
in  the  hands  of  exclusive  guilds  and  brotherhoods. 
If  we  set  aside  for  the  moment  the  relations 
which  this  country  and  each  of  the  colonial  groups 
have  with  foreign  peoples,  there  remain  three  phases  of 
internationalism  in  the  trade-problem  of  the  Empire: — 

( 1 )  The  relations  of  the  British  Islands  with  each 
of  the  colonial  groups ; 

(2)  The  relations  of  the  colonial  groups  one  to 
another ; 

(3)  The  relations  of  each  group  to  its  parts.  We 
shall  take  these  in  their  reverse  order,  and  consider 
them  in  connection  with  certain  proposals  which  have 
been  made  to  extend  the  commerce  of  the  Empire, 
Customs-Union  and  differential  tariffs. 

13.  Tke  Group  in  its  Internal  Relations. — I  have 
spoken  of  the  groups  as  quasi-nations  on  the  European 
model.  That  conception  is  correct  for  these  groups 
where  the  process  of  unification  is  complete,  as  the 
United  Kingdom,  India,  Canada.  It  applies  also, 
though  with  less  strictness,  to  the  Straits  Settlements, 
but  it  does  not  apply  to  Australasia.  Until  the  Queen 
proclaims  the  Commonwealth,  New  South  Wales, 
Victoria,  Queensland,  each  of  the  Australian  Colonies, 
with  New  Zealand,  is  an  independent  nation  with 
tariff-control.  The  type,  not  for  the  whole  group,  but 
for  each  of  its  parts,  is,  therefore,  France  or  Germany, 
Austria  or  Spain.  In  this  light  we  may  obtain  a 
clearer  view  of  their  present  position,  and  form  a  fairer 
conception  of  the  work  accomplished  by  Canada  in 
1867,  and  Austraha  in  1900 — the  conversion  of  many 
•nationalities  into  one,  or  the  change  of  a  multiple 
international  trade  into  a  unified  trade  of  an  Empire 


458  GENERAL 

group.  The  same  problem  confronts  the  West  Indies. 
The  conditions  caUing  for  union  are  practically  similar 
in  the  several  cases.  On  the  one  hand,  you  have  rela- 
tive contiguity  of  parts,  approximately  equal  stages  of 
development,  together  with  the  ties  of  common  blood, 
common  language,  common  constitutional  methods, 
common  allegiance ;  in  a  word,  common  sovereignty. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  the  waste  of  money  and 
energy,  the  dissipation  of  force,  involved  in  maintaining 
autonomous  units  that  have  outlived  their  usefulness 
in  many  ways,  and  have  developed  necessities  which 
they  are  unable  to  cope  with.  Our  cousins  under  the 
Southern  Cross  would  fain  have  set  up  a  Customs- 
Union  to  meet  the  new  situation.  But  when  the 
statutory  obstacles  to  that  experiment  were  removed, 
and  the  question  was  grappled  with  closely,  they  found, 
as  Canada  found  in  1867,  as  the  United  States  found 
in  1789,  that  the  trade  difficulty  was  the  essential 
one ;  that,  unless  it  were  overcome,  a  customs  arrange- 
ment was  not  possible,  and,  if  it  were  surmounted,  none 
was  needful,  for  a  federal  union  followed  as  of  course. 

The  situation  in  South  Africa  is  somewhat  different, 
and,  prior  to  the  present  war,  suggested  a  Customs- 
Union.  Her  States  were  contiguous,  their  stages  of  de- 
velopment were  approximately  equal,  the  wastefulness 
of  hostile  tariffs  was  mutually  felt,  but  the  element 
of  common  sovereignty  was  lacking.  Her  position, 
tlierefore,  resembled  in  many  respects  the  position 
of  German  European  States  at  the  date  of  their  zoll- 
verein.  As  enlightenment  spread,  population  increased 
and  interests  intertwined,  it  was  expected  that  the 
feeble  Customs-Union  then  existing  might  extend  not 
to  two  or  three  but  to  all  States,  not  to  specified 
articles  but  to  a  common  tariff".  It  might  in  time 
have  been  the  precursor  of  federation  as  in  Germany. 
Its  innnediate  advantages  for  those  States  which  were 
wise  enough  to  adopt  it  were:  (i)  economy  in  niistonis 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE  459 

machinery ;  (2)  tariff  imilbrmity  over  an  extended 
area;  (3)  facility  of  intercourse  within  the  group; 
(4)  slight  obstruction  to  intercourse  beyond  the 
group- area. 

14.  We  may  anticipate  the  course  of  events,  and 
assume  that  Australia,  South  Africa,  and  the  West 
Indies  are  unified.  What  will  the  change  be  ?  Canada 
affords  the  most  recent  example.  Tariff-walls,  which 
numbered  seven  in  British  North  America,  are  done 
away,  free  intercourse  is  established  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific,  and,  instead  of  many  frontiers,  there 
is  one  which  is  coincident  with  the  boundaries  of  the 
entire  group.  Within  the  new  area,  as  within  the  old 
areas,  the  questions  native  to  a  national  trade  will  arise 
and  be  debated.  We  may  witness  a  revival  of  the 
conti'oversy  between  free- trade  and  protection ;  to  what 
extent,  if  at  all,  internal  production  may  be  stimulated 
by  external  taxation  ?  Comnmnities  that  under  either 
system  raise  a  large  proportion  of  their  revenues  from 
imports  cannot  escape  the  question.  Given  an  un- 
developed country  suitable  for  manufactures,  given 
power  to  adapt  a  tariff'  to  local  conditions,  given  a 
sufficient  market,  the  fostering  of  industries  by  way 
of  protection  seems  to  follow  naturally.  The  first 
systematic  experiment  of  the  kind  on  a  large  scale 
within  the  Colonial  Empire  was  Sir  Leonard  Tillcy's 
tariff"  of  1879.  To  what  extent  protection  should 
go,  how  it  should  be  applied,  when  it  should  begin, 
when  it  should  cease,  are  points  to  be  determined 
by  the  exigencies  of  the  locality.  Direct  means  of 
developing  the  resources  of  the  whole  group  will 
likewise  arise  for  consideration ;  the  facilitating  of 
transit  and  comnmnication  by  railway  and  canal,  by 
telegraph  and  telephone,  by  cable  and  steamboats; 
utilisation  of  water- powers  and  mineral  resources ; 
the  fostering  of  agricultural  interests  by  way  of 
experimental  farms  and  industrial  processes  by  tech- 


46o  GENERAL 

nical  schools.  Mining  and  fisheries  call  alike  for 
scientific  treatment.  In  applied  chemistry  the  groups 
have  much  to  learn  from  Germany;  in  farm- enterprise 
from  Denmark ;  but,  with  their  greater  opportunities 
will,  no  doubt,  in  time  better  the  instruction.  The 
Canada  cheese  industry  affords  a  concrete  example 
of  what  I  mean.  A  few  years  since  there  was 
no  such  trade.  It  began  with  co-operation  among 
farmers  in  the  western  province,  and  was  encouraged 
first  by  agricultural  societies,  then  by  the  Ontario 
Government,  and  lately  by  the  Dominion.  The  theory 
and  practice  of  cheese-making  is  now  an  important 
branch  of  the  Agricultural  Department's  activity,  and 
is  sedulously  taught  from  Halifax  to  Vancouver.  Its 
export  last  year  to  this  country  was  valued  at 
17,000,000  dollars.  This  growth  indicates  the  chief 
sphere  of  internal  group-action  in  relation  to  Inter- 
British  trade,  the  utilisation  of  local  advantages.  Sub- 
sidiary to  it,  Ave  may  place  the  records  of  industry,  the 
statistics,  not  of  import  and  export  merely,  but  of 
production  on  the  one  side  and  consumption  on  the 
other. 

During  the  last  decade  the  sphere  of  government 
has  perceptibly  widened  among  the  peoples  of  Greater 
Britain.  Under  the  Southern  Cross  as  in  the  Western 
Hemisphere,  quick  transit  in  all  its  forms,  cold  storage 
on  land  and  by  water,  artesian  wells  and  draining,  im- 
provement of  live-stock  and  vegetable  products,  preser- 
vati(m  of  forests,  development  of  mines  and  fisheries, 
utilisation  of  water-powers,  technical  instruction  in 
staple  industries  have  become  the  policies  of  adminis- 
trations. Prominent  among  these  is  the  recently 
pronudgated  programme  of  Mr.  Ross,  Premier  of 
Ontario,  whose  new  departure,  bold  in  conception 
and  well  calculated  to  effect  its  end,  deserves  success. 
It  is  a  gauge  which  tells  how  far  Liberal  statesmen 
have  moved  from  the  position  so  common  thirty  years 


TNTRR-BRITTSH    TRADE  461 

ago  of  laisser  /aire  or  State-abstinence  in   nuiLters  of 
industry. 

Recent  investigations  by  Mr.  George  Johnson  show 
the  growth  of  the  internal  group-trade  of  Canada. 
It  rose  from  four  million  dollars  in  1867  to  eighty 
millions  in  1889,  and  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
millions  in  1899. 

15.  Relations  of  the  Groups  outside  Great  Britain. — 
This  is  the  smallest  Inter- British  trade.  The  total  inter- 
change of  the  Colonies  with  each  other  amounted  in 
1893  to  ^100,461,289,  and  in  1896  to  ;^84,2  2  7,400.' 
Their  commerce  with  foreign  countries  was  £1 1 8,276,097 
in  1893,  and  ;ifi  1 2,996,266  in  1896."  India  and 
Canada  give  the  largest  returns  for  foreign  trade.  In 
order  to  ascertain  the  intercourse  of  group  with  group, 
of  Australasia  with  Canada,  of  Canada  with  the  West 
Indies,  Australasia  with  South  Africa,  we  must  deduct 
from  the  Colonial  Office  figures  the  inter-colonial  trade 
of  the  several  Australasian  States  with  each  other.  The 
same  remark  applies  to  the  West  Indies  and  South 
Africa.  Reduced  by  these  abatements,  the  inter- 
group  trade  outside  the  British  Islands  becomes  incon- 
siderable when  you  consider  the  vast  extent  of  the 
Empire,  its  mineral  resources,  its  varied  soils,  climates, 
and  productions ;  the  number  of  inhabitants,  their 
needs,  energies,  available  capital  and  acquired  skill. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  opens  a  wide,  if  not  the  widest 
sphere  for  trade-expansion  within  the  British  dominions. 
Its  possibilities  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Ottawa 
Conference  in  1894  in  connection  with  the  project  of 
direct  steam  and  telegraphic  communication  on  the 
Pacific.  The  appendix  to  Lord  Jersey's  Report  (pp. 
18-20)  contains  a  list  of  products  in  which  a  profitable 
exchange  may  take  place  between  Canada  and  Aus- 
tralia.     The    establishment    of    the   Huddart   line    of 

1  Colonial  GfTice  List,  1895,  p.  18  ;  1S98,  p.  20. 
■^  Ibid. 


462  GENERAL 

steamers  was  the  first  important  step  taken  to  develop 
the  commerce ;  the  nomination  of  a  Canadian  com- 
mercial asfent  in  Australia  and  the  West  Indies  was 
the  second.  This  year  the  Dominion  offers  differential 
tariff-rates  to  the  West  Indies  in  the  hope  of  securing 
her  import  of  breadstuff's.  For  every  dollar's  worth  of 
provisions  the  West  Indies  took  from  Canada  last  year 
she  drew  thirty- five  dollars'  worth  from  the  United 
States.  An  improved  steam-service  following  the  vote 
of  the  Imperial  Parliament  is  a  desideratum. 

1 6.  Though  this  inter-group  commerce  is  yet  in  its 
early  days,  it  is  important  to  us  because  it  brings  into 
view  a  second  phase  of  internationalism,  a  phase  which 
is  one  remove  further  than  a  Customs-Union  from  a 
national  status,  and  one  remove  nearer  to  internation- 
alism pure  and  simple.  Its  means  are  commercial 
treaty  and  reciprocal  legislation.  A  Customs-Union 
cannot  obtain,  because  the  groups  are  not  contiguous. 
They  are  far  apart.  But  while  distance  deprives  them 
of  the  benefit  of  a  single  tariff,  they  may  obtain  advan- 
tages by  way  of  bargain,  sanctioned  by  treaty  or  mutual 
legislation,  because  their  economic  development  is 
fairly  uniform.  A  commercial  treaty  is  among  the 
possibilities  for  Canada  and  the  West  Indies,  Canada 
and  Australasia,  Australasia  and  South  Africa  as  for 
Canada  and  France,  Canada  and  the  United  States. 
Lord  Ripon's  despatch  of  June  1895,  sets  down  the 
conditions  on  which  it  may  be  framed. 

I  7.  Rdations  of  Great  Britain  to  the  other  Groups. — 
This  is  the  cliicf  Iiiipcrial  trade.  The  Colonies  pro- 
duce for  the  Mother  Country  and  in  turn  consume  her 
products.  Mr.  A.  W.  Flux  gives  a  general  view  of 
colonial  imports  in  triennial  periods,  and  the  percen- 
tage of  these  that,  falls  to  this  country  and  to  foreign 
nations.^ 

'  "Coiiiinercial    fciupremacy  of  Great   liritain,"  Economic   Journal, 
vol.  iv.  p.  590. 


TNTER-BRTTTSTT    TRADE 


4^3 


Imports  of  British  Possessions  (Millions). 


1879-81. 

1884-86. 

1889-91. 

India 

444 

55-1 

62.8 

Straits  Settlements     . 

14.2 

18.2 

22.7 

Ceylon        ..... 

4-3 

3-7 

4.6 

Mauritius  ..... 

2.0 

2.1 

1-9 

Australia 

25.7 

36.1 

36.9 

New  Zealand      .... 

7-2> 

7-3 

6.4 

Cape  of  Good  Hope    . 

8.5 

4-7 

9.8 

Other  South  African  Colonies    . 

3-3 

2.8 

5-7 

Canada       ..... 

16.9 

21.5 

23.0 

Other  American  Colonies  . 

Total     . 

8.2 

8.1 

1 59.6 

8.1 

'     134-8 

181. 9 

Percentage  of  Great  Britain 

60.1 

60.0 

58.7 

„              Germany 

0.5 

I.O 

1.8 

„              France 

1.2 

1-3 

1-3 

„               United  States 

12.2 

15-5 

17.7 

The  following  table,  which  I  tak(^  from  Sir  George 
Baden-Powell's  article  on  "  Imperial  Free  Trade,"  ^  and 
is  drawn  up  in  fourteen-year  intervals,  represents  not 
unfairly  the  comparative  export  of  the  Colonies  to 
Great  Britain  and  foreign  countries : — 


Exports  (00.000  Omitted). 


To  Countries  within 
the  Emjiire. 

To  For 

eign  Countries. 

From  . 

1867 

1881 

1895 

1867 

i88i 

1895  ' 

India  . 

44.0 

50.5 

63.6 

9-5 

30.2 

57-3 

Tropical  Colonies 

1.3.6 

15-5 

15.9 

4-9 

1 1.0 

18.4 

Australasia . 

30.2 

46.1 

56.6 

0.4 

2.4 

7-4 

South  Africa 

2.6 

9.0 

16.S 

0.1 

0.2 

0.6 

North  America    . 

9.6 

12.9 

14.4 

10.2 

9.5 

10.3 

'Potals      . 

1 00.0 

134.0 

167.0 

25.1 

53-3 

94.0 

'  Fortnightly  Review,  1897,  p.  944. 


464  GENERAL 

On  these  figures,  it  may  be  said  that  the  rise  from 
100  to  167  indicates  an  increase  of  only  67  per  cent, 
in  Inter-British  trade,  while  the  rise  from  25  to  94 
shows  an  ausfmentation  in  the  colonial  foreign  trade  of 
266  per  cent.  Well,  what  then?  Is  not  a  foreign 
trade  profitable  to  the  Colonies,  and  therefore  to  the 
Empire  ?  Is  not  its  increase  to  be  sought  as  Tvell  as 
increase  in  the  foreign  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom  ? 
The  roundabout  trade  is  often  the  most  lucrative  form 
of  traffic.  Again,  the  rise  in  export  is  most  marked  in 
India  and  the  tropical  Colonies,  and  in  these  cases,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  table,  is  not  an  instance  of  dis- 
placement. The  excess  of  British  over  foreign  pur- 
chases was,  in  the  first  year  selected,  iJ^7 5,000,000,  in 
the  second  ^81,000,000,  in  the  third  ;^77,ooo,ooo, 
and  is  therefore  fairly  constant.  To  look  to  percent- 
ages only  may  lead  one  far  astray  in  commercial 
aifau's ;  for  the  addition  of  ^1,000,000  to  a  trade  of 
;^ 1, 000,000  is  a  rise  of  100  per  cent.,  while  the  addi- 
tion of  ^2,000,000,  or  double  the  amoimt,  to  a  trade 
of  ;!^ 1 0,000,000  gives  an  increase  merely  of  20  per 
cent.  On  the  whole,  whether  you  consider  imports  or 
exports,  colonial  interchange  with  the  Mother  Country 
is  the  most  important  branch  of  Inter-British  trade. 
It  is  an  international  trade  pure  and  simple.  There  is 
no  contiguity  between  the  trading  parts ;  there  is  no 
equality  in  their  conditions ;  their  dovolopnients  are  as 
diverse  as  their  situations.  It  lacks,  therefore,  the 
elements  which  arc  commonly  associated  with  a  Cus- 
toms-Union and  a  conuncrcial  treaty.  'I'his  will 
appear  more  clearly  when  we  examine  certain 
propositions  that  have  been  put  forward  for  its 
pi-umotion. 

I  8.  The  first  is  that  the  Colonies  should  assimilate 
their  tariffs  and  trade-methods  to  those  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  I  take  Mr.  Ashton's  essay  on  "  Imperial 
Customs  or  Fiscal  Union  "  to  be  the  best  exposition  of 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE  465 

this  theory.^  The  iir^uinont  he  reHcs  on  is  the  wonder- 
ful prosperity  of  England  under  free-trade.  He  dwells 
upon  the  great  increase  of  English  commerce  from 
;^268,ooo,ooo  in  1854  to  ^682,000,000  in  1894,  or, 
if  you  take  into  account  the  fall  of  prices  as  estimated 
by  Sauerbach's  tables,  to  nearly  twice  that  sum ;  the 
comforts  that  are  now  within  reach  of  the  masses,  a 
subject  to  which  Sir  Robert  Gitfen  has  devoted  careful 
attention ;  the  savings  of  the  people,  which  reach  ten 
and  a  half  millions  yearly;  the  accumulated  property 
and  profits  of  the  trading  classes  as  ascertained  by  the 
income-tax  returns,  which  have  more  than  doubled  in 
forty  years ;  the  expansion  of  the  shipping  interest 
and  its  increased  efficiency  from  the  use  of  steam  ;  the 
steady  lessening  of  the  national  debt  through  a  term 
of  years ;  and  the  advance  in  investments  abroad, 
which  now  reach  the  enormous  sum  of  three  thou- 
sand millions  sterling.  Having  thus  shown  that  the 
free  -  trade  system  has  been  of  incalculable  benefit 
to  the  United  Kingdom,  and  "  that  to  depart  from  it 
would  make  this  country  a  laughing-stock  among  the 
nations,"  he  proceeds  to  frame  tariffs  for  the  several 
Colonies  on  the  basis  of  the  existinof  tariff  of  this 
country.  He  adds,  "  If  we  could  get  the  Colonies  to 
adopt  our  fiscal  policy,  a  Customs- Union  might  be 
more  easily  established." 

1 9.  Now,  if  the  "  Colonies  adopt  our  fiscal  policy," 
you  might  get  customs  uniformity  in  an  attenuated 
way,  but  in  what  sense  could  you  get  a  Customs- 
Union  ?  The  object  of  "our  fiscal  policy"  is  to  do 
away  with  customs  generally;  while  a  Customs-Union 
is  meaningless  except  among  peoples  who  are  pre- 
disposed to  maintain  duties  at  least  on  imports.  The 
basis,  therefore,  for  that  form  of  international  agree- 
ment is  wanting  as  between  the  Mother  Country  and 
the  colonial  groups. 

^  Statist  Supplemeut,  9th  M:iy  1S96. 
V  2  G 


466  GENERAL 

20.  England  is  not  the  only  free-trade  nation  in 
the  world  ;  she  is  not  the  only  free-trade  nation  that 
has  prospered  enormously  during  the  last  fifty  years ; 
nor  is  she  the  only  prosperous  free-trade  nation  that 
has  colonies.  Why  should  we  forget  our  close  neigh- 
bour, Holland  ? — our  former  foes,  our  blood-relations, 
the  Dutch  people,  whose  language  is  most  akin  to 
ours?  They  adopted  free -trade  earlier  than  we  did, 
continued  it  longer,  and,  if  figures  may  be  depended 
on,  have  gained  more  by  it.  The  volume  of  our  com- 
merce exceeds  theirs,  but  if  you  take  it  per  head  of 
population  and  accept  Mr.  Mulhall's  estimate,  the.  ratio 
stands  in  their  favour  as  390  to  900.^  They  extended 
their  fiscal  policy  to  their  Colonies,  they  obtained  uni- 
formity as  the  French  did,  though  on  another  basis ; 
but  with  what  result  to  their  Colonies  ?  They  are 
commercial  establishments ;  in  the  sense  of  empire 
they  do  not  count.  The  Dutch  are  the  Carthaginians 
of  modern  times ;  they  exploit  a  region  rather  than 
settle  a  country.  The  English  may  be  a  nation  of 
shopkeepers  too,  but  they  are  a  nation  of  shopkeepers 
in  whom  the  Imperial  instinct  of  ancient  Rome  works 
strongly.  They  build  up  communities,  new  Englands, 
wherever  they  go.  If  there  be  one  feature  of  their 
over-sea  policy  more  distinctive  than  another,  it  is  not 
the  effort  after  uniformity,  but  the  adaptation  of  tarift- 
systems  to  autonomous  necessities  within  each  group 
or  taxing  unit. 

2  I .  The  tariff  of  England  is  the  outcome  of  local 
conditions  and  local  growth.  Beginning  with  Hus- 
kisson's  time,  when  1400  articles  were  taxed,  we  may 
mark  the  stages  of  her  progress  in  the  order  of  time 
thus : — 

(a)  Reduction  of  duties  on  raw  materials  used  in 
manufacture,  ending  in  their  entire  abolition ; 

(h)  Release  of  tlie  principal  foodstuffs  from  taxa- 

'   "  Dictionary  of  Statistics,"  p.  12S,  Plate  III. 


INTER-BRTTISH    TRADE  467 

tion,  though  preserving  a  few  insignificuiit  imposts  ou 
currants,  figs,  raisins,  tea,  and  coliee ; 

(c)  Equalisation  of  excise  and  taxation  on  alcohohc 
compounds  and  narcotics,  followed  by  increased  rates ; 

(d)  Movement  to  direct  taxation  : 

(z)  The  income-tax  is  begun,  increased,  and 
made  permanent ; 

(y)  The  succession,  probate,  estate,  and  death 
duties  are  equalised,  graduated,  con- 
solidated and  expanded. 
This  progression  was  dependent  upon,  and  was 
concomitant  with,  the  growth  of  England's  industry, 
which  we  may  indicate  broadly  by  the  advance  in  her 
foreign  commerce  from  -^81,000,000  in  1820  to 
^^746,000,000  in  1897.  The  most  remarkable,  the 
most  significant  part  of  it  is,  probably,  the  latest,  Sir 
William  Harcourt's  financial  measures,  which  have 
astonished  both  friends  and  foes  by  their  wonderful 
productiveness,  the  ease  of  their  collection,  and  the 
equity  of  their  incidence.  They  are  the  greatest 
triumph  we  have  yet  had  in  the  application  of  free- 
trade  principles  to  practical  concerns.  All  men  ap- 
prove them  now,  but  how  many  were  there  in  the  last 
Parliament  who  had  faith  in  Sir  William's  proposals, 
or  foresaw  the  manner  of  then-  operation  ?  Even 
within  the  Liberal  ranks  they  were  regarded  as  a  leap 
in  the  dark.  What  chance  of  acceptance  would  they 
have  had  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  the  sixties,  the 
era  of  Mr.  Gladstone's  great  reforms  ?  Would  Peel 
have  considered  them  for  the  purpose  of  legislation  ? 
And  for  Huskisson,  would  they  not  have  been  wholly 
out  of  the  question  ?  Setting  aside  the  fact  that  a 
Customs-Union  of  the  Empire  would  have  made  their 
adoption  in  the  United  Kingdom  impossible,  it  is  clear 
that  they  depended,  as  financial  measures  generally 
depend,  on  time  and  opportunity,  on  the  stage  and 
character  of   the  nation's  industrial  development.     If 


468  GENERAL 

you  first  equalise  the  conditions  of  the  Empire-groups 
in  their  myriad-fold  diversity,  you  will  then  obtain 
some  foundation  for  a  uniform  system  of  raising 
revenue. 

2  2.  In  elaborating  new  tarifts  for  the  Colonies  on 
the  English  model,  Mr.  Ashton  finds  their  customs' 
revenues  amount  to  ;i^  13,000,000.  He  estimates  that 
his  system  will  3deld  ;i^7, 000,000,  leaving  a  deficit  of 
^6,000,000  in  round  numbers,  say  46  per  cent.  Is 
not  that  enough  to  show  its  impracticability  ?  Again, 
in  order  to  obtain  so  close  an  approximation  at  46  per 
cent,  he  has  to  exclude  India,  the  Crown  Colonies,  and 
the  Protectorates.  But,  passing  by  the  exceptions,  how 
will  he  make  up  the  deficiency  ?  He  argues  upon  the 
wastefulness  of  Protection  and  the  internal  gain  which 
would  result  from  a  more  enlightened  method.  This 
argument  proceeds  on  the  assumption  that  the  out- 
side Empire  levies  customs  for  the  purpose  of  artifi- 
cially encouraging  home  industries.  But  is  not  the 
statement  too  broad  ?  Out  of  fifty-two  or  fifty-three 
British  governments  over-sea  I  find  that  only  four  or, 
at  most,  five  adopt  Protection  as  a  tariff-principle : 
Canada,  Victoria,  West  Australia,  the  Cape,  and,  to  a 
slight  extent,  India.  You  may  say  Newfoundland 
should  be  added  to  the  list ;  but  if  so,  should  not 
Canada  be  taken  from  it,  now  that  she  has  come 
under  the  sway  of  the  Free-trade  party  ?  Under  any 
circumstances,  the  general  fact  is  that  the  majority  of 
Colonial  governments  taboo  the  protective  system,  and 
that  whatever  evils,  actual  or  possible,  may  be  laid  to 
its  account,  its  abolition  could  have  but  little  effect  in 
filling  the  deficit  of  46  per  cent.,  which  would  result 
from  the  transfer  of  the  English  tariff  to  the  colonial 
groups. 

23.  To  my  mind,  by  far  too  much  importance  is 
attached  to  Ihc  difference  l)etween  protection  and  non- 
protection  wiiliin   tli(,'    iMiipirc   and   outside  of  it;   the 


INTER-BRTTISH    TRADE  469 

dominant  factors  of  coininerco  to-day  seem  to  me  to 
stand  apart  from  tariff-regulations.  For  instance,  I 
find  Germany  to  have  prospered  in  almost  as  great  a 
ratio  as  England,  notwithstanding  her  tariff.  Mr. 
Mulhall  investigates  the  "  Wealth  and  Power  of  the 
United  States,"  ^  and  tells  iis  that  she  possesses  "  by 
far  the  greatest  productive  power  in  the  Avorld  " ;  that 
that  power  has  "more  than  trebled  since  i860,  rising 
from  39  to  129  milliards  of  foot-tons  daily";  and 
that  her  "accumulation  of  wealth  averages  $7,000,000" 
a  day.  He  adds  in  conclusion :  "  English  statisticians 
estimate  the  ordinary  accunuilation  in  Great  Britain  at 
five  pounds,  say  twenty-five  dollars,  per  head,  whereas 
we  have  seen  that  the  American  average  is  forty-one 
dollars  per  head."  The  United  States  is  pronouncedly 
protectionist.  What  elements  there  may  be  in  the 
Gernjan  and  American  situation  which  enable  these 
countries  to  prosper  in  spite  of  their  fiscal  policy  is  a 
question  into  which  Mr.  Ashton  does  not  enter.  But 
this  is  plain,  that  advance  on  the  one  side  and  retro- 
gression on  the  other  may  well  depend  on  influences 
that  are  independent  of  tariff  or  the  incidence  of 
customs. 

24.  Again,  Sir  Robert  Giffen,  in  a  recent  number 
of  tlio  Economic  Journal^"  demonstrates  very  clearly 
that,  under  the  most  favourable  conditions,  protection 
can  have  little  influence  in  stinuilating  production  in 
communities  where  the  population,  as  in  the  majority 
of  the  English  Colonies,  is  less  than  a  million  or  a 
million  and  a  half.  Their  home  market  is  too  small. 
An  ardent  protectionist  might  say  this  is  the  reason 
why  the  Colonies  are  for  the  most  part  Free-traders. 
So  far,  let  us  agree  with  him.  But  what  does  it 
matter  to  a  British  exporter  whether  he  pays,  if  he 
does  pay,  a  customs-levy  as  a  contribution  to  colonial 

'   North  Amcrtnin  Revicv,  1S05,  jl  641. 
-  March  1898. 


470  GENERAL 

revenue  only,  or  as  a  mulct  that  is  intended  to  operate 
in  favour  of  tlie  local  manufacturer  ?  In  so  far  as 
the  particular  transaction  is  concerned,  the  destina- 
tion or  object  of  the  tax  is  nothing  to  him  so  long  as 
its  amount  remains  the  same.  Now,  strange  as  it  may 
appear,  he  is  treated  more  gently  in  Colonies  that  are 
called  protectionist  than  in  those  which  profess  free- 
trade.  In  judging  this  question,  I  do  not  take  isolated 
Colonies  on  either  side,  but  form  an  average  of  the  two 
classes.  I  exclude  Newfoundland  because  her  protec- 
tionism is  only  of  a  few  months'  standing.  I  set  aside 
India  also  because  she  is  protectionist  to  a  slight  degree 
merely,  and  in  an  average  Avould  tell  too  favourably  on 
the  side  of  trade  restriction.  The  proper  test  seems  to 
me  to  be,  not  nominal  tariff-rates,  as  between  the  two 
classes,  but  the  percentage  of  actual  customs  to  total 
revenue,  a  view  which  should  operate  in  favour  of 
the  open  door.  Well,  then,  how  stands  the  situation 
according  to  the  "Colonial  Office  List"  for  1895  and 
the  "  Abstract "  for  the  Colonies  of  the  same  year  ? 
In  the  four  protectionist  Colonies,  38  per  cent,  of  the 
revenue  is  derived  from  customs ;  in  thirty-eight 
other  governments  whose  returns  are  given — all  free- 
trade  in  principle — the  average  percentage  is  48. 
The  case  of  Gambia  is  peculiar.  Her  public  revenue 
is  said  to  be  (1893)  ^^495 2,  and  her  customs  revenue 
^^^26,946. 

25.  Mr.  Chamberlain  says  that  if  we  wait  for  com- 
mercial union  till  the  Colonies  adopt  the  English  fiscal 
policy  wo  shall  wait  till  the  "  Greek  Kalends."'  ^  There 
need  be  little  doubt  on  that  point.  Meantime,  a  sug- 
gestion is  put  forth  that  there  might  be  free-trade 
within  the  limits  of  the  Empire,  just  as  there  is  free- 
trade  between  the  States  of  the  American  Union.  From 
the  standpoints  of  tlic  Mother  Country  there  is  no  eco- 
nomical objection  to  the  proposition.  It  is  distinguished 
'  Foreign  and  Colonial  Speeches,  p.  182. 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE  471 

from  Mr.  Ashton's  because  the  Colonies  would  be  at 
liberty  to  impose  what  duties  they  chose  on  foreign 
goods.  On  the  one  side,  you  would  have  a  vast 
extension  of  the  free-trade  area,  nearly  1 2,000,000 
square  miles  of  territory,  containing  more  than  380 
millions  of  people,  the  same  expansion  that  we  should 
have  under  Mr.  Ashton's  proposal.  But  what  should 
we  have  on  the  other  side  ?  A  United  States  ?  I 
have  already  given  my  reasons  for  thinking  that  a 
union,  commercial  or  political,  on  the  scale  of  the 
United  States,  would  be  much  too  narrow  to  meet 
the  exigencies  of  the  British  Empire.  Would  you  get 
even  a  United  States  ?  There  Avould  be  as  many 
tariffs  against  foreign  peoples  as  there  are  Colonies, 
while  the  chief  member  of  the  Confederacy  would  have, 
practically,  no  tariff  at  all  relating  to  outsiders.  The 
citizens  of  the  projected' Union,  therefore,  would  have 
no  such  equality  as  subsists  between  the  citizens  of 
Maine  and  those  of  Oregon.  The  condition  would  be 
one  of  unstable  equilibrium.  Again,  if  the  Colonies 
exempt  British  and  luter-Colonial  trade  from  contribu- 
tion to  their  revenues — I  presume,  for  the  moment, 
that  other  peoples  would  not  exploit  Inter- British 
channels — one  of  two  results  would  follow.  The  first 
presumes  that  indirect  taxation,  as  it  is  now  practised, 
is  to  continue  ;  in  that  event,  as  the  foreign  imports 
of  the  Colonics  would  bear  the  burden  of  the  local 
administration,  you  must  tax  them  very  highly,  and 
raise  beyond  the  realm  a  Chinese  wall  of  extraordinary 
masrnitude  asrainst  the  rest  of  mankind.  To  whose 
advantage  could  this  be  ?  Setting  aside  Canada's 
relations  with  the  United  States,  you  would  strike  a 
severe  blow  against  the  foreign  traffic  of  India  and  the 
Tropical  Colonies,  a  traffic  that  does  not  displace,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  fosters  interchange  with  this  country 
itself.  The  circle  of  exchanges,  the  Avidening  of  which 
is  the  object  of  free- trade,  would  be  contracted  under 


472  GENERAL 

the  operation  of  this  method.  The  other  alternative  is 
direct  taxation  within  the  colonial  groups.  But  the 
suggestion  we  are  reviewing  is  made  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  over  the  necessity  of  direct  taxation  in  the 
Colonies.  As  we  are  upon  the  point,  I  quote  the  fol- 
lowing remarks  from  Sir  Rawson  Rawson  who  has 
studied  the  "  Tariffs  and  Trade  of  the  British  Empire  " 
more  thoroughly,  probably,  than  any  other  man  in  this 
country.  He  says,  on  page  1 2  :  "  In  newly-settled  and 
sparsely-populated  countries,  such  as  most  of  the  British 
possessions,  the  most  convenient,  if  not  the  only,  source 
of  revenue  is  indirect  taxation  ;  and  the  most  certain, 
regular,  and  abundant  source  of  that  revenue,  the 
duties  most  easily  levied  and  the  least  felt,  and  conse- 
quently, the  most  acceptable  to  the  population,  are, 
beyond  doubt,  customs  duties.  It  is,  therefore,  doubt- 
ful whether  in  any  part  of  the  Empire  recourse  will  for 
a  long  time  be  had  to  any  substitute  for  customs  duties, 
or  to  any  material  change  in  the  constitution  of  the 
tariffs," 

26.  From  the  international  trade  standpoint,  Ave 
may  say  that  both  theories  aim  at  treating  the  Empire 
in  its  vastness  as  a  single  group  of  that  Empire,  ignoring 
at  once  difference  in  situation,  difference  in  development. 
The  next  proposition  I  refer  to  emanates  from  the 
Ottawa  Conference  of  1894.  Its  latest  advocate  is 
Mr.  Colmer.  He  sees  the  impossibility  of  a  fiscal 
union,  a  uniform  tariff  and  of  a  zollverein  on  that 
basis,  for  the  whole  of  her  Majesty's  dominions.  But 
he  seeks  a  "  Conmiercial  Federation,"  and,  in  drawing 
out  his  scheme,  presents  us  with  what  at  first  sight 
seems  to  be  a  contradiction.  The  folloAving  are  two 
consecutive  sentences  in  Mr.  Colmer's  essay,  and  the 
turning  point  of  his  argument:  "The  fundamental 
basis  of  Commercial  federation  must  be  pref(!rential 
treatment  of  the  products  of  the  Empire  within  the 
l'iiii|)ir(!,  in  some  form  or  otlicr,  and  no  other   plan  can 


INTER-BRITTSH    TRADE  473 

be  regarded  as  practicable.  But  there  is  no  necessity 
to  do  violence  to  the  principles  of  Free-trade,  or  to 
pander  to  what  is  called  Protection,  in  the  sense  in 
which  it  is  regarded  in  Great  Britain."  ^  The  following 
are  detached  sentences  on  pages  1 4  and  15:  "In 
considering  the  question,  the  theories  of  Free-trade  and 
Protection  must  equally  bo  placed  on  one  side  " ;  "  there 
must  be  a  certain  amount  of  give  and  take  in  any 
arrangement,  if  success  is  to  be  the  result."  There 
must  be  "  give  and  take,"  "  preferential  treatment," 
bargain  and  sale,  in  any  commercial  treaty  which  the 
colonial  groups  may  form,  either  between  themselves 
or  with  foreign  nations.  But  does  ''  give  and  take," 
"  preferential  treatment,"  accord  with  "  the  principles  of 
Free-trade  "  as  Free-trade  "  is  rey^ardcd  in  England  "  ? 
Does  it  not  "  pander  to  what  is  called  Protection "  ? 
The  object  of  the  Free-trade  sj^stem  of  England,  as  well 
as  its  historical  result,  is  to  do  away  with  preferences 
of  every  kind;  we  might  almost  say,  to  do  away  with 
customs  duties. 

In  his  Appendix  1.  (p.  42)  Mr.  Colmer  gives  us  a 
detailed  list  of  the  "  Colonies  affected  by  proposed 
import  duties  in  the  United  Kingdom,"  and  of  the 
articles  he  proposes  to  tax.  The  articles  consist  of 
tliirty  general  classes,  and  may  be  summarised  under 
the  headings,  foodstuffs,  and  raw  materials  of  manufac- 
ture. What  theory  of  Free-trade  justifies  the  taxation 
of  foodstuffs  ?  What  theory  of  Protection  sanctions 
impositions  on  raw  n)aterials  of  manufacture  ?  From 
the  standpoint  of  the  United  Kingdom,  therefore,  the 
placing  of  duties  on  foreign  products  that  compete 
in  the  home  market  with  colonial  products  can  be 
justified  under  no  theory.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
plain  that  such  discrimination,  if  obtained,  would  be 
an    immediate   gain    to   colonial   producers  of    cereals, 

1  Statist  Supplement,  May  2,  1S96,  p.  15  ;  sec  a]so  Economic  Journal, 
vol.  vi.  p.  553. 


474  GENERAL 

wools,  wines,  sugars,  fruits,  &c.,  and,  it  may  be,  to 
the  Colonies  generally.  On  this  ground  Sir  Charles 
Tupper  has  based  his  plea  for  a  preferential  tariff 
within  the  Empire,  and  has  urged  it  eloquently  upon 
the  electors  of  Canada  and  her  Majesty's  Ministers. 
If  the  advantage  of  this  country  from  the  course 
proposed  were  as  evident  as  the  immediate  advantage 
of  the  Colonies,  the  project  would  be  well  within  the 
bounds  of  practical  politics.  It  fails,  as  the  opposing 
scheme  of  Mr.  Ashton  fails,  because  it  does  not  take 
due  cognisance  of  both  sides  of  the  problem  to  be 
solved.  If  you  tax  foreign  imports  you  strike  a 
severe  blow  not  merely  at  the  domestic  production 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  but  also  at  certain  phases 
of  her  commerce  which  are  rapidly  increasing  in 
volume  and  importance  to-day,  e.g.  : — 

(i)  The  trade  of  import  and  re-export,  and  the 
carrying  trade  generally ; 

(2)  The   returns    from   loans    to    foreign    govern- 

ments, chiefly  foodstuffs    and   raw   materials 
of  manufacture ; 

(3)  The  returns  from  investments  abroad  in  lands, 

mines,  factories,  railways,  &c.,  in  both  hemis- 
pheres. 
You  would  likewise  attack  her  standing  as  the  financial 
agent  of"  the  world's  over-sea  trade,  a  position  once 
held  by  Holland.  There  is  scarcely  a  consignment 
of  staple  goods — of  tea  or  coffee,  of  silk,  wool  or 
cottons — moved  from  port  to  port  except  by  bill  on 
London.  She  reaps  on  each  transaction,  it  may  be,  from 
a  quarter  to  a  half  of  i  per  cent.,  a  small  sum  if  you 
look  only  to  the  individual  transfer,  but  an  enormous 
revenue  if  you  consider  the  aggregate  of  business  in 
which  the  world's  shipping  is  engaged. 

27.  Sir  Wilfred  Laurier  introduced  a  new  phase  of 
tlio  problem  in  1897.  In  place  of  asking  for  differ- 
ential treatment  for  Canadian  products  in  the  English 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE  475 

market,  he  offered  to  English  goods  entering  Canada 
after  ist  August  a  rebate  of  duties  amounting  to  25 
per  cent.  The  rebate  was  advanced  to  3  3  }^  per  cent,  on 
the  first  day  of  July  1 900.  Its  original  purpose  was  to 
extend  the  same  advantage  to  all  communities  trading 
with  Canada  on  equal  or  lower  terms  of  tariff.  That 
object  was  found  to  be  impossible  of  attainment, 
because  of  the  operation  of  the  "  most  favoured  nation  " 
clause  in  treaties,  about  thirty  in  number,  which  affect 
the  Dominion.  By  Order  in  Council,  the  United  King- 
dom, New  South  Wales,  India,  Ceylon,  and,  at  the 
request  of  the  Imperial  Government,  the  West  Indies, 
came  under  the  ncAv  arrangement.  It  does  not 
aim  at  a  commercial  imion  of  the  Colonies.  It  does 
not  profess  to  indemnify  the  Mother  Country  for  ex- 
penditm-c  in  Imperial  defence.  From  an  historical 
standpoint,  it  inverts  the  old  conception  that  Colonics 
should  have  preference  in  the  Metropolis,  a  policy  that 
bolstered  up  the  mercantile  theory  for  some  time,  but 
was  of  doubtful  value  either  to  the  Mother  Country  or 
her  offspring.  Its  chief  economic  feature  is  that  it 
aims  at  promoting  trade  by  way  of  tariff,  and,  for  this 
purpose,  introduces  a  higher  and  lower  scale  somewhat 
after  the  French  system.  To  that  extent  it  departs 
from  the  principle  that  customs  levies  should  be 
adapted  to  local  necessities  only. 

The  question,  how  have  the  preferential  clauses 
worked,  has  naturally  excited  keen  debate  in  Ottawa. 
All  parties  admit  that  the  trade  of  the  Dominion  has 
expanded  enormously  during  the  last  four  or  five  years. 
To  ascertain  the  effect  of  the  preference  on  that  expan- 
sion, one  must  eliminate  all  foreign  traffic,  Avhether 
import  or  export,  and,  secondly,  the  increased  pur- 
chases of  Canadian  goods  in  this  country.  On  these 
the  rebate  has  no  direct  bearing  at  all.  It  affects 
primarily  certain  manufactured  goods,  whose  values 
I  tabulate  from  a  Globe  leader  of  the  2nd  of  July  1900, 


476 


GENERAL 


for  the  years  whicli  the  chief  Liberal  organ  regards  as 
test  years : — 


Manafactui'cs  of 

1897. 

1899. 

$7,686,366 
3,906,676 

1,610,210 

2,062,428 

1,865,642 

453,728 

Increase. 

Wool 

Cotton 

Flax.        .        .         ) 

Hemp        .         .         > 

Jute .         .         .         ) 

Silk. 

Iron .         .         .         ) 

Steel  _        .        .         j 

Machinery 

15,576,859 
2,693,114 

1,158,809 

1,396,015 

1,649,081 

193,750 

$2,109,507 
1,213,562 

451,401 

666,413 
216,361 
259,918 

A  more  favourable  representation  could  scarcely  be 
made,  for  the  year  ending  June  1897  was  the  year  of 
the  general  election,  the  year  in  which,  the  Reform 
Party  being  returned,  tariff  changes  were  expected,  and 
importations  from  this  country  were  remarkably  low. 
Thus,  the  total  of  English  goods  entered  for  consump- 
tion in  1895  was,  in  round  numbers,  31  million 
dollars'  worth,  and  in  1896,  the  last  year  of  the  Con- 
servative regime,  Avas  valued  at  32  millions.  They 
fell  to  29  millions  in  1897,  recovered  to  32  millions 
in  1898,  and  rose  to  37  millions  in  1899.  The  actual 
increase  therefore  under  Mr.  Fielding's  administration, 
so  far  as  the  returns  go,  we  might  not  unfairly  put  at 
5  million  dollars.  But  how  much  of  this  is  due  to  the 
general  expansion  of  trade  ?  How  nmch  to  special 
causes  affecting  Canada,  as  the  opening  of  Klondike, 
and  tlic  consequent  inrush  of  English  capital  which 
would  naturally  take  the  form  of  imports  ?  How  much 
is  to  be  attributed  to  the  preferential  clauses  as  a 
taritt-schcme  ?  Mr.  Fielding  docs  not  answer  these 
questions  directly,  but,  on  page  27  of  his  budget- 
speech,  gives  a  table  from  which  we  may  infer  that  he 
iittriliutos  one-third  of  the  increase  to  the  tarifi'.  If 
so,  its  operation  is  rednccd  to  modest  proportions,  and 


INTER-BRITTSTI    TRADE  477 

we  need  scarcely  inquire  here  whether  the  third  dis- 
places foreign  importations  or  home  products.  Prob- 
ably the  conclusion  of  the  Ironmoivjcr,  in  regard  to  its 
own  trade,  may  apply  to  English  industries  generally, 
namely,  that  the  control  of  the  Dominion  market 
depends  mainly  on  causes  that  are  independent  of  the 
rebate,  such  as  the  quality,  finish,  pattern  of  goods, 
and  their  suitableness  to  local  requirements.^ 

The  arrangement  is  artificial,  and  does  not  realise 
the  intention  of  its  authors.  Thus,  to  obtain  the 
benefit  of  the  tariff,  25  per  cent,  of  the  invoice  value 
of  goods  must  consist  of  labour  applied  to  them  in 
the  United  Kingdom.  Very  good;  but  what  of  the 
remaining  75  per  cent.?  The  Iron  Age,  tells  us  that 
the  Germans,  who  now  refuse  to  accord  to  Canada 
the  "  most  favoured  nation  "  clause,  are  astute  enough 
to  take  advantage  of  it.  It  is  even  claimed  that  their 
manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  leave  Germany  in  a 
finished  state,  pass  through  England  and  enter  Canada 
at  the  preferential  rate.  The  fraud  is  evident,  but 
how  can  you  prevent  it,  except  at  great  cost  and 
minute  investigation  into  each  consignment  ?  Again, 
a  notable  feature  of  the  recent  statistics  is  the  growth 
of  United  States'  imports  into  Canada.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  them  enter  under  the  free  clauses  of  Mr. 
Fielding's  tariff';  but  to  a  considerable  part  of  them 
the  British  preference  applies  as  to  wool,  cotton  and 
flax  fabrics,  iron  and  steel.  Iron  and  steel  imports 
during  the  last  five  years  rose  from  ii^  1,2 90,000  to 
;^2, 895,000,  an  increase  of  ;^  1,60 5  000  sterling.  So 
likewise,  in  the  case  of  cottons,  there  was  an  increase 
from  ;6^2  8  5,ooo  to  i^  1,097,000  during  the  same 
interval.  The  American  Consul  at  Niagara  might  well 
report  to  his  government  under  these  circumstances: 
"  It  will  require  more  than  a  preferential  tariff  to  shut 
out  American  manufactures  from  Canada"  (1899). 

'  See  The  Ironmomjcr  Supplement,  "Haniwaie  Trade  iu  Canada." 


478  GENERAL 

28,  The  several  proposals  we  have  been  consider- 
ing operate  on  tariffs.  But  have  tariff's,  in  modern 
times,  that  wide  influence  over  trade  that  they  had,  or 
were  supposed  to  have,  in  days  gone  by  ?  Has  the 
"  McKinley  Act,"  with  the  apparatus  of  the  Blaine 
treaties,  done  that  quantity  of  mischief  to  the  English 
market  that  was  anticipated  a  few  years  ago  ?  It 
should  have  ruined  Canadian  commerce,  but  has 
proved  a  blessing  in  disguise.  Export  duties,  except 
in  the  case  of  monopolies,  are  gone ;  export  bounties 
are  kept  in  remembrance  by  beet-root  sugar ;  em- 
bargoes are  confined  to  Russia ;  prohibitive  import 
duties  have  given  place  throughout  Christendom  to 
tariffs  which  Sir  Robert  Giffen  rightfully  calls  "  Cobden 
tariffs."  In  these  days  Protection,  be  it  high  or  low, 
aims  at  admitting  freely  an  increasing  number  of 
commodities,  notably  raw  materials.  What  are  raw 
materials  ?  In  a  young  country  where  manufacture 
is  almost  absent,  the  line  of  division  between  what  is 
and  what  is  not  raw  material  is  tolerably  plain ;  but, 
as  industry  develops,  that  distinction  grows  dim  and 
retreats  farther  and  farther  away.  The  term  is  rela- 
tive, and  the  manufactured  product  of  one  industry 
to-day  becomes  the  raw  material  of  another  industry 
to-morrow.  No  matter  for  what  purpose  you  levy 
import  duties,  to  foster  home  industries  or  for  revenue 
only,  to  discriminate  in  this  direction  or  in  that,  two 
practical  difficulties  confront  you:  (i)  the  incidence  of 
the  tax  shifts  from  point  to  point  and  restricts  the 
output  of  secondary  products;  (2)  this  result  is  the 
more  evident  and  the  more  disastrous  the  greater  is 
the  expansion  of  a  country's  industries.  The  range  of 
operation,  therefore,  which  modern  conditions  allow  to 
a  tariff  in  the  regulation  of  trade  is  restricted  and 
grows  narrower  with  time.  If  you  take  it  at  its  best, 
it  can  provide  but  a  weak  support  for  Inter-British 
trade.     As  we  shall  see  farther  on,  it  takes  no  account 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE  479 

of  "  the  dominant  economic  factor  of  the  age,"  to  use 
Professor  Marshall's  language. 

29.  The  proposals  ignore  the  degrees  of  inter- 
nationalism which  we  have  found  to  subsist  within 
Empire.  You  have  first  an  internationalism  within  a 
geographical  group,  as  in  Australasia  and  the  West 
Indies,  which  tends  to  culminate  in  a  national  con- 
dition of  which  Canada  is  the  type.  You  have,  again, 
an  internationalism  as  in  South  Africa,  which  may 
temporarily  admit  a  common  tariff  or  Customs-Union 
for  the  group.  There  is,  in  the  third  place,  the  inter- 
nationalism which  may  obtain  as  between  the  several 
colonial  groups,  an  internationalism  which  does  not 
permit  a  single  tariff  because  the  element  of  con- 
tiguity is  wanting,  but  may  allow  a  commercial  treaty 
with  "  give  and  take,"  because  their  stages  of  develop- 
ment are  approximately  equal  and  all  of  them  raise 
revenue  on  imports.  We  have,  fourthly,  an  inter- 
nationalism as  between  the  Mother  Country  and  the 
colonial  groups  where  contiguity  of  parts,  approximate 
stages  of  development,  are  wholly  wanting,  while  the 
tie  of  common  sovereignty  remains.  In  point  of  tariff, 
there  is  nothing  on  which  to  work  in  bringing  about 
a  Customs-Union  or  negotiating  a  commercial  treaty. 
It  is  said  sometimes,  "  we  have  thrown  away  our 
arms " ;  but,  if  you  think  of  it,  the  first  is  possible 
only  by  introducing  the  French  system  of  uniformity 
to  the  ruin  of  the  Colonies ;  the  second  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  industries  of  the  Mother  Country,  What 
Government  could  propose  to  tax  foodstuffs  and  raw 
materials  of  manufacture,  or  to  increase  indirect  taxa- 
tion ?  The  movement  of  English  civilisation,  the  needs 
of  industry,  point  in  the  opposite  direction.  Even  so 
innoxious  an  arrangement  as  the  Cobdeu  Treaty, 
though  it  operated  by  way  of  remission  and  not  in- 
crease and  was  confined  to  alcohols,  has  no  substantial 
chance  of  renewal  or  advocacy  from  any  party  in  the 


48o  GENERAL 

State.  To  reach  a  measure  of  unanimity,  tlie  Asso- 
ciated Chambers  of  Commerce  of  the  Empire  found  it 
necessary  this  year  to  reduce  theu*  resohitions  concern- 
ing preferential  trade  to  a  pious  negative.  This  brings 
me  to  the  concluding  portion  of  my  paper. 

III. — Application    of   the    International   Method 
TO  the  British  Empire  Groups  as  a  Whole. 

30.  Mr.  Cairnes  provides  us  with  the  clue  to  this 
branch  of  the  inquiry.  He  views  the  main  question 
from  a  negative  standpoint,  and  endeavours  to  enume- 
rate the  hindrances  which  prevent  the  expansion  of 
international  traffic.  We  must  regard  the  subject 
positively  in  order  to  convert  hindrances  into  further- 
ances and  indicate  how  Inter-British  trade  may  be 
promoted.  We  may  leave  out  of  account  certain 
aspects  of  the  question  on  which  Mr.  Cairnes  naturally 
dwells,  as  differences  in  language,  because  their  appli- 
cation to  our  purposes  is  not  immediate.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  may  add  one  or  two  which  he  deems 
of  minor  importance.  The  details  of  application  ad- 
mitted by  the  international  principle  arc  necessarily 
infinite.  I  confine  myself  to  three  or  four  principal 
headings. 

3 1.  A.  International  trade  is  hindered  by  restrictions 
on  the  easy  flow  of  capital ;  Inter-British  trade  will  be 
promoted  by  facilitating  the  flow  from  group  to  group. 
It  is  said  that  iJ^7oo,ooo,ooo  of  English  moneys  is 
loaned  to  governments  and  corporations  Avithin  the 
Colonies,  while  an  undefined  sum  is  placed  in  the 
liands  of  private  persons.  Vast  as  these  amounts  may 
be,  they  do  not  exhaust  the  loan-fund  of  this  country, 
meet  the  exigencies  of  the  Englisli  "  over-sea,"  or  touch 
the  limit  of  profitable  investment.  It  is  for  each  group 
to  op(jn  additional  avenues  for  the  employment  of  new 
capital  and  to  attract  investments.     A  steady  decline  in 


TNTER-BRITTSH    TRADE  481 

the  rate  of  interest  on  colonial  loans  of  late  years,  shows 
that  money  is  flowing  in  increasing  volumes  to  the  utmost 
bounds  of  the  Empire,  that  the  security  enjoyed  is  satis- 
factory, and  that  the  returns  obtained  are  ample. 

A  Bill  passed  this  year  empowers  trustees  to  invest 
in  colonial  securities.  So  far  forth  as  concerns  Govern- 
ment action,  the  chief  point  that  seems  to  call  for  com- 
ment is  the  regulations  which  refer  to  the  granting  or 
guaranteeing  of  loans  to  young  communities  for  public 
works,  steam  services,  and  other  improvements. 

32.  B.  Conflict  of  laws  affecting  trade,  industry, 
personal  liberty  and  safety  are  a  hindrance  to  free 
exchange.  For  its  development,  therefore,  the  legal 
methods  of  the  Empire  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be 
brought  into  accord.  This  opens  a  wide  sphere  of 
activity  and  usefulness  to  Chambers  of  Commerce, 
Colonial  Conferences,  the  Agents-General,  The  laws 
of  the  Empire,  in  obedience  to  the  course  of  trade, 
already  tend  to  uniformity ;  and  it  should  be  no 
difficult  task  for  a  body  of  experts  to  agree  upon, 
consolidate,  and  even  codify  a  considerable  number  of 
the  more  important  legal  provisions.  Such  a  collection 
might  include,  among  others,  the  following  subjects : — 

(i)  Weights,  measures,  legal  tender,  and  currency; 

(2)  Commercial,  including  company  and  shipping 

law; 

( 3 )  Bankruptcy,  insolvency,  distribution  of  assets ; 

(4)  Patents  and  copyrights; 

(5)  Inheritance  and  succession,  naturalisation; 

(6)  Criminal  kuv  and  procedure  ; 

(7)  Military  law  and  form  of  administration; 

(8)  In  order  to  preserve  and  extend  the  range  of 

uniformity,  there  should  be  an  Imperial  Court 
of  Appeal,  which  should  have  full  jurisdiction 
over  all  local  tribunals  wherever  situate.  The 
establishment  of  such  a  Court  is  now  engaging 
the  attention  of  her  Majesty's  Ministers. 
V  2  H 


482  GENERAL 

I  need  not  dwell  on  these  points ;  their  advantage 
is  apparent.  I  make  one  remark  only.  A  reasonable 
and  uniform  patent  law,  founded  on  the  United  States 
pattern,  or,  better  still,  on  that  of  Germany,  would  do 
more  to  utilise  the  resources  of  the  Empire,  and  thereby 
advance  its  trade,  than  all  tariff-contrivances  that  could 
be  devised.  The  Scientific  American  in  a  late  number 
says  that  nine-tenths  of  the  United  States'  production 
is  under  patented  processes. 

33.  C.  Ignorance  of  the  requirements  and  capa- 
bilities of  the  foreign  market  is  a  hindrance  to  profitable 
commerce ;  to  further  Inter-British  trade,  then,  the 
needs  of  the  local  markets  in  all  groups  must  be 
mutually  known,  the  changes  in  these  needs  from  year 
to  year,  the  new  avenues  for  investment  and  exchange 
that  are  constantly  opening.  Exhibitions  have  been  of 
service  to  this  end ;  the  Imperial  Institute  has  an 
important  function  to  discharge  in  connection  with  it ; 
the  reports  of  the  Agents-General  to  their  Governments 
have  produced  good  results,  and  the  recent  circular  of 
the  Colonial  Secretary  is  a  model  for  the  future.  What 
we  require  is  an  organised  consular  sj^stem  within  as 
well  as  outside  the  Empire,  and  easy  access  to  its 
reports.  What  is  there  that  the  Empire  in  its  vastness 
and  variety  cannot  produce  ?  What  is  there  that  it 
cannot  utilise  ? 

34.  D.  The  chief  hindrance  to  international  trade 
is  distance.  The  abridging  of  distance  will,  then,  be  the 
principal  means  of  promoting  Inter-British  trade.  Pro- 
fessor Marshall  ^  tells  us  that  "  the  dominant  economic 
factor  of  the  age  "  is  not  the  industrial  or  productive 
agencies,  on  which  tariff's  are  supposed  to  operate,  but 
the  transport  agencies,  whore  they  liavc  no  ])lace.  The 
recent  action  of  the  Rhine -Westphalian  and  Upper 
Silesian  coal-owners,  mentioned  in  the  Annual  Report 
on    our    trade    with    Germany,  lately   issued    by    the 

'  "  Principles  of  Economics,"  i.  pp.  354-7,  763-9. 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE  483 

Foreign  Office,  is  interesting  in  this  regard.  They  are 
alarmed   at   the  import    of   coal    from    England,      In 

1896  it   amounted   to   4,307,463    tons,   and   rose   in 

1897  to  4,808,900  tons,  an  increase  of  1 1.6  per  cent., 
while  the  entire  German  import  from  England  in- 
creased by  8.3  per  cent.  only.  Though  the  policy  of 
Germany  is  protective,  they  do  not  ask  for  additional 
taxes,  as  they  might  have  done  in  other  days  in  order 
to  compete  successfully  with  their  English  rivals,  but 
for  cheaper  rates  of  transit. 

The  drop  in  American  railway  rates  per  ton  per 
mile  between  1870  and  1890  exceeded  60  per  cent. ;  ^ 
the  haulage  of  one  ton  per  ten  miles  on  Australian 
railways  fell  from  75  pence  in  1864  to  18  pence  in 
1887  ;  "^  the  export  price  of  a  bushel  of  Avheat  at  New 
York  was  approximately  five  and  three-quarter  times 
the  cost  of  its  transport  from  Chicago  eastwards  in 
1867,  and  seventeen  and  a  quarter  times  that  cost  in 
1897;  ^  while  the  reduction  on  ocean  freights,  both 
on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  of  late  years,  is  matter  of 
common  notoriety.  It  is  said  that  the  deepening  of 
Lake  St.  Peters  so  as  to  allow  vessels  of  large  tonnage 
to  ascend  to  Montreal  cheapened  English  goods  at  that 
port  and  to  the  West  by  nearly  20  per  cent,  ad  valorem} 
But  the  effect  of  this  factor,  translated  into  terms  of 
tariff  or  preference,  should  not  be  calculated  on  one 
side  only,  but  on  two  sides,  not  on  particular  articles 
entering  a  country,  but  on  those  for  which  they  are 
there  exchanged  ;  not  on  the  carofo,  but  on  the  return 
cargo,  and  on  those  conjmoditics  for  which  both  cargo 
and  return  cargo  are  bartered  in  either  country.  It 
thus  reduces  the  level  of  exchange  all  round  at  home 
and  abroad ;  its  operation,  instead  of  being  single,  is 

^  Contemporary  Review,  vol.  Ix.  p.  597. 

2  Mulhall,  "  Dictionary  of  Statistics  "  ;  see  "Freight." 

*  U.   S.  Kept.,  189S  ;  Dept.  of  Agric.  Div.  of  Stat.,  see  tables  in 
Price  of  Wheat. 

*  See  Paiu.,  Sir  A.  T.  Gait,  Canada,  1S49-1859,  pp.  26,  46. 


484  GENERAL 

really  quadruple.  Quicker  and  cheaper  distribution 
is  tlie  urgent  demand  of  our  age,  and  its  influence  on 
freights,  prices,  and  commercial  enterprise  is  increas- 
ing yearly.  In  comparison  of  this  dominant  factor  a 
preference  of  5  or  10  per  cent.,  as  the  Ottawa  Con- 
ference suggested,  or  a  rebate  on  one  side  of  25  or 
333  P^i'  cent.,  is  of  little  moment.  The  deepening  of 
the  Soulanges  Canal  will  exert  a  much  more  power- 
ful influence  on  Canadian  traffic  than  the  preference 
clause. 

35.  The  factor  takes  three  forms  when  applied  to 
our  subject.  First,  we  have  the  transmission  of  news 
by  cable  from  group  to  group — a  work  Avhich  is  going 
on,  but  is  going  on  piecemeal.  The  inquiries  which 
have  been  made  since  1894  into  the  cost  and  feasi- 
bility of  Sir  Sandford  Fleming's  scheme  of  an  All- 
Britannic  circuit  have  been  decidedly  favourable.  The 
opposition  to  it  to-day  is-  confined  to  a  monopoly. 
What  an  advantage  would  this  country  have  reaped 
during  the  South  African  crisis  had  the  undertakinor 
been  prosecuted  with  any  reasonable  measure  of  dili- 
gence !  The  outlay  would  have  been  recouped  many 
times  over,  cheap  rates  established,  and  a  reliable 
service  instituted. 

The  factor's  second  phase  is  a  cheap  and  rapid 
postal  service  for  the  Empire.  Mr.  Henuiker  Heaton's 
work  in  connection  with  this  branch  of  the  subject  is 
well  known,  has  been  heavy,  continuous,  and  woi-thy 
of  all  praise.  He  has  exhausted  the  argument.  A 
penny  postage  now  embraces  the  greater  portion  of 
the  Empire,  and  will  soon  extend  to  its  farthest  limits. 

The  third  mode  of  abridging  distance  for  purposes 
of  commerce  is  cheap  and  rapid  transport  of  persons 
and  goods  from  group  to  group.  The  Ottawa  Confer- 
ence devoted  much  time  to  its  consideration  in  regard 
to  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific.  Lord  Jersey's  Report 
treats    it  favourably  and  at  length.       It  is  obviously 


INTER-BRITISH    TRADE  485 

a  supplement  to  existing  means.  A  now  service  lie- 
tween  Southampton  and  Jamaica  will  be  inaugurated 
on  the  1st  of  January  1901,  under  subsidy  from  the 
Imperial  Government  of  ^40,000  a  year.  A  fast  line 
of  steamers,  of  the  type  of  the  Zucaiiia  or  Dciitschland, 
is  a  necessity  between  Canada  and  England  in  order  to 
compete  with  American  services.  Lord  Jersey^  tells 
us  that,  by  using  "vessels  of  20  knots  average  con- 
tinuous speed,  mails  may  be  carried  to  HaHfax  in 
36  and  to  Quebec  in  24  hours  less  than  to  New  York." 
With  an  average  speed  of  25  knots,  now  attainable, 
the  gain  would  be  still  greater.  From  either  of  these 
points  mails  can  be  delivered  at  Now  York  in  nuich 
less  time  than  now,  and  their  distribution  throughout 
the  West  would  be  immensely  facilitated.  It  is  said 
that  a  further  saving  might  be  cftected  by  making  some 
point  in  eastern  Newfoundland  the  steamer- terminus, 
and  cutting  across  that  island  by  rail.  You  might  thus 
at  one  stroke  shorten  the  sea-passage  to  three  days,  and 
avoid  the  danger  and  unpleasantness  of  the  Atlantic 
voyage.  From  the  North  American  group  there  might 
be  two  other  quick  services — one  from  Halifax  to  the 
West  Indies,  another  from  Vancouver  to  New  Zealand 
and  Australia.  The  bindino-  toofether  of  Australasia  to 
the  Straits  Settlements,  the  Straits  Settlements  to  India, 
India  to  South  Africa  by  the*  Mauritius,  and  each  by 
the  shortest  route  to  this  country,  would  complete 
a  circuit  of  fast  exchange  such  as  the  world  has  never 
seen — a  fast  exchange  which  could  not  but  promote, 
strengthen,  and  consolidate  the  might  of  the  Empire 
as  well  as  augment  its  commerce. 

36.  The  geographical  position  of  Canada  between 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  her  solidarity,  population, 
and  influence  in  the  outside  Empire  mark  her  as  the 
natural  leader  in  the  movement  of  quick  transit.  Time 
and  again  her  Parliament  has  voted  th(^  necessary 
1  Report,  Ottawa  Conference,  1S94,  p.  10. 


486  GENERAL 

funds  without  hesitation.  Thus,  for  an  improved 
weekly  service  on  the  Atlantic,  and  a  fortnightly 
service  on  the  Pacific,  she  undertook  to  pay  ;^  17 5,000 
a  year,  the  United  Kingdom  contributing  ;^7 5,000, 
and  the  Australasian  Colonies  among  them  ^50,000. 
The  offer  was  generous  in  the  circumstances.  Much 
has  already  been  done  in  this  respect.  What  is  needed 
for  its  full  realisation  is  a  courageous  policy  backed  by 
energy.  Sir  Charles  Tupper's  recent  manifesto  to  the 
electors  of  Canada  foreshadows  such  a  policy.  While 
he  adheres  to  his  desire  for  a  mutual  preference  be- 
tween the  Mother  Country  and  the  Colonies,  he  expands 
the  platform  of  the  Conservative  party  and  brings  it 
into  line  with  the  latest  requirements  of  Inter-British 
trade  in  all  that  concerns  fast  transportation.  The 
immediate  benefit  to  the  agricultural  community  he 
estimates  at  50,000,000  dollars.  Whatever  the  proper 
sum  be,  it  will  necessarily  increase  in  an  accelerated 
ratio  year  by  year. 

But  it  will  be  said  that  the  establishment  of  an  All- 
Britannic  cable,  fast  steam  communication  between 
group  and  group,  with  due  facilities  for  cold  storage, 
&c.,  will  impose  a  very  considerable  cost  upon  the 
Empire  at  large.  What  then  ?  The  Empire  at 
large  is  very  large,  and  might  easily  bear  the 
expense  for  several  reasons.  In  the  first  place, 
the  work  is  needful  to  consolidate  and  insure  the 
Empire  in  a  naval  and  military  point  of  view. 
It '  will  be  remunerative  because  it  is  alon<y  the 
main  trade-routes,  and  its  continued  expansion  will 
mean  continued  development  of  traffic,  increased 
profit,  increased  ability  to  pay.  If  wo  suppose  efiicient 
communications  between  group  and  group  to  be  in- 
augurated ;  if  to  do  this  we  add  steam,  cable,  and 
postal  services  within  each  group;  if  wo  throw  the 
maintenance  of  these  routes  upon  a  common  fmid,  and 
spread   its  liquidation  over  a  scries  of  years  so  as  to 


INTER-BRITTSH    TRADE  487 

take  the  form  of  annual  payments ;  or  if  we  suppose 
these  payments  to  be  made  by  way  of  subsidies  to 
companies,  the  companies  conforming  to  the  AdmiraUy 
regulations  in  regard  to  steamboats  as  the  Cunartl 
Line  now  does,  and,  in  regard  to  cables  and  postal 
services,  to  such  conditions  as  Government  may  deem 
needful — in  these  circumstances,  it  is  very  doubtful 
that  the  sum  to  be  assessed  on  the  whole  Empire 
would  reach  a  million  a  year.  No  Customs-Union 
that  may  be  devised  could  bear  so  lightly  on  industry. 
France  pays  a  larger  figure  for  less  extensive  facilities. 

'iy'j .  We  need  not  enter  into  the  question  how  such 
a  sum  may  be  equitably  assessed,  for,  under  the  con- 
ditions of  the  Empire,  any  scheme  of  the  kind  must  be 
begun  tentatively,  be  provided  for  by  special  vote  of 
the  groups  interested,  and  carried  out  as  commerce 
expands,  as  "  the  circle  of  exchange "  widens,  as  the 
profit  of  the  groups  from  the  interchange  increases. 
Canada's  vote  to  which  I  refer  is  indicative  of  the 
temper  of  the  outside  Empire.  In  regard  to  the 
United  Kingdom,  Lord  Jersey  assures  us  that  her 
quota  need  involve  no  addition  to  her  present  outlay ; 
she  might  divert  to  this  purpose  the  subsidies  she  now 
pays  to  foreign  lines,  that  is,  about  ii^20o,ooo  a  year ;  or 
"  without  granting  an  actual  subsidy  at  all,  effect  the 
same  result  (so  far  as  steamships  are  concerned)  by 
the  united  action  of  the  Post  Office  and  Admu-alty 
Departments,"  The  United  Kingdom  has  shown  her 
readiness  to  bear  her  share  of  the  outlay.  The  new 
burden,  the  cost  of  the  new  movement,  at  least  in  its 
initial  stages,  may  fall  on  the  Colonies,  but,  if  so,  it  will 
fall  on  them  to  their  own  advantage  and  in  such  a 
way  as  at  once  to  meet  their  requirements  and  fulfil 
their  wishes. 

To  facilitate  the  flow  of  capital  from  group  to 
group;  to  collect  and  disseminate  to  all  information 
of  the   needs,   productions,  and   possibilities   of  each ; 


488  GENERAL 

to  accelerate  their  inter-communication  in  their  great 
diversity  —  in  a  word,  to  proceed  by  way  of  the 
international  principle  in  the  development  of  Inter- 
British  trade — what  is  it  but  to-  base  your  system 
on  "  the  dominant  economic  factor  of  the  age  "  ?  This 
principle  may  not  give  us  a  specific  for  trade  advance, 
but  it  does  indicate  a  policy.  On  the  one  side,  it 
involves  no  disturbance  of  foreim  relations,  no  dis- 
crimination  against  other  peoples,  no  crippling  of 
external  trathc ;  on  the  contrary,  it  would  promote 
profitable  exchange  abroad.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
will  work  and  attain  its  end  independently  and  with 
the  means  at  hand.  It  accepts  frankly  the  present 
condition  of  the  Empire,  It  leaves  each  part  in  full 
enjoyment  of  its  powers  and  privileges,  free  to  raise  its 
revenue  and  adjust  its  taxes  in  its  own  way.  It 
proceeds  not  so  much  by  way  of  legislation  as  by 
administration.  It  introduces  no  questionable  problem 
into  the  Empire,  and  calls  for  no  central  imposition. 
It  relies  on  local  effort,  local  agencies,  those  powerful 
factors  of  industrial  growth  which  England  alone  of 
nations  has  been  wishful  to  utilise  in  her  colonial 
system.  It  is  along  the  trend  of  Imperial  policy 
to-day  and  in  days  past.  It  is  nothing  more  than 
an  extension  of  that  policy  which  has  been  so  success- 
ful, an  adaptation  of  it  to  present  conditions.  The 
applications  I  have  given  are  put  forth  by  way  of 
example  only.  The  principle  itself  applies  to  neces- 
sities that  may  arise  as  well  as  those  which  now  call 
for  consideration. 


SPORT   AND   ATHLETICS,   AND   THE 
BRITISH  EMPIRE 

By  EUSTACE  H.  MILES,  M.A. 

{Of  Kinij's  CoUecic,  Camhridye ;  Amateur  Champion  of  the  World  at  Tennis, 

and  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  at  Racquets  and  Squash-Tennis ; 

formerly  Assistant-Master  at  Rughy  School,  and  Lecturer  for  the 

University  Board  of  Civil  Service  Studies  at  Cambridi/e 

in  Classics  and  Ancient  History  ;  Author  of  "  The 

Training  of  the  Body,"  ti-c.) 

It  would  be  possible  to  write  large  volumes  on  this 
subject  without  exhausting  one-half  of  its  aspects. 
Here  I  shall  be  obliged  to  select  only  a  fcAv  points, 
namely,  those  which  I  consider  to  be  of  the  greatest 
interest  to  the  largest  number  of  readers.  The  scheme 
of  the  essay  will  be  as  follows. 

First  of  all,  I  shall  try  to  show  that  we  do 
recognise  the  importance  of  Sport  and  Athletics  for 
ourselves  as  individuals,  as  a  Nation,  and.  above  all, 
as  a  ruling  and  imperial  Nation. 

Secondly,  I  shall  admit  the  bad  side  of  Sport  and 
Athletics,  partly  because  it  is  only  fair  to  do  so,  and 
partly  in  order  that  this  bad  side  may  be  gradually 
removed. 

Then,  after  exposing  a  few  of  the  fallacies  which 

are  still   very  common   with  regard  to  the  effects  of 

Sport   and   Athletics    upon  individuals  and  upon  the 

Nation  and  upon  the  Em})ire,  I  shall  proceed  to  give 

their  good  effects,  on  the  winning  of  our  Empire  and 

upon  the  maintenance  of  it  both  in  the  past  and   in 

the  present  and  in  the  future. 

I  shall  then  show  that  we  cannot  claim   to  hold 
489 


490  GENERAL 

our  Empire  or  to  justify  our  Empire  without  being 
ourselves  a  fine  Nation  of  men :  that  is  to  say,  if  we 
expect  to  rule  others  and  to  have  a  right  to  rule 
others,  we  must  ourselves  be  good  men  and  set  a  good 
example.  I  shall  therefore  consider  the  general  effects 
of  Sport  and  Athletics  in  making  us  a  fine  Nation  of 
good  men,  pointing  out  clearly  that  all  the  effects  I 
mention  are  not  necessarily  intentional ;  for  there  are 
plenty  of  things  that  can  do  us  good  without  our  being 
conscious  that  they  do  so. 

I  shall  make  the  effects  clearer  by  a  contrast. 
I  shall  show  how  our  Sport  and  Athletics,  and  Games 
in  particular,  differ  essentially  from  the  German 
Gymnastics :  for  the  two  are  apt  to  be  confused  by 
many  people  in  Great  Britain  as  well  as  outside  it. 
The  Germans  are  apt  to  suppose,  for  instance,  that  our 
Sport  and  Athletics  and  Games  do  nothing  more  for 
us  than  their  Gymnastics  do  for  them. 

There  will  follow  a  very  brief  general  history, 
including  one  or  two  reasons  why  England  has  been 
and  is  so  devoted  to  these  branches  of  exercise. 

After  this  will  come  a  special  account  of  certain 
branches  of  these  exercises,  such  as  Sport  in  the  sense 
of  Shooting,  &c.,  Rowing,  Football,  Cricket,  Lawn 
Tennis,  &c.,  and  Athletics. 

In  conclusion,  I  shall  sum  up  those  points  which 
I  consider  likely  to  be  new  to  many  readers,  and  I 
shall  try  to  point  out  the  direction  in  which  we  should 
shape  our  future  polic}^  with  regard  to  Sport  and 
Athletics  and  Games  and,  in  general,  with  regard  to 
amusements  and  recreations. 

Games  and  Athletics  and  Sport  are  recognised  as 
of  very  great  importance  to  our  well-being  as  in- 
dividuals, as  a  Nation,  and  therefore  also  as  an  imperial 
Nation  :  for  we  cannot  be  a  good  imperial  Nation  with- 
out being  ourselves  good  individuals  and  a  good 
Nation.      Let  me  give  a  few  proofs  of  this  recognition. 


SPORT    AND    ATHLETICS  491 

Looking  at  language,  avo  notice  the  meaning 
attaching  to  "  a  real  sportsman,"  "  fair  play,"  "  play 
the  game,"  and  many  other  phrases :  they  tell  us  a 
little  history  in  themselves.  Mere  "  Walking "  and 
mere  "  Gymnastics "  have  no  such  forcible  meaning 
attached  to  them. 

Another  proof  of  the  importance  of  these  kinds 
of  exercise  would  be  the  large  sale  of  Athletic  and 
Sporting  Papers,  and  the  thousands  who  are  attracted 
to  watch  Cricket,  Football,  and  other  Matches.  This 
applies  not  only  to  ourselves,  but  also  to  America  and 
to  our  Colonies :  in  fact,  the  Australian  crowds  that 
come  to  watch  Cricket  matches  are  as  great  as  ours 
and  even  greater.  The  interest  in  such  competitions 
is  scarcely  less  marked  on  the  Continent. 

Another  very  noticeable  sign  would  be  our  action 
when  we  take  some  new  place.  We  do  not  merely 
strengthen  it  and  set  up  fortifications,  government- 
buildings,  and  churches.  What  else  do  we  do  ?  We 
begin  a  Cricket  ground,  and  perhaps  a  ground  for 
Football,  Lawn  Tennis,  Polo,  and  so  on  ;  these  come 
hardly  second  to  the  fortifications  and  government- 
buildings.  The  Englishman  out  there  must  be  kept 
healthy  in  body  and  mind,  and  he  finds  that  Games 
and  Athletics  are  the  best  means  towards  this  end. 

Look  again  at  our  great  Public  Schools,  which 
have  been  compared  to  the  very  heart  of  our  Nation. 
It  would  be  terrible  to  think  of  what  would  happen 
to  us  if  our  Public  School  system  were  swept  away, 
or  if — and  this  comes  to  very  much  the  same  thing — 
from  our  Public  School  system  were  swept  away  our 
Athletics  and  our  Games. 

Again,  how  do  we  choose  our  Public  School 
Masters  ?  Simply  for  their  social  qualities  ?  Simply 
for  the  masses  of  information  which  they  have 
absorbed  ?  Simply  for  their  power  of  teaching  ?  No. 
The  first  "and  the  second  points  are  taken  into  con- 


492  GENERAL 

sideration,  but  the  third  hardly  as  yet.  We  choose 
them  partly  for  their  Athletic  qualifications.  Those 
who  are  admittedly  the  very  pick  of  oup  Nation,  those 
who  shall  govern  in  our  Colonies  and  in  our  Civil 
Service  department  in  India  and  elsewhere,  those  we, 
with  perfect  confidence,  give  up  to  be  trained  by  men 
of  whom  some  have  scarcely  any  qualifications  apart 
from  the  fact  that  they  are  gentlemen  and  athletes 
and  not  absolutely  ignorant.  I  would  not  see  the 
system  altered  for  worlds,  except  that  there  would  be 
no  harm  if  Public  School  Masters  first  learnt  how  to 
teach ! 

More  generally,  we  respect  Athletes  and  "  Sports- 
men "  all  the  world  over,  wherever  we  meet  them,  in 
any  country.  In  Great  Britain,  in  France,  in  Germany, 
in  America,  as  well  as  in  our  own  possessions  and 
Colonies,  Ave  honour  them  immediately  and  make 
friends  with  them.  We  may  possibly  feel  some 
antipathy  to  a  German  because  he  is  a  German,  but 
when  he  has  been  beaten  in  a  Game  of  LaAvn  Tennis 
and  comes  up  to  his  opponent  cheerfully  and  con- 
gratulates him,  then  we  say  "  Here  is  a  Sportsman 
who  plays  the  game."  Although  we  know  nothing 
else  about  this  opponent,  yet  we  respect  him  simply 
on  the  strength  of  his  sportsman-like  feeling. 

I  spoke  just  now  of  our  (compulsory)  Games  at 
Public  Schools.  Arc  they  good  ?  Probably  thousands 
of  mothers  would  say  "  No ;  poor  Tommy  may  get 
hurt."  But  we  disregard  such  mothers,  for  we  know 
better ;  if  little  Tommy  is  to  become  a  real  man,  he 
must  be  made  to  play  Games.  By  the  mere  fact  that 
nearly  all  Englishmen  who  have  submitted  to  com- 
pulsory Games  have  advocated  the  system,  Ave  shoAv 
how  important  Ave  feel  these  Games  to  be. 

Indeed,  it  might  almost  be  asserted  that,  if  Ave 
abolished  Games  and  Athletics,  as  certain  unhealthy 
people  would   liave  ns  do,  and  if  Ave  put  in  Clieir  place 


SPORT    AND    ATHLETICS  493 

more  brain-work,  more  absorbing  of  information,  or  if 
we  only  did  "  Gymnastics  at  the  word  of  command," 
we  should  soon  cease  to  rule  the  sea  and  much  of  the 
land  as  well,  and,  what  is  more,  Ave  should  richly 
deserve  to  lose  our  Empire.  For  it  would  be  better 
for  the  world  not  to  be  ruled  by  us  if  we  gave  up  our 
Sport  and  Athletics  and  Games ;  it  would  be  better 
for  the  world  to  be  ruled  by  those  who  had  not  given 
them  up  or  by  those  who  would  consent  to  develop 
them. 

But  these  forms  of  exercise  have  their  dark  side ; 
it  is  of  no  use  to  deny  the  evils,  for  they  stare  us  in 
the  face.  If  I  were  to  pass  them  by,  not  only  should 
I  call  down  upon  myself  a  storm  of  criticism  for  my 
unfau-ness  and  gross  exaggeration,  but  I  should  be 
failing  to  point  out  the  lines  of  reform  on  which  we 
certainly  ought  to  work.  I  need  not  enter  into  these 
evils  in  detail ;  a  few  points  may  be  selected. 

First  of  all  there  is  the  letting.  The  betting  is 
not  confined  to  horse  racing,  but  extends  to  a  good 
many  other  branches  of  Sport  and  Athletics ;  and  in 
its  train  there  follows,  though  less  in  England  than 
elsewhere,  a  certain  amount  of  bribery  and  cheating. 
Undoubtedly,  also,  he  who  knows  our  poorer  districts 
thoroughly  must  also  know  the  fascination  Avhich 
bettino-  and  <)famblin»  have  for  the  masses  in  our 
great  cities.  Australia  and  other  Colonies  have  suf- 
fcred,  and  are  suffering  still,  from  this  scourge. 

Secondly,  there  is  the  dark  side  of  professionalism, 
which  involves  a  good  deal  of  local  feeling  and  jealousy, 
as  we  see  in  many  Football  Matches.  It  breeds  a 
rather  disgusting  spirit  of  pugnacity,  and  above  all 
it  is  apt  to  leave  the  brain  undeveloped.  One's  idea 
of  a  professional  is  that  of  a  man  who  develops  his 
limbs,  especially  his  muscles,  at  the  expense  of  his 
brain. 

Without  denying  these  and   other  facts,  we  must 


494  GENEKAL 

yet  remember  that  objections  of  the  latter  type  apply 
also  to  the  ordinary  system  of  feeding  which  prevails 
among  those  who  can  atitbrd  it ;  we  must  not  condemn 
eating  and  drinking  because  so  many  people  over-eat 
and  over-drink,  and  thus  misuse  what  should  be  a 
blessing. 

No,  the  question  is  rather  this :  "  Granted  that 
Sport  and  Athletics  and  Games  have  their  dis- 
advantages, are  these  greater  than,  and  do  they  out- 
weigh, the  advantages  ? " 

It  would  not  be  fair  to  proceed  to  the  advantages 
until  we  have  also  n^entioned  tlie  cmelty  and  hrutalism 
which  is  associated  with  a  good  deal  of  what  is  called 
Sport.  But  here  once  more  we  have  to  ask  whether 
the  killing  of  animals  is  a  greater  disadvantage  than  ill- 
health  ;  or  we  have  to  ask  what  the  men  who  shoot  and 
hunt  and  fish  would  be  doing  if  they  were  not  shooting 
and  hunting  and  fishing  i  If  the  answer  is  that  they 
would  very  likely  be  smoking  and  idling  and  drinking 
whiskies  and  sodas  at  their  Club,  or  perhaps  doing 
something  worse,  then  we  shall  decide  that  perhaps 
it  is  better  for  the  present  that  they  should  be 
shooting  and  hunting  and  fishing.  We  can  scarcely 
look  upon  it  as  the  ideal  of  Sport,  but  to  me  at 
least  it  seems  the  better,  fur  the  better,  of  the  two 
alternatives. 

Shooting  may  bring  another  evil,  in  that  the  land 
thus  used  (or,  rather,  for  a  great  part  of  the  year 
unused)  might  be  distributed  among  some  farmers 
and  gardeners.  But  to-day,  at  any  rate,  there  are 
not  enough  suiall  farmers  and  gardeners  who  could 
make  these  allotments  pay ;  we  have  to  educate  the 
classes  first  before  we  distribute  the  land. 

Let  me  finish  this  section  with  the  mention  of 
perhaps  the  worst  type  of  Sporting  man.  Now  there 
iu-c  .some  who  call  themselves  Cliristiaus,  and  at  the 
same    time    are    among    the    most    uncharitable    and 


SPORT    AND    ATHLETICS  495 

narrow-minded  and  cruel  people  in  the  world  ;  they 
stand  in  the  way  of  every  kind  of  real  reform.  We 
recognise  their  existence,  but  we  call  them  caricatures 
of  Christianity.  We  say,  "  You  must  not  judge 
Christianity  by  them,  any  more  than  you  must  judge 
a  man's  appearance  by  the  likenesses  of  him  in  the 
Comic  Papers."  And  so  it  is  with  those  terribly 
"horsey"  men  who  idle  about,  often  with  their  mouths 
wide  open,  and  their  heads  quite  empty ;  who  wear 
riding-breeches  and  perhaps  spurs,  and  Avho  are 
frequently  to  be  heard  betting  or  swearing,  or  to  be 
seen  drinking  whiskies  and  sodas  and  smoking. 
They  seldom  take  exercise :  the  worst  types  hardly 
ever  ride.  These  are  not  Sportsmen,  they  are  merely 
caricatures.  We  recognise  their  existence,  but  we 
do  not  class  them  as  real  Sportsmen  or  Athletes,  or 
even  as  gentlemen. 

Having  mentioned  a  few  of  the  evils,  let  me  now 
expose  one  or  two  fallacies  about  Games  and  Ath- 
letics and  Sport.  And  let  me  first  guard  against  any 
exaggerated  views  on  the  subject. 

Thus  it  is  a  fallacy  to  suppose  that  these  kinds  of 
exercise  are  either  altogether  good  or  altogether  bad. 
In  some  respects  they  are  excellent  and  indispensable : 
in  other  respects  they  are  bad  or  even  execrable.  In 
fact  they  may,  according  to  the  way  in  which  they  are 
used,  develop  some  of  the  very  highest  and  noblest 
feelings  of  which  man  is  capable,  or  some  of  the  very 
lowest  and  basest. 

There  are  many  fallacies  about  the  true  ohject  and 
aim  of  these  branches  of  exercise.  Some  hold  that 
mere  success  is  the  object  and  aim.  As  we  think  of 
professionals,  and  of  those  amateurs  who  are  almost 
professionals,  a  number  of  such  people  are  brought 
before  our  mind  :  then-  great  object  seems  to  be  to  win 
at  their  particular  branch  of  Sport.  This  means  that 
they  aini  at  acquiring  skill,  strength,  endurance,  and  so 


496  GENERAL 

on,  in  this  particular  branch :  they  train  for  this  and 
for  this  alone. 

Scarcely  less  fallacious  is  the  view  that  these 
exercises  are  mere  recreations,  to  give  us  relief  after 
hard  brain- work ;  that  then-  sole  object  is  to  enable 
people  to  rest  then  brains,  so  as  to  work  better  with 
their  brains  afterwards.  There  are  thousands  who  hold 
that  Games  do  nothing  whatever  to  develop  the  brain, 
e.g.  the  power  of  reasoning  and  the  moral  character ; 
they  say  that  Games  develop  only  the  muscles.  I 
have  never  yet  been  able  to  convince  a  German  that 
our  Games  do  more  for  us  than  their  Gymnastics 
would. 

Or  some  may  say  that,  directl}^  or  indhectly,  Games 
conduce  towards  physical  health,  and  that  they  are  for 
this  reason  justifiable.  The  open  air,  they  say,  is  a 
good  thing,  and  so  is  exercise,  for  these  improve  the 
circulation,  and  so  on. 

These  views  as  to  the  objects  and  aims  of  Games, 
Athletics,  and  Sport  are  to  some  extent  true ;  though 
each  gives  only  one  aspect  of  the  truth.  It  is  indeed 
important  to  improve  and  succeed  in  one's  particular 
branch  of  Sport ;  it  is  indeed  important  to  use  it  as  a 
means  of  recreation  and  as  a  help  towards  brain-work ; 
and  it  is  still  more  important  to  regard  it  as  a  means 
of  physical  health :  all  this  is  true,  but  there  is  much 
more  that  is  equally  true,  as  we  shall  see  directly. 

So  far  from  Gauies  necessarily  militating  against 
brain-work,  as  some  would  have  us  suppose,  they  ought 
rather  to  be  a  help  towards  it,  and  they  ought  to  be 
nearly  the  best  kind  of  brain-work  that  there  is.  That 
they  are  not  so,  is  partly  duo  to  the  fact  that  we  do 
not  yet  realise  their  true  spirit,  that  we  have  never 
had  before  us  the  ideal,  that  we  have  omitted  to  note 
the  many  intellectual  and  moral  excellences  which 
they  might  develop,  as  well  as  the  physical  excellences 
and    the    enjoyment   of   life :    wiLliout    which   develop- 


SPORT    AND    ATHLKTICS  497 

ments  we  shall  be  unable  and  unfitted  to  gain  further 
Empu'e,  to  hold  what  we  have,  or  to  rule  it  as  we 
should  rule  it. 

Having  exposed  these  few  fallacies,  we  may  now 
consider  some  of  the  advantages  which  these  exercises 
have  brought  for  the  British  Empire. 

One  of  the  most  urgent  topics  of  the  day  nmst  be, 
"  What  is  the  connection,  at  the  present  moment, 
between  ourselves  and  our  Colonies :  what  has  bound 
us  together,  what  binds  us  together  now,  and  what 
will  bind  us  together  in  the  future  ? "  For  we  may 
be  sure  that  what  has  bound  us  together  in  the  past 
Avill  be  likely  to  bind  us  together  in  the  future. 

Among  the  chief  bonds  of  union  are  points  of  resem- 
blance. We  resemble  the  Australian  colonists,  for 
example,  in  our  appearance,  our  dress,  our  traditions, 
our  customs,  and  so  on ;  but  among  the  strongest 
points  of  similarity  are  our  forms  of  Sport  and  Ath- 
letics. Neither  of  the  two  peoples  cares  for  the  Gym- 
nastic system,  neither  of  us  cares  for  mere  brain-work. 
In  both  England  and  Australia  there  is  a  love  of 
Sport  in  general,  such  as  fishing,  shooting,  and  hunt- 
ing ;  of  Rowing,  of  Cricket,  of  Football,  of  Lawn  Tennis, 
and  other  Ball-games ;  wherever  we  see  these  forms  of 
Athletics,  to  some  extent  we  feel  ourselves  at  home. 
But  this  is  far  from  being  all  that  we  owe  to  them. 
They  are  far  more  than  a  bond  of  union. 

I  shall  pass  over  many  minor  points,  though  some 
of  them  might  be  of  great  interest :  thus  I  shall  not 
dwell  on  the  effect  of  Sport  upon  discovery.  A  good 
deal  of  country  has  been  opened  up  by  those  who  have 
gone  chiefly  in  search  of  game ;  this  search  has  led 
to  discovery  incidentally,  and  the  excitement  of  it  has 
fostered  a  spirit  of  pluck,  daring  enterprise,  and  self- 
reliance. 

The  South  African  War  has  shown  us  the  close 
analogy  betAveen  War,  Sport,  and  Athletics.  Those 
V  2  1 


498  GENERAL 

who  have  excelled  in  the  latter  have  been  among  the 
first  to  volunteer  and  to  succeed  in  the  former.  One 
can  recall  many  instances  where  a  bold  dash  by  a 
soldier  has  seemed  almost  exactly  the  same  thing  as 
a  bold  dash  by  a  Huntsman  or  a  Football-player. 

Nor  shall  I  say  much  about  Rowing,  although  it 
has  done  very  much  to  help  our  naval  power.  We 
might  almost  say  that  our  naval  power  was  begotten 
upon  our  rivers  and  upon  our  coasts,  which  will  still 
suppl}^  it  with  its  materials  ready-trained  for  the  open 
sea.  We  are  richer  in  naval  reserve  than  other  Nations 
can  hope  to  be ;  and  this  is  partly  (though  far  fi'om 
enthely)  due  to  our  cultivation  of  Rowing  as  a  brancli 
of  Athletics,  for  instance  at  Regattas.  If  we  think  for 
a  moment  of  what  a  mighty  power  our  navy  has  been 
in  History,  even  in  land-battles,  we  shall  see  that 
the  effect  of  Athletics  upon  our  Empire  is  by  no  means 
small,  if  we  consider  this  point  alone. 

But  the  real  effect  goes  far  beyond  this.  Games 
and  Athletics  are  admirable  practice  in  the  right  way 
of  hearing  defeat  and  "  plajdng  a  losing  game."  He 
who  is  used  to  being  defeated  in  Games  and  Athletics, 
and  to  bearing  defeat  like  a  man,  with  the  intention 
of  correcting  his  weaknesses  between  this  competition 
and  the  next,  has  learnt  a  very  great  lesson ;  and,  by 
the  very  training  of  his  limbs,  he  Avill  have  lessened 
the  chance  of  defeat  in  the  future.  It  has  been  chiefly 
by  Athletics  that  so  many  of  our  soldiers  and  sailors 
and  colonists  have  learnt  never  to  be  beaten. 

Victory  also  has  been  helped  by  Games  and  Ath- 
letics, which,  as  wo  shall  see  below,  have  developed 
certain  qualities  indispensable  to  victory. 

But  they  liavo  also  trained  us  to  use  our  victories, 
which  is  a  still  more  important  matter.  The  Spartans 
of  old  were  gi-eat  victory-winners,  but  they  were  poor 
victory-users.  They  failed  to  hold  and  to  make  their 
own  that  which  the}'  had  bravely  Avon  by  training,  by 


SPORT    AND    ATHLETICS  499 

bravery,  and  by  obedience.  The  fact  that  we  do  know 
how  to  use  our  victories  and  conquests  is  partly  due 
to  Athletic  competitions. 

The  Romans  of  old  were  not  mere  conquerors,  but 
hold  the  conquered  peoples  as  willing  subjects,  impart- 
ing to  them  the  blessings  and  privileges  which  they 
themselves  enjoyed.  And  we  do  the  same.  To  those 
whom  we  conquer  we  impart  our  blessings  and  privi- 
leges, and  among  them  not  the  least  are  Games,  and 
Athletics,  and  Sport. 

We  cannot  realise  this  until  we  look  into  the  Ger- 
man colonies.  No  one  would  deny  to  the  Germans 
very  great  military  ability :  they  can  win  land  w'ell 
enough,  and  their  discipline  is  admirable ;  but  it  is 
not  likely  that  their  rule  will  ever  suit  the  Southern 
races :  it  is  too  heavy  and  ponderous.  Now  vm  do  not 
merely  rule  people  with  the  rule  of  iron,  but  we  admit 
them  to  our  own  life ;  we  do  not  treat  them  like  slaves, 
but  we  say  to  them,  for  example,  "  Come  and  play 
Football,"  or  "  Have  a  try  at  Cricket."  This  is  surely 
one  way  to  their  respect  and  also  to  their  affection  and 
loyalty.  We  bring  them  something  which  is  not  only 
useful,  but  also  pleasant. 

For  they  do  respect  us  as  Athletes  and  Sportsmen. 
Let  hostile  Nations  say  what  they  will,  these  qualities 
must  be  respected  wherever  they  are  found.  In  such 
competitions  conquerors  and  conquered  can  meet  on 
equal  terms  Avithout  that  familiarity  which  elsewhere 
might  breed  contempt. 

Besides  this,  our  Sport  and  Games  make  us  a 
healthy  people,  and  they  tend  to  make  us  open-minded  ; 
and  rulers  always  should  be  healthy  and  open-minded. 
Open-mindedness  is  not  much  encouraged  by  our 
brain-education  in  England,  but  it  is  encouraged  by 
our  Games  and  Athletics.  Here  a  player  has  a  right 
to  do  that  which  will  '■  score,"  that  which  common- 
sense  urges  him  to  do,  provided   that  it  is  not  unfair. 


500  GENERAL 

In  other  words,  our  Games  are  open  to  changes  for 
the  better ;  in  them  we  do  not,  so  slavishly  as  else- 
where, follow  the  fashion,  the  ideas  of  past  generations. 
The  rule  of  such  people  who  are  thus  trained  to  judge 
things  by  their  merits,  and  to  accept  what  is  new,  pro- 
vided only  that  it  is  good  for  the  particular  purpose 
and  also  fair,  must  be  a  far  greater  blessing  to  the 
ruled,  than  the  system  of  those  who  force  upon  alien 
races  the  customs  which  they  have  found  best  for  their 
own  country.  We  have  still  much  to  learn  here,  but 
our  method  is  at  any  rate  more  open-minded  than  that 
of  any  other  Nation. 

We  shall  see  below  that  those  Exercises  into  which 
the  spirit  of  competition  enters  will  It  dp  to  break  down 
harriers  between  various  classes.  This  point  I  leave  for 
the  present,  except  to  say  that,  with  an  imperial 
Nation,  Games  may  have  a  similar  effect  in  reconcil- 
ing it  with  other  Nations.  They  may  help  to  do  away 
with  the  exclusive  national  spirit  which  is  only  the 
petty  jealousy  of  one  Greek  City-state  (like  Athens) 
for  another  (like  Sparta  or  Thebes),  magnified  and  on 
a  large  scale. 

Perhaps  it  is  not  every  one  who  has  realised  that 
Football,  Lawn  Tennis,  Cricket,  and  Athletics  are 
likely  to  make  us  friendly  with  other  Nations,  and  to 
make  us  appreciate  their  good  points,  and  to  remove 
our  jealousy  and  hatred  and  contempt  for  them  and 
with  theirs  for  us.  Tlic  recent  Athletic  Competition 
between  Harvard  and  Yale  and  Oxi'ord  and  Cambridofo, 
four  great  Universities,  opened  the  eyes  of  English 
people  to  qualities  which  they  had  scarcely  suspected 
in  Airiericans:  ibr  instance,  the  power  to  boar  defeat  in 
;t  iiianly  and  sportsmanlike  way.  Few  things  will  do 
more  to  make  us  respect  the  Germans  than  the  Foot- 
ball-Matches and  the  Lawn  Tennis  Tom-naments,  in 
which  latter,  at  any  rate,  there  is  little  or  nothing  to 
choose  between  the  Gerniaus  and  Austrians  and  many 


SPORT    AND    ATHLETICS  501 

other  peoples,  and  ourselves,  so  tar  as  fair  play  and 
manliness  are  concerned. 

Between  Nations  there  is  a  great  deal  of  unfairness 
and  treachery :  we  may  call  it  diplomacy,  but  that  is 
only  a  thin  veil  for  dishonesty.  The  law  of  honour, 
though  stricter  now  than  it  was  of  old,  is  not  yet 
nearly  strict  enough ;  there  is  too  much  of  the  coia- 
mercial  and  grasping  spirit.  An  antidote  is  sadly 
needed,  and  this  antidote  is  to  be  found  in  Games  and 
Athletics.  Here  one  Nation  can  meet  another  and 
contend  with  absolute  honesty  and  good-feeling ;  the 
struggle  is  by  no  means  unimportant,  and  may  rouse 
the  interest  and  partisanship  of  thousands  or  millions ; 
yet  the  competition,  whether  it  be  yachting  or  some 
Game,  may  go  on  with  perfect  good-feeling ;  there  need 
be  no  dishonesty.  The  conquered  may  congratulate 
the  conquerors,  and  the  conquerors  may  respect  the 
conquered.  So  far  from  the  victory  or  defeat  produc- 
ing a  bad  feeling,  as  a  War  or  a  commercial  rivalry  or 
almost  any  rivalry  is  nearly  bound  to  do,  so  far  from 
this  being  the  case.  Athletic  Competitions  may  bring 
the  Nations  far  closer  together  and  make  them  more 
real  friends  than  before. 

But  we  have  not  yet  justified  our  Empire  in  the 
eyes  of  the  Avorld.  I  have  read  in  numerous  Papers 
and  Pamphlets  lately  that  our  Empire  is  a  curse  to 
the  world.  The  world  must  admit  that  we  are  one  of 
the  strongest  Nations  :  it  would  be  useless  for  the  world 
to  deny  it,  as  useless  in  fact  as  it  would  be  to  deny  that 
we  have  won  our  Empire  and  do  still  hold  it,  and  that 
it  brings  us  in  a  vast  mass  of  trade,  commerce,  and 
Avealth,  and  a  great  deal  of  power  besides.  Every  one 
will  admit  that  it  is  ours  by  right  of  conquest,  that  it  is 
very  large,  and  a  mine  of  wealth  ;  but  we  must  not  be 
content  with  this.  We  must  justify  our  Empire  by 
showing  that  it  is  for  the  benefit  of  our  subjects  and 
colonists. 


502  GENERAL 

The  manner  of  our  winning  our  Empire  and  the 
primary  motives  and  reasons  for  its  conquest  or  ac- 
quisition, are  not  always  so  easy  to  justify :  in  fact,  I 
doubt  if  we  can  justify  it  on  strict  grounds  of  morahty  ; 
this  is  a  very  vexed  question,  and,  however  we  may 
defend  the  manner  and  the  motives,  some  will  be  sure  to 
dispute  our  arguments.  No  :  we  had  far  better  justify 
our  imperial  rule  by  its  results,  which  means  to  say  that 
we  had  far  better  answer  our  critics  by  showing  that 
we  are  a  good  Nation,  a  healthy  Nation,  a  fair  Nation, 
and  not  mere  bullies ;  that  we  are  ready  to  give  others 
our  own  blessings.  This  is  much  safer  than  to  assert 
that  in  winning  our  Empire  we  have  always  been  in 
the  right. 

If  we  can  prove  that  we  are  a  good  Nation,  then 
we  can  justify  ourselves  in  continuing  to  hold  what  we 
have,  and  possibly  even  in  extending  our  Empire. 
"  International  Morality "  is  not  yet  sufficiently  a 
Science  to  enable  us  to  doofmatise. 

Here  I  need  only  consider  how  far  the  good 
qualities  of  our  Nation  are  due  to  Sport,  Games,  and 
Athletics.  It  is  worth  while  to  inquire  into  this,  if 
only  in  order  that  we  may  know  just  what  to  en- 
courage and  what  to  discourage.  Let  us  therefore 
consider  the  good  effects  of  these  kinds  of  Atldetics 
upon  us  as  a  Nation  and  as  a  collection  of  individuals. 

First  of  all  comes  ijhysical  fitness,  much  of  which, 
however,  might  be  the  result  of  G3minastics  and  mere 
walking  and  running.  But  there  is  this  point  to  be 
constantly  borne  in  mind.  Most  people  refuse  to  take 
exercise  simply  for  the  sake  of  health  ;  they  demand 
some  object.  Germany  has  military  success  as  her 
object  for  her  Gymnastics.  England  encourages  people 
to  take  exercise  ])y  means  of  Sport  and  Games  and 
Athletics ;  these  must  have  saved  the  health  of  thou- 
sands of  men  who  would  otherwise  have  been  merely 
rich  loafers  and  good-for-nothings.      Such   people  will 


SPORT    AND    ATHLETICS  503 

not  go  out  for  a  walk ;  still  less  will  they  go  into  a 
Gymnasiuai ;  many  of  them  Avill  not  even  ride  for  the 
sake  of  riding  ;  but  they  loill  play  Games  and  they 
will  hunt,  for  here  they  have  an  immediate  object,  the 
pleasure  and  the  excitement  and  the  social  intercourse. 

Thus  there  come  to  thousands  or  even  millions 
strength,  endurance,  and  activity,  and  also  health  ; 
and  physical  health  means  an  increased  health  of  ntind 
and  health  of  moral  character.  Past  History  tells  us 
that  Nations  have  been  healthy  in  body  before  they 
have  been  brilliant  in  intellect,  and  healthy  and  sound 
in  morale,  and  that,  conversely,  their  bodily  and 
physical  health  and  excellence  have  decayed  before 
their  intellectual  and  moral  excellence. 

One  of  the  reasons  would  be  that  the  blood  which 
supplies  the  brain  passes  through  the  limbs  of  the 
body  as  well.  If  these  limbs  are  sluggish  and  un- 
exercised, the  blood  which  flows  to  the  brain  will  be  of 
a  poor  quality,  and  perhaps  laden  with  poison. 

Much  of  the  blood's  purity  depends  on  the  taking 
in  of  the  open  air.  In  a  hot  Lecture-room,  and  in  an 
average  Church,  we  notice  that  people's  veins  some- 
times stand  out  with  the  dark  and  poisoned  blood  ; 
this  is  not  that  bright  red  blood  which  is  rich  in 
oxygen.  Open  air  is  a  real  necessity  for  health  ;  we 
are  beginning  to  recognise  this  in  England  in  the 
treatment  of  Consumption.  Now  it  is  chiefly  exercise 
that  will  give  us  this  air,  and  the  form  of  exercise 
which  people  prefer  is  a  Game,  or  some  other  kind  of 
Athletics,  or  else  some  branch  of  Sport. 

By  this  means,  also,  people  see  our  beautiful 
country  instead  of  staying  in  their  own  rooms  in 
the  city.  We  might  extend  the  words  yvooOi  a-eavrov 
"  Know  yourself,"  and  say  yvwOt  tu  areauTov,  "  Know 
all  that  is  your  own."  Every  one  ought  to  knoiu  his 
oicn  counirT/  as  well  as  his  OAvn  character,  and  he  will 
see  a  great  deal  of  the  best  of  it,  e.g..  in  Lawn  Tennis 


504  GENERAL 

Tournaments,  on  Cricket  and  Football  tours,  and  when 
lie  hunts  or  fishes.  It  is  a  duty  of  every  Englishman 
to  know  his  own  country :  it  is  true  that  by  this  means 
he  will  only  know  it  incidentally,  and  perhaps  without 
intending  to  know  it  at  all,  but  he  will  none  the  less 
be  benefited  by  the  knowledge. 

And  pidriotism  must  come  from  the  knowledge  also. 
For  who  can  know  our  country  without  loving  it  ? 

We  shall  soon  recognise  the  importance  of  enjoy- 
ment as  well.  Experiments  have  been  made  which 
show  that  during  enjoyment,  and  during  anger  and 
discontent  and  other  feelings,  the  quality  of  the  blood 
is  completely  different.  Those  who  are  aware  how  the 
blood  permeates  the  whole  body  must  see  that  enjoy- 
ment, which  affects  its  very  nature  most  favourably, 
nmst  be  good  for  the  whole  body.  Now  ainong  enjoy- 
ments Ave  must  reckon  such  amusements  as  the  reading 
of  Novels,  many  of  which  are  grossly  unwholesome, 
and  the  music-halls,  and  so  on,  as  well  as  Games  and 
Athletics.  There  is  no  need  to  say  which  kind  of 
enjoyment  and  amusement  is  likely  to  be  the  healthier 
for  the  body  and  the  mind. 

But  Athletics,  Games,  and  Sports  do  not  merely 
give  us  physical  fitness,  strength,  endurance,  activity, 
and  health ;  they  do  not  merely  bring  us  into  the 
open  air,  where  Ave  can  breathe  in  oxygen,  and  admire 
our  own  country,  and  come  to  love  it,  and  where  Ave 
can  get  Avholesomc  pleasure  :  for  they  can  also  serve  as 
a  nerve-educator. 

A  hard  Match  or  a  long-distance  run  may  be  a 
grand  exercise  for  the  nerves.  It  is  hard  to  define 
Avhat  is  meant  by  the  nerves,  and  it  may  be  better  to 
say  what  the  nerves  include. 

Prompti/ndc  is  one  sign  of  good  nerves :  it  is  not 
the  same  as  rapidity,  for  a  fast  runner  is  not  always 
pioiiipl  and  ready  to  start.  It  is  in  promptitude  that 
we  contrast  so  favourably  with  the  Germans,  who  are 


SPORT    AND    ATHLETICS  505 

very  good  when  once  they  have  legun  to  move,  but 
are  too  apt  to  wait  for  the  word  which  shall  start 
them. 

Good  nerves  also  mean  calmness,  which  is  necessary 
when  no  particular  promptitude  is  needed.  Here  we 
contrast  favourably  with  the  French,  who  seem  always 
excited  and  on  the  qui  vive,  even  where  there  is  no 
cause  for  excitement. 

Thirdly,  good  nerves  nuist  include  self-control, 
which  comes  to  people  not  only  through  Athletics, 
but  also  partly  through  the  training  for  Athletics, 
where  a  man  learns  to  say  sternly  to  himself,  e.g. 
for  a  whole  fortnight :  "  You  want  to  smoke  and  drink, 
but  you  shall  not." 

Patience,  which  is  closely  akin  to  calmness  and 
closely  akin  to  self-control,  could  also  be  acquired  by 
mere  Gymnastics,  but  it  is  acquu'cd  by  Games  as  well. 

Pluck  can  also  be  developed  by  mere  exercise  and 
Gynmastics,  but  not  to  the  same  extent.  Englishmen 
are  the  pluckiest  people  in  the  world,  though  the 
French  may  be  considerably  more  rash. 

But,  above  all,  Games  and  Athletics  develop  a 
strict  sense  0/  honour.  Not  only  have  the  written  laws 
to  be  obeyed,  but  the  unwritten  laws  also,  and  this — 
generally  speaking — marks  off  Athletics  and  Commerce 
distinctly  from  one  another.  For,  in  the  latter,  the 
unwritten  laws  of  honour  are  too  often  sadly  neglected. 
When  I  was  in  Homburg  lately,  at  the  Lawn  Tennis 
Tournament,  I  was  very  much  struck  with  tlie  way  in 
which  Germans  and  Austrians  and  others  would  correct 
the  umpire's  decision  when  it  had  been  given  wrongly 
and  in  their  own  favour.  This  is  in  Lawn  Tennis, 
and  it  seems  appropriate  here.  We  should  not  often 
expect  such  nobility  in  Commerce. 

Games  and  Athletics  also  give  us  great  respect 
for  other  Nations  (as  we  saw  above),  and  also  for  other 
Classes.     In  this  sphere  we  see  competition  in  its  ideal 


5o6  GENERAL 

form :  nowhere  else  is  defeat  so  well  taken,  nowhere 
else  is  victory  so  well  taken. 

And  perhaps  here  only  in  life  do  we  find  anything 
like  a  really  fair  system  of  "  Handicaps  "  :  elsewhere  the 
weaker  too  often  goes  to  the  wall.  But  in  Games  and 
Athletics,  to  an  increasing  extent,  people  are  judiciously 
handicapped  so  that  the  weakest  are  put  on  a  level 
with  the  strongest.  Handicaps  should  be  used  even 
more  freely  than  they  are  at  present. 

These  Athletic  competitions  give  the  ideal,  not 
only  of  Competition,  in  which  they  set  a  pattern  for 
Commerce,  but  also  in  mutual  help  and  co-operation. 
In  Cricket  and  Football,  each  player  tries  to  do  his 
best  in  his  own  sphere,  but  also  his  best  as  a  member 
of  his  team.  He  helps  others,  and  they  help  him,  all 
contributing  together  to  the  success  of  the  side.  This 
is  a  siofn — if  not  the  sis^n — of  advanced  civilisation. 

Another  sign  of  it  is  that,  besides  this  mutual 
help,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  independence,  especially  in 
Sport,  in  racing,  and  in  "  Singles "  at  various  Games. 
Originality  and  "  Self-activity "  (as  Froebel  called  it) 
is  essential  in  Education,  and  it  is  found  especially  in 
oiu'  Games. 

They  also  encourage  us  to  look  ahead  beyond  the 
immediate  present,  somewhat  as  Chess  should  do. 
Thus  a  cricketer  should  bowl  not  only  with  a  view  to 
a  particular  ball,  but  also  in  order  to  lead  up  to  another 
ball :  e.g.  he  sends  three  fast  balls  so  as  to  prepare  the 
way  for  a  slow  ball. 

The  social  injluence  of  Games  can  scarcely  be  over- 
estimated. Football  perhaps  comes  at  the  top  of  the 
list,  even  though  it  is  very  liable  to  abuse.  Games 
and  Athletics  will  do  a  world  of  good  in  abolishing 
the  barrier  between  Class  and  Class.  The  poor  are 
apt  to  hate  or  envy  the  rich  who  are  luxurious  and 
idle,  mid  these  in  tlioii'  turn  are  apt  to  despise  tlie 
poor  as  lioing  uneducated  and  dirty.      But  in  Games 


SPORT    AND    ATHLETICS  507 

and  Athletics  the  two  meet  on  equal  terms :  merit  at 
once  comes  to  the  fore.  No  favour  is  shown  to  the 
man  who  has  eaten  a  huge  champagne-lunch  and 
smoked  expensive  cigars,  as  compared  with  the  man 
who  has  only  had  his  bread  and  cheese.  Games  and 
Athletics  are  splendid  levellers. 

Besides  this  they  bring  the  sexes  together  in  a 
pleasant  way.  It  is  much  better  that  they  should 
meet  at  some  form  of  Athletics  than  at  the  typical 
crowded  At- Homes :  the  mere  intercourse  is  good  at 
all  times,  but  it  is  best  that  it  should  be  in  the  open 
air  and  that  the  occasion  should  be  healthy. 

The  most  hopeless  classes  of  all  in  our  land  are 
the  idle  rich  men  and  the  idle  rich  women :  to  the 
former,  Sport  will  perhaps  appeal,  and,  to  the  latter, 
Bicycling.  It  seems  almost  the  only  chance,  the  only 
redeeming  feature,  in  these  wretches,  that  they  take 
exercise.  We  must  bless  the  incentive  which  makes 
them  do  so,  and  we  must  bless  Athletics  also  as  a 
means  of  giving  other  people  a  healthy  profession  in 
the  open  air :  they  are  excellent  for  this  reason. 

And  so  we  come  back  to  liealth  once  more,  and  we 
111  list  come  back  to  it  and  insist  upon  it  to-day,  because 
city-life  is  taking  the  place  of  country-life  ;  although,  of 
course,  the  suburbs  of  cities  are  growinef  and  are  in 
easy  connection  Avith  the  cities.  But  there  is  none  the 
less  a  real  need  for  "  artificial "  exercise,  that  is  to 
say,  for  Games  and  Athletics.  If  we  are  to  be  a  great 
Nation,  we  must  get  some  substitute  for  our  farmer  and 
free  labourer  classes,  which  used  to  be  the  very  backbone 
of  England,  and  was  the  backbone  of  early  Greece  and 
Rome.  We  need  more  indoor  Games  (by  electric  light 
in  the  evenings)  in  well-ventilated  buildings  in  cities. 
New  York  and  Boston  set  us  a  good  example  here. 

All  this  is  ideal.  It  leaves  out  of  siolit  a  great  deal 
of  the  bad  side  of  Games  and  Athletics  and  Sport :  the 
advantages  are  rarely  realised,  and  often  are  not  to  be 


5o8  GENERAL 

seen  at  all,  but  yet  it  is  as  well  that  we  should  see  tlie 
ideal  and  the  full  advantages,  and  work  towards  them. 
Thus,  if  a  Football-player  thinks  that  Football  is  merely 
a  means  of  earning  a  sum,  e.g.  ten  shillings,  and  that  it 
is  nothing  beside  and  beyond  this,  then  Football  will 
do  him  only  a  small  amount  of  good.  But  once  point 
out  to  him  that  it  has  a  higher  side,  that  he,  as  a 
Sportsman,  is  doing  for  his  country  perhaps  as  much 
as  the  soldier  is  doing  in  War,  perhaps  more,  and  you 
turn  that  Football  into  something  better  than  it  was 
before,  viz,  into  a  means  of  educating  the  man ;  you 
put  Football  on  its  highest  level,  which  is  its  proper 
level :  the  man  must  play  it,  and  it  is  as  well  that  he 
should  see  its  noblest  side.  The  executioner's  job  is 
an  unpleasant  one,  but  the  executioner  gains  nothing 
by  dwelling  upon  this  side  of  it :  he  had  better  dwell 
upon  its  less  ignoble  side. 

The  above  points  will  be  made  clearer  by  contrast ; 
and  therefore  I  now  proceed  to  a  twofold  contrast. 

First  let  us  consider  tlie  German  Gymnastic  System. 
Does  this  produce  endurance  ?  Yes.  Skill  ?  Yes. 
Discipline  and  obedience  ?  Yes,  a  great  deal  of  this. 
But  originality  ?  Very  little.  Promptitude  ?  Very 
little  also,  except  "  at  the  word  of  command."  Honour 
and  fiiirness  ?  Scarcely  at  all.  Enjoyment  ?  It  is  very 
difficult  to  say ;  we  Englishmen  should  say  no. 

' Brain-ivorh,  ajrain,  innst  bo  contrasted  with  Athletics, 
although  of  course  one  can  only  speak  very  generally. 
A  common  English  idea  of  brain-work  is  chietly  (alas  !) 
to  reproduce  the  ideas  of  some  other  people,  especially 
when  these  ideas  are  given  in  a  Text-book :  originality 
is  little  encouraged.  I  speak  from  the  experience  of 
five  years  at  good  Private  Schools,  of  five  years  at  a 
good  Public  School,  and  of  many  years  at  the  Univer- 
sity :  throughout  all  this  education  there  has  been 
scarcely  any  exception  to  my  experiences.  Originality 
and  "  Self-activity  "  were  incessantly  discouraged. 


SPORT    AND    ATHLETICS  509 

Does  such  an  education  develop  endurance  ?  Yes. 
Skill  ?  Possibly  a  little.  Discipline  ?  Yes,  plenty  of 
it.  Promptitude  ?  Very  little,  except  in  so  far  as 
reproducing  certain  "  Answers "  is  concerned :  a  new 
question,  which  means  that  the  old  material  has  to 
be  quickly  rearranged,  will  often  puzzle  the  average 
learner.  He  will  say  that  he  has  not  learnt  the  answer 
to  that  question.  Does  it  encourage  originality,  then  ? 
No,  scarcely  at  all.  Nor  yet  does  it  encourage  open- 
mindedness,  and  the  readiness  to  learn  what  is  best  in 
the  new  and  to  unlearn  what  is  worst  in  the  old :  it 
does  not  encourage  people  to  change  what  is  customary, 
even  when  conscience  says  that  this  is  utterly  wrong. 
Does  it  encourage  honour  ?  Perhaps  a  little,  though  it 
is  hard  to  say ;  but  certainly  not  to  the  same  extent 
as  Games  and  Athletics  do.  It  is  not  thousrht  to  be 
clever  to  cheat  in  Games  and  Athletics,  as  it  some- 
times is  thought  to  be  at  lessons. 

Many  lessons  then  would  be  a  great  contrast  to 
these  kinds  of  exercises. 

And  what  of  the  social  influence  of  such  Educa- 
tion ?  Does  it  tend  to  do  away  with  class  distinctions, 
does  it  tend  to  make  people  who  are  educated  under- 
stand and  sympathise  with  the  uneducated  and  illiterate  ? 
Does  it  reconcile  Nation  with  Nation  ?  Most  remark- 
ably little. 

The  reader  will  naturally  ask  why,  if  Sport  can  do 
all  this,  it  has  not  actually  produced  more  ejftect  in  the 
past  ?  I  answer  that  it  has  produced  very  great  effects 
in  the  past,  and  that  it  will  produce  still  greater  effects 
in  the  future,  as  soon  as  Ave  tlioroughly  realise  what 
can  be  done  by  means  of  it.  At  present  it  has  not 
been  able  to  produce  anything  like  its  proper  effects, 
because  its  importance  has  been  underestimated  by 
many  of  those  who  are  managing  affairs  for  us  in  this 
country. 

I    can  only  devote   a  few   lines  to  the  histor}^  of 


5IO  GENERAL 

Sport  and  Athletics;  but  the  history  can  easily  be 
obtained  in  detail  from  the  special  treatises  in  special 
books,  for  instance,  in  the  Badminton  and  Isthmian 
Libraries.  Shorter  accounts  will  be  found  in  the 
"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Some  kinds  of  Sport  and  Athletics  have  developed 
naturally  :  for  example,  throwing,  walking,  and  running 
are  all  natural  for  us,  and  hunting  and  fishing  must  have 
originated  partly  in  the  search  for  food. 

Some  kinds  have  originated  in  some  one  place,  or 
in  some  one  county,  or  in  England  itself,  and  these 
have  spread  to  other  places  and  other  counties  and 
other  countries,  and  to  other  Nations.  Dr.  Schmidt, 
the  great  German  authority  on  Sj)ort,  candidly  recog- 
nises the  vast  debt  of  other  Nations  to  England  with 
regard  to  Rowing  Athletics.  Scotland  has  originated 
Golf,  or  at  least  has  nursed  it — Golf  which  gives  such 
splendid  open-air  exercise  and  interest  to  those  who 
are  advanced  in  life. 

From  us  many  kinds  of  Athletics  have  spread  to 
our  Colonies,  and  even  to  other  Nations,  and  they  have 
become,  and  will  become  more  and  more,  year  by  year, 
a  help  towards  international  peace.  How  few  would 
have  dreamt  in  the  distant  past  that  Football  would 
ever  have  been  a  means  to  this  desirable  end !  I 
believe  that  International  Congresses  for  Athletics  and 
Games  will  do  more  for  nmtual  understanding,  and 
therefore  for  mutual  respect  among  Nations,  than 
almost  any  other  single  inHiience. 

Besides  this  extension  of  Athletics,  we  notice  their 
adoption  in  education,  of  which  as  a  rule  they  now 
form  an  integral  part.  Even  a  foreigner  like  Froebel 
could  recognise  Games  for  children  as  an  essential 
factor  in  their  education  ;  though  in  England,  and  to 
a  greater  extent  in  Germany  and  elsewhere,  exorcise  of 
this  kind  is  still  too  often  regarded  as  "  frivolous  "  and 
as  opposed  to  true  Education  with  a  liig   E.      This   is 


SPORT    AND    ATHLETICS  511 

the  opinion  of  those  who  think  that  Education  means  to 
absorb  a  vast  number  of  facts  by  reading  and  hstening. 

As  we  have  seen,  some  people,  and  they  by  no 
means  few  in  number,  consider  a  great  deal  of  Sport 
to  be  brutalising  in  its  effects.  This  is  true  of  some 
Sport,  especially  of  that  which  gives  the  animals  no 
chance  whatever  to  escape.  Football  and  Boxing  can 
also  be  brutalishig.  But  there  is  this  to  be  noticed,  that 
whereas  these  Sports,  or  at  any  rate  the  brutal  parts 
of  them,  are  scarcely  on  the  increase.  Games  and 
Athletics  are  increasing  with  almost  incredible  rapidity ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  very  meaning  of  the  word  Sport  is 
altering.  Abroad  it  includes  a  large  number  of  Games 
and  Athletic  Competitions  in  which  there  is  scarcely 
any,  if  there  is  any,  degrading  tendency.  It  is  no 
longer  a  term  confined  to  the  killing  of  animals.  It 
might  be  desired  that  eventually  this  aspect  of  Sport 
will  die  out  altogether  ;  it  certainly  will,  I  think,  if  we 
can  make  the  other  branches  of  Sport  and  Athletics 
equally  interesting  and  equally  healthy. 

Why  should  England  have  been  the  birthplace  of 
so  much  of  Sport  and  Athletics  ?  I  will  only  suggest 
one  or  two  reasons,  though  it  would  be  an  interesting 
topic  to  discuss  in  detail. 

First  of  all,  ours  is  a  small  Island,  and  within  it 
there  is  much  rivalry,  much  love  of  competition :  this 
asserts  itself  partly  in  Games.  In  many  Greek  States 
it  asserted  itself  in  political  quarrels. 

Moreover,  our  country  is  a  good  country  for  every 
kind  of  Athletics:  whether  it  be  Walking,  Running, 
Shooting,  Hunting,  Riding,  Fishing,  Rowing,  Cricket, 
Football,  Lawn  Tennis,  we  could  scarcely  Avish  for  a 
better  land.  It  is  a  cold  country  too,  and  its  climate 
is  such  that  many  people  feel  seedy  ;  for  instance,  they 
get  a  "  liver  "  if  they  do  not  take  exercise  :  their  liver 
compels  them  to  move,  and  their  favourite  movement 
is  Sport  or  Gaines  or  Athletics. 


512  GENERAL 

The  Nations  of  the  world  have  hardly  realised  yet 
what  they  would  lose  if  ice  lost  our  independence 
and  with  it  our  free  system  of  Games,  or  if  we  lost 
our  Empire.  I  hope  that  these  pages  may  meet  their 
eyes  and  may  enlighten  them  a  little. 

The  evils  of  Games  and  Sport  still  continue ; 
indeed  some  seem  to  be  actually  on  the  increase. 
But,  before  this  aspect  in  the  history  be  thoroughly 
condemned,  let  us  look  for  a  moment  at  Commerce, 
and  I  think  it  will  be  found  that  the  evils  there  are 
far  greater.  Moreover  the  evils  in  Athletics  and 
Games  are  being  removed  by  various  Societies  and 
Clubs  such  as  the  Rugby  Union,  the  Lawn  Tennis 
Association,  and  the  Marylebone  Cricket  Club.  And, 
above  all,  the  evils  are  outweighed  by  the  manifold 
blessings. 

These  blessings  will  perhaps  be  made  a  little 
clearer,  and  brought  a  little  nearer  home  to  the  reader, 
from  a  fcAv  examples.  I  will  therefore  now  give  a  few 
notes  on  special  forms  of  Sport,  from  which  I  must  ex- 
clude Gymnastics  (for  instance,  the  Swedish  Health 
Gymnastics),  and  walking,  running,  and  riding  when 
they  are  practised  merely  as  exercise.  Of  course  all 
these  exercises  have  important  effects,  but  they  are  not 
included  in  the  words  Sport  or  Games  or  Athletics, 
the  two  latter  of  which  terms  refer  especially  to  com- 
petitions. 

Sport,  in  the  sense  of  gamc-lcilling.  improves  en- 
durance and  strength,  and  encoiu-ages  people  to  travel 
and  see  the  country  instead  of  the  city.  It  is  in  the 
open  air  and  l)rings  with  it  much  enjoyment ;  and  it  is 
a  great  incentive  to  walking.  Beagling  may  also  be 
included  here.  There  are  many  to  whom  the  whole 
thing  is  repugnant ;  those  have  much  reason,  but  they 
should  also  weigh  the  other  side  of  the  question. 
As  we  said  above.  Sport  is  an  a})t  preparation  for 
soldiering. 


SPORT    AND    ATHLETICS  513 

Hunting  is  an  inducement  to  riding;  but  the  ad- 
vantages of  riding  are  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned 
here.  Hunting,  apart  from  its  social  influences,  chiefly 
justifies  itself  as  being  an  incentive  to  induce  those 
people  to  ride  who  would  not  ride  otherwise. 

Rowing  is  good  training  for  many  purposes,  and 
partly  for  the  Navy.  It  enables  the  rower  (or  the 
rowed)  to  see  some  of  the  most  beautiful  parts  of  the 
country  and  gives  them  pure  cool  air:  moreover  it  is 
splendid  exercise. 

Football  at  its  best  is  perhaps  nearly  the  perfec- 
tion of  a  Game :  and  it  breeds  so  many  of  those  quali- 
ties which  every  Nation  should  have.  Thus,  if  I  were 
asked  what  would  be  the  best  test  that  a  person  could 
give  of  being  able  to  rule  in  India,  I  should  say  that 
he  had  been  Captain  of  a  Football  eleven  or  fifteen,  or 
of  a  Cricket  eleven.  Such  qualities  as  co-operation 
promptitude,  discipline,  and  pluck,  and  the  power  of 
playing  an  uphill  game — all  these  may  and  should  be 
developed  by  Football. 

Moreover  it  employs  huge  numbers  of  players ; 
the  Game  is  over  quickly ;  and  it  is  admirable  exercise. 
Besides  this,  we  can  think  of  nothing  better  which  the 
players  would  bo  likely  to  be  doing  if  they  were  not 
playing  Football. 

And  this  is  not  all:  for  Football  makes  hundreds 
of  people  come  into  the  open  air  to  Avatch  it ;  this  is 
better  than  that  they  should  be  listening  to  a  Lecture 
in  a  badly-ventilated  room,  and  better  still,  than  that 
they  should  be  spending  their  afternoon  at  a  club  or 
at  a  music-hall  or  theatre ;  for  Football  at  its  best  is  a 
fine  game  to  watch.  And  it  is  spreading  among  other 
people ;  for  instance,  among  the  French  and  Germans. 

But,  unfortunately,  it  cannot  (as  a  rule)  be  kept  up 
till  late  in  life,  and  accidents  are  not  infrequent. 

Cricket  also  develops  many  of  the  above  qualities, 
such  as  promptitude ;  it  also  is  in  the  open  air,  and 
V  2  K 


514  GENERAL 

draws  people  out  into  the  open  air  to  watch  it.  It 
also  is  a  good  Game  to  watch,  and  is  spreading  among 
other  people.  But  it  takes  too  long  for  busy  men,  and 
in  it  there  is  a  good  deal  of  idle  waiting.  These 
Games  are  splendid  for  the  Nation,  in  that  they  tend 
to  do  away  with  class-distinctions. 

Golf  is  a  less  violent  Game,  and  appeals  to  those 
thousands  who  cannot  or  will  not  play  Football,  and 
especially  to  the  older  men,  and  to  many  ladies,  who 
would  not  take  much  exercise  otherwise.  But  it  is 
very  expensive. 

Cycling,  like  Golf,  can  be  tried  by  older  men,  and 
it  is  in  the  open  air,  and  gives  a  good  chance  of  seeing 
fine  scenery.  It  has  its  millions  of  devotees  who  be- 
fore used  to  move  about  by  carriage  or  tram  or  bus 
or  train.  But  Cycling,  except  for  racing  purposes,  is 
hardly  a  "  Sport ";  and  for  racing  purposes  it  is  hardly 
a  Sport  either — at  least  as  it  is  practised  at  present ! 

All  the  Ball-Games  are  branches  of  Sport,  and,  of 
the  Racket-Games,  La\\Ti  Tennis  is  far  the  most  popular. 
It  is  usually  a  gentle  and  social  form  of  exercise,  which 
is  good  for  ladies.  Of  its  many  merits  I  have  spoken 
in  "  Lessons  in  Lawn  Tennis "  (published  by  Upcott 
Gill), 

Fives  differs  from  most  other  Games  in  that  it  exer- 
cises both  sides,  the  left  hand  and  arm  as  well  as  the 
right :  it  is  very  healthy  also,  and,  like  Lawn  Tennis, 
can  be  kept  up  till  fairly  late  in  life. 

As  to  Tennis,  Rackets,  and  Squash-Rackets,  I  am 
prejudiced  in  their  favour ;  but  I  consider  them  to  be 
ideal  Games  in  every  way  except  that  they  are  expen- 
sive and  are  seldom  in  the  open  air,  Squash-Tennis 
(an  American  Game)  is  one  of  the  best  and  cheapest 
Games  in  the  world.  It  can  be  played  in  cities  in  the 
evening  by  artificiul  light. 

Boxing  is  splendid  exercise.  The  man  who  can 
defend  liimself  has  more  confidence  in  protecting  the 


SPORT    AND    ATHLKTICS  515 

weak,  and  this  is  a  most  valuable  quality  in  any 
Nation  of  rulers:  he  is  self-reliant;  and,  if  he  does 
not  abuse  his  power,  the  good  boxer  is  much  nearer  to 
what  a  man  should  be. 

As  to  Athletics,  such  as  putting  the  weight,  throw- 
ing the  hammer,  and  running,  they  are  good  partly 
for  the  training  they  involve  (which,  however,  might 
be  more  scientific),  and  partly  for  their  encouragement 
of  endurance  and  speed  and  other  excellences. 

Let  me  now  sum  up  those  points  in  the  above 
pages  which  may  be  most  useful  as  well  as  most  new 
to  many  of  my  readers. 

Sport,  Games,  and  Athletics  are  valuable  not  merely 
because  they  produce  success,  and  especially  skill, 
strength,  and  endurance ;  nor  merely  because  they  pro- 
duce health,  though  health  in  itself  would  be  almost 
a  sufficient  object  to  justify  the  exercise  ;  nor  merely 
because  they  are  in  the  open  air,  and  help  people  to 
know  their  own  country,  and  thus  to  love  their  own 
country ;  nor  merely  because  they  bring  pleasure  of  an 
innocent  and  wholesome  kind  ;  nor  merely  because  they 
improve  the  nerve-power,  the  promptitude,  cahnness, 
self-control,  patience,  pluck,  honour,  and  fairness,  and 
respect  for  others,  qualities  most  essential  in  any  Nation 
which  is  to  rule  others ;  nor  merely  because  they  show 
almost  the  ideal  of  competition  and  of  co-operation ; 
nor  merely  because  they  are  a  great  social  influence, 
breaking  down  barriers  between  sex  and  sex,  and  be- 
tween class  and  class ;  nor  merely  because  they  have 
helped  to  train  many  for  the  Army  and  Navy,  and 
have  led  to  travel  and  enterprise  and  discovery. 

Their  value  has  been  beyond  this,  though  it  has 
included  a  great  deal  of  this ;  for  they  have  shown 
people  how  to  bear  defeat,  how  to  get  victories  and 
to  use  them,  not  by  imposing  an  iron  rule  on  the 
conquered,  but  by  making  the  rule  popular  and  the 
rulers  respected  and  imitated,  by  making  the  subjects 


5i6  GENERAL 

healthier,  and  by  forming  with  them  a  bond  of  union 
which  is  ah'eady  one  of  the  strongest  and  is  Hkely  to 
grow  stronger  every  year.  Moreover — and  this  is  a 
vital  point — such  a  bond  of  union  within  the  Nation 
itself  and  between  it  and  its  Empire  will  not  cut  off 
the  Nation  and  its  Empire  from  other  Nations,  but  will 
rather  help  to  bind  the  whole  world  together.  For  in 
Games  and  Athletics,  and  scarcely  in  any  other  sphere, 
can  Nations  compete  without  ill-feeling;  and  by  this 
especially  will  they  come  to  respect  and  to  admire  one 
another.  Games  and  Athletics  are  the  test  Inter- 
national Language  which  the  world  has  ever  seen. 

Not  only  have  Games  and  Athletics  helped  us  to 
gain  an  Empire,  but  they  have  also  helped  us  to  keep 
it,  and  to  rule  it  well.  They  have  made  the  rulers  fit 
to  rule,  for  they  have  made  them  healthy  and  honour- 
able, and  in  fact  have  developed  in  them  such  qualities 
as  all  ruling  peoples  of  the  future  will  have  to  possess 
if  indeed  their  rule  is  to  be  permanent. 

Let  me  conclude,  then,  with  a  few  Avarnings  based 
on  the  above  remarks. 

I  need  hardly  ask  the  reader  to  read  these  pages 
with  an  open  mind :  to  criticise  and  alter  my  views  as 
freely  as  he  likes,  but  first  to  weigh  them  fairly  in  the 
balance,  and  to  try  to  avoid  any  of  those  extreme  views 
which  he  will  so  often  hear  advocated. 

He  must  not  listen  to  those  Avho  would  have  exer- 
cise take  the  place  of  brain -work,  especially  if  the 
brain-work  be  the  mere  absorbing  of  information.  If 
it  be,  then  I  consider  the  other  extreme  to  be  the 
safer.  I  would  sooner  have  Jack  a  healthy  athlete 
than  a  weedy  pedant. 

No :  now  especially,  when  country-life  is  giving 
way  more  and  more  to  city-life,  let  him  not  in  any  way 
support  those  who  would  increase  the  amount  of  brain- 
Avork  for  our  Nation,  and  for  our  young  in  particular, 
who  w<jul<l  decrease  the  amount  of  exercise,  esf)ecially 


SPORT    AND    ATHLETICS  517 

of  exercise  in  the  form  of  Sport   and   Athletics ;  for 
this  is  its  most  interestmg  form. 

On  the  other  hand  let  him  resist  any  attempt  to  let 
idleness  or  loafing  take  the  place  of  exercise.  Any 
movement  which  will  foster  this  type  of  "  amusement " 
is  to  be  discarded  :  exercise  is  far  better.  Above  all, 
let  him  oppose  the  worst  type  of  "  amusement,"  and 
let  him  work  against  the  ascendency,  e.g.,  of  the  many 
unhealthy  entertainments  in  badly-ventilated  buildings. 
These  are  as  vile  a  disgrace  to  us  as  our  Athletics  are 
a  glorious  credit. 

In  order  to  achieve  this  work,  he  will  have  to 
justify  the  claims  of  Athletics,  and  he  will  better  be 
able  to  do  this  if  he  removes  from  them  their  chief 
faults,  e.g.  the  pursuit  of  Athletics  for  the  sake  of 
money  or  prizes  or  mere  victory,  the  low  play  of  pro- 
fessionals, the  brutalism  of  Sport,  and  other  evils. 

Let  him  see  the  ideal  of  Athletics,  and  let  hiiy 
then  make  it  clear  to  every  one  else ;  let  him  recognise 
our  debt  to  it  in  the  past,  and  let  him  acknowledge 
the  increasing  value  of  Athletics  in  the  future  as  city- 
life  grows,  and  as  our  Empire  grows,  and  therefore  as 
more  people  are  to  be  affected  and  influenced  by  us 
as  individuals  and  as  a  Nation. 

For,  as  we  are,  so  they  in  their  turn  will  become, 
while  we  are  their  rulers.  And  this,  we  hope,  Avill  be 
for  many  a  century  to  come. 

The  World,  and  America  and  our  Colonies  in 
particular,  little  realise  their  vast  debt  to  England. 
Our  National  Debt  seems  great,  but  the  debt  of  the 
World  to  us  is  far  greater :  we  have  given  our 
Athletics  to  the  World.  Is  it  not  time  that  in  our 
turn  we  borrowed  the  best  and  most  adaptable  ideas 
that  other  Nations  can  offer  us  ?  Can  we  not  study 
with  advantage  how  a  thousand  Americans  can  get 
healthy  exercise  in  a  single  building,  in  a  crowded 
city,  when  business  hours  are  over  ?      We  love  Sport 


5i8  GENERAL 

but  we  have  yet  much  to  learn  about  it  and  about 
other  matters.  "  Freely  ye  have  received,  freely  give." 
England  has  freely  given.  Now  let  her  change  the 
text,  and  say  to  her  subjects,  "  Freely  ye  have  given, 
freely  receive."  Let  England  freely  choose  and  freely 
take  what  lies  open.  There  is  no  monopoly  of  exer- 
cise— thank  Heaven  !  There  never  will  be  an  Exercise 
"  Trust."  By  adopting  new  ideas,  England  will  benefit 
herself  without  hurting  any  other  Nation. 


MOHAMMEDANISM    AND    THE    BRITISH 
EMPIRE 


By   R.    G.   CORBET 

It  is  a  hackneyed  saying  that  Great  Britain  is  the 
most  important  Moslem  Power  in  the  world.  At  first 
sight,  when  the  imagination  conjures  up  a  vision  of 
the  vast  areas  under  the  Tsar,  the  Son  of  Heaven  and 
the  Sultan  peopled  by  Mohammedans,  this  assertion 
appears  somewhat  rash :  but  a  glance  at  statistics,  so 
far  as  these  are  obtainable  on  the  subject,  will  soon 
satisfy  us  that  it  is  not. 

The  Ottoman  Empire  has  but  something  over  three 
million  Mohammedan  subjects  in  Europe,  and  twelve 
in  Asia :  so,  if  we  add  to  these  the  entire  population 
over  which  Abdul  Hamid  Khan  rules  in  Africa — and 
which,  like  that  of  Bokhara  and  Khiva,  is  practically 
all  Moslem — we  merely  bring  the  total  to  a  little  over 
sixteen  millions.  In  the  Middle  Kingdom  the  Moham- 
medans are  estimated  at  about  thirty-two  ;  and  they 
do  not  attain  to  six  in  Russia,  even  when  its  vassal 
States  are  joined  to  it. 

Let  us  look  a  moment  at  the  fiiifures : — 

Moslems    in    European 

Turkey  .  .  .  3,350,000 
MoslemsinAsiaticTurkey  1 2,000,000 
Population     of     African 

Turkey 


Moslems  in  Russia  . 
Population  of  Boklvara 
Population  of  Khiva 

Moslems  in  China  . 


1,010,000 

2,600,000 

2,500,000 

700,000 

32,000,000 


16,360,000  Ottoman  Empire. 


5,800,000  Russian  Empire. 
32,000,000  Chinese  Empire. 

54,160,000 


520  GENERAL 

On  the  other  hand,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  the 
Moslems  m  India  alone  exceed  this  number  by  over 
three  millions  ;  while,  supplemented  by  their  co-religion- 
ists under  our  a?gis  elsewhere,  they  double  it. 

The  last  census  taken  in  India  ^  gives,  approxi- 
mately, one-tifth  as  the  proportion  of  Mohammedans  to 
the  287  million  souls  of  whom  it  was  able  to  obtain  par- 
ticulars, and  we  may  assume  the  ratio  to  be  the  same  in 
the  case  of  such  of  the  natives  of  India  as  were  scattered 
at  the  time  over  other  parts  of  the  Empire,  or  dwelt  in 
Indian  border  lands  where,  owing  to  the  prevailing 
wars,  detailed  returns  could  not  be  compiled.  In  the 
Peninsula  and,  indeed,  in  the  Indian  Ocean  as  a  whole, 
we  have  coin  par  atively  accurate  information  to  go 
upon,  and  it  may  be  as  well  to  tabulate  our  results 
there,  and  wherever  there  is  at  least  approximate  cer- 
tainty, before  passing  on  to  places  where  we  shall  have 
to  fall  back  largely  upon  guesswork. 


A 

Moslems. 

India          .... 

•     57,321,164 

Frontier  tracts    . 

174,000  (one-fifth). 

North  and  Central  America 

20,500 

South  America  . 

29,000 

Australia  and  Oceania 

19,500 

Ceylon        .... 

220,000 

Maldives    .... 

30,000 

Laccadives 

14,440 

Baluchistan 

500,000 

liahrein       .... 

25,000 

Socotra       .... 

1 2,000 

Aden  and  Perim 

41,910 

Mauritius   .... 

34,763 

Cape  of  Good  Hope    . 
Indians  in  other  colonies    . 

15,099 

14,605  (one-fifth). 

58,471,981 

When    we    reach    the    Straits   we   must  put   into 
requisition   the   races   the  inhabitants  belong  to ;  for, 

*  The  figures  for  tlie  British  Empire  are  based  on  the  census  of 
1891,  this  jjaper  having  been  written  before  the  succeeding  census  was 
taken. 


MOHAMMEDANISM 


521 


froDi  the  abstracts  available,  it  Avoiild  appear  that 
their  religions  are  not  given  by  the  census.  We  may 
roughly  set  down  every  Malay,  for  instance,  as  a 
Moslem,  and  every  Chinaman  in  the  Archipelago  as  a 
non-Mohammedan.     Thus  we  get : — 


B 

Straits  Settlements     . 

Federated  Malay  States 

British  North  Borneo 

Brunei 

Sarawak 

Labuan 


Moslems. 
243,828 
249,938 
1 74,000 
17,500 
450,000 

1,030,826 


While  we  have  exact  returns  of  Cyprus  and 
Egypt,  again,  there  are  several  regions  in  British 
Africa  where  not  only  the  religious  census,  but  that 
of  the  population  as  a  whole,  is  left  to  conjecture ; 
and  there  is  at  least  one  (Somaliland),  of  which  it  is 
declared  that  even  a  surmise  is  impracticable.  Here 
we  have  hardly  anything  to  guide  us :  all  we  knoAv  is 
that  some  of  these  untold  liuuian  swarms  are  in  great 
part,  and  others  almost  entirely,  made  up  of  Moham- 
medans, that  Islam  is  daily  strengthening  its  hold 
upon  the  hordes  of  negroes  who  people  the  coasts 
and  hinterlands,  and  the  like.  On  such  meagre  data, 
then,  must  we  base  the  following  estimate : — 


c 

Moslems. 

Cyprus      ..... 

47,926 

Egypt       

8,978,775 

Egyptian  Soudan 

10,050,000 

Nigeria      ..... 

25,000,000 

Lagos         ..... 

372,000 

Gold  Coast  Colony     . 

150,000 

Gambia     ..... 

23,300 

Sierra  Leone      .... 

70,996 

British  East  Africa    . 

2,250,000 

British  Central  Africa  Protectorate 

281,000 1 

LTganda 

100,000^ 

Zanzibar  and  Pemba 

200,000' 

Somaliland         .... 

50,000 ' 

47,573,997 

^  Added  while  in  the  press. 


5  22  GENERAL 

Putting  the  three  reckonings  together,  we  have  :- 

A  .  .  .  .  58,471,981 
B  .  .  .  .  1,030,826 
C         .        .        .        .      47,573,997 


107,076,804 


This  total,  which  is  probably  below  the  reality, 
is  the  more  remarkable  when  we  consider  that  it 
comes  to  a  little  less  than  half  the  entire  Moham- 
medan population  of  the  world,  reckoned  at  215 
millions,  and,  what  concerns  us  more  nearly  here, 
that  the  Moslems  in  the  lands  scheduled  above  form 
already  over  29  per  cent,  of  the  363  millions  in- 
habiting them,  and  are  steadily  increasing. 

Religious  freedom,  coupled  with  every  opportunity 
of  keeping  abreast  of  the  times,  is  theirs  to  a  degree 
unparalleled  elsewhere  ;  whilst  in  wealth,  as  in  numbers, 
they  carry  away  the  palm.  Even  if  we  confine  ourselves 
to  India,  indeed,  Sir  Richard  Temple  tells  us  that  all 
the  other  Mohammedan  nations  combined  fall  far  short 
of  "  the  agriculture  of  [her]  Mohammedan  peasantry, 
the  navigation  in  the  hands  of  her  Mohammedan 
sailors  and  boatmen,  the  trade  conducted  by  her 
Mohammedan  traders,"  The  Peninsula,  moreover,  is 
marked  out  to  be  the  moral  and  intellectual,  as  well 
as  the  commercial,  centre  of  the  neighbouring  coun- 
tries, just  as  Egypt  is  fitted  by  its  geographical  posi- 
tion and  advanced  rule  to  enlijyhten  the  regions 
surrounding  it ;  and  nothing  would  be  more  natural 
than  to  see  the  religious,  educational,  and  political 
ideas  of  an  awakened  Mussulman  India  filtering  into 
Yunnan,  Kashgar,  Afghanistan,  Beluchistan  or  even 
Persia.  All  these  thing's,  amonofst  others,  should  enable 
the  Moslems  in  the  Empire  to  exert  an  enormous 
influence  for  good,  both  within  and  without  its  borders, 
and  to  claim  that  place  in  the  counsels  of  Islam  to 


MOHAMMEDANISM  5  2  3 

which  they  are  entitled.  The  means  are  ready  to 
their  hand :  will  they  stretch  it  forth  ? 

The  matter  is  one  which  concerns  us  more  nearly 
than  we  perhaps  imagine.  As  the  foremost  of 
Moslem  States,  we  have  a  paramount  interest  in  the 
question  whether  Mohammedanism  is  to  be  an  instru- 
ment of  progress  or  of  reaction,  and  we  are  in  a 
manner  responsible  for  it  to  the  other  nations  of  the 
earth.  Besides,  the  followers  of  Islam  hold  so  large  a 
stake  in  the  Empire,  and  its  interests  and  fortunes 
are  so  intimately  identified  with  theirs  that,  to  quote 
Sir  Richard  Temple  once  more,  "it  is  impossible 
to  distinguish  Anglo-Mohammedan  power  from  that 
of  Britain  herself."  Englishmen,  though  generally 
prone  to  live  in  a  Fool's  Paradise,  have  lately  had 
one  rude  awakening,  to  say  nothing  of  others,  in 
the  fact  that  our  competitors  have  succeeded  in 
wresting  from  us  foreign,  and  even  colonial,  markets 
which  we  thought  for  ever  secured  to  our  trade ;  and 
there  are  signs  that  we  are  ceasing  to  believe  that 
we  can  ward  off  whatever  does  not  suit  us  by  shutting 
our  eyes  to  it.  Under  the  circumstances  it  is  just 
possible  that  the  time  has  at  last  come  when  some- 
thing better  than  suicidal  apathy  may  be  expected  of 
us  in  our  dealings  with  our  Moslem  compatriots. 

In  the  mere  negative  avoidance  of  causes  of 
offence,  it  is  true,  we  have  made  great  strides  in 
India  since  the  days  of  the  Mutiny,  when  Syed 
Ahmed  Khan,  afterwards  Sir  Syed  Ahmed  Khan 
Bahadur,  K.C.S.I. — one  of  the  ablest  of  our  loyal 
Indian  Mussulmans — complained  of  the  Government's 
entire  estrangement  from  the  people.  Still,  we  learn 
from  the  late  Dr.  Leitner  that  much  more  recently 
the  "  Mohammedan  law  officers  of  the  Sadr  DiAvtini  and 
Nizam  at  Addlat "  were  abolished,  with  the  result  that 
"  we  have  not  the  same  touch  with  the  conservative 
elements  of  Mohammedan  society,  whilst  the  decisions 


5  24  GENERAL 

of  our  courts  are  often  away  from  the  real  point, 
owing  to  ignorance  of  Arabic,  without  a  knowledge 
of  which  language  it  is  difficult  to  have  any  in- 
fluence with  Mohammedans,  and  impossible  to  de- 
cide any  question  connected  with  their  law."  The 
"  Kazi "  was  little  more  than  tolerated,  and  numerous 
Mohammedan  endowments  were  curtailed,  misapplied, 
or  even  confiscated.  These,  as  suggested  by  the 
learned  Orientalist,  must  be  "  restored,  and  their 
educational  side  be  developed  in  accordance  with  the 
practical,  as  well  as  the  religious,  requirements  of  the 
Mohammedan  community ; "  and  we  must  remedy 
our  other  administrative  errors.  Not  the  least 
among  them  has  been  the  educational  policy  which 
kept  away  the  Mussulmans,  the  former  rulers  of 
the  Peninsula,  from  the  Government  colleges,  and 
consequently  from  public  office.  Fortunately  they 
have  themselves  suggested  a  way  out  of  the  difficulty. 
"  The  Moslems  of  India,"  said  those  of  the  Punjab  to 
Lord  Roberts  in  1893,  "hope  that  your  long  experi- 
ence of  our  service  will  prove  a  good  testimonial  in 
favour  of  the  warlike  spirit,  military  genius  and  loyalty 
of  our  nation ;  and  if  the  circle  of  civil  employment 
has  become  too  straitened  for  us,  the  military  line  may 
be  generously  opened  to  us."  The  request  is  highly 
reasonable,  and  should  be  complied  with  to  the  best 
of  our  ability ;  the  more  so,  to  put  the  question  on 
the  lowest  grounds,  as  the  attention  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  India  has  long  been  awakened  to  the  great 
political  danger  of  leaving  the  Moslems  there  without 
an  outlet  for  their  energies. 

The  late  Sir  Syed  Ahmed,  to  Avhom  belongs  the 
credit  of  bringing  the  anomaly  to  the  notice  of  the 
authorities,  also  tried  to  put  an  end  to  it  by  remov- 
ing its  cause.  In  1875  the  Anglo-Oriental  College 
at  Aligarh,  based  on  principles  resembling  those  of 
our   public   schools,    was    opened    for    the    purpose   of 


MOHAMMEDANISM  525 

giving  young  Mussulmans  a  sound  modern  education  — 
that  should  tend  to  make  them  eligible  for  service 
under  Government — accompanied  by  an  intelligent 
study  of  their  religion.  The  college,  Avhich  the  pro- 
ject of  a  Moslem  University  followed  as  a  natural 
corollary,  has  called  forth  unstinted  praise  from 
Viceroy  after  Viceroy,  not  to  mention  other  eminent 
visitors,  and  even  a  man  so  hard  to  please  as  Sir 
William  Muir  has  borne  witness  to  the  wide  and 
liberal  basis  upon  Avhich  it  was  established.  It  was 
in  fact  Sir  Syed  Ahmed's  object,  in  the  words  of 
Lord  Elgin,  to  "  provide  not  merely  for  instruction, 
but  also  for  the  formation  of  character,  for  the  en- 
couragement of  manly  pursuits,  for  the  promotion 
of  a  feeling  of  self-respect  among  the  students  .  .  . 
for  fostering'  among'  them  an  active  sense  of  their 
duty  as  loyal  subjects " — and,  it  may  be  added, 
for  the  inculcation  of  that  true  piety  which  is  the 
foundation  of  firm  loyalty.  Institutions  like  this 
should  be  furthered  by  every  means  in  our  power ; 
moreover,  we  can  do  much  in  a  number  of  other 
Avays  for  the  advancement  of  the  Moslems  who  owe 
allegiance  to  Edward  VII.,  drawing  them  nearer  to 
us  by  sympathy  and  encouragement  no  less  than 
by  actual  aid,  and,  as  Sir  Syed  Ahmed  once  said  of 
the  Indian  Mussulmans,  making  them  and  English- 
men brothers. 

But,  besides  repairing  our  blunders  and  favouring 
all  that  tends  towards  the  development  of  our  Moslem 
fellow-subjects,  we  must  do  our  utmost  to  give  a 
healthy  tone  to  Mohammedan  thought,  the  best  means 
of  preventing  its  perversion  by  possible  enemies.  Mr. 
M'Laren  Morrison  tells  us,  for  instance,  that  "  from  all 
the  mosques  of  India  her  Majesty's  faithful  Moham- 
medans in  their  millions  sent  up  their  prayers  for  the 
success  [against  the  Boers]  of  the  men  of  an  alien 
faith,  who  though  aliens  in  blood  were  brothers  in  the 


5  26  GENERAL 

Empire — the  first  time  that  Mohammedans  had  ever 
prayed  for  the  success  of  the  arms  of  an  imbeHever ;  " 
and  this  is  only  one  of  the  many  striking  proofs  of  loyalty 
they  are  constantly  giving  us  :  but  is  it  fair  to  them  that 
they  should  be  left  without  any  antidote  to  the  poison 
which,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe,  the  occult 
emissaries  of  another  Power  never  tire  of  trying  to 
administer  to  them  ?  We  all  know,  in  like  manner, 
how  much  depends  upon  the  part  the  Afghan  and 
kindred  border  peoples  might  play  m  a  war  with 
Russia ;  it  remains  for  us  to  realise  that  our  present 
precarious  understandings  with  them,  which  are  liable 
at  any  moment  to  give  place  to  secret  treaties  with 
our  rival,  may,  if  we  only  know  how  to  set  to  work, 
be  firmly  cemented  by  the  Mussulmans  under  the 
Kaisar-i-Hind.  Then  again,  to  turn  from  Asia  to 
Africa,  we  have  been  warned  more  than  once  that  the 
Senusiya  were  leaving  no  stone  unturned  to  extend 
their  influence,  which  is  certainly  hostile  to  us.  If 
we  take  no  steps  to  counteract  it,  we  shall  have  only 
ourselves  to  thank  for  the  consequences. 

The  way  to  secure  our  position  in  Asia  and  the 
Dark  Continent  is  to  bring  our  Mohammedan  popula- 
tions to  realise  more  and  more  that  the  interests  of 
their  religion  and  of  Britain  are  identical,  so  that  they 
arc  serving  the  cause  of  the  one  when  promoting  that 
of  the  other ;  and  to  this  end  both  they  and  we  should 
understand  what  Islam  really  requires  of  them.  "  A 
large  part  of  what  Moslems  now  believe  and  practise 
is  not  to  be  found  in  the  Koran  at  all,"  and  many  of 
them  bring  utterly  apocryphal  criteria  to  bear  upon 
religious  problems.  "  The  present  stagnation  of  the 
Mussulman  communities,"  says  Syed  Ameer  Ali,*  one 
of  their  own  number,  "  is  principally  due  to  the  notion 
which  has  fixed  itself  in  the  minds  of  the  generality 
of  Moslems  that  the  right  to  the  exercise  of  private 
judgment  ceased  with  the  early  legists,  that  its  exercise 


MOHAMMEDANISM  527 

in  modern  times  is  sinful,  and  that  a  Moslem  in  order 
to  be  regarded  as  an  orthodox  follower  of  Mohammed 
should  belong  to  one  or  other  of  the  schools  established 
by  the  schoolmen  of  Islam  and  abandon  his  judgment 
absolutely  to  the  interpretations  of  men  who  lived  in 
the  ninth  century  and  could  have  no  conception  of 
the  necessities  of  the  nineteenth."  Such  was  not  the 
example  given  them  by  Mohammed.  "  When  Muaz 
was  appointed  Governor  of  Yemen,  he  was  asked  by 
the  Prophet  by  what  rule  he  would  be  guided  in  the 
administration  of  the  province.  '  By  the  law  of  the 
Koran,'  said  Muaz.  '  But  if  you  find  no  direction 
therein  ? '  '  Then  I  will  act  according  to  the  example 
of  the  prophet.'  '  But  if  that  fails  ? '  '  Then  I  will 
exercise  my  own  judgment.'  The  Prophet  approved 
highly  of  the  answer  of  his  disciple,  and  commended 
it  to  the  other  delegates."  It  were  well  if  our  Mussul- 
mans, many  of  whom  are  superstitiously  careful  to 
imitate  Mohammed  in  the  minutest  particulars,  were 
to  take  this  lesson  to  heart ;  for  it  is  essential  that 
they  should  free  themselves  from  their  present  bondage 
to  the  opinions  of  mediaeval  doctors  and  of  contem- 
porary religious  guides,  often  quite  as  ignorant  as 
themselves,  if  they  are  to  turn  their  opportunities  to 
proper  account.  A  return  to  the  well  of  Islam  un- 
defiled  is  their  great  want,  and  our  co-operation  would 
go  a  long  way  towards  bringing  this  about.  The 
Briton,  if  he  but  choose  to  lay  aside  his  prejudices,  is 
perhaps  more  capable  than  any  one  else  of  thoroughly 
appreciating  the  genius  of  Islam,  which  is  pre-eminently 
the  religion  of  practical  common-sense ;  and  he  can 
do  his  Moslem  brethren  yeoman  service  by  helping 
them  to  recognise  its  true  spirit  and  apply  it  to  the 
questions  of  the  hour.  But,  in  order  to  do  so,  the 
Man  of  the  West  must  himself  first  learn  to  judge 
the  Eastern  creed  rightly. 

The  task  is  not  an   easy   one.     Most  of  us  have 


528  GENERAL 

imbibed  prejudice  against  Islam  with,  our  mothers' 
milk,  and  the  information  usually  within  our  grasp 
— for  it  is  not  given  to  all  to  get  it  at  first  hand 
from  the  original  Arabic  documents — is  calculated 
to  increase,  not  lessen,  our  bias.  Not  only  pro- 
fessional detractors,  whose  mercenary  motives  are 
easy  enough  to  understand,  but  persons  in  high 
official  positions  whence  their  allegations  derive 
weight,  have  lent  themselves  to  the  grossest  mis- 
statements. These  have  often  been  brought  home 
to  them,  but,  instead  of  causing  them  to  be  held 
up  to  execration  as  they  deserve,  appear  to  be 
taken  quite  as  a  matter  of  course ;  indeed,  one  finds 
their  authors  described  as  "  fair "  and  "  impartial " 
by  those  who  have,  almost  approvingly,  drawn  atten- 
tion to  their  calumnies.  Other  writers,  again,  whose 
anti- Mohammedan  prepossessions  are  apparent  on 
their  every  page,  are,  merely  because  somewhat  less 
bigoted,  taxed  with  being  too  favourable  to  Islam. 
Let  us  leave  contemporaries  out  of  the  question, 
and  confine  ourselves  to  an  example  or  two  of  the 
methods  of  their  predecessors.  On  one  occasion  the 
infamous  Maracci  finds  in  the  tAvelfth  chapter  of 
the  Koran  a  term  one  of  whose  score  of  meanings 
— the  richness  of  the  Arabic  language  often  gives  a 
word  an  even  greater  number — is  capable  of  being 
rendered  obscenely,  does  so  forthwith,  fathers  his 
version  upon  the  passage  in  defiance  of  the  context 
and  of  traditional  interpretation,  and  then  ex- 
claims, with  feigned  prudery  :  Oh  immodest  prophet ! 
Another  day  Grotius,  as  he  himself  has  unblushingly 
admitted,  invents  the  fable  of  the  pigeon  taught  to 
personate  the  Holy  Ghost  by  means  of  peas  placed 
in  Mohammed's  ear — a  tale  faithfully  perpetuated, 
with  erudite  disquisitions  on  the  heinousness  of  the 
imposture,  by  one  scribe  after  another.  Not  a  word 
of  protest  is  issued  against  these  slanderers ;  on  the 


MOHAMMEDANISM  5  29 

contrary,  another  author,  simply  because  he  does 
not  vie  with  them  in  fabrication,  is  stigmatised  as 
"  the  ahnost  Mahometan  Mr.  Sale."  No  wonder  it 
is  well  nigh  impossible  to  get  at  the  truth  in  an 
atmosphere  like  this  ! 

Yet,  as  the  Nawab  Imad  Nawaz  Jang  said  some 
years  ago  in  a  letter  to  Dr.  Leitner,  "  those  Europeans 
who,  being  profound  Arabic  scholars,  and  bringing  to 
bear  on  the  subject  a  mind  impartial  and  free  from 
prejudice,  have  read  the  Koran  with  the  aid  of  com- 
mentaries, and  have  had  sufficient  material  before 
them  to  distinguish  those  points  on  which  Fatioas 
exist  from  those  on  which  there  are  none,  have  always 
written  respectfully  of  Islam ; "  and  he  suggested  a 
conference  of  "  such  unprejudiced  European  scholars" 
and  of  well-informed  Mohannnedans  to  inquire  into 
"  the  real  nature  of  Islam."  Such  conferences,  besides 
making  plain  the  apocryphal  character  of  the  excres- 
cences foisted  upon  Mohammedanism  by  superstitious 
adherents  and  insincere  adversaries,  ought  to  go  a  long 
way  towards  ridding  us  of  our  unsympathetic  attitude 
towards  its  tenets,  which  too  often  makes  it  impossible 
for  a  Moslem  to  discuss  them  with  us. 

We  are  told  that  a  celebrated  missionary,  amongst 
others,  without  having  read  a  word  of  the  Koran,  even 
in  English,  constantly  argued  with  Mussulmans  about 
it,  calling  it  an  "  imposture,"  the  "  work  of  the  devil,"  &c. 
We  nmst  really  dispense  with  this  spirit  of  "  Christian 
charity  "  if  we  are  to  do  any  good.  We  cannot — niore's 
the  pity — see  some  of  our  controversialists  with  the  eye 
of  a  Moslem,  but  we  may  be  able  to  form  a  faint  idea, 
sufficient  at  any  rate  to  deter  us  from  taking  them  as 
our  models,  of  the  disgust  with  which  they  cannot  fail 
to  fill  him.  It  is  impossible  for  him,  who  believes  Jesus 
to  be  the  Messiah  and  the  Word  of  Truth,  to  recrimi- 
nate—and their  attacks  are  the  more  cowardly  because 
they  know  this — but  fancy,  for  argument's  sake,  how 
V  2  L 


530  GENERAL 

he  would  ingratiate  himself  with  Christians  were  he  to 
come  among  them  and  speak  of  Christ  and  Christianity 
in  the  tone  they  adopt  towards  his  faith  and  its  founder, 
striving  to  imitate  their  despicable  insinuations,  then- 
assignment  of  the  basest  motives  in  everything,  and 
their  unremitting  assumption  of  superiority.  Can  we 
really  believe  that,  because  he  is  tongue-tied  by  his 
profound  reverence  for  the  Son  of  Mary  and  leaves  a 
monopoly  of  vituperation  to  his  adversaries,  he  is 
brought  nearer  by  charges  which  nmst  make  his  blood 
boil  as  they  do  that  of  every  person  who  knows  any- 
thing of  Mohammedanism  ?  What  can  we  expect  him 
to  think  of  the  two  weights  and  two  measures  that 
are  constantly  called  into  requisition  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  contrasts  between  it  and  Christianity, 
especially  the  ridiculous  comparisons  drawn  between 
a  travesty  of  the  Arabian  prophet  and  an  Occidental 
and  contemporary  Christ,  with  a  gospel  explained  away 
till  it  says  neither  moi'e  nor  less  than  happens  to  fit  in 
with  the  caprices  of  the  moment  ? 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  can  bring  ourselves  to 
part  with  some  of  our  cherished  prejudices,  we  may  be 
sure  that  the  Moslem's  heart  will  go  out  to  us ;  for,  as 
all  familiar  with  him  are  aware,  he  is  full  of  esteem, 
which  quickly  ripens  into  affection,  for  the  Englishman 
Avho  knows  something  of  that  Islam  he  loves  so  well 
and  can  speak  of  it  without  reviling  what  he  holds 
most  sacred.  Men  like  this  would  find  no  difficulty  in 
getting  the  Mohammedan  to  join  them  in  the  dis- 
passionate examination  of  its  teachings  and  the  con- 
sideration of  their  practical  bearings :  the  more  so  as 
he  would  be  acting  according  to  the  instructions  of 
the  Koran,  whose  words,  "dispute  not  with  the  people  of 
the  Scriptures" — so  often  quoted,  with  the  customary 
bad  faith,  as  a  proof  of  its  intolerance— are  followed  by 
the  immediate  context,  "  unless  in  the  kindliest  manner; 
except  witli   the  oppressors  among  them."      How  well 


MOHAMMEDANISM  531 

this  last  proviso    /^r^  ^^^  (;>i.i5\  S\    characterises  certain 

overbearing'  champions  of  Christianity,  by  the  way, 
especially  as  the  Arabic  word  includes  the  idea,  not 
of  hard  measure  in  the  vindication  of  right,  but 
of  positive  injustice.  The  extent  to  Avhich  they  carry 
the  latter  may  be  gauged  by  its  being  too  much  on 
one  occasion  even  for  the  long-suftering  Mr.  Bosworth 
Smith,  himself  emphatically  a  Christian,  and  drawing 
from  him  the  indignant  remark,  "  As  if  such  a  writer 
would  feel  scrupulous  in  making  any  statement  upon 
any  subject !  "  Argument  would  bo  thrown  away  on 
people  of  this  kind ;  but  Moslems  are  otherwise  quite 
ready  to  discuss  their  creed. 

True  Islam  seeks  light,  not  darkness ;  that  it  is 
the  natural  ally  of  knowledge  and  friend  of  progress 
has  been  abundantly  proved  by  the  facts  thus  epito- 
mised by  the  authority  just  named :  "  During  the 
darkest  period  of  European  history  the  Arabs  for  five 
hundred  years  held  up  the  torch  of  learning  to 
humanity.  It  was  the  Arabs  who  then  '  called  the 
Musos  from  their  ancient  seats ; '  who  collected  and 
translated  the  writings  of  the  Greek  masters ;  who 
understood  the  geometry  of  Apollonius,  and  Avielded 
the  weapons  ground  in  the  logical  armoury  of  Aristotle. 
It  was  the  Arabs  who  developed  the  sciences  of  agri- 
culture and  astronomy,  and  created  those  of  algebra 
and  chemistry ;  Avho  adorned  their  cities  wdth  colleges 
and  libraries,  as  well  as  with  mosques  and  palaces ; 
Avho  supplied  Europe  with  a  school  of  philosophy 
from  Cordova  and  with  a  school  of  physicians  from 
Salerno."  ^     Their   faith,  rightly   understood,  was   the 

'  Tlie  sayings  of  Mohammed  which  show  his  own  attitude  towards 
science  cannot  be  too  strongly  commended  to  the  notice  of  his  fol- 
lowers. Here  are  a  few  of  them  :  "Acquire  knowledge,  for  he  who 
acquires  it  for  God's  sake  performs  an  act  of  piety  ;  he  who  speaks  of 
it  praises  the  Lord  ;  he  who  searches  for  it  worships  God  ;  he  who 
imparts  it  oilers  sacrifice.  .  .  .  Knowledge  is  our  friend  in  the  desert, 


5  32  GENERAL 

mainspring  of  their  actions ;  why  should  it  not  inspire 
those  upon  whom  their  mantle  has  fallen,  especially 
the  Moslems  of  the  British  Empire,  endowed  with  so 
many  advantages,  to  walk  in  their  footsteps  and  spread 
abroad  the  civilisation  which  springs  from  the  genuine 
precepts  of  Mohammedanism  ?  But  it  is  time  to  turn 
our  attention  from  them  to  the  system  itself. 

Although  we  are  more  nearly  concerned  here  with 
those  aspects  of  Islam  which  have  a  direct  relation 
to  Imperial  questions,  a  glance  at  sonie  of  the  others 
may  not  be  amiss.  And  first  the  state  of  things 
to  which  it  put  an  end  must  be  clearly  understood, 
for  the  circumstances  under  which  the  doctrines  of 
the  Koran  were  promulgated  are  one  of  the  most 
important  keys  to  its  interpretation. 

A  recent  maligner  of  Mohammed  has  been  at 
great  pains  to  insinuate  that  the  Arabs  were  mono- 
theists  at  the  advent  of  the  prophet ;  whereas  all  who 
have  written  upon  the  subject  agree  in  telling  us  that 
Sabseanism  and  Magianism  had  both  degenerated  into 
idolatry,  while  the  "  grossest  Fetichism,"  to  borrow  the 
phrase  of  Mr.  Bosworth  Smith,  was  "  probably  more 
popular  and  more  prominent  than  either."  The  three 
hundred  and  sixty  odd  idols  in  the  Kaaba,  moreover, 
ought  alone  to  show  how  far  from  monotheistic  the 
Arabs  were.  Neither  is  it  true  that  the  "  Impostor  " 
robbed  Arabia  of  its  Christianity.  "  After  five  centuries 
of  Christian  evangelisation,"  says  Sir  William  Muir, 
"  we  can  point  to  but  a  sprinkling  here  and  there  of 
Christians."      It  may  be  pertinent  to  ask,  in  addition, 

our  companion  when  friendless,  our  ornaaient  among  friends,  our 
armour  against  our  enemies."  "The  ink  of  the  scholar  is  more  holy 
than  the  blood  of  the  martyr."  "To  listen  to  the  words  of  the  learned, 
and  to  instil  into  the  heart  the  lessons  of  science,  is  better  than 
religious  exercises."  "  Him  who  favours  learning  and  the  learned, 
(iod  will  favour  in  the  next  world."  "He  who  honours  the  learned 
honours  me." 


MOHAMMEDANISM  5  3  3 

whether  those  who  are  so  ready  to  hurl  this  imputation 
at  Mohammed  are  equally  prepared  to  acknowledge  as 
true  Christians  the  CoUyridian  and  other  sects  he  had 
to  deal  with.  "  It  has  been  the  fashion,"  says  Deutsch, 
"  to  ascribe  whatever  is  good  in  Mohammedanism  to 
Christianity.  We  fear  this  theory  is  not  compatible 
with  the  results  of  honest  investigation.  For  of  Arabian 
Christianity  at  the  time  of  Mohammed,  the  less  said, 
perhaps,  the  better."  As  for  the  moral  condition  of 
the  Arabs  at  that  time,  it  cannot  perhaps  be  better 
described  than  by  extracts  from  Mr.  Bosworth  Smith. 
"  To  forgive  an  injury  was  with  the  Arabs  the  sign  of 
a  craven  spirit :  revenge  was  a  religious  duty ;  blood 
feuds  were  handed  down  from  father  to  son  .  .  .  and 
the  claim  was  sometimes  not  considered  to  be  satisfied 
till  the  whole  tribe  had  been  swept  away.  .  .  .  Drunken- 
ness was  .  .  .  very  common,  and  very  fatal  in  its 
effects.  The  passion  for  gambling  was  so  reckless  that 
a  man  Avould  often  stake  all  his  possessions,  and  .  .  . 
his  freedom.  .  .  .  But  the  most  barbarous  practice 
.  .  .  was  the  burying  alive  of  the  female  children  as 
soon  as  they  were  born ;  or,  worse  still,  as  sometimes 
happened,  after  they  had  attained  the  age  of  six  years. 
The  father  was  generally  himself  the  murderer.  .  .  . 
The  majority  [of  women]  were  in  the  most  degraded 
position  ...  a  woman  had  no  rights ;  she  could  not 
inherit  property ;  her  person  formed  part  of  the  in- 
lieritance  which  came  to  the  heir  of  her  husband,  and 
he  was  entitled  to  marry  her  against  her  will.  Hence 
sprung  the  impious  marriages  of  sons  with  thoir  step- 
mothers and  others  of  an  even  Avorse  character  which 
Mohammed  so  peremptorily  forbade.  Polygamy  was 
universal  and  quite  unrestricted ;  equally  so  was  divorce. 
...  A  father  not  unfrequently  sacrificed  his  own  child 
to  appease  an  angry  god.  .  .  ."  These  things,  the  same 
writer  says  further  on,  were  abolished  by  Mohammed, 
as  was  also  wanton  cruelty  to  slaves;  and  it  may  be 


534  GENERAL 

observed  that  Islam  succeeded  in  carrying  out  these  great 
reforms  where  both  Judaism  and  Christianity  had  for 
centuries  been  impotent.  The  times  were  not  ripe 
for  the  absolute  prohibition  of  polygamy  and  slavery, 
but  it  encompassed  them  with  restrictions,  of  which 
more  anon.  Meanwhile  it  is  interesting  and  encourag- 
ing to  find  that  Mohammedanism,  even  as  it  is 
popularly  understood  in  our  day,  has  not  lost  its 
original  power  over  barbarous  nations.  Canon  Taylor 
informs  us  in  the  Times  of  October  7,  1887,  that  "  an 
African  tribe  once  converted  to  Islam  never  reverts 
to  paganism,  and  never  embraces  Christianity.  Islam 
has  done  more  for  civilisation  than  Christianity.  Take, 
for  example,  the  statements  of  English  officials  or 
of  travellers  as  to  the  practical  result  of  Islam.  When 
Mohammedanism  is  embraced  by  a  negro  tribe, 
paganism,  devil-worship,  cannibalism,  infanticide,  witch- 
craft at  once  disappear.  Polygamy  and  slavery  are 
regulated,  and  their  evils  arc  restrained."  Surel}^  we 
must  rejoice  at  having  within  call  so  potent  an  instru- 
ment for  good,  and  be  disposed  to  utilise  it  to  the 
advantage  of  those  whom  their  more  enlightened 
Moslem  brothers  can  begin  by  tiu'ning  from  beasts 
into  men,  and,  with  our  help  and  guidance,  can  raise 
yet  higher  in  the  scale  of  progress. 

As  the  calumny  has  again  lately  come  to  the  front 
that  Mohammedanism  does  not  include  a  true  con- 
ception of  the  Godhead,  it  may  be  as  well  to  devote  a 
few  words  to  it.  The  threadbare  argument  is  given 
prominence  that  Moslems  do  not  term  the  Deity 
"  Father  " :  a  puerile  quibble  one  would  not  have  ex- 
pected from  its  latest  expt)nent,  who  poses  as  a  Semitic 
and  Oriental  scholar,  and  who  cannot  help  knowing  full 
well  that  the  word,  although  perfectly  harmless  in  the 
mouth  of  a  European,  is  associated  in  the  East  with 
the  most  grossly  anthropomorphous  ideas.  Further,  is 
it  quite  so  certain  that  tlie  vindictive  Moloch  too  often 


MOHAMMEDANISM  5  3  5 

portrayed  to  Christians — styled  "  Father  "  in  uncon- 
scious irony — shows  parental  aft'ection  equally  with 
Him  of  the  Beautiful  Names  ?  "  God  is  more  loving 
to  His  servants  than  the  mother  to  her  young,"  said 
Mohammed ;  and  the  Koran  repeatedly  recurs  to  the 
many  proofs  of  His  tenderness  for  us.  The  reciprocal 
love  of  the  believer  is  expressed,  inter  alia,  in  the 
following  prayer,  handed  down  by  tradition :  "  O  Lord, 
grant  me  the  love  of  Thee  ;  grant  that  I  may  love  those 
that  love  Thee ;  grant  that  I  may  do  the  deeds  that 
win  Thy  Love  ;  make  Thy  Love  to  be  dearer  to  me  than 
myself."  Neither  is  this  Moslem  spiritual  communion 
barren.  Some  of  its  fruits  have  wrung  even  from  Sir 
William  Muir,  whom  Syed  Ameer  Ali  well  describes 
as  "  an  avowed  enemy  of  Islam,"  such  tributes  as  this  : 
"  Never,  since  the  days  when  primitive  Christianity 
startled  the  world  from  its  sleep,  and  waged  a  mortal 
conflict  with  heathenism,  had  men  seen  the  like 
arousing  of  spiritual  life, — the  like  faith  that  suffered 
sacrifice,  and  took  joyfully  the  spoiling  of  goods  for 
conscience'  sake,"  And  again  :  "  Mahomet,  thus  holding 
his  people  at  bay,  waiting,  in  the  still  expectation  of 
victory,  to  outward  appearance  defenceless,  and  with 
his  little  band,  as  it  were,  in  the  lion's  mouth,  yet 
trusting  in  the  Almighty  Power  whose  messenger  he 
believed  himself  to  be,  resolute  and  unmoved,  presents 
a  spectacle  of  sublimity  paralleled  only  in  the  sacred 
records  by  such  scenes  as  that  of  the  prophet  of 
Israel,  Avhen  he  complained  to  his  master,  '  I,  even  I 
only,  am  left.' " 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  mentioned  that 
the  rigid  fatalism  of  certain  Western  systems  of 
theology  does  not  form  part  of  Islam,  as  has  been 
falsely  asserted  with  the  utmost  persistency.  The 
authoritative  commentary  of  Jalalain  sheds  a  new 
light  on  a  passage  of  the  Koran  which  is  perpetually 
being   put   forward    in   the    erroneous   form :    ''  Every 


536  GENERAL 

man's  fate  have  we  bound  about  his  neck,"  ^^^^  o^<^\  J^j 

<ifllc  ^  'if\L.     The  words  really  are  :  "  And  every  man 

have  we  hung  his  bird  (gl.  his  works  which  he 
carries  with  him)  about  his  neck,  and  on  the  day  of 
resiu-rection  Ave  will  bring  it  face  to  face  with  him  as  a 
written  document.  Read  thy  writing :  thyself  art 
to-day  a  sufficient  witness  against  thee."  The  context 
shows  the  meaning  to  be  that  a  man  cannot  rid  himself 
of  the  sins  he  has  committed,  and  that  they  follow 
him  into  the  next  world — unless,  of  course,  he  repent, 
as  the  Koran  says  elsewhere,  over  and  over  again.  As 
for  the  responsibility  for  human  acts,  the  Koran  lays 
it  down  that  "  Whatever  good  betideth  thee  is  from 
God,  and  whatever  betideth  thee  of  evil  is  from 
thyself : "  which  comes  to  the  same  thing  as  the 
Christian  phrase :  "  Without  God  ye  can  do  nothing." 

This  digression  may  serve  to  show  that  the  propa- 
"■ation  of  true  Islam  is  not  that  of  a  servile  formalism : 
we  must  now  return  to  the  investigation  of  its  doctrines 
on  subjects  more  nearly  connected  with  our  Imperial 
interests.  Let  us  first  pause,  however,  to  insist  once 
more  upon  the  necessity  of  bearing  in  mind  that  the 
Koran  was  not  written  in  Europe  in  the  twentieth, 
or  even  in  the  nineteenth,  century,  and  that  it  had  to 
be  suited  to  its  surroundings  if  it  was  to  be  anything 
more  than  Utopian.  It  is  Oriental,  and  it  can  best  be 
understood  by  enlightened  Orientals  like  Sir  Syed 
Ahiiiod  Khan,  to  whom  we  should  accordingly  go  for 
instruction. 

In  a  country  where  polygamy  had  no  limits,  and 
where  incest  and  every  form  of  inunorality,  amongst 
other  evils,  were  rampant,  it  was  not  advisable  expressly 
to  introduce  strict  monogamy  at  once.  Implicitly, 
however,  Islam  made  polygamy  almost  impossible  to  a 
conscientious  Moslem  by  the  folloAving  decree :  "  Marry 
.  .  .  two,  three,  or  four ;  but  if  ye  fear  lest  ye  may 


MOHAMMEDANISM  i,  3  7 

not  deal  equitably,  then  one."  Thus  no  one  is  to  take 
more  than  one  wife  but  ho  who  feels  that  he  can 
behave  with  equal  justice  and  love  to  more,  and,  a 
little  further  on,  the  Koran  itself  says  that,  even  with 
the  best  will,  he  will  not  have  it  in  his  power  to  do  so. 
The  leave  given  is  therefore  tantamount  to  a  prohi- 
bition. Divorce,  which  was  practised  without  any 
restraint  Avhatever  till  Mohammed's  time,  has  been 
retained,  but  has  been  so  hedged  about  with  provisos 
as  to  be  no  easy  matter ;  and  his  opinion  of  it  may  be 
gathered  from  his  saying  that,  as  nothing  pleases  God 
more  than  the  freeing  of  slaves,  so  nothing  displeases 
Him  more  than  divorce.  Woman,  until  then  a  chattel, 
was  given  the  right  of  possessing  separate  property, 
and  was  raised  to  a  perfect  equality  with  man  in  the 
exercise  of  all  legal  powers.  These  facts  Mohammedans 
will  not  be  slow  to  recognise  if  they  are  set  before 
them  in  the  right  way,  and  honour  is  given  where 
honour  is  due :  the  more  so  as  divorce  and  plurality  of 
wives  are  the  exception  among  them,  and  not,  as  might 
be  supposed,  the  rule.  Especial  stress  should  be  laid 
upon  the  point  that  the  spirit  of  their  law  is  even 
more  opposed  to  these  practices  than  the  letter,  beyond 
which  many  of  them  have  never  learnt  to  go  of  them- 
selves^ — in  this  manner  their  civilising  mission  may 
be  extended  and  intensified. 

Slavery,  with  which  fanatics  have  too  often  saddled 
Islam,  bears  a  similar  relation  to  it.  "  Mohammed," 
says  Mr.  Bosworth  Smith,  "  did  not  abolish  slavery 
altogether,  for  in  that  condition  of  society  it  would 
have  been  neither  possible  nor  desirable  to  do  so ;  but 
he  encouraged  the  emancipation  of  slaves :  he  laid 
down  the  principle  that  the  captive  who  embraced 
Islam  should  be  ipso  facto  free,  and,  what  is  more 
important,  he  took  care  that  no  stigma  should  attach 
to  the  emancipated  slave."  The  late  Dr.  Leitner — 
whose  lecture  on  Mohammedanism,  with  its  appendices, 


538  GENERAL 

should  be  read  from  the  first  word  to  the  last — points 
out  that  capture  in  battle  in  a  religious  war  can  alone 
make  a  man  a  slave,  and  that  even  in  this  case  he 
is  eventually,  in  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  to  be 
freed.  The  Tafsir  Jalalaiu  throws  additional  liofht 
on  one  of  the  texts  cited  by  the  doctor.  "  And  when 
ye  shall  be  opposed  {gl.  in  battle)  to  the  unbelievers 
let  there  be  a  striking  of  the  neck  {gl.  do  not  cease  till 
the  outcome  is  certain,  as  when  a  man  puts  his  foot 
on  his  adversary's  neck)  until  you  have  overcome 
them ;  and  keep  the  captives,  either  to  restore  them  to 
liberty  or  to  exchange  them  for  captive  believers,  until 
the  war  has  thrown  down  its  load  {gl.  of  arms,  inas- 
much as  they  either  make  peace  or  a  truce ;  for  this  is 
the  end  of  war  and  of  the  retention  of  captives.)"  It 
cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  our  Moham- 
medan populations  that  in  no  other  case  has  slavery 
any  warrant  in  their  religion,  and  that  the  sale  of 
human  beings  has  been  severely  condemned  by  "  the 
great  Arabian."  This  knowledge  will  fill  them  with 
antagonism  to  the  slave  trade  in  all  its  forms.  At 
present  many  Moslems  are  imdcr  the  false  impression 
that  nothing  is  required  by  their  creed  save  that  none 
of  their  co-religionists  should  be  enslaved ;  and,  to  do 
them  justice,  they  are  very  thorough  so  far  as  they  go 
Mr.  Joseph  Thomson,  in  a  letter  to  the  Times  dated 
Nov.  14,  1887,  writes:  "I  unhesitatingly  affirm,  and 
I  speak  from  a  wider  experience  of  Eastern  Central 
Africa  tlian  any  of  your  correspondents  possess,  that 
if  the  slave  trade  thrives  it  is  because  Islam  has  not 
been  introduced  to  these  regions,  and  for  the  strongest 
of  all  reasons,  that  tho^  spread  of  Mohammedanism 
would  have  meant  the  concomitant  suppression  of  the 
slave  trade." 

The  extract  given  above  Iron)  the  Koran  Itrings  us 
to  the  subject  of  religious  war.  in  this  passage,  as 
throughout  the  vohune,  it  is  a  war  of  scir-dofenco  tliat 


MOHAMMEDANISM  539 

is  commanded.  "  And  fight  for  the  religion  of  God 
against  those  that  liglit  against  you  ;  but  attack  them 
not  first :  God  hateth  the  aggressor.  ...  If  they 
attack  you,  slay  them  .  .  .  but  if  they  desist,  let  there 
be  no  hostility  except  against  the  oppressor,"  "  They 
will  not  cease  fighting  against  you  until  they  make 
you  give  up  your  religion  if  they  can."  Words  like 
these  speak  plainly  enough  for  themselves,  but  they 
are  made  still  clearer  by  the  circumstances ;  for  they 
applied,  as  every  one  knows,  to  Avar  which  the  first 
Moslems  were  forced  into  in  order  to  safeguard  their 
lives  and  liberty,  in  jeopardy  on  account  of  their  pro- 
fession of  faith.  Nothing  but  complete  discomfiture 
could  induce  their  adversaries  to  keep  the  peace.  The 
lengths  to  which  they  went  are  shown  in  the  following 
complaint,  commented  upon  by  Jalalain :  "  How  can 
there  be  a  covenant  with  the  polytheists  ...  if,  Avlien 
they  gain  the  ascendant  over  you,  they  observe  (to- 
wards you)  neither  oath  nor  treaty  (///.  but  do  you  all 
the  harm  in  their  power)."  Yet  even  then  the  Moslems 
were  only  to  fight  as  they  were  fought  against,  and  to 
sheathe  the  sword  as  soon  as  a  token  of  non-resistance 
was  given  them.  Thus  religious  war,  according  to  the 
Koran,  is  one  undertaken  to  defend  liberty  of  con- 
science, and  has  no  motive  unless  this  is  attacked. 
There  are  so  many  erroneous  ideas  on  the  subject 
floating  about  that  it  would  be  well  if  our  Moham- 
medans knew  exactly  what  to  think  of  it.  Written 
opinions  have  been  obtained  from  the  teachers  of  the 
four  schools  of  divinity  at  Mecca,  says  Mr.  Theodore 
Morison  {Specfafor,  Dec.  29,  1900),  to  the  effect  that 
India  is  a  Dar  id  Mam,  to  whose  rulers  Moslems  "  are 
bound  in  conscience  to  be  loyal."  These  Fat-was  should 
be  published  far  and  wide,  not  only  on  account  of  the 
effect  they  must  produce  on  our  own  subjects,  but  also 
as  a  means  towards  an  alliance  of  Mohan )medan  States 
for    defensive    purposes,    "  under    the    regis    of   Great 


540  GENERAL 

Britain,  instead  of  that  of  Russia,"  suggested  by  Dr. 
Leitner  as  far  back  as  1886.  But  of  course,  with  our 
usual  supineness,  we  do  nothing. 

One  point  that  must  not  be  forgotten  is  that,  while 
certain  other  people  talk  a  great  deal  about  universal 
brotherhood,  Moslems  practise  it.  Caste  distinctions, 
which  Christianity  fails  to  overcome,  do  not  exist  for 
them ;  and,  if  an  Indian  Mussulman  has  any  doubts  on 
that  score,  they  are  soon  set  at  rest.  An  example  will 
best  explain  this.  A  learned  man  from  Mecca,  Avho 
was  holding  a  reception,  saw  a  washerman  humbly 
standing  near  the  threshold.  On  its  being  explained 
that  the  dhoby  belonged  to  a  low  caste,  the  Moulvie 
made  him  sit  at  his  right  hand  and  eat  with  him, 
remarking  that  all  Moslems  were  brothers,  and  were 
equal.  Such  action  does  far  more  than  theories,  and 
here  Mohammedans  have  before  them  a  field  of 
civilisation  whose  tillage  is  practically  their  monopoly. 

At  least  twice  as  much  time  as  can  here  be  devoted 
to  the  matter  would  be  needed  for  even  a  cursory  view 
of  all  the  ways  in  which  Moslems,  by  following  their 
religion  as  they  originally  received  it,  might  benefit 
themselves  and  every  one  with  whom  they  come  in 
contact.  A  generation  ago  it  would  have  been  worse 
than  useless  to  expect  British  concurrence  towards 
this  end,  but  in  our  day  a  spirit  of  toleration,  betokened 
by  facts  such  as  the  Gordon  College  at  Khartoum  and 
the  Mosque  built  in  connection  with  the  Oriental 
Institute  at  Woking,  is  fortunately  gaining  ground 
amongst  us,  and  it  may  presumably  not  be  too 
nmch  to  hope  that  unreasoning  liatrcd  of  Islam  will 
make  way  for  an  intelligent  interest  in  it.  The  con- 
ference pleaded  for  by  the  Nawab  Imad  Nawaz  Jang, 
for  instance,  ought  not  to  be  out  of  reach,  and  as  Dr. 
Leitner  remarked  of  it  when  it  Avas  first  proposed, 
would  "  remove  many  misrepresentations  that  now 
exist "  and  "  pave  the  way  for  a  better  understanding 


MOHAMMEDANISM  541 

between  Christians  and  Mohammedans " ;  thus  con- 
tributing to  a  less  impossible  attitude  on  our  part 
towards  the  latter,  the  preliminary  to  our  acquisition 
of  an  influence  disposing  them,  in  their  turn,  to  lend 
a  willing  ear  to  our  suggestions  for  their  welfare. 
Alarm  is  already  beginning  to  be  felt  in  certain 
quarters  at  the  activity  prevalent  in  Mohammedan 
countries;  would  it  not  be  better  for  us  to  guide  it 
towards  a  just  appreciation  of  the  spirit  of  Islam  than 
to  force  it,  for  want  of  another  outlet,  in  the  direction 
of  unfriendly  fanaticism  of  the  Senusi  type  ? 

Educated  Mohammedans  must  be  enlisted  in  this 
cause ;  and  here  a  word  about  those  at  Liverpool  may 
not  be  out  of  place.  Much  is  to  be  had  for  the  asking 
by  a  community  like  this,  which,  on  the  one  hand,  is 
almost  wholly  composed  of  Englishmen,  and,  on  the 
other,  may  be  supposed  to  be  in  touch  with  the 
millions  of  Moslems  throughout  the  empire ;  a  perhaps 
unique  position,  which  admits  them  to  intimacy  with 
both  Western  and  Eastern  thought,  allowing  them  to 
apply  the  canons  of  the  one  to  the  other  and  gauge 
their  present  and  their  former  creed  by  the  same 
standards.  They  should  be  able,  while  giving  their 
countrymen  the  benefit,  from  an  Enghsh  point  of  view, 
of  their  inner  experience  of  Islam,  to  put  English 
ideas  authoritatively  before  the  family  councils  of  their 
co-religionists,  and  bear  their  part  in  showing  how  well 
the  Koran  and  the  primitive  traditions  can  bo  applied 
to  the  requirements  of  our  time,  and  how  much  they 
are  in  keeping  with  its  spirit.  Let  the  Moslems  within 
our  dominions  once  grasp  this,  and  their  proper  place 
in  the  empne  and  in  the  world  is  assured. 

Note. — Since  tliis  was  written  an  interesting  account  of  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Indian  Mussulmans  during  the  nineteenth  century,  by 
Mr.  S.  Khuda  Buksh,  B.C.L.,  has  appeared  in  the  April  number  of 
the   Imperial  and  Asiatic  Quarterly  Revieu: 


CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS 

ESPECIALLY   IN  THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 
By  GEORGE  SMITH,  CLE.,  LL.D. 

The  British  Empire  is  based  on  religion  and  on  the 
toleration  which  the  Christian  religion  alone  teaches 
and  secures.  It  is  religion  which  has  given  the  com- 
paratively small  United  Kingdom  its  imperial  power 
and  responsibilities.  The  English-speaking  race,  or 
races,  including  those  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
are  conscious  of  a  mission  or  destiny,  by  recognising 
which  the  Empire  has  grown  to  its  present  position  in 
the  history  of  humanity.  The  spawning  power  and 
the  adventurous  instinct  of  Englishmen,  Scotsmen,  and 
Irishmen,  which  have  carried  them  so  far  and  have 
marked  their  administrative  and  commercial  career, 
are  not  directed  by  blind  force.  The  national  character 
has  been  built  up,  the  national  life  is  regulated  by 
ideas.  And  of  all  ideas  that  which  has  most  dynamic 
force  is  Religion.  When  that  religion  claims  to  be  at 
once  supernatural  and  imivcrsal,  missionary  and  yet 
tolerant  of  all  others  whom  only  it  would  persuade 
and  benefit,  Foreign  Missions  come  to  be  an  essential 
part  of  the  foreign  politics  and  history  of  the  Empire. 

Hence  the  expansion  of  the  British  Empire  has 
been  accompanied  by  the  progress  of  Foreign  Missions. 
The  work  really  began  at  the  Reformation  of  the 
Church  four  centuries  ago.  What  the  Roman  Church 
lost  in  Eui'ope  it  sought  to  make  u])  by  missions  to 
the    lands    discovered    by  S[)iiin    and    J'oitugal.      The 


CHRISTIAN    MISSIONS  543 

Jesuits  were  a  missionary  order  with  a  military  organi- 
sation. The  Franciscans  and  Dominicans  followed  them 
to  the  dark  races,  often  as  their  rivals.  The  Reformed 
Churches  meanwhile  prepared  the  missionary's  message 
in  the  Greek  text,  the  Latin  version,  and  the  vernacular 
translations  of  the  Scriptures.  In  1641  Oliver  Crom- 
well founded  the  first  Missionary  Society,  to  the  Indians 
of  America,  under  John  Eliot. 

Two  historical  events  checked  that  enterprise,  but 
opened  the  door  far  wider.  The  American  War  of 
Independence  at  once  set  Great  Britain  free  for  the  ex- 
pansion of  its  empire  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  it  called 
into  existence  the  second  great  missionary  power.  The 
French  Revolution  broke  up  the  feudalism  of  Europe, 
and  England  became  master  of  what  are  now  some  of 
its  greatest  dependencies  and  dominions. 

Modern  Christian  Missions  to  the  dark  races,  who 
form  the  majority  of  mankind,  took  their  origin  in  the 
throes  of  the  wars  of  the  Revolution  and  Independence. 
After  ten  years  of  preparation,  William  Carey  founded 
the  first  general  Missionary  Society  in  1792.  From 
that  time  Reformed  Missions  have  grown  with  the 
growth  of  the  Empire.  The  Baptist  Society  began  in 
Northern  India.  In  1795  it  Avas  followed  by  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  Avhich  began  in  Hawaii  and 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  1796  the  Scottish 
Missionary  Society  selected  first  Western  and  then 
Southern  Africa  as  the  scene  of  its  operations.  In 
1799  the  great  Church  Missionary  Society  was  founded, 
and  soon  sent  evangelists  out  to  West  Africa,  Madras, 
and  Calcutta.  In  1804  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  became  the  catholic  publishing  house  of  the 
missionaries'  translations  of  the  Bible.  Gradually  the 
two  older  asrencies  of  the  Church  of  Entjland,  the 
Wesleyans,  and  the  Church  of  Scotland  became  more 
missionary  or  foreign  in  their  work — the  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  the  Society  for   the 


544  GENERAL 

Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  the  Scottish  Society  of 
the  same  name,  and  the  Wesleyan  Society.  The 
same  missionary  philanthropists  who  created  what  was 
called  "the  era  of  benevolence "  from  1792  to  18 13, 
when  the  East  India  Company  received  a  more  tolerant 
charter  than  before,  carried  through  Parliament  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  which  had  stained  the 
nascent  empire  and  made  its  healthy  growth  impossible. 
As  the  people  of  the  United  States  of  America  increased, 
they,  too,  founded  corresponding  missionary  organisations, 
although  the  burden  of  slavery  with  which  at  the  first 
Portugal  and  Spain  had  saddled  them  was  not  removed 
till  Lincoln's  Civil  War  long  after. 

The  constitutional  law  of  toleration  in  the  Empire 
was  not  practically  established  until  Queen  Victoria 
assumed  the  direct  government  of  India  on  the  Mutiny 
and  the  removal  of  the  East  India  Company.  Then, 
in  the  Royal  Proclamation  of  ist  November  1858,  the 
Queen  with  her  own  hand  wrote  this  addition  to  the 
Secretary  of  State's  draft :  "  Firmly  relying  ourselves  on 
the  truth  of  Christianity,  and  acknowledging  with  grati- 
tude the  solace  of  religion,  we  disclaim  alike  the  rig-ht 
and  the  desire  to  impose  our  convictions  on  any  of 
our  subjects."  Eighteen  years  after,  when  H.R.H.  the 
Prince  of  Wales  visited  South  India,  and  was  wel- 
comed by  ten  thousand  native  Christians  at  Tiune- 
velly,  he  said :  "  It  is  a  great  satisfaction  to  me  to 
find  my  countrymen  engaged  in  offering  to  our  Indian 
fellow-subjects  those  truths  which  form  the  foundation 
of  our  own  social  and  political  system,  and  which  we 
ourselves  esteem  as  our  most  valued  possession.  The 
freedom  in  all  matters  of  opinion  which  our  Govern- 
ment secures  to  all  is  an  assurance  to  me  that  large 
numbers  of  our  Indian  fellow-subjects  accept  your 
teaching  from  conviction." 

When  William  Carey  made  his  missionary  survey 
in  I  786,  publishing  the  results  in  his  famous  "  Enquiry  " 


CHRISTIAN    MISSIONS  545 

in  1792/  he  estimated  the  population  of  the  world  at 
"about  731,000,000."  Of  these  only  174,000,000 
were  Christians.  Of  the  other  557,000,000,  the  num- 
ber of  pagans  was  420,000,000;  of  Mohammedans 
130,000,000,  and  of  Jews  7,000,000.  In  the  114 
years  since  that  survey,  it  is  known  that  the  number 
of'  mankind  has  more  than  doubled.  The  estimate  of 
Mr.  E.  Ravenstein,  F.R.G.S.,  made  in  September  1890, 
and  brought  down  to  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, is  at  least  1,550,000,000.  Of  these  510,000,000 
are  Christians,  in  the  three  classes  of  200,000,000  of  the 
Reformed  Church,  200,000,000  of  the  Roman  Church, 
and  I  1 0,000,000  of  the  Greek  and  Eastern  Churches. 
Of  the  1,040,000,000  of  non-Christians,  9,000,000  are 
Jews,  200,000,000  are  Mohammedans,  and  83  1,000,000 
are  pagans. 

There  is  thus  an  apparent  increase  of  Christians, 
in  the  114  years,  of  336,000,000.  Whereas  there  were 
174  Christians  to  every  557  of  the  human  race,  there 
are  now  510  Christians  to  every  1550.  Roughly, 
every  thu'd  human  being  is  now  a  Christian  in  name. 
The  increase  is  due  (i)  to  the  superior  energy  of 
the  principal  Christian  races;  (2)  to  the  secondary 
civilising  effects  of  Christianity;  (3)  to  the  du'ect 
influence  of  Christian  missions,  in  obedience  to  the 
great  commission  of  the  Founder  of  the  Faith  and 
His  universal  claim  and  supernatural  power  and 
presence.  The  Teutonic  peoples,  and  especially  the 
English-speaking,  and  more  particularly  the  British, 
have  led  the  way  during  the  century,  so  far  as  Re- 
formed or  Evangelical  Missions  are  concerned,  these 
being  always  tolerant.  The  Latin  peoples,  especially 
those  of  France,  have  been  identified  with  Roman 
Missions.  The  Church  of  the  Greek  rite,  chiefly  in 
Russia,  has  had  a  missionary  influence  in  Siberia, 
while  rigidly  intolerant  to  all  other  organisations  of  the 

1  Reprinted  by  Hodder  &  Stoughton  in  1891. 
V  2   M 


546 


GENERAL 


kind,  except  tlie  Bible  Society.  We  sliall  notice  these 
three  mission  forces  and  their  results  in  succession. 
There  are  few  data  for  the  third. 

I.  Reformed  Missions 

The  Christian  missionary  expansion,  which  makes 
the  century  remarkable,  is  divided  into  two  well-defined 
periods  of  sowing  and  growth.  The  first  covers  the 
period  up  to  1859.  The  second,  of  the  forty  years  to 
the  present  day,  started  under  the  double  impulse  of 
the  Indian  Mutiny  and  the  first  return  of  David 
Livingstone  from  tropical  Africa.  In  1799  William 
Carey,  after  seven  years'  labour,  had  not  a  convert, 
nor  had  the  Scottish  and  the  London  Missionary 
Societies.  The  Lutherans  had  a  few  in  South  India, 
and  Kiernander  had  several  hundreds  in  Calcutta. 
The  Wesleyan  Methodists  had  gained  some  negroes, 
and  the  Moravians  had  won  several  converts  from  the 
depressed  races. 


First  Period — 

Solving, 

1799-1859. 

1799. 

1820. 

1830. 

1846. 

1859. 

Income  .... 

j^IO.OOO 

^■121,756 

^226,440 

^^632,000 

;^9i,8ooo 

Missionaries  (men) 

so 

421 

734 

1. 319 

2,032 

Missionaries      (unmar-  ( 
ried  women)       .          j 

I 

31 

72 

76 

Native  ministers    . 

7 

10 

158 

169 

Other  native  helpers 

80 

166 

850 

3.152 

5.785 

Native  communicants    . 

7,000 

21,787 

51.322 

159,000 

227,000 

Native (liHcii)lesorcate-  \ 
chumenn     .         .         j 

5,000 

15.728 

102,27s 

185,000 

252,000 

Missionary  organisations 

6 

20 

25 

65 

98 

The  first  of  the  Missionary  Congresses,  that  of 
Bengal,  was  held  at  Calcutta  in  September  1855.  In 
all  Brilisli  India  t-horc  wore  then  only  386  missionaries, 
in  feudatory  India  there  was  not  one.  The  Timjab  had 
5  only  against  182  in  Madras,  103  in  Bengal,  and  60 
in  the  North- Wosteni  Provinces.      There  were  only  34 


CHRISTIAN    MISSIONS 


547 


in  Bombay  and  2  in  the  Central  Provinces.  "  Can  you 
wonder,"  wrote  the  Conference  in  an  appeal  to  Europe 
and  America,  "  then,  that  we  ask  for  larger  agencies, 
that  for  this  holy  service  we  appeal  to  you  for  more 
men  and  more  means  ;  and  that  we  ask  the  Church  to 
aid  us  by  more  repeated  and  more  fervent  prayers  ? " 

In  less  than  two  years  our  Eastern  Empire  was  at 
stake  till  Delhi  fell  in  September  1857.  Our  native 
country  was  roused  by  massacres  and  the  penalties  of  the 
worst  form  of  war,  till  the  national  conscience  quickened 
the  Churches  and  Societies  into  redoubled  life. 

All  this  affected  Asia  chiefly,  but  at  the  same  time 
Africa  was  at  last  brought  into  the  conflict  of  Christen- 
dom with  the  darkness.  David  Livingstone  returned 
from  his  first  journey  across  that  continent,  to  tell  all — 
the  Queen,  the  Universities,  the  Christian  Churches — of 
multitudinous  tribes,  and  peoples,  and  tongues,  enslaved 
at  once  by  the  powers  of  darkness,  and  the  demand 
for  the  harems  of  Islam.  A  "  new  era  of  universal 
benevolence "  was  again  begun  for  the  dark  races. 
America  stood  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  and  Huguenot  France  in  the  missionary  march. 
The  seed  of  sixty  years  was  bearing  its  fruit,  while  new 
fields  were  sown  by  new  agencies,  with  this  result  up 
to  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  : — 

Second  Period —  Gi'owth,  1 8  5  9—  1 900. 


1859. 

1889. 

1895. 

1898. 

Income       .... 

^^918, 000 

;^2, 130,000 

;(;2,86s,662 

;^2.9S2.724 

Missionaries  (men) 

2,032 

4.13s 

6,369 

6,746 

Missionaries      (unmarried ) 
women)  .         .         .          ) 

76 

1,889 

3.390 

3.421 

Native  ministers 

169 

3.327 

4,018 

3.958 

Other  native  helpers . 

S.785 

41.754 

61,124 

64,198 

Native  conimunicanrs 

227,000 

850,000 

1,057,000 

1,321,561 

Native    disciples   or  cate-  ) 
chumens           .         .          J 

252,000 

650,000 

864.15s 

1,148,905 

Missionary  organisations    . 

98 

262 

365 

36s 

Schools       .... 

... 

19.476 

Scholars     .... 

988,660 

548  GENERAL 

These  figures  exclude  all  Bible  and  Christian 
literature  work,  Missions  to  the  Jews,  to  decadent 
Christian  Churches,  and  the  Colonies,  and  the  wives 
of  missionaries,  the  majority  of  whom  double  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  men.  If  these  be  added,  the  expenditure 
for  1898  will  be  ;^3,248,874,  and  the  total  number  of 
foreign  missionaries  will  rise  to  12,000  in  1898,  of 
whom  5500  were  women.  Dr.  James  S.  Dennis,  the 
author  of  a  well-known  work  in  three  volumes  on 
"  Christian  Missions  and  Social  Progress,"  submitted 
to  the  Ecumenical  Congress  in  New  York  in  1 900  a 
remarkable  array  of  statistics  of  Foreign  Missions  of 
all  classes.  His  calculation  is  that  there  are  now 
15,460  foreign  missionaries,  1,317,684  native  com- 
municants, 20,375  mission  schools,  1,046,168  pupils, 
537  missionary  organisations,  ;^4,2  3i,ooo  mission- 
ary income,  2,000,000  copies  of  Scriptures  annually 
circulated. 

Stated  broadly,  the  Churches  of  the  Reformation 
at  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  spend  annually 
;^4,ooo,ooo  sterling  in  sending  Missions,  Bibles, 
and  Christian  literature  to  non-Christians,  as  against 
;^  1 0,000  at  its  beginning.  They  send  out  above 
7000  men,  two-thirds  of  Avhom  are  married,  and 
4000  unmarried  women,  against  50  only  a  century 
ago. 

Then  there  was  not  one  ordained  native  convert, 
now  there  arc  upwards  of  4000.  Then  there  were 
hardly  a  hundred  native  Christian  workers,  now  there 
are  70,000.  These  figures  take  no  cognisance  of 
four  of  the  most  powerful  forces  at  work  in  the 
civilisation  of  the  non-Christian  races.  These  are, 
educational,  medical,  and  industrial  missions,  and  the 
cheap  circulation  of  the  l^iblo  and  of  jmre  literature, 
vernacuhu-  as  well  as  English. 

Of  the  sum  of  ;^3,ooo,ooo  sterling  spent  in  1897 
by  th(!  Reformed  Churches  of  Christendom  on  missions 


CHRISTIAN    MISSIONS  549 

to  the  (lark  races,  the  British  Empire  supplied  one 
half,  the  United  States  of  America  nearly  a  third, 
and  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  Switzerland,  and  the 
Scandinavian  countries  gave  the  rest. 


II.  Roman  Missions 

The  quest  by  sea  for  the  wealth  of  India  was  the 
beginning  of  the  missions  of  the  Latin  Church,  and 
also  of  the  African  slave-trade.  Portugal  sought  and 
found  India  by  the  eastward  route  round  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  following  up  the  discoveries  of  its  dis- 
tinguished son.  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator.  In  1442 
Pope  Martin  the  Fifth's  Bull  assumed  to  confer  on 
the  Portuguese  crown  all  the  land  it  should  conquer 
from  Cape  Bojador  eastward  to  the  Indies — that  is, 
all  Africa  and  India.  The  first  result  was  the  capture 
of  ten  negro  slaves,  as  "  souls  "  that  "  might  be  con- 
verted to  the  faith."  These,  the  first  African  slaves, 
were  presented  to  that  Pope,  and  by  1537,  under 
another  Bull,  a  slave-market  was  opened  in  Lisbon 
where  from  ten  to  twelve  thousand  negroes  were  sold 
every  year  for  transport  to  the  West  Indies.  Spain, 
on  the  other  hand,  sought  India  under  the  Genoese 
navigator  Columbus  by  the  Avestward  route,  and  found 
America  for  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Los  Reyes 
obtained  from  the  most  infamous  of  the  Popes, 
Alexander  the  Sixth,  by  the  Bull  of  May  1493,  recog- 
nition of  their  lordship  over  all  that  hemisphere.  To 
keep  the  peace  between  Portugal  and  Spain  and  re- 
concile the  two  Bulls,  he  divided  the  sphere  between 
them  by  an  imaginary  line  from  pole  to  poJe  drawn  a 
hundred  leagues  to  the  west  of  the  Azores  and  Cape 
Verde  Islands.  Thereupon,  at  Barcelona,  nine  Indians 
bought  by  Columbus  were  baptized,  and  one  of  them, 
who  died  immediately  after,  was  declared  to  be  the 
first  of  the  dark  races  of  that  resrion  who  had  entered 


5  50  GENERAL 

heaven.  Another  half  century  passed,  and  m  1562 
Sir  John  Hawkins  carried  off  slaves  from  the  Sierra 
Leone  coast,  starting  the  English  iniquity  for  which 
the  evangelical  missionary  William  Carey  was  the  first 
to  begin  the  atonement  in  1782.  President  Lincoln 
completed  the  American  reparation  by  his  proclama- 
tion during  the  great  War  of  1862-66. 

To  these  two  Papal  documents  should  be  added  the 
Bull  of  I  540  (supplemented  by  that  of  1543),  by  which 
Loyola's  and  Xavier's  new  Company  or  Order  of  Jesus 
received  its  charter  and  became,  for  the  Romans, 
"  the  actual  embodiment  of  the  Church  militant  upon 
earth." 

In  the  four  and  a  half  centuries  since  Roman 
missions  have  been  at  work,  Portugal  and  Spain,  after 
their  brilliant  geographical  discovery  east  and  west, 
have  been  ejected  from  the  greater  part  of  India  and 
Malaysia,  and  from  the  Philippines  and  the  Pacific 
Islands.  France,  Italy,  and  even  Austria  have  dis- 
tanced decadent  Portugal  and  Spain  in  the  missionary 
enterprise.  France  especially,  discouraging  the  Church 
at  home,  has  used  it  politicall}^  abroad.  In  November 
1899  this  occurred  in  the  debate  on  the  estimates 
for  the  Ministry  for  Foreign  Affairs  in  the  French 
Chamber : — 

'■  M.  Delcasse  asked   the  House  to    grant  the  full 

o 

credit  of  800,000  francs  for  the  French  religious 
establishments  in  the  East,  which  was  reduced  by  the 
Budget  Committee.  He  showed  the  importance  of 
maintaining  the  French  protectorate  over  the  Christians 
of  Syria,  and  after  alluding  to  the  services  rendered 
by  the  missions,  declared  that  the  subventions  ought 
rather  to  be  increased  than  decreased.  The  Minister's 
statement  was  cheered,  and  the  credit  of  800,000 
francs  was  voted  by  the  Chamber." 

The  data  for  Roman  missions  are  very  uncertain 
and  incomplete.     The  missions  are  conducted  by  three 


CHRISTIAN    MISSIONS  551 

great  separate  organisations  at  least — the  Runjtm  Pro- 
paganda, the  Portuguese  Church,  and  the  Paris  Soci^t^ 
des  Missions  Etrangeres.  The  first  may  be  said  to 
raise  ;^2  75,ooo  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  To 
these  must  be  added  the  work,  chiefly  in  Africa 
since  the  accession  of  Pope  Leo  XIII.  in  1878, 
of  four  modern  organisations  —  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Lyons  Society  of 
African  Missions,  the  Veronese  Institute  for  the 
Missions  of  Nigritia,  and  the  Algcrine  Congregation 
for  the  Conversion  of  the  Soudan  and  Central  Africa. 
The  sum  raised  annually  in  the  United  Kingdom  for 
the  foreign  missions  of  the  Roman  Church  is  believed 
not  to  exceed  ii^i 3,000.  On  the  ist  day  of  1899, 
after  Lord  Kitchener's  conquest  of  the  Soudan,  a 
general  collection  was  made,  by  the  Pope's  orders,  to 
enable  the  Congi-egation  de  Propaganda  Fide  "to  put 
down  the  curse  of  African  slavery,  and  to  establish  in 
its  place  the  voluntary  and  sweet  service  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ." 

St.  Joseph's  Society  is  a  congregation  of  secular 
priests,  established  to  propagate  the  Gospel  among 
unevangelised  races  beyond  Europe.  Its  mission  fields 
are  in  Madras,  North  Borneo,  and  Sarawak,  among  the 
Maoris  of  New  Zealand,  in  Kafristan,  Cashmere,  and 
in  Equatorial  Africa.  It  has  two  colleges  in  England 
(one  at  Mill  Hill)  and  two  abroad. 

In  1888  the  followinii^  was  the  strength  of  the 
Jesuit  missions.  The  numbers  are  those  of  the  various 
orders  of  the  priesthood,  priests,  coadjutors,  and  "scholas- 
tiques,"  but  in  every  case  the  number  of  priests  is  more 
than  twice  that  of  the  other  two  orders  put  together. 
In  the  Balkan  Peninsula  there  are  45  Jesuit  mission- 
aries ;  in  Africa,  and  especially  Egypt,  Madagascar,  and 
the  Zambezi  region,  223  ;  in  Asia,  especially  Armenia, 
Syria,  certain  parts  of  India,  and  parts  of  China,  699. 
In    China   alone   the   number  is    195,   all   of    French 


5  52  GENERAL 

nationality.  In  Oceania,  including  the  Philippines, 
the  Malay  Archipelago,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand, 
the  number  is  270;  in  America,  including  certain 
specified  States  of  the  Union,  portions  of  Canada, 
British  Honduras,  Brazil,  and  Peru,  i  1 3  o ;  the  total 
number  of  Jesuits  scattered  over  the  globe  in  purely 
missionary  work  being  2377.  These  are  of  various 
nationalities,  but  the  great  majority  are  French. 

In  India  alone,  where  we  have  accurate  statistics 
of  the  religions  of  the  vast  peoples — they  numbered 
287^  millions  ten  years  ago — the  census  showed  that, 
includinof  the  small  Portusfuese  and  smaller  French 
districts,  there  were  1,594,901  Roman  and  Roman- 
Syrian  Christians. 

In  Africa  Cardinal  Moran  claims  "  about  2,000,000 
Catholics,"  but  gives  no  details  save  this,  that  in  Egypt 
they  had  increased  from  7000  in  1800  to  80,000 
in  1890.  Rev.  L.  C.  Casartelh  wrote  in  1891  that 
"  under  the  general  supervision  of  Propaganda  are  at 
work  an  endless  number  of  agencies — some  societies 
exclusively  devoted  to  foreign  missionary  work ;  others, 
the  religious  orders,  some  ancient,  some  modern,  which 
in  addition  to  their  ordinary  labours  in  Christian  lands, 
also  take  a  large  share  of  work  on  the  foreign  missions. 
That  most  powerful  of  all  missionary  societies,  the 
Society  des  Missions  Etrangferes,  whose  head-quarters 
are  in  the  Rue  du  Bac,  Paris,  is  scarcely  second  to 
Propaganda  itself.  From  this  centre  are  supplied, 
with  a  never-failing  stream  of  zealous  apostles,  the 
missions  of  a  large  portion  of  China,  of  Manchuria, 
Corea,  Japan,  Tibet,  Tonking,  Cochin-China,  Siam,  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  Burma,  and  parts  of  India,  In  these 
vast  countries;ithe  Society  had  29  bishops,  783  European 
priests,  436  native  priests,  and  2031  catechists,  whose 
services  were  devoted  to  the  care  of  a  Catliohc  popula- 
tion of  938,916  souls;  and  who,  in  2267  schools  and 
orphanages,  are  cducat  ing  over  60,000  native  children." 


CHRISTIAN    MISSIONS  553 

This  table  contains  the  most  recent  figfures  show- 
ing  the  Propaganda  work  all  over  the  world : — 


1       1 

Propaganda  Missions 

Clergy. 

Churches 

Schools 

to  the 

Catholics. 

and 

and 

Heathen,  1898 

. 

Chapels. 

Colleges. 

Europe.an. 

Native. 

Ottoman  Empire  {1 

i-sia) .        129,680 

(?) 

(?) 

210 

528 

Persia     . 

7.650 

12 

4 

Arabia  and  Aden 

1,500 

12 

4 

"6 

India  and  Ceylon 

I    1,178,325 
f         51.100 

777 

303 

3.384 

1.835 

Burma    . 

66 

II 

3H 

157 

Mahiy  Peninsula 

.   1        17,880 

28 

2 

41 

41 

Siam 

28,000 

19 

18 

62 

65 

Indo-Cliina    . 

730,700 

285 

442 

2,962 

1.597 

Chinese  Empire 

532.448 

759 

409 

3.930 

2,962 

Corea     . 

35.546 

35 

6 

36 

35 

Japan     . 

■   '       53.272 

116 

26 

195 

60 

Borneo  . 

1,200 

12 

14 

10 

Dutch  East  Indies 
Africa  ^  . 

.    !        49,080 
458,170 

50 

48 
1,000 

17 
1,656 

V 

1,015 

Oceania . 

105,850 

215 

439 

298 

Patagonia    and    Ii 

dian  "j 

Missions  of  Soutl 

land  >       21!;, 9462 

839- 

(?)- 

(?)- 

Central  America 

i 

III.  Greek  (Russian)  Missions 

The  Mission  Board  of  the  Russian  Orthodox  Church 
is  under  the  patronage  of  the  Empress,  and  under  the 
presidency  of  Ivanniki,  the  Metropolitan  of  Moscow, 
the  highest  ecclesiastical  dignitary  in  the  empire.  It 
finds  support  from  the  bishops  of  forty-one  dioceses, 
and  had  recently  a  muster-roll  of  9623  subscribing 
members.  The  central  committee,  a  body  of  nine 
ecclesiastics  and  three  laymen,  hold  their  meetings 
in  Moscow.  In  each  bishopric  there  is  a  diocesan 
sub-committee,  whose  chief  duty  it  is  to  collect  sub- 
scriptions. The  general  funds  of  the  board  come 
through  three  channels:  (i)  Collecting  boxes  placed 
in   prominent   pubhc   places;    (2)  Church   offertories; 


'  Under  Propaganda  only.        -  Returns  exceedingly  incomplete. 


5  54  GENERAL 

and  (3)  Donations  and  annual  subscriptions.  The 
entire  income  for  one  year  was  286,826  roubles. 

The  chief  fields  of  work  are  Siberia,  Japan,  and  the 
eastern  portions  of  European  Russia.  In  Siberia  the 
work  is  carried  on  among  the  heathen  Buriat,  Tungus, 
and  Yakut,  and  the  Mohammedan  Kirziz.  Here  there 
are  three  groups  of  mission  stations,  the  Altai,  the 
Irkutsk,  and  the  Trans-Baikal  group.  Since  its  com- 
mencement, the  Altai  Mission  has  baptized  more  than 
15,000  persons.  A  point  of  much  interest  is  the 
prominent  position  of  the  schools  in  all  the  mission 
districts.  In  addition,  there  is  a  medical  department 
which  sometimes  plays  an  important  proselytising  part. 

The  Irkutsk  mission-staff  consists  of  nineteen  priests 
and  twenty-one  assistants.  They  report  that  the  Kirziz 
lamas  energetically  oppose  them,  using  every  effort  to 
draw  the  converts  back  to  heathenism  ;  but,  notwith- 
standing this,  the  Irkutsk  Mission  can  reckon  1798 
baptisms  since  its  beginning  in  1 8  70.  Thirteen 
schools  have  been  established,  but  the  attendance  is 
not  large. 

The  mission  to  the  east  of  the  great  Baikal  lake  is 
conducted  by  an  archimandrite,  two  monks,  two  arch- 
priests,  twenty  priests,  and  thirteen  assistants ;  their 
work  is  among  the  Buriat  and  other  Avild  Turki 
tribes  inlial)iting  Djungaria  and  Eastern  Turkistan. 
The  missionaries  report  that  in  their  district  there  are 
about  15,000  lamas  who  exert  themselves  to  destroy 
their  influence,  stirring  the  people  to  hold  fast  to  their 
old  faith.  The  report  likewise  speaks  of  "  priests  of 
the  devil"  as  offering  strong  resistance  to  Christianity. 
These  are  probably  the  Sliaman  priests,  as  Shamanism 
is  widely  practised  in  all  that  region.  During  one 
year  there  were  485  baptisms  in  the  Trans-Baikal 
Mission  district.  There  are  now  more  than  100 
schools ;  but  doubtless  most  of  them,  here  as  in  other 
districts,  arc  of  a  very  ]irimitive  nature,  and  have  been 


CHRISTIAN    MISSIONS  555 

established  to  meet  the  necessities  of  the  numerous 
Russian  settlers  in  Eastern  Siberia.  In  the  town  of 
Cliita  there  is  a  confraternity  of  Russians  who  render 
lart^c  support  to  these  schools.  The  extreme  eastern 
portion  of  the  district  is  Kamtschatka,  where  the 
missionaries  are  at  work  among  the  Golt  and  Iliak 
tribes  of  that  inhospitable  region;  a  few  Chinese  and 
Manchurians  are  likewise  included  in  their  range. 

The  extension  and  approaching  completion  of  the 
Siberian  railway  will  certainly  develop  these  missions. 

IV.  The  Language  of  the  British  Empire 

Ninety  years  ago  French  was  spoken  by  about 
31,000,000  people,  German  by  30,000,000,  Russian 
by  30,000,000,  Spanish  by  27,000,000,  Italian  by 
16,000,000,  Portuguese  by  9,000,000,  and  Enghsh 
by  21,000,000.  To-day  English  is  the  language  of 
about  125,000,000,  French  of  45,000,000,  German 
of  55,000,000,  Russian  of  75,000,000,  Spanish  of 
40,000,000,  Italian  of  35,000,000,  and  Portuguese 
of  I  2,000,000.  In  other  words,  during  the  nineteenth 
century  English  not  only  has  risen  from  the  fifth  place 
to  the  first,  but  also  has  gained  enormously  on  the 
rest  in  relative  magnitude,  expanding  from  about 
I  3  per  cent,  of  the  total  to  about  3  o  per  cent. 

According  to  Sir  Robert  Giften,  in  a  paper  read 
by  him  at  the  Colonial  Institute,  the  British  Empire 
is  a  territory  of  i  1,500,000  square  miles,  or  13,000,000 
if  Egypt  and  the  Soudan  be  included;  and  in  that 
territory  is  a  population  of  407,000,000,  or  420,000,000 
reckoning  Egypt.  .It  is  these  420,000,000  of  human 
beings  especially,  but  also  all  the  other  dark  peoples, 
whom  Christian  missions  seek  to  elevate.  Gathered 
out  of  the  dark  races  by  the  Reformed  Missions,  there 
are  now  living  Christian  communities  which  number 
5,000,000  :  those  claimed  by  the  older  Roman  Missions 


5  56  GENERAL 

are   not  fewer.      The   two,  with  the  smaller  results  of 
the  Greek  Church,  may  be  taken  at  10,500,000. 

V.  Secondary  or  Sociological  Results  of 
Christian  Missions 

The  Empire  owes  to  Christian  principles,  and  to 
Christian  men  and  women,  at  once  its  expansion  and 
its  influence  on  the  dark  races  of  mankind.  Many  of 
the  social  results  of  the  Ethnic  Religions,  whether  the 
demon-worship  of  the  savages  of  Africa  or  the  nature- 
worship  of  the  more  cultured  Asiatics,  or  the  ancestor- 
worship  of  the  Mongolians,  or  the  teaching  of  the 
Koran  of  Mohammed,  are  contrary  to  human  virtue 
and  progress,  sometimes  even  to  Nature  itself.  The 
description  of  Paul  in  his  letter  to  the  Romans  of 
the  first  century,  whom  Christianity  transformed  into 
Europe  and  America  as  they  are  now,  is  still  true  of 
the  non-Christian  majority  of  mankind.  Hence  the 
moral  and  historical  feature  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
which  marks  it  out  from  all  its  predecessors,  is  the 
social  and  political  decay  of  the  Ethnic  and  the  rapid 
advance  and  influence  of  the  Christian  peoples,  especi- 
ally the  English-speaking  and  Teutonic.  Christianity 
is  rapidly  changing  a  downward  into  an  upward  evolu- 
tion wherever  it  seeks  an  entrance.  By  their  educa- 
tional, industrial,  and  medical  methods,  and  by  woman's 
influence  on  her  own  sex,  Christian  missions  apply 
the  supernatural  teaching  of  the  one  Son  of  Man 
with  marvellous  results  acknowledged  by  all  impartial 
experts,  from  Darwin  and  other  scientists  to  our  politi- 
cal statesmen  and  administrators.  To  this  new  and 
fertile  field  of  sociology  James  S.  Dennis,  D.D.,  the 
American  Presbyterian  professor,  of  Beirut,  Syria,  has 
devoted  in  detail  and  with  philosophic;  grasp  his  three 
elaborate  volumes  on  "Christian  Missions  and  Social 
Progress  "  ( i  897-  i  900).     Among  non-Christian  peoples 


CHRISTIAN    MISSIONS  557 

Christianity,  by  its  missionaries,  is  there  proved  in  great 
detail  to  create  a  new  type  of  individual  character  and 
a  new  public  opinion.  It  establishes  and  promotes 
education,  it  reduces  languages  to  Avriting  and  gives 
them  a  pure  literature,  while  advancing  scholarship 
and  science.  It  awakes  the  philanthropic  spirit,  and 
presents  personal  examples  which  irresistibly  draw  and 
assimilate. the  uncivilised.  It  introduces  new  national 
aspirations  and  higher  conceptions  of  government  as 
well  as  of  life.  It  lays  the  foundation  of  a  new  and 
u])ward  social  order.  It  justities,  wherever  purely  and 
sincerely  applied,  the  divine  claims  of  its  Founder,  and 
opens  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  to  all  believers. 


DUTIES    OF    EMPIRE 

By  JOHN  M.  ROBERTSON 

Empire,  in  the  proper  meaning  of  the  term,  is  domina- 
tion ;  and  it  is  only  in  a  loose  sense  that  it  fits  the  re- 
lation of  Britain  to  her  self-governing  colonies.  The 
social  problems  of  such  colonies  are  nmch  the  same  as 
those  of  the  mother  country,  and  will  be  solved  by 
themselves  if  at  all.  Only  in  a  restricted  sense  has 
she  any  such  "  duties  "  towards  them  as  call  for  present 
attention.  If  we  are  to  consider  the  duties  of  empire 
for  Britain  we  must  have  regard  above  all  things 
to  those  parts  of  "the"  empire  where  we,  ourselves  self- 
governing,  bear  rule  over  other  races,  who  are  treated 
as  incapable  of  self-government.  And  as  India  is  of 
all  such  parts  of  the  empire  the  most  extensive,  the 
most  interesting,  the  most  significant,  and  the  most 
commonly  studied,  it  is  by  considering  the  case  of 
India  that  we  can  best,  in  a  brief  space,  develop  our 
problem. 

I 

In  the  year  1853  was  published  John  William 
Kaye's  book  on  "  The  Administration  of  the  East  India 
Company,"  which  begins  with  these  sentences : — 

"  When  Mr.  Barlow,  then  Secretary  to  the  Indian  Govern- 
ment, drew  up  tlie  ehiborate  minute  on  which  the  Bengal 
Regulations  of  1793  were  based,  Sir  William  Jones,  to  whom 
this  important  document  was  submitted,  struck  his  pen  across 
the  first  three  words.  The  correction  which  he  made  was  a 
significant   one.     Barlow    had    written :    '  The   two   important 

5S8 


DUTIES    OF    EMPIRE  559 

objects  which  the  Government  ought  to  have  in  view  in  all 
its  arrangements,  are  to  ensure  its  political  safety,  and  to 
render  the  possession  of  the  country  as  advantageous  as  pos- 
sible to  the  East  India  Company  and  the  British  Nation.' 
Sir  William  Jones,  I  have  said,  erased  the  first  three  words. 
Instead  of  '  the  iico  ■principal '  objects  he  wrote  :  '  two  of  the 
j)rimary  objects ' ;  and  then  he  appended  this  marginal  note  : 
'  I  have  presumed  to  alter  the  first  words.  Surely  the  principal 
object  of  every  Government  is  the  happiness  of  the  governed.' 
Sixty  years  have  passed  away  since  that  significant  correction 
was  made,  and  it  is  now  a  moot  question  whether  tlie  practice 
of  the  British  Government  in  India,  throughout  that  time,  has 
been  in  accordance  with  the  words  of  Mr.  Barlow,  or  those  of 
Sir  William  Jones." 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  Barlow's  view  was  not  so  very 
different  from  that  of  Sir  William  Jones,  for  he  had 
gone  on  to  write  that  "  it  is  a  source  of  pleasing 
reflection  to  know  that  in  proportion  as  we  contribute 
to  the  happiness  of  the  people  and  the  prosperity  of 
the  country  the  nearer  we  approach  to  the  attainment 
of  these  objects.  If  the  people  are  satisfied  with  our 
government,  we  shall  be  certain  that  they  w^ish  for 
its  continuance ;  and  as  the  country  increases  in 
wealth,  the  greater  will  be  the  advantages  which  Ave 
shall  derive  from  it."  Honesty  was  thus  to  be  the 
best  policy  ;  and  after  all  even  Sir  William  Jones  too 
regarded  gain  to  the  East  India  Company  as  one  of 
the  "  primary  objects  "  of  the  administration. 

Kaye,  a  man  of  judicial  cast  of  mind,  goes  on  to 
avow  how  difficult  was  the  problem  put  by  Barlow  as 
that  of  Indian  government,  namely,  to  enable  the 
people  to  "  reap  the  profit  of  their  labours."  Had 
that  end  been  achieved,  he  remarks,  "  that  Avould  have 
been  achieved  by  Indian  administrators,  which,  so 
far  as  the  range  of  my  knowledge  extends,  has  yet^ 
been  achieved  by  no  administrators  under  heaven 
This,  humanly  speaking,  indeed,  is  the  greatest  prob- 


56o  GENERAL 

lem  under  heaven.  It  is  nothing,  therefore,  to  say- 
that  in  India  the  rights  of  labour  have  not  been 
determined  —  that  its  claims  have  not  been  ac- 
knowledged— in  a  manner  to  give  entire  satisfaction 
to  every  benevolent  mind.  Under  the  most  favourable 
cu'cumstances,  we  can  only  arrive  at  something  of 
an  approximation." 

From  this  point  of  view,  recognising  the  difficulties 
and  no  less  the  shortcomino's  of  those  who  dealt 
with  them,  Kaye  finally  pronounces  that  "  Never  at 
any  time  has  the  Government  of  India  evinced,  by 
acts  of  practical  beneficence,  so  kindly  an  interest 
in  the  welfare  of  the  people  as  in  the  last  few  years."  ^ 
That  was  written  in  1853.  I^  1857  broke  out 
the  Indian  Mutiny.  And  whereas  Kaye  before  the 
explosion  had  been  impressed  by  the  greatly  increased 
beneficence  of  the  administration,  J.  M.  Ludlow, 
writing  in  1858,  with  a  large  Anglo-Indian  knoAvledge, 
declares  that  '•  it  has  been  admitted  to  me  over  and 
over  again,  from  experience  derived  from  the  most 
opposite  quarters  of  India,  by  every  man  really  con- 
versant with  native  feelino","  that  ''  Englishmen  as  snc/i 
are  objects  of  hatred  to  a  large  portion  of  the  native 
population."  ""  Instead  of  chronicling  an  improvement 
about  1850,  Ludlow  cites  the  evidence  of  men  who 
affirmed  that  in  the  thirty  years  then  past  there  had 
gone  on  a  great  deterioration  in  Anglo-Indian  manners 
and  methods.  I  do  not  say  that  this  testimony  is 
decisive :  there  is  a  clear  conflict  of  evidence ;  and  we 
shall  find  a  similar  conflict  in  regard  to  the  state  of 
things  to-day  as  compared  with  that  of  fifty  years 
ago ;  but,  remembering  that  the  Mutiny  did  take 
place  a  few  years  after  Kaye  drew  good  augury  from 
his  knowledge,  it  seems  worth  while  to  note  how 
abundant  the  contrary  testimony  then  available  was. 

'   Work  cited,  p.  657. 
'■^  "  British  India,  its  Races  and  its  History,"  ii.  p.  353. 


i 


DUTIES    OF    EMPIRE  561 

I    transcribe    a    page    or    two   from    Ludluw  ^    on  the 
subject : — 

"I  do  not  think  it  possible  to  take  up  any  book  relating 
the  personal  experience  of  an  Englishman  or  Englishwoman  in 
India,  and  not  written  for  the  sake  of  getting  up  a  case  in 
favour  of  the  Government,  and  to  rise  from  its  perusal  without 
the  feeling  that  the  behaviour  of  our  countrymen  in  India 
generally  must  be  such  as  to  draw  upon  them  the  hatred  of  the 
natives.  Sometimes  this  feeling  is  the  result  of  the  evident 
absence  of  all  moral  principle  in  the  writer.  More  often  it  is 
directly  impressed  upon  us  by  his  narrative.  It  matters  little 
what  is  his  calling.  Bishop  Heber,  in  his  Journal ;  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Acland,  in  his  "Manners  and  Customs  of  India";  Colonel 
Sleeman,  from  Central  India ;  Captain  Hervey,  from  the  South 
— women,  even,  like  Mrs.  Colin  Mackenzie — all  relate  similar 
tales  of  brutality  on  the  part  of  Englishmen  towards  natives, 
even  in  the  restraining  presence  of  their  own  countrymen. 
Mr.  Acland  will  tell  of  deliberate  insolence  towards  a  raja  in 
Cuttack,  and  how  Englishmen,  hunting  on  his  land,  and  making 
use  of  his  coolies  and  elephants,  could  not  even  wait  for  the 
*  beastly  nigger '  to  hunt  with  them.  Captain  Hervey,  Avho  so 
late  as  1850  speaks  of  'the  harsh  measures  generally  adopted 
by  all  classes  of  Europeans '  towards  the  natives,  asks,  '  Where 
are  the  Englishmen  who  would  tamely  submit  to  be  dealt  with 
as  the  natives  of  India  often  are  ?  The  very  brutes  that  perish 
are  not  so  treated  ' ;  and  declares  that  our  good  folks  in  England 
know  not  of  the  goings  on  in  India.  To  maltreat  a  native  is 
considered  a  meritorious  act ;  and  the  younger  branches  of  the 
service  think  it  very  fine  to  curse  and  swear  at  them,  kick  and 
buffet  them.  A  relative  of  mine  wrote  to  me  from  India  only 
the  other  day,  that  he  had  known  a  European  officer  who  kept 
an  orderly  for  the  sole  purpose  of  thrashing  his  native  servants ; 
that  another  was  recently  tried  for  beating  his  orderly  because 
he  did  not  thrash  his  servants  hard  enough.  Another  relative 
of  mine,  an  officer  in  a  Bombay  regiment,  wrote  lately  in  terms 
of  just  disgust  at  the  conduct  of  the  young  officers  of  his  corps 
towards  their  native  servants ;  maltreating  them,  leaving  their 


^  "  British  India,  its  Kaces  and  its  History,"  ii.  pp.  356-58. 
V  2  N 


562  GENERAL 

wages  unpaid  for  a  twelvemonth ;  and  yet  some  of  these  men 
were  so  faithful  that  they  would  pawn  their  own  clothes  to 
procure  grain  for  their  masters'  horses. 

"  'I  have  been  saying  for  years  past,'  says  an  Englishman, 
recently  returned  to  Southern  India,  '  that  if  a  man  who  left 
India  thirty  years  ago  were  now  to  revisit  it,  he  would  scarcely 
credit  the  change  he  would  universally  witness  in  the  treatment 
of  the  natives,  high  and  low.  The  English  were  not  then 
absolute  masters  everywhere.  Now  they  are.  Restraint  is 
cast  away  ;  and  as  one  generation  of  functionaries  succeeds 
another  every  twenty-five  years,  those  in  authority  set  to  those 
coming  after  them  the  example  of  supercilious  arrogance  and 
contempt  of  the  people,  which  they  have  been  following  from 
the  beginning  of  their  career.  The  past  of  the  natives,  there- 
fore, has  not  a  shadow  of  existence  in  the  minds  of  their  rulers, 
nor  has  their  future  in  their  own  eyes  a  ray  of  hope,  inasmuch 
as  those  rulers  regard  their  present  abject  degradation  as  their 
normal  condition,  and  feel  neither  pity  nor  compunction  in 
perpetrating  it.  The  universal  phrase  is,  '  They  are  unfit  for, 
or  are  unworthy  of  anything  better.' 

"  Sir  Charles  Napier,  in  Scinde,  reckons,  as  one  of  the 
things  which  young  officers  think  they  must  do  to  be  gentle- 
manly, '  that  they  should  be  insolent  to  black  servants. 
'  Amongst  the  civilians,'  he  said,  '  with  many  exceptions,  how- 
ever, there  is  an  aping  of  greatness,  leaving  out  that  which 
marks  the  really  high-born  gentleman  and  lady — kindness  and 
politeness  to  those  below  them.'  If  he  knew  'anything  of 
good  manners,  nothing  could  be  worse  than  those  of  India 
towards  natives  of  all  ranks — a  vulgar  haJiadurimj.  ...  I 
speak  of  the  manners  of  the  military  of  ])oth  armies.'  Partial 
as  he  was  to  military  men,  he  refused  officers  a  passage  in  his 
merchant  steamers  on  the  Indus,  knowing  that  '  they  would  go 
on  board,  occupy  all  the  room,  treat  his  rich  merchants  and 
supercargoes  with  insolence,  and  very  probably  drink  and 
thrash  the  people.'  Such  deeds  were  done  as  made  him 
wonder  that  we  held  India  a  year." 

\n  the  face  of  all  this,  it  is  impossible  that  thought- 
ful people  at  homo,  conscious  of  a  measure  of  re- 
sponsibility  for    Indian    government,  should    not    ask 


DUTIES    OF    I^:MP[RE  563 

themselves  how  tar  the  conditions  have  been  chantred. 
To-day,  as  in  1853,  we  hear  weighty  assurances  as 
to  the  beneficence  of  our  rule :  is  it  possible  that  in 
a  few  years  they  may  be  confuted  by  events  as 
before  ?  What  about  the  countervailing-  testimony  ? 
If  Ecaye,  Avith  all  his  approbation  for  British  benefi- 
cence, could  admit  that  after  fifty  years  it  was  a 
moot  point  Avhether  Barlow's  ideal  had  been  tran- 
scended, whether  India  was  being  ruled  for  her  sake 
or  ours,  can  we  say  that  it  is  not  a  moot  point  after 
fifty  years  more  ?  I  turn  to  a  work  on  "  The  Retention 
of  India,"  by  Mr.  Andrew  Halliday,  published  in  1871, 
and  I  find  this  question  put  (pp.  160-61)  as  de- 
cisive : — 

"  It  would  be  well  for  this  country  to  consider  what  would 
be  the  consequences  of  the  loss  of  the  Indian  Empire.  What 
would  be  the  fate  of  those  dependenl  for  subsistence  on  the 
Indian  revenues,  and  what  would  become  of  the  vast  sums 
invested  in  Indian  securities,  railways,  and  other  proj)erty  1 
If  this  country  does  not  watch  the  frontier  question,  and  is 
not  prepared  to  repel  invasion,  the  result  may  be  a  frightful 
amount  of  imuperism  in  this  country,  among  classes  ill  adapted 
hij  nature  to  a  state  of  ■pemiry" 

Here,  assuredly,  there  has  been  small  advance  on 
Barlow's  ideal.  India  is  avowedly  a  great  source  of 
income  to  a  multitude  of  well-to-do  people  in  this 
country ;  and  on  that  ground  we  are  to  defend  it. 
And  a  number  of  observers  tell  us  that  no  matter 
how  good  may  be  the  intentions  of  the  Government 
at  any  given  moment ;  no  matter  how  disinterested 
the  labours  of  many  of  its  subordinates  or  how 
genuine  their  philanthropy,  India  under  British  rule 
continues  poor,  and  tends  to  grow  poorer ;  under 
which  circumstances  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  ask 
whether  the  natives  in  the  mass  are  well-pleased. 
There  is  clearly,  then,  a  vital  problem  to  investigate. 


564  GENERAL 


II 


Broadly  considered,  the  main  sociological  symptoms 
of  India  may  be  stated  as  follows : — 

1 .  Poverty  among  the  vast  mass  of  the  people ; 
and  debt  among  the  acrricultiirists. 

2.  A  constant  excess  of  exports  over  imports,  signi- 
fying "  tribute "  paid  to  England,  in  salaries  and 
pensions  and  interest  on  debt. 

3.  Very  doubtful  progress  in  the  faculty  and  prac- 
tice of  self-government  among  the  people. 

Probably  none  of  these  propositions  will  be  disputed 
by  qualified  j  udges ;  but  for  the  sake  of  the  less- 
informed  citizen  I  will  cite  some  evidence  offered  by 
Mr.  Wilfrid  Scawen  Blunt,  not  as  being  specially 
authoritative,  but  as  being  specially  clear.  And  first 
as  to  indebtedness  : — 

"In  old  times,  as  I  understand  the  case,  in  Oriental  lands 
money  was  practically  unknown  to  the  peasantry.  Their  deal- 
ings were  in  kind,  and  especially  the  land-tax  paid  to  the 
Government  was  paid  not  in  coin  but  in  corn.  The  whole  of 
the  peasants'  security,  therefore,  if  they  wanted  to  borrow, 
was  their  crop ;  and  if  at  sowing  time  they  needed  seed,  it  was 
recoverable  only  at  the  harvest,  at  which  time  also  the 
Government  took  its  share — a  tenth  according  to  strict  Mo- 
hammedan law,  or  it  might  be  a  liftli,  or  in  times  of  grievous 
tyranny  the  half.  Nothing  more,  however,  than  the  crop  of 
the  year  was  forthcoming.  No  lender,  therefore,  would  ad- 
vance the  impecunious  cultivator  more  than  his  seed  corn  or 
the  loan  of  a  yoke  of  oxen.  .   .   . 

"But  with  European  administration  came  other  doctrines. 
Wealth,  our  economists  affirmed,  must  not  be  idle ;  production 
must  be  increased  ;  resources  must  })e  developed ;  capital  must 
be  thrown  into  the  land.  The  revenue,  above  all  things,  must 
be  made  regular^and  secure.  Iti  order  to  effect  this,  payment 
in  money  was  substituted  for  i)ayment  in  kind.  ...  So  much 
coin  must  be  forthcoming  every  year  H6  the  tax  on  so  many 


DUTIES    OF    EMPIRE  565 

acres.  ...  In  the  country  districts  of  India,  as  in  Egypt, 
corn  could  not  be  sold  in  the  public  market  at  its  full  market 
price,  and  .  .  .  the  peasant  had  the  choice  either  of  selling  at 
a  grievous  loss  or  of  borrowing  the  money.  He  generally 
borrowed.  I  believe  it  may  be  stated  absolutely  that  the 
whole  of  peasant  indebtedness  in  either  country  originally 
came  from  the  necessity  thus  imposed  of  finding  coin  to  pay 
the  land-tax. 

"The  change,  however,  put  immediate  wealth  into  the 
hands  of  Government  .  .  .  and,  by  an  inevitable  process  of 
financial  reasoning,  borrowing  was  encouraged.  .  .  .  In  order  to 
enable  the  agriculturist  to  borrow,  he  must  be  able  to  give  his 
debtor  something  of  more  value  than  the  crop  in  his  field. 
Then  why  not  the  field  itself  ?  The  laws  of  mortgage  and 
recovery  of  debt  by  safe  and  easy  process  were  consequently 
introduced,  and  courts  appointed  for  the  protection  of  creditors. 
This  completed  the  peasant's  ruin.  Finding  money  suddenly 
at  his  disposal,  he  borrowed  without  scruple,  not  only  to  pay 
taxes  and  to  improve  his  land,  but  also  for  his  amusements. 
Whether  I  am  right  or  wrong  in  the  details  of  this  history,  it 
is  an  indisputable  fact  that  at  the  present  moment  there  is 
hardly  a  village  in  British  India  which  is  not  deeply,  hopelessly 
in  debt.  In  the  course  of  my  inquiries  I  do  not  remember  to 
have  met  with  a  single  instance  of  a  village  clear  of  debt  even 
in  Bengal."  ^ 

Concerning  the  agricultural  population  in  general, 
Mr.  Blunt  sums  up  to  similar  effect : — 

"  No  one  accustomed  to  Eastern  travel  can  fail  to  see  how 
poor  the  Indian  peasant  is.  .  .  .  From  jMadras  to  Bombay,  and 
from  Bombay  again  to  the  Ganges  YaHey  .  .  .  ojie  passes  not 
half-a-dozen  towns,  nor  a  single  village,  which  has  a  prosperous 
look.  Tlie  fields,  considering  the  general  lightness  of  the  soil, 
are  not  ill-cultivated;  but  there  is  much  waste  land,  and  in 
the  scattered  villages  there  is  an  entire  absence  of  well-built 
houses,  enclosed  gardens,  or  large  groves  of  fruit-trees — the 
signs  of^  individual  wealth  which   may   be   found   in   nearly 

^  "Ideas  about  India,"  iSb)5,  pp.  22-25. 


566  GENERAL 

every  other  Oriental  country.  The  houses  are  poorer  than  in 
Asia  Minor  or  Syria,  or  even  Egypt,  and  are  uniform  in  their 
poverty.  .  .   . 

"i!s'or  is  the  aspect  of  poverty  less  startling  if  one  looks 
closer.  Entering  a  Deccan  village,  one  is  confronted  with 
peasants  nearly  naked,  and  if  one  asks  for  the  headman,  one 
finds  him  no  better  clothed  than  the  rest.  The  huts  are  bare 
of  furniture  ;  the  copjDer  pots  are  rare ;  the  women  are  without 
ornaments.  These  are  the  common  signs  of  indigence  in  the 
East,  and  here  they  are  universal.  ,  .  .  They  eat  rice  only  on 
holidays.  Their  ordinary  food  is  millet  mixed  with  salt  and 
water,  and  flavoured  with  red  peppers;  and  of  this  they  partake 
only  sufficient  to  support  life."  ^ 

All  of  which  testimony,  in  a  general  way,  is  corro- 
borated by  entirely  independent  evidence,  such  as  that 
of  the  Rev.  Mr.  AVilkins,  who  adduces  further  evils : — 

"  Bad  as  was  the  condition  of  the  slave  in  the  Southern 
States  of  America,  the  condition  of  multitudes  of  the  poor 
people  in  Bengal  is  in  some  respects  worse.  .  .  .  The  cultivator 
has  to  pay  a  rent  that  is  difficult  to  raise  in  fruitful  seasons ; 
but  when  the  rainfall  is  Ipw  and  his  crops  small,  he  has  to 
accept  loans  at  exorbitant  interest  from  his  landlord,  and  Avhen 
once  he  becomes  indebted  it  is  almost  impossible  ever  to  free 
himself  from  the  cliains.  The  interest  he  is  compelled  to  pay 
leaves  little  to  support  himself  and  liis  family.  In  addition  to 
the  normal  fixed  rent  which  liis  landlord  has  a  legal  right  to 
demand,  other  exactions  are  made  which  reduce  the  tenants  to 
abject  poverty.  ...  A  marriage  or  death,  or  any  extraordinary 
expense  that  landlords  may  incur,  is  a  sufficient  reason  for 
demanding  an  extra  sum  from  the  tenants.  ...  If  they  speak 
of  their  grievances,  their  cattle  and  ploughs"  may  be  seized. 
Tliey  have  nothing  but  what  is  pawned  to  the  landlord,  or  to 
some  money-lending  go-betAveen.  1'liere  is  widespread  oppres- 
sion, and  the  grinding  poverty  of  the  people  forces  itself  into 
notice.  Bengal,  one  of  the  ricliest  soils  on  the  earth,  which  in 
many  parts  is  able  to  support  a  laiLrci-  population  tlian  it  has,  is 


'  Work  cited,  jjji.  11-13. 


DUTIES   OF    EMPIRE  567 

in  such  a  condition  that,  if  a  single  season's  rains  are  withheld, 
unless  help  is  given  by  the  Government  and  charitably  dis- 
posed people,  it  would  be  decimated  by  famine.  The  country 
produces  sufficient  in  years  of  plenty  to  provide  for  its  people 
in  the  years  of  scarcity ;  but  as  they  live  from  hand  to  mouth, 
and  cannot  save  anything  for  such  contingencies,  they  are 
entirely  dependent  on  others  when  the  rains  fail."  ^ 

From  authorities  in  no  way  identified  with  the 
spirit  of  criticism  we  have  admissions  which,  taken 
with  such  testimony  as  the  foregoing,  seem  decisive : — 

"After  a  minute  comparison,"  writes  Sir  AVilliara  Hunter, 
"  of  rural  India  at  present  with  tlie  facts  disclosed  in  the 
manuscript  records,  I  am  compelled  to  the  conclusion  that 
throughout  large  tracts  the  struggle  for  life  is  harder  than  it 
was  when  the  country  passed  into  our  hands." 

Sir  James  Caird,  writing  in  1883,  declared  that — 

"  The  available  good  land  in  India  is  nearly  all  occupied. 
There  are  extensive  areas  of  good  waste  land  covered  Avith 
jungle  .  .  .  which  might  be  reclaimed  ;  but  for  that  object 
capital  must  be  employed,  and  the  people  have  little  to  spare. 
The  produce  of  the  countrj^,  on  an  average  of  years,  is  barely 
sufficient  to  maintain  the  present  population  and  make  a  saving 
for  occasional  famine.  .  .  .  Scarcity,  deepening  into  famine,  is 
thus  becoming  of  more  frequent  occurrence.  .  .  .  There  are 
more  people  to  feed  every  year  from  land  which,  in  many  parts 
of  India,  is  undergoing  gradual  deterioration."  - 

This  is  corroborated  by  one  of  the  reports  of  the 
Famine  Commission  of  twenty  years  ago,  which  points 
to  the  normal  starving  of  the  hxnd  by  the  agriculturist 
and  admits : — 

"  Of  these  faults  he  is  generally  conscious ;  but  they  are 
largely  due  to  his  poverty,  and  it  is  of  no  avail  to  ask  him  to 

1  "  Modern  Hinduism,"  2nd  ed.,  1900,  pp.  159-60. 

'-'  "India:  the  Land  and  the  People,"  3rd  ed.,  p.  212.  Compare 
the  judgment  of  Mr.  J.  A.  Baines,  C.I.E.,  as  given  in  vol.  i.  of  the 
present  series  ("India,"  pp.  27,  353). 


568  GENERAL 

correct  them  as  long  as  he  is  unable  to  buy  and  to  feed  more 
and  stronger  bullocks,  and  to  save  his  manure.  .   .  .  "  ^ 

As  regards  the  constant  excess  of  exports  over 
imports,  it  is  unnecessary  to  cite  the  figures  of  the 
year-books.  What  needs  to  be  emphasised  is  the  fact 
that  this  excess  represents  an  annual  gain  to  the  home 
population  at  the  expense  of  the  Indian,  though  it  be 
all  duly  accounted  for  as  pay,  pensions,  and  interest  on 
investments.  That  the  Anglo-Indian  civil  service  is 
the  most  expensive  in  the  Avorld  is  as  certain  as  that 
it  draws  its  pay  from  the  poorest  population.  As 
to  its  relative  efficiency  there  need  here  be  no 
question :  the  trouble  is  that  while  it  subsists  it  is  a 
factor  in  Indian  impoverishment,  since  it  cannot  be 
shown  that  it  develops  resources  in  proportion  to  its 
cost;  and  there  is  no  hope  of  its  cost  being  reduced. 
One  of  the  criticisms  passed  on  the  administration  of 
the  Native  States  by  an  experienced  Anglo-Indian  is 
that  "  the  salaries  of  magistrates  and  other  public 
servants  are  far  below  what,  by  experience,  we  have 
found  to  be  necessary  for  competent  and  honest 
officials."  "  Economy,  then,  would  involve  corruption.^ 
And  while  the  Indian  administration  is  thus  a  means 
of  providing  good  incomes  for  large  numbers  of 
British  officials,  who  as  a  rule  finally  expend  their 
wealth  at  home,  nevertheless  the  expense  of  every 
extension  of  British  rule  in  Asia — as  in  the  annexation 
of  Burmah — is  charged  to  the  Indian  revenue,  which 
has  thus  to  meet  the  l>urden  of  a  policy  that  benefits 
only  the  conquerors. 

If    withal     the     Indian     populations    were    being 

*  Cited  by  Mr.  A.  K.  Connell,  "The  Economic  Revolution  of  India," 
1883,  p.  176. 

"^  Sir  W.  Lee-Warner,  C.S  I.,  in  vol.  i.  of  this  series,  p.  285. 

•''  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Romesh  Dutt,  CLE.,  comiilains  that  the 
police  under  British  rule  are  relatively  so  badly  paid  as  to  be  very 
inefficient,  and  that  better  work  could  be  got  from  natives  at  half  the 
salary.      Ibid.,  pp.  314-15. 


DUTIES    OF    EMPIRE  569 

gradually  fitted  to  manage  their  own  affairs,  there 
would  be  small  ground  for  criticism.  That  they  cannot 
at  present  be  left  to  themselves  without  worse  harm 
accruing  is  beyond  dispute.  Another  conquering 
Power  indeed  might  administer  more  economically ; 
but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  any  other  Power 
capable  of  holding  India  would  be  more  conscientious 
in  its  general  policy  than  we.  A  policy  of  education, 
then,  would  substantially  moralise  the  situation :  it  is 
not  even  pretended,  however,  that  such  an  education 
of  the  Indian  peoples  is  aimed  at  by  the  Imperial 
Government.  The  Indian  Congress  Movement  is  no 
doubt  officially  protected  against  the  general  official 
hostility;  and  some  Anglo-Indians  give  it  a  generous 
support ;  but  the  principle  that  natives  should  every- 
where be  invited  for  public  posts  of  all  grades  is  not 
only  not  recognised,  it  is  negated ;  and  the  policy  of 
enforcing  a  British  training  on  all  who  seek  to  enter 
the  higher  civil  service  has  had  the  effect  of  wilfully 
enhancing  its  costliness. 

As  regards  the  proper  foundation  of  all  self-govern- 
ment, village  autonomy  and  municipal  freedom,  the 
difficulties  of  development  suffice  to  furnish  an  excuse 
for  endorsing  stagnation.  Because  Oriental  cities  are 
slow  to  take  to  sanitation,  exactly  as  were  the  foul  cities 
of  the  West  only  a  century  ago,  the  Imperial  Government 
tends  to  put  uumicipal  rule  aside ;  though  its  own 
ideals  and  methods  are  the  result  of  the  gradual 
evolution  of  just  such  municipahties.  It  is  no  part 
of  administrative  wisdom  to  recognise  that  societies 
evolve.  *  And  while  most  men  admit  that  in  theory 
the  autonomous  village  is  a  vital  unit ;  while  in  Britain 
itself  there  has  been  a  deliberate  attempt  to  restore  or 
create  it  by  way  of  the  Parish  Council ;  that  of  India  is 
left  to  the  drift  of  the  capitalistic  regimen  and  imperial 
organisation.  So  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  witness, 
official   or  unofficial,  alleges  any  general  development 


570  GENERAL 

of  self-governing  liabits  or  institutions  among  the 
mass  of  the  agricultural  populations ;  and  many 
writers  allege  retrogression. 

This  very  stagnation,  in  turn,  is  made  by  many 
a  ground  for  denying  that  anything  else  is  possible. 
Many  men  suppose  that  mere  prolonged  residence  in 
the  East  entitles  them  to  be  believed  when  they  affirm 
that  the  East  is  unchangeable  ;  as  if  the  mass  even 
of  educated  observers  anywhere  had  ever  reached 
scientific  conceptions  of  social  law.  The  case  of  Japan, 
as  it  happens,  proves  that  the  East  is  capable,  under 
favouring  conditions,  of  a  rate  of  social  change  that 
has  never  been  witnessed  in  the  whole  history  of  the 
West.  Thereupon,  however,  we  are  told  that  Japan 
is  not  "  typically "  Oriental,  though  its  neighbour 
China  is,  with  a  similar  population  and  language. 
Such  theorising  can  command  no  authority  with 
thinking  people.  Granting  that  India  cannot  con- 
ceivably evolve  with  Japanese  rapidity,  we  are  bound 
to  regard  its  case  in  the  light  of  the  same  general 
law :  social  evolution  occurs  in  terms  of  the  conditions, 
external  and  internal ;  the  former  including  geographi- 
cal and  political  relations,  and  the  latter  including  the 
physiological  and  the  psychological  factors,  that  is,  the 
temperamental  bias  and  the  hci-editary  culture  of  the 
people.  An  educative  administration,  then,  would 
seek  constructively  to  modify  the  conditions  in  so  far 
as  they  are  modifiable. 

As  matters  stand  we  are  faced  by  the  extensive 
anomaly  that  while  the  Indian  populations  are  recog- 
nised to  be  through  their  conditions  less,  and  not  more, 
variable  than  others,  the  imperial  system,  in  so  far  as 
it  attacks  the  environment  at  all,  runs  mainly  to  the 
introduction  of  elements  which  mean  a  minimum  of 
action  or  choice  among  the  people  themselves.  Fiscally, 
the  system  is  one  of  European  capitalism  ;  industrially, 
it   is   one   of  European   communication.      Its   typical 


DUTIES    OF    EMPIRE  571 

instrument  is  the  railway,  precisely  the  most  imspon- 
taneous  institution  that  could  well  be  introduced.  The 
main  functions  of  the  railway  are  to  facilitate  (i)  mili- 
tary movements  ;  (2)  rapid  conveyance  of  food  in  times 
of  famine;  (3)  movement  of  numbers  of  the  people — 
three  things  which  at  first  sight  seem  pure  gain.  But 
when  it  is  noted  that  the  popular  use  of  the  railways 
on  a  large  scale  is  mainly  by  way  of  excursions  to  reli- 
gious shrmes,  and  that  the  more  lines  are  developed 
the  more  they  are  needed  to  deal  with  famine,  it 
begins  to  appear  that  the  problem  is  intricate  and  full 
of  counteractions.  If  better  communications  help  to 
make  the  people  at  once  more  devotedly  superstitious 
and  less  capable  of  fending  off  faniine  for  themselves ; 
if  native  industry  is  being  disorganised  without  any 
call  upon  native  initiative  to  readjust  things,  the  work 
of  the  imperial  system  is  so  far  disintegrative  rather 
than  constructive.  Its  very  benevolence  is  making 
the  people  less  capable  of  bearing  the  burden  which, 
whether  for  their  sake  or  for  its  own,  it  is  all  the  while 
laying  upon  them.  Broadly  speaking,  then,  we  seem 
to  be  faced  by  deepening  popular  poverty  on  the  one 
hand  and  limitation  of  popular  energy  on  the  other. 

Ill 

Such  a  way  of  putting  things  may  seem  to  many 
readers  an  outcome  rather  of  the  spirit  of  carping  than 
of  the  spirit  of  science.  The  Indian  Government,  they 
may  protest,  is  implicitly  condcnmed  at  once  for 
activity  and  for  laissez-faire ;  for  seeking  to  make  pro- 
gress and  for  leaving  things  alone.  In  all  its  various 
stages,  they  may  add,  our  Indian  administration  has 
been  denounced  by  some  malcontents,  and  were  a  new 
policy  tried  to-morrow  it  would  be  assailed  in  the  same 
way  by  those  who  believe  in  the  old,  or  in  yet  another. 

I  am  ready  to  grant  the  general   demurrer,  and 


572  GENERAL 

even  to  sro  further,  to  tlae  extent  of  admittinof  that 
there  is  an  element  of  conflict  in  much  of  the  testi- 
mony offered  as  to  Indian  poverty  and  administrative 
backsHding.  We  have  read  weighty  assurances  that 
in  the  last  half  century  the  soil  and  the  people  are 
growing  rapidly  poorer.  But  fifty  years  ago  there 
were  many  similar  protests.  Captain  Hervey,  writing 
in  1850,  expressly  contrasts  the  prosperous  appearance 
of  the  natives  in  the  French  settlement  of  Pondicherry 
with  the  "  poverty-stricken  look  "  of  those  of  the  British 
territories,  and  speaks  of  a  "  fearful  extent "  of  misery 
among  the  latter.^  Mr.  Petrie,  an  engineer,  examined 
before  the  Cotton  Committee  of  1848,  declared  that 
in  the  southern  districts,  with  which  he  was  acquainted, 
the  level  of  poverty  was  "  very  low  indeed  " ;  that  he 
had  never  known  a  cultivator  to  have  even  a  small 
capital ;  and  that  there  had  been  no  betterment  during 
the  five  years  of  his  stay."  At  that  period  it  was 
common  to  say  that  the  boundaries  between  Company's 
territory  and  native  states  was  easily  known  by  the 
superior  condition  of  the  latter ;  and  already  the  culti- 
vator and  the  trader  in  British  territory  were  described 
in  the  Bomhay  Times  as  "both  broken  in  spirit,  over- 
burdened, and  steeped  in  debt."  ^  And,  apart  from 
dubious  statements  about  ryots,  who  say  they  "  had 
money  once,  but  none  now,"  there  is  the  publicly  given 
testimony  of  officials  of  high  standing  in  1848,  that 
"  almost  everything  forces  us  to  the  conviction  that  we 
have  before  us  a  narrowing  progress  to  utter  pau- 
perism;"* while  missionaries  and  others  describe  the 
state  of  the  ])cople  in  Bengal,  in  1855,  as  one  of  the 
deepest  wrotclicdness.'' 

Again,   we   have    seen   Mr.   Blunt    testifying    that 
there  is  no  longer  the  kindly  intercourse  between  the 

'  "Ten  Years  in  India,"  i.  iS  ;  ii.  281. 

'•i  Cited  by  Ludlow,  ii.  325.  »  Ibid.,  ii.  326. 

^  Ibid.,  ii.  326.  *  Ibid.,  p.  329. 


DUTIES    OF    EMPIRE  573 

natives  and  the  English  otHciul  chiss  that  prevailed  in 
the  time  of  the  Company.^  But  as  against  such  a 
view  we  have  the  impressive  body  of  evidence  grouped 
by  Ludlow,  to  show  that  in  tlie  Company's  day  the 
natives  were  often  grossly  maltreated  by  its  officials 
and  by  the  military.  Mr.  Blunt  indeed  tells  a  very 
painful  story  of  wanton  English  insolence  to  natives  of 
good  standing,  and  shows  that  in  the  Indian  hotels 
Englishmen  regard  the  appearance  of  a  native  gentle- 
man as  Americans  do  that  of  any  coloured  man ;  but 
no  one  suggests  that  the  old  brutalities  are  now 
common.  And,  as  against  Mr.  Blunt's  view  that  there 
was  no  money  indebtedness  before  the  British  period, 
we  have  the  apparently  just  conclusion  of  the  Famine 
Commission  of  twenty  years  ago,  that  the  agricultural 
population  of  India  were  never  at  any  period  generally 
free  of  debt,  "  although  individuals  or  classes  may  have 
fallen  into  deeper  embarrassment  imder  the  British 
rule  than  was  common  under  the  native  dynasties 
which  preceded  it."  2 

All  things  considered,  it  is  to  be  suspected  that 
the  lament  over  Indian  decline  has  something  in 
common  with  the  home  lament  over  the  decay  of 
domestic  service.  The  phrase  in  "  As  You  Like  It," 
about  "  the  constant  service  of  the  antique  world," 
reveals  that  the  normal  outcry  of  our  own  day  about 
bad  servants  was  familiar  in  the  age  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. Instead,  then,  of  believing  in  a  continuous 
decline  of  Indian  life  from  depth  to  deeper  depth  of 
poverty,  we  seem  led  to  the  simple  conclusion — surely 
serious  enough — that  the  Indian  mass  remains  steadily 
poor  throughout  the  ages,  and  that  our  ride  in  this 
regard  simply  makes  no  difference  for  the  better, 
while    the    normal    increase   of    population   under   the 

^  Compare  the  similar  remarks  of  Mr.   Romesh  Duit,  in  vul.  i.  of 
this  series,  p.  318. 

-  Cited  by  Mr.  Connell,  "  Economic  Revolutiou,"  p.  174. 


574  GENERAL 

'pax  Britannica  involves  the  friglitful  offset  of  more 
extensive  and  destructive  famines  tlian  ever  occurred 
of  old.  On  that  head  there  is  certainly  no  improve- 
ment. Famines  grow  more  frequent  and  more  destruc- 
tive :  the  death-roll  of  the  last  is  too  appalling  for 
words,  and  withal  the  loss  of  cattle  is  so  frightful  as 
to  promise  a  further  and  worse  starvation  of  the  soil, 
involving  more  famine.  Municipal  government  fails  to 
develop,  whether  from  lack  of  fan*  freedom  or  from 
lack  of  patience  on  the  part  of  the  ruling  class.  The 
total  situation  is  certainly  not  improving. 

On  this  guarded  footing,  Avith  some  of  the  darker 
evidence  discounted,  and  with  the  theory  of  continuous 
and  rapid  material  decline  put  out  of  court,  we  are 
still  forced  to  recognise  that,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
common  felicitations  as  to  the  "  blessings  of  our  rule  " 
are  sadly  out  of  place.  They  set  up  a  state  of  illusion ; 
and  they  recoil  on  our  own  administration,  inasmuch  as 
they  breed  a  widely  mistaken  notion  as  to  the  possibility 
of  betterment  of  life  in  India.  People  taught  to  think 
that  British  rule  there  has  done  and  is  doing  wonders, 
are  not  unlikely,  when  faced  by  the  evaded  facts,  to  be 
unduly  wrathful  over  the  reality.  The  plain  fact  is 
that  we  cannot  speedily  change  the  lot  of  the  Indian 
peoples  to  any  great  extent.  We  do  not  so  better  the 
lot  of  our  masses  at  home :  hoAV  should  wo  do  more 
with  a  vast  world  of  pvdlulating  races,  varying  between 
the  primitive  and  the  hyper-civilised,  in  a  land  chroni- 
cally cursed  with  such  famines  as  Europe  has  never 
known  ? 

Surely,  instead  of  habitually  vaunting  that  we  to- 
day rule  so  much  better  than  did  the  rulers  of  three 
or  five  centuries  ago,  when  Europe  itself,  England 
included,  was  more  or  less  barbarously  ill-governed,  we 
should  do  well  to  reckon  up  first  the  arrears  of  our 
own  administration,  which  so  long  allowed  old  pro- 
visory machinery  to    lie    in   ruin,  and   wliich  year  by 


DUTIES    OF    EMPIRE  575 

year  creates  for  itself  new  problems,  vast  enough  for 
all  the  political  wisdom  of  the  planet,  and  more  than 
all  the  goodwill  of  the  ruling  class.  Such  calculations 
are  of  course  irksome.  Englishmen  do  not  like  to 
reflect  how  nuich  their  fathers  did  to  poison  or  kill  the 
very  roots  of  Irish  life  when  they  were  dwarfing  alike 
mechanical  and  rural  industry  through  successive 
generations  of  infamous  egoism.  As  little  do  they 
like  to  reckon  up  the  harm  their  forefathers  did  in 
India,  not  merely  to  the  contemporary  victims  of  their 
egoism  and  rapacity,  but  to  what  there  was  of  national 
life,  of  collective  faculty  for  development,  regeneration, 
reconstruction.  Habitual  self-praise  is  so  much  more 
agreeable  an  exercise  than  habitual  self-criticism ; 
boasting  so  much  more  pleasant  than  remorse.  Reform, 
as  Carlylc  has  it,  is  not  joyous,  but  grievous.  And  yet 
a  real  and  justified  consciousness  of  betterment  is  so 
comforting  to  those  who  truly  care  to  know  things  as 
they  are,  that  even  the  burden  of  rigorous  comparison 
and  constant  appraisement  might,  one  would  think,  be 
willingly  borne  in  the  hope  of  attaining  the  solace. 
However  that  may  be,  this  much  is  sure,  that  if  such 
discipline  be  not  faced  and  borne,  there  is  not  only  no 
possibility  of  betterment,  there  will  ensue  that  kind  of 
worsenment  which  is  most  incurable,  the  lowering  of 
ideals.  From  perpetual  boasting  without  reason  we 
shall  pass  to  a  state  of  apathy  before  evil  that  even 
vanity  is  tired  of  boasting  over.  And  then  decadence 
has  come  for  the  "  Paramount  Race,"  whatever  be  the 
fate  of  that  in  subjection. 

IV 

To  prescribe  in  detail  methods  of  reform  for  India 
from  a  mere  outsider's  point  of  view  would  be  pre- 
sumption indeed.  Such  counsel  must  come  from  men 
who  add  to  ripe  Indian  experience  the  spirit  of  social 


576  GENERAL 

science  and  the  creed  of  progress  ;  and  not  merely  from 
Englishmen  among  these  but  from  natives  of  educa- 
tion, judgment,  and  experience.  So  far  from  making 
light  of  expert  knowledge  in  such  a  connection,  I 
should  say  that  we  need  to  utilise  all  the  expert  know- 
ledge in  existence.  And  that  is  certainly  not  to  be 
found  in  the  civil  service.  Mr.  Kipling  has  at  times 
taken  pains  to  deride  the  incompetence  of  opinions  on 
Indian  matters  framed  by  home  politicians.  But  he 
has  also  produced  a  story  entitled  "  Tod's  Amendment," 
from  which  it  would  appear  that  certain  high  person- 
ages responsible  for  the  framing  of  a  new  law  in  an 
Indian  province  received  from  the  chance  talk  of  a 
small  boy,  who  had  intercourse  with  native  oj)inion  in 
the  bazaars,  a  little  vital  knowledo-e  which  revolu- 
tionised  their  scheme.  They  had  been  framing  their 
law  in  utter  ignorance  of  the  most  obvious  and 
elementary  objections  to  it.  The  home  amateur 
could  hardly  do  worse.  And  I  hesitate  to  say  how 
disrespectful  are  some  of  the  judgments  I  have  heard 
passed  by  experienced  Anglo-Indians  on  Mr.  Kipling's 
own  pretensions  to  "  know "  the  conditions  of  Indian 
life  in  general.  The  more  reason,  certainly,  why  the 
rest  of  us  should  fear  to  frame  schemes  of  reform.  It* 
is  not  for  men  out  of  India  to  decide  how  best  the 
principle  of  municipal  self-government  can  be  fostered 
there.  We  shall  all  do  well  to  keep  in  mind  these 
words  of  Kaye,  in  the  preface  to  his  second  edition  : — 

"India,  with  ail  its  local  peculiarities  and  ethnological 
varietie.s,  is  so  vast  and  comprehensive  a  subject,  that  with 
increased  study  and  reflection  comes  increased  diflidence.  .  .  . 
There  is  no  .subject,  indeed,  on  which  it  becomes  a  man  to 
write  or  speak  with  more  modesty  and  reserve.  For  my  own 
|)art,  though  now  for  nearly  twenty  years  I  have  been  with 
little  interruption  reading  and  writing  about  India;  tliough  all 
this  time  it  has  been  the  business  of  my  life  to  collect  facts 
and  to  mature  opinions  relating  to  this  great  subject;  though 


DUTIES    OF    EMPIRE  577 

1)otli  in  ill"  East  and  the  West  tlio  com[ianion.s  (jf  my  solitude 
and  my  social  life,  the  hooks  and  the  men  with  whom  I  have 
heen  familiar,  have  heen  mainly  such  as  are  depositaries  of 
English  information  ;  although  I  have  had  access  to  such  stores 
of  unpuhlished  decuments,  the  wealth  alike  of  public  and  of 
private  archives,  as  few  men  havehad  the  good  fortune  to  approach 
or  the  patience  to  examine,  I  am  not  ashamed  to  confess  that 
there  are  many  great  questions  connected  with  the  administration 
of  our  liidian  Empire  upon  which  1  am  competent  to  express 
only  a  quidilied,  hesitating  opinion,  or  none  at  all." 

As  we  have  seen,  Kaye  with  all  his  caution  was 
optimistic  about  Indian  government  within  four  years 
of  the  Mutiny — a  deadly  corroboration  of  his  diffi- 
dence, and  a  reminder  that  it  is  one  thing  to  profess 
general  diffidence  and  another  to  be  effectually  pos- 
sessed by  it.  It  seems  well,  then,  to  avoid  forecasts. 
But  it  is  possible,  on  the  basis  of  universally  accepted 
testimony,  to  point  to  those  forces  in  Indian  life  which 
must  clearly  be  controlled  or  guided  if  there  is  to  be 
any  general  betterment.  We  have  noted  the  three 
main  evils  of  poverty,  indebtedness,  and  incapacity 
for  self-help  among  the  mass  of  the  people.  In 
obvious  correlation  with  all  of  those  evils  is  the 
omnipresent  fact  of  over-population,  a  fact  founded 
upon,  indeed,  by  many  of  the  panegyrists  of  our  rule 
as  the  great  counteractive  of  our  civilising  work. 
For  this  trouble,  it  is  urged,  we  cannot  be  held  respon- 
sible ;  and  it  appears  to  be  generally  implied  that  it 
is  vain  to  hope  to  remedy  it.  Our  "  beneficence," 
once  more,  thus  consists  in  preserving  vast  hosts  of 
helpless  people  from  a  worse  dominion,  and,  in  general, 
from  violence,  only  to  let  them  perish  miserably  by 
the  myriad  from  famine.  But  is  it  really  impossible 
gradually  to  educate  Hindus  to  a  level  of  prudence 
that  has  been  reached  by  not  very  highly  educated 
peasants  elsewhere  ?  Supposing  that  British  public 
opinion  could  be  got  to  consent  to  the  inculcation  of 

V  20 


578  GENERAL 

such  ideas — certainly  a  difficult  thing  to  obtaLQ— is  it 
such  a  hopeless  task  to  lead  Hindus  forward  by  means 
of  sympathetic  counsel^  accompanied  by  measures  of 
fiscal  reform  which  should  prove  our  desire  to  better 
his  lot,  and  should  co-operate  with  whatever  motive 
to  betterment  he  is  capable  of  feeling  ? 

At  least  let  the  fiscal  reform   be   tried  before   the 
hope  be  abandoned.     An  actual  rise  in  the  standard 
of    comfort    is    usually  the  best  general  stimulus  to- 
wards a  restraint  of  the  birth-rate ;  and  the  standard 
of  comfort  of  the  Hindu  tiller  of  the  soil  could  be  at 
almost  any  moment  raised  by  substituting  for  a  fixed 
money  tax  in  his  case  either  a  tax  adjusted  annually 
in  terms  of  the  value  and  amount  of  the  produce,  or 
a    simple    share    of    such    produce,    the    Government 
doing  the  collecting  by  means  of   a  local    authority, 
preferably  the  village  community.     It  is  vain  to  urge 
in   objection  that  such  a  course  would  be  financially 
disadvantageous ;  there  can  be  no  permanent  financial 
advantage  in  a  system  which  keeps  nine-tenths  of  a 
vast  population  in  a  state  of  penury,  and  has  to  make 
convulsive  efforts  every  few  years  to  save  them  from 
destruction  by  famine.     While  the  mass  are  wretchedly 
poor    and    hopelessly  indebted    they  will  not  practise 
family    prudence :     all    experience    demonstrates    that 
people  who  can  sink  no  lower  will  not,  save  under  an 
uncommon    intellectual    stimulus,  concern  themselves 
to  limit  the  number  of  offspring  they  bring  forth  to 
share  their  poverty.     And  reckless  over-population  is, 
as  was  noted  twenty-five  years  ago  by  W.  T.  Thornton, 
the  great  obstacle  to  the  regeneration  of  the   village 
community    as    an    administrative    unit.^      A    general 
development  of  communal  proprietorship  on  the  lines 
preserved     in    the    Punjab    was    in    his    opinion    the 
likeliest    way    to     introduce    the    idea    of    prudential 
restraint  by  raising  the  standard  of  comfort. 

1   "Ihdi;ui  Puhlic  Works,"  by  W.  T.  Thornton,  1878,  p.  236  fT. 


DUTIES    OF    EMPIRP]  579 

But,  we  shall  be  told,  India  is  the  last  place  in  the 
world  in  which  the  lesson  of  restraint  will  be  learned. 
Thornton  tnlly  recognised  the  difficulties : — 

"  111  that  country  tlie  procreation  of  children  ranks  as  highly 
among  religious  duties  as  their  baptism  does  in  Europe,  and 
its  neglect  is  held  to  be  punishable  with  equally  awful  penalties. 
Where  to  die  without  leaving  behind  a  son  to  perform  one's 
funeral  obsequies  is  supposed  to  be  almost  equivalent  to  sign- 
ing a  warrant  of  eternal  self-damnation,  connubial  imprudence 
is  naturally  of  small  account.  .  .  ."  ^ 

And  he  concludes  that  "  there  can  be  no  trust- 
worthy safeguard  against  over-population  without  a 
modification  of  the  popular  religious  creed " " — an 
avowal  before  which,  certainly,  his  further  demand  for 
a  worthy  system  of  education  can  hardly  restore  any 
confidence  of  hope.  But  however  vast  be  the  problem, 
there  is  no  escape  from  it  save  by  that  way  of  surrender 
to  evil  which  means  the  beginning  of  the  end  of  empire. 
In  Thornton's  words,  "  Unless  ours  be  a  mission  of 
civilisation,  there  is  no  warrant  for  our  continued 
presence  in  India  as  rulers."  "^ 

And  in  the  face  of  all  the  difficulties — in  face,  above 
all,  of  the  supreme  drawback  that  the  conception  of 
social  science  has  not  yet  won  a  footing  in  practical 
politics  or  in  regulative  opinion  in  England  itself — we 
are  entitled  to  say  that  even  the  experience  of  the 
disastrous  and  painful  past  has  revealed  endless  possi- 
bilities of  educational  progress  as  against  the  immense 
obstacles  of  Hindu  superstition.  Kaye  has  borne 
record  of  the  moral  success  achieved  more  than  a 
century  ago  by  Jonathan  Duncan  and  Major  Walker 
in  beginning  by  sheer  educative  persuasion,  on  the  basis 
of  a  sympathetic  knowledge  of  Hindu  tradition  and 
creed,  a  voluntary  abjuration  in  some  districts  of  the 

^  "Indian  Public  Works,"  by  W.  T.  Tliornton,  1S7S,  p.  247. 
-  Ibid.,  p.  248.  ^  Ibid.,  p.  246. 


5  8o  GENERAL 

practice  of  infanticide.  Their  efforts  were  not  ade- 
quately followed  up,  and  there  were  relapses;  yet  after 
a  generation  there  was  a  large  measure  of  improvement, 
all  secured  without  coercive  measures,  by  at  most 
sumptuary  legislation  (checking  the  cost  of  marriages) 
and  the  wise  activity  of  patiently  philanthropic  men 
in  the  Company's  service ;  till  at  length  by  the  middle 
of  the  century  infanticide  was  no  longer  a  tolerated 
Hindu  practice,  but  was  reduced  to  something  like 
the  discredit  and  the  dimensions  associated  with  it  in 
Europe/  In  fine,  as  it  was  put  by  Thornton,  our 
failure  as  civilisers  in  India  has  not  come  of  any  mis- 
taken attempt  to  graft  Western  ideals  on  Asiatic  life, 
but  of  our  not  doingf  a  srreat  deal  more  in  that  direction 
on  scientific  lines,  after  making  a  hopeful  beginning. 
It  is  a  gross  psychological  and  sociological  error  to 
suppose  that  where  prevalent  religious  ideas  buttress 
an  evil,  the  evil  is  therefore  insuperable.  Every  re- 
ligion has  so  buttressed  evils  ;  and  it  is  in  the  normal 
way  of  human  progress  that  in  the  name  of  religion 
itself  innovating  ideas  arise,  which  gain  ground  in  a 
religious  sense  and  supply  religious  sanctions  against 
religious  malpractices.  For  his  crusade  against 
infanticide,  Duncan  drew  weapons  from  the  sacred 
books  of  those  who  had  held  it  to  be  permitted  by  their 
religion ;  even  as  in  our  OAvn  day  enlightened  pundits 
have  found  in  their  sacred  books  virtual  vetoes  on  the 
otherwise  religiously  sanctioned  practice  of  child- 
marriage,  the  most  fatal  of  the  moral  maladies  of 
Hindu  life.  The  same  thing  could  probably  be  done 
in  regard  to  municipal  sanitation,  if  native  culture  and 
intelligence  were  patiently  enlisted  in  the  work. 

What  has  been  done  in  one  direction  may  be  done 
to  another.  There  are  no  limits,  save  those  of  irrever- 
sible physical   conditions,  to   the   possibilities  of  social 

'   "Administration  of  the  East  India  Company,"  2nd  ed.,  pp.  553~ 
586. 


DUTIES    OF    EMPIRE  581 

evolution  in  any  race  that  is  in  peaceful  contact  with 
others  more  cnlii^'htened.  The  Hindu  does  not  die  off 
in  contact  with  the  European  as  less  developed  races 
have  done  which  Avere  too  disparate  in  their  Avay  of 
life  and  stage  of  thought  from  the  more  civilised 
peoples  who  overshadowed  them.  In  India,  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  the  European  who  cannot  reproduce  his 
stock ;  the  land  is  and  will  remain  a  land  of  the  brown- 
skinned.  What  the  European  might  now  conceivably 
do  for  them  is  to  give  more  than  he  takes,  to  give  the 
seeds  of  a  higher  and  better  life,  to  begin  a  new  and 
greater  era  of  Eastern  civilisation  by  turning  his  facul- 
ties to  the  solution  of  their  problem,  even  though  he 
should  thereby  prepare  his  own  withdrawal,  rather  than 
to  the  mere  satisfying  of  his  own  economic  cravings. 
If  he  chooses  the  former  ideal  he  will  indeed  have 
done  something  in  which  his  posterity  may  take  pride  ; 
for  he  will  have  enabled  a  backward  world  to  live  well 
without  his  guidance,  to  rule  itself  where  he  had  ruled  it; 
if  he  chooses  the  latter,  he  will  ''  lose  even  that  which 
he  hath,"  for  there  can  be  no  durable  prosperity  under 
a  system  in  which  he  is  a  mere  exploiter,  and  his 
power  will  in  the  end  pass  away  simply  because  he 
cared  for  nothing  higher. 

V 

The  problems  of  empire  vary  with  latitude  and 
longitude;  and  wherever  we  rule  over  subject  races  we 
are  faced  by  new  dilemmas,  each  calling  for  all  the 
wisdom  we  possess  to  solve  them.  Through  the  long 
thunderstorm  of  the  Boer  War  may  be  felt  the  en- 
lUu'ing  presence  of  a  native  problem  in  South  Africa 
— a  problem  as  hard  to  solve  as  the  Indian,  and  one 
to  which  vastly  less  rational  attention  has  yet  been 
given.  It  has  been  made  use  of  as  a  catchword  in 
connection  with  the  other ;  but   as  one  who  has  dis- 


582  GENERAL 

passionately  or  deeply  studied  it  can  believe  that  it 
is  going  to  be  worthily  grappled  with  on  the  impulses 
now  active.  The  British  Parliament  which  persistently 
presents  empty  benches  to  the  Indian  Budget  is  not 
going  to  develop  in  one  day  a  zealous  concern  for  the 
development  of  the  Kaffir  in  his  own  interest.  The 
Kaffir's  lot  and  the  Kaffir  problem  will  be  darker  before 
they  are  bettered.  Not  one  politician  in  a  hundred 
has  any  reasoned  opinion  on  the  subject;  and  of  those 
who  have  a  reasoned  opinion,  the  majority  are  either 
flatly  unprogressive  or  resignedly  pessimistic.  In 
South  Africa  British  public  opinion  is  overwhelmingly 
esfotistic  as  reijards  native  claims :  the  one  thing  in 
which  Boers  and  Outlanders  were  agreed  was  that  the 
native  must  be  "  kept  in  his  place." 

All  the  while,  it  appears  to  be  the  admission  of  all 
parties  in  South  Africa  that  the  town  Kaffir  is  in 
general  demoralised ;  that  he  loses  his  primitive 
virtues  of  truthfulness,  honesty,  and  manhood,  and 
that  he  acquires  the  vices  without  the  better  qualities 
of  his  masters.  It  would  seem  to  follow  that,  if  it 
be  any  part  of  the  duty  of  our  colonial  governments 
to  raise  or  safe<fuard  the  native  civilisation,  that  ouirht 
to  be  fostered  on  an  aijfricultural  and  tribal  basis. 
But  though  some  colonial  administrators  have  done 
good  and  generous  service  to  native  interests,  those 
interests  are  no  part  of  the  concern  of  the  average 
colonist ;  and  the  very  persons  who  most  emphatically 
disparage  the  "  town  Kaffir  "  seem  most  determined  to 
exploit  him.  They  act,  of  course,  very  much  in  the 
spirit  of  the  average  exploiter  of  labour  in  the  mother 
country ;  and  it  would  be  fantastic  to  expect  of  them 
more  sympathy  with  a  different  race  than  most 
home  employers  show  for  their  own.  What  we  are 
entitled  to  say  is  simply  this,  that  nowhere  does  the 
British  Empire  appear  to  be  raising  lower  races  col- 
lectively  in    the    scale    of    civilisation,   and    that    the 


DUTIES    OF    EMPIRE  583 

conventional  formulas  on  the  subject  are  accordingly 
in  much  need  of  revision. 

The  most  hopeful  aspect  of  the  matter,  neverthe- 
less, is  perhaps  the  fact  that  the  formulas  do  pass 
current.  They  stand  at  least  for  an  admission  tliat 
empire  ought  to  mean  bonotit  to  those  dominated,  and 
a  capacity  to  take  satisfaction  in  such  beneficence. 
Much  has  been  said  of  late  as  to  benevolent  British 
intentions  towards  the  native  races  in  the  Transvaal. 
To  believe  in  such  intentions  is  not  easy  in  view  of 
the  status  accorded  to  the  natives  in  Natal,  who  are 
practically  without  franchise  rights,  and  of  the  de- 
signs on  native  labour  avowed  by  the  capitalists  of 
Johannesburg,  whose  first  thought  is  avowedly  the  im- 
provement of  their  own  financial  results.  In  regard 
to  the  "  compound "  system,  which  seems  likely  to 
be  set  up  at  Johannesburg  as  at  Kimberley,  it  is 
commonly  argued  that  it  is  "  the  best  thing  for  the 
native,"  bccaicse  he  can  in  that  way  earn  in  a  year  or 
two  as  much  money  as  will  enable  him  to  "  buy " 
at  least  three  wives  and  live  thereafter  in  idleness  on 
the  produce  of  their  labour  in  the  fields  of  his  tribe. 
From  such  propaganda  one  turns  away  with  no  great 
hope.  But  if  all  that  we  have  heard  of  philanthropic 
purposes  towards  the  native  races  is  to  mean  no  better 
fruition  than  this,  the  language  of  imperialist  aspiration 
must  be  more  hollow  than  even  the  anti-imperialist 
can  well  believe.  Some  sincere  desire  to  do  good 
there  must  have  been  behind  it,  in  some  minds ;  and 
it  is  to  that  that  we  must  look  for  a  right  direction  of 
imperial  influence  in  the  future.  Should  it  be  finally 
lacking,  there  will  be  small  room  left  for  questioning 
as  to  the  civilising  value  of  the  imperialist  idea. 


A  SKETCH  OF  THE  IMPERIAL  UNITY 
MOVEMENT 

COMMONLY  KNOWN  AS  "  IMPERIAL  FEDERATION  " 
By  HERMAN  W.  MARCUS 

{Editor  of  "  The  British  Empire  Review") 

"There  is  not  the  least  probability  that  the  British  Constiti;tion 
would  be  hurt  by  the  union  of  Great  Britain  with  the  Colonies. 
That  Constitution,  on  the  contraiy,  would  be  completed  by  it,  and 
seems  to  be  imperfect  without  it.  .  .  .  That  this  union,  however, 
could  be  easily  effectuated,  or  that  difficulties — and  great  difficulties 
— might  not  occur  in  the  execution,  I  do  not  pretend.  I  have  yet 
heard  of  none,  however,  which  appear  insurmountable." — Adam 
Smith's  "  Wealth  of  Nations." 

It  is  the  fate  of  all  movements  in  tlie  direction  of 
political  change  to  be  seriously  misunderstood  in  exact 
proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  their  aims  and  to  the 
comprehensive  and  far-reaching  character  of  the  inter- 
ests which  they  are  likely  to  affect.  Probably  Imperial 
Federation  enjoys  a  unique  pre-eminence  in  this  re- 
spect. There  can  hardly  be  any  other  proposal  of  the 
same  importance  around  which  so  many  legends  have 
clustered,  and  upon  which  such  avalanches  of  misre- 
presentation have  been  hurled.  It  is  a  siinple  phrase, 
consisting  of  an  adjective  and  a  noun  substantive. 
The  adjective  is  one  which  might  have  been  expected 
to  be  intelligible  to  the  citizens  of  the  most  famous 
Empire  known  to  history ;  whilst  the  idea  comprised 
in  the  substantive  is  one  of  the  commonplaces  of  the 
present  day.      "  Federation,"  "  alliance,"  "  co-operation," 

584 


THE    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT      5.S5 

"  association,"  and  the  like,  are  the  terms  which  ex- 
press the  tendency  of  every  class  and  every  interest 
towards  concerted  action,  based  upon  the  view  that 
union  is  strength,  whilst  isolation  is  weakness. 

Tlie  British  Empire  being  already  in  existence,  it 
is  proposed  to  "  federate  "  it — that  is,  to  reconstitute  it 
to  some  extent  upon  a  federal  basis — this,  and  nothing 
more  or  less,  is  the  entire  mystery  of  "  Imperial  Fede- 
ration." 

The  ideal  of  a  closer  and  better  organised  union 
between  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  outlying  parts 
of  the  Empire  has  long  occupied  a  prominent  place  in 
the  aspirations  of  patriots  and  political  philosophers. 
In  recent  years  the  eloquent  writings  of  James  Anthony 
Froude  and  Sir  John  Seeley  have  done  much  to  render 
it  both  intelligible  and  popular.  But  without  any 
disparagement  of  either  the  foresight  or  the  actual 
services  of  these  or  of  still  earlier  pioneers  of  the 
movement,  it  will  be  convenient  if,  for  the  purposes  of 
the  present  article,  the  question  be  regarded  as  having 
been  brought  within  the  sphere  of  practical  politics  by 
the  concrete  step  taken  at  the  foundation  of  the  Im- 
perial Federation  League  itself,  when,  at  a  Conference 
held  in  London,  on  2gih  July  1884,  the  Right  Hon. 
W.  E.  Forster,  M.P.,  in  the  chair,  it  was  unanimously 
resolved : — 

That  in  order  to  secure  the  permanent  unity  of  the  Empire, 
some  form  of  Federation  is  essential. 

That  for  tlie  purpose  of  influencing  public  opinion,  both  in 
the  United  Kingdom  and  tlie  Colonies,  by  showing  the  incal- 
culable advantages  which  will  accrue  to  ihe  whole  Empire  from 
the  adoption  of  such  a  system  of  organisation,  a  Society  be 
formed  of  men  of  all  parties,  to  advocate  and  support  the  prin- 
ciples of  Federation. 

And  at  the  adjourned  Conference,  held  on  Tuesday, 


586  GENERAL 

1 8th   November   1884,  the  following  resolutions  were 
unanimously  passed : — 

That  a  Society  be  now  formed,  to  be  called  "  Tlie  Imperial 
Federation  League." 

That  the  object  of  the  League  be  to  secure  by  Federation 
the  permanent  unity  of  the  Empire. 

That  no  scheme  of  Federation  should  interfere  with  the 
existing  rights  of  Local  Parliaments  as  regards  local  affairs. 

That  any  scheme  of  Imperial  Federation  should  combine  on 
an  equitable  basis  the  resources  of  the  Empire  for  the  main- 
tenance of  common  interests,  and  adequately  provide  for  an 
organised  defence  of  common  rights. 

That  the  League  use  every  constitutional  means  to  bring 
about  the  object  for  which  it  is  formed,  and  invite  the  support 
of  men  of  all  political  parties. 

That  the  membership  of  the  League  be  open  to  any  British 
subject  who  accepts  the  principles  of  the  League,  and  pays  a 
yearly  registration  fee  of  not  less  than  one  shilling. 

That  donations  and  subscriptions  be  invited  for  providing 
means  for  conducting  the  business  of  the  League. 

That  British  subjects  throughout  the  Empire  be  invited  to 
become  members,  and  to  form  and  organise  branches  of  the 
League,  which  may  place  their  representatives  on  the  Council. 

The  foregoing  is  the  official  programme  of  the 
association  which  was  constituted  for  the  orgfanised 
expression  of  the  Imperial  Federation  idea,  and  its 
terms  are  entitled  to  be  treated  as  authoritative  and 
conclusive,  so  far  as  their  accuracy,  and  the  intentions 
of  their  authors,  are  concerned.  But  additional  light 
upon  the  objects  and  policy  of  the  League  may  be 
found  in  the  written  and  spoken  utterances  of  its 
leading  mend)crs,  and  chiefly  in  those  of  its  first  two 
Presidents,  the  late  Mr.  W.  E.  Forster,  and  Lord  Rose- 
bery. 

In  an  article  published  in  The  Nineteentli,  Century  for 
February  1885,  Mr.  Forster  defined  Imperial  Federa- 
tion as  "  such  a  union  of  the  Mother  (-ountry  with  her 


THE    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT     587 

Colonies  as  will  keep  the  realm  one  State  in  relation 
to  other  States.  Purposely  I  use  the  word  Ixejy,  and 
not  make.  I  do  not  say  that  we  are  trying  by  federa- 
tion to  make  the  Empire  one  commonwealth  in  relation 
to  foreign  Powers,  because  at  the  present  time  it  is  one 
commonwealth."  Now,  one  of  the  most  common  mis- 
conceptions regarding  Imperial  Federation  takes  the 
form  of  imputing  to  its  advocates  an  insidious  design 
to  impair  the  virtual  autonomy  of  the  self-governing 
Colonies,  which  they  cherish,  and  rightly  cherish,  with 
jealous  care.  But,  even  apart  from  the  clause  in  the 
Constitution  of  the  Imperial  Federation  League,  quoted 
above,  which  expressly  negatives  such  a  purpose — viz., 
''  that  no  scheme  of  Federation  should  interfere  witli 
the  existing  rights  of  local  parliaments  as  regards  local 
affairs  " — the  leaders  of  the  Imperial  Federation  move- 
ment repeatedly  declared  that  a  scrupulous  respect  for 
the  existing  rights  of  the  Colonies,  and  the  maintenance 
of  their  relations  with  the  Mother  Country  on  the 
present  basis  in  every  material  feature,  save  one,  were 
essential  conditions  of  their  proposals.  The  single 
modification  which  they  sought  to  introduce  was,  on 
the  contrary,  designed  not  to  impair  or  to  restrict,  but 
to  extend  and  complete,  the  constitutional  rights  of  self- 
governing  Colonies, 

A  close  and  instructive  analogy  is  afforded  by  the 
policy  which  has  been  adopted  in  framing  a  federal  con- 
stitution for  Australia,  although  the  analogy,  for  reasons 
which  will  appear,  requires  to  be  applied  with  caution. 
In  the  case  of  the  Federation  of  Australia,  it  was 
inevitable  that,  for  the  sake  of  union,  each  colony 
should  surrender  certain  of  its  provincial  rights.  For 
instance,  absolute  Free-Trade  will  prevail  throughout 
the  Continent,  and  the  right  of  any  colony  to  impose 
protective  duties  against  its  neighbours  (except  as 
regards  a  temporary  provision  in  favour  of  Western 
Australia)  will  be  abandoned  as  long  as  the  Conmion- 


588  GENERAL 

wealth  endures.  Other  restrictions  upon  local  auto- 
nomy are  also  imposed,  and  yet,  with  a  fine  insight,  the 
resolutions  defining  the  scope  of  the  Commonwealth 
Bill  declared  that  its  object  was  "  to  enlarge  the  powers 
of  self-government  of  the  people  of  Australia."  In 
other  words,  the  abandonment  of  certain  provincial 
rights  and  privileges,  in  themselves  of  no  mean  im- 
portance, was  completely  overshadowed  by  the  larger 
citizenship,  with  its  more  majestic  powers  and  op- 
portunities, which  would  pertain  to  the  membership 
of  an  Australian  Commonwealth. 

If  this  be  true,  as  it  undoubtedly  is,  of  a  federation 
of  Colonies  in  a  single  continent,  with  how  much  im- 
measurably greater  force  must  it  apply  to  the  case  of  a 
colony,  or  even  of  a  group  of  federated  colonies,  which 
is  raised  from  the  position  of  a  subordinate,  although 
quasi-independent,  State,  to  that  of  equal  membership 
of  a  world-wide  Empire  ?  For  this,  and  nothing  else, 
is  the  ultimate  aim  of  Imperial  Federation — to  raise 
the  Colonies  to  a  higher  plane  of  citizenship  in  the 
Empire  of  which  they  already  form  a  part,  but  ivithout 
the.  slightest  (Urogation.  from  their  existing  rights.  Alike 
in  this  country  and  in  the  Colonies  it  has  been  found 
difficult  to  grasp  this  fundamental  idea.  At  home,  no 
doubt,  conservative  tendencies  induce  a  reluctance  to 
contemplate  so  great  an  innovation  in  constitutional 
practice  as  to  admit  partners,  even  of  our  race  and 
household,  and  although  at  first  probably  only  junior 
partners,  in  the  supremo  control  of  the  destinies  of  the 
Empire.  In  the  Colonies  themselves,  the  evil  traditions 
of  Downing  Street  rule  of  half  a  century  ago  still  make 
it  difficult  to  believe  that  so  great  a  privilege  would 
ever  be  conceded  by  Great  Britain,  except  in  return  for 
some  equivalent  on  their  ])art,  amounting  to  a  sacrifi(^e  ; 
and  tliis  inqjrcssioii  has  undoubtedly  been  strengthened 
by  the  false  analogy  between  two  systems,  differing  in 
kind  as  well  as  in  degree,  which  the  experience  of  their 


THE    LMI'KIMAL    TXITV    MOVEMENT      589 

own  ciforts  to  accomplish  Federation  has  tended  to 
create.  But  it  is  noteworthy  that,  as  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  has  with  each  succeeding  year  acquired  a 
greater  sense  of  security  in  the  enjoyment  of  those 
enharged  powers  of  self-government  which  were  con- 
ferred upon  her  by  confederation,  she  has  sought  to 
enter  into  closer  relations  with  the  Mother  Country, 
from  a  recognition  not  only  of  the  existence  of  common 
interests,  but  also  of  the  fresh  advantages  which  are 
likely  to  accrue  to  herself  from  a  more  intimate 
alliance.  It  is  in  the  belief  that  a  similar  tendency 
will  be  displayed  by  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia, 
that  the  friends  of  Imperial  Unity,  rejecting  the  fatal 
principle — Divide  et  impera — ^as  an  impossible  watch- 
word for  the  British  Empire,  have  welcomed  the  union 
of  the  Australian  Colonies. 

Let  us  return  to  the  article  from  which  we  have 
already  quoted.  Mr.  Forster,  proceeding  with  his 
arginnent,  advanced  as  his  main  contention  that  the 
proper  method  of  maintaining  Imperial  union  was 
"  by  an  organisation  for  common  defence,  and  a  joint 
foreign  policy."  The  objection  was,  of  course,  at  once 
raised  whether  this  was  necessary.  Were  not,  it  was 
asked,  the  existing  relations,  if  not  ideally  perfect, 
satisfactory  for  all  practical  purposes  ?  There  was  no 
demand  on  the  part  of  the  Colonies  for  additional 
powers,  and  it  would  be  better  to  wait  until  it  arose. 
In  short,  the  usual  plea  for  delay  was  urged — quieta 
non  movere.  So  far  as  this  was  a  caution  against 
attempts  to  force  the  pace,  or  to  give  so  long  a 
lead  to  public  opinion  as  to  outstrip  it  altogether, 
arguments  of  this  nature  were  not  unworthy  of  con- 
sideration. But  they  failed  to  take  account  of  that 
aspect  of  the  duty  of  statesmanship  which  consists  in 
lookiuiT  ahead,  and  which  seeks  to  diminish  the  danger 
of  even  an  unexpected  crisis  by  being  prepared  to  meet 
it.      Moreover,  it  ignored  some  notorious  storm-signals, 


590  GENERAL 

of  which  far-seemg  men  were  anxious  to  take  cog- 
nisance. Mr.  Forster  himself  drew  attention  to  some 
of  the  critical  incidents  of  that  day,  caused  by  the 
absence  of  co-operation  between  the  Imperial  and  the 
several  Colonial  Governments,  such  as  the  attempt 
of  Queensland  to  annex  New  Guinea  in  her  dissatis- 
faction with  what  she  considered  the  apathy  of  the 
Colonial  Office,  and  a  threat  on  the  part  of  New 
Zealand  to  take  similar  action  in  Samoa,  where  the 
problem,  as  the  result  of  neglect,  subsequently  assumed 
a  dangerous  form,  and  has  ultimately  reached  a  solution, 
by  which  Colonial,  if  not  Imperial,  interests  have  had 
to  go  to  the  wall. 

But  it  was  Mr.  Forster's  successor,  Lord  Rosebery, 
who,  as  a  statesman  with  an  especial  bent  for  questions 
affecting  the  foreign  relations  of  the  Emphe,  enforced 
this  point  repeatedly  and  with  striking  emphasis  upon 
the  mind  and  conscience  of  the  nation.  Speaking  at 
Leeds,  on  i  ith  October  1888,  he  said: — 

"  A  great  change  has  come  over  tlie  whole  of  our  foreign 
policy  during  the  last  twenty  years.  I  tliink  you  will  see  a 
greater  change  in  the  next  twenty  years.  Our  foreign  policy 
has  become  more  of  a  colonial  policy,  and  is  becoming  every 
day  more  entwined  with  our  colonia'l  interests.  Formerly  our 
foreign  policy  was  mainly  an  Indian  policy ;  it  was  mainly 
guided  by  considerations  of  what  was  best  for  our  Indian 
Empire.  That  brought  us  into  many  complications  which  we 
might  otherwise  have  avoided,  but  wliicli  wo  felt  were  rightly 
faced  to  save  so  splendid  a  possession  ;  but  now,  owing  to 
causes  which  I  will  point  out  to  you,  colonial  influences  must 
necessarily  overshadow  our  foreign  policy.  In  the  first  place, 
our  colonial  communities  are  rising  to  a  pitch  of  power  which 
makes  it  natural  for  us  to  listen  to  them  whenever  they  make 
representations  on  their  own  behalf — and  they  do  make  con- 
stant representations  on  their  own  behalf.  In  the  next  place, 
we  find  that  the  other  Powers  are  beginning  a  career  of  colonial 
aggrandisement.     We   formerly  did   not   have   in   our   foreign 


THE    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT      591 

affairs  to  trouble  ourselves  much  with  colonial  questions,  because 
we  had  a  monopoly  of  Colonies.  That  monopoly  has  ceased ; 
but  consider  for  a  moment,  as  matters  stand  now,  how  largely 
our  foreign  policy  is  a  colonial  policy." 

He  proceeded  to  illustrate  his  contention  by  re- 
ferences to  current  affairs  in  Canada,  Newfoundland, 
Africa,  Asia,  and  the  Pacilic,  and  concluded  with  the 
following  words : — 

"  I  have  said  that  foreign  policy  in  the  future  will  be  very 
largely  concerned,  and  is  very  largely  concerned,  with  questions 
of  colonial  policy,  but  that  raises  the  question  of  whether  you 
wish  to  have  a  colonial  policy  at  all.  There  was  at  one  time 
in  this  country  a  demand  to  be  free  from  the  responsibility  of 
a  colonial  empire.  Well,  I  think  that  demand  has  ceased,  but 
the  people  of  this  country  will,  at  a  not  too  distant  time,  have 
to  make  up  their  minds  what  footing  they  wish  tlieir  Colonies 
to  occupy  with  respect  to  them,  or  whether  they  desire  their 
Colonies  to  leave  them  altogether.  It  is,  as  I  believe,  absolutely 
impossible  for  you  to  maintain  in  the  long  run  your  present 
loose  and  indefinable  relations  to  your  Colonies,  and  preserve 
these  Colonies  as  parts  of  the  Empire." 

A  few  days  later,  at  Edinburgh,  Lord  Rosebery 
propounded  his  own  definition  of  Imperial  Federation 
as  follows  :  "  The  federation  we  aim  at  is  the  closest 
possible  union  of  the  various  self-governing  States 
ruled  by  the  British  Crown,  consistently  with  that  free 
national  development  which  is  the  birthright  of  British 
subjects  all  over  the  world — the  closest  union  in  sym- 
pathy, in  external  action,  and  in  defence ; "  and  he 
went  on  to  reiterate  the  doctrine  which  he  had  laid 
down  at  Leeds  : — 

"  When  you  declare  war,  on  whatever  ground — it  may  be  in 
a  fit  of  anger,  under  the  idea  of  slighted  honour — under  any  of 
these  causes  for  wliich  we  have  seen  nations  hurry  rashly  into 
war — whenever  you  declare  war  on  any  of  these  grounds,  you 
do  not  declare  war  alone,  but  Canada  declares  war,  Australia 


592  GENERAL 

declares  war,  every  dependency  in  the  Empire  declares  war,  and 
they  declare  war  without  having  an  official  voice  in  the  control 
of  our  policy.  Remember  this  ;  you  form  a  policy,  and  my 
critic  says  you  demand  that  it  shall  be  uncontrolled  by  your 
Colonies.  But  when  your  policy  has  begun  to  take  effect,  your 
Colonies  may  be  invaded,  they  may  be  harassed,  they  may  be 
burned,  they  may  be  plundered — all  in  consequence  of  the 
course  of  action  in  which  they  have  had  no  controlling  voice. 
Now,  that  is  not  a  dream,  that  is  not  an  idea.  It  is  an  uncom- 
monly concrete  fact — both  for  our  critics  and  for  the  Colonies. 
XoAV,  gentlemen,  it  is  rather  remarkable  that  Mr.  Bright,  who 
is  our  most  venerated  opponent,  once  alluded  to  that  argument 
this  year,  and  took  it  as  the  text  of  a  speech  against  our  view. 
Mr.  Bright  said,  speaking  of  Imperial  Federation :  '  Will  the 
Colonists  be  willing  to  undertake  the  responsibility  of  entering 
into  wars,  the  seat  of  which  is  ten  thousand  miles  away,  in 
which  they  have  not  the  slightest  interest,  when  they  might 
not  have  been  the  least  consulted  as  to  the  cause  of  the  quarrel 
which  this  country  was  rushing  into  1 '  But,  gentlemen,  that  is 
precisely  their  position  now  ;  and  that  is  precisely  what  we  wish 
to  avert  by  Imperial  Federation.  ...  I  say  that  this  state  of 
things,  for  both  sides,  is  anomalous,  and  cannot  continue.  On 
the  one  hand,  you  pay  for  everything,  and  that  is  a  fool's  bargain 
for  you ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  Colonies  may  be  dragged 
into  a  war  without  a  voice  in  the  matter,  and  that  is  a  fool's 
bargain  for  them.  Now,  I  believe  when  the  Parliaments  which 
exist — the  numerous  Parliaments  which  exist  under  the  British 
Crown — when  they  come  to  see  this  question  in  all  its  bearings, 
will  demand  a  substantial  voice  in  the  control  of  the  British 
policy  of  the  future." 

These  remarkable  utterances  did  not  fail  to  make 
a  deep  impression  upon  the  country,  which  was 
strengthened  by  a  series  of  lectures  in  London  and 
the  provinces,  delivered  shortly  afterwards  by  Dr. 
George  R.  Parkin,  now  Principal  of  Dpper  Canada 
College,  Toronto,  and  the  author  of  "  Imperial  Federa- 
tion, tlio  Problem  of  National  Unity,"  wliidi  is  the 
acknowledged    text-book    on    the     subject.       A    keen 


THb:    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT      593 

desire  for  the  consolidation  of  Imperial  Unity  was 
implanted  in  many  quarters,  and  the  critics  of  the 
movement  found  themselves  compelled  to  shift  their 
ground.  "  That  is  all  very  well,"  they  conceded, 
"  but  how  do  you  propose  to  carry  it  out  ?  Produce 
your  plan,  and  we  Avill  consider  it."  Now  this  was 
no  new  demand.  From  the  earliest  stages  of  the 
movement  outside  observers  had  called  for  a  "plan," 
and  the  leaders  had  steadily  declined  to  commit 
what  they  believed  would  be  a  fatal  blunder.  It  was 
clearly  foreseen  that,  until  the  ground  had  been  care- 
fully prepared,  it  would  be  courting  disaster  to  make 
definite  proposals.  Lord  Rosebery  himself  said  :  "  My 
plan  is  this — to  endeavour  so  to  influence  public 
opinion  at  home  and  in  the  Colonies,  that  there 
shall  come  an  imperious  demand  from  the  people  of 
this  country,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  that  this 
federation  shall  be  brought  about."  In  short,  there 
Avas  no  intention  of  playing  into  the  hands  of  those 
opponents  who  would  have  welcomed  an  opportunity 
of  diverting  attention  from  the  broad  lines  of  the 
movement  by  provoking  a  tedious  and  vexatious 
discussion  on  side  issues.  Moreover,  it  was  recog- 
nised that  the  promulgation  of  schemes  of  constitu- 
tional reform  is  not  the  proper  duty  of  private 
organisations,  but  belongs  to  statesmen  entrusted 
with  the  actual  conduct  of  affairs,  who  alone  can 
say  when  the  right  moment  for  action  has  arrived, 
and  are  able  to  adapt  their  measures  to  the  chang- 
insr  needs  and  circumstances  of  the  time. 

But  as  the  general  principle  grew  in  favour,  the 
cry  for  a  proposal  of  a  definite  kind  not  only  increased 
in  volume,  but  found  a  footing  within  the  ranks  of  the 
Imperial  Federation  League,  some  of  whose  members 
had  their  own  views  as  to  the  best  methods  of  making 
progress,  and  were  with  difficulty  restrained  from 
taking  independent  action.  Lord  Rosebery,  however, 
V  2  p 


594  GENERAL 

recognised  that  a  critical  moment  had  come,  and, 
with  his  usual  sagacity,  he  turned  it  to  such  good 
account,  that  the  threatened  insubordination  was  at 
once  allayed,  and  the  previous  strategy  of  the  leaders 
was  both  approved  and  made  the  starting-point  of  a 
new  departure. 

At  that  time  recollection  was  still  recent  of  the  most 
formal  step  which  had  been  taken  to  give  substance  to 
the  modern  conception  of  Imperial  Unity.  This  was 
the  Imperial  Conference  of  1887,  which  had  actually 
been  summoned  as  the  result  of  a  suggestion  made  to 
the  Imperial  Government  by  a  deputation  from  the 
League.  Lord  Rosebery  recalled  the  success  of  this 
important  gathering,  and  recommended  to  the  Council 
of  the  League  that  the  establishment  of  periodical  con- 
ferences on  similar  lines  should  be  made  the  immediate 
aim  of  the  League.  His  proposal  was  received  with 
enthusiasm,  and  was  embodied  in  the  constitution  of 
the  League  on  14th  November  1889.  On  the  follow- 
ing day,  the  new  policy  was  publicly  proclaimed  by 
Lord  Rosebery  in  a  remarkable  speech,  at  the  Mansion 
House,  in  the  course  of  which  he  made  the  following 
declaration  of  policy  : — 

"What  was  that  conference'?  It  was  composed  of  nearly 
all  the  most  important  men  available  in  each  colony.  It  dis- 
cussed all  the  main  qviestions  which  concerned  the  good  and  the 
well-being  of  the  Empire.  It  brought  forward  recommenda- 
tions on  almost  all  those  questions.  If  that  was  not  Imperial 
Federation,  T  don't  know  what  is,  and  I  have  always  felt  since 
that  day  that  the  existence  of  what  is  called  Imi)erial  or 
National  Federation  depended  upon  the  periodical  continuance 
and  renewal  of  those  conferences,  and  this  League  will  have  to 
keep  a  vigilant  eye  upon  the  Government,  to  see  that  these 
conferences  are  constantly  and  periodically  renewed.  It  will 
have  to  maintain  and  promote  the  sentiment,  without  which 
Federation  is  an  idle  dream,  ami  it  will  liave  to  take  care,  as  far 
as  it  can,  that  the  conferences,  whrn   they  do  assemble,  do  not 


1 


THE    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT      595 

separate  without  some  substantial  results.  Now,  in  my  opinion, 
there  are  several  necessary  conditions  connected  with  the  futuie 
of  these  conferences.  They  must  be  in  the  first  place  periodi- 
cal and  at  stated  intervals.  In  the  next  place,  they  must  be 
composed  of  the  best  men  available  at  the  moment ;  and  there- 
fore the  Government  of  this  country,  whatever  Government  it 
may  be  at  tlie  time,  must  send  its  best  men  to  represent  it  at 
the  Conference,  and  must  invest  these  periodical  congresses 
with  all  the  authority  and  splendour  which  Government  in 
this  country  can  give.  In  the  next  place,  the  task  of  these 
gatherings  will  not  be  the  production  of  statutes,  but  recom- 
mendations. You  may  say  that  a  congress  which  only  meets  to 
report  and  recommend  has  but  a  neutral  task  before  it.  Those 
who  take  that  view  have  a  very  inadequate  idea  of  what  the 
utterance  would  be  of  a  conference  representing  a  (][uarter  of  the 
human  race,  and  representing  the  immeasurable  opulence  and 
power  which  have  been  garnered  up  during  the  past  centuries 
of  our  history.  If  we  have  these  conferences,  and  if  they  are 
allowed  to  discuss,  as  they  must  be,  any  topic  w'hich  any  party 
to  them  recommends,  I  do  not  fear  their  wanting  in  authority 
or  in  weight.  I  would  furtlier  lay  this  consoling  unction  to  tlif 
souls  of  those  who  have  .schemes  in  their  pockets  for  imme- 
diately carrying  out  Imperial  Federation.  If  any  closer  scheme 
of  Federation  is  to  come  about,  it  can  only  come  about  tlirough 
the  medium  of  such  a  conference  as  I  have  sketched  out,  and 
not  through  the  medium  of  any  private  organisation  ;  whereas, 
on  the  other  hand,  if  no  closer  relations  come  out  of  those  con- 
ferences, and  if  these  conferences  are  found  to  be  of  no  avail, 
you  may  be  perfectly  certain,  whatever  your  views  may  be  and 
whatever  your  exertions  may  be,  that  Imperial  Federation  in 
any  form  will  be  impossible." 

It  was  impossible  to  inisnndcrstaiid  tlie  signifi- 
cance of  the  new  departure.  The  policy  of  Imperial 
Federation  by  short  cuts,  to  several  of  which  Lord 
Rosebcry  referred  in  his  speech  and  declared  to  be 
impracticable,  was  emphatically  repudiated,  and  whilst 
a  definite  and  clearly  practical  proposal  for  accomplish- 
ing federation  was  put  forward,  its  main  characteristic 


596  GENERAL 

was  a  grand  simplicity  and  an  entire  freedom  from 
those  compromising,  because  premature,  details,  which 
would  almost  certainly  have  prejudiced  the  acceptance 
of  any  ordinary  "  plan."  Apparently,  therefore,  the 
League  was  on  the  point  of  taking  a  long  step  towards 
the  attainment  of  its  object ;  and  yet,  by  the  irony  of 
fate,  its  zenith  was  also  the  commencement  of  its 
decline.  For  the  moment,  however,  the  omens  were 
favourable.  Lord  Salisbury,  the  Prime  Minister,  con- 
sented to  receive  a  deputation  from  the  League  to  urge 
the  convocation  of  a  second  conference  of  the  self- 
governing  Colonies  of  the  Empire,  and  on  17  th  June 
1 89 1,  a  deputation  was  introduced  by  Lord  Brassey,  in 
the  absence  of  Lord  Rosebery,  who  at  that  time  was 
taking  no  part  in  public  life.  The  Prime  Minister  met  the 
deputation  with  the  frank  admission  that  it  had  raised 
"  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the  future  of  the  British 
Empire,"  but  made  the  objection  that  "  it  would  be  an  in- 
sult to  summon  a  conference,  and  to  have  no  proposition 
to  make  to  them  when  they  come."  Such  a  proposition, 
he  intimated,  it  was  the  duty  of  the  League  to  submit. 
Although  the  Council  could  not  help  denuu-ring  to 
the  contention  of  the  Prime  Minister,  who  invited  them, 
in  effect,  to  abandon  the  policy  which  they  had  em- 
braced in  November  1889,  and  to  substitute  for  it 
a  specific  plan  of  federation,  they  fouud  themselves 
in  a  dilemma,  since  in  the  event  of  declining  the 
invitation  they  were  certain  to  be  confronted  with  a 
mere  non  possitums  on  the  part  of  the  Government. 
Accordingly  they  accepted  the  responsibility  wlii(!li  the 
Prime  Minister  had  declined,  and  undertook  the  task 
of  framing  definite  propo.sals  for  accomplishing  federa- 
tion. A  strong  connnittee  was  appointed,  and  in  July 
1892  a  report  was  issued,  which  was  adopted  by  the 
Council  on  1 6th  November  i  892.  This  report  possessed 
many  excellences.  It  was  not  only  a  lucid  and  con- 
sistent composition,  Itut  it  contained  a  well-balanced  and 


THE    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT      597 

really  practicable  scheme  for  constituting  a  Council  of 
Defence  of  the  Empire,  which  it  was  proposed  to  submit 
to  an  Imperial  Conference  summoned  ad  hoc.  In  other 
words,  it  complied  with  Lord  Salisbury's  requirements ; 
but  it  was  at  the  same  time  the  virtual,  if  unconscious, 
negation  of  the  Rosebery  policy  of  three  years  earlier, 
which  aimed  not  at  the  convocation  of  a  specially 
summoned  conference  for  the  consideration  of  a  specific 
proposal,  but  at  the  establishment  of  conferences  at 
constantly  recurring  periods,  which  should  be  a  regular 
feature  of  Imperial  administration.  To  use  a  homely 
phrase,  the  Council  had  put  all  their  eggs  into  one 
basket,  and  in  consequence  had  exposed  their  wares 
to  the  risks  which  invariably  attend  that  method  of 
marketing.  By  taking  such  a  course  they  appeared 
to  have  deliberately  tempted  Providence,  and  at  no 
distant  date  a  Nemesis  overtook  them.  A  general 
election,  followed  by  a  change  of  ministry,  intervened ; 
and  it  was  not  until  April  1893  that  the  League  once 
more  approached  Her  Majesty's  Government.  j\Ir. 
Gladstone,  who  was  now  Prime  Minister,  associated 
himself  with  his  predecessor  in  recognising  the  im- 
portance of  the  issue  which  was  being  raised,  and 
in  addition  gave  his  assent  to  tlie  special  principle 
of  estal)lishiug  unity  in  Imperial  defence.  But  Avitli 
remorseless  and  unanswerable  logic  he  pointed  out  that 
the  proposals  were  premature,  whilst  the  occasion  was 
inopportune ;  and  the  League  was  once  more  referred 
back  to  its  original  work  of  forming  and  educating 
public  opinion. 

It  is  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  the  present 
article  to  add  that  seven  month.s  later  the  Imperial 
Federation  League  was  dissolved  on  the  nominal  ground 
that  it  "  had  reached  the  limits  of  its  effective  action." 
This  view  was  not  held  universally,  and  steps  were 
shortly  taken  to  re-establish  the  organisation  on  fresh 
lines.     Meanwhile,  a  new  conception  of  Imperial  Federa- 


598  GENERAL 

tion  was  gaining  ground.  Its  advocates  began  to  hark 
back  to  the  teaching  of  Lord  Rosebery,  that  the  objects 
of  Imperial  Federation  were  of  infinitely  greater  con- 
sequence than  any  particular  proposal  for  accomplishing 
them.  Instead  of  being  regarded  as  a  more  or  less 
questionable  method  of  introducing  vast  constitutional 
changes  into  the  relations  between  the  Mother  Country 
and  the  Colonies,  it  was  perceived  that  Imperial  Federa- 
tion was  in  its  essence  an  imperfect  attempt  to  express 
in  concise  and  technical  language  the  organised  effort 
after  National  or  Imperial  Unity.  As  an  inevitable 
consequence  the  policy  of  "  short  cuts,"  which  had  been 
temporarily  revived  by  the  Report  of  the  Special 
Committee  of  1892,  once  more  fell  out  of  favour, 
and  it  began  to  be  perceived  that  the  truer  policy 
was  to  make  use  of  every  avenue  of  approach  towards 
the  goal  along  which  progress  was  possible,  but  not 
to  pursue  any  one  or  more  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
rest. 

This  policy  has  been  virtually  embodied  in  tlie 
programme  of  the  British  Empire  League,  which  was 
formally  constituted  on  30th  May  1895,  at  a  meeting 
over  which  Lord  Avebury  (then  Sir  John  Lubbock,  M.P.) 
presided,  and  which,  whilst  carefully  avoiding  the  con- 
troversial phrase  "  Imperial  Federation,"  has  followed 
the  Imperial  Federation  League,  in  proclaiming  the 
permanent  unity  of  the  Empire  as  its  primary  object, 
but  seeks  to  attain  this  end  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
coupled  with  the  advocacy  of  periodical  conferences  as 
the  main  and  most  potent  instrument  for  the  purpose. 
The  essential  resemblance  between  the  new  organisa- 
tion and  the  old,  save  in  respect  of  the  use  of  the 
tenn  "  Federation,"  is  made  clearly  apparent  if  the 
(Jonstitution  of  the  defunct  League,  which  has  already 
been  recited,  is  compared  with  that  of  its  successor, 
which  runs  as  follows  : — 


I 


THE    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT      599 

(i.)  The  Association   to  be  called    "The   British    Empire 
League." 

(2.)  It  shall  be  the  primary  object  of  the  League  to  secure 
the  permanent  unity  of  the  Empire. 

(3.)  The  following  to  be  among  the  otlier  principal  objects 
of  the  League  : 

(a)  To  promote  trade  between  the  United  Kingdom, 
the  Colonies  and  India,  and  to  advocate  the  hold- 
ing of  periodical  meetings  of  representatives  from 
all  parts   of    the    Empire    for    the    discussiun    df 
matters  of  general   commercial  interest,  and  the 
consideration  of  the  best  means  of  expanding  the 
national  trade. 
(Ij)  To  consider  how  far  it  may  be  possible  to  modify 
any   laws  or  treaties  which  impede  freedom  of 
action  in  the  making  of  reciprocal  trade  arrange- 
ments  between    the    L^nited    Kingdom    and    the 
Colonies,   or  between   any  two    or    more   Britisli 
Colonies  or  Possessions. 
(c)  To  promote  closer  intercourse  between  the  different 
]iortions  of  the  Empire  by  the  establishment  of 
cheaper  and,  where  required,  more  direct  steam, 
postal  and  telegraphic  communication,  preference 
to  be  given  to  routes  not  traversing  Foreign  Ter- 
ritory. 
(J)  To   develop  the  principles  on  which  all  parts  of 
the  Empire  may  best  share  in  its  general  defence ; 
endeavouring  to  bring  into  harmony  public  opi- 
nion at  Home  and  in  the  Colonies  on  this  subject, 
and  to  devise  a  more  perfect  co-operation  of  the 
Military  and  Naval  forces  of  the  Empire  with  a 
special  view  to  the  due  protection  of  the   trade 
routes, 
(f)  To  assimilate,  as  far  as  local  circumstances  permit, 
the  laws  relating  to  coi)yright,  patents,  legitimacy 
and  bankruptcy,  throughout  the  Empire. 
(4.)  The   League  shall  use  every  constitutional   means   to 
bring  about  the  objects  for  which  it  is  established,  and  shall 
invite  the  support  of  men  of  all   shades   of   political  opinion 
throughout  the  Empire. 


6oo  GENERAL 

(5.)  The  League  shall  advocate  the  establishment  of  peri- 
odical Conferences  to  deal  with  such  questions  as  may  appear 
ripe  for  consideration,  on  the  lines  of  the  London  Conference 
of  1887  and  the  Ottawa  Conference  of  1894. 

In  addition,  every  opportunity  has  been  taken  to 
assert  the  intention  of  the  British  Empire  League  to 
preserve  the  continuity  of  what  may  be  called  the 
"  Rosebery  policy "  of  the  earlier  stages  of  the  move- 
ment. This  has  been  done  not  only  in  its  official  pub- 
lications, but  by  the  mouth  of  its  President,  the  Duke 
of  Devonshire,  who  on  i8th  May  1898,  the  occasion  of 
its  first  annual  meeting,  quoted  the  words  of  Lord 
Rosebery's  speech  of  November  1889,  and  added: 
"  These  sentiments  are  still  the  sentiments  of  the 
British  Empire  League,  and  among  all  the  objects 
which  we  have  set  before  us  to  accomplish  I  say  that 
in  our  opinion  the  most  important,  the  most  produc- 
tive, and  the  most  fruitful  one  is  that  of  promoting  in 
every  way  which  we  can  the  renewal  of  these  periodical 
Conferences." 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  significant  that 
the  Imperial  Federation  League  in  Canada,  which  was 
never  dissolved,  has  formally  constituted  itself  a  branch 
of  the  British  Empire  League,  under  the  title  of  the 
British  Empire  League  in  Canada.  At  the  same  time, 
the  modifications  which  have,  as  appears  above,  been 
introduced  into  its  constitution,  have  enabled  the 
British  Empire  League  to  receive  the  support,  not 
only  of  many  members  of  the  older  league,  but  of  other 
warm  friends  of  Imperial  unity,  who  felt  tactical  or 
other  strong  objections  to  advocating  any  specific  scheme 
of  Imperial  Federation. 

Thus,  whilst  there  was  less  talk  of  Imperial 
Federation  as  such,  nevertheless  the  ideas  which  it 
represented  continued  to  spread  through  every  quarter 
of  the  Empire.      In  Canada,  in  particular,  it  became 


THE    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT     60 1 

more  and  more  the  distinctive  policy  of  successive 
administrations  to  adopt  measures  which,  whilst  their 
immediate  object  was  to  advance  the  prosperity  of  the 
Dominion,  aimed  at  the  same  time  at  drawing  closer 
the  ties  which  bound  the  Colony  to  the  Mother 
Country  and  her  other  daughter  States.  This  twofold 
purpose  has  been  served  by  the  establishment  of  great 
lines  of  railway,  steamship,  and  cable  communication, 
which  have  not  only  contributed  to  the  social  and  com- 
mercial development  of  the  country,  besides  facilitating 
intercourse  with  other  portions  of  the  Empire,  but  are 
available  for  Imperial  purposes  in  time  of  war.  It  was, 
for  example,  almost  exclusively  on  Imperial  grounds 
that  Canada  joined  the  easterly  Australasian  Colonies  in 
urging  upon  the  Imperial  Government  the  construction 
of  the  Pacific  cable ;  and  it  was  her  resolute  persistence 
through  many  years  which  has  at  last  brought  the 
commencement  of  that  great  enterprise  within  actual 
view.  Similarly  it  was  due  to  the  daring  initiative 
of  the  present  Postmaster-General  of  Canada  that  the 
Postal  Conference  was  held  in  1898,  which  resulted  in 
the  adoption  of  penny  postage  through  the  greater 
portion  of  the  Empire — soon,  doubtless,  to  become 
general.  Large  sums  have  also  been  expended  upon 
Canadian  defence,  including  the  maintenance  of  a  force 
of  militia,  whose  recent  feats  of  bravery  in  South 
Africa  have  revealed  to  the  world  the  existence  of 
a  body  of  troops  of  unsuspected  efhciency,  with  which 
the  enemies  of  the  Empire  will  hereafter  be  compelled 
to  reckon.  Nor  is  Canada's  capacity  for  contributing 
to  the  fighting  force  of  the  Empire  limited  to  military 
power  alone.  An  important  scheme  is  under  con- 
sideration for  training  the  hardy  fishermen  of  her 
coasts  for  service  in  the  Royal  Naval  Reserve,  and  this 
is  regarded  by  many  persons  as  a  contribution  of  even 
greater  value  than  a  money  vote  towards  the  cost  of 
the  naval  establishment  would  be. 


6o2  GENERAL 

So  far,  indeed,  as  co-operation  in  naval  defence 
is  concerned,  the  Australasian  Colonies  are  in  advance 
of  the  Dominion.  The  agreement  under  which  they 
contribute  an  annual  sum  towards  the  maintenance 
of  the  Australasian  squadron  is  of  several  years  stand- 
ing, whilst  the  formation  of  an  Australian  Naval 
Reserve  has  lately  been  discussed  by  the  local  com- 
mandants, and  now  stands  over  for  consideration  by 
the -Federal  Government.  As  regards  joint  military 
action,  the  despatch  of  New  South  Wales  troops  in 
1885  foi'  service  in  the  Soudan,  which  it  was  declared 
would  never  be  repeated,  has  been  eclipsed  by  the 
despatch  of  upwards  of  thirteen  thousand  men  from  the 
Australian  Colonies  and  New  Zealand  to  South  Africa, 
where  their  performances  in  the  field,  side  by  side  with 
the  Imperial  troops,  have  evoked  the  warmest  admira- 
tion of  British  generals.  Nor  has  the  spirit  which  led  to 
so  striking  a  demonstration  of  Imperial  unity  exhausted 
itself  by  this  single  effort.  Mr.  Barton,  the  Federal 
Prime  Minister,  shortly  after  entering  office,  took  an 
opportunity  of  stating  that  his  policy  would  be  "  for 
the  Australian  military  forces  to  render  the  Common- 
wealth secure,  and  to  be  ready  to  help  the  motherland 
if  required  " — a  pledge  which  has  been  fulfilled  by  the 
provision  contained  in  the  Defence  Bill  subsequently 
introduced  by  Sir  Jolm  Forrest,  that  the  permanent 
forces  shall  be  liable  for  active  service  anywhere  out- 
side the  Commonwealth  in  case  of  emergency.  And 
this  explicit  avowal  of  a  determination  to  make 
common  cause  with  the  Mother  Country  in  the  defence 
of  the  Empire  has  been  re-echoed  by  leading  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Opposition.  New  Zealand,  moreover, 
not  content  with  furnishing  contingents  more  than 
three  thousand  strong,  has  adopted  an  elaborate  scheme 
of  colonial  defence,  which  provides  {inter  alia)  for  an 
liii])iriul  Reserve  force  of  good  riders  and  shots  for 
Imperial  or  Colonial  service  within  defined  limits,  to  be 


THE    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT     603 

maintained  at  the  joint  cost  of  the  Imperial  and 
Colonial  Governments.  This  portion  of  the  scheme 
was  suggested  for  adoption  by  Australia,  and  the  whole 
has  been  submitted  to  the  Imperial  Government  for 
approval. 

Nor  have  the  South  African  Colonies  fallen  behind 
those  of  Canada  and  Australasia  in  seeking  to  partici- 
pate in  the  defence  of  the  Empire.  During  a  portion 
of  the  recent  conflict  it  was  their  unhappy  lot  to 
furnish  a  battle-ground,  and  by  flocking  to  arms  the 
colonists  recognised  that  for  them  the  war  was  primarily 
one  of  self-defence.  But  Cape  Colony  had  previously 
set  an  entirely  new  precedent  by  voting  an  annual 
grant  of  ;i^3 0,000  towards  the  cost  of  the  navy,  whilst 
Natal  had  made  a  similar  contribution  in  the  form  of 
steam  coal. 

It  was  necessary  to  recite  in  some  detail  the 
remarkable  steps  which  have  thus  l)een  taken  l)y 
the  self-governing  Colonies  in  the  direction  of  naval 
and  military  co-operation,  because  the  course  of  events 
has  confirmed  the  view  consistently  held  by  many 
strong  advocates  of  Imperial  Unity,  that  union  for 
defence  oftered  the  most  hopeful  means  of  introducing 
the  federal  principle  into  the  organisation  of  the 
Empire.  The  war  in  South  Africa,  by  bringing  into 
the  field  an  Imperial  army  for  the  first  time  in  our 
history,  has  undoubtedly  given  to  the  Empire  a  sense 
of  union  and  solidarity  such  as  it  has  not  known 
before,  and  one  which  it  is  generally  felt  must  be 
preserved  and  developed  by  such  measures  as,  without 
detracting  from  colonial  autonomy,  will  introduce  order 
and  system  into  a  state  of  things  where,  at  present, 
these  qualities  are  to  seek.  An  additional  advantage 
of  no  slight  importance  will  accrue  from  the  oppor- 
tunity which  federation  for  defence  will  aflbrd  of 
associating  the  native  Indian  element  with  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  white  races  eompriseil  in  the  Empire. 


6o4  GENERAL 

The  impossibility  of  applying  the  representative  prin- 
ciple to  India  in  connection  with  any  form  of  purely 
political  federation  has  been  a  stumbling-block  to 
many;  but  in  the  formation  of  a  union  for  defence 
this  difficulty  would  be  avoided,  whilst  fitting  recog- 
nition would  be  made  of  the  magnificent  support 
extended  to  the  Imperial  Government  by  the  princes 
of  India  during  the  recent  war.i 

But  although  the  tide  is  setting  strongly  in  the 
direction  of  a  Kriegsverein,  as  the  most  feasible  method 
of  federating  the  Empire  in  the  first  instance,  the 
alternative,  but  not  antagonistic,  scheme  of  a  Zollverein, 
or  Customs  Union,  which  has  a  numerous  body  of 
supporters,  especially  among  the  Imperialists  of  Greater 
Britain,  makes  a  strong  claim  upon  our  attention. 
Many  proposals  have  been  mooted,  of  which  the  best 
known  are  Mr.  Jan  Hofm oyer's  suggestion,  made  at  the 
Colonial  Conference  of  1887,  for  differential  duties 
throughout  the  Empire,  the  proceeds  of  which  were  to 
be  devoted  to  Imperial  defence ;  and  that  adumbrated, 
although  not  personally  advocated,  by  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain in  1896,  and  referred  to  by  him  in  a  recent 
debate  in  Parliament,  when  he  declared,  not  for  the 
first  time,  that  no  kind  of  fiscal  arrangement  with  the 
Colonies  would  be  viewed  with  the  slightest  favour  in 
this  country  which  did  not  provide  for  Free-Trade 
within  the  whole  Empire.  Inasmuch  as  this  sug- 
gestion is  the  only  official,  or  quasi-official,  overture 
on  the  subject  addressed  by   any   responsible   British 

'  The  following  very  satisfactory  announcement  lias  recently  been 
made  :  "  The  assent  of  the  King-Emperor  has  been  received  to  a 
scheme  submitted  to  His  Majesty's  Government  by  the  Viceroy,  with 
the  unanimous  support  of  the  Council,  for  the  provision  of  military 
employment  and  rank  for  a  limited  number  of  cadets  of  the  princely 
or  aristocratic  families  of  India.  .  .  .  The  scheme  has  been  honoured 
with  the  cordial  approval  of  the  King-Emperor,  who  has  desired  it  to 
be  made  known  tliat  he  has  welcomed  the  ojjportwuity  of  testifying 
his  confidence  in  the  loyalty  of  his  Indian  feudatories  and  subjects  in 
the  opening  year  of  his  reign." 


THK    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT     605 

statesman  to  the  Colonies,  and  since  it  has  been  dis- 
torted, both  in  this  country  and  in  Canada,  for  poHtical 
purposes,  it  is  of  importance  to  state  precisely  what 
attitude  has  been  adopted  with  regard  to  it  by  promi- 
nent politicians.  The  statement  frequently  made  in 
the  English  press,  that  Sir  Charles  Tupper  had 
'■  adopted  Mr.  Chamberlain's  Zollverein,"  is  a  palpable 
perversion  of  the  truth.  For  although  Sir  Charles 
and  other  Conservative  speakers,  when  addressing 
Canadian  audiences,  have  sought  to  identify  them- 
selves with  Mr.  Chamberlain,  it  is  quite  certain  that 
they  have  never  at  any  time  assented  to  the  essential 
conditions  laid  down  by  the  latter,  but  have  confined 
themselves  to  offering  a  reduction  of  customs  duties 
in  return  for  a  preference  in  the  British  market.  It 
was  on  this  platform  that  they  appealed  to  the  con- 
stituencies in  November  1900,  when  they  met  with 
an  overwhelming  defeat.  On  the  other  hand,  Sir 
Wilfrid  Laurier — who,  after  inducing  the  Imperial 
Government  to  denounce  the  treaties  with  Belgium 
and  the  Zollverein  containing  the  "  most  favoured 
nation "  clause,  which  precluded  the  Colonies  from 
giving  better  terms  in  their  markets  to  the  United 
Kingdom  than  to  foreign  nations  coming  under  the 
clause  in  question,  has  made  use  of  his  newly  acquired 
freedom  to  grant  a  British  preference  without  asking 
for  any  return — has  expressed  his  approval,  in  principle, 
of  Mr.  Chamberlain's  so-called  proposal,  which  he 
hopes  may  at  some  future  date  come  into  operation ; 
but  at  the  same  time  declares  it  to  be  outside  the 
range  of  practical  politics,  both  in  view  of  the  great 
disparity  between  the  volumes  of  Britain's  colonial  and 
foreign  trade,  and  also  because  Canada  is  unable  to 
dispense  with  the  revenue  at  present  derived  from 
the  customs  duties  Avhich  it  is  suggested  should  be 
abandoned.  So  much  for  Canada;  but  neither  has 
the  suggestion  of  a   Zollverein,   on  this   only   admis- 


6o6  GENERAL 

sible  basis,  met  with  encouragement  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  It  was  denounced  at  Manchester  on 
1st  November  1897  by  the  former  leader  of  the 
Imperial  Federation  movement,  Lord  Rosebery,  in 
a  speech  which  was  regarded  as  having  administered 
the  coup  de  grdce ;  whilst  the  Duke  of  Devonshire, 
some  remarks  of  whose,  at  Liverpool  in  June  of  the 
same  year,  on  the  need  of  colonial  expansion  as  a 
means  of  providing  new  markets,  have  been  ingeni- 
ously misrepresented  as  an  invitation  to  some  of  the 
colonial  Premiers  who  were  present  to  discuss  pro- 
posals for  a  mutual  preference,  has  publicly  repudiated 
any  such  construction  of  his  meaning.  On  the  other 
hand,  no  politician  of  eminence  has  spoken  in  a 
contrary  sense. 

Such  being  the  reception  which  the  suggested 
Zollverein  has  encountered  in  the  two  countries 
where  alone  it  has  been  seriously  discussed,  it  Avould 
be  an  act  of  supererogation  to  overload  the  pages 
of  the  present  article  with  a  statement  of  the  argu- 
ments advanced  on  either  side  of  the  question. 
Whilst  it  would  be  rash  to  predict  what  response  this 
country  might  make  beneath  the  influence  of  the 
wave  of  feeling  which  would  inevitably  be  aroused 
by  a  united  offer  on  the  part  of  the  self-governing 
Colonies  to  abandon  all  import  duties  on  British 
goods  in  return  for  a  preference  in  the  home  market, 
the  contingency  appears  to  be  so  remote  that  for 
years  to  come  the  question  of  the  commercial  federa- 
tion of  the  Empire,  except  on  such  lines  as  have 
already  been  initiated  by  the  present  Government 
of  Canada,  and  which  in  all  probability  will  shortly 
be  followed  by  the  Governments  of  the  other  self- 
governing  Colonies,  is  unlikely  to  emerge  from  the 
region   of  academic  discussion. 

To   (juit    tliis    digression,    although    no    foriiial    an- 
Mounccinciit  of  tlicir  intentions  has  been  made  by  the 


THE    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT     607 

Imperial  Government,  it  is  a  safe  assumption  that  at 
no  distant  date  steps  will  be  taken  to  submit  to  the 
self-governing  Colonies  proposals  for  establishing  some 
form  of  systematic  co-operation  between  the  forces  of 
the  various  portions  of  the  Empire.  To  this  end,  it  will 
become  necessary  to  convene  a  Conference  of  Imperial 
and  Colonial  representatives — a  course  which  has  al- 
ready been  urged  upon  the  Government  by  the  British 
Empire  League  in  Canada,  as  well  as  in  this  country,  and 
which  there  is  good  reason  for  believing  will  actually  be 
taken  on  the  occasion  of  the  King's  coronation— and 
the  proposal  is  suggestive  in  the  highest  degree.  If  the 
history  of  the  important  steps  towards  the  consolidation 
of  the  Empire,  which,  as  mentioned  in  previous  pages, 
have  already  been  taken,  are  carefully  reviewed,  it  will 
be  found  that  nearly  the  whole  of  them  either  sprang 
direct  from  the  Colonial  Conferences  of  1887  and 
1897,  or  were  instigated  by  those  gatherings.  So 
sensible  indeed  were  the  Colonial  Premiers  in  1897  of 
the  beneficial  effect  of  the  meetings  held  in  that  year 
at  the  Colonial  Office,  to  which  some  of  them  had 
originally  come  with  avowed  misgivings,  that,  although 
they  passed  by  a  large  majority  (Mr.  Seddon  of  New 
Zealand  and  Sir  Edward  Braddon  of  Tasmania  alone 
dissenting)  a  resolution  to  the  effect  that  "  the  Prime 
Ministers  here  assembled  are  of  opinion  that  the 
present  political  relations  between  the  United  Kingdom 
and  the  self-governing  Colonies  are  generally  satis- 
factory under  the  existing  condition  of  things,"  they 
nevertheless  added  that  "  meanwhile,  the  Premiers  are 
of  opinion  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  hold  periodical 
Conferences  of  representatives  of  the  Colonies  and 
Great  Britain,  for  the  discussion  of  matters  of  common 
interest." 

Care  must  be  taken  to  apprehend  the  precise  bear- 
ing of  these  resolutions.  The  Premiers  did  not 
negative  a  proposal  in  favour  of  Imperial  Federation : 


6o8  GENERAL 

they  merely  adopted  by  a  majority  what  was  in  effect 
the  previous  question.  At  the  same  time,  they  gave 
their  unanimous  assent  to  a  proposal  which  opened  the 
door  to  Imperial  Federation  in  the  future.  This  was 
the  view  taken  of  their  action  by  Mr.  Seddon,  who  saw 
in  it  the  first  beginnings  of  an  Advisory  Council,  which 
he  has  never  ceased  to  advocate,  whilst  Sir  Wilfrid 
Laurier,  who  at  the  Conference  voted  against  any 
immediate  scheme  of  Federation,  shortly  afterwards 
predicted  that  he  would  live  to  see  the  Colonies  repre- 
sented at  Westminster.  More  recently  he  has  declared 
in  reply  to  Canadian  criticism  upon  the  constitutional 
aspects  of  the  despatch  of  contingents  to  South  Africa, 
that  Canada,  under  existing  political  conditions,  re- 
mains entirely  unpledged  as  to  future  action ;  but  that, 
if  Great  Britain  would  have  it  otherwise,  she  must 
"  call  us  to  her  Councils."  Mr.  Seddon's  specific  pro- 
posal of  an  Advisory  Council  has  been  favourably 
received  in  Canada,  and — most  significant  of  all — the 
leading  organs  of  the  Australian  press,  which  have 
hitherto  been  very  shy  of  Imperial  Federation  in  any 
shape  or  form,  have  begun  to  use  the  language  of 
approval.  "  It  is  impossible  for  the  Colonies,"  writes 
the  Sydney  Daily  Telegraph,  for  example,  "  after  the 
attitude  which  they  have  just  assumed  in  Imperial 
affairs,  to  remain  content  with  their  present  voiceless 
position  in  regard  to  them."  And  such  expressions 
of  opinion  could  be  multiplied  without  difficulty.^ 

In  short,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that,  whilst 
representation  in  the  Imperial  Parliament  is  not 
desired  by  the  Colonies,  for  reasons  wliich  were 
stated  by  Sir  Charles  Tuppcr  during  the  recent 
electoral  campaign  in  Canada,  without  any  substantial 

'  A  remarkable  article  in  advocacy  of  an  Advisory  Council  by  the 
Hon.  Isaac  A.  Isaacs,  K.C.,  tlien  Attorney-General  for  Victoria,  and 
now  a  leading  member  of  the  Federal  House  of  Representatives, 
appeared  in  the  Melbourne  Ar/r  of  14th  January  1901,  and  was  reprinted 
in  the  British  Empire  Review  for  the  following  April. 


THE    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT     609 

dissent  on  the  part  of  his  opponents,  and  in  almost 
identical  terms  by  Mr.  Chamberlain  during  a  debate  in 
the  House  of  Commons  upon  a  motion  by  Mr.  Hedder- 
wick,  there  is  a  strong  feeling  in  favour  of  some 
clear  and  recognised  arrangement  under  which  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Colonies  should  enjoy  the  right  of 
consultation  with  Her  Majesty's  ministers  upon  matters 
of  Imperial  concern  by  which  their  interests  are  likely 
to  be  affected.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  article  to 
propound  any  specific  scheme  ;  but  whatever  plan  may 
be  adopted  can  scarcely  fail  to  embody  the  principles 
laid  down  by  Mr.  Forster  in  1885,  and  as  a  practical 
proposal  offering  a  starting-point  towards  the  goal  of 
National  Unity,  the  establishment  of  periodical  Con- 
ferences of  the  Empire,  as  advocated  by  the  Presidents 
of  the  Imperial  Federation  League  and  the  British 
Empire  League  in  succession,  and  formally  endorsed  by 
the  Premiers  of  the  self-governing  Colonies  in  Confer- 
ence, still  holds  the  field.  Indeed,  the  vindication  of 
Lord  Rosebcry's  prescience  and  sagacity  by  subsequent 
events  is  one  of  the  most  notable  incidents  of  modern 
political  history. 

Brief  allusion  may  be  made  here  to  one  aspect  of 
the  plan  of  proceeding  by  means  of  periodical  con- 
ferences to  an  Advisory  or  Consultative  Council,  which 
constitutes  a  strong  recommendation.  By  this  means 
the  necessity  of  determining  the  vexed  question  of  the 
channel  by  which  colonial  contributions  to  Imperial 
defence  are  to  be  made,  would  not  arise  at  the  outset. 
Hitherto  this  has  formed  a  serious  stumbling-block, 
owing  to  the  disposition  of  a  certain  school  of  federa- 
tionists  to  regard  it  as  an  indispensable  preliminary  to 
the  admission  of  colonial  representatives  to  any  council 
of  the  Empire,  whilst  public  opinion  in  the  Colonies 
has  been  stubbornly  opposed  to  the  acceptance  of 
obligations  which  would  be  imposed  by  any  other  body 
than  their  oAvn  legislatures.  That  this  state  of  feeling, 
V  2  Q 


6io  GENERAL 

which  has  been  the  mark  for  much  ungenerous  and  mis- 
chievous comment,  was  not  inspired  by  any  lack  of  loyalty 
or  by  any  disposition  to  evade  responsibility,  has  been 
conclusively  sho^vn  by  the  sacrifices  voluntarily  made 
by  the  self-governing  Colonies  during  the  South  African 
war.  But  the  dislike  to  the  creation  of  what  is  termed 
"  a  cash  nexus  " — except  in  the  single  instance  of  the 
naval  contribution  made  by  Cape  Colony,  which  has 
been  adversely  criticised  in  Canada  and  Australia — is 
deep-rooted,  and  requires  to  be  handled  with  tact, 
patience,  and  consideration.  If,  however,  an  immediate 
decision  be  waived,  it  should  not  greatly  tax  the 
resources  of  statesmanship  to  devise  some  compromise 
that  will  be  mutually  satisfactory ;  and  in  that  case  it 
is  more  than  probable  that  the  difficulty  will  eventually 
find  its  own  solution  through  a  gradual  process  of  har- 
monious co-operation  for  common  ends. 

What  then  is  the  inevitable  conclusion  ?  The  rapid 
progress  already  made  by  the  movement  towards 
National  or  Imperial  Unity  has  clearly  shown  the 
futility  of  seeking  to  restrict  its  development  by 
definitions  or  to  confine  its  activity  within  the  limits 
of  a  stereotyped  formula.  Writers  of  learning  and 
ability  have  been  at  great  pains  to  show  that  no  such 
union  of  communities  as  would  be  comprised  in  a 
federation  of  the  British  Empire  has  been  seen  since 
the  world  began,  and  they  have  argued  accordingly 
that  it  could  only  terminate  in  a  catastrophe.  Let 
their  premises  be  conceded  ;  it  is  none  the  less  evident 
that  their  conclusion  is  wrong,  and  has  been  reached 
by  a  process  of  hasty  and  ill-considered  generalisation. 
It  is  an  easy  matter  to  cite  every  type  of  federation 
known  to  history,  and  then  to  demonstrate  how  widely 
the  conditions  of  each  differ  from  those  of  the  British 
Empire.  Critics  of  this  order  appear  to  lose  sight 
of  that  distinctive  characteristic  which  Dr.  Parkin 
so  well  described   when  he  wrote  that   "  the   glory  of 


THE    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT     6ii 

the  British  political  system  is  often  said  to  lie  in  the 
fact  that  it  is  a  growth  ;  that  it  has  adapted  itself,  and 
is  capable  of  continuous  adaptation,  to  the  necessities 
of  national  development."  If  there  is  no  precedent 
for  such  a  political  union  of  a  Mother  Country  with 
her  Daughter  States  as  it  is  proposed  to  establish,  the 
genius  of  the  race  will  at  the  right  time  be  found 
ready  and  competent  to  create  one.  All  the  elaborate 
armoury  of  reasoning  which  has  been  furbished  up  in 
order  to  prove  that  the  conditions  of  a  federation  are 
incapable  of  adaptation  to  the  present  case  may  be 
seen  to  be  little  better  than  an  incentive  to  a  logo- 
machy, or  war  about  phrases,  if  the  word  "  Federation  " 
be  dropped,  and  "  Confederation  "  be  used  in  its  place. 
The  distinction  is  a  very  real  one.  "  Federation  "  is 
the  term  which  accurately  describes  the  centralised 
form  of  government  which  has  lately  been  established 
in  Australia :  but  "  Confederation "  would  denote  a 
much  looser  and  more  elastic  form  of  union — one 
rather  in  the  nature  of  an  alliance  of  independent  or 
quasi-independent  States,  over  which  the  control  of 
the  central  authority  would  be  exercised  as  rarely  as 
pos.sible,  and  then  for  Imperial  purposes  alone.  An 
exact  analogy  doubtless  does  not  exist ;  but  that  is  of 
the  less  moment,  since  none  is  required. 

As  we  stand  in  the  first  year  of  the  Twentieth 
Century  and  contemplate  the  immense  flood  of  national 
feeling  which  has  been  the  unforeseen  emanation  of 
the  lamentable  conflict  still  raging  in  portions  of  South 
Africa,  it  is  profitable  to  reflect  how  far  we  have 
travelled  since  the  beginning  of  the  decade  which  saw 
the  inauguration  of  the  Imperial  Federation  movement 
by  Mr.  Forster,  its  adoption  by  Lord  Rosebery,  and  its 
gradual  merge  in  a  movement  of  even  wider  scope. 
In  the  face  ol'  apathy,  ridicule,  and  malicious  misrepre- 
sentation, but  uided  by  the  zealous  co-operation  of 
many  fellow  workers,  including  such   men  as  the  late 


6i2  GENERAL 

Sir  John  A.  Macdonald,  the  late  D'Alton  McCarthy, 
Q.C.,  M.P.,  and  Colonel  George  T.  Denison,  in  Canada, 
these  eminent  statesmen  effected  a  virtual  transforma- 
tion of  national  sentiment  throughout  the  Empire  ; 
and  despite  the  untoward  events  of  1893,  the  sacred 
flame  was  passed  forward  undiminished  into  the  keep- 
ing of  other  but,  as  has  been  shown,  not  less  loyal 
hands.  As  for  the  statesman  who  now  presides  over 
the  Colonial  Office,  it  is  true  that  he  bore  no  part  in 
the  earlier  period  of  propagandism  and  illumination. 
But  during  the  last  lustrum  he  has  performed  with 
skill  and  success  the  task  of  focussing  and  stimulating 
the  new  forces  which  had  sprung  into  life,  and  to-day 
he  is  placed  by  the  accidents  of  political  fortune  in  the 
possession  of  an  opportunity  to  improve  or  mar  such 
as  was  vouchsafed  to  none  of  his  predecessors.  What 
will  he  do  with  it  ? 

Speaking  at  the  Dominion  Day  banquet  on  ist 
July  1 90 1,  Mr.  Chamberlain  expressly  referred  to  the 
movement  for  closer  union,  and  observed :  '■  The 
movement  is  one  which  must  come  from  the  Colonies, 
and  must  not -be  unduly  pressed  upon  them  by  us. 
But  if  they  desire  this  closer  connection  ;  if  they  are 
willing  to  assist  us,  not  merely  with  their  arms  but  also 
with  their  counsel  and  their  advice,  I  believe  that 
there  is  nothing  that  the  people  of  this  country  will 
more  readily  welcome.  No  man  can  foresee  the 
future  ;  but  it  is  possible  that  in  the  time  to  come 
those  who  now  help  us  may  need  our  help ;  and  if 
that  period  does  arrive,  unless  I  mistake  the  temper 
and  the  spirit  of  my  countr3Mnen,  tliat  help  will  be 
given  in  no  grudging  spirit  and  no  stinted  measure." 

This  important  utterance  lias  given  rise  to  much 
discussion,  in  which  Canadians  have  not  unnaturally 
taken  a  fjrcuiost  part,  and  Mr.  Chamberlain  has  been 
sharply  criticised  by  some  of  the  younger  spirits  for  his 
attempt  to  impose  the  rosponsiliility  of  initiating  pro- 


THE    IMPERIAL    UNITY    MOVEMENT     613 

posals  upon  the  Colonies.  It  is  noteworthy,  however, 
that  the  older  men  occupying  responsible  positions,  in- 
cluding, for  instance,  such  different  types  as  the  Hon. 
David  Mills,  K.C.,  Dominion  Minister  of  Justice,  and 
the  Hon.  Georofe  W.  Ross,  Premier  of  Ontario,  both  of 
whom  are  prominent  among  Canadian  Imperialists, 
concur  in  thinking  that  the  time  for  the  creation  of 
a  permanent  Imperial  constitution  has  not  yet  come, 
and  so  far  have  justified  the  caution  of  the  Colonial 
Secretary.  At  the  same  time,  it  may  be  confidently 
assumed  that  the  gathering  of  Colonial  Prime  Ministers 
in  London  in  the  summer  of  1902  will  not  terminate 
without  a  serious  effort  being  made  to  bring  the  prob- 
lem nearer  to  solution,  and  meanwhile  much  can 
undoubtedly  be  done  to  assist  the  cause  by  frank  and 
ample  discussion  of  its  conditions. 


APPENDIX 

DUTIES    OF    EMPIRE 

Note  to  page  583. 

The  discrepancies  indicated  above  have  been  remedied,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  by  the  action  of  the  respective  local  Legis- 
latures in  adopting  or  imitating  improvements  made  in  English 
Statute  Law  from  time  to  time.  In  some  of  the  British 
Dominions  certain  important  English  Statutes  have  been  made 
to  apply  in  their  entirety.  In  others  their  provisions  have  been 
embodied  in  local  laws.  And  in  others  again  it  has  been 
enacted  that  all  disputes  on  such  and  such  matters  arising  for 
determination  there,  shall  be  decided  according  to  the  law  in 
force  in  England  for  the  time  being,  and  all  the  Statutes 
applicable  to  those  disputes  are  thus  imported  at  one  stroke. 
By  these  several  means  the  provisions  of  the  English  Statutes 
consolidating  and  codifying  branches  of  English  Law  [e.g.  those 
relating  to  Arbitration,  Bankruptcy,  Bills  of  Exchange,  Partner- 
ship, and  Sale  of  Goods)  have  come  to  be  more  or  less  generally 
in  force  throughout  the  P^mpire. 

Statute  Law  in  tlie  British  Dominions  seems,  on  the  whole, 
to  be  in  a  more  satisfactory  state  than  it  is  in  the  Mother 
Country.  The  legislative  machinery  works  more  rapidly  and 
smoothly,  and,  in  addition  to  adopting  the  codifying  statutes 
passed  in  England,  a  good  deal  of  progress  has  been  made 
locally  in  the  direction  of  independent  codification.  India  has 
long  had  its  Codes  of  Civil  and  Criminal  Procedure,  and  its 
Penal  Code,  and  many  of  the  Colonies  are  in  the  same  position ; 
whilst  other  branches  of  law  also  have  been  codified  in  different 
places.  At  the  same  time,  the  facility  with  which  Indian  and 
Colonial  laws  are  passed,  and  the  varied  and  peculiar  conditions 
prevalent  in  the  British  Dominions,  have  led  to  much  legisla- 
tion that  is  quite  unprecedented  in  England.    Many  curious  and 

615 


6i6  APPENDIX 

instructive  experiments  in  legislation  are  thus  being  tried  ;  and 
in  this  way  even  more  marked  points  of  divergence  between  the 
laws  of  different  portions  of  the  Empire  are  created  than  those 
which  are  due  to  difference  in  origin  or  in  date  of  settlement. 
Of  these  points  of  divergence  the  one  which  has  perhaps  re- 
ceived most  attention  of  recent  years  relates  to  marriage  with  a 
deceased  wife's  sister,  but  it  is  by  no  means  the  most  important 
or  significant.  Putting  other  considerations  aside  and  looking 
at  the  matter  merely  in  its  legal  aspect,  it  comes  to  this,  as 
Lord  Davey  recently  pointed  out  (Journal  of  Comparative 
Legislation,  1900,  p.  201),  that  a  marriage  of  this  description 
between  persons  domiciled  in  a  Colony  where  it  is  legal  is 
recognised  in  England  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  wife 
holds  an  unassailable  position,  and  the  children  are  legitimate. 
All  personal  property  of  the  husband  and  father  passes  to  them 
on  his  death  in  the  usual  way.  The  i>nly  difficulty  that  arises 
is  with  regard  to  titles  of  honour  and  real  property  in  England, 
for  it  is  said  that  these  do  not  descend  to  the  children  of  such 
a  marriage,  and  that  the  widow  cannot  claim  dower  out  of  the 
real  estate  in  this  country  ;  but  the  real  estate  can,  of  course, 
be  left  to  them  by  will. 

A  few   examples   of   recent   Colonial   legislation,   taken   at 
haphazard,  may  be  interesting  : — 

In  Victoria  and  South  Australia,  the  attachment  of  work- 
men's wages  is  prohibited.  In  Western  Australia,  workmen's 
wages  are  a  first  charge  on  money  due  to  the  contractor  who 
employs  them  ;  while  workmen  in  Manitoba  have  a  lien  for 
their  wages  on  the  work  they  are  engaged  upon.  Cultivators 
of  the  soil  in  Tasmania  can  obtain  loans  from  tlie  Government 
on  easy  terms.  In  South  Australia,  chihlren  born  out  of  wed- 
lock are  legitimated  by  the  subsequent  marriage  of  their  parents. 
In  Ceylon,  Government  servants  drawing  less  than  a  certain 
salary  are  absolutely  protected  against  all  actions  for  money 
lent,  or  for  money  due  on  promissory  notes,  &c.  In  New 
Zealand,  women  may  be  enrolled  as  barristers  and  solicitors. 
In  several  Colonies,  perjury  may  be  summarily  punished  as 
contempt  of  Court ;  and  various  Colonies  have  stringent  laws 
against  pauper  and  criminal  immigrants. 

The  more  we  study  the  fascinating  subject,  of  which  only 
a   rough  and  im])erfect  outline  could  be  attempted  here,  the 


APPENDIX  617 

more  clearly  do  we  see  how  the  vitality,  vigour,  and  variety  of 
the  British  Empire  are  mirrored  in  its  legislation ;  and  how 
that  legislation  (though  often  faulty)  is  always  inspired  by  a 
noble  spirit  of  liberty,  and  is  everywhere  honestly  intended  to 
give  effect  to  the  maxim  "  Saliis  populi  sicprema  lex." 


Isle  of  Man.  The  early  history  of  the  Isle  of  Man  has  been 
associated  with  all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom.  As  early  as 
517,  the  nephew  of  King  Arthur,  Maelgwyn,  King  of  North 
Wales,  expelled  the  Scots  and  annexed  the  island  to  "Wales ; 
it  was  later  rescued  for  Scotland.  In  630,  Edwin,  King  of 
Northumbria,  conquered  it;  then  came  the  "Welsh  again  ;  later, 
in  the  ninth  century,  a  body  of  malcontents  from  Norway 
settled  in  the  western  isles  of  Scotland,  and  their  prosperity 
drew  upon  them  the  anger  of  their  king,  Harold  Harfagra, 
who,  in  870,  sent  a  great  expedition,  conquered  the  Orkney 
and  the  Shetland,  the  "Western  Isles,  and  Man,  and  for  three 
centuries  the  Norwegian  rule  remained  intact.  In  1266, 
Magnus  VI.  of  Norway  ceded  Man  to  Alexander  III.  of 
Scotland,  and  upon  the  subjugation  of  the  island  in  1270 
Alexander,  in  token  of  his  conquest,  substituted  for  the  "ships 
in  full  sail"  the  "three  legs"  for  the  national  emblem. 
Upon  his  accession  Henry  IV.  seized  the  Isle  of  Man, 
and  in  1406  bestowed  it  on  the  Stanley  family.  The 
second  Earl  of  Derby  relinquished  the  title  of  King  of  Man,  as 
he  preferred  "being  a  great  lord  to  being  a  petty  king."  In 
1703,  James,  the  loth  earl,  conferred  on  his  Manx  subjects 
the  act  of  settlement  (the  Manx  Magna  Charta),  by  which 
lessees  of  estates  were  finally  established  in  their  possession. 
He  died  in  1736  without  male  issue,  and  the  sovereignty  of 
the  island  went  to  James,  Duke  of  AthoU,  on  whose  death  the 
island  descended  to  his  daughter  Charlotte,  from  whom,  in 
1765,  Parliament  purchased  the  sovereignty  for  ^^70,000,  and 
in  1827,  for  the  sum  of  _;^4 17,147,  all  the  remaining  interests 
in  the  island. 

The  Isle  of  Man  is  not  bound  by  Acts  of  Parliament,  unless 
specially  mentioned.  It  is  governed  by  an  independent  legis- 
lature called  the  Tynwald,  consisting  of  a  Governor  and  Council 


6i8  APPENDIX 

(composed  of  bishop,  attorney-general,  and  two  deemsters  or 
judges,  clerk  of  the  rolls,  water-bailiff,  archdeacon,  and  vicar- 
general)  and  the  House  of  Keys.  There  are  twenty- four  Keys 
or  representatives  elected  for  seven  years  by  the  six  steadings 
or  local  subdivisions  and  the  four  municipalities,  by  household 
suffrage,  including  women  voters.  Bills,  after  having  passed 
both  Houses,  are  signed  by  a  legal  quorum  of  each  House  and 
then  sent  up  for  the  Royal  Assent.  After  receiving  the  Royal 
Assent,  it  does  not  become  law  until  promulgated  in  the 
English  and  Manx  languages  on  Tynwald  Hill.  On  the 
promulgation  taking  place  a  certificate  thereof  is  signed  by  the 
Governor  and  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Keys.  The  island 
has  its  own  laws  and  two  supreme  judges,  called  deemsters. 
Common  law  courts  are  held  in  the  six  steadings,  and  appeals 
may  be  made  from  their  decision,  successively  to  the  House  of 
Keys,  the  Governor,  and  the  Sovereign  or  Council. 

The  Channel  Islands.  In  933  these  islands  were  made 
over  by  Rodolph  of  Brittany  to  William  of  Normandy,  the  son 
of  Rollo.  It  is  now  the  only  portion  of  the  Dukedom  of  Nor- 
mandy belonging  to  England  ;  or,  to  put  it  from  the  native 
point  of  view,  the  Channel  Islands,  as  representing  the  Duke- 
dom of  Normandy,  annexed  England  in  1066.  After  the 
Norman  Conquest  its  allegiance  alternated  between  the  English 
crown  and  Norman  coronet;  but  in  the  reign  of  John  the 
future  of  the  islands  was  decided  by  their  attachment  to  the 
English  crown,  in  spite  of  the  separation  of  the  Duchy  of 
Normandy.  In  1343  there  was  a  descent  of  the  French  on 
Guernsey,  and  the  governor  was  beaten  and  Castle  Cornet 
besieged.  In  1380,  Pius  IV.  issued  a  bull  of  anathema  against 
all  who  molested  the  island.  It  was  formerly  registered  as  in 
Brittany  in  1384,  and  in  France  in  1386.  It  thus  acquired 
the  right  of  neutrality,  which  it  retained  till  1689.  In  the 
Civil  War  Jersey  stood  for  Charles,  and  Guernsey  for  the 
Commons;  the  former  maintained  its  loyalty  till  1651.  In 
1767,  an  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  introduce  the 
En^disll  custom  -  house  system.  The  Channel  Islands  are 
administered  according  to  their  own  laws  and  customs,  each  by 
a  Lieutenant-Governor  with  judicial  and  other  functionaries, 
and  a  States  Assembly,  mainly  elective. 

The  hospitable  shores  of   the  Channel   Islands   have  over 


APPENDIX  619 

and  over  again  been  sought  by  fugitives,  as  a  haven  of  safety, 
from  Poland,  Hungary,  France,  in  1830,  1848,  1851,  and  by 
the  Communists  in  187 1,  and  other  places. 

Seaweed  cutting  takes  place  twice  a  year.  That  which  is 
cut  in  February  is  used  for  manure,  and  that  cut  in  June  for 
fuel.  In  the  summer  cutting',  the  first  month  is  restricted  to 
the  poor  alone,  or  those  who  have  no  cattle. 

In  Jersey  the  legislative  body  consists  of  the  States,  where 
all  legislation  is  first  initiated,  adoj)ted,  and  transmitted  to  the 
King  in  Council. 

There  are  fifty-five  members  of  the  States,  twelve  of  whom 
are  jurats  (who  act  as  magistrates  in  the  Royal  Courts),  twelve 
rectors,  twelve  constables,  and  fourteen  deputies — one  for  each 
of  the  eleven  country  parishes  and  three  for  St.  Helier — and 
five  crown  offices.  The  Royal  Court  is  the  judicial  body,  and 
composed  of  twelve  jurats  or  judges  elected  by  the  people  by 
ballot.  It  is  divided  into  two  tribunals,  "  Le  Nombre  In- 
f^rieur,"  composed  of  bailift",  who  presides,  and  two  jurats  ; 
and  the  Court  of  Appeal,  or  "  Le  Nombre  Sup^rieur "  or 
"Corps  de  Cour,"  consisting  of  seven  jurats,  presided  over 
by  the  bailifi".  An  appeal  to  the  King  in  Council  is  the 
dernier  ressort. 

There  are  in  St.  Helier  six  Centerners  (lion,  police)  holding 
office  for  three  years.  The  county  parish  also  elects  two  Cen- 
terners, and  the  district  (or  Vingtaines  of  the  parishes)  elect 
constables'  officers  (hon.  police  inferior  to  the  Centerners)  and 
Vingterners  for  the  same  period.  The  constables'  officers  and 
Vingterners  are  only  elected  by  ballot  when  the  vote  is 
demanded. 

In  Guernsey  the  States  is  composed  of  the  bailiff  or  chief- 
justice  (president),  twelve  jurats,  ten  rectors,  two  law-officers, 
fifteen  delegates  appointed  by  the  Parish  Douzaines  or  Councils, 
and  nine  deputies  elected  by  all  the  ratepayers  of  the  island. 
The  Royal  Court  is  composed  of  the  bailiff  and  twelve  jurats, 
who  act  as  judges  and  jury  in  criminal  and  civil  affairs.  There 
is  appeal  in  civil  cases  from  a  section  of  the  Court,  or  "  Cour 
Ordinaire,"  to  the  Full  Court,  so  that  the  jurats  who  have 
already  decided  on  a  case  sit  in  appeal  upon  it.  The  final 
appeal  is  to  the  Privy  Council. 

Herm  and  Jethou  are  considered  as  parts  of  Guernisey,  and 


620  APPENDIX 

offences  are  tried  in  that  island.  Herm  is  held  under  the 
Crown  by  Prince  Bliicher  von  Wahlstadt,  and  Jethou  is  held 
under  the  Crown  by  Henry  Austin  Lee,  C.B. 

In  Sark. — The  Court  of  Sark  consists  of  the  Seneschal 
or  Judge,  whose  right  of  punishment  is  limited  to  a  fine  of 
three  livres  tournois  (4s.  id.),  or  three  days'  imprisonment, 
More  severe  cases  are  sent  to  Guernsey.  Sark  is  one  of  the 
smallest  States  of  Europe  with  a  separate  legislature,  and  the 
only  one  of  the  small  feudal  territories  or  half  sovereign  which 
remain  unimpaired. 

The  Court  of  Alderney  is  altogether  subordinate  to  that 
of  Guernsey,  but  it  has  a  Court  composed  of  President,  called 
the  judge,  two  crown  officers,  the  procureur,  and  the  controle, 
whose  office  is  perennially  vacant ;  the  greffier  or  registrar,  the 
pre  vote  or  sheriff,  and  the  sargeant.  The  jurisdiction  is  con- 
fined to  ofiences  punished  by  a  month's  imprisonment,  or  a 
fine  of  not  more  than  5  s.  3d.  More  serious  cases  are  dealt 
with  in  Guernsey. 

French  is  the  official  language  of  the  local  legislative  States 
and  of  the  Royal  Court,  but  the  old  Norman  dialect  is  still 
spoken  by  the  people.  The  islands  are  exempt  from  Imperial 
taxation.  Laws  passed  by  the  States  are  subject  to  the  control 
of  the  Privy  Council,  the  islands  not  being  responsible  to  the 
Colonial  Office.  The  two  Lieutenant-Governors  are  appointed 
by  the  Crown,  who  have  a  deliberative  voice  in  the  Assembly 
and  Royal  Courts,  but  no  vote.  The  Lieutenant-Governor  in 
Jersey  has  no  voice  in  the  Royal  Court  although  he  has  in  the 
States.  He  sits  as  a  member  of  the  Licensing  Assembly,  where 
he  has  a  vote.  The  bailiffs,  the  rectors,  and  the  law-officer  are 
also  appointed  by  the  Crown.  The  jurats  in  Jersey  are  elected 
Ijy  the  ratepayers  for  life ;  the  constables  or  mayors  are  chosen 
from  the  different  parishes  by  the  same  electors ;  the  office  is 
held  for  three  years.  In  Guernsey  the  election  is  vested  in 
the  States  of  Election,  consisting  of  bailiff,  jurats,  ten  rectors, 
and  douzeniers,  and  the  nine  deputies.  The  douzeniers  are 
a  sort  of  parochial  council,  consisting  of  twelve  or  more  men 
elected  by  the  ratepayers.  In  early  time  tlie  government 
of  the  islands  was  committed  to  one  person,  the  ballivers 
or  bailiff.  Military  service  is  compulsory,  and  the  militia 
is  under  tlie  Lieutenant-Governors.     The  laws  are  founded  on 


APPENDIX  621 

those  of  the  Duchy  of  Normandy.  The  two  political  parties 
are  the  Laurel  and  the  Rose. 

Gibraltar  remained  under  the  Moor  until  the  fifteenth 
century,  when  it  became  a  part  of  the  Spanish  kingdom  of 
Grenada.  It  was  captured  by  the  British  forces  under  Sir 
George  Rooke,  24th  July  1704,  and  was  ceded  by  the  Treaty 
of  Utrecht  in  1 713.  It  Avas  made  a  free  port  in  1704,  the 
only  customs  dues  being  levied  upon  alcoholic  liquors. 
Gibraltar  is  a  Crown  Colony.  The  Governor,  who  is  com- 
mander of  the  garrison,  exercises  all  executive  and  legislative 
power ;  there  is  no  council.  The  management  of  the  water- 
supply,  &c.,  is  in  the  hands  of  a  nominated  body  called  the 
Sanitary  Commission.  It  is  an  important  naval  station,  the 
whole  area  forming  one  large  citadel. 

Malta.  The  Islands  of  Malta,  Gozo,  and  Comino  are 
mentioned  at  a  very  early  date.  From  time  immemorial  it 
has  been  a  place  of  importance  to  whatever  race  wisheil  to 
hold  the  highwiiy  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Phoenicians 
settled  there  in  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  century  B.C. 
During  the  Punic  Wars  the  islands  were  held  by  the 
Carthaginians  and  Romans,  ultimately  by  the  latter.  Paul 
was  shipwrecked  here  during  the  Roman  occupation. 

Upon  the  decline  of  the  Empire  Malta  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Goths,  afterwards  the  Saracens,  who  were  expelled  by 
Count  Roger  the  Norman.  It  was  under  the  dominion  of 
the  house  of  Aragon  from  1190  to  1530,  when  it  was  granted 
to  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  by  whom  it  was  held 
for  more  than  two  centuries.  On  12th  July  1798  the  Grand 
Master  Hompesch  capitulated  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who 
dispersed  the  Order.  The  Maltese,  however,  rose  against  the 
French,  and,  aided  by  the  English  fleet,  compelled  the  French 
to  capitulate,  and  the  government  was  placed  in  the  hands 
of  Great  Britain  in  1800.  The  Treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802 
provided  tliat  the  islands  should  be  restored  to  the  Order 
of  St.  John ;  tiiis  being  repugnant  to  the  Maltese,  war  broke 
out  again,  and  the  islands  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
English  till  1814,  when  they  were  secured  to  Great  Britain 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris.  The  government  is  administered 
by  a  Governor  and  an  Executive  Council,  consisting  of  ten 
members,   besides  the  president  and  the  clerk.      Legislation 


62  2  APPENDIX 

is  carried  on  by  means  of  a  partly  constituted  council  of 
government.  It  consists  of  six  official,  and  fourteen  elective 
members.  Nine  represent  Malta,  one  Gozo,  and  four  certain 
classes  of  the  population.  There  is  a  property  qualification 
for  members  and  electors.  The  Legislative  Council  is  elected 
for  three  years,  and  the  governor  is  ex  officio  president,  with 
the  power  of  veto. 

Cyprus.  Prior  to  the  division  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Cyprus 
had  been  colonised  by  Phoenicians,  Egyptians,  and  Greeks. 
Cyprus  formed  part  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  was  governed 
by  lieutenants  of  the  Byzantian  emperors  until  1191,  when  it 
was  taken  by  Eichard  I.  of  England.  In  1192,  the  island  was 
sold  to  the  Templars,  and  upon  their  inability  to  govern  it  was 
given  to  Guy  de  Lusigiian,  and  it  remained  in  this  family  until 
1489.  The  republic  of  Venice  ruled  the  island  until  157 1, 
when  it  was  captured  by  the  Turks.  Cyprus  remained  under 
the  Sultans  of  Constantinople  until  1878,  with  the  exception  of 
the  period  1832  to  1840,  when  it  was  held  by  the  Pasha  of 
Egypt.  By  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  1878,  Cyprus  was  placed 
under  British  administration.  The  Sublime  Porte  receives 
^92,800  annually,  and  nominally  exercises  dominion  over  the 
island.  In  the  event  of  Russia  restoring  to  Turkey  Kars  and 
the  other  conquests  in  Armenia,  Great  Britain  must  restore 
Cyprus.  The  administration  is  invested  in  the  High  Com- 
missioner. He  is  assisted  by  an  Executive  Council  The 
Legislative  Council  consists  of  eighteen  members — six  official, 
and  twelve  elected  for  five  years.  Three  are  elected  by 
Mohammedans  and  nine  by  non-Mohammedans.  The  voters 
are  male  Ottomans,  or  British  subjects,  or  foreigners  of  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  wlio  have  resided  five  years  and  are  payers  of 
any  of  the  taxes  known  as  "  Verghid."  Municipal  Councils 
exi.sts  in  the  principal  towns,  elected  practically  by  all  resident 
householders  or  ratepayers.  The  Moslems  form  about  twenty- 
three  per  cent,  of  the  population,  the  rest  belong  to  the  Greek 
Church. 

St.  Helena.  When  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  commander, 
Juan  de  Nova  Castella,  on  21st  May  1502  (St.  Helena's  Day), 
the  island  was  uninhabited.  The  secret  of  its  discovery  was 
well  kept  until  1588,  when  it  was  visited  by  Captain  Cavendish. 
A  church  was  l)uilt  but  no  permanent  settlement  made.     The 


J 


APPENDIX  623 

Dutch  held  it  from  1645  to  1650.  In  165 1,  the  East  India 
Company  took  possession  of  the  island,  and  a  charter  for  its 
administration  was  granted  in  1661.  The  Dutch  seized  it 
both  in  1665  and  1673,  but  in  each  case  were  driven  out  after  a 
few  montlis.  Charles  II.  gave  the  East  India  Company  a  new 
charter  in  1673,  and  it  remained  in  their  hands  until  it  was 
brought  under  the  direct  government  of  the  Crown  in  April 
1834.  The  government  is  administered  by  a  Governor,  aided 
by  an  Executive  Council.  There  is  no  Legislative  Council.  The 
Governor  alone  makes  ordinances  ;  j)ower  is  reserved  to  legislate 
by  order  of  his  Majesty  in  Council. 

Tristan  da  Cunha.  A  small  group  of  i.slands  in  the  Atlantic, 
discovered  in  1506.  During  tlie  imprisonment  of  Napoleon  I. 
it  was  garrisoned.  There  are  also  the  Gough  Islands,  Inacces- 
sible Island,  and  Nightingale  Islands ;  the  population  consists 
mainly  of  the  families  of  shipwrecked  sailors  and  wives  from 
St.  Helena,  numbering  sixty-four  in  1897.  An  annual  visit  is 
paid  to  the  islands  by  one  of  hi^<  IMajesty's  ships. 

BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

The  oversea  possessions  of  England  may  be  said  to  have 
commenced  with  the  Norman  Conquest.  In  course  of  time  the 
conquerors  were  absorbed  by  the  conquered,  and  when,  in 
1204,  Normandy  was  conquered  by  Philip  Augustus  and  re- 
united to  France  (it  was  again  taken  by  Henry  V.  in  14 18, 
and  held  until  1450),  the  only  part  of  the  conquering  Dukedom 
that  remained  to  England  was  the  Channel  Islands,  which 
remains  to  this  day.  The  foreign  dominion  of  Henry  II.  in- 
cluded Normandy,  Maine,  Anjou,  Touraine,  Poitou,  Limousin, 
Auvergne,  Saintonge,  Guienne,  and  Gascony  ;  he  was  ruler  of 
a  third  of  modern  France,  with  a  frontier  at  the  Pyrenees. 
Most  of  these  places  were  relinquished  by  Henry  III.  Calais 
was  taken  by  Edward  III.  in  1347,  and  it  was  held  until  1558. 
Henry  V.  claimed  the  throne  of  France,  and  his  son  Henry  VI. 
was  crowned  at  Paris,  but  during  his  reign  the  English  power 
declined.  In  1658  Dunkirk  was  handed  over  to  tlie  English, 
who  held  it  ingloriously  until  1744,  and  here  ended  the  last 
of  the  English  possessions  in  France.  In  1801  the  Lilies  were 
no  longer  quartered  with  the  Leojiards  in  tlie  anus  of  England  ; 


624  APPENDIX 

tins  absurdity  was  kept  up  for  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  after 
the  English  rule  in  France  was  plainly  over.  William  III.  ruled 
Holland  and  England  for  fourteen  years.  From  17 14  to  1837 
the  electorate  of  Hanover  was  united  to  the  English  Crown, 
when  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  upon  the  accession  of  Queen 
Victoria,  became  King  of  Hanover.  Heligoland  was  captured 
from  Denmark  in  1807,  and  ceded  to  Germany  in  1890. 

Great  Britain  as  an  island  Power  has  made  the  English  a 
race  of  sailors.  Henry  VII.,  only  five  years  after  Columbus 
started  on  his  first  voyage,  sent  the  Venetian,  Cabot,  on 
his  first  voyage,  to  be  followed  later  by  De  Prado,  Hore, 
Willoughby,  Chancellor,  Frobisher,  Davis,  Hawkins,  Drake, 
Cavendish,  Gilbert,  Raleigh,  &c.,  who  made  England  a  mari- 
time Power,  and  her  sailors  men  who  feared  neither  the  frozen 
seas  or  the  tropics.  In  1541  the  fisheries  of  Newfoundland 
are  specified  in  an  Act  of  Parliament.  Tlie  English  East  India 
Company  was  incorporated  in  1600,  two  years  before  the 
Dutch,  and  four  years  before  the  French  companies.  At  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century  England  possessed  only  four 
factories  in  India — Madras,  1639  ;  Bombay,  1661  ;  Fort  St. 
David,  1691  ;  Calcutta,  1696. 

The  first  Virginian  settlement  dates  from  1607.  On  13th 
May  the  emigrants  settled  at  Jamestown,  named  after  their 
own  king.  On  6th  September  1620,  the  Mmjjfower  sailed 
for  New  England,  and  then  commenced  the  founding  of  the 
United  States,  the  greatest  colony  ever  planteil  by  a  single 
people.  Various  companies  were  formed — the  Virginia,  the 
Plymouth,  the  Massachusetts,  and  the  Hudson  Bay.  The 
Gambia  and  Royal  African  Company  came  later  ;  thus  early, 
English  colonisation  went  hand  in  hand  with  trade.  From  1700 
to  1814  the  English  dependencies  were  mainly  won  by  the  sword; 
it  was  the  time  of  England's  greatest  gain  and  ^Teatest  loss. 
From  1763  to  1814  was  roughly  a  record  of  war  between  Eng- 
land and  France.  When  England  lost  the  United  States  in 
1782,  she  set  herself  to  colonise  Australia,  whicli  was  com- 
menced in  1788.  During  the  present  century  colonisation  has 
taken  the  form  of  expansion  of  existing  settlements  in  Canada 
and  Australia  peacefully,  in  India  and  South  Africa  by  wars. 
England  has  held  Tangiers  from  1661  to  1684  ;  Minorca.  17  13 
to    1756,  1763  to   1782,  and   1798  to   1802;  Corsica,  1794  to 


APPENDIX  625 

1797;  Sicily,  1811  to  1814;  Ionian  Islands,  1809,  1815,  to 
1863  ;  CuiaQao,  1800  to  1802,  1807  to  1814;  Philippines  and 
Cuba  from  1762  to  1763;  Java,  1811  to  1814. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  Colonial  Empire  has  accrued 
within  comparatively  recent  times,  though  the  first  attempts 
at  Colonial  settlement,  that  of  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  in  New- 
foundland, was  made  as  early  as  1583.  At  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  only  possessions  were  —  the  New 
England  States,  St.  Helena,  two  slave  stations  at  the  Gambia 
and  Gold  Coast,  the  Bermudas,  Barbados,  Jamaica,  and  some 
minor  West  Indian  Islands,  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia, 
Prince  Edward  Island,  and  India.  With  the  loss  of  the 
United  States  of  America  began  a  great  increase  in  colonis- 
ing energy,  and  the  additions  to  the  Empire  during  the  reign 
of  Queen  Victoria  have  been  enormous.  Since  1870  the 
Imperial  troops  have  been  gradually  withdrawn  from  the 
self-governing  Colonies,  and  now,  with  the  exception  of  the 
garrison  of  the  naval  station  at  Halifax  (Nova  Scotia),  and 
the  Cape,  the  land  defence  of  these  Colonies  rest  entirely  on 
their  local  forces. 

During  1890  enormous  additions  were  made  to  the  Empire 
in  Africa,  as  a  result  of  the  arrangements  with  Germany, 
France,  and  Portugal  for  the  delimitations  of  their  respective 
possessions  and  spheres  of  influence  in  that  continent,  and  we 
now  actually  possess,  or  have  the  indisputable  right  to  acquire, 
nearly  2,500,000  square  miles  out  of  the  total  11,700,000 
square  miles  which  Africa  contains.  A  Protectorate  was  pro- 
claimed over  Amatongaland,  now  part  of  Natal,  in  1895. 
Between  1895  and  1898  large  tracts  of  territory  within  the 
British  sphere  in  Africa  were  occupied.  In  1898  Wei-hai-wei 
was  obtained  on  lease  from  China,  as  well  as  an  extension  of 
British  Kowloon.  In  1899,  by  an  arrangement  with  Germany, 
certain  of  the  Solomon  Islands  were  transferred  to  the  British 
sphere  of  interest.  The  Orange  River  Colony  and  the  Trans- 
vaal were  annexed  in  1900.  In  the  same  year  Tonga,  in  the 
Western  Pacific,  came  under  British  protection,  and  the 
Cook  Islands,  Savage  Island,  and  other  small  islands  were 
annexed. 

Including  India,  the  Empire  now  extends  over  11,000,000 
square    miles,   ur   ninety-one    times    the    area    of   the    Mother 

V  2  R 


626  APPENDIX 

Country.  The  area  of  the  Colonial  Empire  alone  is  more 
than  eighty  times  that  of  the  United  Kingdom,  but  it  has  a 
population,  if  we  exclude  that  of  the  vast  territory  of  the 
Niger  and  Oil  Rivers,  of  only  some  24,000,000,  as  compared 
with  the  40,000,000  at  home. 

In  the  self-governing  Colonies  complete  provision  has  been 
made  not  only  for  elementary  education,  but  also  for  secondary 
and  higher  instruction.  In  all  of  them  primary  instruction 
is  compulsory,  and  in  Canada,  Victoria,  and  New  Zealand  also 
free.  Extensive  provision  has  also  been  made  for  secondary 
and  technical  education  and  higher  education,  provided  for  by 
the  establishment  of  chartered  and  amply  endowed  universities 
empowered  to  grant  degrees. 

The  vast  extent  of  territory  over  which  is  spread  the 
population  of  the  large  self-governing  Colonies,  has  led  to  the 
development  of  very  complete  systems  of  local  government  by 
elected  urban  and  rural  boards  entrusted  with  the  management  of 
local  affairs,  and  with  the  usual  rating  powers.  In  the  Crown 
Colonies,  on  the  other  hand,  the  government  is  centralised. 

The  India  and  Colonial  Offices  are  the  two  metropolitan 
governing  bodies  for  the  British  Empire,  and  regulate  all  its 
parts,  except  the  Isle  of  Man  and  the  Channel  Islands,  Avhich 
are  under  the  King  in  Council,  and  Egypt,  Zanzibar,  Uganda, 
Central  and  East  Africa,  Socotra  and  Somali  Coast  Protectorate, 
which  are  dealt  with  by  tlie  Foreign  Office. 

The  fust  separate  organisation  in  this  country  for  the  control 
and  administration  of  Colonial  affairs  was  a  committee  of  the 
Privy  Council,  appointed  by  Order  in  Council  4th  July  1 660,  "for 
the  PlantaQons."  On  ist  December  1660,  a  separate  "Council 
of  Foreign  Plantations  "  was  created  by  letters  patent.  In 
1672  it  included  the  council  for  trade  and  war  known  as  the 
"  Council  of  Trade  and  Plantations."  It  was  suppressed  in 
1677,  and  its  functions  transferred  to  the  Privy  Council.  It  was 
reconstituted  in  1695  and  continued  until  1782,  when  it  con- 
sisted of  eight  members  who  received  ^j^iooo  each  \^er  annum. 
The  affairs  of  India  \v(!re  placed  under  its  charge  in  1748,  and 
remained  so  until  taken  over  by  the  lioard  of  Control  in  1784. 
From  1768  the  Colonial  affairs  were  dealt  with  by  a  Secretary 
of  State.  The  office  of  secretary  to  the  sovereign  dates  from 
at  least  the  reign  of  Henry  III.     Tlinre  was  one  secretary  down 


APPENDIX  627 

to  1539,  Avhen  a  second  was  appointed.  From  1708  to  1748 
a  third  existed  who  dealt  exclusively  with  Scotland. 

In  1768  a  Secretary  of  State  for  the  American  or  Colonial 
Department  was  appointed  in  addition  to  the  other  two,  and 
the  Commission  to  the  Council  of  Trade  and  Plantation  con- 
tinued to  run  as  before.  But  the  Council  and  the  new  Secre- 
tary of  Statu  Department  were  abolished  in  1782  on  the  loss  of 
the  United  States.  In  1782  the  Privy  Council  took  over  the 
duties,  and  the  Home  Department  dealt  with  its  requirement. 
In  1784  a  Committee  for  Trade  and  Foreign  Plantations  suc- 
ceeded the  Home  Department.  In  1793  the  Secretary  for  War 
was  also  nominally  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  and  in 
1801  the  War  and  Colonial  Departments  were  unite"  1,  and  the 
Committee  for  Trade  and  Foreign  Plantations  became  the  lioard 
of  Trade.  In  1854  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  was 
appointed.  The  business  of  the  Colonial  Office  is  now  conducted 
by  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  and  five  private 
secretaries,  a  Parliamentary  Under  Secretary  and  Private  Secre- 
tary, a  Permanent  Under  Secretary  and  Private  Secretary,  four 
Assistant  Under  Secretaries,  Legal  Assistant,  and  clerical  staff 
recruiteil  by  competitive  examination.  The  departments  are 
divided  into  North  American  and  Australasian,  West  Indian, 
Eastern,  South  African,  AVest  African,  General,  and  Financial 
and  Accounts. 

The  Crown  agents  for  the  Colonies  act  as  commercial  and 
financial  agents  in  Great  Britain  for  each  of  the  Colonial 
Governments  who  do  not  possess  agents  general.  In  1833 
each  Colony  api)ointed  its  own  agent  in  London,  but  these, 
with  certain  excejjtions,  were  consolidated  into  one  office.  Those 
Colonies  wliich  possess  agents  general  are  Canada,  New  South 
Wales,  Victoria,  South  Australia,  Queensland,  Western  Aus- 
tralia, Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  Cape,  and  Natal.  There  is  an 
Emigrants  Information  Office,  which  supplies  information  to 
intending  emigrants. 

In  the  British  Empire  there  are  forty-three  distinct  and  in- 
dependent governments  and  some  scattered  dependencies  under 
the  protection  of  the  King. 

Of  these  forty-three  ^ — twenty-three  are  Crown  Colonies  in 

1  E.Kcludiiig  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  River  Colonies. 


62  8  APPENDIX 

which  the  Crown  has  the  entire  control  of  legislation,  and  the 
administration  is  under  the  control  of  the  Home  Government. 

Seventeen  with  Legislative  Council  nominated  by  the  Crown 
— British  New  Guinea,  Ceylon,  Falklands,  Fiji,  Gambia,  Gold 
Coast,  Grenada,  Hong  Kong,  Lagos,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent, 
Seychelles,  Sierra  Leone,  Trinidad,  Tobago,  Turk's  Islands, 
British  Honduras. 

Six  with  no  Legislative  Council — Gibraltar,  Labuan,  St. 
Helena,  Northern  and  Southern  Nigeria,  Basutoland. 

Nine  Colonies  possess  representative  institutions  but  not 
responsible  government,  the  Home  Government  retaining  the 
control  of  public  officers — British  Guiana,  Malta,  Mauritius, 
Bahamas,  Barbados,  Bermuda,  Jamaica,  Leeward  Island. 
Cyprus  is  not  a  British  possession,  but  comes  under  the  class. 

Eleven  Colonies  have  elected  Assemblies  and  responsible 
Governments,  and  the  Home  Government  has  no  control  over 
any  public  officer  except  the  governor — Canada,  Newfoundland, 
New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  South  Australia,  Queensland, 
West  Australia,  Tasmania,^  New  Zealand,  Cape,  Natal. 

In  addition  there  are  vast  territories  controlled  by  the 
British  Noith  Borneo  Company  and  the  British  South  African 
Company.  Ascension  is  administered  by  the  Admiralty  ;  Aden, 
Perim,  the  Laccadive,  Nicobar,  and  Andaman  Islands  are  under 
the  control  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India. 

The  Act  of  1858  transferred  the  Government  of  India  from 
the  East  India  Company  to  the  Crown.  Under  the  Company 
the  Governor-General  had  been  an  Indian  autocrat  only  re- 
sponsible to  the  Court  of  Directors,  and  they  to  the  Shareholders 
and  the  Sovereign.  The  Act  of  1858  substituted  a  Secretary 
of  State  for  the  Court  of  Directors,  the  Court  of  Proprietors, 
and  the  Board  of  Control.  The  Secretary  of  State  for  India  is 
a  Cabini't  ^linister,  and  his  Council  was,  until  recently,  ap- 
pointed for  life  5  now  members  are  appointed  for  ten  years,  and 
may  be  reappointed  for  another  five.  The  Viceroy  or  Governor- 
General  is  appointed  by  the  Crown  for  five  years  ;  his  Council 
consists  of  an  Executive  Council  of  live  members,  and  the 
Governor-General  and  Commander-in-Chief ;   it  meets  at  short 


1  The  .six  Au.straliaa  States  form  the  Australian  Commonwealth 
uuder  a  Governor. 


APPENDIX  629 

intervals  to  discuss  general  policy.  'J'lie  Legislative  Council 
has  the  same  members,  and  certain  others  selected  by  the 
Governor-General  from  Bengal,  Madras,  and  Bombay,  together 
with  nominated  members  representative  of  non-official  natives 
and.  European  communities ;  the  official  additional  members 
must  not  exceed  in  number  the  non-official.  The  number  of 
nominated  members  must  not  be  more  than  sixteen  or  less 
tlian  twenty.     The  meetings  are  public. 

There  is  no  Patent  Act  for  the  British  Empire  such  as 
exists  in  the  United  States  and  Germany,  covering  the  Mother 
Country  and  her  Colonies.  The  Phiglish  patent  covers  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  and  the  Isle  of  Man  only — the  Channel 
Islands  even  are  not  included.  A  special  patent  is  required 
for  Canada,  another  for  India,  another  for  Ceylon ;  in  all  about 
thirty-five  patents  must  be  taken  out  to  cover  the  British 
Empire.  Application  for  Colonial  Patents  must  be  made  to 
the  Government  of  the  Colony  in  which  protection  is  desired. 

The  International  Copyright,  agreed  to  at  the  Bern  Con- 
vention, covers  Great  Britain  and  the  Colonies,  Germany, 
Belgium,  Japan,  Spain,  France,  Hayti,  Italy,  Monaco,  Luxem- 
burg, Norway,  Switzerland,  and  Tunis,  and  all  the  colonies 
attached  to  any  of  these  States.  The  International  Copy- 
right covers  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  native  author  in 
the  several  States.  Translations  can  only  be  made  with  the 
sanction  of  the  authoi-,  but,  after  ten  years,  should  there  be  no 
translation,  unauthorised  translations  may  be  made,  the  trans- 
lation must  be  published  in  any  country  other  than  the  place 
of  origin.  Other  countries,  upon  notice  to  the  Bureau,  may 
join  the  Convention,  while  those  who  are  already  signatories 
may  leave  after  a  year's  notice.  England  has  a  treaty  with 
Austria  whicii  practically  gives  the  same  privilege  as  that 
enjoyed  under  the  Bern  Convention.  In  the  United  States 
copyright  can  be  obtained  by  simultaneous  publication,  but 
the  work  must  be  set  up  in  the  United  States.  The  Americans 
by  English  registration  gain  also  the  protection  of  the  Bern 
Convention.  His  Majesty's  Government  has  undertaken  to 
bring  in  a  bill  to  consolidate  the  law  of  Copyright. 

Weights,  Measures,  ayid  Coinage. — H.  J.  Chaney.  Through- 
out the  British  Empire  uniformity  of  weight  and  measure  is 
maintained  by  law.      In  practice  material  standards  of  weights 


630  APPENDIX 

and  measures  are  used,  the  accuracy  of  which  is  verified  by 
comparison  with  the  primary  and  metric  standards  in  the 
custody  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  The  laws  of  Australia,  Canada, 
South  Africa,  and  other  Colonies  and  Dependencies  are,  with 
respect  to  the  use  of  weights  and  measures  for  trade  purposes, 
identical  in  principle  with  the  laws  of  the  United  Kingdom 
(Weights  and  Measures  Acts,  1878  and  1889).  In  details  as 
to  local  inspection  and  stamping ; — for  instance,  as  to  the 
amount  of  errors  tolerated  on  commercial  weights,  &c.  ;— the 
legal  requirements  vary  in  Colonies  from  those  of  the  United 
Kingdom. 

The  accuracy  of  all  weights  and  measures,  whether  re- 
quired for  use  as  standards  for  authorities  administering  the 
government  of  a  country,  or  for  manufacturing  and  scientific 
purposes,  or  for  ordinary  trade  use,  is  verified  by  comparison 
with  and  derivation  from  the  parent  or  national  standards  of 
the  Yard  and  Pound  and  Metre  and  Kilogram.,  kept  at  the 
Standards  Department,  Old  Palace  Yard,  Westminster. 

It  has  always  been  the  duty  of  the  State,  in  every  civilised 
country,  to  provide  and  maintain  standards  by  which  the 
public  weights  are  regulated,  a  duty  also  always  recognised 
with  regard  to  the  coinage ;  the  Standard  Trial  Plates  of  gold 
and  silver  are,  for  instance,  also  kept  at  the  Standards 
Department,  and  are  used  annually  at  the  Trial  of  the  Pyx 
(formerly  kept  at  the  Pyx  Chapel,  Westminster  Abbey)  in 
testing  the  current  coins  of  the  realm  issued  by  the  Royal 
Mint  and  the  branch  Mints  of  Australia,  India,  and  Canada. 

The  two  systems  of  weights  and  measures  legally  in  use 
in  the  British  Empire  are  therefore  the  Imperial  and  Metric 
systems.  The  former  was  legalised  in  1824,  and  it  includes 
a  number  of  denominations  of  ancient  weights  and  measures, 
some  Roman,  Saxon,  Arabic,  Norman,  &c.,  and  a  i)erplexing 
vaiiety  of  hjcal  and  customary  tiade  weights  and  measures, 
binary,  decimal,  and  duodecimal  series.  The  metric  weights 
and  measures  were  first  legally  ])ermitted  for  use  in  retail  trade 
in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1897,  but  the  system  was  originally 
introduced  by  the  National  Assembly  of  France  in  1 789,  and 
subsequently  adopted  as  a  national  system  in  Europe.  This 
system  has  been  followed  in  this  country  for  many  years  in 
matters  relating  to  chemistry,  physics,  and  manufacture. 


APPENDIX  631 

In  India  the  British  yard  and  pound  are  the  standards  for 
official  purposes,  but  the  ancient  native  weights,  &c.,  are 
followed  for  trade  purposes.  In  Russia,  as  well  as  in  the 
United  States,  the  standards  have  been  derived  from,  and  are 
verified  by  those  of.  Great  Britain.  Thus  the  work  of  the 
standards  department  is  not  only  national,  but  is  also  of  an 
international  character. 


FOREIGN   COLONIAL   POSSESSIONS 

SPAIN. 

The  earliest  of  the  moderns  in  colonising  were  the  Spaniards 
and  the  Portuguese,  the  Spaniards  taking  the  west,  the  Portu- 
guese the  east,  and  a  Papal  bull,  issued  in  1493,  drew  a  line 
between  them.  The  Portuguese  were  the  first  on  the  field, 
working  down  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  Columbus  for  Spain 
discovered  America  five  years  before  Vasco  da  Gania  led  his 
countrymen  to  India  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Spain 
commenced  with  islands ;  the  Canaries  are  the  oldest  Spanish 
colony.  The  Spanish  dominion  was  by  conquest,  not  by  com- 
mercial settlement. 

In  the  eyes  of  the  Spaniards,  trade  consisted  of  importing 
gold  and  silver  from  America  to  Spain. 

By  relinquishing  Cuba,  Porto  Kico,  the  Philippines,  Sulu 
Islands,  and  Guam  to  the  United  States  in  1898,  and  the  re- 
maining Ladrone  and  Marianne  Islands,  with  Caroline  and 
Pelew  Islands,  to  Germany  in  1899,  the  Colonial  possessions  of 
Spain  have  been  reduced  to  Rio  de  Ora  and  Adrar,  which  are 
under  the  Governor  of  the  Canary  Islands,  with  a  sub-governor 
resident  at  Rio  de  Ora.  Ifni  near  Cape  Nun.  The  island  of 
Fernando  Po  and  Annohon  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  Corisc.o, 
Eloberj,  and  San  Juan  off  the  French  Congo. 

In  1 89 1  Spain  relinquished  her  claim  to  Corisco  Bay,  re- 
taining, however,  Cape  San  Juan.  In  1900  the  Spanish  Pro- 
tectorate was  recognised  over  the  coast  east  of  Gulf  Mederine, 
east  of  Paris,  and  south  by  the  Muni  River.  Spanish  pro- 
tection is  recognised  over  districts  between  Capes  Bogador  and 
Blanco. 

The    Canary    Islands,   supposed   to    bo    the    Beatorum   or 

Fortunate  Islands  of  the  ancients,  were  conquered  by  Bethen- 

couit  in  1402  and  annexed  to  Spain  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 

century.     Tliey  now  form  a  Spanisli  province.     Fernando  Po 

632 


APPENDIX  633 

was  discovered  in  the  fifteenth  century  hy  the  noble  Portuguese 
Fernao  de  Pao.  In  1827,  the  British  Baptists  established  the 
settlement  of  Clarence  Town  at  the  north-east  end  of  the  island. 
They  were  bought  out  by  the  Spaniards  in  1858. 

In  Morocco  there  are  several  "  Presidios,"  or  military 
posts  :  Ifri,  Tetuan,  Ceuta,  and  the  coast  towns  of  Gomera, 
Alhucemas,  Meletta,  and  the  Zaffarin  Inlands.  Ceuta,  taken 
by  the  Portuguese  in  141 5,  has  belonged  to  Spain  since  1640. 
It  is  the  chief  of  the  Spanish  presidios  on  the  African  coast. 


PORTUGAL. 

The  colonies  of  Portugal,  though  not  continuous  with  her 
own  European  territory,  began  near  it,  and  the  Asiatic  and 
American  dominions  grew  out  of  her  African  possessions, 
which  was  the  continuation  of  the  growth  of  her  own 
peninsula.  Ceuta  was  taken  in  141 5  by  John,  King  of 
Portugal;  it  has  belonged  to  Spain  since  1640.  Tlie  great 
Portuguese  Empire  in  the  East  was  built  up  within  a  few 
years.  Albuquerque  established  the  seat  of  government  in 
the  island  of  Goa,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century  the  Portuguese 
power  extended  over  the  west  and  east  coasts  of  Africa.  De 
Nora  discovered  Ascension  and  St.  Helena  ;  Tristan  da  Cunha, 
the  island  named  after  him,  and  Madagascar.  Mascarenhas 
discovered  Bourbon  in  1505,  and  gave  his  name  to  the  island, 
the  same  name  being  afterwards  extended  to  Mauritius — later 
called  Mauritius,  and  Rodriguez.  The  whole  of  the  shores  of 
India  were  practically  in  Portuguese  hands. 

They  discovered  Borneo,  the  Celebes,  New  Guinea,  and 
Australia ;  opened  trade  with  China  and  Japan,  and  took 
possession  of  Formosa.  Brazil  was  perhaps  their  most  per- 
manent work,  which  was  discovered  in  1500;  the  Portuguese 
were  traders,  but  they  brought  their  riches  to  Lisbon  only,  and 
left  it  to  the  Dutch  to  distribute;  thus  the  Dutch  acquired 
their  carrying  trade. 

The  present  colonial  possessions  are  : — 

The  Azores  and  Madeira,  which  are  an  integral  part  of 
Portugal.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Azores  are  a  n)ixture  of 
Portuguese  and  negroes  with  traces  of  Flemings,  descended 
from  a  colony  introduced  by  Isabella  of  Burgundy  in    1466. 


634  APPENDIX 

It  was  discovered  early  in  the  fifteenth  century,  as  was  also 
Madeira. 

The  Caj)e  Verde  Islands,  acquired  in  1456,  off  the  ca[)e  of 
that  name  in  Senegambia,  consists  of  St.  Antonio,  St.  Nicolas, 
Togo,  Santiago,  Boavista  Sal,  and  some  smaller  islands.  These 
are  administered  by  a  Governor. 

Portuguese  Guinea,  on  the  coast  of  Senegambia,  includes 
the  adjoining  Archipelago  of  Bijagoz,  with  the  island  of 
Bolama,  acquired  in  1885. 

The  islands  of  St.  Thomas  and  Principe,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  acquired  in  1879,  constitute  a  province  under  a 
Governor.  St.  Thomas  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1470. 

The  territories  of  Landana  and  Cabenda  are  between  the 
French  Congo  and  the  Free  State. 

Angola,  with  a  coast-line  of  1000  miles,  is  separated  from 
the  French  Congo  by  Convention  of  1886,  Congo  Free  State 
of  1 89 1,  British  South  Africa  of  189 1,  and  German  South- 
West  Africa  of  1886.  It  is  divided  into  five  provinces : 
Congo,  Loanda,  Benguella,  Mossamedes,  and  Lunda. 

Portuguese  East  Africa  is  divided  into  three  districts — 
Mozambique,  Zambezia,  and  Lourenfo  Marques,  to  which  must 
be  added  the  district  of  Inhambane,  formed  upon  the  failure  of 
the  company  of  that  name  and  Gaza.  The  port  of  Mozambique 
is  leased  to  the  Mozambique  Company,  who  also  administer 
Manica  and  Sofala  territories  under  a  Royal  Charter  for  fifty 
years  from  1891.  The  Nyasa  Company,  with  a  Royal  Charter, 
administer  the  region  between  Rovuma,  Lake  Nyasa,  and  Lurio. 
There  is  also  a  Zambozia  Company  and  Mozambique  Sugar 
Company.  Mozambique  was  constituted  by  a  decree  in  1891 
as  the  State  of  East  Africa  (Estado  d'Africa  Oriental).  The 
limit  of  Portuguese  East  Africa  was  arranged  with  Great 
Britain  in  1891,  and  Germany  in  1886  and  1890.  Lourengo 
Marques  was  founded  as  a  factory  by  the  Portuguese  in  1544 ; 
gold  was  proclaimed  in  the  district  on  ist  September  1890. 

Goa  on  the  Malabar  coast  was  founded  by  Albuquerque  in 
1510.  Nova  or  New  Gna  or  Panjim  was  founded  in  1765,  is 
the  present  capital  of  Portuguese  India. 

Damdo,  north  of  Bombay.  Dili,  a  .small  island  west  of 
Dumao,  province  of  Goa,  since  1538. 


APPENDIX  635 

Macao  in  China  is  situated  on  an  island  of  that  name,  and 
forms  with  two  small  adjacent  islands,  Taipa  and  Coloane,  a 
province.  The  city  is  divided  into  two  wards,  one  inhahited 
by  Chinese  and  the  otlier  by  non-Chinese  ;  oach  has  an 
administrator. 

Portuguese  Timor  consists  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
island  of  that  name  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  with  the 
neighbouring  isle  of  Pulo  Cambing ;  this  island  was  divided 
by  treaty  of  1859  between  Portugal  and  Holland. 


HOLLAND. 

The  rise  of  the  Dutch  dates  from  their  great  East  India 
Company,  incorporated  in  1602.  By  1661  they  drove  their 
Portuguese  rivals  out  of  the  Indian  seas,  they  took  Mauritius  and 
St.  Helena,  planted  a  colony  at  the  Cape,  established  factories 
on  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  at  Ispahan,  along  the  Malabar 
and  Coroniandel  coast  of  India,  in  Bengal,  in  Burmah,  and 
Cochin-China  ;  expelled  tlie  Portuguese  from  Ceylon,  Malacca, 
and  Formosa,  and  killed  their  tnuh'  with  China  and  Japan,  and  in 
1619  founded  Batavia  in  Java  ;  they  also  traded  with  Australia, 
Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand.  Hudson  was  sent  to  discover  a 
new  passage,  and  in  1609  sailed  up  the  Hudson,  named  after 
him.  In  162  i  the  Dutch  "West  India  Company  was  incorpo- 
rated. Their  failure  in  America  was  due  to  the  superior 
strength  of  their  rivals,  the  English.  The  keynote  of  the  Dutch 
colonisation  was  trade.  Their  character  was  formed  by  having 
been  the  chief  carriers  of  Europe,  and  though  they  supported 
the  Reformed  religion,  they  subordinated  religion  to  trade. 
The  monopolies  of  the  Latin  people  were  Crown  monopolies  ; 
with  the  Dutch,  trade  was  entrusted  to  chartered  companies. 
Many  of  the  Dutch  colonies  were  lost  during  the  Najjoleonic 
wars,  when  Holland  was  under  French  influence.  The  present 
colonial  possessions  of  the  Netherlands  are  situated  in  the  East 
and  West  Indies. 

The  Dutch  Ead  Indies  date  from  1602,  when  they  created 
the  East  India  Company  ;  after  its  dissolution  in  1798  it  was 
governed  by  the  mother  country.  It  consists  of  Java,  Madura, 
Sumatra,  Borneo,  Rian-Lingga  Archipelago,  Banca,  Billiton, 
Celebes,  Molucca  Archipelago,  Sunda  Island,  and  part  of  New 


636  APPENDIX 

Guinea.     In  Sumatra,  Borneo,  Celebes,  and  other  islands  the 
Dutch  sovereignty  is  merely  nominal. 

Java,  the  most  important  of  the  colonial  possessions  of  the 
Netherlands  (Madura,  an  adjacent  island,  is  administratively 
associated  with  Java),  Avas  formerly  administrated  on  the 
"Culture  System"  established  by  General  Johannes  Graaf 
Van  den  Bosch  in  1832.  It  was  based  on  the  obligatory  labour 
of  natives;  this  was  abolished  in  1870.  Two  divisions,  Sura- 
karta  and  Jokjakarta,  are  ruled  by  dependant  princes.  The 
greater  part  of  the  soil  belongs  to  the  Colonial  Government; 
since  1870  large  estates  have  been  let  to  individuals  and 
private  companies.  The  Dutch  settled  in  Java  in  16 10,  but 
have  only  ruled  the  entire  island  since  1830.  The  English 
held  Java  from  181 1  to  1877. 

Sumatra,  mentioned  by  Ptolemy,  was  visited  by  Marco 
Polo  in  1292.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  Portuguese 
formed  settlements  of  the  island,  which  were  soon  destroyed. 
The  French  traveller,  Parmentier,  visited  it  in  1529,  and  the 
Dutch  navigator  Houtman  in  1599.  In  1616  the  Dutch 
founded  a  factory  at  Jarabi,  and  in  1622  made  a  treaty  with 
the  Sultan  of  Paleiiibang.  It  is  an  outpost  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies,  and  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  eight 
divisions. 

Dutch  Borneo  embraces  72  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  the 
island.  The  Dutch  made  a  permanent  settlement  at  Banjer- 
masin  in  1733.  Since  1814  they  have  gradually  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  the  island.  James 
Brooke,  in  1838-41,  put  down  the  Malay  pirates,  and  founded 
the  State  of  Sarawak.  Brunei,  the  last  of  the  free  sovereign 
States,  was  declared  a  British  Protectorate  in  1888.  The 
extreme  north  was  obtained  by  the  British  North  Borneo 
Company  in  1881. 

Since  1852,  when  shortly  after  the  discovery  of  tin, 
Billiton  has  formed  a  separate  residency. 

The  Moluccas  or  Sjnce  Islands  are  divided  between  the 
two  Dutch  residences  of  Ternati  and  Amboina. 

The  Dutch  East  Indies  is  administered  by  a  Governor- 
General,  assisted  by  a  council  of  five  members,  which  is  of  a 
legislative  and  advisory  character,  the  executive  authority  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  Governor. 


APPENDIX  en 

The  Dutch  West  Indies.  By  the  peace  of  Breda,  in  1667, 
between  England  and  the  United  Xetherland,  Surinam  or  Dutch 
Guiana  was  assured  to  the  Netherlands  in  exchange  for  the 
colony  of  New  Netherlands.  Since  then  the  latter  has  been 
in  the  hands  of  England,  but  was  returned  in  18 16.  The 
colony  of  Curasao  consists  of  the  islands  of  Curar^ao,  Bonaire, 
Aruba,  St.  Martin  (Soutli  part),  St.  Eustache,  Saba. 

The  administration  and  executive  authority  of  Surinam  is 
in  the  hands  of  a  Governor  and  Council,  partly  elective. 

Curasao  is  governed  by  a  Governor  and  nominated  council. 
CuraQao  was  discovered  in  1499  by  Ojeda;  it  has  been  a 
dependency  of  Holland  since  1632.  Bondaire  is  the  most 
easterly  of  the  Dutch  West  Indies.  The  south  portion  of 
St.  Martin  belongs  to  Holland,  the  north  and  west  to  France. 


FRANCE. 

The  colonies  and  dependencies  of  France,  including  Algeria 
and  Tunis,  are  estimated  at  about  3,740,000  square  miles,  with 
a  population  of  56,000,000.  The  administration  is  controlled 
by  the  Ministry  of  the  Colonies,  which  was  organised  as  a 
separate  department  in  1894.  The  older  colonies  have  also 
direct  representation  in  the  French  legislature ;  Reunion, 
Martinique,  and  Guadeloupe  each  sending  a  senator  and  two 
deputies ;  French  India  one  senator  and  one  deputy  ;  Senegal, 
Guiana,  and  Cochin-China  one  deputy  each,  while  most  of  the 
other  colonies  are  represented  on  the  "  Conseil  Superieur  des 
Colonies."  This  council  consists  of  senators  and  deputies  of 
colonies,  delegates,  officials,  and  expert.^.  Few  of  tlie  colonies 
have  a  revenue  sufficient  for  the  cost  of  administration. 

France,  like  Spain,  sought  empire  rather  than  trade,  and 
she  took  finally  the  place  of  Spain,  while  England  took  that  of 
Holland.  Her  first  colonies  were  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
1534,  and  two  Huguenot  settlements  in  Brazil  and  Florida,  in 
1558  and  1562  respectively.  In  1604  Port  Royal  was  founded, 
and  in  1608  Quebec.  French  colonists  settled  in  the  West 
Indies  in  1635,  and  about  that  date  in  Cayenne  and  Senegal 
River  in  N.-W.  Africa.  In  1604  the  French  East  India 
Company  was  formed.  Her  first  possession  in  the  Eastern 
seas    was    Bourbon    (Rt^uuion),  which   was   annexed   in    1649, 


638  APPENDIX 

but  some  years  before,  attempts  were  made  in  Madagascar. 
The  first  settlement  in  India  was  a  trading  agency  at  Surat, 
established  in  1668,  and  Pondicherry,  in  1674.  In  the 
eighteenth  century  the  French  claimed  nearly  the  whole  of 
North  America,  and  nearly  conquered  India.  The  reason  of  her 
failure  was  due  in  a  measure  to  attempting  too  much,  for 
while  fighting  her  neighbours  at  home  she  lost  her  depen- 
dencies abroad.  The  French  Government  also  interfered  with 
the  Trading  Companies.  There  were  six  distinct  French  East 
India  Companies  incorporated  between  1604  and  1719,  and  the 
policy  of  the  Court  was  often  opposed  to  the  interest  of  the 
nation.  In  religion  the  French  also  made  fatal  mistakes. 
The  early  work  of  colonisation  was  done  by  the  Huguenots, 
but  they  were  subsequently  excluded  from  the  French  colonies. 
In  1627  Kichelieu  incorporated  the  company  of  one  hundred 
associates  to  carry  on  the  colonisation  of  Canada,  and  one  of 
the  terms  of  the  Charter  was  that  no  Huguenot  should  be 
allowed  to  settle  there. 

The  present  colonies  are — 

Algeria,  which  is  under  a  Governor-General  nominated  by 
the  President  of  the  Republic.  It  sends  one  senator  and  two 
deputies  to  the  National  Assembly.  The  country,  until  1830, 
was  a  nest  of  slave-trading  corsairs,  ruled  by  deys,  when  their 
power  was  broken  by  France,  who  became  actual  masters  of  the 
country  in  1847.  In  187 1  Civil  Government  was  established. 
The  French  Chambers  alone  have  the  right  of  legislating  for 
Algeria. 

Tunis  was  ruled  by  a  Bey  under  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  until 
1 88 1,  when  the  incursions  of  the  Kabyle  tribes  into  Algeria 
brought  about  the  French  occupation.  "This  occupation  will 
cease  wlien  the  French  and  Tunisian  authorities  recognise  by 
common  accord  th(!  power  of  the  local  Government  to  maintain 
order."  Nominally  under  the  Bey,  but  Tunis  is  really  under  a 
FrencVi  Resident.  The  Government  is  carried  on  under  the 
direction  of  the  French  Foreign  Office. 

French  Wed  Africa,  whicii  takes  in  the  whole  of  the  Sahara 
and  the  State  of  Wadai,  is  placed  under  a  (lOvernor-General, 
and  includes — 

Seupf/al,  which  returns  one  de])uty  to  the  French  Parlia- 
nicnt.      It  was  acquired  in  1637,  and  is  administered  by  a  Civil 


APPENDIX  639 

Governor.     It  is  the  oldest  of  the  Freucli  colonies ;  Norman 
navigators  touched  here  as  early  as  1364. 

Tlie  Fri'iirli  Si)ii<lan  was  form(3<l  in  1880,  and  comprises — 

The  hinterland  of  the  Senegal  and  Guinea  Colonies.  Area, 
50,000  square  miles  ;  population  (estimateil),  300,000.  The 
people  belong,  in  the  most  part,  to  the  Peneth  and  Mandiiigo 
tribes  of  negroes,  and  are  in  part  Moslems  and  part  fetish 
worshippers.  Principal  products— (tround  nuts,  gums,  india- 
rubber,  and  timber. 

By  a  convention  between  Great  Britain  and  France,  the 
former  recognised  the  right  of  France  to  all  the  territory  west 
of  the  Nile  basin. 

French  Guinea  was  acquired  in  1843.  It  is  administered 
by  a  Governor.  A  series  of  voyages  to  the  coast  of  Guinea 
were  made  on  behalf  of  merchants  of  Dieppe  from  1364 
onwards,  and  a  settlement  was  made  in  1383  at  La  Mine, 
since  known  by  the  Portuguese  name  of  Elmina. 

Ivory  Coast.  France  asserted  her  right  here  in  1843,  and 
occupied  the  coast  in  1883.     It  is  administered  by  a  Governor. 

DaJiomey  and  Dependencies^.  The  French  obtaineil  a 
footing  on  the  coast  in  1851,  and  gradually  extended  her 
power  until,  in  1894,  the  whole  of  the  kingdom  of  Dahomey 
was  formally  annexed.  The  establishment  in  the  Gulf  of 
Benin  consisted  of  a  distinct  colony,  under  the  name  of 
Dahomey  and  dependencies.  It  was  formed  of  the  kingdom 
of  Porto  Novo,  Dahomey,  and  the  republic  Minatis  in  1899, 
and  placed  under  the  Governor  of  French  West  Africa. 
Dahomey  Avas  annexed  in  1894. 

French  Somaliland.  In  1896  the  territories  of  Obock,  the 
protectorates  of  Tajourah  and  the  Danakils  country  were 
united  under  the  protectorate  of  Somaliland.  The  port  of 
Obock  was  acquired  in  1855,  but  not  occupied  until  1881. 
Sagallo  was  ceded  to  France  in  1883,  Tajurah  in  1884,  Anibado 
in  1888.  Great  Britain  had  claims  on  the  islands  of  Masha  and 
Elat,  but  ceded  them  to  France  in  1887.  In  1888  a  port  was 
created  at  Jibulil,  now  the  seat  of  government.  The  colony  is 
administered  by  a  Governor.  In  the  Red  Sea,  France  also 
claims  340  miles  north  of  Obock,  the  Bay  of  Adulis. 

French  Congo.  By  decrees  1891  the  French  establishments 
of  Gaboon,  Ogowe  and  Congo  took  the  name  of  French  Congo. 


640  APPENDIX 

The  territory  is  administered  by  a  Commissioner-General. 
French  acquisition  on  the  Congo  began  on  the  Gaboon  River 
in  1841.  Savorgnan  de  Brazza  extended  the  territory  in  1884 
over  the  vast  area  to  the  Congo.  It  was  still  further  enlarged 
in  1887.  Libreville  was  founded  in  1849.  Cape  Lopez  was 
gained  in  1862.  The  frontier  towards  the  Congo  Free  State 
was  settled  by  the  Conventions  of  1885  and  1887  ;  towards 
Kamerun  on  December  1885;  towards  the  Portuguese  posses- 
sion in  1886;  and  towards  the  Nile  by  the  Convention  with 
Great  Britain  in  1899.  By  the  Franco-German  agreement  of 
February  1896  the  region  to  the  east  of  the  Shari,  which 
includes  Bagirmi,  was  reserved  to  the  French  sphere  of  influence. 
In  1897  a  treaty  was  made  with  the  Sultan  of  Bagirmi  for  the 
appointment  of  a  French  Resident  at  Massenia. 

Madagascar  and  Dependencies  is  administered  by  a  Gover- 
nor-General. Diego-Suarey,  Nossi  B^,  and  Ste.  Maire  were  in 
1896  attached  to  the  administration  of  Madagascar.  France 
has  laid  claim  to  Madagascar  since  1642,  when  a  concession  of 
the  island  was  granted  to  a  trading  company  by  the  French 
king.  A  station  was  planted  here  in  1662  under  the  protection 
of  Richelieu.  In  1883  a  regular  conquest  was  commenced, 
which  failed  at  first,  but  eventually  converted  an  absolute 
monarchy  into  a  French  Protectorate.  In  1885  a  French 
Resident-General  was  received.  In  1890,  the  protection  of 
France  was  recognised  by  Great  Britain  but  not  by  the  native 
government.  In  1896  the  island  and  its  dependencies  were 
declared  a  French  Colony.  In  1897  the  Queen  was  deported 
to  R^^union,  whence  in  March  1899  she  was  transferred  to 
Algeria.  Nosse  B^  has  been  held  by  France  since  1843.  St. 
Maire  was  taken  by  France  as  early  as  1643. 

La  Reunion  is  situated  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  French 
settled  here  in  1649.  It  has  several  times  been  held  by 
the  English,  but  has  belonged  to  France  since  1764.  It  is 
administered  by  a  Governor,  and  is  represented  by  a  Senator 
and  two  Deputies. 

Maijoffe  Islands  and  Dependencies.  By  decree  1899  the 
isles  of  Cormores  were  united  to  Mayotte  and  placed  under 
the  authority  of  a  Governor.  Mayotte  was  ceded  to  France  by 
Adrian  Souli  in  1843,  and  French  influence  has  extended  over 
tlie   Comoro  Islands.      In    1886    the   chiefs   placed  themselves 


APPENDIX  641 

under  French  protection.  Mayotte  and  Comoro  Islands  were 
in  1896  placed  under  the  Governor  of  Reunion.  The  Glorieuse 
Archipelago  in  the  Indian  Ocean  belongs  to  Mayolle. 

-SY.  Paul  and  New  Amsterdam,  two  small  islands  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  midway  between  Australia  and  Africa.  They 
were  taken  possession  of  by  France  in  1843.  Area  of  St. 
Paul,  3  square  miles ;  New  Anisterdam,  26  square  miles. 

Kerguelen's  Land.  A  desolate  island  in  the  Antarctic 
Ocean,  85  miles  long  and  75  miles  wide,  discovered  by  a 
Breton  sailor  (after  whom  it  was  called)  in  1772.  It  was 
annexed  by  France  in  1892. 

Kerguelen,  a  desolate  island,  was  annexed  in  1893. 

French  Indo-GMna  is  under  a  Governor-General,  and  con- 
sists of  Armani,  Tonking,  Cochin-China,  and  Cambodia. 

Annarn,  an  Empire  in  S.-E.  Asia,  now  a  Frencli  Protectorate  ; 
it  formerly  included  Tonking,  Cochin-China,  and  Cambodia. 
French  intervention  in  the  affairs  of  Annam  began  as  early  as 
1787  and  terminated  in  a  Protectorate  in  1884.  Tlie  capital. 
Hue,  near  the  coast,  is  garrisoned  by  French  troops.  Cochin- 
China  was  annexed  in  1861  and  is  represented  by  one  deputy. 
As  far  back  as  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  V.,  the  merchants  of  Pouen,  and  others  of 
Brittany  and  Normandy,  joined  in  expeditions  to  Cochin-China. 

The  Kingdom  of  Cambodia  under  King  Norodom  recog- 
nised a  French  Protectorate  in  1863.  Tonking  was  annexed 
in  1884;  the  King  of  Annam  was  formerly  represented  in 
Tonking  by  a  Viceroy,  but  in  1897  he  consented  to  the  supjn-es- 
sion  of  the  Viceroyalty  and  the  creation  of  a  French  Kesidency 
in  its  place. 

The  Laos  territory  was  placed  under  French  protection  in 
1893.  Po'-"  commercial  purposes  the  country  is  almost  inac- 
cessible. 

K'wang  Chan  Wan  was  added  in  1900  to  French  Indo- 
China. 

By  treaties  of  18 14  and  18 15  the  French  possessions  in 
India  were  preserved,  consisting  of  Pondicherry,  Karieal, 
Shandernagar,  Mah6,  and  Yanaon.  The  year  of  acquisition 
dates  from  1679.  The  Governor  resides  at  Pondicherry.  The 
Colony  is  represented  by  one  senator  and  one  deputy. 

Frencli  India  consists  of  about  196  miles. 

V  2  S 


642  APPENDIX 

Ghandernagore.  On  right  bank  of  the  Hugh,  22  miles 
above  Calcutta  ;  area  3^  square  miles.  Established  1673.  For 
a  time  the  great  rival  to  Calcutta ;  now,  through  the  gradual 
silting  up  of  the  river,  it  has  but  little  external  trade.  Popula- 
tion, 25,395.  Seat  of  a  French  sub-governor.  Town  was 
captured  by  the  English  1757,  restored  in  1763,  again  retaken, 
and  finally  restored  to  the  French  in  181 6. 

Pondiclierry.  Chief  of  the  French  settlements  in  India. 
Situated  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  53  miles  S.-W.  of  Madras. 
Area,  115  square  miles.  Population,  140,945.  The  Governor 
of  Pondicherry  is  governor-general  of  all  the  French  settlements 
in  India.  The  French  first  settled  here  in  1674.  It  was 
several  times  taken  from  the  French  both  by  the  Dutch  and 
the  English,  but  always  restored,  and  finally  given  back  by 
the  latter  for  the  third  time  in  1816. 

Yanaon.  Small  patch  of  Indian  soil  belonging  to  France. 
It  is  surrounded  by  British  territory,  and  lies  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Godivari.      Area,  3^  square  miles.      Population,  4470. 

Make.  Only  French  settlement  on  west  coast  of  India,  in 
the  Malabar  district,  35  miles  N.N.-W.  of  Calicut.  Area,  3! 
square  miles.     Population,  8280. 

Martinique  Avas  originally  settled  by  France  in  1635  ;  Avas 
several  times  in  English  hands,  but  confirmed  to  France  in 
1814. 

Guadeloupe  Dependencies.  (La  Gaudeloupe  proper,  or  Basse 
Terre,  and  Grande  Terre,  Marie,  Galante,  les  Saintes,  D^sirade, 
St.  Barthelemy,  St.  Martin.)  Guadeloupe  is  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal colonies  in  the  West  Indies,  first  colonised  by  France 
in  1635,  it  has  several  times  been  captured  by  the  English; 
confirmed  to  France  in  18 14.  It  is  under  a  Governor,  and  is 
represented  hy  a  senator  and  two  deputies. 

Cayenne  or  French  Guiana  was  first  settled  in  1626,  and 
is  used  as  a  penal  settlement.  It  is  administered  by  a  Governor 
and  represented  by  a  deputy.  The  boundary  dispute  with 
Brazil  was  settled  by  ar})itration  in  1900. 

aS^^.  Pierre  and  Mignel/on  were  acquired  in  1763,  and  are 
administered  by  a  Governor.  Islands  in  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  south  of  Newfoundland  ;  forms  an  excellent  basis 
for  the  French  cod  fisliery.  Although  the  French  have  lost 
all    their  possessions   on    the    niainland    of    Ciuiada,    they   still 


APPENDIX  643 

retain  some  sliare  in  the  lislieries,  which  first  attracted  tlieir 
merchant  seamen  to  the  Nortli  American  coast. 

Chesterfield  Island.     Chapperton  in  tlie  North  Pacific. 

New  Caledonia  and  Dependencies  was  discovered  by  Captain 
Cook  in  1774.  Is  administered  by  a  Governor;  was  acquired 
from  1854  to  1887.  The  dependencies  are  the  Isle  of  Pines,  the 
Wallis  Archipelago,  the  Loyalty  Islands,  the  Huron  Islands, 
and  Futuna  and  Alafi,  annexed  in  1888. 

The  French  Oceania  is  administered  by  a  Governor.  The 
islands  were  acquired  from  1841  to  1881.  They  consist  of  the 
Society  Islands,  the  most  important  of  which  are  Tahiti  and 
Moorea ;  the  Windward  Islands,  comprising  Raiatea,  Tapaa, 
and  Bora  Bora ;  the  Tabuai  and  Ravavac  groups ;  the  island 
of  Rapa.  the  Tuamotu  Islands,  the  Gambier  Islands,  the 
Marqueza  Islands.  By  virtue  of  the  declaration  of  Pomare 
the  King  of  the  Society  Islands  and  dependencies  abdicated 
the  sovereignty  in  favour  of  France;  in  1880  tlie  protec- 
torate ceased  and  was  replaced  by  sovereignty  direct  from  the 
Republic. 

The  New  Hebrides  is  under  a  mixed  commission  of  French  and 
British  Naval  ofticers.     Under  Anglo-French  Convention,  1887. 

The  Republic  of  Andorra  is  under  the  joint  suzerainty  of 
France  and  the  Spanish  Bishop  of  Urgel.  Is  in  the  Eastern 
Pyrenees,  between  the  French  Department  of  Bridge  and  the 
Spanish  province  of  Lerida,  part  of  Catalonia  Area,  175  square 
miles.  Population,  6800,  but  others  estimate  it  as  high  as 
15,000.  Governed  by  a  sovereign  council  of  twenty-four 
members,  elected  for  four  years.  The  council  elects  its 
president.  France  and  the  Bishop  of  Urgel  appoint  each 
a  magistrate  and  a  civil  judge  alternately. 

BELGIUM. 

The  Congo  Free  State  succeeded  to  the  Congo  International 
Association  founded  in  1883  by  Leopold  II.,  King  of  the 
Belgians.  That  Association  was  recognised  in  its  sovereignty 
by  treaties  in  1884  and  1885  with  most  of  the  European  nations 
and  the  United  States.  Fi"eedom  of  trade  in  the  basin  of  the 
Congo  and  its  tributaries  was  declared  absolute.  The  protection 
of  the  natives  was  laid  down  by  certain  rules,  and  ihe  slave 


644  APPENDIX 

trade  abolished.  The  State  is  under  the  sovereignty  of 
Leopold  II.  on  the  basis  of  personal  union  with  Belgium,  the 
latter  claiming  the  right  of  annexation  if  necessary.  The 
Congo  Free  State  resulted  from  the  discovery  of  Sir  H.  M. 
Stanley,  and  the  explorations  carried  on  subsequently  by  the 
International  Association,  founded  at  Brussels  under  the  presi- 
dency of  the  King  of  the  Belgians  in  1876.  The  King  has 
endowed  the  State  out  of  his  private  fortune  to  the  extent  of 
;!^4o,ooo  annually. 

DENMARK. 

The  outlying  possessions  of  Denmark  include  the  Faroe 
or  Sheep  Islands,  Iceland  and  Greenland  in  Europe,  and  the 
West  Indian  Islands  of  St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  John 
in  America. 

The  largest  and  least  valuable  of  the  Danish  colonies  is 
Greenland,  whose  ice-bound  limits  defy  all  attempts  at  precise 
definitions.  The  country  is  absolutely  dependent  on  the 
mother  country,  and  the  trade  is  a  government  monopoly. 

Faroe  Islands.  The  inhabitants  of  these  islands  liave 
secured  for  themselves  political  and  commercial  independence, 
which  is  guarded  at  home  by  the  Landsthing  or  Legislative 
Chamber,  and  in  the  Danish  Landsthing  by  a  special  repre- 
sentative from  the  islands. 

Ireland  constitutes  an  inalienable  part  of  the  Danish 
monarch,  and  governed  by  the  King  of  JJenmark  with  the 
co-operation  of  a  legislative  assembly  on  the  island  known  as 
the  Althing.  The  island  was  placed  under  the  protection  of 
the  Norwegian  King  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  became 
associated  with  the  Danish  monarchy  a  century  later.  When 
the  Danish  people  acquired  their  constitutional  freedom  this 
was  not  granted  to  Iceland,  but  it  came  later  in  1874. 

West  India  Islands.  The  Danish  possessions  in  the  West 
Indian  Archipelego  consist  of  the  islands  of  St.  Croix,  St. 
Thomas,  and  St.  John,  which  have  a  total  area  of  138  square 
miles.  St.  Croix,  or  Santa  Cruz,  is  the  largest  of  the  three. 
Population,  1 9,783.  It  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492,  and 
boloiigod  successively  to  the  Dutch,  English,  Spanish,  French, 
and  Knights  of  Malta.     It  was  purchased  by  Denmark  in  1793. 

St.  Thomas  lies  thirty-six  miles  east  of  Puerto  Ilico.     Popu- 


APPENDIX  645 

lation,  14,389.  It  was  first  colonised  by  the  Dutch  in  1657, 
and  was  held  by  the  British  tliiee  times  — the  last  being 
1807-15. 

The  United  States  Government  is  in  treaty  with  the 
Danish  Government  for  the  i)urchasc  of  the  J^anish  West 
Indies. 

GERMANY. 

The  German  possessions  in  Africa  are — 

Togoland  and  the  Cameroons,  under  an  Imperial  Com- 
missioner and  Governor  respectively,  annexed  in  1884. 

Togoland  with  Little  Popo  and  Porto  Seguro  is  situated  on 
the  Slave  Coast  in  Upper  Guinea,  between  the  Gold  Coast 
Colony  and  the  French  Colony  of  Dahomey  ;  it  has  an  esti- 
mated area  of  33,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  2,500,000. 
The  boundary  is  by  agreement  with  France  1897,  and  Great 
Britain  1899.  A  German  Protectorate  was  declared  in  1884, 
and  is  now  placed  under  an  Imperial  Commissioner.  Kamerun 
(Cameroon)  became  a  German  Protectorate  in  1884,  and  is 
placed  under  an  Imperial  Governor,  assisted  by  a  chancellor, 
two  secretaries,  and  three  representative  merchants.  The  area 
is  estimated  at  191,130  square  miles,  34,000  of  which  has 
been  conceded  to  the  North- Western  Kamerun  Company,  who 
has  received  a  charter  to  develop  the  Colony. 

German  Suutli-Wed  Africa,  annexed  1885-90,  under  an 
Imperial  Commissioner,  Damaraland  with  Great  Namaqualand. 

An  Anglo-German  Company  has  obtained  from  the  German 
Government  (1892)  a  concession  of  the  northern  part  of  tbis 
territory.  In  1900  provision  was  made  to  advance  money  to 
German  settlers.  It  is  under  an  Imperial  Commissioner,  was 
acquired  in  1884-90,  and  has  an  estimated  area  of  300,000 
square  miles. 

German  East  Africa  is  under  an  Imperial  Governor,  and 
has  an  estimated  area  of  384,000  square  miles,  includes  a 
narrow  strip  of  territory  leased  from  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  for 
fifty  years  from  1888,  but  tlie  Sultan's  rights  were  acquired  by 
Germany  in  1 890  for  4,000,000  marks.  It  is  under  an  Imperial 
Governor.  Karagwe,  one  of  the  large  Central  African  States 
formed  after  the  dissolution  of  the  former  empire  of  Kitwara, 
lies  mainly  within  the  German  sphere. 


646  APPENDIX 

In  Asia — 

In  1897  Germany  sent  an  armed  force  to  Kiau  Chan  Bay 
in  consequence  of  the  murder  of  missionaries,  and  in  1898 
obtained  the  land  as  a  fine  from  the  Chinese  Government, 
together  with  mining  and  railway  concessions  in  the  province 
of  Shan  Tung.  The  sphere  of  influence  extends  over  2740 
square  miles.     It  is  under  an  Imperial  Governor. 

In  the  Pacific — 

The  northern  portion  of  the  eastern  half  of  S.E.  ISIew  Guinea, 
called  Kaiser  Wilhelmsland,  was  declared  a  German  Protecto- 
rate in  1884,  with  its  dependencies.  The  development  of  the 
Protectorate  is  entrusted  to  the  German  New  Guinea  Company. 
The  administration  is  in  the  hands  of  an  Imperial  Commissioner. 
Long  Island,  Dampier  Island,  and  Rook  Island,  also  Bougain- 
ville Island,  in  the  Solomon  group.  In  1884  a  protectorate 
was  declared  over  the  NeAV  Britain  Archipelago  and  several 
adjacent  groups  of  islands,  the  chief  being  New  Britain,  New 
Ireland,  Duke  of  York,  New  Hannover  Islands,  is  now  called 
the  Bismarck  Archipelago.  Solomon  Islands — Germany  owns 
of  this  group  Bougainville  and  Buka,  but  Choiseul,  Isabel,  and 
others  were  transferred  to  Great  Britain  in  1899.  The  Solomon 
Islands  and  the  Bismarck  Archipelago  are  under  the  Imperial 
Commissioner  of  Kaiser  Wilhelmsland. 

Marschall  Islands,  &c.,  occupied  in  1885,  is  under  an 
Imperial  Commissioner,  consist  of  two  rows  of  lagoon  islands, 
known  as  Ratack  and  Ralick  respectively. 

In  1899  the  Caroline,  Peleir,  and  Ladrone  (or  Marianne) 
Islands  were  purchased  from  Spain  ;  each  of  these  islands  is 
under  a  Dei)uty-Commissioner.  The  purchase  price  paid  was 
^^837, 500. 

The  Samoan  Islands  (Savaii  and  Upolu)  are  under  a 
Civil  Governor,  and  were  acquired  by  treaty  with  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1899.  The  independence  of  these  islands  was 
guaranteed  by  Great  Britain,  (Jermany,  and  the  United  States 
at  a  conference  held  at  Berlin  in  1889.  In  1899  Great 
Britain  renounced  all  right  over  the  islands ;  Germany  took 
Savaii  and  U])ohi  ;  tlie  United  States  took  Tutuila  and  the 
remainder. 

After  the  war  with  Fraiuie  in  1S71,  Alsace-Lorraine  was 
added  to  tlie  states  of  the  German  Emi)ire ;  the  state  is  repre- 


APPENDIX  647 

sented  in  the  Bundesrath  by  four  commissioners  (without  votes) 
nominated  by  the  8tattlialter,  and  fifteen  elected  deputies  in 
the  Reichstag. 

Heligoland  was  ceded  to  Germany  by  Great  Britain  in  1890, 
and  is  now  included  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  one  of  the  provinces 
of  Prussia. 

RUSSIA. 

Finland  was  ceded  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia  in  1809, 
and  preserves  some  remains  of  its  ancient  constitution,  which 
was  a  constitutional  monarchy  of  an  antiquated  type.  The 
Finnish  Diet  consists  of  four  estates — nobles,  clergy,  burgesses, 
and  peasants  convoked  triennally,  and  the  country  is 
chiefly  governed  by  the  Imperial  Finnish  Senate  of  twenty- 
two  members.  The  Governor-General  is  nominated  by  the 
Crown.  Finland  has  its  own  money  and  system  of  custom- 
house. 

Poland  had  a  constitution  of  its  own  from  1815  to  1830, 
and  a  separate  Government  till  1864.  In  1868  it  Avas  abso- 
lutely incorporated  with  Russia. 

The  Baltic  Provinces  had  some  measure  of  self-government, 
but  in  1889  the  last  vestige  was  abolished. 

Bolihara  was  founded  by  the  Usbegs  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
after  the  power  of  the  Golden  Horde  had  been  crushed  by 
Tamerlane.  The  present  dynasty  of  Manguts  dates  from  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In  1866  a  holy  war  was  pro- 
claimed against  Russia,  which  terminated  in  1873  by  Bokhara 
becoming  a  Russian  dependency,  retaining  its  reigning  sovereign, 
with  a  Russian  political  resident. 

Khiva,  like  Bokhara,  was  founded  in  tlie  fifteenth  century 
by  the  Usbegs  :  its  relations  with  Russia  is  said  to  have  com- 
menced at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the 
Khivan  Khans  first  acknowledged  the  Czar's  supremacy.  In 
1872  Russia  invaded  Khiva  on  the  pretext  that  the  Khivans 
had  aided  the  rebellious  Kirghiz,  and  the  Khanate  w\as  put 
under  Russian  control,  retaining  its  reigning  sovereign.  Khiva 
has  no  external  relations  except  with  Russia. 

Kwang-tung.  By  agreement  with  China  in  1898  Russia 
obtained  a  lease  of  Port  Arthur  and  Ta-lien-wan  with  the 
adjacent  seas  and  territory  to  tlie  north  for   twenty-five  years. 


648  APPENDIX 

which  may  be  extended  by  mutual  agreement.     In  1899  ^h® 
name  Kwang-tung  was  given  by  Russia  to  the  province. 

Mayichuria  is  now  held  in  military  occupation  by  Russia 
till  order  is  restored. 

ITALY. 

The  government  of  the  Italian  dependencies  is  represented 
by  a  civil  governor  nominated  by  the  King.  The  governor  is 
under  the  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs. 

In  1889  the  Sultan  of  Obbia  on  the  Somali  coast  put  his 
sultanate  under  the  protection  of  Italy.  In  1892  the  Sultan 
of  Zanzibar  ceded  to  Italy  the  Somali  coast  with  the  ports  of 
Brava,  Merka,  Magadisho,  and  Warsheik. 

Italy  possesses  the  Colony  of  Eritrea,  a  protectorate  over  part 
of  the  Somali  coast  and  the  isolated  stations  on  the  Juba  River  in 
North-East  Africa.  The  commencement  of  the  Italian  influence 
Avas  made  in  1880,  when  the  district  of  Assab  was  transferred 
from  a  trading  company  to  the  Government.  In  1885  the 
town  of  Kassala  was  abandoned  by  the  Egyptian  Government, 
was  occupied,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  tract  of  land  now 
known  as  Eritrea  was  taken  over.  In  1889  a  protectorate  was 
declared  over  the  kingdom  of  Abyssinia,  and  after  a  disastrous 
campaign  was  abandoned.  Somaliland  was  retained.  The 
isolated  station  of  Lugh  on  the  Juba  was  also  reserved.  In 
1897  Kassala  was  restored  to  Egypt. 

San  Marino  Avas  founded  in  the  fourth  century  and 
governed  by  a  council  of  sixty  (twenty  nobles,  twenty  towns- 
men, and  twenty  peasants),  of  whom  two  act  jointly  as  regents. 
In  1872,  by  a  treaty,  it  placed  itself  under  the  protection  of 
Italy. 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

Alaska,  the  north-western  portion  of  the  North  American 
continent.  A  third  of  the  fourth  portion  of  the  territory  lies 
witliin  the  Arctic  circle.  It  is  very  thinly  inliabitod.  It  was 
purchased  from  Russia  by  the  United  States  Government  in 
1867  for  7,200,000  dols.  Population,  31,795,  of  whom  only 
about  one-eightli  are  whites,  the  bulk  being  Indians. 

Hav)(iiian  or  Samhinrh  hlanch  was  discovered  ])y  the 
Spaniards  under  Galtano  in  1549,  and  visited  l)y  Captain 
Cook    in    1778,     It    formed    during   the  greater    part    of   the 


APPENDIX  649 

nineteenth  centur}''  an  independent  kingdom,  whose  integrity 
was  recognised  by  Great  Britain,  United  States,  and  other 
Governments.  In  1893  the  Queen  Liliuokalani  was  deposed, 
and  a  Kepublic  proclaimed.  In  1898  the  islands  were  formally 
annexed  by  Congress  to  the  United  States,  and  on  30th  April 
1900  the  inhabitants  wore  declared  to  be  citizens  of  the  United 
States  and  of  the  territory  of  Hawaii. 

Samoan  Islands.  By  the  Anglo-German  agreement,  1889, 
the  island  of  Tuturla  and  all  other  islands  in  the  Archipelago 
east  of  170°  E.  of  Greenwich  Avere  reserved  to  the  United 
States  of  America. 

Cuba,  the  largest  island  of  the  West  Indies.  Till  1898  the 
principal  colony  left  to  Spain.  Area,  including  adjacent  islands, 
46,419  square  miles.  Population,  1,650,000.  It  vvas  dis- 
covered by  Columbus  in  1492,  and  settled  by  the  Spaniards  in 
151 1.  On  the  conclusion  of  peace  between  the  United  States 
and  Spain  in  1899  the  island  Avas  made  a  dependency  of  the 
former  country,  and  though  Congress  has  affirmed  Cuban  inde- 
pendence, the  island  is  held  in  military  occupation  by  the 
United  States  forces,  pending  its  future  constitution. 

Porto  Rico  or  Puerto  Rico,  another  of  the  West  Indian 
Islands,  belonging  to  Spain  until  1898.  Area,  3530  square 
miles;  population,  820,000;  and  is  situated  seventy-five  miles 
east  of  Osayti.     It  is  now  under  military  rule. 

Philippine  Islands,  a  group  of  a  large  number  of  islands  in 
the  north  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  Discovered  by  Magellan 
in  1 52 1,  and  annexed  by  Spain  in  1569,  to  whom  they 
belonged  until  they  were  ceded  to  the  United  States  on  the 
termination  of  the  war  in  1898,  for  a  payment  of  ;^4,ooo,ooo. 

Guam,  the  largest  island  of  the  Ladrone  Archipelago.  By 
a  recent  decision  the  colonial  possession  of  ihe  United  States, 
as  such,  are  not  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  the  constitution  by 
way  of  representation  in  Congress ;  was  also  ceded  by  Spain  at 
the  Treaty  of  Paris,  and  will  probably  be  used  as  a  coaling 
station  for  the  U.S.  navy, 

JAPAN. 

Taiwan  (Formosa)  and  Hokotd  (the  Pescadores)  were  ceded 
to  Japan  upon  the  close  of  the  Chinese  War  of  1895.  Taiwan 
has  a  Governor-General  with  extreme  powers,  and  is  now  an 
integral  part  of  Japan. 


650 


APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 


653 


Total  Value  of  the  Import  and  Export  Tuadk  ok  the 
United  Kingdom. 


1900.               1899. 

1889. 

T 
330,168.729 

97,094,254 
224.275.950 

90.420.791 

248,935,195 

66,657,484 

Import.s  from  Foreign  Countries        .       413,544,528      378,206,288 

,,      British  Possessions       .        109,530,635      106,829.295 

Exports  to  Foieij;!!  Countries     .          .        252,349,700     235,285.062 

,,           Britisli  Possessions  .         .       102,024,054       94,249,596 

British  Product  and  Manuf.ictures      291,191,996     264,492.211 

Foreign  and  Colonial  Merchandise         63,181,758       65,042,447 

Total  of  Imports  and  Exports  .       877,448,917     814,570,241 

743,230,274 

Shipping — Total  Tonnage  of  British  and  FoREKix  VEssfxs 
AT  Ports  of  United  Kingdom. 


1899.                         1889. 

British 

Foreign 

Total     . 

Tons.                         Tons. 
65,648,989               52,469,654 

32,123,898               19,420,241 

97,782,887               71,889,89s 

Total  Value  of  Foreign  Merchandise  Imported  for  Tranship- 
ment FROM  Countries  and  British  Possessions  at  Ports 
IN  THE  United  Kingdom — not  included  in  Import  and 
Export  Table. 


1899. 

9,989,118 
797,494 

1889. 

Foreign  Countries        .... 
Britisli  Possessions       .... 
Total     . 

9,089,221 
1,091,791 

10,786,612 

10,181,012 

UNITED 

TRADE  WITH  FOREIGN   COUNTRIES 


Countries  from  which 

Imported  and  to  which 

Exported  from  United 

Kingdom. 

Total  Imports  and  Exports  of  the  United 
Kingdom  from  and  to  the  Countries  named. 

Exports  of  the  Product 
and  Manufacture  of 

1899. 

1888. 

the  United  Kingdom. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

£ 
8,643,256 

1899. 

1889. 

Russia      .... 

£ 
18,711,168 

£ 
16,138,580 

£ 
27,154,490 

£ 
11,720,333 

£ 
5,332,258 

Colonies 

Denmark  (including  Ice-  |^ 
land  and  Greenland)  j 

12,432,977 

4,399,025 

7,845.877 

2,817,954 

3,961,807 

2,368,284 

Colonies  (West  Indies) 

258 

48,415 

5,029 

84,262 

46,550 

81.724 

Germany 

30,123,058 

37,978,257 

27,104,832 

31,283,624 

25,996,127 

18,478,136 

Colonies 

48,736 

150.184 

48,431^ 

76,557 

138,164 

Holland  .... 

30,473,489 

14,044,468 

26,679,216 

16,183,786 

9,425,974 

9,724,757 

Colonies 

341,866 

2,503,891 

2,326,080 

2,010,181 

2,472,533 

1,963,031 

Belgium  .... 

22,861,967 

14,586,549 

17,674,877 

13,678,861 

9,836,165  1    7,229,418 

Congo  Free  State 

5,679 

"2,934 

105,545 

France     .... 

53.000,788 

22,277,012 

45,780,277 

22,232,605 

15,283,079    14,682,677 

Colonies 

1,404,322 

1,511,283 

674,447 

723,548 

1,413,619        664,664 

Portugal  .... 

3,172,258 

2,639,882 

3,105,076 

2,996,618 

2,100,125 

2,511,240 

Colonie.s 

299,915 

2,075,657 

321,315 

1,056,799 

1,924,509 

1,005,217 

Spain        .... 

14,572,954 

5,619,232 

",558,857 

4,925,712 

4,634,087 

4,237,990 

Colonies  (Cuba,  Porto 
Rico,       Philippines, 
and  Lailrones,   i888.   • 
Canary  Islands  only, 
1899)          .         .         1 

841,217 

767,646 

2,565,891 

4,807,088 

686,451 

3,783,527 

Italy         .... 

3,637,096 

7,725,984 

3,230,131 

8,063,854 

6,985,916 

7,156,557 

Colonies 

United  States  . 

120,081,188 

34,975,472 

95,461,475 

43,878,934 

18,119,380   30,293,942 

Colonies 

25,621 

2,133,207 

1,386,717 

Cuba,      I'orto      Rico,  \ 
Philippines,  and  La-  > 
drones        .         .         ) 

1,243,315 

438,635 

413.043 

Japan        .... 

1,692,408 

8,251,991         977,606 

4,055,386 

7,909,158     3,888,188 

Colonics        .         •         . 

... 

1  1895. 


KINGDOM 

WHICH   HAVE  COLONIES 


Exports  ( 
and  Colon 

5f  Foreign 
al  Product 

Total  Value  of 
Foreign  Merchandise 

Imported  for  Tran- 
shipment fiDin  each 

Country  at  ]\>rts  of 
the  United  Kingdom. 

Tonnage  of  Foreign 

Vessels  at  the 

Ports  of  the 

Gold  and  Silver,  Bullion  and  Specie. 

and  .Manufacture. 

I'nited  Kingdom. 
Entered  and  Cleared 

1899. 

1889. 

1899. 

1889. 

1899. 

1      1889. 

1899.            1889. 

Imports.     Exports. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

£. 
4,418,247 

£. 
3.3",oo5 

£, 
12,469 

£. 
1,464 

Tons. 
903,547 

Tous. 
513.119 

£. 

3,102,360 

C              £ 

437,218 

449,670 

31,421 

521 

3,275,632 

1,760,136 

8,500 

-         ;          4,570 

1,865 

2,538 

6 

570 

11,982,130 

12,805,488 

1,136,418 

1,091,916 

5,238,057 

3,956,315 

3,037,596 

4,904,122 

443,792     373,733 

12,020 

20 

4,618,494 

6,479,522 

960,922 

475,307 

2,950,447 

1,920,296 

1,405,286 

744,485 

2,254,067      190,561 

31,358 

47,468 

12,892 

4,750,384 

6,449,443 

475,237 

331,760 

1,494,438 

792,394 

1,510,766 

365,690 

577,361 

272,092 

7,389 

102 

6,993,933 

7,549,928 

3,538,410 

3,469,658  2,535,136 

1,867,567 

2,566,947 

2,324,456 

3,953,173 

1,818,567 

98,264 

59,560 

1,081 

... 

539,756 

485,378 

190,175 

278,514 

67,597 

72,247 

212,411 

152,756 

9,558 

2,113,995 

151,148 

51,781 

103,756 

985,145 

687,722 

366,481 

342,219 

2,006,440 

1,208,198 

83,048 

1,370,556 

198,671 

298,902 

81,19s 

1,023,559 

389 

101,398 

740,068 

907,297 

82,813 

78,675 

1,087,806 

456,150 

16,856,092 

13,584,992 

840,941 

981,299 

569.979 

325.610 

11,200,522 

1,341,987 

6,772,774 

4T.450 

746,490 

11,680 

342,833 

167,198 

43,153 

26,528 

970 

612,000 

656 


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662  APPENDIX 

TRADE   OF  COLONISING  COUNTRIES 

Total  Imports  and  Exports  of  Merchandise  with  their 
Colonies,  the  United  Kingdom  and  its  Colonies. 


1898.                     1 

1888. 

Countries. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Russia — 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

Total     .     . 

65,176,000  j 

77,338,000 

39,074,000 

78,405,000 

Finland       .... 

2,030,650 

3.525,000 

1,214,000 

2,054,000 

Bokhara  and  Khiva 

2,253,000 

2,656,000 

United  Kingdom 

12,250,000 

14,8^,000 

10,755,000 

30,428,000 

Colonies .... 

... 

Denmark — 

Total     .     . 

25,679,000 

18,131,000 

15,242,000 

10,366,000 

Colonies      .... 

123,000 

142,000 

126,000 

143,000 

United  Kingdom 

5,467,000 

11,246,000 

3,518,000 

6,221,000 

Colonies .... 

Germany — 

Total     .     . 

254,030,000 

187,830,000 

200,755,000 

158,335,000 

Colonies      .... 

220,000 

473,000 

231,000 

192,000 

United  King<lom 

28,316,000 

37,036,090 

33,262,000 

32,337,000 

Colonies       .     .     . 

18,308,000 

6,890,000 

7,519,000 

3,664,000 

Holland- 

Total    .     . 

149,645,000 

126,321,000 

106,008,000 

92,900,000 

Colonies     .... 

21,813,000 

5,626,000 

10,008,000 

4,154,000 

United  Kingdom      . 

22,417,000 

28,150,000 

28,449,000 

24,851,000 

Colonies  .... 

4,670,000 

240,000 

2,459,000 

290,000 

Belgium — 

Total     .     . 

81,789,000 

71,480,000 

61,375,000 

49,748,000 

Congo  

847,000 

368,000 

18,000 

98,000 

United  Kingdom      . 

11,352,000 

12,261,000 

7,302,000 

10,244,000 

Colonies       .     .     . 

5,108,000 

1,478,000 

2,440,000 

516,000 

France- 

Total    .     . 

178,904,000 

140,436,000 

164,280,000 

129,868,000 

Colonies     .... 

16,456,000 

15,609,000 

12,221,000 

10,137,000 

United  Kingdom 

20,198,000 

40,863,000 

21,153,000 

34,545,000 

Colonies.     .     .     . 

12,579,000 

1,007,000 

9,242,000 

986,000 

Portugal — 

Total     .     . 

10,936,000 

7,003,000 

8,568,000 

5,275,000 

Colonies     .... 

262,000 

1,127,000 

178,000 

204,000 

United  Kingdom     . 

3,505,000 

1,974,000 

2,769,000 

1,761,000 

Colonies.     .     .     . 

Spain — 

Total    .     . 

28,938,000 

36,758,000 

28,643,000 

30,524,000 

Canary  Islands    .     . 

47,000 

205,000 

29,000 

63,000 

Porto    Rico,    Cuba,  1 
andPhilipjiines/ 

2,010,000 

4,373,000 

2,626,000 

3,462,000 

United  Kingdom 

5,682,000 

10,100,000 

4,871,000 

7,175.000 

Colonies.     .     .     . 

884,000 

284,000 

779,000 

179,000 

Italy- 

Total     .     . 

56,.';33,ooo 

48,143,000 

46,984,000 

35,677,000 

United  Kingdom 

10,155,000 

4,664,000 

10,558,000 

4,639,000 

Colonies       .     .     . 

2,878,000 

1,321,000 

3,158,000 

1,005,000 

United  States — 

Total     .     . 

128,344,000 

252,144,000 

150,824,000 

142,471,000 

Hawaiian  Iwlands 

3,681,000 

1,203,000 

2,304,000 

630,000 

Cuba,    Porto    Rico,  \ 

2,461,000 

!ind  I'liili|)|iin('s  < 

4,474,000 

2,259,000 

13.333,000 

Unilcil  Kingclmn 

22,697,000 

111,333-000 

37,063,000 

74,633,000 

Colonies.     .     .     . 

16,259,000 

26,664,000 

17,362,000 

13,205,000 

Japan — 

Total    .     . 

29,847,000 

18,105,000 

10,091,000 

10,130,000 

United  Kingdom 

6,567,000 

795,000 

2,929,000 

889,000 

Colonies.     .     .     . 

6,101,000 

4,425,000 

1,868,000 

1,364,000 

COLONIAL  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


787.  First  invasion  of  England  by  Northmen. 

876.  Rollo  the  Northman  overruns  Normandy. 

913.  Rollo   reco<rnised   as    Duke   of   Normandy   by   Charles   the 

Simple. 
933.  Channel  Islands  ceded  to  William  of  Normandy  by  Rodolph 

of  Brittany. 
1066.  Norman  Conquest  of  England. 
1 1 54.  Pope  Adrian  IV.  bestows  Ireland  on  Henry  II. 
1 171.  The   supremacy  of  Henry   II.  acknowledged  by  the   chiefs 

in  Ireland. 
1284.  The   Statute  of  Wales  settles  the  administration   of  that 

country. 
1294.  First  alliance  between  Scotland  and  France  against  England. 
1329  and  1 33 1.  Edward  III.  does  homage  for  his  French  lands  to 

the  King  of  France. 
1337.  Edward  III.  takes  title  of  King  of  France,  which  is  given 

up  in  1360,  and  finally  in  1802. 
1347.  Calais  taken  by  Edward  III. 
1366.  Rouen  merchants  trade  with  Gold  Coast. 
1 43 1.  Henry  IV.  crowned  at  Paris. 
1453.  Final  lo.ss  of  France  to  England,  except  Calais. 
1462.  fiil>raltar  taken  by  the  Spaniards  from  the  Moors. 
1481.  Elmiiia  founded  by  the  Portuguese. 
i486.  Bartholomew  Diaz  and  Portuguese  discovers  the  "  Cape  of 

fiood  Hope"  iind  lands  at  Algoa  Bay. 
1492.  St.  Salvador  (Bahamas)  discovertnl  by  Columbus. 

1492.  Hispaniola  (Hayti)  discovered  by  Columbus. 

1493.  Leeward  Islands  discovered  by  Columbus. 

1493.  Papal    Bull    regulates   the   frontier   between    Spanish    and 
Portuguese  Colonial  possessions. 

1493.  Dominica,  Antigua,  and  Montserrat  discovered. 

1494.  Jamaica  discovered  by  Columbus. 

1497.  Vasco  da  (jiama  rounds  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

1497.  Newfoundland    and    mainland    of    America    discovered    by 

John  Cabot. 
1497.  Vasco  da  Gama  discovers  sea  route  to  India. 

1497.  Natal  discovered  by  Vasco  da  Gama  on  Christmas  day. 

1498.  Trinidad,  Tobago,  Grenada,  Nevis,  and  St.  Vincent  discovered 

by  Columbus. 
1498.  Vasco  da  Gama  visits  Calicut  (Hindustan). 

1 500.  Caspar  Cortereal  entered  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

1 501.  Ascension  discovered  by  De  Nova. 

663 


664  APPENDIX 

1502.  St.  Helena  discovered  by  the  Portuguese. 
1502.  St.  Lucia  discovered  by  Columbus. 
1505,  Sychelles  discovered  by  the  Portuguese. 

1505.  Ceylon  visited  by  the  Portuguese. 

1506.  Tristan  da  Cunha  discovered. 

1507.  Mauritius  discovered  by  the  Portuguese. 
1509.  First  settlement  of  the  Spaniards  at  Jamaica. 
151 1.  Malacca  taken  by  the  Portuguese;  held  till  1641. 

151 1.  Antonio  de  Abrea  discovers  New  Guinea. 

1 5 12.  Ponce  de  Leon  discovered  Florida. 

1 5 1 5 .  Juan  Bermudez  discovers  the  Bermudas. 

1 5 1 7.  Sebastian  Cabot  discovered  Hudson  BaJ^ 

1 5 17.  Portuguese  build  a  factory  at  Colombo. 

1519-22.  Magelhaens  circumnavigated  the  world. 

1524.  Verrazano  explored  the  Atlantic  Coast  of  Nova  Scotia. 

1526.  Babar  founds  the  Mughal  Empire  in  India. 

1532.  Bombay  occupied  by  the  Portuguese. 

1534.  June  21.     Landing  of  Jacques  Cartier  at  Esquimaux  Bay. 

First  landing  on  Canadian  soil. 
1 550.  Boulogne  restored  to  France. 
1 556-1605.  Akbar,  the  Great  Mughal,  reigned. 
1558.  Calais  captured  by  the  French. 

1 562-64.  The  Spaniai-ds  destroy  the  Huguenot  colonies  in  Florida. 
1576-78.  Frobisher's  voyage:  he  explores  the  coast  of  Greenland. 
1577-80.  Drake's  voyage  round  the  world. 

1578.  Gilbert  gets  a  charter  to  colonise  America. 

1579.  Thomas  Stevens  visits  Goa. 

1580.  Spain  annexes  Portugal. 

1580.  Dutch  West  India  Co.  plant  a  colony  at  River  Pomeroou, 

now  British  Guiana. 
1580.  The  British  plant  flag  at  Tobago. 
1583.  Gilbert  annexes  Newfoundland. 
1585.  Raleigh  founds  an  English  colony  in  America  (no  permanent 

settlement  made). 
1 588.  Captain  Cavendish  lands  at  St.  Helena. 
1588.  Queen  Elizabeth  grants  patent  to  merchants  to  trade  with 

the  Gambia. 

1 588.  Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada. 

1589.  An  English  expedition  reaches  India  by  land. 
1591.  Rainhold's  voyage  to  Senegambia. 

1 59 1.  British  sliips  visit  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

1 592.  The  Falkland  Islands  discovered  by  Davis. 
1595.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  visits  Trinidad. 

1598.  The  Marquis  de  la  Roche  landed  forty  convicts  on   Sable 

Island  (Canada). 
1598.  Mauritius  occupied  by  the  Dutch. 

1600.  East  India  Company  founded. 

1 60 1.  Alleged  discovery  of  Australia  by  Manoel  Godinho  de  Eredia, 

a  Portuguese. 

1602.  Dutch  ships  land  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

1602.  The  Dutch  Ea.st  India  Company  founded. 

1603.  First  visit  of  Samuel  du  Champlain  to  Canada. 
1603.  The  Union  of  the  Crowns  of  England  and  Scotland. 


APPENDIX  665 

1604.  The  Enf^lish  attempt  to  colonise  Guiana. 

1604.  The  Frencli  East  India  Company  founded. 

1605.  Founding  of  Port  Royal,  Acadie. 

1606.  The  Dutch  visit  Australia — Torres  Straits  discovered. 

1607.  Vir<^inia  colonised. 

1608.  Founding  of  Quebec,  the  first  permanent  settlement  of  New 

France. 

1608.  First  permanent  English  settlement  on  mainland  of  America. 

1609.  The  English,  under  Somers,  annex  the  Bermudas. 

1610.  Henrj'  Hudson  wintered  in  James'  Bay,  after  three  months 

exploration  of  Hudson  Bay. 

161 1.  Jesuits  arrived  in  Port  Royal,  Acadie. 

161 5.  Lakes     Huron,    Ontario,     and     Nipissing     discovered     by 

Champlain. 

1616.  Tranquetjar  granted  to  the  Danes. 

161 7.  Canada  invaded  by  the  Iroquois. 

161 7.  Raleigh's  voyage  to  (iuiana. 

1618.  The  Englisli  settle  on  the  Gambia  and  the  Gold  Coast. 
1620.  The  English  take  possession  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  but 

no  settlement  made. 

1620.  Landing  of  the  first   Puritan  settlement  at    Plymouth  in 

America. 

162 1.  The  Dutch  colonise  New  Netherlands  (New  York). 
1623.  Nova  Scotia  first  settled  by  the  English. 

1623.  The  Dutch,  by  "  Massacre  of  Amboyna,"  drive  the  English 

from  Spice  Islands. 

1624.  Manhattan  (now  New  York)  founded  by  the  Dutch. 

1625.  Barbados  settled. 

1625.  Jamestown  founded. 

1626.  The  French  West  African  Company  formed. 

1627.  Canada,  including  Acadie,  granted  to  the  Company  of  "  100 

Associates  "  by  the  King  of  France. 

1627.  The  English  attempt  to  colonise  Guiana. 

1627-28.  The    West    Coast     of     Australia    surveyed    by    Dutcli 
navigators. 

1628.  The  English  colonise  the  Bermudas. 

1628.  Port  Royal  (Acadie)  taken  by  Sir  David  Kirke. 
1628.  The  EngUsh  colonise  Nevis  (W.  I.). 
1628-58.  Reign  of  Shah  Jahun  in  India. 

1628.  Massachusetts  colonised. 

1629.  July.     Capture  of  Quebec  by  the  English  under  Sir  David 

Kirke. 
1629.  Treaty  of  Susa  between  Gi'eat  Britain  and  Fi-ance. 
1629.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  Company  formed. 

1629.  The  English  colonise  Bahamas. 

1630.  The  English  on  tlie  Moscpiito  Coast. 

1632.  Canada,  Cape  Breton  and  Acadie  i-estored  to  France  by  the 

Treaty  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye. 
1632.  The  first  school  opened  in  Quebec. 
1632.  The  English  colonise  Antigua  and  Montserrat. 
1632.  The  Dutch  settle  in  Tobago. 
1634.  The  English  permitted  to  trade  throughout  the  dominions 

of  the  Muehal. 


666  APPENDIX 

[634.  Maryland  colonised. 

[635.  Connecticut  colonised. 

[635.  Marquis  de  Gamache  founded  Jesuits'  College  in  Quebec. 

[635.  Lake  Michigan  discovered  by  Nicolet. 

1635.  December  25.     Death  of  Chaniplain  at  Quebec. 

[637.  De  Sillery  founded  school  and  home  for  Indians  near  Quebec. 

[637.  The  Dutch  expel  Portuguese  from  Gold  Coast,  capturing 

Elmina  and  Asim. 
[638.  Newhaven  and  Maine  colonised. 

1638.  The  Swedes  found  New  Sweden. 

[638.  A  Buccaneer  colony  at  Honduras  formed. 
[639.  The  Ursuline  Convent  founded  at  Quebec. 

1639.  The  Hotel  Dieu  founded  in  Quebec  by  Duchesse  D'Aiguillon. 
1639.  Madras  acquired  ;  first  English  territory  in  India. 

[640.  Lake  Erie  discovered  by  Chaumonot  and  Breboeuf. 

[640.  The  English  export  negroes  to  America. 

[640.  The  Dutch  take  Malacca  from  Portuguese. 

[640.  The  East  India  Company's  factory  founded  at  Hugli, 

1 64 1.  New  Hampshire  joined  to  Massachusetts. 

[642.  May  18.  Ville  Marie  (Montreal)  founded  by  Maisonneuve. 

Fort  Richelie  (now  Sorel)  founded  by  Montmagny. 
[642.  Tasman  discovers  Van  Diemen's  Land  and  New  Zealand. 

1642.  Another  French  East  India  Company  founded. 
[643.  Tasman  discovers  the  Fiji  Islands. 

[643.  A  "New  England  Confederation"  is  formed  in  America  of 

Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  Newhaven. 
1644.  Rhode  Island  colonised. 
[647.  Lake  St.  John  discovered. 
[650.  The  English  colonise  Anguilla. 
[650.  Grenada  and  St.  Lucia  settled  by  the  Frencli. 
(652.   The  Dutch  occui:)y  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
[654.  Acadie  taken  by  the  English. 
[655.  Dutch  arniex  New  Sweden. 
[655.  Jamaica  taken  by  British. 
1655.  The  Treaty  of   Westminster,  restoring  Canada  and  Acadie 

to  the  French. 
1658.  The  Dutch  drive  Portuguese  from  Ceylon. 
1660.  The  Anglo-Frencli  Agreement. 
[661.  St.  Helena  occupied  by  East  India  Company. 
[661.  The  English  get  Bombay  as  part  of  dowry  of  Catherine  of 

Braganza. 
[662.  The   Company    of    "Royal   Adventurers"    receive   charter 

from  Charles  II. 
1662.  Constitution  granted  to  Jamaica  by  Charles  II. 
[663.  The  English  occupy  St.  Lucia  (W.  I.). 
1664.  Conquest  of  New  Netherlands  in  America  from  the  Dutch  ; 

granted  to  Duke  of  York,  and  called  New  York. 
1664.  French  take  Montsenat. 
1664.  First  House  of  Assombl}-  in  .Jamaica. 
1664.  Sivaji  becomes  Ri'ijii  of  Manithas.     Defence  of  Sinat  against 

Sivaji. 

1664.  Another  French  East  India  Company  established. 

1665.  The  Dutch  seize  St.  Helena. 


APPENDIX  667 

1665.  Western  Australia  named  by  the  Dutch  "New  Holland." 

1665.  New  Jersey  colonised. 

1665-67.  War  between  Eni,dish  and  Dutch. 

1666.  The  En^dish  take  Vir<,an  Isles  (W.  I.). 

1666.  French  take  Anti<,nia  and  all  St.  Kitts. 

1667.  The  En<jlish  take  Cape  Coast  Castle  from  Dutch,  and  lose 

Cormantine. 
1667.  The  En<,dish  cede  St.  Lucia  to  French,  and  receive  back 

Aiiti<rua,  Montserrat,  and  share  in  St.  Kitts.    The  French 

obtain  St.  Domin<io. 
1667.  Acadie  restored  to  Prance  by  Treaty  of  Breda. 

1667.  The  Enjilish  cede  Surinam  to  the  Dutch  in  exchange  for 

New  York. 

1668.  Charles  II.  gives  Bombay  to  East  India  Company. 
1670.  Honduras  ceded  by  Spain. 

1670.  The  Hudson  Bay  Company  founded. 

1670-96.  No  goods  allowed  to  be  imported  from  the  colonies  to 
Ireland. 

167 1.  First  purchase  of  land  at  Cape  by  Dutch  from  Hottentots. 
1 67 1.  The  Danes  occupy  St.  Thomas  (W.  I.). 

1 67 1.  The  buccaneer,  Morgan,  sacked  Panama.       , 

1672.  The  Royal  African  Company  formed   to   trade  with  Gold 

Coast. 
1672-74.  War  between  English  and  Dutch. 

1673.  The  Dutch  take  New  York,  but  restore  it  to  English  1674. 

1673.  The  East  India  Company  retake  St.  Helena  from  the  Dutch. 

1674.  Grenada  annexed  to  France. 
1677.  The  French  take  Tobago. 

1 68 1.  Bengal  made  a  separate  presidency. 

1682.  The  Compagnie  du  Nord  formed  at  Quebec  for  Hudson  Bay 

fur  trading  in  Hudson  Bay. 

1682.  The  Dutch  take  Bantam. 

1683.  Charter  of  Massachusetts  annulled  by  Charles  II. 

1683.  Rising  at  Bombay  (juelled. 

1684.  Captain  Rogers  visits  Natal. 

1685.  The  French  expel  English  from  Hudson  Bay. 

1687.  The  East  India  Company's  factory  moved  from  Surat  to 
Bombay.  English  driven  from  Hugh,  but  allowed  to 
return. 

1688-89.  Three  hundred  Huguenot  refugees  arrive  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope. 

1689.  The  French  take  St.  Kitts. 

1690.  The  English  take  St.  Kitts. 
1690.  Calcutta  founded. 

1690.  Capture  of  Port  Royal  by  Sir  William  Pliipps. 

1696.  The  East  India  Company  build  Fort  William. 

1697.  Treaty  of    Ryswick.     Mutual    restoration    of   places   taken 

during  the  war. 

1697.  St.  Kitts  to  be  shared  by  the  French  and  English. 

1698.  Death  of  Frontenac. 

1699.  Dampier  explores  the  west  coast  of  Australia. 

1699.  The  French  colonise  Louisiana. 

1 700.  East  India  Company  buy  site  of  Calcutta. 


662,  APPENDIX 

1 70 1 .  August  4.     Ratification  of  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Iroquois 

at   Montreal.      Canadians   granted  leave   to   engage   in 
manufacturing. 

1702.  Jerseys  united. 

1702.  The  EngUsh  take  all  St.  Kitts. 

1703.  Delaware  colonised. 

1703.  St.  Lucia  capitulated  to  General  Greenfield. 

1 704.  Gibraltar  captured  by  Rooke  and  Cloudesley  Shovel. 

1707.  Act  of  Union,  England  and  Scotland,  passed. 

1708.  The  Old   and   New  Companies    united,  three  Presidencies 

established,  and  a  Governor  and  Council  appointed  for 

Bombay. 
1708.  Minorca  captured  by  General  Stanhope. 
1 7 12.  Dissolution    of    the   Royal  African  Company:    trade  open 

to  all. 

17 12.  The  Dutch  abandon  the  Mauritius. 

17 1 3.  The  English  obtain  all  St.  Kitts  and  facilities  for  slave  trade 

("Assiento  Treaty"). 

1713.  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  by  which  Hudson  Bay  and  adjacent 
territory,  Nova  Scotia  (Acadie)  and  Newfoundland  were 
ceded  to  the  English.     Louisburg  founded. 

1 7 18.  Pirates  driven  from  the  Bahamas. 

17 1 8.  Law's  Mississippi  Company  found  New  Orleans. 

1 7 1 9.  Fii'st  Government  founded  at-  Nova  Scotia. 
1 72 1.  The  Dutch  attempt  to  colonise  Natal. 

1 72 1.  January  21.     Mail  stage  coaches  established  between  Quebec 

and  Montreal. 
1 72 1.  The  French  East  India  Company  occupy  the  Maiiritius. 
1 72 1.  The  Dutch  settlement  at  Natal  abandoned. 

1731.  The  Swedish  India  Company  formed. 

1732.  The  colony  of  Georgia  founded. 

1738.  The  Maroons  allowed  to  settle  in  tlie  nortli  of  Jamaica. 

1739.  Invasion  of  India  by  Niidir  Shah. 

1744.  The  French  take  St.  Lucia. 

1745.  Louisburg  and  Isle  of  Cape  Breton  taken  from  French. 

1746.  Labourdonnais  takes  Madras;    English  retire   to   Fort  St. 

David. 
1748.  St.    Lucia,    St     Vincent,    Tobago,    and    Dominica    to    be 

neutral. 
1748.  The  English  vainly  attack  Pondicherry.    Madras  restored  to 

the  Englisli. 
1748.  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1748.  Restoration  of  Louisbm-g    to   the  French  in  exchange  for 

Madras,  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1749.  June  21.     The  City  of  Halifax  founded  by  Lord  Halifax. 
175 1.  Rocky  Mountains  discovered  by  Niverville's  Expedition. 

175 1.  Capture  of  Arcot  by  ]{o])ert  Clive. 

1752.  Marcli  23.     Issue  of  the  Halifax  Gazdti',  the  first  paper  pub- 

lislied  in  Canada. 
1752.  The    new    stylo    introduced    into    England.       Year    began 

.January    i,   not   March  25,  and  eleven   days   suppressed 

l)etween  2nd  and  14th  of  Septeniber. 
1752.  Trichcnsprey  surrendered  to  French. 


APPENDIX  669 

1754.  The    French   recall   Dupleix.      Treaty   of    Peace   signed   at 

Pondicherry. 
1754.  The  French  annex  the  Seychelles. 

1754.  The  French  occupy  Fort  Duquesne,  on  the  Ohio. 

1755.  Expnlsion  of  the  Acadians  from  Nova  Scotia. 

1756.  Sinij-ud-daulii  takes  Calcutta.     (Black  Hole  Massacre.) 
1756.  The  English  take  Dominica. 

1756.  The  French  take  Port  Mahon  in  Minorca. 

1757.  Clive  recovers  Calcutta,  takes  Chandernagar,   and   defeats 

Nawi'ib  at  Plassey. 

1758.  The  English  take  Senegal  and  Goree. 

1758.  July  26.     Final  capture  of  Louisburg  by  the  EngHsh  under 

General  Amherst. 
1758.  First  meeting  of  Nova  Scotian  Legislature. 
1758.  Clive,    Governor    of    Bengal,    reduces    Chinsurah    to    mere 

trading  post. 
1758.  Capture  of  Fort  Duquesne  (afterwards  called  Pittsburg). 

1758.  Louisburg  and  Cape  Breton  taken. 

1759.  Battle  of  Quebec.     Death  of  Wolfe.     Quebec,  Ticonderoga, 

Cixnvn  Point,  and  Fort  Niagara  captured. 

1 760.  The  English  take  Montreal.    Conquest  of  Canada  completed. 
1760.  Rising  of  slaves  in  Jamaica. 

1760.  Victory  of   Wandewash   secures  Madras   to   England,  and 

completes  the  downfall  of  French  in  India. 

1 76 1.  Capture  of  Martinique  by  the  English. 

1 76 1.  Capture  of  Pondicherry  from  French;  restored  1763. 

1762.  First  English  settlement  in  New  Brunswick. 

1762.  The  English  take  Havannah,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  and 

Grenada. 
1762.  Capture  of  Manilla  (Pliilippine  Islands). 
1762.  Capture  of  Havannah  (Cuba). 

1762.  Grenada  surrendered  to  England. 

1763.  The  English  retain  Tobago,  Dominica,  St.  Vincent,  Grenada, 

but  restore  St.  Lucia  to  France,  and  give  back  Havannah 

to  Spain. 
1763.  The    peace    of    Paris.      England    keeps    her    conquests   in 

America,  including  Canada  and   parts   of   West  Indies. 

Restores  Pondicherry. 
1763.  The  English  retain  Senegal,  but  return  Goree  to  France. 
1763.  Explorations  of  Wallis  and  Carteret  in  Australia. 
1763.  The  English  massacred  at  Patna. 

1 763.  Falkland  Islands  taken  by  the  French. 

1764.  Spain  buys  Falkland  Isles. 

1764.  Act  for  taxing  American  imports;  all  taxes  removed  except 
tea  in  1770. 

1764.  Munro,  at  Bax;ir,  defeats  league  of  Great  Mughal,  Naw:ib  of 

Bengal  and  Wai^ir  of  Oudh.     Makes  England  the  leading 
Power  in  India. 

1765.  Grenville's  Stamp  Act  for  America.     Repealed  in  1766. 
1765.  The  English  garrison  Falkland  Isles. 

1765.  Isle  of  Man  annexed  to  Great  Britain, 
1767.  Carteret  discovers  Pitcairn's  Island. 
1767.  Townshend's  Revenue  Act  passed. 


670  APPENDIX 

1768-71.  Captain  Cook  circumnavigated  the  world. 

1769.  Cook  visits  New  Zealand  and  Fiji. 

1770.  Prince  Edward  Isle  separated  from  Nova  Scotia. 
1770.  Spain  seizes  Falkland  Isles. 

1770.  Cook  visits  Australia,  landing  at  Botany  Bay,  and  names 
the  country  New  South  Wales. 

1770.  Captain  Cook  lands  at  Moreton  Bay  (Queensland). 

1 77 1.  England  recaptures  Falkland  Isles. 

1 77 1.  The  French  take  Dominica. 

1772.  Lord  Mansfield  declares  slavery  cannot  exist  in  England. 

1773.  Exploration  of  Furneaux. 
1773.  Boston  tea  riot. 

1773.  First  meeting  of  the  House  of  Assembly  of  Prince  Edward 

Island. 

1774.  The  "  Quebec  Act  "  passed. 

1774.  Warren  Hastings  becomes  first  Governor-General  of  India. 

He  reorganised  the  administration. 
1774.  Falkland  Isles  abandoned. 
1774.  Cook  discovers  Norfolk  Island. 

1774.  Assembly  of  Massachusetts  meets  for  the  last  time  under 

the  English  Crown. 

1775.  The  French  retake  Senegal. 
1775-83.  War  of  American  Independence. 

1775.  George    Washington    appointed    Commander-in-Chief    in 
America. 

1775.  Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill. 

1776.  Battle  of  Long  Island;  Declaration  of  Independence. 

1777.  Surrender  at  Saratoga. 

1778.  June  3.     First  issue  of  the  Montreal  Gazett".     This  paper  is 

still  published. 
1778.  Cook  arrived   in    Nootka  Sound  and  claimed   the  present 

north-west  coast   (British   Columbia)  for  the  Crown   of 

Great  Britain. 
1 778-82.  French  take  all  West  Indies,  except  Jamaica,  Antigua, 

Barbados,  and  Baliamas  (which  last  Si)ain  take). 
1778.  France  recognises  the  independence  of  United  States. 

1778.  American  ally  with  France. 

1779.  Spain  joins  in  American  war. 

1779.  French  take  English  posts,  but  lose  Goree. 

1780-83.  War:   England  against  France,  Spain,  and  Holland  for 
naval  supremacy. 

1780.  Pitcairn  Island  occupied  by  Mutineers  of  JlouiUn. 

1 78 1.  Cornwallis  surrenders  at  Yorktown. 
1 78 1.  The  Dutch  war  with  the  Kaffirs. 

1 78 1.  Tobago  cai)turcd  by  the  French. 

1 78 1.  Hayder  Ali  defeated  by  Sir  Eyre  Coote. 

1782.  Rodney   victorious  in   West   Indies  against   the   Count   de 

Gi-as.se. 
1782.  England   acknowledges    the    independence    of    tlie    United 

States. 
1782.   Rodney's  victory  oil"  Dominica  saves  Jamaica. 
1782.  English  lose  Minorca. 
1782.  English  invade  CeyLm. 


APPENDIX  671 

1783.  Enfjlisli  to  have  Gambia ;  France  to  have  Senegal  and  Goree. 

1783.  Treaty  of  Versailles.     French  and  Americans  get  right  to 

fish  in  Gulf  of  8t.  Lawrence.     Boundary  between  Canada 
and  the  United  States  defined. 

1784.  August  16.     New  Brunswick  made  a  separate  province. 
1784.  Pitt's  India  Bill  passed,  forming  Board  of  Control. 

1784.  Tipu  of  Mj'sore  makes  peace. 

1785.  May   18.     Date   of   charter   of    St.   John,  N.B.,  the  oldest 

incorporated  town  in  Canada. 

1786.  First  vessel  on  the  Pacific  coast  launched  by  Captain  Jolin 

Meares. 

1786.  Penang  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company. 

1787.  Freed  negroes  settled  at  Sierra  Leone. 
1787.  The  French  acquire  Cape  Verde  and  Dakar. 

1787.  First   Colonial   See  established   in    the   British    Empire    in 

connection  with  the  Church  of  England  in  Nova  Scotia. 
1787.  Association  for  Abolition  of  Slave  Trade  formed. 

1787.  Sierra  Leone  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  native  chiefs 

1788.  Captain  Arthur  Philips  lands  a  party  of  convicts  at  Port 

Jackson,  N.S.W. 

1788.  Sydney  founded;  convicts  sent  to  Norfolk  Island. 
1789-93.  Permanent  land  settlement  established  in  Bengal. 

1789.  Battle  of  St.  George  Coy;  Spaniards  expelled  from  Briti.sh 

Honduras. 

1790.  Vancouver  Island  circumnavigated  by  Captain  Vancouver. 

1 791.  Canada  divided  into  two  provinces. 

1792.  September  17.     First  meeting  of  the  Parliament  of  Upper 

Canada  at  Newark  (Niagara).     English  law  introduced. 

1793.  Slavery  abolished  in  Upper  Canada. 

1793.  ^^^^^  East  India  Company  annex  New  (Juinea  ft)r  a  time. 

1793.  Pondicherry  taken  from  Frencli. 

1793.  The  English  take  Tobago  and  St.  Vincent. 

1794.  The  Englisli  take  St.  Lucia,  Martinique,  and  Guadaloupe. 

1794.  Sej'chelles  taken  b}'  the  English. 

1795.  The  English  take  Malacca  from  Dutch. 
1795.  Mungo  Park  ascends  the  Niger. 

1795.  The  English  take  Cape  from  the  Dutch;  restore  it  1803; 

again  captured  1806. 

1796.  The  English  take  Ceylon  and  Moluccas,  also  Guiana,  from 

the  Dutch. 

1796.  Seat  of  Government  of  Upper  Canada  removed  to  Toronto. 

1797.  The  English  take  Trinidad  from  Spain,  and  remove  Caribs 

from  St.  Vincent. 

1797.  Tasmania  found  to  be  an  Island. 

1798.  Bass's  Straits  discovered. 

1798.  Slave    Amelioration   Act   and    Catholic    Emancipation   Act 

passed   by   general   legislature  Windward    Island ;   both 
disallowed  by  Crown. 

1799.  Death  of  Wa,shingt(m. 

1799.  Capture  of  Seringapatam. 

1800.  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
1800.  Malta  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  British. 
1 800.  The  English  for  a  time  occupy  Perim. 


672  APPENDIX 

1 800.  Province  Wellesley  occupied. 

1 80 1.  Ceylon  made  a  separate  colonJ^ 

1802.  Guiana  restored  to  the  Dutch. 

1802.  The  English  restore  the  Cape  to  the  Dutch. 

1 802.  Peshwa  of  Poona  submits  to  "  Subsidiary  system,"  hence 

second  Marathd  War  (i  802-1 804),  with  battles  at  Assaj'e 

(1802),  Argaum,  &c.,  and  with  result  that  Sindhia  and 

Bhonsla  yielded  to  System. 
1802.  Treaty    of    Amiens.      England    restores    conquest    except 

Trinidad   and   Ceylon.      The   title   of    King    of    France 

abandoned  by  England. 
[802.  Flinders  discovered  Port  Phillip. 
[803.  Convicts  sent  to  Van  Diemen's  Land. 
[  803.  Louisiana  purchased  from  the  French. 
[803.  Occupation  of  Kandy  and  Guiana. 

13.  The  English  take  Tobago  and  St.  Lucia. 

[  803.  First  newspaper  established  at  New  South  Wales. 
[803.  Slavery  abolished  in  Lower  Canada. 

14.  The  English  capture  Goree. 

[805.  Convicts  cease  to  be  sent  to  Norfolk  Island. 

[806.  November  22.     Issue   of    Le  Canudien,  the  first  Canadian 

newspaper  printed  entirely  in  French. 
[806.  The  English  take  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
[807.  The  English  take  St.  Thomas  and  St.  Croix. 
[807.  Abolition  of  the  slave  trade. 
[807.  The  English  take  Heligoland  from  Danes. 

g.  The  English  take  Cayenne  and  Martinique. 

9.  The  English  take  Senegal. 

9.  Kaffirs  expelled  from  Zuurveldt  and  Rietfontein. 

9.  First  steamer  on  St.  Lawrence  River. 
[810.  The  English  take  Guadaloupe  and  St.  Eustace. 
[810.  Mauritius  captured  by  British. 
[810.  Merino  sheep  introduced  into  New  South  Wales. 
>i2.  United   States   declare   war  against   England  and    invade 
Canada. 

[812-13.  Bathurst  country  explored. 

[813.  East  India  Company  loses  monopoly  of  Indian  trade. 
[814.  December  24.     War  with  America  terminated  by  treaty  of 

Ghent. 
[814.  The  English  keep  Tobago  and  St.  Lucia,  and  restore  other 

conquests. 

[814.  British  Guiana  ceded  to  Great  Britain. 
[814.  Peace  of  Paris. 
1 814.  The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  finally  ceded  to  English. 

1814.  Goree  restored  to  the  French. 
[814-15.  Gurkha  war. 

[815.  Ascension  Lsland  taken  and  garrisoned  by  Great  Britain. 

1815.  Bonaparte  conveyed  to  St.  Helena. 
!l5.  The  English  annex  Candy. 

1816.  The  English  restore  Java  to  Dutch. 
1816.  Algiers  b(^ml)arded  by  Exmouth. 

1816.  New   settlement    at    Gambia   by   British   merchants    from 
Senegal. 


APPENDIX  673 

816.  Tristan  da  Cunha  annexed. 

817.  Pindi'ii'is  conquered. 

817-18.  Tliiid  M;ir;'itha  War,  endin<i  in  annexation  of  Poona  and 
reduction  of  Holkar  and  Kajputana. 

818.  Treaty  between  America  and  Canada  respecting  fislieries. 

818.  The  Eniflish  restore  Malacca  to  Dutch. 

819.  The  En<fHsli  occupy  Sini^apore. 

820.  Spain  cedes  Florida  to  United  States. 
820.  Cape  Breton  reannexed  to  Nova  Scotia. 

820.  Buenos  Ayres  tries  to  settle  Falkland  Isles. 

821.  African  Company  dissolved  and  its  forts  transferred  to  the 

Crown. 

823.  Brisbane  River  discovered. 

823-28.  Lord  Amherst,  Governor-Cjieneral  of  India ;  conquest  of 
part  of  Burniah. 

824.  War  with  Burmah.     Rangoon  taken. 
824.  Convicts  sent  to  Moreton  Bay. 

824.  Siui^aj^ore  ceded  by  Sultan  of  Johor. 

825.  Tasmania  made  a  separate  colony. 

825.  The    Enj^lish    get    from    Dutch    Malacca    in    exchange    for 

Sumatra. 

826.  Ashantis  defeated  at  Accra. 
826.  Annexation  of  Assam. 

826.  Convicts  sent  to  Norfolk  Island. 

826.  New  South  Wales  tries  to  colonise  New  Zealand. 

826-29.  Colonists  settle  on  Swan  River. 

828.  Gold  Coast  dropped  by  (government. 

828.  American  tarifl  imposing  heavy  duties  on  British  goods. 
828-35.  Lord   W.  C.  Bentinck,  Governor-General  of  India ;   puts 

down  Thagi  and  Sati ;  Macaulay  is  legal  member  of  his 
council. 
828-31.  Sturt's  expeditions  into  South  Australia. 

829.  Settlement  made  in  Western  Australia. 

829.  Perth  founded. 

830.  Mormons  first  appear. 

830.  Ports  in  America  reopened  to  British  commerce. 

831.  Insurrection  of  negroes  in  Jamaica. 

831.  Americans  destroy  settlement  on  Falkland  Isles. 

832.  Insurrection  of  negroes  in  Trinidad. 

832.  Constitutiim  given  to  Newfoundland. 

833.  Act  of  Parliament  opening  the  trade  to  India  and  China. 
833.  Abolition  of  slaves. 

833.  The  English  colonise  Falkland  Isles. 

833.  Anti-Slavery  Society  established  in  United  States. 

834.  Toronto  incorporated. 

834.  Crown  takes  over  St.  Helena. 

835.  Settlement  at  Port  Phillip. 

835-36.  Dutch  "  trek  "  into  Natal,  and  defeat  Zulus. 

836.  First  railroad  in  Canada,  La  Prairie  to  St.  John's. 

836.  South  Australia  colonised  ;  Melbourne  and  Adelaide  founded. 

837.  Singapore  made  seat  of  government  of  Straits  Settlements. 
837.  The  Dutch  Boers  migrate  to  Natal. 

83S.  Negro  population  of  Jamaica  emancipated  (310,000). 
V  2  U 


674  APPENDIX 

838-39.  Eyre's  expeditions  (Australia). 
839.  Annexation  of  Aden. 
839.  New  Zealand  colonised. 

839.  Republic  of  Natal  proclaimed  by  the  Boers.     Maritzburg 

founded. 
839-40.   Native  chiefs  cede  New  Zealand  to  British.     Wellington 
and  Auckland  founded. 

840.  Sir   James   Brooke   establishes   the   independent    State   of 

Sarawak. 
840-41.   Eyre's  last  expedition  (Australia). 
840-41.  New  Canadian  Constitution.     Upper  and  Lower  Canada 

united. 

841.  Convicts  to  New  South  Wales  cease. 

841.  Hong  Kong  ceded  to  the  English.     Treaty  ports  opened. 

841.  New  Zealand  becomes  a  separate  colony. 

841.  Insurrection  at  Kabul,  followed  by  disastrous  retreat. 

842.  Queensland  opened  to  colonists.     Copper  found  in   South 

Australia.       Sturt's    journey   to   the   central    region    of 
Australia. 
842.  Algiers  annexed  to  France. 

842.  August  9.     Settlement  of  the  boundary  line  between  Canada 

and  the  United  States  by  the  Ashburton  Treaty. 

843.  Sind  annexed      Gwalior  captured. 
843.  Strzelecki  explores  Gipp's  Land. 

843.  Victoria,  B.C.,  founded  by  James  Douglas.  (Geological 
survey  established  by  Government.  First  iron  steamer 
in  Canada  launched  at  Montreal. 

843.  Natal  annexed  by  the  English. 

843.  The  Gambia  made  a  separate  settlement  from  Sierra  Leone. 

843.  Government  resumes  control  of  the  (Jlold  Coast. 

844-45.  Leichhardt's  first  expedition  (Australia). 

845.  Jamaica  railway  opened. 

845.  Orange    Free    State    annexed;    Pretorius    leads    Boers    to 

Transvaal. 
845-46.  Sikh  War :  Battle  of  Mudki. 

846.  Labuan  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the  Sultan  of  Borneo. 

846.  Ti'eaty  of  Lahoi'e  ;  end  of  fii-st  Sikh  war. 

847.  Navigation  laws  repealed.     Electric  telegraph  line  established 

between  Quebec,  Montreal,  and  Toronto. 
847.  Bishopric  of  Cape  Town  founded. 

847.  Liberia  declared  an  independent  republic. 

848.  Leichhardt's  last  expedition  (Australia). 
848.  Annexation  of  the  Orange  River  territory. 

848.  Turks  and  Caicos  Islands  placed  under  the  Government  of 

Jamaica. 

849.  Canadian  tnide  opened  to  world.      Vancouver's  Isle  made  a 

Crown  colony. 
849.  Satitra  annexed.     I'mijab  annexed.     Duli'[)  Singli  ])('nsioned. 

849.  (!aiK!  colonists  object  to  convicts  l)eing  .sisnt. 

850.  The  Straits  Settlements  se])arat('d  from  IJcngal. 
850.   Bombay  railway  commenc(!d. 

850.  RnssiOl  allows  certain  Australian  Colonies  to  choose  mode  of 
govrrnnicrit. 


APPENDIX  675 

850.  Convicts  sent  to  West  Australia. 

850.  Gold  discovered  in  Australia. 

850.  The  first  sod  of  the  Northern  Kiiilvvay  (Canada)  tinned  bj' 

Lady  Elj^in. 
850-53.  KaHir  Wars:  En^dish  buy  Danisli  pos.sessions   on    (UAd 

Coast. 

850.  Victoria  made  a  separate  colony. 

851.  The    (ireat    Exhibition   at    London.     Submarine    telegraph 

from  Dover  to  Calais. 
851.  Prince  Edward's  Isle  t^ets  responsible  f^overnment. 
851.  Kini.'-  of  Lai^os  (Kosoko)  expelled  by  British  on  account  of 

his  connection  with  the  slave  trade. 
851.  Transfer   of    the   control    of    the    postal   system    from    the 

British  to  the  provincial  (iovernments,  and  adoption  of 

a  uniform  rate  of  postaj^e  (Canada). 

851.  Gold  found  in  Victoria,  which  is  now  separated  from  New 

South  Wales. 

852.  Second  Burmese  Wai\     Pe<iu  conquered. 
852.  Newfoundland  f^ets  responsible  ifovernment. 
852.  New  Zealand  obtains  responsible  ifovernment. 
852.  Transvaal  recoffnised  as  independent. 

852.  Annexation  of  Pe<fu. 

852.  Commencement  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway. 

853.  First  ocean  steamer  arrived  at  Quebec. 

853.  Convicts  cease  to  be  sent  tt)  Van  Diemen's  Land,  which  now 

takes  the  name  of  Tasmania. 
853.  Orange  llepublic  acknowledged. 
853.  District  of  British  Kafi'raria  formed. 

853.  Ct)nstitution  granted  to  the  Cape  Colony. 

854.  Kuria  Muria  Islands  ceded. 

854.  New  Constitution  given  to  Jamaica. 

854.  Orange  Free  State  restored. 

854.  Reciprocity  Treaty  with  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

854.  Colonial  and  War  Secretaryships  separated. 

855.  Victorian  and  New  South  Wales  constitutions  formed. 

855.  Responsible  government  granted  to  Ne\vft)undland. 

856.  Natal  separated  from  Cape  and  made  a  Crown  colony. 
856.  Oudh  annexed. 

856.  Tasmania  and  South  Australia  receive  responsible  govern- 
ment. 

856.  Most  of  inhabitants  of  Pitcairn's  Island  moved  to  Norfolk 
Island,  which  ceased  to  receive  convicts. 

856.  German  Legion  from  Crimea  arrive  at  Cape. 

856.  Treaty  of  Paris. 

856.  Canadian  Council  made  elective. 

856.  Grand  Trunk  Railway  opened. 

857.  Perim  occupied. 

857-58.  Great  Sepoy  nuitiny  :  Sikhs  loyal. 
858-64.  Livingst(me's  journeys  in  Zambesia. 

858.  Ottawa  made  capital  of  Canada. 
858.  Gold  found  in  British  Columbia. 

858.  Adoption  of  the  decimal  currency  in  Canada. 
858.  Annexation  of  Oudh. 


^7^  APPENDIX 

1858.  Gladstone  sent  as  Commissioner  to  Ionian  Islands. 

1858.  Queen  Victoria  proclaimed  Sovereign  of  India. 

1858.  Crown  takes  over  India  from  East  India  Company:  Mutiny 

suppressed;  cost  ^40,000,000. 
1858.  Suez  Canal  commenced. 

1858.  First   Atlantic   cable   laid;    connection    broken   after   first 

message. 

1859.  Queensland  separated  from  New  South  Wales  and  receives 

constitution. 
1859.  Fiji  vainly  offers  cession. 
1859.  The  Punjab  made  a  distinct  Presidency. 
i860.  Kowloon,  near  Hong  Kong,  ceded. 
i860.  War:  England  and  France  v.  China. 
i860.  First  railway  from  Cape  Town. 
i860.  Winnipeg  founded. 
1 86 1.  Lagos  ceded  to  English. 

1 86 1.  Boers  in  Transvaal  form  themselves  into  a  separate  State. 
1 86 1.  Stuart,  M'Kinlay,  and  Landsborough  cross  Australia. 

1 86 1.  King  Docemo  cedes  Lagos  to  British  Crown. 

1862.  British  Columbia  obtains  responsible  government. 
1865.  Rising  in  Jamaica  ;  put  down  by  Governor  Eyre. 

1865.  Wellington  made  capital  of  New  Zealand. 

1866.  Fenian  invasion  of  Canada  from  United  States. 
1866.  Vancouver's  Isle  joined  to  Columbia. 

1866.  Inter-colonial  Exhibition  at  Melbourne. 

1866.  Jamaica's  Constitution  surrendered. 

1866.  Atlantic  cable  laid  by  the  Hreat  Easiern. 

1867.  Twelve  islands  off  Angra  Pequena  annexed ;  added  to  Cape 

in  1874. 

1867.   Straits  Settlements  become  a  Crown  colony. 

1867.  Diamonds  found  near  the  Orange  River. 

1867.  February  10.  The  Britisli  North  American  Act  passed  by 
the  Imperial  Legislature.  July  i.  Union  of  the  provinces 
of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick  under  the 
name  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The  names  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada  were  changed  to  Ontario  and  Quebec 
respectively. 

1867.  Russian  America  purchased  by  United  States. 

1868.  Convicts  to  West  Australia  cease. 
1868.  Peninsula  of  Little  Aden  purchased. 

1868.  Abyssinian  expediticm. 

1869.  Suez  Canal  opened  (Nov.). 

1869.  June  22.  Bill  pas.sed  providing  for  the  government  of  the 
North- West  Territories. 

1869.  November    19.  Deed    of    surrender   signed,    Hudson's    Bay 

Company's  sale  and  transfer  to  her  Majesty. 

1870.  Inter-colonial  Exliiliition  at  Sydney. 
1870.  Red  River  rising  under  Riel  (Canada). 
1870.   Manitoba  joins  Dominion. 

1870.  July    15.     Addition  of  the  Nortli-West  'IVrritories  to  the 

Dominion  (('anada). 

1871.  Britisli  Columbia  joins  the  Dominion. 
1 87 1.  Leeward  Isles  federated. 


APPENDIX  6t7 

871.  Treaty  of  Washington  ;  Alabama  arbitration. 

871.  Pacific  Railway  surveys  bof^un  ;  Post-cards  issued. 

871.  Griqnaland  and  Basutoland  annexed  to  Cape. 

871.  Dutch  possessions  on  Gold  Coast  acquired. 

872.  Lord  Mayo  murdered  in  India. 

872.  Cape  receives  responsible  government. 

872-73.  Giles's  expeditions  ;  discovers  Lake  Amadeus  (Austi-alia). 

873.  Prince  Edward's  Isle  joins  the  Dominion. 

873.  Turks  and  Caicos  Islands  definitely  annexed  to  Jamaica. 
873.  November  7.      Mackenzie  Administration  formed  (Canada) ; 

Island  of  St.  Juan  awarded  to  the  United  States  by  the 

Emperor  of  Germany. 

873.  Port  Moresby  in  New  Guinea  discovered. 

874.  Fiji  annexed. 
874.  War  with  Ashanti. 

874.  Sir    Andrew    ClaT-ke    arranges     Pangkor    Treaty     (Straits 

Settlements). 

875.  The  Prince  of  Wales  visits  India. 

876.  Kaff'raria,  ttc,  annexed. 

876.   Sir  H.  B.  Fi-ere,  Governor,  opens  Exhibition  at  Cape  Town. 
876.  Opening    of    the   Inter-colonial   Railway  from    Quebec   to 
Halifax. 

876.  North-West  Province  separated  froni  Manitoba. 

877.  South  African  Confederacy  formed. 
877.  Transvaal  annexed. 

877.  The  Queen  proclaimed  Empress  of  India. 

877.  MaJ^    Medical  Council  of  Great  Britain  decided  to  recognise 

Canadian  degrees. 

878.  Port  of  Walfish  Bay  proclaimed  British;  annexed  in  1884. 
878.  Treaty  of  Berlin. 

878.  Cyprus  placed  under  British  pi"otection. 

878.  Freedom  of  Native  press  in  Indfa  abolished. 

879.  Cavagnari  slain  at  Kabul :  English  invade  Afghanistan. 
879.  Sydney  International  Exhibition. 

879.  Zulu  War ;  Rorke's  Drift ;  Ulundi ;  Cetewayo  captured. 
879.  Adoption    of    a    protective    tarifJ',    other^vise    called    the 
"  National  Policy  "  (Canada). 

879.  Colonial  Defence  Commission  appointed. 

880.  Diamond  Field  annexed. 

880.  Griqualand  West  incorporated  with  Cape  Colony. 

880.  Melbourne  International  Exhibition. 

880.  Boers  of  the  Transvaal  in  revolt  (December). 

880.  General  Roberts'  march  from  Kabul  to  Kandahar. 
8(Si.  The  North  Borneo  Company  get  charter. 

881.  Defeat  at  Laing's  Nek  and  Majuba  Hill. 
88  r.  Self-government  granted  to  Transvaal. 
881.  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  commenced. 

883.  Queensland  tries  to  annex  part  of  New  Guinea. 

883.  Completion  of  the  direct  railway  between  Melbourne  and 

Sydney. 
883-84.  Calcutta  International  Exhibition. 

883.  Toronto  Industrial  Exhibition. 

884.  English  Protectorate  instituted  over  part  of  New  Guinea. 


678  APPENDIX 

[884.  Walfish  Bay  joined  to  Cape.' 

[884.  Basutoland  made  Crown  colony. 

[884.  Oil  River  (Niger  Coast)  Protectorate  established. 

[884.  Constitution  of  Jamaica  changed. 

[885.  Rising  in  the  North-West  suppressed. 

I5.  The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  completed. 
[8S5.  Tembuland,  etc.,  annexed  to  Cape. 
[8S5.  The    North    Borneo    Protectorate     established,    including 

Brunei  and  Sarawak. 
[885.   Windward  Isles  federated. 

[885.  Protectorate  over  British  New  Guinea  proclaimed. 
[885.  Death  of  Gordon. 

[885.  Riel's  rebellion  suppressed  by  Canadians. 
"6.  Annexation  of  Upper  Burmah. 
[886.  Socotra  annexed. 

6.   Upper  Burmah  annexed    • 
[886.  Gold  discovered  in  Western  Australia. 
[886.  Anglo-German  Treaty  as  to  East  Africa  and  Niger. 
[  886.  Niger  Company  receive  charter. 
[  886.  May  4.     Opening  of  the  Indian  and  Colonial  Exhibition  in 

London. 
[887.  Zululand  annexed. 
[887.  New  constitution  given  to  Malta. 
[887.  British  Protectorate  over  Somali  Coast  proclaimed. 
1887.  Toronto  Industrial  Exhibition. 
(888.  Part  of  New  Guinea  annexed. 
t888.  East  African  Company  obtain  charter. 
[888.  Fishery  Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  United  States; 

but  not  ratified. 
[888.  British    Govei-nment   assumes    protectorate   over    State    of 

North  Borneo. 
9.  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Melbourne. 
9.  Christmas   Island   placed    under    the   government    of    the 

Straits  Settlements. 
[889.  Nyassaland  Protectorate  established. 

[88g.   Royal  Charter  granted  tt)  British  South  African  Company. 
[889.  Tobago  joined  with  Trinidad  in  government. 
[890.  Lalnian  inccnporated  in  Noith  Boi'neo. 
[890.  Swaziland  independence  guaranteed. 
[8go.  Aiiglo-(Jerman  agreement  as  to  East  Africa. 
1890.  Anglo-French  agreement  as  to  Niger. 
[890.  Responsible  government  granted  to  Western  Australia. 
1890.  Anglo-German   agreement    signed   July     i  ;    English    Pro- 
tectorate at  Zanzibar;  cession  of  Heligoland  to  (Jernianj'. 
1890.  July   22.      International   Peace  Conference  of    members  of 

European  Legislatures    at   the    Hotel    M(''tropole  ;    Lord 

Horshall,  cliairman. 
f890.  August  6.      Anglo-French   agreement    (frcmtier   of   Niger) 

signed. 
[890.  August  9.     Heligoland  transferred  to  Germany. 

1890.  December  11.     Deputation  from  North  (Queensland,  respect- 

ing separation  of  North  and  Soutli  Oueensland. 

1891.  .Jamaica  International  Exhibition. 


APPENDIX  679 

1891.   Earl  of  Kintore  ci'osses  tlio  continent  of  Australiii. 
1891.  January  1.     Uniform  Colonial  Postal  rate  (2.',d.)  adoptefl. 
1891.  January   2.      National   Australian    Federation    Convention 
opened  at  Sydney ;  Sir  Henry  Parkes,  President. 

1 89 1.  March  3.     United  States  Con<,a'ess  pass  Copyriifht  Bill. 

1892.  February  29.    Treaty  of  Washington  (Behrinij;  Sea   providing 

for  arbitration  as  to  seal  fishinjf. 
1892.  King  Thebaw  removed  to  India. 
1892.  Russians  appear  on  the  Pamirs. 

1892.  Sejitember   28.      Lej^islative    Council    of    New    Brunswick 

abolished. 

1893.  November  2.     Matabele  War :  Bulawayo  destroyed. 

1893.  Leijislative  Council  and  Assembly  of  Prince  Edward  Island 

merged  into  one  body. 
1893.  Natal  obtains  responsible  government. 
1 893. 'Defeat  of  Matabeles  by  South  African  Company. 
1895.  British  Bechuanaland  incorporated  with  Cape. 

1895.  December.     Jameson's  Iliiid. 

1896.  January  i.     Defeat  of  Jameson. 

1896.  AshantiWar:  Coomassie  taken,  January  17. 

1897.  Diamond  Jubilee. 

1897.  Zululand  included  with  Natal. 

1897.  February  2.     Anglo- Venezuelan  Treaty  of  Arbitration  signed 

at   Washington   by  Sir  Julian   Pauncefote,  British  Am- 
bassador, and  Sehor  Jose  Andrade,  Venezuelan  Minister. 

1898.  Soudan  War:  Khartoum  retaken,  September  2. 

1898.  Christmas  Colonial  Penny  Postage  inaugurated. 

1899.  April  8.     Messages  sent  to  France  by  wireless  telegraphy. 
1899.  Peace  Conference  at  the  Hague,  May  17  to  July  29. 

1899.  Transvaal  War  begins  October  9.  President  Kruger's 
ultimatum. 

1899.  November  24.     Death  of  the  Khalifa. 

1900.  January    4.       Nigeria   taken    over   from    the    Eoj-al    Niger 

Company. 

1900.  Transvaal  War.  Kimberley  relieved  February  14;  Ladysmith 
relieved  March  i  ;  Bloemfontein  taken  March  13;  Mafe- 
king  relieved  Maj^  1 7  ;  Pretoria  surienders  June  i . 

1900.  Orange  Free  State  proclaimed  a  British  colony  May  27. 

1900.  September.     South  Afi-ican   llepulilic  proclaimed  a   British 

colony  September  i. 

1 901.  January    i.      Colonial   penny    postage  ccmimences  at   New 

Zealand. 
1901.  January    i.      The    Federation    of    the    Australian    Colonies 

inaugurated  at  Sydney, 
1901.  January  22.     Death  of  Queen  Victoria. 
1901.  March    i.      Postal    telegraphic    and    telephonic    service    of 

Australia  transferred  to  the  Ct)nnnonwealtli. 
1901.  May  9.     Duke  of  Cornwall  opens  the  tirst  Parliament  of  the 

Commonwealth  of  Australia. 


CENSUS    RETURNS 

The  Census  Returns  for   1901   is   not  yet  complete,  but   the 
following  figures  (some  unrevised)  have  been  issued  : — 

I^'DiA         ....  .         .     294,266,701 

British  India  ....      231,085,132 

Native  States  ....        63,181,569 

Provinces. — Madras,  38,208,609;  Bombay,  18,584,496;  Ben- 
gal, 74,713,020;  North -West  Provinces  and  Oudh, 
47,696,324  ;  Punjab,  22,449,484  ;  Burma  (Lower), 
5,371,328;  Burma  (CJpper),  3,840,833;  Central  Provinces, 
9»845)3i8;  Assam,  6,122,201 ;  Berar,  2,752,418;  Ajmer- 
Merwara,  476,330;  Coorg,  180,461;  Baluchistan,  810,811 ; 
Andamans,  24,499. 

Capifah  of  Provincei^. — Calcutta  and  suburbs,  1,121,664; 
Madras,  509,397;  Bombay,  770,843;  Karachi,  115,407; 
Allahabad,  175,748;  Lucknow,  263,951;  Lahore,  120.058; 
Rangoon,  232,326;  Mandalay,  182,498;  Nagpur,  124,599; 
Ajmer,  75,759. 

The  census  for  India  includes  the  whole  of  the  Empire 
except  the  West  Manglun  and  the  trans-Salween  Northern 
Shan  States,  and  certain  tracts  of  the  Baluchistan  Agency,  the 
area  affected  by  disturbances.  Many  parts  of  India  are  in- 
cluded in  the  census  for  the  first  time.  The  population  has 
ri.sen  since  1891  by  2.42  per  cent,  (or  not  including  the  tracts 
now  enumerated  for  the  first  time  by  1.49  per  cent.).  In 
British  India  there  has  been  an  increase  of  4.44  per  cent.,  in 
the  Native  States  there  has  been  a  decrease  of  4.34  per  cent., 
against  an  increase  1881-1891  in  British  India  of  9.68  per 
cent.,  and  in  the  Native  States  of  16.58  per  cent. 


Ceylon 
Hong  Kong 
Straits  Settlements 
Fed  Malay  Stati-s 
Victoria  (Hong  Kong) 


680 


3,576,990 
283,975 
572,249 

678,595 
181,918 


APPENDIX  68 1 

Canada,  5,338,883;  Ontario,  2,167,978;  Quebec,  1,620,974; 
British  Columbia,  190,000;  Manitoba,  246,464;  Tlie 
Territories,  220,000;  Nova  Scotia,  459,116;  Xew  Bruns- 
wick, 331,093;  Prince  Edward  Island,  103,258. 

Some  of  the  principal  Municipal  Cities : — Montreal,  266,826 
Toronto,  207,971;  Quebec,  68,834;  Ottawa,  59,902 
Hamilton,  52,550;  Winnipeg,  42,336;  Halifax,  40,787 
St.  John,  40,711  ;  Vancouver,  26,196;  Victoria,  20,821 
Charlottetown,  12,080. 

The  returns  for  Canada  does  not  include  the  extreme 
northern  portions  of  Quebec  and  Ontario,  and  the  unorganised 
territories  of  Athabasca,  Franklin,  Keewatin,  Mackenzie, 
Ungava,  and  Yukon. 

Baliamas,  53,735;  St.  Vincent,  47,548;  Virgin  Island,  4908 
St.  Kitts,  29,782;  Nevis,  12,774;  Anguilla,  3890 
Antigua,  34,178;  JNfontserrat,  12,215;  Redouda,  18 
Dominica,  28,894;  Trinidad,  251,009. 

Capitals. — Kingston  (St.  Vincent),  21,377;  St.  John's 
(Antigua),  9262;  Plymouth  (Montserrat),  1461  ;  Roseau 
(Dominica),  5764;  Belize  (British  Honduras),  91 13; 
British  Honduras,  37,479  ;  Gibraltar,  27,460  :  Southern 
Rhodesia:  Mashonaland,  5037:  ^latabeieland,  10,816; 
New  South  Wales,  1,359,943;  Victoria,  1,199,692; 
Queensland,  503,266  ;  South  Australia,  358,097  ;  Western 
Australia,  182,553;  Tasmania,  172,000;  New  Zealand 
(ex.  Maoris),  772,455;  Maoris,  43,101.  Capitals  with 
Suburbs. — Sydney,  488,382;  IMelbourne,  494,129;  Bris- 
bane, 119,428;  xidelaide,  162,261;  Perth,  36,199; 
Hobart  Town,  ...  ;  Wellington,  49,344;  Isle  of  Man, 
55,608;  Douglas,  19,525;  Ramsey,  4866;  England, 
30,805,466;  Wales,  1,720,609;  Scotland,  4,472,000; 
Ireland,  4,456,546;  United  Kingdom,  41,454,621; 
London  (County  of),  4,536,063. 


Printeii  l>y  Ball.^ntvnk,  Hanson  d-  Co. 
Ediiiburgli  d-^  London 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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