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1
r
I THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
1
British Merchant Service
BEING
A HISTORY OF
THE BRITISH MERCANTILE MARINE
from tbe Barltest Ulmes to tbe present S)a^
R. J. CORNEW ALL-JONES
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON ^
SAMPSON LOW. MARSTON & COMPANY '
LIMITED
£t. SmUtan'ri KauA
Fetter Lane, Flkbt Street, EC.
1898
LOXDON
rBIVTRD BT WILLIAM CUtWKB AKD SOyS, LIMIT FD,
•TAMrOBD mSKT AXD CHARIXO OBOeS.
In the preparation of this work I have to acknowledge the
extreme oourteay that I have received from, and the mncli
valuahle information that has been supplied by, among
others, the Secretary of the Trinity House, the Secretary of
Lloyd's, the Secretary of Lloyd's Eegiater, the Secretary of
the Chamber of Commerce, Liverpool, and the ofiicials of the
Board of Trade ; as also the great steamship companies, par-
ticularly the P. and O., the Cunard Line, the Orient Com-
pany, the Union Company, the Castle Line, the White Star,
the Goyal Mail, and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company,
to whom this work is indebted for the views of their several
ships.
R. J. CORNEWALI^JONEa
1
CONTENTS
CHAPTEK I.
Vltirly history of British ghipping — The boila of tho BritoBlTC'be ships
of the Veneti — lavaBion of Cnsar, b.c. 55 — Sliippin^fcring the
RumuD occupalinn — The Saxon vesaela^Tlie ships BTTjIb Danes —
Ancient Danish ship recentiy discovered in Denmar^-Th^hips of
Alfred the Great — Nnval action Iwtweeii tlie Britist>nii Diiiibh
shipH in 837— Shipping under Etholrod— Tlie Kpflggljfedon in
Ethelred's reign — Shipping under the Noi-manO-Ult ileit of the
Conqueror — The Cinque Porta — Sliips furni5l*d*E^t^* Cinque
Ports— Tho Crusades— The fioot of RicliarJ E-^3 4rt in the
Mediterraneaa — The Shipping Code of Uglyml* W-Nniificfll
ponishmeuts , . . ft- \ ."■ .
O ,* w
CHAPTER II. Ojjtt.'
Britiah shipping under the Plantagonels — Tho action otfj6andwich in
1217— Piratee in the Channel- Letters of Maf^u»i— The great fleet
of Edward m., 1340— List of Uie ahipn— l^vcoa! trade of the
north — Shipping under Riohard II. — NBvigatioif Art — Defence of
the country by merchant ships, 1406 — Maritime affairs under
Henry V. — The fleet for the inYasion of France — Important change
in the Mercantile Marine during the reign of Richard III.
CHAPTER III.
bippjng in the fifleoDth ceutury — Maritime diacoveriea — Bartholomew
Diaa — Vasco da Gama — Cbrislophet Columbus — Tho North- West
Pflsaage — Cabot's eipedition— The maritime achievementa of Spain
and Portugal — Tho discoveries of the English — Shipping under
riii CONTENTS
PAOB
Henry VIL— Improvements in the art of shipbuilding — ^The
Merchant Adventurers* Company— The expedition under Sir Hu^
Willon^by — Sir Hug^ Willou^y*8 own account of it 27
CHAPTER IV.
Shipping in the time of Henry Yin.— The Henri OrAce h Dieu— The
fleet for the siege of Boulogne m 154&— Will Hawkins— Voyages
to the Gold Coast — Piracy in the English Channel — ^Voyages of
discovery— The North-West Piunage— Frobisher— John Davis —
Sir John Hawkins— Sir Francis Drake— His celebrated voyage
round the world 42
CHAPTER V.
The intended Spanish invasion of Eng^d in 1588 — ^The Invincible
Armada^-The squadron of the Duke of Medina Sidonia — ^The
English armament — ^Particulars of the fleet — Chiefly merchant
ships — ^The fate of the Armada — ^The general state of merchant
shipping in Eng^d — ^The Government returns — ^A return for the
year 1591— The fisheriee of Iceland and Newfoundland — ^Voyages
to the coast of Quinea — ^Disastrous voyage of the Edtoard OoUon
— ^The voyage of Sir Humphrey Gilbert to North America — Sir
Walter Raleig^i— Voyage of Captains Amadas and Bsrlow— First
English settlers in Virginia — ^Introduction of tobacco — ^The Dutch,
and their enoroaohmenta— The Navigation Laws of Cromwell and
Charles IL— Shipbuilding in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries 51
CHAPTER VL
Outline of the History of the East India Company— Trade with the
East— The Venetians and the Genoese— ^The Spaniards and the
Portuguese— The Dutch— The English— -Attempts toreach the Indies
by the North-West Passage— John Davi»— First charter of the
English East India Company, 1600— The first East Indiamen
—Disputes with the Dutch— Fresh charter from James I. — ^Tlie
Tradf^ inerwuf— Value of the trade with the East — ^Losses of the
English East India Company— The French East India Company —
The charter granted to the English Company by Charles U. —
Success of the Company— Opposition — A new company — ^Rival
traders — Amalgamation of the two companies — ^The East India
Company of 1708 — ^The ships— Heavy losses in the Company*s
fleet — ^The Earl <^ Ba2carr»~'The officers of the ships — Life on
board an East Indiaman — ^End of the Company — Sale of the
ship^ 64
CONTENTS
CHAPTER VII.
■ discovery of Australia, TsHmania, and New Zealand in the
seventeenth centnry — Pedro Fenmndo do Quiroa — Luia vos Torres
—Jan Abel Tasman — Dampier — Dampier's voyage in the Boebuck —
Anson's voyage in the Centurioa — Parnimony of the Government
—John Byron — Pepy's Island and Falkland's Island — Captain
*.'ook"8 tliree voyages— Discovery of islanda ill the Pacific — AnUrctic
exploration— Death of Captaio Cook— Loss of the Betti/ Qaltey on
the Comiflh coast — Loss of the Prince Exigent near Uilford Haven
— L088 of the Dublin Packet on the lale of Man — Tlio press-gang
CHAPTEIt Vm.
M maritime commerce of England at the close of the reign of Qncen
Elisabeth — Soleo Hovers — Charles I. — Ship-money — The shipping
of LODdoti- Tlie other principal porta — State of iho port of Lou<lon
in the seventeenth century— In the lost century — Serious robberies
on the river— The liret docks— The " legal qunys "—The West
India Docks— The London Docks— The East India Docks— The
St. Eatherine's Docks — The Victoria Dooks— The Boyal Albert
Docks — ^The Surrey CouimurciiU Docks— A few parliculars of the
Porl of Liverpool .........
CUAPTEB IX.
■ iqiplication of steam to the purposes of navigation — Mr. Patrick
Miller — Symmgton — Lord Dundas— The ChtrlolUDuudta — Fulton
—The C7fmo7i(— The Cornet— Tha first Mai^te steamer- The
JfarjoiT/— The Bob ^oy— The first ocean steamer — The Savannah
— The first attempt to reach India by steam — The EnUrpHit — The
first steam warship — Transatlantic steam navigation^The Siritu
—The Ormi JFcifmi— The Bridih ^ue™- The President— Tha
Btrew ijropeller— The Archimi'dei—The Rattler and the Alecit>—
The Qreal Britain
CHAPTER X.
in introduced for sliipbuilding — Oppositiun at first encountered — Iron
ships — The advantages of iron over wood — Greater immunity from
fire— The case of the Crfwnio— The earliest iron veseele— The
FuZow— The flainioio— The Edipst—SAaoi taking the place of
iron — Iron and steel passenger vesaels — Oceangoing steamers —
Owge Maamani — %eed of steaniers — Mode of consti'uclioa of icou
CONTENTS
pj«i
and steel vessels — ^Doable bottoms — ^Water ballastr— Gapnzing of
the Oroiava — ^The sides and decks — Water-tight bnlkheads— Iron
masts and yards — ^Iron riggmg 115
CHAPTER XI.
The Transatlantic liners — ^The Canard Line — ^The first formation of the
Company — ^The mafl contract — ^The first ships— American opposi-
tion— ^The Collins Line — ^Loss of the ArcHo — ^Loss of the Pao(/So —
Recision of the Gk>yomment rule as to wooden ships — ^The first iron
Cunarder — ^The Penia — The first screw Canard steamer — The
China — ^The RuMta — Compoand engines — ^The Baiavia — ^The first
steel Canarder— The ^S^vto^ The Umbria and the Etrwria^The
Campania and the Lucania — ^Ratcs of speed — Management of the
Canard Company — Immanity from accidents . . . .133
CHAPTER XII.
The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company — Its origin —
Messrs. WiUooz and Anderson — Messrs. Sourness line of steamers
to Spain and Portugal — ^Messrs. Willcoz and Anderson*s contract
for the Peninsular maib in 1837 — ^The Indian mail — ^The East India
Company — ^The Peninsular Company — ^The starting of ^e P. and 0.
in lSiO--The Bombay mafl— Opposition of the East India Company
— ^Parliamentary Inqtdry in 1851 — ^Termination of the East India
Corapany*s monopoly — ^The India and China mafls in the hands of
the P. and 0. — ^The Overland Route— Coaling stations — Com-
mencement of the P. and 0. line to Australia in 1853 — ^The
European and Australian Steam Packet Company — ^Its final
collapse — ^The opening of the Suez Canal — Opposition of the Post
Office—The Suez Canal at last adopted by the Oovemment — ^The
present mafl contract times — ^Rules and r^^ations of ^e P. and
0. Company, as to their ships, etc. — Casualties — ^The loss of the
Aden-^The loss of the China 14G
CHAPTER XIIL
The Royal Mafl Steam Packet Company — Commencement of the
Company — ^The first subsidy— llie first yearns balance-sheet — llie
first ships — The amount of the subsidy reduced — The Ihnnanian
— Casualties among the fleet— The total loss of the Amazon —
Further disasters—The recent mafl contracts — ^The present fleet—
The Nile — Freights — Treasure and specie . . . .164
CHAPTER XIV.
The Orient Line— The earlier ships— The Ortent— The present fleet —
The Op^tr— Tlie passage to Australia — Auxfliary steamships — The
Union Steamship Company — ^llie first ship»— Their present fleet—
[ The Seoi— The Soot cut id half, an<t lengthened— The Ntirmait—
f Iba Briton — The Caatle Line—The Bleamers of the Castle Line—
■ of the Drummotid CWtifl— The Allao Line— The White
—The American Line — The Iiimui Lino — Other great
p lines
CHAPTER XV.
BteamshipH — Ocean traropa — The loss of the La Flata—ScTevr
roiliere— The Q.E.D.—ne King Coal — Catlle-boaW— The ftosan-
meot trade — The New Zoalaod ships — The Toa-ateamerB — The
Stirling Cattle — Grwn-ateainora — Mode of loading grain — Oil-tank
cteamerG — Loss of the Edmimoor — Well-decked ateamcra —
Dangerous cargoes— Cotton steamere
CHAPTEK XVI.
Transatlantic "Record"- 1838, the Sirina, the Gmil Wetlvrn—
1840, the itrifonnKi— 1851, the /iaifio— 1883, the Sco(w— 1863.
Ihe City of .Brwairfff— 1873, the Bi^tk (White Star)— 1879, the
.Arizona— 1882, the Jlwia— 1884, the Onw/on— 1885, the Elruria
—1889, the City of J'an"*— 1891, the Majatic, the TVutonie—
1896, the Citmpania and l.ueania — The fnture . , . . 1
CHAPfER XVTI.
Suling-dhipfi — The Baltimore cUppcre — Boston and New York clippera
— The Sea IFifcA— The American " tea clippers " — British clippera
—The China tea race in 1853— Donald McKay's ships— The White
Star liners— The Blue Jacket— The loss of the Blae Jacket—tba
Marco Folo — The Bed Jacket — The Lightning — TIio Jama Bainei
— The AbetJeeu clipper* — The Maid i^Judah— The tea race in
the " sixliee " and the " seTentieB " — The Arid and the Tatping —
The Sir Lanctlot — The Thermopylce—Ihe old English frigate-buift
ships of Green and Wigram and others , . . , . I
CHAPTER XV HI.
Tonnage — Origin of Tonnage — Early Actn of Parliament relating to
Tonnage — Builders' Old Measurement — -New Measurement — Gross
Tonnage — Register Tonnage— Displacement Tonnage — Board of
Trade deductions — Accommodation for the crew— Freight Tonnage
— Horse-power — Nominal horse -power— Indicated, or effective
horse-power — Speed in steamships — Paddle-wheel steamers —
Paddle-wheeia — Screw propeller — Slip — Negative slip — Twin
•aewi— Cntnk-ahafta — Speed . '
I
1
xii CX)NTENTS
CBUa>TER XIX.
PAOK
Present state of the British Mercantile Marine — ^Increase of shipping
daring the reign of Queen Victoria — Shipping in 1837 — ^in 1897 —
British tonnage— Time of Queen Elizabeth-— Time of Queen
Victoria — ^Increase in tonnage — ^Decrease in number of ships —
Steamers of the world — Sailing-vessels of the world — Additions
and losses in 1897 252
CHAFI'EB XX.
The Fenonnd — ^Number of mariners in the British Merchant Service —
Masters and Mates — The men — Able seamen — Ordinary seamen —
Undermanning— Better regulations needed — ^The Board of Trade
scale of food — ^Fines for oflfenoes — Foreign seamen in British ships —
Declme in the numbers of British seamen — ^Relative merits of the
British seamen and foreigners — ^llie Quartermasters — ^The Boatsvrain
—The Carpenter— The Safl-maker— The Cook— The Engineers
and the Firemen 261
CHAPTER XXI.
The Apprentices — ^Their numbers, formerly and now — ** Sea-time " with
the Board of Trade — ^The beet way for a boy to go to sea — Import-
ance of being apprenticed to a good firm — ^Premium and expenses
—Apprentices* indentures — A contract — Duties of the apprentices
— Duties of the shipowner — Treatment of Apprentices — ^Training-
ships— Suggestions — Apprentices sixty years ago . 276
CHAPTER XXII.
The Officers— The Second Mate — ^His duties and position — ^The Chief
Mate — ^His duties and responsibilities — Officers on the great liners
—The Master— His duties— The 1(^— The official 1(^ . . 285
CHAPTER XXIII.
Work on board ship— The port and starboard watches — ^The nautical day
— Watches and bells— The dog-watches— The Wheel— Steering-
Work aloft— Observations — ^Dead reckoning — Heaving ^e log-
Ordinary log— Patent logs— Heaving the lead— The lead-line—
Hand-line — Deep-sea lead — Deep-sea soundings — Sounding-
machines 295
CHAPTER XXIV.
Kffect npon mercantile shipping of llie Suob Canal— Previous camilft—
The Snez Canal — M. Ferdinand de Lesseps — Scheme for a canal-
Formation of the Company — Tiie ConcesHion — OppoaitJoii of the
Englinh GoTBTrnnenl — V)pening of the Cannl— Deecriplion of tlje
Canal — Mode of working — The Canal dnes — At the opening — At
the present time — The cost of the Canal— The takings— The
diridends — Lonl Beacooficld'a purchase of shares — Their present
value — Saving in distanL-efl by the Canal route — Official regulutions
CHAPTER XXV.
Ugh tfaoueea— Ancient HghtlioiiBes — The ColoBfflw of Rhodes- The
I^aroa of Aleiandria— Roman Pharos at Dover— Tlie Pharos of
Cafigulft at Boulogne — The Tour dc Cordnan— Bock lighthouses—
The Eddyatone— The Bell Rook— The Skerryvore— The lighthouse
on the Wolf Bock — The LongahipB — Force of the waves at ex-
Ipoeed liglitbonsefl — The Bishop Rock. Scilly — Pile lighthouses —
The Haplin— Shore lighthouses— The North Foreland— Coal fires
CHAPl'ER XXVI.
of illumination — The Catoptric and the Dioptric ayBtema —
The Catoptric syGtem — Primitive reBoetors — More rectnt improve-
ments— Fixed lighte — Revolving lights — M, AaguBtin Frenel — llie
Dioptric sy£t«m — The French lights — Mr. Stevenson'B improvemenla
— The BpparatDS — The lenses— The lamp— Evidence na to the
Dioptric systein given hcfore the Royal CommiBsion — DiBtanoes
from which lights are visible — Experiments at the South Foreland
— Electric light»— Mineral oil — Gas — Report of the Committee —
Control of lights — The Trinity House — Other bodies — Lightships
— Their lights — Revolving lights — Flashing lights — The moorings
of lightships — Casnalties to lightships — Crew of a lightship —
Relative visibility of lights — Gongs and Syrens — Beacons — Buoys
— Bell-hnoys — Whistling buoj-s — Gas buoys — Communication
between lightships and the shore — Light dues — The different rales
—The present mode of collection — A thorough reform needed
CHAPTER rXVH.
Flags— The oatJoDal colours — The Union Jack— The cnnign — The
white ensign — The blue ensign — Tlie red ensign — Oilier legal
colours — House flags — Private signals — Signals and Hignalling — The
IntercationDl Code— BeiHjrt of the Committee— Tlie Signal Book—
The flags — The ngnaJti — The New Code
)
J
XIV CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXVni.
FAOI
Ships* lights— Port and atarboard UghtB — ^Anchor lights — ^The case of
H.M.S. Blenhstm^ and La France — ^The Norwegian steamer and
the barqae — Sound-signals for fog — Signals of distress—Life-saying
appliances— Draught of water and load-line — '* Plimsoll^s mark ** —
Certain caigoes— Dangerous goods— The " Rule of the Road ** . 369
CHAPTER XXLX.
Lloyd's — Lloyd*s Coffee-House in Tower Street ; in Lombard Street ;
at Pope*s Head Alley; at the Royal Exchange — The Act of
Incorporation — ^The objects of Lloyd^s — ^Underwriting — ^The great
success of Lloyd's — ^Parliamentary inquiry in 1810 — ^The result —
Lloyd's signal-stations — ^Lloyd's Register of British and foreign
shipping — Classification of ships — Surveyors of Lloyd*s Register —
The Classification Committee — ^Number of ships surveyed and
classed by the society • . . . • • . 383
Index ........... 397
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
r DUMIBH Vbssei. ,.,....
Thb "SiK Gabriel," bdii/t is 1497 , . . . .
A Gbnoesb "Oabrack" or 1512 .....
Tbe ■- HcHRi OhIce \ Died," (From a IS8. in the Pepyian Librart/.)
Thb •■ Thamib," East Ihdiauan ......
The " Eabl of BiLOAanEs," Eabt Ikdiahah, H17 Toss
A PbeE'Tkade Bahqde .......
Caftaik CooK'fl Old Vbhsel, the " DincovKmt " .
The " THma," West Iitdiaiiiii ......
BrssH-irBEMi. Steaueb, vtso oh the Murray
FcLTOv'a Steaueb, tbe "Clebhoht," oh the HtDsoH .
The "Coj«t," 1812 .......
Tbb Ehqike of tbe "Coim" ......
Tai "EmapBUK," 1825. (From a print of Ihe time.}
Tbe " UsiTED Kuiqdoii," 1S26 ......
Oh» of tb« Eablimt Screw Btbahers, the " Robert F. Stockton "
The *■ Great Bbitaik," 1845 ......
Bablv Ibon Steamship, the " Citt op Masokbstbb "
laon Bteameb op the Preseht Dat, "Ashtbias Mohabob"
An Ibov Stbaxer op 1869, tbe "Batabian"
Cltse-eutlt Ibom Foub-kabtkb, ''Loch Tobbidok," umiOBm a 1880
The ■' Litbhpool," Iboh Fodb-kastbd Smp, built at Port Oi.asoow
IS 1889 ........
Aji Ocfah Liner or 1878, thr Imuan Line Steaueb " Citt of
CseaTEH" ........
Tbe FtBCT Ccsabd Steaukb, the ■■ Britannia," at Halifax
The Cou-ika Line Steakbr "Atlantic"
The Cokabd Comiahy's R.M.S. " Scotia " .
CcNABD Cvnrun'a R.H.8. " Botrhia " .
Tm "Campania" at tub Landino-staob, I.ttebpooi.
AnBicAii Compaitv'b Acziuabt Schiw Stbameb "Masbacbtbitts"
XVI
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
AmBBIOAIT CoKPAHT'b StBAMBB ** WABHtHOTOSr " .
The •• BoTAL Tab," 1834 ....
P. AND O. GkRAxn ''Khkditb'* .
p. AND O. BJf.8. ** OaLBDOHIA " AT GiBBALTAB
RoTAL Mail OoiiPAinr'f Stbambb '^Fobtr'*
RoTAL Mail Oompavt'8 Stbambb '^Amaboh"
BJ18. "Nob-
OBmrT LiHEB, TSB **Ophib"
Obibmt Linb Stbambb ''Orimbobazo"
W. 8. LnrDSAyB Aitxiliabt Sobbw Stbambb, to tsb Oafb •
The Umioh Compavt's R.M.8. ''Bbiton." (^Vom a dteUk by W.
WyUie^AJLA.) .......
Oabtlb Lora R.M.S. "Duhtboan Oabilb"
Cabtlb Lnra Stbambb **Tutaobl Oaitlb'*
Tbe Whttb Stab R.M.8. ''Bbitanvio"
Whitb Stab Linb RJkLS. ^^BiAJBsno** in thb Mbbsbt
The *'Pabi8" (now thb U.S. Abmed Cbuisbb **Talb")
Dominion Line R.M.S. "Canada" . . . . .
Pacific Steam Natioation Oompany'h 8.8. *• Obopbsa *'
A Ttfioal Ooean Tramp ......
A Stbam Collier ....
Bbitisb India Company'8 Steamer ** €k>L00NDA **
The ''King Coal," Sobbw Colueb
A Fbozbn-mbat Ship : New Zealand Shippino
•*RUAPEHU" ....
Whttb Stab Line Cattlb-stbambb ^'Geobgio"
Ca China Tea Steamer, the ** Stirling Castlb"
AfWTBALiAN Wool Stbambb, the ** Aberdeen"
A Modern Frutt Stbambb, The ** Bayarun "
A Grain Stbambb, 8.8. **Banda"
Oiltahx Stbambb, 8a ''Bbab Orbbx" .
a cotton-ladbn sxbambb ....
A **Well-dbokbd" Stbambb
A Spar-dbokxd Stbambb ....
A Clan Linb Steamer
A Bibbt Line Stbambb ....
Anohob Line 8.8. "Viotobu"
White Star Line B.11S. ** Teutonic" at Sftthead
The American Cuffbr *'Gbbat Bepdbuc"
Whttb Stab Line Cupper **Salami8"
The Celebrated Whttb Star AmBALiAN Clipper •*Patruroh"
Compant'8 83.
144
146
156
158
166
166
168
ITS
174
174
178
180
188
184
186
188
190
192
194
194
198
200
ao2
SOS
204
204
806
206
208
808
810
210
212
212
814
218
284
226
(KMI
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii
Tofactjpagt
Ameuoah Foub-xasted Cufpib ..... 228
Hon. Bast India Compaht's Ship *' Punjaub,*' afterwards the ** Tweed" 228
The Scotch Cluteb "Sib Lahcelot" . 282
The Aberdeen Cliffer ''Thebmoftljb" .... 282
The China Tea Clipper '*THEBXOPTLiB" .... 284
The China Tea CuFPEB **CuTTT Sabx** .236
The **Loch Gabbt/' Modebn Ibon Clipper 286
Cbxw op a Liner, the Union Coxpant's R.M.S. ''Briton" 264
Thb Eddtstonb Lighthouse ...... 820
The Eddtstonb Lighthouse bt Night ..... 822
The L0NG8HIP8 Lighthouse, Land's End .... 826
St. Cathebine's Lighthouse, Isle op Wight .... 828
Befleotobs fob the Loweb Light of the Eddtstonb . . 830
PUICPS FOB FOBCING THE OiL UP TO THE LaMPS AT THE EdDTITONX
Lighthouse ....... 8S2
Thb Dioptbic Appabatus at the Eddtstonb .... 834
Lamp of the Dioptbic Appabatus, Eddtstonb LiGBTHorsR . 886
The Needles Lighthouse ...... aS8
A Dutch Galuot ..... 840
The Gull-Stream Lightship: the Lantern .... 342
„ „ „ Hauling up the Lantern . 844
The Gull-Stream Lightship ...... 346
A Lightship's Gong ....... 348
A Pile Lighthouse: Mucking Light, on the Thames 852
The Gull-Stueam Lightship: On the Lookout . . 854
Intebnational Code Flags ...... 360
"La Fbance," one of the Largest Sailing-ships in the World . 870
I>bck-line»— *' Fldcsoll's Mark" ..... 876
Llotd's Flags ....... 890
/<
n
ISH MERCHANT SERVICE
CHAPTER I.
E«rly history of British shipping — The toata of the Britons— The ships of
the Veneti — InTEsion of Ciesar, B.C. 55 — Slupping during the Roraao
occnpatian — The Saxon vobsoIh — The ahips of the Danes — Ancient
Danish ship recently diacovered in Denmark — The ahips of Alfred tho
Gnat — Narol action between the British and Danish ahips in 697 —
Shipping nuder Ethelred — Port of London in Ethelred's reign — Shipping
nodor the Normans — The fleet of the Conqueror — The Cinque Ports —
Ships furnished by the Cinque Porta — The Cniaadea — The fleet of
Richard I.— The fleet in the Mediterranean— The Shipping Code of
Richard I.— Nautical pnniahmenls.
Fbo« the insulsr position of Britain the first rude outline of
a Mercantile Marine must have heen, in this country, coin-
cident with the dawn of ctrilization itself. The necessity for
Bome kind of vessel to be employed for the purposes of fish-
ing would doubtless be the first thing to make itself felt,
whilst the next would be the want of some means of trans-
porting commodities from one pleice to another ; and the land
being to a large extent either dense and impenetrable forest,
I boundless morass, the water would naturally suggest itself
■ affording the readiest means of communication. In any
, long before the Christian era the Britons appear to have
Iderstood the arts both of building and of navigating
f Cesar speaks of the vessels of the Britons as being of the
ightest possible construction, having the keel and the ribs
wood, and being covered over with skins; whilst Luean
2 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
describes them as constraoted of osiersi twisted and interwoven
with each other, the whole being then covered with strong
hides. In these fragile craft the early British mariners not
only constantly crossed from Britain to Ireland, and to France,
but they even yentured into the Bay of Biscay, at least as
far as the Biyer Gktronne. The Britons mnst, howeyer, haye
possessed, eyen at that remote period, some yessels of more
importance than these slight boats, because we know that
one of the primary objects of the invasion of this country
by Julins Caesar, in the year 55 B.C., was to punish the
Britons for sending help in ships^ as well as in men, to one
of the Gaelic tribes, the Yeneti, with whom he was then
at war.
CsBsar* thus describes the ships of the (Gaulish Yeneti,
the probability being that some of the yessels he so describes
were British ships which had been lent to the Yeneti: —
*'Thoir bottoms were somewhat flatter than ^ose of oar yesaeb, tiieir
prows were yeiy high and erect» as likewise their stems, to bear the hi^gmeas
of the billows and the yiolcnoe of the tempests. The body of the vessel was
bnilt entirely of oak. The benches of the rowers were made of strong beams
abont a foot in breadth and fastened with iron spikes, the thickness of one^
thumb. Instead of cables they secured their anchors with chains of iron ;
and made use of skins and a sort of thin pliant leather by way of sails,
probably either because they had no canvas or because they imagined that
canvas sails were not so proper to bear the violence of tempests, and the rags
and fury of the winds, and to govern ships of that bulk and burden. The
attack of our fleet with these vessels was of such a kind that it had the
advantage in swiftness only, all other things were more advantageous and
favourable for them than for us, for neither could our ships injure them with
their beaks, so great was their strength and firmness, nor could we easily throw
our darts, because of their height above us, which also was the reason that
we found it extremely difficult to grapple the enemy, and briog him to a
close fight"
Caesar's ships, we know from a variety of sources, were
large and powerful vessels, and we haye absolute record of
one Boman galley, built more than two thousand years ago,
which is said to have been propelled by three tiers of oars,
and was 110 feet long, and 11 feet broad. After the fall
of the Boman Empire little or no progress appears to haye
been made in the building of ships for many centuries;
* « CflBsar's Commentaries on the Gallic War,'* Book iil 13.
EARLY BRITISH SHIPS 3
yet in the teoth century galleys of from one to two
thousand tons burthen were occasionally to be found in the
Mediterranean.
Shipping must, however, have increased in Britain during
the century immediately 8ucce«ding Cresar's first invasion,
for in A.D. 43, when the Romans under Claudius ultimately
sabdued Britain and made it a Boman colony, London is
described by Tacitus as being a port of some considerable
trade, aad a chief residence of merchants. Clausentum too,
which was either Southampton, or the present village of
Bitt«Tne, on the Itchen, near to Southampton, and Rutupi
(Bichborough) near Sandwich, were even then commercial
ports of some importance, and were occupied by traders who
dealt largely with Granl, and even with Borne itself; British
Teeaels laden among other things with British oysters, a
delicacy mnch appreciated by the Bomans, occasionally find-
ing their way to the Imperial City.
Hitherto the ships of the Boman conquerors of Britain had
merely crossed the Channel to and fro, and it was not nntil
the time of the Governorship of Agricola, a.d. 78-85, that
they first sailed entirely round the whole country — an under-
taking, at that time, in the entire absence of lights, beacons,
buoys, or charts, fraught with no inconsiderable amount of
difficulty and of danger.
Little is known of the actual state of Britain under the
Boman rule until towards the close of the fourth century,
when we find the Saxons invading the country on the east
and on the south coasts, coming in their skin-coveted boats,
called in Sason, Ceol or Ciol, from which has come the
English word "keel," a description of barge which has been
long in use in the north of England, and more especially on
the TjTie, where to the present day the name survives in
I vessels built to hold exactly twenty-one tons four hundred-
weight, or a " keel," of coals.
At this early period there probably would, in a country
like Britain, be no very marked distinction between vessels
employed for the peaceful purposes of commerce, and those
med for the more serious operations of war, and under ordi-
nary nircumstances the self-same vessels would douViVVees Xie
4 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
employed for both pnrposeB ; being nsed for the most part in
commeroe, and when fighting had to be done, instead of
carrying merchandise^ being filled with soldiers. After the
departure of the Romans from Britain, which Bede places at
just before the siege of Borne by Attila, A.D. 409, the shipping
interest in this conntry would appear to have materially
declined, so that when the Jutes and Saxons first, and after
them the Vikings and the Danes, came and made repeated
incursions into the country, there was no adequate maritime
force to oppose them.
The Vikings and the Danes, who were the most formidable
maritime enemies of Britain, were themselves thorough sea-
men, and were the possessors of far larger and much more
powerful ships than the Britons ; but the only Danish vessels
of which any authentic accounts have come down to us, may
probably be regarded more as fighting ships than as merchant-
men, yet, as bearing to a certain extent on the vessels with
which we are more immediately concerned, a brief notice of
them will not be out of place.
The principal vessels of the Danes were of two classes — ^the
Drakers, and the Holkers ; the former, so named from their
carrying a dragon on their bows, being the larger vessels.
The Holkers were smaller, probably more in the nature of
canoes, as they are said to have been, not built, but hollowed
out of trees. From these latter the word ^hulk" has evi-
dently been derived. The Danes, with most of the Scandi-
navian nations, had also another kind of vessel which they
called a Snekkar (Serpent), apparently shorter in proportion
to her breadth than either of the former classes, and furnished
with a mast, and therefore not unlike the ordinary Dutch
galliot of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
In 1865 the remains of an ancient vessel were discovered
in Denmark, which competent authorities have pronounced as
probably a Draker of the fifth century ; and which may there-
fore fairly be taken as a type of the kind of vessel used by
the Danes against the British. The remains were sufficiently
complete to permit of the entire re-construction of the vessel
as it floated.
It was evidently a row-boat, there being no arrangement
SHIPS OF ALFRED THE GREAT
1
Bt from stem I
tot help ftom caxivaa, yet it was seventy-seven feet from stem
to stem, and proportionately rather broad in the middle,
rising considerably both at the bow and at the stem, which
were precisely alike. The vessel was clinker-built, and the
peculiarities of its structure testified to the abundance, both
of material and of skilled labour. The timbers and the heavy
planks, for instance, instead of being simply sawn into boards of
equal thickness throughout, were cut thin where thinness was
desirable; but where greater strength was required they were
thicker, so that they could be mortised into the crossbeams
and gunwale, instead of being merely nailed. She had thirty
rowlocks —fifteen on either side — and these, as well as the
helm, were reversible, so as to permit of the vessel being
luwed with either end forward.
The Danes appeared first in the north of Scotland, and
gradually worked their way to the south ; and when Alfred the
Great came to the throne in 871, he found the whole country
entirely overmn by them. Coaviuced that their expulsion
could never be effected by purely military operations, he at
once turned his attention to the formation of a fleet, and caused
a number of ships to be built, twice the size of the largest
vessels that had hitherto beeu seen ; built on new principles,
and in a new form, after models said to have been contrived
l)T himself, so that they astonished the enemy as much by
their appearance as by their strength. They were galleys,
generally with forty oars, but some had even sixty oars, on
each side ; and they were longer, deeper, and wider than the
Danish ships, and did not roll in a sea-way as much as
they did.
The new ships first appeared in 897," and their first service
was against six Danish vessels, ofl' the Isle of Wight, Nine
of the new ships were seut out, with instructions to get between
the enemy and the shore ; but on the first appearance of the
LBritisb ships, three of the Danish ships, alarmed at their
* This Bcaonnt ia taken trom that given in a Saxon chronicle among the
, MSS. written durbg the lifetime of Alfred. It is especially
iting aa giving at once a concise and an intelligible account of a nitval
uit of very early times, being, as a matter of fact, a battle fought
yathoiwand years ago.
6 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
fonnidable proportions, in trying to get away, ran agronncL
The remaining three, despite the superior swiftness of the
British ships, desperately resolved to engage them, but were
soon overpowered. Two of them were taken, and all the men
in them killed; the third Danish ship with some difficulty
escaping. In the meantime those ships that had run aground,
the tide having now risen, got off; but they had previously
been so much damaged by Alfred's ships, and by the hct of
getting aground, that two of them became unmanageable, and
again went ashore, and were lost.
After the death of Alfred the Great, which occurred in 901,
his son Edward followed his father's example in the care he
bestowed upon his fleet ; and although he was continually in
conflict with the ever-encroaching Danes, yet he was able,
during his reign, to equip and keep up a hundred ships to
protect British trade, and to guard the coasts: a line of
policy which his successor, Athelstan, continued to carry out.
Athelstan was a great encourager of maritime commerce,
and was indeed the first English monarch who made commerce
a road to honour; one of his laws enacting that if any
merchant or mariner should successfully accomplish three
voyages on the high seas, with a ship and cargo of his
own, he should thenceforth be advanced to the dignity of
a Thane, and be entitled to all the privileges attaching to
that rank.
Even during the desolations of the reign of Ethelred U.,
some attention was still paid to maritime commerce, and a
law was passed ordaining that every owner of 810 hides of
land should famish a ship for the protection of the realm,
the result being a larger naval force than had ever been
collected before ; but in spite of this greatly increased number
of ships, the Danes were every year making further and
further inroads into the country, one chronicle informing
us that in the year 980, ^Southampton was ravaged by a
ship-force, and that the most part of the townsmen were
slain, and led captive;** and that in 981 ^ there was much
havoc done everjrwhere by the Danes along the sea^coast,
as well among the men of Devon as amongst the men of
Wales."
1
FLEET OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR
At this time many fresh regulations were made with
reference to the coasting-trade, particularly with regard to the
1 port of London. Pennant, in his " London," Bays —
" Before the Custom HouBe was eatablished, Uic principal place for receiving
1 dntiea was at Billing's Gate. Ah early as 979, or during t!io reign of
id, a Bmall vessel was to pay nt Billing's Ghite one halfpenny, as a toll j
nt«rTeaseI, bearing sails, one penny; a keel or hoik, fonrpence; a ship
n with wood, one piece of the wood, for toll ; and a boat laden with fish,
one halfpenny; or a larger boat with fish, one penny. There was, even at
that time, aconadorable trade with France for ila wines, for moDtion is made
of ships Iron) Boaen that came here and landed their wines, and freed them
from toll, that is, paid their datios, bat what they amounted to, I cannot
With the accession of Canute to the English throne the
li 'ng-continued feud between England and Demnark came to
an end, and maritime trade began again to flourish in Britain,
whilst the number of ships required for the protection of the
country was proportionately diminished, and from hencefor-
ward the Saxon and the Danish immigrants may be regarded
as forming part of the one great English or Anglo-Saxon
l&mily.
When William, I>ake of Normandy, determined to invade
igland, and to dispute the poBsession of the crown with
Ei&iold, he collected a large army on the coast of Normandy,
t August, 1066, sot sail for England. His fleet is said
some chroniclers to have numbered as many as three
lOnBaod vessels ; whilst others, the French authorities among
, put the number at eight hundred, which is jirobably
the more correct estimate. It was, however, in all probability
a mere collection of coasting vessels, specially requisitioned
for this particular service, no doubt supplemented by some
ships presented by the great barons, but probably without
one single ship of complete warlike appointment to convoy
them. Even the largest ships engaged could not have beeu
of any very great value, as the whole fleet were, by William's
oideifl, burned and destroyed as soon as the army had dis-
embarked, in order Erst to stimulate the valour of his men
by the fact of cutting off all retreat, and also, as a second
• Pennant's " London."
8 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
reason, to save the cost of maintaining the vessels. A repre-
sentation of these vessels is given in the fieunoiis Bayenx
tapestry.
King William had no sooner thoroughly established his
power in this country than important changes were intro-
duced in maritime affairs, and over-sea commerce experienced
greatly increased security and stability. The Danes, how-
ever, still restless, were preparing another fleet for the
purpose of another invasion, which obliged the Conqueror to
summon to his aid the whole of the naval resources of
the country, Dover, Sandwich, Bomney, Winchelsea, and
Bye being specially called upon to furnish ships; these
towns being then, probably for the first time, styled the
Cinque Ports, by which distinctive title they have been
known ever since.
The Cinque Ports were incorporated and endowed with
many and very substantial privileges, not only with the view
of promoting the commerce of the country, but also of
defending it. To this end a Warden of the Cinque Ports was
appointed, who, upon any sudden invasion by the enemy, was
to be ready, at a short summons, to oppose him with the
united strength of these towns and of their dependencies;
other smaller towns being now associated for this purpose
with the five original ports. The force to be raised and kept
in readiness for this service was "57 ships, each ship to be
furnished with twenty-one men, able, fitly qualify'd, and
well armed, and one boy. The Master of each Ship and
the constables were to receive a salary of sixpence a day,
and each vulgar mariner was to have threepence a day, and
thus they were to attend the King."
The fleet thus provided by the Conqueror was so fully
maintained by William Bufus, his son and successor, that
Selden dates England's maritime supremacy from that early
period. But for all that, for more than a century after the
Conquest British ships but seldom ventured beyond the Bay
of Biscay on the one hand, and the entrance to the Baltic
on the other ; and there is no record of any extended voyages
by English ships until the time of the Crusades.
The Holy City fell into the hands of the famous Sultan,
Saiadin, in the year 1187, and at once a new Crusade was
projected. Bichard Cceur de Lion, on ascending the throne,
threw hia whule energies into the scheme, and with the aid of
Philip U. of France, and other princes, succeeded in raising
a large force for the purpose of rescuing the Holy Land
■ .from the infidel. Towards the close of 1189, two fleets, to a
^ Wge extent composed of merchant ships, had been collected ;
one at Dover, Uj convey the king and his more immediate
followers across' the Channel; and the other, which was the
larger fleet, at Dartmouth, for the conveyance of the great
balk of the Crusaders to Marseilles, where Kiug Bichard was
to join them.
The Dartmoutli fleet, under the command of liohert de
Sabloil, and Bichard de Camville, sailed from Bngland
towards the end of April, 1190, and after a disastrous voyage
arrived at LisboQ, where they remained some time to refit.
Leaving that port, the fleet reached Marseilles on the 22nd of
Augost, only to find that the king bad gone on to IVIessiua.
Following bim, the whole of Che ships assembled in the
Straits of Messina on the 14th of September, the king being
oo board a ship called the Trcnche-lc-Mer,'
It was not, however, until the April of the fullowing year,
1191, that the fleet actually got under way for the Holy
Land, it then cousisting of one hundred large ships, and
fourteen smaller vessels, called " busses." Each of the larger
ships had a crew of fifteen sailors, and was able to carry
forty soldiers, forty horses, and provisions fur a year. The
commander of each of these ships was also assisted by fourteen
other picked men, called " slaves," who acted as rowers. These
numbers must, however, be received with caution, as in all
early accounts of shipping and maritime matters but little
ielianc« is to he placed in figures.
The fleet left Messina in regular formation; three large
ships forming the van, then tlie other ships in parallel
lines, and the king with his galleys bringing up the rear;
the whole forming the most imposing maritime spectacle that
had ever yet been seen on any sea. The lines of ships were
10 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
sufficiently close for signals by trampet49 to be heard from one
to the other; and each ship was near enough to her consort
on either side to communicate by hailing. This formation in
close order did not, however, last long, as a gale springing
up when off Etna, the fleet was immediately dispersed, the
crews being "sea-sick, and frightened." Three of the ships
were totally lost, and their crews drowned, together with the
Vice-Chancellor of England, whose body was ultimately
washed ashore, with the Great Seal of England tied round
his neck.
After the successful capture of Acre, and a truce haying
been arranged with Saladin, Bichard set sail again for
England; but meeting with bad weather in the Adriatic, his
ship was wrecked off the coast of Istria, and the king was
taken prisoner; he ultimately reaching this country in 1194,
and landing at Sandwich on the 18th of March in that year.
One of the effects of this expedition was the opening up
of British trade with the Levant, resulting in a largely
increased activity in English shipping, and the first forma-
tion of a regular British Shipping Code.
Sir Travers Twiss, in his edition of the "Black Book of
the Admiralty," has examined very fully the real or supposed
claims of Bichard to be the author, or the editor, of the
Shipping Code known as "Les B61es d'Oleron." In doing
so he quotes a memorandum of 12, Edward I. (a.d. 1284),
stating that these laws ^ were made by Lord Bichard, formerly
King of England, on his return from the Holy Land, corrected,
interpreted, and declared, and were published in the Island
of Oleron, and were named in the French tongue 'La Ley
Olyroun.'"
This Shipping Code, established by Bichard Coeur de Lion,
is extremely interesting, as being the first attempt to place
English maritime affairs upon a sound legal footing. Previous
to the time of Bichard L, it had not been thought safe or
prudent to entrust any one with the command of a ship,
unless he were part owner of the vessel, or a freeman. These
restrictions were now abolished, and the qualifications and
the duties of the Master were, for the first time, defined by
statute. This Shipping Code extended to about fifty clauses.
I
and dealt with all matters relating tu Mercantile shipping.
The following presents a brief outline of each successive
clause: —
By the First Article a Master had power, with the axivice
of his mariners, to pledge the tackle of the ship for necessary
proTisions, but he could not sell the hull without special
anthority from the owuers. Everything on board was placed
under the care of the Master, and he was held responsible for
it. He was required to understand thoroughly the art of
navigating his ship, in order that he might control the Pilot,
who, on board a merchantman, was next in command to the
Master; the third person of importance being the mate, and
the fourth the factor, or supercargo. After these came the
surgeon, the steward, the cook, the gunner, and the coxswain ;
and last of all the crew.
By the Second Article, if a vessel lay in port waiting
for the weather, or for a wind, the Master was instmcted,
when the time for departure had arrived, to call together
the ship's company and to inquire what they thought of the
wind and the weather; and should there be a difference of
opinion, he was bound to be guided by the majority. It
fact, a standing rule for the Master, in everything,
to act with the advice of the majority of his ship's
eompany, and of the merchants, if there were any merchants,
I board.
The Third Clause provided that, if the ship's crew should
not, unless under compulsion, do everything in their power
to save the vessel and the cargo from shipwreck, they should
forfeit their wages. If the vessel were wrecked, but they
did succeed in saving some part of the cargo, then they
were to be sent home by raising money on the goods so
saved.
The Fourth Clause related to Salvage ; an allowance of one-
half, one-third, or one-tenth of the articles saved going to the
salvors ; such share being regulated by the depth of the water
out of which the articles were raised.
The Fifth Article provided that, when in port, no sailors
Bhould leave the ship without the consent of the Master.
fte BailoM were carefully to look after everyXliKv^ X.W\,
12 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
related to the preserration of the ship and of the cargo ; and
if, by reason of their absence without leave, any damage
accrued, they were to be punished with a year's imprisonment,
and were to be kept on bread and water. If, through their
absence, any accident happened so as to cause death, then
they were to be flogged. They might also for desertion be
branded in the face with a red-hot iron, so that they might be
recognised as long as they lived.
The Sixth Clause made drunkenness, fighting, and quarrel-
ling, severally punishable ; and mutinous sailors were to forfeit
their wages.
The Seventh Clause provided that, in case any one of the
crew was seized with illness, he was to be sent on shore, with
a ship's boy to attend upon him.
The Eighth Article prescribed the regulations affecting the
throwing overboard of any of the cargo in order to save, or
lighten the ship.
The Ninth Article referred to the destruction of the masts
or sails, with the same object.
The Tenth Article relates to all damage to the cargo arising
from imperfect dunnage, and bad stowing, for the which the
Master and the mariners were to be held liable to the
merchant in the event of any injury to his goods arising
from this cause.
Article Eleven also refers to the damage of goods, leakage
of wines and similar commodities, arising from bad stowing.
The Twelfth Article prescribes the mode in which good order
was to be maintained on board the ship. The Master having
hired his crew, was required to keep the peace among them.
If any one called another a liar at table where there was win^
and bread, he was to be fined fourpence ; but if the Master
himself so offended, he was to be fined double. If any sailor
impudently contradicted the Master, he was to be fined
eightpence. If the Master struck him, whether with his fist, or
with his open hand, the sailor was required to bear the stroke ;
but if the Master struck more than one blow, then the sailor
might defend himself. But if the sailor struck the first blow,
he was either to pay a hundred sot^^ or lose his hand. The
Master might call the sailor opprobrious names; and in such
LES rQlES d'oLERON
esse the sailor waa advised to snbmit, and to hide himself
from the Master's sight, in the ibrecastle ; but if the Master
followed him there, then the sailor might stand on his defence,
for the Master ought not to paws into the forecastle after him.
The Thirteenth Clause provided that, if any differemes
arose between the Master and a sailor, the Master ought to
*• deny him bis mess " (that is, make him go without his
meal), thrice, before he turned him out of the ship.
The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Articles relate to the regula-
tions for mooring the ship; and to injuries resulting from one
ship fouling another.
The Sixteenth Article required the Ma.ster, when the ship
Kwas ready to load, to ask the crew, "Will you freight your
IfiiBre yourselves, or be allowed for it in proportion with the
Kjiup's general freight?" And the sailors were bound, then
pod there, to answer, and to make their choice.
By the Seventeenth Clause, the sailors from Brittany were
to have only one meal a day from tlie kitchen ; but those
Jiom Normandy were to have two meals ; and when a ship
^lfrived in a wine country the Master was to provide the crew
irith wine.
I The Eighteenth Article related to the payment of the
wages of the sailors ; and it was held that the whole of the
wages was not due until the ship was safely brought back to
her destination.
The Nineteenth Article provided that, if the engagement
between the Master and the sailors was broken off by war,
pirates, or the command of the king, the seaman was entitled
to have a quarter of hia wages for the whole time of his
engagement.
The Twentieth Clause enacted that, when in a foreign port,
only two sailors from the ship might go on shore at one time ;
and they might take with them one meal of victuals, " as much
as they can eat at once," but no drink. They were bound to
return to the ship so that she should not lose a tide ; and
they were to be held responsible for any damage resulting
.from their default in this respect.
■ The Twenty-first Clause relatetl to detentions, and to the
Iftyment of demurrage.
14 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
The Twenty-second Clause relates to the selling of goods
from on board to provide for the ship, in which the laws of
bottomry (or borrowing money on the secnrity of the ship)
were enforced.
The Twenty-third Clanse enacted that if a pilot, or a ** lock-
man " (a term applied to harbour pilots), undertook to take a
vessel into port, and the vessel miscarried through his ignor-
ance, and he had no money to make recompense for the damage,
or otherwise to render full satisfaction, then he was to lose
his head : and —
The Twenty-fourth Clause gave to the Master, or any of the
mariners, or to the merchants on board, full power to cut
off the head of the offender, without being bound in law to
answer for it.
The Twenty-fifth Clause provided that all pilots, who in
connivance with the Lords of the coast, or who, to ingratiate
themselves with such Lords, ran a ship on shore, should be
'' hung on high jibbets near the place where these accursed
pilots brought the ship to ruin : and which said jibbets are
to abide and remain to succeeding ages in that plaoe, as a
visible caution to other vessels that sail thereby."
The Twenty-sixth Clause provided that the Lord of the
place who should permit such crimes, or who should assist
others in such villainies, so that he may have a share in sooh
wrecks, shall be apprehended, and all his goods confiscated
and sold, in order to make restitution ; and "* he himself shall
be fastened to a post or stake in the midst of his own
mansion-house, which, being fired at all the four comen» all
shall be burned together: and the walls of the house shall
be demolished, the stones pulled down, and the plaoe made
into a market-place for the sale of hogs and swine only, to
all posterity."
Article Twenty-seven relates to losses from any accident
which might result from the ship being badly found.
Articles Twenty-eight, Twenty-nine, and Thirty, adjust the
respective shares in fishing-boats, when worked in partner-
ship : and also relate to the salvage from shipwrecked vessels,
in which the right of all shipwrecked persons to their own
goods is fully maintained.
PUNISHMENTS FOR OFFENCES 15
The Tbirty-firat Article provides that any wrecketB who
)>ltin(lered a ahip, and whoi to gain possession of the goods,
" should murder and destroy poor shipwrecked seamen, should
be plunged into the sea till they be half dead, and then
drawn oat from the sea and stoned to death."
The remaining Articles deal with such matters aa goods
nashed ashore, wrecks, and so forth. The Forty-fifth Clause
is quaint. It provides that a ship, having to cut her cables
and proceed to sea through stress of weather, is still entitled
to the cables and anchors; and "any person detaining them
&om their lawful owners, shall be reputed a thief and a
robber."
The Forty-sixth and Forty-seventh Articles apply to the
timbers of wrecks, when the crews should be all lost, or
perished. The pieces of the ship were declared still to belong
to her original owners, notwithstanding any custom to the
contrary, "and any participators of the said wrecks, whether
they be bishops, prelates, or clerks, shall be deposed, and
deprived of their benefices " — and if lay people, then they were
to incur the penalties previously recited.
Swearing and gambling would seem to have been, from
quite early times, weaknesses to which seamen were particu-
larly prone. In Richard L'a expedition to the Holy Land,
he ordered that if any seaman on board any of the ships
shonid be found playing at dice, or any similar game, he
should be plunged into the sea, three mornings successively,
as a punishment.
Swearing, on board ship, in the middle ages had reached
flDch a pitch that Pope Paul III. issued, in 1543, a decree
prescribing the most severe penalties for " this most damnable
custom," which penalties were renewed in another decree
issued, in 1582, by Pope Gregory XIII.
Moncenigo, in 1420, flogged every common sailor guilty of
blasphemy, or even of swearing; and fined "every sailor of
the poop, steersman, ofQcer, or gentleman, a hundred sous, who
shonid be guilty of a like offence." Many offences of seamen
were, in the middle ages, punished by the whip, or the cat-
o'-nine-tails ; but receiving a ducking overboard three times
gacceasively was, perhaps, one of the most common forms of
i6 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
punishment. This mode of punishment was first used by the
English in the twelfth oentury ; the offender being, by means
of ropes, lowered down on one side of the ship, passed under
the bottom, and hauled up again on the other side. This was
known as '' keel-hauling," a name which has suryived till the
present day.
SHIPPING UNDER THE PLANTAGENETS
CHAPTEB II.
Fping under the Plautageneta— The action off Sandwicli iu 1217
' I the Channel— Lettera of Matquo— Tho Great Fleet of
, 1340— List of die ships— Tbo coal Irado of the north—
■li^ under Kichard II.— Navigation Act— Defence of the country by
' mtahipa, 1406 — Maritime affairs under Henry V. — The fleet
B of France — Important change in the Mercantile Uarine
)i of Richard m.
senth and foiirteeiith centuries the English
Y engaged in continental ware, bad entirely
nt ships for fighting purposes ; but as the
> was siinply to convey the archers and the
'ho were the real combatants, the particular
[ employed was of no very great moment. It
iiposed, for the most part, of ordinary
—that engaged the Fieuch ships off Sandwich
I the 24th of August ia that year a fleet of
lels, nnder the command of a famous pirate,
the Monk, put to sea from Calais with
r Prince Louis, who then was in England.
:gh, a resolute and able man, with an English
t Dover, and met the enemy off Sandwich,
inencing the attack by " a dreadful discbarge
• cross bow-men and the archers." The
jigaiuat the enemy's vessels with their
miy of them; and the sailors, "availing
IKjsition to windward, threw pulverised
French ships, whereby their men were
i action the ships contributed by the Cinque
' Matthew Paris.
1 8 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Forts SO distingoislied themselves that, as a reoompense, these
ports obtained still farther privileges, being accorded permission
to " annoy the subjects of France, and all they met of what*
ever nation," or in other words, to plonder any foreign
merchant ship that they might come across. This, however,
was a line of policy that very soon found imitators, and it was
not long before the whole Channel swarmed with pirates —
English, French, Scotch, and Irish — all endeavouring to prey
upon each other, until the evil had grown to such an enormous
extent that the most stringent measures were found necessary
to sweep the seas of these marauders. In spite, however, of
the trouble given by these pirates, English maritime commerce
was steadily increasing, there being a large export trade in
wool, chiefly to Flanders; the king obtaining a revenue of
£80,000 a year from the export duty on this article alone.
King Edward I. did much to encourage maritime commerce,
among other things granting a fresh charter to the Cinque
Ports. He still fixed the number of ships to be provided by these
ports at fifty-seven, which number was afterwards increased
to eighty, thus establishing the nucleus of a national Navy.^
It was during the reign of Edward I. that ^letters of
marque " appear to have been granted for the first time. A
merchant of Bayonne, at that time a port of the English
dominions in Gascony, had shipped a cargo of fruit from Malaga,
which, on its passage along the coast of Portugal, was seized
and carried into Lisbon by an armed cruiser belonging to that
country, although Portugal was then at peace with England.
The King of Portugal, who had himself taken one-tenth
* Hakluyt, yoL I p. 21, gives the following: **In the 22Qd year of
Ekiward I. Uie particular charge of the Cinque Ports is set dovm in this
manner : — The Port of HastingB ought to find three ships : the town of
Pevenscy, one : Bulverhithe and Petit lahn, one : Bekesboume in Kent, seven :
Grenche at Qillingham in Kent, two men in armour, to go with the ships of
Hastmgs : the town of Bye, five (to it was Tenterden annexed in the time of
Henry the Sixth) : the town of Winchelsea, tenne : the Port of Romney,
four : Lydde, seven : the port of HithCi five : the Port of Dover, nineteen :
the town of Folkestone, seven : the town of Feversham, seven : the Port
of Sandwich, with Stonor, Fordwich, Deal, &c., five ships. These ships they
ought to find upon forty days summons, armed and arrayed at their own
charges: and in each of them twenty men, besides the Master of the
Maryners."
FIRST LETTERS OF MARQUE 19
part <if the property, refused either to restore the ship and
•=«go or to make good the loss ; whereupon the owner of the
ship, and his heirs, were granted license, by King Edward's
Lieutenant in Gasccny, for five years to seize the property of
the Portugnese, and more especially that of the inhabitants of
Lisbon, until he had made good Lis loss to the estent of what
had been taken from him. After this letters of marque
were by no taeans nnconimon, and a species of legalized piracy
was again established. \Vhen Edward III., in the summer of
1338, comment-eft the war with Philip VI. of France, known
since as the Hundred Years' War, and when be had deter-
mined upon the siege of Calais, he ordered a roll to be prepared
of all the ships that might be available for the blockade and
for the siege ; and it is from this roll that we obtain the first
reliable information with regard to the extent of the mercantile
shipping of this country.
Philip had collected a vast number of ships in the harbour
of Slays, at the mouth of the Scheldt ; and to oppose this
fleet, as well as for the projected operations against Calais, a
large English fleet, composed for the most part of merchant
ships, was got together, great numbers of soldiers and
archers were embarked, and early iu June, 1340, the
expedition sailed.
\>'ben Edward arrived off Sluys, " he saw," as Froissart tells
a«, **eo great a number of ships that their masts seemed to
be lite a great wood." The naval battle that ensued was
lijBg and fierce, the first English success being the recapture
of a large ship named the Ckristophtr, which had been taken
by the French in the preceding year. The fighting on both
sides was very severe; but after the lapse of several hours
victory declared itself for the English. Over two hundred
French ships — that is to say, more than oue-half of Philip's
lleet — were taken, and some two thousand men are said to
have been slain.
The following is a list of the ships and men as supplied by
ibe various ports of the country, and not a few interesting
facts may be adduced from its perusal. If the ships supplied
liy the king be taken as representing the Royal Navy it will
l« seen that the naval force formed but a very insignificant
20
THB BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
portion of the whole — ^not a twentieth part of the entire fleet
— ^which thus almost exclusively oonsiBted of ships of the
mercantile marine.
The relative importance of the different ports, in the reign
of Edward m., may be inferred &om the numbers of the ships
that they supplied, and the results are not a little carious.
Thus London would appear to have been at that time by no
means the most important port of the realm, being largely
exceeded in importance by Dartmouth, Plymouth, Fowey,
and Yarmouth ; the latter port contributing many more ships,
and nearly three times the number of men that London did.
On the other hand, many ports that are now important
maritime centres, were at that time but exceedingly insignifi-
cant places, or, indeed, in some instances, did not exist at alL
For instance, Cardiff and Swansea sent only one ship each;
Portsmouth sent only five ships ; Hartlepool, five ; Grimsby,
five; and York, which, however, could scarcely perhaps be
considered as a port, was only represented by one ship and
by nine men, whilst Liverpool is not even heard of at alL
List of the Ships of the Great Fleet of King
Edward IIL
From the HarleianMSS,
<* The Rolle of the huge ffleete of King Edward iii. before Callice to be seen
in the Kinge's great Gardrobe in London : whereby appeareth the wondeifoil
Btrengthe of England by Sea in those dayes.**
The Soitih Fleete.
MAryners.
62
25
62
193
120
766
96
603
315
47
770
608
25
96
66
The King ... ,
.!^T
Muynen.
... 419
London
25
...
662
Ayleford ... ,
2
...
24
Hoo .
2
• .•
24
Maydestone...
2
...
51
Hope
2
...
59
Margate ... .
15
...
160
Nonehethe ... .
5
...
49
Montormont
2
...
23
FeverBham ... ,
2
...
63
Sandewich ... .
22
...
604
Dover
16
...
334
Wighte ... .
13
...
220
Wynchelsey
21
...
396
Waymouthe
15
..
263
"
ShlppeB.
Lyme
... 4 ...
Seton
... 2 ...
Sydmowthe ...
... 3 ...
Exmowthe ...
... 10 ...
Tegnmowthe
... 7 ...
Dertmowthe
... 32 ...
Porteemowthe
... 5 ...
Plymowthe ...
... 26 ...
Ajooe ... ...
... 20 ...
Yalme
... 2 ...
Fowey
Bristol
... 47 ...
... 22 ...
Tenmowthe ...
... 2 ...
Hastinge
... 5 ...
Bomney
... 4 ...
^^^^^E
11
^^M
^^I^^^^H^^^B
1 ^^H
K
1
THE FLEET OF EDWARD III.
«i
1
The South Flecte — amlinited.
it
..■"r..."^-
Swsnaey .,. .
"T .""r
Hjthe ...
... 6 ... 122
Ilfrecombe ... .
. 6
.. 79 ]
SLoram Z
... 20 ... 329
Poterikslowe
. 2
.. 27 1
Seforde ...
... 5 ... 80
PoIerwBii
.. 60 1
Newmowthe
... 2 ... 18
Wadworthe... .
.. « 1
... 7 ... 117
Kerdifie ... .
a^^m
Hoke
... n ,.. 208
Bridgewater
is^^H
Sowthiunpton
... 21 ... 576
Caermarthen
it^^H
Uymiogeton
... 9 ... 159
Coleoheaworth .
13 ^^1
KfDole
... 4 ... 94
Mnlhroke ... .
.. 12 ^^1
E^^ ...
... 3 ... 59
1
■
Somme tolall of the Sowthe Fleete—
J
■
Shippes ... 473
J^
■
MaryBcra ... 9307
■^M
w
The Nobth Fleete.
^
SUppc*. Hurnm.
Shrppm. Mirmmi.
... 1 ... 9
Scarboron^he ..
r ,
19
... 27 ... 314
Yannowthe ,.
43 .
1950
Wolridia ...
... 1 ... li
Dornewiche
C .
102
nertilpoole ...
... 5 ... 145
Oiforde
13 .
303
Halte
... IG ... 4C6
Ipawiche
Menye
3 .
62
Yorke
... 1 ... 9
13 .
303
Ravetuer ...
... I ... 27
Brightelensey ..
14 .
. 283 .
... 1 ... 12
Colchester
12 .
. 239
Sto^ehithe ...
... 1 ... 10
Whibanes
1 .
6
Bwlon
... 3 ... 30
Derwon
5 .
. 90
Swynfleeto ...
... 1 ... 11
Boston
17 .
. 361
Siltfleete ...
... 2 ... 49
Maiden
2 .
38
... 5 ... 96
2 .
32
Blieknef ...
... 19 ... 382
... 2 ... 38
Barton
5 .. 61
Somme lolall of the Northe Fleete—
Shippes ... 234
Muryners ... 5624
Sorame Ifltall of all tlie English Fleete^
Shippes ... 707
Maryners ... U931
SinPFK9 ASI
MABTOEHa OF FORHAITST. C0U!JTRETF,S
i\ Tras Aide.
StalppH. Ifirman.
Bijoime ...
... 15 ... 439 Flandere ... ,
. 14 ... 133
8[«rne
... 7 ... 184 Geldertanil ... .
. 1 ... 24
IiSLide ...
... 1 ... 184
The fall
nomber of the said strangers Bhippea and
narynora—
Shippes ... 38
•{
Marynere ... 964
1
n THE BRITISH MERCHAXT SERVICE
Yarioos monaichsy eTen preTions to the leign of Edwaid m.
at the beginning of the foorteenth oentmy, did undoubtedly
possess ships which appear to have been built and employed
solely in the pnblic service ; but more generally when ships
were required for the transport of troops, they were merchant
ships, either provided by the principal ports, or hired for the
occasion.
Edward lY. had several ships of his own, which he employed
sometimes in war, bat perhaps more often in trade, in which
he was largely engaged; so that it is evident that down to
that time the line between Naval ships and ships of the Mer-
cantile Marine was exceedingly ill-defined — ^the same vessel
being at one time a merchant ship, pure and simple, and at
another time what we should now designate an armed
cruiser.
Until the time of Edward IV., the general type of ship
had remained pretty much the same for centuries ; the vessel
rising considerably both at the stem and the stem, and being
fitted with a single mast in the centre, which served to sustain
a square sail, on which depended the only means then used
of conveying the vessel across the ocean at times when it was
considered inconvenient, or unadvisable, to make use of the
oars.
During the reigns of the Plantagenet kings a new maritime
industry was gradually springing up in the north of England.
Although it is certain that the Bomans worked coal to some
small extent in the north, it was not until the reign of
Edward III. that the opening of the great coal-fields near
Newcastle took place, and employment was found for a
largely increased number of ships. The use of coal found
favour, however, with foreigners much more rapidly than it
did at home, and for some time after its discovery the con-
sumption of coal was thought by the English to be so un-
healthy, that a Boyal edict prohibited its use in the City of
London, whilst the Queen resided there, in case it might
prove "pernicious to her health.*'
But while the use of coal was thus restricted in England,
large quantities were shipped abroad, France sending her
vessels laden with com to Newcastle, and taking in coal as
THE FIRST NAVIGATION ACT 23
their return cargoes— indeed, the French were the first to take
Eogligh coal to foreign countries, the number of French and
other foreign ressels attracted by this trade increasing every
year.
During the reigii of Kiohard II. the merchants, becoming
alarmed at the large number of foreign ships entering Englisli
ports, and fearing that sooner or later all the carrying-trade
of the ciinntry would pass into the hands of foreigners,
petitioned Parliament to restrict the privileges of foreign
ships; and the First Navigation Act, passed in the fifth year
of fiichard II., was the result. It, however, very soon became
a dead letter, for in the October of the next year, 1382, per-
mission was given to English merchants in foreign ports to
ship their goods for England in foreign vessels as before, " if
they could not find sufficient English ships."
It was during the same king's reign that the English
Government passed the first law on record whereby dues were
levied on all merchant ships frequenting English ports; the
amotmt of the dues so levied being used for the purpose of
restoring and maintaining an efficient lloyal Navy. The only
exceptions made were those in favour of ships bringing mer-
chandise from Flanders to London, and of the traders from
London to Calais with wool and hides ; whilst all other vessels
leaving the Thames were required to pay a charge of sixpence
a ton.
The Navy, for whose benefit this tax was levied, was no
sooner created, however, than the fleet, under the command
of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, instead of being
employed in guarding the shores of England, was sent to
besiege St. Malo; while the French ships, in the meanwhile,
came and ravaged the coast of Cornwall ; an<l, in the absence
of the English fleet, a combined squadron of French and
Spanish ships sailed up the Thames as far as Gravesend,
homing and destroying all the towns and villages as they
came.
Here, again, the merchant service came to the timely aid
of the State. The ships of the Royal Navy being engagefl
at St. Malo, a fleet of west-country merchantmen, who had
muted for their own defence, boldly attacked the French
34 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
and Spaniflh ships, and, although the English ships were
much smaller than those of the enemy, yet by dint of
superior seamanship they managed snooessfolly to lepnlse
them.
After the deposition of Richard II., Henry IV. exerted
himself to get together, and to keep up, a regnlar Navy ; bat
so fieir was he from being successfal that the entire guardian-
ship of the sea, &om May, 1406, until September, 1407, was
entrusted to merchant yessels, the law requiring ship-owners
^ to maintain certain ships on the seas ; " and they were further
empowered to select out of their body two fit persons, to whom
the king should grant commissions to act as Admirals. In
return for these services, certain privileges were conferred
npDu the owners of the ships, such as dues on wines, and other
merchandise imported ; and this system of the protection of
the shores and of the maritime commerce of the country, by
the merchant ships themselves, prevailed for very many
years.
The gallant, accomplished, and energetic Prince Henry of
Monmouth came to the throne as Henry Y. in 1413, being
then in his 26th year; and in 1414 he determined upon a
war with France. A large army was raised for the purpose
of the invasion, and for the transport of this army across the
Channel every British vessel of 20 tons and upwards was
pressed into the service, and ordered to assemble, either at
London, Sandwich, Winchelsea, or Bristol, previous to pro-
ceeding to Southampton to embark the troops.
But all the ports of England put together were unable to
supply the king's requirements, and consequently commis-
sioners were appointed to hire ships in the Low Countries,
whilst three large vessels, the Trinity, the Grace de Dieu^ and
the Holy Ohostj were built for the king at Southampton,
specially to compete with the large vessels that the French
had hired from the Genoese and the Spaniards. Henry also
built two royal yachts, the King's Chamber and the King's
Hall, which were magnificently fitted up, and had sails of
purple silk, emblazoned with the arms of England and of
France.
The fleet, when collected, assembled in the Southampton
THE FLEET OF HENRY V.
water and in the Solent, and consisted of no less than fifteen
hnudred Tessels, for the most part merchant ships, both
^ £iigiiah and foreign ; the ships being manned by crews, to
B|ft very large extent obtained by the instrumentality of the
On Saturday, Angnst 10, 1415, Henry embarlted on board
Ids own vessel, the Trinity, then lying between Sonthampton
and Portsmonth. The ships of this large fleet, varying in
size &om 20 to 300 tons, on Sntiday, August 1, set sail, and
Tneaday's noonday sun saw the royal ship entering the
month of the Seine, the whole fleet coming to anchor
aboat three miles from Harflenr. With the results nf the
campaign itself, with the siege of Harfleur, and the great
viotory of Agincourt, we are not concerned ; but after land-
ing the troops the fleet was sent round to Calais, fo await
the king's arrival, and ultimately it returned to England in
the Kovember following.
King Henry V. enjoyed but a brief reign, dying in 1422 ;
bat before the close of hia reign, with a view to any future
requisition of ships, an Act was passed requiring all vessels
to be measured according to certain prescribed forms in
order to ascertain their tonnage or capacity. By a clause of
this Act, the barges, or "keels," then employed in the con-
veyance of coals from the colliery- wharves to the ships in the
Tyne, were also required to be measured, and marked by the
Crown ; and from that day forth every keel contained exactly
21 tons 4 cwt. of coals; and the capacity of a ship on the
Tyne was better understood by the number of }M:h she could
'•any than by ber tonnage.
The short reign of Richard III. was marked by one very
important change in a matter intimately connected with the
mercantile marine of England. Until about this time
f-Dglish merchant ships had but rarely ventured beyond the
' ASt of Portugal, only a few of the more enterprising
:;aving occasionally found their way into the Mediterranean ;
III it was during the reign of Richard III. that there com-
menced a regular trade with Italy, which steadily increased
rear by year. It was from this period that dates a most
important era in the annals of British shipping, the distinction
26 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
being now made, for the fiist time, between the business
of the shipowner and the business of the merchant, many
ships being engaged in this trade with Italy as carriers alone,
deriving their profits entirely from the amount of the freight
they carried, apart from any consideration of the profits or
otherwise as derived from their cargoes.
CHAPTER III.
in the fifteenth century— Maritirae disooveries — Bartholoraow
Diaz— Vawo da Gama— Christopher Columbua— The North-West
Passige — Cabot's expedition— The maritime achioTemeota of Spain and
Portugal— The discoveries of the English- Shippiug nnder Jleiiry VIL—
Jmprovemente in the art of shlp-building — The Mei'chant Adventurers
Company— The expedition under Sir Hugh Willgiighby — Sir Hugh
Willonghhy'fl own account of it.
The fifteenth century was pre-eminently the age of maritime
iliscorery. In lilS Madeira was discovered by the Portuguese,
and was at once added to the poaaeeaions of Portugal ; in 1146
the mariners of the same country discovered the Cape Verde
Islands, and three years afterwards, the Azores, By 1463
the full knowledge of the West African coast had been
pushed southwards as far as the Efjuator; and the project of
reaching the Indies by sailing round the continent of Africa,
was seriously occupying tlie minds of the Portuguese.
In 1487 Biirtholomew Diaz determined upon making the
attempt, and actually succeeded in doubling the Cape of
Gwd Hope, and in reaching the neighbourhood of Algoa
Bay, near the mouth of the Great Fish River, where he found
the coast-line trending away to the north-east. He did not
continue his voyage farther, but returned home again by the
Cape, which, from the constant succession of bad weather
that he experienced whilst ronndiug it, he named the Cnpo
of Storms. Upon his return, however, to Portugal, John II.
bestowed on it the name of Cabo de Bona Esperanza, or the
Cape of Good Hope, by which name it has ever since been
known.
Ten years later Yasco da Gama also sailed round the
Mpe, and landed at what is now known as Natal, ultimately
28 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Rucceediug in reaching the East Indies at Calient, on the
coast of Malabar.
In the spring of 1497, three stately ships were built at
Lisbon, called respectively the St, Baphaelf the St. Michadf
and the St. Gabriel. These ships were to form the squadron of
Yasco da Oama in his voyage to the East. Besides taking
out with him numberless presents wherewith to propitiate
such potentates as he might meet with, Ghuna shipped six
great marble monuments, on which were engraved the arms
of Spain and other devices, to set up in such countries as he
could persuade their too credulous rulers to grant him per-
mission, so that afterwards he might perhaps retnm and
claim these countries as annexed. He also showed hia astute-
ness by taking on board a number of convicts sentenoed to
death, enfana j>^*^'^^9 who should be put forwaid on any
dangerous or forloni service that might turn up. We know
that they actually were so made use of on occasions^ and
once or twice were left behind as incipient coloniflte; and it
does not appear that they made any very serious objeotioiBS
to these experimental uses.
Yasco da Oama doubled the Cape without knowing it, by
the simple expedient of beating out to sea for two whole
months, when he fancied he was opposite to it. Here he had
considerable difBculties with his crew, having to put the
pilots in irons, and throwing their quadrants into the sea, to
encourage the rest to trust wholly in him. Steering a
northerly course again, he made the land, and ran into a
timely harbour, which he called the " River of Mercy," to
repair damages, where his crew suffered the first known out-
break of scurvy.
Having completed his repairs, Yasco da Gama sailed up the
African eastern coast, and commenced negociationa with
sundry potentates at Mozambique, Melinde, and elsewhere,
always displaying considerable diplomacy, and setting up his
landmarks where he could. At Mozambique he left ten of
his cnfaiis perdics, " as," he naively remarked, ** if they lived
they might be of advantage to him when he came again."
In landing at any strange port. Grama invariably obtained
hostages before entrusting any valuable personage on shore.
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS
19
A moorish pilot, or a convict or two, were sometimes risked
to open ooQimuni cations, and negociations were encouraged
by paying the people handaomely for the fruits and vegetables
that they brought off, and by giving presents, such as red
cloth and mirrors, the latter of which seem to Iiave been
highly effective. Everywhere Vaseo proclaimed the greatness
of the King of Portugal, what he would do to his enemies,
and what advantages would accrue to bis allies. Then with
a salvo of artillery and a great blowing of trumpets, he
iiaed to impress his words, aud occasioually to enforce his
arguments.
The opening of the ocean route to India, by way of the
Cape of trood Hope, as a result of these discoveries, and the
discovery of the West India Islands by Christopher Columbus,
io 1492, gave au immense impetus to English maritime aSairSi
and as a consequence made the reign of the hrst Tudor king,
perhaps, more important to English shipping than any reign
preceding.
It would seem, indeed, to have been, to a certain extent,
the result of a mere accident that Christopher Columbus him-
self did not make his great discoveries whilst sailing under
the British Sag, rather than under that of iSpain; for
being at drst but coldly received in that country, he had,
B8 a matter of fact, approached King Henry VII. of
England upon the subject, the particulars of which are tbus
given by Hakluyt, who wrote during the reign of Henry VIII.
He says —
" ChriBl«plier Columbnsi, fearing lest if tbo King of CsEtQe in like mannur
(m the KiDg of PortHgal had done) should not condescend unto hia enterpriae,
he should be forced to offer the same agsin unto somo other prioce, and so
tint mnch time shouJd be spent therein. Ue therefore sent into England a
retVuD brother of hia, which he had with him, whose name was Bartholomew
Colnmbue, who albeit he had not the Latin tongue, yet nevertheless was a
man of experience, and skilful in eea causes, and could very well make sea
carda, and globes, and other inslrumentB belonging to that profession, as he
had been iDEtructed by tiis brother. Wfierefora aller that Bartholomew
ColnmboB was departed for England his look was to fall into the hatidD of
piialea, wfcich spoiled Iiim, as also the rest of them which wore in the ship ho
ireot m. Upon which occoHon, and by reason of his poverty and sickness,
which cmelly aasanlted him in a counti-y so far distant from hia friends, he
1 hia embaaea^ for a long while, until such time as he bad gotten
30 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
somewhat handsome abont him with the making of sea cards. At length he
began to deal with King Henry the Seventh, the fiskther of Sng Heniy the
Eighth, which reigneth at this present, unto whom he presented a map of the
world. After the King had seen the map which Chrfatopher CohuDboB had
sent unto him, he accepted the offer with a joyful conntenanoe, and sent to
caU him into England. But because God had reserved the said oflfor for
Castile, Columbus was gone in the mean space.**
Christopher Columbus sailed on the 8rd of August, 149%
with three small ships, from the harbour of Paloe, an insigni-
ficant Atlantic port of Andalusia. On October 12 he set
foot on one of the Bahamas, afterwards discovering the
islands of Hayti and Cuba. On March 15, 1493, he was
back again at Palos. In a subsequent voyage he visited the
mainland of the new continent, but it ultimately took its
name from that of the Florentine mariner Amerigo Vespucci,
who first saw it in 1499, when he landed on the territory now
called Surinam. Vespucci made two other voyages in the
service of the King of Portugal, and then became ^ Chief
Pilot and Hydrographer *' to the King of Spain, his duties
being to prepare charts and to prescribe routes for voyagers
to the New World. He was on friendly terms with Columbus,
and is in no wise responsible for the injustice done to the
great discoverer in the name bestowed on the Western Conti-
nent. The error is said to have been due to a German
geographer, who, writing in 1507 of the new continent, first
termed it '^ America." The name was adopted by other writers,
and so became popular, and in the end universal.
The news of the discovery of America by Christopher
Columbus in 1492 soon spread throughout the whole of Europe.
It produced an immense excitement everywhere, and nowhere
perhaps more than in England, where it gave rise to a long
succession of voyages of discovery.
As it was the project of Columbus to reach the Indies by
sailing to the westward that resulted in the accidental
discovery of the West India Islands, and ultimately in the
discovery of America itself, so the idea still pursued the
merchants and sailors of this country that there must certainly
be a way to India and to China by sailing either to the north-
west or to the north-east. Although parts of the coast of
America had by this time been discovered, yet the general
configuration of the new continent, and the fact that it extended
to within the Arctic Circle, were utterly unknown to the
civilized world ; and the probability, oi- at least the possibility,
of a north-west passage to India occupied the minds of men
for three whole centuries.
The voyages of discovery initiated by England at the close
of the fifteenth century all tended in this direction, and
whilst they were all consequently unauccessl'ul in their
immediate object — that of finding a north-west passage to
India — yet, on the other hand, they were eminently successful
in opening np many new branches of trade, and in greatly
extending the knowledge of navigation.
The first expedition that sailed from England was fitted
ont at Bristol, under the authority of a charter from King
Henry VII. dated the 5th of March, 1495. by John Cabot, a
Venetian, and his three sons. They were by this charter
authorized to subdue and occupy all such countries unknown
to Christians as they might find, on condition of paying one-
fifth of their gains to the king ; and, as a further inducement
to the adventurers, it was agreed that any goods that they
might import from such new countries should be exempt from
customs ; and to encourage the merchants of Bristol the more
freely to advance the money needed for the enterprise, it was
specially stipnlated that Bristol should have the exclusive
jffivilege of receiving all that was imported.
Cabot sailed from Bristol in May. 1497, in a ship called the
Uatt/icu; and crossed the Atlantic in a lugher latitude than
ihat followed by Columbus, sighting Newfoundland about five
o'clock in the morning of the 2-ith of June, 1497 — St. John's
Day — hence the name, St. John's, Newfoun<lland. Instead,
however, of finding the kind of land that had been described
by Columbus, they found a c<.>l(l, bleak, and inliospi table
country, bnt still one whose shores swarmed with fish of every
kind, with seals, walruses, and -whales. After staying some
tittle time to examine the coast of Newfoundland, they
proceeded on their voyage, and landed on the shores of
Labrador, somewhere between latitude 66° and 58°, on the Ist
of Xttgast, 1497.
After the discovery of Labrador, Cabot retraced his steps.
32 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
and, passing again round Newfoundland, sailed down the coast
of North America as far as Florida^ from whence he xetmned
to Europe.
Some years later — ^namely, in 1534 — ^the French sent oat
an expedition under the command of Jacques Cartier, who
explored the coast of New Brunswick, and sailed many hundred
miles up the St. Lawrence.
Spain and Portugal, the two great maritime powers of that
time, were not slow to avail themselves of the new disooveries,
and the former at once monopolized the West Indies, Mexico,
and large tracts of South America, from whence an uninter-
rupted stream of gold and treasure poured into Spain. The
Portuguese, to whom had fallen other portions of the shores of
South America, were perhaps less successful than the Spaniards
in the search for gold and silver, but were far more successfiil
in the raising of sugar and other tropical produce.
In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Pemambuco, which then
belonged to the Portuguese, was the most flourishing place on
the coast of Brazil. It contained three thousand houses, and
around it were no less than seventy sugar fietctories all worked
by slaves ; besides which it supplied a large amount of Brazil
wood and cotton. Bahia, too, contained a thousand houses
and forty sugar factories, and large quantities of cotton were
grown in the neighbourhood. Eio de Janeiro at this time had
not more than three hundred houses and only three sugar
factories; whilst at Santos were some four hundred houses
and three sugar factories.
During the whole of the sixteenth century, therefore, the
Portuguese and the Spaniards divided between them the
entire trade of America. They possessed almost exclusively
the commerce and the government of Africa, and they were
absolute masters in the East Indies. Meanwhile, the English
attempts to settle in North America were entirely unsuccessful.
A moderately profitable trade in salt fish was about the only
consequence to England of the discovery of Newfoundland;
and the reports of the immense wealth that was accruing to
Spain and Portugal from their rich and splendid settlements
rendered the English dissatisfied with their barren discoveries,
and were continually urging them to endeavour to reach the
^ SHIPPING UNDER HENRY VII. 33
Spice islands and the rich countries of the East by voyages
either to the north-west, round the northern shores of America,
or to the north-east, along the coasts of Norway, Lapland, and
Siberia, So long as they were deluded by this i^nis fatuus,
they entirely neglected the fine regions of North America
which were open to them ; and it was not until repeated
failures had at length induced them to abandon the search
for gold that they began to direct their energies to the
great and practicable object of colonizing the coast of
Virginia.
Henry VII., like some of his predecessors upon the English
throne, was himself a great merchant, and he not only owned
and fitted out many ships on his own account, simply for
commercial purposes, but he endeavoured to promote in many
ways the interests of maritime commerce. That the particular
means that he adopted to this end were not always the best
means in the long run, was to a great extent attributable to
the spirit of the age, the principle not having then been
recognised that it is impossible successfully to bolster up a
declining commerce by any measure of protection. Thus, in
Ilia first parliament a protectionist law was passed absolutely
prohibiting the importation of Bordeaux wiaes in any but
English, Irish, or Welsh Iwjttoms, and these ships were to be
manned entirely by men of the countries owning them. This
law was afterwards still further extended, so that no wines
from Gascony or Guienne were allowed to be imported into
England except in ships belonging to the king — that is to
say, in his own merchant ships — or in ships belonging to his
subjects, and any such wines imported in foreign ships were
to be forfeited.
With a greater use for ships came necessarily many im-
provements in the construction of the vessels themselves,and by
the year 1500, shipbuilding, particularly in the Mediterranean,
had made an immense advance. The possessora of the moat
important vessels afloat, either for warlike or for mercantile
purposes, at that time were the Venetians and the Genoese,
and their vessels, known as " carracks " and *' galleases,"
would even at the present day be considered of by no means
coutemptible dimensions. Their magnitude occasionally
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
L
extended to a thousand or fifteen hundred tons burden;*
they carried three masts, with lower masts and topmasts, were
square-rigged on the fore and main masts, and carried a lateen
sail on the mizen ; and they had a bowsprit, raking at an
angle of about 45 degrees, carrying a large square sptitsaiL
The stem nas raised up to a great height above the waist erf
the ship, with quarter-deck and poop, and was elaborately
ornamented with carving and gilding. This artistic treat-
ment of the stem and quarter galleries came down to much
more recent times, excellent pencil designs for such work by
eminent artists like Vandervelde and others being still extant*
The Venetian galleys of this age are said to have carried,
on an average, some 500 tons of cargo under hatches, besides
a considerable deck load. Their crews often consisted of
many as two hundred men, of whom a hundred and fifty were
necessary to work the sails and the oars. Twelve of thfl
smartest seamen were selected to steer the vessel — quarter*
masters, in fact, under the direction of the pilots, of whom
there were two to each vessel. These twelve men were re-
quired to take the lead in all the duties of seamanship, espe-
cially in going aloft to set or take in the sails. They bore thfl
name of "gallants," whence doubtless the term "top-gallant
sails.
Before the end of Henry VII. 's reign similar ships belong-
ing to London, Bristol, and Southampton, were trading to
Sicily, Candia, and sometimes even to Cyprus, Tripoli, and
Beyrout ; as an outward cargo taking, for the most part, woollen
and cotton goods, skins, and so forth ; and bringing bock
silks, wine, oil, Turkey carpets, and spices. Hakluyt mention!
one vessel employed in this trade, called the Holy Crott,
which was of 160 tons burden. After her last voyage to the
Mediterranean, which lasted a twelvemonth, he says —
" She, with great danger returned home, where npon her arrival at B
waD, her wine and oil casks were found to be so weak that they were not abh
ti] hoist Uiem up out of the eblp, but were constrained to draw tbem oS as thtf
laj, and to put the wine and oil into new vesaeU, and bo unload the alup,
• It must be homo in mind.however, that the Venetian "ton" represented
only about ten hundredweight, bo that practically the tonnage of these vi
flhooJd be divided by two.
k
i- 1SIL> iTofaefpagt34.
LB BO sliaken in this voyage, and m weakened that she was laid np m
fte dock, and never made voyage nfterwarda."
Another vessel of the same period, of which Haklnyt gives
some partienlars, was the Matthew Gonsoii, of 300 tons burden.
Her crew consisted in all of one hundred men, and she seems
to have been well found, carrying three boats, a pinnace, a
long-boat, and a skifif. The pinnace was —
"a great boat which was able to carry t»n lonit of water, the which at our
retom homewards we towed all the way from Chio ontil we came through the
Sirait of Qibraltar, into the main ocean."
Furnished with better ships than heretofore, the spirit of
adventure and of discovery took a still stronger hold on the
minds of British mariners aud British merchants ; and Sebas-
tian Cabot, who for some years had relinquished all maritime
enterprises, and had left the country, now returned, and
became the head of an associati'.>n known as the " Merchant
Adventurers' Company," the object of which was to be "the
search and discovery of the northern parts of the World, to
open a way and passage to Cathay for our men to travel to
new and unknown kingdoms."
The first ships despatched by the Company consisted of a
squadron of three vessels commanded by the gallant Sir Hugh
Willooghby, with Richard Chancellor as his second in
commaQd, which sailed from the Thames in the I^Iay of 1553,
to seek for the North-East Passage through the Fular Seas.
Separated by a storm off the Lofoden Islands, the consorts
parted company, never to meet again. The fate of two of
their number forms a fitting prologue to the long tragedy of
the Arctic ice, for their crews, sixty-two all told, including
the leader of the expedition, perished to a man of scurvy
un the desolate shores of Bussian Lapland, where the ships,
manned by the dead, were found by native fishermen in the
following spring.
This disaster was counterbalanced by the success which
attended Chancellor's voyage. Entering the White Sea, he
wintered near the spot which is now occupied by the port of
Archangel, journeyed to the Court of Ivan the Terrible at
Moscow, and obtained from him those commercial privileges
for England which led to the formation of the Muscovy
36 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Company^ and laid the fonndationB of the trade between this
country and Russia.
Chancellor, however, did not live to reap the fruits of his
labours, as upon his return, having the Ambassador to
England from the Bussian Court on board, he was overtaken
by a furious gale off the Scotch coast, and his ship was lost
at Pitsligo, when in his praiseworthy and successful endeavours
to save the life of the Bussian Ambassador, he most unfor-
tunately lost his own.
The expedition consisted of three ships, the Bona Speranzaf
of 120 tons, which was the admiral's ship, and was commanded
by Sir Hugh Willoughby; the Edward JBonaventure, of 160
tons, commanded by Captain Bichard Chancellor; and the
Bona Confidentia, of 90 tons, Cornelius Durfooth, master.
Each ship had with it a pinnace and a smaller boat.
In Hakluyt's " Voyages " the log of the Commodore's ship,
written by Sir Hugh Willoughby himself, is given, and it is
so interesting, and puts before us so vividly the mode of
procedure on board ship three centuries and a half ago, that
no apology is needed for transcribing it. Hakluyt says —
^^ These foresaid ships being fully furnished with their pinnaces and boats,
well appointed with ail manner of artillery, and other dungs neoeesaiy for
their defence with all the men aforesaid departed from Batcliffs, and sailed
unto Deptford the 10 day of May 1553.
*^ ' 11 May. About two of the clock, we departed from Deptford, passing by
Gbreenwich, saluted the Eing^s Majesty,* he then being there, shooting off oar
ordnance, and so sailed onto BlackwaU and there remained until the 17 day
of May : and that day in the morning we went from BlackwaU and came to
Woolwich by nine of the clock ; and there remained one tide, and so the
same night unto Herith.
" * The 18 day from Herith unto Gravesend ; and there remained until the
twentieth day, that day being Saturday : from Gk-aveeend unto Tilbury Hope,
remaining there until the two and twentieth day.
" * The 22 day from Tilbury Hope to HoUie Haven.
<< * The 23 day from Hollie Haven till we came against Lee, and there
remained that night by reason the wind was contrary to us.t
*< < The 24 day the wind being in the South-west in the morning, we suled
along the coast, over the Spits, until we came against St Osyth, about six of
the clock at night, and there came to an anchor, and abode there all that
night.
• This was King Edward VI.
t Thus being a fortnight getting down to the mouth of the Thames.
SIR HUGH WILLOUGHUVS EXPEDITION 37
" ■ The 25 doy, about ten of the clock, we departed from St Osydi, and 80
MUed forward nnto the Nose, and there abode that night for wind and tide.
" " ' The 26 day at five of the clock in the morning, we weighed our anchor,
d eaJIed over Uie Nose, the wind bebg at the South-weBl, until we came to
11 wands, and there came to an anchor, and abode there until the 28 day.
' ' The same day, being Trinity Sunday, about 7 of the clock before noon wo
■weighed our anchors, and sailed til] we came atliwart Walaurayo, and there
ffic to an anchor.
" ' The 29 day from thence to Uolmhead, where we stayed that day, where
m coasnlled which way, and what caurses were best to be holdon for the
Xtcojery of our voyage, and there agreed.
'' ' The 30 day of May at five of the dock in the morning we set sail, and
je against Yarmonth, about three loagnea into the sea, riding there at
anchor all that night.
" ' The last of May, into the sea six leagues North-east, and there tarried
iftt night for the wind blew very sore.
" ' The first of June the wind being at North, contrary to ns, we came back
pin to Orwell, and remained there until the 16 day, tarrying for the wind,
r aU this time the wind was contrary to our purpose.
" ' The 15 day being at Orwell, in the Latitude of 52 degrees, in the morning
■ weighed our anchors, and went forth into the wands, about two miles from
le town, and ky there Iliat night.
" ' The 16 day at eight of the clock we aet forward, and sayled until we came
•tliWBTt Aldborough, and there stayed that night.
" ■ The 17 day aboat five of the clock before noon we went back unto Otford-
aem, and tliere remained until the 19 day.
" ' TTie 19 day at eight of tlie clock in the morning we went back to Orwell,
ud abode there three days tarrybg for the wind.
"'The 23 day of June, the wind being fair in tlie Boutb-weat we hailed into
■be Kaa to Orfordnese, and from thence into the seas ten leagues North-east :
liwDtMiDgpast the sands, we changed our course six lei^ues North- north-east :
about midnight we changed our course agTiin, and went duo North, continuiug
m the some onto the 27 day.
"'The 27 day about seven of the clock, North-north-west, 42 leagues, to
the end to foil in with Shetland ; then Uie wind veered to the West, so that
we could lie but North and by West, continuing in the same course 40 leagues,
whereby we codd not fetch Shotland; then we sailed North 16 leagues by
ettiinatjoii, after that North and by West, and North- north-west, then South-
ewt, with divers other courses, traversing and tracing the seas, by reason of
fundry and manifold contrary winds, until the 14 day of July: and then the
Bon entering into Leo, wc discovered land Eastward of us, into the which we
sailed that night as much as we might: and after we went on shore with our
pnnaoe, and found little houses to the number of tlurty, whereby wc knew it
was inhabited, but the people were fled away, as we judged, for fear of us.
" ' The land was all taii of little talands, and that innumerable, which were
called (as we learned afterwards) ^^eland, and Ilalgeland, which lycth from
Or&rdness, North and by East, being in the Latitude of 66 degrees. The
dirtance between Orfordness and ^geland 250 leagues. Then wo sailed from
58 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
thence 12 leagues North-west, and found many other Islands Bud there o
to anchor the 19 day, and manned our pinnace, and went on shore to Ox
island.'', and found people mowing and making of hay, which cama to the ehere
and welcomed utj. In which place were an innuroernble sort of Islands, which
wore called the Isles of Roet being under the dominion of the King of
Denmark : which pkce was in Lstitade 66 degreea and 30 minntea. The
wind being contrary, we remained there three daya, and there was an
innumerable sort of fowls of divers kinds, of which we took vary many.
" ' The 22 day the wind coming fair, we departed from Bost, sailing North-
north-east, keeping the sea until the 27 day. and then we drew near onto the
land, nhich wa£ still East of iih : then vent forth onr pinnace to seek huboor,
and found many good harbours, of the which we entered into one with our
sliipg, which was called Stanfew, and the land being Islands, were called
Lewtoot or Lofoot, which wore plentifully Inhabited, and very gentle people,
being also under the King of Denma,rk: hut we conld not learn bow far it
was from the main land : and wc remained there onlil the 30 day, being in
Latitude 68 di^rees, and from the aioresaid Bost about 30 leagues Nortii-
Tiorth-east.
" ' The 30 day of July about noon, we weighed our anchors, aud went into
the seas, and sailed along these lalaajds North -north-cast, keeping the land
dtil] in sight until the second day of August: then hailing in oloso aboard the
land, to the intent to knon what land it was, there came a skis' of the Island
aboard of us, of whom we asked many questions, who showed unto us that the
Isknd was called Seynani, which is the Latitude of seventy degrees, and &om
Stanfew 30 Leagues, being also under the Kirig of Denma^, and that there wan
no merchandise there, but only dried fiah and train-oil.
'' ' Then we being puqiosed to go into Finmarite, inquired of him if w8 might
have a pilot to bring us into Finmarke, and he said that if we could bear in,
we should have a good harbour, am] the next day a pilot to bring ns into
Finmarke, imto the Wardhouse, which is the strongest hold in Finmarke, aod
much resorted to by report.
" ' But when we would have entered into the harbour, the land being very
high on every side, tlicre came such flaws of wind, and terrible whirlwinds,
that we were not able to bear in ; but by violence were constrained to t&ke
the sea again, our pinnace being unshipped.
" ' We sailed North and by East, the wind increasing so BOte that we were
not able to bear any sail, but took theni in, and lay adrift, to the end to let the
Blorm pass over. And that night by violence of wind and tliicknesa of mists,
we were not able to keep together within sight; and then about midnight wo
lost our pinnace, which was a discomfort to us.
" ' As soon as it was day, and the fog overpast, we looked about, and at the
last descried one of our ghips to leeward of us : then we spread an hollock of
our foresail, and bare room with her, which was the Confidence ; but the
L Edward we could not see. Then tLe flaw something abating, we and the
Confidence hoisted up our sails the fourth Day, sailing North-east and by
North, to the end to foil in with the Wardhouse, as we did consult to do
before, in case wo should part company.
SIR HUGH WILLOUGHBY S EXPEDITION 39
n Monded and had 160 lAthotne, whereby we Ihooght to be far froni kad,
ud petceived that the knd lay cot as tbe Globe made meotion. Wherefore
n ebuged our couise the sixth day, acd Bailed South-east and by South,
eght and forty leagues, thinking thereby lo find the Wardhoiieo.
" ■ The 8. day much wind rising at die Weet-north-weat, we not knowing
htm the ooeat lay, struck our aaila, and lay adrift, where wo sounded, and
bond 160 fathoms, as before.
" ' The 9 day the wind veering to the Sonth-Bonth-eBet, we sailed North-eaat
iSIe^nee.
'■ ' The 10 day we sounded, and could get no ground, neither yet conld see
<ny land, whereat we wondered : then the wind coming at the North-east,
W9 raa South-east about 48 leagues.
" ' The 11 day the wind being at South, we sounded, and Tound 40 fathoms,
■nd fair sand,
" ' The 12 day the wind being at South and by East, we lay with our sail
East, and East and by North, 30 leagues.
" ' Tbe 14 day, early in the morning we descried land, which land we bare
with all, hoisting out our boat to discover what land it might be : but the
boat conld not come to land, the water wat so shoal, there was very much
ioe also, but there was no similitude of babitation, and this land lietli from
Seynom, East and by North, 160 leagues, being in Latitade 72 degrees.
"'Then we plyed to the Northward, the 15, 16, and 17 day.
" ' The 18 day the wind coming at the North-east, and the Confidetice being
troubled with bilge-walor and stocked, we thought it good to seek harbour
for her redress : then we bate room the 18 day, South-south-east, about 70
leagues.
" ' The 21 day we sounded, and found ten fathom ; alter that we sounded
agun, and found but 7 fathom, so shoalet and sboaler water, and yet coidd
»ae no land, whereat we marvelled greatly: to avoid this danger we bare
roomer into tbe eea all that night, North-west and by West.
"'The next day we sounded, and had 20 fathoms, and then shaped our
coarse, and ran West-south-west until the 23 day : thou we descried low
land, into which we bare as nigh as we could, and it appeared to us
uninhabited. Then we plied Westward along by that laod, which lieth Weat-
eonth-west and Eost-north-eaat, and much wind blowing at the West we
hailed into the sea. North and by East, 30 leagues. Then the wind coming
about at the North-eaet we saiicd West-north- weal ; ofter that the wind bearing
to the North-west, we lay with our saib West-south-west about 14 leagues,
•Dd then descried land, and bare in with it, being the 28 day, and finding
water bare in till we came to 3 fathom, then perceiving it to be shoal
and aieo seeing dry sands, wo haled out again North-eaat along that
"iaai untD we came to the point thereof. That laud turning to the Westward,
an along 16 leagues North-west ; then coming into a fair bay, we went on
with our boat, which place was uninbabited ; but yet it appeared unto
that people had been there, by crosses and other signs: from thence we
It sH along the coast Westward.
'The 4 day of September we lost sight of land, by reason of contrary
but the eighth day we descried land again. Within two days after,
4o THE BRITISH MEkCHANT SBRVtCB
wc lost sight of it ; then runnmg West and by South about SO leagaas, w« got
the sight of land again, and we bare in with it until nlg^t, then perodTiDg
it to be a lee shore, we gat us into the sea, to the end to have sea room.
" ' The 12 of September we haled to shoreward again, haTing then in-
different wind and weather : then being near unto the shore, and the tide
almost spent, we came to an anchor in 90 fathoms water.
*^ * The 13 day we camo along the coast which lay North-west and by West,
and South-east and by East
" ^ The 14 day we came to an anchor within two leagues of the shore, having
60 fS&thoms.
" * There we went ashore with our boat, and found two or three good
harbours, the land being rocky and high ; but as for people we could see
none.
** * The 15 day we ran still along the coast untfl the 17 day, then the wind
being contrary unto us, we thought it best to return into the harbour which
we had found before, and so we bare roomer with the same, howbeit we could
not accomplish our desire that day. The next day being the 18 of September,
wc entered into the Hayen, and there came to an anchor at 6 fiithoms.
*^ * This haven runneth into the main about two leagues, and b in breadth
half a league, wherein were very many seal fibshee, and other great fishes : and
upon the main we saw bears, great deer, foxes, and divers strange beasts, as
guloines, and such other as were to us unknown, and also wonderfuL
<* < Thus remaining in this haven * the space of a week, seeing the year was
far spent, and also very evil weather, as frost, snow, and hafl, as though it
had been the deep of winter, we thought it best to winter there. Wherefore
wo sent out three men. South-south-west, to search if they could find people,
who went three days* journey, but could find none : after that we sent otlier
three, Westward, fonr days* journey, which also returned without finding any
people. Then we sent three men. South-cast, three days* journey, who in like
sort returned without finding of people, or any similitude of habitation.'
*' Here endeth Sir Hugh Willoughby his notes which were written with his
own hand.
'* These two following notes were written upon the outside : —
'^ ' (1) The proceedings of Sir Hugh Willoughby aft^r he was separated
from the Edward Banaventure,
'^ ' (2) Our ship being at anchor in the harboxu* called Sterfier, in the Island
of Lofootc.*
** The river or haven wherem Sir Hugh Willoughby, with the Company of
his two ships perished for cold, is called Arzina in Lapland, near unio Eegor.
But it appeareth by a Will found in the Ship that Sir Hugh Willoug}iby and
most of the company wore alive in January 1554.** f t
* It was in this haven they died.
t Hakluyt, " The Principal Navigations,*' etc., vol i. p. 262. London, 1599.
X The polar passage by the north-eastern route from Europe to the
Indies has since actually been made, and the voyage of the F(^, under
Baron Nordonskiold, has fulfilled this secular dream of maritime adventure.
<(
VOYAGE OF THE "VEGA
»
41
ScuHng from Tromsoe, on Jnly 25, 1878, the Vega saccessftdly ran the ice
blockade of the E[ara Sea, doabled, for the first tune in the annals of naviga-
tion, Cape Cheljnsldn, the most northern promontory of Asia, and, after
passing a winter imprisoned in the ice within a hundred and twenty miles of
Behring's Straits, retomed home by way of the North Pacific, the Indian
Ocean, and the Snez Canal early in 1880, after having circumnavigated the
two continents of the Old World. Her name stands out as that of the only
ship which has ever passed from the one great ocean to the other by the
Arctic Seas.
42
TH£ BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
CHAPTEE IV.
Shipping in the time of Henry VIH.— The Henri Grace a Dieu— The fleet
for the siege of Boulogne in 1545— Will Hawkins — ^Voyages to the Gk)ld
Coast — Piracy in the English Channel — Voyages of discovery — ^The
North- West Passage — Frobisher — John Davis — Sir John Hawkins— Sir
Francis Drake — ^His celebrated voyage round the world.
In the year 1544, King Henry VIII., under a feeling of
irritation caused by the French alliance with Scotland,
resolved upon an invasion of France ; and a large and power-
ful naval force was collected, the Mercantile Marine being
again called upon to furnish ships towards the fleet to be
used against the French.
Previously to this Henry had caused to be constructed the
largest ship yet built in England — the Henri Cfrdce A Dieu,
or, as she was more popularly called, the Oreat Harry. She
was of 1000 tons burden, had four masts, and carried 700
men,* The Henri Grace a Dieu formed one of the ships of
• The Benri Grace d Dieu was burnt at Woolwich on the 27th of August,
1563.
The following is from the Pepysian Library, Cambridge : —
Furniture of the " Harry Grdce a Dieu:'
Oonnrs of Brass.
Cannons
Di-cannons
Culveryns
oaKers ••• •>• ,,,
Cannon-Pesers
Fawcons
••••
mi.
• ••
m.
• •••
uu.
• •••
im.
n.
• •
u.
QoonesofTron.
PortPeces
.. xmi.
Slyngs
• •••
uu.
Di-slvngs
Fowlers
• •
u.
•••
■vni.
Baessys
. k.
Toppe peces
Hayle-shotte peces
• #
n.
xl.
Hand-gonnes complete ..
c.
In a list of the king's ships in the first year of King Edward VL, the Henri
Grace a Dieu is stated to be at Woolwich. She is thus described : " The
Harry Grace a Dieuj 1000 tons, soldiers 349, mariners 301, gunners 50, brass
SHIPPING UNDER BIENRY Vlll. 43
this fleet, which numbered altogether abont a hundred vesselB,
including the king's own ships and the ships provided by the
different mercantile ports.
In a US. Kalendar of Bristol for the year 1545 occurs
the following: —
" This year several men went with the King to the siege and taking of
Boulogne, which waa taken in September, 1M4. Twelve Ebipa went out of
Bristol, with Matthew, E^rl of LeDno<(. And when the King came on board
Bristol's fleet, he aaked the names of tlieir abtps, and they answcroi] the RJog,
' It is thiiB : the hnKpe 77u/nt, of 600 tons ; the barqne Pratt, of 600 tona ;
the barqae Ooumay, of 400 tons; the barqne Tounge, of 400 tons; the
barqae Winter, of 300 tons ; the barque Shipmatt, of 250 tons ; the Elephant,
of 120 tons; and the Dragon, of 120 tons.' The King answered that he
wished he had many such Thomet, PratU, QottmayB, and the like in hie
The Henri Oracc a Dim never took part in any other ex-
pedition, bat was laid up at Woolwich, where soon afterwards
she was accidentally burnt.
In Henry VIII. 's reign voyages of discovery and distant
voyages for the purposes of commerce, such as had rendered
conspicnous the reign of his fatlier, were still continued.
Will Eawkins, of Plymouth, was a name of note among the
mariners of the time. Brought up on board the veasels
bringing wine from ii^pain and Portugal, he was early imbued
with the spirit of adventure. In 1530 he sailed in a ship of
250 tons for the Gold Coast, and from thence crossed the
Atlantic to the Brazils, where he opened up a trade, carried
on for the most part by the merchants of Southampton, which
continued for fifty years, and was only put a stop to by the
conquest of the Portuguese by the Spaniards in 1580. In
1532 Hawkins made another voyage, which, however, resulted
in no additional discoveries.
After the death of Edward VI. a regularly organized system
of downright piracy obtained in ICnglish waters. A nimiber
of young men of good families fitted out some small vessels,
chiefly built in ports of the West of England, and cruised in
the Cbaunel and in the Bay of Biscay, looking out for and
pieces 19, iron pieces 103." This was the first ship fitted with port-holoe for
the gana — said to have been the invention of a Freuchniaa, one Deschayes, a
mtiftdBmt.
44 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
attacking any Spanish vessel, or ship from the Low Countries^
that they could lay their hands on. They were speedily
joined by a few discontented Frenchmen of similar tastes,
and were, for a time, a distinct menace to maritime com-
merce. One of the principal leaders of this gang was Sir
Thomas Seymour, who had formed the. project of seizing the
Scilly Islands, which were to become the head-quarters of
this piratical fraternity, who had gone so far as, besides attack-
ing and robbing the ships, to actually murder the ciews.
During the early part of the reign of Elizabeth, however, an
end was promptly put to this business, and Seymour and his
followers returned to their allegiance.
After the accession of Elizabeth expeditions for the pur-
poses of discovery became more frequent than they had been
during the reigns of her predecessors, and many more voyages
were made in the hopes of finding out a northern passage to
the Moluccas and to the coast of China, before the attempt
was finally abandoned as hopeless. Martin Frobisher, a
native of Yorkshire, made three voyages, all directed to this
end, in the years 1576, 1577, and 1578. In June, 1576, he
sailed from the Thames with three small vessels manned with
but thirty-four men, on " a voyage of discovery of a north-
west passage." The coast of Labrador was reached, and some
of the regions to the north were sighted, but he then
abandoned the attempt and returned home. In 1578
Frobisher sailed again, and discovered the channel afterwards
known as Hudson's Straits, in lat. 62° N., but his efforts
towards ** Cathay " ended in a vain endeavour to procure gold
ore from the coast of North America.
In 1585, 1586, and 1587, John Davis, a native of Sand-
ridge in Devonshire, renewed the attempt, but still without
success.* He afterwards, in 1592, made a voyage to the Pacific,
in the course of which he discovered the Falkland Islands. His
writings and achievements show him to have been one of the
most scientific navigators of the time.
Another great seaman of this period was John Hawkins
(afterwards Sir John), who was bom at Plymouth. He made
several voyages to Spain, Portugal, and the Canary Islands,
* See p. 65.
f
SIR JOHN HAWKINS VOYAGES
and in 1562, learning that "neg^roes were very good mer-
cbsndise to Hispaniols, and that store of them might easily
be had apoD the coaet of Guinea," started upon an expedition
to the Gold Coast with three small ressels^the Solomon, of
120 tons; the Swal-low, 100 tons; and the Jonas, of 40 tons;
ud there embarked a cargo of three hundred slaves, which
he carried to the West Indies ; thus having the honour of
beginning the disgraceful traffic in negroes carried on by
Briti^ merchant ships, which Usted until early in the pre-
wnt century. He received from the Spaniards in exchange
ior his three hundred slaves, pearls, ginger, sugar, and hides,
enough not merely to freight his own vessels, but two other
veaselB besides, and "thus with prosperous success, and much
gun to himself, and the aforesaid adventurers, he come home,
■nd arrived in September, 1563."
Hawkins made a second voyage in 1564, and it is said that
it was upon this voyage that he brought home that useful
tegetable, the potato, a native of South America, which,
iiowever, had long been known on the continent of Europe
through the Spaniards, who brought it from Peru ; but which
was for the first time planted iu Ireland by Hawkins, in
1566. Sir Francis Brake is also said to have introduced the
[duit into England; but it was undoubtedly Sir Walter
Baleigh, who brought it from Virginia, who was the first to
really make it popular in this country.
In 1567. Sir John Hawkins started on his third voyage for
ilaring purposes ; but this time on a much larger scale than
nthei of his previous expeditions, having now six ships, two
ptovided by the queen herself, and four fitted out by himself
tnA his brother, one of these, the Judith, being under the
eonuDand of one Francis Drake, a name destined to become
hereafter one of the most famous of the Elizabethan age.
He snccessfuUy reached the Gold Coast, and having obtained
1 large number of slaves, sailed for the West Indies ; but
meeting with a hurricane off the island of Cuba, three of his
ships were wrecked. Falling foul of the Spaniards, another
ihip was lost, only two of the original fleet, the Minion and
the Judith, escaping. The same night, however, the Judith
inerted ; and after protracted sufi'eringa from bad weather.
L
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
aiokneas, aud famine, Hawkins, in the Minion, at length
reached Vigo, where he obtained some provisions, and
ultimately got back to England, having lost in this ventnie
all that he had made in his previous voyages. The queen,
howoYer, still continued to accord him her favour, and con-
ferred upon him the post of Superintendent of the Royal
Dockyards, where he introduced many important improve-
ments in fihipbutliliog, some of the best ships afterwards
used against the Spanish Armada having been designed by
Hawkins.
On the 24th of May, 1572, Francis Drake swled from
Plymouth with two small vessels, the Pascha, of 70 tona^
and the Sican, of 25 tons, bound on a buccaneering expedition
to the West In^lies, where he was joined by a certain
Captain Eowse, with an Isle of Wight ship, having thirty-
eight men on board. Hearing that there was a gtetit
treasure at a town called Nombre de Dios, the small squadron
determined to attack the place, but were not aucoesaful in
securing the treasure. Drake, however, learned that the silver
of which they were in search was transported from Paa
on the backs of mules, and he determined to intercept it.
While awaiting its arrival, Drake was taken to an eminence
on the Isthmus of Darien, from whence the sea on either
side could be seen ; and from here he saw the Pacific, being
the first Englishman to gaze upon Us waters.
Soon after this the long trains of mules came in sight, and
as they were practically unguarded they fell an easy prey to
Drake and his companions, who helped themselves to
much silver as they would, the only difficulty being it*
transport to the coast. They, notwithstanding, succeeded in
securing a very large amount and getting it safely on board
their ships, when they at once left for England, making the
passage home to the Scilly Islands in the wonderfully short
period of twenty-three days. Arriving at Plymouth on a
Sunday, the news was carried into church during sermon tiin%
"and there remained few or no people with the preacher,
everybody hELsting to welcome home the great voyager."
The most memorable voyage of the Elizabethan age, at
once mercantile and piratical, was, undoubtedly, that of
SIR FRANCIS DRAKE
Drake whea he circnmnaTigated the world. Queen Eliza-
beth gave her moat gracious sanction to the undertaking, and
presented Brake with a aword, making use of these remark-
able words: "We do account that he which strike that thee,
Drake, striketh at us." The expedition, fitted out at his own
cost, and that of various fellow adventurers, comprised five
vessels, the largest of which, the Pdiean, being of only 100
tons, whilst the smallest was of no more than 15 tons. The
destination was given out as being Alexandria.
On the loth of November, 1577,* Drake, with hia fleet,
left Plymouth, ostensibly for the Mediterranean, but being
overtaken by a heavy gale before they were clear of the
Channel, the vessels narruwly escaped shipwreck, and all bad
lo pat back to Plymouth to refit. When they started again
ihe Alexandrian destination was given up, and an island off
I the coast of Barbary was appointed as the rendezvous in case
[ of the vessels being separated at sea.
By the middle of January Drake was off the Cape Verde
Islands, having edready committeil some daring acts of piracy,
and having takeu several small prizes. Here he gave chase
to and captured a Portuguese ship bound for Brazil with a
cargo of wine, and having on board several passengers. The
passengers and the ship's company Drake sent adrift in their
own boats, and then took pfissession of the prize. For nine
weeks after leaving the Cape Verde Islands they were out of
sight of land, ultimately making the South American con-
tinent somewhere between Bio de Janeiro and Monte Video;
and they then coasted southwards, the different vessels of the
squadron, which had been for some time separated, reassem-
bling in the harbour of Port St. Julian. Here Drake
remained for over two months; and here it was that one of
his officers, a certain Master Donghtie, who had been put in
command of the Portuguese prize, was tried for mutiny, and
beheaded. The Portuguese vessel, which had become by this
time very leaky and unseaworthy, was here broken up.
Drake re-christened his own ship the Pelican, the Golden
SiiuU ; and then he weighed anchor, and sailed for the Straits
of Magellan.
* Hakliiyt'B " Voyages."
48 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Seyentoen days were occupied in getting through the
Straits, and the ships were again separated during a heavy
gale from the north. One of them, the Marigold^ must haye
foundered during the gale, as she was never seen or heard of
again. Another of the squadron, under the oommand of
Captain Winter, regained the Straits, and coming to an anchor,
kept fires burning for some time on the shore, as a signal to
Drake should he also succeed in re-entering the Straits.
After waiting for many days and seeing nothing of her.
Winter concluded that Drake's ship must also have foundered
during the gale, and he therefore gave up the expedition
altogether, and returned to England.
Drake in the mean time had been driven considerably to
the southward, eventually making the land again in the
neighbourhood of Cape Horn, the gale having blofm con-
tinuously, and with but little intermission, for over seven
weeks. The weather now moderating somewhat, he managed
to steer a northerly course, and the next land he made was
Mocha Island, in 38^ 23' S., where, landing with the object
of obtaining fresh provisions, he was attacked by the natives,
and twelve of his men were wounded, Drake himself receiv-
ing a shot under his right eye. Sheering off from Mocha,
Drake missed Valparaiso, getting too far to the northward;
but, lying at anchor off a small port, he came across a large
ship laden with wine. This vessel was boarded and taken
possession of; and Drake, not satisfied with acts of piracy on
the high seas, now turned his attention to sacrilege, sending
an expedition ashore, and stealing the silver candlestickc^
crucifixes, lamps, and altar plate from the church of the town,
and whatever else of value he could lay his hands upon.
Besuming his northerly course, Drake fell in with and
captured a Portuguese vessel, the master of which agreed to
pilot him safely to Callao, upon condition that his own cargo
was spared. They arrived off Callao at nightfaU, '' sailing in
between all the ships that lay there, seventeen in number/'
Not meeting with any great opposition, most of the crews
being ashore, they rifled many of the ships of their valuables,
including large quantities of rich silks and linen, and one
chest of silver reals. But they heard news here that made
THE VOYAGE OF THE "GOLDEN HINDE 49
them at once relinquish these resBele, namely, that a Bhip, the
Caxafutgo, laden with untold treasure, had sailed only a few
days before for the neighbouring port of Payta.
Drake cut the cables of the ships at anchor, and let them
drift foul of each other, or where they would, so that their
crews niight be too much occupied with their own affairs to
think of following him, and set all sail iu pursuit of the
Cttca/uego. The alarm had, however, been given, and the
ADthorities at Lima despatched two vessels after him ; but
these Drake managed to elude, and shortly afterwards he
took three tolerable prizes, one of which yielded forty bars
iif silver, eighty pounds weight of gold, and a gold crucifix
"set with goodly great emeralds," One of Drake's men
having secreted two plates of gold from this prize, and denying
the theft, was hanged out of hand.
I Finding that the Cacafucgo had left Payta, still continuing
his pursuit of her, Drake crossed the line, hoping to cut her
off before she should reach Panama, In a few days he fell
in with her, and when they had approached sufficiently near,
he hailed her to strike : but receiving a refusal, he at once
opened fire upon her with sucii efl'ect as to bring down her
mainmast and to wound the captain. She now hauled down
her colours, and having taken possession of her, Drake fur
some considerable time stood out to sea with his prize. When
anfiSciently far from the land the two vessels brought up,
uid the work of transferriug the cargo of the Cacafiicgo to
the Golden Hiiuh was proceeded with.
She proved to be fully as richly laden as had been reported ;
gold and silver in coin and bars, jewels and precious stones,
amounting to three hundred and sixty thousand pieces of
gold, being taken from her, the silver alone representing a
»alue in our money of £212,000. It is stated that Drake,
with a cruel irony, called for the register of the treasure on
board, and theu sat down and wrote a receipt for the amount
that he had taken, having done which he put her own
captain and crew on board again, and let the Cacafucgo depart.
Drake's object was now to get home as speedily as possible ;
bat as it would have been obviously unwise to have gone
back the way he came, the whole coast of Chili and Peru
Jo THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
being by this time Etroused, he determiued tD sail to the
noi'thward, and try for a passage round the north of the con-
tinent of America — ^the north-west passage reversed, in fact.
Putting in at a small island off the coast of Costa Bica, he
obtained a supply of fresh water, wood, and fish, and made
another small capture, in the shape of a coaster laden with
butter and honey. He now steered a northerly comse, and
reached the Bay of San Francisfo ; but by this time his crew,
coming so recently out of the tropics, began to complain
bitterly of the cold, so that he entirely changed his plans,
and decided upon the bold stroke of putting his ship about,
and crossing the Pacific and Indian Oceans, ajid coming
home by the Cape of Good Hope.
For sixty-eight days after leaving the coast of California,
Drake's ship, with as valuable a freight as ever vessel had,
was out of sight of land, until ultimately the Pelew Islands
were made, and then the Moluccas. After staying a short
time at Temate, laying in a fresh stock of provisions, and
adding to bis cargo a quantity of cloves and other Bpices,
Drake commenced the intricate navigation of the Malay
Archipelago. Off Celebes the Ooldcn Hvnde became entangled
among the shoals, and while running under full sail, struck
on a sunken rock, and stuck fast. The boats were got out
with a view of laying out an anchor, and so warping her off,
but deep water was found all around. Much of the recently
acquired cargo, and some of the guns and spare stores were
then thrown overboard, and the wind, soon afterwards freshen-
ing, the ship came off the rocks almost uninjured.
Passing through the Straits of Sunda on the way home, a
short stay was made in Java, and the Cape was reached with-
out further incident. They put into Sierra Leone, and
arrived safely at Plymouth on September 26, 1580, having
been away from England very nearly three years.
Many gentlemen, for doing precisely what Drake had been
doing during the past three years, have hod involuntarily to
put in an appearance at Tyburn ; but instead of so dismal a
termination to his adventures, Francis Drake received from
Her Most Gracious Majesty, Queen Elizabeth, the honour of
knighthood on the deck of his own ship at Deptford.
J
THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA
CHAPTEK V.
Tbe inlended Spanish bvaaion of EufEland iii 1588— Tbo I uvbcible Armada—
The squadron of the Duke of Medina Sidoiiia— The English armament
— Particnlars of the fleet — Chiefly merchaut ehips — The fate of the
Annada — The general Btate of Merchant Shipping in England — Tho
Goremment rettntis — A return for the year 1591 — The fisheriea of
Iceland and Newfoundland — Voyages to the coast of Ouineo — Disastroua
voyage of the Edward Cotton. — The Tojage of Sir Humphrey Gilhevt lo
North America— Sir Walter Raleigh — Voyage of CaplainB Amadaa and
Bariow^Firet English settlers in Virginia — Introduction of tobacco —
The Dutch, and their encroachments — The Navigation Laws of Cromwell.
and Chailee II. — Shipbuilding in tlie Mventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
HaNT reasons conduced to Philip II. of Spain's fitting out
a fleet, known ea the "Invincible Armada," for the invasion
(if England. The serious injury inflicted by English shipa
upon Spanish commerce, the rejection of his hand by the
fjneen, to whom after the death of Mary he bad made pro-
posals of marriage, and the hope of furthering the Catholic
raose, all combined to make the King of Spain desirous of
attacking England.
It was not long before the opportunity presented itself, for
the conquest of Portugal, in 1580, put him in possession of a
powerfnl nai'y, and when, in 1588, the preparations were
completed, we find the first or commanding squadron of the
Spanish Armada to have been composed entirely of Portuguese
ships. This division appears to lave consisted of the follow-
ing veesels: —
-Tdc SgrADRON of Portcccebe Galleoks, vndeu thb paktictlak
C0MKA>1) or THB Gesekaussijio, tiie Duke ot Meuika Siboma.
Tddi. Odiu. Siflon. Uutoera.
..a».r«. 'iy;if°J,'?|S) IKK) ... 50 ... 177 ... 3«,
1 St. Joim Admiral-General 1060 ... 60 ... 170 ... 231
3. ajfori 782 ... 10 ... 117 ... 292
i-U-Z
S2
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
• • • • • •
5. 8t. Louis
6. &, McUthew ...
7. 8t James
8. OaUeon of Florenos
9. St. Christopher
10. St. Bernard ...
11. Zckbra Augusta
12. Zabra Julia ...
... ...
.a. ... ... ••.
... ••■ ... .•.
... ••■ ...
.•• ... ... ...
... ... ...
.•• ... ... ...
*•• .•• .•• ...
TWm.
Ouai.
StOoiB.
M
iiiiMn>
830
40
116
376
760
40
50
177
520
30
100
300
961
52
. 100
300
352
30
90
300
352
30
. 100
280
166
13
. 55
55
166
14
50
eo**
In the whole fleet, which numbered not less than 132 stil,
six ships were of 1000 tons and upwards ; 59 ranged between
500 and 1000 tons ; and 67 were of less than 100 tons.
The English armament that was to oppose the Armada
consisted of 197 vessels, only 34 of which, however, could
properly be said to be ships of the Boyal Navy ; one of these,
the Triumph, being of 1100 tons, seven others ranging
downwards to 600 tons, and the rest being quite small venela
The remainder of the fleet were ships of the Mercantile Marine,
either hired on the spur of the moment, or most patrioti-
cally offered by their owners for the public service in this
sudden emergency, or else were vessels provided by the great
towns, of which vessels none exceeded 400 tons burden, nor
were there more than two even of that magnitude.
*^ The hundred and ninety-seven ships of the English fleet were made up
thus; —
The Queen's ships, under Admiral \
Lord Howara of Effingham /
Serving with the Lord High Admiral . . .
Sor\ing with Sir Francis Drake
Fitted out by the City of London
Coasters with the Lord High Admural
Coasters with Lord Henry Seymour ...
Volunteers with the Lord High Admiral
Victuallers (? store ships) ...
Sundry small vessels, of which no \
particulars are given /
Shipe.
Tons.
Mtfinw
... 34
11,850
6,279
... 10
750
230
... 32
5,120
2.384
... 38
6,130
2,710
... 20
1,930
993
... 23
2,248
1,073
... 18
1,716
859
... 15
—
—
... 7
—
—
Total
... ...
197
29,744 14,528 "
Thus fully two-thirds of the fleet consisted simply of
merchant vessels, many of them being quite insignificant
coasters, merely armed for this special occasion.
The history of the defeat of the Invincible Armada is an
oft^told tale, and only concerns us in so far as it bears on
f
THE ARRIVAL OF THE ARMADA
the subject of the uses to which Merchant Ships were
occasionally put during the Elizabethan era.
It was on July 19, 1588, that the Spanish Armada,
dispersed once by a storm iu May, entered the English
Channel in formation of a crescent, said to have been seven
miles in width from born to hora. Of the opposing English
fleet, some of the Queen's ships were those that had been
designed by Hawkins, and the improvements that he had
effected became at once apparent. The stems and forecastles
of these new ships had been made lower than had been here-
tofore the fashion, and the ships tliemselves had a greater
length in proportion to their beam, su that they were able
to pass easily to windward of the Spanish ships, and to take
up a position in the rear of the enemy, raking them with
their gnns at a safe distance with deadly effect, so that ship
after ahip was lost to the enemy, either by surrender or
destruction. The only drawback experienced by the English
as the iigbt went on was the failure of their ammunition ;
but fresh vessels came out from the various Dorsetshire ports,
bringing fresh supplies of powder and such other things as
were required.
On July 27 the Spanish fleet came to an anchor in Calais
Roads, and soon afterwards the English ships brought up
within a couple of miles of them. On the 29th the English
commander assailed the enemy with a new device. Eight
fire-ships, well alight, and filled with combustibles and
explosives, were sent among the ships of the Armada, throw-
ing them at once into the utmost confusion. On the next
morning the English ships made a further fierce attack, in
which many of the largest of the Spanish vessels were snnk
or captured, and Medina Sidonia, with a hundred ships, fled
to the North Sea, intent only on getting back to Spain by
Buling round the north of our islands. Everything, however,
seemed to be against the Spaniards, for no sooner had they got
clear of the guns of Howard and of Drake, than liad weather
get in, and the shores not only of England, bnt of Ireland
and of Norway were strewed with Spanish wreckage and
with Spanish corpses. Out of the vast and imposing fleet
ibat had left Corunna, only fifty-three ships returned. Eighty-
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
are said to have perished, with nearly 14,000
soldiers, besides an immeiisQ number of the picked marineis
of Spain.
Previous to the sixteenth century, whenever ships were
required by the sovereign for fighting purposes they were,
to a large extent hired, either from the Venetians, the Genoese,
the Hans Towns, or some other mercantile people, as the case
might be ; and these vessels, together with some ships aupplied
by the Cinque Ports, formed the main strength of the English
National Navy ; and as soon as the particular service for
which they were hired was accomplished they were returned
to their original owners, and resumed their ordinary mercantile
pursuits, lapsing again into merchantmen.
After the absolute and crushing defeat of the Spanish Armada
the necessity for keeping up a national fleet upon so extensive
a scale, to a certain extent, ceased ; but still the nation did
not at once revert to a state of torpidity and inaction, and
the queen and her ministers prudently determined to prevent
the possibility of a repetition of any such attempt as that
recently made by Spain. To this end, by collecting accurate
information of the general state of the English Mercantile
Marine, together with that of such foreign countries with
whom it was probable, or even possible, that disputes might
arise, Elizabeth's advisers hoped to place themselves in the
best position for knowing what was likely to be required in
the future, and how that want might the more readily be met.
To accomplish this great and necessary purpose, regular
accounts began to be taken of all merchant vessels throughout
the kingdom; and the returns were made, not of the ships
and vessels belonging to each port, but of those vessels that
were then actually in the porta at the time of making the
return. These returns being frequently made, the Grovernment
had the opportunity of knowing, with some considerable
amount of precision, exactly what number of ships could he
relied upon at any particular time.
Owing to the constantly unsettled state of affairs in the Low
Countries, the English counties that were nearest to Holland
and Flanders — that is to say, Sussex, Kent, Essex, Suffolk,
and Norfolk — appear to have been more particnlarly attende<1
SHIPPING UNDER ELIZABETH
to than the other maritime counties ; and it is by uo means
unworthy of remark that, althnugh the number of vesseb as
given in the annexed certificate, amountiug to 471, may fairly
be suppoaed to represent only one-half of what actually
belonged to these five counties, the other half being absent
on distant voyages, yet the 471 vessels so enumerated as
being in these ports at one time, amounted to far more than
half the entire shipping possessed by the whole kingdom
thirteen years before, so rapidly had shipping advanced
during the latter part of Elizabeth's reign.
The following, taken from one of these returns for the year
1591, preserved among the Cottonian MSS., gives us an exact
picture of the state of the Mercantile Marine, as far as the
home i-onuties were concerned, during the closing years of
the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; —
or Essex, Suffolk, Nokfolk, Eflvt, and Si'i^sex, v.
Essex. ^^J£^H^:^
Maiden
3
Colchester
28
Hiirwich
8
SuFroLK,
Imwich
Woodbridge
6
Orfbrd
5
Aldborongh
54
Dunwich
U
Walbewick
4
Soirthwold
20
Padtfield
4
Lowestoft
4
Norfolk.
Tarmouth
55
Cley
8
Wainton
6
Blackney
8
Burabam
2
Wells
16
King's Lynn
23
L • This would pve over thirty raen to each vessel, which would Imve very
'"gKatly exceeded [he average ; so that either there roast have been a krgo
nnmbcr of unemployed milors in Ipswich at the time, or there must have
been some error in the tetum in this instnnce.
56 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
KXKT.
Fevenham ...
]
EBiipt, Biiki,
•odHoji.
12
a..
a..
SMftrlngMflB.
Sandwich ...
29
• ••
a .a
•••
118
Dover
34
• ••
»m»
•••
110
Hythe
6
• ..
a aa
»»•
25
Lydd
2
• ..
aaa
aaa
20
SUflSRX.
Rye
Hastings
35
18
• ••
• . a
aaa
a a.
150
100
BrighthAlmstone
34
. • .
a ..
• ••
120
Pevensey ...
0
• . .
• •»
aaa
0
Newhaven ...
8
. . •
• »•
m»»
12
Shoreham ...
1
. • •
a*.
»•»
30
Amndel
1
...
aaa
• ••
8
Chichester ...
4
• . t
aaa
• •»
40
Total 471 2517"
The mercantile navy of Great Britain was much improved
in Elizabeth's reign, although in that of her immediate
successor it was allowed to fietU again into a low condition,
and much of our commerce was carried by foreign vesselsa
During the whole of the Elizabethan age, however, a gradual
development was taking place in the English Mercantile MarinCa
A great nursery for seamen had been found in the fisheries of
Iceland and of Newfoundland, and here it was that the sturdy
mariners of the West Country, to whom was largely due the
defeat of the Spanish fleet, had received their traininga
Between 1570, and 1580, more than 300 ships went forth
from Europe every year to the foggy banks of Newfound-
land, but of this large number not one-tenth were English.
After the latter date, however, the proportion of English
vessels materially increased, and every year at least fifty
vessels sailed from England for the Banks of Newfoundland,
a large number hailing from the western ports; and from
2500 to 3000 men were then regularly employed in this trade.
Besides the fishing vessels themselves were a number of
other larger vessels, considered fast sailers at the time, which
were employed in carrying the fish between Newfoundland
and the ports of Portugal and Spain; and most of these
vessels were built at either Bridport, Dartmouth, Plymouth,
or Bideford, which places remained celebrated for this
particular type of vessel from that time until well into the
present oenturya
f
VOVAGR OF THE " EDWARD COTTON
The more extended voyages of Hawkins and of Drake
induced others speedily to follow in their steps, and trading
Toyages to the Mediterranean, to the coast of Guinea, and
to the Brazils were beginning to become frequent.
The following account, taken from Hakluyt,' is given, as
presenting some interesting particulars connected with a
merchant ship so employed at about the middle of the reign
of Queen Elizabeth. The number of the men on board in
proportion to the tonnage will be particularly noted.
" 1583 — Certain remembranceB of hq intended Voyogo to Brazil, and tlie
river of Plate by tlie £dward Cullon, a ship of Mr. Edward Cotton's, of
Bonthunpton, which perished tlirough extreme aegligenee, near Bio Grande,
in Gimiie. 17 July, 1583.
" Articlea of Covenant between EMward Cotton. Ka^uire, owner of the good
ship called the Edward Colloa, of Southaaptou of the one part, and William
Hnddie, Getitleman, Captain of tbe said Ship, John Hooper, liia Lieutenant,
John rosier, Master, Hngb Sroitli, Pilot for the whole Voyage, and Waiian.
Cbeeseman, Merchant, of the other pert.
",1) Item. To observe and keep tlie daily order of Common Prayer
aboard the same ship, and tlie Company to be called tbereunlo,
at least once in the day, to be pronounced openly.
"(2) Item. That tbey be ready witli the first fair wind to set sail and
sails in the Toyage, and not to put into any port or harbour but
being forcibly constrained by Weather, or other apparent or urgent
ctnse.
[Hero follow some clauses aa to tlie cargo,]
" [7) It«m. That if any man shall practise by any device or devices
whatsoever to alter the Voyiige from the true Purpose and Intent of
the owner, that ia to make tlieir first port at Santas and fit.
Vincents, and there to re-victual and trafSck, and from thence to
the lUver of Plate — -tben upon duo Proof made, shall lose their
whole enteilainment due by shares or otherwise for this said
Voyage, to be adjudged by the Captain, his Lieutenant, the Manter.
Pilot, and Merchant, or Uiree of them at the least, whereof the
Captain is to be one.
"(8) Item. That the Pinnace be ready at all times to serve tbe
Merchant's turn upon his Demand, to take in Wares and Com-
modities, and to carry and re-carry to and from the Shore, when
sad as oft as Need shall be, and to give due Attendance at the
Merchant and at the Merchant's directions during the whole
Voyage,
*'{9) Item. That no Head or Chief Officer being set down for such
Officer mider the Hand of tlie Owner at the going to sea of the
* Hakhiyt, " Tbe Principal Navi^atioDB, etc.," London, 1698.
58 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
said Ship shall or may be displaced from his Mid Fkoe or OSee
withoat great Cause, and his misdemeanor to be adjudged by the
Captain, and his Lieutenant, the Master, the Pilot and the
Merchant, or by the consent of three of them at the least
*'(10) Item. That upon the retom of the Ship to the coast of England
the Master and Pilot pat not into any Port or Harbour to tiie
westward of Southampton, but forced by Weather, or such other
ui^ent cause.
" (Signed) William Huddib John Fostxb
John Hooper Wiluam Chkeseican.
Hugh SMirn
" These things being thus ordered, and the Ship of the burden of 260 tons,
with 83 men of all sorts furnished, and fully appointed for the Voyage, began
to sail from Hurst Castle upon Friday, the 20th day of May, 1583 : and the
17th day of July ensuing fell in widi the coast of Qinnie, to take in fraih
Water, where through mere dissolute Negligence, she perished upon a Sand,
with the most part of the Men in her, as appeareth by the confession of
one that escaped, the substance and tenor whereof is this : —
" The Confession of William Bends, Master^s Mate in the Edward ChUoR^
the 2l8t of October, 1684.
" He saith that the 17th day of July, 1583, having some lack of fresh water,
tlioy put room upon the Coast of Ginnie, where they were set npon a Sand,
about eight Leagues from the Shore, and this Examinate with twenty-nine
more, got into the Pinnace, who arrived in an Island, being desolate of People,
and five Miles in compass, where they rested eighteen Days throng Force
of Weather, not having else to eat but Grass. The rest of the Company, the
Ship being splitted in two, and in quarters, got them into one of the after
quarters, and by the help of Rafts, came also ashore into another Island near
to Rio Grande, where they all died, as he supposeth.
^* The other thirty in the Pinnace, at the end of eighteen Days departed that
Inland and came to St. Domingo, where coming on Shore they were taken
of the Moors and stripped naked. And they buried one Coxe, an old man,
alive, notwithstanding liis pitiful lamentation, and shriekings ; the rest, having
rice and water allowed them, lived there a certain time. This Examinate
was at last sold to a Portingall,* with whom he dwelt for the Space of a
quarter of a Year. And in the end a Portingall Carvell coming hither, his
Master laded the same with Negroes, and he obtained Leave of his Master to
go in the same Carvell, and by that means arrived at Lisbon, and frt>m thence
came into England the 17th of October, 1584, leaving behmd him of his
Company three Men and a Boy, with two others which were gone beyond St
Domingo : all which, as he saith, were so sick and diseased that he judgeth
them to be, long before this time, dead."
The Spaniards and the Portuguese having practically
absorbed the South American continent, it remained for
* Portuguese.
^ — ^^
BXPEDITIOH OF SIR HUHPHRBY GILBERT 59
Sngland, in order not to be entirely out of the race iu the
way of colonization, to turn ita attention to the continent
of North America ; and the first act towards colonizing that
part of the New World by the Britislj was the granting of
Letters Patent tu Sir Humphrey Gilbert, of Compton, Devon,
by Queen Elizabeth, in 1578.
The expedition fitted out for carrying this purpose into
effect consisted of five ships, manned by about 260 men.
The vessels were the Vtluj/U, of 120 tons; the Raleigh, 200
tons ; the Golden Ilijide, 40 tons ; the Swallov:, 40 tong ; and
the Si^uirrd, of 10 tons. The squadron sailed from Plymouth
on Tuesday, the 11th of June, 1583, and arrived off the
coast of Newfoundland ou the SOth of July, seven weeks after
leaving England. Sir Humphrey Gilbert took formal possession
of the island in the name of Queen Elizabeth, and then pro-
ceeded towards the continent of America, passing the islands
of Sable and Cape Breton, at the entrance of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. Here, unfortunately, he met with great calamities.
The Ddu//U was totally lost during a heavy gale on the night
of the 29th of August; and the other ships having suffered
considerably, it was determined to abandon the expedition
altogether, and to return to England. On the passage home
the S'/ifirrel was lost, so that out of the five ships that left
Plymouth in June three only returned.
In the year 1584 Sir Walter Raleigh obtained Letters
Patent from the Queen, " for the discovery and the planting
of new lands and countries on the coaat of America ; " and in
the year that the Letters Patent were granted Captain Philip
Aoiadas and Captaiu Arthur Barlow were sent out by Sir
Waiter Baleigh to explore the coast of America, and to
report as to its culpabilities. The report that they made upon
their return was so favourable that it tended greatly to
increase the desire of many Englishmen to go out and
nettle in the country.
Captain Amadas and Captain Barlow sailed from England
un the 27th of April, 1584, and instead of proceediug to the
northward, as Sir Humphrey Gilbert bad done, they steered
south, as far as the Canary Islands. From thence they
arossed the Atlantic to the West Indies, and sailing past
6o THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
the Bahamas, proceeded up the coast, until on the 2nd of Jnly
they landed on the American continent slightly to the north
of Cape HatteraSy taking possession of the country in the
name of the queen, who afterwards requested that it should
be called Virginia.
Inspired with a great desire to settle in Virginia, a party
of Englbhmen, with Sir Bichard Grenyille at their head,
proceeded there, and stayed a year ; but, unfortunately, a mis-
understanding with the Indians caused them to give up all
idea of settling, and they returned home again. Another
attempt to colonize the country was made in the year 1590,
but that also failed; and the settlement of Virginia was
retarded for some years further by the rumour of the existence
of the golden treasures of Guinea, in the yain pursuit of
which the e£forts and the fortunes of Sir Walter Baleigh and
his associates were utterly wasted in three unsuccessful voyages
in 1595, 1596, and 1597. It was not until a few years after
the death of Queen Elizabeth that the successful effort at last
was made by a body of colonists who landed on the banks of
James's Biyer, and laid the foundation of the old dominion
of Virginia, the original seat of the Anglo-American race.
Amongst many articles which were brought from Virginia
by the early colonists, one took especial hold on the taste of
the public, and had almost as much influence in peopling
Virginia as the gold of Mexico, the silver of Peru, and the
sugar of Brazil and the West Indies, had in peopling those
vast regions. This was the much-admired, much-abused
American plant, tobacco. Camden, in his history of Queen
Elizabeth, after speaking of the early attempts to colonize
Virginia, says —
*^ And these men who were thus broaght back, were the first that I know
of, that brought into England that Indian plant which they call Tabacca,
Nicotia, or Tobacco, which they use against crudities, being taught it by the
Indians. Certainly from that time forward it began to grow into great request,
and to bo sold at a high rate, whilst in a short time men, everywhere, some
for health*s sake, others from mere wantonness, with insatiable deaiie and
greediness, sucked in the stinking smoak tliereof, through an earthen pipe,
which presently they blow out again at their nostrils ; insomuch that tobacco
shops are now as ordinary in most towns as tap-houses and taverns."
By the early part of the next century the American colonies
NAVIGATION ACT OF CROMWELL 6i
of Great Britain had iucreased to such an extent that a very
important maritime trade existed between them and the
mother country ; and the Diituh, ever ready to push their
commerce, were largely employed in carrying the produce of
the British colonies to home or t« foreign ports, to the obviouB
disadvantage of the English shipowners. To remedy this
evil, frequent applications were made to Parliament, but for
many years, at all events from 1642 to 1650, the king on
the one hand, and the Parliament on the other, had plenty
else to think about, without troubling their heads very much
about either ships or shipowners; but in the year 1651 the
celebrated Navigation Act of Cromwell came into operation.
By this act Dutch maritime commerce received a serious
blow, the new Act prohibiting any goods or commodities
whatever, of the growth, production, or mamifacture, of Asia,
Africa, or America, including also our own plantations, from
being imported into either England or Ireland or any of the
plantations of Great Britain, in any but English-bnilt ships,
belonging to English, or English plantation, subjects, navi-
gated also by English commanders, and of which at least
three-fourths of the crews should be Englishmen.
The Act was still further distinctly aimed at the Dutch
in another direction. During the early part of the century
the Dutch bad seized upon all the fiahing-gtonnds adjacent
to our coasta, and are said to have had no less than three
thousand vessels, and between forty and fifty thousand men,
engaged in this trade, from which they were attempting to
drive out the English vessels by force ; but Cromwell's Act
declared the presence of the Dutch vessels on our fishing-
grounds to be absolutely illegal.
At that time the Dutch were the only really serious rivals
that British merchant ships had to fear; in order, therefore,
still further to cripple the Dutch, and at the same time to
promote the interests of the British Mercantile Marine, a
further Act was passed, prohibiting any goods of the growth,
production, or manufacture of ony country in Europe to be
imported into Great Britain except in British ships, owned
and navigated by British subjects, or in such ships as were the
I [noperty of the people of the country or place in which
62 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
the goods were produced, or from which they could only be,
or most usually were, exported.
Now, as the Dutch had little or nothing of their own to
export, and as they were practically the only foreign nation
engaged in the carrying trade, it was manifest that this Act
was specially directed against them, and it was so undentood
by them. Their irritation at it, together with the continual
di£ferences occurring between the English and the Dutch in
the East, at last culminated in the great naval war between
the two countries, in whibh Blake on the one hand, and Van
Tromp on the other, equally distinguished themselyes.
Besides the disadyantages resulting from the long-protncted
naval wars with the Dutch in the seventeenth century, English
merchant ships had another constant source of danger and
annoyance to contend with in the determined attacks of the
Moorish pirates of the Barbary coast ; and the apathy, not to
say the absolute cowardice, too frequently displayed by many
masters of merchant ships, in quietly giving up their veoeb
on condition that their lives should be spared by the pirates,
conduced to the passing of an Act in the sixteenth year of
Charles II., which enacted
*' tlmt the master of any merchant vessel of not less than two hundred tODB
burden, carrying sixteen guns, shall not yield to an enemy of any force with-
out a resistance, on pain of incapacity to command any English vessel for
ever afterwards."
A ship of less burden than two hundred tons was
'^ forbidden to yield to any enemy not having double her number of guns
vrithout fighting ; " and " if any mariner or inferior officer shall refuse to fi^t
.when commanded, or discourage other mariners from bo doing, they shall
lose their wages and all their goods on board, and shall be liable to imprison-
ment with hard labour for six kalendar months."
Although during the reigns of the Stuarts our Mercantile
Marine, including the art of shipbuilding, was gradually getting
into an exceedingly depressed state, yet the latter part of the
seventeenth century saw a fresh revival. Anthony Deane and
Phineas Pett were entrusted by the Government of the country
with the designing and the reconstruction of the Eoyal Navy
of England, and they performed these duties in a very success-
ful and notable manner. They have the credit given them of
SHIPBUILDING IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 63
baring been the first men of this country who endeavoured
to apply the principles of science to the designing and building
' f ghipe, and the wooden vessels built by them served as models
) T several succeeding generations to copy, without alterations
' r attempts at improvement, until the early part of the present
centory. Our naval commanders constantly complained of
the inferior qualities of their vessels as compared with the
wiling capabilities of the ships of the French Navy ; and
vessels captured by our ships from the French often proved
of service as models to imitate in the construction of vessels
for our own Navy.
" The almost entire absence of ajiy knowledge in this country
of the very first principles of the art of shipbuilding, both in
the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries, has often been
referred to, and it has been stated by a competent authority
that there was scarcely a single person in the country who
then knew correctly even the first element of the displace-
ment of a ship. The French had been far more enterprising
and sj-stematic with respect to their vessels, for they applied
Bcieutific principles to practice with a large amount of success
in the construction of their ships. Their fleet was largely
developed in the seventeenth century under the able adminis-
tration of Colbert, who encouraged men in the investigation
of the principles of tlie strength and the construction of ships,
and of their behaviour when at sea, Bouguer, a celebrated
French writer, led the way in 1746, by publishing a treatise
on the stability and the rolling of ships; and several other
French writers contributed important researches on the science
of naval architecture lung before the English had given any
attention to such matters ; and to the French, therefore, must
be given much of the credit due to the improvements in the
building of British ships during the last century," •
* George Stonbury, Esq., Surveyor to Lloyde' ItegiHtcr.
64 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
CHAPTEB VI.
Ontline of the history of the East India Company— Trade ^tb the East— The
Venetians and the Crenoese — ^The Spaniards and the Portogaese— TIm
Dutch— The English— Attempts to reach the Indies by the North-Weit
Passage — John Davis — ^First Charter of the Ei^g^ish East India Company,
1600— The first East Indiamen— Disputes with the Dutch— Fieah charter
from James I. — ^The Trade$ Increase — ^Value of the trade with the EHk
— Losses of the English East India Company — ^The French East Indk
Company — ^The charter granted to the English Company by Charles IL
— Success of the Company — Opposition — A new Company — Rival tradsn
— Amalgamation of the two Companies— The East India Company of
1708 — ^The ships — Heavy losses in the company^s fleet — ^The Emi of
Balcarree — The officers of the ships — Life on board an East Indiaman—
End of the Company — Sale of the ships.
The history of the English Mercantile Marine during the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is so intimately con-
nected with the East India Company that it will be well to
give a brief account, although it must necessarily be the
merest outline, of the history of that vast commercial corpora-
tion which at one time directed and controlled our present
Indian Empire.
Successively the Egyptians, the Romans, and later on the
rich and enterprising merchants of the Adriatic, carried on
an ever-increasing trade with the East. In the eighth and
ninth centuries the commerce of Europe had centred itself
at Constantinople; but later on, the trade with the East
was the almost exclusive monopoly of the Venetians and the
Genoese. The commercial centre of the world was again
shifted when first, in 1487, Bartholomew Diaz, and afterwards,
in 1498, Vasco da Gama, doubled the Cape of Grood Hope,
and so reached by sea Calcutta and Malabar. To the astonish-
ment and to the grief of the Italian maritime traders, they
COMMERCE WITH INDIA
65
^■Hdiienly found themeelves eclipsed in their pursuits, and in
^^» very short time totally excluded from all commerce, save
that of the Mediterranean itaelf ; whilst the countries bordering
the Atlantic began to occupy the place hitherto bo proudly
held by the cities of Italy aud of the Adriatic, the shipa of
Spain and Portugal rapidly spreading over the face of the
Atlantic, and along the shores of India.
When Pope Alexander the Sixth issued his famous Bull,
dividing the whole undiscovered heathen world between Spain
and Portugal, he awarded India to the latter power, and the
Portaguese, who already possessed extensive settlements along
the Western coasts of Africa, began immediately to cultivate
the trade with India. As time passed on, by 1580, the power
of Portugal in the East was already on the wane, and the
Spaniards were rapidly taking het place.
Commerce with India was, liowever, manifestly of far too
profitable a nature to allow such an enterprising nation as
the Ihitch for any great length of time quietly to acquiesce
in a monopoly by Spain and Portugal, and by 1597, Dutch
ships were rounding the Cape of Grood Hope, bent on acquiring
a share of the spoil. These ships were fiercely handled by
the Spanish, and at once stronger fleets, and more formidable,
were equipped and sent out by the Dutcb, with the distinct
object of expelling the Spanish-Portuguese from the Spice
Islands and from the Indian coasts.
At last so lucrative a trade engrossed the attention of
England, and a numl>er of merchants in London, being of
opinion that sooner or later a north-west passage to India
would be discovered, so that both the Spanish and the Dutch
might he circumvented, fitted out two small vessels — the
Swnshine, of 50 tons, with twenty-three hands, and the Moon-
shine, of 35 tons, and nineteen men. The command of the
expedition was placed in the hands of John Davis, a mariner
of considerable repute, who embarked in the Sujiskine ; and
the two vessels sailed from Dartmouth on the 7th of June,
1585, reaching as far nortli as 66° 40', and discovering the
Btraits now known as Davis's Straits.
The following year a second voyage was tried, but with no
fntlier nnlt. In his third voyage Davis suied. u^ ^e Buma
66 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
straits, with open water in Baffin's Bay as fieur as 73^ north
latitude, attaining the point on the western coast of Greenland,
which he named Sanderson's Hope, from a wealthy merdiant
who had largely contribnted to the Amds of the expeditioit
He tried a fourth yoyage, but it was equally unsuccessfnl, so
that the owners of the ships gaye up all idea of the north-
west passage, and determined to send Dayis, in 1589, to the
East Indies by way of the Cape of G<x)d Hope ; the destnio-
tion of the Spanish Armada, and the consequent weakening
of the maritime power of Spain, haying made a passage to
India by way of the Cape a less perilous undertaking than
it had heretofore been. Dayis made flye yoyages to Indiai
but on his fifth yoyage he was unfortunately killed by pirates
off the coast of Malacca in December, 1605.
In the year 1589 certain English merchants memorialiied
Queen Elizabeth to grant them license and encouragement
to open a trade with the East Indies, adducing as a reason
for her granting their request that such a trade would by
degrees add to the shipping, seamen, and nayal force of ibe
kingdom, in the same manner that it had increased the
Portuguese fleets ; but the project gaye great offence to the
Spanish and the Portuguese Grovemments, and in order not
to offend Spain, it was a long time before the queen would
grant their request. In the year 1600, howeyer, and the
forty-second year of Queen Elizabeth's reign, on the petition
of Sir John Hart, Sir John Spencer, Sir Edward Miohebnm,
William Cayendish, and more than two hundred merchants,
shipowners, and citizens of London, a charter was granted
to the London Company for fifteen years, and this Deed of
Incorporation was the commencement of the English East
India Company, and of British rule in India.
The stipulated capital of £72,000 haying been raised, the
Company despatched fiye ships to open the trade. They
were the Dragon^ of 600 tons, her commander, according to
the custom of the time, being styled ^'Admiral of the
Squadron ; " the Hectare of 300 tons ; two ships of 200 tons
each; and a store-ship of 130 tons. The men employed in
the expedition were 480, all told ; and the cost of the yessels
and their equipment £45,000. They had on board twenty
THE SPANISH IN THE EAST INDIES
merchants as super-cargoee, and the vessels were all well armed.
The voyage proved a success, and the ships returned to
England with valoable cargoes.
At this time Spain claimed the exolnslTe right of trading
with the East Indies ; — indeed, they claimed the whole of the
Indian seas as their own exclusive property, and permitted
no European nation whatever to obtain any footing on the
coast of India, threatening with the severest penalties any
but their own nation who should presume to trade in any
way with that country — a line of conduct which resulted
in the sharpest conflicts between the Spanish and the For-
tngnese on the one side, and the English and the Dutch on
the other, the earlier records of the English East India
Company aboundiug in accounts of the fiercest contests
l>etween the English ships and those of the Spanish and the
Portuguese.
AithoQgh the Dutch, when opposing Spain, strongly asserted
that all nations had an equal right to trade with India,
yet they had no sooner succeeded in partially ousting the
Spaniards than they at once deliberately endeavoured to
establish the strictest monopoly for themselves ; and although
England and Holland were on terms of peace in Europe, yet
in India they so seriously disagreed upon the question of the
East India trade, that in 1611, the London merchants were
praying for protection and redress, representing that the
Hollanders were driving them out of all places of traffic in the
East Indies, they having far better ships than the English.
In 1603, Sir Walter Baleigh, in a report he made to King
Jamea I., says that the merchant ships of England were not
to be compared with those of the Dutch, and that while an
English ship of one hundred tons required a crew of thirty
men, the Dutch would sail a ship of the same size with one-
third of that number.
Upon obtaining a new Charter from James, in May, 1609.
also for fifteen years, the Company set about constructing a
better and a larger ship than they had ever had before,
named the Trades Increase, of one thousand two hundred
tons, the largest English merchant ship yet built, together
with a pinnace of 250 tons, called the Peppercorn. These two
68 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
vesselSy with a third, the Darling^ ci 90 tons, were deepAtehed
in 1610; but the venture did not torn oat so well as the
previous ones, the Trades Increase being totally lost off the
coast of Bantam.
The Company, however, not to be daunted, sent oat the
next year a single ship called the Olohe^ followed by the
Clove^ the Hector^ and the Thcmuis. In 1614, four ships were
sent from London : the New Yearns Gift^ of 650 tons ; the
Hector^ of 500 tons; the Merchant's Hope, of 300 tons; and
the Solomon^ of 200 tons. During this voyage a serious
engagement took place between the East India Company's ships
and the Portuguese, upon the occasion of the latter attacking
one of the ports belonging to the Moghul, thus materially
strengthening the relations of the English Company with
that monarch ; and, indeed, so prosperous had the affain of
the Company now become that in the year 1617, its stock
stood at two hundred and three.
Some idea of the value of the trade contended for may be
obtained from the fact that in 1615 the Dutch had over fifty
ships engaged in the East Indies, whilst the English East
India Company, the same year, paid no less a sum than
£14,000 customs on two ships alone; and in 1616, one ship
arrived in the Thames from the Indies with a cargo valued
at £140,000. Owing to a very large extent to the East India
Company, the number of ships hailing from London rapidly
increased, and Sir William Monson states that
i
<< tho shipping of the Port of London had so angmented during the first fifteen ;
years of Uie reign of Charles I. that it was now able to supply a hundred sail |
of stout vessels capable of being converted into men-of-war ; and that ten t
largo ships had been added to the eflfective force of tho Royal Navy." j
Continual quarrels and incessant hostilities went on
between the English and the Dutch companies for twenty
years, until a particularly atrocious outrage on the part of
the Dutch brought matters to a climax. The massacre of
almost the whole of the English settlers at Amboyna, in the
Moluccas, in 1623, at once bred a long and fierce resentment
against Holland amongst the English merchants and the
English sailors of that age, that culminated, other sources of
THE EAST INDIA COMPANY 6g
disagreement assisting, in the wars with HoUand during the
time of the Commonwealth and the reign of Charles II.
During all this time affairs were not so prosperous with
the English Company. In a return preseuted to Parliament
on the 29th of November, 1621, there is an account of the
trade carried on by the East India Company during the
whole time (hat they had held their charter ; and out of 86
ships which had been despatched to the East during that
time, 11 were surprised and seized by the Dutch, 9 bad been
lost at sea, 6 had become woru out with long service, and
only 36 had returned home with cargoes ; the remaining 25
being reckoned as then in India, or on their way home.
Gradually the Dutch trade was gravitating further and
further to the East, and thus gradually the way was being
payed for England's advancement in India itself. But a
third rival was now about to enter the arena, although many
years were still to pass before France could establish herself
substantially upon the Indian eoast, the French East India
Company not being fully established until 1664, aud it not
being until 1665, that the first French squadron was despatched
[o the East Indies.
Meanwhile the English Company were ever seeking more
extensive powers, and Charles II., willing to obliterate the
name of Cromwell from their then existing charter, gave
them a new charter authorizing them to make peace or was
with any nation not Christian ; with license to coin money,
to administer justice, and to punish interlopers. The English
Company's establishments in the East Indies at the close of
the seventeenth century consisted of the Presidency of
Bantam, with Macassar, and other places in the Inilian
Archipelago; Fort St. Greorge, and its dependent factories
on the Coromandel coast and in the Bay of Bengal ; and on
the west coast, Bombay, Surat, and other subordinate places
un that side of India.
Daring the twenty years succeeding the Restoration the
ralne of the annual imports from Bengal alone rose from
fSOOO to £300,000, and the gains of the Company from their
monopoly of the import of East Indian produce had then
almost incredible.
70 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
In 1685, the head-quarters of the Compaiiy's buBinees on
the western side of India were transferred firom Snrat to
Bombay, whilst in 1687, the chief Bengal agency was
removed from Hooghley to Calcutta, and Madras had become
the central port on the eastern shores of the Indian
peninsula.
Such success naturally excited jealousy, and energetic
attempts were made to share profits so enormous. In Strype's
" Stow's Survey of London " he says —
*' A new East India Company was set on foot and managed against the
[old] Company by those they called Interlopers : who traded Into the places
of tlieir Privileges, and were not free of the said Company, whose ships and
goods the Company stopped, and used other ways and means to hinder their
Trade — in short the Trade to the East Indies lay open from the year 1653 to
1657. Then tliis method of private trade proved so very destmctive to the
several private traders thither, that the governing Power at that time fomid
it necessary to unite them all into one joynt Company with a joynt Stock.**
The charges of delinquency and mismanagement against
the old Company induced the House of Commons, in 1692, to
send up an address to the Crown, requesting the dissolution
of the Company, and praying for the incorporation of a new
association. But it was not until 1698, that the Govemment,
being in want of money, resolved to throw the trade of India
open to the highest bidder. The existing Company was out-
bid by a new Company, whose tender to supply two millions
sterling was accepted, and it was embodied as **The English
Company trading to the East Indies," with the exclusive
possession of the commerce of the East for ever. The old
Company, however, was to have three years' grace, in which
to wind up its affairs.
The old Company, however, through its treasurer, subscribed
for and obtained £315,000 of the loan, and thereby became
the largest shareholder in the new Company. The greatest
confusion of conflicting interests consequently ensued. The
old Company was trading with its vessels for three years.
The new Company was commencing to trade, but at the
same time having no possessions whatever in India. There
were some people who had subscribed to the loan, but who
had not joined the new Company, and who were permitted to
trade ou their own Bccount. And there were, fourthly, tbuse
private traders whose vessels had cleared out of England
previous to the 1st of July, 11)98, and who had the right to
trade until they should return to England.
No fewer than sixty ships were employed by all these rival
traders, a number vastly in excess of the requirements of the
trade, so that the competition was ruining everyhody, the
£100 shares of the old Company, which had once stood at over
£200, falling to £37.
In 1708 this scandal was pat b stop to by an amalgama-
tion of the new and the old Companies aa the " United
Company of Merchants of England trading to the East
Indies," and the East Indian Company from that date
practically assumed the position that it occupied until the
year 1858.
The Company, as now constituted, was still frequently
opposed, and in 1730 the merchants of Bristol tried very hard
to prevent the Government from granting a renewal of the
Company's charter, on the grounds that their profits were
enormous. This, huiTever, appears to have been a perfectly
groundless charge ; and although, no doubt, the Company at
times did well, at other times matters were entirely the reverse,
and in 1772, instead of being able to pay the Government
the sum of £400,000 per anntim, as they had agreed to do,
they were applying to the Treasury for a loan.
In this year (1772) thirty-three ships were employed by
the Company, of an aggregate tonnage of 23,159 tons, which
would give an average of 700 tons to each ship. The
Company were carrying on their business in an expensive
manner, freight from India to London costing £32 10s. a
ton ; and at a later period no less than £50 a ton freight
was paid. In 1795 India-built ships were permitted to
convey goods to London, and the cost by these vessels was
only £16 per ton for rice, and £20 per ton for light goods
to the Thames.
The newspapers of the time give many interesting par-
ticulars of ludiamen of the early part of last century, from
which it will be seen that although they were vessels of but
small tonnage, as we now reckon, yet they were always
i
71 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
armed, and that not aolj for defensiTe, but veiy freqasBtly
for offensire purposes. The following appeared in the ^
James's Evening Post, of Angust 31, 1734 : —
" Yesterday the Court of Direetore of the Hut ludk Compan; todc At
followiiig ships into their serrica, vie. —
3IUp'.ui>».
3^
T:'^
V-^
Whenboolk
Q'leen Carolina
' David Wilkie
490
34
m
T"
BoabtT
3iarlborough
Thomas HuDt
490
34
98
2
CoaBtandBH
London
. Robert BooUe
490
34
U8
1
Chma
Btau/ort
Richard Buhon
490
34
68
I
CoAstandBar
Onilox;
, John Bnlchen
480
32
96
Ooddphin
1 FrsDcia Steward
480
32
9fi
1
Derby
Abraham Ansehn
m
32
96
4
BomUv
Duke (/Cumber-
! Benjamin Brauiide
m
32
%
3
St Helena and
la,^
1
BenoDokn
Trinao/OrajigB
1 Charles Hndson
480
32
i)S
2
Co*8tandBH
WwtCouta^
*'««,«
1 WiUiem Hutchinson
480
32
90
2
Hadris
Philip Worth
' Charles Gough
460
30
92
4
China
BitJimond
460
30
92
2
Soarborouyh
1 George Westcote
460
30
«2
1
B(^b*y"
In another number of the same newspaper, namely, on
August 13, 1734, occure the following, which gives a good
general idea of the trade carried on with the East, the five
ships bringing about 500 tons of cargo each : —
"The following is the cargo irf five boniewaTd-botnid India SUpa of the
Datch Company, which sailed the 22nd of December, 1733, from Cejkni,
and arrived at Amsterdam last week : —
" 1,396,SG2 pounds of Brown Peppei-,
y,747 Ditto of Ceylon Pepper.
480,000 Ditto of Cinnamon,
Ditto of Ponder Sugar.
Ditto ofSaltPotra.
Ditto of Sapan Wood.
Ditto CoSee of Ceylon.
Ditto Cardimum of Ceylon.
IHtto of Cowries.
Ditto of Tutucoryn Cotton Yam.
Ditto of Pearls.
Ditto of Spiritiis Hakmalla.
Pieces of Gaatjes (divers sort*).
Ditto Mouriea.
Ditto Percallcs.
652,316
345,000
27,049
14,000
105,769
18,000
10
I
EAST IHDIAMEN 73
From time to time the losaeB of the Company, from fhe
muuber of their ships taken by the enemy, K>8t at sea, or
tMmt, were exceedingly heavy. From the year 1702 to the
jear 1818 no less than 169 ships of the Company were thus
Ion ; furty-three being taken by the enemy, of which number
seren, however, were afterwards retaken ; eighteen were burnt
or blown np ; and one hundred and eight were lost at sea.
Dnring the years 1808 and 1809 the Company were
[wticularly unfortunate with their ahipe, having lost in those
tirci years four outward-bound, and ten homeward-bound ships ;
the value of one of these ships, which was not chartered, but
which belonged to the Company, and her cargo amounting
together to £1,048,077.
The East India Company possessed some of the finest
merchant ships afloat at the time, but they always paid
heavily for them. It was said that for ships similar to those
/or which private firms were paying £25 a ton, the Company
was paying £40 a ton ; but it must be borne in mind that the
Company's ships were practically armed cruisers, and were often
obliged to be in action with the enemy, of whom they not
mdrequently were able to give a very good account. The
greater number of their ships during the latter part of the
Ust century and the commencement of this, were handsome
bigate-hoilt ships, whilst some of the larger ones, such as the
Sari of Balcarres,' for instance, had a double row of ports,
ind were precisely like two-decked line-of-battle 8hii)8.
This Bhip, which may be taken as a type of the finest of
the Company's ships, had a crew of 130 men, consisting of the
Mttunander, six mates, surgeon and assistant-surgeon, six
nidehipmen, purser, bo'sun, gunner, carpenter, master-at-arms,
■rmoarer, butcher, baker, poulterer, caulker, cooper, two
Newards, two cooks, eight bo'aim's, gunner's, carpenter's,
cooper's, and caulker's mates, six quarter-masters, one sail-
nuiker, seven officer's servants, and seventy-eight seamen.
Every commander in the Company's service was required to
* Tho £arl of Balcams wftfi buiJt at Bombay m 1815 ; she was of 1417
tona biinlcii, curried 26 guns, aud was maimed by a crow of 130. She vas
»H out of tho Company's eervice in 1831 for £10,700, She waa, however,
still in eiistence in 1865, because I saw hor come up the Thoraes in tliat year.
4
74 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
be at least twenty-five years of age, and to haye been one
Yoyage in the regular service of the Company, either as chief
or second officer, or to have commanded a ship in the extra
service. Chief mates were required to be at least twenty-three
years of age, and to have made one yoyage at least as second
or third mate in the service to India or China. Second mates
were obliged to be twenty-two years of age, and to have been
a similar voyage. Third mates were required to be at least
twenty-one years of age, and to have made at least two
voyages as midshipmen in the Company's service.
A commander's uniform, and that of the subordinate officers
did not materially differ from it except that they had no
swords, consisted when in full dress of a blue coat, velvet
lappels, cuffs, and collar, with a bright gold embroidery, ^ as
little expensive as may be," waistcoat and breeches of deep
buff; the buttons of yellow gilt metal, with the Company's
crest ; cocked hat, side-arms, '' to be worn under the coat," and
black stocks or neck-cloths. The undress consisted of blue
coat with lappels, black collar and cuffs, waistooat and
breeches deep buff, and buttons similar to the full dress.
In the Company's own ships promotion went strictly by
rule of seniority, but in the ships of private firms merely
chartered by the Company for a certain number of yeara» it
a good deal depended upon the influence that could be
brought to bear upon the owners, by whom all appointments
and promotions were made. The command of these ships was
almost invariably sold to the highest bidder competent to fill
the post, the price averaging about £3000.
The captain of an East Indiaman enjoyed so many privi-
leges and perquisites that the amount of his pay, which was
supposed to be £10 a month, was really but a very small part
of his income ; indeed, it was always reckoned that, after being
in command for five voyages to the East Indies, a man would
have made sufficient to retire upon. Including the amount
of cargo-space that was allowed him, all his perquisites, and
his pay, it was supposed that he usually made from £3000
to £5000 each voyage ; but the amount was often very much
in excess of this, a good deal of illicit trade and smuggling
being systematically carried on. Indeed, to so great an extent
SALB OF THE CDUPANV'S SHIPS 7S
was this the case that the Company at last resolved to put u
atop to it, and advertised large rewards to all such as would
give information.
The interual economy and the discipline on board the Com-
pany's ships was far in advance of that of other merchant
ships af the same time. The crew were divided into port and
sUrboard watches, as usual, but the officers had three watches.
At five bells in the morning watch the duties of the day com-
menL-ed by the watch on deck washing down and cleaning the
decks. At half-past seven hammocks were piped up, and
•towed by the quarter-masters in the hammock-nettings in
tha waist. At eight o'clock breakfast was served to all hands ;
uid then commenced the ordinary day's work at sea, similar
to that of the present time. Dinner was at noon, and then
work was resumed until four o'clock, the men being allowed
dnring the dog-watches to do as they liked, to mend their
'lolhes, ro lo spend the time in games or other amusements.
Twice every week, on Wednesdays and Saturdays, the
iween-decks, where the men slept and had their meals,
between the guns, man-of-war fashion, were cleaned and holy-
stoned, and afterwards inspected by the commander and the
mrgeon ; and the Company's ships being in reality to a great
eiteut men-of-war, the men had very frequently to go through
CQtUs and small-arms drill, and were exercised at the guns
B opportunity offered.
In the year 1831, the sale of the large ships of the East
India Company commenced, but the greater part were not
WW until 1834. The first ship to be sold in the former year
*Mthe Atlas, which fetched £4100 to be broken up. This
W8S speedily followed by the Aisa, which went for £6500 ;
&6Gtneral Harris for £6600; the Minerva, £8400; and the
hinatt CJiarlotte of Wales (to be broken up), £3000. In 1834
twenty-four of the finest ships went to the hammer, the one
fel<'hmg the highest price being the Scaiehij Castle, which
realized £13,500; the Earl of Balcarrea and the Thames
brought in £10,700 each; the Buckiwjkavishvv, £10,550;
and the Lady Melville and the CasUe Suntle;/, £10,000 each.
After the trade to the Elast Indies had been thrown open
a number of vessels, ranging from 350 to 700 tons register,
76 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
were built to be employed chiefly in the trade to the East,
but they were free to seek employment wherever they coold
obtain remnnerative freights, and were yery soon to be
found in all parts of the world — in fact, they were the ^ooem
tramps " of that day.
THE DISCOVERY OF AUSTRALIA 77
CHAPTER Vn.
Tit diseovery of Anstralia, Taamoaw, and New Zealand in the Beventeenth
ceotnry — Pedro Fernando de Quiros — Lnia tm Torcea — Jan Abel Toeman
— Dwnpier — Doropior's royago io the Roebuck — Anson's Voyage in the
CetUurion — Parsimony of the Government — John Byron — Popys' Island
ud Palklond'a IsIand^ — Captain Cooli'B three voyages — DiBcovery of
Utnds in the Pacific— Antarctic exploration — Death of Captain Cook —
Low of the BeUy OaHiy, on the Comiah coast — Lo«b of the Prinet
Bugeat near Milford Haven — Lobs of the DaUin Packet on tlie Isle of
Man — The press-gang.
As r»(«ntly as the close of the sixteenth rentury but very
little indeed was knowD of the South Indian Ocean, the
Mntbem part of the Atlantic, or of that immense tract of
Witer, the Pacific. It is true eiplorera had sailed along por-
tioiis of the eastern shores of Africa ; traders had found their
fsy round the Cape of Grood Hope to India; and the "Spice
liUnds," the islands of the Malay Archipelago, were already
Tisited by Europeans ; but, although it was considered probable
bj scientific men that land of some considerable extent would
be found in those regions, the great continent of Australia
utd the vast islands of New Zealand and Tasmania were oa
JBt entirely anheard of.
During the time that the Spanish and the Portuguese were
occupied in their East Indian trade, their naTigatiirs appear
to have occasionally sighted isolated points on the western
coast of Australia ; but nothing at all definite was known of
it nntil the commencement of the seventeenth century, when,
in 1606, one Pedro Fernando de Quiros sailed from Peru with
two vessels, the smaller of the two being under the command
of one Luis vas Torres, bound on a voyage of discovery to
the westwfml. Having passed through a great part of the
78 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Southern Archipelago, the two yeflsels became parted during
a violent stormy Pedro de Quiros discoyering some important
islands, to which he gave the name of "'Australia del Espiritu
Santo/' now believed to have been part of the New Hebrides
group; whilst Torres, driven further to the north, reached
New Guinea, sailing through the strait that has ever since
borne his name.
After the Spanish and the Portuguese, the Dutch visited
nearly all the northern and western, with much of the
southern, coast-line of Australia. In 1642 Jan Abel Tasman
sailed from Batavia with an expedition which reached the
island, now justly called by the name of its discoverer, but
which he styled Van Dieman's Land, in honour of the then
Grovemor of the Dutch East Indian colonies. Tasman saUed
round its southern shores, but not round the north of the
island, and for nearly a century and a half Van Dieman's
Land was believed to form a part of the great southern
continent of Australia.
In his eastern course Tasman came upon New Zealand, and
then returned to Batavia by the north of New Guinea. In
1664 the States-General gave the name of New Holland to
the western part of the region of which their countrymen
had certainly seen more than any other navigators, and for
many years after that, not only the western part, but the whole
of the Australian continent was simply known as New Holland.
The land then appears to have been almost forgotten in
Europe until towards the close of the seventeenth century,
when, in 1699, the British (Government sent out William
Dampier upon a voyage of discovery, of which the primary
object was to obtain accurate information as to this recently
discovered coimtry of New Holland, and after that to visit
the islands of the South Pacific.
Dampier had originally been known as one of the most
daring of the buccaneers in various piratical expeditions,
and he had made voyages of his own to the Pacific, and also
along the coast of New Holland itself; he was therefore looked
upon as one eminently fitted for this duty, and an old ship
called the Roebuck was placed at his disposal.
The Boebuck that the (Government provided for Dampier
ANSON S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD 79
w*a a. vessel utterly uufitted for the setvipe in which she was
about to be engaged, and Dampier, with much justice, boaBted
DpoQ his retnro —
" that he hiid snccessfully CBrriad ont the object for which he was Bent, with
thia old and worn-out vessel, which he was at last obliged to abandon at
AsoenBion on his way homo, as he could no longer keep her afloat."
He made the western coast of New Holland, in latitude
26' S., neat the bay that he then named Shark's Bay, from
the number of sharks that then, as now, infested it ; and
from thence he sailed to the northward, making the island
of Timor, at the southern extremity of the Malay Archipelago,
and then coasted all round New Guinea, naming, and making
careful surveys of its bays and harbours before he eventually
returned to England.
If the Government of 1699 treated Dampier with parsimony,
a succeeding Government of George 11. 's, which sent out the
expedition under Commodore Anson, carried the same kind
of policy to a far greater length, Anson's expedition was
not specially one of discovery, although it resulted in his
celebrated voyage round the world, occupying altogether three
years and nine mouths; but it was principally intended to
chastise the Spaniards for their outrages upon British ships
iu the West Indies. The squadron consisted of six ships,
mounting Jn all two hundred and twenty-six guns, of which
the largest, the Cetiturion, was commanded by Anson himself.
The ships were badly found and wretchedly manned, and
although Anson hoisted his pennant in November, 1739, it
<ni3 September, 1740, before he could finally get away. Such
was the difBculty experienced in manning the squadron that
five hundred out-pensioners were sent from Chelsea Hospital,
many of whom were sixty years old, and some were even
seventy. Of these two hundred and forty deserted before the
ships sailed, and their places were filled up with men to a
large extent provided by the press-gang, who, if they were
younger, were, if possible, still more useless.
Sailing down the North and South Atlantic, and rounding
Cape Horn, Anson proceeded to the coast of Peru, plundering
Mboazd and destroying the towu of Paita. On his way
i
8o THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
home round the Gape of Qood Hope, he took a Spuush
galleon richly laden with silyer; but when he returned to
England the Centurion was the sole surviying ship at his
squadron.
Among those who served under Anson in this voyage was
an officer named John Byron, who later on, as Commodore
Byron, was himself sent out on an expedition purely of
discovery. He sailed from England in 1764, with orders to
find out
''whether lands and islands of great extent, hitherto vnyinted by any
European power, were to be found in the Atlantic Ocean, between the CStpe
of G^ood Hope and the Straits of Magellan, within latitudes convenient fiir
navigation, and in climates adapted for the produce of commodities useful to
commerce ; also to seek for His Majesty*s Islands called Pepys* Idaod and
Falkland's Island."
These instructions to Byron throw a light on the state of
geographical knowledge concerning the southern hemisphere
prevailing scarcely more than a hundred years ago that is
exceedingly curious, the whereabouts of these latter islands,
or even whether they existed at all, being then quite unknown.
It was to the clearing up of these points that Byron first
directed his attention, with the result that he reported that
Pepys' Island had no existence, but that the Falklands were
two distinct islands of some considerable size near to the coast
of South America. He then entered, and made careful surveys
of the Straits of Magellan, returning to England in 1766.
The next expedition despatched from England for scientific
purposes, although not strictly as a voyage of discovery, was
that fitted out in 1768, to olwerve the transit of Venus, the
command of which was given to Captain James Cook. Cook
was bom at Whitby in 1727, where he was apprenticed to a
linen-draper ; but, disliking the business, he left it, and went
to sea, serving for nine years on board a collier. In 1755
he joined the Navy, where his ability soon put him on the
quarter-deck,* and in 1759 he was employed upon a survey
* It takes some time now for an ordinary man-of-war*s man to get on the
qoarter-docL In a speech of Lord Charles Beresford^s in the Honse of
Commons on the Navy Estimates, on the 18th of March, 1898, he stated that
** at the present time, out of 50,000 seamen, only two have been promoted
CAPTAIN COOKS VOYAGES Si
I the coast of Newfoundland, Labrador, and the mouth of
'he St, Lawrence, a task which he achieved to the entire
■I tisfaction of the Admiralty.
The tranait of Venus was to take placo in June, 1769, and
!i was at the requeat of the Royal Society that the Uovern-
ment conseotod to send out an expedition to select a suitable
sput for the observations. With a number of scientific men
\.'h board, Captain Cook left England in the £iidfacou>- on
ilie 26th of August, 1768. and oii the 29th of September, after
unly thirty-four days — a marvellously short passage for that
lime — he rounded the Horn, and theu sailed for the island
of Tahiti. Here an observatory for the transit was established,
and the main object of the expedition was successfully carried
oat. Cook now visited and surveyed the group of islands of
vfaich Tahiti is one, naming them the Society Islands, in
boDoor of the Royal Society, who had been the chief insti-
gBtors of the expedition.
In October, 1769, Cook arrived at New Zealand, and spent
six months in examining and siirvoyiug its shores, proving it
to be two islands, the narrow strait separating them having
since been named in his honour Cook's Straits. From New
Zealand Cook went on to Australia, giving to that part of
the Australian contuieut the name it still bears of New South
Wales, an inlet on the south-east shore receiving the name of
Botany Bay. from the number of new plants there observed
by the savants of the expedition. Sailing aloug the coast of
what is now called Qiteeiisland, Cook reached Papua, from
whence he came home by the Cape of Good Hope, after an
absence from England of three years all but a mouth.
The next year after his arrival at home— namely, in 1772,
— Cook was sent out again, this time being ordered to
investigate the then still unsolved problem uf a great southern
I'imlinent lying between the meridians of the Cape of
Good Hope and Cape Horn, and which bad been only partly
lo tho rank of officers. It would be beaeficUl if tliey could promoto
wvnat-officere to commaod rank, just as certain clasaea of ofiBcers in the
Annjr were promoted from the ranks. It was absolute nonaense to say that
aai of sixty thousand Bluejacketa in the Navy there wm not one Gt to be
1« •□ officer."
82 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
set at rest by Byron's voyage to the Falkland Islands in
1764.
The expedition consisted of two ships, both Whitby yessels
— the Hesolutiofiy of 462 tons, of which Captain Cook took the
command, and the Adventure, of 336 tons, which was commanded
by Captain Fumeaux. Unlike the treatment at the hands of
the Gk)Yemment experienced by Dampier and Anson, the
anthorities under Lord Sandwich seem to haye done every-
thing in their power to make the equipment of Cook's ships
as complete as possible.
The expedition left Plymouth on the 13th of July, 1772,
and after calling at the Cape of Grood Hope, proceeded south-
wards until they were stopped by the ice, in latitude 67^ 15'
S., on the 17th of January, 1773. As far as the eye could
reach appeared an impenetrable barrier of icebergSi of which
Cook coimted no less than ninetyHseyen, towering aboye his
ship like a range of moimtains. Finding it utterly impoaifale
to get further to the south. Cook made his way to New Zealandf
where he arriyed at Dusky Bay in the South Island on tha
25th of March, having been the first British sailor to aom
the Antarctic Circle.
From New Zealand he went on to his old island, lUiitiy
completing the surrey of the Society Islands upon which he
had been engaged during the previous voyage. After this he
returned to Queen Charlotte's Sound, New Zealand, to obtain
a fresh supply of provisions and to refit the ship& Upon the
return of summer Cook recommenced the investigations as to
the supposed southern continent, and attained as high a
latitude as 71^ S. without discerning any traces of land, and
he therefore came to the conclusion that no such continent
as had been supposed, existed.
He now sailed northward, and examined Easter Island in
the South Pacific, which had been discovered by Davis in
1686. Thence he sailed to the group to which he had given
the name of the Friendly Islands ; thence to a further group
of islands which he named the New Hebrides ; and from there
to New Caledonia and Norfolk Island, the latter of which he
found to be iminhabited. From here he came back again to
New Zealand, and then started for home.
I
DEATH OF CAPTAIN COOK
He made a clear run to Cape Horn, and then stayed on his
way, and carried out a careful examination of Tierra del
Fuego and Staaten Island, arriving at Portsmoutb on the 13th
of July, 1775, having thus been away exactly three years,
during which time he had only lost four of his men.
Captain Cook was again only a year at home, as on the 12th
of July, 1776, he started on his third and last voyage. This
time his object was to explore the North Pacific, and to renew
the search for a continuous waterway between the Pacific and
the Atlantic Oceans along the northern coast of America.
Cook had his old ship, the Bcsolution, the accompanying
vessel being the Discova'i/, which was commanded by Captain
Gierke. The expedition, after calling at the Cape of Good
Hope, visited Kerguelen's Land, and reached Adventure Bay,
Tasmania, on the 26th of January, 1777,
From Tasmania Cook proceeded to New Zealand, and then
sailing northwards, spent three months in examining the Fiji
IslaDds. Still shaping his course in a uortherly direction, he
discovered, in 21' N. and 158° W., a group of islands, hitherto
unknovm, which he named the Sandwich Islands, after the
noble earl, who was then head of the Admiralty. From here
he sailed to Vancouver, and from thence to the Behring Sea,
jiassing through Behring's Straits, nntil, in 70" 44' N., he was
stopped by the ice, when he returned to Hawaii, the largest
island of the Sandwich group, where, most unfortunately, he
met his death at the hands of the natives.
Some interesting glimpses may be obtained of matters
connected with the British Mercantile Marine during the
early part of the eighteenth century from the newspapers of
the time. The absence of all coast-guard supervision, and
the rough and lawless conduct of the poorer classes residing
along the coast, are more than hinted at in the following
paragraphs, taken from one of the principal London news-
papers * of the year 1734 :—
" Feb, 21 : — ^We liavG received the Following Letter from Edward Panroso
Esq. at Penrose near Falmouth, in Cornwall, dated Feb. I6th : — Yesterday
I , Ku lost St GuowoUoe, in Mounts Bay, a Ship called the Belly GalUy, C^pt.
• The Bamt Jiunti't Evming Foat.
84 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Henry Day, of and for Lynn, from Malaga ; by the Violeiioe of the Sea, the
Ship, after she stmck not standing whole more than the Space of two Minutes
at most The Master and three Men were drowned, and five Men were sa^ed,
but with great Difficulty, and almost naked*
" I went to the Place, and with much ado preservM from the Comitry People
about ten Pipes of Wine, some full, and some a third, and some a fourth Fivt
out, and a large Anchor, which I have delivered over to the Officers of the
Port of Penzance, for the Relief of the poor Men that were preserved, and fisr
the Owners. The Officers of the Port of Penzance brought a laige Party of
Soldiers with them, for the better Security of what I had preserved from the
Country People, and the Soldiers are reaUy of great Use in such Miafoitmiei^
the Country People dreading the Sight of a Bayonet screwed on at the Sod
of a Musket I ran much Hazard amongst these rude inhuman People, who
are not to be govern^, when there is any Liquor in the Case.
Having no Acquaintance at Lynn, or with any Merchants that deal that
Way, 1 beg the favour you*ll make this known to the Owners the Speednst
Way you can. The Boatswain, who is sav^d, says the Caigo was 197 Ca^
of Wine, and 5 Tons of Fruit, &c."
The next paragraph points to a similar state of things on
another part of the coast.
" Sep. 7 : — On Saturday two Vessels from Dablin, loaded with Linnen
Cloth, Glue, Ac, and bound for Liverpool, were entirely lost, near Poulton, iu
LancaHliire. The same Day, the Prince Eugene^ Capt Robert Hays, a fine
new Ship, of and from Liverpool, for Cork, and the Coast of Guinea, was
forced on shore by the heavy Gale, near Milford Haven ; and great Numbers
of the Country People came down with Axes and Hatchets, to break her up,
and carry off all they could get. But several Merchants from Haverford-
Wcst, getting as many Assistants as they possibly could, went to the PUce,
and after a sharp Engagement succeeded in putting them to Flight ; and at
the coming away of the Post tliey were using their utmost Endeavours to
save what they could for the unfortunate Owners."
In 1734, the only light at the mouth of the Thames was
the Nore Lightship, which had been placed there two years
previously. The number of vessels passing the Gunfleet, which
lies between Harwich and the Nore, was rather different in
1734, from what it is at the present day, as may be learned
from the following : —
** Nov. 21 : — The Mac^AIlisteVy Capt. Montgomery, bound from Gottenburg
to Liverpool, was lost on the ISth Instant on the Gunfieet Sand : After the
Ship struck the Crew took to the Rigging, and they continued for three Days
in the Shrouds without any Sustenance : the Master and a Boy getting Light-
Headed, flung themselves off into the Sea, and were drown'd only about three
Hours before the rest were saved by Capt. Butcher, in the Exchange, from
MARITIME MATTERS UNDER GEORGE U.
NorwBj, wbicb Ship amv'd id the Biver this Day. They saw five Ships
piM by them, the three Days (hoy were ia the Higging, bat none came to
t Holyhead lost Saturday, in
!lie Sea Nymph aniT'd here
Ora/ior, is totally lost on the
The Iriah mail, in 1734, was somewhat different from the
pteseat admirable aerrice between Holyhead and Dublin: —
"Oct, 12:— They write from Dublin, Oct. G, that the Pacqoct-Boat which
hisl oil board llio Matt Trocn London, of the 24tb past, was by the Violence
of the Winils last Monday, drove to the Isle of Mau, and caHt away upon
tint Coast ; bat all the People on board escaped, and they took the Mails on
ihore with them. They hired a Veaael of that Island to brbg them horO)
which Vtssel arriT'd in Dnblin Bay yesterday, about two Hoots after the
Fieqnet which broDght in the next Mail."
"The Sta Nymph, Robert Codd, Master, U
Cantpaay with the Qrnfton, Pacqnet-Boat.
uU Yeeterday, but she brings Account tliat th
Me of Man, the Passengers and Crew bciiig sa
Merchant ships at that time suffered much fiom the press-
gang, as may be seen ifsm the following paragraphs, men
who had been away for a couple of years being seized by the
preas-gang just as they were arriving home again : —
"Jane 8 : — On Thursday Morning, the Directors of the East India Company
received the a^;reeable News of the safe Arrival of tlie Devonshire, Capt,
PHooe, from Bengal, but last from St. Helena. Tlie Purser lefl the said Ship
>afe ia the Dovus on Wednesday. She sail'd from the Downs, for the East
Indjea, on the 27lh of Nov. 1732. Her Men have all been impross'd by the
M«n of War ia the Dowas, and other Hands were put on board to bring her
ap to her Moormgs in the River."
"Jono 11 : — On Saturday last, the Devonekire, CapL Priace, belonging to
the East India Company, came to her Moorings off Woolwich. She was
manned up the Biver by G8 Hands, part of the Crew of the Ba'wiak, Man of
War ; and tlie Berwick iropress'd a like Number out of tbe Devonihire, as
she waa coming through the Downs."
" July 23 ;— On Sunday Momiag the Purser of the WiUiam, Capt. Petre,
arriv'd in Town, who brought Advice of the safe Arrival of the said Ship in
the DowoB, richly ladea, oa Aceoant of the Turkey Company : The Ships of
War in the Downs impreas'd all her aien, and put othen on board to bring
her ap to her Moorings in the Rtver."
■■QicL 24: — Notwithstanding the Report spread about 14 Days ago that no
more Sailors would be impress'd out of tlie Home ward-Bound Ships, several
IHfB thst Brriv'd last Week, had all their Men taken from them m the
\
86 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
CHAPTER VIII.
The maritime commerce of Eng^d at the doee of the rdgn of Elitibedi—
Salee RoTem— Charles I. — Ship-money — Shipping of London — ^Tfae other
principal ports — State of the port of London in the seventeenth oentmy
— ^In the last centory — Serious robberies on the river — ^Tlie fint doda
—The " legal quays "—The West India Docks— The London Doc^s—
The East India Docks— The St. Katherine^s Docks— The Victoria Dodn
— The Royal Albert Docks — ^The Surrey Commercial Docks — ^A few
particulars of the Port of Liverpool.
At the close of the reign of Queen Elizabeth the popu-
lation of the whole of England did not greatly exceed five
millions, and the population of London was about a hundred
and fifty thousand. The greater part of the maritime
commerce of the country, however, was centred in London^
the customs of the port of London being at that time seven
times greater than those of all the rest of the kingdom put
together.
After London, the chief mercantile ports were Bristol,
Newcastle, Hull, Yarmouth, Harwich, Boston, King's Lynn,
Southampton, and Plymouth. Liverpool had then but a few
hundred inhabitants, and those chiefly fishermen and persons
engaged in a very small way in the coasting trade. Towards
the end of the seventeenth century, however, Liverpool was
gradually rising into prominence; but still the second
mercantile port of this country was Bristol, which, with a
population of about 30,000, had practically a monopoly of
the West Indian trade.
In 1634, the dominion of the English crown over the Channel
and the adjacent seas was being vigorously disputed, and the
inhabitants of the towns along the southern coasts not
unfrequently suffered much from the depredations of the
SHIP-MONEY OP CHARLES THE PIR5T
I French and of the Dutch, or the more formidable descenta of
I (be Sales Rotqts, who not only captured English vessels
Ktoally within sight of the English coasts, but carried away
I the fishermen in large numbers into slavery. Charles I.,
finding himself in want of money for the purpose of fitting
in adequate naval force to put a stop to this state of
(limgs, had recourse to an old device for the provision of
j maritime defence, and the port of London and the maritime
I oonnties generally were called upon for this purpose to
[ famish ships, or in lieu of ships, money.
The first writ for levying the ship-mouey was issued by
Charles in 1636, and the quotas required to be contributed
by the several places therein mentioned aftord some means
tS estimating the relative wealth and importance of these
particular places : —
M 1 ship of 400 tons, 160 r
s 2 slupa of 600 tone.
e Borough of Leeds
„ Hull
fn,£1000 in money.
£50.
£40.
.. Lancaster £30.
„ .. Liverpool £26.
,. Clithero £7 10«.
„ Newton £7 10s.
Bristol was 1 ship of 100 tons, 40 men, £1000 in monej.
London was 7 ships of 1000 tons, l&GOmen.nndBixinonthH'
pay-
In 1702, 560 vessels belonged to the port of London.
Daring the last three months of that year, 413 vessels were
entered inwarda, at the Custons House, London, and 256
venels cleared outwards;' but in addition to these foreign-
going vessels there wbs a very considerable number of coasters.
At the close of the seventeenth century coal was becoming
largely used in London, and in the year 1700, no less than
250,000 tons of coal were brought to London from the north
by sea, the shipping employed in the coal-traile between the
• The reason of the great disparity between the number of ships entered
rawBids and of those cleared ontwards would probably be accounted for by
the bet that a lat^ namber of the homeward-bound ships would be froo
Norway, Sweden, and the Baltic porta, to which scarce any voasela would bo
going oQt during the months of November and December.
88 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
north of England and London being then regarded as especially
the nnrsery for seamen*
In the year 1702, the shipping and seamen belonging to
the principal ports of the kingdom were as follows : —
VeMds.
Average budea
■
SeeiMn.
London
• • •
• • •
560
• ••
• • •
150tonA.
10,065
Bristol
• • •
•••
165
• ••
• ••
105
}}
2,359
Newcastle
• • •
• ••
163
• « •
• • •
73
V
—
Yarmouth
• • •
• ••
143
• ••
• ••
62
9)
668
Exeter
• • •
• • >
121
• ••
•••
59
99
970
Hull
• « •
• « •
115
• • •
• • •
66
1}
187*
Whitby
• • •
• • •
110
■ ■ •
• • •
75
11
671
Liverpool
• • •
• • •
102
• • •
•••
85
»>
1,101
Ipswich
• • •
• • •
39
• • •
■ • •
—
—
In 1702, the total number of vessels belonging to all the
ports of England put together was 3281, the total tonnage
was 261,222 tons, the average burden being 80 tons. The
total number of seamen was 27,196. This was exclusiye of
the Boyal Navy, which consisted in the year 1695 of 200
vessels, of the burden of 112,400 tons, or an average burden
of 562 tons, and which were manned by 45,000 seamen. Thus
London at that time possessed one-sixth of the entire shipping
of the country, and rather more than one-third of the entire
number of sailors.
About the middle of the sixteenth century (in 1558) certain
wharfs, afterwards known as " legal quays," were appointed to
be the sole landing-places for goods in the port of London.
They were situated along the river bank, between Billingsgate
and the Tower, and had a frontage of 488 yards, or rather
more than a quarter of a mile, to the river, of which frontage
388 yards were appropriated to the ships employed in the
foreign trade ; but this trade was so rapidly increasing that
these quays soon became totally inadequate to the requirements
of the port.
The following figures show the rapid increase in the
number of ships engaged in the foreign trade entering the
port of London during the eighteenth century : —
* Eighty of the Hull vessels were laid up at the time of this retarn, it being
winter, and the trade of Hall lying chiefly with the Baltic, or in whaling in
the northern seas.
PORT OF LONDON IN THE l.AHT CENTURY
sup..
Torn.,
In the year 1702 .
1751 .
1794 .
839
. 1498"
2219t
CoMiing Trade
80,040
198,053
429,7161;
TMWil.
Torn.
In the yew 1760 .
1795 .
. 6,39C ...
. 11,964} ...
511,680
1,176,400
^' ^^'
The greater part of the veaaels during the last century,
i'>lh poastera and foreign-going ships, entering the port of
London discharged their cargoes as they lay in the river,
there being at that time no doeks to receive the steadily
increasing amount of shipping. Property of the most valuable
kind was always lying expoaed in open boats, and the robberies
wre BO enormous that Mr. Colquhoun, in his work, has esti-
mated that they exceeded half a million annually. Neither
was this particular species of crime by any means of recent
tirigin, for in Stow's " Surrey of London," published in 1633,
we read —
"Now ODe Note on llic North Side of the River, concerning Pyrates ; I
rMd that in the year 1440, in the Lent Season, certain PeraotiB, with six
Ships, brooghi from beyond the was Fish, to victual the City of London : the
which Fish when they had delivered, and wore returning homeward, a Number
of Sea Thieves in a Barge in tlie dnrk Night, came upon Ihem when they were
•sleep in tlieir Vessels, riding nt Anchor in the River of Thamea, and slew
them, cot their Throats, cast them overboard, took their Money, and drowned
their Bhips, for that do Man slionld espy or accuse tlicm. Two of these
Thieves were after taken, nnd hanged in Chains upon a Gnllowa Get upon a
raisei] Hili, for the Parpoee made in the Fields beyond Eaat SmithSeld, so
tbat they might be seen far into the River of Tliames."
In 1792, the actual number of barges and other craft
employed in the transit of goods between the ships loading
and unloading in the river and the shore was as follows :
500 for timber; 1180 for coal, each averaging 33 tons; 402
* Of ttiese 203 were West Indian sugar 'Ships.
t Oftheae 433 were West Indian sugar-ships.
X Iq the year 1869 the tonnage entering the port of London amounted to
10,100,000 tons ; 1890 (the year of the Dock Strike), 8,700,000 tuns ;
I«91. 8.400,000 tons; 1893, 8,245.000 tons; 1893, 8,1-21,000 tons.
% AatL cooBter would probably make half a dozen voyagoa iu the year, this
~ ~ y fix would give about the actual oDmber of vessels.
90 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
lighters of 39 tons each; 338 lighters of 20 tons each; 57
luggers of 24 tons each ; 6 sloops of 27 tons ; 10 cntters of
71 tons ; and 10 hoys of 58 tons, making a total of 2503
craft of all descriptions.
The temptation afforded by so many barges and other craft
filled with valuable merchandize lying constantly exposed in
the river naturally produced a liurge amount of crime, and
hundreds of men lived entirely by robbery on the river.
There were among these river thieves several quite distinct
classes, each with its own special mode of operation, and each
acting entirely independently of the others. The particular
class known as ^ Light Horsemen " would look out for a lighter
having valuable goods on board, and at night, stealing up
quietly, would cut her adrift ; then following her as she floated
down with the tide, would by-and-by rescue her, and bring
her back, claiming salvage. It is needless to say that she
had, in the meanwhile, been relieved of a very considerable
portion of her cargo. The " Heavy Horsemen " did their work
in the day-time, when they went on board as Lumpers to
clear the ships. The " Coopers," " Batcatchers,'* and " Scuffle-
Hunters," were all thieves in a greater or less degree, whilst
the " Biver Pirates " were practically marine burglars, getting
on board ships at night, by the stem-windows, open ports, or
skylights, or down the companion, visiting the captain's cabin,
and the after parts of the ship, not hesitating to cut a throat
or two should occasion require. The "Mudlarkers" were,
for the most part, old men — too old for most of the above
professions, but still able, in their boats, to creep about among
the tiers of shipping, and to collect bags of copper nails,
sugar, coffee, or what not from the less scrupulous members
of the crews of the homeward-bound ships.
The waterside — Deptford, Greenwich, and the like —
abounded with " fences " — receivers of stolen goods, where the
commodities brought ashore could be disposed of, and no
questions would be asked; and if, at any time, a particular
neighbourhood became too warm, then there were always
what were called " Jew-carts," ready to take the goods inland,
where they would not be so minutely looked after.
In 1798, the Thames police, then called the Marine police,
THE FIRST DOCKS IN LONDON gr
was instituted to prevent theae depredations on the river, but
tbe port of London (.'ontinued in nearly as bad a state until the
formation of the docks, which took the ships out of the river.
The first docka for the port of London were on the Surrey
ude, and Pennant, in his book on London, publiahed in 1793,
wys—
"Near the eitremily of this pariah (Rotberliitlie) are tlie docks for the
Qteenland ahipa ; a profitable nuisaQce, very property removed to a distance
froiD the Capit*!. The greater dock is supposed to have been the moath of
& famona canal, cat in lOlli, by King Canute, in order to avoid the
impediment of Eioodon Bridge, and to lay aiege to the capital by bringing his
8e« to the west side."
This dock, for a long time known as the Greenland Dock,
ma not aliened to be ased by vessels discharging their
cugoes, in consequence of objections on the part of the
Commissionera of Customa.
Pennant goea on to say —
" Sl Saviour's Dock, or as it is colled, Savory, bonnds the east end of this
pariili (St. Clave, Southwark). St. Saviour's Dock may be considered aa the
port of Soathwark. It is in length about fonr hundred yards, but of most
ili^roportiOQsble breadth, not exceeding thirty feeL It is at present solely
.ippn^rtated to barges which discharge coals, copperas from Wittleeea, ie
Kssex, pjpe-clay, com, and various other urMcles of commerce."
With the exception of these two docks there was at that
time no other dock, and the first wet dock for the port of
London was the work of a private individual. In 1789, Mr.
Perry, a shipbuilder, constructed a dock, called the Bruns-
wick Dock, adjoining his ahipbiiildiug yard at Blackwall,
capable of containing at one time 28 East-Indianien, and oU
smaller vessels.
The diflScolties of landing goods at the " legal quaya," the
only other landing-place, waa so great that a large quantity
of merchandise was often kept afloat in barges for tlie simple
reason that there was no room to land it. The quays were
covered with bales and packages, whilst the sugar hogsheads
were often piled six and eight high.
About 1793, the complaints of the merchants as to the
existing state of things began to attract public attention, and
in 179G, Parliament took up the subject, and inatituted a
92 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
formal inquiry. After the war with France had commeBoad,
in 1793, the OTiIa became immeasurably g:roater, as bafim
that time ships had arrived or departed singly, but now tiaf
came and departed in fleets, which were under the coDToy of
the men-of-war. A Parliamentary Committee was appointed
to consider the whole subject, and a number of schemes went
proposed with a view of increasing the facilities for loading
and unloading the ships. In 17^9, the West India merchant^
a very wealthy and influential body, at length attained their
object of having wet docks, and the Bill was passed for the
construction of the West India Docks, which were at once
commenced, and the docks were opened for business on the
2l8t of August, 1802, tlie opening ceremony being performed
by William Pitt the younger. They were specially con-
structed for the ships engaged in the West India trade, and
a compulsory clause was introduced into the Act, requiring
all ships coming to London laden with West Indian produM
to make use of the West India Docks for the space of 21
years frdm the date of opening. The northern, or import
dock is 2600 feet long, by 510 feet broad, and covers a space
of 30 acres ; the southern or export dock is 2600 feet long,
and 400 feet broad, and covers an area of 24 acres ; and both
are surrounded by a series of large warehouses, capable of
Gontaiuiiig over 100,000 tons of gtMids.
Accustomed as we are to consider the Docks, if not in the
very heart of London, at least as being welt within the
Metropolitan area, it is curious to read the criticisms of writeiB
of tbe time when these West India Docks were first opened.
One says—
" Notwitlistandiug these Docks have occasioned a vorj important trade to be
moved to a couaiderable, and eveu inconvenient, distance from the metropolis,
yet tbe advantages to the Port of London are, upon the whole, incalcolable.
Tlie West Indian trade general]; Brrivea in fleets, and occaaioned so much
crowding, confusion, and damage, in the River, that these aLips lieing disposed
of in theee doeka, tlie overgrown trade of the port \a now able to be carried on
vrith pleaaure
i
In 1800, an Act was obtained for the conatniction of the
Loudon Djcks, and certain important privileges were accorded 1
them ; all ships, at that time, entering the port of London laden 1
_J
■ith wine, brandy, tul)acco, ot rice, being required to enter
these docks, wliitli were opened for public business on the
30th of Jaauury. 1805. They cover an area of lUO acres, and
cost four miUioua sterling. Tlie two docks accommudated
500 sliipB, reckoning the kind of ships in vogue at the time ;
iai the quays are lined with large warehouses with capaciouB
TMilts for the reception of wine, spirits, and tobacco,
The warehouses for tobacco are at the eastern end of the
docks, and are two in number, the larger being 762 feet
long, and 160 feet in width, divided into compartments by
tioable iron doors; the smaller 250 feet long, and 200 wide.
Both of them have extensive vaults, chiefly used for housing
wines, of wliiuh they usu&Uy contain from five to six thousand
pipes. They are solely under the control of the officers of
tb Customs,
In 1803, the Act of Parliament was obtained for the con-
stnu'tion of the East India Docks, specially for ships in the
E«gt India trade ; and the docks were opened to the public
on the 4th of Augost, 1806, They were at oue time under
the management of a certain number of East India Directors ;
hut when the trade to the East Indies was thrown open they
were purchased by the West India Dock Company.
The import dock is 1410 feet long, 560 feet wide, and
3<J feet deep, covering 18 acres; and the export dock is 780
feet long, 520 feet wide, and of the same depth, covering 9J
Bcres. From these docks all the goods of the Company were
^'nreyed to their London warehouses along a tramway in
covered waggons, locked up so as to prevent fraud and
Alwut the year 1820, all the monopolies of the West ludia
and the London Docks were about to expire, and every efl'ort
was made by the Companies to obtain an extension of their
[dvileges. This occasion seemed to offer a favourable oppor-
tunity for further dock accommodation for the port of London,
nad after the most strenuous opposition on the part of the old
Companies, in 1825, an Act was obtained by a new Company
for the construction of the St. Katherine's Docks. Upwards
of eight hundred houses, mostly of a poor and dilapidated
description, were pulled down to make way for the new docks.
94 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
and among them was the Hospital of St Eatherine, foanded
in 1148 by Matilda of Boulogne, the wife of Song Stephen,
which Hospital was re-erected in the Begent's Park. The first
stone of the St. Eatherine's Docks was laid on the 3rd d
May, 1827 ; and they were opened for shipping on the 25ifa
of October, 1828. The docks occupy an area of 28 acres, d
which 11 acres are water.
Previous to the construction of the docks, and when ships
discharged in the river, it was reckoned that an East India-
man of 800 tons took a month to unload, whilst one of 1200
tons took six weeks. At the St. Eatherine's Docks, whicb
were fitted with all the best appliances then known, the
average time occupied in discharging a vessel of 250 torn
was twelve hours; and a ship 500 tons two or three daya
In 1841, over a thousand ships and upwards of ten thousaiid
lighters and boats entered the St. Eatherine's Docks. Now,
partly from the fact that the great steamers, three or foui
hundred feet long, which have to a large extent superseded
the old ships of a thousand or twelve hxmdred tons, cannot
get in or out of these docks, and partly because by using the
newer docks, such as the Albert and the Victoria Docks, the
navigation of the narrower and more crowded part of the
river is avoided, the St. Eatherine's and the London Docks
are comparatively deserted, and at the present day wear a
desolate and melancholy aspect.
In 1855, the Victoria Docks, situated at a short distance
to the east of Bow Creek, the entrance to the Biver Lea,
were specially constructed to meet the requirements of these
large ocean-going steamers. They occupy an area of 200
acres, and contain over a mile of quays.
In 1869, the accommodation of the West India Docks was
increased by the addition of a large basin now known as the
South- West India Dock; whilst south of this again are the
Millwall Docks, occupying the greater part of the Isle oi
Dogs. These last docks are now very largely used, particu-
larly by the grain steamers from the Baltic and the Black
Sea. Not far off is one more dock, the Regent's Canal Dock,
chiefly used by Norwegian vessels and small craft generally.
The latest addition to the docks of the port of London, not
PRESENT STATE OF THE DOCKS 9S
reckoniug the Tilbury Docks, which are twenty miles away,
»re the Boyal Albert Docka, nearly opposite Woolwich, the
heftd-({uarter8 of the P. aud 0., and other large lines of ocean
tteuners.
At the present time the whole of the above docks, that is
to my, the London Docks, the St. Katherine's, the West India,
the Soath-West India, the East India Docks, the Boyal
Albert, the Victoria and the Tilbury Docks, are under the
maiugement of a joint conunittee known as " the London and
India Docka Joint Committee."
On the Surrey aide of the river are the Surrey Commercial
Docks, with an area of 49 acres, of which 38 acres are water.
These docks are almost exclusively used by vessels engaged
in the timber trade of the port of London ; and perhaps
nowhere can be seen such a collection of every kind of
timber from every known country of the world as is to be met
with in the Surrey Commercial Docks.
The state of the East and West India Docks, the London
Docks and the St. Katherine's, at the present time presents
t lamentable contrast from what was to be seen some forty or
even thirty years ago. At that time steam to Australia was
practically unheard of, aud the sailing trade to the Australian
ports, to Calcutta, Bombay, and the East, was perhaps at its
)mL The East India Docks in the " fifties " and in the
■aitiee" were absolutely full of the magnificent ships of
Green, Money Wigram, Somes, VV. S. Lindsay, Thompson,
Deritt and M<x)re, Dunbar, and the rest. Every one who went
to Australia or to New Zealand, and, perhaps, the greater port
of those going to India, took their passage in such splendid
ailing ships as the Light of the Age, the La Hoyue, the Star of
India, the Alfred, the Maid of JiiAaJi, the Soma-sctsJd)-e, the
Patriarch and other similar ships, which all lay packed close
together along the quays of these docks. Occasionally was
to be seen the black hull and the tall tapering masts bearing
the well-known red house-fiag with the black ball in it, of the
Lyhtning,t\ie Red Jacket, the James Baines, or some other crai'k
flipper of the Black Ball Line; or perhaps one of Bligh's
bnff-coloored ships loading for the Cape, Ifothing was any-
where to be seen but a forest of tall spars and a maze of
96 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
rigging, whilst scarcely a funnel was to be found in the
Docks.
How is it to-day with the East India Docks? In the
Export Dock, perhaps, two Donald Carrie boats ; in the BiOB,
one more Castle Liner, and a stray ''tramp'* or two; in the
Import Dock — nothing. Little wonder that the aurail
meetings of the Docks Company are sometimes stonny, and
exasperated shareholders ask why the Docks are not filled up
again, and sold as building sites I
LlYEBPOOL.
A few of the barest particulars may be given as showing
the recent and rapid rise of the second mercantile port of the
kingdom. Its first charter was granted to Liverpool, then
scarcely more than a village, by Henry II. in 1173; this
was renewed by King John in 1207; and this charter was
again renewed by his son and successor, Henry IIL, in 1227.
In the fourteenth century Liverpool was still but a very
small and obscure place; but it must have even then
possessed a few small vessels, for Edward III., in 1333,
previous to his invasion of Scotland, ordered the town **to
provide six of the largest and strongest ships to be found in
the port of Liverpool " for service against the Scots.
During the two centuries that followed there was but little
alteration, apparently, in the state of the town, for on the
16th of February, 1557, in the fifth year of Queen Mary,
when a war with France was imminent, the queen sent a
letter to **the mayor, customs-comptroller, and searcher of
the town and port of Liverpool, and to all other ofiScers to
whom it shall appertain," requiring them to make ^'a return
of all ships and other vessels within the port, and the creeks
belonging to the same: of the tonnage thereof: and likewise
the number of mariners and seafaring men." In answer to
this order, the mayor reported that ** there were only two ships,
one of 100 tons, and the other of 50 tons, and seven smaller
ships, belonging to the town and the creeks, which were then
in port ; and that there were four ships abroad ; and that the
number of seamen belonging to the port was 200."
LIVERPOOL IN THE TIME OF ELIZABETH
In the year 1565, the seventh year of Queen Elizabeth, an
order was again addressed to the Mayor of Liverpool, requiring
information as to the then state of the place ; the number of
vessels belonging to the port ; and alao the number of seamen
bj whom they were worked. From the return made to this
'irder it appears that there were in Liverpool at that time
cnly 138 householders and cottagers; that the number of
vessels belonging to the River Mersey was fifteen ; and the
VDonnt of their tonnage 267 tons, no reesel being greater
th&a 40 tons ; so that the two veseels given in the previous
return, in Queen Mary's reign, must have been either lost,
sold, or worn out. The number of seamen belonging to the
port was returned as 80. The fifteen ships belonging to
J in 1565 were described in detail thus : —
it
■ Two
H Two
H ^
m '^
One ahi[i— tbo Eagle ... 40 ... 1-2 men and 1 boy.
Two „ [12 tons each]
Odc
ToUl 15 Bhipe.
In 1571, the town having been ordered to provide certain
Tessels for the use of the Crown, a petition was sent to the
Queen, praying relief against the subsidy imposed upon them,
in which they style themselves " your Majesty's poor, decayed
tf'»n of Liverpool."
An accurate and exceedingly interesting picture of the
luaritime importance of the port of Liverpool during the latter
[art of the reign of Queen Elizabeth may be obtained from
a month's return of the movement of the port, selected at
nndom &om the records of the time : —
* 28Ui of Maich, 1566, two vsBselg only entered the port of Liverpool ;
ud DDc aftiled from it. The two which eiiCcrod were tbo TriniiU, IS toni,
iruB DnudAlk, and the SpeedwM, IG tous, from DublJu,
9S THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
" The vessel that left was tha above-named Trinitie, which went back to
Dimdalk.
" No other Teasel entered the part until the 8th of April, when the Miduid,
16 tons, arrived from Drogheda ; and the Marie, 6 tons, also from Drogfaeda.
" On the 12th of April, entered the barque Strange, 18 tons, from Carling-
ford; and the Tobie, 26 tons, from Dublin.
" 13th of April :~Th6 Tobit left for l>ublin.
" iSth of April:— The Etiioitlh, 10 tons, left for Dublin, with 10 tons
of coal.
■' ISth of April ;— The Hope, 34 tons, cleared out for Dublin, with 28 tens
of coal ; and the Swallow, 12 tous, sailed for Drogheda.
" 22nd of April :— The Speedwell, 16 tons, cleared out for Carrickfergus.
" 30th of April : — The Golden Gray, 19 tons, arrived from Dublin."
So that the total nnmber of vessels tbat entered the port of
Liverpool in a month in 1586 was eeven vessels, with a total
tonnage of 116 tons; and six vessels left the port, having a
united tonnage of 113 tons.
From that year until the troublous times of the reign of
Charles I. the town appears still to have made but very little
progress ; but in 1644, previous to the battle of Marston Moor,
we read tbat
" in that year the town was iu the heiuds of the Commonwealth, under the
commftQd of Celonel Moore, who defended it for some time agaiasl Prince
Rupert. It was then well fordSed with a high and strong mud-woll, and a
ditch twelve yards wide, and uearly three yards deep."
In 1662, the number of inhabitants was 775; and in 1700,
the number is stated to have been 3100. From this time, i
however, Liverpool began rapidly to increase, and Enfield .
says that "in 1753 the number of houses was 3700, and the \
number of the inhabitants 20,000." Li the year 1722, Parliar J
ment was first applied to for an Act to build a dock for
Liverpool, since which time the docks have steadily increased
in number, until at present the dock accommodation of Liver-
pool is, perhaps, the finest in the world.
The King's Dock was opened in 1788, and the first vessel
that entered the new dock waa a brig called the Port-a-Ferry,
which was then trading between Liverpool and Ireland. This
vessel was one of three ships that carried troops from Liver-
pool to Ireland, to raise the siege of Londonderry, iu 1689 ;
she must, therefore, when she entered the Liverpool dock,
have been at least a hundred years old. In 1792, the Queen's
LIVERPOOL AT THE PRESENT DAY
Dwk was completed. This dock was 270 yards loug, and 130
ysrds wide, and attached to it was a graving dock; the cost
o[ these docks being £25,000. The St, George's Dock waa
the last constructed before the end of the centory. It was
'^ yards long and 100 yards broad, with a length of quay
uf 670 yards, and was chiefly iutended for ships in the West
India trade. At the close of the century there were altogether
ttirteen docks in Liverpool ; naniely, five wet docks, five
gMving docks, and three dry docks, besides the Duke of
Bridgwater's dock, occupying altogether a space of about
Ihree miles in circumference.
The number and tonnage of ships that paid dock rates
ind town dues in Liverpool • is given thus :—
1760 ...
... 1,245 ..,
—
£2,330
1770 ...
... 2,073 ...
£4,142
1730 ...
... 2,261 ...
£4,508
1790 ...
... 4,226 ...
£10,037
1«00 ...
... 4,746 ...
.'.. 450,000 '.'.'.
£23,379
mi ...
... 4,899 ...
447,000 .-.
£46.000
1871 ...
... 20,121 ...
... 6,131,745 ...
£502,953
1880 ...
... 20,070 ...
... 7,524,533 ...
... £706,449
1690 ...
... 23,633 ...
... 9,654,006 ...
... £1,110.057
1897 ...
... 23,640 ...
... 11,473.421 ...
... £1,108,097
By the year 1772, Liverpool had become as important a
port as Bristol ; and at that time the ships of these two ports
iloce, engaged in the slave trade, carried annually 50,000
i.-:3;ro slaves from the African coast to the British plantations
': lie West Indies. It ivas iu this year that after a long
i;^itation by the Society of Friends in favour of the total
iUilJlion of slavery, the famous decision of Lord Mansfield
'na obtained, "that a slave becomes free at the moment of
hli setting his foot on British soil." Violent opposition to
the abolition of the slave trade was offered by the merchants
Kid the shipowners of Liverpool ; but with the ultimate passing
of the measure for negro emancipation, in March, 1807, this
lade at last came to an end.
Liverpool at the present day, naturally from its position
BtmmandB the bulk of the American trade, there being now
I * Thie
■Mrtrpool
Thie iiiformEition has been kmdly supplied by thg 8«cr<itary of tha
Chnmber of Uommerco.
loo THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
practically a daily service of the finest and best appointed
steamers in the world between the Mersey and the United
States. Although the entrance to the estuary of the Mersey
is encumbered by sand-banks, yet there is even at low water
spring tides a depth of 11 feet over the bar. The tide
rises 21 feet at neaps, and 31 feet at springs, so that there is
always for some time before and for some time after high
water plenty of water for even the yery largest ships.
Along the whole of the Liverpool bank of the river are
now no less than six miles of continuous wet docks; the
existing docks, with their basins, including wet, dry, graving
docks, locks, etc., covering an area of 388 acres, and having
upwards of twenty-five miles of quay space; whilst on the
Birkenhead side of the Mersey there are other docks having
an area of 164 acres of water space, with upwards of nine
miles of quays ; and these docks are capable of taking in the
largest steamers afloat.
Even this large amoxmt of dock accommodation for the port
of Liverpool is about to be still farther increased. At a recent
meeting of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, it was
decided to form additional docks on the Liverpool side of the
river, including the construction of a graving-dock 1000 feet
in length, and having an entrance 90 feet in width, the
whole being at a total cost of between three and four millions
sterling.
INTRODUCTION OF STEAM
h
CHAPTER IX.
lie i[f licatioa of steam to the purposea of navigation — Mr. Patrick Miller—
SymiDgton— Lord Duodas— The Charlotte i)o7«i«*— Fulton— The C7er-
noijC — Tiie Ctoine(— The first Margate Bteamer — The Marjory — The R<ih
Boy — Tlie first ocean steamer, the Savannah — Tlie first attempt to
re«ih India by steam — The Enterpriie — The iirat ateam waraMp —
Trwwatlantjo sleam navigatioli — The Siriut — The Oreat IFettem- The
British Queen Aad the Prtaidenl — Tha screw propeller— The jlrcAimfrfen
— TTie Saltier and the Alecto—I'he ffrrat Tlritain.
The application of steam to the pnrposea of narigatioD
ha, during the present century, made such rapid strides, and
hu to so large an extent superseded the use of sails, that
there appears a probability that in the not far distant future
— eicept, perhaps, in the case of small vessels and coasters-
Ike sailing ship will have become entirely a thing of the
past. All thia vast revolution has taken place during the
ImI hundred years; for although here and there, towards
llie close of the eighteenth century, the propulsion of vessels
liy fltenm-pjwer was attempted, very little was actually done
Itefore the year 1800.
It must be remembered that the original object in intro-
'iueing steam-engines into .ships was not one of either speed
or economy, but it was rather to make them independent of
the weather; yet after a comparatively short experience other
(fSraatages of the new departure Lecame so manifest that it
'as persevered in, at first only with passenger steamers, but
when the screw propeller had been invented, allowing
steamers to run etjually well on any draught, steam-ships
were also designed to carry cargo.
Long before steam was introduced the propulsion of vessels
by means of paddle-wheels had frequently been attempted.
The art of working puddles by means of oxen in a circular
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
!~ *»,« ^
wheel was known to tlie ancients, and was used in the
Middle Agea ; and even on the Thames, and on the Medway,
there were boats propelled in this manner in the reign of
Charles U.
In the year 1543, a Spaniard, one Blasco de Garay, exhibited
a vessel in the harbour of Bareelonft said to have been worked
by steam ; hut the fact of steam having really been the
motive-power of this vessel has always been doubted. A
certain Solomon de Cans, of Frankfort, in 1615, is also said
to have constructed a similar vessel propelled by steam ; but
of this also nothing at all authentic is known.
As early, however, as December, 1736, one .Tonathan Hulls
uhtained a patent for "a machine for carrying ships and
vessels out of or into any harbour or river, against wind and
tide, or in a calm" — for a steamboat, in fact. His steamer
was fitted with an engine fixed amidships, which by means of
a band, or rather of a tope running in grooved wheels, worked
a paddle-wheel at the stern of the boat. Nothing, however,
appears to have come of his invention. In 1781 the Marquis
de Jouffroi constructed a somewhat similar boat, also pro-
pelled by steam, and he exhibited it on the Soone; but this
also seems to have resulted in nothing.
Boats very much after the fashion of Hull's steamer are
even now to he seen in some parts of the world, as, for
example, on the Murray, in South Australia. Such boats
have also been used on the upper Thames, and the remor-
queurs of the Seine are still constructed on not very dissimilar
principles.
In the year 1787, Mr. Patrick Miller, a gentleman of con-
siderable property, of Dalswinton, in Scotland, published a
pamphlet on the subject of propelling boats by means of
paddle-wheels turned by men. For the purposes of his
experiments he built, from first to lost, eight boats of
different kinds, aud is said to have spent no less than thirty
thousand pounds upon his hobby. In most of his experiments
he was assisted by a Mr. James Taylor, who was tutor in his
family, and who had repeatedly urged upon Mr. Miller the
application of steam-power rather than manual labour to his
engines. At last Mr. Miller agreed to Mr, Taylor's proposal,
1
THE FIRST STEAMER 103
and be employed s mechanical engineer immed Symington
to carry ont Mr. Taylor's idea.
Symington, who was employed at the lead mines at
Waolockheod, had constructed a small steam-engine, urigin-
*liy intended for propelling wheeled carriages, and this
engine Mr. Taylor caused to be fixed on board one of Mr.
Uilter's boats, on Lock Dalswinton. The boat was 25 feet
long and 7 feet wide, and was furnished with two paddle-
wheels; and on the 14th of November, 1788, the experiment
ma made. The engine performed its work beyond their
moat sanguine expectations, driving the vessel at the rate of
5 miles an hour, although the cylinders were only four inches
in diameter.
Tbe occonnt of this experiment appearing in the Scotch
newspapers, Mr. Miller was asked to repeat it on the Forth
iad Clyde Canal. This being agreed to, a double engine
titb cylinders IS inches in diameter wea ordered to be built
U tlte Carron Ironworks, and in the following year it was
fitted on board another of Mr. Miller's vessels. When it was
fitBt tried the floats of the paddle-wheels gave way, and it
»aa not until the December of that year that the experiment
could be satisfactorily cai'ried out. The engine answered per-
fectly, and the boat was propelled at a rate of from GJ to 7
miles an hour.
Mr. Miller seems, however, to have taken no further steps
m the matter, and more than ten years elapsed before
Symington could find any one else to take up the idea ; and
it was not until 1801, that Thomas, first Lord Dundas, of
Aske, employed him to fit up a steamboat to be used as a
tog for the Forth and Clyde Canal Company, of which Lord
Onndas was a large shareholder.
The steamer produced was the Charlotte IhivAas, m named
after his lordship's daughter, and in March, 1802, she made
her trial trip on the Forth and Clyde Canal. A party of
peEtlemen interested in the Canal, among whom was Lord
Dnndas himself, assembled on board ; and taking in tow
Iwo barges of 70 tons burden, the CItarloite Dinuias accom-
plished the trip to Port Dundas, Glasgow, a distance of
IStJ miles, in six hours, or at the rate of 3J miles an hour,
IIH THE URITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
although she had a strong gale in her teeth the whole
time.
In spite of the success of the experiment, the scheme was
not looked upon very favourably, and the Charlotte Dwndas
does not appear to have been again uaed. She was laid up
in a creek of the canal near to Bramford Drawbridge, where
she remained for many years, exposed to public view as a
mere curiosity,
When Symington's experiments were being conducted, a
certain Mr. Eobert Fulton who had gone over to America,
and was there practising as an engineer, happening to be
again in Scotland on a visit, came to see the result; and
being much interested, asked permission to take some notes
and to make some sketches of the s'vze and construction of
the boat and of the apparatus. The necessary permission
was accorded, and Symington even offered to liave steam got
up, and to take him a trip on the canal. Fulton going un
board, the vessel went four miles down the canal and four
back in one hour and twenty miniites, to the utter astonish-
ment of Mr. Fulton and the other guests on board.
Mr. Pulton soon after that went back to America, and in
I80G, in conjunction with a Mr. Livingstone, commenced
building a steamlwat in the yard of Charles Brown, on the
Hudson. She was decked for a short distance only, at the
bow and at the stem ; the engine was exposed to view, and
a house like that of an ordinary canal-boat covered the boiler
and the spaces for the passengers and the crew. She was
launched in the spring of 1807, and was called the Cltnnon-t.
Her engine, which had been ordered of Messrs. Boulton and
Watt, had a cylinder 24 inches in diameter, and a piston with
a 4-fout stroke.
On her trial trip the speed of the Clermont was 5 miles an
hour; but Fulton, perceiving that the floats of her paddles
were too deep in the water, had them altered, with a highly
beneficial result. He then went in her from New York to
Clermont, Mr. Livingstone's residence, a distance of 110 miles,
in twenty-four hours; and on the trip from Clermont to
Albany, a further distance of 40 miles, the time was 8 hours,
thus averaging a speed of very nearly 5 miles an hour.
J
I
THE "CLERMONT" AND THE "COMET
The Clcnnont was soon after thia lengthened and imptoved
—practically rebuilt, she now being 130 feet in length, with
16^ feet beam, her tonnage being 160 tons, with one engine
of 18 horse-power. She continued for many years to ply with
guods and passengers between New York and Albany.
On the evening of Fulton's first voyage in this steamer on the
flndaon he despatched a triumphant letter to his great friend.
Sir Richard Philips, one of the sheriffs of the city of London,
This letter was shown to Earl Stanhope, a nobleman distin-
guished for his mechanical genius and scientific researches,
iad to several eminent engineers, but it was laughed at, and
be«te<l with scorn and derision, as describing impossibilities.
Sir Richard Philips, however, was not to l>e daunted, and he
endeavoured to form a company to repeat on the Thames
what was being successfully done on the Hudson ; but, nn-
lortonately, without success, and the project, therefore, for a
time fell through, and the American accounts were treated
u falsehoods.
In 1811, the first British passenger steamer, the Comet, was
being boilt for a Mr. Henry Bell, by Mr. John Wood of Port
UUagow on the Clyde. In Jannary, 1812, Mr. Bell completed
her; but it was six months later before she actually com-
menced running. She was only of about 25 tons burden, 40
fwi long, 104 feet beam, and she drew 4 feet of water. Her
engine, which cost £192, was constructed by John Robertson ;
il was a condensing engine of 3 horse-power, the diameter of
the cylinder being 11 inches, and the stroke 16 inches, the
crank working below the cylinder, and the engine-shaft was
[rnnided with a fly-wheel. At first the Come/, was fitted with
t*u pairs of paddle-wheels, 7 feet in diameter ; but soon after-
wards she was lengthened to 60 feet, a new engine of 4 horse-
puner was substituted for the old engine, and one pair ol'
paddle-wheels was discarded, her speed being somewhat in-
creased by the alteration. She was not, however, an entire
raccess; her speed at the best was not more than 3 miles
M hour, and occasionally she would break down altogether;
»j that it was not at all an uncommon occurrence for the
passengers, when the engine of the little steamer was getting
exhausted, to take a turn at ttte fly-wheel to assist her into port.
i
io6 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
In 1813, a steamboat was built at Leeds, and was started to
run between Norwich and Yarmouth in the August of that
year. This was the second passenger steamer launched in
British waters ; and in the December of the next year (1814)
the first steamboat was seen on the Thames.
In the spring of 1813, the SmfUure, a steamboat 140 feet
long, and 24 feet beam, was launched on the St. Lawrence,
and she was quickly followed by many others on that side of
the Atlantic.
In 1814, a vessel called the Marjory was built at Dumba^
ton by William Denny, Senior, and was fitted with a side-
lever engine of 14 horse-power, constructed by Cook of Glas-
gow. She made her way round from Dumbarton to the
Thames, being taken south along the east coast, having come
through the Forth and Clyde CanaL When she reached the
mouth of the Thames the fleet were lying at anchor there, and
she passed through the lines of ships, exciting great commo-
tion among the officers and men, none of whom had ever seen
a steamer before, many taking her for a novel species of fire-
ship. She was hailed by the nearest man-of-war, and asked
what she was, those on board replying that '^ she was a steamer^
and from Scotland." Soon after her arrival in the Thames
she commenced running to Margate with passengers. On her
first voyage to Margate only ten people were found adven-
turous enough to trust themselves on board; but before the
end of the summer she was running with a much larger
number of passengers every trip; and this would appear to
mark the real commencement of the passenger steamer in this
country. The Marjory was 63 feet long, and 19 feet beam.
She continued for many years to ply on the Thames, and was
finally broken up in 1858.
On the 28th of June, 1815, the first steamer arrived at
Liverpool from the Clyde. She was built specially for the
purpose of carrying on a passenger traffic between the Mersey
and Buncom. On her passage round she called at Bamsay,
in the Isle of Man. This vessel, the particular dimensions
and details of which cannot now be traced, is remarkable as
being practically the first steamboat built for making passages
by sea, all her predecessors being essentially river-lxMts.
STEAM ACROSS THE ATLANTIC 107
III 1818, the Sob Rti}j was built at Dambarton by WUliam
Denny. She was of 90 tons burthen, and was fitted with an
engine of 30 iiorae-power by David Napier. Slie was the first
steamer to ply between Glasg^ow a,n(l Bell'ast. After runuiug
for some time on this service she was sent round to Dover,
ber name being altered to the Renrl Qualrc, and she was the
Gwt Channel steamer between Dover and Calais.
In 1819, Mr. Napier built the Ta/bot, of 150 tons. The
T-ilbiA was fitted with a pair of engines, each of 30 horse-
puwer. and was the first steamer to be place<l on the Holyhead
aad Dublin senice.
In 1822, Messrs. Wood built a still larger steamer, iu the
X-mrif U'ati, which was 146 feet long, and 25 feet beam. She
wu fitted with a pair of engines by Boulton and Watt, each
nf 50 horse*power, and her speed waa said to be 10 miles an
hour. She was the first steamer to be enteretl in Lloyds'
hook. By 1830, the number of steamers had increased to 81,
■nd the number of steamers entered iu Lloyds' Book iu 1832,
iraslOO.
Steam navigation was not destined to be long confined to
litime waters, and men began to ask why they should not
cross the Atlantic by steam. Many people, however, in this
coantry pronounced the proposal impracticable, chiefly because
it was thought that the vessel could not carry suflicient coal
fur steaming such a voyage. In these early steamers the
Wftl consumed amounted frequently to as much as 9 lbs. per
hoise-power per hoar, so that the objection would seem not
to have been altogether unreasonable, especially when now
viewed in the light of the fact that the high speeds of our
ocean steamers at the present time are attained on a consump-
tion in many cases of less than li lbs. of coal per horse-
power per hour. Dr. Larduer, a well-known scientist, in the
WSTse of a lecture that he was delivering in Liverpool in
Dnember, 1835, spoke as follows : " As to the project, how-
m, wUch has been announced in the newspapers lately"
—that was the project of crossing the Atlantic by steam—" it
"»s, he had no hesitation in saying, perfectly chimerical, and
they might as well talk about making a voyage from New
Tork or Liverpool to the moon." In spite, however, of Dr.
1
I08 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Lardner and his theories, in 1817, a Mr. Scarlborough, of
Savannab, Geurgia, United States, determined to make the
attempt to cross from America to Europe by steam. He
accordingly purchased a vessel of 300 tons, that was then
building at New York, fitted her with engines, and named
her the Savannah. She was fully rigged as a sailing vessel,
but thus possessed auxiliary steam-power, and her paddlea
were removable, so that she might either sail or steam. On
the 19th of May, 1819, she left the port of Savannah for
Liverpool, which was safely reached on the 20th of June. She
did not steam the entire way across the Atlantic, as she ran
short of fuel, so that the latter part of her voyage had to be
accomplished under canvas only.
Iji 1826, the first large steamer to trade between London
and Scotland was constructed. She was called the United
Kiiuidom-, was 160 feet long, and 2Ci feet beam, and had
engines of 200 horse-power. She had three masts, and was
rigged as a barqnentine, the paddle-boxes and the funnel being
between the fore and the main masts.
In 1825, the first attempt was made to reach India by steam,
and a small steamer, the Enterprise, 122 feet long, and 27
feet beam, left London for Oalcntte, which port she reached,
partly under steam and partly under sail, in 113 days.
In 1820, the Cura^-oa, an English-built steamer of 350 tons
and 100 horse-power, made several voyages between Holland
and the West Indies.
In 1831, a Canadian-built steamer, the Roi/al William, of
365 tons, 145 feet long, and 27 feet beam, fitted with
engines of 240 horae-power, crossed the Atlantic from Quebec
to Liverpool in 24 days, but not entirely under steam, she
being for many days under canvas only. Upon her arrival
in this country she was bought by the Portuguese Government
to be used as a transport ; and after that she passed into the
hands of the Spanish Government, who fitted her out as a
man-of-war, under the name of the Isabella Segunda-, and in this
capacity she is said to have been the first steam warship in
the world.
Little more was done in the way of TraDsatlantic ateam
navigation until the year 1837, when the Siriiit, which was
1
p
THE "SIRIUS AND THE "GREAT WESTERN
built at Leith for the Irish trade, was purchased and altered
specially for tiiia purpose. She was a fairly large steamer,
being of 703 tons. She was 178 feet in length, with a beam
of 25 feet 8 inches, and a depth of 18 feet 3 inches, thus
being in her proportions not very unlike the present type
of ocean steamer — that is to say, having a length of about 7
beams. She was fitted with two aide-lever engines of 270
horse-power, constructed by T. Wingate of Glasgow, the
diameter of the cylinders being 60 inches, with a stroke of
6 feet. Her paddle-wheels were 24 feet in diameter, with
22 floats to each.
Kariy in 1838, an advertisement appeared in the public
papers, announcing that the "Steamship Sirius, Lieutenant
Roberta, R.N., Commander, would leave London for New
York on Wednesday, the 28th of March, calling at Cork
Harbour, and would start from thence on the 2nd of April,
returning from New York on the lat of May."
The Sirivs was, however, delayed until the morning of the
4th of April, when, at ten o'clock, she started with 94
passengers for New York, which she reached, after a run of
18 days, on the 23rd of the same month. Three days after
the Sirius left Cork, another steamer, the Great WesUm,
built at Bristol, left that port alsu for New York, where she
arrived only an hour or two after the Sirius, making the
passage in 14i days. The Great Westoit was a much larger
vessel than the Sirius, having a tonnage of 1340 tons. She
was a wooden vessel 212 feet long between perpendiculars,
35 feet 4 inches beam, with 23 feet depth of hold. She
was exceedingly strongly built, her frame timbers being as
heavy as those of a first-class liue-of-battle ship, and they
were placed so close together that they were caulked both
inside and out before the planking waa put on. Her engines
were of 440 horse-power, constructed by Maudsley, Stiu, and
Field, having cylinders 73i inches in diameter and 7 feet
stroke, her paddle-wheels, which were 28 feet in diameter,
making from 12 to 15 revolutions per minute. Her average
speed during her first passage from Bristol to New York
was 208 miles per day, or at the rate of 86 knots per hour,
and she consumed on the passage 655 tons of coal.
r
no THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
The Great Western ran regularly across the Atlantic from
1838 to 1843, making in all 64 passages. Her fastest passage
out, from Bristol to New York, was maJe in 12 days 18
hours; and her fastest passage home in 12 days 8 hours.
In 1847, she was sold to the West India Mail, and remained
in their service for many years, being finally broken up at
Vauxhall in 1857.
The same company that owned the Sirius — the British and
American Steam Navigation Company — at once commenced
building two vessels larger than the Sirius, the British Queen
and the President. They were each of 1863 tons, with a
length of 275 feet, 37 feet 6 inches beam, and with engines
of 500 horse-power. The cylinders were 77J inches in
diameter, with a stroke of 7 feet ; the diameter of the paddle-
wheels being 30 feet. The Sirins being considered too small
for the Atlantic trade, was withdrawn from that service, and
was used in the home coasting trade. She was wrecked in
1847.
The British Queen left Portsmouth for New York on the
12th of July, 1839; and made her first passage across in 14
days 8 horns. She crossed the Atlantic six times in 1839,
and the following year made five voyages out and home ; but
financially she was a failure, and ultimately was withdrawn
from the service, and in 1841 was sold to the Belgian
Government. Her sister ship, the President, made only
three passages. She left Now York for Liverpool with a
large number of passengers and a valuable cargo on the 10th
of March, 1841, and was never heard of again.
The use of steam for marine purposes had scarcely been
adopted when two further revolutions were to take place
which were to entirely alter the existing state of things —
the substitution of the screw-propeller for the paddle-wheels
as the means of propulsion, and the substitution of iron for
wood in the actual construction of the vessel itself.
As to who was the real inventor of the screw-propeller,
it is a disputed point. There are many claimants for the
honour. The French claim it for their engineer, M. Frederick
Sauvage, and a statue of him is erected in the Place Frederick
Sauvage at Boulogne-sur-nier, upon the pedestal of which
THE SCREW-PROPELLEK 111
itstue is an inscription to the effect that he was the real
inventor of the screw-propeller ; but, like most other important
inventions, it was undoubtedly the (.■orabined result of the
iabonrs of many inventors. In 1752, the screw waa suggested
&9 a propeller by one Daniel Bernoulli, but nothing came
of his suggestion. Since that time there have been several
persons by whom similar proposals have been made, and many
patents have been taken out for propellers of this nature ; but
s small vessel fitted with a screw-propeller, patented by
Ericsson, was the first actually brought into practical use. A
mmll experimental vessel called the F. B. OgiUn was built in
1837, and was fitted by Ericsson with one of his propellers,
ind the Lords C'ommbsioners of the Admiralty, attended by
their secretary. Sir William Symonds, took a trip in her that
year. They, however, failed to see the advantage of such an
invention to men-of-war, and refused to entertain any proposal
for its introduction into the Navy.
Sir. F. Pettit Smith also built a small experimental vesBel
faring the same year (1837), she being exhibited on the
Hythe Military Canal, and proving a complete success.
Several patents for screw-propellers were taken out by a
Mr, Woodcroft, his propeller being the first one to be ulti-
oately adopted in the Ri>yal Navy, Ericsson, receiving
Hi) encouragement from the British Government, took steps
lo bring his invention before the Government of the United
States, and a small vessel called the Robert F. Slocldon was
liniJt by him in 1838, in this country with this view, and
atie made the voyage safely across the Atlantic to America.
I Mr. Pettit Smith in the mean time induced a number of
I inflaential men to form a company to carry out his invention,
I ind in 1839, the Arch imtdes was built by them to test and
demonstrate the value of his system of propulsion. She was
of 237 tons, and had a draught of water of U feet 4 inches.
The diameter of the cylinder of her engine was 37 inches,
Mid the length of the stroke 3 feet. Her screw-propeller
ranaisted of two half-threads of an 8-feet pitch, 5 feet 9
inches in diameter ; each waa 4 feet in length, and they were
placed diametrically opposite to each other. The engines
uide 26 strokes per minute, and the revolutions of the screw
112 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
were 138 per minnte. The highest speed ever attained was
9*25 knots. A number of trials were made between the
ArchiTTiedes and the Widgeoriy a paddle-wheel steamer, then
the fastest of the mailboats running between Dover and
Calais ; but most of these trials were made under hoth steam
and canvasi a condition not much to the point. Under steam
alone, the Widgeon seems to have had the advantage.
As the Widgeon differed, however, in many important
respects from the Archimedes^ the results of these trials were
not considered as altogether decisive, and the Government of
the day ordered, in 1843, a screw-steamer, the JRattler, to be
constructed of exactly the same size, and on exactly the
same lines, as the paddle-wheel steamer Alecto. These two
vessels were consequently of the same tonnage, and of the
same size, each of them being 195 feet in length and 33 feet
beam. The results of the trials between the BaMer and the
Aledo showed that if the Battler were not actually superior
to the Aleeto, she was not by any means her inferior. Wooden
paddle-wheel steamers still continued, however, to be used in
the Royal Navy for many years, the Government very reluc-
tantly giving up wood in the construction of their ships, and
substituting iron. But when they at last found that paddles
for warships must be given up on account of their liability
to destruction in time of war ; and when they found that it
was perfectly impossible to construct a wooden ship with
its stem-frame so strong as to be capable of withstanding
the vibration from the screw, then paddles and wooden ships
had to disappear together.
At the present day, with the exception of the Boyal yachts,
there are not haK a dozen paddle-wheel steamers altogether
in the list of ships of the Boyal Navy, and these are only
such steamers as the surveying vessels Research and Tritoiiy
or the Cockatrice and the Sphinx. In the Merchant Service
the screw propeller was not at first by any means popular, and
for some time it made but little or no progress. A company
trading to Botterdam, Messrs. Laming and Co., were amongst
the first to abandon paddle-wheels and to adopt it, and the
mercantile marine owes very much to their enterprise in
this respect. Their vessels were always very successful, and
THE "GRKAT BRITAIN
they attracted much attention from the time of their first
adopting the new means of propulsion.
The Great Western Steam Navigation Company were the
first to send a screw steamer across the Atlantic. In 1843,
they bnilt the Gnat Britain, at that time not only by far the
largest steamer engaged in the Transatlantic service, but the
largest steamer afloat. She was an iron ship of 2984 tons,
and was built by Mr. Patterson at Bristol. Her dimensions
were — extreme length 322 feet, beam 51 feet, depth 32 feet
fi inches, and draught of water 16 feet; and she was fitted
with engines of 1000 horse-power. She had sis masts; of
tiiese five carried only fore and aft canvas, tlie second mast
fnm the bow being square-rigged. She left Liverpool for
New York on her first voyage on the 26th of August, 1845,
»Ti'i ahe reached New York on the lOth of September, thus
muking the passage out in 15 days. On her third voyage she
left Liverpool, outward bound, on the 22nd of September, 1846 ;
I'Dt, the weather being exceedingly thick, she ran ashore in
Dnndrum Bay, near Belfast. Here she remained all through
tlie winter, having a temporary breakwater of hurdles and
liggots constructed round her as a partial protection against
L the winter storms. The neit summer she was got off, and
proved to be but little injured ; it was, however, the final
break-up of the Great Western Steam Navigation Company,
the Great Britain, then passing into the hands of a Liverpool
finn, who refitted her, taking out her six masts, and replacing
them with three masts, and for many years she was employed
ID the Australian trade. She was after this turned into a
ttiling ship, and was in existence until 1890, when she was
ultimately broken up at Barrow.
In 1850 Messrs. Tod and Macgregor built a large iron
Krew steamer called the City of Glasgow, of 1609 tons, to
t»de between Glasgow and New York ; but she was soon
after transferred to Liverpool, and was the first steamer of
ibe Ionian Line, and an exceedingly fast ship.
Since 1850, when Tod and Macgregor built the City of
dlasgow, the introduction of compound engines, and more
tecently that of triple and quadruple expansion engines,
together with other important improvements in the steam
\
114 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
propelling maohinerj, and the veiy materially decreased
consumption of coal, have made it practicable to attain high
speeds at costs which afford striking comparisons with die
experience of that comparatively remote period. As before
stated, in steamers at that time it was by no means infrequent
that the coal consumed amounted to oyer 9 lbs. per horse-power
per hour. Now the high speeds of ocean steamers can be
attained on a consumption in some cases of lees than H lbs. of
coal per horse-power per hour. The highest steam preamre in
the boilers of the early steamers was 10 lbs. per tquare inch,
and down to the year 1870 did not exceed SO Ifae. Then it
was increased to 60 lbs., and at the present time ateam is
used at 180 lbs., and in some cases at eren 216 Ifae. to the \
square inch.
We have thus very briefly traced the gradual progress of
steam navigation from the days of its earliest in&ncy at the
beginning of the century down to the adrent of the existing
great steam companies, and at no period of the world's
history has a single hundred years marked so stupendous a
change in matters affecting the well-being of mankind
as has been effected by the application of steam-power to
the purposes of locomotion both by land and by sea.
IRON AND STEEL SHIPS
CHAPTER X.
Itdd introduced for ship-buildiDg — OppoBition at first encountered — Iron eliipa
— Tbe advantages of iton over wood— Greater immunity trora fire — Case
of the Colombo — The earliest iron veBsels — The Vulcan— The Bainboio
—The Eelipte — Steel taking the place of iron— Iron end steel paBsenger
Teasels — Ocean-going ateamerB— Cargo steomera — Speed of steamen —
Mode of constructioD of hon and ateel veeeela- Double bottoms — Water
lallast — Capsizing of the Orolaua — The aidea and decks — Water-tight
liidkheads — Iron masts and jarde — Iron rigging.
AfTEB the iatroduction of steam oa a motiTe-poner fur sliipB,
ame, as a necessary sequence, the introductiou of iron, and
more recently that of steel, fur tbe construction of the ships
themselres; but even apart altogether from the question of
sleam. as the necessity for increase in the length and the
speed of vessels arose, experience showed that the requisite
nrength of structure could not be efficiently maintained
in wooden ships. The practical difficulties in the way of
making the connections of the frames and tbe planking
strong enough were insurmountable when tbe length reached
»bout 300 feet. Vessels of this length, when built of wood, soon
sbowed serious signs tif weakness, notwithstanding the ingenious
introduction of diagonal trussing, thick ceiling planks, and
ulber devices. The average height of trees must necessarily
be always an important factor in the size of a wooden ship,
uul so limit that size; but with an iron ship the simple
connection of the iron plates and bars to each other by
means of suitable straps of tbe same material, and by the
nsi of rivets, would obviously so lend itself to the construction
"i the iron vessel that there need be absolutely no limit as
I ngMds her length or her size." The limited and the ever-
I • The length of iron ateamera nppeoTB to be always steadily increasing.
1 MGnt the length increased very gradually from about 3li0 feet, the masimnm
Il6 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
decreasing supply of timber in this country, and at the same
time the rapid development of the manufacture of iioB,
were potent influences in effecting the change from wood to
iron as the material for ships. The great alteration, how-
ever, involved by the substitution of iron for wood in ship-
building did not take place without very considerable oppo-
sition, and no one more strenuously opposed it than did the
Government of the day. It was a long time before the
authorities of the Post Office would give their consent to
iron ships being used instead of wooden ones for the oon-
veyance of the ocean mail; and a still longer time elapsed
before the Admiralty consented to the change of material
for the ships of the Boyal Navy, it being alleged as one
very serious objection to the use of iron in the construction
of men-of-war, that whilst in action a shot-hole in the side
- of a wooden vessel could be at once repaired, the hole caused
by a shot in the iron plate could not. But even if this were
so, there was a counterbalancing advantage on the side of the
iron, inasmuch as there would be an entire absence of splinters,
which very frequently, in the case of the old wooden ships,
led to serious results among the men serving the guns.
At first the proposal to use iron in ship-building was simply
treated with derision and contempt. The thing was palpably
absurd. It was unnatural. Wood would float. Every one
knew that iron would sink. A wooden box, even if there
were a hole in it, would still float. An iron tank with a
hole in it must of necessity go to the bottom. The idea
did not seem to strike people that if bricks, for instance,
were placed in the wooden box — that is to say, cargo put in
the ship — and a similar quantity of bricks placed idso in
the iron tank, and then a hole knocked in each, one would
go to the bottom as readily, as quickly, and as certainly as
the other. And it is just here that the iron tank has the
advantage. It is not so liable to have the hole knocked
in the year 1861, to 400 feet in 1870 ; but since that time the progress has
been much more rapid. The longest steamer in the world at the present
time is the twin-screw steamer of the North German Lloyd^s, the KaUer
Wilhelm der Orosae, which has a length of no less than 627 feet — not v^ far
from being a furlong.
IKON STEAMEES.
"''^^r:>.-_^
SUPERIORITY OF IRON OVER WOOD
in it as the vooden box is. If the woudeo ship strikes
violently upon a sharp point it is fractured ; and not only
is the actual part struck injured, but the attaining and the
consequent leakage exteud to the adjacent parts. With the
stronger material, iron, the probability is that the concussion
will result in an indentation only, and not in an actual
fracture ; but even if there be an actual fractnre, the injury
will usually be confined to one locality, and the other parts,
as a rule, will not be afifected.
Here, then, in the greater strength of the material, lies
one of its great advantages. No wooden ship could possibly
be built sufficiently strong to resist the vibration of the
powerful engines that are used in the larger ships of the
present day ; and then, besides its strength, another advantage
on the side of iron is its greater lightness. The iron vessel is
far lighter than the wooden vessel of equal size, a strong iron
sliip not weighing one half of the same-sized wooden ship.
The average weight of iron steam-vessels is from six to eight
hnndredweigbt per register ton; a wooden ship will weigh
twenty hundredweight, and often more. The lighter ship
is more easily propelled than the heavier ship; less engine-
power is required ; therefore, besides being stronger and
lighter, she is more economical.
One advantage, however, nndoubtedly the wooden ships
possessed over iron ones, and that was that their bottoms,
when sheathed with metal, never became foul as quickly
as the iron ships' bottoms do from marine growths. Many
proposals have been made from time to time with the
object of preventing fouling, for it is obvious that serioos
loss of speed results from much fouling of the bottom ; but it
cunnot yet be said that any of the paint compositions, or other
plans to keep the bottoms of iron vessels clean, have been
entirely successful, and this renders it necessary to place every
iron or steel vessel in dry dock for cleaning and painting at
iutervala of from six to twelve mentis.
Soon after the building of ships with iron was commenced,
tbe system of construction known as the composite system
was adopted, and some fine and notable China tea-clippers
"ere bo built. The iron framing and woo<l skin planking
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
admitted of considerable strength being attained ; and tb
possibility of sheathing the bottom with met«l to avoii
fouling appeared to arrive at and attain the end that tba
promoters of composite ship-bnilding had in view. This vt
to produce a vessel that should have all the strength of a
iron ship, whilst at the same time obtaining the &eedoi
from fouling of a wooden one. Experience soon shewed)
however, that the galvanic action set up between the cop]
or the yellow metal sheathing and the iron frames of f
ship tended rapidly to deteriorate the ironwork, and sooi
or later to involve the deatniction of the ship. So mpidj
indeed, was in some instances the wasting of the frami
that composite ship-building has for some time past beea
entirely given up for merchant ships, although a few yachts
still Continue to be so built; and some ships of the Goyal
Navy, particularly such as are intended for use at foreign
stations, where there are no suitable dry docks conveuieutly
available, are still built with steel frames, being then sheatbi
with wood and afterwards covered with copper.
The sides of an iron vessel, while much stronger
the sides of the corresponding wooden ship, are very muck
thinner, thns giving many more cubic feet of internal 8[
available for cargo. The sides of the iron ship, including
iron frames, ofton do nut exceed four inches in thickness, whilsl
the aides of the wooden ship will be some twelve inches 8
the least. The iron sliip is also, as a matter of coursd, U
less liable to destruction by fire than the wooden shi]
which is an additional argument in favour of iron. Shif
laden with wool, cotton, and similar articles are eztremetj
liable to take fire from the heating of the cargo. Not ti
sinoe a large iron ship, the Colmnbo, laden with cotton,
and hemp, took fire in this way soon after leaving Calcut
on her passage home to London, and the cargo contioaed
smoulder and burn all the time she was crossing the Indi
Ocean, rounding the Cape, coming up the South and Nortb
Atlantic, passing np the Channel, until she actually arrited
in the river. Once or twice the hatches were opened and 1
some of the burning cargo got up and thrown overboard;
but they were afraid to keep the batches open long lest the
THE FIRST IRON VESSEL 119
air, getting down, should cause the flames to burst out, so
that they were speedily batteucd dowu again. At times the
ship's sides were so hot that it was impossible to touch them,
With a wooden ship the ultimate result would have been
very difiereut, aud instead of getting hume, as the Coloiiiho
did, she would have been burnt at sea. In face, then, of
the indisputable facta adduced in favour of iron, there could
be but one result; and now iron or steel are the recognized
materials for the construction of ships of every description.
The germ of iron ship-building was practically developed
liefore the close of the last century, the first iron vessel having
been built in 1787 by Mr, John Wilkinson, of Castlehead and
Broseley, who was the owner of rarious extensive ironworks,
Slid W8« known in his time as " the great ironmaster." In
1 letter written by him on July 14, 1787, to a Mr. James
Stockdale, of Carke, he says, " Yesterday week my iron Ixmt
"»s launched ; it answers all my expectations, and has
convinced the unbelievers, who were 999 in 1000." In
mother part of his letter Wilkinson observes "that he
Mpects his coinage will be out shortly (it was issued in
1790), and that the iron ship was pictured on the field of
the reverse." This iron vessel was built at Willey, in
Shropshire, and traded for some years on the Severn.
About the same time Wilkinson constructed another smaller
iron vessel, which he used for conveying peat down a canal
that he had cut in the peat-moss near Meathop.
The next iron vessel of which there is any authentic record
WSB bnilt by Sir John Eobinson, of Edinburgh, in 1818. This
«S8el was caUed the Vulcan, and was built at Faskine, on
tlie banks of the Monkland Canal, a few miles frfjm Glasgow.
She was laid down on the 27th of October, 1818, and was
lumohed on the 14th of May, 1819, being afterwards used for
pusenger traffic on the Forth and Clyde CanaL
The next iron vessel was the Aaron Manly, constructed
in London in 1821 by a Mr. Manby and Mr., afterwards Sir
Cbarles, Napier. It was sent to France, being followed shortly
»fter by two other vessels, the A7ig!ia and the Pairij Queen.
After this several small iron steamers were built at
Jrpool, and they were found to be so successful that Mr.,
THE BRITISH UERCKANT SERVICE
afterwards Sir William, Faitbnrn commenced bttilding inm
vessels ou the Thames ; whilst Messia. I«iid, of Bitkenhetd,
did the same ou the Heisey. In 1837 Messrs. Laiid built
the Jiainhow for the Oeneial Steam Narigation Comptn;;
and she is said at that time to have been the largest imi
steamer afloat, having a length of 185 feet, 25 feet beam, and
being of 180 horse-power.
By this time iron ship-building was being largely carried
on on the Clyde, at Bristol, and elsewhere. In 1889 ud
1840, Messrs. Napier built three itcot paaeeinger steamen,
fitted with high-preasnre engines, specially for the toaffie
to Margate, Bamsgate, Deal, and Dover, called the £dipm,
the laU of Tlumet, and the Fawn. They made a consideraUa
stir at the time with the general public, as being considered
highly dangerous boats ; the Eelipie, which, like the /<b ef
Thanei, was a double-funnelled boat, being called "Spring-
heeled-Jack," the "Death and Glory boat," and so forth.
This was the steamer immortalised in the " Ingoldsby Legends,"
published in 1840—
" — If in one of the trips
or the ateombost Edipu
You should go down to Margate to look at the ships."
As then iron was quickly taking the place of wood at the
middle of this century, so now at the close of the century
steel IB steadily eupeiseding iron in the construction of
ships ; and this is clearly shown by the subjoined table : —
Uebcmptioii
or Ve
IBELB BDILDINQ IN THE UNITED KlSODOH
882, AND 1895 EESPECTIVELT.
K I
875,
1
IiDi. 1 Wood.
■S!-
Mlli«-Alp..
■tlipL
'se-
lu.. 1
>..
TCHU,
trim.
1 gro--
Vo.
Ton..
gro-.
No.
^
Ko.
T-*
JuDODpUN it
t>ti.i.m
73 ' a(;30J
]IT,tet
"
lOO.Gu' ■
an
3«a
*ii.
* That ia to say, for these eighteen wooden sailing vesaels, an avenge of
113 tons each. These will, therefore, probably be small coasters, building id
little out-of-the-way couDtiy ports.
■HTBUWJU" tSOS lUDB-kUTCP B
IRON AND STEEL STEAMSHIPS
The demand for yessela of larger size than bad hitherto
been built, and for greater speed, led to the rapid develop-
ment of the manufacture of mild steel, accompanied Ity a great
reduction in the cost of that material. It is recDrded that
in 1859 as much as £40 a ton was paid for steel used in
the construction of a vessel built on the Thames. At the
present time mild steel of superior qualities for ship work
can readily be obtained for £5 a ton.
Mild steel has about fifty per cent, greater tensile strength
than iron, considerably more ductile qualities, and, with
proper treatment, much superior working qualities. These
are importaut advantages in favour of steel for ship-building ;
and, further, the increase in the tensile strength over that of
iron admits of a considerable reduction in the thickness of
the material without diminishing the strength of the ship,
the saving on the weight of the hull obviously admitting of
increased carrying capacity on the same displacement.
The iron and the steel steamships of the Mercantile Marine
may be considered generally as of three classes. The first
cJass comprises those steamers which are built to carry a
number of passengers and no cargo ; the second class includes
those built to accommodate a large number of passengers,
and yet with considerable capacity for cargo as well — as, for
instance, the ordinary ocean liner ; and the third class takes
■D those ships that are entirely devoted to cargo, as the screw
collier, and the majority of ocean tramps.
The boats of the first class, fur the most part paddle-wheel
Bteaioers, are built chiefly for use on rivers, or for very short
■ea voyages, as, for example, the boats used on the Channel
pnooage between Dover and Calais, or Dover and Ostend,
Folkestone and Boulogne, and the like. These must attain
a high rate of speed; their draught will he light; and
tbeir midship section, if not quite flat, will be very nearly
»o. The bow will be very sharp, with fine lines forward ;
whilst the aft lines will also be fine, in order to allow the
wave formed by the paddle-wheels to pass aft with the least
reaistauce, and so to fill up the void left by the vessel herself
I she moves ahead. Nearly all the more recent Channel
I attaiu a speed of from sixteen to twenty knots ;
Tim BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
1
and some, notably those of the Chatham aud Dover Company,
have the stem aud stern nearly alike, the et't lines being as i
fine as the forward. M
The second class of steamships, invariably screw steameifl
— onr ocean liners to wit — are constructed to carry a larg^|
number of passengera as well aa a large cargo, and in additioffll
to their cargo must also carry a large quantity of coal. Here
also a higii rate of speed is an absolute necessity, the keen
competition between rival companiea tending every day to
accelerate it. The form of the ocean steamer will differ
widely fnim that of the previous class, as a result of the
different requirements; her beam will be greater, and hw
draught much greater. The length of an ocean steamship
is usually, between perpendiculars, from seven to nine times
her beam ; but there are steamships afloat with a length of ae
much as ten and a half times their beam, and when properly
constructed, with the greatest strength where most required
— that is to say, with the greatest strength amidships — they
have shown no signs of weakness. The bow lines, although
still fine, are made fuller to afiord greater buoyancy on the
waves, and the after lines have a corresponding fulness.
Were these ships to be as fine as those of the previous class,
instead of rising to the waves in a sea-way, they would
simply tend to bury themselves. Yet at the present day
speed ill an ocean liner is nearly the first element to be
considered, the public always running after the ship that
can steam the fastest, so that in an ocean passenger ship the
happy mean has to be sought, and her lines must not be
so full as to sacrifice her speed, nor so fine as to endanger
her safety. Many vessels of this class exceed in speed
20 knots an hour; some of the more recent ships of the
great companies^as, for instance, the Campania and the
Lucania of the Cunard Line — attaining even 21 and 22
knots, and yet being perfectly good sea boats. But this
insane desire for high speed on the part of the travelling
public seems to be for ever on the increase, people not
appearing to realize the fact that an excessively high rate
of speed involves very materially increased danger, to say
nothing of very materially increased expense. Some have
STRENGTH OF IRON SHIPS
maintained that the greater the speed the greater the
safety, because, in the ease of a collision, the ship that \a
going the fastest is the one most likely to come off beat,
jut in the same way that a ship that rams is more likely
to remain uninjured than the ship that is rammed. This,
however, is a selfish kind of policy, not unapt to recoil on
those who adopt it.
The third class of steamships includes those constructed to
L'ive the greatest carrying- power in cargo, and in these
vesjcls a high rate of speed is not such an important con-
?i'ieration as it was in the two former classes. As capacity for
'nr^'o is the chief point aimed at, the size of the hold becomes
lue chief factor, and the depth of the hold will generally
i»rj from one-tenth to one-twelfth of the length of the ship
between perpendiculars. Most steamers devoted exclusively
to cargo, as the generality of ocean tramps, are not engined
ht any great speed, and rarely make much more than eight
knots at their best.
Cwgo-boats, and all ocean steamships, for the matter of that,
OBght to be bnilt exceedingly strongly, the strains of tension,
compression, and torsion to which a ship with a heavy cargo
IB mbjected being very considerable. They require also to
M built not only very strongly, but of a uniform degree
'>ffltrength, having no parts excessively strong as compared
with other part^, for if one part of a vessel is made very much
itnnger than the rest, unequal strains will be set up, and a
fiBctnre, if it does occur, will take place near to the stronger
part.
All vesaela must have a certain amount of elasticity, and
■ tmifonn amount; for if not uniformly elastic there will
be a great strain between the part having the greatest
smomit of elasticity and those parts which are the more
rigid. The elasticity of some of the fast ocean liners is
Kich that, when pushed to their utmost speed, the vibra-
tion is so great that it is impossible either to read or write
in tiie forepart of the ship or towards the stem.
Considering an iron or steel ship as a girder, which she
practically is, the conditions to which she is subjected will
■liffet materially from those of a girder ashore, as, for instance,
124 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
the girder of an ordinary railway bridge, where the directions
of the strains are always similar. In the ship they are in
every direction, and the conditions of one minute are often
entirely reversed the next. The girder of the railway bridge,
once supported at both ends, is always so supported. The
ship may be at one moment supported at both ends, if the
crest of a wave be under the bow, and the crest of the next
wave under the stem — she then resembles the girder of the
railway bridge; but the next minute she may be simply
supported in the centre, and not at either end. Thus ptrts
that are in compression at one moment will be in tendon
the next, to say nothing of the twisting strains to which die
is constantly subjected by the waves.
As an additional element of strength, therefore, in iron
ships, and also as affording an additional security against
the risk of damage to the bottom of the vessel, many ships
are now built on the double-bottom principle; and as many
cargo boats go out with cargo and come back in ballast, or
vice versdy as a matter of economy, and as causing a great
saving of time in the matter of taking in ballast, they are
built to carry water ballast, and the double bottom is utilized
for that purpose. This double bottom forms a spacious
water-tank, or series of tanks, into which water is run to be
used as ballast, and on the ship arriving at the port where
she is to take in her cargo, these tanks are pumped out
by means of a small pumping-engine fitted on board for
that purpose. This is the quickest and cheapest method of
ballasting ships, and it is perfectly safe when properly used,
the tank or tanks being at the bottom of the vessel; but
the tanks must be entirely filled with water, for unless this
is done water-ballast is, of all cargoes, the most dangerous*
By the adoption of this method of ballasting, a ship can
discharge her cargo and take in her ballast, or get rid of
her ballast and take in her cargo at one and the same time;
and there are screw-colliers that by this means have made
fifty-two voyages between the port of London and Hartlepool
or Sunderland within the year.
By thus utilizing the double bottom of the ship, the
water ballast is in the most effective place; but as showing
WATER-BALLAST TANKS
a certain amoant of danger attaching to this system of
ballasting ships when improperly or when carelessly used may
be cited the capsizing and sinking of the Orient liner Orolava
iQ the Tilbury Docks on the 14th of December, 1896, upon
which occasion five men were drowned. Some of the water-
ballast tanks were entirely empty, and men were at work
L'leauing them out, whilst others of the tanks were only
partiaUy filled. The ship was at the time being coaled,
when she suddenly gave a list to starboard, and ultimately
sank, the great weight of water in the tanks on one side of
the ship not l>eing counterbalanced by an equivalent weight
on the other side.
The permanent weights in a ship should always be kept
down as low as possible, because the ship is naturally better
ballasted when the weight is low down ; yet still, when a
ahip is loaded with a heavy cargo, as, for instance, machinery,
heavy guns, or railway iron, a portion of such cargo ought
to be kept fairly high up, or stowed between-decks, other-
viee there is a risk of making the ship too stiff, and of
lier not preserving a proper equilibrium, and unless this
be attended to the ship will roll violently in a sea-way,
wid run the risk of springing a leak or carrying away her
masts.
A few particulars of the actual construction of iron ships
and of ships built of that material which is now fast taking
(lie place of iron may not be altogether uninteresting.
In 1882, Dr. Siemens, addressing the British Association
at Southampton on the subject of iron and steel ships,
Btid —
" A Dew tnatetial was introduced for the building of ehipe bj the Admiralty
in 1876-78, when the; constructed at Pembroke Dockyard the two at«am-
nrrettea, the IHa aod the Mercury, of mild steel. The peculiar qnalitiea of
this matetial are each us to have enabled ahip-bailders to save twentj per
ecoL [one-fifth] of the weight of the atiip's hull, and to inoreaae to that
ntatit ita carrying capacity. It combines with a strength thirty per cent.
Gnperior to that of iron each extreme toughctess, that in the case of colliiiion
tbg nde of the vessel has been found to yield or bnlge several feet without
■howiog any ugns of rupture, a quality affecting the question of sea riak very
EiToDiably. When to tiie use of this materiiO there are added the advantagea
ieani from the doable bottom, and ftxjm tbe division of the ship's hold by
msMuof bulkheads of solid construction, it is difficult to conceive how such
i
126 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE \
a vessel conld perish by collision, either with another Teasel or wiHi i j
sunken rocL** * j
Besides the advantagee that iron and steel ships posBM
over wooden vessels in the matter of strength, they possM
the additional advantage of greater longevity. The Livexpool
underwriters, when they had had an experience of iron ship
for over thirty years said, ^Experience has shown that iron
ships are much more durable than was at first supposed; t
well-constructed iron ship can be reckoned upon to last ia
first-class condition for a period of at least twenty yean."
The greatest number of years originally allowed by ^ Lloyds
Register " for the classification of any vessel boilt of wooi
to remain in the first class was from four to sixteen jma,
but seldom more than twelve; the classification might be
renewed, but the original term never exceeded sixteen jetatB,
and was generally considerably less.
Comparing ships of the same size, whilst the iron or steel
ship will carry more cargo than the wooden ship, so, other
things being equal, the iron or steel ship will be faster than
the wooden ship. To be exceedingly fast, however, any ship,
whether of wood or iron, can have less carrying-power than
would be the case if less speed were demanded of her. To
be very swift, the amount of immersed body must be as small
as possible, and she must have a deep keel to prevent her
making leeway. She will then possess speed, but for carrying
purposes will be practically useless. A ship that has to cany
much cargo must inevitably have a very full midship section,
with virtually a flat bottom amidships. Her midship section
will somewhat, therefore, resemble the letter U, although the
hull may assume a more V-like section forward and aft The
midship section is the area that ultimately has to be forced
through the water, and it is manifest, therefore, that the ship
that has a very fuU midship section has a much larger area
of resistance than the ship with the V-like section, and will
* The Iris and the Mercury were, however, by no means the firat shipi
for which steel was adopted as the material. Actually the first steel sldp
was built in 1862, by Messrs. Jones, Quiggen, and Co., of Liverpool. She
was a merchant ship of 1200 tons, and the steel plates for her were mana-
factured at the Mersey Steel and Iron Works.
(xmSTRUCTION OF IROH SHIPS IZ7
require more power to attain the same speed. But even with
ships of a full midehip section, an infinite variety of shape,
and consequently of speed, can be attained according to the
degree of fineness or otherwise that may be given to the lines
forward and aft.
In the midship section of the majority of ocean liners the
bottom is very nearly flat, the sides rising vertically or very
slightly falling inwards towards the top ; and to lessen the
evils of rolling, such vessels are not unfrequently fitted with
hilge-keels. The keels of iron vessels wore very frequently
at first made hollow, thus forming a kind of gutter or trough
the entire length of the ship, which took the bilge water, hut
j a form open to many objections, and it was discarded
in favour of the solid-bar keel. This, however, was not found
I to be entirely satisfactory, as ships with this description of
keel strained very much on being docked or when resting
upon ihe keel, so that that type of keel was also discarded;
lod now a much stronger form of keel is obtained by uniting
b^ keel and the keelson, which is done in a variety of ways.
I The frames, practically the ribs of the ship, are of L-iron,
3s, of course, varying with the size of the ship, A
rmasel with a length of 200 feet would have frames about
I f X 4" X I". They are placed from 20 to 24 inches apart,
I emtre to centre, and are fitted close on tn the upper edge
r df the keel, and in all vessels extend upwards to the gunwale.
The deck-beams are of the size prescribed by Lloyda,
ud are spaced according to Lloyd's rules. In the vessel
above, a ship 200 feet long, they would be of L-iron about
5" X 4" X k". They are connected with and riveted to the
frames, with bracket-ends or knee-plates, and act not merely
u giider3 supporting the various decks, but as struts or ties
lietween the sides; and as there ia great flexibility in the
ndes of iron and steel ships, great care has to be taken that
tkey shall be so arranged that the fastenings are not injured
in the working of the ship. If there are several decks, the
deck-beams are placed vertically over each other — not a
deck-beam of the deck above over a space of the deck below,
hit beam over beam.
Manv ships are constructed, as before stated, with a double
r
I
a& THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
bottom, having an inner skin as well aa an outer, the space
between the inner skin and the outer skin forming the tanks
capable of being filled with water as ballast. In ships of
1000 tons, or thereabouts, the depth of the tanks so formed
will be from 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches, and the surface of the
frames and the plating of the bottom is usually rendered in
Portland cement concrete, thoa forming a smooth oout^iefee
floor to the ballast-tanks. ~
What is technically known as "the plating" is the smooth
visible outside of the hull of an iron ship. The mode of
plating usually adopted is that known as inside and outside
Btrakes, the inside strakes being placed directly against the
frames, whilst the outside plating overlaps the plates above
and below, the space between the outside plates and the
frames, which is, of course, the width of the thickness of the
inside plates, being filled up with lining-pieces of the same
thickness as the plates. The thickness of the plates of the
floor and the sides is according to the rule laid down by
Lloyd's, but will average from about half an inch to three-
quarters of an inch, and will be from one-sixteenth to one-
eighth thicker under the engines and boilers. The length
of each plate is not less than from five to eight spaces of
frames — that is to say, not less than from 10 to 15 feet. (
The butts of the plating in adjoining strakes are not pat
nearer to each other than two spaces of frames, and the butta
of the alternate strakes are not placed under each other, and
all are double-riveted; and when so double-riveted the
holes for the rivets are either arranged zigzag, or the chain
method is employed.
In the plating of ships this disposition of the butts is
known as the diagonal system, thore being always two strakes
of plates between two vertical butts in the space between
any two frames. All the butts of the plating are planed and
fitted close, and the edges of the plating are also planed, ao
that all surfaces riveted together bear fairly against each
other through their whole length and width, so that a knife^
the thickness of the blade of which does not exceed No. 26
Birmingham wire-gauge, cannot be put between them at
any part.
WATER-TIGHT BULKHEADS iz9
Most ships are now fitted with water4ight bulkheads, which
idd materially to the streogth and eaSety of the vessel, as
Dnmherless ships that have been in collision can testify. In
Duay ships the foremost or collision-bulkhead extends from
the floor-plate to the upper deck, whilst the other bulkheads
Bie pierced, and are fitted with water-tight doors — an un-
Wisfactory arrangement, because should a collision suddenly
occur, the doors at the moment will probably be open, and
diere may be no time to close them; and even if there he
time, the great and sudden strain t^au8ed by the collision will
often 80 wrench the bulkhead that the doors jamb, and at
the critical moment the whole thing ceases to be what it
pK^eeses to be — a lealrr-tif/ht bulkhead.
There ought to be at least one bulkhead for every breadth
of the ship, in her length ; thus, a ship, say of 210 feet in
length, and of 30 feet beam, should have a bulkhead at every
30 feet of her length— that is to say, she should have sis
*&tet-tight bulkheads. All bulkheads that are really intended
to be of any use in the hour of need should be carried
entirely up from the floor to the upper deck without any
openings whatever, even although it may involve some extra
trouble and cost in working the hold. Such additional trouble
ud expense is more than compensated for by the additional
KCDrity given to the ship.
Many of our large liners have their decks plated as well
18 their sides, as giving greater strength to the ship ; but
u an iron deck would iu many respects be extremely
Dnsoitable, this deck is usually covered over with wooden
planking.
Some ships hare the bulwarks very high, and plated over
OB the outside. When this is the case large openings are
UQaUy left, the lower part of the openings being flush, or nearly
fluh, with the upper deck, and fitted with hinged flaps opening
ontwards, thus affording a ready means of egress for the
luge body of water that may come on deck in heavy weather.
In fact, a ship is far safer with merely open rails, and not
with solid bulwarks at all ; heavy seas that are shipped
being then able to get away at once.
Iitm masts are now generally used, as being IxitU BUoii^'at
t30 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
and lighter than wooden masts. Some ships have only their
lower mastSy or the lower masts and topmasts, of iron* the
topgallant masts and royals being still of wood; bat many
other ships are now fitted with iron masts £rom keel to tmcL
Iron masts are constmcted like any other tabular form of
iron. The plates, nsnally three in number to fonn the
circumference, are bent in the rolling-machine to the required
curve, the longitudinal joints having intemaUy T-inni
running the entire length of the mast Sometimes the plateB
are lap-jointed, with angle-iron at the joints ; but this method
of construction, although perhaps stronger than the fbimer,
does not make so good-looking a mast. Many iron masti
are still further strengthened with internal diaphragm plata
and angle-irons. The plates forming the mast axe asaallj
about 10 feet in length, and are of | to f iron, aooording to the
size of the mast. Occasionally iron lower masts are used ee
ventilators to the hold or cabin space ; when this is the caseb
they are then left open at the top, with a moveable oover, tobe
put on in wet weather. The trestle-trees and all the fittings aie
also of iron, and the shrouds are of wire rope. The latter aie
not set up by dead-eyes, but have screw fastenings secured hj
chain-plates riveted to the vessel's sheer-strake. The centre
part has an eye formed in the middle, and screws at the ends^
one of which is right-handed, and the other left-handed. The
screws work in nuts attached to the chain-plate and to the
eye holding the shroud, which when seized has the pointi
of the screws only just entered, leaving the greater part of
the screw available for taking up the slack, as may be
required. By this means by a turn or two of a marline-spike
inserted in the eye in the centre of the screw-fastening, the
shroud, or back-stay, or whatever it may be, is readily
tautened up.
In most iron and steel vessels not only are the masts d
iron or steel, but the yards also, or, at all events, the larger
yards, as the main and the fore yards, and very frequently
the upper and lower topsail yards. The whole of the standing
rigging is of wire rope, whilst a great part of the braoeSi
lifts, and the like, are of chain and wire, so that not only has
iron or steel gradually displaced wood for the hull and the
CHAIN AND WIRE RIGGING
spars, but wire rope and chain are now taking the pla^e of
hemp in the rigging. Chain and wire rope are used thus :
Take, for instance, the topsail braces : chain about two
fathoms long is attached to the yard, and then shackled to a
block — this chain being called "the tie;" wire rope is rove
through the block, and hooked into the maintop, if it be
the fore-topsail braces ; the other end of the wire rope is
stropped round another block, the wire rope then being called
" the runner." An ordinary rope is rove through this block,
one end of which is hooked on to the bumpkin, or else to a
bolt in the ship's side, while the other eud is roye through
a leading block, and belayed to a pin on the rail, this rope
being called "the whip," Precisely the same principle is
adopted for the halliards, etc.
In some modern ships chain has superseded certain ropes
for their entire length, as, for instance, the lower topsail
sheets. It is, howeyer, very awkward to pull on, and is not
very easily made fast to a belaying-pin. The fore-tack,
again, is now generally of chain. Modem sheets are very
frequently made of wire, served over with spun yarn. When
the ship gets doivn into fine latitudes, these wire ropes
are usually changed for ordinary rope; and leaving the
fine weather the wire is put on again. It is bad stuflf to
make fast, as it is very springy, and the men have to be
exceeding careful in slacking it away, or a man may very
easily get badly hurt. If there be any strain on the sheet,
the least easing on the bitts will start the whole wire, which
will, somehow or other, spring up off the bitts, and run out
before you " know where you are."
Chain and wire, again, are mostly used now for mooring,
as only a few lines (or lengths) of wire will take the place
of several times that length of ordinary cable. Until the
early years of the nineteenth century cables of hemp were
in general use both in merchant vessels and in ships of war.
In 1810, however, the making of iron-chain cables was
commenced at Mill wall, and these cables gradually have
superseded the use of hemp cables, because of the advantages
the former have in strength, durability, and convenience in
stowage over the cumbrous cables made of hemp. Iioa <»b\^
132 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
with stud-links soon proved superior in strength to the
twisted link cables, and they were adopted in the Meccantile
Marine of the United Eingdom for many years before the
Gbyemment authorities considered it proper to discontinue
the use of hemp, and to equip the ships of the Boyal Nayy
with iron chain-cables.
Nowadays everything is of iron — ^the mastSi the yards,
the bowsprit, with its dolphin-striker, are all of iron, and
the two inner guys of the latter are iron rods, the outer guys
being of wire. No lanyards are used, but iron screws are
used for everything.
The above description of the spars and rigging of a modem
ship will probably appear somewhat dry and uninteresting
to the lay reader, but it will, at all events, raable him to
form some idea as to the manner in which iron and steel
have now almost entirely taken the place of wood and hemp
in the majority of our larger ships.
CHAPTER XI.
Tie l^Msatlantic linos— The Cunard Line — First formation of the Company
—The mail contract— The first ships — American opposition — The
Collins Line — Loss of the Arctic— Loan of the Pacific — KociBion of the
Government rnla as to wooden ships — The first iron Cunarder— The
Persia — The firet screw Cunard steamer — The China — The Buttia —
Compound engines — The Batavia — The flist steo! Cunarder — The
Servia — The JJmhrin and the Etruria — Tlie Campania and the
&tainia— Rates of speed — Man^ment of the Cunard Company —
Immnnity ^m accidents.
The oldest of the Transatlantic lines of steamers existing at
the present time is the Cunar*! Line, established in 1840, of
wllieh we now propose to give some particulars.
Mr. Samuel Ciinard, who had for some time been conducting
1 mail serrice between Boston, Newfoundland, and Bermuda,
abnnt the year 1836, conceived the idoa of establishing a
tpjular steam mail service between this country and America ;
I'ut, unfortunately, he was not possessed of sufficient capital to
inaagurate so vast a scheme, nor could he induce his friends
m the shipping world, or the merchants of Halifax, to join
Wm in the enterprise. He, however, ultimately fell in with
Mr, Robert Napier, the famous Clyde ship-builder and engineer,
fbu introduced him to Mr, George Burns, one of the shrewdest
men of the day, who in turn brought him into contact with
Mr, David Maclver, of Liverpool. In the course of a very
fat days Mr. George Bums, whose wealth, influence, and
integrity were the strong foundations upon which the great
enterprise was built, obtained the requisite subscribed capital
«f £270,000 to float the Company, which was at first styled
"The British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet
"JiBpany," but this cumbrous title soon gave way to the
^witer and now well-known designation of " The Cunstfd Line."
m
■ '34
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Id October, 1838, the English QoTemment advertised for
tenders for the conveyance of the United States tuftils by
Bteamers, instead of, as up to that time had been the
by sailing ships, for the most part small ton-gnn brigs, whiell
from the freqaency of their capsizing, were familiarly known
" coffins," and the tender of Jlessre. Samuel Cunard, Greoi^
Bums, and David Maclver was accepted. They were to hai
£55,000 per annum, and were to supply three
steamers, and to perform two voyages a month from Liverpod
to the United States. This arrangement was, howevi
subsequently altered to four steamers, and the subsidy w
increased to £81,000 per annum. The four steamers niUl
which the Ounard Line was first started were —
TiH». Lmcih' Baua. Hi
The Britannia ' (paddle-wheel) 1150 207 ft. 34 ft. 4 ins.
„ CUum&i'a „ 1130 20Tft. 34rt.2iiia.
„ Acadia „ 1136 206ft. Mfteins.
„ Caledonia „ 1138 SOGf). 34ft.6iiis.
All these four steamers kept up an average speed of aboat
8^ knots an hour.
The line quickly became exceedingly popular, and, cnrioiisl^
enough, its popularity has never diminished to the present
day. The original fortnightly service was soon increased to
a weekly one, and since that time has been still fnrthei
increased, so that now the Cunard boats run twice a week to
the States — every Saturday to New York, and every Thursday
to Boston, with occasionally an additional boat on a Tuesday.
When the more frequent service was determined upon, two
new steamers, the Cain^ia and the Wibernia, were put on.
They were each of 1422 tons, and 1040 indicated horse-power,
with an average speed of 9^ knots. By 1848, the expansion
of international commerce caused still further demands on
the Company, and the America, Niagara, Cixnaiht, and Europa,
all paddle-wheel steamers of 1825 tons, and 2000 indicated
horse-power, with an average speed of \Q\ knots, were added
to the fleet. It will thus be noticed how, in the first ten
* Tills was the steamer tb.tt Charles Dickens crossed in, i[i Jouuary, 1812.
An admirable deacription of the boat and of the passage across will be found
in bis "American Notee."
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yevs of the existence of the Company, both the size of the
ahips and the power of the euginea had materially increased,
"ith a corresponding increase of speed of Bomething like five
ind twenty per cent.
The success of the Cunard Line naturally excited the
jwloQsy of the American shipowners, and various attempts
»ere made to " run the Cuuarders off the Atlantic," but always
without avail. The opposition was oonimenced by an American
nrnpauy fitting one of their fastest sailing ships, the
Kamchusetts, with a screw propeller, so that, while taking
•dvaatage of her canvas under favourable circumstances, she
might use her steam-power against a head wind. But she was
nol a success, and in point of speed could in no way compete
with the English vessels. In consequence it wag determined
to start a regular American line of eteam-packets to run
between New York and Bremen, calling at Southampton,
uid their first ship, the Washington, left New York in June,
1847, on the same day that the Britavnin, belonging to
tile Cuuard Company, sailed frotti New York for Liverpool,
This was the first race across the Atlantic between American
ind British steamers, and it resulted in a decided victory
for the Cunarder, which arrived two full days before the
Washhigtim.
The most formidable opponent was the Collins Line, which
ilsrted with four fine ships, the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Arctic,
uA the Baltic, which, although all faster than the Cunard boats,
for gome reason or other never commanded the confidence
of the public secured by the English line. These four vessels
Were all paddle-wheel steamers, averaging each 2856 tons,
with engines of 800 horse-power. They were 282 feet long,
46 feet beam, and had a draught of water of 20 feet. They
were built chiefly of oak, and were planked with pitch-pine.
Tliey had straight bows and rounded stems ; each had three
masts, and they were square-rigged on the fore and main-
iiuts. They were by far the handsomest vessels that had
jet been built for the Transatlantic service.
When the Collins Line was first estabHshed, having secured
the United States contract for the conveyance of the American
mails from New York to Liverpool, the directors of that
136 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Company determined to put on boats which, at any cost, should
beat the Cunarders in point of speed, and this point they
attained when, in 1S52, their Arctic made the pasaage across
from New York to Liverpool in 9 days 17 hours and 12
minutes, the fastest passage then on record. During the first
half of 1852, the boats of the Collins Line used to make the
paBsage from Liverpool to New York, on an average, in 11
days and 22 hours, whilst the Asia and the Africa, the fastest
boats of the Cunard Company, nsed to take, on an average,
12 days 14 hours; the passage from New York to Liverpool
being made by the Collins boats, on an average, in 10 days
22 hours, the Cunarders taking, on an average, 11 days 1 hour.
Thia slight additional speed was, however, costing the Collins
Company a heavy expenditure, and in a statement laid before
Congress, when the question of the subsidy by the United
States Government was beiJig discussed, it was stated on
behalf of the Collins Company " that to effect the saving of
from a day to a day and a half in the run between New York
and Liverpool was costing the Company nearly a million
dollars a year."
In 1850, to compete with the Collins Line, the Cunard
Company built two larger and faster steamers, the Asia and
the Africa (mentioned above). They were sister ships, each
being of 2128 tons. They were 267 feet in length, 40 feet
6 inches beam, and with a depth of hold of 27 feet 6 inches.
They were fitted with side-lever engines, by Robert Napier,
of 814 horse-power ; the cylinders being 96 inches in diameter,
with a 9-feet stroke, and the paddle-wheels 37 feet 6 inches
in diameter, the steam being supplied by four boilers, with
twenty furnaces. Each ship employed 38 hands in the engine-
room ; and the coal-bunkers held some 900 tons of coal.
The vessels were built of oak, planked double, both outside
and inside, the intervening space being filled up with rock
salt, from keel to gunwale, to preserve the timbers from dry
rot. There were berths for 180 passengers; and the ships
were so built that, at very little expense, they could be
transformed into war-ships. With these two new steamers the
Cunard Line quite held its own as regarded passengers ; bat
the establishment of the Collins Line had had a marked effect
THE LOSS OF THE
upon freights ; as before the Collins Company started, freights
were £7 lOs. per ton between Liverpixtl and the States, whilst
tTO years after the Collins boats had been running the price
iras£4.
The opposition to the Cuuarders of this particular line did
not, however, last long, the Collins Company being singularly
unfortunate with their ships. Their misfortunes commenced
in 1854, by their losing the Arctic. On Thursday, the 21st of
September, 1854, the Arctic left Liverpool for New York, with
233 passengers, of whom 150 were first class. At mid-day on
Wednesday the 27th, when sixty miles south-east of Cape
Race, during a dense fog, with a heavy sea running, the Arctic
(sme into violent collision with the French steamer Vesta,
bftving on board 147 passengers, and a crew of fifty. After
the collision the VmIc appeared to be the more injured of the
tno steamers, and her passengers and crew made the most
desperate efforts to get on hoard the Arctic. The rough state
of the sea, however, rendered this impossible, one boat, with
ihirteen on board, being swamped immediately after leaving
(he French ship, and all on board being drowned, whilst
another boat was sunk as soon as she was lowered.
The captain of the Vata, after a careful examination,
fonnd that his ship, although badly stove in forward, was
nut making water very rapidly; he therefore, thinking that
the Arctic was quite safe, shaped a course for Cape Race, in
the hopes of tteing able to beach his steamer before she
sliould sink. Eventually he not only succeeded in reaching
Cape Race, but be was able to take the Vesta safely into St.
Johns. Those on board the Arctic very soon discovered the
wry serious extent of her injuries. Three large holes had
been made in her side, and the ship was seen to be rapidly
filling. The captain had her head put about, and he also tried
to nm for Cape Race, which was the nearest land. By this
time a strong gale was blowing, with a heavy sea, and the
ship was getting very low in the water. Seeing that matters
were getting desperate, the boats were now lowered, but some
were awamped in lowering, and others were capsized, two only,
"itli thirty-one of the crew and fourteen passengers, out of
iTer three hundred persons who were on board the Arctic,
138 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
BQCceediiig in safely reaching 8t Johns, Newfoundland. Fonr
hours after the collision the water reached the furnaces of the
Arctic, and soon after that the ship went down.
Sixteen months after the loaa of the Arctic the Collins Liae
suffered another serious blow. On Wednesday, the 23rd of
January, 1856, the Pacific left Liverpool for New York with
a crew of 141, and with forty-five passengers, the mails, and
a valuable cargo, which latter was insured for two millions of
dollars. From the time the Padjic left the Mersey she ww
never again beard of. Where, or how, she was lost was new
known.
The Collins Line, not to be daunted, huilt two mon
steamers, the Adriatic and another ; but they never recoTCnd
from the effect of the previous disasters, and the Company
had to be wound up in 1858.
Down to the year 1860, the English Grovemment had
absolutely refused to allow the mails to be conveyed in any
other than wooden ships; but in 1860, this requirement was
at last withdrawn, and Messrs. Cunard commenced the snbstito-
tion of iron as the material of their ships, and they bnilt the
Persia, an iron paddle-wheel steamer of 3766 tons. She wag
350 feet in length, 45 feet beam, with a depth of hold of 30
feet. She was fitted with a pair of side-lever engines, of 917
horse-power, nominal, but working at sea up to an indicated
hi>rse-power of 3600. The Persia was the twenty-sixth vessel
built for the Company since the Britannia.
The last paddte-wheel steamer built for the Cunard Company
— indeed, the last great ocean-going paddle-wheel vessel alto-
gether— was the Scotia, also an iron vessel, built in 1862, of
3871 tons, and 975 horse-power. She was 367 feet in length,
and 47 feet 6 inches beam, and was fitted with a pair of side-
lever engines, working up to an indicated horse-power of
4200, the diameter of the cyliriders being 100 inches, with a
BtP)ke of 12 feet. The diameter of the paddle-wheels was
40 feet. The Scotia, which crossed from New York to Liver*
pool in 8 days 22 hours, was undoubtedly the most magnifi-
cent ocean steamer of that date.
The Inman Line, which was now running in opposition to
&e Cunard boats, had been for some time working screw
hips, indeed, the Canard Company themselTes were employ-
ug screw steiuiiera fur their Mediterraneaii trade — and the
ime had now come when the Company determined to employ
them in their transatlantic service ; and when they did come
to the determination tinally to abandon paddle-wheel steam-
ships in flavour of screw steamers, several of the former were
at once transformed into sailing ships. The Scotia was con-
Terted into a twin-screw, and was used as a cable steamer
belooging to the Telegraph Maintenance Company.
The first iron screw steamer built for the Cunard Company
was the Ckina, launched in 1862, followed in 1864, by the
Ctiha, and in 1865, by the Java. In 1867, a larger iron ecrew
steamer was built, the Russia, of 2960 tons, with engines of
432 horse-power, nominal, working up to an indicated horse-
power of 3000. The Russia was probably the most beautiful
▼essel that had, as yet, been put on the service. She was
larque-rigged, with a single funnel between the fore and
main masts. Her graceful outline and the symmetry of her
proportions were considered by nautical men to be perfect ;
whilst her interior decorations and general accommodation soon
gained for her with the public a reputation for comfort and
luxury. Her speed averaged 14'4 knots pet hour, she being
then the fastest vessel in the fleet. She crossed from Queens-
town to New York in 8 days 5 hours and 52 minutes ; and
irom New York to Qneenstown in 8 days and 28 minutes.*
In 1870, the Cunard Company turned their attention to
the then new invention of compound engines, and finding
that this new method utilized steam at a far higher pressure
than had been the case heretofore, and produced increased
^•eed at a smaller cost, they determined upon atlopting it.
The Batavia, of 2553 tons, was the first of their steamers to
be fitted with the new machinery ; and in the six subsequent
years the Company increased their fleet by seven other
steamers, all fitted with compound engines. These were the
* It oiay be noted in passing that the commaDder of the Ruuia, Captmn
Cook, navigated this vessel 6.W,000 miles [eqnaf to fivo-and -twenty timeB
orld] on the Atlantic in ail weathers without a single accident
B breakdown of any kind ; and safely carried to and fro npwards of
I traiiy«x thoDwnd cabin pasAengere,
I40 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Calabria^ Algeria^ and Abyssinia^ each of whioh was of 8900
tons ; and these, again, were followed by still larger boatay m
the Scythia and the Bothnia. These vessels were all of iio^
the two latter being each of 4535 tons, 455 feet in lengtki
42 feet 6 inches beam, and 36 feet depth of hold. They had
accommodation for 300 first class, and 800 third class paaBeng«&
They were barque-rigged, and were fitted with oompoiinl
engines of 500 horse-power, nominaL The high-pressaif
cylinder was 60 inches in diameter, the low-pres8aie» lOi;;
inches. The steam was supplied by eight tubular
with twenty-four furnaces; and the coal-bunkers oould
in twelve hundred tons of coal. The largest of these
steamers was the Gallia^ of 4808 tons, and 5300 indi<
horse-power.
Another advance was now being made in ship-building,
iron, which had superseded wood, was itself to be su]
by steel. The first of the Cunarders to be built of ihe
material was the Servia^ of 3900 tons register. She
5000 tons dead weight with a draught of 26 feet ; but
have carried 10,000 with safety if the depth of harbours bad '.
permitted. Her dimensions were: length over all, 530 feet;
beam, 52 feet ; depth from top of keel to top of uppei^ledk
beams, 42 feet. She had three complete decks and two
partial decks, and was divided into twelve main water-tight
compartments by transverse bulkheads. The Servia wai \ '
entirely constructed of steel, on the lattice double-bottom;.
system, having capacity for 800 tons of water ballast. Her
decks were formed of half-inch steel plates, covered with 4 ■
inches of teak. The upper deck had on it the forecastle for
some of the crew, and the necessary wash-houses, etc., for
emigrants; hospital, companions to main and lower decks;:
winches for working cargo, ofiBcers' rooms, smoking-roonu^ j i
galleys, baker's shop, music-room, ladies' rooms, entrance to, ■
the main saloon, and a wheel-house right aft. jL
The main deck had accommodation for seamen, stewardl^«|
and engineers ; also 86 state-rooms, capable of berthing SSI*
passengers; also the main dining-saloon, with the necessary
pantries and serving-rooms. The lower deck had 82 state-
rooms, berthing 328 passengers ; and contained accommodation
THE CUNARDERS — " UMBRIA — " ETRURIA ' 141
for 730 emigrants. The ship was lighted throughout by
electric light.
The engines of the Servia were of the three-cylinder
compound direct-acting arrangement, having one high-
pressore cylinder of 72 inches diameter, and two low-pressure
cylinders of 100 inches diameter each, and 78-iuch stroke of
piston. The crank-sbaft was in three pieces, of steel, aud 25
inches iu diameter; and the propeller, the boss and blades
of which were also of steel, was 24 feet iu diameter.
Steam was supplied to the engines by seven boilers, six
of which were double-ended, with six furnaces to each boiler,
and owe was single-ended, with three furnaces; so that in
all there were thirty-nine furnaces. Seven tons and a half
of coal were consumed every hour, or between thirteen and
fourteen hundred tons of coal in the passage across the
Atlantic, the bunker accommodatiou being for 1800 tons.
The engines on trial developed 10,500 indicated horse-power,
and the average speed at sea of the Serv^ia was 17^ knots
per hour.
Magnificent in all respects as was the Servia, still the
Cunard Company did not consider that perfection had been
attained, and in 1884, the Umhria and the Etniria were
launched, larger and more powerful in every respect than
their immediate predecessor. They were sister ships, each 500
feet in length, with a gross tonnage of 8127 tons, and each
had ample accommodation for 550 first-class passengers and
800 emigrants. Their engines were of 14,500 indicated
horse-power, and their speed 19'5 knots per hour. The
Uinhria's fastest run across from Queenstown to New York
was 5 days 22 hours (this was her eighty-second trip across),
her daily runs being, 461 knots, 502, 500, 427, 502, and 388,
making a total of 2780 knots, giving an average speed of
19'57 knots an hour.
It was thought that the most perfect type of ocean liner
had really at last been reached in these two vessels ; but their
glories were soon to be eclipsed by those of the Campania
and the Lmanta, which were ordered by the Cunard Company
from the Fairfield Shipbtulding Company iu 1891.
On the 8th of September, 1892, and on the 2nd of February,
r
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
in the presence of many thousands of interested, and
some ansiouB spectators, there were launched at (Jovan on
the Clyde, from the yard of the Fairfield Shipbuilding
Company, the Campania and the I/ucania respectively, tbe
largest vessels— with the single exception of the Oreit
Eastern — that had ever heen constructed in any shipbuilding
establishment in the noild, either public or private.
The length of the Campania' is 620 feet over all; her
extreme breadth is 65 feet 3 inches, and her depth from
the upper deck 43 feet. Her nett register tonnage is 4974
tous, her gross tonnage being 12,950 tons. The vessel has a
straight stem and elliptic stem, with top-gallant forecastle
and poop, and there are two tiers of deck-houses with
promenade decks. She has two large funnels, which, U^e
those of all the other boats of the Cunard Company, ore red,
with black tops ; and she has two pole masts. The ship has
four decks — ujtper deck, main deck, lower, and orlop decks
— and is divided into seventeen compartments by sixteen
water-tight bulkheads, so that it is calculated that she would
still float with any two compartments open to the sea. She
has been built in conformity with the Admiralty requirements
for armed cruisers, the decks being specially constructed witii
a view to carrying heavy guns ; and she has steering-gear of
a special type fitted below the water-line. There is a cellulac
double bottom, with tanks arranged for water ballast.
The Campania is fitted with twin screws driven by t«(>
distinct sets of powerful triple-expansion engines of 50(tO
horse-power, nominal, developing 30,000 indicated horse-power.
The two sets of engines ore in two separate engine-rooms*
divided from each other by a watertight bulkhead, througb-
which, however, are water-tight doors, thus rather giving away
the perfect duplication of the machinery. Each engine ha*
five cylinders, two high-pressure, two low-pressure, and one
intermediate. The water is circulated through the condensers
by four large centrifugal pumps, each driven by an inde-
pendent compound engine, these pumps being also available
for pumping water from the hold in case of emergency. An
elaborate system of piping is carried throughout the sliip,
* Tho description appliea equally, ia all respects, to the Lunania.
^^
^
1:
3
1
' (
i
THE "CAMPANIA AND " LUCANIA i«
And connected to various steam-pumps for emptyiDg tbe
ballast tanks, pumping out bilges, supplying the decks with
water for washing down, as well as hydrants in case of fire,
and for other purposes. There are also four evaporators to
produce the necessary fresh water from the sea water, and so
to avoid using salt water in the boilers; and besides these
there are numerous donkey-engines for tbe winches for
working the holds, warping, and other uses. Steam for the
main engines is generated in twelve large double-ended
boilers; the boilers with their furnaces being arranged in
two groups, having one of the great funnels for each group.
These funnels from their lowest section are 120 feet high,
nr jtut aboat the height of the Eddystone Lighthouse ; and
ihcir diameter is 20 feet, which is rather more than the
diameter of the Eddystone Lighthouse.
Although the Campania is fitted with twin screws, there
is an aperture in her stem precisely similar to that in a
sliip fitted with a single screw, tlis being in order that the
propellers may work the more freely, they being kept very
ditse to the centre line of the vessel, in order to avoid
damage to, or from, quay walls.
The Campania has accommodation for 1400 passengers and
lOO crew. The third-class passengers are berthed forward,
lb second-class aft, and the saloon passengers amidships.
It is somewhat curious that of the two sister ships, identically
the same in size and shape, and fitted with engines the same
in power, one ship, the Lucania-, should be slightly faster
tian the other. Her fastest outward passage was accomplished
in 5 days 7 hoars and 23 minutes, and her fastest passage
bomeward in 5 days 8 hours and 38 minutes. The Campania's
feteat westward passage was 5 days 9 hours and 6 minutes,
ind her fastest passage eastwards 6 days 9 hours and 18
DUDutes. The Lucania's fastest ocean steaming was at an
irerage speed throughout the passage of 221 knots per hour,
ind the highest day's running 560 knots. The Campania's
&<test average speed throughout the passage was 21*82 knots
in hour, and her highest day's running 584 knots.
On the 7th of August, 1896, the Campania arrived at
New York, having made the passage from Daiint's Itock,
n
144 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
QueeoBtowB, in 5 days 9 hours and 35 minutes; hi
steamed 2785 knots at an average rate of speed of
knots per hour; and this rate, with very slight modiflcationa,
is about the rate usually maintained by these two ships.
The Cuuard Company up to the present time have been
able to boast that, although they have occasionally lost a
ship, they have never yet lost a passenger. One of the
most remarkable disasters that ever did befall them was the
total loss of their steamer Oregon. She was run into and sunk
by some vessel, but what vessel it was, or what became of
the vessel — whether she too went to the bottom, or whether
she got quietly away — no one knows, and no one probably
ever will know.
Speaking generally, the Cunard Company have alirays
enjoyed a peculiar immunity from accident, and it has very
frequently been said that a special good luck must have
attended them. As a matter of fact, it is no question at
all of either good luck or bad luck. All ends are attained
by means, and the Cunard Company have from the very
first uniformly adopted the means calculated to ensure success,
and sQCcesB has naturally followed. In the construction of
the ships everything has always been of the very beat, no
matter what the cost might be. In the personnel of the fleet
the same thing is aimed at. The most absolute discipline ia
enforced upon all the ships, from the chief ofBcer downwards.
Neither the chief officer nor the subordinate officers, except
so far as the dictates of ordinary courtesy demand, are
allowed to hold any intercourse whatever with the passengers,
thus devoting their entire attention to the navigation of the
ship.
The most rigid punctuality is observed; ao admiiabla
look-out is kept in fair weather as in foul ; in thick weather,
when making the land, the lead is kept constantly going;
the ofBcer of the watch is always at his post ; the engineers
are always in the engine-room to stop or reverse the engines
at a moment's notice; and an officer is always at the elbow
of the quartermaster to see that the proper course is being
kept. The captains have the most stringent orders never
upon any occasion to sacrifice the slightest risk of the
"1
f
RULES OF THE CUNARD COMPANY
safety of the ahip to any question of Bpeed, or to leave the
apparently smallest or mo8t insignificant matter to chance.
The result has been simply what might have been expected,
an absolute immunity from so-called accidents — accidents
which in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred are not only
preventable, but are merely the natural outcome of the
particular line of conduct pursued.
Among the written confidential instructions given to all
csiitains employed in the service of the Cunard Company
are the following orders : —
'* It is to be borae in mind that every part of the coast-board of England
md Ireland can ba rend off by the lead ; und on iiukking land you abould
Mver omit to verify your poaitioD by Boundings i ratber loaa time In hearing
the ship to, than run the risk of losing the vwael, nnJ all the lives on board.
" Too ore to underetand that yon have a peremptory order, that in fog, or
9]ov-storni, or in each state of the weather as appears attendant with risk in
Bailing, you are on no account whatever to move the vessel under your com-
nuuid out of port, or wherever she may be lying iu safety ; and at the same
time you are particularly warned ogainat being influenced by the nctions of
other captains who aioy venture to sail their vonsels iu such weather.
" In any case when, in sailing, you are overtaken by thick weather, fog,
or snowstorm, the most extreme caution is to be exercised, and you are not to
be actuated by any desire to complete your voyage : your sole consideration
being the safety of your ship, and those under your cliargc ; and we caution
tad instruct you in snch circnmslaiices to make conalaat uu of tht lead, and
bo enter in yoar log the fact of your having done so."
146 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
*
4ii
f
I
CHAPTER XIL
The Peninsalar and Oriental Steam Navigation Company — ^Ito
Willoox and Anderson — ^Messrs. Bourne's line of BteMiien to Spain
Portugal — ^Messrs. Willoox and Anderson's contract for the
mails, in 1837— The Indian mail— The East India Cknii|Miij— Ikt
1
Peninsular Company— The starting of the P. and 0^ 1840— The BaaAtf 1
mail — Opposition of the East India Company^— Fariiamenteiy fnqidiy k f
1851— Termination of the East India Company's monopoly— TIm Ub i
and China mails in the hands of the P. and Od — ^Ilie Overiand Boofte— ;
Coaling-stations — Commenoement of the P. and 0. Hne to AniCnBa k
1853 — ^The European and Australian Steam Pkcket Company— Its ftial
collapse — ^The opening of the Sues Canal — Opposition to the Omal ly
the Post Office — ^The Sues Canal at last adopted by the QoTenmuBt—
The present mail contract times — Rules and reguktions of tiie P. and Ol
Company as to their ships, etc. — Casualties — ^Loss of the Bokhara — ^Loes
of the Aden — The loss of the China — Burning of the €h»nff6B,
There can be but very few Englishmen who have never
heard of what is certainly one of the most popular of the {
great steamship lines, the Peninsular and Oriental Steam
Navigation Company, or, as it is more familiarly known, the
P. and O., and some details, therefore, of this great company
will not be uninteresting.
In the year 1815, a Mr. Brodie McGhee Willcox opened
a small office in Lime Street, City, as a shipbroker and
commission agent, and soon after starting the business he
engaged a youth to assist him, one Arthur Anderson, from
Kirkwall, in Orkney. Mr. Willcox had no capital other than
a shrewd head and a large stock of perseverance. The
business prospered, and in 1825, Mr. Anderson, the quondam j
office boy, was taken into partnership, and the firm of Willoox
and Anderson removed to new offices at No. 5, St. Mary Axe»
At this time, besides the shipbroking business, the firm were
part owners of a few small sailing vessels trading with Vigo
and Lisbon.
Gradually this small coasting trade developed into a regular
line of sailing packets, and ultimately into a liue of steamers,
one of the first of their steamers being the William Faweeti,
a paddle-wheel vessel of 206 tons, and 60 horse-power, 74 |
feet in length, and 16 feet beam ; whilst another was the
Royal Tar* which waa rather larger.
In 1834, the Dublin and London Steam Packet Company,
of which the chief proprietors were Messrs. Bourne, of Dublin,
chartered the Royal Tar to run to Spain ; and soon after this i
the Spanish Minister in London induced Messrs. Bourne to pat
on a regular line of steamers to Spain and Portugal, for which '
Messrs. Willcox and Anderson were appointed the London
agents ; a Mr. Allen, who was in the office of the Dublin and
London Steam Packet Company, being sent to London to
assist Messrs. Willcox and Anderson in the management of the
new line. This gentleman afterwards became the secretary,
and ultimately the managing director of the great Company.
Previous to the month of September, 1837, the Peninsular
mails were conveyed between Falmouth and Lisbon by sailing
vessels once a week, but the service was always extremely
irregular, and with bad weather the passage from Falmouth
Ui Lisbon, which under ordinary circumstances occupied a
week, was frequently extended to three weeks. There was
at this time, besides this Lisbon mail, a Government mail •
to Cadiz and Gibraltar; but the vessels engaged in that
service were also very slow, and this mail was nearly as
irregular as the Lisbon one.
Messrs. Willcox and Anderson approached the Government
upon the subject of an acceleration of these mails, but their
proposals were coldly received, and the old state of things
was aUowed to continue, until lond and constant complaints
from the public at last aroused the Government to action.
The authorities then inquired officially whether Messrs.
Willcox and Anderson had anything in particular to propose,
and a detailed scheme for a weekly mail between Falmouth,
Vigo, Oporto, Lisbon, Cadiz, and Gibraltar was drawn up by
them, and submitted to the Government, who, after having
thus obtained all the information and suggestions that they
* The Boyai Tar was William IV.
148 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
required, or that Messrs. Willoox and Anderson had to offei, |
intimated, in accordance with the nsnal Gk)yemment piactiee, |
that the matter would be thrown open to public competition. 1
Of the tenders thus invited, that of the British and FoEmgn
Steam Navigation Company was accepted, but when it actually
came to the point the Company found out that they woe
unable to carry out their proposals, and on the 29th of August,
1887, a contract was concluded between the (Jovemmeiit
and Messrs. Willcox and Anderson, by which the latter
agreed to convey monthly the whole of tiie Peninsular mails
for £26,000 per annum, a sum which was afterwards reduced
to £20,500 per annum. This service, which commenced the
same autumn, was performed with the utmost regularity, and
may be considered as the actual commencement of the now
weU-known P. and O. Company, the first steamer despatched
under the contract being the Iberia, built by Messrs. Curling
and Young, which left England in September, 1837.
Down to the year 1840 the mails to and from India were
conveyed by the East India Company in their own steameis
between Bombay and Suez, and by steamers of the Imperial
Qovemment between Alexandria and Gibraltar, where they
were transferred to the boats of the Peninsular Company.
Both the steamers of the East India Company and those of
the Imperial Government were excessively slow, and were
nearly always behind time, the mail from Alexandria to
England invariably taking three weeks, and often a month,
so that at last public opinion forced the Grovemment to
take some steps towards bringing about a better state of
things, and an arrangement was entered into with the French
Gt)vemment for the transit of the Indian mail through
France to Marseilles. This route turned out to be quite as
uncertain and quite as much fraught with delay as was the
former one, and the managers of the Peninsular Company
were then applied to on the subject.
They submitted a scheme for fast steamers to run direct
from England to Alexandria, stopping only at Gibraltar
and Malta. The plan was approved by the Grovemment,
who, having again got gratuitously all the information they
required, then publicly adveitvaed for tenders to carry out
the scheme. Four competitors tendered for the contract,
at sums ranging from £34,000 to £51,000 per annum, the
PeninHular Company being the lowest ; and as they also
offered to convey all military and naval officers travelling
on the public service at reduced rates, and to convey all
Admiralty packages gratuitously, their contract was accepted
by the Government, not, however, without very considerable
opposition on the part of many peraonn who wished to see
the Indian mails conveyed round the Cape of Good Hope.
In the Times of the 11th of November, 1838, appeared the
following notice of a new steamer for that route : —
" The Queen of the Eael, 2C18 tons burden, luid 600 horec-power, is the first
of a line of stearaera to ply between England and Calcutta by way of the
Cape of Good Hope. This magnificent vessel is designed by Mr. W. D.
Holmes, the engineer to the Bengal Steam Committee, for communication
between England and India ; and when these vessels are ready, wo understand
the voyage between Falmouth and Calcutta will be made in thirty days."
The Government, however, stood by their agreement with
the i'eninsular Company, and the two first vessels put on by
Messrs. Willcox and Anderson, under the terms of their
contract, were the OrictUal, of 1600 tons, and 450 horse-power,
and the Great Liverpool, a steamer originally built for the
Transatlantic service, of 1540 tons, and 4ti4 horse-power.
These vessels were despatched with the Peninsular and the
Indian mails, thus constituting the Peninsular and Oriental
Company, and in 1840, the business was made into a joint
stuck company, with a charter of incorporation from the
Crown, under the style of "The Peninsular and Oriental
Steam Navigation Company."
Down to this time, as before stated, the mails between
Bombay and Suez were conveyed by steamers belonging to
the East India Cmpany. They were small vessels of a very
inferior description, but so reluctant were the directors of
the East India Company to admit "interlopers" into their
service that it was some time before any change in the
Bombay mail could be effected. At last a contract was
entered into by the Home Government with the P. and O,
Company for a line of steamers between Calcutta, Madras,
Ceyion, and Suez, this being the commencement of the P.
ISO THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
and O.'s btisinesB on the farther side of the Isthmus of Siiei;
and on the 24th of September, 184% the Hindo$tan, of 1800
tons and 520 horse-power, was sent firom Southampton round
the Cape to open the line.
Early in 1844, the P. and O. CSompany again laid propoitli
before the Home Goyemment to undertake a monthly line
of steamers between Suez and Bombay at a saying to the
Gh)yemment of £30,000 a year, as compared with the
ascertained cost of the yery irregular seryice performed bj
the steamers of the East India Company; but the directon
of the East India Company were still most jealous of any
interference with that particular line of oommunication,
which they insisted upon keeping in their own hands, and
which they did, in fiact, so retain, down to 1854.
In 1845,* a farther contract with the Gbyemment wm
entered into for the extension of the P. and O. line to
Singapore and Hong-Eong, the subyention payable for the
seryice being £160,000, which was at the rate of 17«. per
mile oyer the whole line from Suez to Ceylon and Calcutta,
and from Ceylon to Singapore and Hong-Eong.
When it became known that the P. and O. Company
were carrying the India and China mails at the rate of lis.
a mile in steamers of 500 horse-power, whilst the East India
Company, for yery inferior and much slower ships, were
getting 30s. a mile between Suez and Bombay, the public
naturally demanded that this Bombay line should be taken
out of the hands of the East India Company.
A Parlimentary Committee was appointed in 1851, to
consider the whole matter, and it ultimately reported that
''this seryice, in point of economy, the comfort of the pas-
sengers, and the requirements of trade, could be performed
to greater adyantage by priyate enterprise than by yessels
of the Indian Nayy." The directors of the East India
Company, eyen after this, howeyer, were yery ayerse to giying
up the mails, and would probably haye continued their
* In 1845 the fleet coDsisted of fourteen ships, with a united tonnage of
14,600 tons, the Hindostan^ the Bmtincky and the Precurwrf of 1800 tons
behig the largest ships, with the old JRoydl Tar and several yessels of as little
as 500 tons.
THE P. AND O. AND THE INDIAN HAIL
oppoettion mnch longer than they actually did, had not
accidental circumstance at once brought the matter to a head,
The Bombay maiU upon a certain occasion, owing to the
breaking down of an East India Company's steamer, had to
be transferred at Aden to a native sailing-Tessel, the Company
not having another steamer ready at hand. The native
sailing vessel was totally lost in the Be<l Sea, and with it
tike whole of the Bombay mail.
Communicationfl were then at once entered into with the P.
and O. Company, and they offered to undertake the Bombay
bnnch for £24,700 per annum, or at about the rate of
ie. 2ii. a mile, for which the East India Company had been
getting 30st thereby effecting a saving to the Post Office
of over £80,000 a year.
The whole of the vast ocean mail system to India, China,
and the Straits Settlements was now practically in the hands
ctf the P. and O. Company, and a moat extensive organization
had to be completed before the new lines could be considered
in working order. It mast be remembered that not a single
coaling-station existed along the whole route from Suez to
Calcutta and Hong-Kong, and that every ton of coal required
for the steamers had to be sent out from this country in
sailing ships by the Cape of G^jod Hope. There was
practically no hotel accommodation for passengers on the
tonte. At gome places, such as Suez and Aden, there was
not even fresh water ; whilst docks for the repairs of the
fleet hod also to be provided first at Calcntta, and then at
Bombay, where the Company's China steamers bad their
head-quarters. But perhaps the most arduous task of all
was the organization of the transit across Egypt of the large
trafiSc which naturally followed the extension of the Eastern
linea, and which now began to be known as the "Overland
Route."
The Overland Route, els it is called, between the Mediter-
ranean and the Bed Sea, is as old as history ; but to Lieutenant
Waghom belongs the credit of having revived it. Those who
have only known the Overland Route by travelling rapidly
across the Isthmus of Suez by railway, or in still more recent
times by going ibrongh the Suez Canal on board ttie sVeBxaet.
)t an i
head. '
153 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
can form but little idea of the discomfortB of the jomney j
before the days of either. }
After landing from the steamer at Alexandria, the fint j
part of the transit was by the Mahmondieh Canal, the gmt |
work of Mahomet Ali for connecting Alexandria with the
Nile. This journey of 48 miles was accomplished in a large
canal boat, towed by a steam-tng at the rate of about 5 mfles
an hour. From Atfeh, where the canal joins the Nile, steamen
started for Cairo, a distance of 120 miles, and accomplished
the journey in about 16 hours. Passengers then had to
remain the night in Cairo, and sometimes even two or
three days. From Cairo the route lay across the desert for
90 miles, and the journey was performed in two-wheeled
omnibuses, holding six persons, drawn by four mules (V horses,
the road being merely a cutting in the sand, which in the
night-time was not distinguishable from the desert itself
A journey of some eighteen hours under these drcumstanoes
could hardly be called enjoyable, still the experience was
one which impressed the imagination in no ordinary d^fiee.
A moonlight journey across the desert was most striking.
The seemingly boundless expanse, the silence only broken
by the voice of the driver and the muffled sound of the
horses' feet, which seemed somehow to accentuate the sense
of stillness, the caravans loaded with mails and baggage
passing with silent and stealthy tread, the whitened bones
of countless troops of camels which had died in harness
glistening in the moonlight ; then the sudden daybreak, the
solitary Bedouin family mounted aloft on their desert ship,
the mirage, so wonderful when first seen, — ^these and other
impressions remain indelible in the minds of people who
knew the Overland Boute as it once was.
The transport of cargo by these primitive methods was
almost more difficult than that of passengers, more especially
between Cairo and Suez, where every package had to be
carried on camels' backs the distance of nearly a hundred
miles. Many thousands of these animals were employed in
connection with this work, which embraced not only the
transport of mails and cargo, but of water from the Nile for
the several desert stations, and for Suez; and what seems in
COST OF COAL FOK THE P. AND O.
I the present day even more etrenge, the coal for the steamers
^^in the Bed Sea had actually to be carried across the Isthmua
^Bh the same manner. It is a curious fact that it was cheaper
^rto send coal from Alexandria across the desert in this way
( ihan to send it round the Cape by sailing vessels to Suez.
Indeed, not more than half a dozen vessels ever found their
my up the Red Sea with coal during the whole time that
the Company required to take fuel on board there. It is
Deedless to say that the directors of the P. and O. Company
were the first to urge upon the Pacha of Egypt the necessity
uf constructing a railway across the Isthmus, and the final
itccompliabment of this task in 1859, changed the character
of the Egyptian transit to that with which the public has
been familiar in later times.
Coal was then, as it is now, one of the Company's heaviest
it«ms of expenditure. The ac-counts from 1856, to 1865,
inclosive, showed an expenditure for coal of no less than
£5,250,000 sterling ; or on an average, £525,000 per annum.
(During this time about 90,000 tons of coal were usually kept
in stock at the different coaling-stations, distributed thus: —
SonUuuiipton .,.
... 2,000 tons.
Calcutta
... 4,000
MUU
... 5,000 „
Singapore
... 6,000
AJeiMidria
... 6,000 „
Hong-Kong
... 10,000
Aden
... 20,000 „
Bhangbsi
Yokohama
... e.ooo
Borobsy
Point (feOalle ...
... 8,000 „
... 2.000
... 12,000 „
King George's Sound 4,000
MndiM
... 500 „
Sydney
... 1,500
Id 1853, the P. and O. commenced running to Australia,
but only in a small way as compared with the Australian
service of the present time. A steamer, carrying the mail,
was sent every other month to Sydney by way of Singapore,
the arrangement with the Post Office being that the vessels
on the main lines should keep up a speed of 12 knots an
hour; upon the branch lines of not less than lOJ knots, and
of not less than 8J knots between Singapore and Sydney, in
each instance without the aid of sails.
About this time there was a good deal of public complaint
abont the Indian mails, and the mails to the East generally,
it being said that the P. and O. Company were specially
favoured, whilst their ships were not of the \)e8t oi iwaXe^X,
I
154 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
The Compaoy, probably with the view of regaining its prestige,
began then to put on some larger and finer ships, the first of
these being the Himalaya, which was the largest steamer
that, up to that time, the Company had owned ; she was 340
feet in length, 44 feet 6 inches beam, and was fitted with
engines of 2050 indicated horse-power. The Himalaya cost,
when completed and ready for sea, £132,000. She wu
speedily followed by the Caiidia, of 1898 tons, which cost
£69,200. After this came the NuJna, the Pera, and the
Cvlombo, of 1840 tons each ; then the Simla, of 2417 tons,
the Vale-Ua, the Beju/al, and the Vaitia ; the cost of the whols
of these Tossels being upwards of £650,OUO.
In 1854, by the breaking out of the Crimean War, the mail
service was much interrupted. Ships were wanted by the
Government for the conveyance of troops to the Black Set
and the Baltic, and many of the P. and O. steamers had to
be withdrawn from the mail serriee ; the Bombay and China
mail being made monthly instead of fortnightly, and the
Australian mail discontinued altogether.
The interruption of the Australian mail servioe by thii<
Crimean War induced the Colonial Legislature to come forward
in 1856, with liberal grants towards the establishment of a
regular monthly independent communication with Australia,
and in May, 1856, advertisements were issued inviting tenders
for such a service. Four tenders were sent in, two of which
were at once set aside as ineligible, and the choice lay between
the P. and O. Company, at £140,000 per annum, and an
entirely new company called the European and Australian
Steam Packet Company, at £185,000 per annum. The
Treasury showed marked favour towards the new company
by accepting its tender in spite of the large difference (£45,000
a year) between the two prices.
The European and Australian Company at this time
actually owned only two steamers, which had been employed
in the Crimean War, and when its directors learned that their
tender had been accepted, they offered to dispose of the
contract to the P. and O. provided that that company would
purchase their two steamers. This the P. and 0. declined to
do, and the European and Australian Comiuny at once
(THE SUEZ CANAL AMD THE P, AND O. 155
Bit«i!«d DpoD what proved to be a most diseatrous career.
&6f opdned the line In 1867, by charteriog a Cunard ateamer,
ihe Strut, to leave Southampton, and a P. and 0. steamer, the
timla, to leave Sydney, simultaneously. A few months
later the European and Australian Company invoked the
nid of the Royal Mail Company, and the most strenuous
tSoTts were made to carry out the contract, but without success,
and in lees than two years the European and Australian
Company was placed in liquidation, with a loss of over
£700,000, according to a very ciicumstauttal statement made
on the Buhject by Lord Overstone in the House of Lords on
tbe 24th of March, 1859. After this, for a nomber of years,
the mail service to Australia was exclusively in the hands of
the P. and O.
On tbe 17tb of November, 1S69, the Suez Canal was
opened. It is strange to look back now to the incredulity
which prevailed iu England as to the prospect of that under-
taking ever reaching a BUccessful issue, and ever becoming,
even in a minor degree, the channel of maritime communica-
tion between the East and the West. Its success was
generally disbelieved in up to the very day when a fleet of
vessels steamed through its course from the Mediterranean to
the Ked Sea. It would be impossible to keep the sand out;
it wonld soon silt up; — all kinds of obstacles and difficulties
were said to render tbe achievement impossible, and the
very utmost that people ventured to admit was that it might
perhaps become some day a channel for the transport of
inerchandise, in barges, in competition with the Egyptian
Uailway. The fallacy of these prognosticatious was very early
made to appear, and the Suez Canal quickly revolutionized
the entire maritime commerce of the East.
The Post Ofliee utterly opposed the Canal, and Mr. Glad-
stone's Government, in 1870, altogether declined to allow
that route to be adopted for the mails unless the P. and 0.
Company would consent to a very large reduction of the mail
I subsidy. To this the P. and 0. very naturally objected, and
the Post Office, therefore, on its part, objected to the mails
being taken through the Canal. For nearly two years, there-
fore, the mails were aotmlly landed at Aleiandiva, aui. ^eie
F
■ totvi&i
H throui
P Suez,
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
i
foTffBrded across Egypt Id the old way, the steamer going
through the Canal, and re-embarking the identical mails at
Suez, a proceeding which the Post 0£Bce had no power
to prevent, but which was regarded with the utmost di^
favour.
The thing was so manifestly absurd that at last
arrangement was come to bj which the Company was allowed!
to take the mails through the Canal, but only in cousideratioB'
of their relinquishing the sum of £20,000 a year out of the
amount of the subsidy. The opposition of the £nglia]i
GoTemment to the Canal was, however, not yet at an end:
and in 1886, Mr. Crladstone being again iu power, fresh'
tenders were invited for the whole of the India and Chink
mails, it being made an essential part of the contract that^
the transit of the mails should be carried on exclusively by
the Overland Boute from Alexandria, and not through the
Suez Canal. \Vhile submitting tenders in accurdanoe wiUi
these conditions of the Post Office, the Directors of the
Peninsular and Oriental Company felt that the time had now
really come when the 8uez Canal should be made the
exclusive route for the mails, and that the transhipmeuts i
and quarantine drawbacks involved by the land transpotti
should be definitely abolished; and at last they induced the
Government to acquiesce in this arrangement, and to witfa^
draw their condition that the mails should be sent overIand;i
since which time the Suez Canal has been the regular mail<
route to the East.
Immediately after the opening of the Canal, the P. and O.
put on some larger ships built specially for the tbrongh
service. Perhaps the finest of these was the Khedive, boilt in
1871, by Messrs. Caird and Company, of Greenock, by whom'
her engines were also constcucted, at a total cost of £110,000,
or a little more than £33 per ton, builder's measurement.
The contract times for the transit of the Eastern mails
from Loudon at present in operation are as follows: —
IndiamatlB Bombay, 161 days.
ChiD&maila Shanghai, 371 days.
Australian maila Melbourne, 35^ ^ys.
That we have not yet reached yetfectiou, and that the times
REGULATIONS IN THE P. AND O. SERVICE IS7
of tmttsit of the Torious mails to the East may with advantage
be Btill farther reduced, will be aeen from the following
taMe:—
Atkeaqe or THE Last Tbreb Yeabs.
iM betaa brr Hms.
Uelbonme
Bbtnghai
Bombt7
Brindisi (homewEinl)
156
153
42
Thns ont of 468 mail deliveries during the lost three
years, only eleven inatancefl occur in which the mails have
been late ; whilst, on the other hand, 457 mails were delivered
oonfiiderably in advance of the contract time.
It will be interesting to note the following extracts taken
from the official " Book of Regulations " and " Circulars "
for " the safe and efficient navigation of the Peninsular and
Oriental Steam Navigation Company's steamships:" —
" The Coiamander is respOOHible for the aafe and efficient navigation of his
stiip ; for internal diaciplino, and the comfort and satiafection of the pasaeugore ;
br receiving and detivoring of cargo, and all questiona arisiog thereon. He
«i!l tAke care that the several offioeni under hie command are acqaainted with
Vane R^alationB, and will remember that although Uie Engineers and other
Officere on board may have epecifio, and to some extent, independent dntioB
«iitnuted to them, jet that ht will bo held respondblo by the Board for the
mb'rc management of hiR ship, and for the proper and efficient diachai^ of
tbeir duties by the Beveral Ofiicers of all departmoats. On the otlicr hand,
iho Officera, En^neers, and all others bomo on the ship's books, must dis-
lioctly nndentand that they are in all respects subject to the control and
orders of the Commander, and that leave of absence, in all cases, can only be
puit«d by the Commander, or the Commanding OfBccr for tbo time being,
ud ihe retom to duty mnst bo reported in like manner.
" The Chief Opxr^—hi Boa, the Directors hold the Chief Officer jointly
'c^xmnble with the Commander for the safe navigation of the ship, as well
M for any accident by stranding, or otherwise ; it is, therefore, hia dnty to be
t* llw alert when the ship is making the land, or in narrow waters.
"Navigation. — The ship is never to be left without an OfBcer in charge of
* That is, once a fortnight; tlie alternative weekly mail being now taken by
Hie ateaiaera of the Orient Line, who now share the moil contract with the
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
the deck, ehher at xen nr in bftrbonr. At Hen the Officer In cha^e » to ietf
his watch on ihc upper briilgs, and when oo dut; is not to convene wilk
any person, or allow hia attention to bo diverted irom his work. In com ht
betievoB tho ahip to be running into danger, it is kia duty to iict at onu
bia ow:i judgment, and take the necessary precaationaiy measores; be will,
however, immediately, pass the word to call the Commander. No Officer ia
on any oocaaion to leave the deck during his watch, nor until be ia reUeTeil
of hifl duty.
" With a view of providing for greater security, and to lessen the risk of
collision, when the Company's vessels are navigating the English Chumel,
between a meridian lice drawn from UKhant to the Lixard, and Qrav«seDd,
when crossing to any CoatJnentaJ Port, or using the Irish or North Su
ChannelH, between any ports there Hitoated and the Thames, &» Offleera u
to be divided into two watches for the purpose of look-out, etc., but only the
Commander or Chief Officer will be recogniied as in charge of the ship, and
one of those Officers is to be on the bridge, no matter whether there ia i
pilot on board or not.
" Whenever a ship is in the vicinity of land — as, for eiami^e, the Qnlf of
Suez, Straits of Qlbraltar, or Malacca, or running along the coast, socb ai
the coast of Spain and Portugal, Malabar Coast, and Ceylott — Uien oulj
two watches shall be kept, or, in other words, the dnty shall be carried
on watch and watch, the Chief Officer in chai^ of one, and the Seoocd
Officer the otitor, as provided for in the Elnglish Channel by the preSMit
Regnlations.
" On approaching port, or when in narrower waters than the abovc~-at, for
example, tlio Slxails of Perim, Bonifacio, or Mestna — then all haads sfasJl be on
deck and at stations for the purpose of ensuring a proper and efficient
look-out.
" A most careful and vigilant look-out is to be kept at all times, both by
day and night By day there must always bo one man on (he look-oot
forward, under every circumetauce of time and place. At night an A.B.
and one Lascar forward, and a Lascar on the bridge, who are to oall their
stations when the bcU is struck. This latter r^ulatton is to be ooiried oat
also by day when the weather is thick or foggy, or extra precaution ia
desirable from the proximity of land, or shipping, or steaming in na
waters. A look-out man is to be kept at the mast-head when in the vie
of land, reefs, or shoals, and when any lights, or other leadiog marks oi
line of route are expected to be made, either by day or night
" A prudent bcrtli is to be giveu to all headlands, islands, shoals, and tlw '
coast generally, and the Commaaders are particularly enjoined, on neariog
the land, or in places of intricate navigation, to take frequent croa-bearingp
of any well-defmed landmarks that may be visible, and suitable for vending
the ship's positiotL Should the weather be either so dark, or so thick, as to
obscore the usual landmarks, and tbe exact place of the ship nut be accurately
and unmistakably known, the engines must be eased, and, if necessary, ■
slopped, and the lead kept going.
"The Directors desire to impress on the Commanders and Officers iha
great Importance they attach to the use of the lead ; not only must it bo used *
on entering or lenving port, but at night, and in thick weather ; whenever the
land IB being approached, or the ahip ia in prozimitj of danger. The nee of
the lead must not be confined to oocaaions where doubt aa to the position of
the ship may exist, but must be employed to verify the supposed place, even
Then there \a every reason to presame that tho same is correctJy kaowo."
^' The total present fleet of the P. and 0. Company is 53 shipa,
with a total register tonnage of 142,320 tons.
The P. and 0. has not, any more than any of the other
great steamship companies, been entirely exempt from
casualties, although upon the whole they have been exceed-
ingly fortunate. Of recent years, perliaps, one of their worst
misfortunes was the total loss of their steamer Bolluira, a ship
of 2944 tons, and 2500 horse-power, which in 1893, in the
midst of a typhoon, struck on the dangerous rocks which
surround the Pescadores, a group of islands near Formosa, in
the China seas, and foundered with all on board, only seven
Europeans and sixteen Lascars escaping alive. The survivors
foimd shelter in a deserted hut on the island, where they
managed to subaiat for a fow days. Evcntnally the Mandarin
at Makung heard of the wreck, and of the fact that there
were a few survivors, and he accordingly sent for them, re-
ceiving them in splendid style, giving them champagne,
excellent food, and new clothes. The whole party, in fact,
lived for three days "like fighting cocks" at the Mandarin's
expense. A steamer then took them to Faiwan Foo, and
ultimately they got to Hong-Kong on board H.M.S. Porpoise.
In recognition of the friendly ofScea of the Mandarin of
the Pescadores, the English Government presented him with a
valuable piece of plate, and the presentation was publicly
made to him on the quarter-deck of the Porpoise, a large
body of Chinese being invited to witness the ceremony.
Their worst disaster of still more recent years was the
total loss of the Aden, which occurred off the island of
Socotra, at the mouth of the Gulf of Aden, in 1897. The
yidev, Captain K. E. Hill, R.N.R, left Yokohama on the
23rd of April, 1897, with a number of passengers and a
valuable cargo, calling at Colombo, which port she left on
the 1st of June. She was a steel ship, built at Middlesborough
in 1892, 366 feet in length, with a net registered tonnage of
2517 tons, her gross tonnage being 4200 tons; and she was
i
i6o THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
fitted with triple-expansion engines wcxrking up to 3000
horse-power. The Aden was not one of the first-dass msil-
boatSy but was what is termed an ^ intermediate boat,** oanrying
some passengers, but relying principally on carga She
carried six ordinary boats and three lifeboatSy besides other
life-saving appliances ; she had a crew of 83 all told, of whom
23 were Europeans and 60 Lascars ; and upon this ocoasioii had
84 passengers on board.
The Aden had banker capacity for 470 tons of ooal, and as*
great part of this had been bomt daring the passage ftom
Yokohama, she filled ap with coal at Colombo, taking on
board an extra 75 tons, which was for the most part phoad
on deck. These extra coals were taken on board in order to
avoid calling at Aden, vessels teaching at that port being at
that time sabject to quarantine. Having finished ooaling at
four o'clock in the afternoon of the 1st of Jane, the Adm left
Colombo for Havre and London.
Owing to very bad weather in crossing the Arabian Sea, on
the 5th and 6th of June, there being a strong south-west
monsoon and a very heavy sea, it became necessary to lower
the coal on deck ; and in order to get the coal into the bunkers,
the ship was brought head to sea at half speed on Monday
morning, the 7th, so as to enable her to ride as easily as
possible while the coal was being shifted. As soon as this
work was completed, which was next day, full speed was
resumed, the ship's course being altered more to tiie north,
with the object of passing to the north of the island of Socotia.
After leaving Colombo the weather had been so bad that no
observations had been possible until Tuesday, the 8th, when
the ship's position was ascertained. At about 2.30 aju. on
Wednesday, June 9th, the weather being then very bad, and
the night pitch dark, the ship struck heavily. The water at
once began to pour into the engine-room and the stoke-hold,
and in ten minutes the fires were extinguished and the electric
light went out, the cabins and the saloon being filled with
steam. Blue lights were burned and rockets discharged, and
the boats were got ready for lowering as soon as daylight
should appear.
All the boats on the weather aide were destroyed by the
LOSS OF THE
heftvy seas breaking over the ship, and attention waa <
trated on those to leeward. One of the starboard boats on
being lowered was struck by a sea, and broke adrift with three
lascars in her. The chief officer, seeing this, jumped overboard
and swam to recover her. The second oflScer was then sent
in the cutter to recover the chief officer and the boat; but
the fury of the wind and the tremendous seas swept both
boats away, end neither of them was ever seen again.
Only one lifeboat, forward, on the starboard side, now
remained, and this, with the third officer in it, was lowered to
the rail, so as to embark the passengers, but continuous heavy
seas pouring over the ship from windward carried away the
after fall, and swept everybody out. The fourth officer let go
the foremost fall, slid down and unhooked it, and so the boat
righted. He then swam after the stewardess, who had been
washed out of the boat, and got her on board again, the thin!
officer saving two other non-swimmers.
The boat was again manned by the third and fourth officers,
the surgeon, three stewards, the carpenter, and some lascars;
and seventeen of the passengers, all ladies and children,
were then lowered down into her. The order was issued — " No
husbands in that boat" — -so that some of the ladies absolutely
refused to go, preferring to remain on the ship with their
husbands rather than be separated from them at that terrible
moment.
As the boat could not possibly remain alongside for a minute
longer than was absolutely necessary, the captain ordered her
to shove off at once, and to make for the laud, which by this
time was visible through the mist and spray. All on board
the wreck anxiously watched the boat as she rose on the crests
of the great waves. Twelve were pulling, apparently with all
their strength, but instead of nearing the land, she was gradu-
ally being carried away from it by the tremendous force of the
storm. She was visible until she was about a mile and a hall'
off, and then was lost to sight in the gloom and haze. After
this she was never seen or heard of again.
The captain, the third and fourth engineers, and seventeen
of the passengers, together with the greater part of the
iascars, remained on board the ship, the former taking refuge
r
I
ifil THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
omidabips, of whom eight were, one by one, washed amy;
whilst the lascars crowded together in the fore part of tha
vessel.
After the boat left the ship the weather became, if possible,
worse, and from early morning on the 9tb until four o'clock in
the afternoon green seas kept coatinually pouring over tha
ship. One of these seas caught the captain, dashing him over
to leeward, and breaking his leg in two places ; and before
any one could go to his assistance another great sea came and
washed him away altogetheT.
For seventeen days the survivors, Europeans and lascai^
remained upon the wreck, which was firmly Used on the rocks,
a mile south-east of Bas fiadressa, at the eastern extremity of
the island of Socotra, an island which is 70 miles long and 25
broad. During this time several steamers were seen to pass,
and the lascars did all they could to signal them ; but
either the signals were not seen, or the weather was too bad
for a vessel safely to approach the scene of the disaster;
the consequence being that these people were left on the
wreck until the 26th of .Tune, when they were ultimately
rescued by the Mayo, a G^verament steamer, which, with two
P. and O. steamers, the BoAilla, and the Ili/daspes, had been
sent out to look for the Aden, and to render any EissistaQCS
that might be required.
The whole of the lied Sea, although the highway for in-
numerable ships, is very insufficiently lighted, if it can be said
to be lighted at all ; and the need of some kind of a light on
Cape Guardefui, or ou Socotra, has long been urged upon tha
authorities. A correspondent of the Tiiaes, writing shortly
after the Adert disaster, quoted a remark of the captain of the
Orient IJner Orizaba, who once said, "They never will put a
light on Socotra until some F. and 0. boat has been lost there."
This condition has now been fulfilled.
Since the loss of the Adf^i the P. and O. have suffered
another very heavy blow in the total loss of the China, one of
their newest, largest, and finest boats, which was put ashore uff
the island of Perim at the entrance of the Bed Sea. Fortn*
nately upon this occasion no lives were lost, so that it was s
matter which chiefly concerned the shareholders of the Company
DESTRUCTION OF THE " GANGES *' 163
id the oaptain^ whose certificate was dealt with by the
rart of Inquiry, held after the wreck.* More recently still
-that is to say, on July 1, 1898, another of their large
eamerSy the Cfanges, was bomt in the harbour at Bombay, so
lat during the last year or two the P. and 0. would appear to
aye had their full share of misfortunes.
* See the Ck>mpany*8 Begnlation, page 158, '* On approaching port, etc.**
in September, 1898, the Ohinaf which had been ashore, and full of water, for
yver three months, was snccessfiilly got off the rocks, and taken into the
laibonr of Perim, to be temporarily repaired, preparatory to sending her to
l64 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
CHAPTER Xin.
The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company — Commencement of tlie Compaoy—
The first subsidy — ^The first year's balance-eheet— The first shipe— TIm
amomit of the subsidy reduced— The Toumanian — ^Disasters among tiis
fleet— The loss of the Amazon — ^Further disasters— The recent mafl
contracts — ^The present fleet— Freights— Treasure and qpecie.
The Boyal Mail Steam Packet Oompany, perhaps moie
generally known as the West India Maily was started in 1839,
the Charter of Incorporation being dated September 26th of
that year ; it is consequently one of the oldest of the existing
steam-packet companies. It runs two lines of steamers firom
Southampton, one fortnightly to the West Indies and Central
America ; the other, once a fortnight, to Brazil and the River
Plate.
In March, 1841, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company
entered into a contract with the Government for the convey-
ance of the mails between England and the West Indies ; and
they commenced business upon a larger scale than any other
company had ventured to do up to that time. They began
with fourteen large steamships, representing a tonnage of
25,000 tons, all of them being fitted with engines of not less
than 400 horse-power.
The conditions of the contrtu5t between the Company and
the Government were for a fortnightly mail service to the
island of Barbadoes, via Corunna and Madeira. After staying
at Barbadoes not longer than six hours, the steamer was to
proceed, viu St. Vincent, to Grenada, where the stoppage was
not to exceed twelve hours ; and from thence the course was
to be via St. Thomas, Hayti, Santiago-de-Cuba, to Port Royal,
Jamaica. At Port Royal a longer stay was not to be made
^ban twenty'four hours ; and ttie stoejxieit ^%a ^Jck^XL to proceed
THE ROYAL MAIL
to Havana. For this mail service the Company was to receive
£240,000 a year for ten years, from the lat of January, 1842.
Large oa this subsidy appears, yet from the total inexperi-
ence of the directors in the management of steamships, and
from the fact that the commanders of the steamers were, for
the most part, naval oEdcera, who knew but little of steam,
and nothing whatever of the requirements of a merchant ship,
the first year's balance-sheet showed a deficit uf no less than
£79,790 !
The first steamer carrying the mail under this contract was
the Iliames, which left Falmouth on the 3rd of January, 1842 ;
and she was followed at intervals of a fortnight by the Dee,
the Medway, the Tcviol, and the Trent. For eight years the
Royal Mail ran only to the West Indies, but in 1850, upon
the Company undertaking to provide a monthly mail service
to Brazil, to accelerate the speed of the West Indian line from
eight knots an hour to ten knots, and to add five new steamers
to their fleet, each of 2250 tons, and 800 horse-power, the
Government granted a renewal of the mail contract for another
ten years, with the annual subsidy increased from £240,000 to
£270,000.
After a time a public outcry was raised against such large
sums being annually paid to the Royal Mail Company for the
mail service, and several members of the House of Commons
insisted upon the matter being thrown open to public compe-
tition. The directors, seeing clearly that one of two things
would happen ; either that they would have to do the work for
less money, or that they would lose it altogether, adopted the
former alternative, and in 1874, accepted an annual subsidy
of £86,750, being considerably less than a third of what they
were receiving in 1850.
The Company at the some time resolved to maintain a higher
state of efficiency in their fleet, and determined to build some
new steamers which should attain a higher rate of speed than
any of their existing ships ; and in the year 1871, the Tagus
and the Moselle were launched from the yard of Messrs. John
Elder and Co. The Tatjus, which was a vessel of 2789 tons,
and 600 horse-power, attained a mean speed of 148 knots per
hour on her trial trip; whibt the Moselle, a sister ship, of 32QQ
iM THE BRITISH MERCHAWT SERVICE ■
tons, BOrpaseed her, Laviug made 14'9 knots per hour as the
Bverage of four runs over the measured mile.
About the same time the Company purchased the Tasm<mian,
an iron screw-steamer, from the unfortunate European and
Australian Steam Navigation Company.* This steamer, whicJi
in 1871, was fitted by Messrs. John Elder and Co. with new
compound engines, made her first voyage to St. Thomas in 338
hours (14 days 2 hours) with a consumption of only 466 tons
of coal, although before she was newly engined she consmned
1088 tons of coal on a run of 349 hours,
The steamers of the Eoyal Mail Steam Packet Company were
all exceptionally strongly built, with a view to their carr3ring
heavy guns, and that they might, should war arise, with very
little cost be made serviceable for the purposes of the Royal
Navy. In spite, however, of their being provided with fine ships,
the Company was singularly unfortunate, losing in the first ten
years of its existence no less than seven large steamers. The
first catastrophe was the loss of the Ids, off Bermuda, on the
8th of October, 1842. This was succeeded, on the 15th of
April of the following year, by the loss of the Solway, twenty
miles to the west of Corunna, when the captain, some of the
officers, crew, and passengers, sixty in all, were lost. The
third ship was the Medina, which was wrecked on the 12th of
May, 1844, on a coral reef near Turk Island, in the Bahamas.
The fimrth ship was the Ticeed-, which was lost on the 12th of
February, 1847, on the Alicranes reef, off Yucatan, in the Gulf
of Mexico. Her crew and passengers amounted upon that
occasion to 151 persons, of whom 72 were drowned. On the
1st of February, 1849, the Forth, which was one of the largest
steamers of the Company, being of 1900 tons, and 450 horae-
^lower, was totally lost on the same reef; and in 1850, the
Actwon was wrecked off Carthagena. But perhaps the most
terrible catastrophe of all that befell the Royal Mail Steam
Packet Company was the loss of the Amazon, which occurred
in 1852.
The Amazon was built by Messrs. R. and H. Green Bt
Blackwall in 1851. She was the largest wooden merchant
ship that had been constrncted up to that time, being 300
• Sec tlie reference to this Company iii the preceding chapter.
feet long, 41 feet beam, and 32 feet in depth. She was 2256
tons register, and was, like all her predecessors, a paddle-
wheel steamer. Her engines, constructed by Seaward and
Cape!, of Millwall, were of 800 horae-power, the diameter of
the cylinders being 9tJ inches, and the stroke 9 feet. The
paddle-wheels were 41 feet in diameter, and made fourteen
rcTolutions per minute, giving a speed by log of 11 knots
per hour on her trial trip.
When Hurreyed by the Admiralty previous to her departure
from Southampton, she was reported capable of carrying, in
case of being wanted for warlike purposes, fourteen 32-poiinder8,
and two 10-inch pivot-guns of 85 cwt. each, on her main deck.
Her coal-bunkers were constructed to carry 1000 tons of coal ;
and as she was reckoned to bum 60 tons a day in her 26
furnaces, it was calculated that she would carry over sisteen
and a half days' supply, if she were going at full speed. She
Has magnificently fitted up, and had cost, when ready for sea,
Bthet over £100,000.
On Friday, the 2nd of January, 1852, the Amazon, under
the command of Captain Symons, left Southampton for the i
West Indies, with a crew of 110, together with 50 passengers, "
and & large and valuable cargo. She was to go direct to St. j
ThnniES, at which point branch packets were to meet her for J
the Torious West India Islands, and for the Gnlf of Mexico. 1
On the day after she left Southampton, while steaming at I
the rate of nine knots in the teeth of a strong gale from the j
Booth-west, some of the bearings of the engines showed signs
of heating, and twice the engines had to be stopped in order
io cool them, in one instance for over two hours and a half.
After this the engines appeared to work better, and showed
10 farther signs of heating. But the next day, at midnight,
'then the ship was about 110 miles west-south-west of the
Scilly Islands, the watch on deck discovered, to their dismay,
that a fire had broken out suddenly, on the starboard side,
forward, between the steam-chest and the galley, the flames
at once rushing up the gangway in front of the forward
funnel.
The alarm-bell was at once sounded, and immediately
Captain Symons and the officers were on deck, W\> oi^'^ Vs
\6S THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
find that the flames were being spread by the gale in eTery
direction, and that already the fire was far beyond anything
that buckets of water or wet blankets could do to allay it.
Unfortunately, it was some little time before the fire-pmnpa
could be rigged, and meanwhile the fury of the fire re-
mained entirely unchecked.
The greatest terror and confusion ensued. Passengers
and crew rushed on deck in the wildest dismay ; and to make
matters worse, the fire and the smoke had driven the engineers
from the engine-room, so that the engines conld not be
stopped, and the Amazon waa dashing through the waves at
full speed, which with the strong gale that was blowing,
caused the fire to rage with additional fierceness.
Recourse was now had to the boats, of which there were nine
on boEird, five of them being lifeboats; but, as is too often
the case, they were not clear, and could not easily he lowered.
Two of the largest boats were stowed on the top of the
eponsons, just where the fire was at its worst, and they could
not even be got at. The mail-boat was lowered, and was
instantly filled, five and twenty people crowding into her;
but before ahe could get away from the ship she was swamped,
and the whole of her occupants were drowned. The pinnace,
when lowered, sheered across the sea before the people in her
could unhook the fore-tackle, and they too, were all washed
out and drowned, except two men who clung to the thwarts,
and were able to scramble back to the ship. The boat itself,
which hung by the single tackle, was soon afterwards dashed
to pieces against the sides of the ship.
At last, by great efforts, fomteen of the crew and two of
the passengers sncceeded in lowering one of the starboard life-
boats, and managed to get clear of the ship ; whilst nineteen
of the crew and six of the passengers got away in another.
A young midshipman named Vinceut, the chief steward, one
young lady passenger, and two sailors, managed to lower the
dinghy, and so escape. These forty-six persons were all that
were saved out of a hundred and sixty-one who had left
Southampton in the Amazon only two days previously.
Between three and four o'clock in the morning the main-mast
of the vessel fell over to starboard, and almost immediately
i
f
PRESENT SHIPS OF THE ROYAL MAIL 169
Bl'terwards the fore-mast went over to port. The mizeu-
maet and the two fuimels were still standing, but the ship
WIS then simply one great furnace. Even then, at the
extreme end of the jib-boom, was seen one poor fellow
clinging on, but he, too, soon after perished. At five o'clock
the gunpowder in her magazine exploded; and in about a
(juarter of an hour later the mizeu-mast went over the side,
and the Amazon weut down how foremost, the funnels still
standing, but red hot.
Besides the loss of the Amazon the Company received
another heavy blow in the loss of the Demcrara, which was
stranded at Bristol ; while still more recently, — in 1886 — one
uf their steamers, the ffumber, left Southamptouon the 1st of
December, for Brazil, with a crew of 56 hands and a number
of passengers, and was never again heard of.
The Company are their o\¥n underwriters, and even in
«pite of all these disasters the insurance fund has proved a
furly remunerative one for the shareholders, who have
received nearly fifty per cent, of the amounts transferred to
it; in other words, the Company have done fifty per cent.
better than insuring outside.
A new West Indian contract for five years was commenced
on July 1, 1880, the subsidy being £80,000 per annum.
Ill 16S5, it was renewed for £90,00U a year. In 1890, it was
Bgain renewed for five years' at £85,000 ; whilst in 1895 another
five years* contract was taken at £80,000 a year.
At the present time the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company
owns twenty-two fine steamers, representing a tonnage of
nearly 80,000 tons; the most recent addition to the fleet
being the Nile, an extremely handsome ship, of 5946 tons,
and 7500 indicated horse-power. She is employed in the
Brazilian service, to Rio de Janeiro and the river Plate, as
also is her sister ship, the Barmbe. There are six arrivals and
sii departures each month, four being mail steamers — the fort-
nightly mail to the West Indies and the fortnightly mail to
'te Brazils, and two what are called intermediate boats.
The Company has a large passenger and freight trade from
England, and there is a large emigration trade from, tk*
Spanish and Portuguese peninsula to Brazil aud t^e ^vsei
I70 THE BRmSH MBKCHANT SULVICB
Plate. FieightB, however, as is the case with erevy othei
line of steamen, axe very low now oompaied with what thej
nsed to be. For what, in 1850, the Oompaay woce gettinj
seren or eight pounds a ton, they aie now getting about thirt]
shillings. The same remark applies equally to treasoxe sac
to specie, the trade being cut intcs not oolj by other EngUd
oompanies, bat also by foreign tobsoIs. About 1865^ a Franeli
line of steamers was started to the West Indies, and later
on a French line to Braiil, and the Biyer Plate, both heavily
subsidised bythe French Govemment; so that as a role then
is now, besides the Boyal Mail boats, a large steamer fin
Europe arriving in Bio de Janeiro nearly every day. Mat
of the treasure and specie came £rom the PaciAe ports norlk
and south of Panama, and from the Oulf of Mezioo. Ihe
greater part was silver, and the rate of freight was over oni
per cent, so that it was exceedingly remunerative; now tlM
rate is not half that, whilst at the same time the amoimt d
silver coming to this country is nothing like what it ussd to
be ; the great bulk of the silver going now to San FrandM^
and thence across the Pacific to China and Japan.
In September, 1860, one of the West India boats arrived
in Southampton with treasure to the value of £1,248,000.
The weight was 156 tons 5 cwt., and the money and ban d
silver were contained in 2124 packages, which filled thirty-
six waggons, drawn by a hundred and thirteen horses fioiB
Nine Elms to the Bank of England.
THE ORIENT LINE
CHAPTER XIV.
The Orient Line— The early ahipa— The Orient— The present Ceet— The
, Ophir — Aurilinry ateaniBhipa — The Union Steamship Company — The
V firetsMps— Their present fleet — The Scot — The lengthening of the Seot —
K The A'ot-nwji— The Brifoti— Tho Castle Lino— The BlearoerH of the
" Castle Lbe— The loss of the Drummond CasUt — Tlio Allan Line— The
White Star Line— The American Line— The Inraan Line — Other great
sleamship lines.
The trade to the Mediterraoeaa and to tlie AuBtralian
Colonies by way of the Suez Caniil was clearly of far too
valuable a nature to be left very long exclusively to tbe P.
and O. ; and in 1877, the two well-known shipping firms of
Anderson, Anderson and Co., and F. Gieen and Co., started
a new line of steamers to Australia under the name of tbe
Orient Line, and the first steamship to leave London under
the new flag of tbe Orient Steam Navigation Company was
the Garoimt.
Besides the Garonne, the other original steamers of the new
Company were the Lvsitania. the Cluinborazo, and tbe Cuzco,
ships previoualy employed in the trade between Liverpool and
the Pacific ports of South America. Tbe Ouzco waa built in
1870, by the firm of John Elder and Co., and the Chimboraso,
a sister ship, was launched from the same yard in 1871. The
Gannnie waa also built in 1871, but by Eobert Napier and Sons.
These ships were all very much alike, and although large for
their time, yet look small now, when seen in proximity to tbe
much larger ships of the present day. They were each 370
feet in length between perpendiculars, 41 feet beam, end
35 feet depth of hold, and were all of about 3850 tons, gross
tonnage. They used to make tbe voyage from Liverpool to
Valparaiso in forty-two days.
i
173 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
These comparatively small veasela were very soon supple-
mented, and afterwards entirely superseded, by mach larg«i
and faster ebips, the first to be placed on the line being the
Oj-ient. She was built aiid engined on the Clyde by Meois.
Elder and Co. Her principal dimensions are : length between
perpendiculars, 445 feet ; breadth, 46 feet ; depth, 36 feet 10
inches; gross tonnage, 5385 tons; and displacement weight
9500 tons. Her engines are of 550O indicated horse-power,
and her average speed at sea is 14^ knots.
The Orient has four masts, three iron decks, and is divided
by bulkheads into thirteen water-tight compartments. She
can carry, in addition to 3000 tons of Welsh coal for her own
consumption, 3600 tons of measurement cargo. She has
passenger accommodation for 120 first-class, 140 second-class,
and 300 third-class passengers. If she were required as a
transport, and was entirely devoted to troops, the Orienl could
convey 3000 men and 400 horses, with all their proper stores,
at one and the same time.
The Orient is fitted with compound engines, having three
cylinders — one high-pressure cylinder of 60 inches diameter,
and two low-pressure cyliiLders, each of 85 inches diameter.
The propeller is four-bladed, the diameter of the screw being
22 feet, and the pitch 30 feet. The steam is supplied by four
boilers, each 15 feet 6 inches in diameter by 17 feet 6 inches
long. The vessel is fitted with steam steering-gear, steam
windlass, five steam winches, and has in all sixteen separate
steam-engines for different purposes on board.
The present mail fieet of the Orient Line consists of nine
ships, with an aggregate register tonnage of 28,066 tons ; some
of the ships, however, sailing under the Orient flag — as, for
example, the Oroya, the Oruba, and others — belong to the
Pacific Steam Navigation Company, and simply sail in the
Orient Line.
The latest addition to the Orient fieet is the Ofhir, twin-
screw, which, although a larger and much more powerful steamer
than the earlier ship, the QrUiil, is hardly as handsome a
vessel as that ship. She is 3223 tons register, 6900 tons gross,
and her displacement at the load-line is 12,362 tons. B.et
length 18 482 feet ; beam, 5^ teetBmcVea-, «B44«?th,37 feet
1
THE "OPHIR" — ORIENT LINE
She is fitted with triple expaoBion engines, working up to
9500 horse-power. Tiia two sets of engines for working the
twin Bcrewa are placed aide by aide in the ship, with a water-
tight bulkhead mnning fore and aft between them, so that if
fmra collision or any other cause one set of engines were dis-
abled, and one of the engine-rooms full of water, the ship could
still steam ahead with the other set of engines. The high-
pressure cylinder of each engine is 34 inches diameter, the
intermediate cylinder 51i inches, and the low-pressure 85
mches, the stroke being 54 inches. The two screws hare a
pitch of 23 feet 4 inches, and at 102 revolutions made a knot
on the measured mile in 3 minutes 12 seconds, or at the rate
ot 18'75 knots per hour ; but with an average of 82 revolutions
the Ophir steamed from the Cloch Light, in the Clyde, to
Soathend, at the mouth of the Thames, in 48 hours. For 500
milea of this trip she gave a speed of 16 knots, with a coal-
consumption of 110 tons in 24 hours.
The boilers are seven in number, and they work at a pressure
of 160 lbs. to the square inch. They are divided into two
groups, four of the boilers being placed in a compartment next
the engines, while the other three are in a separate boiler-room
thirty feet dbtant, with coal-bunkers between. This arrange-
ment has necessitated the great distance, more than a hundred
feet, between the two funnels. The Ophir has simply two pole-
masts, as, being fitted with twin screws, she is not required by
ihe Board of Trade to carry any canvas. This, of coarse, is
> practical, common-sense arrangement, but not an arrange-
meat at all conducive to the beauty of the ship. As a partial
preventative against rolling, the Ophir is fitted with deep
bilge-keels.
The Orient boats leave the Tilbury Docks for Australia
every other Friday, working the weekly Australian mail alter-
nately with the P. and 0. boats; and for this they receive
from the Government en annual subsidy of £85,000. The
st«amers call at Plymouth to embark the heavy portion of the
mails the day after leaving Tilbury ; four days later the ships
are due at Gibraltar ; and nine days after leaving Tilbury they
UE at Naples, The ships go through the Canal, calling at
L Cokmbc^ and arrire at Albany, Australia, in 33 d&'y& liom ^)&&
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Thames, and Sydney in 48 days. The mails, which tea^e
London a week later than the steamer, and which traTel by
Dover, Calais, and Paris into Italy, are taken on board at
Naples, thus reaching Albany in 32 days from London, and
Adelaide in 36 days ; from whence tbey are sent on by rail U
Sydney.
The Orient Company, when first established, sent their
ships, on the outward passage, round the Cape of Good Hope,
and they came home by the canal ; now they go through the
Canal both going out and coming home.
Before steam had made such progress as it has done during
the last forty years, a kind of compromise was proposed
between steam and sails, resnlting in what were called
auxiliary screws ; and in 1856, Mr. W. 8. Lindsay undertook to
convey in seven steamers of this description the mails between
London and the Cape of Good Hope.
The vessels thus employed were built entirely of iron, and
were ship-rigged ; and as their engines were only &om 80 tu
120 horse-power, nominal, on a tonnage of trom 800 to 1500
tons, gross, they were purely anxiliary steam vessels. Under
sail their speed was from 10 to 11 knots with a favourable
wind, and under steam alone from 6 to 7 knots in light
breezes or calms; but with adverse winds they made little or
no progress, a fact arising in great measure from their small
steam-power, and from the resistance that their heavy spars
presented to the wind, so thut after running for twelve months
these vessels were taken off and the scheme was relinquished.
At the present time two large companies practically divide
the trade between England and the Cape of G^iod Hope, the
Union Steamship Company and the Castle Line, the latter
belonging to Blessrs Donald Currie and Co.
The Union Steamship Company was the first in the field. It
was started in 1853, under the title of the "Union Steam
Collier Company," and commenced business with a fleet of five
steamers, the Briton, the Sax*m, the Union, the Norinan, and the
Dane. In 1857, a contract was obtained for a monthly mail
service to the Cape of Good Hope, for five years, at a subsidy
of £30,000 per annum. The charge made by the Post Office
for canjiag letters at that time to t\iQ C«.^ wea a shilling
t»
THE UNION COMPANY
per half-ouDce, and the contract time between England and
Cape Town was thirty^even days. At the expiration of the
first contract it was renewed, and for some years the Union
Cumpany had a monopoly of the mail service to the Cape ; but
i further extension of their contract in 1868, by Mr. Robert
Lowe, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, met with bo mach
opposition that the House of Commons refused to ratify it, and
the Union Steamship Company's rights were allowed to expire
b 1876.
VVTien the postal contract was renewed in 1876, the mail
aerrice was equally divided between the Union Company and
the Castle Line, which had then been started some three
or four years, an arrangement ever since adhered to, and
rftiently confirmed for a period of seven years dating from
October, 1893, the Post Office charge for letters being reduced
to the uniform rate of 21^(1. the half-ounce, and the contract time
to nineteen days.
After obtaining the mail contract larger vessels were con-
liQually being added to the fleet, eventually entirely super-
seding the original email boats ; the Arab, of 1962 tons
Twister, being in 1870, the largest of the Company's ships.
This steamer was followed by still larger vessels, among them
being the Moor, the Spartan, the Mexican, and others. The
Mrxican, which may be taken as a representative of the rest,
W88 of 2941 tons register, and 600 horse-power, nominal, work-
ing np to 4600 horse-power. Her length was 378 feet,
bread^ 47 feet, and depth 29 feet 3 inches. Her speed
wally averaged 14 knots. Her fastest passage out from
Southampton to Cape Town was 17 days; and her fastest
pwage home from Cape Town to Southampton, 17 days 12
hoars.
Now a new departure was to be taken in the type of ship.
Hitherto, in common with all the lines of ocean steamers, the
vesBels were sailing-ships fitted with engines and ecrew-pro-
pellers; and as a rule they had three masts, with yards on the
Ibie and main masts, the sails being largely relied upon for
the safety of the ship. A new pattern was now to come into
vogne ; and nautical men all allow that it is by vessels of
flffl new type that the greatest triumphs have been won, — the
f76 THE BRmSR BCBRCRAMT SKRVICB;
greatest Tiotoriee oTer time and epaoe. Instead of masli Ikfb
new ships have merely poles, nseAd fbr ■jga^ling pmpiisM
The yessel is not a modified sailing-ship^ bat a sIsnMt
expressly built for going by steam alone^ and not by wind. .
Of sach a type was the Sed, twinHKsrew, lannohed on tht
30th of December, 1860, firom the yard of Meam Demiy,sf
Dumbarton. She was the largest steamer iqp to that
the Cape trade, being of 8169 tras register, fitted with
of 1254 horse-power, nominal, working np to 12,000
power. Her length oyer all was 600 feet, bceadtii 64 ftst 6
inches, and depth 87 feet 6 inches. Her speed waa 17 knots;
her fastest passage oat firom Soathampton being 14 days 11
hoars; and her fiistest home, 18 days 26 hoars.
The performances of the 8eoi were, howerer, not oonsidsnd
entirely satisfiMStory, and in 1896, it was detennined to hais
her cat in half and lengthened. Althongh the eatting ii
half, and the lengthening of a great ship is not altogotkersi
onosoal or by any means a rare oconrrenoe, yet it is not n
eyeryday operation, and as it is one inyolying a oonsidflnfab
amount of skill, care, and nicety, it may be well to describe
the lengthening of the Scot somewhat in detaiL When the
determination was come to that the Scot should be lengthened,
it was decided to send the ship to Messrs. Harland and
Wolff, of Belfietst, who had then just completed the Nomum
for the Union Company, and to have her length incressed
by 54 feet amidships. Messrs. Harland and Wolff engaged
the Alexandra Graving Dock at Bel&st, one of the largest
dry-docks in the world, in which to execute the somewhat
delicate operation of cutting the Scot in two just forward of
the foremost boiler-room bulkhead, hauling the two halTes
asunder, and adding the required 54 feet.
When the ship had been docked, the water was pumped oat
of the dock, and time allowed for the settlement of the ship on
the keel blocks, specially prepared, of hard wood capped with
iron plates. The work was then commenced for moving the
forward part of the hulL Begular launching-ways were laid
underneath the vessel, supported at short intervals on blocks
of timber and wedges extending from amidships to between
Sfty and sixty feet beyond the stem. Thoroughly level and
well'greased blocks of timber in pairs, 18 inches square, were
laid as a base for the cradle, to support the ship and to steady
the whole during the operation of moving. Meanwhile drillers
were hard at work boring out all the rivets in the ahell-plnting,
frames, stringers, etc., in line with the midship water-tight
bulkhead. The stauciiioiis carrying the promenade deck
were also removed »s far aft as the line of separation,
strong shore-timbers being firmly fixed to the edge of this
deck by angle-irons and chains, the lower ends resting on
wedges. The lower edges of the various houses on the
under-deck were then severed by all the rivets being bored
out, chains and screws for tightening being attached at the
bottom to short lengths of angle-iron bolted to a stringer,
their ends being securely bolted to the outer edges of the
framing of the promenade deck.
A cradle was gradually erected under the vessel, and kept
in place at the head by angle-irons at the top and sides
where it touched the hull, rivetted to the skin of the ship ;
and at bottom by stretchers of timber, and chains made fast
to eye-bolls passing through the bottom binder. Strong
chains were sluug from the top binder, passing under the
keel to prevent lateral motion. To enable the hauling-gear
to be attached to the hull a pair of heavy angle-iron bars
were bolted near the keel almost amidships, to which massive
chain cables were connected by shackles, and then led forward
inside the launching ways with hea^-y blocks at the outer
end, through which the hauliug-ropes were rove ; straps of
bar-iron and double angles were bolted to the ship's sides —
four on each side — to which chains and steel hawsers were
attached, further to assist in the hauling. Two steam
winches were placed on each side of the dock-gates bolted
to great logs of timber, and secured to the ground by angle*
bars, and further rendered immovable by some tons of pig-
iron resting on the logs. The winches were supplied with
steam from one of the harbour-commissioners' boilers, these
winches being assisted by a couple of capstans.
Everything being now ready, operations were begun shortly
before ten in the morning, and in an incredibly short space
of time the huge mass of the fore part of the ship, set va
I
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
motion by hydraulic jacks placed inBide amideliips, commenced
to move ahead. The winches and capstans coming into play
kept it going, and in ten minutes the cradle-supports coming,
in contact with the stop-blocks, 54 feet ahead, showed that]
the great undertaking waa successfully completed. It waBi
subsequently found that there had not been the slighteiti
deviation— horizontal or vertical — in the parts moved, thm'
showing how mathematically accurate had been the calculations,
and how adequate the preparations for the operation.
The work of filling in the new portion of the vessel was but
a small matter in comparison with the difficulties attendant
on the cutting asunder and moving the fore part of the ship,
although even here, by means of frames and stringers, every
endeavour was used to make the ship stronger than she
originally was.
On Saturday, July the 18th, 1896, the Scot, fifty-four feet
longer than she was before, left Southampton again for the
Cape.
In November, 189-1, the steel twin-screw steamer Nvr^maji,
the next addition to the Union Company's fleet, sailed on
her first voyage from Southampton to the Cape. She was
built by Messrs. Harland and Wolff, and was, until the
advent of the Bi-iton, the largest ship in the Cape trade.
Her length between perpendiculars is 490 feet; length over
all, 502 feet; beam, 53 feet; depth, 37 feet 6 inches. Her
gross tonnage is 7537 tons; register tonnage, 4005 tons;
and her engines are of 1393 horse-power, nominal. She is built
throughout of steel, and ia fitted with twin screws, each screw
being driven by a separate set of triple expansion engines,
the steam fur which is supplied by seven boilers. The main
shafts are 17^ inches in diameter, and 149 feet in length.
The amount of coal burnt in twenty-four hours when steaming
full speed is 145 tons, the average speed of the ship being from
16 to 17 knots. The Norman is very handsomely fitted np
with all the luxury of the most up-to-date ocean liner ; she
has accommodation for 420 first, second, and third-class
passengers, and is capable of carrying in addition about 4000
tons of cargo. She is painted white externally, and has two
bufT'CoIoured funnels and two pole-masts.
i
1
THE " BRITON — CNION COMPANY 179
It may be mentioned, as affording another instance of the
immense progress that has been made in ocean mail steamers
(luring the last forty years, that in November, 1857, the iirst
JV(»i7ian of this Company left Southampton ftir the Cape,
being only of 460 tons burden, having accommodation for
20 passengers, and carrying in addition 500 tons of cargo.
Her average rate of steaming was 7 knots, and she usually
made the passage to the Cape in 42 days. The present
Noniian has made the passage from Southampton to the
Cspe in 14 days 21 hours, thus keeping up an average speed
during the whole passage of 16-75 knots per hour.
The most recent ship of the Union Company is the Briton,
a twin-screw of 10,248 tons. She is 530 feet long, and 60
feet beam, and is the largest and finest vessel which has ever
connected England with South Africa. She is entirely
constructed of steel, of which no less than 5600 tons were
used in her hall alone ; the frames number 214, whilst many
of the plates are 29 feet long by 4 feet 6 inches in width,
varying in thickness from JJ of an inch to l^Ly inches.
There is a doable bottom extending the whole length of
the ship capable of taking 1300 tons of water ballast, and
she is fitted with nine water-tight steel bulkheads extending
from the floor of the ship to the upper deck.
The Briton has accommodation for 280 first-class passengers,
182 second-class, and a large number of third-class passengers,
whilst her officers and crew, including deck-hands, engineers,
and firemen, stewards, cooks, waiters, and the like, number no
less than 240. Her fitting-up is of the most luxorioos
description, so that below deck she is really more like a large
first-class hotel than a ship, all the marvels of the np-
bobterer's and the decorator's arts having been called into
feqnisition.
The ship is lighted throughout by electricity. Her side and
tuaathead lights are electric, and electric lights are fitted to all
tte holds for working cargo by night, bo that in all respects
tlw Briton may be considered as a vessel entirely up to date.
1
L
The Caatle Line commenced operations iu 1812., ■w\\)tt I'wq
»teafflan% the IceiaTid and the Gothlandy bot'h veasela o^ e^MsaX.
l8o THE BRITISH MBRCHAIIT 8XRVICB
1400 tons. In 1878, an anangement was oome to with the
Gape Parliament for a mail aerrioe between Oape Town and
England, and an allowanoe was made to the Oaatle Line Cor
the oonTeyanoe of the mail% with an additional bonns of £100
per diem for their deliTery within the etipolated period of
87 days, a oonceadon whioh resulted in a net gain to the
Company of abont a thooaand pounds a voyage. From 1872»
to 1876, the Castle Company's fleet still eonaisted of ody
the two Teasels, with a united tonnage of 2800 tons; at tiM
present time it consists of no less than seventeen laxge shipe^
with an aggregate tonnage of 06,086 tona. One of the latest
additions to Sir Donald Cnrrie's fleet is the ZTmieiyiaift CSuti^
boilt by the Fairfield Shipboilding Company, she being the
eighth steamer for the Castle Line boilt at the FisMeld
works. Her gross tonnage is 6068 tons; her length over all
is 465 feet ; breadth, 61 feet ; and depth, 86 feet. TheTeHdis
rigged with three masts, being sqnaie-iigged on the fotemast
The hnU is of steel thronghont, bnilt under speoial sorrey
to class 100 Al at Lloyds. She has a cellular double-bottom
fore and aft arranged for carrying water ballast, and is subdivided
into separate compartments by ten water-tight bulkheads
carried np to the upper deck. There are three decks in all,
two of which are steel-plated, and there is a very long fore-
castle, which with the promenade bridge and the poop forms
practically a fourth deck.
Accommodation is proyided, in addition to that for the
ship's complement numbering 187 persons, for 880 first and
second-class passengers, and 130 third-class. The yessel is
fitted with triple expansion engines, the steam for which is
supplied by five boilers of the multitubular marine type,
with, in all, twenty-six furnaces, and there is one large funneL
The Dunvegan Castle, in common with all the boats of the
Castle Line, is painted externally a delicate French grey,
with a red funnel with black top.
Among very many recent additions to the Castle Line is
the Tint€igel GasUe, a particularly handsome single-ecrew
steamer of 5531 tons. She is 440 feet in length, 50 feeU
beam, and 33 feet depth of hold. She has a straight stem and.
elliptical stem, and is rigged witb icmt maiXa, vogoAa^^^g^gi^^
THE CASTLE UNE i8i
on the foremast, and she carries fore and aft canvas on the other
three. She is fitted with triple expansion engines, the steam
for which is snpplied by fonr tubular steel boilers. Her
average rale of speed kept up all the passage is 134 knots,
not being, of course, at so high a rate as that of the mail boats,
the Tintagel Castle being what is known as an "intermediate"
b(At.
At the present time the Costla boats cany the Cape mail
of the Imperial Government every other week, the Union
Company's boats taking the alternate weeks.
The Castle Line fur many years enjoyed a singular immunity
from losses at sea, the greatest calamity that ever befell them
being the total loss of their ship, the Drumiiwinl Castle, off
the island of Usbant on the 16th of June, 1896.
The D-nimTno/id Castle was homeward bound from the Cape,
having on board 2i5 persons — that is to say, a crew of 102, and
143 passengers, of which large number only three persona
were saved — two of the crew, and one of the passengers. The
night of Tuesday the 16th of June, off the mouth of the
Channel was dark but fairly clear, with some fog in patchea,
and a drizzling rain. At seven o'clock in the evening the
steamer Werfa left Brest for Cardiff, and about eleven at
night, when well outside, and holding a course N.W. by N.^N.,
the mate of her saw the green and masthead lights of a
large steamer on his port beam apparently steering N.N.E.
When about a quarter of a mile off, the large steamer ported
her helm, and showed her red light, passing under the
Werfa's stem. The mate of the Werfa remarked to the man
at the wheel of his ship, " She mustn't go far that way, or
she'll soon be ashore." No human eye, outside tlie ship, ever
saw the Drummund Castle after this.
At the official inquiry subsequently held as to the loss of
the ship, according to the evidence of the single passenger
•ho was saved, " two soundings were taken at about half-past
Beren o'clock in the evening of the fatal Tuesday, when the
ilepth was given as 42 fathoma. The engines were then
stopped, and a third cast of the lead was taken, with the
feaiilt, 75 fathoms." From that time to the time the
t^nmond Castle was lost no further aoundVuga oip^ftaT Xft
r
182 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
have been taken. About eleren o'clock the ship suddenly
Btruck, and heeled over slightly to starboard, afterwaids
righting herself, but being then considerably down by the
head. Orders were at once given to clear away the boats, the
captain giving his orders from the bridga
Charles Wood, one of the quartermasters, who was sared,
CD hearing the order to clear away the boats, immediately
went to his station, and had his boat ready to swing out, when,
the Drummoiid Ciistle being by this time very low in the
water, a heavy sea came and washed him away.
William Godbolt, A.B., the other seaman saved, was slacking
up the awning on the quarter-deck when the sliip struck.
Hearing the boatswain's mate give the order to clear away
the boats, he ran to his statiou, which was No. 2 boat on
the port side ; but as he was clearing the falls of the boat,
the same sea that washed the quartermaster away, caught him,
and wEtshed bim overboard. He got hold of a spar, and
ultimately of a grating, to which he held on until he was
eventually picked up by a French fiahing-boat. The passenger
who was saved, immediately on hearing the ship strike ran
to his cabin and put on a life-belt, and then went and quietly
aat on the rail until he found himself in the water ; only from
seven to ten minutes having elapsed from the time the ship
struck until she finally disappeared. When the ship had
gone down he saw Mr. Ellis, the fourth ofScer, on a grating,
and at once made for it, and they both kept on the grating
until they were rescued by the fishing-boat, but Mr. Ellis
was either then dead, ur he died soon after he was taken
into the boat.
There is but little doubt that Captain Pearce thought
that he had run farther to the north tSian he really had,
having been set in by a strong easterly current, and the
probability is that those on board the Drumviond Caslk
thought from the Weyfa'n lights that she was a vessel
coming out of the Channel. Had soundings been taken,
however, before shaping a Channel course, the dangerous
position of the ship would have been immediately revealed,
and there would have been ample time for her to have altered
her course. The finding of the Court of Inquiry that was
I
LOSS OP THE " DRUMHOND CASTLE 183
held as to the losa of the ship was, "that the casualty was
primarily caused fay suEScieat allowance not having been
Toade for the easterly current, the efleet of which would
have been averted had the captain made sufficient uae of
the lead."
For Bome little time the exact site even of the disaster was
not known, until the French Admiralty caused a search to
be made for the wreck; and the result of the inquiry, which
was instituted by Admiral Barrera, was telegraphed from
Brest to Sir Donald Currie on the 1st of July, as follows: —
" Juat returned from wreck. The powtion is SJ miles due south of StiS"
Lighthoiue. Both tlie Government tugs, !e Laborieux and le Chamtau,
grappled the ship. Le Ckamaau's grapple brought up, first, three pieces of
pbe, evidently parts of a most, then portions of steel stays with metal ring
bvm mast attached, also the gilded topmast ball, with the halliards. The
hawaera of both tags were snieared with brownish paint. The following
wimdinga were taken at low water :— 16 fBthoms, believed to be the rigging ;
I 36 &thoms, behoved to be the side, or the deck of the ship ; 33 fathoms,
fixnid close beside the last soundings."
No shipwreck of recent times created a deeper sensation in
England than did the wreck of the Drummoiul Castle, and
the kind and charitable conduct of the islanders of Ouessant
and Molene elicited the unqualified admiration of every one
in this country, from her Majeaty the Queen downwards,
whilst the deepest sympathy was felt tor Sir Donald Currie
and the directors of the Company, who have always made
the safety of their passengers their first consideration.
The foregoing steamship companies, of which a very brief
outline has been given, are simply one or two out of the
many important lines of wean steamers regularly sailing
from the various ports of Great Britain ; a mere enumeration
of all the rest would fill pages, but a few bare notes as to
some of them will not be out of place.
After the Cunard Line the next oldest Transatlantic line
of steamers is the Allan Line, which is of Canadian origin,
h&ving been originally started with a line of sailing shijra in
1820. In the year 1852 the Canadian Clovernment determined,
in order to meet the growing requirements of the Colony,
npon subsidizing a line of mail steamers between Canada and
( the mother country, and in \8bG, Sir Hugh Allan, ut ^loMxe&X,
n
l84 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
obtained the mail contract for a weekly service of steamen
between Quebec and Liverpool, and a fortnightly servieo
between Liverpool and Halifax and St Johns.
The ships of the Allan Company leave Liverpool for
Quebec and Montreal every Thursday, and the following :
steamers out of the Allan fleet are at present employed in
this service: the Parisian, of 5365 tons; the Zoimmfim,
4522 tons; the Mongolian and the Numidian, of 4900 tons
each ; and the Sardinian, of 4384 tons. The Paririan, the
commodore ship of the fleet, was built for the Company ly
Messrs. R Napier and Sons, of Glasgow. She is 450 feet
long, 46 feet beam, and has a depth of 36 feet 2 inches. For
the special navigation of the river St. Lawrence, which m
some places is extremely shallow, she has no keel, and in \
case this peculiarity should cause her unduly to roll in a
sea-way, she is fitted with two bilge-keels. She is biult
almost entirely of mild steel, and as an additional elemoit
of strength has a double bottom, which is utilized for water
ballast, being divided into many water-tight compartments.
The hull is also sub-divided by ten water-tight bulkheads.
She has four strong decks — the orlop deck, the lower deck,
the main deck, and the upper deck, besides the promenade
deck.
The Parisian is fitted with a set of compound vertical
engines of the three-cylinder type, capable of developing
6000 indicated horse-power, which propels the ship in favour^
able weather at a speed of from 15]^ to 16^ knots per hour.
She has two low-pressure cylinders, each 85 inches in diameter,
with a 5-feet stroke, and between the two low-pressure
cylinders is a high-pressure cylinder 60 inches in diameter,
also with a 5-feet stroke. The necessary steam is supplied by
four double-ended tubular boilers, with twenty-four furnaces.
The Parisian has made the passage from Moville, in the
north of Ireland, to Bimouski, the mail station 160 miles
below Quebec, a distance of 2300 knots, in 6 days and 20
hours, being at a uniform speed of 14 knots per hour. The
entire fleet of the Allan Company numbers now some 30 large
steamers, with a united tonnage of 107,194 tons. The same
Company also run a line of steamers fortnightly between
THE WHITE STAR LINE
Glasgow and New York, under the title of the "Allan and
State Line," the service being performed by the State of
Nebraska, 3986 tons, and the State of Cali/amia, of 4244 tons.
Another important trang-Atlantie line is the White Star Line
which was established in 1871, and their first steamer was the
Oceanic, of 3807 tons. The Company was started by Messrs.
Ismay, Imrie, and Co., of London and Liverpool, who adopted
the name of a once celebrated line of sailing ships, a line that
included in its fleet some of the fastest clippers of the day,
among them being the Bine Jacket, the Champion of the Seas,
the Uliite Star, the Slialinar, and others, sailing to Australia.
After Messrs. Ismay, Imrie, and Co. had succeeded to the old
original White Star Line, they carried on a White Star Line
of sailing ships of their own, with the magnificent iron
clippers the Belfast, the Knight Commander, the British
Commerce, the Olengarry, the Kiiovjsley Rail, and others.
Eventually these fast sailers all had to give way to steam,
and the steam fleet of the White Star Line now contains
some of the finest steamships in the trans-Atlantic service.
Among the earlier boats of the Company were the Baltic,
the Celtic, the Adriatic, the Germanic, the Britannic and
others. The Germanic and the Britannic were built in 1874,
by Messrs, Harland and Wolif, of Belfast, They were sister
ships of 3174 net register tonnage, with a length between
perpendiculars of 455 feet ; length over all, 488 feet ; beam,
45 feet 3 inches ; and depth of hold, 34 feet. They have
each accommodation for 1300 passengers, besides the crew
of 150.
At the end of the year 1897, the Britannic had completed
exactly two hundred and fifty round tripe, which is a record
of 1,750,000 miles, without a renewal of either the engines
or the boilers. Since she was built, in 1874, up to the
Christmas of 1897, she had carried in safety 57,400 cabin pas-
sengers, and 165,500 steerage, which was an average of just
over 400 passengers for each passage. During that time she
had l>een under steam for 114,000 hours, and under way
106,800 hours, consuming meanwhile 513,000 tons of coal,
and her engines making no less than three hundred and
i36 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
fifty millions of revoliitioiis. When she was twenty-one yesra
old she made her ovm best time of 7 days 7 hotira and 30
minutes from Queenatown to New York. The Britannie is
aaid to be still aa sound in every respect as when she mu
first built in 1874.
The Adriatic, which is a smaller ship than the two last-
mentioned, was a fast sbip foT the time she was built, much
faster thau the ahip of the same name built by the Collbs
Company. In 1872, she made ten voyages between Liverpool
and New York— that ia to say, ten passages ont and ten
home — the quickest outward passage from Queenatown to
New York being in May, when her time was 8 days 14
hours and 30 minutes, and the quickest homeward passage
from New York to Queenatown in April, in 8 days 3 honra
and 50 minutes.
In 1889, the Teutimic, twin-screw, of 4245 tons' regiater, and
18,000 indicated horse-power, commenced running, leaving
Liverpool for New York for the first time in the August of
that year. This fine ship was followed in 1S91, by the Maje^,
also a twin-screw of 4340 tons register, and 18,000 indicated
horse-power. Both ships were built by Harland and Wolff,
and they were the two first steamships specially constructed
under arrangement with the Admiralty for employment as
armed cruisers, and as such, th«y receive an annual subvention
from the Grovemment. The Teuttnde waa present as an armed
cruiser at the naval review in August, 1889, and she waa alao
present in the same character at the Diamond Jubilee Naval
Review at Spithead on the 26th of June, 1897.
The Majestic, in July, 1891, made the passage from Queens-
town to New York in 5 daya 18 hours and 8 rainntea, the
fastest passage on record up to that date ; but in Aagaat of
the same year the Teutonic beat ber, making the same passage
in 5 days 10 hours and 30 minutes, being at an average rate
of 20-35 miles an hour during the whole of the passage. The
Germanic has been recently fitted with new engines and boilers,
and runs now with the larger ships in the mail service. The
mail boats of the White Star Line leave Liverpool every
Wednesday for New York.
/The White Star Company have an extensive businesa in
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THE IlfMAN LINE T87
the importation of foreign cattle, and have a number of large
eattte-boats employ^ed solely in that trade. They are the
Oeorgic, the Cevic, the Boc-ic, the Nomadic, the Tauric, and the
Cujic, ships ranging from 5000 to 10,000 tons gross. Besides
these steamers there are two fine ships that also belong to
this Company, but which mn in the Shaw, Saville, and Albion
line to New Zealand ; they are the Gothic and the Ionic.
Messrs. Harland and Wolff are now engaged in building a
new Oceanic for the White Star Line. She will be the largest
ateamship engaged in the Transatlantic trade, having a length
over all of 704 feet, or 84 feet longer than the CamjKmia of
the Cunard Line, and it is said that she will he the fastest
liner afloat.
The American Line runs its boats from Southampton to
New York. Strictly speaking, this line ought not to be
included in the annals of the British Mercantile Marine, as
ita vessels sail under the stars and stripes ; but as the American
Line is practically the old Inman Line, some particulars of
it may not be altogether uninteresting.
The Inman Line, which was at first called the Liverpool
and Philadelphia Steamship Company, was established in 1850,
but subsequently it took the name of its founder, Mr. William
Inman. The first ship of the Company was the City of Olasgoiv,
of 1600 tons, and 350 horse-power. She was the first trans-
Atlantic steamship built on the Clyde, and also the first to
carry emigrants across the Atlantic, sailing from Liverpool
on the 17th of December, 1850, for PhiUidelphia. Many more
ships were now rapidly added to the fleet. In 1851, the C'iti/
of MuTichester was built. She was of 2125 tons, and 400 horse-
power; her length on deck was 274 feet, and her beam 38
feet. She had four masts, the fore and main lower masts
being of iron ; she was square-rigged on the fore and main-
masts, and fore and aft rigged on the mizen and jigger-mast.
Between 1851, and 1856, the Citi/ of Baltiiiwre., the Kangaroo,
and the City of Washington were added to the line. In
1857, the Inman boats began running to New York, at first
fortnightly, and in 1863, weekly. Although Liverpo<jl was
their port, the City of Glasgow made four successful voyages
L
i83 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
from Glasgow to New York at a time when there was no
regular service between Scotland and America.
In 1S73, the City of Chester, 2944 net tonnage, and the
Oi(y of Biclunuyiid, 2977 net tons, were buUt for the Companj
hy Caird, of G-reenock ; and after these still larger veasela
were put ou the service, the largest being the City of Parii,
5568 net tonnage, and the CUi/ of Xew York, 557S net Una ;
these two ships, while sailing under the British flag, being
subsidized by the English Admiralty as armed cruisers, the
Oiti/ of Berlin being also held at the disposition of the
Admiralty, but without subvention.
The speed of the City of Paris, which is a twin-screw, has
exceeded 20 knots. In May, 1892, she made the outward
passage from Liverpool in H days 1 hour and 56 minutes, or
at a uniform rate of 19-8 knots the entire passage; in tie
same month she made the return passage in 6 days 8 honrs,
and 30 minutes, or at the uniform rate of 19'2 knots. The
City of Paris, however, has always had the reputation of rolUng
badly in a heavy sea.
In 1893, the Imnan Line became merged in the American
Line, and in the March of that year the Citi/ of Paris anil
the Citi/ of New York, as the Paris * and the New York,
hoisted the United States Sag in lieu of the English colours,
their port of departure and arrival being henceforth South-
ampton instead of Liverpool. The other steamships of the
American Line running between Southampton and New York
are the twin-screws .S'(. Lou-is and St. Paul, built in the United
States specially to " lick the Cunarders," the Campania and
Lueania, a thing they have never yet succeeded in doing-t
* Upon the outbreak of tho ww between the Uuiled SIaIbb aud Spain tie
four largest Bteamere of thia Company — tlio Paris, the New York, the S.
Paul and the St. Louii — were purchased by the United Statea to be usedu
firmed cniiBerB, the name of the Parit being altered to the Tale, and thttof
the New York to tlie Harvard.
t Ah showing the EUpedority of the twia-ecrew eyatem over the ordinuy
aiiigle ecrew, may be cited a recent experience of the Parit. The Parb
left New York for Southampton on Wednesday, March 2. 1898, with 18S
posaengers, tt valuable cargo, including 225,000 dollars in apeeie, and 114"
aocks of raoilH. She was duo at Southampton on Wednesday, March ittb,
aud much anxiety wea felt at her non-arrival, she not coming in unUl Sundayt
the 13tb. The day alter leaving New York slie broke her aUrboord shaft,
The Anchor Line began their trans- Atlantic business in 1856
with a small vessel called the Tempest, originally a sailing-
ship employed in the Eaat India trade, but altered for thia
service into a screw steamer. Messrs. Handyside and Henderson,
the projectors of the line, finding it to be a success, established
a weekly line of Anchor boats between Glasgow and New
York, The present fleet of the Anchor line now numbers
some thirty-eight large steamers, of which some are employed
in the trans- Atlantic trade ; some in a service between Glasgow
and Liverpool and Kurrachee, Bombay, and Calcutta ; and
others in the Mediterranean.
The commodore ship is the City of Eomr, employed in the
New York service, an iron vessel of 8453 tons, and 11,153
horse-power. She is 600 feet in length, 52 feet 3 inches
beam, and has a depth of 37 feet 6 inches. She is divided
by 10 water-tight bulkheads into 11 water-tight compartments,
end has tanks capable of taking in 380 tons of water ballast.
There are four decks, and there are state-rooms for 290 saloon
passengers, and accommodation for 1000 emigrants. The main
saloon is the entire width of the ship by 72 feet 'u\ length,
and can seat 250 people at dinner. The engines are of the
compound inverted type ; and it may be noted that in the
Bnriace-condensers the total length of tubes is no less than
17 miles. The ship has three black funnels in line fore and aft
The Dominion Line, whose steamers run between Liverpool
and Quebec and Montreal, was established in 1872. The
Dominion boats leave Liverpool every Thursday, and go round
the north of Ireland, calling at Londonderry the day after
iMving Liverpool. The fleet at the present time consists of
•even magnificent steamers, four of which are twin-screws,
tlw largest of these ships being the Nav Englarid, of 11,000
tons, followed by the Canada, of 9000 tons; the Dominvm
m tLe ship was stopped for three houra nihilst a thorough oxainiDatJott was
■ude m order to ascertain the exact nature of the injury. It being then
Cmmd impoBsible to repair the damage to the shaft at aea, Captain Watkina
^Meimiaed to contiuue the voyage with the port engioes alone ; and although
Willi only the port screw at work, on one day she made 312 knots, and on
•Mher 314 knots, or at an areroge speed of rather over thirteen knots with
cnly the single screw.
\
I
(90 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
and the Scotsman being each of 6000 tons. On Friday, the
9th of August, 18t*5, the I^jhrador of this line ernbaried
paBsengers and mailfl at Moville (Ireland) at 2.15 pjn. On
Wednesday, the Hth, at five minutes past seven in tlie
moniiug, the ship reached Belle Isle, Newfoundland, thos
making the ruu across in 4 days IT hours — the fastest passage
on record.
The Pfl<?ific Steam Navigation Company. — This Company
was incorporated by Royal Charter in 1840, and received a
small subsidy for the conveyance of the British mails along
the PaciSc shores of South America. The first two steamers
despatched to commence operations at the close of 1840, were
the Chili and the Peru, two wooden paddle-wheel vesseb of
only 700 tons, and fitted with engines of 15U hor86-i>ower;
but, being the first steamships ever seen in those waters, they
were received at Valparaiso with great rejoicings and with
salvos of artillery, the President of the Chilian Itepoblic with
his ministers being the first to welcome the steamships to
the shores of the Pacific.
During the first five years the Company had m&ny diffi-
culties to overcome, the difficulty of obtaining fuel being one
of the greatest, and the steamers were worked at a loss. Not-
withstanding this, however, the shareholders resolved
persevere, and the fleet was gradually augmented. In 1852,
four new steamers, also paddle-wheel boats, the Ztmo, tba'
.S'rtjiftajo, the Quito, and the Bogota, each of 1100 tons, and
450 horse-power, were added tn the line, to be emp|.
in a fortnightly service between Panama and Valparaino : ml
from that time the trade in the Pacific rapidly devc-l. |< I
new and hitherto unthought-of branches of commerce !■
opened up, so that the success of the Company seemed 1 ■ .
assured.
In 1865, the chartered powers of the Company were exit ;: . I
to the establishment of a line between the west c<<ii-
South America and the Kiver Plate, including the Faikiiu^i;
Islands ; and in 1867, it was determined still further to extend
operations by adding a monthly line of steamers from
Liverpool to the west coast of South America, via the Straits
of Magellan, and lu May, 1868, the paddle-wheel steamer Padjic,
1
1
1630 tona, and 450 horse-power, was despatched fruia
Valparaiso to Liyerpool as the pioneer of the new mail line.
The project was so successful that in 1S70, it was deter-
mined to extend the voyages beyond Valparaiso, making
Callao the terminal port, and to increase the number of
sailings from fortnightly to three in the month, which number
was soon afterwards still further increased to a regular weekly
mail service between Liverpool and Callao, the steamers calling
in at Bordeaux, Lisbon, Rio de Janeiro, Monte Video, and
Sendy Point in the Straits of Magellan.
To carry out and to maintaiu this service efficiently the
Company had no fewer than 54 steamers in commission,
with an aggregate tonnage of 120,000 tons, these vessels
being among the £nest and the best-appointed ships then to
Ib found in the British Mercantile Marine. But the promises
of a lucrative trafBc were eventually not fulfilled ; the trade
nitb South America gradually fell off, and an extraordinary
bcrease in the price of coal and of other necessaries added
so much to the cost of working the line that the weekly
Bailings had to be abandoned, and the fortnightly service
("liich is still in force) had to be reverted to.
Employment had then to be found for the steamers which
"ere not required for the West Coast business, and an oppor-
taiiity was soon afforded by the establisbmeut of the Orient
line from Loudon to Australia, which was commenced with the
ite&mship Lusitania early in 1677. In January, 1880, an
arrangement was entered into with the Orient Company, and a
fortnightly line to Australia was established, four of the finest
vessels of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, namely the
Oroya, the Onzaba, the Ontla, and the Orolava being now
engaged in that trade, and sailing as part of the Orient Line.
The latest additions to the fleet are the (h-oinsa and the
Orissa, twin screws, each of 5137 tons, and 5000 horse-power,
built by Harlaud and Wolfl', and fitted up with all the
most recent appliances of the best of our ocean liners. A still
larger vessel is now building for the Company at Barrow-iu-
Fumess, iu the twiu-screw Oriona, of 8000 tona, which
will be fitted with engines of 8000 horse-power. The Ortona
itj intended to run in the Orient Line to Australia, and will
J
192 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
undoubtedly be one of their finest boate. The total tonnaga
of the Pacific Company at the present day is 132,-161 tons.
The Bibby Line.— This line, which was first established as
a line of sailing ships in 1821, trades from Liverpool to
Egypt, Colombo, and Rangoon, via Maraeittes. The steamers
of the "Bibby" Line now carry the French and Egyptian
mails between Marseilles and Egypt, and between Suez and
Colombo; they also carry supplementary English mails
between Rangoon, Colombo, and England.
The steamers, named after English counties, as the
Derbyshire, the Staffordsliirt, the Shropshire, and so forth,
have all been built by Harland and Wol£F, and averaga
from five to six thoofland tons each, many of them being-
twin screws. One of the first of the steamers to Ieav»
Liverpool for Rangoon was the Lancashire, and she mado
the run out in 24 days 18 hours, the fastest time yet on.
record ; but the average passage from Liverpool to Rangoon
is 28 or 29 days, and from Marseilles 22 days.
There are very many other great steamship linefl — mml
lines and passenger lines — in fact, their name is legion. The
New Zealand Shipping Company, the Shaw, Saville. and
Albion Liue, and the Aberdeen Line, compete for the Australian
and the New Zealand trade; the Clan Line, the City Line,
the Hall Line, the Shire Liue, and many other companies, all
try for a share of the trade with India, China, and the East ;
the African steamship Company, Elder, Dempster, and Co., the
Natal Line, and others, seek to divide the trade with Africa ;
and the West India and Pacific Company, Lambert and Holts'
boats, and many more, connect England with South iVmerica ;
whilst the steamships of the Britiali India Company are to be
met with in every port of every part of the world, many of the
ships of this Company being remarkably handsome models.
Among the many steamship companies, is one which
although not of the importance of the great ocean liners, yet
is one of the oldest ; and this is the General Steam Navigation
Company, whose vessels, besides running to home ports, trade
to Hamburg, Bordeaux, Opoito, Amsteidam, and the like.
When the Queen went to Scotland for the first time in
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THE GENERAL STEAM NAVIGATION COMPANY
'93
1842, she went in her own yacht, the Royal Gtonjc, attended
by a considerable squadron of ships of the Royal Navy,
among tbeni being the Pique, 36-guii frigate, the Daphne,
the Salatnandcr, the BltadamaiithKs, and a number of other
vessels. When off Flamborough there was a heavy aea on,
and the royal yacht tolled so badly that the Queen wished
\f> go on board the Pique, which was a much larger vessel
iban the Royal yacht ; but Admiral, then Captain, Bullock
would not undertake the responsibility of transferring her
Xajesty in an open boat from the royal yacht to the frigate,
and the Queen was necessitated to go on to Leith in the
yacht. She would not, however, return in the Royal Gtorge,
and one of the vessels of the General Steam Navigation
(Wpany, the Tridenf, was specially engaged to bring her
Utjesty back to London.
1
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I9i THE BRITISH MBRCHAMT 88RVIC1
CHAPTEB XV.
Oug08tetmdiip»--Ooean tiam^
The first Borew odHer— Hie Q.S.D^TbB Kkig Owl— OrttibOwttK-
The froMQ-meftft trade— The New Zeehiid M[ib The toe ehwimin^
The SHriing Oiftftf-^Ghrain-steiiiien-Oil-teiik itMnnew Low of te
.fi![20iifiioor— Well-decked 8teaiiierB---Oottoii-Oin3riQg ifeMuiMn— Dui-
gerouB cergoes.
Hayxng seen something of some of the prinoijMd British mail
and passenger lines, it will be well to glance at that still larger
class of steamships included in the category of cargo-boats, a
description of steamship taking more and more every year
the place of the old sailing merchantman of the earlier part
of the century.
Numbers of these cargo steamships are very fine and exceed-
ingly well-found vessels; perhaps not as sumptuously fitted
up, but from a sailor's point of view, quite as good ships as
many of the steamers that are running in the mail lines. As
an example we give a portrait of a well-known regular Indian
trader of the " Clan " line.
The greater number, perhaps, of these vessels are specially
built for some particular trade, but still a very large number
have no speciality about them ; they are intended to pick up
a living anywhere — to go " where cargo offers." These are the
genuine Ocean Tramps. Many of them undoubtedly are good
vessels enough ; very many more, unfortunately, are precisely
the opposite. Every one knows the long lines of villa resi-
dences in the suburbs of London and other great towns. These
are, for the most part, the work of the jerry-builder. Far too
many of the ocean tramps are the work of the marine jerry-
builder. Bun up by contract at a cost of from seven to eight
pounds a ton, engines thrown in, — blind rivet-holes filled up
H
^ TTFIOAL OCEAN TBAMr.
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HIT
T'
OCKAN TRAMPS
with putty, cracked plates neatly painted over, frames and
deck-beams of very insufRcient scantling, are peculiarities not
altogether nuknomi among this class of ocean tramps.
Perhaps our particular tramj* is chartered to take a general
cargo to East London, or Algoa Bay ; to go from thence to
Rangoon for rice to be taken to Rio de Janeiro, or Valpar
and then she will have to look out for another job. As she lies
in the West India Docks taking on board iron tanks, boxes of
biscuits, cans of sheep-dip, glazed stoneware drain-pipes, cases
of sewing-machines, and the thousand and one articles that
make up b " general cargo," she does not look a bad-looking
vessel, and to the eye of the uninitiated not very different from
the really well-built steamer that is lying astern of her. But
when she is making bad weather of it, crossing the Bay in a
south-west gale, things are apt to look somewhat different.
Perhaps when everything depends upon her jerry-built engines,
they suddenly give out, or her steering-gear breaks down, and
her name appearo about a week or so afterwards in that par-
ticular portion of the Shipping Gazette devoted to Wrecks and
Casualties.
Here is the experience of one such vessel. In the winter
of 1874, a submarine cable was to be laid on the coaat of South
America, and the contractors in London had chartered a
steamer called Ln Pluta to take ont the cable, together with
the staff of electricians who were to superintend the laying it.
La Plata was an iron vessel, with the engines and boilers well
aft, thus affording a good deal of room forward for the tanks in
which the cable was to be stowed.
Having then, the telegraph cable stowed in the tanks in tha j
hold, and the winding engines to be used for paying it out on '
the deck forward, La Plata left Woolwich on Monday, the 23rd
of November, 1874. She was fairly deep in the water, being
pretty heavily laden, but at Gravesend she took in a quantity
more stores, so that when she left the Thames she had, to say
the least, quite as much on board as she ought to have had.
On Thursday, the 26th of November, La Plata left Gravesend
in charge of a pilot, with fine weather, and a light breeze from
the south-west. On Friday, at six o'clock in the morning,
the ship was off St. Catherine's, and the p^nt '««^ «;^<^t&.
196 THE BRITISH MBRCHAMT flBVICI
She then continaed to steun down Channel; bat towaidi
evening the wind, which had been light all day, began to Uow
strongly fiNun south to soath-we8t» and aa the ship was ntj
deep in the water, she did not make more than foor, or fimr
and a half knots, an hoar.
All day on Satarday the weather continued giadaally to gat
worse, and by night it was blowing a heavy gala fitom Om
south-west About midnight La jnua shif^ied aorenl veijr
heavy seas in suooession, and the chief officer gave oideis to
set the fore and aft canvas. The gale continued rapidly to
increase in fury, and in less than half an hoar after the csnfii
was set, the sheets were carried away and the sails blown deaa
out of the bolt-ropes. About one o'clock on Sonday moraing
a heavy sea broke over the vessel and carried away one of the
boats on the port side, started the deck-house, and smashed in
some of the pens for the live stock, one sheep being actoally
washed into the cabin, and two pigs into the stoke-hbld. Aboot
five o'clock the other boat on the port aide was swept away,
and the seas continued to pour over the ship in quicker
succession.
At half-past eight the carpenter, having sounded the well,
reported that the ship was making water, and it was found that
although dry forward, there was a good deal of water coming
in aft. The steam-pumps were at once started, but the water
steadily gained on them. After breakfiAst it was decided to
lighten the ship by throwing overboard some of the telegraph
cable from the forward tank. The weather was so bad that it
was utterly impossible to take the hatches off, so the tank was
got at through the store-room, and a good deal of the cable was
got up and thrown overboard.
By this time the water was fast filling the lower hold, and
by ten o'clock it had so much increased that the furnaces in
the stoke-hold were extinguished, the engines brought to a
stop, and the steam-pumps could no longer be worked. It
became then necessary to get up steam in one of the donkey-
engines on deck in order to keep the pumps going ; but it was
very difficult to start the fire, as the heavy seas kept pouring
over the deck, putting the fire out the moment it was lighted.
At last all the spare hands, by dint of breaking up dry packing-
LOSS OF ' LA PLATA
cases in the store-room, and by steeping cotton waste in
para£Gn, got the fire fairly alight, and at eleven o'clock steam
was np in the donkey-engine, and the pnmps were started
again.
At noon the firemen found it ntterly impossible to keep the
donkey-engine furnace going any longer, aa the sea was
making a clean breach over the vessel. The citptain, who was
then on the bridge, which he had not quitted since Friday
morning, even to take his meals, managed, however, to get the
ship before the wind, thus heading np Channel again, under
fore and main topsails and fore staysail. The pumps having
ceased work, the water now continued to rise rapidly, and it
soon became evident that the ship must gu down. Orders were
therefore given to get the boats ready.
In the hold there were pontoona for two life-rafts, and these
were now got up on deck ; and all hands worked hard at getting
np stores and provisions for the Iwats and the rafts. Officer*
and men alike worked well, and with the greatest coolness,
assisted by the staff of electricians, and there was not the
slightest confusion or panic. Most of the men seemed to prefer
to take their chance on the rafta rather than in the boats, and
when everything was ready, and there was nothing more to Ije
done, they flocked round the rafts as they lay on the deck.
There is no doubt but that a great mistake was made, and
that the rafts ought, if possible, to have been lowered over the
aide; but the impression seemed to be that when the ship
went down they would float off the deck — a terrible error, as
the event showed.
At half-past twelve the ship was so low in the water that
the deck was on a level with the sea, and in order to get to the
, boats, which were on the starboard side, the men were up to
f Jfceir middles. At twenty minutes to one a heavy sea struck
) ship, which seemed to stagger for a moment, and then
irent down stern first. As the stern sank the bows came up right
out of the water, and the bridge, funnel, and a quantity of
heavy machinery that there was forward, fetched away and fell
npon the rafts, crushing the crowd of men upon them.
The two quarter-boats fortunately floated out of the chocks,
and by the greatest exertion were pulled clear of the wreck;
4
198 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
but they liad liardly got clear when one of the boata, which mi
under the coramanil of the chief officer, capsized, and ail is
her, with the exception of one man and two boys, who nmiiBgtd
to get on board the other boat, were drowned. The sea wu
now running very high, and it aeemed hardly possible that ■
small boat could live in it; but by the most careful steeiii^
the boat's head was kept to the aea, and by watching the waves
very little water was shipped.
Soon after sunset, just as it was getting dusk, a steamer hove
in sight, and a white handkerchief was hoiated on an oai to
attract her attention, but she passed on withont seeing the
tiignal. It now became dark, and with such a terrific
niuDiiig there seemed every prospect that the boat must
founder loug before the momiug. The men, however, kept
steadily at the oars, and just as the day was beginning to
break they sighted a large ship under close-reefed topsaih
The weather was now moderating a little, bnt there was still
a heavy sea on. Fortunately, as the boat rose on the oreat ot
the large waves, their signal was seen from the ship, which
now altered her course to bear down upon them. By ten
o'clock she was close to the boat, and proved to be the Oarr
Loch, from London to New Zealand, with emigrants.
With a good deal of diiliculty all in the boat were got on
board the Oare Loch, and in less than an hour a homeward-
bound steamer, the Anlhony, from Hong Kong for London,
hove in sight. She was signalled, and took the survivors on
board, and landed them at Oravesend at half-past three on
Wednesday afternoon.
Besides those saved by the quarter-boat, the only other
survivors from the wreck were the quarter-master and bo'sun.
These two men succeeded in getting upon one of the rafts that
was floating upside down ; ^nd although, of course, without
either food or drink, and with the seas continually washing
over them, they managed to hold ou fr<.>m midnlay on tSunday
till four o'clock on Wednesday momiug. Their sufferings
during the long, dark, cold November nights were terrible.
On the Sunday night they did not either sleep or doze,
keeping a sharp look-out fur a passing ship. On Monday they
saw several vessels, but all a long distance off. On Tuesday au
f
SCREW COLLIERS
American three-masted scbooner actually came within half a
mile of them. Tlie shipwrecked men could see what was
passing on her deck — the maa at the wheel, and the hands
going to and fro; but they failed to attract her attention, and
she too passed on her course.
Tuesday night came and went without any vessel coming in
sight ; but about four o'clock on Wednesday morning a small
schooner was seen bearing down on them from the northward.
Tfaey hailed her, and she rounded to, as though she were
waiting for them to come on board ; but they had no meana
of steering their raft, and they gradually drifted away to
leeward.
The schooner lay to for about ten minutes, and then went off.
Presently they saw her lights again as though she were about
to return; but this time she did not come so near as before,
and when the day had fully dawned she was not to be seen
at all. In about half an hour, however, to their great joy, she
hove in sight again, and this time bore down close to them.
When she was about two hundred yards off she hove to, and
the men left their raft and swam to her, when they were taken
on board, and were most kindly treated by her crew. She
proved to be a small Dutch schooner, the Wilkelm Seitklezoons,
from Rotterdam for Valencia, for fruit. The men were taken
til tjpain, and from thence found their way back to England.
One numerous class of cargo steamers is that of the screw
colliers, and wretched vessels some of them are, whilst, liowever,
a very large number are fine, well-built, and well-found steam-
ships. Forty years ago nearly the whole of the coal brought
from the north of England to London was brought in the then
regulation "Geordie," or coal-brig. Every ebb tide saw any
amount of these craft, light, in ballast, drifting down the
reaches of the Thames on their way north for a fresh cargo.
Scientific navigation was n<it the strong point of the Geordie
skippers, but somehow or other they usually managed to
blunder along up to Sunderland, or to Hartlepool, and to get
back again to the Thames with their two or three hundred tons
of coal — that is to say, if the weather were fairly propitious ; if
it were not, they were likely to he heard of on the Long Sand,
or the Qunfleet.
\
300 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
' There is a well-known sailor's yam of a Geordie coming oat
at the Thames, going north in ballast. An autumn eveninf,
jkat getting dusk, ha/y, light breeze from the westwani, i
light-ship looms up on the starboard bow, "Lightship ahoy!
What light is that ? " " The Mouse." Skipper continnoa his
course. Ab the daivn is just beginning to break skipper jndges
he must be well up for Loweattift, but sights a lightship that
he doesn't remember. "Lightship, ahoy I What light \»
ttiftt?" "The Mouse," "What the are you doing np
here ? " The old Geordie hail just been cruising around.
• < About forty years ago the first screw collier appeared in
London river. She had come round from the Tyne with tl
luindred t^nis of coal on board, and was called the Q.S.TK
Bhe was what would be known now aa an auxiliary screw, being
ftllly rigged as a barque, and sailing when there was a tur
mnd, but steaming with the wind ahead. Her mizen-mast wh
Ml iron tube, and served as a funnel, so that when under atoan
tile smoke might be seen issuing from about her mizen croa»*
toees. In 1870, the first screw collier of the present type cans
np the Thames. This was the A'ln^ Coal, an iron vessel, built
on the Tyne, and she had cost, when ready for sea, £15,000.
Slie was rather a haadsome vessel, with a straight bow; she
had three masts, being square-rigged on the foremast ; her
fonnel, which was between the fore and main masts, having a
white band with a black diamond. She carried 900 tons of
coal as cargo, and had bunlvor-space for 100 tons more, and she
was fitted with water-ballast tanks, enabling her to make the
return passage with a^ little delay as possible. Against head
wiudsi, with a full cargo of coal, her speed was eight and a half
ktiot^ ail hour; when going back light, in fair weather, nine
and a half to ten knots. Her engines were of 90 horse-power,
nominal, working up to 600 horse-power, and the voyage from
Newcastle to London and back usually occupied from six to
«.ght days.
Hoisting sails, lifting anchor, and other heavy work was
done by steam-winches. She had an excellent cabin on der*"
for the captain, with cabins for the chief nute aod the stewsid ;
her crew couaisted of seventeen persona, all told, aooommodsted
in a roomy, well-ventilated forecastle on a level wiA the main
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deck, the seamen occupying one side of it, and the firemen the
other, with a bulkhead between them. The engineers had
citbins on derk, in the bridge-house, whilst on the bridge waa
the wheel-bonse, m arranged that whilst the helmsman could
Bee everything ahead, he was protected from the inclemency
of the weather. From the above description it will be seen
that the example set by the Kiriy Coal has been very closely
adhered to until the present day.
There are a few of these screw ctdliers that in recent years
have made fifty-two voyages from London to the north and
back in the year, the appliances for loading being now so
excellent on the Tyne, at Cardiff, Barry, and other places, that
with a vessel such as the Iiiru/ Coal, when she is once alongside,
the actual loading of the ship is merely a question of a few
hours. The coal comes on board in bulk, a railway-truckful
at a time, so that it only requires to be trimmed. The chief
detention ni)W is m getting alongside, as while one steamer is
being loaded, half a dozen others are waiting to take their turn.
But all this hurry in getting the coal aboard and in getting
the ship away often leaves no time for trimming, and a cargo
I'f coals loaded in this fashion is apt sometimes to be quite as
tlangerons a cargo as grain in bulk would be if it were loaded in
a similar way. During 1875, I87(j, and 1877, no leas than 200
w-ial-laden British vessels foundered or were missing, entailing
the loss of 991 lives ; whilst duruig the three years 1881, 1882,
Hnd 1883, the number of coal-ships lost was even greater ; 314
such vesseb being either lost or missing, involving the loss of
no less than 1849 lives, being at the rate of two ships and
nearly twelve lives last every week during the three years.
.\dmiral De Horsey once tritely remarked, "With unskilled
stevedores and /idly insured ships and cargoes, the Mifdy of
tlie ship appears to be a matter of very secondury importance."
Two kinds of steamers are engaged in the meat-carrying
trude — the cattle-boats, specially fibted up for the conveyance
iii live 8to<-k ai-ross the Atlantic, and the ships fitted up with
refrigerating apparatus for bringing from the Colonies the
(lead carcases of sheep and of oxen.
Many of the great shipping firms do, in addition to their
passenger trade, a large cattle-carrying business, the White
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
I
Star Line, fut instance, having upwards of 40,000 tona engaged
in this particular trade, their i;attle-steainer the Geortjic, u£
10,077 tenia, being the largest cattle-steamer adoat. Tte
cattle are stowed in lines fore and aft, with their beads neit
the gangways, a fair space being allowed to each beast, aiid
they are of necessity well looicetl after ; bat as they suffer &
go<xl deal during rough weather, the cattle-decks are not usually
the i)leasantest placea in the world. The bellowing and the
moaning of the poor beasts is painful to liear, whilst the per-
j>etual trampling and scraping of their hooks on the decks ailds
to the general discord.
The New Zealand Shipping Company, and the Shaw, Saville,
iind Albion Company, among others, do a very large business
in the frozen-meat trade from New Zealand to this country.
The hold of one of these frozen-meat ships presents a curions
sight, the sides being line<l with the pipes of the refrigerating
apparatus, covered, when the apparatus is at work, with snow;
whilst the floor, and everything in the hold, is covered with
hoar frost. In the height of a New Zealand summer, when
the thermometer on deck is standing at 80° or 90", the men,
when they go down to sweep out the hold, and get it ready fur
taking in the meat, if the apparatus is " on," may be seen with
thick pea-jackets and woollen comforters. Their breath falls
as white hoar frost on the deck, the temperature being several
degrees below zero, and so it continues from the time the ship
leaves Wellington until her arrival in the Albert Docks, a
pericxi of forty-three days. Tlie shortness of the time occupied
in the passage, however, is only a question for the shipowner,
because as far as the meat itself is concerned, when once in
what the sailors call "' the freezer," it could just as well stay
there a hundred and forty-three days as forty-three. Of couim,
the refrigerating apparatus is worked at very conaiderabls
expense, and a day more or less is a consideration, so that no
sooner is the ship in the docks, and alongside and moored,
than discharging at once commences ; indeed, before all the
passengers have landed, a gangway will be got out forward, and
a continuous stream of men may be seen bringing cargo ashore.
By means of the powerful electric lights now used in the docks
as mufh work is done after dark as during the day ; and the
BHWTINO COBPANt'u
aext day after the great New Zealand litier is in, a great part
of her cargo will he iu the London market.
Some of the smartest and fastest cargo steamers afloat are
those employed iu the tea trade. Previous to the opening of
the Suez Canal the China tea trade was entirely in the hands
of sailing vessels, and magnificent sailers they were. Even
after the opening of the Canal it took some years for the
steamers entirely to supersede these splendid clippers, par-
ticalarly as the China meri'hants had an idea that the great
heat of the passage of the Eed Sea and the transit through the
Canal, would prove injurious to the delicate flavour of the leaf,
and it was not until 1873, that the sailing ships had entirely
disappeared.
It was in 1863, that the first steamer was' employed in the
tea trade. She brought a cargo from Hankow to London, and
the venture proved so successful that other steamers very soon
followed. One of the most remarkable of these China tea-
steamers was the Stirling Castle, ber history being sufficiently
curious. She was built iu 1882, at the Fairfield Worky,
Glasgow, and was specially designed to beat all other vessels
employed in the Eastern trade, ber mean rate of speed being
eighteen knots an liour, whii^h was faster than any other mer-
chant steamer then afloat. -She was of 5000 tons burden, 421 feet
in length, 40 feet beam, and 30 feet 6 inches deep, her horse-
power being 1500 nominal ; she had two funnels and three
masts, being aquare-rig^ied on the foremast. After a couple
of years in the tea trade, during which she made some remark-
ably fast passages, she was sold to a firm of Genoese merchants,
and was by them employed in carrying Italian emigrants to
Buenos Ayres. Before beuig put into this trade her name was
altered to the Xord Amcricn. In 1885, upon the occasion of
the Buaaiau war-8oa,re, the English Admiralty being anxii'us to
retain the services of as many large mercantile steamers as
possible, for service either as transports or as armed cruisers,
Mr, AdamsoQ, a London shipowner, made an offer to the Genoese
owners of the Nord AmerU'i, and repurchased her, altering her
name back again to the fitirtinij Castle. She was at once taken
up by the Admiralty, and was sent to Malta to refit. The war-
scare passing over, the Stliiiiuj GaslU was re-sold to the Genoese,
i
ao4 THK BRITISH MBRCHANT SBRVICB
ftnd onoe more became the JVbni AmetM, aiid she fltill oon*
tinues to be one of the finest and most powetfiil ships of Ae
Italian mercantile marine.
The wool trade of Australia gives employment to a veij
large amount of shipping. During the year 1896, the falve
of the wool exported to the United Kingdom alone, from New
South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, and Western Ajistnlis
was £9,810,716. With the great passenger liners of the P.
and O., and of the Orient Company, it forms the chief item of
their cargo, whilst numbers of flue ships are employed solely
in the wool trade.
Formerly the greater part of the fruit coming to this ooiontrj
from Spain and Portugal, the Azores, and the ports of the
Mediterranean, came in smart little schooners, tiers of which
might generally be seen lying alongside the whacfs at Bil-
lingsgate, discharging at one time of the year boxes of otangei,
at other times grapes, and fruits of every possible desoriptioD.
From the Spanish ports alone, in 1896, fruit to the value of
£3,045,810 was brought to this country, and this was not a
tithe of what was brought from other countries. The bulk of
this now (*omes in steamers, and many such steamers are solely
employed in the fruit trade.
Grain, although often brought to this country by the ordinary
** tramp," as an occasional cargo, is for the most part imported
in regular grain steamers, specially built for this particular
trade ; and as every additional quarter that can be crammed
into the steamer is a consideration, her shape, when seen in dry
dock, approaches to that of an elongated iron box. The follow-
ing is extracted from the British Merchant Service Journal, and
represents the views of the Chairman of the Shipmasters
Society upon such vessels. He says —
" The causes which make grain-cargo ships founder are very dear to those
who take the trouble to search for the reasons. First of all, a man desires
to make his sliip carry something like double the quantity of that of his
neighbour. What does he do ? If you take one of their midship sections
and look at it you wiU see. It is simply like a box, with the lower comers
rounded off for bilges. He carries that midship section to a most enormous
length forward and afr, and then closes in the ends of her as best he may, to
get the best entrance and exit for the water that the length of the vessel wfll
allow him. Gk) down to the docks where the steamers are lying. There is
one in the South West India dock now, although, of course, I camiot mention
GRAIN STEAMERS
umes. You never buw eucli a thiag in your life. If she were rigged as a
•hip jou would find llie midsbip eectioD aoniewhere about the foremast and
the mixen-mast, leaviDg very tittle for tlie entrance and exit. The buUdei'
wys, ' I wj]] build to a certain cIbbb at Lloyd's." ' Yes,' says ihe other oon-
tncting party, ' but do not put into Iier one pound of acanOing that you
can p<«ejbly tecp ool, becaase every pound pat into her will rob me of a
pound of freight.' Startiog with aucii a condition of things aa that, wliat aorl
of Ttesels ate they likely to produce to carry heavy cargoea across the North
AUanlic, with a proper and doe regard to the lives of those on board her,
and the safety of the ship ? Why, uothiiig but a coffin I "
These Bhijis, eac-li laden with perhajis two or three thousand
tons of grain, huny bat^knards and forwards across the Atlantic
as fast as possible, very little time being wasted in the loading
and discharging. All the important American grain ports are
fitted with " elevators," which enable a large ship to be loaded
in a very few hoars. The following description of graiu-load-
ing at Galveston, Gulf of Mexico, may be taken as a fair
sample of what takes place at the other grain ports. On
Monday, the 12th of October, 1896, six large steamers were
waiting their turn to go alongside the elevator. The grain
goes up the elevator in pockets ninuiug on an endless belt ;
when it gets to the top it runs into large bins, where it is
weighed, and then goes down shoots into the ship's hold. At
eight o'clix'k in the morning the Dcraviorc, of Liverpool, a
steamer of 3000 tons, went under the elevator, and 2160 tons
of wheat and maize were put on board of her in three hours
and five minutes. The grain comes down each spout in a con-
tinuous stream about nine inches iu diameter, and there were
right spouts continuously running into the ship. Obviously
there is not much time for great nicety in trimming, and
mdees grain is loaded close up, and kept close up, this kind of
cargo has a very nasty habit of shifting in bad weather.
Nearly all the grain, however, that comes to this country
comes in bulk. To bring it in bags would be far too expen-
fflve, and the grain in sacks would take up too much room in
the ship's hold. A sack costs tenpence, so Is. 8il. a quarter
would have to be added to the original cost of the grain.
Seven quarters go to the ton,* so that if our Galveston
* That is with wheat at 40 lbs. to the bushel, which is about a fair average
ffeight.
/
[
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
steamer had brought her cargo of wheat in bags, (nippo6in|
that she had had room to stow it, without reckoning the extra
freight, the extra cost of the t-argo itaelf, delivered in London.
would have been £1260.
Haizo is alnayfl sold in London by weight, and is reckoned
as 60 lbs. to the bushel, or 480 lbs. to the quarter, 30 that with
maize the "quarter" ia merely a term, and simply 'ineaiiH
480 Ihs. It, like wheat, is always brought to this country in
bulk, except a small quantity brought from South Amerit-a.
called "Plate maize,"* which is imjwrted in bags.
Another class of cargo steamers specially constructed for
carrying cargoes more dangerous than grain are the petroleum
steamers, or, as they are more usually known, "oil-tank
steamers." The first steamship built for this particular trade
was launched in the Tyne in 1886. She was 300 feet in
length, 37 feet beam, and had a depth of 23 feet ; and on her
first voyage from New York to Bremen brought across the
Atlantic 2880 tons of petroleum, which her pumps were able
to discharge in twelve hours.
At the present time petroleum only comes to England from
America, and from Batoum, in the Black Sea. Formerly there
were a number of oil companies in the United States, but they
have nearly all now been absorbed by one great corporatimi,
the Standard Oil (JompaTiy of North .Ymerioa, which has Urge
works both at Philadeljihia and New York. This company
principally supplies Great Britain and the northern ports of
the continent of Europe, but they also send some oil to the
Mediterranean, and some to South America. The Batoum
wi)rk9 are to a large extent owned by the Rothschilds, and their
oil goes mostly to Mediterranean ports ; but some goea through
the Canal, to India, China, and Japan,Mes3r8. Samuels and Co., of
London, running a line of petroleum steamers to the East, carry-
ing oil out from Batoum, and bringing a general cargo home.
The petroleum steamers carrying the American oil are for
the most part owned by the Standard Oil Company themselves,
they having bought up very many of the steamers specially
built for the trade by private firms, so that now it is only if
they are temporarily short of a ship that an outsider is ever
* BocRnee it com«a tKnattie'&w«t^\8.xe.
OBAIN BTK&MEB, tLi. "BINSA." [To /OCC pogt 21
i
307
wante'l at all, and niiuibei's of the privately owneti oil-tank
steamers aie at the present time out of employment, pincf ii-ally
the whole of the trade from North America being <-arrie<l on
by the Standard Oil Company, which is one of the wealthiest
aud strongest monopolies iu the United States.
The petroleum-tank steamer is divided longitu<li»aliy by a
water-tight bnlkhead nuining fore and aft down the («ntre of
the ship, and again by thwart-ship bnlkheads, so dividing her
up into a series of separate tanks. These are nsnally numbered
(rc'to fom ard, thus : No, 1 Port Tank, and No. 1 Htarboard
Tank ; then No. 2 Port Tank, and No. 2 Starboard Tank, and
BO on. Along the bottom of the ship, on each side of the
longitadinal bulkhead, runs the *' pump-line." as it is called, or
the filling-pipe, with a valve in each tank worked from the
deck with a wheel which screwa the valve up or down, the
valve being on the lower side of the pipe, close to the bottom
of the ship, thus admitting of the tanks being pumped out
perfectly dry.
For taking in the oil the steamer ia provided with a circular
Me with a flange to it, usually in the side of a ship. These
inlets or oatlets are all made of a uniform size and pattern, so
that when the ship goes alongside the refinery to load, a pipe
is screwed on, and the pumping is at once commenced at the
works. The ship also has a large pump-room aboard, with
powerful pumps in it; but these are chiefly used for pumping
ijot the oil ; the charter-party usually providing that the
siiijjpers shall pump the oil in, and the ship pump it out when
discharging.
At the refinery, where the ships load, the oil is stored in large
tanks not unlike the gas-holdera at a gas works. Before the
loading commences the distance from the top of the tank to
the oil ia carefully measured, and the same wlien the loading
is completed ; the amount put on board is then calculated by
Bwom gangers, end their decision is final. This is the only
vray by which the quantity of oil put on board the ship is
arrived at.
The oil coming in, as we have seen, at the side of the ship,
flows down pipes at once to the bottom of the tanks, when
by an adjustment oi tbe valves any one tank Bia.^ ^ft ^e^ i J
ao8 THE BRITISH MSRCHAMT SERVICE
separately, or the whole series of tanks may be fiUed simiil-
taneonsly, at option ; and the trim of flie ah^ may be
regulated as required by turning the Talyes on or off to the
different tanks.
The ship usually has a 'tween-deek running the whole way
fore and aft, but not extending entirely athwart the ship, a
narrow space being left throughout the whxAe length along the
centre Une, so that the oil tanks, now nanowed to about time
feet in width, come right up to the deck line. This oentnl
narrow space connected with the tanks is techninally called " the
expansion;" and at the top of the expansion, at the dadbJerel,
are screwed the tank-lids. The object of this contaTanoe k to
enable the oil, which expands with heat, to rise or &11 acooid-
ingly to the temperature; and consequently the main body of
the tank is always entirely fidl of oil, and there is no wash i8
the ship rolls. Without these narrow spaces for the expaoflon
of the oil, if the tanks were filled entirely fiill, when the weathfir
got warmer and the oil swelled it woidd burst the deck up;
and if the tanks were not entirely fiill, there would be such a
wash as would probably burst the bulkheads and wreck the
ship. But, having these ^' expansions," the oil is filled up to
within about eighteen inc*bes of the top, which allows space
fur it to swell, but the space is not wide enough for much of a
wash to get up. The oil as it expands loses its specific grayity;
BO that in hot weather, althcmgh there would be more gallons
of oil on board the ship thau were originally put on bocurd, yet
the number of tons of oil remains the same. In coming from
Philadelphia in the winter, as soon as the ship runs into the
warm water of the Gulf Stream, up comes the oil. It will rise
sometimes in ''the expansion'' as much as four inches in ^
single night.*
On board an oil-tank steamer the men are never allowed
to smoke on deck, and it is made a special stipulation whet^
they sign on that they are not to do so, under a penalty of ^
fine of one month's wages for every time they are caught
* Although with heat the oil iucreases in volume, yet the ship also increase^
somewhat in size too. There is a difference in the length of an iron ship
500 feet long of rather over 7 inches (to speak accoratelyy 0*60 feet) betweef
320 and 212° Fahrenheit.
I
I I
...tl
w
309
smoking ; they, however, know the danger, and very seldom
infringe the rule. All lamps used on board an oil-t&nk
■teamer, including the mast-head and the side lights, are
usoally electric ; and the engine-room and the atoke-hold,
^hich are right aft, are separated from the aftermost tanks
by a four-fuot space exiled the "coffer-dam," so that should
there be any leakage from the tanks, the oil wonld run into
the cotfer-dam, and could be easily pumped out.
By meaus of these precautions, and by using ordinary care,
mineral oil carried in bulk, is not necessarily more dangerous
than many other cargi>es. An oil-tank steamer is more
dangerous empty than full, and for tliia reason t — petroleum
gives off esplusive vapour in proportion to the surface exposed.
A full lAuk, where the top is narrowed by the "expansion,"
has but little exposed surface, and so gives off but a small
quantity of vapour; but an empty tank, after carrying oil,
and before it has been steamed out and washed, has a certain
amount of oil still adhering to the sides, top, and bottom, and
from nil these exposed surfaces a large amount of vapour is
given off. The vapour is of greater specific gravity than
atmospheric air, and consequently sinks to the t>ottoin of the
tank ; the upper part of the tank may therefore be perfectly
free from gas. whilst a lighted match inadvertently thrown to
the bottom of an empty tank might cAuse an explosion fatal
tu the ship.
Not long ago an oil-tank steamer was discharging at
Huueu, and when one of the tanks was pumped out all but a
few feet, something went wrong with the valve, and the chief
engineer, without thinking, went down the ladder into the
Unk. When he got near to the bottom of the ladder the
bmes of the oil, or the vapour, overcame him, and he fell off
the ladder and was drowned in the oil. No one could go
down to his assistance — indeed, it was night, and there
were but few people about — ami before they could recover
iiis body a diver had to be engaged, who went down in his
iliving-dress.
Last December a Bussian oil-tank steamer went ashore on
the Bolt Tail, between Plymouth and the Start; the oil got
out of the tanks, and a/fiiough a stiff gale was VAo-wwi^ "to. Vtvfe
J
sio THE BBinSH MBRCHAMT SXRVXCB
Olumnel at the time, for miles ronnd the Btext the lee «w
peifeotly amooih.
The total dertmotion by fiie of a petroleom steamtt
(although not a tank steamer), ooooned in Jfoffember, 1897,
under rather onrions oirenmstanoes. The Ximiimaarf a steel-
faoilt steamer, of Newoastle-on*Tyne^ left Batonm on the Oth
of Norember, with a cargo of refined petroleom, for Kimaohee.
The petroleum was in tin oases of four gsUom eaoh, whick
were again packed in wooden cases. There were 11S;490 such
cases, so that there were abont 450/)00 gsUom of petraleom
on board. In addition to this there were 70 gallons of ths
petroleom in a tank in the engine^xxmiy for ose in the engjae-
room lamps.
All seems to have gone well ontil Norember 2ii, cm which
date the 3knmoor was in the Bed Sea, aboot six miles 8J3£
of the Island of Jabel Tir. On that day the chief engineer,
on going into the engine-rooos, noticed that the cock of
the petroleom tank was leaking; and as the part of the
engine-room where the tank stood was dark, he took a naked
lamp in his hand, and proceeded to tighten the cock to
prevent the leakage. In doing this the cock broke, and
the oil rushed out, and almost immediately the whole engine-
room was in flames, the oil having caught the naked light
which he had placed on the floor about three feet from the
tank.
All that could be done was to stop the ship by shotting off
the steam from the stoke-hold, and this they managed to da
H.M.S. Edgar^ which happened to be passing, endeavoured to
render assistance, but the sea was too high to enable her to
get alongside in order to use her own pumps in checking the
fire ; she therefore took the crew off, and took the Edenmoor in
tow, with the intention of taking her to the nearest harbour.
During the night, however, the fire spread, the Sdenmosr
being then in flames from the bow to the stem, and t^
hawser soon after parted. Seeing that there was no possi-
bility of saving the ship, and thinking it not unlikely
that an explosion would occur. Admiral FitzGterald with-
drew the Edgar to a little distance, and then opened fire on
the Edenmoar to sink her. Seventy-two shots were fired st
•• ^KLtr-tlEOXED" BTEAUBB.
WELL-BECKED STEAMERS ill
ber before she ultimately vent to the bottom, Bttll burning
fiirionsly.
A dangerous type of cargo steamer is that technically
known as the " well-decked " steamer. She has a long poop
and a top-gallant forecastle, and the solid bulwarks being
continuous between the forecastle and the poop, an open well
is formed amidships ; or if she have a deck-houae under the
bridge, then practically two such wells. So long as a steamer
of this kind is freighted in moderation there ia, perhaps, no
TCry particular danger; but should she be very deep in the
water, so that the actual free-board is not more than a couple
of feet or ao, then if she meet with bad weather and ships two
or three heavy seas, it will prubably be all over with her.
Supposing a ship of this kind to have a beam of 30 feet, and
the " well " to extend fore and aft for a hundred feet, then
with bulwarks six feet high it would be quite possible for her
suddenly to take four or five hundred tons of water on board at
an awkward moment, and in an exceedingly awkward place.
Fifteen years ago a vesael of this type, called the Muriel,
was lost under precbely these circumstances, and at the court
of inquiry held at Middlesborougli a rider was attached to the
finding of the court, to the effect that " well-decked steamers
are not adapted for voyages across the Atlantic during tlie
winter months."
At a similar court of inquiry, held in the case of the loss of
the Tyne-built iron screw steamer Bg^jpt, which occurred
while crossing from New York to Lisbon in March, 1887, the
court found
" that tlie fihip va loFit because large bodies of wftter came ioto, and remained
in the well, and that there was no other contributing cause to the loss ; the
vessel herself bebg thoroogbly seaworthy, lier cargo properly stowed, and
the navigalion in aU reepecta quite efficient"
Mr. Herbert Kuasell, writing on cargo steamships, says —
" Of qnile an opposite type, yet nearly as unpopular, too, in ber way amongst
sailoia,i8 the 'spar-decked 'steamer. Sbe is a craft rendered already horribly
cmak by the modem theories of ' waU-aides ' and ' boi-beam ; ' but when her
slender hall ia addilionaHy built up with a long cumbrous deok-bonse, the
top-weight reduces bar to a chronic condition of threatening tfl turn turtle ii.t
a moment's notice. The chief danger of this type ot vesaeV Wea Kn Vw &t-
istrons teadeacf to abifl her c^go, owing to excessive \a\io\ivmg "to o. «m.-w<s^ .
1
212 THB BRITISH MERCHANT 8BRVICE
Nomben of thflM nnateble ihi^ haTe been loifc rfnplj bj Ae dSa^ktmrnX
of their froight throwiDg themoTor on to their boAin eodii fitMn wUflh pcMbm
their iuutow proportionB and exoeanfe top-we^t effeetnaHy prarwit thor
reoorering biM)jinoy.**
Meroantile Jack has frequently to ehoose between dangeioiu
ahips employed in oanrying pecfectly hannleoa caigoeB» and
thoroughly good and well-fonnd ahipa laden with oaigoei
wMoh in themselyea are highly dangeiona. Few things are,
perhaps, more riaky to cany on board ahip than ootton, whidi
has always been beUeyed to have a dangerons tendency to
apontaneonsly ignite, althoogh now there are some experts
who deny that it ever does ignite qpontaneondy ; they, how-
oyer, go so £ar as to admit that it will frequently arrive at
suoh a state as to ignite upon the very slightest provocation,
a single spark being su£Boient to ignite a whole cargo: so
that, which ever way it be, the ultimate result to Mercantile
Jack ia pretty much the same.
In August, 1887, the Inman Line steamer Cfiijf^ MatUreal
was totally destroyed by fire, she having at the time on board,
as part of her cargo, over two thousand bales of raw American
cotton. At the Board of Trade inquiry as to the loss of this
ship it was stated that no less than seventy-three vessels laden
with cotton had recently been either wholly or partially burnt
within the short space of five months.
The Government then determined thoroughly to investigate
the question of the spontaneous ignition of cargoes of cotton,
and Dr. Dupr6, Chemical Adviser to the Explosives Department
of the Home Office, was instructed to make certain experi-
ments both with Indian and American cotton. As the result
of these experiments, Dr. Dupr6 reported
*' that it was not until a heat of 250° Fahrenheit had been attained that the
cotton began to char, and not until it was subjected to the enormoos tempe-
rature of 1000° Fahrenheit did it burst into flames. He believed spontaneous
combustion in cotton cargoes to be almost impossible; but, on the other
hand, the material was so easily ignited as to leave no difficulty in accounting
for the extraordinary number of conflagrations among ootton-laden ships. A
match accidentally dropped into a bale whilst packing, and ignited by friction,
might set the stuff smouldering ; a live ember from the funnel might be wafted
into a ventilating shaft, and so find its way down into the hold, to say nothing
of the obvious danger from tobacco-smoking among the stevedores and
Jampen,"
rraAXtK. [To fate /mje 212.
%
COTTON STEAMERS 213
Thus far Dr. Duprc. Whether all will agree witli him
is another question ; and until haystacks cease to beat and to
take fire, ordinary folk will be disposed to suspect that the
same kind of thing may possibly occur in the hold of a
cottoH-ship,
On board a cotton- lad en steamer great care has to be
exercised in such matters even as the painting of the holds;
and if the holds have been recently painted, before taking
in the cotton it is most desirable fo see that the paint is
thoroughly dry and hardened, as any contact of cotton with
oily substances ia exceedingly dangerous, and likely to lead
to lire breaking out if the temperature be at all high,
Ships regularly employed in the cotton trade are usually
fitt«<I with steam-pipea leading from the boilers to the holds,
so that in the event of a fire breaking out, the hatches being
battened down and all the ventilators and other apertures
closed, the steam can be turned into the hold ; there being no
doubt but that steam will hold the fire in check, and, indeed,
hitherto, in numberless cases it has enabled vessels with
serious fires on board to arrive safely at their port of destina-
tion, both in the United Kingdom and the Continent.
Coals, especially certain sorts of coal, are apt to be exceed-
ingly dangerous, and many coal-carrying vessels are destroyed
every year. Large quantities of gas are generated in the hold,
and unless the hatches are fre<iueutly taken off. it so accumu-
lates that a light inadvertently taken below may in a moment
be the cause of an explosion and a fire. Gunpowder and
dynamite are equally unpleasant companions to have on
board, although gunpowder is so far safe that it does not
spontaneously ignite.
Perhaps, when one comes to consider the number of dangerous
things that have of necessity to be carried about in ships, it is
wonderful, not that there are so many vessels burnt every
year, but that there are not more. Passenger steamers, even
the great liners, are always subjected to the risk of what may
be hidden away in the recesses of the ship's hold. Many
passengers are singularly thoughtless and careless, and
despite the special notices issued by the P. and O. and other
well-known lines, doubtless many things get V^Vyw a'oiau^
4
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
bjfi passengers' baggage that ought not to be there. A fine '4
I and costH was recently impoaed by the magistrate at
w Street npon a porenn who hail sent fnr shipment on board
a P. and 0- steaiuer a package of wefiring-apparel, etc,
among which were two boxes of lucifer matchea, without
dei'laring the SBine — a perfectly jnst decision, inasmuch as an
act of cfljetessnesfl of this sort might jeopardize the lires of
hundreds of hnman beings, to say nothing of the loss of a fine
ship and a valnable cargo.
_>►
r -
- - (» —
THE TRANSATLANTIC RECORD
CHAPTEB XVI.
T!ie TraoMtlaatic "Record"— 1838, the ,Sr*r»M— tlie Grtat Western— ISiO,
the £n'ta«nio— 1851, the Baltic (Collms Line)— 1863, the Scotia—
1869, the City of Bmiieli—1813, iLo Baltic (White Star)— 1879, the
Ariao7ia—lSi2, iho Alasha—l6Bi, the OrejKHi— 1885, tie Jilruria—
1889, the Cili/ qf Poris— 1891, llie ifojwiie— 1891, the IVuftmK—
1805, the Cawiiania— The future.
It so frequently liftppeua that a paragraph appears iii the
daily papers to the effect that siieh or such a steamship has
broken the record in the matter of the trans-Atlantic passage,
that it may be worth while, even at the expense of repeating
one or two facts already stated elsewhere, to give in a concise
form some account of what actually has lieen done since the
tirst employment of steam in crossing the Atlantic Ocean,
The year 1838, may be taken as the starting-point of the
Atlantic " record," for on the 5th of April, 1838, the Sirhis left
Cork, making the passage across from Cork to New York in
18 days. On the 8th of April, in the same year, three days
after the ifirius, the G^-eat ll^estcrii left Bristol, also for New
York, which port she reached on the same day as the Sirius,
and only about two hours after her, making the passage in
14J days, thus being the first steamer to " break the record."
In 1840, one of the first Cunarders, the paddle-wheel steamer
Britannia, crossed from Liverpool to Halifax in fourteen days
and eight hours. In the following year, 1841, a great improve-
ment was made in the speed, the Britannia making the home-
ward passage from Halifax to Liverpool in teu days; and this
remained the actual record until the year 1851.
In 1851, this record was reduced to nine days eighteen
hoars, westward, by the Baltic, one of the now extinct Collins
Line ; and to nine days twenty hours, eastward, by her sister
ship, the Pacific. The Scotia, the last paddle-wheel ship
I
2i6 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
of the Canard Line, was the first vessel to sncceed in making
the passage in less than nine days, she crossing eastwards in
1863, in eight days and three honrs; and in the following
year, 1864, accomplishing the outward passage in eight days
and sixteen hours.
In 1869, the City of Brussels made the run between New
York and Queenstown under eight days, making the passage
in seven days twenty-two hours, thus beating the record up to
that time, and accomplishing a feat which stood unrivalled for
four years.
In 1873, the Baltic, of the White Star Line, came across
from New York to Queenstown in two hours less than the City
of Brussels, namely in seven days twenty hours. In 1879, the
Arizona, of the now extinct Guion Line, one of the first of the
ships since known as the " greyhounds of the Atlantic," made
the passage from Sandy Hook Lightship to Queenstown in
seven days and eight hours, and in the November of the same
year went back from Queenstown to New York in seven days
and nine hours. At that time these two passages were the
"fastest on record" — a record, however, to be broken three
years later by the Alaska, of the same Company, which made
the homeward passage from New York to Queenstown, in July,
1882, in sis days twenty-two hours ; and in September of the
same year in sis days nineteen hours, the Alaska thus being
the first ship to cross the Atlantic in less than seven days.
In 1884, the Oregon made the homeward passage in six days
eleven hours; and in the following year, 1885, the Cunarder
Etruria crossed from Queenstown to New York in six days
two hours. In 1889, the City of Paris, of the then Inman
Line, still further reduced the time, making the run from
Queenstown to New York in five days twenty hours, and from
New York to Queenstown in five days twenty-two hours. This
was the " record " until it was broken by the magnificent
ships of the White Star Line, the Majestic, and the Teutonic.
In July, 1891, the Majestic crossed from Queenstown to New
York in five days eighteen hours and eight minutes, the
fastest passage on record up to that date ; and in the follow-
ing month the Tmtonic still further lowered the record by
making the passage in five days sixteen hoois sud thirty
minutes. In 1S92, the CUy of Paris again came to the I'ront,
making the outward passage from Queenstown to New York
in five days fourteen hours and tbirty minutes.
In 3893, the latest additiuns to the Giiiiard fleet appeared in
the Campania and the Lvcania, which hold the record up to
the present time, the Campania's fastest passage out being
from Queenstown, on the 18th of August, 1895, to New
York, a distance of 2898 knots, in five days nine huiirs and
five minutes; and the ZMcania'o fastest being in October, 1894,
in five days seven hours and twenty-three minutes. Up tt'
the present, therefore, the Zucania is the fastest ship that ever
crossed the Atlantic ; her average speed for a whole passage
being 22-1 knots an hour; and her fastest fur a single hour
23"3 knots, or very nearly twenty-seven miles in the hour.
The above particulars of record passages are, for the most
part, limited to the route between Queenstown and New York,
but other fast passages have been made between other ports,
B8 for instance that of the Lahradcr, of the Dominion Line,
which left Moville (Ireland) at 2.15 p.m. on the 9th of
Angust, 1895, and reached Belle Isle, Newfoundland, at 7.5
•an. on August the 14th, thus making the run from land to
land across the Atlantic (allowing fur the difference of
longitude) in four days twenty hours, the fastest on record
in that direction.
Doring 1896, the highest average rate of speed throughout
the whole of an Atlantic trip was made by the Campania,
with 21-86 knots to her credit. But the Lvmnia was close
behind her with 21-80 knots. The latter ship made the best
d»y's run that year, viz. 562 knots. ^Vhen running to the
westward her day would be equal to 24 hours 50 minutes, and
oonaequently the average for the day was 2263 knots per
Iionr. Coming home she made 623 knots, and the day being
then only 23 hours 10 minutes long, the average would be
22-57 knots.
Of the White Star liners, the fastest average speed for a
whole passage was in 1896, 20-17 knots per hour, by the
Teutonic on her homeward passage in June; whilst the
Majestic came very close in her outward passage in. Aa^[^t,
her average speed then being 20-15 knots.
I
2i8 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
The St. Paul aiid the St. Louis, the American-built steamers
of the American Liue, which were designed to beat all previouB
records, have so far failed to do this that their best average
speed remains appreciably below that of either the Campania
or the Lucania. The Si. Paul's best average for a whole trip
was her westward jiaasage from Southampton to New York,
3046 knots, in August, 1896, the time being six days and
thirty minutes, or at the average speed of 21'08 knots per hour.
The St. Louis' best whole trip was also her westward passage,
30.55 knots, during the same month of August, 1896, her
time being six days two hours thirty minutes, or an average
speed of 20'87 knots per hour.
It is curious to note that nearly all the record-breakers
have been built in pairs. In 1875, the Britannic and the
Germanic, of the White Star Line, were considered the swiftest
steamers in the world, and at that time it was extremely
difficult to say which of them was tlie faster. In 1881, the
Sema, of the Cunard Company, and the City of Rome, of
the Anchor Liue, made their appearance, and put the
IJntaimic and the Oernianic into the shade. In 1884, the two
Cunard boats, the Etruria and the Umhna, were built, and
were then considered to be the beet-matched, as well as the
Itistest pair of steamers afioat ; yet their brilliant performances
were completely eclipsed by the Atlantic passages of the
Inman ships, the City of Paris and the City of New Yorl;
which were launched in 1888. These in turn had to give
place to those maguiflcent steamships of the White Star
Line, the Majestic and the Teutmiic, which are almost
identical in appearance, tonnage, and speed ; and now these
fine ships have had to yield the palm to the Cunardera, the
Campania and the Lucania, which, like all the rest, will
probably themselves be superseded before long by still faster
ships, and one of their successors will doubtless be the White
Star's new Oceanic ; although, unless some very striking^
revolution takes place either in shipbuilding or in the means
of propulsion, it seems difficult to conceive that any very
material advance still remains to be made.
But although the Campania and the Lucania as yet hold
the premier position for speed and size, it would be wrong
■^€^
to suppose that those interested in the transit of passengers
and mails across the Atlantic have not been casting about
with a view of surpassing the greyhounds of the Cunard
Company. Expert opinion seems unanimous as to the
direction which the most probable devekiimient of the North
Atlantic passenger and mail traffic must take; end the future,
and probably the near future, will see a still more decided line
of demarcation between passenger and freight services than
obtains at the present time. In all existing railway services
passenger trafHc and goods traffic are relegated to totally
distinct departments, each provided with its own special
locomotives, and with its own particular rolling stock. It will
not, probably, be long before a similarly sharp division will
have to be made between the passenger and the goods trafBc
on the Atlantic, and prompt action in this direction will
probably result very favourably to the first company which
has the courage to break through established traditions.
A passenger boat, pure and simple, need not be of the
same dimensiouH as the Campania and the Lnjcania. A
vessel of from 400 to 420 feet in length would be amply large
enough to give the requisite stability in a seaway, and as
she would probably require less power to drive her, a material
saving would be effected. Her decks, too, unobstructed by
hatches and winches, would afford superior attractions to
the ocean traveller, and passengers would soon learn to dis-
criminate between the passenger eteamer, and the passenger
and cargo boat. But one of the most material points in
favour of these suggested vessels is the fact that they would
be able to make considerably more trips in the course of a
year than a eteamer that has a cargo to load and discharge.
In the case of the Campania and the Lutania a month elapses
between their sailing dates from Liverpool ; in other words,
a return voyage occupies a month, these boats being in port
for a week at Liverjjool and a week at New York on each trip.
It' they were simply passenger boats much of this delay would
be avoided. Assuming the cost of one of these vessels to be
half a million sterlmg, every week that she is lying idle —
TOiisidering the matter as one of interest on idle capital —
means a loss of aoaethitig like £500. It sbe vieie ami'^'^ a
i
aao THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
paaaenger boat these twenty-four weeks of the year spent in
port would certainly be lednced by one-half, which seems to
point to a saying of something like £6000 a year. Bat then
would be another effect — ^the twelve trips across in the yeir
would probably be increased to eighteen, so that the gtin
would be at both ends.
With such a boat the point of departure would probably
be Holyhead, and not Liverpool, and the induoemsnt to oaD
in at Queenstown would then disappear, the record passige
being for the future New Tork to Holyhead and Holyhesd
to New York.
Engineering experts are perhaps a little undecided as to
how long a boat could keep up such a service without
requiring overhauling ; but when the continuous runs of the
large fast steamers engaged in the Australian and New
Zealand trade are considered, it is evident that msiiiis
engines are capable of running much more than six or sem
days at a stretch. Thus there should be no real difficulty
in a ship which crosses the Atlantic at a speed of £rom 22 to
24 knots an hour being turned round in a couple of days,
and making at least eighteen trips in the year as against the
Campania 8 or the Lu<iania'8 twelve ; so that the passenger
boat, as distinct from the cargo boat, will without doubt be
soon as much recognized as an institution between Holyhead
and New York as it now is between Dover and Calais, or
between Folkestone and Boulogne.
CLIPPER SHIPS
CHAPTER XVn.
Sailing aliipa — The '' Baltimore clippore" — Boston and New Tork clippere —
Tlio Sat WitcA — ^Tho Americftn tea clippers — Britiali clippers — The
Cliiiift tea mce in 1953 — Donald McKay's ships— The FCi/ing Oload—
The White Star Linera— The Oreal BepiMic— The Blue Jac/cel—Laaa
o( the Blue Jimket— The Marco Polo — The Bed Jaektl—The Lightning
— The James ftiinw— The Domld McKay — The Scotch clippers— The
China tea race of 1866 — The Ariel and the Taeping — Bombny clippers —
The Tmeed—Ths Sir iancdot— The tea race of 18G7— The Thermopylx
* — The Gulty-Sark — British ahipB — Pour-masters,
A 0UBI0U3 similarity mauifested itself towards the middle of
this century between the way in which steam was gradually
superseding horses on the land, and the way in which it was
equally superseding sails upon the sea. Stage-coach travelling
had never been brought to such a pitch of perfection as it
attained just before its final extinction by the railroad. Such
handsome, well-appointed, fast, and punctual coaches as
then appeared had been entirely unknown until the railway
engineer was slowly, but surely, throwing up his embankments,
and boring his tunnels, for the new mode of locomotion that
was so soon to take their place. In the same way on the
water, although steam was making rapid progress, and was
steadily threatening the sailing ship with extinction, yet
never had the world seen such perfect specimens of sailing
ships as api>eared between the years 1840 and 1870. or
perhaps a little later.
Like many other useful arts, that of building fast-sailing
clipper ships came to this country from America, the shipbuilders
of Baltimore claiming the honour of being the first to turn
out these swift and handsome vessels. From the Potomac
issued the particular kind of craft that soon became famous
222 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
throughout the worlds under the name of ^Baltimore
clippers/' not only for their astonishing speed, bat also for
the exceeding beauty of their model. The vessels built at
Baltimore^ however, were seldom larger than brigs, the
number of barques and ships constructed there being bat
small, owing to the want of water-room; two of the finl
vessels of the larger type, however, were the Ortykowd
and the Orey Eeigle, both of which proved to be exceedingly
fast sailers.
Soon after this New York and Boston turned their attention
to the building of an improved type of ship, and it was not
long before a fleet of handsome clippers hailed from these
two ports also. The first of the famous American dippen
built at New York was the Sea Witch, of 907 tons register,
which was launched in 1844. The Sea WUck soon bectme
famous, and although repeatedly beaten afterwards by the
larger ships which succeeded her, she is believed to have
had more influence on the form of deep-sea vessels than
any other merchant ship ever built in the United StataL
With her the full bow and the long sharp run aft went
out of fashion, and the long sharp bow with a fuller stem
came into permanent use the world over for fast ships of
the mercantile marine. The Sea Witch was 170 feet 3 inches
in length, 33 feet 11 inches beam, and 19 feet in depth. ^
Owing to the sharp rise of her floor (16°), she was, however,
unstable without a good deal of ballast, and she rolled
considerably in a seaway; but her speed was surprising,
she being at that time undoubtedly the fastest sailing ship
afloat.
The Sea Witch was soon followed by larger and swifter
clippers, many being specially built for the China tea trade,
among them being the Oriental and the Celestial^ and after
these the Clialleiuic and the Surprise, and many others. Among
the many splendid trips made by these American clippers
those of the Oriental and the Celestial, belonging to New York,
perhaps stand pre-eminent. The Onental accomplished the
dbtance from New York to Hong Kong— 14,521 miles by
log, and 14,160 by observation — in less than 71 days, her
average rate of sailing per day being 200 miles. The Celestial
THE TEA CLIPPERS
223
made a trip from New York to San Francisco in 95 days,
which was two days quicker than the Sea Witch had done,
which nntil that time had been the shortest passage on
record.
These American ships were now beginning to appear in
the Thames and in the Mersey, and were already competing
tor British trade against British ships. It was in the year
1850, however, that Mr. Richa.rd Green, of the famous
Blackwall Line, determined to construct some vessels that
should heat the American clippers, and at a dinner given
by one of the city companies he announced his intention as
foIlowB: "We have heard," said he, "a great deal this night
about the dismal prosi>ects of British shipping, and we have
heard, too, from other quarters a great deal about the British
liou and the American eagle, anJ the way in which the two
are going to lie down together. Now, I don't know anything
tbout all that, but this I do know — that we, the British
ihipowners, have at last sat down to play at a fair and open
game with the Americans, and, by Jove ! we'll trump them."
8oon after this an English clipper ship was laid down by Mr.
(rreeu, which when she was launched was called the Challenger,
in answer to tho Baltimore clipper Challenge.
By 1850, the annual race home from China of the tea ships
was an established institution, and in 1852, was attracting so
mnoh attention that the American Navigation Club of Boston
offered £10,000 to the vessel which should win the next
nee, an American clipper against a British one, of 120O
Mob register, tiie ships to run from London to China and
iieck, under certain regulations. After the offer had been
published for a month in England, it was raised to £20,000,
and the British ship was promised fourteen days' start. The
challenge, however, was never accepted.
By this time, however, other Brilish shipbuilders besides Mr.
Otem were constructing vessels designed to equal, if not to
•BTpaas, the American clippers, and in 1853, Messrs. Jardine,
HstfaesoQ, and Co. sent out the CTtri/solitf and the Sfornoway
'.0 take part in the race, which, however, still resulted in
favour of the American clippers, as follows: —
\
K bea
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
A raerioao- built clipper .., Olmileitge ... Cnu ton to Deal, 105 days,
„ ,, ... SurpriM ... „ „ !06 .,
Aberdeen -hailt chpper ... SJurnoimiy ,,, „ „ 109 .,
„ ,, ... CkryioliU ... Cauton to Liverpool, llWdkji,
Amorican-bdlt ship ... Nightingale ... Shangh&i to De«l, llOdiyt,
Britiah-built ship ... Challenger ... „ „ 113 „
the Americans thna wiunitig both nces.
TKe years from 1850, to 1855, were noted for the atitnber <
fast clippers turned out from the building-yards of the Unit«i
States, and the demand for such vessels became so great tlu
they were frequently very hastily constructed. As a case
point, the John Bertram, 1100 tuns register, a clipper w(
known for a few years, was launched in sixty days from tha
laying down of her keel, and in thirty days more she
speeding on her way from Boston to San Francisco with a full
cargo of goods, at forty dollars per ton freight. This reckleu
mode of construction soon told its tale, more particularly ia
the case of the China tea-clippers of American build, which, in'
spite of the fact that they were exceedingly beautiful vessel^
and admirable in point of speed, were notoriously so slightly
built that on arrival their cargoes were frequently found to be
very materially damaged.
In 1851, the clipper Nightiiy/alc, mentioned above as in the
race from Shanghai to Deal, was built at Portsmouth, New
Hampshire. She was 178 feet long, 36 feet beam, and 20 feot
deep, and was 1066 tons register. She was an exceedingly
sharp ship. . lu the rai^e from Shanghai upon one occasion she
ran 33t) nautical miles in the twenty-four hours, or at the rate
of rather more than 16 statute miles an hour. The next year,
1854, she ran from New York to Melbourne in 76 days.
In 1851, Donald McKay, of East Boston, a name destined
to become famous in connection with fast-sailing ships, built
the Flying Cloud, a clipper, measuring 208 feet on keel, 41
feet beam, and 21 feet 6 inches depth of hold, 1782 tons
register. She made her first voyage from New York to San
Francisco, doing the passage out in 90 days. On one day she
ran 427 nautical miles, then the very fastest time on record.
Mr. Donald McKay, in 1852, built the clipper Sovereign of the
>%:as. She was 245 feet long on the keel, 44 feet 6 inches
beam, and 25 feet 6 inches depth of hold, and was 2421 tona
f
\
LOSS OF THE "BLUB JACKET 33$
register. She waa the largest, sharpest, and longest saiUug-
ressel in the wurld at the time of her t'onstriiction. Upun oue
occftsion she ran 1367 miles in four (lays, thus keeping up a
coDtiouous rate of oyer 14 miles an hour. Once she made 43(i
miles in twenty-four hours, or over 18 miles au hour. This ship
earned 200,000 dollars gross during the first eleven months of
her existence.
The original " White Star " Line was composed of a fleet of
these fast-sailing A^merican clippers, and among their ships
were the Champion of the Seas, 2470 tons ; the Blue Jacket, 1790
tona;* the Sardinian, 1150 tons; the White Star,X\ie Shalinar,
* Thia celeljrated clipper was, unfortiitifltely, ituriied at sea. The following
account ia that given by the Master, Captain J. White, upon the arrival of
thesiHTiTOTBatQneoiistown.oaMa}-17, 18C9:— "Theitiu* Jocfef, 1790 tons
resister, left Lyttelton, New Zealand, on the 13th of February, 13G9, with n
C^rgo of wool, flax, and colonial produce, and 15 boxes of gold, containing
£48,000. She had 17 saloon passengers, IS^aecond-cIass, and a craw of 39,
with a anrgcoQ and a Btewardeas. On the 6th of March, at 1 1 a.m., the Blue
Jacket passed Cape Horn, and on the 7tb of March, the Falkland lalands. At
1.30 p.ra. on that day, being in latitude &0-26 S. and longitude 47 W., a fine
breeie blowing from W.N.W., amoko wna obaorved to issue from the fore
hnich. Immediately the hatch waa removed to ascertain the cause, when a
Tolume of smoke rushed up. Both fire-engines were immediately started to
wodc by the crow and pasBSngorB, the Hre-buckcts being also put into
Kquisition. After two hours' incessant labour by all hands the Gre seemed to
decrease, and an attempt was made to break out the cargo, and to throw
overboard the bales in the fore-batch so as to get at the fire, but tlie attempt
was onsncceaaful, the flames rushing from the starboard wing. The hatch
was immediately closed, and covered with larpauliJis, wet sails, etc., atid tlie
engines were played into the holes where the deck-lights had been, and
through which the flames could he diatunctly seen coming from the flax.
The flames were put out as far a.i the hoee-pipoa would reach, when these
holes were closed up and others opened, until it was discovered tliat the coals
in the fore-peak were on 6re, when all hope of saving the ship was abandoned.
" The boats were at once got ready, provisions, water, bICt being put into
them. The heat now compelled those working tlie engines to dewst, the
moat perfect order and discipline being maintained by the crew and poMengers.
The &stboat lowered was the cutter, into which tlio ladies, children, and the
rest of the passengers, and some of the crew were put. The remainder of the
crew took to the lifeboats, of which there were two. At 10 p.m. the flames
were observed to be breaking out of the top-gallant forecastle, rushing np the
fore-sail and the fore-stays. At 10.30 p.m. the foremast went over the side,
the flames having by this time reached the mainsail. Before leaving the
ship she waa hovo-to on the starboard tack, driftmg to the 8,E.
'■ I now regnlafed thg fjoafa, dividing- the crew eqvioliy ™ ftu>. \M^<im.\,%,
J
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216 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
the Salamis, the Patriarch, and niauy others, sailiag to Aostnlia.
Of these, perhapa, the Patriarch was the fastest ship, making, in
1868, the run home from Sydney to the West India Docks in
sixty-eight days. To this line Messrs. Ismay, Imrie, and Co.
succeeded, and they then supplemented the fleet with a niiniba
putting Mr. R. ^. Boll, iho second officer, in ch&rge or one, and Mr. A. Webba^
the third officer, and the bo'sun, ia charge of the other. The cattet wH
taken charge of by myself and the first officer, lU. F. Williama, there bebf
in her the fourth officer, two seamen, three stewarda, one boy, and all thi
passengen (thirty-oine in all), the two lifeboata having thirty-two pemud^
all the boats being in company.
"On the Ilth of March smoke was still visible from the bumiog hull of the
ship ; the boats were in company^ wind ftesh from the westward, and the kb
rising. Both the lifeboats were lust sight of during the day, though they had
strict orders to keep ia compauy. Before sunaet we nm down to see it the
boala could be made out. I kept a man at ihe mast-head, sent up a rocket
at 8 p.m., and kept on dodging about Ull midoight when another rocket was
sent off witliont any response. We then proceeded on onr coarse for fiw
days, experiencing strong westerly gales, the sea waahing over the boat con-
tinually, drenching every one to the skin.
"On the ICth of March, at 5.30 a.m^ lat. 50-65 8., long. 53-51 W., aU
being in a very exhausted state from hunger, thirst, wot, and ctsmp, the
rations iiaviug been reduced to a mouthful of water, and one table-spoonful of
preserved meat every twecty-four hours (all the biscuit having been destroyed
by the Bait water], a sail hovo in sight, ninning down towards the boat. Sbe
proveil to be the barque Pyrmont, of [Umburg, from Iqoiqne, bound la
Falmouth for orders, Capt. It. Neemeyer, master. Capt. Neemeyer at onoe
took all OD board, the boat Uing abandoned. Uuremittuig attention wai
paid to the rescued by all on board the barque, the weak being attended to
first, their wet clothes being removed, and all supplied with fresh dry iMngL
The captain being told that two more boats had left the burning ship, raa
the Pyrmont an hour N. by W. and two hours E.N.E., but, on fortunately,
nothing could be seen of them. Thomas Apsey, third steward, died im-
mediately on being brought on hoard the Pyrmont, and Mr. Farrington, tha
fourth officer, lost his reason and gradually sank, dying ou Uie 2l8t of March.
" On the 28tb of March, Ul. 28 .5 S., and long. 29 W., one of the paasengeti
died, and soon after the ship Garrtckt, from Liverpool to Calcutta, hove in
Nght, and was boarded, her captain supplying the Pyrmont with what pro-
visions he could spare. On April 1st, in lat. 25 S., long. 29 W., the clipper
ship Yorkihire was spoken, bound for Melbourne. Her captain moat
generously supplied the Pyrmaal freely with every necessary, and took off
two of the passengers who were desirous of proceeding to Melbourne.
•' On the ITtli of May the Pymionl landed the survivotB, comprising the
whole of the passengera, with the exception of the one who had died and the
two who had gone back to Melbourne, at Queeostown, there having been no
fiiTtbeT casualty among those froia tlvt cutlet of the ill-fat«d Blue Juckd,"
1.'
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THE AMERICAN CLIPPER 1^^
of iron clippers sach aa the iWiwA Commerce, the Belfast, the
Knight Commander, the Houghton Toicer, the Ghngarry, the
Knowsley Hall, and other magnificent ships.
In the same way that the stage-coach proprietors vainly tried
their utmost still to beat the railways; so the Yankees tried
their very hardest with these fast-sailing and handsome clippers
to beat the steamers across the Atlantic. One of these American
clippers, the Dreadnought, under the command of Captain
Samuels, actually came across from New York to Queenatown
in 9 days 17 hours, which is probably the fastest sailing time
on reconi, being at the rate of at least twelve knots an hour
the whole distance,* The Ashburton crossed from New York
to Liverpool in 12 days; the Princeton in 16 days; and the
Virginia, the Waterloo, and the Queen of the West in 17 days ;
whilst the Waterloo, the Liverpool, and the Tornado crossed the
other way, from Liverpool to New York, in 18 days. A little
later the Ulcnijfer made four voyages to Quebec and back, thus
crossing the Atlantic eight times during eight months, her
fastest passage being from Quebec to Greenock in 15 days.
Oue of the finest, as well as one of the largest of these famous
vessels — indeed, at that time she was the largest sailing-vessel
itt the world — was the Great Sejniblic, belonging to Messrs. A.
A. Law and Co., of New York, When launched she was of
4000 tons ; but having soon afterwards been partially destroyed
by fire, her upper deck was removed, and her size was conse-
quently reduced to 3400 tons. She was 305 feet long, 53 feet
beam, and 30 feet depth of hold. She was fitted with double
topsails, being one of the earliest ships to be so treated. On her
firat trip she brought 3000 tons of Peruvian guano from New
York to London as ballast. She made the passage from New
Yurk to Scilly in thirteen days ; and beat up the Channel from
thence to the Downs, in the teeth of a strong easterly gale, in
three days more, making in all sixteen days from New York
to the Downs. But the days of the Transatlantic passenger
trade were over for sailing ships, and they had, at last, to haul
• Thie famous American clipper — the Dreadnought — for flouio years waa
Employed ill the CaliforiUBn trade, the steamers having driven sailing vcsacia
like her off the Atlanlic. She waa lotalli- lost in 18G9. al Pourt Vnao,^, Tiwa
B»n F
328 THE BRITISH MERCHANT 88RVICB
down their colouis to the steamen; and Unas like the WhiU
StaVf the Ouian, and others, had to giTe up 8ai]% and take
to steam.
Between the years 1850 and 1860, when the Anstnlian gold
fever was at its height, every availaUe Teasel was put into the
Australian tiade, and a keen oompetiti0n was waged between
the English and the American ships. Large flxms like Deritt
and Moore, after putting on the large ships pferiooaly used in
the East Indian trade, ware sending out quite small Tessek as
passenger ships to (}eebng, Adelaide, and Sydney, resaels rang-
ing from 350 to 600 tons ; indeed, the great majocity of the skips
leaving London at that time rarely exceeded six hundred tons.
During the whole of the '^ sixties," the average Australian
passage of the regular EngUah firigate-builtahipa— aQehahipsss
Green's, or Money Wigram's, which were the very finest vessels
out of the port of London, was usually from eighty-five to s
hundred days. The following may he taken as fair examples:
The EUukwaU^ 1000 tons^ belonging to Messrs. GreeOt arrived in
the Downs on November 1, 1867, one hundred days from Mel-
bourne. She left Melbourne on the 23rd of July, rounded the
Horn on the 3rd of September, having experienced very heavy
easterly and south-easterly gales all the way from New Zealand
to the Horn. She crossed the Line on the 30tli of September,
and anchored in Plymouth Sound on the 30th of October.
The same day the ship Svssex, 1100 tons, belonging to Money,
Wigram and Co., arrived at Plymouth, 85 days from Mel-
bourne, which port she left on the 6th of August She rounded
the Horn on the 13th of September, crossed the Equator on the
6th of October, arriving at Plymouth on the 30th of October.
This, then, was about the usual length of the passage in the best
ships, so that no small sensation was created in Liverpool by
the American-built clipper, the Marco Polo^ making the passage
from Melbourne in the then unprecedentedly short time of
75 days.* In 1854, Messrs Baines and Co., of the Black Ball
* The Black Ball clipper Marco FcHo was not always so fortunate. Upon
one occasion she Tras 183 days from Melbonrae. The Marco Polo sailed from
Melbourne for Liverpool on the 19th of Febmary, 1861, passing Port Philip
Heads on the 20th, with 242 passengers, and a general cargo indnding
6570 oz. of gold. On the 4th of Maiohf in the Soath Padfio Ocean, ahe came
into Yiolent collision with an icebefi^^. "CLet \^^r«^ ^«v& ^sofn^ vm.^^ ber
I ■
1. 1
M
1"
THE BLACK BALL LINERS
Line, put on two splendid sbipa, the Lightning and tlie Bed
Jacket, followed shortly after by the equally celebrated
clipper, the James Baims.
The famous (flipper, the Red Jachet, 2464 tons register,
designed by Mr. S. M. Pook, was bnilt by Donald McKay
spei-ially for the Australian trade. She came across from New
York to Liverpool in 13 days 11 hours in an attempt to beat
the Dreadnought ; but the Dreadnmight beat her by three hours.
The Red Jacket made her first run out tn Melbourne from
Liverpool in 69 days. Upon another occasion she made the
passage from Liverpool to Melbourne iu COJ days, and the
passes home in 734 ^^J^ '> ^^^ whole voyage, out and home,
including the detention in Austtulia, occupying only 5 months
and 10 days.
The Lufhtning, also built by Donald McKay, in 18.')4, was
one of his very smartest clippers. She was 227 feet 6 inches
long on the load-line, 44 feet 6 inches beam, and drew 17 feet
of water. Her register tonnage was 209U tons. She came
across from Boston to Liverjiool in 13 days 20 hours. She
'lid LiTerpooI to Melbourne in 77 days, 65 days, and once in
63 days — the shortest passage on record — and made the return
passage in 64 days.
The James Bainea, another of the famous Black Ball liners,
of 2515 tons, was equally celebrated for her uniformly rapid
iwssages, so much so that upon one occasion when she and the
Liijhtn-ing left Melbourne the same month, and when the former
ship wa9 over a hundred days coming home, instead of her
Qsnal time of from sixty to seventy days, there was something
like a panic in Liverpool. The James Baines left Melbourne
on the 7th of August, 185G, having on board 174,000 on. of
gold dust, worth about £700,000, Not having arrived at
Liverpool on the 14th of November, being then 99 days out,
insurances were effected upon her at £8 per cent, (her usual
hows atovG in, and the foremast sprung. Rucli was tlie extent of tlie ilamage
that for a time all hopea of saving the vessel were given up ; but owing to
Uie intrepidity of the captain, and the bmva conduct of all on board, the
■4faroD PoloyaB Bucoessfully taken into Valparaiso on tlie 2nd of April. Hero
1*he underwent a thorough overhaul, and was enabled to continue her voyage,
•rriviog in Liverpool on the Zlst of August, being 183 daya oat from
AtL<itralia.
330 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
terms for specie being from 861. to 40i. per oeat) ; and bong
still unheard of on the 20th of Norember, then 105 dsji
out, £15 per cent was paid. On the next dmj, the 2l8t» she
towed np the Mersey.
The Lijfhining left Hobs(m*s Bay on the 27th of August,
three weeks after the James Baines, with 140,000 os. of gbld-
dnst on board. The following morning she passed the BmAk
and on the 1st of September was off New Zealand. She
ronnded the Horn on the 19th of September (21 days lOhoon
bam the Heads) ; crossed the Line on the 8th of October ; on tha
18th of NoTember was off Cork ; ronnded Holyhead on the 19th;
and arrired in the Mersey on November 20, 1866 — one day
before the Ja$ns$ Bainei.
Another yery celebrated ^ Black Ball *' liner was the Dmidd
M6Kdjf—2S04t tons register (the largest dipper in the world).
She was boilt at Boston, her length being 266 teet, her beam
46 feet, and her depth of hold 29 feet She was one of tbs
Cutest sailers in the world ; npon one occasion taking a thovsuid
troops from Portsmouth to Manritins in 70 days. Her ayemge
time for six consecutive Toyages from Liverpool to Melbourne
was 83 days ; and only once it exceeded 85 days.
Another very fast clipper ship, belonging to the Liverpool
White Star Line, was the Lillies, 1665 tons register. She took
a number of troops from Dublin to Gibraltar in 4 days. She
made the passage from Liverpool to Melbourne in 79 days, on
which occasion she made 365 miles a day for several days in
succession.
Some Aberdeen clippers, however, were by this time making
their appearance, whose performances quite equalled those of the
American ships. The Maid of Judahy 1200 tons register, made
the passage from London to Sydney, in 1860, in 78 days ; whilst
the Star of Peace^ of 2000 tons, made four consecutive passages
from London to Sydney, respectively, in 77, 77, 79, 79 days.
The British clipper ship Hurricane^ of the Thames and Mersey
Line of Australian Packets, was also an exceedingly fast sailer.
She came home from Melbourne in 74 days. Upon one occasion
she ran 270 nautical miles in sixteen hours and a half, thus
keeping up a speed exceeding sixteen knots an hour.
The building of clipper shi^ hsd now reached the far East,
■• THE CHINA TEA RACE OF 1866 231
and ahipa on the lines of tlie American and tlie Aberdeen
'•lippers were being tnmed out of the Hhipbuilding yards of
Bombay. In 1857, such a vessel, named the Funjauh, was built
for the East Indian Government as a steam war-ahip. She con-
tinued in the Eaat Indian Navy until the Government of
India was transferred to the Imperial Crown, when she was
3old, converted into a sailing ship, and re-christened the Tweed.
The East India Company always used to pay dearly for their
ships, and a more costly ship of her class was probably never
built than the Twetil, she being constructed entirely of the
finest MaUbar teak.
Under the red ensign of the JVIerchant Service she made
some remarkable passages. Her first voyage was from London
to Bumbay, with the Persian Gulf telegraj>h cable on board,
which she was afterwards employed iu laying, when she made
the run out to Bombay, of course by way of the Cape, iu 77
days. She then went to Vingoria, at which place she took
on board the Seaforth Highlanders, and brought them home
in 78 days. And others of her trips were equally rapid.
In 1856, Messrs. Scott and Co., of Greeno<'k, built the Lonl of
t/ic Isles, to compete with the American tea clipjiers, and in the
next race home from China she beat the Americans in point of
speed, besides pos^aaing the additional quality of being better
built than they were, and in consequence, bringing her cargo
home uninjured. For some years the honours of this rare were
divided, the palm of victory falling sometimes to the British
ships, sometimes to the American; but before the " sixties "
were out the blue ribbon of the China tea race was wrested
from the Americans altogether, and carried off by British ships,
some very smart sailing constantly taking place between the
competitors. In the race of 1866, the Arid, the Taeping, and
the Serica, with two other famous clippers, left Poo-chow-foo
together, and at nightfall on the first day out lost sight of each
other, and during the entire distance from China to England
they never met again until off the mouth of the Channel. The
Ariel and the Tacping then came up the Channel neck and neck ;
but the Arid got in advance of the Taepiiig in coming up the
river, and was the first to arrive off Blackwall. In consequence,
however, of there not being sufficient depth of water at the
332 THE BRmSH MBRCHAMT 8ERVICB
dock entnnoe of the West India Doekg, ■he mold not be
hanled into the docks that day, and had to let go her anchor
and wait till the next tide; meanwhile the TatpUig paawd
her, and soooeeded in getting into the London Bocks the
moment she came np, and thns claimed the priie. Both ships
were boilt at Oreenock in the same year. They were both
built on the composite principle— that is to say, with iron
frames and teak planking, the Arid being 760 tons register.
She was 197 feet 4 inches in length, 88 feet 9 inches beam,
and 21 feet depth of hold; the TdUEpiii^ being 188 feet 7 inches
in length, 81 feet beam, and 19 feet 9 inches depth of hold.
A yery characteristic anecdote of American 'cnteness is told
in connection with one of these races home. The oelelnated
Baltimore clipper &a jSb^flU sailed from Shanghai for London
in company with the British clipper Cfrmt of tts Wmot. A
premium tk thirty shillings a ton, orer and abore the amount
of the freight, had been offered to the yessel first in, and this
was sufldent inducement for both skippers to crack on. The
two ships were fairly near to each other all the way home, and
they actually hove to for pilots off the Isle of Wight within an
hour of each other. The American captain determined that he
would not be outdone by the Britisher, so he came ashore in
the boat that brought out his pilot, took the steamer from
Cowes to Southampton, and the train up to Waterloo. From
here he took a cab to the Custom House, and reported the Sea
Serpent as ''arrived," while each ship was carrying on in order
to get into the Thames before the other.
The depression of freights to the owners, and the flatness of
the tea-market, led in the next year, 1867, to the withdrawal
of the premium awarded to the first ship in. This, however,
did not detract from the extreme interest manifested in the
race of that year, there being no less than fourteen competitors
as against nine in 1866, and all of them crack ships. All were
built under special survey, and were constructed on the
composite principle, similar to that adopted in the case of the
Ariel and the Taepin{ji. Of the fourteen ships, one, the Taewany
with 780,500 lbs. of tea for her cargo, was totally lost close
to Foo-chow*foo on the very day of her sailing. Two new
ships, the Titania and the Sir Laucclot, which had been built
I
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THE CHINA TEA RACE OF 1 867
by Kobert Steele and Co., of Greeaock, expressly to take part
in this race, and both of whom afterwards greatly distinguished
themselves, got dismasted on the passage out to China, and
could not be repaired in time for the race.
The names of the fourteen ships that did actually start
were aa follows : the Taaoan (lost, as above stated) ; the
Mailland, 799 tons; the Serka, 708 tons (Greenoc^k); the
Tacping, 767 tons (Glasgow) ; the Ficnj Cross, 880 tons (Liver-
pool) ; the Yangtsze, 688 tons (Aberdeen) ; the WkUe, Adder,
915 tons (London); the Ziha, 670 tons (Aberdeen); the
Taitsing, 815 tons (Glasgow); the Bladz Prliicc, 750 tons
(Aberdeen) ; the Arid, 750 tons (London) ; the Fhjing Spur,
735 tons (London) ; the Chinaman, 688 tons (Greenock) ; and
the Golden Spur, 657 tons (Guernsey).
The following were the dates of sailing from Foo-chow-foo
for Londou : —
Tatwaa
... May 30
Flying Spur
Maitiand
... .,31
jWJw«tf ..
Benin
... June 2
Black rriiict
Tarpi,^
... „ 4
Yangtue ...
Fiory Omt ...
-. ,. 5
Arid ...
While Adder ...
... ., 7
Ziba
8
Odden Spur
„ 15
., 13
It was not the first ship in that was to be considered the
winner, as the competitors for the most part started on different
days; but the ship that made the passage in the shortest
amount of time. The fastest ship up to Anjer was the Ariel,
which had left Foo-chow-foo twelve days after the departure
of the first ship, she having done the distance from Foo-chow-
foo to Anjer in 21 days. The next was the Taeping, in 23
days, these being the two ships that ran the dead-beat in the
race of the previous year.
The Taepiiig was the first ship to reach the Loudon Docks,
which she did on the 14th of September, 1867 ; but she was
not adjudged the winner, that honour being reserved for her
old adversary, the Ariel, which had made the passage from Foo-
chow-foo to London in five hours leas time, accomplishing the
distance in 102 days, the Taeping being 102 days and 5 hours.
Great aa was the excitement caused by the foregoing race,
another arrival from China completely put the Ariel and the
234 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SBRVICB
Taejnng in the shade as regaided speed, lliia sldp^ howm,
was not in the race. She sailed ftom ffliangliai on Ae IMitf^
Jane, 1867, after the departure of all the laoen bqt om^i'
took what is termed the eastern paBsage» sjniriBfe
less, in the Downs a few hoars prenrioos to the AritL %Ki
eastern passage is considerably longer than the nmte t^JhsU
the ships in the race ; yet she accomplished tide koger
in 99 days. This ship was the Sir Lamed&tf mentknad
belonging to Mr. John McGann, of Greenobk^ her fnnw^gi
and measarements being precisely the same as thoM of tte
Ariel.
She also was a composite-boilt ship; her ftamewoik bemg
of iron, and her sheathing of wood. The one idea in tihe ecrn*
straction of this yessel was speed, and every paina was takBR i
to achiere that resalt Before the copper was pat on to hsr 1
bottom her planks from the water-line downwards were planed '
off, and the hard teak rendered as smooth as a ball-room floor, j
In order to give the vessel greater stability, and to ODaUe her ;
to carry her immensely long masts, which exceeded two
hundred feet in height, nearly one hundred tons of iron pigs
were fitted into the open spaces along the keelson between her ,
frames. That she needed some such deadweight as this to
keep her steady may well be supposed when it is stated that,
in racing trim and under all sail, the Sir La/nedot spread
upwards of 46,000 square feet of canvas — that is to say, rather
over an acre, her mainmast being just over 200 feet in height
This ship made some exceedingly fast passages, of which,
jierhaps, the fastest was the run home from Foo-chow-foo, in
1869. Upon that occasion she left Foo-chow-foo on the 17th of
July ; on the 7th of August she made Anjer Light, on the
28th of the same month she sighted the African coast near
East London, on the 11th of September she passed St. Helena,
on the 10th of October was signalled off the Lizard, and on the
14th was berthed in the West Lidia Docks, making the
passage of 14,000 miles in 89 days against the prevailing
monsoon. Her best day's run was made whilst crossing the
Indian Ocean, when on one occasion she did by observation
354 statute miles in twenty-four hours ; whilst for one whole
week she kept up an average dfiiVj tqxl q1 SOQ miles*
■ THE ABERDEEN CLIPPERS Z35
In the race of 1869, the first ship home was the Thermopylte,
a very handsome clipper, built by Hood, of Aberdeen, from the
designs of Mr, Bernard Waymouth, the late seiTetary of
Lloyd's Eegiater, for Messrs. George Thompson and Sons, which
ship made the passage home in ninety-one days. She was
followed by the Sir Lancelot, which, although she started a few
days after the Thermopyla; came home in two days less time,
namely in eighty-nine days.
The Tiiermopijlce was of 948 tons burthen ; her dimensions
were 210 feet long, 36 feet beam, and 21 feet deep. Her first
voyage was from London to Melbourne, when she made one of
the fastest, if not the very fastest, passage on record, accom-
plishing the distance from port to port in 60 days. She left
Gravesend on the 5th of November, 1868, and down to the date
of crossing the Line, which she did on the 28th of November,
ber average daily nms amounted to 178 miles. It was, how-
ever, in running down her easting that she displayed her
wonderful cBpabilities. On Jan^iary 3, 1870, with the wind
strong abeam, she ran by the log, confirmed afterwards by
observation, 330 knots, or 380 statute miles; that is to say,
at the rata of 15*8 miles an hour.
Another very fast clipper that came out in 1870, waa the
Cutty-Sark ; but, somehow or other, she never was a particularly
fortunate ship. In 1872, she left Shanghai with seven other
clippers, among them beiug the Thermopyla:, which ship and
and the Cutty-Sark sailed in consort down the whole length of
the China Sea. When off Anjer, in the Strait of Sunda, the
TJicrmopytcc was only leading by about four hours. Off the
Cape, however, the Cutly-Sark lost her rudder, and with it all
chance of making a rapid passage, she taking 122 days to get
home, and having the honour of being the last ship in the race.
She, however, made some very good passages afterwards to
Australia, and for eight successive voyages made the trip
between London and Sydney in an average of seventy-five days,
her quickest passage being in 1885, when she made ber number
off the Lizard exactly sixty-seven days after leaving the
Heads.
At the end of the year 18G9, the Suez Canal was opened,
and this oltimately made great alterations as far as the
* «»
236 THE BRITISH MERCHAMT 8SRVICB
Ohiua tM tnide was cxHioemedt the steuMn mipemsdiiig ihe
Miling-ships^ so that after a few more yeaft the days of die
China tea-dippen were ended. For a time^ howeiver, the adl-
ing-ehips did still continue to maintain their own in the tot
trade, as the Ohina meichants had an idea that the delicate
flayour of the tea might be iignied in the hold of a ateama,
and, moreoTor, that the ezceesiye heat of the Bed See wooM
proTo injurious to it; so that for a fow yeare^ eren after the
opening of the Oanal, the annual race continued; but the
number of ships was sensiUy £slling off^ and by 1878, it had
piactically ended.*
Perhaps the fittest passage on recoid between Engkdl and
China was that made in 1857, by the odebiated
dipper Pride of Ae Ocean^ which did the run oat
Liaaxds to Hong-E[cmg in sixty-nine days.
In 1875, a ship appeared, which, when she ixsk came out,
was said by all seafaring men to be ''the finest aailing-ahip
afloat" The Zoeh Oarr^ mey be accepted aa a fair lepie-
sentatiTe examjde of the modem iron clipper, &r althouf^ a
ship of more than twenty years ago, yet there are plenty
like her at the present day. She was 1500 tons register, her
length over all being 268 feet.
In 1880, the four-masted iron clipper barque Loch Torridon
was built on the Clyde. At that time there were but
exceedingly few four-masted sailing-ships afloat, and not
many sailing ships at all that exceeded 2000 tons, so that
• The following were the results of the last races : —
1870. 14 ships competed. The first three home were —
1. Lahloo from Foo-chow-foo
2. Windhovtr „ „
3. Sir Jjarwdvt „ „
Last ship in, 7UiW/i^ „ „
1871. 8 ships competed.
1. Titania from Foo-chow-foo
2. Thermopyloi „ Shanghai
3. Cutty-tiark „ „
Last ship in, Forward Ho „ „
1872. 8 ships competed.
\, Falcon from Whampoa
2. Taitsing ,, Shanghai
3. T1i/ermiopylij&
I) I)
97 <
laj^s.
100
19
102
II
121
fff
93
»»
106
))
110
)T
118
t>
111
•
1*
lU
)l
118
?»
La8tehipBin{2(;;^? » -.V. V.; 1 122 " „
^
rOITR-HASTED SAILING SHIPS 137
the Lock Torridcm was looked apuu as quite exceptional.
At the present day four-maaters are cominou enough, and the
only wonder about them is that, irith so much canvas as they
carrj% they can be handled by the very small crews that they go
to sea with. As regards speed, these large ships cannot beat,
nor, indeed, can they favourably compete with, the smaller
clippers of the Ariel and the Taepiiv} type, a result, doubtless,
due to the fact that the height of the masts of these large
ships does not, and necessarily cannot, bear the same relation
to the length of their hulls as was the case in the earlier
Another large foup-maater, the Liverpool, was launched at
Port Glasgow in 1889, specially for employment in the jute
trade between this country and Calcutta. Her register tonnage
ia 3330 tons, and she is capable of carrying 26,000 bales of
jute, very nearly 6000 tons deadweight. Her extreme length
is 330 feet, her beam 47 feet 3 inches, and the depth of
her hold 26 feet 6 inches.
That in many directions steam is taking, and, indeed, in
many directions has already taken, the i>laoe of sails is, of
cuUTse, an indisputable fact. That the days are jiractically
over for the conveyance of passengers in sailing-ships is
obvious, yet there would appear to be still some avenues of
I trade where a tearing hurry is not an absolute necessity ;
and in these days of South Wales coal strikes it is a pleasant
thing to be able to contemplate the fact that it is some-
times possible to do without coals altogether, and that there
are still many branches of commerce in which sailing-ships
may yet be more profitably employe<I than steamers.
338 THE BRITISH MERCHANT 8ERVICR
OHAFTEB xym.
Tonnage— Origin of tonnage— Eariy Aota of Fhriiainont idatiqg to
— BoiUan* (Hd Moaforomont— New MeamnnMnt— Cheaa
Register tonnage— Diaplaeement tonnage— Board of TMe Jedadtoaa
— ^Aocommodadon for the erew^-Fwiglit tonnage— Howe powei^
Nominal horaepower Ihdicatad, or oflfbolife howe power fl^ad ia
iteanwhipa PadMe^nHied ateamera— ftddle-wheela fleiew pra|wBer—
Slip— Negative aBp— Twin aorewa-^GFank-diafta— %kaed.
From very early times in ike history of dkippbg • sode of
some sort must hare been employed to determine the relntife
capacity or carrying-power of different Yosoolsy and in point
of fact the term ** topnage " in this connection can be traced
back for at least five hundred years. It appears to have
originated from the tun cask of wine, the earliest system of
measuring vessels being simply to count the number of casks,
or tuns, of wine which could be carried, and thus obtaining
a measure of the internal capacity of the ship. In Britain
the first Act of Parliament dealing with the subject was
passed in the reign of Henry V., in 1422. This Act required
^' Keels that carry coals at Newcastle to be measured and
marked," but it is not known how the measurement and the
marking were at that time carried out. In the year 1679,
an Act of Parliament extended the above regulation to the
Wear, and prescribed that always in measuring these river
craft '' should be used the Bowie Tub of Newcastle, containing
22 J gallons Winchester measure," and "allowing twenty-one
bowls of coals to be measured by such Bowie Tub by heap
measure, and no more." The '' keels " were marked by naik
upon the bulkheads at each end of the cargo-space, or by
driving nails into the stem and stem post to indicate the
corresponding load-draught.
H LAWS AS TO TONNAGE 239
Anotlier Act was passed in the reign of William III. in
1694, also for the measurement of "keels," and a veiijJU was
then fixed upon as the standard instead of a measure. This
Act required the " keela" to be measured by putting into them
dead-weights of iron or lead, allowing 53 hundredweights to
every chaldron of coals, and a maximum load of ten chaldrons.
The load-line was then marked on the stem, stern, and each
side amidshipB.
By an Act passed in 1775, the foregoing regulations for
the Tyne and Wear were extended to all vessels loading
coal at all other ports of Great Britain, but the ton of twenty
hundredweight avoirdupois was then made the standard
weight instead of the chaldron weight. The application of all
these earlier Acta, however, was thus limited to particular
classes of vessels, or to those vessels employed in a particular
trade.
Tonnage, as concerning ships, is the measure of capacity
of the ship, the ton not being one of weight, but of cubic
contents. The ton is now reckoned as 100 cubic feet, and
it is the unit upon which is based the assessment of all
dues and charges upon shipping. The first tonnage rule
embodied in an Act of Parliament in England was that
given in the Act of 1694, which levied certain duties upon
sea-going and coasting ships, and was as follows : " The
tonnage equals the length of the keel taken within board (so
much as she treads the ground) multiplie{l by the breadth
within hoard, by the midship beam from jilank to plauk,
multiplied by the dejith of hold from plank below keelson
to the under part of the upper deck jdank, divided by 94,"
In 1720, a rule for the measurement of vessels, which was
ultimately known as Builders' Tonnage, was first legalized
in an Act intended to prevent smuggling, by prohibiting
small vessels of " thirty tons burden and under from carrying
spirits." This rule differed from that given in the Act of
1694, in half the breadth being substituted for the depth,
thus making the rule the same as that which had for some
bime obtained among shipbuilders on the Thames. The
[tresent system, or at least a modification of the present
lystem, dates from the year 1835, previous to which time the
1
^H». THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
tfaiem obtaiura lAich, as has been state*], was first established
in 1778, and iftiich haa since been called "Builders' OW
HflumaBtent," bat it was a syetem that n-as clearly extremely
Mtbneoii% and which had a most evil e&'ect upon iutbI
Itxtduteoton.
Tlie ttamige Vas then obtained by measuring t(^thei
tho loi^tli <rf t)i0 ship, the breadth, and a certain assTUsed
dopth, and then by dividing the product by 94. The actuil
dflplb of ^M 1^^ was not measured, but for the purposes
tf the oklonUtion it was assumed that the depth was equal
4b the beam. Aa harbour and other dues were regulated bf
the tonnage it naturally followed that shipowners and ship-
tanlden, witii the view of reducing these dues to a minimuinr
BUlde Hail diipa as narrow as possible, and with as great a
depth 88 poMiUe. The ships thus built were thoroughly
vnsetworthy, and were highly dangerous in bad weather,
idiillt every oorrect principle of shipbuilding was sacrificed
in Older to prodnoe deep and narrow wooden vessels, capable
of oartylng the maximum of cargo with the minimum of
beam. The absurdity of a law by which, m ctnueqnenoe of
an inch or so more beam, a two-decked vessel mi^t be
reckoned as of greater capacity than a ship of like length
with three decks, was so palpable that many efforta wan
made to obtain some improvement of the system, althoo^
without success until the year 1835, when a " New Heamie-
ment" law, embodied in the Act 5 and 6 William lY, was
introduced to take its place.
The Act of that year very properly established the depth
of the hold as a necessary &ctor in the oalcnlstiou of the
tonnage; but as the cross-section of a ship varies very
considerably at different points of her lengUi, it was not
often that more than a mere approximation of her cnUcal
contents was attained.
This "New Measomnent" system gave place in 185^ to
"Begister Tonnage," a system to a certain extent resembling
it in principle, but much more perfect in its detaila, and
which, with certain minor modifications, is the system still
in force as the legal basis of measurement upon which dook,
Aarbonr, light, and oihet duw «ie asaeaaed ; tlus systean, aa
GROSS TONNAGE 341
far as register tomiage is concerned, being kuown as the
" Sloorsom System."
Tb ere are several terms iised in respect of the tonnage of ships
— namely, gross tonnage ; tonnage under decks ; and register
tonnage ; also displacement tonnage ; and freight tonnage.
First, of "gross tonnage." As stated above, a ton ig a
hnndred cubic feet of the internal capacity of the ship, and
therefore a vessel having 50,000 cubic feet of internal space
within the points of measurement prescribed by law ig reckoned
to be of 500 tons gross.
The Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, section 77, provides
that the tonnage of every British, ship shall lie registered, and
in the Schedule attached to the Act is laid down the mode
by which such tonnage is to be computed. For the purposes
of the computation of tonnage, the second deck from below
in all vessels of more than two decks is called the "tonnage
deck," and the upper deck is so called in all vessels which
have less than three decks.
I The Act minutely prescribes the mode of measurement,
bat, without going into all the intricacies of the operation as
there defined, the method to be adopted is broadly as follows:
The length of the ship is to be measured in a straight line
along the upper side of the tonnage-deck from the stem to
the stem-post. The length so taken is then divided into a
certain number of ec[ual parts. For ships of 50 feet long
and under, it is divided into fonr equal parts ; for ships
eieeeding 50 feet, and under 120 feet, into six equal parts;
for ahipa exceeding 120 feet in length, but under ISO feet,
into eight equal parts ; for ships over 180 feet in length,
but under 225 feet, into ten equal parts ; and for all ships
I over 225 feet in length, into twelve equal parts. At each
point of division of the length-line, the breadth and the
depth of the ship are to be taken ; but, as the section of a
Aip is not a rectangle, each depth is subdivided into a certain
number of equal parts, and the breadth is measured at each
point of subdivision of the depth line. From all these
measurements of breatUbs and depths the areas of the ship's
section at all the points of division of the length-line are
ascertained, and hy multiplying eacb. secti.oaa\ 0.T&0. X^*^ "C^b
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
I
IflBgtU of the longitudinal division adjacent to that sedion,
the cubic contenta of the whole ship is artired at.
-';. if the ship have a third deck, commonly called a spar deck,
Ab tonnage of the space between that deck and the "tonnage
daek " is ascertained in a similar maimer, and also the space
©ooniiied by the poop, if there be one, or of any enclosed
Asok-bouses ; and when the sum-total of the cubic contents of
•U tkese spaces is aacertaiiied, then that Bum*totaI divided by
100, is reckoned to bo the gross tonnage of the ship.
From this gross tonnage many deductions are allowed by
lbs Board of Trade, and when all the legal deductions h^ve
tMwn made, then the residue is the "register tonnage" of the
«h9> Speaking broadly, and as a general rule, all the porta
af a ship used for her ]»ropulsiou and navigation are exempt
ftom being reckoned for tonnage, whilst ell the parts of the
dup from which profit is derived — all the earning parts of
Ae ship — are liable to be reckoned for tonnage. The first
ioitauce of any such deduction made in the case of staamships,
ma in the year 1819, when the Act, 59 George III., provided
that in steam-vessels the length of the engine-room should
be deducted from the length as previously described, in order
to obtain "the just length of the keel for tonn^e."
The deductions now allowed by the B4jftrd of Trade embrace
the Bpaces respectively occupied by the master, the seamen,'
• This Bpflce muflt be fit for llio pn>i)er occupation of the men who are to
UN it, atid it must conforni to the roqiiremcittH of tbe Merchant Shipping Acl.
to entitlo it to be bo dt-iiiu-lod. This enactment has led to a great improve-
ment in tbe seamen's qnarten, aJchough somethiiig ■ stiil left to be dennd.
The law is not partionlulr exacting, aad does not dtipiilste tot TVj huttriooi
accommodation for Mercantile Jack. Section 210 of the Act preacribee that
" evet; place in any British ship occnpied by seatnea and ai^rmtJoee, and
appropriated to tlieir use, shall have for each of those seamen or i^jprenticei
a ipaee of not lees than seventh-two cubic feet, and of not leae than twelre
npeiflcial feet, meamred on the deck or floor of that place."
As affotdii^ a means of iiutitatiiig a compariBoo between thia floor ana
and cnbio space to which Jack Is thus legally entitled on board ddp, and
^utt is considered to be neoessaiy for a soldier on shore, it may be noted
that the War Office lajs it down as a mle for aB bernuAi, in temperate
dimatee, that each man is to have 60 feet of rapeiflaal floor area, and 600
cabic feet of q>ace. That is to eay, the soldier has five timea as much floor
•pace as the eallor, and mora thui el^t tieiee as mneb co^ ^MOa. As
uiotfter maana of oomparing ^ifbal ^a aQDi&«& v^oi^ ^4* wQat <>a the
TONNAGE DEDUCTIONS Hi
auJ the apprentices ; any space used exclusively Cur the
working of the helm, the capstan, and the anchor-gear,
inclnding the chain-Icrkers ; any space used for the keeping
of the charts, signals, and other instruments of navigation,
and the boatswain's stores ; the space occupied by the donkey-
engine and boiler; and, iii the case of a ship wholly propelled
by sails, any space set apart and used exclusively for the
storage of sails. In the case of steamera, the engine-room,
nnder certain conditions, is to be deducted, and the stoke-
hold, the tunnel for the shaft of the propeller, aud the coal-
bunkers; and in view of these very extensive deductions iu
the case of steam-vessels, there are steamers — tugs, for the
most part — which are actually registered aa beiug of no
■ tonnage : that is to say, after deducting the spaces occupied
W'hy the engines and boilers, the coal-bunkers, and the mens'
wters, there is nothing left, and consequently there is no
innage to be recorded. Indeed, the whole subject of registered
onage, and the allowed deductions from gross tonnage to
' oonstittite registered tonnage, can scarcely be regarded as
in an entirely satisfactory condition even yet. On the 19th
of February, 1S98, the screw steajner Puris, built for the trade
between Cardiff and Continental ports, left the Tyne fully
laden on her official trial trip. This vessel is of the following
dimensions, viz. length, 230 feet ; breadth, 32 feet ; and
depth, 16 feet 6 inches; — a special feature in connection with
her being her very small register tonnage, compared with the
dead weight carried. The register tonnage of the Paris is
only 507 tons, and she carries _loOO tons, or nearly three
times the amount of her registered tonnage.
The above British system of tonnage has now come to be
generally adopted by moat civilized countries, the following
being the dates of its adoption by other nations : United
States. 1865 ; Denmark, 1867 ; Austria-Hungary, 1871 ;
Genaany, 1873; France, 1873; Italy, 1873; Spain, 1874;
Ma, with similat rcquiremeate on land, lot na take a moderately Bm&ll
bedroom m a snbnrban villa. Say tliat it is twelve feet by ten, and eight Teet
high. It might possibly be considered large enough for a bachelor, or perhaps
for one of the boys. Into this room the Merchant Shipping Aat, Iddi, pata
,„ i^rtttn Hercaotile JacJcal
u
144 THB BRITIStt ICXRCBAMT SERVICE
Sweden, 1876; Norwayi 1876; NeJherlaadi, 1876; Finliiid,
1877; Greece, 1878; Bassia, 1879; Hayti, 1882; Belginii,
1884; Japan, 1885. The Brituh syBtem wm mainly aibptad
by the Xntemational Oommianon aaaemUed at Oomfamtiiioplft
in 1878, the rules of which Oommiwion Ibimed tha hans of
the dues leried on the ddpa of all conntriea paauDg ihioagh
theSnes OanaL
*" Displacement tonnage" is the weight of tha water
actually displaced by the ship as she floats^ and ia^ ai oomsBb
the absolnte weight of the ship, as thoogh she were {daeed
in a pair of scales, and weighed* The weight of any floating
body is equal to the weight of the flnid displaeedy and in
order, therefore, to ascertain the weight of a Teasal and her
contents at any giren dnnght, it is only necessary to
calculate the weight of the volume of fluid displaced. The
displacement of a yessel is calculated from the drawing% nnd
the method of calculation is similar in prindpla to that
adopted for the measurement of the internal cqpadty; but
the naval architect is not fettered by any definite number
of sub-diyisions as laid down in the tonnage laws, and is
free to determine the number of transverse sections and
ordinates deemed necessary according to the sixe of the vessel
Thirty-five cubic feet of salt water weigh a ton, and if^
therefore, the volume in cubic feet be divided by 85, the
result will be the displacement of the vessel in tons.
Displacement tonnage is by general consent regarded as the
fairest measure of tonnage for naval ships, since they are
designed to carry certain maximum weights, and to float at
certain load-lines which are fixed with reference to the
character of the service. It has for many years been the official
tonnage for the warships of France and other European
nations ; and since 1872 — ^prior to which date the system of
1773, known as *' Builders' Old Measurement," was the only
one employed — ^the tonnage of British naval diips has been
based on the displacement system.
** Freight tonnage " is a system of measurement commonly
employed in connection with stowage by merchants and
shipowners, although it has no legal authority. It is simply
A measure of cubic capaciVf. k ix^V;^ Vs^ ot ^unit of
HORSE-POWER 34S
cargo measurement," simply m.eanB 40 cubic feet of space
BTBilable for cargo, and is therefore two-fifths of a register
ton. Thus a packing-case measuring 5 feet by i feet, and
2 feet high (40 cubic feet), sent on board for shipment,
would be reckoned as a "freight ton." It b purely an
arbitrary measure, based upon the assumption that 40 cubic
feet of space are required in which to stow a ton weight.
Horse-power is the name given to the unit, in terms of which
engineers measure the power of steam-engines, etc. It is the
development of 33,000 foot-pounds of work per minute, a foot-
pound being the amount of work necessary to raise a pound
weight a foot high.
When the steam-engine was first invented it was chiefly used
to drive mills, pumps, and other machinery, which had pre-
viously been driven by horses, and it seemed natural to express
the working power of the steam-engine in terms of the number
of horses it had superseded. This led to experiments being
made in order to obtain an estimate of what was the exact
working power of a horse. Several such estimates have been
given, all diflering considerably from each other, a resiilt which
is not to be wondered at, considering that all horses are not of
the same power. The estimate, however, ultimately adopted
whereby to express horse-power was that obtained by Bonlton
and Watt from observations made on the strong dray-horses at
the London breweries, working eight hours a day. They
found that such a horse was able to go at the rate of two and a
half miles an hour, and at the same time to continuously raise
a weight of 150 lbs. by means of a rope led over a pulley.
This is easily seen to be equivalent to 33,000 pounds raised
one foot per minute, and hence the number given above, whiiih
has since been generally adopted as " horse-power."
For calculating the power of marine engines a commercial
unit was originally employed, termed "nominal horse-iwwcr."
A certain number of square inches of cylinder area, and a
velocity of )>iston in feet l>er minute were given, 7 lbs. per
square inch being the recognized pressure, and, as stated
above, to raise 33,000 lbs. one foot high was the duty of
one horse-power pcT minute.
I
346 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Nominal hotse-power, however, mains very littk^ tlie tern
being arUtmiy and varying. It is soaxoely ever used aft the
present day by engineers for these leasons; bat althooi^
praotioally obsolete, it is still letained in Board of Trnds
and other Government offioial dooomentsi fi»r the simple roasna
that it always has been so need, and in mattecs ai lefiom
Govemment moves bat slowly ; yet^ in desoribing their own
vessels of the Boyal Navy, even Govemment does not use
the term ^nominal** hone-power, bat adopts the mote modam
and the more ' intelligible designatiim of ** indicated/* or
** effective," horse-power; the actoal or indicated hone-pom
varying in marine engines from 8 or 4 times the nominal
hone-power to sometimes as maoh as 6 or 7 times. As s
matter of &ct, the ''indicated** hone-power of an engine has
nothing whatever to do with the nominal hone-power, and
can only be fonnd by means of an indicator diagram taken
off the engine itself, from which the mean prossoie on the
piston is fonnd, the indicated horse-power being sim^y the
actual power given off by the piston.
As examples of the uselessness of the term ^ nominal horse-
power/' the following examples out of thousands may be cited :
in the Board of Trade official description of the P. and 0.
steamer Australia^ her horse-power (nominal) is given as 2500,
her effective horse-power is really 10,000 ; the Union Company's
steamer Moor is given as 470, her effective horse-power is
2800 ; the Orient liner (h*iait is given by the Board of Trade
as 1000, her effective horse-power is 8231; and this list
might be increased to any length. It will thos be seen that
the nominal horse-power, and consequently the official descrip-
tion, affords no index whatever of the actual or the effective
horse-power of the engines of any given vessel, and that no
comparison whatever based on these figures can be instituted
between one vessel and another.
In the Mercantile Marine, for vessels of about 2000 tons and
upwards, the proportion of horse-power of the engines to the
tonnage of the ship varies according to the service for which
she is intended; it usually ranges from one horse-power to
every 6J tons to one horse-power to every 3J tons. This is
onlj the '' nominal " horse-power, referred to above ; the actual?
t
or indicated, horse-power will, of course, very greatly exceed
this, and will depend upon the lines of the vessel, the draught
of water, and a variety of other points. In the two great
Cunarders, the Campania and Lacania, where the element of
speed enters very largely into the question, there is one
horse-power (indicated) to every 043 tons, or one horse-
power to less than hali' a ton.
liong vessels are the most economical in carrying-power, a
higher rate of speed being attained in a long ship than in a
short one, for the same indicated horse-power, while, of course,
more cargo can be carried in the former than in the latter.
For these reasons many steamships, after having been running
for years, have been sent into doclt, and have been lengthened
with a view to gaining these important advantages, whilst
still retaining their original engines and boilers.*
It has been proved, both theoretically and in practice, that
a moderate rate of speed tor steamships is, under all circum-
stances, the most economical. A high rate of speed is
always expensive, not only as far as the engines themselves
are concerned, end the greater wear and tear to the ship,
but from the largely increased amount of coal consnmed,
and which has to be carried, thus proportionately diminishing
the space available for cargo. ^Vhen a ship is engined to
Attain a certain speed, to only very moderately increase that
«peed involves a large increase of horse-power, with a corre-
Bpondingly large increase in the amount of coal burnt, the
horse-power varying approximately as the cube of the speed.
Thus a steamer of 500 horse-power has a speed, say of 12
knots jjer hour. Now, if we wish to increase that speed to
15 knots per hour, 976 horse-power will be required, or
practically double the horse-power will be required to give
the additional three knots; and although the time will be
diminished, yet more coal must be burnt, and, what is worse,
must be carried. For example, the steamer of 500 horse-power,
steaming at the rate of \'l knots per hour, will do the passage
from Plymouth to Gibraltar, lUoti miles, in 88 hours. At
97(i horse-power, steaming at 15 knots per hour, she will do
it in 70 hours; but although she will thus save eighteen
• Tlie &ot, of tbo Vnioa Company, is a case in ^oiiA ■, sfte ^^li 'V'X^ ■
24$ THE BRITISH MBRCHANT 81RVICB
boon in time, jret she will hate to bum 87 tent mmt tmd
to do it.
Giyen equal siie of the ahipt and equal power ef tt»
enginee, more work is to be obtenied firam tlie piopeilar Aia
from paddle-wheda, and there is a aaying m bulk and in
weight of the engines and boilen, hf whieh the lUp ii
enabled to carry more cargo» while greater eoalatofwage k
poaaible in the caae of long voyagea. ISie pnipeller iit ^^bn
the ship is in trim, always immeiaed, ao that ike whob
propelling power of the eorew is eserted againat tba walor;
whilat in the paddle-wheel, during a great part of tlie time^
the floats are exerting themselTsa simply againat the air-Hoe,
in &ot» doing only oseless work. In rough weather^ alao^ if
the ship be rolling mnch one paddle-wheel wiU be enkhely cot
of water, whilst the other will be almost totally imimwadl, the
entire paddle-box being foil of green water; ao that the power it
exerted very unequally, and a great deal of it ia lost altogedisr.
Paddle-wheels still hdd their oini, howsfer, far Aort-
Toyaged passenger stesmers^ notaUy in oartain oi the boats
employed in the Channel service, and in many pleasure
steamers. This is partly from fashion, but partly also from
the fact that the additional width obtained from tiie sponsons
and the paddle-boxes renders the vessel steadier, and less
liable to roll in a sea-way than a screw boat of a similar sise
would be. Another reason is that for rapidly leaying or
getting alongside piers and wharves the projecting sponson
greatly facilitates the throwing off or the bringing in of the
bow or the stern of the vessel. These reasons are of little
account, however, in ocean-going steamships, whilst the
advantages of the screw-propeller are so obvious that in all
ocean-going steamers paddle-wheels are perfectly obsolete.
At first all paddle-wheels were constructed with fixed floats,
but these are now nearly universally superseded by feather-
ing floats. In the case of the fixed floats, the float entered
the water obliquely, depressing the water as it entered, and
the full power was only exerted at the moment when the
arms to which the float was bolted were vertical. The
tendency of the float as it left the water was to lift it, so
that much of the power was uselessly expended. With the
DISADVANTAGES OF PADDLE-WHEELS 349
featliering float, by means of a meclianiam, to a certain
extent complicated, and so to a certain extent liable to
get out of order, these evils are obviated, and the floats
from the moment of entering the water until the moment of
leaving it are practically vertical. Three floata immersed
at the same time is iisnally considered by engineers as
sufficient, becanse if the floats are closer together than that,
so that more than three are in the water together, they only
tend to disturb the water, and to clog the action of the
paddle-wheel.
In a paper recently read before the Institute of Naval
Architects, it was pointed out that among other losses of
power in paddle-wheel steamers, two sources of loss arise —
one from the energy absorbed in creating and maintaining
waves, and the other from the effect of this wave-formation
upon the paddle-wheels. All vessels forced at a speed
beyond what their size and form fit them for, tend to produce
waves, commencing at the bow and passing aft ; and whether
the hollow or the crest of the wave occurs at the precise spot
occupied by the paddle-wheels makes a considerable diflerence
in the pntpelling power of the wheels. Short bluff vessels
exert power in raising a series of short waves — three or even
four in the length of the vessel — whilst narrower and sharper
vessels are more or less free from this defect, not raising
more than two, or two and a half, waves in the length, so that
iu their case the paddles will work at about their normal level.
The above is a disadvantage from which, of course, the
screw-propeller is free. For the benefit of the lay reader it
may be well just to give a very rough uutline of the principle
of the jiropeller. The form and constnietion of the screw-
jiropeller is thus: the boss of the propeller may be said, as
in an ordinary screw-bolt, to form the bottom of the thread,
and the blade of the propeller forms the thread itself. The
princijde of the propeller may be illustrated by applying a
right-angled triangle of paper to an ordinary round ruler.
Let the base of the paper triangle be made of the same
length as the circumference of the round niler. The perpen-
dicular of the triangle will be the pitch, and the hypothenuse
will be the thread of the screw. If the p6\iex U\tttt^fe ^»
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
round the reler (the pitch being placed par»Ilel to
the Uagth of the ruler), and the ruler he turned once iwnnd,
' Hkmai liny given point on the thread, when working in a nut
«tth b corresponding thread, will move forward exactly the
iKtfloA of the pitch.
* In this way the acrew-propeller is practically an endless
ssew, and the endless nut it works in is the water. Supposing
the pitch of the screw to be 24 feet, then in 5» revolutions of
tbe Btrew the reasel will move forward 1200 feet; in 100
lOTolutions 2400 feet, and so on. The action of the screw-
pnpdler is precisely that of the curkacrew. At each turn
■ of aU corkscrew certain progress is made through the cork ;
at e*eh revolution of the propeller the ship is advanced a
•artltli space. jU to the exact shape that is best for Uie
Uad* of the propeller, oiiinions and practice differ, but it wilt,
lentting to the example given above, be some portion—
psA^»< even a very small j)ortion — of the area of the paper
WAOgle aa wound round the ruler. As the water in whieh
ttw- propeller revolves, unlike the solid cork in which tlie
oorkscrew works, is a yieldiug substance, sometimes the action
oeases for a while, and the propeller revolves without import-
ing any forward motion to the vessel. This is termed tlie
"slip" of the screw, and it varies from 10 to 20 per ceut.,
BO that if the engines be of such a power as should give a
speed of ten knot«, the actual speed of the ship may possiUy
be not more than nine.
There is in some ships what is called " negative slip," the
aciew moving through less space than the speed of the vessel—
the vessel, as it were, outstripping the screw, and dragging it
through the water. Thus, it is sometimes found that in the
case of a vessel engined to only 10 knots, her actual speed
may soiaetiineB be aa much «s 11 knots.
Screw-propellers are either right-handed or left-hooded, ixA
althoogh one is practically aa good aa the other, yet •
difference is usually experienced in the behavionr of the
ship, more particularly when going aatem. When a steundup
is fitted with twin screws, one of them is nsnally right-handed,
and the other left-handed, and the two propellers are not osiuUy
fixed aide by side, bat one ntlwt in adTftnce oi the otbv.
SCREW-PROPELLERS
When a pilot comes on botu'd an ordinary screw eteamer
fitted with a single proiieller, one of his first queationa
usually is, " Are you right or left-handed ? "
There are some facts connected with the screw-proiieller
that at the present time are not satisfactorily accounted for ;
for instance, if a ship be fitted with a propeller that the
engines work to a speed of, say eight knots, and this propeller
be taken off and replaced with another cast in the very same
mould, and so far as can be seen the exact counterpart of the
former one, yet the speed of the ship may he altered by the
change— either increased or diminished to a sensible degree.
The propeller of s first-class ocean liner is of very con-
siderable dimensions ; that of the Cunard steamer Servia, for
instance, measures 24 feet across. The immense power of
the engines in large ocean-going steamships necessitates
correspondingly heavy and strong machinery. The crank-
shaft of the Servia, as also that of the Anchor Line steamer
Cit)/ of liortie, and the shaft of the Alaska, are each 25 inches
in diameter, those of the Servia and the Alasl;a being of
solid metal, whilst that of the City of Borne, which is of steel,
is hollow. The crank-shaft of the Arizona is built np of five
pieces. Of these four are of hammered and rolled scrap-iron,
the fifth being of steel. The diameter is 22^ inches.
Every year ships increase in size ; — every year engines
increase in power ; and the speed of our ocean liners is corre-
spondiugly incteased. Of course, the higher the rate of speed
at which the vessel is driven, the greater must be the
attendant risk in ease of anything going wrung ; but so long
as the public insist upon going from port to port with the
least possible delay, so long will the keenest competition
prevail, each company vying with the others as to who shall
perform the distance from port to \>axi in the shortest space
of time. Whether any solid advantage results from this
insane desire for travelling at the highest possible rate of
speed, or whether the human race generally are permanently
the happier because it is possible to go from Liverpool to
New York in six days instead of in seven, are points which
would seem to be open to a very considerable amount of
doubt.
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
CH.VPTEE XIX.
PrcBcnt state of the British Mcrcnntile Marine — Merchant shipping owned bf
every comitry of the world — Progress of Britiiih shipping daring the
reign of tLe Queen — Increase in Britisli shipping aince the time ofQi
Elizabetli— Shipping in 1897 and in 1898— Additions and loeei
Merchant sliipa siibsidized ns " armed cruisers."
ExcLiiDiNQ all vesBels of less tlian one hundred tons burden,
the entire merchant shipping ow-ned by every country of the
world, at the present time, numbers 2S,052 vessels, with an
aggregate tonnage of 26,561,250 tons. The number of such
merchant vessels belonging to the United Kingdom, and to
the British Colonies, is 11,143, with a united tonnage of
13,605.312 tons. Thus more than one-half of the merchant
tonnage of the entire world sails under the British flag.
In considering the present state of the British Mercantile
Marine, it may be well to note the progress that has been made
in British shipping during the long and happy reign of her
Majesty, Queen Victoria. In the year 1837, when the Queen
came to the throne, the shipping on the Register consisted of
19,269 sailing-vessels, many being under a hundred tons, and
654 steamships, with a total tonnage of 2,312,000 tons. During
the first three years, even, of the Queen's reign considerable
progress was being made, and the total tonnage of British
merchant vessels registered in the year 1840, was 3,311,538
tons. This included 28,138 sailing-vessels, and 824 steamers,
of which 1&04 sailing-vessels and 77 steamers had been built
during that year.* At the close of the Jubilee year, 1897, there
were, of vessels of a hundred tons and upwards, and excluding
all the vessels under a hundred tons, 2,452 sailing-ships, with
• Lloyd's Calendar,
^^^^^^^^^SHimN^i83^897y =S3
a tonnage of 2,189,840 toua; aud 6655 steamships, with a
gross toanage of 10,213,569 tons, or a total united ton-
nage for both steamers and sailing-ships of 12,403,409 tons.
In addition to this, 2130 steamers and sailing-ships, with
a tonnage of 1,079,467 tons, are owned by the British
Colonies.
Although, however, the amount of tonnage steadily
increases with each successive year, the actual number of the
vessels does not increase in anything like a corresponding
ratio; this being, of course, due to the fact that every year
ships increase in size. In 1837, the largest British sailing-
ship — indeed, the largest British ship of any kind — was of
1488 tons, the largest steamer being of only 1320 tons. At
the present time we have many great steamers of four and five
thousand tons ; and two steamships — the Campania and the
Lucania — each of 13,000 tons, or ten times the size of the
largest steamer of 1837. But, immense as these two
steamships are, a far larger vessel than either of them — the
Oceanic — now building ft<r the White Star Line — will shortly
be added to the list of British merchant steamers.
At the commencement of the Queen's reign the finest
wooden vessels were practically similar iu design and
construction to those in which our countrymen had sailed
round the world in the middle of the last century, and
they did not differ materially from the still earlier vessels of
the Dutch navy. The vessels of the merchant navy were
rarely larger than 500 tons, only a few ships of the Eost
India Company exceeding 1000 tons, and these were practi-
cally men-of-war ; while scarcely any ship exceeded 100 feet
in length.
. Sailing-vessels built within the lost few years are generally
I of large size when compared with those built even as recently
w twenty years ago. The Somali, a four-maated steel barque, is
"f 3537 gross tons, and 330 feet long. This is the largest
sftiling-ship owned in the United Kingdom ; but the G-ermans
own a still larger sailing-vessel, named the Potosi. She is a
I five-masted steel barque of 4027 tons gross, and is 366 feet
I long-
Of the 'aooden vessels o{ 100 tons and upwaiia "tiovi VaiOA y
J
aS4 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
the United Kingdom, by far the greater number are imd«T 200
tuUB, and are for the most part engaged in the ooasting litde.
Of iron vessels, eighteen steamers are civei 5000 tons ead,
and upwards of two thousand iron steamers and sailing-vessels
are l)etween 1000 and 2000 tons. Of steel vessels, two
hundred are over 5000 tons, and 1502 atee! steamers and
sailing-vessels are between 2000 and 3000 tons. Thus the
tondonry is distinctly to lessen the number of veesels, but
at the same time vastly to increase their size.
These facta, although, doubtless, sufficiently gratifying to
the patriotic KngHshman, who sees in them an evidence of the
groiring prosperity of his country, can only be contemplated
with positive dismay by the officers of the Mercantile Marine,
who, whilst they are being poured into the service by hnniiids
evei-y year, find each successive year, in consequence of a fe*
great ships taking the place of many little shipg, that only a
eingle master and a couple or so of mates are now wanted,
where the previous year half a dozen masters, and a dcaen
or more mates were able to find emploTment, so that every
year, while ships increase in siz^, employment for officers in Ihs
Merchant Service seriously diminishes. The following tflllfl
shiuvs the steady increase of Britbh Bhipping from the time
of Queen Elizabeth to the present day : —
British Tonnaui^.
In tlieyeor 15BB ... 12,500 tons (exclunve of fisbing-boaU).
1770 ... 682,811 „ (EngUnd and Scotland).
1791 ... 1,511,401 „ (inclnding the Colonies).
,. 1830 ... 2,1»D,959 „ (escluBive of the Colomei).
., 1637 . . . 2,312,000 „ (inclading eailing-ships and gtevMR!
1940 ... 3,311,538 ,.
„ 1855 ... 5,250,553 „ „ „
, 1870 ... 5,690,789 „ „ „
„ 1880 ... 6,574,513 „ „ „
„ 1891 ... 10,685,747 „ „ „
1898 ... 12,687,904 „
uv 13,665,408 „ (inclDding the Coloniw).
As to entrances and clearances in British and foreign
shipping in the United Kingdom, the figures show tlist
while in 1837 there were 42,700 vesaela, with « tonnage of
7,000,000 tons,— that is, an average of 164 tons a vessel— in 1897
tbe iiiunber of TeBsels ms V£i.fiS:fi, yta^ *. ^ssiiiA tomftge of
SHIPPING BUSINESS OF ENGLAND
255
80,500,000 tons, or au average of 6(Jl tons u vessel. In point
of fact, the figures prove that since the Queen's Accession
not only has the carrying-power of the country increased
tenfold, but the entrances and clearancee have inoreased at
a like rate.
The vastness of the shipping business of this country will
be appreciated when we consider that there are at the present
time on the register, exclusive of the Colonies, no less than
twelve and a half millions of tons of shipping, employing a
qoarter of a million of men, and involving an investment of
capital which it is quite impossible to estimate.
During the five years ending in 1897, the tonnage of the
United Kingdom had increased by two millions of tons, yet at
the close of 1807, there were absolutely forty-two fewer ships
belonging to the United Kingdom than there were in 1892,
in consequence of the size of the ships every year increasing.
In 1892, the total number of sailing'ships of a hundred tons
and upwards belonging to the United Kingdom was 3342,
with a united tonnage of 2,417,985 tons. The total number
of such sailing-ships at the close of 1897 was 2452, with a
united tonnage of 2,189,840 tons ; thus showing that whilst
what sailing-ships there are are increasing in size, yet at the
same time that the actual sailing tonnage has decreased during
the past five years, and that the actual number of sailing-ships
has very materially diminished during the same period. And
as pointing to the same fact, namely, the rapid manner in which
steam is superseding sails, it may be noted that whilst, during
the year 1897, 462 steamers were built in the United Kingdom,
with a gross tonnage of 670,201 tons, only 219 sailing-ships
were built, with a tonnage of 37,030 tons ; that is to say, the
steam tonnage built in the United Kingdom in 1897 was
eighteen times the amount of the sailing tonnage. Of these
462 steamers, 366 are of steel, 63 are of iron, and 33 were of
wood and composite.
The most recent authentic information as to the state of the
British Mercantile Marine at the present time will be found in
the following Return for the year 1898, kindly furnished for
this work by Lloyd's Register, aa follows : —
THE BRITISH UERCHAMT SERVICE
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THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
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26o THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
The two preceding tableB, also kindly furnished by Lloyd's
Bepatet, show the number of reeselB that were added to the
Britieh Merchant Service during the year 1897 ; and also the
nnmber of vessele that have to be deducted through loss and
other causes daring the same year.
List or Mebchamt SotAMiaa hkld at tot dibfosal op H JI. iitJOUUT
rOX UBS AB AXHED CbUUUS RT CUB or SEED.*
Onw
iDdkSM
EpMd
Uu.
Dvnu.
{fc»«l
\L^ia ... .
Etrvria ... .
Canard
12,950
12,962
30,000
30,000
22
22
9,120
'1'^
20
TJmbria ... .
8,128
14,600
'?*
Aurania ... .
7,269
9,600
16
Senia ... .
7.392
10,000
If*
■\VietoTia ... .
i Australia... .
^Arcadia ... .
P.&O.
6,527
6,898
6,901
e,I88
6,188
7,000
10,000
10,000
7,000
6,000
17
18
18
17
17
Britannia
6,525
V^
17
5,545
fi,50i)
16
OrienM ... .
Vatelta ... .
Matailia ... .
6,287
5,284
4,004
4,902
5,000
5,000
6,000
15!
Carthage ... .
Ballarat ... .
4,879
4.778
5.000
15
ll|
Parram<Uta .
-tifa/Mtic ... .
trewfonM ... .
Wliite Star
4,756
9,965
9,984
5,066
4,500
16,000
16,000
5,200
1
>■
6,004
3,888
5,200
3,6i"f0
16
14
Empreuofino
EmpratofCki
e;;:]
Cana'dian
Pacific
Baflmy.
/ 5,905
J 5,905
\ 5,905
10,000
10,000
10,000
18
18
18
• These vowels are pennitted to wear Hie bine enfflgn of Her MajeBty's
fleet.
t These shipa receive an annnal gnbudy.
THE PERSONNEL OF THE MERCHANT SERVICE
CHAPTER XX.
Perionnel — Number of
Uaatera and Mates — The
nantiing — Better regulati
—Fines for ofTences — Fc
numbers of Britinh seat
foreignere — The QuartermastorB — The Boatawi
maker — Cook — Tlio Engineers anil the Firemen.
Merchanl Service —
. — Able seamen — Ordinary seamen— Under-
needed — The Board of Trade scale of food
:n Beamen in British ships — Decline in the
■HBJativo meriU of Britiah e
— Carpenter— Bail -
About 250,000 persona are at the present time employed in
the service of the British Mercantile Marine. This very large
number of mariners may broadly be dividetl into two classes —
the officers, and the men — both of which classes it may be well
to consider somewhat in detail.
In the Royal Navy, as in the Army, between the officers and
the men is drawn an absolute, and a perfectly defined line.
The man-o'-wat's-man is one thing, the naval officer is quite
another ; — but the Merchant Service is far more democratic. On
board the merchant ship the line of demarcation is not nearly
so strictly defined ; — the great gulf fixed ia not so impassable.
Tom Smith, the foremast hand of to-day, may in the course of
a year or two have a handle to his name, and blossom into Mr.
Smith, the second ofBcer ; whilst a hard-up mate who cannot
get a ship may make a voyage or so to Australia or to New
Zealand " before the stick," as Jack has it, as an A.B. The
two classes, the officers and the men, more overlap each other
in the Merchant Service than could for a moment be thought
of in the Royal Navy.
With regard to the former class — the officers in the Merchant
Service— the law does, however, lay down certain very definite
conditions. All officers in the Merchant Service, for instance,
must possess proper certificates of competency granted by
the Board of Trade, after due examination had, both in sea-
manship and in navigation, by the Examiners of the Bfiaril ;
j63 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
and no I'oreiga-going BritiBh ship can legally prot-eed to m
from any port in the United Kingdom without being in chMp)
of Buch a duly certificated master, who must he not less than
twenty-one years of age, and must have served for six years at
sea, one year of which must have been passed as mate in charge
of a watch, whilst in possession of a first mate's certificate. In
like manner no vessel employed in the home trade, if she atrrj
passengers, can legally leave any British port without a simUwly
comj)etent master ; ami if any person proceeds to sea as masta
of a vessel withont a master's certiScate, both he, and tiif
owner of the vessel, are each liable to a penalty of fifty potmiU.
Then, besides the master, the law requires that every vessel
of 100 tons or upwards, shall c&rry one or more mates, aim
holding Board of Trade certificates of competency, A. foreign-
going British ship of more than 100 tons, is therefore obUged
by the law to have a master and one mate. If, however, she
he a large vessel she will probably carry, instead of only (ins
maf«, two or three ; and in the case of the lai^e ocean mail
steamers, four, fire, or even sis mates are carried ; but the actual
requirements of the law would appear to bo fulfilled if she had
, dimply one master and one mate.
With regard to the latter class — the men — the law has but
' little to say, and what little it does say scarcely seems to be i
enforced. The men are divided, or ere supposed to be
divided, into two classes — A-B-'a (able-bodied seamen), and OS- '
(ordinary seamen). An able seaman should be able to "hand,"
ef," and " steer ; " that is to say, to set, take in, and secmB
the sails, and to reef them ; and also should be able to steer.
Besides these things, he should be capable of performing all the
handicraft work connected with the ship's sails, and witt
the Blanding and running rigging ; be should know how to tue
the lead, and should understand every other part of the ordinary
duty of a seaman.
The HetcbaDt Shipping Act of 189^ enacts that « a namui
I aball not be miitUd to the rating of A3., that ia to mj, to the
. rating of an able-bodied seaman, nnlees be Has serred at sea
I for four years before the mast" . . . "and the service may be
I proved by certificates of discharge, or by a certificate of Berrioe
I Irom the Begistrat-Gleaeral of Shipping and Seamen." This
A.B. S, AND ORDINARY SEAMEN
(■lauseoftheAct hsia always, however, been very mucli neglected,
and has now become practically a dead letter, with the result
that ininibers of men now call themselves A.B.'h, and ship as
such, who are in every reapect totally unqualified.
From figures supplied by the Chamber of Shipping, the total
number of seamen employed at the present time in the British
Merchant Service is, in round numbers, 235,000. Of this
number 80,000 are, or are supposed to be, A.B.'a ; but no less
than 27,000 of tliese A.B.'8 are loreigners, leaving the total
number of British A.B,'s as 53,000, a very large proportion of
whom are untrained, and more or less incompetent. Of A.B. 's
with four years' service at sea there are at present certainly i
not more than 26,000.
An Ordinary Seaman is simply a man who earns his living
on the sea. He may have been at sea for a year or two, or he
may have been afloat merely for a month, or even less. Any-
body, in fact, who takes a fancy to go to sea may call himself
an " ordinary seHtnan." There is nothing, so far b.3 the law is
concerned, to prevent any landsman — the gardener, say, or the
milkman, if he can get any mate to take him — turning sailor
and shipping as an ordinary seaman ; and after a voyage or so
to the Colonies it is quite possible, the Merchant Shipping Act
notwithstanding, that without further preliminaries, he may
proceed to the degree of A.B.
A man, however, who has shipped as A.B., and who is after-
wards found to be thoroughly incompetent to perform the
duties he contracted for, may be reduced at any time to the
rating of " ordinary seaman " ; and in addition he would lay
himself open to further punishment for fraud — and very justly
«o, for supposing that a ship should be entitled to, say, six
A.B.'s, and after she gets to sea finds herself one hand short,
clearly more work will devolve upon the other five, and they
will have just reason to complain.
Competition is now so keen that owners send ships to sea
with the very minimum of hands capable of carrying on the
work ; many tramp steamers, even of as much as 4000 tons, at
the present time cross tlie Atlantic with only half a dozen
deck hands, three in a watch — not sufficient for a relief to the
wheel and look-out. lu spite of all that is said by shipowners
I64 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
about Britigli ships not being under* inaniied, it la an nndoQE
fact that large numbers of ships do go to sea exceedingly
short-handed. No allowance whatever is made for CAsualtiei
or for sickuess, and with matters cut as fine as they are at
present, if a mau gets hurt, or becomes ill, the number of the
crew at ouce falls below the proper factor of safety, or, in
other words, the ship is distinctly uuder^mauned. A l&rge
four-master of over 2000 toos will leave the port of London
for the Colonies with a crew of only eighteen — nine in »
watch. Here, of course it is "all hands" every time she goes
about; and if that be not under-manning it is something very
near akin to it.*
la IS35, an Act was passed,! one of the main features of
which was a declaration that a British ship should be
considered duly navigated if she had one seaman for every
twenty tons of her registered tonnage ; but since the rep«ial
of the Navigation Laws, in 1849, it has been left entirely
with the shipowner to say what number of hand^ shall he
carrie<l, with only this oue restriction, that it shall be slateJ
on the articles what number are to be carried upon the voyage
about to be entered upon, and then that number must be
maintained as a minimum during the entire voyage.
A shipowner, like most other possessore of property, thinks
that he has a perfect right to do as he likes with his own; but
• In Fobninry, mss, the following official notjco wm israed by tho Bom!
of Trado : " Foroign-goiog BtcamBhipa of over 200 feet in length, or not hs
tliaa 700 tons gross, wlien proceeding to ten, ehould have, independeotlf of
the master and two mates, a endicient numlier of deck-lianda availablo hi
division into two watches, ao as to provide a tnintmura effective watch, r\i.
a competent hand at the wheel, a look-out man, and an additional hand on
deck availftble for any purpose." It will be remarked in the above " OIk'iii
Notice " how exceedingly apologetic a public department tike the Boavd ol
Trade can contrive to be. It does not lay down the law that such or sacii
things mutl be done; but it mildly enggests that eertab vessels "lA/iuU h*«,'
etc. Something stronger than tliio is wanted before under- maiming is pot a
stop to.
The charge of ander-manning in do wise appliea to the great lines of oc«an
mail steamers, which, iinivt^rsally, are most efficiently manned, and admintbl;
officered. The accompanying illiiatration will afford a good idea of the crew
of a Grgt-clasB mail steamer. It is from a photograph of the crew of the
R.M.S- Briton, of the Union Comp«uv.
f 5andfiWiUi«mIV.,c.l9.
■''■\
I
I I
I 1:..
I : •
Vi
'. I
•\
.:i
SIGNING-ON DAY
s6s
that is iiot a view entirely ia accord with the fact, more
realized every day, that the possesaion of property carries
with it its own special responsibilities; nor is it at all in
accordance with the whole tenor of modem legislation; and
in these days of factory acts and measures affecting the well-
being of workers ashore, it is high time that the law stepped
in between the interests of the shipowner on the one hand,
and the interests of the seaman on the other ; and the sooner
Parliament takes steps by judicious legislation to remedy
the evils attaching to, and the piesent decadent state of, our
Mercantile Marine, the better.
Apart from the vexed question of manning, there are many
directions in which a little judicious legislation might very
considerably benefit Mercantile Jack without injuring the
shi[)owner, and so by rendering; the service more popular,
induce a better class of men to ji.>in it. There is nothing to
be more deprecated than grandmotherly legislation, yet
leaving alone large questions, there are still many smaller
matters that might with advantage, in some manner, be dealt
with, and out of many points which will readily suggest them-
selves to those interested in such things, the following are
one or two : —
On signing-onday at the Shipping Office — that is, upon the i
day on which the crew for the foithcoming voyage are finally I
selected, and when the absolute contract between the ship- i
owner and the men is entered into — the men agreeing to \
serve un<ler certain conditions, and the shipowner agreeing,
also subject to certain conditions, to pay, — there ought dis-
tinctly to be a medical inspection. Men now sign oni
apparently, oa far as can be seen, in good health ; but the
ship may have scarcely got outside before certain diseases
will manifest themselves ; some of the men go to their bunks
for a time, and the ship, sparingly manned at the best, is
short handed at once. It is true that under the Merchant
Shipping Act a medical inspection is authorized " on applica-
tion by the owner or master;" but it ought to be in every
case eompidsory, whether applied for by the owner or master
or not.
When the men Kgn on the ship's articles ate TewiLO-set Vc
them; but often, and more particularly sucV v*-'^^ ^'* "^^
966 THE BRITISH HERCHAHT SERVICE
mMter ii not epeoiBlly ■nxlou that the man ilumld hatr, in
such ft mpid and indistinet manner aa to ba potfiBetly nam-
telligible to them. At the time Jack does not oaie— he ii
only too thankful to get a ship at all ; bat ha ia no aoonec at
sea than petty dispntes begin. Of oontse, the ahip's aitidM
are snppoaed to be pooted np in the fineeaatle; Imt 1^17 sot
give every man when he aigna on a printed copy, with tha
apecial Btipniattona aa to food, wo^ flnea, and so on, ]daiBly
■et forth, that he may hare a better knowledge of lAat ha ii
expected to do, and what he ought to reoeiTe, mthant either
having to aak the maater or to remain in doubt.
These artidea of ^freement are upon a proper |ainted tapn
issned by the Ibrine Department of the Board of Trade^ sud
ahonld, when properly filled up, be plaoed on board in radi »
manner aa to be accessible to tiie orew, in default of whiok a
penalty not exceeding five pounds may be enforced. Among
other things, tiia articles preaoribe the amount and kind of
food to be supplied to the crew daily during the voyage.
Sc'ALP, OF pROVrSIONn TO BB AhWVTM ASI> BKBVED OUT TO THE CBE"
m-RISQ THE VOTAOE, IS ADDITIOS TO THB DaILT IsSOB OF LlMB ASP
Lf.MOS JuICB, AXD SutiAB, OB OTHER ASTISCORBCTTCS, lit AXT Ci«
RF.QiiKF.D Bv 30n( AXD 3l8T Vict. c. 124.
i
1
'11
}1
w
i'l
t
1
.I'i
iir
lb.
Ih
l^
lb. lb.
put
M-
V-'}
Hnnday ...
H
t
- ♦
—
*
UonAtj ...
u
—
—
* -
«
—
+
Tuesday ...
I*
—
—
i
*
—
4
2 - 3
Wednesday
1*
—
—
i
*
—
4
Thureday
1*
—
—
i
i
i
Friday ...
u
—
—
«
»'-
^
Sfllurday...
'*
"
-
*
—
-i'
i
*-'^'
Note.— In any caw an eqnal qoanli^ of fresh meat, or freah vegetiblM
may, at the opUon of the nuHter, be eorvei oat in lien of the lalted or tinntd
meats, or preserred or compressed vegetables named in the above scale.
SuBSTTTUTES. — At the master's option.
* This, it mnst be remembered, in for sH porpows, waehii^ as weU »
drinking.
FOOD ON BOARD SHIP
267
The preceding is a copy of a recent agreement as concerns
the food on board a Olasgow barqne bonnd from the London
Docks to the Colonies ; and it may be taken as a fair sample
of the amonnt of food supplied to the crew of an ordinary
British sailing-ship at the present time ; and it is so far plain
and intelligible; although the last line, ''Substitutes" etc.,
rather gives the whole of it away.
Although a bill of fare may look well enough on paper, the
actual articles of food will naturally differ much in quality on
board different ships ; and while a liberal owner will send on
board his ships good and wholesome beef and pork, and excel-
lent biscuit, there are plenty of ships sent to sea with casks of
salt horse, and the very vilest, and commonest of bread.
The following is the bill of fare recommended by the
Merchant Shipping Victualling Scale Committee, 1892.
Bill of Fare.
BrMlcflMi.
Dinner.
Snpper.
Stmday ...
Dry hash, soft bread.
Sea-pie and plnm
duff.
Cold beef and
pickles.
Monday ...
Irish stew.
Pea - soup, pork,
calavanccs.
Dry hash.
Taesday ...
Rico and molasses.
Salt beef, potatoes,
plum duff.
Cold meat and
pickl^k
Wednesday
Porridge and mo-
lasses.
Sea-pie.
Potato stew.
Thursday
Bread scowse.
Pea - soup, pork,
calavances.
Cold pork and
piclues.
Friday ...
Dry hash.
Preserved meat or
salt fish and po-
tatoes.
Twice laid of
fish.
Saturday...
Porridge and mo-
lass^
Salt beef, rice, and
molasses.
Cold meat and
pickles.
Coffee, biscuit,
hotter, and marma-
lade daily.
Biscuits and
switchell daily.
Tea, biscuits,
butter, and mar-
malade daily.
One would be inclined to think that if this Bill of Fare
were really adhered to, Mercantile Jack need not absolutely
starve.
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
The amount of fiaes for various offeaces is aleo set forth
in the Articles of Agreement, as follows : —
Stnkicg or BasaaltiDg &ay p«m>n on
board, or bolooging to tba Bhip (if
not otherwise prosecuted)
Bringing or havuig on board epiritaons
liquore I
Dnmbeaticss. First ofibnce [
Ditto. Second a
Bnbse""
Taking on bo&rd and 1
sion of any fire-*^m^ »l
loaded cone, slung »hot, •.
sword-Blick, dagger, or
ofleneive weapon, or ofTenbi
moot, without the concurre'
master, for every day dur
a seaman retains auoh ii
inBtrument
Five shillings
F^ve shiUiiigi
FiveshilUngs
Tlie fines are deducted from the amottnt <^ wages pud to
the men at the Shipping Office when the ship is pud aS at
the conclusion of the voyage.
There ought to he distinct rules laid down as to the power of
compelling men to work in exposed places when the tempen-
tare is beyond a certain point. At present it is an everyday
occurrence to see men in foreign ports, on stages over the
ship's sidqi chipping rust or painting, with an almost vertical
sun pouring down npon them, and the thermometer, if it were
placed against the iron side of the ship, showing something
considerably over a hundred. The same with the men at the
wheel — totally unprotected, although the deck may be so hot
that it would be painful to walk about upon it barefoot.
It is a stipulation on some of the great liners that the men —
that is to say, the deck<hands — are to assist during the passage
in trimming the coal in the bunkers. As a case in point, this
year on board one of the largest of the New Zealand liners the
men were so engaged all through the tropics. The heat in the
cool-bunkers was so insuffetable that the men used to get fiunt
and giddy on goii^ down, sad. ■<jt^ iha^ haA the greatest
I
WORK ON BOARD SHIP 26g
possible difficulty in getting ftu extra ventilator rigged up.
There was nn law compelling the ship to have it done, there-
fore it was not done, until the men absolutely refused to go
below until it was done.
Then in cold wet weather there ought to be some definite
rales as to the mode of carrying on the work during rain. No
one advocates making feather-bed sailors, but why should a
man who earns his bread upon the sea be placed in a worse
position than a similar man on the land ? A man would not be
likely to keep a worse helm if the wheel were placed under
shelter than he now does, exposed for two hours at a stretch to
a bitterly cold driving rain or drifting sleet, or with a vertical
sun threatening him every moment with sunstroke.
Then, again, there ought to be some fixed rule as to knocking
off work on a Saturday afternoon. The men want a little time
for washing and mending their clothes without having to do it
after 6 p.m. ; and on some ships— for the practice varies very
L-onsiderably on different shipB — work ia kept up on Saturdays
nntil five, and frequently up to six o'clock, the mate often
being at considerable pains to invent work merely in order to
keep the men employed.
Another point that requires looking to, is the keeping the
forecastle, or the men's house, regularly cleaned out and tidy, a
matter in some ships almost totally neglected, with the worst
possible results from a sanitary point of view.
These are merely one or two points out of many; but if
some kind of legislation were directed to matters like these,
small and insignificant as they may seem, ship-owners and
ship-masters would find themselves none the worse, and the
men would be considerably benefited ; work would be done
more cheerfully than is often the case now, a good many
sources of wTangling and grumbling would be removed, and
life " before the stick " wonld i>e made considerably leas irksome
lan it is at present.
The very large extent to which foreign sailors are now
ing the place of British sailors in the British Mercantile
arine is becoming, year by year, a more and more serious
tter, the iiercentoge of foreign seamen in our Mercaulile
having incrpAsed front 4 per cent. \n \%^\,\»W \et
VSt BRITISH MERCHANT SER\1CE
msbe^m
188&; and it is atill inoreasiDg. The numtii
Beaiuau, considered relatively to the lai^ely
iiK-reasing ptipulatioQ of the country, is
BU^Mibtedly iteadily declining. In 1855, the total United
H^pl^wn mgirtTTful tonnage was 3,800,000, and the nomber of
Britiabp<Min»*iuployed in the Merchant Service was 155,610.
Inl88S — thai ii to say, after an interval of 40 years, the total
•giTijAifc. registered tonnage was S,861,S48, and the
of iftdtish subjects so employed (not counting lascais)
, . . Of ooarae^ dn* allowance must be made for the more general
fiiajftiiwi Tlf itw" as the motive-power, and for the suhelitu-
tUn of lugp lllips for little ones, yet etill, taking as a basis
•be popobtiOB of the United Kingdom in 1S55, we Sod that
MM Britith ptt«oii was employed in the British Merchant
j^4irrio» to trwj 17& .fWMai wlNn. tfm^ If «>-ld» «■•
'^fmm to tmrj 176 of tiw pop«htioa «f tW UkM TfajrtM
i» 188S, it iranU giTo w aboBt S2(MMM> M thB ■mkr «f
Britiah MflrchantMilon that than oo^ to iMwbaM. Jkt
actual number of British merchant eeamen wu, therefore, in
1895, Tery considerably below what it shoold have been ; and
this decrease is going on still. The Boyal Navy natonJly
looks to the merchant navy for ita teBerres in time of mr. lo
past times, when our Mercantile Marine waa manned solely by
British seamen, they fought side by side with their breUuen
in the Navy, and largely contributed to the naval supremacy
of Great Britain ; but if the foreign element in oar Merchant
Service continues to increase in the fntore in the same ratio
that it has increased in the recent paat, the Navy will hare to
look elsewhere for its reserves.
There are many reasons that condnoe to this gradual decline
in the numbers of British merchant seamen, and nnqoeation-
ably one reason is the steadily falling rate of wages. The pay
of an A3, on board ships out of the port of London is now
exceedingly low, — £2 I&b. a month being about what Jack gets
at the present time. This, to a great extent, is the result of
this foreign competition. Scarcely a ship leaves London ot
any of our great ports without a very considerable percentage
of her crew being " Datohmen" — ti» vulot't tBcm. for foteignen,
^M BRITISH SAILORS AND DUTCHMEN 271
^Htf whatever nationality tliey may be. Swedes, Nurwegians,
^^^ius, Danes, Freaolinien, Spauiardd, are all Dutehmeu to
H Ja^li. England is a free-traJe country, and bo loug aa there
^ are Dnt«.'hmen to be found who are willing to work for lower
wages than English Stercantile Jack, so long mil shipowners
employ them, with the inevitable result of still further lower-
ing the wages of the Euglish A.B.
Low as the present rate of pay is on board British ships, it
is higher thaa the foreign sailor can get on board ships of his
own country, and so he comes to us ; and besides that, most
» British ships are better victualled than foreign ships, so that
the foreign sailor gets a double advantage, from his point of
Tiew, by shipping on board British vessels — -he gets better wages
than he wouJd get on board his o«-n ships, and he is better
fed into the bargain. There is a standing joke among English
sailors, that if a Korwegian vessel is signalling, ten to one it is
" two days out, and short of proviaious."
There is one reason, however, that weighs considerably with
I skippers and mates in favour of emjiloying Dutchmen in the
place of Englishmen, and it is a reason that British sailors
Would do well to boar in mind ; and that is, that without any
doubt the foreign sailor does not get drunk to anything like
the same extent that the British sailor does. It is not that
the mate looks upon drunkenness from any particularly moral
point of view ; but if a man who has signed on goes away and
gets drunk he may very possibly not turn up when the ship is
about to sail, and that would lead to difficulties, probably to
delay ; — and even if he does come aboard, the chances are that
he wonld be so drunk that he can't do his work. The Dutch-
man is pretty sure to turn up on sailing day, and to turn up
sober, so that he is certainly in this respect more to be depended
upon than the Englishman.
There is a good deal of nonsense talked and written about
the " British Tar ; " but he is not the only seaman in the world ;
and it is a fact that all the Si'andinavian nations produce very
excellent seamen. The sailors of Norway, Sweden, and Den-
mark, were famous in old times, as Britons found out to their
cost ; and although Englishmen would naturally prefer to see
English ships manned by English sailors, yet smcV & tft«\)\\.
»
J73 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
ie one of the tbings that can never l>e brought about by any
amount of legislation ; it is simply a question of the BurviTal
of the fittest ; and if British sailors want to hold their own on
board British ships they must tate care to be not only equal
to, but in all resi>ect3 superior to the foreigner. When thia
is undoubtedly the case, we shall cease to hear of British ship-
owners employing foreigners in the place of Englishmen,"
* At Iset the GoTemmeut appear to have recognised thia growing eyil,
and have proposed as, ooe meana of incrca^g the number of British eeamea
employed in the Britiali Mercantile Marine, to remit a certain proportion of
the Light Diiee now paid by shipowners, to such ships as shall carry a certwa
proportion of British boys ; and during the debate in the House of Commona,
on July 27, 1898, on the Bill which the Government have brought in— iho
Merchant Shippbg (Liglit Dues) Bill—Mr. Ritchie, Prealdeut of the Board of
Trade, spoke as follows: — " The decline of British Sailors in the Mercantile
Marine lias been a matter of considerablo aniiety to all tlioae who liave the
interest of Iho country at heart, and many auggeations have from Ume to
time been made with a view of endeavouring by some means or other to
check that decline. In the year 1891, tbor« were 41,590 BritUh sailors on
board British ships, and in 1896, the number had decreased to 35,020, show-
ing a falling off of G570.
" In 1891, there were 13,432 foreigner? on board British ships, and in 1896,
the number bod increased to 14,469. He did not dispute that a great nuuif
of these foreigners mado good seamen, but the country wonld prefer that ill
ships wore manned by British Bailors. It was a disquieting fact that ^
decreaee in the number of British sailors was most marked among the
younger men ; in 1896, there being of men under twenly-fi»e years of ag>
3,981 fewer than there were in 1891. If at the present moment the Nant
Iteserves were colled ont, it would leave our Mercantile Marine almort
entirely in the hands of foreign sailors. This was a very real danger, and hfl
thought that the House would support tlie Government in an endeavour ta
remedy it.
" The great difliculty in the matter is the reluctance of both shipownen
and mastere to carry boys, as they find them, at any rate for the first year, of
but very little service, while they cost as much for maintenance as fiill-grown
sailors. It appeared to him that the Bill now before the House afforded as
avenue by which at least something — and, he believed, a good deal — conU
be done to remedy the existing state of things.
" The Government proposed to give an allowance of twenty per cent OS
the Light Dues in respect of any one vessel at the end of eadi year, duriHg
which the vessel most have been not less than nbe months under articles of.
agreement, provided the owner carried boy sailors under Qi« following scale >—
Under 500 tons, one boy; between 600 lona and 1000 tons, two boys, iUii
Iteingnet tonnage; between 1000 tons and 2000 tons, Ihree boj's; and
■ddilioiwl boy for every 1000 tons, or portion of 1000 tons.
" Each boy must be a British subject, not being a lascar ; lie nuist he a
THE ?ETTV OFFICERS i73
After the able and the ordinary searneu there are four
other classes of personages with whom we must make acquaint-
ance. They are the quartermasters, and the boatswain, the
carpenter and the sail-maker, with their mates. On the larger
ships, and on the great liners these rank as petty officers,
but in the eye of the law they are all simply " seamen."
The qoartermasters in aailing-ahipg are for the most part
merely picked out from the A.B.'8, getting a slight increase of
pay for the additional service rendered. For the Australian
Toyage, for example, they would get, perhaps, an extra two
pounds — a pound for the passage out, and another pound for
the passage home; their special business being to attend
to the steering. In the mail lines the quartermasters hold a
more deGned position than is the case in the ordinary sailing
ship. Here, as above stated, they rank as petty officers, and
are frequently old AB.'s in the Company's service. They
steer, and attend to all matters connected with the steering-
gear; clean and brighten up the biunacles, telegraphs, and
wheels, and keep the wheel-house clean and tidy, both aft and
on the bridge. They hoiat, or superintend the hoisting of the
flags and signals,* and keep the colours in order, mending
deck- band ; be moBt bo medically examiited, and certified to be Round, and
likal; to grow into an efficient valooteor for the seaman class of tbe Naval
ReBervo. He raust be enrolled in the Roj-ai Naval Reserve, and ho must
enler into an agreement to present hinjseli for service when called upon in
accordance with the ndes issued by Itie Admiralty. He must bo over 15
aod under 18 years wbon first enrolled, and under 19 years at the time of
ttgning an agreement for any voyage in respect of wbicb the allowance wai
claimed."
This somewhat cnmbrons proposa! on the part of the Government met
with but very qualified support at the hands of members interested in the
shipping world, as clearly the remission of the percentage of the Light Dues
wuuld in reality be paid for by the shipowner, who would, in order to obtain
the remission, be compelled to carry a certain number of boys at a con-
nderable pecnaiory loss to himself. The Bill, however, was, neverthBless,
read ■ third time ; but that anything satisfaelory will eventiiall; result from
it, se«mB to be extremely problematical, shipowners maintaining, and justly
m«iDtwiung, that the Lights should be paid for altogether out of the National
Exchequer, and not by the Bridsh shipowner.
* I remember once seeing a lad incur the wrath of an old quartermaster
for hoisting colours in an improper manner. Ordinary floga when hoisted are
usually sent vp in a ball, aiul a jerk of tlie flag Lalliirds Bote V\iQ co\oM Vt*ft —
-^*
374 THB
tkflnmaadao&iik; Abj kMp Hm Momnft of As
of tli0 air aad Hm wstar; *Ai ■wlptp^ hMf Aslq^Mi
iiote domi tte ndUngi of tte piAnfe k^ vnli^g •Mtyttng
dovnbofiiie tlisy gooff daty, for Ited^siMik; iHim|Ht
tlioy wofllly ottODd at the gMgwaj,
The bo'iiin ii^ or oii|^t to bo^ As mmutmt taumm
tka ahipu Ha inpaffiiitonda iha aaft m tta daj^m
boaid, aad thaw ii^ or o«^ to ba^ nolhipg m • aMloA mA
that ha cannot Aaw thara how to doi Ha haa aknga of fla
ba'ann's loekar, whiok inelodaa lopai^ ta^ pvBd^ '■^ *^'
gtoiaa in gananL Ha ia anaMaabla^ vndar Iha diirf oflsSf
wotldng parti of tha ahipu Ha naaaUy ia batthad ib •
ondaoky tha oaipaatar aad ha oAn diaiiBgtta
b«t in aoma niling^hipi^ although it ia a plan aoMik to he
dapiacatad, ha oooopiaa Aa ama hova aa iha appianiirai
In Logo Tenab ha hail nndar Uniy aarand matafc
Thaoaipaatar (^'chipa^" on boaid ahipX aa hia nawa iwpKwi
ia laqmnsUa for aU tha oaipentaring jol» that nMj ba iaq[^^
to be done on board, from putting a new lock on the cabin
door to turning out a new spar in the case of an existing
one being carried away. He looks after the pumps, and sounds
the well every day, making his report to the officer (tf the
watch ; so that what with one thing and another, the caipenter's
time is always pretty fully occupied.
The sail-maker has charge of all the canvas on board the
ship, making new sails if required, and at other times repairing
the old ones ; and in an ordinary ship he is always busy, as
sails are not only always chafing and wearing out, but very
frequently are carrying away altogether.
These three last members of the crew usually keep no
watches, but work all day, and sleep in all night, unless ^§11
hands" are called, when they turn out with the rest The
cook, as a rule, does the same. He is engaged in his galley
'* breaks it/* as it is called. The lad had to hoist the bhie ensign at the peak
(it was a naval reserve ship), and he hdsted it in this way. The quarter-
master was fnrious with him— "< Sure, and don*t ye know better,** said he,
« than to break the national flagof the coimtiy, just like yon would a common
boaae-aagt"
THE ENGINEERS AND FIREMEN a7S
sU (lay, either preparing the meals for the cabin, or cooking
the food for the men, or cleaning up hia saucepans and utenails.
Of course this is on board the ordinary sailing-ship, or ocean
tT8n]|>; on board the great liners the steward's and cook's
department is simply the Hotel Metropole afloat, with its
untold array of stewards, nnder-stewanls, waiters, chef, assistant
cooks, pantrymen, vegetable- washers, butchers, bakers, and
the rest. In the ordinary merchantman the cook is rather of
the rough-and-ready description. He can turn out good plain
food, but he does not profess to bo an artist.
Ui>on steamers, and therefore on the majority of ships afloat,
besides the navigating crew of seamen, there is another large
body of men in the engineers, and flremen, or stokers, the duty
of the former being to attend to tlie machinery, and the boilers,
and that of the latter the furnaces. Until the year 1862, the
position of the engineers was the same as that of any ordinary
member of the crew, and their appointment and position was
entirely dependent upon the will of the shipowner, who simply
formed bis own judgment of their fitness for the duties required
of them. Now they are obliged to pass a Board of Trade
Examination, in precisely the same way as Masters and Mates,
and certificates are given for First-class Engineer, or Second-
class Engineer, as the case may be, no one being allowed to fill
these posts without holding such certificates of competency
nnder a similar penalty to that incurred by the deck oflicers.
The stokers and the coal-trimmers are for the most jiart bred
from shore labourers, and are usually drawn from a still lower
class in the social scale than the deck hands ; there being but
very little commimity of feeling between the two sets of men.
In the great liners the forecastle is usually divided longitudi-
nally, the starboard side being occupied by the seaman and the
port side by the firemen, or vice versa, and neither class think
of entering the others' berth uninvited.
OHAPTEE XXT. ■
4p(ron(icce — Tbeir nambere ronnerl;^' ^'■■^ ^^ present — Sei^-time — Ths M^
wsy of a hay'6 goiog to Bee — Importnnce of being apprenticed to a ffxi
firm— Premium and eiptnscB— Apprautice's indentares — A coDtnet—
Dotiea of the apprentice, and daties of the Bhipowner— Treatmect of
apprentices — Trwaiog-ships — Suggestions — Apprentices sUty years ago.
Having seen something of the men, we now come to the
^^rentices, and as from the apprentices of to-day will be
Asmi the skippers of the s&iling-ehipa and of the crack ocean
Umts of the future, their position ia one well worthy of careful
"Pnfkm to the npaal of tha N«Vi#Mfam L«M fit 18« It
was compolsory * for eTfiry Teesel to cairy a certain niunber of
apprentices according to her tonnage, for instance —
AH veBBsla of 80 tons and under 200 tonnrerebonnd toeairjoiMt
„ 200 „ „ 400 „ „ two I
400 „ „ 600 „ „ thiwi'
„ 600 „ „ 700 „ „ torn „
„ 700 „ „ and opmrdB „ fire „
And for every apprentice deficient a fine of ten pounds wu
to be imposed. Since the repeal of the Navigation Laws, when
the cBiiying of apprentices ceased to be oompnlsory, the nambo'
of apprentices has steadily diminished, as may be seen from
the following table taken from the Board of Trade Betonu :—
NUMBEB or AppsixncES KSBOLUDi
194fi
... 16,704
1850t
... 6,056
lefiO
... 6^616
1870
... ?M1
1880
... Jsoi
1890
... ha
1894
... S.184
* By Act (tf Parliamant, 5 and 6 WilliiiD IT. o. 19.
f The first yew aftarteB«e*>>3>(<<aMk'««n^]dkn.lAw&
THE APPRENTICES
When a father apprentioes his son to a trade, or articles liim
k> a profeBsion, the presumption is tbat the father nisbes the
ion to become, or the son himself iriabes to become, a master
n that particular calling in life. The primary object, therefore,
if the sea apprentice may reasonably bo assumed to be, that
D due course of time he should become a master-mariner; and
, necessary step towards this end is that he should be so trained
luring his apprenticeship, as that he may be able to pass the
}oard of Trade Examinations, first for Second Mate, after that
or First Mate, and then for Master; and after that, if he
booses, for Extra Master — a master in the Mercantile Marine
laving to pass through the preliminary grades of Second Mate
,n<l Mate befure he can obtain his Master's certificate.
The Itoard of Trade requires that every candidate for Second
late shall have served for fuur years at sea, out of which time
welve months must have been passed in a foreign-going
quare-rigged sailing-ship. So long, therefore, as the candidate
an show bis four years at sea, including his year in the square-
igged foreign-going sailing-ship, it does not matter one pin,
o far as the Board of Trade is concerned, whether he has ever
een apprenticed or not. If he can show his four years' service
t sea by his discharges as A.B., or even as ordinary "boy," he
ntirely fulfils the Board of Trade requirements, just as much
a though he had been duly apprenticed. Therefore to be
,pprentice<l is not an absolute necessity imposed by the Board ;
'et, to encourage apprenticeship the Board of Trade agrees to
«cept the whole of the time served under Indentures of
^.pprenticeship as actual sea service, provided the applicant
laa really served at sea, or at least out of the United Kingdom,
our-fifths of the time claimed as apprentice (that is to say, that
le has not spent more than one-fifth of the time claimed, in
lome ports) ; in other words, if he has been actually at sea, or
jut of the United Kingilom, with his ship for three years and
^ree months, although he may have had in addition to this,
line months holidays, the Board will reckon these three years
ind three months, in the case of an apprentice, as four years'
iea-serviee; but in the case of a hoy not apprenticed, or of
an A~B„ he mu8t put in sufficient discharges to make up
four entire years. Here, therefore, is a clear inducement to
ajS THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE 1
•fimmttOMhqi, md it is intended as such by tho Boud I
ofTrnda
. We may tnk* i^ tlioQ, that the boy la to be apprenticed. Tlio
qaaitka now anies how should he, or bis father, set about it?
it it imqiieiti()Mbly best that a boy should, if possible, be
t^gj^natioti. to ft good firm owning maoy ships, rather than to
AJDuU flna owning bat few ships, or to the owner of one single
Aipk uid fbc thii reason — competition is now so keen, and hr
mij berth in aaj occupation whatever, there are now su many
^^IkeaA^ thet when the apprentice has served bis time, and
hMpMMd til»3aard, and lias obtained liis certificate, he ex-
■ thegrai.test pi>ssiUe difficulty in obtaluing employ-
; aqd natnnlly the first people to whom be would look
would te the flna with whom be bad served bis apprenticeship.
All the heit flms select their oflicers, as far as possible, from
tiwi fcCDBtt q^centices ; and here, then, is bis opportunity.
Kthe 4nn own but one or two ships they will probably bavc
■0 Teoeuey ; or tlieir ship will be on her way ont to Sydney.
OP g<^Bg fiott Bio to Bangoon, or be otherwise equally in-
aooeBsible, and the lad, not getting a berth under big old funi,
will find it next to impossible to get a berth at all ; and if he
has not inflnential friends to give him ui introduction to some
other and better firm, he will have to do what a very large
number of passed apprentices are now obliged to do, ship is
A.B. until some better opportonity presents itael£.
It is, of coarse, not ijways within the power of the bc^'a
friends to apprentice him to one of the larger firms. A oon-
giderable premium has to be paid, varying from £60 to £150;
and nothing at all is coming in for the four years oi his
apprenticeship, whilst the boy will have to be found in outfit
and in pooket-money.
Say that the apprentice's preminm is £100 ; his first year's
outfit will certainly cost £20 at the least, and for each of the
other three years £15 ; then for pocket-money and travelling
expenses to and horn his ship, which, although she may have
sailed from London, may possibly come home to Glasgow,
or Caidif^ or Liverpool, or some other port, £10 a year will
not leave a very large margin. This will bring the sum-total
Op to £205, or, say, £50 a year fot tl^e fogr yesn^ To a graft
I
APPRENTICESHIP INDENTURES 179
number of parents — peiliBps profeBsional men, retired army
men, or clergymen, with several sons to bring up — after all
the expenses of the boy'a education to Lave to pay £50 a
year for fonr more years is a very serious matter, and one
which ought to carry with it some very distinct advantages.
The small firms will often take an ap]trentice for £30 (some
few for nothing), and will pay the amount back as wages —
£6 the first year, £7 the second, £S the third, and £9 the last
year ; which may be a present good, but which is often terribly
at the expense of the boy's future, for the reasons pven alwve.
Now, an apprenticeship indeature ts an absolute contract
between two parties, each with his own special responsibilities :
the boy undertakes, on his part, to properly serve bis master ;
the ship-owner, on the other hand, undertakes to perform his
part of the bargain, which in ninety-nine cases out of a
hundred, he never does, and never even thinks of doing. He
undertakes to teach the boy, or cause bim to be taught, the
profession of a seaman. That is to say, he undertakes to teach
the boy the art of navigation, bow be should take his ship
from one port to another ; the rule of the road, as regards both
steamers and sailing-vessels; their regulation lights, and fog
and sound signals ; general ship's signals ; the mode of
marking, and the use of the lead and log-lines; the use of
the rocket apparatus ; stowing cargo ; and general seamanship.
This, then, is what the ship-owner, or the ship-master, as the
case may be, agrees to do. What does he do in reality ?
In nine ca^s out of ten the apprentice, according to the
advertisements, is "to be berthed apart from the crew ; "
" will be taught navigation ; " and " have the same food as the
oflScers." But what are the real bard facts of the case ? The
confiding parent pays the requited premium, gets the outfit
for his boy, who duly appears among hie friends, the admired
possessor of brass buttons, and a cap with the badge of the
firm upon it. He has in due time notice to join his ship,
and n-ith his new uniform on, and with bis sea-chest and his
other belongings, he reports himself on board; the ship sails,
and if his friends could only see bim in a month's time they
would scarcely recognise him. Instead of the smart youth
they said good-bye to, they would see an extreniel*)' AvA^ W^
ste THE BRmsB MncBAirr sncncB
wearing hi equally dirty ftamd shut, • gretey and taiT
pair of dnngine trouei^ uaA- on hu bead a grimj' dA
"TuBiny." He hai been pnbaUy all the morning cleaning
bnaa-work, or tlie ah^^ lampi^ md is sitting in " the hona^'
eating hia dinner of aatt hone and rice, with his cbest lor t
taUei The dinner-hoar ora^ he hears an nnooBth voice
yelling, " Now, then, Jaek, get on with yotv braat-wotk," «,
"Oet an with that ohippang down in the fore-peaki" Ntt.
a Tery appmaaUe part of (be tiauung of the fatnre offioerl
The hot is that in all Tcawh that take apprentices, taotfi
thoaa of a few of ths iwat flimi, the apprentice is in erei;
leepeot beated no batter, aad no worae, than the ordinsir
foremaat hand. Urn the nn^ raaeon that he is looked apcm u
exactly <m a lerd with Ae haads. Some ships take hait ■
dosen or eight ^ipniitioai aimpfy to save their equivalent uf ,
AM.'b, and until tbe ]maent lawi are altered will continue (e
dOiOw
TbB TeaaeU-poaiUy a CHaigow barqae, for the canny Scot a
perfaapa the wont oflbnder in thla respect — ought to oarry, nr,
twelve A.B.'8. As a matter of faet, eight seamen onlj a«
shipped, six A.B.'8, two ordinary seamea, and the balaa« ii
made up with apprentices, who, having to work watch and
watch with the men, get so much taken out of them dtuing
their watch on deck that when it is their watoh below tbe^
are only too glad to torn in, and certainly are not mocii
inclined to open a book, or to trouble their hcttds aboDt
mathematics or navigation.
In a few ships, skippers, when they get into the Trades, will
have their apprentices aft for an hour or so in the dog-mtcb,
and help them on with their oaTigation. It is doing ^e bon
good, and it is an amusement for the Master; but wheie tiien
is one skipper who does this there are twenty who would nem
dreem of such a thing, and who, so long as the apprentiees d*
their work aloft, or slung over the side, painting, or whatem
else they may have to do, never trouble themselvee st (U
about them, from the beginning of the voyage to the end.
This miserable treatment of apprentices results in a numlia
of high-spirited boys, who wonld undonbtedly have »d«
excellent officers, and who would have helped to raise the tne
trf the professioD, throwing it up in disgust. Numbers of
boys, sons of well-to-do professional men, clergymen, and
others, try one voyage, and have then had quite enough of the
sea, and settle down to something on shore ; whilst numbers of
apprentices make a run of it in the Colonies. Of course, very
many remain, b large proportion of whom undoubtedly sink
down in the social scale, and under the present wretched
system inake coarse, foul-mouthed, bullying men ; the ulti-
mate residuum that make good seamen and gentlemanly
officers, being, unfortunately, but a very small percentage of
the entire number of those who originally joined the service.
On all hands it appears to be conceded that Merchant
Servie* officers are considerably behindhand in educational
attainments. Can it he wondered at, when a boy is taken,
just at a critical age, perhaps from a good public school, where
he has jjjgen treated as a gentleman's son, and put for four
years to sweep decks, clean brass-work, tar and grease down,
clean out bilges and pig-styes, shift ballast, and bag coal, in
company with a number of men whose every other word is
an oath, except when it is something considerably worse.
Of course, there are the training -ships fur boys intended for
the Mercantile Marine, the Conway in the Mersey, and the
WoTcesUr in the Thames; but, then, these ate expensive, and
consequently out of the reach of many gentlemen of only
moderate means, who perhaps have several sons to provide for ;
and opinions are a good deal divided among competent judges
as to whether a boy who has had a couple of years on board
one of these training-ships is really more likely to get on
than one who goes straight to sea.
The whole question of apprenticeship to the sea-service
requires a thorough over-hauling and much alteration. Of
course, there are pauper apprentices, boys apprenticed by the
parish authorities, whose ultimate end and goal is to become
A.B.'s, and nothing more ; but there are also, at the same time,
the apprentices whose friends have paid premiums with them,
with the intention that they should ultimately become the
captains of our ocean liners ; and the two classes should not be
mixed up, and most certainly the latter class should not be
levelled down to the position of the former, as is too much the
>
I
28s THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
case at the present day. If the apprentice, on his part, does
his duty cheerfully, and to the heat of his ability, the other
party to the contract, the sbipon-ner, should undoubtedly be
made to do hia, which, equally undoubtedly, at the present time,
for the moat part, he doea not do.
The apprenticea ahould be under the orders of the master
and of the mates alone. They should, when the weather
and the work of the ship permitted, be hud aft for an hour
every day, and be taught navigation and other kindred
subjects. They should be employed aloft, and in setting aad
shortening sail, in setting up rigging, sending down spars,
Bpliciug, and the thousand and one things that appertain to
seamanahip; but they should not be employed in tarring
or greasing down, and they should not be made to do
painting on stages or in bowlines, nor to clean out pig-styea
and closets, nor to clean brass-work or lamps. In port they
should be sent into the hold to learn dunnaging and stowing
cargo ; end they should, as far as practicable, be kept apart
from the men before the mast.
If these, or some such rules, were carried out, in the comae of
a few years a very marked improvement would be observed in
the officers of the Mercantile Marine to the benefit of every-
body— to the benefit of the apprentice undoubtedly; and
certainly to the benefit of the shipowner, as the more competent
and the more intelligent the man is to whom a valuable ship,
and a valuable cargo, is entrusted, the less the chance to the
owners or to the underwriters would there be of loss anJ
disaster. The following graphic description will show how
very little the position of the apprentice in the Mercantile
Marine has improved within the last sixty years. With very
little alteration the picture |)resented in 1830, would on many
ships do equally well for 1898.
Mr. W. a. Lindsay, in his work on merchant shipping, thiu
describes the accommodatiou provided for apprentices in the
year 1830. He says—
" I have the moat vivid recollectioa of tlie forecastle of the ship ia wluch 1
served my apprenticcshi]), and a deBcription of it may serve to Qlastrate ta
ordinary Hpecimcn of the bcb homBB of wilom at that time.
" The voMel in which I served wns about four hundred and tvfenty tons
W. S. LINSDAYS APPRENTICESHIP
T^giitor, and of North American LuUd, She wan sliip-rigged, uud Lad a fliiish
deck, that is, there were do etectiona upon Uie deck escept the gnlloy or cook-
house, which stood before the long'boat; on each eido of both wero lasbed,
to riog-boltfl ia the deck, the spare Bpars, and to these wtre again lashed a
row of puncheona or butts filled with fresh water,
" This vesse] was employed in the trade between G-reat Britain and
Demcrara, making occasionally a voyage to the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia,
for lamber, a deecription of boards used for the heading of rum and molasses
casks and sugar bugsbeads. Her crow, she had more tlmn the usual
complement, consisted of twenty-one penions all told, comprising tlio master,
or ' captain,' Ih'st and second mates, and steward, all of whom lived in the
cabin. Besides these tliere were the carpenter, cooper, and cook — who with
the steward were eipected to assist in soamea's duties— ten seamen, and four
appr^tioes. One of the latter lived with the carpenter and cooper in a place
called the 'eteeragc,' Ihat is, a small place temporarily separated by some
rongh stanchions and boards from the cargo in ttie square of the aOer-hatch.
Here their tools, with varioiia rope and sail stores, were also kept,
'' The cook, ten seamen, and three apprentices had their abode in the
forecastle. This place, which was in the ' 'tween decks ' at the extremity of
the bow, may have been about twenty-one feet in width at the after, or widest,
part, tapering gradnally away to a narrow point at the stem. The length
in midshipa was somewhere about twenty feel, but much less as the sides of
the veBBel were approached, The baight was five feot from deck to Iteani, or
about five feet nine mclies from deck to deck at the greatest elevation between
ibe beams ; the only approach to it bomg through a scuttle or hole m the
main deck, about two and a half feet square.
" Beyond this hole, there were no means of obtaining either light or
ventilation, and in bad weather, when the sea washed over the deck, the
crew had to do as best they could, without either, or else receive the air
mixed with apray, and aoraetimes accompanied by the almost unbroken crest
of a wave, which, in defiance of oil the tarpaulin guards, too frequently fomid
its way through the scuttle.
" Here fourteen persons slept in hammocks suspended from the beams, and
had their daily food. There waa no room for tables, chairs, or Etools, so that
Lbo tops of their sea-cbeeta, in wliicb they kept their clotlies, and all their
poseeasiong, were substituted for those useful and necessary household
articles. In fact, so closely were these choela packed, that it was difficult to
sit astride them, the mode which the sailors found most convenient for taking
their meals, especially in rongh weatlier.
" But the whole of even this limited space was not appropriated to the use
of the crew, for it contained a rough deal locker, in which the beef and soup-
kids and other nteneils were kept; while the stont stanchions, or knight-
heads which supported the windlass on the upper deck, came through the
forecastle, and were bolted to the lower beams ; and too frequently, when
the ship was very full of cargo, a row of water-casks and casks of provisions
were stowed along the al\cr bulkhead, which was a temporary erection;
whilst on the top of these, cables, odUb of rope, and numerous other articles
Ttre BRITISH MERCHAKT SERVICE
!, nd bad ih«ir food, ««*pt b te*
Wmk m 4Nk, tllrir rami conrifUng ■Imoit Mtirrfr of iofaior mlbsi fmk,
bMf frUell VM Sometime ueaHf ■■ bird and uwftllilfc m ^ Ufa fa
vtiU ft «■■ Mma, nad brown bbeuiu too eA« tsMldy Md fidi rf n^plL
T4 BMk* BMttMt wone, tli« forecutle of ibe flii|) wu fid at nU. nl I
hart &• iMMt TlTiJ rpcullvclian of oae of Umw anlnuh w nare Am «•
OPIMilOD flndiDt hi wsij bio the hammcck wbere I lirfL
" Is ti« "Wmi Iiidiun the i>kc« wu ao >iil&ntneij hot thu tbe «itn
Imwfablj' dipt whorovor thoy conld flixl a cUu «(««• npoa da^ or k the
topit nd h wtater, wkan aiiproaching (Iio Ei^Udi CliaiiBd, or arhn ao ta
fatinBlifati TCjagD to the Ikf of Fnsdj, It wuu tAterif oold, aa rtmi
«r Int of aof khd beiog allonod on l>c«<d, except in iIm Ksllq' a^ fa Oa
n aUvM ever Nnftbred fto nmch froin tlte Entaantj of ifce aH
m did Umm of ttfe aailon au4 apprentices of that stop wbo had not descili^
darfaf two maatiis ol a wint^ when she lay at anchor in one id ihe raid-
•iMldt of tka Bay. Tlio Low ports wore tiien obligeJ to be open to receita
At Mlip>, Mid OWihi only be Cfivrsrcl witli mailing during the nigbt. One ct
Am poitt opWMd upon the r<<i<.'<.: 'I" ' > il^t it.'; cxrdipiinls m^ht ahsoct
■i VW lym riapt upon •.U-.k. iV. .: ■' n ,|. ■■■■!■ • n-^ (hey hv tif^}!! ihe chests,
or hung mspended tniai dia U»uib, ^lU); uixjimuii/ itvasu u> suUi a* ««t«bt
that the ice had to he beaten tiom them before the; coold again be awd."
THE SECOND MATE
CHAPTER XXII.
The officers— The Bocond mate — The chief mate — Hia duties and reBponsi-
bilities-— The mastDr — His dntice — Tlio official log-bool;.
Having seen something of the men and of the apprentices,
we must now oouskler the officers — the master and the mates,
As previously stated, the law contemplates three grades only
— the master, the first mate, and the second mate ; but the
great liners usually carry four, five, or sometimes even six
mates. The ordinary sailing-ship, however, and most of the
ocean tramps, have as a nite the master, and a tirst and second
mate only, with occasionally, in the larger vessels, a third
mate.
The second mate's position varies considerably in diflerent
ships. In the great mail lines it is one which carries with it
a large amount of responsibility. Here the second officer,
as he is called, rather than second mate, is usually a well-
edncated gentleman, holding most probably a master's certifi-
cate ; he is a good sailor, and one who in due course will be
the master of a similar ship himself. The same thing holds
good in the larger sailing-ships, and in most of the large
steamers other than the mail and passenger liners ; — the second
mate looking forward in a short time to become a chief mate,
and after that to obtain a command.
In the small three or four hundred ton bar(iue, and in the
smaller steamers, the second mate, from a social point of view,
is very often scarcely removed from the foremast hands ; having
a handle to his name, certainly, being Mr. Brown, not Bill
Brown, and having a certain amount of authority ; but in
manners, speech, and dress scarcely distinguishable from the
men. He goes aloft, reef's and takes in sails, and does, for
the most part, pretty much what the men do. There is one
286 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
point, however, in which he does differ from the men, and that
is that he never takes a wheel.
He lives aft, usually having a cabin to himself, and has Iii8
meals in the main cabin, although generally, and necessarily,
after the captain and the chief mate, as he must take charge of
the watch on deck while the first mate is below. He is, how-
ever, one step up the ladder towards being one day a skipper,
although sailors have a saying ^^ that being second mate doesn't
get your hand out of the tar-pot" A second mate must be at
least seventeen years of age, and must have served four years
at sea either as an apprentice, or as a seaman before the mast,
and unless it be a steamer, one year of the four must have
been served in a square-rigged foreign-going sailing-ship.
The chief mate is a more experienced seaman and navigatof
than the second mate ; he must be at least nineteen years of
age, and must have served five years at sea, one year of which
must have been as second mate, or as a junior mate holding a
second mate's certificate, in charge of a watch. He occupies a
very arduous and a very responsible post. He is the represent-
ative in everything of the master, who intimates to him what
he wishes to have done, and then leaves it to the mate to carry
it out. He engages the crew, superintends the stowing, the
safe-keeping, and the delivery of the cargo — seeing that the
tallying out corresponds with the tallying in, and not in-
frequently having to pay for any deficiency — and he is
responsible for anything and everything about the ship, from
a rope yarn to an anchor. He keeps account of everything that
comes aboard, or that goes out of the ship; provisions only
excei)ted, for which the steward, if there be one, is responsible.
It is his duty to continually examine all parts of the rigging,
and to report anything that is of importance to the master.
If any one comes on board the ship, such as an agent, or a
carrier with goods, or any other person, indeed, he is always
referred to the mate or chief oflBcer.
In going out of or coming into dock, in getting under way,
or in coming to an anchor, it is the duty of the chief ofiicer to
attend to the anchors and cables, and the warps and hawsers,
and to see that everything is in readiness. If getting under
way from an anchorage, Yie mWxiLSw^XV^ \»jKft\i\^%\».t\ou forward.
THE CHIEF MATE
where he can see the cable as it enters the hawse-hole, inform-
ing the master when the anchor is " a peak," at the same time
ordering the men aloft to loose the saih ; and when the ship is
nnder way, the master being in command, and looking after
the yards and sails, the chief ofdoer will see to the catting and
fishing of the anchors. Similar dnties will devolve upon him
in bringing up.
On board a sailing-ship, if there be a third officer, that
officer is in the first mate's (the port) watch. Tlien if anything
has to be done, as setting the jib, or taking in a royal, the
mate will whistle for his third mate, and he and the third mate
ml] do it, the chief mate not, however, leaving the poop. But
if a heavier job has to be done, as for instance setting a toj^aail,
the chief mate will take hia stand on the main hatt'h, or where
he is best able to see all that is going on. In tacking ship the
chief mate's place is at the lee maiu braces, the second mate's
at the CToJBck * braces, and the third mate's on the forecastle-
head for the fore-tack, and the head-sheets.
In stowing sails or shortening down, the chief mate's
station is anywhere where he can get a good view of the soil
that 18 being taken in. The second mate slacks away the
halliards and sheets, and the third mate the braces. In
atrtwing, the second and third mates, who are on the yard,
take the bunt, the second to windward, and the (bird to
leeward. When no officer is on the yard the A.B.'s take the
bunt, and the ordinary seamen or boys are at the yard-arms.
When at sea the chief officer is resiwnsible for everything
that goes on on board, and, if it be possible, bis responsibility
is even greater when in port, for then the captain will be
ashore a great part of the time attending upon owners and
merchants, and seeing after the business affairs of the ship.
It is part of the duties of a chief mate to keep the ship's
log-book, and when at sea he taltes the snn every day, and
works ont the ship's position, comparing notes with the
master, and entering it and all particulars of the weather,
and all other special circumstances of the day in the log.
By law he is the successor to the master — that is to say,
" CroBs-jack yard, pronounced " crojaok," the lower yan! on the mizeu-
mast, correepondii^ to the main yard on the maJn-mast.
i
288 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
should the mastef die during the voyage, the oommftDd
legally devolves upon the chief mate, and that he should be
competent to fill that position is one of the objects of the
Board of Trade examination and of the certificate.
In sailing-ships and in ordinary cargo steamships, the chief
mate takes his meals in the cabin with the captain, and is
the only person on board occupying a position of anything
like equality with him. In the large passenger lines there
is considerable diversity of practice. In some lines the chief
officer sits down to table in the saloon with the paasengen
and the captain; in others, with the view of keeping the
ship's officers as much apart as possible from the passengers,
all the officers, the captain only excepted, have their own
mess. In some of the great lines, when entertainments
and dances are got up for the amusement of the passengerB,
the chief officer and the other officers will join in them,
even going so far as to discard the company's uniform, and
to appear in ordinary evening dress; whilst in other lines
no officer is ever permitted to take part in anything of the
kind, but must devote the whole of his time to the duties
of the ship.
In some mail lines, where there are four officers — a chief,
second, third, and fourth — three only keep watch at sea—
tho chief, second, and third — and these for only two hours
each, 80 that they have two hours on deck, and four hours
below, the fourth officer being on all day, attending to the
navigation, and looking after the passengers' games — cricket,
deck-quoits, and so forth, he then sleeping in all night. But
in home waters, coming up Channel and the like, the ordinary
port and starboard watches of four hours each would still be
kept — the chief and fourth in the port watch, and the second
and third in the starboard. At such times extra precautions
are always taken, tarpaulins being covered over all places from
whence lights might be seen from the bridge, as they would
tend to render it more difficult for the officers on the bridge
to make out lights and buoys and other marks for which
they may be on the look-out.
It is the duty of the mates to assist the master in every-
thing to the utmost of tlievt aliUity, and things go best
THB HASTES — HIS RESPONSIBILITIES
where there is cordial co-operation between the master and
bis sabordinate oCBcers. Some masters are exceedingly jealous
of the mates knowing too much about the navigation of the
ship, keeping them as muoh as possible iu the dark about
it, not caring that they should even so much ss see the chart.
Where this feeling exists on the one side there will not be
mnch sympathy on the other. A steamer was once run
ashore upon a well-known coast on a very fine night. The
officer of the watch had seen the land for some time, the
ship evidently closing iu with it, and yet he did nothing for
her safety upon the plea that "if the captain set a course
which put the ship on shore, it was no business of his." One
can easily imagine the kind of relationship existing between
that master and that officer.'
The master — by courtesy the "captain," — with the sailors
nniversally, whatever his age, "the old man," and familiarly
"the skipper "t — is lord paramount, absolutely an autocrat
on board his own ship. His word is law, which nobody must
dispute, and which permits of no argument. He must be
obeyed in everything without a question, even by his first
officer. He stands no watcb, comes and goes when he pleases,
and ia accountable to on one except to his owners.
He has entire control of the discipline of the ship; so much
so that none of the officers under him have any authority to
pnnish a seaman, or to use any force without the master's
order, except only in cases of urgent necessity that admit
of no delay. He has to be informed of everything of
importance that takes place on board ; and such things as
descrying a sail, a light, or land, or the sudden shoaling
of the water, or signs of any change iu the weather or in
the direction of the wind must be instantly reported to the
In a sailing-ship, when he is on deck, the weather side of
the poop belongs of right to the captain, and as soon as he
appears the officer of the watch usually leaves that side,
and goes over to leeward, or else goes forward.
• Blftckmore'e " British Mercantile Ma-rine."
I This is a Borvival bom Danish times ; " skipper " ie Douiah for the mMteT
ofa ship ; in Dutch it is "schipper."
ago THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
In carrying on the ordinary routine <^ the ship the
master usually acts entirely through his officers. With
regard to the sails, for instance, if only a slight alteratkm u
required to be made, the master will tell the officer of the
watch to take in or to set such or such a sail, and then will
leave to him the particular orders as to the braces, sheets,
and so forth. But as the principal manoeuvres of the ship-
such, for instance, as getting under way — going about,
reefing topsails, and the like — will often require all hands,
it is usual for the master himself then to take the command,
and to give his orders in person, standing usually at the
break of the poop, the chief officer then superintending tke
forward part of the vessel under the master, whilst the second
mate assists in the waist. In the ordinary work on board,
however, the captain does not superintend personally, but
gives general instructions to his chief officer, whose duty
it is to see that these instructions are carried out If the
captain sees anything of which he disapproves, it is not
etiquette for him to speak to the men about it, but he will
convoy all his requirements through his chief officer ; indeed,
the less a master interferes personally, the smoother the way
in which the work goes on.
There have been many instances in which the mate has
been, j)orhaps, on the forecastle head, superintending some
particular piece of work, and the captain has come forward
and pnt in his spoke, upon which the mate has turned on
his hoel and gone aft, leaving the captain to finish the job.
Hero the latter could not reasonably complain, as by universal
custom he had no right to have come and interfered.
The captain takes the bearing and distance of the last point
of departure from the land, and from that point the ship's
reckoning begins, and is regularly entered day by day in
the log-b(K)k, which is kept by the chief officer, the master
examining, and, if necessary, correcting the reckoning. The
master also attends to bis chronometers, azimuth compass,
and other instruments on board, and takes the altitude of
the sun at midday, or the lunar, and other observations, with
the assistance of his officers. Every day a few minutes before
n*M)n, if there be the slightest chance of getting the sun, the
THE OFFICIAL LOG 291
UBter oomea oa deck with hia sextant. As soon as the sun
ia on the meridian " uoou is made," eight bells struck, und a
new nautical day commences.
On hoard the ordinary sailing-ship, or un hoard a steamship,
if she he a tramp with no passengers, the master's position
ia sufficiently lonely. He is on friendly terms with his
officers, but it is the intimacy of men who are not equals;
and should there unfortunately he, as is sometimes the case,
rather strained relations between thera, then the captain is
absohitely alone, and mast fall back upon himself and his
books. When at sea he always has a good deal of spare
time on his hands ; hut when in port the matter is very
different, for he has to manage the entire business relations
of the ship. He represents the owners, and very frequently
haa to arrange for cargo, decide questions of freight, and
sometimes, unless he be in telegraphic communication
with the owners, to settle the future destination of the ship.
He has to pogse^^s a knowledge of invoices, charter-party,
bills of lading, bills of exchange, surveys, averages, and all
matters of a kindred nature, and he is answerable for the
"official log," which must he kept on board every ship,
and which may, at the discretion of the master or owner,
be kept distinct from, or united with, the ordinary ship's
log, so that in all cases the spaces in the official log>book
be duly filled up.
With regard to this official log-book the Merchant Shipping
Act prescribes that every entry is to be made as soon 03
possible after the occurrence to which it relates, and if not
mode on the same day as the occurrence recorded, it must
then he made and dated so as to show the date of the occur-
rence, and the date of the entry respecting it.
Every entry in the official log-book must be signed by the
master and by the mate, or some other of the crew, and if it
be an entry of illness, injury, or death, it must be signed by
the surgeon or medical practitioner on board, if there be one.
If it be an entry of wages due to, or the sale of the effects
of, a seaman or apprentice who has died, it must be signed
by the mate and by some member of the crew besides the
master. If it be an entry of wages due to a seaman who
E BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
eis he esty'e Naval Serriofi, it must be signed bj the
inan c< serned, or hj the officer aathurised to reoeiTe the
jimu iiiu) that serrice.
E)¥ery entry made in the official log-book Is admisaill*
evideDoe iu a Court of Law.
te mastei of every ship for which an official Ic^ is
loired, must enter, or cause to be entered, the folluiting
ttera: Every convictiou by a legal tribunal of a member
bis crew, and the pnnishment infiicted by the emU;
fry offence committed by a member of the crew for whiti
is intended to prosecute ~ *" enforce a forfeiture, or to
ot a fine. For inata loeing a ship to be in ■
eigQ port, and that one e men has been ou leare
lore, and comes hi dr if the man goes tn his
rth, and does d* re«e irbance, he will pr^tiably
ir nothing more ol uld he become abufsiro or
a fighting be will be told when sober thtt
next time a sLmi! na.' things oecors he will be
gged ; '* that is, the offeooe be recorded in the offiriil
K^-book, and it will then be attended with a fine. Say thtt
it does occnr again; he is then "logged" forthwith, with
the effect that when the ship comes home, and is paid ofl^
•nd tbe man receives his wages, five shillings will be
deducted as a fine. For a second offence the fine will ba
increased to ten shillings, and so on; and when he obtains
Ms official discharge, instead of having G, (good) or V.O.
(yery good) stamped on the discharge, lie will have B. (bsd).
It is by law, however, competent to the seaman who wonM
have had B. stamped on his discharge to decline to have
anything put upon it; but as nobody would object to G. ot
V.G., the absence of any marking is perfectly intelligible;
and aa all these disoharges wte reootded by the Begisbt^
General of Seamen, the character of any seaman can, if it
be requisite, be recdily obtained.
Every case of iUneas or injury happening to a member of
the crew must be entered, t«^Uier with its nature uid the
medical treatment adopted (if any). Every maniage taking
place on board must be dnly recorded, with the namea and
agei of the parties. The ide of the effects of any oosmtn ot
REPORTING DERELICTS 293
aijprentice who dies during the voyage must also be entered
ID the official log, including a statement of each article sold
and the sum received for it ; and a variety of similar matters.
If the official log-book be not kept in the manner required
by the Act, or if an entry directed by the Act to be made
is not made — a record of a marriage, for instance — the master
is liable to a fine of five pounds.
If the master or any person makes, or procures to be made,
or assists in making, any entry in the official log-book, in
respect of any occurrence happening previously to the arrival
of the ship at her final port of discharge, mure than twenty-
four hours after that arrival, he is liable to a fine of thirty
pounds. Thus, say, for instance, that on board a ship bouud
for the port of London there has been say, in coming up
Chaunel, some serious disturbance, and at eight o'clock on
Monday morning the ship enters the West India Docks;
then it would be competent for the master at any time
daring that Monday to make an entry in the official log-
book of the particulars of the disturbance ; but to do so
after eight o'clock on Tuesday morning would render him
liable to the fine.
If any person should wilfully destroy, or mutilate, or
render illegible any entry in the official log-book, or should
make any false or fraudulent entry therein, he is to be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and is liable to a term of
imprisonment. And within forty-eight hours after the ship's
arrival in port the official log-book must be handed over to the
Board of Trade superintendent, before whom the crew is
discharged.
An additional duty has within the last two years been
imposed upon masters of vessels, and that is the duty of
reporting derelicts. An Act of Parliament, known as " the
Derelict Vessels (Report) Act," was passed in 1896, which
enacts that
" every master or other peraon for the time being in commaud of any BritJHh
ship, after the pasaing of this Aot, who sliall become aware of the eiiatanoo
on the high aoas of any floating derelict vessel, shall notify the same to the
Lloyd's Agent at Lis next place of call or arrival, and fihall, together with Each
notification, furnish 10 the Lloyd's Agent all BUcb Vnloiraiti.itt aa'uaTOa.'j '^'MaKis.
=91 THE BKITISH MERCHANT SERVICE ^H
ts to tlm supposed locaUiy or ideutity of sncb derelict veseel, snd tbe te
when and tho pUce nliore this Gome may have boeo observed by, or repotted
to biro, and the Lloyd's Agent alull fortliwiili on receipt of endi DotiGcatioi
and infonnation transmit the same to the Secretary of Lloyd's, in London.
" And if any such master fails to nuke aach a. report he Ehall be Ikble, on
summary conviction, to a penally not exceodiog five ponnils.
" Any iofortDstion received by tbe eociety of Lloyd's u aforesaid, b
parsuBcce of this Act, aball bo published by the society forthmth in the saoe
manner and te tlie same extent as its reports of shipping camaltics, and the
society shall also forthnith commanicate such information to U)e Boai^
of Trade."
As a consequonc© of this new Act, an official list of
derelicts is published in each nnmber of the Shipping Ga^dU-
Tbe above particulars are sufficient (o show some of the
responsibilities of the master, who in every possible respeoi
is absolute mler and head on board his own ship ; and, u
being in charge of a community often thousands of miles from
any other authority, this position is one of absolute ueccasity.
" Upon the character and the course of conduct porsned by the Mpsin
depend in great measnre tlie cbarncter t»d the snccess of tbe ship, nnd tht
oondnct of the ofBoers tmd men. Ho bu a power and mi inftneDoe, botb
direct and indirect, which may be tbe means of mocli good at of mndi ent
If he lie profane, pasnonate, ^frannieat, bdeceat, or intempeiate, mon or hn
of the same qnalitiea will isevitably show themselves among the offloan nA
men, which would have been checked if the head of the ihip bad been a mn
of high personal character. Be may make hit ih^ almoot attytting ba
pleaaas, and may render the lives and datiee ti his otKoars and men {deaMot
and profitable to them, or may introduce dingreemMits, dilMxnitent, tfiaooy,
resistance ; in fact, be may make the sitnatioD of every one on boaid h
imcomfortable aa can pos^ly be imagined. Every marter cf a venal vtu
lays this to heart, and constderB the graatnese of hia reqxmnUlitiee, nay not
only be a lienefactor to all thoee whom the comse of many yeai^ comnttid
will bring under his anthority, but may render a service to that taiy
important part of the commmiity to which he belongs, and do mndi to niK
the character of the Englidi Mercantile Marine." *
• W. & Und»y.
The port and starboard watches
CHAPl'ER XXIII.
a board ship — The port and Btarbcvard watches — The nautjcol day —
Watches and bollfi — The dog- watches— Tlie wheel — Steering — Work
aloft — Heavitig the log — Patent logs — Heaving the lead — The load-line
— Hand-line — Deep-sea lead— Deep-soa eoundinp — Sounding-machines.
On board all ships the crew are divided into two parte, or
watches ; half the hands forming the larboard, or port watoh,
under the chief mute, and the other half the starboard watch,
under the second mate. The latter watch is sometimes called
the captain's watch, doubtless from, the fact that in the earlier
days of the Mercantile Marine, when vessels were smaller,
there was often but one mate, and then the master stood
his own watch, as is at present the case in coasters and
similar craft.
It is usual at the commencement of the voyage, as soon
as the ship is fairly at seat to call up all the hands, and
the first and second mates theu choose the men for their
respective watches. The first naate baa first choice, and
picks out a man; theu the second mate chooses one, and so
on until all the hands are chosen ; and the men theu remain
in whichever watch they may have been selected for until
the entl of the voyage.
Occasionally, in sailing- vessels, hut not very frequently,
the master makes the division himself, after consultation with
his officers, but the more usual course is for him to leave it
to the mates. If the number of men be unequal, the larboard
watch claims the odd " hand," since the chief mate does not
go aloft, or do other parts of the men's duty on his watch,
as the second mate does on his- If there be a carpenter,
and the larboard watch, having the odd Wui, \ft fed W^ei
HE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
' watch of the two, the carpeatei generally goes aloft when
reijiiired with the starboard natch ; otherwise — that ia to
say, if tlio watches are equal — he is expected to go aloft witk
the larboard watch. As soon as the division is made, and
the men apportioned between the two watches, if the day'i
work be over, the watch is set, and the other watch is 80it
below.
Among many customs prevailing at sea, of which the
origin is not easy to trace, is the one that on the first night
of the passage out the stathoard watch fakea the first four
hours on deck, and on the first r " "it of the homeward jiassage
the larlxiard watch does '•"> «a The sailors explain this
by the old saying that * er takes the ship out, and
the mate brings her home.
By this arrangem atches half the crew are at work
whilst the other hall a and have either turned Jn,
or are at their mea «, ag their clothes, smoking,
reading, or what not.
The nautical day is 11 1 in a somewhat difTerenl
fashion from the day ashore, tad oonsists of a oertain nnmiwr
of bells and watches, each portion of fonr hoars coDBtitatiDg
a watch. Thus, from eight o'clock in the eTening until
midnight ia the first watch ; ^m midnight until font o'clock
in the morning is the middle watch ; from four in the moinins
until eight is the morning watch ; from eight o'clock till
noon is the forenoon watch ; and from noon until four o'clock
is the afternoon watch. Now, if the next fooi hooza, ttoa
four o'clock until eight, were also one watch, there would
be an even number of watches, and the men who kept the
morning watch on the first day would always keep the morning
watch, and the men who kept the middle watch wonld
always keep the middle watch. To obviate this, and to shift
the watches, the four hours &4Hn fonr o'clock in the aftamoon
until eight are sub-divided into two watches of two hoars
each, called the dog-watches ; from four to six being the first
dog-watch, and from six to eight the second dog-watch.
This makes an uneven number of watches, fuid the men who
to-night are on deck fiiom eight o'clock till midnight, and
i^fun fhuu foQT in the motmns ^^ cn;^ vill to-morrow
¥
TRICK AT THE WHEEL
night only have from midnight till four iu the morning, and
80 on, the watches getting thua alternated.
Each watch is sub-divided into eight Ijells of hall' an hour
each. Eight o'clock in the evening is eight bells; half-paat
eight is one bell iu the first watch ; nine o'clock is two bells
in the first watch ; half-past uine is three bells, and so on up
to midnight, which is eight bells again. Half-past midnight
is one bell i)i the middle watch ; one o'clock iu the morniug
is two bells in the middle watch, and so on. The bells are
struck ou the ship's bell, and, unlike the striking of a clock,
the strokes are distinctly in pairs. Thus four bells is not
struck as a clock would strike, one — two — three — four, but
one two — one two; five bells, one two — one two — one, and
B of the most irksome parts of a sailor's duty
is taking his "trick at the wheel," as sailors call the duty
of steering. To be at the wheel for two hours at a spell
— and that is the time that each man usually baa to steer —
becomes extremely monotonous at night whou perhaps it is
as dark as pitch all round, possibly blowing hard &i\i raining
or snowing, and the man's whole attention has to lie centred
on the little compaaa-card, lighted up by the binnacle lamp.
Then it is that he eagerly looks out for four bells or eight
bells, as the case may be, which is the signal for him to be
relieved.
On some ships in very bad or cold weather the tricks at
the wheel are reduced from two hours to one hour, and if it
be blowing a gale, or there is a very heavy sea and the
ship steers badly, two men are placed at the wheel at the
same time. In this case the man who stands on the weather
side of the wheel is the responsible helmsman, the mau at
the lee side being supposed merely to assist him. Of course,
all this simply relates to sailing-shipa, or to vessels where
the old-fashioned mode of steering obtains. Upon most
of the great ocean steamers steam steering-gear is now used,
the engines doiug all the mechanical work ; so that in the
heaviest weather one mau with bis little finger is able to
steer the largest ship. Ou board the large Indian troopers,
the Serapis, Crocodile, Jumna, and the rest, where they had
agS THE BRmSH M BSCHAMT SBRVICB
double irikeeh» it wm not aa wammti tihing in Tety M
weather to 886 eight man, fimr al «Mh viieel ; noiTy with rion
ateering-gear one man ean do tha wok qwito aa dBciffly.
When the wlieal ia idieved the letiriiig man giraa Aeian
who lelieveB him the ooune to be atoeied, aay 8L& bj &|B,
and the rolkving man aiiiat aiMmer'&Kbyaia'' Lifb
aame way, wfcieiL the oAoer of the wataih givea • now eoan^
aay SJlbyE.,the helimman maat lepaat tiho orier, " RR hf
E.,^ not merely giving the woal " Aye«ye»air''— dua in orfa
that there may be no poBsiUe mistake as to the eonraa to be
ataeied; and the man who ia fdioTed mast not lelinqiak
the wheel nntO the raliering man has ibm hold of the wpAm,
Thera ia a prevalent notion among land fidka that n tbmI
onoe at sea, there can be little or nothing to do^ otfaar tka
the actual sailing of the (diip. Nothing really ia &rthar tarn
the tmth. Every day bringa witk it ita regolar daj^a mA
pieoiaely as 18 the 0888 aahoaa ; 80 that» oonaderiBg the addiliaa
of his night work. Jack woika aa hard or harder tiwn moik
of his brothen aahore da The day eommenoea with the
watch on deck tuming-to at daybreak, and washing down
the decks, scmbbing, swabbing, and generally tidying up.
This lasts until seven bells (half-past seven), when all
hands get breakfast. At eight bells the day's work begins,
and lasts, with the exception of an hour for dinner, until six
o'clock in the evening. During all this time there is no
such thing as idleness on board ship; everybody has his
work to do, and the officer of the watch generally takes
care to see that he does it.
No conversation is allowed among the crew at their duties,
and although when aloft, or when working in close proximity
to each other, the men will talk, yet they always stop if an
officer is at hand. On board there never is a time when
nothing more remains to be done. All the running rigging
has to be constantly overhauled, and that which is worn, or
unfit for use, sent down and replaced with new rope, if the
owners are sufficiently liberal as to have much on board;
but as this is very often not the case, then the old ropes
must be spliced, and made as reliable as is possible under
the circumstances. Many dui^ asA ao ill-found in stores
WORK ALOtT 299
that something is everlftstrngly carrying away, and on their
arrivfti in port after an average voyage, the entire rigging
is nothing but knots and »p)i(^eH.
Whenever any of the numberless ropea, or the yartls, or
other spare are chafing, then "chafing-gear," as it is calM,
most be put on. Taking off, putting on, and repairing the
chafing-gear alone upon a moderate-sized vessel would provide
constant employment for two or three hands, during working
faonrs, for the entire voyage.
Then all the standing rigging, sneh as stays, back-stays,
and the like, is always working slack, and has to he set up,
the seizings and coverings taken off, tackles got np, and after
the rigging is bowsed well taut, the seizings and coverings
must be replaced; and there is such a connection between
one part of a ship and another, that it is scarcely possible
to touch one rope without altering another one. It is
impossible to stay a mast aft by the back-stays without
slacking up the head-stays, and so forth.
If a ship leaves the Thames with her best and stoutest
canvas bent, as soon as she gets into warmer latitudes
where there is not so much likelihood of gales of wind and
dirty weather, all these sails are unbent and sent down, and
older and more worn sails bent in their place. Then, before
she gets to the Cape, preparatory to running down her easting,
the process has to be reversed, and the stoiiter canvas rebent.
And if to all this be added the tarring down, greasing,
oiling, chipping rust, scraping, painting, and varnishing,
to say nothing of cleaning brass-work, the ship's lam^xs and
so forth, that is constantly required; and all this in addition
to the look-ont at night, the steering, the work aloft in
reefing, furling, setting, and taking in sails, pulling, hauling,
and climbing in every jKtssible direction, the wonder is, not
that there should be anything to do, but rather that there
should be time in which to do it. But if it should ever so
happen that, for the moment, there was nothing very particular
or very urgent that waa required to be dune npon the rigging
or elsewhere, then there ia always the standing job of making
spun-yarn, sennit, and the like, to fall back upon.
There is, of course, a great difference in officers and skippers ;
300 THE BRITISH UBRCHAMT 8ERVICB
numy, of ooiine^ aie good, judges of the weedier, end eie eoe*
eideiftte and leesonaUe men. Some^ hofWBfm, oen eottedj
be 80 consideied; they eie elwrnys tliinVing lihet it k
going to Uow, Of if it is blowing, then that the WBethar
is going to modemte; and so they will havo some of Urn
lighter saUs aet, taken in, and set again onoe or twiee ia a
watch, thna keeping the men constantly hazd st it tha lAob
of the time that they aie on deck. Li most ahipa woik k
knocked off on a Satniday afternoon, which the men an
sappoeed to have to themselyeB; bat even here a good ntay
officeis seem to find a special delight in oortailing even fka
ahort period of leisnie, by being ertra particular in haTing
such jobs as heaving the log done^ when peihapa the kig
has not been hove once in the forenocm watch. Thia^ as smj
be supposed, is not regarded with any very marked frvov h/
Jack, and logs are very frequently lod under theae euema-
stances. A log^line is not a particularly stout line^ and a
sailor's knife is always fiuriy sharps so that it is perhaps not
remarkable that on a Saturday afternoon the line occasionally
breaks, and the log is lost.
On board a well-regulated ship the log is hove at freqnent
regular intervals — usually every two hours — and it is an
important operation ; for when, on account of thick or dirty
weather no observation can be taken, the ship's position can
be roughly ascertained by what is called **dead reckoning.**
The particulars of the ship's rate of progress each time that
the log is hove are entered in the ship's log-book, and at
the end of the day, due allowance being made for the ship's
leeway, and for the set of currents, and other matters, the
distance run can be found; and the courses steered being
known, the ship's actual iK)sition can be approximately
ascertained.
The ordinary log is commonly a drogue or conical-shaped
canvas bag, to the muuth of which the log-line is attached,
and the log is hove or thrown out astern to ascertain the
rate at which the ship is travelling. The log-line, which is
wound on a reel, is divided into spaces called ** knots." At
the first knot is a piece of leather ; at the second knot is a
piece oi leather with two ta^, %2Si4 «1 the third knot an
ordinftry knot is tied, and ao on. A glass like i
hour-glass is used to mark the time that the knots take to
mn otit, and the glass contains such a quantity of sand as
will run throngh in exaetly 14 or 28 seconds. The Ing-line
is measured to corresjrond with a glass running 28 seconds,
the distance between each knot on the log-line hearing the
same proportion to a real knot, or geographical mile (6080
feet), that the 28 seconds of the log-glaas bear to the seconda
in an hour. No calculation, therefore, is necessary; the
□□mber of knots run out on the log-line in the 28 secomls is
the number of real knots, or geographical miles, that wonid
be run in an hour.
One man attends to the log, while another man holds the
glftsa. When everything is in readiness the log is thrown
overboard. The first twenty or thirty fathoms of line that
mn out are waste, and are not counted, as they simply allow
the log to settle down quietly in the water. The commence-
ment of the log-line that counts is marked by a piece of
white rag. Directly ihe white rag goes over the ship's rail
the glass is tumed. The man who is heaving the log sees
that the line runs out clear, whilst the other man watches
the glass. The moment the sand has all run out he calls
" Stop," and the man checks the line, noting the exact distance
nm out. The distance run in the 14 or 28 seconds, as the
case may be, is thus ascertained, and the number of knots
run out on the line is the number of actual knots that the
ship is travelling in the hour.
Very often, however, there is not in reality any very
great amount of reliance to be [ilaced upon the rate thus
ascertained, and for the following reason : In most ships
there ia a certain amount of rivalry existing between the
two watches; the mate does not care to hear that the ship
is making leas progress during his watch than she was
making during the second mate's watch, so that it is not
unusual to hear a dialogue somewhat after this fashion.
The man who is holding the glass will say, sutto voc-e, "Bill,
what shall I make her go ? " To which the other man will
reply, " Oh, make her go eight knots ; it'll please the mate."
Then, by holding the glass not quite Mpiighl, \\, \% ■'iftt^ ^»!k^
i
303 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
|(t idMOk the sand in ninning out, and instead of 28 semrKU
pnlu^ Hearer 5t! seconds have elapsed I>efi>re all the saai
-liu ton out, nith, of course, an additional number of knoti
to be MConled. When the log is bore in this manner the
MDQiaoj of the dead reckoning in apt to suffer.*
At the present time on board many sbij>3 brass put^nt li^
f^ used, wliich record automatiiwUy the exact distance run,
Iwt Although usually accurate, they are somewhat expenaive,
Uid, mtaeuxet, they easily get out of order ; bo that on bo&id
the generality of sailing-ships the more simple and old-
l above described is the ose most frequently
\ instance of the danger of relying too implicitly npon
I Hitoinatic logs occurred this year, in the case of s
r that was lost on the coast of Portugal, where the
^tometic log. being out of order, had reoorded a totally
. flifibieDt distance from that actually nm, with the result that
^e muter entirely mistook his position, and pat his ship
There are also now electric logs which constantly reeorl
on a dial on board the vesael the rate at which the ship ii
ronning ; but these are more ezpensiTe still, and are ^rtiemely
delicate in their mechanism. Both these logs aze, of ootme,
when in use, towing astern, and cases have oocoired vhete a
passing shark has taken a fancy to an aatomatic k^ which
has thus been suddenly lost.
Besides heaving the log, there is another important c^iemtum
on board ship, particularly when making the land, and that
is taking sotmdings, or heaving the lead, and the omiasioD
of this very obvioiis duty has condoced to the loss oC many
a fine ship. Frequently in thick weather, when near tlu
laud, it is almost the only thing upon whidh the i«arin4>r
can rely, and a master will often be able to form « very
fair opinion of his position simply by the depth i^ watw
and the nature of tiie bottom. Ships frequently feel th«r
way up Channel with the lead, in thick fogs, without seeing
* I knew one ship, where e very strughtfbrwud joni^ fellow, who mnld
•hnyBkOt "iqnan" with the glasi, wm never allowed to hold tt; uiAn
be held it the ah^ never went bet enough to pleese the ante.
HEAVING THE LEAD 303
land or son for days, accuracy of survey and the peculiaiitiea
of the bottom enabling them to do this.
Soundings are tttkeu by means of the lead-line, and the
process of taking aoimdiugs with the lead-line is called
"heaving the lead." There are two kinda of lead-lines— one,
the " hand-line," 20 fathoms long, and the other the " deep-
sea lead," of 200 or more fathoms in length. Both aro
divided into " marks " and " deeps." The deeps have nothing
to distinguish them, but the mai'ks have pieces of rag or
leather. The 20-fatbom hand-line has, at 2 fathoms, a piece
of leather with two strips; at 3 fathoms a piece of leather
with three strips; at 5 fathoms a piece of white rag; at 7
fathoms a piece of red rag ; at 10 fathoms a piece of leather
with a hole in it, and so on. At the end of the line is the
lead itself, about 2 inches in diameter and 8 or 9 inches long,
weighing from 7 to 14 pounds. At the bottom of the lead is
ft hole filled up with tallow, and to properly fill up the lead
with tallow is called " arming it." The object of this is, that
when the lead strikes the bottom, some of the sand, or mud,
or fine shells, or of whatever the bottom may be composed,
will adhere to the tallow, and when the line is hauled in
the nature of the bottom will be ascertained — a matter that
is often extremely useful, as affording additional information
as to the ship's position, the particular description of the
bottom being invariably indicated on the chart.
To properly heave the lead requires some considerable
practice. The man who ie going to heave it, and who is
called the "leadsmau," gets on to the rail, or some other
convenient place, and, with the coil of line io his left hand,
he with the other hand whirls the lead with a sufficient
length of Hue just to clear the water, two or three times
over his head, until it has acquired the necessary impetus,
and then throws it forward as far as he can into the water;
the object of throwing it forward being to give it time to
sink to the bottom by the time that the ship, which is under
way, shall have come up to the place where the lead sank,
00 that the line, being perfectly vertical, the exact depth
may be correctly taken. The leadsman can see at a glance,
by the pieces of leather or coloured rag, what the depth of
HB BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
w»i ), and cttlla out, " Deep eight ; " "By the milk
■van;" "And u quarter five;" "Quarter lees fax.;" "Audi
niue;" and so forth, meRiiing respertirelj that he has 8
nne, 7 fathoms, 5^ fathoms, &2 fathoms, srxi 9^ btboma.
for Doundini^s ovor 20 fnthom§ a deep-se« learl is leqnirei
t the ac'tuul process with a deop-aeit lead, for ordiiuv;
•)th8, 16 pretty much the same at* that for the haod^litu
cribed above, the speed of the ship being reduced to gin
1 lead time to sink. When deep-sea soundings orerequtrod,
Biirveyiiig or other purposes involving great accoracy, the
must bring up, depths the sinker takn
m6 time to tfiu-h t*"= A deeji-sea line wiili an
sinker of 9i Ihn. take 27 minutes to naek
t bottom in 1 is rather over a mite— «
T>sidcnible d< depth that ia to be found
uaar homo if the south-west comer ot
e g of dee ngs w one of the most
irtant operations i i, and it is, at the mih
tone, one that is too frequently neglected, as is abundantly
shuwu by the uumher of casualties every year brought aboat
by " neglect of the lead." The old plan of taking doopiot
■oundings involved much trouble and loss <^ time, beaidei
seriously vitiating the reckoning for the ship's poeitioii, through
lounding-to and stopping for a cast of the lead. The whole
watch was required, and even then, with the ship drifting, an
accurate cast eould not easily be obtained. In a ship mniung
up Channel before a gale of wind, it wonld &eqaently be
dangerous, or even impossible, to shorten sail and roond-to
for a cast of the lead, and the only thing to be iaae nnder
the system was to ran on, tmst to good lock, and chance it
Under these circnmstances, it was not surprising to find that
the master of a ship, although anxious to obtain a sounding,
would run on as long as he poasibly oould, rather than stop
his ship for a cast But now this tedious operation is no
longer necessary, as Lord Kelvin (Sir William Thomson), has
provided a machine by which it is easier to obtain accurate
■oimdingB, in any depth up to 100 fathcons, than it is to take
a cast with the hand-lead. With the fine steel wire nsad in
1X)RD KELVINS SOUNDING MACHINE
this machine, verj little resistance is oETered to the sinker
going to the bottom, and two men can easily take a truatworthy
sounding every ten minutes or quarter of an hour, while the
ship is going at any speed up to 16 knots, and in any depth
of water up to 100 fathoms. In order, however, properly to
make use of Lord Kelvin's sounding-machine for determining
the ship's position, it must be used frequently and methoditially.
A single cast, or indeed several easts, taken at random, are of
comparatively little value ; but if the lead be used systema-
tioally and frequently, it will be an absolutely sure guide
for showing the course the ship is making. The taking of
s mndings is very often put off till it is too late, and very
frequently the ship is actually in a position of danger before
the sounding-machine is brought into use. It ought to be
a rule on board every ship, when out of sight of land and in
less than a 100 fathoms, that the souuding-machine should
be always kept going.'
If the souniliiig-machiiie bu not always kept going, depend
up.jn it Meriiautile Jack is. Mercantile Jack is always hard
at it in the hardest of weathers, as he mostly is in all weathers,
poor Jack ; as may be gathered from the foregoing very slight
outline of a few of the multifarious duties of Jack afloat. Of
course, in some vessels he is kept harder at it than he is in
others. Some captains and officers are fairly considerate fcB
their men ; whilst others take every possible oi)portunity of
" hazing " thom, and if there should be nothing very important
that actually requires to be done, take a pleasure in making
work rather than that Jack should have any leisure, thus
carrying
I
out the commaudmeut of the "Philadelphia
Cathechism " —
" Sis days slialt Uiou kbour, and do all tbot thou art nble,
And on the aeventL — holystone the decks, and scrape the coble."
' W. BottonJoy, on soauding-machines and patent logs.
niE BRITISH MERCHAKT SER\1CE
1
CHAFTGB XXIV.
At LMMpe^Scherne for a, can*l— Tbi
BDj— -Opposition of the EngWi
-DMcription of the CmuU— Th(
—At the opening — At th« praMl
iogs — The dividends — Saei Cml
-ceeiit value of the ehaies— -IMBt
Pbobablt no single i t?' exercised so powerful u
mflo«n« upon, or more • ceTolutioni«od, oor shipping
ttatle with Uw But. thu opening of the Snex Gaotl,
in 1SC9; imd there is no waterway ia the world so mucli
fi«qu<?utixl by evory kind of British merchant ship bonail to
•U tho jiurts of Inilik, of Chins, and vVnstralift, and indeed to
ports scattered over half the entire globe, as the canal now
joioiog th« Meditcmueiui an<i the Bed Sea.
Tho id«a of a water oommuuication between these two eeu
wu not a B«w oue, some antiquarians being of opinion that
sach a means of commanicatiou did actually exist in fotmer
ages. Eajstwanl uf the present canal are the ruins of Pelnsiiui],
whence an ancient canal is said once to hare joined the
Mediterranean to the Bed Sea, and by that waterway Cleopttn
is supposed to have eonght a retreat, with her treaeores, after
the defeat of Actitun. We know for certain that Pharaoh
Necho" (610 B,c.) did commence a canal from the Kile to
* TliiiiBtkePfcHa(i)iNedM<rftbaT««itr«zdtI>7D>sfy,«hoei
hii nle orer Egypt in B£. 612, and who itigMd nit3 a.C. S96. b bx. 60B,
he adranoed to the reconqneet of AnTiia, and drfeated aad slew Jwih,
King of Jndah, who wai oppoait^ him, at Ife^ddo, a tittle to the aonth d
Naaareth in GaElee (aee 2 Kings xxiii. S9). It ia pOMiblo Uiat be am-
meooed the canal with a view to bdUtate bis inilitai7 opcfatkni agnat
Iha King ol A
THE SUEZ CANAL
the Red Sea, which, starting from the neighbourhood of Suez,
passed through the Bitter Lakes to Lake Timsah, aud then
tumeil westward to Babastis on the Nile. Herodotus describes
this work with its water gates, and toils us that vessels sailed
through it in four days. This cutting ultimately became
choked up with sand, but was afterwards cleared and re-opened
by Amr ibn el-Asi, the general of Caliph Omar in the seventh
century, when Egypt was brought under the domination of
the Arabs.
For many centuries, however, nothing more was attempted
in this way until, in 1798, Napoleon conceived the idea of
Buoh a canal, and directed an engineer to survey the isthmus
with a view to aseertaiuing whether such a scheme was really
practicable. For some reason or other this engineer came
to the conclusion, and so reported to Napoleon, that the waters
of the Red Sea were very considerably higher than those
of the Mediterranean; and as a consequence of this report
Napoleon allowed the scheme to fall through. Yet it has
been ultimately reserved for France and for M. Ferdinand
de Lesseps, in spite of the strongest opposition by England,
at length successfully to carry out this great and most
important undertaking.
From 1831, to 1838, M. de Lesseps was employed as consular
agent for the French Govenunent in Egypt; and it was
daring this period that he first started the project of a caual.
After endless negotiations with the Ottoman Government,
which all resulted in nothing, M. de Lesseps at last, in 1854,
obtained from the then Viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed-Said-
Pacha, the necessary concession for the work, and then he at
once returned to France to raise the requisite funds for the
undertaking. From France M. de Lesseps came to England,
holding public meetings in all the great commercial centres ;
but in this country, although many of the merchants and
shipowners expressed themselves as entirely favourable to the
scheme, it experienced the moat determined opposition from
Lord Palmerston, and the English Government.
The public subscription for the formation of the capital
for the enterprise was opened ou the 5th of November,
18o8, and closed the 30th of the same mouth; it extended
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
^
to 400,000 shares of 500 francs each, being a capital of 200
millions of francs. More than half the subscription was takeu
op in France, and it is a curious thing that the great bulk
of the subscribers came from among the peasantry. It has
always been said in France that " the Suez Canal was made by
the old women of France," and it is an undoubted fact that
hundreds of the country people — small farmers, old market-
women, aud the like^inv^ted the five-franc pieces that
they had carefully stored away in the old stocking, in the
shares of the Suez Canal. A charter, dated the I5tb of
December, 1858, constituted the General Company for piercing
the Isthmus of Suez and for working the Canal ; and ou the
25th of April, 1859, the first stroke of the pick-axe was given
at Port Said, in the trench that was hereafter to become the
Suez Ship Canal.
The English Government, in no way slackening its oppo-
sition, now endeavoured to exert pressure upon the Viceroy
and upon the Porte, with a view to putting a stop to the
works ; and in October, 1859, at the instance of the English
Ambassador at Constantinople, the Sultan sent to Egypt a
high functionary, the bearer of a letter from the Grand
Vizier enjoining the Viceroy at once to put a stop to all
works in course of execution in the isthmus. The question
thus clearly put had to be decided. The Ottoman Porte was
compelled to pronounce one way or the other, in fact, offi-
cially ; and, after much further delay, it somewhat reluctantly
declared " that the piercing of the isthmus was not unfavoup-
able to the interests of the Ottoman Empire."
The works were now vigorously carried forward ; but in 1863,
Ismail Pacha succeeded Mohammed-Said, and another Grand
Vizier's letter was sent from Constantinople to the new
Viceroy, intimating to him instructions to modify the basis
of the agreements passed between the Egyptian Government
and the Canal Company ; and if the Company did not accept
these proposed changes within a period of six months, then
the suspension of the works was to be at once imposed by force.
These " new conditions " imposed upon the Company
menaced ita very existence, and at the instance of M. tie
Lesseps, the Viceroy appealed to the Emperor Napoleon 111-,
OPENING OF THE SUEZ CANAL 309
asking him to decide the controrerBy, declaring beforehand
his acceptance of the Emperor's decision aa arbitrator. This
decision, which was announced on the 6th of July, 18ti4,
ftmtcably settled all points of difference between the Egyptian
Government and the Company, and the Porte was called
upon to ratify it, which if, however, wonid not consent to do
until eighteen months later.
Agtun the works were pushed on, and by dint of the greatest
irtions, and by the use of engines of extraordinary power,
especially by extremely jjoweiful dredgers, M. de Lesseps
and his workmen were enabled at last to complete their
task; and on the 17th of November, 1869, the Suez Canal,
available under the same terms for everybody, was opened
for navigation.
The Canai, extends from Port Said, on the Mediterranean, to
Suez, at the top of the Red Sea, a distance of 80 geographical
miles, or about 92 statute miles. The navigable channel of
the Canal for deep vessels is a cutting 72 feet wide between
sea and sea, intersected by lakes, which extend perhaps
nearly 20 miles out of the total length of its course. The
depth of the Canal is 26 feet, which admits of vessels drawing
244 feet passing through. Every tenth kilometre (every six
miles) ajaff, or siding, is provided, to enable ships to be moored
out of the main channel, so that other vessels may pass; and
it is by this means that the traffic is carried on, the width
of 72 feet being, of course, insufficient to allow two vessels
to pass each other when under way. Several deflections
from the generally straight course of the Canal occur, and
these have tended greatly to interfere with its otherwise
easy navigation. But during the last few years over a
millioQ sterling has been spent by the Canal Company in
improving these curves ; so that at the present time a vessel
gioanding and blocking the traffic is a comparatively rare
occurrence.
A ship entering the Canal from the Mediterranean passes
between two breakwaters, the western about two miles long,
and the eastern about a mile. Although there is no perceptible
tide, yet a slight current that there is from the westward
would soiin eilt np the mouth of the haibout '«"A\i -vavA. Itom.
i
r
I
310 THE BRITISH MERCHAKT SERVICE
tlie Nile, were it not for these breakvaters, and tut a consta&t
sfstecQ <^ dredging.
Gas bnop on either hand mark the channel, from outside tlw
bteakwateis to Putt Said, those on the starboard band bang
minted rad, and those on the p«^ band green, and this same
sjstem of baoj-4 is eontiniied all the way through the Ca&*l
itself. Pas»ng along ld front of the toini of Port Said, and
through the Ismail Basin, the steamer enters the Caiul
pioper, which runs at first through a wet. fiat, sandy plwn,
Boaroely higher than the lerel of the water, on the eastern
side, and a«taally below it on the western, where are the
awsmpa and maizes of Lake Henzaleh, itaelf a vast half
tnaiafay laeoou of brackish ahallow water, dotted with isleta, aod
osaally eoveied with large flocka of wild fowl, inoluding
hondreda of pelicans and fiamingoea.
At twenty-six miles &oni Port Said, KjUitArah is reached.
Here was a low hill of sandstone that bad to be cut thiongh tst
the Ctuial, and it ina across this low ridge that every iut-ading
anny moat in the olden time have entered Egypt. Between
Al Kintarah and Luke TlnisaJi seventeen miles of narrow canal
with high banks have to be tnveised. At tiie oommenoanflnt
ue some difBcnlt correB, and this is one of the places wheie a
steamer does Bometimes get asboie, and obetnict for a time the
general traffic. The cntting tfarough this part waa the haideet
piece of work on the whole of the Canal, the tidge of Al Gaiir
rising from seventy to a hoadred feet above the deswt, so that
it was an exceedingly costly work to cut it through. Along
this strip b the ancient desert rente to Syria, and at the
pontoon ferry fully equipped caravans may even now very
frequently be seen, waiting their turn of croaaing.
At Lake Timaah is situated the town of Tamailia, dnstefing
round a summer palace of the Khedive. The town, which is
modem, was admirably planned, with one solitary ezoeptifu
— no provision whatever was made for the drainage, other than
dischu-ging it into the fresh-water canal, which afforded the
only drinking water for Ismailia. Drinking water polluted
with sewage can have but one result, aod Twnailia was abso-
lutely decimated with typhoid, &om which it has not yet
entirely recovered, the place being still poKtically deserted.
THE BITTER LAKES
^
From Lake Titnsah, the Canal cutting goes throngh
Toussoum to the northern entrance of the Bitter Lakes, a
distance of about nine miles, on either band of the Canal being
the desert The Bitter Lakes are the remains of a now
dried-up arm of the Red Sea, on which once flourished the
ancient port of Arsinoe. To the west is seen the veiduied
line of the fresh-water canal that now runs from the Nile
to Suez, whilst behind this rises the Geneffeh range, which
affords extensive tuiarries of limestone and marble. The
neighbourhood of the Bitter Lakes is generally supposed to
have been the scene of the crossing of the Israelites, under
Muses, and it was here that the host of Pharaoh perished
through the sudden springing up of a south-westerly gale.
From the Bitter Lakes to Suez the canal has continuous
hard banks. At Chalouf the cutting is carried through
sandstone ; after that to Madama it passes through sandhills,
and increases in width ; at Madama the banks are of marl
and clay; aud thence to the Suez enttauce it runs agaiu
through sandhills, the tidal influence in the southern portion
of the canal extending from Suez to about four miles north of
the southern end of the Bitter Lakes.
For some reason, said to have been political, M, de Lesaeps
did not bring his Canal through the ancient channel, and
past the old town of Suez; but when about five miles off he
turned it eastward, avoiding altogether the head of the gulf,
through which the direct course would seem to have led, and
formed for it a port of its own, named Port Tewfik, about two
miles from the town of Suez itself, at the end of the fresh-
water canal, surrounded by land as yet only partially re-
claimed from the sea.
The working of the Canal is conducted upon a modification
of the block system, and an ingenious but simple contrivance
invented by M. Chartrey de Menotreus, the director of the
transit department at Suez, is used for this purpose. At Port
Said, Ismailia, and Suez, are principal offices of the Company,
and at each of these offices a narniw trough about fifteen feet
long represents the particular section of the canal worked
from that office. Above the model of the canal is a shelf
containing a number of small model ships, each bearing a
SfOtCHJUn- SERVICE
op paMn the office to e»t«T Out
«BB «f the ^ndl Btod«ls is placed in i
ilM ia tfas hbU eatul ; and when a iliip
t r«preseDted that ship a
VL As the news b twreived
• ifaip h&B passed sncb m
A* aaifl Model b moved on to correspcoid,
psrtieslair yar^, or sidiitg,
An^ in cvder to allow vessels going
Thus the exact position,
«f ererr ship in the Canal ts knowB
tdefnaphio messages relating to
sent np and down the OauL
and ixinstant tnffic thronglt
in the moet methodical and
At mA flf tka Btrtion^ fir fcrw, thefe are ngnal-pottib
ftOB lAiek ih^ an direoted lo *'go into the siding," or
*gD iato ^ eaaal.* m Mtf fae reqnind; a ftiU code of Uhn
finals W daT and si^fat bein^ applied to all ships br tbe
Canal aathirities. Vessels pr>Tided with the necessary
•Keetrio Ugfat "projector" thnwiag a light 1300 ywda
•lie»d, an pennitted to nangate tlie CSanal by ni^t, and at
the pnamt time neariy as rnneh tiafiBo goes on by ni^t
m by day. To anist the navigation by ni^t the winJe
length of the Canal ia lifted with gas-booys, filled with
oonpTOeBed gas, «hidi ia kept alwaya bnniing. Bi 1880, the
average time oocnpied by a veaeel in f»i"g tbion^ the
Canal was 55 hoorsL This was radnced by 1885, to 43 bonn,
and it has since bem gradually still fnrthn reduced, until
at tbe pieaent time 18 bonis is aboat tbe osiial time occoped
in the transit.
At the opening of the Canal in 1869, and for needy thne
ye»rs Bnbeeqnently, tbe Canal does were levied at the nte of
10 francs a ton (Uie iMTimnm tariff under the oonoeantm) oo
tbe roistered set tonnage of steamers. Aboat the middle
of 1872, the Board of the Company determined to levy the
same toll, not on the net, bnt cm the groea ttmnage of sll
; and this the^ ^^KKeodad forthwith to do,
■ TOTAL COST OF THE CANAL
thereby an alteration in their charges which amounted to
something like forty or fifty per cent, beyond the dues pr&-
Tiously paid by shipping.
The consequence of this change was a very serious com-
motion, and appeals were made right and left by shipowners
to Her Majesty's Government to protect British interests.
The result of this agitation against the action of M. de
LeseepB and his colleagues, was the appointment by the
Ottoman Porte, of an International Commission to determine
the basis upon which the dues should be levied. After much
deliberation the Commission recommended the adoption of
the net tonnage scale of charge, but gave a surtax of 3
francs, thus raising the tariff to 13 francs a ton, the surtax
to be subject to reduction as the traffic increased.
As the charge then being made by the Canal Company
rather exceeded 15 francs a ton, M. de Lesseps protested
against this decision, and positively refused to allow it to
be carried into effect, A display of force, however, being
threatened by the Egyptian Government, the Canal Company
accepted the inevitable, and with great reluctance proceeded
to put the new tariff into operation. Since that time the
Canal dues have been gradually still further reduced, and
the present rate is 9 francs per register ton for the vessel,
and 10 francs additional for every passenger above 12 years
of age, and 5 francs fur each passenger under 12 years of age ;
so that such a steamer, as for instance the F. and 0. steamer
Himalaya, with a couple of hundred adult passengers on board,
would pay from thirteen to fourteen hundred pounds for passing
through the Canal.
The total cost of constructing the Canal has been, from first
to last, rather over twenty millions sterling. The original share
capital of the Company amounted to £8,000,000 in 400,000
shares of 500 francs. The borrowed capital amounted to
another eight millions, and the amount of the indemnity paid
by the Egyptian Government in accordance with the award
of the Emperor of the French, in 1864, for the relinquishing
by the Company of certain privileges under the original
concession, amounted to £3,360,000 more, all of which has
been expended in the work.
' ^ THE BRITISH MBRCHAKT SERVICE
' " Dmli^ the time of the construction of the Cuul the
■hareholdora received dividends ec^uivaleQt to 5 pet cent., of
OOurse paid out of capital; but these payments were to cose,
and did cease, when the works were completed, and the Canal
opened for traffic. Fur the first three years after the opening,
/' the earning of the Oaual nere not such as to admit of anj
■ dividend at all ; but in 1874, a dividend at the rate of ^5
franca per 500 franc share was paid out of earnings, and
aince that time the amount of dividend has steadily increased.
In 187tJ, it was 28 fr. 55 c. ; in 1878, it was 31 fr. i3 o. ; in
1880, 46 fir. 88 c; in 1882, 81 £r. 22 c; in 1884, 88 fr.
25 c ; and so it has goue on increasiog. The receipts for
the year 1893 were £2,826,692; fortheyear 1894,£2,9ol,072;
* and for the year 1895, £3,124,148; and so on.
The English Qovernment, under the administration of Lord
Palmerstou, had always shown itself exceedingly hostile to
, the Canal, Lord Beaconsfield adopted a more enlightened
policy, and, taking advantage of the improvidence of the
Khedive, Ismail Facha, in 1875, secured for England the
Bhaies, to the yalue of £4,000,000, that had belonged to
the Egyptian Gk>vemment. These shares are now wwth
£22,627,000 ; thus, besides making an extremely good invaet-
ment, Lord Beaoonsfleld secored for this country a la^^e voioe
in the management of the Canal — a pcnnt in every respect most
advisable when it is considered that the Canal is now oar
high road to India, and that 80 per cent of the t(«inage
passing through the Canal sails onder the English flag.
The actual amount of tonnage passing throogh the Canal
has been as follows, viz. : —
436,609 toM
Sovbcrof*.
2,009,984 „
3,067,421 „
6,335,753 „
6,783,187 „
3,&
7,659,068 „
3«1
8,039,175 „
!V»2
8,448,383 „
3,«4
The whole of the British steam traffic with the East is
now conducted vi& the Sues Oanal. 8(eam has been «nployed,
it is true by the Cape *, but it has never be«i ranonemtive,
Sii»Cu>L
Cp.otO«tlH,.p..
Uia Cui»U
don to BombBy ...
. 6,274 ..
... 10,719 ...
... 4,445
„ Calcutta ...
. 7,974 „
... 11,006 ...
.. 3,632
„ Hong Kong
. 9,730 ..
... 13,149 ...
.. 3,419
;: Itai
. 10,466 ,.
.., 13,805 ...
... 3,339
. 11,651 ..
... 14,497 ...
.,, 2,846
■ THE OFFICIAL REGULATIONS 315
because the distances between the coaling stations were
such as to make it necessajy for steamers to carry coal with
them, almost to the exclusion of cargo. The Capo route is,
therefore, essentially the sailing xoute, tho Caual the steam.
The distances, lq nautical miles, from Loudon to the
I^incipal porta in India, China, and Japan, respectively, by
ike Cape route and via the Canal, with the saving effected
l>y the latter route, are thus : —
By a convention, signed on October 29, 1888, the Suez
Canal was exempted from blockade, and vessels of all nations,
whether armed or not, are to be allowed to pass through it,
both in peace and war.
I" CompagnU Umveridle du Canal MarUim* de Suez.
" The trariBit tJirougti the 8uez Cnnol is open lo ships of oil nationalities,
.|nvided that their draught of water doea not exceed sevoa mStree nnd eighty
MntimltreB (25 ft. 7 ins. English), and that tiiej conform to the following
mtditians : —
" Sailing veasels abovo 50 tons are boand to be towed through.
" Steam- veHsela may posa through the caual by means of their own sLeam-
poner, or may be towed, subject lo the conditions hcruinafter notilied.
"Of course the towage of steamers through the C^inal ia not compulsory
on tbe Company ; it will only be performed in so fnr as they Imvo disengaged
tugs.
" The maximnm speed of all ships passing tbroogh tlie Canal ia fixed at
teo (10) IdtomStres, equal to 5^ nautical miles, per hour.
" Every vesael of more than 100 tons gross must take on board a pilot of
the Company, who will ftimish all particu.lar8 as to the course to be ateered.
" Tlie captain ta held res)x>nBible for all grouudinga and accidents of what-
soever kind, rcflulting from the monagemeot and manteuvring of his ship by
day or by night.
" PiJota place at the disposal of captaimi of vessels their experience and
jiructicol knowledge of the Canal ; but as tlicy cannot be specially aoquainled
with the defectB, or the pecaliaritlos of eacli steamer and her machinery, in
etof^iDg, Hteering, etc, the responsibility a.s regardtt the management of the
ship, devolves solely upon the oaptaio.
J
3i6 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
'* When a ship intending to proceed throngh the Canal shall haye dropped
anchor either at Port Said or Port Tewfik, the following written infonattioD
most he handed in hy the Captain : —
" Name and nationality of the ship, to he identified hy exhihitiiig tbe
ship's papers relating thereto.
" Name of the captain.
'^ Names of the owners and charterers.
" Port of sailing.
" Port of destination.
" Draught of water.
*' Namher of paasengen, as shown hy the pasMnger list.
** Statement of crew, as shown hy the mnster roll and its scheduke.
" Capacity of the ship, according to the legal measorement ascertained
hy producing the special Canal certificate, or the ship's offidil
papers estahlished in conformity with the Boles of the IntematioDal
Tonnage Commission assemhled at Constantinople in 1873.
'^ The Company determine the hour of departure of each ship, and her
snheeqnent stoppages at sidings, m sudi manner as to give fuU security for
the navigation, as well as to ensure as much as poasihle the rapid passage of
mail steamers.
'* Therefore no ship can demand as a right an immediate passage through
the Canal, neither wOl any claim he admitted in connection with any delay
originating from the foregoing causes.
"Mail steamers, viz. steamers performing a regular mail service under
contract with Govenimont, at fixed dates appointed in advance, and having
been duly vouched for as such, shall carry at the foremast head a blue signal
with the letter P * cut out in blank in the centre.
*' Until further orderK, navigation by night-time, by means of the electric
light, is authorized for steamers, under the following conilitions : —
'* Steamers intending to go through the Canal at night must first satisfy
tlie agents of the Company in Port Said, or Port Tewfik, that they
are provided —
*' 1st, Forward, with an electric * projector * throwing a light 1200
metres ahead. This projector must be placed as near as possible
to the water-line ;
" 2nd, With an electric lamp and shade suspended above the upper
deck, and powerful enough to light up a circular area of about 200
metres diameter.
" Navigation by night-time for steamers unprovided with electric light is
only authorized under exceptional circumstances, the captain accepting full
responsibility in writing, for any delay, mishap, and damages that might
happen to his own ship, as well as for any similar accidents he might cause
to other ships in transit, or to the Company's craft and plant happening to be
in the Canal
*' Navigation by night is entirely forbidden to sailing-ships and boats.
**The net tonnage resulting from the system of measurement laid down by
* Poste.
SUEZ CANAL RATES 317
the International Ck>inmi88ion of Constantinople, and inscribed on the special
certificates issued by the competent anthorities, or on the ship^s official
papers, is the basis for levying the special navigation due, which is at present
nine francs (9 fr.).*
^ Until farther orders, ships in ballast will be allowed a reduction of 2
francs 50 centimes per ton on the tariff for transit
'' The charge of ten francs (10 fr.) per passenger above twelve years of
age, or of five francs (5 fr.) per passenger from three to twelve years old, as
well as the transit dues, must be prepaid on entering the Canal at Port Said,
or Port Tewfik.
<* The chaiges for towage in the Canal by the Company's tug service, are
fixed as follows : —
^ For sailing-vesselB of 400 tons and under, 1200 francs ; for sailing-
vessels above 400 tons, 1200 francs for the first 400 tons, and 2 fr.
50 centimes for eveiy ton above that amount
" For steamers measuring above 400 tons, 2 francs per ton, without
any distinction, upon their whole tonnage ; but on the condition
that they use their propelling power, or keep it in readiness for
assisting the tug.
^ Steamers under 400 tons, and also steamers not intending to give
the assistance of their propelling power, will pay the same as sailing-
vessels.
" {Signed) Febdikand de Lesseps,
" Fresident'Director,
«* Paris, September 6, 1882."
* Thus the toll for passing through the Canal is 7s. 2d, per ton, with an
additional charge of ten francs a passenger ; so that a two-thousand-ton
steamer, with a hundred passengers on board, would pay rather over £750.
THE BRITISH MERCUAWT SERVICE
CHAPTKB XXV.
IJlfUkomm Anriwil ^bHwawi Tlw CokMw of Rhode*— Tl;e rham
«( flhiMiAli ITwii nsm at Dora — At Bcmlc^ne — ^Thc Tour An
Cotdoan— Bod IJHIilliiw flir EddpAooe — The Beli Rcvk— Tht
Skuiyrim TV UgbtbooM on Ika Wolf Rock— Force of the warts at
:, «x{M«ed lighHiiwnf Thfi Biibop Bock, Sdlly — ^TOe lightfaousee— The
-.' Haplb— Sbore KgbtboMW— Tbe North ForeUnd— Coal 6ree.
Jjrr Bccoont of the Mercantile Marine of England would be
■ iBBDinplete iritbont some reference to the means taken to
Ul^t oar coasts, and a short description of the lighthonse, and
ue lightship, whose friendly rays iram the passing mariner
of penl, or guide him on his way, cannot fail to be of mtenat
But little is known of the lighthoosee of • remote antiquity,
the probability being that, with possibly a rery few excep-
tions, before the Christian era no Ughthon8es existed. At
all events, of two only bare we any particnlars at all, and
of these two our knowledge is extremely meagre. Three
fanndred years before Christ, Chares, the disciple of Lysi^Ms,
constructed the celebrated brazen statue known as the CoIosbu
of Rhodes, which stood at the entrance of the harbour. Its
height seems to hare exceeded a hundred feet, and it is said
to bare borne a light ; but whether it could be considered as
in any sense a lighthouse, would seem to be extremely
problematical.
Bather more, however, is known of the celebrated Pharos of
Alexandria, which was regarded by the ancients as one of the
wonders of the world. It was built by Ptolemy Pbiladelphus,
about 300 B.C., and it is recorded by Strabo that the architect,
Soetratus, baring first cut his own name on the solid walls of
the building, covered the inscription over with plaster, and
then, in obedience to the comi&KiA <£ 'CV)Vi3fi.-j, cuued the
ANCIENT LIGHTHOUSES
fbllowitig inscription to be made on the pluater: "King
Ptolemy to the Gods, the Saviours, for the henefit of sailors."
If this were so, it would seem to point clearly to the desti-
nation of the tower, which is said to have been square on
plan, consisting of many stories, diminishing upwards; and
whose height has been given as five hundred feet. This latter
statement, however, is open to great doubts, but the name of
the building, taken from the island of Pharos, upon which it
was boilt, has ever since been applied to buildings designed for
lighthouse purposes.* A fire is eaid to have been kept
perpetually burning upon the summit of the tower; and
Josephus records that the light of this fire was visible to
seamen from a distance of thirty miles.
Upon the heights at Dover are the remains of a building
sometimes known as Ctesar's Tower. It stands within the
precincts of the Castle, adjoining the ancient church, and is
octagonal in shape, the walls being constructed of flint and
stone, with occasional courses of Roman tiles. The present
upper story is of more recent date than the rest, but the lower
and original part was undoubtedly built prior to the year
53 A.D., and it is still known as the "Pharos." Upon the
opposite coast, at Boulogne, the foundations still remain,
in Roman brickwork, of the ancient Tour d'Odre, said to have
been built by Caligula. Both this tower and the tower at
Dover are conjectured, with a large amount of certainty, to
have been erected as lighthouses, and the Tour d'Odre is
believed to have been the earliest lighthouse in northern
waters. It is said to have been of octagonal form, twenty-five
feet in breadth, and, like the Pharos of Alexandria, to have
possessed several stories, diminishing upwards, whilst upon
the top a fire is said to have been kindled every evening at
stmset, to serve as a beacon for the guidance of mariners.
Pennant describes the remains of another Roman pharos
near Holywell, in Flintshire ; and there are the remains of two
others, one at Flamborough Head and the other on St.
Catherine's down, at the southern extremity of the Isle of
Wight
After the termination of the Roman occupation of Britain,
• Aa, for einniplo, in hphare, tbo Frenck for Ughlhousa-, ^WtoV'i^'j , &t.
{
I
) THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
^1 through the Uuldle Ages, the coasts, cerUinly of tha
ooantry, and most probably of all other cmmtiles, were left in
darknofls daring the long hours at tJie night ; the first light-
faoose of more modem days being the Tunr de Cocdoaa. whid
it* Rituate at the mouth of the river Ginnde, and which still
aenes as a guide to the shipping of Bordeaux. This light-
bouse was b^gun in the year 1584, but was not completed nnbl
1610, at the close of the reign of Uenri IV.. the building,
which was a haudsome strncture, being 197 feel in IwighL
The light, as Srst shown, was obtained by burning biUeta d
oak in an iron brazier on *■— ' — id the tower ; and the fiirt
improvement 4 wa station r>f a «jal fiie tor tbe
wood. Lat« inv i of melal was placed am
I flie, in vm mj tb fa of light downwaida, bat
ihont mx i), M. Lenoir was emplt^
'' I nbstitute 1 lamps and reflectors, whidi,
their tt laced by the more moditn
ptric a
One of at iuglish lighthouses, and ooa
of the oluoci., •■, iii^ Ejadyaioue, erected on a reef of nxi»
about nine miles and a half from Ram Head, on the Comtjli
coast. The Eddy stone rocks were extremely dangerous,
lying, 08 they do, in the fair ivay of vessels, and porticulaiSy
of vesaels going into or coming out of Plymouth ; and what
rendered these rocks the more dangerous was the faot that
deep water — thirty and thirty-one fathoms — is found right up
to the reef itself. In consequence, then, of the many wteok*
that had occurred on these rocks, it was determined, towarda
the close of the seventeenth century, to erect a lighthouse un
the Eddystone, and in 1696, a wooden tower was commenped
by a Mr. Winstanley, and in November, 1698, the light nas
exhibited for the first time. The design of the tower, althoug;h
picturesque, was totally unfitted for a situation so exposed as the
Eddystone, and it was soon found that the heavy seas that
came rolling in from the Altantic under a westerly gale, were
very much more formidable than had been anticipated, the
* This liglitbouBO at the ptcsent day shows a Gsed dio])tric li^t, sbowiog
a lirigbt light over a, certain ate, visible 21 milea; rod over snother arc,
viflible 17 miles ; and green over a third arc, visible 16 mileif.
I
lantern, which was sixty feet above the rock, being at such
times entirely overwhelmed with the sea and spray. Mr.
Winstantey, therefore, set to work to strengthen the structure,
and to raise it to a height of 120 feet. In November, 1703,
some farther repairs being needed, Mr. Winstanley, accom-
panied by his workmen, went to the lighthouse to carry them
out, but on the night of the 26th of November a furious storm
raged in the Channel, and on the following morning not a
vestige of the lighthouse remained, — Mr. Winstanley, his
work-people, and the lightkeepei-a having all perished.
The want of a light on the Eddystone soon made itself
again felt in the total loss of the TVinckeUea, man-of-war, with
the greater part of her crew, in 1704. Two years, however,
elapsed after this event before the Trinity House could obtain
a new Act of Parliament to so extend their powers as to enable
them to commence the construction of another building, and,
it was not until July, 1706, that the new lighthouse was
begun, under the direction of Mr. John Rudyard. Unlike
Winstanley's tower, it possessed no architectural embellish-
ments whatever ; but was a solid, sensible, and business-like
structure. It, like Winatanley's lighthouse, was built of wood,
and was circular from the base to the lantern, which was placed
at a height of 92 feet above the rock, the diameter of the
tower being 23 feet at the base. On the 28th of July, 1708,
the new light was shown for the first time, and it continued
to be regularly exhibited until the year 1755, when, after
standing for forty-seven years, the whole fabric was destroyed
by fire ; otherwise there is no reason why it should not have
I stood for a very much longer period.
So valuable had a light upon the Eddystone proved to have
been that it was determined at once to rebuild the lighthouse,
and Mr. Smeaton was entrusted vnth the work. On the 5th
of April, 1756, he first landed on the rock, and the preliminary
works were commenced. The first stone was laid on the 12th
of June, 1757, and the building wa,s completed in August, 1759.
In order to secure the solidity of his structure, Smeaton dove-
tailed the lower courses of the stone of which the lighthouse
was built into the live rock itself; and then the stones of each
succeeding course were dove-tailed, not only into the adjacent
322 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
stoDOs on either side, but also into the atones above and beluw
them, 80 that the whole tower vaa almost as though it lud
heeu constructed out of one solid block.
The masonry was 7ti feet 6 inches, and the top of the lantetit
93 feet, above the foundation, and consequently the hgl
was over 100 feet from the water. The tower was 26 feet in
diameter at the level of the first entire course, and 15 feel
just under the cornice. Although the lighthouse was Carrie!
up to so great a height, yet during severe storms green wiler
and spray would fly right over the top of the lantern. Tbe
light was first exhibited on the 16th of October, 1759, the
lanterD being then lighted with a chandelier of twenty-four
wax candles, five of which candles weighed two pounds; int
in 1807, when, upon the expiry of a long lease, (b[
property of this lighthouse again came into tbe hands of tlic
Trinity House, oil lamps with argand burners, fitted witb
paralK>]ic reflectors of silvered copper, were substituted for tLe
original chandelier of cam lies.
This lighthouse, which has always been considered as one
of the finest examples of engineering skill of modern tiroes,
stood uninjured through every storm for more than a
hundred years ; and would probably have stood for a hnndrfil
more, had not the roirk itself upon which it waa built,
become gradually undermined by the sea, thus threatening
the destruction of the building. Smeaton'a lighthouse ha-",
in consequence, been recently taken down and rephtced by
a new one in many respects the counterpart of its predecessor,
but of greater height, whilst the lighting arrangements have
been brought up to the requirements of modern times. The
new Eddystone, instead of the old fixed light, is now fitted
with a powerful dioptric apparatus showing two quick flashes
every half-minute, visible for 17 miles ; whilst, from a chamber
at a lower level in the lighthouse, a fixed bright light is
shown over Hand Dee[)S.
The new Eddystone lighthouse, like the old one, is built
of grey granite; but many lighthouses are, at the present
time, painted in various colours in order to render them the
more conspicuous, and to distinguish one lighthouse from
unother, A lighthouse V»\\\\\. cS ^Uivus, <Tom the natural
1
THE BBLL ROCK 33?
effects of the weather, booh begins to look grey, and, if on a
rocky coast, is not easily seen ; and as lighthouses, besides their
use at night, are laigely used as marks by day, anything that
tends to render them the more conspicuous is of valne ; the
colour of the background against which the lighthouse is
usually seen being taken into consideration in determining
the particalar mode of painting to be adopted.
Another very famous British lighthouse is that erected on
the Bell Rock, oflf the coast of Fifeahire. This rock had
always been a source of much danger to mariners, so that
at last the Abbots of Aberlrothiek, from whose abbey it was
distant some twelve miles, caused a float to be moored there,
can7ing a bell, from whence came the name of the Bell
Kock, so celebrated in poetry and in legend.
Among the many bad wrecks that have occurred on the Bell
Rock, one of the most disastrous was the total loss of the F(y>-k,
74-gun Une-of-battle ship, with the whole of her crew ; part
of the wreck being afterwards found on the rock, while frag-
ments strewed the adjacent coasts. This terrible calamity
induced a certain Captain Brodie, R.N., to set ou foot a small
subscription, by means of which he erected a wooden beacon
OD the rock; hut his beacnn was soon carried away by the
sea. He again collected money, and placed a second beacon
there, only, however, almost immediately to share the fate
of its predecessor.
In 1802, the Commissioners of Northern Lights determined
upon the erection of a lighthouse on the rock, as it was
extremely dangerous to shipping making the Firth of Forth
or the Firth of Tay, and the more so as at spring-tides
it was covered to a depth of two fathoms. They therefore
applied to Parliament for the necessary [wwers, and iu 1806,
obtained an Act authorizing the erection of the light. Various
ingenious plans were suggested for overcoming the serious
difflcalties attending the erection uf a lighthouse on an
isolated rock twelve miles out at sea, and particularly on a
rock that was covered twice a day with twelve feet of water.
After much consideration the designs of Mr, Robert
Stevenson, the Engineer to the Lighthouse Board, after being
submitted to Mr., afterwanls Sir, John Renme, we^ft aXVea.^'Oa
1
r
I k tower of masonry
On the 17tti
rf t %iH. Mlg.O>iUMi» iMi I tfce »wfc. lid the fim
fline MB Wi «B *e Mhfc of Jidr. 1606: bat lie e^ie«M«l
^n ^Btf Mh^bM at fint fi«M th* Aort tinte dtnins whidi
Ik ■» «BM dUe «• mak id Oe n«^ en tfaoae dajs wkn
ttay ««M wok ^ ait «Utal m muv days nothing w)>■^
«Mr «hN W Abb. Xff^ cam caeuvat Sterenaoo and Lu
wndqaiflt, ttk^— t iMOBBt IB bD, w«ce T«7 bmtIt
^tawaad, At tile ^v™? iubb bmIi wob xqadlj than ami,
^Adr«aBAMlhHlWnBg.fcy«awnMik>, got adrift.
1^ OBfcdbw mfc. IBM^ Ab »trtB rfAe fBaaonr; vas coni-
llrtad, Ml tkc B^ «M fcH ^OiiBd frara the BeQ Bork
ruhaimm a Aa a$^ <f the Id «tf FebmaiT, 1811.* Tie
IBW it NO tMt B MgH. tt fcet IB diaiB«t(>r at the a-
M^K hBae, nd IS fart m ^HBeler Bt the t«ii>. lite mtnnw
4hk wUek H fkeed 90 faol uf frcai the base, is appiuBcltd
kfmwlmmfmffKimiiB,^t« tovn faetweui the door and tbe
welt W>f rf f*"! iBBsooTx. The total cost <A etwtiun wk
£61^1 9t. ^.
Aaother twt re^eioted lighth(<ii9e is the Skenyrore, on i
wmt at ncka HiBig tvdve nBta to tbe soath-treet trf th« island
d Tbee, on the naalwa ocasi <rf SmitUnd. The ShemTtm H
a eoUectiiiD of tnJa extending for oearlv ei|!fal milee a ■
diiccticn iK^m \r£.W. to E.^^ It has been the srene cf
BoraenKU sbipoTe-chs. no let« than thirty ressels baling bt«B
lost on this one reef between the }re«js 1800, and 1844. At
Wt the erectioD at a ligbthonse upon these dangeroas rocb
was detennined upon, and Mr. Alan Stevenson was the engineer
■elected to cany tntt the aidnons task.
Tbe poctkiD of the reef that appeared to offer the best site
for the erectian of the ligfathosse was nearly three nu)«
distant from the main cluster of rocks, and was in a mtat
exposed Bitnation, open to bI) the forre of tbe tremendoK
waves of the Atlantic. Tbe rock itself which was selected
is oomposed of a very contpat-t gneiss, worn as smooth as glw
• The cliaracter of die light hasbeeti muehimpTOTnlof Ute TF«ra. Al4<
preBeut tiiii« tlie liglit ihowa &om ibe B«U Bock U k dioptric of Iba Gnt dM
rtToMug «iio« in a miniite, Auiwicf bii^t and r«d altenialelf, vniUa Ift talt.
■ THE ^KERRVVORE 325
by the constant aotiun of the sea, whilst at uidinary high water
the rock ia very nearly covered.
Nothing whatever could be dune upon the rocka except the
actual fixing of the stonea, so that everything needed for the
construetion of the lighthouse had to be brought as it was
wanted. Barraclis for the accommodation of the workmen
had to be built on the Island of Tiree, and alao on the Isle
of Mull, where the granite for the tower was quarried.
Operations commenced in the summer of 1838, and the first
thing that was done was the erection of a wooden staging
for the works, and a rough kind of wooden house for the
protection of the men when they were compelled through
stress of weather to remain at the rock. This was all completed
by the autumn, but on the 3rd of November, 1838, a terrific
gale carried the whole structure away, and in one night
obliterated the incessant work of several months.
As Boon, however, as the winter gales were over the work
was begun again, and this second wooden house braved the
storms for several years after the works were finished, when
it was taken down, and removed from the rock, lest its sudden
destruction in some atonn might injure the new lighthouse,
Mj. Stevenson, the engineer, thus graphically describes the
scene at the wooden house. He says —
■' Perched forty feet above the wavo-beaton rock, in this Bingiilac abode,
with ft goodly company of thirty men, I have spent many a. weary day and
night at lliose timca when the sea prevented any ono going down to the rock,
nnxionsly looking for Hujiplica from the shore, and eamoBtly longing for a
change of weather favourable to the recommenceraent of the works. For
miles Broand nothing could be Bean but white foaming breakors, and nothing
heard but howling winds and lashing waves. At such BeaBons much of our
time waa Bpent in bed, for there alone we had effectual abelUr from the
winds and spray, which searched every cranny in the walla of the barrack.
" Our slumbers, too, were at timeB fearfully interrupted by the sudden pour-
ing of the aea over the roof, the rocking of the liouae on its pillars, and the
apurtiog of the water through the aeams of the doors and wiodoivs — symptoms
wliich to one suddenly around from sound sleep recalled the appalling fate
of the former barrack, which had been engulfed in the foam not twenty yards
from our dwelling, and for a moment seemed to summon us to a similar fate.
On two occnsionB in particnlar, those aensotioas were so vivid as to cause
almost every one to spring ont of bed ; and some of the men fled from the
barrack by a temporary gangway to the more stable, but less comfortable,
elu^lteT afforded by the bare walls of tlio Kghtliouae tower, then unfinished,
where they spent the remiinder of the night in darkne^i, wet, and cold."
326 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
The design of the Skerryrore is an adaptation of Smeaion's
Eddystone, to the peculiar situation and to the particular
circumstances of the case, at the Skerryrore Bocks. The
tower is 138 feet 6 inches in height, 42 feet in diameter at
the base, and 16 feet at the top. It contains a mass of
stonework of about 58,580 cubic feet, or more than double
that of the Bell Bock Lighthouse, and nearly fiye times that
contained in the Eddystone. The whole of the works were
successfully carried out, and the light was first shown in
1844, the entire cost of the Skerryrore Lighthouse being
£86,977 175. 7d. The light at the present time is a dioptric
of the second class, showing a reyolving bright light eyery
minute, visible 18 miles.
Another very fine, and a still more recent lighthouse, is that
on the Wolf Bock, off the Land's End, in Cornwall, erected
by the Trinity House in 1870, from the designs of Mr. Jamee
Douglass. In this lighthouse Smeaton's plan of dove-tailing
the adjacent stones was also adopted, each granite stone
being dove-tailed not only into its adjacent stones laterally,
but also into the stones immediately above and below it, so
that the whole when fitte<l together, and run in with hydraulic
cement, was literally one solid mass of masonry. A preliminary
survey of the site was made in 1861, and the foundation was
commenced in Mareli, 1862. In so exposed a situation as
the Wolf, entirely open, as it is, to the Atlantic, the works
could only bo (»arried on dnring the fine weather of the summer
months, so tlnit tlie lighthouse was not entirely completed
until July, 1861), the light being shown for the first time in
1870. It is a dioptric of the second class.
Another fine modern lighthouse, more recent still, is the j
Longships, erected in 1883, upon an isolated rock off the
Lands' End, tlie grey granite tower of which is 117 feet in
hei^^ht. From the lantern is shown a first-class dioptric
oc(ultin<r briglit liglit, visible 16 miles.
The I'orce of the waves that these isolated lighthouses have
to contend with is almost incredible. Mr. Stevenson coii-
strnctcd an ai)i)aratns that recorded automatically the force
of the waves that struck it, and this apparatus, fixed at the
Skorryvore llocks, gave, aa \\i^ t«5v\V\, o^ ftve summer months
in 1843, and siso in 1844, an average pressure of 611 llts. to
the square foot. The average result for six winter monthg in
the aame years was 2086 lbs., the greatest force registered
at the Skerryvore being on the 29th of March, 1845, during
a strfmg westerly gale, when a pressure of no less than
6083 lbs. to the square foot was recorded.
In the North Sea, at the Bell Eock, the greatest result
obtained was 3013 lbs. per square foot. This leaser force ia
aopoiinted for by the t-omparatively narrow space through
which the waves in the North Sea have to travel compared
with the broad expanse of the Atlantic. But even these
results, large aa they are, appear to be far less than that
found at the Bishop Rock Lighthouse, Scilly, which is probably
the most exposed lighthouse in the world. On the 30th of
January, 1860, during a heavy gale from the south-west, a
wave struck the tower, which shook it to its foundations,
and tore away the bell, weighing 3 cwt., from its support at
the top of the tower, more than 100 feet above the sea.
Lighthousea are, however, often required in situations
where the requisite solid foundation that a rock offers for
the construction of a stone tower does not exist, aa upon
certain sands and shoals, and here a screw-pile lighthouse
has been found to be entirely successful. Wrought-iron piles
about 6 inches in diameter, having a single turn of a screw
some 4 feet across at the bottom, are driven down into the
sand from 18 to 25 feet, and upon these piles the lighthouse
ia erected. One of the first of these iron-pile lighthouses
was that erected on the Maplin Sand at the entrance of the
Thames, in 1838, and which has stood there ever since.
There are nine screw-piles, one at each angle of an octagon,
and one in the centre, and on the top of these, about 20 feet
from the water, is the light-room, above which, again, is the
lantern, the light being 3ti feet above high-water mark. It
is an occulting red light every half minute, and ia visible
for 10 miles. There is another similar lighthouse at Mucking
Flat, and another at the Chapman Head, both in the Thames,
besides others at Queenatown, Belfast, and elsewhere ; indeed
they are now by no means uncommon, being particularly
snitable for the shallow waters of estuaries and the like
_ i
(
32S THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
— more 80, perhftps, than for exposed Hitustioua iu lie
ojieii sea.
Previous to the erection of the present noble granite tower
on the Bishop Roek, Scilly, one of these iron-pile lighthouse*
was attempted there. It was completml np to the bRse tt
the lantern, wlieii, in the conrse of a tempestuous night io
Jmiuary, 1850, the whole thing disappeared.
Of course, no such difficulty exists with the erection rf
lighthouses on the land as is the rase iu a lighthouse percbed
on a solitary rock at sea, and many of the earlier examples
of land lighthouses were simply ordinary houses with a lanteni
or some other appliance placed on the roof. A well-known
example of this was the North Foreland light, which vu
instituted during Charles I.'b reign to warn vessels of tbe
proximity of the dreaded Goodwin Sands. It was then an
ordinary half-timbered farmhouse with a glass lantern on the
roof, from which the light was displayed. This house «u
bamed down iu 1083, and soon after that the lower part of
the present tower was erected, upon the top of which vw
an iron grate for humiug coals. This coal fire, however, wis
far from satisfactory, for when there was a strong wind blow-
ing ou shore, and when, therefore, the light was most needed,
tbe coals were all black to seaward, whilst to leeward the
bars of the grate were almost melting. From the difGctdtf
thus experienced in keeping up a proper and uniform Baou
iu windy weather, in 1732, the top of the tower was corerfJ
iu with a sort of lantern with large sash windows, and the
coal fire was kept burn ing brightly by means of lirgt
bellows, wbich the lightkeepers blew throughont the night
This, again, was not found to be successful, the lauteni
was therefore removed, and the open fire restored to it«
original condition ; and this state of things went on until
1790, when the tower was raised to its present height of
70 feet, and lamps with reflectors were substituted for tbe
old coal fire.
These coal fires were nearly universal for lighthouse purpose
(luring the last century, and Smeaton reported favourably of
the one used at Spurn Point at the mouth of the Humbei.
alleging that it could be eeen thirty miles ofl'. This, no
COAL FIRES IN LIGHTHOUSES
Juubt, would sometimes be the case; at other times, doubt-
less, it would not be seen from five miles off. These coal
fires, even if they had been a good means of illumination,
which they were not, were, of course, never applicable to an
isolated rock lighthouse; no lighthouse of that description
being able to afford storage room for the quantity of coal
that woulil be required ; to say nothing of the difficulty that
would very frequently l>e experienced by vessels in getting
alongside with the requisite supplies. Coal fires, however, were
retained at many shore lighthonses until well into this century,
the Isle of Jlay Lighthouse, at the entrance of the Firth of
Forth, having a coal fire until 1810; the lighthouse at Flat
Holm, in the Bristol Channel, having also a coal fire until
1820; and that on St. Bee's Head, Cumberland, until 1823;
whilst at certain lighthouses abroad the coal fire was still in
use down to 1850.
Wherever it is equally efficacious, a shore lighthouse is
always very much to be preferred to an isolated rock light-
bouse, not only on account of its being in every way much
more accessible, but as the opportunity then exists for the
erection of all the numerous subsidiary buildings that are
required at a first-class lighthouse ; the engine-house in
connection with the electric light, the house for the fog-syren,
and very much better quarters for the men. As a typical
example of such a shore lighthouse, with all its accessory
buildings, w e give an illustration of the Lighthouse at
ist. Catherine's Point, at the back of the Isle of Wight. This
lighthouse, when viewed from seaward, is seen against a
background formed of grass, and trees, and all the verdure
of the Undercliff, and is therefore, with all its outbuildings,
painted a most dazzling white,
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
CHAPTER XXVI.
The means of fllumination — The catoptric au<] tlie dioptric sj-glems— Tim
catoptric flTBtem — Primitivo reflectors — Mora recent iioproTemena-
Fixed lights — Bevolviug lights— M, Ai^ustino Frenel — The diopi™
system — Tlie French lighte — Mr. Stevenson's improvement*— Tk
appamtUB — Tlio lenHM — Tbe lamp — EviJeiice as to tlic dioptric STSttm
giyen before the Royal CominUBion — Distances at which Kghts are viabh
— Experiments at the Sooth Foreland — Eloctric liKhts— Minorai oit-
Oaa — Boport of the Gummittae — Control of lights — Tlie Trinity Hous*—
Other bodies — Ligfatahipa — ^Their lights — Revolring ligbla— FU^ I
lighta — Tbe moorings of lightsliips — Casualties to lightships — Creir of *
ligbtshi|> — BeUtiw visibility of lights — Oonge and sirens— Besooo)-
Buoya — Bell btioys — Whistiing buoye — Qbh buoys— Coramuiiica to
betweeu lighlabips nnd the sliore — Light dues — The different rates— Tl»
present mode ot collection— Thorough reform needed,
Thbbe are two distinct systems emploved for the illotninatioD
of lighthouses and lightships, one of which is known as the
catoptric, or the reflector system, the other as the dioptric,
or the lens system. Every ordinary uncontrolled light gives
off its rays in every direction, forming a globe, in fact, of
which the wick is the centre, the rays of light being horizontal,
and from horizontal at all angles, both upwards and downwards,
to vertical. Now, for lighthouse purposes it is obvious that all
the vertical rays, whether tending upward ot downward, are
entirely lost and wasted, and it was early seen that to obtain
the full effect of a light, and to utilize these vertical rays
they must be bent into a horizontal direction. To effect this
purpose reflectors were adopted, and the earliest improvement
upon the then existing system of lighthouse illumination wae
the adoption of the catoptric or the reflector system, and tbe
earliest type of reflector was that applied to the Cordonan
light in 1727.
^
THE CATOl'TRIC SYSTEM
^
The means of illumination at this lighthouse, as weib the
ease at all early lighthouses, was an ordinary coal fire, and
for the purpose about two hundredweight of coals were ignited
at once, whilst over the fire waa placed a roof shaped like a
kind of hollow cupola. When M. Bitri, in 1727, waa employed
to remodel the lantern of this lighthouse, he removed this
cupola altogether, and substituted for it an inverted cone
whose apex projected downwards over the fire. The cone was
covered with bright tin plates, the object being by means of
these plates, or refleetors, to bend the rays which would
otherwise have gone upward and been lost, into a horizontal
direction, and thus materially to intensify the light; but
by what means M. Bitri proposed to keep the reflecting
plat«e free from soot, and from tarnishing by the smoke from
the fire beneath, is not. recorded.
Here, then, was the first rude element of the reflector system,
which was soon to be still further developed; and when the
coal fire was superaeded by lamps, this was effected by placing
a polished metal reflector behind the lamp. This polished
reflector was shaped to such a parabolic curve as would have
the elTect of throwing a large number of the rays of light
from the lamp all into a horizontal direction, and this system
of a lamp in front, with a parabolic reflector behind it, is
practically the catoptric system in use for lighthouses at the
present day.
Between 1763, and 1777, parabolic reflectors were first used
for lighthouse illumination by Mr, Hutchinson, dockmaster
of Liverpool. In his work on " Practical Seamanship," pub-
lished in 1777, he states that the Mersey lights were fitted
with reflectors formed of small facets of silvered glass, and
made, as he says, "as nearly as they can be to the parabolic
curve ; " and this is unquestionably the earliest published
notice of the use of parabolic reflectors for lighthouse illumi-
nation. Of these Mersey reflectors the smallest were three
feet in diameter, the largest twelve feet. The smallest were
made of tin plates soldered together; the largest were made
of wood covered with plates of looking-glass.
In 1786, the catoptric system was adopted in Scottish
lighthouses, the reflectors here being first moulded in plaster,
HE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
id afterwards filled in with facets of looking-glasa; Iwt
sy were not (.-onsidered hs very satisfai-torj', and tli(
imitive reflectors abfiiit tlie end of the last century give
BCd to reflectors of aiWer-pUted copper formed to the pan-
lie shape hy hand-hanuuering, barouhiug, and polishing ;
A the first Si'ottiah lighthouse to be fitted with these
morored reflectors was the iDchkeitb Lighthouse, is the
th of Forth.
ijp to 1782, the wicka of the lamps used were of a flat fOTin,
in that year M, Aigand, of Cienera, introdnoed wicks and
iiners of a hoUon which admitted a eenti^
Tent of air tliri so as to ignite the rone
gas issuing fn> within and without, theae
ving ever sine Argand" burners. Count
jnford afterwarus i and'a invention by making
reral concent: Jid in more recent times,
ce the iutroa <■ of paraffin for the lampCi
I number o( ooncai berai iutawued to five, tii,
ereD more.
The reflectors at present used by the Trinity House ioi
lighthouse purposes are known as Huddart's reflectors; they
are made of copper ailvered, those used for shore-lights being
21 inches in diameter, having a total reflecting surface of
518'6 inches, and costing £31 10s. each. Those used for the
Scottish lighthouses are 24 inches in diameter, and cost £43
each. Fitted with Argand burners an inch in diameter, their
power is equal to about 450 times that of the unassisted flame.
By the reflector system, where a fixed light has to be shown
all round the horizon, a number of lamps and reflectors are
placed round the outside of a stationary chandelier, twenty-
four or twenty-five being usually required, and by this me^ns
a number of beams of light of nearly uniform intensity are
Bent out. By arranging a number of the lamps and reflectors
on a frame having three or more sides, and each side )>eing
fitted with from one up to as many as ten reflectors, by
giving the frame a horizontal circular motion by machinery
a re.polmwi liijht is obtained. As the faces of the frame come
round a beam of light sweeps the horiaon, succeeded by im
interval of darkness, dopendio^ on the rate of revolntioiii
i
'
1 *
i. ,.
3
^ THE DIOPTRIC SYSTEM
notil the nest face, with its set of lamps ami reflet^tors, comes
into Tiew,
The brillianrj- of the rays issuing from the reflector is
stronger in the direction of the axis- — that is to say, when
viewed directly in front of the lamp — than it is when viewed
obliquely, and for this reason : when a ship is passing a fixed
catoptric light the brilliancy of the light will vary, it becoming
brighter when the ship gets into the direct line of the axis
of the reflector, and less bright as she passes out of that line,
becoming brighter again as she gets into the line of the next
lamp, and so on. This, however, is not altogether a disad-
vantage, as it enables the sailor to distinguish the light from
a dioptric light, which is equally brilliant from whatever point
it is seen, and so in certain cases it enables him to distinguish
one fixed light from another; but in consequence of the
increasing power and brilliancy of ships' lights at the present
day, fixed lights for lighthouses are gradually being alto-
gether discarded in fftvOUl- of rev^ilving, or flashing lights,
both the latter being more readily identified than the ordinary
fixed lights.
Beginning about the year 1820, M. Augustine Fresnel, the
eminent French mathematician, entirely revolutionized the
previously existing lighthouse system by means of hia annular
lenses, cylindric refractors, and totally reflecting prisms. In
all lighthouses prior to 1822, the mode of getting up the
required power was by employing a sufficient number of
separate reflectors, each of which required its own separate
lamp — that is t(t say, the catoptric system. Instead, however,
nf these numerous independent lamps and reflectors, M. Fresnel
used a single central lamp which had four concentric wicka,
and was fed with oil by a pump worked by clockwork.
Surrounding this central lump was a stationary cylindrical
glass refractor, whilst above and below it were rings of totally
reflecting prisms, the lamp being thus enclosed, as it were, in
a kind of glass cage, aud this beautiful instrument continues
in use for dioptric lights to the present day.
The number of lighthouses on the French side of the
Channel previous to M. Fresnel's invention was very much
smaller than the number of lights on the Knglish side ; but
J
I
334 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
no sooner was the undoubted auoceaa of the new method
established than the French Guvemment determined opon
one grand iinirorm system of lighting the French coftstj,
and n|x)n adopting fur tbat purpose M. Fresnel's dioptric
apparatus.* The new mode of lighting osed in the Frenii
lighthouses soon attracted the attention of Mr. Robert
Stevenson, and in 1824, Mr, Steyenson waa comniissioDed
by the Si^ottish Lighthouse Board to visit the Tarioos Freoch
lighthouses where the new system, then known as " the Freucli
system," was in operation, and to report as to its efficiency.
Mr. Stevenson's report was considered so satisfactory that
the Board determined at once to make a trial of it at the Isle
of May light, in the Firth of Forth, and the light of the new
description was first shown in October, 1825.
Mr. Stevenson, in introducing the new dioptric system for
British lights, effected certain improvements upon what he
had seen in France. Owing to certain diQicuIties in con-
struction, M. Fresnel adopted a polygonal instead of a cyUn-
drical form for bis refractor, but Mr. Stevenson succeeded
in getting Messrs. Cookson, of Newcastle, to coostmct a first-
order refractor of a truly cyliudric form. In forming a refntcl-
ing instead of a reflecting instrument, to obtain a lens of such
magnitude as would be required out of one piece of glass
wouhl be hardly possible, and if it were possible, the necessary
thickness of the glass would greatly obstruct the light, and
the whole merit of M. Fresnel's iuvention, and Mr. Stevenson's
improvements upon it, consists in building up the glass refractor
of separate rings of glass. The light thus obtained is found
* Iloro it may inciduntally bu remarked that, as a whole, tho Freuch light- i
house HyBtcm ta distinctly Buperior to the British system. We have mtaf 1
ligljts on our Bide tliat are quite equal to any on the other side of the Chanad; I
but tlie whole of the French lighln are uaifomUy excellent ; and the n
their syBtem is particularly obvious in tlieii smaller, subsidiary lights, as, fo 1
instance, harbour h'gbta and the like. All lights, great end sntall, are in Fnnce
under the control of a department of tho Ministry of Public Worka, and a I
special commission called " I^ Commission dcs Phores," cooaistiog of osral
officers, marine engineers, bydrograpliers, members of scientific bodies, and
other gentlemen distinguished in various branches of science, deals viitii all
matters connected with the lights. As a consequence, besides the great and
important lighthouses, pier lights, harbour lights, tidal lights, and all the rest,
in France are exeollent.
)
*.
■■ THE DIOPTRIC APPARATUS
by experiment to be equal to that aflfordeil by uine common
refleetora ; and it is calculated that by a consumption of oil
equal to that of seventeen common Argand lumps with
reflectors, an effect is produced equal to that of thirty such
lamps and reflectors, or very nearly double the amount of light.
The oil-lamp commonly used for this system of illumination
has four couceiitric wicks of the respective diameters of 0"857,
1'39, 2'52, and 3'39 inches, and consumes a pint of oil an
hour, A first-order fixed dioptric apparatus is about (i feet
in diameter, and 12 feet high. It consists of the central
belt of refractors forming a hollow glass cylinder 6 feet in
diameter and 30 inches high ; below it are six triangular
rings of glass ranged in a cylindrical form, and above it a
crown of thirteen rings of glass, forming by their union a
hollow cage composeil of polished glass twelve feet high and
six feet across.
A first-order lenticular appjratug of this description, with
light-room and lantern, costs from £2000 to £3000, the cost
of the lenses alone being from £1300 to £1550. A sixth-
order, or smallest size of harbour lens light, is 11| inches
in diameter, and costs £70.
But ever since the introduction of the dioptric system, it
has been a moot point with many as to whether the
advantages are so greatly on its side as has been asserted,
and the question cannot be said to be absolutely determined
even at the present day. The matter was the subject of a
Royal Commission in 1860, and in the Ileport of the Com-
mission, issued in March, 1801, they say —
"It has beeu generally DBamned that the dioptric is preferable to Iha
catoptric ayHtom ; but while your CoamisaionerH do not controvert this
opinion, they liave concloaive evidence that many of the catoptric lights of
England are not only excellent in themselvea, hut exceed in efficiency the
dioptric lights on its shores. The first part of Queation 7, of CircnJar VIIL,
addressed to niarinors, runs thus : ' What British light have you neuaily seen
farthest off? ' Out of the 579 witnosaea who have anawcred tlus question, the
greatest dittanctt are mentioned with refurence to the ligltta at Lundy Island,
thti Calf of Man, Tuskar, Flamborough Head, Beachy Head, and Cromer;
and the grentest number of wituesacs mention Limdy Island, the Lizard,
FInmhorough Head, Beachy Head, the Start, and the South Staek, all of
wiiich are catoptric revolving lighta, with the exception of the Lizard, which
is catoptric fixed, and Lundy and tlie Start, which arc dioptric revolving."
ch d
TIIK BklTISIl MERCHANT SERVICE
The <)ifiUnce at whi<rh the principal lights are visiUe it
generally only limited by tlio horizon ; and many lights, if
only a mfScient elevation cotild be obtained from whena
to view them, ironld probably be visible for a hundred mile?.
or even more. During the work on the trigonometrical
survEiy of England, a Bode light on the top of Lincoln
Klingter was found to be distinctly visible from Snowdon,
whiL-h was over a range of a hnadred and dfty miles as Ibe
ciww flies. Obviously the higher the light the further will
it be seen; but there are certain disadvantages u tsr u
nautical purposes are concerned oonuected with its beinf.
plaoed at too great an altitude, as it is then apt to be ohecved
by low clouds and sea mists, and for this reason many
lightA that were formerly high up have been since bron^
down neater to the sea-level. Both the Needles light, and
the light at St. Catherine's Point, at the Houthem extremitf
of the Isle of Wight, were fotmerly on the tops of the dovu
some 500 feet above the sea; both now are brought doim,
the one to 80 feet, and the other to 134 feet above higb-wstor
ninrk, the vae at its present lower elevation being visible for
H miles, and the other fv>r 20 miles.
The oils used for lighthouse purposes have been of ^1
Icinda — lard, seal, spermaceti, rape or colza, olive, cocoannt,
and more rarely hemp-seed. Until recently colza oil was very
largely used, but now paraffin has almost entirely superseded
it, giving not only a more brilliant light, but having the
ad<Iitional advantage of being very much cheaper.
Of late years, since 1S87, the lanterns of the most modern
light- vessels have been lit with heavy mineral oil. with a flssb-
ing-iK.>int of about two hundred and thirty dearree;; Fnhrenbeit,
so that an explosion from spilt oil catised by the rolling of '
the lightship is not at all likely to occur, although there
might, perhaps, be some danger in the use of light mineni
oil flaahing as low aa one bandied and fifteen. The economy
eSTected by the use of paiaffln is indeed conrndenble. Until
about 1840, sperm oil was in ose, which cost from 6s. to 8s.
per gallon. Next, rape oil was adopted at Sit. Sii. per gallon,
and although the price of this oil nowadays has fallen as low
OS In. 8d. a gallon, yet w^iieu ^e ^mvr^ i&xnHnl oil can be
ly^
I
i
EXPERIMENTS AT THE SOUTH FORELAND 337
obtained for only ^yi. per gallon, tlie saving to be effected,
when one Ughttjliip lantern alone can oousume sis huadied
gallons in the course of a year, is well woithy of consideia-
tion.
Much difference of opinion has existed as to what was
really the best illuminant for lighthouaes, and during the
years 1884 and 1885, a number of experiments were con-
ducted by the Trinity House at the South Foreland, with
a view to testing the relative merits of electricity, gas, and
mineral oil, and in August, 1885, the Special Committee pre-
sented their Report to the Government, it being soon after
printed and circulated as a Parliamentary paper.
The experiments, which were conducted in three temporary
wooden towers, marked respectively A, B, and C, erected at
the South Foreland, coveted a wide area of contingencies
such as fine clear weather, hazy weather, fog, and dense fog ;
and the conclusions arrived at established the fact that in
the worst weather — that is, viewed from a lighthouse point
of view — namely, dense fog, all lights are equally useless
to navigators, the electric light being visible, perhaps, a few
hundred yards or so fnrther than either gas or oil, but not
more.
The Committee agreed —
" that tho electric light must take the first place in the rank of liglitliouae
iUuminaiite during clear weather, and tliat for firet-claas pomta of coast light-
ing nothing can he nioro desirahle, if expense bo no consideratioD. Its
range, dermition, and where a ilietinctive character is employed, as for group-
flashing, ita unmistakahlo supcriorit; to all other modes of iUumioation
betoken its excellence and pre-eminence. A curious result, howecer, elicited
by the experiments has established the lact that one electric light is equally
effective with twu or even Uirco electric lights superposed, whereas with the
gas or oil lights, the advantage of two or more soperpOBCd lighta ia an increaee
of power proportionate to tho number of lamps employed. The definition of
any area, witli the electric light, b so exact that at a moderate distance ii
man may, without changing his position, move his head so as to be in full
glare, or in perfect darkness, or in a red ray or a bright * ray, as the case
may bo,
"The mineral oil light in these trials fully justiGed tho conlideuce reposed
in it by the Trinity IIohso Authorities after many years' e.iporiencc, aa nt once
' By a bright light is racant a white or ardiaary light, in coDtradisUnotion
tu ii i&d light or a green light.
r
338 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
tho moat serviceitblo illnminftnt, the moet economical, the safest, aad tfat
eanogt for Btoroge, and a light tli&t m oqnoUy Avukble for tock, floWii^, '
L-0A8t light-etations. Tbe lamp in which tliis material is used hw been ,
perfected by Sir James Doiiglftss, the Engineer to the Trinity Hooee, u In 1
equal to the electric and gas lights in its opability of increase of power
adapt it to the vaiyiog atmonpheric eonditioDS. The Trinity House oil tu
possesses concentric ringtt of wicks, from three up to nine in nnmber, g>viii(&
high power of perfect combuBtion, upon which the briniancy of the V^
depends.
"The gas liyhl, as adopted by tlie IriBb Lighthouse Board
stations upon the coast of Ireland iiroved very satisfactory as to its hnffianqv
but the sysletn is open to cortnin oTijoctiona. The expense of '
continned production place it betvreen the electric light and oil in pinnt e(
cost Its employmeat is impracticable upon rock, or floating Btations:
n coast stations the very great heat emitted in the b'ght-rootn, ofteii
ing in the fractnro of tho lenses, and iuconvenieoce to the
materially restricts its use. Its offeclive power is quite equalled by tta
mineiol oil, at a much less cost, and with entire freedom from th« ol
above stated."
The Official Rejiort com-ludes thus : —
" Finally, your Committee beg thus to sum up their opuiion hk r^aid It
tho relative merits of electricity, gas. and oil as lighthouse Ulnmiiiaiits —
" I. Tliat the electric light, as exhibited in the A experimental tower •! te
South Foreland has proved to be the most powerful light under all
of weather, and to have the greatest jienetrative power in fog.
" 2. That for all practical purposea the gas light, as exemplified hj Xb
Wigham's multiform system in B experimeutal tower, and tbe oil lig^ H
exemplified by the Trinity House Douglass six-wick burners
arrangement up to triform in C experimental tower, when shown throo^
revolving lenses are equal, light for light, in all conditions of weather;
that the quadriform gas is a little better than tlic triform oiL
"3. Tliatwbenshownthroughfiied lenses, as arranged in the ex]
lowota, the superiority of the superposed gas light is unquestionaUa. ^i
larger diameter of the gas flames, and tbe lights being much nearer logelhC'
ill the gas-kntom, give the beam a more compact and intense appeUMMV
Ilian that issuing from tlie more widely separated oil-burners.
" 4. That Cor ligbthoutte illnmioation with gas, the Uouglaas patent
burners arc much more efficient tlisn the Wigham gBs-biiraera.
"b. That for the ordioary necessities of lighthouse illumina^on, mineral d8
is tho most suitable and eoonomical illuminant, and that for salient headlandl^
important landfalls, and places where a powerful light is required, electriotfi
offers tbe greatest advantages.
"Trinity House, London, August 7, 1885."
Where the electric light is adopted, in order to preTentI
at any time the poaaibUH'j oi a Wakdov.-n, everything is is I
Ik.
THE TRINITY HOUSE
duplicate — two steam-engines, two dynamos, and two sets of
lamps; whilst this also affords the opportunity, by using
simultaneously both seta of machinery, of duplicating the
power of the light in exceptional weather, although, according
to the above report, it would now appear that two electric
lights are no better than one.
In Great Britain there are many bodies having control of
the lighthouse system, but the first and the greatest body
exercising such control is the ancient Corporation of the
Trinity House, of Deptford Strond, which was originally
founded by Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury,
in the rejgn of King John. The custom of wrecking and
pillaging vessels had been carried to such a length that
Stephen Langton determined, if possible, to put a stop to it,
and he accordingly organized in London a Corporation of
"godlj disposed men who, for the actual suppression of evil disposed peraona
bringing ahipfl to deatrucUon by the sliewiag forth of false beacons, do bind
themselves together in tho love of our Lord Christ, in the name of tlie
Masters and Fellows of Trinity Guild, to succour from the dangers of the
sea all who are bosct npou tho coasts of England, to feed them when
ahungercd and athirst, to bind up their wounds, tuid to huild and light proper
beacons for the guidanc
This guild continued for many centuries, subsequent
sovereigns confirming its rights, and granting it additional
powers. The same guild was in existence in the reign of
Henry VIL as a "respectable Company of Mariners in the
College of Deptford," having authority to prosecute persons
who should destroy sea-marks, etc., and Henry VIII., in the
sixth year of his reign. May 20, 1514, continued their powers,
and formed them into a perpetual corporation by the style
and title of the " Master, Wardens, and Assistants of the
Gluild or Fraternity of the Most Glorious and Undivided
Trinity, and of St. Clement, in the Parish of Deptford Strond,
in the County of Kent."
This Charter was confirmed by Edward VI., Mary, Eliza-
beth, and James I. It was revoked by Oliver Cromwell in
1647, but was renewed by Charles II. on the Eestoration,
and 80 continues to this day. The interests which the Trinity
Corporation represented having, however, by the ^e&i
r
i
340 TilE BKITtSH MERCHAhT SERVICE
tm grown in ■obaaqveat yean into grett
1^ the Qartamaai imn at difinot times interfeted,
■ad hmm altated now of its pcirilegeB, notably in lS5i
■has Aa Board td Tnde partook at the snperyiston of tte
Ib Scodaibi the Ughts an under the oootrol of the Coa-
aurnkmen tt Nflctheni Ijghthnaana, who vere iucorporaud
hj Act of BadJaaMBt of the 38th George IIL c. 58 ; and ii
Ifldand the BaDaat Boaid of Dablin exerciBes this uontroL
Bendea these three greater bodieB nomeTous local autiiorilia
deal with loeal Ughta, •■ for laatance the Liverpool BoaH,
the Trinity Hoose of Newcastle, the Trinity House of EnH
and Tarioos monicipal bodies; altogether in Great Briuii
and Ireland th^e being no leas than 174 different antborititt
who diiecrt certain of the lights, with the result that muf
of onr smaller lights are ol a very inl'erior description, in I
some instances merely an ordinary gas light with a colonred J
pane of glass placed in front of it. The whole of thetffl
lesser anthoritiea, however, are to a large extent controUeil
by the Trinity House, iosomach that no municipal body,]
for instance, can place a new light, or alter the character d
an existing une, without first obtaining the sanction of tiu
Trinity House.
There are many places round the coast where a light '\i
exceedingly requisite, but where, for many reasons, the erectiua
of a stone, or even of an iron pile lighthouse, would be 1
difficult and therefore a costly operation, and here s lightship
has beeu found satisfactorily to meet the requirement. A
ligbtehip, however, can never equal a fixed lighthouse, iron
the fact that its floating character must always preclude tlW'
use of the more delicate apparatus always possible in a fira.
and solid stmcture ; and, moreover, a lightship is, apart fion
its first cost, a very much more expensive means of lUumiM-
tinn than a lighthouse. The average tirst cost of an Englifb
lightship is from £4000 to £6000, but even £12,0U0 would ndi
be considered an extravagant outlay for some of the mon
important lightships, whilst from £1500 to £2000 has been
epeut upon a fog-syren and its gear alone. Then, again, tb»
auiiiial cost of the mavBlenaiice cS. XVft Vu^^ab.v'j is from thne
OILUOT. \Tofaee itage MO.
i'
.«
•ft
LIGHTSHIPS 341
to four timeB that of the lighthouse. Three men are sufBcient
for e rock lighthouse— a lightship requires eleven men. The
annual cost of maintenance of a first-class lighthouse in
England is from £205 to £340 ; in Scotland, £380 ; and in
Ireland from £400 to £490. The annual cost of maintenance
for a lightship is in England from £1100 to £1200; and in
Ireland from £1200 to £1350.
Dutch vessels, the fishing schujft and the sturdy galliot,
have ever been celebrated for riding safely in foul weather,
and particularly for riding safely when at anchor; and it
was for this reason that in the last century Dutch galliots
were frequently purchased for conversion into lightships, and
even at the present day the lines of the most scientifically
designed light-vessels are still founded on those adopted by
the Dutch shipbuilders of two hundred years ago.
In the last century the Trinity House owned but five
light-vessels — the Not-e, the Dudgeon, the Oivers, the Nemirp,
and the Goodwin. At the present time this country possesses
in all sixty-two lightships, and Ireland eleven ; and out of
this number sixteen are placed around the mouth of the
Thames, and seven are in the estuary of the Mersey; the
oldest lightship on the British coasts, and probably the oldest
lightship in the world, being the Nore light at the entrance
of the Thames, a light-vessel having been first placed here
in 1732.
All the light-vessels belonging to the Trinity House are
painted a dull red, and have their names, as the Nore, the
(?«//, or the Mouse, painted in white letters on the side; on
the Irish coasts the lightships are painted black, with a white
ribbon. All light-vessels show a bright riding-light on the
fore-stay at a height of six feet above the rail, to show the
direction in which they are riding.
In spite, however, of the fact that some of the modes of
illumiBation that are adopted in the fixed lighthouse ashore,
cannot be made available in the case of the light-vessel afloat,
yet every means is taken to render the light-vessels thoroughly
efficient, and out of the seventy-three lightships around the
coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, sixty show either revolving
or flashing lights. The reflector system is invariably adopted
. -ilT. nniTTKH WERCHAJ.T SEKVTCt
,-$• s the parabolic reflectoni being simibr to those in
ae lighttiouHes, but iwialler, being only 12 inches in dianteto.
ir fixed lightsi eight lampa and refluctora we genenllv nswl,
le lamp t>c<iuj)yiiig eanh angle of the oct«gon-«haped luitern;
r revolving lights, the immber of lamps varies from femi tu
ght, the lamps buiug ail hung uti gimbals to ensore iheii
irtwrving a vertical jMwitioii 'luring the rolling of the vessel
occulting lights, instead of the lantern itself revolving, a
tds or " eolipoer " is pasteil in front of the lamps. In the cwse
>t an ordinary revolving light, when viewed from a distance, <
ft light 1 ""« faintw infl^woitin- in brilliancy until U '
«ch«8 its t. gradually decliniug. TbM I
fises from m of tJie lamps alluwiog
I light to ba actual line of axis cf the
;lit is preae; la the caM of occulting
hts, where thade, is suddenly paswd
ron the lampa i is sliuwu instantaneously,
d as intitantanei>ti )d. The flickering of the
ht when seen froi 'aused by the int«rpoaiti(n
».i wiivon, is perhaps more apinm^. n the ctiae of s light-teasel
than ill timt of a lighthuuse, the light shown by the former
l-eiii^: ln«t'r lii'wii to the level of the water than is the ca^e
with the latter.
The value of electric lighting afloat has not M yet been
(Htni'lusively proved. The experiment reoentlj tried <»i the
lightship in the Mersey was anything bat soooeaaftiL It ia
held by many seamen of the old school that a "daatliog,
blinding " light is by no means desirable, while the dectric
flash-lights, or so-called "lightning lights," exhibited from
one of the towera on Cape La H^ve, are open to many objections.
The lighting apparatus is four-sided, and the intensity of the
beam ia stated to exceed twenty millions of candles, each flash
lasting only one-tenth of a second, and being repeated erer^
five seoonda. With this the main defects are — Gist, the
inequality in the intensity of the flashes when the largest
carbons are in use; secondly, the rapid decrease in the
intensity of the light aa the distance frcoa it increaeea;
thirdly, the cessation of the " lightning" effect at long ranges.
Our own St. Catherine's light, visible at twenty-three miles,
THE MOORINGS OF LIGHTSHIPS 343
nith its Rash of five seconds' duration, is possibly of far more
service to the tnariuer as a pickiiig-up light.
From the very nature of the case many light-vessels are
raixired in exceedingly perilous situations — situations which
in heavy weather, with the wind in a particular quarter, leave
them a dangerous sand immediately to leeward ; every pre-
caution has, therefore, to be taken with their moorings. In
the old days lightships were simply moored by hempen cables,
which only too often started during heavy gales. Now, even
the Nore is moured, in its three and three-quarter fathoms of
water, by one and a half inch diameter chain-cables tested to
a tensile strain of fifty-sii and a half tons, aud two thirty-two
hundredweight mushroom anchors. Once every year the
whole of the cables of all light-vessels have to be hauled up
on deck one at a time, the inner ends, clinches, and shackles
examined, and the tiers cleaned out, and then to be re-staved
and blacked as they are paid down again. The bower anchor
is always ready for letting go, and there is kept on deck
during unsettled weather, and in all weathers from October
to April, a range of the best bower cable suflicient to take
it to the ground.
It is a remarkable fact that lightships lying in very
exposed situations — as, for instance, that at the Seven Stones,
oft the Land's End, or the Saltees, off the coast of Wexford —
ride very much easier than those in shallow, though more
sheltered waters, as the Vami; the Galloper, aud the like.
This is owing to the amount of heavy cable that is out in
the case of the former lightshi[)s, acting as a spring, pre-
venting the vessel from pitching heavily while she crosses
the sea, whilst the short cables of the latter render such a
lightship in bad weather one of the most unpleasant situations
in the world. In shoal water, when the wind is strong, the
lightship will sometimes ride broadside to the tide and sea,
but where the swell is much larger, as in the open ocean, the
tides are not so strong, and the vessel rides more easily.
Still, however bad the weather, it is extremely unusual for
lightships to go adrift, although they do occasionally get
run down. The most serious of such accidents that have
happened of late years have been the running down of the
I
J« THE HKinSH mRCftAT!t SERVtCK
KmtitM KiuKi, the Tamfme, and tli« .Scm/A Sand SmJ light
of the Goodwins. Tbe fiist of these casualties occurred on
December 1, 1686, when an iron barque, the Satavin, bound
from Shields to Vdpaiaiso, ctmcb the Keniith Kncd- lightsbip
on the starboard bow, cutting her right tbroiigh, so that ?he
Bank in about three minutes, the wind being WJf.W., and
the weather perfectly' clear. The KaUuh Knock, siukicg
ooder tbe Sa!awin'i forefoot, the crew had barely time to save
their Uvea bj getting on board the colliding reseel, wbicli in
it! torn waa soon reported to be sinking. Furtnnatel;,
bowerer, the Draco, of Hnll, sighted the signals of distress
hoisled, and the crews of both lightship and barque wete
landed safely at tbe Korih Foreland.
Daring tbe stormy winter of 189G'97, the Smith Sand HtaA
lightship of the Goodwins waa singntarly unfortunate. At
about a quarter to four on Saturday morning, December 19.
1896, tbe light on the ^trntK Sand Rixul ligbt^ip was seeci
from Deal to be suddenly extinguished, and almost imme-
diately afterwards signals of distress were shown, in respond
to which the Walmer lifeboat and other boats were Uanchett.
It waa found that tbe lightship had been run into by the
barqne Ccre», of Boetock, bound for Amsterdam. Three of the
crew of the barque jomped on board the lightship, whieii,
except having her mast and lantern apparatus carried away,
was practically uninjured, and they were taken off by the
lifeboat and landed at DeaL
On the 3rd of March, 1897, during a Tery heavy gale ftom
the south-west, the same lightship broke from ber moorings,
tbe sea at the time rolling up mountains high towards tbe
Goodwins, and at times quite envelupiug tbe vessel. Before
she began to drift sbe strained so terribly that it was at one
time thought that sbe must sink at ber moorings. Fortanately.
she was discovered by the tug Con-pieror, of fiamsgate, and
safely towed into that port.
The crew of a lightship usually consists of a master, a mate,
three lamp-trimmers, and six able seamen, the latter being
selected from A.B.'s of either tbe Royal Navy or tbe Mercantile
Marine. The maximum pay of the master is £8S 10& a yettv,
with an additional victualling allowance of Is. 9r/. per day;
1
eupenteTS get £45 a year, with a certain allowance for
vietualling ; lamp-trimmers receive £43 16s. ; fog-sigiial
drivers, £41 2,s-. ; and seamen of five years' service, £39 6s.
The majority of lightships show bright lights, either fixed,
revDlving, or flashing ; a few show red revolving, as the Prince's
Channel and the Vurne; a still less number green revolving,
as the Mouse, and the East Goodwin ; whilst some show a red
flash, as the GaUoper, and some a liright flash and a red flash
alternately, as the Tongue, the Sunk, the Owcrs, and the
JDudjeoT!. By means of snch diversity every precaution is
taken to prevent the possibility of one lightship being
mistaken for another.
As there is a strong family likeness among lightships, a
description of one may well serve for all. We will take one
that is, perhaps, as well known as any, lying, as it does, imme-
diately opposite to Rarasgate, the (lull Stream, one of the four
light-vessels which keep constant watch and ward round
the ever-dreaded Goodwin Sands. It is a lightship of medium
size, not the largest, but still there are many smaller, and it
shows one revolving bright light every twenty seconds.
The lantern, as shown in the picture, is a far more elaborate
affair than moat people would imagine ; indeed, it may be des-
cribed, with its clockwork motion, as a somewhat complex
piece of machinery. During daylight it is housed in a strong
metal chamber on deck ; but at sunset its lamps are lit, and it
is hauled up the mast (the mast passing through the centre of
the lantern) by means nf a windlass, until it stands close
under the cage, or ball, about forty feet above the surface of
the water. Eelow the deck is an elaborate clockwork move-
ment, which requires winding up every hour, and which strikes
a warning bell when its weight has just upon reached its lowest
point. By means of a connecting-rod and cog-wheel the
motion of this clock is communicated to the lantern on the
mast, and the lantern turns slowly round onee in every
twenty seconds. At the Gull Stream each flash of the light is
due to the conjoined beam from three mineral oil lamps
furnished with silvered reflectors.
The crew of the Gull Stream consists of twelve men, the
master, the mate, a carpenter, three lamp-trimmers, and six
346 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVrCE
HeameQ ; and of this niiinber seven are usually to be fuund on
l>i>atil, the other five, includiDg the master or the mete, bein^
usually oshure ; the master and the mate being relieved every
month, the men every two months. When the men are ashore
they are not idle, but are employed in painting buoys, lepui*
ing and refitting such light-vessels as may be at the time in
(lofk, or engaged upon other work iu the service of the Triuitj
House.
itetumiug to the lightship, we find on going below, there
in a main («bin occupying the greater part of the length d
the vessel, and this serves at once the purposes of kitchen,
mess-room, and sleeping-berth for the crew. Forward is the
stove iisod for warming the cabin and for cooking; dowa the
centre K a long deal table, and in the beams overhead are book)
t<J which at night the hammoi'ks are attached. Here, in bad
weather, or when off duty, the men o<^'cupy their apare
moments, often iu making utoiiel sbi[U4, sometimes with Berlin
woolwork, for all sailore can use their needle, or in reading.
Astern of the main cabin is a small cabin for the master,
and beyond that is the lamp-room, with spare lamps, and two 1
iron tanks, each capable of buhling 120 gallons of mineral
oil ; whilst beyond that, again, and consequently right aft, is
the magazine, where are stored the cartridges for the signitl
guns, the rockets, and various others explosives.
Daring foggy weather a hand horn is used at the Guil
Stream light, two quick blasts of four seconds each bein?
given at intervals not exceeding two minutes ; and quicker if
any vessels' signals are heard ; whilst besides the horn the io°;-
gong is kept constantly poing. These fog-signals, althoiifb
primarily iu tended fur the lit-iicfit nf jiassin^' vessels, yet are of
DO small value to the lightship herself, as making her position
known, and so tending to keep her from being run down. 8
fate which, as we have seen, has occasionally been shared bv
some unlucky light-vessels.
Should a vessel be seen from the lightship standing
directly into danger, a gun is fited, and repeated until
observed — this applies both to fair and to ft^gy weather.
The tiring of special bright rockets after the gon from the
lightship, indicates that the vessel is actually on the sands,
RiBcrr— naHC
COMPARATIVE BRILLIANCY OF UGHTS 347
nd tLat there is need of asBtstanee from shore. Then
nmedititely will be seen the answering signals from the life-
nt stations on shore. From Deal there goes up a red rocket,
iu\-h means " We see your signal, and are coming." Soon
Bother rocket follows, this time discharging a green star,
idicating that " the lifeboat has already been launched, and is
ow on her way." In like manner from the other stations, at
Sngsdowu, Walmer, and Ramgate, oome similar answering
fnals, and out into the darkness, generally in a raging sea,
1 the lifeboats to the work of rescue, Kamsgate having the
ivautage of the tug Airl, which in bad weather is always kept
I the harbour, with her steam up. ready to tow out the life-
oat at a moment's notice.
I In the case of both lightships and lighthouses, the lamps of
Ifferent colours show with very difierent degrees of intensity,
rhite, or bright lights, as they are tei.hnieally called, show with
le greatest brilliancy, and are seen from the greatest distances.
Text to white come red lights, whilst green lights are the
lost feeble of all. In 1870, when the Trinity House deter-
kined to show a light with a red and a bright flash alternately
pom the noble granite tower erected on the Wulf llock, off the
(Ornish Coast, a series of experiments were instituted with a
new to determining the exact amount of light to be given to
ttte red ray in order that it should be of equal intensity to
J white, and it was found that the proportions were as 21 to
' ; that is to say, that in order to produce a red flash as brilliant
« the white flash, more than twice as much light was required
for the red as for the white, and special lenses were prepared
accordingly. The magnificent electric light at Cape Grisnez
shows three white flashes and then a red flash. During hazy
weather it frequently happens that the three bright flashes are
perfectly visible, followed by a dark interval until the bright
flashes appear again, the red flash not being seen at all.
In thick fog all lights are equally useless, and at such times
the position of the lightship can only be indicated by sound.
For this purpose all light- vessels, not fitted with more ixjwerfnl
apparatus, are furnished with gongs of Chinese make, alwut
24 inches in diameter, and costing from three to four pounds
each, the g<nig lieing kept constantly goingduring thick weather.
I
348 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
In 1872, A Coramittee appointed by the Trinity Home
visited the United States to ex&mine and report upon a new
and powerfnl fog-signal then recently patented by MeasiB,
Brown, of Progress Works, New York, and known as the
" Bireu." The rep')rt of the Committee was 90 far favonrftble
that a siren was the following year fitted np and experimented
npm at the South Foreland, with the reinilt that it has 9in«
come into general aae for lighthoose and lightship purposes.
The instmmeut is after the fashion of a gigantic horn it
trumpet, and is blown either by steam 01 by compressed air.
The trumpet of the siren ia alwiit twenty feet in length, the
throat being about five inches across, and the month about
twenty-seven inchea. Across the throat is fixed a metal disc
with twelve radiating slits in it, precisely like an ordinan
circular " hit or miss " ventilator, and behind this ia a similu
disc, with similar apertures in it, but in this case the disc
revutves and is driven by a separate mechanism, so that aa it
rotates it alternately opens and closes the alits in the fixed
disc. The moveable diac rotates at the rate of 2400 revolu-
tions in a minute, and as there aro twelve apertures in each
disc the whole of the openings are opened and shut 28,800
times in a minute, and steam being passed through the
openings, a loud musical note is produced.
Sometimes a single blast is used, as at the siren on tbe
KentUh Knock light-vessel, where a blast of 74 seconds
doration is given every 3 minutes ; sometimes two blasts in
quick succession are given, followed by an interval of sileni'e,
as at the Ilo'jal Sovereign lightship; sometimes the note is
varied, as at the North Ooodmn, where two quick blasts of
2i seconds' duration are given every minute, the first being a
low note and the second a high note; or at the Sevfii Stonrt
lightship, where three blasts are given in quick succesgion
every two minutes, the middle blast being a high note, whilst
the two others are low notes ; thus, in the same way that the
lights of light-vessels are varied as much as possible for the
purposes of distinction, so the sirens are varied in a simiisr
way, in order to lessen the danger of one being mistaken fot
another.
Besides lighthonsee and lightships, two other means are
I t-iQHTaici-'e ooNd.
i"-
BEACONS AtiD BUOVS 349
Kemployed in the interests of navigation — namely, beacons
Kind liiioys. Beacons are obviously only suitable for use in
lallow waters, iu rivers, estuaries, and the like, and on
I'luidbaaks and shoals. They are made of every possible
r.Bhape and size, from the ordinary wooden beacon, consisting
j merely of a tall post surmounted by a lozenge, a triangle,
k or a cage, up to costly stone or brick structures, as the
ikicker at Gosport. As with the lights and the fog-horas,
I with the beacons, every care is taken to render them as
istinctive as possible, so that besides differences of shape,
ifferences of colour are adopted, some being painted black,
me red, whilst many are striped in different conspicuous
Ktlours.
Buoys are of various shapes and sizes ; some are spherical,
me egg-shaped, some conical, and some, known as " can "
*baoys, are in shape like a truncated cone. A few are still
made of wood, but the majority of buoys are now constructed
of iron. For the purpose of marking fairways, of indicating
sboals, and for defining the entrances to harbours, apart from
warping-buoys and wreck-buoys, there are rather over eleven
hundred buoys dotted about round the coasts of Great Britain
and Ireland.
The cost of a buoy vai'ies from £30 to £40 for an ordinary
"can" buoy, up to £150, £160, or even £200 for a first-claes
conical buoy. Buoys, like lights, fog-signals, and beacons,
are diversified as far as possible, some being painted black,
some red, some white, whilst some are chequered, and some
striped ; but, as a rule, black or red buoys are found to be the
most easily seen, and these colours consequently preponderate.
Where a buoy is placed to mark a wreck it is invariably
painted green.
Besides differences of shape and of colour, many buoys, like
beacons, are surmounted by cages, and many bear other
devices. Where buoys are used to mark the entrances to
channels or ports, the system adopted by the Trinity House
is thus: entering the channel ur harbour from seaward all
the buoys on the starboard hand are conical buoys painted a
plain colour, all black, or all red ; whilst all the buoys on
the port hand are "can " buoys, striped ot c\i6c^6ieiv\.
^
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
I
It is manifestly impossible that absolute reliance can be
placed on buoys always maiiitaiuiag their exact positions
Buoys have, therefore, to be regarded more as warnings, and
not as infallible navigating marks, especially when in expited
places; and a ship will always, when ponsible, be navigated
by a careful man by bearings or angles of fixed objects im
shore, and not by buoys.
At many different spots round the coast are bell-bnojL
Upon the top of an ordinary buoy, inside an iron cage ii
fixed a bell, which bell is struck by four hammers tbtt
swing on pivots, so that whichever way the buoy may be
tilted up by the waves, one or other of the hammers wiH
fall upon the bell, and thus all day long, and all night long,
a mournful tolling is kept up.
A somewhat recent invention is the " whistling buoy." On
the top of the buoy is fix«d an ordinary whistle, and below
the whistle, going through the buoy and deep down into
the water, is an iron tube open at the bottom. This tube is
consequently full of water up to the surface, and as the bnoy
rise^ and fulls with the waves, the air in the upper part of
the tube between the water and the whistle is compressed and
forced through the whistle, emitting a feeble sound. One of
these buuys was placed off the Goodwins aa an experiment,
but it was soon withdrawn, as when it did whistle at all,
the souud was apt to be confounded with the whistles uf
steamships. They have, however, found some favour with the
French, and one has for some years been placed off the end
of the new digue at Boulogne.
A more successful invention, and one that has now come
into very general use, is the gas-buoy. Sufficient gas is placed
in the buoy to constitute a supply for a month or six weeb.
On the top of the buoy is the lamp with the requisite clock-
work apparatus, so that it shows automatic^klly a revolving
or an occulting light— it being, in fact, a miniature lightship.
The first of these buoys was placed at the Ovens, off CoalhoiiM
Point, at the bottom of Gravesend Keach, and was found to
be such a decided success that another was soon afterwards
placed on the Ouse Sand, and since that time a number of g&9-
ibuoys have been atalionei at Nsi\wia ■^\vAb round the coast
\
CONNECTION OF LIGHTS WITH THE SHORE
The following lighthouses and lightships round the coasts
of Great Britain are now connected with the postal telegraph
system, but only casualties are reported ; and a few of tlie
light- vessels are now in telephonic communication with
London, or the nearest ports; —
Keotioli Knock
Light-vesaol.
Corsewall
Liglitbouse.
Goodwin (North Sand
Turn berry Point
Head)
MullofCantyro
NeedJea
LiglithouBB.
BhynnBoflday
Jl
DnrUtone Head
KuBtoer
Start
CapeWrali
Lkard
Skroo Promontorv ..
Hartland Point
1^
Fair lale, Scaddon Pro-
Ltmdy Island
montory
Can tick, Ortney
Boll Point
C»ldy Island
TarbettNem
Sontb Stack
Covesea SkerrioB
Menai
Souter Point
Pormby ...
LightlveMcl.
Hftsborough
Light'-veBMl
8L Bee's Head
LiglithouBe.
OrfordnosB
LighthouM.
LuignesB, Islo of Man
SbipWBBh
Ligh^YeMel
e LTgbthouse.
Douglas Head „ ...
MulfofGalloway ...
GuQfleet Pi
,.
Maplin
No doubt, in the not very remot« future every light-vessel
and rock lighthouse will be connected by telegraph or telephone
with the shore. At the present time the men on the Kentish
Knock light-vessel can by the aid of the telephone make
themselves heard, and bear the news from Kingsgate, whilst
those on the Goodwin Sandsc&n communicate with Broadstairs.
Again, the Gtinficet, the Kentish Knock, and the Goodwin can
comiuiinicate with each other, or with London, at any time
of the day or night.
On June 30, 1898, in reply to a question asked in the
House of Commons, Mi. Bitchie, the President of the Board
of Trade, stated that
" at Ihe preBent time three additional lightlioiiBes, namely Ihe Oodrcvy, the
Skerries, and Walney Inland, are being coDuected with the shore by electrio
caUe ; bat it has been thought better to poBtpone the work of connecting
more lighthouses ontil the resolts of ezperimeata with the Byatem of wireleea
telegraphy are known,"
With such a large number of lightbouses, Hghtehipa,
beacons, and buoys to look after the steamers of the Trinity
House are never idle. They are always to be found cruising
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
round the coasts, and one cir other of the Trinity irBchts ni»y
fDiistantly be seen towing out a new lightship that
replace an old one ordered home for repairs, or with a iota
nenly painted buoys on her deck that are going out to take
the places of as many more that reqoire o verb anting ind
Hettiug to rights; for, hesides the paint getting shabby tsA
wuru off from constant exposure to the action of the wtro,
thu bottom of the buoy gradually becomes covered witk
b&ruaclea and weeds, whilst occasionally the bnoy will leak,
causing it to lloat lower in the water than it ought to d&
Now and thou, to<^i, a buoy gets run down by a passing
ve8sel, tho master of which, for obvious reasons, umita to report
the casualty, so that, with all these matters to attend to, the
nllicial»« of the Trinity House must ever be on the alert.
Unlike the lights of foreign oonntrien. which for the moA
j>art are kept up by the state, and are thus free to the ships
of all nations, British lights are entirely maintained by Britiib
uiercUant veasela, all of which have to pay their light don
for the voyage before they can obtain a cleotajice from tl»
ciisti.im-house.
Three difl'ereut scales of rates are adopted. First, the home-
trade rates— that is to say, light dues payable by all vessels
(jugaged in voyages between any two British ports, as from
Liverpool to Loudon, from Hull to Penzance, and the lite;
or from any British port to any port on the Continent lying
between Brest and the Elbe, as from London to St. Malo, or
from Plymouth to AmstenJam. Second, over-sea rates — that
is to say, rates j)ayable by all vessels on voyages from anj
British port to auy foreign port (with the exceptions mentioned
in the next scale), or from any foreign port to auy British
port, as, for instance, a voyage from Loudon to Crenoa, or oeb
from Liverpool to New York, or from Sydney to London,
and the like. Third, the half rates I'ver sea — that is to ssj,
rates payable by all vessels engaged on voyages from any
British port to either Denmark, Nurway, Sweden, or Iceland,
or to the Bay of Biscay and Spanish porl« this side of
Gibraltar.
The charge for each light is for the most part adjusted m
Mccordanca with two cotiAaWotw- 'i'«\, ■wvtVi the cjst of the
\
I.
4 •
.-A
THE PRESENT LIGHT DUES
maiiitenanoe of such liglit, an isolated lighthouse, aa, for
iostanee, the Eddystone, being far more costly to maintain
tban an ordinary lighthouse on shore, ae, say, the North
Foreland, or the Start ; the dues, therefore, for the Eddystone
are higher than the dues on the North Foreland, or the
Start. And secondly, regard has to be had to the number
of ships that pass the light. Take, for instance, two lights
whose cost of maintenance is precisely the same. One of
these lights is situated in a much-frequented locality, where
there will be a large number of ships always passing to pay
for the light. Here the charge will be relatively small. The
other light is in a place where but few ships pass ; the charge
will, therefore, be proportionately heavier.
All light dues are reckoned in sixteenths of a penny per
registered ton, and a ship is charged for every light that
she will pass on any particular voyage, whether she passes
that light during the day, or during the night. A ship
bound foreign — say from Newcaatlo-upon-Tyne to the Cape
of Good Hope — will be charged on the "Over-Sea Scale;"
and will pay for the whole of the lights on the east coast
of England, and along the English Channel, commencing
with the light on Souter Point at the mouth of the Tyne,
and terminating with the Bishop Bock Lighthouse at Scilly,
and the charge for the whole of these lights is 12 pence
and |''^ths of a penny per register ton ; so that the light dues
payable by a ship of 1000 tons register on such a voyage
will be £51 lis. 3'f., less a certain amount of discount.
Supposing that the same ship is going from Newcastle-upon-
Tyne to Port Said, she will pay exactly the same light dues,
plus one shilling for the light on Enropa Point, (ribraltar,
which is the only British light in the Mediterranean, and
for which one uniform charge of a shilling per vessel is made.
The rate charged from, say, Cadiz to the Thames, which is at
the " Half Kate Over-Sea," is M. per registered ton ; and the
rates from or to all other British ports, in a similar way, vary
according to the number and the description of the lights that
are passed. In addition to the light dues, all vessels entering
the Port of London have to pay Trinity dues, which are at the
rate of a penny per ton. There is a slight difference made in.
i
r
354 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
the light dues between outward and homeward>bomid Te
outward bound vessels not paying for the light on H&aoii
Rocks, Guernsey, whilst homeward bound ships are chatgai
tor it, outward bound yessela not having any business to be
near It.
The present mode of collection of the light dues is extremely
uosatisfactory, and presses with undue hardness upon the BritiBh
shipowner, who has to bear the entire cost of the whole British
lighthouse system, ships of the Royal Navy, yachts, and
fishing-boats paying no light dues at all ; whilst all foreign
vessels, and indeed British vessels, if they do not start from
or come into any British port, may make use of every ligbl
along the coast, and yet pay nothing. Ab a case in point,
in May last a vessel of 2565 tons register from Calcntt*,
discharged at Dundee a cargo of jute, proceeded to Middle*-
borough, and there loaded a cargo of salt hack to Calcutt*.
She paid £127 75. Q<1. for light dues in and out. In
tember, a sister ship of the same tonnage, also from Calcutu,
discharged at Hamburg a similar cargo of jute, and there
loaded a similar c^rgo of salt for the same deaUnati
Although she had passed every light from Scilly to the
North Foreland, both in and out, she paid nothing.
It is high time that all this was altered, and that the cost
of lighting our coasts was charged to the nation, as is the
case in many other countries, instead of perpetuating what
a grave and a gross injustice to shipowners. Indeed, ship-
owners at the present time are not only charged the actual
cost of the lights, but very considerably more ; for with regud
to the light dues, the official returns show that from 30 to
per cent, more is charged than the actual cost of the Iight&
During the twelve years from 1884 to 1896, there had been
an overpayment under this head of no less than £860,000.
During last session the Government passed a Bill * fur
making some slight alterations in the light dues ; but it it
mere tinkering, and no settlement of the case will be achieved
until the British Mercantile Marine is relieved of the light
dues altogether, and the charge is borne hy the public
excheijuer.
1
^li^
1 41. r
L [T'o/aMj.a^'IIS
CHAPTEH XXVIL
FUffi^The tutioiul coloars — ^Tho Union Jack — Tho ensign — The whita
ensign— The red ensign — The hUo ensign — Other legal colours —
House-flags — Signals and signalling— Tlie Intoniational Coda — Report of
the Coramittee— The Signal Book— Tho flugs— The signals— The new
Code.
The pMper national colours f-ir all ships of the British
Merchant Service are the red ensign ami the Union Jack
with a white bonier. Until the year 1606, the English national
flag waa that known aa the banner of St, fieorge — a red cross
npon a white field, this flag being now called the St. George's
.Tack, After .Tames VI. of Scotland became king of England
as James I., and England and Scotland were united under
one and the aamo crown, it Irecame necessary to revise the
national flag, in order that Scotland might be represented
in it. The Scottish national flag was a white diagonal, or
St. Andrew's cross, upon a blue field ; the new flag therefore
had a red cross with a white border, which white border was
the remains of the white field of the old banner of St. George
for England, with the St. Andrew's diagonal white cross
on the blue ground for Scotland ; and in 1606, James I.,
by royal proclamation, ordered this flag henceforth always
tu be used as the national flag, the object being to provide
a flag which should put an end, once for all, to the constant
disputes aa to the precedency of the rival banners of St.
Andrew and St. George. On the final union of England
and Scotland in 1707, this waa formally declared to be the
" Ensign Armorial of the United Kingdom of Great Britain."
This, then, was the first Union Jauk ; and it was under thia
flag that all the great naval battles of Eoduey, Howe, Duncan,
and the rest, during the laiit century, were tott.g\\l.
\
I
3S6 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
On the 1st of Jauuary, 1801, when the union vritb Irekml
was concluded, a place had to be found for the red dU^onal
cross of St. Patrick, as representing Ireland, and it w»6
placed upon the white diagonal cross of St. Andrew. leaYiag
some of the white of the St. Andrew's cross on either side
of it, double the width of white, howOYer. being on one side
of it, aa compared with the width on the other side ; and the
Union Jack then appeared as we have it to-day.
The enaiga ia of three kimls — it is either a red, bine, ot
white fl»^, with a Union .lack in the upper canton neil
the staff. The white ensign * is worn exclnsiTely by ship*
ijf the Royal Navy, with the exception of yachts belonging
to the Royal Yacht Sq^lad^>n, which are specially permitted
by the Admiralty to fly tho white ensign. The bine ensign
ia the Boyal Naval Reserve flag, and the red ensign is tbe
proper, legal, and distinctive flag of the British Mercantile
Marine. The Merchant Shipping Act (57 and 58 Vict., section
73) prescribea that —
'■ (I ) The Red Enrign, usually worn by mercbant ships, withoat rnnj debee.
merit or moJiticatioLi wliat50ever, is Iiereby declared to be the proper n«don»l
oolonre for all ships and boats belonging to any Bridah nibject, except in tiM
cue of Her Majesty's ships or boats, or in the case of any other ship or botf
for the time being allowed to wear any other national coloon in pnrsaaoM
of a warrant fh)m Her Majesty or from the Admiralty.
"(2) If any distinctive national colonrs, except Each red eosigii, or excqit
the Union Jack with a white border, or if any colonrs worn by Her Majeat^^
■hips, or resembling thoae of Her Majesty, or if the pennant nsoaDy carried
by Her Majesty's ships, or any p«nnant rwembling that pennant, are or is
hoisted on board any ship or b<N>t belonging to any British sabject withmt
warrant iVom Her Majest; or from tbe Admiralty, the master of the ship or
boat, or the owner thereof, if on board the same, and «rary other person
hoisting the colours or peimant, shall for each offenos iocor a fine not
exceeding five handred ponnds."
The same Act, section 74, prescribes that —
" (I) A Bliip belonging to a Bril'iah sulijecl shall hoist the proper utioul
coloure—
" (a) On a signal being made to bor by one of Her Majesty^ diips
■ The white ensign bears a rod cross on tbe whiW field, and is very mnch
the same as Uie old banner of St. George, only with the Union Jack in the
upper canttin — indeed, il te k.uaiia &b \.\\e vUt«, or 8c Gqar^'s ensign.
(including soy vessel under the commanil of an officer of Her Mnjeaty's Nav;
on fhU pny), aiid
" (&) On entering or leaving any foreign port, and
" (e) If of Gfty tons gross toonage or upwards, on entering or leaving any
British port.
''(2) If default is made on board any Euoh ahip in complying with this
itPCtioo, the master of tbe ship shall for each oflcnoo be liable t^ a line not
'V^eediiig one hundred pounds."
All merchant ships, therefore, not only may, but miisl,
uQiler very heavy penalties, fly the red ensign and only the
red ensign; with the following exceptions in fayour of the
bine ensign : —
The Blue Ensign. — The following are the Admiralty regula-
tions respecting the Blue Ensign (Boyal Naval Reserve flag) : —
'■ (1) British merchant ships commanded by officiirs of the Boyal Navy on
llie Retired List, or by officers of tlie Boyal Naval Reserve, and Eiillillbg the
folloiring coiidiliona, will be allowed to wear the Blue Ensign of Her Majesty's
fleet:—
'' (a) The officer commanding the ship miiat be an officer of the Royal
Navy on the Retired List, or an officer in the Boyal Naval Reserve.
■' (t) Tea of the crew must bo members of llio Royal Naval Reser\'8.
"(c) Before hoisting the Blue Elusign, tbe officer commanding the sliip
DMut be provided with an Admiralty Warrant.
''(d) The fact tliat the commanding ofHcer holds a warrant authorizing him
to hoist the Blue Ensign must t>e noted on the slip's articles of agreement.
" (2) Commanding officers failing to fulfil the above conditions, unleaa
such EaiJuie is due to death or other circumstancea over which they have no
control, will no longer be entitled to hoist the Blue E&aign.
" (3) British merctiaot ships in receipt of Admiralty aubventJon will bo
allowed to Hy the Blue Ensign under Admiralty Warrant.'
" (4) The captain of one of Her Majesty's ships meeting a ship carrying
th« Blue Elnsign may, in order lo ascertain that the above conditions are
strictly carried out, send on board an officer, not below the rank of lieu-
teoant, at any convenient opportunity; but thia restriction as to the rank of
the boarduig officer, is in no way to limit or otherwise afTect the authority or
the duties of naval ofBoers either under tbe Merchant Shipping Ads or in
time of war."
Hired transports also wear the blue ensign with the yellow
Admiralty anchor in the fly ; and any ships employed in
the service of certain Government oiBces will also carry the
bine ensign with the badge of tbe particular office in the fly.
Tbe other strictly legal flag for the merchant service is
* For list of snch ships nee page SCO.
\
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
the Union Jack euclosed in a wliite border, which white \xa
must be one-fiftb the breadth of the Jack. This flag b to
be hoisted at the fore by British vessels, and signifies that
such vessel requires a pilot.
Besidea the alxive national colours there are certain other
flags which ore required to be displayed by Act of FarliaineiiL
They are — (1) A pilot's boat flag, the upper horizontal half
white, and the lower horizontal half red. This is to U
hoisted at the mast-head of all British pilot boats, or displayei
in some other equally conspicuous situation. (2) The red
burgee (B of the loternatianal Co4le) is to be hoisted «r
ahown when gunpowder or other explosive ia being taken
on board or discharged. (3) A large yellow flag, of «i
breadths of bunting, is tu be displayed at the main topmast
bead by a ship having a cbau bill of health, but liable to
quarantine. (4) A similar flag to the last, but with a blaek
ball of a diameter equal tu two breadths of bunting, is to
be displayed at the same masthead by a ship not having
a clean bill of health. {5) A flag of yellow and black
quarterly, of eight breadths of buuting, is to be displayed at
the main topmast-head by a ship haTing the plsgne, yellow-
fever, or other dangeroua infectious disease on board.
There ie one other flag, which, although not reqtiized to
be used by Act of Parliament, yet is imiveraally adopted hj
custom, and that is the Blue Peter (P. of the International
Code), a blue flag with a white square in the centre. This
flag is hoisted at the fore, and denotes that the veasel so
hoisting it is about to proceed to sea, and calls npon all
persons interested to proceed on hoard.
House-flags are particular flags adopted by particular flnns,
every large shipping company, and the larger firms among
private shipowners, having each its own particular honse-flag,
which flag is always hoisted at the main. These house-flags
simply possess the some legal rights aa mercantile trade-marks.
From time immemorial flags have been used for signalling
purposes, both in the merchant service and in the imperial
navies of all countries. Previous to the middle of the present
century, many difl'erent signal codes had been in use, most
foreign nations having their own codes, the English Mercantile
THE INTERNATIONAL COPE 3S9
Marine for the most part using Marryat's Code ; but there was
Bo system of nnifomiity^no system of signalling common
to all countries.
Eventually it was proposed to establish some code of
signals to be used at sea, which should be of universal
adaptation. Many suggestions were made, but the matter
did not begin to assume any very definite shape until the
year 1855, when, in pursuance of a ifiuute of the Lords of
the Committee of Privy Council for Trade, dated the 2nd of
July in that year, a committee, consisting of naval officers
and ofBcers of the Mercantile Marine, was appointed "to
inquire into and report upon the subject of a code of signals
to be nsed at sea;" and on the 24th of September, 1856,
they made their Keport to the Board of Trade, in which they
stated that they had considered what principles should be laid
down as the basis for the formation of an efficient code,
and had resolved as follows:^
'' 1. The Code ouglit to be comprehensive atiil clear, and not expoDBive.
"2, It ought to provide for not less thin 20,000 distinct signals, and
should besides be capable of designating not less than 50,000 ships, with
power of extension if required.
" 3. It should eiprcBS the nature of the signal rande by the combination
of the signs employed, and the more important signab should be expressed
by the more simple combinations.
''4. A signnl should not consist of more tlian four flags, or symbols, at
" 5, A signal should be made complete in one hoist, in one place.
"6, Signals should have the same meaning wherever shown.
" 7. The Signal Book slionld be so arranged, either numerically or alpha-
betioalty, ia classes, as to admit of the suhject being readily referred to, and
proTtsioD should be made for future additions.
" 8. The Code should be so framed as to be cnpable of adaptation for inter-
nationii] eommunicatiou."
The Committee, in referring to their decisiou that in any
efficient code not more than four flags ought to be shown in
one hoist, and that a signal ought to he made in one hoist at
one place, made the following observations ; —
" Upon these griiuiids, therefore, the syHieni of numerals appeared to us to
be defective for a comprehensive Code, aa not being capable of deagnating
in a conaecotive numerical series 70,000 distinct signals without at any
time showing more than four Bags for each signal made ; and it is clear,
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
dtcrdbn, that it wooM have been inconavteDt with tbm priocipla kM ilon
to htn pDMeded vith the (nming of » Code tipoa the bx^ of a R;nm 1/
" HAving thai kI aidde the nninenkl ijvtetn, ire hid to cowniW «bt
other method would best meet the requirements of mn efficient Code.
" Tbero was ociy one other method known to ns by which the ebjurti n
bad ill view conl'l be aUaioed.
" It was that of taking a aiimber of sigiia (or Bagi) Eoffident fix lb
piirpoee, nnd by their traiupositioQ eSectmg a certAia number uf persD-
tations, each different combinatioa of two or more of the agaa to laka
forming a agnal dietinct io itself, and hiiTiiig a patticnlkr ngoiScatieiu
'■The following Table, prepared ty the Ciimmittee, show* the nnrabatf
dutind signala which ten or more ttags are capable, by [lermutaliaD, >if
foTmiiig, iu hoists of from two to fonr aigog at a dme in one )<liu:e :—
" PERKCTAnONS
"of wUdi the following Nnmbers of Signs are capable.
ab^titam \ wta I ww> witkivuk vnu wuk (nib I
t,»,4,*.;i»*'"*'
TaU.wtthi
i.tai «.w»! VM 4.«M *jm
|II».M1, — I — I _
i.nt' ttjmt ti,tn{ w
>.a«| «•.!«' wm
" From the above Table it will be seen Uiat 18 Bags will be requwte to
give the number of tagnalB which tlie Committee have stated to be uececHir
i;e. 70,000 distinct signak, witli power oF extension to 78,G42 signak, each
sigiinl coiisislino of u iioint of not more tlinn four flag*. Having decided
npoK lliiri nuoibtr, tlie iVjmiiLiiTM' jinjcci'iliTl lo the noniifi^ of the flap of
eigne, in iJeriBiiig wiiieli it aiipcatud (o tJieni —
" 1. That the characters should be famQiar onee.
" 2. That they shonld recnr in a well-known order, for Gidlity of refereooi.
" The letters of the alphabet seemed best adapted for the ptupose, and the
Committee determined that it would be most convenient to aaeigii to each d
the 18 fiagB a letter of the alphabet, leaving out the voweU.
"The omission of the vowels was forced upoik the CommittM, fimn tt«
rircumstance, that by introducing them every objeotioDable mti oonpceed
of four lettera or lees, not only in their own bat in foreign langnagea, would
appear in the Code in the conrse of the permntation of the letten at tte
alphabet.
" Too much Importance should not, however, be set opon the ollQectioB
which naturally occurs, that the alphabet is thus incomplete, and that the
power of ^Uhig Is apperently loet; for it abonld be undantood that lit
INTERNATIONAL CODE FLAGS.
P
" CODE SIGNAL" AND "ANSWERING PENNANT,"
~W1ieii aaod aa the "Code SiKn*]," this Poanant is to be luriated oi
le " EnBign," when aaed as the " Ansvering Penmukt," where beat aeei
p
'pa
w
13
te- ]t>- fcfc^
I«ttera ua not used as Idten, but as tignt, cluuaaterizing the different flags
by tlie most faroiliar metliod, and in an onlcr well known.
" The hst coaRiderolion nhicli occupied the attention of the Committee
was the colonring of the flags to be used.
" In determining this questJon, the following points were discussed : —
" I. Wliether Hairyat's flags were tlie best adapted in shape and coloiu*
for signalling?
" 2. Whether Marrj'at's flaga being then generally in use on board
merchant ships of this and foreign countries, and also at many foreign
Hignal stations, it would not be convenient to adopt them as far as possible ?
" The Committee were not prepared to decide tlie flrst question ia Ihe
iiHirmatiTO, but coosidering the heavy expense of procuring a new set of
flags, and in deference to what appeared to bo a general wish— that flags
which are, and have been for many years, so generally in nse in merchant
ehips, and with which marincra are familiar, shoiUd not, without very strong
reasons, bo dispensed with— the Committee determined to recommend the
adoption of the flaga employed in Marryal's Code (with fillglit variations), as
fw as they were applicable."
^m In submitting a Signal Book prepared in conformity with
^tthe foregoing fiesolutiuns, the Cummittee observed —
^M " We have only to remark, as regards the general contents, that it does
^hot materially difl'er from otiier Signal Books.
^p " The general principles of the Code, and directions for its practical
working, are eiplained in the commencement of the book ; but we desire to
point ont to your LordshiiM the main advantages which it nppeam to us to
possess over any other Code that we have had before us : —
" Ptret, its comprehensiveness and dit^dnctness, the combination of llie
signs expressing the nature of the signal made — two flags, or symbols, in a
hoist always meaning eitlier Datiger or Urgency — and the signals throughout
being arranged in a consecutive series, so that any individnal sigiutl, whether
a word or a sentence, may readily be found. Secondly, that the flogs and
pennants are so arranged as by their po,sifioii t
made; tlias —
" In Signals made with Two Signs —
" The Burgee uppermost repreaentfl
A Pennant uppermost represents
And a Square Flag uppermost represents
" In Signals composed of Four Signs —
" The Burgee uppermost represents
A Pennant uppermost represents
And a Square Flag uppermost represents
J charaeterir.e the signals
Attention Signals.
Compass Signals.
Danger Signals.
Geographical,
Vocabulary.
Ships' Names,
" And thirdly, that the anangeraent of tlie Code ia such as to hold out to
foreigners the same advantages that it aflTords lo our own marine.
As has been seen abuve, the flags of the International
Code of Signals are eighteen in number, with the addition
36l THE BRITISH MERCHANT SER\1CE
of one " Code Signal " or " Answering Pennant." The eighteen
signal fiaga consist of thirteen square Flaga, foai PenntnU,
and one Burgee, each representing a consonant of the alphabet
from B to W.
Before signalling, the Code Pennant is hoisted undtr the
ensign at the gaff, intimating that thin Code is altont to be
used. When used as an Ansnering Pennant it U hoisted
anynhere where it can be best seen. When one ship is
signalling to another ship or to the shore, and has completed
her signal, the ship sigvalled to runs up the "Answering
Pennant" for a moment or two, to say, "I anderstand";
aud when the ship herself has finished her signalling, Ai
runs it up for a moment to indicate, "That is all," or, *I
have nothing more to say."
There are only two one-flag Signals — Pennant C, whid
means " Yes," and Pennant J>, which means " No."
There are three kinds of twit-fiag Signals — Attention Signal^
Compass Signals, and Urgent or Danger Signals.
I ' Attention Signals hare the red Burgee, B, uppermost, u
BD, "What ship is that?" BS, "Call the attention of tbe
shure signal-station." In Compass Signals, one of the faur
Pennants is uppermost: from North to East, the C Pennant;
from East to South, the D Feaunat ; Inaa South to Wast, the
P Pennant ; and from West to North, the G Pennant. Thns
CG, "North by East, half East;" DP, "South-East by
south;" FQ, "South- West by West, half West; "and OR,
"North North- West."
Urgent or Danger Signals have a square flag uppermost,
as KJ, "Get her on the other tack, or you will be on shore";
Q M, " Hare you any message or telegraphic communication
for me?"
Three-flag Signals, no matter what they begin with, ore
the ordinary signals of communication, embracing every sub-
ject at all likely to be required by seafaring folk, ranging
between purely maritime matters and the ordinary topics of
everyday life. Thus, BDJ, "I am aground;" KRV, "Send
a tug to me ; " K S M, " Shorten in starboard hawser ; "
LVH, "I think I must have passed the buoy;" or RTH,
"Glad tofieeyou;" RBW,"WWt\a^<iit o^finion? What
H THREE AND FOUR FLAG SIGNALS 363
wonld you do?" RJ H, "Appearance is not satiafactory ; "
and so ou.
A very considerable uumber of the three-flag Signals are
devoted to numerals, decimals, and fraotions, so that by a
combination of these particular signals any uumber can be
fommunicated. Thus, V V/G is 1, V WH is 2, VWJ is 3,
and so on. A certain number of signals stand for two figures,
asVWR, 10; VWS, 11; up to WHJ, 98, and WH K, 99.
After that they go in hundreds, W H L being 100, W H M
200, and so on up to 1000; after that in thousands up to
10,000, and ultimately to millions.
As an example, suppose that it were requisite to signal
lOjOll-jV- Three three-flag Signals would be used : first of
all, W P N, which signifies 10,000 ; then VWS, which stands
for 11; and lastly, VSP, which means yj- Or suppose it
were required to signal 29'09. Here two three-flag Signals
would be employed : first W C B would be hoisted, which
means 29 ; and after that V S N, which stands for 0-09 ; and
50 in a similar manner any number or combination of numbers
can be communicated.
After the three-flag come the four-flag Signals, of whii'h
there are three kinds, namely, 1st, fonr-flag Signals with the
B Burgee uppermost, which are Geographical Signals, as, for
instance, B V C J, " Queenstowu, Ireland ; or B V D P, " Good-
win, North Sand Head ; " and so on ; 2nd, four-flag signals with
a square flag uppermost, which are all ship's names: those
signals having the G uppermost indicating vessels of Her
JIajesty's Navy, as G V M K, " H.M.S. Widijcon, screw gun-
boat, 6 guns ; " or G T F B, " H.M.S. Powerful, t«in-serew
cruiser, 1st class, 14 guns;" four-flag Signals with any other
square flag than G uppermost are ships of the Merchant
Service, as N B LT, "Cunard steamer fani^wrtin, of Liverpool;"
or J V G T, " the Western Lass, of Plymouth ; " and so on.'
3rd, four-flag Signals with a Pennant uppermost are Vocabularj-,
* All British registered vesseb maj have — prftcticnlly, all do Lave— a Code
Signal allotted to them for, among other nsea, makiug the ship's name known
Bt sea ; as, for instance, T M W L, "the taitjae MandaJay, of Gla^ow." A
Code List ia published Btmiially by the Cooiniittee of XJoyds, for the purpose
i-f eiiahliiig offieere at signal stations on shore, and masters of ships il son, to
364 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
or Spelling, Signals. These signals are used for commnni*
eating any word not already provided for in the other p»rt»
of the Code, Ly spelling auch word. Obviously there must
be many words having no connection whatever with maritime
matters that might ocL'asionally liave to be signalled, and by
this process — necessarily however, a very slow and tediou§
process — it is possible to communicate these words. For
instance, let us suppose that by some chance the wurd mnnihta
had to be signalled. The first hoist wouM be C D V M,
"urn;" the second hoist would be CDSK. "ni;" and the
last hoist would be C BJ K, "bus." Thus by three consecu-
tive signals the word omnibus would have been spelt; and
HO by this means any word, English or foreign, not already
provided for may be signalled, oltliough in a somewhit
cumbrous fashion, by the International Coile,
This Code is now employed by all civilized nations as a
means of communication at sea. It is used on board Her
Majesty's ships, and has been adopted by all the principal
maritime powers for their imperial, ae well as tor theii
mer'-antile, navies; with, of course, the reservation tliat »U
imperial navies have their own entirely distinct private codes
for their own special purposes, and the utmost care is taken
by frequent changes to keep these miintelligible to other
nations. Every nationality has its own signal-book for the
International Code, in its own particular luiguage, so that a
signal being hoisted, the master of the ship signalled to,
whatever his nationality, turns to his book and runs down
the page. The signal hoisted is, say, J V K. The skipper
turns up J V K, and finds that it means in his ovm language,
signal Bud leport passing veBsels. The Code List contuns the disUDgaiibiBg
signals, not onlj of British ships, but of sach foreign ships sa have an Inter-
national Code Signal allotted to them.
The Signal Letters are not always isancd conseculjvel; — Uiat is to mj, the
last ship to which a Code Signal has heen allotted will cot necesBarilj hsTS
the last signal issued ; for instance, say that the last Code Signal allotted
yesterday, to a liritlKh veBsel was WVTR, "tlie Sialoo, steamer, of New-
castle ; " it does not necessarily follow that the next applicant for a Code
Signal should have the next signal, which would be WVTS, beoauH
a vessel to which a much earlier signal had once been allotted may havs
been wrecked or broken up, and her signal wonld then be allotted to
somebodjr else.
THE NEW CODE 365
be it EugUsb, or Gerrosn, or Norwegian, or what uot, " I ftiii
short of provisions." He kuows iuuuediately tliat the signalling
sliip is in want of provisions of some sort, and he caq act
accordingly.
The New Code.
The International Code of Signals, first issued in 1854, has
been continually undergoing revision in a small way by a
Committee of which the Registrar-General of Seamen was the
chairman ; but in process of time the blanks in the Signal
Bot'k became filled up, and suggestions were made by some
foreign Governments which were not altogether acceptable to
other countries. The questions involved thus Imcame too large
to be dealt with by a small inter-departmental Conmiittee, and
a larger Committee was appointed, to carefully consider the
whole matter. In January, 1889, this Committee issued their
first report with a revised edition of the Code, but no change
of any importance was made, the Committee confining them-
selves to excising obsolete signals, and rejilacing them by
other signals which were demanded by modern requirements.
No addition was made to the number of the Code flags,
which still remained at eighteen. This revised edition was
forwarded to the foreign maritime powers, and to the British
Colonies, and a statement showing the nature of the replies
received was printed with the seeund report, which was issued
in July, 1892.
In April, 1897, the third and final report of the Committee
was issued. The most important suggestion received by the
Committee originated with the French Government, who
applied a most careful examination to the Committee's work,
and printed a very valuable pamphlet embodying their views
upon the eiibject. This suggestion, which was that two new
flags representing the letters " X " and " Z " should be added
to the existing number of Code flags, was supported by some
of the other maritime nations. It was found that the addition
of two new flags would necessitate re-writing practically the
whole Code, and it was then resolved to go stil! further, and to
add, not only flags representing the letters " X " and " Z," but
also flags to represent all the vowels of the alphabet. TtU,
366 THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
therefore, has now been done. Vowels were not introdooid
originally, for the reasons stated in the original report npon
the existing Code.
The increased utility of the proposed new Code thioogh tli«
addition of eight now flags is astonishing. The passible
permutations of 18 flags in 78,660 ; the possible pennutations
of 2fi flags is 37o,07ft. or nearly five times as many as p&nbs
made by 18 flags. The mirabor of twi>flag signals may be
more tlian donbied, and three-flag signals trebled, whilst fire
times as many signals can be made with fonr flags. The
advantages of the proposed additional flags were deemed bj
important that the Uommiltee have not hesitated to ad(jpt
them, although the step involves the abandonment of the Co>le
suggested by them in 1889, and the preparation of an entirely
new Signal Book. The great advantage of the new Ctxl«,
therefore, will lie that no genera] signal will contain more
than three flags in a buist, and that there will )>e an exteneivg
addition to the number of two-flag signals. All the two-flag
■ignala are now Urgeni and Important Signals, the letter " N,"
which is 80 well known all over the world as a distress signal,
being still retained specially tor vessels in distress. Compaas
Signals in the new Code are given in degrees, instead of in
points and half-points, as in the present Code, and the bearings
are true instead of boing magnetic ; but the bearings in points
and half points are, however, still given besides, with magnetie
bearings, should they be preferred.
Several important signals can be made by one flag between
vessels towing and vessels being towed, the flag being held in the
hand, and only shown just above the gunwale. Otherwise the
one-flag signals have not been extended, firom the fear that
they might be mistaken for house-flags ; but the Code pemunt
has been utilized to make a la^e number of two-flag signalii
and such flags as have a special meaning by themseWefl, as B
(the gunpowder flag), or L and Q (the quarantine flags), with
the pennant over them, will retain the meaning that the; have
at present The Spelling Signals have been very much improved
and enlarged, as also is the case with the Oeographieai BlgnaU.
The new Bu^ee flag " A " has been utilized, together with the
present " B " Burgee, as the diatioguiahing flag of the signal
DISTANT SIGNALS 36?
The very large Dumber of places on the coaats of the various
coantries of the world which have sprung into notice during
the last few decades is so great that there was probably no part
of the old Code which more required revision than that contain-
ing the Geographical Signals, and although additiona had from
time to time been made, yet they entirely failed to render the
list of names of places even approximately complete. The
Geographical Section of the new Code contains something like
10,000 names of places, or about three times as many as appear
in the present Code, and includes the name of practically every
sea-coast place of any importance ; and, following a sugges-
tion of the Danish anthorities, a special sign is to be added to
thd names of places at which life-saving stations have been
established.
No change has been made in the colours of the flags in the
existing Code, except " F," which it is proposed shall have a
white cross instead of a white Imll, as at present, and "L,"
which is to be changed from blue and yellow squares to black
and yellow. This change will, doubtless, be appreciated by
seamen generally, as L and K are constantly mistaken for each
other.
Under the heading of " Distant Signal.'?," at the beginning of
Part II. of the new Code, three different modes of signalling
are given, viz, by balls, cones, and drums ; by balls, flags, and
pennants ; and by the semaphore. Of these three systems the
only one which is new to the Signal Book of the International
Code is the first — balls, c^nes, and drums — and this is the
system which in the opinion of the Committee is the most
likely to prove of immediate use to the Mercantile Marine.
Signals made by balls, cones, and drums cannot only be
distinguished at much greater distances than those made by
hoists of flags, but they are much less liable to be affected by
atmospheric conditions and the absence or direction of the
wind. Three balls, two cones, and one drum, are all the
apparatus that is required, and the gear is both less expensive
and far more durable than flags. This system, although given
mider the heading of " Distant Signals," being equally applic-
able at close quarters, will probably meet with the approval of
owners of small craft who might very naturally be afraid of the
36R THE BRmSH MERCHANT SERVICE
additional oat of the new and more extensive code. Althou^
ttio now Code will mean an additional cost at first for all nm-
{•«riiQd, yet in the long rnu there is not likely to be m^^
dilTereoce, since there will be lees wear and teair in doing tlie
aame amoaot of work, as the signals will be made with fevs
flags.
The arrangement of the Signal Book has been well thought
out and planned. To faoilitate rapiditj- in looking ont a sdgiul
ID the general vocabulary, all the principal words in sentence*
are given, even at the expense of repetition ; and not only do tbe
various words in that vticabulary which form headings folio*
onfl another in alphabetical sequence, as in the old Code, bat
the ilifTorent words ami phrases coming under the raiion
headings are also arranged in alphabetical order.
The Committee recommend that the use of the new Code
shall come into operation on January 1 , 1900— a date EofBcientlv
remot« as to admit of the Code being translated into foreign
languages. Prom the commencement of the year 1900 no
further copies of the existing Code will be issued ; and aSx
BecGmber 31, 1!>01. it is proposed that the old Code shall b«
considered as obsolete, and that signals from it should t»
disregarded.
SHIPS LIGHTS
CHAPTER XXVIII.
_ (' lightB— Port and sUrboard liglito— Anchor lights— Tlie oaae of H.M.S.
Blenheim and La Franct — Norwegian steamer and barque — Sound
aignaU for fog — Signals of diatresa — Life-aaving applianceB— Draught of
water, and load-line — PlimBoU'a mark — Certam cai^oea — Dangerons
goods— The Rule of the Road.
^Au. vesaels, both sailing and steam, when under way, are
boQnd by law to carry from sunset to sunrise a green light
on the starboard side and a red light on the port side, and
a steamer, in addition to these, is obliged to curry a white
light at the mast-head. To this law alt vessels conform,
from the little coasting schooner to the line-of-battle ship;
but, as reasonably might be expected, a very large diversity
in degrees of excellence prevails, many among the smaller
class of vessels being but ill-found in the way of lights, and
not always being careful or exact in the manner of displaying
such lights as they have. The lamps, besides being poor in
themselves, are often badly trimmed and badly tended, and not
imfrequently are allowed to go out altogether. Many of the
larger ships, on the other hand — all the great ocean liners,
for instance— now carry such brilliant side and masthead
lights as almost to compete with the lightships and the lesser
lighthouses. Many of the great liners are now fitted witli
powerful electric side and masthead lights, although when this
13 the case it is not unusual for them to discard the electric
in favour of mineral oil when in home waters, or in waterways
where the traffic is considerable, as there is less likelihood of
the lights failing at, perhaps, just a critical moment.
Now and then an odd thing will occur with regard to
ships' lights. As an instance, not long ago a small Scotch
barque left the London Docks for Natal and Mauritius.
Very soon after getting out of the Channel the foteahe«t
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
broke the gtus vi the starboard light. There was uiothn
pair of side-lights on board, so a new green light wu
brought up and shipped. It was not many days before the
foresheet bmke that glass too, and the barqne went all the
way from the Bay of Biscay to Natal with an ordinary white
lantern, into which was pasted the green cover of a TU-Biu
for a starlxjard light. With the heat of the flame the green
paper speedily assumed a bruwn lint, hut erne of the appren-
tices ha^-ing a L^onsiderahle store of literature in his chest, is
the 8hai>e of a year's numbers of Tit-Bits, the green papo
was renewed every other night, and the small Scotch tarqiie
thus conformed, to the beat of her ability, to the law thai
required her to show a green light on the starboard side.
All sailiug-ahips and steamers at anchor are required 1^
law to show a white light where it can best be seen, at any
height not exceediug twenty feet above the deck. Oc(.-asioiiAU;
ships at anchor, besides showing this anchor-light forwuii,
which they are required to do by law, as an additiontl ,
precaution show a Inight light at the stem, which whes at
anchor they are not required to do, and which sometuna
leads to disastrous results,*
On the night of Monday, January 25, 1897, La FraiM,t
five-masted sailing-ship, of 4000 tons register, belonging to
Dunkerqne, on a voy^e horn Iqmqoe to Donkerqae, with i
cargo of six thousand tons of nitrate, waa lying at anchor
in Dongenesa Beads. She had the tumol anchor-light hoisted
at the bow, and in addition showed a bright light astern.
The night was fairly clear. A steamer, which subeaqnentlj
proved to be H3[.S. Blenheim, when eeveral miles away, wu
seen from the French vessel to be bearing straight for the
ship. As the steamer drew nearer it became apparent that
she would strike La France amidahips. The utmost con-
sternation prevailed on board the French ship, the crev
shouting loudly to attract the steamer's attenti<ni, which they
ultimately did, hut not in time to prevent the colliaion which
followed. The Blenheim at the last moment altered her
* By a recent order vee«e1s of 150 feet or upwards in length, wbeo at
anchor art hotmd U> show a light at the stem as well as tbe light forwaid ;
but the dieadvantagea of the rule are dvarif shown In the case of La Frwta.
^ H.M.S. " BLENHEIM AND " LA FRANCE 371
(.'ourse, but she struck La France a glancing blow on the
starboard quarter, causing extensive damage ; — rails, bulwarks,
and staEcheons being carried away, some of ber upper plates
ripped off, and the taptain's cabin stove in.
Those on board the Blmheiw stated that the ironclad was
steaming up Channel at the rate of about thirteen knots,
and that when about four miles south-west of Dungeness the
look-out repotted two lights ahead, but thought that they were
the lights of two fishing-boats, as there was a considerable
distance between them. The navigating lieutenant continued
his course, thinking to pass between the two fishing-boats;
but when close upou La France it was seen that what had
been mistaken for the lights of two fishing-boats were in
reality the bow and stem lights of a great sailing-ship. The
bebn of the Bkiihdm was immediately put bard over, and her
starboard engine was stopped and put full-speed astern, with
the result that she quickly came round ; but she struck the ship
a glancing blow, instead of striking lier at right-angles, which
if she had done, would undoubtedly have cut the French
ship in half. ^Vs it was, both vessels received considerable
damage ; and it was distinctly due to the misconceptioii caused
by the stem light of the French ship.
In a somewhat similar case, where a Norwegian steamer,
lying at anchor with a bow and stem light, was mn into by
a barque, the President of the Admiralty Court held that the
steamer was alone to blame ; and this view was confirmed
on appeal, Lonl Esber ruling that " the riding light forward
was necessary and sufScient, end the stern light a source of
error, which might cause, or contribute to, an accident." That
in the cose of the Blenheim the Admiralty took a similar view
may be inferred from the fact that, after considering the
Minutes of the Court of Inquiry, it was decided that no Court
Martial upon those in charge of the Blmiheim was needed.
A steam-vessel when towing another vessel, has, in addition
to her sidelights, to carry two bright lights in a vertical line
one over the other, not less than six feet apart.
A vessel which from any accident is not under command,
has to carry at the some height aa the ordinary mast-head
light, two red lights, in a vertical line one over the other,
373
TRF, BRITISH MERCHANT SEkVICK
1
not lees than six feet apart, and of such a character as to be
vialble all round the horizon at a distance of at least twu milea
Pilot ressflla, nhen engaged on their station on pilotage
duty, are not obliged to carry the Hidelighta required in other
vessels; bat they must carry a white light at the mast-head,
risible all round the horizon, and must also exhibit a flaie-np
light at short intervals, which must never exceed fifteen
minutes.
A. vessel which is being overtaken by another vessel mn«t
show from her stem a white light or a flare-up light, Boch
light to be as nearly as possible on the level with her sidelights.
Besides all these and other official lighta, there are now k
number of private night signals, which before they are used
have to be approved and registered by the Board of Trade,
and may only be used at the particular place allowed by ttie
Board. They number something like a hundred and twenty:
but the following may be takan as fair specimens of the rest :—
Ancboi Line
(Henderson Bros.
Ula^w).
and Co., Fen-
church Street,
hoadoB).
LondoD and Soatti
WeHlem Rsil-
way Cotnpany'a
Bteamors
(Docks, Sonlli-
ampton).
Uooard S.S. Co.
(Water Street,
Liverpool).
A Red light and a White light On and near tlio ««
eihibited alternately from of the United Kii
some conspicuoos part of the . dom, and on the hi
ship ; tbe Bed light to be so seas.
exhibited as not to be mis-
taken for the Red side-light
carried under the regulationa
for preventing colMona at
A Bhie light humed on the >
bridge, followed imtQediBtely '
by a lloraan candle throw- 1
iiig five blue balla to a
height not exceeding 150
feet. I
A Roman candle Ihrowing out '
green balk to- a height not
exceeding 150 feel.
Anywhere within Britisli
jiirisdiotion, and on the
higheeaa.
and Spithead ; also oS
the Channel Isluik
and on the high seas.
L Blue light and two rocketa Ofl" Browbead, in the
biireting into golden stars Countyof Cork, anJofl
Qred in quick succession. , Queenstovm HarhooT,
I in the County ofCoil-
H ilGNALS OF blSTllESS 373
B If these aigniils are iiaed in any other place, or for any
^Hier purpose than that named, they may be liable to be
^Kken for signals of distress, and any vessel answering them
^■Diild be able to claim salvage.
W SoUND-aiGNALS FOR FoG, ETC.
" Every steamship is by law compelled to be provided with a
steam-whistle, or other efficient steam sound-signal, so placed
that the sound may not be intercepted by any obstructions ;
and with an efficient fog-horn to be sounded by bellows or
other mechanical means; and also with an efficient bell. A
sailing-ship must be provided with a similar fog-horn and bell.
In fog, mist, or falling snow, whether by day or night,
the following signals are to be used : —
(a) A steamship under way must make with her steam-
whistle, or other steam sound-si g^nal, at intervale of not more
than two minutes, a prolonged blast.
(6) A sailing-ship under way must make with her fog-horn,
at intervals of not more than two minutes, when on the
starboard tack one blast ; when 011 the port tack, two blasts in
SQCcession; and when with the wind abaft the beam, three
blasts in succession.
(c) A steamship or a sailing-ship when not under way, is
at intervalf< of not more than two minutes, to ring the bell.
SiQNALB OF Distress.
Wben a ship is in distress, and requires assistance from other
ships, or from the shore, the following signals are to be use<I : —
In the daytime —
(1) A gun fired at intervals of about a minute.
(2) The International Code signal of distress, indicated
by N C*
(3) The distant signal, consisting of a square flag, having
either above or below it a ball, or anything resembling a ball.
At night —
(1) A gun fired at intervals of about a minute.
(2) Flames on the ship (as from a burning tar-barrel, oil-
barrel, etc.)
' N C, " III distress — want
I
HE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
(3) Kocketa or shells, throwing stars of any eolaur «
loriptiuD, fired one at a time, at short iQt«rTal&
By the ■134th Section of the Merchant Shipping Act—
" If ftnj nwoler of a vossol uses or dUplays, or canseB or penmtt iBf
rwn under his aiiUiority to n»e or JisjJay, any of these signals ot diBtlts,
_(iepl iu Ihe cm* of a vcmcI being in distrera, he shall be liable lo pay «w-
i«iMtion for any labour nnderiaken, risk tncurre'l. or loss eustAuied in con-
moo of that signal liaving lieeu supposed to be n signal of diEtres."
same Act providea that every sea-going passengo
steamer or emigrant ship must be provided to the aatisfaction
of the Beard of Trade—
It) With means la said signals of distress tt
t, including m of . flames on the ship whid
.nextingnishabl* ch other means of makii^
als of diatiei of Trade may prenond;
axe; and
) With a pn s lights inextingnishabte fa
ii, and fitt« lifie-baoya.
- If taj such ahi| a art of the Uait«d Kmgiiom irilh-
out being provided ^ > »• ^i— . tion, tlien for each defkolt m mj
of llio above reijniaites, tho omier (if in Isnlt) shall be lijible to a fine not
exceeding one hundred pDiiDd.->, and the master (if in fanlt) shall be liable to
K line not exceeding fifty pounds."
LiFE-SAVISG AprUAKCES.
The Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, provides that the Bosri
of Trade may make niles for Life-saving appliances, by
arranging all British ships into classes, having regard to
the services in which they are employed, to the natnre and
duration of the voyage aud the number of persons carried;
and may define the number and description of the boab,
life-boats, life-rafts, life-jackets, and life-buoys, to be carried
by such ships.
Section 430 of this Act provides that —
" In the case of any ship—
" [a) If the ship is required by tlie rules for life-saving appliviow to bt
provided witii such appliances, and proceeds on acyToyage or ezcunJon with-
out being so provided in accordance iviih the niles applicable to the ship; or
" (6) If any of the appliances with which the ship is so provided are loet ot
rendered unfit for Borvicc in the course of the voyage or excursion throo^
the mlfiil fault or negligence of the owner or maaler; or
k)If ll
Canity
LIFE-SAVING APPLIANCES
;c) If ihe master wilfiilly neglects to replace or repair on the first
inity any Buch appliances lost or injured in the ooorse of the Toyiige
mces arc not kept so aa to be nt all times fit and rcaJy
for use ;
then the owner of the nhip [if in fault) sliall for each oSence ho lialile to a fine
not exceeding one hiin<Irc'l jioiuids, and the master of the ship (if in fault)
shall for each offence be liable to a line not exceeding fifty pounds."
Thus far the law. How it is possible always to enforce
the law is altogether a different matter. A ease in point.
A short time ago a small barijue was loading in the Sontli
Weat India Dock. She had two boats — a lifeboat on chocks
amidships, and a small gig on davits on the quarter, the
lifeboat being full of ropes and all sorts of gear that was put
in her to be out of the way. The Board of Trade Inspector
CRtne along, and said that daTits must be provided for the
lifeboat. The skipper objected. He often used the gig,
and he didn't want the davits altered ; and he didn't want
davits both on the port and the starboard sides. The inspector
said that if he did not have the davits altered to take the
lifeboat he would not get his clearance, so the master, having
no option, reluctantly assented. The alteration was made,
and in due course the barcjue went away to sea ; but she
"Was scarcely across the Bay before the carpenter was set tu
work to alter the davits back again to how they were before,
whilst the lifeboat resume*l its old place amidships as the
wptahle of all manner of odds and ends.
^wcepl
Dkauoht of Water and Load-line.
Every British merchant ship, except vessels under eighty
tons register, employed solely in the coasting trade, vessels
employed solely in fishing, and vessels employed exclusively
in trading from place to place on rivers and inland waters,
is bound to be permanently and conspicuously marked with
lines (called deck-lines) of not less than twelve inches in
length, and one inch in breadth, painted longitudinally
on each side amidships, indicating the position of each
deck which is above water ; the upper edge of the deck-lines
^iug level with the upper side of the deck-plank next the
376
TMt BRirrSH MERCHANT SERVICE
n-ftterivsy at the place of uiarkitig. If the ship be pu
bl&ck, or of a dark colour, the lines most be whitfi oryeUm;
and if the ship be painted white, or some light colooi, the
deck-lines most be black.
In addition to these deck-lines every British merchant ship,
with the same exceptions, is bound to have, on each side, ■
circular disc twelve inches in diameter, with a horozontal line
eighteen inches iu length drawn through its centre; the
colours to be the same, as prescribed for the deck-lines.
(This is what sailors call "PHmsoli's Eye.")
The centre of this disc has to he placed at snch a level
05 may be approved by the Board of Trade, and it indicate
the maximum load-line in salt water to which it is lawful
to load the ship. If the ship l>e so loaded as to submerge,
in salt water, the centre of the dis<^', the ship is to be deemed
on unsafe ship, and may, by the Board uf Trade, be detaineJ
until her loading has been so altered as to bring the centre
of the disc again above the water-line.
Any owner or master of a British ship failing to have his
ship marked as above ; or if he conceals, removes, alters, or
iibtitemtes the markings ; or if he allows the ship to be so
loaded as to submerge the centre of the disc ; — ia liable, foi
each offence, to a fine not exceeding one hundred poonds.
&IEAM8&IP.
Utarboani Sida.
^
g DRAUGHT OF WATER AND LOAD-LINE
In addition to the diw referred to above, the eame Act of
ParlifttneTit requires all British Bhips, with the exceptions
mentioned above, to be marked with "load-lines" in
accordance with the Freeboard Tables adopted in the Act,
and the Committee of Lloyd's Eegister are empowered by
the Act to administer these tables. The markings of disc
and load-lines for a steamer are here given. These lines
indicate the depth to which the vessel may be legally loaded,
and tbe letters indicate the paiticular circtimatances of sncb
loading, thus: —
F W (for Fresh Water). — The maximum depth to which
the vessel can be loaded in fresh water.
I S (for Indian Summer). — The maximum depth to which
the vessel can be loaded for voyages during the fine season
in the Indian Seas, between the limits of Suez and Singapore,
S (for Summer). — The depth of loading for voyages from
European and Mediterranean ports between the months of
April and September.
W (for Winter). — Ditto, between the months of October
and March.
W N A (for Winter, North Atlantic). — The maximum
depth to which the vessel can be loaded for voyages to, or
from the Mediterranean, or any European ports from or
to ports in British North America, or eastern ports in the
United States, north of 37" 30' north latitude, between the
months of October and March, both inclusive.
Salt water ia more buoyant than fresh water, so that a vessel
will float higher out of water in salt water than she. does in
fresh. The average weight of a cubic foot of salt water is
64 lbs., and that of a cubic foot of fresh water 62-5 lbs., so
that a vessel having a moulded depth of 10 feet will rise
2 inches in passing from^ fresh to sea water ; with a depth
of 20 feet, 4 inches, and so on. The density of water varies
very considerably in different parts of tbe world. In different
ports of the United Kingdom there is a difference of 25 oz. in
the cubic foot ; as, for instance, in the Thames outside the
Victoria Docks, where the weight of a cubic foot of water
is 1000 oz., whilst at Plymouth the weight of a cubic foot
of water is 1025 oz. In view of these facts, certain tables
THE DRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
..ave l>een prepared by means of whicli the exact point lo
which any vessel may be legally loaded for any particular
port ran be readily ascertained.
The alxtve regulations ari^ the result of persistent efforts
I the part of the late Mr. PHmsoU, a Liberal MJ*. ot
[Jent philanthropy, and the champion of the sailors vl
mir Men-antile Marine who forced from Iilr. Disradi'*
vernment, in 1875, due attention to the danger oansed
!,_, the overloading of flhijre, and their despatch to eea in an
improper condition. He drew upon himself the need of a
full apology to the House of Commons by a scene of extra-
-dinary violeuoe, in which hia zeal impelled him to denounce
tirtain ship-owners in the House as " villaios," to defy the
i'-eaker's authority, and to shake his list at the Trewnry
ncli. His auger had been arcmsed by the withdrswsl
I Government Bill d( ' merchant shipping. Mr.
soil's case, in spiie n bebaviour, was strongly
■ported at meetings of tne working-men, and in the end
.^islatiun ilealt with the subject of overloading, and (WueA
the paiuliiiy of tiiiw fmiinus " Piiini^.iirH Mark" nti the hnlla
of all British merchant ships, as described aboTe, as the limit
of safe flotation for a freighted ship.
Certain Cahooes, and Danoebodb GK>ods.
lu the interests of sailors, many rules and regnlations as to
certain cargoes have been framed, the inMngement of which
is attended with very heavy penalties. For instance, if any
British merchant ship employed in the timber trade arrives
at any port in the United Kingdom from any port oat of
the United Kingdom between the last day of October and
the sixteenth day of April, with a deck cargo of timber,
the master of that ship, and also the owner, if he be privy
to the offence, is liable to a fine not exceeding five ponnd§
for every hundred cubic feet of wood goods so carried io
contravention of this law.
In the case of grain-carrying vessels where a cargo of grain
is laden on board any British ship, all necessary and reasonable
precautions^ must be taken in order to prevent the cargo from
THE RULE OF THE ROAD
shiftiiig; and if these precautione have not been taken, the
master of the ship and any agent of the owuer who was
charged with the loading of the ship, or the seiiding of her to
sea, is each liable to a fine not exceeding three hundred pounds.
No one may send by any British vessel any dangerous
goods, that is to say any aqnafortis, vitriol, naphtha, benzine,
gunpowder, lucifer matches, nitro-glycerine, petroleum, or
any kind of explosives, without distinctly marking the nature
of the goods on the outside of each package, under a penalty
not exceeding one hundred pounds. In the case of a person
who was merely an agent in the shipment of any such goods,
and who was not aware of the dangerous nature of the goods,
and who did not suspect, and who had no reason to suspect,
that they were dangerous, that person is liable to a fine of
ten poimds.
The Rule op the Eoad.
Many regulations have been laid down with a view to
preventing collisions at sea, end the aggregate of these regula-
tions form what is technically known as the "Rule of the
Road " — a subject i'raught with a certain amount of difficulty
even to the mariner, and probably with considerably more to
the lay reader. Speaking broadly, under ordinary circum-
stances, when two steam-vessels pass in close proximity to
each other they should pass each other on the port (or left)
hand, precisely as on shore when pedestrians meet, they pass
each other on the left. But if our pedestrian, whenever he
met another had to consider on which tacit tho other man
was — whether he had the wind on his right hand or his left,
or whether it was at his back, and bad also to take into
consideration a variety of other conditions, a large amount of
complexity would be imported into a proceeding which we now
perform intuitively. Happily, with the man in the street the
direction of the wind is of no possible moment, but in the case
of approaching ships — that is to say, of approaching sailing-
ships — it has much to do, and necessarily enters largely into
the consideration of the subject, and very materially affects
the course to be pursued by either vessel.
The rules at present in force are prescribed by an Order in
j8o THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
Council of the lltli of August, 1884; aud they have to be
rigidly observed by all vessels, as, iu the event of a collision,
the defaulting ship is apt to find out. The following ate some
of these Begulations : —
"Article H.^Wlioii two sailing-fillips are approaching one another, so as to
involve risk of collision, one of tiera shall keep out of the way of the otliet,
aa follows, viz : —
" (a) The ship that b mnmng free ehall keep out of ihe way of Ibe ship
that U cloao-bauled,
" (b) A ship which is close-hauled on the port tack aLall keep out of ihe
way of a ehip which is cloxe-hauled on the utarhoard lack.
" (c) When both ebips are mnuiog free, with the wind on different nde
the ship which has the wind on the port side shall keep out of the way of ih
ehip that haa the wuid on the starboard side.
" (d) When both ships are niniiiiig free, with the wind on the aame ddi
the ahip which is to wiodwanl shall keep out of the way ol the ship which ia
to leeward.
'* (e) A ship which has the wind aft iihall keep out of the way of the other
" Article 15. — If two ships under steam are meeting end on, or nearly eud
on, in such manner as to involve risk of colliBion, each ehip shall alter het
course to starboard, so that each pass on the port side of the other.
'' This Article only applies to cases where ships are meeting end o
nearly end on, in such a manner as to involve risk of collision, and does net
apply to two ships which must, if both keep on their respeotivo couraes, j
clear of each other,
" Tho only cases to which it does apply are, when each of Oie ships is cod
on, or nearly end on, to the other ; in other worda, to cases in which by day
each ship sees the masts of the other in a line, or nearly in a line with her
own ; and by night to cases iu which each ship is in such a position as to
sec both the side lights of the other.
"It does not apply by day to cases in which a ship sees another aheftd
crossing her own course; or by aiglit to cases where the red light of one ehip
is opposed to the red light of the other, or whoro the green light of one ship
is opposed to the green light of the other, or where a red light without a green
light, or a green light without a red light, is seen aliead, or where both gteea
and red lighla are seen anywhere but ahead.
" Article 16. — If two ships under steam are croa^ng, so as to involve risk tf'
collision, the ahip which has tho Other on her own starboard side shall keep-
out of the way of the other.
" Article 17. — If two ships, one of which is a sailing-Bhip and the other t
Hteamship, are proceeding in such directions as to involve risk of collision, Ibt
Bleamahip shall keep out of the way of the sailing-ship.
"Article 18. — Every eteaniship when approacliing another ship so
involve risk of collision, shall slacken her speed, or stop and rever
necessary. Every ship, whether a sailing-ship or a steamship, overtaking
any other ship, shall keep out of the way of the overtaken ship.
RULE OF THE ROAD IN RHYME
" Where, by the abo^e Rules, one of two ehipa ia to keep out of the wsy,
the other shall keep her course.
'■ No ship is, under any circumatatices. to neglect proper precautions.
"Nothing in the above Bdes shall exonerate any ship, or
master, or the crew thereof, from tlie consequenceB of any neglect to carry
lights or signale, or of any neglect to keep a proper look-out, or of the
neglect of any precauliou which may he requu^d by the ordiiiary practice of
seamen, or by llie special circumstances of the cose," *
These rules, so far as they are applied to eailiDg-vessels, it
will be noticed, are based upon en entirely different set of
conditions from those in force for steamers, for with the sailing-
ship it is only possible to move at a certain time in certain
definite directions; the steamship is free to move in all
directions. Take, for instance, clause (rf) of Article 14 ; it is
obvious that the ship which is to windward possesses a power
which the ship tu leeward does not, and this rale is therefore
framed in accordance witli that fact. The rules for steam-
ships, on the other hand, are of a more arbitrary character.
Article 16, for instance, might have equally well decreed that
the ship which had the other on her own pori side should
keep out of the way, there being no particular virtue in the
fact of her being on the starboard side any more than the
port. And so with many other of the rules, all of which,
however, have been the result of the most careful and the most
anxious consideration.
In order that saihirs might have roughly the Rule of the
Road at their fingers' ends, the late Mr. Thomas Gray, C.B.,
.^.ssistant-Secretary of the Board of Trade, put the priTicipal
rules into rhyme as aids to memory :—
(1) Two steamers meeting :—
" When both side-lighta you see ahead,
Port your helm, and show your Heii."
• Besides the above Rules, which are of universal application, there are
many other regulations of a mora or less local nature, but which are equally
binding upon all vessels, as, for instance : " In narrow channels every steam-
ship shall, when it is safe and practicable, keep to Uiat side of the fairway, or
mid-chanael, which lies on tlie starboard side of such ship." Thus in Ihe
Kiver Thames outward-bound steamera ought to keep, as much na possible,
on the Keutish side of the river, and homeward-bound steamurs, ai much as
possible, next the Esses shore.
r
k
3*3 TItE BSmSII MERCHANT SERVICE
(2) Two Bteamen pMnng : —
^ GsKKs (o GaKCX, or Red to ^*n —
Pofect Miecy— Oo ahcadl"
(3) TvQ stewneis crossing. (Xot«. — Thb la a position ot 6»
gnatxA (Uager, uul th«re ia notlilDg for it bat good look-vnt,
rsotiint, utd JDiigmeot, with pronpt action.) —
" If ta roar BiKbard BcB ifpMU,
Ii ■ Toar dntr to kMp dew ;
Ta Mt a jadgnnt 1^ ii pofv ;—
T» hrt, «r StaAcaK 8Mk, V Slep lur 1
" Bat wfcM apaa yw Psit M tan
A iliiaiM'i SivbMfd t^ otOu.BS.
nan^ Bot to nodb fo job to 40^
Par QaBm to Fart fcec^ oImt «f foak"
(4) All ritips must keep a g<^iod look-out, and irtcamshipa
t stop and go astern if neoessary : —
■' BMh im utttj aaii in doubt i ]
Alinijakecfi agoodlook-ont; ^^^p
In dinger, wiih no rvwm ta turn,
Euc hei ! Sti.">p her ! Go astern ! " I
The great difficulty always a to get men to do the right ]
tbint^ at the right moment. It is reqoisite to see at oooe the '
thing to be done, and to do it. Freqnently men hesitate; and
if in the end they do the right thing, they do it too late, with
the result, not nn&eqnently, of a collision. The same Mr. Gray
says in one of his reports —
" LcgisUtioi) cannot make caralees people cardhl, nerroai petals itraog,
ignorant people nise, dull people bright, or sleepy people wakefnl. Let tbta
enact mlas for erer, coUiaioDB will continne to b»ppen, through tgnoraiM,
bad look-ont, or carelewnew, jnat in the Bame way that sliipe wiU contiiiiM to
be wrecked or stnnded from the same cansea."
¥
CHAPTER XXIX.
Lloyd's — Lloyd's Coffee-houBo in Tower Street; in Lombard Street; at
Pope'a Head Alley; at the Boyal Exchange— Tlia Act of Incorpo-
ration— The objeclfl of Lloyd's — Underwriting — The great h
Lloyd's— Pttriiamentary inquiry in 1810 — Lloyd's signoI-Btations — Lloyd's
Rcgiater of BritiEh and foreign fihipping — CUSBification of ehips — Sur-
veyors of Lloyd's Rcgiater — The ClasHiScalion Committee — Number of
shipa mrveyed and classed by the society.
DcniNQ the seventeenth end eighteenth centuries much of the
commercial buaineas of the City of London was transacted at
the coffee- houjses, of which there were a considerable number
in the City, Among them wua one in Tower Street, kept by a
certain Edward Lloyd, the earliest notice of which occurs in
the Loivit^n. Gasetic of the 18th of February, 1688, and this
particular coflFee-house was much frequented, partly for busi-
ness and partly for gossip, by merchants, shippers, and others
interested in matters relating to shipping and the sea. In the
year 1692, Lloyd's Coffee-House was removed to Lombard Street,
in the very centre of that portion of the City of London most
frequented by merchants of the highest class, where it soon
became the head-quarters of the maritime business of the City,
and especially of the business of marine insurance ; and it was
from this beginning that aruse that association of merchants,
shipowners, underwriters, and insurance brokers now known
as " Lloyd's," whose head-quarters are at the Royal Exchange,
and whose agencies are to be found in every part of the civilized
world.
At Lloyd's Coffee-bouse in Lombard Street were started the
simple written "Ships' Lists," which constituted the first
attempt to establish anything approaching to a system uf
classification of merchaut shipping. After the written " Ships'
Lists" had been for some years in existence, Mr. Lloyd com-
MESClUirr SERVICE
, a tin jnr 1696, tbe pobUcation of a weekly nevs-
{«per ftmiduBg eommefcul mnd shipping oewa, in tboae dtji
an toidertaking ctf ou small dLfBculty. This paper took tin
name o^ UoySt .Vmra; and altfauugh its life was not a long
ooe, it vas destined to be the precQrsor of the now abifjnituni
Voy^M Litt, the oldest newspaper existing in Europe at tb«
fmamt time, the Ltfndtyji Ga^te alone excepted.
In I^anbaid 5tn«t the Imsiness transacted at Lloyd's Coflie-
boon steadily grew in extent and importance, bat tlmnghogt
He gnater part nf the last eentory it does not appear that tin
Bendaats and andenmters who ft^qnented the rooms was
boand together by any roles, or acted un<ler any organiiatian.
By-ttnd-lT', however, the r«pid incT««s« of marine iusoruKe
neoesitaled an alteration in the then existing Etrstem, and
improred acromniodation became absolutely necesaary; tf-
oonlinglr, after finding a tenpurarr ittstisg-place in Pojie'i
He«d Alley, the anderwriters and brokers finally settled dom
•t tlie Bojnil Exchange in March, 1T71, and the rooms oocnpitd
by tbem, which had prerioiuly been oonipied by the Bui
India Companv. over the northern piazza of the old Eichan^,
were known, until s-j receutly as 1S20, as "Lloyd's SnbecHp-
tion CofFee-hottse."
After the final establishment of Lloyd's at the Boyal Ei>
change, one of tbe first improvements in the mode of effecliDg
marine insurance springing ont of tbe new state of things m
the introduction of a printed form of policy. Hitherto mioot
forms had been in use ; and to aroid the nnmerous dispnUs
consequent on a practice so loose and uusatisfiictory, the Ccm-
mittee of Lloyd's proposed a general form, which was finally
adopted by members on the 12th of January, 1779, and whieb.
with only a few alight modifications, still remains in ose tt
the present day. Perhaps, however, the two most importist
events in the history of Lloyd's daring this century *at
tbe reurganizatioQ of the aissociatiun in Igll, and tbe paw^
of an Act in 1871, granting tt> Lloyd's all the rights ui
privileges of a Corporation sanctioned by Parliament.
According to this Act of Incorporation, the three m«i
objects for which the Si>ciety exists are— first, the carrying Mi
uf tbe bnsinesa of utrame insarattce \ secondly, the pioteetii*
THE OBJECTS OF LLOYDS
38s
ftlie interests of the members uf the association ; and thirdly,
( collection, publication, and diffusion of intelligence and
[brmatiou with respect to shipping. In the prom<ition of the
t-n&med object, obviously the foundation upon which the
e superstructure rests, an intelligence department has been
doally developed which for wideneas of range and efficient
lorkiDg has no parallel among i)rivate enterprises in any
BtlJ.
* The rooms at Lloyd's are available only to members and
plwcribers. The latter pay a certain annual subscription,
t bftve no voice in the management of the institution ; the
mer consist of two classes, namely underwriting members
non-underwriting members, both of which classes also
ky subscriptions varying in amount. The management of
> estabiishmeut is delegated by the members to certain of
r Domber selectefl as "The Committee of Lloyds." With
I body lies the appointment of all officials and agents of
I institution, the daily routine of duty being entrusted to
taecretary and a large staff of clerks and other assistants.
Lloyd's is thus, in the first place, an association of under-
riters, each of whom conducts liis business according to his
;, For those views, or for the business transacted by
lividual underwriters, Lloyd's, as a corporation, is in no way
toponaible, except that the Oomioittee of Lloyd's, before the
tction of any underwriting member, requires that the
ndidate shall place in the hands of the Committee security
his underwriting liabilities. For many years this
■stom has prevailed, and the total securities thus placed at
■e disposal of the Committee of Lloyd's amount to over
1,000,000. It is difficult to estimate the value of property
luually insured by Lloyd's, bat it probably amounts to about
K),000,000 sterling, Lloyd's, as a Corporation, and the
lommittee aa ita executive, have, however, little to do with
laurauee. Their business is to conduct the affairs of
[Joyd's in its corporate capacity, to carry out the supply and
Bistribution of shipping intelligence, and to guard as trustees
rthe corporate funds and corporate property.
It was the wars which lasted from 1775, with but little
intermission, until 1815, that raised Lloyd's to the b.v^
386 THE BKlTISIl MERCHANT SERVICE
position whifh it now bolds, bringing borne to merchant! tbe
net-essily of covering their risks as effeotually as possible.
Higli premiums adequate to hij^li risks were offered, and mo-
chants of wealth became insurers of ppjperty afloat. The
wars liad the effect of bringing foreign marine iueuretn'e fna
all parts of the world to Great Britain, since the se^-nrity of
Lloyd's theu, as dow, was unequalled in the world.
In the second place, Lloyd's is an enormous orgamzatiun foi
the collection and distribution of marine intelligence. Tli€
intelligence department of Lloyd's was originally estabUi^fii
at Lloyd's Ouffee-house to oieet the public desire for LEifo>
mation with regard to vessels at sea, and the department hie
(Continually developed ; indeed, during the Freuch War tiie
Gh^vernment was often indebted to tbe Committee of Lloyd't
for the earliest information of trauaactioos all over the world.
Tiie great wealth of Lloyd's, and the fortunes made there,
attracted general attention, and in 1610, Parliament appoint«d
a Coumiittee to inquire into the affairs of the institution. F«m
this inquiry Lloyd's emerged 'victoriously, and since that time it
has continued to assist in the promotion of every nieasurt; whicV
might aid in the preservation of life at sea, tbe prevention of
fraud in connection with marine insurance, and the rapid collec-
tion and distribution of maritime intelligence to all interested.
With regard to the business of marine iusutsnce, the mode
of effecting an insurance at Lloyd's is extremely simple. The
business is done entirely by brokers, who write upon a slip of
paper the name of tbe ship and the name of the shipmasteT,
the nature of the voyage, the subject to be insured, and the
amount at which it is valued. If the risk be accepted each
underwriter subscribes his name and the amount which he
agrees to take or underwrite, the insurance being effected as
soon as the total value is made up. The sum paid by the
insured to the underwriters is denominated the premium, a tai
upon the profits of the merchant which the progress of science,
of the art of shipbuilding, and of the art of oavigation has,
in these latter days, reduced to a very moderate figuie.
Of course, it is perfectly conceivable thai to a ^udnlent
ship-owner, supposing that it were possible for such a person
to exist, who had effected a heavY insurance upon his ship,
■P LLOYDS AS A CENTRE OF INFORMATION 387
it might be adrantagflous that his ship should be lost; but
under no possible combination of circumstances could it be
other than a calamity to the underwriter that the ship which
he had underwritten should go to the bottom. Thia being so,
it has always been the aim of Lloyd's, not necessarily from
motives of philanthropy, but from self-interest, to promote
in every practicable way the building of ships that should
not go to the bottom ; and therefore, looking al it merely
from this low motive, it may truly be said that this great
society has done more for the safety of life and property at
sea than all the Acts of Parliament put together which have
ever been passed for the regulation of merchant shipping.
The Corporation has its agents in every port, and there is
no line of sea-coast in the whole world which is not watched
by some representative of Lloyd's. Various works relative
to shipping are published by the Corporation for the benefit
of the mercantile community, and at Lloyd's is also main-
tained a " Captain's Register," showing the services of every
master in the Mercantile Marine ; and much confidential in-
formation of great value to underwriters is collected in the
Secretary's Office for the benefit of members and subscribers
to the Corixiration.
At the present time, when vessels arrive much more quickly
than was the case formerly, it is of great importance that the
approach of ships to their ports should be known as early
beforehand as possible. This information is of great value to
dock authorities, who have not only to prepare berths for
arriving vessels, hut also, in the case of fust ocean liners, to
arrange the necessary organization for landing and forwarding
both passengers and mails. It is also often necessary that
vessels which have been ordered to proceed to some particular
port should, on account of changes of markets, or from some other
<-jLUse, be intercepted and ordered as soon as possible to change
their destination for another port.
Tor these and other reasons the Corporation of Lloyd's has
within the last few years devoted much attention to the
establishment of signal -stations which can forward thia infor-
mation inland, and can also convey orders to vessels paiising
the stations, not only in the United Kingdom, but also iu
388
THE BRITISH MERCHANT SERVICE
the British Colonies and in foreign countries. These signal-
atations are, too, of great value in furnishing intelligence
upon which underwrif«ra and others iutereated in shipping
depend for the transaction of their business. Vessels arriving
oft' outlying signal-stations often bring important intelli-
gence as to derelicts and wrecks passed on their voyages, aa
also information of vessels in distress and requiring assist-
ance. Vessels from long voyages, frequently considerably
overdue, are also reported from these stations. Not one vessel
in ten ever arrives now at a port in the United Kingdom
without having been previously reported from one of Lloyd'e
signal-stations.
Vessels which on passing one of Lloyd's signal-stations in
the United Kingdom hoist their ensign and signal letters
are, without any charge, reported immediately in Lloyd'a
List, the Siiippinff Oazette, and various leading newspapers.
When shipowners wish vessels reported to their own offices,
the vessels, in passing the signal-stations have in addition to
hoist the letters PQG (of the International Code), meaning,
"Beport me to my owners." In this latter case a charge of
uue shilling is made, in addition to the cost of the tekgiam.
Captains may, by leaving with Lloyd's the name and address
of the person to whom the report is to be sent, have the
passing of their vessel reported from signal -stations to their
wives or families at the cost of the telegram if the report be
telegraphed, or gratis if the report be sent by post ; only it
is a condition in such cases that the information is for the
use of the officer's family only, and not for business purposes.
The following is a list of the signal-stations of the Corpora-
tion of Lloyd's at the present time : —
Southend.
North Foreland.
Deal.
Duneeuens.
Beacli; Head,
Nettleatone Poiut (IW.) (temporarily
Hnspended).
SL Cfttherino's Point (I.W.)
Anvil Point (near Swanage) (tem-
porarily BT!8[iendeii).
UNITED KINGDOM.
Portland Bill.
Brixliatn (for Torbay).
•Prawlo Point
■The Li7^rd.
Aldemey (temporarily suspended}.
Penzance.
Sdlly Islands.
Lundy Islaod.
Pcnartli [temporarily sn^pended).
Barry Island.
Mumblci^ Head.
K
LLOVDS SIGNAL STATIONS
St Ann's Head (MilTora Haven).
Calf of Man.
Roche's Poiut.
•Old Uaad of Kinsale.
•Brow Head.
Tory Island.
IniflhtrahDil
Malin Head.
Rathlin Island.
Tor Point
Kadonan {month of the Clyde).
Storiiovray.
Lam lash.
Butt of Lewis (Hebrides).
Dunnet Head (Pentland Firth).
Fair lale (temporarily suspended}.
Peterhead.
May Island.
6t Ahb's Head.
Flamborou^h Head.
Spurn Head.
Grimsby (temporarily suspended).
Aldebntgb.
Orford Ness.
At the stations marked * arrangements have been made to take night-
dgnale. Night-signals made to the Dover signal -station should be shown
when the ressel ia as near bb possible on a straight line between the Qrisnez
and Dover Liglits. The answering night-signal used at Lloyd's signal-
Btations is mode by flasbes from a flashing-lamp. The signal to call the
attention of a. passing vessel is a series of continuous short flashes. The
Hignat to intimate that a vesgel'a signals have been seen and reeognized is a
eeries of long-short flashes repeated as often aa may be necessary. If the
signal shown by a vessel has not been understood, tlie lamp is kept dark until
the vessel repeats her signals.
Ebnnorc (J. T. Lund, Repoiler).
Heligoland.
Hoitenau (Baltic entrance to Kaiser
Wilholm CanalJ, — Messrs. Sartori
and Berger, Ship Agents and lle-
porters.
Brnnabiittelkoog (EUbe entrance to
Kaiser Withelm Canal). — Me-ssm.
Sartori and Berger, Ship Agents
ftnd Heporlera.
Hoek van Holland (Ulntraacc to
Waterway to Rotterdam).— G.
Dirfczwager, Ship Agent and Be-
poTter.
Oibtaltar.
MalU.
Dardanelles.
Port Said.
i St. Michael's.
Cape Spartel.
Madeira.
Ponta Fcrrarin \
Ponta do Arnel /
Fayal.
Las Palmas [Orand Canary).
St. Helena.
Ascension.
Capo Point,
Cape L'Agiilhas.
Bluer (Port Natal).
Fort St Sebastian (Mozambique)
Monlaerrat (W.I.).
Bermuda,
Cape Race.
Brcaksea Island (K.G.S.),
Goode laUnd (Torres StrBiwj.
Cape Maria van Diemen (Kz,)
Farewell Spit (N.Z.).
Nugget Point (N.Z.).
Honolulu.
The following Table shows the number of vessels reported
from Lloyd's signal -stations iu the United Kingdom during
the six months from the Ist of April to the 30th of September,
1897 ;—
390 THE BRTTISH
MERCHAST
SEKVICE '
L «_
9nuit
SUU>B.
T-..
71,
K
CiuUiig.
■«ll»
Op-**.
■'Bontlunid
2.3C3
3.361
1,293
1.847
880 1 9,714
V HoTtli?or<duHl ...
2,016
1.678
406
1.385
645 ' 6.13^
■ Dul
3,381
1,880
590
1.437
339 1 7.620
H Dover
C,608
1,656
2.348
2.DI6
575 13L20!
^K Duncenew
H B«Mli7H««d
6.668
3.838
1.8A!>
2,116
3.M '13.815
2,856
2.0(K
806
1.656
410 : T.6i9
^ Notliwitone Point ...
HI?
701
144
666
1,490 , 3.821
" 81. Cthcrine'B Potnt
6,(106
1.501
1.425
1.883
*>1
iOW
Anvil Painl
1967
3,436
2.387
4.149
1.463
lejBS
PortlwidBill
6\a
■2B»
98
200
467
1,6S«
Briilain
10
37
31
131
2fll
^ PrawlePobt
3,869
2.906
1,376
1,849
969
10,467
■ Llunl
2.7C6
5,222
949
2.«18
2G3
11,418
V Bci%
1.127
6
178
4
1
\m
W tS^kia'.'.'.
1.366
478
84
1,399
115
370
W2
743
22
16
3,012
K PcauiL
1.930
S92
498
986
6
i.ioo
■ B&rry Island
6,197
8,02«
888
1.905
104 , 12.120
■ MLiuLI««H«ad ...
*59
623
36
48S
1 1.GW
■ St Anne's Heftd ...
620
3,473
227
2.850
III 1 7,2S1
b OOfofUui
No
rctnnw
y«.
B Kildonn
963
2,646
158
494
ait
4.5»
^^ Butt of Lewi.
m
C
32
4
2
3M)
Dnnnet He»d
LOM
237
158
148
■24
l,fi£
Fairlflb
36
45
112
23
3
213
Peterhead
1,013
2,004
f^
1.897
m
B,5«
May Island
lochkeilh
311
282
352
84
4
1,IB3
8D3
1,099
739
156
88
i.97J
1.476
763
693
307
3,2.1<l
Rt-Abh'aHend
1,563
1.026
323
196
37
3,13.^
Hartlepool
No
returns
yet.
Whitby
834
399
156
176
12
1,57B
Flamborough Head...
Spurn H«3
1,7S1
3.327
99
873
7
WWT
1,122
143
80
210
2
1,S5T
QriniBby
262
18
4
5
1
290
Cromer
2,365
4.278
836
1.978
26
9,482
Winterton
6.471
9.826
657
3.563
26
20,5*3
Bactoii
3,413
5.886
293
1,786
7
11,384
AlJebnrgh
0,088
12,553
3.213
4.452
504
29,810
OriordncBg
3,886
12.882
2.845
5.797
520
26.930
Roche's Point
471
594
244
228
61
1,588
Old Head of Kinsale
691
71
74
132
968
Brow Head
585
29B
73
116
9
1,081
Tory Island
264
444
82
176
966
Malm Head
368
404
72
215
2
1,051
InisLtrahull
No
retiima
yet
Balhlb
466
182
222
49
6
904
TorPoiut
600
931
276
246
52
2101
Burr Point
737
1.927
271
812
223
3.970
LLOYDS BURGEE FOR BOATS.
(SANCTIONED BY ADMIRALTY.)
LLOYD'S FLAG FOR BOATS
(SANCTIONED BY ADM IRALTY WARRANT)
LLOYD'S FLAG FOR SIGNAL STATIONS,
Lloyd's regibteh 391
Besides the benefits of this iustitution in the protection of
B interests of merchants and of shipowners from the accidents
d the losses of navigation, the public spirit which on a great
riety of occasions has been displayed by Lloyd's in rewards
«iid honours to brave sailers who have risked their lives in
saving others, and in the event of their death while so engaged
in charitable relief to their unfortunate widows and orphans,
entitles this unrivalled association to rank among the greatest
monuments of British philanthropy, as well as those of com-
mercial enterprise and honour.
Lloyd's Beqibter of British and Fokbiqk Shippimo.
Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping is a society
entirely distinct from Lloyd's, although an offshoot from that
institution, voluntarily maintained by the shipping community,
having its headquarters at White Lion Court, Comhill. London.
It was established in 1834, by the amalgamation of "The
Register of Shipping," founded in 1760, with "The New
Register Book of Shipping," founded in 1799. Its principal
functions are, first, the surveying and classification of merchant
vessels, yachts, etc.. b'tth new and old ; secondly, the annnal
publication of a Register Book and a Yacht Register; thirdly,
the supervision of the testing of anchors and chains under the
provisiotta of the Chain Cables and Anchors Acts ; fourthly,
the supervision of the testing at the manufactories of the steel
intended fur use in the construction of ships and boilers ; also
of large ship and engine forgings and castings ; and fifthly,
the assignment of freeboard to vessels of all types under the
Merchant Shipping Act of 1894. The Register Book contains
very full particulars of all vesisels classed by the society, and
also particulars of all other sea-going vessels of every country
of the world, of 100 tons and upwards. This Register is in
all respects a most remarkable publication. Designed mainly
to meet the demands of the shipping and mercantile com-
munities tbrougbout the world, and thus to serve all the pur-
poses of en International Register and Directory of Shipping
combined, it necessarily partakes largely of the character of
a business hook of reference. It gives particulars of vessels
which in the aggregate represent over t^ent^-w-s. \w\\\\ws\ Vsw^
F39I THI SltrnSH MERCHANT SERVICE ^
ttAiffing. No o>iintrr is loo htaignifinnt. none too distant
l» W piMd over, k small stale like Coeta Rii-a appetiring,
tnA tti on* tteuner of 592 tons, side l^ side with ike United
8Mm *d A»fTin, with ber 780 steftmers, and 2370 Euliaf-
Ifc^ lip— ililifc in all 2,448,677 Uma.
V^Ht IK tb* ~ Bagister of Shipping " of 1760, the cUssifin-
I tkttof ditps w flist attempted, the vowels. A, E, I.O,aQd G,
wc cmplofvd lo deitote the relative quality of the bulla,
and the lett«» G. M, and B (oietuiing Gootl, Middling ud
*Bad) tu denote the quality of the equipment. Latet, tlw
Sgmws I. 2. 3 and 4 were used in reference to the equip-
meot, the wdl-known symhol Al indicating a first-rate reml
with a ilrst-iate equipnieat. first appearing in the Begul«r
tM 177&-76. 'When a ship had w far deteriorated ba not to
be admisBible in anv cla«s, she wm said to be " off the lettet."
Tliia Register ouotinaed until 1799 to be the only record of
' tike age, borthcn, build, quality, and condition of Brituk
umiilu, and Its aBthoritj in great measure goremed the
shipper and the onderwriter in the freightiiig of goods, a
in the matter of insurance ; and it aliso largely regnlated the
value of the ships themselves.
Aboat the time that the underwriters of Lloyd's shifted
their qoarters frtsn Lombard Street to Pope's Head Alley an
alteratiwi was made in the system of clasadficatioii t^ ships
which caused much dissatisEkcticu, and eventually led to the
establishment by shipowners of a rival Register. The exist-
ence of two competing associations was found, however, to be
fraught with much inconvenience, and both were nltimatelf
threatened with a financial collapse. Still the two Begisten
remained in conoorrent circolatitm until 1834, when they
were at last merged in " Lloyd's Blister" on its present
basis. Even the new society in its early yean was not
exempt from financial tronble. Within two years from its
establishment the number of subscribers dwindled from 721
to 615, and in 1836, when Christmas came ronnd, the then
chairman, Ur. Thomas Chapman, who held that positioD for
close upon fifty years, had to put his hand in his pocket to
provide the salaries of the staff. This, however, was the
"darkest hour l<efore the dawn,*' for prosperity soon after
p
CLASSIFICATION OF SHIPS
attended the Committee's efforts, and bucIi a state of things
never recurred.
At the present time wooden ships of the highest grade are
classed A for a term of years, subject to occasional, or annual
sorveys when practicable, also to Italf-time or intermediate
special surveys. They are eligible for continuation or restora-
tion of their character for further periods upon special surveys
described in the niles of the society. Of course, the construc-
tion of wooden vessels has now been practically abandoned
in the United Kingdom.
Wooden ships whicli have passed the period assigned on
the A character on original survey, or on continuation or
restoration surveys, or which did not have an original cha-
racter, may be classed A in red. These are aubjei;t to annual
snrvey and to the half-time survey presi'ribed in the Rules.
A Ifiwer class is denoted by the symlxil X. Vessels so
classed are considered to be fit for the conveyance of dry and
perisliable goods on s-horttr voyages than the higher classed
vessels. They must be submitted to annual sun'ey and to
special survey within periods not exceeding fmir years.
Steel and iron ships are classed by the society ^^^ with a
numeral prefixed, thus : lOOA, 95A, 90A, and so on ; also ^^
without a numeral for special truden. These numerals are for
comparative purjioses only, and do not denote terms of years.
Under former regulations many vessels still in existence
were classed ^(f^^j ^^> ^S^> *'"'^' ^^i "i"! '" ^'"■■'>
cases these old symbols have been matntaiiietl. Vessels
retain their charaotevs so long as, on careful annual surveys
and periodical special surveys, they are found to be in a fit
and efficient condition to carry dry and perishable cargoes.
To carry out the work of these surveys Lloyd's Register
employs a very large staff of surveyors, not only in London, bat
at all the outports in the United Kingdom, and at all the
principal ports of foreign countries and the colonies; the
anmber in the United Kingdom aione being 156. With two
or three exceptions at certain minor ports, all these surveyors
in the United Kingdom, as well as many of those at the
more important foreign porta, are exclusively the officers of
i
THE UtmSH UERCHAMT SERVICE
lk» siMtT, aad vn not permitted to engage in any otfan
er mploTinnkt wbAtooerer. l^eir daties may it
1. To ruty oat and Kpivt k> tli« Comtnitt^e all samn
(dans^ th« piMatroetion and aft^nranls) m^nired od the
Tgiwtbs. w tkMr es^nws and iMtlers. under the socrtety's ndei ;
«Bd opoo lb«n icyuaU ts Ivsed th« olaasiScatioD of tbe ship.
^ Ib «w» of ^BAge fa> re^M-U to hoM spe<^'al sarren I*
■scvrtein tka cxteat t4 the dama§:P. and to reriiHiimend die
9L Tb maj a«k tata t# itael, lar^ foi^iogs and castiIl£^
KED«Dt8 «nd surreys reqoired in orier to
> Oiiiuiutte« to a^aign ft^eboatd under the Load
f Jd vi 1890. «hi<'Ii u iii>w nuhodied in the H^tdHllI
fftlHt^Attof 18M.* KoHly KMWO nrii fteeboudB bm
hnBMKgaed by tka CootaxttsiL
IWOoawfktBeofLkTABagislerwlknfiist fti^oiBtedfia
^^ I89L vwknd SB MMahew. vfao vb« all drawn flnm LoodM
aI->Qe : n'w the C.-oitnitte* nanabers 5S meinheTs, compceed f.i
, iBen*biuit&, shipovnen. aad iui>l<r«rit«rs, repres^nbative of all
1^ Iks pruKipat shipfia^ potta (tf tbe •i^untry, and thus appur-
Ikued:— LtMidoit.aB; livetpot^d; GU^ow, 6; theTyne,3:
th«W«w.2; Haitl«potfi2; CaidifC2; Leith,!; Greenock,!;
HoU. 1: Bri^hd. 1; Ab«id«em 1; BelCut. 1; Dundee, 1;
Xewp>jrt and Swwi5««. 1 ; and the Tees Ptxts and Whitby, 1.
The CUssifioktioa Committee uf Lloyd's Register meets twice
a wtvk. and deals in tbe oo«u9e of the year with something lite
sixdeen lh«xMuid ««»«« of resseb arising npon repocta o(
Burreys frvm tbe ftviety sarreyots in all parts of the worid.
U'.«i of the $bip|4ng now ander constraetioa in the United
lun{e^l*.'m. as well as a large aBMwnt of tMUoage in progres
abfvwi. is being butt nndev the direct snpo-rision i:^ tbe
swietT * sorreyvi^s. witb a xiew to dassificatitHt by tbe
Conunittee.
I * MMv-hAM Sfcipfwf: A>.t. 1994. scetiM 443L— -TW Baud ot Tmk ^Wi
i *Ffo.'ia( the CuBininw of Llunl~« RegiHcr of Britkh mad Fonjgn Sh^fiDe
. . . ii> a[fio*» a^ ferof; va tktir b«4alf &«« tine to tne tbe posoiw ^
I
SIMILAR SOCIETIES
39S
At the present time, when all, or nearly all, vessels are con-
stmcted of either steel or iron, it is interesting to note that
only twelve years ago the publication of Lloyd's Register
contained notices of no less than five wooden vessels built in
the last century, and which were then still afloat and in use ;
the oldest of these being the British barque Truelovcy of 285
tons, which was built at Philadelphia, n.SA.y as far back as the
year 1764. Such instances of the longevity of wooden ships
are, however, quite exceptional.
Besides British ships a very large amount of foreign shipping
is included in Lloyd's Begister; but in addition to Lloyd's
Begister there are eight other societies which perform the same
daties and carry out the same functions in foreign countries
as Lloyd's Begister does in the United Kingdom. None of
these societies, however, do anything like the amount of business
that is conducted by Lloyd's Begister, as may be seen from the
following table for the year 1898 : —
Nune of cUMlileation sodelj.
Llo^d*8 Register *
British Corporation
Burean Veritas (France)
Germanischer Lloyd (Germany) . . ,
Nederlandsche Vereenieing van*^
AjBsaradenren (Holland) ... /
Norske Veritas (Norway^
Record of American ana Foreign |
Shipping (United States) ... /
Begistro Italiano
Veritas Austro-Ungarico (Austria)
j 8«Uing-
VMMlfl.
Steunera.
1 ToUl number
of rtmeilM
, clMsedineach
RegUter.
1
2411
145
3674
747
6507
361
1514
759
8918
506
5188
1506
40
51
91
1717
495
2212
1153
192
1345
690
1017
200
94
890
nil
* These figures exclude vessels classed in the society^s Yacht Register.
J
^
'
1
^^^^^^^^^■~^^^
^^l^^^^^l^^^^^^^l
^^ INDEX
^H
—
( The naiHta qf i>e»teh a
reprintodin Ilnlia.)
lb ijDibol first iised, 392
AiiprenticeB' indentures, 277
I*an6y, 119
premiums. 278
leen Lino, 192
««pos. 279
Apprenticeship, alteratious reijuired,
, 262, 263
inia, 140
ia. 134
Arab, Union Company, 175
capture uf, lu
ArchiTi^aia, 111
1 treBtmsDt of nppi-eiitioea, 280
Arelie, Collins Line, loss of, 136
P. an.l 0., 1o88 af. 159
AT^nd, M., 332
tic. Wliite Star, 185
Argand bnmerB, 332
CollitLS Line. 138
JrW,ChinaTe«Clirpef,23l,233,234
((we, 82
Arizona, 251
I, CuDUd Liua, 136
Armed cruisere. 260
<>i>. 3
AilJmrton, 227
a, 251
Alia, Cunord Lbe 13G
,112
AUielHtsn, G
tbe Great, 5
AUanlic, Collins Line. 135
•«Bhipa,5
Australia, discovery of. 77
o, 140
Awitr^ia, P. and 0., 246 ^H
Line, 183
Automatic logs. 302 ^^M
H8, Cftpwin, yj
Auxiliary screws, 174 ^H
5n, Itoyal Mail, tbe burning of,
Azores, 27 ^^1
ica, 134
32 ^^1
can Line, 187
Baltic, CoUins Line, 216 ^^H
, \Vhit« Suir, 185, S16 ^^M
icAD Tea Clippore, 231
iKo VeBpucci, 30
Baltimore Clippers, 221 ^^H
ar Line, 189
Barlow, CapUin, 59 ^^M
Baron Nor<lenakiold. 40 ^^M
.r lights, 370
nt Britona, 3
Bartholomew Diaz, 27, 64 ^H
canals across tlio Isthmus of
IMivia, Cunard Line, 139 ^H
^1,306
Battle off Sandwich, aJ). 1217 ..17
ighthousea, 31 S
off Sluys, A.I.. 1340.. 19
Bon, Mr. Arthur, 146
Beacons, 349
1, Commodore, 79
Bede, t
1 e voyage round the world, 79
Bd/ait, 185, 227
iiilicea, 276
Bell buoys, 350
Bell Bocl Lightbouae. 623
actual treatmem of, 280
iu 1830, 282
BeUs and watches, 296 -
number of, 276
Bengal, imports from, 69 ^^m
lutices' duties to owuers, 279
iJenj^, P.andO., 154 ^^H
i
Bttty Oulley, the wreck of, 1734 ..
Bibby Line, 192
BilliDg's Oate, 7
Bishop Rock Lighthouse, 327
Black Ball Line, 229
Black Prin<x, 233
BliKkiBtiil, 228
Blades of propellers, 250
Blake, 62
Blasco de Gnray, 102
Blue Jacket, 165
, burning of the, 225
Blue Peter, 358
Boatawain, 273
Bokliara, P. and 0,, Iobh of, 159
Bonil>ay and Suez mail, US, Ifil
Bona Vunjidentia, 38
Bona Speranza, 36
Bothnia, Ciuiard Line, 140
BuBit, While Star, 187
Bowie Tub of Newoaelle, 238
Bcislol, 43
Biitannia, Cunard Line, 134, 215
Britannic White Star, 185 ,
Britiih Oomma-ce, White Star, 185,
227
BrilUh Qu(tn, 110
liritiab seamen, number of, 270
retained Hs armed
system of toDuege, 243
tonnnce, 1688-1898.. 254
Briton, Union Company, 174
, new, Union Company, 170
BnioBwick dock, 91
Builders' Old Meaaarement, 240
Tonnaga, 239
Buoyancy ofsea water, 377
Buoys, 349
Byron, John, 80
Cabot, John, 31
, Sebastian, 36
Caai/u^o, 49
Ctesar, JiiliuB, 2
Calabria, 140
C'lkdoaia, 134
Camhria, Cunard Line, 134
Campania, Cunard Line, 141, 217,
247, 253
Canada, Cuoard Liue, 134
, Dominion lane, 189
Candia, P. and 0., 164
Canute, 7
Cape of Good Hope, 27
Cape Verde lalanda, 27
' Captain Cook, 80, 83
j Cargo-steamers, 123, 193
I Carpenter, 273
Carracks, 33
I CaaUo Line, 176. 17^
Catoptiic system, 330
Cattle-boats, 187, 201
C«ltaial,212
6U(ie, White Star, 135
I Cenfurioit, 79
I Chain cables, 131
I rigging, 131
; C^oUm^, 222
I Chtiilenger,7S.'3
I Champion of the Seai,l^,2Q&
' Chancellor, lUchard, 36
' Chapman Lighthouse, 327
j Charles II., B2 ^H
I OharlotU Duadas, 103 ^M
I Chief Mate, 286 ^M
Ohimborato, Orient Line, 171 ^^M
Oatfia, BiBt iron Cuuardet, 139 ^
' , P, and 0., loss of, 162
, China t«a race, 1850 ..223
, 1866.. 231
, I8G7..232 .^
, 1869. .235 ,^M
; 1870. .236 ^M
. 1871 ..236 H
, 1 872 . . 236 V
Chinaman, 233
Christopher, 1 9
I Christopher Columbus, 29, 30
] Vhryeotite, 223
■ Cinque Portfi, 8, 18
■ City Lino, 192
I City of Ballimort, m
I Cil!/ o/ Brtusdi, 216
i OUyofChxiW, 188
City of Olatgoiu, Inman Line. 113,
187
City of Montrta}, destruction of, 212
OUy of New Tork, 188
Ciiyo/Farit, 188
aty q/" RvAmond, IBS
Oitt/ qf Roma, Auohor Lme, 189, 251
City of Washington, 187
Ckn Line. 192
I OlassiScation of ships, 392
' Clousentum, 3
. Clearances and ontnmccs, 1837-97. .
i Chrmont, 104
! Coal, 22
I , amount per horso-power, 1 14
: , coat of, to the P. and O^ 153
INDl.X
C:;oal fires, 329
"Ooals, danger of, 213
CSoUins Line, 135
CoiambOj fire on board the, 118
, P. and 0., 154
OoloflSQS of Rhodes, 318
€Jfoiumhiaj 134
Cknnet, 105
Ck>xnposite Bjstcm of shipbuilding,
117
Ck>inpound engines, 139
Oonstmction of iron and steel ships,
126
Omtract times for mails to the East,
156
Control of lights, 339
Cook, 274
Cost of lenticular apparatus, 335
Cost of lights, 340
Cotton, spontaneous ignition of, 212
steamers, 212
Crest of the Wave, 232
Crusades, 9
Cuba, 139
Cufic, White Star, 187
Canard Line, 133, 144
Cutty 8ark, 235, 236
Cvzco, Orient Line, 171
Cjlindrical refractors, 333
Daxpieb, 78
Dane, Union Company, 174
Danes, 4
Dan^rons cargoes, 378
Darnel Bernoulli, 111
Danish ship, ancient, 4
Danube, Royal Mail, 169
Davis, John, 44, 65
Dead reckoning, 300
Deane, Anthony, 62
Deductions from tonnage, 242
Dee, Royal Mail, 165
Deep-sea soundings, 304
Demerara, Royal Mail, 169
Deramore, 205
Derelicts, reportmg, 293
Dias, Bartholomew, 27, 64
Dioptric lights, lamps for, 335
system, 333
Dischaiges, seamen's, 292
Displacement tonnage, 244
Distances lights are Tisible, 336
Distant sigiuJs, 367
Docks in London, 91
Dominion, 189
Dominion Line, 189
Donald McKay, 224
Donald McKay, 230
Double bottoms, 124
Dragon, 66
Drake, Sir Francis, 45, 46, 47
Drakers, 4
Draught of water, 375
Dr. Dupre, 212
Dreadnought, 227, 229
Drummond Castle, loss of the, 181
Dundas, Lord, 103
Dunvegan Castle, Castle Line, 180
Durfooth, Cornelius, 36
Dutch, the, 61, 67, 68, 69
Duties of apprentices to owners, 279
of owners to apprentices, 279
Earl of Baloarres, 73
East India Company, 64
, the new, 70
East India Company's officers, 74
ships, 75, 85
East India Docks, 93
East Indiamen, 68, 72, 253
, sale of the ships, 75
Eclipse, Isle of Thanet, and Fawn,
120
Eddystone Lighthouse, 320
Edenmoor, the loss of, 210
Edward Bonaventure, 36
Edward Cotton, the loss of, 57
Edward I., 18
Edward IIL, 19
, Great Fleet of, 20
Edward IV., 22
Edward VI., 43
Elder, Dempster, and Co., 192
Electric light for Lighthouses, 337
Elizabeth, Queen, ^, 50, 66
Endeavour, 81
Engineers, 275
English ships in the seventeenth
century, 63
Elnsigu, blue, 356
, red, 357
, white, 356
English ships in the time of Elizabeth,
to repel the Armada, 52
Enterprise, first steamer to India,
108
Ethclred II., 6
Entrances and clearances, 1837-97 ..
254
Etna, 155
Etruria, Cunard Line, 141
Burepa, Cnuu4 Line, iSi
Rumpcan utd AiiBtnli&u Sleam
* Navigation Cotnpaay. Itii, 1G<}
F.sperimciiU at tbe Soutli Foreland,
- Official Report of ikt Committee,
i-
\
>, 113
\
337
iUeon, 236
Falkland Inkodii. tIisooTt9i7 of, W
F.B. Ogdtn. in
Fordiaand d« LeoMpa, 307
Ki*ry tv™. .i33
FiBM. 268
Firemen. 2T<>
Flags, Zhb
Plasliing lighia, 345
Floau ^ paddlo-wboek, 248
Jt^ytnir doud, 221
Flying Spur, 233
Fog-homa, 346
Fog-wiens, 348
Feud, bill uf bra, 267
Forc« of the wares, 326
Foreign nUDAu, 26$
/'or(«, Itcml Mail, 166
Fonline of Iron ahlpa' tx>Uoins, 117
FrciericV Suiivntce, 110
Freiglit tammge, 244
French lightu, 33.5
Frunch system of lightiiig, 334
Freanal, M. Angiiatm, 333
Froliialier, 44
FroieU'iuoat trade, 202
Fniit Bteamers, 204
FuitOD, Robert, 104
Oatfta, Cunard Line. 140
Qangt*, v. and 0., bumii^ of, 163
Gurnnne, Orient Line, 171
Gan-bnojH, 350
Uiu-light for Lightlionae pDiposee,
338
(iencral Steam Navigation Co., 192
Genoese, 33
Gcocdiee, 199
G-^rgic, Wliit« Star, 167, 202
Germanic, White Star, 186
Uilbert, Sir Humphrey, 59
Golden Spar, 233
Gothland. C&stie Line, 171
Gi-dm lU Dieu, 24
Grain steamerv, 204
Great Fleet of Kinj; Edward
Grtat Liverpool, 149
, Great S»pubU<. 227
I Grvil WnUm. 109
j Great W»tina Suaa Sa^fda
Companj, 113
' Orwn, Mr. Bkbani, 213
I Qreenknd Dock, 91
Orenville, Sir I«ebar«l, 60
I Grey Eayk, 222
Oreyhoiuui, 222
Ounge for Li^tsUipi, 347
Qovemmeirt acheme fur Inontfl
the nnmber of Britiafa mSkit*. 11
Gross tonnage, 241
I Onll-Streoro Light Venel, 344
' Gunpowder flag. 358
HiLL LciE, 192
. Hawkins, Sir John, -44, &3
Hewkina. Will, 43
Heaving the lead, 303
Heaving the I<^, 301
Rttior, 66
Helmsman, the, 297
I //«vt OdMAi)te»,42
Heni7rV^24
Her
! v., 34
Henrv V., the Fleet of. 24
HeurV VII., 29
Henrj- VIII., 42
Hibernia, Cunard Line. 134
Ifimaloya, ?. and 0., 154
Bindo^n, P. and 0., 150
Holkere, 4
Jiott/ Crou. 34
Holy Ohoa, 24
HouHe-flags, 358
Horse-power, 245
Huughtm Tbuxr 227 ■
Howanl, Lord, of ESingham, 53
Hubert do Burgh, 17
Hulls, Jonathan, 102
Hurricane, 230
Ilfdatpa, P. and 0., 162
7tenb, P. and 0., 148
leeland, 56
Mand, Castle Line, 179
DlmninantB for Lighthouses, 337
Illumination, moaua of, for Liglil-
houses, 330
Increase of size in ships. 253
of Bpeed in steamers, 251
India and China Mail, 150
INDEX
401
Indian troopers, 297
Inman Line, 187
International Code, 369
IriB, H.1LS., 125
Insh lights, 340
Iriah mSi Boat, wreck of, 1734 .. 84
Iron and steel steamships, 121
bulwarks, 129
in shipbuilding, 116
masts, 130
— ships, Opposition of the Gk)vem-
ment, 116
— vessels, 254
-, the first, 119
yards, 130
/MS, Royal Mail. 166
Isle of May Light, 334
Ide of Tfianet, 120
Ivan the Terrible, 35
Jack, Ukion^ 355
Jacques Cartier, 32
Jamm Baines^ 229
Jamee Watt, 107
John Bertram^ 224
John B^n, 80
John of Gaunt, 23
Jonas, 46
Judith, 45
Kaiser WUhdm der Orosse, 116
Kangaroo, Liman Line, 187
Keel-hauling, 16
Keels, 3, 25, 239
KelTin^s sounding machine, 304
Kentish Knock. Light-vessel, 344
Khedive, P. and 0., 156
King Coal, 201
Kii&s Chamber^ 24
King's Baa, 24
Knight Commander, 185, 227
KnounHey Hall, 185, 227
Labrador, Dominion Line, 190, 217
LoAZoo, 236
Lambert and Holt's Lbe, 192
Lamps for Dioptric lights, 335
La Plata, loss of, 193
Lardner, Dr^ on steamers, 107
Laureniian^ Allan Line, 184
Lead, heaving the, 303
Lead-line, 3€3
Legal quays, 88
Lenticular apparatus, cost of, 335
Les Rdles dHJleron, 10
Leasepe, M. Ferdinand de, 307
Letters of Maroue, 18
Life-saving appliances, 374
Light dues, 352
, Half-Rate Over-Sea, 353
, Home Trade rates, 352
, Over-Sea Scale, 353
Lighthouse, Bell Rock, 328
Bishop Rook, 327
-, Chapman, 327
-, Eddystone, 320
-, Longshipa, 326
-, Mucking, 327
-, North Foreland. 328
-, Skerryvore, 324
-, St Catherine's, 336
-, the Maplin, 327
-, Wolf, 326
Lighthouses, 318
, ancient, 318
and lightships, telegraphic com-
munication witn, 351
, painting, 322
, Screw-Pile, 327
-, Shore, 329
Lightning, Black Ball Line, 229
Lightning lights, 342
Lights, comparative briDianoy of. 347
Lights, Royal Commission on, I80I ..
335
Lightships, 341
, crevra of, 344
run down, 344
Liaies, 230
Liverpool, 96
in 1566. .97
in the time of Elizabeth, 97
, shippmg of, 1760 to 1897 .. 99
, the dodcs, 100
Livmool, 227, 237
UoycTs, 383
Coffee House, 383
List, 384
, number of vessels reported at
Lloyd's Signal Stations, 390
Register, 391
R^ter, kindred societies, 395
, the Incorporation of, 384
, Signal Stations, 388
Loading Grain, 205
Loading OU, 207
Load-line, 375, 377
Loch Qarry, 236
Loch 2bfTi^ii.236
Log, heaving tne, 301
Log-line and glass, 300
Logs, Automatic, 302
12^
UnaoB, tU Do^ »
Lotdllowvdsf]
/.«n{t^fiUJ»>i,asr
/.wnaio, OuMd Um, 141,SlT,a47,
263
Lnb vai TotTM, 77
ZMitoM, Oriwt Ubi, 171, Ut
MaeAOilw. wiwk o^t7M..M
IIadite,S7
JfMd y Ada, SW
HwiM bmsBoe, 384. 386
JWof^bfy. IOC
MuT7«t^ codv, SfiO
MtOktm QmmH, 96
M,'!l
a.^)
l.f I
t !ightlio»
M<.w<iir<<iuont for lonn«M, 24)
Mc<iinU iiujwction, 365
UtJina, Roj-k) JUil. IGti
UtxIiM SiauntB, Uuke uf, 51
Mrdwy, BovkI Ukil, 165
JVrrt»». 125
Menu; li^hu, SSI
iferimn, Union CotniMuiy, 175
MillM. Mr. Patrick. 1U2
UiUw&ll Do«kii. 94
Mineral oil light for ligfatbouMR, 337
if iniM, 45
Mongoliam, Allui Line, 184
Udqbod, Sir WiUiuu. 68
Uconthirt', 66
Jf<x>r, Union CoiniMDy. 175, 24G
HooriBgB of lighlahipH, 343
Mooniom S\-steiii, 241
liofclh. Ra>ftl Uail, 163
■ Mutambique, 28
— Mucking Lighiliouse, 827
NAP..LEOS and the Som Canal, 307
Katal Line, 192
NatioQiJ coloanfor Uerchantmen, 355
yoEddntooe
NawfcudUiMl, 32, 5<
N««Hrilaad,7»
\
s(n
A'M^vra, CoiMnl Line, 131
Kile, Royd lUil 169
.Vmniuin:. White SUr, 187
Xuntiml lioru-pDwor, 246
XordcnskialJ. Buon, 40
Xortaan, Cnion Compaajr. tT4
, Uie new, 178
N<irtb America, settlosient ot 31
North Foreland Lighthoose, 338
Nwth-vrat ptMBOff!, 33
Norvegiau ctesmer, colliaoo, SfLiwi
ATitMo, P. and 0., 154 ^|
Somber of Hritish ships, 252
S'umidia-i, Allan Line. 134
OccrLHso UOHT8, 342
Chtanic. White Star, 185, 2J3
Ocean Linen, 122
Tnimps, 193
OfTencefl and fines, 268
Officers on boar J the great Liners, 295.
288
Official log-book, 291
; , entries in, 292
OiU for lighthouse pnrposes, 336
Oil-tank liteatnera, 206
Ophir, Orient Line, 1T2
Ordinary seamen, 262
. Ora^ii.Cunud Line, 144,216
I Orient Line, 171
OriaU, Orient Line, 172, 246
' Orient^, dipper ship, 222
, P. wid 0.. 149
; Oritaba, 1G2, 191
Orotava, capsizing of, 125, 191
Oroya, Pacific Steam Narijatijii
Company, 172, 191
^ Orlona, Pacific Steam Nar%aIion
I Company, 191
^E^l "^^^B
^^^^1^^^^^ ^m
INDEX 4D3 1
Omba, Pacific Steam NaTigation
PreB8-gang, 85
Company, 172,191
PHde 0/ the Ocean, 236
Overland roulo, 161
Prince ftjene, wreck of, 1734 „ 84
Princeton, 227
Pac.jfc, 135.215
Progress of the British Mercantile
, loss of the, 138
Marino, 252
Pacific Sleam Navigation Compmy,
PropeUor, 248
190
Propellers, right or left-handed, 250
Navy, 112
Proportion of horse-power to tonnage,
Paddle-wiiecU, 248
Punjaub, 231
Painting liglitliouBea, 322
P. and 0., 146
(3.E.D., the, 200
regulBtiunH, 157
Quarantine fiags, 358
Parabolic reflectora, 331
QuartermaaterB, 273
Paris, 243
Qaeen Elisabeth, 32, 50, 66
Parii,aB,AUan Line, 184
Qaten of the Eait, 149
Fateha, 46
Queen of thi IPwi, 227
PiilriariA, 226
Raiabow, 120
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 59, 67 _^_
Battler, 112 il^^H
Pedro Fernando de Quiros, 77
Rfd Jacket, 229 ^^^H
Priira,,, 47
ReSecUir system, 230 ^^^^H
ReSeotors, parabolic, 331 ' l^^^l
Feppereoni, 67
, Trinity House, 332 ■
Pero, P. and 0., 164
Refractors, cylindrical, 333 1
Pemarabuco, 32
Register Tonnage, 241 I
Fertia. Cnnard Line, 138
Reporting Derelicts, 293 1
Personnel of the British Mercantile
Retolulion, 62 1
Marine, 261
ResponsibilitieH of the Master, 294 I
Petty ofBcera, 273
Revolving lights, 342, 345 1
Richard Cceiir de Lion, 9 m
Pharaoh Necho, 3M
Pharos at Dover, 319
Richard de Camville, 9 - ^^^^|
of AleMn<lri8, 318
Richard n., 23 -^^^H
Philip n., of Spain, 61
Philip VL, of France, 19
Richard m.., 25 ^^^H
Riggmg. the, 299 ]^^^H
Philips, Sir Richard, 105
lUver thieves, 89, 90 ^^^H
Phioeas Pett, 62
Riveting, 128 ^^^^H
Pilot-flag, 358
Roh Roy, 107 ^^^H
PiloUvessers h-ghts, 372
Robert de Sabloil, 9 ^^^H
Piracy in the siiteenth oenturv, 43
Robert F. Stockh,», 111 -f^^^H
Plating ofironshipft, 128
Roebuck, 78 ^^^M
PlimeoU, Mr. S., 377
RohiUa, P. and 0., 162 ' ~^^^^l
Plirasoll'B Mark, 376
Roica d'Oleron, 10 ^^^H
Pope Alexander VI., 65
Roman galleys, 2 ^^^H
Pope Gregory Xm., 15
Pope Paul IIL, 15
Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, ■
164 1
Port and Starboard Lights, 369
Royal Naval Reaerve Colours, 367 1
Porta of England, time of Eliiabeth,
Royxl Tar, P. and 0., U7 1
Boyal WiUiam, the first steam war 1
Aip, 108 1
8G
Poloii, 253
Power of borson, 245
Rule of the road, 370 1
Present atate of the British Mercantile
, in rhyme, 381 J
Marine, 252
Bwtia, Canard Line, 139 ^^^fl
Praidenl. 110
^^^^1
m
^^1
8a ruTco- VESSELS of the world. 357
SAilmakcr^ 273
Sailora' gnevuices, 268
B«lBdm, 9
auamu. -as
Sandwich, b«Ulo off, 17
SftDJoicli LtUmk, Aiaoo-nay or, 83
Hanlinian, 226
, AlUn Line, IM
Satnrdu; aflernonna, 269, 300
Savaanali. 108
Baaon. Vukni Cuntpony, 174
Bealt qf pn/vinotii, SG6
Bcot, cutting her U half, 1T6
, Union Company, 176
Sootoh Lights, 340
Seotia, bM Cannrd pAddle-eteamer,
13B, 2I»
Seolimaii. Domiulon Line, 190
Screw-eolliens, 199
8crew-t)ila Lightbousce, 327
gcrew-propeUor, 110, 139, 240
Scythia, 140
Boamen, 262
, A.B.'8, 262. 263
, Ordinary, 262
SeMiien'a DiachargM, 292
Seamen's QiiarteTS, 248
fvi Serpent. 232
vigLlof, 34i
\
Ski K'lWi, 211
Sebaetian Cabot. 35
Second MaIo. 286
Svica, 231, 233
Barvia, Cuitard Line, 140. 261
Seymour, Sir ThomoB. 44
Shalinar, 185, 225
Shaw, Saville, and Albion Lino, 192
Ship-money, CharlcB I., 67
Bhipinag Cude of Richurd the Firet, 1 1
Shipping buainess of England, 265
buUtin 1897. .255
Ship's Articles, 26G
Ship* belonging to London, 1702..
87
belonging to other porta, 1702 ..
88
discharging in the river, 89
Ships' lights, 369
Shire Line, 192
Shore LiRhtliotucs, 329
Sioge of SL Malo, 23
Signal book, 364
Signalling, 368
Signala, 361
of diatreu, 373
Signing-on dav. 265
Simfa, P. and O,, 155
Sir Francis Drake, 45-17
Sir nii^ wilioBebbr, ss
Sir UQghWaWkby^eKiie
Sir Hnrnphrey GKlb«rt, 59
Sir John UawkinH, 44, 53
Sir LaneeM. 232, 234. iH
Sir KichaH Greuvillc, 60
Sir Thomas Soyntour, 44
Sir Walt«r Baleif^, 59, 67
Sir Williani HtUKm. fit)
Sirens, 348
SiHut. 108
Skerryvore Lighthouec, 321
, works at the, 325
Slip, 260
Sloy*, baltie off, 19
Smealon, 321
Sm>tli,F.Peltit,lll
Snekkare, 4
Sobriety. 271
Soooti»,l62
Bohfton, 45
Soltoav. Royal Mail. 166
S>maU,2b3
Smmdlivwachtne, Eelviu'a, 304
Soudfnsi, deep-wa, 304
, USing. 303
Soond-signalg fiir f:%. 37H
South Foreland, eijieriments ai. 33
South Sand Head Light.vessel, 314
Sovereign of the Seoi, 224
Spaniards in Soath America. 56
Spanish Armada, 51
ships, 23
Spar-decked steamers, 211
Spartan, Union Company, 175
Speed of steamers, 247
Spetling-siKnals, 364
St. Catlienoe's Lighthouse, 33G
SI. GafrrW, 28
SL John's, Newfoundland. 31
KL Eatherine's Docks, 93
a. U'lii, 218
St. Malo, siege of, 23
S(. Mkhad, 28
S(. Fwl, 218
St Jiapkael, 28
St. Saviour's Dock, 91
Star o/PoK-!, 230
Steam, 101
steeling -gear, 297
Steamers of the world, 256
Steamers' lights, 371
Steel in shipbuildii^, 116, 121
I^^BfiH 1^1
INDEX 405 1
Steel vesBelB. 254
!ZMot,Itayal Mail. 166
vessels, number of, 120
Thamu, Royal Mail, 165
SteerioE, 297
Thermopylit, 235, 236
Tilbury Docks, 95
Stevenson, Bobert, 323
Stewards, 275
Tiutanel OastU, Castle Line, 180
f^tirling Castle, 203
Tilania, 232, 236
Slomoimy, 223
Tobacco, introduction of, GO
Streogtli of iron slijps, 123
Suez Canal, 306
Tonnage, 238
of the United Kingdom, 255
. average time in passing through,
Ibrnado, 227
312
Torres, Luis vas, 77
- — -, Jemanda of Ibe Porte, 308
Tour de Corduan. 320, 330
—.description of the, 309
Tour d'Odro, Bonlogne, 319
-, distances vtd the, 315
TYades Inoreast. B7
, earnings and dividends, 314
Traiaiog-sbipa. 281
UVanaadantic Steamship Linea, 133
-, Lord Boaconsfiald and the, 314
, objections of the Post Office,
record, 215
!55
Transports, ensign for, 357
TrmiAe-te-Mer, 9
, official regnkUons of the, 315
, opposition of the Engliah
Tnmt, Royal Mail, 165
Government, 308
Trinity, 24
, the Bitter Lakes, 311
Trinity House, 339
■, the Canal dues, 312
reflectors, 332
, the capital, 307
TiLttd, East India ship, 231
, Royal Mail, 166
, Uie CLarlcr, 308
, lie works, 308
, total cost of, 313
U«>M<t, Cunan! Line, 141
, tonnage passbg through tlie,
Undermamung, 264
314
Dnderwriters, 385
SuTishine, G8
Uriion, 174
Surprise, 222
Union Jack, 371
Snrrey Commercial Docks, 96
Union Steamship Oompany, 174
Surveyors to Lloyd's Register, 394
Suitex, 228
Siaillow, 45
Unittd Kingd(m, 108
VaUtta, P. and 0., 154 ^^^|
tiuian. 4G
Vflseo da Qama, 27, 64 ^^^H
Swearing on board ship, 15
Vectit, P. and 0., 154 ^^^H
Swiftture, 106
r«?<i, voyage of the, 40 ^^
Symington, 103
Venetiiin galleys, 34
Venetians, 33
TAcrrus, 3
Veasel not under control, lights, 371
Vessel towing, lights for, 371
Taeping, Cliinn tea clipper, 231, 233
ra^aH.232
Vessels added to the Register of
Tagvt, Hoyal Mail, 165
United Kingdom, 1897. .258
Tailting, 233, 236
lost or broken up, 1897 ..259
Taibol, 107
Veita, 137
Tanks for water-ballast, 126
Victoria Docks, 94
Tasman, Jan Abel, 78
Vikings, 4
Virginia, 355
IZburi-tf, White Star, 187
Voyages of discovery, fifteenth
Taylor, Mr. James, 103
century, 31
Tea Bteamors, 203
rulran, early iron vessel, 119
Tel^aphic communication with
Lightabipa and Lighthouses, 351
Wages, rate of, 270
Temptd, Anchor Line, 189
WathingUm, 136
TcaUmk, White Star, 186, 216
Waste of power in paddles, 248
^^^■i
^HI'WalchoH and bells, 296
^K 'Watches, Port anil Starboard, 205
^^ Wnlfir-ballnst, 124
^m Waterloo, 227
^P WatBT-ti^t bulkheads, 129
^ Wftve-formatioD, 249
Waves, force of the, 326
Weights, permaneut, 125
Well-decked etenmers, 211
West India and Pacific Company, 19:
West India Docka, 92
Wheel, 297
White Adder, 233
Wbiatling bnovB, 350
WhUe Star, 185, 225
White Star Line, 185
fT
Wi-lgetm, 112
I Wilkinson, Mr. John, 119
Willcoi, Mr. Brodie MoGhee, 146
1 William Rufue, 9
I William the Conqueror, 7
Willonghby, Sir Hugh, 35
I Windhover, 236
I Wire rope, 131
I Wooden ships, 117
' Wool steamers, 204
Work at sea, 208
HE 823 Ca2
TTm Bfltlih mart
Stanrord Unh«rMty UbrarMa
illllllta^
3 6105 033 793 S50
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