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EXHIBITION-EARZIS:

COfRT-ZPNbONolQOZ

BULGARIA OF TOu-DAY

^w.^^'

'-' ''OX ANT.

IliRill. PRmOE FERDINAND OF BULGARIA.

%^ tA^^^

BULGARIA OF
TO-DAY

LONDON
WiCIAL EDITION OF THE BULGARIAN MINISTRY
OF COMMERCE AND AGRICULTURE •
1907

''^7555r, ;

PBIIITBD AMD BOUND Vt

HAZXLL, WATSON AND VINSY, LD^

LONDON AMD AYUUBURY

CONTENTS

VAOB

Introduction xi

PART I
THE COUNTRY AND THE POPULATION

CHAPTER I
Geography 3

I. Moimta]ns.~-2. Hydrography. — 3. Climate.— 4. Vege-
tatioii. — 5. Fauna.

CHAPTER n
The Bulgarian Nation 17

I. Historical Sketch. — 2, Populatioii.

r ^

CHAPTER in
PouncAL AND Administratttb Organisation • • 36

I. Coastitntion of the Bulgarian Principality. — 2, Funda-
mental Principles of the Government and the Administra-
tive Organisation of the Principality. — 3. The Budget. —

4. The Executive Power and the Administration. —

5. Justice.

VI CONTBNtd

CHAPTER IV
Public Instruction in Bulgaria .... 78

I. Primary Education. — 2. Establishments for Secondary
Education. — 3. Higher Colleges: University of Sofia. —

4. Technical Instruction. — 5. Institutions for Defective
Children. — 6. Diverse other Institutions.

CHAPTER V
The Bulgarian Church and Foreign Religions . 115

I. Orthodox Creed. — 2. Foreign Religions in Bulgaria.

PART II
THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF BULGARIA

CHAPTER I
Forests -125

I. History of Bulgarian Forestry* — 2. Varieties of Trees. —
3. Administration of Forests. — 4. The Felling of Timber. —

5. Propagation and Renewal of Forests. — 6. Patrolling of
the Forests. — 7. General Condition of the Forests.

CHAPTER II
Landed Property and Agriculture . 142

Agriculture. — Live Stock. — ^Agricultural Institutions.

CHAPTER III

MiNES^ Quarries, and Hot Springs .... 153
Mines. — Quarries. — Hot Springs and Minerai^Vaters.

CHAPTER IV
Arts and Trades 163

I. Sketch of the Economic Condition of the Principality. —
2. Handicrafts. — 3. Manufactures. — 4. Labour Legislation
— 5. Industrial Legislation. — 6. Institutions.

CONTENTS VU

CHAPTER V

pMom

Roads and Means of Communication • . . 202
I. Railways. — 2. Posts, Tdegrapba, and Tdephaaes.

CHAPTER VI
Foreign Commerce 227

I. Imports and Exports. — 2. Articles of Importation
and Exportation. — 3. Haritime Commerce.

CHAPTER VII
Banking Institutions 274

I. Bulgarian National Bank. — 2. Bulgarian Agricultural
Bank. — 3. Insurance Companies, — 4, Savings Banks. —
5« Monetary System.

DiAGRAJfS f • t • • • • • Atthsena*

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

B.R.H. PRINCE FBRDIKAND OF BULGARIA .... FfOtU4ipUe$

FACmO PAOB

H.R.H. PRINCE BORIS OF TIRNOVA, CROWN PRINCE OF BULGARIA xi

ROCKS OF BSLOGRADTCHIK $

PEAKS NEAR KARLUKOVO 4

STARA-PLANINA 6

"isker" gorge 8

WATERFALL, XALOFBR lO

MOUNTAIN STREAM 12

ROYAL PALACE, SOFIA 20

GROUP OF PEASANT GIRLS FROM THE VILLAGE OF VETRBN . • 28

PLOVDIV (PBILIPPOPOLIS) ••..••.. 3/

MONUMENT OF THE TZAR LIBERATOR, SOFIA . . • • 40

"TARGOVSKA ULITZA" street, SOFIA 44

" MARIA LOUISA " STREET, SOFIA $2

"tzar liberator" street, SOFIA 60

" VASSIL LEVSKY " MONUMENT, SOFIA 72

GYMNASIUM FOR BOYS, ROUSTCBOUK ••.... lOO

GYMNASIITM FOR GIRLS, VARNA I02

MATERNITY HOSPITAL, SOFIA IO4

HOSPITAL OF ALEXANDER I., SOFIA ^ IO6

MARKET HALL, JAMBOL I08

NATIONAL MUSEUM, SOFIA IIO

NATIONAL THEATRE, SOFIA 112

RILO MONASTERY •..•••(••. II5

X LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS

vAcmorAOB

INTERIOR OF THB CHURCH OF RILO MONASTERY . . . . Il6

SHIPKJl PASS MONASTBRY Il8

" SAINT CRAL " CATHEDRAL, SOFIA I20

WALNUT FOREST NEAR KAZANUK I36

ATTAR OF ROSES DISTILLERY I44

ATTAR OF ROSES DISTILLERY, KAZANLIK 1 48

TUNNEL ON THE SOFIA-KA5PITCHAN RAILWAY UNE . . 204

VIEW OF LOUCOVIT (RIL. 124-982) ON THE SOFIA-KASPITCHAN

RAILWAY LINE 2I4

GENERAL POST OFFICE, SOFIA ..•»... 2l8

HARBOUR OF VARNA . • ^ . 227

HARBOUR OF BOURGAS ..••... . 25O

HARBOUR OF BOURGAS 234

BULGARIAN NATIONAL BANK, SOFIA 2/4

NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL BANK, SOFIA 28O

w:-i

H.R.H. PRINCE BORIS OF TIRNOVA, CROWN PRINCE OF BULGARIA.

INTRODUCTION

On April lath, 1877^ the Imperial Government of Russia
handed to the representatives of the Great Powers at St. Peters-
bug a circular note stating that it had exhausted all pacific
means for putting an end to the intolerable condition of the
Bulgarians under the Turkish yoke^ and announcing that
it had declared war against Turkey.

The events inaugurated by this memorable act ended with
the preliminary treaty signed at San Stefano^ near Constanti-
nople, which was ratified on March iSth, 1878.

This treaty called to life once more, after five centuries of
servitude, the ancient Bulgarian kingdom so well known to
the genial history of the Middle Ages* But although the
boundaries of the new State had very little resemblance
with tliose of the ancient empire of Tzar Simeon, they
were still further restricted by the Treaty of Berlin.

This Treaty, signed on July 13th, 1878, thus defined
the frontiers of the Principality of Bulgaria : to the north, the
right bank of the Danube, from the river Timok to the Black
Sea, a little to the south of the village of Mangalia ; to the east,
the Black Sea to the middle of the Gulf of Aliman, near the
village of Kuprikery ; to the south, a line starting from this
ktter village and cutting the mountains of Strandja and the
Rhodopes, the river Arda, the Rilo mountain, and the Osso*

ZU tNTRODUCnON

govo heights, whose peak Pateritza separates the Toroo-Servo-
Bulgarian frontiers; and to the west, from Pateritza, the
watershed of Morava to the north-western front of the Stara-
Flanina and from there to the mouth of the Timok.

To the south of Bulgaria a new province was created, con-
sisting of a part of the vilayet of Danube and part of the
vilayet of Adrianople : it was called Eastern Roumelia, and
had for its capital Plovdiv (Philippopolis). This province,
although continuing to form an integral part of the Turkish
Empire, was granted a special and privileged administrative
government, similar to that of the island of Samos, with a
Christian governor and a national assembly. In 1885, the
revolution of Plovdiv modified this situation by proclaiming
the union of Eastern Roumelia with the Principality, which
union was confirmed in April 1886 by the Conference of
Constantinople.

As for the remaining Bulgarian provinces which saw for
a day the light of liberty by virtue of the Treaty of San Stef ano,
they were thrown back under the yoke which they had just
shaken off and returned once more to the domination of the
Sultan.

It is true that the Treaty of Berlin placed on the Turkish
Government the obligation of giving to these provinces also
a certain degree of Uberty. A draft of reforms was even
prepared in 1880; Ibut it 'remained such, and Macedonia con-
tinues to be what it was before the Russo-Turkish War.

A little more than a quarter of a century has elapsed since
these events.

In Russia, as well as in Bulgaria, this first anniversary has
been celebrated with great solemnity. It is to be hoped that
before very long it will have another echo with the inauguration

INTHODUCnON XIU

of the monument raised in Sofia by a grateful country to
the Tzar Liberator.

Bulgaria has, therefore, had an independent existence of
some twenty-five years. And yet, what a di£Ference between
the former Turkish province and the present Principality I
Where misery and devastation reigned before, a flourishmg
country extends now, full of energy and promise. In the place
of the former oppressed "rayas," to-day there is a young
nation whose aptitude for progress, for the sciences and
industry, has been already proved. New towns have sprung
up, railways traverse the territory in all directions, well-
maintained public roads connect the smallest villages,
tel^;raph lines show at every step the work of civilisation.
Harbours built in conformity with modem requirements are
opening to Bulgaria vistas for the development of her maritime
commerce. Close upon a milliard francs have been spent
upon these various public works, but what deserves our special
notice is not the magnitude of the outlay, but the immense
amount of energy displayed, systematically and with a
never^fiagging zeal, during this quarter of a century, in the
face of obstacles and difficulties, in order to reach the level
of European culture.

Everytlung had to be replaced. It is not only the political
conditions which have altered, but social life itself. At a
moment's notice, and practically out of nothing, a new adminis-
tration had to be organised and the diverse organs of the
national life to be improvised. Hardly anything of the
preceding r^;kne was or could be utilised. In this connection,
it is interesting to observe the different fortunes of a conquered
province. When a province which had formed part of a
dLviliaed country passes to a nation equally civilised, one

XIV IMTRODUCnOK

may say that in many respects the. change is an miimportant
one, because in such a case the conqueror retains ahnost all
the institutions, the only differ^ice being that in the future
they work in the name of the new sovereign authority. The
political condition of such a province is the only thing which
is affected^ the administrative and judicial sj^tem and the
wealth continuing as before. On the other hand^ if one
attempted to form a modem state out of a country which has
been devastated for centuries, or if one tried to transform a
Turkish province into a country after the pattern of the
European States, every step would be strewn with obstacles^
and there would be nothing of the former state of things that
could be utilised. In such a case, the only thing to be done
would be to borrow from other nations the experience which
they have accumulated during their long efforts, and to trans-
plant it into the desolated land. We may well imagine the
effervescence which would inevitably follow, the prodigious
energy which would be expended in the task, and how tmder
such conditions one could only proceed with uncertain and
faltering steps in trying to complete a piece of work bearing the
marks of hurried labour. This is practically what happened
in Bulgaria, and it is only by taking into account the excep-
tionally dif&cult conditions in which the Principality found
itself on the morrow of its liberation, that one will be
able to appreciate the efforts displayed and the results
obtained.

Bulgaria may truly be proud to-day of the work accom-
plished. Her perseverance in the path of civilisation has been
crowned with success. Her organisation is now completed.
In all the branches of public life order has been introduced.
The organising genius which all the historians^ and more

INTSODUCnON ZV

particularly the Slav historian Jre^ek^ have noticed in the
ancient Bulgarians, has once more revealed itself.

The Principality is determined to persevere in the road
which it has traced for itself. It is ever ready to grasp all
occasions that offer to show Europe its intentions. It has
participated, within the limits of its means, in the international
enterprises destined to promote the progress of the world.
We shall only mention here the important part which it took
in the International Exhibitions at IA6gp and Wlan, where
the visitors could vividly realise the progress which has been
attained in the various departments of the national economy.

The present volume is intended by its authors to supplement
the knowledge of Bulgaria acquired by those who may
visit the Bulgarian Section of the Balkan Exhibition held
at present in London. It may l^ also read with profit
by all those who may desire to know our country.

The Ministry op Commercb
AND Agriculture.

PART I
THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE

CHAPTER I
GEOGRAPHY

I. Mountains

The Principality of Bulgaria presents, from the orographical
point of view, a happy combination of high mountain chains
encircling broad and fruitful plains. At the foot of lofty
peaks, whose siunmits often attain a height of over 2,000
metres, extend, as far as eye can see, valleys whose average
height above sea-level is 200 metres.

The total surface of the country comprised within the
mountainous zones may be thus divided :

Metres higb. Sq. kilometres.

From o to 200 . . 35»54S*9 = 37'3 V^ cent, of Bulgarian territory.

200 „ 500 .. 3M39'i=33

500,, 900 .. i6,o68-8a i6'9

900 „ 1.400 .. g.iii'P" 9*6

1,400,, 2,000 .. 2,570-6= 27

2.000 and over . . 486*8 = 0*5 „

These figures show'lhat about 70 per cent, of the total area
of Bulgaria consists of land susceptible of the highest degree
of cultivation.

The average height above sea-level of Bulgaria is 425
metres.

The character of the country is determined by its mountain
systems. We may distinguish chiefly the following mountain
groups : the mass of the Rilo-Rhodopes, the long chain of
the Stara-Planina, the Danubian table-land, and the transi-

4 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

tional belt stretching between the Rilo-Rhodopes and the
serpentine chain of the Stara-Planina.

The Rile and the Rhodopes present together a compact
mass whose various branches stretch out in all directions.
The chief characteristic of these mountains is the huge clifEs
suddenly cleft by valleys that open out all at once before the
traveller's wondering eye — valleys dotted here and there with
deep pools. The highest summits are hot always on the line of
the water-shed. Here and there rise great blocks of igneous
rocks. The Rilo is the highest mountain of Bulgaria. Several
peaks exceed 2,700 metres above sea-level, and the Moussalla
reaches 2,924 metres. Considering the space included between
peaks of over 2,700 metres in height, it must be recognised
that the Rilo is the highest mountain of Eastern Europe. Its
northern and eastern slopes are dotted with numerous lakes
enclosed among rocky cliffs and peaks covered with perpetual
snow. In a word, the Rilo has all the peculiarities of the
Alps.

The Rhodopes are similar to the Rilo on their western
side ; as we advance towards the east, their slopes grow
steeper and steeper, while the height decreases and their
outlines grow more and more undulating. The principal
spurs extend towards the north as far as the Bulgarian frontier,
and slope down steeply to the fertile plain of the Maritza.
The streams flowing from the lakes of Adrianople and Haskovo
have divided the Rhodopes on the eastern side into numerous
plateaux lying east and west. The watersheds are 2,000
metres above sea-level. The most noteworthy peaks are the
Sutkia (2,187 m.), the Batachki (2,082 m.) and the
Tchepelarski Karlik (2,186 m.).

The Rhodopes, like the Rilo, afford no practicable road into
Turkey. The roads wind round the mountains, following on
the east the course of the Maritza, and on the west the vaUey
of the Strouma.

GEOGRAPHY 5

The Stara-Planina cposses the whole district from the river
Timok to the Black Sea. Its length is 600 kilometres, its
average width only 30. Geological researches have proved
that this mountain has been forpied by horizontal accumula-
tions caused by pressure from the south.

OrographicaUy and geologically, the Stara-Planina divides
into three belts : the western, reaching to the Isker gorge, the
central, as far as the Demir Kapia, and the eastern, merging
into the Black Sea coast.

The western Stara-Planina is flanked north and south
along its whole length by parallel lines of peaks. The northern
slopes are most precipitous and imposing. The Midjur, its
highest peak, reaches an altitude of 2,165 metres. This region
is difficidt of access. The only two passes, the Sveti Nicolas
(1,302 metres) and the Petrohan, are 1,438 metres above
the sea.

The central chain is Ukewise bounded by peaks on the north.
The southern flank slopes steeply down and merges into the
level coimtry. From here there is a view of the highest
peaks of the Stara-Planina. Several summits rise to a height
of over 2,000 metres : the loumrouktchal is 2,372 metres.
By a strange contrast, it is here too that the best roads are to
be found. Thus, the passes of Araba Konak and of Hain
Boghaz are less than 100 metres high. Other passes, though
higher (1,300 to 1,700 m.) are nevertheless more accessible,
owing to the fact that the mountain is at these points very
narrow, and the plain penetrates gradually right into the heart
of the mountain. The chief pass is the Shipka (1,260 m.).

The eastern Stara-Planina is totally different. The bend-
ings of Strata have here been quite superficial. Consequently
high peaks and ancient rocks of primary formations are
entirely absent. The mountain consists of several chains
divided, in consequence of the proximity of the sea, not
transversely but lengthways. Under these conditions the

6 BX7LGARIA OF tX) DAY

district is not easily accessible, though there are no great
eminences.

Parallel to the Stara-Planina extends, on the souths the
Sredna-Gora. Like the former chain, it sinks lower towards
the east. The Ichtiman mountain acts as a nucleus connecting
the Rilo and the Rhodopes'^ the Sredna-Gora and the Stara-
Planina : it separates the basins of the Isker and the Maritza.
The valley of the Strema divides the Sredna-Gora into two
distinct masses : the Sredna-Gora proper and the Karadja
Dagh, or Roebuck mountain. The former is lofty, thickly
wooded, and picturesque. Its highest peak, the Great Bogdan,
is 1,574 metres high. The fertile plains of Zlatitza, Karlovo,
Kazanlik (famous for its attar of roses) and Sliven extend
between the Stara-Planina and the Sredna-Gora. The no
less fertile plain of the Maritzalies between the Rhodopes and
the Sredna-Gora.

East of the river Sasliyka, as far as the Maritza, rise the
Sakar mountains (854 m. high) and the Strandja (1,035 m.).
These heights, and others of less importance, compose what
Hochsteiger calls the Toundja Group.

The chief mountain of South-west Bulgaria is the Vitosha,
which rises from the plain of Sofia, the capital of the Princi-
pality. Its highest peak, the Tchemi Varh, rises to a height
of 2,285 metres.

The Verila Planina (1,419 m.) serves as a connecting
link between the Vitosha and the Rilo and separates the
waters of the Isker and the Strouma. On one side lies the
plain of Doubnitza, on the other that of Samakov.

To the extreme south-west, just on the Turko-Bulgarian
frontier, is the Ossogovo, whose highest summit, the Rouen,
is 2,227 metres high.

Between the plains of Kustendil and Zn6pol6 Ues a moun-
tainous country called Kra!cht6. Some of its peaks are fairly
high. We need only mention the Ouchi (1,927 m.), the

GEOGRAPHY 7

MOevska Planina (1,730 m.) and the Tchemooko {i.e.
Black Eye, 1,875 m.).

Above the plain of Zn6pol6 rises a remarkable mountain,
the Roui (1,706 m.).

Numerous hills break into ridges throughout the south-
westerly region towards the south-east, and send their spurs
into Servia. All this part of Bulgaria offers a succession of
deep valleys which are only dried-up lakes, as geological
research has demonstrated. They are the valleys of Sofia,
Samakov, Doubnitza, Kustendil, Radomir, Pemik, and
Zn^l6.

North of the farthest crests of the Stara-Planina stretches
the vast plain of the Danube. Many tributaries of the
great river furrow the plain, of which the strata are almost
invariably horizontal.

2. Hydrography

The hydrography of Bulgaria owes its peculiar character-
istics both to the climate and to the situation of the Danube
(which forms the whole northern frontier) the Black Sea and
the Archipelago. These are the basins which receive all the
streams of Bulgaria. Our country possesses no large rivers.
The numerous mountains intersect the land wd part every-
where the courses of the streams, whose waters flow separately
and cannot mingle. The Isker alone forms a happy exception,
flowing across the whole width of Bulgaria.

The Black Sea is a basin whose greatest length lies east
and west, 1,187 kilometres long and 613 broad. Its area,
according to the calculations of Strelbutski, is 423,973 square
kilometres, its average depth 1,100 metres. It is deepest
(2,616 m.) to the south of the Crimean peninsula, and
very shallow between Sebastopol to Bourgas. Almost the
whole way along this coast it is very difficult for vessels

8 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

to approach land. For two or three kilometres out from the
shore, the sea is scarcely eight or ten metres deep. Further,
the shores are almost everywhere either steep and moun-
tainous^ or broken and marshy. In spite ol all these diffi-
culties Bulgaria, by dint of great efforts and sacrifices,
possesses to-day two harbours constructed to meet all modem
requirements — ^Vama and Bourgas.

The Danube flows from the Black Forest mountains across
Germany and Austro-Hungary, forms the boundary between
Servia and Roumania and between Bulgaria and Roumania,
and falls into the Black Sea, forming a delta. It is a mighty
river, discharging 5,000 cubic metres of water per second ;
the width of its bed varies from 700 to 1,200 metres. Its
depth near Widin is 8 metres, near Rahovo 7 metres 70 cm.,
near Nicopolis 12 metres 9 cm., near Rustchuk 4 metres. The
greatest variation of the water-level is 5 metres 5 cm. A large
number of islands he along its whole course, round which the
river branches. The Danube was frozen over thirteen times
between 1836-96. It freezes, on an average, thirty-nine
days in the year. It remained longest frozen curing the
memorable winter of 1878-9.

The principal tributaries of the Danube are the Lom, the
Ogosta, the Isker, the Vid, the Ossem, and the lantra. All
these streams rise in the Stara-Planina, except the Isker,
which rises in the Rilo, and flows right through the Stara-
Planina in a magnificent gorge. The streams rise at all
heights, and everywhere supply the people of the country with
water-power, used up tin now for turning primitive mills
ranged in an endless succession along the whole course of the
streams. On reaching the plain the streams flow more slowly,
while, on the other hand, their beds become deeper and deeper
as you approach the mouth. They are then no longer fordable,
and no more nulls are to be seen. Floods are very frequent,
but never destructive. Generally speaking, the tributaries

GEOGRAPHY 9

of the Danube derive their waters from the mountains alone,
and lose some of it all along their course. Together they
do not contribute more than 250 cubic metres of water per
second.

The Maritza is the river of Southern Bulgaria. Several
streams whose sources are in the Rhodopes, the Stara-Planina
and the Sredna-Gora, flow into it. The tributaries on the
right bank^ coming from the luxuriant forests of the Rhodopes,
are of almost the same depth all the year round, while those
on the left bank, coming from the bare rocks of the Stara-
Planina, are subject to variations : swift and deep in the
rainy season and in spring, they are almost dried up in summer.
The Toundja and the Arda are the chief affluents of the Maritza,
which they join near Adrianople. The former rises in the
Stara-Planina and the latter in the Rhodopes. Beyond Tatar-
Pazardjik the Maritza flows more slowly. Advantage is
taken of this for the conveyance of timber, the trunks being
simply fastened together and guided like primitive rafts.

Not many streams fall into the Black Sea ; the most
important are the Kamtchia and the Pravadiska.

Lakes are not numerous in our country. Some lagoons are
to be found near the Black Sea ; their origin is attributed
partly to the fluctuations of the sea. The most important
are the Guebedj6 (20 metres deep), the Salt Lake, near Anhialo,
Nafakioi, Atanaskioi, and Mandren. On the banks of the
Danube, isolated creeks have turned into marshes : they are
most numerous between the mouths of the Isker and the
lantra. There are also marshes in the valley bottoms, and
among the heights of the Kilo and the western Rhodopes,
which contain, as we have said above, more than a hundred
lakes in the midst of the lofty summits. These lakes are
very similar to the **Sea Eyes," of the Carpathians.

BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

3. Climate

As regards climate, Bulgaria shares the rather unfavourable
position of all the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. The
beneficent winds of the west reach us cold and dry. The
north-easterly winds to which the country is most exposed
keep the temperature low. Here are some climatological
data which will enable the reader to form a correct idea of
the general temperature in our country.

During the ten years 1884 to 1903, the mean annual tem-
perature in the towns of the centre was :

at Sofia (550 metres above sea-level)

„ Plevna (105 „ „ „ „

„Bourgas (14 „ „ „ „

„ Philippopolis (160

„ Gabrovo (375

9-9° C.

11-2^ C.

I2"5°C.
12-4'* C.
10-0° C.

If we reduce the temperature of all these towns ♦ to sea^level
we find that the greatest difference of temperature is 15**,
and that the isotherm passing through Bulgaria is 12^.

The mean altitude of Bulgaria beifig 425 metres, the mean
annual temperature for the whole Principality will be 10°
centigrade.

The average temperature for the coldest month (January)
and for the hottest month (July) is :

Jaouiu^.

July.

Sofia

. . 19 .

. . 20-6 . .

. . 22*5

Plevna

. . 1-5 .

.. 232 ..

.. 247

Bourgas

. . 1-9 .

.. 22-8 ..

.. 20*9

Philippopolis

.. 04 .

.. 235 ..

.. 23-9

Gabrovo

1M_ ^ J'i* V

-X xU^ U.

.. 20-4 ..

.. 215

The difference between the highest and lowest temperatures
*■ The temperature of these towns is that of the whole Principality.

WATERFALL, KALOFER.

GEOGRAPHY II

in the year is 20° C, which amounts to saying that the climate
of the country is a continental one.

The hottest day of the last ten years was August 7th,
1896 (at Plevna, 418^) and the coldest was January 6th, 1894
(at Gabrovo, 25**).

The winds in Bulgaria are conditioned by the barometric
state of all Europe and more distant regions. The prevailing
ones are westerly and north-westerly. Northerly and north-
easterly winds are more rare. There are also local tendencies,
as for instance at Gabrovo, where southerly winds are frequent.
The winds, which are rather strong, blow almost constantly
the year round.

With regard to rain, Bulgaria occupies a middle position
between Eastern and Western Europe. The rainy season
corresponds to that of all Eastern Europe. At that time the
rains are veiy heavy, but there is also a sufficiency of rain
during the other seasons of the year.

The average rainfall for the whole year is 26*5 inches. The
regions least favoured in this respect, e.g., the shores of the
Black Sea, get nevertheless at least iy'6 inches.

The following figures show the distribution of the rainfall
among the seasons of the year.

Sofia, I93'2 tniny days, 26*2 in.

f Spring 27*6 per cent
S

I Summer 34*2
I Autumn 217
[winter i6-8

(Spring 28*0
Summer 37*1
Autumn i6-6

Bourgas, I23'3 rainy days, 23*3 in.

I^Winter 183
Spring 257
Sunmier 27*5
Autimm 197
.Winter 267

12 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

Philippopolis^ iio'9 rainy days, 20*8 in.

Gabrovo, 169*5 rainy days, 35*1 in.

'Spring 23-5 per cent.

Summer 34-5 „

Autumn 2i*6 „

Winter 20*4 „
Spring 28-9

Summer 37*1 „

Autumn 15*6 „
Winter i8"4

Snow falls usually from November to April. At Sofia it snows
on an average 42*2 days in the year, at Philippopolis 14*8,
at Bourgas 128

As regards moisture and clouds, Bulgaria is half-way
between the Mediterranean region and Central Europe. The
average density of cloud during the year varies from 5 (at
Philippopolis) to 5*5 (at Gabrovo). The month of November
is the cloudiest (7-9 at Sofia). August is the clearest (2'6 at
Bourgas). The average moisture varies from 70 per cent, (at
Gabrovo) to 79p.c. (at Bourgas). It diminishes in summer
to 58p.c., and rises to 66p.c. in December. The atmospheric
pressure reaches its maximum in summer at Philippopolis
(i3'3) and its minimum in January at Gabrovo (3*4).

4. Vegetation

In this respect also Bulgaria holds a middle place between
the forests of Central Europe, the steppes of Russia, and the
Mediterranean districts. The mountains are covered with
forests similar to those of Central Europe. Certain regions
of the Danube remind one of the Russian steppes, and Southern
Bulgaria produces plants belonging to the countries of the
south of Europe.

Bulgaria was formerly, as the memoirs of various travellers
testify, very rich in forests. Unfortunately a great part of

MOUNTAIN STRBAM.

GEOGRAPHY I3

them have perished in consequence of reckless consumption
and prospecting for minerals. What still remains is in the
mountains at a distance from towns and the principal arteries
of communication.

The forests of the plains are composed chiefly of oaks
(quercus) of all species. Above 500 metres altitude is found
the beech {Fagus sUvatica), the conunonest and most important
tree of our mountains. In a wide middle zone, the oak and
the beech grow together, the former covering the lower slopes,
the latter the upper slopes. The evergreen oak grows at
altitudes exceeding 1,000 metres. Lower down, with the
oak and beech are mingled the hornbeam (Caprinus duinensis),
the elm (Alntis gluiinosa) the plane (Acer pseudoplatanus)
and others. Above the beech, in the Rhodopes, and also on
the Rilo, extend usually forests of conifers, with the fir {Abies
pecHnala and Picea excelsa), the pine {Pinus silvesiris and
Pinus laricio), the Juniperus nana. The beech has in several
places driven out the conifers, which are now rarely to be
found in the Stara-Planina and in the Ossogovo. In the
fields, as well as on the slopes of the lower hills, are found,
instead of forests, shrubs, brambles and thorns of all kinds.
The most characteristic are the groves of lilacs {Syringa
vulgaris).

The north ridge of the Rhodopes ofEers perfect specimens
of the vertical distribution of trees in our forests. According
to Dr. Dingier, the forests of oak go as high as 700 metres,
the beech to 1,300 metres, mingled here and there with conifers,
the latter beginning above 1,100 metres. The highest tree-
covered region reaches 1,900 feet above sea-level.

South Bulgaria, which is sheltered by the Stara-Planina
from the north winds, is rich in Southern plants.

The grains most cultivated are wheat, maize, and barley
next come rye, oats, millet, and spelt. Buckwheat is little
grown. On the other hand, rice is very common in the valley

14 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

of the Maritza. Potatoes are beginning to be introduced in
places where the soil is poor.

The grape ripens everywhere in Bulgaria up to 500 metres
above the sea. The mulberry grows well in the lower zones.

Tobacco of excellent quality is grown at the foot of the
Rhodopes, and in the valley of the Strouma.

Cotton is grown in the south-eastern districts. Hemp and
flax are particularly abundant in the south-west. Aniseed,
sesame, and poppies flourish in the south, in the south-west,
and colza in the north.

Roses are extensively cultivated in the south-west, especially
at Kazanhk and Karlovo.

Since the sugar industry was introduced into Bulgaria,
the cultivation of beetroot is rapidly extending.

All kinds of vegetables and salads are grown in the market
gardens and in the fields near the towns and villages.

Among the more important fruit-trees may be mentioned
the hazel, walnut, almond, apple, pear, quince, plum, peach,
apricot, etc. In the rich orchards of Southern Bulgaria are
grown also the fig and pomegramate. The plains of Kustendil
and Gabrovo are the richest in fruit-trees. There is here
valuable material for export.

5. Fauna

The Bulgarian fauna is that of south and Central Europe.
The population being stiU thin, and the uninhabited area still
considerable, wild beasts are far from extinct. Camivora
and birds of prey still inflict ravages among domestic animals
and poultry.

We msty mention the bear {Ursus arcius) which lives in the
mountain forests ; the wolf {Cams lupus) found everywhere ;
the jackal, which lurks in the Stara-Planina, but is dying

GEOGItAPHY 15

out ; the fox, found everywhere ; the wild boar, in the forests
and hills ; the wild cat, polecat, etc.

Game, — ^The stag {Cervus daphus), formerly widespread, is
now found only in the great forests ; the chamois {CapeUa
rupicapra) among the precipitous rocks of the Rilo and the
Stara-Planina ; the roebuck {Cervus capriolus) in all the
mountains ; the hare, everywhere.

Aquatic Animals. — ^The otter (Lutra vulgaris) hides in the
bushes by the sides of streams (they may be seen in summer
in the lakes of the Rilo) ; the Delphinus delphis, on the shores
of the Black Sea ; the seal lives in the caves on the Black Sea
coast, near the Bulgarian Dobrudja.

The Bulgarian birds are of very varied species, in conse-
quence of the fact that the country is visited every year, in
spring and autumn, by several species which only stay for a
time. Many birds which spend the summer to the north of
Bulgaria migrate in winter to the south. Several species of
birds of prey are found : the eagle, owl, and falcon. We may
mention, among feathered game, the pigeon, woodcock, par-
tridge, pheasant, moorhen, bustard, snipe, wild goose, wild
duck, etc.

Among the Chelonia are found chiefly land and water
tortoises.

Several species of reptiles are found. The snake {Elaphis
quadriliniaius) sometimes attains a length of two metres.
Among poisonous serpents is the viper {Viper a berus and
Vipera ammodites).

Fish are found in the waters of the Danube, in the streams
and marshes, and in the Black Sea. The Danube fish belong
for the most part to the genus acdpenser : the stiurgeon, cod,
silurus, carp, bream, etc. In the tributaries of the Danube
there are the barbel, nasus, etc. ; in the Black Sea, the mud-
fish, mackerel, etc.

The animals useful to man may be grouped in three cate-

l6 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

gories : domestic animals, those employed in agriculture,
and those used for food.

The domestic animals are the cat and dog. Beasts of
burden : the buffalo, ox, horse, ass, mule.

Animals used for food : the sheep, goat, pig, homed cattle,
geese, ducks, fowls, turkeys, pigeons, etc.

>^^

•^

CHAPTER II
THE BULGARIANS

I. Historical Sketch

The first difficulty which the student of the history of the
Balkan nations encounters is the question of races. It is
as great a stumbling-block with the Bulgarians as with the
other Southern Slavs. Eminent historians have under
taken the most laborious research work and yet the results
of their studies cannot be said to agree, or to offer a satisfactory
solution to the fascinating problem of the origin of the Bul-
garians. Still the usually accepted theory, that of the Slav
historiaji Jirecek, may be summed up as follows : The
Balkan Peninsula has been inhabited since the earliest times
known to history by different tribes belonging to distinct
races. Of these we may mention the Thraco-Illyrians, the
Thraco-Macedonians, and the Thraco-Dadans. At the
beginning of the third century, the Slavs made their first
appearance and, crossing the Danube, came to settle in the
great plains between the river and the Balkans. Later, they
proceeded southwards and formed colonies among the Thraco-
niyrians, the Roiunanians, and the Greeks. This Slav emigra-
tion went on for several centuries. In the seventh century of
the Christian era a Finno-ugric tribe reached the banks of the
Danube. It is known that this tribe came from the Volga
and, crossing Russia, proceeded towards ancient Mcesia, where
it took possession of the whole north-east territory of the

»7 2

l8 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Balkans between the Danube and the Black Sea. These were
the Bulgars, or Bolgars. The Slavs, having a far stronger
character than the races they had found in the peninsula,
had already imposed on them their language and customs.
To a certain extent, the Bulgars met with the same fate : they
assumed the language of the Slavs, and some of their customs.
The Bulgars, however, gave their name to the mixed race, and,
thanks to their energy and power of organising, assumed the
political supremacy. The Bulgarian kingdom, thus founded,
was soon enlarged. The chief characteristics of the Bulgars
were warlike virtues, discipliile, patriotism, and enthusiasm.
The Bulgarian kings brought their victorious armies to the
gates of Constantinople, whose very existence they threatened.
The Greek Emperor sought their friendship, and even con-
sented to pay them tribute. Bulgaria attained her greatest
empire in the reign of King Kroum.

The greatest event in this period of Bulgarian history is
the introduction of Christianity. This took place in the
reign of King Boris, towards the end of the ninth century.
Boris was the first Christian king of Bulgaria, and from his
reign dates the history of Bulgaria as a civilised and settled
country developing its powers to a considerable point.

Another event perhaps even more important was the
appearance about this time of the great apostles Cyril and
Methodius, the originators of the cjnilic alphabet, which has
been adopted by all the Slav peoples, including Russia. The
foundations of national cultiu-e liaving thus been laid, a
Uterary movement began in Bulgaria.

Under the reign of Tsar Simeon, the son of Boris, the
Bulgarian empire increased still further. It embraced not
only Bulgaria proper, but Wallachia, part of Hungary and
Transylvania, part of Albatiia and Epirus, of Macedonia and
Thessaly. Simeon, no longer content with the title of king,
called himself Tsar, " emperor and autocrat of all Bulgarians

THE BULGARIANS I9

and Greeks." This title was retained by Bulgarian sovereigns
until the conquest of the kingdom by the Osmanlis.

The glory and supremacy of Simeon's reign, unfortunately,
did not last. Internal struggles had begun, owing to the
jealousies of some of the nobles and their spirit of adventiu-e.
The bo}rars, the knights and dignitaries of Bulgaria, had
alv^ys had great authority. In the reign of Boris II. (a.d. 963),
a boyar named Shishman Mokar raised a party and took
possession of the whole of Western Bulgaria, turning it into a
separate kingdom. Boris was overwhelmed by fresh mis-
fortunes. The Russians invaded Bulgaria, and Boris called
in the help of the Emperor, John Zemissius, who took advantage
of the situation to gain possession of the kingdom. Fortu-
nately, the successor of Shishman, Tsar Samuel, whose reign
was as brilliant as that of Simeon, succeeded in reuniting the
kingdom of Bulgaria, with Prespa as capital.

In 1015 Bulgaria, after a long and unlucky war with By-
zantium, was brought to subjection. A new state of things
began for the Bulgarians, who till then had never felt the
control of an enemy. The people longed for liberty, and
there were many attempts at revolt. Towards 1186, two
brothers, John and Peter Assen, raised a revolt and succeeded
in re-establishing the ancient kingdom, choosing as capital
Timova, their native town. It was then that Timova became
what it still remains, the historic town of Bulgaria. The
reign of John and Peter Assen was a brilliant time for Bulgaria
Art and hterature flourished as never before, and commerce
developed to a considerable extent. Once more the Bulgarian
empire was respected and feared abroad. This lasted as
long as the d3aiasty founded by John and Peter Assen con-
tinued to reign. Unfortunately, this d}masty died out in
1257, and Bulgaria fell into the hands of usurpers. Once more
it was divided, and difiFerent chiefs, among them Roman,
George Terter and Michael Shishman, tried in turn to found

20 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

dynasties and protect the country. They all failed. On
the one side the Servians, on the other the Magyars, and
afterwards the Turks, who were already settled in the south of
the peninsula, cast greedy eyes on Bulgaria. At last, as a
result of the famous and fatal battle of Kossovo (a,d. 1393),
Bulgaria lost her poUtical independence and became a simple
Ottoman province.

Soon afterwards she lost the independence of her autonomous
Church, and in spiritual matters became a slave of the Phanar.
All the other Christian peoples of the peninsula were in their
turn subjected by the Tmrks.

For a long while, Europe remained in ignorance of the fate
of Christians under the Ottoman yoke. Distracted by bloody
wars, she scarcely noticed their slavery for centuries. And
yet, the history of the Christians under Turkish rule in the
Middle Ages is of the greatest interest. Had the rulers been
of the same race and religion as the vanquished, the subjection
might have been more tolerable. Ottoman domination was
not, however, a simple poUtical domination. Ottoman
tyranny was social as well as political. It was keenly and
painfully felt in private as well as in pubhc life ; in social
Uberty, manners and morals ; in the free development of
national feeling ; in short, in the whole scope of human life.
According to om: present notions, poUtical domination does
not infringe upon personal Uberty, which is sacred for the
conqueror. This is not the case with Turkish rule. The
Bulgarians, like the other Christians of the Balkan peninsula,
were, both collectively and individually, slaves. The life,
possessions, and honour of private individuals were in constant
peril. The bulk of the people, after several generations, calmed
down to passivity and inertia. From time to time the more
vigorous element, the strongest individualities, protested.
Some Bulgarian whose sister had been carried ofi to the
harem of some pacha would take to the mountains and make

THE BULGARIANS 21

• on the oppressors. The haidukes and voivodes, celebrated
in the national songs, kept up in mountain fastnesses that
spirit of Uberty which later was to serve as a cement to
unite the new Bulgarian nation.

But it is a noteworthy fact that the Osmanlis, being them-
selves but Uttle civilised, did not attempt to assimilate the
Bulgarians in the sense in which civilised nations try to effect
the intellectual and ethnic assimilation of a subject race.
Except in isolated cases, where Bulgarian girls or young men
were carried off and forced to adopt Mohammedanism, the
government never took any general measures to impose
Mohammedanism or assimilate the Bulgarians to the Moslems.
The Turks prided themselves on keeping apart from the
Bulgarians, and this was fortunate for our nationality. Con-
tented with their political supremacy and pleased to feel
themselves masters, the Turks did not trouble about the
spiritual life of the rayas, except to try to trample out all
desires for independence. All these circumstances contri-
buted to allow the Bulgarian people, crushed and ground down
by the Turkish yoke, to concentrate and preserve its own
inner spiritual Ufe. They formed religious commimities
attached to the churches. These had a certain amoimt of
autonomy, and, beside seeing after the churches, could keep
schools. The national Uterature, full of the most poetic
melancholy, handed down from generation to generation and
developed by tradition, still tells us of the life of the Bulgarians
tmder the Ottoman yoke. In these popular songs, the memory
of the ancient Bulgarian kingdom is mingled with the sufferings
of the present hour. The songs of this period are remarkable
for the oriental character of their times, and this is almost
the sole trace of Moslem influence.

In spite of the vigilance of the Turks, the religious associa-
tions served as centres to keep alive the national feeling.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, when Russia

22 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

declared war against Turkey (1827), Bulgaria awoke. Un-
happQy, her hopes were vain, but the impulse had been given
and, one after the other, Roumanians, Servians, and Greeks
were roused from their lethargy.

The emancipation of the Bulgarian Church preceded the
political emancipation, and we may fairly say that if the
latter is not entirely the work of Bulgarians^ at least the
deliverance of the national Church from the Greek yoke was
the exclusive work of the best of the nation. Their efforts
were crowned with success in 1870, when the Bulgarian
Exarchate was established at Constantinople.

While the more conservative saw their salvation in the
freeing of the Bulgarian Church from the authority of the
Greek patriarch, a new generation was growing up who
were not content with merely ecclesiastical Uberty. Young
men began to emigrate in large numbers, and Roumania
became the centre for Bulgarian emigrants who were to
prepare some bold attacks on the oppressor. A series of
insurrections shook the foundations of the Ottoman Empire.
By degrees, Greeks, Roumanians, and Servians recovered their
independence. In 1875 and 1876, events of exceptional
gravity decided the Powers to interfere to good purpose.
While an insurrection was breaking out in Herzegovina, the
French and German consuls at Salonica were assassinated
by Moslem fanatics. An insurrection among the Bulgarians
of the Sandjak of Philippopolis was repressed by Turkish
massacres and atrocities which, voiced by Gladstone, brought
down the indignation of Europe. Servia, willing to profit by
these disturbances to attempt a complete separation from
Turkey, ordered her army across the frontier. The Powers
were forced to call a Conference, which met at Constantinople
on December nth — 23rd, 1876.

This Conference marks an important epoch in Bulgarian
history. For the first time in the official relations of the

THE BULGARIANS 33

Powers, the name " Bulgaria " was mentiooed, and the first
outlines for the organisation of the coming Principality were
sketched.

At the first meeting, Comte de Chaudordy, French Envoy
Extraordinary, in the name of the Powers represented
at the Conference, presented a project of reform concerning
Servia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. As
he was speaking, the noise of great guns reached the ears
of the plenipotentiaries : it was a carefully planned surprise.
The President of the Conference, Sai¥fet Pacha, rose and
solemnly announced that this firing v^as to proclaim the be-
ginning of constitutional government in the Ottoman Empire.
" The great deed," he said, " which is this moment being
accomplished changes a state of things which has lasted six
centuries. The Constitution, granted by his Majesty the
Sultan to his peoples, is proclaimed. It opens for Turkey
a new era of happiness and prosperity." It is true that the.
Constitution was proclaimed, but it only lasted for a morning.
The Turkish plenipotentiaries answered all the proposals of
the Powers by a non possumus, which they based on the
statement that the new Constitution assmred liberty to aU
nationalities.

The project of the Powers for Bulgaria included the following
measures : the districts inhabited by Bulgarians were to be
divided into two provinces. According to the map attached to
the docmnent, the Eastern Province, with Timovo as capital,
was to include the Sandjaks of Roustchouk, Timovo, Toultcha,
Varna, Sliven, Philippopolis (not including Sultan-Eri and
Ahi-Tch61ebi), the kazas of Kirklisi, Moustapha-Pacha and
Kasilagatch; and the Western Province, with Sofia as capital,
the Sandjaks of Sofia, Vidin, Nisch, U^kub, Monastir, the three
kazas of the north of S6ris, and the kazas of Stroumitza,
Tikvesch, Velfa, and Kastoria. Districts of from five to ten
thousand inhabitants were to stand as the administrative imit.

^4 BULGAiaA OF TO-DAY

Christian and Hohammedans were to be settled homogeneously
in these districts. Each district was to have at its head a
mayor and a district council* elected by universal suffrage,
and was to enjoy entire autonomy as regards local affairs.
Several districts would form a Sandjak with a prefect (mutes-
sarif) at its head who was to be Christian or Mohammedan,
according to the majority of the population of the Sandjak.
He would be proposed by the Govemor-General»and nominated
by the Porte for four years. Finally, every two Sandjaks were
to be administered by a Christian Governor-General nominated
by the Porte for five years, with consent of the Powers. This
functionary would govern the province with the help of a
provincial assembly, composed of representatives chosen
by the district councils for a term of four years, at the rate of
one deputy to thirty or forty thousand inhabitants. This
assembly would nominate an administrative council of ten
members. The provincial assembly would be summoned
every year to decide the budget and the redivision of
taxes. The armed force was to be concentrated in the towns
and there would be local militia beside. The language of the
predominant nationality was to be employed, as well as
Turkish. Finally, a Commission of International Control
was to supervise the execution of these reforms.

The Ottoman plenipotentiaries asked leave to present
another plan, which was granted. They entered a determined
protest against two essential points in the project of the
Powers : the Christian Governcwrs, approved by the Powers
and the Commission of Control. The project was the result
of much consideration and reflection and of a number of
notes exchanged by the Cabinets, especially of the Austrian
note of December 30th, 1875. The Powers were the less able
to give up the Christian Governors and the control, as they
saw that no other guarantee would secure the execution of
many of the reforms which the diplomatists of Yildiz-Kiosk

THE BULGARIANS 2$

were always ready to grant on paper. In vain the Conference
conceded several secondiEuy points ; Turkey persisted in her
refusal, and the Conference separated without achieving any
result. The thunder of war was ahready heard afar oS.

The Russo-Turkish war broke out on April 12th, 1877,
and what Turkey bad refused to yield of her own accord was
wrested from her by force of arms, in the prehminary treaty
of San Stefano. By this treaty, Bulgaria was made an autono-
mous PrindpaUty subject to Turkey (Art. 6), with a Christian
government and national militia. The Prince of Bulgaria was
to be freely chosen by the people and accepted by the Sublime
Porte, with the consent of the Powers. As regards internal
government, it was agreed that an assembly of notables, pre-
sided over by an Imperial Commissioner and attended by
a Turkish Commissioner, should meet at PhiUppopolis or
Timova before the election of the Prince to draw up a consti-
tutional statute similar to those of the other Danubian
principalities after the Treaty of Adrianople in 1830. In
this way, the form of government for Bulgaria which had
been sketched in the project presented to the Conference
at Constantinople was almost finally determined by the
Russians at San Stefano. Then came the Congress of Berlin ;
its discussions were based on the Treaty of San Stefano,
which almost served as a first draft for the Treaty of Berlin.

The Treaty of Berlin contains the following decisions on the
subject of the new Principality : " Bulgaria is to be an
independent PrincipaUty, subject to the Sultan, with a
Christian government and a national militia ; the Prince of
Bulgaria will be freely chosen by the Bulgarian nation and
accepted by the Sublime Porte, with the approval of the
Great Powers ; no member of a reigning European family can
be elected Prince of Bulgaria ; in case of a vacancy of the
throne the election wiU be repeated under the same conditions
and with the same forms ; before the election of the Prince, an

26 BULGAKtA OF TO-DAY

assembly of notables will decide on the constitutional statute
of the Principality at Timova. The laws will be based on the
following principles : difiFerence of religion forms no hindrance
to the exercise of all civil and political rights and the holding
of public office; commercial treaties concluded with the
Porte will be binding on Bulgaria, she will not be able to
introduce any changes in them without the consent of the
Power concerned; no transit duties can be charged on
merchandise passing through Bulgaria; the rights and
privileges of foreign subjects, the right of consular jurisdiction
and protection, as instituted in the capitulations and by
custom, will hold good until abrogated with the consent of
the Powers concerned ; Bulgaria will pay tribute to Turkey
and will take part in her debts ; Bulgarians travelling in
Turkey will be under Turkish law and subject to the Turkish
authorities."

As we are not considering Bulgaria from an international
standpoint, a number of these clauses do not concern us.
We will only observe that, whatever may have been said of
the sovereignty or half-sovereignty of Bulgaria, we must not
overlook the fact that this question cannot be solved by a study
of the enactments of the Treaty of Berlin. This treaty, which
imposes so many conditions on Bulgaria, itself stipulates that
immediately after the election of the prince Bulgaria shall enjoy
complete autonomy. It follows, then, that from that moment
Bulgaria must be autonomous, and, each day bringing new
successes, Bulgaria was able to really become a sovereign
state, and far edipse the vassal and tributary principaUty of
1878. With the consent of the parties concerned, the capitu-
lations were abolished; the tribute is not paid; com-
mercial treaties are freely made between Bulgaria and the
Powers ; each day brings a change in the relations of Turkey
and Bulgaria. Everything depends on moral or physical
foice. So long as Bulgaria remains strong she may consider

Ttm BULGARIANS tf

herself sovereign ; if weak^ she is only half-sovereign. As to
the clauses of the Treaty of Berlin concerning the government
of the country, they only remained valid until the beginning
of the autonomy. They were binding on Bulgaria before
and during the Timova assembly and after it, until the election
of the prince.

The constituent assembly met at Timova February loth —
22nd, 1879, and soon voted the Constitution of the country
which, with some slight modifications, is still in force. This
assembly, dissolved immediately after the passing of the
Constitution, was followed by another for the election of the
prince, April 29th, 1879. Alexander of Battenberg was
unanimously elected.

We wiU not dwell upon the contemporary history of Bulgaria,
but only mention a few of its most important and saUent
events. These are the union of Eastern Romnelia with
Northern Bulgaria (September 6th, 1885), the Servo-Bulgarian
war of the same year, which brought glory to the Bulgarian
army, and the election pi His Royal Highness Ferdinand I.
as Prince of Bulgaria (July 7th, 1887).

Since the election of His Royal Highness^ Bulgaria has
enjoyed absolute peace. Thanks to this circumstance, and
to the watchfulness of the head of the State, this long time
of peace has been well employed in the inner and outer
consolidation of the country, in the moral and intellectual
development of the people, in all the enterprises which to-
day place Bulgaria in the rank of civilised and well-ordered
countries. Finally, let us mention another event of the
highest importance for the future of the Principality : the
foundation of a dynasty by the marriage of His Royal High-
ness and the birth of Boris, Prince of Timova, the first heir
to the throne of Bulgaria.

28 bulgaria op to-day

2. Population

According to a special law^ a census of the population of
Bulgaria is taken at fixed periods. This important task is
entrusted to the Direction of Statistics, whose method of
operation is such as to secure perfectly reliable results. The
difEerent Governments which have been in power since the
liberation of Bulgaria have always given their special attention
to this institution, which has already rendered signal services,
and whose importance is bound to grow with the development
of the country.

Owing to its good organisation and to its trained perijonnel,
the Direction of Statistics possesses at the present hour com-
plete information on all those branches of the national activity
which can be translated into figures.

The census taken by the Direction of Statistics on Decem-
ber 31st, 1905, shows that at that date the Principality had
a population of 4,035,646 inhabitants. The following table
contains the results obtained by the censuses taken at various
periods.

Census of
Dwember 31st.

Hale sex.

Female mz.

Totals.

1905

2,057,175

1,978,471

4,035,646

1900

1,909,567

1,834,716

3,744,283

1892

1,690,626

1,620,087

3,310,713

1887

1,605,389

1,548.986

3,154,375

1884

476,462

466,218

942,680*

z88o

1,027,803

980,116

2,007,919!

From this table it appears that, during the period 1880-1905,
the poptdation of Bulgaria increased by 1,085,047 inhabitants.

If we compare the total number of inhabitants with the total
area of the Principality, we obtain 39 iohabitants per square
kilometre, which represents the present density of population
in Bulgaria. We may, therefore, conclude that Bulgaria,

* Only for Southern Bulgaria. f ^i^Y ^o^ Northern Bulgaria.

GROUP OF PEASANT GIRLS FROM THE VILLAGE OF VETREN.

THE BULGARIANS

with her rich soil and her natural advantages^ can easily
support a population considerably larger than the present one.

The greater part of the inhabitants live in the country
but the number of towns is relatively a large one (73). The
capital of the Principality^ Sofia^ has a population of 82,621.
The towns next in importance are as follows : Plovdiv
(Philippopolis)^ 45>707 inhabitants ; Varna, 37,417 ; Rouss^
(Roustchouk), 33,632 ; Sliven, 25,027 ; Shoumen, 22,275 ;
Eleven, 21,145 ; Stara-Zagora, 20,788.

The following table contains the names of towns with a
population from 10,000 to 20,000, and from 5,000 to 10,000 :

No.

iownt with to,ooo
to 90,000 inhAbitantB

FopaUtioD.

No.

iown* wilB 10,000
to 10,000 inhabitant*.

PopalalioD

Tatar-Bazardji

k 17,555

Toutrakan

•• 9.845

Vidin ..

.. 16,388

Panaguricht6

.. 9,729

Yambol

.. 15,741

Se^6vo . .

.. 9,712

Dobritch

•• 15,397

Eski-Djoumaya 9,549

Haskovo

.. 15,105

Kavakly . .

.. 8.416

Vratza . .

.. 14,916

Lovetch

.. 8,178

Stanimaka

.. 14,157

Leskovetz

.. 8,106

Razgrad

.. 13,799

Gabrovo

.. 7,816

Sistova . .

•• 13,441

Karlovo . .

.. 7,812

10.

Bourgas

.. 12,949

10.

Goma-Or^ovitza 6,819

ZI.

Kustendil

•• 12,334

II.

Baltchik

.. 6,588

12.

Timovo

.. 12,185

12.

Kamobat

.. 6,583

13.

Silistria..

• • 12,055

13-

Or^hovo . .

•• 6,197

14.

Tchirpan

.. 11,868

14-

Nova-Zagora

.. 5.879

15-

Doupnitza

.. 11,231

15-

Berkovitza

•• 5,784

16.

Kazanlik

.. 10,790

16.

Pecht^ra

•• 5,779

17-

Lom

.. 10,730

17-

Provadia

.. 5,724

18.

Samokov

.. 10,205

18.

Anhialo . .

.. 5,464

19.

Nikopol ..

.. 5,236

20.

B^a

.. 5,166

21.

Loukovit

•• 5,037

30 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

The next table^ which is of special importance from an
economical point of view, shows the repartition of the families
as regards the number of their members. The circumstance
which deserves special notice is the comparatively important
number of large families. These latter form a kind of patri-
archal groups, in which several generations of descendants
have remained with undivided property under the authority
of one family head. Such families were formerly more
frequent, but the law of successions has a tendency to re-
duce their number by splitting the rural properties among
the various members of the family.

Nnmberof

BMmlwnof

fiuBilie*.

Number of fuBUl...

Population of Fapulation in tlw
town*. country.

Total.

19,299

11,807

31,106

22,311

25,035

47,346

28,182

45.747

73.929

29.732

66,554

96,286

27,884

82,771

110,655

21,746

83,635

105,381

13,636

69,216

82,852

7,619

48,218

55,837

3,646

30,756

34.402

1,757

19,005

20,762

737

11,506

12,243

340

7,570

7,910

180

4,853

5,033

3,446

3,525

2,187

2,231

1499

1,538

1,069

1,085

786

800

528

536

368

369

THE BULGARIANS 31

As regards the various nationalities^ the population of the
Principality is distributed as follows :

No. Nationality.

1. Bulgarian ..

2. Russian
3- Servian

4. Monten^grian

5. Turkish

6. Austro-Hungarian . .
7* American

8. British

9. Belgian

10. German

11. Greek

12. Spanish

13. Italian

14. Persian

15. Roumanian

16. French . . • •

17. Swiss

18. Other nations

The following table shows the distribution of the population
as regards the countries of origin.

Populiaioii.
Hen. Womra.

2,022,920

1,959,786

1,715

1,479

1,154

707

115

21,344

7,693

3.II4

3,191

269

226

3,928

3,329

347

617

520

238

182

1,242

853

276

No. Birtbplww.

Popolatioo.
Men. Women.

Total.

I. Bulgaria ..

. 1,981,166

1,929,182

3,910,348

a. Turkey ..

55,924

31,550

87,474

3. Roumania

7,219

6,323

13,542

4. Russia ..

4,075

3,266

7,341

5. Servia . .

2,451

1,987

4A3S

6. Austro-Hungary.

4,678

5,205

9,883

7. Greece ..

613

209

822

8. Montenegro

185

223

32 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Population.

Na BifthpUoe.

Men.

Women.

TotaL

9* Italy

258

128

386

ID. Germany ..

207

200

407

II. France

148

162

310

12. Switzerland

138

13. England ..

14. Spain

15. Belgium . .

16. Denmark

17. Holland . .

18. Sweden

19. Norway . .

—

20. United States

21. Persia

22. Other countries

outside Europe..

Total population : 2,057,175 1,978,471 4,035>646

The following table shows the repartition of the population
of Bulgaria as regards the vernacular languages :

Population.
No. Vemacolar language. Men. Women.

1. Bulgarian 1,632,266 1,57^,753

2. Russian 1,767 1,503

3. Servian . . . . . . 1,621 i>i04

4. Croatian 100 102

5. Tzech 649 763

6. Polish 94 64

7. Other Slav languages . . 799 703

8. Turkish 254,475 243,345

9. Tartar 8,306 7,964

10. Greek 35,538 34,^23

11. Jewish 18,198 18,257

12. Armenian 7,690 5,804

THE

BULGAI^IANS

Women.

13. German

2,339

2,682

14, French

292

351

15. Italian

495

336

16. Roumanian

42,356

41,588

17. Tzigan

48,496

46,153

18. Albanian

1,162

162

19. Hungarian .

354

523

20. English

21. Arab

22. Persian

23. Other Non-I

Slav languages 41

As regards the various religions existing in the Principality^
and the vernacular language of the inhabitants^ the population
of Bulgaria is distributed as follows :

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Crostifiii • <
Tiech

waok

Other 8tev
Turkidi .
Tartar

JewWi

Arab

Other Non-Slav langnagei

Total

• -l

CONFESSIONS.

Orthodis.

x,6o8,ooz

1.309

i»587

xa8

4,a97

35,469

733

43,3x1

9.634

396

i,704,07»

x,549,ai4

z,ox8

1,079

Z08

X3X

4,275

34,x7a

474

337

4J.519

9,3x0

153

xx8

x.64X,9«3

CatlwBc.

xx,633

478

109

33
x,367

334

476

6
•33

X4.710

".494
9
»5

533
50

XX3

1.463

347

3x3

333

7
6

X4,73a

Prototaat

1,317
X5

X19

555

X
63

539
39

I
64
5*

3,803

x,38x

468

60
471

3
x6

39
S8

3,600

THE BULGARIANS

0ONKBS8IONS.

i^im.-Gf<8or.

THahrnitw^^ftw

Jewish.

Oldbdievcts.

M. P.

10,886

xo,68o

— ! ~"

416

—

390

4ai

—

«^

■""

I
5

I
4

—

«37

249>938

•38,754

—

8,306

7,96a

—

4
13

—

i8,x8x

i8,a48

—

6^66

5,a3«

—

""~

440
a?

303
31

—

•""

"~~

X
34

„^

—

3«,8fi7
75«

36,838

9
8

—

7,1*4

5,570

308,848

a94,a67

18,757

x8,896

390

4ax

466

CHAPTER III

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
ORGANISATION

I. Constitution of the Bulgarian Principality

It is too early as yet to attempt writing a constitutional
history of Bulgaria. The modem history of the Principality
barely covers thirty years, and may be said to begin with the
arrival of the first Prince in the country. Between the ancient
Bulgarian kingdom and Bulgaria of our time there is a
break of several centuries, which makes it impossible to
establish any logical connection of the present with the past.
The Organic Statute which now regulates the political life of
Bulgaria is, so to speak, the product of a day. Its origins
are not buried far back into the past history of the coimtry,
neither is it the result of the sole efforts of the Bulgarian
nation. The Great Powers, at the same time as they pro-
claimed the independence of Bulgaria, not only fixed the
form of the future government of the Principality, but also
laid down the main principles of its public law. Under
these circumstances^ history is but of small practical value
in the study of the political organisation of modem Bulgaria,
and we^ therefore, only propose to give a brief sketch of the
events and institutions which preceded the present order
of things.

Very little is known of the political organisation of the
andent Bulgarian kingdom. At the beginning, the govern*

38 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

meat appears to have been purely aristocratic. The king
was invested with absolute power, and, in the discharge of
his functions, was assisted by a council of six great noblemen,
or " boliars," whence the word " boliarstvo," or nobility.
The ro3^ court was composed of a great nimiber of page»,
equerries, and small noblemen from all over the country.
The noblemen and the clergy shared between themselves
the government of the kingdom. Serfdom seems to have,
existed from the very first.

Under the feudal system, while the authority of the king
suffered diminution, the ro3^ titles, on the contrary, rose in
dignity. The king was called " Caesar " and " Imperator," he
sent and received ambassadors, wore a purple mantle and a
crown, and carried a sceptre. The succession was regulated
by the law of primogeniture, in the descending male line,
women being excluded by the Salic Law. In the absence of
children, the succession devolved on the eldest brother.
During the minority of the king the regency belonged by
right to his mother. When a royal family became extinct,
the noblemen proclaimed a new dynasty in the person of one
of their peers.

All state fimctions formed the exclusive privilege of the
boliars. The entire political organisation was modelled on
that of the Byzantine Empire. The highest state dignitary,
who was one of the king's relatives, was called " despot."
Then came the " sebastocrat," or the king's brother. There
was a chamberlain, a minister of finance, and various other
dignitaries, to whom were entrusted the different State
services. Every province had at its head a prefect, or " ban,"
who represented the king. Society was divided into three
classes : the nobility and the clergy, the tradesmen, and the
peasants, or pariahs. These latter were allowed to possess
land, to which, however, they were tied. They also had to
pay taxes to the upper classes.

POLITICAL MD administrative ORGANISATIOlf 39

The legislative power was vested in the king and in the
council of bishops. Among the various sources of law of
the period, we may mention the Chrysobulles or royal decrees,
the decisions of the cotmdls, the prefectoral ordinances, and
the decisions of the law courts.

During the Turkish domination, Bulgarian formed the
Vilayet of Danube, her lot differing little from that of the
other Ottoman provinces in the Balkan Peninsula. Until
the Treaty of Paris in 1856, Turkey had no more than a
rudimentary poUtical organisation. Being a theocratic state,
aU the public institutions emanated from the Calif, as the
representative of Mahommed. The Koran held the place
of dvil and criminal law, and the duty of its ministers was to
punish all those who broke its commandments. Every
parish had a " cadi/' who was appointed by the spiritual
chiei The cadi concentrated in his hands all juris-
dictions, judging without appeal all cases, civil and criminal,
and observing no fixed rules of procedure in the apphcation
of the few principles which the Koran contained on the
subject of civil relations. When the disputes were of a more
complicated character, the cadi was assisted by two notables
of the parish who, however, only had a consultative voice
in the decisions. In certain special cases, the Sheik-ul-Islam
of Constantinople, which is the highest religious tribunal
in Turkey, had the right to revise the decisions of the cadis.

At the Congress of Paris Turkey, as one of the participating
parties, was admitted into the concert of European Powers.
With the object of showing herself worthy of the honour^
Turkey undertook to introduce a certain number of law
reforms, borrowing, chiefly from France, a criminal code,
a commercial code, etc. On that same occasion, civil tri-
bunals were for the first time created in Turkey, being called
Mahk^m6>Nizaini6, or law courts. In 1867 they were in-
troduced in the Vilayet of Danube by the then Governor-

40 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

General, Midhat Pasha. These were tribunals of first in-
stance and courts of appeal, each consisting of three or
four judges. Their jurisdiction, however, was never strictly
defined, while their usefulness was rendered illusory by
the fact that the jurisdiction of the cadis remained intact.
These latter, being popular with a population fanatically
attached to the Koran, continued to hear all sorts of cases,
so that the new law courts were soon ignored by the private
parties and forgotten by the Government.

The principle of the separation of powers was quite un-
known. The administrative authorities were at the same time
judiciary organs. The police authorities held the place of
assize courts ; they judged and executed their decisions
without any semblance of process. Pubhc life was practically
non-existent* The customs of the population were simple
and primitive. There were no means of conununication, the
word industry was hardly known, commerce was insignificant,
and agriculture formed the sole occupation of the " ra3^as." In
these conditions, and given the low level of intellectual and
moral development, the absence of a more perfect pohtical
organisation tallied well with the general state of things.

The description which we have just given remains to this
day true of the greater part of the Turkish provinces, and
especially of Macedonia.

Such was the state in which the Russians found Bulgaria
in 1877. No sooner had they crossed the Danube than their
first thoughts were given to the administrative organisation
of the country. There exists on this subject an interesting
report which was prepared by the Russian Imperial Com-
missary in Bulgaria and read by him before the constituent
assembly at Timovo. The task of remodelling the adminis-
tration of the country was entrusted to a special conmiission
which accompanied the troops and was placed under the
authority of the Conmiander-in-Chief of the Russian armies.

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 4I

As early as July 7th, 1877, the Commissary submitted to
the approval of the Commander-in-Chief a scheme for the
civil organisation of the sandjaks and kazas of Bulgaria, the
respective governors issuing at the same time orders that the
few institutions which had remained from the former regime
shotild continue in operation.

In the timnoil of the war, the work of restoration was for
a- time forgotten. Besides, the undertaking proved a very
difficult one, while the few results which had been obtained
were hardly encouraging. Properly speaking, there could be
no question of a real administrative organisation before the
signature of the Treaty of San Stefano. In virtue of one of
the clauses of that treaty, Russia appointed a Commissary-
General, with the mandate to organise the civil govenunent
of Bulgaria. The choice fell on Prince Dondoukofi-KorsakofL
He was allowed a period of two years to accomplish his
task, but this term was subsequently reduced by the
Treaty of Berlin to nine months. Korsakoff appointed an
administrative council, which may be said to be the earliest
vestige of civil government in the Principality after the
war. The council consisted of six members^ who were
placed at the head of the following departments : Com-
missary's chancery and diplomatic correspondence, military
affairs, interior, justice, finance, and public instruction and
religions. Northern Bulgaria was provisionally divided into
sixteen departments which, in their turn, were sub-divided
into thirty-two districts. As regards Southern Bulgaria, or
Eastern Roumelia, the Treaty of Berlin reserved for it a
different fate. The chief of the judiciary section, Lucanoff^
appointed a commission to collect the materials necessary for
the drawing up of regulations. The labours of this commission
resulted in the important work entitled " Provisional Rules for
the Organisation of Justice in Bulgaria/' which was promul-
gated at Plovdiv on August 24th, 1878. These rules

42 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

dealt with the judiciary organisation, and with civil and
criminal procedure. They abolished the few remaining
institutions, most of which only existed on paper, substituting
in their place a completely new sch^ne. Henceforth, the
judiciary authority was to be vested in the Councils of Elders
and in the ordinary and exceptional courts. The independ-
ence of the administrative authority received a formal re-
cognition. Councils of Elders were instituted in all the
communes. The ordinary courts were district and depart-
mental, these latter acting as courts of appeal. The excep-
tional jurisdictions were four in number : administrative,
military, religious and Mahommedan. The Orthodox, Ma-
hommedan, and Jewish confessions were to have tribunals
of their own. Commercial courts were to be established in
the principal commercial centres, but this was never done.
The jurisdiction of the military courts and their procedure
were maintained as fixed by the proclamation of July ist, 1877.
It should be further mentioned that the new regime displayed
great toleration towards the Mahommedans, who had been
until lately masters of the country. This indulgence wiU
be easily understood, if we state that the official language of
the new courts was to be Bulgarian or Russian, both of
which were equally unintelligible to the Turks. Besides,
the courts had been ordered to observe the local and national
usages and traditions, until the elaboration of new laws.
These usages and traditions differed considerably with the
various nationalities. All these considerations, as well as
the desire to show how much the new regime differed from
the Asiatic intolerance which had preceded it, were the cause
of the ^' Provisional Rules " sanctioning the creation, in addition
to the Councils of Elders and the local courts, of special Turkish
civil courts, which must not be confounded with the religious
courts which the Turks had, together with all the various
other nationalities. The Mahommedan courts had the same

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 43

jurisdiction as the common law courts in all cases where the
dispute lay between Mahommedan parties. If the suitors
were of different nationality, the case came before the two
courts, sitting jointly under the presidency of the oldest
member.

As might have been expected^ things during this tran-
sitional period did not always go for the best. The Russians
did all in their power to replace the old order of things, which
the population would stand no longer, with European insti-
tutions. There were circumstances, however, which rendered
their task extremely difficult. In the first place, the state
of war and the other daily excitements, which did not calm
down for a long time, were not the conditions most suitable
to the performance of their mission. The abolition of the
former administration did not take place everywhere at the
same time, but had to keep pace with the success of the
Russian troops which, only gradually, and at the cost of
torrents of blood, drove the enemy southwards. At the
beginning, the labour was nothing short of a tower of Babel
where it was impossible to understand much of what went
on. The administrative machinery, built as it was at hap-
hazard with heterogeneous materials, jarred and weighed
down in all its parts, while intelligent workmen still laboured
to make it go.

The provisional government had for mission also to prepare
a schen^e for the new constitution of the country. This
task was entrusted to the Russian professor Gradovsky, who
was assisted by General Domontovitz. The draft, which
was written in Russian and had for title " Organic Statute,"
was submitted to the Constituent Assembly of Timova on
February ioth-22nd, 1879, by the Commissary-General, Don-
doukoff-Korsakoff . Very little is known of the sources from
which Professor Gradovsky drew, or of the principles which
guided him in his work. On some of the most important

44 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

poiHts, the initiative of the author had been strictly defined
by the Treaty of Berlin, which had already fixed the form
of the future government of Bulgaria. As regards his sources,
it is practically certain that Professor Gradovsky was greatly
influenced by the Servian and Belgian constitutions, and also
by the Russian communal institutions, in so far as the auto-
nomy of the communes was concerned.

Many of the Uberal institutions which now form part of
the constitution did not figure in the original draft, but are
due to the initiative of members of the Constituent Assembly.
The differences between the draft as it was submitted and
the constitution as it was voted by the Assembly are numerous,
and in some respects of far-reaching importance. The draft
fteserved the entire legislative initiative to the Prince and to
the Government, thus excluding the members of the legislative
body from the right of originating new laws. By its com-
position, the National Assembly would have had the char-
acter of a senate rather than that of a popular assembly.
All its members were not to be elected by universal sufiErage,
the Prince having the right to appoint a certain number of
deputies, while the Exarch, the bishops, and the presidents
of the law courts were to be members of the Assembly, by
virtue of the ofl&ce which they held. The draft provided for
the creation of a State Council, whose duty was to advise
the Government in the preparation of bills, to act as supreme
administrative court, to decide disputes between the judiciary
and administrative organs, to authorise extraordinary ex-
penditure and communal loans, to sanction expropriations
of public utility, and to watch over the observance of the
constitution.

The Constituent Assembly, to which the examination of
this draft of the "Organic Statute" was submitted, con-
sisted of 231 meinbers, of whom 89 had been elected by
popular suffrage, at the rate of one deputy per 10,000 male

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 43

inhabitants, 21 were appointed by the Imperial Commissary
(11 of these members were Mahommedans), 5 represented
different societies, 11 members, of whom 9 Orthodox, i mufti
and one rabbi represented the clergy, and the remaioing 105
members were high functionaries, presidents of law courts,
and of departmental and municipal councils.

The draft was referred to a committee of 15 members,
who were to examine it and report to the Assembly. The
debates which followed the presentation of the committee's
report show that even at that early period Bulgaria did not
lack men fully equipped for such an important task.

The principal speakers during these debates were the same
men who^ during the subsequent twenty-five years have
played the foremost part in the poUtical life of the country.
Mostly young men who had recently returned from the
European universities^ they brought into the Assembly their
stores of knowledge, personal recollections, and observations,
gathered during their sojourn in the different capitals of
Europe, where they had followed closely the parliamentary
life of other countries. The greater part of these men were
not "notables," and owed their position in the Assembly,
not to their social position, but to popular suffrage. Linked,
as they were, with Occidental liberalism, they represented
in an assembly composed mainly of Turkish rayas, the ideas
of civilisation and culture. We can detect, even at that
early stage, the different tendencies which were soon to divide
the country into political parties.

The work of the committee appears more retrograde even
than the draft itself. In the place of a State Council, the
committee proposed the creation of a senate. Mere citizen-
ship did not entitle one to political rights ; in order to be a
voter it was necessary to possess certain pecuniary qualifica-
tions, which became heavier for those who were candidates
for the Assembly. The report of the committee was rejected.

46 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

and the Assembly took up the Russian draft, discussing it
point by point.

The alterations which were introduced bore on the name
of the bill, as well as on most of the provisions which it con-
tained. The title which the Assembly selected was : " Con-
stitution of the Bulgarian State." The principle of a State
Council was rejected ; the legislative body secured for itself
the right of initiating laws and the composition of the Assembly
was made uniform, the pecuniary census being abolished,
and all members being elected by universal suffrage.

The constitution, with the above amendments, was passed
on April i6th, 1879, and was countersigned by all the deputies
of the Constituent Assembly, as well as by the Imperial
Commissary, the Ottoman delegates, and the representatives
of the Great Powers. The relatively small part which these
latter took in the labours of the Assembly of Timova was due
to the fact that, in accordance with the stipulations of the
Treaty of Berlin, they had been co-operating with the Im«
perial Russian Conmiissary in the preparation of his scheme.
Their abstention may have been also prompted by the con-
sideration that, with the passing of the Organic Statute, the
mission of the provisional government practically terminated.

Such were the circumstances under which was ushered
into life this constitution, which already has behind it a
history of twenty-five years. Among its other merits, the
principal one is that it has survived more than one crisis, and
has attained an age which may excite the envy of some other
countries. Its history has been a very stormy one. A
fragile craft, entrusted to inexperienced sailors, it was launched
into a stormy sea, and had from the very first to struggle
against thousands of internal and external dangers. It would
take too large a space to describe in these pages its history,
which is practically the history of Bulgaria during the last
quarter of a century. We shall only mention that, as a

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 47

consequence of the coup d'iiat of 1881, the constitution was
for a time suspended. The law of July ist-i3th invested the
Prince with extraordinary powers for a period of seven years,
and conferred on him the right to issue decrees^ creating new
institutions and having the authority of law. At the ex*
piration of the seven years, the Prince was to call a grand
National Assembly to revise the constitution in the light
of acquired experience, and in conformity with the newly
created institutions.

It may be added at this place that the original intention
of the Russian Government had been to make a provisional
constitution, which should be revised after a few years' triaL
But the Constituent Assembly declined to create a provisional
state of things, and the constitution which it passed remained
a final one.

In virtue of the law which we have just mentioned, the
Chamber of Deputies was immediately dissolved. The most
important undertaking of the new regime was to create a
State Council. This institution, which shared with the
Prince the legislative attributes, consisted of eight members
elected by the nation, four appointed by the Prince, and of
the ministers who, however, only had a consultative voice.
Although the extraordinary and unlimited powers conferred
on the Prince excluded the collaboration of a National Assem-
bly, the Prince deemed it expedient to promise to convoke
the representatives of the people, if the interest of the country
should require this.

The absolutist regime thus inaugurated did not live to the
end of its seven years' term, and the Constitution of Timova was
once more restored by the proclamation of September 6th, 1883-

Since that date the constitution has been uninterruptedly
in force. On two occasions only a partial revision of the
constitution was undertaken. The first attempt occurred
shortly after the restoration of the Constitutional Government

48 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

in 1883, but the contemplated changes could not be effected,
& subsequent law having pronounced that the conditions and
fonns prescribed by the constitution in case of a revision
had not been complied with. A second attempt at revising
the constitution followed in 1893, and this time it met with
better success, the fourth grand National Assembly of Timova
having, on May 15th of that year, amended Articles 6, 38, 59, 86,
114, 115, 125, 126, 139, 141, 144, and 161.

The Bulgarian Constitution consists of a hundred and sixty-
nine clauses, grouped into twenty-two chapters which, in
their turn, are subdivided into sections. The various chapters
deal with the following subjects : I. The territory of the
Principality ; II. The prerogatives of the Prince, and their
limits ; III. The residence of the Prince ; IV. The coat of
arms, seal, and national flag of the Principality; V. The
manner of succession to the throne; VI. The majority of
the Prince, the regency, and the guardianship; VII. The
accession to the throne and the oath ; VIII. The civil list
of the Prince and of hiis household ; IX. Religion ; X. Laws ;
XI. State properties; XII. The citizens of the Bulgarian
Principality ; XIII. National representation ; XIV. Ordin-
ary National Assembly; XV. Duties of the National As-
sembly; XVI. Manner of introducing and examining of
bills ; XVII. The budget ; XVIII. State loans ; XIX. Con-
vocation of the National Assembly; XX. Grand National
Assembly; XXI. Supreme public institutions. Council of
Ministers, and ministries ; XXII. Mode of revising or altering
the constitution.

2. Fundamental Principles of the Government and the
Administrative Organisation of the Principality

According to the Bulgarian Constitution, the government
and the administrative organisation of the PrincipaUty repose
on the following principles :

POUXICAI. AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 49

(i) Separation of public authorities into legislative, execu-
tive and judiciary.

(2) Perfect equality of citizens, as r^ards civil and political
rights.

(3) Inviolability of the person, residence, property, and
correspondence.

(4) Liberty of conscience, liberty of the press, liberty of
public meetings, and liberty to form associations.

(5) Direct and secret universal suffrage for the election of
members of the National Assembly, and departmental and
municipal councils.

(6) Local self-government.

THE PRINCIPAL PUBLIC AUTHORTTIES

The Principality of Bulgaria is a constitutional and here-
ditary monarchy, with a national representation. The
legislative and executive authorities exercise the national
sovereignty in the name of the nation and within the limits
prescribed by the fundamental law of the country.

The legislative power is vested in the Prince and in the
National Assembly, acting jointly.

The chief prerogatives of the Crown are as follows :

(i) Administrative Prerogative, — ^The executive power
belongs to the Prince. All the administrative organs act
in his name and tmder his supreme control. In virtue of
his prerogative, the prince appoints and dismisses the ministers
and, through these latter, aU the dvil and military func-
tionaries. He is the supreme chief of the military forces of
the country in time of peace, and their commander-in-chief
in time of war. He represents the country in its international
relations and at the national solemnities. All the treaties
with foreign States are concluded in his name and by authority
of the National Assembly.

The person of the Prince is sacred and inviolable.

50 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

The Prince has the title of Royal Highness.

(2) Legislative Prerogative.— Once a year, from October 15th
to December 15th, the Prince convokes the National Assembly
in ordinary session ; he summons it in extraordinary sessions
whenever there are important State matters requiring imme-
diate decision. The Prince opens the session personally or
through a delegate appointed ad hoc. The throne speech,
which he pronounces on this occasion, contains a statement
of the general condition of the country's affairs, and specifies
the various bills and propositions which the Government will
submit to the approval of the National Assembly. The
closure of the annual parliamentary labours is accompanied
by the same ceremonial as the opening of the session. The
Prince has the right, after convoking the Assembly, to pro-
rogue its session, but the prorogation may not extend beyond
two months, and must not occur more than once in the course
of the same session. He may also dissolve the Assembly and
order new elections. The exercise of the right of dissolving
the National As^mbly is reserved for exceptionally grave
cases, when the relations between the legislature, on the one
hand,*and the Prince or the Government on the other, have
become greatly strained. On such occasions the settlement
of the conflict is left to the nation itself.

The direct power of the Crgwn over the legislative ac-
tivity of the Assembly is considerable. The Prince may,
through his ministers, initiate bills and propositions. All
the laws which have been passed by the Assembly are pro-
mulgated in the name of the Prince, and become operative
only after they have been published in the Official Journal.
The royal approval of the new laws must be given in the
course of the session which has passed them.

The Prince may issue regulations and order measures^
having the obligatory force of laws, whenever the State is
threatened with immediate internal or external danger.

POUTICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 5I

All snch measures, however, must be adopted by the Cabinet
Council, and entail the collective responsibility of ^ the
ministers. They must be submitted to the approval of the
National Assembly in the course of its earliest session. A
special disposition of the Constitution expressly forbids the
levying, by means of such extraordinary regulations, of new
taxes or duties, the National Assembly having alone the
right to impose such.

The measures and regulations which the Government
issues with the object of ensuring the application of laws,
must be submitted to the approval of the Prince, after which
they are published in the Official Journal in the form of
decrees.

(3) The Judiciary Prerogaiive of the Crown includes : (a)
the right of pardon, or the right of reUeving persons condemned
by the law courts of the whole or of parts of their punishment.
No capital sentence may be executed unless it has been
approved by the Prince, who may substitute in its place a
lighter penalty ; (b) the right of amnesty, which the Prince
exercises jointly with the National Assembly, every act of
amnesty presupposing a special law sanctioned by the Prince.

(4) All the law courts of the country render their decisions
and sentences in the name of the Prince.

The royal dignity is hereditary, passing in the direct
descending male line. The heir to the throne attains his
majority at the age of eighteen years. If he succeeds to the
throne before that age, the royal prerogatives are exercised
during his minority by a regency. This latter consists of
three members, aU of them being past or. actual ministers
or members of the Supreme Court, who are appointed by the
Grand National Assembly.

The Civil List of the Prince is fixed by the constitution
at a million francs per annum.

52 BULGARIA OP TO-i)AY

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

The Bulgarian nation participates in the government of the
country by means of the deputies which it sends to the
NaHanal Assembly.

There are two kinds of national assemblies : the ordinary
National Assembly and the Grand National Assembly.

The ordinary National Assembly meets in regular session
every year from October 15th to December 15th. In cases
of special emergency, or when pending questions demand a
prompt decision, the Chamber is convoked in extraordinary
session.

The deputies for the National Assembly are elected accord-
ing to a special law, of which we propose to give here a brief
description. The electoral lists are |>repared and published
by special commissions of the municipal councils. The per-
sons interested have the right of correcting any omissions or
mistakes which they may detect in the registers. All such
claims are inquired into by the rfepective municipal coundL
whose decision may be taken in appeal before the Justice of
Peace and the District G)urt. If the dispute is taken before
the High Court of Cassation, this latter may annul the decisions
of the lower courts in the same way as in ordinary cases. All
electoral suits are exempt from stamp duties. For election
purposes the country is divided into special districts, whose
number and description are determined by a special law.
The royal decree fixing the date of the elections must be
published at least a month before the day fixed for polling.
No electors may be caUed under the banners or requisitioned
for any other State service during the five days preceding
the election, or on the day of polling. All those who have
been so called must be disbanded. Every elector must be
provided by the municipality with an electoral card, without

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 53

which no one is allowed to record his vote. For this purpose,
the Ministry of the Interior sends to all communes special
cards, which the communal authorities must fill with the
name, surname, age, etc., of the electors, specifying at the
same time the election for which the card is issued and the
section in which the bearer must vote. These cards must
be distributed to the electors at least ten days before the
polling. Those electors who, for some reason or other, have
been omitted, may api^y to the Justice of Peace, who is
authorised by the law to issue to them electoral cards, a
supply of these being sent to him at the same time as to the
communal authorities. The Justice of Peace makes a written
report of the action of the defaulting mayor, who is liable to
criminal prosecution. Every candidate must be supported
by at least twenty electors, whose names must be communi-
cated to the District Court. He has the right to be represented
in each voting place by an elector who watches over his in*
terests. The returning bureau is composed of a president,
who must be a judge, and of four other members, of whom
one is a member of the departmental council, one a mayor,
and the remaining two teachers in the primary schools. Ten
days before the polling the Courts of Appeal chooses, by
way of lot, the presidents of the returning bureau from
among the members of the Court of Appeal, the district
courts, and the Justices of Peace. The other members of
the bureau are chosen in the same way by the District
Court.

The voting is by secret ballot. The ballot-box is locked
with three keys, of which one remains with the president, and
the other two with the members of the returning bureau.
Before recording his vote, the elector shows his card, which the
returning bureau verifies by comparing it with the electoral
lists. The vote, which must be folded in four, is handed to
the returning president, who, without opening^it, deposits it

54 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

into the ballot-box. The president of the returning bureau
has under his authority the police forces in his electoral dis-
ixict, and has the right to requisition their services, as well
as those of the army. The polling lasts from seven o'clock
in the morning until six o'clock in the afternoon. When the
polling is terminated, the president of the returning bureau
appoints from among the electors two persons to verify the
result. The candidates and their agents have the right to
be present while this is being done. First of all, the electoral
cards are counted over and the result of the operation checked
by the marginal notes made on the electoral lists during the
polling. If the nimiber of the cards does not correspond to
the electoral lists, preference is given to these latter, the
incident being mentioned in the records. The president,
after announcing the result in a loud voice, opens the ballot-
box. The votes which have not been properly filled are not
counted, but are annexed to the records. The result of the
operation is recorded in a special report, which is signed by
the members of the returning bureau, the verifiers, and the
candidates or their agents, after which it is announced to
those who are present. The report is made in two copies,
of which one, accompanied b^ the difiPerent documents,
votes, lists, cards, etc., and duly sealed with the seal of
the local municipality, is sent to the president of the
District Court, while the other is forwarded to the sub-prefect.
The District Court, without opening the parcel containing
the cards and the votes, mentions in a special report the
majority required, and proclaims as deputies those candidates
who have obtained the greatest number of votes in the
division.

The verification of the result belongs to the National
Assembly, which, being the sole judge of the regularity and
llegality of the elections, has the power to confirm them or
\to annul them.

POUTICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 55

The Bulgarian subjects of the male sex who have attained
their majority and enjoy civil and political rights are electors.
The foreigners who have been naturalised also have the right
of voting.

All Bulgarian subjects who are at least thirty years old,
are able to read and write, and who have not been deprived
of their civil and political rights, may be elected as deputies
to the National Assembly. The naturalised foreigners may
be elected as such only if they have resided in the country
at least fifteen years since their naturalisation. Tnis
period, however, may be reduced by a special law to
three years.

A deputy is elected for every 20,000 inhabitants, and his
mandate lasts for five years.

The Constitution guarantees to the deputies complete
freedom of opinion, as well as the inviolability of their
person. Every deputy is free to express his opinions and to
vote according to his conscience and understanding. The
national representatives may not be imprisoned for debt five
days before the opening of the session, or while it lasts. During
the same period, they may not be arrested and prosecuted
for crimes, except when these entail the heaviest penalty. Fn
this latter case, their arrest may be effected with the assent
of the National Assembly.

The powers of the ordinary National Assembly are fixed
by the Constitution as f oUows :

1. Administrative Powers. — ^The National Assembly chooses
its own ofl&cers, consisting of a president, two vice-presidents,
secretaries, and questors. It also fixes the internal regulations,
and the order of its work.

The debates and the voting are public. On the demand of
a certain number of deputies, the Chamber may decide to sit
with closed doors.

2. Legislative Powers. — ^The National Assembly shares with

56 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

the Prince the legislative initiative. Every deputy has the
right to make propositions and to introduce bills, if he is
supported by one-fourth of the members present. The
National Assembly may amend the bills and propositions in-
troduced by the Government. The deputies have the right
to make interpeUations. By means of this important pre-
rogative, the d^uties can force individual ministers or the
entire Government to explain their line of conduct and to state
their intentions on some special matter, or as regards their
general pohcy.

The National Assembly may appoint commissions of in-
quiry or institute inquiries as regards the conduct of the
Government. It may submit to the Prince special addresses.
As a rule, these addresses are in answer to the Throne Speech.
By means of these addresses, the national representatives
can express their sentiments concerning the bills or measures
which have been announced in the Throne Speech or the
conduct of the Government.

The Bulgarian citizens have the right to petition the
National Assembly which decides, after having taken the
opinion of the competent ministers.

In the last place, no law may be enacted, amended, or com-
pleted unless it has been examined by the National Assembly,
which alone has the right to interpret its true bearing. In
connection with this, we may add that, according to the Con-
stitution, the Principality is governed by laws which have
been passed and promulgated in conformity with the re-
quirements of the Constitution. Nothing may be done unless
it be in virtue of some law which has been sanctioned by the
sovereign authority in the country, acting as delegate of the
nation, and previously brought to the knowledge of the sub-
jects, who thus are enabled to leam the limits of their rights
and duties. In one word, the citizens are placed under the
authority of laws, and not of State institutions that have

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 57

been invested with public force. Nevertheless, in cases of
emergency, when the country is threatened with internal or
foreign danger, this constitutional guarantee may be tem-
porarily suspended, and the executive authorities may issue
orders having the character and the obligatory force of laws.

The National Assembly alone is competent to decide
whether all the conditions requisite for the validity of a law
have been complied with.

The Grand National Assembly has the same composition
as the ordinary National Assembly, and its members are
elected in the same way. The only difference between the
two is that the number of members of a Grand National
Assembly is twice that of the ordinary National Assembly,
every electoral unit of 20,000 inhabitants sending two deputies
instead of one.

The Grand National Assembly may decide only those
matters which have necessitated its convocation. A Grand
National Assembly is called in the following cases :

1. To decide questions of exchanging or ceding a portion
of the territory of the PrindpaUty.

2. To revise the Constitution.

3. To elect a new Prince when the reigning family becomes
extinct, owing to absence of descendants who can occupy the
throne.

4. To appoint regoits during the minority of the heir to
the throne.

5. To authorise the Prince to accept the government of
another State.

3. The Budget

The State Budget is submitted every year to the approval
of the legislative Assembly. It is examined by chapters,
and the Assembly may not strike out or modify a chapter

58 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

without explaining the reasons which have determined its
action. In cases where the National Assembly cannot be
convoked in time, while unavoidable expenditure must h%
incurred, the previous Budget continues in force, provided
the National Assembly grants its approval in the nearest
session, and subject to the joint responsibility of the
ministers.

No State loan may be contracted without the consent of
the National Assembly. If the Government finds it impera-
tive to have recourse to a loan for the purpose of meeting
exceptional expenditure while the National Assembly is not
sitting, this latter must be immediately convoked in extra-
ordinary session. If, however, there are serious obstacles in
the way of an immediate convocation, the Prince, acting on
the advice of the Council of Ministers, may authorise a loan
not exceeding three millions of francs, on condition that the
approval of the National Assembly be obtained ia the nearest
session. The Prince may also sanction, subject to the same
conditions, an expenditure not exceeding one million francs
for the purpose of meeting needs for which the Budget has
made no provision.

The closure of the Budget's exercise is effected in virtue of
a special law which is passed by the National Assembly at
the end of the financial year. On this occasion, the Minister
of Finance presents to the National Assembly and to the
High Court of Accounts a report dealing with the financial
state of the country during the year. The High Court of
Accounts has an independent semi-judidary organisation
which enables it to exercise a strict control over the financial
administration of the State. It consists of a president, six
councillors, and a great number of reporters and accountants.
The president and the councillors are appointed by royal
decree on the proposition of the National Assembly, which
alone can revoke them. The High Court of Accounts sub-

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 59

mils the accounts of the Government to a minute examina-
tion which is based on the items of expenditure^ as they are
prepared by the Government, and on the accounts furnished
by the various spending departments. The High Court of
Accounts submits a general report to the National Assembly,
with whom the final decision rests.

Thanks to the measures which have been taken for the
advancement of aU branches of agriculture and of the national
industry, thanks also to the gradual increase of the popula-
tion, the stability of the national finances may be said to have
been assured.

The various steps which have been taken for the improve-
ment of the financial oiganisation of the Principality, coupled
with the general economic development of the country, have
produced during the year 1905 a revenue which had never
been attained before. It reached the sum of 127,606,502
francs, as against 119,655,507 francs during 1904, 101,272,234
francs during 1902, and 97,987,346 francs in 1903. This
gradual increase in the revenue is due, in a great measure,
to a series of excellent crops.

Owing to this increased revenue, the State has been able
not only to meet the ordinary and extraordinary expenditure,
but also to add considerably to the sinking fund.

The new laws of which we have spoken are as follows :

I. The law of budgetary accounts (passed on February
28th, 1904, and in operation since February ist, 1905), which
has replaced the one of 1885. Its main object is to secure
an efficacious control over the expenditure and to eliminate
the causes which had been hitherto disturbing the equilibrium
of the State Budget.

This same law has put a stop to the prevalent practice of
making provision for extraordinary credits which tend to
burden the Budgets and upset the finances of the State.
Henceforth^ the maximum of such exceptional expenditure

60 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

must not exceed two million francs, of which one million, in
virtue of Article 126 of the Constitution, is debited to the
Budget which has made the provision, while the other
million is carried over to the Budget of the following year.
The law prohibits all other exceptional credits, unless fresh
sources of revenue have been found to cover them.

2. A law for the collection of direct taxes (sanctioned by
.royal decree on March 14th, 1905, and published in the
Official Journal, No. 64, of March 23rd, 1905), which contains
a series of measures securing the prompt collection of all
direct taxes.

3. A law concerning duties on transfers of property (ratified
by Royal Decree No. 57 of January 13th, 1905, and promul-
gated on April 4th, 1905, in the Official Journal, No. 73),
providing a progressive duty on inherited estates, increasing
the duty on gifts, and greatly reducing the number of owners
of personalty who had formerly succeeded in escaping from
paying this duty.

4. A law of excise and licences for selling alcoholic drinks
(ratified by royal decree on January 31st, 1905, and promul-
gated in the Official Journal of the same date), which intro-
duces a stability in the revenue derived from this source, as
formerly all drinks did not pay an excise duty. This is the
first attempt at placing the production and the sale of alcoholic
drinks under a strict State control.

The most important part of this law, however, is that in
virtue of which the State has reserved for itself the exclusive
right of importing, making, and wholeselling of salt, matches,
and cigarette paper, hoping thus to increase its revenue from
these sources.

Besides, this law stipulates that in the future the duty
on^ tobacco and the Mourouri6 must be paid in gold and
not in silver — a circumstance which will increase the
quantity ofTgold held by the State, and thus reduce the

X''

POLITICAL AMD ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 6l

expenses formerly incurred by the State Treasury owing to
the agio.

5. A law on compulsory labour, law of the State and
communal roads (ratified by royal decree No. i on January
I2th, 1904, and promulgated in the Official Journal of January
20th, 1904), amends the former law in the sense that hence-
forth this duty must be paid in cash. This new law also con-
tains a certain number of provisions facilitating the imposi-
tion of those persons who have formerly succeeded in escaping
from this duty.

6. A law on military tax. According to the former law on
the organisation of the armed forces of the Principality of
Bulgaria, the tax imposed on those who were exempt from
serving in the army varied from ten to five hundred francs
while the present law subdivides the tax into fifteen cate-'
gories, varying from ten to a thousand francs.

The State privileges on the articles already enumerated,
as well as on plajdng-cards, have already increased the revenue
from these chapters, and have thus enabled the State to meet
the deficiencies produced by some of the remaining chapters
of the Budget. This new revenue figured for the first time in
the Budget for 1906.

When these privileges have been definitely established,
it is expected that they will increase from four to five
millions of francs the revenue derived from the excise and
the customs.

In order to form a clear and exact notion of the financial
condition of the country, it is enough to examine the balance-
sheets of the Principality, comprising its liabilities and its
assets, the State properties included. This balance-sheet
shows that at the present hour the country enjoys a firmly
established financial situation.

The following table contains the assets and the Uabiiities
of the Principality on January ist, 1907 :

62 bvlgaria of to-day

Assets

Franca.

Total amount of general assets 74,671,416

Reserve funds of the 5 per cent. Loan of 1902 . . 1,500,000

Reserve funds of the 5 per cent. Loan of 1904 . . 1,000,000

Cost of railways and harbours 189,500,000

State buildings 41,980,000

State properties 19,712,872

Invested as capital in the Bulgarian National

Bank i5»495.385

War materials 166,000,000

Total 509.859»673

Liabilities

Franca.

Total amount of general liabilities . • . . 39»9i2,890
Consolidated debt 357,208,000

Total amount of liabilities . . . . 397,120,890

Thus, there are assets of 509,859,673

As against liabilities of 397,120,890

Whichpeaves a surplus of . . . . 112,738,783

The following table shows in francs the state of the
Public Debt on January ist, 1907.

POUnCAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 63

2^ CO 5 S o S

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ll S|8!

^ ^^ 'Q < ^

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.21 a-*^"

^ IIS'

t^ m o^ 10 <

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H mm o

t^ H* m cf
m M

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^* ^» "^» ^i*

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BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

The Budget for the revenue and the expenditure of the
Principality during the year 1907 is as follows :

Art. I. — ^The ministers are authorised to spend during the
year 1907, in accordance with the laws of the Principality,
the sums indicated in the annexed tables, and amounting to

(a) Civil List

(6) Public Debt

(d) Ministry of Foreign AfEairs and Religions

(e) Ministry of the Interior

</) Ministry of Public Instruction

(g) Ministry of Finance

(h) Ministry of Justice

<*) Ministry of War

</) Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture
(k) Ministry of Public Works, Roads, and
Communications . .

Total of Expenditure
Surplus of Revenue

Total

Fnncs.
121,969,441

2,581,620

32,187,764

254,520

5,482,117

8,164,365

11,381,975

7,913,890

4,656,538

28,820,804

5,535,959

14,986,889

121,969,441
13,559

121,983,000

Art. 2. — ^For the purpose of covering the above expenditure,
the ministries are authorised to collect, during the year 1907,
in accordance with the laws of the Principahty, the sums indi-
cated in the tables annexed to this law and amounting to

Francs.
121,983,000

(a) Direct Taxes . .

(b) Indirect Taxes . .

41,380,000
36,890,000
10,650,000

POUTICAL AND ADMIKISTRATIVS OROAKISATfON 65

Franca.

(i) Duties 6,525,000

(e) Fines 135,000

if) Revenue from Communications . . . . 15,000,000

(g) Revenue from State Properties and Funds . , 7,728,000

(*) Various other revenues 3,065,000

Total of Revenue 121,983,000

4. The Executive Power and the Administration

The executive power is entrusted to special ministers, who
are placed by the Prince at the head of the Government.
One of the most important duties of the ministers consists
in taking the measures necessary for the exact application
of the laws which have been passed by the National Assembly
and approved by the Crown. The general conduct of the
political and administrative affairs belongs to the Council of
Ministers, acting under the supreme control of the Prince,
who appoints among them a President of the Council.

There are in Bulgaria eight ministries, namely :

1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Religions. ^^

2. The Ministry of the Interior.

3. The Ministry of Justices

4. The Ministry of Public Instruction.

5. The Ministry of Finance.

6. The Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture.

7. The Ministry of Public Works, Roads, and Communica-
tions.

8. The Ministry of War. ^'

In addition to the powers which belong to the different
ministers in their capacity as heads of the various Government
departments, an important rdle is reserved by the Constitution
to the Council of Ministers in the following cases :

I. If, on the demise of the Prince, the throne remains

66 BULGARIA OF TODAY

vacant owing to failure of heirs, the Council of Ministers
assumes the reins of government and sunmions within a
period of one month a Grand National Assembly to elect a
new Prince.

2. The Councfl of Ministers is invested with supreme autho-
rity if the Prince dies without having appointed regents.
Whenever this occurs, a Grand National Assembly must be
summoned within a month's time to appoint such r^ents.

Every official act must bear, in addition to the signature
of the Prince, that of one minister or of all the ministers, these
latter being the responsible representatives of the executive
authority.

The ministers are held responsible to the Prince and to
the National Assembly for all their acts. This responsibility
is collective for all the ministers in the case of measures
which have been decided by the Council of Ministers, and
individual with respect to the acts of the ministers as heads
of the various State departments.

The Constitution makes a distinction between the political
or parliamentary responsibihty of the ministers and their
civil and criminal responsibility. Art. 153 of the Constitution
r^ulates the first kind of responsibility, while art, 155 deab
with their civil and criminal responsibility. The ministers
are held civilly or criminally responsible in the following cases :
(a) When they have acted treacherously towards the Prince
or towards the country; (6) when they have violated the
Constitution ; (c) when they have committed the crime of
high treason, or have injured the interests of the State or of
private individuals for their personal benefit.

The impeachment of the ministers is pronounced by the
National Assembly, which also decides in all cases where
ministers in office are accused of common law crimes or
misdemeanours.

The ministers accused are judged by a special State Court,

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 67

which is composed of the councillors of the Supreme Appellate
Court, and of as many judges chosen by lot among the pre-
sidents of the Appeal Courts and District Courts. The im-
peachment is entrusted by the National Assembly to one of
its members, who has the title of SUUe Prosecutor. The
procedure which the State Court follows, as well as the penal-
ties which it may inflict on the guilty parties, are laid down
in the law of December 13th, 1880.

The common law misdemeanours which the ministers may
have committed fall within the jurisdiction of the High Court
of Cassation if they are still in office, and of the ordinary
courts after they have resigned.

No minister who has been found guilty and condemned may
be pardoned or amnestied by the Prince without the consent
of the National Assembly.

ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION

The Principality is divided for administrative purposes into
twelve departments, having for their centres the following
towns : Bourgas, Varna, Viddin, Vratza, Kustendil, Plovdiv
(Philippopolis), Plevna, Rouss6 (Roustchouk), Sofia, Stara-
Zagora, Timova, and Shoumen. At the head of every depart-
ment there is a prefect who is appointed by royal decree on
the proposition of the Minister of the Interior. In his depart-
ment the prefect is the agent of the central government and,
as such, he represents the entire executive authority. He
is entrusted with the control over the administration of the
Various communes, and over the finances of the department,
being assisted in this latter task by a special financial director
who is placed imder his orders. The prefect is also the chief
of the departmental police.

There is a Departmental Council attached to every prefec-
ture. The members of this Council vary from twelve to
thirty, according to the importance of the department, and

68 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

are elected by universal su£Erage, direct and secret, for a
period of three years. The Departmental Council (correspond-
ing to the French Conseils G6ndraux) meet every December
in regular session, which lasts a month. The duties of the
Departmental Council consist in assessing the taxes among
the communes of the department, in administering the depart-
mental properties, in preparing the departmental budget,
and in revising the accounts of the various institutions which
are placed under its control. The Council is also consulted
on all matters relating to proposed construction for the
benefit of the department — ^new railways lines, highways, etc.

The Departmental Council appoints a permanent committee,
consisting of two of its members who, under the presidency of
the prefect, watch over the carrying into effect of the Council's
decisions.

Besides the Departmental Council, there are attached to
each prefecture a Medical Council and an Educational Coundl.
The first of these superintends the sanitary conditions and the
public hygiene in the department, while the educational
council administers and supervises the various educational
establishments of the department.

The departments are subdivided into districts {arrondissC"
metUs), of which there are 71 in the Principality. The districts
are administered by sub-prefects, who act as intermediaries,
between the prefecture and the communes of the district,
in so far as their administration is concerned. As chief of the
district poUce, the sub-prefect conducts the judiciary police
and is held responsible for the public safety in the district.

Some of the more important centres, such as Sofia, Plovdiv,
Roustchouk, and Varna, have town prefects, who exercise
within the limits of their respective towns the functions of
police prefects. They are appointed by royal decree^ on the
advice of the Minister of the Interior, and are entrusted with
the application of the various laws and regulations, in the

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 69

discharge of which duty they may issue regulations having
for their object the maintenance of good order in the towns.

ORGANISATION OF THE COBfMUNES

The Bulgarian G>nstitution contains a special disposition
(art. 3) securing complete self-government to the communes.
We must read the reports of the Constituent Assembly in
order to realise the jealous anxiety with which the first Bul-
garian legislators have tried to guarantee the independence
of the communes. There can be no doubt that the protracted
debates which took place on that occasion did far more than
the laconic text of art. 3 to lay the indestructible foundations
of the autonomy of these administrative imits. Not contenting
themselves with merely formulating the principle of this
independence, they repeatedly declared that, in their opinion,
the central government must take no part in the administra-
tion of the communes, or maintain any agents of its own
to interfere with their affairs. In the same way, the only
functionaries of the central government whose presence is
tolerated in the higher administrative units, such as the
districts and departments, are the officers entrusted with the
police, justice, or the general interests of the State* such as the
fisc, customs, etc.

The commune, which forms the basis of the State fabric,
enjoys a complete autonomy, which cannot be compared with
any other similar institution. It is the smallest unit in the
administrative organisation of the country. Every district
is subdivided into communes, which are either urban or rural.
The commune is a corporation. Every Bulgarian subject
must belong to a commune and figure in its registers, the laws
of the country not tolerating the state of vagrancy.

The members of the Municipal Council are elected by
universal suffrage, in the same way and subject to the same
precautions as the members of the National Assembly. The

70 BULGARIA OF TODAY

electors comprise all the grown-up members of the commune
who enjoy political and civil rights. From this number are
excluded those who have been condemned to hard labour or
are waiting their trial, the tenants of ill-famed houses, the
beggars, the non-Christian gipsies, and the members of the
army and poUce forces.

All members of the comimune who can read and write, are
at least thirty years old, and enjoy full civil and political
rights, may be elected as municipal councillors. Those who
have got a complete secondary education may be elected at
the age of twenty-five. The persons belonging to the following
categories are not eligible : those who have been sentenced
to penalties involving deprivation of electoral rights, the
members of the standing army, the state functionaries, the
contractors to the State, departments, or communes, those
who have no profession and do not own landed property in the
commune. The Municipal Coimcils in the urban communes
are elected for a period of three years, and those in the rural
communes for two years. The Municipal Councils in the
towns have four ordinary sessions during the year, and those
in the rural communes have three, each session lasting fifteen
daj^ at least. The Council may be called in extraordinary
session if the interests of the commime require it, and the
councillors or the prefect demand such a convocation.

The sittings of the Municipal Coimcils are public, except
in a few cases.

As regards their validity, the decisions of the Municipal
Councils fall into three categories : (i) Decisions which be-
come immediately enforceable without requiring the approval
of a higher authority ; (2) decisions which may not be exe-
cuted until they have been approved by a higher authority ;
(3) decisions requiring the royal approval, which is granted
n the form of a decree.

Besides the decisions which it may take in virtue of the

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATiyB ORGANISATION 7I

powers conferred on it by the law of the communes, the
Mmiicipal Comicil is bound to furnish all information for
which the prefect may ask. The prefect also has the right of
submitting to the examination of the Municipal Council any
questions concerning the general welfare of the commune,
such as the building of roads, religious exercise, charitable
objects, or public instruction.

The Municipal Council elects from among its members a
mayor and two assistant-mayors, who form between themselves
the municipal executive. The mayor represents the commune
in its relations with the other public departments. He is the
depository of the administrative authority within the limits
prescribed by the law, and sees that the binding decisions of
the Municipal Coimcil, as well as the lawful orders of the
central government, are properly carried out. In performing
these duties, the mayor has the right to issue orders or to
make regulations which have the same obligatory force as
the r^;ulations of the other administrative authorities, and
whose non-observance may entail fines up to fifty francs in
the towns, and twenty-five francs in the rural communes.

5. Justice

According to Article 13 of the Constitution, the judiciary
power is vested exclusively in the law courts and magistrates,
which act in the name of the Prince, This principle consti-
tutes the main guarantee of the independence of the judiciary
authorities as regards the other State authorities — the Prince
and the l^^lative assembly.

In performing their work, the law courts must observe
the exact sense of the acting laws of the PrindpaUty. They
must be guided by the general spirit of the laws whenever the
text is obscure or incomplete, and, in the absence of all law

72 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

bearing on the dispate, they must decide according to general
usage and equity.

There are no administrative courts in the Principality.
The conflicts between the administrative authorities and
private persons who have been wronged belong to the juris-
diction of the ordinary law courts. The administrative
authorities are strictly enjoined to abstain from deciding any
disputes bearing on civil rights, the judiciary authorities
having exclusive cognisance of such disputes.

The law organs of the Principality are as follows : Justices
of Peace^ DeparimefUal Courts, Courts of Appeal, and the
Supreme Appellate Court, Before the law of January 12th, 1904,
there existed another category of courts, which were called
communal courts. There used to be one of these courts in
every village, judging small disputes between villagers amount-
ing up to fifty francs in civil cases, and twenty-five francs in
criminal cases. These courts consisted of the local mayor
as president, and of two municipal councillors acting as
assistant judges. Since 1904, the commimal courts have been
abolished, and their jurisdiction merged into that of the
Justices of Peace.

The Justices of Peace, to the number of 115, sit in the
chief towns of the districts. In some of the principal towns
there are several Justices of Peace, their number varying
with the importance of the place. In Sofia there are five
Justices of Peace, distributed between the various quarters
of the capital.

The jurisdiction of the Justices of Peace in civil matters
is determined by the law of December 15th, 1891, on Civil
Procedure (articles 15-22). It comprises all civil and com-
mercial disputes up to a thousand francs ; disputes about
property when the value does not exceed a thousand francs,
and possessory claims irrespective of the value of the pro-
perty involved. As police courts, the Justices of Peace deal

POLITICAL AND ABMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 73

with all infractions and misdemeanours entailing an imprison-
ment up to six months^ and fines up to five hundred francs.

The decisions of the Justices of Peace in civil disputes
are final up to a hundred francs. In all such cases, a right of
appeal on matters of form Ues with the District Court. All
the other decisions of the Justices of Peace may be taken in
appeal before the respective District Courts, which act then
as courts of appeal. Their decisions are final, and can only
be taken in appeal before the Supreme Appellate Court on
matters of form.

The Departmental Courts, to the number of twenty-three,
sit in the chief towns of the departments, as well as in some
of the more important centres. They form the first degree
in the judiciary hierarchy, and their jurisdiction is a very
extensive one. According to the dispositions of the law,
they have cognisance of all civil, commercial, and criminal
cases which do not faU within the jurisdiction of the Justices
of Peace or of the Special Courts. Commercial courts, as
distinct institutions, do not exist in the Principality.

In criminal cases of a certain importance the judges, who
are then called " Crown Judges," are assisted by a jury who
take part in the decisions. The duty of serving on the jury
is honorary and obligatory, and falls on all Bulgarian sub-
jects who know the official language of the country and pay
at least a hundred francs a year as direct taxes, or possess a
secondary education. No one can be exempt from this duty
except for some legal cause.

The verdicts of the jury, when unanimous, are final. In
such case, the only recourse allowed lies with the Supreme
Appellate Court. In all other cases, a right of appeal lies with
the Courts of Appeal, which examine the afibir afresh, and
decide without the participation of a jury.

The Courts of Appeal are to the number of three : one in
Sofia, one in Plovdiv, and one in Roustchouk. They form the

74 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

second degree in the judiciary organisation of the country,
and their jurisdiction comprises all the cases which have
come before the departmental courts. Their decisions are
final, and can only be attacked by way of a recourse to the
Supreme Appellate Court.

There is one Supreme Appellate Court for the whole Prin-
cipality, its seat being in Sofia. It is composed of two civil
chambers and one criminal chamber. In examining the
appeals, this court does not go into the facts of the case.
The mission of the Supreme Court is to ensure the just and
uniform application of the laws by the various courts in the
coimtry. The Supreme Appellate Court, sitting with all
chambers united, may, at the invitation of the Minister of
Justice, decide judiciary questions offering great difficulties
and differently interpreted by the various law courts. The
opinions which the Supreme Appellate Court expresses on
such occasions are published in the Official Journal, and serve
as guide to the judges. If the Supreme Court finds that in
deciding a case some irregularity has been committed, the
case is returned to the Court which has originally decided to
examine it a second time by different judges.

The District Courts, the Courts of Appeal, and the Supreme
Appellate Court, are all collegiate institutions. The decisions
must be given by at least three judges. The Justice of Peace
is entrusted to a single magistrate, who is assisted by a derk.

The decisions of the law courts are executed by bailifb,
whose duties are regulated by the Law of Civil Procedure.
The prosecutors and assistant-prosecutors attached to the
Departmental Court are entrusted with the execution of the
criminal sentences which have become final.

The judiciary career is open to all Bulgarian subjects who
fulfil the following conditions : (i) They must be at least
twenty-six years old; (2) they must have completed the
fuU course of legal instruction; (3) they must have passed

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION 75

with success a State examination» and served at least six
months as candidates attached to a Departmental Court.
The candidate must also know the official language of the
country, he must enjoy civil and political rights, and must
not be accused of crimes entailing the penalty of hard labour.

The promotion of judges to a higher rank takes place
periodically, aft^ they have occupied a position for a fixed
number of years* and have been favourably reported upon by
the superior Court.

The judges, pubUc i^osecutors, and Justices of Peace are
appointed by royal decree, on the advice of the Minister of
Justice. They are selected from a list of three candidates,
recommended by the respective courts. The Minister of
Justice, however, is not obliged to chbose one of the three
candidates whose names have been submitted by the Court,
and may recommend the appointment of other candidates,
provided they have the indispensable qualifications.

According to the law regulating the judiciary organisation
of the country, no judge may be at the same time a deputy,
barrister, civil servant, professor, teacher, merchant, editor
of political newspapers, member of a political party, con-
cessioner, State contractor, or chairman or director of a com-
mercial company.

The principle of the permanency of the judges has been
introduced in the judiciary organisation of the country, but
not as regards all the judges. Those judges and examining
magistrates alone are permanent who have a special legal
instruction and have served as such for a period of fifteen
3^ears. No permanent judge may be placed on the retired
list except at his own request, or in virtue of a disciplinary
decision rendered by the proper judiciary authority. He
may not be transferred to a different post, even though it be
a superior one, except with his written consent. The officers
of the Public Prosecution department are not permanent.

76 BULGAWA OF TO-DAY

The judges^ as all the State functionaries^ are held respon-
sible for their acts xiviily, criminally, or disciplinarily.

In addition to the ordinary law courts, there are in the
Principality a certain number of special tribunak. To this
category belong the military courts, the religious courts, and
the consular courts.

The jurisdiction of the military courts comprises all criminal
offences, whether they be of the common law or profe^ional,
which have been committed by persons serving in the active
army. The Orthodox religious courts deal with disputes
touching on marriage, divorce, or on religion in general. They
are, however, strictly forbidden to have cognisance of the
proprietory relations between married parties, these falling
within the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts. The Mahom-
medan courts, or the courts of the muftis, are competent to
decide the following affairs : personal or proprietory relations
between married persons and relatives belonging to the
Mahommedan religion, and questions touching on inheri-
tance, marriage, and divorce, between parties of the same
confession.

The decisions of the religious courts are executed by the
bailiffs of the ordinary courts, whose permission must be
previously obtained.

The Consular Courts in Bulgaria exist in virtue of art. 8, § 2
of the Treaty of Berlin. They have cognisance of all civil
and commercial disputes arising between foreign subjects and
not involving landed property in Bulgaria. In this latter
case, the Bulgarian courts are alone competent to decide the
dispute.

The jurisdiction of the Consular Courts, which constitutes
an interference with the sovereignty of our country, may have
had its raison d'iire at the time of our political emancipation,
when the Bulgarian courts were not as yet thoroughly or-
ganised. To-day, however, when the country possesses a

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION ^^

judiciary organisation based on the principles prevailing in
all the civilised countries^ it is nothing short of an anomaly.
As a matter of fact, the regime of the Capitulations is on
the eve of its disappearance from the Principality. For a
certain time past, the foreign subjects themselves have been
volimtarily renouncing the constdar jurisdiction and pro-
tection, preferring to turn to the Bulgarian courts, where they
are always certain to find every desirable security for justice
and equity in the settlement of their disputes.

CHAPTER IV

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA

During the Turkish domination, until the eve of our political
emancipation (February 19th, 1878), the Bulgarian schools
used to be administered by the national religious communities.
It is a fact ivorth noticing that, notwithstanding the persecu-
tions of the Turkish Government and the difficulties created
by the Greek Church, under whose spiritual control we con-
tinued until 1872, there have always been thoroughly organised
schools in Bulgaria. This is the more remarkable as these
schools had to depend for their only means of maintenance
on private gifts and church foundations. In these poorly
endowed schools were brought up most of those Bulgarians
who were to lead the nation in its struggle for religious and
political liberty, and who, when the independence of the
country was proclaimed, in their various capacities as politi-
cians and functionaries, had to undertake the organisation of
the young Bulgarian state.

Almost the first thoughts of the new regime after the
Russo-Turkish war were directed to the public instruction,
the administration of schools being confided in Eastern
Roumelia to the Direction of Public Instruction, and in
Northern Bulgaria to a special ministry.

Primary education was made obligatory for all children of
both sexes. The " Provisional R^;ulations," which were pub-
lished by the Governor-General, Prince Alexander Bogoridi,

PUBUC INSTRUCmON IN BULGARIA 79

contained special dispositions on this point as regards
Southern Bulgaria, while in virtue of Article 78 of the
Bulgarian Constitution, elementary instruction was made, and
continues to be, obligatory for all the inhabitants of the
Principality.

The Direction of Public Instruction in Eastern Roumelia
and the Ministry of Public Instruction were no sooner created
than they b^;an in earnest the reorganisation of the public
schools. Special laws were passed in the course of the year
1880, dealing with primary and secondary education. Later
on, when the union between Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia
was proclaimed, the educational legislation which was in force
in the latter province was repealed and its place taken by the
laws, regulations, and programmes of the Principality.

The first l^islative attempt at embracing the whole educa-
tional system of the country and placing it on more solid
foundations was the law introduced in 1891 by the then
Minister of Public Instruction, M. Georges JivkofE, and passed
by the Sixth Ordinary National Assembly. This law, which
repealed all previous l^^lative and administrative regula-
tions, continues to remain in force until this day. According
to its provisions, which, however, in that respect did not
alter the former state of things, the organisation, general
direction and supreme control of the educational establish-
ments, as well as of the institutions having for their objects
the intellectual and moral development of the country, were
vested in the Ministry of Public Instruction.

The personnel of the Ministry of Public Instruction consists
of a chief of the section of secondary, special and higher in-
struction, a chief of the section of elementary instruction,
two general inspectors of the secondary and special schools,
a medical inspector, six assistants-chief, an accoimtant, and
two Assistant-accotmtants.

The schools of the Principality are divided by the law of

80 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

1891 into national schools and private schools. All the
schools that are provided for by the State, departments,
districts or parishes, and where the instruction is given in
Bulgarian, are considered as national schools. To the cat^ory
of private schools belong all the educational establishments
which are supported by the various reUgious communities,
associations, confraternities or private individuals.

The national schools, in their turn, are subdivided into
primary schools, secondary schools, professional schools and
high schools.

I. Primary Education

The primary instruction is given in the primary and infant
schools.

The infant schools have for their object the preparation of
the children for the primary schools. Infants between the
ages of three and five years are admitted in the lower divisions,
and those between five and six in the higher division. They
are taught all sorts of games, songs, drawing, manual work,
and simple arithmetic.

The teaching in these schools is entrusted exclusively to
schoolmistresses. Until quite recently, the post of directress
of infant schools was open to all graduates of the gjrmnasia
for girls whose curriculum included an instruction in the
Froebel method. Since September 1905, however, a special
course for head mistresses of infant schools has been opened
in Sofia, the studies lasting two years.

The object of the primary school is to give the future
citizen a moral education, to develop him physically, and to
give him the most indispensable knowledge. The studies
last four years, and are subdivided into four divisions
(art. 25).

The school year begins on September ist and lasts, in the

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA 8z

towns, until June 25th^ and in the villages until the beginning
of May (art. 27).

The subjects taught include morals, catechism, Bulgarian,
ancient Bulgarian, civic instruction, national geography,
arithmetic, natural history, drawing, singing, gymnastics,
manual work (for boys), and embroidery (for girls).

Every parish or village of more than fifty houses must
have at least one primary school (art. 31). The hamlets and
villages of less than fifty houses are considered, for educational
purposes, as parishes (art. 32). A division must not comprise
more than fifty pupils, exceptions to this rule being, however,
permitted in special cases. The progress of the pupils is
ascertained by means of examinations at the end of every
year. These examinations are required for the third and
fourth divisions only, the practice in the first two divisions
consisting in simple talks with the object of sj^tematising the
knowledge which the children may have acquired in the course
of the year. The enactment rendering public instruction
obligatory extends to all children between the ages of six
and twelve.

PROVISIONS OF THE LAW CONCERNING THE OBLIGATORY
INSTRUCTION AND THEIR SANCTIONS

The parents, guardians and, in general, all those to whom
children of the above age are entrusted, must see that the
children in their charge receive a regular education (art. 13).
The only t^nporary or permanent exception allowed by
the law is in favour of children physically or intellectually
unfit and of those who have already received their primary
instruction (articles 21 and 22).

Whai a pupil does not attend the school regularly, the
head master informs the school committee, which in its turn
brings the fact under the notice of the pupil's parents (articles

82 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

39 and 40). If the child still fails to attend the classes, the
persons responsible for him are liable to fines from one to
three francs, the decision resting with the mayor of the parish.
When this fine has been inflicted on the parents or guardians
three times in succession they become liable to fines from
five to thirty francs, the decisions resting with the depart-
mental education council (art. 40).

If the head masters and presidents of the educational
councils to whom the carrying out of these provisions is en-
trusted fail to give effect to the law, they are punishable
by fines varying from 10 to 100 francs.

The proceeds from all these fines go to the schools funds of
the respective parishes.

Supplementary InstracUon, — ^With the object of enlarging
the scope of knowledge acquired in the primary schools, the
respective authorities organise evening and hoUday classes
with the gratuitous co-operation of the teachers of primary
schools. During the last few years, however, the Ministry
of PubUc Instruction has been awarding fees varying from
20 to 150 francs to those teachers who have distinguished them-
selves most. The curriculae of these supplementary classes
include, in addition to the subjects taught in the primary
schook, also practical agriculture, viticulture, sericiculture,
apiculture, fructiculture, and, for girls, dress-making, bringing
xxp of children, singing, and house work.

QuaUficoHons of Teachers. — ^Persons aspiring to become
teachers in a primary school must fulfil the following con-
ditions :

1. They must be Bulgarian subjects.

2. They must have graduated at a pedagogical school.

3. They must be more than seventeen years old.

4. They must be of good morals and be free from physical
defects.

5. They must have passedsuccessfuUy the State examination

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BUI^GARIA 83

admitting them to the career. Article 62 of the law admits
persons who have graduated a gymnasium or other secondary
school to compete for the post of teacher, if they fulfil the other
conditions. This departure from the prescriptions of Article 58
was rendered necessary owing to the number of young men
who have graduated in pedagogical schools not being sufficient
to fill the vacancies caused by the multiplication of schools or
by the retirement of old teachers.

The State examination for admission to the post of
teacher comprises an oral and a written examination. This
latter consists of two themes, one bearing on pedagogics in
general and the other dealing with educational methods. In
appraising the merits of the first of these papers^ special
attention is paid to the treatment of the subject, and to the
style. No one is admitted to the oral examination unless he
h^s obtained a satisfactory mark in the written test. The
oral examination is both theoretical and practical, this latter
consisting of two lessons given before the pupils of a special
division which is attached to the pedagogical schools.

Classes of Teachers^'^Thd teachers in primary schools are
provisional or regular. All persons who have graduated
with success a pedagogical or a high school may be appointed
as provisional teachers. As such they receive a salary of
900 francs per annum. After a year's practice they are ad-
mitted to the State examination and become regular teachers,
if they have passed it with success. The regular teachers
are divided into three classes, those of the third class having a
salary of 1,140 frs. per annum, those of the second class 1,426
frs., and those of the first class 1,680 frs. The promotion from
one class to a higher one takes place at the end of five years
of successful teaching.

This is the lowest scale of salaries, but the parishes are free
to increase them or to grant supplementary fees.

MaiiUmance of Primary Schools. — ^The maintenance of

94 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

primary schools is at the joint charge of the parishes and
the State. The parishes are solely responsible for the
school buildings and their upkeeping ; they also supply the
materials, libraries, furniture, service, heating, and superintend
the gardens. The salaries of the teachers are at the burden
of the State, which receives from the parishes 400 francs for
every teacher irrespectively of his rank, the difference falling
at the charge of the State budget,^ In the poor parishes
along the frontier the whole of the teachers' salaries are paid
by the State.

Management and Control of the Primary Schools. — ^The
general direction of and the control over the primary schools,
as well as of all the other educational establishments and
institutions pursuing the moral and intellectual advance-
ment of the nation, belong to the Ministry of Public In-
struction (art. I. of the law), which exercises these attributes,
as regards the primary schools, through school inspectors,
departmental education councils, and educational committees.

School Inspectors and Educational Districts. — ^The law of
the inspection of primary and secondary schools of 1889,
amended by the laws of 1901 and 1907, divides the Princi-
pality into twelve school departments, corresponding to the
twelve administrative departments which in their turn are
subdivided into fifty school districts. There is a departmental
school inspector at the head of every school department,
and an inspector at the head of each educational district.
Some of the educational districts comprise two adminis-
trative districts and the others only one. The law
permits the indefinite multiplication of the educational
sub-districts according to the requirements of the case, and

^ This arrangement has been In force since Janu^xy ist, 1905.
Formerly, according to Article 182 of the law of 1891, the State con-
tributed two-thirds of the salaries of the' teachers, and the parishes
one- third.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA 85

the Ministry seems determined to avail itself of this provision
of the law so as to establish a school inspectorate in every
district.

To the post of departmental inspectors are appointed former
professors of high schools who have had a university educa-
tion — by preference pedagogical — and who have distinguished
themselves by their contributions to the pedagogical litera-
ture. The departmental inspectors are divided into three
classes. Those belonging to the first class receive a salary
of 4^680 francs per annum, those of the second class 3>5oo francs,
and those of the third class 3,120. They receive every year,
irrespectively of their class, a sum of 720 francs for travelling
expenses.

The inspectors of districts are selected among the teachers
of primary schools who have served in that capacity five
years at least, and have passed successfully the examination
for the post of inspector.

The examination consists of an oral and a written test.
The first of these includes questions on teaching and education
and one on educational administration. The written exa-
mination bears on questions from the pedagogical science,
didactics, the methods of teaching, the various subjects \

figuring in the curriculum of the primary schools, inspections
of schools, the appUcation of the Law of Public Instruction,
and of the school regulations, and lastly on questions from
the pedagogical and educational literature.

The district inspectors are divided, according to their
seniority, into three classes. Those belonging to the first
class receive an annual salary of 2,620 francs, those of the
second class 2,400 francs, and those of the third class 2,136
francs. In addition, they receive every year a sum of
4&> francs for travelling expenses.

The control over the district inspectors and over the
progymnasia in a department belongs to the departmental

86 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

inspector, who also supervises all the elementary schools of
the department. The district inspectors supervise the
elementary schools of the arrondissements, with the ex-
ception of the primary school of the town or the village
which is the seat of the district inspectorate^ these schools
being under the immediate control of the departmental
inspectors. These last are in direct touch with the Ministry
of Public Instruction and with the other organs of the ad-
ministration. The duties of the district inspectors, on the
contrary, are limited to the inspection of the schools under
their authority.

At least thrice every year the inspectors of every de-
partment hold meetings under the presidency of the depart-
mental inspector to discuss and decide various educational
or disciplinary questions.

Departmental Educational Councils. — ^There is an educational
council for every administrative department. This council
is composed as follows :

1. The prefect, acting as president.

2. The directors of the gymnasia or other secondary schools
in the chief town of the department.

3. The president or, in his absence, the vioi-president of
the district court.

4. The school inspectors of the department.

5. The head masters of the primary schools in the chief
town of the department.

6. Two teachers of secondary schools, elected by the
teachers of the chief town of the department.

7. The president and the secretary of the departmental
council.

8. The mayor of the chief town of the department.

The departmental school council meets in r^^ular sessions
every month. It may meet at other times if there is any
need for this>

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA 87

The duties of the departmental educational council are
very important. They are laid down by the Law on public
instruction as follows :

1. Uniformal application of the educational laws and
regulations throughout the department.

2. Examination of disputes which may arise between the
educational committees^ the parish councils, and the teachers.

3. Revision of disciplinary punishments inflicted on
teachers.

4. Punishment of parents and teachers who have been
found guilty of breaking the regulations concerning the
obligatory attendance of primary schools.

5. Opening of new schools and examination of all questions
affecting the educational department in general.

The decisions of the departmental educational councils are
submitted to the approval of the Minister of Public Instruc-
tion, who has the power of annulling or modif}nng them.

Educational Committees. — These are the earliest Bulgarian
autonomous institutions. They first appeared during the
Turkish domination, and attained a high degree of develop-
ment, in the face of the persecutions to which the Bulgarian
nation was exposed. As representative organs of the Bul-
garian nationality, they contributed more than a^iy other
institution to the intellectual and moral awakening of the
nation.and the foundation of an independent Bulgarian Church,
as well as the organisation of the first Bulgarian school, are
in a large measure due to their efforts. The niunerous
schools, the trained teachers, and the enlightened classes
which existed in Bulgaria at the time of our political emanci-
pation are so many proofs of the beneficent activity of
these national educational committees. Owing to the im-
portant part which they played in our national revival, these
committees have become with the Bulgarians a traditional
institution which has been maintained by the various educa*

88 BULGARIA OF TODAY

tion laws and which continues to this day to fonn part of
the educational system of the country.

Article 21 of the law of 1891 provides for an educational
committee in every town and village. The duties of these
committees, which act as a special committee of the com-
munal councils^ consist in looking after the educational
work in their respective circumscriptions. They are composed
of five members in the towns and of three members in the
villages. The mayor of the town or village is^ by right presi-
dent of the committee. The remaining members are elected
by universal suffrage and by secret ballot at the same time
as the members of the municipal councils.

The powers and the duties of the educational committees
are as follows :

1. To appoint teachers in the primary schools.

2. To provide the means for the maintenance of the schools.

3. To assist poor pupils.

4. To prepare the school budget.

5. To supervise the school buildings and furniture.

6. To find means for the construction of new buildings, to
supply educational appliances, and to see that all children
liable to obligatory instruction attend regularly the classes.

7. To administer the property and the funds of the schools.

PRIVATE SCHOOLS

In addition to the national schools, there are in Bulgaria
various private educational establishments. To this group
belong all the denominational schools of Mahommedans, the
schools organised by the different Christian congregations
and associations, the schools of the Jewish communities, and
those belonging to private individuals.

No private school may be opened without the authorisation

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA 89

of the Ministry of Public Instruction, which exercises a per-
manent control through its inspectors over all the private
educational establishments in Bulgaria.

The teachers in the Jewish and Christian schools must
have the same qualifications as those of the national schools
(art 58). The Mahommedan teachers must be Btdgarian
subjects who have attained the standard of learning corre-
sponding to the title of " hodja."

Foreign subjects are allowed to open schools in Bulgaria
only for children of foreign subjects, provided they give
notice to the Ministry of Public Instruction, through the
departmental educational inspectorate, and supply full
information concerning the organisation of their school.
The official curriculum is not obligatory for the educational
establishments belonging to foreigners, except where they
decide to receive as pupils Bulgarian subjects. In this latter
case, they fall under the authority of the common law, and
must comply with all its prescriptions, viz. adopt the official
curriculum and make Bulgarian the teaching language
(art. 216). Foreigners may open schools for languages,
professional schools, and schools of fine arts, even when they
are destined for Bulgarians (art. 217).

Having explained briefly the organisation and the adminis-
tration of the primary schools in Bulgaria, we now propose
to give some statistical information concerning these same
schools during the school year 1903-1904.

INFANT SCHOOLS

During the year 1903-1904, there were throughout the
Principality forty infant schools, attended by 2,707 children,
of whom 1,289 were boys and 1,418 girls.

The teaching in these schools was entrusted to forty-six
schoolmistresses and to two schoolmasters, without including
in this number the schoohnasters and schoolmistresses of

go BULGARIA Of TO-DAY

the Jewi^ school at Schoumen, who conducted at the same
time the Jewish infant school in this town.

As regards their nationality, these schools were distributed
as follows :

Nfttfoamlity

Nunberof
SchooU.

Sdiool
masters.

Scboolmis-

tresMS.

I. Bulgarian

.. 25

—

2. Greek

.. 5

—

3. Jewish

.. 5

4. French

—

5. German

—

6. American

.. 3

—

Boys.

Girls.

Toul.

689

645

1.334

36a

604

966

159

100

259

Total . . 40 2 46 z,289 1418 2,707

The average age of the children attending the infant schools
varied from four to six years, in conformity with Article 15 of
the Law on PubUc Instruction. The pupils were occupied
with plays, singing, manual work, embroidery, drawing, and
arithmetic.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Number of Schools. — During the year Z903-Z904, there were
4,344 primary schools for pupils of both sexes, of which zz8,
or 272 per cent, of the total number, were for boys, 35, or 0*8
per cent, for girls, and the remaining 4,Z9Z, or 94*48 per cent.,
mixed.

The following table shows the distribution of the primary
schools between the different nationalities of the PrincipaUty.

N.H«in.HNt ^7** Girls* Mixed Total number

Msuoaallty. Schools. Schools. Schools, of Schools.

z. Bulgarian national ..67 4 2,989 3,060

2. „ private ..4 — 7Z 75

3. „ CathoUc .. — — 3 3

4. „ Protestant . . — — zo zo
5* „ Mahommedan — — 22 22

PUBLIC mSTRUCnOM IN BULGARIA

Nationality.

Turkish

Greek

Jewish

Armenian

10.

French

II.

Tartar

12.

G^iman

13.

Roumanian

14-

Lipovane

Boys'
Schools.

Girls'
Schools.

Mixed
Schools.

Totsl aambsr
ofSdioots.

915

957

—

— .

The Bulgarian private schools, to the number of seventy-five,
belong to small villages and hamlets which^ in virtue of
Article 32 of the law, could not have communal schools, and
were consequently obliged to send their children to the schools
of the neighbouring villages. All these schools, which were
opened with the permission of the Ministry of Public Instruc-
tion, are maintained by the parishes alone, or by the parents
of the pupils.

The French and German schools are Congr^ational estab-
lishments. They are frequented not only by children of
French or German extraction, but also by those of other
Catholic or Protestant nationalities, and even by children of
orthodox parents.

The tables given show that nearly all the schools of the
different nationalities, not excluding even those of the Mahom-
medans and Tartars, are mixed schools. They also show that
75*27 per cent, of all the schools in Bulgaria were Bulgarian
(national, private, Protestant, Catholic, and Mahommedan),
while the remaining 2473 per cent, belonged to the various
other nationalities.

Proportion between the number of Schools and the Population. —
According to the census taken on January ist, 1901, the
Principality had a population of 3,744,283, of which 1,909,567
were of the masculine sex, and 1,834,716 of the feminine sex.

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

As against this population there were, during the year 1903-
1904, 4,344 schools, or a school to every 862 inhabitants.

This proportion is not, however, the same for all the nation-
alities of the Principality. Thus, in the case of the Bulgariau
population (2,887,860), there was one school for every 943
inhabitants ; for the Mahommedan population (539>656) one
for every 563 inhabitants ; for the Greek population (70,887),
one for every 1,337 inhabitants ; for the Jewish population
(32^573), one for every 1,018 inhabitants.

STUDENTS

Number of Students, — ^The number of students in all the
schools was 340,668, of whom 220,620 were boys, and 120,048
girls.

As regards their nationalities, the students were distributed
in the way shoMm in the subjoined table, which is based on the
statistical data for the year 1903-1904 :

Number of Papila.

Schools.

I.
2.
3.
4.

7-
8.

9-
10.
II.
12.
13.
14.

Bulgarian national
„ private

Turkish

Greek

Jewish

Armenian

French

Tartar

German

Roumanian

Lipovane

Totals

Mahommedan
Catholic . .
Protestant

Boys.

Girt*.

:67,76o

94,541

1.243

505

805

343

246

196

104

23.537

20,051

3.173

1,673

2,694

1.659

426

367

212

297

141

139

109

—

Totel num-
ber of
Pupils.

262,301

1.748

1,148

442

217

43.588

4,846

4,353
793
309
256
203
248
16

220,620 120,048 340,668

PUBLIC INSntUCnON IN BULGARIA 93

PROPORTION BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS OF THE
MASCULINE AND FEMININE SEXES

In round numbers^ there were 54 girls to every 100 boys,
or, in different terms, 68 per cent, of the total number of scholars
belonged to the masculine sex, and the remaining 32 per cent,
to the feminine sex.

This proportion varies according to the different nationalities.
Thus^ for every 100 bo}^ in the Bulgarian schods there
were 5035 girls

For the same number of boys in the Bulgarian

' private schools there were 40*62 „

For the same number of boys in the Bulgarian
Mahommedan schools there were .. .. 40*60 ,,

For the same number of boys in the Bulgarian
Catholic schools there were 79'63 „

For the same number of bo]^ in the Bulgarian
Protestant schools there were 92*30 „

For the same number of boys in the Bulgarian-
Turkish schools there were 84*76 „

For the same number of boys in the Bulgarian-
Greek schools there were 52*70 „

For the same number of boj^ in the Bulgarian-
Jewish schools there were 61*58 „

For the same number of boys in the Bulgarian-
Armenian schools there were 85*68 „

For the same number of boj^ in the Bulgarian-
French schools there were 14074 „

For the same number of boys in the Bulgarian-
Tartar schools there were 81*56 „

For the same number of boys in the Bulgarian-
German schoob there were 76*52 „

For the same number of bo}^ in the Bulgarian-
Roumanian schools there were 78*41 ,,

94 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

For the same number of boys in the Bulgaxian-

Lipovane schools there were O'oo girls

These figures prove :

1. That the number of girls in our national schools is
superior only to that in the Bulgarian private and Bulgarian
Hahommedan schools. It is inferior to that in all the other
primary schools. There are several reasons for this : (a) the
greater number of the other schools are in the towns, where
the population^ being better educated^ takes more care of the
instruction of their children ; (b) our rural population^ on the
other hand, has not as yet realised the necessity of educating
the young girls and of making the same sacrifices for them
as for their boys.

2. That the number of girls in French schools is superior
to that of the boys. It will be a mistake to conclude from
this fact that the number of French girls in Bulgaria is higher
than that of the boys belonging to the same nationality, or
that the French girls are more studious than the girls of the
other nationalities. The explanation of this apparent pre-
ponderance is that the French schools, as also the German
schools, are confessional establishments, and are attended not
exclusively by French or German students, but by aU the
Catholic children in general, and even by orthodox children
who are anxious to learn the French or the German language.

It should be mentioned also that, of the nine French schools
five are for girls and only two for boys, while the remaining
two are mixed.

3. That the Mahommedan primary schools come before all
the other schools, excepting the French, as regards the pro-
portion between boys and girls, there being more than 80 girls
to every 100 boys.

This fact is rather surprising, and vrUl suggest doubts as to
t^e correctness of the prevalent opinion that the Turks do not
send theii: daughters to school. But, however that may be.

PUBUC INSTBUCnON IN BULGARIA 95

it should be remembered that the Turkish schook are such
only in name^ the teaching staff being composed of ignorant
" hodjas " and of still more ignorant " kadines/' who restrict
their teaching to mere prayers, although the programme of
the schools contains such subjects as Bulgarian, Turkish, and
arithmetic. It will, therefore, be risky to conclude from the
ntmiber of Turkish schools, or from the number of teachers
and students, about the instruction of the Mahonunedan
population of Bulgaria.

COMPAKISON BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS AND THAT
OF CHILDREN UABLE TO PRIMARY INSTRUCTION

According to the census of 1900, the total number of children
between the ages of six and twelve years was 670,375, of whom
338,205 were boys and 332,170 girls. It must be mentioned
here that the course of primary instruction is four years and
not six years, as it used to be before 1899. The children,
therefore, attend the primary schools not until the age of
twelve, but until the age of ten. On the other hand, there
are children who only begin to attend school at the age of
seven. In the last place, an allowance must be made for the
pupils who remain two years in the same division. Taking
aU this into account, it will be more correct to place the
average period of attendance at five years, or, in other words,
to consider that only children between the ages of six and
eleven are obliged to attend the primary schools. The number
of such children is 554,568, of whom 279,540 are boys and
275,228 girls. Of this number, as we have seen, 340,668,
namely 220,620 boys and 120,048 girls, have attended the
primary schools during the year 1903-1904. So that, of the
children for whom the attendance of schools is obligatory,
789 per cent, of the boys and 43*64 per cent, of the girls,
or 61*43 per cent, of the two sexes, have com^died with the
requirements of the law.

96 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS AS COMPARED WITH THE TOTAL
POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPALITY

The comparative tables which we have akeady given and
those which we now propose to give will help the fonning of
an idea of the extent to which primary instruction is spread
over the country. By adoptiujg this method as regards
Bulgaria, we arrive at the following conclusions for the year
1903-1904-:

Total population of the Principality : 3,744,283 inhabitants.
Number of pupils during the year 1903-1904 : 340,668, or 9-1
pupils per 100 inhabitants. This proportion of 9-1 per cent,
varies with the different nationalities. Thus, it is :

9"9 per cent, for the Bulgarians (Orthodox, Catholic, Pro-
testant, Mahommedans).

8*0 „ „ for the Turks.

6-8 „ „ for the Greeks.
134 „ „ for the Jews.

It appears from these figures that, as regards instruction in
Bulgaria, the Jews occupy the first place, and the Greeks the
last. It is only fair to add that, in reality, the Jews stand
even better than is shown by these figures, a considerable
proportion of young Jews who attend the Bulgarian
national schools not being included in the above statistical
tables.

TEACHING STAFF

Number of Schoolmasters. — ^The number of schoolmasters
throughout the Principality during the year 1903-1904 was
7,786, of whom 5,425 were schoolmasters and 2,361 school-
mistresses.

The following table will show the distribution of school-
masters between the various groups of primary schools :

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA 97

Teaching Staff.
School. School- School- Total,

masters. . mistresses.

1. Bulgarian 4,075

2. „ private •. •. 46

3. „ Mahommedan . . 31

4. „ Catholic .. .. 6

5. „ Protestant .• 6

6. Turkish 1,033

7. Greek 86

8. Jewish 82

9. Armenian 21

10. French 13

11. Tartar 8

12. German 10

13. Roumanian 7

14. Lipovanian i

PROPORTION BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS AND

TEACHERS

The total number of pupils, 340,668, when divided by the
total number of teachers, 7,786, gives on an average 44 pupils
per teacher.

This proportion varies with the nationality of the schools.

Thus, there is :

I teacher for 45 Bulgarian students.

C46

6,223

—

1,070

Z2Z

127

—

»t

40 Turkish

40 Greek

34 Jewish

29 Roumanian

23 Armenian

It is generally admitted that a school is the better organised
and in more advantageous conditions if only a small number

98 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

of students are entrusted to a teacher. It is with good
reason believed that discipline, successful teaching, and all
the good results which are expected therefrom, are more likely
to be attained if a teacher does not have to supervise too
many students at a time. Circumstances and life in Bulgaria,
however, are such that it is quite impossible to form an idea
of the real state of things by merely comparing the nimiber of
teachers with that of students. As a matter of fact, the Bul-
garian national schools are the best organised, although the
relative number of their teachers is inferior to that in the
other schools. If the other nationalities seem more advanced
in this respect, it is because, as a rule, they are not very
numerous, and the number of students sent to school not a
high one.

THS NUMBER OF TEACHERS COMPARED WITH THE TOTAL
POPULATION OF THE COUNTRY

This relation is also a criterion for judging of the degree of
civilisation which a nation has reached. Taking the statistical
figures for the year 1903-1904 as the basis, we may reckon
one teacher for every 480 inhabitants. Applied to the different
nationalities of Bulgaria, these same statistical figures show
that there is:

One teacher for

every

464 Bulgarians.

»*

. *>

504 Turks.

f»

585 Greeks.

f»

256 Jews.

SCHOOL BUDGET

We give here only the items of expenditure for the year
Z902-1903, as suppUed by the Direction for Statistics :

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA

School.

Bulgarian national
„ private

Catholic

Protestant

Mahommedan

Turkish

Tartar

Greek

French, German

Roumanian

Jewish

Lipovanian

Armenian . .

Gypsy

Total fees

Francs.
By the By the
Sute. Communes.

Toul.

[36,062

2,819,079

6,955,141

—

25,543

—

1,880

—

5,239

—

7,255

27,870

230,576

258,446

316

",384

11,700

—

95,845

—

42,549

—

27,676

—

148,070

—

220

—

45,905

— —

4,164,248 3,461,311 7,625,559

THE EXPENDITURE ON PRIMARY SCHOOLS COMPARED WITH
THE TOTAL POPULATION

Without taking into account the fact that the teachers in
the Mahommedan, Bulgarian Mahommedan, and private
schools are as a rule badly paid, a comparison between the
total population of the country and the general expenditure
during the year 1902-1903 shows that, on an average, to
every inhabitant corresponds a sum of 2*04 francs.

THE EXPENDITURE ON SCHOOLS COMPARED WITH THB
NUMBER OF STUDENTS

If we divide the total expenditure by the total number of
students, we obtain the sum of 22*38 francs, which represents
the average annual cost of every student.

575555

100 bulgaria of today

2. Establishments for Secondary Education

gymnasia for boys

There are throughout the Principality ten gymnasia for
bo)^, of which five have two sections — classical and modem.
The object of the gymnasia is to give the students a general
knowledge of a more advanced character, and to prepare them
for their higher studies. The secondary studies comprise two
courses : the elementary course, which lasts three years, and
the higher course, which lasts four years. The curriculum of the
gjonnasia covers the following subjects, which are obligatory
for all regular students :

(i) Religious instruction ; (2) Bulgarian language ; (3)
French and German ; (4) Russian ; (5) Latin ; (6) Greek ;
(7) History ; (8) Geography and Civic Instruction ; (9) arith-
metic ; (10) geometry and geometrical drawing ; (11) al-
gebra ; (12) descriptive geometry ; (13) physics ; (14) chem-
istry ; (15) natural science ; (16) psychology ; (17) logic
and ethics ; (18) drawing ; (19) calligraphy ; (20) singing ;
(21) gymnastics.

The higher course is subdivided into two sections : classical
section and section of science. The special studies in the
classical section are Greek, Latin, and literature, and those
of the science section geometrical drawing, drawing, and
descriptive geometry.

HIGH SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS

There are eight high schools for girls. The entire course
lasts seven years, and is divided into elementary and higher
departments. The elementary department comprises five
classes and the higher two. There are high schools which
have only five classes. The higher department is sub-
divided into two sections : general instruction and pedagogics.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA lOI

The elementary course, which lasts live years, covers the whole
circle of studies which are indispensable to the citizen and
to the mother of a family. The section of general instruction
in the higher course has for object to prepare the girls for
the more serious studies in the universities. The pedagogical
section prepares teachers for the primary schools.

The curriculum of the lower course in these high schools
comprises the following subjects :

(i) Religious and moral Instruction; (2) Bulgarian; (3)
Russian ; (4) French or German, optional ; (5) Bulgarian and
universal history ; (6) Bulgarian and universal geography ;
(7) arithmetic, elements of geometry and algebra ; (8) natural
science, (9) ph3^ics and chemistry, (10) hygiene and the
principles of bringing up of children ; (11) domestic economy ;
(12) drawing and calligraphy ; (13) embroidery ; (14) music
and singing ; (15) gymnastics.

The general instruction course in the higher department
comprises : (i) Bulgarian and ancient Bulgarian ; (2) French
or German ; (3) history of literature of the ancient and modem
nations ; (4) contemporary history and history of civilisation ;
(5) psychology, logic, and ethics ; (6) mathematics ; (7) physics
and chemistry ; (8) natural science ; (9) drawing; (10) music
and singing ; (11) Latin^ optional.

In the pedagogical section : (i) Bulgarian language and
literature; (2) Russian ; (3) French or German (not obligatory) ;
(4) pedagogics ; (5) practical exercises In pedagogics ; (6)
psychology, logic, and ethics ; (7) anthropology, chemistry,
and popular medicine ; (8) civic instruction ; (9) embroidery
and drawing ; (10) music and singing ; (11) gymnastics.

The organisation of the high schools for girls, as we have
described it, has undergone since September ist, 1904 some
alterations, in accordance with the law of February 12th
of the same year. According to this law, the high schools
for girls will have, with some unimportant differences, the

102 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

same organisation as the high schools for boys. These high
schook are four in number. The remaining four high schools
have been turned into pedagogical high schools for girls.
Another provision of the same law authorises the opening
of professional classes, which are to be supplementary to the
lower classes of the secondary schools belonging to the State
or to the conununes.

All the high schools for girls, with the exception of one,
which is subsidised by the State to the extent of one-half
of the salary of its teaching staff, are at the charge of the
State budget.

INCOMPLETE SECONDARY SCHOOLS

(a) State Schools

The State supports seven schools of three classes for boys
and two of six classes for girls. The curriculum of these
schools is the same as that of the corresponding classes in
the high schools.

(b) Communal Schook

There are in the Principality i6i class schools belonging
to the communes. They are distributed as follows :

1. Fifteen schools for boys, of which one has six classes,
six five classes, three four classes, and five three classes.

2. Twenty-three schools for girls, of which one has six
classes, eleven five classes, four four classes, and seven three

3. One hundred and twenty-three mixed schools, of which
four have four classes, fifty-one three classes, ten two classes,
and fifty-eight only one class.

The curriculum is almost the same as that of the corre-
sponding classes in the high schools.

^H * * mm

jBc/ ^t

fj\m

fLt#' r J^^HI

,^. -*

PUBUC INSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA IO3

The conditions for the appointment and the dismissal of
teachers are the same as in the high schools. The salaries
are also the same, with this sole difference — ^that the State
contributes one-half, the other half being paid by the com-
munes, at whose charge is the general maintenance of the
primary schools.

AD the schools belonging to this category are administered
by directors, appointed by the Ministry of Public In-
struction, who must' fulfil the same conditions as the directors
of the high schools. The only exception to this rule are
the schools which have only one class. As regards their
administration, these schools are assimilated to the primary
schools.

PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS

(a) Pedagogical Schools for Boys

There are five pedagogical schools for all the Principality.
These are institutions for secondary education, whose object
is to train teachers for the primary schools. The course of
studies is divided into four classes, and lasts four years.

A school comprising three classes is attached to every
training college, of which it forms the lower department.
Besides, there are in every pedagogical school four model
elementary divisions, in which the practical training of the
future teachers takes place.

The following are subjects taught in the training school :

(i) Religious instruction ; (2) Bulgarian ; (3) Moral psycho-
logy and pedagogics ; (4) school practice ; (5) mathematics ;
(6) dvic instruction and political economy; (7) history and
geography ; (8) ph3^ics and chemistry ; (9) rural economy ;
(10) hygiene and popular medicine; (11) natural science;
(12) Russian ; (13) drawiug and calligraphy ; (14) singing
and violin; (15) gymnastics; (16) manual work.

104 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

The number of students who are admitted every year in
the first form of these schools is fixed by a ministerial decree.
The candidates must pass a competitive examination before
a special commission which is appointed by the Ministry of
Public Instruction. To this examination are admitted
boys who are not younger than fourteen years and not older
than seventeen, and who also have passed with success
and good conduct at least three classes of a high school.

THE MANAGEHENT OF THE SECONDARY AND PROFESSIONAL
SCHOOLS. — ^TEACHING STAFF

The management of the high schools and of all class schools
is entrusted to directors who, in that capacity, are responsible
for the carrying into practice of all the legislative enactments
and regulations. They also preside over the meetings of
professors, represent their respective establishments before
the public authorities, parents and guardians of the students,
supervise the internal affairs of the school, watch over the
good order, teaching, and discipline, and are directly respon-
sible for all that concerns their school.

The directors are selected among the senior professors of
secondary schools, and receive as salary : directors of high
schools, 5^400 francs per annum, and the directors of the
incomplete high schools, 4,200 francs.

The professors of the secondary schools are divided into
two categories : regular professors and free professors. The
salaries of the regular professors are fixed as follows :

Those of 1st class get 4,200 francs per annum.
» « 2nd „ „ 3,600 „ „ „

11 » 3rd „ „ 3,000 „ „ „
The free professors are appointed to teach certain subjects,
and receive a salary of 2,400 francs per annum.
The candidates for the post of professor in a high school must

PUBUC INSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA I05

be Bulgarian subjects, must have graduated in a secondary
school, and must hold a university diploma. The promotion
from one dass to a higher one takes place at the end of five
years of successful teaching. The number of lessons which
the professors must give varies, according to the subject,
from eighteen to twenty-four per week.

The appointment and the dismissal of the professors
take place by a ministerial decree. When it is a question
of dismissing a regular professor, the preliminary agreement
of the departmental educational council must be obtained.

There are altogether 68i professors and 117 schoolmistresses
distributed between the various high schools, secondary
schools, or incomplete high schools belonging to the State
or to the communes. As r^ards their rank, they are dis-
tributed as follows :

183 professors and 6 schoolmistresses of ist class.

135 « „ 7 >» » « 2nd „

163 „ „ 7 n « >y 3rd „

183 „ „ 15 » „ temporary.

122 „ „ 82 „ „ voluntary.

MEDICAL TEACHERS

An important innovation has been introduced since the
year 1903-1904 : medical teachers of both sexes have been
attached to every educational establishment, with the mission
of continually watching over the sanitary condition of the
schools and over the physical development of the students.
Besides, these medical teachers give lessons in hygiene,
chemistry, anthropology, anthropometrical statistics, and
sanitary management. They are appointed by the Ministry
of Public Instruction, and receive a salary of 3,000 francs
per year.

There are now seventeen teachers-doctors and eight women

I06 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

doctors in tbe various high schools belonging to the State
and the commimes. The departmental and district doctors
are also entrusted with the supervision of the sanitary con-
ditions of the communal schools.

With a view of facilitating the task of the directors the
Ministry of Public Instruction authorises these latter to
choose among the members of the teaching staff a certain
number of preceptors who help him in their administrative
work and supervise in a more direct manner the conduct
and the general education of the students. As might be
expected, these preceptors have very few lessons in the week.

CONDITIONS AND ENTRANCB EXAMINATIONS IN THE HIGH
SCHOOLS AND INCOMPLETE SECONDARY SCHOOLS

The admission of students to a high school or to an in-
complete secondary school is preceded by a preliminary
examination, which is more or less severe according to the
different cases.

Only those students who have completed the full course
of studies in a primary school, and are not older than
fourteen years, can be admitted to the first dass of a high
school.

At the termination of the secondary studies the students
must pass a final examination, which is called in Bulgaria
an examination of maturity. The examination takes place
before a special commission and comprises a written and
an oral test. This commission sits twice during the year :
in January and in December.

The promotion from one class to a higher one is dependent
on the success achieved by the student during the year.

The total number of students in the nine State high
schools and the two communal ones was, during the year
1903-1904:

r:-i'

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA I07

(i) 8,148 in the State high schools for boys, including in
this number the students of the incomplete secondary schools.*

(2) 5,323 in the high schools for girls and in the schools of
only six forms.

(3) ^j70I ^ the training schools.

(4) 633 in the model divisions attached to the training
colleges.

3. Higher Colleges,— University of Sofia

The Higher College of Sofia, which was founded on Janu-
ary 1st, 1889, has since been reorganised by the law of 1904,
which changed its name into that of University. It is placed
under the control of the Ministry of Public Instruction.

The University of Sofia comprises at present three faculties:

(a) Historico- Philological Faculty, -with 16 chairs.

(6) Ph3^ico-Matheinatical Faculty, with 17 chairs.

Each one of these faculties has all the indispensable acces-
sories (seminars, cabinets, collections, laboratories, observa-
tories, botanical gardens, stations for observation^ etc.), which
are conducted by specialists.

The professorial staff is composed of regular and extra-
ordinary professors, permanent and privat docents and
lecturers.

The administration of the University is vested in an Aca-
demical Council, which elects at the commencement of every
year a rector. Each one of the three faculties has its Faculty
Council, which is presided over by the dean, chosen by the
professors of the faculty.

The library of the University, which forms a separate
organisation, is entrusted to a special librarian.

The general management belongs to the secretary of the

* In this number are included the students of the supplementary
classes attached to the training collies.

108 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

University, while the financial department is placed under a
questor.

The members of the teaching body, as also the whole stafE,
are appointed by the Ministry of Public Instruction, on the
advice of the Academical <x>uncil, and on the presentation
of the rector of the University.

The studies last eight semesters. There are two kinds
of examinations — ^university and academical — at the end of
the fourth and of the eighth semesters, for the obtainment of
doctor's degree.

There are two categories of students, regular and auditory.
In order to be admitted as a regular student, the candidate
must have completed the course of studies in a high school,
and passed with success the final examination. Those who
do not fulfil the above conditions are admitted only as
auditory students.

During the year 1904-1905, the number of students in
the University was as follows :

1. Historico-philological Faculty, 212 students, of whom
73 were women.

2. Physico-Mathematical Faculty, 238 students, of whom
37 were women.

3. Law Faculty, 493 students, of whom two were women.
Altogether 943 students, of whom 112 were women.

Professorial Staff :

Frs. per Annam.

Regular professors . . . . 17, each receiving „ 7,200

Extraordinary professors . . 11, „ „ „ 6,000

Docents professors .... 11, „ „ „ 4,800

Lecturers 4, „ „ „ —

Assistant tutors 9, „ „ „ —

The total expenditure incurred by the State for the
maintenance of the University of Sofia reaches the sum of
450,000 francs.

public instruction in bulgaria io9

4, Technical Instruction

SCHOOL FOR drawing

Hie object of this school is : (i) to encourage the fine arts^
(2) to prepare teachers of drawing and calligraphy for the
high schools and the professional schools, (3) to prepare
designers and artists for the different branches of industry
(icon-painting, carving, ceramics, decoration-art, weaving, etc.).
In accordance with tlus object, the school is divided into
two main sections : (a) section of artists and of teachers in
drawing, etc., (b) section of artistic industries. A common
preparatory course serves as a connecting link between the two
sections. The ordinary course corresponds, in degree, to the
instruction given in the secondary schools, and lasts three
years. The special sections are subdivided into several
higher courses, corresponding to the different art specialties.

The subjects taught in the preparatory course are : drawing
in black of plaster models (ornaments and busts) and of
carving models, modelling, decorative arts, projective drawing,
perspective, anatomy, architecture, and history of art.

The higher course comprises for the present the following
branches : fine arts, icon-painting, preparatory school for
teachers of drawing in the high schools, decorative motifs,
wood-carving, ceramic and lithography.

The conditions for the admission io the first dass of the
preparatory course is for the candidate to have passed at
least foiu: classes in a high school. Those who do not fulfil
the above condition may^ however, be admitted as auditors.

The preparatory course was attended during the year
1903-1904 by 66 students, of whom 55 were boys and 11 girls.

During the same year, the number of students of the higher
course was 58, of whom 44 were boys and 14 girls, or alto-
gether 124 students, of whom 99 were boys and 25 girls.

no BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

The teaching sta£P is composed of regular and extra-
ordinary professors.

Fn. p«r
annum.

The regular professors of ist class receive 6^000
» » » » 2nd „ » 4,800

M » >i >, 3rd „ „ 3,600

The council of professors may propose the nomination of
free professors^ who are paid from 5 to 15 francs per lesson.
The total number of professors is 15, of whom 9 are regular
and 6 extraordinary.

At the head of the school there is a director, who is ap-
pointed, as are all the professors, by ministerial decree on
the proposition of the school council.

The cost for the maintenance of the school is 91,000 francs
a year.

5. Institutions for Defective Children

SCHOOL FOR the DEAF AND DUMB

This school was opened in Sofia some years ago, through
the initiative of a noble foreigner. With the object of
encouraging this humanitarian undertaking, the Ministry
of Public Instruction makes an annual grant which amounted
for the year 1904-1905 to 10,000 francs.

INSTITUTE FOR BLIND

This institute was opened towards the end of 1905. Its
organisation has been entrusted to a specialist, who had been
previously sent by the Ministry of Public Instruction to
study the organisation of similar institutes in Vienna and
St. Petersburg.

The grants provided by the budget of 1904 in favour of
the last two institutions amount to nearly^ 100,000 francs.

public instruction in bulgaria iii

6. Diverse other Institutions

educational museum

An Educational Museum has been recently created by the
llinistry of Public Instruction, The object is : (i) to collect
and preserve all the materials which may serve hereafter
for the study of the educational history of Bulgaria. These
materials will comprise : various regulations and edu-
cational laws, prints and manuscripts, curricula^, manuals,
guides for teachers, various educational appliances, means
for preserving discipline, etc. ; (2) to familiarise the teaching
profession with the pedagogical literature of Bulgaria and
of the other countries, and (3) to place under the eyes of
the educational authorities, teachers, and all those who are
interested in educational questions and in the national
instruction, the different kinds of materials and accessories
which are in use in Bulgaria and in the other countries, and
so to help the choosing for our schools of those materials
which are most likely to produce the best results.

The Educational Museum is at the same time a sort of
information and verification office as regards questions
touching on education.

It comprises three sections : historical section, pedagogical
library, and a collection of educational materials.

EDUCATIONAL UBRARIES AND LABORATORIES

Every school has two libraries, one for the student
and the other for the teachers. A complete collection of
manuals, guides, and various instruments is kept to facilitate
the work of the teachers. The funds necessary for the buying
of these materials are derived partly from the school taxes
and the rest from the budget of the Ministry of Public Instruc-
tion. The communes are bound to provide the funds for
their respective schools. The decisions concerning the

112 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

buying of books and other materials are taken by the Council
of Teachers and submitted to the approval of the Ministry of
Public Instruction.

NATIONAL LIBRARIES

There are two national libraries in the Principality, one
in Sofia and the other in Plovdiv. The library in this latter
place remains from the time of Eastern Roimielia. These
two libraries are administered by directors, who are ap-
pointed by the Ministry of Public Instruction. The annual
expenditure for the two libraries reaches the sum of 80,000
francs.

COMMUNAL READING-ROOMS

Throughout the Principality, there are a thousand com-
munal reading-rooms, whose object is to help the intel-
lectual and moral development of the population and the
general progress of the country. Every reading-room is
an intellectual centre where, besides the libraries which are
placed at the disposal of the population, public lectures and
popular conferences are regularly held. In the more im-
portant towns, popular courses are given, and the education
of poor children and orphans is assisted by voluntary contri-
butions. The communes and the Ministry contribute to
this work in the shape of annual or occasional subsidies.

NATIONAL MUSEUM

In virtue of a law of 1889, the State is considered owner
of all the antiquities which are buried in the Bulgarian soil,
and have not yet been discovered, such as ancient coins, monu-
ments, statues, sarcophagi, instruments, arms, manuscripts,
etc. Shortly after the proclamation of our Independence,
excavations were undertaken in many parts of the country,
and the antiquities discovered were collected in Sophia. The
National Museum of Sofia has two sections, one for archseo-

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA II3

logical objects and the other for ethnographical objects.
It has also a gallery for fine arts.

The administration of the Museum is entrusted to a director
who is under the control of the Ministry of Public Instruc-
tion. The annual cost of this Museum is 80,000 francs.

CENTRAL METEOROLOGICAL STATION

The study of the country from a meteorological point of
view is concentrated in the meteorological station of Sofia,
which has under its control 125 similar stations in the different
towns of the Principality.

The director of the central station is appointed by the
Ministry of Public Instruction, and receives a salary of 5,600
francs per annum.

The maintenance of the meteorological stations entails
an annual expenditure of about 40,000 francs. Special sums
are granted for collecting agricultural statistics (10,000 francs
in 1901).

NATIONAL THEATRE

The State company, " Tears and Laughter," which has been
subsidised by the State for many years past, has been re-
cently reorganised into a National Theatre. This latter
receives an annual subscription of 100,000 francs. The new
State Theatre of Sofia, which was built after the plans of the
Austrian architect Kelmer, was inaugurated in January 1907.
The theatre is under the management of a director and an
administrator, both of whom are appointed by the Ministry
of Public Instruction.

Several provincial theatres and dramatic companies are also
subsidised by the State. The total amount of these sub-
ventions during the year 1904 was 15,000 francs.

EDUCATIONAL BUDGET

The maintenance of the University and of the secondary

114 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

and professional schools depending on the Ministry of Public
Instruction entails an expenditure of 4,201^000 francs, dis-
tributed as f oUows :

Fruica.

1. University 450,000

2. School of Fine Arts 91,000

3. High schools, training colleges, class schools .. 2,780,000

4. Pasnnent of one-half of the salaries of teachers in

the communal schools 880,000

The Ministry also spends the following sums for the in-
tellectual development of the country :

1. Fees paid to organisers of eveniug dasses and Franca.

expenses for the upkeeping of school gardens 10,000

2. Lectures for teachers 10,000

3. Subventions to two orphanages 32,000

4. Mahonunedan schools 75>ooo

5. Grants to boarding schools and private schoob 15,000

6. Popular lectures, conferences, scientific, philan-

thropical, and artistic societies, and similar
institutions 10,000

7. Grants for archaeological researches . . . . 3fiOo

8. To the Literary Society, and for its publication.

Annual Magazine of National Science and
Literature (60 printed sheets) 20,000

9. Funds for construction and repair of school

buildings 20,000

10. Maintenance of a sanatorium and consumptive

teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,000

11. To the Student's Circle of Sofia 5,ooo

12. Literary and artistic enterprises, scientific

researches 46,000

Total 4,201,000

CHAPTER V

THE BULGARIAN CHURCH AND FOREIGN
RELIGIONS

I. Orthodox Creed

The autonomous orthodox Bulgarian Church forms an
inseparable part of the Holy Orthodox Church.

The Bulgarian Exarchate comprises all the Bulgarian
dioceses in the provinces of the Turkish Empire, as they were
enumerated expUcitly or in general terms by the Great
Firman of 8 Silhidje ia86 (1870), as well as the dioceses of the
Bulgarian PrincipaUty.

The n^mber of the orthodox Bulgarian population in
Turkey which recognises the authority of the Exarchate is
1,200,000^ there remaining about 400,000 Bulgarians who
still owe allegiance to the Greek Patriarchate.

In the Principality itself, the orthodox population which
acknowledges the spiritual jurisdiction of the Exarchate is
a httle over three millions.

The Bulgarian dioceses in Turkey which are governed by
Bulgarian metropoUtans are those of Ochrida, Uskub, Monastir
(Pelagonia), Velte, Nevrokop, Debra, and Strouma. Article 10
of the Firman of 1870 recognised to all the dioceses of the
Exarchate the right of having Bulgarian bishops at their
head, but fourteen of these dioceses still remain without
spiritual chiefs.

The dioceses of the Principality, which are all administered

1X6 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

by metropolitans^ are to the number of eleven, namely those
of Timovo, Sofia, Plovdiv, Vama-Preslav, Dorostol-Tcherven
(Roustchouk), Vratza, Viddin, Sliven, Stara-Zagora, Lovetch^
and Samokov.

For the pmposes of their administration, the dioceses are
subdivided into vicarages and parishes.

The Bulgarian Orthodo?^ Church is governed by the canon
laws and regulations, as well as by the Chganic Statute of the
Bulgarian Exarchate.

According to the Organic Statute, the general administration
of the Exarchate belongs to the Holy Synod and that of the
dioceses to their respective bishops. The Holy Synod, which
is the highest organ of the Church, has as its president His
Beatitude the Exarch, and as members all the metropolitan
bishops of the Bulgarian Church. These latter, however,
exercise their right by delegation, four of them, who are
chosen by the General Assembly, forming, so to speak, the
permanant Holy Synod and dispensing the ssmodal authority.
At the head of every diocese there is a Council, composed of
the metropolitan bishop, as president, and of four parish
priests who are elected by their peers for a period of four
years. The ecclesiastical authority in the diocese is vested
in the bishop, who exercises it with the assistance of the
Council. The sentences and decisions of the diocesan Council
may be taken in appeal before the Holy Synod.

The Exarch and the metropolitan bishops are chosen for
life, the election taldng place by secret ballot. The la)mien
take part in these elections on the same footing as the members
of the clergy.

At the head of every vicarage, of which there are forty-two in
the Principality alone, there is a vicar who is appointed by
the Government, on the presentation of the respective bishop.

The town and village parishes are placed under the direct
authority of the vicars. The tovm parishes comprise from

THE BULGARIAN CHURCH AND FOREIGN REUGIONS II7

200 to 300 houses, and the village parishes from 150 to 200
hotises.*

The parish priests, provided they fulfil certain conditions,
are freely chosen by the members of the parish, and receive
their ordination in accordance with the canon laws.

The number of churches in the Principality is 1^627, without
counting 379 chapels. In Turkey, there are at present 1,067
churches.

The clergy is composed of 1,961 priests in the Princi-
pality, and of 1,174 priests in the dioceses of the Turkish
Empire.

All marriages and divorces are within the exclusive juris-
diction of the ecclesiastical authorities. Questions concerning
the validity of marriage or its dissolution are regulated by
the canon laws.

According to these laws, the legal age for contracting
marriage is fixed at nineteen years for boys and seventeen
years for girls. There are ten grounds on which the marriage
tie may be dissolved. The request of one of the parties,
when based on adultery, does not of itself entail the dissolu-
tion of marriage. The party which has been found guilty
of adultery is not allowed to marry its accomplice. The
custody of the children, in case of divorce, is given to the
innocent side, except when the children are below the age of
five years, in which case they are left with the mother. The
mutual consent of the married couple is not a ground for
divorce. All marriages contracted in opposition to the canon
laws or r^ulations are considered null and void.

The Diocesan Council is the sole competent authority to
judge afEairs of divorce, its decisions being submitted to
the approval of the respective metropolitan bishop.

* This organisation exists for the present only in the Principality.

il8 bulgaria op to-day

2. Foreign Reugions in Bulgaria

The Bulgarian constitution guarantees complete freedom
to the foreign creeds^ and no one living in Bulgaria may be
disturbed on account of his religious convictions. Difference
in religion may in no case be a ground for restricting the
rights of Bulgarian citizens.

The principal creeds which are recognised in the Princi*
pality are the Mahommedan^ the Roman Catholic^ the Jewish,
the Armenian, and the Protestant. The Orthodox Greeks are
under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople.

As regards the different confessions, the population of the
Principality is distributed as follows :

3,100,000 Orthodox Bulgarian.

643,000 Mahommedans.

66,635 Greeks-Patriarchists.

33,569 Jews.

28,569 Catholic.

14,581 Armenians.

4,524 Protestant.

The Mahommedan population is organised in religious
communities, which are administered by muftis or assistant-
muftis. These are freely chosen by the faithful, and confirmed
by the Government, which allows them monthly salaries.
There are thirty-six Mahommedan conmiunities, administered
by sixteen muftis and twenty-six assistant-muftis. The
' mufti of Sofia is at the head of the organisation.

The duties of the muftis are entirely spiritual. The Ma-
hommedans consider them as their spiritual leaders, to whom
is entrusted the maintenance of good order in their conununal
affairs. Every mufti is the head of an administration which
is subsidised by the Government and deals, among other
matters, with questions of divorce, successions, etc., among

THE BULGARIAN CHURCH AND FOREIGN RELIGIONS tig

Hahommedans. The muftis are also entrusted with looking
after the religious establishments, mosques, and taxes, as
well as with the management of the vakoufs. These latter
are landed properties bequeathed by Mahommedans for pur-
poses of charity and for the needs of the Mahommedan creed.

Every mufti is assisted by one or two secretaries, who are
also paid by the Government, and by an administrative council,
the members of which are chosen by the Mahommedan
population of the district.

The Mahommedan schools are also subsidised by the Govern-
ment, and their management is entrusted to conunittees
chosen exclusively by Mussuhnans. The muftis and the Ma-
hommedan council are placed under the authority of the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship, with which they
correspond in the official language of the country.

The Catholics have two representatives in Bulgaria : Arch-
bishop Menini, at Plovdiv and Bishop Doulcet at Nicopol.
They are appointed by the Propaganda of Rome, and are
independent of each other. As regards the Bulgarian Govern-
ment, these two representatives of the Catholic creeds, and
iaJso the various institutions belonging to the same creed,
enjoy certain privileges which amount to practical inde-
pendence.

The Jews also have a representative, who is the Grand
Rabbi residing in Sofia. The Grand Rabbi is elected by
the Jewish population of the Principality, subject to the
approval of the Government, which allows him a salary. As
spiritual chief of the Jews, the Grand Rabbi has the direction
of all the affairs concerning the Jewish creed, or touching
marriages, divorces, etc. In the towns, the Jews are organised
in special communities whose administration is entrusted to
synagc^cal committees.

The Grand Rabinate of Bulgaria is in direct relations with
the Ministry of the Foreign Affairs and the Creeds, and serves

120 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

as intennediary between the Biinistry and the religions
community, whose decisions are submitted to its approval.
This same Ministry also superintends and confirms the elections
of the synagogical committees.

The organisation of the Armenians b in a comparatively
rudimentary state, which is due to their small number.
Nevertheless, Armenian communities have been formed in
the {irincipal towns, and possess their own churches. The
Armenian priests are appointed directiy by the Armenian
Patriarch of Constantinople.

The Bulgarian Government has granted the Armenians
complete freedom to arrange their communities as they
please, and does not intervene except when the Armenians
themselves turn to the Ministry of the Creeds. TheArmenians
have no general representative in Bulgaria.

The Protestants (evangelical) are even less numerous than
the Armenians. Two American missions carry on the work
of propaganda in the Principality— the Congregational Mission
and the Methodist-Episcopalian Mission. The Evangelical
pastor of Sofia is at the head of the Evangelical Churches
throughout the country. The Churches, however, enjoy
perfect autonomy in their government. Every Church
exercises its rights directiy or by delegation. There is for
every Church an ecclesiastical Council, which is chosen by the
majority of the faithfuL The pastors are entrusted with the
management of religious afiairs, in which task they are as-
sisted by the respective councils.

The Methodist Episcopalians enjoy the same privileges and
have a similar organisation. They recognise as their chief
the bishop delegated by the American Methodist Episcopalian
Mission, to which all pastors and preachers are answerable.

The Greek population of Bulgaria forms a special category.
Although they are orthodox like the Bulgarians, as regards
their religion they depend on the (Ecumenical Patriarchate

THE BULGARIAN CHURCH AND FOREIGN RELIGIONS 121

of Constantinople. The Greek bishops in the Principality (in
Plovdiv^ Vama^ Sozopol, Anchialos and Messemvria) are
appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople^ with the
preliminary consent of the Bulgarian Government.

The religious communities of the Greeks are organised in
the same way as the communities of the other creeds. The
bishop, assisted by a council freely chosen by the Greek
population^ administers the affairs of the community, and
decides all questions touching on marriage^ divorce^ etc.
The councils^ as also the Greek educational committe^^ are
chosen by the community^ but their election is not sub-
mitted to the approval of the Bulgarian Govenunent.

PART II

THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF
BULGARIA

123

I
I

CHAPTER I
FORESTS

I. History of Bulgarian Forestry

Up to the time of the constitution of Bulgaria as an
autonomous principality, the history of our forestry is very
obscure. All we know is^ that in ancient times the country
was covered with impenetrably dense virgin forest. Un-
fortunately, the greater part of this forest has been cut down
by the peasants who wanted pasture land. Up to the very
eve of our deUverance from the Ottoman yoke, no control was
exercised over the demolition of forests and no measures were
taken for their preservation.

The State granted entire liberty to private persons to
pasture their flocks and herds in the forests when and how
they chose. From time immemorial certain parishes had
forests of their own, called " baltalik " by the Turks. The
parishioners alone had the rights of cutting wood or of pastur-
age within the boundaries of the forest of the parish, and they
profited by these rights to their heart's content, the more so
as no dues were exacted in return.

Private individuals looked upon the forests as their own
property. In return for the pajnnent of a certain tax, they
thought they had a right to dispose of it, to cut wood at their
pleasure, and even to make clearings without being accountable
to any one for their action. There was as yet no such thing
as public interest in forestry.

In 1869 (II Horse^ 1285, according to Mohammedan reckon-

126 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

ing) the Turkish Government published a law which brought a
certain amount of control to bear on the exploitation of forests ;
but from the inquiries made we are pretty well assured that
this law, together with the subsequent orders and instructions
issued concerning its application, remained a dead letter, save
for a few of its clauses which were carried out in certain
vilayets.

In consequence of these facts ^ee Bulgaria, in place of the
virgin forest which had been the pride of the country, started
with forests sadly thinned^ their area reduced to a minimum.

The Russo-Turkish war contributed further to the work
of devastation. Such forests as had thus far escaped, for one
reason or another^ were completely cut down and turned into
waste lands.

The first enactment by the Bulgarian Government for the
protection of forests was the ordinance of December 20th^ i6y8,
issued by the section of the Ministry of Finance. The ministry
ordered governors of provinces to appoint special keepers to
look after the forests. Many other enactments foDowed^ for
the levying of taxes on all forests, whether they belonged to
the State, to parishes, or private individuals (1879)^ to prohibit
the export of wood (1880) — ^this having caused the destruction
of forests in neighbouring countries^ — and to order the col-
lection of seeds for the replanting of forests. Further in-
structions determined the portions of forest which might
be feDed, and exercised control over attempts of individuals
to monopolise forest-land^ incendiarism^ destructive exploita-
tion, etc.

These measures did not produce the hoped-for results. They
were insufficient to cure the country people of their old habits,
and the destruction of forests went on just as before.

At last, in 1884, the National Assembly passed the first law
on the administration of forests. This law contained ex-
cellent and practical provisions. It divided forests into three

FORESTS 127

classes^ according as they belonged to the State, to parishes, or
to individuals. The general control was placed in the hands
of the Minister of Finance. The actual work of forestry was
confided to foresters (later on inspectors of forests), one being
appointed for every adnunistrative department. Each of
them had a certain number of keepers under him. The duty
of this stafi was to preserve the woods from injury and to
arrange a systematic division of forests into " blocks " for
felling in regular succession to provide charcoal, planks, and
fuel. In short, this law contained all the enactments which
experience had su^ested to the legislators as capable of
improving the condition of our forests. It was received with
enthusiasm by sensible men, but the great majority of the
Bulgarian people felt differently. Being used to felling at
will, they opposed an obstinate resistance to the new order
of things.

Five years later, therefore, the National Assembly passed
a new Bill in place of the one of 1884. This certainly proved
more efficacious. From 1890 onwards the stafE of foresters
was increased and really sensible methods of forestry in Bul-
garia date from that time. The question was approached in
earnest. New and detailed orders made dear to the inspectors
of forests what results were expected from their work. Measures
were taken for the survey of the forests and the study of the
methods of the day and the renewal of disafforested wood-
land. A register of forests was begun and provisional plans
for administration were drawn up. All this preparatory
work, meagre as it still was, at least struck the attention
of the foresters. The favourite occupation of those who
were interested in their work was the starting of nurseries
of young trees on State and parish property, especially in the
neighbourhood of schools. In a short space of time, millions
of young trees of all kinds were ready for disposal, and these
were planted in the yards and gardens of towns and villages,

128 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

along the roads, and in other places. Later, definite statistics
were collected, with an exact survey of all the forests^ the
determination of their boundaries, etc. A special course of
surveying was arranged for young keepers^ who were made to
pass a theoretical and practical examination, and were thus
better prepared for their work of restoration. All these
excellent measures quickly improved the stafi.

With the idea of filling in certain gaps in the law of 1889,
the National Assembly in 1897 elaborated a third law, which
brought no changes in the ownership of forest-land, but com-
pletely reorganised the service and issued fresh measures for
the protection of forests, for the registration, and more par-
ticularly for the rational exploitation of parish forests.

Six years later a new law took its place. This act of 1904
continued the programme of reform. It decided, once and
for all, questions relating to the ownership of forest-land
and commons according to an inexpensive and summary
system of procedure. It also offered a definite solution
for differences as to the easements of forests which had
been in abeyance since the war of independence, and it
decided on a progranune of practical work.

To sum up, we may say that these frequent changes in forest
laws all have as motive the wish to obtain the greatest possible
return from the forests compatible with their preservation.

The total area of the forests of Bulgaria is 3,041,324 hectares,
which may be classed as follows :

State property 902,816*6 hectares.

Parish property 1,565,242 „

Private property y^9fii^'9 »$

Belonging to schools, churches, mosques,

and other religious establishments • . 53»628'9 „

Total 3,04i,324-4>ectares.

The State, therefore, may be said to own one-third of the
total area of forest-land^ the parishes half, and the remainder
(about ^th) belongs to private persons or to religious com-
munities.

The State forests are situate in the mountainous districts
of Stara-Planina, the Rhodopes, and Rilo. They number
438.

The parish forests are mostly in the south and west of the
Principality, and number 2,966.

The forests belonging to individuals are mostly situate in
the plains. They are small and scattered. Here we may
remark that, with one or two exceptions, there are no great
landed proprietors in Bulgaria.

The forests of Bulgaria occupy 30 per cent, of the whole
area of the country. Bulgaria is, therefore, by ip.c. richer
in woodland than Hungary^ Slavonia and Croatia taken
together, 3p.c. richer than Switzerland, 4px. more than
Germany, 8p.c. more than Italy and Roumania, I3p.c. more
than Spain, I4p.c. more than France and Greece, and 25p.c.
more than Portugal. On the other hand, she has 3 p.c. less
forest than Austria, Sweden and Norway.

The population, according to the last census, being 3,744,283,
there is about one hectare of forest in Bulgaria to every
inhabitant.

As regards the height of the trees, the forests may be classed
as follows : 1^060,463*8 hectares have trees of above average
height ; 1,980,662*8 hectares have trees of average height or
less. About one-quarter of the former class consists of
conifers.

The annual productive force of a large forest of a hundred
years old (hard-wood trees) of good quality and normal
density is, per hectare, 3*05 m. cube.

That of a forest 20 years old (low growth, hard-wood trees)
is 245 m. 3.

130 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

That of a forest loo years old (tall trees, soft wood) 5*69 m.
cube.

That of a forest 20 years old (low growth, soft wood)
4-15 m. cube.

These figures^ reduced to a standard density of *5, as an
average for all kinds of forest, give the following results :

Annual productive energy of a forest 100 years old (tall
trees, soft wood), per hectare, i*5om. cube.

That of a forest 20 years old (low growth) i'22 m. cube.

That of a forest of tall trees, soft wood 2*84 m. cube.

That of a forest of 20 years (low growth, soft wood) 2*07 m.
cube.

The forests of Bulgaria are valued at about 600 million
francs.

The Export Trade in Timber, — ^Bulgaria exports all kinds of
woods^ soft and hard, both as raw materials and manu-
factured. Dming the five years from 1898 to 1902, Bulgaria
exported on an average 30,206,648 kilograms of timber of
the value of 1,205,146 francs. She imported during the
same period, on an average, 36,773,886 kilograms, costing
1,917,080 francs. The importation has constantly decreased ;
from 3,542,078 for the year 1898, it fell to 1,267,238 in
1902. On the other hand the export trade has increased ;
from 1,016,639 for the year 1898, it rose to 1,563,691 in
1902.

Bulgaria for the most part imports soft wood, whether as
raw material or manufactured. During the period already
mentioned, 75 p.c. of all material imported consisted of these
woods ; 50.5 p.c. of the export trade is in the timber of
conifers. Among our customers, Turkey figures for 85p.c.,
Servia for 3p.c., Roumania for ip.c., Austro-Himgary for
0.7 p.c. The rest, about 7 p.c. in all, is divided between
Germany, France, Greece, Belgium, Egypt, and other
countries.

FORESTS 131

Austro-Hungary sold us the greater part of our imported
wood, 8ip.c. ; Roumania lop.c, Turkey and Servia 8p.c.,
other countries ip.c.

Turkey bu3^ of us soft wood, both raw and manufactured,
firing and charcoal. France, Germany, and Belgium require
hard timber, and Egypt planks. We, for our part, import
soft wood, both raw and manufactured, furniture and casks
bought mostly in Austro-Hungary, Germany, Belgium, and
France.

All these data are taken from the statistics of import and
export for the years 1898-1903.

There is, strictly speaking, no manufacture of wooden
articles in Bulgaria. We may, however, mention the steam
factories for making doors, windows, and parquet belonging
to Mr. Ilia KisseloS at Kritchim, and to Mr. SrebemicofiE at
Dolna Bania ; a match factory at Kostenetz Bania, started by a
foreign company ; the timber<yards of the brothers Ivanofi
at Belovo, for planks of all sizes ; the timber-yards of the
brothers BalabanofiE, in the fine forest of the Rilo monastery,
for all kinds of building materials, and others at Bourgas,
Roustchouk, and Varna.

All the other timber-yards in the forests are as yet in a
primitive condition, and only work during certain months of
the year, when they can utilise the water-power of the streams.
They saw planks of all quaUties. The quantity of material
turned out never exceeds six or seven hundred cubic metres
per annum. In the Rhodopes and the Rilo district there are
as many as 500 of these timber-yards and in the Stara-Planina
about 150. The former make a speciality of soft wood, the
latter of hard wood. There are, besides, a certain number
of workshops which turn out platters, lids, mortars, bowls,
etc., especially at SevUevo and Gabrovo. A model workshop
of this kind was started at Gabrovo in 1904 in the State
property Liga. It belongs to Mr. OuzounofiC.

132

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Of the material worked up in the timber-yards only soft
wood is exported. As to small articles made by hand, such
as bowls, platters, lids, boxes, etc., we exported :

In 1895 — 174,000 kilograms worth 46,000 francs.
„ 1896 — 113,000 „ „ 36,000 „

„ 1897— 71,000 „ „ 23,000 „

„ 1898— 72,000 „ „ 18,000 „

» 1899— 67,000 „ „ 17,000 „

497,000 „ „ 140,000 „

During the same period, we imported 722,000 kilograms,
worth 250,000 francs; on the average 144,000 kilograms
per annum to the value of 50,000 francs.

It is interesting to consider the quantity of timber furnished
annually by our forests with regard to its grades of quality.
The following tables show us the quantities of timber felled
during the last three years :

(a) State Forests

I90I
1902
1903

Building material
in cable metres.

56,431-63

94,676-38

87,301-40

Fuel in cubic
metres.

190,286-56

206,822-52

209,873-23

Charcoella
ulo^rsuns.

1,244,806
1.246,336
1.438,351

(b) Parish Forests

I90I
1902

1903

98,48949
160,356-80
131,94970

346,581-85
639,057*95
564,984-73

3.397.829
3,911,189
4,362,816

I90I
1902
1903

116,225-10
100,92079
142,694-04

509,360-15
686,232-28
590,461-44

1,350,474

1,357,271

757,005

FORESTS 133

To these figures should be added the quantity of timber
which is cut in a contraband fashion, and this is considerable.
These figures, reduced to a standard area for all classes of
forests, prove * :
(i) That a hectare of the State forests yields on an average :
0*084 cm. of building timber.
0*672 cm. of fuel
4*353 kilograms of charcoal.

(2) That a hectare of the parish forests yields on an average :

0*083 cm. of building timber.

0*330 cm. of fuel.

2*48 kilograms of charcoal.

(3) That a hectare of the forests of private owners yields
on an average :

0*21 cm. of building timber.
0*77 cm. of fuel.
2*01 kilograms of charcoal.
Revenue of the products and by-products of the forests
during the same three years :

State Forests

Year. Building timber. Fuel. BynproducU. Total.

Francs. Franca. Francs. Francs.

1901 88,497*14 125,15707 16,948 230,602*21

1902 140,323*15 154,114*86 22,850 317,28801

1903 184,207*72 181,73209 25,411 39ii350-8i

Parish Forests

Year. BuUdinfr timber. Fnel. By-prodocts. Total.

Francs. Franca. Francs. Francs.

1901 142,301-12 303,036*16 I205I 457,388*28

1902 185,678*02 357,112*87 16*767 559,557*89

1903 198,265*97 365,225-99 12*439 575,930-96

* No allowance ia made for ille^ felling.

134 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

From these data we can see that a hectare of State forest
brings in 0*34 francs per annum^ and a hectare of parish
forest 0*34 francs. This small yield may be attributed to
the low tarifiE for State and parish timber^ and to the heavy
cost of transport. The revenues are equal because of the
uniformity of these tarifEs.

2. Varieties of Trees

Bulgaria possesses a great variety of leaf-bearing trees
and conifers ; those of the former class are most abundant.
Those specially cultivated are the oak {Quercus pedunculaia,
Q. sessiliflora, Q, cents) ; the beech {Fagus sylvatica) ; the
common ash {Fraxinus excelsior) ; the elm {Ulmus campestris,
U. effusa, U. montana] ; the plane tree {Acer pkUanoides, A,
pseudoplatanus, A, campestre) ; the yoke-elm {Carpinus bettu-
lus) ; the lime {Tibia grandifolia, T. parmfolio, T. argentea) ;
the willow {Salix caprea, S. pentandra) ; the poplar {Populus
tretnula, P. alba, P, nigra). The commonest conifers are the
pine {Pinus sylvestris, P. ausiriaca, P. penes, P. mughus) and
the fir {Picea excelsa, P. picHnata).

The forests of the Principality are rich in shrubs and herbs
of all kinds. Among the more noteworthy are the following :
Alnus viridis, Berberis vulgaris, Cerasus ckamaecerasus, Cornis
(C. mas, C. sanguinea, C. pewtogyna), Daphne mesereum,
Hedena Helix, Ligustrum vtdgare, Lonicera (L. xylosteum, L,
caprifolia, L, nigra), Prunus spinosa, Ramnus {R. catharactica,
R. frangida), Rus cotinus, Rosa {R. alpina, /?. conina), Salix
(5. fragUis, S. purpurea, S. viminalis), Sambucus (5. racemosa),
Vaccinum {V. myrtillus, V. vitis-idaeca), Vibulnum {V. opulis,
V. lantana), Viscum album, etc.

Plantation has been, and unfortunately still Is, carried on
in a very primitive fashion. However, in the neighbourhoods
of Varna, Pravadia, Anchialo, Aitos, Bourgas, Peschtera, and

FORESTS 135

elsewhere there are excellent plantations of a better class.
The woods are thick and in good condition, consisting of
magnificent oaks, pines, and Picea excelsa. The trees are tall,
ronnd, and smooth. These better kinds of trees are rare in
the other districts, or only to be found in small isolated groups.
Good thick forests have been preserved in out-of-the-way
places difficult of access. No doubt, when they are connected
with the principal arteries of modem traffic they will be the
object of remimerative undertakings.

As to the quality of the kinds of wood, it should be observed
that it is superior to those of exotic growth. Bulgarian
timber is distinguished by its numerous annual rings, its bright
colours, rich structure, and relative flexibiUty. In a word, it
possesses all the qualities which make wood durable and
useful for aU kinds of pmrposes.

As regards climate and vegetation, Bulgaria may be divided
into four zones :

(i) The Warm &ne, — ^This zone is partly low-lying, partly as
high as 400 metres above sea-level. Formerly it was covered
by vast forests. Their place is now occupied by plains imder
cultivation. The soil is damp for a considerable depth.
The characteristic tree of the zone is the Quercus peduncidaia,
which is to be found by itself or mixed with Ultnus,Acer cam-
pestre, Fraxinus, Carpintis and Tilia, Querelas cerris flourishes
in poor dry land.

(2) The Moderate Zone runs almost parallel above the
first. The characteristic tree is Quercus sessiliflara. The
plantations are thick, the trees tall and well grown. In the
higher districts the beech is also to be foimd.

(3) The Cold Zone begins where beeches are to be found,
and reaches an altitude of 1,300 metres above sea-level. The
principal tree is the beech ; indeed this zone might be called
the Beech Zone. Although the largest and most wooded of
the three, it is the least valuable ; lying as it does in hilly

136 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

districts, cut off from means of communication, its inmiense
reserves of timber cannot be utilised. There are very beauti-
ful woods composed entirely of beech, and others where the
beech occurs mixed with ash and plane. The southern slopes
of Rilo and the Rhodopes and their valleys abound in firs.
The higher districts of the beech zone contain the Picea exceka,
which grows at still higher altitudes.

(4) The fourth and highest zone of vegetation extends from
i»300 to 2,000 metres above sea-level. It begins with the
beech, mixed with Picea excdsa, but the latter has almost the
monopoly of this zone, and very thick woods of it are to
be found. The lower boundaries are scattered with pines,
above which Pinus pence grows in beautiful groups or fine
single trees. Above this (1,800 metres above sea-level) Pinus
mughus appears among the Picea excelsa. Still higher there
is nothing but bare rocks.

The vertical partition of the forests of Bulgaria is shown
in the following table :

Owners.

Up to 400 m.
above tea.
HecUres.

400-1 (Ocani.
above ■.«.
Hectare*.

1,000-3,000 m,
above sea.
Hectares.

The State . •

296,546-9

347,546-7

258,525

Parishes

791,365

466,648-7

307,228-3

Private owners

314,307-45

179,381-85

79,578-5

1,402,819-35

993,577'25

645,331-8

Total

.. 3,041,128^40 hectares.

3. Administration of Forests

The superintendence of the forests of the Principality is in
the hands of the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture. A
special department of the Ministry is charged with the
execution of the forest laws. The staff consists of a chief of
the department, an inspector-general of forests, an engineer
for forests, and two assistant chiefs.

FORESTS 137

The territory is divided into forest districts, each including
several administrative centres which, ia turn, control a certain
number of forest stations.

In accordance with the budget of 1905, the service is per-
formed by six district inspectors, forty foresters, and twenty
adjuncts. This is, so to speak, the upper staff of the adminis-
tration of forests. There is, therefore, a district inspector to
every 506,856*4 hectares and a forester to every 76,028*15
hectares.

This year the Ministry created a special bureau to super-
intend the canalisation of moimtain streams. It is to consist
of a chief of the department (a foreigner), two assistant chiefs
(one of whom is to be a foreigner), an engineer, a draughtsman,
and an administrator. The btu*eau will start work as soon as
the sta£E is appointed.

Considerable technical knowledge is required of the upper
staff of foresters. The six district inspectors have gone
through a thorough training in their speciality. Of the forty
foresters, twenty-eight have passed through a school of
forestry, six have had a special training, and the others are
an more or less prepared for the service.

The duty of patroDing the forests is confided to keepers
specially appointed for the purpose. The budget provides
for one keeper to every 1,500 hectares of forest and from three
to seven foresters of a higher grade to every administrative
centre. There are, besides, a great number of subalterns for
different services. All this staff belongs to the State ; the parish
forests also employ foresters, one to every 50,000 hectares.

The salaries of all these functionaries are provided for in
the budget as follows :

A district inspector of the first class receives 4,800 francs
per annum, with 600 francs for travelling expenses.

A district inspector of the second class receives 4,200
francs per annum with 600 francs for travelling expenses.

138 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

A forester of the first class receives 3,600 francs per annum,
with 300 francs for the keep of a horse.

A forester of the second class receives 3,000 francs per
annum, with 300 francs for the keep of a horse.

A forester of the third class receives 2,400 francs per annum,
with 300 francs for the keep of a horse.

An adjunct of the first class receives 2,100 francs per
annum, with 240 francs for the keep of a horse.

An adjunct of the second class receives 1,440 francs per
annum, with 240 francs for the keep of a horse.

A head keeper receives 1,080 francs per annum, a moimted
keeper 840 francs, a keeper 600 francs.

The keepers in the parish forests receive respectively :
head keepers 900 francs, mounted keepers 720 francs, keepers
480 francs.

Private owners of forests are obliged to employ their own
keepers.

The total budget for forests in the year 1905 was 739,820
francs, 641,829 francs of which was spent in salaries, the
remaining 98,000 francs on the improvement of the forests.

4. Thb Felling of Timber

The State fells both its own forests and those belonging to
the parishes, according to a programme drawn up every year
by the Ministry.

Private owners fell their forests according to certain plans
arranged in tables.

There are three S3^tems of management : (i) the State
fells its own forests and those belonging to the parishes;
(2) the right of felling is disposed of by auction ; (3) the right of
felling is handed over to a third party.

The sales of timber, etc., take place either by auction, or
in the way of a concession, or retail to the inhabitants of the
district according to tarifis drawn up by the forest authorities.

FORESTS 139

Felling of pines and firs takes place all the year. The other
forests are felled, from September 15th to March 31st.

The proceeds from the State forests go, of course, to the State
Treasury. So do the proceeds from the parish forests. But
the State spends this revenue exclusively on the upkeep of
the parish forests and returns any excess to the respective
parishes. As a rule, the parishes are allowed no say in the
management of their forests.

3. Propagation and Renewal of Forests

Villages situated in forests are obliged to afforest 45 per cent,
of their land, those near forests 25 p.c, and those iq the
open country 6 p.c. of their land.

Wherever the area afforested falls short of these proportions
resort must be made to artificial methods. Certain districts
of particular importance are also afforested. The work is
carried on under State inspection.

Owing to the fact that the soil of Bulgaria is rich in v^etable
matter, yoimg trees take root with vigour and, although no
particular care has as yet been taken of the plantations, very
good residts have been obtained. Dozens of hectares have
been reafforested in several districts. Most of the planters
have been influenced, not by any speculative project, but by
a wish to beautify their estates or improve their hygienic
condition. The reafioresting of already existing forests takes
place by natural methods in conjimction with a periodical
and rational S3r5tem of felling, this S3^tem being at once the
least costly and the best adapted to the different kinds of
timber. But one thing must be observed : owing to the want
of experience of Bulgarian foresters, the national system of
renewal leads to a crossing of the different kinds, and the
high forests are changed into low growth. The reverse is
seldom the case.

140 bulcabia of to-day

6. Patrolling of the Forests

The patrolling of the forests is confided, as we have already
seen, to special keepers. There are 500 of these for the State
forests and 2,135 for the parish forests. That is to say, there
is a keeper to every 1,805*3 hectares of State forest and to
every 734 hectares of parish forest.

In spite of the keepers' vigilance, much damage is done in
malice or by theft. The country people have not yet grasped
the importance of the preservation of forests for rural economy,
and the keepers are not yet well trained for performing their
difficult task.

7. General Condition of the Forests

All the forests of the Principality are not as yet classified,
still less sub-divided and surveyed and their boundaries
marked. All have not as yet been seriously taken in hand.

No distinction has been made between forests pure and
simple and the other possessions of the Bulgarian peasant.
Vineyards are to be found among the forests, and are in their
turn divided by fields and meadows ; all these things shade
into one another. That is the reason why our peasants do not,
as yet, see any great difference between a meadow and a forest,
a vineyard and a meadow. They pasture their cattle anywhere
and everywhere and at any time, without distinguishing
between young forests and old ones, without even any regard
to fresh plantations. This is the way with most of the
peasants, and it results from their notions of rural economy.
Hence come all the difficulties which hinder at every step the
work of restoring and preserving our forests.

On the other hand, the Bulgarian government makes every
effort to stop the devastation of forests and establish a state
of things which shall safeguard the well-being of the rura
population.

FORESTS 141

The finest forests of tall timber lie on the most inaccessible
heights of Stara-Planina, Rilo, the Rhodopes, and Sredna-
Gora. Such are the beechwoods of Berkovitza, Vratza,
Teteven, and indeed those on most of the northern slopes of
Stara-Planina and Sredna-Gora between the village of Klis-
soura (Carlovo) and Staro-Novo Seb (Philippopolis).

The forests of the Rilo Monastery are particularly rich
and well preserved. These forests would form the basis
of a very profitable speculation if the necessary fimds were
forthcoming. An important Sofia firm (Balabanoff brothers)
has purchased the concession for twenty years, starting from
1902. The Rilo forests are coniferous.

The ash and elm plantations at Longosa, along the river
Kamtschia to the Black Sea, 30 kilometres from Varna,
deserve special mention. Lower down, there are woods of
low groivth, the timber of which is particularly hard and good ;
for instance, the woods of Hasakia at Bourgas, of Guenichada
at Varna, of Balaband£r£ at Autos, and Caramas Kalia at
Anchialo.

Altogether, the forests of the Principality are of great
promise, thanks to the natural richness of the country, even
though as yet their importance has not been universally
realised.

The improvement of our forests demands enormous sacrifices,
but on the other hand a time will come when the revenue from
the forests will play an important part in the State budget.
The Bulgarian Government, fully aware of its duties and its
interests, concentrates its efiEorts to this end : to make our
forests, by the simplest means, in the near futture a source of
riches, which are so sorely needed by the young State for the
completion of its organisation

CHAPTER II

LANDED PROPERTY AND AGRICULTURE

With a total area of 9,570,450 hectares, the Principality of
Bulgaria contains :

(i) 2,156,701*05 hectares of inhabited area, roads, rivers,
etc. ; in all 22*54 per cent, of the total area.

(2) 2,867,870*79 hectares of forest ; 29*96 of the total area.

(3) 2,975,386*21 hectares of arable land; 31*09 p.c. of the
total area.

(4) 35M^'3^ hectares of meadow land; 3*68 p.c. of the
total area.

(5) 124,680*08 hectares of gardens, orchards, rose-gardens
and vineyards ; 1*30 p.c. of the total area.

(6) 123,207*64 hectares of marshes, reed-beds, islands,
thickets, and salt marshes ; 1*29 p.c. of the total area.

(7) 97^>i99*87 hectares of pasture land, 10*14 p.c. of the
total area.

We see from these figures that the total area of ground
susceptible of cultivation is 4,422,670*52 hectares, or 46*21 p.c.
of the area of the country. Governmental statistics prove
that the greater part of the arable land and of that suited to
any kind of culture comes more and more under cultivation.
About the year 1892 2,623,312 hectares were being cultivated,
that is 59*30 p.c. About the year 1897 these figures rose to
3,452,470*65 hectares, 78 p.c. The remaining 22 p.c. is pasture
land.

14a

LANDED PROPERTY AKD AGRICUtTURB I43

As regards ownership, the total area of the Principality is
divided into :

(i) Private property: 3,977,55772 hectares, or 41-56 p.c.
of the total area.

(2) Parish property : 2,291,156-50 hectares, or 23-94 p.c. of
the total area.

(3) Inhabited area, rivers, roads : 2,156,701 05 hectares, or
22-54 p.c. oi the total area.

(4) State property : 1,015,903-23 hectares, or io-6i p.c. of
the total area.

(5) Property belonging to churches, schools, monasteries,
etc. : 29,131-50 hectares, or 1-35 p.c. of the total area.

Total : 9,570,450 hectares.

So that, without counting the inhabited area, rivers, roads,
etc., the area that can be turned to account is 7,413,748-95
hectares, 3,977,55772 of which belong to private owners ;
3,428,466-9 hectares belong to 546,084 proprietors who
live on their own land ; 599,090-8 hectares belong to 253,504
proprietors who do not live on those lands.

The following table gives details relating to the distribution
of the property of the former class :

NumUroT
Proprietor.,

Area of each property.

Total area of the

propertiea of

each claaa.

65,870

up to

5d&ar.

157,227-2 d&

37,256

from

5 to

278,367-9 M

59,735

»»

10 to

895,795-6 „

54,841

»9

20 to

1,373,820-1 „

49,637

»*

30 to

1,735,515-5 „

44,093

40 to

1,982,240-6 „

85,177

50 to

5,254.165-9 »

53,418

75 to

100

• *

4,618,268-4 „

53,018

100 to

150

6,419,925 „

21,108

150 to

200

• 1

3,621,738-7 „

14.112

200 to

300

3,390,9529 M

Number ol
Proprieton.

4.017

1,593

1,591

428

144 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

ToUl area of the
Area of each property properties of

each class.

from 300 to 400 d6car 1,372,8077 ddc
400 to 500 „ 708,602-6 „

500 to 1,000 „ 1,051,188-2 „
1,000 to 2,000 „ 577,745'2 ,.

2,000 to 3,000 „ 229,908-5 „

3,000 to 5,000 „ 214,812-8 „

5,000 and more „ 401,586-1 „

Altogether 546,084 local proprietois, owning 34,284,669 d6cares,
or 3,428,466*9 hectares.

Without reproducing the statistics regarding the second
dass, we may state that the characteristic trait of Bulgarian
land tenure is the system of small holdings. The land is
mostly in thj possession of peasants. Another fact deserves
attention : the non-existence of large estates in Bulgaria.
Indeed, as we have just seen, the 34,284,669 d6cares of the
first class are parcelled out into 7,248,648 holdings, that is
about 4 d6cares to a holding. As to the properties of the
second class, their total area of 5,490,908*2 ddcares is divided
into 733^693 holdings, which confirms the general rule.

One consequence of this parcelling out of land in Bulgaria
is the growing tendency of the more intelligent peasants to
round off their properties. As yet the attention of Bulgarian
l^slators has not been arrested by this fact, and no special
law has been passed dealing with the rounding off of rural
properties. Still, it is only just to mention that the law of
1904 on the management of pasture ground contains certain
clauses, obviously meant to encourage and facilitate the
rounding off of small plots of land. In fact, this law decrees a
discount of 40 per cent.in favour of thepurchasers of small plots^
when they come to an understanding with their neighbours
for the rounding off of their respective properties. Both
parties are at liberty to make one another all compensations

LANDED PROPERTY AND AGRICULTURE I45

necessary for the rounding off of their properties. This law being
of so recent a date^ it is as yet impossible to judge of its results.
We have seen that the total area of land under cultivation
about 1897 was 3,452,470*65 hectares. There are two chief
categories of cultivation : permanent cultivation (vines, roses,
orchards, natural meadows, etc.) which covers about 477,084
hectares, and arable land, such as fields, vegetable gardens,
fallows, etc., which cover the greater area, about 2,975,386
hectares. In the latter class are the lands devoted to agricul-
ture strictly so called.

Our most usual system of agriculture is that of double
sowing, combined with ground tilled but left unsown (fallows).
This system is completed by pastures and natural meadows
for cattlerbreeding. In 1892, of the total area susceptible of
cultivation (2,215,312 hectares), 1,272,927 were tilled and
sown. At that time, therefore, about 42*50 p.c. of the arable
land lay fallow. Five years later, things were very different ;
of 2,975,386'2i hectares of arable land 65"ii p.c, (1,968,628*66
hectares) were sown in 1897. Of the same quantity of arable
land, 2,039,81071 hectares (67*60 p.c.) were sown in 1898 and
2,046,796*21 hectares (67*80 p.c.) in 1899. In other words, the
proportion of fallow land has been as follows :

1892 42*50 per cent.

1897 3389

1898 31-44

1899 3120

In the eastern provinces, such as Varna and certain pro-
vinces by the Danube, beside the system above described, there
are other combinations in use. According to one of these,
the land is sown for several successive years and then left fallow
lor some time. The statistics which we have just quoted in-
clude this class of fallow land which of course, strictly speaking,
are nof fallows. But be that as it may, the above table
shows that during the period of eight years the proportion

146 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

of sown land has increased and the fallows diminished, at the
rate of 11*30 per cent. ; which is an undeniable proof of
progress in Bulgarian agriculture.

The land devoted to agriculture, strictly so called, which as
we have seen was in the year 1899 about 2,046,791 hectares^
added to that under other cultivation (vineyards, rose-
gardens, orchards and meadows), gives a total of 2,520,401
hectares of productive land. The following table shows the
uses to which it is put :

Products.

HmUtm.

ProportiOQ.

Cereals

1.877,615-82

74*49 per cent.

(Ueaginous plants

15,891-39

064

Vegetables

32,941-79

1-31

Other culinary plants . .

31,892-37

127

Forage

440,859-20

17-49

Ymes

110,942-87

4-40

Roses

5,094-35

0-20

Orchards

5,163-21

0-20

Total .. .. 2,520,401 hectares.
These figures prove conclusively that three quarters of the pro-
ductive land is devoted to cereals, and only one quarter to the
seven other categories, the most important of which is forage.

The following comparative table shows the progress in
cultivation from 1892 to 1899 :

fVoducU. HecUrescuIti- HecUres cuiti- Proportionate

vated in 1892. vated in 1899. decreaae.

1 Cereab . . . . 1,194,847 1,877,615-82 57-14 p.c.

2 Oleaginous plants 9,883 15,891-39 6079 «

3 Vegetables.. .. 10,333 32,941*79 218-79 „

4 Other culinary plants 20,012 31,892-37 59*36 „

5 Forage . . 343,342 440,859-20 2840 „

6 Vines .. .. 96,000 110,942-87 15-56 „

7 Roses .. .. 4,352 5,09435 1704 ,.

8 Orchards . . . . 2,158 5,163-21 139*24 „

Total .. 1,680,927 2,520,401*00 49*94

LANDED MOPERTY AND AGRICULTURE I47

The annual yield of cereals is calculated at 30^000^000
hectolitres in the following proportion :

Wheat 12,000,000 hectolitres.

Maize 7,000,000 „

Barley 5,000,000 „

Oats 2,500,000 „

Rye 3,000,000 „

Millet .. 300,000 „

Spelt 200,000 „

Total .. .. 30,000,000 „

As regards the quantity of its cereals, Bulgaria occupies the
tenth place after Sweden. As regards wheat and maize,
it occupies the eighth, as regards oats and rye, the tenth.

According to their fertility per head of the population,
the provinces of the Principality form three groups :

(i) 14 hectoUtres per head : Roustchouk, Varna, Bourgas,
and Pleven.

(2) II hectoUtres per head : Stara-Zagora,Timova,Shoumen,
Vratza.

(3) 8 hectoUtres per head : Kustendil, PhiUppopolis, Sofia,
Vidin.

The primitive form of plough is still in use. For some
time past, however, modem agricultural implements which
greatly faciUtate field labour have been introduced. The
foUowing table shows the number of agricultural implements
in use:

Prop^rtional
Impl«iiieiits. In 1897. In 1900. increase or

decrease.

1 Ploughs .. 365,877 391,225 + 6*92 percent.

2 Iron Ploughs .. 3^,399 38,923 + 20 „

3 Harrows .. 5,353 38,080 + 730 „

4 Drills .• .. 46 89 + 93 „

5 Reaping Machines 731 1,385 + 86 „

148 BULGABIA OP TO-DAY

InplemcDts.

In 1897.

Inigot.

Proponlonia
increase or

Threshing Machines

125 +

31 per cent,

Bolting Machines

1,484

3,481 +

134

Winnowing Machines

14,233

30,117 +

112

Mowers

1,748

3,318 +

87 «

Haymakers

104 +

Watercarts

10,782 +

"■" 99

Crushing Machines

207 +15875 «

The Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture actively encour-
ages the introduction of perfected machines. Its efforts in
this direction are seconded by the Bulgarian Agricultural
Bank and by the National Agricultural Society.

The Bulgarian farmer has not as yet quite learned the use
of manures. In the province of Sofia sheep's dung is turned
to account. In the Stara-Planina district, the Rhodopes,
and Sredna-Gora, where the earth is poor, and chiefly vines,
roses, and fruit are grown, manure is indispensable for fertilisa-
tion. Stable manure is the only kind in use.

The principal industrial plants grown in Bulgaria are
tobacco, roses, and beetroot.

Tobacco culture is carried on chiefly in the South and in
the provinces of Silistriaand Kustendil. The area of the
plantations is estimated at 3,000 hectares. The province of
Haskovo has the greatest yield, over 800,000 kilogranas of
tobacco yearly ; then follows Philippopolis, with 300,000
kilograms ; Kustendil, 270,000 kilograms ; Silistria, 210,000
kilograms. According to approximate calculations based on
various statistics, we may conclude that three-fourths of the
tobacco crop of the Principality is consumed by the in-
habitants and only a quarter is exported. In point of view
of quality, Bulgarian tobacco may be compared with the
Turkish tobacco of Macedonia and Enidj. Leaf tobacco
for manufacture is sold at from 80 centimes to i franc 50 cen-

LANDED PROPBSTY AND AGSICTJLTURB

149

times the kilogram. The Bulgarian Govermnent encourages
the ctilture of tobacco by distributing seed of good quality « free
of cost, among the planters, by setting a bounty on the export
taxifE andby authorising the Bulgarian National Bank toconsent
to loans on the surety of certificates granted to the planters
until they are able to dispose of their crops advantageously.

The rose crop is next in importance after tobacco. The
roses are used exclusively for the distilling of the famous
Bulgarian attar of roses, which is known and appreciated
throughout the world, and received the highest distinctions
at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. The rose gardens are
limited to 148 parishes of the provinces of PhilippopoUs and
Stara-Zagora, and occupy a total area of 5^094 hectares.
The quantity and quality of the attar depend very much
on the weather at the time of bloom and gathering. The
roses most cultivated in Bulgaria are the red rose {Rosa
datnascena) and the white rose (Rosa alba). The best gardens
are at Kazanlik, Karlovo, KUssoura, and Stara-Zagora.

The following table shows the amount of attar exported
during the five years 1900-1904 :

Yew.

KUognuM.

Frum.

1900

.. 5,346 ..

3,707,943

I9OI

.. 3,027 ••

2,140,538

1902

.. 3.676 .. .

2,609,159

1903

.. 6,aio ..

3,734,950

1904

.. 4,394 ..

2,741,038

The cultivation of beetroot has been introduced quite
reoentiy and is confined to the province of Sofia, where it
occupies 2,000 hectares. The sugar refinery near Sofia
utilises the whole crop.

Hemp and rape are being more and more grown— -rape for
exportation, and hemp for its fibre, which is used by rope-
makers, especially in the laige rope-works near Sofia.

150 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Rice is largely grown in the province of Philippopolis and,
to a certain extent, at Kotcharinova, in the province of Kusten-
dil. The crop is estimated at two million kilograms yearly.

The yield of haricot beans is about eight million Idlograms
yearly.

Live Stock

The rearing of live stock constitutes an important branch
of the rural economy of the country. However, as we have
seen, pastures and fallows tend to diminish, being replaced
by more elaborate cultivation. For this reason, while de-
creasing his pastures, the Bulgarian farmer increases his
forage by the cultivation of various crops, the chief of which
are vetch and lucem. The total area occupied by lucem,
vetch and wild millet was, in 1892, 31^342 hectares, and in 1899
88,455*84 hectares. The quantity of these forage plants
grown has, therefore, tripled in seven years. The Ministry
of Commerce and Agriculture each year distributes gratis
a large quantity of lucem seed, and exempts from all taxes
ground sown with lucern.

The following table gives some idea of the Uve stock of
Bulgaria:

Animal.

Namber
in 1893.

Namber
in 1900.

Ho^e.

Horses

.• 343,946

494.557

4378 p. C.

Mules

8,264

8,887

756 ..

Donkej^

81,610

107,098

31-23 „

Cattle

.. 1,425,781

1,596,267

1195 .,

BofEalos

.. 342,193

431,487

2609 „

Sheep

,. 6,868,291

7,015,385

214 „

Goats

.. 1,263,772

1,405,190

III9 „

Pigs

■• 461,635

367,501

^^ *

Poultry

.. 3,426,637

4,751,751

3886 „

— 20.39 p.c.

LANDED PROPERTY AND AGRICULTURE I5X

The improvement of the difiEerent animals is brought
about by means of selection. Another system that obtains
in Bulgaria is crossing native breeds with the best breeds of
other countries. To this end, the Government seconds the
efforts of permanent commissions in the provinces and of the
agricultural co-operative societies. There are in the Princi-
pality five large State depots for staUions and a certain
number of stations for cattle-breeding^ especially near the
agricultural colleges of Sadovo (Philippopolis) and Roustchouk.
The Government awards prizes to the breeders who specially
distinguish themselves, and helps them in the purchase of
pedigree beasts for breeding purposes. Dairies^ which play
so important a part in farm management, and which, though
as yet only in their beginning in Bulgaria, will certainly
develop enormously, are the object of special attentions on
the part of the Government.

On the whole, the State agricultural institutions are rapidly
developing, and so are the agricultural enterprises due to
private initiative. A special section of the Ministry of
Commerce and Agriculture (created in 1894) is concerned
with the superintendence of everything relating to agriculture
in the Principality. This section is subdivided into other
sections, occupied with the respective branches of agriculture,
viticultiu'e, fruit-growing, cattle-breeding, and bee-keeping.
The whole country is divided into forty-four agricultural
districts, under the management of agricultiu'al inspectors.
It is the duty of these inspectors to see to the carrying
out of the various agricultural laws (village police, phylloxera,
silkworms, eggs, etc.), and to promote useful knowledge of
farm management by organising lectures, demonstrations, etc.

The State supports two schools of agriculture, one at Sadovo
and one at Roustchouk. Model farms adjoin both schools,
which were founded in 1883. Their aim is to train agricul-
turists and agricultural inspectors. Another State school

152 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

at Pleven is open to young men who wish to take up fruit-
growing and viticulture. Five other elementary schools
serve to propagate essential practical knowledge among the
rural population. Several others will shortly be opened.
In this case, the action of the Government is admirably seconded
by private initiative. For the last ten years the National
Society of Agriculture has constantiy been effecting improve-
ments in our agriculture. It publishes an exceUent review,
which appears fortnightly, beside a great number of books
treating practical subjects in a popular style.

Finally, we may mention that the programme of pedagogica
school and seminaries includes a course of agriculture for
priests and village schoolmasters.

CHAPTER III

MINES, QUARRIES. AND HOT SPRINGS

The mines of Bulgaria, which seem to have played an
important part in ancient times, were until lately completely
abandoned. The researches of the last few years have
brought to light old mines, dating from Roman times, and
considerable quantities of slag, the remains of former workings.
Ancient galleries and pits have been found in the following
localities: at Bakarlik and Rossen-Bair, in the vicinity of
the villages Dulgerly, Kara-tepe, Ra-cov-dol and Karakeuny,
in the department of Bourgas ; at Bakardjik, close by the
village Ens Mahale, in the district of Sliven ; in the western
part of the Balkans, near the villages of Sgori-rad and
Lutadjik, in the neighbourhood of the village Tchiprovitzi,
department of Vratza, and near the village of Zabel, district
of Tm. All these places were formerly mining centres, where
copper, lead, and zinc ores used to be worked. It appears
also that some of these lodes known to the Romans had
been worked again by the Saxons in the fourteenth century.
The reasons for their abandonment have not been explained,
but are probably due, in part at least, to the imperfections of
the old systems of working. Some of these old mines, for
instance, the concessions " Iconomoff " and " Troude " in
the department of Bourgas, and Placalnitza-Medna-Planina,
in the department of Vratza, have lately resumed working,
and copper veins have been discovered that repay the labour.

«S3

154 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

Under Turkbh dominion the Bulgarian mining industry
had aknost ceased to exist^ except at Samokov, where from
time inunemorial iron had been obtained in a primitive
fashion. The iron was obtained from the magnetite coming
from the natural disaggregation of the syenites from the
mountain of Vitosha. This mineral was smelted in charcoal
furnaces, much after the style of the Catalan furnaces. The
industry survived until the Russo-Turkish war, but, during
the years following, the opening of new means of communi-
cation and the development of foreign mines brought about
a rapid fall in the market price of iron. Also the new eco-
nomic conditions resulting from the independence of Bulgaria
caused a decline in the industry which had formerly been
the pride of the Turkish empire and now has a merely
historical interest.

In 1879 ^'^ State started working the Bulgarian mines,
by op«iing the lignite mine at the village of Mochino, twenty-
seven kilometres from Sofia. This mine, which yielded good
lignite, was worked untU 1891. Its total produce (105,000
tons) was consumed exclusively by the town of Sofia and
the railway Tsaribrod-Sofia-Belovo.

In 1891 the State began prospecting the basin round the
Mochino mine, and opened another at Pemick, seven kilo-
metres from Mochino. Up to that time no prospecting had
been undertaken and no mine examined, all that was done
consisting merely in a few rough geological estimates, which
served as the basis for the researches organised by the State
and by private persons in consequence of the passing of the
law on mines in 1892. Before this law was passed ques-
tions of this kind had been settled in accordance with the
Turkish law by which some prospecting was allowed, but had
led to no result. After the law of 1892, which reserves privi-
leges to the prospector, permits for prospecting b^an to be
granted. They are given for two years, and some of them

MINES, QUARRIES, AND HOT SPRINGS 155

lead to concessions being granted. According to the law
of 1892, and its amendments of 1906, concessions last in
perpetuity. From 1892 to the end of 1904, 1,138 permits for
prospecting were granted. During the same time the
Government granted twenty-five concessions, namely :

For Coal

** Ealpazan/' in the parish of Nova Mahala, district of
Gabrovo.

" Prince Boris,*' in the parish of Neikovo, district of Drenovo.

" Badaschte/' in the parish of Stoevtzi, district of Drenovo.

** Lev," in the parish of Mrazetzi, district of Nova-Zagora.

" Princess Nadejda," in the parish of Hainito, district
of Nova-Zagora.

" Boteff," in the parish of Kadevtzi, district of Gabrovo.

" Troialo," in the parishes of Slivnitza and Aldomirovtzi,
district of Sofia.

" Nadejda," in the parish of Dramtcha, district of Sofia.

" Kroum," in the parish of Rebrovo, district of Sofia.

" Boris," in the parishes of Tseretzel and Balcha, district
of Sofia.

" Youjno-Bulgarska-Tsentralna Mina" and "Tsentralna
Mina v'Youjna-Bulgaria," which together form a single con-
cession, are one kilometre from the station on the railway
from Sofia to Constantinople.

" Vulcan," in the parish of Marinovo, district of Stara-
Zagora, near the railway from Sofia to Constantinople.

" Hadji-Dimitre," in the parish of Tcham-D&-<, district
of Sliven.

" Ouspeh," in the parish of Lom-Palanca, on the Danube.

For Copper
" Placalnitza-Medna-Planina," in the village of Zgorigrad,
province of Vratza.

156 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

" Schtasti^/ in the village of Belogradchik, in the'same
proyinoe.

" IconomofE/' in tne parish of Bourgas*

" Troude," in the parish of Bourgas.

The last two concessions are one kilometre from the Black
Sea.

For Manganese

" Bela/' in the parish of Amaoatlar6, province of Varna,
near the Black Sea.

•' Dobra-Nadejda," near the railway from Yamboli to
Bourgas^ district of Yamboli.

Other Minerals

A concession for iron, '' Spasseni^/' in the parish of Breznik,
district of Tm.

A concession for lead^ " Todor/' in the parish of Milkovtzi^
province of Tm.

A concession for lead^ copper, and zinc^ " Blagodar/' in the
parish of Dolna-Lubata, department of KustendiL

A concession for bituminous schist, "Toundja/' in the
parish of Kazanlik, department of Stara-Zagora.

On most of the above concessions serious prospecting has
been done and preparations made for the working of the
lodes.

The Government proposes to grant shortly to private
individuals the following new concessions :

Three concessions for coal in the department of Bourgas ;

A concession for coal in the department of Stara-Zagora ;

A concession for zinc in the dei)artment of Vratza.

A concession for iron in the department of Bourgas.

Beside these concessions granted to private individuals
the mining law of 1892 reserves to the State two large lignite-

MINES, QUARRIES, AND HOT SPRINGS 157

bearing basins — Pernik-Mochino-Vladaja and Bobov-doL
The former is the more important ; in it the State has opened
the mine of Pemik, 28 kilometres to the south-east of Sofia.
The pit mouth, dose to the village of Pemik, is on the edge
of the ligitite-bearing basin. The lignite gives about 4,528
thermal units. The yield of the mine in 1906 was 161,000
tons. About 70,000 tons of it is used by the Bulgarian
railways, the rest by factories and for general heating
purposes.

The total yield of the mine from the date of its opening
(1902) to the end of 1906 amounts to 1,465,648 tons.

The mine is connected with the Bulgarian State Railways
by a branch line i kilometre 800 metres in length, forming
a junction with them at Pemik station, on the Sofia-Radomir
railway.

The basin of Bobov-dol is as rich in lignite as that of Pemik.
The State opened the mine there in 1891, but owing to the
lack of means of communication the mine only jadds coal
for local consumption — about 4,000 tons.

The mine will be soon connected with the Bulgarian State
railways by a branch line 30 kilometres long, and it is
expected that on the termination of this line the regular
working of the mine will be undertaken in earnest.

Besides these two large basins, the State has reserved another
in the central Balkans, the "Belnovrh" coal-mine. The
mining law of 1891 further secured to the State a vein of
lead in the Rhodope Hoimtains near the village of Lacavitza.
This vein, for which very little prospecting has been done,
is at present of no great consequence owing to its distance
from the railwaj^ and the lack of all means of communication.

Quarries

The mountainous districts of the country contain a great
number of quarries, which, although they are worked on a

156 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

laiige scale, have not as yet been sufficiently studied as regards
their classification and importance. They abound in great
variety of granite^ marble, lithographic and miU-stones,
fuller's earthy fire-clay^ all kinds of ochre, etc.

The following are the principal quarries :

For Argillaceous Clay. — Near Loucovit, and at Pan6ga
(district of Lovetch)^ where there are two lime-kilns.

PotUr^s Clay, — Near Tchoukorovo and Bistritza (province
of Sofia) and at Torlak (district of Roustchouk). The " Isida
Factory" at Novo Selo, near Sofia, uses Tchoukorovo day
for its pottery producer. The Torlak clay is partly exported
to Roumania, partly used for pottery purppses at the " Troude
Factory" at Roustchouk. Considerable quantities of clay
are exported to Roumania from the village of Onanetz.

The Lithographic Stone of N6gochevo (25 kilometres from
Sofia and 14 from the Sofia-Constantinople railway) has a
good appearance and excellent quality^ but for want of
capital the quany has for the present stopped work.

Marble. — ^The most important quarries are at Bouzloudja
(district of Kazanlik)^ Berkovitza (province of Vratza), of
Bdovo, on the railway from Sofia to Constantinople, and
in the neighbourhood of Kavakli.

Soft limestone is found in the villages of Pirgos and Krassdne
(district of Roustchouk) and at Varbechitza (district of
Vratza). Most of the materials extracted at Pirgos and
Krassdne are exported to Roumania ; the principal buildings
of Bucharest are made of this stone.

The silver sand obtained at the station of Gu6bedg£, near
Varna, is suitable to the manufacture of glass. For orna-
mental purposes, the beautiful serpentines of the neighbour-
hood of Philippopolis, the andesite of Eni-Keui (district of
Bourgas) the syenites of Vitusha and of the neighbourhood
of Philippopolis, and the granites of Doubnitza and Kustendil
are in use.

mines, quarries, and hot springs i59

Hot Springs and Mineral Waters

Bulgaria possesses a great number of hot and mineral
springs. Some of these are worked by the State; others,
according to the present law, are granted temporarily or
permanently to different parishes. There are others of
which as yet no use is made.

Some of the most important springs have been enclosed
in a primitive fashion since the Roman times, or under
the Turkish rule. Quite recently, the mining section of
the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture has succeeded
in capturing the mineral springs at Sliven, Banki, Varshetz,
and Meritchl6ri. The Bulgarian Government has voted a
credit of 2,000,000 francs for the construction of modem
health resorts at Banki, Varshetz, Hissar, and Meritchl6ri.
The buildings are expected to be ready for opening in two
years' time.

There are, all in all, more than 200 hot and mineral springs
in Bulgaria, distributed between some eighty different places.

In the department of Sofia there are twenty-three, the
hottest of which is Dolnia Bania (61** C). The town of Sofia
itself possesses very good hot springs, slightly mineral, of
a temperature of 47° C. The municipality of Sofia has begun
this year the building of public baths which will cost
1,500,000 francs.

We may further mention the baths of Kniajevo, Gomia,
Bania^ Banki, and Panitcher6vo, all in the neighbourhood
of Sofia.

The hot springs of Varshetz (province of Vratza) are
celebrated throughout the country.

The province of Plovdiv (Philippopolis) has over forty
springs, the most important being those at Hissar, which are
well known throughout the East, and the wonderful pool
of Tchepino, in the heart of the Rhodope Mountains.

i6o

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

TABLE SHOWING THE ANALYSIS OF THE
COMPARED WITH THAT OF CAJILSBAD.

To zoo Parts op Water bt Wkioht.

BflRITCKL^RI.

Spnidel.

MQblbmiinai.

AaalTSt.

E. HinU.

£.LDdwig«nd

I. MAUthner.

Date of Asaljsis.

1899.

1897.

Sulphate of Soda

2-252725

24053

2-39"

Bicarbonate of Soda . .

2235823

1-8364

1-8095

Chloride of Soda

II25683

I 0418

1-0288

Bicarbonate of Lithium

0-005639

0-0196

0-0188

Bicarbonate of Ammonia

—

Bicarbonate of Calcium

0*180114

0-4628

0-4703

Bicarbonate of Strontium

0009996

00005

0-0005

Bicarbonate of Baryum

—

Bicarbonate of Magnesium . .

0051945

0-2537

0-2458

Oxide of Iron

0002523

0-0041

0-0039

Oxide of Manganese . .

0*000112

0-0003

—

Sulphate of Potash

0063953

0-1862

0-1888

Bromide of Soda

0002173

—

Iodide of Soda

0-000074

—

Fluoride of Soda

—

0*0051

0-0046

Phosphate of Soda . .

0000092

—

Calcium Phosphate

—

00007

0*0009

Phosphate of Aluminium

—

0*0004

00005

Arsenate of Soda

0000062

—

Nitrate of Soda

0004958

—

Nitrate of Ammonia . .

—

Borate of Soda

0007253

0-0040

00029

Organic Matter

—

si6«* .** .'• v. v.

0100349

0-0715

00735

5978035

6-2924

6-2399

Free Carbonic Acid

Total ..

0257833

0-1798

0-5169

6235868

64722

6-7568

MINES, gUAKRIES, AND HOT SPRINGS

l6l

NATURAL MINERAL WATER OF MERITCHL^RI
BERTRICH, MARIENBAD AND FRANZENSBAD

Bbrtricb.

Marikmbad.

Fbanzbnsbad.

Ferdinands-
Bninnen.

Kedtenbftcber

FranxaoB-
queUe.

SBlzqueUe.

WieaenqaeUB.

R.FreMmi»
£. Hlotz.

GinU.

Redtenbacher.

BeneUiiB.

ZBmbsch.

1890.

1879.

1892.

—

0886009

473092

43234

3I9OI

2*8020

3-3398

0728315

I-9I968

17232

09544

0*9581

1-6540

0217757

1-80746

1-6588

I -2018

1-1406

I-2I35

0-001843

O-O304J

00159

00062

0*0041

0-0041

0-000720

000744

—

O1675II

070735

0-8408

0-3375

02643

02569

0002773

—

o-ooio

—

0-0004

—

0152230

0-70653

0-4012

0-1329

0-1567

0-I2I0

0*002564

0-07374

0-0186

00413

0-0125

00233

0000232

001836

0-0048

00072

00018

0-0036 '

0-031828

0*04926

07087

—

0000599

—

0-000009

—

. —

"""■

—

0-000130

—

00026

0*0026

—

0-00633

00040

—

0000213

—

0003489

0-01236

—

00039

—

0001448

—

0*0052

—

0-10052

—

0-049100

0*07765

0-0434

0-0612

0-0638

00612

2-246770

10-24801

97481

5-9352

5-4065

6*6852

0075912

3-17930

1-0925

27854

15854

2-2869

2-322682

13-42731

10-8406

8-7206

6-9919

8-9721

l62 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

At Kustendil there are excellent hot springs, and in the
department of that name, at the village of Bania, near Doub-
nitza, is the hottest spring in the country, its temperatm-e
being 83** C.

In the department of Bom-gas the best Siiown springs
are at the village of Lidji, near Bourgas,and at Sliven, where
the installations are thoroughly up to date.

The department of Stara-Zagora has also an abundance of
springs. The most important is that of Meritchl^ri. By
the analysis on pp. 160- 161, it can be seen that the natural
mineral water of Meritchl6ri equals the celebrated Carlsbad
water in quality.

CHAPTER IV

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES

I. Sketch of the Economic Condition of the
Principality

Bulgaria is an agricultural country. The prosperity of the
inhabitants depends almost entirely on the harvests^ which
in consequence serve as a criterion for judging the economic
state of the country. The consequences of a good or bad
harvest are felt not only in agricultural circles but in com-
merce^ trades, and industries, and this to such an extent that
to judge whether the harvest of any year was good or bad
one has only to look at the statistics of trade with other
countries. The extent of foreign trade is in direct proportion
with the crops : a good harvest is followed by a great increase
of trade with foreign countries, which a bad harvest almost
immediately paralyses.

It is easy to see the truth of this statement from the follow-
ing table, where the figures for grain export are compared
with the figures for the general foreign trade (both import
and export) for a period of ten years.

Yew.

Imporu
rrancs.

Eiport«.
Fruin.

Total. Export of cereals.
Francs. Francs.

1894..

99,229,193

72,850,675

172,079,868

55,871,305

1895..

69,020,295

77,685,546

146,705,841

60,473,405

1896..

76,530,278

108.739,977

185,270,255

94,089,072

1897..

83,994,236

59,790,511

143,784,747

46,418,601

1898..

72,730,250

66,537,007
163

139,267,257

48,491,343

164 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Year.

Inpoits.

Eiporti.

Tat$L Eipott or cereals.

Fnnc*.

FVancs.

Francs.

1899..

60,178,079

53,467,099

113,645,178

32,801,247

1900 ..

46,342,100

53,982,629

100,324,729

27,128,280

1901 ..

70,044,073

82,769,759

152,813,832

51,717,228

1902 ..

71,246,492

103,684,530

174,931,022

63,699,691

1903 ..

81,802,281

108,073,639

189,876,220

74,215,803

On the other hand the importance of our foreign trade
may be estimated by the operations of the Bulgarian National
Bank, which is chiefly occupied with exchange and current
accounts operations. It has been estabUshed during the
last ten years that the exchange operations and the amount
of current accounts which correspond to years with good
harvests differ considerably from those of years with poor
crops. This may be seen from the following table :

Excfaange compwed with v Exchange compared with

^^- Jn^Cr thej^iou. Year. operaUo^a ,,J^oT"

1894 22,244,964 — 1899 26,616,404 — 19,572,078

1895 24,828,714 -h 2,583,749 1900 18,099,215 - 8,517,188

1896 38,982,145 + 16,153,430 I9OI 33,387,225 + 15,288,309
897 46,554,373 + 7,572,228 1902 39,592,176 + 6,204,651

1898 46,188,473 - 365,890 1903 42,969,355 + 3,377,179

Whatever may be the importance of the agricultural
exports — and the progress made in the development of this
branch gives confident hope for the future — Bulgaria cannot
be called a rich country. As in all agricultural countries,
our sole source of national wealth is the land. Industries
are only beginning ; agriculture itself is carried on by the
expansive sj^tem, whereas it is the intensive system which
is generally a characteristic of rich agricultural countries and
advanced cultivation.

It is difficult to attempt a calculation of the national

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES

165

wealth ; however, if we may be allowed to quote the interest-
ing statistics published by Mulhall ♦ in 1888, the following
comparative table will give us a fair idea of the economic
situation :

Countiy.

England . .
Denmark . .
France
Holland . .
Belgium . .
Switzerland
Spain

Germany .«
Sweden

National

wealth in

milliards

of francs.

• 235
. 10

• 215

• 24
. 25

13
63

i6i
16

Franca per

bead of

popola*

tion.

6,175
5,750
5,600

5,400
4,175
4,125

3,700
3,500
3,125

Country.

Norway

Italy

Austria

Portugal

Russia

Roumania

Servia

Greece

Bulgaria

National
wealth in
milliards
of francs.

127

Francs per
head of
popula-
tion.

3,050
2,500
2,475
2,175
1,375
2,750
2,700
4,050
1,750

If it be true that the constant increase of exports and
decrease of imports are a proof of growth of wealth, Bulgaria
may be said to have made considerable progress of late years.
The following table shows us the statistics of the trade in
the Principality from its foundation until 1903 :

¥•«•.

iBporU.
Flnoct.

Export*.
Franca.

Total.

Franc*.

EzporUtlon as

compared with

imporution.

Francs.

1879

32,137,800

20,092,854

52,230,654

- 12,044,946

1880

48,223,637

33,118,200

81,341,837

- 15.105,437

1881

58,467,100

31,819,900

90,287,000

— 26,647,200

1882

41,564,966

34,252,421

75,817,387

- 7,312,545

1883

48,929:575

46,126,405

95,055.980

- 2,803,170

1884

51,194,324

35,291,160

86,491,484

- 15,897,164

1885

44,040,214

44,874,751

88,914.965

+ 834,537

1886

64,285,309

50,404,314

114,689,623

- 13,880,995

1887

64,742,481

45,747,247

110,489,728

- 18,995,234

** The Dictionary of Stotistics.''

l66 BULGARIA OF TO-DAT

Exportation as
Year. Imporu. Ezporta. Total. oompared with

Francs. Francs. Francs. importation.

1888 66,362,431 64,198,634 130,561,065 - 2,163,797

1889 72,869,245 80,581,076 153,450,321 + 7,711,831

1890 84,530,497 71,051,123 155,581,620 - 13,479,374

1891 81,348,150 71,065,085 152,413,235 - 10,283,065

1892 77,303,007 74,640,354 151,943,361 - 2,662,653

1893 90,867,900 91,463,653 182,331,553 + 595,753

1894 99,2^9,193 72,850,675 172,079,868 - 26,378,518

1895 69,020,295 77,685,546 146,705,841 + 8,665,251

1896 76,530,278 108,739,977 185,270,255 + 32,209,699

1897 83,994,236 59,790,511 143,784,747 - 24,203,725

1898 72,730,250 66,537,007 139,267,257 - 6,193,243

1899 60,178,079 53,467,099 "3,645,178 - 6,710,980

1900 46,342,100 53,982,629 100,324,729 + 7,640,529

1901 70,044,073 82,769,759 152,813,832 + 12,725,686

1902 71,246,492 103,684,530 174,931,022 -h 32,438,038

1903 81,802,581 108,073,639 189,876,220 + 26,271,058

In order to attain to European standards of civilisation as
soon as possible, Bulgaria has been obliged to have recourse
to loans. These loans have always been devoted to pro-
ductive undertakings, such as railwa}^, bridges and roads,
harbours, quays, etc. Last year the seaport of Bourgas
was opened for trade, and this year the port of Varna. The
creation of these two ports is of the utmost importance to
the economic growth of the Principality. In future Bul-
garian oversea trade will be able to develop unhindered and
take a greater scope.

Bulgaria possesses 1,440 kilometres of railway, or about
17 kilometres of railway to 100 square kilometres of area
and 4'7 kilometres of railway per 10,000 inhabitants. If we
take into account the new lines in course of construction and
others now planned, we may estimate 2,000 kilometres of
railway line for the near future. Bulgaria has already sur-

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES

167

passed Servia^ Greece, and Turkey in this respect, if the area
of these countries is taken into consideration. The railways
are State property and under State management.

The new line joining the Vama'-Sofia branch with the
Turkish railways at Salonica will doubtless be one of the
most important lines, both economically and from a strategic
point of view. Bulgarian economists have long been con-
vinced that in the future the Turkish market will be the
best outlet for Bulgarian products.

The extension of the railways has reacted considerably
on trade. Several places which before were backward in
civilisation and possessed no industries have begun to make
progress since the railwaj^ diminished distances and facilitated
communication. The general well-being of the country and
the State budget itself owe much to the railways. The
budget of State expenses for the past six years is as follows :

1900 ..

83,837,863 francs

I90I ..

.. 96,826,900 „

1902 .,

• . 98,898,337 .,

1903 ..

. . 98,017,900 „

1904 ..

.. 106,163,400 „

1905 ..

.. 111,920,000 „

1906 ..

.• "7,953,000 „

1907 ..

.. 121,983,000 „

Bulgaria is a young country, but it cannot be denied that
she has the talent of assimilating whatever is good and useful
in other nations. This is indeed one of her characteristics.

The necessity of encouraging nascent conunerdal and
industrial undertakings obliged the State from the first to
establish several banking institutions. First among these
are the National Bank of Bulgaria and the Agricultural Bank.
We shall consider this subject later ; at present we will only

i68

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

remark that both institutions are in full prosperity and that
their capitals increase daily. The turnover of the National
Bank of Bulgaria for 1903 was 1,676,891,146-45 frs. and for
1904 1,928,371,548-22. The two following tables show that
the capitals of these banks are chiefly used by merchants and
manufacturers :

Securities held by the Bulgarian National Bank on Dum-
ber 31st, 1907 :

]

Frt.

HerchuU.

Frs.

Manufactaren.

Sofia ..

.. I,

97)

' 3,125,267-43

590

1,587,292^

Roustchouk

.. 2,

04]

792,181-67

102

89,973-45

Varna ..

466

• 371,104-97

1x6

86,750-52

Hovdiv..

.. 2,

403

( 1,180,497-31

247

182,989-18

Timova..

> 27,875-—

460

197,696-19

Bourgas

24i

\ 1,049,564-13

129,073-77

Total

.. 7;i7i

6,546,4905i

1.536

2,273,775-11

Fn.

Workmen.

Sofia ..

421

196,287--

—

Roustchouk

18,185--

—

Varna ..

7,432--

—

Plovdiv

28,535--

—

Timova

—

Bourgas

14,444.20

Total

618

264,883-20

Securities deposited w

ith the bank during the year 1904 :

Frs.

M.rdiants.

Fr».

Mauulutams.

Sofia

8,444

8.690,249-—

3,179

6,749,398 —

Roustchouk

14,940

5,094,957-19

I.75I

1,249,901-05

Varna

3,463

2,320,348-14

1,009

712,031-50

Plovdiv . .

10,622

5,080,324-93

1,171

935,222-35

Timova . .

402

379.072-03

1,908

828,967-12

Bourgas ..

1,666

},i34,oi2-96

314

720,682-87

Total ..

39,537

3,698,964-25

9,332 :

[1,196,202-89

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES 169

Fra.

Workmen.

Sofia . .

1.687

708,524 —

Roustchouk . .

405

156,417-90

Vama . .

27,030-—

Plovdiv

356

159,350-10

Timova

150 —

Bourgas

226

53.358-—

Total .. 2,716 1,104,830-—

The Agricultural Bank is exceedingly useful in encouraging
agriculture. In a very short space of time it has so extended
the number of its operations and the amount of its capital
as to have gained a high rank among institutions of the kind.

Year. Openkiont in fruict. Differenco.

1899 493,759,i87'2i ~ 21,989,642-02

1900 507,307,502-60+ I3,548,3i5*39

1901 535,575,182-03 + 28,267,679-43

1902 827,690,477-23 + 292,115,295-20

1903 972,538,557*22 + 144,848,079-99

Although the object of the Agricultural Bank is to assist
the agricultural classes, it deals with merch^its and manu-
facturers, as can be seen from the following table showing
the securities held by the bank distributed between agricul-
turists and non-agriculturists :

Ynr.

F«.

AgricnltnrisU.

Fr«.

NoiM«riciiltiiriits.

1899

249.377

54,823.955-70

12,410

5,943,59660

1900

282,161

56,628,822-80

13,470

6,140,519-10

I90I

295,320

57,321,668-61

14,905

6,385,34305

1902

296,966

54,408,969-26

15,837

6,335,605-52

1903

274.601

50,403,786-13

15,172

6,273,861-45

170 bulgaria of to-day

2. Handicrafts

Up to the time of our national emancipation, agricultm*e and
small handicrafts had dlways been the sole resource of the
Bulgarian people. With ¥ddespread poverty, few practicable
roads, and an apathetic Government, until the time of which
we speak, all the circumstances combined to condemn such few
attempts at industrial enterprise as were made to failure.

Let us first explain what we mean by the word " handi-
craft." In Bulgaria any permanent occupation is called
" handicraft." An " artisan " is a man who devotes his time
to one of these handicrafts, either by himself or in company
with his workmen and apprentices. In order to become a
master, one must have been both apprentice and workman,
and have brought one's craftsmanship to a certain degree of
perfection, attested by a regular certificate. Every craft is
represented by a guild which formulates all the rules con-
cerning the exercise of its business. For the last twenty-five
years the handicrafts have been declining, and at present it
is only in a few out-of-the-way places that they preserve
their original character. The reason for this is that, directly
after our poUtical emancipation, the influence of West European
capitalistic production, made itself felt. On the one hand,
the large estates in the country were being divided in conse-
quence of the disappearance of large patriarchal families,
and the population of the towns was rapidly increasing. On
the other, in conformity with the spirit of the constitution,
Bulgaria was declared open for trading purposes. Foreign
products also came in, and social life was completely changed,
in part by the new political tlgime and the new administrative
organisation. In fact, requirements increased to such an
extent that the population chiefly occupied in small handi-
crafts or with agriculture could no longer cope with the fresh
expenses of the State^ the less so as these weighed heavily

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES I7I

on fanners and artisans. For this reason, many of the latter
shut up shop and departed to seek their living elsewhere.

According to information furnished by the Chamber of
Commerce of Sofia, in 1876, that is to say, two years before
the emancipation, there were in that town about sixty soap-
boilers. In 1896, although the population had quadrupled,
only four or five remained. At Stara-Zagora, before the war,
there were 2,500 weaving-sheds for coarse cloths; to-day
there are only thirty. At Pirdop, the house industry of
spinning, which is the speciality of the town, was carried on
in 700 houses before the war ; now it is only to be found in
twenty or thirty. And so on, with the other trades which
have come in contact with the new methods of production ;
in none has the number of independent artisans increased.

This decline of handicrafts, of course, reduced one class of
work-people to poverty. The State was obliged to consider
the case of the artisan, and this was the beginning of the
legislation for workmen, of which we shall speak further on.
The Government seems to have mistaken the causes of the
decline of handicrafts, and to have attributed it to decen-
tralisation. It would be nearer the truth to regard it as an
economic necessity, brought about by social conditions.
For this reason the hopes of the Government were but partially
realised. These legislative measures reassured public opinion
for a little whUe, but they never brought about a real improve-
ment for the handicrafts. About the same time, all the
efiEorts of the Government to conclude with Austro-Hungary,
one of her most formidable rivals, a commercial treaty pro-
tecting native industry proved unavailing, and the ingress
of foreign articles could not be checked.

After all, one may ask if it is possible, in a country so un-
developed as Bulgaria, to maintain and develop small manu-
factures or handicrafts, and that by means of artificial re-
strictions imposed by the State. The answer to this question

172 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

is yes or no, according to the rate at which the productive
forces of the nation develop as compared with its new needs.
But, at least, we can affirm that small handicrafts will continue
to exist in a new shape, and will form the antipodes of the
nascent manufactures. It is, therefore, too early as yet to
speak of the disappearance of handicrafts ; and we may see
the proof of this in older countries, where capitalist manu-
facture has been in existence more than fifty years, and yet
does not injure the handicrafts, which change in character
but do not disappear.

Doubtless, the economic development of Bulgaria will
operate on all existing forms of production. Certain pro-
fessions will entirely disappear, others will attain a certain
degree of perfection, and yet others will be merged in manu-
facture on a larger scale. But this change will not take
place so quickly as certain sections of public opinion in
Bulgaria expect, and to affirm the contrary would be to ignore
the most elementary principles of political economy.

3. Manufactures

It is a question of great importance for the future of Bulgaria
to know whether she will remain an agricultural country or
turn to industrial occupations. For the last seven or eight
years this question has been under consideration, and Bul-
garian economists have not yet been able to solve it. Many
of them are of opinion that Bulgaria does not possess the
qualities requisite for the development of national industries,
and will alwa)^ remain an agricultural country. But even
they must recognise that the invincible force of universal
progress will oblige Bulgaria to develop her industries as
she modernises her methods of farming, just as other coimtries,
among them France, Germany, and Italy, have done.

The oldest Bulgarian manufacture is weaviog, which from

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES I73

ancient times has been widely spread in the country as a
house industry. The wool of the district was worked up
into cloths^ carpets^ braids, serges, etc., which were in request
throughout the Ottoman Empire. The most important
weaving centres are Pirdop, Panaguiouricht6, Karlovo, Sopot,
Koprivchtitza, Khssoura, Kalofer, Gabrovo, Trevna, Sliven,
Kotel and Samokov. Under Turkish rule, these towns
supplied cloth to the Imperial army. Bulgarian cloths were
held in the greatest esteem, and there was a constant demand
for them in Greece, in Asia Minor, at Pirot and Nisch, in
Bosnia and Herzegovina, etc.

Owing to this success, in 1880 some private individuals
decided to start modem workshops. The example was given
by the towns of Gabrovo and Sliven, where there are now
large factories, organised on the most modem principles.
There are as many as twenty-six factories in other towns,
among them, at Samokov and Kazanlik. Bidgariay therefore,
holds the first place for weaving in the Balkan peninsula.
The following table gives interesting statistics regarding the
Bulgarian weaving industry.

To.™ Number of Number of "2^!?2."*^ Ji^V Power- Hand-

Town, factories. spindles. ^^ ^uSn. *<**>™"- '<>°«»-

Gabrovo

Sliven

Samokov

Karlovo

Kazanlik

Kotel

Total

power. steal

7 6,400 385 370 93 —

14 8,016 200 240 85 121

2 1,020 65 16 15 —

I 1,244 40 80 12 —

I 850 — 100 8 —

I 300 10 — — 6

26 17,830 700 806 212 127

The total value of the weaving sheds and factories is about
5,500,000 francs. The capital is exclusively Bulgarian, the
result of years of industry and thrift. Had foreign capital

174

BULGARIA OF TODAY

been invested in the industry, it might have had a far greater
development. We hope that capitalists will interest them-
selves in our textiles^ the more so as the new protectionist
tariff guarantees the future of the national industries.

Three thousand workpeople^ men, women, and children,
are employed. The country owns about 7,000,000 sheep,
which yield 120,000 kilograms of wool yearly. For the last
ten years this has not sufficed for the manufacture, which
has been obliged to supplement the supply from foreign
markets. The importation of wool increases every year, as
may be seen from the following table :

Yav.

Natnna Wool.
KUoBrama. Fn.

Wtabai Wool.
Kilacranu. Fn.

CanlcdWooL
Kilofnuna. Fn.

1904

468,676

561,295

8,881

23,042

1,322

2,540

1903

299,082

359,082

ii,6i3

39,414

4,088

17,869

1902

311,128

369,578

21,626

62,164

20,994

54,491

I9OI

237.447

279,832

92,376

258,421

2,056

7,193

1900

52,337

55,134

22,362

79.510

1899

37,042

42,607

15,139

43,616

105

425

1898

54,621

52,112

79.455

225,379

1897

138,875

155,029

17,174

52,574

7,154

21,640

1896

107,861

123,641

11,728

37,219

335

1895

313,216

351,428

37,633

110,835

1894

540,063

605,317

38,615

60,636

5,164

17,643

1893

328,162

295,804

9,216

9,297

1,128

2,599

1890

313,395

311,127

no separate ao
count taken

135

Most of the natural wool imported comes from Roumania,
the washed wool from Austria, Germany, France and Belgium.

As a matter of course, the export of Bulgarian cloths
grows considerably each year, as is shown by the following
statistics :

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES I75

Y««r.

Coanwdoths.
KUorr. Fra.

Kilogr. ^-- Frs.

1904

51,319

121,843

264,870

1,130.528

1903

57,015

133,999

329,510

1,631,860

X902

81,475

161,266

397,661

1,601,639

I90I

62,149

173,324

391,705

1,577,497

1900

57,793

143,309

335,778

1.376,896

1899

70,733

172,815

277,716

1,187,425

1898

75,825

200,503

297,126

1,330,127

1897

62,165

209,498

260,047

1,049,816

1896

59,126

180,925

210,213

800,009

1895

86,875

307,892

244,531

982,746

1894

104,770

408,903

267,070

1,126,454

1893

127,230

514,235

223,754

971.051

Ynr.

Cloth and d^ stuffs.
Kllogr. Frs.

1
Kilojtr.

Braids.

Frs.

1904

7,270

47,811

126,532

615,038

1903

6,925

48,506

147,583

701,023

1902

13,243

78,671

188,568

923,268

I9OI

I3.I"

77,163

179,602

830,810

1900

8,744

50,644

148,885

680,358

1899

8,248

48,490

165,866

757,854

1898

12,361

67^415

191,867

847,244

1897

9,531

55,435

137.573

646,548

1896

6.967

40,804

135,250

635/402

1895

7,910

52,504

165,791

773,290

1894

5.795

32,363

186,799

884,823

1893

8,108

49,807

184,141

868,982

The following tables show the amount exported to different
countries in the years 1903, 1901^ ^897, and 1894.

176

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

I. EXPORT OF COARSE CLOTHS

Kihicr.

"^ Fr..

KUoir.

""• FV.

Austria

.. ",354

29,360

5,603

15.704

Roumania

2,111

4.780

5,167

25,794

Servia ..

.. 18,515

43,035

19,649

49,207

Turkey

.. 25,035

56,824
1897-

31,730

82,619

Austria

• . 6,977

24.135

6,820

25,488

Roumania

8,880

25,182

4,849

14,124

Servia ..

. . 17,161

56,618

16,584

65,894

Turkey

.. 29,147

103,563

69,450

283,949

2. EXPORT OF SERGES

1903.

19M.

Austria

—

698

2,100

Roumania

1,200

2,130

1,390

4,478

Servia ..

.. 7.898

26,670

4,941

19,053

Turkey

.. 320,412

1,603,060

1897.

380,618

1,532,322

«e»4.

Austria

—

436

Roimiania

839

3,497

9.659

27,583

Servia ..

.. 1.646

7,234

2,075

9,360

Turkey

., 233,162

906,896

227,200

998,122

3, EXPORT OF CLOTHS AND DYED STUFFS

1903-

190X.

Austria

—

Roumania

1,134

374

Servia . .

. 6,636

45,565

92,774

75,478

Turkey

357
1897.

225

870

i«94.

Austria

—

Roumania

—

1,084

2,911

Servia . .

. 9,458

59,220

4,674

29,024

Turkey

1,215

312

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES VJ^

It will be seen that our principal markets are Turkey,
Roumania, Servia, and Austria. The latter competes with
us, with no great success, in the manufacture of machine-
made carpets, imitating our hand-loom tapestries, which are
mostly sent to Turkey.

But the bulk of the produce is sold in the country, the
exports amounting to two or three mfllion francs per annum,
while the sales at home are about eight million.

The inhabitants who used to wear coarse cloths, woven at
home, are taking to buying ready-made clothes. This is
another cause of the decline of house industries. In point
of view of quaUty, the ceaseless efforts of the manufacturers
to improve their wares have met with every success ; Bul-
garian cloths and stuffs are in no way inferior to the foreign
article. The import, therefore, was likely to decrease, and
it has done so, as may be seen from the following statistics :

Import.. ^^l^ '^If '^'^'

Coarse cloths . . . . 27,228 130,617 45,100

Serges 14,404 47,094 100,822

Undyed stuffs and cloths . . 22,754 I3,459 4,372

Dyed „ „ „ 1,404,098 1,538,212 1,204,565

Shawls 254,578 224,254 144,034

The limited scope of this work does not allow us to treat
in full the other industries which have been started in the
country, thanks to the constant efforts of the Government,
and which are all prospering. We can best give some idea
of them by means of statistics of the factories of the Princi-
pality. The factories in question are those which employ
no less thaur twenty hands, and whose capitals are over
25,000 francs.

A census of the industrial establishments in Bulgaria was
taken for the first time at the end of 1906 (December 31st).
Before we examine the results of this census^ it will be of

178

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

interest to see what the state of these industries was before
that date. This we can gather from the following table :

Factoriw opened before 1897,

Indnatries.

1. Leather

2. Woollens

3. Alcohol

4. Beer ..

5. Soap ..

6. Pottery

7. Ironmongery

8. Shot . .

9. Furniture

10. Carpets

11. Cigarette paper

12. Silk

13. Cotton . .

14. Stockings^ etc.

15. Dying ..

16. Spirits . .

17. Sugar ..

18. Matches

19. Chemicals

20. Cardboard

Total

No.

6
12
4
4
3

2
2

I
I

Capital in ST^IJ?
ployed.

150

of francs.

4,609

1,055

2,081

200

996

220

140

120

100

Factoriea opened between
1897 and 1900.

Oipitalfn 5^^
No.tfaoiManda o'^®**

1,716

67
288

210

30
386

45
160

of&miies.

775
no
830
355

45
1,760

22
300

— — — I 1,200

I
I
6

15
zo

325

25
3a
51

I
I
I
I.

3,000
300

50
30

ployed.
127
40

15
460

4
27

450

300

12
7

-h

71 10,176 3,002 ^J|8,827/ 1,678

According to the calculations of the Ministry of Commerce
and Agriculture, the total number of factories and workshops
founded in Bulgaria, from the date of our emancipation to
1901, comes to about 440, with a total capital of 50,000,000
francs.

As to the present state of Bulgarian industry, we have not
at hand exact statistics of the nimtiber of workpeople and the
capital employed. But, taking into accoimt that the minimiim
capital of each factory or workshop under consideration is

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES

179

25,000 francs, and the TniTiimTim number of hands employed
20, it will be seen that our industries are of considerable
importance. Some of these factories employ as many as
two or three hundred hands. Beside this, we have not taken
account of the small enterprises, whose number is legion. In the
department of the Chamber of Commerce of Sofia alone, there
are over 500 workshops, 108 of which are carpenters' shops.
On December 31st, 1907, there were 166 industrial estab-
lishments, distributed as follows :

3 Mining.

8 Metallurgical.

6 Ceramics.
15 Chemicals.

57 Food stuffs and breweries.
51 Textiles,

8 Furnitures.
13 Leather.

I Paper Mill.

4 Various other industries.

The capital invested in these industries is shown in the
following table :

Industry.

Food stu& and

brewing
Textiles
Ceramics
Chemicals
Mining
Leather

Furniture-making
Metallurgical
Paper
Various others

Total

Number

of
factories.

Ckpltal inveated,
francs.

Fweoit.

Aniaceper
betorjr.

14,375,543-51

4698

256,706-13

6,603,526-41

21-58

146,74503

1,926,690-87

630

321,149-61

1,338,96225

4-38

102,997-10

774,07752

2-53

258,02587

685,18000

2*14

54,598-33

599,616-55

1-92

73,70207

331,246-34

i'o8

55,208-00

185,43300

o-6i

185,433-00

3,818,946-34

12-46

954,73659

154

30^99,43279

100-00

198,697-68

i8o

BULGARIA OF TODAY

As regards the amount of capital invested^ therefore, the
industries of food stufiEs and brewing (mills, breweries, and
distilleries), occupy the first place ; then follow the textile
industry and, in the third place, the industry of pottery.
The total of capital invested, on January ist, 1905, in the
various industrial establishments favoured by the State
amounted to 30,599,43279 francs.

The number of hands employed in these factories at the
same date, including the owners of factories, was 7,026, of
whom only 677 were owners or managers. The distribution
of these persons among the various industries is shown in
the following table :

Indaatry.

Textiles

Mining

Food stuffs and

brewing . .
Metallurgical
Leather

Chemical products
Furnitures
Ceramics . .
Paper
Various

Total

Number

of
ftctoriM.

51
3

8
13
15
8
6
I
4

p Average
Number of penoiiB employed. Az! per

cenc. fiyjtory.

/ •^ »

Men. Women. TouL

1,178 1,565 2,743 44-61 54
1,347 — 1,347 2191 449

877
238

237
128

185

170

106

i68 4,411 1,738

983

15-99

238

387

237

3-85

193

3-14

185

3-OI

170

276

036

0-50

6,149

100-00

As regards the number of persons employed in each of
these factories, they are distributed as follows :

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES

l8l

Factories employing work-
men until December
3iat, 1907.

Number of
fiKtories.

Number of persons employed.

Absolute. In p.c.

No person employed 10 6*02
Less than five per-

Men. Women. Total.

Per

cent.

sons employed

10-24

0-83

From 5- 9 persons

1687

189

204

332

.. 10-19 ..

27-11

568

634

10-31

» 20-29 „

13-86

406

143

549

8-93

„ 30-49 »

10-87

508

171

679

11-04

„ 50-99 ,>

9-04

763

297

x,o6o

17-24

» 100-499 »

5-42

659

1,042

1,701

27-66

„ 500-999 „

—

Above 1,000 persons

0-60

1,271

—

1,271

20-67

Total

166 100*00 4,411 1,738 6,149 lOO'OO

Of the 166 factories, only 117 employ mechanical motors.
The number of these latter, and their motor power for all the
industries, is shown in the following table :

Per cent.

56-25
28-11

752

577
1-48
0-62
0-25

100*00

The motor power employed in most of the factories is water.
Electricity, however, is gradually pushing its way to the
fronts the majority of the textile factories at Gabrovo and
Sliven using electric motors.

Description of motors.

Number
of motors.

Hone-
powar.

Fixed steam engines

5,049

Turbines

2,523

Locomotives

675-50

Water-wheels

271

518-12

Electro-motors

13325

Benzine or petroletmi motors

Other mechanical motors . .

6
431

Total . .

8,976-87

l82 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

We have already given the number of workmen employed
in the various industrial establishments, We propose now
to examine how they are distributed as regards nationahty,
education, and proprietory status.

Of the 6,149 persons employed^ excluding the owners and
managers, who number 877^ only 399, of whom eight women,
are foreign subjects.

Of these same persons^ 4»ii4 have received an education,
and 3,035, of whom 1,265 stre men and 770 women, are illiterate.
These latter form 30 per cent, of the total of workmen.

The proprietory status of the persons employed in the
various factories in Bulgaria, as in most other countries, is
not a very prosperous one. This will be gathered from the
following table :

Number of employeet.

Men.

Women.

fSuL'

Per cent

Possessing no property . .

3,291

1,663

4.954

8056

Owning a house . .

249

310

5-04

Having other property be-

sides a house . .

725

735

"•95

Possessing other property

but no house . .

146

150

2-45

Total.. .. 4,411 1,738 6,149 100-00

In the last place, it is of interest to know the distribution
of the employees as regards their age and the number of
working hours per day. This information will be found in
the subjoined table (p. 183).

Such is, briefly speaking, the state of the Bulgarian in-
dustries at the present hour. Within a comparatively short
space of time, they have made considerable progress and,
judging trom the past, we have every reason to believe that
before many years are over their development will double,
if not triple.

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES

183

!3-

,Si

<§

51^

•s

t>»

C«

♦

t>»

«?

Xf) I

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

.JCI

§i

vg^

7R M

a
3

E&(

^^^

co'i

iSl

H 00

»o

?S|

^ 00

t^ h

-g

00 J

«»
»>

;

3 !

.*>

H A*

184 bulgaria of to*day

4. Labour Legislation

During a comparatively short period of social and political
freedom, Bulgaria has undergone important economic
changes.

The present development of the industrial activity of the
bulk of the population is very difiEerent from their social
condition before our political emancipation, when trades and
handicrafts were carried on in a primitive fashion. The
world's economic evolution has entirely changed the char-^
acter of the more advanced countries, nor has Bulgaria
escaped this influence. New methods of production and of
the organisation of work are gradually replacing the old
regime of social economy. A great number of small trades,
in which nothing but hand labour was employed, have been
driven out by machinery and capitalist production. The de-
cline of hand labour and the eclipse of the individual by ma-
chinery aggravated the position of the work-people ; for the
competition, inevitable in all industrial organisation, necessi-
tated increasing the rate of production by the introduction
of machines and the lengthening of the working hours, wlule
it reduced the workmen's wages and brought about the
employment of women and children. ♦ These inevitable
consequences have long been felt in the great industrial
centres of Europe. The lengthening of the working day and
the overworking of employees brought about a sentiment in
favour of the work-people, and the attention of Bulgarian
legislators was drawn to the necessity of regulating their
condition. The first labour law promulgated was that con-
cerning women and children working in factories, which was
passed early in 1905. Several important principles had,
however, already been laid down and appUed in the law for

* The number of women and children employed in our factories is
about 5070 per cent of the total number of hands.

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES 185

organising trades and trades unions in 1903. Among these
were regulations for the employment of apprentices, for the
maximtmi number of hours in the working day, and the age
of apprentices (fifteen years at least). But the law of 1905
regulating the work of women and children generalises and
laj^ down the legal conditions for the employment of children
under fifteen, and for women of all ages, occupied in factories,
mines, quarries, workshops and other industrial undertakings.
The new regulations did not forbid the emplo)mient of women
and children, they only combated abuses. In its principles,
the law is identical with the resolutions which the Berlin
G)nference of 1890 recommended to the legislators of all
civilised nations.

The minimum age at which children are admitted into
factories is determined so as to make it possible for them to
attend the obligatory primary schools, and at the same time
not to hinder their ph5^ical development. Article 3 runs as
follows : " Children of either sex who have not attained
the age of twelve years must not be employed in factories,
workshops, at pit mouths, in quarries, or sewers. By way
of exception, however, children imder twelve, but in no case
under ten, may be employed in the undertakings specially
mentioned in the decree of the Prince, on the advice of the
Sanitary Council and of the Ministry of Commerce and
Agriculture. Children under fifteen and women under
twenty-one cannot be employed in the subterranean parts
of mines or quarries."

This law takes no cognisance of home employment, but
when the latter expands to an industrial enterprise, and
especially when it takes the form of salaried work, and the
number of women and children employed, not counting the
members of the family, is more than five, the enactments of
Article 2 (and of the whole law in general) come into full
force. The law distinguishes^ as has just been said, between

l86 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

the work of a family and that of work-people who are not
members of the family. Workers of either sex, under the
age of eighteen, are not allowed in factories where the work
is specially deleterious to health.

The working day for children of both sexes up to the age
of fifteen is ei^t hours. Women, of whatever age, may not
be employed for more than ten hours a day. Women and
children must be allowed an interval for rest after working
five consecutive hours. Night work is absolutely forbidden
to women of all ages, and to children under fifteen. This
clause, however, will not operate until five years after the
publication of the law. An exception is made for children of
the male sex in cases of exceptional pressure of work, but
this exception only holds good for children of at least thirteen.
Finally^ in establishments where the work is never interrupted,
children may be employed up to eleven at night, provided
eight hours of rest are allowed before beginning work next
day.

Women of all ages and children under fifteen have a right
to one day of rest per week. This day generally faUs on
Sunday, when, according to the law on Bulgarian holidays,
all industrial establishments are boimd to close.

The law of 1905 contains special clauses concerning sanitary
conditions and protective measures in the interests of em-
ployees in factories ; it gives no details, however, on the
subject of insuring work-people against accidents in the
course of their work. Article 24 orders that the fines paid
by manufacturers for infractions of this law shaU serve as
the nucleus of a fund for insurance against accidents and old
age, when a special law shall have introduced such insurance.

The task of seeing that the law respecting women's and
children's work is properly executed is confided to the Minisfry
of Commerce and Agriculture. A section for the Inspection
of Labour is about to be created for this purpose. At present.

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES 187

the Ministry exercises its control by means of labour com-
mittees in different towns. Each conmiittee is composed
of five members, namely, the mayor of the town, the parish
doctor, the district school inspector, the district engineer,
and a representative of the local trades unions. The com-
mittee thus formed has the same privileges as factory in-
spectors, and performs its duties either collectively or by
delegating one or more members to report on a case.

Factory inspectors have the right of noting down all
infractions. Their evidence constitutes proof before the
tribunals which, on conviction, may impose fines of 15 to 50
francs. In certain cases, the fine may amount to 500 francs,
but must never exceed that limit. All infractions of the
clauses concerning the health and safety of the employees
in industrial concerns are liable to a fine of from 50 to 500
francs.

Factory inspectors and Labour Committees are obliged
to send annual reports of their work to the Ministry of Com-
merce and Agriculture. .The Ministry publishes these re-
ports, which contain a vast amount of data, by means of
which, in a few years' time, we shall be able to judge of the
measures that must eventually be taken.

As we have said before, the law concerning the employ-
ment of women and children is the first of a series of measures
for labour legislation which the Government proposes to
introduce. The employment of labour, in general, is at present
subject to no restrictions, but we believe that the necessity
of general labour legislation will soon make itself felt.

The protection of labour has lately been advanced by the
" Law encouraging Bulgarian Commerce and Industry," of
1905. A special clause of this law obliges those who profit
by the privileges it confers on them to set aside a fund t>f
insurance for the work-people engaged in their establishments.
The workmen are to increase this fund by stoppages on their

l88 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

wages. The details of the organisation of this insurance
are settled by special regulations, now being prepared.

During the session of 1904, the Ministry introduced a bill
concerning the employment of agricultural labourers which,
however, still awaits the approval of the National Assembly.

The bill in question attempts to settle and regulate the
relations of landowners and the labourers in their service.
While leaving the contracting parties entire liberty in their
reciprocal engagements, the biQ aims at retaining a sufficient
supply of field labourers and attempts to protect them from
the exploitation of certain landowners.

This short risutne shows that the labour legislation of our
country keeps pace with the new conditions of economic
development. It is far from complete, for the very reason
that the economic evolution of the country has not yet
reached its final stage. Native industries are still of too
recent a date to bear the expenses which laws protecting
labour would impose on them. Far from that, they them-
selves need encouragement and protection. But, while we
admit thus much, we do not ignore the principle that labour
must invariably be protected, because of the great and vital
interests which depend on it. We are convinced that here,
as elsewhere, social misery can only be prevented by rational
measures, taken in time.

The ideal of all true political economy is to direct the
productive forces of a nation to concentrated useful and
rational employment. This, of course, can only be accom-
plished by degrees, without forcing the position and never
losing sight of the local conditions at any given time.

Such are the principles which will guide the Bulgarian
Government in the future development of its labour legis-
lation.

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES 189

5. Industrial Legislation

As we have already said, Bulgaria is, first and foremost, an
agrictdtural country^ her exports consisting almost exclusively
of cereals and cattle. Her imports are all sorts of manu-
factured articles which are not made in the coimtry, or not
made in sufficient quantity. But the general tendency of
modem states is^ to create and develop a national industry
which produces the objects necessary for home consumption
and, at the same time, offers a scope of varied and concentrated
employment to the active forces of the nation. Bulgaria,
too, is actuated by this principle. The governing classes
among us early grasped the idea that the future of our country
depends on the possession of national industries, parallel
with agriculture and independent of it ; and it must be ad-
mitted that the Legislative Assembly and the Government
have concentrated their efforts to this end. The first task
was to introduce and protect such industries as were likely
to take root and flourish. Capital must be attracted and, to
tempt enterprising capitalists, such concessions and privileges
must be granted as would bring a satisfactory profit within
their reach.

This was the obj^ect of the law for the encouragement of
local industry, of December 20th, 1894, and the supplementary
law of 1896. These were replaced by another, passed Janu-
ary 25th, 1905, under the title of " A Law for the Encourage-
ment of Bulgarian Commerce and Industry," which came
into force on March 26th of the same year. This new law
only extends the principle of protection introduced by that
of 1894. Later on^ we shall give its chief enactments. As a
supplement to the measures taken for local industry, Bulgaria
has decided on the programme of a new customs tariff which,
as is well known, served as a basis for our negotiations with

IQO BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

the European States for the conclusion of fresh commercial
treaties.

According to clause i of the Law for the Encouragement of
Bulgarian Commerce and Industry^ all industrial enterprises
which are likely to prove useful to the country^ or to yield
the country a part of their working expenses by employing
native raw materials^ labour, fuel, motor-power, etc., or to
reduce the price of commodities, enjoy the privileges granted
by the law, according to the measure of their importance
and utility. These privileges axe of two kinds : general
advantages, by which all industrial enterprises profit without
distinction, and special privileges, by which only the industries
mentioned in the law can profit. Enterprises of the latter
class enjoy these special privileges for a period of from ten
to thirty years, according to the importance of the under-
taking.

The general privileges, common to all industrial enterprises,
are as follows :

(a) The use of water-power, without payment, where this
is not on a private property.

(6) Exemption from customs duties for such machines and
parts of machines, tools, and accessories, needful for the in-
stallation of enterprise, as are not made in the Principality
and come from countries which have concluded commercial
treaties with Bulgaria.

(c) Exemption from customs duties for suich building
materials as are not found or made in the coimtry, and are
indispensable for the construction of the factory and its out-
buildings.

{d) Exemption from customs duties for raw material, when
it is imported in order to be exported again, after having been
worked up or finished off.

{e) A free grant of land belonging to the State, the pro-
vince, or parish, for the installation of the factory. The area

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES I9I

of the land granted in this way to be determined according
to the needs of the enterprise, and in no case to exceed five
decares.

(/) Machinery, tools, coal, benzine, etc., for the factory
will be carried by the State railways at a rate 35 per cent,
below the lowest usual charge for those commodities.

Article 8 of the law compels all public institutions to buy
from native sources, even if native commodities should be as
much as 15 per cent, dearer than similar articles manufactured
abroad.

The enjoyment of special privileges is reserved to such
enterprises, enumerated in the law, as employ at least 5 horse-
power and fifteen regular hands, for at least six months in
the year, and use machinery and tools worth not less than
20,000 francs. These industries are as follows :

1. Sugar, products of sugar, chocolate, glucose.

2. Spinning, weaving and machine knitting in wool, silk,
cotton, hemp and jute, tapestry, etc.

3. Rope-making.

4. Pottery, such as stoves, drain-pipes, water-pipes, fire-
bricks, Marseilles tiles.

5. Cart- and carriage-building and construction of other
vehicles.

6. Mines, quarries of marble, granite, etc., and metallurgical
industries.

7. Stone-cutting (marble, granite, etc.).

8. Cements and different kinds of chalk, gypsum, asphalte,
etc.

9. Conserved foods, slaughter-houses and buildings in-
tended for the fattening of animals previous to the preserving
and exporting of meat, utilisation of waste products of
slaughter-houses.

10. MiUing and flour pastes.

11. Paper and wood pulp.

XgZ BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

12. Iron and foundries.

13. Refineries for petroleum and its products.

14. Chemical products, matches, chenucal manure^ artificial
colours, etc.

15. Soap and candles.

16. Glass.

17. Tanneries.

18. Dye works.

19. Beer brewing, alcohol and brandy distilling.

20. Furniture, wood-carving, carpenters' and joiners' work.

21. Oils, both animal and vegetable.

22. Electric installations for motor-power.

23. Silk-worm culture.

All other industrial enterprises which are innovations for
the country, fulfil the conditions of Article 13 of the law,
and whose utility is recognised by the Ministry of Commerce
and Agriculture, also enjoy special advantages, which are as
follows :

(a) Exemption from customs duties and ocfyroi for raw or
partially wrought material, if such material cannot be ob-
tained in the country, or can only be obtained in insufficient
quantity.

(6) The factory buildings are exempt from the buildings
tax and the additional centimes.*

{d) The original shares are exempt from stamp duties.

{e) The coal needed by the factories may be supplied by
the State mines at reduced rates, determined by the Minis-
terial Council.

(/) Raw or partially wrought material essential to the
undertaking, building materials for the factory buildings^

* Surtax added to certain taxes, the proceeds from which are
reserved for departmental and communal budgets.

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES I93

and the objects manufactured, will be carried by the State
railways at a reduction of 35 per cent, on the usual tariiOE for
such things.

(g) Gratuitous use of State land to obtain stones, sand,
gravel, clay, and other similar materials for buildings and
manufactures.

The State, the departments, and the parishes will enter on
contracts with the manufacturers who enjoy these special
advantages, for the supply of such objects as are necessary,
or a period of from five to ten years.

The exclusive right of manufacture in some definite district,
for a period of thirty years at most, is now only granted to
factories of the following products :

Sugar, stufEs and threads of silk, cotton, linen and hemp,
ropes, refinery of petroleum and its products, animal, mineral,
and vegetable oils and grains, all kinds of preserved goods,
slaughter-houses and stalls for the fattening of cattle with a
view to the conserving and exportation of meat, food pastes,
basket work, fine leather for boots, marble, granite, etc.,
iron, foundries, carts and other vehicles, paper, wood-pulp
and cardboard, glass, artificial dyes, chemical manures and.
requisites for chemical laboratories, turpentine, cement, lime
and plaster of Paris, beside all other new industries whose
utihty is recognised by the Ministerial Council.

The right of exclusive manufacture in a certain district is
granted by the Ministerial Council on the evidence of the
Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture. The manufacturer
wishing to obtain this right has to apply to the Ministry of
Commerce and Agriculture, enclosing plans, estimates, etc.

The effect of these measures, as will be seen, must be to
encourage nascent industries and doubtless enterprising men
will not hesitate to profit by them.

A special law of Januaiy 23rd, 1904, regulates the organisa-
tion of trades and professional syndicates. This law is the

X94 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

outcome of tolerably long experience, acquired under the
regime of a former law on the same subject. Its object is not
so much to favour artisans, as to oblige them to form separate
corporations in order to prevent unfair competition, to
collaborate for the improvement of the trade, to form funds
for insurance and loans, etc. Under the existing regime,
then, no one can practise a trade without possessing a regular
certificate given him by the syndic of his guild, after he has
given proof of a sufficient knowledge of the trade which he
proposes to follow. Several clauses of the law concern the
relations of employers and apprentices or pupils, and details
are given as to the necessary contracts. Employers are in
this way sure of a constant supply of apprentices and pupils,
while the latter are protected from every kind of iU-usage at
the hands of their masters.

A further object of this law is to improve handicrafts by the
establishment of technical schools, and by the organisation
of exhibitions, competitions, etc. Several important in-
stitutions, such as co-operative and friendly societies, are the
outcome of the initiative of the guilds. Certainly, these are
indirect methods of improving handicrafts ; others, more
efficacious, must be taken to improve the situation of the
artisans. It is to be hoped that the National Assembly will
soon fill this gap in our industrial legislation.

In 1904 the National Assembly passed a law concerning
trade marks, replacing that of 1892-3. The authors of this
law were actuated by the principles laid down by different
international congresses on the subject of the protection of
industrial property. Up to that time, foreign manufacturers
did not hesitate to introduce merchandise into Bulgaria
without indicating its origin, manufacture, composition, etc.
Most often the labels of foreign merchandise gave incorrect
statements. To put an end to all these abuses from which
the consumers had to suffer, the new law of trade marks re-

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES I95

gulates and guarantees the right to certain trade marks, and
severely punishes imitators and manufacturers who put
false statements on the labels of their wares. As regards
industrial property, the law only protects legally registered
trade marks. Registration is optional, except for certain
articles where the interests of native industry and commerce
demand it. Trade marks are registered without Government
guarantee ; however, the Industrial Properties Office of the
Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture is obliged, before re-
gistering a trade mark, to make sure that it is not an imitation
or counterfeit of some already registered trade mark, in which
case it is obliged to refuse registration.

Registration takes place in the*Industrial Properties Office,
forming part of the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture.
To this end, the manufacturer must present a written ap-
plication, accompanied by the copies of the trade mark, a
block of the size of 10 x 8 x 2} centimetres and certificates,
if the trade mark has already been registered in another
country. The proprietor receives a certificate for every trade
mark registered. Registration holds good for ten years, at
the end of which it must be renewed, or else it loses its effi-
cacy. A trade mark cannot be handed over without the
business which it represents.

We have already indicated the enactments of the new law
as regards manufacturers and trades-people whose wares are
despatched or offered for sale with misleading labels. The
outside indications on labels, packing-cases, vessels, etc.,
concern the quality, quantity, weight, contents, origin and
composition of the merchandise, besides its process of manu-
facture and its patents and privileges, if any. In all cases
of infraction proceedings may be taken either officially or at
the instance of the patentee.

A distinctive label is obligatory for the following articles :
brandy, wine, liqueurs, ink, sealing-wax, gum, matches.

196 BULGARIA OF TODAY

petroleum, and threads^ whether these articles are manu-
factured in the country or abroad. It must describe th^
quantity^ weighty contents, nature, and origin of the mer-
chandise. A special regulation orders that boxes of cotton
thready whether manufactured in the country or abroad,
must have an indication of the system of numbering which
obtains in the country from which they come.

The daily increasing number of commercial travellers has
long called for the intervention of the legislator, the more so
as they abused with impunity the confidence of their foreign
employers and that of the trades-people with whom they had
to do. The new law concerning commercial travellers, pub-
lished in The Official Journal, March 26th, 1905, and which
came into effect on September 26th, put an end to this state
of things. Article 2 obliges every commercial traveller to
procure a legitimation Card from the Ministry of Commerce
and Agriculture, if he is a foreigner, and from the Chambers
of Commerce, if he is a Bulgarian. The card is handed over
on the presentation of a certificate of identity and the power
of attorney of the firm which the traveller represents. Com-
mercial travellers must pay a tax of 50 to 150 francs, according
to the three categories ia which they are classed; this is
considered as a duty on their profession. No commercial
traveller has the right to take orders on his own account, or
for a firm which he does not represent. He is also forbidden
to take orders from private persons who buy for their own
requirements. He may not carry any merchandise with him
beyond his samples, and he is obliged to keep a book of
orders.

6. Institutions

The institutions specially deputed to superintend the
development of commerce and industry, handicrafts and

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES 197

agriculture, together with those connected with these branches
of our national economy, are the following :

The Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture.

The Permanent Committees attached to the Prefectures.

The Parish Councils.

The Agricultural Bank.

The Chambers of Commerce.

The Commercial Museums.

The Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture was created
at the time of the revision of the constitution in 1893. All
the institutions charged with the superintendence of trade ,
industry, and agriculture, were thus placed under a single
supreme authority. Several laws and regulations have
settled the organisation of the Ministry, its powers and
methods of operation, beside those of its dependencies.

The Departmental Councils date from 1878 ; for ten years
they were active as branches of the central government which
granted them subsidies from the State Budget. Since 1888
the Departmental Councils have been considered as autono-
mous departmental institutions, and have their own separate
accounts. Their revenues are chiefly drawn from the ad-
ditional centimes of the State taxes. The members of the
departmental councils are elected by universal suffrage in
each department, to the number of three delegates to every
20,000 inhabitants of both sexes. Their time of office lasts
three years. We have already described the routine of the
Departmental Councils and the powers of the Permanent
Committees. It suffices to add that the Permanent Com-
mittee is chiefly occupied with the improvement of agriculture,
of cattle, and of rural economy in general. Only indirectly
does it have to do with commerce and industry. The greater
stress laid on rural economy is easily understood, if it is re-
membered that the Permanent Committees come most in
contact with the agricultural population, and that more

198 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

often than not its members are farmers. On the other hand^
conmierce and industry are more under the protection of
the Ministry and of the Chambers of Commerce. Thanks to
this specialisation, agriculture is adequately encouraged.
The departmental councils distribute excellent seeds every
year. They make considerable sacrifices to improve the breed
of cattle. They also encourage the initiative of fanners by
organising competitions for poultry-rearing^ fruit-growing,
etc. Scholarships have been granted to a number of young
men who wish to take up farming, so as to allow them to study
methods in foreign technical schools. Finally, the permanent
committees keep up the technical schools at the cost of the
departments. Thus, the Departmental Council of Sofia has
for the last four years been supporting three model schools,
a workshop at Tm for the manufacture of oriental carpets,
and two carpenters' shops at Koprivchitza and £tropol6«
Special theoretical and practical courses, intended to bring
up to date different trades that have long been practised in
Bulgaria, have given excellent results, thanks to the exertions
of the Departmental Councils.

The scope of the parish councils as regards commerce and
industry is much the same as that of the Departmental Coun-
cils, only on a smaller scale. These latter grant subsidies
to those parishes of their respective departments whose means
are insufficient.

The Agricultural Bank is one of the institutions which most
contribute to the bettering of the economic condition of
the country, as we have shown in the chapter devoted to
that establishment.

A most useful institution was created by the law of
December 20th, 1894, when, at the suggestion of merchants.
Chambers of Commerce were started in the most important
business centres. At the present day, there are Chambers of
Commerce in Sofia, Philippopolis, Varna, and Roustchouk.

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES IQQ

They are directly dependent on the Ministry of Commerce
and Agriculture. They are obUged to keep the Ministry
informed of the commercial and industrial fluctuations of
their district^ and to give advice on matters within their
competence. In a general way^ they are commissioned to
take measures to encourage commerce and develop relations
between Bulgarian merchants and foreign countries. They
are the consulting organ of the Ministry, and the different
administrations have to apply to them, whenever they
have questions to settle dealing with commerce and
industry.

Every chamber consists of thirty-two members, elected
by a majority of the electors of the respective district. All
the traders of the district above twenty-five years of age,
who enjoy civil rights and pay taxes amounting to not less
than 25 francs per annum are voters and eligible as members
of the chambers. Half the members retire from office every
four years : those retiring may be re-elected.

The Chambers of Commerce meet in regular annual sessions
to vote the budget for the year and to decide on questions
submitted to them. The execution of their decisions is
confided to a standing committee consisting of president,
vice-presid^it, and secretary. The secretaries are paid^ both
the other posts are honorary. The committee is elected for
two years.

The Chambers of Commerce have thoroughly justified the
hopes of their founders. They have become the centres of
all commercial and industrial activity. A series of useful
measures adopted by the National Assembly or by the Govern-
ment are the outcome of thefr enlightened initiative. In
questions of the highest importance^ such as the drawing up
of a new customs tariff and the conclusion of commercial
treaties^ the Chambers of Commerce have been particularly
useful. It is only since their creation that industrial legis-

200 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

lation has been able to lay a solid foundation for national
industries and technical education. In 1902, inquiry offices
and commercial museums were added to the Chambers of
Commerce, and commissioned to give information to inquirers
about the credit of native traders and the products of the
country. Foreign business houses and manufacturers are
sure to obtain prompt and trustworthy information from
these offices and museums, which have already given proofe
of their utility during their short existence.

The expenses of the Chambers of Commerce are defrayed
by the traders themselves^ by means of a supplementary
tax added to the tax on trades and professions. The total
budget of the four Chambers of Commerce amounts to about
140,000 francs.

The Commercial Museums are intended to contribute to
the development of local industries and to facilitate trade
with foreign countries. According to their programme, it is
the duty of these museums to point out to traders who send
them samples the improvements which might be made in
their wares, and to put them in communication with buyers.
They undertake to find buyers for first-class articles which are
fit to compete with similar articles made abroad. The
coUection of tools and machines purchased abroad is always
at the disposal of all concerned, who can thus make them-
selves acquainted with the improvements and simplifications
ntroduced in all branches of trade. As regards commercial
information, the museums assist the Chambers of Commerce
in their work.

The progranmie we have just indicated is shared by the
Bulgarian Conunercial and Industrial Museum, attached to
the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture, and started in
June, 1898. This museum, besides, grants loans to small
traders, buys certain products of local industry on its own
account, sells machines and oth^ farm implements to farmers

INDUSTRIES AND TRADES 201

as cheaply as possible, and protects certain industries^ such
as hat-making, knife-making, tapestries, etc

The Sofia Commercial and Industrial Museum forms part
of the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture, its superin-
tendent being a functionary of that department.

CHAPTER V
ROADS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

I. Railways

Until 1894 all the Bulgarian railways and public works
were under the management of the Board of Public Works^
which formed part of the Ministry of Finance. During that
year a special Ministry of Public Works, Roads, and Com-
munications was created. The Department of Railways, which
has existed since 1901, was in 1905 reorganised into a General
Board of State Railways and Ports.

The central administration of the railways and ports
consists of the following officials : one general director, one
assistant director, one engineer-in-chief, one secretary, and
the heads of the following departments : Traffic and commerce,
consisting of six sections, viz., tarifib, control of receipts
from goods, control of receipts from passenger tickets, control
of receipts from luggage, claims, and statistics ; maintenance,
rolling-stock, and traction. This last department consists
of a technico-economic section, a section of accounts, and a
section of inventories.

The personnel of the raLlwa3rs consists of 197 officials and
employes attached to the central administration, and of
2,187 officials and employ^ belonging to the various other
services.

The following table shows the way in which the personnel
of the railways is distributed :

202

ROADS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

203

(l) CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

Administrative Section . .
Department of Traffic
Department of Maintenance
Department of Traction . .
Department of Commerce
Section of Plant ••
Section of Accounts

Total

OSdab.

Empiojrte.

Total.

Perflonnel per
kilometK.

0*02

0-04

O-02

0"0I

0*04

0-02

0*01

149

197

(2) WORKING DEPARTMENTS

Transports ..

.. —

412

0-34

Stations

.. 228

479

707

o-6o

Traction

•• 195

212

407

0-34

Plant

.. 16

0*09

Maintenance

.. 65

461

526

045

Sanitation . .

.. 18
.. 522

002

Total

1,665

2,187

Grand total

.. 671

1,713

2,384

TARIFFS

The tariffs for the transport of passengers, for through or
local traffic, are based on the distances between the stations
and the fares of all the existing communications.

The foUowing are the various tariffs for the transport of
passengers which are now in operation on the Bulgarian
State railways :

(a) Local tariff.

(b) Neighbouring tariff, in operation between the Bulgarian
State railways and the Oriental Railways.

204 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

(d) Tariff for the conves^ance of passengers between Northern
Germany and the East.

(e) Tariff for the conveyance of passengers between Southern
Germany and the East.

(/) Tariff for the conveyance of passengers between Switzer-
land and the East.

(g) Tariff for the conveyance of passengers between the
Bulgarian State railwa}^ and the Austro-Hungarian Danube
Steamship Company.

(A) Tariff for the conveyance of passengers between the
Bulgarian State railways and the Hungarian Company of River
and Maritime Navigation.

(f) Tariff for the conveyance of passengers between the
Bulgarian State railways and the Bulgarian Commercial
Society for Navigation.

(/) Tariff for the conveyance of passengers between France
and Belgium, on the one hand, and Austria-Hungary, Servia,
Roumania, Bulgaria and Turkey, on the other : (a) by way
of Southern Germany and Arlberg, and {b) by way of Germany,
North Avricourt.

(*) Tariff for the conveyance of passengers between England
and the East : (a) by way of Calais- Dover, (b) by way of
Ostend-Dover, and (c) by way of Harwich-Hook of
Holland.

All these tariffs include at the same time the charges for
the transport of luggage.

According to tari& i and k the Bulgarian State railways
issue tickets for stations beyond Vienna. Up to Vienna, the
tickets issued are regulated by the tariff c, so that a passenger
going from Sofia to London must hold two tickets, of which
one is valid up to Vienna and the other beyond that place.

No special arrangements exist on the Bulgarian State

.... — ,

ROADS AND IIEANS OF COMMUNICATION 205

raflways for the transport of emigrants, these latter being
carried as ordinary passengers.

Remarks. — (a) A reduction of 50 per cent, on the price of
the ordinary tickets is allowed in favour of the following
categories of passengers :

I. Children between the ages of four and ten years, and this
without any formalities. Children below the age of four are
conveyed free of charge if they do not occupy a separate seat.

z. Members of the military profession.

3. Students, when they travel separately. If they travel
n groups of at least ten persons and are accompanied by their

teachers they are allowed a reduction of 75 per cent.

4. Harvestmen, mowers, masons, if they travel in groups
of at least forty persons.

5. Members of scientific societies, pilgrims, theatrical
companies, if they travel in parties of at least twenty persons.

6. Railway employes who have already used their right
to travel free of charge, and the members of their families.

Booking offices issue tickets to children and soldiers without
any formality. In the case of students who travel separately,
a certificate from the authorities of their respective schools
is required.

To the various classes which are mentioned in the tariffs
the tickets are issued without any formality. The persons
mentioned in 6 must be provided with a card, issued by the
General Management to each one individually.

(6) The ministers and some high fimctionaries travel over the
State railwaj^ free of all charges. The employ^ of the
State railways also travel free of charge: (i) in the course
of their emplo}anent ; (2) twice during the year, when they
are on leave of absence ; (3) when they are appointed or
dismissed;

Persons entitled to travel free of charge are provided with
annual passes and with special permits.

206

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Local Service

GENERAL TARIFF

The general tariff, which contains the rates for the transport
of goods by fast trains and by goods trains, is arranged as
follows :

Full tariff.
Fast trains. -{

Reduced tariffi^^ ^^^ conditions required.
( for quantities above 5,000 kil.

Partial

Bulky goods

ist class.

consignment.

2nd class.

Goods trains.

f Class A.

Full rates.

„ B.

I 99 c.

In addition to the gene

ral tariff there are seventeen

exceptional tari&, viz. :

Exceptional Tariff. No. i.

Live animals.

f> i

» 2.

Various goods.

91 i

» 3.

Alcohol, wine, vinegar.

»f I

» 4. <

Cement, hydraulic lime.

i» J

» 5.

Salt.

l> 1

,. 6.

Cereals and oleaginous grains.

i» i

,. 7-

Flour and bran.

W J

., 8.

Tobacco in leaf.

M J

Wood for building.

99 i

„ 10.

Eggs and dead poultry.

>l \

, » II.

Stones, etc.

99 i

» 12.

Explosive materials.

99 J

M 13.

Cheese and kashkaval.

99 I

» 14.

Vegetables and fruits.

ROADS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION 207

Exceptional Tariff. No. 15. Iron, steel, etc.
„ 16. Petroleum.
„ 17. Skins and intestines.

if >3

THROUGH SERVICE BETWEEN THE BULGARIAN STATE RAILWAYS
AND THE ORIENTAL RAILWAYS

General Tariff . . The same as in the local service.

Special Tariff. No. i. Live animals.

„ „ „ 2. Various kinds of goods.

Beer.

Wine, alcohol, etc.

Salt.

Cereals.

Flour, and miller's products

Bran.

Wood for building.

10.

Eggs.

II.

Stone for building.

12.

Explosive materials.

THROUGH SERVICE BETWEEN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, SERVIA,
BULGARIA, AND TURKEY

General Tariff . . . . The same as for local service.
Exceptional Tariff. No. i. Live animals.

Various kinds of goods

jDcer.

Alcohol, wine, vinegar.

Mineral waters.

Sugar.

Iron, steel, etc.

•

Paper, etc.

9»

Glass.

208 BULGARIA OF TODAY

E xceptional TarifE.

No. lo.

Pottery and porcelain.

„ II.

Cement, concrete, etc.

99 12-

Prunes and prune marmalade.

„ 13-

Furniture.

,. 14.

Salt.

>»

„ 15.

Tobacco.

. 16.

Rope-making materials.

i»

., 17.

Cereals and oleaginous grains.

.9 18.

Flour, and miller's products.

. M 19-

Wood for building.

„ 20.

Bi-carbonate of soda.

„ 21.

Goods sent by fast through
trains.

„ 22.

Meat, ^gs, poultry.

„ 23.

Railway rolling-stock.

9, 24.

Petroleum.

„ 25.

Chrome ores.

,,26.

Lead.

„ 27.

Plaster, gypsum.

,. 28.

Inflammable materials.

„ 29.

Removal vaas.

»>

„ 30.

Starch, etc.

„ 31-

Cotton stufEs.

» 32.

Earthen pipes.

9» 33.

Chlorate of lime, soda, etc.

9. 34-

Slates, etc.

n 35.

Fruits, etc.

,,36.

Silk-cocoons.

9. 37-

Canvas for sacks and packing.

9, 38.

Malt.

99 39-

Wood, glue, cardboard, etc.

>»

9. 40.

Cork.

»J

„ 41-

Porcelain.

a 42.

Coal

ROADS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION 209

THROUGH SERVICE BETWEEN GERMANY AND SERVIA^ BULGARIA
AND TURKEY, Via AUSTRIA- HUNGARY

The General Tariff is subdivided as follows :

f Ordinary rates.

* |Reduced rates.

^ , , . fGoods belonging to Class I.
Goods trains, i -o— ^

Exceptional Tariff. No. i. Goods of various kinds.

„ „ „ 2. Eggs and dead poultry.

„ „ „ 3. Live poultry by slow trains.

„ „ „ 3a. Live poultry by fast trains.

„ 4- Lard.

5. Prunes.

„ „ „ 6. Cereals and oleaginous grains.

„ „ „ 7. Maire.

., „ 8. Bran.

„ „ 9. Fresh fruit.

„ „ 10. Nuts.

„ „ II. Vegetables.

„ „ 12. Mineral ores.

„ , 13. Slate for roofs.

,, „ 14. Unworked skins.

„ „ 15. Tobacco.

„ „ 16. Beer and empty beer-barrels.

„ „ 17. Sugar.

„ „ 18. Starch, glucose, etc.

,i „ 19. Vinegar and spirits of wme.

,, „ 20. Iron and iron goods, etc.

„ „ 21. Machinery of aU kinds.

„ „ 22. Military rifles.

„ n 23- Copper.

„ ,, 24. Lead.

„ „ 25 Dross.

9»

>9
ft

n
if

2IO BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Exceptional Tariff. No. 26. Zinc, etc.

„ „ „ 27. Railway rolling-stock.

II II »» 2/ii. „ „ „ lor

Constantinople.

„ „ „ 28. Glass.

„ „ „ 29. Pottery and porcelain.

„ „ „ 30. Cement and stones.

„ „ „ 31. Lignite briquettes.

„ 32. Slates.

„ „ „ 33. Lithographic stones.

I, II » 34- Cardboard.

„ „ „ 35. Sulphate of iron crystals.

» 36. Paper.

„ „ „ 37. Cotton stuflEs.

„ „ „ 38. Linen stuffs.

„ „ „ 39. Wool.

„ „ „ 40. Wooden toys.

THROUGH SERVICE BETWEEN HUNGARY AND BULGARIA, Vta
SOMOVIT AND ROUSTCHOUK

>tion

al Tariff.

No,

Sugar.

Goods of various kinds

Mineral waters.

}}

}»

Iron.

}»

Glass.

»>

Paper.

}}

Pottery and porcelain.

»>

Cement.

Wooden furniture.

10.

Iron furniture.

II.

Agricultural machines.

«i

12.

Jute sacks.

ROADS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION 211

Exceptional Tariff. No. 13. Starch.

„ „ „ 14. Extracts from oak and pine

woocL

^, ,y ,, 15. Rope-making materials.

„ „ „ 16. Brushes.

„ 17. Lamps;

„ „ 18. Glue,

», „ „ 19. Matches.

„ „ „ 20. British gum.

,, 21. Rock salt.

THROUGH SERVICE BETWEEN THE BULGARIAN STATE RAILWAYS
AND THE HUNGARIAN COMPANY FOR RIVER AND MARITIME
NAVIGATION, Via SOMOVIT AND ROUSTCHOUK

General Tariff,

«... f Full rates.
Fast trams. -I „ ,

^Reduced rates.

Goods trains.

- „ A.

I „ B.

Exceptional Tariff.

No.

Sugar.

Goods of various kinds.

»»

Skins, etc.

»»

Iron, etc.

Paper, etc.

»>

*»

6.'

Tobacco.

Salt.

y»

»»

Cereals.

»»

Mineral ores.

§»

10.

Wood for building.

II.

Bones, etc.

12.

Cement, etc.

212 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Exceptional Tariff. No. 13. Starch.

„ „ „ 14- Wine, alcohol, etc.

„ „ » 15- Empty sacks.

„ „ „ 16. Flour, etc.

„ „ „ 17. Pottery and porcelain.

THROUGH SERVICE BETWEEN ROUMANIA AND BULGARIA, BY
WAY OF THE DANUBE, via SOMOVIT AND ROUSTCHOUK

This service is practically the same as that between the
Bulgarian State railways and the Hungarian Company for
River and Maritime Navigation, via Somovit and Roustcbouk.

THROUGH SERVICE BETWEEN THE BULGARIAN STATE RAILWAYS
AND THE IMPERIAL AND ROYAL COMPANY FOR STEAM
NAVIGATION ON THE DANUBE, via SOMOVIT AND
ROUSTCHOUK.

General Tariff.

_ . f Ordinary rates.

' (Reduced rates.

(Class I.
„ A.
.. B.
Exceptional Tariff. No. i. Sugar.

2. Goods of various kinds.

3. Skins, etc.

4. Iron, etc.

5. Glass works.

6. Pottery and porcelain.

7. Cement, etc.

8. Cereals, etc.

9. Mineral ores, stones, etc.
io« Wood for building.

ROADS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION 213

Exceptional Tariff. No. ii. Bones, etc.
„ „ „ 12. Beer, etc.

„ „ n 13- Flour, etc.

The coUection and delivery of goods are r^;ulated by means
of delivery or transit notes, which are exchanged between
the guards of trains and the station authorities, and, on the
frontier, between the respective railway administrations.

The mode of packing on the Bulgarian State railways is
the same as that laid down in the Emulations for their working
and in the Convention annexed to those Regulations.

The instruments employed on the Bulgarian State railways
for loading and unloading of goods are wheel-barrows, covers,
wooden bridges, ladders, ropes, levers, and cranes. The
methods foUowed are the same as those which are laid down
in the Convention annexed to the Regulations, etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF STATIONS

There are altogether seventy-two railways stations on the
Bulgarian State railways. For administrative purposes they
are divided into five classes, as follows : ist class, Sofia ;
2nd class, Bourgas, Varna, Gomia-Ordhovitza, Katinetz
Plevna, Roustchouk, Tzaribrod, and Yambol; 3rd class,
Bellovo, Eski-Djoumaya, Ichtiman, Cornobal, Kaspitchan,
Kostenetz-Bania, Mezdra-Vratza, Pemik, Poppovo, Razgrad,
Roman, Tirnovo, and Shoumen. Of the remaining railway
stations, twenty-one belong to the 4th class and twenty-six
to the 5th class.

The statistics here appended are taken from the official
report of the Ministry of Public Works, Roads, and Com-
munications for the year 1905.

A complete list of the Bulgarian State railways, with the
indication of their length and the date of their opening, will
be found in the foUovring table :

214

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Ubm.

Date of Opening.

Length in kuonelFen*

Roustchouk- Varna

Aug. 10, 1888

222,51070

273

Tzaribrodtothe Servian

frontier

Y June 33, 1888

4,00710 V

192

Tzaribrod-Sofia-BellovoJ

156,419-90;

Sofia-Pemik . .

. Dec. 9, 1893

32,470 —

Choumen-Kaspitchan

June 20, 1895

23,248 —

Pemik-Radomir

Feb. 6, 1897

i4.35a-40

Sofia- Roman . .

Feb. 20, 1897

109,219-65

119

Gu6bedj«.Devnia

. Sept. 27, 1898

i4,7595o

Roman-Plevna

. July 18, 1899

83,288-47

Plevna-Choumen

. Nov. 8, 1899

242,914-87

262

Somovit-Yassen

. Sept. I, 1899

35.281--,

Roustchouk-Timova .

Oct. 8, 1900

129,047-46

150

Tchirpan-Nova-Zagora

Sept. 5, 1900

79,549-35

Jamboli-Bourgas

May 18, 1900

110,429-80

112

i,257,496'2o 1,417

Besides these lines there are a certain nimiber of branch
lines built by industrial concerns, whose private property
they are. Thus, a line 675 metres long connects the factory
"Balabanoff'' with the Sofia-Roman line. Another line,
475 metres long, bdonging to the Pottery OMnpany *' Isida,"
connects their works with the line Tzaribrod-SofiapBellovo
near the village of Novo-SdtzL

All these lines are State property, and are worked by the
State. The only exception to this rule is the line Bellovo-
Sarambey, which was built before the liberation of Bulgaria
by the Oriental Railway Company, which continues to
own it. The line, however, is worked by the Bulgarian
State, which appoints all its officials and enxployfe, and,
in return, receives from the Oriental Company, according
to the Convention of March 8th, 1894, a sum of 1,200 francs
per annum for every kilometre and 6 centimes per axle-kjlo-
metre for the rolling stock.

The line Tchirpan-Nova-Zagora, which was built by the

ROADS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

215

Bulgarian State, is now leased to the Oriental Railway Com-
pany by an Agreement of March i6th-28th, 1899.

The cost of the various State railway lines is shown in
the following table :

Railway line.

Roustchouk-Vama . .
Tzaribrod - Sofia -

Vakarel
Sofia-Pemik . .
Pemik-Radomir
Sofia-Roman ..
Roman-Choumen
Choumen-Kaspitchan
Somovit-Yassen
Gu^bedj^Devnia
Roustchouk-Tiraova
Jamboli-Bourgas
Tchirpan-Nova-Zagora

Total ..

KUometraa.
222,51070

114,137-65

32,470-—

14,352-40

109,219-65

326,20334

23,248--

35,28r—

14,75950

129,047-46

110,429-80

79,54935

Nat nla« in Franca,
TotaL Per kilometre.

50,884,910 228,686

14,335,656 125,600

5,792,612 178,398

971,949 67,723

27,685,434 253,485

23,501,326 72,045

2,406,543 103,515

691,963 19,613

285,151 19,320

9,969,209 77,252

11,085,706 100,386

4,181,188 52,561

(Avengtt)
151,791,638 125,322

1,211,308-85

The net cost is, therefore, about 123,322 frs. per kilo-
metre. As for the rolling-stock, its cost, distributed among
the various lines, is as follows ;

RaUways.

CoBtofroUiiig-ttock
per kilometre.

Franca.

Roustchouk-Vama

• 2,490,534

Tzaribrod-Sofia- Vakarel

. 1,795,615

Sofia-Pemik

363,434

Pemik-Radomir

160,641

Sofia-Roman

. 1,222,485

Roman-Chounien

. 3,651,143

Choumen-Kaspitchan

260,213

Somovit-Yassen

394,897

Guebedj^-Devnia

165,197

Roustchouk-Timova

1,444,406

Jambol-Bourgas

1,211,729

Tchirpan-Nova-Zagora

—

Total . .

. i3.i6o.2Q4

2X6

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Cantegei, Rofalandofthclaflpectioo
. for psaiengctt of xst daat
M M M mixed xtt and sad €

MM M 0* aaftctoii.

M ^ « mixed sad and 3fd c

„ of 3rd dam .
,, of the poet office

IfUe^^ WBBCtDS * . . . >

Hattog iVBgoiiA « . . . .
G«ndi tmcb, oo««f «d ....

„ ,, tmopTcred . - . .

Tracks ol tm ftoriea fof n&aa ^ttle <

„ tor oillfe .....

H [fir poQltry and iK»e, 3 and 4 storte

„ pliitlorau .....

„ lo( IfiiT^ timber aad wood

„ rorl»]la.-it

,, with water iwerroira .

wUh Tcatr^ctfitta^coAisji

«9

10
43
X7
9
103
26
56

1067

«54
«

tt
1>
IB
iS

S
4

59
«7

109
45
43

167
68

39
1C34

14»4
33

594

Total
Tare.

TOM.

349'6o
X35SO
7ax*oo
209*40
laS'ao
i4i4«o
380-90
65 3 '60
211*90

993' "65
1|03'&I

♦S90

84':3o

*39M
165-30
1 16x0

363-10
1751-30
3400
19-00
5570
34"4o

Total
Diataace.

ia5*67

55-00

a66*50

9X-3a

5a-5o

6o3'30

X35-30

354-10

68'30

4395 4

*94*45

t8'8o

2849-55

37"4o

iij-lo

73"35

84^

isrio

1085-03

10-40

5"oo

M*6o

«4

497
»o

X
a64

4
1+
14

9
79

ROADS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

217

NmsbCT ot

ni.

«64
403

87a
Its

a6o
4S50

19996-98

3660*03

8678

13837*04

35778

59903

1x46-35

37700

7a3*59

5007*38

T^nu,

40785*75

396895

163-86

I3749'X4

1030*45

338557
31*00
37*00

48*00

14063

3608

9535

370

x6o

300

430

3015

Uglit-

Heating.

Cor-

OsttSVAtlOltS,

v«iitJ1aUoii are ia u«c»
tfae itio^t pTtvaJcat bdng
that oT A filliJJiiff Yalvc

MD3t i^ Use caniage»
afc wppLLnl witb aloAn
fllgnolp TfhlcJi act by
means of tht auLoioallG
" Hnndy " biake,

Tliere are not oa ytt
any dynamometrlc c^tti
or carries lit trf
dcctridtf.

2l8

BULGARU OF TO-DAY

The table (pp. 216-17) contains full detafls concerning
the rolling-stock of the Bulgarian State railways at the
end of 1906. The locomotives, to the number of 102, which
are not included in the table, belong to various systems,
the Zwilling two-cylinder ones predominating. Nearly all
of them have been supplied by well-known German and
Austrian firms.

The statistics which are annually published by the Ministry
of Public Works, Roads, and G>mmunications show, in an
unmistakable way, how the inhabitants of the Principality
avail themselves of the facilities offered by the railways.
The number of passengers, as ^ell as the quantities of
goods transported by the railways, increase every year in
an astonishing proportion, as will be seen from the
following tables.

Animals trana-
ported by fast

one year.

1900

12,138

742.394

595.883

596

63.127

I90I

16.570

679.620

903.633

668

74.634

1902

15.370

864.563

779.644

1. 165

71.844

1903

16.137

961.242

817.018

1.424

79.823

1904

22.041

1.164,405

1. 152.383

1,270

94.109

1905

21.976

1.349.550

1,169.416

1.293

I05.X39

In 1905 per cent, more or less as compared with other years.

02.

1900
19OJ
1902
1903
1904
1905

+ 81-05
+ 32*72
■«■ 42*98
+ 36-18
— 0-29

+ 81-78

+ 98*57
+ 56*18
+ 70*40
+ 15-90

+ 96*25
+ 29-41
+ 49*99
+ 43*13
+ 1*39

+ 400
+ 127
^■ 70
-h 120
+ 50

+ 116-95
+ 98*56
-1- IO-99
■•■ 10-13
+ i-8i

+ 66-55
■«■ 40*87
+ 4634
+ 3172
+ 11-72

ROADS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

219

As regards the income derived from the Bulgarian State
raflways, and the expenditure which they entail, the table
next appended will show that these kept pace with the general
development of the traffic.

T-^

Hevtaac

«W

Net
Revenue.

capital
cmjuoyed.

Per

cent.

Net tevenue of 1005

oompored with

fomer years.

X9OO
X9OX
X9O2
X9O3
1904
1905

«,x63.454
7,385,097
7,498.178
8,226,843
xo,96o,288
X 1,170,970

3,891,308
4,718,706
5.347.855
5,693,969
7,144.334
7,373,105

2,373,346
3,566,391
3,x5o,323
3,533,873

150,438,451
i53,539,3xx
160,770,744
x6x,576,979

1-33
1-57

3-31
2-33

+ 1,536,619 or 67*ox p.c.
+x,232,474 „ 4802 p.c.
+1,648,543 „ 7666 p.c
+ 1,264,902 „ 49*93 p.c
- x7,o89 „ 045 P.C.

The above figures constitute a sufficient justification of
the sacrifices which the Principality has made in continually
extending the railway system of the country. Three new
lines are now under construction, and before very long nearly
400 kilometres will be added to the present Bulgarian railway
system.

2. Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones

Twenty-seven years ago, when a national Government
took the place of the provisional Russian administration, the
newly created Direction of the posts and telegraphs inherited
from this latter 27 post and telegraph stations, with a staff
of 107 officials and a telegraph network of 1,630 kilometres,
representing 2,582 kilometres of td^^raph wires.

The Direction was divided into two sections, corresponding
to the two services— posts and td^aphs — ^which acted inde-
pendently one of the other. The fusion between these two
sections could not be effected until July zst, 1880, when
the General Direction of the posts and td^aphs, such as it
eidsts to-day, was for the first tsne organised.

o
o

^§

Q 3
^o

PQ p

o
o

(/)

«0 o <nt« o tnx

I I I I I

«0 Ok M «n^«^o(t «o«n

M ^ mOl^tt MM

00 c^ I «o«o

<« « CO o

^^^00 tno OMp ^M M r^M aott

!? 2 ■*■ i'ft !t •^5? oo « «s i«* «r» «n «v

00 M « ^

:l I I I I

^OkO M tno c^OkQ tno o « m Ok

I I i I I

«" ? 5? ?^

^1 I I I I

o «2^o«o ««'r«.^o MOO ««o

?l 1 1 1 1

•^"l-S I "-II II I I I I I I I I I I ^11 III

«n o»^ « ^ ef t^
«n«o

8 ++

T'"-'"! ^ . « » « . * -iUid

H ^ 9 S O 2. H^ • I* !C* !1 P

^ '^ ^*R. "Q ^ "Q •^
O M M m «r>

% 2»

CO M <OM«o mo o\

o^«o m "t "t **
«s o « io«p ^

5 +4-

I I

iKod *o

com o

«nm(t fO'T «o
inti Mco to
mt* fO«s«o

p« <p m ■♦ «o^ 0f««voaofl0<0 «Qr^m o «Q « -^00

^-..« omm c^ m

'ir

<« CO m Q •♦'O •>

CO WMO (« tx^ o

ChOjO^w o»ir»

«f 'O fO ■♦ m" ^

M 6 ■♦« K.

lOM C0«V«O

'S.

OtO M OMO CscONOOaOOO O Q

«n 'T <n M o» •♦ lo fvoo trjoo m «o

■4 «0 txOO M «V«0

•ncseo «n to

lOM mom

•o^ -♦

^mm
I «o flO «

+ +

ti mo fx « « Ok
a(^m(«^tx«o O}
•ooo w m ▼CO

mcoM CO 00

00 M m
*o m'*

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+ +

I I I i I

•o «o « M mmooe Ok
«« ^ et io<om*p fooo

^ eT cf*© »C >r
mo ■♦woo
com «« ^^0

M pv o r^ H ^f o» mo Q oo m fo
M K^e« r^ Ok o^ fo«o «5 o fntn
o ■♦O c« «omW> o jj«s,m-*

oo '<*-oo <s (« «o m M
f« mM «s
mctoo (t

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ROADS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION 223

The post and telc^graph offices at first restricted their
operations to expediting the home and foreign postal or
tel^aph correspondence^ and to issuing money orders.

It would be difficult to describe the exact state of the post
and telegraph services at the time wh^i they were taken over
by the new Bulgarian Government, owing to the absence
of exact statistical data. We gather, however, from some
reports dealing with the period between April ist and July 14th,
1880, that the cost of their maintenance was about 100,000
francs per month, or 1,200,000 per year, as against a revenue
of 42,000 francs per month, or 504,000 francs per year. There
was, therefore, a deficit of 700,000 francs.

During the same period, the operations of the post and
telegraph services amounted to 30,000 telegraphic messages
— ^home, foreign, and transit — ^per month, or 395,000 messages
per annum, and 100,000 letters and parcels per month, or
1,200,000 per year. These figures, it should be added, only
refer to Northern Bulgaria.

After the year 1880, the aspect of things changes and a
great development in the two services is noticeable. About
that date Bulgaria Joined the International Postal Union,
and was admitted to participate in the various International
congresses. She also succeeded in obtaining the dosing of
the Austrian post offices at Sofia, Roustchouk, and Varna,
which existed in virtue of the Capitulations, but whose further
maintenance had become without object. The operations of
the posts and telegraphs were gradually extended, the services
of parcel-post, subscriptions to newspapers, home and foreign
money orders, letters and parcels with declared value being
ntroduced in the principal post offices. The union of Northern
Bulgaria with Eastern Roumelia in September 1885 brought
about the fusion of their postal administrations. On that
occasion, and later on, during the Servo-Bulgarian war,
the newly organised administration of the Bulgarian posts

224 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

and tel^grapbs proved that it was already capable of rendering
the country great assistance in time of emergency.

During the year 1885, the various offices belonging to the
postal and telegraph administration transmitted 642,566
home and foreign telegraphic messages and 5,438,272 letters
or postal parcels. During the same period, the sums of money
sent by postal orders or biUs amounted to 23,424,562 francs.

At the commencement of 1886, there were 108 post and
telegraph offices, with a staff of 1,011 officials and a tel^raph
network of 3,548 kilometres, representing 5,889 kilometres of
wire. The revenue from the two services during 1886 was
1,257,830 francs, while the expenditure amounted to 2,206,154,
thus leaving a deficit of 648,318 francs.

During the period of the following seven years (1886-1894),
the development of the postal organisation of the Principality
continued uninterrupted^ notwithstanding the difficulties
created by the political situation of the country and the heavy
claims on the national exchequer. Seventeen new posts
and telegraph offices were opened, while the Austrian post
office at Plovdiv was abolished. Bulgaria concluded postal
conventions with Roumania, Great Britain, Japan, Germany,
Spain, etc. A telegraph cable was laid across the Danube,
connecting Viddin with Kalafat. During that same period,
the earliest foundations of the Bulgarian telephone system
were laid down with the construction of a telephone line
between Sofia and Plovdiv.

The condition of the Bulgarian posts and telegraphs during
1894 is shown by the following figures : 125 post and telegraph
stations with a staff of 1,073 officials ; 3,894 kilometres of
telegraph lines, representing 9,728 kilometres of telegraph
wires ; 47 kilometres of urban telephone lines, with 299
kilometres of telephone; 173 kilometres of intra-towns
telephone lines, with 335 kilometres of telephone wires;

Home and foreign telegrams transmitted, 1,234,263 ;

ROADS AND MEANS OP COMMUNICATION 225

letters and postal parcels transmitted, 16,430,000 ; sums of
money transmitted by post, 218,105,695 frs. ; expenditure,
2,534,263 frs. ; revenue, 2,303,474 frs. ; deficit, 230,789 frs.

The period from 1894 to the present day has been marked
by several important reforms, which may be said to have
completed the organisation of the Bulgarian posts and tele-
graphs.

(i) Until 1896 the town population was the only one which
could avail itself of the post and telegraph services. Since
then, however, the entire country, not excepting even the
smallest village or hamlet, has been included in the system
of rural posts which form part of the central organisation.

(2) Towards the same period, savings banks were introduced
in the various post and telegraph offices. Some interesting
figures relating to these important institutions will be given
later on.

(3) The telephone service has been systematically organised
and several new lines, among which those of Sofia-Roustchouk
and Roustchouk-Vama, have been opened. A telephone
service was at the same time introduced in these last two
towns, while a cable crossing the Danube between Roustchouk
and Jiuigevo has connected the Bulgarian and Roumanian
telephone lines.

(4) A revision of the various postal tarifb has resulted in
the reduction of certain taxes. Thus, the charge on home
letters was reduced from 15 to 10 centimes per 15 grammes.

(5) The system of payment on delivery and of reimburse-
ment was also introduced during the period in question ; 49
new post and telegraph stations and 1,779 postal agencies
were opened throughout the country.

The present state of the Bulgarian posts, telegraphs, and
telephones may be stunmed up as follows: 183 post and
telegraph stations, of which 9 are summer offices and 24
travelling posts; 1.758 postal agencies; 3,495 officials, of

2a6 BULGARIA OF TO-DAT

whom 1,758 are paid by the communes ; td^^^phs :
5,261 kflometres, representing 10,021 kflometies of tel^raph
wires ; telephones : 145 kilometres of urban lines, with 1,900
kilometres of wires four central stations and 565 telephone
posts ; 900 kilometres of intra-towns telephone lines, with
1,420 kilometres of telephone wires ; letters and parcels
transmitted by the post per annum, 29,063,043 ; sums trans-
mitted by post, 273,241,748 frs.

The cost of maintaining the post and telegraph organisation
during 1903 amounted to 3,160,000 frs. The revenue for
the same period was 3.373,553 francs, this leaving a surplus

of 213.557 frs.

Such, briefly speaking, is the progress which the administra-
tion of the Bulgarian posts and telegraphs has been able to
accomplish during its existence of twenty-five years.

CHAPTER VI
FOREIGN COMMERCE

I. Imports and Exports

We have already given a table of the general commerce
of Bulgaria from ^879 to 1904. In the present chapter,
we propose to examine the foreign trade of Bulgaria from
1890 to 1904, arranged in quinquennial periods and according
to the three main commercial routes : the Black Sea, the
Danube, and the mainland.

The following table shows the movement of the imports
and exports during these three periods :

IMPORTS

1890-1194.

Z895-

.1899.

1900-1904.

MiUiOQA

Millions

MiUiona

offrt. Percent.

offrs.

Per cent.

offr». Percent.

By sea

243 2808

24*2

3336

29-4 36-83

„ the Danube

31-9 3686

24*6

33-92

21-6 2706

„ land

304 3506

237

3272

288 36-11

Total 86-6 loo'oo 72'5 lOO'oo 79-8 loo'oo

the Danube
land

Total

EXPORTS

^•5 3739
262 3436
215 28-25

306
26-5
i6-i

4183
36*21
21-96

46-7 46-11
274 27-14
27-1 26-75

76-2 100-00 73-2 lOO'OO I0I-2 100-00
aa7

228

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

TOTAL (nCPORTS AND EXPORTS)

By sea . . 52*8 32*44 54*8 37*62 76*1 42*02

„ the Danube 581 3569 51-1 35-07 490 27-10
„ land 51-9 3187 398 2731 55-9 3088

162-8 100*00 145*7 100*00 181 -O 100*00

If we compare the figures for the last period (1900-1904)
with those for the first two periods, we shall find that the
difference in the imports and exports is as follows :

By sea

,, the Danube
., land

IMPORTS

189(^1894. i89S*i899>

Millioiiioffrs. Percent. Bf illioiu of fn. Percent.

+ 5'i + 8*75 + 5*2 + 3*47

— io*3 — 9'8o — 3-0 — 6*86

- + 1*05 -f 51 + 3"39

Total

6*8

EXPORTS

+ 7*3

By sea

•f

18*2 -f 8*72

+ 16*1

428

y, the Danube

-h

1-2 - 7*22

+ 0*9

9-07

„ land

5*6 - 1*50

+ 11*0

479

Total

250

+ 280

TOTAL (IMPORTS AND EXPORTS)

By sea

233 -h 958

+ 21*3

440

„ the Danube

—

9*1 - 8*59

— 2*1

—

7'97

„ land

-f

4*0 — 0*99

+ i6-i

357

Total

l8*2

+ 35*3

The above figures show very clearly that there has been
a progressive increase in the imports by the Black Sea.
While, during the first period (1890-1894), the imports only

FOREIGN COMMERCE 229

formed 28*08 p.c. and during the second period (1895-1899)^
33*36 p.c. of the total importation^ during the last period
they rose to 36*83 p.c. The increase in the imports by sea
has been mainly at the expense of those by v^y of the Danube
which^ in their turn, feU from 36*86 p.c. of the total importation
during the first period and 33*92 p.c. during the second period
to 27*06 p.c. during the period 1900-1904.

The imports by land have been somewhat unsteady :
from 36*05 p.c. of the total importation during the first quin-
quennial period, they fell to 3272 p.c. during the second period,
in order to rise again to 36*11 p.c. during the period 1900-1904.
The imports by sea during this last period have been by
8*75 p.c superior to those of the first period and by 3*47 p.c.
to those of the second period ; whereas the imports by way
of the Danube have, during the last period, been by 9-80 p.c.
inferior to those during the first period, and by 6*88 p.c. to
those of the second period. The imports by land have
been by 1*05 p.c inferior to those during the first period and
by 3*39 P-c* ^^ those of the second period.

The importation by sea is principally made through the
ports of Varna and Bourgas. The imports by way of Varna
during the first quinquennial period attained 17*74 p.c. of
the total importation and 63*17 p.c. of the importation by
sea ; during the second period, they were 20*89 p.c and
62*59 P*c* respectively, while during the last period they
formed 27*54 p.c of the total importation, and 7477 px.
of the importations by sea. The imports by way of Bourgas
fcMined, during the first period, 9*58 p.c. of the total im-
portation and 34*12 p.c of the importation by sea ; during
the second period, 11*87 P-c« and 35*58 p.c, and during the
period 1900-1904, 8*8op.c and 23*90 p.c respectively.

The importation by way of the Danube is made in the
following ports :

At Roustchouk, where the imports during the first quin-

aSO BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

quennial period fonned 15-17 p.c. of the total importation
and 41*15 p.c. of that by way of the Danube ; during the
second period 16*29 P-^* ^^^ 43*<H P-c*> cmd during the last
period 14*96 p.c. and 55*34 p.c. respectively.

The imports by way of Sistova formed 8.53 p.c. of the
total importation and 23*13 p.c. of that by way of the Danube,
during the first period ; 6*65 p.c. and 19*59 p.c. during
the second period, whereas during the last period they fell
to 3*77 p.c. and 13*91 p.c respectively.

The imports through the customs-house at Somovit,
which was only opened during the last period, after Somovit
had been connected with Plevna by a railway line, fonned
2'25p.c. of the total importation and 8*32 p.c. of that by
way of the Danube.

At Widdin, where the imports formed 3*31 p,c. of the
total importation and 8*99 p.c. of that by \my of the Danube,
during the first period, 2*36 p.c. and 7*02 p.c. during the
second period, and 1*95 p.c. and 7*23 p.c. respectively,
during the last period.

At Or6hovo, where the imports during the first period
formed 2*77 p.c. of the total importation, and 7*52 p.c. of
that by way of the Danube, 3*02 p.c. and 8*92 p.c, re«
spectively, during the second period, and 1*51 p.c and 5*60 p.c
respectively, during the last period.

The importation by land and by railway is principally
made through the customs-houses of Sofia, Plovdiv and
Harmanly. The imports through the customs-house ^ at
Sofia formed 14*96 p.c. of the total importation and 42*66 p.c
of that by way of the land, during the first period, 15*37 P-^
•and 46*97 p.c., respectively, during the seomd period, while
during the last quinquennial period they rose to 18*74 p.c
and 51*90 p.c. respectively.

The imports through the customs-house at Plovdiv during
the first period formed 13*78 p.c of the total importation

FOREIGN COmiERCE 231

and 39*28 p.c. of that by land, I4'07p.c. and 43'oipx.,
respectively, during the second period, and 13*69 p.c. and
37*92 p.c. during the period 1900-1904.

The imports through the customs-house at Harmanly
formed 3*60 p.c. of the total importation and 107 p.c.
of that by land during the first period, 1*67 p.c. and 5*09 p.c,
respectively, during the second period, and 2*25 p.c. and
6-24 p.c. during the last period.

The figures in the table which we have given also show
that the exports by sea have increased, but more gradually
than is the case with the imports. This increase has been
at the expense of the exports by the two other channels,
especially of those by way of the Danube. Thus, the exports
by way of the Black Sea during the first period (1890-1894)
formed 37*39 p.c. of the total exportation; during the
second period (1895-1899) they rose to 41*83 p.c, while
during the last period (1900-1904) they reached 46*11 p.c
On the other hand, the exports by way of the Danube have
fallen to 27*14 p.c. of the total exportation during the last
period. These exports formed during the first period 34*36 p.c
and 36*21 p.c during the second period.

The exports by land during the last period, as compared
with those during the second period, have risen from 21*96 p.c
to 26*75 p.c of the total exportation.

The exports by sea during the last period show an increase
of 8*72 p.c, as compared with those during the first period
and 4*28 p.c, as compared with those during the second
period. On the other hand, the exports by way of the
Danube during the last period have decreased by 7*22 p.c,
as compared with those of the first period, and by 9*07 p.c,
as compared with the second period. As regards the exports
by land, during the last period they have been 1*50 p.c
lower than those of the first period and 4*79 p.c. higher than
those of the second period.

233 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

The exports by sea are made chiefly through the ports
of Varna, Bourgas, and Balchik. At the port of Varna
they formed, during the first quinquennial period, 16*83 P>c*
of the total exportation and 45*02 p.c. of the exportation
by sea; during the second period they formed 17*58 p.c.
and 42*03 p.c, respectively, while during the last period
they rose to 19*52 p.c. and 42*33 p.c.

The exports by way of Bourgas fcHined, during the first
period, 11*72 p.c. of the total exportation and 31*35 p.c.
of the exportation by sea ; during the second period they
formed i6'2i p.c. and 38*74 p.c, and during the last peiiod
17*50 p.c. and 37*95 p.c, respectively.

The exports through the port of Balchik formed, during
the first period, 7*94 p.c of the total exportation and 21*23 p.c
of the exportation by sea ; during the second period they
formed 7*22 p.c and 17*20 p.c, and during the last period
8'88 p.c. and 19*25 p.c, respectively.

The exportation by way of the Danube is made through
the foUowing ports :

Orfliovo, where the exports during the first period formed
4*56 p.c of the total exportation and 13*26 p.c of the ex-
portation by way of the Danube ; during the second period
5*11 p.c and 14*12 p.c, respectively, and 4*24 p.c. and
15*62 p.c. during the last quinquennial period.

The exports through the port of Sistova, during the first
period, formed 673 p.c. of the total exportation and 13*26 p.c
of the exportation by way of the Danube; they formed
6*32 p.c. and 17*44 p.c. during the second period, and 3*86 p.c
and 14*22 p.c during the last period.

The exports by v^y of the port of Roustchouk, during
the same period, formed 4*72 p.c, 5*12 p.c, and 3*63 p.c of
the total exportation and 13*73 p.c, 14*13 p.c, and 13*38 p.c.
of the exportation by way of the Danube.

The exports by way of Viddin represent 4*12 p.c of the

FOREIGN COMMERCE 233

total exportation during the first period; 4*12 p.c. during
the second period, and 4-34 p.c. during the last period. During
the same periods, they formed 11*97 p.c, 11*98 p.c, and
13-30 p.c. respectively, of the total imports by way of the
Danube.

The exports through Lom formed 272 p.c of the general
exportation during the first period, 3*41 p.c during the
second period, and 3*40 p.c during the last period. They
represented, during the same periods, 7*90 p.c, 9-43 p.c,
and I2'53 p.c of the exportation by way of the Danube.

As regards the exportation by land, the exports through
the customs-house at Harmanly occupy the first place.
They represented 15*67 p.c. of the general exportation, and
55*99 p.c. of the exportation by land, during the first period ;
11*37 p.c and 51*78 p.c. during the second, and 8*62 p.c and
32 '21 p.c. during the last period.

The customs-house at Sofia comes next, with 1*42 p.c
of the total exportation during the first period ; 4*05 p.c
during the second period, and 7*63 p.c during the last period.
The exports through Sofia during the same periods formed
503 p.c, i8*44p.c. and 28*53 p.c of the total exportation
by land. The great increase in the exports by way of Sofia
is due principally to the development of the egg trade, which
during the last few years has been carried almost exclusively
by way of Sofia-Tzaribrod, and to some extent also to
the increased exportation of animal waste products:

In the third place comes the customs-house at Plovdiv,
with 3*36 p.c. of the total exports during the first period ;
3*31 p.c. during the second period, and 6*18 during the
last period. The proportion as regards the imports by land
was 11*89 p.c, 15*08 p.c and 23*11 p.c, respectively. One
of the main causes for the increase in the exports by way
of Plovdiv is to be found in the recent troubles in Macedonia
and the vilayet of Adrianople, these having diverted a con-

234 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

siderable part of the exports which were fonnerly made by
way of the frontier customs-houses, to the railway line
Plovdiv-Harmanly, and from there to Constantinople-
Adrianople-Dede Agatch, this latter route o£Eering greater
security.

The preceding figures establish, therefore, that during the
last few years commerce has greatly developed in the direc*
tion of the maritime ports of Bulgaria. This is due princi-
pally to the construction of the railway lines Yambol-Bourgas
and Sofia-Plevna- Varna, which connect the interior of the
country with the two main ports on the Black Sea, Varna
and Bourgas. A great proportion of the cereals from Southern
Bulgaria, which were fonnerly exported to Constantinople
and Deda Agatch by way of Harmanly, are now directed
to Bourgas. In the same way, the cereals from Northern
Bulgaria which, before the construction of the railway line
Sofia- Varna, were exported by way of the Danube, are
now being sent to Varna. This result from the construction
of the said railway lines is sufficiently explained by the
situation of the two main Bulgarian ports, and by the great
facilities which they present for the commercial relations
of Bulgaria with the outside world.

The next few tables show the foreign trade of Bulgaria,
as distributed with respect to the origin or destination of the
articles imported and exported. The different countries
are arranged according to the average amount of their im-
ports and exports during the last quinquennial period. The
absolute value of the imports and exports, as well as their
relation to the total importation and exportation, are given
for each country with which Bulgaria has commercial dealings.
The tables also give for each country the absolute and rdative
difference between the period 1900-1904 and the first two
quinquennial periods.

FOREIGN COMMERCB 235

As regards the quantity of the imports, Austria-Hungary
has occupied during the last fifteen years the first place.
The imports from this country attained their highest point
during the period 1890-1894, when they rose to 37-5 per cent,
of the total importation of Bulgaria. Since then, however,
a considerable decrease is noticeable, the second period repre-
senting only 28'9 per cent, and the third period 27'3 per cent,
of the total importation. This fall is due to the fact that
during the first period the general importation of Bulgaria
was much greater than it has been since (fourteen millions of
francs more than in the second period and seven millions more ,
as compared with the last period). This appreciable decrease
in the total importation must have been principally at the
expense of Austria-Hungary, as during the first period the
other countries had as yet no 'Bulgarian markets for their
produce, and could hardly compete with the imports from
Austria-Hungary.

Next in importance, as regards the quantity of imports,
comes England. The imports from this country show a
continual decrease with respect to their absolute value, but
are rather unsteady as compared with the total importation
of Bulgaria. Thus, while during the first period they re-
presented 21*8 per cent, of the total importation, they rose
to 23*8 per cent, during the second period, and fell again to
17*6 per cent, during the period 1900-1904.

Turkey comes immediately after England, with a shifting
importation. The imports froni that country during the
first period formed 12*3 per cent, of the total importation.
During the second period they fell to ii'6 per cent., while
during the last quinquennial period they rose to 13*8 per cent,
of the total importation.

Then come Germany, Italy, France, and Russia, with an
ever-increasing importation. Thus, the imports from Germany
during the first period reached 9*5 per cent, of the total

236

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

IMPORTS

No.

COUNTRY
OF ORIGIN.

PERIOOS.

1890*1894.

1895-1899.

1900-1904.

Anstm-Hun-
gary •

Fn.

33,544.557

Per

cent.

srs

Fr».

20.933.935

Per
cent.
38-9

Pra.

31.803.178

Per
cent.

373

England

i8»847,894

31-8

17.355.951

338

14.070.067

17-6

Turkey .

10,687.368

13-3

8.433.011

n-6

IZ,039.II3

13-8

Germany

8.347.176

9.181.317

137

10.978.719

I3«

Italy .

i.«49.735

2'I

3.737.463

3-8

5.386.180

6-8

France .

3.684.577

4*3

3.603.348

4»988.789

6-2

Rnssia .

4,406.331

3.451.508

4-8

4.133.435

5-a

3.093.029

a-4

X.930.505

3-6

3.301.531

3-9

Belgiam

1.697.749

3-0

3.393.393

3-3

3,368.115

3-8

Scrvia .

1.067.864

1-3

1.008.495

1-4

868.086

l-I

Switzerland .

999.440

1*3

651.759

695.130

0-9

Greece .

195.440

0-3

474.938

340.139

0-4

United States

103.360

o-i

356.786

0-3

339.888

Holland

93.959

O'l

61.037

o*i

311.955

Sweden and
Ncjrway

60.S79

O'l

61.881

O'l

66.331

o-i

Other countries
Total

77.801

O-I

176.513

0'3

366.430

86.655.749

lOO'-

73.490.637

I00--

79,834.965

lOO'-

FOREIGN COMMERCE

837

DIFFERENCES I^ IMPORTS

No.

COUNTRY
OF ORIGIN.

DURING THE PERIOD 1960-1904.
MORE OR LESS.

^^* ^^*^*^#«4W»

1890-1894.

189S-1B99.

Austria-Hungary .

Frt.
10.742,379

cent.
33-0

Frs.
868.253

Per
cent.

4-1

England.

4,777.827

25-3

3.185.884

18-5

Turkay .

341.844

3-2

2.597.101

30-8

Germany

2,731.543

331

1.797.502

19-6

Italy .

3.536.445

191*1

2.658.718

97*5

France .

1,304,212

35*4

I.385.44I

38-4

Russia .

283,886

6-4

670.927

19-4

Roumania

208,502

lO'O

381,026

198

Belgium

570.366

33-6

25.177

I'l

Servia .

199.778

187

140.409

13-9

Switzerland

304.320

304

43.361

Greece .

144.689

74-0

134.809

28-4

United States.

227,528

222-3

73.102

28-5

Holland .

■♦■

217.996

232'0

250.918

4iri

Sweden and Norway

••■

5.652

9*3

4.350

Other countries
Total .

••■

188,629

242-5

■•■

89.918

509

—

6.830,784

7-9

-•■

7.334.338

lo-i

as*

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

EXPORTS

No.

COUNTRY
or ORIGIN.

PERIODS.

189&-K694.

I89S-X899.

X900-t9H.

Belgium

Frs.
1,218,129

Per

cent.

1-6

Fr«.
6.169.539

cent.
8-4

Frt.
23,121.658

Per

cent.

22-9

Turkey .

23,389.260

29-4

18.688.287

255

22.690,585

22-4

England

X3.673.«8l

17-9

16.907.7 19

23-1

18,254.797

18-0

8,465.456

II'I

10,508,855

14-4

9.333.581

9-2

Austria-Hun-
gary .

3.448.086

4-5

4.677.645

6-4

9,003.100

8-9

France .

17.241.587

22-6

9,516.058

130

6.524.962

6-5

Greece .

399*905

O'S

870.012

1-2

3.488.393

Italy .

1.681,797

2-2

I.419.52O

1*9

2.975.279,

2-9

Roumania

800.491

1*1

503.817

1,294.784

1.3

United States

20.055

o-o

181,574

0*2

660.030

0-7

Servia .

286,122

274.226

0-4

627.752

Holland

79,2«4

O'l

566.801

0-8

281.544

Russia .

42.351

O'l

98,775

O'l

204,407

Switzerland .

9.335

6,6ff6

o-o

199.932

0-2

Other countries

—

1.137.214

I'l

Not ascertained
Total .

6,458.439

8-5

2.874.514

3*9

1,427,876

1-4

76.214,178

IOO--

73.244.028

lOO-

101,225,894

lOO'-

,.-J

fOREIGN COMlfERCB

239

DIFFERENCES IN EXPORTS

No.

COUNTRY OF
ORIGIN.

DURING THE PERIOD 1900-1904.
MORE OR LESS.

x890-x894*

1S95-1899.

Belgium •

Fri.
31.903,539

Per

cent.

1798-1

••■

Fri.
16,952.119

Per

cent.
374-8

Turkey

301.325

**3

4.022.298

21-5

England

4.580,916

33'5

1.347.078

Germany .

868.125

IO-3

1.175.274

11*2

Austria-Hungary .

5.555.014

i6l'i

4.325.455

92-5

France

10,716,625

62*2

2.991.096

31-4

Greece

3.088.488

772-3

2.618.381

30 ro

Italy .

1.293.482

76-9

1.555.759

109-6

Roumania .

494.293

617

790,967

157-0

United States

639.975

3191-1

478.456

263-5

Servia.

341.630

1 19-4

353.526

128-9

Holland

202.260

255-1

285.257

50-3

Russia

••■

162.056

382-6

105.632

io6'9

Switzerland

190.597

2041-7

••■

193.246

28903

Other countries ,

■••

1. 137.214

o-o

1.137.214

o-o

Not ascertained .

—

5.030.563

77*9

1.446.638

50-3

Total .

-f-

25,011,716

32-8

27,981.866

38-2

240 BULGARIA OF TX)-DAY

importation^ they rose to 127 per cent, during the second
period^ and to 13*8 p.c. during the last period. The imports
from Italy formed 2*1 p.c. of the total importation during
the first period, 3*8 p.c. during the second, and 6*8 p.c. during
the last. The imports from France represented 7-3 p.c.
of the total importation during the first period, 5 p.c. during
the second, and 6*2 p.c. during the last. The imports from
Russia, which during the last period rose to 5*2 p.c. of the
total importation, formed 4*8 p.c. during the second and
5*1 p.c. during the first

Belgium, Servia, etc., come after Russia, but the imports
from these countries are considerably smaller and the varia-
tions are not so important.

A comparison between the import trade of the last period
and that of the two preceding ones shows a considerable
increase in the imports from the following countries : Italy,
3*5 millions of francs, or an increase of 191*1 p.c. as com-
pared with the first period ; Germany, 2*7 millions of francs,
or 33*1 p.c. ; France, 1*3 millions of francs, or 35*4 p.c. ; and
Belgium, 0*6 million of francs, or 33*6 p.c. During the same
period, the imports have decreased by 10*7 millions of francs,
or 33*0 p.c. in the case of Austria-Hungary and by 4-8 millions
of francs, or 25-3 p.c. in the case of England.

The increase in the imports during the last period, as
compared with those during the second period, has been the
greatest in the case of the following countries : Italy, 2*6
millions, or 30*8 p.c, more ; Germany, 1*8 millions, or 19*6 p.c.
more ; France, 1*4 millions, or 38*7 p.c. more ; Austria-Hungary
o'9 million, or 4*1 p.c. more ; Russia, 0*7 million, or 19-4 p.c.
more, etc. On the other hand, the imports from England
have decreased by 3*2 milHons of francs, or 30*8 p.c.

It will be seen from the table of exports that our export
trade with Belgium has greatly and rapidly developed, rising
from 1*2 millions of francs during the first period to 6*2 millions

during the second period, while during the period 1900-1904
it reached a total ^of 23*1 millions of francs. Putting it in
different terms, while our exports to Belgium represented
during the first perod 1*6 p.c, and during the second period
8*4 p.c. of the total exportation, they rose during the last
period to 22*4 P-c*> or nearly a quarter of the total exportation
of Bulgaria. Belgium is, therefore, the most important
buyer of our products, and especially of our cereals.

For a period of fifteen years, Turkey was the coimtry to
which the greatest part of the Bulgarian exports went. They
amounted to 22*3 millions of francs, or 29*4 p.c. of the total
exportation, during the first quinquennial period ; to 187
millions, or 25-5 p.c. during the second, and to 227 millions,
or 22*4 p.c. during the period 1900-1904. Turkey has been
thus far the only country where our cattle and the products
of our industry have been able to find profitable markets.

England is the second largest importer of our cereals,
coming with 17*9 p.c. of the total exports during the first
period, 28*1 p.c. during the second, and 18*0 p.c. during
the period 1900-1904.

Then foUows Germany, especially as regards the Bulgarian
cereals; Austria-Himgary, with raw animal and other
materials, and France with cereals.

In the last place come Greece, Italy, and Roumania. Our
exports to these coimtries are not so important, but here also
there has been a certain increase in the exports during the
period 1900-1904.

The increase in the exports during the period 1900-1904, as
compared with those during the first period, is especially
noticeable in the case of the following countries : Belgium,
with an increase of 21*9 million francs, or 8,798*1 p.c. ;
Austria-Hungary, 5*6 millions, or 161*1 p.c. ; England, 4*6
millions, or 33*5 p.c. ; Greece, 3*1 millions, or 772*3 p.c. ;
Italy, 1*3 millions, or 10*3 p.c. ; the United States, o*6 million,

242 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

or 3,i9i'ip.c., etc. The exports to France, on the other
hand, have decreased by 107 millions of francs, or 62-2 p.c

The exports during the last quinquennial period, compared
with those during the second period (1895-1899), have increased
as regards the following countries : Belgium, 17-0 millions of
francs, or 274-8 p.c. ; Austria-Hungary, 4-3 millions, or 92*5 p.c.
Turkey, 4 millions, or 21*5 p.c. ; Greece, 2*6 millions, or
301-0 p.c. ; Italy, i"6 millions, or 109*6 p.c. ; England, 1-3
millions, or 8-0 p.c. The exports to France have decreased
by 3 millions of francs, or 31-4 p.c, and those to Germany
by 1*2 millions^ or 11*2 p.c.

In order to give a more clear idea of the Bulgarian import
and export trade, the table on the opposite page has been
arranged so as to show the relation between our exports and
imports during the last three quinquennial periods, as also
the value of our exports corresponding to every 100 francs'
worth of imports from other countries.

By means of this table, we can better understand the
character of the commercial relations of Bulgaria with the
various other countries, and so form a truer idea of what the
commercial policy of our country towards those countries
should be. We can also ascertain from it what quan-
tities of goods we export to those coimtries, as against the
goods which we buy from them. As regards this latter point,
we find that for every 100 frsmcs' worth of imports we export
goods of a smaller value in the case of the following countries :
Russia, 5 francs ; Switzerland, 29 francs ; Austria, 41 francs ;
Italy, 55 francs ; Roumania, 56 francs ; Servia, 72 francs ;
Germany, 85 francs ; and Holland, 90 francs. As regards the
remaining countries, the case is the reverse, our exports being
larger than our imports. Thus, our exports to Belgium and
Greece were ten times larger than our imports from those
countries ; in the case of Turkey and the United States, they
were double our imports, while the exports to France were

FOREIGN COMMESCE
EXPORTS

243

No.

PERIODS.

COUNTRY.

X890-1894.

1895-X899.

1900-E904.

For xoo francs' worth of imports.

Austria-Hungary

•

10*6

22-3

41-3

England .

72-5

98*0

129*7

Turkey .

209-5

221*4

205-7

Gennany.

102*6

114-5

85*0

Italy .

90*9

52-0

55-2

France .

467-9

264-1

130*8

Russia .

I'O

2*9

5-0

38-a

26*2

56-3

Belgium.

717

269*0

1019-4

10
II

Scrvia .
Switzerland

26-8
0-9

27*2

I'O

72-3
28*8

Greece .

2046

i83'2

1025*6

United States.

ip*6

70*7

200*I

Holland .

84-4

928*6

90-3

Total .

880

loro

126*8

30 p.c. higher than the imports. The proportion between the
exports and imports is ahnost the same during the first two
quinquennial periods.

As regards the variations in the foreign trade of Bulgaria
during the same three periods, we find that the Bulgarian
exports to France during the first period amounted to 467-9 p.c.
as against every zoo francs' worth of imports from that country ;

244 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

during the second period they were 264*17 p.c, and during the
period 1900-1904, 130*8 p.c. A similar decrease is to be
observed in the Bulgarian exports to Germany : from 102*6 p.c.
during the first period and 114*5 p.c. during the second, they,
fell during the period 1900- 1904 to 85 p.c, as against every
100 francs' worth of imports from Germany. In the case of
Belgium, the reverse is true: our exports to that country, which
during the first period hardly amounted to 71*7 px., rose
during the second period to 269*9 p.c., and during the last
period to 1,019*4 p.c, as against every 100 francs' worth of
Belgian goods imported by Bulgaria. The increase in the
Bulgarian exports to the remaining countries, viz. Greece, the
United States, England, etc., has been proportionate to the
i ncrease in the Bulgarian imports from those countries. In
the last place, the table proves that the general export trade
of Bulgaria, as compared with her import trade, has con-
siderably increased during the last two quinquennial periods.
Thus, while during the first period to every 100 francs' worth
of imports there corresponded only about 88 francs' worth of
exports, during the second period these latter were slightly
superior to the imports, whereas during the period
1900-1904 they had exceeded the imports by more than 25
per cent.

One of the most important questions in dealing with the
foreign trade of a country is to know in what this trade con-
sists, and what are the imports and exports of which it is
composed. We can thus determine what are the articles
f or which a demand is felt, and what are those which the
country produces in excess.

The Bulgarian statistical authorities group the various
articles comprised in the Bulgarian commerce into 28 cate-
gories, which are in their turn subdivided into 890 different
kinds of goods.

The tables which we give on pp. 246-49 have been arranged

FOREIGN COIIMERCB 245

for the purpose of showing the average foreign importation
into Bulgaria during the last three quinquennial periods, as
distributed in categories of goods, and the average exportation
from Bulgaria during the same number of years, as distributed
in kinds of goods. In addition to the absolute figures for
every category or kind of articles imported or exported, the
tables in question contain also the absolute and relative
percentage of the general importation and exportation during
the last quinquennial period, as compared with the first two
periods (Tables I. and II.).

As regards the quantity of imports, the first place in the
foreign importation during the three quinquennial periods
has been held by the category " textile materiab and pro-
ducts." This category represented 39*8 p.c. of the total
importation during the first period, 34*1 p.c. during the second
period, and 357 p.c. during the period 1900-1904. The increase
in the importation of those articles during the last period
amounts to 7*6 millions of francs, or io*i p.c, as compared with
the first period, and to 37 millions of francs, or 15*1 p.c, as
compared with the same imports during the second period.
The imports of textile articles have been continually increasing
notwithstanding the great development of the textile industry
in Bulgaria. The explanation of this fact will be found
in the progress of our people, which from year to year tries
to dress better and to Uve more comfortably and hygienically
than in the past.

Next after the textile articles comes the category " metals,
and products of the metallurgical industry," with 8-9 p.c of
the total importation during the first period, 117 p.c during
the second, and 9*5 p.c during the last period. The imports
of metals and products of the metallurgical industry during
the period 1900-1904 have decreased by 0'2 million fra^ncs,
as compared with the first period, and by 0*9 miUion francs,
as compared with the second period.

246

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

i
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FOREIGN COMMERCE

247

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248

BULGARIA OP TO-DAT

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FOREIGN COMMERCE

249

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250 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Then follow the catteries ''machines, instruments, ap-
paratuses/' with a decrease of i*i million francs, or 16*9 p.c.
during the period 1900-1904, as compared with the first
period, and an increase of 1*3 million francs, as compared
with the second period ; " colonial products," with a decrease
of 2*9 million francs during the last period, as compared with
the first ; " hides and fellmongery," with an increase of 0*6
million francs during the last period, as compared with the
first, and I'l million francs, as compared with the second.

The fall in the imports of textile articles during the last
period, as compared with the first, is principally due to the
reduced orders placed by the War Office, while the decrease
in the importation of the articles belonging to the second
category, such as sugar products, coffee, and tea, is to be
explained by the fact that large quantities of these goods
were imported towards the end of the first period, in order to
escape the duties imposed on them by the new excise law.
The rise in the imports of the last category of goods is due
to increased importation of leather articles and furs during
the last period.

In the tables dealing with the exports, the goods are
arranged according to their quantity during the last period.
The goods enumerated in these tables practically exhaust the
whole foreign trade, representing as they do 99*5 p.c. of the
total exportation of the country.

The average exportation of cereals (wheat, maize, rye,
oats, canary-seed, etc.) rose to 58 million francs during the
first period, to 54 million francs during the second, and to 62
million francs during the third period. It represented nearly
76 p.c. of the total exportation during the first period, 75 p.c.
during the second, and 62 p.c. during the period 1900-1904.
If we add to the cereals the exports of the other agricultural
products (colza, tobacco, beans, peas, fruits, etc.) and those
which are intimately connected with agriculture (cattle.

FOREIGN COmiERCB 25l

poultry, eggs, etc.), we shall find that the exports of agricul-
tural products represented 80 px. to 85 p.c. of the total ex-
portation, while the exports in manufactured foods, animal
waste, and others, only amounted to 15-20 p.c. (Tables III.
and IV.).

If we compare our export trade during the last quinquennial
period with that of the two preceding ones, we shall £nd that
the exports during the period 1900-1904 have decreased
only in the case of wheat and com, by 8 million francs, or
19 p.c, as compared with the other two periods. On the other
hand, the exportation of several other products has increased.
Thus, the exports of maize have increased by 5*5 million
francs, or 545 p.c, as compared with the first period, and by
8*2 million francs, or 107*9 p.c, ^ compared with the second
period ; eggs, by 5*1 million francs, or 93*5 p.c, more than in the
first period, and by 4*4 million francs, or 3627 p.c, more than
in the second period ; barley, by 4-2 million francs, or 283 p.c
more than during the first period, and 4*1 miUion francs, or
254*8 p.c, more than during the second period ; oats, by 2*4
million francs, or 772*7 p.c, more than in the first period, and
by 2*5 million francs, or 1,268*8 p.c, more than in the second
period ; wheat flour by 2*3 miUion francs, or 381*6 p.c, more
than in the first period, and by 1*9 million francs, or 178*5 p.c,
more than in the second period ; colza, by 1*5 million francs, or
498*1 p.c., more than in the first period, and by 1*8 million
francs, or 1672*9 p.c, more than in the second period ; silk- worm
cocoons, by 1*7 million francs, or 370*2 p.c, more than in the
first period, and by 0*2 million francs, or 135*1 p.c, more
than in the second period ; rye, by 0*7 miUion francs, or 25*3
p.c, more than in the first period, and by i*6 million francs,
or 86*1 p.c, more than in the second period.

2sa

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

X
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FOREIGN COMMERCE

253

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FORSIGN COMMERCE

255

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256 BULGARIA OF TO-DAV

2. Articles of Importation and Exportation

We give here a brief summary of a careful study of the
trade of Bulgaria with each one of the principal European
States which the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture has
published in a separate volume.

(i) turkey

Imports into

1890-1894.

Franc*.

1895-1899.
FnncB.

1900-1(104.
Frvnca.

Bulgaria . .

10,687,268

8,432,011

11,029,112

Exports from

Bulgaria . .

22,389,260

18,668,287

22,690,585

Total 33,076,528 27,100,298 33,7i9>697
Exports + 11,701,992 + 10,236,276 + 11,661,473

It appears from these figures that the importation into
Bulgaria, as well as the exportation from Bulgaria, were the
largest during the last quinquennial period. The balance
of trade was in favour of the exports during the whole three
periods, amounting to 117 million francs, or 104*49 P-c
during the first period, to io'2 million francs, or 121*40 p.c.
during the second, and to 117 million francs, or 105*73 p.c.
during the last.

Articles of Importation. — Oil, fats, wax and wax products,
textile articles, preserves and jams, colonial articles, fruits,
vegetables and similar products, grains (seeds), food stu&,
hides and leather products.

Articles of Exportation. — Sheep and goats, wheat and
com, wheat flour, cheese, linen and woollen stu&, cattle,
maize.

FOREIGN COMMERCE 257

(2) ENGLAND

Importation into
Bulgaria . .

Exportation from
Bulgaria . .

x8y:-i894.
Francs.

18,847,894
13.673,881

If95-i899.
Frmncs.

17.255,951
16,907,719

1900-1904.
Fnnea.

14,070,067
18,254,797

Total

32,521,775

34,163,670

32,324,864

Exports — 5,174,013 — 348,232 + 4,184,730

The imports from England into Bulgaria were largest
duFing the first quinquennial period, while the exports from
Bulgaria to England reached their highest point during the
last period. The total trade, imports and exports included,
was largest during the second period. The balance of trade
was in favour of the exports only during the last period ; 4*2
million francs, or 2974 p.c., while during the first two periods
it was in favour of the imports, 5*2 million francs, or 27*45 p.c,
during the first period, and 0*3 million francs, or 9*02 p.c, during
the second*

Imports. — ^Textiles, metals and metal goods, machines,
instruments and apparatus, colonial articles, leather and
leather goods, chemical products.

Exports, — Maize, wheat, com, attar of roses.

(3) AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

x89o-i894- 1895-1859. 1900-1904.

Imports into

Bulgaria . . 3^,544,557 20,933,925 21,802,178
Exports from

Bulgaria . . 3,448,086 4,^77,^45 9,003,100

Total 35,992,643 25,611,570 30,805,278
Exports — 29,096,471 — 16,256,280 — 12,799,078

The imports from Austria-Hungary were greatest during
the first period, while the exports from Bulgaria to Austria-

258 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

Hungary attained their highest point during the last period.
The total trade^ imports and exports included, was greatest
during the first period. The balance of tcade was in favour
of the imports during the whole three periods, viz. :
29-1 million francs, or 89*41 p.c. during the first, 16-3 million
francs, or 77*66 p.c. during the second, and 12*8 miUion
francs, or 58*71 p.c. during the last period.

/m^of/s.— Textiles, colonial articles, machines, instruments,
and apparatus, metals and metal work, paper and card,
wood work, cabinet work, knitted goods.

Exports, — Eggs, sheep and goat skins, maize, tobacco in
leaf, hides, wheat.

(4) BELGIUM

1890- 1894. 1895-1899. 1900-1904.

Imports into

Bulgaria . . 1,697,749 2,293,292 2,268,115

Exports from

Bulgaria . . 1,218,129 6,169,539 23,121,658

Total 2,915,878 8,462,831 25,389,773
Exports — 479,620 + 3,876,247 + 20,853,543

The imports from Belgium were greatest during the second
period, while the Bulgarian exports to Belgium reached their
highest point during the last period. The total trade, im-
ports and exports included, was largest during the period
I900-I904, The balance of trade was in favour of the imports
only during the first period, 0*5 million francs, or 28*25 p.c,
while during the last two periods it has been in favour of the
exports : 3*9 million francs, or 169*03 p.c. during the second
period, and 20*6 million francs, or 919*42 p.c. during the last
period.

/m^offe.—Metals and metal works, textiles, stones, day,
glass, machines, instruments, and apparatus.

Exports.— WidaX, maize, barley, attar of roses.

, FOREIGN COMMERCE 259

(5) GERMANY
1890- 1894. 1895-1899. I9cx>-i904.

Imports into

Bulgaria . . 8,247,176 9,181,217 10,978,719

Exports from

Bulgaria . . 8,465,456 10,508,055 9,333>58i

Total 16,712,632 19,690,072 20,312,300
Exports + 218,280 + 1,327,638 — 1,645,138

The imports from Germany were greatest during the third
period^and the exports from Bulgaria reached their highest
point during the second period. The total trade, imports
and exports included, was largest during the last period.
The balance of trade was in favour of the exports during
the first two periods, viz. : by 0*2 million francs, or
2*65 px. during the period 1890-1894, and by i'3 million
francs, or 14*46 p.c. during the period 1895-1899, while
during the last period the excess of imports over exports
was 1*6 million francs, or 14*98 p.c.

Imports. — Textiles, metals and metal work, machines,
instruments and apparatus, leather and leather articles,
railway cars, carriages, steamers and locomotives.

Exports. — ^Wheat, eggs, barley, maize, attar of roses.

(6) FRANCE
1890-1894. 1895-1899. 1 900-1904.

Importation into

Bulgaria . . 3,684,577 3,603,348 4,988,789
Exportation from

Bulgaria . . 17,241,587 9,516,058 6,524,962

Total 20,926,164 13,119,406 11,513,751
Exports + 13,557,010 + 5,912,710 + 1,536,173

The imports from France into Bulgaria were greatest during

260 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

the last quinquennial ^riod, while the Bulgarian exports
to France attained their maximum during the first period.
The total trade, imports and exports included, was largest
during the first period. The balance of trade was in favour
of the exports during the three periods. It was heaviest
during the first period, amounting to 13 '6 million francs, or
367*94 p.c. ; during the second period it fell to 5*9 million
francs, or 164*09 p.c, while during the third period it only
amounted to 1*5 million francs, or 3079 per cent.

Imparts. — Textiles, leather and leather articles, machinery,
instruments and apparatus, metals and metal work, oils,
fats, wax, and their compoimds.

Exports.— VfhdBt, colza, leather and kid, attar of roses,
maize, silk-worm cocoons.

(7) ITALY

1890- 1894.

1895-1899.

1900-1904.

Imports into

Bulgaria . .

1,849,735

2,727,462

5,386,180

Exports from

Bulgaria . .

1,681,797

1,419,520

2,975,279

Total

3,531,532

4.146.082

• 8.361.459

Exports — 167,938 — 1,307,942 — 2,410,901

The imports from Italy into Bulgaria and the exports
from Bulgaria to Italy reached their highest points during
the last period. The total trade between the two countries
was largest during the same period. The balance of trade
was in favour of the imports all through the fifteen years,
amoimting to 0*2 million francs, or 9*08 p.c. during the first
quinquennial period, to 1*3 million francs, or 47 '95 p.c. during
the secood period, and to 2*4 million francs, or 95*04 p.c.
during the last.

FOREIGN COMMERCE 26l

Imporis. — ^Textiles, colonial articles, leather and leather
goods, metals and metal work.

Exports, — Silk -worm cocoons, wheat, maize, rye, oats.

(8) RUSSIA

Imports into

1890-1894.

i«95-«899-

Z9OO-I9O4.

Bulgaria . .

4,406,321

3,451,508

4,122,435

Exports from

Bulgaria . .

42,351

98,775

204,407

Total

4,448,672

3,550,283

4,326,842

Exports —

4,363,970 -

- 3,352,733 -

- 3,918.028

The exports from Russia into Bulgaria were greatest during
the first period, while our exports to Russia attained their
maximum during the last period. The total trade, imports
and exports combined, was largest during the first period.
The balance of trade has been in favour of the imports during
the whole time, amounting to 4*4 million francs, or 99*04 p.c.
during the first period, 3*4 million francs, or 97*14 p.c. during
the second, and 3*9 million francs, or 95*04 p.c. during the
last.

Imports, — Resins, mineral oils (petroleum and naphtha),
colonial articles, leather and leather articles, metals, etc.

Exports. — Attar of roses.

(9) Greece

1890-1894.

1895-1899-

19001904.

Imports into

Bulgaria . . .

195,440

474,938

340,129

Exports from

Bulgaria . . .

399,905

870,012

3,488,393

Total

595.345

1.344,950

3,828,522

Exports + 204,465 + 395,074 + 3,148,264

262 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

The imports from Greece were greatest during the second
period, while the Bulgarian exports to Greece reached their
highest point during the last period. The total trade, im-
ports and exports combined, was largest during the same
period. The balance of trade has been always in favour of
the exports, amounting to 0'2 million francs, or 104*62 p.c.
during the first period, 0*4 million francs, or 83*16 p.c. during
the second, and 3*1 million francs, or 925*61 p.c. during the
last.

Imports. — Oils, fats, wax and their compounds, spirits, and
colonial articles.

Exports. — Wheat, maize, flour, haricot beans, beans, peas.

(10) ROUMANIA

i£9a-i894.

1895-1899.

X900-I9O4-

Imports into

Bulgaria . .

2,093,029

1,920,505

2,301,531

Exports from

Bulgaria • .

800,491

503,817

1,294,784

Total 2,893,520 2,424,322 3,596,315
Exports — 1,292,538 — 1,416,688 — 1,006,747

Our conunerce with Roumania, both as regards imports
and exports, was greatest during the last period. The balance
of trade has been invariably in favour of the imports, amount-
ing to 1*3 million francs, or 61*75 flic, during the first period,
1*4 million francs, or 7377 px. during the second, and 1*0
million francs, or 43*74 p.c during the last.

Imports. — Wood work, cabinet work, knitted goods,
resins, mineral oils, glue, leather and leather articles,
colonial articles.

Exports. — Maize, wheat, barley, haricot beans^ etc.

FOREIGN COMMERCE 263

(11) SERVIA

1890-1894. 1895-1899. I9«>>I9D4*

Imports into

Bulgaria . . 1,067,864 1,008,495 868,086

Exports from

Bulgaria . . 286,122 274,226 627,752

Total 1,353,986 1,282,721 1,495,838
Exports — 781,742 — 734,269 — 240,334

From the above figures it results that the imports from
Servia were greatest during the first quinquennial period,
while the exports from Bulgaria attained their maximum
during the last period. The total commerce, imports and
exports combined, was greatest during the same period. The
balance of trade has been in favour of the imports the whole
time, the greatest difference, 0'8 million francs, or 73'2i p.c,
occurring during the first period.

Imports. — String, ropes, hemp twine, braids, inflanunable
stuffs, wood work, cabinet work, knitted goods, hides.

Exports.— NLejze, cloth, serge, unwashed wool, rice.

(12) UNITED STATES

1890-1894. t895-i899. 1900-19014.

Imports into

Bulgaria ....
Exports from

Bulgaria ....

103,360
20,055

256,786
181,574

329.888

660,030

Total
Exports

122,415
— 82,305

438,360

- 75.212

989,918
+ 330,142

The above figures show that the trade between Bulgaria
and the United States reached its highest point during the

364 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

last period. The balance has been in favour of the imports
during the first two periods, with o"o8 million francs, or
80-41 p.c, by 007 million francs, or 29*29 p.c. respectively,
while during the last period the exports exceeded the im-
ports by 0*33 million francs, or loo'oS p.c.

Imports. — Machinery, instruments and apparatus, metals
and metal work, textiles.

Exports. — ^Attar of roses, kid-skins.

Imports into
Bulgaria .

Exports from
Bulgaria .

(13)

• • •

SWITZERLAND

1890-1894-
999.440

9.335

189S-1899.

651,759
6,686

i90a->9O«.
695,120

199,93a

Total
Exports —

1,008,775
990,105 —

658,445
645,073 -

895,052
- 495.188

The imports from Switzerland into Bulgaria were greatest
during the first period, and the exports from Bulgaria to
Switzerland during the last period. The total trade,
imports and exports combined, was largest during the last
period. The balance of trade was in favour of the imports
during the whole time, amounting to 0*99 million francs,
w 99*07 p.c. during the first period, 0*64 miUion francs, or
9897 during the second, and 0*49 miUion francs, or 71-24 p.c.
during the last.

Imports. — ^Textiles, machinery, instruments, apparatus,
preserves and sweets.

Exports. — Eggs and prunes.

FOREIGN COMMERCE 265

(14)

HOLLAND

lS90-l894.

l89S-lt99.

1^00-1904.

Imports into

Bulgaria . .

• •

93,959

61,037

3",955

Exports from

Bulgaria . .

• •

79,284

566,801

281,544

Total 173,243 627,838 593,499
Exports — 14,675 + 505,764 — 30,411

The imports from Holland into Bulgaria were greatest
during the last period, while the exports from Bulgaria to
Holland attained their maximum during the second period.
The total commerce, imports and exports combined, was
greatest during the second period. The balance of trade
was in favour of the exports only during the second period,
amounting to 0*51 million francs, or 828*62 per cent., while
during the first period the imports exceeded the exports by
O'oi miUion francs, or 15*62 p.c, and during the last period
by 0*03 million francs, or 975 p.c.

Imports. — ^Textiles, leather and leather articles, resins,
mineral oils, and glue.

Exports. — Wheat, maize, colza, barley.

(15) SWEDEN AND NORWAY

Bulgaria does not export anything to either of these
countries. The only article which it imports from them
is unworked iron, of which it imported for 60,579 francs
during the first period, for 61,881 francs during the second,
and for 66,221 francs during the last period. Thus the
increase, although insignificant, is a constant one.

Bulgaria also has commercial relations with other countries.

266 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

but the trade done is so small that the Statistical Bureau
has not kept any special records in their cases. An exception
to this rule has been made in the last three years in the case
of Spain, Egypt, and Crete. Before the two periods 1890-1894
and 1895-1899, no records were kept for what have been
termed " other countries," so that these latter are grouped
under the category of " unknown destination." The exports
of " unknown destination " are practically limited to
cereals, which are shipped by way of Braila, the shippers of
this latter port being unable to give beforehand the exact
destination of these cereals.

3. Maritime Commerce

Before concluding the chapter on the foreign trade of
Bulgaria, we propose to give a brief survey of the movement
of shipping in the Bulgarian ports. The reader will then
be able to form a complete idea of the general commerce of
the Principality.

From the statistical data for the years 1895-1899, it appears
that during that period the various Bulgarian ports of the
Black Sea and the Danube were annually visited, on an average,
by 8,949 vessels, with a net tonnage of 2,441,816 tons. During
the following period (1899-1904) the number of vessels rose
to 12,674, with a net tonnage of 2,991,235 tons. This total
was composed of 3,439 sailing vessels, or 27*13 p.c, with a
tonnage of 289,916 tons, and 9,235 steamers, or 72*87 p.c, with
a tonnage of 2,701,319 tons. During the year 1905 the ports
of Varna and Bourgas were visited by 2,480 ships, with a
tonnage of 1,363,763 tons.

The shipping has, therefore, increased by nearly 40 p.c in
the course of the last five years. These figures also show that
the number of steamers is continually increasing, at the
expense of the sailing vessels.

FOREIGN COMMERCE 267

In the following table (pp. 270-71), the shipping and coasting
service during the last two quinquennial periods are arranged
according to the flag under which the vessels sail and the
description of the vessels.

During the first quinquennial period, the Bulgarian flag
was represented, as regards the tonnage, by 44*97 p.c. of the
sailing vessels. The figures for the next period prove that
the number of Bulgarian vessels of this category is continually
increasing. The proportion of the foreign vessels during
the same period is therefore 55*03 p.c. as r^ards the number
of ships, and 7774 p.c. as regards their tonnage. The Turkish
flag occupies the first place in the importance of the shipping
which it covers, and is closely followed by the Greek flag.

During the next period (1900-1904) the foreign shipping
decreases to the advantage of the Bulgarian shipping. The
number of sailing vessels falls to 41 p.c, while the toimage
rises to 78 p.c, which shows that the foreign countries with
which Bulgaria has maritime relations now send bigger
vessels, owing to the greater facilities offered by our new
harbours. It is also worth noticing that during this period
the Austro-Hungarian shipping occupied the first place, if
npt by the number of ships, at least by their toimage.

What we have said thus far only refers to sailing vessels.
As regards the steamers, the following figures will give an
idea of our maritime commerce. The Bulgarian flag is re-
presented by only 6 p.c. of the total number of steamers,
and by 10 p.c of their tonnage. The Temaining 94 p.c. of
steamers which visit the Bulgarian ports on the Black Sea
and the Danube belong to foreign nationalities. Austria-
Hungary occupies the first rank, with 66 p.c of steamers
and 58 p.c. of their tonnage. Then comes Russia, with
17 p.c. of the total number of steamers and 12 p.c of their
tonnage, followed by England, Roimiania, and Turkey.
Thus much for the period 1895-1899. During the following

2t6 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

period (1900-1904) the figures show some slight variations.
Austria-Hungary still heads the list, with 65 p.c. of the total
number of steamers, which are, however, of increased tonnage.
Then come Russia, with 14 p.c, Roumania, with 8 p.c, and
Greece, with 4 p.c. Generally speaking, the foreign shipping
has increased by nearly 50 p.c. during the last five years.

The last table (pp. 272-73) shows the distribution of shipping
arranged according to the description of the ships and the
flags under which they sail.

If we examine the various figures which this table contains,
we shall find that for the present the shipping on the Danube,
both as regards the number of vessels and their tonnage, is
superior to that of the Black Sea. Thus, of the whole number
of vessels, only 3,351, of a net tonnage of 1,190,535 tons, or
about 27 p.c. annually visit the Black Sea, while the vessels
calling at the various ports on the Danube reach 9,323, or
73 p.c of the total number of ships, with a tonnage of 1,798,700
tons. The shipping on the Danube is, therefore, 46 p.c. higher
than that of the Black Sea, as regards the number of vessels,
and 20 p.c. as regards the tonnage.

Bulgaria has sixteen ports, of which seven are on the Black
Sea and nine on the Danube. The two principal ports on
the Black Sea are those of Varna and Bourgas, and those on
the Danube are Roustchouk and Sistova.

The relative importance of those ports, as regards their
shipping, is shown by the following figures :

The port of Bourgas receives 37*53 p.c. of the general shipping
of the Black Sea, as regards the number of vessels, and
40*47 p.c. of the tonnage. The traffic of this port, as
compared with the general shipping of the country (the
Danube and the Black Sea), corresponds to 9*93 p.c. of the
number of ships, and to i6'ii p.c of the tonnage.

The port of Varna occupies the second place, with 24*82 p.c.
of the total shipping of the Black Sea, as regards the number

FOREIGN COMMERC^ 269

of vessels, and 48'67 p.c. of the tonnage. It takes 6*56 p.c.
of the total shipping of the country, as regards the number of
vessels, visiting it, and icfyj p.c. of the tonnage.

The port of Roustchouk comes next, with 1376 p.c. of the
total number of ships, and 1272 p.c. of the tonnage, as
regards the shipping on the Danube, and with io'i2 p.c. and
7*66 respectively as regards the total shipping of the coimtry.

The port of Sistova occupies the last place, with I3'36 p.c.
of the number of ships, and 12*64 p.c. of the tonnage, as
regards the shipping in the Danube, and with 974 p.c. and
7*6i p.c. respectively of the total shipping of Bulgaria.

Roustchouk, therefore, occupies the first place as r^ards
the number of ships which annually visit its port, while the
first place as regards the tonnage of the vessels falls to
the port of Varna.

270

BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

AV£RAG£ DURING

FLAG.

1895

1-1899.

Bulgarian

saU
steam

Number.

1. 186

373

of total.

44*97

591

Tonnage.

45.711

331.417

Percent
of total.
22*26

1035

Aost-Hongarian .

saU
steam

4.338

2-l6
66-98

31.965
I.31O.538

10*70
58-60

Russian

sail
steam

10
1.093

0-38
17-33

1,126
382,507

o*55
12-63

Turkish

sail

steam

1. 137
115

4374
1-82

53.057
57.650

25-84
2-58

saU
steam

79
162

3-00
357

30.027
33.334

4-62
I-04

Greek ....

sail
steam

159
107

6-03
1-69

47.353
49.334

33*06

2-20

F.wgliah ....

saa
steam

5
166

0-19
3-63

1.624

301.353

079
9-00

German

saU
steam

I
26

0*04
0-41

225

33.754

o*ii
I'Si

French . . .

sail
steam

3
37

o-ii
043

943
31.346

0*46
1-40

Italian ....

saU
steam

027
©•i6

3.113
10. 1 10

i-Si
0-4S

Other nationalities

sail
steam

O'll

o-o8

305
5.336

o*io
0*24

Total foreign .

saU
steam

1.451
5.939

55-03
94-09

159.636
2.005.052

7774
«9-6s

Total Bulgarian and foreign .

{

sail
steam

3.637
6.313

100*00

lOO'OO

305,347
2.236.469

100-00
100-00

Total Bulgarian and foreign

sail and
steam

8.949

—

2.441.816

—

FOREIGN COMMERCE

271

TIIK PERIODS

MORE OR LESS DURING THE PERIOD
1900-1904.

190C

Per cen» .
of tolul.

^1904.

Ntimber.

Tonna«re.

E'er cent,
of total.

Number.

Per cent.

Tonnage.

Per cent.

2,000

58-16

61,376

21-17

814

68-63

15.665

34-27

306

3-31

138.920

5*14

—

17-96

—

92.497

39-97

143

416

58,104

20-04

150-88

36.139

164-53

6,155

66-65

1.594.370

5902

1,927

45-58

283,832

21-66

0'20

1,209

042

—

3000

7'37

1*334

14-45

297.194

ii-oo

241

22-05

14.687

520

872

2536

34.920

12*04

—

255

22-63

—

18,137

34-18

087

29.539

1-09

—

3043

—

28,111

48-76

120

3'49

42.453

14*64

51-90

12,426

41-38

776

8-40

56.075

2-08

614

379-01

32.841

141-35

249

724

74.269

25-62

56-60

26.917

56-84

258

279

132,126

4-89

151

141-I2

82.802

167-87

032

5.134

I' 77

12000

3.510

216-13

i54

1-67

224,749

8-32

—

7-23

23.396

11-62

032

3.029

105

lOOO'OO

2.804

1246*22

114

1-23

154.901

574

338-46

121.147

358-91

o*o6

1,152

0-40

—

33-33

210

22*29

0-37

41.808

1-55

25-93

10.552

33-80

049

7.974

275

142-86

4.861

156*15

o-i6

18,312

0-68

50-00

8.202

81-13

0*20

296

o-io

133-33

44-39

O'lO

13.325

0-49

80-00

7.989

149*72

1.439

41-84

228,540

78-83

0-83

68,904

43-16

8.929

9669

2.562,399

94-86

-♦•

2,990

50-35

557.347

27*80

3.439

100-00

289,916

lOOOO

802

30-41

84.569

41*18

9.235

lOO'OO

2,701,319

lOO'OO

2,923

46-31

464.850

20*58

12.674

—

2,991.235

—

3.725

41-67

549.419

22*50

272

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

IN THE BLACK SEA.

FI-AG.

|saU
\ steam

Namber.

1.278
220

Per cent,
oftoul.

Tonna^.

Per cent,
of total.

Bulgarian

5955
I8'26

26.766
138.319

4371
12-25

Aast-Hungarian .

rsaU
\ steam

220

o-oo
18-26

281,036

O-OO

24-88

Russian.

rsaU
\ steam

106

014
8-8o

250
94.464

0-41
8-36

Turkish.

/sail
\ steam

832
80

3877
664

30.163
29.539

49-26

2-6i

Roumanian .

/sail
\ steam

2
2

0*09
0'i6

470
969

077

0-09

Greek ....

rsail
\ steam

29
251

20*83

3.176
131.889

11-69

English.

rsaU
\ steam

154

005

1278

4
224.749

o-oi

19-90

rsaU
\ steam

114

9-46

154.901

1372

French ....

fsaU
\ steam

o-oo

2-82

179
41.808

0*39

370

Italian ....

rsail
\ steam

I
15

0-05
1-24

224

18.304

0-36
I -62

Other nationaUties

rsaU
Isteam

07s

13.325

118

Total foreign

fsaU
\ steam

868
985

40-45
8174

34.466
990.984

56-29
877s

Total Bulgarian and f oreigi

i /sail
' I steam

2.146
1.205

loo-oo
100-00

61,232
1.129.303

100-00
100*00

FOREIGN COMMERCE

273

ON THE DANUBE.

BY THE BLACK SEA
Per cent.

BY THE DANUBE.
Per cent.

Number.

722
86

143
5.935

4
X.228

118
774

220
7

16
o

571
7.944

1.393
80^0

Per cent,
of total.

55-84
I 07

1 1 '06
73*91

031
1529

309

913
9-64

17-02
0*09

077

0-85

0-15

1-24
O'OO

0-54

4416
98-93

lOO'OO

100*00

Tonna^.

34.611
601

58.103
I.313.335

959
202,730

4.757

41.983
55.105

71.093
236

5.130

3.029
973

7.750
o

Per cent,
of total

number.

296

194.073

1. 571.415

228,684
1.572,016

15-13
0*04

25-41
8354

0-42
12*89

208

18*36
3-51

3109
0*02

2*24

1-32

0-43

3-39

O'OO

0*13

84-87
9996

lOO'OO
lOO'OO

63*90
71-90

o-oo
3-57

42*86
7*95

95-41

lOO'OO

1-67
0-26

11*65
97-29

909

100*00

0*00
100*00

5*88
100*00

100*00

60-32

11*04

62*40

By
tonnafe.

numner.

43'6l
99-57

0*00
17-63

20-68
31-79

86*38
100*00

I'll
i'73

4*28
99-82

0*08
100*00

15-54

lOO'OO

2*81
9996

100*00

14-45
38-67

21*12

13*05 41-81

36*10
28*10

lOO'OO
9643

57-14
92-05

4-59

9833
99*74

88*35
2*71

90-91

100*00

xoo*oo

94*12

O'OO

100*00

39-68
8896

37-60
86-95

tonnage.

5639
0-43

100-00
82*37

79-32
68-21

13*62

98-89
98-27

95*72
0-18

99*92

100*00

84*46

97*19
0*04

100*00

85-55
61-33

78*88
58*19

CHAPTER VII
BANKING INSTITUTIONS

I. Bulgarian National Bank

The Bulgarian National Bank was founded in virtue of a
decree rendered by Prince Dondoukoff Korsakoff, Imperial
Russian Commissioner, on January 25th, 1879, and started
its transactions on June 6th of the same year.

According to its statutes, which were confirmed by the
Imperial Commissioner, the Bulgarian National Bank, con-
sidered as a State institution, received a capital of 2,000,000
levs (francs) in gold, which has since been increased by the
capitalisation of the annual profits.

The statutes withheld from the bank the right to issue
bank-notes. This precaution was deemed necessary at a time
when the population of the country had lost all faith in the
Turkish paper money, which was to such an extent depre-
ciated that a Turkish pound (100 piastres in gold) fetched as
much as 1,100 to 1,200 piastres in paper money.

It was to be expected that at the beginning the bank
found it difl&cult to invest profitably either its own capital
or the money which private persons had deposited into it.
The various banking transactions had not yet attained the
development of the present day, and for some time the bank
was more like a deposit bank than a discount institution.

In 1883, when trade in the country began to revive and

274

'■:]

BANKING INSTTTtmONS 275

the Government realised that the capital of the bank was
not sufficient to meet the needs of the population, a bill
was introduced in the National Assembly having for its object
to transform the Bulgarian National Bank into a limited
liability company, with a capital of 12,000,000 francs, of
which the Government was to contribute one-third, while the
remaining two-thirds were to be covered by public subscrip-
tion. The bill also secured to the bank the right to issue
bank-notes payable at sight.

The bill passed the chamber, and in due course became
law. But, owing to all sorts of circumstances, the proposed
alteration could not be carried out, and the bank remained
what it originally was— a State bank.

In 1885 the National Assembly altered the statutes of
1879 as regards the capital of the bank, which, from 3 J million
francs — ^this sum had been reached owing to the capitalisa-
tion of the interests during the seven years — ^was raised to
10,000,000 francs. The difference was to be supplied by
the State Treasury. The new statutes reserved to the
Bulgarian National Bank the excliisive privilege of issuing
bank-notes.

The altered regime of the bank as settled by the new
statutes was inaugurated oh September ist, 1885, but in
consequence of grave political events of the period, the union
between Northern and Southern Bulgaria and the Servo-
Bulgarian war, the bank did not properly begin all the trans-
actions which the new statutes had sanctioned until February
1886. The political situation, fortunately, improved very
quickly, and, the country having resumed its normal existence,
commerce and industry entered on a period of development
and progress. The commercial relations of the country
with other states acquired a special importance, and this
circumstance greatly increased the demand for credit. The
bank did all that its modest means allowed to second the

276 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

efforts of the commercial and industrial part of the com-
munity. Soon^ however^ the capital of the bank became
manifestly insufficient. In order not to fail in the task
which it had undertaken, the bank procured foreign capital,
which was the more readily advanced as the interest which
the bank offered to pay was relatively a high one (7 p.c.
on deposits for a period of ^at least five years). On the other
hand, the confidence with which the bank, as a State in-
stitution, inspired the population enabled it to extend the
issue of bank-notes. As a result of the law of 1886, the
bank contracted with the Deutsche Bank of Berlin a loan
which was guaranteed by the emission of mortgage pre-
ference shares to the nominal sum of 10,000,000 francs.
A further issue of similar preference shares for the nominal
value of 10,000,000 francs followed in 1893.

Provided with an increased capital, the bank quickly
developed its discounting transactions, and rendered great
assistance to the departments and communes, as well as to
private persons, by advancing them loans on mortgage.
Thanks to these mortgage loans, a great number of our
towns were reorganised and their hygienic conditions im-
proved.

In proportion as its operations developed, the progress
of the bank grew steadier. It placed its capital at the
disposal of the commercial and industrial sections of the
population, and thus rendered them inestimable services.
Owing to its powerful protection, many of the conunercial,
industrial and banking establishments were started which,
in their turn, contributed so much to the economical develop-
ment of the Principality.

The following tables contain a summary of the operations
of the Bulgarian National Bank since its reorganisation in
1885 until 1904.

BANKING INSTITUTtONS

CO ts to

ON M C^

CO c< t>.

g> H « g^ «,

N CO
N M
t% CO

O* '^ Q ON VD ON "^
'^ tn M H «

ts f) 00 H
CO On m CO

I 8

O w

H^ ^ *t.
On CO m"

lO C« ON O
H ON lO vO
t>. M CI O

CO CO
H M

t^ H 00 H
00 vb H 00
t>. Tn '^ H

N VO
CO M

5 H^ O^ vO^ IN 4; Tt; 00^

^ Cn CO m" cR On vo" t>.

S CO H M
O

vO CO H e*

H vO On H
U^ to "^ CO

c»

§1

t>. lO t^ , ,

lO t>. to ON ip

On lO t^ in O^

M* CO CO '^ tC

CO CO ^ 00 ON

s- I a «f I vS* 3-

■g

N « H

CO 00 N M

m ip ip do

M vO

•S 43 *! j<

III

6 0^ & ^ i S i

278

BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

. 888888888888 8- 888

g \B « Ir» q «o CK 00 « oo f«^ «7 "^^ « cK ^ ^

K « 00 O
00 ^«^ d c«

BANKING INSTITUTIONS 279

ORGANISATION AND ADMINISTRATION

The central seat of the Bulgarian National Bank is in
Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria.

The bank has branches in Roustchouk, Varna, Plovdiv,
Timova, and Bourgas. It has agencies in Viddin, Plevna,
Sistova and Sliven.

The branches of the Bulgarian Agricultural Bank in the
various district centres act as correspondents of the Bulgarian
National Bank.

The administration of the bank is vested in an Adminis-
trative Council, which is appointed by the Prince, and consists
of a governor and four administrators.

The management of the branches is entrusted to directors,
who are also appointed by the Prince.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE BANK

The Bulgarian National Bank deals with the following
transactions ;

1. Accepts deposits from public institutions and private
persons, redeemable at terms or on demand, and bearing
interest or not.

2. Advances loans, secured by mortgages, to private
persons, or to the departments and communes.

3. Advances loans on security of bills, goods, or bills of
lading.

4. Accepts uncovered current accounts.

5. Discounts commercial bills and Treasury bonds.

6. Accepts and collects commercial bills.

7. Delivers letters of credit and pays their value on pre-
sentation.

8. Buys and seUs securities for its clients.

9. Accepts on deposit all kinds of securities.

280 BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

10. Receives the State revenues and effects governmental
payments to the extent of these revenues.

11. In the last place, the bank undertakes to supply
information concerning merchants.

The bank has the right to issue bank-notes up to a sum
which must in no case surpass the triple of its capital and
reserve fund^ and provided it has in its vaults^ in bullion,
at least one-third of the value of the bank-notes in circulation.

The bank-notes actually in circulation are divided into
seven series : 5-franc notes, lo-franc notes, 20-franc notes,
and loo-franc notes, in gold, and 5, 10, and 50-franc notes
in silver.

According to the statutes, the net profits of the National
Bulgarian Bank are distributed as follows :

10 per cent, to the reserve fund.

3 per cent, as premiums for the Administrative Council
and the functionaries.

87 per cent, for the Bulgarian Government.
The interest which the Bulgarian National Bank pays on
the sums deposited with it is :

4 per cent, on deposits for five years.
3 per cent, on deposits for three years.
2 per cent, on deposits for one year.

An interest of i per cent, is paid on unlimited deposits
and on current accounts bearing interest.

If the sums deposited belong to bankers no interest is paid.

The bank charges 8 per cent, interest on its mortgage
loans, and 7 per cent, on loans guaranteed by aU kinds of
securities.

2. The Bulgarian Agricultural Bank

The Bulgarian Agricultural Bank owes its' origin to an
institution dating from the time of the Turkish domination.

BANKING INSTITUTIONS 281

In 1863 Midhat Pasha^ Governor of the Danubian Vilayet,
prepared a scheme for the creation of " urban " banks, which
were intended to assist the rural population. The scheme
having been approved by the Turkish Government, several
of these banks were established in the course of the same
year. The peasants were allowed to repay in kind the loans
which were advanced to them, the banks themselves selling
the agricultural products. With the object of increasing the
capital of the banks, a special tax was introduced obliging
the farmers to hand every year to these institutions part of
their produce in kind.

When it was realised that these banks were of great service
to the rural population, to which they advanced money
at 12 per cent, interest— instead of 30-100 per cent., as the
usurers generally did— the Turkish Government extended
the reform to the whole empire, and obliged the peasants^
to create similar banks in all the district centres.

According to their statutes one-third of the net profits of
these banks were destined for works of public utility, such
as bridges, roads, fountains, schools, etc., while the remaining
two-thirds went to increase the capital of the banks.

On the eve of the creation of the Principality, these banks
dealt in three kinds of transactions : personal loans, loans
on securities, and mortgage loans.

During the Russo-Turkish war, several of these banks lost
their fortunes, the functionaries of the Turkish Government
having carried away all the funds, as weU as the securities
and other property belonging to the banks' clients. After
the war, the debtors refused to pay, and only part of the
property of the banks was restored, by means of the issue of
new bonds. Owing to the destruction or loss of the registers
and other documents, it has been impossible to determine
the exact condition of the banks at that period.

On June 20th, 1879, ^^ Provisional Russian Adminis-

282 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

tration published new regulatioDS applying to the urban
banks of Northern Bulgaria, which were then for the first
time called " agricultural banks."

According to the disposition of these new regulations, the
agricultural banks had to look for their clients among the
agricultural classes^ The i^et profits from the sale of the
agricultural products were, as before, reserved for the in-
crease of the funds of the banks.

The first legislative enactment placing these agricultural
banks on a firm foundation was the law of December 23rd,
1894, which entrusted their administration to a special
department of the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture.
Three years later (February 24th, 1897), another law created
an Administrative Council, consisting of a director and of
two councillors, in which the management of the agricultural
banks was vested.

By 1895, these banks had greatly enlarged their trans-
actions, and secured the representation of the Bulgarian
National Bank in those places where it had no branches of
its own. In the following year, they concluded abroad a
loan of 30,000,000 frs., at 5 per cent, interest, of which only
five-sixths have been issued. By means of this capital,
the banks have been able to greatly extend their business,
and have now become the soul of the rural economy of our
country.

These agricultural banks are now regulated by the law of
December 31st, 1903, which gave them the name of Bulgarian
Agricultural Bank, as well as by the law of March 24th,
1905. Its capital amounts to 35,000,000 frs., to which
are added the annual profits. 25 per cent, of these latter are,
however, reserved for the advancement of the different
branches of agriculture.

BANKING INSTITUTIONS 283

ORGANISATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE BANK

The Central Administration of the Agricultural Bank is
in So£a.

The bank has branches in 85 district centres, and agencies
in 75 of the more important villages of Bulgaria.

The administration is entrusted to an Administrative
Council which consists of a governor and of four adminis-
trators, who are appointed by the Prince. At the head of
every branch there is a director, who also is appointed by the
Prince.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE BANK

The principal transactions of the bank are as follows :

1. Accepts deposits.

2. Advances loans, guaranteed by mortgage or securities.

3. Advances loans, guaranteed by goods, cattle, seeds,
agricultural produce.

4. Advances to farmers sums for buying cattle, seeds, and
agricultural implements.

5. Advances personal loans.

6. Opens uncovered current accounts to farmers and co-
operative societies.

7. Buys, for the account of farmers and at their request,
agricultural implements, machines, cattle, and seeds.

8. Advances to the departments and conmiunes loans,
destined for the amelioration of the rural economy of the
country.

9. Collects the value of commercial bills.

10. Transfers bills.

11. Accepts various deposits.

The interests which the bank pays or charges are fixed
as follows :

284 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

5 p.c. interest per annum on deposits for five years.

4 P'C. „ „ „ „ „ „ three years.

3 pc „ „ „ „ „ „ one year.

The bank pays i per cent, interest on deposits left for
unlimited terms up to 50,000 frs., beyond which sum no
interest is allowed.

The interest charged on loans guaranteed by the deposit
of securities, is 6 p.c. per annum, on mortgage loans, 7 p.c,
and on loans with personal guarantees, 8 p.c.

The tables on pages 285-86 will give the reader an idea
of the progress which the bank has made since 1881.

3. Insurance Companies

There are at present two native insurance companies and
five foreign ones, which are doing business in Bulgaria.

Those foreign insurance' companies which want to extend
their operations to the Principality must deposit a security,
consisting of a sum of money or in bonds, and that for the
whole period during which they transact business in Bulgaria.
Besides, they must comply with the prescriptions of the
commercial code bearing on the subject of insurance com-
panies.

The native companies are relieved from the obligation of
depositing any security. These companies are : " Balkan "
and " Bulgaria."

'* BALKAN " NATIONAL INSURANCE COMPANY

This company, whose central seat is in Sofia, was founded
in 1895. It has a capital of 2,000,000 francs, of which
1,500,000 have been paid in. The number of shares at the
time of its foundation was 20,000, including the foimders'
shares, of which there were 7,500. Each share is worth 100
francs nominally.

BANKING INSTITUTIONS

285

»r> CO

H 00
CO "^

10 00 ON 10 10

H C« H H CO
H CI VO -^ CI

t^ m M CO

in 00

CO
CO

^ s

«r»

•*•

■Sf

t>j CO

■«:

£?

00 H

t>* m m g\ CO c«

^ vp vo vp M qp

VO
CI

vp O

ON CO

CO |>j CO Ci

CO of h"

d VO H

CO
H

m o

O
CO

<*?

ON
M
CO

VO"

I I I 2^ I I t I I I

vO"

286

BULGAMA OF TO-DAY

1 .8 :r!;-2'

tn t*^ ro «n lANO fO^O ^

, rooO O *0

O ^ «n 1^ O

00 O •-•

■ail a ^

8|.||^^

^f»»00> «*>«^0^ »N.« •^OO'* ooo

0\ O ^ -t

00 u^ 00 00

«5

■» I

\0 «<0 V) M

8^ fl ^

BANKING INSTITUTIONS 287

In 1895, the company " Balkan " entered into an agreement
with two of the insurance companies which were at that time
in operation in Bulgaria, namely : " Dacia Romania " and
"National." In virtue of this agreement, the portfolio
of these companies, as regards fire insurances, was on Sep-
tember 1st, 1905 handed over to the " Balkan," this latter
company assuming their rights and liabilities as regards
their clients in Bulgaria.

At the beginning of 1896, the " Balkan " included in its
operations life insurances, the same two companies ceding
to it shortly afterwards all the insurances of this kind which
Ihey had accepted in Bulgaria.

During the following year another and the last branch
of the business of the company " Dacia Romania,"
that concerning mutual associations, passed over to the
" Balkan."

Finally, in 1897, the company "Balkan" stiU further
strengthened its position as a first-class insurance company.
The General Insurance Company " Otetchestro," of Sofia,
transferred to the "Balkan" its portfolio and shares,
viz. : 20,000 shares of 50 francs each and 10,000 new
shares of 50 francs in gold each, wholly paid up. In
return, the " Balkan " undertook to pay 25 francs in gold
for every share of the original stock which had been issued
at 75 frs. In consequence of this transaction, the " Balkan "
had, at the beginning of 1897, 30,000 shares of 100 francs
each, of which 50 per cent, had been called in. The capital
of the company remained 1,500,000 frs., as it had originally
been fixed.

About the same period the "Balkan" undertook an
inquiry in Macedonia with a view of extending its business.
The results having proved encouraging, it began from 1898
to contract insurances in that province.

A special law of 1898 included the shares of the company

288 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

" Balkan " in the list of securities which are accepted by
the State institutions.

Until 1897 the work of the company was restricted to the
following three departments : fire and life insurances, and
insurance against damage done by hail. Since then, however,
it has created three new branches : insurance against acci-
dents, insurance of transports, and reinsurance.

The progress made by the company "Balkan" will be
seen from the following table, which gives the dividends
distributed to the shareholders from 1896 to 1904 :

Dividend on

Ordinary

•harea.

18*50 frs.

l8'00 „
1800 „

16*00 „
i6*oo „
16*00 „

1200 „

14*00 „
1400 „

THE FIRST BULGARIAN INSURANCE COMPANY " BULGARIA "

The central seat of this company is in Roustchouk.
The " Bulgaria " was founded in 1891, and began its work with
a capital of 1,000,000 francs, distributed in 10,000 shares of
100 francs each. In consequence of a decision of the general
assembly of the shareholders, held on November 29th, 1891,
the capital was increased in 1892 by 500,000 francs, by means
of the issue of 5,000 new shares of 100 frs. each, which were
allotted at a premium of 15 frs. per share. The profit re-

Year

Dividend on

Founder's

abMna.

1896

22-50 fr.

1897

2250 „

1898

2200 „

1899

1900 „

1900

19-50 „

I9OI

I95O „

1902

1400 „

1903

1680 „

1904

1680 „

BANKING INSTITUTIONS

289

suiting from this operation was added to the assets of the
company.

The bye-laws of the company were altered in the comse
of 1898. The modifications touched on the mode of dis-
tribution of the net profits and on the internal administration.
The company was also authorised to raise its capital to
2,000^000 frs., but no use has been made thus far of this
power, the capital remaining 1,500,000 frs.

During its first years, the company "Bulgaria" dealt
exclusively in insurance against fire, investing its free capital
in loans which were secured by mortgages. In 1897, how-
ever, it began to contract life insurances, while in 1897 it
included in its operations insurances against accidents, and
insurances of transport.

Since •1896 the company has been doing a considerable
amount of business in Turkey, where it has several agencies.

The high rate at which the shares of the " Bulgaria" are
quoted, as well as the importance of the dividends which it
annually pays, are sufficient justification of the high esteem
in which this company, together with that other native in-
surance company, the " Balkan," is held.

The following list contains the dividends which have been
distributed to the shareholders of the "Bulgaria" from 1892
until 1904 :

Yew

Dividends
per share.

Year.

DiTidends
per share.

1892

fr. (gold) 7-80

1899

fr. (gold) 20-00

1893

12-00

1900

20'00

1894

i6-oo

I9OI

20-00

1895

18-00

1902

20-00

1896

19*00

1903

20-00

1897

2300

1904

20-00

1898

20-00

2g0 BITLGARIA OP TO-DAY

The shares of the " Bulgaria '* are now quoted at 245 frs.
(gold) per share.

The shares of the "Bulgaria/' as those of the "Balkan/'
are accepted by all State institutions as legal security.

FOREIGN INSURANCE COMPANIES

The foreign companies now operating in Bulgaria are as
follows :

" New York " Life Insurance Company.

" Union " Insurance Company against fire.

" Phoenix " Insurance Company^ London.

" Anchor " (Der Anker, Gesellschaft fiir Lebens* und Renten-
versicherungen in Wien).

" Assicurazioni Generali/' of Trieste.

The Insurance Company "New York" has been doing
business in Bulgaria since 1887. It only accepts life in-
surances. The Bulgarian branch has its seat in Sofia^ and is
subordinate to the General Agency of the "New York" for
Europe^ whose offices are in Paris.

The Company " Union " has been represented in Sofia since
1897. Like the " New York/' it only contracts life insurances.

The Sofia branch is under the immediate control of the
central Administration in Paris.

The " Phoenix " deals exclusively in fire insurances^ and
has agencies in Sofia and Varna.

The " Anchor " contracts all kinds of insurances. It is one
of the oldest insurance companies in Bulgaria. Its general
agency is in Sofia.

Finally^ the " Assicurazioni Generali/' which has only
lately been established in Sofia^ contracts life and fire
insurances. The General Agency for Bulgaria is in Sofia.

BANKING iNSTirunoNs agi

4. Savings Banks

The creation of post office savings banks is due io a law
which was passed in 1885, and has since been repealed
by the law of 1896. The Bulgarian Government acts as
guarantor of the savings banks. The sums which may be
deposited in the savings banks vary from i fr. to 2^000 frs.,
this latter sum being the highestwhich the banks can accept.
An exception to this rule is mad^ in favour of charitable funds
or friendly societies^ which are allowed to deposit sums up to
5»ooo frs. The sums may be deposited either in the name of
the person who pays them in, or in that of a third party,
generally a minor. Every depositor receives, free of charge,
a book in which the sums deposited are entered by means
of special stamps, which are affixed to the book and initialled
by the responsible official. Provided with this book, the
depositor may apply to any post office in the Principality,
which is bound to pay him the required sum, entering the
disbursement on the corresponding page.

AU the funds of the savings banks are deposited by the
post offices or by the State comptrollers in the Bulgarian
National Bank. The Bank pays the savings banks an
interest of 4} per cent, per annum, of which 4 per cent, goes
to the depositors, while the remaining } p.c. is retained to
cover the expenses of the administration of the savings banks.

No embargo may be placed on sums deposited with the
savings banks.

Such are, briefly, the dispositions of the law whkh regulates
the savings banks at the present time.

The savings banks have, from the very first, met with a
favourable reception on the part of the population. Without
entering into further details, we reproduce some figures from
the official report of the Administration of Posts and Tele-
graphs for the year 1906. This table will, better than all

292

BULGARIA OP TODAY

BANKING INSTITUTIONS 293

comments, give an idea of the importance of these institu-
tions and of their present financial situation.

The number of books issued in the course of 1905 reached
26,190. The sums deposited during the same year amounted
to 18,032,022 francs, distributed between 198,876 difEerent
payments. These figures, compared with the corresponding
figures of the previous years, testify to the rapid development
of the savings banks. Thus, in 1903, the number of books
issued was 17,786, and the sums paid in 10,446,333 francs,
while in 1904 they were respectively 24,090 and 14,866,737
francs. So that in the course of two years there was an
increase of 8,404 as regards the number of books issued,
and of 7,585,689 francs as regards the sums deposited.

The law regulating the savings banks authorises them
to acquire State securities on behalf of their clients. At
the beginning of 1904 the savings banks had invested in
this class of security a sum of 8,124,500 francs, consisting
of 16,249 bonds, 500 francs each, of the 6 per cent, mortgage
loan of 1892. In the course of that year they invested in
the same securities a further sum of 800,000 francs. The
capital of the savings banks at present invested in State
securities amounts to 15,424,500 francs.

The total capital of the savings banks is about 34,000,000
francs.

The official statistics contam some interesting data as
regards the social condition of the clients of the savings
banks. About 75*87 p.c. of the depositors, or 117,207, are
men, of whom 49*21 p.c. are married, and the rest bachelors.
The women depositors, who number 37,314, form 24*23 p.c.
of the total number of clients. The majority of them,
58*94 p.c, are married, the remainder being spinsters. As
regards their age, 70 p.c. of the depositors are of full age, and
30 p.c.« minors. Nearly 87 p.c. of the depositors act on their
own behalf, and 13 p.c on behalf of third parties, mostly minors.

J94 BULGARIA OF TO-DAY

With respect to their piofessioiis^ the dqxisitois were
djstribated in the foUowiiig proportion : married women
ia*54 p.c., artisans 14*55 p.c., state functionaries 13*93 p.c.,
servants 9*51 p.c, agricnltnrists 5*65 p.c.^ students 8*45 p.c,
infants bebw the age of seven 5*16 p.c.^ merchants 575 p.c.,
military profession 5-93 p.c., teachers 5*84 p.c., workmen
3*28 p.c., liberal professbns 4*26 p.c., priests 0*47 p.c, and
various other professions 4*68 p.c.

The total numbed of depositors during 1906 was i54«S3i,
distributed as follows :

Artisans 22,484, or 14-55 per cent.

Functionaries 2i,53i >i I3'93 >i »

Harried women Z9>386 ,, 12*54

Servants ^figz „ 9*51

Students i3i06o „ 845

Soldiers 9,175 „ 5*93

Teachers 9,026 „ 5*84

Tradesmen 8,883 „ 5*75

Farmers and breeders . . 8,732 „ 5*65

Children 7,961 „ 5-16

Liberal professions 6,588 „ 4*26

Miscellaneous 4>476 n 2*89

Workmen 4,778 „ 3*10

Societies and reading-rooms . . 815 „ 0-53

Clergymen 718 „ 0*47

Wine and fruit growers .. 759 „ 0*49
State institutions and com-
munal administrations 444 „ 0*29
Schools and ecclesiastical com-
mittees 430 „ 0*28

Charitable societies 326 „ o'2i

Fishermen 150 „ 0*10

Private industrial societies 93 „ o'o6

Silk-worm and bee-keepers 14,, O'oz „

» 9»

99 l»

Total I54i52i „ 100 per cent

BANXmO INSTITUTIONS

395

As regards their nationality the depositors were distributed
as follows :

22^294, or 92*55 per cent.

Bulgarians. «

Jews

Greeks

Armenians

Turks

Austro-Hungarians

Roumanians

The remaining 0*88 per cent, belonged to the various other
nationalities of the Principality.

The service of savings banks has been introduced in almost
all the post and telegraph offices in the country.

The table given on pages 296-97 shows the operations of
the various savings banks during the period 1896-1905.

834 .,

3-47

249 »

1-03

106 „

0-82

14a «

0-59

88 „

0-36

74 »

0*30

5. Monetary System op Bulgaria

The monetary units which have been adopted by Bulgaria
are the hv (having the value of one franc) and the sioHnka
(centime)^ being the hundredth part of a lev.

For some years after the creation of the Principality^
the Govenmient found it impossible to introduce any national
coins. It had to tolerate the circulation of all kinds of
ioteiga money — Servian, Roumanian, Russian, etc., coins
which inundated the market.

In 1881 the Government put into circulation two million
francs of Bulgarian copper money, but these, as well as the
twelve mJUion of silver money which were issued in 1883-1884,
proved quite insufficient to drive away the foreign money,
so that the latter continued to be used in all commercial
transactions. It was not until 1887 that the Government
prohibited the circulation of Servian and Roumanian coins^

BULGARIA OP TO-DAY

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF TRANSACTIONS OF THE POST OFFICE

Van.

tevtntf

bUlt

faODiS,

Depo^tL

WltkdiAw&li.

TotaJ-

Pt,

iraBiiittil 7x*

Ci.

it96

8,x86

—

8,x86

a7.a36

i.35«.693

6,888

535,5«7

—

1897

9.590

9.554

5S.783

S.a37/)«6

S5ri34

3,o6z.7o6

»5

5.640

3,ZOO

7,740

X898

xx,67o

ISO

",550

75.043

4*663,529

47,m6

S.696,833

10,864

3.4X0

X3,a74

Z899

xx,9X7

340

".577

83,8ax

5.547,953

70.333

4.9«6,8ox

X5.895

a»743

X8.638

Z900

Z3,8ax

494

xa,3a7

90.963

6,346.605

76,309

5,559.a«6'

19,358

S,XX5

*«.373

X90X

X5,a53

65a

X4,6ox

"4.675

8,195,506

85.741

6^z,93z

M>949

3.403

•6,35a

X9oa

X7,048

745

16,303

131,503

9.339.585

96.630

8,188,560

•9.374

3.778

33.X5a

X903

17.786

846

16,940

Z39.56Z

10,446,333

95.467

7,943.581

33.880

4.079

39.959

1904

ao.090

XfXaz

18.969

176,587

14.866,735

105,873

10^03,063

43,338

5,053

47,i8o

1905

36,z6o

i,ao4

«4.956

198,876

|i8,03a,oaa

xsz,35o

ia,75«.i5o;

54,3x7

5,367

59.654

Total

130,5^1

1.5S*

J4B.963

101,850

*i,9*7,9*o

73ij^9

63,538,363

336.405

33,0x7

•68,4«a

BANKING INSTITUTIONS

297

SAVINGS BANKS DURING THE YEARS 1896-1905 INCLUSIVELY

ATOsn

Amaaaxdt

The KTcmge per
l«m of

■tc dtottibu-

tiaa.

Total fmn.

Increase as compared

with the previoiu

year.

•*ii

Fr.
49

Fr.
77

Fr.

165

Ct.
«4

Fr.
65

Ct.
41

InhiOjitants.

Fr.

Ct.

SS"

Fr.

Ct.

404

zax

480

43,3x0

x;B88,aao

—

z8a

x86

X30

96,547

5,398.793

54,337

3,410,573

7«

i5«

xa5

xxa

X47,ai3

8,360,351

50,666

3,o6x,559

«35

xao

184.608

10,464,753

37,395

a,xo4,4oa

«9

XX7

X04

4«

aoa,366

xx,8o5,83x

17,758

1,341,077

xao

a4a,oax

14,677,437

39,655

3,87X,595

IXZ

a78,335

x7,538,o85

36,314

8,850,658

«3

X03

393,573

18,389,914

14,336

86x,829

«4

«9

9«

358,8a9

35,368,798

61,358

687,883

X05

xaz

«7

406,040

30,784,173

53,3IX

5,515,374

133

X05

a.a58,04a

144,466,348

36,373

3.370,495 37

Av^x^^ Cc

IT al

1 the

y™

AveraGC iax oil tlie {

298 BULGAUA OP TO-DAT

while in 1887 the same measure was extended to the Russian
roubles.

The following table contains the years during which the
various Bulgarian coins were issued :

Ni^el money.

Ymn.

Ut in gold.

LtYinsaver.

Copper money.

1881

—

2,100,000

1883

—

10,000,000

—

1884

—

2,500,000

—

1885

—

7,130,000

—

j886

—

370,000

—

1888

—

1891

. —

8,000,000

—

1892

—

5,000,000

—

1894

3,000,000

12,000,000

—

1901

—

1,000,000

Total

3,000,000

45,000,000

3,100,000

3,000,000

Quite recently a further stock of nickel coins was put
in circulation.

The gold coins comprise pieces of 100, 20, and 10 levs.

The stock of silver money consists of coins of 5, 2, i, and
0*50 francs.

The stock of copper money consists of coins of 20, 10, 5, 2,
and I centimes.

The stock of nickel money consists of coins of 20, 10, 5, and
2'50 centimes.

The standard of Bulgarian money is -^nnr* ^ ^^^ ^^^^^
of the gold coins and the silver coins of 5 francs, and of ^^
in the case of the silver coins of 2, z, and 0*50 francs.

The weight of the gold and silver coins is the same as
that adopted by the Latin monetary convention, viz. :
6*4516 grammes in the 20- franc gold pieces, and 5 grammes
for the silver franc.

Standard.— Thid Bulgarian monetary system is based on

BANKING INSTITUTIONS 299

the double standard of gold and silver. There is almost
always a difference between the gold and the silver^ to the
advantage of the first. At present^ however^ the agio between
the two has practically disappeared.

No circulation of foreign silver or copper money is allowed
on Bulgarian territory. The gold coins of the countries
belonging to the Latin Union are received at their nominal
value. Thus, a piece of 20 frs. in gold is accepted in pay-
ment of 20 levs in gold. As for the other foreign gold coins^
their value is r^ulated by the following rate, which has
been established by the Government :

One pound sterling of 20 shillings

Eight Austrian florins

One Austrian ducat

Twenty German marks

One pound Turkish

One half Imperial of^ 5]

Russian roubles
One piece of 3 Russian/

roubles ) 1886 J = 12 „ „ 30

One Imperial of 10 Russian roubles

(issued after 1880) = 40 „ „ —

One Imperial of 15 Russian roubles

(issued after 1897) = 40 „ „ —

One piece of 10 Russian roubles

(issued after 1897) = 26 „ „ 50 „

The smaller gold coins of these countries are accepted at
proportionate values.

All the other foreign coins which are not included in the
convention of the Latin Union are also received in payment,
provided they belong to the metric system.

PrmiMl and bimnd by HaM§U, tVaitom & VimY, Ld., Lomdm and Aylt^bmy,

ings

= 25

levs

in gold

• • . .

= 20

. .

= II

„ 60 ct

• • • •

= 24

» 50 „

. .

= 22

„ 60 „

Issued

between

= 20

„ 50 „

1861 and

BALKAN STAT£S EXHIBITION
EARL*S COURT. 1907

* ^t S

FINE ART IN
BULGARIA

Supplement to "Bulgaria of To^dap^*

By AUDREY PROTITCH

LONDON

BULGARIAN MINISTRY OF COMMERCE
AND AGRICULTURE

1907

PBIHTBD BT

BAZBLL, WAIBOIC AMD VIITBT, LO.,

LONDON AND AYI.BSBUBT.

FINE ART IN BULGARIA

FOREIGN ARTISTS IN BULGARIA

The liberation of Bulgaria, which was not the result of the
sole efforts of the Bulgarian nation, brought about a radical
change in the life of the people^ and profoundly altered the
interests and the activities of the educated classes.

Whereas before the creation of the Principality the chief
object of these classes consisted in the intellectual awakening
of the Bulgarian nation, with the advent of political freedom,
secured through pressure of European and mainly English
public opinion and by foreign military intervention, the
almost exclusive attention of the Bulgarian Governments
and of the national leaders was directed towards the
political and economic uplifting of the oppressed " rayas "
of yesterday. All that was undertaken for the intellectual
advancement of the people during the first years after the
liberation was limited to the organisation of primary and
secondary education. Nor could it be otherwise so long as
the needs of the country in that respect continued to be the
most keenly felt. While there was still a lack of trained
men for the various governmental and municipal services,
any suggestion for patronising or encouraging the fine arts
would certainly have been left unheeded and relegated to the
domain of pious wishes.

4 FIMB ART IN BULGARIA

This was felt not only by the different Bulgarian Govern-
ments but even by those who, before the liberation of Bulgaria,
had devoted themselves to the cultivation of the fine arts,
and among whom the most prominent name is that of
Nicolas Pavlovitch (bom in Sistova in 1835 and died in
Sofia in 1849). Abandoning commerce, Pavlovitch had
graduated with great success at the academies of fine art
in Vienna (1856) and Munich (1859), ^^^' ^^^ visiting the
various museums in Dresden and Prague, had exhibited
during i860 in Belgrade, the then centre of Bulgarian emi-
grants and revolutionaries, two pictures whose subjects
had been suggested by ancient Bulgarian history. He then
went to St. Petersburg and Moscow, where, as he puts it,
" the inhabitants are not entirely absorbed in commerce and
money-making, but have an interest in the fine arts and are
given to intellectual pursuits." In 1861, however, we find
him back in his native country, where he endeavoured, by
means of his lithographs and pictures of subjects both ancient
and modem, to stimulate his compatriots to political and
intellectual life. He also tried to reform and modernise
church painting in accordance with the requirements of the
latest artistic technique, and made two unsuccessful attempts
at opening a school of painting, publishing with that purpose
a pamphlet under the title of " Establishment for Painting "
(printed in Roustchouk in 1867). He painted portraits^ and,
in the palace of the Pasha of Roustchouk, he illustrated a
Turkish history of the Janissaries. And yet, when Bulgaria
had regained her political freedom, instead of availing him-
self of the seemingly more favourable conditions in order to
pursue the realisation of his long-cherished ideals, he pre-
ferred to become a simple school inspector for a period of
seven years (1878-1885), believing that in this way he would
be most useful to his country. If a genuine artist arrived at
such a conclusion and willingly abandoned his fondest dreams^

FOREIGN ARTISTS IN BULGARIA 5

what could the fine arts expect from the Government or the
leaders of the nation, who were then faced with the task of
organising a newly created State and training a people,
weakened by five centuries of poUtical servitude, to the use
of freedom ?

But although the various Bulgarian administrations had
felt their main mission to consist in the organising of primary
and secondary education, perhaps for that very reason, and
because they performed their work well, they also rendered
imconsciously the greatest service to art.

The curriculum of the secondary schools provided that
drawing should be taught as an obligatory subject. There
were not as yet many Bulgarians who had been trained for
that particular work, while most of those who could have
undertaken it were called to more important positions. The
Bulgarian Government, under these circumstances, had no
other choice than to bring from abroad teachers of drawing,
just as it had done for other subjects. This practice was not
only followed during the first years after the liberation of the
Principality, but, as the dearth of native teachers continued
to be felt long after the Government had begun to send young
Bulgarians to study in the various European academies^ and
did not entirely disappear even after the State School of
Painting had been opened in Sofia in 1896, recourse had
still to be had to foreign teachers ; with this difference, how-
ever, that after this latter school had begun to provide the
secondary schools with drawing-masters, the foreign artists
engaged by the Government were destined to serve as pro-
fessors in the various departments of the School of Painting,
especially those reserved for art industries. The school,
although transformed in 1905 into an Academy, is as yet in
its infancy, and the assistance of foreigners is still needed in
those branches of art where native masters are lacking.

Besides the requirements of the educational establishments.

6 nWE ART IN BULGARIA

various other drcumstances contributed to the influx into
Bulgaria of foreign artists.

In 1885, during the Servo-Bulgarian war, several artists
visited the Principality as military correspondents and
artists for various illustrated papers, and were not content
with merely sending war-sketches, but availed themselves
of their sojourn in Bulgaria to borrow for their pictiures
subjects from Bulgarian history, scenery, and country life.
Other foreigners came with the object of opening private
schools for painting, or to try their luck, not as drawing-
masters or State functionaries, but as free artists whose
adventurous spirit had brought them to Bulgaria. The
most important representative of this latter dass of foreign
artists who made Bulgaria their temporary home was Haidou-
kevitch.

The foreign artists, those who had been invited by the
Bulgarian Government as well as those who had come on
their own account, brought with them an art which until then
had no representatives in Bulgaria.

Before the liberation the only form of art that existed
in Bulgaria was religious painting. This latter, however,
had become so petrified into old, traditional Byzantine
forms, and was carried on by people so ignorant and abso-
lutely devoid of artistic taste or education, that the pro-
ductions of this kind due to Vladislav Dospevsky (graduate
of the Academies of Kiev, Odessa and St. Petersburg) stand
quite apart, while the efforts of Nicolas Pavlovitch to reform
icon-painting remained without any appreciable results.
Besides the painting of icons, the best Bulgarian artists of
that period — such as Vladislav Dospevsky and Nicolas Pavlo-
vitch — ^worked also in portraiture, while the last-named did
something in etching and historical painting.

These modest, if naive and rather specialised, beginnings
of fine art in Bulgaria unfortunately did not bear any im-

FOREIGN ARTISTS IN BULGARIA 7

mediate fruits after the liberation of the Principality. One
of the most gifted representatives of Bulgarian art at that
time, Vladislav Dospevsky, although a Russian subject, was
poisoned in a prison in Constantinople for acting as corre-
spondent of European newspapers, while, as before stated,
Nicolas Pavlovitch temporarily abandoned his artistic career
in order to become a school inspector.

Failing to find in the young Principality any artistic soil
or interest in the fine arts, the foreign artists, with very few
exceptions, made only a brief stay there, and either returned
to their native countries or sought better prospects else-
where. They nevertheless contributed their share to the
development of art in Bulgaria, not only as teachers and pro-
fessors or as participators in the various artistic exhibitions
which were organised by the State or under State patronage,
but mainly by the productions which they left behind in
the possession of the National Museum, the Prince^ or private
individuals.

As regards the development of art in Bulgaria, the most
lasting influence has been exercised by those foreign artists
whose pictures are preserved in the National Museum of
Sofia, and are therefore most easily accessible to the public.

The Polish painter Piotrovsky, who first came to Bulgaria
in 1885 as correspondent and artist of various illustrated
newspapers — The Graphic among others — ^renewed his visit
a little later and left in Bulgaria, besides his war-sketches
and miUtary pictures which are now the property of
the Bulgarian Prince and of private persons, also his great
picture, '' The Massacre in Batak by the Bashi-bazouks
in 1876." This production, notwithstanding the pre-
dominant and almost dazzling effect of the light from the
burning village reflected in the river, shows a greater talent
than any other picture in the Museum for rendering plastic
feminine forms (for which the Bulgarians have not as yet a

8 FINE ART IN BULGARIA

very certain feeling) and draped masculine figures. It
also displays great mastery in individualising crowds and in
rendering events in a simple and easily comprehensible form :
to the right — ^the burning village, Batak; to the left —
mutilated, dying Bulgarians and the victors, covered with
their cheap glory: Circassians, Bashi-bazouks, Turkish women
and Tzigans, revelling in the dreadful spectacle presented
by the burmng village, the naked feminine forms, or occupied
in dividing the booty.

The Italian artist Bolaungaro, who spent several years in
Sofia as teacher in one of Uie high schools, in technique
belongs to the Impressionist School. One of his best-known
pictm-es represents evening falling over a Bulgarian landscape,
and symbolised by a string of peasant carts descending a hill.

The Dalmatian Amdt, who spent a short time in Bulgaria
as teacher in the Gynasium of Sofia, made a fine pen-drawing
of the ruins of the Church of St. Sofia. The ancient building
rises behind a Turkish street of low huts. The sobriety and
the few technical means by which the artist renders the
most typical elements of his subject place this pen-drawing
far above all the other pictures dealing with the same theme.

The Frenchman de Fourcade, who was also a teacher in
the Gymnasium of Sofia, figures in the National Museum with
four pictures of Constantinople. In these pictures, which
have had a considerable influence on young Bulgarian
artists, de Fourcade appears a master in rendering graceful
details, in freshness and warmth of colour, and in the
lighting of houses, roads, human figures, and especially of trees
and bushes, which, in the intermingling of brilliant light and
shadow, have the appearance of bunches of fresh, green flowers.

Madame Sliapin, Russian, remained for a considerable time
in Sofia as owner and manager of a private school of painting.
Her pictm-es are in the Rembrandt style, and deal with typical
Russian subjects such as ** Passed like a Dream."

ifi

<
2

FOREIGN ARTISTS IN BULGARIA 9

The Tzech Holarek^ who never visited Bulgaria, is represented
in the National Museum by his great picture, full of tragic
inspiration, " The Return of the Bulgarian Prisoners, blinded
by Basil I, a.d. 1014." The grey winter landscape lit by the
last rays of the setting sun, the pitiless snowstorm, the help-
lessness of the long line of mutilated soldiers losing itself in
the distance, the weeping and the prostration of the blinded
prisoners — ^all this makes of Holarek's picture a striking
canvas- tragedy of human misery inflicted by human cruelty.

The statues of B. Shatz, for many years professor in the
State School of Painting, are devoid of artistic merit, and
have exercised no influence on Bulgarian sculpture.

Among the remaining foreigners who have resided tem-
porarily in Bulgaria and have left their productions hanging
in the collections of the Prince or of private individuals,
only those who have taken part in the various art exhibi-
tions need be mentioned here. They are : Ulrich, Canela,
Petras, Madame Shatz, de Francois, Amzel, Kronberger,
Oberbauer, Madame Goloubeva, Madame Hadji-MikeS, etc.
In the earliest exhibitions in Bulgaria, organised by the
Prince or by other persons, besides the productions of the
above foreign artists, pictures of various other Western
artists were also exhibited. Thus, in one of these exhibi-
tions which was organised by the Society for the Encourage-
ment of Fine Art in Bulgaria, artists like Laslo, Angelli,
Panzinger, Recuajd, de Brun, Lemaire, Aivazovsky, Sudkov-
ski, Leo Lerch, Hugo Birgd, Zeifert, and Bromberger were
represented by one or more of their pictures.

As regards the development of artistic taste in Bulgaria,
the importance of those foreign artists who made Bulgaria
their temporary home, participating in the various exhibi-
tions and leaving their productions in the Principality, can
hardly be over-estimated. Some of them have served as
models to rising Bulgarian talent Thus, Alexander BojinofE,

10 FINE ART IN BULGARIA

the well-known cartoonist, began his work as landscape painter
with an imitation of one of de Fourcade's pictures. George
Atanassoff, another promising artist and a graduate of the
State School of Painting in Sofia, in his picture " BufEaloes "
has undoubtedly been influenced by Boloungaro's picture
" Evening." But far more decisive has been the influence
on Bulgarian art of those foreigners who were naturalised
and remained permanently in Bulgaria. Together with the
young Bulgarians who had studied abroad, principally in
Munich, Florence, Paris, Rome, Turin, and Prague or in the
Sofia School of Painting, they have done practically every-
thing for the artistic education of the Bulgarian public and
for raising art in Bulgaria to its present level.

ART EXHIBITIONS

The slow and painful progress of artistic life in Bulgaria,
and the gradual spreading of artistic taste among the Bulgarian
public, will be best seen from a brief survey of the history
of art exhibitions in Bulgaria.

The first art exhibition was organised in 1887 by Ivan
Angeloff , teacher in the Gymnasium of Sofia and a graduate
of the Munich Academy of Fine Arts. This exhibition,
which contained three pictures painted in Bulgaria and a
number of sketches and studies dating from the artist's
student daj^ in Munich, as well as drawings by students of the
Gymnasium, was held in one of the drawing-rooms of the
G)minasium in honour of the Prince, who had recently been
elected to the Bulgarian throne. Besides the royal visit, the
exhibition only attracted the attention of a few personal
friends of the artist.

Some five years later, on the occasion of the first Bulgarian

ART EXHIBITIONS II

Industrial and Agricultural Exhibition, held in Plovdiv in
1892, the first collective art exhibition was organised, the
productions of the various Bulgarian artists, nearly all of
whom were teachers in the gymnasium, being exhibited. The
section of the exhibition in which, besides the above artists,
Bulgarian students of painting and sculpture in the foreign art
academies also participated, attracted so little attention that
no printed catalogue of the work exhibited was ever issued.
The only Bulgarian newspaper which noticed it was Bal"
kanska Zora, where a long article appeared under the initial
M., behind which probably was hidden some Bulgarian artist
who was himself taking part in the exhibition. Even the
organ of the administration of the exhibition, the object of
which during its two years' publication was to inform the pubhc
concerning the progress of the exhibition and to acquaint it
with the objects collected, makes no mention of the section
where for the first time the works of the Bulgarian artists
had been brought together. All that it contains on the
subject is a brief notice dealing with the picture of Holarek,
" The Return of the Bulgarian Prisoners blinded by Basil I.,
1014."

This first exhibition of Bulgarian art, which did not entirely
deserve the neglect with which it was treated, was followed in
1894 by another — the first independent art exhibition consist-
ing of productions by members and non-members of the
Association for Encouraging the Fine Arts in Bulgaria. This
exhibition, as also those which followed in 1897, 1898, and
1899, was organised with the co-operation and the pecuniary
assistance of the Government.

The first collective art exhibition without any moral or
material assistance from the Government was that organised
by the Society of Modem Art, and held in 1904. This society,
which was formed in 1903, has shown from the very first, and
continues to show, a great, almost feverish activity. It has

IS FINE ART IN BULGARIA

already organised, at its own risk and with its private re-
sources, three exhibitions of the productions of all its
members, and seven exhibitions of pictures by individual
members. Besides, the Society of Modem Art, as also the
Society of Bulgarian Artists, took part in the first Southern
Slav Art Exhibition, which was held in Belgrade in 1904,
while during the months of August and September, 1906,
it organised the second Southern Slav Art Exhibition in
Sofia. On this last occasion the Society of Modem Art
was helped by the State, both morally and materially.

With the awakening and development of artistic interest
and taste in Bulgaria, the moral success of Bulgarian art
was assured, and material encouragement and prosperity were
not slow to follow. This last was to some extent true even
of the earliest exhibition, that organised by Ivan AngelofE,
only the buyer then was not a Bulgarian, but a foreigner,
a Slav, who had been captivated by the genuine Bulgarian
subjects of pictures like that of the " Ruins of St. Sophia "
and the views of the village of Slivnitza, and of Sofia as it
appeared in its Turkish character, before the new planning
of the town had been carried into effect.

The first purchases of pictures by the State for the National
Museum date from 1892, and were made during the Commercial
Industrial Exhibition in Plovdiv. The most generous buyer
of productions of art is the Prince, who owns the richest art
collection in Bulgaria. The purchases by the Prince, the
Government, or by private persons have increased with each
succeeding exhibition. There have been cases where all
the pictures exhibited were sold. This happened during the
first exhibition organised by the Society of Modem Art in
1904, and at the private exhibition of Alexander Bojinoff
and Peter Morozoff in 1906. For the purpose of acquiring
pictures and statuary figuring in the second Southern Slav
Art Exhibition held in Sofia last year and in the exhibition

ART EXHIBITIONS 1 3

organised at the same time by the Society of Bulgarian
Artists on the occasion of the tenth anniversary of the State
School of Painting, the Prince spent a sum of 35,000 francs,
while the Government granted a credit of 25,000 francs.

The orders given by the dvil and ecclesiastical authorities
have done almost as much for the development of the fine
arts in Bulgaria as the purchasers of pictures at the various
exhibitions. Dr. Iv. Shishmanoff, while editor of the Mag'
azine for Popular Recreation, Science and Literature, published
by the Ministry of Public Instruction, in his desire to collect
and preserve materials for the Bulgarian ethnography by
the reproduction of various national t3^pes in their picturesque
and decorative costumes, of the remains of ancient Bulgarian
architecture, and of implements of home industries, entrusted
this task to various artists, and chiefly to Iv. Markvitchka.
They were to prepare a series of picttires of national, and
principally of peasant costumes, so that the national dress
might be preserved, at least in the pages of the Sbornik, from
total disappearance, with which modem conditions of life
threatened them. On the initiative of Constantin VeUtchkoff,
Minister of Public Instruction, in 1896 the Cabinet Council
decided to ofier to the Tsar Nicholas II., on the occasion of his
coronation, an album of Bulgarian picttires dealing with
purely Bulgarian subjects, such as national t3^pes and
scenery, landscapes, revolutionaries from the pre-liberation
period, Bulgarian and Turkish architecture, ruins, etc. About
twenty artists worked for this album, and prepared sixty-
two pictures. In 1902 Dragan Tzankofi, as President of
the National Assembly, entrusted to Nicolas Mihailoff the
painting of the portraits of all the former Presidents of the
Sobranje, which are now hung in the Ubrary of the National
Assembly. The Central Administration of the Bulgarian
Agricultural Bank commissioned Ivan Markvitchka and
Anton Mitofi to decorate the ceiling and the walls of the

14 FINK ART IN BULGARIA

Council Hall of the Bank with frescoes whose subjects were
taken from national life. The Prince, the commission to
which was entrusted the transformation of the former mosque
'* Tchema t>jamla " into the Orthodox church " Sveti Sed-
motchislenitzi/' the Holy Synod which superintended the
building of the Theological Seminary in Sofia and the ad-
joining church, the Committee "Tsar Liberator" which
raised the Mausoleum commemorating the Russian soldiers
who were killed during the siege of Plevna, as well as
private persons belonging to the Sofia parishes of St. Sofia
and St. Sedmotchislenitzi — ^have all placed orders with
the State School of Painting for icons to be hung in the
different churches and chapels, the work being executed by
the professors and students of the school, and mainly by Ivan
Markvitchka, Anton MitofF, and Stephan IvanofE. The re-
pairing of old chtirches and the building of new ones bring
in orders for icons, which are no more imported from Russia
but are painted by Bulgarian artists.

Such artistic treasures as are to be found at present in
Bulgaria are preserved in places easily accessible to the
general public, as the National Museum, the Central Offices
of the Bulgarian Agricultural Bank, the Library and the
Central Hall of the National Assembly, the walls of the
latter being decorated with portraits by Nicolas Mihailoff
of the Tsar Liberator, the first Bulgarian Prince, Alexander,
the reigning Prince, the first Bulgarian Princess, Maria Louisa,
the Heir-apparent, Prince Boris, a group of the royal children,
as well as with an icon of the Bulgarian Saints Cyril and
Methodius, by Anton MitofE. We may further mention the
churches of Saint Sofia and of Sveti Sedmotchislenitzi,
the chapel of the Theological Seminary of Sofia, and the
Mausoleum of Plevna, which all possess specimens of modem
Bulgarian icon^painting.

The richest artistic collection in Bulgaria is owned by the

ART BXHIBITIONS 15

Prince, the pictures being distributed among the various
royal residences in Sofia, Plovdiv, and Varna, and in the ro}^
villas at Sitniakovo, district of Samokov, and at Joroubliani,
near Sofia. A certain number of productions by Bulgarian
artists have found their way abroad, and are now the property
of various museums and private persons. Foreigners who
have lived in Bulgaria also own pictures by Bulgarian artists.
The Prince has more than once presented pictures to the
Regiment of Minsk (Russia) whose honorary colonel he is,
to his relatives, and to members of the diplomatic body.
At the first Southern Slav Art Exhibition held in Belgrade,
in which members of the two Bulgarian societies, " Modon
Art " and " Bulgarian Artists/' took part, King Peter of
Servia acquired for his palaces several works by members of
these societies, while the Servian Government bought a
certain number of Bulgarian pictures for the Servian National
Museum, the example being also followed by some private
persons. At the Universal Exhibition of Li^ge (Belgium)
in 1905 several productions by Bulgarian artists, more especi-
ally those which attracted attention with their Oriental or
Bulgarian subjects, were bought by foreign collectors. The
picture galleries of Prague, Cologne, etc., own pictures by
Jaroslav Veshin. These picttires deal with Bulgarian topics,
and were painted after Veshin had settled in Bulgaria
and obtained his naturaUsation. There are two Bulgarian
artists — Binembaum and Paxin, both of them graduates
of the Academy of Munich — who live permanently abroad,
the latter being a regular contributor to Simplicissimus of
Munich and to the now extinct Der liebe Augustin of Vienna.
The appreciable success which has attended the various art
exhibitions, and the growing number of orders given by the
civil and ecclesiastical authorities, deprive the Bulgarian
artists of any right to complain of indifference on the part
of public opinion in Bulgaria towards the fine arts ; the more

1 6 FINK ART IN BULGARIA

SO as some of the exhibitions and the execution of many of
the orders given were not such as to justify even the moderate
expectations of a society whose artistic taste is not as yet
distinguished by its exactness.

IMITATION AND FOREIGN INFLUENCE

During the first years alter the liberation of the Principality
the foreign artists who had been called to Bulgaria, and the
Bulgarians who had graduated at the various European
academies of fine arts, found no trace of an art which could
be said to meet the requirements of the time. But in return
they discovered an abundance of subjects which were quite
new to them : wild and romantic scenery which the peasants'
imagination had peopled with m)^thical beings, and heroes
whose memory still survived in legends and in the national
songs which had not as yet been affected by the new conditions
of Ufe. Original architecture, preserved in the towns and
villages, and interesting both in its general character and in
picttiresque details, offered tempting attractions to the artist.
There were also the various national t3^pes in their curious
costumes — ^Bulgarians, Turks, Gypsies and the other Oriental
nationalities. The coimtry was covered with ruins of old
churches and fortifications bearing evidence of the ravages o£
time and an indifferent population. If we add the fresh
recollections from the revolutionary period and from the un-
equal struggle with the national oppressors, we get a good idea
of the rich subjects and materials which were still waiting
for artistic treatment.

Neither were the artists slow to avail themselves of these
favotirable conditions. Those among them who had lived
in Bulgaria, or who, without visiting the coimtry, took an

IMITATION AND FORBIGN INFLUENCS 1 7

interest in its history and inhabitants, found in these a plentiful
supply of new themes for their inspiration. Thus we find
Holarek, some of whose pictures have been acquired by the
State and are now the property of the Bulgarian National
Museum, going to Bulgarian history of the eleventh century
and taking as subject for his best-known picture an episode
from the momentous struggle of the Bulgarian King Samuel
with the Greek Emperor fiasil I., known also under the name of
the " Killer of the Bulgarians/' in consequence of his order
for the blinding of ii,ooo Bulgarian soldiers taken captive.
Piotrovsky, in his picture '* The Massacre by the Bashi-
bazouks/' has borrowed his subject from recent Bulgarian
history — the atrocities committed in 1876 by Bashi-bazouks,
G3rpsies, and Turkish irregulars which filled Europe, and
especially England, with horror, and first raised the question
of bettering the lot of the oppressed Bulgarians. In the
same way Boloungaro, in his picture " Evening," represents
a Bulgarian landscape with peasants, while Arndt treats the
ruin of '' St. Sofia " and the adjoining Turkish quarter in
winter.

Great as the part played by foreign artists in the develop-
ment of the fine arts in Bulgaria has been, it was not of the
same decisive importance as that which fell to the artists who,
although bom and educated abroad, had made Bulgaria their
permanent home. It was to these latter, helped by young
Bulgarian artists, and not to the migratory birds to whom the
PrincipaUty was never more than a temporary nest, that fell
the hard task, rendered doubly difficult in the absence of
any encouragement, of solving the most trying of all problems
— ^viz. to reconcile the outer forms of art with the spirit of the
new subjects which offered themselves to the artist's inspira-
tion. The past history of Bulgarian art, as also its present
phase, may be said to consist of an incessant struggle between
the subject treated and the form of its treatment. The struggle

'X8 PINE ART IN BULGARIA

Has been immensely complicated owing to the stereotyped
Western mannerisms in vogue among Bulgarian artists and
the absence among them of a sufficiently strong individuality
to raise them above the limitations of traditional patterns.
This state of things is no more than might have been expected
under the given circumstances. With the exception of
Yaroslav Veshin, who had fully matured his talent before he
settled in Bulgaria, the remaining Bulgarian artists — the few
foreign ones included — had only just completed their profes*-
sional education, and had hardly yet had time to divest them-
selves of the tyranny of fordgn examples and to develop any
distinct individuality of their own. What the academies
in which they had studied failed to give them had to be
acquired after their return to Bulgaria, and was only secured
by persistent effort In course of time the older artists
succeeded in shaking off the chains of traditional style, while
the younger school gradually freed itself from the domination
of foreign influences. G>nsiderable as was the success of that
effort at emancipation, there has been thus far no talent
sufficiently strong to create a style of its own or to win for
itself an acknowledged place as innovator.

The evolution of the spirit and methods of Bulgarian art
has been clearly reflected in the various art exhibitions which
have been held in recent years, and can also be traced in the
pictures in the National Museum in Sofia.

During the earlier period the traditional patterns which
stereot)rped nearly all artistic productions appear the more
noticeable since they were accompanied by an uncertain and
defective technique. The pictures belonging to this class
betray a somewhat vulgar taste both in conception and render-
ing of the subjects treated. The sense of outline, movement,
colour and atmosphere, as well as command of grouping, have
never been strong points with Bulgarian artists. Their
models lack iadividuaUty, and bear a close resemblance to one

IMITATION AND FORBIGN INrLUBNCE 1 9

another, the attention of the artists being mainly engrossed in
faithfully reproducing the smallest details of the various national
costumes. The human figures, instead of being alive, look
like draped wax statues. This predominance of the purely
ethnographical element over colour and movement is specially
striking in large compositions such as peasant weddings,
dances, markets, etc., in nearly all of which the over-elabora-
tion of the secondary details is at the expense of the living
element. Nature and the human figure are never treated for
their own sake, but only serve to illustrate some ethno-
graphical side or to produce a desired effect. The same
may be said even of portraits, especially of royal personages,
officers, and fashionable ladies. The face, for some of the
artists, seems a matter of secondary importance ; what pre-
occupies them is to render every insignificant detail of uniform
or toilette, even those which are almost invisible to the naked
eye. This tendency to minuteness in detail is equally notice-
able in the faces, many of which seem to have taken on
the official air of the uniforms.

Bulgarian artists have been hitherto more exposed to the
danger of pandering to vulgar conventionalities and tjrpes
than to that of succumbing to foreign influences. Success,
both moral and material, was most easily gained by stereo-
typing the low tastes of the public, and to this temptation of
winning cheap glory the higher interests of art have more
than once been sacrificed.

The influence of foreign masters is principally noticeable
with the younger artists, and has made itself more especially
fdt during recent years. Among the older artists, Ivan
Angela ff belongs to the school of Millet, whose influence is
visible in his pictures of peasant life. The artist who has
shown himself most susceptible to foreign influence is un-
doubtedly Nicolas Mihailoff. His compositions " Krali
Marko/' " Nymphs and Dragons," bear unmistakable signs

90 mis ART IN BULGARIA

of Arnold B5cklm, Franz Stuck, and Ludvig von Hoffmann,
while in his portraits he has been influenced in turn by Lenbach,
Habermann, Stuck^ and F. A. von Kaulbadi.

Another young artist, Alexander Montafoff, has been at
different periods under the influence of such different and very
often opposed masters as Bocklin, Max Zilbermann, Graf von
Kolkreuth, and Segantini. Anna Hodina, in her Munich
landscapes, is influenced by the Jugendstil and by the group
known as Die SchoUe. Alexander Bojinoff has been influenced
at different periods by the works of different masters, and the
same may be also said of the decorative artist Haralampi
Tatckeff.

In speaking of the influence of foreign masters on Bulgarian
artists, it should be added that in most cases it is but of
brief duration. With their return to their country Bulgarian
artists gradually shake off the yoke of foreign influence,
and this they accomplish the more easily as there are in
Bulgaria few, if any, masterpieces of the great European
artists.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BULGARIAN ART

The art gallery of the National Museum in Sofia, which
has now been in existence for nearly twenty years, hardly
gives the visitor, especially the foreign one, a true idea of
the present state of art in Bulgaria. This gallery was in-
tended to promote the esthetic education of the nation by
collecting together and bringing within easy reach of the
public the best productions of Bulgarian art. With this
object the Government periodically purchased the works of
Bulgarian artists at the various art exhibitions. The earliest
State purchases were made between 1892, the date of the

CHARACTERISTICS OF BULGARIAN ART 31

first Bulgarian National Exhibition, and 18999 when the
Society for the Encouragement of Fine Art in Bulgaria held
its last exhibition. Then followed a period of seven years,
during which no additions were made to the art gallery of
the National Museum. The loss which resulted to the gallery
was the greater, as these few years coincide with one of the
most active stages in the development of Bulgarian art. The
Society of Contemporary Art alone organised during that
period four general and seven " one-man " exhibitions, many
of the pictures exhibited deserving to be added to the collec-
tion of the National Museum. The State, however, abstained
from making any purchases, because the Museum was then
being enlarged and had not yet been officially opened. The
opening took place in 1905, since when the Government has
returned to the original practice of enriching the art gallery
by periodical purchases of new pictures.

Owing to these gaps, the picture gallery of the National
Museum is of small assistance to the student in striving to de-
termine the principal characteristics of Bulgarian art. Of far
greater importance for that purpose are the art exhibitions
which have been held during recent years in Sofia or abroad,
and where Bulgarian art has been well represented both in
quality and quantity. This is especially trueof those exhibitions
in which the artists belonging to both Bulgarian art societies
have participated at the same time. There have been hither-
to two such occasions : in 1904, during the first Southern
Slav Art Exhibition^ held in Belgrade, and in 1906, when the
members of the Society of Art took part in the second
Southern Slav Art Exhibition held in Sofia, while the Society
of Bulgarian Artists organised an independent exhibition
of the works of its members.

For the purpose of the present chapter, the Belgrade
Exhibition ofiEers far greater interest, not only because on
that occasion the Bulgarian artists figured with better-selected

99 nilB AltT m BOLOARIA

productions, but also, and mainly, because the juxtaposition
of these latter with the works of Croatians, Slovenians, and
Servians brought into more striking prominence the charac-
teristic traits of Bulgarian art.

The four nationalities which took part in these exhibitions
may be classed into two groups^ Croatians and Slovenians
forming the first, while the Servians and the Bulgarians
formed the second. The most striking feature of the works
of the Croatian and Slovenian artists was their form and
technique. There can be little doubt that this peculiarity
is due to the political condition of these two nationalities,
neither of which exists as an independent political unit.
Both Croatians and Slovenians are engaged in a racial struggle
with the predominant German element in the Austro-Hun-
garian Empire — a struggle which is reflected in all the de-
partments of their national life, art not excluded. They
realise that, if they are not to be worsted in this struggle,
they must not prove themselves inferior to their rivals in those
respects where the latter most excel, the more so as in the
case of neither of these two nationalities have form and
technique been transmitted traditionally or been evolved
on independent historical lines.

In contrast with Slovenians and Croatians, the distinctive
feature of the productions of Servian and Bulgarian artists
seems to reside in their contents rather than in the form.
As representatives of free nations, they are not under the
necessity of fighting for the right of existence, and in matters
of art they have done as they did in other branches of their
national activity: they borrowed from other nations such
forms as did not exist at home, and gave them a national
content. Owing to this circumstance, we find both in
Servians and Bulgarians a lack of equilibrium and unity
between the form and the subjects treated.

As regards form, of the four nationalities the Croatians

CHARACTBRISnCS OF BULGARIAN ART 2$

have undoubtedly attained to the highest d^ee of per-
fection. The works of nearly all of their artists were dis-
tinguished by the masterly combination of line, light, colour,
perspective, and composition. What differentiated the work
of the various artists was that some of them seemed to place
form above content; others strove to realise a perfect
equilibrium between the two elements ; while yet others
appeared to sacrifice form in order to lay greater stress on the
subject. But although among the last two categories of
Croatian artists there are some who can be classed under
the Impressionist, or even the Neo-impressiomst School, it
is not the Croatians but the Slovenians who appear as ne*
gators of the old forms of Western art. Nearly all the best
Slovenian artists are Neo*impressionists who have broken
all connection with historical and imaginative painting, and
limit the choice of their subjects to nature and human figures,
as they appear in plein air.

The Servians, on the other hand, form an antithesis both
as regards form and subjects. All their artists appear as
imitators of classical or modem masters — such as Murillo,
Rembrandt and others. They borrow their subjects aknost
exclusively from Servian history, and appeal, not to Servian
nature or national life, which are almost entirely neglected
by them, but to the patriotic feelings of the Servians. The
golden period of the ancient Servian kingdom, its fall under
the Turks, the sufferings oi the Servian nation under the
Turkish yoke, the struggles for liberty, and their recent political
history— all these events have been used to the full by Servian
artists. Chauvinists in all things, they appear the same
in the province, of art.

Bulgarian art has no point of contact with Croatian art.
Its resemblance to Slovenian art consists in the democratic
tendency, conunon to them both, to borrow their subjects
froro local scenery and local types. In technique, however.

24 nilB ART IK BULGARIA

the difference between them is as wide as between Bulgarians
and Croatians. G>mpared with Servian art, the Bulgarian
differs most widely from the latter in the character of its
subjects. The prominence given by Servian artists to patriotic
subjects is entirely absent from the works of Bulgarians.
As regards form, it must be owned that the Servians are
superior to Bulgarians, as they are also in their comparative
freedom from traditional styles. In first-rate artists the
Servians stand higher than the Bulgarians, who have not as
yet produced talent equal to Marko Murat and Pala Jovano*
vitch. In one respect, howev^, Bulgarian art is superior
not only to Servian but also Croatian and Slovenian art —
viz. portraiture.

If we exclude historical painting, which, since the early
and specialised attempts of Nicolas Pavlovitch, has been
almost entirely neglected in Bulgaria, Bulgarian artkts have
tried their hand at almost every form of art. Ethnographical
pictures, national scenes, pictures of military subjects, land-
scapes, interiors, flower pieces, animals, portraits, icons,
allegories, mythical subjects, ruins, architecture — ^all these
are fully represented in the art gallery of the National Museum,
and have figured in nearly all the art exhibitions. The first
place among these varieties is held by landscapes, genre, and
portraits, whether in ofl, water-colour, or pastel. The weak
point of Bulgarian artists is undoubtedly undraped figures,
especially undraped feminine figures, the only exception
being Stephan Ivanoff, who however abandoned this class
of work to become the best icon-painter in Bulgaria.

Bulgarian art may be called national only as regards its
contents, but neither in form nor technique. As we have
already said, the subjects are taken from Bulgarian scenery
or from peasant and town life. The sense of human form
is gradually developing, with the exception of the feminine
body, which remains proscribedj^by public taste. This last

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SOCIBTIBS, SCHOOLS OF PAINTING, ARTISTS 25

circumstance accounts, to a great extent, for the low level
of sculpture in Bulgaria. Decorative art is making rapid
strides, owing to the great amount of building going on '
during recent years. Artistic form and technique are in a
transitional phase, all the younger artists waging war against
the traditional and conventional styles and the foreign in-
fluences that have hitherto hindered the free development
of art in Bulgaria, and striving to evolve forms more in con-
formity with the contents of Bulgarian art.

SOCIETIES, SCHOOLS OF PAINTING, ARTISTS

The artists of Bulgaria, foreign settlers included, are grouped
into two societies : the Society of Bulgarian Artists, and the
Society of Modem Art. These two societies live in perpetual
strife with one another, each denying the right of existence
to its rival, and extolling its own merits at the expense of
its opponent. The truth, however, is that both of them
have rendered appreciable services to art in Bulgaria.

The Society of Bulgarian Artists, which was originally known
as the Society for the Encouragement of Fine Art in Bulgaria,
comprised, before the foundation of the Society of Modem Art,
not only all the artists in Bulgaria, but also a considerable
proportion of the drawing-masters. With the pecuniary and
moral support of the Govemment, it organised between 1894
and 1899 four exhibitions of the productions of the Bulgarian
artists. Then followed seven years of inactivity, broken
in 1906 by another exhibition to celebrate the tenth anni-
versary of the School of Painting in Sofia. The merits of
this society consist not only in organising these exhibitions,
interceding with the Govemment, and obtaining orders for
pictures or icons destined for various churches or other

36 riNB ART IN BULGARIA

State iDStitutions, but also, and mainly, in the initiative
taken by it, on the suggestion of the Bulgarian Prince, which
led to the founding of the first State School of Painting.

In 1887 the Prince, in a conversation with the artist
Ivan Angeloff, who had organised in the Prince's honour an
exhibition of his works, expressed readiness to take under his
patronage a School of Arts, provided the idea of opening
such a school found acceptance with the Government and
the nation. Angdofi communicated this to the well-known
Bulgarian writer, politician and artist, Constantin VelitchkoS,
who at that time was living in Rome as a political exile. In
1894 Velitchkofi returned to Bulgaria, and shortly afterwards
became Minister of Public Instruction and honorary president
of the Society for the Encouragement of Fine Art in Bulgaria.
The president of the Society, Dr. Schishmanoff, together with
two of its members, Ivan Markvitchka. and Anton Mitofi,
had meanwhile been studying the practical side of the question
of opening a school of painting, and solicited the co-operation
of the new minister. In 1895 the National Assembly passed
a law creating a State school of painting in Sofia, which was
opened in October 1896. The object of the school was to
prepare (a) students of |dastic and fine arts ; {b) teachers
of painting, drawing, caUgraphy, and manual work in the
gymnastic and special schools ; (c) artists for the various
art industries (icon-painting, wood-carving, decorative art,
ceramics, weaving, goldsmith's work, etc.). In accordance
with this object, the following subjects were taught during
the year 1905-6 : drawing from plaster models (dass of
Klissouro£F), drawing from nature (class of Ivan Angdofi),
painting (dass of Ivan Markvitchka), sculpture (dass of
Yetcho Spiridonoff), decorative arts (dass of Boris MihailoS),
wood-carving (dass of Ivan Travnitzki), weaving and lace-
making (dass of Tereza Holekova), ceramics (dass of Stephan
Dimitroff), lithography (dass of Joseph Silaba), history of

SOCISTIES, SCHOOLS OF PAINTING, ARTISTS 2^

art, perspective, anatomy, architecture, etc. Dming that
same year the State School of Painting had 126 students, of
whom 100 were men and 26 women.

The School of Painting is the connecting link between the
two Art Societies in Bulgaria, the leading members of the
older Society of Bulgarian Artists being professors in the
school, while the fotmders and members of the new Society
of Modem Art are mainly old students.

The latter, together with other young artists who had
graduated at the various academies abroad, formed the
Society of Modem Art as a coimterpoise to the Society
of Bulgarian Artists, with which they were discontented
owing to its inactivity and tutelage, as well as for its mono-
poly of all the State and Church orders. These were, however,
not the only considerations which contributed to the starting
of the new society. The avowed object of the Society of
Modem. Art, which originally existed only as a group of
friends, was and remains as follows : (i) to bring together
the various artists (architects, painters, sculptors, decorative
artists), art critics and, in general, lovers of art, for the purpose
of their mutual improvement and help; (2) to familiarise
the public with modem art ; (3) to study the origins of
Bulgarian art, and to adapt what remains of it to modem
conditions ; (4) to ameliorate the material conditions of
artistic work in Bulgaria. The society, which counts at
present some scores of active members, was founded in 1907
by three architects, a decorative artist, an art critic, three
painters, and a wood-carver. The persons who ushered it
into life, as will be seen, belonged to various branches of art,
and had been brought together in the natural course of their
several professions. They held in common certain principles,
the most important of which was that the time had come to
react against the conventional styles in which Bulgarian
art had been stereotyped, and to stimulate artistic life in

a8 HNE ART IN BULGARIA

Bulgaria by acquainting it with the most recent artistic
movements abroad. Innovators though they were in some
respects, they did not lose sight of the local and national
conditions in which Bulgarian art was placed, and, while
holding an open mind to the lessons inculcated by the moie
advanced art of Western Europe, they were determined to
retain and encourage what was typically national in Bulgarian
art. All these ends which the Society of Modem Art
set before itself had nothing new in themselves, but they
were for the first time taken in earnest^ and propagated by
means of art exhibitions, which finished by awakening public
interest in art. This was the more desirable as the rival
Society of Bulgarian Artists had entirely neglected this
side of the question, engrossed as its members were in execut-
ing hurriedly, and not very carefully, the various public
orders with which they had been commissioned.

Among the members of the older society the first place
must be assigned to Ivan Markvitchka, Anton Mitoff, and
Ivan Angeloff.

Ivan MarkvUckka^ who is by nationality a Tzech, came to
Bulgaria as early as 1882, or shortly after the liberation of
the Principality. In the course of his now already long career
in his adopted country he has rendered signal service to
Bulgarian art. Markvitchka was the first to organise the
teaching of drawing and painting as obligatory subjects in
the programme of the Bulgarian secondary schools, and to
him mainly was entrusted the choice of the foreign teachers
of drawing. He was among the most prominent organisers
of the art section at the National Exhibition held in 1892,
as well as of the art gallery attached to the National Museum
in Sofia, not to mention the part played by him in the founding
of the first art society in Bulgaria and in the opening of the
School of Painting. In addition to all this, he has been one
of the most prolific contributors to the different art ex-

SOOSTIBSy SCHOOLS OF PAINTIKG, ARTISTS 29

hibitions, and the busiest artist with State and private orders.
Haying begun as a mere teacher of drawing, Markvitchka
has succeeded, by dint of labour and by untiring perseverance,
in becoming President of the Society of Bulgarian Artists,
Director of the State School of Painting, member of the Archaea-
logical Commission of the Ministry of Public Instruction, etc.
Owing to the peculiar conditions in which art in Bulgaria
was placed during the earlier years, Markvitchka has, in the
course of his career, cultivated in turn nearly every variety of
art. There is hardly any form of painting at which he has not
tried his hand. He has laid under contribution every subject
offered by Bulgarian scenery, Bulgarian life, or the revolution-
ary period (pre-liberation period and the recent Macedonian
revolution). His pictures are to be found everywhere : in
the royal palaces, in private houses, in the National Museum,
in various churches and public offices. Educated at the
Academy of Prague, he acquired his real artistic training
in Bulgaria by means of incessant work and by running
through the whole scale of subjects : altars, graphical
sketches of Bulgarian peasants, scenes of peasant life, illus-
trations of novels, decorative painting, portraiture, icons for
Orthodox churches, etc. The feeling which he puts into his
pictures varies from the sentimentalism of moonlit nights
to tragedy, as reflected in his Macedonian pictures. It must,
however, be admitted that the talent of Markvitchka, un-
questionable though it be, is not quite so many-sided as his
repertory, neither has it always been equal to the problems
with which he had to deal. In his genre pictures the eth-
nographical element is always at the expense of the contents.
His icons never seem to render the typically Bulgarian re-
ligious feeUng; his landscapes abound in artificial effects,
his tragic pictures in rather sickly sentimentalism.
Even his portraits, wherein he excels, seem to suffer from
a certain unnatural elevation in the expression of the face.

30 PINt ART m BtTLGARlA

which has nothing in common with the real peison. Ab-
sorbed as Markvitchka has been in incessant and exhaustive
work during the best part of the last quarter of a centtuy,
he has not had sufficient opportunity to thoroughly perfect
his technique in order to cope more successfully with the
difficulties of the variety of subjects which the special condi-
tions of artistic life in Bulgaria have hitherto forced upon him.

But^ however well founded these criticisms are, whatever
the opposition which the work of Markvitchka provokes
among the foreign artists and art critics, it is recognised on
all hands that the services which he has rendered to art in
Bulgaria are surpassed by few, if any, other artists.

Not less active than Markvitchka, though hardly so many-
sided, is his companion and friend Anton MUoff, a graduate
of the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence. He has been
associated with Markvitchka in nearly all the artistic under-
takings, old and new — art societies, foundation of the School
of Painting, organisation of the Museum, exhibitions, exe-
cution of State and private orders. He paints national
types, landscapes, town and village subjects, portraits, and
icons. In his case also the ethnographical element holds
the first place. He revels in details, closely imitates modem
Russian and ancient Italian masters in his icons, and may
be said to be the chief representative of a conventional im-
pressionism which depends for its effects on an artificial
contrast between light and shade. Although a bom fighter,
and the most militant member of the old society, he does
not display in his pictures any tendency to cope with diffi-
culties, but prefers easy subjects which do not tax the artist's
inventiveness and require no originality in their treatment.

The best artist of the Society of Bulgarian Artists is
Ivan Angdoff, who has studied in Munich and in Rome.
He was the first Bulgarian artist to make use of the peasant,
especially in his field-work. In contrast with Markvitchka,

SOCIETIES, SCHOOLS OF PAINTING, ARTISTS 3 1

Mitoff, and scores of others, Angeloff gives a secondary place
to the ethnographical element, and is always preoccupied
with rendering the attistic side of his subject. His pictures
of this kind bear unmistakable signs of the influence of the
French master Millet. In his pictures of town life he imitates
the Italian conventional artists, while at one time he was
under the influence of Segantini. Angeloff's principal merit
is that he imderstands the spirit of Bulgarian peasant life,
and succeeds in imparting it to his pictures, which are
psychological as well as artistic productions. Angeloff is an
impressionist in his methods, but has a distinctly personal
technique. What his pictures seem to suffer from is lack of
air and movement. Neither is he always successfiil in in-
dividualising faces, or in bringing them into unison with their
surroundings.

Of the remaining artists of the old school, the majority
belong to the conventional t5rpe (for example, Petko Klis-
souroff) x)T are imitators of foreign masters (for instance, Boris
MihaHoff). The name of Otto Horeisha (Terek) deserves a
mention apart. One of the first among the foreign artists
to settle in Bulgaria, he may be said to be the best Bulgarian
painter of quiet, melancholy scenery, the battlefields of the
last Russo-Turkish war having furnished him with subjects
for some of his best compositions — " Russian Cemetery at the
Peak of St. Nicolas," " On Shipka, Twenty-five Years After."
The execution of these otherwise excellent subjects suffers
from a certain conventionality in the treatment.

However great may have been the antagonism between
the two art societies at first, it was not permanent, at
least in the case of some members of the younger society,
who, either owing to disagreements with their associates or
to friendly relations with the old artists, ended by returning
to the latter group. The most prominent of these seceders
are Christo Berberoff and Suphan Ivanoff.

3^ PIKE ART IM BtTLGARIA

Berberoff, who graduated at the Academy of Turin* is
under the influence of Segantini. He is principally a land-
scape painter, and prefers mountain scenery. His pictures
are elevated in tone, the cloud and air effects are cleverly
rendered, and the technique is always impressive.

Stephan Ivanoff, a graduate of the Sofia School of Paint-
ing, is one of the best Bulgarian impressionists, and un-
doubtedly the best icon-painter. Undraped figures, especially
feminine figures, play an important part in his works. In
this respect he stands almost alone among Bulgarian artists.

The younger of the two societies, that of Modem Art,
counts more members than the Society of Bulgarian Artists.
Thus in 1906, at the time of the second Southern Slav Art
Exhibition, it had thirty-seven exhibitors, as against twenty-
three exhibitors of the older society, which had at the same
time organised an exhibition to celebrate the tenth anni-
versary of the founding of the Sofia School of Painting.

The members of the Society of Modem Art are, with
one or two exceptions, young men educated abroad^ princi-
pally in Germany, or in the Sofia School of Painting. Those
of them who had studied abroad came back dominated by
all kinds of foreign influences, which, however, only proved
of short duration. The graduates of the Sofia School of
Painting, on the contrary, began their career as imitators of
the conventional styles acquired from their teachers. But
here also the influenpe did not last very long. The trait
common to them all is their love of nature as she is^ and not
as she appears through the prism of traditional mannerisms.

The best as well as the oldest artist belonging to this class,
although not a member of the Society of Modem Art, is
Jaroslav Veshin, who, like Markvitchka, is by nationality
a Tzech. Veshin was educated in Prague and Munich, where
he had made a name before he came to Bulgaria, first as
teacher in a gjrmnasium, and afterwards as professor in the

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SOCIETIES, SCHOOLS OF PAINTING, ARTISTS 33

School of Painting. Owing to misunderstandings with his
colleagues, he left the school to become the official artist of
the Court and War Office. He is beyond doubt the leading
artist of Bulgaria, his productions figuring in some of the
best European picture galleries, while his pupils are among
the most promising of the young artists. His favourite
subjects seem to be Bulgarian scenery, especially winter
landscapes, old Turkish quarters, gypsies, and hunting-scenes.
As regards artistic form and technique he has no equal in
Bulgaria. His superiority in this respect is manifest even in
his official pictures (parades, nianceuvres), in which the
artistic element is at the expense of the showy side. In his
genre pictures, especially in his types of peasants, gypsies,
and Turks, he introduces a sense of humour quite personal
to himself. With his well-established style Veshin has
exercised a profound influence on all his pupils, especially
on the most gifted among them, Mihoff, who is the best
landscape painter of the Bulgarian Impressionist School.
Mihoff treats every side of his subjects with equal interest
and seriousness ; he renders Nature in all her most essential
features, and works in bright, fresh colours. Both in harmony
and in composition the pictures of Mihoff are real works of
art.

Another pupil of Veshin, and a member of the Society of
Modem Art, is Nicola Petroff, one of the best Bulgarian
water-colour painters. He has studied nature very closely,
and generally succeeds in rendering the essential parts of
his subject by simple yet suggestive means. His pictures are
of village streets, clusters of trees, huts reflected in water,
the banks of the Danube in the neighbourhood of Widdin,
some village fountain with a girl drawing water, country
lanes — all distinguished by the same delicate and sure touch.

While Mihoff and Petroff are nearly always successful
in adapting their methods to the subjects treated, Peter

34 HME ART IN BULGARIA

Moroxoff, another graduate of the Sofia School of Painting
(pupil of Markvitchka), stands as an example of the diffi-
culties which often beset an artist in his endeavours to ma-
terialise his conceptions. In his earlier productions, whidi
were exhibited in 1905, MorozofE appears as a S3mfibolist to
whom nature and her various manifestations are but a
reflection of the artist's moods and aspirations. His most
daring attempt in this line is the picture "The Nymphs'
Hiding-place," in which, as also in some of his other com-
positions, Morozofi betrays the temperament of a poet rather
than that of a plastic artist. The difficulties inherent to the
form of art which first attracted Morozofi were, in his case,
further enhanced by a conventional and not always sure
technique. The moderate success which attended these
early efforts soon decided Morozofi to abandon his symbolical
conceptions of nature and to return to ordinary natural
scenery — a revolution the more to be approved as many
of his pictures betrayed an insufficient acquaintance with
natural forms. In his recent landscapes nature, in the various
seasons of the year, autumn by preference, appears pervaded
by a symbolica) meaning which gives her a character of unity.
It must, however, be admitted that Morozofi does not always
succeed in catching the essential elements of the scenery,
neither is he free from a weakness for cheap effects. But if
this detracts from the artistic merit of his pictures, it has
proved an easy way of winning public approval and securing
a profitable market for them. A stay of some months in
Paris seems to have opened to Morozofi new vistas, and he
has now taken to portraiture with the same enthusiasm
which distinguished his former undertakings.

Among the remaining landscape painters — ^graduates of
the Sofia School of Painting — Marin Georgieff is a pupil of
Markvitchka, whose conventional style he seems to have
contracted. He has n^et with considerable success in his

SOCIETIES, SCHOOLS OF PAINTING, ARTISTS 3$

pictures of church ruins, ancient fortifications, interiors
of old underground churches, and his copies of ancient Bul-
garian frescoes. Chrisio Kabaktchieff, who has never been
outside Bulgaria, belongs to the school of neo-impressionists,
and sees nothing but colour in nature.

Of the landscape-painters who have studied abroad, Hara-
lampy Kieff paints chiefly grand scenery, and Kazandjieff
fields and peasants. The youngest member of this class
is Alexander Montafoff, who is also the most promising.
Montafoff rarely indulges in bright and cheerful subjects^ his
pictures in most cases proceeding from a melancholy
inspiration. In his work he has been influenced in turn
by Bdcklin, Graf von Kalkreuth, Max Liebermann, and
Segantini. These foreign influences, however, do not in the
least detract from the merits of his landscapes. They were
of passing character, and with his return to Bulgaria his
artistic individuality has shaken them off, so that in his
pictures which figured at the second Southern Slav Art Ex-
hibition he appears as an independent artist, both as regards
subject and technique.

Mme Anna Josephoff {nSe Hahn) has won for herself a
name as the best painter of flowers, while Mme Hadji-
Mitcheff (nee Brown) is the only painter of miniatures in
Bulgaria. This lady possesses a keen sense of line and
delicate colourmg, and a sure touch in rendering the details
of hair and dress. Another woman artist, Mme Naoumoff,
[nee Ostroveka), is well known as portraitist, especially in
pastel.

There are few Bulgarian artists who at one time or another
have not tried their hand at portraiture. Among the older
artists, Ivan Markvitchka obtained considerable success in
this department, but the best Bulgarian portraitist is un-
questionably Nicolas Mihatloff. He has studied in Sofia,
Munich, Paris, and London, and, before taking to portraiture,

36 FINE ART IN BULGARIA

spent a considerable time in cop)dng old and modem masters.
He also made an attempt at large compositions, taking his
subjects from Bulgarian folklore. These pictures, which
were not devoid of merit, especially in their colouring, were
the result of the influence exerted on the young artist by such
masters as BScklin, Franz Stuck, and Ludwig von HoSmann.
The scenery and figures, and their general insfMration, had
nothing Bulgarian about them. The influence of these
Servian artists on MihallofE may be easily traced, even in
some of his later productions of the same kind. He appears
much more personal and independent in his portraits, al-
though here also the influence of Rubens, Lenbadi, Stuck,
Hubermann, and F. A. von Kaulbach was for a time manifest.
As a portraitist MihailofE has a distinct talent for catching
the most characteristic side of a face and concentrating the
expression in the e]res, as well as rendering everything
that is typical of the. subject. Much of the work of this
talented artist, however, suffers in consequence of over-
production, often at the expense of the execution. Among
the best portraits of MihaQoff are those of his wife.

Unique of his kind as portraitist and caricaturist is Alex-
ander Bajinofft one of the most popular and most imitated
artists, not only in Bulgaria but also among the other Southern
Slav nations. Bojinofi has met with considerable success
as poet, as feuilletonist, as symbolical painter, in landscape
and in portraiture ; but the general public associates him
mainly, if not exclusively, with caricature, in which line he
excels equally in inspiration and in execution. Bojinofi
himself, howevaer, conscious of this rather one-sided reputation,
values highest his symlxdical pictures and his landscapes.
In his caricatures of public men, politicians, poets, writers*,
etc., Bojinofi is distinguished by rendering not only what is
typical in the face, but also the mental or moral peculiarities
and habits of the subject caricatured. The symbolical

SOCIETIES, SCHOOLS OF PAINTING, ARTISTS 37

pictures of Bojinoff are characterised by their spiritual con-
ception. He seldom works in oils, preferring pastel, water-
colour, and pen. This comparative neglect of oils is sufficiently
accounted for by lack of time and other distractions with
which a regular contributor to the daily press is beset. Bo-
jinoff studied for a while at the School of Painting in Sofia.
He has spent a considerable time in Munich, but never studied
in the Academy there. All that he has been able to do as
artist he owes to his hard work and perseverance.

The same may be also said of the best Bulgarian decorative
artist, Haralampy Tatcheff, who graduated at the School of
Painting in Sofia, where, however, he could not find a teacher
worthy of his talent. He owes everything to private work
and the study of the Western masters, and of nature. He
is well acquainted with ancient Bulgarian and modem Bul-
garian ornamentation, of which he has made free use in his
work. Tatcheff is the first Bulgarian artist who has systema-
tically worked on book-covers, vignettes, and glass-painting.

Sculpture in Bulgaria, owing to the somewhat puritanical
attitude of Bulgarian public opinion towards undraped
figures, remains in a very backward state. Of the two sculp-
tors who, as students, gave considerable promise, Marin
VassUeff has never been able to raise himself above the
conventional style, while Yetcho Spiridonoff, with his
unquestionable talent, has thus far produced very little.

Pfinttd h Htuullt IVaitoH (S* yimgy, Ld., London and AyU%hufy^

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