Skip to main content

Full text of "Bulletin"

See other formats 


Google 


This  is  a  digital  copy  of  a  book  that  was  preserved  for  generations  on  Hbrary  shelves  before  it  was  carefully  scanned  by  Google  as  part  of  a  project 

to  make  the  world's  books  discoverable  online. 

It  has  survived  long  enough  for  the  copyright  to  expire  and  the  book  to  enter  the  public  domain.  A  public  domain  book  is  one  that  was  never  subject 

to  copyright  or  whose  legal  copyright  term  has  expired.  Whether  a  book  is  in  the  public  domain  may  vary  country  to  country.  Public  domain  books 

are  our  gateways  to  the  past,  representing  a  wealth  of  history,  culture  and  knowledge  that's  often  difficult  to  discover. 

Marks,  notations  and  other  maiginalia  present  in  the  original  volume  will  appear  in  this  file  -  a  reminder  of  this  book's  long  journey  from  the 

publisher  to  a  library  and  finally  to  you. 

Usage  guidelines 

Google  is  proud  to  partner  with  libraries  to  digitize  public  domain  materials  and  make  them  widely  accessible.  Public  domain  books  belong  to  the 
public  and  we  are  merely  their  custodians.  Nevertheless,  this  work  is  expensive,  so  in  order  to  keep  providing  this  resource,  we  liave  taken  steps  to 
prevent  abuse  by  commercial  parties,  including  placing  technical  restrictions  on  automated  querying. 
We  also  ask  that  you: 

+  Make  non-commercial  use  of  the  files  We  designed  Google  Book  Search  for  use  by  individuals,  and  we  request  that  you  use  these  files  for 
personal,  non-commercial  purposes. 

+  Refrain  fivm  automated  querying  Do  not  send  automated  queries  of  any  sort  to  Google's  system:  If  you  are  conducting  research  on  machine 
translation,  optical  character  recognition  or  other  areas  where  access  to  a  large  amount  of  text  is  helpful,  please  contact  us.  We  encourage  the 
use  of  public  domain  materials  for  these  purposes  and  may  be  able  to  help. 

+  Maintain  attributionTht  GoogXt  "watermark"  you  see  on  each  file  is  essential  for  informing  people  about  this  project  and  helping  them  find 
additional  materials  through  Google  Book  Search.  Please  do  not  remove  it. 

+  Keep  it  legal  Whatever  your  use,  remember  that  you  are  responsible  for  ensuring  that  what  you  are  doing  is  legal.  Do  not  assume  that  just 
because  we  believe  a  book  is  in  the  public  domain  for  users  in  the  United  States,  that  the  work  is  also  in  the  public  domain  for  users  in  other 
countries.  Whether  a  book  is  still  in  copyright  varies  from  country  to  country,  and  we  can't  offer  guidance  on  whether  any  specific  use  of 
any  specific  book  is  allowed.  Please  do  not  assume  that  a  book's  appearance  in  Google  Book  Search  means  it  can  be  used  in  any  manner 
anywhere  in  the  world.  Copyright  infringement  liabili^  can  be  quite  severe. 

About  Google  Book  Search 

Google's  mission  is  to  organize  the  world's  information  and  to  make  it  universally  accessible  and  useful.   Google  Book  Search  helps  readers 
discover  the  world's  books  while  helping  authors  and  publishers  reach  new  audiences.  You  can  search  through  the  full  text  of  this  book  on  the  web 

at|http  :  //books  .  google  .  com/| 


X 

.MIZ 


/ 


•  f 


\ 


MADRAS  GOVERNMENT  MUSEUM. 


Bulletin  No,  1, 


PEAEL  AND  CHANK  FISHEEIES 


OP  THS 


GULF  OF  MANAiR. 


BY 

EDGAR  THURSTON,  c.m.z.s.,  etc., 

Sup0ri»ien(i0nt,  Madraa  Oovemment  MM§§um, 


MADRAS: 

PEINTED  BT  THE  SUPEEDS'TENDENT,  QOYT.  PEliSS. 

1894. 


1y 


MADRAS  GO"VERNMENT  MUSEUM. 


AND  CHANK  FISHEPJES 


GULF  OJ?  MANAAE. 


!        EDGAR  THURSTON,  c.m.z.s.,  etc, 
INIED 


MADRAS: 
IINIED  BY  THE  SDPEBrNTENDENT,  GOVT.  PItESS. 


rP«lcB,  13  BnBtfi.]  18  9  4. 


\ 


MADRAS  GOVERNMENT  MUSEUM. 


Bulletin  No,  1, 


PEAEL  AND  CHANK  FISHERIES 


OP  THB 


,  *     « 


GULF  OF  MANAAR 


BY 

EDGAR  THURSTON,  c.m.z.s.,  etc., 

SuptriwUndmUt  Madras  Oovemment  Mii§§um, 


MADRAS: 

PBINTEJb  BT  THE  SUPEEINTENDENT,  QOYT.  PELSa 

1804. 


PREFACE. 


In  1890y  my  ^  Notes  on  the  Pearl  and  Chank  FisHeries  and 
If  arine  Fanna  of  the  Oolf  of  Manaar '  were  published  in  a 
single  Tolume ;  and  a  friendly  critio  pointed  out  that  the 
effect  thereof  was  somewhat  marred  by  their  publioation 
together^  and  by  the  arrangement  adopted. 

The  edition  being  exhausted,  and  fresh  material  awaiting 
incorporation^  I  have  taken  advantage  of  the  opportunity 
to  oommenoe  a  series  of  bulletins,  dealing  with  the  results 
of  my  wanderings  on  behalf  of  the  Madras  Museum  ;  and 
send  forth  the  first  issue  in  the  form  of  a  revised  edition  of 
the  '  Note  on  Pearl  and  Qiank  Fisheries/  leaving  the 
*  Marine  Fauna  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar '  to  be  dealt  with 
Jiereafter, 

EDGAB  THUBSTON, 


v3o0o05 


I 


CONTENTS. 


PAOB 

TUTIOOBIN  PeABL  F18HEBY  1-28 

Geylon  Fbabl  Fisheby,  1889 29-35 

iNBPEonoN  OF  Ceylon  Fbabl  Bakks 36-54 

TvTZOOBiK  Ghaitx  Fisheby  ,         ..     55-62 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATES. 


PLATE  I. 

Pearl  oyster  (natural  liie)  with  oue  yalTe  of  the  shell  removed : — 
a.  bynni  filaments  with  fragments  of  coral,  from  which  they  have 

been  torn  by  the  diyer,  attached ; 
h.  adductor  mnsole  s  « 

c.  '  ovarimn, '  wherein  the  pearls  are  situated; 

d,  mantle. 

PLATE  n. 

Fig.  I.  Section  of  pearl  oyster,  magnified : — 

a,  alimentary  canal ; 

h.  liver  I 
e,  e.  generative  tubes  ; 

d.  organ  of  Bojanus. 
e,  e.  sections  of  parasites  encysted  between  the  alimentary  canal  and 
generative  tubes. 

Fig.  II.  Section  of  pearl  oyster,  magnified,  showing    portion  of  the 
*   byssus  gland  with  the  filaments  arranged  in  lamin»,  and  in- 
vested 1^  muscular  and  connective  tissue. 

PLATE  in. 

Fig.  I.  Section  of  pearl  oyster,  less  highly  magnified  than  the  preceding, 
showing  the  byssus  gland  with  its  laminsa,  invested  by  muscular  and 
connective  tissue,  and  surrounded  by  generative  tubes. 

Fig.  II.  Section  of  pearl  oyster,  magnified,  showing  ovum  imbedded 
among  generative  tubes. 

PLATE  in-A. 

« 

Specimen  of  Bhinodon  typicus  preserved  in  the  Madras  Museum  (length 
22  feet). 

PLATE  IV. 

Chank  shell  (Turlinella  rapa)^  natural  sise. 


"  Know  yon,  perchance,  how  that  poor  formless  wretch — 
The  Oyster — gems  his  shallow  moonlit  chalice  P 
Where  the  shell  irks  him,  or  the  sea-sand  frets, 
This  loTelj  lustre  on  his  grief." 

Edwin  Arnold, 


1.—TUTIC0RIN  PEARL  FISHERY. 


TuTicoRiN,  the  "  scattered  town,''  situated  in  the  Tinne- 
velly  district  on  the  south-west  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar, 
from  which  the  Madras  Government  pearl  fisheries  are 
conducted,  is^  according  to  Sir  Edwin  Arnold,^  a  sandy 
maritime  little  place,  which  fishes  a  few  pearls,  produces 
and  sells  the  great  pink  conch  shells,  exports  rice  and 
baskets,  and  is  surrounded  on  the  land  side  by  a  wilderness 
of  cocoa*  and  palmyra  palms.  Summed  up  in  these  few 
words,  it  does  not  appear  the  important  place  which,  in  spite 
of  its  lowly  aspect  when  viewed  from  the  sea  and  the  seem- 
ing torpor  which  reveals  itself  to  the  casual  visitor,  it  is  in 
reality.  For  not  only  is  it  a  medium  of  communication 
between  Tinnevelly  and  Ceylon,  to  and  from  which  hosts  of 
coolies  are  transported  in  the  course  of  every  year,  but  it  is 
also  an  important  mercantile  centre  for  the  shipment  of 
Tinnevelly  cotton  (the  most  valuable  of  the  cottons  grown 
in  the  Madras  Presidency),  jaggery,^  (molasses),  onionSi 
chillies,  etc. 

With  respect  to  the  shipment  of  jaggery,  I  was  told, 
during  a  visit  to  Tuticorin,  that,  during  the  seasons  at  which 
jelly-fish  abound  in  the  muddy  surface  water  of  the  Tuticorin 
harbour,  so  great  is  the  dread  of  their  sting,  that  coolies, 
engaged  in  carrying  loads  of  jaggery  on  their  heads  through 
the  shallow  water  to  the  cargo  boats,  have  been  known  to 
refuse  to  enter  the  water  until  a  track,  free  from  jelly-fish, 
was  cleared  for  them  by  two  canoes  dragging  a  net  between 
them. 

>  India  Re-visitedy  1887. 

'  "  The  fresh  juice  of  the  palmyra  palm,  if  boiled  down,  yields 
molasses  or  jaggery,  from  which  sugar  may  be  refined.  The  juice  collected 
for  this  purpose  has  a  small  piece  of  lime  placed  in  it  to  prevent  fermenta* 
tion  while  suspended  from  the  tree." — (pict,  Econom,  Prod,), 


8 

Tuticorin  is,  indeed,  as  Sir  Edwin  Arnold  records,  "  an 
abominable  place  to  land  at."  Nature  has  unfortunately 
ordained  that  large  vessels  are  unable  to  approacb  nearer 
to  the  shore  than  a  distance  of  six  miles  or  thereabouts. 
A  due  regard  for  their  safety  compels  them  to  lie  at 
anchor  outside  Hare  Island,  one  of  a  number  of  coral-girt 
islands  in  the  neighbourhood^  where  hares  and  partridges 
may  be  shot,  and  sluggish  holuthurians  {beches  de  mer) 
captured  in  abundance  at  low  tide  as  they  lie  impassive 
on  the  sandy  shore,  which  is  strewed  with  broken  coral 
fragments,  detached  by  wave-action  from  the  neighbouring 
reef,  and  riddled  with  the  burrows  of  nimble  ocypods  (0. 
maerocera  and  0.  ceratophthalma,) 

Not  far  from  the  north  end  of  the  town  of  Tuticorin,  on 
the  sandy  shore,  are  the  kilns,  in  which  corals,  coarse 
mollusc  shells  {Ostrcea,  Venus,  Cardium,  &c.)  and  melo- 
besian  nodules  (calcareous  algsa)  are  burned  and  con* 
verted  into  churidm,^  i,e,,  prepared  lime  used  for  building 
purposes,  and  by  natives  for  chewing  with  their  beloved 
betel  (the  leaves  of  Piper  Betle),  A  Native  friend  informs 
me  that  in  Northern  India  pearls  are  bought  by  wealthy 
natives  to  be  used  instead  of  chundm  with  the  betel.  In 
India  relations  and  friends  put  rice  into  the  mouth  of  the 
dead  before  cremation,  while  in  China  seed  pearls  are  used 
for  the  same  purpose. 

During  my  visit  to  Tuticorin  in  1887,  I  used  to  watch, 
almost  daily,  grand,  massive  blocks  of  Pontes^  Astraia,  and 
various  species  of  other  reef-building  coral  genera,  being 
brought  in  canoes  from  the  reefs,  and  thrown  into  the 
ground  to  form  the  foundation  of  the  new  cotton  mills, 
which,  in  consequence,  bear  the  name  of  the  Coral  Mills. 

Lecturing  at  the  Royal  Institution  *  on  the  '*  Structure, 
Origin,  and  Distribution  of  Coral  Reefs  atid  Islands," 
Mr.  John  Murray  stated  that  "  if  we  except  Bermuda  and 
one  or  two  other  outlying  reefs  where  the  temperature  may 
occasionally  fall  to  66°  Fahr.  or  64°  Fahr.,  it  may  be  said 
that  reefs  are  never  found  where  the  surface  temperature  of 
the  water,  at  any  time  of  the  year,  sinks  below  70°  Fahr., 
and  where  the  annual  range  is  greater  than  12°  Fahr.  In 
typical  coral  reef   regions,   however,  the  temperature  is 

'  The  familiar  honse  frog  {Rhacophorus  macvlatus)  of  Madras  ispopn* 
larlj  known  as  the  chunim  frog  from  its  habit  of  sticking  by  means  of  the 
disos  on  its  toes  on  to  the  chon&m  walls  of  dwelling  houses. 

«  March  16,  1888. 


d 


higher  and  the  range  much  less/^  No  regular  series  of 
records  of  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  coral-bearing 
Gulf  of  Manaar  has  as  yet  been  made.  The  surface  tem- 
perature, which  I  recorded  from  time  to  time  during  my 
Tisit  to  S>&m^syaram  island  in  the  latter  half  of  July^  1888, 
varied  from  79°  Fahr.  to  9V  Fahr.  between  the  hours  of 
7  A.M.  and  6  p.m. 

The  following  table  shows  the  temperature  range  of 
Tuticorin  during  the  year  1887,  the  readings  being  taken 
in  the  shade  at  10  a.m.  and  4  p.m.  : — 


Banee. 

Min. 

Max. 

January 

75^ 

84° 

February         ... 

y.    6° 

78° 

84° 

March 

9° 

80° 

89° 

April 

12° 

79° 

91° 

May 

. .        13° 

83° 

96° 

June 

9° 

86° 

95° 

July                  . .          , 

.  •        10° 

86° 

96** 

August 

. .        11° 

84° 

95° 

September 

9° 

• 

85° 

94° 

October 

6° 

80° 

86° 

November 

r 

79° 

86° 

December 

..     11° 

75° 

86° 

Tuticorin  has  been  celebrated  for  its  pearl  fishery  from 
a  remote  date^  and,  as  regards  comparatively  modem  times^ 
Friar  Jordanus^  a  missionary  bishop^  who  visited  India 
about  the  year  1330^  tells  ua  that  as  manv  as  8^000  boats 
were  then  engaged  in  the  pearl  fisheries  of  Tinnevelly  and 
Ceylon. 

In  more  recent  times  the  fishery  has  been  conducted, 
successively,  by  the  Portuguese,  the  Dutch,  and  the 
English.  The  following  excellent  description  by  Martin  of 
the  pearl  fishery  in  the  year  1700,  during  the  Dutch  occu- 
pation of  Tuticorin ;  shows  that  the  method  of  fishing 
adopted  at  that  time  agrees,  in  its  essential  characteristics, 
with  that  which  is  in  vogue  at  the  present  day : — 

'*  In  the  early  part  of  the  year  the  Dutch  sent  out  ten  or 
twelve  vessels  in  different  diroctions  to  test  the  localities  in 
which  it  appeared  desirable  that  the  fishery  of  the  year  should 
be  carried  on ;  and  from  each  vessel  a  few  divers  were  let  down 
who  brought  up  each  a  few  thousand  oysters,  which  were 
heaped  upon  the  shore  in  separate  heaps  of  a  thousand  each, 
opened  and  examined.  If  the  pearls  found  in  each  heap  were 
found  by  the  appraisers  to  be  worth  an  icu  or  more,  the  beds  from 
which  the  oysters  were  taken  were  held  to  be  capable  of  yielding 
a  rich  harvest  \  if.  they  were  worth  no  more  than  thirty  sous,  the 

2 


10 

beds  were  considered  unlikely  to  yield  a  profit  over  and  above 
the  expense  of  working  them.  As  soon  as  the  testing  was  com- 
pleted, it  was  publicly  announced  either  that  there  would,  or  that 
there  would  not  be  a  fishery  that  year.  In  the  former  case 
enormous  crowds  of  people  assembled  on  the  coast  on  the  day 
appointed  for  the  commencement  of  the  fishery ;  traders  came 
there  with  wares  of  all  kinds ;  the  roadstead  was  crowded  with 
shipping ;  drums  were  beaten,  and  muskets  fired ;  and  every- 
where the  greatest  excitement  prevailed,  until  the  Dutch 
Commissioners  arrived  from  Colombo  with  great  pomp,  and 
ordered  the  proceedings  to  be  opened  with  a  salute  of  cannon. 
Immediately  afterwards  the  fishing  vessels  all  weighed  anchor 
and  stood  out  to  sea,  preceded  by  two  large  Dutch  sloops,  which 
in  due  time  drew  off  to  the  right  and  left  and  marked  the  limits 
of  the  fishery,  and  when  each  vessel  reached  its  place,  half  of 
its  complement  of  divers  plunged  into  the  sea,  each  with  a  heavy 
stone  tied  to  his  feet  to  make  him  sink  rapidly,  and  furnished 
with  a  sack  into  which  to  put  his  oysters,  and  having  a  rope 
tied  round  his  body,  the  end  of  which  was  passed  round  a 

Sulley  and  held  by  some  of  the  boatmen.  Thus  equipped,  the 
iver  plunged  in,  and  on  reaching  the  bottom,  fiUea  his  sack 
with  oysters  until  his  breath  failed,  when  he  pulled  a  string 
with  which  he  was  provided,  and,  the  signal  being  perceived  by 
the  boatmen  above,  he  was  forthwith  hauled  up  by  the  rope, 
together  with  his  sack  of  oysters.  No  artificial  appliances  of  any 
kind  were  used  to  enable  the  men  to  stay  under  water  for  long 
periods ;  they  were  accustomed  to  the  work  almost  from  infancy, 
and  consequently  did  it  easily  and  well.  Some  were  more  skH- 
ful  and  lasting  than  others,  and  it  was  usual  to  pay  them  in 
proportion  to  their  powers,  a  practice  which  led  to  much 
emulation  and  occasionally  to  fatal  results.  Anxious  to  outdo 
aU  his  fellows,  a  diver  would  sometimes  persist  in  collecting 
until  he  was  too  weak  to  pull  the  string,  and  would  be  drawn 
up  at  last  half  or  quite  drowned,  and  very  often  a  greedy  man 
would  attack  and  rob  a  successful  neighbour  under  water  ;  and 
instances  were  known  in  which  divers  who  had  been  thus  treated 
took  down  knives,  and  murdered  their  plunderers  at  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  As  soon  as  all  the  first  set  of  divers  had  come  up, 
and  their  takings  had  been  examined  and  thrown  into  the  hold, 
the  second  set  went  down.  After  an  interval,  the  first  set  dived 
again,  and  after  them  the  second ;  and  so  on  turn  by  turn.  The 
work  was  very  exhausting,  and  the  strongest  man  could  not 
dive  oftener  than  seven  or  eight  times  in  a  day,  so  that  the  days' 
diving  was  finished  always  before  noon. 

"The  diving  over,  the  vessels  returned  to  the  coast  and 
discharged  their  cargoes ;  and  the  oysters  were  all  thrown  into 
a  kind  of  p6u:k,  and  left  for  two  or  three  days,  at  the  end  of 
which  they  opened  and  disclosed  their  treasures.  The  pearls, 
having  been  extracted  from  the  shells,  and  carefully  washed, 


11  •    •        . 

were  placed  in  a  metal  receptacle  containing  some  five  or  six 
colanders  of  graduated  sizes,  which  were  fitted  one  into  another 
so  as  to  leave  a  space  between  the  bottoms  of  every  two,  and 
were  pierced  with  holes  of  varying  sizes,  that  which  had  the 
largest  holes  being  the  topmost  colander,  and  that  which  had 
the  smallest  being  the  undermost.  When  dropped  into  colander 
No.  1,  all  but  the  very  finest  pearls  fell  through  into  No.  2,  and 
most  of  them  passed  into  Nos.  3,  4,  and  5 ;  whilst  the  smallest 
of  all,  the  seeds,  were  strained  o£F  into  the  receptacle  at  the 
bottom.  When  all  had  staid  in  their  proper  colanders,  they 
were  classified  and  valued  accordingly.  The  largest,  or  those 
of  the  first  class,  were  the  most  valuable,  and  it  is  expressly 
stated  in  the  letter  from  which  this  information  is  extracted 
that  the  value  of  any  given  pearl  was  appraised  almost  exclu- 
sively with  reference  to  its  size,  and  was  held  to  be  affected 
but  little  by  its  shape  and  lustre.  The  valuation  over,  the 
Dutch  generally  bought  the  finest  pearls.  They  considered 
that  they  had  a  right  of  pre-emption.  At  the  same  time  they 
did  not  compel  individuals  to  sell,  if  unwilling.  All  the  pearls 
taken  on  the  first  day  belonged  by  express  reservation  to  the 
King  or  to  the  S^tupati  according  as  theplace  of  their  taking 
lay  off  the  coasts  of  the  one  or  the  other.  The  Dutch  did  not,  as 
was  often  asserted,  claim  the  pearls  taken  on  the  second  day. 
They  had  other  and  more  certjain  modes  of  making  profit,  of 
which  the  very  best  was  to  bring  plenty  of  cash  into  a  market 
where  cash  was  not  very  plentiful,  and  so  enable  themselves  to 
purchase  at  very  easy  prices.  The  amount  of  oysters  found  in 
different  years  varied  infinitely.  Some  years  the  divers  had  only 
to  pick  up  as  fast  as  they  were  able,  and  as  long  as  they  could 
keep  uinder  water ;  in  others  they  could  only  find  a  few  here 
and  there.  In  1700  the  testing  was  most  encouraging,  and  an 
unusually  large  number  of  boat-owners  took  out  licenses  to  fish  ; 
but  the  season  proved  most  disastrous.  Only  a  few  thousands 
were  taken  on  tne  first  day  by  all  the  divers  together,  and  a  day 
or  two  afterwards  not  a  single  oyster  could  be  found.  It  was 
supposed  by  many  that  strong  under-currents  had  suddenly  set 
in  owing  to  some  unknown  cause.  Whatever  the  cause,  the 
results  of  the  failure  were  most  ruinous.  Several  merchants  had 
advanced  large  sums  of  money  to  the  boat-owners  on  speculation, 
which  were,  of  course,  lost.  The  boat-owners  had  in  like  manner 
advanced  money  to  the  divers  and  others,  and  they  also  lost  their 
money." 

In  the  present  century   the   following  fisheries  have 
taken  place : — 

1822        profit         £13,000 

do.  £10,000 

do.  Rs.  3,79,297 
do.  „  1,58,483 
do.       „         7,803 


1830 
1860-62 
1889 
1890 


•  • 


•  • 


■12 

As  to  the  cause  of  the  failure  of  the  pearl  oysters  to 
reach  maturity  on  the  banks  in  large  numbers,  in  recent 
times,  except  after  long  intervals,  I  for  my  part  confess 
my  ignorance.  Whether  the  baneful  influence  of  the 
mollusca  known  locally  as  suran  {Modiola,  sp.)  and  killikay 
(Avicula^  sp.),  the  ravages  of  rays  {Trygon,  &c.)  and  file- 
fishes  (Balistes),  poaching,  the  deepening  of  the  Pdmban 
channel,  or  currents  are  responsible  for  the  non-produc- 
tion of  an  abundant  crop  of  adult  pearl-producing  oysters 
during  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  (1862-89)  it  would 
be  impossible  to  decide,  until  our  knowledge  of  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  pearl  oysters  live  is  much  more 
precise  than  it  is  at  present. 

The  argument  that  the  failure  of  the  pearl  fishery  is 
due  to  poaching  is  from  time  to  time,  brought  forward; 
but,  as  Mr.  H.  S.  Thomas  wisely  and  characteristically 
remarks  :  *  *'  The  whole  system  of  the  fishery  has  been 
carefully  arranged,  so  that  every  one  in  any  way  connected 
with  it  has  a  .personal  stake  in  preventing  poaching,  and 
oyster  poaching  is  not  a  thing  that  can  be  done  in  the 
night;  it  must  be  carried  out  in  broad  daylight;  and,  to 
be  worth  doing  at  all,  it  must  be  done  on  a  large  scale. 
Ten  thousand  oysters  cannot  be  put  in  one's  pocket  like  a 
rabbit,  nor  are  there  express  trains  and  game-shops  to  take 
them.  Every  single  oyster  has  to  be  manipulated,  and  it 
is  only  the  few  best  that  can  be  felt  at  once  with  the  finger, 
and  the  usual  way  is  to  allow  the  oyster  to  rot  and  wash 
away  from  the  pearl.  Oysters  could  not  be  consigned 
fresh  in  boxes  or  hampers  by  rail  to  distant  confederates ; 
they  could  not  even  be  landed  without  its  becoming 
known ;  and,  if  known,  every  one  is  interested  in  informing 
the  Government  ofiBcer  and  stopping  poaching.''  I  cannot, 
however,  refrain  from  quoting  the  following  touching  de- 
scription of  an  ideal  poach  in  a  recent  pamphlet :  ^'  Mutu- 
kurnppan  and  Kallymuttn  are  two  fishermen  brothers  : 
they  start  out  after  their  cold  rice,  ostensibly  to  get 
their  lines  ready  in  their  canoe,  and  paddle  away  to  their 
fishing  ground  ;  there  they  drop  their  stone  anchor :  pre- 
sently one  observes  that  it  is  warpi  and  he  would  like  a 
bathe  ;  over  the  side  he  goes  down  by  his  mooring  rope  to 
see  what  the  bottom  is  like.  He  brings  up  a  handful  of 
oysters  and  gives  them  to  Thamby ;  then  Thamby  thinks 

*  Vide  Report  on  Pearl  Fisheries  and  Chanic  Fisheries ^  1884,  by  the 
Hon-  Mr.  H.  S.  Thomas. 


ih  ■ 

he  would  like  a  bathe^  and  he  goes  down  also,  and  bringa 
up  a  fist  full.  When  they  are  tired,  they  get  back  into  the 
canoe  and  open  their  spoils,  taking  out  what  pearls  they 
can  find^  and  pitching  the  shells  back  into  the  sea.  This 
sort  of  thing  goes  on  day  after  day  and  year  after  year  up 
and  down  the  coast,  and  this  will  partially  account  for 
the  dead  shells  so  often  found  on  the  banks.  Is  it  to  be 
wondered  at  that  oysters  take  alarm  at  this  constant 
invasion  of  their  domain  and  naturally  seek  some  other 
place  of  rest  P  ^' 

Far  more  prejudicial  to  the  welfare  of  the  oysters  than 
an  occasional  raid  upon  them  by  a  stray  Mutakurupam  or 
Kallymuttu  is,  in  all  probability,  the  little  mollusc,  siiran, 
which  clusters  in  dense  masses  over  large  areas  of  the  sea 
bottom,  spreading  07er  the  surface  of  coral  blocks,  smother- 
ing and  crowding  out  the  recently  deposited  and  delicate 
young  of  the  oyster.  Time  after  time  there  is,  in  the  care- 
fully kept  records  of  the  superintendent  of  the  pearl  banks, 
in  one  year  a  note  of  the  presence  of  young  oysters,  either 
pure  or  mixed  with  siiran  and  mud  or  weed,  while,  at  the 
next  time  of  examination,  generally  in  the  following  year, 
it  is  noted  that  the  oysters  have  disappeared,  and  the  suran 
remained.  A  few  examples  will  suffice  to  make  this  point 
clear : — 

Devi  Far  • —  to  6 J  to  1^  fathoms. 

May,  1881.     Young  oysters  mixed  with  sooram  ^  and  mud. 
„      1882.     Sooram. 

Permandu  Par^6  to  B^faihotM, 

May,  1880.    A  few  oysters  of  one  year  age. 
,,      1881.     Young  oysters  mixed  with  sooram  and  mud. 
„      1882.     Sooram. 

Athomhadu  Par — 7f  to  9  fathoms. 

May,  1880.     Covered  with  sooram. 
„     1881.     Large  number  of  oyetjars  of  one  year  age,  with 

sooram  in  some  places  and  covered  with  weeds. 
„     1882.     No  oysters  ;  sooram  in  some  places. 

The  bank,  which  was  fished  during  the  fishery  of  1889,  is 
situated  about  10  miles  east  of  Tuticorin,  and  known   as  the 


•  Pat  or  paar  =s=  bank.  ^  Sooram  =.  sivram. 


.14 

Thojayiram  Par^  t^e  condition  of  which,  as  regards  oyster 
supply,  since  the  year  1860,  is  shown  by  the  following 
extract  from  the  records  of  the  superintendent  of  pearl 
banks : — 

Aj^^  1860.     Plenty  of  oysters  3^  years  old. 

Nov.,  1861.     Oysters  scarce  ;  nearly  all  gone. 

April,  1863.     Sooram  and  killikay  with  some  yoimg  oysters. 

Nov.,  1865."! 

April,  1866.  I 

„       1867.  VBlank. 
Nov.,      „      I 
April,  1869.J 

Mar.,  1871.     Five  oysters  with  a  quantity  of  sooram. 
Feb.,   1872.    Five  oysters  of  3  years  age  found. 
May,   1873.     Three  oysters  found. 
Jan.,    1875.     Three  oysters  of  2  years  age  found. 
Mar.,  1876.    North  part  blank. 
April,  1877.     South  part  blank. 

,,      1878.     Thickly  stocked  with  oysters  of  1  year  age. 

,,     1881.     Some  oysters  of  1  year  mixed  with  killikay. 

,,      1882.     No  living  oysters ;  dead  shells  and  sooram. 
April,  1883.    Three  oysters  found. 

Mar.,  1884.    Plenty  of  oysters  of  one  year  age ;   clean  and 

.    headthy. 

From  1884  the  Tholayiram  Par  wfis  carefully  watched, 
and  the  growth  of  the  oysters  continued  steadily,  unchecked 
by  adverse  conditions,  as  the  following  figures  show  : — 

f  March,         1884  weighed   1   oz. 
October,  „  ,,  3f  „ 

6i„  . 


March,        1885 
October,         „ 
10  shells  lifted. -<  April,  1886 

November,     ,, 
March,         1887 
October,  „ 

(^November,  1888 


7    „ 

7*„ 

8i„ 

10|„ 

13    „ 

15i„ 


In  November,  1888,  15,000  oysters  were  lifted,  and  their 
product  valaed  by  expert. pearl  merchants  at  Bs.  206-18-9, 
i.e.,  Bs.  13-12-8  per  thousand,'  as  shown  by  the  following 
copy  of  the  statement  of  valuation  : — 


B  The  product  of  12,000  oyitexs  lifted  from  the  Ceylon  pearl  bank, 
the  fishing  of  which  took  place  aynohronooBly  with  that  of  the  Tntioorin 
bank,  in  November,  1888,  was  valaed  at  Bs.  122.  A  further  sample  of 
12,660  oyRters,  lifted  in  February,  1889,  was  valued  at  Bs.  142. 


15 


£2 


c6 


i 

O 


I 


iM 
01 


tJ  tj  tj 


O  iOi-4 


o 

73 


O 


eo 


IS 

^1 


0) 


• 

o 

•^P^fOTjf 

• 

-3, 

•XSimi'Bj 

•s 

'iCpvCtrepi^ 

'^San[«^ 

«B 

'S 

60   ...     . 

o6   O   O  O   O 

00 

to  coco  -^  oo 

«  iH  1-1 


pu  O  O  O  O  eo 

■<  00  CO  "^O  O 

iH  iH  iH 


o 
o 


CO  OCO 
l>0  10 


o 


coo 

CD  iH 


t^       lO  t^  o 


04        CO  r-> 


00 


Ob 

CQ 


0^0  0  0009 
^COCOJgO 

CD  «  '*!>  O  O 


o 
o 


coo  CO 
£^0  to 


o 


CO  o 

CO  IH 


9   s- 


$*12HS$. 


CO  QO  '-I 


:  irs 


iH      iHcot^coeooOiH 


u» 


<y 


*»♦     oft   : 


s  ss 

CO  00  00 
00  kO'iA' 

»oe4  ^ 


00  00  00 


I. 

f 


'J9qnia^ 


•:>0:^fiwq  itt  eng 


§ 

•«a 

•c 

o 


fH  fH  CO  00  1*    : 


•  • 


S  mSS  ^  o 


la. 


-<J  M  «  S  M 


I 


hi 

OB 
9 


16 

It  may  not  be  oat  of  place  to  erncidate  the  meaning  of 
some  of  the  terms  used  in  the  above  statement^  and  I  cannot 
do  better  than  quote  from  the  excellent  article  on  the  Pearl 
Fisheries  of  Ceylon  by  Mr.  Q.  Vane,  O.M.G,,  who  writes  as 
follows  • : — 

'^  Sorting  and  sizing  the  pearls  into  ten  different  sizes,  from 
the  largest  to  the  smallest,  is  done  by  passing  them  through  ten 
brass  sieves  of  20,  30,  50,  80,  100,  200,  400,  600,  800,  and  1,000 

holes each  of  the  ten  sizes  may  include  some  of  every  class 

of  pearls  ;  the  20  to  80  and  100  may  each  have  the  drii,  anatari^ 
and  kallipH  kinds,  and  this  necessitates  the  operation  of  classing, 
which  requires  great  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  valuers. 

**  Perfection  in  pearls  consists  in  shape  and  lustre,  viz., 
sphericity  and  a  silvery  brightness,  free  from  any  discolouration ; 
and,  according  as  the  pearls  possess  these  essentials,  the  valuers 
assign  their  appropriate  class,  namely, — 

**  Ani  . .  .  •     Perfect  in  sphericity  and  lustre. 

**  An^tari  . .  .  •     Followers    or    companions,    but   failing 

somewhat  in  point  of  sphericity  or 
lustre. 

"Masankti..  ..     Imperfect,  failing  in  both  points,    espe- 

cially in  brilliancy  of  colour. 

**  Kallipti  . .  . .     Failing  still  more  in  both  points. 

''  Kural      . .        ...     A  double  pearl,  sometimes  dni. 

'^Pisal        ..  ..     Misshapeu,  clustered,  more  than  two  to 

each  other. 

"  Madanku  . .     Folded  or  bent  pearls. 

**  Va^ivu    . .  • .     Beauty  of  several  sizes  and  classes. 

'*  Ttil  . .  . .     Small  pearls  of  800  to  1,000  size. 

"  The  pearls  having  been  thus  sized  and  classed,  each  class 
is  weighed  and  recorded  in  kahfUhu  (kalungy)  and  mahchdtfi 
(manjaday). 

**  The  kalafichu  is  a  brass  weight  equal,  it  is  said,  to  67  grains 
Troy.  The  maHchddi  is  a  small  red  berry  ^° ;  each  berry,  when 
full  sized,  is  of  nearly,  or  exactly  the  same  weight ;  they  are 
reckoned  at  twenty  to  the  kalanchu. 

''The  weights  being  ascertained,  the  valuation  is  then 
fixed  to  each  pearl  class  or  set  of  pearls  according  to  the  respec- 
tive sizes  and  classes  :  the  inferior  qualities  solely  according  to 
weight  in  "kalafichu  and  manchddi ;  the  superior  ani,  anatarij  and, 
vadivu  are  not  valued  only  by  weight,  but  at  so  much  per  ehevu 
of  their  weight,  this  ehevu  being  the  native  or  pearl  valuer's 


'  Joumalf  Ceylon  Branchy  Royal  Asiatic  Society y  1887»  vol.  X,  No.  34. 
Paper  read  at  the  Conference  Meeting*  of  the  Colonial  and  Indian  Exhi- 
bition, Ootober  6,  1886. 

*°  The  seeds  of  Abrua  precatoriiASy  which  are  nsed  in  India  for  pbisoning 
cattle. 


17 

mode  of  assigning  the  proper  valae  by  weight  to  a  valuable 
article  of  BmaJl  iir eight,  form  and  colour  also  considered." 

The  pearls  of  commerce  are,  of  course,  for  the  most  pait 
those  which  are  formed  within  the  soft  tissues  of  the  animal, 
and  not  the  irregular  pearly  excrescences  (oddumutta)  which 
are  found  as  outgrowths  of  the  nacreous  layer  of  the  shell, 
frequently  at  the  point  of  insertion  of  the  adductor  muscle. 
The  nacreous  layer  of  the  Ghilf  of  Manaar  pearl-oyster  shell 
is  very  thin^  and  of  small  commercial  value  as  compared 
with  that  of  the  pearl-oyster  of  Queensland  and  the  Mergui 
Archipelago  {Avicula  margariti/era) ;  and  the  shells,  after 
the  extraction  of  the  pearls  by  the  process  of  decomposition, 
are  used  mainly  in  the  manufacture  of  chun&m.  The  shells 
are,  I  believe,  also  exported  to  England  from  Ceylon  for 
manufacture  into  buttons. 

As  regards  the  cause  of  the  formation  of  pearls,  con- 
cerning which  many  theories  have  been  hazarded,  the  most 
prevalent  idea  being  that  they  are  a  morbid  secretion 
produced  as  the  result  of  disease,  I  may  quote  from  the 
excellent  '  Ouide  to  the  Shell  and  Starfish  Galleries  in  the 
British  Museum  (Natural  History),'  1888,  which  tells  us 
that  '^some  small  foreign  body,  which  has  accidentally  pene- 
trated under  the  mantle  and  irritates  the  animal,  is  covered 
with  successive  concentric  layers  of  nacre,  thus  attaining 
sometimes,  but  rarely,  the  size  of  a  small  filbert.  The  nacre 
is  generally  of  the  well-known  pearly-white  colour,  very 
rarely  dark,  and  occasionally  almost  black.^^  The  effort 
of  the  animal  to  get  rid  of  the  irritation  caused  by  a  foreign 
substance  between  its  valves,  by  covering  it  over  with  nacre, 
and  thus  converting  it  into  a  pearl,  is  strikingly  illustrated 
by  two  specimens  in  which,  in  the  one  case,  an  entire  fish, 
and,  in  the  other,  a  small  crab  has  been  so  enclosed."  Ac- 
cording to  Streeter  ^'  the  nucleus  of  the  pearl  mav  be 
either  a  grain  of  sand,  the  frustule  of  a  diatom,  a  mmute 
parasite,  or  one  of  the  ova  of  the  oysters,  thin  layers  of 
carbonate  of  lime  being  deposited  around  the  object  con- 
centrically, like  the  successive  skins  of  an  onion,  until  it  is 
encysted. 

Writing  in  1859  "  as  to  what  may  be  termed  the  worm 
theory  of  pearl  formation,  Dr.  Eelaart  stated  that  ^*  Mon- 

-^  Among  the  pearls  from  the.  sampler  lifted  at  Tntioorin  in  November 
1*888)  there  is  one  domb-bell  shaped  specimen,  of  which  one-half  is  white, 
the  other  dark  brown. 

"  Pearlt  and  Pearling  Life,  1886. 

'>  Report  on  the  Natmral  Eietory  of  the  Pearl  Oyster  cf  Ceylon,  1868-69. 

3 


18 

sienr  Humbert,  a  Swiss  zoologist,  has,  by  his  own  obser- 
vations at  the  last  pearl  fishery,  corroborated  ail  I  have 
stated  aboat  the  ovaria  or  genital  glands  and  their  contents, 
and  he  has  discovered,  in  addition  to  the  filaria  and  cer- 
caria,  three  other  parasitical  worms  infesting  the  viscera  and 
other  parts  of  the  pearl  oyster*  We  both  agree  that  these 
worms  play  an  important  part  in  the  formation  of  pearls, 
and  it  may  yet  be  foand  possible  to  infect  pearls  in  other 
beds  with  these  worms,  and  thus  increasis  the  quantity  of 
these  gems.  The  nucleus  of  an  American  pearl  drawn  by 
Mobius  is  nearly  of  the  same  form  as  the  cercaria  found  in 
the  pearl  oysters  of  Ceylon/' 

The  Gulf  of  Manaar  pearl  oyster  {Avicula.fucata^  Gould) 
is  represented  in  plate  I,  as  it  appears  after  removal  of  one 
valve  of  the  shell,  the  '^  ovarium,^'  mantle,  gills,  adductor 
muscle  and  byssus  being  exposed. 

Plates  II  and  III,  reproduced  from  drawings  made  from 
micro-photographs  of  sections  of  a  pearl  oyster  from  the 
Tuticorin  banks,  illustrate  some  of  the  points  in  the  structure 
of  the  animal. 

In  plate  II-2  and  plate  III-l,  the  byssus  gland  is  shown 
with  the  parallel  rows  of  laminae,  to  which  are  attached  the 
numerous  fine,  green,  silky  filaments,  of  which  the  byssus  is 
made  up.  This  byssus  is  capable  of  being  protruded  be- 
yond or  retracted  within  the  shell,  and  by  means  of  it  the 
animal  is  able  to  anchor  itself  on  the  sea-bottom,  to  a  neigh- 
bouring oyster  or  other  moUuscan  shell,  coral-rock,  melobesian 
nodule,  or  other  convenient  object,  and  it  is  said  that  the 
animal  can,  even  in  the  adult  stage,  voluntarily  shift  its 
quarters  and  migrate  to  a  considerable  distance.  That  the 
young  oyster  can,  during  its  phase  of  existence  as  a  minute, 
free-swimming  organism,  wander  about  and  eventually  settle 
down  on  some  congenial  spot  no  one  will  dispute ;  but  the 
evidence  that  the  adult  can,  under  natural  conditions,  migrate 
to  anv  considerable  distance  is  wholly  insufficient,  even 
though  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  experiments  that  a 
young  pearl-oyster,  undei:  unnatural  conditions  in  a  soda- 
water  tumbler  full  of  sea- water  can,  though  weighted  with 
two  other  oysters  of  nearly  its  own  size,  climb  up  a  smooth 
vertical  surface  at  the  rate  of  an  inch  in  two  minutes. 
The  disappearance  of  about  150,000,000  oysters  ripe  for 
fishing  from  one  of  the  Ceylon  banks  in  1888  must,  1  think, 
be  attributed  either  to  the  action  of  a  strong  under-current 
which  tore  out  the  byssus  from  its  gland,  setting  free  the 
oysters  from  their  moorings,  or  to  one  of  those  unknown 


PEARL    OYSTKR  ■  ONE     VALVP 


I 


I 


LUJi    (JDi/t    Sckaal.    or  art.     Clcidia,. 

SEC1T0NS    OF    PEMAJ.    OYSTKil 


SECTIONS   OF   PEARL   OYSTEP.- 


• 


19 

agencies  by  which  gregarious  animals,  fishes,bivalye  mollnscs, 
&c.,  are  occasionally  known  to  be  killed  off  wholesale  and 
transported  to  a  considerable  distance.  That  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  oysters  was  due  to  their  voluntarily  migrating^ 
like  snipe,  seems  improbable. 

In  plate  II-l  the  tissues  which  intervene  between  the 
alimentary  canal  and  generative  organs  are  seen  to  contain 
two  parasites,  which  careful  microscopical  examination  has 
shown  to  be  undoubtedly  larvsd  of  some  platyhelmintbian 
(flat- worm),  the  life  history  of  which  is  unknown,  and  would 
require  long  and  patient  inquiry  to  ascertain.  Similar 
parasites  were  founds  on  microscopical  examination,  to  be 
very  abundant  in  the  alimentary  canal^  from  which  some  of 
them  must  have  bored  their  way^  as  ciliated  larvsB,  into  the 
surrounding  tissues^  while  others  remained  to  develop  within 
the  alimentary  canal.  It  is  not  improbable  that  these  minute 
parasites  may  form  in  the  tissues  foci  favourable  to  the 
laying  down  of  layer  after  layer  of  nacreous  deposit. 

In  plate  III-2  an  ovum  is  represented  among  the  gene- 
rative glands.  This  ovum  was  the  only  one  found  during 
the  examination  of  a  number  of  sections  ;  and  it  has  been 
suggested  to  me  that  it  may  be  the  ovum  of  the  parasite 
referred  to. 

In  September,  1890, 1  paid  a  hurried  visit  to  Tuticorin  in 
order  to  examine  some  living  oysters,  and  the  divers  went 
out  to  the  banks,  and  brought  in  a  sample  of  about  seventy 
oysters.  The  living  animals  1  cut  open  by  a  vertical  longi- 
tudinal section^  and  found,  in  a  large  majority  of  them,  the 
genital  duct  occupied  by  a  long,  transparent,  cylindrical^ 
gelatinous  body,  which  could  be  easily  removed  entire  from 
the  duct.  Unfortunately  I  had  no  microscope  with  me,  but 
a  number  of  the  tubes  were  placed  in  alcohol  and  submitted 
to  microscopical  examination  on  my  return  to  Madras,  small 
portions  of  the  tubes  being  teased  out  on  a  slide  and  treated 
with  various  reagents.  They  were  found  to  contain  diatoms, 
and  vast  numbers  of  delicate  sinuous  bodies.  In  order  to 
see  if  these  bodies  were  possessed  of  motion,  an  attempt  was 
made  about  a  fortnight  later  to  get  some  oysters  alive  in  a 
tank  of  sea-water  by  train  from  Tuticorin  to  Madras.  The 
hot  railway  journey,  however,  of  nearly  thirty  hours  proved 
fatal  to  them,  though  they  were,  on  their  arrival,  sufficiently 
fresh  for  purposes  of  examination.  The  gelatinous  bodies 
were  now  no  longer  present,  and  scrapings  from  the  inter- 
nal surface  of  the  duct  only  revealed  under  the  microscope. 


20 

ciliated  epithelium^  leptothrix,  &c.  The  conclnsion  whioh 
muBt,  I  tlunk,  be  arrived  at  is  that  the  sinuous  bodies  are  the 
spermatozoa  compacted  by  a  gelatinous  secretion  into  sper- 
matophores,  and  are  probably  subsequently  discharged  from 
the  genital  duct  for  the  direct  or  indirect  fertilisation  of 
another  oyster. 

The  Tutioorin  pearl  fishery  of  1889  was  carried  on  from 
a  temporary  improvised  village^  erected  on  the  barren  sandy 
shore  at  Sal&patturai^  two  miles  north  of  the  town^  and  built 
out  of  palmyra  and  bamboo^  the  inflammability  of  which 
was  demonstrated  on  more  than  one  occasion  when  the 
camp  was^  for  a  short  time^  in  danger  of  being  burnt  to 
the  ground.  The  village  consisted  of  the  divers'  and  mer- 
chants'quarters  and  baz&rs^where^as  the  fishing  progressed^ 
the  product  of  the  oysters  was  exposed  for  sale  ;  bungalows 
for  the  officials  connected  with  the  fishery  ;  a  tent  used  by 
myself  as  a  marine  zoological  laboratory ;  dispensary  ; 
kottus  or  koddus  (ue.,  enclosed  spaces  in  which  the  count- 
inff>  decomposition,  and  washing  of  the  oysters  are  carried 
on)  ;  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel ;  and  the  inevitable  and 
highly  necessary  isolated  cholera  quarters. 

The  fishery  commenced  on  the  25th  of  February  under  a 
combination  of  adverse  conditions  which  seriously  affected 
the  revenue,  viz.^  the  fact  that  the  pearl  bank  was  at  a 
distance  of  ten  miles  from  the  shore  and  in  10  fathoms  of 
water,  and  the  co-existence  of  a  fishery  on  the  Ceylon  coast^ 
where  the  oysters  were  to  be  obtained  at  a  distance  of 
about  five  miles  from  the  shore  and  at  a  depth  of  five  to 
seven  fathoms.  The  natural  resuU  was  that  the  natives^ 
more  keen  as  to  their  own  interests  than  those  of  the  Govern- 
ment^ went  off  with  their  boats  from  the  Madras  seaport 
towns  of  P&mban  and  Eilakarai  to  the  Ceylon  fishery^ 
where  they  could  earn  their  money  more  easily  and  with 
l^ss  discomfort  than  at  Tuticorin^  leaving  the  Tnticorin  bank 
to  be  fished  by  a  meagre  fleet  of  about  forty  boats. 

An  excellent  account  of  the  method  of  conducting 
the  pearl  fishery  at  Tnticorin  has  been  published  in  the 
'  Hand-Book  of  Directiousto  the  Ports  in  the  Presidency  of 
Madras  and  Ceylon/  1878,  from  which  the  following  varies 
only  in  points  of  detail. 

The  landwind^  under  favourable  conditions,  commences 
to  blow  soon  after  midnight,  and  a  signal  gun  is  fired  by 
the  beach  master  as  a  warning  that  the  fleet  of  native  boats, 
each  with  its  complement  of  native  divers,  can  start  out  to 


2i 

sea.  Their  departare  is  accompanied  by  a  good  deal  of 
noise  and  excitement.  The  bank  should  be  reached  by 
daylight^  and  the  day's  work  commences  on  a  signal  being 
given  from  a  schooner^  which  is  moored  on  the  bank 
tiironghout  the  fishery.  An  attempt  is  made  to  keep  the 
boats  together  within  an  area  marked  out  by  buoys,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  bank  from  being  fished  over  in  an  irregular 
manner ;  and  the  temper  of  the  European  officer  in  charge 
of  the  schooner  is  sorely  tried  by  the  refusal  of  the  boat- 
men to  comply  with  the  conditions.  All  being  ready  on 
boards  a  diving  stone,  weighing  about  thirty  lbs.,  to  which 
a  rope  is  attached,  and  a  basket  or  net  fastened  in  a  similar 
manner,  are  placed  over  the  boat's  side.     The  ropes  are 

Sasped  by  the  diver  (who  wears  no  diving  dress)  in  his 
!t  hand,  and,  placing  a  foot  on  the  stone,  he  draws  a  deep 
breath,  and  closes  his  nostrils  with  his  right  hand,  or  with 
a  metal  nose  clip  which  he  wears  suspended  round  his  neck 
by  a  string.  At  a  given  signal  the  ropes  are  let  go,  and 
the  diver  soon  reaches  the  bottom,  his  arrival  there  being 
indicated  by  the  slackening  of  the  rope.  He  then  gets  off 
the  diving  stone,  which  is  drawn  up  to  the  surface,  and, 
after  filling  the  basket  or  net  with  oysters,  if  he  is  on  a 
fertile  spot,  gives  the  rope  a  jerk,  and  comes  up  to  the 
surface  to  regain  his  breath. 

The  contents  of  the  basket  or  net  are  emptied  into  the 
boat,  and  the  live  oysters  separated  from  the  dead  shells, 
debris,  &c.  The  divers  work  in  pairs,  two  to  each  stone, 
and  the  oysters  which  they  bring  up  are  kept  separate  from 
those  of  the  other  divers.  A  good  diver  will  remain  below 
the  surface  about  fifty  seconds,  and,  in  exceptional  cases, 
sixty,  seventy,  or  even  ninety  seconds. 

The  largest  number  of  oysters  collected  as  the  result  of 
a  single  day's  fishing  by  forty-one  boats  during  my  visit 
to  the  fishery  was  241,000,  giving  an  average  of  5,878 
oysters  per  boat;  a  very  small  quantity  when  compared 
with  the  results  of  the  Ceylon  fishery  in  1867,  when  the 
daily  yield  varied  from  one  to  one  and-a-half  million  oysters, 
some  boats  bringing  loads  of  thirty  to  forty  thousand. 

From  experiments  made  with  divers  equipped  with 
diving  helmets,  gathering  stones  instead  of  oysters,  by 
Mr.  Thorowgood  when  Superintendent  of  the  Madras  Har- 
bour Works,  it  was  calculated  ^^  that  a  pair  of  helmeted 

'*  Vide  MadrM  Board  of  Beveniie  Betolntion,  No.  677,  drd  AofluBt, 
18S9.  ' 


22 

divers  could  together  send  up  12^000  shells  an  hour  in 
shallow  water^  or^  allowing  for  delay  in  hauling  up  in  12 
fathoms  of  water^  s^/j^  9,000  shells  an  hour  ;  and  as,  allow- 
ing for  shifts,  each  diver  should  work  four  hours  a  day,  the 
quantity  sent  up  by  a  pair  of  divers  in  a  day  would  be 
respectively  4  x  12,000  =  48,000,  or  4  x  9,000  =•  36,000 
shells  a  day,  which  is  equivalent  to  the  work  of  24  or  18 
naked  native  divers  sending  up  2,000  shells  a  day. 

The  results  ©f  the  work  done  by  the  two  helmeted  divers 
who  were  employed  as  an  experiment  at  the  Tutioorin 
fishery  for  some  inexplicable  reason  fell  far  short  of  this 
estimate,  and  compared  very  unfavourably  with  the  work 
done  by  the  skilled  native  divers  without  helmets. 

The  diving  operations  cease  for  the  day  some  time  after 
noon,  and  the  boats,  if  aided  by  a  favourable  sea  breeze, 
reach  the  shore  by  4  p.m.,  their  arrival  being  awaited  by 
large  crowds  of  natives,  some  of  whomi  come  from  curiosity, 
others  to  speculate  on  a  small  scale.  On  reaching  the  shore 
the  boats  are  quickly  made  fast  in  the  sand,  and  the  oysters 
carried  on  the  heads  of  the  divers  into  the  kottu,  where  they 
are  divided  into  separate  heaps,  each  set  of  divers  dividing 
their  day's  haul  into  three  equal  portions.  One  of  these, 
selected  by  the  Superintendent  of  the  fishery  or  some  other 
ofiScial,  becomes  the  property  of  the  divers,  who  quickly 
remove  their  share  from  the  kottu,  and,  squatting  on  the 
sand,  put  their  oysters  u'p  for  sale  at  prices  varying  from 
about  fifteen  to  forty  for  a  rupee.  On  the  first  day  of  the 
fishery  the  oysters,  for  a  short  and,  to  the  divers,  lucrative 
time,  were  sold  for  four  annas  a  piece.  The  two  heaps 
which  are  left  by  the  divers  in  the  kottu,  become  the  pro- 
perty of  Government,  and  are  counted  by  coolies  engaged 
tor  the  purpose.  Usually  about  6  p.m.  the  Government 
oysters  are  sold  by  public  auction,  duly  announced  by  tom- 
tom, and  put  up  in  lots  of  one  thousand.  The  purchaser 
can,  subject  to  the  consent  of  the  auctioneer,  take  a  certain 
number  of  thousands  at  the  same  rate  as  his  winning  bid. 
Occasionally  a  combination  is  organised  among  the  mer- 
chants who  are  buying  on  a  large  scale,  and  come  to  the 
auction  determined  not  to  bid  more  than  a  very  small  fixed 
sum  per  thousand.  A  struggle  then  takes  place  between 
the  auctioneer  and  merchants,  the  former  refusing  to  sell, 
the  latter  refusing  to  raise  their  price  ;  and  the  struggle 
invariably  ends  in  the  collapse  of  the  merchants,  when  they 
find  that  their  supply  of  oysters  is  cut  off.  No  credit  is 
allowed,  and  the  buyers,  as  soon  as  they  have  paid  their 


23 

money  into  the  treasury,  remove  their  oysters  to  the  washing 
kottus,  or  send  them  away  up-country  by  railway. 

Buyers  of  oysters  on  a  very  small  scale  open  them  at 
once  with  a  knife^  and  extract  the  pearls  by  searching  about 
in  the  flesh  of  the  animal ;  but^  by  this  method,  a  number  of 
the  very  small  pearls  ai*e  missed^  and  it  would  be  impossible 
to  carry  it  out  when  dealing  with  oysters  in  large  numbers. 
Boiling  the  oysters  in  water  and  subsequent  extraction  of 
the  pearls  from  the  dried  residue  might  be^  with  advantage, 
resorted  to  as  a  more  wholesome  and  less  unsavoury  process 
than  the  one  which  is  resorted  to  of  leaving  the  oysters 
to  putrify  in  the  sun^  and  subsequently  extracting  the 
pearls  from  the  residue  after  it  has  been  submitted  to 
repeated  washings  to  free  it  from  the  prevailing  maggots, 
pulpy  animal  matter,  sand,  &c.  The  process  of  putrefaction 
is  greatly  aided  by  flies — big  red-eyed  blue-bottles.  At  the 
Ceylon  pearl  fishery^  which  I  was  sent  to  inspect  on  the 
termination  of  my  work  at  Tuticorin,  the  merchants  com- 
plained at  flrst  of  the  scarcity  of  flies  ;  but,  later  on,  there  was 
no  cause  for  complaint^  as  they  were  present  not  only  in  the 
kottus,  but  in  other  parts  of  the  camp^  in  such  enormous 
numbers  as  to  form  a  veritable  plague,  covering  our  clothes 
with  a  thick  black  mass,  and  rendering  the  taking  of  food 
and  drink  a  difficult  and  unpleasant  process  until  the  even- 
ing, when  they  went  to  rest  after  twelve  hours  of  unceasing 
activity. 

To  those  who  are  in  authority,  a  pearl  fishery  is  a  time 
of  constant  anxiety.  The  probabilities  are  delightful^  but 
the  possibilities  are  frightful.  When  all  goes  well  a  fishery 
is  a  time  of  money-making  to  all  concerned,  to  the  Oovern- 
mentj  the  merchants^  the  divers  and  boatmen.  But  there  is 
to  those  who  are  responsible  the  constant  dread  of  epidemic 
disease — notably  cholera— which  may  appear  at  any  mo- 
ment and  ruin  the  expectation  of  a  prosperous  fishery.  Such 
an  invasion  of  cholera^  bringing  with  it  death  and  panic, 
I  witnessed  in  1889  at  the  Ueylon  fishery,  which  collapsed 
entirely  in  consequence  thereof^  the  camp  being  burned 
down  and  the  fleet  of  nearly  two  hundred  boats,  with  their 
panic-stricken  crews^  disappearing  within  the  space  of  only 
a  few  hours. 

The  prospects  of  a  pearl  fishery  may^  when  success 
seems  certain,  be  abruptly  ruined  by  accidents  from  sharks, 
of  which  the  divers  have  a  superstitious  but  not  altogether 
unreasonable  dread.  Before  the  fishery  of  1889, 1  read  in 
the  Times  of  Geylon^  that  there  were  150  boats,  with  their  full 


24 

complement  of  men^  all  waiting  at  Kilakarai  on  the  Madras 
coast  in  readiness  to  proceed  to  the  scene  of  the  fishery, 
after  some  festivities,  which  were  to  take  place  on  a  stated 
day,  and  at  which  prayers  were  to  be  oflfered  for  protection 
against  the  attacks  of  sharks.     ^'  The  only  precaation/' 
Tennent  writes,  ^^  '*  to  which  the  Ceylon  diver  devotedly 
resorts  is  the  mystic  eeremony  of  the  shark-charmer,  whose 
power   is  believed  to  be   hereditary,  nor  is   it   supposed 
that  the  value  of  his  incantations  is  at  all  dependent  upon 
the  religious  faith  professed  by  the  operator,  ior  the  present 
head  ox  the  family  happens  to  be  a  Roman  Catholic.     At 
the  time  of  our  visit  this  mysterious  functionary  was  ill  and 
unable  to  attend  ;  but  he  sent  an  accredited  substitute,  who 
assured  me  that,  although  he  was  himself  ignorant  of  the 
grand  and  mystic  secret,  the  fact  of  his  presence,  as  a  re- 
presentative of  the  higher  authority,  would  be  recognised  and 
respected  by  the  sharks. '^     At  the  Tuticorin  fishery  in  1890 
a  scare  was  produced  by  a  diver  being  bitten  by  a  shark, 
but  the  scare  subsided  as  soon  as  a  ^^  wise   woman  '^  was 
employed  by  the  divers.     Her  powers  do  not,  however,  seem 
to  have  been  great,  for  more  cases  of  shark  bite  occurred,  and 
the  fishery  had  to  be  stopped  in  consequence  at  a  time  when 
favourable  breezes,  clear  water,  plenty  of  boats,  and  oysters 
selling  at  from  Rs.  22  to  Rs.  81  per  thousand  indicated  a 
successful  financial  result. 

As  a  means  of  keeping  sharks  off  Captain  Donnan,  the 
superintendent  of  Ceylon  pearl  fisheries,  took  with  him  to 
the  pearl  banks  in  1891  a  number  of  specially-prepared 
cartridges,  which  he  meant  to  try  the  effect  of  exploding 
daily  under  water  in  the  event  of  sharks  putting  in  an 
appearance.  Before  the  commencement  of  the  fishery,  he 
exploded  a  cartridge  suspended  midway  between  the  surface 
and  the  bottom  to  try  the  effect  produced  at  a  distance.  The 
Government  divers  were  down  at  the  bottom  at  the  time  of 
the  explosion  at  a  distance  of  half  to  three  quarters  of  a  mile, 
and  they  said  that  the  sound  of  the  explosion  was  very  dis- 
tinct, and  that  they  were  satisfied  that  it  would  have  fright- 
ened the  sharks  away. 

Where,  as  in  a  pearl-fishing  camp,  a  mass  of  uneducated 
men  of  strong  passions  and  good  physique,  belonging  to 
different  countries  and  of  different  religious  persuasions,  is 
gathered  together,  it  is  not  unnatural  that  serious  conflicts 
should  at  times  arise,  which  require  the  presence  of  a  com- 

'^  CfeyloHf  1860,  Tol.  II,  pp.  66^6$, 


L^ 


i6 

petent  poUoe  foroe^  and  prompt  and  jndicions  magisterial 
action.  At  the  Geylon  fishery  of  1890  the  Government  agent 
had  to  deal  promptly  with  a  disturbance  in  which  the  Arab 
divers  were  tne  aggressors.  ''  Yesterday ''  writes  the  Ceylon 
Observer,  '^  there  was  a  wild  scene.  The  ^  Perseverance  * 
started  somewhat  late  for  the  banks.  On  her  way  out  she 
picked  np  and  took  in  tow  several  boats  that  were  nnable  to 
get  out.  One  of  these  contained  Arab  divers,  and  another 
which  was  being  towed  alongside  contained  Tamils.  The 
Arabs  wanted  the  Tamils  to  drop  their  boat  astern  to  prevent 
the  wash  of  the  sea  getting  into  their  boat,  bat  the  Tamils 
very  naturally  refased.  This  was  auite  enough  for  the 
Arabs :  ever  ready  for  a  row.  They  jumped  into  the  Tamil 
boat  and  commenced  to  slack  the  rope.  This  was  resented  by 
the  Tamils,  and  the  result  was  a  pitched  battle,  very  warm 
while  it  lasted.  The  '  Perseverance '  put  back,  picking  ap 
on  her  way  some  twelve  or  fourteen  divers  who  had  fallen  or 
else  been  knocked  into  the  water  in  the  course  of  the  fight. 
The  Arabs  were  the  smaller  body  in  point  of  numbers,  and 
got  a  thorough  thrashing.  One  man  had  several  of  his  front 
teeth  knocked  down  his  throat,  while  another  had  an  eye 
knocked  out,  and  probably,  if  the  fight  had  occurred  further 
out  at  sea,  some  of  the  men  would  have  lost  their  lives.'' 

For  months  after  the  conclusion  of  a  pearl  fishery  poor 
natives  may  be  seen  hunting  in  the  sand  on  the  site  of  the 
pearl  camp  for  pearls;  and  it  is  reported  that  in  1797  a 
common  fellow,  of  the  lowest  class,  thus  got  by  accident  the 
most  valuable  pearl  seen  that  season,  and  sold  it  for  a  large 
sum. 

The  experiments  of  Sarasin  and  Fol  showed  that  an  electric 
light  was  distinctly  seen  at  a  depth  of  33  metres,  at  67 
metres  the  clear  image  being  replaced  by  a  diffuse  light 
faintly  perceptible.  Towards  the  latter  end  of  1888  it 
was  suggested  that  an  electric  light  apparatus  should  be 
acquired  in  connection  with  the  pearl  fishery,  by  means  of 
which  one  would  be  able  to  examine  the  condition  of  the 
bank  from  the,  deck  of  a  ship,  and  which,  it  was  thought, 
would  help  to  solve  the  enigmas  that  still  hang  about  the 
migrations  of  the  pearl-oyster.  The  notice  of  Government 
was  drawn  to  the  fact  that  a  boat  had  been  fitted  up  with  a 
brush-dynamo  and  electric  globe  for  the  pearl  fishery  in 
South  Australia  by  a  Glasgow  firm.  During  a  short  visit  to 
Europe  in  1888, 1  made  a  series  of  inquiries  as  to  the  possi- 
bility of  obtaining  a  light,  such  as  was  required;   but, 

i 


26 

though  there  was  abundant  evidence  as  to  the  usefulness  of 
the  electric  light  for  surface  work^  salvage  operations^  and 
scientific  dredging,  ^^  the  general  opinion  of  those  best  quali- 
fied to  judge  was  that  it  would,  for  the  proposed  purpose, 
be  a  failure.  It  has  been  suggested  by  Mr.  Phipps,  who 
was  for  many  years  superintendent  of  the  Taticorin  pearl 
banks,  that,  if  a  sheet  of  thick  glass  could  be  let  into  the 
lower  plates  of  a  vessel  and  there  protected  both  outside 
and  inside  in  some  way  from  accident,  a  study  of  the  sea- 
bottom  in  clear  water,  either  by  day  with  the  sun's  rays  or 
by  night  by  the  use  of  a  powerful  electric  light,  might  be 
made.  In  a  letter  to  Government  Mr.  Fryer,  Inspector  of 
Fisheries,  makes  the  sound  suggestion  ^'  that  the  observa- 
tions which  the  Government  of  Madras  desire  to  make 
upon  the  habits  of  the  pearl-oysters  would  be  greatly  facili- 
tated by  the  employment  of  a  diver  equipped  with  an 
ordinary  diving  dress.  By  this  means  a  prolonged  stay 
could  be  made  by  an  observer  on  the  sea-bottom,  who  could 
not  only  make  an  accurate  survey  of  the  bed,  but  could 
periodically  examine  the  same  ground,  select  specimens,  and 
make  minute  observations,  which  would  be  impossible  to  a 
native  diver,  whose  stay  at  the  bottom  is  limited  to  a  minute 
or  so."  To  these  remarks  I  may  add  my  own  experience  at 
the  Tuticorin  fishery,  where,  by  examination  of  the  shells  of 
the  oysters  brought  up  by  the  divers,  by  expending  small 
sums  of  moi^y  which  tempted  the  native  divers  to  bring 
me  such  marine  animals  as  they  met  with  at  the  sea-bottom, 
by  conversation  with  the  European  diver,  who  was,  further, 
able  to  bring  up  large  coral  blocks  {Porites,  Mddrepora^ 
Hydnophoray  Pocilloporay  Turhinaria,  &o.)  for  examination, 
and  by  dredging,  I  was  able  to  form  some  idea  as  to  the 
conditions  under  which  the  pearl-oysters  were  living.  On 
clear  days  it  was  possible  to  distinguish  the  sandy  from  the 
rocky  patches  by  the  effect  of  light  and  shade,  and  from 
hauls  of  the  dredge  over  the  former  not  only  many  mol- 
lusca,  &c.,  but  also  specimens  of  Branchiostomay  sp.  ^^ 
(Lancelet)  were  obtained,  of  which  the  largest  measured 
two   inches  in   length.      MoUusca  were  aUo   obtained  in 


^'  Vide  Herdxuan's  Second  Annual  Report  on  the  Puffin  Island  Biologiea 
Station, 

^^  Speoimens  of  Amphiomue  belcheri^  Gray,  were  obtained  hy  Mr.  Giles 
when  dredging  from  the  Marine  Sarvey  8S.  '  InTestigator '  off  Seyen 
Pagodas  (Mah&balipuram)  80  miles  sonth  of  Madras  during  the  season 
1887-88, 


%1 

great  variety  by  passing  the  debris,  which  was  swept 
from  the  floor  of  the  kotta  every  day  after  the  oysters 
have  been  cleared  away,  through  sieves.  The  big  Murex 
anguliferus  (elephant  chank)  was  brought  in  from  the  banks 
by  the  divers  nearly  every  day,  and  the  animal  served 
up  for  their  hard-earned  evening  m'eal.  The  oysters  shells 
were  largely  encrusted  with  bright-coloured  sponges,  of 
which  the  most  conspicuous  was  Olathria  indica^  an 
erect-growing  bright  red  species,  recorded  as  a  new 
species  by  Mr.  Dendy  in  his  report  on  my  second  collection 
of  sponges  from  the  Gulf  of  Manaar.^®  Very  abundant,  too, 
was  the  large  cup-shaped  *Petro8ia  testudimiHa,  of  which  a 
specimen  in  the  Madras  Museum  measures  1*5  feet  in 
height.  Enveloping  the  oyster  shells  were  tangled  masses 
of  marine  algse,^^  and  floating  in  dense  masses  on  the 
surface  was  the  Sargasso  weed,  SargasKum  vulgare.  The 
various  minute  living  organisms  entangled  in  the  meshes 
of  the  algaa  must  serve  as  an  etScient  food-supply  for  the 
oysters.  The  outer  surface  of  the  living  oyster  shells 
was  frequently  covered  with  delicate  bryozoa,  which  also 
flourished  on  the  internal  surface  of  the  dead  shells  in  the 
form  of  flat  or  arborescent  colonies.  In  no  single  instance 
did  I  see  an  oyster  shell  from  the  Tuticorin  bank  encrusted 
with  coral ;  whereas  at  the  Ceylon  fishery,  and  on  the 
occasion  of  my  subsequent  inspection  of  the  Ceylon  pearl 
banks,  I  found  the  surface  of  a  large  number,  of  the  shells, 
both  dead  and  living,  covered,  and  frequently  entiiely 
hidden  from  view  by  delicate  branching  Madrepora  or 
Pocillopdra,  or  the  more  massive  Aatneay  Coeloria,  Hi/duo- 
pbora,  Oalaxea,  Ac.  A  specimen  of  Galaxea  encrusting  a 
single  valve  of  an  oyster  shell,  which  I  picked  up  on  the 
shore  and  is  now  in  the  Madras  Museum,  weighed  as  much 
as  5  oz.  15  dwts. 

Several  species  of  echinoderm,  which  had  not  previously 
been  recorded  from  the  coast  of  the  Madras  Presidency,^® 
were  brought  up  by  the  divers,  and  were  identified  by 
my  friend  Professor  Jeffrey  Bell.  Of  recorded  species 
those  which  were  brought  on  shore  most  frequently  were 
the  Cfimson-lake  coloured  Oreaster  linchi,  and  the  long- 
armed,  usually  salmon-coloured  Linckia  laevigata,  and,  not 

1"  Ann,  Mag,,  Nat.  Biet,  Feb.  1889. 

^''  The  oollection  of  alg89  made  at  Tuticorin  has  been  sent  te  Mr.  Q. 
Murray,  of  the  British  Mnsenm  (Nat.  History)  for  identification. 
^  Vide  ProCf  ZooL  fifoc,  Lond.,  June  19,  1888. 


28 

Unfrequently,  dense  clusters  of  Antedon  palmata  were  found 
in  crevices  hollowed  out  in  coral  blocks,  from  which  also, 
when  broken  open^  specimens  of  ophiaroids  (commonly 
met  with  their  arms  turned  round  the  branches  of  a  OorgO' 
nia^  or  in  the  canal  system  of  sponges),  cheetopods^  crusta- 
ceans, and  stone-boring  moUusca  {Lithodomue,  ParapholaSy 
Venerupis,  &c.)  were  obtained. 


29 


IL— CEYLON  PEARL  FISEERY,  1889. 


On  the  completion  of  my  investigations  at  the  Tuticorin 
pearl  fishery  in  1889,  I  proceeded,  in  compliance  with  in- 
structions received  from  the  Madras  Government  to  Ceylon^ 
to  report  on  the  pearl  fishery  which  was  being  carried  out 
on  the  Mattawartu  par  (or  bank)  off  Dutch  Bay. 

It  was  originally  intended  that  I  should  travel  up  the 
coast  by  S.S.  ^Active  ' ;  but,  as  she  was  laden  with  stores 
for  the  pearl  camp^  there  was  no  available  space,  and  I  had^ 
unfortunately^  to  wait  for  a  passage  on  the  small  coasting 
steamer  ^  Prince  Alfred'^  which  left  Colombo  two  days 
later.  As  we  neared  Dutch  Bay,  on  the  shore  of  which  the 
pearl  camp  was  located^  in  the  early  morning,  the  familiar 
odour  of  decomposing  oysters  was  perceptible  some  distance 
out  at  sea,  and  we  watched  a  few  boats  at  work  on  the  pearl 
bank.  Arrived  at  the  camp^  1  found  Mr.  Twynham^  the 
Government  Agent^  Captain  Donnan  (whose  name  is  con- 
nected with  a  Gulf  of  Manaar  sponge,  Axinella  donnani)  jSaid 
other  administrative  officers  living  on  board  the  schooner 
'  Serendib  '  moored  close  to  the  shore,  communication  with 
which  was  maintained  by  means'  of  a  gangway.  Several 
deaths  from  cholera  occurred  on  board  during  the  return 
journey  of  the  ^  Serendib '  to  Colombo,  and,  among  others 
Captain  Bobson,  who  had  acted  as  kottu  superintendent 
throughout  the  fishery,  fell  a  victim  to  the  dread  disease. 

The  few  boats,  which  had  been  at  work  on  the  bank, 
were  towed  into  the  bay  by  the  ^  Active ',  reaching  the  shore 
opposite  the  kottus  before  4  p.m.  I  gathered  that  the  steamer 
had  been  of  very  great  service  during  tjie  fishery  ;  for,  with 
her  assistance,  not  only  were  the  boats  enabled  to  get  to 
and  from  the  bank  in  spite  of  contrary  winds,  but  the  work 
of  the  divers,  which  is  very  severe,  was  considerably 
lightened  by  the  simple  fact  that  the  steamer  could  bring 
them  back  at  an  early  hour  on  days  when,  without  her 
assistance,  they  would  have  been^out  at  sea  until  late  in  the 
evening,  and  not  inclined  to  start  off  for  the  bank  on  the 
foUowing  morning. 

Fortunately  I  examined  the  oysters  which  were  brought 
in  by  the  boats  ;  for,  as  events  turned  out,  it  was  my  solitory 


.    30 

• 

opportunity  of  making  an  examination  thereof.  I  was  at 
once  struck  with  the  fact  that  the  shells  of  the  oysters  pre- 
sented an  entirely  different  appearance  to  those  of  the 
Tholayiram  par  (Tuticorin)  ;  for,  whereas  the  latter  were 
enveloped  in  dense  masses  of  algas  (sea  weeds)  and  the 
surface  of  the  shells  was  covered  by  variously  colored  branch- 
ing and  sessile  encrusting  sponges^  the  surface  of  the  shells 
of  the  former  which  was  uppermost  during  life  was,  in  very 
many  cases,  covered  over  by  young  stony  corals,  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  species,  formed  either  encrusting  masses  or 
branching  tufts.  A  series  of  specimens  of  the  shells,  with 
the  attached  corals,  many  of  which  were  to  be  seen  lying 
strewn  along  the  sandy  shores  of  the  bay,  discarded  by  natives 
after  extraction  of  their  contents,  has  been  deposited  in  the 
Madras  Museum,  where  they  form  a  very  attractive  exhibit. 
Further  examination  of  these  coral-bearing  shells  at  various 
ages  would  be  of  interest ;  for,  as  the  age  of  the  oysters 
can  be  approximately  fixed,  a  very  good  idea  could  be 
obtained,  by  weighing  and  by  observation  of  the  size  of  the 
corals  on  oysters  of  different  ages,  as  to  the  rate  at 
which  the  corals  grow.^  Chemical  analyses  of  the  sea  water 
over  the  Ceylon  and  Tuticorin  pearl  banks,  especially  with 
reference  to  the  percentage  of  lime  salts,  should  also  be 
carried  out.  In  connection  with  my  observation  that  the 
Tuticorin  shells  were  covered  with  algsB  while  the  Ceylon 
shells  were  encrusted  by  corals,  a  Ceylon  correspondent 
wrote  as  follows :—"  From  the  fishery  of  1887  we  took 
away  specimens,  very  beautiful  to  look  at,  but  several  of 
which  showed  that  the  unfortunate  animals  inhabiting  the 
shells  had  their  residences  converted  into  their  tombs  by  the 
fatal  industry  of  the  coral  animals.  But  our  specimens  were 
not  obtained  from  the  Modaragam  par,  which  was  that  we 
saw  fished,  and  the  shells  taken  from  which  are  always 
covered  with  red-colored  algaa,  and  never  with  corals.  We 
gathered  our  coral-covered  specimens  from  the  mounds  of 
dried  shells  on  the  sea-shore,  and  learned  that  they  had 
been  taken  in  a  previous  fisherv  from  another  bank/^ 

The  mid-day  heat  at  Dutch  Bay  was  very  intense  ;  the 
fiand  became  so  hot  that  even  hornv-soled  coolies  could  not 
walk  on  it ;  and  the  blue-bottle  flies  were  an  intolerable 
pest  from  early  mom  till  sun  down.  The  plague  of  flies  at 
the  Ceylon  fisheries  ha3  occurred  on  former  occasions,  and 

^  The  rate  of  growth  of  ooraU  U  fully  diflouiied  in  Darwin's  Structuri 
IM  IHstrihiUion  of  Coral  Betfe,  8rd  ed.»  1889. 


81 

Mr.  Q.  Vane,  who  oonducted  the  fisheries  from  1855*60, 
rites  as  follows  :— 

'^  Then  come  flie$,  innamerable,  of  the  largest  kind ; 
indeed  flies  are  constant  plagues,  but  are  worse  with  a 
southerly  wind,  everything  being  covered  with  a  black 
mass ;  a  glass  of  wine  or  water  must  be  drunk  as  poured 
out,  or  it  is  filled  with  flies,  but  southerly  winds  do  not  last 
long,  and  it  seems  as  though  providentially  arranged  that 
the  prevailing  winds  should  aid  tho  pui'poses  and  needs  of  a 
pearl  fishery/' 

Early  in  the  morning  of  the  day  following  my  arrival 
at  Dutch  Bay  my  suspicion  over-night  that  all  was  not  well 
was  confirmed  by  the  receipt  of  information  that  deaths 
from  cholera  had  occurred  in  camp,  and  that  there  was  a 
panic  among  the  divers,  who  had  struck  work.  It  was 
promptly  decided  to  abandon  the  fishery,  and  permission 
was  given  for  the  boats  to  leave.  The  divers '  quarters  and 
sale  kottus  (the  fences  of  which  had  begun  to  throw  out 
leaves)  were,  as  a  matter  of  precaution,  burned  down,  and 
by  4  P.M.  most  of  the  boats  were  out  at  sea,  many  making 
for  the  Madras  coast  and  carrying  thither  the  epidemic 
disease. 

The  general  arrangement  of  the  Dutch  Bay  camp  corre- 
sponded, in  all  essential  particulars,  with  the  arrangement 
of  the  Tuticorin  camp.  The  latter  is,  in  fact,  based  on  what 
I  may  term  the  Ceylon  type. 

The  camp  is  described  by  a  newspaper  correspondent  in 
the  following  words  ^: — "What  was  only  the  other  day  a 
sandy  desert  is  now  a  populous  and  thriving  town,  with 
rows  of  buildings  and  well-planned  streets.  The  two 
principal  streets  run  parallel  to  each  other.  Each  is  about 
a  mile  long  and  1 20  feet  wide.  These  are  again  intersected 
by  cross  roads  at  intervals  of  200  feet,  an  arrangement 
which  permits  of  free  ventilation,  &c.  Along  the  centre  of 
each  principal  street  there  is  a  row  of  wells  and  lamps  .... 
That  portion  of  the  town  described  above  is  situated  at  the 
south  end  of  Dutch  Bay,  and  is  occupied  by  merchants, 
boutique-keepers,  divers,  et  hoc  genus  omne.  To  the  west 
of  this,  where  the  buildings  are  of  a  superior  order  and 
more  apart  from  each  other,  we  have  the  custom-house, 
court-house,  police  station  with  the  Union  Jack  flying 
gaily  in  front  of  it,  the  Government  Auditor's  quarters,  the 
doctor's  buildings,  the  general  hospital,  out-door  dispensary, 

*  Ceylon  Ohierver,  2ncl  Maroh,  1889, 


82 

rest-hoases,  &c.  On  the  spit  of  sand  (a  sand  bank)  are 
bnilt  the  Government  and  private  kottns  and  the  sale  bunga- 
low. Here^  too^  are  the  head-qaarters  of  the  police  .  .  . 
By  the  side  of  this  spit  of  land^  and  closely  moored  to  it, 
are  the  Dib^  the  Antelope/ and  the  Sultan  Iskander 
which  serve  as  quarters  of  the  Government  Auditor, 
Captain  Donnan,  and  their  subordinate  officers.  Far  away 
from  this  site  and  at  the  very  end  of  the  spit  can  be 
described  some  of  a  do^en  yellow  flags,  which  are  said  to 
indicate  the  situation  of  the  quarantine  station  and  the 
hospitals  for  cholera  and  small-pox  patients Some- 
where about  the  commencement  of  the  spit  stands  a 
dilapidated  Roman  Catholic  church,  sea-eaten  and  falling 
into  ruins.  Father  Dineaux,  who  is  temporarily  in  charge, 
tells  me  that  his  church  is  in  imminent  danger  of  total 
disappearance  owing  to  encroachments  from  the  sea  like 
the  proverbial  building  that  was  bnilt  on  the  sands.  The 
cemetery  which  belonged  to  this  church  and  formed  part 
of  its  grounds  has  long  since  been  claimed  by  the  sea,  and 
those  who  were  once  buried  in  terra  firma  now  sleep  beneath 
the  wave." 

A  small  guard  steamer  was  employed  in  cruising  about 
the  bay  during  the  fishery,  so  as  to  prevent  the  divers,  on 
their  return  from  the  bank,  from  dropping  bacfs  of  oysters  in 
the  shallow  water,  which  could  afterwards  be  picked  up. 
This  form  of  fraud — and  the  frauds  perpetrated  by  pearl 
divers  are  many— was  scarcely  possible  at  Tuticorin,  where 
the  boats  arrived  on  shore  opposite  the  kottu  straight  from 
the  open  sea. 

Good  fresh  water  was  obtained  from  shallow  wells  dug 
in  the  sandy  shore,  and  there  was  an  abundance  of  water, 
condensed  by  the  '  Serendib,'  in  a  large  tank  ;  but  the 
condensed  water  did  not  seem  to  be  appreciated  by  the 
natives. 

I  had,  unfortunately,  no  opportunity  of  watching  the 
process  of  counting  the  oysters  in  the  kottu,  or  the  manage-* 
ment  of  an  auction  on  a  large  scale ;  but,  so  far  as  I  could 
gather  from  the  counting  and  sale  of  the  oysters  brought 
in  by  the  few  boats  already  referred  to^  the  system  was 
the  same  as  that  adopted  at  Tuticorin. 

Turning  now  to  a  comparison  of  the  Tuticorin  and 
Dutch  Bay  fisheries  in  1889,  the  latter  had  the  advantages 

of— 

i.  a  large  fleet  (193)  of  boats,  and  a  correspondingly 

large  staff  of  divers  i . 


88 


ii.  the  presence  of  an  efficient  steam-tug  thronglibut  the 
fishery,  by  means  of  which  both  time  and  labour 
were  saved ; 

iii.  the  existence  of  the  oysters  in  comparatively  shallow 
water  and  near  to  land. 

The  Tuticorin  fishery  laboured,  on  the  other  hand,  under 
the  disadvantages  of — 

i.  a  very  small  fleet  (44)  of  boats,  and  small  staff  of 

divers ; 
ii.  the  absence  of  a  tug  for  a  long  time  after  the  eem* 

menoement  of  the  fishery ; 
iii.  the  existence  of  the  oysters  in  deeper  water,  and 

at  a  great  distance  from  the  shore  than  at  Dutch 

Bay. 

And  there  was,  if  the  health  of  the  camp  is  left  out  of  the 
question,  no  compensatory  advantage  at  Tuticorin. 

The  following  table  shows  the  results  of  the  Ceylon 
fishery  from  the  date  of  its  commencement  up  to  March  the 
27th:— 


Date. 


End  March 

4th 

6th 

6th 

7th 

8th 
.  9th 
11th 
12th 
13th 
lith 
16th 
16th 
18th 
19th. 
90th 

3l8t 

22nd 
23rd 

26th 
26th 
27th 


$1 

>l 
J» 
V 

w 
)» 

ft 
>» 
»» 
ft 
J> 
>» 
»» 

l» 


Number 

of 
boats. 


Total 

number  of 

oysten 

fished. 


Sold  for 
Govern- 
ment. 


Average 

rate  per 

1,000. 


Reyenae. 


BS. 

89 

642,627 

361,686 

28 

170 

1,030,342 

686,896 

22 

« ■  • 

1,188,466 

788,970 

28-79 

191 

1,343,416 

896,610 

2619 

188 

1,611,616 

1,074,410 

2000 

•  •  • 

1,357,365 

904,910 

2005 

190 

1,482,717 

966,146 

21-96 

193 

1,623,750 

1,082,500 

2017 

191 

1,688,480 

1,126,620 

1501 

190 

1,599,046 

1,066,030 

1500 

190 

1,808,240 

1,202,160 

16-44 

187 

1,926,000 

1,284,000 

19-04 

190 

2,209,688 

1,473,125 

21-63 

191 

1,992,847 

1,328,565 

19-31 

189 

2,439,802 

1,626,635 

16-96 

188 

1,946,260 

1,297,600 

15-00 

190 

2,238,998 

1,492,666 

19-96 

189 

2,215,725 

1,477,160 

22-66 

187 

2,372,003 

1,681,336 

18-36 

187 

• » ■ 

1,326,876 

16 

■  ■ « 

•  •  • 

1,099,070 

17 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

1,062,046 

17 

BS. 

10,133-87 

14,340-80 

22,718-10 

23,461-47 

21 ,488-20 

18,143-11 

20,963*19 

21,834-00 

16,909-30 

15,990-46 

19,769-68 

24,463-00 

31,868-76 

26,656-30 

26,956*08 

19,462-60 

29,781-63 

33,320-16 

29,035-70 

19,888*18 

17,730-12 

18,918-86 


84 


The  total  quantity  of  the  G-ovemment  share  of  oysters^ 
waSy  therefore,  25^184,015,  and  the  total  sum  realised  as 
the  result  of  22  days'  fishing  Bs.  4,81,887*52. 

Comparing  these  results  with  those  of  the  Tuticorin 
fishery,  the  following  table  shows  the  results  obtained  at  the 
latter  during  the  time  of  the  Dutch  Bay  fishery,  viz.,  from 
2nd  March  to  27th  March : — 


Nnin- 

Total 
number 

of 
oysters. 

Buro- 

Bom- 

Sold for 

Bate 

Date. 

berof 
boats. 

pean 
airer. 

bay 
diver. 

Gtorem- 
ment. 

per 
1,000. 

Bevenue. 

BS.  A.  p. 

BS.A.P. 

8nd  Haroh ... 

8 

6,000 

» • « 

»«■ 

4,000 

48    0    0 

172    0    0 

4th 

«•• 

•  •• 

■  •• 

•  •§ 

•  •• 

«»• 

•  •• 

6th 

88 

161,600 

•  •• 

» •■ 

101,000 

26    6    4 

2,666    0    0 

6ih 

88 

180.000 

•  •• 

• « » 

120,000 

26  18    2 

8,099    0    0 

7th 

40 

180,000 

•  •• 

•  •• 

120,000 

24  14    8 

2.987    0    0 

8th 

41 

187.888 

264 

80 

126,000 

26    1    6 

8.261    0    0 

9th 

48 

224.664 

180 

662 

160,000 

26    6    8 

8.818    0    0 

11th 

44 

204.907 

692 

694 

187,000 

22  10    8 

8,102    0    0 

12th 

42 

236.121 

648 

116 

167.000 

21    0    4 

8,801    0    0 

18th 

44 

286.917 

1.406 

760 

168.000 

21    8    2 

8,860    0    0 

14th 

87 

148.280 

489 

«•• 

99,000 

21    8    6 

2,181    0    0 

16th 

86 

168.906 

190 

■  •  « 

106.000 

20  10    8 

2,191    0    0 

16th 
18th 
19th 

44 

218.809 

2,000 

2,881 

144.000 

21    2    6 

8,067    0    0 

■  •  « 

24 

97^460 

99 

•  •  ■ 

66.000 

26  10    1 

1,781*  0    0 

aoth 

12 

'  82.600 

•  •• 

•  •« 

66.000 

26  18    4 

1,476    0    0 

2l8t 

48 

860.672 

966 

890 

241.000 

22    2    7 

6,841    0    0 

22nd 

44 

292.478 

1,452 

1,602 

196.000 

21  12    9 

4.274    0    0 

28rd 

85 

244,500 

•  •  « 

•  •  ■ 

168.000 

22    6    7 

8,648    0    0 

26th 

•  •  • 

•  »• 

•  •• 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  •  t 

■  >• 

26th 

2 

Jt''^ 

8,070 

1,000 

4.400 

80    6    0 

188    6    6 

27th 

•I      .  ... 

44 

879.026 

960 

•  •• 

268,000 

24  10    2 

6,284    0    0 

The  total  quantity  of  the  Gbvernment  share  of  oysters, 
was,  therefore,  2,898,400,  and  the  total  sum  realized  during 
the  time  under  notice  Rs.  65,871-6-5. 

A  comparison  of  these  two  tables  is  very  instructiye,  and 
brings  out  very  clearly  the  fact  that,  whereas  in  Ceylon  the 
fishery  was  carried  on  without  interruption  (no  fishery  took 
place  either  in  Ceylon  or  at  Tuticorin  on  Sunday  the  3rd, 
10th,  17th  and  24th),  and,  after  the  first  few  days,  during 
which  time  all  the  boats  had  not  arrived,  or  were  not  ready 
for  work,  a  large  and  uniform  number  of  boats  were  at 
work  daily  and  regularly  bringing  in  good  loads  of  oysters ; 
at  Tuticorin,  on  the  other  hand,  not  only  was  there  no 
fishery  at  all  on  three  days  (ezclusive  of  Sundays)^  but  on 
different  occasions,  out  of  the  entire  fleet  of  44  boats,  as 
few  «8  2, 3,  and  12  boats  were  at  work,  with  the  result  that, 
during  6  out  of  the  22  working  days  under  review,  only 
63j400  oysters,  yielding  Bs.  1,781-6-5,  fell  to  the  Govern- 
ment share^  i.6.,the  totsJ  yield  of  six  days  was  less  than  that 


35 

wkich  was^  with  one  exception,  the  19th,  obtained  as  the 
recmlt  of  a  single  day's  work. 

In  view  to  the  possibility  of  clashing  of  the  fisheries  in 
future  years,  a  mutual  agreement,  relating  to  the  division 
of  the  pearl  fishery  season  between  the  CiBylon  and  Tuti- 
corin  pearl  banks,  has  been  come  to  between  the  Madras 
and  Ceylon  Governments ;  and  the  proposal  of  the  Madras 
Goveinmeut  that  the  Ceylon  fisheries  should  begin  in 
February  and  close  at  the  end  of  March,  leaving  April  and 
May  for  the  Tuticorin  fisheries,  met  the  wishes  of  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Ceylon. 

A  steamer  has  recently  (1893)  been  acquired  by  the 
Madras  Government,  which  will  be  of  infinite  service  on 
the  occasion  of  future  pearl  fisheries,  and  for  carrying  out 
systematic  annual  and  ^riodical  inspections  of  the  pearl 
banks. 


86 


ItL— INSPECTION  OF  CEYLON  PEABL  BANKS, 


Having  received  permission  from  Sir  Artliur  Gordon, 
K.c.M.G.i  Ghovernor  of  Ceylon,  to  accompany  Captain  Ponnan, 
Inspector  of  the  Ceylon  pearl  banks,  on  his  annual  inspec- 
'  tion  cruise,  I  left  ld!adras  for  Colombo  by  S.S.  '  Bewa  on 
the  3rd  October,  1889,  taking  with  me  some  young  plants 
of  Victoria  regia,  reared  in  the  nursery  of  the  Madras  Agri- 
Horticultural  Society,  for  planting  in  the  tank  of  the  new 
Fort  Gardens  at  Colombo,  where  they  subsequently  flowered. 

While  in  Colombo  I  took  the  opportunity  of  examinii^ 
the  excellently  preserved  specimen  of  Rhinodon  typicus  in 
the  Ceylon  Government  Museum  for  the  sake  of  comparison 
with  the  specimen  (plate  III -A),  22  feet  in  length  from  the 
end  of  the  snout  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  which  was  cast 
on  shore  at  Madras  in  February,  1889,  when  I  was  unfortu- 
nately far  away  from  head-quarters,  so  that  the  chance  was 
missed  of  examining  its  stomach  contents  and  internal 
anatomy.  The  telegram  which  reached  me  annouocing  the 
arrival  of  the  monster  ran  as  follows  : — "  Whale  on  shore. 
Stupendous  spectacle. '^  But,  on  the  following  day,  I  learnt, 
from  the  evidence  of  an  expert,  that  the  whale  was  a  shark. 
AlS  the  following  extract  shows,  but  few  specimens  of  this 
(j^igantic  elasmobranoh  have  been  recorded  :^ — 

'^  For  many  years  the  sole  evidence  of  its  existence 
rested  upon  a  stray  specimen,  15  feet  in  length,  which  was 
brought  ashore  in  Table  Bay  during  the  month  of  April 
1828,  and  fortunately  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  late  Sir 
Andrew  Smith,  then  resident  in  Capetown,  who  named, 
described,  and  figured  it.  The  specimen  itself  was  pre- 
served by  a  French  taxidermist,  who  sold  it  to  the  raris 
Museum,  where  it  still  remains  in  a  much  deteriorated  con- 
dition. Forty  years  later^in  1868 — ^^Dr.  Percival  Wriffht, 
whilst  staying  at  Mah^  with  Mr.  Swinburne  Ward,  then 
Civil  Commissioner  of  the  Seychelles,  met  with  this  shark, 

^  In  his  Account  of  the  Pearl  Fisheries,  of  CeyUm,  Captain  Sienart 
Teoords  having  seen  on  one  occasion  **  a  spotted  shark  of  almost  fearful 
sise;  it  was  accompanied  hj  sereral  common  siied  sharks,  and  they 
appeared  like  pilot  fish  bj  its  side." 


;i**-- 


!M 


''■y^K     J 

■  ' 

im 

li- 

'^Y*  ' 

■'i«' 

^Jms^ 

%.'iv 

If 

^•1 

r          1 

37  1 

I 

and  obtained  the  first  authentic  information  about  it.     It  i 

does  not  seem  to  be  rare  in  this  Archipelago,  but  is  very 
seldom  obtained  on  account  of  its  large  size  and  the  diffi- 
culties attending  its  capture.  Dr.  Wright  saw  specimens 
which  exceeded  50  feet  in  length,  and  one  that  was  actually 
measured  by  Mr.  Ward  proved  to  be  more  than  45  feet 
long.  Nothing  more  was  heard  of  the  creature  until  Jan- 
uary, 1878,  in  which  year  the  capture  of  another  specimen 
was  reported  from  the  Peruvian  coast  near  Callao.  JPinally, 
in  the  present  century,  Mr.  Haly,  the  accomplished  Director 
of  the  Colombo  Museum,  discovered  it  on  the  west  coast 
of  Ceylon,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  two  or  three  speci- 
mens.^ One  of  these  was  presented  by  that  institution  to 
the  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum,  and,  having  been 
mounted  by  Mr.  Gerrard,  it  is  now  exhibited  in  the  fish 
gallery,  where  it  forms  one  of  the  most  striking  objects, 
although  it  must  be  considered  a  young  example,  measuring 
only  17  feet  from  the  end  of  the  snout  to  the  extremity  of 
the  tail. 

''A  true  shark  in  every  respect,  Bhinodon  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  members  of  the  tribe  by  the 
peculiar  shape  of  the  head,  which  is  of  large  sise  and  great 
breadth,  the  mouth  being  quite  in  front  of  the  snout,  and 
not  at  the  lower  side,  as  in  other  sharks.  Each  jaw  is  armed 
with  a  band  of  teeth  arranged  in  regular  transverse  rows, 
and  so  minute  that,  in  the  present  specimen  (Ceylon),  their 
number  has  been  calculated  to  be  about  6>000.  The  giU 
openings  are  very  wide ;  and  three  raised  folds  of  the  skin 
run  along  eaoh  side  of  the  body.  Also  in  its  variegated 
coloration  this  fish  differs  from  thjB  majority  of  sharks,  being 
prettily  ornamented  all  over  with  spots  and  stripes  of  a  buff 
tint." 

The  following  measurements  of  the  Madras  specimen 
were  made  by  my  friend  Dr.  A.  Gh.  Bourne  when  the  fish 
was  lying  on  the  beach : — 

INCHES. 

Totallangth  22  feet          ...                   or  264 

Boot  of  lat  dorsal  (fin)  to  upper  jaw      ...  118 

Anterior  .edge  of  1st  dorsal          ...  22 

Base  of  lat  dorsal             ...  '       ...         ...  24 

Pistance  between  1st  and  2nd  dorsal     ...  27 

Auterior  edge  of  2nd  dorsal        Hi 


^  Id  April,  laeo^  a  f exthar  ipvomen  of  Rhvnodon,  14  fe«t  6  inohA*  in 
iBsgtHi  WM  caught  oU  Bambalapitiya  (Ceylon). 


38 


INCHSS. 

Base  of  2nd  dorsal  .*.         ...         ...  10^ 

Length  of  upper  caudal  lobe       60 

„      of  lower        do.  ...         ...  30 

Anterior  edge  of  pectoral  fin        ...         ...  38 

First  branchia  to  anterior  edge  of  pectoral 

'-iXL  .*•  •••  .*•  •••  •••  XtJ 

Breadth  of  pectoral  fin  at  base  ...         ...  20 

Length  of  1st  gill  opening  23 

,,      of  2nd         do.  23^ 

„     of  3rd         do.  21 

„     of  4th         do..  20 

„     of  5th         do.  ...         ...  17 

Eye  diameter         ...         ...  ...         ...  1^ 

Spiracle       ...  ...   |  inch  by  1 

Mouth         ...         ...         ...  ...         ...  30 

Teeth,  lower  jaw    . . '.         ...  (14  rows) 

Top  of  snout  to  1st  branchia  40 

Tip  of  snout  to  eye           10 

Eye  to  spiracle      ...         ...  ...         ...  4 

After  waiting  for  several  days  on  the  chance  of  a 
moderation  of  the  prevailing  south-west  wind^  I  left  Colombo 
with  Captain  Donnan  on  the  barque  'Sultan  Iskander/ 
which  towed  after  her  the  diving  boats^  each  with  its  crew 
composed  of  coxswain^  rowers^  divers^  and  munducks  (who 
attend  to  the  divers^  letting  them  down  by  ropeSj  pulling 
them  up^  &c.).  The  crew  made  the  schooner  almost  un- 
bearable by  cooking  for  their  evening  meal  putrid  fish, 
which  in  smell  rivalled  the  well-known  gnape  of  Burma. 
As  an  inspection  of  a  reported  pearl  bank  off  Negombo 
was  out  of  the  question  owing  to  the  heavy  swells  we  sailed 
straight  on  to  Dutch  Bay,  wliere  we  anchored^  after  a 
somewhat  boisterous  passage^  on  the  following  mornings 
inside  the  long  and  rapidly  extending  spit  of  sand^  whicn 
forms  the  western  boundary  of  the  bay^  on  which  the  sale 
bunnlow^  kottus^  &o.,  were  standing  during  my  last  visit 
in  March  at  the  time  of  the  collapse  of  the  pearl  fishery 
from  cholera.  The  Bay. now  presented  a  very  deserted 
appearance.  The  sandy  shore  was  crowded  with  hosts  of 
wading  birds^  and  the  sole  human  occupants  were  a  few  fisher- 
men and  a  number  of  natives,  from  near  and  distant  parts  of 
the  island,  engaged  in  searclung  for  stray  pearls  in  tixe  sand 
formerly  occupied  by  the  washing  kottus^  the  site  of  which 
was  in£cated  by  the  remains  of  the  fences  and  heaped  up 


89 

fiilea  of  oyster  shells,  and  gaining  as  the  reward  of  their 
abour  from  one  to  two  rupees  a  day.  It  was  reported  that 
one  woman  had  found  five  pearls,  each  of  the  size  of  an 
ordinary  pepper  pod,  for  which  she  had  been  offered  and 
refused  150  rupees.  The  seaward  face  of  the  sand-spit  was 
strewed  with  coral  fragments  rolled  in  by  the  waves  from 
the  reef,  which  intervenes  between  the  shore,  and  the  pearl 
bank,  and  is  partially  laid  bare  at  low  tide ;  and  the  sand 
was  riddled  with  the  burrows  of  a  very  large  ooypod  (0. 
platytarsis) i  the  carapace  of  a  male  of  which  species  cap- 
tured by  me  after  an  exciting  chase  measured  56  mm.  in 
length  and  66  mm.  in  breadth.  If  one  of  these  crabs  is 
killed  and  left  on  the  shore,  its  cannibal  fellow  creatures 
carry  it  away  into  a  burrow,  and,  doubtless,  devour  it. 

On  the  day  after  our  arrival  at  Dutch  Bay  we  sailed 
in  one  of  the  diving  boats  to  Karaitivu  and  Ipantivu  islands 
and  the  mainland  in  search  of  a  possible  spot  adapted  for 
the  requirements  of  a  pearl  camp  at  the  next  fishery.  In 
the  shallow  water  near  the  shore  of  Karaitivu  island  fishes 
— Mugil  and  Hemiramphus — some  of  which  leaped  into  the 
boat  and  were  eventually  cooked,  fell  easy  victims  to  fish« 
ing  eagles  and  gulls.  Two  hauls  of  the  dredge  in  the 
sand  and  mud  brought  up  Afnphioxus,  Lituaria  phalloides, 
the  Trepang  Holothuria  vwrmorata,  Astropecten  hemprichii, 
Philyra  scabriuscula,  Ohloeia  flava,  and  many  molluscs ;  a 
large  number  of  the  species  of  mollusc,  both  here  and  in 
Dutch  Bay,  being  common  to  the  Indian  and  Qpylon 
Coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar.  On  the  mainland  forming 
the  eastern  boundary  of  Dutch  Bay,  into  which  the  river 
Kala  Oya  discharges  its  water  by  several  mouths,  dense 
jungle  and  swampy  ground  teeming  with  the  mollusc 
Pyrazus  palustris  reach  right  down  to  the  water's  edge ;  and, 
as  we  walked  along  the  shore,  we  came  across  solid  evi- 
dence of  the  recent  presence  of  elephants.  We  were  told 
by  a  native  that  bears  and  wild  pigs  are  so  thick  in  the 
jungle  that  one  trips  over  them  as  one  walks  along  ! 

In  1868  large  numbers  of  young  pearl-oysters  are  re- 
ported to  have  been  spread  over  a  considerable  extent  of  the 
muddy  bottom  of  Dutch  Bay  in  from  one  to  two  fathoms 
of  water,  but  the  situation  was,  evidently,  not  favourable  for 
their  healthy  growth. 

The  weather  being  unfavourable  for  the  work  of  inspect- 
ing, we  had  to  remain  unwilling  prisoners  in  Dutch  Bay, 
the  days  being  spent  in  cruising  about,  and  dredging  in  the 
shallow  water,     But  on  the  29th,  as  the  wind  had  changed 


40 

and  the  sea  abated^  we  made  a  start  for  the  neighbouring 
pearl  bank — Muttuwartu  par — to  which  we  were  towed  by 
the  '  Active. '  As  soon  as  we  had  anchored  on  the  south 
end  of  the  bank,  a  diver  was  sent  down  from  the  ship's  side 
in  6|  fathoms,  and  brought  up  his  rope  basket  containing 
plenty  of  healthy,  living  oysters,  which,  he  reported,  came 
away  easily  from  the  rock  to  which  they  were  attached 
by  their  byssi.*  At  the  fishery  in  March  the  divers  com- 
plained of  the  difficulty  in  detaching  the  oysters ;  and  the 
degree  of  ease  with  which  they  can  be  gathered  is  con- 
sidered a  sig^  of  their  ripeness  for  fishing,  the  byssus  being 
said  to  begin  after  the  fifth  year  to  break  away  from  the  sub- 
stance to  which  it  adheres  tightly  during  the  early  life 
of  the  oysters. 

The  excellent  plan  which  is  employed  in  the  inspection 
of  the  Ceylon  banks,  and  by  which  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  condition  of  the  banks  as  regards  the  oyster  supply 
is  obtained,  is  the  same  in  principle  as  that  adopted  by 
searchers  for  lapwing's  eggs  in  England.  The  inspection 
barque  is  anchored  in  a  position  fixed  on  the  chart  by 
bearings  from  the  shore.  The  steam  tug,  towing  a  boat 
with  buoys  bearing  flags  on  board,  first  lays  out  buoys  in  the 
north,  south,  east,  and  west  at  distances  of  i,  i,  and  f  of  a 
mile  from  the  barque.  Buoys  are  then  laid  out  at  a  distance 
of  I  of  .a  mile  from  the  barque  in  the  north-east,  north- 
west, south-east,  and  south-west.  Pour  diving  boats,  each 
with  a  coxswain  in  charge,  five  rowers,  three  divers,  and  two 
munducks,  are  arranged  in  line  between  the  north  i  mile 
buoy  and  the  barque,  the  distance  being  equally  divided 
between  the  boats.  The  rowers  work  round  in  a  circle,  and 
the  divers  make  frequent  dives  in  search  of  oysters  until 
the  starting  point  is  reached.  The  boats  are  then  again 
arranged  in  position,  and  the  circle  between  the  ^  and  ^  mile 
buoys  is  explored.  Lastly,  the  third  circle,  between  the  i 
and  I  mile  buoys,  is,  in  like  manner,  explored ;  so  that,  when 
this  circle  is  completed,  each  boat  has  described  three  circles 
with  the  inspection  barque  as  a  centre.  And,  in  this  way, 
twelve  circles  in  all  are  described  by  the  four  boats.  Tne 
oysters  are  then  brought  to  the  ship,  counted,  and  put  in 
scM^ks  daily,  until  a  sufficient  number  (15,000)  to  form  a 
sample  for  washing  and  valuation  by  experts  has  been  col- 


3  "  The  term  rook  is  applied  to  pieces  of  coral,  living  or  dead,  averaging 
abont  a  foot  in  diameter,  which  are  scattered  more  or  less  thickly  over 
certain  parts  of  the  banks. 


u>  < 


w 


41 

looted.^  The  coxswain  of  each  boat  records  on  a  diag^m, 
provided  by  the  Inspector,  the  approximate  popition  of  each 
dive  which  is  made,  the  nature  of  the  bottom  (a  triangle  = 
rock,  a  circle  =  sand,  and  a  cross  =  oysters),  and  the  number 
of  oysters  lifted.  Diagram  A  represents  the  day's  work 
done  by  a  single  boat  over  ground  which,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  sandy  patch  between  the  north  and  east  }  mile 
buoys,  was  rocky,  and  on  which  oysters  were  plentiful  ex- 
cept over  a  portion  of  the  outer  circle.  Diagram  B,  made 
up  from  the  four  coxswains'  reports,  represents  a  single 
day's  work  done  by  all  the  boats,  and  shows  the  distribution 
of  the  oysters  over  the  area  inspected,  and  the  limits  of 
the  bank.  As  soon  as  the  buoys  have  been  taken  up  by  the 
tug,  the  inspection  barque  is  moved  to  a  now  position  1^  mile 
distant  from  its  former  one,  and  the  buoys  are  again  laid  out 
in  circles,  to  act  as  guides  to  the  boats  in  the  next  day's  work. 
Without  the  assistance  of  the  buoys  the  boats  would  not 
be  able  to  describe  separate  circles,  but  would  work  in  an 
irregular  manner,  and  two  or  more  boats  would,  very  pro- 
bably, go  over  the  same  ground.  But,  with  the  assistance  of 
the  buoys,  the  whole  bank  can  be  systematically  surveyed. 
The  Muttuwartu  par,  which  was  fished  in  the  spring  of 
1889,  is  situated  about  five  miles  from  the  seaward  shore 
of  Dutch  Bay,  and  covers  an  approximate  area  of  3  X  IJ 
miles,  the  depth  of  water  over  the  bank  ranging  from  5 
to  10  fathoms  with  an  average  of  about  7  fathoms.  The 
temperature  of  the  water  at  the  bottom,  registered  with  a 
Negretti  and  Zambra's  deep-sea  thermometer,  varied  from 
80°  to  82^  between  8  a.m.  and  5  p.m.  Between  the  bank  and 
the  shore  is  a  coral  reef,  the  presence  of  which  was  indicated 
by  the  waves  breaking  over  its  outer  face  amid  a  prevailing 
calm,  and  by  gulls  resting  on  the  coral  blocks.  The  most 
conspicuous  madreporaria  on  this  reef,  which  is  surrounded 
by  44  to  5  fathoms  of  water,  belong  to  the  genera  Madre* 
pora  and  Podllopora,  while  GaJaxen  and  Leptoi*ia  are  pre- 
sent in  less  abundance.  The  bright  white  patches  of  sand, 
which  cover  large  spaces  between  the  coral  growths,  teem 
with  protozoa  and  a  calcareous  alga,  and  are  more  rich  in 
delicate  molluscs  than  any  other  deposit  which  I  have 
examined  in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar.  Sheltered  among  the 
coral  tufts  were  sluggish  holothurians  •and  hosts  of  small 
crustaceans ;  and,  clinging  to  the  branches  of  a  madrepore, 

*  If  a  jotmg  bank  is  being  inspected,  samples  are  brought  np  by  tbe 
direnii  bat  thej  are  not  washed  for  yalnation. 


42 

I  found  a  single  specimen  of  tlie  quaint  crustacean,  Thenua 
orientalis. 

Outside  the  seaward  face  of  the  pearl  banks  on  the 
Indian  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  the  depth  of  the  sea  in- 
creases very  gradually,  so  that,  for  example,  outside  the 
Tholayiram  par,  a  depth  of  only  15  to  20  fathoms  is  reached 
at  a  distance  of  3  miles.  Outside  the  Muttuwartu  par,  how- 
ever, the  area  of  shallow  water  ceases  very  abruptly,  and  the 
depth  increases  rapidly  to  150  fathoms  at  a  distance  of  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  seaward  face  of  the  bank, 
where  the  following  temperatures  were  recorded  (in  the 
month  of  November)  :  — 


Surface 

..     83° 

60  fathoms     •  • 

68° 

10  fathoms 

..      81® 

100       „ 

61° 

20       „ 

..     80° 

150       „ 

65° 

30       ,. 

..     72° 

On  the  19th  March,  1890,  the  temperatures  recorded  by 
Captain  Donnan  4  miles  west  of  the  Muttuwartu  par 
were : — 


Surface  . .     85° 

30  fathoms         . .     81° 
60      „  ..     68° 


100  fathoms     . .     59° 


150       „  ..     64 

200       „  ..     62 


o 
o 


Several  hauls  of  the  dredge  brought  up  Polytrema 
cylindricum,  Gorgonioe,  Heteropsanimin  cochlea^  Cirrhipathes 
spiralis,  Spongodes  sp.,  Fibularia  ovulum,  &c.,  but  no  pearl 
oysters. 

The  divers  received  instructions  to  keep  apart  for  me 
everything,  other  than  oysters,  which  they  came  across 
during  their  day^s  work,  under  the  geueral  heading  of  corals^ 
shells,  poochees,  and  weeds ;  and,  by  examination  of  the 
specimens  which  they  reserved  and  going  rapidly  over  the 
oysters,  I  was  enabled  not  only  to  make  a  rich  collection,  but 
also  to  ascertain  roughly  in  what  respects  the  fauna  of  this 

fortion  of  the  west  coast  of  Ceylon  differs  from  that  of  the 
ndian  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar.  The  first  day's  in- 
spection of  the  Muttuwartu  par  showed  not  only  that  the 
oysters  were  very  abundant,  in  spite  of  the  disturbance  to 
which  they  were  subjected  during  the  fishery  in  the  spring, 
4,580  living  specimens  being  brought  up  in  29]  dives ;  but, 
further,  that  the  coral-incrusted  shells,  to  which  I  have 
already  referred  (p.  30),  as  being  a  distinguishing  character- 
istic of  this  bank  as  compared  with  the  Tholayiram  par, 
are  very  abundant,  the  living  corals  growing  on  the  shells 
of  living  oysters,  which,  did  they  migrate,  would  have, 
sometimes,  to  carry  about  with  them  a  weight  of  nearly 


k. 


_i 


48 

eight  ounces.  The  coraUincrusted  shells  had,  prior  to  the 
fishery  of  the  Muttuwartu  par  this  year,  only  been  seen  by 
Captain  Donnan  on  the  north-west  Ch^val  par  ;  and,  when 
the  oysters  disappeared  from  the  latter  in  1888,  the  drift- 
oysters,  which  were  eventually  found,  were  recognised  by 
the  coral-growths  upon  them.  Arborescent  sea-weeds, 
forming  tangled  masses,  such  as  abound  on  the  Tholayiram 
par,  were  conspicuously  absent ;  but  the  oyster  shells  were 
largely  encrusted  with  sponges,  and  the  orange-coloured 
sponge,  Axinella  donnani,  which  receives  its  specific  name 
aiter  the  present  Inspector  of  Pearl  Banks,  was  very  com- 
mon.  In  addition  to  the  shell-incrusting  corals,  massive 
corals,  mainly  belonging  to  the  genus  Madrepora,  flourish 
on   the  bank,   forming  a   convenient   habitat  and  hiding 

{)lace  for  chsetopods,  crustaceans,  molluscs,  &c.^  which  can 
ive  there  safe  from  the  attacks  of  predaoeous  enemies. 
As  far  as  I  could  gather  from  repeated  examination,  on 
di£Perent  parts  of  the  bank,  of  the  residue  left  after  shaking 
up  the  oysters  in  a  bucket  of  water,  and  of  the  contents  of 
the  digestive  tract  of  a  holothurian  (H.  atra)  which 
abounds  on  the  bank,  the  sea-bottom  is  mainly  composed 
of  a  white  deposit^  such  as  I  have  only  seen  on  the  Indian 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar,  which  consists  of  a  calcareous 
alga  and  of  foraniinitera,  among  which  Rotalia  calcar, 
Heierostegina  depressa,  and  Amphistegina  lessonii  are  the 
most  conspicuous,  It  was  long  ago  pointed  out  by  Captain 
Steuart  that  the  places,  on  which  pearl  fisheries  have  been 
successfully  held  in  Ceylon,  appear  to  be  beds  of  madrepore 
of  irregular  heights,  having  the  spaces  between  the  ridges 
nearly  filled  up  with  sand.  The  transparent  clearness  of 
the  water  over  the  banks  and  the  clean  state  of  the  sea 
bottom,  which  is  free  from  sediment  carried  down  by  cur- 
rents, must,  I  think,  be  regarded  as  important  conditions 
favouring  the  healthy  growth  of  the  oysters  thereon. 

Swimming  about  on  the  surface  of  the  water  over  the 
bank  were  many  black  and  yellow  striped  sea-snakes,  which 
are  believed  by  the  divers  to  feed  on  the  oysters.  Indeed, 
in  1862,  the  European  diver  reported  that  he  had  seen  the 
snakes  eating  the  oysters,  darting  into  the  shells  when  opened. 
But  this  report  must  be  viewed  with  grave  suspicion.  Apart 
from  snakes,  the  reputed  enemies  of  the  pearl  oyster  on  the 
Ceylon  banks  are  molluscs,  fishes,  and  currents.  Among 
molluscs  are  mentioned  the  chanl£  {Turbinella  ra/pa)  and  a 
big  Murex  (M.  anguli/erua)^  known  as  the  elephant  chank. 
Bnt^  as  Mr.  Holdsworth  observes,  "  they  may  be  looked  on 


44 

as  part  of  the  vermin  of  the  banks,  but  I  have  no  reason  to 
think  they  cause  more  destruction  on  the  oyster  beds  than 
the  hawk  and  the  polecat  do  amon^  the  game  of  an  ordinary 
preserve/^  It  is  noticeable  that  the  little  Modiola  known 
as  suran,  which  assumes  such  a  prominent  position  in  the 
reports  of  the  Inspector  of  Pearl  Banks  at  Tuticorin,  does 
not,  though  present,  occur,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  in  any 
great  quantities  on  the  Ceylon  banks.  Among  fishes  the 
trigger  fishes  (Balistes),  commonly  known  as  "  old  wives," 
are  abundant  on  rocky  parts  of  the  banks,  and  I  saw  many 
specimens  caught  by  the  boatmen  fishing  from  the  side  of 
the  ship  as  we  lay  at  anchor.  Concerning  these  fishes 
Captain  Steuart  reports  that  *^  the  sea  over  the  pearl  banks 
is  well  stocked  with  various  fishes,  some  of  which  feed  on 
the  oysters,  and,  when  caught  by  the  seamen  on  board  the 
guard  vessel,  pearls  and  crushed  shells  are  often  found  in 
their  stomachs,  particularly  in  the  fish  called  by  the  Mala- 
bars,  the  clartee ;  by  the  Singhalese,  the  pottooberre ;  and 
by  seamen,  the  old  women.  This  fish  is  of  an  oval-shape, 
about  12  inches  in  length  and  6  inches  in  depth  from  the 
top  of  the  back  to  the  under  part  of  the  belly,  and  is 
covered,  with  a  thick  skin.  We  saw  ten  pearls  taken  from 
the  stomach  of  one  of  these  fish  on  board  the  Wellington.*' 
The  contents  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  of  Balistes, 
which  I  examined  while  we  were  inspecting  the  Ch^val  par, 
consisted  entirely  of  young  oysters  crushed  by  their  sharp 
cutting  teeth.  In  addition  to  the  trigger  fishes,  rays  are 
said  to  be  always  more  or  less  numerous  on  the  banks,  and 
Mr.  Holdsworth  states  that  "  when  the  fishery  of  1868 
commenced  on  the  south-east  part  of  the  Ch^val  par,  the 
divers  reported  the  ground  so  covered  with  skate  as  to 
interfere  with  their  picking  up  the  oysters.  After  a  day 
or  two  the  continual  disturbance  by  the  divers  had  the  efFect 
of  driving  the  skates  away  from  that  part  of  the  bank,  and 
these  fish,  many  of  them  of  very  large  size,  were  seen  going 
in  the  direction  of  the  Modrigam,  which  was  then  cohered 
with  oysters,  whose  age  was  estimated  by  the  Superin- 
tendent at  2^ — 8  years,  by  the  Inspector  at  3| — 4,  and 
by  the  native  headman  at  4  years.  The  skates  were  in 
shoals,  and  their  totdl  number  was  estimated  at  from  10  to 
15  thousand.  Further,  in  his  report  on  the  inspection  of 
banks  in  March  1885,  Captain  Donnan  notes  the  fact  that 
'*  on  the  way  from  the  north  M6taragam,  and  just  about  the 
south  side  of  the  bed  of  oysters,  we  passed  tlurough  a  large 
patdi  of  thick  discoloured  water,  oansed  by  a  shoal  of  irays 


L 


45 

plondermg  about  on  the  bottom^  and  stirring  up  the  sand. 
Some  of  them  conld^  at  times^  be  seen  near  the  surface^  and 
1  have  no  doubt  they  were  feeding  on  the  oysters/'  Borne 
years  ago  the  Sea  Customs  Officer  at  Dutch  Bay  counted  as 
many  as  300  rays  in  a  single  haul  of  a  fishing  net.  The 
native  belief  is  that  the  rays  break  up  the  oyster  shell  with 
their  teeth,  and  suck  out  the  soft  animal  matter.  The 
stomach  contents  of  a  big  ray  (JStobatia  narinari)^  5  feet 
in  breadth  and  with  a  tail  8 4  feet  in  length,  which  was 
caaght  by  fishermen  from  a  canoe  off  8il4va4iurai  when  we 
were  at  anchor  there,  consisted  of  sea-weed.  The  same 
fishermen  caught  for  me  off  the  Sil&yatuiai  reef  a  male 
Dugong,  9  feet  in  length,  whose  stomach  contents  consisted 
of  sea- weed  and  large  numbers  of  a  nematode.worm  {Ascaris 
halicoresy  Owen). 

It  was  roughly  estimated  as  the  result  of  the  inspection 
of  the  Muttuwartu  par^  which  lasted  over  three  days,  an 
aY'Orage  of  16  oyaters  to  a  dive  being  allowed,  that  it  con- 
tained 30  million  oysters  spread  over  an  area  of  9^  milUon 
square  yards,  which  should  .produce  a  revenue  of  5  lakhs  of 
rupees. 

On  November,  2nd  we  left  the  Muttuwartu  par,  and 
anchored  in  8  fathoms,  about  2  miles  further  north,  so  as 
to  hunt  for  a  possible  bed  of  oysters.  The  divers,  making 
the  usual  preUitninary  dives«  brought  up  blocks  of  d^^  ooral- 
rock  with  living  TurbinarioB  and  Foritea  growing  on  diem, 
Mid  containing,  imbedded  in  the  crevices,  a  large  number 
of  foraminifera.  The  sample  of  15,000  oysters  from  the 
Muttuwartu  par,  which  were  beginning  to  be  unpleasant 
fellow-passengers,  was  sent  up  to  Sil4vaturai  to  be  washed. 
It  is  stated  by  Captain  Steuart  that  the  offensive  effluvium 
of  decomposing  oysters  ''  is  not  considered  to  have  an  un- 
healthy tendency  on  the  persons  engaged  in  the  kottus,  aad 
it  is  astcmishing  how  soon  the  most  sensitive  nose  beoomes 
accustomed  to  the  smell.  Indeed  some  Europeans  have 
fancied  their  appetites  sharpened  by  visiting  the  kottus, 
and  being  surrounded  by  immense  heaps  consisting  of  mil- 
lions  of  oysters  in  all  stages  of  decomposition.'' 

The  sur&ce  of  the  water,  always  rich  in  organisms,  was 
exceptionally  so  on  the  following  morning,  the  tow-net, 
dropped  from  the  stern  of  the  barque  and  kept  distended 
by  the  gentle  current  which  was  running,  becoming  speed- 
ily filled  with  a  gelatinous  mass  composed  maimy  of 
JSagittm  mingled  with  a  host  of  otenophora,  glassy  j^ro- 
pods,  and  hungry  fishes  preying  on  orostaoean  and  other 


46 

larvae.     Only  a  few  young  oysters  being  found,  we  again 

f>roGeeded  northward,  and  anchored  in  8i  fathoms,  the  pre- 
iminary  dives  bringing  up  madrepores  with  Antedons  en- 
twined round  their  branches^  and  large  melobesian  nodules. 
Again  only  a  few  scattered  oysters  were  obtained  as  the 
result  of  a  day^s  work,  but  the  divers  brought  me  many 
specimens  of  alcyonians,  and  the  bright-red  sponge  Axi" 
nella  tubulata,  living  attached  by  a  broad  base  to  dead 
coral*rock,  and  associated  with  its  commensal  worm.^  The 
following  temperature  observations  were  made  half  a  mile 
west  of  the  ship,  where  no  bottom  was  reached  with  the 
sounding  line  at  140  fathoms : — 


Surface  ..   81-5° 

20  fathoms     ..   76-5° 
30       „  ..   76° 


)f 


50  fathoms     . .   75° 
100         „  ..  62-5° 

140         „  ..  55° 


On  the  afternoon  of  the  4th,  we  moved  on,  still  north- 
ward, to  the  Karaitlvu  par,®  which  was  estimated,  at  the 
inspection  in  November,  1887,  to  contain  1,605,465  oysters. 
The  divers,  going  down  from  the  ship,  alighted  on  a  bank 
of  Fungice^  and  brought  up  some  living  5-year  old  oysters 
and  melobesian  nodules.  Attached  to  one  of  the  nodules 
was  an  extensive  creeping  colony  of  the  delicate  crimson - 
coloured  organism  named  Tnbipora  reptans  from  the  single 
small  specimen  which  has  hitherto  been  recorded  by  Mr.  H.  J. 
Carter.^  The  present  specimens  were  in  a  more  advanced 
stage  of  growth  than  the  one  described  by  Mr.  Carter, 
which  I  examined  in  the  Liverpool  Museum,  and  the 
calyoles  were  proportionately  higher.  By  about  four  hours' 
wprk  next  morning  a  sample  of  8,000  oysters  was  collected 
for  valuation,  and  the  abundance  of  oysters  may  be  judged 
from  the  fact  that,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  as  many  as 
100  oysters  were  brought  up  at  a  single  dive.  My  own 
share  of  the  morning's  work  consisted  of  a  Fungia  {F. 
r^anda)  and  three  living  specimens  of  the  mother-of-pearl 
oyster,  Avicula  {Meleagrina)  margaritiferay  attached  by  its 
byssus  to  coral-rock.  Captain  Donnan  informed  me  that 
he  had  only  seen  about  a  dozen  specimens  of  this  mollusc 
during  his  28  years'  experience  as  Inspector  of  the  banks, 

»  Vide  Arm.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  Feb.  1889,  p.  89.     . 

'  The  Earaitivu  par  was  fished  in  December  1889  j  but  the  fishery  came 
to  an  abnipt  termination  owing  to  a  diver  being  killed  by  a  shark.  Appa- 
rently three  men  went  down  into  the  water,  and  two  came  np  almost  di- 
rectly, saying  that  the  third  had  been  carried  off  by  a  shark.  The  rest 
of  the  divers  could  not  be  prevailed  on  to  resume  work,  and  left  the  hank. 

^  Aim,  Mag,  Nat,  Hist.,  Jnne  1880,  p.  U2, 


L 


47 

so  that  it  cannot  be  present  in  any  abnndance.  Shell- 
incrusting  corals^  though  present  on  the  bank^  were  far  less 
common  than  on  the  Muttuwartu  par* 

On  the  afternoon  of  the  5th  we  sailed  abont  20  miles 
north,  and  anchored  in  2  fathoms,  3  miles  south  of  the 
village  off  Aripu^  off  Sil&vaturai^  which  is  made  the  head- 
quarters at  times  when  the  Ch^val  and  M6taragam  (Mud- 
rigam)  banks  are  fished.  Bising  from  the  sandy  shore 
between  Aripu  and  Sil&vaturai  is  a  miniature  sand-cliffy 
reaching  a  maximum  height  of  about  12  feet^  and  extending 
over  a  distance  of  about  half  a  mile,  which  contains  a  thicK 
bed  composed  almost  entirely  of  pearl-oyster  shells — evi- 
dence of  the  enormous  number  of  oysters  which  have  been 
taken  from  the  neighbouring  banks  at  fisheries  in  the  past. 
Similar  beds  of  oyster  shells  were  exposed  in  sections  nearly 
a  mile  inland.  The  Ch^val  and  M6taragam  banks  are  situ- 
ated from  9  to  12  miles  out  at  sea  in  water  varying  in 
depth  from  6  to  10  fathoms.  Between  the  shore  and  the 
banks  the  water  gradually  reaches  a  depth  of  6  &thoms ; 
but^  as  in  the  case  of  the  Muttuwartu  and  Karaitivu  pars, 
the  depth  increases  rapidly  to  150  fathoms  outside  the 
banks.  The  sea  bottom  between  the  shore  and  the  banks 
is  made  up  mainly  of  sand  with  many  worn  shells^  a  luxu- 
riant growth  of  sea-weeds^  and  scattered  coral  patches. 
Among  moUusca  Modiola  tulipa,  and  the  chank  {Turbinella 
rapa)  were  very  abundant.  No  fishing  for  chanks  is  per- 
mitted south  of  the  Island  of  Manaar,  lest,  at  the  same 
time,  raids  should  be  made  on  the  j5earl  banks.®  The  fishery 
is,  however,  actively  carried  on  north  of  the  island  on  a 
different  system  to  that  which  is  in  force  at  Tuticorin  (p. 
56),  the  boat-owners  paying  a  small  sum  of  money  annually 
to  Government,  and  making  what  profit  they  can  from  the 
sale  of  the  shells. 

Writing  of  the  banks  off  Aripu,  which  have  been,  for 
many  years,  the  sheet-anchor  of  the  Ceylon  fishery.  Captain 
Steuart  observes  that  "  the  .  number  of  successful  fisheries 
obtained  on  the  banks  lying  off  the  Aripu  coast,  more  than 
on  any  other  banks  in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar,  and  the  high 
estimation  in  which  the  pearls  from  these  fisheries  are 
deservedly  held,  would  seem  to  indicate  some  peculiar 
quality  in  the  bottom  of  the  sea  in  these  parts,  which  is 
favourable  to  the  existence  of  pearl-oysters,  and  for  bringing 

*  See  Ordinance  relating  to  ChanlUf  pp.  58  to  62. 


48 

them  to  the  greatest  perfection.  We  know  there  is  some- 
thing in  the  nature  of  the  bottom  of  certain  parts  of  the  sea, 
which  is  favourable  to  the  subsistence  and  ^owth  of  parti- 
cular fishes,  and  which  improves  the  flavour  for  the  food  of 
mankind :  for  instance,  the  sole  and  the  plaice  caught  in 
Hythe  bay  on  the  Kentish  coast  are  esteemed  better  than 
those  caught  off  Bye  on  the  western  side  of  Dungeness ;  and 
we  also  know  that  cod^  turbot,  oysters,  and,  indeed,  most 
edible  fishes  are  prized  in  proportion  to  the  estimation  in 
which  the  banks  are  held,  from  whence  they  have  been 
taken/'  The  prodaotiveness  of  the  banks  off  Aripu  (Gh^val 
and  M6taragam)  was  attributed  by  Mr.  Yane,  who  was 
formerly  Superintendent  of  the  pearl  fisheries,  to  their  posi- 
tion affording  a  degree  of  protection  from  the  influences 
of  the  weather  and  currents — conditions  which  would  be 
favourable  for  permitting  the  young  oysters  to  settle  on  the 
sea-bottom  instead  of  being  carried  away. 

In  1885  Captain  Donnan  attempted  to  cultivate  the 
pearl-oyster  on  a  coral  reef,  three  miles  from  the  shore, 
which  was  considered  to  be  sufficiently  far  removed  from 
the  baneful  influence  of  the  Aripu  river  during  the  freshes. 
A  tank  for  the  reception  of  the  oysters  was  dug  in  the 
centre  of  the  reef,  and  surrounded  by  blocks  of  coral  to 
form  a  barrier  round  its  edge,  heaped  up  high  enough  to  be 
just  awash  at  the  highest  tide.  But  the  experiment  failed, 
as,  out  of  12,000  oysters  which  were  placed  in  the  tank, 
only  27  remained  alive  at  the  end  of  seven  months.  ^'  Some 
of  the  oysters,"  Captain  'Donnan  writes,  "  may  have  been 
washed  out  of  the  tank  by  the  south-west  monsoon  sea,  as  it 
was  not  completely  sheltered  from  the  wash  of  the  waves, 
but  the  bulk  of  them  have,  I  believe,  died  off  and  been 
destroyed  by  some  fish  preying  upon  them.  About  100 
dead  shells  were  found  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  •many  ol 
which  bore  evidence  of  having  been  bored  and  nibbled 
away.  It  is  just  possible  that  some  fish  may  have  got  into 
the  tank,  and  preyed  upon  the  oysters,  either  by  getting 
over  the  coral  barrier  around  it,  which  would  be  slightly 
under  water  at  high- water,  or  through  the  interstices  of  the 
coral  underneath.  The  experiment  so  far  has  been  a  failure, 
and  may  be  attributable  to  four  causes  : — 

"  (1^  overcrowding  the  oysters  in  the  tank  ; 

*^  (2)  deficiency,  of  nourishment  in  water  so  near  the 

surface ; 
''  (3)  destruction  by  fish,  which  had  got  into  the  tank 
and  pi*eyed  upon  them  ; 


49 

''  (4)  bj  excessive  agitation  of  the  water  in  the  tank 
during  the  south-west  monsoon  sea  ;  or^  pro- 
bably^ to  all  these  causes  combined/' 

In  March^  1886^  another  experimental  tank  was  made  on 
a  more  sheltered  part  of  the  reef^  and  5^000  oysters  were 
placed  in  it.  But,  in  the  following  year^  all  the  oysters 
were  found  to  be  dead.  The  artinoial  cultivation  of  the 
pearl-oyster  was  attempted  some  years  ago  in  a  nursery 
made  in  the  shallow  muddy  water  of  the  Tuticorin  harbour 
without  success  ;  and^  in  his  final,  report  to  the  Ceylon 
Government,  Mr.  Holdsworth  expresses  his  opinion,  with 
which  I  thoroughly  concur,  that  there  is  no  ground  for  think- 
ing that  artificial  cultivation  of  the  pearl-oyster  can  be 
profitably  carried  out  on  the  Ceylon  coast,  as  the  conditions 
necessary  for  the  healthy  growth  of  the  oysters  are  not  to 
be  found  in  the  very  few  places,  where  they  could  be  at  all 
protected  or  watched. 

On  the  way  to  Captain  Donnan^s  tank,  which  we  visited, 
we  rowed  over  extensive  banks  of  alcyonians,  of  the  luxu- 
riant growth  and  size  of  which  only  a  very  feeble  idea  is 
obtained  from  dried  or  spirit  specimens  as  seen  in  mu- 
seums. On  the  sandy  bottom  a  large  number  of  echino- 
derms,  solitary  or  clustered  together,  were  clearly  visible  ; 
and,  with  the  assistance  of  the  divers  and  the  dredge,*  the 
following  species  were  procured : — Termiopleurua  toreumati" 
CW8,  a  violet-spined  Temnapleuroidy  Pentaceros  thurstoni, 
Salmacis  bicolovy  Laganum  depressami,  Pibularia  volva^ 
Eehinolampas  oviformia,  Hohthuria  atra,  and  Colochirus 
quadrangularis ,  These  species,  as  also  Oreastei*  lincki  and 
Linckia  JcBvigata,  which  abound  on  the  Muttuwartu  par, 
are  all  found  on  the  opposite  coast  of  the  Gfulf  of  Manaar. 
A  single  young  specimen  of  Hippocampus  was  also  brought 
.up  in  the  dredge.  The  taiDc,  washed  by  the  gentle 
swell,  showed  no  signs  of  pearl-oysters,  which  had,  doubt- 
less been  smothered  and  disappeared  below  the  surface 
of  the  bottom.  But,  growing  from  the  inner  side  of  the 
barrier  of  dead  coral  which  formed  the  wall  of  the  tank 
was  a  fringe  of  living  corais^^Montiporaj  Podlloporaj  Mad- 
repara,  &c.  As  these  corals  had  grown  in  their  present 
position  since  the  construction  of  the  tank,  which  was  built 
up  entirely  of  dead  blocks  of  solid  coral  brought  from  the 
shore,  the  living  corals  on  the  reef  being  found  to  be  too 
brittle  to  form  a. suitable  wall,  it  was  obvious  that,  as  the 
tank  was  built  in  March  1886,  the  age  of  the  corals  did 
not  exceed  three  years  and  nine  months.     Accordingly  I 

7 


60 

had  the  largest  specimen  of  Moiitipora  oaref  ally  detached 
from  the  dead,  coral-rock  on  which  it  was  growings  and 
foand  that  it  measured  40  inches  in  lengthy  9  inches  in 
height^  and  16  inches  in  breadth^  and  weighed  17  pounds. 

After  remaining  at  anchor  for  some  days  off  Sildvaturai,^ 
we  .started  on  the  morning  of  the  10th  for  the  western  side 
of  the  great  Gh^yal  par,  which  is  known  by  the  divers  as 
kodai  (umbrella)  par  from  the  prevalence  on  it  of  a  shallow 
cup-shaped  sponge^  Spongionelta  holdsworthi^  which  is  sup- 

{losed,  by  their  imagincvtive  brains,  to  resemble  an  umbrella, 
n  a  letter  to  Mr.  Bowerbank,  by  whom  this  sponge  was 
described^®  Mr.  Holdsworth  stated  that  ^'  is  only  found  on 
the  9-&thom  line  of  the  large  pearl  bank.  It  is  attached  to 
pieces  of  dead  coral  or  stones.  When  alive  it  is  of  a  dark 
brown  ;  and  when  taken  out  of  water  it  looks  exactly  like 
dirty  wet  leather.  .  .  .  This  sponge  is  so  strictly  confined 
to  the  locality  above  mentioned  that  its  discovery  by  the 
divers  is  considered  the  strongest  evidence  that  the  outer 
part  of  the  bank  has  been  reached.'^  Another  conspicuous 
sponge  on  this  bank  was  the  large,  pale  pink-coloured 
Petrosia  testudinaria,  which  also  lives  on  the  Tholayiram 
par  off  Tuticorin. 

It  was  from  the  Ch^val  par  that^  in  1888,  about  150 
millions  of  oysters,  ripe  for  fishing,  disappeared  in  the  space 
of  two  months^  between  November  and  February.  This 
disappearance  en  masse  was  attributied  by  the  natives  to  a 
vast  shoal  of  rays^  called  aankoody  iyrica  or  hoopu  tyrica, 
which  are  said  to  eat  up  oyster  shells.  But  the  more  prac- 
tical mind  of  the  Inspector  of  the  pearl  banks  attributed  the- 
disaster — for  such  it  was  from  a  financial  point  of  yiew — to 
the  influence  of  a  strong  southerly  current,  which  was  run- 
ning for  some  days  in  December ;  a  current  so  strong  that 
the  Engineer  of  the  '  Active '  had  to  let  go  a  second  anchor 
to  prevent  the  ship  from  dragging. 

The  divers,  going  down  from  the  ship  as  soon  as  we 
were  at  anchor  over  the  bank  in  6^  fathoms,  reported  abund- 
ance of  young  oysters^  whose  average  breadth  at  the  hinga 
was  *75  inch,  said  by  some  to  be  three  months,  by  others  six 
months'  old.  The  samples  which  they  brought  up  from  the 
bottom,  which  was  rocky  and  interspersed  with  patches  of 
fine  sand^  were  attached  to  dead  coral,  melobesisB^  sponges, 
and  any  other  rough  surface  suitable  for  the  attachment  of 
the  byssus.     That  the  pearl-oyster  prefers  a  rough  to  a 


•  Troc.  Zool.  flfoc,  1873,  p.  25,  pi.  v. 


61 

smootli  surface  as  an  anchorage  is  shown  not  only  by  its 
nsual  habitat^  but  also  by  the  observation  that  young  oys- 
ters have  been  found  clinging  to  the  coir  rope  moorings  of 
a  bamboo,  but  not  to  the  bamboo  itself  or  the  chain  moor- 
ings. The  number  of  young  oysters  on  a  small  nodule 
brought  up  by  the  divers  was  counted^  and  found  tio  be 
180,  scattered  among  which  were  20  specimens  of  the  little 
suran. 

The  prevailing  stony  corals  on  the  west  Ch^val  par, 
brought  up  by  the  divers  with  dense  clusters  of  young 
oysters  adhering  to  them,  belonged  to  the  genera  Porites, 
Aatrceaj  and  GyphastrcBa,  growing  from  a  base  of  conglome- 
rated sand-rock,  which  is  known  by  the  divers  as  'flat 
rock/  These  corals,  when  broken  up,  proved  a  rich  hunting 
ground  for  small  crustaceans,  tubicolous  worms,  and  litho- 
domous  mollusca.  Very  abundant  on  the  bank  were  the 
bright-red  Juncella  juncea  and  the  cork-like  Suberogorgia 
suberosa,  on  the  axes  and  branches  of  which  clusters  of  young 
oysters  were  collected. 

At  the  time  of  his  annual  inspection  of  the  west  Ch^val  par 
in  1888,  Captain  Donnan  found  a  large  portion  of  it  stocked 
with  oysters  one  year  old,  which  had,  in  the  interval  between 
the  inspections,  died  from  natural  causes,  or  been  killed  off, 
aud  replaced  by  another  brood.  The  life  of  the  pearl-oyster 
must  be  a  sti;|aggle,  not  only  during  the  time  at  which  it 
leads  a  wandering  existence  on  the  surface,^®  and  is  at  the 
mercy  of  pelagic  organisms,  but  even  after  it  has  settled 
down  on  the  bottom,  where  it  is  liable  to  be  eaten  up  by 
fishes,  holothurians,  molluscs,  &c.,  or  washed  away  from  its 
moorings  by  currents ;  and  comparatively  few  out  of  a  large 
fall  of  ''  spat  ^'  on  a  bank  can  reach  maturity  even  under 
the  most  favourable  conditions.  ''  Much,''  Captain  Steuart 
writes,  "  appears  to  depend  on  the  depth  of  water  over  the 
ground,  and  the  nature  and  quality  of  the  soil  upon  which 
brood  oysters  settle,  whether  any  portion  of  them  eventuallv 
reaches  the  age  of  maturity.  Tf  the  deposit  be  of  small 
extent,  or  be  thinly  scatterod,  the  young  oysters  are  often 
devoured  by  fishes,  before  the  shells  are  hard  enough  to 
protect  them.  But  when  the  deposits  settle  in  dense  heaps 
upon  places  favourable  for  their  nourishment  and  growtli, 
many  of  them  survive  to  become  the  source  of  considerable 
revenue."   How  great  is  the  struggle  of  the  pearl-oyster  for 

^®  Yonng  pearl-oysters  have  been  found  attached  to  floating  timber 
and  bnoys,  and  to  the  bottoms  of  boats. 


52 

existeiioe  is  very  clearly  shown  by  the  records  of  the  Tuti- 
corin  inspections^  in  which,  time. after  time^  a  bank  is  noted 
in  one  year  as  being  thickly  covered  with  yonng  oysters^ 
and  in  the  next  year  as  being  blank.  Not,  in  fact,  till  a 
bank  is  thickly  covered  with  oysters  two  years  old  can  any 
hope  be  held  oat  that  it  will  eventually  yield  a  flsheiy. 

Outside  the  west  Ch^val  par  a  sand  flat  extends  for 
some  distance  north  and  south,  from  which*  the  dredge 
brought  up  masses  of  coarse,  broken  shells^  and,  among 
other  specimens,  large  numbers  of  Arnphioxus  and  Olypeaster 
humilisy  and  single  specimens  of  Ophiothrix  aspidota  and 
Aatropecten  hemprichii;  the  digestive  cavity  of  the  latter 
being  distended  by  a  large  Meretrix  (M,  caatanea)  and  seven 
other  smaller  molluscs,  which  it  had  swallowed.  From  the 
stretch  of  sand  between  the  east  and  west  Ch^val  pars  the 
echinoids  Echinodiacus  auritua  and  Metalia  aternalia  were 
obtained. 

During  our  stay  on  the  west  Cheval  par,  large  numbers 
of  the  butterfly  Papilio  {Menelaidea)  hector  were  seen  daily 
fluttering  around  the  ship  1 0  miles  out  at  sea.  The '  Active ' 
steaming  at  the  rate  of  4  knots  an  hour,  and  the  diving 
boats  under  sail  caught  many  seir  fish  {Cyhium  guUatum) 
with  a  long  line  towing  astern  and  made  fast  to  the  yard 
arm  of  the  lug  sail,  and'baited  with  a  piece  of  white  rag. 
For  catching  seir  the  hooks  are  sometimes  'baited  with  a 
small  fish  or  the  white  of  a  cocoanut  cut  into  the  shape  of  a 
fish.  From  the  barque  at  anchor  many  Baliatea  and  the 
crimson-coloured  Lutjanua  erythropterua  were  caught  bv  the 
crew  with  lines  baited  with  fish.  The  stomachs  oi  the 
former  always  contained  crushed  pearl-oysters,  and  those  of 
the  latter  small  fishes. 

On  the  14th  we  inspected  the  small  Periya  par,  situated 
8  miles  ivestward  of  the  west  Gh^val  par,  which  we  found 
irregularly  stocked  with  young  oysters.  Sounding  seaward 
from  the  bank,  we  found  9  fathoms  at  a  distance  of  1  mile, 
14  fathoms  at  a  distance  of  2  miles,  and  did  not  strike 
bottom  at  150  fathoms  at  a  distance  of  4  miles.  The  sea 
bottom  shelves  here  less  abruptly  than  outside  the  Muttu- 
warta  par,  where  a  depth  of  150  fathoms  was  obtained  at 
a  distance  of  J  of  a  mile  from  the  seaward  &oe  of  the  bank. 
The  thermometer  regpistered  54^  at  150  fathoms,  and  59®  at 
100  fathoms,  the  surface  temperature  being  83^  On  this 
and  the  two  preceding  days  a  bright  blue-eyed  Pahsmonid 
larva  was  very  abundant  on  the  snr&ce. 


k 


58 

The  nezfc  four  days,  during  which  the  weathw  was  very 
nnpleasant  and  suggestive  of  a  cyclonic  storm  in  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  were  spent  in  inspecting  the  east  Ch^val  par.  The 
divers,  going  down  as  soon  as  we  had  anchored  at  the  north 
end  of  the  bank^  brought  up  blocks  of  inorusted  sand-rock, 
and  specimens  of  the  black-colored  sponge  Spongionella 
nigra,  but  no  oysters,  which  were,  in  fact,  absent  over  the 
entire  bank.  This  bank  is  mainly  characterised  by  the 
abundant  growth  on  it  of  Suberogorgia  suberosa,  on  the 
branches  of  one  of  which  an  Astrophyton  (A.  clavatum  ?) 
was  entwined,  and  heather-like  Hydroida  {Campaniilaria 
juncea,  AUman),  the  tangled  branches  of  which  were  studded 
with  the  striped  Avicula  zebra,  and  which  should  afford 
good  anchorage  for  yonug  oysters.  Conspicuous  among 
other  specimens  which  were  obtained,  were  the  sponge 
Hircinia  clathrata  affording  a  home  to  Balamis  (Acasta) 
spongites,  the  corals  Turbinaria  crater  and  Turbinariapatula, 
and  the  echinoderms  Antedon  palmataj  Salmacis  bicoloTj 
Clypeaster  humilisy  and  Echinaster  purpureus.  A  single 
specimen  of  Ophiothrix  aspidota  was  found  coiled  up  in  a 
cavity  in  a  block  of  Porites,  As  on  the  other  banks  which 
we  inspected,  sea-weeds  were  not  present  in  any  quantity. 
The  quantity  of  weed  on  the  banks  is  said,  however,  to  vary 
much  from  year  to  year. 

The  inspection  of  the  east  Ch^val  par  completed,  we 
went  a  short  distance  south,  and  spent  a  couple  of  days 
on  the  M6taragam  pars,  which  were  also  blank  so  far  as 
oysters  were  concerned.  The  pearls  froni  these  pars  are 
highly  valued  by  the  pearl-merchants,  and,  at  the  fishery 
of  1888,  the  oysters  fetched  from  100  to  109  rupees  per 
thousand  at  auction,  a  single  day's  fishing  realizing  over 
60,000  rupees.  The  weather  had  cleared  up  by  this  time, 
and  the  divers  were  again  able  to  work  in  comfort  for  a 
short  time.  Bain  interferes  very  much  with  an  inspection, 
as  the  divers  complain  that  it  makes  them  cold  and  shivery 
when  they  come  out  of  the  water.  Here,  as  on  the  east 
Gh^val  par,  the  animal  collected  in  greatest  abundance  was 
Olypeaster  humilis;  but  the  divers  also  brought  up  many 
specimens  of  the  chank,  the  unpleasant  looking  animal  of 
which  is  eaten  by  the  natives ;  Pinva  bicolor,  which  is  said 
to  occur  on  the  sandy  parts  of  the  banks  in  beds  of  some 
extent;  and  the  hammer-headed  ovster.  The  hydroid,  which 
was  so  conspicuous  a  feature  of  the  east  Oh^val,  was  absent 
from  the  M6taragam  par. 

8 


54 

At  this  stage  a  strong  south-west  wind  came  on,  acconi' 
paniedby  au  unpleasant  swell,  and  drove  us  into  Sil&vaturai ; 
but,  luckily^  all  the  important  work  of  the  inspection  tour 
was  finished^  two  small  banks  alone  remaining  to  be  examined. 
A  rolling  journey  on  the  tug  ^  Active '  brought  me  back  to 
Oolombo^  and  my  second  visit  to  Ceylon^  more  auspicious 
tban  the  first,  was  over. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  the  Ceylon  Govern- 
ment has  derived  a  handsome  profit  from  its  pearl  banks^ 
which  have  been  lucratively  fished  on  ten  occasions  ;  while^ 
during  the  same  period^  the  banks  belonging  to  the  Madras 
Government  have  yielded  only  two  small  fisheries,  not 
because  the  oysters  have  ceased  to  settle,  when  yoang,  on 
the  banks,  but  because  they  have  failed,  owing  to  a  combina- 
tion of  physical  and  other  unfavourable  conditions,  to  reach 
maturity  there.  Writing,  in  1697,  for  the  instruction  of  the 
political  council  of  JafFnapatnam,  the  then  commandant  of 
that  town  justly  remarked  that  the  pearl  fishery  is  an  extra- 
ordinary source  of  revenue,  on  which  no  reliance  can  be 
placed,  as  it  depends  on  various  contingencies,  which  may 
ruin  the  banks,  or  spoil  the  oysters.  And  this  remark  holds 
good  after  the  lapse  of  two  centuries.  In  1740  the  Baron 
von  Imhoff,  on  his  departure  from  the  Government  of 
Oeylon,  in  a  memoir  left  for  the  instruction  of  his  successor, 
stated  that  "  it  is  now  several  years  since  the  pearl  banks 
have  fallen  into  a  very  bad  state  both  at  Manaar  and 
Tuticorin ;  this  is  mere  chance,  and  experience  has  shown 
that,  on  former  occasions,  the  banks  have  been  unproductive 
even  for  a  longer  period  than  has  yet  occurred  at  present.^' 
And  a  century  later,  in  1843,  Captain  Steuart,  at  the 
commencement  of  his  admirable  '^  Account  of  the  Pearl 
Fisheries  of  Ceylon,"  refers  to  the  failure  at  that  time  of  the 
now  lucrative  Ceylon  fishery.  Is  it  then  rash,  looking  back 
to  the  fluctuating  experience  of  the  past,  to  express  a  belief 
that,  in  the  not  far  distant  future,  the  reputation  of  the 
Tuticorin  banks  will  rival  that  of  the  at  present  well-favoured 
banks  of  Oeylon  7 

The  name  of  Captain  Donnan  has  repeatedly  appeared  in 
this  chapter,  and  I  should  be,  indeed,  ungrateful  were  I  to 
fail  to  acknowledge  not  only  the  great  assistance  which  I 
received  from  him  in  carrying  out  my  zoological  work,  but 
also  the  vast  store  of  information  on  matters  connected  with 
the  Ceylon  pearl-fisheries  which  I  gathered  from  him  during 
our  month  of  pleasant  banishment  from  the  outside  world. 


LiOt    iJv'  ti-ho.J    tC   t,tt 


55 


IV.—TJJTIOORINGHANK  FISHERY. 


Thb  sacred  chanki  oonch,  or  sankha,  is  the  shell  of  the 
gastropod  moUaso  Turhinella  rapa^  of  which  a  full-grown 
specimen  is  represented  on  plate  IV^  and  is^  like  the  pearl 
oyster  and  the  edible  trepang  (ffolothuria  marmoruta),  one 
of  the  commercial  prodacts  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar. 

The  chank  shelly  which  one  sees  saspended  on  the  fore- 
head and  round  the  necks  of  bullocks  in  Madras^  is  not  only 
used  by  Hindus  for  offering  libations  and  as  a  musical  in- 
strument in  temples^  but  is  also  cut  into  armlets^  bracelets, 
and  other  ornaments.  Writing  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
Garcia  says : — '^  And  this  ehanco  is  a  ware  for  the  Bengal 

trade,  and  formerly  produced  more  profit  than  now 

and  there  was  formerly  a  custom  in  Bengal  that  no  virgin 
in  honour  and  esteem  could  be  corrupted  unless  it  were  by 
placing  bracelets  of  ehanco  on  her  arms ;  but,  since  the 
Pat&ns  came  in,  this  usage  has  more  or  less  ceased,  and  so 
the  ehanco  is  rated  lower  now.'' 

"  The  conch  shell,"  Captain  0.  Day  writes  in  *'  his  Music 
and  Musical  Instruments  of  Southern  India/'  is  not  in  secular 
use  as  a  musical  instrument,  but  is  found  in  every  temple, 
and  is  sounded  during  reUgious  ceremonials,  in  processions, 
and  before  the  'shrines  of  Hindu  deities.  In  Southern  India 
the  sankhu  is  employed  in  the  ministration  of  a  class  of 
temple  servers  called  Dftssari.  No  tune,  so  to  speak,  can  of 
course  be  played  upon  it,  but  still  the  tone  is  capable  of 
much  modulation  by  the  lips,  and  its  clear  mellow  notes  are 
not  without  a  certain  charm.  A  rather  striking  effect  is 
produced  when  it  is  used  in  the  temple  ritual  as  a  sort  of 
rhythmical  accompaniment,  when  it  plays  the  part  of  kan* 
nagdlu  or  t&lavinyasa. 

The  use  of  the  chank  as  ornament  is  well  shown  by  a 
series  of  specimens  in  the  ethnology  court  of  the  Indian 
Museum,  Calcutta,  which  comprises  necklaces  worn  by  Naga 
women,  armlets  worn  by  Kuki  women,  bracelets  worn  by 
Mikir  and  Bntia  women,  and  bracelets  (some  of  gauntlet 
pattern)  made  at  Dacca. 

The  chank  appears  as  a  symbol  on  some  of  the  coins  of 
the  Ohalukyan  and  P&ndyan  kinffdoms  of  Southern  India^ 
and  on  the  modem  coins  of  the  Mkhar&jas  of  Travancore, 

9 


66 

The  ohank  fishery  is  condacted  from  Taticorin^  and  the 
shells  are  foand  in  the  vicinity  of  the  peart  banks^  in  aboat 
seven  to  ten  fathoms^^  either  buried  in  the  sand^  lying  on 
the  sea  bottom^  or  in  sandy  crevices  between  blocks  of 
coral  rock.  The  fishery  goes  on  dnring  the  north-east 
monsoon,  from  October  to  May,  and  is  worked  by  native 
divers,  who,  putting  their  foot  on  a  stone  to  which  a  long 
rope  is  attached,  are  let  down  to  the  bottom,  carrying  a 
net  round  the  waist,  in  which  they  place  the  chanks  as 
they  collect  them.  The  shells  of  the  chank  are  scattered 
about,  and  not  aggregated  together  in  clusters  like  those  of 
the  pearl  oyster,  so  that  the  divers  have  to  move  about  on 
the  bottom  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  them.  The 
diners  usually  stay  beneath  the  surface  about  fifty  seconds. 
The  longest  dive  which  I  have  myself  witnessed  was  fifty- 
four  seconds,  and  on  that  occasion  the  diver,  on  his  return 
to  the  sur&tce,  innocently  inquired  how  many  minutes  he 
had  been  under  water.  A  single  case  is  on  record  of  a 
native  diver  being  drowned  from  greed  in  overloading  his 
net  so  that  he  was  unable  to  rise  to  the  surface. 

The  number  of  chanks  collected  in*  a  day  varies  very 
much  according  to  the  number  of  divers  employed  and 
other  conditions ;  and  the  records  show  that  as  many  as  six 
thousand  or  as  few  as  four  hundred  have  been  collected.  The 
divers,  who  are  furnished  with  canoes,  ropes  and  other 
apparatus,  are  paid  at  the  rate  of  Bs.  20  per  thousand  shells. 
At  the  close  of  the  day's  fishery  the  chanks  are  brought 
on  shore,  and  examined.  Those  which  are  defective,  either 
from  cracks  or  irregularities  of  the  surface  from  their  hav- 
ing been  gnawed  by  fishes  or  bored  by  marine  worms,  are 
rejected.  The  remainder  are  tested  with  a  wooden  gauge 
having  a  hole  2|  inches  in  diameter.  Those  shells  which 
pass  through  t^s  hole  are  discarded  as  being  too  small, 
and  returned  to  the  sea  on  the  chance  that  the  animal  may 
revive  and  continue  to  grow ;  those  which  are  too  large  to 
pass  through  the  hole  are  stored  in  a  godown  (store-house), 
where  the  animal  substance  is  got  rid  of  by  the  process  of 

futrefaction,  which  is  assisted  by  flies  and  other  insects, 
n  the  month  of  July  the  shells  are  sold  by  auction  in  one 
lot  to  the  highest  bidder.  In  1886  the  highest  offer  was 
Bs.  96  per  thousand  by  a  native  of  Kilakarai,  which  was 
accepted. 

^  Tor  a  disoassion  of  the  chank  as  an  enemy  of  the  pearl  oyster,  vide 
Mr.  H.  S.  Thomas'  Report  on  Pearl  Fieheriea  and  Chanh  Fieheriea,  Madras, 


S7 

The  following  statement  shows  the  number  of  ohank 
shells  fished,  and  the  net  amount  realised  from  1881  to 
1893 :— 


Tears. 

Chanks 
fiflhed. 

Netamonnt 
realised. 

Remarks. 

• 

1881-82           

308,690 

BS. 

28,460 

The    good    results    in 

1882^8«           

247,696 

22,038 

1890-91      were    due 

1883-84           

210,005 

11,347 

partly    to   the    beds 

1884-85           

No  fishery. 

having  been  very  little 

1886-86           

332,767 

28,970 

fished  for  three  years ; 

1886-87           

188,398 

10,703 

bat    mainly    to    the 

1887-88          

60,658 

4,187 

employment  of  ooral 

1888-89          

26,637 

901 

divers,  whom  the  Cey- 

188^90           

66,639 

3,091 

lon    Government   re> 

1890-91           

848,726 

19,413 

fused    to  receive    for 

1891-92          ...          \ 
1892-98          ...         i 

Total  ... 

316,354 

8,088 

their  pearl  fishery. 

•  •  ■ 

1,82,068 

It  would  seem  from  Simmond's  *  Commercial  producta 
of  the  Sea '  that  the  ohank  fishery  was^  in  dajB  gone  by, 
more  luorative  than  it  is  at  present ;  for  it  is  there  stated 
that ''  frequently  4,000,000  or  5,000,000  of  these  shells  are 
shipped  in  a  year  from  the  Gulf  of  Manaar.  In  some  years 
the  value  of  the  rough  shells,  as  imported  into  Madras  and 
'Calcutta,  reaches  a  value  of  £10,000  or  £15,000/  The 
ohank  fishery  at  Ceylon  at  one  time  employed  600  divers, 
and  yielded  a  revenue-  to  th^  Island  Government  of  £4,000 
per  annum  for  licenses." 

A  right-handed  chank  (i.e.,  one  which  has  its  spiral 
opening  to  the  ri^ht),  which  was  found  off  the  coast  of 
Ceylon  at  Jaffna  m  1887,  was  sold  for  Rs.  700.  Such  a 
chank  is  said  to  have  been  sometimes  priced  at  a  lakh  of 
rupees  (Bs.  1,00,000)  ;  and,  writing  in  1813,  Milburn  says^ 
that  a  chank  opening  to  the  right  hand  is  highly  valued,  and 
always  sells  for  its  weight  in  gold.  Further,  Baldasus, 
writing  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  narrates 
the  legend  that  Qarroude  fiew  in  all  haste  to  Brahma  and 
brought  to  Kistna  the  chianko  or  kinkhom  twisted  to  the 
right. 

The  curious  egg  capsules  of  the  chank,  of  which  many 
specimens  were  brought  up  for  me  by  the  Tuticorin  divers. 


'  OHentaJ  Commtfrcs,  vol.  I,  p.  867. 


58 

have  been  thus  desoribed  by  my  predecessor^  Dr.  G.  Bidie^ 
who  says  of  them  ^ :  "  The  spawn  of  the  Turbinella  consists 
of  a  scries  of  sacs  or  oviferous  receptacles^  the  transverse 
markings  in  the  figure  indicating  the  dimensions  of  each 
capsule.  In  the  fresh  state  the  membranous  walls  of  the  sacs 
are  pliable,  although  tough  and  homy ;  and  it  will  bd  ob- 
served that,  during  the  drying  process,  the  spawn  has,  from 
the  irregular  shrinking  of  the  two  sides,  become  curved 
and  twisted  so  as  to  have  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a  horn. 
The  larger  oviferous  sacs  of  the  Turbinella  spawn  contain 
from  8  to  10  young  shells  each,  but  the  smaller  ones,  towards 
the  end  of  the  specimen,  are  barren." 

The  largest  number  of  young  shells  which  I  found  in  a 
single  egg-case  was  235,  of  which  the  average  diamet-er  was 
•62  inch. 

The  chank  fisheries  of  the  Ceylon  coast  of  the  Gulf 
of  Manaar  are  ....  protected  and  regulated  by  an  ordi- 
nance, which  I  give  in  detail. 


ORDINANCE  RELATING  TO  0HANK8. 

No.  18.— 1890. 

Whersas  it  is  expedient  to  amend  the  Laws  relating  to 
Preamble.  chanks  and  to  prohibit  the  dicing  for, 

and  collecting  of,  chanks,  b£che-de- 
mer,  coral,  or  shells  in  the  seas  between  Mann&r  and 
Chilaw  :  Be  it  therefore  enacted  by  the  Governor  of  Ceylon, 
by  and  with  the  advice  and  <;onsent  of  the  Legislative 
Council  thereof,  as  follows  : — 

1.  This  Ordinance  may  be  cited  for  all  purposes  as 

.,       ^  ^         ''The  Chanks  Ordinance,  1890,''  and 
of^iwaW  i*  shall  come  into  operation  at  such 

time  as  the  Governor  in  Executive 
Council  shall,  by  proclamation  in  the  Oovertiraent  Oazette, 
appoint. 

2.  The  Ordinance  No.  4  of  1842,  intituled  ''An  Or- 

p^  ^  dinance  for   the    protection   of    Ber 

^  Majesty's  rights  in   the  digging  for 


3  MadroB  Journal  of   Litertiture  and    Beienee,  yoL  XXIY,  1879,  m, 
282-884. 


69 

Dead  Ghanks/'  and  the  Ordinance  Ko.  5  of  1842,  intitulefi) 
'^  An  Ordinance  for  the  protection  of  Her  Majesty's  Chank 
Fifiherj/'  are  hereby  repealed,  but  such  repeal  shall  not 
affect  the  past  operation  of  either  of  the  said  enactments, 
or  anything  duly  done  or  suffered^  or  any  obligation,  or 
liability,  or  penalty  accrued  or  incurred  under  them  or 
either  of  them. 

Where  any  unrepealed  Ordinance  incorporates  or  refers 
to  any  provision  of  any  Ordinance  hereby  repealed,  such 
unrepealed  Ordinance  shall  be  deemed  to  incorporate  or 
refer  to  the  corresponding  provision  of  this  Ordinance. 

Definitions.  ^'  ^^   *^^®  Ordinance*,   unless  the 

context  otherwise  requires — 
"  Ohanks  "  includes  both  live  and  dead  ohanks. 
'*  Person ''  includes  any  company  or  association  or 
bodj  of  persons  whether  incorporated  or  not. 

4.  (1)  There  shall  be  levied  and  paid  on  all  chanks  en- 
tered for  exportation  a  royalty  at  such 
Diity  ofi  ohanka.         rates  not  exceeding  one  cent  on  each 

chank,  as  the  Governor,  with  the  advice  of  the  Executive 
Council,  shall,  from  time  to  time  by  notification  in  the 
Oovemmeni  OazeiU,  appoint. 

(2)  Ho  ohanks  shall  be  exported  save  and  except  from 
!>«•*-  «#  ^«f^  any  port  Doentioned  in  the  schedule  4- 

Porta  of  entry.  ^Jf^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^ 

the  Governor  in  Executive  Council  may  appoint  by  notifi- 
cation in  the  Chvemment  Oazetie. 

6.  (1)  The  person  entering  outwards  any  chanks  to  b0 
Bill  of  entry.  exported  from  any  port  sl^aU  deliver 

to  the  collector  a  bill  of  the  entry  there- 
of, expressing  the  name  of  the  ship  and  of  the  master,  and 
of  the  place  to  which  the  chanks  are  to  be  exported,  and  of 
the  person  in  whose  name  the  chanks  are  to  be  entered, 
together  with  the  number  and  value  thereof,  anything  in 
tixB  Ordinance  No.  17  of  1869  to  the  contrary  notwithstand- 
ing, and  shall  at  the  same  time  pay  to  the  collector  any  sum 
wjbioh  may  be  due  as  royalty  upon  the  exportation  of  such 
lohaaiks. 

(2)  SuoIi*p€prson  shall  also  deliver  at  the  same  time  one 

Colleotor'B  warrant.      or^pre  copies  of  such  entry,  and  the 

particulars  to  be  contained  in  such 
entry  «dball  be  written  and  .ananffed  in  such  form  and 
.iQamiei:>  and  the  number, of  such  copies  shall  be  such  as  the 
ooUecttor  shall  require,  and  suoh  entry  being  duly  signed 


60 

by  the  collector  shall  be  the  warrant  for  examination  and 
shipment  of  such  chanks. 

6.  Every   person   who  shall  export  chanks   from   this 

Island  except  from  any  port  mentioned 
Penalty  for  exporting    ^  schedule  A,  or  from  any  port  ap- 

contrary  to  the   Ordi-  •    ^   j  v     xl     n  •  '^-n^^        ±' 

nanoe.  pointed  by  the  O-ovemor  in  Executive 

Council  under  section  4^  or  contrary  to 
the  requirements  of  section  5^  ehalL  be  guilty  of  an  offence 
punishable  with  simple  or  rigorous  imprisonment  for  a 
period  not  exceeding  six  months^  or  with  a  fine  not  exceed- 
ing one  hundred  rupees,  or  with  both. 

• 

7.  If  any  chanks  subject  to  the  payment  of  any  sums 

due  as  royalty  in  respect  of  exporta- 
?if?^>>w ''>i^^°'''    tioii  sl^aU  be  laden  or  water-borne  to 

entry  liaole  to  be  for-      iii  i  i  i*vit  i 

feited.  be  laden  on  board  any  ship  before  due 

entry  shall  have  been  made  and  war- 
rant granted^  or  before  such  chanks  shall  have  been  dulv 
cleared  for  shipment,  or  if  such  chanks  shall  not  agree  with 
the  bill  of  entry,  the  same  shall  be  liable  to  forfeiture 
together  with  the  package  in  which  they  are  contained. 

8.  It  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  person  to  use  any 

dredge  or  other  apparatus  of  a  like 

leSt^STs'^prot-  ^t«~  ^5  the  Piirpose  Of  fishing  for 
bited.  or  collecting  chanks,  and  every  person 

using  any  £edge  or  other  apparatus  of 

a  like  nature  for  such  purpose  shall  be  guilty  of  an  offence 

punishable  .with   simple  or  rigorous  imprisonment  for  a 

Penalties.  peri(»d  not  exceeding  six  months,  or 

with  fine  not  exceeding  one  hundred 
rupees^  or  with  both ;  and  every  dredge  or  apparatus  of  a 
like  nature  so  used  as  aforesaid  shall  be  forfeited. 

9.  It  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  person  to  fish  for,  dive 

for,  or  collect  chanks,  b£che-de-mer. 

Collection  of  chanks,     coral,  Or  shells  in  the  seas  within  the 

Mche-de-mer,  coral,  or    jj^^j^^  defined  in  schedule  B  hereto, 

Bnelis  in  the  seas    be-  ^  ri.ii/»v# 

tween     Mann&r     and     and  every  person  who  shall  nsn  for, 

Chilaw  prohibited.  dive  for,  or  collect,  or  who  shall  use  or 

employ  any  boat,  canoe,  raft,  or  vessel 

in  the  collection  of  chanks,  b£che-de-mer,  coral,  or  shells  in 

the  said  seas,  shall  be  guilty  of  an  offence  punishable  with 

simple  or  rigorous  imprisonment  for  a  period  not  exceeding 

v^^^ui^a  six  months,  or  with  fine  not  exceeding 

Penslhe..  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^  ..^| 


61 

erery  boat^  canoe^  raft^  or  vessel  so  employed  as  aforesaid^ 
together  with  all  chanks,  b£che-de«mer^  coral,  or  shells 
nnlawfuUj  collected^  shall  be  forfeited. 

Provided  that  nothing  in  this  section  contained  shall 
ProTuo.  prevent   any    person  from   collecting 

coral  or  shells  from  any  portion  of  the 
said  seas  in  which  the  water  is  of  the  depth  of  one  fathom 
or  less. 

Provided  also  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Governor  in 
Proviso  Executive  Council  from  time  to  time 

or  at  any  time^  by  notification  in  the 
Gfovemment  Gazette,  to  alter  the  limits  defined  in  schedule  B 
hereto^  or  exempt  any  portion  or  portions  of  the  seas  within 
the  said  limits  from  the  operation  of  this  Ordinance. 

10.  (1)  Any  chank^  b£che-de-mer^   coral,  shell,   boat, 

canoe,  raft,  vessel,  dredge,  or  appa- 

Chanks,  &o.,    liable    ratus   liable  to  forfeiture   under   this 

to  forfeiture  may  be    Ordinance  may  be  seized  by  any  oflScer 

Sr"n"™.^'*^':^o«'    of  tte  customs  or  police,  or  by  any 

honse.  headman,  or  by  any  person  appointed 

for  that  purpose  in  writing  by  the 
government  agent  of  the  province  or  the  assistant  govem.- 
ment  agent  of  the  district  within  which  such  seizure  is 
made,  and  when  seized  shall  be  conveyed  to  the  custom- 
house nearest  to  the  place  of  seizure  and  there  detained 
until  the  court  having  jurisdiction  in  the  matter  has  deter- 
mined whether  the  same  shall  or  shall  not  be  forfeited. 

(2)  If  any   such  officer,   headman,   or  person  shall 

neglect  to  have  any  chank,  b£che-de- 

Penalty  on  seifing     mer,   coral,   shell,    boat,   canoe,   raft, 

officer   neglecting    to    ^q^^qI  dredge,  or  apparatus  seized  by 

convey  seiinre  to  cus-     ^.        ^  x**o^g«,  v*    w^^^Enu       o«7.^^a  ^j 

tom-honse  within  a  him  conveyed  to  such  custom-house 
reasonable  time.  within  a  reasonable  time,  he  shall   be 

guilty  of  an  offence  and  liable  to  a 
fine  of  one  hundred  rupees. 

11.  (1)  Every  prosecution  under  this  Ordinance  may  be 

instituted  in  the  police  court  of' the 
jnS^Ttion!^  *°  ^*^^    division  in  which  the  offence  was  com- 

mitted  or  where  the  offender  is  found, 
and  such  court  may  by  its  order  declare  and  adjudge  any 
chank,  b£che-de-mer,  coral,  shell,  boat,  canoe,  raft,  vessel, 
dredge,  or  apparatus  seized  and  detained  under  this  Ordi- 
nance to  be  forfeited,  and  such  forfeiture  may  be  in  addition 
to  any  other  punishment  hereinbefore  prescribed,  anything 


62 

ill  the  Criminal  Prooedare  Oode  to  the  contrary  ndtwith^ 
standing. 

(2)   A.11  forfeltares  may  be  sold  or  othermse  disposed 
6i  in  saoh  manoer  as  the  police  coarfc  may  direct. 

12.  It  shall  be  lawfal  for  the  coart  imposing  a  fine  nnder 

Informer's  share.        *^^^  Ordinance  to  award  to  the  informer 

any  share  not  exceeding  a  moiety  of 
so  mnch  of  the  fine  as  is  actually  recovered  and  realised. 


SOHEDQLE  A 


Kank^santurai. 
tCayts. 


Jaffna. 
P^sdlai. 


SCHEDULE  B. 


Eastward  of  a  straight  line  drawa  from  a  point  six  miles 
westward  of  Talaimaanar  to  a  point  six  miles  westward  from 
the  shore  two  miles  south  of  Talai villa. 


Passed  in  Oounoil  the  Nineteenth  day  of  November,  One 
thousand  Eight  hundred  and  Ninety. 


MADRAS  GOTERNIIENT  MUSEUM. 


Runi'tiii  No.  'i. 


XOTE 

ON    TOURS               1 

ALONG  TUK 

MALABAE 

COAST. 

EDGAK  THUESTON. 

O.M.Z.8.,  B'n;., 

PRISTBD  BY  THE  8L 

^MK,  I  ««n„.  1 

Rl  A  D  It  A  S 

EIUNTE.NDE-Nl 

1  SH  1. 

,  oovkukmkxt  press. 

4 

MADRAS  GOVERNMENT  MUSEUM. 


Bulletin  No,  2, 


NOTE   O]^   TOUES 


ALONG  THE 


MALABAE  COAST 


BY 


EDGAR  THURSTON,  o.m.z.s.,  eox)., 

Superintendent,  Madras  Oovemment  Museum. 


MADEAS: 

FEINTED  BY  THE  SUPEEINTENDENT,  GOVEENMENT  PEESS. 

1894, 


NOTE  ON  TOUES  ALONG  THE 
MALABAR  COAST. 


Soon  after  mj  arrival  in  India,  in  1886,  aooomponied  by 
my  staff  of  taxidennists,  who  excel  in  flsh-stnffinff,  I  made  a 
BlK)rt  tour  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Madras  rresidenoy, 
from  Cochin  southwards  by  the  system  of  backwaters — the 
home  of  otters  and  crocodiles — to  Trivandmm,  the  capital  oi 
the  M&haiija  of  TraTancore.  The  object  of  this  tour  was 
the  making  of  an  initial  collection  of  the  fishes  of  Malabar 
for  the  Madras  museum,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  time 
was  spent  at  Cochin,  which  affords  abundant  natural  f aetlities 
for  fish  capture.  More  recently,  in  1894^  a  tour  was  made 
from  Cochin  northward  to  Cazmanore,  with  halts  at  Calicut 
and  Tellicherry,  with  a  view  to  making  a  survey  of  the 
littoral  fauna  of  the  Madras  coast  of  the  Indian  Ocean  with 
the  assistance  of  the  dredge. 

The  work  of  the  tours  commenced  on  each  occasion  at 
Triehdr,  a  large  town  20  miles  from  the  station  of  Shoran^r 
on  the  Madras  RaUway,  from  whidt  place  Trioh6r  is  oasfly 
reached,  by  a  well-avenued  road,  in  bullock  cart  or  pony 
transit.  Between  8horanur  and  Trichur  is  the  village  oi 
Yadakanch^ri,  where  the  best  Trioh6r  mats  are  made.  At 
Trich6r  fishing  is  actively  carried  on  with  nets  from  boats  in 
the  fine  open  sheet  of  water,  which  extends  for  some  miles 
south  of  tne  town.  The  fish  market  contained  an  abundant 
supply  of  fish  caught  locally,  as  well  as  fish  sent  from  Cochin 
by  backwater. 

At  the  time  of  my  visit  in  1886,  the  phenomenon  of  phos- 
phorescence was  extremely  brilliant  on  the  first  night  spent 
on  the  backwater;  the  fishes,  as  they  darted  to  and  fro, 
being  so  brilliantly  illuminated  that  I  at  first  thought  that  it 
must  be  caused  hj  Microcoecm  phlugeri^  a  microscopic  lumin- 
ous organism  which  grows  in  colonies  on  the  skin  of  fishes. 
But,  on  collecting  some  of  the  water  in  a  tumbler,  I  discovered 
that  the  phosphorescence  was  really  produced  by  myriads  of 
small  medusae,  many  of  which  contained  tiny  Crustacea 
imbedded  in  their  gelatinous  substance.  Phosphorescence  in 
all  its  brilliancy  I  have^  in  the  course  of  many  wanderings 

10 


64 

along  the  ooast  of  Southern  India,  only  9een  on  one  other 
oooasion,  viz.,  on  the  Pulioat  lake,  north  of  Madras  ;  and,  in 
this  instance,  it  was  produced  by  hosts  of  copepods. 

The  natives  who  live  along  the  backwater  between  Tri- 
ohia  and  Cochin,  and  rely  largely  on  the  products  thereof 
for  physiologic^  gustentation,  are  able  to  obtain  not  only  an 
abun(&nce  of  a  bivalve  mollusc  {Vehrita  cyprinoides)^  whose 
shells  are  collected  together  and  burned  into  ohun&m  (lime) ; 
but  also  of  fish,  which  they  capture  with  line  or  net,  or, 
more  simply,  by  wading  in  the  shallow  water  and  picking 
the  fish  out  of  the  muddy  bottom  with  their  hands.  .  Fish 
and  shell  fish,  as  captured,  are  cleaned  from  the  adhering 
mud,  and  placed  in  chatties  attached  to  a  string  held  between 
the  teeth,  and  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  fish 
which  I  saw  captured  in  greatest  abundance  were  Etroplus 
mratensi'Sy  Etropius  maculatus^  and  Gobius  giuris. 

The  town  of  Cochin  is  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the 
entrance  of  the  most  considerable  river  in  Malabar.  This 
river  opens  into  the  sea  out  of  a  broad  lagoon'  with  a  dense 
background  of  cocoanuts,  which,  with  the  distant  line  of 
hills,  wrapped  in  a  grey  haze  in  the  spring  months,  form  the 
leading  characteristic  of  the  scenery  throughout  the  whole 
length  of  the  backwater. 

The  Cochin  backwater  abounds  in  oysters  (Osfrea^  sp.), 
which  live  in  clumps  on  the  stone  and  wood-work  (freely 
bored  by  an  isopod  crustacean),  and  have  their  shells 
encrusted  with  anemones,  barnacles,  and  mussels.  The  oys- 
ters, though  eaten  by  the  European  community,  occasionally 
give  rise  to  an  acute  intestinal  crisis. 

The  north  bank  of  the  Cochin  river  is  formed  by  the 
island  of  Vypeen,  which  is  said  to  have  been  created  in 
1341  A.D.  by  a  cyclone  or  earthquake.  Climbing  up  the 
gneiss  and  conglomerate  boulders,  which  are  piled  up  as 
groynes  at  Vypeen  point,  where  the  river  enters  the  sea,  and 
serve  as  an  abode  for  the  mollusc  Littorina  undulata^  were 
the  Crustacea  Orapsus  atrigoaua  and  Metagrapsua  measor. 

The  shells  on  the  Vypeen  shore,  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  chun4m,  belong  to  coarse  species  of  Venus^  Area,  Tapes^ 
i%c.,  evidently  roUed  in  from  a  distance,  and  worn  or  broken 
by  wave  action ;  whereas  those  on  the  south  shore  are  more 
delicate,  and  suited  for  museum  exhibition.  The  south  sfiore 
is  riddled  with  the  burrows  of  giant  ocypods  {Ocypoda 
platytarsis)^  the  smaller  Ocypoda  cordimana^  and  the  '*  calling 
crab,"  Oehimw  forceps  (?),  which  emerge  from  their  hiding 


6i 

places  in  the  morning  and  evening,  and  are  difficult  to  catch 
as  they  scamper  alon^  the  sand. 

To  travellers  Cochin  is  best  knoWn  as  the  home  of  the 
Jews,  black,  white,  and  half-caste,  coDceming  whose  history 
and  customs  a  great  deal  of  interesting  information  is  con- 
tained in  Days'  Land  of  the  PermauU ;  or  Cochin  Past  and 
Present.  But  it  is,  from  a  commercial  standpoint,  a  very 
important  centre  of  trade  in  coir  fibre,  cordage,  kopra  (dried 
oocoanut  kernels),  cocoanut  oil,  ginger,  &c. 

The  exports  from  Cochin  of  the  products  of  the  sea,  in 
which  I  am  most  interested,  were  in  1892-93 — 


RB. 

Fish,  salted     ..  ..     lbs.     308,560     45,860 

,,      dried,  not  salted 

„      oil 

,,      ma^vB      •  • 
Shark  fi.DS 


„      226,002     22,839 
.     gals.     12,541       5,874. 

•  I  lbs.       17,044       6,683 


My  camp  at  Cochin  was  pitched  in  the  '  compound '  of 
the  travellers'  bungalow,  facing  the  tidal  river,  which  affordB 
anchorage,  in  7  to  9  fathoms,  for  craft  of  light  draft,  such 
as  can  pass  over  the  sandy  bar,  and  load  and  discharge  cargo 
in  smooth  water.  The  bungalow  is  a  noted  resort  of  thieves, 
and  waB,  during  my  stay  there  in  1886,  guarded  at  niffht 
by  a  constable  armed  with  the  saw  of  a  youug  saw  nsh 
{Pristis)^  with  the  base  cut  away  so  as  to  form  a  handle. 

From  the  bungalow  a  scene  of  busy  activity  can  be 
witnessed  from  early  morning  until  sunset.  The  large  open 
*  compound,' — the  resort  of  stray  cattle  and  goats,  which 
caused  endless  annoyance  by  rubbing  their  noses  into  and 
licking  up  my  specimens  drying  in  the  sun — forms  a  conve- 
nient spot  for  fishermen  to  spin  the  cotton  thread  for  their 
nets  by  a  simple  contrivance  consisting  of  a  stick  weighted 
at  the  end  to  which  the  thread  is  attached,  and  deftly  swung 
round  the  head.  Visitors  to  the  bungalow  are  beset  by 
professional  mendicants  making  an  income  out  of  the  pre- 
valent elephantiasis  (Cochin  leg),  which  attacks  young  and 
old  alike ;  and  vendors  of  stufFed  crocodiles  with  flat  glass 
panes  for  eyes,  and  mouths  lined  with  red  or  yellow  flannel, 
and  jewellery  of  local  manufacture  made  from  the  small 
silver  coins  (puttans)  of  the  Native  State  of  Cochin. 

^  '*  I  have  to  come  down  from  the  regions  of  high  finance  to  grovel 
among  fish  maws  and  shark  fins;  but  tnese  articles  will  bring  me  in 
sufficient  revenue  to  pay  for  the  salary  of  a  High  Court  Judge  for  hall  a 
year.*' — Speech  by  the  Finance  Minister  to  the  Imperial  Legislative  Couneilf 
March,  1894. 


66 

Btored  in  the  bungalow  '  oompound '  are  oaaks  of  fresh 
water,  brought  daily  from  the  sanitarium  of  Alwayi,  about 
20  miles  from  Oochin. .  The  water  of  the  Alwayi  river,  from 
which  I  obtained  a  unique  dred^g  consisting  of  stone 
gods,  has  a  good  reputation,  and  on  it  the  European  commu- 
nity of  Goomn  depends  largely  for  its  supply  of  wholesome 
water. 

At  the  time  of  my  visit  to  Cochin  in  1894,  boring  opera- 
tions, in  search  for  good  water,  were  being  actively  pushed 
forward  near  the  protestant  church,  one  of  the  oldest,  if  not 
the  oldest,  European  churches  in  India.  The  Dutch  tomb- 
stones^ the  legends  on  many  of  which  commence  with  the 
words  '  Hier  rust '  (though  the  bones  '  rust '  elsewhere)  had 
been  transferred,  between  my  visits  in  1886  and  1894,  from 
the  floor  to  the  walls  of  the  church. 

lining  the  Cochin  river  oh  both  the  nocth  and  south 
banks  are  rows  of  (vhinese  or  parallelogram  dip-n«ts,  about 
16  feet  square,  which  are  let  down  into  the  water,  and,  after 
a  few  minutes,  drawn  up  again.  These  nets  afford  an  easy 
and  obtain  source  of  income,  and,  like  other  fixed  engines, 
"  produce  an  *  unearned  increment '  to  the  owner,  irrespec- 
tive of  his  skill,  or  of  his  being  a  member  of  the  fishing 
community  proper."  ^  The  men  who  work  the  nets  stand 
protected  from  the  sun  within  a  oadjan  shed  or  beneath  the 
shade  of  a  portia  ^  or  *  tulip  tree'  {Theaperia  populnea)^ 
whence  they  emerge  to  pick  the  fish  out  of  the  net  (the  apex 
or  bottom  of  which  is  brought  within  reach  by  a  long  rope) 
with  a  hand-net.  When  the  fishes  are  small  and  few  in 
number,  the  fishermen  are  defeated  by  the  ever-watchful 
crows,  who  in  company  with  pariah  kites  {Mihm  Govinda) 
sit  perched  on  the  wooden  framework  of  the  net,  waiting 
anxiously  for  it  to  be  hoisted  up  out  of  the  water. 

In  March,  1886,  enormous  quantities  of  mullet  {Mugil 
p€Bciiu8)j  characterised  by  a  deep  black  spot  in  the  centre  of 
the  scales,  were  being  caught  daily  in  the  parallelogram 
nets.  This  fish  is  used  extensively  as  food,  and  the  roe  is 
considered  a  great  delicacy.  Another  species  of  mullet . 
(M,  cunnesius)  was  also  caught,  but  in  f$ur  fmaUer  quantities. 
Placed  across  the  Cochin  backwater,  in  which  long-nosed 
dolphins    {Delphinua  dusaumieri)  may   frequently  be  seen 


'  P.  J.  Talfonrd  Ohater,  Prize  Essay.  Fisheries  SxhiHtion,  London^ 
1883. 

'"The  word  portia  is  a  corraption  of  Tamil  pa-arassQ,  flower-king.'* 
Hobsou^Mttm^ 


«7 

disporting  themselves,  are  bamboo  labyrinths  and  rows  of 
bamboo  stakes  with  nets  affixed  thereto  at  flood-tide.  These 
bamboo  stakes  s^rye  as  convenient  perches  for  hosts  of  the 
smaller  sea  tern  {Thalasseus  bengalenaia)  on  the  look-out  for 
food.  Fishermen,  simply  clad' in  a  loin-cloth  and  wide- 
spreading  circular  hat  made  of  palmyra  leaves,  may  con- 
stantly DO  seen  Ashing  in  the  river  or  backwater  from  canoes 
(* dug-outs')  with  lines  or  nets;  fishing  with  bait  from  the 
jetties ;  or,  in  the  cold  season^  trolling  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  for  b^min  {Polynemus  tetradactylm)^  a  specimen  of 
which,  estimated  as  weighing  over  300  lbs.,  and  a  load  for 
six  men,  was  recorded  by  JBuchanan  Hamilton  ('  Fish- 
tianges ')  from  the  Gangetic  estuary. 

The  deep-sea  boats  {Le.,  the  boats  which  fish  outside  the 
shallow  waters  of  the  littoral  zone)  secured  daily,  in  March, 
1886,  large  hauls  of  EngrauUs  malabariouSj  EngrauUa  indicua 
( '  anchovy '),  and  Duasumieria  acuto^  known  all  along  the 
Malabar  coast  as  the  sardine.  These  fishes  are  salted  and 
dried  for  food,  and  the  surplus  is  used  for  the  extraction  of 
fish-oil.  Also  brought  in  by  the  deep-sea  boats  for  sale  in 
the  fish  bazdr,  were  the  common  Crustacea  Neptunus  pelagicusy 
Neptunus  sanguinolenius^  Thalamita  prymnUj  and  Sguilia 
nepa. 

Fish-oil  is  extracted  in  largest  quantities  at  Cochin  from 
August  to  December.  Hundreds  of  tons  of  the  oil  are  said 
to  have  been  annually  exported  from  Cochin  in  former  times, 
and  I  find  that  the  average  export  thereof  in  the  five  years 
1866  to  1861  was  19,630  cwt.  The  oil-trade  is,  however, 
reported  to  be  decreasing  year  by  year.  In  some  seasons 
the  sardines  arrive  off  the  coast  in  enormous  numbers,  or, 
ior  several  consecutive  years,  they  may  be  present  only  in 
quantities  sufficient  for  purposes  of  food.  The  result  of  this 
irregularity  is  that  one  important  element  of  success  in  com- 
mercial enterprise — regular  supply — is  wanting.  In  some 
years  large  shoals  of  sardines.appear,  and  suddenly  disappear. 
Contracts  for  the  supply  of  oil  are  made  on  the  airival  of  the 
fishes,  and,  in  the  event  of  their  disappearance,  the  contrac- 
tor loses  heavily.  The  natives  of  Cochin  say  that  formerly 
the  sardines  always  arrived  regularly,  and  remained  through- 
out the  season ;  and  the  fishermen's  belief  is  that  they  are  at 
the  p):esent  day  frightened  away  by  the  numerous  steamers 
which  call  at  Cochin,  and  retire  in  search  of  a  less  disturbed 
spot.  In  addition  to  steam-boat  traffic,  noises  in  boats,  ring- 
ing church  bells,  artillery  practice,  the  erection  of  light- 


68 

housesy  gutting  fish  at  sea,  using  fish  as  manure,  burning 
kelp,  and  the  wickedness  of  the  people,  have  been  oharged 
with  bieing  responsible  for  a  falling- off  of  the  fish  supply  ; 
but,  as  Mr.  0.  E.  Fryer  naively  remarks  *  "  of  these  alleged 
causes  only  the  last,  it  is  to  be  feared,  has  been,  and  is 
likely  to  be,  a  permanent  factor  in  the  case." 

The  preparation  of  the  evil-smelling  fish-oil  is  carried  out 
in  large  iron  cauldrons,  in  which  the  fish  are  boiled  with  a 
little  water.  The  oil,  as  it  exudes,  rises  to  the  surface,  is 
strained  through  cloth,  and  stored  in  barrels.  The  residue 
in  the  cauldrons  is  preserved  and  utilised  as  manure  for 
cocoanut  gardens,  paddy  fields,  &c. 

A  rougher  and  cheaper  process  of  oil  extraction,  by  which 
the  cost  of  cauldrons  and  firewood  was  saved,  has  been  prac- 
tically put  a  stop  to  as  being  an  offensive  trade.  This  pro- 
cess consisted  simply  in  putting  the  fishes  into  a  canoe,  and 
exposing  them  to  the  infiuence  of  the  sun  until  decompo- 
sition set  in.  The  oil  then  rose  to  the  surface  and  was 
removed  with  a  scoop.  By  this  crude  process  a  compara- 
tively small  quantity  of  oil  was  obtained. 

A  portion  of  the  oil  is  consumed  locally  by  boat  owners 
for  smearing  their  boats  so  as  to  preserve  the  wood  and  coir 
rope,  with  which  the  planks  are  stitched  together.  But  the 
bulk  is  exported  to  Europe  and  some  Indian  ports.  The 
natives  believe  that  the  oil  returns  from  Europe  in  the  guise 
of  cod-liver  oil.. 

During  my  stay  at  Cochin  a  journey  was  made  by  back- 
water to  the  mud-bank  of  Narrakal,  which,  like  that  of 
Alleppy,  affords  smooth  water  anchorage  for  big  ships  during 
the  boisterous  weather  of  the  south-west  monsoon.  The 
mode  of  formation  of  these  mud-banks,  which  has  given  rise 
to  much  speculation,  has  been  most  recently  dealt  with  by 
Mr,  P.  Lake  *  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  who  states 
his  opinion  that  '^  the  Narrakal  mud-bank  is  very  probably, 
to  a  large  extent,  formed  of  the  silt  carried  down  by  the 
Cranganore  river.  It  does  not  appear  to  be  very  much 
affected  by  the  rise  of  the  backwaters." 

The  surface  of  the  vast  liquid  mud-fiats  of  the  backwater 
between  Cochin  and  Narrakal,  through  which  our  boat  was 
laboriously  propelled,  is  covered  with  a  dense  mass  of  a 
mollusc    {Teiescopium   fuscum)^  which  produces  a   curious 


^Fiiheriei  Exhibition^  Londony  ISSS.    PrieeEsBay. 
8  See  Lake  Hee,   OeoL  Surf.  Ind.,  vol.  XXIII,  1890 ;  and  King.  Bet, 
GeoL  8urv,  Ind,,  vol.  XV II,  1SS4. 


69 

appearance  as  of  the  spikes  of  the  helmets  of  a  sabmerged 
army.  On  the  sandy  shore  at  Narrakal  great  quantities  of 
the  mollusc  Dactylina  orientalis,  were  being  washed  up  by 
the  in -flowing  tide ;  and  the  neighbouring  muddy  shore  was 
strewed  with  full  grown  shells  of  the  pearl-oyster,  Avicula 
fucata.  These  pearl-oyster  shells  were  not  worn,  and  must 
have  been  rolled  in  by  the  sea  from  a  bank  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  the  shore.  Of  the  existence  of  such  a  bank  I  can 
find  no  record ;  but,  in  the  event  of  the  shells  being  recog- 
nised hereafter,  it  would  be  worthwhile  to  have  an  inspec- 
tion made  on  the  chance  of  discovering  a  bank  which  might 
yield  material  for  a  fishery  on  a  small  scale  by  the  Tuticorin 
divers. 

A  single  night's  journey  by  British  India  coasting  steamer 
brought  me  from  Cochin  to  Calicut,  the  chief  town  of  the 
Malabar  district.  Landing  was  possible  from  a  wherry  at 
the  sandy  beach,  on  which,  except  during  the  south-west 
monsoon  storms,  the  wftves  flow  with  a  gentle  ripple,  affording 
a  strong  contrast  to  the  suij-beaten  shore  at  Cochin. 

A  cursory  examination  of  '  specimens  '  washed  on  shore 
showed  at  a  glance  that  the  littoral  fauna  of  Calicut  differs 
in  a  very  marked  degree  from  that  of  Cochin,  and  demon- 
strated the  necessity  of  detailed  examination  of  the  entire 
coast  line,  if  any  semblance  of  an  approach  to  an  accurate 
knowledge  and  museum  record  of  the  nature  and  distribution 
of  the  littoral  fauna  of  Southern  India  (with  which  alone  I 
am  concerned)  is  to  be  acquired. 

For  the  great  mass  of  visitors  to  museums  in  India,^ 
who  come  under  the  heading  of  sight-seers,  and  who  regard 
museums  as  tamasha  or  wonder  houses,  it  matters  but  little 
what  exhibits  are  displayed,  or  how  they  are  displayed, 
provided  only  that  they  are  attractive.  I  am  myself  repeat- 
edly amused  by  seeing  visitors  to  the  Madras  museum  pass 
hurriedly  and  silently  through  the  arranged  galleries,  and 
linger  long  and  noisily  over  a  heterogeneous  collection  of 
native  figures,  toys,  painted  models  of  fruits,  &c.  But,  in 
addition  to  the  sight-seers,  those  have  to  be  considered  who 
regard  museums  in  the  light  of  institutions  where  they  should 

*  The  numbers  of  visitors  to  the  Madras  museam  during  the  years  1S8S-94 
were  as  follows : — 

1889-90  ..  ..  378,234 

1890-91  ..  864,642 

1891-92  ,.  361,452 

1892-93  ..  ..  341,238 

1893-94  ,,  ,.  311,112 


70 

be  able  to  aoquire  solid  information;  and  our  Indian  mu- 
seums would  be  fulfilling  a  very  useful  function  if,  in  the 
capital  city  of  each  province,  collections  were  brought  to- 
gether and  properly  exhibited,  illustrating  and  forming  a 
classified  index  to  the  natural  history,  ethnology,  arts,  arch- 
eology, economic  resources,  &c.,  of  the  province  concerned. 

To  return,  however,  to  Calicut.  Not  only  do  many  of  the 
delicate  mollusca  washed  on  shore  belong  to  different  genera 
to  those  at  Cochin,  but  very  conspicuous  by  their  abundance 
were  the  siphonophora  Velella  and  Phyaalia  (Portuguese 
man-of-war) ;  the  shells  of  an  edible  mollusc  {Mytilua 
vindis) ;  the  young  of  the  cirrhiped  Balunus  tintinnabulum, 
the  carapaces  of  the  crustacean  Matuta  mieraii*^  the  burrow- 
ing crustacean  Hippa  asiatica,  swarms  of  which  are  destroyed 
by  fishermen  with  each  cast  of  their  shore  nets,  and  heaped 
upon  shore ;  sharks'  vertebrsa,  teeth,  and  egg- cases  attached 
to  drift  coir  fibre ;  worn  madreporarian  coral  fragments, 
doubtless  carried  across  by  currents  from  the  Laccadive 
Islands;  and  a  pennatulid  {Cavernularia  malabarica,  Bp,  n., 
Fowler.)  This  pennatulid  was  being  cast  ashore  in  large 
numbers  at  the  time  of  a  visit  to  Calicut  during  the  south- 
west monsoon,  1893,  with  the  object  of  ascertaining  whether 
Calicut  could  serve  as  a  source  of  supply  of  cowry  shells 
{CyprcBa  moneta)  for  the  Belgian  Congo  State.® 

The  crustacean  Hippa  cmatica^  which  lies  buried  between 
tide-marks  on  the  Calicut  beach,  is  collected  by  digging  with 
the  hands,  roasted  with  medicinal  herbs  purchased  in  the 
baz&r,  and  applied  as  a  fomentation  to  sore  legs. 

After  some  days  spent  in  dredging  at  Calicut,  the 
journey  was  continued  by  road  to  Tellicherry,  one  of  the 
most  delightful  drives  in  the  plains  of  Southern  India. 
Conspicuous  by  their  abundance  were  the  oocoanut,  and 
betel  palm  {Areca  Catechu) ;  the  deciduous  silk-cotton  tree 
{Bomhax  malaharicum)  in  full  flower ;  black  pepper  vines 
(Piper  nigrum)  twining  up  the  trunks,  and  sheltered  by  the 
branches  of  the  coral  tree  {Erythrina  indica);  the  cashew 
(Anacardium  occidentale)  laden  with  ripening  nuts ;  and  jack- 
fruit  trees  {Artocarpus  integrifolia)  with  the  young  fruits 
protected  by  wicker  baskets  from  the  attacks  of  predatory 
birds. 

The  transfer  of  the  pony  carts  to  the  ferry  boats,  by 
which  the  passage  of  the  three  rivers  opening  into  the  sea 

^  J.  B.  Hendexson,  Joum.,  Mad,  Lit.  Soc.,  1887. 

^  The  supply  wae  eyentnally  arzanged  for  by  a  Bombay  firm. 


71 


between  Oaliout  and  Tellioherry  is  effected,  afforded  an 
opportunity  of  studying  the  habits  of  the  *  calling  *  or  *  dhobi' 
crabs  (Oelasimus  annulipes)^  which  abound  in  the  mud  between 
tide-marks.  These  crabs  were  hard  at  work  with  their 
yoon^  families  makinc;  the  burrows  which  serve  as  their 
dwelling  places ;  the  aaults  bringing  up  between  their  feet 
from  the  bottom  of  the  burrows  in  course  of  construcfion  mud 
rolled  into  pellets,  which  they  pushed  with  their  feet  to  a 
distance  of  several  inches  from  the  mouth  of  the  burrow ; 
cleaning  the  feet  from  adherent  particles  of  mud,  and  again 
descending  into  the  burrow,  remaining  under  ground  from  ten 
to  twenty  seconds.  In  the  work  of  removing  the  mud  pellets 
from  the  mouths  of  the  burrows  the  adults  were  zealously 
assisted  by  the  young. 

A  few  miles  south  of  Tellicherry  the  quiet  and  picturesque 
French  settlement  of  Mah6  was  passed,  and  at  the  octroi  or 
onstoms  chowki  declaration  of  contraband  goods,  alcoholic 
and  other,  had  to  be  made.  At  Mah^  the. manufacture  of 
sardines  d  fhuile  is,  I  believe,  still  carried  on ;  and  that  fish- 
curing  operations  are  carried  on  there  was  clear  from  the 
strong  odour  at  the  northern  outskirts  of  the  town.* 

Tellicherry  with  its  miniature  bays,  low  cliffs  of  gneiss 
and  laterite  (extensively  used  for  building  purposes) ,  and  sea- 
girt rooks  forming  a  natural  brickwater,  is  a  charmingly 
picturesque  place,  which  ranks  high  as  a  centre  for  fish-cunng 
operations,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  following  statistics  gleanea 
from  the  administration  report-s  of  the  department  of  salt 
revenue : — 


Year. 

Weight  of  fish 
cured. 

Weight  of  Salt 
lasued. 

1888-S9     

1889-90     

1890-91      

1891-92     

1892-98     

MAUNDB. 

88,676 
89,162 

103,706 
98,733 

104,226 

MAUVDa. 

14,664 
12,666 
16,344 
18,666 
13,708 

Fish'curing  operations  were  slack  at  the  time  of  my  visit 
in  March  1894  ;  only  a  few  sardines  and  mackerel  (Scomber 
microlepidotaa)^  which  is  not  nearly  such  good  eating  as  the 
British  mackerel,  being  in  various  stages  of  preparation. 

Sardines  are  caught  in  large  numbers  from  October  to 
January,  either  close  in  shore,  in  two  or  three  fathoms,  or 

U 


72 

from  eight  to  ten  miles  out  at  sea.  If  they  are  very  oily,  a 
boat-load  will  be  worth  only  from  8  annas  to  a  rupee,  as  the 
fishes  are,  wben  in  this  condition,  unsuited  for  salting  and 
drying.  The  surplus  supply  of  sardines  is  sent  to  Coorg, 
Travancore,  Colombo,  etc., as  fish-manure  for  planters'  estates, 
at  the  rate  of  Bs.  27  to  Rs.  28  per  ton  at  TelHoherry.  Those 
fish  which  are  salted  and  dried  for  food  are  sent  up-oonntry 
to  Coorg,  the  Wyndd,  &o.,  and  by  coasting  steamer  to  Tuti- 
oorin  and  other  coast  towns,  freight  being  charged  at  the  rate 
of  12  annas  per  bundle  of  165  lbs. 

The  TelUcherry  fish-curing  yards  are  situated  on  the 
shore  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  town  in  proximity  to 
the  fishermen's  quarters.  The  shore  opposite  the  yards  was, 
at  the  time  of  my  visit,  crowded  with  a  dense  mass  of  crows 
and  terns  on  the  look-out  for  succulent -fish  morsels. 

The  cost  of  the  store-houses  and  fences  and  of  keeping 
them  in  good  repair  has  to  be  borne  by  the  fish-curers,  for 
the  most  part  Mukkuvar  women,  who,  as  set  forth  in  a  reoent 
petition  to  His  Excellency  the  Q-overnor  of  Madras,  "  have  to 
"  work  in  the  fish-curing  yards  both  day  and  night,  and  sepa- 
"  rate  themselves  from  their  babies/'  The  annual  expenditure 
under  this  head  is  said  to  amount  to  Bs.  250  to  Bs.  300  at 
Tellioherry,  and  Bs.  150  at  Cannanore;  the  greater  expense 
at  the  former  place  being  due  to  the  fact  that  the  fences  are 
there  situated  near  the  sea  and  get  damaged  by  the  breakers 
during  the  south-west  monsoon. 

The  boat-owners,  who  keep  the  boats  in  repair  and  supply 
the  nets,  allow  the  boat's  crew  (fourteen  men  to  a  pair  of 
boats)  half  the  value  of  the  take,  which  is  divided  among  the 
men ;  and,  in  addition,  encourage  them  to  work  by  giving 
them  a  present  of  a  small  percentage  of  the  fish.  The  orew 
have  to  be  maintained  by  the  boat -owner,  fo  whose  service 
they  are  pledged,  during  the  south-west  monsoon  from  June 
to  October,  when,  unless  the  monsoon  is  exceptionally  light, 
fishing  operations  come  to  a  standstill.  1'he  boat-owners 
hand  over  their  share  of  the  spoil  to  their  own  ticket-holders 
(licensed  fish-curers),  or  sell  it  to  other  ticket-holders. 

The  boats,  which  cost  from  Bs.  250  to  Bs.  £00,  are  made 
of  fl«»J  wood  (Artocarpus  hirsuta,  a  lofty  evergreen  tree  of  the 
western  gh&ts),  and  last  for  many  years.  The  nets  cost  from 
Ba.  50  to  Bs.  200.  A  pair  of  properly  equipped  boats 
requires  about  twenty  nets,  valued  at  about  Es.  1,500,  adapted 
for  catching  different  kinds  of  fish,  e.g,^  nets  of  narrow  mesh 
and  thin  thread  for  sardines  and  mackerel,  and  of  wide 
mesh  and  thick  thread  for  cat*fishes. 


73 

The  boats,  on  their  return  from  the  fishing  ground,  are 
beached  opposite  the  fish^yards,  which,  with  the  prevailing 
odour  (far  less  offensive,  however,  than  the  odour  of  putridity 
which  emanates  from  decomposing  oysters)  recalled  the  days 
spent  in  the  pearling  camp  at  Tuticorin.  The  fish,  as  soon 
as  they  are  landed,  are  taken  to  a  shed  outside  the  fence 
which  protects  the  curing-yards  against  thieves,  where  they 
are  deaned ;  the  guts  (which  might  be  utilised  as  manure) 
being  buried  in  the  sand.  They  are  then  carried  down  to 
the  sea  in  baskets  and  washed.  After  washing,  they  are 
taken  to  the  weighing  shed,  where  they  are  weighed,  and 
government  salt  is  issued  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the 
fish  at  a  rate,  which  has  in  recent  years  been  raised  from 
12  annas  to  1  rupee  per  maund. 

At  Tellicherry  a  sub-Inspector  assisted  by  a  staff  of 
peons  is  responsible  for  weighment  of  the  fish  and  distribu- 
tion of  salt  to  the  ticket-holders,  who  number  over  a  hundred. 
After  a  good  haul,  a  ticket-holder  may  have  60-70  maunds 
of  fish  or  more.  The  whole  of  this  has  to  be  weighed, 
calculations  have  to  be  made,  and  salt  has  to  be  issued  under 
the  direction  of  the  single  official  with,  I  was  informed,  the 
result  that  the  ticket-holders  may  have  have  to  wait  from 
morning  till  evening  for  their  salt,  the  fish  meanwhile 
softening  under  the  influence  of  the  sun. 

As  soon  as  salt  has  been  delivered  to  the  fish-curers,  the 
fish  are  removed  to  a  shed  within  the  fence,  salted  and  put 
in  tubs,  wherein  small  fish  have  to  remain  for  one  night,  bifi^ 
fish  for  two  nights.  When  the  salting  is  complete,  the  fish 
are  washed  in  water,  which  has  to  be  brought  from  the  sea  to 
the  yard,  and  dried  on  matting  in  a  space  allotted  to  the 
ticket-holder,  covered  in  by  netting  to  keep  out  thieving 
birds. 

Big  fish  are  thoroughly  dried  in  four  days ;  small  fish, 
r.^.,  sardines,  in  one  to  three  days.  When  dry,  the  produce 
is,  in  compliance  with  the  rules,  again  weighed,  and  either 
sold  to  traders,  or  stored  in  a  shop  for  which  a  small  muni- 
cipal tax  has  to  be  paid. 

The  fish  are  not  allowed  to  be  removed  from  the  yard 
until  they  are  thoroughly  dried,  and  the  Mukkuvar  fishing 
community,  who  seem  to  suffer  from  competition  with  other 
and  richer  natives  (Moplas  and  others)  with  more  capital  at 
their  command,  who  deal  in  cured  fish,  and  buy  up  a  great 
deal  of  the  fish  which  comes  into  the  market,  complain  that 
they  are  in  consequence  precluded  from  selling  partially  dried 


u 


fish,  when  a  demand  for  it  arises.  I  was  told  that  the 
natives  of  Madura,  Ghittoor,  Yellore,  and  other  places,  prefer 
fish  salted  without  drjdng,  and  that  the  demand  cannot  be 
met,  as  the  fish  must  be  thoroughly  dried  before  they  leave 
the  yard. 

The  Mukkuvars  complain  further  that,  if,  as  I  was  told, 
happens  repeatedly  during  the  north-east  monsoon,  when  big 
fish,  e.^.,  seir  and  cat-fish,  are  caught,  the  boats  come  in  after 
9  P.M.,  the  fish-curers  cannot  obtain  salt  until  the  following 
morning,  by  which  time  decomposition  has  commenced ;  and, 
in  the  petition  to  which  reference  has  been  made,  they  asked 
inter  alia^  that  salt  be  ordered  to  be  supplied  to  them  in  the 
yard  at  all  hours  of  the  day  and  night,  when  they  require  it. 

The  steady  development  of  the  fishing  industry  on  both 
the  east  and  west  coasts  of  the  Madras  Presidency  in  recent 
years,  and  the  greater  importance  of  the  industry  on  the  west 
than  on  the  east  coast  are  shown  by  the  following  tables  ® : 


Weight  of  fish  brought 

Year. 

•     to  be  cured. 

Total. 

East  Coast. 

West  Const. 

TONS. 

TONS. 

TONS. 

1880-87 

9,526 

20,847 

30,378 

1887-88            ..     •    .. 

12,687 

24,868 

37,496 

1888-89 

16,781 

26,830 

41,611 

1889-90 

16,233 

28,263 

43,496 

1890-91 

16,426 

33,768 

60,194 

1891-92 

16,692 

30,769 

47,461 

1892-93 



16,787 

29,263 

46,000 

The  importance  of  the  Malabar  fish  industry,  relatively 
to  that  of  the  eleven  other  districts  of  the  Madras  Presidency, 
in  which  the  industry  is  carried  on,  is  shown  by  the  following 
table  ® : 


Year. 

Quantity  of  salt- fish 
manufactured 
in  the  Malabar 
dietrict. 

1 

Total  quantity 
of  salted  fish  manu- 
factured in 
all  districts  of  the 
Presidency. 

MAUNDB. 

796,600 
792,047 
782,661 

1890-91     

1891-92     

1892-93     

MAUNDS. 

434,669 
444,800 
426,612 

'  Administration  Report  of  the  Department  of  Bait  Keyenne. 


76 

In  the  British  trade  different  kinds  of  fish  are  distin*' 
guished  by  the  terms  '  prime '  and  *  offal ' ;  and,  as  the 
names  imply,  the  former  are  consumed  by  the  richer,  the 
latter  by  the  poorer  classes.  In  India,  even  more  than  in 
Ghreat  Britain,  the  fish  supply  is  essentially  a  poor  man's 
question,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  fibshing  industry  depends 
on  the  offal,  and  not  on  the  prime. 

In  the  city  of  Madras,  the  *  microscopic  minority  '  of 
Europeans,  who  are  regular  fish-eaters,  will  go  on  year  after 

Jrear  without  seeing  at  their  table  any  other  fish,  out  of  the 
arge  variety  which  is  sold  in  the  fish  bazdr,  than  seir 
(several  species  of  Cyhium  guttatum) ;  pomphret,  white,  silver, 
grey,  ^^  or  black  {Stromateus  ^inensiSy  8.  cinereus  and  8.  niger); 
the  so-called  'whiting'  (Sillago  sihama)  ;  and  perhaps  an 
occasional  flat-fish  [Psettodes  erumei),  which  is  a  poor  sub- 
stitute for  the  British  sole.  During  three  years  in  Calcutta  I 
only  saw  served  up  /ii/sa  {Civ pea  ilishd)^  which,  though  bony, 
is  excellent  when  smoked ;  begti  {Lates  calcarifer)^  and  the 
mangoe  fish  or  tupaee  muchee  {Poh/nemus  paradiseus),  which 
comes  up  the  Hooghly  river  for  spawning  purposes  in  very 
large  numbers.  Again,  at  Cochin,  out  of  about  forty  differ- 
ent kinds  of  fish  classed  as  edible  by  natives,  which  were 
being  caught  at  the  time  of  my  visit,  only  four  were  con- 
sidered fit  to  place  before  me,  viz.,  seir, '  whiting ',  muUet,  and 
sardines. 

In  the  waters  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  Indian  Ocean, 
by  which  the  Madras  Presidency  is  bounded,  with  their 
enormous  and  varied  fish  resourceSi  it  may  be  safely  said 
that  there  is  no  danger  of  exhaustion  of  supply  from  over- 
fishing. The  fishing  industry  is,  in  fact,  from  want  of  capi- 
tal and  lack  of  commercial  enterprise,  on  the  part  of  the 
native  fishing  community,  carried  on  at  present  on  too 
small  a  scale  to  be  really  profitable,  and  is  capable  of  great 
expansion. 

In  the  British  seas  trawl-fishing  is  carried  on  at  a  dis- 
tance of  80  to  100  miles  from  the  nearest  port,  whereas,  in 
the  Madras  Preeidency,  e.g,,  at  Tellicherry,  the  'deep-sea' 
boats  only  go  out  from  8  to  10  milcH  from  the  coast.  Short, 
however,  as  is  this  distance,  speed  in  reaching  the  shore  is 
an  advantage,  for  the  boats  (in  which  no  provision  is  made 
for  protection  of  the  fish  from  the  sun),  are  not  allowed  by 


^°  Silver  pomphiet  is  the  immature,  and  grey  pomphret  the   adult 
8trotMUu$  em&reui* 


76 


the  regulations  to  take  salt  to  the  fishisg  ground,  and^  as  is 
well  known^  deoomposition  sets  in,  in  tropical  climates,  with 
terrible  rapidity. 

The  ooast  trade  is  amply  provided  for  by  the  service  of 
coasting  steamers,  which  constantly  ply  from  port  to  port, 
and  serve  as  an  easy  medium  of  communication  with  Colombo, 
the  Clapham  Junction  of  the  east.  Tellicherry  is,  however, 
40  miles  distant  from  the  terminus  of  the  Madras  Railway 
at  Oalicut ;  but  increased  railway  communication,  with 
favourable  rates  for  the  carriage  of  fish,  and  refrigerating 
vans  would  do  much  to  advance  the  up-country  distribution 
of  fish,  both  prime  and  ofFal.  From  returns  supplied  by  the 
Traffic  Manager  of  the  Madras  Bailway  Company,  I  find 
that  the  weight  of  salt-fish  consigned  from  the  west  coast  (at 
the  rate  of  8  pies  per  ton  per  mile  at  owner's  risk,  and  10 
pies  at  the  Company's  risk)  during  the  years  1889--93,  was 
as  follows : — 


Year, 

From 

Total. 

Timr. 

Tanur. 

Parpan- 
gadi. 

CViIiout. 

1889  . . 

1890  . . 

1891  .. 

1892  . . 
1898     . . 

MAUNDe. 

61,796 
66,842 
64,040 
44,661 
44,484 

MAUNDB. 

42,618 
48,392 
63,046 
39,849 
31,974 

MAUNDB. 

27,899 
80,331 
30,631 
81,988 
27,446 

MAUND8. 

22,280 
22,024 
16,848 
16,162 
16,820 

MAUNDB. 

144,093 
167,089 
168,064 
131,600 
120,724 

The  bulk  of  the  traffic  takes  place  between  September  and 
March,  and  coincides  with  the  time  at  which  fishing  is  most 
actively  carried  on. 

For  the  development  of  the  export  trade  from  the  Madras 
Presidency,  which,  at  the  present  day,  extends  outside  India 
(including  Burma)  practically  only  to  Ceylon,  the  adoption 
of  impioved  methods  of  fish-ouring  is  essential.  On  this  point 
the  Tellicherry  boat-owners,  who  interviewed  me,  say  "  How 
can  the  poor  Mukkuvars  afford  to  introduce  improvements  P  " 

It  has  been  argued,  with  reference  to  the  British  fisheries, 
that  **  the  State  should  neglect  no  opportunity  of  master- 
'^  ing,  through  the  &gency  of  duly-qualified  department,  every 
*'  detail,  natural,  as  well  as  artificial,  of  the  fishing  industry, 
'' and  might  do  much,  apart  entirely  from  'protection *  and 
^* '  encouragement '  of  the  fishing  industry.       Whether  the 


77 

native  fishing  oommunitj  should  be  trained  in  improved 
methods  of  fish-oaring  under  the  direction  of  experts  versed 
in  the  methods  adopted  in  the  big  fish-ouring  establishments 
of  Europe;  whether  they  should,  in  their  own  interests, 
make  an  effort  to  send  one  or  more  members  of  their  com- 
munity to  Europe  to  study  these  methods  for  themselves ; 
or  whether  one  or  more  officials  should  be  deputed  to  Europe 
with  the  object  of  learning  how  far  the  European  methods 
are  capable  of  application  to  India,  it  is  unnecessary  to  discuss 
in  this  note. 


k 


! 


i. 


I 


i^ra 


2!\-P 


MADEAS  GOVEBNMENT  MUSEUM. 


^ 


Bulletin  No,  3, 


EAMESVARAM  ISLAND 


AND 


FAUNA  OF  THE  GULF  OF  MANAAR. 


SECOND  EDITIONy  REVISED  WITH  ADDITIONS, 


BY 

EDGAR  THURSTON,   c.m.z.s.,   etc., 

Superintendent,  Madras  Gvremment  Museum. 


MADRAS: 

PBINTED  BY  THE  SUPKRINTENDENT,  GOVEKKMEKT  PRESS. 


[Pazci,  1  rupee.'] 


1895. 


M 


I 


Unym   iouBrttttitni  Stt$ium  $tt{bim$. 


No.  I.^Peabl  axd  Chank  Fishebibs  of  tre  Qulf 
OF  Manaab. 

No.   2. — ^NOTE  ON   TOUBS  ALONG  THE    MaLABAB  CoAST. 
No.   3. — BXBfESVARAM     ISLAXD      AND     FaUVA     OF    THE 

Gulf  oi*  M^naab. 

No.  4.— Anthbopolooy  of  the  Todas  and  Cotas  of 
THE  NiLGiBi  iiiLLs  {in  the  Press), 


Nature, --^^  k  series  of  Bulletins  of  the  Madras  GrOTemment  Ma- 
seam  has  been  commenced  by  the  Superintendent,  Mr.  Edgar  Thurs- 
ton, and  Parts  I  and  II,  which  have  reached  this  coantry,  contain 
mach  useful  information  upon  the  fisheries  and  marine  loology 
of  the  Presidency.  Part  I  contains  a  revised  account  of  the  *  Notes 
on  the  Pearl  and  Chank  Fisheries  of  the  Golf  of  Manaar ';  and  its 
subject-matter  is  already  known  in  great  part  to  British  students 
of  *  applied  zoology.'  Part  1 1  entitled  *  Note  on  Tours  along  the 
Malabar  Coast/  records  a  number  of  interesting  observations  in 
marine  zoology  made  on  the  West  Coast  of  Madras.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  even  there  the  natives  have  their  fishery  question.*' 

Calcutta  Review, — Bulletin  No.  1,  Pearl  and  Chank  Fisherie*. 
"  Wonderful  is  the  quantity  of  information  Mr.  Thurston  has 
deftly  compressed  within  the  58  pages  of  what  he  modestly  calls  a 
Bulletin.  Science,  archssology,  political  economy,  folklore.  Sir  Edwin 
Arnold's  poetry,  are  all  laid  under  contribution,  and  yet  in  every  pag^ 
the  author's  shrewd  personality  asserts  itself.  He  makes  a  dull 
topic  bright,  and  contrives  to  enliven  the  driest  of  details." 

Indian  Journal  of  Education. — In  Bulletin  No.  1  Mr.  Thurston 
gives,  in  a  very  pleasant  and  readable  form,  an  account  of  his  visits 
to  the  pearl  and  chank  fishing  grounds  of  the  Madras  and  Ceylon 
Governments.  Those  who  take  an  interest  in  the  commercial 
industries  of  India  will  find  much  valuable  information.  The  natu- 
ralist too  will  discover  much  that  claims  his  attention  in  these 
pages*,  for  in  a  graphic  and  interesting  way  the  writer  has  contrived 
to  throw  in  a  large  number  of  facts  relative  to  the  fauna  of  the 
Gulf  of  Manaar. 

'*  No  one  doubts  that  the  seas,  which  lave  our  Indian  Coasts, 
are  abundantly  stocked  with  edible  fish,  but  the  problem  of  making 
these  vast  resources  available  for  the  food  supply  of  the  half-fed 
masses  of  this  country,  has  never  yet  been  satisfactorily  solved. 
We  recommend  Bulletin  No.  2  to  the  attention  of  every  thoughtful 
reader.*' 


I 


I 


i 


\ 


MADEAS  GOVERNMENT  MUSEUM. 


Bulletin  No.  3. 


rAmesvaeam  island 


AND 


1  FAUNA  OF  THE  GULF  OF  MANAAB, 
I 

■ 

I  ^ — 


j  SECOND  EDITION,  REVISED  WITH  ADDITIONS. 


BY 


EDGAR  THURSTON,   c.m.z.s.,   etc., 

SmperintendmUf  Madra*  OovtmmmU  Museum. 


MADBAS: 
PBINTBD  BY  THE  SUPERINTENDENT,  GOVERNMENT  PRESS. 

1896. 


A 


\ 


i 


L 


I.-RAMESVARAM  ISLAND. 


In  Janaary,  1887,  it  was  my  privilege  to  accompany  the 
Secretary  to  Government,  Public  Works  Department,  and 
tlie  Presidency  Port  Officer,  Madras,  on  a  tonr  of  inspection 
of  the  light-houses,  which  come  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Madras  Government,  from  Mangalore  on  the  north-west 
round  Cape  Comorin  to  Gopalpur  on  the  north-east.  My 
knowledge  of  the  littoral  of  the  Madras  Presidency  was, 
apart  from  Madras,  at  that  time  confined  to  B&m£svaram 
island,  on  which  a  few  days  had  been  spent  in  1886j  and 
the  west  coast  from  Cochin  to  Trivandrum,  which  I  had 
visited,  with  a  view  to  making  a  collection  of  the  fishes  of 
Malabar,  especially  at  Cochin,  soon  after  my  first  arrival 
in  India  in  1885.  Though  the  halts  at  the  light-house 
stations  were  as  a  rule  very  shorty  this  tour  of  inspection 
afforded  me  an  excellent  opportunity  of  forming  a  general 
idea  as  to  the  zoological  capacity  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  coast.  The  specimens  cast  up  on  shore  afford  in 
some  measure  an  index  to  the  still  living  and  submerged 
fauna  of  the  neighbouring  sea ;  and  an  examination  of  these, 
coupled  with  visits  to  the  fish  baz&rs,  enabled  me  to  decide 
what  parts  of  the  coast  were  likely  to  afford  the  most  pro- 
fitable field  for  future  investigation. 

A  casual  non -scientific  observer,  walking  along  the  sandy 
surf -beaten  beach  at  Madras,  will  probably  find  nothing 
to  attract  his  attention  except  a  number  of  coarse  shells  des- 
tined for  the  manufacture  of  chundm  (lime),  an  occasional 
flattened  jelly-fish,  and  swift-footed  crabs  {Ocypoda)  which, 
on  the  approach  of  man,  scamper  away,  and  disappear,  like 
rabbits,  into  their  burrows.  But,  if  the  same  observer 
walks  along  the  shore  at  Pdmban,  he  cannot  help  noticing 
that,  as  shown  in  the  frontispiece,  it  is  strewn  with  broken 
fragments  of  dead  coral,  among  which  branches  of  madre- 
pores are  most  conspicuous,  and  sponges  washed  on  shore  by 
a  recent  tide,  or  dried  up  above  tide- mark.  And,  if  he  trusts 
himself  upon  the  slimy  blocks  of  coral  which  are  exposed 
at  low  tide,  and  turns  them  over  so  as  to  display  their  under* 

12 


80 

sarface,  lie  will  find  hidden  there  a  wealth  of  marine  animals 
— crabs,  boring  anemones^  annelids,  shell-&sh,  trepangs 
{hiche8»de-mer)y  and  bright-coloured  encruisting  sponges. 
And  the  Madras  beach  may,  allowing  for  differences  of 
species,  be  taken  as  fairly  representative  of  the  coast  of  the 
Presidency,  with  the  exception  of  the  coral-fringed  shores 
of  the  islands  which  skirt  the  coast  of  the  gulf  of  Manaar, 
which  I  have  visited  on  several  occasions  in  the  months  of 
July  and  August.  These  months,  though  warm,  proved 
very  favorable,  owing  to  the  absence  of  rain,  for  carrying 
out  investigations,  and  for  the  drying  of  specimens,  e,g,, 
stuffed  fishes,  big  sponges,  and  corals,  such  as  are  not 
suitable  for  preservation  in  alcohol  or  other  fluid  medium. 
Even,  however,  under  the  most  favourable  climatic  condi- 
tions, the  work  of  a  marine  zoologist  beneath  a  tropical 
sun  is,  apart  from  the  personal  discomfort  caused  by  the  sun 
and  glare  on  the  water,  except  in  the  very  early  morning 
and  towards  sunset,  attended  by  many  difficulties,  which 
are  graphically  described  by  Haeckel,  who  says,^  speaking 
of  surface-netting  with  a  gauze  tow-net :~"  The  wealth  of 
varieties  of  marine  creatures  to  be  found  in  the  Bay  of 
Belligam  was  evident  even  on  my  first  expedition.  The 
glass  vessels,  into  which  I  turned  the  floating  inhabitants 
of  the  ocean  out  of  the  gauze  net,  were  quite  full  in  a  few 
hours.  Elegant  Medusce,  and  beautiful  mphonaphora  were 
swimming  among  thousands  of  little  crabs  and  Salpce ; 
numbers  of  larvaa  of  moUnsca  were  rushing  about,  mingled 
with  fluttering  Hyaleadee  and  other  pteropoda,  while  swarms 
of  the  larvae  of  worms,  Crustacea,  and  corals,  fell  a  helpless 

!)rey  to  greedy  Sagiflce.  Almost  all  the  creatures  are  color- 
ess,  and  as  perfectly  transparent  as  the  sea-water  in  which 
they  carry  on  their  hard  struggle  for  existence,  which, 
indeed,  on  the  Darwinian  principle  of  selection,  has  given 
rise  to  the  transparency  of  these  pelagic  creatures.  But  I 
soon  discovered  to  my  grief  that,  within  a  very  short  time 
after  being  captured,  at  most  half  an  hour  and  often  not 
more  than  a  quarter,  most  of  the  fragile  creatures  died  ; 
their  hyaline  bodies  grew  opaque,  and,  even  before  we  could 
reach  the  land,  I  perceived  the  characteristic  odour  exhaled 
by  the  soft  and  rapidly  decomposing  bodies." 

Haeckel's  experience  is,  unfortunately,  not  an  uncommon 
one,  and,  while  staying  at  Pdmban,  I  frequently  had  the 


'  Visit  to  Ceylcn.    Transl.  by  Clara  BeO,  1883. 


81 

mortification  of  finding,  on  my  return  from  a  surface- 
netting  expedition  to  the  improvised  laboratory  at  the 
R&ja's  bungalow,  instead  of  a  crowd  of  living  animals, 
an  amorphous  mass  composed  of  their  corpses  at  the  bottom 
of  the  collecting  glasses.  It  is,  in  fact,  essential  for  the 
preservation  of  many  of  the  gelatinous  pelagic  organisms 
that  they  should,  in  this  country,  in  the  absence  of  an 
apparatus  by  which  they  can  be  supplied  with  a  constant 
stream  of  cool  water,  be  at  once  treated  with  the  necessary 
fixing  and  preservative  re-agents ;  but  the  management  of 
the  requisite  processes  is  by  no  means  an  easy  matter  in 
the  limited  space  afforded  by  a  native  dug-out  (canoe). 
The  suggestion  made  by  Haeckel  that  the  death  and  decom- 
position of  the  delicate  organisms  might  be  prevented  by 
placing  them  in  vessels  cooled  by  ice  is,  without  doubt,  an 
excellent  one ;  but  unfortunately,  ice  cannot  as  a  rule  be  pro- 
cured in  out-of-the-way  places  where  one  most  requires  it. 

Among  the  pelagic  organisms  which  I  have  collected 
over  the  coral  reefs  in  the  gulf  of  Manaar  may  be  men- 
tioned various  small  Medusce,  Beroe,  Cydippe,  Bolina  (pre- 
sent one  morning  in  such  abundance  that  the  net  became 
instantly  filled  with  a  thick  jelly),  dense  crowds  of  copepod 
and  schijsopod  crnstaoeans  sometimes  rendering  the  surface 
of  the  water  milky ;  Zocea,  Phylloaomaj  and  Alima  larv» ; 
violet-blue  Janthince ;     and   Styliola   acicula,   a   pteropod 
mollusc,  whose  dead  glassy  shells  are  very  abundant  in 
deposits  from  the  sea  bottom.     Less  frequently  met  with 
were  young  cephalopoda,  of  which  the  adults,  as  well  as  a 
chcetopod  (Nereis  ?)  obtained  by  digging  deep  holes  in  the 
sand,  are  extensively  used  as  bait  by  the  fishermen ;  Salpce; 
and  the  ova  and  young  of  fishes.     Floating,  too,  on  the 
surface   of   the   water,   and   conspicuous  by  their  bright 
colouring,  were  various  siphonophoiu — Phyaalia  (the  Portu- 
guese man-of-war),  Velella  with  its  suudial-like  crest,  and 
Forpita  with  its  exquisitely  marked  disc.     Many  minute 
pelagic  animals  were  obtained  by  shaking  in  a  tumbler  of 
water  the  marine  algss  which  were  floating  over  or  living 
on  the  reefs,   and  of  which  the  most  conspicuous  were 
8arga88\im  vvJgare  and  Padina  pavonia   (peacock's  tail). 
These  pelagic  organisms,  from  which  the  main  food-supply 
of  the  coral  polyps  is  probably  derived,   were  far  more 
abundant  and  varied  over  the  Pamban  reef  during  my  visit 
to  B&m^svaram  island  in  1886  than  in  1888 :  and  this  is 
probably  to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that,  in  the  former 


82 

year^  ibere  was  bat  little  wind,  and  the  water  was  so  olear 
that,  in  the  early  morning  before  the  gentle  day  breeze  set 
in,  the  individual  corals  conld  be  clearly  distinguished  as 
one  rowed  over  the  reef ;  whereas  in  the  latter  year  there  was 
generally  a  strong  south-west  wind  blowing,  and  a  rapid 
current  running  through  the  P&mban  pass,  carrying  with  it 
sediment  in  suspension,  which  rendered  the  water  turbid : 
and,  as  is  known,  a  pure  and  transparent  condition  of  the 
water  is  the  first  and  indispensable  condition  for  the  life 
of  many  marine  creatures,  especially  those  of  the  coast. 
Moreover,  the  ripple  on  the  surface  probably  drove  the 
pelagic  animals  ioto  deeper  water,  which  was  not  explored 
in  search  of  them.  On  calm  mornings,  when  the  surface 
has  been  teeming  with  small  medusce,  I  have  seen  the 
living  organisms  and  their  dead  gelatinous  remains  adher- 
ing in  large  quantities  to  the  surface  of  greedy  living  coral 
polyps  with  their  tentacles  expanded,  which  were  brought 
up  for  me  by  my  divers.  There  has  been  a  noticeable  ab- 
sence of  big  jelly-fishes  during  my  visits  to  Rdm^svaram 
Island.  Only,  in  fact,  during  the  last  few  days  of  my  stay 
on  the  island  in  1889  did  I  see  a  few  large  rhixostomids 
(called  by  the  natives  sort,  i.e.,  nettles),  floating  over  the  reef 
or  washed  on  shore.  Phosphorescence,  too,  I  have  never 
seen  well  marked  in  the  gulf  of  Manaar,  the  sight  of  an 
occasional  luminous  flash  from  a  pelagic  organism  being 
the  poor  reward  of  night  vigils. 

The  island  of  B&m^svaram,  which  is  visited  during  the 
course  of  the  year  by  enormous  numbers  of  Hindu  pilgrims 
from  all  parts  of  India  to  the  celebrated  temple,  is  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  the  P&mban  pass,  which  connects 
Palk's  strait  with  the  north  end  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar, 
and  is  1,350  yards  in  width.  The  depths  in  the  channel 
range  from  10^  to  15  feet  at  low  water,  but  it  shoals  up 
very  suddenly  on  both  sides,  so  that  great  care  is  necessary 
in  navigating  vessels  through.  ^'  In  the  Pdmban  channel,'' 
Mr.  H.  S.  Thomas  writes  in  his  Rnd  in  India^  "  there  are, 
or  at  least  used  to  be  some  twenty  years  ago,  a  number  of 

splendid  runs There  was  a  fish  there  that  we 

used  to  call  the  P&mban  salmon,  and  were  well  content 
with  the  name.  It  turns  out  to  be  our  mutual  friend 
Polynemus." 

Qn  the  west  side  of  the  pass  is  the  great  dam,  consist- 
ing of  large  masses  of  sandstone,  all  having  a  more  or  less 
flat  surface,  which  were  formerly  part  of  a  causeway  extend- 


83 

ing  from  B&m^svanim  Island  across  to  the  mainland.  The 
remains  of  this  canseway  are  still  visible  on  the  main  road 
from  Pdmban  to  the  town  of  B&mfisTaram. 

According  to  the  folk-lore  of  the  Hindns^  the  so-called 
bridge,  which  formerly  connected  K&m^svaram  island  with 
Ceylon,  was  built  by  an  army  of  monkeys  when  S&ma  made 
war  against  H&vana,  who  had,  carried  off  his  wife  Sita  to  the 
island  of  Lanka  (Ceylon),  and  as  Mr.  Bruce  Foote  observes:  ' 
*^the  series  of  large  fiat  blocks  of  sandstone  so  strongly 
resemble  a  series  of  gigantic  stepping-stones,  that  it  is 
impossible  to  wonder  at  the  imagination  of  the  author  or 
(in  analogy  with  the  Homeric  epos)  authors  of  the  Bama- 
yana  that  the  rocky  ridge  was  really  an  old  causeway  of 
human  construction.''  A  grotesque  picture  in  Moor's  'Hindu 
Pantheon,'  represents  Hanuman  assisted  by  86griva  and 
their  associates  building  the  bridge.  In  connection  with 
the  building  of  the  reef  a  story  goes  to  the  effect  that  the 
common  South  Indian  squirrel  {Sciums palmarum)  used  to 
help  the  monkeys  by  rolling  in  the  sand  on  the  shore,  so  as 
to  collect  it  in  its  thick  hairy  coat,  and  then  depositing  it 
between  the  piled  up  stones,  so  as  to  cement  them  together. 
At  which  service  Bama  was  so  pleased  that  he  stroked  the 
squirrel  on  the  back^  which  has,  ever  since,  borne  the  finger 
marks. 

Writing  in  1821  concerning  Adam's  Bridge,  Davy  ob« 
serves  *  that :  *^  No  one  who  looks  at  a  map  and  notices  the 
little  distance  (about  17  miles)  between  the  nearest  point  of 
the  island  (Ceylon)  and  continent,  and  how,  by  the  chain  of 
rocks  and  sand-banks  commonly  called  Adam's  Bridge,  they 
are  still  imperfectly  connected,  can  entertain  much  doubt 
that  the  connection  was  once  perfect.  This  inquiry  is  more 
curious  than  useful.  It  would  be  much  more  useful  to  endea- 
Tour  to  complete  that  which  nature  has  begun,  and  to  make 
the  channel,  which  is  now  obstructed  and  dangerous,  clear 
and  safe,  and  fit  for  the  purposes  of  coast  navigation.  If,  on 
examination,  sandstone  and  coral  rock  should  be  found 
constituting  part  of  Adam's  Bridge  instead  of  primitive 
rock,  one  necessary  inference  is  that  the  channel,  at  what- 
ever period  formed,  was  once  deeper  and  more  open  than  it  is 
at  present,  and  another  inference  is  that,  in  process  of  time» 
it  will  be  closed  up,  and  Ceylon  joined  to  the  continent." 
The    possibility   of   mRkiTig  an   artificial  union  between 

'  Jf«m.  OeoZ.  Swv,,  Ind.,  yoL  xz,  1888.  '  TtavtiU  in  Ceylon. 


84 

Soutliem  India  and  Oeylon,  bv  means  -of  a  railway  across 
what  remains  of  Adam's  Bridge^  is  at  tlie  presenc  time 
under  difionssion. 

Tradition  runs  to  the  effect  that,  at  the  time  of  the  dis- 
ruption of  Bdm6svaram  island  from  the  mainland  on  the 
one  side  and  Ceylon  on  the  uther^  the  cows  became  prisoners 
on  the  island,  and  being  nnable^  like  the  cows  at  Cape  Cod, 
which  are  fed  on  herring's  heads,  to  adapt  themselves  to  a 
fish  diet,  took  to  liying  on  sea- weeds,  and  have  become,  by 
degrees,  converted  into  diminntive  '  metamorphosed  cows/ 
which  may  still  be  seen  grazing  on  the  shore.  This  story 
is  based  on  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  horned  coffer- 
fishes  (Ostracion  carnutus),  which  are  frequently  caught  in 
the  fishing-nets,  to  cattle.  Portions  of  the  skulls  of  cats 
and  dogs,  including  the  articulated  temporal,  parietal,  and 
occipital  bones,  which  are  sometimes  picked  up  on  the 
beach,  also  bear  a  rude  resemblance  to  the  skull  of  a  cow, 
the  horns  being  represented  by  the  zygoma. 

During  the  time  of  my  stay  at  Pdmban  in  1888,  a  bucket 
dredger  was  at  work  in  the  pass,  and  from  the  mud  brought, 
up  by  it  I  obtained  many  small  Crustacea,  echinoderms 
(chiefly  Ldganum  depressum  and  Fibularia  volva),  mollusca 
(of  which  Leda  mauritiana  was  one  of  the  most  abundant) 
including  great  quantities  of  the  little  Jvicula  vfixillum, 
which  was  formerly  mistaken  for  the  young  of  the  pearl- 
oyster,  a  gephyrean  (Dendrostoma  signifer)^  Branchiostoma 
(Amphioxua)^  and  many  fragments  of  a  small  FungiOy  which 
must  be  very  plentiful,  but  of  which  I  have  never  obtained 
a  perfect  specimen. 

Southward  of  the  P&mban  pass  are  three  islands,  Pulli, 
Pullivausel,  and  Coorisuddy,  completely  encircled  by  an 
irregular  coral  reef,  the  whole  forming  a  natural  break- 
water protecting  the  pass  and  the  channels  leading  to  it 
from  the  violence  of  the  south-west  winds.  The  space 
between  the  northern  edge  of  this  reef  and  the  pass 
forms  a  fine  sheltered  anchorage  for  vessels  of  light  draft 
in  all  weathers.  The  deepest  water  between  the  above 
islands  and  the  pass  is  immediately  south  of  Coorisuddy, 
and  is  called  the  basin,  over  which  there  is  an  average 
depth  of  18  feet,  but  in  one  spot  there  is  a  depth  of  21  feet. 
This  basin  is,  however,  very  narrow,  being  simply  a  hole 
scoured  out  by  the  action  of  the  water  in  rushing  through 
the  pass  :  and,  consequently,  is  of  little  value  to  ships,  as  it 
has  tlie  pass  to  the  northward  of  it  with  only  10  feet,  and 


L 


85 


tlie  sand-bank  channel  to  the  Boathward  with' only  9}  feet 
at  low  water.  The  tides  are  very  irregular  at  Pdmban,  the 
rise  and  fall  being  much  affected  by  the  winds.  The  aver* 
age  springs  rise  3  feet ;  but,  daring  neaps^  sometimes  for 
48  hours,  there  is  frequently  only  a  rise  and  fall  of  1  or  2 
inches.  The  currents  are  generally  influenced  by,  and  strong 
in  proportion  to  the  force  of  the  wind.  Through  the  P&m* 
ban  pass  the  current  frequently  attains  to  a  velocity  of  from 
5  to  6  knots  an  hour,  rendering  it  at  times  difScult  even  to 
take  fnll-powered  steamers  through.  During  the  nort<h« 
east  monsoon  the  current  sets  to  the  north  through  the 
pass.  The  only  months  in  which  a  real  tidal  current  is 
noticeable  are  March,  April,  and  October,  when  it  generally 
sets  six  hours  each  way.  No  records  of  the  temperature  of 
the  water  over  the  reef  are  extant,  and,  as  my  visits  have 
always  been  at  the  same  season,  extending  over  only  a  few 
weeks  of  the  year,  the  temperature  observations  which  I 
have  made  are  practically  of  no  value.  The  following  table^ 
however,  shows  the  maximum'  and  minimum  and  monthly 
range^  recorded  at  the  P&mban  marine  office  in  the  shade 
at  10  A.M.  and  4  p.m.  durine  the  twelve  months  from  April 
Ist,  1888,  to  March  31st,  lo89.  The  range  of  temperature 
during  that  period  will  be  seen  to  be  from  76°  to  92*^,  i.e.f 
W :— 


Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Range. 

April,     1888  ... 

••  • 

... 

sr 

92° 

11° 

May          „     ..^ 

... 

... 

79** 

91° 

12° 

June         „     ... 

•  •• 

... 

84^ 

88° 

4« 

July          „     ... 

... 

i  i . 

84« 

89° 

5° 

August     „     ... 

... 

... 

84° 

88? 

4° 

September,  1888 

••• 

..• 

84° 

89° 

•5° 

October          „ 

... 

... 

78° 

89° 

11° 

Noyember      „ 

... 

... 

78° 

89° 

11° 

December       „ 

... 

..» 

77** 

86° 

9° 

January,  1889 

•■• 

... 

76° 

81° 

6° 

February    „   ... 

... 

... 

80° 

88° 

8° 

March        „    ... 

... 

... 

82° 

92° 

10° 

The  town  of  Pdmban  is  situated  on  the  western  extre* 
mity  of  the  island,  and  lies  to  the  west  and  south-west  of 
the  light-house,  built  on  the  top  of  a  sand-hill,  at  the  foot  of 
which  is  a  good  example  of  sand-rock^  i.e.,  a  mass  of  fine 
sand,  which  has  become  compacted  by  the  action  of  wind 


86 

and  spray,  bo  as  to  form  a  stratified  friable  rock  exposed 
amid  the  surrounding  loose  blown  sand.  With  the  excep* 
tion  of  the  Port  officer's  house  and  a  few  others,  the  houses 
consist  principally  of  huts  made  of  cajan  leaves.  The 
native  population  is  mainly  made  up  of  boatmen  and  fisher- 
men, some  of  whom  find  employment  in  carrying  coolies 
over  to  Ceylon,  and  others  in  ferrying  the  pilgrims  bound 
for  the  temple  at  B&m^svaram  from  the  mainland  to  the 
island.  There  are  also  a  lai^e  number  of  coolies,  who  are 
engaged  in  hauling  vessels  through  the  pass  when  the  wind 
is  adverse. 

P&mban  boasts  of  a  ruined  fort  built  by  the  Dutch 
during  their  occupation  of  the  island,  over  which  I  was 
taken  by  a  native  guide,  who  pointed  out  as  objects  of  in- 
terest some  stone  cannon-balls,  battered  dredge-buckets  of 
modern  construction,  and  some  barrels  of  fuse  lying  mould- 
ering from  age  in  what  he  termed  a  conji  (gruel)  house,  a 
damp,  ill-ventilated  building,  wherein,  at  some  period  at 
which  the  Public  Works  Department  was  engaged  on  works 
in  the  island,  the  recalcitrant  sapper  used  to  be  placed  in 
confinement  on  a  sedative  conji  diet. 

As  regards  the  food-supply  at  P&mban,  beef  and  mutton 
are  not  easily  procurable,  goat,  long-legged  and  emaciated, 
being  the  principal  animal  supplied.  Fowls  and  native 
vegetables  can  always  be  obtained  in  the  bazdr.  The  local 
eggs  possess  a  peculiar  flavour  which  is  attributed  to  the 
fact  that  the  fowls  feed  partly  on  fish,  affording  an  example 
of  polyphagy.  One  is  reminded  of  the  observation  of 
John  Hunter,  that  a  species  of  gull  {Laru8  tridactylus)^ 
though  commonly  feeding  on  fish,  and  having  its  stomach 
adapted  to  flesh  diet,  can  also  live  on  gram.  Another 
species  of  gull  (Larus  argentatus)  is  said  to  live  in  the 
Shetland  islands  on  grain  in  the  summer  and  on  fish  in 
the  winter.  The  fish  supply  at  P&mban  is  very  plentiful, 
and  a  visit  to  the  ill-smelling  fish  baz&r  always  showed  an 
abundance  of  fish,  unappetising  cephalopods,  and  Crustacea 
{NeptunuB  pelagiciiSf  Scylla  serrata^  tic.)  which  make  excel- 
lent curries,  for  sale.  During  my  visit  in  1889  the  follow- 
ing food-fishes  were  obtained  either  by  means  of  a  drag- 
net or  from  the  baz£r : — 

SHABKS  AND  BAYS. 

Zygsena  malleus,  Shaw.         \     Myliobatis  meuhofii,  BU  8chm. 
T^gon  uamak,  For$k, 


•  •  -  - 


87 


BONY  FISHES. 


Lates  calcarifer,  Block. 
LutjanuB  rivulatus,  Cuv.  Sr 

Vol. 
Lutjanus  roseus,  Bof, 
Tberapon  theraps,  Cu€,  ^ 

Vol, 
Pristipoma  liasta,  Bheh, 
Scolopsis,  sp. 
Gerres  oyena,  Forsk, 
Drepane  punctata,  Gmel. 
Scatophagus  argus,  Block. 
Upeneoides  tragula,  Rickard^ 

son. 
TJpeneus  indicus,  Shaw. 
LethiinuB  nebulosus,  Ibrsk. 


Teuthis  oramin,  GUntk^ 
Caranx  ire,  Cuv.  4t  Val. 
Caranx  speciosus,  Gmet. 
Equula  edentula,  Block. 
Siilago  sihama,  For»k. 
Mugu  speigleri,  BUckcr. 
Oynoglossus   macrolepidotucs 

BUeker. 
Anus  thalassinus,  RUpp, 
Saurida  tumbil,  Block. 
Hemiramphufl  xanthopterus, 

Cuv.  ^  Vol. 
Olupea,  Bp. 
Pellona  leschenaultii,  Cw>.  Sr 

Fal. 


My  head-qnartera  on  the  island  Iiave  been  mainly  fixed 
at  the  bungalow  of  the  S^tupati  of  Bamn&d,  the  head  of  the 
Maravars,  on  whose  behalf  I  once  had  to  appear  in  the 
Madura  Conrt^  and  stand  the  fire  of  cross-examination  in 
connection  with  the  coinage  of  his  ancestors  on  the  throne 
of  the  S^tupatis  (Lords  of  Adam's  bridge).  The  bungalow 
is  situated  on  the  summit  of  a  sand  hill  ndar  the  P&mban 
light-house,  and  would  make  an  excellent  marine  biological 
station^  easy  of  access  from  Madras  now  that  between  Nega- 
patam  and  Pdmban  there  is  a  service  of  coasting  steamers, 
of  light  draft  so  as  to  be  able  to  get  through  the  shallow 
channel  of  the  P&mban  pass. 

Occasionally  my  camp  has  been  pitched  on  the  shore  at 
Bdm^svaram  close  to  the  spot  where  the  pilgrims,  under 
the  directions  of  a  priest,  go  through  a  course  of  mysterious 
ceremonies  and  ablationfi,  and  deposit  in  the  sea  pice  and 
clay  images,  the  former  of  which  are  subsequently  searched 
for  by  the  poorer  classes. 

As  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Walther,  in  the  extension  of  the 
reef  band  towards  the  B&m^svaram  temple,  appears  a  lime* 
stone  consisting  entirely  of  calcareous  algas  {Lithotham^ 
nium)y  with  a  few  scattered  coral  masses.  This  extensive 
deposit  is  represented  on  plate  V,  the  back-ground  of  which 
is  made  up  of  palmyra  palms. 

The  verandah  of  the  Kdja's  bungalow  affords  a  good 
spot  for  the  study  of  the  common  animals  and  birds  of  the 
island.  The  former  consist  mainly  of  ill-conditioned  pariah 
dogs ;  goats  trying  to  extract  the  requisite  amount  of  food 
stuffs  for  the  maintenance  of  life  from  dried  palmyra  leaves 

13 


88 

and  the  leaves  of  tlie  umbrella  fchom  (Acacia  pfanifronn),  tlie 
thorns  of  whioh  serve  as  no  protection  against  the  attacks 
of  these  hard-mouthed  herbivoroas  mammals  ;  and  donkeys 
suffering  from  motor  paresis  of  their  hind  limbs.  The  shrill 
voiced  ^m  squirrel  and  musk  shrew  ('  musk-rat '}  infested 
the  bungalow^  and  a  friendly  mungcK>se  made  repeated  visits 
when  I  was  at  breakfast.  Uf  birds^  the  splendid  bat  shame- 
less crow  (Ooi'vus  8phnden%  or  impudicus)  made  continual 
raids  on  my  specimens  drying  in  the  sun ;  and  parakeets 
screaming  in  a  neighbouring  fig  tree,  and  screech-owls 
making  night  hideous  with  their  domestic  quarrels,  proved 
a  constant  source  of  irritation.  Beneath  the  Acacia  trees 
were  large  numbers  of  bleached  land-shells^  which  wero 
identified  for  me  by  Dr.  O.  Boettger  as  being : — 

Buliminus  (Bhachis)  punctatus,  Ant. 

BuliminuB  (Mastus)  chion,  Pf. 

Helix  (Eurystoma)  vittata,  MiUl,  (small  form). 

.  Helix  (Trachia)  f alladosa,  F6r, 

Hemiplecta  lixa,  Blf, 

Xesta  ceylanica,  Pf, 

As  regards  Xesta  ceylafiica,  Dr.  Boettger  writes  to  me  :— 
"  I  am  not  in  possession  of  original  specimens  of  Blanford's 
species  from  the  foot  of  the  Anaimalai  hills^  but  I  cannot 
find  a  difference  in  the  diagnosis.  It  is  a  next  ally  to  H. 
gardneri  of  Ceylon  and  H.  ahiplayi  of  the  Nilgiris.'' 

During  my  stay  on  the  island  in  1886  the  following 
birds  were  shot  by  my  shikaree  :— 

Tinnunculus  alaudarius,  Briss,     Kestril. 
Micronisus  badius,  Om.     Shikra. 
Athene  brama,  Tern.    Spotted  owlet. 
Merops  viridis,  Linn,    Oommon  Indian  bee-eater. 
PalsBomis  rosa,  Bodd.    Bose-headed  parrakeet. 
Brachyptemus  aurantius,  Linn.     G-olden-bac^ed  wood- 
pecker. 
Xantholaama  indica,  Lath,     Orimson-breasted  barbet. 
Hierococcyx  varius,  Vahl.     Common  hawk  cuckoo. 
Cocoystes  melanoleucos,  Ghn.    Pied-creeted  cuckoo. 
Centropus  rufipennis.     Common  coucal  ('  crow  pheasant '). 
XJpupa  nigripennis,  Gould.     Indian  hoopoe. 
Lanius  eryilm»iotas,  Viff.    Bufous-backed  shrike. 
Lanius  vittatus,  Ved.     Bay-backed  shrike. 
Diorurus  ater,  Herm.     Black  drongo. 
Orateropus  griseus,  Gm.    White-headed  babbler. 
Fyononotus  luteolus,  Le89.    White-browed  bulbul. 
Molpastes  h»morrhous,  Gm,    Madras  red-vented  bulbuL 
(Egithina  tiphia,  Linn.    Common  iora. 


69 

Ck>p6ychu8  saulariB,  Ltnn.    Magpie  robin. 
Coryiis  ma€rorhyneh.as,  WagL     Jungle  crow. 
Oorvus  splendens,  Vistll.     Lidian  house  orow. 
Acridotheres  tristis,  Linn,     Common  myna. 
Temenuchus  pagodarum,  Om.    Black-headed  myna. 
Turtur  suratensis,  Gm.     Spotted  dove. 
Tringa  minuta,  Leister.     lattle  stint. 
Phoenicopterufl  roseus,  Pallae,    Flamingo. 
Xema  brunnicephala,  Jerdon,    Brown- headed  gulL 
Beena  aurantia,  Orojf.    Large  river  tern. . 

On  the  sandy  shore  of  Shingle  island,  one  of  the  islands 
which  intervenes  between  R&m^svarani  island  and  the  main- 
landy  which  is  overgrown  with  long  grass  reaching  in  some 
places  to  a  height  of  six  feet,  my  friend  Mr.  J.  B.  Henderson 
saw,  in  early  Jane,  hondreds  of  a  doubtful  species  of  tern  (?) 
and  a  few  of  the  large  river  tern  {Sterna  seena).  Of  these 
the  latter  laid  a  single  egg  in  a  tannel  excavated  among  the 
matted  roots  of  the  grass,  and  artfully  concealed  from  view. 
The  former  laid  a  single  egg  in  a  hole  scooped  oat  in  the 
sand  near  the  water's  edge,  where  the  grass  was  either  very 
short  or  absent ;  and  the  eggs  were  easily  missed  owing  to 
the  resemblance  between  their  colour  and  that  of  the  sand, 
which  affords  an  example  of  the  adaptation  of  the  coloring 
of  eggs  to  their  natural  surroundings  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
cealment, according  to  the  principle  of  protective  coloration. 
In  July,  1888,  the  shores  of  Goorisuddy  island  were  in  pos* 
session  of  an  army  of  occupation  of  flamingoes,  which  were^ 
no  doubt,  feeding  on  annelids  and  burrowing  crabs. 

On  Goorisuddy  Island  the  following  botanical  speoimena 
were  collected : — 

^rua  javanica,  Jws, 

Bcerbavia  diffusa,  Linn.    Spreading  hog-weed. 

Clerodendron  inerme,  Omrtn, 

pynodon  dactylon,  Pers,    HariW  grass. 

Dodonasa  viscosa,  Linn. 

Enicostema  Littorale,  Blume,    The  ohota  ehiretta  of  natives. 

Eugenia  jambolana,  Lam.    Black  plum. 

Euphorbia  corrigioloides,  Boiss, 

Ipomasa  biloba,  Forsk.    One  of  the  most  important  sand* 

binding  plants. 
Launaea  pmnatifida,  Cmb*    A  common  plant  of  the  sandy 

coasts. 
Oldenlandia  umbellata,  Linn,    Chay-root  or  Indian  madder. 
Pandanus  odoratissimus,  WUld,   Sorew-pine.  Beoommended 

by  Cleghom  as  a  very  strong  sand-binder. 
Pemphis  addula,  Forst. 


90 

Fhjilanthus  niruri,  Linn. 

Salradora  persica,  Linn.    Tooth-brush  tree ;  said  by  Eoyle 

to  be  the  mustard  tree  of  the  Bible. 
Suaeda  monoica,  Forak. 
Yemoma    cinerea.    Ash-colored    flea-bane.     One    of    the 

commonest  Indian  weeds. 

The  palmyra  palm  {Borasffus  flabelh'formis)  grows  very 
abundantly  on  B&m^svaram  island,  and  the  prepared  fibre  is 
exported  to  Ceylon.  The  method  of  preparation  *  consists 
in  detaching  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree  the  lower  part  of 
the  leaf  which  remains  clinging  to  the  tree  after  the  leaf 
has  been  cnt  off  or  dried,  beating  this  with  a  wooden  ham- 
mer, arid  palling  out  the  fibre  which  is  detached.  The  best 
trees  for  the  purpose  are  said  to  be  young  ones  from  12  to 
15  feet  high.  The  stalks  require  to  be  in  a  certain  and  parti- 
cular state  of  decay,  in  which  the  fibre  when  hammered  out 
will  be  of  a  black  colour.  The  white  fibre  which  is  obtained 
from  immature  stalks  is  less  pliable  and  more  brittle,  and 
fetches  an  inferior  price  in  the  market.  The  chief  objection 
to  palmyra  fibre  for  brush  manufacture  is  that  it  lacks 
straightness ;  but,  if  this  defect  could  be  overcome,  it  is 
claimed  that  palmyra  should  be  found  equal  to  the  best 
Brazilian  piussava  fibre. 

The  insect  world,  apai-t  from  the  irrepressible  ants  and 
mosquitoes,  is  only  poorly  represented  on  B&m^svaram 
Island,  and  of  lepidoptera  the  most  conspicuous  was  Papi^ 
lio  (Uerhslaides)  hector^  fiyiu$?  swift- winged  along  the  shore 
or  far  ont  at  sea.  The  following  common  species  of  lepi- 
doptera were  captured  in  July,  1889  : — 

Myoalesis  mineus,  Linn.      I    Catopsilia  catilla,  Cramer. 


Melanitis  leda,  Linn. 
Tarucus  plinius,  Fahr. 
Oatochrysops  strabo,  Fahr, 
Catopsilia  orocale,  Cramer. 


Terias  hecabe,  Linn, 
Piipilio  hector,  Linn. 
Papilio  erithoniiuB,  Cramer. 


Though  I  have  met  with  none  myself,  I  have  been  shown 
ft  collection  of  scorpions  {Scorpio  stcammerdami)  which  were 
captured  at  P4mban. 

A  big  spider  belonging  to  the  genus  MygaU  {M.  fa^* 
eiaia  ?)  oonceming  the  bird-eating  propensities,  of  which 
genus  there  has  been  a  long-standing  controversy,'  was 
caught  by  me  when  developing  photographs  in  an  impro- 

<  Report  by  the  Head  Assistant  Collector,  Hadara  District,  1S92. 
•  Bee  J(wrn,,  Bombay  Nat.  Biut,  Soc.  vol.  i,  1886,  p.  28. 


L 


91 

vined  dark  room  at  the  R&ja's  bungalow.  Soon  after  my 
arrival  in  Madras,  in  1885,  a  Mve  female  Mygale  was  sent 
to  me  from  one  of  the  districts  of  the  Presidency,  on  the 
charge  of  killing  sheep  and  goats  by  poisoning  them  on  the 
muzzle,  with  a  request  that  I  would  convict  or  acquit  the 
accused  on  experimental  evidence.  A  she^p  was  accord- 
ingly purchased,  and  the  Mygale  placed  in  a  gauze  net 
which  was  tied  over  the  sheep's  muzzle.  For  a  short  time 
the  Mygale  strolled  about,  showing  no  indication  of  poison- 
ous intent,  and  then — the  sheep  put  out  its  long  tongue 
and  swallowed  her,  bringing  the  experiment  to  an  abrupt 
termination. 

The  shells  of  Cerithia,  which  adhere  in  dense  masses  to 
the  reef  rock  at  P&mban,  are  collected  by  poor  women,  and 
burnt  into  chun&m  (lime)  in  a  simple  kiln  on  the  shore^ 
fed  by  a  fire  obtained  by  burning  drift-wood,  seeds,  cocoa- 
nut  hasks,  etc.,  which  are  thrown  up  on  the  beach  by  the 
in-flowing  tide. 

Commencing  near  the  B&ja's  bungalow,  and  extending 
for  some  distance  along  the  north  coast  of  the  island,  is  a 
sub-fossil  coral  reef,  which  I  cannot  do  better  than  describe 
in  Mr.  Bruce  Foote's  words :  •  *'  The  upraised  reef,*'  he 
says,  *'  is  a  striking  feature  of  the  north  coast  of  B&m^sva- 
ram  Island,  and  is  worthy  of  much  closer  study  than  the 
time  at  my  disposal  enabled  me  to  bestow  upon  it.  It 
shows  best  along  the  beach  beginning  a  couple  of  hundred 
yards  west  of  the  zemindar's  bungalow,  where  it  forms  a 
little  irregular  scarp  about  a  yard  or  4  feet  high,  against 
the  roof  of  which  the  waves  break  in  rough  weather.  Of 
its  true  coral  reef  origin  there  can  be  no  doubt,  as  in  many 
places  the  main  mass  of  the  rock  consists  of  great  globular 
meandroid  corals,  or  of  huge  cups  of  a  species  of  Porites 
which,  beyond  being  bleached  by  weather  action,  are  very 
slightly  altered,  and  still  remain  in  the  position  in  which 
they  originally  grew.  The  base  of  the  reef  is  not  exposed, 
as  far  as  I  could  ascertain,  not  having  been  sufficiently  up- 
raised along  the  beach ;  but  in  a  well-section  a  little  to  the 
south  of  the  Grandham&na  Parvattam  chattram  the  thick- 
ness of  the  coral  reef  exposed  above  the  surface  of  the  water 
is  at  least  10  feet,  and  probably  much  more.  The  great 
Bwampy  flat  forming  the  northern  lobe,  as  it  were,  of  B&m^s- 
varam  Island,  consists,  I  believe,  entirely  of  this  upraised 
roef  hidden  only  by  a  thin  coating  of  alluvium,  or  the  water 

•  Jfam.  Q9oi.  8urv.,  Ind.,  yol.  xx,  1S88. 


92 

of  tlie  braokisli  lagoons  which  cover  the  major  part  of 
the  surface^  bat  do  not  form  a  continaoas  sheet  of  water 
aa  shown  in  the  map.  I  came  across  masses  of  coral  pro- 
trading  at  intervals  through  the  alluvium  in  the  very  centre 
of  the  flats  north-westward  of  the  great  sand-hill  crowned 
by  the  chattram  just  named.  The  raised  reef  is  very  well 
eeen  to  the  north-eastward  of  B&m^svaram  town^  where  it 
forms  a  miniature  cliff  from  3  to  4,  or  possibly  5  feet  high, 
and  continuing  along  the  coast  after  the  latter  turns  and 
trends  to  north-west.  Time  did  not  admit  of  my  actually 
following  it  up  to  Pesausee  Moondol  poiut,  but  I  went 
to  within  a  mile  of  the  pointy  and  could  see  no  change  of 
character  of  the  coast  line  on  examination  through  a  strong 
field-glass.  The  raised  reef  shows  strongly  also  along  the 
western  side  of  the  flat  north  wards  of  Ariangundu.  The 
fiouth  side  of  the  reef  is,  along  the  north  coast>  completely 
covered  up  by  the  great  spreads  of  blown  sands  whicn 
occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  the  island.  On 
the  east  side  of  the  island  the  reef  does  not  extend  close  up 
to  the  great  temple,  but  stops  short  abruptly  about  300 
yards  to  the  north-east,  and  does  not  re-appear  on  the  coast 
of  the  bay  south  of  the  temple.  South  of  P&mban  town 
also  there  were  no  signs  of  any  upraised  coral,  nor  could  I 
see  any  indication  eastward  along  the  south  coast,  as  far  aa 
the  eye  could  reach  from  Goondacaul  Moondel  point,  while 
the  great  south-east  spit  terminating  at  the  point  called 
Thunnuscody  is  covered  by  a  double  ridge  of  great  blown 
sand-hills.  An  important  series  of  trial  sinkings  made  by 
the  Port  officer  at  Pdmban  right  across  the  island,  from 
north  to  south,  about  2  miles  east  of  the  town,  in  order  to 
test  the  feasibility  of  the  proposed  ship  canal,  did  not 
reveal  any  southerly  extension  of  the  raised  reef.  The 
probability  is  that  it  forms  a  mere  narrow  strip  along 
the  beach  from  P&mban  to  Ariangundu,  but  widens  out 
thence  to  the  north-eastward  to  form  the  northern  lobe  of 
the  island.  Parts  of  the  reef  lying  between  collections 
(colonies  as  it  were)  of  the  great  globular  or  cupnshape 
ooral  masses  form  a  coarse  sandstone  made  up  of  broken 
coral,  shells,  and  sand  (mostly  silicions)  a  typical  coral 
sandstone.  At  the  P&mban  end  of  the  raised  reef  it 
shows  a  slight  northerly  dip,  and  masses  of  dead  coral, 
apparently  in  situ^  protrude  through  the  sand  below  high 
water  mark.  Beefs  of  living  coral  fringe  the  present  coast, 
but  these  I  was  unable  to  examine,  so  cannot  say  whether 
the  corals  now  growing  there  are  specifically  allied  to  those 


«     •  « 


,     •  *  - 
•  •     •  •' 


M  m 


W:.  I 


93 

• 

which  formed  the  reef  now  upraised,  but  all  the  mollnsca 
and  crnstaoea  I  found  occurring  fossil  in  the  latter  belong 
to  species  now  living  in  the  surrounding  sea/'  Mr.  Bruoe 
Foote  writes  further : — *'  It  is  quite  evident  from  the  occur- 
rence of  the  old  coral  reef  on  B&m^svaram  Island  that  the 
latter  must  have  been  upraised  several  feet  within  a  com* 
paratively  recent  period,  but  unfortunately  there  are  no 
data  by  which  to  calculate  the  exact  amount  of  the  upheaval. 
The  upheaval  which  affected  B&m^svaram  island  doubtless 
afiFected  the  adjoining  mainland,  and,  by  upraising  the 
coast,  exposed  the  sandstones,  which  have  been  described 
above  as  forming  a  low  wall-like  cliff  bordering  the  beach 
as  if  by  a  built  ijuay/' 

A  good  specimeu  of  a  sandstone  quay  wall  is  to  be  seen 
on  the  mainland  between  the  great  dam  and  Muntapum ; 
and  north  of  Kilakarai,  a  town  on  the  coast  south-west  of 
B4m^svaram  Island,  a  very  perfect  wall  of  sandstone  extends 
for  some  distance  along  the  shore,  in  the  foose  sand  cover- 
ing which  many  copper  coins— Boman,  Chola,  P&ndyan, 
Dutch,  Indo-French,  etc.,  have  been  found  in  recent 
years.  The  area  which  intervenes  between  the  fringing 
coral  reef  and  the  sloping  shore  at  Kilakarai,  and  which  is 
uncovered  by  water  at  low  tide,  is  covered  by  an  extensive 
green  carpet  formed  by  a  dense  growth  of  Zoanthi  aggluti- 
nated together  by  damp  sand,  among  which  small  isolated 
madrepores  live,  though  periodically  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun.  That  the  coral  polyps. do  not  die  when  thus  ex- 
posed is  due,  as  pointed  out  by  Mobius  and  confirmed  by 
Walther,  to  the  fact  that  they  secrete  doring  low  ebb-tide  a 
great  deal  of  viscid  mucus,  which  covers  the  whole  corallite 
and  protects  it  from  drying  up.  I  have  frequently  noticed 
that  the  massive  blocks  of  Porites,  Caioria,  &c.,  brought  to 
me  by  the  divers  were  long  after  their  removal  from  the  sea 
covered  with  a  slimy  secretion,  beneath  which  the  polyps 
were  alive,  as  evidenced  by  their  movements  of  contraction 
and  expansion. 

Opposite  the  town  of  Kilakarai  there  is  a  wide  gap  in 
the  reef,  through  which  sailing  boats  of  light  draft  can  pass 
into  the  shallow  harbour  withm  the  reef,  on  which  the  force 
of  the  leaves  is  broken.  The  calcareous  alga,  Salimeda* 
opuntia,  forms  a  thick  deposit  on  the  sea  bottom,  in  shallow 
water,  among  the  coral  patches  o&  Kilakarai.  This  species 
is,  Mr.  G.  Murray  writes  to  me,  "  one  of  the  most  abundant 
siphoneous  algas  m  all  warm  seas  Atlantic,  Mediterranean, 
Indian  Ocean.    It  is  green  when  growing,  and  turns  white 


94 

Vfhen  cast  up.  I  have  found  it  in  the  West  Indies  forming 
a  thick  layer  at  tide-mark^  cast  up  in  bays  into  which  a 
strong  current  runs/' 

Possessing  only  very  superficial  geological  knowledge, 
I  am  unable  to  deal  satisfactorily  with  the  sub-fossil  reef 
at  P&mban,  which  has,  however,  more  recently  than  Mr. 
Bruce  Footft's  report,  received  full  justice  from  the  pen 
of  Dr.  Walt  her.'  Commencing,  as  already  stated,  near  the 
B&ja's  bungalow,  it  forms  a  wall  exposed  to  a  height  of  3  or 
4  feet  above  the  sandy  shore  in  which  it  is  imbedded,  and 
extending,  almost  without  interruption,  for  a  distance  of  a 
quarter  of  a  mile,  after  which  it  becomes  covered  over  with 
loose  sand,  and  is  exposed  only  at  intervals.  The  main  mass 
of  this  wall,  as  also  of  the  big  detached  coral  blocks  which 
intervene  between  it  and  the  sea,  and  are  washed  by  high 
tides,  is  built  up  of  enormous  blocks  of  Poriies,  one  of 
which,  isolated  from  neighbouring  blocks,  has  a  diameter 
of  12  feet.  That  these  blocks  are  imbedded  as  they  grew 
is  shown  not  only  by  their  reef-like  appearance,  but  also  by 
their  upright  position,  the  vertical  columns  of  many  of  the 
blocks  bearing  testimony  to  the  fact  that  they  have  not 
been  cast  up  by  the  waves  at  random,  like  the  big  coral 
fragments  which  are  exposed  at  low  tide,  and  lie  irregularly 
in  all  possible  unnatural  positions.  The  calioes  on  the 
surface  of  the  fossil  corals  are  either  perfectly  distinct  over 
large  areas,  so  as  to  render  their  identity  certain,  or,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  the  blocks  which  are  still  exposed  to 
wave  action,  worn  away,  or  concealed  by  a  crystalline 
incrustation.  Imbedded  in  cavities  in  the  Pontes^  once 
bored  and  occupied  by  the  living  mollusc  animal,  are 
immense  numbers  of  the  shells  of  the  lithodomous  Venerupis 
cardiMdes,  which  abounds  on  the  living  reof  at  the  present 
day.  The  Pontes  are  frequently  capped  by  AstroeanSy  which 
are  also  found  firmly  fixed  to  their  lateral  aspect.  Less 
commonly  they  are  incrusted  wich  Mmandrinas  (CbZorta), 
which,  like  the  Astrceans^  also  form  solid  isolated  blocks, 
but  of  far  smaller  size  than  the  Porites,  The  blocks  are, 
for  the  most  part,  covered  on  their  upper  surface  by  a  crust 
of  thick  compact  laminated  sand-rock,  imbedded  within 
*  which  are  the  shells  of  jnolluscek-^Gardtum,  Area,  Turbo, 
Cerithium,  Spoiidylus,    Corbula,  Trochus,    Cyprcea,  Ac.     I 

'  Vide  VerKandlung^n  der  OeseVschaft  fur  Erdkwide  zu  B«rtm,  1889, 
No.  7t  translated  in  Beo.  Geol.  Sury.  Ind.,  vol.  zxiii,  pt.  3,1890;  and 
Petermann^8  MitUilft/ngen  aus  Justus  Perthet'  QeographiscHer  An»talt 
Srganzung8h^t,  No.  102,  1891. 


96 

have  also  f oand  seyeral  carapaces  of  fossil  decapod  crastAcea, 
whose  genns  I  was  unable  to  identify.  At  the  eomtnence* 
ment  of  the  reef,  i.e.y  at  the  end  nearest  to  the  bungalow, 
the  sand-rock  is  arranged  in  a  succession  of  layers  with  a 
dip  seawards,  and  forms  an  incrusting  layer  about  8  inches 
thick.  A  little  further  on  the  reef  haa  a  terraced  appear- 
ance ;  an  upper  terrace  being  formed  by  sand-rock  horizon- 
tally stratified,  exposed  to  a  height  of  18  inches,  and 
Rupported  by  underlying  PoriteSf  Aatrcea,  Cwhria,  and 
Turbinaria ;  and  a  lower  terrace  formed  by  a  flat-topped 
mass  of  PoriteSj  about  9  yards  in  length,  coyered  with  loose 
Band.  Not  the  least  interesting  feature  of  the  coral  wall  is 
the  presence  of  a  bank  of  madrepores,  extending  over  a 
length  of  8  yards  at  a  higher  level  than  the  Poriiesj  and 
evidently  still  placed  as  they  originally  grew,  their  radiating 
branches  spreading  outwards  from  the  base,  and  forming  a 
broad  flat  surface,  which  affords  support  to  a  thick  super* 
jacent  layer  of  consolidated  sand-rock.  The  maximum 
height  of  the  madrepores  above  the  loose  shore  sand  is  18 
inches,  and  they  clearly  form  a  portion  of  a  bank,  such  as 
may  be  seen  spreading  oyer  considerable  areas  on  the  living 
reef  on  a  calm  day. 

As  one  looks  out  to  sea  from  the  P&mban  bungalow  at 
low  water  on  a  breezy  day,  three  distinct  zones  can  be 
<;learly  distinguished,  viz. : — (1)  commencing  about  three- 
.quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  shore,  and  extending  to  the 
horizon,  clear  blue  water  separated  by  a  sharp  line  of 
demarcation  from  (2)  a  zone  discolored  by  seoiment  in 
suspension  carried  by  the  current  through  the  P&mban 
pass.  This  zone,  in  which  the  living  corals  flourish  though 
washed  by  a  current,  sometimes  running  at  the  rate  of  7  to 
S  knots  per  hour,  to  .which  they  are  exposed,  terminates  at 
the  sharply  defined  land  face  of  the  reef,*  where  the  corals, 
constantly  bathed  by  water  and  never  exposed  above  the 
surface,  act  as  a  natural  breakwater  which  breaks  the  force 
of  the  waves,  so  that,  at  high  tide,  the  shallow  water  be- 
tween the  reef  and  the  shore  is  smooth.    The  land  face  of 


*  In  the  third  edition  of  Darwin's  8fruet¥r€  and  Distribution  t^  ConU 
Reefs,  the  reefs  of  the  Madras  Coast  of  the  Oalf  of  Manaar  and  the  north- 
^em  part  of  Ceylon  are  not  indicated  on  the  map  (in  which  by  the  way 
an  active  volcano  is  indicated  near  Negapatam)  showing  the  distribution 
of  coral  reefs,  because  as  Professor  Bonny  says  (p.  247)  : — "The  sea  off 
the  northern  part  of  Ceylon  is  exceedingly  shallow,  and,  therefore,  I  have 
no&  colored  the  reefs  which  partially  fringe  portions  of  the  shores  and  tha 
adjoining  islets,  as  well  as  the  Indian  promontory,  of  Madura." 

14 


66 

tlie  reef  is  made  np  almost  entirely  of  madrepores^  amid  a  per- 
fect forest  of  arborescent  sea  weeds  and  fleshy  alcyonians 
which,  as  one  rows  oyer  the  reef  on  a  bright  still  morning, 
can  be  easily  recognised  as  large  snow-white  patches. 
Other  genera — PoriteSy  CwloriOj  Turbinaria,  etc — occur  in 
deeper  water.  (8)  There  is  a  zone,  abont  40  yards  in 
breadth,  between  the  reef  and  the  shore,  which  is  covered 
by  water  at  high  tide,  bat  completely  exposed  at  low  tide. 
It  is  made  up  of  dead  coral  blocks,  fragments,  and  debris, 
among  which  branches  of  worn  madrepores  are  most  conspi- 
cuous, broken  off  or  rolled  along  from  the  reef.  Those 
blocks  and  fragments  are  coTered  with  low-growing  clumps 
of  brown  and  green  sea  weeds,  and  enclose  shallow  pools  in 
which  *  coral  fishes '  of  brilliant  hue  may  be  seen,  and 
colonies  of  Cerithia  leaving  in  their  wake  a  characteristic 
track.  Many  of  the  larger  coral  blocks  are  extensively 
worn  by  the  process  of  solution,  or  eroded  by  boring 
moUusca  and  other  animals.  Among  the  crevices  of  the 
eroded  corals  various  Crustacea  {Oonodaciylus,  PilvmnuH, 
&c.),  iind  a  home  ;  and  crawling  on  their  surface,  which  is 
frequently  covered  by  erect  or  sessile  encrusting  sponges, 
or  hidden  beneath  them,  annelids  (Amphinome,Iferei8y  &c.), 
and  bright-colored  planarians  may  be  found. 

From  the  Pdmban  beach  the  sea  bottom  slopes  very  gra- 
dually to  a  depth  of  20  to  26  feet  at  a  distance  of  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  shore.  Between  the  Kathoo 
ValUmooni  reef,  marked  on  the  survey  chart  as  being 
*  partially  dry  at  low  water  spring  tides,'  and  the  spit  of 
mainland  which  terminates  at  Point  B&men  a  boat  passage 
has  been  carved  out  by  natural  processes.  North  of  K&m^s- 
varam  island  the  living  coral  reef  formation  ia  stated  by  the 
local  fishermen,  in  answer  to  independent  inquiries  by 
Mr.  Bruce  Foote  and  myself,  to  extend  only  as  far  as 
Pillay  Mudum,  7  miles  south-east  of  the  Vigai  river,  which, 
though  easily  crossed  on  foot  in  the  dry  season,  is  in  high 
flood  daring  the  monsoon,  and,  for  about  a  fortnight  in  the 
year,  impassable  even  on  a  raft. 

Piled  up  over  a  limited  area  at  the  base  of  the  fossil  reef 
were  masses  and  fragments  of  pumice  ^  encrusted  with 

*  "  The  fragment!  of  pnmioe  thrown  ap  into  the  ooean  dnring  far  di^ 
tant  Rub-marine  emptions,  or  washed  down  from  voloanic  lands,  are  at  all 
times  to  be  f ouid  floating  about  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  there  being 
east  npon  the  newly  formed  islet  produce  by  their  disintegration  the 
clayey  materiiJs  for  the  formation  of  a  soil,  the  red  earth  oteonl  islanda." 
Hurray,  Royal  Institutioi^i  March  16, 1889. 


97 

Polffzoa,  OhamcB,  tubes  of  tubicolous  worms,  ^bni,  youDg 
pearl-oysfcers,  &c.  In  all  probabilifcy  these  fragments  were, 
la  the  first  instance,  discharged  from  the  volcano  of  Kra- 
katoa  daring  the  great  ernption  ot  1883.  One  curious 
result  of  that  eruption  was  that,  in  thd  district  of  Gharingin, 
which  was  depopulated  by  the  tidal  waye  daring  the 
outburst,  tigers  increased  so  enormously  in  number  that  the 
Government  reward  for  killing  them  had  been  fixed  at  200 
pTuilders  each. 

Washed  on  shore  by  the  waves,  protecting  the  upper 
surface  of  the  dead  corals,  or  brought  up  for  me  from  the 
sea  bottom  by  my  divers,  were  nodular  calcareous  algaa, 
which,  from  microscopical  examination,  I  find  to  be  identi- 
cal with  those  which  were  dredged  off  the  town  of  Negombo 
in  Ceylon  by  Captain  Cawne  Warren,  and  reported  on  by 
Mr.  H.  J.  Carter. ^^  '*  The  specimens,''  says  that  authority, 
*'  consist  of  calcareous  nodules  of  different  siies,  which  may 
be  said  to  origiuate,  in  the  first  instance,  in  the  agglutina- 
tion of  a  little  sea  bottom  by  some  organism  into  a  trans- 
portable mass  which,  increasing  after  the  same  manner  as 
it  is  currented  about,  may  finally  attain  almost  unlimited 
dimensions.  They  ace,  thei*efore,  compounded  of  all  sorts  of 
invertebrate  animals,  whose  embryoes,  swimming  about  in 
every  direction,  find  them,  although  still  free  and  detached, 
of  sufficient  weight  and  solidity  to  offer  a  convenient  posi- 
tion for  development,  and  hence  the  number  of  species  in 
and  about  them.  •  •  •  •  Perhaps  no  family  of  organisms 
has  entered  into  their  composition  or  increased  their  solidity 
more  than  calcareous  algae  (Melobesice)  which,  in  snccessively 
laminated  or  uulliporoid  growths,  have  rendered  these 
nodules  almost  solid  throughout,   or  covered  with   short, 

thick,  nulliporiform  processes '  •     .     Next  to 

the  part  which  the  Melobest^e  have  taken  in  their  formation 
may  be  mentioned  the  sessile  Paramihifera,  and  these  have, 
in  turn,  been  overgrown,  in  many  instances,  by  Polyzoa.^* 

Specimens  have  been  picked  up  on  shore  both  by  Mr. 
Bruce  Foote  and  myself  of  a  curious  body,  the  nature  of 
which  has  given  rise  to  some  discussion,  and  is  still  and 
likely  to  remain  subjudiee.  One  of  them  was  exhibited  at 
the  Linnean  Society,  and  Dr.  Anderson  and  Mr.  Dendy 
were  iuclined  to  regard  it  as  possibly  the  consolidated  roe 
of  a  fish;  whereas  Professor  C.  Stewart  was  of  opinion  that 


><»  Jnn;  Mag.  Nat.  Hitt.,  June,  1880. 


08 

it  was  a  vegetable  dtraotare ;  his  opinion  being  based  oh 
the  examination  of  microscopical  preparations  which  he 
demonstrated  to  me  when  I  was  in  Europe  some  time  ago. 

Among  other  specimens  collected  on  the  P&mban  beach 
I  may  mention  the  complex  tabular  skeletons  of  the  chs)« 
topod  Filograiia,  and  large  blocks  of  drift  wood  bored  by  the 
moUasca  Teredo  and  Parapholaa^  the  latter  of  which  had 
destroyed  the  bottom  of  the  local  port  gig. 

The  Indian  fin- whale  {BalcBUcpiera  indica),  concerning 
which  I  overheard  a  visitor  to  the  Madras  museum  explain- 
ing to  his  son  that  it  uses  the  whale-bone  as  a  tooth-brush, 
has  been  known  to  accompany  vessels  in  the  gulf  of 
Manaar,  and  I  have  seen  one  close  to  a  steamer  in  which  I 
was  rounding  Cape  Gomorin.  It  is  related  that«  some  years 
ago,  the  schooner  ^  Abdul  B&man/  which  was  at  anchor  close 
to  P&mban,  was  suddenly  released  from  her  moorings,  and 
towed  out  to  sea  to  a  distance  of  several  miles  by  some  invi- 
sible agent.  A  few  days  afterwards  the  carcase  of  a  whale 
was  cast  on  shore,  and  the  theory  was  that  this  whale  was 
the  cause  of  the  involuntary  cruise,  it  having  been  tempted 
out  of  curiosity  to  examine  the  ship,  in  whose  grapnel  it  is 
supposed  to  have  been  caught,  and  to  have  taken  the 
steamer  in  tow  until  it  liberated  itself.  In  support  of  this 
theory,  the  ribs  and  vertebras  of  a  whale  were  shown  to  mo 
in  the  grounds  of  the  mission  bungalow. 

The  phytophagous  Sirenian,  Salicore  dugong  (the  da« 
gong),  which  is  said  ^^  to  be  found  in  the  salt-water  inlets  of 
South  Malabar,  feeding  on  the  vegetable  matter  about  the 
rocks  and  basking  and  sleeping  in  the  morning  sun,  is 
according  to  Emerson  Tennent  ^'  attracted  in  numbers  to  the 
inlet  from  the  Bay  of  Oalpentyn  on  the  west  coast  of  Ceylon 
to  Adam's  Bridge  by  the  still  water  and  the  abundance  of 
marine  algad  in  tnis  part  of  the  Oulf  of  Manaar.  It  is  of  an 
extremely  shy  disposition,  and  I  have  never  seen  it  myself, 
though  I  have  h^urd  of  dead  carcases  being  thrown  up  on 
the  P&mban  beach,  and  living  specimens  being  caught  in  the 
fishing  nets.  One  was,  in  fact,  caught,  together  with  a 
young  one,  the  day  before  my  arrival  at  P&mban  in  1889, 
and  promptly  sold  for  food,  as  it  is  considered  a  great  deli- 
cacy. There  is  a  tradition  among  the  natives  that  a  box  of 
money  was  found  in  the  stomach  of  a  dug^ong  which  was 
ctit  up  in  the  P&mban  baa&r  some  years  ago ;  and  an  official 


«i  Jerdon,  Jfotiimalf  qflndieu  »  OtfloM,  irol  if,  lS6a 


99 

m  how  always  invited  to  be  present  at'  the  exaniinatidn  of 
the  storaach  contents,  so  that  the  possessors  of  the  caroase 
may  not  be  pnnished  nnder  the  LVeasare  Trove  Act  for 
concealing  treasure,  fiat  the  stomach  contents  invariably 
.prove  to  be  green  sea-grasses  (phanerogams)  which  are 
very  abuDdant  in  the  shallows  of  one  to  three  feet  in  depth 
on  the  Ceylon  coast  of  the  galf  of  Manaar,  and  almost  en» 
tirely  exclade  the  sea  weeds  (algSB).  The  fat  of  the  dngong 
is  believed  to  be  efficacions  in  the  treatment  of  dysentery, 
and  is  administered  in  the  form  of  sweetmeats,  or  nsed 
instead  of  ghi  (clarified  batter)  in  the  preparation  of  food, 
l^he  skeleton  of  a  female  dngong  in  the  Madras  mnseum 
shows j  encased  in  the  npper  jaw,  the  f  anctionless  teeth,  the 
blunt  points  of  which  are,  during  life,  covered  by  a  fleshy 
lip  forming  a  snont.  The  female  is  described  by  Tenneut 
{op.  eit.)  when  suckling  her  yonng,  as  holding  it  to  her 
breast  with  one  flipper,  while  swimming  with  the  other, 
holding  the  heads  of  both  above  water,  and,  when  dis- 
turbed, suddenly  diving  and  displaying  her  fish-like  tail. 

The  divers  brought  me  from  one  of  the  neighbouring 
islands  a  single  specimen  of  the  hawk's  bill  turtle  {Chelone 
imhneaia),  the  source  of  tortoise-shell,  and  the  edible  turtle 
{O^elone  mydcLs).  The  latter!  have  seen  carrying  the  cirr- 
hiped  Chehnohiti  testudinaria  ^^  and  the  pearl-oyster  attached 
by  its  byssDS  to  the  carapace.  It  is  very  abundant  in  the 
shallow  water  near  the  sandy  shores  of  the  islands  in  the 
vicinity  of  R4mi6svaram,  on  which  the  female  lays  her  eggs. 
A  large  specimen,  whose  skeleton  has  been  preserved,  was 
purchased  for  eight  annas  on  the  understanding  that  the 
vendor  should  have  the  flesh  as  a  perqaisite.  The  process 
of  removal  of  the  edible  portions  of  fat,  flesh,  and  viscera 
was  not  a  pleasant  operation  to  witness.  The  victim  was 
placed  on  its  back,  and  secured  by  ropes  which  did  not  pre- 
vent demonstrative  flapping  of  its  fins  daring  the  operation. 
The  operation,  skilfally  performed  with  a  carving  knife,  of 
removal  of  the  breast-plate  displayed  the  internal  organs, 
which  were  removed  together  with  their  investing  fat.  The 
pulsations  of  the  heart,  which  was  removed  last  of  all,  the 
snapping  of  the  jaws,  the  plaintive  expression  of  the  eyes^ 
and  general  indications  of  disapproval  formed  a  ghastly 
spectacle  not  easily  to  be  forgotten.     The  flesh  of  the  edible 

^*  I  bare  alto  seen  paranitio  pedancalated  oirrhipedt  attached  to  the 
skin  of  a  sea-Bnake  (Hydrophu)^  the  gills,  of  Neptwnu§  pelagicus^  and  the 
antoaiMi  of  Paii¥idiru»  daaypM. 


100 

» 

turtle  is  described  by  Tennent  as  being  sold  piecemeal  in 
the  market  place  at  Jaffna,  while  the  animal  is  still  alive, 
each  customer  being  served  with  any  part  selected  which  is 
cut  off  and  sold  by  weight ;  and  Darwin,  referring  to  the 
gigantic  tortoise  of  (he  Galapagos  Archipelago,  says  that, 
when  a  tortoise  is  caught,  a  slit  is  made  in  the  skin  near 
the  tail,  so  as  to  see  whether  the  fact  under  the  dorsal  plate 
is  thick.  If  it  is  not,  the  animal  is  liberated,  and  it  is  said 
to  soon  recover  from  the  minor  surgical  operation. 

A  single  specimen  of  the  fresh-water  tortoise  {Niroria 
irijuga),  which  I  recently  heard  referred  to  as  a ''  trot-ice  '*, 
found  at  the  foot  of  a  tree  on  the  sandy  soil  outside  the 
town  of  P&mban,  was  brought  to  me  for  sale.  The  land 
snakes  of  the  island  are  represented,  so  far  as  I  know,  from 
personal  observation,  by  Lyeodon  aulicus  and  Troptdonotus 
'4ttoIa^U8,  of  which  the  latter*  bit  a  friend's  native  servant 
in  the  foot,  causing  great  torture  until  he  was  assured 
•that  it  was  not  a  toxicophidian.  Batrachians  I  have  not 
seen  on  the  island,  but  the  existence  of  Rana  heosadactyla, 
which  is,  I  am  told,  eaten  in  the  Indo-French  possessions, 
was  made  evident  by  the  nocturnal  concerts  in  a  tank  near 
the  bungalow.  Frogfs  are  eaten  by  some  of  the  lowest  caste 
natives  in  India,  and  by  the  Burmese.  In  the  baz&rs  of 
Burma  boiled  frogs  are  exposed  for  sale  among  other  articles 
of  food.  I  have  myself  seen  dried  frogs  hung  up  for  sale 
in  the  Cochin  bazdr. 

One  of  the  edible  holothurians  ^^  (trepangs  or  Mches^ 
de-'mer)  is  very  abundant  in  the  mud*  on  the  south  shore  at 
Pdmban,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  R&m^svaram,  at  both  which 
places  it  is  prepared  for  exportation  to  Penang  and  Singa- 
pore. The  process  of  preparation,  which  is  not  an  appetis- 
ing one  to  watch,  is  as  follows: — ^The  holothurians  are 
<)ollected  as  they  lie  in  the  mud  at  low  water,  and  placed  in 
a  cauldron  which  is  heated  by  a  charcoal  fire.  As  the  tem- 
perature rises  in  the  cauldron,  the  still  living  animals  com- 
mit suicide  by  the  convenient  process  of  ejecting  their 
digestive  apparatus,  &c.,  and  become  reduced  to  empty 
leathery  sacs  which,  by  loss  of  water  consequent  on  the 
temperature  to  which  they  are  exposed,  shrivel  consider- 
ably. At  the  end  of  twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour  the 
boiling  process  is  stopped,  and  the  shrivelled  animals  are 
buried  in  the  sand  until  the  following  morning,  when  the 


'*  Bololhwria  mormorota* 


101 

boiling  process  is  repeated.      Finally^  they  are 
according  to  their  size,  and  are  ready  for  shipment. 

Ti'epangs,  of  which  various  kinds  are  recogaiwid  in 
commerce,  are  highly  esteemed  as  an  article  oi  food  by 
Chinese  and  Japanese  epicures,  being  made  into  a  thick 
gelatinous  soup.  They  sve  said  to  be  a  favorite  article  of 
diet  among  the  colonists  of  Manilla,  and  to  make  a  capital 
didh  when  cooked  by  a  European  chef.  « 

As  regards  the  question  ^^  whether  holothurians  live  on 
living  coral  or  obtain  nutriment  from  swallowing  the  sand 
and  detrital  material,  the  two  most  abundant  species  in  the 
Gulf  of  Manaar  (H.  atra  and  //.  mamiorata)  live,  not  on 
the  reef,  but  on  the  muddy  bottom  between  the  reef  and 
the  shore,  which  is  frequently  uncovered  at  low  tide.  Froui 
repeated  examination  of  the  contents  of  their  alimentary 
canal,  I  have  been  unable  to  find  any  evidence  that  they 
have  been  feeding  on  living  coral,  the  swallowed  materials 
consisting,  for  the  most  part,  of  sand,  coral  debris,  small 
moUusca,  alcyonian  spicules,  and  sea  weeds. 


1^  Vid9  Darwin,  Coral  BmJ^,  8rd  edition,  1889,  p.  2a 


102 


n.-LITTORAL  FAUNA  OF  THE  GULF 

OF  MANAAE. 


• 

The  galf  of  Manaar,  bonnded  on  the  north  by  Adam's 
bridge,  "intervenes  between  the  west  coast  of  Ceylon  and 
the  south-east  coast  of  the  Madras  Presidency.  The 
greatest  depth  yet  found,  and  recorded  by  Dr.  A.  Alcock, 
when  Surgeon-Naturalist  to  the  Marine  Survey  Steamei 
'Investigator,'  in  the  more  open  part  of  the  gulf,  is  1,466 
fathoms  (temperature  34*8°  Fahr.),  and  the  bottom  appears 
to  be  green  mud  throughout. 

It  is  earnestly  to  be  hoped  that  both  the  littoral  and 
deep-sea  fauna  of  the  gulf  will  some  day  receive,  through 
the  medium  of  a  biological  station  worked  on  line?  similar 
to  those  of  the  Naples  and  Plymouth  stations,  the  exhaus- 
tive investigation  which  they  richly  deserve.  The  time  at 
my  own  disposal,  and  the  diffuse  work  of  Museum  direction, 
which  necessitates  residence  in  Madras  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  have  so  far  permitted  only  an  occasional 
flying  visit,  such  as  renders  any  attempt  at  exhaustive 
observations  wholly  out  of  the  question,  and  I  am  conse- 
quently only  able  to  place  on  record  lists,  with  some 
details,  of  those  species  whtch  have  been  obtained  by  my- 
self from  B&m^svaram  and  the  neighbouring  islands,  from 
Tuticorin,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  Crustacea  and  moUusca, 
from  the  Ceylon  pearl  banks  and  their  vicinity. 

My  hearty  thanks  are  due  for  the  great  assistance  which 
they  have  rendered  in  working  out  my  collections,  to  Mr. 
A.  Dendy  (sponges),  Dr.  Ortmann  (corals).  Dr.  Selenka 
(gephyrea),  ^Professor  Jeffrey  Bell  (echinoderms),  Mr. 
J.  B.  Henderson  (crostacea),  Dr.  Yon  Martens  and 
Mr.  E.  A.  Smith  (mollusca)  and  Mr.  B.  Kirkpatrick 
(bryozoa). 

PORIFEBA. 

The  sponges  recorded  below  were  collected  by  me  either 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  B&m^svaram  island  or  at  Tuticorin, 
and  sent  to  Mr.  A.  Dendy,  at  that  time  on  the  staff  of  fhe 
British  Museum,  Natural  History,  by  whom  they  were  de- 
scribed in  detail  in  the  Annah  and  Magazine  of  Natural 
HMory^  September,  1887,  and  February,  1889. 


103 

As  regards  tlie  first  collection^  which  was  made  at  R&rn^s* 
varam,  Mr.  Dandy  wrote  as  follows  : — "  The  collection  is  of 
exceptional  interest,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  first 
which  has  been  obtained  from  this  particular  locality. 
Indeed  onr  knowledge  of  the  sponge-fauna  of  the  entire  In- 
dian ocean  is  extremely  deficient.  This  deficiency  is  almost 
certainly  due  to  want  of  investigation  rather  than  to  any 
actual  scarcity  of  sponges.     Mr.  Kidley  and  I  have  already 

ginted  out,  in  our  report  on  the  Monaxonida  collected  by 
.M.S.  Ohallengor,  that  'this  little-known  field  will  pro- 
bably yield  a  rich  harvest  to  whoever  has  the  good  luck 
to  thoroughly  investigate  it;'  and  this  statement  is  amply 
borne  out  by  Mr.  Thurston's  researches. 

''  The  best  known  locality  for  sponges  in  the  Indian  Ocean 
is  undoubtedly  Ceylon.  Bowerbank,  Q^^Jt  cmd  Carter  haye 
all  written  upon  the  sponge-&una  of  this  particular  district, 
and  the  sponge-fauna  of  Madras^  in  so  far  as  is  evidenced 
by  the  material  at  my  disposal,  bears  a  striking  resemblance 
to  it.  Thus,  out  of  the  ten  determinable  species  from 
Madras,  four,  viz.,  Halichondria  panicea  (a  cosmopolitan 
species),  AxineUa  donnani,  Hirciniu  clathrata,  and  Hircinia 
vallata,  have  already  been  recorded  from  the  neighbourhood 
of  Ceylon. 

'*  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  present  collection  was 
obtained  in  shallow  or  moderately  shallow  water,  although 
there  is  no  record  of  the  depth.  Species  with  a  strong 
development  of  spongin  in  the  skeleton-fibre  predominate, 
as  might  have  been  safely  predicted  from  the  climatic 
conditions  of  the  locality-  *' 

The  majority  of  the  sponges,  as  will  be  seen,  belong  to 
the  monaxonida,  which ''  comprise  by  far  the  most  commonly 
met  with  and  abundant  of  all  sponges.  They  occur  in 
greater  or  less  profusion  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  but  are 
more  especially  shallow-water  forms.  They  may  be  col- 
lected between  tide-marks  almost  anywhere.^'  ^ 

None  of  the  gulf  of  Manaar  sponges,  which  I  have 
collected  from  between  tide-marks  up  to  1 1  fathoms,  are  of 
any  commercial  value.  ^'  The  colours  of  many  of  them  are 
very  bright,  but  soon  fade  or  change  when  the  sponge  is 
dried  or  immersed  in  alcohoL 

'*  Challenger  Report  on  Monaxonida. 

''^  A  single  small  specimen  of  the  commercial  sponge,  Bpongia  aJfleinalit, 
was  collected  bj  Dr.  Anderson  in  the  Mergai  Archipelago. 

15 


104 

The  following  list  includes  only  a  portion  of  my  coUec* 
tion,  many  of  the  sponges  still  awaiting  identification.  Of 
the  thirty-one  species  recorded  by  Mr.  Dendy,  eighteen 
(indicated  by  an  asterisk)  were  described  as  new  species^ 
and  two  new  varieties  of  previously  recorded  species, 
viz.,  Pachychalina  multiformis  and  Oiocalypta  tyleri*^  were 
described. 

TETRAOTINELLrDA. 

*  Tetilla  hirsuta,  Dendy.    Tuticorin.     Pale  yellow  with  darker 

centre. 


MONAXONLDA. 

Halichondria    panicea,     Johnston,    var.     Hdm^svaram.     Light 

pink  variety  of  the  British  species. 
Fetrosia  testudinaria,   Lamarck,    sp.      Tuticorin  pearl  banks. 

Pink,  cup-shaped. 

*  Beniera  madrepora,  Dendy,    Tuticorin.    Pink. 

*  Pachychalina  multiformis,  Lend-enfeld,  sp.  (var.  manaarensis, 

Dendy).  Tuticorin.     Pale 
violet,  or  light  pink. 

*  ,,        delicatula,  Dendy.    Tuticorin.     Colour  not  recorded. 

*  ,,         spinilamella,  Dendy.    Tuticorin.     Pale  yellow. 
Siphonochalina  communis,  Carter^  sp.    Tuticorin.    Bluish  brown. 

*  Gelliodes  camosa,  Dendy.     Tuticorin.     Qrey. 

lotrochota  baculifera,  Ridley  (var.  flabellata,  Dendy).    lUm^s- 

varam  and  Tuticorin.  Dark 
purple. 

Tedania  digitata,  Schmidt,  sp.     Kdm^svaram.    Bed. 

*  Claihria    indica,   Dendy.    Tuticorin.    Frequently  incrasting 

pearl  oyster.     Bright  red. 

*  „        corallitinota,  Dendy.     Tuticorin.     Coral-red. 

*  Bhaphidophlus  spioulosus,  Dendy.     Tutiqorin.     Vermilion. 

*  Hymeniacidon ?   foetida,   Dendy.     Tuticorin.      Grey;    smells 

like  valerian  when  dry. 

*  Phakellia  ridleyi,  Dendy.     Bdm^svaram.     Bed. 
Oiocalypta    tyleri,     Bowerhank  (var.    manaarensis).    Tuticorin. 

White. 

*  Acanfhella  carteri,  Dendy.    Tuticorin.     Orange. 

*  Auletta  aurantiaca,  Dendy.    Tuticorin.     Orange-red. 
Axinella    donnani,     Bowerhank.    B^m^svaram    and    Tuticorin 

pearl  banks.     Orange. 

*  „        labyrinthica,  Dendy.    Tuticorin.     Bed. 

*  „        tubulata,  sp.  Bowerhank.     Bam^svaram    and  Tuti- 

corin pearl  banks.  Inhabited  by 
commensal  tubicolous  oligochoete 
worms.    Pinkish-red  or  red. 


105 

*  Baspailia  fruticoaa,  Bmdy.    B^m^svaram.     Pink. 

*  ,,        thurstoni,  Bendy.    Biin^sYaram.     Dry  ahoire  speci- 

mens. 

*  Suberites  inconstans,  Dtfn(/y.    Between  tide- marks.     F4mban. 

,,        a  var.  moeandrina.    Brown.     Caoal  system  of  var. 

mceandrina  inhabited  by  ophiu- 

roids. 
,,         P  var.  digitata. 
I,         y  var.  globosa. 

CERATOSA. 

*  8pongion4>lla  nigra,  Bendy,    Tuticorin.    Black. 
Hippospongia,  sp.  Ram^svaram. 

Bircinia  clathrata,  Carter.    Rdm^syaram  and  Tuticorin.    Canal 

system  occupied  by  a  cirrhiped  crustaceani 
Balanus  (A casta)  spongitea, 

*  „       yaJlata,  Bendy,     Rim^svaram. 

Aplysina    purpurea,    Carter.    Tuticorin.     Grey    (in    spirit,  or 

when  dry) ;  dark  purple. 
„  fusca,  Carter,     Tuticorm. 

C^LENTERATA. 

OCTACTINIA. 

Alcyonium  digitulatum,  Kliinz,     Rdm^svaram. 
f>        gyrosum»  Eluwi.     Rdm^svaram. 
ff        polydactylum,      £hr,     (var.     mamillifera,    Klilnt), 

Rdm^svaram. 
Barcophjtum  pauciflorum,  Ehr.     Rdm^svaram. 
Echinogorgia  pseud osasappo,  Edll,    Rdm^svaram;    also  from 

the    Madras   harbour;  studded, 
as  figured  by  Esper,  with  Avi- 
cul89,  and  opbiuroids. 
,,  sasappo,  EblL    (Esper  sp.).     Kdm^svaram. 

,,  cerea,  Ebll.  Rdm^svaram;  also  from  the  Madras 

harbour. 
„  furfuracea,  Edll  (Esper,  sp.).     Rdm^syaram;  also 

from  the  Madras  harbour. 
Plexaura  flabellum,  Esper,  Horoy  axes  cast  on  shore  at  R^m^s* 

varam  and  Tuticorin. 
JunceUa    juncea,  Palhs,    Ram^syaram    and    Tuticorin    (near 

shore  and  on  pearl  banks). 
Gorgonia  (Leptogorgia)  miniacea,  M.  Edw,  (Esper\  sp.).  Ram4s- 

varam  and  Tuticorin. 
Gorgonella  umbella,  Esper,    Tuticorin. 
6aberogorgIa  suberosa,  PuUas,    RiLm^syaram  and  Tuticorin. 
Corallium  nobile,  Pallas,    Rdm6syaram. 


106 

Fteroides  javaDicum,  Bleeher.    B^m^svaram. 

,,        esperi,  HerkloU,     Rdm^svaram  and  Tuticorin. 
Tirgularia  juncea,  Esper,     Hdm^svaram. 
Lituaiia  phalloides,  Fallaa,     Bdm^svaran). 

Some  of  the  alcjonia  formed  large,  flat»  encrusting 
masses.  Entwining  their  arms  round  the  stems  and 
.branches  of  JunceUa  juncea,  Suberogorgia  suberoaa,  etc.,  were 
.  delicate  ophiuroids  {Ophiothix,  etc.),  and^  clinging  to  the 
gorge nisd  were  the  crinoids,  Anfedon  reynaudi,  Antedon 
palmata^  and  Actinometra  parvicirra.  Living  on  the  stems 
of  the  red-coloured  gorgoniae  I  several  times  found  the 
mollusc  Ovulum  (BadiiAs)  formosua,  the  colour  of  whose  shell 
corresponded  with  that  of  the  gorgoniae. 

A  specimen  of  Suberogorgia  suberosay  obtained  at  Mauri- 
tius in  90  fathoms,  is  described  by  Bidley  (Ann.  Mag.  Naf. 
Hist,,  1882,  p.  132)  as  ''  an  immense  dry  specimen  3  feet  5 
inches  high,  and  ]  8  inches  in  maximum  lateral  diameter. 
The  colour  is  pale  wainscot  to  pale  rufous-brown  ;  the 
branches  are  given  off  mostly  at  angles  of  30.  The  colour, 
very  different  from  the  deep  brick-red  usual  in  this  species, 
may  perhaps  be  due  to  the  manner  of  drying,"  The  height 
of  a  specimen  in  the  Madras  museum  from  Tuticorin, 
where  the  pale  and  brick- red  varieties  were  living  side  by 
side,  is  4  feet  8  inches,  and  the  maximum  lateral  diameter 
2  feet  2  inches.  The  specimens  of  Oorgonia  miniacea  were 
characterised  by  the  almost  constant  presence,  on  the  stems 
or  at  their  bifurcation,  of  diseased  excrescences — the  so- 
called  galls — occupied  by  a  cirrhiped  crustacean,  and 
perforated  by  an  orifice,  through  which  currents  of  water 
for  the  respiration  of  the  crustacean  were  admitted  into  the 
cavity  of  the  excrescence,  through  which  the  stream  passed 
in  a  constant  direction.  The  association  of  similar  excre- 
scences on  stony  corals  of  the  genera  Sideropora,  Seriatopora, 
and  PociUoporUy  is  discussed  in  detail  by  Semper,  and  I 
have  myself  seen  a  specimen  of  the  cup-shaped  Turbinaria 
crater  (preserved  in  the  Madras  museum),  the  interior 
surface  of  which  presents  a  mammillated  appearance  caused 
by  himdreds  of  Jialani.  Several  fragments  of  Corallum 
nobih,  the  red  coral  of  commerce,  have  been  picked  up  by 
me  on  the  Pdmban  beach,  and  the  native  divers  tell  me 
that  they  occasionally  come  across  much  larger  pieces. 
Concerning  this  species  Ridley  says  *® : —  "  Dr.   Lankester 

1"  Animal  Life.     IntsmaL  Science  S«r.,  yoI.  xxxi. 
^  Ann,  Mag,  Nat,  Hist.,  vol.  xi,  1883. 


107 

(Uses  of  Animals  to  Man),  besides  the  Persian  Gulf,  gives 
Cejlon  as  a  locality  for  this,  the  precious  red  coral  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  Cape  Verd  Islands,  and  Dr.  Ondaatje 
has  shown  me  decorticated  specimens  from  Cejlon,  which 
make  the  identity  of  the  species  probable.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  a  fossil  form  is  recorded  from  Indian  deposits 
(Duncan),  which,  as  I  have  given  reasons  for  thinking 
(  Proc,  Zool.  Soc,  1882,  p.  834),  seems  probably  identified 
with  this  species,  Seguenza  having  found  it  fossil  in  India^ 
still  bearing  a  slight  red  tint.  '  An  officer,^  in  a  work 
entitled  Ceylon  (London,  8vo.,  1876)  mentions  small  frag- 
ments of  red  coral  similar  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean  as 
having  been  found  at  the  water^s  edge  between  Galle  and 
Colombo,  and  states  it  to  have  been  referred  to  by  the  Portu- 
guese.'' It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  red 
coral  of  commerce  is  imported  to  the  east  in  large  quan-r 
tities  to  be  worked  up  into  necklaces  and  other  ornaments 
for  natives ;  and  it  is  possible  that  the  small  fragments, 
picked  up  from  time  to  time  on  the  beach,  may  be  only 
adventitious  products,  and  not  a  natural  product  of  the 
neighbouring  sea.  The  condition  of  the  Indian  trade  in  red 
coral  has  been  said  ^  to  be  an  accurate  gauf^e  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  agricultural  classes  in  the  North- Western  Pro- 
vinces, Bajputana  and  Sub-Himalayan  tracts,  as  the  bulk 
of  the  imports  is  brought  by  these  classes  to  be  worn  as 
necklaces,  the  coral  beads,  when  a  man  is  prosperous,  altera 
nating  with  gold  beads.  The  valae  of  the  red  coral  im- 
ported into  India  in  the  years  1889-92  was  Bx.  140,194 ; 
B^.  1,68,716  and  Rs.  l,o8,112,  respectively. 

ViROULAEIA   JUNCEA.  2^ 

My  attention  was  directed  to  an  article  in  the  National 
Rtview,  February,  1890,  entitled  *  Out  of  the  Depths,'  by 
the  Honorable  A.  E.  Gathorne-Hardy,  who  there  enters  into 
a  discussion  of  the  habits  of  the  genus  Virgularia.  The 
points  at  issue  are  two-fold  : — 

(1)  Do  the  animals  stand  up  vertically  with  their  bulb 
pljemted  in  the  mud  ? 

(2)  Can  the  animals  pull  themselves  in  with  force  so  as 
to  nearly  or  quite  disappear  ? 


*>  J.  E.  O'Conor.    Review  of  Indian  Trade,  1882-83. 
'*  This  note  wfts  originallj  pobliBhed  in  the  Froc,  Zool,  Soe.,  Lond^^ 
Jane  17, 1890. 


108 

In  the  first  edition  of  my  Notes  on  Pearl  and  Chani 
FishetHes^  I  said  with  reference  to  specimens  of  Virgu* 
laria  :  '*  The  Sea-pen,  Viryularia  janceay  accords  in  its  habits 
with  another  species^  V.  patagonica,  which  is  described  by 
Darwin  {Journal  of  ResearcheB,)  as  being  seen  projecting 
like  stubble  with  the  truncate  end  upwards,  a  few  inches 
above  the  surface  of  the  muddy  sand.  When  touched  or 
pulled,  they  suddenly  draw  themselves  in  with  force  so  as 
to  nearly  or  quite  disappear." 

The  specimens  of  V.  juncea  were  obtained  by  one  of  my 
Labbi  divers  in  shallow  water  opposite  the  Eothanda  Baman 
kovil  ^temple)  on  R&m^svaram  island  in  July^  1888.  His 
attention  was  attracted  by  what  he  thought  was  a  stick 
projecting  a  few  inches  above  the  sandy  bottom,  and  he 
broke  it  off  and  gave  it  to  one  of  my  native  collectors,  who 
was  with  him  and  i*ecognized  it  as  being  the  broken  piece 
of  an  animal.  The  divers  then  hunted  for  and  secured 
numerous  other  sp€>cimens,  all  of  which  had  their  terminal 
bulbs  in  a  perfect  condition.  The  largest  specimen  was  16 
inches  in  length,  and  tapered  towards  the  upper  end,  but 
the  extreme  tip  was  wanting,  1'he  diver  described  the 
animals  as  sticking  straight  up  in  the  sand,  and  said  that, 
as  soon  as  he  touched  them,  they  went  deeper  and  deeper 
down  in  the  sand,  and  sometimes  fixed  themselves  so 
firmly  that  he  could  only  secure  them  by  digging  them  out 
with  a  spade. 

Though  I  was  not  present  at  the  capture  of  the  speci- 
mens, I  had  no  reason  to  discredit  the  evidence  of  the  diver 
who  was  a  keen  observer,  wholly  unacquainted  with  the 
English  language,  and  who  had  certainly  never  seen  or  heard 
of  the  Journal  of  Researches. 


HEXACTINIA. 

ACTINIARIA. 

Various  undetermined  species  of  sea-anemone  are  found, 
either  burrowing  in  the  sandy  shore  between  tide-marks, 
or  attached  to,  or  living  within  cavities  excavated  in  coral 
blocks.  A  single  specimen  of  Palythoa  tuberculosa,  recorded 
by  Esper  from  Tranquebar  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Madras 
Presidency,  was  brought  up  by  the  divers  at  P&mban, 
encrusting  the  upper  surface  of  a  dead  coral.  Yarioua 
species  of  ZoanlhuSy  single  or  colonial,  live  among  the  corals 


109 

on  the  reefs.  At  both  Taticorin  and  P&mban  I  bave  seve- 
ral times  seen  specimens  of  Sphenopus  marsupialis,  which 
was  collected  originally  by  Johns,  a  Moravian  Missionafy, 
at  Tranquebar,  and  was  during  the  cyclone  of  1886  cast 
on  shore  in  very  large  numbers  at  Madras,  where  it  was  col* 
lected  for  me  by  one  of  my  native  taxidermists,  who  re- 
ported to  me  that  he  found  it  'grazing'  on  the  beach. 
The  outer  surface  of  this  species  is  made  up  of  sand  gprains 
glued  together  by  a  viscid  secretion  and  imbedded  in  a 
cartilaginous  case.  Specimens  figured  in  the  Proceedings 
of  the  Zookgical  Society^  February  14^  1867,  were  collected 
at  Pulo  Faya  in  the  Giina  seas. 

MADREPOBABIA. 

1.  Mabsbpobabia  Apobosa. 

Fam.  TurUnolidm, 
Paracyathus  profimdus,  Duncan,  (Fauna  Mergui), 

Fam.  Poeilloporids, 

Pocillopora  bulbosa,  Ehrhg, 
„  verruoosa,  EU,  Sol, 

Fam.  Attraida.  * 

Oalaxea  bougainvillei,  Biott. 

„       ellisi,  M.  JEd.  and  Haime. 
SymphyUia  radians,  Val, 
Eohinopora  aspera,  EU.  Sol. 
„  flexuosa,  VerriU. 

,,  lameUosa,  Esper, 

Leptoria  gracilis,  Dana,    var.  tenuis,  Dana, 
Ccaloria  arabica,  Ekg, 

„        var.  Bubdentata,  M,  Ed.  and  Haime. 
,,        var.  leptotricha,  ^Ar&^.  (  =  0.  bottai.  If.  jS<l. 

and  Haiin$.) 

Hydnophora  contignatio,  FOr^h.  (  =bH.  EhroDbergi,  M.  Ed.  and 

Haime.) 
,,  lobata,  Lmk. 

„  microconus,  Lmk, 

Favia  clouei,  Val. 

,,     denticulata,  Ell.  SoL 
„     cf.  tubulifera,  Ebg. 
Qoniastrsaa  halicora,  Ehrhg. 
„  retiformis,  Lmk. 


91 


110 

Prionastreea  tosserifera,  Ehrlg. 
PleeiastrsBa,  cf .  versipora,  Lmk, 
Phymastraea^  n.  sp.,  Orim, 

,y  profundior,  M.  Ed,  and  Haime, 

,,  yalenciennesi,  M.  Ed,  and  Haime. 

Cyphastraea  miilleri,  M.  Ed,  and  Maimn, 

„  serailia,  Ihrsk. 

Merulina  ampliata,  Ehrhg, 

II.    MaDREFOEABIA  FUNOIDA. 

Fam.  Pleaiofungidam 

Siderastreea  savig^yana,  M,    Ed,   and  Sdtnuf,    Identical  with 

S.  sphoBroidalis,  Ortm.  (steinkor,  ▼. 
Ceylon),  which  is  only  another  form 
of  ^owth.  ' 

Tichoseris  obtusata,  Quelch. 

Fam.  Cyeloierida. 
Pycloseris  cyclolites,  Lmh. 

III.  Madbefoilasia  Pebforata. 

Fam.  Eupsammida, 

CoBnopsammia  ehrenbergiana,  M,  Ed,  and  IlaivM. 
Heteropsammia  cochlea,  Spengl&r. 

Fam.  Madreporida. 

Madrepora  corymbosa,  Zmk, 

,f  er3rthr8Ba,  Klzg. 

,,  formosa,  Dana. 

J,  multiformis,  Ortm, 

„         plantaginea,  Zmk, 

„  cf.  secunda,  Dana. 

Turbinaria  crater,  Pall, 

,f  ,,      yar.  qnincuncialis.  Orim. 

„        mesenterina,  Lmk,  var.  dnerascens,  Ell.  Sol. 

„        peltata,  Eap. 
Astreopora  pulvinaria,  Lmk. 
Montipora  exserta,  Quelch, 
„  foliosa,  Pall, 

,,  spongiosa,  Ehrhg, 

„  Btylosa,  Ehrhg, 


Ill 

Fam.  Foritida. 

Pontes  oolumnaiis,  S'ltff. 

,,        lutea,  M.  Ed.  and  Haime, 

.,        aolida,  Itirsk, 
Cbniopora  pedunculata,  Quoy  and  Gaim, 

The  majority  of  these  stony  corals  belong  to  the  class 
of  ^*  reef  corals/'  but  a  few  species  are  included,  e.g,^  Para- 
cyathua  profundus^  Ci/closeris  et/clolifes,  and  Heteropsammia 
cochleOj  which  were  dredged  in  deep  water,  where  the  reef- 
builders  were  absent,  and  the  young  Fungice,  which  were 
dredged  from  the  muddy  bottom  of  the  P&mban  Pass*  All 
the  specimens  of  Reteropsammia  cochlea  exhibited  a  hole 
bored  by  a  sipunculid  worm  {Aspidosiphon)^  which  is  always 
found  living  within  this  coral.  It  is  diflioult,  as  Semper 
points  out,^  to  understand  what  advantage  each  animal  can 
derive  from  their  association ;  yet  some  must  exist,  for  a 
coral  is  never  found  without  a  worm. 

The  fact  is  drawn  attention  to  by  Dr.  Martin  Duncan, 
in  his  report  ^  on  the  madreporaria  of  the  Mergui  Archi- 
pelago coUeoted  by  Dr.  Anderson^  as  being  very  remark- 
able that  *'  the  coral-fauna  of  Ceylon,  so  far  as  it  is  known 
from  Mr.  Stuart  O.  Bidley's  researches,  does  not  contain  a 
single  Mergui  species.  The  number  of  genera  common  to 
the  two  areas  is,  however,  great,  and  many  species  are 
closely  allied.^'  A  comparison  of  the  list  of  species  recorded 
above  from  the  Indian  side  of  the  gulf  of  Manaar  with  those 
of  Dr.  Duncan  (Mergui),  **  Dr.  Oi*tmann  ^  and  Mr.  Hidley  *^ 
(Ceylon)  shows,  as  might  be  expected,  that  some  of  the 
species  are  common  to  the  Indian  coast  of  the  gulf  of 
Manaar  and  Ceylon,  and  others  to  the  Indian  coast  of  the 
gulf  of  Manaar  and  the  Mergui  archipelago. 

I  have  found  no  representative  of  the  hydrocorallinae  on 
the  coral  reefs,  but  MiUepora  dichotoma  has  been  recorded 
by  Bidley  (loc.  cit)  from  Ceylon. 

The  genud  Eeliopora  is  apparently  not  represented  on 
the  living  reef,  but  a  single  specimen  of  Heliopcra  edioard^ 
Sana  has  been  described  from  the  cretaceous  deposits  of  the 


^  See  note  on  commensal  sipnncnlid  iohabiting  the  genua  Heterop* 
flammia,  hj  G.  H.  7owler,  Q.J.M.S.,  No.  CXX,  Feb.  1890,  pp.  412-13. 
*"  Animai  Life.  Intemat  Scienee  8er,,  1881.- 
**  Joum,  Linn.  fifM.,  Nov.  13, 1886. 
^  Fawfi.  Mergui,  Arrkipelago,  yd.  i,  1889. 
••  Zoologisch  Jahrhac^f  Spengel,  vo!.  iv,  1889. 
^  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  EUt.,  Ser.  5,  yol.  zi,  1883. 

16 


112 

Trichiuopoly  district  of  the  Madras  Presidency,  concerning 
the  coral-beds  of  which  Stoliczka  writes :— ^*  *'  The  condi- 
tions of  the  deposits  were  not  so  quiet  that  we  could  expect 
to  find  any  of  the  alcyonaria  or  of  the  malacodermata  pre- 
served, but  the  sclerodermata  or  madreporaria  are  repre- 
sented by  fifty-seven  species,  namely,  fifty- three  belonging 
to  the  aporosa,  three  to  the  perforata^  and  one  to  the  tahw 

lata Looking  at  the  whole  fauna  we  see  the  reef- 

bnilding  Asirceidce,  Stylinidce,  and  ThamnastrceidcB  much 
exceeding  the  other  families  in  numbers  of  species,  as  well 
as  in  frequency  of  occurrence  of  specimens.  Coral  reefs 
appear  to  have  been  of  considerable  extent^  particularly 
along  the  old  shores  within  the  Ootatoor  group ;  in  the  two 
other  groups  they  were  much  more  local." 

The  method  employed  by  me  for  the  preservation  of 
corals  (i.e.,  the  skeletons)  which  I  reserve  for  exhibition,  is 
to  expose  them  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and  ants,  which 
remove  a  large  amount  of  the  animal  matter,  and  send  them 
in  boxes,  surrounded  by  paper  and  tightly  packed  in  rice- 
husk,    by   native  sailing  boat   to  Madras.     But,   however 
great  the  care  which  is  taken,  it  generally  happens  that 
some  of  the  corals  become  covered  with  mould  during  the 
voyage.     The  rice-husk,  which  is  usually  found  clinging  to 
the  surface  of  the  corals,  is  removed  with  a  syringe,  and  the 
corals,  after  being  submitted  to  repeated  washings  with 
fresh- water,  are  finally  dried  in  the  sun.     In  no  case  are  they 
submitted  to  the  action  of  corrosive  alkali  solutions.     It  has 
been  objected,  with  regard  to  the  preservation  of  corals  by 
exposing  them  for  some  time  to  the  action  of  rain  or  running 
water,  that  the  finest  details  of  the  skeleton  are  liable  to  be 
dissolved  away  to  some  extent  by  the  action  of  the  carbonic 
acid  in  the  water.     But  I  found,  on  my  visit  to  B&m^svaram 
island  in   1889,  when  enormous  numbers  of  a  species  of 
beetle  were  busily  engaged  in  heaping  up  finely  divided 
sand  between  the  branches  of  my  rejected  madrepores,  that 
the  structural  details  of  various  delicate  corals  (Astrceopora, 
Cyphaatrcea,  etc.),  which  I  had  left  discarded  on  the  sand 
in  the  grounds  of  the  bungalow  twelve  months  previously, 
were  to   no  appreciable    extent  damaged  for  purposes  of 
identification,  though  they  had,  in  the  interval,  been  freely 
exposed  to  the  action  of  a  heavy  monsoon  and  a  cyclone. 
I  am  told  that  the  corals  rejected  by  me,  as  being  too 

'"  PalcBont,  Ind,  Cretaceous  Fawna  of  Southern  India. 


113 

nnmerons  for  transport  to  Madras^  have  been  a  soarce  of 
income  to  my  divers^  who  offer  them  for  sale  to  stray  visitors 
to  the  island. 

HYDEOIDA. 

Plumttlarida. 

HaHcornaria  bipionata.     Muttuvartu  par,  Ceylon. 

f,         insig^is,  AUman,    Muttuwartu  par,  Ceylon. 
„  saccaria)  Allman.    Muttuwartu  par,  Ceylon. 

Campan  ularida. 

Campanularia    juncea,     AUman,    Abundant  on  east    Cheval 
par,  Ctylon. 

ECHINODERMATA. 

A  report  on  a  collection  of  echinoderms,  which  I  made 
in  the  years  1886-87  at  B&m^svaram  island  and  Tuticorin, 
by  Prof.  P.  Jeffrey  Bell,  was  published  in  the  Proceedings 
of  the  Zoological  Society,  June  19,  1888,  wherein  the 
writer  states  that  *'  I  may  be  allowed  to  remind  the  student 
of  the  recent  appearance  of  a  memoir  on  the  echinoderm- 
fauna  of  the  Island  of  Ceylon.^*  Shortly  after  the  dis- 
tribution of  that  memoir  my  respected  correspondent, 
M.  de  Loriol,  was  kind  enough  to  write  and  tell  me  of  four 
other  species  of  Echinoids,  all  of  which  had  been  collected  at 
Aripo  by  M.  Alois  Humbert.*'  Of  these  four  species  (Phyl- 
iacanthua  annulifera,  Temnopieurue  reynaudi^  Glypeasier 
humilis,  a^nd  Laganumd^ressum)^  0,  humilis  and  £.  depreS" 
&um  have  been  found  by  me  off  the  Indian  coast  of  the  Gulf 
of  Manaar. 

Only  two  new  species  have  been  discovered  among  my 
collections,  viz.,  an  ophiuroid,  Pec^tnura  intermedia,  snd  an 
asteroid,  Oreaster  {Pentaceros)  thurstoni,  of  which  the  latter 
is  a  very  common  shallow-water  species,  very  variable  both 
in  its  characters  and  colour.  Since  the  publication  of  Prof. 
BelPs  report  several  species,  not  recorded  there^  have  been 
found  in  my  subsequent  visits  to  the  gulf  of  Manaar^  bring- 
ing the  total  number  up  to  sixty^one. 

The  majority  of  the  specimens  were  found  in  shallow 
water  near  the  shore,  but  some,  e.g.,  Oreaster  (Pentaceroft) 
lincki^  Linckia  Icsvigata,  Colochirue  quadrangularis,  and 
Astrophyton  ekwatum  (of  which  a  single  imperfect  specimen 

^  ScimUfic  Transactums  tif  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  (2),  III,  p.  643  €t  Mg. 


114 

was  found  widiin  the  cnp  of  a  Turbinaria)  were  bronglit  np 
by  divers  from  the  pearl  banks  in  ten  to  eleven  &thoms. 

Of  the  six  species  of  echinoid  which  are  described  by 
Agassiz^  in  his  '  Bevisipn  of  the  Echini '  as  being  charac- 
teristic of  his  Indo-African  Begion,  which  includes  the 
Madras  coast^  five,  viz.,  Uchinodiseus  auritus  and  hiforia, 
Salmacis  sulcata  and  bicolor,  and  Echinolampm  ovijormis, 
are  very  abundant  in  the  gulf  of  Manaar.  Bnt  I  have 
not  as  yet  found  the  sixth  species,  EchinodUcus  lavis. 

The  fossil  echinodermata,  as  recorded  in  the  Palceonto* 
logia  indica  from  the  cretaceous  deposits  in  South  India, 
are  represented  by  two  or  three  species  of  crinoidea 
{Pentacrinua  and  Marsupites)^  a  single  species  of  asteroid 
(Ophtura  ?  cunliffei)^  and  thirty-eight  species  of  echinoidea, 
of  which  the  genera  Cidaria  and  Hemiaster  are  most  largely 
represented. 

CRINOrDEA. 

Antedon  cuming^.    Tuticorin. 

y,       palmato,  Midi.    sp.    Pdmban  and  Tntioorin.     In 

crevices  of  coral  or  on  fforgonia. 
„        reynaudi,  MUU.    sp.    F4mban.  On  stems  of  yor- 

gonia. 
Actinometra  parvicirra,  MUll,  sp.  Tuticorin.    On  stems  of 

gorgonia, 

ASTEROIDEA. 

Astropecten  hemprichii,  M.  TV.     Pdmban.    A  specimen  in 

the  Madras  Museum  h^rS 
swallowed  a  mollusc,  Cert' 
thium. 
„  polyacanthus,  M,  Tr.    Pdmban. 

liuidia  hardwickii,  (Gray),  Ferri&r.    Pdmban. 

„       maculata,  Jli.  Tr,    Pdmban. 
Ooniodiscus  granulif eras,  ( Gray),  Perrier.    Pdmban. 
Anthenea  acuta,  Perrier.    Pdmban. 

„        pentagonula,  {Lmk,)^  Perrier,    Pdmban. 
Pentieiceros  muricatus,  Zinek.    Tuticorin  pearl  banks. 
,,        superbus,  Mdbim.    sp.  Tuticorin. 
„        thurstoni,  BelL  sp.  Pimban,  Tuticorin. 
Asterodiscus  elegans,   Gray,    Tuticorin. 
Asterina  cepheus,  (Jk.  rr.j,  Fl  Mart.    Pdmban. 
Linckia  miharis,  (Linek),  r.  Mart,    Tuticorin  pearl  banks. 
Nardoa  novee  caledonise,  Perrier.    sp.  Tuticorin. 
Echinaster  purpureus,  ( Gray),  Bell.    Tuticorin. 


115 

OPHIITBOIDEA. 

Peotinura  ^orgonia,  Ztk.    Pdmban. 

„         intermedia^  BeU.    Pdmban. 

„         infemalis,  Lth.    Tuticoxin. 
OphiaotiBBavigniiy^tM?.    Pdmban.  In  canal  system  of  sponge 

Sttbentes  ineonstam. 
Opliionereis  dubia,  Lym.    Tuticorin. 
Ophiocoma  erinaceus,  M,  TV.    Pdmban. 
Ophiothrix  longipeda,  M.  TV.    Pdmban 

,y  nereidina,  M.  Tr.    Pdmban. 

„  aspidota,  M,  Tr,    Pdmban. 

Ophiomaza  cacaotica,  Lym.    Pdmban. 
Astrophyton  clavatum,  Lym.    Tuticorin  pearl  banks. 

ECHINOIDEA. 

Phyllacantlius  baculosa.  A,  Ag.    Tuticorin. 
Echinometra  lucunter,  Leshe.    Tuticorin. 
Stomopneustes  yariolaris,  Lmk.    Pdmban. 
Pseudoboletia  macidata,  Tuticorin. 
Temnopleurus  torenmaticus,  LsBke.    Pdmban. 
Salmacis  bicolor,  Ag.    Tuticorin  pearl  banks. 

„        dussumieri,    Ag,    Pdmban.     Common    in    fishing 

nets  at  Madras. 
,,        sulcata^  Ag.    Tuticorin. 
Ecbinns  angulosus,  Ag.  Pdmban.  .  (Spines  quite  white). 
Toxophneustes  pileolus,  Ag.    Tuticorin. 
Fibularia  yolva,  Ag.    Pdmban. 
Clypeaster  bumilis,  Ag,  Tuticorin  pearl  banks. 
Laganum  deoagonale,  Leu.    Pdmban. 

,,        depressum.  Less.    Pdmban. 
Echinodiscus  bif oris,  Ag.    Tuticorin. 

,,  auritus,  Legke.    Pdmban. 

Ecbinolampas  oviformis,  Oray.    Pdmban. 
Lovenia  elongata,  Gray.    Pdmban. 
Bhinobrissus  pyramidalis,  Ag,    Pdmban. 
Brissus  unicolor,  L$»he.    Pdmban. 
Metalia  stemalis,  Lmk.    Tuticorin. 

HOLOTHUROIDEA. 

Cncnmaria  semperi,  BelL    Pdmban. 
Colochirus  quadrangularis,  Lesi.    Tuticorin  pearl  banks. 
Actinocucumis  difficilis.  Bell.    Pdmban. 
Haplodactyla  australis,  Semper.    Tuticorin. 
Hofothuria  atra,  Jdgery  Pdmban. 

,,  marmorata,  Jdger.    Pdmban  (edible  trepang). 

,,  monacaria,  Le9».    Pdmban. 

y/         yagabunda.    Selenka.    Tuticorin. 


116 

• 

Sjmapta  recta,  Semper  ?    Pimban. 

tiiyone  sacellus,  Siknka,  A  specimen  in  the  Madras  museuem 

shows  the  tentacles,  teeth,  etc., 
which  were  ejected  during  life. 

GEPHYBEA. 

I.   GePHYSSA  CH2TIFEBA. 

Thalassema  formulosum. 

II.   GSFHYKEA  AOHJETA. 

Phascolosoma  pellucidum,  Keferstein, 
Dendrodtoma  sig^ifer,  Selenka  and  de  Man. 
Siponculus  robustns,  Keferttein. 

Of  these  four  species,  dredged  off  Bim^svaram  island,  only 
Dend/rostoma  signifir  was  abundant. 

ORTTSTACEA. 

As  regards  the  decapod  and  stomatopod  Crustacea 
Mr.  J.  R.  Henderson  writes  to  me: — "This  collection  is 
one  of  the  most  important  which  has  ever  been  formed  on 
the  Indian  coast.  It  contains  about  a  hundred  and  sixty 
species,  not  more  than  ten  or  twelve  of  which  are  new  to 
science ;  but  a  number  of  rare  or  little-known  forms  are 
present,  and  the  geographical  distribution  of  most  of  these 
has  been  greatly  extended  by  their  discovery  on  the  South 
Indian  shores.  Upwards  of  three  hundred  species  of 
decapod  and  stomatopod  Crustacea  have  been  recorded 
from  the  Bay  of  Bengal^  which  may  be  conveniently  held 
to  include  the  coasts  from  Oeylon  on  the  one  side  to  8inga* 
pore  on  the  other,  along  with  the  numerous  groups  of 
islands  situated  within  this  area.  Yet,  with  the  exception 
of  a  small  collection  from  Madras  report  on  by  Prof.  Heller 
in  the  Crustacea  of  the  Iteiae  der  NovarUj  our  knowledge 
of  the  species  which  inhabit  the  Indian  coast  proper  is 
limited  to  a  few  scattered  papers^  and  to  those  forms  re* 
corded  by  the  older  writers  under  the  somewhat  vague 
localisation  '  Indian  Seas/ 

*^  The  crustacean  fauna  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  showsi  as 
might  be  expected,  a  considerable  proportion  of  coral  reef 
species — widely  distributed  forms,  which  occur  in  suitable 
localities  throughout  the  vast  Indo-Pacific  region.'' 

An  account  of  the  decapod  and  stomatopod  Crustacea 
collected  by  myself  off  both  the  Madras  and  Ceylon  coasts 


117 

of  the  gnlf  of  Manaar  has  been  included  by  Mr.  Henderson 
in  his  recent '  Contribution  to  Indian  Carcinology^^^  to  which 
I  am  indebted  for  the  following  list  of  species^  which  in- 
cludes several  species  (indicated  by  an  asterisk)  recorded 
as  new. 

P&mban  and  Tuticorin  are  on  the  western  or  Madras 
side  of  the.gulf,  and  Silavaturai  and  the  Gheval  and  Muttu« 
wartu  pars  (pearl  banks)  on  the  eastern  or  Ceylon  side  of 
the  gulf. 

DECAPODA. 

Brachtuba. 

Oncinopus  aranea^  De  Haan.    Muttuwartn. 

Huenia  Proteus,  De  Haan.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

Simocarcinus  simplex  {Dana,)     Tuticorin. 

Mencethius   monoceros  {Lair J)     Pdmban,  Tuticorin,    Muttu- 

wartu,  Silavaturai. 
Doclea  hybrida  {Fahr)    Pdlmban. 
Stenodonops  cervicornis.  (JETerhgt,)    Tuticorin. 
Hyastenus  Pleione  (Herbst,)    Silavaturai. 

„         Hilgendorfi,   De  Man.    Piimban,  Tuticorin,  Cheval. 
Ohlorinoides  Coppiugeri,    Hanpell.     Muttuwartu. 
Naxia  hirta  (A,  Milne  JSdw.)     Tuticorin. 
Schizophrys  aspera  (Milne  JSdw.)     Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
Micippa  Philyra    (Herbst.)    P^mban,  Tuticorin. 

„       Thalia  (Herbit,)    Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  Muttuwartu. 
Tylocarcious  styx  (Herhst.)     P^mban,  Tuticorin,  Mutiuwartu. 
Lambrus  contrarius  (Serbst,)    Tuticorin. 

„        affiois.  A,  Milne  Edw,    Pamban,  Tuticorin. 

,,        lonnspinus,  Miers.     Tuticorin. 

,»        Holds wortlu.  Mien.    Tuticorin. 

„        hoplonotus.  Ad  &  TThite.    Muttuwartu. 
Zebrida  Adamsii,  White,     Tuticorin. 
Paratymolus  sexspinosus,  Miere.    Tuticorin. 
Atergatis  integerrimus  {Lmk,),     Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

,,        floridus  {Rumph,)    P&mban,  Tuticorin. 

„       loevigatus,  A.  Milne  Edw.    Tuticorin. 
Carpilodes  tristis,  Dana.    Muttuwartu. 

,,        margaritatus,  A.  Milne  Edw.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
Liomera  punctata  [Milne  Edw,),    Tuticorin,  Muttuwartu. 
Lophacteea  granulosa  {Rilpp,)    P^mban,  Tuticorin. 

„        semigranulosa  {Heller.)    Pamban,  Muttuwartu. 
*      ,,        fissa,  Hendereon.     Tuticorin. 
Actaea  granulata  {Aud,)     Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  Cheval. 

*^  Trma,  Linn.  Soe,  Zoology,  yol.  v,  part  10, 1893. 


118   * 

Act»a  calculosa  (MUm  Edw.)    Tuticorin,  Muttuwarta. 
„     noduloBa  ( IVhite).     Tiiticorin. 

*  „      Peronii  (.Milne  JEdw.)    var.  squamosa.      Muttuwartu. 
yy      rufopunctata  (JftVn^^ifi^.)     Tuticorin,  ChevaL 

y,      Buppellii  {Erau99,)    Pamban,  Tutioorin. 

*  H jpoooelus  rugosuSy  Henderton.    Tutioorin. 
Euxanthus  melissa  {Herhd.)    Tuticorin. 
Polycremnus  ochtodes,  Herhsi,    Muttuwartu. 

*  Halimede  Thurstoni,  Henderson.     Tuticorin. 
CycloxanthuB  lineatus,  A.  Milne  Edw.     Tuticorin. 
Lophozozymus  Do^oiiB^Herhst.)    P&mban,   Tuticorin, 

Muttuwartu. 
„  cristatus,  A.  Milne  JSdw.    Muttuwartu. 

Chlorodius  niger  (Jdrek.)     Pdmban,  Tutioorin,  Muttuwartu. 
Chlorodopsis  spinipes  (Seller.)    Muttuwartu. 
Leptodius  exaratus,  {Milne  Edw.)    P&mban,  Tuticorin, 

Silavaturai. 
Etisus  loBvimanuSy  Randall.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
Phymodius  monticulosus  {Dana.)    Tutioorin. 
Cymo  Andreossyi  {Aud.)    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
Menippe  Bumphii  {Fal>r.)    Pamban,  Tutioorin. 
Actumnus  setifer  {De  Moan.)    Muttuwartu. 

*  „        verrucosus,  Henderson.    Tuticorin,  Muttuwartu. 
PilumnuB  yespertilio  {Fair.)    Pamban,  Tuticorin. 

„         labyrinthicus  Mien.     Pamban. 
Trapezia  Cymodoce  (Herhst.)    Pdmban«  Tuticorin,  Muttuwartu. 

,,        rufopunctata  {Herhst.)    Tuticorin. 
Tetralia  g1aberrima(^^3«^)    Pdmban.  TutiroriUi  Muttuwartu. 
Eriphia  loBvimana  Latr.    Pamban,  Tuticorin. 
Neptnnus  pela^ous  {lAnn.)    Tutioorin* 

,,        gladiator  {Fahr.)    Pamban. 

„        flanguinolentus  [Herhst.)    Pdmban. 

^,        armatus,  A.  Milne  Edw.    Pamban. 

„        Sieboidi,  A.  Milne  Edw.     Muttuwartu. 
Thalamita  prymna  {Herhst.)    P&mban,  Tuticorin. 

,,        admete,  {Herhst.)    P4mban. 

,,        Savignyi  A.  Milne  Edw.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

„         sima,  Milne  Edw.     Tuticorin. 

„        integra,  Dana,     Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

„        sezlubata,  Miers.    Tuticorin. 
Goniosoma  cruciferum  {Fahr.)    Tutioorin. 

„        natator  {Herhst.)    Pdmban. 

„        annulatum  {Fahr.)    Pdmban,  Tutioorin. 

,,        Hellerii,  A.  Milne  Edw.  Pamban,  Tutioorin. 

„        orientale  {Dana.)     Tuticorin. 
Lissooarcinus  loevis,  Miers,    Tuticorin. 
Kranssia  nitida,  8tm.    Tuticorin. 
Oardisoma  camifex,  (Herhst.)    Tuticorin. 
Ocypoda  ceratophthalma  {Pallas.)    Pdmban,  Tuticorin* 


119 

Ocjpoda  maoTOcera,  Milne  Edw.    PambaYi,  Tutioorin. 

„         platjtarsia,  Milne  £dw,     F^mban. 

y,         cordimana,  Latr.     Tutioorin. 
Gelasimus  annulipes,  Latr.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
Macrophthalmus  depressus,  {Rilpp.)    Pdmban. 
8copimera  myctiroides  {Milne  Edw.)    Tuticorin. 
Metograpsus  messor  {lirek.)    Pdmban,  Tutioorin. 
Grapsus  strigosus  (Her bet.)    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

„     maculatus  {Cateehy.)    Tutioorin. 
Leiolopbus  planissimus  (Serhet.)    Pdmban. 
Sesarma  quadrata  (Fahr,)     Tutioorin. 
Xenopbthahnus  pinnotberoides,  White,    Pdmban. 
Elameae  trunoata,  A.  Milne  Edw.     Silavaturai.    ■ 
Galappa  bepatica  {Linn.)    Pdmban,.  Tuticorin. 
,,         gallus  {Herhet)    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
Matuta  victrix,  Fahr.    Tuticorin. 

„     Miersii,  Hendereon.     Tuticorin. 
Loucosia  craniolaris  {Linn.)    Pdmban,  Muttuwartu. 
Pseudopbilyra  Melita,  De  Man.     Muttuwartu. 
Pbilyra  scabriuscula  {Fabr.)    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

f,        Adamsii,  Bell.     Pdmban,  Silavaturai. 

,,        platycbeira,  De  Moan.     Silavaturai. 

„         globosa  {Fahr.)    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
Mjra  fugax  {Fabr.)    Pdmban. 
Ebalia  PfefPeri,  De  Man.     Muttuwartu. 

*  ,y     fallax,  Hendereony  Muttuwartu. 
Nursia  plicata  {Herbet.)    Pdmban. 

,,       abbreviata,  Bell.    Pdmban,  Silavaturai. 
Dorippe  dorsipes  {Linn.)    Pdmban,  Silavaturai. 
,y        faccbino  (fferbst)    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

Anomura. 

I>romidiaunidentata(i?%);7.)    Tuticorin. 

„         australiensis,  JETaswell.    Silavaturai. 
Cryptodromia  pentagonalis,  Hil^.    Silavaturai,  Muttuwartu. 
Fseudodromia  integrifrons,  Hendereon.    Tuticorin. 
^     Baninoides  serratifrons,  Hendereon.    CbevaL 
Hippa  afiiatica,  MUne  Edw.    Pdmban. 
Albunea  sjmnista  {Linn.)    Pdmbfin. 

♦  ,,         Tburfitoni,  Ifenderson.     Cbeval.< 

Coenobita  rugosa,  Milne  Edw.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  Silavaturai. 
Diogenes  Diogenes  {Herbet.)    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

merguiensis,  De  Man.    Muttuwartu. 

miles  {Herbet.)    Pdmban,  Silavaturai. 

custos  {Fabr.)    Pdmban. 

planimanus,  Hendereon.    Pdmban. 

avarus.  Heller.     PdmHan,  Tuticorin. 

costatus,  Henderson.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

17 


120 

Paguruspiinctulatus  (O/tV.)    Pamban,  Tuticorin. 
f,        deformis,  Milne  Edto.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
„        varipeB,  Heller.     Tuticorin,  Muttuwartu. 
,1         setifer,  Milne  Edw,    Tuticorin. 

*  Troglopagurus  manaarensis,  Send&reon.  Tuticorin,      Mutta- 

wartu. 
Aniculus  aniculus  (Fahr,)    Tuticorin,  Muttuwartu. 

,,        strigatus  {Herhst,)    Tuticorin. 
Glibanarius  padavensis,  De  Man.     Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
,,         arethusa,  De  Man,  Pdmban,  Muttuwartu. 

*  Eupagurus  zebra,  Hend^reon,     Muttuwartu 
PetrolistheB  dentatus  {Milne  Edw.)    Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  Muttu- 
wartu. 

,,        Boscii  {Aud.)     Pamban,  Muttuwartu. 

„        militaris  {Heller  )    Pdmban,  Cbeyal,  Muttuwartu. 
Porcellanella  triloba,  White.    Pdmban. 
Polyonyx  obesulus,  Miers.    Pamban,  Tuticorin. 

„        tuberculosus.  De  Many  Pdmban,  Cheyal.  - 
Oalathea  elegans,   Wliite.    Tuticorin. 

,,        Bpinosirf»stris,  Dana.     Muttuwartu. 
Munida  spinulifera,  Miers.    Muttuwartu. 


Macbura. 

Oebiopsis  Darwinii,  Miers.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  Cbeyal. 

Thenus  orientalis  (Fahr.)    Muttuwartu. 

Panulirus  dasypus  (Latr.)    Silavaturai. 

Alpheus  Edwardsii  (Aud )    Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  Muttuwartu. 

hippothoe,  De  Man.      Pdmban. 

frontalis,  8ai/.    Tuticorin. 

loevis,  Randall.  Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
„        NeptunuB,  Dana^  Pdmban. 
Bhyncliocinetes  rug^loBus,  8tm.    Tuticorin 
Pontonia  tridacnae,  Dana.  Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

STOMATOPODA. 

LyBiosquilla  maculata,  (Fabr.)    Tuticorin. 
Squilla  nepa,  Latr,      Tuticorin. 

,,      affinis,  BertMd.  Tuticorin. 

„      Bcorpioj  Lair,    Tuticorin. 

„      rapnidea,  Fahri     Pdmban. 
PseudoBquilla  ciliata  {Fahr.)     Pamban. 

GK>nodactylu8  glaber,  Brooks.     Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  SilaTsturai* 
„  Demanii,  Henderson,    P&mban. 

CAPEELUDiB. 

Several    speoimens  of    Parndeutella    hidentaia^    Kajer, 
were  foiind  adhering  to  the  stems  of  Jiincella  juncea  on  the 


121 

P&mban  reef.  A  male  was  sent  to^  the  Naples  zoological 
station  for  identification  by  Dr.  Paul  Mayer,  who  reported 
it  as  being  1  m.m.  longer  than  the  longest  specimen  in  his 
possession. 

The  type  specimens,  described  by  Dr.  Mayer,  ^  were 
collected  by  the  Swedish  Naturalist,  K.  Fristedt  at  P&mban, 
together  with  MetaproteUa  hdswelliana^  Mayer ;  Metaprotella 
ewcentricOj  Mayer ;  and  Metaprotella  problematical  Mayer,  in 
1—4  fathoms  on  bryozoa  and  sponges. 

MOLLUSCA. 

The  following  list  of  mollasca,  which  I  have  collected 
off  both  the  Indian  and  Ceylon  coast  of  the  gulf  of  Manaar, 
includes  (1)  those  which  were  collected  on  the  beach,  all 
shells  which  were  worn  and  bore  evidence  of  having  been 
rolled  in  from  a  distance  being  rejected,  and  only  those 
which  appeared  to  be  fresh  being  retained  ;  (2)  those 
which  were  obtained  by  dredging,  and  straining  the  con- 
tents of  the  dredge  through  sieves  ;  (3)  those  which  were 
cellected  on  the  coral  reefs  on  clear  days  or  at  low  tide  ; 
(4)  those  which  were  brought  up  from  the  pearl  banks  and 
other  localities  by  native  divers  ;  (5)  those  which  were 
obtained  by  examining  the  sweepings  from  the  kottus 
(oyster-sheds)  during  the  pearl  fishery  ;  (6)  those  which 
were  found  attached  to  algae  and  gorgoniao,  or  obtained 
by  breaking  up  coral  blocks  with  a  crowbar,  and  extracting 
the  shells  which  were  buried  in  cavities  bored  by  the 
animals  during  life. 

P&mban,  Eilakarai,  and  Tuticorin  are  on  the  western  or 
Madras  side  of  the  gulf  of  Manaar ;  Dutch  bay,  Silavaturai, 
and  the  Muttuwartu,  Gheval  and  Karaitivu  pars  (pearl- 
banks)  are  on  the  eastern  or  Ceylon  side  of  the  gulf. 

CEPHALOPODA. 

Spirula    Peronii,    Zmk.     F^mban,    Kilakarai,     Dutch     Bay, 

Karaitivu. 
Nautilus  pompUius,  Linn.    Pdmban. 

PTEROPODA. 

Styliola  acicula.     Pelagic  over  coral  reefs. 


»  Femn  und  Flor,  Golf.  t.  Neapel.  Mon.  XVII,  pp.  29,  30. 


122 


HETEROPODA. 

lantMna  affinis,  Ev,    Muttnwartu. 

f,        af ricana,  i?t7.    "Very  abundant,  coincidently  with 

Fhysalia,  one  evening  at  Kilakarai. 

GASTBOPODA. 

Morez  angaliierixs,  Lmk,    Tuticorin. 

,,  „  yar.  ponderosus.     Muttuwartu. 

fy        badius  (?),  £v,    F^mban,  Tuticorin. 

y,        baustellum,  Linn.     Fdmban,  Tuticorin. 

f,        pabniferuSy  Sow,     Earaitivu. 

,,         tenuispina,  Lmk,    Pamban. 

,f        temispinat,  Zmk.    P&mban. 
Fusus  coluSy  Linn.    Famban. 

,,     tuberculatus,  Iifnk.     Fdmban. 
Melongena  vespertilio,  Lmk,    Pdmban. 
Pollia  rubiginosa,  ^t^.     Pamban, 
Tritonidea  melanostoma,  Tuticorin,  ChevaL 

„        undosa,  Linn.    Pdmban. 
Fleurotoma  tigrina,  LmL    Pamban. 

J,  (Drillia)  crenularis,  Lmk.    Pdmban. 

f,  (      „     )  inconstans,  Smith.     Pdmban. 

„  (Surcula)  jayana,  de  Boiss.    Pdmban. 

Dapknella  yaricifera,  Pease.     Muttuwartu. 
Cythara  pallida^  Ev.    Famban,  Tuticorin. 
Clathurella  lemniscata,  NeviU.    Pdmban. 

yy  rubrogUttata,  S.  Ad.    Famban,  Tuticorin. 

Mangelia  Fairban^i,  NeviU.    Dutch  Bay. 
Triton  chlorostomus,  Lmk.    Pamban. 

„       cingulatus,  Pf.    Tuficorin, 

y,       retusuSy  Lmk.     Tuticorin. 

,,       (Persona^  cancellinns,(^  ^OKM.     Tuticorin. 
Tritonium  cingulatum,  Lmk.     Fdmban,  Cheyal. 
,,        lampas,  lAnn.    Pdmban. 
,,        pileare,  Linn.    Pamban. 
Banella  fouata,  Brod.    Tuticorin. 

,,        granifera,  Lmk.    Pdmban,  CheyaL 

,,        pusilla,  Brod.    Muttuwartu. 

,,        tuberculata,  Brod.    Pdmban. 
Hindsia  acuminata,  Rv.    Tuticorin. 

Bullia  melanoides,  Desk.     Fdmban.  • 

Nassa  oanaliculata,  Lmk.    Pdmban. 

^      ooTonula,  A.  Ad.    Earaitivu. 

„      cribraria,  Marrat.    Tuticorin. 

^      delicata,  Rv.    Muttuwartu. 

„      fasciata,   Qmy  &  Gaim.    Tuticorin. 

,,      marginalatai  Lmk.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  Dutch  Bay. 


S- 


123 

Naaaa  marginulata  var.    minor.    Fimban. 

y,  .  ff        Tar.    conoidalis.    Pdmbaxiy  Elilakarai, 

KaraitiTU. 

„    omatai  Kten,    Pdmban. 

,y     suturaiis,  Zmk.    P^ban. 

,,    thersites,  Bruf^,    Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  KaraitiTU. 

„     ^Niotha)  albescens,  Dunk.    Pimban. 

„     (      „     )  australisy  A.  Ad.  Pdmban. 
Ebuma  spirata,  Lmk.    Pamban 

,,      zejlanica,  Lmk.    Pdmban. 
Purpura  cimnifera,  Lmk.    Pdmban. 
,y        Budolphi,  Lmk.    Pdmban. 
Kicinula  undata,  Chemn.    Pdmban,  Kilakarai. 
Olivaocillaria  oebulosa,  Lmk.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
01iT4  Candida,  Lmk.      Pdmban. 

,,     gibbosa,  Bom.    Pdmban. 

„     ispidula,  Xtnn«    Pdmban. 

Ancillaria  fulva,  Stvatns.  Muttuwartu. 
.    yy        oryza,  JRv.    Tuticorin,  Kilakarai. 

„        (Sparella)  acuminata,  Sow.    Pdmban. 

„        (      »      )  c^^P^^    ^^'    P^niban,  Tuticorin,  Gheral. 

„        (      „      }  ciunamonea,  Lmk.    Tuticorin. 
Fasciolaria  filamentosa,  Chemn.    Pdmban. 

„  trapezium,  Linn.     P^roban. 

Tudicla  spirillus,  Lmk.    Pamban. 
Ijatirus  microstomus,  Koh.    Muttuwartu. 
,,      pulchellus,  Ro,     KaraitiTU. 
„      turritus,  Gm,    KaraitiTU. 
Turbinella  comigera,  Lmk.    Tuticorin. 

,,         pyrum,  Lmk.    Pamban,  Tuticorin. 
„         rapa,  Lmk.    Tuticorin. 

Yoluta  interpuncta,  Mariyn.    Tuticorin. 

Cymbium  indicum,  Om.     Pamban. 

Mitra  dublicata,  Rv.    Pdmban. 
„     rubricata,  Rv.     Pdmban. 
.  „    zebuensis,  Rv.    Muttuwartu* 
Strigatella  litterata,  Lmk.    Pdmban. 
Marginella  angustata,     8ow.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  GhoTal, 

KaraitiTU. 
„         dens,  Rv.    Tuticorin,  Dutch  Bay,  Muttuwartu. 
„         naTicella,  Rv.    Muttuwartu. 
Erato  angistoma,  Rv.    Tuticorin. 
Zafra  atrata,  Oould.    P4mban. 
Columbella  flaTida,  Lmk.    Tuticorin,  TaraitiTU. 

„         mindorensis,  Rv.    Pdmban,  Kilakarai,    Tuticorin, 

KaraitiTU. 
,,  pusilla,  Dunk.     P&mban. 

„         undata,  Pamban. 


124 

Oolambella  yersicolor,  Sow.    Fdmban,  Kilakarait  Tuticorin, 

Karaitiyu,  Muttuwartu. 
yi        (Anachis)  texpsichore,  Sow,    F^mban,  Tuticorin, 

RaraitiYu. 
'Eng^na  irifasciata,  Ev,      F^mban. 

„      zonata,  Ev»    Ffimban. 
Harpa  yentricosa,  Zmk.    F^ban. 
Cassis  areola,  Zmh.    Fdmban. 

„      canaliculata,  Ztnk.    Fdmban. 

J,      (Bezoardica)  glauoa,  Brug.    Fimban. 
Dolium  fasciatum,  IJmk.    Famban. 

,y      maculatum,  Lmk.    Famban. 

„      olearium,  Linn,    Fdmban. 
Ficula  laevigatai  Ev.    Famban.  ^  . 

y,      reticulata,  Lmk,     Fdmban. 
Fynila  oochlidium,  Linn.    Famban,  CheraL  | 

Natioa  ala  papilionis,  Chemn,    Tuticorin. 

,y      colnmnaris,  Meet.    Muttuwartu. 

,,      lineata,  Lmk.    Fdmban. 

y,      maculosa,  IJmk.    Fdmban,  Dutch  Bay. 

,,      maroccana,  Chemn.    Fdmban,  Tuticorin. 

„      pavimentum,  Rv.     Cbeyal. 

„      pulicaris,  Phil.    Fdmban,  Tuticorin. 

„      (Manulla)  melanostoma,  Lmk.    Tuticorin. 

„      (Neyerita)  didjma,  Bolt.     Pdmban,  Muttuwartu. 

„      (Ruma)  melanostoma,  Xm^.    Oheyal,  Muttuwartu. 
Sigaretus  neritoideus,  Linn.    Fdmban.  ' 

Naticina  papilla,  Chmnn,    Fdmban. 
Scalaria  acuLeata,  Sow.    Fdmban. 

,,      decussata,  PeoM.    Fdmban.  ^  , 

Terebra  duplicata,  Linn,    (yar  Reeye).      CheyaL  '  i 

,,      myuros,  Lmk.    Fdmban. 
Bingicula  dolearis  (?)  Gould.     Tuticorin. 
„       propinquans,  Ifinds.     Fdmban. 
Alaba  rectaogularis,  Cramer.    Fdmban. 
Solarium  IsBYigatum,  Lmk.    Fdmban. 

„       perspectiyum,  Lmk.    Famban. 

„       (Tormia)  oselata,  Binds.    Fdmban,  Muttuwartu 

„       (Torinia)  fulyum.  Binds.    Fdmban. 
ConuB  amadis,  Chemn.    Fdmban. 

„     dispar.  Sow.    Fdmban. 

„    figulinus,  Linn     Fdmban. 

„     geogprapbus,  Linn.     Tuticorin. 

„     glans,  Bwass.    Fdmban. 

„    nebrsBUS,  Linn.    Fdmban. 

,,    litteratus,  Linn.    Tuticorin. 
longurionis,  Kien.    Tuticorin. 
marmoreus,  Linn,    Famban. 
peplum,  Chemn.    Muttuwartu. 


99 


125 

Conus  piperatas,  DiHwyn.    P6mban. 
„     stnatuB,  Linn.    Tutiooiin. 
,,     textile,  Linn.     Tuticorin. 
Strombus  canarium,  Linn,    Pdmban,  TuticoiixL. 
marginatuSy  Linn,    Pdmban. 
urceuB,  Linn.    (yar.  plicatus).    Lmk.    Pamban. 
Pterocera  aurantia,  Lmk.     P^ban. 
„         lambis.  Linn.     Pdmban. 
. ,,         scorpius,  Linn,    Pdmban,  Tuticorin, 
C^'preea  arabica,  Linn.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
„  „  ,y        yar.  Smith.  Tuticorin. 

,,       caput  serpentis,  Linn,    Tuticorin. 
,,      cameola,  Linn.    Tuticorin. 
,,      caurica,  Linn.     Pdmban. 
y,       errones,  Linn.     Pamban. 
„       hirundo,  Gm.    Pdmban. 

lentiginosa,  Grrai^.    Pdmban. 
lynx,  Linn.     Pdmban. 
„      mauritiana,  Linn.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
y,      moneta,  Linn.    Pdmban. 

ocellata.  Linn,    Pamban,  Tuticorin. 
onyx,  Linn.    Pdmban. 
y,      talpa,  Linn.    Tuticorin. 
„       tigris,  Linn.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
„       yitellus,  Linn.    Tuticorin. 
,,       (Triyia)  oryza,  Lmk.     Karaitiyu. 
n       (    M     )  producta,  Oask.    Tuticorin. 
Ovulum  (Radius)  arcuatum,  Rv.  Cbeyal. 


if 

if 


ft 


it       (     »      )  birostre,  Linn.  Pdmban. 


)  formicarium,  Soto.    Tuticorin. 
9)        (      99      )  formosus,  Ad.  &  Rv,     Pimban. 
M        (     ,»      )  yolya,  Linn.     Pamban. 
Cancellaria  costifera,  8ou).     Pamban,  Tuticorin. 
,y         elegans,  Sato.     Pamban. 
„         serrata,  Ev.    Dutch  Bay. 
Oerithium  breyiculum,  Soto.     Pdm))an. 
„        oorallinumy  Defr.    Tuticorin. 
,y         morus,  Lmk.    Pdmban. 
„         purpurascens,  Soto.     Tuticprin. 
,  ,,        rugosum,  Wood.    Tuticorin. 
,1         splendens,  Sow.    Pdmban. 

(Aluco)  obeliscus,  Brug     Pdmban,  Karaitiru.  • 
(Bittium)  lineatumn,  Bnnk.    Muttuwartu. 
„        (Tympanotomus)  alatum,  Pamban. 
>>         (  if  )  fluviatile,  Fotitfz.     Pdmban. 

Colina  pupfeformis,  A  Ad.    Pdmban,  Kilakarai,  Tuticorin. 
Triforis  cingulatus,  Dvnk.    Tuticorin,  Dutch  Bay. 
„        concinna,  HindM.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
ti       yiolacea,  Q^oy  &  Qaim,    Muttuwartu. 


>} 
>> 


126 

Fotamides  cing^latus,  Gm.    Tuticorin. 

„       ( Pyrazus)  palustris,  Linn,    F^mban* 
Melania  coUistricta,  JRv.    Tuticorin. 

„        tuberculata,  MuH.    Tuticorin. 
Littorina  fflabrata,  Phil,     Pdmban. 
ff        intermedia,  Phil.     Pdmban. 
„        Bcabra,  Linn,     P^mban,  Tuticorin. 
,,        undulata,  6^ray.     Pdmban. 
Flanaxis  pyramidalis,  Om,     P4mban,  Tuticorin. 

„        suturalis,  Smith.    Muttuwartu. 
Bissoina  antoni,  Sehum.    Pdmban. 

media,  Schum.    P^mban,  Tuticorin. 
planaxoides,     P&mban. 
,,       pusilla,  £v,    Muttuwartu. 

„       (Phosinella)  dathrata,  A.  Ad.    F4mban,  Tuticorin. 
Turritella  attenuata,  JRv,     Pdmban. 

,,         duplicata,  Linn.    Pamban. 
Siliquaria  e/icaustica,  March.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

,,        lactea,  Lmk.    Pdmban. 
Oal  jptroea  neptuni,  Schum.    Pdmban. 
Trocnita  (Galerus)  extinctorium,  Sow.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
Grepidula  (Siphopatella)  walchi,    Hcrm.     Pambdn,    Tuticorin, 

Dutch  Bay. 
Oapulus,  sp.  Pdmban. 

Bipponyx  acutus,  Quay  &  Qaim,     Tuticorin. 
Yanioora  granulosa,  Reel.     Pdmban. 

,,       Quoyiana,  A.  Ad.    Pdmban. 
Nerita  albicilla,  Linn.    Pdmban. 
,,     chamseleon,  Linn.     Pdmban. 
„     maura,  Brod.     Pdmban. 
,,     plicata,  Xinn.    Pamban. 
„     Kumphii,  Reel.    Pdmban. 
„     sqamulata,  Le  Quill.    Pamban. 
Neritina  (Olithon)  ualanensis,  Less.    Pamban. 

„        (Smaragdia)  rangiana,  Reel.     Pamban,  Tuticorin, 

Dutch  Bay. 
Phasianella  nivosa,  Rv.    KilaVarai,  Tuticorin. 
Turbo  petbolatuB,  Linn.    Pamban. 

,,     (Senectus)  margaritaceus,    Linn.     Pdmban,    Tuticorin. 
Oalcar  columellare,  Phil.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  ChevaL 
Liotia  cidaris,  Rv.     Pdmban. 
Botella  costata,  Vol.    Pdmban. 

,,      vestiaria,  Sow.    Tuticorin. 
Delphinula  atrata,  Chemn.    Pdmban. 

„        distorta,  Lmk.    P&mban,  Tuticorin. 
^  Trochus    niloticus,  Linn.  Pamban. 

„        (Clanculus)  clanguloides,  Wood.  Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

„        ?Euchelu8^  atratus,  Om.     Pdmban. 

„        (        „    .  )  droulatus,  Anton.  Pamban,  Dutch  Bay. 


127 

Troohus  (Eudielus)  tricarinatus,  Zmk.    Pdmban. 

y,         (Oibbula)  variabilis,  Ad,     Tuticorin. 

„         (Monilea)  Solandii,  FML    Pamban. 

„        (Polydonta)  costatus,  Gm,     Pamban. 

9t        i         ty        )  radiatus,  Gm.     Pamban. 

,y         (Zizyphinus)  poljchroma,  Ev,    Tamban,  Kilakarai, 

Tufic<irin,  Muttuwartu. 

,,        (         „         )  tranquebaricos,  Chemn,    1  am  ban. 
Gona  stellata,  Sow.    Muttuwartu. 
Haliotis  parva,  Zinn.    Muttuwartu. 

„        semistriata,  JRv.     Pdmban. 

y,         varia,  Linn.     Pdmban. 
Fissurella  clathrata,  Itv.    Pamban. 

ff        octogona,  Bv.     Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
,,        aingaporensis,  Bv.     Tuticorin. 
„        ticaonica,  JRv>    Muttuwartu. 
Emarg^nula  obovata,  A.  Ad.    Pamban,  Tuticorin. 
Scutum  unguis,  Linn.     Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
Dentalium  variabile,  Desk.     P&mban,  Tuticorin. 
Scutellina  asperulataj  A.  Ad,    \ 'amban . 

y,         galatoa,  Lmk.    I'dmban. 
Chiton.     Several  undetermined  species. 
Solidula  solidula,  Lmk,    Pdmban. 
Hydatina  circulate,  Martyn.    PiLmban. 
Cylichna  voluta,  Quay.  Sc  Gaim.     Kilakarai. 
Bulla  ampulla,  Linn.     Pamban. 
Baminea  cjmbalum,  Quoy  Sc  Gaim.    Pimban. 
Atjs  porcellana,  Gould.    Pamban. 

„     tortuosus,  A.  Ad.    Kilakarai. 
Pbiline  aperta,  lAnn,    Pdmban. 

Oxynoe    delicatula,     Nevill.      (=  0.  Sieboldii,    Krokn   ?  ). 

Pambau. 
Volvatella  cincta,  Nevill.   (  =  V.  fragilis,  Pease  ?)  I'auibau. 
Lobiger  viridis,   G.  Sf  H.  N^^ill.     Tuticur.n. 
Aplysia  leporina,  Pamban. 
Dolabella  Humphi,  Cuv,  f    Pamban. 
Siphonaria  exigua,  Sow.    Multuwartu. 

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

Pholas  (Martesia)  striata,  Linn.    Pdmban. 

Dactylus  orientalis,   Gm.    Pamban. 

Jouannetia  globosa,  Qtwy.  Pamban,  £ilakaiai. 

Guetra  nucifera,  Speng.     Pdmban. 

Hocellaria  ovata,  Sow.     Pdmban. 

Aspergillum  dichotomum,  Rv.   Pdmban. 

Solen  adspersus,  Dunk.    Pdmban,   Tuticorin,  Dutch    Bay. 

,,      corneus,  Lmh.   Tuticorin. 
Cultellus  radiatus,  Linn.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

18 


If 


128 

Corl  ula  crassa,  Binds,    Karaitiyu. 

fortisulcatB,  Smith,     Tuticorin. 
modesta,  Binds,     Pamban,  Tuticorin,  Muttuwartu. 
,,         sulculosa,   B,  Ad,     Pamban,  Tuticorin. 
Anatina  labiata,  Rv.     Pdmbiin. 
Tbeora  fragilis,  //.  Ad,     Pamban,  Tuticorin^ 
Mactra  attenuata.  Karaitiyu. 

yy         corbiculoides,  Desk,     Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
,,         decora,  Desk.     Tuti«orin,  Dutch  Bay. 
„         lurida,  Phil,     Dutch  Bay. 
I^utraria  (Merope)  nicobarica,  Gm     Tuticoiin. 
Soletellina  diphos,  Linn.     Pamban. 

,,  donacioides,  Rf),     Dutch  Bay. 

Tellina  assimilis,  Rv.     Dutch  Bay. 

,,      chinensis,  Banl,     Tuticorin,  £araitiyu« 
,,      perplexa,  Banl,     Pamban. 
,,      Bcalpellum,  Banl,     Pdmban. 
„      sulcata,  Wood.    Pamban. 
,,      CArcopagia)  pristis,  Lmk,     Pdmban. 
,,      (Macalia)  Bruguierei,  Banl.     Pamban. 
„      (Metis)  angulata,  Chemn.     Pamban. 
„      (     ,,    )  ephippium,  SpengL     Pamban. 
Dosinia  histrio,  Gm,     Pdmban. 
,,      modesta,  Rv,     Pdmban. 
„      puella,  E,  Rom.     Pdmban,  Dutch  Bay. 
„  ,,      From  black  mud.     Kilakarai,  Dutch  Bay. 

,,      trigona,  Rv.     Pdmban,  Dutch  Bay,  KaraitiTU. 
Donax  eemeus,  March.     Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
,,      cuneatus,   Linn,     Pdmban,  Silavaturai. 
,,      Dysoni,  Desk,     Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
,,      faba,  Chemn,     Pamban,  Tuticorin. 
„      paxillus,  Rv.    Pamban,  Tuticorin. 
,,      scortum,  Linn.     P&mban. 
Semele  casta,  A.  Ad,    Fdmban. 
,,       crenulata,  Sow,    Pamban. 
„      exarata,  Ad.  h.  Rv,    Pdmban. 

,,  •    striata,  RUpp.  Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  Cheval,  Muttuwdrtu. 
Mesodesma  (Paphia)  trigona,  Deah.     Tuticorin. 

„  (    »  ^    )  glabratum,  Lmh,    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

Cytharea    morphina,  Lmk.     Pamban, 
Gallista  erydna,  Linn.    Pamban,  Kilakarai. 
„  (Meretrix)  casta,  BanL    PiLmban. 

Circe  alabaiitrum,  Rv,   Pamban. 
,,      dispor,  Chemn.  var.  abbreviata,  Lmk,    PJimban. 
„  ,,         CA^nzn.  rar.  transversalis,  DmA.  '  P^mban^ 

„      pectinata,  Itirm,    Pamban.  Cythoria^ 

„      personata^  Beah,    Pamban,  Muttuwartu. 
„.     Bcripta,   Linn.    Pdmban,  Karaitivu. 
„     (Crista)  divarioata,  Chemn,    'B&nxbau,  Tntieoria. 


129 

Circe  (Crista)  gibba,  Lmh     Fdmban,  Tyticorin. 
Yeuus  arakana,  NeviU,     Fdmban,  Kilakarai,    Karaitiru 

Dutch  Bay. 

„      foliacea,  Phil.     Pamban,  Cheval,  Dutch  Bay. 

,,      Lamarcki,  Gray.     Famban,  Tuticorin. 

,,      lamf-llaris,  Schum,    Pamban. 

),      plicata,  Linn.   Pamban. 

,,      reticulata,  Linn.     Pambnii. 

,,      toreuma,  A,  Oouid.    Cheval. 

„      (Anaitis),  calophylla,  Phil.     Pdmban,  Karaitivu. 

,,      (Chione)  Layardi,  Sow.     Pfim*>an. 

„      (Cryptogramran)  squamosa.  Linn.     Karaitivu. 

„      (Sunetta)  effossa,  HanL     Pamban.  Tuticorin,  Cheval. 

„      (      „       )  excavata,  Jlanl.   Cheval. 


„      (      „       )  Boripta,  Linn.    Fdmban,  Tuticorin. 


ft 


)  tnmcata,  Desk.    Fdmban. 
,,      (Timoclea)  imbricata,  Soto.    Tuticorin,  Karaitivu. 
,,      (      ,,        )  scabra,  Hani.    Pamban,  Dutch  Bay. 
Tapes  adspersa,  Chemn.    Pdmban,  Muttuwartu. 
,,      litterata,  Linn.     Pamban. 
„      malabaricus,  Chemn.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
,y      rotundata,  Linn.     Pdmban. 
,,      textrix,  Chemn.    F^mban,  Dutch  Bay,  Karaitivu. 
,,      undulata.  Bom.     Tuticorin. 
Hemitapes  ceylonensis,  Sow.     Fdmban. 

,,  pingues,  Chemn.     Pamban,  Dutch  Bay. 

Tenerupis  oarditoides,  Lmk.  Tuticorin,  Dutch  Bay. 

„  ,j  var.  Muttuwartu. 

Fetricola  (Narania)  divaricata,  Chemn.    Pdmban. 
Cardium  asiaticum,  Brug.     Tuticorin. 

,,         latum.  Born.     Tuticorin. 
.     „        leucostoma,  Bom.    Pamban. 

,y        retusum,  Linn.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
„        rubicundum,  Ev.    Pdmban,  Dutch  Bay. 
,)        rugosum,  Lmh.    Tuticorin. 

„        (Papyridea)rugatum,   Oron.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
LsBvicardium  australe.  Sow.    Tuticorin. 
„  retusum,  Linn.    Pdmban. 

Lunnlicardia  subretusa,  Sow.     Pdmban. 
Isocardia  Lamarcki,  Rv.     Muttuwartu. 

,y  Moltkeana,  Chemn.    Muttuwartu. 

Ohama  lazarus,  Linn.    Pdmban. 
Lucina  pisum,  Rv.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  Karaitivu. 
„      ( A.oodontia)  edentula,  Linn.    Pdmban. 
,y      (Di varicella)  Cumingii,  Ad.  ^  Ang.    Tuticorin. 
,,       (LentiUaria)    divergens,    Phil.    Tuticorin,     Muttu* 

wartu. 
Oodakia  Fiscberiana,  Inel.    Pdmban. 
Czyptodon  vesicula,  Ooul4*    Tuticorin. 


130 

Oaleomxna  mauxitiana,  Desh,    Pdmban. 
■  Scintilla  ambigiia,  Desk,     Pamban. 
„        Candida,  Desk.    Pdmban. 
,,         Hanleji,  Sew.    Pdmban. 
Orassatella  radiata,  Sow.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  Oheyal,  Dutch 

Bay. 
f,  rostrata,  Zmk.    Pamban. 

Oardita  bicolor,  Ifmk.    Pdmban,  Kilakarai,  Tutioorin. 
,f      yariegata,  Bru^f.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
yy  „  yar.     Mnttuwartu« 

Mjtilns  yiridis,  Linn,    TuUcorin. 
Modiola  cinnamonea,  Zmk.     Pdmban, 
if       japonica,  Dunk.    Pdmban. 
,f       Metcalfeiy  JBanl.    Pdmban. 
,,       perfragilifl,  Dunk.    Pdmban. 
„       Trailli,  Bv.     Pamban. 
yy       tulipa,  Lmk.     Pdmban,  Silayattirai. 
litbodomus  malaccanuR,  JRv,    Pamban,  Cheval. 
„  antillarum,  Phil.     Pdmban. 

.„  stramineus,  Dunk.     Pamban,  Tuticorin. 

Beptifer  bilocularis,  Linn.     P4mban. 
Ayicula  fucata,  Oauld.    Tutioorio. 

,,        inquinata,  Ev.     Tuticorin,  Muttuwartu. 
,,        margaritifera,  Linn.     Tuticorin. 
„        radiata,  Pease.    Tuticorin. 

„        zebra,  Tuticorin.    Mimics  tbe  short  lateral  ramuli 

of  the  hjdroid  {Aglaojphenia  urens)  to 
which  it  is  attached.* 
MaUens  yulgaris,  Lmk,    Pdmban. 
Pinna,  sp.    Pdmban. 

Area  Kraussi,     Phil.    Pdmban,     Tuticorin,     Muttuwartu, 

Oheyal. 
,,      symmetrica,  Pv.    Pdmban,  TuticoriQ>  Oheyal. 
„      (A.car)  diyaricata.  Sow.     Tuticorin. 
„      (Anadara)  granosa,  Linn.    Pamban,  Kilakarai,  Dutch 

Bay. 
„    (Barbatia)  decussata,  Sow.     Pdmban. 
„    (       „       )  tusca,  Brug.     Pdmban,  Muttuwartu. 
„    (       ,,       )  lima.  Pv.    Tuticorin,  Muttuwartn. 
,,     (Parallelopipedon)  tortuosa,  Linn,    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
9,       (Scapharca)    iuadqualis.    Brug.    Pdmban,    Tuticorin, 

Dutch  Bay. 
Pectunculus  angulatus,  Lmk    Muttuwartu. 

„        Tayiori,  Ang.   Pdmban,  Tuticorin,  Gheyal,  Dutch 

Bay. 
Xjimopsis  Belcheri,  Ad.  Sf  Pv.    Pdmban. 
Nucuta  mitralis,  Sind.    Dutch  Bay. 

Leda  mauritiana,  Sow,  P&mban,  Tuticorin,  Karaitiyu,  Dutch 

Bay. 


131 

Pecten  Layardi,  Ev.    Pamban. 

porphyreuSy  Chemn.     Pdmban. 
singaporensis,  Sow,     Mutfcuwartu. 
speciosus,  Rv.    Muttuwartu. 
tendinous,  Tuticorin. 
Tarius,  Linn,     Pdmban. 
(Pallium)  plica,  Linn.     Pdmban. 
(Pleuroneotia)  pleoilonectes,  Linn,    Muttuwaxtu. 
(vola)  pyxidatus,  Bom,     Tuticorin. 
Lima  orientaLis,  Ad.  Sf  Rv.     Pdmban. 
„    squamosa,  Lmk,    Pdmban,  Gheval,  Kaxaitiyuy  Muttu- 

warta. 
Spondylus  Layardi,  Rv.     Pamban. 
Vulsella  ling^ata,  Lfnk,    Pamban,  Kilakarai. 

,y        rugosa,  Lmik,    Pamban. 
Ostrea  crista  galli,  Linn,    Pdmban. 
,f      byotis,  Linn,    Tuticorin. 
ff     (^ectryonia)  folium,  lAnn,    Pdmban. 


BETOZOA. 

For  the  identification  of  the  following  small  collection  of 
Bryozoa  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  B.  Kirkpatrick  of  the  British 
Museoniy  Natural  History. 

a,  Engbttsting  ob  OBownra  on  Pbabl  Oystbbs. 

1.  Cheihstomata. 

Scrupocellaria,  sp. 
Nellia  oculata.     Buah. 
Steganoporella  magnilabris,  Bwk, 

Microporella  (Adeonella)  ooscinophora.    R&mSf  Tar.    Also  f oimd 
'      growing  on  coral-rock. 
Lepralia  deprossa.    Buak, 
„      tunita.     Smitt.  f 
Smittia  reticulata.    J.  MaogUlivray  f  var. 

,,       rostriformis.    KirkptUriek  f  yax. 
JSchizoporella  cucullata.     Busk,  f 

,,  unicornis,  Johnst. 

Cellepora  albirostris^  8miU, 

2.  CyeloUomata. 

Idmonea  atlantica,  Ibrbes,   yar. 

y,       n.  sp.  (?).    Also  found  in  orevioes  of  coral. 

19 


133 

h.  Otheb  B&tozoa. 

Fluetra  foliacea,  Linn.    Foliaceous,  and  encrusting  phanerogams 

on  Ceylon  pearl-banks. 
Biflustra    (Membranipora),    savartii.    Audouin,     Massive,   and 

encrusting  Gorgoniee.     B^m^svaram  island. 
Lepralia  gigas,   Jiuiks.    Eschara  form.     Bdmesraram  Island. 
Cnurilina  radiata,  MblL    var.    . 
innominata.     Couch.    • 


TDNIOATA. 

Ecteinasoidia  thurstoni,  Herdman, 

A  single  specimen  of  this  social  ascidian,  composed  of  a 
large  number  of  ascidiozooids  united  together  by  a  deli- 
cate braiichied  stolon,  which  was  fixed  to  the  stem  of  a 
hydroid  zoophyte,  was  brought  up  by  my  divers  during 
one  of  ray  visits  to  B&m^svaram  island,  and  kept  alive  for 
some  days  in  the  aquarium.  The  specimen  was  sent  to  Pro- 
fessor Herdman,  by  whom  it  has  been  described  ^^  as  a  new 
species  closely  allied  to  Ecteinascidia  turbinata^  Uerdm.  from 
Bermuda. 

PISCES. 

The  following  list  comprises  those  Gpeoies  of  fishes 
which  I  have  either  recorded  or  preserved  during  my  visits 
to  Tuticorin  or  P&mban  on  the  Madras  coast  of  the  gulf  of 
Manaar,  which  latter  place  I  made  my  head-quarters  while 
exploring  the  coral  reefs  which  fringe  the  shores  of  li&mds- 
varam  and  the  neighbouring  islands.  These  visits  have 
always  been  made  during  the  months  of  July  and  August, 
so  that  my  examination  of  the  fish  fauna  has  been  confined 
to  a  very  limited  period  of  the  year,  and  it  will  doubtless 
be  found,  on  more  extended  research  to,  vary  according  to 
the  season  or  monsoon. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  fauna,  as  oou'- 
trasted  with  that  of  other  parts  of  the  coast  of  the  Madras 
Presidency,  is  the  prevalence  of  the  so-called  '  coral  fishes ' 
(OhwiodoHf  HeniochuSf  PsevdoscaruSy  Sfc,)j  for  the  most 
brightly  coloured  fishes  which  abound  over  the  reefis,  and 
feed  either  on  the  small  delicate  marine  invertebrates  which 
swarm  on  the  living  corals,  or,  if  their  teeth  are  adapted 

^  Trati9^  Bioh  Soe^  Liverpool,  vol.  v,  1891, 


133 

for  the  purpose,  on  the  soft  parts  of  mollasOi  which  they 
extract  by  gnawing  or  boring  holes  into  the  hard  substance 
of  the  shell.  As  stated  by  Haeckel,  ^  an  explanation  of  the 
bright  colouring  of  the  fishes  is  found  in  the  Darwinian 
principle,  that  the  less  the  predominant  colouring  of  any 
creature  varies  from  that  of  its  surroundings,  the  less  likely 
it  is  to  be  seen  by  its  foes,  the  more  easily  it  can  steal  upon 
its  prey,  and  the  more  it  is  fitted  for  the  struggle  for 
existence. 

Conspicuous  by  their  abundance  were  several  species 
belonging  to  the  family  Solerodermi,  including  Balistes  (file 
ortrig^r  fish),  whose  jaws  are  armed  with  sharp  teeth,  and 
which  are  said  to  be  injurious  to  the  pearl  fishery  by  preying 
on  the  pearl  oyster.  Present,  too,  in  great  numbers,  were 
several  species  of  the  family  gymnodontes,  Tefrodans  (globe 
or  frog  fishes),  including  the^  beautifully  marked  little 
7.  margaritaiuSy  and  Diodons,  w^ich  have  a  bad  reputation, 
among  the  natives  as  being  very  poisonous. 

Many  of  the  brightly  coloured  fishes  were  preserved  by 
the  process,  devised  by  Mr.  A.  Haly,  Director  of  the 
Colombo  Museum,  which  oonsists  in  cutting  the  fish  in  half 
by  a  medium  longitudinal  section,  clearing  away  the  bulk 
of  the  fiesh,  immersing  for  some  days  in  a  gum,  glycerine, 
arsenic  mixture  ^  and  finally  mounting  in  pure  glycerine. 
Specimens  preserved  in  tius  way  in  1888  still  (1893) 
retain  many  of  their  brilliant  hues,  and  of  some  of  them 
paintings,  accurate  as  regards  colour,  could  still  be  made. 

ELA8M0BEANCHII. 

(Sharks  and  Rays.) 

CARCHABIIDiE. 

Carcharias,    The    young  of    several    specres    commonly  met 

with  in  the  fish  markets. 
Zygsena  malleus,  Shaw.    P^ban,  Tuticorin. 

SCTLLIIDJE. 

Stegostoma  tigrinum,  Om^L    Tutioorin. 
Chilosc}' Ilium  indicum,  Gmel.    Tuticorin. 

*<  A  Visit  to  Ceylon,  £ng.  Trans.,  1883. 

M  Gum,  1  oz.,  glycerine,  1  oi.,  acsenlouA  aoid,  \\  gr.,  water,  1  oi« 


134 

PBISTID^  (SAW  FISHES). 

Fristis  cnspidatuB,   LcUh.    A    Bpecimen   18    feet    in    length 
brought  on  shore  at  Taticorin  in  1887. 

RHTNOBATID-a:. 
Bhinobatus  granulatuB,  Cuv.    Tuticorin. 

TOEPEDINID^. 
Nardne  timlei,  (BL  Schn.).    Fdmban. 

TETGONID^. 

Trygon  sepheh,  (Fi>rsh).    Tuticorin. 

,,       uamak,  {ibrsk).    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
Pteroplatea  micrura,  {BL  Sehn.).    A  single  female  with  twins  m 

tUero  obtained  at  P4mban. 

MTLIOBATIDiE. 
Mjliobatis  nieuhofii,  {BL  8chn.).    Pdmban. 

TELE08TBI  (BONY  FISHES). 

MTJBvffiNID-aE  (EELS). 

Mursena  tesseUata,  Eieharthon.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
y,        undulata,  {Laeip).    Tuticorin. 

SILimiD^. 
Arias  thalassinus,  (JRupp.).    Pimban,  Tuticorin. 

OLUPEID^  (HEERINGHS). 
Fellona  leechenaultiiy  Cuo.  Sf  Vol.    Pdmban. 

SOOPEUD^. 
Saurida  tumbil,  {Block.).    Pdmban. 

BGOMBBESOCIDiE. 
Hemifftttphne  zanthoptems,  (Ctir.  Sf  Vol.).    Pdmban. 


135 

FEBdDiB  (PEBOHES). 

Lates  calcarifer,  (Block.),    F^rnban,  Tutioonn.     The  '<  coeh-fip}^ 

Largpely  eaten  by  Europeans  in 
Calcutta  under  the  name  of  hegti. 
Serranus  boenack,  {Block.),    Tuticorin. 

,,        diacanthuSy  Cuv,  ^  Vol,    P^mban. 
„        hexagonaitus,  (Bl.  Sckn,).    Pdmban. 
hoevenii,  Bleeker,    P^mban. 
fasciatus,  (Ibrak).    Pdmban. 
sabnoideB,  (Lacip),    Tuticorin. 
Lutj anus  annularis,  {Cuv.  Sf  Val.).    Pdmban. 
„        decussatus,  {Cuv,  ^  ^^0-     P^mban. 
,,        fulyifiamma,  {Idrsk).     f'^mban. 
„        livulatus,  {Cuv.  Sr  Vol,).    P^mban,  Tuticorin. 
,,        roseus,  Day,    Pamban. 
Therapon  quadiilineatus,.^/o<rA.).    Pdmban. 

,,        tneraps,  Cuv,  ^  Vol,     Pdmban. 
Pristipoma  hasta,  {Block.).    Pdmban. 
Diagramma  crassispinum,  Riipp,    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
yy  cuvien,  {Bennett).    Pdmban. 

„  griseum,  Cuv,  Sf  Val.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

Scolopsis  Yosineri,  {Block,).    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
Apogon  auritus,  Cuv.  Sf  Val.    Tuticorin. 
,,       calosoma,  Bleeker.    Pdmban. 
„       thurstoui,  Day.     Pdmban. 
Chilodipterus  quinquelineatus,  Cuv.  ^  Tal*    P£mbaa. 
Oerres  oyena  {Ihrek).    Pdmban. 

SaUAMIPINNES. 

CQisetodon  auriga,  Ibrek.    Pdmban. 

„         collaris,  Block.     Pdmban. 

,,        yagabundus,  Idnn.    Pamban. 
Heniochus  macrolepidotus,  Linn.    Pdmban. 
Drepane  punctata,  (&9n«/.)     Pdmban, 
Scatophagus  argus,  {Block.)    Pdmban,  Tuticorin* 

MULLID-ffi  (RED  MULLETS). 

TJpeneoides  tragula,  {Richardson).    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
Upeneus  indicus,  {Skaw).    Pamban. 

SPARID^  (BBEAMS). 

Lethrinus  karwa,  Cuv.  ^  Vol.     Tuticorin. 
„        nebulosus,  {F6nh).    Pdmban. 
Ohrysophrys  berda,  {I^ak).     Tuticorin. 
PimelepteruB  cinerascens,  {I\^%k).    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 


136 

Pterois  miles,  (Bennett).    Pamban. 

TEUTHIDIDJB. 

Teutlds  mannorata,  ( Q.  ^  O).    Tuticorin. 
„      oramin,  Qilnth.    Pamban,  Tuticorin. 

BERYOn)^. 
Holocentrum  rubriuD,  (Fdrsh).    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 

KUETIDiB. 
Pempberis  malabarica,  Cuv.  Sf  Vol.    Tuticorin. 

SCLENTD^. 
Sclaena  maculata,  {BL  8chn.).    Tuticorin. 

ACANTHUEID-S    (SURGEONS). 

Acantburus  gabm,  Cuv.  A*  Ftd.    Pdmban,  Tuticorin. 
,,  triostegus,  (Lmn),    Pdmban. 

„  yelifer,  {Bioch).    Pamban. 

CARANGID-ffi  (HORSE  MACKERELS). 

Oaranz  gallus,  (Ztnn).    P^ban,  Tuticorin. 

bippos,  (Lmn).    Tuticorin. 

ite,  (Cuv.  Sr  Pal).    Pdmban. 

rottleriy  (dIocK).    Tuticorin. 

sansun,  (F6r»k).    Tuticc^rin. 

Bpeciosus,  (OmeL).    Pdmban. 
Platax  teira,  (F^sk).    P&mban. 
LactariuB  delicatulus,  Cuv.  4*  ^<>^-    Pamban. 
Equula  edentula,  (Block).    Pimban. 

SCOMBRID^  (MACKERELS). 

Ecbeneis  remora,  Linn.    Tuticorin.    Crushed  sbells  of  tbe  pearl 

OYster,  and  pearls  have  been  found  in 
the  stomacn. 
„       naucrates,  Linn.    Tuticorin. 

• 

TRACHINIDJE. 

8il*ago  sibaxna,  (Ibrsk).    Tuticorin.     Called    ''whiting"    bj 

Europeans. 


137 

GOBnDJB  (GOBIES). 

Oobius  bynoensis,  Bich,    Tutioorio. 

„       citriaus,  (Rupp,)    Tuticorin.    . 
Periopbthalmus  koelkreuteri,  (FaU.)    Pdmbaiu 
Boleophthalmus  boddaerti,  (Fall.)    Pdmban. 

BLENNIID^. 

Salarias  marmoratuB,  (Benn,)    Tuticorin. 

MUGILID^  (OBEY  MULLETS). 

Mugil  pceciluB,  Day.    Tuticorin. 

„      ounnesiusy  Cuv.  Sf  Vol,    Tuticorin. 
u      speigleriy  BUeher,    P&mban. 


OENTBISCID^. 

Ampbisile  scutata,  {Linn),    P£mban« 

GLYPHEDODONTID^. 


Gljpbidodon  antjerius,  Cuv.  Sf  Val.    Tuticorin. 

,,  cffilestinus,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL    i'^mban. 


notatus,  Daff.    Pamban. 

sordidus,  {Farah.)    P&mban. 
Tetradracbmum  aruanum,  {Linn,)    Tuticorin. 
Ampbiprion  sebsB,  Bleeker.    Pamban. 


LABRID^  (WRASSES). 

CbilinuB  cbloruruB,  (Bheh),    Pdmban. 
PlatjgloBsus  duBSumieri,  {Cuv.  Sf  Val,)    Pdmban.' 
PBCuduscaruB  cbrjBopoma,  {Bleeker),    Pduiban,  Tuticorin* 
y,  riyulatuB,  {Cuv.  Sf  Vol.)    P&mban. 

« 

PLEUBONEOTlDiB  (PLAT  FISHES). 

Plag^sia  marmorata,  Bleeker.    Pdmban. 
CynogloBBUB  macrolepidotuB,  {Bleeker.)    P&mban. 

STNONATHIDJS  (PIPE  FISHES). 
SyngnatiiuB  serratus,  Temm.  Sf  Sehleg.    P&mban,  Tuticorin. 

BGLEBODEBML 

BaliBtoB  mitiB,  Ben,    Pdmban.    File  Fish. 

,,      yetula,  Linn.    Tuticorin.    File  Fish. 


138 

Triacanthus  strigilifer.  Cantor.    Pamban. 
Ostracion  comutus,  Zinn.    Fdmban.     Coffer  Fisb. 

„  nasusy  Block.    Famban.     Goffer  Fiab. 

„  turritus,  Mrak.    Fdmban.    Goffer  Fiah. 

GYMNODONTES. 

Tetrodon  bispidus.  Block.    Fdmban. 

„  margaritatus,  Rilpp.    Fdmban. 

,,  immaculatuB,  Bl.  8ckn.    Fdmban. 

Diodon  bjstrix,  Linn.    Fdmban. 
,1      maculatus,  Giintk.    P4mban. 

LEFTOOEFHALUS,  ep. 

As  regards  tbe  ourions  pellncid  leptooepbali^  of  wbich  I 
ha^e  obtained  a  few  apecimens  in  the  giilf  of  Manaar^  and 
a  large  namber  from  the  meshes  of  tbe  fishermen's  net« 
at  Gopalpur^  where  they  are  known  as  sea-leeches^  Dr. 
GHinther  says :  ^ 

**  We  mnst  come  to  the  conclusion  that  those  leptoce- 
phatids  are  the  offsprings  of  various  kinds  marine  fishes, 
representing,  not  a  normal  stage  of  development  (larvae), 
but  an  arrest  of  development  at  a  very  early  period  of  their 
life  ;  they  continue  to  grow  to  a  certain  size  without  corre* 
spending  development  of  their  internal  organs,  and  perish 
without  having  obtained  the  characters  of  the  perfect 
animal/' 


^  Introduction  to  Study  qf  FUJiea,  1880^  pp.  179-182. 


I  I      MADRAS  GOVERNMENT  SICSEUM. 


'^1 


BwlleHn  Xo.  4. 


ANTHROPOLOGY 

tu>  TUB 

TODAS  AND  KOTAS  OF  THE  NILGIItr  UIUS ; 


BKilmiANS,  KAiniAUNS,  PALLIS,  AND 
I'AltlAUS  OF  JlABKAS  CUT. 


EDOAK  THUBSTON,  c.«/>.,  itt., 


U  A  D  n  A  9  . 
kJVrai  BY  THK  Sri'Eai.VTESDEST.  (rOVKRSMtiST  PBFS8. 

I,  1  r«1-n  S  onvet  1  1S&«. 


I 
• 


TN9  smtfTntiivni 


OtuxK    l-'iKiiKRin    w   tdh    Ovlb    bk  I 


»o,  I.— Pmul 

Maxaak. 
No.  U.— NoTK  OK  T»FRs  Ahoxa  nil  UAt.4Bj.R  Coast. 
No   3.— Biiiiiiv«iuit    I.^uuti)  Axi>  Fauka   at  ntit  Ul'lv  or  | 

Makaiu. 
Ko.  ft.— AxmitoKiuMiv  OF    run    nAtiAOAa    Ann    Im 

TM*    NlWIBU  AKIi,     tN"iv.-.«   fi.    Tiir    Wi 

tkH  PruM). 


"Ij  >■■' ""'M     . 

Biitit.lt^d  'Nul.wiii  Tuuir 

CiMui  of  MivdruB.     It  ii  lutPreBting  t 
liaru  their  Hslter]'  iiueatiun." 


finlf  uf  Mf,i!nfi.r'.  nri.l 
b)  Britiiti  icudeala  ot '  i 
ailing  Ibti  MHlalKtr  (Juab' 
murine  Ectnlu^y  nuMto  uu  Mii<  Wu' 
naui  iiliM  HTeu  there  ilie  n 

Calcutta  Itivic  III  .—Bui  latin  No.  1,  I'nftil  uxil  Ctunk  FlBberiH*.  "  Wonihr.  j 
fill  In  tliFi  iiuantiLy  -it  inrorinitUun  Ur.  Tliuntou  h»i  dettJv  oomprewnil  irlUibi  [ 
thr  &6  pufiea  ol  what  he  DKnloatlv  ralli  a  Batldln.  Baienoe,  u^nokwy, 
jHiUtkal  I'oiiDomj'.  ttilklore.  81c  iMwin  Arnold'*  poetry,  u-e  aH  taid  bboit  I 
ctintrilinliiin,  itnd  jot  in  ovDry  |»Ke  tlio  uutliur'n  iitircwil  (n-rsunilit*  MmirH  I 
tiacll.     Bu  make*  it  iliilt  lupin  bright,  lutd  ouDtriTca  to  euliteo  ib«  drlMI   I 

»(  OdtAllK." 

Inttian  Jovfnal  lif  Krlueatiov. — In  llullntiu  Ko.  I  Ur.  Thuntoa  givxh  in  J 
a  very  pIniMiuit  itnil  rwulable  fiirni,  an  luvunint  of  hiii  Tin>i«  iti  the  frnnti  aiHI  I 
chnnk  flahiiifc  KTonoda  of  tlia  Madraa  tkod  Cation  Guvirufflpiiti.  ^Mf  I 
irliu  mko  an  IntcroH  In  chi>  ccunmeiTUI  iinlQutriflB  at  Iiiilla  •rill  llnd  n 
T»luiilila  iatunriNtlon.  Tlit>  naluralisl  tuo  will  iliiiooTiR-  marli  that  oil 
hii  ath-ntiun  in  tlieie  po^a.  f(>r  iu  ik  gniphia  and  iuiurcstiui;  way  Aa  I 
wfilnr  lias  lUnitriTed  to  thron  in  a  larga  number  ot  feota  loliit: 
faaua  ot  Uie  Onlt  (if  MuniUkr. 

"  No  one  lioubLi  tlint  tli<?  soaA.   n-hjoh  Inve   our   Indian   Ooatu,  u*  I 
alinnilanilj   ■tooksd  witli  edible   lUli,  hut  the  pmblam  ot   making  t' 
va«t  reaixiFfltiii  arailabln  tnr  tUn  Tuoil  s<i|iptf  of  tlie  Uulf-fed  niaiBsa  of 


anif  tho  Fauna  of  the  Ouir  of  HaDtMr."  The  ultaati'io  'if  < 
(ha  rent  irhioh.  under  (ho  luimo  of  Adam'*  Bridt^.  aln>'i~' 
with  tlt»  ni«mlam(  nf  India,  iwndera  an  aoeoanl  iif  li- 
pnri,''-"''"'!"  (T.i..rrioi;iii- T  mni  f.fiL.  jir^nwnt   iirofli 


MADRAS  GOVEENMENT  MUSEUM. 


Bulletin  No,  4. 


AISTTHROPOLOGY 


OF  THE 


TODAS  AND  KOTAS  OF  THE  NILGmi  HILLS ; 


AND   OF  THE 


brAhmans,  kammalans,  pallis,  and 
paeiahs  of  madras  city. 

BY 

EDGAR  THUESTON,  c.m.z.s.,  etc., 

SuperitUendent,  Madrcu  Oovernment  Museum, 


MADRAS: 

PKINTED  BY  THE  SUPEEINTENDENT,  GOVERNMENT  PBESS. 

1896. 


A     J*»44«\    Ml  M.  t  N 


K  •  «is«  •»!{  >-^  ^-"vrpy  ISmiCK.  lIAu&AS. 


1 


S$»6. 


THE  TODAS  OP  THE  NILGIRIS- 


A  CUBI0U8  people  are  the  Todas  or  TadaSj  to  whom  the  meet 
ncred  objects  on  this  earth  are  a  holy  dairy-man  (p&l&l)  and 
a  large-homed  race  of  semi*domesticated  baffisiloes,  on  whose 
milk  and  the  products  thereof  (batter  and  ney  ')  they  still 
depend  largely^  though  to  a  less  extent  than  in  bygone 
days,  before  the  existence  of  the  Ootaoamund  bas4ri  for 
snbsistenoe. 

Their  origin  is,  in  the  absence  of  any  except  very  vagae 
ixadition  connecting  them  with  Rftma  or  Rftyana,  and  of 
written  language,  veiled  in  obscurity,  but  they  take  it  on 
trust,  without  displaying  any  interest  in  the  matter,  that  they 
are  the  original  mhabitants  of  the  Nilgiris,  on  which  they 
have  dwelt  from  time  immemorial.  ''  So/'  they  say, ''  our 
grand&thers  told  us.     How  can  we  know  otherwise  V* 

Being  myself  no  philologist,  I  must  rest  content  with 
merely  recording,  without  criticism,  the  difiFerent  views 
which  have  been  pronounced  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Toda  lan- 
guage. According  to  Dr.  Pope,  it  seems  to  have  been  origin- 
ally old  Elanarese,  and  not  a  distinct  dialect.  Dr.  Caldwell 
held,  on  the  other  hand,  to  the  view  that,  of  all  the  Di*avi« 
dian  idioms,  Tamil  is  that  to  which  the  Toda  language  is  most 
nearly  allied;  and  the  German  missionary  Metz  found  at 
least  eighty  out  of  a  hundred  words  commonly  made  use 
of  by  a  Toda  to  be  indentical  with,  or  derived  from,  words 
used  by  their  Dravidian  neighbours,  and  thought  that  the 
language  is  most  nearly  connected  with  old  Kanarese. 

According  to  Dr.  Oppert,  the  latest  philological  writer  on 
the  races  of  Southern  India,^  the  Todas  are  of  Turanian 
or  Scythian  descent,  and  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  they  be- 
long to  the  Gaudian  branch  of  the  Gauda- Dravidian  group, 
whose  settlements  got  flooded  out  by  successive  waves  of 
the  Aryan  invasion.  If  this  theory  be  true,  the  Todas  were 
originally  mountaineers,  even  if,  e»  Dr.  Oppert  says,  they 
ascended  from  the  plains  to  the  Nilgiri  Mills.  In  support 
of  the  origin  of  their  name  from  Eoda  or  Euda,  signifying 
— ^ 1— — — . ■       ' '  » 

>  Neysrgbt  or  clarified  batter. 

»  tlM  Orifiasl  lahabitante  of  Isdis,  1S9S. 

30 


143 

a  mountaineer^  he  records  that,  when  inquiring  into  their 
name^  he  was  informed  by  various  natives,  and  even  by  some 
Todas,  that  the  Todavar  are  also  called. Kodavaf,  This 
statement  is,  however,  not  borne  out  by  the  replies  to  my 
repeated  inquiries  in  search  of  confirmation  thereof.  Toda- 
var  the  Todas  admit,  but  they  will  not  hear  of  their  being 
called  Kodavar,  despite  the  fact  that  there  is  a  Toda  mand  at 
Kodwd«d  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Nilgiris. 

According  to  Colonel  Marshall,  whose  ^Phrenologist 
among  the  Todas'  (1873)  should  be  read  by  any  who  are 
interested  in  the  tribe,  "  there  is  much  of  the  '  blameless 
Ethiopian '  about  them :  something  of  the  Jew  and  of  the 
Ohaldaeian  in  their  appearance/' 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  connect  the  Todas  with  the 
lost  tribes,  and,  amid  a  crowd  of  Todas  assembled  together 
to  celebrate  a  funeral  rite,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  picking, 
out  many  individuals,  whose  features  would  find  for  them  a 
ready  place  as  actors  on  the  Ober  Amergau  stage,  either  in. 
leading  or  subordinate  parts. 

Clothed  and  without  arms,  the  Todas  for  the  most  part 
lead  a  simple  pastoral  life,  comparatively  little  influenced  by 
the  presence  of  Europeans  in  their  midst.  Female  infanticide, 
which  was  formerly  practised  to  a  wide  extent,  has,  however, 
entirely  ceased  under  British  rule.  There  can,  I  think,  be 
no  doubt  that  Toda  infanticide  tnust  be  attributed  to  a  desire 
to  keep  down  the  population,  and  not,  as  has  been  suggested, 
to  a  desire  felt  by  the  women  to  retain  their  good  looks, 
which  rapidly  disappear,  whether  the  babies  are  killed  or  no. 
''  I  don't  know,"  said  an  elderly  Toda  to  Colonel  Marshall, 
^'  whether  it  was  wrong  or  not  to  kill  them,  but  we  were 
very  poor,  and  could  not  support  our  children.  Now  every 
one  has  a  mantle  (putkuli),  but  formerly  there  was  only  one 
for  the  whole  family,  and  he  who  had  to  go  out  took  the 
mantle,  the  rest  remaining  at  home  naked  all  but  the  loin 
cloth  (kuvn)."  Polyandry  is,  in  consequence  of  the  larger, 
number  of  females  who  now  grow  up  and  become  available 
for  matrimonial  purposes,  on  the  decline,  and  resorted  to 
only  by  the  poorer  class  of  Todas,  who  have  not  the  means 
to  support  a  separate  married  establishment.  Of  polyan- 
dry the  Todas  are  at  heart  ashamed,  and  strenuously  deny 
its  existence  until  hard  pressed.  The  Ootaoamund  Todas 
assured  me  that  in  their  mands  no  cases  of  polyandry  ex- 
iBted,„.bnt  that  it  was  practised  by  the  ^jungle  Todas'  at 
Paik&ra.  But,  during  my  stay  at  Paikara,  I  was  quite  as 
strongly  assured  that  no  woman  of  the  neighbouring  mands 


PL.   VIII 


TODA   MAN 


*.  TOimiTOV  PHOT.  PHOTO-PaXNT  8UBVET  OFFICE,  M. 


k. 


143 


bad  more  than  one  husband^  thongh  polyandry  prevailed  at 
OotacamnTid. 

In  the  system  .of  polyandry  as  practised  by  the  Todas,  if 
one  of  several  brothers  is  married  to  a  woman^  the  other 
brothers  may,  as  my  interpreter  expressed  it,  *  enjoy  privi- 
leges ' ;  OT,  if  a  man's  wife  has  one  or  more  younger  sisters, 
they  may  become  wives  of  their  sister's  husband  or  husbands 
— ^an  arrangement  which  complicates  relationship.  In  lieu 
of  a  no-admission  card  or  '  not-at-home '  box,  a  walking  stick 
and  mantle  (putkuli)  are  placed  outside  the  door  of  the  hut 
849  an  indication  that  one  of  the  men  is  with  the  woman,  and 
entrance  into  the  hut  is  forbidden. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  the  number  of 
Todas,  both  male  and  female,  has  increased  to  a  slight  extent, 
as  shown  by  the  following  tabular  statement  based  on  the 
census  figures  of  1871,  1881,  and  1891  :— 


1871 
1881 


1891 


Increase 


Males. 

Females. 

Total. 

405 

288 

693 

380 

293 

673 

424 

312 

736 

19 

24 

43 

Writing  in  1868,  Dr.  Shortt  in  his  ^  Account  of  the  tribes 
of  the  Nilgiris,'  makes  a  sweeping  assertion  that  '^  most  of 
their  women  have  been  debauched  by  Europeans,  who,  it 
is  sad  to  observe,  have  introduced  diseases^  to  which  these 
innocent  tribes  were  at  one  time  perfect  stranpers,  and 
which,  as  they  have  no  means  of  curing,  are  slowly^  but  no 
less  surely  sapping  their  once  hardy  and  vigorous  constitu* 
tions.  The  effects  of  intemperance  and  disease  (syphilis) 
combined  are  becoming  more  and  more  appareiit  in  the 
shaken  and  decrepit  appearance,  which  at  the  present  day 
these  tribes  generally  present.'^  Fact  it  undoubtedly  is,  and 
proved  both  by  hospital  and  naked-eye  evidence,  that  syphi- 
lis has  been  introduced  among  the  Todas,  as  among  the 
Andamanese,  by  contact  with  more  civilised  races.  Fact  it 
also  nndoabtedly  is,  notwithstanding  Colonel  Marshall's 
phrenological  belief  that  the  necessity  for  stimulants  is  a 
property  of  the  brachycephalic  head,  that  the  dolichocephalic 
Toda  displays  a  marked  partiality  for  gin^  port,  bottled  beer 


144 

and  arrack,  and  will  willingly  drink  neat  brandy  in  a  mag; 
and  the  silver  coins  given,  with  cheroots,  as  a  bribe  to 
induce  subjects  to  come  and  have  their  measurements 
recorded  at  my  improvised  laboratory,  were  expended  entirely 
on  drink  in  the  baz&r.  But  I  have  never  seen  a  Toda,  as  I 
have  repeatedly  seen  Eotas  and  Badagas,  staggering  home- 
ward from  the  drink  shops  in  the  baz4r  in  a  disgusting  state 
of  brawling  intoxication,  or,  in  fact,  much  the  worse  for 
drink.  Nor  would  any  one  who  has  studied  them  regard 
the  Todas  otherwise  than  as  a  hardy  race,  of  fine  physique, 
and,  in  the  case  of  the  women,  modestly  behaved  (with  an 
occasional  exception  of  solicitation)  in  the  presence  of 
Europeans,  despite  the  oft-repeated  statement  that  -''  the 
women  show  an  absence  of  any  sense  of  decency  or  inde- 
cency in  exposing  their  naked  persons  in  the  presence  of 
strangers/' 

Morality,  it  must  be  confessed,  is  reduced  to  a  very  low 
ebb  previous  to  marriage — a  civil  contract  which  is  regarded 
as  binding,  and  acts,  in  some  measure,  as  a  check  to  irregular 
intercourse.  And,  it  must  also  be  confessed,  the  Toda  has 
not  a  strict  regard  for  truth,  when  any  advantage  is  to  be 
derived  from  telling  a  falsehood.  As  an  example  of  mild 
Toda  mendacity  the  following  incident  may  be  quoted. 
Instructions  had  been  issued  for  a  girl  aged  ten  to  be 
brought  to  me  to  be  measured  aud  photographed.  On  the 
following  day  a  damsel  was  accordingly  produced,  who  was 
stated  to  be  ten  years  old,  and  not  to  have  reached  puberty. 
She  was  well  developed,  with  the  measurements  of  a  young 
adult ;  possessed  a  well  marked  moustache ;  and  was  tattooed, 
as  if  she  was  a  married  woman,  on  the  chest,  hand,  legs  and 
feet.  It  was  explained  to  me  that  the  girl  and  a  friend  had 
tattooed  each  other  as  a  joke.  I  attributed  the  story  of  her 
age  and  the  origin  of  the  tattoo  marks  to  mendacity  with  a 
view  to  the  receipt  of  the  customary  baksheesh  ;  and  it  sub- 
sequently turned  out  that  the  girl  was  at  least  eighteen 
years  old,  had  been  married  some  years  previously  and 
divorced  for  immorality,  and  was  about  to  marry  a  second 
husband  undaunted  by  her  previous  life  history.  In  the 
case  just  cited  the  age  was  wilfully  misrepresented  ;  but,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  Todas  have  very  little  idea  of  age  after 
they  are  grown  up.  A.  little  cross  questioning  would  at 
times  bring  the  subject's  age  down,  e.g.,  from  seventy  to 
fifty,  recalling  to  mind  the  story  of  the  Native  who  remarked : 
"  This  year  my  father  is  sixty-eight.  Next  year  he  will  be 
one  hnndred  and  eight.'' 


PL.    IX 


^      / 


TODA   WOMAN 


)l«   THITBSTOIf  FHQTf  PHOTO-PUINT  SURVEY  OrFICB|  MA 


I  c>rkS. 


145 

In  the  ooarse  of  my  wanderings  I  met  with  more  than 
one  man  who  had  served^  or  was  still  serving,  Gorernment 
in  the  modest  capacity  of  a  forest  guard ;  and  I  hare  heard 
of  others  who  have  been  employed^  not  with  conspicaons 
snccess^  on  planter^s  estates.  In  connection  with  the  objec- 
tion of  the  Todas  to  work^  it  is  recorded  that  when,  on  one 
occasion,  a  mistake  about  the  ownership  of  some  buffaloes 
committed  an  old  Toda  to  jail^  it  was  fonn.d  impossible  to 
induce  him  to  work  with  the  convicts,  and  the  authorities, 
unwilling  to  resort  to  hard  measures,  were  compelled  to  save 
appearances  by  making  him  an  overseer. 

At  the  present  day  the  Nilgiri  C.M.8.  Tamil  Mission 
has  extended  its  sphere  of  work  to  the  Todas,  and  I  cannot 
resist  the  temptation  to  narrate  the  Toda  version  of  the 
story  of  Dives  and  Lazarus,  with  its  moral,  as  given,  \ 
believe,  to  a  missionary  lady  on  the  occasion  of  an  examin- 
ation. The  English  say  that  once  upon  a  time  a  rich  man 
and  a  poor  man  died.  At  the  funeral  of  the  rich  man  there 
was  a  great  tamdsha,  and  many  buffaloes  were  sacrificed. 
Bat  for  the  funeral  of  the  poor  man  neither  music  nor 
buffaloes  were  provided.  The  English  believe  that  in  the 
next  world  the  poor  man  was  as  well  off  as  the  rich  man,  so 
that,  when  any  one  dies,  it  is  of  no  use  spending  money  on 
the  funeral  ceremonies. 

Two  schools  have  been  established,  one  at  Ootacamund, 
the  other  near  Paikara.  It  is  said  that,  in  their  yearly  mi- 
gration to  distant  mands  for  change  of  pasture  for  their 
herds,  some  of  the  Todas  leave  their  children  behind  at  the 
mands  near  the  schools,  with  some  one  to  take  care  of  them, 
in  order  that  their  lessons  may  not  be  interrupted.  No 
Toda,  I  was  informed,  has  as  yet  been  baptised. 

A  Toda  *  conductor, '  who  receives  a  small  monthly 
salary,  and  capitation  allowance  for  every  child  who  attends 
school  regularly,  showed  us  the  way  to  the  Paikara  school, 
where  eighteen  children  (sixteen  boys  and  two  girls)| 
varying  in  age  from  seven  to  sixteeii,  and  some  clad  in 
ill-utting  jackets  instead  of  the  picturesque  putkQli,  were 
teading  elementary  Tamil  and  English,  and  doing  simple 
arithmetic.  One  boy,  a  bright  and  intelligent  lad,  aged 
twelve^  was  working  for  the  ^  third  standard,'  and  read  Eng* 
lish  very  fairly,  but  with  artificial  Hindu  intonation  instead 
of  the  natural  musical  Toda  voice.  I  could  not  help  wonder^^ 
ing  whether  this  lad  will  be  content,  as  he  grows  up,  to 
live  the  simple  life  of  a  Toda  herdsman,  or  will  enter  into  the 
lists  in  the  struggle  for  a  small-paid  appointment  under 


146 

Grovemment.  The  Toda  is  even  now,  as  I  have  experienced^ 
capable  of  submitting  petitions,  written  in  the  baz&i*,  ^  beg- 
ging* your  honour/  etc.';  and  it  is  to  be  feared,  from  an 
ethnographic  standpoint^  that  the  spread  of  education, 
among  them  will  tend  to  obliterate  that  spirit  of  independ- 
ence and  simplicity  of  character  which  have  hitherto  dis- 
tinguished the  Todas  favourably  from  the  other  inhabitants 
of  Southern  India.  A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  the  Todas 
are  said  to  have  had  ^'  just  so  much  knowledge  of  the  speech 
of  their  vassals  as  is  demanded  by  the  most  ordinary  re- 
quirements ^' ;  ^  whereas,  at  the  present  day,  a  few  write, 
imd  many  converse  fluently  in  Tamil.  One  man  I  came 
across,  who,  with  several  other  Todas,  was  selected  on  ac- 
count of  fine  physique  for  exhibition  at  Barnum's  show. in 
Europe,  America,  and  Australia  some  years  ago,  and  still 
retained  a  smattering  of  English,  talking  fondly  of 
^  Shumbu  '  (the  elephant  Jumbo).  For  some  time  after  his 
return  to  his  liill  abode,  a  tall  white  hat  (cylinder-hut)  was 
the  admiration  of  his  fellow  tribesmen.  To  this  man  finger 
prints  came  as  no  novelty,  as  his  impressions  were  recorded 
both  in  England  and  America. 

A  self-possessed  and  cheery  person  is  the  Toda,  and 

'Charaoteristica.       ^^^7  ^*P*^^®  ^^  appreciating  a  loke. 

The  appearance  of  a  European  (who  is 
greeted  as  swd'mi)  in  a  mand  is  a  signal  for  a  general  cry  * 
among  the  inhabitants,  male  and  female,  for  inam  (alms), 
not  so  much  because  they  are  professional  mendicants,  as 
because  experience  has  taught  them  that  visitors  generally 
disgorge  small  sums,  and,  like  the  Father  of  the  Marshal- 
sea,  they  make  capital  out  of  human  weakness.  As  a  rule, 
they  have  no  objection  to  Europeans  entering  into  their  huts, 
but  on  one  occasion  we  were  politely  requested  to  take  off 
our  boots  before  crawling  in  on  our  stomachs,  so  as  not  to 
desecrate  ^'  the  deep  recesses  of  their  odorous  dwelling.^^ 

The  friendly  disposition  of  the  Todas  towards  Europeans 
is  well  brought  out  by  the  following  note,  with  which  a 
former  forest-settlement  officer  of  the   Nilgiris  has  been 

food  enough  to  supply  me.  ^^  fiickapathi  mand,  or,  as 
'ommy  Atkins  from  Wellington  dubs  it.  Pick-pack 
mand,  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque.  It  is  situated  on  the 
top  of  a  grand  saddle,  and  furnishes  a  magnificent  view 
of  the  Mysore  ditch  and  the  grand  teak  forests  beyond. 
I  had  frequent  occasion  to  go  there,  and  soon  got  on  friendly 


*  W.  Boss  King^ITi^  Ahoriginjil  THUb  of  the  Nilgiri  Eillt^ 


147  '       ' 

• 

terms  with  the  Todas^  whose  ladies  greatly  appreciated  the 
bazdr-made  sweetmeats  of  Ootacamund^  and  whose  men— 
Toda-like — were  always  ready  to  accept  the  seeds  of  garden 
vegetables  given  to  them  by  the  forest  officer,  so  long  as 
a  fiadaga  did  all  the  digging,  weeding  and  bedding,  at  onr 
expense.  One  bright  little  girl,  aged  about  eighty  used 
to  sing  to  us  in  the  evening  a  Tamil  song,  which  she  had 
picked  up  from  a  C.M.8.  Missionary,  the  refrain  of  which, 
^  Thdvan  nallavan'  (God  is  good),  chanted  in  her  quaint 
crooning  little  voice,  still  runs  in  my  head.  Meantime  her 
brother,  a  good-looking  picturesque  lad  aged  ten,  would  wait 
expectantly  by,  watching  with  wistful  eye  until  the  expected 
piece  of  chocolate,  fig,  biscuit,  or  other  delicacy,  was 
forthcoming. 

*'  One  night,  while  we  were  encamped  hard  by,  a  tiger, 
or  possibly  a  pair  of  them,  stampeded  the  buffaloes  out 
of  the  braal  close  to  the  mand,  and  killed  no  less  than  six 
of  them,  as  they  blindly  fled  for  a  couple  of  miles  over 
almost  impassable  country.  It  was  my  good  fortune  a  few 
days  later  to  come  across,  stalk  in  the  open,  and  shoot  this 
tiger.  Nor  was  this  all,  for,  on  the  following  day,  I  shot  close 
to  the  mand  a  sd;mbar  stag  (Oervus  ttnicolor).  In  a  space  of 
twenty-four  hours  I  had  thus  ridded  the  mand  of  their 
dreaded  enemy  the  tiger,  and  got  for  its  inhabitants  a  sur- 
feit of  the  only  flesh  that  Todas  are  allowed  to  eat.  This 
was  too  great  an  occasion  to  be  passed  over  in  silence,  or 
to  be  treated  with  ordinary  formalities.  Something  special 
was  called  for,  and  the  Todas,  to  a  man  and  woman,  rose 
to  the  occasion.  A  new  and  original  ode,  in  which  I,  and 
not  the  evergreen  B&man,  was  the  hero,  was  improvised. 
The  Todas  from  the  neighbouring  mands  were  hastily  sum- 
moned ;  a  dress  rehearsal  was  held  at  mid-day ;  and  in  the 
evening  a  friend  and  I  were  treated  to  the  serenade.  I  wish 
I  had  a  copy  of  the  ode.  Its  fine  dithyrambic  periods 
reminded  us  of  Pindar  in  his  loftiest  moments.  The  whole 
available  musical  talent  of  the  mand  was  requisitioned,  and, 
as  we  sat  beneath  the  clear  canopy  of  a  star-decked  sky, 
we  felt  the  performance  was  one  worth  going  miles  to  see 
and  hear.*' 

The  typical  Toda  man  is  above  medium  height,  well 
proportioned  and  stalwart,  with  straight  nose,  regular  fea- 
tures, and  perfect  teeth.  In  some  instances  the  expression 
is  of  a  conspicuously  Jewish  type,  but,  as  Colonel  Ross  King 
points  out  ^  "  the  general  contour  of  the  head  and  cast  of 

*  Op.  eit. 

21 


148 

• 

oonntenance  are  rather  sucli  as  we  are  accastomed  to 
associate  with  the  ancient  Boman ; "  and  their  oater  gar- 
ment (pntkoli)  of  thick  cotton  cloth  with  red  and  blue 
stripes  woven  into  it,  which  reaches  from  the  shoulders  to 
the  kneeSj  hanging  in  graceful  folds,  with  one  end  flung 
over  the  left  shoulder,  is  commonly  (and  wrongly)  compared 
to  the  Boman  toga. 

The  principal  characteristic,  which  at  once  distinguishes 
the  Todas  from  the  other  tribes  of  the  Nilgiris,  is  the  devel- 
opment of  the  pilous  (hairy)  system.  This  characteristic^ 
as  well  as  the  projecting  superciliary  arches,  and  dolicho- 
cephalic skuU^  the  Toda  man  possesses  in  common  with  the 
Australians  and  the  Ainus,  but  it  sinks  into  insignificance 
before  the  remarkable  hairy  development  represented  in 
Mr.  Savage  Landor^s  illustration  of  his  lunatic  Ainu  friend. 
Occasionally,  as  my  notes  record,  the  hair  is  feebly  devel- 
oped on  the  chest;  but  only  in  one  case — ^that  of  a  man 
aged  fifty— out  of  the  large  number  which  I  have  examined^ 
have  I  observed  a  marked  arrest  of  development  of  the  hairy 
system  (pi.  xviii).  The  hair  of  the  heaa  was  in  this  case 
short,  and  not  bushy  ;  beard,  whiskers  and  moustache  were 
represented  bv  light  down^  and  gave  the  man  the  appear- 
ance of  a  professional  actor.  There  was  an  absence  of  hair 
on  the  chest  and  abdomen ;  a  few  stray  hairs  in  the  arm- 
pits^ no  hair  on  the  back  and  upper  arms ;  and  only  feebly- 
developed  hair  on  the  extensor  surface  of  the  fore-arms  and 
lower  extremities. 

The  odour  of  the  person  of  the  Todas,  caused,  I  imagine, 
by  the  rancid  butter  which  they  apply  to  their  cloths  as  a 
preservative  agent,  is  quite  characteristic,  and  furnishes  a 
differential  character.  The  missionary  Hue  declared  that 
he  could  recognise  the  N'egro^  Tartar,  Thibetan^  Hindu  and 
Chinese  by  their  effluvium  ;  and,  with  a  view  to  testing  his 
sense  of  smell,  long  after  our  return  from  the  Nilgiris,  I 
blindfolded  a  friend,  who  had  accompanied  me  on  my  Toda 
campaign,  and  presented  before  his  nose  a  cloth,  which  he 
at  once  recognised  as  having  something  to  do  with  the  Todas 
by  its  strong  and  characteristic  odour. 

As  a  type  of  a  Toda  man  in  many  points^  though  con- 
siderably below  the  average  height^  the  following  case 
may  be  cited : — 

1.  Male,  aged  40.  Owns  twenty  buffaloes;  makes  ney 
from  the  milk,  and  sells  it  in  the  Ootacamund  ba^^ri  With 
the  proceeds  purchases  rice,  salt,  chillies^  tamarinds,  w^ffron^ 


14d 

potatoes,  brinjals  (the  fruit  of  Solanum  melongena),  etc. 
Does  not  as  a  rule  eat  meat^  but  says  that  he  would  have  so 
objeotion  to  eating  the  flesh  of  sambar  {Cervus  unicolor). 
Drinks  arrack,  gin^  bottled  beer^  etc. 

Height  159-2  cm. 

Weight  98  lbs. 

Skin  dirty  copper  brown^  much  darker  than  that  of  the 
surrounding  females. 

Hair  blacky  with  stray  grey  hairs  on  head^  faoe^  chest 
and  shoulders.  Beard  luxuriant.  Hair  of  head  parted  in 
middle^  and  hanging  in  curls  over  forehead  and  back  of 
neck.  Hair  thickly  developed  on  chest  and  abdomen^  with 
median  strip  of  dense  hairs  on  the  latter.  Hair  thick  over 
upper  and  lower  ends  of  scapulas  (shoulder  blades)^  thinner 
over  rest  of  back ;  well  developed  on  extensor  surface  of 
upper  arms^  and  both  surfaces  of  fore-arms ;  very  thick  on 
extensor  surfaces  of  the  latter.  Hair  abundant  on  both 
surfaces  of  legs ;  thickest  on  outer  side  of  thighs  and  round 
patella  (knee-cap).  Dense  beard-like  mass  of  hair  beneath 
gluteal  region  (buttocks). 

Face  much  corrugated.  Length  from  vertex  to  chin 
20*1  cm.  Bizygomatic  breadth  12*6  cm.  Bigoniac  breadth 
9*3  cm.  Olabella  indistinct.  Superciliary  ridges  very 
prominent.  Eyebrows  united  across  middle  line  by  thick 
tuft  of  hairs.  Cheek-bones  not  prominent.  Lips  medium^ 
somewhat  everted^  not  prognathous.  Facial  angle  (of 
Ouvier)  67*^.     Teeth  pearly  white,  entire,  large,  and  regular. 

Eyes  horizontal.  Iris  light-brown.  Incipient  arcus 
senilis.^  Conjunctivro  injected  (this  is  unusual).  Upper 
eyelid  not  thick ;  does  not  partially  cover  caruncle." 

Nose  of  Semitic  type.  Bridge  well  defined.  Height 
5*3  cm. ;  breadth  3*5  cm.     Nosti*3s  wide ;  2  cm.  in  length. 

Ears  not  outstanding.  Points  well  developed.  Lobules 
detached,  and  pierced.     Ear  5*8  cm.  in  length. 

Cephalic  length  20  cm.  (the  longest  measurement  re- 
corded) ;  breadth  14*6  cm. 

Chest  81  cm.  in  circumference. 

Shoulders  88*5  cm. 

Hand,  length  18  cm. ;  breadth  8*3  cm.  Length  of 
middle  finger  11*7  cm.     Nails   of   left   hand    kept    very 


^  Arom  Benilis  is  a  ring  of  fatty  degeneration  in  the  peripheral  f one  of 
the  cornea. 

*  In  a  yery  few  cases  the  npper  eyelid  was  noticed  partially  covering 
the  canmcle» 


160 

long  for  combing  and  scrf^tching  hair.  Fingers  broad ;  nails 
square.  Two  brass  rings  on  right  little  finger;  two  steel 
rings  on  left  ring  finger^  and  one  steel  ring  on  left  little 
finger* 

{Note, — ^The  Toda  men  do  not  indulge  in  jewelry  to  the 
same  extent  as  the  Kotas.) 

Foot^  length  25*3  cm. ;  max  :  breadth  9-3  cm. 

The  average  height  of  the  Toda  man^  according  to  my 
measurements^  is  169*6  cm.^  but  one  of  the  men  who  were 
selected  for  exhibition  at  Barnum's  show^  was  179  cm. 
high,  and  at  a  funeral  ceremony  I  picked  out  a  man  towering 
above  every  one  else,  whose  measurements  were  as  follows  : — 

2.  Man,  aged  25.     Pigeon  breasted. 
Height  185  cm.     Eecord  by  6  cm. 
Chest  84*5  cm. 

Shoulders  40'5  cm. 

Grande  envergure  (span  of  arms),  194  cm,  Eecord  by 
5'2  cm. 

Cubit,  53'2  cm.     Becord  by  2*9  cm. 

Hand,  length  20  cm. ;  breadth  8'8  cm. 

Middle  finger,  length  12'9  cm.     Eecord  by  -2  cm. 

Hips,  29  cm. 

Foot,  length  27'4  cm. ;  max  :  breadth  9'5  cm. 

3.  The  strongest  man  whom  I  came  across  was  an  elderly 
monegar  (head-man)  of  venerable  appearance,  wearing  a 
turban  in  virtue  of  his  position.  His  teeth  were  entire, 
and  sound,  indicating  the  enjoyment  of  good  digestion. 
The  upper  eyelid  partially  covered  the  caruncle.  There 
was  a  preponderance  of  white  hair  on  the  head  and  face ; 
snow  white  hair  on  the  chest ;  and  black  hair  on  the  back, 
arms,  abdomen,  and  legs.  His  measurements,  as  compared 
with  the  Toda  average,  are  herewith  recorded  :— 

ajr^6.    Tod.  ..erago. . 


Dynamometer    . . 

112     lbs. 

79  lbs. 

Height 

175     cm. 

169-6  cm. 

fcSnan  of  arms     . . 
Shoulders 

179      „ 

175       „ 

39-6   „ 

39-3   „ 

Chest 

98      „ 

83      „ 

Biceps  (circumference) .  • 

32       „ 

•  • 

Oubit 

48-6  „ 

47      „ 

Hand,  length     •  • 

19-8  „ 

18-8  „ 

„     breadth  ,. 

8-2  „ 

81    „ 

Middle  finger     •  • 

12-5  „ 

12      „ 

Hips 

29-4  „ 

36-7  „ 

151 


•  0 


0  • 


Monegar 
aged  60-55. 

Toda  avera^ 

53*6  cm. 

t  • 

34-5   „ 

•  • 

26-4   „ 

26-2  om. 

101    „ 

9-2   „ 

19-6   „ 

19-4  „ 

15      „ 
5-5   „ 

14-2  „ 
4-7   „ 

4-1    „ 
10-5   „ 

3-6  „ 
9-6  „ 

13-6   „ 

12-7   „ 

Thigh  (circumference) 
Oalf  (circumference) 
Foot,  length 

,)     breadth     .r 
Cephalic  length 
,,      breadth 
Nasal  height 

,,      breadth 
Bigoniac 
.Bizygomatic 

As  examples  of  Toda  men  who  had  reached  advanoed 
years,  the  two  following  were  selected  for  record  : — 

4.  Old  man^  who  maintains  that  he  is  a  centenarian. 
Bowed  with  age.  Face  wrinkled,  and  furrowed  like  a 
shrivelled  apple.  Teeth  entire,  but  upper  incisors  and  canines 
reduced  to  mere  pegs.  Says  that  he  remembers,  when  he 
was  a  lad,  sixty  or  seventy  years  ago,  going  to  a  great 
gathering  of  Todas  at  the  house  oi  Mr.  Sullivan  (one 
of  the  first  Europeans  who  visited  the  Nilgiris),  who  ex- 
plained to  them  that  the  Government  was  paternally  inclined 
towards  them. 

5.  Man  said  to  be  sixty  years  old,  but  looks  many 
years  older.  Bowed  with  age.  Face  wrinkled  and  fur- 
rowed. Advanced  arcus  senilis.  Teeth  entire,  and  in  good 
condition.    Muscles  wasted  and  flabby. 

Hair  of  head  long  and  wavy,  white  with  scattered  tufts 
of  black.  Moustache  and  beard  white,  with  diffused  black 
hairs.  Eye-brows  black  with  scattered  white  hairs ;  united 
across  middle  line  by  black  and  white  hairs  curving  up- 
wards. Hair  on  chest  and  shoulders  white;  on  abdomen 
black  with  sparse  white  hairs.  White  hair  on  back  above 
spine  of  scapula ;  black  hairs  over  body  of  scapula ;  and 
below  inferior  angle.  Extensor  surface  of  upper  extremi- 
ties very  hairy.  Preponderance  of  black  hairs  on  upper 
arm,  and  white  on'fore-arm.  Abundant  black  hair  in  arm* 
pits.  Legs  very  hairy  on  both  extensor  and  flexor  surfaces. 
Preponderance  of  white  hair  on  front  and  outer  side  of 
upper  leg.  Black,  with  scattered  white  hairs,  on  back  of 
upper  leg,  and  both  surfaces  of  lower  leg. 

6.  Man.  A  dense  growth  of  long  straight  hairs  directed 
outwards  on  helix  of  both  ears,  bearing  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  the  hairy  development  on  the  helix  of  the  commoii 
Madras  bonuet  monkey  {Macacue  sinicus)  • 


162 

The  two  following  cases  of  young  lads  are  not,  for  obvi- 
ous reasons,  included  in  the  table  of  measurements,  but  I 
place  them  on  record  as  they  are  characteristic  :— 

7.  Boy,  aged  12.  Shock  head  of  hair.  Down  on  upper 
lip.  No  hairy  development  on  body.  (Hair,  it  is  said, 
develops  between  the  fourteenth  and  seventeenth  years.) 
Wears  steel  bangle  roimd  right  ankle.  Learning  Tamil, 
English,  and  simple  arithmetic,  etc.,  at  Paikara  school. 

Height  143-8  cm. 

Chest  68-5  cm. 

Shoulders  32-7  cm. 

Foot,  length  23*4  cm. ;  max  :  breadth  8*3  cm. 

8.  Boy,  aged  16.  Hair  of  head  black,  long,  and  wavy. 
Long  hairs  directed  upwards  between  bushy  eye-brows. 
Down  on  upper  lip,  and  hair  developing  on  chin,  not  on 
body.     Ears  pierced. 

Height  156  cm. 
Weight  91-5  lb. 
Shoulders  34*2  cm. 
Chest  76  cm. 
Cubit  44*5  cm. 

Hand,  length  17*5  cm. ;  breadth  7*7  cm. 
Hips  23*1  cm. 

Foot,  length  25*7  cm. ;  max  :  breadth  18*7  cm. 
Cephalic  length  18*7  cm. 
,,      breadth  14*1  cm. 
Nasal  height  4*5  cm. 

„    breadth  3*5  cm. 
Bigoniac  9*2  cm. 
Bizygomatic  12*3  cm. 

• 

The  Toda  women  are  much  lighter  in  colour  than  the 
men,  and  the  colour  of  the  body  has  been  aptly  described  as 
being  of  a  cafi-au-lait  tint,  and  the  face  a  shade  darker. 
The  skin  of  the  female  children  and  young  adults  is  often 
of  a  warm  copper  hue.  Some  of  the  young  women,  with 
their  hair  dressed  in  glossy  ringlets,  bright,  glistening  eyes, 
and  white  teeth,  are  distinctly  good-looking  (frontispiece) 
though  the  face  is  spoiled  by  the  Ups  and  mouth  j  but  both 
good  looks  and  complexion  are  short-lived,  and  the  women 
speedily  degenerate  into  uncomely  hags. 

The  female  outer  garment  consists  of  a  robe  similar  to 
that  of  ^the  men,  but  worn  differently,  being  thrown  over 
both  shoulders  and  clasped  in  front  by  the  hand, 


TODA  MONEGAR. 


« 


168 

The  leading  characteristics  of  the  female  sez^  the 
system  of  tattooing^  and  decoration  with  ornaments^  are 
summed  up  in  the  following  descriptive  cases  : — 

9.  Girl^  aged  17.  Father  Todi ;  married  to  a  Eenna. 
One  child  (female)  seven  months  old.  A  bright,  good-look- 
ing, intelligent  girl^  of  modest  demeanour.  Can  read  and 
write  Tamil  to  a  limited  extent.     Not  tattooed. 

Height  155  cm. 

Weight  91  lbs. 

Skin  of  a  uniform  warm  copper  hue,  smooth,  and  dry. 
She  looks  very  fair  when  contrasted  with  the  surrounding 
men. 

Hair  black,  parted  in  the  middle,  and  worn  in  flowing 
ringlets,  which  fall  over  the  shoulders  and  neck.  Hair  uni- 
formly distributed,  not  tufted.  Uses  ght  (clarified  butter) 
as  pomatum.  Possesses  a  looking  glass.  Either  curls  her 
hair  herself,  or  gets  a  friend  to  do  it. 

Fine  light  hairs  on  back  between  shoulders,  and  on 
extensor  surface  of  fore-arm. 

Cephalic  length  18*6  cm.;  breadth  13*5  cm. 

Face  long,  oval.  Length  from  vertex  to  chin  20  cm. 
Bizygomatic  11*7  cm.  Bigoniac  9'5  cm.  Glabella  smooth ; 
superciliary  ridges  not  pronounced.  Chin  round.  Cheek 
bones  not  prominent.  Lips  medium,  slightly  everted.  Not 
prognathous.  Facial  angle  69'5.  Teeth  white,  and  well 
shaped. 

Eyes  glistening,  horizontal.  Iris  dark  brown.  Conjunc- 
tivae clear,  not  injected.     Long,  black,  silky  eye-lashes. 

Nose  straight.     Height  3*7  cm. ;  breadth  3*1  cm. 

Ears  not  outstanding.  Points  well  developed.  Length 
6  cm.  Lobes  detached,  pierced  and  plugged  with  wood. 
Wears  gold  ear-rings  on  festive  occasions. 

Shoulders  34  cm. 

Fingers  delicate,  tapering.  Nails  almond-shaped. 
Length  of  hand  17  cm.  ;  breadth  7'5  cm.  Length  of 
middle  finger  10*8  cm. 

Foot  well  shaped.  Length  23  cm. ;  max :  breadth  8*2  cm. 

Baby  (named  Latchmi)  shaved  on  back  part  of  top  of 
head.  Hair  brought  forward  over  forehead.  Has  round 
neck  a  silver  chain  in  three  strands,  ornamented  with  current 
two-anna  pieces  and  Arcot  four-anna  pieces. 

10.  Woman,  aged  22.  Sister  of  No.  1.  Strong  family 
likeness.  Father  and  husband  both  Todis.  Married 
between  four  and  fivo  jroars.     One  child  (female),  aged  nine 


164 

months.  Tattooed  with  three  dots  on  back  of  left  hand. 
Complexion  dirty  copper  colour. 

Hairs  between  shoulders,  on  extensor  surface  of  upper 
and  fore-arms,  and  legs.  Wears  silver  necklet,  ornamented 
wii>h  Arcot  two-anna  pieces ;  thread  and  silver  armlets  orna- 
mented with  cowry  shells  \Cyprma  moneta)  on  right  upper 
arm ;  thread  armlet  ornamented  with  cowries  on  left  upper 
arm ;  glass  bead  bracelet  on  left  fore*arm ;  brass  ring  on 
left  ring  finger  ;  silver  rings  on  right  middle  and  ring 
fingers. 

Lobules  of  ear  attached,  pierced.  Ear-rings  removed 
owing  to  grandmother's  death. 

11.  Woman,  aged  28,  past  her  prime.  Father  a  Kuttan ; 
husband  a  Kenna.  Three  children  (girls),  of  whom  two  are 
alive,  aged  eleven  and  eight. 

Tattooed  with  a  single  dot  on  chin ;  rings  and  dots  on 
chest  (pi.  XII,  2)  outer  side  of  upper  arms  (pi.  xii,  3)  back 
of  left  hand,  below  calves  (pi.  xii,  4)  above  ankles,  (pi.  xii,  6) 
and  across  dorsum  of  feet  (pi.  xii,  5). 

Wears  thread  armlet  ornamented  with  young  cowries  on 
right  fore*arm ;  thread  armlet  and  -two  heavy  ornamental 
brass  armlets  on  left  upper  arm  ;  ornamental  brass  Sangle, 
and  glass  bead  bracelet  on  left  wrist ;  brass  ring  dn  left 
little  finger;  two  steel  rings  on  left  ring  finger;  bead 
necklet  ornamented  with  cowries. 

12.  Woman,  aged  35.  Father  a  Todi;  husband  a  Pek- 
kan.  Five  children  (3  boys,  2  g^rls),  all  alive ;  youngest 
three  years  old.  Tattooed  as  No.  2,  but,  in  addition,  with 
rows  of  dots  and  rings  on  back  (pi.  xii,  1). 

Skin  dry,  muddy  yellow  brown. 

Hair  black.  Hairs  of  head  65  cm.  long  (a  record  of 
length)  falling  over  shoulders  and  back  in  ringlets.  Slight 
moustache.  Hair  developed  on  extensor  surbice  of  upper 
and  fore-arms,  legs,  and  between  shonlder  blades,  where 
there  is  profuse  secretion  of  perspiration. 

Height  152-4  cm. 

Weight  108  lbs. 

Cephalic  length  19*3  cm. ;  breadth  13*6  om. 

Face.  Wrinkles  on  forehead ;  superciliary  rid^ea  and 
glabella  not  marked.  Eyebrows  united  across  middle  line 
by  fine  hairs.  Cheek-bones  rather  prominent,  with  hollows 
beneath. 

Nose  straight.  Height  4*1  cm. ;  breadth  3*5  cm.  Ears 
not  outstanding.  Length  6*1  cm.  Points  well  developed. 
Lobules  attached,  pierced.    Possesses  ear-rings,  but  will 


PLXir 


•  k  •• 


00' 
DO 


•  •  •  •< 


•  •  •  »  « 

•- 


•o 
•  •o 


^*  t«     ••••«••     •• 


oo 


»  •  • 


•••••« 


•  •o 

•  •o 


•  •  •  • 


oo • 

♦  •••^•••••0O»**  ••♦•••••  •••• 


oo    oo  oo    oo    oo   oooo 

2 


O-' 


00 


oo 


o 

o 


oo 

4^ 


o 
o 


o 


oo 

6 


TODA    TATTOO    MARKS      i»m«t^*»«>,  •uj¥«vjHFiiio«. 


166 

not  wear  them  until  the  dry  funeral  ceremony  of  an  aunt, 
who  died  three  months  ago,  has  been  performed. 

Height  from  vertex  to  chin  21*5  cm.  Bizygomatio 
hreadth  12*2  cm.     Bigoniac  breadth  9*2  cm. 

Shoulders  34*2  cm. 

Hand,  length  17*5  cm. ;  breadth  7*8  cm.  Length  of 
middle  finger  11  cm.  Nails  of  left  hand  kept  long  for 
eombing  and  scratching. 

Foot,  length^24*7  cm. ;  max :  breadth  7*9  cm. 

18.  TV  Oman  aged  35.  Father  a  Euttan;  husband  a 
Eenna.  Five  children  (8  boys,  2  girls)  all  alive ;  youngest 
eight  years  old.  Tattooed  as  No.  4.  Linen  bound  round 
elbow-joint  to  prevent  chafing  of  heavy  brass  armlets. 
Cicatrices  of  sores  in  front  of  elbow-joint  produced  by 
armlets. 

Rudimentary  whiskers  and  moustache,  and  long,  strag- 
gling hairs  on  chin.  Abundant  development  of  hair* on 
extensor  surface  of  fore-arms. 

Conjunctivas  injected.  Long  hairs  directed  upwards, 
uniting  eyebrows  across  middle  line.  Ears  pierced.  Lobules 
not  attached. 

14.  Woman,  a^ed  23.  Father  a  Kuttan ;  husband  a 
Pekkan.  One  child  (boy)  three  years  old.  Tattooed  only 
below  calves,  and  above  ankles. 

Nose  concave.  Height  4*1  cm. ;  breadth  3*1  cm.  Broad 
throughout,  and  fiat  across  bridge.  Breadth  between  inner 
ends  of  eye-brows  2*5  cm. 

Upper  eyelid  turns  down  at  inner  angle,  so  as  to 
partially  cover  caruncle. 

Broad  lower  jaw;  bigoniac  measuring  10  cm.  (averages 
9*4  cm). 

15.  6irl|  aged  9-10.  Hair  in  long  curls  (41  cm.),  not 
shaved.  Downy  hairs  on  back,  and  extensor  sur&ce  of 
fore-arm.  Incipient  moustache.  Eye-brows  united  across 
middle  line  by  long  hairs  directed  upwards.  .Not  reached 
puberty. 

Height  134*6  cm. 
Cephalic  length  17*1  cm. 

„        breadth  13*3  cm. 
Bigoniac  9*1  cm. 
Bifyffomatic  10*8  cm. 
Nafiud  height  3*6  cm. 

„    breadth  2*8  cm. 
Shoulders  28*7  cm. 
Span  of  arms  186'4  cm, 

2t 


166 

Onbit  86*6  cm. 
Hand^  length  14*8  cm. 

,,      breadth  6*1  cm. 
Middle  finger  9*4  cm. 
Foot  length  20*5  cm. 

„    breadth  5*9  cm. 

The  odorous  abode  of  the  Todas  is  called  a  mand  (village 
Dwelline  places  ^'  hamlet)  which  is  composed  of  huto, 

dairy  temple,  and  cattle-pen,  and  has 
been  so  well  described  by  l3r.  Shortt,  that  I  cannot  do 
better  than  quote  his  account  verbatim.  '^Each  mand,V 
he  says,  '^usually  comprises  about  five  buildings  or  huts', 
three  of  which  are  used  as  dwellings,  one  as  a  dairy,  and 
the  other  for  sheltering  the  calves  at  night.  These  huts 
form  a  peculiar  kind  of  oval  pent-shaped  construction, 
usually  10  feet  high,  18  feet  long,  and  9  feet  broad.  The 
entrance  or  doorway  measures  32  inches  in  height  and  18 
inches  in  width,  and  is  not  provided  with  any  door  or  gate ; 
but  the  entrance  is  closed  by  means  of  a  solid  slab  or  plank 
of  wood  from  4  to  6  inches  thick,  and  of  sufficient  dimen- 
sions to  entirely  block  up  the  entrance.  This  sliding  door 
is  inside  the  hut,  and  so  arranged  and  fixed  on  two  stout 
stakes  buried  in  the  earth,  and  standing  to  the  height  of 
2^  to  3  feet,  as  to  be  easily  moved  to  and  fro.  There  are 
no  other  openings  or  outlets  of  auy  kind  either  for  the 
escape  of  smoke  or  for  the  free  ingress  and  egress  of 
atmospheric  air.  The  doorway  itself  is  of  such  small 
dimensions  that,  to  effect  an  entrance,  one  has  to  go  down 
on  all  fours,  and  even  then  much  wriggling  is  necessary 
before  an  entrance  effected.  The  houses  are  neat  in  appear- 
ance, and  are  built  of  bamboos  closely  laid  together,  fas- 
tened with  rattan,  and  covered  with  thatch  which  renders 
them  water-tight.  Each  building  has  an  end  walling 
before  and  behind,  composed  of  solid  blocks  of  wood,  and 
the  sides  are  covered  in  by  the  pent-roofing  which  slopes 
down  to  the  ground.  The  front  wall  or  planking  contains 
the  entrance  or  doorway.  The  inside  of  a  hat  is  from  8  to 
15  feet  square,  and  is  sufficiently  high  in  the  middle  to 
admit  of  a  tall  man  moving  about  with  comfort.  On  one 
side  there  is  a  raised  platform  or  pial  formed  of  clay,  about 
2  feet  high,  and  covered  with  sambar  (deer)  or  buffalo 
skins,  or  sometimes  with  a  mat.  This  platform  is  used 
as  a  sleeping  place.  On  the  opposite  side  is  a  fire-place, 
and  a  slight  elevation  on  which  the  cooking  utensils  are 
placed.     In  this  part  of  the  building  &ggots  of  ^wood 


167 

are  seen  piled  up  from  floor  to  roof^  and  secured  in  tkeir 
place  by  loops  of  rattan.  Here  also  the  rice-pounder  or 
pestle  is  fixed.  The  mortar  is  formed  by  a  hole  dug  in 
the  ground^  7  to  9  inches  deep^  and  hardened  by  constant 
use.  The  other  household  goods  consist  of  3  or  4  biBSS 
dishes  or  plates,  several  bamboo  measures,  and  sometimes 
a  hatchet.  Each  hut  or  dwelling  is  surrounded  by  an 
enclosure  or  wall  formed  of  loose  stones  piled  up  2  to  8 
feet  high^  and  includes  a  space  or  yard  measuring  13  x  10 
feet. 

''  The  dairy,  which  is  also  the  temple  of  the  mand,  is 
sometimes  a  building  slightly  larger  than  the  others,  and 
usually  contains  two  compartments  separated  by  a  centre 
plankiiig.  One  part  of  the  dairy  is  a*  store-house  for  ghee, 
milk  and  curds,  contained  in  separate  vessels.  *  The  outer 
apartment  forms  the  dwelling  place  of  the  pu j&ri  or  p&lkftrpil 
(dairy  priest).  The  doorways  of  the  dairy  are  smaller  than 
those  of  the  dwelling  huts,  being  14  x  18  inches.  The  dairy 
or  temple  is  usually  situated  at  some  little  distance  from  the 
habitations,  and  strangers  never  attempt  to  approach  too 
near  it  for  fear  of  incurring  the  ill-wiU  of  the  deity  who  is 
believed  to  preside  within.  Females  are  excluded,  and  the 
only  parties  who  are  free  to  come  and  go  are  the  boys  of 
the  family.  The  flooring  of  the  dairy  is  level,  and  at  one 
end  there  is  a  fire  place.  Two  or  three  milk  pails  or  pots 
are  all  that  it  usually  contains. 

"  The  huts  where  the  calves  are  kept  are  simple  build* 
ings  somewhat  like  the  dwelling  huts. 

''In  the  vicinity  of  the  mands  are  the  cattle-pens  or 
tuels,  which  are  circular  enclosures  surrounded  by  a  loose 
stone  wall  with  a  single  entrance  guarded  by  powerful 
wooden  stakes.  In  these  the  herds  of  bufialoes  are  kept 
at  night     Each  mand  possesses  a  herd  of  these  animals.^' 

When  a  girl  has  reached  the  age  of  puberty,  she  goes 

through  an  initiatory  ceremony,  and 
»»'»'■  a  man  of  strong  physique  decide  wh«. 

ther  she  is  fit  to  enter  into  the  married  state.  The  selected 
man  may  subsequently  marry  the  girl,  or  she  may  marry 
some  one  else,  whom  she  accepts  as  meeting  with  her 
approbation.  A  man  who  is  betrothed  to  a  girl  may  enjoy 
conjugal  rights  before  marriage  with  a  view  to  testxDg 
mutual  liking  or  dislike  before  it  is  too  late,  but  may  not 
live  in  the  same  hut  with  her. 

No  precautions  are  adopted  to  guard  against  pregnanoyi 
and  it  is  not  viewed  as  a  scandal  if  a  girl  becomes  pregnant 


168 

Wore  marriage.  If  a  man  suspects  his  fiano^^  of  being  preg- 
nant by  anotner,  he  may  break  o£E  the  engagement.  The 
snspected  man^  if  convicted^  is  not  obliged  to  marry  her. 

It  appears  to  be  regarded  as  a  mild  disgrace  if  a  child 
is  bom  before  marriage,  but  the  girl  is  not  banished  from 
her  mand. 

If  a  married  woman  is  found  to  be  unfaithful  to  her 
husband^  he  may  obtain  a  divorce^  which  is  decreed  by  a 
panchayat,  or  councili  of  Todas  (a  rudimentary  type  of  judge 
and  jury) 9  and  send  her  back  to  her  parents.  She  is  per- 
mitted to  marry  again^  provided  that  her  new  husband 
makes  good^  in  money  or  bufialoes,  the  expenses  incurred 
in  connection  with  the  first  marriage  ceremony.  In  case 
of  adultery^  when  puiliishment  short  of  divorce  is  desired,  a 
fine  of  a  buffalo  may  be  inflicted  by  the  panch&yat,  before 
whom  the  case  comes  up  for  hearing. 

.  It  is  considered  a  disgrace  for  a  woman  not  to  get  mar- 
ried, and,  if  she  does  not  succeed  in  securing  a  husband  by 
the  natural  process  of  sexual  selection,  her  father  bribes 
a  nian  to  marry  her  by  a  present  of  a  buffalo.  In  ordinary 
marriages  the  bride's  father  receives  a  dowry  of  five  rupees 
from  the  bridegroom-elect. 

It  is  not  looked  on  as  a  disgrace  for  a  woman  to  be 
barren,  but  is  attributed  to  bad  luck,  which  may  be  reme- 
died by  prayers  and  propitiatory  offerings  to  the  swftmi.  If 
satisfied  that  his  wife  is  barren,  a  man  may  take  unto  him- 
self a  second  wife,  and  live  with  both  in  one  hut.  Or  his 
original  wife  may  re-marry,  if  she  can  find  a  man  ready  to 
take  her,  provided  that  the  expenses  of  her  marriage  with 
her  first  husband  are  refunded  or  made  good,  and  jewelry 
returned. 

When  a  woman  is  left  a  widow  (barudi)  she  may  live 
with  her  sons,  if  grown  up  and  capable  of  supporting  her, 
or  with  a  married  daughter,  if  her  husband  does  not  object 
to  the  constant  presence  of  his  mother*in-law.  If  she  is  left 
with  young  children,  she  returns  to  her  parents.  Widows 
are  permitted  to  marry  again.  The  name  barudi,  it  may 
be  noted,  is  applied  to  old  women,  widows,  and  barren 
women. 

No  test  of  virility  or  physical  fitness  is  required  of 
young  men  before  entering  into  the  married  state,  and  no 
operation,  e.g.^  circumcision,  is  performed. 

Gfirls  are  said  to  reach  puberty  between  the  ages  of  ten 
and  twelve,  and  frequently  '  join  their  husband '  (to  use 
the  Toda  phrase)  about  a  year  later* 


TODA  WOMAN. 


*  t 

-   * 
« 


169 

During  menstraation  a  woman  lives  apart  in  a  separata 
hut.    No  purificatory  ceremonies  are  periormed. 

When  a  woman  discovers  that  she  is  pregnant  with  her 
first  childy  she  removes  the  t&li  (marriage  badge)  from  her 
neck,  and  puts  it  aside  until  the  ceremony  in  celebration  of 
the  fifth  month  of  her  pregnancy  called  purs  yet  pimmu  To 
witness  this,  Todas  are  invited  to  the  mand,  and  feasted  on 
rice,  milk,  and  molasses  (jaggery).  The  woman's  father 
promises  his  son-in-law  a  buffalo  by  name,  which  is  sent  as 
a  present  subsequently.  Husband  and  wife  then  go  to  the 
forest^  accompanied  by  thoir  relatives  and  guests,  and  the 
husband  sets  off  in  search  of  a  blade  of  grass  and  twig  of  a 
shrub  {Sophora  glauca),  while  the  woman  remains  seated  at 
the  foot  of  a  n&ga  tree  {Eugenia  Arnottiana)  near  which  a 
rude  temporary  hut  has  been  erected.  A  triangular  hole 
is  out  in  the  tree  a  few  feet  above  the  ground^  and  a  lighted 
lamp  placed  in  the  hole*  The  husband  then  asks  his  father- 
in-laWy  purs  pul  godvayi^  '  Shall  I  tie  the  t&li  P  '  and,  on  re- 
ceiving assent  to  do  so,  places  it  round  his  wife's  neck,  and 
gives  the  grass  and  twig  to  her.  After  raising  them  to  her 
head,  the  woman  places  them  against  the  tree,  under  the 
lamp,  and  stands  facing  towards  the  tree  until  the  lamp  goes 
out.  Meanwhile  her  husband  ties  up  in  a  cloth  some  r&gi 
(Elewine  Corocana)  wheat,  honey,  s&mai  {Panicum  miliare) 
and  gram  (Oieer  arietinum),  and  places  them  in  a  round  hole 
in  the  tree  beneath  the  lamp.  He  then  prepares  a  meal 
for  himself  aud  his  wife,  which  they  partake  of  separately 
towards  evening.  The  other  Todas  return  to  the  husband's 
mand,  where  they  ^*  dine  and  sleep,"  going  on  the  following 
morning  to  the  forest  to  bring  back  the  man  and  his  wife 
to  the  mand. 

The  twig  and  grass  used  in  the  above  ceremony  are 
made  to  represent  a  bow  and  arrow,  and  are,  according 
to  Mr.  Natesa  Sastri,  placed  in  the  niche  along  with  the 
light,  and  the  husband  and  wife  observe  it  minutely  for 
an  hour.  The  bow  and  string  in  the  form  of  a  circle  are 
afterwards  tied  round  the  neck  of  the  woman,  who  is  from 
this  minute  the  recognised  wife  of  the  Toda  who  married 
her.  The  primitive  marriage  badge  made  from  what  the 
forest  affords  is  retained  only  during  that  night.  It  is 
next  morning  replaced  by  a  silver  badge  called  kyavilli> 
between  Bs.  30  and  Bs*  50  in  value. 

''  At  any  time  before  the  birth  of  a  child  is  expected,  the 
husband  or  wife  may  sever  their  relationship  from  each  other 
by  a  panch&vat  or  council  of  elders,  and  by  returning  the  put 
kudivan  mvx  any  presents  that  one  party  has  reoeivod  mm 


160 

ioiofcli^.  Qenenlly  the  presents  do  not  take  place  till  after 
a  child  is  expected.  When  such  an  event  seems  certain,  a 
oeremony  called  the  ur  vot  pimmi  takes  place.  I^his  means 
the  banishment  from  the  house*  On  the  first  new  moon  day 
after  this  a  spot  is  cleared  out  near  the  puzhar^  in  which  rice 
with  molasses  is  cooked  in  a  new  pot.  An  elderly  woman 
rolls  up  a  rag  to  the  size  of  a  small  wick^  dips  it  in  oil, 
lights  it  up,  and  with  the  burning  end  scalds  the  woman^s 
hands  in  four  places — one  dot  at  each  of  the  lowest  joints 
•of  the  right  and  left  thumbs^  and  one  dot  on  each  of  the 
wrists.  Then  two  stumps  a  foot  high  of  the  puvvu  tree^— 
{Rhododendron  arboreum)'^Q,Te  prepared  and  rolled  up  in  a 
black  cumbly  (a  rough  woollen  cloth).  These  two  stumps 
are  called  pirinbon  and  pirivon — he  and  she  devils.  Be- 
tween these  two  a  lamp  is  placed  on  the  ground,  and  lighted. 
Two  balls  of  rice  cooked  in  the  new  pot  near  the  puzhar  are 
•then  brought,  and  placed  before  the  pirinbon  and  pirivon 
on  a  kakonda  leaf.  The  top  of  the  balls  are  hollowed,  and 
ghee  is  profusely  poured  into  each  while  the  following 
incantation  is  repeated  : — pirinbon  pirivon  podya — may 
the  he-devil  and  the  she-devil  eat  this  offering  I  This  is 
something  like  the  bhutabali  offered  by  the  Hindus  to 
propitiate  the  evil  deities.  After  this  offering  the  woman 
takes  her  food,  and  continues  to  live  for  one  month  in  the 

Euzhar  till  the  next  new  moon,  when  she  is  again  brought 
ack  to  her  own  mand.'^     (S.M.  Natesa  Sastri.) 

A  pregnant  woman  continues  to  live  in  the  same  hut  as 
her  husband  until  the  time  of  delivery,  and  is  then  removed 
to  a  hut  called  puzhar,  set  apart  for  the  purpose  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  mand,  unless  the  mand  possesses  a  boath 
(see  p.  173),  in  which  case  the  hut  is  situated  at  a  distance 
of  about  two  miles  from  the  mand. 

A  woman  skilled  in  the  duties  of  a  midwife  from  the 
'Saine  or  some  other  mand  tends  the  parturient  woman.  If 
the  midwife  is  a  near  relative,  no  remuneration  is  awarded 
in  return  for  her  services ;  otherwise  she  receives  bocurd 
and  lodging,  and  a  present  of  a  new  putkuli.  The  woman^s 
husband  is  not  admitted  into  the  hut  during  the  time  of 
deUvery. 

The  woman  is  delivered  on  her  hands  and  knees,  or  lying 
backwards,  supported  on  her  hands.  Death  during,  or  as  a 
sequel  of  parturition^  is  said  to  be  very  rare.  The  umbilical 
oord  is  tied  and  cut. 

If  the  child  is  born  dead,  or  dies  before  it  has  taken  the 
breast^  it  is  buried.  If,  however,  it  has  taken  the  breast^  it 
is  burned^  and  both  green  and  dry  ceremonies  are  performed* 


■» 


161 

On  the  day  after  delivery,  or  as  soon  after  as  possible,  a 
young  bnffalo  calf  is  brought  in  front  of  the  puzhar,  and  the. 
father  of  the  new-bom  babe  goes  to  the  forest  to  make  two. 
new  bamboo  measures.  The  woman  comes  out  of  the  hut 
with  her  infant,  and  sits  at  a  distance  of  some  yards  from; 
the  calf.  The  husband  on  his  return  fills  one,  and  half  fills 
the  other  measure  with  water.  Holding  the  measure  which 
is  half  full  on  the  right  side  of  the  calf's  hind-quarters,  he 
pours  water  from  the  measure  which  is  full  down  the  animal's 
back,  so  that  some  of  it  trickles  into  the  other  measure.  A 
Toda,  who  has  obtained  from  the  jungle  a  leaf  of  the  p&lai 
tree  (Mappia  foetida)y  places  it  in  the  hands,  of  the  woman. 
Her  husband  then  pours  water  from  one  of  the  measures 
into  the  leaf ,  of  which  the  woman  drinks,  and,  if  the  child 
is  a  girl,  puts  a  drop  of  water  into  its  mouth.  Man  and 
wife,  with  the  child,  then  return  to  the  puzhar  ^  where  they 
live  till  the  next  new  moon,  when  they  return  to  their  hut 
in  the  mand.  A  buffalo  is  then  milked  by  a  Toda  belong- 
ing to  the  Fekkan  clan.  A  leaf  of  the  p&lai  tree  is  placed  m 
the  woman's  hand,  and  milk  is  poured  into  it  by  a  female 
relative,  and  drunk  by  the  woman.     In  the  evening  a  feast  is 

fiven  to  the  Todas  who  have  been  present  at  the  returning 
ome  ceremony. 
When  the  child  has  reached  the  third  month  of  its  ex- 
istence,^ it  is,  if  a  boy,  taken  by  its  father,  unaccompanied 
by  its  mother,  early  in  the  morning  to  the  dairy  temple 
(pftlchi)  of  the  mand,  before  which  the  father  jrostrates 
himself,  and  offers  ap  prayers  to  the  sw&mi.  The  child  is 
named  by  a  relative,  e.g.,  its  maternal  uncle  or  grand-father, 
after  a  relative,  god,  buffalo,  mountain  peak,  &c.,  bat  in  after 
life  a  nick  name,  sometimes  indecent,  is  given.  *^  They 
have,^'  a  friend  writes  to  me,  ^*  carious  nick  names,  these 
Todas.  One  little  lad  went  by  the  name  of  '  Kaci  eri/  {.«., 
public  office.  His  elder  brother,  who  was  celebratL*d  in  the 
mand  for  his  rendering  of  an  interminable  Badaga  song,  of 
which,  one  B&man— a  veritable  Launcelot — was  the  hero, 
rejoiced  in  the  title  of  *  Sirkar,'  i.e.,  Government.'*  The 
simple  baptism  ceremony  is  followed  by  a  feast,  of  which  the 
inhabitants  of  the  mand  take  part.  If  the  child  is  a  girl, 
it  .is  not  taken  to  the  p&lchi,  but  is  merely  named  by  itii 
father. 


*  According  to  another  version^  the  husband  returns  to  his  own  hut', 
and  does  not  live  in  the  pttshar. 

*  Fortieth  day  acoonUng  to  another  yersiov. 


163 

The  foregoing  account  of  the  post  partum  and  naming 
ceremonies  is  recorded  a«  it  was  narrated  to  me ;  but  they 
are  treated  of  more  fully  by  Mr.  Natesa  Sastri^  who  no  doubt 
had  fixator  ease  than  a  European  in  eliciting  information, 
and  &om  whose  account  the  following  extract  is  taken : — 

• 

"  As  soon  as  the  childis  bom,the  mother  and  baby  aretaken 
to  a  temporary  hut  (mand)  built  of  sticks  in  a  semi-circular 
form  near  a  place  in  the  general  mand  from  which  the  Todas 
get  their  water-supply.  A  she-buffalo  calf  is  brought  before 
this  hut,  and  the  father  of  the  child  pours  water  on  the  left 
side  of  the  calf  between  two  sticks  of  the  Nilgiri  reed  called 
odai,  and  the  water  is  then  collected  in  the  hollow  of  a  third 
reed  stick.  Then  the  mother  and  her  new-bom  baby  are 
made  to  sit  in  the  temporary  hut,  and  a  leaf  of  kakonda  tree 
{Mappia  fcetida),  is  placed  on  their  heads,  and  the  collected 
water  in  the  reed  is  poured  on  the  leaf  with  the  following 
incantation  : — Podar  net  als  pimi — I  pour  the  sacred  water 
over  you.  This  answers  to  the  jatalotrmam  of  the  Hindu, 
which  should  be  performed  as  soon  as  the  child  is  bom, 
though  it  is  the  custom  now-a-days  to  reserve  this  to  a  latter 
date.  After  this  the  mother  and  baby  retire  to  the  puzhar, 
where  they  live  till  the  next  new  moon.  On  the  morning  of 
the  new  moon  day  all  the  buffaloes  in  the  mand  are  milked, 
and  the  collected  milk  is  kept  without  being  used  by  any- 
body. At  twilight  the  same  evening,  after  all  the  cattle 
have  been  penned,  an  elderly  woman  in  the  mand  proceeds 
to  the  puzhar  with  a  little  milk' in  her  hand  in  a  vessel  called 
nak  (alak  ?)  to  bring  the  mother  and  baby  to  the  father's 
house.  A  single  leaf  of  the  kakonda  tree  is  given  to  the 
mother,  which  she  holds  in  the  form  of  a  cup.  The  old 
woman  pours  into  it  three  drops  of  milk.  Each  time  a  drop 
is  poured,  the  mother  raises  the  cup  to  her  forehead,  touches 
her  hair  with  it,  and  drinks  it  off.  Then  the  old  woman 
conducts  the  mother  and  baby  home,  which  is  lighted  up. 
From  this  moment  the  woman  and  the  baby  become  members 
of  the  family.  The  Toda  baby  boy  is  wrapped  up  in  a  thick 
cotton  cloth,  called  duppatti,  and  the  face  is  never  shown  to 
any  one.  The  mother  feeds  it  till  it  is  three  months  old* 
At  the  end  of  the  third  month  a  curious  ceremony  takes 
place  called  mutarderd  pimmi^  or  opening  the  face  ceremony, 
and  it  is  as  follows.  Just  before  dawn  on  the  third  new  moon 
day  afterthe  birth  of  thechild,  the  father,  who  has  not  seen  its 
face  till  then,  takes  it  to  the  temple  in  the  mand— the  saored 
dairy  or  p&lohi — and  worships  at  the  door  as  follows  :  — 


163 

• 

Yiflhzht  tomma — May  the  child  be  all  right ! 
Tann  nimma — May  God  protect  him ! 
Sembor  kumma — May  he  give  him  life ! 
^'  After  this  prayer  the  father  retnms  home  with  the  child, 
and  from  this  minute  the  wrapping  up  of  the  child's  &ce 
ceases,  and  every  one  can  look  at  it. 

*'  If  the  maternal  uncle  of  the  child  is  present,  another 
ceremony  is  also  conjoined  with  mutarderd  pimmi.     It  is  the 

g'ving  of  a  name  to  the  boy  allied  to  the  namakarana  of  the 
Indus. 

"  The  ceremony  of  naming  is  called  tezhantu  pimmi.  The 
uncle  gives  a  name,  and  that  is  all.  Then  the  ends  of  the 
hair  of  the  baby  are  cut.  A  wild  rose  stick,  called  by  the 
Toda  kodag  {Rosa  kschnaultiana),  is  brought  from  the 
forest^  the  hair  of  the  boy  is  placed  on  it,  and  with  a  sharp 
knife  the  edges  that  rest  on  the  stick  are  cut  off,  and  care- 
fully preserved  in  a  piece  of  cloth  or  paper  tightlv  tied^  and 
locked  up  in  a  box  for  three  years.  The  reason  for  this,  the 
Toda  says,  is  that^  if  the  bits  are  thrown  away,  and  are  used 
by  the  crows  in  building  their  nests,  the  head  of  the  boy 
will  never  rest  firm  on  his  shoulders,  but  will  always  be 
shaky.  After  three  years  a  deep  pit  is  dug  outside  the 
limits  of  the  mand,  and  the  hair  so  carefully  preserved  is 
buried  in  it  verv  carefully  beyond  the  reach  of  the  dreaded 
crow.  When  the  boy  is  three  years  and  three  months  old, 
the  head  is  shaved,  three  locks  of  hair  only  being  preserved. 
Two  locks  on  the  forehead  are  called  meguti,  and  the  third 
look  on  the  back  of  the  head  is  called  kut.  This  ceremony 
is  called  kui  mad  vas  pimmi.  All  these  rites  are  common  to 
both  male  and  female  children  bom  in  a  family.  If  the 
female  child  has  an  elder  brother,  she  wears  only  the  two 
front  locks  without  the  back  one.  If  she  is  the  first  female 
child  in  the  family — first  in  order  of  birth,  or  first  surviving — 
she  wears  all  the  three  locks.^' 

.  Women  are  said  to  suckle  their  children  from  one  to  two 
years  on  an  average. 

There  is  no  superstition  in  connection  with  the  birth  of 
twins,  though  one  man,  whom  I  questioned  on  the  subject, 
was  inclined  to  attribute  the  dual  birth  to  the  practice  of 
polyandry ;  and  I  was  reminded  of  tbe  reply  of  a  Oeylonese 
native  to  Professor  Haeokel : — ''  These  people  have  always 
had  a  number  of  fathers,  and,  as  they  inherit  all  the  bad 
qualities  of  so  many  fathers,  it  is  only  natural  that  they 
should  grow  worse  and  worse.'^ 

In  *  the  Tribes  inhabiting  the  Neilffherry  hills/  1866,  by 
a  G-erman  xnissionary,  it  is  stated  that "  it  jb  rarely  that  there 

28 


164 

are  more  than  two  or  three  children,  and  it  is  not  at  all  an 
uncommon  thing  to  find  only  a  single  child,  while  many 
families  have  none  at  all.''  Studied  with  reference  to  the 
above  observation,  which,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  was 
written  thirty-six  years  ago,  the  following  statistics,  gleaned 
in  the  course  of  my  enquiries,  are  not  without  interest : — 


Ago  of 
woman. 

Male 
iflsne. 

Female 
iflsne. 

Bemarkfl. 

17 

•  •  • 

1 

Seven  months  old. 

25 

2 

1 

Girl  dead. 

28 

•  •  • 

8 

Two  living,  aged  twelve  and  eight. 

85 

8 

2 

Toongeflt  two  years  old.     AU  L'ving. 

40 

2 

5 

One  male,  two  females,  alive.  Yonngest  aged 
twelve. 

28 

4 

•  •  • 

Two  alive,  aged  six  and  a  year  and  a  half. 

22 

•  •  • 

1 

Nine  months  old. 

80 

1 

4 

All  dead,  except  eldest  girl  aged  twelve. 

28 

a  «  • 

2 

Both  dead. 

23 

1 

•  1  • 

Three  years  old. 

80 

•  «  ■ 

4 

Yonngest  six  years  old.    All  living. 

40 

6 

5 

Only  one  alive,  a  female  twenty-five  years  old 
(probably  syphiliiio). 

so 

1 

1 

Boy  alive,  six  years  old. 

80 

2 

2 

Yonngest  fonr  years  old.    AU  living. 

80 

1 

•  •  • 

Eight  months  old. 

85 

8 

2 

Yonngest  eight  yean  old.    All  living. 

26 

2 

■  *  • 

Yonngest  two  years  old.    Both  alive. 

80 

2 

1 

Yonngest  six  years  old.    AU  living. 

26 
28 
80 

•  •  ■ 

•  ■  • 

a  •  • 
t  •  a 

>  N^o  issne. 

•    -    I 
29 
muring) 

84 

(19  living) 

J 

1 

W 

i 

(  • 


165 


The  Todas  are  endogamons  as  a  tribe,  and  even  as  regards 

Intermarriage  of  olana.     ^^™®  ^^  *^®  ^^^    clans,  viz.,    Eenna, 

Euttan,  Paiki,  Pekkan  and  Todi,  into 
which  they  are  snbdiyided.  Members  of  the  different 
olans  have  no  distinguishing  dress  or  mark.  Intermarriage 
between  Paiki  and  Pekkan  is  said  to  be  forbidden,  bat  the 
remaining  clans  intermarry  freely.  Of  twenty-seven  cases 
examined  by  me,  husband  and  wife  belonged,  as  shown  by 
the  following  tabular  statement,  to  different  clans  in  twenty- 
four,  and  to  the  same  clan  (Todi)  in  three  cases  only — 
tguree  which,  as  the  cases  were  taken  at  landom,  demon- 
strate the  prevalence  of  the  custom  of  intermarriage  between 
members  of  different  clans  :— 

I 


Husband. 

Wife 

Nnmber  of 
casea. 

Kenna. 

'            Todi. 

7 

Kenna. 

'             Euttan. 

2 

Euttan. 

Eenna. 

2 

Kuttan. 

Todi. 

1 

Paiki. 

1             Todi. 

1 

Pekkan. 

!             Euttan. 

1 

Pekkan. 

Todi. 

2 

• 

Todi. 

Eenna. 

4 

Todi. 

Euttan. 

3 

Todi. 

Pekkan. 

1 

Todi. 

Todi. 

3 

Breeks  states  that  "  Todas  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
which  cannot  intermarry,  viz. : — 

(1)  D6valy&l. 

(2)  Tarserzh&l. 

''The  first  class  consists  of  the  Peiki  clan,  correspond- 
ing in  some  respects  to  Brahmans ;  the  second  of  the  four 
remaining  clans,  the  Pekkan,  Euttan,  Eenna  and  Todi. 

''  The  Peikis  eat  apart ;  and  a  Peiki  woman  may  not  go 
to  a  village  of  the  Tarsereh&l,  although  the  women  of  the 
latter  may  visit  Peikis.^' 

In  the  course  of  my  enquiries,  two  different  stories  were 
told  in  connection  with  the  marriage  of  Paikis,  and  the  classes 
into  which  the  Todas  are  divided-  According  to  one  story, 
Paikis  may  become  either  pftl&ls  or  k&ltam&ks  (herdsmen  of 
the  tiridri) ,  and  a  Paiki  who  has  a  right  to  become  a  k&ltam&k 
may  marry  into  another  clan,  whereas  a  Paiki  who  has  a 
to  become  a  p&lAl  may  only  marry  into  his  own  clan, 


166 

One  girl  I  saw,  a  thiiteen-year  old  bride  of  tliree  montlis 
standing,  belonging  to  the  Todi  clan,  whose  hasband,  a 
Paiki,  had  an  hereditary  right  to  become  a  kftltamftk. 
According  to  the  other  story,  Todas  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  Tdrt&l  and  T&rtftl,  of  which  the  former  comprises 
saperior  Paikis  who  may  become  p&ld.l8  or  k&ltam&ks,  and 
are  only  permitted  to  marry  into  their  own  clan ;  and  the 
latter  comprises  Todis,  Kennas,  Kattans,  Pekkans,  and  in- 
ferior Pailns,  who  may  marry  into  other  clans,  and  cannot 
become  either  palftls  or  kfiltam&ks.  The  man  who  gave  me 
the  latter  version  informed  me  farther  that,  when  a  funeral 
ceremony  is  going  on  in  the  house  of  a  T^rt&l,  no  T&rt&l 
is  allowed  to  approach  the  mand ;  and  that,  when  a  Tdrt&l 
woman  visits  her  friends  at  a  T&rt&l  mand,  she  is  not 
allowed  to  enter  the  mand,  but  must  stop  at  a  distance  from 
it.  Todas  as  a  rule  cook  their  rice  in  butter  milk,  but,  when 
a  T^rtal  woman  pays  a  visit  to  a  T&rt&l  mand,  rice  is  cooked 
for  her  in  water.  When  a  T&rt&l  woman  visits  at  a  Tert&l 
mandj  she  is  permitted  to  enter  into  the  mand,  and  food  is 
cooked  for  her  in  butter  milk.  Males  of  either  class  may 
enter  freely  into  the  mands  of  the  other  class.  The  restric- 
tions which  are  imposed  on  Tert&l  women  are  said  to  be  due 
to  the  fact  that  on  one  occasion  a  Tdrt&l  woman,  on  a  visit 
at  a  T&rt&l  mand,  folded  up  a  cloth,  and  placed  it  under 
her  putkdli  as  if  it  was  a  baby.  When  food  was  served, jshe 
asked  for  some  for  the  child,  and,  on  receiving  it,  exhibited 
the  cloth.  The  T&rt&ls,  not  appreciating  the  mild  joke, 
accordingly  agreed  to  degrade  all  Tdrt&l  women. 

The  religion  of  the  Todas  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as 
Beliffion.  being  a  simple  faith  handed  down  from 

generation  to  generation,  adulterated, 
in  modem  times,  with  an  admixture  of  Hinduism.  They 
worship  Kadavul,  the  creator  of  the  earth  and  sky,  to  whom 
they  pray  night  and  morning  that  he  will  protect  their 
cattle,  their  wives  and  families.  They  also  worship  the 
rising  (but  not  the  setting)  sun,  and  the  moon.  They  be- 
lieve that  the  souls  of  the  departed  go,  accompanied  by 
the  souls  of  the  buffaloes  killed  at  their  funeral,  to  heaven 
(&mn&d)  over  Makurti  peak,  and  that  one  who  has  led  a 
good  life  will  there  have  enjoyment,  and  one  who  has  led  a 
bad  life  will  suffer  punishment.  They  believe,  in  a  half- 
hearted manner,  the  story  handed  down  from  their  ancestors 
that  x)n  the  road  to  heaven  there  is  a  river  full  of  leeches 
(familiar  pests  to  them  during  the  rainy  season),  which  has 
to  be  crossed  by  a  thread,  which  will  break  benea^  the 


lei 

weight  of  a  bad  man  and  plunge  him  into  hell  (ptifdrigdn),® 
but  will  carry  a  good  man  safely  across.  Thev  believe 
lorther  that  a  man  who  has  led  a  bad  life  on  earth  returns 
thither  in  the  guise  of  a  giant  or  demon,  who  goes  about 
kiUing  Todas  and  other  races.  A  good  man  is,  in  the  Toda 
estimation,  one  who  is  given  to  deeds  of  charity,  and  a  bad 
man  one  who  is  uncharitable  (this  in  order  of  precedence), 
quarrelsome,  thieving,  &o. 

One  woman  I  saw,  who  was  unable  to  come  and  have  her 
measurements  recorded,  as  she  was  pregnant,  and  could  not 
cross  the  bridge  which  spanned  the  intervening  Paikftra 
river  ;  to  cross  the  running  water  during  pregnancy  being 
forbidden  by  the  sw&mi  (god)  who  presides  over  the  river. 
Another  woman  wore  round  her  neck  a  copper  plate  wound 
into  a  spiral,  on  which  mantras  were  inscribed.  She  had 
suffered,  she  informed  me,  from  evil  dreams  when  laid  up 
with  fever,  and  wore  the  plate  to  keep  away  dreams  and 
threatenings  from  devils. 

The  Todas  reverence  especially  the  hunting  god  Bdtakan 
(who  was  the  son  of  Dirkhish,  who  was  the  son  of  En,  who 
was  the  first  Toda),  who  has  a  temple — ^Bdtakan  sw&mi  kovil 
—•at  Nambalakod  in  the  Wyn&d,  and  fliriaddva,  the  bell-cow 
god,  whose  temple  is  at  Mdlur,  where  Badagas  perform  the 
quaint  and  picturesque  ceremony  of  walking  through  fire. 
They  worship  also  the  Hindu  god  Banganatha  at  the  tem- 
ples at  Nanjengod  in  Mysore,  and  £aramaddi,  near  Mettu- 
palaiyam,  at  the  base  of  the  hills,  offering  up  cocoanuts, 
plantains,  &c.  If  a  woman  is  barren,  the  husband,  with  or 
without  his  wife,  makes  a  pilgrimage  to  the  temple,  and 
prays  to  the  swftmi  to  give  them  offspring.  My  informant, 
whose  wife  had  born  him  no  children,  had  gone  to  the  temple 
at  Nanjengod  about  six  months  previously,  and  his  wife  was 
five  months  pregnant.  The  reputation  of  the  shrine  was 
consequently  much  enhanced,  the  woman's  pregnancy  being 
attributed  to  the  intervention  of  the  lingam  (the  phallic 
emblem). 

A  man  who  came  to  mv  laboratory  had  his  hair  hanging 
down  in  long  tails  reaching  below  his  shoulders.  He  had, 
he  told  me,  let  it  ffrow  long,  because,  though  married  to  him 
five  years,  his  wue  had  presented  him  with  no  child.  A 
child  had,  however,  recently  been  bom,  and  as  soon  as  the 
dry  funeral  (k^du)  of  a  relation  had  been  performed,  he  was 
going  to  sacrifice  his  locks  as  a  thank-offering  at  the  Nan- 

]eng8d  shrine,  where  both  Todas  and  Badagas  worship. 

—  ■■_--■»- 

'  Puf ,  le«oh }  6ri,  place ;  gen,  water* 


X9d 

So  far  aa  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain^  the  Todaa  have 
only  one  purely  religions  ceremonial,  which  takes  the  form 
of  a  buffalo  sacrifice,  and  is  called  kona  shastra.  This  cere- 
mony is  said  to  be  performed  once  in  four  or  five  years,  ^® 
with  a  view  to  propitiating  the  gods^  so  that  they  may  bring 
good  luck  to  the  Todas,  and  make  their  buffaloes  yield  milk 
in  abundance.  A  round  hole  is  dug  in  the  ground,  and 
filled  with  salt  and  water,  which  is  drunk  by  the  grown  up 
buffaloes  and  a  selected  buffalo  belonging  to  the  mand 
which  is  celebrating  the  rite.  The  Toda  men  (women  are 
not  permitted  to  take  part  in  the  ceremony)  who  have  been 
invited  to  .be  present  are  then  fed.  The  buffalo  calf  is  killed 
by  a  priest  (varzhal  or  palikarp&l),  clad  in  a  black  putktQi 
round  the  waist,  by  a  blow  on  the  head  with  a  stick  made 
from  a  bough  of  the  sacred  tud  tree  {Meliosma  pungens). 
The  assembled  Todas  then  salute  the  dead  animal  by  placing 
their  foreheads  on  its  head.  The  fiesh,  I  was  informed,  is 
given  to  Kotas,  but  Breeks  ^^  states  that  "  the  flesh  must  not 
be  boiled,  but  roasted  on  a  fire,  made  by  rubbing  together 
two  sticks  of  the  neialu,  muthu,  or  kem  trees,  and  eaten  by 
the  celebrants.'^ 

Writing  in  1872,  Breeks  remarked  *'  that  *'  about  Oota- 
camund  a  few  Todas  have  latterly  begun  to  imitate  the 
religious  practices  of  their  native  neighbours.  Occasion- 
ally children's  foreheads  are  marked  with  the  8iva  spot, 
and  my  particular  friend  Kinniaven,  after  an  absence  of 
some  days,  returned  with  a  shaven  head  from  a  visit  to  the 
temple  of  Siva  at  Nanjangudi.''  The  following  extracts 
from  my  notes  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  practice  of  mark- 
ing (which  seems  to  be  done  in  some  instances  '  for  beauty's 
sake,'  and  not  from  any  religious  motive)  and  shaving  as 
carried  out  at  the  present  day. 

1.  Man,  aged  28.  Has  just  performed  a  religious  cere- 
mony at  the  tirieri  (temple).  White  curved  line  painted 
across  forehead,  and  dots  below  outer  ends  of  curved  line, 
glabella,  and  outside  orbits  (a  common  type  of  Badaga  sect 
on  mark).  Smeared  across  chest,  over  outer  side  of  upper 
arms  and  left  nipple,  across  knuckles  and  lower  end  of  left 
ulna,  and  on  lobes  of  ears. 

2.  Man,  aged  21.  Painted  on  forehead  as  above. 
SmiBared  over  chest  and  upper  eye  lids. 


^°  Aooordisg  to  Breeks   (Primitive  Tribes  of  the  Kilftgiris)  ui  Miiiiial 
oemnonj* 

"  Op.  dt.  1*  Op.  eii. 


TODA  MAN, 


*         »    •       . 


169 

3.  Man,  aged  35.     White  spot  painted  on  forehead. 

4.  Man,  aged  30.  Hair  of  head  and  beard  ont  short 
owing  to  death  of  grand&ther. 

5.  Boy,  aged  12.  Shock-head  of  hair,  cut  very  short 
all  over  owing  to  death  of  grandfather. 

6.  G-irl,  aged  8.  Hair  shaved  on  top,  back  and  sides  of 
head  behind  ears,  and  in  median  strip  from  vertex  to  fore- 
head.    Wavy  curls  hanging  down  back  and  side  of  neck. 

7.  Boy,  aged  6.  White  spot  painted  between  eyebrows. 
Hair  shaved  on  top  and  sides  of  head,  and  in  median  strip 
from  vertex  to  forehead.  Hair  brought  forward  in  fringe 
over  forehead  on  either  side  of  median  strip,  and  hanging 
down  back  of  neck.  [This  boy's  cephalic  length  was  very 
large  for  his  age>  being  the  same  as  the  average  length  of 
the  adult  Toda  woman's  head  (18*4  cm.).] 

8.  Male  child,  aged  18  months.  White  spot  painted  be- 
tween eyebrows.  Shaved  on  top  and  sides  of  head.  Hair 
brownish-black,  wavy. 

The  Toda  priesthood  includes  five  kinds  of  priests  (daizy- 

men),   who  rank  as    follows  in  order 
P^ietthood.  ^j  precedence  :— 

(1)  P&lal  (priests  of  the  tiridris). 

(2)  Vorzhal. 

(3)  Eokvalikarp&l  (at  the  T&rnd.t  mand). 

(4)  EurpulikarpSl  (at  the  K&ndal  mand). 

'      (5)  Pg.lkarn&l  (called  Tarvdlikarpal  at  the  TftmAt 
mand). 

P&l&l  and  Tiridri. — We  visited  a  tiridri  (dairy  temple  or 
laotarinm)  at  Paikftra  by  appointment,  and  on  arrival  near 
the  holy  spot,  found  the  two  pal&ls  (monks),  well  built  men 
aged  about  thirty  and  fifty,  respectively,  clad  in  black 
cloths,  and  two  k&ltamftks  (herdsmen) — youths  aged  about 
eight  and  ten — naked  save  for  a  langliti,  seated  on  the 
ground,  awaiting  our  arrival.  As  a  mark  of  respect  to  the 
p&l&ls  the  three  Todas  who  accompanied  us  arranged  their 
putkolis  so  that  the  right  arm  was  laid  bare,  and  one  of 
them,  who  had  assumed  a  turban  in  honour  of  his  appoint- 
ment as  my  guide,  removed  the  offending  head-gear.  A 
long  palaver  ensued  in  consequence  of  the  pftlals  demanding 
ten  rupees  to  cover  the  expenses  of  the  purificatory  cere- 
monies which,  they  maintained,  would  be  necessary  if  I 
desecrated  the  tirifiri  by  photographing  it.  Eventually, 
however,  under  promise  of  a  far  smaller  sum,  the  tirifiri  was 


170 

snooeesfally  photographed  with  p&lAls,  k&ltam&ks,  and  a 
domestic  cat  seated  ia  front  of  it. 

A  typical  tiridri  comprises  a  dwelling  hut  for  the  pal&ls, 
a  separate  hut  for  the  kaltamftks,  a  large  and  small  cattle-pen 
(the  latter  for  cow  buffaloes  in  milk)  for  the  sacred  herd 
(swftmi  mArdu)^  and  tiridri,  or  dairy  temple,  which  contains 
the  sacred  bell  (m&ni)  and  dairy  appliances.  No  Todas^ 
except  pdilfils  and  kftltamftks,  are  allowed  within  the  tiridri 
grounds. 

The  bell-cow  is  more  sacred  than  the  other  members  of 
the  herd.  On  the  decease  of  a  bell-cow,  the  bell  descends  to 
her  daughter,  or,  if  she  leaves  no  female  offspring,  a  cow  is 
brought  from  another  tiii6ri.  The  bell-cow  does  not  usu- 
ally wear  the  bell,  but  does  so  when  a  move  is  made  to  a 
distant  tiri^ri,  for  the  periodical  change  of  pasture-ground. 

I  interviewed  a  man,  aged  thirty-two,  who  had  for- 
merly been  a  p&l&l  for  four  years,  but,  getting  tired  of  celi- 
bate existence,  resigned  his  appointment  so  as  to  take  a  wife 
to  himself.  He  had  recently  been  to  Nanjengod  to  pray  for 
a  child  to  be  given  to  him.  His  wife  was  pregnant,  and  his 
hair  long,  and  hanging  down  below  his  shoulders.  He  told 
me  that  when  the  child  was  bom,  he  would  offer  up  thanks 
at  the  Nanjengod  shrine,  have  his  hair  cnt,  and  g^ve  a  meal 
to  a  hundred  Badagas  and  others. 

When  a  Toda  is  about  to  become  a  pdl&l,  he  lives  in  the 
forest  for  two  or  three  days  and  nights,  naked  except  for  a 
languti,  feeds  on  one  meal  of  rice  daily,  and  is  allowed  a 
fire  to  protect  him  from  the  cold  night  air.  Many  times 
during  the  two  or  three  days  he  drinks,  from  a  cup  made  of 
leaves,  the  juice  of  the  bark  of  the  tad  tree  {Meliosma 
pungens)  obtained  by  hitting  the  bark  with  a  stone.  On 
the  last  day  of  retreat  puja  is  done  to  a  black  cloth — the  dis- 
tinguishing garb  of  a  pftl&l — which  is  carried  by  kftltamftks 
to  the  forest,  and  given  to  the  novice,  who  spreads  it  on  the 
ground,  pours  tud  luioe  on  it,  and  utters  mantras  over  it, 
and  goes  clad  in  it  direct  to  the  tiridri. 

Before  becoming  a  palal,  a  man  must  obtain  sanction 
to  hold  office  from  a  pftnch&yat  of  leading  Todas,  who  decide 
on  his  fitness  to  enter  on  the  sacred  duties.  During  the 
absence  of  a  pd.lal,  if  married,  from  his  wife,  she  may  be 
supported  by  her  husband's  brother,  or  by  her  sons,  or  is 
placed  under  the  charge  of  a  man  (not  of  necessity  a  rela- 
tive) deputed  by  the  p&Ifil,  who  defrays  expenses,  to  take 
care  of  her,  while  he  is  off  duty  in  his  capacity  as  husband. 
A  pftlal  may  resign  office  whenever  he  likes,  on  receipt  of 


171 

permission  from  a  pftncbftyat  to  do  so ;  but  eighteen  years 
formerly^  and  ten  to  twelve  years  at  the  present  day,  are,  I 
am  told,  the  maximum  time  of  service.  On  resigning,  he 
returns  to  his  mand,  and  is  no  longer  regarded  as  a  sw&mi, 
descending  abruptly  from  god-head  to  the  routine  life  of  a 
common  Toda. 

When  a  man  or  youth  is  about  to  become  a  k&ltamak, 
he  retires  for  a  day  and  night  to  the  forest,  naked  save 
for  a  langUti,  and  on  the  following  morning  drinks  some 
juice  of  the  ttid  tree,  dons  a  white  cloth,  and  is  taken  to 
the  tiri^ri.  While  within  the  precincts  of  the  tiridri,  except 
in  his  own  hut,  he  must  go  naked.  No  fixed  titne  is  allotted 
for  service  as  a  k&ltamftk,  and  a  kaltam&k  may  eventually 
become  a  pftl&l. 

The  duties  of  a  p&l&l  are  as  follows.  Early  in  the  morn- 
ing he  opens  the  cattle-pen,  and  sends  the  sacred  herd  out 
to  graze,  in  the  charge  of  the  kaltam&k.  After  ablution,  he 
enters  within  the  tiri6ri,  and  performs  puja  to  the  bell-god. 
About  7-30  or  8  a.h.  he  comes  out  of  the  tiridri,  ties  a 
black  cloth  round  his  waist,  and  salutes  the  herd,  which  has 
returned  from  grazing,  by  raising  his  wand  and  bamboo 
measure  (kh&ndi)  to  his  head,  and  milks  the  cows.  After 
milking,  the  buffaloes  are  again  sent  out  to  graze,  and  the 
milk  is  taken  to  the  tiridri,  where  further  pujas  are  per- 
formed. On  entering  the  tiridri,  the  p&l&l  dips  his  fingers 
in  milk  three  times,  puts  his  fingers  on  the  bell-god,  and 
apparently  utters  the  names  of  some  gods,  but  my  inform- 
ant (^an  ex-pStlal)  was  hazy  about  their  names.  The  morning 
meal  is  then  cooked  for  both  p&l&l  and  k&ltam&ks.  Every 
three  or  four  days  the  pftl&l  makes  butter  and  ney. 
Between  4  and  5  p.m.  the  buffaloes  return  home,  and  are 
penned  for  the  night.  Then  follow  more  pujas,  the  evening 
meal,  and  retirement  for  the  night. 

On  some  days  a  pal&l  may  have  to  attend  a  p£lnch&yat 
at  some  distance  from  the  tiridri,  whereat  he  acts  as  judge, 
enquiring  into  cases  aod  delivering  judgment,  which  is  ac- 
cepted by  the  other  members  of  the  pancn&yat.  Or  the  mem- 
bers of  the  panchayat  may  assemble  outside  the  precincts  of 
the  tiridri,  at  some  distance  from  the  pdJ&l,  but  within  range 
of  hearing. 

Milk,  butter,  and  ney  are  purchased  from  the  tiridri  by 
Todaa  and  Badagas.  The  p&lal  brings  the  buffalo  produce 
outside  the  sacred  precincts,  keeping  the  intending  pur- 
chasers at  a  distance,   and,  when  he  has  returned  to  the 

24 


172 

tiidri,  the  produce  is  removed^  and  its  value  in  money  left 
in  its  stead. 

If  there  are  more  bulls  than  are  required  in  the  sacred 
herd,  the  snrplns  stock  is  given  as  a  perquisite  to  the  k&l- 
tamSJcs^  and  sold  to  Badagas  or  Todas.  The  flesh  of  dead 
members  of  the  herd  is  given  as  a  present  to  Kofcas. 

The  fallowing  information  relating  to  the  priests  of 
theEftndal  and  Tam&t  mands  was  extracted  with  great 
difficulty. 

At  the  K&ndal  mand  there  are  two  dairy  temples  called 
kttrpQli  and  orzhalli.  The  priests  are  called  kurp^Uikar- 
pA.1  and  vorzhal.  The  former  is  a  Kenna,  paid  six  rupees 
per  annum,  and  selected  for  office  by  the  head-man  of  the 
mand.  His  duties  are  to  graze  and  milk  the  buffaloes  be- 
Icmguig  to  his  temple,  to  make  butter  and  ney,  to  distribute 
the  produce  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  mand,  and  per- 
form pujas  in  the  temple.  He  is  subject  to  the  control  of 
the  head-man  of  the  mand,  and  has  to  obey  his  orders  to  go 
to  baz&rs,  villages,  &c.  The  vorzlml  is  also  selected  by  the 
head-man  of  the  mand,  and  must  be  a  Faiki  or  Fekkan.  He 
is  paid  six  rupees  per  annum,  and  his  duties  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  kui'pulikaip&l,  but  he  may  not  go  away  from  the 
mand  to  baz&rs  or  villages.  Daring  the  absence  of  the 
kurpulikarpfiJ,  he  may  milk  the  buffaloes  of  the  kurpuli ; 
but  the  kurptLlikarpal,  being  inferior  in  rank,  is  not  allowed 
to  milk  the  buffaloes  of  the  orzhgJli.  Neither  of  the  two 
priests  is  bound  to  remain  in  office  for  a  fixed  time,  but  may 
resign  on  being  relieved  by  a  successor.  So  long  as  they 
remain  in  office,  they  are  bound  to  a  life  of  celibacy,  but  a 
married  man  may  hold  office,  provided  that  he  keeps  apart 
from  his  wife. 

At  the  T&m&t  mand  there  are  three  dairy  temples  called 
kokv^li,  tarvdli,  and  orzh&lli.  The  priests  attached  to  the 
temples  are  called,  respectively,  kokvdlikarp&l,  tarvdlikarp&l, 
and  vorzh&l.  Each  temple  has  its  own  buffaloes.  The 
kokvdlikarpfiJ  milks  the  buffaloes,  and  sells  the  produce 
apparently  for  his  own  benefit.  He  is  only  allowed  to  re* 
main  in  office  for  three  years  and  is  succeeded  by  his 
brother  ;  the  office  remaining,  by  hereditary  right,  in  one 
family. 

The  tarvdlikarp&l  and  vorzhal  milk  the  buffaloes  be* 
longing  to  their  respective  temples,  and  distribute  the  pro-^ 
duce  among  the  inhabitants  ot  the  mand.  The  vorzhftl  is 
paid  six  rupees  per  annum.  All  three  priests  have  to  per* 
form  pujae  m  their  temples  in  addition  to  dairy  duties. 


TODA   BOY. 


f 


178 

In  addition  to  the  p&lcbis  and  tiridris  the  Todaa  keep 

up  as  dairy-temples  oertaia   edifices 
The  Boath.  ^^^^^  boaths  OP  boas.    Of  these  oarions 

stractares  there  are  four  on  the  Nilgiri  plateau,  viz.,  at  the 
Muttanad  mand^  near  Kotagiri,  near  SholOrj  and  at  Ma4i« 
mand.  The  last  was  out  of  repair  in  1894,  but  was,  I  was 
informed^  going  to  be  rebuilt  shortly. 

It  has  been  suggested  by  Colonel  Marshall  ^'  that  the  boath 
is  not  a  true  Toda  bnilding,  but  may  be  the  bethel  of  some 
tribe  contemporaneous  with^  and  cognate  to  the  Todas, 
which,  taking  refuge^  like  them,  on  these  hills,  died  out 
in  their  presence  ;  and  he  compares  them  with  the  build« 
ings,  similar  to  the  bothan  or  bee-hive  houses  in  Sootland, 
which  were  discovered  by  the  Bev.  P.  W.  Holland  in  his 
explorations  in  the  peninsula  of  Binai. 

The  boath  which  we  visited  near  the  Muttan&d  mand,  at 
the  top  of  the  Sigtlr  gh&t,  is  known  to  members  of  the 
Ootacamund  hunt  as  the  Toda  cathedral.  It  is  a  ciceular 
stone  edifice,  about  25  to  30  feet  in  heighty  with  a  thatehed 
roof,  and  surrounded  by  a  circular  stone  wall.  The  roof 
is  crowned  with  a  large  flat  stone.  To  penetrate  within  the 
sacred  edifice  was  forbidden,  but  we  were  informed  that  it 
contains  milking  vessels,  dairy  apparatus,  and  a  sw&mi  in 
the  guise  of  a  copper  bell.  Within  the  building  no  one  is 
admitted  ex<^€pt  the  pnj&ri  (dairyman  priest),  who  is  called 
a  vorzh&l.  Ilie  present  incumbent,  who  was  out  on  the 
downs  with  the  buffaloes  at  the  time  of  our  visit,  was 
selected  for  office  by  the  head-man  of  the  village  and  his 
brother,  and  had  been  in  office  from  ten  to  fifteen  years. 

In  front  of  the  cattle-pen  of  the  neighbouring  mand  I 
noticed  a  grass  covered  mound,  which,  I  was  informed,  is 
sacred.  The  mound  contains  iiothing  buried  within  it,  bat 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  are  placed  near  it,  and  earth  from 
the  mound  placed  on  the  corpse  (dust  to  dust),  which  is  then 
removed  to  the  burning  ground.  At  dry  fanerab  the 
buffalo  is  slain  near  the  mound. 

On  the  death  of  a  Toda,  the  corpse,  clad  in  a  new  pntktdi 

and  decorated  with  jewelry,  in  whioh 

De«ih  oeremomes.  ^j^^   ^^y  ^^^  ^^   y^^  dtemed  Up 

when  signs  of  approaching  dissohition  set  in,  is  laid  cot  in  the 
hoti'  l^krshall  narrates  the  story  that  a  man  who  had  revived 
from  what  was  thought  his  death-bed  has  been  observed 

w  Op.  Ht. 


174 

parading  about,  very  proud  and  distinguished  looking  ; 
wearing  the  finery  with  which  he  had  been  bedecked  for  his 
own  funeral,  and  which  he  would  be  permitted  to  carry  till 
he,  really  departed  this  life.  A  lamp  is  kept  buruing  in  the 
hut^  and  camphor  used  as  a  disinfectant.  The  news  of  the 
death  are  conveyed  to  other  mands,  the  inhabitants  -of 
which  join  with  the  relatives  of  the  departed  one  in  weep- 
ing and  mourning.  Those  who  come  to  pay  their  respects 
to  the  dead  body  commence  the  customary  signs  of  active 
grief  when  they  have  arrived  within  a  short  distance  of  the 
hnt^  on  entering  which  they  place  their  head  to  the  head, 
and  then  their  feet  to  the  feet  of  the  corpse^  and  mourn  in 
company  with  the  relatives.  On  the  day  of  deaths  none  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  mand,  or  visitors  from  other  mands^ 
are  allowed  to  eat  food.  On  the  following  day  meals,  pre- 
pared by  near  relatives  of  the  deceased,  are  served  in 
another  hut.  The  near  relatives  are  forbidden  to  eat  rice, 
milk,  honey,  or  gram,  until  the  funeral  is  over,  but  may  eat 
r&g^,  s&mai,  butter,  and  ghi.  If  the  head-man  of  a  mand 
dies,  the  sons,  and,  if  the  head-woman  dies,  the  daughters 
have,  I  was  told,  to  observe  the  same  rules  as  to  diet  until 
the  dry  funeral  Ib  performed. 

When  a  man  dies,  a  bow  and  arrow  obtained  from  the 
Kotas,  his  walking  stick,  jaggery,  rice,  honey,  cocoanuts, 
plantains,  tobacco,  a  bamboo  kh&ndi  (measure),  and  cowries, 
with  which  to  purchase  food  in  the  celestial  baz&r,  are 
burned  with  him.  Bags  of  rupees  are,  as  a  mere  form, 
placed  on  the  funeral  pjrre,  but  removed  before  the  flames 
reach  them. 

When  a  woman  dies,  cooking  and  household  utensils, 
jewelry,  and  articles  of  food,  thread,  and  cowries  are  burned, 
and  bags  of  rupees  placed  on  the  pyre. 

I^he  remains  of  gold  and  silver  jewelry  are  recovered 
from  the  ashes^  and  made  up  again  into  jewelry. 

It  was  my  good  fortune  to  have  an  opportunity  of  wit- 
Dry  funeral,  nessing  the  dry  funeral  ceremony  (kddu) 

of  a  woman  who  had  died  from  small- 
pox two  months  previously.  On  arrival  at  a  mand,  on  the 
open  downs  about  five  miles  from  Ootaoamund,  we  were 
conducted  by  a  Toda  friend  to  the  margin  of  a  dense  shola,^^ 
(grove)  where  we  found  two  groups  seated  apart,  consisting 
of  (a)  women,  girls,  and  brown-haired  female  babies,  chat- 


^*  Owing  to  the  performance  of  rites  in  eaored  groves  it  has  b^n  sng* 
gested  that  the  Toda  religion  is  Droidioal  or  Celto-draidioal. 


175 

ting  ronnd  a  oamp  fire ;  (b)  meiij  boys^  and  male  babiea 
carried,  with  marked  signs  of  paternal  affection,  by  their 
fathers.  The  warm  copper  hue  of  the  little  giria  and  young 
adults  stood  out  in  noticeable,  contrast  to  the  dull,  muddy 
complexion  of  the  elder  women. 

la  a  few  minutes  a  murmuring  sound  commenced  in  the 
centre  of  the  female  group.  Working  themselves  up  to  the 
necessary  pitch,  some  of  the  women  (near  relatives  of  the 
dead  woman)  commenced  to  cry  freely,  and  the  wailing  and 
laohrymation  gradually  spread  round  the  circle,  until  all, 
except  little  girls  and  babies  who  were  too  young  to  be 
affected,  were  weeping  and  moaning,  some  for  fashion, 
others  from  genuine  grief.  The  men  meanwhile  showed  no 
signs  of  sorrow,  but  sat  talking  together,  and  expressed 
regret  that  we  had  not  bought  the  hand  dynamometer^  to 
amuse  them  with  trials  of  strength. 

In  carrying,  out  the  orthodox  form  of  mourning,  the 
women  first  had  a  good  cry  to  themselves,  and  then,  as  their 
emotions  became  more  intense,  went  round  the  circle, 
selecting  partners  with  whom  to  share  companionship  in 
grief.  Gradually  the  group  resolved  itself  into  couplets  of 
mourners,  each  pair  with  their  heads  in  close  contact,  and 
giving  expression  to  their  emotions  in  unison.  Before 
separating,  to  select  a  new  partner,  each  couple  saluted  by 
bowing  the  head  and  raising  the  feet  of  the  other,  covered 
by  the  putkuli,  thereto. 

From  time  to  time  the  company  of  mourners  was  rein- 
forced by  late  arrivals  from  distant  mands,  and,  as  each 
detachment,  now  of  men,  now  of  women,  came  in  view 
across  the  open  downs,  one  could  not  fail  to  be  reminded  of 
the  gathering  of  the  clans  on  some  Highland  moor.  The 
resemblance  was  heightened  by  the  distant  sound  as  of 
pipers,  produced  by  the  £ota  band  (with  two  police  consta- 
bles in  attendance),composed  of  four  truculent-looking Kotas, 
who  made  a  hideous  noise  with  drums  and  flutes  as  they  drew 
near  the  scene  of  action.  The  band,  on  arrival,  took  up  a 
position  close  to  the  mourning  women.  As  each  detach- 
ment arrived,  the  women,  recognising  their  relatives,  came 
forward  and  saluted  them  in  the  manner  customary  among 
Todas  by  falling  at  their  feet  and  placing  first  the  right 
then  the  left  foot  on  their  head  (ababuddiken). 

Shortly  after  the  arrival  of  the  band,  signals  were  ex- 
changed, by  waving  of  putkalis,  between  the  assembled 
throng  and  a  small  detachment  of  men  some  distance  off. 
A  general  move  wfU9  made,  and  an  impromptu  procession 


176 

formed^  witk  men  in  fronts  band  in  the  middle^  and  women 
bringing  up  the  rear.  A  halt  was  made  opposite  a  narrow 
gap  leading;  into  the  shola ;  men  and  women  sat  apart  as 
before,  and  the  band  walked  round,  discoursing  unsweet 
mnsio.  A  party  of  giils  went  off  to  bring  fire  from  the  spot 
just  vaoated  for  use  in  the  coming  ceremonial,  but  recourse 
was  finally  had  to  a  box  of  tandstikers  lent  by  one  of  our 
party.  At  this  stage  of  the  proceedings  we  noticed  a 
woman  go  up  to  the  eldest  son  of  the  deceased,  who  was 
seated  apart  from  the  other  men  crying  bitterly,  and  would 
not  be  comforted  in  spite  of  her  efforts  to  console  him. 

On  receipt  of  a  summons  from  within  the  shola^  the 
assembled  Toda  men  and  ourselves  swarmed  into  it  by  a 
narrow  track  leading  to  a  small  clear  space  around  a  big 
tree,  from  a  hole  cut  at  the  base  of  which  an  elderly  Toda 
produced  a  piece  of  the  skull  of  the  dead  woman,  wrapped 
round  with  long  tresses  of  her  hair.  It  now  became  the 
men's  turn  to  exhibit  active  signs  of  grief,  and  all  with  one 
accord  commenced  to  weep  and  mourn.  Amid  the  scene  of 
lamentation,' the  hair  was  slowly  un wrapt  from  off  the  skull, 
and  burned  in  an  iron  ladle^  from  which  a  smell  as  of 
incense  arose.  A  bamboo  pot  of  ghl  (clarified  butter)  was 
produced,  with  which  the  skull  was  reverently  anointed, 
and  placed  in  a  cloth  spread  on  the  ground.  To  this  relic 
of  the  deceased  the  throng  of  men^  amid  a  scene  of  wild  ex- 
citement, made  obeisance  by  kneeling  down  before  it,  and 
touching  it  with  their  foreheads.  The  females  were  not 
permitted  to  witness  this  stage  of  the  proceedings,  with  the 
exception  of  one  or  two  near  relatives  of  the  dopiurted  one, 
who  supported  themselves  sobbing  against  the  tree. 

The  ceremonial  concluded,  the  fragment  of  skull,  wrapt 
in  the  cloth,  was  carried  into  the  open,  where,  as  men  and 
boys  had  previously  done^  women  and  girls  made  obeisance 
to  it. 

A  procession  was  then  again  formed,  and  marched  on 
until  a  place  was  reached,  where  were  two  8tone*walled 
kraals,  large  and  small.  Around  the  former  the  men,  and 
within  the  latter  the  women,  took  up  their  position^  the  men 
engaging  in  chit-chat,  and  the  women  in  mourning,  which 
after  a  time  ceased,  and  they  too  engaged  in  conversation, 
one  of  their  number  (a  Toda  beauty)  entertaining  the  rest 
by  exhibiting  a  photograph  of  herself,  with  which  I  had 
presented  her. 

A  party  of  men,  carrying  the  skull,  still  in  the  cloth, 
set  ont  for  a  neighbouring  e£ola,  where  a  kOdn  of  several 


L 


other  dead  Todas  was  being  celebrated ;  and  a  long  pause 
ensued^  broken  eventnally  by  the  arrival  of  the  other  f  nnexal 
party^  the  men  advancing  in  several  lines,  with  arms  linked^ 
keeping  step  and  crying  oat  a  !,  u  !,  a  !,  n  !,  in  regular  time. 
This  party  brought  witli  it  pieces  of  the  skulls  of  a  woman 
and  two  men,  which  were  placed,  wrapt  in  cloths,  on  the 
ground^  saluted,  and  mourned  over  by  the  assembled 
multitude.  At  this  stage  a  small  party  of  Kotas  arrived, 
and  took  up  their  position  on  a  neighbouring  hill,  waiting, 
vulture-like,  for  the  carcase  of  the  buffalo  which  was  shortly 
to  be  slain. 

Several  young  men  now  went  off  across  the  hill  in 
search  of  buffaloes,  and  speedily  re-appeared,  driving  five 
buffaloes  before  them  with  sticks.  As  soon  as  the  beasts 
approached  a  swampy  marsh  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  on  which 
the  expectant  crowd  of  men  was  gathered  together,  two 
young  men  of  athletib  build,  throwing  off  their  putkulis, 
made  a  rush  down  the  hill,  and  tried  to  seize  one  of  the  buf- 
faloes by  the  horns,  with  the  result  that  one  of  them  was 
promptly  thrown.  The  buffalo  escaping,  one  of  the  remain- 
ing four  was  quickly  caught  by  the  horns,  and,  with  arms 
in^rlocked,  the  men  brought  it  down  on  its  knees,  amid  a 
general  scuffle.  In  spite  of  marked  objection  and  stre- 
nuous resistance  on  the  part  of  the  animal — a  barren  cow — 
it  was,  by  means  of  sticks  freely  applied,  slowly  dragged  up 
the  hill,  preceded  by  the  Kota  band,  and  with  the  '  third 
standard '  student  pulling  at  its  tail.  Arrived  at  the  open 
space  between  the  two  kraals,  the  buffalo,  by  this  time 
thoroughly  exasperated,  and  with  blood  pouring  from  its 
nostrils,  had  a  cloth  put  on  its  back,  and  was  despatched  by  a 
blow  on  the  poll  with  an  axe  deftly  wielded  by  a  young  and 
muscular  man  (pi.  xv).  On  this  occasion  no  one  was  badly 
hurt  by  the  sacrificial  cow,  though  one  man  was  seen  wash- 
ing his  legs  in  the  swamp  after  the  preliminary  struggle 
with  the  beast;  but  Colonel  Boss-King  narrates  ^^  how  he 
saw  a  man  receive  a  dangerous  wound  in  the  neck  from  a 
thrust  of  the  horn,  which  ripped  open  a  wide  gash  from 
the  collar  bone  to  the  ear. 

With  the  death  of  the  buffalo,  the  last  scene  which  ter* 
minated  the  strange  rites  commenced;  men,  women,  and 
children  pressing  forward  and  jostling  one  another  in  their 
eagerness  to  salute  the  dead  beast  by  placing  their  heads 
between  its  horns,  and  weeping  and  mourning  m  pairs ;  the 


»  Aboriginal  tribev  of  the  Nilgiri  HiUs,  1870« 


178 

facial   expression    of  grief    being   mimicked    wben    tears 
refused  to  slow  spontaneously. 

A  few  days  after  the  kedu  ceremony  we  were  invited  to 
r.        m     -*i  1^0   present  at  the  ffreen  funeral  of  a 

girl,  five  years  old,  who  had  died  of 
small-pox  four  days  previously.  We  proceeded  accord- 
ingly to  the  scene  of  the  recent  ceremony,  and  there,  in 
company  with  a  small  gathering  of  Todas  from  the  neigh- 
bouring mands  (among  them  the  only  white-haired  old 
woman  whom  I  have  seen),  awaited  the  arrival  of  the 
funeral  cortege,  the  approach  of  which  was  anpounced  by 
the  advancing  strains  of  Kota  music.  Slowly  the  proces- 
sion came  over  the  brow  of  the  hill ;  the  corpse,  covered 
by  a  cloth,  on  a  rude  ladder-like  bier,  borne  on  the 
shoulders  of  four  men,  followed  by  two  Kota  musicians ;  the 
mother  carried  hidden  within  a  sack ;  relatives  and  men 
carrying  bags  of  rice  and  jaggery  (molasses),  and  bundles 
of  wood  of  the  nftga  tree  {Eugenia  Arnottiana)  for  the 
funeral  pyre. 

Arrived  opposite  a  small  hut,  which  had  been  specially 
built  for  the  ceremonial,  the  corpse  was  removed  from  the 
bier,  laid  on  the  ground,  face  upwards,  outside  the  hut,  and 
saluted  by  men,  women,  and  children,  with  same  manifesta- 
tions of  grief  as  at  the  dry  funeral.  Soon  the  men  moved 
away  to  a  short  distance,  and  engaged  in  quiet  conversation, 
leaving  the  females  to  contiuue  mourning  round  the  corpse, 
interrupted  from  time  to  time  by  the  arrival  of  detachments 
from  distant  mands,  whose  first  duty  was  to  salute  the  dead 
body.  Meanwhile  a  near  female  relative  of  the  dead  child 
was  busily  engaged  inside  the  hut,  collecting  together  in  a 
basket  small  measures  of  rice,  jaggery,  sago,  honey-comb, 
and  the  girl's  simple  toys,  which  were  subsequently  to  be 
burned  with  the  corpse. 

The  mourning  ceasing  after  a  time,  the  corpse  was 
placed  inside  the  hut,  and  followed  by  the  near  relatives, 
who  there  continued  to  weep  over  it.  A  detachment  of 
men  and  boys,  who  had  set  out  in  search  of  the  buffaloes 
which  were  to  be  sacrificed,  now  returned  driving  before 
them  three  cows,  which  escaped  from  their  pursuers  to  re-join 
the  main  herd.  A  long  pause  ensued,  and,  after  a  very 
prolonged  drive,  three  more  cows  were  guided  into  a  swampy 
marsh,  where  one  of  them  was  caught  by  the  horns  as  at 
the  kddu  ceremony,  and  dragged  reluctantly,  but  with  little 
3how  of  fight,  to  the  weird  strains  of  Eota  drum  and  flutCi 


TOUA    MAN. 


m 

in  frotit  of  the  hut,  where  it  was  promptly  despatched  by  a 
blow  on  the  poll. 

The  corpse  was  now  brooght  from  within  the  hut^  and 
placed,  face  upwards,  with  its  feet  resting  on  the  forehead 
of  the  buffalo,  whose  neck  was  decorated  with  a  silver  chain, 
such  as  is  worn  by  Todas  round  the  loins  to  suspend  the 
langUti^  as  no  bell  was  available^  and  the  horns  were  smeared 
with  butter.  Then  followed  the  same  frantic  manifestations 
of  grief  as  at  the  kddu,  amid  which  the  unhappy  mother 
fainted  from  sheer  exhaustion. 

Mourning  over,  the  corpse  was  made  to  go  through  a 
form  of  ceremony,  resembling  that  which  is  performed  at 
the  fifth  month  of  pregnancy  with  the  first  child.  A  small 
boy,  three  years  old,  was  selected  from  among  the  relatives 
of  the  dead  girl,  and  taken  by  his  father  in  search  of  a 
certain  grass  and  a  twig  of  a  shrub  (Sophora  glauc^)^  which 
were  brought  to  the  spot  where  the  corpse  was  lying.  The 
mother  of  the  dead  child  then  withdrew  one  of  its  hands 
from  the  putkQli,  and  the  boy  placed  the  grass  and  twig 
in  the  hand,  and  limes^  plantains,  rice,  jaggery,  honey* 
comb,  and  butter  in  the  pocket  of  the  putkali,  which  was 
then  stitched  with  needle  and  thread  in  a  circular  pattern. 
The  boy's  father  then  took  off  his  son's  putkQli,  and  covered 
him  with  it  from  head  to  foot.  Thus  covered,  the  boy 
remained  outside  the  hut  till  the  morning  of  the  morrow, 
watched  through  the  night  by  near  relatives  of  himself  ana 
his  dead  bride. 

[On  the  occasion  of  the  funeral  of  an  unmarried  lad,  a 

E'irl  is,  in  like  manner  selected,  covered  with  her  putkttli 
om  head  to  foot,  and  a  metal  vessel,  filled  with  jaggery^ 
rice,  etc.  (to  be  subsequently  burnt  on  the  funeral  pyre), 
placed  for  a  short  time  within  the  folds  of  the  putkUli.  Thus 
covered^  the  girl  remains  till  next  morning,  watched  through 
the  dreary  hours  of  the  night  by  relatives.  The  same  cere* 
mony  is  performed  over  the  corpse  of  a  married  woman^ 
who  has  not  borne  children,  the  husband  acting  as  such  for 
the  last  time,  in  the  vain  hope  that  the  woman  may  produce 
isBtiein  heaven.] 

The  quaint  ceremonial  concluded,  the  corpse  was  bom* 
away  to  the  buming-*gfonnd  within  the  shola,  and,  afte^ 
removal  of  some  of  the  hair  by  the  mother  of  the  newly 
wedded  boy,  burned,   with  face  turned  upwards,^®  amid 

^*  MArBhAll  ttatei  that  he  wm  ''  (wrefid  to  Moertaln  that  the  plaoiaf 
the  body  with  its  fae^  downwards  had  not  been  an  aOoidental  oiNoai- 
itanoe." 


180 

the  music  of  the  Kota  band,  the  groans  of  the  assembled 
orowd  squatting  on  the  ground^  and  the  genuine  grief  of  the 
nearest  relatives. 

The  buminfif  concluded,  a  portion  of  the  skull  was 
removed  from  the  ashes^  and  handed  over  to  the  recently 
made  mother-in-law  of  the  dead  girl,  and  wrapped  up  with 
the  hair  in  the  bark  of  the  tud  tree. 

A  second  buffalo,  which^  properly  speakings  should  have 
been  slain  before  the  corpse  was  burnt^  was  then  sacrificed, 
and  rice  and  jaggery  were  distributed  among  the  crowd, 
which  dispersed,  leaving  behind  the  youthful  widower  and 
his  custodians,  who,  after  daybreak,  partook  of  a  meal  of 
'  rice,  and  returned  to  their  mands  ;  the  boy's  mother  taking 
with  her  the  skull  and  hair  to  her  mand,  where  it  would 
remain  until  the  celebration  of  the  dry  funeral. 

No  attention  is  paid  to  the  ashes  after  cremation,  but 
they  are  left  to  be  scattered  by  the  winds. 

At  the  Muttftnftd  mand  we  were 
Gamei.  treated  to  an  exhibition  of  the  games 

in  which  adult  males  indulge. 

In  one  of  these,  called  narthpimj,  a  flat  slab  of  stone  is 
supported  horizontally  on  two  other  slabs  fixed  perpendicu* 
larly  in  the  ground  so  as  to  form  a  narrow  tunnel,  through 
which  a  man  can  just  manage  to  squeeze^  his  body  with 
difficulty.  Two  men  take  part  in  the  game,  one  stationing 
himself  at  a  distance  of  about  thirty  yards,  the  other  about 
sixty  yards  from  the  tunnel.  The  front  man,  throwing  off 
his  cloth,  runs  as  hard  as  he  can  to  the  tunnel,  pursued  by 
the  '  scratch '  man,  whose  object  is  to  tiouch  the  other  man  s 
feet  before  he  has  wriggled  himself  through  the  tunnel. 

Another  game,  which  we  witnessed,  consists  of  trials  of 
strength  with  a  very  heavy  stone,  the  object  being  to  raise 
it  up  to  the  shoulder ;  but  a  strong,  well-built  man — he  who 
was  entrusted  with  slaying  the  buffalo  at  the  ksda — failed  to 
raise  it  higher  than  ike  pic  of  his  stomach,  though  straining 
his  muscles  in  the  attempt.  An  old  man  assured  us  that, 
when  young  and  lusty,  he  was  able  to  accomplish  the  feat. 

A  still  further  game  (il&ta)  corresponds  to  the  English 
tip-cat,  which  is  epidemic  at  a  certain  season  in  the  London 
bye*streets.  It  is  played  with  a  bat  like  a  broom-stick,  and 
a  cylindrical  piece  of  wood  pointed  at  both  ends.  This  piece 
of  wood  is  propped  up  against  a  stone,  and  struck  with  the 
bat.  As  it  flies  up  off  the  stone,  it  is  hit  to  a  distance  with 
the  bat,  and  caught  (or  missed)  by  the  out-fields.  At  this 
game  my  Toda  guide  was  very  expert. 


181 

Breekfl  mentions  that  the  Todas  play  a  game  resembling 
'  puss  in  the  comer '  and  called  k&ri&lapimi,  which  was  not 
included  in  the  programme  of  sports  got  up  for  oar  benefit. 

We  gave  a  demonstration  of  '  putting  the  stone/  and,  if 
some  fnture  anthropologist  finds  this  to  be  one  of  the  Toda 
athletic  sports,  he  mast  attribute  its  introduction  to  direct 
British  infiaence. 

I  was  informed  that,  in  former  times^  certain  men  among 
«  ,.  .    ,  the  Todas  were    credited    with    the 

power  to  cast  out  devils  by  treatment 
with  herbs,  and  that  devils  are  still  cast  out  of  Todas  who 
are  possessed  with  them  by  certain  Badaga  and  Hindu 
exorcists.  The  Todas  treat  mild  cases  of  sickness  with 
herbs,  and  a  red  stone  purchased  in  the  Ootacamund  bazar ; 
but  serious  cases  are  treated  at  the  Ootacamund  hospital. 

The  Todas  scornfally  deny  the  use  of  aphrodisiacs,  but 
both  men  and  women  admit  that  they  take  s&lep  misri 
boiled  in  milk  '  to  make  them  strong/  It  is  stated  in  the 
VPharmacographia  Indica '  (1893 j  that  the  "  s&lep  of  Madras 
is  largely  supplied  from  the  Nilgiris,  where  it  is  collected 
by  the  Todas  and  other  hill  tribes.'^  The  district  forest 
officer  of  the  Niigiris  writes,  however,  more  recently  that 
there  is  now  little  or  no  trade,  as  the  digging  up  of  the 
roots  has  been  prohibited  in  the  reserve  forests. 

Sdilep  misri,  it  may  be  mentioned,  is  made  from  the 
tubers  (testicles  de  chien)  of  various  species  of  Eulophia 
and  Orchis,  belongring  to  the  natural  order  Orchidess. 

When  a  Toda  meets  a  Badaga  he  bends  down,  and  the 

Badaga,  as  a  form  of  greeting  and  sign 
Belationa  with  other     ^f  superiority,  places  his   hand  on  the 

'"*^"'  top  of  the  Toda's  head.    The  Todas 

believe  that  their  tribe  has  always  dwelt  on  the  Nilgiris,  and 
that  the  other  tribes  came  up  irom  the  plains.  When  the 
Badagas  arrived  on  the  hills,  they  put  under  cultivation 
land  which  previously  belonged  to  the  Todas  (who  claim  to 
have  originally  owned  the  whole  of  the  Nilgiris).  As  '  com- 
pensation allowance/  the  Badagas  give  grain  of  various 
kinds  igudu)  to  the  Todas  in  proportion  to  the  abundance  of 
the  crop,  only  objecting,  it  is  said,  to  do  so  when  the  crop 
is  short.  But  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  Badaga  is 
not  inclined  to  give  as  freely  at  the  present  day  as  in  times 

Eone  by,  and  the  Toda  is  commencing  to  be  thrown  on 
is  own  resources  as  a  means  of  gaining  the  equivalent  of 
his  daily  bread. 


Some  years  ago  a  Toda  was  found  dead,  in  a  sitting 
postnre,  on  the  top  of  a  hill  near  a  Badaga  village,  to  wbicli 
a  party  of  Todas  had  gone  to  collect  the  tribute.  The  body 
was  burnedy  and  a  report  then  made  to  the  police  that  the 
man  had  been  murdered.  On  enquiry  it  was  ascertained 
that  the  dead  man  was  supposed  to  have  bewitched  a  little 
Badaga  girl,  who  died  in  consequence ;  and  the  presump- 
tion was  that  he  had  been  murdered  by  the  Badagas  out  of 

When  a  Toda  meets  a  Kota,  the  latter  kneels  and  raises 
the  feet  of  the  Toda  to  his  head.  From  the  Kotas  the  Todas 
aoquira  their  iron  implements  (axes,  m&mutis,  knives,  &e.) 
ana  earthenware  utensils.  No  payment  in  money  is  made, 
but»  when  a  buffalo  dies,  the  Kotas,  who  are  eaters  of  carrion, 
lira  rewarded  with  the  flesh,  hide  and  horns.  The  Eotaa 
supply  the  band  at  Toda  tamS,shas,  e.g.^  green  and  dry 
funerals ;  the  musicians  being  paid  in  buffaloes  and  ricfe. 

When  a  Toda  meets  a  l^urumbar,  the  latter  bonds 
forward,  and  the  Toda  places  his  hand  on  the  Kurumbar's 
head.  The  Todas  and  Kurumbars  are  not  on  good  terms, 
aojid  the  Todas  are  afraid  of  them,  because  they  are  believed 
to  be  sorcerers,  an,d  to  possess  the  power  of  casting  the 
evil  eye  on  them,  and  making  them  fall  sick  or  die.  My 
Toda  guide — a  stalwart  representative  of  his  tribe — expressed 
fear  of  walking  alone  from  Ootacamund  to  Kotagiri,  a  dis- 
tance of  eighteen  miles  along  a  good  road,  lest  he  should 
come  to  grief  at  the  hands  of  Kurumbars  ;  but  this  was,  as 
the  sequel  showed,  a  frivolous  excuse  to  get  out  of  accom- 
panying me  to  a  distance  from  his  domestic  hearth.  The 
Kurumbars,  when  they  come  up  to  the  plateau  to  get  grain 
from  the  Badagas,  apparently  levy  black  mail  on  the  Todas, 
and,  if  they  demand  money  or  buffaloes,  the  Todas  dare  not 
refuse  to  disgorge. 

A  Toda  meeting  an  Irula  is  saluted  in  the  same  way  as 
by  a  Kurumb|ir ;  but,  so  far  as  I  can  gather,  there  is  but 
little  communication  between  &e  Todas  and  Irulas. 

The  tenure  under  which  lands  are  held  bv  the  Todas 
-    .^    ,,    ,  is  summed  up  as  follows  by  Mr.  R.  8. 

Benson  m  ms  report  on  the  revenue 
settlement  of  the  Nilgiris,  1885.  ''The  earliest  settlers., 
and  notably  Mr.  Sullivan,  strongly  advocated  the  claim  of 
the  Todas  to  the  absolute  proprietary  right  to  the  pUteau ; 
but  another  school,  led  by  Mr.  Lushington,  as  strongly 
combated  these  views,  and  apparently  regarded  the  Todas 
as  merely   occupiers  under  the  ryotwari  system  in  force 


4      V    •    « 

V 

I  <■  »        • 


183 

fenerally  in  the  presidency.  From  the  earliest  times  the 
'odas  have  received  from  the  cultivatiug  Badagas  an  offer- 
ing»  or  tribute,  called  '  gudu/  or  basket  of  grain,  partly 
iu  compensation  for  the  land  taken  up  by  the  latter  for 
cultivation^  and  so  rendered  unfit  for  grazing  purposes^  but 
chiefly  as  an  offering  to  secure  the  favour^  or  avert  the  dis- 
pleasure, of  the  Todas^  who,  like  the  Kurumbas^  are  believed 
by  the  Badagas^  to  have  necromantic  powers  over  their 
healths  and  that  of  their  herds.  The  European  settlers 
also  bought  land  in  Ootacamund  from  them^  and  to  this 
day  the  G-ovemment  pays  them  the  sum  of  Bs.  150  per 
annum,  as  compensation  for  interference  with  the  enjoyment 
of  their  pastoral  rights  in  and  about  Ootacamund.  Their 
position  was,  however,  always  a  matter  of  dispute,  until 
it  was  finally  laid  down  in  the  despatch  of  the  Court  of 
Directors,  dated  21st  January,  1843.  It  was  then  decided 
that  the  Todas  possessed  nothing  more  than  a  prescriptive 
right  to  enjoy  the  privilege  of  pasturing  their  herds,  on 
payment  of  a  small  tax,  on  the  State  lands.  The  Court 
desired  that  they  should  be  secured  from  interference 
by  settlers  in  the  enjoyment  of  their  munds  (or  village 
sites)^  and  of  their  spots  appropriated  to  religious  rights. 
Accoi*dingly  pattas  were  issued,  granting  to  each  mand 
three  bullahs  (11*46  acres)  of  land.  In  1863  Mr.  Grant  ob- 
tained permission  to  make  a  fresh  allotment  of  nine  bullahs 
(34*38  acres)  to  each  mund  on  the  express  condition  that 
the  land  should  be  used  for  pasturage  only,  and  that  no 
right  to  sell  the  land  or  the  wood  on  it  should  be  thereby 
conveyed.  It  may  be  added  that  the  so-called  Toda  lands 
are  now  regarded  as  the  inalienable  common  property  of  the 
Toda  community,  and  unauthorized  alienation  is  checked 
by  the  imposition  of  a  penal  rate  of  assessment  (G.O.,  18th 
Aprils  1882).  Up  to  the  date  of  this  order,  however, 
alienations  by  sale  or  lea^se  were  of  frequent  occurrence. 
It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  present  orders  and 
subordinate  staff  will  be  more  adequate  than  those  that 
went  before  to  check  the  practices  referred  to.'' 

"With  the  view  of  protecting  the  Toda  lands,  Ghovem- 
luent  took  up  the  management  of  these  -lands  in  1893,  and 
framed  rules  under  the  Forest  Act  for  their  management, 
the  rights  of  the  Todas  over  them  being  in  no  way  affected 
by  the  rules,  of  which  the  following  is  an  abstract : — 

1.  No  person  shall  fell^  girdle,  mark,  lop,  uproot,  or  bum 
or  strip  off  the  bark  or  leaves  from,  or  otherwise  damage 
any  tree  growing  on  the  said  lands,  or  remove  the  timber^ 


184 

or  collect  the  natural  produce  of  such  trees  or  lands,  or 
quariT  or  collect  stone,  ume,  gravel,  earth  or  manure  upon 
such  lands,  or  break  up  such  lands  for  cultivation^  or  erect 
buildings  of  any  description  or  cattle  kraals ;  and  no  person  or 
persons^  other  than  the  Todas  named  in  the  patta  concerned, 
shall  graze  cattle,  sheep,  or  goats  upon  such  lands,  unless  he 
is  autnorised  so  to  do  by  the  Collector  of  the  Nilgiris,  or 
some  person  empowered  by  him. 

2.  The  Collector  may  select  any  of  the  said  lands  to  be 
placed  under  special  fire  protection. 

3.  No  person  shall  hunt,  beat  for  game^  or  shoot  in  such 
lands  without  a  license  from  the  Collector. 

4.  No  person  shall  at  any  time  set  nets^  traps^  or  snares 
for  game  on  such  lands. 

5.  All  Todas  iu  the  Nilgiri  district  shall,  in  respect  of 
their  own  patta  lands,  be  exempt  from  the  operation  oE  the 
above  rcdes^  and  shall  be  at  liberty  to  graze  their  own 
buffaloes,  to  remove  fuel  and  grass  for  their  domestic  require- 
ments, and  to  collect  honey  or  wax  upon  such  lands.  They 
shall  likewise  be  entitled  to,  and  shall  receive  free  permits 
for  building  or  repairing  their  munds  and  temples. 

6.  The  Collector  shall  have  power  to  issue  annual  permits 
for  the  cultivation  of  grass  land  only  in  Toda  pattas  by 
Todas  themselves,  free  of  charge,  or  otherwise  as  G-overn- 
ment  may,  from  time  to  time,  direct;  but  no  Toda  shall  be 
at  liberty  to  permit  any  person,  except  a  Toda^  to  cultivate, 
or  assist  in  the  cultivation,  of  such  lands. 


KOTA  MAN. 


•    •     '  • 


186 


II.— THE  KOTAS  OF  THE  NILGIRIS. 


Accx>BDiKO  to  Dr.  Oppert  "  it  seems  probable  that  the 
Todas  and  Eotas  Uvea  near  each  other  before  the  settle- 
ment of  the  latter  on  the  Nilagiri.  Their  dialects  betray 
a  great  resemblance.  According  to  a  tradition  of  theirs 
(the  Kotas),  they  lived  formerly  on  Kollimallai^  a  mountain 
in  Mysore.  It  is  wrong  to  connect  the  name  of  the  Eotas 
with  cow  slaying,  and  to  derive  it  from  the  Sanskrit  g5- 
haty&  (oow-killer).  The  derivation  of  the  term  Eota  is^  as 
clearly  indicated,  from  the  Gkada-Dravidian  word  ko  (kn)^ 
mountain,  and  the  Eotas  belong  to  the  Gbiudian  branch.'' 

The  Eotas  were  returned  at  the  census  of  1891  as  num- 
bering 1,201  (556  males  and  645  females)  against  1,062  (408 
males  and  564  females)  in  1881.  They  inhabit  .seven  - 
villages,  of  which  six — Eotagiri  (or  Peranganad),  If  Il-Eota- 
giri,  rodan&d,  Mekan&d,  Eundanfid,  and  Sholur — are  situ- 
ated on  the  plateau,  and  one'  is  at  Gudalur  in  the  Wynftd^ 
on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Nilgiris.  They  form  large 
communities,  and  each  village  consists  of  thirty  to  sixty  or 
more  detached  huts  and  rows  of  huts  arranged  in  streets. 
The  huts  are  built  of  mud,  brick,  or  stone,  roofed  with 
thatch  or  tiles,  and  divided  into  living  and  sleeping  npart- 
ments.  The  floor  is  raised  above  the  ground,  and  there  is  a 
verandah  in  front  with  a  seat  on  each  side,  whereon  the  Eota 
loves  to  take  his  siesta,  and  smoke  his  cheroot  in  the  shade, 
or  sleep  off  the  effects  of  a  drinking  bout.  The  door-posts 
of  some  of  the  huts  are  ornamented  with  carving  executed 
by  wood  carvers  in  the  plains.  A  few  of  the  huts  and  one 
of  the  forges  at  Eotagiri  have  stone  pillars  sculptured  with 
fishes,  lotuses,  and  floral  embellishments  by  stone  carvers 
from  the  plains. 

The  Eotas  have  no  caste,  but  are  divided  into  kdris 
or  streets,  viz.,  kllkdri,  uidlk^ri,  and  nadukeri.  People  be« 
longing  to  the  same  kdri  may  not  intermarry,  as  they  are 
supposed  to  belong  to  the  same  family,  and  intermarriage 
would  bo  distasteful.  The  following  examples  of  marriage 
between  members  of  difi'erent  kdris  were  recorded  in  my 
notes: — 


Htuband.  Wife. 


KllkSri. 

1     NadukSri. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Melkeri. 

Nadukeh. 

Do. 

Melkeri. 

Nadukgri. 

Nadukeri. 

First  wife  Kflk6ri,  second 

wife  MSlkeri. 

On  the  day  following  my  arrival  at  Kotagiri  on  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  Nilgiri  platean,  a  deputation  of 
Kotas  from  the  neighbouring  village  waited  on  me,  and, 
having  learnt  that  I  was  a  Government  official^  consented 
to  allow  me  to  record  their  measurements  only  on  the  dis- 
tinct understanding  that  I  would  not  get  their  land-assess- 
ment increased — a  point  on  which  they  were  unnecessarily 
suspicions  of  me.  For  a  few  days  all  went  well ;  measure-^ 
ments  were  taken,  and  photographs  duly  admired.  But 
the  Kotas  did  not,  like  the  Todas,  enter  good-humouredly 
into  the  spirit  of  an  anthropological  inquiry.  A  sudden 
strike  set  in,  and  an  order  was  circulated  among  the  village 
community  that  the  measurement  of  women  was  not  to  be 
continued.  The  crisis  was,  however,  after  much  argument 
and  many  interviews  with  leading  representatives  of  the 
tribe,  headed  by  an  overfed  monegar  (head* man),  who  re- 
ceives a  small  salary  from  Q-overnment  to  collect  rent  and 
make  returns  of  vital  statistics,  overcome  by  t}ie  interven- 
tion of  the  local  Tahsildar  (revenue  officer).  As  a  sign 
that  peace  was  declared,  three  ancient  and  shrivelled  female 
hags  turned  up  at  the  bungalow  to  be  measured.  Bub*> 
sequently,  however,  yet  another  strike  ensued,  and  I  was 
unblushingly  informed  that  all  the  women  were  enceinte  and 
could  not  leave  the  village^  though  I  met  troops  of  them  on 
the  road  every  evening. 

My  first  interview  with  the  object  of  extracting  infor- 
mation as  to  Kota  '  manners  and  customs '  (to  use  a  time- 
honoured  phrase)  was  not  a  conspicuous  success  ;  the  man 
who  was  engaged  to  act  as  my  informant  arriving  in  a  state 
of  maudling  intoxication,  and  dressed  up  in  the  cast-off 
clothes  of  a  British  soldier.  However,  an  excellent  substi- 
tute was  found  in  an  intelligent  and  well-to*  do  blacksmith, 
who,  in  return  for  a  print  of  his  photograph,  cheroots,  a  new 
oloth,  and  money  wherewith  to  purchase  drink,  became  a 
faithful  allj.  To  the  pencil  of  this  man  is  due  the  drawing 
of  an  elephant  reproduced  on  plate  xxii  for  comparison 


PLATE  XXH 


187 

with  the  more  orade  efforts  of  a  Toda  lad  to  depict  a  man^ 
a  buffalo,  and  an  elephant. 

The  besetting  vice  of  the  Kotas  is  a  partiality  fpr  drink^ 
and  they  congregate  towards  evening  in  the  arraok  shop  and 
beer  tavern  in  the  bazdr,  whence  they  stagger  or  are  helped 
home  in  a  state  of  noisy  and  turbulent  intoxication. 

The  Kotas  are  universally  looked  down  on  as  being 
unclean  feeders  and  eaters  of  carrion ;  a  custom  which  is 
to  them  no  more  filthy  than  is  that  of  eating  game  when 
it  is  high^  or  using  the  same  tooth-brush  day  after  day  *to  a 
European.  An  unappetising  sight,  which  may  frequently  be 
witnessed  on  roads  leading  to  a  Kota  village^  is  that  of  a 
Eota  carrying  the  flesh  of  a  dead  buffalo,  often  in  a  high 
state  of  putridity,  slung  on  a  stick  across  his  shoulders, 
with  the  entrails  trailing  on  the  ground,  so  that  "  the  very 
scent  of  the  carrion — ^faugh — reached  my  nostrils  at  the 
distance  where  we  stood/^  Colonel  Boss  King  narrates  ^' 
how  lie  once  saw  a  Kota  carrying  home  for  food  a  dead 
rat  thrown  out  of  the  stable  a  day  or  two  previously. 
When  I  repeated  this  story  to  my  informant,  he  glared  at 
me,  and  bluntly  remarked  (in  Tamil)  "  The  book  tells  lies/'' 
Despite  its  unpleasant  nature,  the  carrion  diet  evidently 
agrees  with  the  Kotas,  who  are  a  hard,  sturdy  set  of  men^ 
flourishing,  it  is  said,  most  exceedingly  when  the  hill-cattle 
are  dying  of  epidemic  disease,  and  the  food-supply  is 
consequently  abundant. 

Though  all  classes  look  down  on  the  Kotas,  all  are 
agreed  that  they  are  excellent  artisans,  whose  services  as 
blacksmiths,  carpenters,  rope  and  umbrella  makers,  etc.,  are 
indispensable  to  the  other  hill  tribes.    In  fact  the  Todas 
believe  that  the  Kotas  are  a  caste  of  artisans  specially, 
brought  up  from  the  plains  to  work  for  them.     Each  Toda, 
Irula,  Kurumba,  and  Badaga  settlement  has  its  Muttu 
Kotas,  who  work  for  the  inhabitants  thereof,  and  supply 
them  with  sundry  articles  called  muttu  in  return  for  the 
carcases  of  buffaloes  and  cattle,  ney  (clarified  butter),  graini. 
and  plantains.    The  Kotas  eat  the  fiesh  of  the  buffaloes 
and  cattle  which  they  receive,  and  sell  the  horns  to  Labbi 
(Muhamadan)  merchants  from  the  plains.     Chucklers  (boot-, 
makers)  from  the  plains  collect  the  bones  (which  the  Kotas. 
might  utilise  as   a  source  of  income),  and  purchase  the. 
hides,  which  are  roughly  cured  by  the  Kotas  with  chun&m 

"  Op.  cit 

26 


188 

(lime)  and  dvaram  bark  (Cassia  aurieulaia),  and  fastened  to 
the  ground  with  pegs  to  dry. 

llie  Kota  blacksmitlis^  who  are  skilled  workmen^  make 
hatchets,  bill-hooks,  knives,  and  other  implements  for  the 
various  hill  tribes,  especially  the  Badagas^  and  at  times  for 
'Hindus^  and  Europeans.  Within  the  memory  of  men 
still  living  they  used  to  work  with  iron-ore  brought  up 
from  the  plains,  but  now  depend  on  scrap-iron  which  they 
purchase  locally  in  the  baz&r.  The  most  flourishing  smithy 
m  the  Eotagiri  village  is  made  of  brick,  of  local  manu- 
f aoture,  roofed  with  zii^c^  and  fitted  with  appliances  (anvil, 
pinoerSj  &c.)^  of  European  manufacture. 

As  agriculturists  the  Kotas  are  said  to  be  quite  on  a  par 
with  the  Badagas,  and  they  raise  on  the  land  adjacent  to 
their  villages  extensive  crops  of  potatoes^  bearded  wheat, 
Idrai  (amaranth),  s&mai  {Panicum  miliare),  korSLli  {Setaria 
italica),  mustard^  onions,  &c. 

At  the  revenue  settlement,  1885,  the  Kotas  were  treated 
in  the  same  way  as  the  Badagas  and  other  tribes  of  the 
Nilgiris^  except  the  Todas^  and  the  lands  in  their  occupa- 
tion were  assigned  to  them  at  rates  varying  from  10  to  2 
annas  per  acre.  The  ^  bhurty '  or  shifting  system  of 
cultivation,  under  which  the  Kotas  held  their  lands,  was 
formally^  bat  nominally,  abolished  in  1862-64 ;  but  it  was 
practically  and  finally  done  away  with  at  the  revenue 
settlement  of  the  Nilgiri  plateau.  The  Kota  lands  are  now 
held  on  puttas  under  the  ordinary  ryotwari  tenure. 

In  former  days  opium  of  good  quality  was  cultivated  bv 
the  Badagas,  from  whom  the  Kotas  got  poppy-heads,  which 
their  herbalist  practitioners  used  for  medicinal  purposes. 
Now-a-days,  however,  the  Kotas  purchase  opium  in  the 
baz&r,  and  use  it  as  an  intoxicant. 

The  Kota  women  have  none  of  the  fearlessness  and 
friendliness  of  the  Toda,  and,  on  the  approach  of  a  Euro- 
pean  to  their  domain,  bolt  out  of  sight,  like  frighted 
rabbits  in  a  warren,  and  hide  within  the  inmost  recesses  of 
their  huts.  As  a  rule  they  are  clad  in  filthily  dirty  cloths, 
all  tattered  and  torn,  and  frequently  not  reaching  nearly  as 
low  as  the  knees.  In  addition  to  domestic  duties,  the 
women  have  to  do  work  in  the  fields,  fetch  water,  and 
collect  firiB-wood,  with  loads  of  which,  supported  on  the 
head  by  a  pad  of  bracken  fern  leaves,  and  bill-hook  slung 
on  the  shoulder,  old  and  young  women,  girls  and  boys, 
may  continually  be  seen  returning  to  the  village.  The 
women  also  make  baskets,  and  rude  earthen  pots  on  a 


PL.   XXUI. 


KOTA  WOMAN. 


roiir^ 


*»^.. 


*?-  . 


\ 


189 

potter's  wheel.  This  consists  of  a  disc  made  of  dried  mad, 
with  an  iron  spike,  by  means  of  which  it  is  made  to  re- 
volve in  a  socket  in  a  stone  fixed  in  the  ground  in  the  space 
in  front  of  the  houses,  which  also  acts  as  a  winnowing 
floor. 

Education,  in  its  most  elementary  form,  cannot  be  said  to 
have  taken  a  keen  grip  of  the  Kotas ;  for,  though  a  night- 
school  has  been  established  in  their  village  at  Kotagpri  by 
the  Basel  Mission  for  the  last  eight  years,  at  the  time  of  my 
visit  to  Kotagiri  only  nine  males,  of  various  ages  from 
twelve  to  twenty-four,  out  of  a  community  of  several 
hundreds,  were  on  the  school  books. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  Kotas,   their  personal 

ornaments,  system   of  tattooing,  &c., 

CharaoteriBticB.  will  be  gathered  from  the  following 

illustrative  cases. 

As  a  type  of  a  Kota  man  the  following  case  may  be 
cited  :— 

No.  1.  Male,  aged  25.  Name  Komuttan.  Blacksmith 
and  carpenter.  SUver  bangle  on  right  wrist;  two  silver 
rings  on  right  little  finger ;  silver  ring  on  each  first  toe. 
Gold  ear-rings.     Languti  tied  to  silver  chain  round  loins. 

Height  164*4  cm. 

Weight  125  lbs. 

Skin  of  exposed  parts  rather  darker  than  protected 
parts.  (Unexposed  parts,  especially  the  chest,  are  in  some 
Kotas  markedly  pale  by  contrast.) 

Hair  of  head  black,  wavy,  parted  in  middle,  and  tied 
in  a  bunch  behind.  Imperial  moustache,  waxed.  Beard 
trimmed  short.  Hair  well  developed  on  chest,  abdomen, 
extensor  surface  of  forearms,  and  legs.  Hair  of  axillad 
shaved,  as  being  an  eye-sore.  (The  Kotas  are  not  nearly 
such  a  hairy  race  as  the  Todas,  but,  as  in  Europeans, 
Brahmans,  etc.,  individuals  are  frequently  met  with,  in 
whom  the  hairy  system  is  well  developed  on  the  trunk  and' 
extremities.) 

Forehead  narrow  and  prominent.  Countenance  indicates 
decision  of  character..  Length  from  vertex  to  ohin21'l  cm. 
Bizygomatic  12*7.  Bigoniac  9'6  cm.  Glabella  and  super- 
ciliary ridges  not  marked.  Eyebrows  bushy,  united  across 
middle  line  by  thick  hairs.  Cheek-bones  rather  promi- 
nent. Lips  thin.  Facial  angle  (of  Cuvier)  70°.  Teeth 
white,  and  well  formed.  (The  teeth  of  the  Kotaa  are  of  tea 
discoloured  from  the  habit  of  chewing  betel.) 


190 


flyes  horizontal.    Iris  dark-brown. 

Nose  straigMj  narrow.  Height  4*6  cm.;  breadth 
3*2  om,    Al»  expanded. 

Ears  not  outstanding,  shallow.  Height  5*6  cm.  Lobules 
not  attached^  pierced. 

GephaUc  length  19*1  cm. ;  breadth  14*2  cm. 

Ohest  83  cm.  circumference. 

Shoulders  88  cm. 

Biceps  28*5  cm.  circumference. 

Cubit  45*6  cm. 

Handi  lengthy  18*5  cm. ;  breadth  8*4  cm. 

Thigh  45  cm.  circumference. 

Call  32  cm.  circumference* 
.    Foot,  length,  25*8  cm. ;  max :  breadth  8'9  cm. 

The  average  height  of  the  Kota  man,  according  to  my 
measurements,  is  162*9  cm. ;  but  the  following  is  an 
example  of  the  tallest  Kota  whom  I  saw,  and  who  consider- 
ably exceeds  the  mean. 

No.  2.  Male,  aged  35.  Carpenter.  Light  blue  eyes 
inherited  from  lus  mother.  His  children  have  eyes  of  the 
same  colour.  Lobules  of  ears  pendulous  from  heavy  gold 
ear*rings  set  with  pearls.  Black  hair  on  head  and  board. 
Black,  mixed  with  brown  hairs,  beneatii  lower  lip,  and  in 
moustache.  Nose  aquiline.  (Another  Kota  man  with  light 
blue  eyes  was  also  noticed  by  me.) 


Man  No.  2. 

Kota  ATeimge. 

Weight             

■ 

130  lbs. 

115  lbs. 

Height    ^         

178*8  cm. 

162*9  om. 

Do.    sittilig             

90-4    „ 

86-8    „ 

Do.    kneeling         

121-4    „ 

120       „ 

Do.    to  gladiolus 

131-6    „ 

120-6    „ 

Spm  of  arms   ... 

190-2    „ 

168-3    „ 

Chest    ...        ... 

86      „ 

88-8    „ 

Shoulders        

4a     „ 

37-7   „ 

Gnhit     ... 

49-5    „ 

46-1    „ 

Hand,  length 

19-6    „ 

18       „ 

Do.   brmdth 

8-7    „ 

8       „ 

xxips              f.       ••*             •••             ••• 

28-5    „ 

87       ,. 

Foot,  length 

26-7    „ 

25-2    „ 

Do.  breadth 

9-7    „ 

8-8    „ 

No.  3.  Male.  An  old  man,  bearing  a  certificate  from  the 
Duhe  of  Buckingham  appointing  him  head-man  of  the  Kota 
at  Kotagiri j  in  recognition  of  his  services  and  good  character. 


<    « 

'  »     •  t 

•  t   • 


191 

Says  that  he  is  sixty-five  years  old^  but  looks^  and  mast  be^ 
many  years  older,  as  he  appears  as  an  elderly  white-haired 
man  in  a  photograph  taken  by  Mr.  Breeks  more  than  twenty 
years  ago.  Bowed  with  age^  and  walks  with  support  of  a 
stick.  (The  Kotas,  unlike  the  Todas,  do  not  as  a  rule  carry 
walking-sticks.)  Bald  over  frontal  and  temporal  regions. 
White  hair  on  head  and  face,  and  long  white  hairs  in 
middle  of  chest. 

No.  4.  Boy,  aged  13.  Height  145*4  cm.  Shock  head 
of  hair,  which  is  being  permitted  to  grow  where  it  was  till 
recently  shaved.  Long  tuft  of  hair  hanging  down  from 
vertex  below  neck  behind.  Incipient  moustache.  Hair 
developed  in  axillsQ,  not  on  trunk.  Bushy  eyebrows  united 
by  dense  hairs.  Iris  light  brown.  Silver  bangle  on  right 
wrist ;  two  silver  rings  on  left  first  finger. 

No.  5.  Boy,  aged  10-12.  Hair  shaved  on  top,  sides^ 
and  back  of  head,  leaving  a  tuft  of  long  hair  hanging  down 
from  vertex  behind  a  la  Hinda.  Ears  pierced.  Forehead 
very  prominent  and  narrow.  Cephalic  length  18*5  om. ; 
br^th  18*9  cm. 

No.  6.  Man.  Hair  tied  behind  in  a  bunch  by  means  of 
a  string  with  a  silver  ring  attached  to  it. 

No.  7.  Man.  Two  letters  of  his  name  tattooed  (blno)  on 
front  of  left  forearm. 

No.  8.  Man.  Initial  letter  of  his  name  tattooed  (blue)  on 
front  of  left  forearm. 

No.  9.  Man.  Branded  with  cicatrix  of  burn  made,  when 
a  young  man,  with  a  burning  cloth,  across  lower  end  of  back 
of  forearm.  This  is  a  distmguishing  mark  of  the  Kotas, 
and  is  made  on  boys  when  they  are  more  than  eight  years 
old. 

No.  lO.  Man.  '  Ghrog-blossom '  nose.  Breadth  of  nose 
4*6  om.  He  is  a  confirmed  drunkard,  but  attributes  the  in- 
ordinate size  of  his  nasal  organ  to  the  acrid  juice  of  a  tree 
which  he  was  felling  dropping  on  to  it. 

No.  11.  Woman,  aged  30.  Divorced  for  being  a  con- 
firmed opium-eater,  and  living  with  her  father.  Dull,  muddy 
complexion.  Vacant  expression  of  countenance.  Skin  oi 
chest  pale  b^  contrast  with  the  neck.    Hair  of  head  smooth, 

i)arted  in  middle,  and  done  up  behind  in  bunch  round  pad  of 
eaves.  Bushy  eyebrows  united  across  middle  line  by  hairs. 
Slight  moustache.  Wears  a  dirty  cotton  cloth  with  blue  and 
red  stripes,  covering  body  and  reaching  below  knees^  and  a 


192 

plain  ootton  loin-cloth.  Two  brass  and  glass  bead  necklets. 
Four  copper  rings  on  left  npper  arm  above  elbow.  Two 
copper  bangles  separated  by  cloth  ring  on  right  wrist ;  two 
brass  bangles  separated  by  similar  ring  on  left  wrist. 
Brass  ring  on  first  toe  of  each  foot.  Blue  tattooed  line  uniting 
eyebrows.  Name  in  Tamil  tattooed  on  right  forearm.  Two 
vertical  tattooed  lines  on  left  upper  arm.  Tattooed  with  rings 
and  lines  on  outer  side  of  right  upper  arm  (pi.  xxvr,  1). 

Height  146-6  cm. 

Weight  86  lbs. 

Shoulders  33 '8  cm. 

Cubit  40-9  cm. 

Handy  lengthi  16'5  cm. ;  breadth  7*1  cm.  Nails  kept 
long  for  combing  hair. 

Foot,  length,  22  cm. ;  max  :  breadth  7*7  cm. 

Cephalic  length,  18*2  cm. 
„       breadth,  13*7  cm. 

Forehead  prominent.  Bigoniac  9*4  cm.  Bizygomatic 
12*4  cm.     Facial  angle  68^.     Teeth  white  and  regular. 

Nose,  snub.     Height  4*1  cm. ;  breadth  3*3  cm. 

Ears  pierced.     Too  poor  to  afford  ear-rings. 

12.  Woman,  aged  40.  Two  plain  glass^bead  necklets, 
and  bead  necklet  ornamented  with  silver  rings.  Four  brass 
rings  and  one  steel  ring  on  left  forearm.  Two  massive 
brass  bangles,  weighing  two  pounds  each,  and  separated 
by  cloth  rmg,  on  right  wrist.  Brass  bangle  with  brass  and 
steel  pendents,  and  shell  bangle  on  left  wrist.  Two  steel 
and  one  copper  ring  on  right  ring  finger ;  brass  rings  on 
left  first,  ring,  and  little  fingers.  Two  brass  rings  on  first 
toe  of  each  foot.  Tattooed  line  uniting  eyebrows.  Tattooed 
on  outer  side  of  both  upper  arms  with  rings,  dots,  and  Jines 
(pi.  XXVI,  2) ;  rows  of  dots  on  back  of  right  forearm ;  circle 
on  back  of  each  wrist ;  rows  of  dots  on  left  ankle. 

13.  Woman,  aged  35.  Tattoo  marks  on  forearms  (pL 
XXVI,  3  and  4). 

14.  Woman,  aged  35*  Tattoo  marks  on  right  upper 
arm  (pi.  xxvi,  5). 

15.  Womaii,  aged  25.  Tattoo  marks  on  right  upper 
arm  (pi.  xxvi,  6)  and  left  forearm  (pi.  xxvi,7). 

16.  Woman,  aged  25.  Tattoo  marks  on  right  upper 
arm  (pi.  xxvi,  8)  and  left  forearm  (pi.  xxvi,  9). 

17.  Woman,  aged  35.  Glass  necklet  ornamented  with 
90wry  shells,  and  charm  pendent  from  it,  consisting  of  a 


KOTA  WOMEN. 


198 

fragment  of  the  root  of  some  tree  rolled  up  in  a  ball  of  clotb. 
She  put  it  on  when  her  baby  was  about  a  month  old,  to 
protect  it  against  devils.  Ttie  baby  has  a  similar  kind  of 
charm  round  the  neck. 

18.  Woman,  aged  30.  Has  been  treated  in  hospital  for 
syphilitic  ulceration  of  the  palate.  History  of  primary 
syphilis. 

The  Kota   priesthood  is  represented  by   ddvadis  and 
.  puj&ris,  who   wear  no   distinguishing 

«  »»<>»•  dross.     The  office  of  ddv&di  is  carried 

on  by  heredity^  and  the  puj&ris  are  appointed  by  the  ddv&di 
when  under  the  influence  of  inspiration  by  the  sw&mi 
(god).  The  ddvadi  becomes  ab  times  possessed  by  the  god, 
to  whom  he  repeats  the  requests  and  desires  of  the  people, 
and  delivers  to  them  the  answer  of  the  god.  He  is  per- 
mitted to  live  with  his  wife,  and  not  bounds  like  the  Toda 
p&l&l,  to  a  celibate  existence.  On  the  death  of  a  ddvftdi, 
the  god  takes  possession  of  some  member  of  his  family^  who 
dreams  that  the  mantle  of  the  dead  priest  has  descended 
on  him^  and  becomes  seized  with  inspiration  in  the  temple. 

In  addition  to  the  ddv&di,  each  village  has  two  ptij&ris^ 
appointed  by  the  ddv&di  when  under  the  influence  of  inspi- 
ration by  the  god.  Their  main  duty  is  to  perform  pujas  in 
the  temple. 

They  too  may  be  married^  and  live  with  their  wives; 
but,  at  the  great  festival  in  honour  of  El&matar&yn,  neither 
d6vd.di  nor  puj&ri  may  live  or  hold  communion  with  their 
wives  for  fear  of  pollution,  and  they  have  to  cook  their  meals 
themselves. 

'^  Some  rude  image  of  wood  or  sfcone,  a  rock  or  tree  in 
a  secluded  locality,  frequently  form  the  Kota's  object  of 
worship^  and  to  which  sacrificial  ofierings  are  m  ide ;  but 
the  recognised  place  of  worship  in  each  village  consists  of 
a  large  square  piece  of  ground^  walled  round  with  loose 
stonesi  three  feet  high^  and  containing  in  its  centre  two  ^® 
pent-shaped  sheds  of  thatch,  open  before  and  behind,  and 
on  the  posts  (of  stone)  that  support  them  some  rude  circles 
and  other  figures  are  drawn.  No  image  of  any  sort  is 
visible  here  (Shortt).  These  sheds,  which  are  a  short 
distance  apart,  are  dedicated  to  Siva  and  his  consort  P&r- 
vati  under  the  names  of  K&matarftya  and  K&likai.     Though 


^*  At  Kolamald  there  are  three  temples,  two  dedicated  to  Klmattriji 
and  one  to  i^Alikai. 


m 

no  representation  of  the  sw&mis  is  exhibited  in  the  temples 
at  ordinary  timesi  their  spirits  are  beliered  to  pervade  the 
buildings,  and  at  the  annual  ceremony  they  are  represented 
by  two  thin^  plain  plates  of  silver,  which  are  attached  to  the 
upright  posts  of  the  temples.  The  stones  surrounding  the 
temples  at  Eotagiri  are  scratched  with  various  quaint 
devices,  and  lines  for  the  games  of  hulikotd  and  kotd. 

The  Eota  villagers  go,  I  was  told,  to  the  temple  once  a 
month,  at  full  moon,  and  meditate  on  and  worshin  god. 
Their  belief  is  that  K&matarftya  created  the  EotaSi  TcKlas, 
and  Kurumbas,  but  not  the  Irulas.  "  Tradition  says  of 
K&matar&ya  that,  perspiring  profusely,  he  wiped  from  his 
forehead  three  drops  of  perspiration,  and  out  of  them  formed 
the  three  most  ancient  of  the  hill  tribes — the  Todas,  Kurum- 
bas and  Eotas.  The  Todas  were  told  to  live  principally 
upon  milk,  the  Kurumbas  were  permitted  to  eat  the  flesh  of 
buffalo  calves,  and  the  Kotas  were  allowed  perfect  liberty 
in  the  choice  of  food,  being  informed  that  they  might  eat 
carrion  if  they  could  get  nothing  bettec^'     (Breeks.) 

In  comparatively  recent  years  the  Kotas  have  created  a 
new  god,  named  M&g&li,  to  whose  influence  outbreaks  of 
cholera  are  supposed  to  be  due;  and  a  goddess,  named 
Mftriammft,  is  supposed  by  the  Kotas  to  be  responsible  for 
small-pox.  When  cholera  breaks  out  among  the  Kota  com- 
munity, special  sacrifices  are  performed  with  a  view  to 
propitiating  the  wrath  of  the  god.  M&g&li  is  represented 
ny  an  upright  stone  in  a  rude  temple  at  a  little  distance 
from  Kotagiri,  where  an  annual  ceremony  is  held,  at  which 
some  man  will  become  possessed,  and  announce  to  the 
people  that  M&g&li  has  come.  At  this  ceremony  a  special 
priest  (pnjftri)  offers  up  plantains  and  coooauuts,  and  makes 
a  sacrifice  of  sheep  and  fowls.  My  informant,  despite  the 
£Act  that  he  was  the  pnjari  of  M&g&li,  was,  or  pretended  to 
be,  ignorant  of  the  following  legend  recorded  by  Breeks  as 
to  the  origin  of  the  worship  of  the  god  of  smalLpox.  '^  A 
virulent  disease  carried  off  a  number  of  Kotas  of  Peranga- 
n&da,  and  the  village  was  abandoned  by  the  survivors.  A 
Badaga  named  Munda  Jogi,  who  was  bringing  his  tools  to 
the  Kotagiri  to  be  sharpened,  saw  near  a  tree  something 
in  the  form  of  a  tiger,  wluch  spoke  to  him,  and  told  him  to 
summon  the  run-away  Kotas.  He  obeyed,  whereupon  Iha 
tiger  form  addressed  the  Kotas  in  an  unknown  tongiie,  and 
vanished.  For  some  time  the  purport  of  this  communica- 
tion remained  a  mystery.  At  last,  however,  a  Kota  came 
forward  to  interpret,  and  declared  that  the  god  ordered 


-J 


196 

ike  Eoias  to  return  to  the  village  on  pain  of  a  recnnreoce 
of  the  pestilence.  The  command  was  obeyed^  and  a  swftmi 
hooae  was  built  on  the  spot  where  the  form  appeared  to  the 
Badaga  (who  doubtless  felt  keenly  the  inconvenience  of 
having  no  Kotas  at  hand  to  sharpen  his  tools)." 

In  a  Report  by  Lieut^iant  Evans^  written  in  1820,  it  is 
g       .  stated  that   '^  the   marriages   of    this 

caste  (the  Kothewars)  remind  one  of 
what  is  called  bundling  in  Wales.  The  bride  and  bride- 
groom being  together  for  the  nighty  in  the  morning  the 
bride  is  questioned  by  her  relatives  whether  she  is  pleased 
with  her  husband  elect.  If  she  answers  in  the  affirmative, 
it  is  a  marriage ;  if  not,  the  bridegroom  is  immediately  dis- 
eiiarged^  and  the  lady  does  not  suffer  in  reputation  if  she 
thus  discards  half  a  dozen  suitors/'  The  recital  of  this 
account,  translated  into  Tamil,  raised  a  smile  on  the  face 
of  my  Kota  informant,  who  volunteered  the  following  infor- 
mation relating  to  the  betrothal  and  marriages  ceremonies 
of  the  present  day. 

Oirls,  as  a  rule,  marry   when  they  are  from  twelve 
to  sixteen  years  old,  between  which  years  they  reach  the 
age   of  puberty.     A   wife    is   selected  for    a  lad  by   hia 
parents,  subject  to  the  consent  of  the  girFs  parents  ;  or,  if 
a  lad  has  no  near  relatives,  the  selection  is  made  for  him  by 
the  villagers.     Betrothal  takes  place  when  the  girl  is  quite 
a  child  (eight  to  ten).     The ^ boy  goes,  accompanied  by  hia 
father  and  mother,  to  the  house    where  the    girl  lives^ 
prostrates  himself  at  the  feet  of  her  parents,  and,  if  he  is 
aocepted,  presents  his  future   father-in-law    with  a  four- 
anna  piece,  which  is  understood  to  represent  a  larger  sum. 
Aooording  to  Breeks  the  boy  also  makes  a  present  of  a 
birianhana  of  gold,  and  the  betrothal  ceremony  is  called 
bati-med-deni    (bali,  bracelet ;    med-deni,^  I  have  made). 
Both  betrothal  and  marriage  ceremonies  take  place  on 
Tuesday,  Wednesday,  or  Friday,  which  are  regarded  as 
oaKptcTons  days. 

The  ceremonial  in  connection  with  marriage  is  of  a  very 
simple  nature.  The  bridegroom  elect,  accompanied  by  his 
zelativea,,  attends  a  feast  at  the  house  of  his  bride,  and  the 
wedding  day  is  fixed.  On  the  appointed  day  the  bride- 
groom pays  a  dowry,  varying  from  ten  to  fifty  rupees,  to  hia 
bride's  father,  and  takes  the  girl  to  his  house>  where  the 
wedding  guests,  who  have  accompanied  them,  are  feasted. 

The  Kotas  seem  to  be  prolific,  and  families  of  eight,  nine, 
tai  or  more  are  not  uncommon ;  but  it  ia  rarely  that  the 

27 


196 

whole  of  a  large  family  grows  up,  many  dying  in  infancy. 
Widow  remarriage  is  permitted. 

The  Kotas,  as  a  rule,  have  only  one  wife,  and  polyandry 
is  unknown  among  them.  But  in  some  instances  polygamy 
is  practised.  My  informant,  for  example,  had  two  wives,  of 
whom  the  first  had  only  presented  him  with  one  child,  a 
daughter ;  and,  as  he  was  anxious  to  have  a  son,  he  had  taken 
to  himself  a  second  wife.  If  a  woman  bears  no  children,  her 
hnsband  may  marry  a  second,  or  even  a  third  wife  ;  and,  if 
they  can  get  on  together  without  fighting,  all  the  wives  may 
live  under  the  same  roof;  otherwise  they  occupy  separate 
huts. 

Divorce  may,  I  was  told,  be  obtained  for  incompatibility 
of  temper,  drunkenness,  or  immorality  ;  or  a  man  can  get 
rid  of  his  wife  '  if  she  is  of  no  use  to  him,'  i,e,y  if  she  does 
not  feed  him  well,  or  assist  him  in  the  cultivation  of  his 
land.  Divorce  is  decided  by  a  p&nch&yat  (council)  of  repre- 
sentative villagers,  and  judgment  given,  after  hearing  the 
evidence,  by  an  elderly  member  of  the  community.  Gases 
of  theft,  assault,  or  other  mild  offence  are  also  settled  by  a 
p&nch&yat,  and,  in  the  event  of  a  case  arising  which  cannot 
be  settled  by  members  of  council  representing  a  single 
village,  delegates  from  all  the  seven  villages  meet  together. 
If  even  then  a  decision  cannot  be  arrived  at,  recourse  is  had 
to  the  official  court,  of  which  the  Kotas  steer  clear  if  possible^ 
At  a  big  panchayat  the  head-man  (pittak&r)  of  the  Kotas 
gives  the  decision,  referring,  if  necessary,  to  some  *  sensible 
member  '  of  the  council  for  a  second  opinion. 

When  a  married  woman  is  known  to  be  pregnant  with 
her  first  child,  her  husband  allows  the  hair  of  the  head  and 
face  to  grow  long,  and  leaves  the  nails  of  both  hands  uncut. 
At  the  time  of  delivery  the  woman  is  removed  to  a  hut  (a 
perilaanent  strnctare)  called  vollUgudi  (vollu  inside,  gtldi 
nest),  which  is  divided  into  two  rooms,  one  of  which  serves 
as  a  lying-in  hospital,  the  other  for  women  at  the  menstrual 
periods.  Women  are  attended  in  child-birth  by  a  profes- 
sional Kota  midwife,  who  is  remunerated  with  board  and  a 
new  cloth.  After  the  birth  of  the  child  the  woman  appa- 
rently remains  in  the  volltlgudi  till  the  next  full  moon,and  then 
goes  for  a  further  space  of  two  months  to  another  hut  called 
tblulu.  On  departure  from  the  voUogudi  the  baby  is  fed 
with  rice  boiled,  in  a  specially  made  clay  pot,  on  a  fire  made 
with  the  wood  of  a  particular  jungle  tree.  When  the  woman 
leaves  the  tdlulu,  a  feast  is  given  to  the  relatives,  and  the 
head-man  of  the  khdri  gives  the  child  a  name  lehich  has  been 


o  oo  o  o  o 


I 


o  o  ooooo 


--f-? 


o  o  o  o  o  o 


O  •■  •  O •• ttO 

o  •  •  •o«-*o 
o  o  o  o  oo  o 


Wi 


LU  AftUXt^'    tut  t!S.T*^-       ^^ 

-A  mil*'  oBaftiii-iut"     i*-^ 

»wtcAed  from  u  limiM^^.    .^^  •-         . 

^B^  tiie  viiiii^t.,  a^  a.  .  \  .^     ..  '  \        "        '    ^ 

•^  Koto  inueraj  ni^to  ttrtr  LH.#rruw-  *           '   — ■ 

^J9>.  and    uucen  t-    lu*    liuu*^.    ^v*^,..  *- 

*»oiOT«d  Axwn  title  iiou--.  piui>t..  ....  „  /,',.,,  ^;"  "" 

"™»Me  tie  rilia^re,  witu   lut  cautia......    „u..,.    •  ■„.,. 

*J™^<rf  tie    o«rp«*-    pA*«>e..  oi.  oi..   ..  t,,.    j,^,,/    ^,,. 

**5*  iaaeml.       Xx*«?   «*efta  cow  i.  nauuv.  ov*-.    i.,  !,».*  *"  » 
*",«««««i    b^   KloDft^.     iron.   ui..    juiiK...  i^.  ..o,p.„**'-' 


tf 


t. 


w 

elioaen  hj  its  father.  Before  the  woman  returns  to  her  hotne, 
at  the  end  of  her  temporary  banishment  therefrom,  it  is 
purified  with  cow-dung  and  water,  and^  as  she  enters  her 
house,  the  man  who  has  named  the  child  gives  her  a  few 
drops  of  water  to  drink.  Breeks  mentions  that  a  woman 
with  her  first  child,  on  leaving  the  voUugudi  for  the  tSlulu, 
must  make  seven  steps  backwards  among  seven  kinds  of 
thorns  strewed  on  the  ground ;  but  mj  informant  expressed 
ignorance  of  any  such  ceremony. 

A  common  name  for  females  is  Madi,  one  of  the  names 
of  the  goddess  Kalikai ;  and  the  first  male  child  is  always 
called  Komuttan  (=  Kftmataraya) .  The  numerous  Komut- 
tans  in  a  village  are  distinguished  by  the  prefix  big^  little^ 
carpenter,  etc. 

When  a  mian  or  woman  is  on  the  point  of  death,  a 

gold  coin  (virftya  fanam)  is  placed  in 

Funeral  oeremony.         ^j^^  ^^^^^      j^^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  ^ 

laid  out  on  a  mat,  covered  with  a  cloth,  the  thumbs  are  tied 
together  with  string,  and  the  hands  placed  on  the  chesty 
The  relatives  of  the  deceased,  the  pujari  and  devadi,  and 
Kotas  of  other  villages  who  have  been  informed  of  the  death,, 
come  and  salute  the  corpse,  head  to  head,  and  mourn  over  it. 

A  rude  catafalque  (t^ru),  made  of  wood  and  decorated 
with  cloths,  is  placed  in  front  of  the  house  of  the  deceased, 
round  which  tiie  Kotas  dance  to  the  strains  of  a  Kota  band, 
while  the  near  relatives  continue  mourning.  A  male  buffalo 
is  fetched  from  a  Badaga  village  or  Toda  mand,  and  killed 
outside  the  village,  as  at  a  Toda  k@du,  from  which  some  oi 
the  Kota  funeral  rites  are  borrowed.  The  carcase  is  skinned^ 
cut  up,  and  taken  to  the  house  where  the  corpse  is  lying. 
Half  the  fiesh  is  distributed  among  the  Kota  villagers. 

When  the  time  of  the  funeral  has  arrived,  the  dead  body 
is  removed  from  the  house,  placed  on  a  stretcher,  and  taken 
outside  the  village,  with  the  catafalque  borne  in  front,  to  a 
tree  in  the  jungle.  A  cow  (not  buffalo)  is  then  killed,  the 
hand  of  the  corpse  placed  on  one  of  the  horns,  and  all 
present  salute  it  with  the  same  ceremonial  as  at  a  Toda 
green  funeral.  The  dead  cow  is  handed  over  to  pariahs, 
and  not  eaten  by  Kotas.  From  the  jangle  the  corpse  and 
catafalque  are  carried  to  the  burning  ground,  where  a 
funeral  pyre  is  made,  on  which  the  corpse  is  laid  face{up  wards, 
and  burned  beneath  the  catafalque.  If  the  corpse  be  that 
of  a  man,  jewelry,  cheroots,  various  kinds  of  grain,  iron; 
implements,  walking-stick, and bugari  (musical instrument)^ 


I 

i 


lot 

and,  if  of  a  woman,  jewelry,  a  winnowing  basket^  rice 
aeasore,  rioe  beater,  sickle,  cakes  and  rioe  are  bnmt.  Tke 
indow  of  a  dead  man  is  said  fco  place  on  tke  dead  body  ker 
Mdi  (marriage  badge)  and  otker  ornaments^  wkiok  are, 
kowe^er,  removed  before  tke  pyre  is  kindled. 

On  ike  day  following  tkat  of  tke  funeral,  tke  am6al« 
dering  askes  are  extingoisked  witk  water^  and  tke  askes, 
excepting  tke  remains  of  tke  skull,  collected  togetker  and 
buried  in  a  pit,  tke  site  of  wkick  is  marked  by  a  keap  of 
atones.  Tke  skull  is  buried  separately  in  a  spot  wkick  is 
also  marked  by  a  keap  of  stones.  A  feast,  wkereat  tke 
kalf  of  tke  buffalo  wkick  was  not  given  to  tke  villagers  is 
served  up  as  funeral  baked  meat,  is  tken  keld: 

In  tke  montk  of  December  a  dry  f  aneral  ceremony  taked 
place,  in  imitation  of  tke  Toda  bara  k6du.  Eigkt  days  before 
tke  date  ^ed  for  tke  ceremony,  a  dance  takes  place  in  front 
of  tke  bouses  of  tke  Kotas  wkose  memorial  rites  are  to  be 
celebrated,  and  tbree  days  before  tkeir  celebration  invita- 
tions are  issued  to  tke  different  Kota  villages.  On  tke 
appointed  day  tke  relatives  of  tke  deceased  kave  buffaloes 
f  eady,  and  place  tke  skulls,  wkick  kave  been  unburied,  wrapt 
in  clotks,  on  a  oot.  Obeisance  is  made  to  tke  relics  by  toucking 
tkem  witk  tke  kead.  Tkey  are  tken  carried  to  a  skda  (tke 
f aneral  ground),  wkere  tke  buffaloes— one  for  eaok  skull — 
decorated  witk  a  bell  kung  round  tke  neck,  are  killed.  Tke 
skulls  are  tken  burned  witk  tke  same  articles  as  at  tke 
burning  of  tke  corpse,  witk,  in  tke  case  of  a  male,  tke  addi- 
tion of  a  pole  (tarzk),  twenty  feet  long,  decorated  witk  cowriesi 
suck  as  is  burned  at  Toda  dry  funerals.  Tke  burning  con- 
cluded, water  is  poured  from  a  ckatty  over  tke  aakee,  on 
wkick  no  furtker  care  is  bestowed.  Tkose  wko  kave  been 
present  at  tke  ceremony  remain  all  nigkt  on  tke  Spot^ 
wkere,  on  tke  following  morning,  a  feast  and  dance  take 
place.  Finally  a  dance  is  keld  in  tke  village  ;  tke  dancers 
being  dressed  «p  as  at  tke  annual  feast. 

fi  may  be  noted  tkat  if  a  cbild  only  a  few  days  old  dies^ 
tke  body  is  buried  instead  of  being  burnt. 

A  great  annual  festival  is  keld  in  konour  of  K&mataxftya 
.        ,  witk  tke  ostensible  object  of  propiti- 

Annual  ceremony.  ^^^  ^^  ^^  ^  ^^^  ^  ^^  ^^^  ^^ 

Kotas  an  abundant  karvest  and  general  prosperity.  Tke 
feast  commences  on  tke  first  Monday  after  the  J  anuary  new 
aioon,  and  lasts  for  about  a  fortnigkt,  wkick  is  observed 
as  a  general  koliday,  and  is  said  to  be  a  continuous  scene 
of  licentioosness  and  debauckery^  muck  indeeent  dcuaoiBg 


IM 

« 

taking  place  between  men  and  women.  According  to  Meti^ 
the  chief  men  among  the  Badagas  mast  attend  tHe  festiyid^ 
otherwise  their  absence  would  be  regarded  as  a  breach  of 
friendship  and  etiquette,  and  the  Eotas  would  immediately 
avenge  themselves  by  refusing  to  make  any  ploughs  or 
earthen  vessels  for  the  Badagas. 

The  programme  of  events^  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to 
gather  without  beiag  present  as  an  eye-witness^  is  somewhat 
as  follows  : — 

A  fire  is  kindled  by  one  of  the  priests  in  the  temple,  and 
first  da  carried   to    the    Naduk€ri    section  of 

the  village,  where  it  is  kept  burning 
throughout  the  festival.  Around  the  fire  men,  women^ 
adolescent  boys  and  girls,  dance  to  the  weird  music  of  the 
Eota  band,  whose  instruments  consist  of  clarionet,  drum^ 
tambourine,  brass  horn,  and  buguri  (Tod a  Sute). 

Second  day  \ 

Third  day     j  jy^^^  ^^  j^g^t. 

Fourth  day  4 

Fifth  day"    ) 

The  villagers  go  to  the  jungle,  and  collect  bamboos  and 

rattans,   with   which    to    re-roof    the 
Sixth  day.  temples.     Dance  at  night. 

The  day  is  busily  spent  in  re-roofing  and  decorating  the 
fleretith  d  ▼  temples,  and  it  is  said  to  be  essential 

that  the  work  should  be  concluded 
before  night*fall.     Dance  at  night. 

In  the  morning  the  villagers  go  to  Badaga  villages,  and 

E*  hthd  cadge  for  presents  of  grain  and  gfai 

'^  which  they  subsequently  cook,  place  in 

front  of  the  temple  as  an  ofienng  to  the  sw&mi,  and,  after  the 

priests  have  eaten,  partake  of,  seated  round  the  temple. 

Kotas,  Todas,  Badagas,  Kurumbas,  Irulas  and  '  Hindus  ' 

oome  to  the  Eota  village,  where  aa 
Ninth  day.  elaborate  nautch  is  performed,  in  which 

men  are  the  principal  actors,  dressed  up  in  gaudy  attiie 
consisting  of  skirt,  petticoat,  trousers,  turban  and  scarves, 
and  fteely  decorated  with  jewelry  which  is  either  their 
own  property  or  borrowed  from  Badagas  for  the  occasion. 
Women  merely  dressed  in  clean  cloths,  also  take  part  in  a 
dance  called  kumi,  which  consists  of  a  walk  round  to  tune 
beaten  with  the  hands.  I  was  present  at  a  private  per- 
formance of  the  male  nautch,  which  was  as  dreary  as  snoh 
entertcdnments  usually  are,  but  it  lacked  the  go  which  is 
doubtless  pat  into  it  when  it  is  performed  under  natural 


200 

oouditions  in  the  village  awaj  from  the  reBtraining  influenoe 
of  the  European.  The  nautch  is  apparently  repeated  daily 
until  the  conclusion  of  the  festival. 

A  burlesque  representation  of   a  Toda  kedu   (funeral 

ceremony)  is  given,  at  which  the  part 

^eSth  ^i.  ^^  ^®  sacrificial  buffaloes  is  played  by 

men  with  buffalo  horns  fixed  on  the 
head,  and  body  covered  with  a.  black  cloth. 

At  the  close  of  the  festival  the  pujftris,  ddv&di,  and 
leading  Kotas  go  out  hunting  with  bows  and  arrows,  leaving 
the  village  at  1  a.m.  and  retaming  at  3  a.m.  They  are  said 
to  have  shot  bison  ^^  at  this  nocturnal  expedition ;  but  what 
takes  place  at  the  present  day  is  said  to  De  unknown  to  the 
villagers,  who  are  forbidden  to  leave  their  houses  during  the 
absence  of  the  hunting  party.  On  their  return  to  the  village, 
a  fire  is  lighted  with  a  hand  fire  drill  by  friction,  a  twig 
of  the  baiga  tree,  with  cloth  wrapped  round  its  point,  being 
twisted  Tound  in  a  socket  in  a  plank  until  it  ignites.  Into 
the  fire  a  piece  of  iron  is  put  by  the  ddvftdi,  made  red-hot 
with  the  assistance  of  the  bellows,  and  hammered  by  the 
ptlj&ri.  The  priests  then  offer  up  a  parting  prayer  to  the 
BWftmi,  and  the  festival  is  at  an  end. 

Like  the  Todas,  the  Kotas  indulge  in  trials  of  strength 
^.  with  heavy  spherical  stones,  which  they 

raise,  or  attempt  to  raise,  from  the 
ground  to  the  shoulders,  and  in  a  game  resembling  the 
English  tip-cat.  In  another  game  sides  are  chosen,  of  about 
ten  on  each  side.  One  side  takes  shots  with  a  ball  made  of 
cloth  at  a  brick  propped  up  against  a  wall,  near  which  the 
other  side  stands.  Each  man  is  allowed  three  shots  at  the 
brick.  If  the  brick  is  hit  and  falls  over,  one  of  the  '  out- 
side *  picks  up  the  ball,  and  throws  it  at  the  other  side,  who 
run  away  and  try  to  avoid  being  hit.  If  the  ball  touches 
one  of  them,  the  side  is  put  out,  and  the  other  side  go  in. 

A  game,  called  hulikote,  which  bears  a  resemblance  to  the 
Ejiglish  child's  game  of  fox  and  geese,  is  played  on  a  stone 
chiselled  with  lines  which  forms  a  rude  playing  board.  In 
one  form  of  the  game  (pi.  xxvii)  two  tigers  and  twenty-five 
bulls,  and  in  another  form  (pi.  xxvii)  three  tigers  and  fifteen 
bulls  engage,  and  the  object  is  for  the  tigers  to  take,  or,  as 
the  Kotas  express  it,  kill  all  the  bulls.  In  a  further  game, 
called  kotd,  a  labyrinthiform  pattern,  or  maze,  is  chiselled  on 
a  stone,  to  get  to  the  centre  of  which  is  the  problem. 

^'  Bob  ^oMTua,  the  bison  of  European  sportsmen* 


PLATE  XXYIi 


301 


OOMPARISON  BETWEEN  T0DA8  AND  KOTAS. 

A  comparative  table  of  measarements  of  Toda  and  Kota 
men  will  be  found  on  page  215.  The  following  summary^ 
based  on  the  averages^  wHl  serve^  however^  to  indicate  the 
principal  points  of  difference  between  male  members  of  the 
two  tribes. 

The  most  obvious  distinguishing  character  is  the  great 
development  of  the  hairy  system  in  the  Toda^  though  the 
Kota  frequently  has  hair  well  developed  on  his  chest  and 
abdomen.  The  weight  and  chest  ginh  of  the  two  tribes 
are  approximately  the  same^  but  the  mean  Toda  height  is 
6*7  cm.  greater  than  that  of  the  Kotas.  Corresponding  to  a 
greater  length  of  the  upper  extremities^  the  span  of  the 
arms  (i.«.,  the  length  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  middle  finger 
with  the  arms  extended  at  right  angles  to  the  body)  is  6*7 
cm.  longer  in  the  'I'oda  than  m  the  Kota,  but  the  difference 
between  height  and  span  is  exactly  the  same  (5*4  cm.)  in 
the  Toda  and  Kota.  The  Todas  are  broader  shouldered 
than  the  Kotas,  and,  though  the  former  do  far  less  manual 
labour  than  the  latter  (many  of  whom  are  blacksmiths) , 
their  hand  grip^  as  tested  by  a  Salter's  dynamometer,  is 
considerably  (9  lbs.)  greater.  The  Kotas  have  broader 
hips,  but  a  shorter  and  narrower  foot  than  the  Todas. 
Both  Todas  and  Kotas  are  dolichocephalic.  The  cephalic 
breadth  averages  the  same  in  the  two  tribes^  but  the  length 
of  the  head  is  very  slightly  ('2  cm.)  greater  in  the  Toda. 
The  Kota  has  a  wider  face  with  more  prominent  cheek  bones, 
a  greater  bimilar  breadth,  a  wider  lower  jaw,  and  more 
developed  zygomatic  arches.  The  Toda  nose  is  slightly 
longer  and  broader  than  that  of  the  Kotas.  The  height 
from  the  top  of  the  head  (vertex)  to  the  chin  is  slightly 
less  in  the  Kota  than  in  the  Toda ;  but  corresponding  to 
the  greater  length  from  the  vertex  to  the  tragus  and  the 
more  developed  frontal  region,  the  facial  angle  (angle  of 
Guvier)  of  the  Kota  is  in  excess  (3^)  of  that  of  the  Toda. 

The  present  bulletin  is,  I  trust,  only  the  first  of  a  series 
giving  in  detail  the  results  of  an  anthropological  survey 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  India,  the  progress  of  which 
must  perforce  be  slow  and  spasmodic.  For  the  moment  I 
must  rest  content  with  merely  placing  on  record  the  main 
facts  relating  to  the  anthropography  and  ethnography 
of  the  Todas  and  Kotas,  leaving  the  conclusions  to  be  drawn 
hereafter,  when  sufficient  material  has  been  collected  for  th9 
purpose  of  co-ordination. 


M0 


NOTE  ON  KOTA  DEATH  CBEBMONIBS. 


At  the  time  of  writing  the  foregoing  accoant  ol  the 
Eotas^  I  had  had  no  opportunity  of  witnessing  their  death 
ceremonies,  and  was  compelled  to  base  my  meagre  accoant 
thereof  on  the  description  given  to  me  by  my  Eota  inform- 
ant. A  few  days  after  my  arrival  at  Kotagiri  in  the  pres^it 
year^  with  a  view  to  investigating  the  Badagas  and  Iralas, 
the  dismal  soand  of  mourning,  to  the  weird  strains  of  the 
Kota  band,  announced  that  death  reigned  in  the  Kota 
village,  and  the  opportunity  was  seized  to  be  present  acTan 
eye-witness  of  the  ceremonies. 

The  dead  man  was  a  venerable  carpenter  (No.  3,  p.  190) 
of  high  position  in  the  community,  and  the  death  rites  were 
accordingly  carried  out  on  a  lavish  scale.  Soon  after  day- 
break a  detachment  of  villagers  hastened  to  convey  the 
tidings  of  the  death  to  the  Kotas  of  the  neighbouring 
villages,  who  arrived  on  the  scene  later  in  the  day  m 
Indian  file,  men  in  front  and  women  in  the  rear.  As  they 
drew  near  to  the  place  of  mourning,  they  all,  of  one  acoora, 
commenced  the  orthodox  manifestations  of  grief^  and  were 
met  by  a  deputation  of  villagers  accompanied  by  the  band. 

Meanwhile  a  red  flag,  tied  to  the  top  oi  a  bamboo 
pole,  was  hoisted  as  a  signal  of  death  in  the  vilWe^  and  a 
party  had  gone  off  to  a  glade,  some  two  miles  distant,  to 
obtain  wood  for  the  construction  of  the  fuueral  car  (tdru). 
The  car,  when  completed,  was  an  elaborate  structure^  about 
eighteen  feet  in  height,  made  of  wood  and  bamboo»  in  four 
tiers,  each  with  a  canopy  of  turkey  red  and  yellow  cloth, 
and  an  upper  canopy  of  white  cloth  trimmed  with  red, 
surmounted  by  a  black  umbrella  of  European  manufac- 
ture, decorated  with  red  ribbands.  The  car  was  profusely 
adorned  throughout  with  red  flags  and  long  white  streamers, 
and  with  young  plantain  trees  at  the  base.  Tied  to  the  car 
were  a  calabash  and  a  bell. 

During  the  construction  of  the  car  the  corpse  remained 
within  the  house  of  the  deceased  man,  outsiae  which  the 
pelative9  and  villagers  coutinued  mourning  to  the  dirge-like 
■tneic  of  the  band,  which  plays  so  prominent  a  part  at  tiie 
death  ceremonies  of  both  Todas  and  Kotas.  On  the  com- 
pkition  of  the  car,  late  in  the  afternoon,  it  was  deposited  in 
front  of  the  house.    The  corpse  dressed  np  in  a  coloured 


208 

turban  and  gaudy  coat  as  for  a  nautch  party^  with  a 
garland  of  flowers  round  the  neck,  and  two  rupees^  a  half 
rupee,  and  sovereign,  gummed  on  to  the  forehead,  was 
brought  from  withiu  the  house,  lying  face  upwards  on  a  cot, 
and  placed  beneath  the  lowest  canopy  of  the  oar.  Near  the 
head  were  placed  iron  implements  and  a  bag  of  rice,  at  the 
feet  a  bag  of  tobacco,  and  beneath  the  cot  baskets  of  grain, 
rice,  cakes,  Ac.  The  corpse  was  covered  by  cloths  offered 
to  it  as  presents,  and  before  it  those  Kotas  who  were 
younger  than  the  dead  man  prostrated  them8elve3,  while 
those  who  were  olaer  touched  the  head  of  the  corpse  and 
bowed  to  it.  Around  the  car  the  male  members  of  the 
community  executed  a  wild  step-dance,  keeping  time  with 
the  music  in  the  execution  of  various  fantastic  movements 
of  the  arms  and  legs. 

During  the  long  hours  of  the  night  mourning  was 
kept  up  to  the  almost  incessant  music  of  the  band,  and 
the  early  morn  discovered  many  of  the  villagers  in  an 
advanced  stage  of  intoxication*  Throughout  the  morning 
dancing  round  the  car  was  continued  by  men,  sober  and 
inebriated,  with  brief  intervals  of  rest,  and  a  young  buffalo 
was  slaughtered  as  a  matter  of  routine  form,  with  no 
special  ceremonial,  in  a  pen  outside  the  village,  by  blows 
on  the  back  and  neck  administered  with  the  keen  edge  of 
an  adze.  Towards  midday  presents  of  rice  from  the  rela- 
tives of  the  dead  man  arrived  on  the  back  of  a  pony,  which 
was  paraded  round  the  funeral  car.  From  a  vessel  contain- 
ing rice  and  rice  water,  rice  was  crammed  into  the  mouths 
of  the  near  relatives,  some  of  the  water  poured  over  their 
heads,  and  the  remainder  offered  to  the  corpse.  At 
intervals  a  musket,  charged  with  gunpowder,  which  proved 
later  on  a  dangerous  weapon  in  the  hands  of  an  intoxicated 
Eota,  was  let  off,  and  the  bell  on  the  car  rung. 

About  2  P.M.,  the  time  announced  for  the  funeral,  the 
oot  bearing  the  corpse,  from  the  forehead  of  which  the  coins 
had  been  removed,  was  carried  outside  the  village,  followed 
by  the  widow  and  a  throng  of  Kotas  of  both  sexes,  young 
and  old,  and  the  car  was  carried  to  the  foot  of  the  hill,  there 
to  await  the  arrival  of  the  corpse  after  the  performance  of 
various  ceremonies.  Seated  together  at  some  distance  from 
the  corpse,  the  women  continued  to  mourn  until  the  funeral 
procession  was  out  of  sight,  those  who  could^  not  cry 
spontaneously,  or  compel  the  tears  to  flow,  mimicking  the 
expression  of  woe  by  contortion  of  the  grief  muscles.  The 
most  poignant  grief  was  displayed  by  a  man,  in  a  state  of 

28  . 


904 

dzfcreme  Intoxication^  who  sat  apart  by  himself,  howling;  and 
eobbin^y  and  wonndnp  by  creating  considerable  distarbanco 
at  tbd  bnming  ground.  Three  young  bulls  were  brought 
frotn  the  Tillage,  and  led  round  the  corpse.  Of  these^  two 
were  permitted  to  escape  for  the  time  beings  while  a  yain 
attempt,  which  would  have  e^rcited  the  derision  of  the 
expert  Toda  buffalo  catchers,  was  made  by  three  men 
hanging  on  to  the  head  and  tail  to  steer  the  third  bull  up 
to  the  head  of  the  corpse.  The  animal,  however^  proving 
refractory,  it  was  deemed  discreet  to  put  an  end  to  its 
^existence  by  a  blow  on  the  poll  with  the  butt-end  of  an 
ladze,  at  some  distance  from  the  corpse,  which  was  carried 
up  to  it,  and  made  to  salute  the  dead  beast's  head  with  the 
right  hand  in  feeble  imitation  of  the  impressive  Toda 
ceremonial.  The  carcase  of  the  bull  was  saluted  by  a  few 
of  the  Kota  men,  and  subsequently  carried  off  by  pariahs. 

Supported  by  females,  the  exhausted  widow  of  the  dead 
man,  who  had  fainted  earlier  in  the  day^  was  dragged  up 
to  the  corpse,  and,  lying  back  beside  it,  had  to  submit  to 
the  ordeal  of  removal  of  all  her  jewelry,  the  heavy  brass 
bangle  being  hammered  off  the  wrist,  supported  on  a 
wooden  roller,  by  oft  repeated  smart  blows  with  mallet 
and  chisel,  delivered  by  a  village  blacksmith  assisted  by  a 
besotten  individual  noted  as  a  consumer  of  twelve  grains 
of  opium  daily.  The  ornaments,  as  removed,  were  collected 
in  a  basket,  to  be  Worn  again  by  the  widow  after  several 
months. 

This  revolting  ceremony  concluded,  and  a  last  salutation 
given  by  the  widow  to  her  dead  husband,  arches  of  bamboo 
were  attached  to  the  cot,  which  was  covered  over  with  a 
coloured  table  cloth  hiding  the  corpse  from  sight.  A 
procession  Was  then  formed,  composed  of  the  corpse  on  the 
cot,  preceded  by  the  car  and  musicians,  and  followed  by 
male  Xotas  and  Badagas,  Kota  women  carrying  the  baskets 
of  grain  and  cakes,  a  vessel  containing  fire,  burning  camphor^ 
and,  bringing  up  the  rear,  a  high  dignitary  of  the  church, 
an  amal^ur  photographer,  and  myself.  (Quickly  the  pro- 
cession marched  to  the  burning  ground  beyond  the  baz&r, 
fiituated  in  a  valley  by  the  side  of  a  stream  running  through 
a  glade  in  a  dense  undergrowth  of  bracken  fern  and  trailing 
passion-flower.  On  arrival  at  the  selected  spot,  a  number 
of  agile  Kotas  swarmed  np  the  sides  of  the  car,  and  stripped 
it  of  its  adornments,  including  the  umbrella,  and  a  free 
fight  for  the  possession  of  the  cloths  and  flags  ensaed.  The 
fleanded  car  was  then  placed  over  the  corpse,  whMlli  de« 


20ft 

prived  of  all  valaable  on)aiDeut8«  and  etill  lying  pn  tbe  oot 
face  upwardsj  had  been  me&nwnile  placed ,  amid  a  noisy 
scene  of  brawling,  on  the  rapidly  constructed  funeral  pyr€». 
Around  the  car  faggots  of  lire-wood^  supplied,  in  lieu  of 
wreaths,  by  different  families  in  the  dead  man's  village,  as 
a  tribute  of  respect  to  the  deceased,  were  piled  up,  and  the 
pyre  was  lighted  with  torches  kindled  at  a  fire  which  was 
burning  on  the  ground  close  by.  As  soon  as  the  pyre  was  in 
a  blaze,  tobacco,  cheroots,  cloths,  and  grain  were  ddstributed 
among  those  present,  and  the  funeral  party  dispersed,  dis- 
cussing the  events  of  the  day  as  they  returned  to  their 
homes,  leaving  a  few  men  behind  in  charge  of  the  burning 
corpse.  And  peace  reigned  once  more  in  the  Eota  village, 
A  few  days  later  the  f nneral  of  an  elderly  £ota  woman 
took  place  with  a  very  similar  ceremonial,  xtut,  suspended 
from  the  handle  of  the  umbrella  on  the  top  of  the  car,  was 
a  rag  doll,  which,  in  appearance,  resembled  an  '  Aunt 
SaUy.' 


NOTE  ON  KOTA  ANNUAL  FESTIVAL. 


The  following  note  is  a  translation  of  a  description  by 
Dr.  Emil  Schmidt  (Reise  nach  Siid-Indien,  1894)  of  the 
dancing  at  the  Kota  annual  festival,  at  which  he  had  the 
good  fortune  to  be  present  as  an  eye-witness  :— 

"During  my  stay  at  Kotagiri  the  Kotas  were  cele- 
brating the  big  festival  in  honour  of  their  chief  god.  The 
feast  lasted  over  twelve  days,  durinj^  which  homage  was 
offered  to  the  god  every  evening,  and  a  dance  performed 
round  a  fire  kept  burning  near  the  temple  throughout  the 
feast.  On  the  last  evening  but  one,  females,  as  well  as 
males,  took  part  in  the  dance.  As  darkness  set  in,  the 
shrill  music,  which  penetrated  to  my  hotel,  attracted  me  to 
the  Kota  village.  At  the  end  of  the  street,  which  adjoins 
the  back  of  the  temple,  a  big  fire  was  kept  up  by  continually 
putting  on  large  long  bundles  of  brushwood.  On  one  side 
of  the  fire,  close  to  the  flames,  stood  the  musicians  with 
their  musical  instruments,  two  hand-drums,  a  tambourine, 
beaten  by  blows  on  the  back,  a  brass  cymbal  beaten  with  a 
stick,  and  two  pipes  resembling  oboes.  Over  and  ove^ 
again  the  same  monotonous  tune  was  repeated  by  the  two 
latter  in  quick  four-eight  time  to  the  accompaniment  of 


206 

the  other  instruments.  On  my  arriyal,  about  forty  male 
KotaSj  young  and  old,  were  dancing  round  the  fire^  de- 
scribing a  semi-circle,  first  to  one  side,  then  the  other, 
raising  the  hands,  bending  the  knees,  and  executing  fan- 
tastic steps  with  the  feet.  The  entire  circle  moved  thus 
slowly  forwards,  one  or  the  other  from  time  to  time  giving 
vent  to  a  spout  that  sounded  like  Hau !  and,  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  dance,  there  was  a  general  shout  all  round. 
Around  the  circle,  partly  on  the  piles  of  stone  near  the 
temple,  were  seated  a  number  of  Kotas  of  both  sexes.  A 
number  of  Badagas  of  good  position,  who  had  been  specially 
invited  to  the  feast,  sat  round  a  small  fire  on  a  raised  place, 
which  abuts  on  the  back  wall  of  the  temple. 

"  The  dance  over,  the  circle  of  dancers  broke  up.  The 
drummers  held  their  instruments,  rendered  damp  and  lax 
by  the  moist  evening  breeze,  so  close  to  the  fiames  that  I 
thought  they  would  get  burnt.  Soon  the  music  began 
again  to  a  new  tune ;  first  the  oboes,  and  then,  as  soon  as 
they  had  got  into  the  proper  swing,  the  other  instruments. 
The  melody  was  not  the  same  as  before,  but  its  two  move- 
ments were  repeated  without  intercession  or  change.  In 
thi&  dance  females,  as  well  as  males,  took  part,  grouped  in 
a  semi-circle,  while  the  men  completed  the  circle.  The 
men  dsnced  boisterously  and  irregularly.  Moving  slowly 
forwards  with  the  entire  circle,  each  dancer  turned  right 
round  from  right  to  left  and  from  left  to  right,  so  that, 
after  every  turn,  they  were  facing  the  fire.  The  women 
danced  with  more  precision  and  more  artistically  than  the 
men.  When  they  set  out  on  the  dance,  they  first  bowed 
themselves  before  the  fire,  and  then  made  left  and  right 
half  turns  with  artistic  regular  steps.  Their  countenances 
expressed  a  mixture  of  pleasure  and  embarrassment.  None 
of  the  dancers  wore  any  special  costume,  but  the  women> 
who  were  nearly  all  old  and  ugly,  had,  for  the  most  part,  a 
quantity  of  ornaments  in  the  ears  and  nose  and  on  the 
neck,  arms  and  legs. 

'*  In  the  third  dance,  played  once  more  in  four<*eight 
times,  only  females  took  part.  It  was  the  most  artistic 
of  all,  and  the  slow  movements  had  evidently  been  well 
rehearsed  beforehand.  The  various  figures  consisted  of 
stepping  radially  to  and  fro,  turning,  stepping  forwards 
and  backwards,  etc.,  with  measured  seriousness  and  solemn 
dignity.  It  was  for  the  women,  who,  at  other  times^  get 
very  little  enjoyment,  the  most  important  and  happiest  day 
in  the  whole  year/' 


20t 


TABLE  I. 


8UMMABY  OF  MEABUBSMENTB. 
TODA  MEN. 


• 

i 
i 

1 

• 

i 

1 

Average. 

Mean 
above. 

Mean 
below. 

Weigut     ...        .•• 

186 

98 

116-4 

1241 

105 

16  measurements. 
Average  height 
168-8  om. 

Hand  dynamome- 
ter. 

100 

60 

79 

87 

71. 

Two  men  not 
measnred,  112 
and  105. 

Height    ... 

179 

159-2 

169-6 

178-7 

164-4 

Height,  sitting    ... 

94-2 

82-8 

87-9 

90 

85 

Height,  kneeling... 

182*8 

118-4 

124-8 

128-6 

121 

V 

Height  to  gladiolus. 

186 

113 

124-4 

128-2 

121 

• 

Span  of  arms 

188-8 

164-2 

175  ^ 

180 

170-4 

Chest       ...         ... 

88*6 

77 

83 

86-7 

80-2 

Middle  finger  to 
patella. 

13 

5-9 

9 

10-7 

7-9 

16  measure- 
ments. 

Bhonlders 

42 

37 

89-3 

40-2 

88-5 

Gnbit        ... 

608 

43-5 

47 

48-4 

45-4 

V 

Hand,  length 

20 

18 

18-8 

19-1 

18-3 

band,  breadth    ... 

9*2 

7-4 

81 

8-5 

7-8 

Middle  finger     ... 

12-7 

11 

12 

12-8 

11-6 

Hips         ••*         ... 

29*2 

23-3 

25-7 

26-6 

24-7 

Foot,  length 

27-9 

24-2 

26-2 

27-8 

25-4 

Foot,  max*  breadtli. 

10-6 

8-1 

9-2 

9-9 

8-6 

Cephalio length  ... 

20 

18-3 

19-4 

19-7 

19 

Cephalio  breadth. 

15-2 

18-6 

14-2 

14-6 

18-9 

Cephalic  index  ... 

77-6 

69-2 

78-8 

74 

71 

*9$ 


TABLE  l-^eanitnuid. 

BtTMMABY  OF  MSASUBEMSNTB-conHmi^l. 
TODA  XBK-MMMfNMti. 


1 
1 

1 

1 

• 

• 

1- 

Mean 
below. 

Bigoniao 

10-2 

8-2 

9*6 

9-9 

9-8 

Bisjrgomatio 

18-8 

12 

12-7 

13-1 

12-6 

Mazillo*zjgoinatio 
index. 

82 

67-8 

76-7 

79-2 

73-7 

Nasal  height     ... 

6-8 

4-6 

4-7 

4-9 

4-6 

Fasal  breadth    ... 

41 

8 

8*6 

8-8 

8-4 

Z7a9al  mdez 

89*1 

61-2 

74-9 

79-9 

70 

Vertex  to  tragus... 

14-2 

12 

13 

13-6 

12-6 

Vertex  to  ohin    ... 

226 

19-3 

21 

21-6 

20-8 

Facial  angle 

78 

62 

67 

69 

66 

Note. — In  eatimating  the  mean  deviation  above  and 
below  the  average,  those  measarements  whioh  were  exactly 
equal  to  the  mean  were  equally  distributed  above  and 
below. 

The  weight  is  recorded  in  pounds;  the  measurements 
are  in  centimetres.  Excepting  where  otherwise  indicated, 
it  may  be  understood  that  the  results  are  based  on  the 
examination  of  twenty-five  subjects. 

The  following  average  measurements  of  twenty«five 
Thiyans  belonging  to  the  Ifalabar  Police  force  are  recorded 
for  comparison  with  those  of  the  Todas  :*- 


Thiyan. 

Toda. 

Height           ...         •••        .••        ••• 
Span  of  arms            •••        .*• 
Ohest             ...        ...        •.. 

Shoulders       

Oubit              

fOOt,  length  ..»        .••        .«.        ••• 

172 
179-6 

86-4 

40-2 

48 

27 

169*6 
176 

83 

39-3 

47 

26-2 

20# 


TAK£U. 


SmUIABT  OT  imiSVBIMllKTS. 
TODA  W0HX5, 


• 

§ 
1 

1 

• 

g 

p 

i 

• 

|l 

• 

• 

Weight     

119-6 

84-6 

100-5 

109-5 

91-7 

Height 

165-6 

146-6 

155-6 

169-7 

151-2 

Height,  sitting    ... 

66-6 

76 

81-7 

88-9 

79-7 

Height,  kneeling... 

122*2 

109 

114-7 

118-5 

111-8 

Span  of  arms 

172 

145 

160^ 

165-8 

166 

Chest  (ronnd  arm- 
pits). 

86 

72 

77-7 

80-8 

76-4 

Bhonlders 

^6-5 

82-6 

84*5 

86-1 

88-7 

Cnbit 

47-8 

88-9 

48-6 

45-2 

42-7 

Hand,  length 

18-8 

16 

17-4 

17-8 

16-8 

22  measure- 
ments. 

Hand,  breadth    ... 

7-8 

6-7 

7-2 

7-5 

6-8 

Middle  finger      ... 

11-8 

10-8 

11-1 

11-4 

10-9 

Foot,  length 

26-4 

21-8 

28-8 

24-4 

28 

Foot,  mai :  breadth. 

8-2 

6-6 

• 

7-6 

7-9 

7-2 

81  measure- 
ments. 

Gephaliclength  ... 

19-7 

17-1 

18*4 

18-9 

17-9 

Cephalic  breadth. 

U-8 

18 

18-6 

14 

18-4 

Cepbalio  index   ... 

77-8 

70 

78-9 

76 

72-1 

Bigoniao 

10 

8-7 

9-4 

9-7 

9 

Bixygomatic 

18 

11-6 

12-1 

18-4 

11-7 

Koie. — Bxoftpting  where  otherwise  indicated,  the  lesolts  are 
the  examination  of  twei^|T|(99  fabjeott. 


■rW^^Mi^     %r^ft 


; 


^o**  ■■ 


210 


TABLE  U-'-einUinued. 


8UMMAE7  OF  MEASUBEMENTS— continiMd. 


TODA  WO^ES-eantinued, 


• 

8 

0 

8 

1 

i 

• 
1 

Mean 
above. 

Mean 
below. 

Mazillo-zjgomatio 
index. 

82-6 

742 

77-4 

79-7 

• 

4-6 

76-6 

Nasal  height 

4-9 

8-4 

4-2 

4 

Nasal  breadth    ... 

8-5 

8 

8-2 

8*8 

81 

Nasal  index 

91-2 

63-8 

76-6 

78-6 

70-9 

Vertex  to  tragus... 

18*8 

11-9 

12-8 

18-8 

12-5 

Vertex  to  ohin    ... 

21-5 

18-8 

19-7 

20-7 

18-9 

Facial  angle 

78 

61 

68 

70 

66 

?u 


TABLE  m. 


SUMMABT  OF  MBASUBEUEKTS. 


KOTA  HBSr. 


' 

1 

B 
B 

d 

1 

Mean 
above. 

Mean 
below. 

1 

• 

Weight     

147 

99-5 

115 

124 

109 

20  mBasnraments. 

Hand  dynamometer. 

105 

55 

70 

79 

62 

- 

Height      

174-2 

155 

162-9 

166-2 

158-9 

Height,  sitting    ... 

90-4 

82-2 

85-8 

87-5 

83-9 

Height,  kneeling... 

126-4 

112-4 

120 

122-8 

116-4 

Height  to  gladiolna. 

129-2 

115 

120-6 

123-8 

118 

* 

Span  of  arms 

181-4 

155-6 

168-3 

172 

163-7 

Chest 

91 

77-5 

83-3 

85-4 

81-6 

Middle    fingff;r     to 
patella. 

13-6 

7-4 

10-7 

11-7 

9-2 

22  measnrements. 

Shoulders            .». 

40-7 

84-8 

37-7 

38-7 

36-6 

Cnbit 

48-6 

42-2 

46-1 

46-2 

43-8 

Hand,  length 

19 

16-5 

18 

184 

17-5 

Hand,  breadth     ... 

8-6 

7-4 

^ 

8-3 

7-7 

Middle  finger 

12-6 

10-7 

11-5 

11-8 

11-2 

Hips          

30-4 

25*8 

27 

27-7 

26-5 

Foot,  length 

26*3 

23-6 

252 

25-7 

24-8 

Foot,  max.  breadth. 

9-5 

'     8-1 

8-8 

91 

8-5 

22  measurements. 

Cephalic  length  . . .  ^ 

20-2 

18-3 
13-4 

19-2 

19-6 

18-8 

Cephalic  breadth. . . 

151 

14-2 

14-5 
76 

13-9 
72 

Oephalio  index    ... 

791 

69-9 

74-1 

Bigoniac 

10-9 

91 

10-1 

10-4 

9-8 

• 

29 


212 
TABLE  llI-^MitHwd. 


SUMMABT  OF  MEASUREMENTS— conttntMd. 


KOTA  WSN—eontinued. 


• 

g 
1 

8 

« 

*p 

• 

1 

• 

Mean 
below. 

Biijgomatio 

18-9 

12-1 

13 

18-3 

12-6 

MaziUo-ijgomatio 
index. 

851 

70 

77-9 

80*4 

75'8 

-i 

Kasal  height 

5 

41 

31 

• 

4-6 

4-7 

4-3 

Natal  breadth     ... 

4 

8-6 

3-7 

3-3, 

Nasal  index 

92-9 

64 

77-2 

831 

14-2 

70-5 

Vertex  to  tragns . . . 

14*9 

12-8 

13-7 

13-4 
19*9 

Vertextoohin    ... 

22-7 

191 

20-8 

21-6 

, 

Facial  angle 

73 

66 

70 

71 

69 

Note. — In  estimating  the  mean  deviation  above  and  below  the  average, 
those  measurements  which  were  exactly  equal  to  the  mean  were  eqnallj 
distributed  above  and  below. 

The  weight  is  given  in  pounds  ;  the  measurements  are  in  centimetres. 
Excepting  where  otherwise  indicated,  the  results  are  based  on  twenty-five 
meosnremeuts. 


213 


TABLE  IV. 


SUMMARY  OF  MEASUBEMENTS. 


KOTA  WOMEN. 


. 

• 

g 

i 

> 

1 

1 

* 

1 

Mean 
above. 

Mean 
below. 

Weight     

97 

72 

86 

90 

88 

16  measurements. 

Height 

164*6 

138-8 

146-3 

150-1 

142-6 

Height,  Bitting    ... 

80- 

73-6 

77-4 

78-9 

75-6 

Height,  kneeling... 

114-6 

103-4 

108-3 

110-5 

106-4 

Spanofarma 

162-2 

143-8 

151-2 

1661 

145-8 

19  measurements. 

Shoulders 

35-7 

31-1 

33*4 

34-2 

32-5 

Cubit        

42-7 

37-7 

40-2 

41-5 

39 

Hand,  length 

17-8 

16 

16-6 

17-2 

16-3 

Hand,  breadth    ... 

7-8 

6-7 

7-3 

7-6 
10-8 

M 

Middle  finger 

11-2 

10-2 

10-6 

10-4 

19  measurements. 

Foot,  length 

25 

21*8 

22-9 

23-5 

22-3 

Foot,  max.  breadth. 

8-4 

7*1 

7-7 

8-1 

7-3 

17  measurements* 

Oephalic  length ... 

191 

17-4 

18-2 

18-6 

17-8 

Cephalio  breadth... 

14-5 

131 

13-7 

14-1 

13-3 

Gephalio  index   ... 

79*2 

71 

74-9 

76-9 

725 

Big^niao 

10-3 

9 

9-4 

9-7 

9-1 

Bisygomatio 

12-9 

11-7 

12-3 

12-6 

11-9 

MaxiUo-zygomatio 
index. 

83-7 

70-7 
3-3 

76-8 

78-3 

74-8 

Nasal  height 

4-8 

4-2 

4*4 

4 

Naaal  breadth     ... 

3*4 

2-9 

3-2 

3-3 

8-1 

Nasal  index 

89-5 

70-7 

76 

80-2 

72*1 

214 


TABLE  lY— continued. 


SUMMABT  OF  MEASUBfiMENTS— eon^iniied. 


... _--        -       

• 

1     1      ® 

.1  ;  i 

• 

Mean 
below. 

• 

Vertex  to  tragru... 

13-9 

12-2 

131 

13-4 

12-9 
18-5 

Yfictextocliin    ... 

21-6 

17-6 

19 

19-5 

IVMiaJ  angle 

73 

68 

70 

71     ' 

69 

16  measorementB. 

-  cVo^^Exoepting  where  otherwise  indicated,  the  resnlts  are  based  on 
twenty  meaanrements. 


2i5 


TABLE  V. 


COMPARISON  OF  MEASUBEMENTS. 


TODA  AND  KOTA  MEN. 


Todas. 

Eotas. 

Weight            

U5-4 

115 

Height            ...         

169-6   . 

162*9 

Height,  sitting          

87-9 

85-8 

Height,  kneeling       

124-8 

120 

Height  to  gladiolus 

124*4 

120-6 

Span  of  arms            

176 

168-8 

Chest 

83 

83*8 

Middle  finger  to  patella       

9 

10-7 

Shoulders       

89'3 

87-7 

Cubit               

47 

45*1 

Hand,  length 

18-8 

18 

Hand,  breadth           

8-1 

8 

Middle  finger             ...         

12 

11-6 

Hips     .••         ...         .••         .«•         «••         ... 

25-7 

27 

Foot,  length 

26-2 

25'2 

Foot,  breadth            

9-2 

8'8 

Cephaliclength        

19-4 

19-2 

Cephalio  breadth      

14-2 

14-2 

Cephalio  index          

73-8 

74*1 

Bigoniac          

9-6 

10*1 

Bizjgomatio 

12-7 

13 

216 

TABLE  Y'-corUinued. 

GOMFAAIBON  09  M£ASUREMENTS~eon<tniied. 
TODA  AND  KOTA  ISSS—eontinmed, 


Todas. 

Kotas. 

Mazillo-zygomatio  index    ... 

75-7 

77-9 

Nasal  height             

4-7 

4*6 

Natal  breadth         

3-6 

3-6 

Nasal  index 

74-9 

772 

Vertex  to  tragus 

13 

18-7 

Vertex  to  chin         

21 

20-8 

Facial  angle           

67 

70 

217 


7^ 


THE  brAhmans,  kammIlans,  pallis, 

AND  PARIAHS  OP  MADRAS  CITY. 


Looking  at  the  table  on  page  230^  I  piotore  to  myself  the 
sad  feelings  of  a  candidate  at  an  examination  in  anthro- 
pology, overflowing  with  parrot  knowledge  of  his  text  books, 
on  being  presented  with  the  following  examination  paper : — 

Saturday,  20th  January,  2  to  5  p.m. 

Anthropology. 

Draw  such  conclusions  as  you  are  able  from  the  figures 
in  the  table  supplied. 

The  table,  based  on  measurements  recorded  by  myself, 
affords  fitting  material  for  an  essay  on  comparative  anthro- 

fology,  and,  reverting  for  once  to  the  position  of  candidate, 
will  answer,  in  my  own  way,  the  question  set  by  myself  as 
examiner. 

At  first  sight  a  complicated  jumble  of  figuree,  the  table 
resolves  itself  naturally  into  three  primary  groups,  viz : — 

1.  Todas  of  the  Nilgiris,  above  middle  height  (170  to 
165  cm.),  with  a  difference  of  only  5*4  cm.  between  the  span 
of  the  arms  and  height,  a  distance  of  9  cm.  from  the  middle 
finger  to  the  patella,  a  head  conspicuously  long  in  proportion 
to  its  breadth,  and  long,  narrow  nose. 

2.  Brdhmans,  Kammdlans,  Pallis,  and  Pariahs  below 
middle  height  (165  to  160  cm.)  with  a  difference  1  etween  the 
span  of  the  arms  and  height  ranging  from  11*4  to  9*4  cm., 
the  distance  from  middle  finger  to  patella  varying  between 
8*4  and  10*1  cm.,  and  a  nasal  index  ranging  mm  77*2  to 
84-5. 

3.  Paniyans  of  the  Wyndd,  of  low  stature,  with  a  differ- 
ence of  7'8  cm.  between  the  span  of  the  arms  aud  heieht,  a 
distance  of  7*3  cm.  from  middle  finger  to  patella,  a  long  band, 
and  broad,  short  nose  with  a  very  high  nasal  index  (95*1). 

In  placing  the  Kammdlans  as  *^  below  middle  height," 
I  give  them  the  benefit  of  the  three  millimetres  below  the 
minimum  (160  cm.),  as  they  should  be  sharply  separated 
from  the  various  people  (Muppas,  Cherumaus,  Kurumans, 


918 

Paniyans,  &o.)j  whose  mean  height  is  uniformly  between  157 
and  158  cm. 

With  the  Todas  I  have  already  dealt  in  detail.  With  the 
Paniyans  I  shall  deal  in  like  manner  hereafter.  Snffice  it, 
""for  the  moment,  to  state  that  they  aro'  a  short,  curly  (not 
wooly)  headed,  broad-nosed  people,  inhabiting  the  Wyndd 
and  plains  of  Malabar,  who  are  popularly  believed  (with  no 
evidence  in  support  of  the  belief)  to  be  of  African  descent. 
In  the  present  essay  I  shall  confine  myself  mainly  to  a  con- 
sideralion  of  the  Br&hmans  belonging  to  the  poorer  classes, 
Kamm&lans,  Pallis,  and  Pariahs  of  Madras  city,  based,  in 
each  case,  on  measurements  of  forty  adult  men,  varying  in 
age  from  twenty-five  to  forty,  and  taken  at  random. 

It  may  be  contended  that  it  is  not  possible  to  arrive  at 
an  average,  in  the  case  of  a  large  community,  such,  for 
example,  as  the  Brdhmans,  by  measurement  of  so  few  indi- 
viduals as  forty.  I,  therefore,  produce  in  evidence  of  the 
fairness  of  the  figures  recorded  in  table  VI,  table  VII,  in 
which  the  mean  measurements,  as  estimated  after  ten,  twenty, 
thirty,  and  forty  measurements,  are  given.  The  results  show, 
in  a  very  marked  manner,  that  each  series  of  ten  indivi- 
duals conformed,  as  regards  weight  and  measurements  of 
the  head,  trunk,  and  extremities,  to  the  same  type.  More 
especially  would  I  invite  attention  to  the  measurements  of  the 
height,  head,  and  nose.  Taking  some  of  the  mgre  important 
factors  in  table  VII,  and  examining  the  greatest  deviation 
from  the  averages,  the  results  are  as  follows  :— 

.  Greatest  deviation. 
2*5  cm.  =  l  inch. 
1  mm.=  •!  cm. 


Height 

1*1  cm. 

Span  of  arms     . . 
TTand,  length     . . 

1-8    „ 

3  mm. 

Foot,  lenu^th 
Cephalic  length 

2     „ 

1     » 

Cephalic  breadth 

1       ,y 

Nasal  height 

1      n 

Nasal  breadth  . . 

• 

1       n 

The  Brdhmans,  who  returned  themselves  as  Mddhava, 
Smarta,  861iya,  and  Vaishnava,  belonged  to  the  classes  of 
agriculturist,  clerk,  gurii,  mendicant,  and  schoolmaster. 

The  Eammdlans  comprised  blacksmiths,  carpenters,  etone- 
masons,  and  goldsmiths ;  the  Pallis,  cultivators,  fitters,  gar- 
deners, hand-cart  draggers,  masons,  polishers,  and  sawyers ; 


9i9 

the  Paxiahs,   ooaobmen,  cooliea,  dxoning-bojs,  ftah*8elleia, 
gardenen,  and  hosse-keepers. 

It  would  be  impossible,  within  the  limits  of  a  single, 
essay,  to  deal  at  length  with  the  "  manners  and  customs,'' 
histoiy,  religion,  fto.,  of  the  Br&hmans,  Kamm&lans,  Pallis, 
and  rariahs :  and  I  cannot  do  better  than  reproduce  the 
epitomes  contained  in  my  constant  companion,  the  Madras 
Cfensus  Report,  1891^  wherein  Mr.  H.  A.  Stuart  has  brought 
together,  tor  the  benefit  of  the  anthropologist,  a  vast  store 
of  information,  both  statistical  and  general, 


1.  beIhmans. 


'^  It  has  often  been  asserted,  and  is  now  the  general  belief 
of  ethnologists,  that  the  Brdhmans  of  the  Bouth  are  not  pure 
Aryans,  but  are  a  mixed  Aryan  and  Dravidian  race.  In  the 
earliest  times  the  caste  division  was  much  less  ri^d  than 
now,  and  a  person  of  another  caste  could  become  a  Brdhman 
by  attaining  the  Brdhmanioal  standard  of  knowledge,  and 
assuming  Brihmanioal  functions.  And,  when  we  see  Namb6- 
diri  Tlir4hma.nB  eyen  at  the  present  day  coixbracting  alliancei, 
infonnal  though  they  be,  with  the  women  of  the  cou&tacy,  it 
is  not  difficult  to  ifelieve  that,  on  their  first  arrival,  such 
unijOns  were  even  more  common,  and  that  the  ohildren  bon^ 
of  them  would  be  recognised  as  BrAhmans,  though  perha|»8 
regai:4ed  as  an  inferior  class.  However,  those  Br&hmans,  m 
whose  veins  the  mixed  blood  is  supposed  to  ran,  are  even  to 
this  df  y  regarded  as  lower  in  the  social  scale,  and  are  not 
allowed  to  mix  freely  with  the  pure  Brihman  community." 

2.  EAMMiliANS. 


*'  The  name  Kammila  is  a  generic  term  applied  to  the 
five  aitasan  castes,  vis.,  (1)  Tatt&n  or  Kamsala  (goldsmith)  ; 
(2)  Kann&n  or  Kanohara  (braner) ;  (8)  KoUan  or  Kammara 
(blacksmith) ;  (4)  Tao'ehan  or  Yadra  (cairenter) ;  and  (6) 
xM  Tao'ehan  or  Silpi  (stone-mason).  The  Xamm41as  assert 
that  they  are  descended  trom  Yisvakanna,  the  aiohiteoi  of  the 

80 


220 

gods,  and,  in  many  parts  of  the  oountry,  they  claim  to  be 
equ^  with  the  Br&nmans,  calling  themselves  Yisva  Brdhmans. 

Inscriptions  show  that^  as  late  as  the  year 
1033  A.D.,  the  Kammdlans  were  treated  as  a  very  inferior 
caste,  for  they,  like  the  Paraiyans,  Pallans,  &c.,  were  con- 
fined to  a  particular  part  or  cMri  of  the  village  site.  .  .  . 
The  five  main  sub-divisions  of  the  Kamm&lans  do  not 
generally  intermarry.  They  have  priests  of  their  own,  and 
do  not  allow  even  Br&hmans  to  officiate  for  them,  but  they 
imitate  the  BrAhmans  in  their  ceremonies.  Girls  must  be 
married  before  puberty,  and  widow  re-marriage  is  strictly 
prohibited.  The  use  of  fiesh  and  alcohol  is  also  nominally 
forbidden.  Many  of  them  bury  the  dead  in  a  sitting  posture, 
but  cremation  is  also  practised.  Their  usual  title  is  Ach&ri, 
and  some  call  themselves  Patfan,  which  is  the  equivalent  of 
the  Br4hman  Bhatta.  To  this  account  may  be  added  the 
fact  that  the  Kamm&lans  wear  the  sacred  thread.^' 


3.  PALUS. 


"  The  Pallis,  Vanniyans,  or  Padaiydchis,  are  found  in  all 
the  Tamil  districts  ....  That  the  I?allis  were  once 
an  influential  and  independent  community  may  be  admitted, 
and,  in  their  present  desire  to  be  classed  as  Kshatriyas, 
they  are  merely  giving  expression  to  their  belief,  but,  unless 
an  entirely  new  meaning  is  given  to  the  term  *  Kshatriya,* 
their  claim  must  be  dismissed  as  absurd.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Pallava  dynasty  the  Pallis  became  agricultural  servants 
under  the  Vall&las,  and  it  is  only  since  the  advent  of  British 
rule  that  thev  have  begun  to  assert  their  claims  to  a  higher 
position.  The  bulk  of  them  are  still  labourers,  but  many 
now  farm  their  own  lands,  while  others  are  engaged  in 
trade. 

'^  They  do  not  wear  the  sacred  thread.  Some  of  them 
engage  Brdhmans  to  officiate  as  their  priests.  Their  girls  are 
usually  married  after  they  attain  maturity.  The  re-marriage 
of  widows  is  permitted,  and  actually  practised.  Divorce  is 
said  to  be  permitted  only  in  case  of  adultery  by  the  wife,  but 
this  statement  requires  confirmation.  They  both  bum  and 
bury  the  dead.  Their  usual  agnomen  isEavandan  or  Padai- 
y&ohi,  but  some  of  them,  who  strive  for  a  higher  sooial 
^taadingt  call  themselves  ^  Ndyakkan.' " 


L 


221 
4.  PAEIAH8. 


"The  Paraiyan  or  Pariah  caste  of  the  Tamil  country 
xmmbers,  according  to  the  cenens,  over  two  million  souls. 
....  The  tribe  mast  at  one  time  have  held  an  influential 
position,  for  there  are  curious  survivals  of  this  in  certain 

frivileges  which  Paraiyans  have  retained  to  the  present  day. 
q^ote  the  following  remarks  of  Mr.   Walhouse  on  this 
subject : — 

"  *  It  is  well  known  that  the  servile  castes  in  Southern 
India  once  held  far  higher  positions,  and  <  were  indeed 
masters  of  the  land  on  the  arrival  of  the  Br&hmanical  caste. 
Many  curious  vestiges  of  their  ancient  power  still  survive  in 
the  shape  of  certain  privileges,  which  are  jealously  cherishedi 
and,  their  origin  being  forgotten,  are  misunderstood.  These 
privileges  are  remarkable  instances  of  survivals  from  an 
extinct  order  of  society.  Shadows  of  long-departed  supre- 
macy, bearing  witness  to  a  period  when  the  present  hanghty 
high-caste  races  were  suppliants  before  the  ancestors  of  de- 
graded classes,  whose  touch  is  now  regarded  as  pollution. 
At  M^lkotta,  the  chief  seat  of  the  followers  of  B&mdnuja- 
&chdrya,  and  at  the  Brahman  temple  at  Bailur,  the  Holey- 
ars  or  Pareyars  have  the  right  of  entering  the  temple  on 
three  days  in  the  year,  specially  set  apart  for  them.  .  .  . 
In  the  great  festival  of  Siva  at  Tiruv616r  in  Tanjore,  the 
headman  of  the  Pareyars  is  moimted  on  the  elephant  with 
the  god,  and  carries  his  chauri.  .  In  Madras,  at  the  annual 
festival  of  the  goddess  of  Black  Town,  when  a  tali  is  tied 
round  the  neck  of  the  idol  in  the  name  of  the  entire  commu- 
nity, a  Pareyar  is  chosen  to  represent  the  bridegroom.* 

"  *  The  Paraiyans  have  been  but  little  affected  by  Br&hma- 
nical  doctrines  and  customs,  though  in  respect  to  ceremonies 
they  have  not  escaped  their  influence.  Paraiyans  are 
nominally  Saivities,  out  in  reality  they  are  demon-wor- 
shippers. The  Valluvas  are  their  priests.  The  marriage 
of  girls  before  puberty  is  very  rare.  Divorce  is  easy;  a 
husband  can  send  his  wife  away  at  will,  and  she  on  her  part 
can  dissolve  the  marriage  tie  by  simply  returning  the  idli. 
In  such  cases  the  husband  takes  the  children,  or  contributes 
for  their  maintenance.  Widow  marriage  is  freely  allowed. 
The  dead  are  usually  buried.'  " 

Taming  now  to  a  detailed  analysis  of  the  figures  in 
table  VI9  with  more  specual  reference  to  the  Br&hmans» 


Kamm&lanSy  PaUis,  and  PairUhs.  The  Br&hmans  are  tke 
best  nourished,  as  indicated  by  the  weights,  which,  relative 
to  stature  =  100,  are  as  follows : — Brihmans  70*8 ;  Pariahs 
66*4;  Pallia  64*4;  Eamm&lans  62*9  lbs.  In  height  the 
Br&Iunand,  Pallis,  and  Pariahs  are  very  closely  allied,  and 
differeiifaated  from  the  Eamm&lanSj  as  showti  by  the 
following  table  ^ :— 


• 

1 

Mean 
above. 

• 

|l 

BraJltal  IkuD          ..•                          ••.           ••• 

168-6 

167-0 

167-1 

Jl  ttUXB       •■•              •■•              •••              •■•               ••• 

162-6 

166-7 

167-6 

Pftirialis            ...         ...         ...         •  • . 

162-1 

166-8 

167-4 

169-7 

1641 

166-2 

l)he  relative  lengths  of  the  upper  extremities  ar^  best 
determined  by  a  comparison  of  the  grande  envergu/re  (span  of 
arms)  with  the  height,  and  of  the  distance  from  the  middle 
finger  to  the  patella. 

The  difference  between  the  span  of  the  arms  and  hidight 
ranges  between  10  cm.  and  10*8  cm.  in  the  Br&hmans^  Pallis, 
and  Pariahs,  and  is  over  11  cm.  in  the  Kammdlans ;  or, 
expressed  relatively  to  stature  i=  100,  and  compared  with  the 
averages  of  English  and  Negroes,  the  results  are  as 
follows :— 


ISaxfg^s^ 

104-4 

Pariahs 

106-2 

PaUis 

,       106-2 

Brdhmans     . 

106  6 

KlEimm^lans  . 

107-1 

N(Bgroes 

108-1 

The  results,  then,  in  the  classes  under  review,  ranffe 
between  those  of  the  English  and  Negroes,  of  whom  the 
latter,  owing  to  the  great  length  of  the  upper  extremities, 
have  a  v^y  wide  span. 

The  distance  from  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger  to  the  tap 
of  the  patella   (the   extensor  muscles  of  the  thigh  being 


^  tn  this  and  snbseqttetit  tablefii  the  meastirdiiieiitB  are  t^cofA^d  in 
oekitii&dil«8. 


3S3 


relaxed)  diminishes  as  the  length  of  the  upper  extremities  is 

f  eater.  It  is  greatest  in  the  Br&hmans,  least  in  the 
amm&lans,  and  intermediate  (and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  span, 
the  same)  in  the  Pallis  and  Pariahs.  The  following  table 
gives  the  results,  relative  to  stature =100,  as  compared  with 
&e  results  of  measurement  of  Ame]:ioan  soldiers,  Negroes, 
and  the  Paniyans  of  tiie  Wyn&d  : — 

American  soldiet's    . .         . .     7*5 


Brdhmans 

FalUs 

Pariahs 

'R'ii.Tinn%^lii.Tin 

Paniyans 
Negroes 


» • 


•  • 


•  • 


6-2 
5-8 
5-8 
5-3 
4-6 
4-4 


As  in  the  case  of  the  difference  between  span  and  height, 
the  dasses  under  review  come  between  the  white  men  and 
the  Negroes,  to  the  latter  of  whom  the  short,  broad-nosed 
Paniyans  approximate  most  dosely. 

Once  again,  the  length  of  the  hand  is  practically  the 
same  in  the  Pallis  and  Pariahs,  who  come  between  the  lon^- 
handed  Br&hmans  and  short-handed  Kamm&lans.  But,  m 
length  of  foot,  the  Br&hmans  and  Pariahs  (whose  average 
foot-lenffth  is  praoticallv  the  same)  exceed  the  Pallis  and 
Kamm&Ians.  A  long  hand  or  foot,  it  may  be  noted,  en 
passanif  is  not  considered  a  characteristic  of  inferiority. 

I  take  this  opportunity  of  correcting  an  error  in  Topi- 
nard's  '  Anthropology/  based  on  the  rough  tape  measure- 
ments of  Dr.  Shortt,  to  the  effect  that  the  Toda  foot  is 
"  monstrously  large,"  viz.,  18'1  relative  to  stature  =  100. 
My  measurements  were  made  with  a  sliding  scale  on  twenty- 
five  Toda  men  taken  at  random,  and  gave  the  following 

rOSUilH9  •"""" 


• 

1 
'g 

• 

1 

.s 

1 
■1 

il 

li 

Aotuftl     ...        .-.         ••. 

27*9 

24-2 

26-2 

27*8 

25-4 

Belative  to  staimre^lOO. 

16-9 

14-6 

16-4 

16 

15*1 

So  far,  then,  fir(«ii  the  length  of  tbe  Toda  foot  beitig 
monstrously  large,  it  is,  as   shown  by  the  following  table. 


224 


■horfcer,  relative  to  statoie^  than  that  of  all,  exoept  one,  of  the 
classes  or  tribes  of  Sonthem  India,  whose  investigation  I 
have,  up  to  the  present  time,  oompleted : — 


Height. 

• 

Length  of 
foot. 

Length 
of  foot 
relative  to 
Btatore 
=100. 

KongM 

169 

26-6 

16*1 

169-7 

26*1 

16 

Pftriahi 

1621 

26 

16 

Brihmani        

162-6 

26-9 

16-9 

Panijaiu          

167-4 

26 

16*9 

157-6 

24-7 

16-7 

■  AUIB                         •••             •••             •••             ••• 

162-5 

25-6 

16-7 

Imlat 

169-8 

24-9 

16*6 

Mnppas 

157-7 

24*6 

16-5 

Kotaa 

162^ 

26-2 

16*6 

Todas    

169*6 

26*2 

16*4 

Badagas            

164*1 

26 

16*2 

V 

Though  not  included  in  table  VI,  the  relation  of  the 
breadth  (S  the  hips^  across  the  spines  of  the  ilia,  to  the  length 
of  the  foot,  appears  to  me  to  serve  as  a  distinguishmg 
characteristic  between  different  races,  castes,  and  tribes.  1, 
therefore^  reproduce  the  results  so  far  as  mj  investigations 
permit: — 


326 


Foot 
length. 

Hipe 
breadth. 

Foot. 

Hi]NI. 

JxObft0                  ■••              •••              •••              ••• 

26-2 

27 
26*6 

•  •  • 

+  1-8 

Bftd  AgAS 

25 

•  •  • 

+  1-6 

Imlftt 

24-9 
26*9 

26-4 

•  •  ■ 

+    -6 

BrihmanB                

26 

... 

+     I 

Kong^B         ...         ...         ...         ... 

25-5 

26-6 

• « • 

+     1 

Paniyaxif      

26 

24-8 

+  •7 

■  •  • 

X  OCUbB                  •••               •••               «••               •«• 

26-2 

26-7 

+  -5 

» •  • 

GhomniAiiB 

24-7 

24-2 

+  -6 

+  -4 

•  •  •              f 

MappM        ...         ...         ...        ... 

24-5 

241 

•  •  • 

Psriahs 

26 

26-9 

+  1 

•  •  • 

26*1 

261 

-  0 

-     0 

A  nXJH                  ...              ••*              ...              ... 

25-6 

25-6 

-  0 

-     0 

This  table  shows  that,  in  the  classes  andei  review,  and  in 
the  KoDgas,  the  breadth  of  the  hips  and  length  of  the  foot 
are  practicallj  equal,  whereas  in  the  Badagas,  Kotas,  and 
Irulas  the  length  of  the  foot  is  appreciably  shorter,  and  in 
the  Todas,  Paniyans,  Cherumans,  and  Muppas,  longer  than 
the  breadth  of  mps. 

Passing  on  to  a  consideration  of  the  measurements  of  the 
head,  it  may  be  stated  at  the  outset  that  the  Br&hmans  are 
separated^  not  only  from  the  Kamm&lans,  Pallis,  and  Pariahs, 
but  also,  as  shown  in  the  following  table,  from  all  the  other 
classes  or  tribes  of  Southern  India  which  I  have  as  yet 
investigated,  with  the  exception  of  the  Kongas  of  Coimbatore, 
by  the  relation  of  the  maximum  transverse  diameter  to  the 
maximum  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  head  (cephalic 
index).  Though  tne  cephalic  index  of  the  Eongas  is  sbghtly 
greater,  the  mean  length  and  breadth  of  their  heads  are 
considerably  less  than  those  of  the  Brdhmans,  being  only 
17*8  cm.  and  13*7  cm.  against  18*6  cm.  and  14*2  cm. 


396 


• 

a 

i 

• 

S 
3 

• 

1 

Mean 
above. 

Mean 
below. 

Badagas 

77-5 

661 

71-7 

73-9 

69-6 

Mnppas 

77-1 

62-3 

72-3 

74-5 

70-8 

Pallia         

80 

64*4 

73 

76-5 

701 

Todas       

77-6 

69-2 

733 

74 

71 

FariaJiB 

78-3 

64-8 

73-6 

75-5 

71-4 

Ghernmans         

801 

67-7 

73-9 

76-3 

71-7 

Paniyana             

811 

69-4 

74 

76-3 

72 

Eotas       

791 

69-9 

741 

76 

72 

Kamm&lans        

81-5 

68-4 

75 

77-8 

72-8 

Imlas       

80*9 

70-8 

758 

78 

73-8 

Br&hmaQB            

84 

69 

76-5 

78-9 

73-6 

Kongaa    

81-7 

70 

77 

78-2 

74-2 

The  resttlto  of  measurements  of  the  length  of  the  head  of 
Br&hmans,  Eammftlans,  Pallis^  and  Pariahs  show  that  the 
averse  l^igih  is  the  same  in  all  exoept  the  Kamm&lans,  in 
whom  it  is  slightly  (-2  cm.)  shorter. 


CEPHALIC  LENGTH. 


> 

« 

1 

a 

• 

a 
i 

1 
< 

Mean 
above. 

Mean 
below. 

BrihmanB           

19*9 

17-3 
17-3 

18-6 

191 

18-2 

Kamm&lanB        

19-7 

18-4 

l,8-9 

1.7-8 

PajliB       

19-6 

17*4 

18-6 

19 

18-2 
18-2 

Pwriftbfl     

19-7 

J 

17 

18-6 

191 

The  results  of  measurement  of  the  breadth  of  the  head,  on 
the  other  hand,  show  that  the  average  breadth  of  the  Bi^h- 
man.head  is  considerably  in  excess  of  that  of  the  Kamm&lans, 
Pallis,  and  Pariahs, 


2^^ 


CEPHALIC  BBEADTH. 


• 

1 

Minimnm. 

Average. 

Mean 
above. 

Mean 
below. 

Br&hmans           

15-2 

12-7 

14-2 

14-6 

13^7 

,  Kamm&lans        

14-7 

131 

13-7 

14 
14 

13-4 

Pallis        

14-6 

121 

13-6 

13-2 

Pariahs     

14-5 

13 

13-7 

14 

13*4 

The  great  breadth  of  the  Br&hman  head,  in  comparison 
with  that  of  the  other  three  classes,  is  well  brought  out  by 
the  following  table,  which  gives  the  number  oi  times  in 
which  the  head  of  members  of  each  class  measured  between 
12  and  13,  13  and  14,  11  and  15^  and  15  and  16  centimetres 
respectively : — 


1 

12-13 

1 

13-14 

14  15 

15-16 

• 

Total. 

Br&hmans           

1 

9 

27 

3 

40 

Kamm&lans 

1 

22 
30 

17 
7 

•  •  • 

40 

Pallis        

3 

•  •  • 

40 

Pariahs     

•    B 

27 

13 

•  •  • 

40 

The  mean  measurements  of  the  nose  of  the  Brdhmans, 
£ammdlans,  Pallis,  aud  Pariahs,  which  are  summed  up  in  the 
foUowiog  tables,  and  compared  with  those  of  the  typical 
broad- nosed  Paniyans,  show  that  in  all,  except  the  Paniyans, 
the  average  breadth  of  the  nose  is  the  same^  but  the  len^h 
is  slightly  greatest  in  the  Brdhmans,  and  least  in  the  Pariahs. 
A  Brdhman  school-master  was  the  possessor  of  the  longest 
nose  (5'5  cm.),  and  a  Pariah  dressing-boy  of  the  broadest 
(4' 5  cm.).  But,  in  the  course  of  my  investigation,  I  came 
across  many  dark-skinned  Brahmans,  with  high  nasal  index, 
with  whom  I  for  one  should  be  sorry  to  claim  Aryan  kinship. 
More  especially  have  I  in  mind  a  swarthy  individual  with  a 
nose  4'1  cm.  X  3'9  cm.  and,  for  a  Brdbman,  a  monstrous 
nasal  index  oi  95*1. 

31 


m 


NASAL  HBIOUT. 


t                                         1 

• 

\ 

Maximum. 

1 

1 

Minimum. 

• 

3) 

1 

<1 

Mean 
above. 

1 

1 

Mean 
below. 

!- 
Bralimant          

1 

5-5 

41 

1 

4-7 

4-9 

4*4 

1 

Kauunalans         

1 

6-2 

41 

4-6 

4-8 

4*3 

1 

i  Pallia        

51 

4-1 

4-(5 

4-8 

44 

Pariahs 

51 

41 

4-5 

4-8 
4-2 

4-3 

Psnijanfi 

1 

4-8 

3-3 

4 

3-7 

KASAL  BREADTH. 


• 

• 

a 

s 
.6 
>< 

a      ' 

Minimum. 

Average. 

■ 

.      1 

is 

Brahmans            

3-9 

3 

3-6 

3-7 

3-4 

Kamm&lans        

4 

3-1 

3-6 

3-8 

3-4 

Pallia        

41 

31 

3-6 

3-8 

34 
3-4 

Pariahs 

4-5 

31 

3-6 

3-8 

Paniyans 

4-2 

32 

3-8 

4 

3-6 

1 
1 

NASAL  IJJDEX. 


i 

Maximum. 

o       Minimum. 

<5 

Mean 
above. 

Mean 
below. 

Brihmans            

• 

951 

76-7 

82-2 

71-6 

1 

Kamm&lalis         

90-9 

63-3 

77-3 

82-6 

-  1 
72-5 

Pallif        

&5'9 

60-8 

77-9 

88-5 

73-3 

Pariabi     

91-8 

66 

80 

86 
](H»-9 

743 

Panijans  ...         

108-6 

72-9 

951 

88-2 

829 

To  ■tun  up  in  a  few  words  ihe  distingiiiahinff  oharaoteristios 
of  !]^iihmanB>  Kammdlans,  PaUlB,  and  ParicuiS;  as  deduoed 
from  the  measurements.  The  Br&hmans  are  ehafaoterised  by 
the  greatest  weight,  greatest  breadth  of  head,  greatest  distanoe 
from  the  middle  finger  to  the  patella,  and  tiie  longest  hand. 
The  Kamm^lahs  are  at  once  separated  from  the  other  three 
dasses  by  shortness  of  stature,  hand,  and  foot ;  and  the  PaUis 
and  Pariahs  are  oonnected  together  by  the  olose  relation  of 
their  weight,  height,  differenoe  between  span  and  height, 
distanoe  from  the  middle  finger  to  the  patella,  and  length  of 
hand. 

It  must  not  for  a  moment  be  supposed  that  the  present 
note  is  intended  to  be  a  final  summing  up  of  the  charae- 
teristics,  deduced  from  anthropometric  observations,  of  the 
Br&hmans  of  Southern  India.  Bather  does  it  represent  the 
initial  stage  of  an  enquiry,  in  carrying  out  which  I  foresee 
difficulties  resulting  from  dread  of  pollution  by  my  instru- 
ments, especially  the  goniometer,  which  has  to  be  held 
between  the  teeth  when  the  facial  angle  is  being  determined. 

Anthropological  research  among  uneducated  and  super- 
stitious people  who  believe  in  the  efficacy  of  a  thread  in 
warding  off  the  evil  influence  of  devils,  and  are  incapable 
of  appreciating  that  one's  motive  is  quite  harmless,  requires 
tact^  bribery^  coaxing,  and  a  large  store  of  patience.  Last 
year^  for  example,  the  Paniyan  women  believed  that  I  was 

Seeing  to  have  the  finest  specimens  among  them  stuffed 
or  the  Madras'  Museum,  and  the  Muppas  of  the  Wyn&d 
were  afraid  that  I  was  a  recruiting  sergeant,  bent  on 
enlisting  the  strongest  men  of  their  community  for  a  native 
Malabar  army;  and,  in  a  recent  wandering  on  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  Nilgiris,  a  man  who  was  '  wanted '  for  some 
mil^  crime  of  ancient  date^  came  to  be  measured,  but  abso- 
lutely refused  to  submit  to  the  operation  on  the  plea  that 
he  was  afraid  that  the  height  measuring  standard  was  the 
gallows.  Nor  would  he  permit  me  to  take  his  photo- 
graph lest  it  should  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  criminal 
identification. 


92 


aso 


S 


•MpU|  IVTC^ 

04 

• 

S 

fH 

•ir»p«ejq  i«i«|i 

>•* 

CO 

• 

09 

• 

CO 

• 

00 

CO 

CO 

do 

CD 

00 

00 

d» 

'%f{2i9X{  iw«K 

•q^pvojq  oi[«iideo 

00 

fH 

CO 

• 

00 

fH 

• 

00 

CD 

«9 

fH 

'q^aei  oijvqdQQ 

CO 

do 

■ 

00 

iH 

CO 

• 

00 
fH 

CO 

do 

fH 

do 

'x{%2mi  *^ooj 

0) 

8 

•H 

• 

s 

04 

*1{^8I  'puvQ 

CO 

• 

iH 

• 
fH 

9> 

fH 

do 

fH 

•«lW«d  0)  aaJSiz?  oippiH 

• 

00 

• 

00 

• 

4* 

'^qSfeif  pw 

8-> 

00 

6 

fH 

00 

• 

fH 
fH 

•H 

6 

o 

IH 

'%^9l9J3^ 

Ma 

iH 

s 

iH 

(H 

fH 

'%K^}9IA 

*A  fH 

fH 

fH 
-4 

CD 

fH 

1 

CO 

• 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 

1 

• 
ft 
• 

• 
• 
• 

1 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 

1 
g 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 

P4 

m 
• 
• 

• 
« 
• 

1 

i 

ddi 


TABLE  yn. 

bbIhmans.  ■' 

(ATBBAOn  OP  TBM,  TVBim.  THIBTT  AND  FOBTT  laASVlUnilMTS). 


10 

20 

80 

40 

Weight            

•                 ■  •  • 

114*9 

115*7 

115 

115 

Height            

•                 •  •  • 

168*8 

163-6 

162*8 

162-5 

Height,  Bitting           

•  •• 

851 

85*4 

85-2 

85^ 

Height,  kneeling       

•                 •  •• 

119*6 

119*8 

118*9 

119*2 

Height  to  gladiolna 

•                 •  ■  • 

121*8 

122*4 

121*6 

1221 

Span  of  arms             

•                 •  •  • 

174*6 

173*4 

172*9 

178*8 

Middle  finger  to  patella 

•                 •  •  • 

9*6 

10-8 

10-4 
89*2 

10-1 

Shonldwa        ...        ... 

•  •  • 

39-6 

89-2 

89*8 

Oabit               

•                 •  •  • 

46*6 

461 

45*9 

46 

Hand,  length              

■  •  • 

18*4 

18*2 

18-1 

18*8 

Hand,  breadth           

•  •  • 

8 

8 

8 

8 

Middle  finger             

•                 •  ■  • 

11*7 

11*6 

11-5 

11*6 

Hipc                ... 

>                 •  •  • 

25*8 

25*7 

25*9 

26 

Foot,  length               

• 

26*1 

261 

25-9 

85*9 

Foot,  breadth            

1                •  •  • 

8*5 

8*7 

8*7 

8*7 

Cephalio  length         

t  •  • 

18*7 

18*7 

18-6 

18*6 

Cephalio  breadth 

t                •  •  • 

14*2 

14*8 

14-2 

14*2 

Oephalio  index           

1                •  •  • 

75*9 

76*2 

76-4 

76*4 

fiigoniao          

• 
•  •  • 

10*2 

101 

10 

10 

Bizygomatio               

•  •  • 

12-8 

12*9 

13-9 

18*9 

Mazillo-ijgomatio  index 

1                •  •  • 

80 

779 

77*7 

77*7 

Nasal  height              

•  •  • 

4*6 

4-7 

4*7 

4*7 

Nasal  breadth            

00 

3*7 

8*6 

3*6 

8*6 

Nasal  index  ...            

•  •• 

78*6 

77*8 

77-2 

772 

Vertex  to  tragns       

»                    •  •  • 

14 

14 

14 

141 

Vertex  to  chin           

•  •• 

20-8 

20*8 

20-7 

20*9 

Facial  angle               

1             ••• 

68 

69 

68 

69 

VoU.—ln  this  and  the  following 
meainrementi  are  in  centimetres.  Hie 
ttent  of  fortj  subjeoti. 


tables  the  weight  is  recorded  in  pounds  t  the 
results  are  based  in  each  table  on  the  wtum^ 


TABLE  Vni. 


BUMMABT  OF  MEASUBEMENTS. 

baIhmaks. 


{ 

t 

I 

Max. 

Min. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
above 

Mean 
below 

i 

'Weight  ... 

161 

90 

116 

132 

107 

J 

1 

Height 

174-6 

163 

169-6 

167-9 

1671 

1 

Height,  sitting            

90-8 

81 

86-4 

87-8 

83-2 

1 

Height,  kneeling         

127-8 

108*2 

119-2 

122-9 

116-7 

1 

i 

Height  to  gladiolu b     

133-6 

112-6 

1221 

126-2 

117-9 

1 

i 

.Span  of  arms 

187-8 
98 

160 

173-3 

180 

166-7 

i 

Ciest 

70 

81 

86-6 

771 

! 

i 

Middle  fingfer  to  patella 

14-8 

4-8 

10-1 

12-1 

8-6 

4 

Shoulders 

43-7 

34-6 

39-3 

41-3 

34-2 

* 

Onbit     

49*9 

41-6 

46 

47-8 

44-8 

1 
1 

Hand,  length    ... 

19-8 

161 

18*3 

191 

17-6 

1 
t 

« 

• 
Hand,  breadth        

91 

72 

8 

8-4 

7-7 

• 
1 

Middle  finger 

12-6 

10-7 

11-6 

12 

11-2 

J 

Hips       .  •  • 

30-8 

23 

26 

27-6 

24-9 

7oot,  length     ...         

28-8 

22-2 

26-9 

26-8 

24-7 

Foot,  breadth 

9-8 

7-7 

8-7 

91 

8*2 

. 

Cephalic  length           

19*9 

17-3 

18-6 

191 

18-2 

; 

Oephalic  breadth         

16-2 

12-7 

142 

14-6 

13*7 

Cephalic  index             

84 

69 

76-6 

78-9 

73-6 

Bigoniao           

11-1 

9 

10 

10-4 

9-5 

• 

Bitygomatio     

14-1 

11-6 

12-9 

13-8 

12*4 

- 

Mazillo-zTgomatic  index. 

91-5 

69-5 

77-7 

81-1 

74*9 

Nasal  height     

5-5 

41 

47 

4-9 

4*4 

Nasal  breadth 

3-9 

3 

3-6 

87 

3-4 

- 

Nasal  index       

96-1 

60 

767 

82-2 

71-6 

Vertex  to  tragus         

14-7 

19-8 

141 

14-5 

13-6 

Vertex  to  chin             

22-9 

18-1 

20-9 

21-6 

.    20*$ 

p 

Facial  angle     

74 

61 

69 

71 

66 

1^ 

TiBtii:  IX. 
smniABT  OT  ksA^UBixiENti^. 

KAHUilANB. 


• 

Max. 

Min« 

Aver-    '  Mean 
age.  ' '  aboTe 

Mean 
below 

Weight             

180 

79 

100*4 

111-6 

92-2 

Height 

171-8 

146*4 

169-7 

_164-1 

166*2 

Height,  sitting           

88 

76-6 

82-6 

84-4 

80 

Height,  kneeling         

126-2 
129*8 

107-2 

117-4 

120*3 

114-8 

Height  to  gladioluB 

111*2 

120 

128-6 

116*8 

SpanofarmB               

ld8*4 

168*8 

171 

176-6 

167 

Chest                

86 

71 

78 

81-4 

76*k 

Middle  finger  to  patella 

lS-4 

4-2 

8-4 

.10-6 

..  6-S 

Shoulders         

42-8 

86 

89-2 

40-7 

88 

Cubit                

60-6 

42-2 

46-2 

47-6 

46 

Hand,  lengthu              

19 

16-2 

17-6 

18*8 

171 

Hand,  breadth            

8-9 

7-4 

81 

8*4 

7*9 

Middle  finger               

12-6 

10-7 

11*4 

11*8 

11*1 

Hips 

29 

28-2 

26-1 

26*1 

228'4 

Foot,  length 

27-2 

28-2 

26-1 

26*2 

4*2 

7oot,  breadth               

9-7 

7-8 

8-6 

9 

8*3 

Cephalio  length           

19-7 

17-8 

18-4 

18-9 

17*8 

Cephalic  breadth         

14-7 

18*1 

18-7 

14 

418* 

Cephalio  index            

81*6 

68-4 

76 

77-8 

72*2 

Bigoniao           

111 

8-6 

9-7 

10-8 

9*2 

Bizjgomatic                

13-8 

11-6 

12-7 

18 

12'4 

Maxillo*zjgomatio  index 

86*8 

69-6 

76-2 

79-6 

78-6 

Nasal  height                

6-2 

41 

4*6 

4-8 
3-8 

4*8 

Nasal  breadth             

4 

8-1 

8-6 

8*4 

Nasal  index                 

90-9 

68-8 

77*8 

82-6 

72*6 

Vertex  to  tragus         

14-6 

12*7 

18*7 

141 

18'4 

Vertex  to  chin            

22-9 

18-8 

20*9 

21-7 

19-8 

Facial  angle                

76 

64 

1 

70 

72 

68 

3^4 


TABLE  X. 


SUMMABT  OF  MBASURKUBNTH. 
PALLIS. 


Max. 

Min. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
aboTe 

Mean 
below 

Weight             

.    123 

86 

104-6 

111*6 

96 

Height              

.    169-4 

161 

162*6 

166-7 

167-6 

Height,  sitting             

.      89-5 

77-9 

83-6 

86-4 

81*8 

Height,  kneeling         

.    123*8 

111 

118*8 

121*6 

116-8 

Height  to  gladiolus     

.    128*8 

114 

121*6 

126*9 

117*8 

Span  of  arms               

.    182-2 

169*6 

172-6 

177-6 

167*9 

Chest 

.      85*5 

72 

79-2 

81*8 

76*3 

Middle  finger  to  patella 

.      14-2 

4-2 

9-6 

111 

7-7 

Shoulders 

.      41-9 

86-2 

39-4 

40*6 

38-2 

Uubit                

.      49*8 

41-6 

46*2 

47*7 

446 

Hand,  length               

.      19-7 

16 

17-9 

18-7 

17-1 

Hand,  breadth             

8-9 

7-4 

.    8-1 

8-4 

7-7 

Middle  finger              

12*1 

10 

11-4 

11-8 

10-9 

Hips                 

.      27-8 

24 

26-6 

26*5 

24-6 

Toot,  length                 

.      27-6 

233 

26-6 

26*4 

24-6 

Foot,  breadth              

10 

7-8 

8-9 

9*3 

8-4 

Cephalio  1  ength           

19-6 

17*4 

18-6 

19 

18-2 

Oephalic  breadth        

14-6 

12-1 

18*6 

14 

18-2 

Cephalic  index             

80 

64-4 

73 

76*6 

70-1 

fiigoniao           

10-8 

9 

9-9 

10-3 

9-5 

Bizygomatic                 

.      13-6 

11-9 

12-7 

13*1 

12-8 

Maxillo-iygomatio  index 

.      86*7 

72*4 

78 

80*1 

76 

Kasal  height                

6*1 

4*1 

4-6 

4-8 

44 

Kasal  breadth 

41 

31 

3-6 

3*8 

3-4 

Nasal  index                 

.      951 

60-8 

77-9 

83*5 

738 

Vertex  to  tragus         

.      14-6 

12*6 

13*8 

14*2 

13-4 

Vertex  to  chin             

.      22-5 

19'3 

21   1 

21-7 

20-7 

Facial  angle                

.      76 

68 

69 

71 

64 

S86 


TABLE  XI. 


8UMKABT  OF  KBA8DKBUKNTS. 
PARUHS. 


Max. 

Min. 

Aver. 

Mean 
above 

Mean 
below 

WBl^ht  ... 

128 

91 

106 

114 

99 

Height  ...         ...         ...         ••* 

171-4 

149*4 

1621 

166*8 

157-4 

Height,  sitting             

89*9 

76 

84*5 

86*8 

82-7 

Height,  kneeling         

127S 

109-4 

119*4 

122-7 

116*4 

Height  to  gladiolus     

129*6 

112*5 

122*4 

125'6 

119 

Span  of  arms 

186-6 

169-8 

1721 

178 

167*2 

Chest     

84-6 

74*6 

79-3 

81-6 

77*5 

Middle  finger  to  patella. 

14 

5*5 

9*4 

11-2 

7*8 

Shoulders         

41-4 

3&8 

39*4 

40-4 

88-6 

Onbit     

49-7 

42-5 

461 

47-7 

44-9 

Hand,  length 

19-6 

16-6 

17*9 

18*6 

17*3 

Hand,  breadth             

8-8 

7-4 

8 

8-3 

7-9 

Middle  finger 

12-9 

10*4 

11*4 

11-7 

11-1 

Alps          "•             ...             •••             ••• 

28-2 

24-1 

26*9 

^8 

26 

Foot,  length      

28-8 

24*2 

26 

26*9 

26-2 

Foot,  breadth 

10 

8-1 

91 

95 

8-7 

Cephalio  length           

19-7 

17 

18*6 

19*1 

181 

Cephalio  breadth 

14*6 

IS 

13-7 

14 

13*4 

Cephalio  index 

78-8 

64*8 

73  6 

76*6 

71*4 

Bigoniao 

111 

91 

10 

10*6 

9*5 

Bizygomatio     ...          

13*7 

12-2 

12*9 

13*2 

12*6 

Maxillo-iygomatio  index. 

84-7 

67*4 

77*6 

81*3 

74*8 

Nasal  height     

6*1 

41 

4*5 

4-8 

4*8 

Kasal  breadth 

4*6 

31 

3*6 

3*8 

8*4 

Kaaal  index      

• 

91*8 

66 

80 

86 

74*8 

Vertex  to  tragos         

14*9 

12-9 

13*8 

14-2 

18*4 

Vertex  to  ohin 

28-2 

19 

21*8 

22 

20-6 

Fadal  angle     

76 

62 

68 

71 

66 

m 


TABLE  Xn. 

t 

COMPABISON  OF  MEASUBBMEKTS. 
fiBilHMANS,  KAMMifLANS.  PALLI8,  AND  PABIAH8. 


- 

Brih- 
mans. 

Kammi- 
lans. 

Pallis. 

Pariahs. 

Woi^nt 

... 

116 

100-4 

104*6 

106 

xxoiff  hb             •  •  •         •  •  •         •  •  • 

... 

162-6 

169-7 

162*5 

162-1 

Heiffht,  sitting           

•  •  ■ 

86-4 

82-6 

88*6 

84-5 

Height,  kneeling        

•  •  • 

119-2 

117-4 

118*8 

119-4 

Height  to  gladiolns  ... 

•  •  ■ 

1221 

120 

121*5 

122*4 

Span  of  arms 

1 , 

173-3 

171 

172*6 

1721 

xyUeSv      •••               •••               •••               ••< 

1               •  ■  • 

81 

78 

79*2 

79*8 

Middle  finger  to  patella 

»               •  • 

101 

8-4 

9-5 

9*4 

Shoulders 

•  ■  • 

89'8 

89-2 

89*4 

89-4 

Cubit 

*               « •  • 

46 

46-2 

46-2 

461 

Hand,  length 

•  •  • 

18*8 

17-6 

17*9 

17-9 

Hand,  breadth           

t  •  • 

8 

81 

8-1 

8 

Middle  finger 

»               •  •  • 

11-6 

11-4 

11-4 

11-4 

Hips      ...          •  •  •         ••  • 

•  •  • 

26 
26-9 

251 

25*6 

25*9 

Foot,  length 

•               •  •  • 

251 

25*5 

26 

Foot,  breadth 

> 
■                •  •  • 

8-7 

8-6 

8*9 

9*1 

Cephalio  length          

•               ■  •  • 

18-6 

18-4 

18*6 

18-6 

Gephalio  breadth       

•  •  • 

14-2 

137 

13-6 

13*7 

Cephalic  index           

>               • « • 

76-6 

75 

73 

73-6  i 

Bigoniac          •.*         ••• 

1                •  •  • 

10 

9-7 

9*9 

10 

Bisygomatio    ... 

•                 •  • 

12-9 

12-7 

12*7 

12-9 

Maxilio-zygomatio  index 

•  ■• 

77-7 

76-2 

78 

77*6 

Ifasal  height  ...          

•               •  •  • 

4-7 

4-6 

4-6 

4*5 

Nasal -breadth 

1                •  ■  • 

8*6 

8-6 

8*6 

8-61 

-JTasal-index     ...         

1               •  •  • 

76-7 

77-8 

77*9 

60    1 

^Fertex  to  tragus        

■                •  •  • 

141 

18-7 

18*8 

•   18-8! 

1 

Vertex  to  ohin           

•  •  • 

20*9 

20-9 

21-1 

21-81 

-      '  ! 

facial  angle    

•                •  •  • 

69 

70 

69 

68    ' 

« 

JADRAS  GOVEBNMENl'  MUSEUM. 
HnlU'thi,    yol.  IT,  Xo.  J- 

ANTHROPOLOGY. 


liadaga,  .imi  lnila>,  ul  Itii'  Nilprir ; 
PaniYas-  "l  Malabar;  .\  Chmese-T™il  Cross 

"       A  ChcTum.in  Skull ;       Kuruba  or  Kimimlia; 
Summary  "f  Kesults. 

with  Seventeen  Plates. 


EDSAll  THUKSTON, 


M  A  D  K  AS : 
tllLNTKn  »,V  TllK  BOl'l-.nlKTSSDBST,  HorEoaEST  rilBSS- 
^  1  ,-orSS:  


nv  KDIIAI!  TnimsTON. 


Ko.  2.— Noi-H  OS,  Torw  ai^m,  ,ti,  JLviawi,  Co«t, 

MA.VAAII. 

No.  l.-A»j„»»,c„cv  „   ni.  T„i,„  ,,„,.  K,m.    o,    ra* 

WA1.-AXS,    1'ALI,1B  AMJ  PAUldUS  u^   aUlUlAP   ClT 


MADRAS  GOVERNMENT  MUSEUM. 


Bulletin,   Vol. 


ANTHROLOLOGY. 


Badagas  and  Irulas  of  the  Nilgiris ; 

Paniyans  of  Malabar ;  A  Chinese-Tamil  Cross ; 

A  Cheruman  Skull;       Kuruba  or  Kurumba; 

Summary  of  Results. 

W^ith  Seventeen  Plates. 


BY 


EDGAR  THURSTON, 

Superintendent,  Madras  Government  Museum. 


MADBAS: 

FBINTBD  BY  THE  BUPBBINTBNDKNT,  GOVBENMKNT  PRESS, 

1897. 


CONTENTS. 


. 

PAGE 

BaDAOAS   of   the   NiLOlBIS 

1-7 

IbULAS  of   the   NILGIRI8        

8-17 

Paniyans  of  Malabar        

...       18-30 

A  Chinese-Tamil  Cross 

...       31-32 

A  Chbruman  Skull 

...      33-37 

KURUBA   OB   KUBUMBA              

...       38-43 

Sdmmaby  of  Results         

,..       44-68 

4     .    • 


•.PL.   I 


A 


it. 


09 

< 
< 

CD 
U. 

o 


o 

flC 
(9 


ANTHBOPOLOGT. 


THE  BADAGA8  OP  THE  NILGIRI8. 

As  the  Todas  are  the  pastoral,  and  the  Kotas  the  artisan 
tribe  of  the  Nilgiris,  so  the  agricultural  element  on  these 
hills  is  represented  hj  the  Badagas  (or,  as  they  are  some- 
times called.  Burghers),  whose  number  was  returned  as 
29,613  at  the  Census  1891  against  24,130  at  the  previous 
Census.  But,  though  the  primary  occupation  of  the 
Badagas  is  agriculture,  there  are,  among  their  communitji 
brioklajersy  carpenters,  tailors^  sawjers,  barbers,  washer- 
men, &o.,  and  many  work  for  Europeans  as  coolies  on  tea 
and  coffee  estates. 

The  name  Badaga  or  Vadugan  means  ^  northerner,'  and 
the  BadagaSy  who  speak  a  language  allied  to  Kanarese,  are 
no  doubt  descended  from  Kanarese  Hindu  colonists  from 
the  Mysore  country,  who  migrated,  probably  about  three 
centuries  ago,  to  the  hills  owing  to  famine,  political  tur- 
moil, or  local  oppression  in  their  own  country.  They  have 
a  tradition  that  five  hundred  years  ago  there  were  seven 
brothers  living  with  their  sister  at  a  place  called  Badag- 
halli  near  Mysore.  A  Muhammadan  Naw&b  fell  in  love 
with,  and  asked  the  permission  of  the  brothers  to  marry 
the  girl,  and  they,  being  afraid  of  him^  ran  away  and 
settled  on  the  Nilgiri  plateau. 

Among  the  Badagas  six  distinct  septs  are  recognised^ 


VIZ. : — 

Udaya  (or  Wodeyar).    Lingftyats  • , 

High  oaste. 

Adhikari 

Do. 

Do. 

Kanaka 

Do. 

Do. 

H&ruva 

. .     Saivites     . « 

Do. 

Badaga 

Do. 

Do. 

Toraya 

Do. 

Low  caste. 

The  H&ruva^  Adhik&ri^  Kanaka,  and  Badaga  septs  are 

eirmitted  to  intermarry  one  with  the  other,  whereas  the 
dayas  and  Torayas  may  only  marry  into  their  own  sept. 


The  H&rnvaB  wear  the  Br&hmanical  thread,  and  it  has 
^  been  suggested  hy  Mr.  Natesa  Sastri  that  thej  were  origin- 
ally poor  JBr&hman  priests,  who  migrated  with  the  Badagas 
to  the  Nilgiris.  The  Torajas  are  the  lowest  sept,  and  do 
menial  work  for  the  other  septs,  whioh  regard  them  as 
sons  or  servants.  Toraya  women  are  distingaished  by 
wearing  bangles  of  glass  and  base  metal  round  the  len) 
wrist.  The  Udaya,  H&ruya,  and  Adhikari  septs  are  vege- 
tarians, whereas  the  Kanakas,  Badagas  and  Torayas  are 
permitted  to  eat  both  animal  and  vegetable  food.  It  is  said 
that  the  vegetarian  Adhikari,  if  he  marries  into  a  flesh- 
eating  caste,  betakes  himself  to  the  new  diet  very  readily — 
more  readily,  in  fact,  than  an  Englishman  of  my  acquaint- 
ance, who  had  to  abandon  his  carnivorous  habits  as  a  condi- 
tion of  acceptance  by  a  vegetarian  lady. 

Living  in  extensive  villages,  generally  on  the  summit 
of  a  low  hillock^  composed  of  rows  of  comfortable  thatched 
or  tiled  houses,  and  surrounded  by  the  fields  which  yield 
the  crops  of  kor&li  {Sdaria  itaUca),  sftmai  {Panicum  fniiiare), 
&0.J  the  Badagas  would  seem,  at  first  sight,  to  be  a  pros- 
perous and  thriving  community  as  compared  with  the  other 
tribes  of  the  Nilgiris.  A  great  newspaper  discussion  was 
recently  carried  on  as  to  their  condition,  and  whether  they 
are  a  down-trodden  race,  bankrupt  and  impoverished  to  such 
a  degree  that  it  is  only  a  short  time  before  something  must 
be  done  to  ameliorate  their  condition,  and  save  them  from 
extermination  by  inducing  them  to  emigrate  to  the  Wyn&d 
and  the  Vizagapatam  district.  After  reading  much,  and 
hearing  and  seeing  more  of  the  Badagas,  I  am  on  the  side 
of  one  who  wrote  to  the  effect  that ''  so  far  from  approach- 
ing ruin,  the  Badaga  is  in  a  far  better  condition  than  he  was 
some  years  ago.  The  tiled  houses,  costing  from  Bs.  250  to 
Bs.  500,  certunly  point  to  their  prosperity.  They  may  fre- 
quently borrow  from  the  Lubbay  to  enable  them  to  build, 
but,  as  I  do  not  know  of  a  single  case  in  which  the  Lubbay 
has  ever  seized  the  house  and  sold  it,  I  believe  this  debt  is 
soon  discharged.  The  walled-in,  terraced  fields  immedi- 
ately around  their  villages,  on  which  they  grow  their  barley 
and  other  grains  requiring  rich  cultivation,  are  well  worked 
and  regularly  manured.  The  coats,  good  thick  blankets, 
and  gold  ear-rings,  which  most  Badagas  now  possess,  can 
onlyj  I  think^  point  to  their  prosperity,  while  their  con- 
stant feasts,  and  disinclination  to  work  on  Sundays,  show  that 
the  loss  of  a  few  days'  pay  does  not  affect  them.'' 


PL.    II 


BADAQA   MAN. 


The  Badaga  ceremonies  and  rites  have  been  so  fnllj  de-» 
scribed  hj  others  ^  that  I  shall  onlj  touch  lightly  on  this 
already  well-trodden  ground. 

In  his  religion  the  Badaga  is  polytheistic  and  a  demonola- 
ter^  worshipping  a  select  number  of  major,  and  thirty-three 
crores  ^  of  minor  gods,  and  attributing  fever  contracted 
by  being  out  after  dark,  and  other  ailments  and  mishaps, 
to  the  influence  of  deyils.  Worship  is  performed  in  all 
manner  of  edifices,  from  a  small  jungle  or  road-side  shrine 
to  the  big  temple  with  gopurams  at  Earamadai  at  the  foot 
of  the  hills,  whereat  the  Badaga  worships  in  common  with 
other  Hindu  sects  and  Todas.  Their  gods  are  represented 
by  human  images  of  gold  and  silver,  stone  bulls  and 
roughly-hewn  stones,  to  which  oblations  of  milk  are  offered 
when  a  cow  refuses  to  give  milk  in  proper  quantity.  In 
omens,  both  good  and  bad,  they  believe  implicitly.  Among 
the  former  are  reckoned  two  Brahmans,  a  jackal,  or  a  milk- 
pot  in  front,  whereas  a  snake  passing  i^  front,  a  woman 
with  her  hair  down  her  back,  a  widow,  or  a  single  Br&hman 
going  before  are  harbingers  of  evil. 

The  investiture  of  youths  of  the  Ling&yat  eept  with  the 
badge  of  his  religion,  the  linga  or  phallic  emblem,  which  is 
tied  round  his  neck,  is  the  occasion  of  a  solemn  ceremonial, 
accompanied  by  payment  of  fees  to  the  officiating  priest, 
who  acts  as  Grand  Master  of  the  Order,  the  pouring  of  an 
offering  of  the  milk  of  cows  and  buffaloes  into  a  rivulet, 
and  a  feast.  When  a  Badaga  lad  has  reached  the  youthful 
years  at  which  he  is  expected  to  be  of  use  to  the  commu- 
nity, he  is  instructed  in  the  important  duty  of  milking  the 
cattle,  and  permitted  to  enter  thenceforth  within  the  milk- 
house  (hd«g5tu),  wherein  no  female  may  set  foot. 

In  the  Udaya  sept,  according  to  Mr.  Natesa  Sastri,  there 
is  nothing  in  the  nature  of  courtship,  but  the  father  settles 
the  bride  or  bridegroom  for  his  child.  In  the  other  septs  a 
simple  form  of  sexual  selection  takes  place,  and  engage- 
ment, soon  followed  by  marriage  on  an  auspicious  day,  is 
announced  as  the  result  of  a  brief  period  of  courtship, 
which  affords  some  opportunity  for  testing  compatibility  or 
incompatibility.     The  marriage  bond  is  not,  however,  really, 

^  S.  M.  Natesa  Sastri,  Madras  Christian  College  Magazine,  April  and 
May  1892,  Vol.  IX,  Nos.  10-11  j  Grigg,  Manual  of  the  NUagiri  District, 
1880. 

'  A  crore  s  10,000,000. 


sealed  until  the  fifth  month  of  the  first  pregiianc7,  when 
the  relatives  are  invited  to  be  present  at  the  ceremony  of 
kanni-lattedn,  or  tying  the  marriage  emblem  round  the 
neck  of  the  woman.  If,  when  he  is  performing  this  func- 
tion^ the  husband  gets  the  string  entangled  in  his  wife's 
hair,  he  is  fined  for  carelessness.  As  a  sign  that  a  girl  has 
reached  puberty,  and  is  available  for  matrimonial  purposes, 
she  is  tattooed  on  the  forehead  with  a  needle  dipped  in  the 
blacks  collected  from  a  cooking-pot  and  mixed  with  oil. 

The  funeral  rites  of  the  Badagas  are  carried  out  with  a 
ceremonial  veiy  similar  to  that  of  the  Eotas,  which  I  have 
already  described  as  an  eye-witness  (Bull :  No.  4),  and 
Eotas  are  engaged  as  musicians.  In  th^  course  of  these 
rites,  an  elder,  standing  by  the  corpse,  offers  up  a  prayer 
that  the  dead  may  not  go  to  hell,  that  the  sins  committed 
on  earth  may  be  forgiven,  and  that  the  sins  may  be  borne  by 
a  calf,  which  is  let  loose  in  the  jungle,  and  used  thence- 
forth for  no  manner  of  work.  This  Badaga  custom  of  dedi- 
cating a  scape-calf  is  of  distinct  interest,  when  compared 
with  the  Levitican  dedication  of  a  scape-goat.  ''  But  the 
goat  on  which  the  lot  feU  to  be  the  scape-goat  shall  be 
presented  alive  before  the  Lord  to  make  an  atonement 
with  him,  and  to  let  him  go  for  a  scape-goat  in  the  wilder- 
ness, and  the  goat  shall  bear  upon  him  all  their  iniquities 
unto  a  land  not  inhabited."  (Lev.  XVI,  10;  22). 

A  quarter  of  a  centuiy  ago,  a  Badaga  could  be  at  once 
picked  out  from  the  other  tribes  of  the  Nilgiris  by  his 
wearing  a  turban.  But,  in  the  present  advanced  age, 
when  '  manners  and  customs '  are  undergoing  rapid  modi- 
fication owing  to  the  influence  of  domestication  and  contact 
with  Europeans,  not  only  does  the  Toda  occasionally  appear 
in  the  national  head-di^ss,  but  even  Irulas  and  Kurumbas, 
who,  only  a  short  time  ago,  were  buried  in  the  jungles, 
living  like  pigs  and  bears  on  roots,  honey,  and  other  minor 
forest  produce,  turn  up  on  Sundays  in  the  Eotagiri  baz&r, 
clad  in  turban  and  coat  of  English  cut.  And,  as  the  less 
civilised  tribes  don  the  turban,  so  the  college  student 
abandons  this  picturesque  form  of  head-gear  in  favour  of 
the  less  becoming,  and  less  washable,  pork-pie  cap,  while 
the  Badaga  glories  in  a  knitted  night-cap  of  flaring  red 
or  orange  hue. 

In  colour  the  Badagas  are  lighter  than  the  other  hill- 
tribes,  and  the  pallor  of  the  skin  is  specially  noticeable  in 
the  females,  whom^  with  very  few  exceptions^  I  was  only 


BADAOA  MAN. 


V 


able  to  study  hj  sarreptitious  examination  when  we  met  on 
the  roads.  In  physique  the  typical  Badaga  is  below  middle 
height,  smooth-skinned,  of  slender  build,  with  narrow  chest 
and  shoulders. 

Like  other  Kanarese  classes  which  I  have  investigated, 
the  Badagas  have,  as  shown  in  the  subjoined  tabular  state- 
ment, a  short  span  of  the  arms  relative  to  the  stature,  when 
compared  with  many  of  the  'i'amil  classes  : — 

Span  of  arms 
relative  to 

8tatiiree=100. 
Kotas.     Elanarese  ?         . .  . .         . .         1033 

Koramas.     Kanarese  .<         ..         103'2 

Kurubas.     ^    Do.  . .         . .  104*3 

Badagas.  Do.  .  •         . .         . .         104*6 

Kanarese  Pariahs.     KaDarese  «.         «.         105*1 

Tamil  Pariahs.     Tamil 106*1 

Tamil  Brfthmans.  Do 106*6 

Kammftlans.  Do.     ..         ••         ..         107*1 

Ambattans.  Do.     ..         ..         ..         107*2 

Vellfilas.  Do 107*2 

The  average  distance  from  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger 
to  the  top  of  the  patella  (knee-cap)  in  the  position  of  '  at- 
tention '  with  the  muscles  of  the  thigh  relaxed,  is  in  the 
Badagas,  as  in  two  other  Kanarese  classes  which  I  have 
examined  (Kurubas  and  Koramas)  considerable.  But  this 
character  is  discussed  later  on  (p.  48). 

The  average  height  of  the  Badaga,  according  to  my 
measurements,  is  164'!  cm.  One  man  (not  included  in  the 
averages),  whose  father  was  still  taller  than  himself,  was 
183'2  cm.  high.  The  measurement's  of  this  man,  as  com- 
pared with  the  Badaga  average,  were  as  foUows : — 

Badaga  average. 

CM.  CM. 

Height      •  * 

,,       sitting 

„       kneeling  •  • 
Span  of  arms 
Shoulders 
Oubit 

Hand,  length 
Middle  finger 
Hips 
Foot,  length 

The  typical  tribal  costume  of  the  Badaga  men  consists 
of  langdti,  white  turban,  and  long  body-cloth  with  red  and 


•  • 


•  t 


183*2 

1641 

92-8 

84*5 

134 

120*8 

193-2 

171*7 

44-3 

^9*4 
~6*2 

50-6 

19-6 

17*7 

13 

11-5 

30-1 

26*6 

28*  I 

26 

6 

Iblme  stripes  wrapped  ronndthem  ''  so  looselj  that,  as  a  man 
works  in  the  fielob,  he  is  obliged  to  stop  between  eYer7  few 
strokes  of  his  hoe,  to  gather  np  his  cloth  and  throw  one  end 
oyer  his  shoulder."  Male  adornment  with  jewelr7  is 
limited  to  gold  ear-rings,,  a  silyer  bangle  on  the  wrist,  and 
silver,  copper  or  brass  rings. 

As  types  of  female  attiie,  jewelry  and  tattooing,  the 
following  '  cases  '  may  be  cited : — 

Girl,  aged  13.  Tattooed  on  forehead  (pi.  iv-a  i).  White 
cloth  covering  body,  and  white  under-eloth  tied  round  chest, 
tightly  wrapped  square  across  the  breasts  and  reaching  to 
knees.  Gt>ld  ornament  in  left  nostril,  necj^ets  of  small  glass 
beads,  and  of  large  glass  beads  with  two  silver  ornaments. 

Woman,  aged  30.  Body  clothing  the  same  as  preceding. 
White  cotton  cap  on  head  (pi.  iv).  Tattooed  on  forehet^ 
(pi.  IV- A  1) ;  spot  on  chin ;  double  row  of  dots  on  each 
upper  arm  over  deltoids  (pi.  iv-a  2)  ;  and  pattern  on  right 
fore-arm  (pi.  iv-a  3).  Gold  ornament  in  left  nostril.  Gold 
ring  in  lobe  of  each  ear.  Necklets  of  small  glass  beads  and 
of  silver  links  with  four-anna  piece  pendent.  Silver  armlet 
above  right  elbow.  Four  copper  armlets  above  left  elbow. 
Four  silver,  and  seven  composition  bangles  on  left  fore  arm. 
Two  silver  rings  on  right  ring-finger ;  two  steel  rings  on 
left  finger. 

Woman,  &ged  45.  Tattooed  on  forehead  (pi.  iv-a  4) ; 
single  row  of  dots  over  right  deltoid ;  pattern  on  left  fore- 
arm (pi.  iv-a  5)  ;  and  three  dots  on  back  of  left  wrist. 

Woman,  aged  35.     Tattooed  on  forehead  (pi.  iv-a  1) ; 

S[uadruple  row  of  dots  over  right  deltoid ;  and  star  on  right 
orearm  (pi.  iv-a  6). 

Woman,  aged  30.  Tattooed  like  the  preceding  on  fore- 
head and  upper  arm ;  spot  on  chin ;'  elaborate  device  on 
right  forearm  (pi.  iv-a  7) ;  and  star  on  back  of  right  hand. 

Woman,  aged  85.  Tattooed  like  the  two  preceding  on 
forehead <alid  upper  arm;  double  row  of  dots  and  star  on 
right  forearm  (pi.  iv-a  8). 

Woman,  aged  40.  Tattooed  like  the  three  preceding  on 
forehead  and  upper  arm  ;  elaborate  device  on  right  forearm 
(pi.  IV-A  3) ;  triple  row  of  dots  on  back  and  firont  of  left 
wrist ;  and  double  row  of  dots  with  circle  surrounded  by 
dots  across  chest  (pi.  iv-a  9) . 


BADAGA  WOMAN. 


•  •  •  . 


TABLE  I. 

SUMMAHT  OF  MEASUBEMENTR. 
BADAGAS. 


Max. 

Min. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
above. 

Mean 
below. 

Weight             

» •  • 

125 

90 

105 

115 

98 

Height              

■  ■  • 

180-2 

154 

164-1 

169-4 

159*9 

Height,  Bitting 

■  •  ■ 

89-2 

80-7 

84-5 

87-3 

82-4 

Height,  kneeling 

>•• 

130-5 

114-3 

120-8 

1241 

117*2 

Height  to  gladiolni 

■  •  • 

138 

116 

123-7 

128 

119*9 

• 

Span  of  arms 

•  •  ■ 

191 

158*4 

171*7 

176-8 

166-7 

Chest                

t  m  • 

87 

73 

80-4 

8-3 

77-7 

Middle  finger  to  patella 

• 

i  ■  • 

17-4 

7-8 

12-2 

14-5 

10-6 

Shoulders          

•  •  • 

43*8 

36-2 

394 

40-7 

38-3 

Cubit                 

•  •  • 

49-7 

42-6 

46-2 

47-5 

44-9 

Hand,  length 

... 

19-2 

16 

17-7 

18-2 

17*2 

Hand,  breadth 

... 

8-7 

7-5 

8-1 

8*3 

7*9 

Middle  finger 

■  ■  • 

12-3 

10-7 

11-5 

11-9 

11-8 

Hips                 ••• 

•  ■   B 

29*4 

24-3 

26-6 

27-5 

25-5 

Foot,  length 

•  •  • 

27*2 

23-2 

25 

25-7 

24-2 

Foot,  breadth 

•  •  • 

9-6 

7-8 

8*6 

8-9 

8-8 

Cephalio  length 

•  •  • 

20-2 

18 

18-9 

19-4 

18-4 

Oephalio  breadth 

■   •   • 

14*5 

12*8 

13-6 

13*9 

18-8 

Cephalic  index 

•  •   • 

77-6 

661 

71-7 

73-9 

69-5 

Bigoniao           

•  •  • 

10-2 

8-6 

9-7 

10 

9-3 

Bisyg^matic 

■    •   • 

13-5 

12 

12-7 

18 

18*4 

Maxillo-sygomatio  index 

•  •  • 

88-6 

67-2 

76-9 

79-4 

73*9 

Kasal  height 

•    • 

51 

4-1 

4-6 

4*8 

4*4 

Nasal  breadth 

»•■ 

8-9 

3-2 

3-4 

3*6 

3-8 

Nasal  index 

>   •   • 

88-4 

62-7 

75-6 

80 

71*4 

Vertex  to  tragus 

•  B 

14-6 

12*7 

13-6 

14 

13-2 

Vertex  to  chin 

•    • 
•  • 

22-6 

19-7 

21*2 

21*8 

20*7 

Faoial  angle 

77 

67 

71 

73 

68 

Wb<«.— The  results  are  based  on  the  measurement  of  forty  subjeoto. 
In  this  and  the  following  tables,  the  weight  is  recorded  in  pounds  j  the 
measurements  are  in  centimetres. 


d 


THE  IRULA8  OF  THE  NILGIEIS. 

/ 

For  the  purpose  of  comparing  the  charaoteristios  of  the 
five  tribes  which  inhabit  the  Nilgiri  hills,  no  better  hunting' 
ground  can  be  selected  than  the  Kotag^ri  baz&r.    There  on. 
market  daj  (Sunda7)  maj  be  seen  gathered  together  Todas 
from  the  distant  Kodanad  mand,  Kotas  from  the  adjacent 
Kota  village^  Badagas  from  the  surrounding  villages,  and,  in 
fewer  numbers,  Irulas  and  Kurumbas^  who  have  walked  up 
from  their  homes  on  the  lower  slopes  to  purchase  the  weekly 
supplies,  laden  with  which  they  tramp  cheerfully  back  in 
the  afternoon.     In  distinguishing  a  Toda,  Eota,  or  Badaga, 
no  difficulty  is  experienced  even  on  very  slight  acquaintance 
with  them,  but  to  decide  between  Irula  and  Eurumba  is  not  * 
nearly  so  easy  ;  and,  when  I  have  seen  both  together  on  a 
coffee  estate,  I  have  several  times  committed  an  error  of 
diagnosis.     The  manager  of  an  estate,  after  several  years 
acquaintance  with  them,  said  he  could  always,  without  fail, 
distinguish  a  Eurumba  from  an  Irula,  although  unable  to 
explain  exactly  how  he  did  so.     He  thought  the  difference 
was  mainly  in  the  more  prominent  cheek-bones  and  shorter 
and  flatter  noses  of  the  Irulas.^     In  the  Manual  of  the  Nil- 
giri District,  1880,  Mr.  H.  B.  G-rigg  states  that "  the  i^las 
belong  to  a  still  more  primitive  race  than  the  Earumbas, 
namely,  the  Bedas  or  hunters  of  the  forests  of  the  peninsula. 
The  opinion  that  the    Nilgiri   Irulas  are  allied  to  these 
Bddas   receives  confirmation  from  the  fact  that  they,  like 
the  Mysore  Bedas,  are  worshippers  generally  of  Vishnu,  a 
remarkable  circumstance  considering  the  almost  universal 
Sivaism  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  South  India.'^     It  was 
suggested,  on  the  other  hand,  by  Colonel  Boss  Eing  ^  that 
the  Irulas  and  Eurumbas  were  originally  one,  and  tiiat  the 
slight  physical  differences  between  them  may  have  resulted 
from  the  nature  of  their  respective  situations  and  conse- 
quent modes  of  life.     At  the  present  day  both  Irulas  and 
Eurumbas  are  occasionally  found  living  in  the  same  ham- 
let (or  motta). 

The  hill  Eurumbas  (or  Eurumans)  it  may  be  noted,  en 
passant,  are  sub-divided  by  the  Census  Commissioner,  1891, 
into  Mulla  Eurumans,  Yetta  Eurumans,  tTrftli  Eurumans, 
Tdn  Eurumans,  ^nd  Tac'chan&dan  Muppan.  Of  these  five 
sub-divisions  my  persuasive  powers  have  so  far  permitted  of 
my  measuring  only  four  'QTrftli  Eurumans — a  meagre  result 

*  Breeks'  Primitiye  Tribes  of  the  Nilgiris. 

*  Aboriginal  Tribes  of  the  Nilgiri  hilU. 


o:o 


v^ 


>^^< 


A 


^ 


I   i  i  I  I  I  I  I 

3 c 


^ 


PLATE    JVA 


0  'o 


II I  mil 


^ 


8 


• 


« 


• 


• 


o: 

9 


Badaga  Tattoo  Marks 


1 

I 


for  a  long  march.  There  is,  however,  a  farther  suh-divisioD 
calling  themselves  P&la  Euramans^  who,  like  the  Irulas,  live 
on  coffee  estates  or  in  the  jangles  of  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Nilgiris,  and  of  these,  with  great  difficaltj,  I  saooeeded 
in  measaring  eleven  male  individaals.  Comparing  their 
principal  measarements,  thoagh  the  namber  is  confessedly 
very  few,  with  those  of  twentj-five  Irnlas,  and,  as  a  *  con- 
trol,' with  those  of  the  short,  broad-nosed  Panijans  of  the 
Wjn&d,  the  resnlts  paa  out  (to  use  a  mining  phrase)  as 
foUows  : — 


Imla. 

Knmmba. 

Paniyan. 

Hoi^fht   ... 

159-8               168 

167-4 

Span  of  armB 

169*8    1       168-9 

165-2 

Span  of  arms  ralatiye  to  stature  ss 

Xww                    •••                            ■••                            •••                            ■•■                            ••• 

106-8 

106'9 

105 

Middle  finger  to  patella         

10-7 

10-7 

7-8 

Middle  finger  to  patella  relatiye  to 
Btatiire=100 

6-7 

6-8 

4-6 

Gabit 

46-8 

46-6 

46-8 

Hand,  length 

17'6 

17-6 

18-6 

Foot,  length      

24-9 

24*9 

26 

Hips       ...         ...         ...         ... 

26-4 

26-8 

24-8 

Oephalio  length           

18 

18 

18-4 

Oephalio  breadth         

18-7 

137 

18-6 

Bigoniao 

9-7 

9*6 

10 

Bisjgomatic     

12-7 

•       18 

12-6 

Nasal  height     

4-4 

4-8 

4 

Naeal  breadth 

8-7 

8-8 

3-8 

Nasal  index       

84-9 

88-7 

961 

Vertex  to  ohin 

20-7 

20-6 

19-8 

Farther  investigation  of  the  PfiJa  Earambas  is,  of  coarse, 
necessary  (thoagh  experience  leads  me  to    anticipate  no 


B 


10 

marked  variation  from  the  averages  obtamed),  bat  the 
figures  afford,  I  think,  evidence  of  a  close  affinity  between 
the  Irulas  and  Kurombas. 

In  my  hunt  after  Iralas  it  was  necessary  to  invoke  the 
asftisteuice  and  proverbial  hospitality  of  various  planters, 
without  which  my  researches  would  have  been  barren.  On 
one  occasion  news  reached  me  that  a  party  of  Imla  men, 
women,  and  children,  collected  for  my  benefit  under  a  pro- 
mise of  substantial  remuneration,  had  arrived  at  a  planter's 
bungalow^  whither  I  proceeded.  The  party  included  a  man 
who  had  been  '  weuited '  for  some  time  in  connection  with 
the  shooting  of  an  elephant  on  forbidden  ground.  He, 
suspecting  me  of  base  designs,  refused  ab.solutely  to  be 
measured  on  the  plea  that  he  was  afraid  the  height*mea«nr- 
ing  standard  was  the  gallows.  Nor  would  he  let  me  take 
his  photograph,  doubtless  fearing  (though  he  had  never 
heard  of  Bertillonage)  lest  it  should  be  u«e(i  for  the  purpose 
of  criminal  identification. 

As  the  Badagas  are  the  fairest,  so  the  Irulas  are  the 
darkest-skiuned  of  the  Nilgiri  tribes.  The  name  Irula,  in 
fact,  as  has  often  been  pointed  out,  means  darkneaa  or 
blackness  (Tamil  irul)^  whether  in  reference  to  the  dark 
jungles  iti  which  the  Irulas,  who  have  not  become  domes- 
ticated by  working  as  contractors  or  coolies  on  planter's 
estates,  dwell,  or  to  the  great  darimess  of  their  skin,  is 
doubtful.  Though  the  typical  Irula  is  dark-skinned^  with 
broad  nose  and  high  nasal  index,  I  have  noted  some  who 
possessed  skins  of  markedly  faler  hue  and  narrow  noses. 
The  nasal  index  of  those  who  were  examined  ranged  be- 
tween 70  Goid  80  in  seven,  between  80  and  90  in  eleven,  and 
between  90  and  100  in  seven  cases;  the  height  of  the  nose 
ranging  between  4*8  and  3*9  cm.  and  the  breadth  between 
4-3  and  3*2  cm. 

The  language  of  the  Irulas  is  a  corrupt  form  of  Tamil. 
In  their  religion,  they  are  worshippers  of  Vishnu  under  the 
name  of  BangaswSimi,  to  whom  they  do  puja  at  their  own 
mde  shrinett,  or  at  the  Hindu  temple  at  Karamculai,  where 
Br&hman  priests  officiate.  In  his  '  Primitive  Tribes  of  the 
Nilgiris  ^  Breeks  says  that^  '^  an  Irula  puj&ri  lives  near  the 
temples,  and  ]*ings  a  bell  when  he  performs  puja  to  the  gods. 
He  wears  the  Vishnu  mark  on  his  forehead.  His  office  is 
hereditary,  and  he  is  remunerated  hj  offerings  of  fmit  and 
milk  from  Imla  worshippers.    Ba«h  irula  viUf^|;e  pays  about 


IRULA  WOMAN. 


11 

two  aimas  to  the  puj^ri  in  Maj  or  June.  They  say  that 
there  is  also  a  temple  at  KaUampalla  in  the  Sattijamanga- 
lam  taluk,  north  of  BangaBwfijni's  peak.  This  is  a  Siva 
temple,  at  which  sheep  are  sacrifioed :  the  pujd.ri  wears  the 
Siva  mark.  They  donH  know  the  difference  between  Siva 
and  Vishnu.  At  KaUampalla  temple  is  a  thatched  build- 
ing containing  a  stone  oaUed  Mariamma,  a  form  of  Durga^^ 
the  well-known  goddess  of  small-pox,  worshipped  in  this 
capacity  hy  the  Irulas.  A  sheep  is  led  also  to  this  temple, 
and  those  who  offer  the  sacrifice  sprinkle  water  oyer  it,  and 
out  its  throat.  The  pujftri  sits  bj,  but  takes  no  part  in  the 
ceremony.  The  bodj  is  cut  up,  and  distributed  among  the 
Irulas  present  including  the  pnjari.'^ 

A  village  on  a  coffee  estate,  which  I  inspected,  was,  at 
the  time  of  my  visit,  in  the  possession  of  pariah  dogs  and 
nude  children,  the  elder  children  and  adults  bein^  away  at 
work  on  the  estate.  The  village  was  protected  against 
nocturnal  feline  and  other  feral  marauders  by  a  rude  fence, 
and  consisted  of  rows  of  single-storied  dwelling  houses, 
with  verandah  in  front,  made  of  split  bamboo  and  thatched, 
detached  huts,  and  an  abundance  of  fowl-houses,  and  cu- 
cnrbitaceous  plants  twining  ap  rough  stages.  Surrounding 
the  village  were  a  dense  grove  of  plantion  trees,  castor-oil 
bushes,  and  cattle-pens. 

When  not  engaged  in  work  on  estates,  the  Irulas  culti- 
vate, for  their  own  consumption,  r£Lgi  '{ElevMne  Coracana)^ 
sftmai  (PanictMn  miliare),  tenai  {Setaria  italica),  tovarai 
{Ccyfanus  indiciai),  maize,  plantains,  &c.  They  will  not  attend 
to  cultivation  on  Saturday  or  Monday.  At  the  season  of 
sowing  Badagas  bring  cocoanuts,  plantains,  milk  and  ghi, 
and  give  them  to  the  Irulas,  who,  after  offering  them  before 
their  swami,  return  them  to  the  Badagas. 

'Ilie  Irulas  will  (so  they  say)  not  eat  the  flesh  of  buffaloes 
or  cattle,  but  will  eat  sheep  and  goat,  fowls,  deer  and  pig 
(which  they  shoot),  hares  (which  they  snare  with  skilfully 
made  nets),  jungle-fowl,  pigeons,  and  quail  (which  they 
knock  over  with  stones). 

The  Irulas,  as  a  rule,  have  one  wife.  A  young  man  of 
marriageable  age  selects  a  girl  for  himself,  and  gives  her 
parents  a  present  of  money,  varying  from  thirteen  to 
twenty-five  rupees,  as  a  dowry.  There  is  no  marriage  tftli. 
At  the  marriage  feast,  which  is  of  a  very  simple  nature,  a 
sheep  is  killed,  and  the  guests  make  a  present  of  four  to 


it 

eight  annas  to  the  bridegroom,  who  ties  up  the  money  in  a 
cloth  and  goes  to  the  bride's  house  to  conduct  her  to  her 
future  home.  Widows  are  permitted  to  re-many.  If  a 
woman  is  barwa,  her  husband  may  marry  a  second  wife, 
but  has  to  support  the  first. 

When  an  Irula  dies^  two  Eurumbas  bome  to  the  village^ 
and  one  shaves  the  head  of  the  other.  .  The  shorn  man  is 
fed  and  presented  with  a  cloth,  which  he  wraps  round  his 
head.  This  quaint  ceremonial  is  supposed,  in  some  way,  to 
bring  good  luck  to  the  departedr.  Outside  the  house  of  the 
deceased,  in  which  the  corpse  is  kept  till  the  time  of  the 
funeral^  men  and  women  dance  to  the  music  of  the  Irula 
band.  The  dead  are  buried  in  a  sitting  posture  with  the 
legs  crossed  taUorwise.  Each  village  has  its  own  burial 
ground.  A  circular  pit  is  dug,  from  the  lower  end  of  which 
a  chamber  is  excavated,  in  which  the  corpse,  clad  in  its 
own  clothes^  jewelry,  and  a  new  cloth^  is  placed  with  a  lamp 
and  grain.  The  pit  is  then  filled  in,  and  the  position  of 
the  grave  marked  by  a  stone.  The  following  description  of 
an  annual  memorial  service  was  given  to  me.  A  lampand 
oil  are  purchased,  and  rice  is  cooked  iu  the  village.  They 
are  then  taken  to  the  shrine  at  the  burial  ground^  offered 
upon  stones  on  which  some  of  the  oil  is  poured,  and  puja 
done.  At  the  shrine  a  pujari,  with  three  white  marks  on 
the  forehead  when  on  duty,  officiates.  Like  the  Badaga 
ddvad&ri,  the  Irula  puj&ri  at  times  becomes  inspired  by  the 
god. 

The  leading  characteristics  of  the  Irulas,  the  system  of 
tattooing,  and  personal  aj^omment,  are  summed  up  in  the 
following  cases  :> — 

1.  Man,  aged  30.  Sometimes  works  on  a  coffee  estate. 
At  present  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  various  grains, 
pumpkins,  jack-fruit,  and  plantains.  Goes  to  the  bazftr  at 
Mettup&laiyam  to  purchase  rice,  salt,  chillies,  oil,  &c. 
Acquires  agricultural  implements  from  Eotas  at  Eotagiri, 
to  whom  he  pays  annual  tribute  in  grain  or  money.  Wears 
brass  ear-rings  acquired  from  Eotas  in  exchange  for 
vegetables  and  fruit.  Wears  turban  and  plain  loin-cloth, 
wrapped  round  body  and  reaching  below  the  knees.  Bag 
containing  tobacco  and  betel  slung  over  shoulder  inside 
cloth.  Skin  very  dark.  Moustache  and  slight  beard.  Hair 
cut  short  in  front,  long  and  tied  in  a  knot  behind.  Hair 
feebly  developed  on  body  and  limbs.    Bushy  eye-browB| 


L 


PL.    VI 


•  •  • 

*  •  •  •  * 

•  •  • 


CO 

< 
-J 

D 

o 


o 

O 


•  •• 

*  •  •  ' 


13 


small,  twinkling  eyes.    Ban  oatstanding.   Prominent  dieek 


bon68. 


iips  thin,  not  eyeited 

I. 

Height 

168*6  cm. 

Weight 

100    lb. 

Ohest 

79*5  om. 

Shoulders 

37*8    ,. 

Span  of  arms 

168       „ 

Ouhit 

44*3    „ 

Hand,  length 

16*6    „ 

Foot,  length 
Gephalio  length 

23-7    „ 
18       „ 

Cephalic  breath 

13-5    „ 

Bigoniao 

9*8    „ 

Bizygomatic 

12-8    „ 

Nasal  height 

4-4    „ 

Nasal  breadth 

3-2    „ 

Nasal  index 

72*7 

Facial  angle  (of  Cuvie 

t)        . .           69 

2.  Man.  Body  cloth  as  No.  1  supplemented  by  coloured 
print  cloth  with  brass  buttons^  and  plain  loin-cloth.  Hair 
of  head  not  shaved  or  cut^  straggling  and  tied  in  a  knot 
behind.  Moustache,  untrimmed  whiskers,  and  billy-goat 
oeard.  Prominent  cheek-bones  and  zygomatic  ar^es* 
Silver  bangle  on  right  wrist. 

3.  Man.  GonjunctivsB  pigmented.  Slight  moustache. 
Bridge  of  nose  broad.  Hair  rising  in  very  stiff  curls  all 
over  head. 


4.  Man.  Pale  by  contrast  with  surrounding  men. 
when  undone  reaches  in  wavy  locks  to  middle  of  back. 
Ornamental  brass  ear-rings  in  each  lobe.  Brass  and  glass 
bead  ornaments  in  each  helix.  Steel  ring  on  left  little 
finger. 

5.  Man.  Wears  turban,  body-cloth  with  red  and  blue 
stripes,  and  loin-cloth.  Hair  curly  with  no  parting,  tied  in 
a  biot  on  top.  Brass  ear-ring  in  each  lobe.  Two  brass 
rings  on  left  little  finger. 

6.  Man.  Head  shaved  on  top  d  h  Hindu,  and  tied  in  a 
knot  behind. 

7.  Man.  Two  brass  rings  in  lobe  of  each  ear.  Silver 
bangle  on  right  wrist. 

8.  Man.  Brass  ear-ring  in  lobe  of  each  ear.  Brass 
bangle  on  right  wrist.  Greenish-yellow  irides.  Browm 
moustache. 


14 

9.  Thin  brass  ring  in  helix  of  each  ear.  Brass  link 
necklace. 

10.  Man.  Brass  ear-ring  of  Badaga  pattern  in  right 
lobe.  Brass  and  glass  ornament  in  left  lobe.  Brass  ring 
on  left  little  finger.     Grass  nacklaoe. 

11.  Man.  Ping  of  wood  in  lobe  and  helix  of  each  ear. 
One  brass  ring  and  two  steel  rings  on  left  little  finger. 

12.  Man.  Facial  angle  60""  (very  low  as  compared  with 
the  average). 

IS.  Man  suffering  from  leacoderma.  Skin  of  face 
black  with  pink  patch  on  forehead.  Skin  of  body  and 
extremities  pink  and  white  with  dark  and  light  brown 
patches.  Growing  bald.  Only  recc^^nisable  as  an  Imla 
by  yery  dark  face  and  broad  nose. 

14.  Boy,  8Bt.  10.  String  round  neck  and  right  wrist  to 
drive  away  sickness. 

15.  Woman,  aet.  30.  Height  144*8  am.  Hair  curly, 
without  parting,  tied  in  a  bunch  behind  round  black  cotton 
swab.  Wears  a  plain  waist-cloth  and  print  cotton  body- 
cloth,  worn  square  across  breasts  and  reaching  below  kn^ees. 
Tattooed  on  forehead.  A  ma^s  of  glass  bead  aecklaces. 
Gold  ornament  in  left  nostril.  Brass  ornament  in  lobe  of 
each  ear.  Eight  brass  bangles  on  right  wrist ;  two  brass 
;and  six  glass  bangles  on  left  wrist.  Five  brass  rings  on 
right  first  finger ;  four  brass  and  on€»  tin  ring  on  right  ring- 
finger. 

16.  Woman,  aet.  25.  Height  153'3  cm.  Hair  parted  in 
miiddle,  wavy,  tied  in  a  bunch  behind.  Bushy  eyebrows. 
l$.ed  c^jan  roll  in  dilated  lobes  of  ears.  Brass  and  glass 
"bead  ornament  in  helix  of  right  ear.  Brass  ornament  in 
left  nostril.  A  number  of  bead  necklets,  one  with  young 
^owry  shells  pendent,  another  consisting  of  a  heavy  roll  of 
black  beads.  The  latter  is  very  characteristic  of  Irula 
female  adornment  (pi.  vn).  One  steel  bangle,  eight  brass 
bangles,  and  one  chank-shell  bangle  on  rig^t  wrist ;  three 
lead,  six  glass  bangles,  and  one  glass  bead  bangle  on  left 
wrist ;  one  steel  and  one  brass  ring  on  left  little  finger. 

17.  Woman,  set.  36.  Wears  loin-cloth  only.  Breasts 
fully  exposed.  Gap  of  Badaga  pattern  on  head.  Massive 
brass  ornament  in  lobe  of  each  ear.  Brass  ornament  in  left 
nostril.  Thirteen  brass  and  two  lacquer  bangles  on  right 
forearm.     Four  brass  rings   on  right  thumb.     Four  brass 


IRULA  GIRI,. 


15 

rings  on  right  second  finger.  Five  brass  rings  on  right 
ring  finger.  Six  brass  rings  on  right  little  finger.  Five 
brass  rings  on  left  thumb.  Four  brass  rings  on  left  first 
finger.  Fonr  brass  rings  on  left  second  finger.  Seven 
brass  rings  on  left  ring  finger.  Seven  brass  rings  on  left 
little  finger. 

Brass  ring  on  second^  third  and  f onrth  toe  of  each  foot. 

18.  Woman,  aet.  30.  Elaborately  tattooed  across  fore- 
head. Bed  cajan  plug  in  lobe  of  each  ear.  Brass  and  glass 
bead  ornament  in  each  helix.  Silver  ornament  in  left  nos- 
tril. Brass  link  and  glass  bead  necklaces^  one  with  joxmg 
cowiy  shells  pendent,  A  black  thread  necklet  with  thread 
tassel  pendent.  Ten  brass  bangles,  one  chank^  and  one  bead 
bangle  on  right  wrist.  Two  sUver,  three  lead,  seven  glass, 
and  three  composition  bangles  on  left  wrist.  Two  silver 
rings  on  left  little  finger.  Two  brass  rings  on  right,  second 
toe. 

19.  Girl,  est.  16.  Red  cajan  rolls  in  lobe  of  each  ear. 
A  nomber  of  bead  necklets.  Three  steel  armlets  on  right 
forearm.  Nine  brass  bangles  and  one  chank  bangle  on 
right  wrist.  One  chank,  two  brass,  and  seven  glass  bangles 
on  left  wrist.  Fonr  brass  '  rings  on  right  little  finger  ; 
three  brass  rings  on  left  first  finger  ;  one  brass  and  one 
steel  ring  on  left  ring-finger. 

20.  Oirl,  ast.  14.  Height  1464  cm.  Length  of  foot 
237  cm.  (=16-2  relative  to  heights  100).  Very  &ir  in 
contrast  with  the  surrounding  men.  Bridge  of  nose  broad 
and  flat  (a  common  tvpe).  Body-cloth  of  striped  cotton, 
worn  straight  across  breasts,  and  reaching  below  knees. 
Print  cotton  cloth  thrown  over  shonlders  and  tied  in  knot 
in  front.  Wooden  plug  in  left  nostril.  Mass  of  glass  bead 
necklets.  Fonr  glass  bangles  on  left  wrist.  One  brass 
ring  on  left  ring-finger.  Two  base  metal  rings  on  right 
second  toe ;  a  single  base  metal  ring  on  left  second  toe. 

21.  Oirl,  ast  15.  Tattooed  on  forehead.  Pleasant  ex- 
pression  of  countenance.  Hair  without  parting,  long^  wavy. 
Mass  of  glass  bead  necklets.  Grold  ornament  in  lobe  of 
each  ear.  Five  glass  bangles  and  one  brass  bangle  on 
riffht  wrist ;  fonr  glass  bangles,  and  one  brass  bangle  on 
left  wrist. 

22.  Oirl^  est.  8.  Tattooed  on  forehead.  Lobe  of  each  ear 
being  dilated  by  a  number  of  wooden  sticks  like  matches. 
Two  glass  bead  necklets^  and  a  necklet  consisting  of  a 


16 

heavy  roll  of  black  beads.  Left  nostril  pierced.  Hair 
oat  short,  except  a  long  lock  carried  over  top  of  head  and 
behind  left  ear. 

23.  6irl^  set.  8.  Hair  parted  in  middle,  long,  wary. 
Bushy  eyebrows.  Long,  fine  hairs  on  forehead  merging 
into  hair  of  head.  (The  same  hairy  growth  on  the  fore- 
head I  have  noticed  as  being  very  prevalent  among  the 
Chemman  women  of  Malabar.)  Gold  ornaments  in  left 
nostril  and  in  lobe  of  each  ear.  One  brass  and  eight  glass 
bangles  od  right  wrist;  one  glass  bead  and  six  glass 
bangles  on  left  wrist. 

24.  Girl,  8Bt.  9.  Tattooed  on  forehead.  Wooden  plug  in 
left  nostril.  Mass  of  glass  bead  necklets,  one  with  pendent 
beads  and  cowries.  Nine  brass  bangles  on  right  wrist ; 
four  brass  bangles  on  left  vnrist. 

25.  Baby  in  arms.  Brass  ring  in  lobe  of  each  ear, 
Bteol  bangle  on  left  ankle. 


17 


TABLE  IL 

TABLE  OF  MEASUBEHENTS. 
I&ULA8. 


Max. 

Min. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
above. 

Mean 
below. 

Weight 

140 

90 

101 

125 

94 

Height              ...          •• 

168 

152 

159-8 

162-9 

156-8 

Height,  sitting 

86-8 

78-7 

82 

83-6 

80-4 

Height,  kneeling         

124-2 

111 

117-5 

119-9 

115-6 

Height  to  gladiolTiR 

124*6 

115-6 

118-7 

121-5 

116-9 

Span  of  arms               

179-6 

160 

169-8 

174-2 

165-2 

Chest                

89 

73 

79-4 

82-5 

76-6 

Middle  finger  to  patella 

14-6 

7 

10-7 

12-9 

9*4 

Shonlders          

42 

35-8 

38-5 

40 

37-7 

Cubit                 

49 

42-5 

45*8 

47-2 

44-4 

.Hand,  length                

191 

16-3 

17-5 

181 

16-7 

Hand,  breadth             

8-6 

7-3 

8-1 

8-4 

7-8 

Middle  finger               

12-3 

10-5 

11-3 

11-7 

10-9 

Hips 

26-9 

24-1 

25-4 

261 

24-8 

Foot,  length 

26-2 

23 

24-9 

25-5 

24-1 

Foot,  breadth               

9-4 

7-8 

8-7 

9 

8-3 

Cephalic  length           

191 

17 

18 

18-4 

17-6 

Cephalic  breadth         

14-3 

13-1 

13-7 

14 

13-3 

• 

Cephalic  index             

80-9 

70-8 

75-8 

78 

73-8 

Bigoniac            

11-1 

9-1 

9-7 

101 

9-3 

Bizjgomatic                 

13-4 

11-9 

12-7 

131 

12-3 

Mazillo -zygomatic  index 

84-6 

71-9 

75-7 

78-5 

72-7 

Nasal  height                

4-8 

3-9 

4-4 

4-6 

4*2 

Nasal  breadth             

4-3 

3-2 

3-7 

3-9 

3-6 

Nasal  index                 

100 

72-3 

84-9 

93-2 

78-4 

Vertex  to  tragus         

14-5 

11-6 

13-5 

13-9 

13-1 

Vertex  to  chin             

22*4 

19-2 

20-7 

21-4 

20 

Facial  angle                 

72 

60 

68 

70 

64 

Note, — The  resalts   are 
BnbjectB  f 


based    on  the   measurement  of  twenty-five 


18 

THE  PANIYANS  OP  MALABAR. 

The  Panijans  are  a  dark-skiniied  tribe,  short  in  stature, 
with  broad  noses  and  carlj  hair,  inhabiting  the  Wynad  and 
those  portions  of  the  Em&d,  Calient,  Knnunbranftd,  and 
Kottajam  talnks  of  Malabar  which  skirt  the  base  of  the 
ghftts,  and  the  Mndan&d,  Gherangdd,  and  Namblakdd 
amshams  of  the  Nilgiri  district. 

A  common  belief,  based  on  their  general  appearance, 
prevails  among  the  Baropean  planting  commnnitj  that  the 
Paniyans  are  of  African  origin,  and  descended  from  an- 
cestors who  were  wrecked  on  the  Malabar  coast.  This 
theory,  however,  breaks  down  on  investigation.  Of  their 
origin  nothing  definite  is  known.  The  Nair  Janmis  saj 
that,  when  surprised  in  the  act  of  some  mischief  or  alarmed, 
the  Fanijan  cs^s  ont  ^  Ippi ' !  ^  Ippi  M  as  he  runs  away,  and 
they  believe  this  to  have  been  the  name  of  the  country 
whence  they  came  origfinally ;  bat  they  are  ignorant  as  to 
where  Ippimala,  as  they  call  it,  is  situated.  Kapiri  (Africa 
or  the  Cape  P)  is  also  sometimes  suggested  as  their  original 
habitat,  but  only  by  those  who  have  had  the  remarks  df 
Europeans  communicated  to  them.  The  Paniyan  himself, 
though  he  occasionally  puts  forward  one  or  other  of  the 
above  places  as  the  home  of  his  fore-fathers,  has  no  fixed 
tradition  bearing  on  their  arrival  in  Malabar,  beyond  one  to 
the  efEect  thi^t  they  were  brought  from  a  far-country,  where 
they  were  found  Uving  by  a  ^ja,  who  captured  them^  and 
carried  them  off  in  such  a  miserable  condition  that  a  man 
and  his  wife  only  possessed  one  cloth  between  them,  and 
were  so  timid  that  it  was  only  by  means  of  huntiog  nets 
that  they  were  captured. 

The  number  of  Paniyans,  returned  at  the  Census  1891, 
Was  33,282,  and  nine  sub-divisions  were  registered ;  but,  as 
Mr.  H.  A.  Stuart,  the  Census  Commissioner,  observes : — 
"  Most  of  these  are  not  real,  and  none  has  been  returned 
by  any  considerable  number  of  persons.^'  Their  position 
is  said  to  be  very  little  removed  from  that  of  a  slave,  for 
every  Paniyan  is  some  landlord's  ^  man' ;  and,  though  he  is, 
of  course,  free  to  leave  his  master,  he  is  at  once  traced,  and 
good  care  is  taken  that  he  does^  not  get  employment  else* 
where. 

In  the  fifties,  when  planters  first  began  to  settle  iif  the 
Wynftd^  they  purchased  the  land  with  the  Paniyans  living 
on  it,  who  were  practically  slaves  of  the  land-owners.  The 
Paniyans  used  formerly  to  be  employed  by  rich  receivers  as 


PANIYAN  MAN. 


•  •• 

•  1 


«  • 


Id 

professional  coffee  thieves,  going  ont  by  niglit  to  strip  the 
bashes  of  their  berries,  which  were  delivered  to  the  receiver 
before  morning.  Unlike  the  Badagas  of  the  Nilgiris,  who 
are  also  coffee  thieves,  and  are  afraid  to  be  out  arter  dark^ 
the  Panijans  are  not  afraid  of  bogies  by  nighty  and  wonld 
not  hesitate  to  commit  noctnmal  depredations.  My  friend, 
Mr.  Gr.  Bomilly,  on  whose  estate  my  investigation  of  the 
Paniyans  was  mainly  carried'ont,  assures  me  that,  according 
to  his  experience,  the  domesticated  Paniyan^  if  well  paid,  is 
honest,  and  fit  to  be  entmsted  with  the  responsible  dnties 
of  night  watchman. 

In  some  localities,  where  the  Janmis  have  sold  the 
bulk  of  their  land,  and  have  consequently  ceased  to  find 
regular  employment  for  them,  the  Paniyans  have  taken 
kindly  to  working  on  coffee  estates,  but  comparatively  few 
are  thus  employed.  The  word  Paniyan  means  labourer, 
and  they  believe  that  their  original  occupation  was  agri- 
culture, as  it  is,  for  the  most  part,  at  the  present  day. 
Those,  however,  who  earn  their  livelihood  on  estates^  only 
cultivate  rice  and  r3.gi  {Eieusine  coracana)  for  their  own 
cultivation ;  and  women  and  children  may  be  seen  digging 
up  jungle  roots,  or  gathering  pot-herbs  for  food.  They  will 
not  eat  the  flesh  of  jackals^  snakes,  vultures,  lizards,  rats^  or 
other  vermin.  But  I  am  told  that  they  eat  land-crabs,  in 
lieu  of  expensive  lotions,  to  prevent  baldness  and  grey  hairs. 
They  have  a  distinct  partiality  for  alcohol,  and  those  who 
came  to  be  measured  by  me  were  made  more  than  happy  by 
a  present  of  a  two-anna  piece^  a  cheroot,  and  a  liberal  idlow- 
ance  of  undiluted  fiery  brandy  from  the  Mepp&di  bazftr. 
l^he  women  are  naturally  of  a  shy  disposition,  and  used  for- 
merly to  rnn  away  and  hide  at  the  sight  of  a  European. 
They  were  at  first  afraid  to  come  and  see  me,  but  confidence 
was  subsequently  established,  and  all  the  women  came  to 
visit  me,  some  to  go  through  the  ordeal  of  measurement^ 
others  to  laugh  at  and  ms^e  derisive  comments  on  those 
who  were  undergoing  the  operation. 

Practically  the  whole  of  the  rice  cultivation  in  the 
Wynftd  is  carried  out  by  the  Paniyans  attached  to  the  edoms 
(houses  or  places)  or  d^vasoms  (temple  property)  of  the 
great  Nair  landlords ;  and  Ghettiyars  and  Moplahs  also  fre- 
quently have  a  few  Paniyans,  whom  they  have  bought  or 
hired  by  the  year  at  from  four  to  eight  rupees  per  family 
from  a  Jenmi.    When  planting  paddy  or  herding*  caitlOi 


20 

the  Panijan  is  seldom  seen  without  the  kontayor  basket- 
work  protection  from  the  rain.  This  curious,  but  most  effec- 
tive substitute  for  the  umbrella-hat  of  the  Malabar  coast,  is 
made  of  split  reeds  interwoven  with  arrow- root  leaves,  and 
shaped  something  like  a  huge  inverted  coal-scoop  turned 
on  end,  and  gives  to  the  individual  wearing  it  the  appear- 
ance of  a  gigantic  mushroom.  From  the  nature  of  his  daily 
occupation  the  Panijan  is  often  brought  in  contact  with 
wild  animals,  and  is  generally  a  bold,  and,  if  excited,  as  he 
usually  is  on  an  occasion  such  as  the  netting  of  a  tiger,  a 
reckless  fellow.  The  young  men  of  the  villages  vie  with 
each  other  in  the  zeal  which  they  display  in  carrjring  out 
the  really  dangerous  work  of  cutting  back  the  jungle  to 
within  a  couple  of  spear-lengths  of  the  place  where  the 
quarry  lies  hidden,  and  often  make  a  show  of  their  indiffer- 
ence by  turning  and  conversing  with  their  friends  outside 
the  net. 

Tears  ago  it  was  not  unusual  for  people  to  come  long 
distances  for  the  purpose  of  engaging  Wyn&d  Paniyans  to 
help  them  in  carrying  out  some  more  than  usually  desperate 
robbery  or  murder.  Their  mode  of  procedure,  when  en- 
gao^ed  in  an  enterprise  of  this  sort,  is  evidenced  by  two 
cases,  which  had  in  them  a  strong  element  of  savagery.  On 
both  these  occasions  the  thatched  homesteads  were  sur- 
rounded at  dead  of  night  by  gangs  of  Paniyans  carrying 
large  bundles  of  rice  straw.  After  carefully  piling  up  the 
straw  on  all  sides  of  the  building  marked  for  destruction, 
torches  were,  at  a  given  signal,  applied,  and  those  of  the 
wretched  inmates  who  attempted  to  escape  were  knocked 
on  the  head  with  clubs,  and  thrust  into  the  fiery  furnace. 

The  Paniyans  settle  down  happily  on  estates,  living  in  a 
settlement  consisting  of  rows  of  huts  and  detached  huts^ 
single  or  double  storied,  built  of  bamboo  and  thatched. 
During  the  hot  weather,  in  the  unhealthy  months  which 
precede  the  advent  of  the  south-west  monsoon,  they  shift 
their  quarters  to  live  near  streams,  or  in  other  cool,  shady 
spots,  returning  to  their  head-quarters  when  the  rains  set  in. 

They  catch  fish  either  by  means  of  big  flat  bamboo  mats, 
or,  in  a  less  orthodox  manner,  by  damming  a  stream,  and 
poisoning  the  water  with  herbs,  bark,  and  fruit,  which  are 
beaten  to  a  pulp  and  thrown  into  the  water.  The  fish, 
becoming  stupified,  float  on  the  surface^  and  fall  an  easy 
and  UQ&irly  earned  prey. 


21 

The  Paniyan  language  is  a  debased  Malajalam  patois^ 
spoken  in  a  carioas  nasal  sing-song,  difficult  to  imitate ; 
but  most  of  the  Paniyans  employed  on  estates  can  also 
converse  in  Kanarese. 

Wholly  uneducated  and  associating  with  no  other  tribes, 
the  Paniyans  have  only  very  crude  ideas  of  religion. 
Believing  in  devils  of  all  sorts  and  sizes^  and  professing  to 
worship  the  Hindu  divinities,  they  reverence  especially  the 
god  of  the  jungles,  Ead  BagavSdi,  or  according  to  another 
version,  a  deity  called  Kuli,  a  malignant  and  terrible  being 
of  neither  sex,  whose  shrines  take  the  form  of  a  stone  placed 
under  a  tree,  or  sometimes  a  cairn  of  stones.  At  their  rude 
shrines  they  contribute  as  offerings  to  the  swftmi  rice 
boiled  in  the  husk,  roa.sted  and  pounded,  half-a-cocoanut, 
and  small  coins.  The  banyan  and  a  lofty  tree,  apparently 
of  the  fig  tribe,  are  reverenced  by  them,  inasmuch  as 
evil  spirits  are  reputed  to  haunt  them  at  times.  Trees 
80  haunted  must  not  be  touched,  and,  if  the  Paniycms 
attempt  to  cut  them,  they  fall  sick. 

Some  Paniyans  are  believed  to  be  gifted  with  the  power 
of  changing  themselves  into  animals ;  and  there  is  a  belief 
among  the  Paniyan  dwellers  in  the  plains  that,  if  they 
wish  to  secure  a  woman  whom  they  lust  after,  one  of  the 
men  gifted  with  this  special  power,  goes  to  her  house  at 
night  with  a  hollow  bamboo,  and  encircles  the  house  three 
times,  The  woman  then  comes  out,  and  the  man,  changing 
himself  into  a  bull  or  dog,  works  his  wicked  will.  The 
woman,  it  is  believed,  dies  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  dfeiys. 

Monogamy  appears  to  be  the  general  rule  among  the 
Paniyans,  but  there  is  no  obstacle  to  a  man  taking  unto 
himself  as  many  wives  as  he  can  afford  to  support. 

Apparently  the  bride  is  Eelected  for  a  young  man  by  his 
parents,  and,  in  the  same  way  that  a  wealthy  European 
sometimes  sends  his  betrothed  a  daily  present  of  a  bouquet, 
the  more  humble  Paniyan  bridegroom -elect  has  to  take  a 
bundle  of  firewood  to  the  house  of  his  fiancee  every  day 
for  six  months.  The  marriage  ceremony  (and  the  marriage 
knot  does  not  appear  to  be  very  binding)  is  of  a  very  simple 
nature.  The  ceremony  is  conducted  by  a  Paniyan  Chemi 
(a  corruption  of  Janmi) .  A  present  of  sixteen  fanams  (coins) 
and  some  new  cloths  is  given  by  the  bridegroom  to  the 
Chemi,  who  hands  them  over  to  the  parents  of  the  bride. 
A  feast  is  prepared,  at  which  the  Paniyan  women  (Panichis) 


!33 

danoe  to  the  music  of  drum  and  pipe.  The  t&li  (or  marriage 
badge)  is  tied  round  the  neck  of  the  bride  hj  the  female 
relations  of  the  bridegroom,  who  also  invest  the  bride  with 
such  crude  jewelry  as  they  may  be  able  to  afford.  The 
Ghemi  seals  the  contract  by  pouring  water  over  the  head 
and  feet  of  the  young  couple.  A  man  may,  I  was  told,  not 
have  two  sisters  as  wives ;  nor  may  he  marry  his  deceased 
wife's  sister.  Be-marriage  of  widows  is  permitted.  Adultery 
and  other  forms  of  vice  are  adjudicated  on  by  a  panchftyat 
(or  council)  of  headmen,  who  settle  disputes  and  decide 
on  the  fine  or  punishment  to  be  inflicted  on  the  gpiilty. 
At  nearly  every  considerable  Paniyan  village  there  is  a 
headman  called  Kuttan,  who  has  been  appointed  by  the 
Nair  Janmi  to  look  after  his  interests,  and  be  responsible  to 
him  for  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  village.  The  investi- 
ture of  the  Kuttan  with  the  powers  of  office  is  celebrated 
with  a  feast  and  dance,  at  which  a  bangle  is  presented  to 
the  Euttan  as  a  badge  of  authority.  Next  in  rank  to  the 
Euttan  is  the  Mudali  or  head  of  the  &mily,  and  they  usually 
constitute  the  panchayat.  Both  Euttan  and  Mudali  are 
called  Moopenmar  or  headman.  In  a  case  of  proved  adul- 
tery a  fine  of  sixteen  fanams  (the  amount  of  the  marriage 
fee),  and  a  sum  equal  to  the  expenses  of  the  wedding, 
including  the  present  to  the  parents  of  the  bride,  is  the 
usual  form  of  punishment. 

No  ceremony  takes  places  in  celebration  of  the  birth  of 
children.  One  of  the  old  women  of  the  village  acts  as  mid- 
wife, and  receives  a  small  present  in  return  for  her  services. 
As  soon  as  a  child  is  old  enough  to  be  of  use,  it  accompanies 
its  parents  to  their  work,  or  on  their  fishing  and  hunting 
expeditions,  and  is  initiated  into  the  various  ways  of  adding 
to  the  stock  of  provisions  for  the  household. 

The  dead  are  buried  in  the  following  manner : — A  trench, 
four  or  five  feet  deep,  and  large  enough  to  receive  the  body 
to  be  interred,  is  dug,  due  north  and  south,  on  a  hill  near 
the  village.  At  the  bottom  of  this  excavation  the  earth  is 
scooped  out  from  the  western  side  on  a  level  with  the  floor 
throughout  the  length  of  the  grave,  so  as  to  form  a  recep- 
tacle n>r  the  corpse,  which,  placed  on  a  mat,  is  laid  therein 
upon  its  left  side  with  the  head  pointing  to  the  south  and 
the  feet  to  the  north.  After  a  little  cooked  rice  has  been 
put  into  the  grave  for  the  use  of  the  departed  spirit,  the  mat, 
which  has  been  made  broad  enough  for  the  purpose,  is 


PL.   fX 


r 


% 


to 

z 
< 

z 
< 
a 

u. 
O 


o 
o 


w 


28 

folded  op  and  tucked  in  under  the  roof  of  the  cavity^  and 
the  trench  filled  up.  It  has  probablj  been  found  by  experi- 
ence that  the  corpse,  when  thus  protected,  is  safe  from  the 
ravages  of  scavenger  jackals  and  pariah  dogs.  For  seven 
days  after  death  a  little  hce  gruel  is  placed  at  distance  of 
from  fifty  to  a  hundred  yards  from  the  grave  by  the  Ghemi, 
who  claps  his  hands  as  a  signal  to  the  evil  spirits  in  the 
vicinity,  who,  in  the  shape  of  a  pair  of  crows,  are  supposed 
to  partake  of  the  food,  which  is  hence  called  kdka  conji 
or  crow's  rice. 

The  noombu  or  mourning  ceremonies  are  the  ti  polay, 
seven  days  after  death ;  the  k&ka  polay  or  karuvelli  held 
for  three  years  in  succession  in  the  month  of  Magaram 
(January-if^ebruary) ;  aud  the  matham  polay  held  once  in 
everv  three  or  four  years,  when  possible,  as  a  memorial 
service  in  honour  of  those  who  are  specially  respected. 
On  all  these  occasions  the  Ghemi  presides,  and  acts  as  a 
sort  of  master  of  the  ceremonies.  As  the  ceremonial 
carried  out  differs  only  in  degree,  an  account  of  the  kaka 
polay  wiU  do  for  all. 

In  the  month  of  Magaram  the  noombu  karrans  or 
mourners  (who  have  lost  relatives)  begin  to  cook  and  eat 
in  a  pandal  or  shed  set  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  village, 
bat  otherwise  go  about  their  business  as  usual.  They  wash 
and  eat  twice  a  day,  but  abstain  from  eating  meat  or  fish. 
On  the  last  day  of  the  months  arrangements  are  made, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Ghemi,  for  the  ceremony  which 
brings  the  period  of  mourning  to  a  close.  The  mourners, 
who  have  fasted  since  daybreak,  take  up  their  position  in 
the  pandal,  and  the  Ghemi,  holding  on  his  crossed  arms  two 
winnowing  sieves,  each  containiug  a  seer  or  two  of  rice, 
walks  round  three  times,  and  fineJly  deposits  the  sieves  in 
the  centre  of  the  pandal.  If,  among  the  male  relatives  of 
the  deceased,  one  is  to  be  found  sufficiently  hysterical,  or 
actor  enough,  to  simulate  possession  and  perform  the  func- 
tions of  an  oracle,  well  and  good ;  but  should  they  all  be 
of  a  stolid  temperament,  there  is  always  at  hand  a  pro- 
fessional corresponding  to  the  Komaran  or  Yillichip&d  of 
other  Hindus.  This  individual  is  called  the  Patalykaran. 
With  a  new  cloth  (mundu)  on  his  head^  and  smeared  on  the 
body  and  arms  with  a  paste  made  of  rice  flour  and  ghi 
(clarified  butter)^  he  enters  on  the  scene  with  his  legs  girt 
with  bells,  the  music  of  which  is  supposed  to  drive  aw;ay 
the  attendant  evil  spirits  (payan  mar).    Advancing  with 


24 

siiort  steps  and  roUing  his  6708,  he  staggers  to  and  frO^ 
sawing  the  air  with  two  small  sticks  which  he  holds  in 
either  hand^  and  works  himself  up  into  a  frenzied  state  of 
inspiration^  while  the  mourners  crj-  oat  and  ask  why  the 
dead  have  been  taken  away  from  them.  Presently  a  con- 
vulsive shiver  attacks  the  performer,  who  staggers  more 
violently  and  falls  prostrate  on  the  ground,  or  seeks  the 
support  of  one  of  the  posts  of  the  pandal,  while  he  gasps 
out  disjointed  sentences,  which  are  taken  to  be  the  words 
of  the  god.  The  mourners  now  make  obeisance,  and  are 
marked  on  the  forehead  with  the  paste  of  rice  flour  and  ghi. 
This  done,  a  mat  is  spread  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
headmen  and  Chemi ;  and  the  Patalykaran,  from  whose  legs 
the  bells  have  been  removed  and  put  with  the  rice  in  the 
sieves,  takes  these  in  his  hands,  and,  shaking  them  as  he 
speaks,  commences  a  funeral  chant,  which  lasts  till  dawn. 
Meanwhile  food  has  been  prepared  for  all  present  except 
the  mourners,  and  when  this  has  been  partaken  of,  dancing 
is  kept  up  round  the  central  group  till  daybreak,  when  the 
pandal  is  pulled  down  and  the  k&ka  polay  is  over.  Those 
who  have  been  precluded  from  eating  make  up  for  lost 
time,  and  relatives,  who  have  allowed  their  hair  to  grow 
long,  shave.  The  ordinary  Paiiiyaji  does  not  profess  to 
know  the  meaning  of  the  funeral  orations,  but  contents 
himself  with  a  belief  that  it  is  known  to  those  who  are 
initiated. 

The  women  attend  the  ceremony,  but  do  not  take  part 
in  the  dance.  In  fact,  the  nearest  approach  to  a  dance  that 
they  ever  attempt  (and  this  only  on  festive  occasions)  re- 
sembles the  ordinary  occupation  of  planting  rice,  carried 
out  in  dumb  show  to  the  music  of  a  drum.  The  bodies  of  the 
performers  stoop  and  move  in  time  with  the  music,  and  the 
arms  are  swung  from  side  to  side  as  in  the  act  of  placing 
the  rice  seedlings  in  their  rows..  To  see  a  long  line  of 
Paniyan  women,  up  to  their  knees  in  the  mud  of  a  rice  field, 
bobbing  up  and  down  and  putting  on  the  pace  as  the  music 

Sows  cmicker  and  quicker,  and  to  hear  the  wild  yells  of 
ou  !  Hon  !  like  a  chorus  of  hungry  dogs,  which  form  the 
vocal  accompaniment  as  they  dab  the  green  bunches  in  from 
side  to  side,  is  highly  amusing. 

The  foregoing  account  of  the  Paniyan  death  ceremonies 
was  supplied  by  Mr.  Colin  Mackenzie « to  whom,  as  also  to 
Mr.  Fred.  Fawcett,  Mr.  George  BomiUy,  and  Mr.  Martelli. 


PL.    X 


J   * 


PANIYAN    WOMAN. 


•        '  • 


w 


25 

I  am  indebted  for  man.7  of  the  facts  recorded  in  the  present 
note.  From  Mr.  Fawcett  the  following  account  of  a  farther 
ceremony  was  obtained : — 

At  a   Paniyan  Tillage^   on  a  coffee  estate  where  the 
annual  ceremony  was  being  celebrated^  men  and  boys  were 
dancing  round  a  wooden  upright  to  the  music  of  a  smaU 
drum  hanging  at  the  left  hip.     Some  of  the  dancers  had 
bells  round  the  leg  below  the  knee.     Close  to  the  upright 
a  man  was  seated,  playing  a  pipe,  which  emitted  sounds 
like  those  of   a  bagpipe.     In   dancing,  the  dancers  went 
round  against  the  sun.     At  some  Uttle  distance  a  crowd  of 
females  indulged  in  a  dance  by  themselves.   A  characteristic 
of  the  dance,  specially  noticeable  among  the  women^  was 
stooping  and  waving  of  the  arms  in  front.     The  dancers 
perspired  freely^  and  kept  up  the  dance  for  many  hours  to 
rhythmic  music,  the  tune  of  which  changed  from  time  to 
time.     There  were  three  chief  dancers,  of  whom  one  repre- 
sented the  goddess,  the  others  her  ministers.     They  were 
smeared  with  streaks  on  the  chest,  abdomen,  arms  and  legfs, 
had  bells  on  the  legs,  and  carried  a  short  stick  about  two 
feet  in  length  in  each  hand.     The  sticks  were  held  over  the 
head^  while  the  performers  quivered  as  if  in  a  religious 
frenzy.     Now  and  again  the  sticks  were  waved  or  beaten 
together.     The  Paniyans  believe  that,  when  tLo  goddess 
first  appeared  to  them,  she  carried  two  sticks  in  her  hands. 
The  mock  goddess  and  her  attendants,  holding  the  sticks 
above  the  head  and  shivering,  went  to  each  male  elder,  and 
apparently  received  his  blessing,  the  elder  placing  his  hand 
on  their  faces  as  a  form  of  salutation  and  then  applying  his 
hand  to  his  own  face.     The  villagers  partook  of  a  light  meal 
in  the  early  morning,  and  would  not  eat  again  until  the  end 
of  the  ceremony,  which  concluded  by  the  man-goddess  seat- 
ing himself  on  the  upright  and  addressing  the  crowd   on 
behalf  of  the  goddess  concerning  their  conduct  and  morality. 

Games.-^A.  long  strip  of  cane  is  suspended  from  the 
branch  of  a  tree,  and  a  cross-bar  fixed  to  its  lower  end.  On 
the  bar  a  boy  sits  and  swings  himself  in  all  directions.  In 
another  game  a  bar,  twelve  to  fourteen  feet  in  length,  is 
balanced  by  means  of  a  point  in  a  socket  on  an  upright 
reaching  about  four  feet  and-a-half  above  the  ground.  Over 
the  end  of  the  horizontal  bar  a  boy  hangs,  and,  touching 
the  ground  with  the  feet,  spins  himself  round. 

The  Paniyans  are,  as  already  stated,  of  low  stature, 
dark-skinned,  with  curly  hair  and  broad  noses.     The  great 


26 


breadth  relative  to  the  height  of  the  nose  is  brought  out 
by  the  following  table  of  nasal  indices,  which  ranged 
between  83*7  and  108-6  in  the  men,  and  between  82-5  and 
119'4  in  the  women  :— 


NASAL  INDEX. 

Men. 

No. 

Women. 

No. 

80-90 

•  • 

6 

80-90 

•  • 

6 

90-100 

•  • 

..        9 

90-100 

•  • 

2 

100-110 

•  • 

..      10 

100-110 

•  • 

3 

— 

110-120 

•  • 

1 

26 

— — 

12 

The  average  height  of  the  men,  according  to  my  obser- 
vations, is  157*4  cm.,  and  of  the  women  146  cm.  The  men 
have  verj  long  hands  and  feet.  The  average  length  of  the 
latter  (25  cm.j,  in  fact,  exceeds  the  average  breadth  of  the 
hips  (24-3  cm.)  by  '7  cm. — a  difference  in  favour  of  the  foot 
greater  than  in  any  of  the  other  tribes  which  I  have  as  yet 
investigated.  The  average  distance  from  the  middle  finger 
to  the  patella  is  (in  men)  only  4*6  cm.  relative  to  stature 
=  100,  and  approximates  very  closely  to  the  recorded 
results  of  measurement  of  long-limbed  African  Negroes. 

The  leading  characteristics  of  the  Paniyans^  and  their 
decoration  with  cheap  jewelry,  are  summed  up  in  the 
following  descriptive  cases  : — 

1.  MaD,  set.  30.  Of  sturdy  build  and  muscular.  Skin 
very  dark.  Hair  of  head  clipped  short  in  front  so  as  to 
form  a  fringe.  Long,  wavy  curls  reaching  down  to  shoul- 
ders. Long  tail  of  matted  hair  worn  as  a  vow^  hanging 
down  back.  Thread  tied  round  right  wrist  as  a  charm  to 
drive  away  fever,  from  which  he  suffers.  Hair  of  body  only 
well  developed  in  axLLlsB  and  over  pubic  region.  Conjunc- 
tivas injected  and  pigmented.  Iris  very  dark.  Large, 
pendulous  lobes  to  ears,  which  are  pierced.  Five  brass 
rings  in  right  ear,  four  in  left.  Nose  as  broad  as  high. 
Lips  thick,  everted.  Not  prognathous.  Three  copper,  three 
brass  rings,  and  a  single  steel  ring  on  right  ring-finger. 
Clothing  consists  of  a  plain  loin-cloth  reaching  below  knees, 
langati,  and  belt  of  European  design  round  loins. ; 


27 


•  • 


•  • 


Height    •  • 

Weight   .  . 

Chest 

Shoulders 

Span  of  arms 

Cubit 

Hand,  length 

Foot,  lensth 

Cephalic  length 

Cephalic  breadth 

Bigoniac 

Bizygomatic 

Nasal  height 

Nasal  breadth 

Nasal  index 

Facial  angle  (of  Cuvier) 


•  • 


154*6  cm 
94  lb. 
84  cm 
86-4 
160-4 
44 
17-5 
24*6 
18-4 
14 
10 
12-4 

3-8 

3-8 
100 
66° 


it 

fi 
n 
}t 
ft 
» 


2.  Man^  8Bt.  25.  Hair  of  head  a  dense  mass  of  short 
carls  with  no  parting.  Lower  lip  much  everted.  Lobes  of 
ears  large  and  pendulous.  Conjunctives  injected.  Square 
face.  IVasal  index  108*6.  Twelve  brass  rings,  removed 
from  fingers  while  he  is  at  work,  tied  up  in  loin-cloth. 
Thread  round  right  wrist  to  ward  ofE  fever. 

3.  Man,  set.  40-45.  Hair  exceptionally  well  developed 
on  chest,  abdomen,  legfs,  and  back.  Bald  on  top  of  head. 
Seven  steel  rings  on  little  finger. 

4.  Man,  set.  25.  Mass  of  tufted  curly  hair  standing  out 
like  a  mop.     Pot-bellied. 

6.  Man.  Steel  bangle  on  right  forearm.  Three  brass 
rings  on  each  ring-finger;  two  brass  rings  on  each  little 
finger.     Three  brass  rings  in  each  ear. 

6.  Man.  Two  brass  rings  on  right  little  finger;  one 
copper  and  one  steel  ring  on  left  little  finger* 

7.  Man.  Short,  thin,  matted  tail,  and  long,  broad, 
matted  tail  of  hair  hanging  down  back,  worn  as  a  vow* 

8.  Man.  Thread  round  left  ankle  as  a  charm  against 
sickness. 

9.  Man.  Chunam  (lime)  smeared  over  throat  to  cure 
cough. 

10.  Boy,  set.  8.  Long,  curly  hair  parted  in  middle  line. 
Brass  ear-ring^.     Steel  bangle  on  right  wrist. 

11.  Woman,  Jaet.  20-25.  Fat,  squat,  and  uncomely. 
Skin  very  dark.     Hair  of  head  a  dense  mass  of  short  cmls 


2S 


without  parting,  reaohing  behind  to  nape  of  neck.  Nose 
considerably  broader  than  long.  Lips  thick  and  everted. 
Lobes  of  ears  enormously  dilated  by  cajan  ornaments.  Iris 
very  dark.  Square  face.  Tattooed  with  a  circle  between 
eye  brows.  Two  brass  bangles  on  left  wrist.  Brass  ring  on 
left  little  finger.  Outer  clothing  consists  of  a  plain  dirty 
cloth  covering  the  body  and  tied  in  front  in  a  knot. 


Height           

.     144-8  cm. 

Weight          

.       92  lb. 

Shomders 

34-2  cm. 

Cubit  . . 

.       40-1    „ 

Hand,  length 

.       17      „ 

Foot,  length  . . 

23-4  „ 

Cephalic  length 

18       „ 

Cephalic  breadth 

.       13-7   „ 

Bigoniac 

.       10      „ 

Bizygomatic  . . 
Nascd  height 

.        12       „ 

31    „ 

Nasal  breadth 

3-7    „ 

Nasal  index  . . 

.      119-4 

Facial  angle  . .         • . 

66° 

12.  Woman,  ast.  25-30.  Long,  curly  hair  reaching  below 
shoulders.  Lobes  of  ears  completely  torn  across  as  the 
result  of  dilatation  by  cajan  ornaments.  Long,  brass  link 
ear-rings  in  helix  of  ears.     Steel  bangle  on  left  wrist. 

13.  Woman.  Thirty-one  brass  and  steel  rings  tied  up 
in  her  cloth.     Left  nostril  pierced  and  plugged  with  wood. 

14.  Woman.  Wears  string  round  neck  as  charm  to 
cure  sores. 

15.  Woman.  Hair  of  head  cut  short  all  over  as  a  sign 
of  mourning  for  her  dead  husband.  Four  brass  bangles  on 
left  forearm.     Glass  bead  necklet. 

16.  Girl,  set.  8.  Hair  in  long,  wavy  curls  ;  cut  in  front 
so  as  to  form  a  fringe.  Left  nostril  pierced  and  plugged 
with  wood.  Brass  ear-rings  in  helix  of  each  ear.  Lobes 
of  ears  being  gradually  dilated  by  cajan-roll  ornaments. 


29 


TABLE  m. 

SUHlfABY  OF  MEASUBEMEXTS. 
PANITAN  HEN. 


1 

Max. 

Min. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
above. 

1 

Mean 
below. 

Weight           ••>        ••• 

lao 

89 

99-6 

104 

94 

PTeigiit 

171-6 

152 

157-4 

161-4 

153-6 

79-4 

Height,  sitting          

87 

77-6 

81-3 

83-4 

Height ,  kneeling       

125-6 

111-7 

115-9 

118-6 

llS-9 

Height  to  gladiolns 

130-8 

111-4 

117-1 

120-1 

114-7 

Span  of  arms 

180-2 

148-4 

165-2 

170 

160-7 

Ohest  •  •  •         •  •  •         •  ••         •  •  • 

86-5 

77-5 

81-5 

83-4 

79-6 

Middle  finger  to  patella 

10-2 

4-2 

7-3 

8-5 

6-8 

Shoulders 

38-6 

342 

35-9 

36-9 

34-9 

Gq bit  ...         •  •  •         •  •  • 

49-4 

40 

45-3 

46-9 

44 

Hand,  length... 

20 

15 

18-5 

191 

17-7 

Hand,  breadth 

8-6 

7 

7-8 

8-2 

7-5 

Middle  finger 

12-1 

101 

11-4 

11-8 

iri 

xlipB      •*•            •••            ■••            •■• 

26-2 

23 

24-3 

25-1 

23-7 

Foot,  length   .. .         

26-7 

22-5 

25 

26 

24-2 

Foot,  breadth            

9 

7-7 

8-2 

8-5 

8 

Cephalic  length         

193 

175 

18-4          18-7 

18 

Cephalic  breadth       

14-9 

13 

13-6 

141 

13-3 
72 

Cephalic  index          

81-1 

69-4 

74 

76-3 

Bigoniac 

11-1 

91 

10 

10-4 

9-5 

Bisygomatio 

13-4 

11-8 

12-6 

13 

12*4 

Mazillo-zjgomatic  index     ... 

86-6 

72-7 

78-9 

80-9 

76-3 

Nasal  height 

4-8 

3-3 

4 

4-2 

3-7 

Nasal  breadth           

4-2 

3-2 

3-8 

4 

S-6 

Nasal  index 

108-6 

88-7 

95-1 

100-9 

88-2 

Vertex  to  tragus       

12-8 

11-6 

12-3 

12-6 

12 

Vertex  to  chin 

21 

18-5 

19-8 

201 

19-8 

Facial  angle              

71 

65 

67 

69 

66 

Note.—The  results  are 
snbjeots. 


based  on  the  measurements  of  twenty-five 


80 


TABLE  IV. 

summAby  of  measubkments. 

PANIYAN  WOXEN. 


Max. 

Min. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
aboTe. 

Mean 
below. 

Weight             ...         ••*         ••• 

101         72 

84-8 

92 

78-3 

Heig^ht ...         ...         ...         ... 

155 

1341 

146 

150-9 

141-2 
72-9 

Height,  sitting           

80*8 

71-6 

751 

78-3 

Height,  kneeling        

114-6 

100 

107-9 

111-4 

104-4 

Span  of  arms 

161-2 

138-8 

152 

166-9 

146-4 

ShoolderB 

36*8 

31-5 

33-2 

34-4 

32-4 

Cubit    ... 

43*8 

37-8 

43-3 

43-5 

40-7 

Hand,  length 

18-8 

15-5 

171 

18 

16-6 

Hand,  breadth            

7-6 

6-8 

7-2 

7-5 

7 

Middle  finger 

11-7 

9-8 

10-8 

11-3 

10-4 

Foot,  length 

24-2      20-7 

22-8 

28*6 

21-9 

Foot,  breadth 

8-1  ',      7-1 

'7-6 

7-8 

7-3 

Cephalic  length          

18-5  j    17 

17-5 

18-1 

17-2 

Cephalio  breadth        

13-7 

12-2 

13-1 

13*4 

12-8 

Cephalio  index 

80-6 

70-8 

74-9 

77-3 

72-6 

Bigoniac 

10 
12-9 

9 

9-5 

9-7 

9-3 
11-9 

Bizygomatic 

11-7 

121 
78-5 

12-5 

Maxillo-sygomatio  index 

83-3 

78-2 

81 

76-2 

Nasal  height 

4-3 

31 

3-6 

4 

34 

Kasskl  breadth             

3-7 

3 

3-4 

3-6 

3-2 

Nasal  index 

119-4 

82-5 

94-3 

105-7 

87-6 

Vertex  to  tragus        

12-6 

11-4 

11-9 

12-3 

11-7 

Vertex  to  chin            

19-8 

17-7 

18-5 

19-1 

18 

Facial  angle 

72 

64 

67 

69 

65 

Note, — The  results  are  based  on  the  measurements  of  twelve  subjects. 


31 


ON  A  CHINESE-TAMIL  CROSS. 

Halting  in  tbe  coarse  of  a  recent  anthropological  ex- 
pedition on  the  western  side  of  the  Nilgiri  plateau,  in  the 
midst  of  the  Goyernment  Cinchona  plantations^  I  came  across 
a  small  settlement  of  Chinese,  who  have  squatted  for  some 
years  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills  between  Nadnyatam  and 
Gudaltir,  and  developed,  as  the  resalt  of  '  marriage '  with 
Tamil  pariah  women,  into  a  colony,  earning  an  honest  liveli- 
hood hy  growing  vegetables,  cultivating  coffee  on  a  small 
scale,  and  adding  to  their  income  from  these  sources  hy  the 
economic  products  of  the  cow.  An  ambassador  was  sent 
to  this  miniature  Chinese  Court  with  a  suggestion  that  the 
men  should^  in  return  for  monies,  present  themselves  before 
me  with  a  view  to  their  measurements  being  recorded.  The 
reply  which  came  back  was  in  its  way  radaUy  character- 
istic as  between  Hindus  and  Chinese.  In  the  case  of  the 
former,  permission  to  make  use  of  their  bodies  for  the  pur- 
poses of  research  depends  essentially  on  a  pecuniary  trans- 
action, on  a  scale  varying  from  two  to  eight  annas.  The 
Chinese,  on  the  other  hand,  though  poor,  sent  a  courteous 
message  to  the  effect  that  they  did  not  require  payment  in 
money,  but  would  be  perfectly  happy  if  I  would  give  them, 
as  a  memento,  copies  of  their  photographs. 

The  measurements  of  a  single  family,  excepting  a 
widowed  daughter  whom  I  was  not  permitted  to  see,  and 
cm  infant  in  arms,  who  was  pacified  with  cake  while  I  in- 
vestigated its  mother,  are  recorded  in  the  following  table  : 


TABLE  V. 


Cephalic 
length. 

Cephalic 
breadth. 

0 

76-8 
78-5 

Nasal 

height. 

Nasal 
breadth. 

Nasal 
index. 

Tamil  Pariah 

Mother  of  children. 

181 
18-6 
17-6 

13-9 

14-6 

141 

14-3 

14 

13-7 

4-7 
5-3 

3-7 
3-8 
3-2 
3-3 
3-3 
2-8 

78-7 
71-7 

Chinese        

Father  of  children. 

Chinese-Tamil 

Girl,  aged  16 

801 
79 
82-4 
801 

4-7 

4« 
4-4 
41 

681 

Chinese-Tamil        ...    B07,  aged  10 

181 
17 

71-7 

Chinese-Tamil 

Boy,  aged  9 

72-7 
68-3 

Chinese-Tamil 

Boy,  aged  5 

17-1 

32 

Tlie  father  was  a  typical  Gbinaman,  whose  only  griev- 
ance was  that,  in  the  process  of  conversion  to  Christianity, 
he  had  been  obliged  to  '  cut  him  tail  off.'  The  mother  was 
a  typical  Tamil  Pariah  of  dusky  hue.  The  colour  of  the 
children  was  more  closely  allied  to  the  yellowish  tint  of  the 
father  than  to  the  dark  tint  of  the  mother  ;  and  the  semi- 
mongol  parentage  was  betrayed  in  the  slant  eyes,  flat  nose, 
and  (in  one  case)  conspicuously  prominent  cheek-bones. 

To  have  recorded  the  entire  series  of  measurements  of 
the  children  would  have  been  useless  for  the  purpose  of 
comparison  with  those  of  the  parents,  and  I  selected  from 
my  repertoire  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  head  and  nose, 
which  plainly  indicate  the  paternal  influence  on  the  ex- 
ternal anatomy  of  the  offspring.  The  figures  given  in  the 
table  bring  out  very  clearly  the  great  breadth,  as  compare^ 
with  the  length  of  the  heads  of  all  the  children,  and  the 
resultant  high  cephalic  index.  In  other  words,  in  one  case 
a  mesaticephalic  (79),  and,  in  the  remaining  three  cases,  a 
sub-brachycephaiic  head  (80*1  ;  801  ;  82'4)  has  resulted 
from  the  union  of  a  mesaticephalic  Chinaman  (78*5)  with  a 
sub-dolichocephalic  Tamil  Pariah  (768).  How  great  is  the 
breadth  of  the  head  in  the  children  may  be  emphasised  by 
noting  that  the  average  head-breadth  of  the  adult  Tamil 
Pariah  man  is  only  13'7  cm.,  whereas  that  of  the  three 
boys,  aged  ten,  nine,  and  five  only,  was  14'3, 14,  and  13*7 
cm.  respectively. 

Quite  as  strongly  marked  is  the  effect  of  paternal  influ- 
ence on  the  character  of  the  nose  ;  the  nasal  index,  in 
the  case  of  each  child  (681  ;  717  ;  72*7  ;  683),  bearing 
a  much  closer  relation  to  that  of  the  long  nosed  father 
(71 '7)  than  to  the  typical  Pariah  nasal  index  of  the  broad- 
nosed  mother  (78*7). 

It  will  be  interesting  to  note,  hereafter,  what  is  the 
future  of  the  younger  members  of  this  quaint  Kttle  colony, 
and  to  observe  the  physical  characters,  temperament,  im- 
provement or  deterioration,  fecundity,  and  other  points 
relating  to  the  cross-breed  resulting  from  the  union  of 
Chinese  and  Tamil. 


38 

NOTE  ON  A  CHEBUMAN  SKULL. 

The  Gheramaiis  are  a  large  caste,  of  low  stature,  very 
dark-skinned,  and  platjrrhinian  (with  wide  nasal  skeleton), 
inhabiting  Malabar,  where  they  were  formerly  agrestio 
slaves,  and  now  work  for  the  most  part  as  field  labourers. 

The  skull,  which  forms  the  subject  of  the  present  note, 
is  that  of  an  old  man  without  the  lower  jaw. 

Alveolar  process  of  superior  maxilla  absorbed.  Superci- 
liary ridges  feebly  developed.  Serrations  of  coronal  suture 
between  frontal  and  parietal  bones  not  developed  for  about 
3*6  cm.  on  each  side  of  the  median  line  ;  lateral  serrations 
Hue.  Serrations  of  sagittal  and  lambdoid  sutures  coarse. 
Parietal  eminences  very  prominent,  the  skull  narrowing 
gradually  from  a  breadth  oi  13'1  cm.  across  these  eminences 
to  a  maximum  breadth  of  10*6  cm.  across  the  lateral  sur- 
faces of  the  frontal  bone.  A  small  wormian  bone,  1*6  cm. 
long  and  1  cm.  maximum  breadth,  in  the  position  of  the 
anterior  fontaneUe  at  the  junction  of  the  coronal  and  sagit- 
tal sutures.  A  large  wormian  bone,  2  cm.  long  and  3  cm. 
maximum  breadth,  in  the  position  ofthepiHterior  fontaneUe 
at  the  junction  of  the  sagittal  and  lambdoid  sutures.  Axes 
of  orbits  nearly  horizontal. 

Profile  of  nasal  bones  concave.  Nasal  spine  large. 
Antero-posterior  arch  elevated  in  parietal  reg^ion.  Hori- 
zontal arch  prominent  in  parietal  region.  Transverse  aroh 
somewhat  pointed  in  parietal  region. 

Max :  length  from  glabella  ••         . .  17*5  cm. 

Max :  transverse  breadth  ..         •.  18*1    ,-, 

Cephalic  index        . .         .  •         . .         •  •  74*9 
Min  :  frontal  breadth        . .         . .         • .  9*1  cm. 

Horisontal  circumference . .         . .  50       ,, 
Ant-posterior  curve  (nasion  to  basion)  : — 

Frontal  Tape  12*3  cm.  Callipers  10*5  cm. 

Parietal*    ..  Do.    14-7    „         Do.  12-2  „ 

Occipital    ..  Do.    14       „        Do.  10-5   „ 

Basio-nasal  length.  •  ..         ..  9*4  cm. 

Basio-alveolar  length         8*2   ,, 

Bisygomatic  breach  • .  12*3 

Nasio-alveolar  length  5*1 

Nasal  height  . .         •  •         •  •  4*6   „ 

Nasal  breadth  . .  2*4   ,, 

Nasal  index  . .         • .  54*3 

Orbital  breadth        3*9  cm. 

Orbital  height         ..  2-8  „ 

•  laolnding  womuui  bonat* 


9t 


34 

Tbe  followiag  averages  of  the  head-measurements  of 
twentj-fiye  living  Ghemman  men  are  recorded  for  compari- 
son, so  far  as  is  possible,  with  those  of  the  single  sknll : — 

hiving  Bubjeot.    Skull. 


•  • 


CM. 

CM. 

18-3 

17-6 

13-5 

131 

73-9 

74-9 

9-9 

.  • 

12-6 

12-3 

79-6 

•  • 

4-4 

4-6 

3-4 

2-4 

781 

64-3 

Cephalic  length 
Gephalic  breadth 
Cephalic  index 
Bigoniac 
Bizygomatic 
MaxUlo*zy»)matic  index 
Nasal  height 
Nasal  breadth 
Nasal  index 

A  character,  with  which  I  am  very  familiar,  when  mea- 
soring  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  Natives  of  Southern  India, 
and  is  well  marked  in  the  Gheruman  skull  and  skulls  of 
Pariahs,  ^  Hindus,'  ^  Telugus'  and  a  Brahman  in  my  posses- 
sion, is  the  absence  of  convexity  of  the  segment  formed  by 
the  posterior  portion  of  the  united  parietal  bones.  The 
result  of  this  absence  of  convexity  is  that  the  back  of  the 
head,  instead  of  forming  a  curve  gradually  increasing  from 
the  top  of  the  head  towards  the  occipital  region,  as  in  the 
Buropean  skull  figured  in  plate  xi.  1,  lorms  a  flattened  area 
of  considerable  length  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  base  of 
the  skull  as  in  the  ^  Hindu  '  skull  represented  in  plate  xi.  2. 
And  to  the  existence  of  this  character  is  due,  in  large  measure, 
the  short  length  of  head  in  Irulas,  Kongas  and  Koramans, 
which  is  referred  to  hereafter  (p.  50). 

Some  time  ago,  when  passing  through  the  Museum  library, 
I  found  a  student  busily  engaged  in  copying  extracts  from 
one  of  my  publications,  and  eymrathetioally  asked  him  with 
what  object  he  was  so  doing.  The  uncomplimentary,  but 
innocent,  reply  came  forth  :  "  Unfortunately  for  us  it  is  one 
of  our  text- books."  The  same  fate  is  presamably  de.stined 
for  the  present  bulletin,  which  will,  I  fear,  have  to  be 
studied  by  candidates  for  the  M.A.  degree  of  the  Madras 
University  in  history,  which  includes  ethnology  with  spe- 
cial reference  to  the  Indian  Peninsula.  It  is,  therefore,  not 
out  of  place  to  record  {vide  Tables  vi  and  vii)  as  a  lesson  in 
comparative  craniometry,  the  more  important  measurements 
of  a  series  of  skulls,  the  property  of  the  Madias  Medical 
College,  which  constitute  a  loan-coUectiou  ia  th#  anthro- 
pologioal  section  ol  ilie  Museum,  where  they  are  aviolable 


SKULLS  OF  EUROPEAN  AND  HINDU. 


t 


r 


35 

for  Btady.  The  number  of  the  skulls  is  oonf essedly  small 
for  the  purpose  of  generalisatioo,  but  analysiB  of  the  mea- 
surementSj  combined  with  examination  of  the  skulls^  will 
nevertheless  not  be  labour  lost.  As  a  guide  to  the  main 
points  which  should  be  observed,  the  following  summary 
may  be  of  use  : — 

{a)  The  greater  maximum  length  and  horizontal  circum- 
Ference  of  the  skulls  of  the  Europeans  and  Jew,  as  compared 
with  the  others. 

(b)  The  brachycephalic  character,  and  consequent  high 
cephalic  index  of  the  Mongolian^  Andamanese,  Ginghalese, 
and  Burmese  skulls. 

(0)  The  prevailing  narrow  frontal  region  of  the  skulls 
of  the  four  South  Indian  classes,  Muhammadans,  Hindus, 
Brahman,  and  Gheruman. 

{d)  The  difference  between  the  nasal  skeletons  of  the 
platyrrhine  (broad-nosed)  Negro,  with  high  nasal  index,  and 
the  leptorrhine  (narrow-nosed)  European. 

(e)  The  marked  prognathism  of  the  skulls  of  Negroes. 


TABLE  VI. 
COliPABISOV  OF  HEASUBEHENTB  OP  BECLLS. 


1 

II 

1 

1 
1 

i 

1 
1 

B"°P~-    

19 

14-2 

74-7 

9-9 

BE 

4-7 

2-6 

GS-2  1 

18-6 

14-6 

78-6 

9-7 

68-6 

6-6 

a-i 

87-6 

J«w 

19S 

14-9 

741 

lD-6 

fiB-3 

6-8 

2-6 

44-8 

Uah>miud>D         ... 

18-S 

IS 

71-4 

9-2 

61-6 

5-2 

2-6 

GO 

UahMiin«dBii 

17-2 

18-6 

7frl 

9-a 

16-6 

46 

8-4 

GO 

17-6 

13'S 

76-7 

8-7 

60-2 

43 

2-1 

48-8 
66-8 

MnbammMan 

17-6 

12-6 

72 

9-1 

4»7 

4-4 

2-G 

Tunfl  HindD 

17-6 

13-G 

77-1 

9-3 

SI 

47 

2 

42-6 

TunaHindn 

17-6 

181 

74-9 

91 

49-8 

6-4 

2-6 

«-3 

TunU  Hindu 

178 

12-9 

74-« 

9-1 

60 

48 

2-6 

621 

Tamil  Hiiidn 

18 

13-4 

7*4 

10 

Sl-G 

4-6 

2-6 

67-8 

TMon  HiBdD 

IB'4 

13S 

Tii 

9i 

m 

4-8 

21 

48-8 

Tamil  Hindu 

17-4 

13 

74-7 

9-6 

GO 

6 

S'G 

60 

Tamil  Hindu 

IS 

13-4 

74-4 

9-1 

618 

4'9 

2-6 

61 

Brthman      

17-7 

is-s 

761 

91 

49-7 

4-6 

26 

66-6 

17-6 

18-1 

749 

9] 

GO 

4-6 

2-4 

622 

»»«To 

17'1 

]2'9 

7S-4 

9 

49-6 

4-6 

2'4 

688 

ITagro 

17-8 

12-9 

7^6 

9'» 

61 

4-6 

2-8 

60-9 

««»rii« 

17-6 

14'S 

81-2 

9'G 

621 

4-8 

2-6 

64-2 

Mongolian 

17-8 

14-G 

ei-6 

9-S 

62-S 

6-2 

S-6 

60 

16-1 

13-4 

88-2 

8-G 

48 

4 

61 

2-2 

6C 

Otoghah* 

17-4 

14-8 

86-1 

9-9 

68 

2-6 

48-1 

BumMO      

16-4 

14-8 

86-6 

Iti 

61-8 

B-4 

S-G 

4»8 

37 


TABLE  VII. 


AYEBAGES  OF  MEASUREMENTS  OF  SKULLS. 


.a 

Si 

I* 


10 


2  Europeans 


1  Jew 


4  Mnhanimadans 


7  Hindus 


1  Brfthman 

1  Ghemman 

2  Kegroes 


2  Mongolians 


1  Andaxnanese 


1  Ginghalese 


I  Burmese 


18-8      14-4 


19-3 


,    17-6 


17-7 
17-7 
17-5 


17-5 


17-7 


14-9 


13-2 


18-3 


13-3 


131 


12-9 


-a 


76-6 
74-1 


74-8 


75 


75 


14-4 


161      13-4 


17-4      14-8 


16-4  !    14-2 


74-9 

74 

81*4 


83-2 


85*1 


86*6 


S 

§ 

4: 


a1 


a 

g 

s « 
Is 

W 


■*3 

•a 

o 


<4> 

I 


e8 


M 

a 


9-8 

54-3 

5-2 
5-8 
4-7 
4-9 
4-5 
4-6 

2-3 
2-6 
2-4 
2-4 
2-5 
2-4 
2-6 
2-6 
2-2 
2-5 

2*5 

1 

45-4 

10-8 

50-3 

44-8 

91 

50-3 

51-4 

9-4 

60-1 

49-1 

91 

49-7 

55*6 

91 

50 

54-8 

9-5 

50-8 

4-6 

5 

4 
5-2 

67-2 

9-4 

525 

521 

8*5 

48 

55 

9-9 

58 

481 

9-8 

51-3 

5-4 

4C3 

38 

KUBXJBA  OR  KURUMBA  P 

As  an  introdaction  to  the  study  of  this  intricate  qnes- 
tion,  it  will  be  best  to  commence  hy  quoting  the  opinions  of 
yariooB  writers,  who  have  entered  superficially  into  it. 

Madras  Census  Report,  1891. — ''The  Eurumbas  or 
Eurubas  are  numerous  in  Kumool,  Cuddapah,  BeUary, 
Anantapur,  North  Arcot,  South  Arcot,  8alem,  Coimbatore, 
Trichinopoly  and  Madura.  They  are  the  modem  represent- 
atives of  the  ancient  Kurumbas  or  Pallavas,  who  were  once 
so  powerful  throughout  Southern  India,  but  very  little  trace 
of  their  greatness  now  remains.  In  the  seventh  century  the 
power  of  the  PaUava  Kings  seems  to  have  been  at  its 
zenith ;  but  shortly  after  this,  the  Eongu,  Oh61a  and  Gha- 
16kya  chiefs  succeeded  in  winning  several  victories  over 
them.  The  final  overthrow  of  the  Eurumba  sovereignty 
was  effected  by  the  Gh6]a  king  Adondai  about  the  seventh 
or  eighth  century  A.D.,  and  the  Eurumbas  were  scattered 
far  and  wide.  Many  fled  to  the  hills,  and  in  the  Nilgiris 
and  the  Wynaad,  in  Goorg  and  Mysore,  representatives  of 
this  ancient  race  are  now  found  as  wild  and  uncivilised 
tribes.  Elsewhere  the  Eurumbas  are  more  advanced,  and 
are  usually  shepherds  and  weavers  of  coarse  woollen 
blankets.  ^^ 

"  Euruman. — This  caste  is  found  in  the  Nilgiris  and  the 
Wynaad,  with  a  slight  shrinkling  in  the  Nilamb6r  and 
Attap&di  hills  in  Malabar.  Their  principal  occupations  are 
wood-cutting  and  the  collection  of  forest  produce.  The 
name  is  merely  another  form  of  Eurumban,  but,  as  they 
differ  considerably  from  the  ordinary  Eurumbas,  it  seemed 
better  to  show  them  separately.  I  think,  however,  that 
they  were  originally  identical  with  the  shepherd  Eurumbans, 
and  their  present  separation  is  merely  the  result  of  their 
isolation  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  Western  Ghats,  to  which 
their  ancestors  fled  or  gradually  retreated  after  the  down- 
fell  of  the  Eurumba  dynasty.  The  name  Eurumbran&d,  a 
sub-division  of  Malabar,  still  bears  testimony  to  their  once 
powerful  position." — H.  A.  Stuabt. 

Mysore  Gensus  Report,  1891 — E&du  Euruba  or  Eurumba. 
— ''  The  tribal  name  of  Euruba  has  been  traced  to  the  pri- 
meval occupation  of  the  race,  viz.,  the  tending  of  sheep,  per- 
haphs  when  pre-historic  man  rose  to  the  pastoral  stage.  The 
civilised  tlor  ru  Eurubas,  who  are  genuine  tillers  oi  the  soil, 
and  who  are  dotted  over  the  country  in  populous  and  thriv- 
ing communities,  and  many  of  whom  have  under  the  present 
'  Paz  Britannica '  further  developed  into  enterprising  trades- 


KURUBA  MAN. 


•ir 


39 

men  and  withal  lettered  Government  officials^  are  tbe  yeiy 
antipodes  of  the  K&du  or  wild  Knrabas  or  Knrnmb&s.  The 
latter,  like  the  Iruligds  and  S61igds,  are  the  denizens  of  the 
south  and  sonth-western  backwoods  of  the  coontrjr^  and 
have  been  correctlj  classed  onder  the  aboriginal  popula- 
tion/'— V.  N.  Narasimaiybnqar. 

Oppert  :  Original  inhabitants  of  India — ^Kurubas  or 
Kurumbas. — '^  However  separated  from  each  other  and 
scattered  among  the  Dravidian  clans  with  whom  thej  have 
dwelt,  and  however  distant  from  one  another  they  still  live, 
there  is  hardly  a  province  in  the  whole  of  Bharatavarasha 
which  cannot  produce^  if  not  some  living  remnants  of  this 
race,  at  least  some  remains  of  past  times  which  prove  their 
presence.  Indeed  the  Kurumbas  must  be  regarded  as  very 
old  inhabitants  of  this  land,  who  can  contest  with  their 
Dravidian  kinsmen  the  priority  of  occupation  of  the  Indian 
soil." 

^^  The  terms  Kuruba  and  Eurumba  are  originally  iden- 
tical, though  the  one  form  is  in  different  places  employed  for 
tbe  other,  and  has  tbus  occasionally  assumed  a  special  local 
meaning.  Mr.  H.  B.  Grigg  appears  to  contradict  himself 
when,  while  speaking  of  the  Kurumbas,  he  says  that  ^  in 
the  low  country  they  are  called  Kurubas  or  C6rnbdru,  and 
are  divided  into  numerous  families,  such  as  the  An^  or  ele- 
phant, n&ya  or  dog,  M&l^  or  hill  Kurumbas.'  ^  Such  a  dis- 
tinction between  mountain-Kurumbas  and  plain -Kurubas 
cannot  be  established.  'Fhe  Bev.  G.  Bichter  will  find  it 
difficult  to  prove  that  the  Kurubas  of  Mysore  are  only  called 
so  as  shepherds,  and  that  no  connection  exists  between 
these  Kurubas  and  the  Karumbas.  M  r.  Lewis  Bice  calls  the 
wild  tribes  as  well  as  the  shepherds  Kurubas,  but  seems  to 
overlook  the  fact  that  both  terms  are  identical,  and  refer 
only  to  the  ethnological  distinction. 

'^  The  stunted  growth  of  animals  and  plants  in  cold,  wet, 
and  high  elevations  is  a  well-known  natural  law^  to  which 
the  human  species  has  also  to  submit.  In  consequence  of 
their  loneliness  and  comparative  physical  weakness,  the 
small  mountaineers,  when  they  meet  their  taller  but  less 
clever  neighbours  of  the  plains,  display  often  a  spiteful  dis- 
trust, use  poisoned  arrows,  and  frighten  them  by  their 
mysterious  proceedings  into  abject  superstition.  This  is 
tins  reason  why  the  Kurumbas  of  the  Nilgiri  hills  are  so 
shunned/^ 

«  Manual  of  the  NOgiri  District,  1880, 


40 

King  :  Aboriginal  Tribes  of  the  Nilgiri  ELille— Kumxnbas. 
— *^  This  tribe  is  of  another  raoe  from  the  shepherd  Kq- 
rambas,  described  bj  Sir  Walter  Elliot  as  having  a  distinct 
priesthood,  and  worshipping  the  god  Bhyra.  The  Nilgiri 
tribe  have  neither  cattle  nor  sheep,  and,  in  language,  dress, 
and  customs^  have  no  affinity  whatever  with  their  name- 
sakes." 

The  above  extracts  amply  suffice  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  that  the  distinction  between  Kuruba  and  Kurumba, 
and  their  relationship  towards  each  other^  call  for  a  '  perma- 
nent settlement'  by  the  application  of  scientific  methods ;  and 
the  problem,  which  is  no  easy  one,  appears  to  depend  essen« 
tially  on  anthropometric  observations  and  a  study  of  physical 
characters  for  its  solution.  This  research,  which  must  be 
carried  out  among  the  Kurumbas  or  Kurubas  of  the  plains 
of  Southern  India,  the  Kurubas  of  the  Mysore  plateau,  and 
the  Kurumbas  who  inhabit  the  jungles,  must  of  necessity  be 
prolonged ;  and  I  am  at  present  unable  to  undertake  it  in  its 
entirety.  As  a  basis  for  future  operations,  I  may,  however, 
place  on  record  the  results  of  my  investigations,  so  far  as 
the  jungle  Kurumbas  of  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Nilgiris 
and  the  more  highly  civilised  tJru  Kurubas  of  the  Mysore 
province  are  concerned. 

The  picture,  which  is  drawn  by  King  ^  of  the  Nilgiri 
Kurumbas,  is  not  a  pleasant  one.  '*  Their  chief  food,'^  he 
saiyB,  "  is  wild  roots  and  berries,  or  grains  soaked  in  water, 
with  occasional  porcupines  or  polecats.  Their  dwellings  are 
nothing  more  than  a  few  branches  piled  up  together  like 
heaps  of  dead  brushwood,  in  a  plantation,  often  simply 
holes  or  clefts  among  the  rooks.  Their  clothing  is,  with  the 
males,  a  small  dirty  cloth  round  the  loins;  and,  with  the 
females,  a  rag  thrown  on  any  way  that  its  condition  and  size 
render  most  available.  The  appear&nce  of  these  rude  people 
is  wretched,  and  even  disagreeable.  Low  in  stature,  they 
are  also  i11*made  ;  the  complexion  is  of  an  unhealthy  hue, 
and  their  heads  are  thinly  covered  with  mangy-looking  hair. 
They  have  bleared  eyes,  a  rather  wide  mouth,  and  often  pro- 
jeotiug  teeth.  Spare  to  leanness,  there  is  also  a  total  absence 
of  any  apparent  muscle,  and  the  arms  and  legs  are  as  much 
like  black  sticks  as  human  limbs.  No  such  ceremony  as 
marriage  exists  among  these  people,  who  live  together  like 
the  brute  creation.''  A  quarter  of  a  century  has  elapsed 
since  this  description  was  written,  and  the  fin  de  Steele 
»"^^^^~"~~^"~'^"^^~~^~"~^^"~~~^"~"^^^~~"^^"~"^^"~""^"^~^"~~"^^."^"^"~"^^^""^^"~^^^"*^"^^""^^^^— "— "^^■^^^■^^•"^""^ 

^  Aborigmal  tribes  of  the  Nilgiris,  1870. 


L 


KURUMBA  MAN. 


•  •: 


f 
* 


41 


E!nrainba,  who  works  for  regular  wages  on  planters'  estates^ 
is  more  domesticated,  better  fed,  better  nourisbed,  and  better 
clothed.  Bat  hy  no  stretch  of  the  imagination,  can  the 
dark«skinned^  broad-nosed  Knrnmba,  whose  portrait  appears 
on  plate  xiii'be  regarded  as  an  example  of  a  high  tjpe  of 
oiyiusation.  Nor  would  the  light-skinned  tlm  Enmba, 
with  sharp-cut  features,  and  aquiline  nose,  whose  portrait  is 
reproduced  on  plate  xii,  appreciate  being  linked  in  the 
bonds  of  common  ancestry  with  the  Earnmba. 

The  average  measurements  of  the  Nilgin  Kurumbas  and 
the  Uru  Kurumbas  of  Shimoga  in  the  Mysore  Province 
(some  of  whom  are  traders,  or  in  the  service  of  Government) 
are  given  in  table  viii.  I  would,  however,  invite  more 
special  attention  to  the  subjoined  tabular  statement,  wherein 
the  averages,  and  maxima  and  minima  of  the  more  import- 
ant measurements,  from  a  comparative  point  of  view,  are 
recorded  with  the  object  of  bringing  out  the  main  points  of 
difference  between  Kuruba  and  Kurumba. 


» 

Knmba. 

Knrumba. 

• 

B 

s 

• 

Average. 

■ 

08 

J 

■ 

1 

1 

Height           ...         ..• 

CM, 

176-4 

CM. 

155 

CM. 

168*9 

CM. 

1686 

CM. 

149*6 

CM. 

157*6 

Bpftn  of  arms           

1184*4 

155*2 

171 

178-4 

166*6 

167-5 

Do.  rel.  fco  Btatiire=:100  ... 

■  ■  • 

«  •  • 

104*8 

•  •  * 

•  •  * 

106-8 

Middle  finger  to  patella      ... 

16-2 

9 

12*8 

12*6 

6 

9-8 

Do.     rel.  to  8tatiire=100. 

•  ■  • 

•  ■  • 

7-5 

•  •  • 

■  •  • 

6-2 

Hips    ...         •••         •••         ••• 

•  •  • 

•  ■  • 

26*8 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

24-6 

Foot,  length 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

25*1 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

24*6 

Cephalio  length 

19-6 

17 

183 

18-7 

16-9 
18 

17-9 

Cephalic  breadth     

16 

13-1 

18*9 

14*5 

18*7 

Cephalic  index         

82*1 

71-6 

76*8 

88-8 

71-8 

77 

Katal  height            

5-8 

4*2 

4-7 

4-4 

3-6 

4*2 

Natal  breadth          

8-9 

81 

8*4 

4-2 

8*4 

8*8 

Nasal  index              

85*9 

62*8 

78*2 

111-1 

79*1 

88*8 

42 

Standing  first  in  importanoe  as  distinguishing  characters 
are  stature  and  nose  measurements.  Coming  under  the 
heading  ^  below  middle  height'  (163*9  cm.)^  with  a  maxi- 
mum recorded  height  of  176*4  cm.  (very  taU),  the  Kuruba 
is  dearly  differentiated  from  the  Kuromba  of  low  stature 
(157*5  o.m.),  whose  maximum  recorded  height  does  not  even 
reach  the  Kuruba  average.  More  important,  lioweyer,  than 
stature^  is  the  relation  of  height  to  breadth  of  nose ;  and  it 
is  obvious  that  there  is  a  very  wide  distinction  between  the 
Kurubas  with  an  index  (average  73*2)  ranging  between  85*9 
and  6:i*3,  and  the  Kurumbas,  whose  index  (average  88*8) 
ranges  between  111*1  and  79*  1.  And,  to  take  extreme  cases, 
alight-skinned,  leptorrhine  Kuruba,  with  long,  narrow  nose, 
5*3  X  3*3  cm.  (index  62*3)  cannot  reasonably  be  linked  to- 
gether with  a  dark-skinned  platyrrhine  Eurumba  with 
short,  broad  nose,  3*6  x  4  cm.  (index  1111). 

Relatively  to  stature,  the  span  of  the  arms  is  greater  in 
the  semi-domesticated  Kurumba  than  in  the  more  civilised 
Kuruba.  And,  in  consequence  of  the  greater  length  of  the 
upper  extremity  relative  to  stature,  the  hand  reaches  nearer 
to  the  knee  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  In  the  Kurum- 
bas the  breadth  of  the  hips  across  the  iliac  spines  and  the 
length  of  the  foot  are  approximately  the  same,  whereas, 
in  the  Kuruba,  the  breadth  of  the  hips  is  considerably 
(1*2  cm.)  greater  than  the  foot  length.  In  length  and 
b^adth  of  head,  as  might  be  expected,  the  Kuruba  is  in 
advance  of  the  Kurumba^  and  the  maxima  recorded  in  the 
former  are  considerably  in  excess  of  those  recorded  in  the 
latter. 


BR  Jl 


KURUMBA  GIRL. 


48 


TABLE  Vin. 

G0MPABI60N  OF  M£ABUBEMENTS. 
EUBUBAfi   AND   EUBUMBAS. 


Kumbas. 

Enrambas. 

Heig^ht 

168-9 

84 

120-6 

157-6 

Height,  sitting         

80*5 

Height,  kneeling      

115-4 

Height  to  gl&diolns 

123*3 

116-4 

Span  of  ftrms                       .  . 

171 

167-5 

Span  of  arms  rel.  to  8tatare=100            

104-3 

106*3 

^^U90 V   >•■               •••               etc               ■••               •••               ••«               •«• 

83-8 

79-3 

Middle  finger  to  patella      

12-3 

9-8 

Middle  finger  to  patella  rel.  to  8taiQre=100 

7-5 

6-2 

Shoulders 

39-5 

37-5 

U u 01'   •••            *••            ••<            •■•            •••            •••            ••• 

45-7 

45-2 

Hand,  length            

18-8 

17-8* 

Hand,  breadth          

8 
11-6 

7-9 

Middle  finger 

10-7 

Hips 

26-3 

24-5 

Foot,  length  ... 

26-1 

24-6 

Foot,  breadth            

8-6 

8-2 

Cephalic  length        

18-3 

17-9 

Cephalic  breadth 

18-9 

13-7 

Cephalic  index         

76-8 

77 

Bigoniac 

101 

9-8 

Bisygomatio 

12-9 

12-9 

Maxillo-zygomatic  index 

77-7 

76 

Nasal  height 

4-7 

4*2 

Nasal  breadth 

8*4 

3-8 

Nasal  index   ... 

73-2 

88-8 

Vertex  to  tragpis      

14-1 

18-8 

Vertex  to  chin         

21-2 

90-4 

44 


SUMMARY  OF  BESDLTS. 

When^  as  sometimes  happens,  I  am,  owing  to  fear  or 
superstitions  objection  on  the  part  of  the  members  of  a  tribe 
to  undergo  the  entire  course  of  treatment  at  mj  hands, 
reduced  to  the  necessitj  of  selecting  a  few  only  out  of  the 
series  of  twentj-one  measurements^  which  I  am  in  the  habit 
of  recording,  I  select,  as  being  most  useful  for  the  pur- 
poses of  classification  and  correlation,  the  stature,  length 
and  breadth  of  head^  and  height  and  breadth  of  nose.  With 
these  data  to  work  on,  it  is  comparativelj  easj  to  fit  any 
community  approximately  into  its  proper  place  in  the  South 
Indian  anthropological  puzzle. 

Some  of  the  measurements,  e.g.,  chest  girth  and  breadth 
of  shoulders  {vide  tables  xiv  and  xv),  though  useful  as  a 
guide  to  physical  development,  possess  no  racial  value. 
Others,  though  important  for  comparison  betiveen  the  in- 
habitants of  Southern  India  and  other  parts  of  the  world, 
have  little  or  no  value  as  factors  in  differentiating  between 
the  various  castes,  tribes,  etc.,  of  Southern  India.  The 
facial  angle,  for  example,  though  of  great  importance  in 
separating  prognathous  from  so-called  orthognathous  races, 
is  of  little  use  as  an  aid  to  comparison  and  classification  of 
the  different  communities  of  Southern  India,  in  whom  the 
average  of  the  angle  of  Guvier  (with  its  vertex  at  the  edge 
of  the  incisor  teeth)  ranges,  in  the  people  examined  by  me, 
between  67°  and  71°,  as  shown  in  the  subjoined  statement. 


Badagas      

71 

Kotas 

70 

KammSlans 

70 

BrShmans  (Madras  City) 

69 

Fallis 

69 

Yellfllas 

69 

TSyyans 

69 

Mumas 

Pol  Eurumbas 

69 

69 

Kongas 

69 

Todas          

68 

Pattar  Brfthmans 

68 

Malaifilis 

68 

Tamil  Pariahs 

68 

Kanarese  Pariahs 

68 

Irulas 

68 

Sheik  Muhammadans       • .         • 

67 

Faniyans               

67 

45 


In  tables  ix  to  xiii  I  have  broaght  together,  for  the 
purpose  of  comparison^  statistical  evidence  relating  to  the 
average  statare,  head,  and  nose  measurements  of  the  differ- 
ent classes  which  I  have  so  far  investigated.  The  most 
troublesome  heads  to  measure  were  those  of  my  hairy  Toda 
friends,  whose  dense  locks  constituted  an  effective  obstaole 
to  easy  shifting  of  the  callipers,  while  the  desired  maxi- 
mum was  being  groped  for  in  the  dark ;  the  easiest  were 
those  of  men  with  heads  clean  shaved  in  observance  of  some 
religious  or  domestio  rite. 

An  examination  of  the  section  of  the  Madras  Census 
Beport,  1891,  devoted  to  ^  caste,  tribe,  and  race/  will 
show  how  hopeless,  to  a  worker  with  only  one  coUaborateur, 
must  be  the  prospect  of  making  even  a  semblance  of  an 
approach  to  a  complete  anthropological  survey  of  the 
multi&rious  tribes  and  castes  inhabiting  the  vast  tract  of 
country  comprising  Southern  India,  which  is  included  in 
my  beat.  All  I  can  hope  to  do,  amid  other  duties  of  a 
manifold  nature,  is  to  examine  the  more  important  com- 
munities when  at  head-quarters  in  Madras^  and  to  make 
periodical  roving  expeditions  with  a  view  to  carrying  on  the 
research  in  selected  tribe-hunting  grounds.  In  this  way  the 
material  summarised  in  tables  ix  to  xv  has  been  brought 
together  during  the  last  two  years;  and  including,  as  it 
does,  examples  of  dwellers  in  the  plains^  on  the  hill  tops,  in 
the  jungles  at  the  bases  of  the  hills,  and  on  the  Mysore 
plateau,  it  may,  I  think,  be  taken  as  fairly  representative, 
and  used  for  the  purpose  of  generalisation.  The  nature 
and  extent  of  the  material  collected  up  to  the  present  time, 
and  utilised  in  the  following  summaries  of  results,  is  shown 
by  the  subjoined  tabular  statement : — 


Glass. 

Habitat. 

Number 
measured. 

Male. 

1 

Female. 

Todas 
Kotas 
Badagas 

Plateau    of   the   Nllgiri 

hills. 
Plateau    of   the    Nllgiri 

hills. 
Plateau   of   the   Nllgiri 

hills. 

25 
25 
40 

25 
20 
•  • 

46 


Number 
measored. 

Cla«8 

lTBil)itn.t. 

yjiono* 

1 

Male. 

Female*, 

1 

Irulas 

Lower  slopes  of  the  NtI- 
giri  hills. 

25 

•    • 

I 
t 

KuTumbas  . . 

Lower  slopes  of  the  Nil- 
giri  hills. 

15 

1 
■  ■ 

Sholigas 

Base  of  Mysore  hills     . .  , 

3 

■  • 

Malaudis 

Shevaroy  hills    . .         . .  > 

36 

•   a 

Paniyans     . . 

Wyn&d,  Malabar 

25 

12 

Muppas 

Do. 

24 

•  • 

Tiyyans 

Oah'cut,  South  Malabar. 

25 

25 

Olieruinans 

Do.              do. 

25 

25 

Pattar  BrShmans  . . 

Do.              do. 

25 

Koziffas 

Tamil     BrShmanB 

Ooimbatore  District 

20 

Madras  City 

40 

(poorer  dasseB). 

Taxoil  Pariahs 

Do. 

40 

Kammfflans 

Do. 

40 

PalliR 

Do. 

40 

Yellalas 

Do. 

40 

MnhaTnTnadans 

Do. 

75 

Kanarese  Pariahs  . . 

Mysore  Province 

33 

Enrubas.. 

Do. 

25 

Koramas 

Do. 

25 

Lambftdis    (nomad). 

Do. 

Total     . . 

40 

40 

711 

147 

1.  STATURE. 

The  tallest  men  whom  I  have  come  across  are  a  Toda 
(188  cm.)  and  Badaga  (183*2  cm.) ;  the  shortest  a  Mappa 
(144*6  cm.),  Ghemman  (145*8  cm.),  Eamm&lan  (1464  cm.) 
and  Tamil  Pariah  (149*4  cm.). 

The  following  table  shows  the  average  heights  of  the 
classes  investigated :— * 

Very  tall  170  cm.  and  upwards. 


Above  middle  height  170  to  166  cm. 
JTodas 169*6 


47 

Below  middle  height  165  to  160  cm. 

Sheik  Muiiammadans  •.  164*5 

LambSdis  ..  ..  164*3 

Pattar  Brfibmans  1H4*3 

Badagas  ..  164-1 

Kiirubas  . .  1 63-9 

Malaialis  . .  168*9 

Tiyyans 163  7 

Kotas 162-9 

Brflh mans  (Madras  city)  162-5 

Fallis 162-5 

Vellalas  ..  162-4 

Tamil  Pariahs  ..  ..  161-9 

Kanarese  Pariahs        . .  161*8 

Low  stature  below  160  cm. 

Irulas     ..          ..          ..  159-8 

Kammfllans                  • .  159*7 

Koramas            . .         . .  159-3 

Kongaa  . .  159 

Muppas 157*7 

Cherumans        . .         . .  157-5 

Urftli  Kurumbas          . .  157*5 

Fftl  Kurumbas  . .  157-5 

Panijans           . .  157*4 

In  Keane's  'Ethnology/  Hindus  and  Uravidians  are 
(after  Topinard)  aggregated  together,  in  an  anthropologi- 
cal conglomerate,  b&  possessing  an  average  height  oi  164*5 
cm.,  which  I  take  to  be  rather 'exaggerated.  In  the  fore- 
going table  a  very  large  majority  of  Eindu-Dravidians  are 
undonbtedly  included,  but  the  aberrant  Todas  alone  reach 
this  average.  The  Todas,  according  to  my  estimate^  pos- 
sess approximately  the  same  statare  as  the  Irish  (169*7 
cm.),  and  just  miss  the  dignity  of  being  included  with  the 
English  among  the  very  tall  races  of  the  world.  The  hairy 
Ainu  of  Japan,  it  may  be  noted,  is  placed  by  Eeane,  in 
company  with  the  Toda,  in  a  siding  on  the  family  tree  of 
Homo  Gaucasicus.  The  average  height  of  the  stalwart, 
black-haired  Toda  (5  feet  7^  inches)  is,  according  to  Mr. 
Savage  Lander's  measurement^  of  five  typical  examples, 
cosfipicuously  in  excess  of  that  of  the  short,  sometimes 
red-haired  Ainu  (5  feet  3^  inches). 

Between  the  Todas  and  the  next  tallest  class,  the  Sheik 
Muhammadans,  there  is  a  well-defined  gap  of  5*1  cm.    But 

^  Alone  with  th?  hairy  Ainu* 


48 


from  Sheiks  to  Pariahs  there  is  a  gradual  decrease  in  height, 
with  a  break  of  2  om.  between  the  lowest  representatives 
of  middle  stature  and  the  tallest  of  low  stature.  Among 
the  classes  of  middle  height,  the  unif ormitj  of  the  height  of 
Brfthmans,  Pallis,  and  Yellalas,  and  of  Tamil  and  Kanarese 
Pariahs  is  noteworthy.  So  also  is  the  presence  of  the  Kam- 
m&lans  among  the  classes  of  low  stature,  amid  the  humble 
environment  of  Irulas,  Koramas,  and  Eongas. 

The  length  of  the  upper  extremities,  in  the  classes 
under  consideration,  relative  to  stature,  as  estimated  hy  the 
determiuation  of  the  distance  from  the  tip  of  the  middle 
finger  to  the  top  of  the  knee-cap  (patella),  when  the  subject 
is  at  attention  with  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  thigh  re- 
laxed, is  shown  hj  the  following  table  : — 


Eoramas 

Kurubas 

Badagas 

Lambfidis 

Pattar  BrShmanB 

Irulas 

Eotas  • . 

MalaiSlis 

Sheik  Muhammadans 

Tiyyans 

Yellfilas 

Kon^as 

Tamil  BrShmans 

Kanarese  Pariahs 

Tamil  Pariahs 

Pallis  . . 

EammSlans 

Todas 

Muppas 

Cherumaos 

Paniyans 

The  more  the  distance  diminishes,  the  greater  is  the 
length  of  the  upper  extremities.  The  arm  then  is  shortest 
in  the  Kanarese  Koramas,  Kurubas,  and  Badagas,  and 
longest  in  the  short,  broad-nosed  Paniyans,  who  approach 
the  Negro  average  (4'37). 

As  examples  of  inordiuately  long  upper  extremities  (not 
included  in  the  averages),  which  brought  to  mind  the 


Average. 

Average 
relative  to 
Btatnre=:100. 

13-3 

8-3 

12-3 

7:5 

12-2 

7-4 

11-7 

71 

11-3 

6-9 

10-7 

6-7 

10-7 

6*6 

10-8 

6-6 

10-7 

6-5 

10-6 

6-5 

10-4 

6-4 

9-9 

6-2 

10-1 

6-2 

9-8 

61 

9-4 

5-8 

9-5 

5-8 

8-4 

6-8 

'9 

5-3 

8-2 

5-3 

7-8 

4-6 

7-3 

4-4 

49 

Hindu  ideal  of  the  long-armed  Rdma^  ^^  whose  hands  reaoh 
to  the  knees/'  the  two  following  oases  are  worth7  of  being 
placed  on  record.  The  one  was  a  venerable,  white-haired 
Komba;  the  other  a  Tamil  Pariah,  who  is  referred  to  later 
on  in  connection  with  his  nose. 


'Komba. 

Pariah. 

CM. 

CM. 

177-8 

160-8 

199-2 

183-8 

21 

23 

53 

£•7 

6-4 

3-2 

4 

Height  

Span  of  arms 

IMfference  between  span  and  height. 
Cubit  . .  .  • 

Middle  finger  to  patella 
Middle  finger  to  patella  relative  to 
stature=100. 


2.  HEAD  MEASUREMENTS. 

For  the  benefit  of  my  amateur  readers,  to  whom  the 
meaning  of  the  term '  cephalic  index  '  may  not  be  clear,  it 
may  be  stated  that  this  index,  which  expresses  the  ratio  of 
the  length  to  the  breadth  of  the  head,  is  estimated  bymulti- 

S lying  the  maximum  breadth  by  100,  and  dividing  the  pro- 
not  by  the  maximum  length. 

ip  A    \  cephalic  length       20  cm. 
^  *  (  cephalic  breadth     14  cm. 

14X100 

=s    70  =  cephalic  index. 

20 

Brahman  I  ^^P^"°i^^«;Ji     jf  ^  ^°'- 
\  cephalic  breadth     15  cm. 

16X100 

=  82*4=  cephalic  index. 

18-2 

The  terms  used  in  the  headings  of  the  columns  in  table 
ix,  in  which  the  nomenclature  of  Broca  is  followed^  have 
the  following  significance  :— 

Doliohooephalio  Index  75  and  under. 
Sub-dolichocephalic  ,,  75-01  to  77*77. 
Mesaticephalic  ,,     77*78  to  80, 

Sub-brachycephalic      „     8001  to  83-83. 
Brachyoephahc  „    83*34  and  upwards. 


« 


50 

Turning  now  to  table  ix.  Conspicnons  hj  its  almost 
complete  absence  is  the  bracbjcepbaUo  head,  wbicb^  were  I 
dealing  witb  the  Burmese  instead  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Southern  India,  would  be  very  largely  represented,  with  a 
corresponding  decrease  in  the  numbers  of  dolicho-and  sub- 
doliohocephalic  heads.  The  columns  in  table  ix  would,  in 
fact,  have  been  inverted.  The  solitary  heads,  which  prevent 
the  braohyoephalic  column  from  being  a  perfect  and  absolute 
blank,  were  the  property  of  a  Kanarese  Koraman,  and  a 
Tamil  Brahman  guru  (religious  instructor)  who  shares  with 
a  Toda  the  honour  of  possessing  the  maximum  head-breadth 
(15*2  cm.)  recorded  in  my  notes.  But  the  length  of  the 
Todays  head  was  19*6  cm.  against  the  Brahman's  18*1  cm. 
The  only  other  brachycephalic  heads,  which  I  have  met  with 
during  the  examination  of  nine  hundred  subjects,  belonged 
to  two  broad-headed  Lambadi  lassies,  whose  cephalic  indices 
were  83*9  and  85*5  respectively. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  tribes,  which  stand 
first  and  second  in  the  list,  so  far  as  head  length  is  concerned, 
are  the  Todas  and  Kotas — the  two  oldest  existing  tribes 
of  the  Nilgiri  plateau — in  whom  alone  the  average  head 
length  exceeds  19  cm.  The  maximum  head  lengths  re- 
corded, in  the  classes  under  review,  reached,  or  slightly 
exceeded  20  cm.  only  in  the  Todas,  Kotas.  and  Badagas  of 
the  Nil^ri  plateau,  and  in  the  Tiyyans  and  Pattar  Br&hmans 
of  Malabar.  In  the  other  classes  investigated,  the  maxi- 
mum head-length  ranged  between  19*9  cm.  in  the  Br&h- 
mans of  Madras  city  (belonging  to  the  poorer  classes)  and 
19*1  in  the  Irulas  and  Kongas,  whose  mental  development 
is  of  a  very  low  order.  The  Irulas,  it  may  be  mentioned, 
en  pcusanty  are  an  uncultivated  jungle  tribe^  who  have  only 
in  recent  years  been  brought  by  the  European  planting  com- 
munity under  the  influence  of  civilisation ;  and  the  Eongas 
are  a  degraded  sub-division  of  the  YellfiJas,  who  occupy 
a  low  position  in  the  Vellaila  community.  ^'No  other 
Vell&la/'  it  is  said,  ^  ^' would  take  his  meals  with  them 
because  they  employ  XTppiliyans  and  other  low  caste  people 
as  cooks  for  their  marriages,  &c." 

The  average  head-length  ranges  between  19*4  cm.  in 
the  Todas  and  17*8  cm.  in  the  Congas  and  Koramas.  The 
latter  are  inhabitants  of  the  Mysore  plateau^  very  dark- 
skinned  and  short  of  stature^  '^  with  crime  and  vice  writ 


^  ICadrM  CexLBtiB  Report,  1891 1 


51 


large  on  their  physiognomy^  ^'  who  combine  professional 
bargling^  and  animal  and  bird-snaring  with  ingenions  oon- 
trivances^  with  the  more  orthodox  occnpation  of  basket 
making.  Only  under  marked  protest,  and  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  police,  did  the  Koramas  permit  me  to  use  them 
for  the  purposes  of  anthropometry,  and  my  recollection  of 
my  sojourn  among  them  is  far  from  a  happy  one. 

The  coincidence  of  the  head  length  in  four  out  of  the 
five  Hindu  classes  examined  in  Madras  City — Brahmans, 
Vellalas,  Pallis,  and  Pariahs — appears  to  me  suggestive.  In 
the  fifth  class,  the  Kammalans,  the  head-length  was  slightly 
less. 

As  in  length,  so  in  breadth  of  head,  the  Todas  and 
Eotas  of  the  Nilgiris  stand  out  conspicuously  in  the  first 
rank,  but,  in  this  case,  bracketed  equal  with  the  Br3,hman8 
of  Madras  city  (14*2  cm.),  who  are  close  followed  by 
the  Fattar  Brahmans  of  Malabar,  descended  from  Tamil 
Brahmans  who  migrated  to  Malabar  from  the  east  coast, 
and  have,  I  imagine,  become  modified  as  regards  physical 
characters  by  alliances  contracted  in  the  home  of  their 
adoption  (vide  table  xvi).  In  the  remaining  classes,  the 
average  head-breadth  ranges  between  13*8  cm.  and  13*5  cm. 
and  calls  for  no  special  remark,  except  that  breadth  of  head 
exceeding  15  cm.  occurred  only  among  the  Todas  (15*2), 
Kotas  (15'1),  Brahmans  of  Madras  City  (15*2),  and  Pattar 
Brahmans  (15*1). 

Arranging  the  classes  under  review  in  sequence,  accord- 
ing to  the  cephalic  index,  the  results  are  as  follows : — 


DoHchocephalic. 

Badagas     .  • 
Muppas 
Tiyyans 
Pallis 

.     71-7 
.     72-3 
.     72-7 
.     73 

Todas 

..     731 

Tamil  Pariahs 

.     73-6 

Chenimans 

.     73-9 

Paniyans    . . 
Eotas 

,.     74 
..     74-1 

Yellftlas      . . 

.     741 

Malaialis    . . 

. .     74-4 

Fattar  Brfthmans 

. .     74-6 

Eammftlans 

•         t 

..     75 

52 

Sub-dolichooephalio. 


LambSdis  .  •         . .         •  • 

76-4 

Ktirubas     .. 

,     76-8 

Sheik  Mnhammadans 

,     76-2 

Brahmans  (Madras  city) . . 
Kanarese  Fariahs 

76-6 

76-8 

Eongas 

.     77 

Koramas     . .         •  •         •  • 

.     77-5 

Only,  as  shown  in  table  ix,  in  the  Todas,  Badagas,  and 
Mnppas,  was  the  head  confined  to  the  dolichocephalio  and 
snb-dolichocephalic  types ;  the  remaining  classes  possessing 
a  greater  or  less  proportion  of  mesaticephalic  (intermediate) 
and  snb-brachycephalic  heads.  In  the  majority  of  the 
classes  examined^  the  head  was  dolichocephalic  in  more 
than  half  the  cases;  and  it  is  clear  from  the  foregoing 
statistics  that  the  dolichocephalic  head  is  the  prevailing 
type^  so  far  as  Soathem  India  is  concerned.  The  classes^ 
in  which  the  head  was  dolichocephalic  in  less  than  half  the 
cases^  were  the  Brahmans  and  Sheik  Mnhammadans  of 
Madras  City,  Irnlas,  Kongas,  Knrnbas^  Kanarese  Pariahs, 
and  Koramas.  A  glance  at  table  ix  shows  at  once  the  high 
proportion  of  snb-dolichocephalic  heads  in  the  BrdJimans 
and  Enmbas,  and  mesaticephalic  heads  in  the  Koramas.  I 
have  already  (Bulletin  No.  4)  dealt  with  the  great  breadth 
of  the  Br&hman  head  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  other 
classes  examined  in  rvfadras.  The  Lambftdis,  Knmbas  and 
Sheik  Mnhammadans  come  intermediate  between  the  Br&h- 
mans  and  a  group  composed  of  Kanarese  Pariahs,  Irolas, 
Koramas,  and  Kongas,  all  people  of  low  origin,  whose  high 
cephalic  index  is  explained,  not  as  in  the  case  of  the  Br&h- 
mans,  by  the  great  breadth  of  the  head  in  proportion  to  its 
length,  but,  as  shown  in  the  following  summary,  by  the 
shortness  of  its  length  in  relation  to  its  breadth : — 


. 

Length. 

Breadth. 

■ 

cm. 

om. 

Brfthman^ .     ...     . . 

. .      18-6 

14-2 

LambSdis 

..      18-4 

13-9 

Kurubas 

..      18-3 

13-9 

Sheik  Mnhammadans 

. .      18-2 

13-8 

Kanarese  Pariahs     . . 

..      18 

13*8 

Imlas 

..     18 

18-7 

Kovamas        •  •         •  • 

. .     17-8 

13-9 

Kongas 

..     17*8 

13-7 

TAMIL  PARIAH. 


53 


3.  THE  NOSE. 

Readers  of  Marryat's  novels  will  doubtless  remember 
that  Japhet,  in  search  of  his  father,  borrowed  from  Mr. 
CophagxLS  a  book  containing  a  dissertation  apon  the  human 
frame,  sympathies,  antipathies,  and  those  features  and 
peculiarities  most  likely  to  descend  from  one  generation  to 
another,  wherein  it  was  asserted  that  the  nose  was  the  facial 
feature  most  likely  to  be  transmitted.  The  nose  I  regard 
as  an  all-important  element,  so  far  as  the  people  in  whom 
I  am  interested  are  concerned,  as  a  basis  of  classification, 
and  as  an  aid  to  the  elucidation  of  the  ancestry  of  caste 
and  tribe.  Not,  however,  the  shape  of  the  nose,  but  the  rela- 
tion of  its  height  to  its  breadth  (nasal  index),  is  that  to 
which  a  prominent  place  must  be  assigned  in  a  study  of  the 
comparative  anthropography  of  the  people  of  Southern 
India.  '^Le  plus  importcuit  des  caract^res  cephalom^tri- 
ques,''  says  Topinard,*®  ^*  est  I'indice  nasal.  C'est  ie  seul 
caract^re  se  mesurant  qui  partage  tons  les  types  de  Fhu- 
manit^  en  trois  groupes  fondamentauz  r^pondant  el  la 
division  classique  de  Cuvier  en  races  blanches  (leptorrhi- 
niennes,  nez  long,  et  6troit),  races  jaunes  (m^sorrhiniennes, 
nez  large  et  bas).  Get  indice  vane,  dans  les  moyennes,  de  63 
dans  une  s^rie  de  100  Francais  dolichoc^phales  et  blondes 
mesur^s  par  le  docteur  Gollignon  a  109  dans  une  s^rie  de 
Tasmaniens  mesur^s  pour  nous  sur  leurs  moulages ;  et  dans 
les  cas  partiouliers,  de  50  et  moins  chez  des  Ehirop^ens 
a  153  chez  un  Australien.'^ 

A  photograph  (pi.  xv),  which  1  regard  with  some  afiec- 
tion,  has  been  challenged  on  the  ground  that  it  must  have 
been  deformed.  It  may,  therefore,  be  stated  that  noses 
disfigured  by  small-pox  and  other  diseases,  or  pugilistic 
encounters,  are  invariably  rejected. 

Once  more,  for  the  amateur,  it  may  be  explained  that 
tbe  nasal  index  expresses  the  relation  of  the  height  of  the 
nose,  measured  from  the  under  surface  (not  the  tip),  to  the 
breadth  measured  across  the  widest  part  of  the  nostrils 
when  at  rest.  This  index  is,  like  the  cephalic  index,  esti- 
mated by  multiplying  the  breadth  by  100,  and  dividing  the 
product  by  the*  height. 

10  L'Homme  dans  la  Natnxe. 


&4 


Examples. — 

Brahman  [  "^  ^^^«^^i  I't  '^' 
i^iiuuix«ux  ^  ^^^ breadth  34  cm. 

3*4x100       ^,  o  1  •  J 

— — - —  =  61'8  =  nasal  index. 

5*5 

Kurumba  I  '"'®*^  height    4  cm. 
(  nasal  breadth  4  cm. 

4x100 


4 


=  100  =  nasal  index. 


•p««'  o««  (  nasal  height    3*5  cm. 
raniyan  ^  ^^^^  breadth  3-8  cm. 

=  108-6  =  nasal  index. 

3-5 

These  examples,  taken  from  mj  case-book,  show 
(1)  that  the  greater  the  height  in  proportion  to  the  breadth, 
the  lower  is  the  index;  (2)  that,  when  the  height  is 
exactly  equal  to  the  breadth,  the  index  is  100 ;  (3)  that, 
when  the  breadth  is  greater  than  the  height^  the  index 
exceeds  100. 

Taming  now  to  tables  xi-xiii,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
average  nasal  index  of  the  people  investigated  ranges  from 
69*1  in  the  tall,  light-skmned,  and  long  narrow-nosed 
Lambadis  (who  speak  an  Aryan  langaage),  to  95*1  in  the 
short,  dark-skinned,  and  short,  broad-nosed  Paniyans ;  and 
that  the  indices  recorded  range  between  a  minimum  of  59*2 
in  a  Lambadi  and  a  maximum  of  108*6  in  a  Paniyan. 
The  maximum  index,  however,  which  I  have  met  with,  was 
in  the  case  of  a  Paniyan  woman,  who  possessed  a  nose  3*1 
cm.  in  height  and  3*7  cm.  in  breadth,  and  a  nasal  index  of 
119*4. 

In  table  xii  the  noses  are  arranged  according  to  their 
height.  But  the  actual  sequence  of  nasal  indices  is  recorded 
in  table  xi,  which  shows,  in  each  case,  the  maxima  and 
minima  observed,  the  average,  and  the  range.  In  the 
same  table,  the  noses  are  further  classified  according  as  the 
average  index  is  from  60-70,  70-80,  80-90,  or  90-100 ; 
and  the  main  interest,  to  my  mind,  lies  in  the  connection 
which  exists  between  the  noses  in  the  earlier  and  later 
series.  Assistance  in  tracing  this  connection  will,  I  think, 
be  found  in  table  xiii,  in  which  statistics  relating  to  twenty 
to  twenty-five  members  of  the  various  classes  examined  are 
given,  snowing  the  frequency  of  noses  with  indices  of  50-60 
60-70,  70-80,  80-90,  90-100,  and  100-110. 


55 


Only  ^  ^^^  ^^^^ — ^^^  LambSidis — do  noses  ocoor  with  an 
index  below  60.  The  moat  popular  odlamns^  so  far  as  num- 
ber of  entries  is  concerned,  are  those  containing  noses 
ranging  between  70  and  80  and  between  80  and  90,  which 
contain  respectively  236  and  146  ont  of  515  noses  examined. 
Occnpjing  a  very  prominent  position  in  the  column  of  noses 
between  80  and  90  are  the  Tamil  Pariahs,  Irulas,  and  Muppas, 
all  of  whom  get  into  double  fig^ures.  In  the  column  contain- 
ing noses  with  indices  from  90  to  100,  the  Panijans  and 
Irulas  hold  a  high  place,  and  the  same  two  classes  monopolise^ 
in  the  proportion  of  10  :  1,  the  final  column,  which  contains 
those  wondrous  noses,  of  which  the  breadth  exceeds  the 
height.  In  this  column  the  Eurumbas  and  Sholigas  would 
figure  largely,  but  the  material  at  my  disposal  is  too  scanty 
for  record  in  the  table. 

On  a  coffee  estate  in  the  Ouchterlony  valley,  I  was 
introduced  to  a  Sholiga  dwarf,  the  son  and  brother  of  dwarfs 
with  hereditary  Polydactyly,  who  was  very  angry  at  my 
measuring  operations,  and  kept  on  muttering  that  such  a 
thing  would  not  have  been  permitted  wheu  Mr.  Ouchterlony 
was  alive.  The  big  but  normal  nose  of  this  little  man, 
measuring  4x4'lcm.,  with  nasal  index  of  102*5,  presented 
an  irresistably  comical  appearance,  but  he  failed  to  appre- 
ciate my  lively  interest  in  it. 

In  the  subjoined  tabular  statement  the  various  castes 
and  tribes  are  classified  according  to  the  range  of  their 
nasal  indices,  t.f.,  the  difference  between  the  mftximnm 
and  minimum  recorded  in  each  case. 

10—20. 


Badagas 

•  •         •  • 

. .     15-7 

Todas    . . 

•  •         •  • 

..     17-9 

Eotas     •  • 

•  •         •  • 
20     30. 

..     18-9 

Tiyyans 

•  •          •  • 

. .     21-8 

Muppas 

•  •          •  • 

21-8 

Eurubas 

•  •          •  • 

. .     23-6 

Lamb&dis 

•  •          •  • 

. .     24-5 

Paniyans 
Sheik  Muhao 

•  •          •  • 

. .     24-9 

amadans 

. .     261 

Eanarese  Pariahs 

. .     26-6 

Eanmifllans 

•  •         •  • 

. .     27-6 

Irulas    . . 

•  •         •  t 

.  ..     27-7 

Eoramas 

•  •         •  • 

. .     28-2 

Eongas 

c  •                   •  • 

. .     28-7 

Oherumans 

•  •             •  f 

,  •     29-8 

56 


30—40. 

Pattar  Brfthnians 

. .     301 

Vellalas 

. .     30-7 

Malaiftlis 

..'    34-2 

Pallia    . . 

. .     34-3 

BrShmans  (Madras  City) 

..      361 

Taniil  Pariahs 

..      39 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  tribes,  whose  nasal  indices 
have  the  least  variation,  are  the  three  which  inhabit  the 
plateau  of  the  Nllgiri  hills,  where  they  lived  an  isolated 
existence  until  the  settlement  of  the  English  on  these  hills 
in  recent  times  ;  and  that  the  owners  of  the  greatest  varia- 
tion (exceeding  30)  constitute  a  group  of  Tamil  classes 
made  up  of  Brahmans,  Velld.las,  PaUis,  and  Pariahs  of 
Madras  city,  the  Malai&lis  of  the  Shevaroy  hills,  (descended, 
it  is  said,  from  Vellalas  of  Conjeveram),  and  the  Pattar 
Br&hmans  descended  from  east-coast  Tamil  BrShmans. 

Very  suggestive  are  the  following  measurements  of 
a  very  dark-skinned  Tamil  Pariah  cooly,  whom  I  met 
by  chance  when  changing  camp  in  the  course  of  a  recent 
wandering,  and  detained,  much  against  his  will,  until  the 
measuring  instruments  came  up. 


Height  . . 

..     160-8   cm. 

Nasal  height 

»        jf 

Nasal  breadth  . . 

4*2 

Nasal  index 

..      105         „ 

Looking  at  the  portrait  of  this  man  (pi.  xv),  there  is  an 
irresistable  impulse  to  connect  him^  in  the  ties  of  ethnical 
relationship,  with  the  jungle  tribes;  and  I  regard  this  man^ 
and  other  Pariahs  of  a  kindred  nature,  whom  I  have  come 
across^  as  important  witnesses  in  support  of  my  belief  that 
the  constantly  recurring  high  nasal  index  among  existing 
Aiyo-Dravidians  and  Dravidians  must  be  traced  to  the  in- 
fluence of  a  platyrrhine  (broad-nosed)  ancestor. 

The  Sheik^  Pathan,  and  Saiyad  Muhammadans  of 
Madras  claim  to  be  descendants  of  immigrants  from  the 
norths  and  to  be  distinct  from  the  converted  Dravidians, 
the  M&ppilas  and  Labbais.  Their  claim  is  no  doubt  justi- 
fied; but  well-marked  signs  of  admixture  of  Dravidian 
blood  are  conspicuous  in  some  members  of  their  com- 
munities, whose  dark  skin  and  high  nasal  index  betray 
tiheir  non- Aryan  ancestry. 


Braiimau 


Pariah 


TliAflmKmci  of  Nofles 


57 


In  plate  zvi  are  Scared  a  series  of  triangles  representing 
(natural  size)  the  maxima,  minima,  and  average  nasal  indices 
of  Brabmans  of  Madras  citj  (belonging  to  the  poorer  classes) 
Tamil  Pariahs,  and  Panijans.  There  is  obviously  far  less 
connection  bet^ween  the  Brfthman  minimum  and  the  Panijan 
maximum  than  between  the  Brfihman  and  Pariah  maxima 
and  the  Panijan  average ;  and  the  frequent  occurrence  of 
high  nasal  indices,  resulting  from  short,  broad  noses,  not 
only  in  Br&hmans  and  Pariahs,  but  also  in  Gherumans, 
Muppas,  Kongas,  and  others,  has  to  be  accounted  for. 

Sir.  A.  Lyall  somewhere  refers  to  the  gradual  Br&hmani- 
sing  of  the  aboriginal  Non-Aryan,  or  casteless  tribes. 
'^  They  pass,"  he  says,  '^  into  Brahmanists  by  a  natural 
upward  transition,  which  leads  them  to  adopt  the  religion 
of  the  castes  immediately  above  them  in  the  social  scale  of 
the  composite  population,  among  which  they  settle  down ; 
and  we  may  reasonably  guess  that  this  process  has  been 
working  for  centuries.  "  In  the  Madras  Census  report, 
1891,  the  Census  Commissioner,  Mr.  H.  A.  Stuart,  states 
that  *'  it  has  often  been  asserted,  and  is  now  the  general 
belief,  that  the  Br&hmans  of  the  south  are  not  pure  Aryans, 
but  are  a  mixed  Aryan  and  Dravidian  race.  In  the  earliest 
times  the  caste  division  was  much  less  rigid  than  now^ 
and  a  person  of  another  caste  could  become  a  Br&hman  by 
attaining  the  Brahmanical  standard  of  knowledge,  and 
assuming  Brahmanical  functions.  And  when  we  see  the 
Nambudiri  Brahmans,  even  at  the  present  day,  contracting 
alliances,  informal  though  they  be,  with  the  women  of  the 
country,  it  is  not  difficult  to  believe  that,  on  their  first 
arrival,  such  unions  were  even  more  common,  and  that  the 
children  bom  of  them  would  be  recognised  as  Brfthmans, 
though  perhaps  regarded  as  an  inferior  class.  However, 
those  Br&hmans,  in  whose  veins  mixed  blood  is  supposed 
to  run,  are  even  to  this  day  regarded  as  lower  in  the  social 
scale,  and  are  not  allowed  to  mix  freely  with  the  pure 
Br&hman  commuxiity. '' 

Between  a  Brahman  of  high  culture,  with  fair  com- 
plexion, and  long,  narrow  nose  on  the  obo  hand,  and  a 
less  highly-dvilised  Br&hman  with  dark  skin  and  short, 
broad  nose  on  the  other,  there  is  a  vast  difference,  which 
can  only  be  reasonably  explained  on  the  assumption  of 
admixture  of  races.  Ajid  it  is  no  insult  to  the  higher  mem- 
bers of  the  Brfthman  community  to  trace,  in  their  more 
lowly  brethren,  the  result  of  crossing  with  a  darkHskinned| 


58 


broad-nosed  race  of  short  stature.  Whether  the  jangle 
tribes — Imlas,  Knrambas^  Sholigas,  and  others — are  the 
existing  microscopic  remnant  of  a  pre-Dravidian  people,  or 
of  Drayidians  driven  bj  a  conquering  race  to  the  seclosion 
of  the  jangles,  it  is  to  the  lasting  inflnence  ^of  some  snoh 
broad-nosed  ancestor  that  the  high  nasal  index  and  short 
statore  of  manj  of  the  inhabitants  of  Soathem  India  must, 
it  seems  to  me,  be  attributed.  Viewed  in  the  light  of  this 
remark,  the  connection  between  th^  following  mixed  collec- 
tion of  individuals,  all  of  very  dark  colour,  short  of  stature, 
and  with  nasal  index  exceeding  90,  calls  for  no  explana- 
tion :  — 


Stature. 

Nasal 

Nasal 

1 

Naaal 

height. 

breadth. 

index. 

CM. 

CM. 

CM. 

Kammftlan 

154-4 

4-4 

4 

90-9 

Korama 

169-8 

4-6 

4-2 

91-3 

Saiyad  Muhanunadan  •  • 

160 

4-4 

4 

90-9 

Vellala 

154-8 

4-7 

4-3 

91-6 

Muppa 

Malaifdi 

151-2 

3-7 

3-4 

91-9 

158-8 

4 

3-7 

92-5 

157 

4-1 

3-8 

92-7 

Pattar  BrShman 

157-6 

4-2 

3-9 

92-9 

Kurumba 

159-6 

4-4 

4-1 

93-2 

SmSrta  BrShman 

159 

41 

39 

951 

PaUi      .. 

167-8 

41 

3-9 

951 

Imla 

lo5-4 

41 

3-9 

95-1 

Paniyan 

157-8 

41 

3-9 

95-1 

Irula     .  • 

158-6 

4-8 

4-3 

100 

Tamil  Pariah  •• 

160 

4 

4-2 

106 

Paniyan 

158-8 

3-8 

4    • 

105-3 

Though  the  present  chapter  is  entitled  '  Summary  of 
Results,'  it  aims  at  no  finality,  but  must  be  regarded  in  the 
light  of  a  preliminary  summary  based  on  the  evidence  col- 
lected up  to  date.  Absence  from  India  will  create  a  breach 
of  continuity  in  my  work  in  connection  with  the  anthro- 
pological survey  of  Southern  India,  which  I  hope  to  resume, 
with  renewed  vigour,  in  1898. 

'^  The  more  remote  and  unknown  the  race  or  tnbe,''  it 
has  been  said,  ^'  the  more  valuable  is  the  evidence  a£Ebrded 
by*  the  study  of  its  in^itutions,  from  the  probability  of 


59 

their  being  less  mixed  with  those  of  European  origin/' 
Tribes  which,  only  a  few  years  ago,  were  living  in  a  wild 
state,  clad  in  a  cool  and  simple  garb  of  forest  leaves,  and 
buried  away  in  the  depths  of  the  jungle,  have  now  come 
under  the  domesticating,  and  sometimes  detrimental,  influ* 
once  of  contact  with  Europeans,  with  a  resulting  modifi* 
cation  of  their  conditions  of  life,  morality,  and  even  lan- 
guage. The  Paniyans  of  the  Wyn&d,  and  the  Irulas  who 
inhabit  the  slopes  of  the  Nilgiris,  now  work  regularly 
for  daily  wage  on  planters'  estates;  and  I  was  lately 
shocked  by  seeing  a  Toda  boy  studying  for  the  third  stand- 
ard in  Tamil,  instead  of  tending  the  bufialoes  of  his  mand. 
The  Todas,  whose  natural  drink  is  milk,  now  delight  in 
bottled  beer,  and  mixture  of  port  wine  and  gin,  which  they 
purchase  in  the  Ootacamund  bazdr.  On  one  occasion,  I 
am  told,  a  planter  met  two  stalwart  Todas  returning  from 
a  funeral  ceremony,  and  carrying  across  their  shoulders  a 
bundle,  which,  on  examination,  resolved  itself  into  a  Toda 
woman  in  a  very  advanced  stage  of  intoxication. 

''  The  rapid  extermination  of  savages  at  the  present 
time,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  they  are  being  reduced 
to  the  standard  of  European  manners,  renders  it  of  urgent 
importance  to  correct  these  sources  of  error  as  soon  as 
possible/'  Ample  proof  can  be  adduced  in  support  of  the 
tact  that  European  influence,  import  trade  with  other  coun- 
tries, and  the  struggle  for  existence,  are  bringing  about  a 
rapid  change  (said  from  an  ethnographic  standpoint)  among 
the  native  inhabitants  of  Southern  India,  both  civilised  and 
imcivilised.  The  employment  of  tiles  and  kerosine  tins  in 
lieu  of  primitive  thatch  ;  the  import  of  cotton  piece  goods, 
which  represents  roughly  40  per  cent,  of  the  total  import 
trade,  ana  of  umbrellas  to  the  value  of  over  40,00,000  rupees 
annually;  cooly  trade  and  migration  by  sea  to  Assam,  Burma 
and  Ceylon ;  the  decline  of  the  national  turban  in  favour 
of  the  less  becoming  porkpie  cap  or  knitted  night  cap  of 
gaudy  hue ;  the  replacement  of  peasant  jewelry  of  indi- 
genous manufacture  by  the  importation  of  beads  and  imita** 
tion  jewelry  made  in  Europe,  and  accurately  copied,  in  many 
instances,  from  specimens  sent  to  exhibitions,  and  purchased 
by  the  agents  of  the  manufacturers  ;  the  abandonment  of 
the  use  of  indigenous  vegetable  dyes  in  favour  of  the 
cheaper  and  more  rapidly  operating  anilin  and  alizarin 
dyes ;  the  use  of  lucifer  matches  by  '  aboriginal '  tribes, 
who  formerly  made  fire  by  friction;  the  supply  of  new 


60 

forms  of  food,  and  of  beer  and  spirits,  in  the  bazaars  ;  the 
influence  of  the  Government  in  suppressing  thnggi,  sutti^ 
the  human  (meiiah)  sacrifices  of  the  Elhonds,  and  Toda 
infanticide ;  the  administration  of  justice ;  the  spread  of 
education ;  religious  teaching : — these  and  many  other 
factors  are  the  causes,  or  signs  of,  a  radical  change  in  the 
ethnographic  conditions  of  the  country. 

A  Toda  lassie  curling  her  ringlets  with  the  assistance 
of  a  cheap  looking-class ;  a  Toda  man  smeared  with  Hindu 
sect  marks^  doing  p6ja,  and  praying  for  male  offspring  at 
a  Hindu  shrine ;  a  Bengali  babu  with  close-cropped  hair 
and  bare  head,  clad  in  patent  leather  boots,  white  socks^ 
dhuti,  and  conspicuous  unstarched  shirt  of  English  device ; 
a  Hindu  or  Parsi  cricket  eleven  engaged  against  a  Euro- 
pean team;  the  increasing  struggle  for  small-paid  appoint- 
ments under  Grovemment: — these  area  few  examples  of 
changes  resulting  from  the  refinement  of  modem  civiliza- 
tion. 

It  has  recently  been  said  that  '^  there  will  be  plenty  of 
money  and  people  available  for  anthropological  research, 
when  there  are  no  more  aborigines  ";  and  it  behoves  our 
museums  to  waste  no  time  in  completing  their  anthropo- 
logical collections. 


61 


TABLE  IX. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  HEADS. 


• 

Dolichocephalic. 

• 

.2 

1 

.2 

'0 
OD 

■ 

.2 

■ 

y 
Is 

s 

• 

d 

OQ 

Brachycephalio. 

1 
Todas  ...         ••■         •••         •••         •••  1     22 

3 

•  •  • 

,«  •  ■ 

1 
•  •  • 

BadagM          21 

4 

•  •% 

•  •  • 

■  •  • 

IrttlllS    ■••              •••              •••              ''"              ••• 

20 

2           3 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

Tiyyans 

20 

2 

2 

1 

•  •  • 
■  •  • 

Mappas           ..•         ••.         ••• 

19 

1 
5 

•  •  • 

V  oiiaias           •••         •••         •••         ••• 

19 

5           1 

•  «  • 

•  •  • 

Tamil  Pariahs           

18 

6 

1 

■  •  • 

•  •  • 

jvocaB  ...         ...         •••         •••         ... 

17 

6 

2 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

Cherumans     ... 

17 

5 

2 

1 

•  •  • 

HalaiAlis         

17 

3 

4 

1 

•  •  • 

Paniyans 

15 

8 

1 

1 

mm   ■ 

KammAlans    ...         ••• 

14 

6 
6 

3 

2 

•  «  • 

Pattar  Brfthmans 

14 

3 

2 

■  •  • 
•  «  • 

LambAdis 

13 

7 

2 

3 

imias  ...         ...         •••         •••         *•« 

11 

8           5 

1 

•  •  • 

Sheik  Mahammadans         

10 

7           G 

2 

•  •  • 

Kanarese  Pariahs 

8 

7           5 

5 

•  •  • 

Tamil  Brfthmins 

7 

12 

3 

2 

1 

Knmbas 

7 

13           4 

2 

•  •  • 

Kongas           ...         ...         *•. 

6 

8 

9 

1 

2 

•  •  • 

Koramas         ...         ...         ••■         ... 

6 

3 

13 

1 

2 

62 


TABLE  X. 


AVEBAOES. 


CEPHALIC  LENGTH,  BBBADTH,  AND  INDEX. 


' 

Length. 

Breadth. 

Index* 

cm. 

cm. 

X  OuCvo     •••              •••              •••              •••              •>■              ■•• 

19-4 

14-2 

73-3 

X^O  vcIrS       •••                 •«•                 ••«                 •«•                 •■>                 ••• 

19-2 

14-2 

741 

DflfUCiKOkS                        •••                   •••                   •••                   ■•*                   ••• 

18-9 

13-6 

71-7 

X  A  y  Y  otUB                  •••              •••              •••              •••              ••• 

.  18-9 

13-7 

>    72-7 

Pattax  Br&hmans       

18-8 

14 

74-5 

Tamil  Br&hmans        

18-6 

14-2 

76-6 

Tamil  Pariahs 

18-6 

13-7 

73-6 

V  vJL1& Ivo                   •••               •••               •••                                   ■•• 

18-6 

13-8 

741 

<trttiiiB    •••           •••           ••«           >••           •■•           ••■ 

18-6 

13-6 

73 

Mnppas 

18-5 

13-4 

72-3 

Lamb&dis         ...         ••.         .•>         ... 

18-4 

13"9 

75-4 

Kamm&lans 

18-4 

13-7 

75 

at  SmIi  jr  aus           ••         •••         ...         •••         ••• 

18-4 

«  13-6 

74 

Kombas          ..«         •••         ...         ... 

18-3 

13-9 

75-8 

Malai&lis          

18-3 

13-7 
13-5 

74-4 

Gherumans 

18-3 

73-9 

Sheik  Mnhammadans           

18-2 

13-8 

76-2 

Kanarese  Pariahs       

18 

13-8 

76-8 

Xa  UI&B     ^%*             •••              •••              >■«             •••              ••• 

18 

137 

75-8 

X^IJUKCaa  •#•                 •■•                  •••                  ■••                  •••                  •*• 

17-8 

13-7 

77 

Koramas 

17-8 

13-9 

77-5 

63 


TABLE  XI. 

NASAL  INDEX. 


. 

Max.         Min. 

Average. 

Bange. 

60-70. 
Lamb&dis 83-7 

59-2     1      69-1     1     24-5 

Sheik  Mnhammadans        | 

7a 
VellAlas        

85-1 
-80. 
91-5 

60 

60-8 
62-3 

70 
731 

251 
30-7 

Karubaa 

85*9 

73-2 
74-9 
75 

23-6 

Todas 

891 

61-2 

17-9 

Tiyyana        

83-3 

61-5 

21*8 

A.Ot&S 

92-9 

64 

76-5 

18-9 

Badag^s 

88*4 

62-7 

75-6 

15-7 

Koramas       ...         ...         .«. 

90-9 

62-7 

75-7 

28-2 

Kanarese  Pariahs  ... 

88-1 
95-3 

61-5 

75-9 

26-6 

Pattar  Brfthmans 

64-7 

76-6 

301 

Brahmans  (Madras  oity )  ... 

95-1 

60 

76-7 

351 

Kammalans            

90-9 

63-3 

773 

27-6 

Malaialis      

100 

63-8 

77-8 

34-2 

X^  C«Ulo                      •••                 •••                 •■•                 ••• 

951     '      60-8 

77-9 

34-3 

Oherumans  ... 

88-9          69-6 

78-1 

29-3 

Kongas         ...         ...         ...         ... 

80 
Tamil  Pariahs         

92-7    j      64 
-90. 

10-5     1     G6 

1 

79-9 

.      80 

28-7 
39 

Mnppas 

92-8 

70-6 

81-6 

21-8 

Iralas            

100- ; 

72-3 

84-9 

27-7 

PaI  Karumbaa         

90 
Urftli  Kurnmbaa      

• « ■ 

-100. 

1               *  *  * 

1 

•  •  • 

•  •• 

( 

'      87 
93-4 

•  •• 

•  •  • 

Sholitfaa       

«  » • 

94-4 

•  •  • 

Paniyans 

108-6 

83-7 

951 

24-9 

64 


TABLE  XII. 


AVEEAGES  OP  NASAL  HEIGHT,  BBEADTH, 

AND  INDEX. 


Height. 

Breadth. 

Index. 

LambMiB 

4'9 

3-4 

69-1 

Sheik  Mnhammadans  ... 

4-9 

3-4 

70 

Vellalas 

4-7 

3-4 

731 

Knmbas 

4-7 

3-4 

73-2 

Tiyyans             

4-7 

3-5 

75 

X  iiUCvD         •■«                   •••                   •••                                            ««•                   ••• 

4-7 

3-6 

74-9 
76-5 
76-7 

Pattar,  Br&hmans        

4-7 

3-6 

Br &htnanf>  (Madras  city)        

4-7 
4-7 

3-6 

Kanarese,  Pariahs       

3-6 

75-9 

Badagas 

4-6 

3-4 

75-6 

Koramas 

4'6 

3-4 

76-7 

Malaiftlis           

4-6     j        3-5 

77-8 

1  Kamm&lans 

4-6     :        3-6 

1 

77-3 

X  ttlllo          •••                •••                •■■                ■«•               •>•                >•• 

4'6 

3-6 

77-9 

J\  OlrCvS            •••                     •■•                      ■«•                      •••                      «••                     •. 

4-5 

3-5 

77-2 

Kongas  ... 

4-5 

3-5 

79-9 

Tamil  Pariahs 

4-5 

3-6 

80 

Cheramans       ...         ...         ...                     ... 

4-4 

3-4 

78-1 

X&  UJolB        •••                 •••                 •••                 ■••                •••                 ••• 

4-4 

3-7 
3-7 

84-9 

Pal  Karnmbas 

4-3 

87 

Sholigas 

4-2 

3-9 

94-4 

Muppas 

4-1 

• 

3-3 

81-5 

Urali  Kiirumbas          

41 
4 

3*8 

93-4 

Paniyans           

3-8 

951 

65 


TABLE  Xin. 


COMPARISON  OJP  NASAL  INDICES  OF  20-23  UEMBEfiS 

OF  VABI0U8  CLASSES. 


1 

150-60 

1 

2 

1 

60-70 
13 

70-80 
6 

80-90  90-100 

100- 
110 

Lamb&diH         

4. 

4      t      ••• 

•  •« 

1 

;  Sheik  Moiiainmadans 

... 

13 

11 

1 

•  » • 

Vellftlas            

1 

•  •• 
1 

9 

13 

3 

« •  • 

•  »  • 

Knmbas           

•  •  • 

.8 

14 

3 

... 

Koramas          

•  •  • 

6 

12 

4 

1 

... 

Kanarese  Pariahs 

•  •  • 

6 

10 

9 

•  •  ■ 

Tiyyans            

9  •  m 

1       5 

13 

7 

•  •  ■ 

•  •  • 

Todas...           

4 

13 

8 

... 

•  ■  • 

J&OuElS     •••             •••             .,,             **'i       *** 

4 

11 

8 

1    1 

1 

•  t  • 

Brahmans  (Madras  city) 
1  Pattar  Brfthmans 

m  •  • 

4 

12 

8 

... 

«  ■  • 

4 

15 

4 

2 

... 

Badagas           

3 

14 

8 

a   •   • 

» •  • 

Malai&lis 

... 

3 

12 

9 

1 

•  •  • 

Kammftlans     ...         ...         ...  :     ...     i 

1 

2 

16 

6 

1 

•  •  • 

Kotigas 

■  •  • 

2 

7 

8 

3 

■  •  • 

■  ■  • 

Pallis 

•  ■  • 

1 

14 

7 

3 

1 

Tamil  Pariahs             

•  •  ■ 

1 

9 

14 

•  •• 

Cberamans 

1 

IG 
11 

8 

•  •  • 

2 

•  *  • 

Muppas            1 

1 

1 

•  ■  • 

•  •  ■ 

•  at 

11 

•  « • 

Imlas 

... 

7 

11 

G 

1 

Paniyans         

1 

•  •  • 

... 

1 

5 

9 

10 

66 


TABLE  XIV. 


CHEST  GIRTH. 


1 

i 

1 

Average. 

1 

Average 

relative 

to  stature 

=  100. 

Pamyans             ...         

• 

CM. 

81-5                51-8 

Kurnbas              ...         ...         ... 

83-8 

oil 

AlO  wIvS             •••                ••>                >••                .«•                •••                ••• 

83 

51 

PAl  Kummbas 

79-2 

.50-3 

Lamb&diR             

82-5 

50-2 

Kanarese  Pariahs 

81-3 

50-2 

JL 1 V  Y  cvUo      ••■               •■•               •••               •••                 ••               ••• 

82 

501 

Brfthmans  (Madras  citv)          

81 

49-8 

Koramas 

79-4 

49-8 

iLon^fas     ...         ..«         ...         ...    ^    ...         ... 

79-2 

49-8 

JlX.  UXcLD               •«•                   •«•                   •••                   ••*                   •••                   ■•• 

79-4 

49-7 

Mnppaa    ... 

77-4 

491 

Chernmans 

78-4 

491 

Vell&las 

79-8 

491 

jsacia^as    ...         ...         •«•          . . •         ...         ••« 

80-4 

49 

X  ouas        •••         ...         ...         >..          •■•         ••• 

83 

48-9 

Tamil  Pariahs 

79-3 

48-9 

Kamm&lans 

78 

48-e 

Malai&lis 

80 

48-8 

XTo'lAlg               «••                  m  ,r                  •••                  •■•                  •••                  »•• 

79-2 

48-7 

The  measurements  were  taken  round  the  nipples,  the 
arms  being  above  the  head,  and  hands  joined. 

The  English  average  =  93*9,  t,e,,  54  relative  to  stature 
=  100  (Topinard). 


67 


TABLE  XV. 


BREADTH  OF  SHOULDERS. 


Avera^. 

Average 

relative 

to  stature 

=  100. 

JL 1  vy axio    •••         •■•         •••         •••         •••         •■, 

CM 

40-3 

24-6 

KammAlans         

39-2 

24-5 

Yellftlas    ...         

39-7 

24-4 

Tamil  Pariahs 

39*4 

24-3 

Kongas 

38-7 
39-3 

24*3 

Br&hmans  (Madras  city)          

24-2 

iraiiis        ..•         •.•         •••         •••         >..         •», 

39-4 

24-2 

Kurnbas 

39-5 

241 

Irulas       ...         ...         ...         

38-5 

241 

,£j  ttiUtti|(tMI      ■••                  ■••                 •••                  •••                  •«•                  #•• 

394 

24 

Kanarese  Pariahs           

38-8 

24 

Lambftdis 

39o 

24 

P&l  Karnmbas 

37-8 

24 

Malaialis  ... 

38-8 

23-7 

Koranias  ... 

37-7 

23-7 

Cheraxnans 

37 

23*5 

X  OCLlvS             •••              •••              •••              •••              •»•              ••• 

39-3 

23-2 

Kotas 

37-7 

231 

Paniyans              

35-9 

22-8 

Muppas 

35-3        1 

22-4 

I 


BUMHARr  or  HEASUREHEXTS  OP  BRAHMANS  OF  MADRAS 
CITT  AND  I'aTTAR   BRAHMANS  OF  MALABAR. 


Weight 

!     Uadni.            Fattar. 
{       115  Ih.    1     112      lb. 

Height      

1       102-5on..i     164-3   om. 

Height,  sitting 

85-4       1      H5'6 

Height,  kneeling 

119-2       1     121-3 

Height  to  ^ladioluB       .. 

1221        '     128-7 

Span  of  «ms      

1733            173 

CheBt       



81           J       S3'9 

Miaaie  finger  to  pntella 

101         !        11-3 

ShoLilderB            

S9S       ;      41 

Cubit        

46          1      46-2 

Hand,lenKth      

18-3 

18'6 

Hand,  breadth 

8 

8-2 

Middle  finger      

110 

11-8 

Hip-         

26 

271 

Foot.  length      

259 

25-8 

Foot,  brewlth      

8-7 

»9 

Cephalic  length 

18-6 

18-8         j 

Cephalic  breadth 

1          1-1-2 

14 

Cephalio  index 

j        70-5 

7*5 

Bigoniac 

10 

10-1 

Biijgomatio 

12'9 

128 

MBxillo-iyKomatio  index          

77' 7 

78'4 

Haaal  height      

4'7 

+7 

Nm»1  breadth 

3'6 

3-6 

HwMil  index         1        76-7       j        7G'5 

F«i»l  angle 69          |         G8 

MADRAS  GOVERNMENT  MUSEUM. 
Bulletin,    Vol.  II,  .Vo.  2. 

ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Eurasians  of  Madras  and  Malabar ; 

Note  on  Tattooing;;      Malapjasy-Nias-Dravidians i 

•Toda  Petition. 

■With  Ten  Plates. 


BDOAR  THUB.STON, 

8DFEBI»TICN0EM,    UADHAS  GuVBKNUBNt   McaiCM. 


I 


XI A  D  R  A  S  t 
PRINTED  BY  THE  SUPKKIIirTHlNDKNT,  GOVERNMENT  PRESS. 


^ 


BY  EDQAE  THUHSTON. 

Vol.  J. 
No.  1.— Pbakl   amT)   CiiAKK    Fisheries    or    the    Ocu    ct 

MAtKAAX. 

No.  2.— NoTB  ox  Tours  along  tub  Mai.abak  Coast. 

No.  3.— EiM^BVARAM     latASD    AWO    FaUNA     OF    THB    GVLV     OF 

Uahaab'. 

Na.   4.— AKTHBOPOLOdY    OP     THB     TODAB    AND     KOTAa      OF     Tn« 

NiLoiKi  nna.8;  AND  OF  tub  BRinMANs.  Kam- 
MiLANB,  Pallis  ahd  Pahiahh  of  MADBAa  City. 

Vol.  IT. 

No.    1,— ASTIIEOPOLOOY  OF    THB    BaWQAB    ANU  IbPLas   OF    THB 

NriGiRia;  Paniyanb  of  JIaxj^iiab;  Chinese-Tawl 
Ckobs;  Cubkuman  Sjtr  lj  Kdbitba  or  Kuri-uba  i 
SuiuuRY  of  Kebultb. 


MADRAS  GOVERNMENT  MUSEUM. 


Bulletin,   Vol,  II,  Xo,  2, 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Eurasians  of  Madras  and  Malabar ; 
Note  on  Tattooing;      Malagasy-Nias-Dravidians*; 

Toda  Petition. 

"With  Ten  Plates. 


BY 

EDGAR  THUBSTON, 

BUPBBINTINDBNTy  KaDSAS  OOYXBNMimr  MUSIUM. 


u 


MADRAS: 
PBIKTBD  BY  THE  8UFEBIKTENDENT,  GOVEBNKSKT  FESSS. 


1898. 


CONTENTS. 


BURASIA.KS  OF  MADBAS  AND  MALABAK 


•  •• 


NOTE  ON  TATTOOING     ... 


•*•         •••         .** 


MALAGASY-NIAS-DEATIDIANB 


•t«         ••• 


TODA  PETITION    ... 


••t         i.i         11.         ..I 


•ft 


PAGI 

...  69-114 

...  115-118 

...  110-127 

...  128-130 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


EURASIANS  OF  MADRAS  CITY  AND  MALABAR. 


It  must  be  explained,  at  the  outset,  tliat  my  subjects  for 
measurement  and  investigation  were,  with  a  special  object 
in.  view,  taken  from  the  poorer  classes,  including  the  poorest 
of  the  poor,  who  feel  more  keenly  than  their  more  prosper- 
ous brethren  the  struggle  for  existence  and  the  pinch  of 
poverty,  and  whose  physique  I  was  specially  anxious  to 
gauge  correctly. 

I  learn  from  Sir  W,  Hunter's  'Brief  History  of  the 
Indian  People '  that  the  first  modern  Englishman,  known 
to  have  visited  India,  was  Thomas  Stephens,  Rector  of  the 
Jesuits'  College  in  Salsette,  in  1579.  The  name  of  the  first 
Eurasian  has  not,  in  like  manner,  been  handed  down  to 
posterity.  The  term  Eurasian  (Eur-asian)  may,  after  the 
definition  in  '  Hobson-Jobson/^  be  summed  up  as  a  modem 
name  for  persons  of  mixed  European  and  Native  blood, 
devised  as  being  more  euphemistic  than  half-caste  or  half- 
breed,  and  more  precise  than  East  Indian.  According  to 
Stocqueler  (Handbk.  Brit.  Inrlia,  1854)  the  name  Eur- 
asian was  invented  by  the  Marquis  of  Hcistings.  By  '  Ali 
Baba'  '  the  Eurasian  is  dismissed,  with  playful  satire,  in 
the  following  terms  :  "  The  Native  papers  say  *  deport 
him ' ;  the  white  papers  say  *  make  him  a  soldier ' ;  and  the 
Eurasian  himself  says  *  make  me  a  Commissioner,  give  me 
a  pension.'  "  In  the  '  Cyclopaedia  of  India '  Dr.  Balfour 
defines  East  Indian  as  '^  a  term  which  has  been  adopted 
by  all  classes  in  India  to  distinguish  the  descendants  of 
Europeans  and  Native  mothers.  Other  names,  such  as 
half-caste,  chatikar,  and  chi-chi  are  derogatory  designa- 
tions. Chattikar  is  from  chitta  (trousers)  and  kar  (a  person 
who  uses  them).  The  Muhammadans  equally  wear  trousers, 
but  concealed  by  their  long  outer  gowns.     The  East  Indians 

^■iiM  ■■■■  ,1  ,  ■!■  ,  .1  ■■■II  ■-■  .i-^»  ^^^^^^m 

1  Yule  and  BarnelL  '  *  Tweafcj-one  Days  in  India.' 

K 


70 

are  also  known  as  Parangi  (Franks),  a  person  of  Europe. 
The  humbler  East  Indians,  if  asked  their  race,  reply  that 
thev  are  Wallandex  or  OoUandaj,  whioh  is  a  modification  of 
B  oUandais,  the  name  having  been  brought  down  through  the 
Boventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  from  the  Dutch.  East 
Indians  have,  in  India,  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  Euro- 
peans. Baces  with  a  mixture  of  European  with  Asiatic 
blood  possess  a  proud  and  susceptible  tone  of  mind/'  Vor 
the  purposes  of  the  Lawrence  Asylum,  Ootacamund  {q,c. 
p.  lUO),  the  word  "East  Indian  *'  is  restricted  to  the  chil- 
dren of  European  fathers  by  East  Indian  or  Native  mothers, 
or  of  East  Indian  fathers  and  mothers,  both  of  whom  are 
the  children  of  European  fathers. 

Some  Eurasians  have,  it  may  be  noted,  had  decorations 
or  knighthood  conferred  on  them,  and  risen  to  the  highest 
possible  position  in,  and  gained  the  blue  ribbon  of  Govem- 
ment  service.  Others  have  held,  or  still  hold,  positions  of 
distinction  in  the  various  learned  professions^  l^gcd,  medical^ 
educational,  and  ecclesiastical. 

By  a  recent  ruling  of  the  Government  of  India  it  has 
been  decided  that  Eurasians  appointed  in  England  to  official 
posts  in  India  are,  if  they  are  not  statutory  natives,  to  be 
treated  as  Europeans  as  regards  the  receipt  of  '^  exchange 
compensation  allowance.'^ 

The  Danes  are  said  (Rush)  to  Lave  produced,  through 
Hindu  women,  children  of  European  type  and  vigour,  while 
such  is  certainly  not  the  case  wich  other  European  nations. 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  the  Anglo-Eurasian  owes 
Lis  origin,  in  great  measure,  to  the  direct  influence  of  pep- 
per. For  I  learn  that  *'  the  English  East  India  Company 
Lad  its  origin  in  the  commercial  rivalry  between  London 
and  Amsterdam.  In  1599,  the  Dutch  raised  the  price  of 
pepper  against  the  English  from  3s.  to  6«.  and  8a.  per  pound. 
The  merchants  of  London  held  a  meeting  on  the  22nd 
September  at  Founder's  Hall,  with  the  Lord  Mayor  in  the 
chair,  and  agreed  to  form  an  association  for  the  purpose  of 
trading  directly  with  India,  and  on  the  8th  October,  1600, 
the  following  ships  were  taken  up  for  the  first  voyage  to 
the  East  Indies  : — 

Men.  Tons. 

''Malice  Scourge"            ..          ..200  600 

''Hector" 100  300 

'•Ascension"         80  240 

•'Susan" 80  240 

A  pinnace 40  100 


PL.      XVI.    A. 


MADRAS   EURASIAN. 


71 

''  Nearly  forty  years  later,  in  1639,  Mr.  Francis  Day, 
the  Chief  of  the  British  factory  at  Armagdon,  purchased 
from  the  £&ja  of  Chandragiri  a  site  called  Maderaspatam 
or  Chinipatnam,  built  Fort  St.  George,  and  became  the 
foander  of  Madras,  which  was  the  first  territorial  possession 
of  the  Company  in  India." 

The  influence  of  the  various  European  nations — Portu- 
guese, Dutch,  British,  Danish,  and  French — which  have 
at  different  times  acquired  territory  in  peninsular  India,  is 
elearly  visible  in  the  polyglot  medley  of  Eurasian  surnames^ 
e.^., Gomez,  Gonsalvez,Pereira,  Bozario,  Cabral,DaCruz,  Da 
Costa,  Da  Silva,Da  Souza,  Fernandez,  Fon8eca,Lazaro,Henri- 
quez,  Xavier,  Mendonza,  Itodriguez,  Saldana,  Almey  da,  Luza, 
Heldt,  Van  Spall,  Jansen,  Augustine,  Brisson,  Comeiile, 
La  Grange,  Lavocat,  Pascal,  Caubo  (Corbeau,  Mr.  Crow.  ?), 
De  Vine,  Aubert,  Byan,  McKertish,  Macpherson,  Harris, 
Johnson,  Smith,  &o.  Little  did  the  early  adventurers, 
in  the  dawn  of  the  seventeenth  century,  think  that,  as  the 
result  of  their  alliances  with  the  Native  women,  within  three 
centuries  banns  of  marriage  would  be  declared  weekly  in 
Madras  churches  between,  for  example,  Ben  Jonson  and 
Alice  Almeyda,  Emmanuel  Henricus  and  Mary  Smith, 
Augustus  Sozario  and  Minnie  Fonseca,  John  Harris  and 
Clara  Comeille,  &c.  Yet  this  has  come  to  pass,  and  the 
Eurasian  holds  a  recognised  jUblcq  among  the  half-breed 
races  of  the  world  resulting  from  modem  '  civilization/ 

The  pedigree  of  the  early  Eurasian  community  is  veiled 
in  some  obscurity.  But  the  various  modes  of  creation  of  a 
half-breed,  which  were  adopted  in  those  early  days,  when 
the  sturdy  European  pioneers  first  came  in  contact  with 
the  Native  females,  were  probably  as  follows  : — 

A.  European  man  (pure)       B.  Native  woman  (pure). 

O.  Male  offspring    of  1      j,  jj^^.^^  ^^^^^ 
A  4-  B  (first  oroas).      J 

E.  Female  offspring  of  1      F.  European  man. 
A+B  (first  cross).    J      G.  Native  man. 

H.  Male    offspring  of    [     ^'  C^f««"^«    off»Pri"fir  of 

^  •  L     «^   Native  woman. 

tL.  Cross-male  offspring  of 
A+B. 
M.  European. 
N.  Native  man. 


72 

The   Eurasian  half-breed,   thus   estahlisbed,  has    been 
perpetuated  by  a  variety  of  possible  combinations : — 

^  f    Eurasian  woman. 

European  man       ..[     Native  woman. 

Native  woman. 
Eurasian  man         •  •  \    Eurasian  woman. 


Native  man 


Eutopean  woman. 
Eurasian  woman. 
European  woman. 


In  the  early  days  of  the  British  occupation  of  Madras, 
the  traders  and  soldiers,  arriving  with  an  inadequate  equip- 
ment of  females,  contracted  alHanceSi  regular  or  irregular, 
with  the  'women  of  the  country.  And  in  these  early  days, 
when  our  territorial  possessions  were  keenly  contested  with 
both  European  and  Native  enemies,  an  attempt  was  made, 
under  authority  from  high  places,  to  obtain,  through  the 
medium  of  the  British  soldier,  and  in  accordance  with  the 
creed  that  crossing  is  an  essential  means  of  improving  a 
race,  and  rendering  it  vigorous  by  the  infusion  of  fresh 
blood  from  a  different  stock,  a  good  cross,  which  should  be 
available  for  military  purposes.  The  problem  of  a  Eurasian 
army  is,  therefore,  no  new  one,  but  one  which  was  dealt 
with  long  ago  in  a  practical  manner,  such  as  is  no  longer 
possible  in  these  more  advanced  times.  Later  on,  as  the 
numbers  of  the  British  settlers  increased,  connexions,  either 
with  the  Native  women,  or  with  the  females  of  the  recently 
founded  Eurasian  type,  were  kept  up  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  communication  with  the  mother-country,  and  con- 
sequent difficulty  in  securing  English  brides  by  the  ordinary 
rules  of  sexual  selection.  Of  these  barbaric  days  the 
detached  or  semi-detached  bungalows  in  the  spacious 
grounds  of  the  big  private  houses  in^  Madras  remain  as  a 
memorial.  At  the  present  day  the  conditions  of  life  in 
India  are,  as  the  result  of  steamer  traffic,  very  different, 
and  far  more  wholesome.  The  Eurasian  man  seeks  a  wife 
as  a  rule  among  his  own  community  ;  and  in  this  manner 
the  race  is  mainly  maintained,  though  examples  of  first 
crosses,  and  the  results  of  re-crossing  between  European 
and  Eurasian  are  frequently  met  with. 

The  number  of  Eurasians  within  the  limits  of  the  Madras 
Presidency  was  returned,  at  the  Census,  1891 ,  as  26,043. 
But  on  this  point  I  must  call  Mr.  H.  A.  Stuart,  the  Census 
Commissioner,  into  the  witness  box.  "  The  number  of 
Eurasians,"  he  writes,  ^^  is  26,643,  which  is  20*76  per  cent. 


MADRAS    EURASIAN. 


73 

more  tLan  the  number  returned  in  1881/^  The  fibres  for 
the  last  three  enumerations  are  given  in  the  following 
statement : — 

Number  of  Eurasians. 

Tear.  Total.  Males,  Females. 

1871  ..  ,,  2fi,460  13,091  13,369 

1881  ..  ..  21,892  10,969  10,923 

1891  ..  ..  26,648  13,141  13,502 

"It  will  be  seen  that,  between  1871  and  1881,  there 
was  a  great  decrease,  and  that  the  numbers  in  1891  are 
slightly  higher  than  thej  were  twenty  years  ago.  The 
figures,  however,  are  most  untrustworthy.  The  cause  is 
not  far  to  seek ;  many  persons,  who  are  really  Natives, 
claim  to  be  Eurasians,  and  some  who  are  Eurasians  return 
themselves  as  Europeans.  It  might  be  thought  that  the 
errors  due  to  these  circumstances  would  be  fairly  constant, 
but  the  district  figures  show  that  this  cannot  be  the  case. 
Take  Malabar,  for  example,  which  has  the  largest  number 
of  Eurasians  after  Madras,  and  where  the  division  between 
Native  Christians  with  European  names  and  people  of  real 
mixed  race  is  very  shadowy.  In  1871  there  were  in  this 
district  5,413  Eurasians ;  in  1881  the  number  had  appa- 
rently fallen  to  1,676,  while  in  1891  it  had  again  risen  to 
4,193,  or,  if  we  include  south-east  Wynaad,  as  we  should 
do,  to  4,439.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  trustworthy  statis- 
tics cannot  be  obtained,  for  the  qnoRtion  whether  the  true 
Eurasian  community  is  increasing  or  decreasing  is  of  con- 
siderable scientific  and  administrative  importance. 

"  The  Eurasians  form  but  a  very  small  proportion  of 
the  community,  for  there  is  only  one  Eurasian  in  every 
1,337  of  the  population  of  the  Madras  Presidency,  and  it 
is  more  than  probable  that  a  considerable  proportion  of 
those  returned  as  Eurasians  are  in  reality  pure  Natives  who 
have  .embraced  the  Christian  religion,  taken  an  English  or 
Portuguese  name,  and  adopted  the  European  dress  and 
mode  of  living. 

^'  In  the  matter  of  education,  or  at  least  elementary 
education,  they  are  more  advanced  than  any  other  class  of 
the  community,  and  compare  favourably  with  the  population 
of  any  country  in  the  world.  They  live  for  the  most  part 
in  towns,  nearly  one-half  of  their  number  being  found  in 
the  city  of  Madras." 


74 


In  connection  with  the  fact  that^  at  times  of  Census^ 
Native  Christians  and  Pariahs,  who  masquerade  in  Euro- 
pean clothes,  return  themselves  as  Eurasiaus,  and  rice  versa, 
it  maj  be  accepted  that  some  benefit  must  be  derived  by 
the  individual  in  return  for  the  masking  of  his  or  her 
nationality.  And  it  has  been  pointed  out  to  me  that  (as 
newspaper  advertisements  testify)  many  ladies  will  employ 
a  Native  ayah  rather  than  a  Eurasian  nurse,  and  that  some 
employers  will  take  Eurasian  clerks  into  their  service,  but 
not  Native  Christians.  It  occasionally  happens  that  pure- 
bred Natives,  with  European  name  and  costume,  successfully 
pass  theuLselves  off  as  Eurasians,  and  are  placed  on  a  foot- 
ing of  equality  with  Eurasians  in  the  matter  of  diet,  when 
they  are  in  prison,  being  allowed  the  luxury  of  bread, 
butter,  coffee,  &c. 

Mr.  Stuart  had  at  his  command  no  special  statistics  of 
the  occupations  resorted  to  by  Eurasians,  but  states  that 
the  majority  of  them  are  clerks,  while  very  few  indeed 
obtain  their  livelihood  by  agriculture.  In  the  course  oi  my 
enquiry,  which  included  a  majority  of  bread-winners  and  a 
sprinkling  of  loafers,  the  following  varied  occupations  were 
recorded.  It  is  noteworthy  that,  of  130  cases,  no  less  than 
b3  returned  their  occupation  as  "  fitter*' : — 


Accountant. 

Attendant,  Lunatic  Asylum. 

Baker. 

Bandsman. 

Bili-coUeetor. 

Blacksmith. 

Boarding-house  keeper* 

Boatswain. 

Boilersmith. 

Curpenter. 

Chemist's  asBistant. 

Clerk,  Gov^emment. 

Clerk,  private. 

Commission  agent. 

Compositor. 

Compounder. 

Contractor. 

Copper-smith. 

Crane  attendant,  harbour. 

Draftsman. 

Eiectric-tram  driver. 

Electrio-tram  inspector. 

Engine-driver,  Ice  factory. 


Evangelist. 

Filer. 

Fitter. 

Fireman. 

Hammerer. 

Harness- maker* 

Jewel-smith* 

Jointer. 

Labourer. 

Livery-stable  keeper* 

Mechanic. 

Moulder. 

Painter.   • 

Petition- writer. ' 

Police  inspector* 

Porter. 

Printer. 

Proof-reader* 

Bail  way — 

Auditor. 

Chargeman. 

Engine-driver. 

Engineer. 


MADRAS   EURASIANS. 


• 


Bailway— 

Carriage  examiner. 
Reporter. 
Eivetter. 
Saddler. 
Schoolmaster. 
Sexton. 
Spring-Bmitli. 
Stereotjper. 
Steward. 
Telegraph  clerk. 
Watch-maker. 
Watchman. 


75 

Bailway — 
Goods  clerk. 
Guard. 

].ocomotiye  inspector. 
Parcel  clerk. 
Prosecuting  inspector. 
Shunter. 
SigUHller. 
Stationm  aster. 
Store-keeper. 
I'icket- collector. 
Tool -keeper. 
Block-sigpialler. 

The  bandsmen,  who  appeared  before  me,  were  tested 
with  the  apparatus  for  estimating  appreciation  of  difference 
in  musical  pitc^.  All  responded  well  to  the  test,  except 
the  performer  on  the  big  drum,  who  broke  down  hopelesslj 
at  a  very  early  stage. 

The  Eurasians'  fancy  turns  not  lightly,  but  seriously  to 
thoughts  of  love  at  a  very  early  age,  with  the  result  that 
they  sometimes  marry,  with  all  the  pomp  of  bridal  dress, 
cake  and  wine,  when  barely  out  of  leading  strings,  and 
become  burthened  with  the  cares,  anxieties,  and  responsi- 
bilities of  paternity  and  maternity  when  they  are  mere  boys 
and  girls.  One  of  my  subjects,  indeed,  volunteered  the 
information  that  he  married  a  child-bride  before  she 
reached  puberty.  Whether  they  marry  because,  as  with 
the  Hindu,  an  unmarried  man  is  looked  down  upon  as 
having  no  social  status,  and  as  being  an  almost  useless 
member  of  society,  or  whether  for  the  "  causes  for  which 
matrimony  was  ordained,'^  I  am  unable  to  state  precisely. 
But  I  may  hazard  a  guess  that  it  is  because  they  have 
not  acquired  the  power  to  "  subordinate  animal  appetite  to 
reason,  forethought,  and  prudence.^'  Whatever  the  reason, 
the  results  are  but  too  frequently  disastrous, — a  plethora 
of  children,  brought  up  in  poverty,  hunger,  and  dirt; 
but  little  to  earn  and  many  to  keep;  domestic  unrest; 
insolvency ;  and  destitution.  A  virtuous  state  of  celibacy 
has  been  recently  advocated  as  a  substitute  for  early  mar- 
riage, and  the  argument  brought  forward  that,  if  a  man 
has  sufBcient  intelligence  and  unselfishness  to  abstain  from 
dragging  a  wife  and  children  into  poverty  and  misery,  he 
will  be  sufficiently  intelligent  and  unselfish  to  lead  a  pure 
lite,  and  not  swell  the  ranks  of  the  illegitimate. 

From  the  analysis  of  a  hundred  male  cases,  in  which 
enquiries  were  specially  made  with  reference  to  the  married 


76 

state  in  individuals  ranging  in  age  from  21  to  50,  with  an 
average  age  of  33,  I  learn  that  74  were  married  at  the 
average  age  of  22-23;  that  141  male  and  130  female 
children  had  been  bom  to  them ;  and  that  26>  whose 
average  age  was  25,  were  unmarried.  The  limits  of  age  of 
the  men  at  the  time  of  marriage  were  32  and  16 ;  of  the 
woihen  25  and  13.  The  greatest  number  of  children  born 
to  a  single  pair  was  10.  In  only  three  cases,  out  of  the 
seventy-four,  was  there  no  issue.  In  fifty  cases,  which  were 
investigated,  of  married  men  with  an  average  age  of  34,  207 
children  had  been  born,  of  whom  91  had  died,  for  the  most 
part  in  very  early  life,  from  "  fever  ''and  other  causes,  among 
which  malnutrition,  and  consequent  marasmus,  must  take 
a  foremost  place.  Remembering  that  house-rent  should  be 
paid,  and  that  clothes  and  food  have  to  be  acquired,  how,  I 
ask  myself,  can  cases  such  as  the  following  lead  other  than 
a  miserable  existence,  void  of  the  pleasure  of  life  ? 

Pay  per         ^  Age  of     Children 


mensem. 

—  o— ■ 

marnage. 

livii 

RS. 

YRS. 

TR8. 

NC 

15 

26 

21 

3 

10 

27 

18 

5 

15 

25 

21 

2 

20 

39 

19 

7 

6 

38 

22 

2 

18 

27 

18 

6 

10 

25 

19 

2 

30 

40 

20 

8 

To  appreciate  what  misery  is  indicated  here,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  convert  the  rupees  into  annas,  and  divide 
them  among  the  number  of  mouths  to  be  fed,  leaving 
house-rent  and  clothes  out  of  the  question ;  and,  whether 
the  rent  be  paid  or  no,  clothes  mast  of  necessity  be  forth- 
coming— ^no  mere  dhoti,  languti,  or  sari,  but  clothes  of 
European  device,  if  not  of  the  latest  fashion. 

The  practical  result  of  their  want  of  thrift,  and  the  wide- 
spread tendency  to  allow  expenditure  to  exceed  income,  is 
that  Eurasians  in  Government  service  frequently  find  them- 
selves canght  in  the  meshes  of  Rule  39,  regulating  the 
conduct  of  Q-ovemment  servants,  which  lays  down  that  *'  it 
is  undesirable  that  a  man,  who  is  in  a  chronic  and  hopeless 
condition  of  indebtedness,  should  be  retained  in  the  Govern- 
ment service.  The  anxieties  attendant  upon  such  a  state 
must  necessarily   greatly   detract  from   the  value  of   the 


MADRAS   EURASIAN. 


77 

debtor's  work,  besides  exposing  him  to  temptations  to 
dishonesty,  which,  in  sach  circumstances,  it  is  verj  d'fficult 
to  resist."  The  following  figures,  gleaned  from  the 
statistics  of  the  Insolvent  Court  during  the  five  last  years, 
bear  directly  on  the  condition  referred  to  : — 


Year. 

Nnmber  of 
petitions  filed 
by  Eurasians. 

Nnmber  of 
petitions  filed 
during  the 
year. 

Eurasian 
percentage. 

1893 

•  • 

..      45 

233 

19 

1894 

•  • 

..      55 

255 

21 

1895 

•  • 

•  .      35 

237 

14 

1896 

•  • 

..      51 

268 

19 

1897 

•  • 
Total 

..      53 
..      239 

297 

18 

1,290 

18 

The  percentage  is  certainly  very  high,  when  the  Eurasian 

Ejpulation  is  compared  with  the  microscopic  minority  of 
uropeans,  and  the  overwhelming  majority  of  the  Native 
community. 

As  examples  of  Eurasian  improvidence,  and  a  too  literal 
adherence  to  the  old  time  doctrine  of  taking  no  thought 
for  the  morrow,  for  the  morrow  shall  take  thought  for  the 
things  of  itself,  the  following  cases  may  be  cited : — 

Debt,  in 
year's  pay, 

32-33  years. 
7-8 


Monthly  pay. 

Total  debt. 

KS. 

RK. 

9 

3,500 

15 

1,400 

20 

1,450 

30 

5,800 

40 

6,700 

50 

5,550 

60 

8,300 

6-7 

16 

13-14 

9-10 

13-14 


9) 

n 


The  racial  position  of  Eurasians,  and  the  proportion  of 
black  blood  in  their  veins,  are  commonly  indicated,  not  by 
the  terms  mulatto,  quadroon,  octoroon,  sambo  (or  zambo), 
etc.,  but,  as  in  the%ase  of  cotton,  jute,  coffee,  and  other 
crops,  in  fractions  of  a  rupee.  The  European  pure  breed 
being  represented  by  Es.  0-0-0,  and  the  native  pure  breed 
by  16  annas  (=1  rupee),  the  resultant  cross  is,  by  refer- 
ence to  colour  and  other  tests,  gauged  as  being  half  an 
anna  in  the  rupee  (faint  admixture  of  black  blood ; 
approaching  European  type) ;  eight  annas  (half  and  half) ; 


78 

fifteen   annas    (predominant   admixtare    of  black    blood; 
approaching  native  type),  etc. 

The  Eurasian  body  being  enveloped  in  clothes,  it  was 
not  till  they  stripped  before  me,  for  the  purposes  of 
anthropometry,  that  I  became  aware  how  prevalent  is  the 
practice  of  tattooing  among  the  male  members  of  the  com- 
manity.  Nearly  all  the  hundred,  and  thirty  men,  whom  I 
examined  in  detail,  were,  in  fact,  tattooed  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  on  the  breasts,  upper  arms,  fore-arms,  wrists, 
back  of  the  hands,  or  shoulders.  The  following  varied 
selection  of  devices  in  blue,  with  occasional  red,  is  recorded 
in  my  case-book  : — 

Anchor. 

Ballet  girl  with  flag  stars  and  stripes. 

Bracelets  round  wrists. 

Burmese  lady  carrying  umbrella. 

Burmese  lady  playing  with  parrot. 

Bird. 

Bugles. 

Conventional  artistic  devices. 

Cross  and  anchor. 

Crown  and  flags. 

Crossed  swords  and  pistols. 

Dancing  girl. 

Dancing  girl  playing  with  cobras. 

Elephant. 

Floral  devices. 

Flowers  in  pot. 

Hands  joined  in  centre  of  a  heart. 

Hands  joined  and  clasping  a  flower. 

Beart. 

Heart  and  cross. 

Initials  of    the  individual,  his  friends,  relatives,  and 

inamorata,    sometimes    within    a    heart    or    laurel 

wreath. 
Uzard. 

Mercy  (word  on  left  breast). 
Mermaid. 

Portraits  of  youth  and  his  lady-love. 
Princess  of  Wales. 
Boyal  arms  and  banners. 

Sailing  boat.  i 

Scorpion.  1 

Solomon's  seal.  ^ 

Steum  boat. 

SvMi^tika  (Buddhist  emblem). 
Walteau  she^jherdess. 


-  '  m  ■ 


79 

TLe  moat  elaborate  patterns  were  executed  hy  Burmese 
artists.  TLe  initials,  which  preponderated  over  other  de- 
vices, were,  as  a  rule,  in  Roman,  bat  occasionallj  in  Tamil 
characters.  In  manj  instances  the  tattooing  was  barely 
visible  against  the  dark  skin,  and  the  main  objects  of  the 
operation — beauty  and  personal  adornment — completely  lost. 

A  propos  of  tattooing  in  the  male  sez^  the  legend  goes  that 
the  goddesses  of  the  tattooers  **  swam  from  Fiji,  to 
introduce  the  craft  to  Samoa,  and,  on  leaving  Fiji,  were 
commissioned  to  sing  all  the  way  *  Tattoo  the  women,  but 
not  the  men'  '\  But  they  got  muddled  over  it  in  the  long 
journey,  and  arrived  at  Samoa  singing  "  Tattoo  the  men,  but 
not  the  women. '^  ' 

In  colour  the  Eurasians  afford,  as  is  natural  in  a  mixed 
race,  examples  of  the  entire  colour-scale  from  sooty-black, 
through  sundry  shades  ot  brown  and  yellow,  to  pale  white, 
and  even,  as  a  very  rare  exception,  florid  or  rosy.  The 
darkening  of  the  skin  in  Hindu  half-breeds  with  advancing 
age,  and  the  dark  colour  of  the  pudenda,  noticed  by 
D'Orbigny  and  Troyer  (Bull.  Soc  Ethnol.  May  22nd,  1846), 
were  very  conspicuoos  in  many  cases  which  came  under 
observation.  So,  too,  in  individuals  with  otherwise  fair  skin^ 
was  the  tell-tale  pigment  on  the  neck,  knees  and  elbows, 
as  also  in  the  azill88,  the  glands  of  which,  as  in  the  Native, 
pour  out,  under  the  influence  of  emotion  or  exercise,  a 
profuse  watery  secretion.  The  pilous  or  hairy  system, 
which  was,  in  the  cases  recorded,  uniformly  black,  repeatedly 
conforms  as  regards  its  distribution  to  the  native  type  ;  and 
the  eyebrows  are  frequently  united  across  the  middle  line 
by  bushy  hairs.  The  hair  of  the  head  may  be  straight, 
and,  when  clipped,  recall  to  mind  a  Bengali  Babu  with 
his  close-cropped  hair  devoid  of  parting.  Or  it  may  be  wavy 
or  curly  (woolly  never),  and  dressed,  like  that  of  a  European, 
in  a  variety  of  ways,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  owner. 
Premature  greyness  and  baldness,  arcus  senilis,  and  early 
senility,  were  noted  in  many  instances.  The  colour  of  the 
iris,  like  that  of  the  skin,  is  liable  to  great  variation,  from 
lustrous-black  to  light,  with  a  predominance  of  dark  tints. 
Blue  was  observed  only  in  a  solitary  instance* 

The  Eurasian  resists  exposure  to  the  sun  better  thau 
the  EuropeaUi  and,  while  many  wear  solah  topis  (sun  hats), 
it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to  see  a  Eurasian  walking  about 


»  Journ.  Anth.  Ingt.,  Vol.  XVII,  1888,  p.  319. 


80 


in  the  middle  of  a  hot  day  with  his  head  protected  only  by 
a  straw  hat  or  cap. 

In  a  heated  discussion  on  the  "  Anglo-Indian  in  India," 
which  hvs  recently  been  carried  on  in  the  columns  of  the 
*  Pioneer,'  a  retired  Indian  Staff  Corps  Colonel  suggested 
the  raising  of  a  division  of  eight  regiments,  two  of  cavalry, 
six  of  infantry,  four  of  the  latter  to  consist  of  specially 
selected  Eurasians  only,  two  of  Indo- Europeans  only. 
**  If,  '^  he  says,  "  treated  with  fair  liberality  as  regards  pay, 
promotion,  and  prospects,  I  feel  every  confidence  that  a  fine, 
and  in  every  way  reliable  force  may  be  thus  created  for 
general  service  anywhere  (like  the  Native  grandly  efficient 
army)  ....  Such  force  might  be  very  considerably 
expanded  later  on.  Three  field  batteries,  one  of  Indo- 
Europeans  only,  and  two  of  Eurasians  only,  might  also  be 
added,  rendering  the  force  quite  complete  in  itself."  Let 
UR,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  Eurasian  community  of  the 
Madras  Presidency  is  a  limited  one  on  which  to  draw  for 
military  purposes,  and  that  many  of  those  who  are  physi- 
cally fitted  would  be  unwilling  to  enlist,  examine  the  phy- 
sique of  the  poorer  classes,  from  the  ranks  of  whom  recruits 
would  have  to  be  obtained. 

The  average  height  of  the  Eurasian,  according  to  my 
measurements  of  130  subjects,  is  166*6  cm.  (5  feet  SJ),  and 
compares  as  follows  with  that  of  the  English  and  various 
Native  classes,  inhabiting  the  city  of  Madras,  which  hiive 
been  examined  by  me  : — 

CM. 


English 

•                        .    • 

..      170-8 

E  irasians 

.                        •    • 

. .      166-6 

Muhamuifidans 

•                       t   • 

..      164-.5 

Brahmans 

•                       •   • 

..      162  5 

Pallis 

.                        •    . 

..      162-5 

Vellalas 

» •          • 

A                         .    . 

. .      162-4 

Pariahs           .  • 

■                        a 

t                         •    * 

..      161-9 

The  height,  as  might  be  expected,  comes  between  that 
of  the  two  parent  stocks,  European  and  Native,  and  had,  in 
the  cases  examined,  the  wide  range  of  30*8  cm. — the  differ- 
ence between  a  maximum  of  183  8  cm.  (6  feet)  and  a 
minimum  of  153  cm.  (5  feet).  The  high  ranges  between 
maxima  and  minima  {vide  table  xvii),  which  are  specially 
marked  in  the  case  of  stature  and  the  measurements 
dependent  thereon,  and  of  the  nose,  are  readily  explained 


81- 


on  the  general  principle  that  pare  races  exhibit  a  more 
uniform,  and  mixed  races  a  variegated  type,  and  this 
variation  increases  as  the  intermixture  progresses  (Waits), 

The  story  goes  that  many  years  ago,  daring  the  fighting 
days  in  Southern  India,  a  Highland  regiment,  as  the  result 
of  concubinage  with  the  Native  women  of  a  certain  quarter 
of  the  city  of  Madras,  left  ^behind  them  a  half-breed  off- 
spring, reared  up  as  Natives,  whose  descendants,  are,  owing 
to  their  stature,  still  recognised,  at  the  present  day,  as  the 
Madras  Highlanders. 

The  average  weight  of  my  Eurasians,  in  clothes  with 
boots,  was  a  mere  7  st.  9  J  lbs. ;  the  weight  ranging  between 
12  stone  in  a  flabby  individual  aged  30  years,  and  h  st.  6  lbs. 
in  a  man  40  years  old.  How  small  this  weight  is  for  adults 
may  be  emphasised  by  reference  to  the  fact,  based  on  a 
series  of  experiments^  that  the  weight  of  growing  English 
school  boys  (in  in-door  dress  with  boots  on)  between  the 
ages  of  16  and  17,  ranged,  in  79*6  per  cent,  of  the  cases 
examined,  between  8|  stone  and  12  st.  5|  lbs.  Only  in  3 
out  of  103  cases  was  the  weight  below  7  stone.^ 

The  average  chest  measurement,  taken  over  the  nipples 
with  the  arms  above  the  head  and  hands  joined,  was  79' 1 
cm.  (31  inches).  In  thd  following  tabular  statement  this 
average  is  compared  with  the  average  chest-girth  of  the 
classes  noted  above,  and  with  the  average  relative  to 
stature  =  100  : — 


Average. 

Average 

relative  to 

stature  =  100. 

English     •  •          •  •          •  • 

BrA.hman8 

.      95-9 
.      81 

64 
49-8 

Vellillas    .. 

.      79-8 

49  1 

Pariahs     . .          •  • 

.      79-3 

48-9 

Pallis 

.      79-2 

48-7 

lif  uhammadans    « . 

.      79 

48 

Eurasians 

.      791 

47-5 

The  chest-girth  of  the  Eurasians  is,  then,  relatively  to 
statare,  less  than  that  of  any  of  the  classes  under  review. 
Of  far  greater  importance  than  actual  chest-girth,  as  every- 
one^ who  has  had  to  deal  with  recruiting  knows  full  well,  is 
the  play  of  the  chest,  viz.,  the  vital  capacity,  or  extreme 

^  FergaB  and  Bod  well.  Journ.  Anth.  Inst.,  Vol.  IV,  1875,  p.  128. 


89, 


differential  capacity  of  the  lungs.  This  is  best  estimated 
by  means  of  a  modified  gasometer,  called  the  spirometer, 
which  registers  the  total  amount  of  air  which  can  be  given 
out  by  the  most  forcible  expiration  following  upon  a  most 
forcible  inspiration.  Tested  with  such  an  instrament,  the 
majority  of  the  Eurasians  under  examination  broke  down 
owing,  in  great  measure,  to  the  feeble  development  of  the 
pectoral  and  other  inspiratory  muscles^  whose  function  ia 
to  inflate  the  lungs. 

In  the  following  table  the  Eurasian  shoulder-breadth, 
measured  between  the  external  surfaces  of  the  prominences 
of  the  shoulders  about  5  cm.  below  the  acromion,  is  oum- 
pared  with  that  of  the  same  classes  as  before : — 


Average 

Average. 

relative  to 
stature  =  100 

Vellalas 

..     39-7 

24-4 

Pariahs     •  • 

►  .     89-4 

243 

Brilhmans 

. .     89-3 

24-2 

Muhammadans    •• 

.      39-8 

24  2 

Pallis        

. .      39-4 

2^  2 

Eurasians  •  •         •  •          •  •         , 

►  .     39  2 

23-6 

The  shoulder-breadth  is  thus  seen  to  be  loss,  both 
actually  and  relative  to  stature,  in  the  Eurasians  than  in 
the  Native  classes.  The  deficiency  in  breadth  must  be 
attributed  both  to  narrow  osteological  build,  and  to  the 
feebly  developed  condition  of  the  deltoid  muscles. 

As  specimens  of  the  all  too  common  weakly  Eurasian 
humanity,  whose  living  was  gained  with  their  hands,  the 
cases  in  the  two  following  tables,  taken  from  a  very  large 
number,  may  be  cited  : — 


Age. 

Weight. 

Height. 

Chest. 

Oocnpation. 

TRS. 

8T.    LB. 

FT.   IN. 

INCHES. 

28 

91 

6 

31-4 

Fitter. 

26 

71 

5'7i 

29-1 

Engine  driver 

22 

7-9 

6-6 

29-5 

Turner. 

21 

76 

54i 

80-3 

Hammerer. 

29 

7-4 

5-4^ 

29-7 

Do. 

35 

6-6 

62 

26-4 

Printer. 

87 

61 

6  1* 

28  6 

Fitter. 

23 

6-4 

61* 

28  5 

Printer. 

19 

6-9 

6'1* 

271 

Blacksmith. 

83 


Height. 

FT    IN. 

51i 

6  8 
6-2i 
5  4^ 
5  2^ 


r 


Girth  of  upper  arm. 

—  *^ 


Kelaxed. 

INCHES. 

•  • 
7-3 
8-4 
8-2 

•  • 


CoDtra<'ted. 

INCHES. 

•  • 
7-9 
9-5 
94 

•  • 


Hand- 
breadth. 

INCHES. 


Girth  ronnd 

e])iga8triuni 

(stomach). 

INCHES. 

23-2 
22  8 


2-6 
26 
2-6 


I  have,  in  the  course  of  the  present  enqairy,  examined 
many  Native  women,  engaged  as  coolies  in  road-repairing, 
and  found  arms  with  good  solid  muscle,  shoulders,  and 
chests,  of  which  some  of  these  feebly  developed  individuals 
might  well  be  envious.  But  the  Indian  cooly  woman  is 
notoriously  an  excellent  beast  of  burthen,  and  I  recall  to 
mind  the  legend  of  the  Bhutia  woman,  who  is  reputed,  in 
the  days  before  the  hiU  railway  was  open,  to  have  carried, 
unaided,  a  grand  piano  on  her  head  the  whole  way  from  the 
foot  of  the  hills  to  Darjiling. 

Contrast  with  the  above  the  following — all  the  direct 
result  of  re-crossing  between  European  man  and  Eurasian 
woman.  It  will  be  noted  that  all  are,  some  slightly,  others 
considerably  above  the  average.  The  physiological  signi- 
ficance of  this  fact,  and  the  possibilities  in  connection  there- 
with, are  obvious,  and  nned  not  be  dilated  on  at  length. 
Suffice  it  to  state  that  the  product  of  alliances  between 
British  men  and  Eurasian  women  show  the  least  signs  of 
physical  degeneration,  and  possess  broader  shoulders,  hips, 
and  hands,  greater  chest-girth,  wider  forehead,  and  more 
muscle,  as  the  result  of  re-vivification  of  the  stock  by  direct 
British  intervention : — 


^ge. 

Weight, 
average 
7  8t.  9i  lb. 

Height, 
average 
5  ft.  5  in. 

Chest, 

average 

81-2  in. 

Oocopation. 

21 

9-8 

6-7* 

31-5 

Fitter. 

28 

9-3 

6-7i 

83-5 

Do. 

40 

10-9 

6  7 

34-7 

Clerk. 

38 

9-2 

6-7 

325 

Labourer. 

22 

94 

5-6 

34-3 

Boil*  r-smith. 

26 

10 

5  7i 

33 

Railway  guard. 

Asa  clear  indication  of  the  physique,  which  the  poor 
Eurasian  should  aspire  to  with  a  view  to  hia  becoming  a 
soldier,  I  publish  (table  xviii)  side  by  side  the    averages. 


84 

etc.,  of  a  series  of  physical  measurementB  of  50  sepoys*  of 
the  28th  Madras  I  of  an  try  and  of  my  130  Eurasians ;  and, 
further,  in  table  xix,  statistics  of  the  same  measurements  in 
50  sepoys  and  50  £arasians  between  the  recruiting  ages  of 
18  and  25. 

Leaving  hand-grip,  as  tested  by  the  dynamometer,  in 
which  the  Eurasians  displayed  lamentable  weakness  (an 
average  of  only  65  lbs.),  out  of  the  question,  and  considering 
weijfht,  chest-girth,  and  shoulder- breadth,  the  sepoy  aver- 
age  was,  as  shown  by  the  following  tabular  statement,  only 
reached  in  four  cases  out  of  the  50  examined  between  the 
ages  of  19  and  25  : — 

Weight.      Chest.     Shoulders. 


LB. 

CM. 

CM. 

127 

865 

41-5 

139 

87 

421 

150 

87-5 

43-9 

136 

84-5 

43-3 

Sepoy  average     ...       125         84  41  6 

The  Eurasian  mean  above  the  average,  taken  as  a  whole, 
fell  short,  as  shown  below,  ot  the  sepoy  average : — 


Earasian  mean 
above  the 
average. 

Sepoy 
average. 

Weight 

. .      122  lb. 

1-25  lb. 

Chest 

82  cm. 

84  cm. 

Shoulders     . . 

..        40-5  „ 

41-6  „ 

Dynamometer          • . 

..       72  41b. 

80  1b. 

The  fignres  in  tables  xviii  to  xxi  suffice,  of  themselves, 
to  show  that  the  average  physique  of  the  Eurasians  is  far 
below  that  required  for  military  purposes.  And  this  defi- 
ciency in  physique  is  accentuated  by  a  study  of  the  following 
tables  of  comparison  drawn  up  from  the  detailed  figures 
in  tables  zx  and  xxi : — 


'  The  periodical  fanatical  outbreaks  in  the  Moplah  (or  M&ppila)  com* 
munity  of  Malabar  are  well  known  to  as  in  Southern  India.  It  is  of 
interest,  therefore,  that,  since  1895,  150  Moplahs  have  enlisted  in  the  25th 
Madras  Infantry,  which  is  ntationed  at  Oannanore,  under  conditions  similar 
to  those  applyiu)^  to  the  rest  of  the  Native  Army.  They  have,  I  am  told, 
become  most  amenable  to  discipline ;  and  training  an'l  good  diet  haye 
improved  their  physique,  which  was  good  at  the  commencement. 


MADRAS  SEPOY. 


*      » 


85 


WEIGHT.  LB. 


• 

80- 
90 

90- 
100 

100-110- 
110    120 

120- 
180 

130- 
140 

140- 
160 

.160- 
160 

DOpO^B           ••■              •«•             •••              ••• 

•  •  • 

6 

1 
9 

4 

11 

19 

4 

9 

4 

2 

•  •  ■ 

• 

EurasiaiiB 

12 

13 

6 

1 

CHEST,  CM. 


60-70 

70-80 

80-90 

90-100 

Sepoys       ...         ... 

t  ■  * 

6 

42 

8 

Eurasians              

8 

33 

14 

.. 

8HOULDEB8,  CM. 


83- 
37 

37- 
88 

38- 
39 

39- 

40 

40- 
41 

41- 
42 

42- 
48 

48- 

44 

44- 

46 

46- 
46 

SepojB 

•  •  • 

*•. 

4 

6 

9 

6 
10 

16 
2 

12 

•  •  ■ 

4 

2 

2 

•  •  • 

2 

•  •  • 

Eorasians         

9 

10 

8 

Patting  the  figures  in  the  last  three  tables  in  terms  of 
percentages,  we  obtain  the  following  results,  which  speak 
for  themselves  : — 

Wkioht. 

Below 

1?0  LB. 

Sepoys     .  •         •  •         •  •  •  •       32 

Eurasians  .  •         . .         •  •       80 


Above 

120  LB. 

68 
20 


Ohbst. 

Below 
80  CM. 
Sepoys 10 

Eurasians  •  •  • .  • .       72 


Shouldebs. 


Sepoys     . 
Eurasians 


•  • 


•  • 


•  • 


Below 

41  CM. 

30 
92 


AboT« 
80  cm. 

90 

28 


Above 
41  cm. 
70 
8 


86 


Taming  now  to  head  measurements,  the  average  length 
of  the  Eurasian  head  is  186  cm.  and  the  breadth  14'1  cm. 
And  it  is  to  be  noted  that,  in  63  pnr  cent,  of  the  cases  exam, 
ined,  the  breadth  exceeded  14  cm.  In  the  length  of  the 
head  there  is  nothing  distinctive  as  between  the  Eurasians 
and  the  other  classes  under  review,  tLe  difference  only 
amounting  to  '1  cm.  The  breadth  of  the  head,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  appreciably  greater  in  Eurasians  and  Brahmans 
(Aryo-Dra vidians)  than  in  Muhammadans  (some  of  whom  are 
immigrants  with  an  admixture  of  Dravidian  blood)  and  the 
three  indigenous  classes,  Vellalas,  Pallis,  and  Pariahs  : — 


Length.     Breadth.     Index. 


Brahmans 

Eurasians 

M  uhammadans 

Vellalas 

Pariahs 

Pallis 


CM. 

CM. 

IB  6 

14-2 

76-5 

18-6 

141 

76 

18-7 

13-9     • 

761 

lH-6 

13-8 

741 

18-6 

13-7 

73-6 

18-6 

13-6 

73 

The  relative  breadth  of  the  head  is  very  clearly  bronght 
out  by  the  following  analysis  of  forty  subjects  belonging  to 
each  of  the  six  classes,  which  shows  at  a  glance  the  prepon- 
derance of  heads  exceeding  14  cm.  in  breadth  in  Eurasians , 
Brahmans,  and  (to  a  less  degree)  Muhammadans,  and  of 
hoads  below  14  cm.  in  breadth  in  the  more  dolichocephalic 
Veli&las,  Pallis,  and  i^ariaha  : — 


12-13 

13-14 

14r-15 

15-16 

CM. 

CM. 

CM. 

CM. 

Kurasians  •• 

•              t  • 

11 

27 

2 

Brdhiiians 

1 

9 

27 

3 

M  ub  ammadans     , 

2 

17 

21 

• . 

Vellalas      . . 

•         •  • 

24 

16 

•  • 

Pariahs 

■         •  • 

27 

13 

•  • 

Pallis          . .          • 

3 

30 

7 

•  • 

The  head  of  a  cross-breed,  it  has  been  said,  generally 
take?  after  the  father,  and  the  breadth  of  the  Eurasian  head 
is  a  persisting  result  of  European  male  influence.  The  effect 
of  this  influence  is  clearly  demonstrated  in  the  following 
cases,  all  the  result  of  re-crossing  between  British  men  and 
Uarasian  women ; — 


87 


Length. 

Breadtb. 

CM. 

CM. 

19 

14-5 

18-4 

142 

19'2 

14-2 

20 '2 

14-6 

19 

14-6 

19-4 

14a 

Average  .. 

19-2 

14-4 

Eurasian  average  . . 

18-6 

141 

The  oharacfcer  of  the  nose  is,  as  those  who  have  studied 
ethnology  in  India  well  appreciate,  a  most  important  factor 
in  the  differentiation  of  race,  tribe,  and  class,  and  in  the 
determination  of  pedigree.  *'  No  one,"  Mr.  Bisley  writes,* 
*^  can  have  glanced  at  the  literature  of  the  subject,  and 
in  particular  at  the  V^dio  accounts  of  the  Aryan  advance, 
without  being  struck  by  the  frequent  references  to  the  nosea 
of  the  people  whom  the  Aryans  found  in  possession  of  the 
plains  of  India.  So  impressed  were  the  Aryans  with  the 
shortcomings  of  their  enemies'  noses  that  they  often  spoke 
of  them  as  ^  the  noseless  ones,'  and  their  keen  perception 
of  the  importance  of  this  feature  seems  almost  to  anticipate 
the  opinion  of  Dr.  Colliguon  that  the  nasal  index  ranks 
higher  as  a  distinctive  character  than  the  stature,  or  even 
the  cephalic  index  itself.*'  The  Eurasian  nose,  as  is  natural 
in  a  mixed  race^  exhibits  a  combinntion  of  the  long,  narrow 
(leptorhine)  type  of  the  higher  races,  and  the  broader  (meso- 
rhiue  and  platyrhine)  type  of  the  lower  clasHcs,  as  shown 
in  the  following  analysis  of  the  nasal  indices  of  forty  Eur- 
asians, Brahmans,  Fallis  and  Pariahs  : — 

Leptorhine.  Mesorhine.  Platyrhine. 

55-69-9.  70-84-9.  85-99-9. 

Eurasians    ..          ..          19  19  2 

Brahmans   ....           6  24  10 

Pallis           ....           3  31  6 

Pariahs       ....           2  25  13 

It  may  be  noted,  en  passant^  that  the  Br&hman  nose 
belongs  to  the  platyrhine  type  in  25  per  cent,  of  the  cases 
here  analysed  {vide  Bull.,  Vol.  II,  No.  1). 

Speaking  in  general  terms,  it  may  be  said  that  the  noses 
with  high  nasal  index  are  possessed  by  Eurasians  of  short 


•  Joum.  Anth.  Inat.,  Vol.  XX,    1891,  pp.  249-50  j  see  also  Madras 
Maseam  Ball.,  Vol.  II,  No.  1,  pp.  58-58. 


88 

Btatare  and  dark  skin ;  noses  with  low  index  by  tLose  of 
medium  statare  or  tall^coid  fairer  skin.  In  the  following 
table  statistics  are  given  concerning  the  measurements  of 
the  nose  and  the  nasal  index  in  Eurasians  and  the  other 
classes  selected  for  compcurison  with  them  : — 

Length.        Brea-dth.         Index. 


CM. 

OM. 

Eurasians    •  •         •  • 

61 

36 

69-5 

Muhammadans 

4-9 

3-4 

70 

y  eil&las 

4-7 

3-4 

731 

Brahmans   •• 

47 

3-6 

76-7 

PalHs 

4-6 

3-6 

77-9 

Pariahs       •  • 

4-5 

3-6 

80 

Examination  of  this  table  shows  that  there  is  a  gradation 
from  the  leptorhine  type  of  the  Eurasian  to  the  platyrhine 
type  of  the  Pariah,  and  that  the  change  of  type  from  lepto- 
rhine to  platyrhine  is  due  to  shortening  of  the  length  of  the 
nose  rather  than  to  increase  in  its  breadth.  For^  as  the 
figures  show^  while  there  is  a  difference  of  *6  cm.  betweea 
the  average  lengths  of  the  Eurasian  and  Pariah  noses, 
there  is  only  a  difference  of  *2  cm.  in  the  average  breadths 
thereof.  The  difference  in  the  length  of  the  nose  is  clearly 
brought  out  by  comparison,  in  forty  members  of  each  of  my 
six  classes,  of  the  number  of  times  in  which  the  length 
reached  from  5  to  6  cm.  or  from  4  to  5  cm. 

Length. 

r^ * —^ 

6-6  CM.    4-6  CM. 

Eurasians •         ••         21  19 

Muhammadans        16  24 

YelMas         6  34 

Brahmans 6  36 

Pallis  ••  ••  ••         ••  5  36 

Pariahs         1  39 

The  results  obtained,  in  like  manner,  by  comparison  of 
the  breadth  of  the  nose  are  not  nearly  so  eloquent,  though 
the  greater  breadth  of  the  nose  in  individual  Tarisbhs  is  en 
evidence : — 


Breadth. 


Eurasians    .  •  •  • 

Muhammadans  •  • 

Brahmans    . ,  , . 
Yellalas       •• 

PaUis  •  •  • . 

Pariahs 


•  •         •  t         1 1 


r-    ■  ■  ■■ 

^ 

4-6  CM. 

8-4  CM. 

1 

39 

2 

88 

0 

40 

1 

39 

3 

37 

6 

35 

80 

In  the  subjoined  table,  based  on  the  examination  of  fortj 

members  of  each  class,  who  are  classified  according  to  their 

nasal  index,  the  high  proportion  of  Eaiasians,  Mnhammad- 

ans  and  Vellalas  with  indices  ranging  between  60  and  70, 

and  of  Bi*&hmans^  Pallis,  and  Pariahs  with  indices  ranging 

between  80  and  90,  is  at  once  manifest^  and  reqoires  no 

comment  :— 

60-70. 
Eurasians    •  •         • .  19 


Muhammadans 
Vell&las 
Brfihmans  .. 
Pallis 
Paxiahs 


•  • 


17 

14 

6 

3 

2 


70-80. 

80-90. 

90-100. 

17 

3 

1 

18 

4 

1 

22 

3 

1 

19 

14 

1 

25 

9 

3 

17 

19 

2 

Some  final  words  are  necessary  on  liability  to  certain 
diseases,  as  a  differentiating  character  between  Eurasian 
and  European.  The  Census  Commissioner,  1891,  states  that 
Eurasians  seem  to  be  peculiarly  liable  to  insanity  and 
leprosy.  To  these  should  be  added  elephantiasis  (filarial 
disease),  concerning  which  Surgeon-Major  J.  Maitland 
writes  as  follows  ^ :  '^  Almost  all  the  old  writers  on  elephan- 
tiasis believed  that  the  dark  taces  were'  more  susceptible  to 
the  disease  than  white  people  ;  but  it  is  extremely  doubt* 
f  ul  if  this  is  the  case.  It  is  true  that  in  those  countries 
where  the  disease  is  endemic,  the  proportion  of  persons 
affected  is  much  greater  amongst  the  blacks  than  amongst 
the  whites  ;  but  it  has  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  habits 
of  the  former  render  them  much  more  liable  to  the  disease 
than  the  latter.  The  majority  of  the  white  people,  being 
more  civilised,  are  more  careful  regarding  the  purity  of 
their  drinking-water  than  the  Natives,  who  are  proverbially 
careless  in  this  respect.  In  India,  although  it  is  compara- 
tively rare  to  meet  with  Europeans  affected  with  the  diseasCi 
yet  such  cases  are  from  time  to  time  recorded.  Eurasians 
are  proportionately  more  liable  to  the  disease  than  pure 
Europeans,  but  not  so  much  so  as  Natives.  Doctors  Patter- 
son and  Ball  of  Bahia  ^  examined  the  blood  of  809  persons 
in  that  place,  and  found  the  following  proportions  affected 
with  filaria ;  of  whites^  1  in  26  ;  of  blacks,  1  in  10^ ;  of  the 
mixed  race,  1  in  9.  Doctor  Laville^  states  that  in  the  Society 
Islands,  out  of  a  total  of  13  European  and  American  residentSi 

^  '  ElephaniiasiB  and  allied  disorders.'    Madran,  1891. 

•  *  Veterinarian.'     June  1879. 

*  *  Kndemic  skin  and  other  diseases  of  India,'— Vox  akd  FAR^uBUt. 


90 

11  were  affected  with  elephantiasis.  Taking  all  these  facts 
into  consideration,  together  with  onr  knowledge  of  the 
pathology  of  the  disease,  I  do  not  think  we  are  justified  in 
saying  that  the  black  races  are  more  svscepiible  to  the 
disease  than  white  people.  On  the  other  hand,  owing  to  the 
natare  of  their  habits,  they  are  much  more  liable  to  the 
diseekses  than  are  the  white  races." 

Daring  the  five  years,  1^93 — 97,  98  Eurasians  suffer- 
ing from  filarial  diseases  were  admitted  into  the  General 
Hospital,  Madras. 

To  Surgeon-Colonel  W.  A.  Lee,  Superintendent  of  the 
Q-overnment  Leper  Asylum,  Madras,  I  am  indebted  for  the 
following  note  on  leprosy  in  its  relation  to  the  Eurasian 
and  European  communities :  — 

"  You  ask  me  for  information  as  to  the  occurrence  of 
leprosy  among  Europeans  and  Eurasians,  and  for  statisticn 
of  the  numbers  which  were  treated  in  the  Q-overnment 
Leper  Asylum  during  the  five  years,  1893 — 97.  You  also 
add  that  you  wish  to  bring  out  the  point  that  leprosy  is  a 
distinguishing  character  as  between  Eurasians  and  Euro- 
peans. 

"  Although  the  latter  may  possess  greater  vigour  of 
constitution,  and,  therefore,  a  better  capacity  of  resistance, 
they  are  by  no  means  immune  to  the  disease,  which,  in  the 
majority  of  instance,  is  contracted  by  them  through  coitus 
with  leprous  individuals. 

"  Leprosy  is  one  of  the  endemic  diseases  of  tropical 
and  sub -tropical  countries,  to  the  risk  of  contracting  which 
Europeans  who  settle  on  the  plains  in  India,  and  their 
ofFspring  from  unions  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  land,  as 
well  as  the  descendants  of  the  latter,  become  exposed,  since, 
by  the  force  of  circumstances,  they  are  thrown  into  inti- 
mate contact  with  the  Native  population. 

"  A  portion  of  the  accommodation  of  the  Government 
Leper  Hospital  at  Madras,  which  was  founded  in  1841,  is 
reserved  for  European  and  Eurasian  lepers;  but  little  can  be 
gleaned  from  the  records  as  regards  the  incidence  of  the 
disease  on  the  former  class,  as  scanty  attention  appears 
to  have  been  bestowed  on  accuracy  of  classification.  For 
instance,  of  1 J  *  Europeans '  who  were  under  treatment 
in  the  years  l'S90 — 97  {oHe  table  xxii),  all  save  two  had 
their  birth-place  in  India  or  Burma,  so  that  few  of  them 
could  have  been  ot  pure  or  unmixed  European  parentage. 


91 

'*  The  Eurasian  commuaity  f arnislies  a  considerable 
number  of  lepers,  and  the  disease^  once  introduced  into  a 
family, has  atendency  to  attack  several  of  its  members,  and 
to  re-appear  in  successive  generations,  occasionally  skipping 
one — a  feature  akin  to  the  biological  phenomenon  known  as 
atavism,  but  of  perhaps  doabtiul  analogy,  for  the  possibility 
of  a  fresh  infection  or  inoculation  has  always  to  be  borne  in 
mind.  There  are  numerous  instances  of  such  hereditary 
transmission  among  the  patients,  both  Native  and  Eurasian, 
in  the  Government  Leper  Hospital. 

"  The  spread  of  the  disease  by  contagion  is  slow,  the 
most  intimate  contact  even,  such  as  that  between  parent 
and  child,  often  failing  to  effect  inoculation.  8till  there 
is  much  evidence  in  support  of  its  being  inoculable  by 
cohabitation,  prolonged  contact^  wearing  the  same  clothing, 
sharing  the  dwelling,  using  the  same  cooking  and  eating 
utensils,  and  even  by  arm-to-arm  vaccination.  Influenced 
by  a  belief  in  the  last  mentioned  cause,  vaccination  was 
formerly  regarded  with  much  suspicion  and  dislike  by 
Eurasians  in  Madras.  But  their  apprehensions  on  this  scnre 
have  abated  since  animal  vaccine  was  substituted  for  the 
humanised  material.  It  has  also  fur  long  been  a  popular 
belief  among  the  same  class  that  the  suckling  of  their  infants 
by  infected  Native  wet-nurses  is  a  common  source  of  the 
disease. 

"  Attempts  to  reproduce  leprosy  from  supposed  pure 
cultures  of  the  leprosy  bacillus  have  invariably  failed  ;  and 
tnis  strengthens  the  belief  that  the  disease  would  die  out  if 
sufferers  from  the  tuborcular  or  mixed  forms  were  segre- 
gated, and  intermarriage  with  members  of  known  leprous 
families  interdicted.  Experience  shows  that,  where  such 
marriages  are  freely  entered  into,  a  notable  prevalence  of 
the  disease  results,  as  in  Pondicherry  for  example,  where 
the  so-called  Creole  population  is  said  to  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  lepers  from  this  cause." 

"Writing  concerning  the  prevalence  of  insanity  in  differ- 
ent castes,  the  Census  Commissioner,  1891,  states  that  '*  it 
appears  from  the  statistics  that  insanity  is  far  more  pre- 
valent among  the  Eurasians  than  among  any  other  class. 
The  proporti'jn  is  1  insane  person  in  every  410.  For 
England  and  Wales  the  proportion  is  1  in  every  307,  and 
it  is  significant  that  the  section  of  the  population  oE 
Madras,  which  shows  the  greatest  liability  to  insanity,  is  that 
which  has  an  admixture  of  European  blood.     1  have  no 


92 


information  regarding  the  prevalence  of  insanity  among 
Eurasians  for  any  other  province  or  State  of  India  except 
Mysore,  and  there  the  proportion  is  1  in  306.'* 

For  tlie  statistics  relating  to  insanity  given  in  table 
xxiv,  I  am  indebted  to  Snrgeon-Gaptain  G.  H.  Leet  Palk, 
Bnperintendent  of  tbe  Q-overnment  Asylum.  It  was  foand 
impossible  to  separate  Europeans  into  home-bred  and 
country-bred  ;  and  it  is  tery  possible  that  some  Eoiasians 
are  included  among  them.  The  total  namber  of  Barasians, 
recorded  as  being  admitted  into  the  asylum  during  the  five 
years  1893 — 97,  was  49,  viz.,  6*59  per  cent,  of  the  total  ad- 
missions. Leaving  out  of  question  the  Europeans,  in  whom, 
owing  to  the  preponderance  of  the  male  sex  (including 
soldiers)  in  Madras,  a  greater  number  of  male  than  female 
lunatics  is  to  be  expected,  and  considering  only  Eurasians 
and  Natives,  the  far  higher  proportion  of  female  as  com* 
pared  with  male  lunatics  in  the  Eurasian  than  in  the  Native 
community,  is  very  conspicuous.  Taking,  for  example,  the 
numbers  remaining  in  the  asylum  in  1894,  whereas  the 
proportion  of  Eurasian  males  to  females  was  33:  31,  that 
of  Natives  was  30*6  :  6*8,  and  the  high  proportion  of  female 
Eurasian  inmates  is  visible  in  the  remaining  years  under 
review.  The  subject  seems  to  be  one  well  worthy  of 
further  study  by  those  competent  to  deal  with  it. 

The  alleged  causes  of  insanity  in  the  49  Eurasian  cases 
were  as  follows  : — 


Hereditary 
Domestic  tronble 
Irregular  sexual  habits 
Disappointment     •  • 
Epilepsy     . . 
Nervous  shock 
1.0 ve  and  jealousy 
Intemperance 
8un-stroke  •  • 

Congenital  • . 

Senue 

Privation  and  starvation 
Beligion      •  •         •  • 
Fever         . . 


•  • 


•  • 


•  • 


•  • 


■  ■ 


10 
10 
6 
4 
4 
4 
3 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


On  the  conclusion  of  my  investigation  of  the  Eurasians 
of  the  city  of  Madras,  I  proceeded  to  Calicut,  the  capital 
of  the  Malabar  district,  as  being  the  most  convenient  centre 
for  comparing  the  Eurasians  of  the  west^  with  those  of  the 


93 

east  coast.  M7  visit  was  by  chance  coincident  with  the 
commemoration  of  the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
arrival  of  Vasco  da  Gama  at  Calicut  after  his  discovery  of 
the  sea-route  from  Europe  to  India,  which  I  celebrated  in 
a  unique  manner  by  recording  the  physique  of  the  com- 
munity resulting,  in  the  first  instance,  from  alliances  be- 
tween the  Portuguese  adventurers  and  the  attractive  Native 
women,  and  left  as  a  legacy  to  the  later  British  occupants. 
Concerning  the  origin  of  the  Indo- Portuguese  hulf-breed 
1  learu  ^®  that,  on  his  return  from  the  recapture  of  Goa, 
Albuquerque  brought  with  him  the  women  he  had  carried 
away  when  the  Portuguese  were  driven  out  of  the  place. 
As  soon  as  affairs  became  tolerably  settled  again  at  that 
port,  he  had  them  converted  to  Christianity,  and  married 
them  to  Portuguese  men.  No  less  than  450  of  his  men 
were  thus  married  in  Goa,  and  others  who  desired  to  follow 
their  example  were  so  numerous  that  Albuquerque  had 
great  diflSculty  in  granting  their  requests.  The  marriage 
of  Portuguese  men  to  Native  women  had  already  been 
sanctioned  by  Dom  Manoel,  but  this  privilege  was  only  to 
be  conceded  to  men  of  proved  character,  and  who  had 
rendered  good  services.  Albuquerque,  however,  extended 
the  permission  to  marry  far  beyond  what  he  was  authorised 
to  do,  and  he  took  care  that  the  women  so  married  were  the 
daughters  of  the  principal  men  of  the  land.  This  he  did  in 
the  hope  of  inducing  them  to  become  Christians.  To  those 
who  were  married  Albuquerque  allotted  lands,  houses  and 
cattle,  so  as  to  give  them  a  start  in  life,  and  all  the  landed 
property  which  had  been  in  possession  of  the  Moorish  mos- 
ques and  Hindu  pagodas  he  gave  to  the  principal  churches 
of  the  city,  which  he  dedicated  to  "  Santa  Catherina." 

The  very  names  of  my  subjects  recalled  to  mind  Pedro 
Alvares  Cabral,  who  anchored  before  Calicut  in  1500,  and 
established  a  factory  at  Cochin ;  the  first  Portuguese 
Governor,  Dom  Francisco  de  Almeida ;  Andr^  Furtado  de 
Mendonca,  who  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  king  of  Calicut ; 
and  many  others,  whose  exploits  are  handed  down  to  posterity 
in  the  Indo-Portuguese  archives.  Subjoined  is  a  comparative 
stMement  showing  the  names  of  the  Eurasians,  whom  I 
have  personally  examined  in  Madras  and  Malabar.  A 
cursory  glance  thereat  shows  a  marked  preponderance  of 
Portuguese  names  in  Malabar^  which  is  readily  explained 

io  Danvebs— *  The  Portugueae  in  India  \  1894. 


94 


by  reference  to  the  history  of  the  Portuguese  in  India, 
aided  by  a  map  showing  how  thickly  studded  with  Portu- 
guese settlements  the  west  coast  was  as  compared  with  the 
east  coast : — 


Earasians, 

Madras. 

Almeida. 

Anthony  (2). 

Assay. 

Aubert. 

Bantleman. 

Bartholomew. 

Bastian  (2). 

Bedford. 

BeUo. 

Binny. 

Bird  (2). 

Borgonah. 

Braily. 

Brisson. 

Brown. 

Oalderwood. 

Carless. 

Caubo. 

Christian  (2). 

Clarke  (2). 

Cleary. 

CleRg. 

Collins. 

Comeille. 

Cornelius. 

Da  Costa. 

Da  Silva  (2). 

Daniel. 

David  (2). 

Davids. 

Davy. 

De  Boza. 

Devine. 

Dennis. 

Dimney  (2). 

Edwards  (2). 

Femandes  (2). 

French. 

Gambler. 

Goodman. 

Gragbisse. 


Eurasians, 
Calioat. 

Allamo. 

Ambrose. 

Augustine. 

Barbosa  (2). 
Bastian. 
Benjamin  (2). 
Benny. 


Oabral  (3). 
Carvalho. 
Conceicao  (3). 


Da  Cruz  (9). 
Da  Gama. 
Da  Silva. 
David. 
Davis. 

De  Sousa  (4). 
De  Morias  (2), 
Diaz  (3). 


Escrador  (2). 
Femandes  (12). 

Gabriel  (2). 
Gomes  (3). 
Gonsalves. 


95 


Ounther. 

Gwynne* 

HaU. 

Harris. 

Hart. 

Heaney. 

Heldt. 

Henricus  (2)* 

Henriques. 

Hogg. 

Howell. 

Huggins  (2), 

Hunter  (2). 

Isaac. 

Jansen. 

Jacobs. 

Jennings. 

Joel. 

Johnson  (5). 
Judge. 

Joseph. 

LangXord. 
Lavocat. 
Lazaro  (2). 

La  Grange, 
Lopez. 

Lowe. 

Luxa. 

Mackenzie. 

Macarthy, 

Mckertish. 

Macedo. 

Martin  (2). 

Mark. 

Morris. 

Manoel  (2). 

Murray  (2), 

Marquise. 

Mendonca  (3). 

Mullen. 

Newman. 

Noronha. 

Pascal. 

Paul. 

Peazold. 

Pereira  (3), 

Pereira  (3), 

Peters. 

Phillips. 

Philbert. 

Pinto  (2). 

Powell. 

Powell. 

Preston. 

Quental. 

fienshaw* 

Rodriques  (4). 

Rigley. 

Eoxario  (14), 

Rivett. 

Roberts, 

Hodgers. 

Rose. 

Rowland  (2). 

Rozario  (3)* 

Rozaro. 

Ryan  (2). 

96 

Schooner.  galisbury. 

Smith.  Saldanhtt. 

Spires. 

Stuart  (2). 

Stiirt. 

Tanner. 

Truss. 

Van  Spall  (2). 

Van  Span. 

Varid. 
"Wain.  Woolger. 

Wilier  (2). 
Wood. 
Xavier.  Xavier  (2). 

Though  Portugnese  names  persist  at  the  present  day, 
it  does  not  follow  of  necessity  that  their  owners  have  any 
Portuguese  blood  in  their  veins,  for  some  are  merely  de- 
scendants of  Native  converts  to  Christianity,  or  of  house- 
hold slaves  of  Portuguese  officers.  *'  In  Malabar/^  writes 
the  Census  Commissioner,  1881,  there  is  a  section  of 
Europeanized  Native  Christians — Goa  Boman  Catholics — 
some  of  whom  have  adopted  European  dress  and  customs  ; 
and  these  may  have  been  returned  in  1871  as  Eurasians ; 
and  in  all  districts  the  popular  interpretation  of  the  word 
"  Eurasian  "  is  very  liberal.  There  are  many  Pariahs  and 
Native  Christians,  who  have  adopted  a  travesty  of  European 
clothes,  and  who  would  return  themselves  as  Eurasians,  if. 
allowed  to  do  so."  The  division  between  Native  Christians 
and  people  of  mixed  race  is,  as  I  have  already  pointed  out, 
very  shadowy  in  Malabar.  Considerable  care  Lad,  there- 
fore, to  be  taken  in  accepting  or  rejecting  some  of  those 
who,  anxious  to  secure  the  modest  fee  which  was  offered  in 
return  for  the  loan  of  their  bodies,  appeared  before  me  in 
the  r61e  of  Eurasians.  All  doubtful  cases  were  rejected, 
and  due  attention  was  paid  to  the  various  points — colour, 
character  of  nose,  type  of  face,  breadth  of  head,  manner  of 
speech,  baldness  and  grey  hairs  at  an  early  age,  etc. — by 
-which  one  accustomed  to  close  observation  of  Natives  and 
Eurasians  can  distinguish  racial  admixture. 

Though  the  terms  are,  according  to  my  definition  (page 
69)  synonymous  and  interchangeable,  a  social  distinction 
is  made  at  Calicut  between  Eurasians  and  East  Indians. 
With  a  view  to  clearing  up  the  grounds  on  which  this  dis- 
tinction is  based,  my  interpreter  was  called  on  to  submit  a 
note  on  the  subject,  which  eventually  arrived,  couched  in 


97 

language  worthy  of  "  Mark  Twain."     I,  thorofore,  repro- 
duce it  in  the  original  Anglo- Indian. 

"  Eurasians  are  classified  to  those  who  stand  second  in 
the  list  of  Europeans  and  those  bom  in  any  part  of  India, 
and  who  are  the  Pedigree  of  European  descendants,  being 
bom  of  father  European  and  mother  East  Indian,  and  not- 
withstanding those  who  can  prove  themselves  as  really 
good  Indian  descendants  such  as  mother  and  father  of  the 
Bame  sex,  therefore  these  are  called  Eurasians. 

'*  East  Indians  are  those  oifsprings  of  Christians  of  the 
East,  and  they  atimea  gather  the  offsprings  of  Eurasians 
to  the  entering  their  marriage  to  the  East  Indian  females 
into  the  East  Indian  community,  thereby  they  are  called 
East  Indians. 

"  Native  Christians  are  those  of  Hindu  nations  con- 
verted into  Christians  by  their  embracing  the  poles  of 
Christianity.  All  Hindus  thereby  converted  and  made 
Christians  by  a  second  Baptism  are  called  Native  Christians. 

"  Coaster. — They  are  alluded  to  those  who  belong  to 
the  Coast,  and  who  come  from  a  country  that  has  a  Sea  Coast 
into  that  country  that  has  not  got  a  Bea  Coast  is  therefore 
called  a  Coaster.     A  very  rude  word.^' 

The  distinction  between  Eurasian  and  East  Indian  is,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  a  very  artificial  one,  and  the  two  types 
merge  imperceptibly  one  into  the  other,  separated  by  no 
sharp  line  of  demarcation.  Speaking  in  general  terms,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  Eurasians  are  of  greater  stature,  and 
possess  skins  of  lighter  hue  than  the  East  Indians,  who,  as 
the  result  of  intermarriage  with  Native  Christian  women, 
have  reverted  in  the  direction  of  the  Native  type. 

There  are,  in  North  Malabar,  many  individuals  posing 
as  pure-bred  Natives,  whose  fathers  were  Europeans ;  but, 
for  caste  reasons,  their  white  paternity  is  lost  sight  of. 
Many  of  them  possess  very  pale  skins,  and  some  are  in 
prosperous  circumstances.  Writing  concerning  the  Tiyan 
community,  Mr.  Logan  says  :  ^^  "  The  women  are  not  as  a 
rule  excommunicated  if  they  live  with  Europeans,  and  the 
consequence  is  that  there  has  been  among  them  a  large 
admixture  of  European  blood,  and  the  caste  itself  has  been 
materially  raised  in  the  social  scale.  In  appearance  some 
of  the  women  are  almost  as  fair  as  Europeans.''  .  In  recent 
times  the  Tiyans  of  North  Malabar  have  separated  into  two 

"  '  Manual  of  Malabar  '. 


98 


factions,  which  hold  difibreDt  views  with  reference  to  the 
cohabitation  of  Tiyan  women  with  Europeans,  the  one  being 
in  favour  of  it,  the  other  against  |it.  On  this  point  the 
report  of  the  Malabar  Marriage  Commission,  1894,  states 
'^that  in  the  early  days  of  British  rule,  the  Tiyan  women 
incurred  no  social  disgrace  by  consorting  with  Europeans, 
and,  up  to  the  last  generation,  if  the  Sudra  girl  could  boast 
of  her  Brahmin  lover,  the  Tiyan  girl  could  show  more  sub- 
stantial benefits  from  her  alliance  with  a  white  man  of  the 
ruling  race.  Happily  the  progress  of  education,  and  the 
growth  of  a  wholesome  public  opinion,  have  made  shameful 
the  position  of  a  European's  concubine ;  and  both  races  have 
thus  been  saved  from  a  mode  of  life  equally  demoralizing  to 
each." 

The  Eurasians  examined  by  me  at  Calicut,  nearly  all  of 
whom  were  Boman  Catholics,  were  earning  a  modest  liveli- 
hood, ranging  from  Its.  35  to  Bs.  12  per  mensem,  in  the 
following  capacities : — 


Bandsman. 

Boot-maker. 

Bugler. 

Carpenter. 

Clerk. 

Coffee-estate  writer. 

Compositor. 

Copyist. 

Mechanic. 


Municipal  inspector. 

Musician. 

Petition-writer, 

Police  constable. 

Bail  way  guard. 

Schoolmaster. 

Tailor. 

Tin-smith. 

Weaver. 


No  less  than  39,  out  of  the  96  cases  which  came  before 
me  for  investigation,  were  tailors.  Tailoring  is,  therefore, 
to  the  poor  Eurasians  of  Calicut  what  "  fitting  "  is  to  those 
of  Madras. 

As  in  Madras,  so  in  Malabar,  tattooing  is  very  preva- 
lent among  the  male  members  of  the  Eurasian  community, 
and  the  devices  are  characterised  by  a  predominance  of 
religious  emblems  and  snakes.  The  following  patterns  are 
recorded  in  my  notes  : — 


Bangle  on  wrist. 

Boat. 

Bird  (the  Holy  Ghost). 

Chalice. 

Christ  crucified. 

Cobra. 

Conventional  and  geomet- 
rical designs  (done  by 
Korayar  women). 


Cross. 

Cross  and  crown. 

Cross  and  heart. 

Cross  and  T.N. R.I. 

Crossed  swords. 

Fish. 

Flags. 

Flower. 

Flower  with  leaves. 


99 


Initials.    .  Snake  coiling  round  forearm. 

Ladder.  Solomon's  seal. 

Sacred  heart.  bteam  boat. 
Snake  encircling  forearm. 

During  the  course  of  my  visit  to  Calicut,  a  resident 
correspondent  of  the  '  Madras  Mail '  expressed  his  fear 
that,  when  I  came  to  strike  my  averages  of  Calicut  '*  East 
Indians,"  I  should  find  the  results  very  poor,  as  I  had 
measured  specimens  drawn  from  the  lower  section  of  the 
community,  represented  by  artisans  living  on  poor  food, 
and  amidst  surroundings  that  are  not  conducive  to  physical 
development. .  This  fear  was  indeed  justified,  and  my 
remarks  on  early  marriage  and  physique  of  the  poor  Eura- 
sians of  Madras  apply  with  equal,  if  not  greater  force  to 
those  of  Malabar.  Kepetition  is  unnecessary,  and  it  will 
Bufiice  to  let  the  figures  in  table  xxv  speak  for  themselves. 

Comparing  the  physique  of  the  younger  members  of  the 
Calicut  *'  Eurasian  and  East  Indian  "  community  at  an  age 
when  they  would  be  eligible  as  recruits,  with  that  of  the 
Eurasians  of  Madras  and  sepoys  of  the  same  age,  the 
results  work  out  as  follows,  and  demonstrate  that  a  very 
small  proportion  of  the  two  former  possess  the  physique 
necessary  to  successfully  withstand  the  hardships  enforced 
by  active  service  : — 

WEIGHT,  LB. 


70- 
80 

80- 
90 

90- 
100 

100- 
110 

110- 
120 

120^ 
130 

180- 
140 

140- 
160 

150- 
160 

SepoyB 

•  ■  • 

•  •• 

3 

•  •  • 

6 
3 

1 
9 
9 

4 
12 
15 

11 
13 
16 

19 
4 
3 

9 
6 
1 

4 

1 

•  •  • 

2 

•  •• 

•  •  • 

EurasianB,  Madras 

„           Calient 

CHEST,  CM. 


60-70 

70-80 

80-90 

90-100 

Sopoys           ...         ••• 

•  t                 •  •  • 

■•• 

6 

42 

3 

Earaaians,  Madras 

•  •                 ••• 

3 

38 

14 

t.  • 

„          Calicut             

1 

39 

10 

.  • . 

100 


SHOULDERS,  CM. 

* 

33- 
37 

37- 
38 

38- 
39 

39- 
40 

40- 
41 

41- 
42 

42- 
43 

.43- 

44 

44- 
45 

45- 
46 

Sepoja               ...         •.. 

•  •  • 

9 
12 

•  •  • 

10 
8 

4 
8 
8 

5 

9 

17 

6 

10 

5 

15 
2 

••* 

12 

•  •• 

•  •  • 

4 
2 

•  •  • 

2 

■  •  • 
•  •• 

2 

•  •• 

•  •  • 

EarasiaDS,  Madras 

„          Galioat 

Putting  these  figures,  as  before,  in  terms  of  percentages 
we  obtain  the  following  results  : — 

Weight. 


Below 

Above 

120  LB. 

120  Li). 

Sepoys             . .          •  • 
Eurasians,  Madras 

•  •          •  • 

•  •          •  • 

32 
80 

68 
20  . 

,,           Calicut 

•  •         •  • 

92 

8 

Chest. 

Below 

Above 

80  CM. 

80  CM. 

Sepoys              •  ■          . « 
Eurasians,  Madras 

•  •         *  * 

•  •         * . 

10 

72 

90 
28 

Calicut           ...          •  1 

1         •  •         • . 

80 

20 

Shoulders. 

Below 

Abore 

41  CM. 

41   CM. 

Sepoys             . .          ■ . 
Eurasians,  Madras 

•  •         •  • 
• .         ■  • 

30 
92 

70 

,,          Calicut 

« •         « • 

100 

0 

Daring  a  recent  visit  to  Ootacamund,  I  was,  through  the 
courtesy  of  the  Principal,  the  Rev.  A.  W.  Atkinson,  en- 
abled to  examine  the  physique  of  the  elder  boys  at  the 
Lawrence  Asvlum,  the  object  of  which  is  *'  to  provide  for 
children  of  European  and  East  Indian  (I'.t?.,  Eurasian)  offi- 
cers and  soldiers  of  Her  Majesty's  Army  (British  and 
Native),  and  of  Europeans  and  East  Indians  in  the  Medioal 
Service,  Military  and  (Jivil,  who  are  serving,  or  have  served 
within  the  limits  of  the  Presidency  of  Madras,  a  refuge  from 
the  debilitating  effects  of  a  tropical  climate,  and  from  the 
serious  drawbacks  to  the  well-being  of  children  incidental 
to  a  barrack  life  ;  to  afford  for  them  a  plain,  practical,  and 
religious  education ;  and  to  train  them  for  employment  in 
different  trades,  pursuits,  and  industries.''  In  bis  last  two 
annual  reports  th^  Principal  has  emphasised  the  fact  that 
application  for  the  admission   of  the  children  of  British 


101 

soldiers,  for  whom  solely  this  and  similar  institutions  were 
originally  foanded,  have  almost  ceased.  "  There  is,"  he 
says  (6th  September,  1897),  **not  one  child  of  a  British 
soldier  eligible  for  admission  on  the  register  to-daj-a  situ- 
ation unprecedented  in  the  history  of  the  Asylum.  ^  In  view 
then  of  this  lapse  of  applications  for  the  admission  of  the 
kind  of  children  into  our  Asylum,  for  whom  it  primarily 
exists,  ought  not  the  plan  to  be  adopted,  as  speedily  as  may 
be,  of  drafting  such  children  from  Orphanages,  and  such 
like  Institutions  on  the  enervating  plains,  and  placing  them 
with  us  here  P  "  In  the  year  1896-97  four  boys  enlisted  in 
European  regiments,  and  one  boy  in  a  Native  regiment. 
"  Compared  with  the  previous  year,  **  the  Principal  reports, 
'*  enlistments  in  European  regiments  were  few,  as  boys  of 
pure  European  parentage  only  can  be  entertained." 

As  the  result  oi  examination  of  32  Eurasian  boys  at  the 
Lawrence  Asylum,  between  the  ages  of  13  and  17,  whose 
measurements  are  given  in  detail  in  table  xxvi,  £  am  able 
to  testify  with  very  great  pleasure  to  the  excellence  of  their 
physical  condition.  A  good  climate,  with  a  mean  annual 
temperature  of  58°,  good  food,  and  physical  training,  have 
produced,  in  fact,  a  set  of  boys  well-nourished  and  muscu- 
lar, with  good  chests,  shoulders,  and  body  weight,  who 
afford  a  striking  contrast  to  the  lads  belonging  to  the  same 
class  in  the  plains,  brought  up  amid  the  unwholesome 
environment  of  an  enervating  climate.  More  eloquent  than 
the  columns  of  figures  in  table  xxvi,  which  appeal  only  to 
those  accustomed  to  anthropometric  methods,  was  exami-^ 
nation  of  the  lads  themselves  as  they  stood  stripped  for  in- 
vestigation. But  I  may,  for  the  purpose  of  comparison, 
cite  the  physical  records  of  a  few  cases,  both  pure  EuropeHU 
and  Eurasian,  in  evidence  that,  amid  wholesome  surround- 
ings, the  Eurasian  (especially  of  British  paternity)  is 
capable  of  development  into  a  being  of  good  physique,  such 
as  is  required  for  the  hardships  of  Military  Service  : 


European 
If 

Eurasian 

99 


Age. 

Weight. 

Height. 

Chest. 

Shoal- 
ders. 

..     16-17 

135 

169-8 

84 

86-5 

..     15-16 

110 

161-8 

79-5 

34-7 

..      16-16 

100 

158-4 

81 

86-3 

..      14-15 

135 

167-6 

8i 

36-6 

..      16-17 

105 

157-4 

81 

S6;J 

..      16-17 

116 

162-6 

83 

89-7 

..      15-16 

102 

149-5 

80 

36-3 

..      14-15 

108 

163-6 

80 

36-2 

..      13-14 

115 

167 

79-6 

37  I 

102 


TAI5LE  XVII. 

SUMMAEY  OF  MGASUEEMENTS. 
EURASIANS. 


Max. 

Min. 

Average. 

Kange. 

Weight         ...         ... 

168 

79 

111-5 

89 

Height         ..•         ...         ...         .•• 

183*8 
95*6 

153 

166*6 

80-8 

Height,  sitting        

78*6 

86*6 

17 

Height,  kneeling    ...         ...         •.. 

136-6 

113 

123-7 

23*6 

Height  to  gladiolus          

136*4 

110 

122*7 

26-4 

Span  of  arms          

196*8 

153-4 

172*7 

43*4 

v/ uOv  u                  •■•              •••              •••              ••• 

93 

67 

79*1 

26 

Middle  finger  to  patella     

20*4 

6-2 

12*6 

14*2 

Shoulders     ...         .». 

44*6 

34*3 

39*2 

10*3 

OUlJlb                   ...              •••              .••              ••• 

52*9 

40*3 

46-1 

12-6 
4*7 

Hand,  length           

202 

15-5 

17-7 

Hand,  breadth 

8*7 

6-5 

7*5 

2-2 

nips  •••         ..•         •••         ...         ... 

30*3 

21*4 

25*4 

8*9 

7oot,  length             

29*6 

22*4 

25*7 

7-1 

Foot,  breadth         

10 

7-1 

8*3 

2*9 

Gephaliolength      

20-2 

168 

18*6 

3-4 

Cephalic  breadth    ...         

16-6 

12-8 

14-1 

2*8 

Cephalic  index        

87*2 

69-5 

76 

17-7 

Bigoniao      .••         •.» 

12 
14-4 

9 

101 

3 

Bicygomatio           

11-8 

13 

2-6 

Mazillo-cygomatic  index 

85*3 

69*9 

77-5 

15*4 

Nasal  height          • 

6-1 

4-4 

61 

1-7 

Nasal  breadth        

4-2 

2-7 

8*6 

1*6 

Nasal  index            

911 

53*7 

69*6 

874 

Note. — The  results  are  based  on  the  measurement  of  130  subjects. 
In  this  and  the  following  tables,  the  weight  is  recorded  in  pounds ;  the 
measarements  are  in  centimetres. 


103 


TABLE  XVIII. 


EURASIANS  AND  SEPOYS. 


AVEBAGES. 


Eurasiaiifl. 

Sepoys. 

A.^0           •••           •••           •••           •••           •••           ••• 

28-29 

24r-25 

Weight ^ 

111*5  lbs. 

127-6  lbs. 

Height 

166-6  cm. 

168*2  cm. 

Ohest     

791  cm. 

84*7  cm. 

Shoulders          

39*2  cm. 

41*5  cm. 

Dynamometer ••         

65  lbs. 

80   lbs. 

104 


1 

00 

w* 

Q 

^ 

O 

< 

• 

m 

M 

< 

M 

s 

-«1 

^ 

P4 

^ 

t> 

pq 

N 

< 

Q 

H 

55 

<1 

OQ 

Ph 

c 

P- 

» 

CQ 

Mean  below. 

to 

<5 
to 

fH 

"* 

r* 

• 

CO 

CD 

to 

1* 

fH 

00 

r-l 

00 

$ 

CD 

00 

1 

eB 
o 

d  ca 

00 

g 

00 

to 

r-l 

e 

CO 

00 

CO 
00 

• 

S 

fH 

00 

CO 

• 

do 

CO 

3 

• 

OD 

00 

to 

. 
CO 

00 

CO 

• 

8  - 

• 

s 

i 

.s 

hi 

P   eB 

«3 

s 

00 

00 
kO 

00 

CO 

00 

O 

to 

• 

m 

t 

a> 

00 

CO 

s 

to 

lb 

• 

00 

s 

Maximum. 

■ 

•    S 

o 

o 

00 
iH 

to 

# 

00 

tt 

9 

s 

• 
00 

t 

fH 

00 

r-* 

s 

to 

CO 

1 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 

% 

• 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

bo 

> 

* 
• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 

•• 

• 

■49 
OB 

J 

o 

m 
m 
m 

m 
• 
• 

• 
• 

1 

o 

• 
* 
• 

• 
• 
• 

o 

B 

1 

105 


TABLE  XX. 

DETAILS  OF  MBASUBEMENTS. 


EURASIANS,  AGED  19—26. 


• 

• 

1 

•«3 

• 

s 

Shoul- 
ders. 

Dynamo- 
meter. 

24 

112 

167-4 

85 

40-4 

•  •« 

Fitter. 

22 

105 

160-4 

83 

40 

•  ■  • 

Fitter. 

24 

97 

153-8 

78 

37-5 

•  •  • 

Boiler*  smith. 

21 

127 

180 

86-5 

41-6 

•  •  • 

Blaoksmith. 

2L 

139 

164-8 

87 

42-1 

•  •• 

Ticket-collector. 

22 

135 

181 

82 

409 

•  •  • 

Clerk. 

23 

116 

169-6 

78-7 

38-6 

•  •  • 

Electric  tram  driver. 

21 

119 

179 

79-7 

38-7 

•  •  ■ 

Fitter. 

24 

110 

162 

78 

39-4 

•  •• 

Clerk. 

23 

108 

170 

76 

39-4 

•  •  • 

Carpenter. 

23 

94 

154-6 

74-5 

36-3 

•  •• 

Unemployed. 

23 

90 

156-8 

72-5 

37-2 

•  •• 

Carpenter. 

23 

150 

180*6 

87-5 

43-9 

•  •  • 

Eleotric  tram  driver. 

24 

103 

167 

76-5 

38-6 

•  •  • 

Compositor. 

21 

107 

167-2 

77 

37-2 

•  •• 

Hammerer. 

22 

111 

170-6 

75 

37-3 

•  •  • 

Turner. 

21 

95 

160-8 

75-5 

36-7 

•  •• 

Mechanic. 

23 

111 

16C-8 

77 

39-5 

•  •  • 

Fitter. 

21 

115 

168-4 

83-5 

40 

•  •• 

Fireman. 

23 

123 

162-2 

82 

40-9 

•  •• 

Fitter. 

24 

106 

166-8 

756 

40-2 

•  •• 

Fitter. 

24 

116 

171 

76 

38-2 

•  «• 

Fitter. 

22 

127 

169-2 

81 

40 

••• 

Fireman. 

23 

109 

165-4 

77-5 

38-6 

•  •• 

Turner. 

24 

115 

179-4 

825 

41-2 

•  •  • 

Fitter. 

■ 

106 


TABLE  XK—^on(inusi: 


DETAILS  OF  MEASUREMENTS. 
EURASIANS,  AGED  19—25. 


Age. 

• 

1 

• 

00 

o 

Shoul- 
ders. 

Dynamo- 
meter. 

24 

83 

164-7 

72 

36-5 

•  •• 

Chemist's  asRistant. 

22 

132 

171-2 

87 

40-1 

90 

Turner. 

22 

101 

165-8 

74-5 

39-1 

70 

Olerk. 

22 

123 

160-2 

82 

40-7 

71 
68 

Bivetter. 

21 

103 

169-3 

76-5 

39-1 

Jointer. 

21 

137 

175-2 

80 

39-9 

60 

Fitter. 

21 

92 

154-5 

73 

33-8 

50 

Fitter. 

24 

101 

166 

79 

37-6 

69 

Railway  g^ard. 

19 

106 

160 

78 

38-5 

67 

Turner. 

20 

96 

163-8 

72 

38-5 

56 

Cleaner,  railway. 

20 

113 

167-2 

76-5 

39-6 

74 

Carpenter. 

23 

136 

171-4 

84-5 

43-3 

90 

Oobler. 

20 

87 

159-6 

76-5 

37-7 

57 

Fitter. 

24 

80 

'154-4 

68 

35-1 

56 

Clerk. 

20 

102 

163-8 

75-5 

88-7 

55 

Fitter. 

22 

88 

158-8 

75-5 

86-4 

62 

Printer. 

2a 

94 

155-8 

75-6 

37-6 

64 

Printer. 

19 

100 

161-4 

74 

375 

63 

Fitter. 

24 

118 

169 

79 

39-5 

66 

Fitter. 

L9 

93 

162-6 

72 

35-6 

50 

Fitter. 

19 

95 

159-6 

72-5 

371 

60 

Fitter. 

19 

80 

157-8 

69-5 

35-9 

54 

Fitter. 

19 

111 

161-4 

74 

37 

65 

Watch-repairer. 

20 

118 

167 

79 

39-7 

66 

Fitter. 

19 

82 

157 

69 

34-8 

46 

Blacksmith. 

107 


TABLE  XXI. 


DETAILS  07  MEASUREMENTS. 
SEPOYS,  AGED  18—26. 


Age. 

Weight. 

Height. 

Chest. 

ShonlderB. 

Dynamo- 
meter. 

23 

131 

174 

87 

45-3 

78 

24 

143 

170-4 

91-5 

42-8 

113 

20 

133 

169-2 

85 

42-3 

81 

19 

126 

161-8 

80-5 

39 

71 

20 

118 

160-6 

82 

41-2 

85 

19 

115 

167-1 

80 

40-7 

89 

22 

131 

168-6 

82 

43-7 

81 

22 

125 

167-6 

82 

41-8 

86 

19 

128 

167-4 

85 

41-7 

78 

24 

122 

168-3 

84-3 

42 

69 

21 

148 

171-8 

89-5 

42*4 

81 

21 

125 

1656 

84 

42-4 

79 

18 

137 

174 

88 

43-7 

83 

19 

123 

173-2 

80-5 

41-4 

73 

23 

160 

175-9 

94 

41-3 

78 

23 

157 

178 

90 

43-7 

88 

20 

131 

175-2 

84 

42-7 

84 

23 

128 

163 

85-5 

41-3 

92 

22 

]39 

172-4 

89-5 

43-4 

81 

19 

124 

172 

80-5 

88-2 

80 

22 

113 

161 

83 

40*2 

76 

22 

129 

161-8 

84-5 

41-8 

66 

21 

141 

172-6 

88 

45-5 

97 

19 

108 

162 

81 

89-5 

93 

20 

123 

166 

83 

40-2 

80 

108 
TABLE  XXl-^continued. 


DETAILS  OF  MEASUREMENTS. 
SEPOYS,  AGED  18—26. 


Age. 

Weight. 

Height. 

Chest. 

Shoulders. 

Djnamo- 
meter. 

21 
22 

98 

166 

76 

39-6 

67 

127 

169 

82 

391 

86 

20 

116 

163-2 

80 

41-1 

69 

20 

129 

166*9 

89 

42-4 

77 

20 

145 

177-8 

86-6 

42-3 

76 

18 

107 

166-8 

79-5 

38-2 

66 

22 

109 

160-7 

80-6 

38-7 

84 

21 

111 

161-3 

79-5 

401 

75 

24 

112 

165 

80-6 

39 

82 

21 

118 

162 

83 

40-7 

71 

19 

114 

170-8 

81-5 

41-a 

73 

18 

122 

161-2 

86 

42-2 

78 

18 

120 

163-2 

83-6 

41-8 

72 

21 

127 

167 

86 

41-8 

77 

22 

116 

170-4 

83 

42 

82 

20 

134 

173-2 

98 

42 

86 

18 

lis 

163-6 

79 

41-6 

76 

18 

121 

167-4 

82-6 

41-5 

77 

22 

100 

165-4 

75-5 

37-7 

75 

23 

135 

169-4 

86 

41-9 

85 

23 

128 

170 

88 

44 

75 

24 

122 

164-6 

85*5 

42-9 

70 

19 

128 

170-2 

86 

40-8 

86 

22 

114 

169-2 

83 

41-7 

73 

22 

130 

172 

88 

44-8 

102 

109 


00 


O 
P4 
Ik, 

< 
Eh 

IH 

c 

» 

A3 
1^ 

» 

H 
Eh 


Q 
H 
Eh 

Eh 
QQ 

& 
P 

Q 

» 

h3 
<1 
O 

o 


«a 

fH 

CO 

CO 

t^ 

• 

O) 

O 

a 

Ci 

Op 

si" 

l> 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

t* 

• 
• 
• 

:     « 

• 

a 
« 
a 

Ol 

fH 

SkJ 

P 

>:?3 

04 

rH 

S 

fH 

iH 
iH 

St 

• 

0(| 

M 

00 

00 

o 

£? 

Oi 

a 

a> 

Oi 

0) 

•F* 

•      • 

• 

s 

en 

04 

00 

• 
• 

^ 

• 
• 
• 

• 
a 

• 
a 
a 

p 

• 

CO 

CO 

iH 

CO 

Q 

>* 

fH 

iH 

»H 

• 

OS 

a> 

iH 

fH 

04 

04 

00 

■*      \a 

r* 

& 

o 

00 

0) 

Oft 

0) 

Oi 

Oi 

Od      Oi 

O 

s 

-•» 

0) 

et 

0* 

CO 

CO 

09 

O        CO 

CO 

O 

^ 

iH 

fH 

eo 

CO 

04 

l-H 

t* 

-^ 

Od 

04        00 

^ 

\a 

■«) 

>:'^ 

fH 

»H 

04 

iH 

»H 

^        04 

04 

• 

1 

• 
• 
• 

o 

0 

• 
• 

• 

O 

• 
• 

o 

• 
• 
• 

• 

o 

• 
• 
• 

• 

o 

• 
• 

• 

o 

•                        • 

1  i 

o         P 

• 
• 
• 

• 

o 

• 

O 

Q 

p 

a 

P 

Q 

p 

p 

• 

p 

p 

p 

5P 

• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 

• 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 
* 

•  • 
■               • 

•  • 

• 
a 
a 

a 
• 
■ 

pa 

■ 

OQ 

ill. 

1 

1 

1 

S 

it 

§ 

o 

S      " 

00 
C4 

M 

U3 

o 

S 
o 

CO 

s 

CO 

t^        04 

k» 
CO 

iH 

iH 

»H 

iH 

fH         fH 

• 
• 

• 
• 

• 

• 
• 

• 
• 

• 
« 

•  a 

•  • 
ft                        a 

• 
• 
• 

a 
a 

1 

1 

>% 

i    t 

Place 
birt 

3 

u 

i 
s 

P 

1 

a  «  o 

o       o 

s  1 

13 

.m 

P 

-«1 

S 

H 

n 

^ 

GQ 

(1^ 

n    H 

o 

n 

• 

s 

• 

• 
• 
• 

• 

V 

• 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 

• 

a 

• 
• 
• 

• 
m 

a 
a 
• 

i 
1 

o 

3 
O 

r 

• 
• 
• 

1 

1 

a 
J-* 

• 
• 
• 

1 

• 
« 

s5 

P 

1 

a 
o 

1   •   : 

p  P-4jf 

m 
m 
■ 

e9 
OQ 

• 
■ 

U 

-o 

OQ 

§ 

• 
• 

• 

9 
1 

• 
• 

1 

1— • 

• 
• 
• 

o 

P 

• 
• 
• 

• 

o 
P 

• 

• 

o 

p 

■ 
• 
• 

• 

o 
P 

• 
• 

• 

1 

■  • 

■  • 

•             • 

p 

1.  • 

5      ^ 

a 
V 
• 

• 

O 
P 

• 
• 
• 

a 

O 

P 

H 

» 

&« 

^ 

8) 

• 
• 

• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 

• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 

•                     • 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 

<j 

3 

04 

s 

00 

s 

fH 
00 

9    S 

04 

04 

00 

110 


00 


00 


W 

P 

Q 
Q 
Eh 

OQ 

o 

o 

02 

OQ 

<J 
O 

o 

:^ 

o 

M 

OQ 

GQ 

O 

M 

Eh 
W 

Eh 
-t1 
Eh 
QQ 


Bemaining. 

•u^jpimo 

•  •               •               •              •                              •          «^               •               •               • 

•  •               •               •               •                              •          '    '               •               •               ■ 

•  •■••                              •                              ••• 

'uamo^ 

:        :        :        :        :              «o     Oi      i>      wa      us 

•U8J^ 

iHe4eoiH04              oi>eoQiH 

04         iH        r-1         Ol        04 

■ 
P 

•aojpijuo 

•  •                       •                        •                       •                                                •                       •                ^^                       «                       • 

•  •                       •                        •                       •                                                •                      •                '      ■                        •                       • 

■••••                                                •• 

•ueraoj^ 

•                    •                    •                   •                   •                                                                                 • 

•uejj 

:       :       :     N     rH             '*      -^       •       :     oo 
■       •       .                                             •       « 

1 

■§ 

CO 

Q 

•ne-tpino 

:       :       :        :       :             .oii     o^      04        :     ih 

•               •              •               •              •                                                                             • 

•uemojv^. 

:        :        :        :        :              <D      co      wj      ^      eo 

•U8H 

rH       :       :       :       :            »o     «o     oi     «     o^ 

•                                                             fH 

'3 

o 

•uejpinO 

:        :        :        :        :              04      co      oo        ;      ih 

•        •        •        •        •                                        « 

•ueraoj^ 

•           •            •                     r^        r^        r^        r-i 

•uejii 

cQoiooeoco              0)i>udoicp 

04        Ol        04        CO        Ol 

• 

•uajpinjo 

:        :       :       :        :             04      co     oq       •     ih 
: 

*neazo^ 

:       :       :       :       :             eo      x     00     eo      ^ 

•uojj 

•                                                                       fH 

Remained. 

•aQjpmo 

:        :       :        :       :               :        :     '^        :       • 

'UQxnoj^ 

III'.:                    rH         CO        O)        t>        kO 

•nej\[ 

<N        <N         rH         ^        § 

•       •        •        •                •        J       2       I       r 

i       :•       :       5       ;       :      i       :       !       :       ;       ; 

2SS22          SSSSS 

Ill 


rH 

f-H 

f-H 

o 

01 

s 

•H 

t* 

<M 

i 

t* 

l> 

r« 

CO 

QD 

'uainojii 

CO 

« 

00 

eo 

eo 

t* 

« 

o 

S; 

'2 

1 

1 

H 

ss 

I> 

9 

fr« 

r« 

M 

-♦ 

A 

o 

«0 

eo 

•* 

94 

eo 

^ 

s 

*a9iK 

00 

eo 

eo 

^ 

5S 

^ 

S: 

s: 

IH 

rH 

rH 

•H 

rH 

00 

f-H 

■ 

OQ 

fH 

fH 

eo 

r-^ 

-♦ 

03 

O 

n 

-♦ 

M 

*aaaioj\ 

• 

r^ 

•H 

IH 

f* 

• 

• 

• 
• 

« 

>H 

A 

•nan 

m 

rH 

eo 

• 

ft 

n 

^ 

S5 

S 

IH 

■ 

fH 

rH 

• 
• 
• 

H-l 

P^ 

lO 

iO 

eo 

•* 

•H 

n 

eo 

•I- 

eo 

«o 

M 

rH 

01 

r-^ 

r^ 

P3 

'uanzo^ 

i-t 

•H 

rH 

F^ 

H 

' 

4-H 

•TOM 

91 

CO 

«♦ 

lO 

91 

s 

to 

lO 

€ 

lO 

S 

eo 

rH 

OO 

rH 

01 

eo 

00 

PJ 

t3 

P 

'VLBmOJ^ 

s» 

^ 

S 

S 

O 
ft 

s 

s 

S 

s 

A 

OO 

rH 

t* 

t* 

1 

•udH 

OS 

ql 

^ 

« 

9 

1 

o 

S 

04 

i 

§: 

ss 

lO 

rH 

S: 

TABLE  XKIV 

)F  LUNATICS  TR: 

1 

' 

• 

1 

s 

•uatao^ 

*• 

« 

CO 

* 

00 

S 

s 

00 

rH 

00 

•* 

t-t 

•* 

r^ 

o 

00 

o 

09 

QO 

o 

s 

eo 

S 

3 

lO 

ft 

0) 

rH 

•H 

lO 

< 

*a0}^ 

ft 

IH 

?-" 

© 

1-4 

rH 

i-rf 

O 

CD 

25 

rH 

^ 

K 

eo 

r« 

I> 

l> 

QD 

^ 

m 

g 

eo 

ac 

oo 

00 

*• 

o 

l> 

fO 

PS 

P9 

1 

'aamo^^ 

S 

•naw 

eo 

U 

s; 

9 

So 

s 

i 

00 

1 

o 

rn 

eo 

rH 

94 

00 

P-4 

pa 

« 

m 

•  •        • 

•  •        • 

•  •        • 

• 

:        :        :        : 

•  •                      • 

•  •                       • 

• 
• 

; 

W 

H 

• 
■ 

• 
• 

•  •        • 

•  •        • 

•  •        • 

• 
• 
• 

:       :       :       : 

•              •              •              • 

•  •                      • 

•  •                      • 

•  •                       • 

« 
• 

• 
• 

O 

fc 

■                      •                     • 

• 

• 

i-i 

■ 

• 
• 

• 

•        •        : 

•                      ■                      • 

, 

• 

^ 

« 

• 

«        *        * 

• 

o 

M 

09 

OQ 

Eh 

4i 

• 
■ 

* 

00    : 

H     ' 

>■ 

• 
•             •             •             ■ 

V5    :        :       : 

M 

O    .         .         . 

• 
• 

• 
• 
• 

• 

55 

« 
* 

:       i       : 

,              •              • 

<     ■ 

: 

•    •    •    • 
.    •    • 

Pi    :        :       : 

•               •               • 

• 

• 

• 
• 

» 

: 

• 

:        :        • 

• 
• 

. 

•               •               « 

" 

• 

H 

• 

<J 

H 

OQ 

i 

s    S    S 

ao       «o      « 

1^          t-H          l-H 

rH 

r4        «—        1-^        rH 

eo      !f      >Q 

sis 

I-t      I-I      l-« 

W^ 

r- 

112 


TABLE  XXV. 


COMPAEISON  OF  MEASUKEMENTS. 
EURASIANS,  MADKAS  AND  CALICDT, 


Madras. 

Cab'cnt. 

Weight              ...         ...         •••         ••• 

111-5 

109 

Height               ...         •..         •••         •>■         ... 

166-6 

163-5 

Spsbxi  of  arms   ...         ••« 

172-7 

171 

\j  £168  u       •••             •••             *.•             •>•             ...             ••• 

79-1 

77-7 

Shoulders         ...         •..         •••         •.*         ••« 

39-2 

38-7 

Hand,  breadth            

7-5 

7-4 

xiips       ••.         ...         •••         ...         .«.         ••• 

25-4 

251 

Foot,  breadth 

8-3 

8-3 

Oephaliclength           

18-6 

18-6 

,f        breadth         ...         .#•         ...         ... 

141 

14 

,,            luu6Z                   «•■             ...             ■<•             ... 

76 

75-4 

Bigoniac            ...         ...         ••• 

101 

9-9 

Bizygomatic 

13 

12-8 

Mazillo- zygomatic  index 

77-5 

77-5 

Nasal  height 

51 

4*9 

,,      breadth 

3-5 

3-4 

„      index 

69-5 

69-3 

Dynamometer              

65 

63 

The  weights  were  taken  in  clothes  with  boots. 


113 


TABLE  XXVI. 


SUMMARY  OF  MEASUREMENTS. 


EURASIAN  BOYS,  LAWRENCE  ASYLUM. 


• 

• 

t 

bo 

o 

o 

• 
00 

o 

1 

s 

i 

a 
o 

■3 

O 

• 

no 

.a 

o 

M 

* 

.9 

.2 

i 

CD 

Dynamometer. 

16-17 

105 

157-4 

81 

35-8 

7-4 

18-9 

14-2 

751 

60 

16-17 

116 

162-6 

83 

39-7 

7-5 

18-2 

13-4 

73-6 

59 

16-17 

85 

145-2 

67 

33 

72 

18-9 

14-2 

751 

43 

15-16 

118 

165-6 

79-5 

37-4 

7-3 

17-4 

15 

86*2 

64 

15-16 

• 

96 

155*4 

74 

33-4 

6-8 

18 

14-8 

82-2 

49 

15-16 

97 

158-2 

73 

35 

7*3 

17-5 

14-8 

84-6 

50 

15-16 

102 

149-5 

80 

36-3 

7-1 

17-8 

14-6 

82 

51 

15-16 

91 

149-4 

73 

35-4 

6-8 

17-8 

14-6 

82 

42 

15-16 

104 

152-6 

76 

36 

7-4 

18-4 

13-6 

73-9 

63 

15-16 

87 

152-4 

71-6 

35-4 

7-1 

18-1 

14-2 

78-5 

49 

15-16 

97 

153-6 

73-5 

35-3 

7-2 

171 

14-4 

84-2 

55 

15-16 

86 

148-7 

70-5 

82*3 

7-4 

17-6 

13-5 

76-4 

60 

15-16 

85 

150*2 

73-5 

32*3 

6-9 

17-8 

13-6 

76-4 

47 

15-16 

90 

151-2 

73-5 

32-9 

6-4 

16-6 

14-4 

86-7 

41 

15-16 

92 

151 

70 

34-7 

7-3 

16-9 

13-6 

80-5 

55 

15-16 

92 

144-8 

73 

33-5 

6-9 

18 

13*4 

74-4 

44 

15-16 

97 

149-8 

72-5 

341 

7 

19-5 

15-2 

76-4 

48 

15-16 

98 

150-4 

77-5 

35-3 

72 

17-2 

13-6 

79-1 

51 

15-16 

80 

140-6 

69 

305 

6-7 

17-4 

13-9 

79-9 

39 

15-16 

85 

148-9 

67-5 

33 

6-5 

17-8 

14-2 

79-8 

38 

114 


TABLE  XXYl— continued. 


SUMMAEr  OF  MEASUREMENTS. 
EURASIAN  BOYS,  LAWRENCE  ASYLUM. 


<1 

i 

• 

00 

o 

W 

o 

• 
00 

0) 

§ 

Hand,  breadth. 

• 

• 

t 

1 
1 

Cephalic  breadth. 

Cephalio  index. 

•** 
o 

a 

o 

a 

a 
a 

14-15 
14-15 

108 

153-6 

80 

35-2 

7-6 

16-8 

14-2 

85-7 

67 

93 

147-7 

76 

34-5 

7-7 

17-6 

14 

79-5 

50 

14-15 

85 

145-6 

68-7 

32 

6-5 

18-6 

14 

75-3 

38 

14-15 

87 

150-2 

71-5 

31-6 

6-6 

17-8 

13-8 

77-5 

52 

14-15 

88 

148-2 

69-5 

31-5 

6-8 

17-6 

14 

79-5 

52 

14-15 

97 

148-7 

75 

33-15 

7-3 

18 

13-8 

76-7 

59 

14-15 

92 

148-2 

75-3 

34-6 

6-5 

18-2 

14-7 

80-8 

48 

14-15 

89 

1465 

71-5 

33-9 

7 

18-8 

13-8 

73-4 

47 

14-15 

77 

147-6 

68 

32*8 

6-3 

18-2 

14-2 

78 

39 

14-15 

86 

143-2 

72-5 

32-9 

6-8 

18-5 

14-2 

76-8 

42 

14-15 

87 

146-6 

69-5 

33-3 

71 

18 

14-2 

78-9 

50 

13-14 

115 

167 

79-6 

371 

72 

18-2 

15-8 

86-8 

57 

J 


115 


KOTE  ON  TATTOOING. 


In  a  paper  on  tattooing,  read  at  the  Anthropological 
Institute  in  January,  1888,  Miss  Buckland  refers  to  the 
practice  of  tattooing  among  the  Nagas  of  A«sam,  and  to  the 
tattooing  of  breeches,  reaching  from  the  waist  to  the  knee, 
witTi  which  the  male  Burman  is  adorned.  But,  in  the  map 
illustrating  the  paper,  peninsular  India,  south  of  20°,  is 
left  a  perfect  and  absolute  blank.  And,  in  the  discussion 
which  followed  the  reading  of  the  paper,  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Kincaird,  recognising  this  remarkable  hiatus,  remarked 
that  "  his  observation  led  him  to  belieye  that  this  custom 
is  wide-spread  on  the  arms  and  legs  among  the  women  of 
the  lower  castes  of  the  Tamil,  etc.,  races  in  the  south  and 
south-east  of  the  peninsula.  Among  the  ethnically  allied 
so-called  aboriginal  tribes  inhabiting  the  Vindyan  and 
Sathpura  hill  slopes  it  is  also  prevalent,  even  among  the 
women  of  the  lower  orders  of  Muhammadans,  whose  fore- 
fathers were  probably  low-caste  Hindus,  before  being 
converted  by  force.  He  had  observed  the  same  tattoo 
markings  on  arms  and  legs.  There  is  very  generally  a 
dot  on  the  chin,  and  similar  dots  on  the  cheek  or  temple 
very  sparingly  placed,  forming  perhaps,  in  their  ideas, 
beauty  spots  similar  to  the  patches  of  our  ladies  in  former 
years.^^ 

The  prevalence  of  tattooing,  frequently  with  very  elabo- 
rate devices,  among  the  male  sex  in  the  Eurasian  community 
has  been  dealt  with  in  the  preceding  chapter.  And,  in 
Bulletin  No.  IV,  1896,  I  have  referred  to,  and  illustrated 
the  primitive  patterns  of  dots  and  circles  on  the  breasts, 
arms,  hands,  legs,  and  feet  of  the  Toda  women  of  the 
Nilgiris,  and  the  more  advanced  type  of  lines,  dots,  and 
circles,  sometimes  combined  into  a  simple  ornamental 
pattern,  in  vogue  among  the  Kota  women  of  the  same 
hill-range. 

The  following  note  on  the  practice  of  tattooing,  as 
carried  out  in  the  city  of  Madras,  is  based  on  information 
extracted  in  the  course  of  interviews  with  professional  female 
tattooers,  of  whom  the  first  arrived  in  a  state  of  maudling 


116 

intoxication.  These  women  belong  to  the  class  of  Koravas 
or  Yerakalas,  "  a  vagrant  tribe  found  throughout  the  Madras 
Presidency.  Thej  wander  about  the  country  in  gangs, 
selling  baskets,  carrying  salt,  telling  fortunes,  and  pilf ertug 
and  robbing  whenever  an  opportunity  occurs.  As  house- 
breakers they  are  especially  expert,  and  burglary  is  their 
favourite  crime.''  (Census  report,  1881.)  The  men  are 
also  employed  in  hunting,  bird-snaring,  and  as  actors  of 
native  plays,  which  they  perform  on  the  road  side. 
Sometimes  they  masquerade  as  mendicants,  and  go  about^ 
beating  a  drum,  and  begging  from  house  to  house  in  the 
bazdr.  The  female  tattooers  leave  Madras  during  the 
harvest  season,  and  pay  professional  visits  to  the  neighbour- 
ing districts,  travelling  as  far  as  Pondicherry  in  the  south, 
and  Guddapah  in  the  north.  By  these  women  Brahmans, 
'  Sudras  *  of  all  classes.  Pariahs,  and  Tamil-speaking 
Muhammadans  (Labbais)  are  operated  on.  The  patterns 
range  from  a  dot  or  straight  line  to  complex  geometrical 
or  conventional  designs  (Plates  xxiii-xxiv).  Figures  of 
wild  animals  are  not  met  with,  but  scorpions,  birds,  fishes, 
flowers,  and  the  Vaishnava  sect  mark,  are  common.  So  too, 
as  among  the  Eurasians,  are  the  initials  or  name  (in  Tamil 
characters)  upon  the  fore-arm.  Sometimes  Hindu  males 
are  tattooed,  as  an  amusement,  when  boys,  or,  in  some 
cases  among  the  lower  classes,  e,g.,  Pariahs,  when  grown 
up.  But  tattooing  with  elaborate  devices  is  essentially 
confined  to  the  female  sex.  The  parts  of  the  body  selected 
for  the  performance  of  the  operation  in  its  ornamental 
aspect  are  the  fore-arm,  fore-leg,  fore-head,  cheeks,  and 
chin.  But,  in  some  instances,  in  case  of  muscular  pain  or 
other  disorder,  the  operation  is  performed  as  a  remedial 
agent  over  the  shoulder- joint,  or  on  the  thigh,  upper  arm, 
or  other  parts  of  the  body.  A.  legend  runs  to  the  eflfeot  that, 
many  years  ago,  a  Pariah  woman  wished  her  upper  arms 
and  breast  to  be  tattooed  in  the  form  of  a  bodice.  The 
operation  was  successfully  performed  until  the  region  of  the 
heart  was  reached,  and  then  a  vulnerable  part  was  punc- 
tured by  the  needles  with  the  result  that  the  woman  died. 
Whence  has  arisen  a  superstitious  objection  to  tattooing  of 
the  breasts. 

The  Tamil  equivalent  of  tattooing  is  pachai-kutha- 
kirathu  (=  pricking  with  green).  The  "  marking  ink  '*  is 
prepared  in  the  following  manner:  Turmeric  (kappa 
manja)   powder  and     agathikeerai     (leaves     of    Seabania 


XXttI 


TAMIL  TATTOOING. 


117 

grandiflori)  are  rubbed  together  in  a  mortar,  or  on  a  grinding 
stone.  The  mixture  is  spread  on  a  thin  cloth,  and  rolled 
up  in  the  form  of  a  wick,  which  is  placed  in  an  open 
lamp  charged  with  castor-oil.  The  wick  is  lighted,  and 
the  lamp  covered  with  a  new  earthen  pot,  on  the  inside 
of  which  the  lamp-black  is  deposited.  This  is  scraped  ofE 
and  mixed  with  human  milk  or  water.  Instead  of  agathi- 
keerai,  arumpilloo  (green  parts  of  Cynodon  Dactyhn),  or 
karisinaf^oni  (green  parts  of  Eclipta  alba)  may  be  used  in  the 
preparation  of  the  wick.  As  a  pricking  instrument,  three 
or  four  sewing  needles  are  fastened  together  with  thread. 
In  the  performance  of  the  operation,  the  selected  patt<em 
is  first  traced  on  the  skin  with  a  thin  stick  dipped  in  the 
prepared  ink,  which  is  pricked  in  with  the  needles.  The 
part  is  then  washed  with  cold  water,  and  a  coat  of  ink 
rubbed  over  the  surface.  To  allay  the  pain,  oil  is  applied, 
and  a  small  quantity  of  turmeric  powder  is  rubbed  in,  to 
brighten  the  colour  and  prevent  swelling.  The  Korava 
women,  being  illiterate,  are  unable  to  tattoo  initials  or 
names  unless  they  are  first  drawn  for  them.  They  are  able 
to  execute  the  complicated  patterns,  with  which  they  are, 
from  long  practice,  familiar,  with  considerable  dexterity, 
and  will  tattoo  any  pattern  which  is  new  to  them,  provided 
that  it  is  first  drawn.  The  woman  who  described  the 
tattooing  process  to  me  traced  out  very  elaborate  patterns, 
with  great  rapidity,  with  the  blunt  stick  which  she  was 
accustomed  to  use,  but  could  make  no  way  at  all  with  a 
pencil.  The  Burmese  patterns  are  far  more  artistic,  varied, 
and  complicated  than  those  executed  by  the  Koravas.  With 
these  patterns  sepoys,  and  Tamil  coolies  who  emigrate  to 
Burma,  are  freely  tattooed  by  highly  skilled  Burmese  tat- 
tooers  ;  and  some  of  these  patterns  are  now  being  copied  by 
the  Madras  tattooers.  The  taltooer's  fee  is  said  to  range 
from  a  quarter-anna  for  a  dot  or  line  to  twelve-annas  for  a 
complex  design.  And  in  up-country  villages  payment 
appears  to  be  made  in  kind,  and  a  present  of  rice  to  be 
the  usual  remuneration. 

The  following  information  was  supplied  by  a  Tamil 
Native,  with  a  European  ballet  girl  tattooed  on  his  upper 
arm,  who  was  engaged  in  varnishing  cases  in  oue  oi  the 
Museum  galleries  :  "  Some  years  ago  I  went  to  Ceylon  with 
a  Native  Theatrical  Company.  While  in  Colombo  I  made 
the  acquaintance  of  a  Sinhalese  who  was  a  professional 
tattooer.     He  had  an  album  of  pictures  for   tattooing.     I 


118 

was  attracted  by  their  beauty^  and  subjected  myself  to 
the  operation.  It  was  an  easy  and  painless  operation  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  Madras  tattooer.  The  Sinhalese 
man  had  the  needles  tied  together  in  different  ways,  e.y.^ 
for  pricking  straight  lines  five  or  six  needles  are  tied 
together  in  a  row ;  for  pricking  curves  the  needles  are 
arranged  in  a  cnrre.  The  Madras  tattooer  has  the  needles 
tied  together  in  a  bundle^  and  the  operation,  as  performed 
with  them,  is  painful,  and  sometimes  followed  by  swelling 
and  ulceration."  Asked  whether  he  was  glad  he  had  been 
tattooed,  the  man  said,  '*  I  am  very  sorry  I  had  it  done, 
for,  when  I  got  married,  I  was  ashamed  of  it,  and  kepi 
it  hidden  by  my  cloth." 


>      < 

> 

> 
3 

i 

^ 

Ij 

£3 

lV5 

i 

c 

C-J 

vyv 

>  C 

>  •< 

XXK 

>      c 

>,".< 

<,-'--> 

>;.^ 

>  ■  < 

n 

^ 

* 

©^^ 

3 

V^ 

1 

1 

vj 

TAMIL  TATTOOING. 


119 


MAUGASY-NIAS-MAVIDIMS. 


In  the  course  of  an  article  entitled  ^  Malgaches-Nias- 
Dravidietns/  *  M.  2iaborowski  makes  copious  reference  to 
the  results  of  my  researches  among  the  Irulas^  Panijans, 
and  Kurumbas.t  Quoting  Modigliani,  he  sajs  :  "  I  have 
seen  in  India^  on  the  Malabar  Coasts  and  especiallj  at 
Beypur^  Calicut^  and  the  surrounding  country,  various 
natives  of  JUalaisaid  type^  whose  features  struck  me  owing 
to  thoir  close  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Nias.  Among 
the  Tiyans,  of  low  caste^  this  resemblance  is  great  (twisted 
legs,  lobes  of  the  ears  widely  dilated,  the  shape  of  the 
fetDale  breasts,  and  long  arms) ;  but  those,  in  whom  the 
resemblance  struck  me  most,  were  a  Kakkai  (crow-eating) 
Kurnmba  man  and  woman,  mendicants  met  in  the  vicinity 
of  Calicut.  It  was  on  my  return  from  Nias,  and  the 
impression  which  they  produced  was  a  lively  one. 
I  do  not  wish  to  affirm  that  the  Nias  are  descended  from  the 
Tiyans,  or  from  the  Eurumbas ;  but,  from  the  description 
of  their  physical  /characters,  their  customs,  and  their 
legends,  results  the  possibility  of  a  common  origin  between 
Nias  and  Eurumbas. 

Continuing  the  line  of  argument,  M.  Zaborowski  writes 
as  follows  :  "  A  very  importeoit  work,  which  *  M.  Edouard ' 
Thurston  has  just  published,  allows  me  to  bring  this 
assimilation  still  closer.  The  portraits  of  Irulas,  Paniyans, 
Eurumbas,  and  a  Tamil  man,  which  this  author  gives  with 
his  notes,  are  sufficient  by  themselves  to  clear  up  many 
doubts.  Mr.  Thurston  has  measured  only  Dravidians,  so 
that  he  furnishes  us  with  terms  of  comparison  taken  in 
India  itself.  A  hierarchic  classification  of  all  these  Indian 
people  is  made  by  the  consideration  of  the  nasal  index 
alone.  The  Irulas,  Pemiyans,  and  Eurumbas  are  shown,  by 
the  table  of  nasal  indices,  to  be  specially  worthy  of  attention 
from  the  point  of  view  which  concerns  us.  Their  extreme 
platyrhiny  is  due,  as  in  the  Mo'is,  to  shortness  of  height 
rather  than  to  excessive  breadth.^' 


•  Boll.  800.  d'  Anthropol.,  Fasc,  2,  1897. 
t  Madras  Museum  Bull.,  Vol.  II,  No.  1,  1897. 


120 

• 

After  drawing  attention  to  the  profusion  of  copper  rings, 
and  other  ornaments  which  the  Irola  and  Paniyan  women 
wear,  and  the  resemblance  between  the  clothing  of  Irolas 
and  Malagasy  of  Madagascar^  M.  Zaborowsid  oontinnes : 
"  In  stadying  the  customs  of  oar  Indo-Chinese  wild  tribes,  I 
have  nataraUy  been  straok  with  the  similarity  of  their  taste 
for  interminable  rolls  of  copper,  which  they  wear  on  the 
fore-arm,  the  profusion  of  bracelets,  and  especially  with  the 
habit  of  dilating  the  lobes  of  the  ears,  and  sospending 
therein  rings  of  ('-opper,  with  the  tastes  and  practices  of  the 
Dayaks  of  Borneo.  Now  I  find  the  same  tastes,  and  almost 
the  same  practices  among  the  Dravidian  tribes  of  Southern 
India.  Irulas,  Paniyans,  and  doubtless  the  Kurumbas, 
cover  themselves  with  bracelets  and  rings  of  copper,  and 
insert  in  the  lobes  of  the  ears  light  discs,  rolls  of  cajan, 
doubtless  to  suspend  therein  ear-rings,  and  even  rings  of 
copper,  which  stretch  them.  This  last  custom  is  very  wide- 
spread at  Nias,  and  it  is  met  with  in  Madagascar.  Its  point 
of  departure,  its  origin,  is  then  not  in  Borneo,  but  in  Southern 
India.  In  addition  to  their  striking  physical  characters, 
Irulas,  Kurumbas,  and  Paniyans  offer  to  the  careful  obser- 
ver peculiarities  of  customs  which,  if  not  absolutely  identical 
with  those  of  the  Mois,  recall  no  less  forcibly  their  mode 
of  existence,  customs,  level  of  culture,  moral  and  social 
individuality.  Close  bonds  have  united  them.  I  do  not  say 
that  the  Nias  are  Kurumbas,  or  that  the  Mo'is  are  Paniyans 
or  Irulas.  They  are  like  so  much  debris  of  groups  dis- 
aggregated long  ago.  They  have  lived,  without  communi- 
cating one  with  the  other,  for  perhaps  more  than  a  thousand 
years.  And  it  is  undoubtedly  more  than  two  thousand 
years  since  they  were  separated,  and  became  subject  to  the 
influences  of  difference  in  climate  and  environment.  Their 
separation  may  even  date  back  to  a  more  remote  period.  It 
is,  then,  marvellous  that  they  present  to-day  such  evident 
affinities.  Traits  of  custom  and  character  may  separate  them 
even  under  the  head  of  physique.  Thus  Irulas,  Kurumbas, 
and  Paniyans  have,  as  a  general  rule,  the  skin  of  a  darker 
hue  than  Nias  and  Mois,  a  greater  hairy  devolpment,  and  a 
more  Australian  type.  But  the  colour  of  the  skin  is  uni- 
versally very  variable ;  light  skins  are  met  with  even  among 
Dravidians.  And  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  Malay  blood 
has,  for  a  long  time,  had  ^  very  great  influence  in  Indo- 
China.  So  that  secondary  distinctions  cannot  make  us  mis* 
interpret  the  identity  of  the  primary  characters  which  are 
preserved  in  all  these  groups  with  remarkable  persistence. 


121 

It  is  from  India  that  have  proceeded  the  principal  consti- 
taetit  elements  of  the  Nias  and  MoKs>  not  to  speak  of  other 
less  well-known  groaps  of  Sonda. 

As  a  supplement  to  my  notes  on  the  ornaments  worn  hy 
Iralas  and  Panijans^  and  as  bearing  on  the  subject  of  dilata- 
tion of  the  ear-lobes  referred  to  hy  Mr.  Zaborowski,  1  re- 
prodace  my  notes  on  the  ornaments  worn  by  Ghernmans  of 
both  sexes  at  CaHcut  on  the  Malabar  Coast.  The  Cheramans 
are,  as  I  have  pointed  out  elsewhere^  a  large  commonitj  of 
low  stature,  very  dark  skinned,  with  wide  nasal  index, 
inhabiting  Malabar,  where  they  were  formerly  agrestic 
slaves,  and  now  work  for  the  most  part  as  field  labourers, 
and,  in  the  town  of  Calicut,  as  grass  cutters,  &c.  With  a 
view  to  rising  in  the  social  scale,  many  Cherumans  are  con- 
verted to  M  uhammadanism,  and  throw  in  their  lot  with  the 
Moplahs  or  Mdpillas. 

Man,  8Bt.  30.  One  steel,  two  brass  ear-rings  right  ear ; 
two  brass  rings  left  ear. 

Boy,  set.  14-15.     Brass  ring  in  each  ear. 

Man,  8Bt.  30.  Three  brass  rings  in  each  ear;  two  steel 
rings  and  one  brass  ring  left  middle  finger. 

Man,  8Bt.  25.  Two  brass  rings  left  ear ;  one  brass  ring 
right  ear.  Three  brass  rings,  and  one  iron  ring  right  ring 
finger. 

Man,  8Bt.  28.  Two  brass  rings  in  each  ear.  One  brass, 
one  copper,  and  five  iron  rings  right  little  finger.  One 
brass  ring  with  glass  ornament  left  Uttle  finger. 

Woman,  set.  25.  Lobes  of  both  ears  widely  dilated  by 
rolled  leaden  ornaments.  Brass,  and  two  glass  bead  neck- 
lets. String  necklet  with  fiat  brass  ornaments,  the  size  of 
a  Venetian  sequin,  with  device  as  in  old  Travancore  gold 
coins,  with  two  brass  cylinders  pendent  behind,  and  tctssela 
of  red  cotton. 

Three  brass  rings  on  right  little  finger ;  two  brass  rings 
on  left  ring  finger.  One  brass,  and  two  steel  bangles  on 
leit  wrist. 

Woman,  est.  25.  Several  bead  necklets,  and  a  single 
necklet  of  many  rows  of  beads.  Brass  necklet  like  pre- 
cedmg,  with  steel  prong  and  scoop,  for  removing  wax  from 
the  ears  and  picking  teeth,  tied  to  one  of  the  necklets.  At- 
tached to,  and  pendent  from  one  necklet,  three  cajan  rolls 
with  symbols  and  Malayalam  inscription  to  act  as  a  charm 
to  drive  away  devils. 


122 

Three  ornamental  brass  bangles  on  right  fore-arm ;  two 
on  left  fore-arm.  Iron  bangle  on  left  wrist.  Thin  brass 
ring  in  helix  of  each  ear.  Mass  (seventy)  of  thin  brass 
rings  (alonddti),  with  heavy  brass  ornament  (adiky&)  in 
dilated  lobe  of  each  ear. 

Woman,  set.  30.  Neck  and  ear-ornaments  of  same  type 
as  preceding,  but  two  brass  rings  in  each  helix^  and  one 
cajan  roll,  to  drii^e  away  cough  and  fever. 

Bight  hand — 

Foar  brass  rings,  thumb  and  middle  finger. 
Four  brass  and  two  copper  rings^  ring  finger. 

Lef  fe  hand — 

One  copper  ring,  thumb. 

One  steel  ring,  middle  finger. 

Three  copper,  and  five  brass  rings,  ring  finger. 

Girl,  aet.  12.  Ears  dilated  by  small  cajan  ornaments 
(gradual  dilatation).  Necklet  with  brass  ornament  with 
Travancore  coin  device.     Brass  ring  on  right  ring  finger. 

Girl,  set.  13.  String  round  neck  to  act  as  a  charm  in 
warding  ofE  fever.  Neck  ornament  with  brass  imitation 
Venetian  sequin.  Brass  bead  necklets  and  ear  scoop.  Brass 
and  steel  bangles  on  right  wrist;  brass  bangles  on  left 
wrist.  Three  copper,  three  brass,  and  two  steel  rings  on 
right  ring  finger.  Long  slit  in  lobe  of  each  ear  for  ear 
ornaments. 

Woman,  set.  80.  Mass  of  brass  rings  and  solid  brass 
ornament  in  lobe  of  each  ear.  Thin  brass  rings  in  each 
helix.  Neck  heavily  decorated  with  glass  bead  necklets,  and 
necklet  with  heavy  heart-shaped  ornaments.  Five  brass 
bangles  on  right  fore-arm ;  steel  bangle  on  left  fore-arm. 
One  copper  and  two  brass  rings^  left  ring  finger ;  five  copper 
rings,  left  little  finger. 

Woman,  set.  25.  Ear  ornaments  same  as  preceding. 
Neck  heavily  decorated  with  brass  and  glass  bead  necklets, 
one  with  ear  scoop  and  tooth-pick  pendent  from  a  string. 
Brass  necklet  of  ornaments  with  Travancore  coin  device. 
String  necklet  with  5  brass  cylinders  pendent,  5  brass 
bangles  on  right  wrist ;  6  brass,  2  iron  bangles  left  wrist. 

Bight  hand. 

1  copper,  5  brass  rings,  middle  finger. 
1  iron^  S  brass  rings,  little  finger. 


123 

Left  hand. 

1  copper,  5  brass  rings,  middle  finger. 
8  brass,  2  copper  rings,  ring  finger. 
1  brass  ring.  Utile  finger. 

Woman,  eet.  25.  Gajan  roll  in  lobe  of  right  ear.  Rolled 
leaf  in  lobe  of  left  ear. 

The  subject  of  artificial  enlargement  of  the  ear-lobe^ 
and  the  geographical  distribution  of  this  artificial  mutila- 
tion, hy  which  the  lobes  are  sometimes  torn  asunder,  are 
treated  of  in  cm  admirable  paper  hy  Mr.  J.  Park  Harrison 
(Joum.  Anth.  Inst.,  Vol.  II,  1873).  The  practice  of  en- 
larging the  ear-lobe  is  there  recorded  from  Easter  Island^ 
InoLa  and  Ceylon,  Assam,  Arakan,  Burma  and  Laos,  the 
Asiatic  Islands  (Nias,  Nicobar,  Borneo,  etc.),  tiouth  Pacific, 
America,  and  Africa.  In  his  reference  to  India,  Mr.  Harri- 
son says :  "  In  the  district  of  Madura,  Dr.  Bhortt  mentions 
that  among  the  Maravars,  who  form  the  greater  part  of 
the  population,  the  practice  of  piercing  the  ear-lobes,  and 
'  so  distending  them  as  to  touch  the  shoulders,'  is  still  kept  up 
among  the  women.  The  operation  is  here,  as  in  other  coan- 
tries  where  the  custom  prevails,  carried  out  during  infancy, 
and  the  aperture  in  the  ear-lobe  is  very  gradually  enlarged. 
Salt  and  water  is  applied  during  the  first  day  or  two ;  and 
at  the  end  of  a  month  weights,  each  slightly  heavier  than 
the  last,  are  attached  to  the  lobe  until  it  is  brought  to  the 
requisite  length.  Though  ear  ornaments  of  considerable 
size  are  common  in  other  parts  of  India,  I  have  not  been 
able  to  learn  that  the  lobe  of  the  ear  is  now  distorted  in  the 
manner  above  described  in  any  other  districts  except 
Madura  and  Malabar. '^ 

Mr.  Harrison  further  refers  to  the  fact  that  in  one  of  the 
earliest  fragments  of  sculpture  in  India,  viz.,  the  frieze  of  a 
temple  at  JShitari  near  Benares,  the  Indian  Bacchus,  or 
the  sun,  has  a  disc  of  considerable  size  in  the  lobe  of  the 
right  ear.  And  he  points  out  that  artificial  enlargement  of 
the  lobe  appears  originally  to  have  been  adopted  for  the 
purpose  of  receiving  a  solar  disc;  and  that  the  Ceylon 
Buddha,  when  he  renounced  idolatry,  removed  the  emblem 
from  his  ear-lobes,  which  necessarily  hung  down  in  the 
manner  shown  in  his  images. 

In  the  sculptures  exhibited  in  the  Madras  Museum  from 
the  magnificent  ruined  stftpa  at  Amar&vati  on  the  Kistna 
river,  which  dates  back  to  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian 


124 

Era,  not  only  is  Baddha  himself  represented  with  the  lobes 
of  his  ears  dilated  (without  ornaments),  bat  manj  of  the 
figares,  both  male  and  female,  have  the  lobes  dilated,  and 
ornamented  with  heavj  rings  with  pendents,  discs,  and  spiral 
rolls,  and  the  upper  arms,  fore-arms  and  ankles  are  adorned 
either  with  series  of  light  bangles,  or  with  fewer  heavy 
bangles,  after  the  manner  which  still  prevails  at  the  present 
daj  among  the  females  of  some  of  the  native  tribes  of 
Southern  India.  Moreover,  the  T  band  round  the  loins 
(the  "  bande  en  T  of  the  Mois,"  of  M.  Zaborowski)  is,  in  the 
Amar&vati  sculptures,  everywhere  en  evidence.  It  is 
then  possible  hy  a  studj  of  these  sculptures  to  trace  back 
the  form  of  jewelry  and  rude  attire  which  are  still  in  vogue, 
to  the  second  century  A.D.  (vide  Plate  xxii). 

While  the  present  chapter  was  being  written,  I  learned 
that  my  friend,  the  Rev.  A.  Margoschis,  of  the  S.P.Q-. 
Mission,  Tinnevelly,  was  an  authority  on  the  subject  of  ear- 
lobe  dilatation.  To  him  I  am  indebted  for  the  following  note 
on  "  the  long  ears  of  certain  classes  of  women  in  Southern 
India.'*  *•  To  produce  this  artificial  deformity,"  he  writes, 
"  is  the  work  of  men  of  the  Koravar  caste,  whose  occupations 
are  bird-catching  and  basket- making.  On  or  about  the 
third  day  after  burth,  the  troubles  of  a  female  infant  begin, 
for  the  child's  ears  must  be  operated  on,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose a  knife  with  a  triangular  blade  is  used.  Sometimes 
the  ceremony  is  postponed  until  the  child  is  sixteen  days 
old.  Among  the  Hindus  a  "  good  day ''  is  selected,  and 
Christians  choose  Sundays.  The  point  of  the  knife  is  run 
through  the  lobe  of  the  ear  until  the  blade  has  penetrated 
for  half  an  inch  of  its  length.  Both  ears  are  cut,  and  a 
piece  of  cotton-wool  is  placed  in  the  wounds,  to  keep  the 
cut  portions  dilated.  Every  other  day  the  Koravan  must 
chanpfe  the  wool,  and  increase  the  quantity  introduced.  If 
the  Rores  fester,  a  dressing  is  used  of  castor-oil  and  human 
milk  *  in  equal  parts,  and,  if  there  is  much  suppuration,  an 
astringent,  such  as  tamarind  juice  lotion,  is  used.  The  cut 
lobes  will  take  not  less  than  one  month  to  heal,  and  for  the 
whole  of  that  time  the  process  of  dilatation  is  continued  by 
passing  through  th&  lobes  pledgets  of  cotton- wool,  increasing  . 
gradually  in  size.  After  the  wounds  have  healed,  pieces  of 
cotton  cloth  are  rolled  up,  and  placed  in  the  lobes  instead  of 
the  cotton- wool,  and  this  is  done  for  a  few   days  only,  when 


•  Human  milk,  vide  *  Tattooiny,'  p.  117. 


FIGURES  FROM  AMARAVATI 


125 

leaden  rings  are  substituted,  whicli  are  added  to  in  number 
until  as  many  as  six  or  eight  rings  aie  in  each  ear.  These 
drag  the  lobes  down  more  and  more,  and  hj  the  time  the 
infant  is  one  jear  old,  the  process  of  elongating  the  lobes  is 
complete  in  so  far  as  the  acute  stage  is  concerned,  and  all 
that  is  necessarj  afterwards  is  to  leaye  the  leaden  rings  in 
the  lobes,  and  to  let  the  elongated  ears  grow  as  the  child 
grows.  Instead  of  keeping  a  large  numoer  of  rings  in  the 
ears,  ihej  are  melted  down  into  two  heavy,  thick  rings, 
which  are  kept  in  the  eBXS  until  the  girl  is  twelve  or  thirteen 
years  of  age,  and  by  that  time  the  acme  of  beauty  will  have 
been  attained  so  far  as  the  ears  are  concerned,  because  the 
lobes  will  reach  down  to  the  shoulders  on  each  side.  This 
is  perfection.  The  fees  for  the  operation  in  the  first 
insl^ce  are  from  3  fanams  to  5^  fanams  (10  annas  to  B. 
1-1-6).  The  custom  described  prevails  among  the  follow- 
ing castes: — ^Yellalas,  Bh&nars,  Maravars,  Faravars,  shep- 
herds, dyers,  tailors,  oilmougers,  Fallars,  and  Pariahs.  IVo 
people  of  the  Telugu  castes  observe  the  custom,  nor  do  any 
Brahmans.  The  females  of  the  Faravar  caste  (Boman 
Catholic  fisher  caste)  are  famous  for  the  longest  ears,  and  for 
wearing  the  heaviest  and  most  expensive  golden  ear  jewels 
made  of  sovereigns.  Ordinary  ear  jewels  cost  Rs.  200,  but 
heavy  jewels  are  worth  Bs.  1,000,  and  even  more.  It  is  said 
that  the  longer  the  ears  the  more  jewels  can  be  used,  and 
this  appears  to  be  the  rationale  of  elongated  ears. 

"  In  former  days  men  also  had  long  ears,  but  it  is  now 
reserved  for  the  man  who  plays  the  bow  and  bells  at  demon 
dances.  With  regard  to  the  prevalence  of  this  custom  of 
mangling  the  humckn  body,  and  the  possibility  of  its  gradual 
removal,  the  Missionaries,  especially  in  TinneveUy,  have  all 
along  been  the  sternest  foes  of  the  barbarity.  In  one  board- 
ing school  alone,  consisting  of  224  girls,  there  are  165  with 
short  ears,  so  that  only  59  have  them  elongated.  This  is 
the  result  of  the  advice  and  teaching  of  the  European 
Missionaries.  But,  stranger  still  to  relate,  of  the  165  girls 
mentioned  above,  no  less  than  51  have  had  their  long  ears 
operated  on  and  cut  short  at  the  Mission  hospital,  and  this 
they  have  consented  to  as  a  voluntary  act.  As  it  was  once  the 
&shion  to  have  long  ears,  and  a  mark  of  respectability,  so 
now  the  converse  is  true.  Until  the  last  twenty  years,  if  a 
woman  had  short  ears,  she  was  asked  if  she  was  a  dancing 
girl  (devadasi)y  because  that  class  kept  their  ears  natural. 
Kow,  with  the  change  of  customs  all  round,  even  dancing 
girls  are  found  with  long  ears.    Muhammadan  women  have 


126 

their  ears  pierced  all  round  the  outer  edges,  and  as  many  as 
twenty  or  twenty-five  wire  rings,  made  of  iron  or  gold,  are 
inserted  in  the  holes ;  but  the  lobes  are  not  elongated. 

"  The  artificial  deforming  of  the  body  assumes  various 
phases  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  we  have  but 
to  refer  to  the  small  feet  of  the  Chinese,  the  flattening  of 
the  skull  of  infants  amongst  the  North  American  Indians, 
and  the  piercing  and  elongation  of  the  upper  lip  amongst 
certain  tribes  in  Central  Africa.  In  all  cases  these  are 
attempts  to  improve  upon  nature,  and  the  results  are  as 
revolting  as  they  are  often  ghastly  and  wickedly  cruel. 
The  torture  inflicted  upon  helpless  Tamil  babes  is  so  great 
that  it  would  be  humane  and  righteous  for  Government 
to  interfere,  cknd  to  abolish  long  ears.  The  number  of  per- 
sons suffering  from  deafness,  and  from  chronic  discharges 
from  the  ear,  is  very  considerably  increased  in  conse- 
quence of  the  barbarity  described  above.'''  Barbaric  prac- 
tices may  be  regarded  from  two  points  of  view,  humani- 
tarian and  ethnographic.  And,  while  sympathising  as  a 
human  being  with  the  suppression  of  cruel  rites  such  as  the 
meriah  sacrifice,  female  infanticide^  and  hook-swinging,  as 
an  ethuologist  I  regard  with  sorrow  the  fast  approching 
extinction  of  less  brutal  customs,  which  afford  endless 
^  oopy. '  If  long  ears  were  to  be  abolished  by  legislation, 
so  too  should  be  the  painful  process  of  squeezing  bangles 
over  the  hand  on  to  the  wrist,  and  other  mild  ordeals 
which  native  custom  requires^  or  demands. 

In  connection  with  the  practice  of  dilating  the  lobes  of 
the  ears  among  the  Kalians  of  the  Madura  district,  Mr. 
J.  H.  Nelson  writes  *  that,  "  both  males  and  females  "are 
accustomed  to  stretch  to  the  utmost  possible  limit  the  lobes  of 
their  ears.  The  unpleasant  disfigurement  is  effected  by  the 
mother  boring  the  ears  of  her  baby,  and  inserting  heavy 
pieces  of  metal,  generally  lead,  into  the  apertures.  The 
effect  so  produced  is  very  wonderful,  and  it  is  not  at  all 
uncommon  to  see  the  ears  of  a  Kalian  hanging  on  his 
shoulders.  When  violently  angry,  a  KaUan  will  sometimes 
tear  in  two  the  attenuated  strips  of  flesh,  which  constitute 
his  ears,  expecting  thereby  to  compel  his  adversary  to  do 
likewise  as  a  sort  of  amende  honorable :  and  altercations 
between  women  constantly  lead  to  one  or  both  parties  having 
the  ears  violently  puUed  asunder.    And  formerly,  where  a 

•  *  Manual  of  the  Madura  Distriot/  1868, 


127 

Kalla  girl  was  depated^  as  frequently  happened,  to  guide  a 
stranger  in  safety  through  a  Kalla  tract,  if  any  of  her  caste- 
people  attempted  to  offer  violence  to  her  charge  in  spite  of 
her  protestations,  she  would  immediately  tear  open  one  of 
her  ears,  and  run  off  at  full  speed  to  her  home  to  complain 
of  what  had  been  done.  And  the  result  of  her  complaint 
was  invariably  a  sentence  to  the  effect,  among  other  things, 
that  the  culprits  should  have  both  their  ears  torn  in  expia- 
tion of  their  breach  of  the  by-laws  of  the  forest/' 

Mr.  H.  G.  Nicholson,  who  was  some  years  ago  Head 
Assistant  Collector  at  Bamn&d  in  the  Madura  district,  tells 
me  that  the  young  Maravan  princesses  used  to  come  and 
play  in  his  garden,  and  that,  as  they  r£ui  races,  they  used 
to  hang  on  to  their  ears,  lest  the  heavy  ornaments  should 
rend  asunder  the  filamentous  ear-lobes. 

Among  the  female  Tiyans  of  Malabar,  whom  I  have 
recently  studied,  the  practice  of  dilating  the  lobes  of  ears 
prevails,  though  the  deformity  is  not  carried  to  such  an 
extreme  length  as  among  the  Kalians  and  Maravaus.  The 
operation  is  perforined,  when  the  child  is  a  few  months  or  a 
few  years  old,  either  by  goldsmiths  or  by  astrologers  called 
Pannikar  in  South,  and  Kanisan  in  North  Malabar.  The 
lobe  is  pierced  with  a  gold  pin  or  thorn,  and  a  thread 
inserted  to  prevent  the  wound  from  closing  up.  The  ear  is 
dressed  daily  with  butter.  After  a  week  or  two  the  thread 
is  replaced  by  a  thin  plug  of  wood,  and  subsequently  gradual 
dilatation  is  effected  by  means  of  pith  soaked  in  water  to 
make  it  swell.  Further  dilatation  is  effected  by  means  of 
solid  wooden  ornaments,  or  rolls  of  lead  or  cajan. 


6 


128 


A  TODA  PETITION. 


In  my  account  of  the  Todas  (Bull :  No.  4,  1896)  reference 
was  made  to  the  fact  that  the  quondam  simple-minded 
and  milk-drinking  Toda  is  thoroughly  up  to  date  in  sub- 
mitting petitions  written  in  the  bazaar  by  professional 
petition-writers,  appealing  to  your  honour's  seat  of 
mercy,  &c.  In  this  connection  the  following  petition  relat- 
ing to  the  slaughter  of  buffaloes  at  the  Toda  funerals 
(k6dus),  which  was  recently  submitted  to  Government 
through  delegates  of  the  Toda  community,  is  not  without 
interest.     I  therefore  reproduce  it  in  its  entirety. 

To  THE  Honourable  Boabd  of  Bevende. 

The  humble  petition  erf  one  hundred  and  twenty  mem- 
bers  of  the  Toda  Community  of  and  near  Ootacamund, 
Nilgiris,  through  their  counsel  showeth — 

1.  That  from  time  immemorial  your  petitioners'  com- 
munity have,  on  the  death  of  one  of  their  number,  held  a 
k^du,  at  which  they  practise  certain  religious  rites  peculiar 
to  their  tribe. 

2.  That  one  of  their  rites  is  the  sacrifice  of  buffaloes,  so 
that  the  dead  may  not  enter  the  abode  of  the  shades  without 
at  least  some  of  the  appearance  of  the  respectability  he  was 
accustomed  to  in  his  lifetime. 

3.  That  the  sacrifice  of  buffaloes  at  the  kedu  is  the 
most  important  of  all  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  religion 
which  the  community  of  Todas,  your  petitioners,  practise  ; 
and  that,  without  its  due  and  proper  observance,  they 
believe  that  they  are  prejudiced  in  the  next  world,  while 
the  reputation  of  the  surviving  relatives  of  the  dead  are 
lowered  in  the  eyes  of  the  community  from  the  same  cause. 

4.  That,  unfortunately  for  your  petitioners'  community, 
it  has  of  late  years  become  the  fashion  for  Europeans  to 
attend  their  k^dus  as  a  kind  of  theatrical  display  got  up 
for  their  benefit ;  and  it  is  from  this  fact  that  an  impression 
iias  got  abroad  that  annecessary  cruelty  is  practised  on  the 
buffaloes  before  they  receive  the  "  coup  de  grftce,"  as  in  a 
bull-fight  in  Spain :  an  impression  that  your  petitioners 
maintain  is  entirely  unjustified. 


129 

5.  That  the  complaints  and  allegations  of  craeltj  that 
have  been  made  from  time  to  time  after  a  k^dn  have  pro- 
ceeded, not  from  those  who  had  been  present  at,  and 
witnessed  the  ceremony,  but  hy  those  who  have  only  heard 
that  kddu  did  take  place,  baffaloes  were  killed  thereat,  and 
that  certain  Europeans  were  present  and  witnessed  the 
ceremony. 

That,  if  any  further  proof  were  needed  of  this  state- 
ment, your  petitioners  would  recall  to  your  Honourable 
Board^s  recollection  that  probably  the  fullest  account  yet 
written  of  what  transpires  at  these  k^dus  came  from  the  pen 
of  the  Honourable  Mr.  J.  D.  Bees,  o.i.e..  Collector  of  the 
Nilgiri  and  was  published  in  such  a  well-known  and 
widely  read  magazine  as  the  ^  Nineteenth  Century '  ;  and 
that  this  full  and  descriptive  article  appeared  some  ten 
years  ago;  that  many  kSdus  have  taken  place  since,  at 
which  it  has  been  the  fashion  for  Europeans  to  attend  in 
increasing  numbers  ;  and  that  until  quite  lately  no  allega- 
tion of  cruelties  practised  at  the  k^dus  has  been  made,  or,  if 
made,  seriously  entertained  by  the  authorities. 

6.  That  the  order  passed  on  30th  March  1886  (No.  834, 
Judicial)  restricted  the  sacrifice  of  buffaloes  to  two  animals, 
and  that  your  petitioners  have  always  understood  this  to 
mean  two  buffaloes  for  each  dead  person ;  but  that,  in  the 
view  of  the  acting  Collector  of  the  Nilgiris,  Mr.  H. 
Tremenheere,  it  was  by  that  order  intended  to  restrict  the 
number  of  the  buffaloes  sacrificed  at  any  one  k^du  to  two, 
irrespective  of  the  number  of  dead  Todas  for  whom  such 
k^du  was  being  held  :  a  view  that  no  previous  Collector  of 
Nilgiris  adopted ;  and  that,  in  consequence,  the  proper 
holdiDg  and  observance  of  a  k6du  is  impossible. 

7.  That  your  petitioners  desire  to  draw  the  Honourable 
Board^s  attention  to  the  fact  that,  according  to  the  custom 
of  their  community,  unless  a  certain  number  of  buffaloes 
are  killed  (two  at  least  for  each  Toda),  the  members  of  the 
deceased^s  family,  who,  as  a  rule,  subscribe  one  buffalo 
apiece  for  the  purposes  of  the  k^du,  will  no  longer  make  such 
gifts  j  and  that,  if  such  gifts  are  not  made,  the  k^du,  which 
involves  an  outlay  of  a  very  considerable  number  of  buffa- 
loes in  addition  to  those  sacrificed  (as  many  are  always  killed 
for  entertaining  the  Todas  present),  must  altogether  cease 
to  exist. 


130 

8.  That  your  petitioners  crave  that  jovlt  Honourable 
Board  will  clear  up  this  pointy  and  lay  down^  in  explicit 
terms,  whether  the  order  was  ever  intended  to  impose  such 
a  restriction  as  interpreted  by  Mr.  H.  Tremenheere^  the 
acting  Collector  of  Nilgiris. 

9.  That,  in  the  event  of  this  restriction  being  found  to 
be  the  intention  of  the  order,  your  petitioners  beg  that  your 
Honourable  Board  will  give  the  matter  their  earnest  atten- 
tion, with  a  view  to  advising  His  Excellency  the  Q-ovemor 
in  Council  to  rescind  it,  and  remove  such  disabilities  as 
your  petitioners  suffer  from  under  it. 

And  your  petitioners  will  ever  pray. 

On  behalf  of  the  120  Toda  petitioners. 

m  •  *  m 

Petitioners^  Counsel. 

OOTACAMUNP, 

20th  February,  1897. 

In  passing  orders  on  the  petition,  the  Grovemment 
ruled  that  the  interpretation  put  upon  the  existing  orders 
in  the  matter  by  the  Disfrict  Magistrate  (Collector)  was 
correct ;  and  that  the  number  of  animals  killed  at  any  one 
k^du  should  be  restricted  to  two,  whatever  may  be  the 
number  of  Todas,  in  connection  with  whose  decease  the 
k^da  is  held. 


igA 


X'         » 


1 ' 


/   -'. 


'... 


MADRAS  GOVERNMENT  MUSEUM. 


Bulletin,    Vol.  II,  No,  3, 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Kadirs  of  the  Anaimalais ;  Malaialis  of  the  Shevaroys ; 

Syllabus  of  Demonstrations  on  Anthropology ; 

The  Dravidian  Head;       The  Dravidian  Problem. 


■With  Seven  Plates. 


BT 


EDGAR  THUBSTON, 

Superintendent,  Madras  Government  Museum;  Correspondant 

iTBANOKB,   SoCl^Ti   D'ANTHBOPOLOGIE    DE    Pa.BIS. 


MADRAS: 

PRINTED  BY  THE  SUPERINTENDENT,  GOVERNMENT  PRESS. 


[Price,  1  rupee>] 


1899. 


[1  ahilling  Q  pence.] 


^ 


CONTENTS. 


PAGB 

KAOIRS  of  the  ANAIMALAIS           131-151 

MALAIALIS  of  the  8HBVAB0Y8     •  •  152-169 

SYLLABUS  OF  DEMONSTRATIONS      170-180 

NOTE  ON  THE  DRAVIDIAN  HEAD     1®1 

THE  DRAVIDIAN  PROBLEM      182-197 


ANTHROPOLOaY. 


KADIRS  OF  THE  ANAIMALAB. 


In  striking  and  pleasant  contrast  to  the  suspicious  Malai&Iis, 
who  are  dealt  with  in  the  next  chapter,  were  the  friendly 
Kadirs,  who  inhabit  the  Anaimalai  hills  {^=  elephant  hills) 
and  the  mountain  range  which  extends  thence  southward 
into  Travancore.  This  study  was  undertaken  with  a  view 
to  acquiring  an  addition  to  our  existing  fragmentary  knowl* 
edge  of  the  short,  broad-nosed  tribes  of  Southern  India, 
round  whom,  as  the  living  remnant  of  an  ancient,  and 
once  more  numerous  race^  much  interest  will  be  found  to 
centre  when,  if  ever^  these  stray  notulad  are  amalgamated 
in  book  form. 

A  night  journey  by  rail  to  Coimbatore,  and  forty  miles 
thence  by  road  at  the  mercy  of  a  typically  obstinate  jutka 
pony,  which  landed  me  in  a  dense  patch  of  prickly-pear 
{Opuntia  Dillenii)y  brought  me  to  the  foot  of  the  hills  at 
S^thumadai,  where  I  came  under  the  kindly  hospitality  of 
the  Conservator  of  Forests,  Mr.  H.  A.  Q-ass,  and  the  District 
Forest  Officer,  Mr.  F.  A.  Lodge.  To  the  former,  who  has 
had  long  experience  of  the  K§*dirs,  I  am  indebted  for  much 
information  on  forest  and  tribal  matters^  gathered  during 
a  fortnight  of  camp  life  at  Mount  Stuart^  situated  2,860 
feet  above  sea-level  in  the  midst  of  a  dense  bamboo  jungle, 
and  playfully  named  after  Sir  Monntstuart  Orant-Duff^ 
who  visited  the  spot  during  his  Madras  quinquennium. 

At  Sethumadai  I  made  the  acquaintance  of  my  first 
Kftdir,  not  dressed,  as  I  hoped,  in  a  primitive  garb  of 
leaves,  but  wearing  a  coloured  turban  and  the  cast-ofF  red 
coat  of  a  British  soldier,  who  had  come  down  the  hill  to 
carry  up  my  camp  bath,  which  acted  as  an  excellent 
umbrella,  to  protect  him  from  the  driving  showers.  Very 
glad  was  I  of  his  services  in  helping  to  convey  my  clothed, 
and  consequently  helpless  self,  across  the  mountain  torrents 


132 

swollen  b7  a  recent  burst  of  monsoon  rain.  Moant  Stnart 
is  easily  accessible  by  a  gbftt  road  fit  for  bullock-cart 
traffic^  and  I  lodge  a  protest  against  the  short  out,  up  the 
steep  and  slippery  boulders  of  which  a  pilot  forest-guard 
conducted  me,  as  being  a  severe  trial  to  both  lungs  and  legs 
of  one  fresh  from  city  life  in  the  plains,  and  a  course  of  a 
daily  maximum  of  98   to  104°  in  the  shade. 

The  Eadir  forest-guards^  of  whom  there  are  several 
serving  under  the  Government,  looked,  except  for  their 
noses,  very  unjungle-like  by  contrast  with  their  fellow- 
tribesmen,  being  smartly  dressed  in  regulation  Norfolk 
jacket,  knickerbocker-trousers^  pattis  (leggings),  buttons, 
and  accoutrements. 

On  arrival  at  the  forest  depdt,  with  its  comfortable 
bungalows  and  EAdir  settlement,  I  was  told  by  a  native 
servant  that  his  master  was  away,  as  an  '^  elephant  done 
tumble  in  a  fit."  My  memory  went  back  to  the  occasion, 
many  years  ago,  when  I  took  part  in  the  autopsy  of  an 
elephant,  which  died  in  convulsions  at  the  London  Zoolo- 
gical Gardens.  Its  brain,  I  remember,  weighed  twelve 
pounds,  and  was  very  difficult  of  extraction  owing  to 
splintering  of  the  cancellous  tissue  lining  the  air-sinuses. 
It  transpired  later  in  the  day  that  a  young  and  grown-up 
cow  elephant  had  tumbled,  not  in  a  fit,  but  into  a  pit  made 
with  hands.  The  story  has  a  philological  significance,  and 
illustrates  the  difficulty  which  the  Tamulian  experiences 
in  dealing  with  the  letter  P. 

An  incident  is  still  cherished  at  Meant  Stuart  in  con- 
nection with  a  sporting  '  globe-trotter, '  who  was  accredited 
to  the  Conservator  of  !^orests  for  the  purpose  of  putting  him 
on  to  *  bison  *  (the  gaur — Bos  ganrus)  and  other  big  game. 
On  arrival  at  the  depot  he  was  informed  that  his  host  had 
gone  to  see  the  ''  ellipence.^'  Incapable  of  translating 
the  pigeon- English  of  the  Pariah  butler,  and  concluding 
that  a  financial  reckoning  was  being  suggested,  he  ordered 
the  servant  to  pay  the  baggage  coolies  their  elli-pence,  and 
send  them  away.  To  a  crusted  Anglo-Indian  it  is  clear 
that  ellipence  could  only  mean  elephants. 

The  salient  characteristics  of  the  E^adirs,  which  will  be 
dealt  with  in  detail  hereafter,  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as 
follows  :  short  stature ;  dark  skin ;  platyrhine.  Men  and 
women  have  the  incisor  teeth  chipped.  Women  wear 
bamboo  combs  in  the  back-hair.  Those  whom  I  met  with 
spoke  a  Tamil  patois^  running  up  the  scale  in  talking,  and 


KADIR    MAN. 


133 

finishing,  like  a  Suffolker,  on  a  higher  note  than  they 
commenoed  on.  But  I  am  told  that  some  of  them  speak 
a  mixture  of  Tamil  and  Malaj&lam. 

The  Eftdirs  afford  a  typical  example  of  happiness  with- 
out culture.  Unspoiled  by  education,  the  advancing  wave 
of  which  has  not  yet  engulfed  them,  they  still  retain  many 
of  their  simple  "  manners  and  customs/'  Quite  refreshing 
was  it  to  hear  the  hearty  shrieks  of  laughter  of  the  nude 
curly-haired  children,  wholly  illiterate,  and  happy  in  their 
ignorance,  as  they  played  at  funerals,  or  indulged  in  the 
amusement  of  making  mud  pies,  and  scampered  off  to  their 
huts  on  my  appearance.  The  uncultured  K&dir,  living  a 
hardy  out-door  life,  and  capable  of  appreciating  to  the  full 
the  enjoyment  of  an  '*  apathetic  rest ''  as  perfect  bliss,  has, 
I  am  convinced,  in  many  ways,  the  advantage  over  the  poor 
under-fed  student  with  a  small-paid  appointment  under 
Qovernment  as  the  narrow  goal  to  which  the  laborious 
passing  of  examination  tests  leads. 

Living  an  isolated  existence,  confined  within  the  thinly- 
populated  jungle,  where  Nature  furnishes  the  means  of 
obtaining  all  the  necessaries  of  Ufe,  the  K&dir  possesses 
little,  if  any,  knowledge  of  cultivation,  and  objects  to  doing 
work  with   a   m&muti,  the  instrument   which  serves   the 

Sirdener  in  the  triple  capacity  of  spade,  rake,  and  hoe. 
ut  armed  with  a  keen-edged  bill-hook  he  is  immense. 
As  Mr.  0.  H.  Bensley  says  ^ :  ^'  The  axiom  that  the  less 
civilised  men  are,  the  more  they  are  able  to  do  every  thing 
for  themselves,  is  well  illustrated  by  the  hill-man,  who  is 
full  of  resource.  Give  him  a  simple  bill-hook,  and  what 
wonders  he  will  perform.  He  will  build  houses  out  of 
et&h,  so  neat  and  comfortable  as  to  be  positively  luxurious. 
He  will  bridge  a  stream  with  canes  and  branches.  He 
will  make  a  raft  out  of  bamboo,  a  carving  knife  out  of 
et&h,  a  comb  out  of  bamboo,  a  fishing-line  out  of  fibre,  and 
a  match  from  dry  wood.  He  will  find  food  for  you  where 
you  think  you  must  starve,  and  show  you  the  branch 
which,  if  cut,  will  give  you  drink.  He  will  set  traps  for 
beasts  and  birds,  which  are  niore  effective  than  some  of 
the  most  elaborate  products  of  machinery."  A  European, 
overtaken  by  night  in  the  jungle,  unable  to  light  fire  by 
friction  or  to  climb  trees  to  gather  fruits,  ignorant  of  the 
edible  roots  and  berries,  and  afraid  of  wild  beasts,  would 


^  Leoiore  deliyered  at  Triyandrnm.  M.S, 


134 

in  the  absence  of  oomforts^  be  quite  as  unhappy  and  ill- 
at-ease  as  a  K&dir  surrounded  by  plenty  at  an  official 
dinner-party. 

At  the  forest  depdt  the  K&dir  settlement  consists  of 
neatly  constructed  huts^  made  of  bamboo  deftly  split  with  a 
bill-hook  in  their  long  axis,  thatched  with  leaves  of  the 
teak  tree  (Tectona  grandis)  and  bamboo  {Beesha  travancorica)^ 
and  diyided  off  into  verandah  and  compartments  by  means 
of  bamboo  partitions.  But  the  Kadirs  are  essentially 
nomad  in  habit,  living  in  small  communities,  and  shifting 
from  place  to  place  in  the  jungle,  whence  they  suddenly 
re-appear  as  casually  as  if  they  had  only  returned  from  a 
morning  stroll  instead  of  a  long  camping  expedition.  In 
this  way  the  wondrous  type  figured  in  Plate  XXVI,  of  whom 
I  knew  by  repute,  turned  up  to  my  joy  during  my  stay  at 
Mount  Stuart,  and  was  instantly  photographed,  lest  he 
should  disappear  again  as  mysteriously  as  ho  arrived. 
When  wandering  in  the  jungle,  the  Kadirs  make  a  rough 
lean-to  shed  covered  over  with  leaves,  and  keep  a  small  fire 
burning  through  the  night,  to  keep  off  bears,  elephants^ 
tigers,  and  leopards.  They  are,  I  am  told,  fond  of  dogs, 
which  they  keep  chiefly  as  a  protection  against  wild  beasts 
at  uight.  The  camp  fire  is  lighted  by  means  of  a  flint  and 
the  floss  of  the  silk-cotton  tree  {Bombax  malabaricum),  over 
which  powdered  charcoal  has  been  rubbed.  Like  the 
Eurumbas,  the  Kadirs  are  not,  in  a  general  way,  afraid  of 
elephants,  but  are  careful  to  get  out  of  the  way  of  a  cow 
with  young,  or  a  solitary  rover,  which  may  mean  mischief. 
On  the  day  following  my  descent  from  Mount  Stuart,  a 
Wudder  cooly  woman  was  killed  on  the  ghflt  road  by  a 
solitary  tusker.  Familiarity  with  wild  beasts,  and  com- 
parative immunity  from  accident,  have  bred  contempt  for 
them,  and  the  Kadirs  will  go  where  the  European,  fresh 
to  elephant  land,  fears  to  tread,  or  conjures  every  creak  of 
a  bamboo  into  the  approach  of  a  charging  tusker.  As  an 
example  of  pluck  worthy  of  a  place  in  Kipling's  *  Jungle* 
book,*  1  may  cite  the  case  of  a  hill-man  and  his  wife,  who, 
overtaken  by  night  in  the  jungle,  decided  to  pass  it  on  a 
rock.  As  they  slept,  a  tiger  carried  off  the  woman. 
Hearing  her  shrieks,  the  sleeping  man  awoke,  and  followed 
in  pursuit  in  the  vain  hope  of  saving  his  wife.  Coming  on 
the  beast  in  possession  of  the  mangled  corpse,  he  killed  it 
at  close-quarters  with  a  spear.  Yet  he  was  wholly  uncon- 
scious that  he  had  performed  an  act  of  heroism  worthy  of 
the  bronze  cross  '  for  valour.' 


PL.    xxvn. 


KADIR  WOMAN. 


•     i35 

The  Kadirs  carry  loads  strapped  on  tLe  back  over  the 
shonlders  by  means  of  fibre^  instead  of  on  the  head  in  the 
manner  castomary  among  coolies  in  the  plains ;  and  women 
on  the  march  may  be  seen  carrying  the  cooking  utensils  on 
their  backs,  and  often  have  a  child  strapped  on  the  top  of 
their  household  goods.  The  dorsal  position  of  the  babies, 
huddled  up  in  a  dirty  cloth,  with  the  ends  slung  over  the 
shoulders  and  held  in  the  hands  over  the  chest,  at  once 
caught  my  eye,  as  it  is  contrary  to  the  usual  native  habit 
of  straddling  the  infants  across  the  loins  as  a  saddle. 

The  Kadirs  have  never  claimed,  like  the  Todas,  and 
do  not  possess  any  land  on  the  hills.  But  the  Govern- 
ment has  declared  the  absolute  right  of  the  hill  tribes  to 
collect  all  the  minor  forest  produce,  and  to  sell  it  to  the 
Government  through  the  medium  of  a  contractor,  whose 
tender  has  been  previously  accepted.  The  contractor  pays 
for  the  produce  in  coin  at  a  fair  market  rate,  and  the 
K&dirs  barter  the  money  so  obtained  for  articles  of  food 
with  contractors  appointed  by  Government  to  supply  them 
with  their  requirements  at  a  fixed  rate,  which  will  leave  a 
fair,  but  not  exorbitant  margin  of  profit  to  the  vendor.  The 
principal  articles  of  minor  forest  produce  of  the  Anaimalai 
hills  are  wax,  honey,  cardamoms,  myrabolams,  ginger,  dam- 
mar, turmeric,  'deer  horns,  elephant  tusks,  and  rattans. 
And  of  these,  cardamoms,  wax,  honey,  and  rattans  are  the 
most  important.  Honey  and  wax  are  collected  at  all  seasons, 
and  cardamoms  from  September  to  November.  The  total 
value  of  the  minor  produce  collected,  in  1897798,  in  the 
South  Coimbatore  division  (which  includes  the  Anaimalais) 
was  Rs.  7,886.  This  sum  was  exceptionally  high  owing  to 
a  good  cardamom  crop.  An  average  year  would  yield  a 
revenue  of  Es.  4,000 — 5,000,  of  which  the  Kadirs  receive 
approximately  50  per  cent.  They  work  for  the  Forest  de- 
partment on  a  system  of  short  advances  for  a  daily  wage  of 
four  annas.  And,  at  the  present  day,  the  interests  of  the 
Forest  department  and  planters,  who  have  acquired  land  on 
the  Anaimalais,  both  anxious  to  secure  hill  men  for  labour^ 
have  come  into  mild  collision. 

Some  Kadirs  are  good  trackers,  and  a  few  are  good 
shik&ris.  A  zoological  friend,  who  had  nicknamed  his 
small  child  his  "  little  shikaree '^  (=  little  sportsman) .  was 
quite  upset  because  I,  hailing  from  India,  did  not  recognise 
the  word  with  its  misplaced  accent.  One  Kadir,  named 
Tiapoori  Muppan^  is  stUl  held  in  the  memory  of  £uropeanS| 


i36 

wlio  made  a  good  livings  in  days  gone  by,  by  shooting  tusk- 
ers, and  bad  one  arm  blown  off  by  the  bursting  of  a  gun. 
He  is  reputed  to  have  been  a  much  married  man,  greatly 
addicted  to  strong  drinks,  and  to  have  flourished  on  the 
proceeds  of  his  tusks.  At  the  present  day,  if  a  K&dir  finds 
tusks,  he  must  declare  the  find  as  treasure-trove,  and  hand 
it  over  to  Government,  who  rewards  him  at  the  rate  of  Rs. 
15  to  Us.  25  per  maund  of  23  lbs.  according  to  the  quality. 
Government  makes  a  good  profit  on  the  transaction,  as 
exceptionally  good  tusks  have  been  known  to  sell  for  Rs.  5 
per  lb.  If  the  find  is  not  declared,  and  discovered,  the 
possessor  thereof  is  punished  for  theft  according  to  the  Act. 
By  an  elastic  use  of  the  word  cattle,  it  is,  for  the  purposes  of 
the  Madras  Forest  Act,  made  to  include  such  a  heteroge- 
neous zoological  collection  of  mammalia  as  elephants,  sheep, 
pigs,  goats,  camels,  buffaloes,  horses — and  asses.  A  classi- 
fication which  recalls  to  mind  the  occasion  on  which  the 
Flying-fox  or  Fox-bat  was  included  in  an  official  list  of  the 
insectivorous  birds  of  the  Presidency ;  and,  further,  a  report 
on  the  wild  animals  of  a  certain  district,  which  was  trium- 
phantly headed  with  the  '^wild  tattu,^' the  long-suffering, 
but  pig-headed  country  pony,  at  whose  hands  most  touring 
officers  have  ^'  suffered  much  misery  ^'  (m  the  Natives  ex- 
pressed their  feelings  when  a  certain  fast-bowling  Colonel 
went  on  in  a  cricket  match) . 

Often,  when  out  on  the  tramp  with  the  late  Government 
Botanist,  Mr.  M.  A.  Lawson,  I  have  heard  him  lament  that 
it  is  impossible  to  train  arboreal  monkeys  to  collect  speci- 
mens of  the  fruit  and  flowers  of  lofty  forest  trees,  which 
are  inaccessible  to  the  ordinary  man.  Far  superior  to  any 
trained  Simian  is  the  K&dir,  who,  by  means  of  pegs  or 
notches,  climbs  even  the  tallest  masts  of  trees  with  an 
aplity  which  recalls  to  memory  the  celebrated  picture  in 
'  runoh,'  representing  Darwin's  '  Habit  of  climbing  plants.' 
For  the  ascent  of  comparatively  low  trees,  notches  are  made 
with  a  bill-hook,  alternately  right  and  left,  at  intervals  of 
about  thirty  inches.  To  this  method  the  Kadir  will  not 
have  recourse  in  wet  weather,  as  the  notches  are  damp  and 
slippery,  and  there  is  the  danger  of  an  insecure  foot-hold. 
In  the  system  of  scaling  a  tree  by  means  of  pe^  {tide  Plate 
XXVIIJ),  a  number  of  pegs,  made  of  sharp-pointed  bamboo, 
are  carried  round  the  loins,  and  driven  securely  into  the  tree 
by  sharp  blows  with  a  bill-hook.  The  pegs  are  left  in  the 
tree,  and  a  fresh  set  used  for  the  next  tree. 


PL.     XXVIII. 


KADIR  TREE-CLIMBING. 


137 

I  gather,  from  an  anonymous  account  of  the  process  bj 
one  who  had  considerable  knowledge  of  the  K&dirs,  that 
''  they  will  only  remove  the  hives  during  dark  nights,  and 
never  in  the  day-time  or  on  moonlight  nights.  In  remov- 
ing them  from  cliffs,  they  use  a  chain  made  of  cane  or 
rattan,  fixed  to  a  stake  or  a  tree  on  the  top.  The  man, 
going  down  this  fragile  ladder^  will  only  do  so  while  his  wife 
or  son  watches  above  to  prevent  any  foul  play.  They  have 
a  superstition  that  they  should  always  return  the  way  they 
go  down^  and  decline  to  get  to  the  bottom  of  the  cliffy 
although  the  distance  may  be  less,  and  the  work  of  re-climb- 
ing avoided.  For  hives  on  trees,  they  tie.  one  or  more  long 
bamboos  to  reach  up  to  the  branch  required,  and  then  climb 
up.  They  then  crawl  along  the  branch  until  the  hive  is 
reached.  They  devour  the  bee-bread  and  the  bee-maggots  or 
larv8B,  swallowing  the  wax  as  well.'*  In  a  note  on  a  shoot- 
ing expedition  in  Travancore,^  Mr.  J.  D.  Bees,  describing 
the  collection  of  honey  by  the  K&dirs,  of  the  southern  hills, 
says  that  they  '^  descend  giddy  precipices  at  night,  torch  in 
hand,  to  smoke  oat  the  bees,  and  take  away  their  honey.  A 
stout  creeper  is  suspended  over  the  abyss,  and  it  is  estab- 
lished law  of  the  jungle  that  no  brother  shall  assist  in 
holding  it.  But  it  is  moro  interesting  to  see  them  run  a 
ladder  a  hundred  feet  up  the  perpendicular  stem  of  a  tree, 
than  to  watch  them  disappearing  over  a  precipice.  Axe  in 
hand,  the  honey-picker  makes  a  hole  in  the  bark  for  a  little 
peg,  standing  on  which  he  inserts  a  second  peg  higher  up, 
ties  a  long  cane  from  one  to  the  other,  and  by  night — for  the 
darkness  g^ves  confidence — he  will  ascend  the  tallest  trees, 
and  bring  down  honey  without  any  accident."  I  have  been 
told,  with  how  much  of  truth  1  know  not,  that,  when  a 
K&dir  goes  down  the  face  of  a  rock  or  precipice  in  search 
of  honey,  he  sometimes  takes  with  him,  as  a  precautionary 
mcEiBure,  and  guarantee  of  his  safety,  the  wife  of  the  man 
who  is  holding  the  ladder  above. 

An  important  ethnographic  fact,  and  one  which  is  signi- 
ficant, is  that  the  detailed  description  of  tree-climbing  by 
the  Dyaks  of  Borneo,  as  given  by  Wallace/  might  have 
been  written  on  the  Anaimalai  hills,  and  would  apply  equally 
well  in  every  detail  to  the  Kadir.  '*They  drove  in,'' 
Wallace  writes,  "  a  peg  very  firmly  at  about  three  feet  from 
the  ground,  and,  bringing  one  of  the  long  bamboos,  stood  it 
upright  close  to  the  tree,  and  bound  it  firmly  to  the  two  first 

•  Nineteenth  CenPiiry,  1898.  •  'Mala7  Archipelago'. 


138 

pegs  hj  means  of  a  bark  oord  and  small  notches  near  the 
head  of  each  peg.  One  of  the  Dyaks  now  stood  on  the  first 
peg  and  drove  in  a  third  about  level  with  his  face,  to  which 
he  tied  the  bamboo  in  the  same  way,  and  then  mounted 
another  step,  standing  on  one  foot,  and  holding  by  the  bam- 
boo at  the  peg  immediately  above  bim,  while  he  drove  in 
the  next  one.  In  this  manner  he  ascended  about  twenty 
feet,  when  the  upright  bamboo  became  thin ;  another  was 
handed  up  by  his  companion,  and  this  was  joined  on  by 
tying  both  bamboos  to  three  or  four  of  the  pegs.  When 
this  was  also  nearly  ended,  a  third  was  added,  and  shortly 
after  the  lowest. branch  of  the  tree  were  reached,  along 
which  the  young  Dyak  scrambled. 

"  The  ladder  was  perfectly  safe,  since,  if  any  one  peg  were 
loose  or  faulty,  the  strain  would  be  thrown  on  several  others 
above  and  below  it.  I  now  understood  the  use  of  the  line 
of  bamboo  pegs  sticking  in  trees,  which  I  had  often  seen.'* 
Such  is  the  description  given  by  Wallace,  and  it  may  be 
compared  with  Plate  XXVIII,  which  represents  a  tree  with 
a  line  of  pegs  left  in  it,  and  an  agile  young  Ks.dir  climbing 
a  tree  by  means  of  pegs  with  bamboos  bound  to  them. 

In  their  search  for  produce  in  the  evergreen  forests  of 
the  higher  ranges,  with  their  heavy  rainfall,  the  Kadirs  be- 
come unpleasantly  familiar  with  leeches  and  blue  bottle  flies, 
which  flourish  in  the  moist  climate.  And  it  is  recorded 
that  a  K&dir,  who  had  been  gored  and  wounded  by  a 
bull  ^bison,^  was  placed  in  a  position  of  safety  while  a  friend 
ran  to  the  village  to  summon  help.  He  was  not  away  for 
more  than  an  hour,  but,  in  that  short  time,  flies  had  deposited 
thousands  of  maggots  in  the  wounds,  and,  when  the  man 
was  brought  into  camp,  they  had  already  begun  burrowing 
into  the  flesh,  and  were  with  diflBculty  extracted.  On 
another  occasion,  the  eye-witness  of  the  previous  unappetis- 
ing incident  was  out  alone  in  the  forest,  and  shot  a  tiger 
two  miles  or  so  from  his  camp.  Thither  he  went  to  collect 
coolies  to  carry  in  the  carcEkse,  and  was  away  for  about  two 
hours,  during  which  the  flies  had,  like  the  child  in  the  story, 
^  not  been  idle,'  the  skin  being  a  mass  of  maggots  and 
totally  ruined.  I  have  it  on  authority  that,  like  the  Kotas 
of  the  Nilgiris,  the  Kadirs  will  eat  the  putrid  and  tiy-blown 
flesh  of  carcases  of  wild  beasts,  which  they  come  across  in 
their  wanderings.  To  a  dietary  which  includes  succulent 
roots,  which  they  upturn  with  a  digging  stick,  sheep,  fowls, 
rock-snakes  (Python),   deer,   porcupines,  rats   (field,    not 


KADIR    BOY. 


189 

Louse),  wild  pigs,  monkeys,  Ac,  they  do  credit  by  dis- 
playing a  hard,  well-nourished  body.  The  mealy  portion 
of  the  seeds  of  the  Oycm  tree,  which  flourishes  on  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  Anaimalais,  forms  ^  a  considerable  addition  to 
the  m^nu.  In  its  raw  state  the  fruit  is  said  to  be  poison* 
oas,  but  it  is  evidently  wholesome  when  out  into  slices, 
thoroughly  soaked  in  running  water,  dried,  and  ground  into 
flour  for  making  cakes,  or  baked  in  hot  ashes.  The  K&dir 
is  said  to  prefer  roasting  and  eating  the  flesh  of  animals 
with  the  skin  on.  For  catching  rats,  jungle-fowl,  &c.,  he 
resorts  to  cunningly  devised  snares  and  traps  made  of 
bamboo  and  fibre,  as  a  substitute  for  a  gun.  Porcupines 
are  caught  by  setting  fire  to  the  scrub  jungle  round  them 
as  they  lie  asleep,  and  thus  smoking  and  burning  them  to 
death. 

When  a  K&dir  youth's  thoughts  turn  towards  matrimony, 
his  parents,  who  select  his  bride,  go  to  the  parents  of  the 
girl,  and  ask  their  consent  to  the  proposed  alliance.     If 
this  is  accorded,  a  dinner-party  is  given  at  the  home  of  the 
bridegroom- elect.     During  the  period  of  engagement  the 
young  man's  parents  give  meals  of  rice  and  other  things 
to  their  future  daughter-in-law.     They  make  presents  too, 
in  view  of  purchase  money,  of  a  new  turban  and  cloth  to 
the  girl's  father,  and  a  new  cloth  to  her  mother.     On  the 
wedding  day  a  feast  of  rice,  sheep,  fowls,  and  other  luxu- 
ries,  is  given  by  the  parents  of  the  bridegroom,  to  which 
the  Eadir  community  is  invited.   The  bride  and  bridegroom 
stand  beneath  a  pandal  (aroh)  decorated  with  flowers,  which 
is  erected  outside  the  home  of  the  bridegroom,  while  men 
and  women  dance  separately  to  the  music  of  drum  and  pipe. 
The  bridegroom's  mother  or  sister  ties  the  tali  ^marriage 
badge)  of  gold  or  silver  round  the  bride's  neck,  and  her 
father  puts  a  turban  on  the  head  of  the  bridegroom.      The 
contracting  parties  link  together  the  little  fingers  of  their 
right  hands  as  a  token  of  their  union,  and  walk  in  proces- 
sion round  the  pandal.     Then,  sitting  on  a  reed  mat  of 
Kadir  manufacture,  they  exchange  betel.     The  marriage 
tie  can  be  dissolved  for  incompatibility  of  temper,  disobe- 
dience on  the  part  of  the  wife,  adultery,  &c.,  without  appeal 
to  any  higher  authority  than  a  council  of  elders,  who  hear 
the  arguments  on  both  sides,  and  pronounce  judgment  on 
the  evidence.     As  an  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which 
such  a  council  of  hill-men  disposes  of  cases,  Mr.  Bensley 
cites  the  case  of  a  man  who  was  made  to  carry  forty  basket- 
loads  of  sand  to  the  house  of  the  person  against  whom  he 


140 

liad  offended.  He  points  out  how  absolute  is  the  control 
exercised  bj  the  council.  Disobedience  would  be  followed 
by  expulsion,  and  expulsion  would  mean  being  turned  out 
into  the  jungle,  to  obtain  a  living  in  the  best  way  ono 
could. 

By  one  Kftdir  informant  I  was  assured,  as  he  squatted 
on  the  floor  of  my  bungalow  at  "  question  time,"  that  it  is 
essential  that  a  wife  should  be  a  good  cook,  in  accordance 
with  the  maxim  that  the  way  to  the  heart  is  through  the 
mouth.  How  many  men  in  civilised  western  society,  who 
suffer  from  marrying  a  wife  wholly  incohipetent,  like  the 
first  Mrs.  David  Copperfield,  to  conduct  the  housekeeping, 
might  well  be  envious  of  the  system  of  marriage  as  a  civil 
contract  to  be  sealed  or  unloosed  according  to  the  cookery 
results  !  Polygyny  is  indulged  in  by  the  Kadirs,  who  agree 
with  Benedick  that  "the  world  must  be  peopled,'^  and 
hold  more  especially  that  the  numerical  strength  of  their 
own  tribe  must  be  maintained.  The  plurality  of  wives 
seems  to  be  mainly  with  the  desire  for  offspring,  and  the 
father-in-law  of  one  of  the  forest-guards  informed  me  that 
he  had  four  wives  living.  The  first  two  wives  producing 
no  offspring,  he  married  a  third,  who  bore  him  a  solitary 
male  child.  Considering  the  result  to  be  an  insufficient 
contribution  to  the  tribe,  he  married  a  fourth,  who,  more 
prolific  than  her  colleagues,  gave  birth  to  three  girls  and  a 
boy,  with  which  he  remained  content.  In  the  code  of 
polygynous  etiquette,  the  first  wife  takes  precedence  over 
the  others,  and  each  wife  has  her  own  cooking  utensils. 

Special  huts  are  maintained  for  women  during  menstru- 
ation and  parturition.  For  three  months  after  the  birth  of 
a  child,  the  woman  is  considered  unclean.  When  the  infant 
is  a  month  old,  it  is  named  without  any  elaborate  cere- 
monial, though  the  female  friends  of  the  family  collect 
together.  Sexual  intercourse  ceases  on  the  establishment 
of  pregnancy,  and  the  husband  indulges  in  promiscuity. 
Widows  are  not  allowed  to  re-marry,  but  may  live  in  a  state 
of  concubinage.  No  ceremony  is  performed  when  boys  or 
girls  reach  puberty.  Women  are  said  to  suckle  their 
children  till  they  are  two  or  three  years  old,  and  a  mother 
^has  been  seen  putting  a  lighted  cigarette  to  the  lips  of  a 
year  old  baby  immediately  after  suckling  it.  If  this  is  done 
with  the  intention  of  administering  a  sedative,  it  is  less 
baneful  than  the  pellet  of  opium  administered  to  Anglo- 
Indian  babies  rendered  fractious  by  troubles  climatic,  dentalj 


fc  ».-•#. 


l4l 

and  other.  The  Kadir  women  chew  tobacco.  The  meh 
smoke  the  coarse  tobacco  as  sold  in  the  bazSLrs,  and  showed 
a  marked  appreciation  of  Spencer's  Torpedoes  No.  1,  whicb 
I  had  to  distribute  among  them  in  lieu  of  the  cheaper 
cheroots,  which  generally  travel  with  me  for  the  purposes 
of  bribery  and  conciliation. 

The  religion  of  the  Kadirs  is  a  crude  polytheism,  and 
vague  worship  of  stone  images  or  invisible  gods.  It  is,  as 
Mr.  Bensley  expresses  it,  **  an  ejaculatory  religion,  finding 
vent  in  uttering  the  names  of  the  gods  and  demons."  The 
gods,  as  enumerated  and  described  to  me,  were  as  follows : — 

(J)  Paikutlatha — a  projecting  rock  overhanging  a  slab 
of  rock,  on  which  are  two  stones  set  up  on  end^  Two  miles 
east  of  Mount  Stuart. 

(2)  Athuvisariamma — a  stone  enclosure,  10  to  15  feet 
square,  almost  level  with  the  ground.  It  is  believed  that 
the  walls  were  originally  ten  feet  high,  and  that  the 
mountain  has  grown  up  round  it.  Within  the  enclosure 
there  is  no  representation  of  the  god.  Eight  miles  north 
of  Mount  Stuart. 

(3)  Vanathavathi  has  no  shrine,,  but  is  worshipped 
anywhere  as  an  invisible  god. 

(4)  lyappaswami — a  stone  set  up  beneath  a  teak  tree, 
and  worshipped  as  a  protector  against  various  forms  of 
sickness  and  disease.  In  the  act  of  worshipping,  a  mark 
is  made  on  the  stone  with  ashes.  Two  miles  and  a  half 
from  Mount  Stuart,  on  the  ghftt  road  to  Sethumadai. 

(5)  Masanyatha — a  female  recumbent  figure  in  stone 
on  a  masonry  wall  in  an  open  plain  near  the  vmage  of  Anai- 
malai,  before  which  trial  by  ordeal  is  carried  out.  The 
goddess  has  a  high  repute  for  her  power  of  detecting  thieves 
or  rogues.  Chillies  are  thrown  into  a  fire  in  her  name,  and 
the  guilty  person  suffers  from  vomiting  and  diarrhoea. 

When  Kadirs  fall  sick,  they  worship  the  gods  by  salut- 
ing them  with  their  hands  to  the  face,  burning  camphor, 
and  offering  up  fruits,  cocoanuts  and  betel. 

The  Kadir  dead  are  buried  in  a  grave,  or,  if  death 
occurs  in  the  depths  of  the  jungle,  with  a  paucity  of  hands 
available  for  digging,  the  corpse  is  placed  in  a  orovioe 
between  the  rocks,  and  cohered  over  with  stones.  The 
grave  is  dug  from  four  to  five  feet  deep.  There  is  no  speoiid 
burial  ground,  but  some  spot  in  the  jungle,  not  far  from 
the  scene  of  death^  is  selected.    A  band  of  music — drum  and 


I4ii 

pipe— plays  weird  dirges  outside  the  hut  of  the  deceased,  but 
does  not  accompany  the  funeral  party  to  the  grave.  The 
body  is  carried  on  a  bamboo  stretcher,  lying  on  a  mat,  and 
covered  over  with  a  cloth  and  mat.  As  it  leaves  the  hut, 
rice  is  thrown  over  it.  The  funeral  ceremony  is  simple  m 
the  extreme.  The  corpse  is  laid  in  the  grave  on  a  mat  m 
the  recumbent  posture  with  head  towards  the  east,  and 
covered  over  with  a  mat  and  leaves.  The  grave  is  then 
filled  in  with  earth.  No  stone,  or  sepulchral  n^onument  of 
any  kind,  is  erected,  to  indicate  the  spot.  Two  years  after 
death  a  memorial  festival,  called  karrumanthram,  is  held,  at 
which  the  Kadirs  are  invited  to  a  feast  vdth  drinks  and  a 
dance.  The  K&dir  believes  that  the  dead  go  to  heaven,  which 
is  up  in  the  sky,  but  has  no  views  as  to  what  sort  of  place 
it  is,  as  there  is  no  one  who  can  tell  him.  He  is,  in  a  mild 
way,  a  philosopher. 

On  a  certain  Monday  in  the  months  of  Adi  and  Avani 
(July-September)  the  Kadirs  observe  a  festival  called  nOmbn, 
during  which  a  feast  is  held,  after  they  have  bathed  and 
anointed  themselves  with  oil.  It  was,  they  say,  observed 
by  their  ancestors,  but  they  have  no  definite  tradition  as  to 
its  origin  or  significance. 

Turning  now  to  the  characteristics  of  the  Kadirs.     They 
belong  to  the  curly-haired  gentes  dolichocephal®  orthog- 
nathffi  of  Eetzius,  which,  being  translated,  signifies  that 
they  are  long-headed  people  with  the  upper  jaw  straight 
when  viewed  in  profile,  and  have  no  resemblance  to  the 
prognathous  (prominent-jawed)  and  woolly-haired  Negro. 
According  to  Mr.  Bensley  "  the  Kadir  has  an  air  of  calm 
dignity,  which  leads  one  to  suppose  that  he  had  some  reason 
for  having  a  more  exalted  opinion  of  himself  than  that 
entertained  for  him  by  the  outside  world.     A  forest  officer 
of  a  philanthropic  turn  had  a  very  high  opinion  of  the 
sturdy  independence  and  blunt  honesty  of  the  Kadir,  but  he 
once  came  unexpectedly  round  a  comer,  to  find  two  of  them 
exploring  the  contents  of  his  portmanteau,  and  subsequent 
search  revealed  that  they  had  abstracted  a  pair  of  scissors, 
a  comb,  and  a  looking-glass."     "  The  Kadirs,"  Mr.  Nichol- 
son writes* "  are,  as  a  rule,  rather  short  in  stature  and  deep- 
chested,   like   most  mountaineers ;   and,  like  many  true 
mountaineers,  they  rarely  walk  with  a  straight  leg.     Hence 
their  thigh  muscles  are  often  abnormally  developed  at  the 

*  <  Manual  of  the  Coimbatore  DiBtriot.' 


J 


KADIR  GIRL. 


143 

expense  of  those  of  the  calf.  Hence,  too,  in  part,  their 
dislike  to  walking  long  distances  on  level  ground,  thoagh 
their  objection,  mentioned  by  Colonel  Douglas  Hamilton, 
to  carrying  loads  in  the  plains  is  deeper  rooted  than  that 
arising  from  mere  physical  disability.  This  objection  is 
mainly  becaose  they  are  rather  a  timid  race,  and  never  feel 
safe  oat  of  the  forests.  They  have  also  often  affirmed  that 
the  low-country  air  is  very  trying  to  them.''  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  they  very  rarely  go  down  to  the  plains,  even  as  far 
as  the  village  of  Anaimalai,  only  fifteen  miles  distant  from 
Mount  Stuart.  One  woman,  whom  I  saw^  had,  however, 
been  as  far  as  Palgh&t  by  railway  from  Goimbatore^  and 
had  returned  thence  very  much  up-to-date  in  the  matter  of 
jewelry  and  the  latest  barbarity  in  imported  piece-good 
saris. 

With  the  chest-girth  of  the  Eadirs,  as  weU  as  their 
general  muscular  development,  I  was  very  much  impressed; 
and  the  following  comparative  series  of  figures  shows  that, 
so  far  as  wind  is  concerned,  they  would,  like  other  jungle 
tribes  of  short  stature,  be  valuable  camp-followers  in  a 
mountaineering  expedition. 

Average     Average   Average 
height.         oheBt.         obest 
CM.  CM.     relative  to 

Btature  100. 

167-4  81-6  61-8 

157-7  80-6  61-4 

167-6  79-a  60-3 

162*1  79-3  48-9 

166-6  79-1  47-7 


Paniyans  •  • 
K&dirs  . .         •  • 

Kurumbas  . . 
Tamil  Pariahs 
Eurasians  (poorer  classes) 


The  most  interesting  custom,  which  prevails  among  the 
Kadirs,  and  among  them  alone,  so  far  as  I  know,  of  the 
entire  population  of  the  Indian  penmsula,  is  that  of  chipping 
all  or  some  of  the  incisor  teeth,  both  upper  and  lower,  into 
the  form  of  a  sharp-pointed,  but  not  serrated  cone.  The 
operation,  which  is  performed  with  a  chisel  or  bill-hook  and 
file  by  members  of  the  tribe  skilled  thereat,  on  boys  at 
the  age  of  eighteen,  and  girls  at  the  age  of  ten  or  there- 
abouts, has  been  thus  described :  '^  The  girl  to  be  operated 
on  lies  down,  and  places  her  head  against  a  female  friend, 
who  holds  her  head  firmly.  A  third  woman  takes  a  sharp- 
ened bill-hook,  and  chips  away  the  teeth  till  they  are  shaded 
to  a  point,  the  girl  operated  on  writhing  and  groaning  with 
the  pain.    After  the  operation  she  looks  dazedj  and  in  a 


144 

very  few  hours  the  face  begins  to  swell.  Swelling  and  pain 
last  for  a  day  or  two,  accompanied  by  severe  headache/' 
Whether  this  practice  is  one  which  the  Kadir  has  hit  on 
spontaneously  in  comparatively  modem  times,  or  whether 
it  is  a  relic  of  a  custom  resorted  to  by  their  ancestors  of 
long  ago,  which  remains  as  a  stray  survival  of  a  custom 
once  more  widely  practised  among  the  remote  inhabitants 
of  Southern  India,  cannot  be  definitely  asserted,  though  I 
incline  to  the  latter  view.  Let  us,  however,  see  from  the 
available  literature  on  the  subject  what  is  the  present-day 
geographical  distribution  of  the  practice  of  tooth  chipping 
or  filing,  as  a  possible  clue  to  the  source  from  which  it 
was  derived.  In  ^Anthropological  Notes  and  Queries '  it 
is  stated  that  ''  it  is  chiefly  in  Africa  that  the  custom  of 
deforming  the  teeth  is  practised  ;  and,  as  different  modes  of 
doing  it  prevail  among  different  tribes,  the  characters 
afforded  in  this  way  will  probably  be  found  of  considerable 
ethnographical  importance.  The  practice  appears  in  general 
to  be  limited  to  the  front  or  incisor  teeth,  and  consists 
either  in  extracting,  or^  more  usually  perhaps,  iu  breaking 
off  one  or  more  of  them,  or  of  filing  them  either  to  a  sharp 
single  point,  or  in  serrate  fashion. '^  Westermarck*  in- 
forms us  that,  when  the  age  of  puberty  draws  near,  "  in 
several  parts  of  Africa  and  Australia  they  knock  out  some 
teeth,  knowing  that  they  would  otherwise  run  the  risk  of 
being  refused  on  account  of  ugliness.  Mr.  (yrawfurd  tells 
us  that,  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  the  practice  of  filing  and 
blackening  the  teeth  is  a  necessary  prelude  to  marriage,  the 
common  way  of  expressing  the  fact  that  a  girl  has  arrived 
at  puberty  being  that  *  she  has  had  her  teeth  filed,'  and, 
with  reference  to  some  of  the  Natives  of  the  Congo  countries, 
Tuckey  says  that  the  two  upper  front  teeth  are  filed  by  the 
men,  so  as  to  make  a  large  opening,  and  scars  are  raised  on 
the  skin,  both  being  intended  by  the  men  as  ornamental, 
and  principally  done  with  the  idea  of  rendering  themselves 
agreeable  to  the  women.' ^  Further,  Darwin  writes  ^  "The 
Natives  of  the  Upper  Nile  knock  out  the  four  front  teeth, 
saying  that  they  do  not  wish  to  resemble  brutes.  Further 
south,  the  Batokas  knock  out  only  the  two  upper  incisors, 
which,  as  Livingstone  remarks,  gives  the  face  a  hideous 
appearance;  but  these  people  think  the  presence  of  the 
incisors  most  unsightly,  and,  on  beholding  some  Europeans, 
cried  out  ^Look  at  the  great  teeth'  !     In  parts  of  Africa 


>  *  Hiutory  of  Human  Marriage.*  *  *  Deioent  of  Man«' 


145 

and  the  Malay  Arcliipelago  the  Natives  file  the  ineisors  into 
points  like  a  saw,  or  pierce  them  with  holes,  into  which 
they  insert  stads.'^  I  have  somewhere  read  that  the  prac- 
tice of  tooth-filing  is  resorted  to,  not  for  ornament  or  as  a 
means  of  sexual  attraction^  but  that  the  Natives  may  not 
degrade  themselves  by  using  all  their  teeth  in  eating  like 
a  cow.  Be  its  origin  what  it  may  among  the  £adirs^  I 
cannot  but  think  that  the  geographical  distribution  of  the 
practice  of  tooth  chipping,  of  the  use  of  the  boomerang, 
and  the  custom  of  dilating  the  lobes  of  the  ears,  are  import- 
ant links  of  evidence  in  connection  with  the  Dravidian 
problem,  which  is  discussed  later  on. 

A  friendly  old  woman,  with  huge  discs  in  the  widely 
dilated  lobes  of  the  ears,  and  a  bamboo  five-pronged  comb 
in  her  back-hair,  who  acted  as  spokesman  on  the  occasion 
of  a  visit  to  a  charmingly  situated  settlement  in  a  jungle  of 
magnificent  bamboos  by  the  side  of  a  mountain  stream, 
pointed  out  to  me,  with  conscious  pride,  that  the  huls 
were  largely  constructed  by  the  females,  while  the  men 
worked  for  the  sircar  (Ghovemment).  The  females  also  carry 
water  from  the  streams,  collect  fire-wood,  dig  up  edible 
roots,  and  carry  out  the  sundry  household  duties  of  a  house- 
wife. Both  men  and  women  are  clever  at  plaiting 
bamboo  baskets,  necklets,  &c.  I  was  told  one  morning  by 
a  Kadir  man,  whom  I  met  on  the  road,  as  an  important 
item  of  news,  that  the  women  in  his  settlement  were  veiy 
busy  dressing  to  come  and  see  me — an  event  as  important 
to  them  as  the  dressing  of  a  debutante  for  presentation  at 
the  Court  of  St.  James*.  They  eventually  turned  up  without 
their  husbands,  and  evidently  regarded  my  methods  as  a 
huge  joke  organised  for  the  amusement  of  themselves  and 
their  children.  The  hair  was  neatly  parted,  anointed  with  a 
liberal  application  of  cocoanut  oil,  and  decked  with  wild 
flowers.  Beauty  spots  and  lines  had  been  painted  with 
coal-tar  dyes  on  the  forehead,  and  turmeric  powder  freely 
sprinkled  over  the  top  of  the  heads  of  the  married  women. 
Some  had  even  discarded  the  ragged  and  dirty  cotton  cloth 
of  every-day  life  in  favour  of  a  colour-printed  imported 
sdri.  One  bright,  good-looking  young  woman,  who  had 
already  been  through  the  measuring  ordeal,  acted  as  an 
eflBcient  lady-help  in  coaching  the  novices  in  the  assumption 
of  the  correct  positions.  She  very  readily  grasped  the 
situation,  and  was  manifestly  proud  of  her  temporary  eleva- 
tion to  the  rank  of  standard-bearer  to  Government.  The 
Kadir  women,  when  they  meet  a  European  on  the  road, 


146 

with  their  body-clotlig  wrapped  round  them  in  such  a  way 
as  to  expose  the  upper  halves  of  their  breasts,  manifest 
sjmptoms  of  shyness  and  modesty,  and  stand  aside  with 
face    averted  so  that    they   cannot  see  the  stranger,   on 
the  same  principle  which  prompts  some  Eastern  women,  if 
surprised  when  taking  a  bath,  to  turn  the  face,  no  further 
concealment  being    necessary.     Ideas  .of  modesty,  it  has 
been  said,  are  altogether  relative  and  conventional,  and  it  is 
not  the  feeling  of  shame  that  has  given  rise  to  the  covering 
of  the  body,  but  the  covering  that  has  provoked  the  feeling* 
of  shame.     This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  difference  in  the 
behaviour  of  the  Native  females  of  Malabar  and  the  Tamil 
women  of  the  Bast  Coast.    In  Malabar  the  body- clothing  of 
the  Nayar,  Tiyan,  Cheruman  females,  etc.,  above  the  loins  is 
exceedingly  scanty.     As  Mr.  Logan  says :  ^ "  The  women 
clothe  themselves  in  a  single  white  cloth  of  fine  texture 
reaching  from  the  waist  to  the  knees,  and  occasionally, 
while  abroad,  they   throw  over  the  shoulder  and    bosom 
another  similar  cloth.     But  by  custom  the  Nayar  women  go 
nncovered  from  the  waist.     Upper  garments  indicate  lower 
caste,  or  sometimes,  by  a  strange  reversal  of  Western  notions, 
immodesty.^'     The  observant  Abh&  Dubois  noticed  that,  "  of 
all  the  women  in  India,  it  is  especially  the  courtesans  (danc- 
ing-girls or  deva-dasis)  who  are  the  most  decently  clothed, 
as  experience  has  no  doubt  taught  them  that  for  a  woman  to 
display  her  charms  damps  sensual  ardour  instead  of  exciting 
it,  and  that  the  imagination  is  more  easily  captivated  than 
the  eye.^^ 

A  Tamil  woman,  young  or  old  and  wizen,  going  alon^ 
the  high  road,  with  breasts  partially  uncovered  by  her  ample 
body-cloth,  will,  when  she  sees  a  European  coming,  pull 
the  cloth  over  them  from  a  feeling  of  shame  in  the 
presence  of  the  foreigner,  which  is  absent  in  the  presence 
of  her  fellow  country-men.  So,  too,  a  Tamil  woman,  when 
undergoing  the  process  of  measurement  at  my  hands,  is 
most  particular  in  arranging  her  upper  garment  so  as  to 
conceal  her  breasts,  whereas  a  Malabar  woman  has  no  hesi- 
tation in  appearing  with  breasts  completely  exposed,  or  in 
throwing  off  the  slender  wrapper  which  may  cover  her 
shoulders,  and  considers  the  exposure  in  no  way  immodest. 
I  have  heard  that  the  women  of  a  tribe  (I  think  in  South 
Canara),  whose  leafy  clothing  is,  in  their  home  surroundings, 
reduced  to  slender  proportions,  when  they  come  into  a  towDi 

^  '  Manual  of  Malabar,' 


147 

walk  in  Indian  file,  oonoealing  their  nakedness  hy  means  of 
a  series  of  cloths  stitched  together^  spread  oat  between  them 
and  extending  down  the  line.  A  friend^  bartering  for  the 
two  bead  necklets^  which  constituted  the  fall-dress  of  a 
jangle  girl,  had  no  difficulty  in  securing  one>  but  no  bribe 
would  tempt  her  to  part  with  the  second^  as,  in  its  absence, 
she  would  be  naked. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  K&dirs,  their  system  of 
personal  adornment,  etc.,  will  bo  gathered  from  the  following 
illustrative  cases.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  Eadirs  do  not 
practise  tattooing. 

Man,  set.  25.  Height  1574  cm.  Nasal  index  102-3. 
Chest  girth  86*4  cm.  Abundant  curly  hair,  parted  in  the 
middle  line,  tied  with  string  in  a  bunch  (kudumi)  behind, 
and  saturated  with  cocoanut  oil.  Skin  dark-brown.  Slight 
moustache.  Hair  feebly  developed  on  trunk  and  extre- 
mities. Upper  and  lower  incisor  teeth  chipped.  Only 
stump  remaining  of  one  tooth,  which  was  broken  during  the 
operation.  Dirty  plain  cotton  loin-cloth.  Two  brass  orna- 
ments in  lobe  of  each  ear.  Carries  bill-hook  and  pegs  for 
tree-climbing,  hanging  by  fibre  rope  from  left  loiu. 

Man,  set.  30.  Hair  long  and  wavy,  tied  in  a  loose  bunch 
behind.  Three  brass  ornaments  in  lobe  of  each  ear.  Brass 
rings  on  right  ring  and  little  fingers. 

Man,  set.  27.  White  turban.  Ghlass  bead  necklet.  Hair 
clipped  short  in  front  in  observance  of  a  death  ceremony. 

Man,  set.  23.  Skin  as  dark  as  that  of  a  typical  Irula  oE 
the  Nilgiris.  Unparted  and  untrimmed  mass  of  long  curly 
hair.  Very  sturdy  build.  Hard,  well  developed  muscles. 
Height  156*2  cm.  Chest  girth  87*5  cm.  Shoulders  42  cm. 
Nasal  index  100. 

Man,  set.  30.     Slight  billy-goat  beard  as  well  as  mous- 
tache (unusual).     Steel  bangle  on  left  upper  arm. 
Man,  set.  28.     Steel  ring  on  left  second  toe. 

Boy,  set.  18.  Hair  worn  in  a  curly  fringe  in  front,  plas- 
tered aown  on  top  with  cocoanut  oil,  and  tied  in  a  compact 
bunch  behind.  Brass,  bead,  and  plaited  grass  necklets. 
brass  ornament  in  lobe  of  each  ear.  Brass  ring  with  orna- 
ment pendent  from  link-chain  in  helix  of  each  ear. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  adolescent  youths, 
with  curly  fringe,  breasts  concealed  by  a  cotton  cloth,  and 
necklets,  from  girls.  And  I  was  myself  several  times  caught 
in  an  erroneous  diagnosis  of  sex. 


i4d 

B07,  cBt.  16 — 16.  Plaited  grass  necklet,  and  necklet  of 
big  brass  and  glass  beads.  Brass  ring  with  pendent  orna- 
ment in  heUx  of  left  ear.  Brass  ornament  in  left  lobe. 
Plug  of  wood  ia  right  nostril. 

Boy,  set.  15 — 16.  Mass  of  long  cnrly  hair.  Flat  bridge 
to  nose.  Upper  and  lower  lips  conspicuously  everted  (cf. 
Plate  XXVI).  Brass  and  glass  bead  ornament  in  right  helix. 
Three  brass  ornaments,  andbrase  wire  with  pendent  orna- 
ments in  left  helix.  Two  brass  ornaments  in  left  lobe. 
Plaited  grass  necklet.     Brass  bangle  on  left  wrist. 

Boy,  set.  5 — 6.  Clean-shaved  on  top  and  front  of  head. 
Wooden  plug  in  lobe  of  each  ear.  Four  upper  incisor  teeth 
chipped. 

Boy,  aet.  o.  Hair  shaved  on  top  and  front  of  head,  tied 
in  a  bunch  behind.  Chun&m  (lime)  smeared  over  forehead 
for  ornament.  Bra.ss  ring  in  lobe  of  each  ear.  Steel  ring  on 
right  wrist. 

Boy,  eet.  6.     Hair  a  mass  of  short  carls  without  parting. 

Infant  in  arms.  Head  shaved  all  over,  except  frontal 
lock.  Bead  necklace  with  dried  tortoise  foot  pendent  to 
ward  off  fever. 

Infant  in  arms.  String  round  neck  with  wooden  imita- 
tion of  tiger^s  claw  to  act  as  a  charm. 

Infant  in  arms.  Steel  necklet  with  jungle-worn  croco- 
dile tooth  pendant,  mimicking  a  phallic  emblem,  and  also 
supposed  to  ward  off  attacks  from  a  mythical  water  ele- 
phant, which  is  believed  to  live  in  the  mountain  streams. 

Infant  in  arms.  Glass  bead  necklets.  Steel  bangle  on 
right  upper  arm.     Steel  wire  round  left  ankle. 

Infant  in  arms.  Necklet  made  of  the  seeds  of  Coix 
lachryma  (Job's  tears)  strung  together. 

Woman,  set.  23.  Height  142*8  cm.  Nasal  index  94-6. 
Dirty  cotton  body  and  loin  cloths.  Upper  and  lower  incisor 
teeth  chipped.  Hair  parted  in  middle,  smoothed  with 
cocoanut  oil,  and  tied  in  a  knot  behind.  Turmeric  powder 
sprinkled  on  top  of  head  (forbidden  to  unmarried  girls  and 
widows).  Dark  blue  coal-tar  dye  streak  in  mid- frontal  line 
and  white  spot  on  glabella.  Brass  and  steel  rings  in  right 
helix ;  steel  rings  in  left  helix.  Cajan  roll  in  dilated  lobe  of 
each  ear.  String  and  bead  necklets.  Five  steel  bangles  on 
light  wrist ;  three  steel  bangles  on  left  wrist. 


149 

Woman,  8Bt.  22.  Laatana  flowers  in  Lair.  White  spot 
on  glabella.  Wooden  plag  in  each  helir.  Brass  ring  in 
lobe  of  right  ear.     Plaited  grass  and  bead  necklets. 

Woman,  est.  40.  Thread  round  neck,  with  bases  of 
porcupine  quills  pendant. 

Woman,  set.  45.  Bamboo  comb,  with  ornamental  geo- 
metric patterns  scratched  on  it,  worn  in  back  hair  and  used 
for  doing  hair.  Lobes  of  ears  widelj  dilated,  pendulous  and 
as  elastic  as  India-rubber.  Length  of  slit  in  lobes  5*5  cm. 
Wears  no  ornaments,  as  she  is  a  widow. 

Woman,  set.  25.  Turmeric  powder  on  top  of  head.  Blue 
and  white  beauty  spots  on  glabella.  Brass  and  bead  oma* 
ment  in  septum  of  nose.  Brass  ornament  in  left  nostril. 
Solid  wooden  disc  in  lobe  of  right  ear ;  cajan  roll  in  left 
lobe.  Wooden  plug  and  brass  pendant  ornament  in  each 
helix.  Brass  and  glass  bead  necklet  with  imitation  Vene* 
tian  sequins.  Steel  bangles  on  right  upper  arm  and  fore- 
arm. Steel  and  six  armlets  on  left  upper  arm.  Three  steel 
armlets  on  left  fore-arm.  Spiral  steel  riug  on  right  thumb 
and  little  finger,  and  left  thumb. 

Girl,  est.  4.  Plug  of  wood  in  lobe  of  each  ear.  G-lass 
bead  necklets.  Steel  ring  on  right  first  finger.  Brass 
bangle  on  left  wrist. 

Since  writing  the  above  account,  I  have  come  across  the 
following  note,  relating  to  the  Eadirs,  hy  Captain  Cotton, 
in  the  '  Madras  Journal  of  Literature^  and  Science,'  1858. 
"  These  little  dwarfish  people,'*  he  says,  "  file  their  front 
teeth  into -points,  to  facilitate  their  eating  the  hardest  roots. 
There  is  some  nerve  shown  in  this,  and  we  may  look  with 
wonder  and  respect  upon  the  exiled  lords  of  the  ancient 
land,  when  we  see  that,  rather  than  serve  tbose  who  usurped 
the  country,  they  chose  to  live  where  the  food  was  beyond 
their  natural  powers,  and  could  be  eaten  only  by  such  a 
preparation  of  their  teeth.  It  is  possible  that,  in  the  absence 
of  better  arms,  they  reckoned  upon  these  pointed  teeth  as 
weapons,  in  case  their  conquerors  should  follow  them  to 
their  mountain  home.'' 


150 


TABLE  XXVn. 


bummabt  of  measubements. 
eAdib  men. 


• 

Max. 

Min. 

Average. 

fioifflit  •••         •••        ••*         •••         ••*         ••• 

169*4 

148-6 

167-7 

Height,  sitting 

85-4 

70-4 

80-3 

Height,  kneeling         

124 

109 

116-3 

Height  to  gladiolus     

126G 

109-2 

117-4 

Spftn  of  ftrniB    ..• 

184 

158*8 

168-8 

Ohest     ...         •••         •••        •••        ••• 

87-5 

74*5 
6-8 

80*5 

Middle  finger  to  patella         

14-4 

10-7 

Shonlders         •••         •••         •••         •••         ••• 

41-9 

86-5 

38-8 

Cubit      ...         •••         •••         •••         •••         ••• 

49-1 

41-8 

45-1 

Hand,  length    ...         •••         •••         •••         ••• 

19-5 

16-7 

17-8 

Hand,  breadth 

8-3 

7 

7-5 

^xins       ...         •••         ••*         •••         •■•         ••• 

25-5 

22-5 

241 

Foot|  length     •■.         •••         •••         •••         ••• 

26*3 

21*9 

23*8 

Foot,  breadth  ... 

91 

7-4 

8-3 

.Cephalio  length 

19-4 

17-2 

18*4 

Cephalio  breadth 

13-8 

12*5 

13-4 

Cephalio  index 

80 

691 

72-9 

Bigoniao           •••         •••         ■•■         "■         ■>• 

11 
13-6 

91 

10 

BisYgomatio     ...         ••• 

12 

12-9 

Maxillo-iygomatic  index 

84-6 

70-7 

77-4 

M  ftsal  height    •••        •••        •••        •••        ••• 

4-8 

3*8 

4-8 

Kaial  breadth 

4*5 

3-2 

8*9 

Nasal  index 

115-4 

72-9 

89-8 

KoTB. — In  this  and  the  following  tables  the  jneasorementi  are  in 
centimetres. 


161 


TABLE  XXYIU. 


SUHMABY  07  HEASUBKMENTB. 


kadib  women. 


Max. 

Miu. 

Average. 

XjLGIkuC     •••              ••>             •••              •••              •••              ••• 

149 

133 

143 

Height,  Bitting 

78-4 

69 

78-8 

• 

Height,  kneeling        ...         ..• 

1101 

98-8 

106-2 

Spftn  of  arms    ...         ...         ••.         *.. 

159 

138-8 

149-8 

DnoniGers         ••.         ...         •••         ...         ... 

363 

30-6 

33-8 

Handy  length    ...         ... 

16-8 

147 

16-1 

Hftod,  breadth 

6-9 

5-9 

6-6 

7oot,  length     ..• 

221 

19-2 

20-8 

Foot,  breadth  ...         ...         ...         ...         ••• 

7-6 
18 

61 

7 

Cephalio  length           

15-8 
12-4 

17-3 

Cephalic  breadth        

13-4 

12-8 

Cephalio  index 

79-1 

71-6 

74-2 
9-8 

Bigoniao 

10 

8-8 

Bisygomatio     ...                     ...         •••         •«* 

12-8 

11-4 

12 

Maxillo-zygonuitio  index        

838 

72-6 

77 

Nasal  height     ...         ...         ...         ... 

4-4 

3-2 

3-9 

Nasal  breadth 

8-9 

3-2 

3-4 

Nasal  index       

1 

100 

77-8 

88 

152 


MALAIALIS  OF  THE  SALEM  DISTRICT. 


Except  from  a  climabio  point  of  view^  I  have  no  pleasur- 
able recollections  of  my  sojourn  on  two  occasions  araon^ 
the  Malaialis,  who  dwell  on  the  summit  and  slopes  of  the 
Shevaroj  hills,  and  earn  their  living  hj  cultivating  grain 
and  working  on  coffee  estates.  Suspicious  and  super- 
stitious to  a  degree,  they  openly  expressed  their  fear  that  I 
was  the  dreaded  settlement  officer,  and  had  come  to  take 
possession  of  their  lands  iu  the  name  of  the  G-overnment, 
and  transport  them,  with  their  wives  and  families,  to  the 
penal  settlement  in  the  Andaman  Islands.  When  I  was 
engaged  in  the  innocent  occupation  of  photographing  a 
village,  my  camera  was  mistaken  for  a  surveying  instru- 
ment, and  a  mild  protest  raised.  Mistaking  my  motive,  they 
objected  strongly  to  being  examined  as  to  their  "  manners 
and  customs.^^  Many  of  them,  while  willing  to  part  with 
their  ornaments  of  the  baser  metals,  were  loth  to  sell  or 
let  me  examine  their  gold  and  silver  jewelry,  from  fear  lest 
I  should  use  it  officially  as  evidence  of  their  too  prosperous 
condition.  Only  with  great  difficulty,  and  through  the 
kindly  assistance  of  my  planter  friends,  was  I  enabled  to 
scrape  together  fifty  men  for  measurement.  One  man, 
indeed,  told  me  to  my  face  that  he  would  rather  have  his 
throat  cut  than  submit  to  the  measuring  operations,  and 
fled  precipitately  from  my  bed-room  (doing  duty  as  an 
impromptu  research  laboratory),  which  was  pervaded  with 
a  distinct  Malaiali  aroma.  The  women  stolidly  refused  to 
entrust  themselves  in  my  hands.  Nor  would  they  bring 
their  children  (xinwashed  specimens  of  humanity)  to  me, 
lest  they  should  fall  sick  under  the  influence  of  my  mild, 
but  to  them  evil  eye.  And  it  was  only  through  the  inter- 
vention of  the  Native  revenue  officer  (tahsildar)  that  I  was 
enabled  to  snap  the  group  represented  in  plate  XXXII,  just 
as  a  thunder-storm  burst  over  the  throng  collected  at  the 
weekly  shandy  (market). 

In  the  account  which  follows  I  am,  except  as  regards 
physical  records,  largely  indebted  to  Mr.  H.  LeFanu's 
admirable  and  at  times  amusing  ^Manual  of  the  Salem 
Pistrict,'  and  to  the  answers  to  a  series  of  ethnographic 


153 

Jnestions,  which  had  been  recently  circulated  through  thd 
lollector  of  the  district. 

The  word  Malaiftli  denotes  inhabitant  of  the  hills 
(malai  =hill  or  mountain).  The  Malai&lis  have  not,however, 
like  the  Todas  of  the  Nilgiris^  any  claim  to  be  considered 
as  an  ancient  hill  tribe,  bat  are  a  Tamil-speaking  people^ 
who  migrated  from  tbe  plains  to  the  hills  in  comparatively 
recent  times.  As  a  shrewdy  but  unscientific  observer  put 
it  concisely  to  me,  they  are  Tamils  of  the  plains  with  the 
addition  of  a  kambli  or  blanket  ;  which  kambli  is  a 
luxury  denied  to  the  females,  but  does  duty  for  males, 
young  and  old^  in  the  triple  capacity  of  great  coat,  water- 
proof, and  blanket.  According  to  tradition,  the  Malaiaiis 
originally  belonged  to  the  Vellala  caste  of  cultivators,  and 
emigrated  from  the  sacred  city  of  Kanchipuram  (Conjee- 
veram)  to  the  hills  about  ten  generations  ago,  when 
Muhammadan  rule  was  dominant  in  Southern  India. 
When  they  left  K&nchi,  they  took  with  them,  according  to 
their  story,  three  brothers,  of  whom  the  eldest  came  to 
the  Shevaroy  hills,  the  second  to  the  Kollimallais,  and  the 
youngest  to  the  Fachaimallais  (green  hills),  all  in  the  Salem 
district.  The  Malaialis  of  the  Shevaroys  are  called  the 
Feria  (big)  Malaialis,  those  of  the  Eollimallais  the  Ghinna 
(little)  Malaialis.  According  to  another  version  *'  the 
Malai&Ii  deity  Karirfiman,  finding  himself  uncomfortable  at 
Eftnchi,  took  up  a  new  abode.  Three  of  his  followers, 
named  Penan  an,  Naduvanan,  and  Chinnan  (the  eldest 
the  middle-man,  and  the  youngest)  started  with  their 
families  to  follow  him  from  Kanchi,  and  came  to  the  Salem 
district,  where  they  took  different  routes,  Perianan  going 
to  the  Shevaroys,  Naduvanan  to  the  Pachaimalais  and 
Anjur  hills,  and  Chinnan  to  Manjavadi.'' 

The  Malaialis  of  the  Shevaroy  hills  all  have  Goundan  as 
their  second  name,  which  is  universally  used  in  hailing 
them.  The  first  name  is  sometimes  derived  from  a  Hindu 
deity,  and  my  notes  record  Mr.  Black,  Mr.  Ghreen,  Mr, 
Little,  Mr.  Short,  Mr.  Large,  and  Mr.  Big-nose. 

As  regards  the  conditions  under  which  the  Malaialis 
hold  land,  I  learn  from  the  Manual  that,  in  1866,  the 
Collector  of  the  Salem  district  fixed  an  area  around  each 
village  for  the  cultivation  of  the  Malaialis  exclusively,  and, 
in  view  to  prevent  aggression  on  the  part  of  the  plantersi 
had  the  boundaries  of  these  areas  surveyed  and  demarcated. 
This  area  is  known  as  the  ''village  green. '^    With  this 


154 

svLTvej  the  old  sjatem  of  charging  the  Malaidlis  on  ploagha 
and  hoes  appears  to  have  been  discontinned^  and  thej  are 
now  charged  at  one  mpee  per  acre  on  the  extent  of  their 
holdings.  The  lands  within  the  green  are  given  under  the 
ordinary  darakh&st  ^  rales  to  the  Malai&lis,  but  outside  it 
they  are  sold  under  the  special  waste  land  rules  of  1863. 
In  1870  the  Board  of  Beveniie  decided  that,  where  the  landa 
within  the  green  are  all  occupied,  and  the  Malai&lis  require 
more  land  for  cultivation,  land  outside  the  limits  ox  the 
green  may  be  given  them  under  the  ordinary  darakhftst 
rules.  In  1871  it  was  discovered  that  the  planters  tried  to 
get  lands  outside  the  green  by  making  the  Malai&lis  first 
apply  for  it,  thereby  evading  the  waste  land  rules.  The 
Board  then  ordered  that,  if  there  was  reason  to  suspect  that 
a  Malai^Lli  was  applying  for  lands  outside  the  green  on 
account  of  the  planters,  the  patta  (deed  of  lease)  might  be 
refused. 

Subscribing  vaguely  to  the  Hindu  religion^  the  Malai- 
ftlis,  who  believe  that  their  progenitors  wore  the  sacred 
thread,  give  a  nominal  allegiance  to  both  Siva  and  Vishnu, 
as  well  as  to  a  number  of  minor  deities,  and  believe  in  the 
efficacy  of  a  thread  to  ward  off  sickness  and  attacks  by 
devils  or  evil  spirits.  ^*  In  the  year  1852,''  Mr.  LeFanu 
writes,  "  a  searching  enquiry  into  the  traditions,  customs, 
and  origin  of  these  Malaidlis  was  made,  and  probably 
nothing  more  is  to  be  ascertained.  They  then  stated  that 
^  smearing  the  face  with  ashes  indicates  the  religion  of 
Shiva,  and  putting  nftmam  that  of  Vishnu,  but  that  there 
is  no  difference  between  the  two  religions ;  that,  though 
Sivaratri  sacred  to  Shiva,  and  Strir&manavami  and  Goka« 
lashtami  sacred  to  Vishnu,  appear  outwardly  to  denote  a 
difference,  there  is  really  none.'  Though  they  observe  the 
Saturdays  of  the  mouth  Peratasi  sacred  to  Vishnu,  still 
worship  is  performed  without  reference  to  Vishnu  or  Shiva. 
They  have,  indeed,  certain  observances,  which  would  seem 
to  point  to  a  division  into  Vaishnavas  and  Saivas,  the 
existence  of  which  they  deny  ;  as  for  instance,  some,  out  of 
respect  to  Shiva,  abstain  from  sexual  intercourse  on  Sundays 
and  Mondays ;  and  others,  for  the  sake  of  Vishnu,  do  the 
same  on  Fridays  and  Saturdays.  So,  too,  offerings  are  mad^ 
to  Vishnu  on  Fridays  and   Saturdays,  and  to  Shiva  on 


^  Darakh&flt :  appUoation  for  land  for  purposes  of  onltivatlon ;  or  bid 
at  an  aactioii* 


PL.     XXXII. 


•  •  »  * 

-  *    ^ 


156 

Sondays  and  Mondays ;  but  they  denied  the  existenoe  of 
sects  among  them." 

In    April,  1896,  I  paid  a  visit  to  the  picturesquely- 
situated  village  of  Kiliur,  not  far  distant  from  the  town  of 
Teroaud,  on  the  occasion  of  a  religious  festival.     The  vil- 
lagers were    discovered,   early  in  the  morning,   painting 
pseudo-seot-marks  on  their  foreheads  with  blue  and  pink 
coal-tar  dyes,  with  the  assistance  of  hand   looking-glasses  of 
European  manufacture  purchased  at  the  weekly  market^ 
and  decorating  their  turbans  aud  ears  with  the  leafy  stems 
of  Artemisia  auatriacoy  var.  onentalis,  and  hedge-roses.     The 
scene  of  the  ceremonial  was  in  a  neighbouring  sacred  grove 
of  lofty  forest  trees,   wherein  werp  two  hut  temples,   of 
which  one  contained  images  of  the  goddess  Draupadi  and 
eight  minor  deities,  the  other  images  of  Perumftl  and  his 
wife.     All  the  gods  and  goddesses  were  represented  by 
human  figures  €>i  brass  and  clay.     Two   processional  cars 
were  gail^  decorated  with  plantain  leaves  and  flags,  some 
made  in  Germany,     As  the  villagers  arrived,  they  pros- 
trated themselves  before  the  temples,  and  whUed  away  the 
time,  till  the  serious  business  of  the  day  began,  in  gossip* 
ing  with  their  friends,  and  partaking  of  light  refreshment 
purchased  from  the  fruit  and  sweet-meat  sellers,  who  were 
doing  a  brisk  trade.     At  10    a.m.  the  proceedings  were 
enlivened  by  a  band  of  music,  which  played  at  intervals 
throughout  the  performance,   and  the  gods  were  decorated 
with  flowers  and  jewelry.     An  hour  later,  pUja  (worship) 
was  done  to  the  stone  image  of  the  god   Vignaswaram, 
in  the  form   of  a  human   figure,   within   a   small  shrine 
built  of  slabs  of  rock.     Before  this  idol  cooked  rice  was 
oflTered,    and  camphor  burnt.     Then  plantain  stems,  with 
leaves,  were  tied  to  a  tree  in  the  vicinity  of  the  tem- 
ples, and  cooked  rice  and  cocoanuts   placed  beneath    the 
tree.     A  man  holding  a  sword,  issued  forth,  and,  in  unison 
with  the  collected  assemblage,    screamed  out ''  Govinda, 
Govinda  '^  (the  name  of  their  god).     The  plantain  stems 
were  next  removed  from  the  tree,   carried  in  procession 
with  musical    honours,    and  placed  before  the    threshold 
of  one  of  the  temples.     Then  some  men  appeared  on  the 
scene   to  the  cry  of  "  Govinda,'^   bearing  in  one  hand 
a  light,  and  ringing  a  bell  held  in  the  other.     Holy  water 
was  sprinkled  over  the  plantain  stems,  and  pttja  done  to  the 
god  Perum&l  by  offering  s&mai  (grain)  and  burning  cam- 
phor.   Outside  one  of  the  temples  a  cloth  was  spread  on 


166 

the  gronxid,  and  the  images  of  Draap&di  and  the  eight  minor  I 

deities  placed  thereon.     From  the  other  temple  Peram&l  | 

and  his  wife  were  brought  forth  in  state,   and  placed  on  the 
two  cars.     A  yellow  powder  was  distributed  among  the 
crowds  and  smeared  over  the  face.     A  oocoanut  was  broken, 
and  camphor  burnt  before  Perum&I.     Then  all  the  gods, 
followed  by  the  spectators^  were  carried  in  procession  round 
the  grove,  and  a  man,  becoming  inspired  and  seized  with  a 
fine  religious  frenzy,  waved  a  sword  wildly  around  him,  but 
with  due  respect  for  his  own  bodily  safety^  and  pointed  it  in 
a  threatening  manner  at  the  crowd.     Asked^  as  an  oracle, 
whether  the  omens  were  propitious   to  the  village,  he  gave 
vent  to  the  oracular  (and  true)  response  that  for  three  years 
there  would  be  a  scarcity  of  rain^  and  that  there  would  be 
famine  in  the  land,  and  consequent  suffering.     This  per- 
formance concluded,  a  bamboo  pole  was  erected,  bearing  a 
pulley  at  the  top,  with  which  cocoanuts   and  plantains  were 
connected  by  a  string.     By  means  of  this  string  the  fruits 
were  alternately  raised  and  lowered,  and  men,  armed  with 
sticks,  tried  to  hit  them,  while  turmeric  water  was  dashed 
in  their  faces  just  as  they  were  on  the  point  of  striking. 
The  fruits,  being  at  last  successfully  hit,  were  received  as  a 
prize  by  the  winner.     The  gods  were  then  taken  back  to' 
their  temples,  and  three  men,  overcome  by  a  mock  convul- 
sive seizure,  were  bronght  to   their  senses  by  stripes  on  the 
back  administered  with  a  rope  by  the  pujari  (ofSciating 
priest).     A  sheep  being  produced,  man  trams  (prayers)  were 
recited  over  it.     The  pujftri,  going  to  a  pool  close  by,  bathed, 
and  smeared  turmeric  powder   over  his  face.     A  pretence 
was  made  to  cut  the  sheep's  throat,  and  blood  drawn  with 
a  knife.     The  pujftri,  after  sucking  the  blood,  returned  to 
the  pool  and  indulged  in  a  ceremonial  ablution,  while  the 
unhappy  sheep  was  escorted  to  the  village,  and  eventually 
eaten  at  a  banquet  by-the  villagers  and  their  guests. 

To  Mr.  W.  Mahon  Daly  I  am  indebted  for  the  follow- 
ing account  of  a  Malai&li  bull  dance,  at  which  he  was  pre- 
sent as  an  eye  witness.  '^  It  is  the  custom  on  the  Shevaroy 
hills,  as  well  as  in  the  plains,  to  have  a  bull  dance  after  the 
pongul  festival,  and  I  had  the  pleasure  of  witnessing  one 
in  a  Malai&li  village.  It  was  held  in  an  open  enclosure 
called  the  munthay.  This  piece  of  land  adjoins  the  village, 
and  faces  the  Mariamma  (goddess  of  small-pox)  shrine,  and 
is  the  place  of  resort  on  festive  occasions.  The  village 
panoh&yats  (councils),  marriages,  and  other  ceremonies  are 


167 

held  here.  On  oar  arriyal^  we  were  courteously  invited  to 
sit  onder  a  wide  spreading  fig-tree.  The  boll  danoe  would 
literally  mean  a  bull  dancings  but  I  give  the  translation  of 
the  Tamil '  yerothoo-attum  ^,  the  word  attum  meaning  dance. 
This  is  a  sport  which  is  much  in  vogue  among  the  Malaiftlis^ 
and  is  celebrated  with  much  eclat  immediately  after  ponral, 
this  being  the  principal  festival  observed  by  them.  No 
doubt  they  have  received  the  custom  from  those  in  the 
plains.  A  shooting  excursion  follows  as  the  next  sporty 
and,  if  they  be  so  fortunate  as  to  hunt  down  a  wild  boar 
or  deer,  or  any  big  game,  a  second  bull  dance  is  got  up. 

'*  We  were  just  in  time  to  see  the  tamasha  (spectacle). 
The  munthay  was  becoming  crowded,  a  regular  influx  of 
spectators,  mostly  women  arrayed  in  their  best  cloths^ 
coming  in  from  the  neighbouring  villages.  These  were 
marshalled  in  a  circle  round  the  munthay,  all  standing.  I 
was  told  that  they  were  not  invited,  but  that  it  was  cus- 
tomary for  them  to  pour  in  of  their  own  accord  when  any 
sports  or  ceremonial  took  place  in  a  village  ;  and  the  in- 
habitants of  the  particular  village  were  prepared  to  expect 
a  large  company,  whom  they  fed  on  such  occasions.  After 
the  company  had  collect^d^  drums  were  beaten,  and  the 
long  brass  bugles  were  blown  ;  and,  just  at  this  juncture, 
we  saw  an  elderly  Malaiali  bring  from  his  hut  a  coil  of  rope 
made  of  leather,  and  hand  it  over  to  the  pujari  or  priest  in 
charge  of  the  temple.  The  latter  placed  it  in  front  of  the 
shrine^  worshipped  it  thrice,  some  of  the  villagers  follow- 
ing suit,  and,  after  offering  incense,  delivered  it  to  a  few 
respectable  village  men,  who  in  turn  made  it  over  to  a  lot 
of  Malaiali  meui  whose  business  it  was  to  attach  it  to  the 
bulls.  This  rope  the  oldest  inhabitant  of  the  village  had 
the  right  to  keep.  The  bulls  had  been  previously  selected^ 
and  penned  alongside  of  the  munthay,  from  which  they 
were  brought  one  by  one,  and  tied  with  the  rope,  leaving  an 
equal  length  on  either  side.  The  rope  being  fixed  on,  the 
bull  was  brought  to  the  munthay,  held  on  both  sides  by  any 
number  who  were  willing,  or  as  many  as  the  rope  would 
permit.  More  than  fifteen  on  either  side  held  on  to  a  bull^ 
which  was  far  too  many,  for  the  animal  had  not  the  slight- 
est chance  of  making  a  dart  or  plunge  at  the  man  in  front, 
who  was  trying  to  provoke  it  by  using  a  long  bamboo  with 
a  skin  attached  to  the  end.  When  the  bull  was  timid,  and 
avoided  his  persecutors,  he  was  hissed  and  hooted  by  those 
behind^  and^  if  these  modes  of  provocation  failed  to  rous^ 


158 

hJB  anger^  he  was  simplj  dragged  to  and  fro  hy  maia  force, 
and  let  loose  when  his  strength  was  almost  exhausted.  A 
dossen  or  more  balls  are  taken  up  and  down  the  munthay, 
and  the  tam&sha  is  over.  When  the  munthay  happens  to 
have  a  slope,  the  Ma1aia.lia  have  very  little  control  over  the 
bull,  and,  in  some  instances,  I  have  seen  them  actually 
dragged  headlong  to  the  ground  at  the  expense  of  a  few 
damaged  heads.  The  spectators,  and  all  the  estate  coolies 
who  were  present,  were  fed  that  nighty  and  slept  in  the 
village. 

"  If  a  death  occurs  in  the  village  a  few  days  before  the 
festival,  J  am  told  that  the  dance  is  postponed  for  a  week. 
This  certainly,  as  far  as  I  know,  is  not  the  custom  in  the 
plains. '' 

A  very  tame  affair  is  this  ball  dance,  when  compared 
with  the  buffalo  ^  drive '  at  a  Toda  funeral  ^,  or  the  bull 
baiting  (jellikattu)  practised  chiefly  by  the  Maravan  and 
kindred  castes,  which  is  thus  graphically  described  by 
Mr.  J.  H.  Nelson:  *  "  This  is  a  game  worthy  of  a  bold  and 
free  people,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  certain  Collectors 
should  have  discouraged  it  under  the  idea  that  it  was  some- 
what dangerous.  The  jellikattu  is  conducted  in  the  follow- 
ing manner : — On  a  certain  day  large  crowds  of  people, 
chiefly  males,  assemble  together  in  the  morning  in  some  ex- 
tensive open  place,  the  dry  bed  of  a  river  perhaps,  or  of  a  tank 
(pond),  and  many  of  them  may  be  seen  leading  ploughing 
bullocks,  of  which  the  sleek  bodies,  and  rather  wicked  eyes, 
afford  clear  evidence  of  the  extra  diet  they  have  received 
for  some  days  in  anticipation  of  the  great  event.  The 
owners  of  these  animals  soon  begin  to  brag  of  their  strength 
and  speed,  and  to  challenge  all  and  any  to  catch  and  hold 
them  :  and  in  a  short  time  one  of  the  beasts  is  selected  to 
open  the  day^s  proceedings.  A  new  cloth  is  made  fast 
round  his  horns,  to  be  the  prize  of  his  captor,  and  he  is 
then  led  out  into  the  middle  of  the  arena  by  his  owner,  and 
there  left  to  himself,  surrounded  by  a  throng  of  shouting 
and  excited  strangers.  Unaccustomed  to  this  sort  of  treat- 
ment, and  excited  by  the  gestures  of  those  who  have  under- 
taken to  catch  him,  the  bullock  usually  lowers  his  head  at 
once,  and  charges  wildly  into  the  midst  of  the  crowd,  who 
nimbly  run  off  on  either  side  to  make  way  for  him.     His 

«  Vide  Bull.  No.  IV,  1896. 

*  *  UuaaX  of  the  Madura  Divtriot/  1S68. 


159 

speed  being  mnoh  greater  tlian  that  of  the  men,  he  soon 
oyertakes  one  of  his  enemies  and  savagely  makes  at  him, 
to  toss  him.  Upon  this  the  man  drops  on  the  sand  like 
a  stone,  and  the  bullooky  instead  of  goring  him,  leaps  over 
his  body,  and  rashes  after  another.  The  second  man 
drops  in  his  tarn,  and  is  passedvlike  the  first ;  and,  after 
repeating  this  operation  several  times,  the  beast  either 
sncceeds  in  breaking  the  ring  and  galloping  o£E  to  his 
village,  charging  every  person  he  meets  on  the  way,  or  is  at 
last  canght,  and  held  by  the  most  vigorous  of  his  pursaers. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  ballooks  never  by  any  chance 
toss  or  gore  any  one  who  throws  himself  down  on  their 
approach ;  and  the  only  danger  arises  from  their  accident- 
ally reaching,  nnseen  and  unheard,  some  one  who  remains 
standing. 

'^  After  the  first  two  or  three  animals  have  been  let  loose 
one  after  the  other,  two  or  three,  or  even  half  a  dozen,  are 
let  loose  at  a  time,  and  the  scene  becomes  wildly  excitinig. 
The  crowd  sways  violently  to  and  fro  in  various  directions  in 
frantic  efforts  to  escape  being  knocked  over;  the  air  is 
filled  with  shouts,  screams  and  laughter,  and  the  bullocks 
thunder  over  the  plain  as  fiercely  as  if  blood  and  slaughter 
were  their  sole  occupation.  In  this  way  perhaps  two  or 
three  hundred  animals  are  run  in  the  course  of  the  day ;  and^ 
when  all  go  home  towards  evening,  a  few  cuts  and  bruises, 
borne  with  the  utmost  cheerfulness,  are  the  only  evil  results 
of  an  amusement  which  requires  great  courage  and  agility 
on  the  part  of  the  competitors  for  the  prizes — that  is  for 
the  cloths  and  other  things  tied  to  the  bullocks^  horns — and 
not  a  little  on  the  part  of  the  mere  by-standers.  The  only 
time  I  saw  this  sport  (from  a  place  of  safety)  I  was  highly 
delighted  with  the  entertainment,  and  no  accident  occurred 
to  mar  my  pleasure.  One  man,  indeed,  was  slightly  wounded 
in  the  buttock  :  but  he  was  quite  able  to  walk,  and  seemed 
to  be  as  happy  as  his  friend.^' 

To  return  to  the  Malai&lis.  The  man  of  highest  rank  is 
the  guru,  who  is  invited  to  settle  disputes  in  villages,  to 
^hich  he  comes,  on  pony-back  or  on  foot,  with  an  umbrella 
over  him,  and  accompanied  by  music.  The  office  of  guru 
is  hereditary,  and,  when  he  dies,  his  son  succeeds  him, 
unless  he  is  a  minor,  in  which  case  the  brother  of  the 
deceased  man  steps  into  his  shoes.  If,  in  sweeping  the  hut, 
the  broom  toaohes  any  one,  or  when  a  Malai&li  has  been 
kicked  by  a  European  or  released  from  prison,  he  most  be 


l60 

received  back  into  his  caste.  For  this  purpose  he  goes  to 
the  gum,  who  takes  him  to  the  temple^  where  a  screen  is  pat 
ap  between  the  gam  and  the  applicant  for  restoration  of 
caste  privileges.  H0I7  water  is  dedicated  to  the  swimi 
(God)  bj  the  gara,  and  a  portion  thereof  drank  by  the  man^ 
who  prostrates  himself  before  the  garu^  and  sabseqaently 

S'ves  a  feast  of  pork,  mutton^  and  other  delicacies.     The 
alai&lis,   it   maj  be  noted,  will   eat  sheep,  pigs,  fowls^ 
various  birds,  and  black  monkeys. 

Each  village  has  its  own  headman,  an  honorary  appoint- 
ment, carrying  with  it  the  privilege  of  an  extra  share  of  the 
good  things,  when  a  feast  is  being  held.  A  kangani  is 
appointed  to  do  duty  under  the  headman,  and  receives 
annually  from  every  hut  two  ballams  of  grain.  When 
disputes  occur,  €,g.^  between  two  brothers  regarding  a 
woman  or  partition  of  property,  the  headman  summons  a 
panch&yat  (village  council),  which  has  the  power  to  inflict 
fines  in  money,  sheep^  etc.,  according  to  the  gravity  of  the 
offence.  For  every  group  of  ten  villages  there  is  a  patta- 
kd.ram  (head  of  a  division),  who  is  expected  to  attend  on  the 
occasion  of  marriages  and  car  festivals.  A  bridegroom  has 
to  give  him  eight  days  before  his  marriage  a  rupee,  a 
packet  of  betel-nut,  and  half  a  measure  of  nuts.  Serving 
under  the  pattakaram  is  the  mania  keeran,  whose  duty  it  is 
to  give  notice  oE  a  marriage  to  the  ten  villagers,  and  to 
summon  the  villagers  thereto.  Among  the  Peria  Malai&lis 
weddings  take  place  on  Wednesday  and  Thursday  in  the 
month  Chittaray  (April-May).  For  eight  days  before  the 
ceremony,  bride  and  bridegroom  must  anoint  themselves 
with  turmeric  paste. 

In  the  auspicious  month  of  April,  1898,  on  the  receipt  of 
news  of  a  wedding  in  a  distant  village,  I  proceeded  thither 
through  coffee  estates  rich  with  white  flowers  bursting  into 
blossom  under  the  grateful  influence  of  copious  thunder- 
showers.  En  route^  a  good  view  was  obtained  of  the  "  Golden 
Horn,"  an  overhanging  rock  with  a  drop  of  1,000  feet, 
down  which  the  Malaialis  swing  themselves  in  search  for 
honey.  On  the  track  through  the  jungle  a  j*ock,  known 
from  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  holes  produced  by 
weathering  to  hoof-marks,  as  the  kudre  panji  (horse's  foot- 
prints), was  passed.  Concerning  this  rock  the  legend 
runs  that  a  horse  jumped  on  to  it  at  one  leap  from  the  top 
of  the  Shivar&yan  hill^  and  at  the  next  leap  into  the  plains 
{^t  the  foot  of  the  hills.    The  village^  which  was  to  be  tho 


161 

doene  of  the  festivities,  was,  like  otlier  Malai&li  villages, 
made  np  of  detaohed  bee-hive  hats  of  bamboo,  thatohed  with 
palm-leaves  and  grass,  and  containing  a  central  room 
surrounded  by  a  verandah, — the  home  of  pigs,  goats,  and 
fowls.  Other  huts,  of  similar  bee-hive  shape,  but  smaller, 
were  used  as  store-houses  for  the  grain  collected  at  the 
harvest  season.  These  grain-stores  have  no  entrance,  and 
the  thatched  roof  has  to  be  removed  to  take  out  the  grain 
for  use.  Tiled  roofs,  such  as  are  common  in  the  Badaga 
villages  on  the  Nilgiris,  are  forbidden,  as  their  use  would 
be  an  innovation,  which  would  excite  the  anger  of  the 
Malaiali  gods.  Huts  built  on  piles  contain  the  flocks, 
which,  during  the  day,  are  herded  in  pens  that  are  remov- 
able, and,  by  moving  these  pens  from  one  place  to  another, 
the  villagers  manage  to  get  the  different  parts  of  their  fields 
mannred.  Eound  the  whole  village  a  low  wall  usually  runs, 
and,  close  by,  are  the  coffee,  tobacco,  and  other  cultivated 
crops.  Outside  the  village,  beneath  a  lofty  tree,  was  a 
small  stone  shrine,  capped  M^ith  a  stone  slab,  wherein  were 
stacked  a  number  of  neolithic  celts,  which  the  Malai&lis 
reverence  as  thunder-bolts  fallen  from  heaven.  On  my 
arrival  at  the  village,  I  learned  that  the  bride  was  not 
expected  to  arrive  from  her  own  village  till  long  after  dark. 
*'  She  has,''  said  the  headman,  "  a  stomach,  which  must  be 
fed  before  she  comes  here.''  I  was,  however,  presented  to 
the  youthful  and  anxious  bridegroom,  who  was  already 
dressed  up  in  his  marriage  finery,  and  stripped  before  the 
assembled  villagers,  in  order  that  I  might  record  his 
wedding  garments.  His  entire  body  was  enshrouded  in  a 
new  Salem  cotton  cloth  with  silk-woven  border,  and  a  clean 
white  turban  and  coloured  cotton  languti  completed  the 
clothing.  For  jewelry  he  wore  gold  ornaments  in  each 
helix,  and  a  marriage  hoop  ornament  of  gold  encircling 
each  ear,  a  heavy  silver  necklet,  five  rows  of  silver  armlets 
on  the  right  upper  arm,  and  a  silver  chain  round  his  hips. 
Fingers  and  toes  were  decorated  with  silver  rings.  The 
neck  was  smeared  with  ohunam  (lime),  and  the  chest  and 
abdomen  daubed  with  symbolical  marks  in  turmeric. 
Unfortunately,  the  arrival  of  a  case  of  cholera  in  the  village 
gave  rise  to  a  hitch  in  the  proceedings,  and  I  had  to  rely 
on  native  evidence  for  details  of  the  marriage  ceremonial. 
On  the  first  day,  the  bridegroom,  accompanied  by  his 
relations,  takes  the  modest  dowry  of  grain  and  money 
(usually  five  rupees)  to  the  bride's  village,  and  arranges  for 
the  performance  of  the  ncJungoo  ceremony  on  the  following 


162 

day.  If  the  bride  and  bridegroom  belong  to  the  same 
village^  this  ceremony  is  performed  by  the  pair  seated  on 
a  cot.  Otherwise  it  is  performed  by  each  separately.  The 
elders  of  the  village  take  a  few  drops  of  castor-oil^  and  rub 
it  into  the  heads  of  the  bride  and  bridegroom  ;  afterwards 
washing  the  oil  off  with  poonac  and  alnm  water.  One  of 
the  elders  then  dips  betel-leaves  and  arugnm-pilla  {Oynodan 
Dactylov)  in  milk^  and  with  them  describe  a  circle  round 
the  heads  of  the  young  couple,  who  do  obeisance  by  bowing 
their  heads.  The  proceedings  wind  up  with  a  feast  of  pork 
and  other  luxuries.  On  the  following  day  the  ceremony  of 
tying  the  t&li  (marriage  emblem)  round  the  bride's  neck  is 
performed.  The  bride,  escorted  by  her  party,  comes  to  the 
bridegroom's  village,  and  remains  outside  it,  while  the 
bridegroom  brings  a  light,  a  new  mat,  and  three  bundles  of 
betel-nut  and  half  a  measure  of  nuts,  which  are  distributed 
among  the  crowd.  The  happy  pair  then  enter  the  village^ 
accompanied  by  music.  Beneath  a  pandal  there  is  a  stone, 
representing  the  god,  marked  with  the  n&mam,  and 
decorated  with  burning  lamps  and  painted  earthen  pots. 
Before  this  stone  the  bride  and  bridegroom  seat  themselves 
in  the  presence  of  the  guru,  who  is  seated  on  a  raised  dais. 
Flowers  are  distributed  among  the  wedding  guests,  and  the 
t£ili,  made  of  gold,  is  tied  round  the  bride's  neck.  This 
done,  the  feet  of  both  bride  and  bridegroom  are  washed 
with  alum  water,  and  presents  of  small  coin  received.  The 
contracting  parties  then  walk  three  times  round  the  stone, 
before  which  they  prostrate  themselves,  and  receive  the 
blessing  of  the  assembled  elders.  The  ceremony  concluded, 
they  go  round  the  village,  riding  on  the  same  pony.  The 
proceedings  again  terminate  with  a  feast.  I  gather  that 
the  bride  lives  apart  from  her  husband  for  eleven  or  fifteen 
days,  during  which  time  he  is  permitted  to  visit  her  at  meal 
times,  with  the  object,  as  my  interpreter  expressed  it,  of 
'*  finding  out  if  the  bride  loves  her  husband  or  not.  If  she 
does  not  love  him,  she  is  advised  by  the  guru  and  head  man 
to  do  so,  because  there  are  many  cases  in  which  the  girls, 
after  marriage^  if  they  are  matured,  go  away  with  other 
Malaialis,  If  this  matter  comes  to  the  notice  of  the  gum, 
she  says  that  she  does  not  like  to  live  with  him.  After 
enquiry,  the  husband  is  permitted  to  marry  another  girl." 

A  curious  custom  prevailing  among  the  Malai&lis  of  the 
Kollimallais,  aud  illustrating  the  Hindu  love  of  offspring, 
is  thus  referred  to  by  Mr.  LeFanu :   "  The  sons,  when  mere 


163 

obildren^  are  married  to  mature  females^  and  the  father-in^ 
law  of  the  bride  assumes  the  performance  of  the  procreative 
function^  thus  assuring  for  himself  and  bis  sod  a  descendant 
to  take  them  out  of  *  Put. '  When  the  putative  father 
comes  of  age,  and  in  their  turn  his  wife's  male  offspring  are 
married^  he  performs  for  them  the  same  office  which  his 
father  did  for  him.  Thus,  not  only  is  the  religious  idea 
involved  in  the  words  Putra  and  Kumaran*  carried  out, 
but  also  the  premature  strain  on  the  generative  faculties, 
which  this  tradition  entails,  is  avoided.  The  accommodation 
is  reciprocal,  and  there  is  something  on  physiological 
grounds  to  recommend  iU"  Concerning  this  custom  the 
Rev.  H.  N.  Hutchinson  writes  as  follows  :  ^  "A  man  who 
has  young  sons,  mere  children,  takes  new  wives  for  himself, 
who  are,  however,  called  his  sons'  wives,  and  the  children 
they  bear  to  him  are  called  his  sons'  children,  and  so  it 
goes  on  from  one  generation  to  another.  This  appears  to 
be  a  relic  of  what  is  called  the  matriarchal  system,  which 
still  prevails  in  various  countries,  as  once  in  India."  Widow 
re-marriage  among  the  Peria  Malaidlis  is,  I  am  informed, 
forbidden,  though  widows  are  permitted  to  contract  irregular 
alliances.  But,  writing  concerning  the  Malai&lis  of  the 
Dharmapuri  taluk  (division)  of  the  Salem  district,  Mr. 
LeFanu  states  that :  ^^  It  is  almost  imperative  on  a  widow  to 
marry  again.  Even  at  eighty  years  of  age,  a  widow  is  not 
exempted  from  this  rule,  which  nothing  but  the  most  per- 
sistent obstinacy  on  her  part  can  evade.  It  is  said  that,  in 
case  a  widow  be  not  re-married  at  once,  the  Pattak^r  sends 
for  her  to  his  own  house,  to  avoid  which  the  women  consent 
to  re-enter  the  state  of  bondage."  Of  the  marriage  customs 
of  the  Malaialis  of  the  Javadi  hills  the  same  author  writes 
that  "these  hills  are  inhabited  by  Malaialis,  who  style 
themselves  Vell&lars  and  Pachai  YellS^lars,  the  latter  being 
distinguished  by  the  fact  that  their  females  are  not  allowed 
to  tattoo  themselves,  or  tie  their  hair  in  the  knot  called 
^  kondai '.  The  two  classes  do  not  intermarry.  In  their 
marriage  ceremonies  they  dispense  with  the  service  of  a 

*  Patra  means  literally  **  one  who  sayes  from  put/'  a  hell  into  which 
those  who  have  not  produced  a  son  fall.  Hindus  believe  that  a  son  oani 
by  the  performance  of  certain  rites  and  ceremonies,  save  the  souls  of  his 
ancestors  from  this  place  of  tortnre.  Hence  the  anxiety  of  every  Hindu 
to  get  married,  and  beget  male  offspring.  Kumftran  is  the  second  stage 
in  &e  life  of  an  individual,  which  is  divided  into  infancy,  childhood,  man* 
hood,  and  old  age. 

' '  Marriage  Customs  in  many  Lands/  1897* 


164 

Br&hniaii.  Monday  is  the  daj  ohosen  for  the  commence- 
ment  of  the  ceremony,  and  the  td.li  is  tied  on  the  follow- 
ing Friday,  the  only  essential  being  that  the  Monday  and 
Friday  concerned  must  not  follow  new  moon  days.  They 
are  indifferent  about  choosing  a  ^  lakkinam '  (muhQrtham 
or  auspicious  day)  for  the  commencement  of  the  marriage, 
or  for  tying  the  tftU.  Widows  are  allowed  to  re-marry. 
When  a  virgin  or  a  widow  has  to  be  married,  the  selection 
of  a  husband  is  not  left  to  the  woman  concerned,  or  to  her 
parents.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Urgoandan  to  inquire  what 
marriageable  women  there  may  be  in  the  village,  and  then 
to  summon  the  pftttan,  or  headman  of  the  caste,  to  the 
spot.  The  latter,  on  his  arrival,  convenes  a  panch/lyat  of 
tne  residents,  and,  with  their  assistance,  selects  a  bride- 
groom. The  parents  of  the  happy  couple  then  fix  the 
wedding  day,  and  the  ceremony  is  performed  accordingly. 
The  marriage  of  a  virgin  is  called '  kali&nam '  or  '  marriage 
proper  ^ ;  that  of  a  widow  being  styled  '  kattigiradu  *  or 
'tying'  {cf.  Anglice  noose,  nuptial  knot).  Adultery  is 
regarded  with  different  degrees  of  disfavour  according  to 
the  social  position  of  the  co-respondents.  If  a  married 
woman,  virgin  or  widow,  commits  adultery  with  a  man 
of  another  caste,  or  if  a  male  Vellalan  commits  adultery 
with  a  woman  of  another  caste,  the  penalty  is  expulsion 
from  caste.  Where,  however,  the  paramour  belongs  to  the 
Yellala  caste,  a  caste  panch^yat  is  held,  and  the  woman  ia 
fined  Bs.  3-8-9,  and  the  man  Rs.  7.  After  the  imposition 
of  the  fine,  Br&hman  supremacy  is  recognised,  the  gum 
having  the  privilege  of  administering  the  ^tirtam',  or 
holy  water,  to  the  culprits  for  their  purification.  For  the 
performance  of  this  rite  his  fee  varies  from  4  annas  to  12 
rupees.  The  tirtam  may  either  be  administered  by  the 
guru  in  person,  or  may  be  sent  by  him  to  the  nattan  for 
the  purpose.  The  fine  imposed  on  the  offenders  is  payable 
by  their  relatives,  however  distant ;  and,  if  there  be  no 
relatives,  then  the  offenders  are  transported  from  their 
village  to  a  foreign  country.  Where  the  adulteress  is  a 
married  woman,  she  is  permitted  to  return  to  her  husband, 
taking  any  issue  she  may  have  had  by  her  paramour.  In 
special  cases  a  widow  is  permitted  to  marry  her  deceased 
husband's  brother.  Should  a  widow  re-marry,  her  issue 
by  her  former  husband  belongs  to  his  relatives,  and  are 
not  transferable  to  the  second  husband.  The  same  rule 
holds  good  in  successive  re-marriages.  Where  there  may 
be  no  relatives  of  the  deceased  husband  forthcoming  to 


166 

teke  obMTge  of  the  children,  the  doty  of  osriog  for  them 
devolves  on  the  tJ'rgoaxidaii,  who  is  bound  to  receive  rad 
protect  them.  The  Yell&lars  generally  bnry  their  dead, 
except  in  cases  where  a  woman  quick  with  child,  or  a  man 
afflicted  with  leprosy  has  died^  the  bodies  in  these  cases 
being  burnt.  No  ceremony  is  performed  at  child-birth  ; 
but  the  little  stranger  receives  a  name  on  the  fifteenth  day. 
When  a  girl  attains  puberty,  she  is  relegated  for  a  month 
to  a  hut  outside  the  village,  where  her  food  is  brought 
to  her  during  that  period,  and  she  is  forbidden  to 
leave  the  hut  either  day  or  night.  The  same  menstrual 
and  death  customs  are  observed  by  the  Peria  Malai&lis, 
who  bury  their  dead  in  the  equivalent  of  a  cemetery^  and 
mark  the  site  by  a  mound  of  earth  and  stones.  At  the 
time  of  the  funeral,  guns  are  discharged  by  a  *'  firing 
party,  '^  and,  at  the  grave,  handf uUs  of  earth  are,  as  at  a 
Uhristian  burial  service,  thrown  over  the  corpse. 

The  Malaialis  of  the  Shevaroy  hills  snare  with  nets,  and 
shoot  big  game — deer^  leopards,  tigers,  bears,  and  pigs— 
with  guns  of  European  manufacture ;  and  Mr.  LeFanu 
narrates  that,  during  the  pongal  feast,  all  the  Malaialis  of 
the  Kalr&yans  go  ahunting,  or,  as  they  term  it,  for  '  par 
vdttai.'  "  Should  the  Palaiagar  fail  to  bring  something 
down,  usage  requires  that  the  pujari  should  deprive  him 
of  his  kudimi  or  top-knot.  He  generally  begs  himself  off 
the  personal  degradation,  and  a  servant  undergoes  the 
operation  in  his  stead.'' 

In  games  the  MalaiAlis  seem  to  be  deficient,  and, 
despite  the  manual  labour  which  work  on  coffee  estates  and 
their  own  lands  imposes  on  them,  they  are  wanting  in 
muscular  development.  "  How  ",  said  the  possessor  of  a 
miserable  hand-grip  of  48  lbs.  in  reply  to  a  question, 
**  can  any  of  us  be  strong,  when  we  have  to  work  all  day 
for  the  European "  ?  A  rough-and-tumble  game,  resem* 
bling  prisoner's  base,  called  sathurapp&ri  vilaySttu,is  played 
in  a  square  court,  of  which  the  lines  are  marked  by  means 
of  the  feet  in  the  dust,  with  water  on  moonlight  nights,  or 
with  chunfim  (lime  wash)  in  mimicry  of  the  lines  of  a 
lawn-tennis  court.  The  plavers,  eight  in  number,  divide 
into  an  in  and  out  side.  The  square  is  defended  at  the 
comers  by  the  former,  while  the  latter  try  to  force  their 
way  within  the  lines. 


166 

The  finest  specimen  of  a  Feria  Malal&Ii,  whicH  I  bave 
seen,  was  a  man^  aged  25,  named  D&san  G-oundan,  working 
on  a  coffee  estate,  whose  record  was  as  follows : — 


Weight     . . 
Height 
Span  of  arms 
Chest         •  • 
Shoulders 
Hips 
Foot,  length 


•  • 


Malai&lL 

average. 

157  lbs. 

99  lbs. 

173*2  cm. 

163-4  cm. 

179-8    „ 

172-1    „ 

93-5   „ 

79-7    „ 

42-6    „ 

38-5    „ 

27       „ 

35-5    „ 

26-7    „ 

25-3    „ 

The  leading  characteristics  of  the  Malaialis,  and  their 
personal  adornment  are  summed  np  in  the  following 
cases : — 

1.  Man,  8dt.  25.  A  lean  and  long-legged  individual 
with  very  thin  calves.  Height  164  cm.  Hair  of  head  clipped 
short  on  top,  long  and  tied  in  a  knot  behind.  Diffuse  hairs 
over  middle  of  chest.  Median  strip  of  hairs  on  abdomen. 
Clothing  consists  of  white  turban  decorated  with  roses, 
brown  kambli  (blanket)  with  white  border  pattern,  dhtLti 
and  languti.  Bag  containing  betel-leaf  and  tobacco  slang 
over  left  shoulder.  Carries  bill-hook  and  gourd  water* 
vessel.  Coffee  walking  stick.  Silver  belt  round  loins. 
Brass  ring  in  lobe  of  each  ear  and  gold  ornament  in  left 
helix.  Silver  bangle  on  each  vmst.  Two  silver  rings  on 
right  ring  and  little  fingers.  Silver  ring  on  such  second 
toe. 

2.  Man,  set.  30.  Will  not  sit  on  a  chair  to  have  his 
head  measured,  as  it  would  be  disrespectful,  and  make  his 
god  angry.  No  objection  to  standing  upon  it.  Hair  ex- 
tensively developed  over  chest,  abdomen,  shoulders,  back  and 
extensor  surface  of  fore-arms.  Silver  belt  round  loins. 
Silver  armlet  on  right  upper  arm,  and  bangle  on  each  wrist. 
Three  silver  rings  on  right  ring  finger.  Two  silver  rings 
on  right  little  finger.  Silver  ring  on  each  second  toe. 
Stores  his  money  away  in  the  hollow  bamboos  of  his  hut. 

8.  Man,  est.  25.  Brass  ring  in  left  nostril.  Four 
brass  rings  in  right  ear  lobe ;  two  in  left.  Two  silver  rings 
on  right  third  finger. 

4.  Man,  set.  28.  Caste  spots  on  forehead  and  root  of 
nose,  painted  with  coal-tar  magenta  dyes.     Smeared  with 


167 

ohnnftm  (lime)  over  both  deltoids^  ohest  and  neok .    Mutton- 
chop  whiskers  and  billy-goat  beard. 

5.  Man,  88t.  30.  Woollen  anklet  round  left  ankle, 
worn  as  a  charm  to  drive  away  pain. 

6.  Man,  set.  26.  Wooden  plug  in  lobe  and  helix  of 
each  ear. 

7.  Man,  set.  26.  Blue  sect  spot  on  forehead  and  blue 
line  in  mid-frontal  region.  Wooden  plug  in  lobe  ofeaoh  ear« 
Gold  ornament  in  left  helix.  Silver  bangle  on  right  wrist. 
Two  silver  rings  on  right  ring  and  little  fingers.  Two  brass 
rings  on  left  little  finger.     Silver  ring  on  left  second  toe. 

Little  girl.  Gold  ornament  in  right  nostril.  Silver 
and  bead  necklets.  Tattooed  (blue)  with  mark  like  masonic 
compasses  on  forehead,  circle  surrounded  by  ring  of  dots  on 
right  cheek,  sun  and  half  moon  on  left  cheek,  spot  on  chin, 
and  unknown  symbols  outside  orbits.  Tattooing  is  done  by 
Korava  women,  who  come  on  circuit  from  the  plains  about 
once  a  month.  The  devices  on  the  face  constitute  distinct- 
ive tribal  -marks.  Gold  ornament  in  right  nostril.  Silver 
and  bead  necklets.  Two  leaden  bangles  on  right  wrist,  and 
a  single  leaden  bangle  on  left  wrist.  Two  silver  rings  on 
left  fore-finger.     Two  brass  rings  on  left  second  finger. 

Woman,  set.  35.  Tattooed  with  the  same  symbols  as 
the  preceding  on  forehead  and  outside  orbits.  Sun  and  half 
moon  on  right  cheek.  Rayed  circle  on  left  cheek.  Scor- 
pion on  metacarpus  of  right  thumb.  Elaborate  geometrical 
and  conventional  devices,  as  among  women  of  the  plains, 
over  right  deltoid,  both  fore-arms,  and  back  of  left  hand. 
Gold  ornament  in  each  ear  lobe,  and  in  helix,  the  latter 
connected  with  a  silver  link  chain  fixed  into  back  hair, 
which  is  tied  in  a  bunch.  Gold  ring  in  right  nostril,  and 
gold  ornament  in  left  nostril.  Gold  tali  tied  with  string 
round  neck.  Silver  and  bead  necklets  with  tooth- pick  and 
ear-scoop  pendent.  Two  silver  armlets  on  right  upper  arm. 
Leaden  bangle  on  right  wrist.  One  leaden,  and  two  composi- 
tion bangles  on  left  wrist.  Silver  ring  on  each  second  toe. 
S&ri  (dress)  made  of  florid  imported  printed  cotton.  Smokes 
tobacco  of  local  cultivation,  wrapped  in  a  leaf  of  Gmclina 
arborea. 

The  averages  of  my  Malaiali  measurements  are,  in 
Table  XXX,  compared  with  those  of  two  of  the  Tamil  classes 
of  Madras  City  ( Vell&las  and  Pallis)  and  support  the  theory 
that  the  Malaialis  emigrated  from  the  Tamil-speaking  area 
of  the  plains  at  no  very  remote  period* 


168 
TABLE  XXIX. 


80MUABT  OI*  MBASUBKUBNT8. 
MALAIALIS.    W. 


Max. 

Min. 

Avwage. 

Woight  ...         ••• 

120 

87 

99 

Hoight 

173-2 

153-2 

163-4 

Height,  Bitting            

87-2 

77-1 

88 

Height,  kneeling         

125-7 

111*4 

120 

Height  to  glftdiolne     

181 

112-8 

122-7 

Span  of  Arms   ..• 

188-6 

161 

1721 

Chest     ...         •  •  •         ■  •  •         •  •  • 

90 

74 

79-7 

Middle  finger  to  patella 

14-8 

6-4 

10-8 

Shoulders         •••         ••• 

482 

36'1 

88-5 

Cnbit     •••          •••         •**         "* 

60-2 

43-1 

46-6 

Hand,  length    ... 

19*8 

16 

17-8 

Hand,  breadth            

91 

7-4 

81 

Hips       •••         •••         •••         ••• 

27-2 

2S-6 

25*6 

IToot,  length      

26-9 

23*1 

25-3 

Foot,  breadth 

101 

81 

8^8 

Cephaliclength           

19-3 

16-9 

18-3 

Cephalic  breadth         

14-6 

12-8 

18-6 

Cephalic  index 

82-8 

61 

74*3 

Bigoniac            

10-8 

8-2 

9-6 

Bisygnmatio 

13*9 

11-7 

12-7 

Maxillo-sygomatic  index 

85-2 

65-6 

75-8 

Nasal  height 

5-2 

8-9 

4-6 

Nasal  breadth 

41 

3 

3*6 

Nasal  indes      •••        •••        ••• 

100 

68-8 

77-S 

I6d 


TABLE  XXX. 


8UMMABT  OF  MEA8UBBM£KTS  OF  MALAIALIS, 

yellAlas,  and  FALLIS. 


• 

Vell&las. 

Malai&lis. 

Pallis. 

Woight  . .  •         .  • .         . .  •         •  •  • 

103-3 

99 

104-6 

Height 162-4 

163-4 

162-5 

Height,  eitting            88'4 

82*1 

83-6 

Height,  kneeling        

119-3 

120 

118-8 

Height  to  gUtdioltu    

121-9 

122-8 

121-5 

Span  of  arms 

1741 

172-1 

172-6 

Chest     ..•         ..•         •••        ••• 

79-8 

79-7 

79-2 

Middle  finger  to  patella 

10-4 

10-8 

9-5 

Shoulders         

39-7 

88-6 

89-4 

Gabit      ...         ...         ... 

46-9 

46-6 

46-2 

Hand,  length 

18-3 

17-8 

17-9 

Hand,  breadth            

8-2 

8-1 

81 

Hips      ...         ...         ••• 

25-6 

26-6 

25-5 

Foot,  lengfth     ...        ...         t.. 

25-7 

25-8 

25*5 

Foot,  breadth 

8-7 

8-8 

8-9 

Gephaliclength           

18-6 

18-8 

18-6 

Cephalic  breadth        

13-8 

13*6 

13:6 

Cephah'o  index 

74-1 

74-3 

73 

Bigoniao           

10 

9-6 

9*9 

Biiygomatio     

12-9 

127 

12-7 

Maxillo-zygomatio  index 

76-7 

75-8 

78 

Nasal  height 

4-7 

4-6 

4-6 

Nasal  breadth 

3-4 

36 

36 

Kisalindek      

781 

77-8 

77-9 

i-ro 


SYLLABUS  OF  A  OOUESE  OF  DEMONSTRA- 
TIONS ON  PRACTICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 
GIVEN    AT   THE   MUSEUM,    OCTOBER 

1898. 


Demonstrations  primarily  fot  the  benefit  of  students  in 
tbe  University  classes  of  History,  which,  as  laid  down  by  the 
local  University,  includes  some  knowledge  of  ethnology  and 
comparative  plnlology.  No  facilities  for  practical  instruction 
at  tne  colleges.  Questions  in  examination  papers,  bearing  on 
the  cephalic  index  and  body  measurements,  which  cannot  be 
answered  in  a  style  worthy  of  Degree  examination  by  candi- 
dates who  have  not  seen  practical  application  of  methods  on 
skull  and  living  subject.  Demonstrations,  practical  and  semi- 
popular,  to  supplement  theoretical  knowledge  acquired  from 
books  and  lectures. 

Anthropology,  a  branch  of  natural  history,  which  treats  of 
Man  and  the  races.of  Man,  conveniently  separated  into  two 
main  divisions : — 

{a)  Ethnography,  which  deals  with  man  as  a  social  and 
intellectual  being,  his  '*  manners  and  customs, ''  knowledge  of 
arts  and  industries,  tradition^  language,  religion,  etc. 

Illustrations.  Show-cases  of  tribal  jewelry,  models  of 
dwelling-huts,  implements,  and  photographs.  Meriah  sacrifice 
(buffaloes  sacrificed  at  present  day  instead  of  human  beings). 
Toda  polyandry  and  female  infanticide.  Hook-swinging. 
Dravidian  languages.  Animistic  religion  of  lull  and  forest 
tribes.  Burial  and  cremation.  Declinje  of  indigenous  weav- 
ing industry,  and  degeneration  in  Native  female  dress  as 
result  of  imported  colour-printed  piece-goods. 

(6)  Anthropography,  which  deals  with  Man  and  the 
varieties  or  '^  species ''  of  the  human  family  from  an  animal 
point  of  view,  his  structure  and  the  functions  of  his  body. 

Necessary  for  the  purposes  of  study  of  anthropology,  so 
far  as  Indian  peninsula  is  concerned,  to  keep  in  mind  three 
primary  links  of  evidence  : — 

(a)  Evidence  of  '^  prehistoric  "  people,  bearing  in  mind 
that,  like  the  geologist,  the  anthropologist  does  not  reckon  by 
days  or  years ;  and  that  '*  the  6,000  years  (Creation  said  to 


171 

have  occurred  4004  B.C.)  which  were  till  lately  looked  on 
as  the  sum  of  the  world's  age  are  to  him  but  as  a  unit  of 
measurement  in  the  long  succession  of  past  ages.  '^  Pre- 
historic man  in  Southern  India  very  largely  represented  by 
tumuli,  cairns,  cromlechs  and  kistvaens  of  Shevaroy,  Palm, 
and  Nilgiri  mountain  ranges ;  by  the  large  earthenware  burial 
urns  or  sarcophagi  f  oimd  at  Palldvaram  near  Madras,  in  the 
Tinnevelly  district,  etc. ;  and  by  the  palaeolithic  and  neolithic 
implements  (celts,  hammer-stones,  scrapers,  saws,  etc.),  con- 
cerning which  Mr.  B.  Bruce  Foote  is  preparing  a  catalogue 
raisonn^  based  on  his  own  and  the  museum  collections. 

Illustrations.  Quartzite  implements  found  in  lateritio 
formation  at  Palldvaram  ;  stone  implements  from  the  Bellary 
district  and  Shevaroy  hUls,  stored  by  Natives  in  small  shrines^ 
and  worshipped  as  thunderbolts  fallen  from  heaven ;  earthen- 
ware sarcophagus,  105  cm.  high,  from  Tinnevelly;  earthen- 
ware vessels  impressed  with  rude  ornamentation.  Models  of' 
large-homed  buffaloes,  birds,  fabulous  animals,  and  bearded 
men  on  horseback,  bronze  vessels,  and  iron  arrow  or  javelin 
heads,  excavated  on  the  Nilgiri  hills.  Evidence  that  Nilgiris 
were  inhabited  by  a  people  earlier  than  the  Todas,  who 
possess  not  even  the  most  elementary  knowledge  of  arts  and 
industries.  Todaa  live  on  products  of  semi-feral  buffalo,  and 
by  soliciting  alms  (in&m)  from  European  visitors  to  their 
mands.  Pottery  and  human  bones  (heads  and  necks  of 
femora)  from  Coimbatore  district ;  potteiy  and  chank  shells 
{Turhinella  rapa)  from  Ghintakal. 

(6)  Evidence  of  oldest  existing  people,  now  confined  to 
jungle  tribes  dispersed  in  small  commimities,  for  the  most 
part  in  the  jungles  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains. 

Examples :  Irulas,  Eurumbas,  K&dirs,  Paniyans,  and 
Sholigas,  all  possessing  two  marked  characters  in  common, 
viz.  (a)  shortness  of  stature;  (6)  short,  broad  nose  with 
consequent  high  nasal  index.  ^'  Aryans  so  impressed  with  the 
flat,  snub  noses  of  their  enemies,  that  they  often  spoke  of 
them  as  the  noseless  ones ''  (Bisley). 

CM.  CM. 

Paniyans             . .         . .         . .  167-4  96*1 

Kftdirs r  167*7  89-8 

Kurumbas          167-4  89*6 

Irulas 159'8  84-9 


172 

(o)  Endenoe  of  influence  of  immigration  of  foreign 
races,  e.g,^  '  Aryans,'  whose  inflaenoe  may,  mutatis  mutandis^ 
be  argued  by  analogy  with  influence  of  European  immi- 
gration (Portuguese,  Dutch,  British,  French,  and  Danish)  on 
indigenous  population  of  Southern  India  during  last  fiv^e 
centuries,  with,  as  starting  point,  alliances  between  Porta- 
guese  adventurers  under  Alboquerque  with  Native  women  of 
Malabar. 

Important  division  of  anthropographv  is  anthropometiy, 
i^e.^  measurement  and  estimation  of  physical  data  relating  to 
people  belonging  to  different  races,  castes  and  tribes,  by 
means  of  which  their  characteristics  can  be  compared  together. 
Anthropometiy  for  purposes  of  criminal  identification. 
Bertillonage.  Measurements,  to  be  relied  on,  must  be  taken 
by  experts.  Fingerprint  records  more  reliable  for  criminal 
purposes. 

As  a  means  of  gauging  physique,  three  pieces  of  appa- 
ratus used  in  museum  laboratory,  viz.,  weighing  machine, 
dynamometer,  spirometer. 

(a)  Weighing  machine.  Becord  actual  weight,  and 
weight  relatively  to  uniform  stature  of  100  cm.  for  purpose 
of  comparison  of  different  castes  and  tribes. 

Examples: 

Average 
height. 

CM. 

Brfihmans     (poorer  162*5 

classes). 

Pariahs      ..         ..  162*1 

Pallis  ..         ..  162*5 

KammSlanB  «.  159*7 

European  inhabitants  of  a  hiU  station  objected  to  my 
weighing  local  tribesmen  in  meat  scales  of  butcher's  shop. 

ifi)  Spirometer,  or  gasometer,  which  records  play  of 
chest  or  vital  capacity,  i.e.,  total  quantity  of  air,  which  can  be 
given  out  by  the  most  forcible  expiration  following  on  a 
most  forcible  inspiration.  Play  of  chest  of  far  greater  im- 
portance than  actual  girth,  as  every  one  knows  who  has  had 
to  examine  recruits  or  applicants  for  life-insurance.  No  use 
possessing  a  40-inch  chest  if  lungs  emphysematous,  and 
chest  walls  have  not  corresponding  power  of  expansion  and 
contraction. 


Average 
weight. 

Average 
weight 
relative  to 
Btatore  =  100. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

115 

70*8 

106 

65-4 

104*6 

64*4 

100*4 

62*9 

178 

(c)  Hand-dynamometer  for  testing  hand  grip. 
Examples : 

Average. 

LBS. 

Europeans,  Madras  City           . .         . .  . .     88 

Sepoys,  28t}i  Madras  Infantry             . .  . .     80 

xocias       ••         ■•         ••          ••         •■  ••7«7 

Jt^oras       •■         ••         ••         ••         ••  ••■U 

Eurasians  (poorer  classes),  Madras  City  . .     65 

Note  that  Todas,  who  do  no  manual  labour,  have  a 
greater  average  grip  than  the  Kotas  of  the  Nilgiris,  many  of 
whom  are  blacksmiths  or  carpenters.  Maximum  recorded  in 
Madras  113  lbs.,  Native  musketry  instructor  28th  MJ. 

Kesults  of  anthropometry  depend  essentially  on  calcula- 
tion of  averages.  In  small  communities,  c.^.,  jungle-tribes, 
measurement  of  20  to  25  subjects  sufficient  for  all  practical 
purposes.  In  larger  communities,  measurement  of  40  sub- 
jects yields  sufficiently  accurate  results.  Necessary,  when 
investigating  Eurasians,  to  measure  over  a  hundred  indivi- 
duals owing  to  great  variation  in  stature  and  other  characters. 
Women,  as  well  as  men,  should  be  measured  if  possible.  Not 
always  easy  to  establish  confidence  among  them.  Two-anna 
pieces  most  efiective  moans  of  conciliation,  supplemented  by 
cheroots  for  men,  cigarettes  for  children,  and,  as  a  last 
resource,  alcohol.  Measuring  appliances  sometimes  frighten 
the  subjects,  especially  goniometer  for  determining  facial 
angle,  which  is  mistaken  for  an  instrument  of  torture. 

Before  measuring  individual,  record  notes  on  personal 
characteristics,  ornaments,  dress,  etc. 

(a)  Name.  May  be  derived  from  a  god  or  goddess, 
personal  characteristic,  a  colour,  etc.  Natives  have  equiva- 
lent  of  Mr.  Black,  Green,  Short,  Large,  and  further  Mr. 
Big-nose,  Mr.  Brownish-black,  and  Mr.  (jhrcenish-blue. 

{b)  Age.  Difficult  to  estimate  accurately  in  unedu* 
oated  classes,  as,  after  childhood,  they  lose  all  count  of  aga 
In  taking  measurements  of  Europeans,  limits  of  age  25  to  40. 
ITseless  to  record  measurements  of  individuals  not  fully 
developed,  or  of  those  who  have  begun  to  shrink  from  age. 
In  dealing  with  Natives,  I  accept  40  as  maximum  and  20  as 
minimum.    Development  earlier  in  the  east  than  in  Europe. 

{c)  Skin-colour.  Fair,  as  in  high-caste  Brahmans, 
dark-brown,  or  even  blackish-brown  in  some  jungle-tribes, 
notably  Irulas  of  Nllgiris,  who  are  so  dark  that  it  has  beei^ 


174 

jestingly  said,  charcoal  leaves  a  white  mark  on  them.  Skin- 
coloor  can  be  roughly  described  according  to  number  on 
Broca's  colour  scale.  Typical  Dravidian  brown  colour  not 
represented  therein. 

(d)  Tattooing.  Originally  resorted  to  as  ornament^ 
and  as  a  means  of  sexual  attraction.  In  Samoa,  for  example, 
until  a  young  man  is  tattooed,  he  cannot  think  of  marriage. 
Tattooing  in<  blue  performed  even  on  dark  skins,  on  which 
blue  is' invisible,  and  original  object  of  the  practice  lost.  In 
South  India  tattooing  conspicuously  absent  on  west  coast. 
In  other  parts  pattern  ranges  from  simple  devices  of  dots, 
lines,  and  circles  among  women  of  hilUtribes  to  elaborato 
geometrical  and  conventional  devices  among  women  of  the 
plains.  Prevalence  of  religious  symbols  (chalice,  dove,  cruci- 
fix, sacred  heart,  etc.)  among  Eurasians  of  west  coast. 
Most  elaborate  patterns  executed  by  Burmese  professional 
tattooers  on  Tanul  emigrants  to  Burma. 

(e)  Malformations.  Bef er  to  pinched  in  feet  of  Chinese 
women,  compression  of  infant  skull  among  Peruvians,  and 
effects  of  tight-lacing.     Contrast  Native  female  and  Euro- 

Sean  waists,  undistorted  foot  of  Native,  and  foot  of  European 
istorted  by  badly-fitting  boots.    In  latter  long  axis  of  great 
toe  not  parallel  to  central  axis  of  foot  as  in  Natives. 

Most  characteristic  malformations  in  Southern  India  : — 

■ 

1.  Circumcision,  a  Muhanunadan  practice,  but,  curiously 
enough,  resorted  to  by  Kalians  of  Madura  district,  and  said 
to  be  survival  of  forcible  conversion  to  Muhammadanism. 

2.  Dilatation  of  lobes  of  ears,  which  become,  from 
stretching,  as  elastic  as  india-rubber,  and  sometimes  snap 
across.  Native  Christian  girls  in  Tinnevelly  have  long  ears 
operated  on,  and  cut  short  at  Mission  hospital.  Objection 
that  short  ears  make  them  look  like  deva-dasis  (dancing 
girls)  dying  out.  In  statues  of  Buddha,  as  far  back  as  2nd 
century  A.D.,  ears  dilated,  but  void  of  ornaments. 

3.  Chipping  and  filing  of  incisor  teeth,  practised  by 
K&dirs  of  Anaimalai  hills.  Practice  common  to  some  tribes 
in  Africa  and  Malay  Archipelago.  Whence  did  Eadire  in- 
herit the  custom  P 

4.  Amputation  of  terminal  phalanges  of  ring  and  little 
fingers,  practised  on  women  of  Yakkaliga  sect,  in  Mysore. 
Operation  performed  when  their  children  have  the  ear  and 
liose-boring  ceremony  carried  out. 


175 

Odour  of  skin.  Missionarj  Hue  could  distiuguiah 
between  smell  of  Tibetan,  Hindu,  Negro  and  Chinaman,  by 
sense  of  smell.  Characteristic  odour  of  Todas,  Mosquitoes 
mercilessly  attack  Europeans  newly  arrived  in  India.  Old 
stagers  comparatively  free  from  attack,  and  said  to  be  pro- 
tected by  smell  of  skin,  which  develops  as  result  of  climatic 
conditions,  and  is  distasteful  to  mosquito. 

Skin  of  body.  Extent  of  development  of  hair  and  areas 
of  distribution.  Median  strip  of  hair  on  abdomen  common 
Dravidian  type.  Todas  characterised  by  excessive  develop- 
ment of  hairy  system,  which  may  form  thick  fur  on  chest. 
Todas  have  this  character  in  common  with  Australians  and 
Ainus  of  Japan. 

Hair  of  head,  straight,  wavy,  curly,  frizzly,  or  woolly. 
Woolly  hair,  in  which  little  curls  interlock,  and  form  tufts 
resembling  wool,  characteristic  of  Negroes  ;  curly  or  wavy  of 
inhabitants  of  Southern  India.  Eepeatedly  asserted  that 
Paniyans  of  Malabar  woolly-haired,  and  of  African  descent. 
No  evidence.  Their  hair  curly,  not  woolly.  Native  hair 
universally  black  in  adult ;  frequently  light-brown  in  infancy. 
Mode  of  doing  hair ;  dyeing  with  henna  (leaves  of  Lawsonia 
alba).  Photograph  of  Cheruman  with  hair  in  long  matted 
plaits  in  observance  of  death  ceremonial. 

Colour  of  iris,  or  diaphragm  of  eye.  Natives,  as  a  rule, 
have  dark  eyes,  but  sometimes  blue  as  inherited  character. 
Badaga  fanuly,  in  which  grandfather,  father,  and  grand- 
children all  had  light  blue  eyes.  In  Madras  City  two  Native 
albinoes  with  pink  skin,  white  hair,  and  pink  eyes,  from 
absence  of  pigment. 

Shape  of  face — long,  narrow ;  short,  broad ;  pyra- 
midal, etc. 

Nose.  Shape  when  viewed  in  profile.  Concave  nose  com- 
mon among  Dravidians,  due  to  hollowing  out  of  nasal  bones. 

Cheek-bones,  flat  or  prominent.  Prominence  of  cheek- 
bones, and  obliquely-set  eyes  characteristic  of  Mongolians^ 
Irulas  of  Nilgiris  have  prominent  cheek-bones,  but  straight 
eyes. 

Prominence  of  superciliary  (brow)  ridges.  Characteristic 
of  Neanderthal  skull,  Pithecanthropus,  Australians,  etc. 
Compare  skull  of  higher  ape  with  that  of  European.  Tamil 
skulls  with  ridges  well  developed,  and  other  Australian 
oharacters. 


ltd 


LipSy  thin,  thick,  or  everted.  Photograph  of  Kadir  with 
upper  and  lower  lips  conspicuously  everted. 

Lower  jaw,  prognathous  or  orthognathous,  when  viewed 
in  profile. 

Measurements  recorded  in  centimetres  and  millimetres 
(2-54  cm.  =  l  inch),  divided  into  (a)  essential;  (J)  accessory. 
Necessary,  for  purpose  of  comparison  of  various  tribes  and 
castes  of  Indian  peninsula,  to  have  notes  on  body-colour, 
and  accurate  statistics  relating  to  body  height,  length  and 
breadth  of  head,  and  height  and  width  of  nose.  With  these 
data  to  work  on,  easy  to  fit  any  tribe  or  caste  in  its  correct 
place  in  the  anthropological  pazzle.  Traininep  necessary 
before  measurements,  e.g.^  of  nose  and  head,  can  be  accepted. 
Accuracy  most  essential  in  smaller  measurements.  Anthro- 
pometric results  based  on  average  of  sam  of  measurements 
of  a  number  of  individuals. 

1.  Standing  height.  Classification.  Tall,  170  cm.  and 
upwards  ;  middle  height  170 — 160  cm. ;  short  160  cm.  and 
below.  In  South  India  no  tall  race,  tribe,  or  caste,  though 
Todas  nearly  reach  this  dignity  (average  169'6  cm.).  Com- 
pare heights  on  standard.  Patagonians  tallest,  Stanley's 
dwarfs  (African)  shortest.  Jungle  tribes  of  South  India 
are  about  same  height  as  a  number  of  Australians  measured 
in  Sydney.  Standing  height  one  of  the  measurements 
used  for  purposes  of  criminal  identification. 


Examples : 

English 

Todas     . . 

Eurasians 

BrShmans 

Pariahs 

Paniyans 


. . 


.  • 


* . 


ATerage. 

CM. 

170-8 
169*6 
166-6 
162-5 
161-9 
167-4 


2.  Belative  length  of  upper  extremities,  best  determined 
by  comparison  of  span  of  arms  outspread  at  right  angles  to 
body  with  stature,  and  of  distance  from  tip  of  middle  finger 
to  patella  (knee-cap)  in  altitude  of  attention  with  extensor 
muscles  of  thigh  relaxed. 


• . 


• . 


Examples  :  Span  of  arms. 

Eurasians 
Pariahs 
K&dirs 
Negrdes 


ATerage  relative  to 

statnre  £=  100. 

103*6 

106-2 

107 

1081 


•  • 


• . 


177 


Examples  :  Middle  finger  to  knee-cap. 


Average 

relatiTe  to 

fltatnre  =  100. 

Finglish 
Brfthmans 

•  •          •  • 

7-5 

•  •         •  • 

6-2 

Paxiahfl 

•  •          •  • 

6-8 

Paniyans 

•  •         •  • 

4-6 

Negroes  . . 

•  9                         •    • 

4-4 

Hands  of  long-armed  B&ma  said,  in  Hindu  epio^  to  have 
reached  to  his  knees.  Compare  skeleton  of  Negro  with  that 
of  Orang-utan,  in  which  hands  reach  far  below  knees. 

3.  Chest.  Physical  rather  than  racial  test.  Measurement 
taken  with  tape  over  nipples  with  arms  above  head,  and 
hands  joined. 


Examples : 

Paniyans 

Efidirs 

Sepoys,  28th  M.I. 

Br&hmans 

Pariahs 


Average  relative  to 
stature  =:  100. 


51-8 

61 

50-4 

49-8 

48-9 


Paniyans  and  E&dirs  (jungle-tribes),  short  of  stature 
and  deep-chested  ;  well  adapted  for  mountaineering. 

4.  Hip-breadth.  Measured  across  anterior  spines  of  ilia 
(hip-bones).  Batio  between  breadth  of  hips  and  length  of 
foot  important  as  distinguishing  character  between  races, 
castesy  and  tribes  of  Southern  India.  Frequently  come 
across  Natives  with  foot-length  considerably  greater  than 
hip-breadth.  In  Europeans  hip-breadth  considerably  in 
excess  of  foot-length. 

Head  measurements  estimated  with  callipers  and  com- 
passes. 

5.  Maximum  length  and  breadth  of  head.     Length  from 

flabella  or  ophryon  to  occipital  point.  Breadth  :  greatest 
readth  across  parietal  bones.  Easiest  to  measure,  on  living 
subject,  heads  clean-shaved  in  observance  of  religious  cere- 
mony, on  which  shape'  of  head  easily  studied.  DifBculty  in 
measuring  heads  of  Todas,  whose  dense  locks  offer  obstacle 
to  shifting  of  callipers  in  search  for  right  spot. 


178 

Examples : 


Average. 

, ^. , 

Length.  Breadth. 


CM*  CM* 

Pariahs 186  13*7 

Br&limans  (poorer  clases).  18' 6  14' 2 

Civil  Servants,  Madras    . .  19-6  15-3 

Other  Europeans,  Madras.  19*4  15 

Batio  of  length  to  breadth  represented  by  cephalic  index 
determined  by  formula. 

Breadth   x    100. 
Length. 

More  nearly  breadth  and  length  correspond^  higher  the 
index.  Longer  the  head  in  proportion  to  breadth,  lower 
the  index.  Heads  ranee  in  type  from  long,  narrow  (dolicho- 
cephalic) to  short,  broad  (braohycephalic).  Intermediate 
type,  mesaticephalic,  common  among  half-breeds.  Dolicho- 
cephalic type  eharacterifltic  of  Dravidians.  Todas  have 
longest,  Branmans  broadest  heads  among  Natives  of  Southern 
India.  (Character  of  Dra vidian  skull  is  absence  of  convexity 
of  posterior  portion  of  skull,  with  result  that  back  of  head 
forms  a  flattened  are  of  a  considerable  length  almost 
at  right  angles  to  base  of  skull.  Corresponding  shortness  of 
head  and  diminished  brain-space.  Compare  series  of  Tamil 
skulls  with  those  of  European,  Jew,  etc.  Cephalic  indices, 
European  747  ;  Tamil  74-4 ;  Negro  72*5 ;  Andamaneae 
83-2  ;  Sinhalese  85*1 ;  Burmese  86-6.  Shape  of  skull  does 
not  necessarily  indicate  size  of  brain.  Section  of  Negro 
skull  with  large  bump  on  top  caused  by  bony  thickening  and 
large  frontal  sinus.  Eelative  sizes  of  brains,  or  cranial 
capacity,  estimated  on  skull  by  plugging  foramina  (holes) 
with  cotton  wool,  and  filling  up  skull  through  foramen  mag- 
num (lar^e  hole  at  base)  with  small  shot  or  mustard  seed. 
Calculate  by  ;^uring  shot  or  seed  into  glass  vessel  graduated 
in  cubic  centimetres.  Estimate  cubic  capacity  of  skulls  .  of 
various  Dravidian  classes. 

6.  Eolation  of  greatest  breadth  of  facial  portion  of  head 
across  zygomatic  arches  to  greatest  breadth  of  lower  jaw 
(bigoniac). 

Bigoniac  X  100  .,_  ^.    .    _ 

Zygomatic       =  maxiUo-zygomatic  index. 


179 

7.  Facial  angle.  Estimated  with  goniometer.  Some 
Natives  object  to  holding  it  between  their  teeth,  as  beinff 
source  of  pollution.  Diagrams  of  classic  Greek  head  with 
forehead  tlirown  forward,  heads  of  Dravidian,  Negro,  and 
Chimpanzee.  Facial  angle  of  Dravidian  averages  from  67° 
to  70®.  Dravidians  as  a  whole  orthognathous,  i,e.,  line  of 
upper  jaw  more  or  less  vertical  when  viewed  in  profile. 
Negro  conspicuously  prognathous,  t>.,  upper  jaw  projects 
forwards,  with  corresponding  lowering  of  facial  angle. 
Measure  true  sub-nasal  prognathism.  Demonstrate  facial 
angle  of  Br&hman  and  Negro  skulls.  Prognathism  indi- 
cated on  skull  by  basi-alveolar  length,  i.e.y  distance  between 
front  of  foramen  magnum  and  alveolar  point  in  centre  of 
upper  jaw.  Show  Tamil  skull,  possessing  not  only  promi- 
nent superciliar]^  ridges,  but  also  well-marked  prognathism. 
Australian  affinities.  Use  of  boomerang  by  Kuilans  and 
Maravans  of  Southern  India.  Befer  to  skulls  of  Man  and 
ape,  in  which  line  drawn  from  glabella  to  basion  indicates 
predominance  of  cranial  or  brain-bearing  portion  in  former, 
and  of  facial  portion  of  latter.  Show  sections  of  skull  of 
horse  and  elephant,  demonstrating  small  size  of  brain  rela- 
tively to  that  of  head. 

8.  Nose — facial  feature,  which  is  most  likely  to  be  trans- 
mitted from  one  generation  to  another.  Nasal  character,  in 
India,  most  important  factor  in  differentiation  of  race,  tribe, 
and  class,  and  in  determination  of  pedigree  from  broad- 
nosed  ancestors.  Shape  not  so  important  as  relation  of 
height  to  breadth. 

Breadth  X  100  ^  jg^  .^^^^ 
Height 
Examples : 
BrSnman. 
Height   6-5  cm.  1  8-4  X  100         ^,  „  ,  .    , 

Breadth  34   „    J 6^6 =    ^^'®  =  ^^'^  '^^®^- 

Paniyan. 

Height      4cm.l     4x100        ,^^  , 

Breidth     4  „   ] 4 ==  ^^^    =         ^^- 

Kurumba. 

Height   3-8  cm.  1     4  x  100       ,^^^  , 

Brefdth     4    ,.   j       3-8        =  ^^^'^  =         ^^' 

Nasal  index  lowest  in  Aryans,  highest  in  jungle-tribes. 
Index  increases  as  body  height  diminishes.  High  nasal 
index,  and  short  stature  of  individuals  belonging  to  various 

BB 


180 


oaates  and  tribes,  must  be  attributed  to  lasting  inflaenoe  of 
short,  broad-nosed  ancestor. 


Average 

* 


TT  .„v,f      Nasal 
°«'«^*-     index. 


Lambsdis  (Aryan  language) 

Eurasians 

Tijans 

Pariahs 

Kurumbas 

Paniyans 


CM. 

164-5 
166*6 
163-7 
1621 
167-6 
157-4 


CM. 

691 

69-5 

76 

80 

87 

951 


Contrast  nasal  indices  on  skulls  of  European,  Tamil, 
and  Negro.  European  37-5 ;  Tamil  57-8 ;  Negro  60'9.  In 
absence  of  nostrils,  nasal  index  never  nearly  so  high  in 
skeleton  as  in  living  subject. 


181 


NOTE  ON  THE  DMVIDIAN  HEAD. 


I  recently  came  across  a  passage  in  Taylor's  ^  Origin  of  the 
Aryans'  (Contempoiary  beienoe  Series),  wherein  it  is  stated 
that  '*  the  Todas  are  folly  dolichocephalic^  difiering  in 
this  respect  from  the  Dravidians^  who  are  brachy cephalic.'^ 
As  this  statement  is  not  in  accord  with  my  own  observations, 
it  is  right  that  I  should  place  on  record  the  results  obtained 
from  the  measurement  of  a  large  number  of  Native  tribes 
and  castes  of  Southern  India  other  than  Br&hmans  and 
Muhammadans,  which  have  been  investigated  by  me  in  the 
coarse  of  the  last  few  years.  The  figures,  published  below, 
show  that  the  average  cephalic  index  of  639  members  of  19 
different  tribes  and  castes  was  74*1 ;  and  that  in  only  19  out 
of  the  639  individuals  did  the  index  exceed  80.  So  far, 
then,  from  the  Dravidian  beisg  separated  from  the  Todas 
by  reason  of  their  higher  cephalic  index,  this  index  is,  in 
the  Todas,  actually  higher  than  in  some  of  the  remaining 
Dravidian  peoples,  e.g.,  the  Badagas,  Pallis,  Muppas,  and 
Ambattans. 


Number 

Average 

Number  of  times 

of  men 

cephalic 

in  which  cephalic 

examined. 

index. 

index  exceeded  80. 

Badagas  .. 

40 

71-7 

Muppas    . . 

24 

72-3 

Tiyans 

.      .    60 

72*8 

1  (80-3) 

Pallis 

40 

72-9 

Kadirs 

23 

73 

Todas 

25 

73-3 

Ambattans 

29 

73-4 

Gherumans 

60 

73-4 

2(80-1;  81-9) 

Pariahs    . . 

40 

73-6 

Paniyans 

25 

74 

1  (81-1) 

Kotas 

25 

741 

Yellfilas   .. 

40 

74-1 

1(811) 

Malaifilis 

50 

74-3 

1  (82-8) 

Malasars 

23 

74-5 

Kammalans 

40 

75 

5  (80-1  ;  80-1 ; 
802;  80-6;  81-5) 

Kurubas 

25 

75-8 

2  (801 ;  82-1) 

Irulas 

25 

75'8 

1  (80-9) 

Kongas    . . 

20 

77 

2  (80-3 ;  81-7) 

Koravas  ••         • 

25 

77-5 

3  (82-4 ;  83-7  ;  837) 

689 

74-1 

19  (max.   837), 

183 


THE  DRAVIDIAN  PROBLEM. 


The  manifold  viewB,  which  have  been  brought  forward  ag 
to  the  origin  and  plaoe  in  nature,  of  the  indigenous  popu- 
lation of  Southern  India,  are  scattered  so  widely  in  boob, 
manuals,  and  reports,  that  it  will  be  convenient,  not  only 
for  my  own  purpose  hereafter,  but  for  the  purpose  of  those 
interested  in,  or  urged  by  the  University  syllabue  into  a 
peudo-interest  in  the  subject  of  South  Indian  ethnology, 
if  I  bring  together  the  evidence  derived  from  sundry 
authoritative  sources. 

The  original  name  for  the  Dravidian  family,  it  may  be 
pointed  out,  was  Tamulic,  but  the  term  Dravidian  was  sub- 
stituted by  Bishop  Caldwell,  in  order  that  the  designation 
Tamil  might  be  reserved  for  the  language  of  that  name. 
Drdvida  is  the  adjectival  form  of  Dravida,  the  Sanskrit  name 
for  the  people  occupying  the  south  of  the  Indian  Peninsula 
(the  Deooan  of  lluropean  writers),  and  Tamil  is  merely 
another  form  of  Dravida. 

Accepting,  with  one  small  addition  (Mdhl,  the  mother- 
tongue  of  the  Natives  of  Minicoy  Island),  the  classification 
oi  Bishop  Caldwell,  Mr.  H.  A.  Stuart,  Census  Commis- 
sioner, 1891,  gives  the  following  *  list  of  the  Dravidian 
languages  and  their  dialects,  with  the  numbers  of  those  who 
returned  each  : — 


hajiguage. 

Dialect. 

Total. 

rTamil 

1  Yerukala  or 

14,076,989 

Tamil      . . 

/      Korava 

37,536 

Irula  . . 

1,614 

^Kasuva 

316 

Teliigu 

•  •         •  •         •  * 

13,663,674 

Malayilam 

•  •         •  •         •  • 

2,688,332 

Mahl 

•  •         •  t         •  • 

8,167 

r  Canarese 

1,445,650 

CaDarese .  • 

<  Badaga 

30,666 

(^  Kunimba 

3,742 

^Tulu     .. 

461,176 

Tula 

Eoraga 

1,868 

^Bellara 

668 

^hond 

190,898 

i8d 


huigum^,  Dialeot.  Total. 

TGond    ..         ..  6,694 

Gond        . .       ]  Gotte    . .         . .  853 

LK6ya    ..         ..  86,503 

T6da           736 

K6ta           1,201 

Kodagu     ••                    ••         ..  &47 

Aooording  to  HaeckeP  three  of  the  twelve  species  of 
Man— the  Dravidae  (Deoeans ;  Sinhalese)  Nubians,  and  Mcdi- 
terranese  (Caucasians,  Basque,  Semites,  Indo-6ermanio 
tribes) — *' agree  in  several  characteristics,  which  seem  to 
establish  a  dose  relationship  between  them,  and  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  remaining  species.  The  chief  of  these 
characteristics  is  the  strong  development  of  the  beard,  which, 
m  all  other  species,  is  either  entirely  wanting,  or  but 
very  scanty.  The  hair  of  their  heads  is  in  most  cases  more 
or  less  curly.  Other  characteristics  also  seem  to  favour  our 
classing  them  in  one  main  group  of  curly-haiied  men  (Euplo- 
comi).  At  present  the  primeeval  species.  Homo  Dravida,  is 
only  represented  by  the  Deccan  tribes  in  the  southern  part 
of  Hindustan,  and  by  the  neighbouring  inhabitants  of  the 
mountains  on  the  north-east  of  Ceylon.  But,  in  earlier 
times,  this  race  seems  to  have  occupied  the  whole  of  Hindu- 
stan^ and  to  have  spread*even  further.  It  shows,  on  the  one 
hand,  traits  of  relationship  to  the  Australians  and  Malays ; 
on  the  other  to  the  Mongols  and  Mediterranese.  Their  skin 
is  either  of  a  light  or  dark  brown  colour ;  in  some  tribes  of 
a  yellowish  brown,  in  others  almost  black  brown.  The  hair 
of  their  heads  is,  as  in  Mediterranese,  more  or  less  curled ; 
never  quite  smooth,  like  that  of  the  Euthycomi,  nor  actually 
woolly,  like  that  of  the  Ulotrichi.  The  strong  development 
of  the  beard  is  also  like  that  of  the  Mediterranese.  The 
oval  form  of  te^oe  seems  partly  to  be  akin  to  that  of  the 
Malays,  partly  to  that  of  the  Mediterranese.  Their  fore- 
head is  generally  high,  their  nose  prominent  and  narrow, 
their  lips  slightly  protruding.  Their  language  is  now  very 
much  mixed  with  Indo-Germanic  elements,  but  seems  to 
have  been  originally  derived  from  a  very  peculiar  primssval 
language." 

In  the  chapter  devoted  to  '  Migration  and  Distribution 
of  Orffanisma,'  Haeokel,  in  referring  to  the  continual  change 
ing  of  the  distribution  of  land  and  water  on  the  surface  of 
»—  '  '■  ■  ^ 

^  <  Histoxy  of  Creation,' 


184 

the  earth,  says :  ^^  The  Indian  Ooean  formed  a  continent, 
which  extended  from  the  Sunda  Islands  along  the  southern 
coast  of  Asia  to  the  east  coast  of  Africa.  This  large 
continent  of  former  times  Sclater  has  called  Lemnria,  from 
the  monkey-like  animals  which  inhabited  it,  and  it  is  at 
the  same  time  of  great  importance  from  being  the  probable 
cradle  of  the  human  race.  The  important  prooi,  whidi 
Wallace  has  furnished  by  the  help  of  chronological  facts,  that 
the  present  Malayan  Archipelago  consists  in  reality  of  two 
completely  different  divisions,  is  particularly  interesting. 
The  western  division,  the  Indo-Maiayan  Archipelago,  com- 
prising the  large  islands  of  Borneo,  Java,  and  Sumatra,  was 
formerly  connected  by  Malacca  with  the  Asiatic  continent, 
and  probably  also  with  the  Lemurian  continent  just  men- 
tioned. The  eastern  division,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Austro-Malayan  Archipelago,  comprising  Celebes,  the 
Moluccas,  New  G-uinea,  Solomon's  Islands,  etCj  was  formerly 
directly  connected  with  Australia." 

On  the  evidence  of  the  very  close  affinities  between 
the  plants  and  animals  in  Africa  and  India  at  a  very  remote 
period,  Mr.  R.  D.  Oldham  concludes  that  there  was  once 
a  continaous  stretch  of  dry  laud  connecting  South  Africa 
and  India.  ''In  some  deposits,"  he  says  [Man.  GheoL 
Ind.]  **  found  resting  upon  the  Karoo  beds  on  the  coast  of 
Natal,  22  out  of  35  species  of  MoUusca  and  Echiuodermata 
collected  and  specifically  identified,  are  identical  with  forms 
found  in  the  cretaceous  beds  of  Southern  India,  the  majority 
being  Trichinopoli  species.  From  the  cretaceous  rocks  of 
Madagascar  six  species  of  cretaceous  fossils  were  examined 
by  Mr.  R.  B.  Newton  in  1889,  of  which  three  are  also  found 
in  the  Ariyalur  group  [Southern  India].  The  South  Afri- 
can beds  are  clearly  coast  or  shallow  water  deposits,  like 
those  of  India.  The  great  similarity  of  forms  certainly 
suggests  continuity  of  coast  line  between  the  two  regions, 
and  thus  supports  the  view  that  the  land  connection  between 
South  Africa  and  India,  already  shown  to  have  existed  in 
both  the  lower  and  upper  Q-ondw&na  periods,  was  continned 
into  cretaceous  times. ' 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  Haeckel  defines  the  nose  of  the 
Dravidian  as  a  prominent  and  narrow  organ.  For  Mr. 
Bisley  ^  lays  down  that,  in  the  Dravidian  type,  the  nose  is 
thick  and  broad,  and  the  formula  expressing  the  propor- 
tionate dimension  (nasal  index)  is  higher  than  in  any  known 

*  '  Tribes  and  Oastes  of  Bengal^' 


PL.  XXXI 11 

e,o 

Ol 

u 

JO 

a 

2 

1 

VI 

'5 

1 

p. 

'a 
S 

.S 

1 

CO 

s       1 

l3          :S 

00 

a 

CO 

«-> 

> 

rt 

a 

eS      1 

70 

1 

i         ;                   < 

/ 

71 

1 

( 

,                                     i 

T 

/ 

1  ^ 

r  ■  ■ 

1 
1 

r      - 

1 

/ 

r 

—  «1 

1          1 

) 

1 

-^ 

/ 

74 

K 

T 

1 

^^^ 

4 

1 

70 

>          >          1 
1 



1                 ! 

1                 t              / 

^ 

1 
1 

70 

i 

/ 

77 

1 

■      / 

1 

73 

1 

^ 

^ 

' 

i 

1 

I 

1 

79 

. 

1 

/       '■ 

80 

/ 

1 

/        1 

SI 

r~ 

_    _ 

.     y 

y 

y- 

/      ! 
f        1 

82 

J 

i 

1 

/ 

/ 
/ 

•  -^ 

1 

V                    1 

f         1 

S3 

-J 

/ 

\ 

-'•'■ 

\  / 

84 

• 

r  — 

1 

/ 

85 

1 

1 

\  / 

J. 

-  + 

4 

8'3 

1 

f 

/ 

r 

87 

/ 

/ 

S3 

•—  - 

1 

/ 

\  1 

« 

89 

/ 

/ 

90 

/ 

91 

/ 
/ 

92 

/ 

/ 

93 

/ 

94 

/ 

95 

/ 

/ 

96 

/ 

170 

163 
167 
166 
165 
164 
163 
162 
161 
160 
150 
15S 
167 


Photo- Print.,  Survoj  Office,  Madraf 


186 


race,  except  the  Negro ;  and  that  the  typical  Dravidian^  as 
represented  bj  the  M&le  Pah&ria  (nasal  index  94*5) ,  has  a 
nose  as  broad  in  proportion  to  its  length  as  the  Negro,  while 
this  feature  in  the  Aryan  group  can  fairly  bear  comparison 
with  the  Tioses  of  sixty-eight  Parisians,  measared  by  Topinard, 
which  gave  an  average  of  69*4.  In  this  connection  a  study 
of  table  XXXIII,  based  on  the  results  of  my  measuremeutsy  is 
not  without  interest.  In  this  table  I  have  brought  together, 
for  the  purpose  of  comparisoo,  the  nasal  indices  (lined)  and 
stature  (dotted)  of  jungle  tribes,  Dravidians  of  the  plains, 
and  the  nomad  Lambadis,  who  speak  an  Aryan  language. 
The  table  demonstrates  very  clearly  a  progressive  and 
unbroken  series  ranging  from  the  typic^  jungle-man,  whom 
I  may  term  archi-Dravidian,  dark-skinned,  short  of  stature, 
and  platyrhine,  through  various  mixed  Dravidian  classes  of 
the  plains,  to  the  comparatively  fair-skinned,  leptorhine 
Lamb&di.  The  influence  of  crossing  through  many  ages  on 
the  Dravidian  type  is  referred  to  hereafter.  But  I  may  draw 
attention  to  the  indisputable  fact  that  it  is  to  the  lasting 
influence  of  a  broad  nosed  ancestor,  such  as  is  represented 
at  the  present  day  bv  the  jungle  tribes,  that  the  very  high 
nasal  index  and  short  stature  of  many  of  the  modem 
inhabitants  of  Southern  India  (Dravidian,  Muhammadan, 
Eurasian,  and  ^  Aryan ')  must  be  attributed.  Viewed  in  the 
light  of  this  remark,  the  connection  between  the  following 
mixed  collection  of  individuals,  aU  of  very  dark  colour,  short 
of  stature,  and  with  nasal  index  exceeding  90,  calls  for  no 
further  explanation : — 


Stature. 

Nasal 

Index. 

CM. 

CM. 

Baiyad  Muhammadan . . 
Veflftla 

..    160 

91-.3 

..    154-8 

91-6 

Muppa 

MaliEafili 

..   161-2 
..    158-8 

91-9 
92-5 

Konga 

..    157 

92-7 

Kftdir 

..   156*5 

92-7 

Pattar  Brfthman 

..  157-6 

92-9 

Kurumba 

..   159-6 

93-2 

Malasar 

..   149-2 

95 

Smfirta  Brfthman 

..    159 

951 

Palli 

..   157-8 

95-1 

Irula 

..   155-4 

951 

Paniyan 

..   157-8 

96-1 

Irula 

..   158-6 

100 

Tamil  Pariah    .. 

..   160 

105 

Paniyan 

..   158*8 

105-3 

Efidir    ,, 

..  148-6 

110-5 

1S6 


By  Hnxley  ^  tbe  raoes  of  mankind  are  divided  into  two 
primary  divisions  :  the  Ulotrichi  with  crisp  or  woolly  hair 
(Negros ;  Negritos),  and  the  Leiotriohi  with  smooth  hair. 
And  the  Dravidians  are  induded  in  the  Australioid  gronp 
of  the  Leiotrichi  "  with  dark  skin,  hair,  and  eyes,  wavy  maok 
hair^  and  eminently  long,  prognathous  skulls,  with  well- 
developed  brow  ridges,  who  are  found  in  Australia  and  in 
the  Dekhan."  There  is,  in  the  ooUeotion  of  the  Boyal 
College  of  Surgeons'  Museum,  an  exceedingly  interesting 
'  Hindu '  skull  from  Southern  India,  conspicuously  dolicho- 
cephalic, and  with  highly  developed  superciliary  ridges.  Some 
of  the  recorded  measurements  of  this  skull  are  as  follows : — 


Length 

19-6  CM. 

Breadth 

18-2    „ 

Cephalic  index 

67S 

Nasal  height 

4*8  OM. 

,,      breadth 

2-6    „ 

,,      index  . . 

621 

Another  '  Hindu  ^  skull,  in  the  collection  of  the  Madras 
Museum,  with  similar  marked  development  of  the  super- 
ciliary ridges,  has  the  following  measurements : — 

Cephalic  length       . .         . .         . .     18*4  cm. 


»i 


17 


breadth 
index 
Nasal  height 
breadth 
index 


)} 


>> 


13-8 
75 

4*9  CM. 

21 
42*8 


» 


>> 


I  was  quite  recently  much  impressed  by  a  Tamil  Pariah, 
who  by  a  happy  chance  came  before  mo  for  examination, 
and  of  whom  the  following  measurements  were  recorded : — 

Height         161*8  otf. 


Cephalic  length 

breadth 
index 
Nasal  height 

breadth 

index 


19 
ft 


1* 


if 


1»7    „ 

78-1 

4*4  ov. 

4-a 
95-6 


>> 


tt 


With  his  prominent  superciliary  ridges  and  brushy  eye- 
brows, hairy  chest,  abdomen,  back,  arms,  and  legs,  and  long, 
dolichocephalic  head,  this  man  might,  save  for  his  broad 
nose,  have  passed  for  a  Toda  of  short  stature,  such  as  is 
frequently  met  with  among  the  Toda  community. 


^"^^FW.^^" 


'  <  Anatomj  of  Yertebrated  Animsli.' 


187 

I  am  unable  to  subscribe  to  the  general  prognathism  of 
the  Dravidian  tribes  of  Southern  India,  though  there  are 
some  notable  exceptions.  Wavy  and  curly  black  hair  are 
common  types,  but  I  have  seen  no  head  of  nair  to  which  the 
t^rm  woolly  could  be  correctly  applied. 

By  Flower  and  Lydetker  *  a  white  division  of  Man, 
<{alled  the  Caucasian  or  Eurafrican,  is  made  to  include 
Huxley's  Xanthochroi  (blonde  type)  and  Melanochroi  (black 
hair  and  eyes,  and  skin  of  almost  all  shades  from  white  to 
black)  ;  and  the  Melanochroi  are  said  to  "  comprise  the 
greater  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Europe, 
Northern  Africa,  and  South  West  Asia,  and  consist  mainly 
of  the  Aryan,  Semitic,  and  Hamitic  families.  The  Dravidi- 
ans  of  India,  the  Veddahs  of  Ceylon,  and  probably  the  Ainos 
of  Japan,  and  the  Maoutze  of  China,  also  belong  to  this  race, 
which  may  have  contributed  something  to  the  mixed  charaC' 
ter  of  some  tribes  of  Indo-China  ^  and  the  Polynesian  islands, 
and  have  given  at  least  the  characters  of  the  hair  to  the 
otherwise  Negroid  inhabitants  of  Australia.  In  Southern 
India  they  are  largely  mixed  with  a  Negrito  element,  and 
in  Africa,  where  their  habitat  becomes  coterminous  with 
that  of  the  Negroes,  numerous  cross-races  have  sprung 
up  between  them  all  along  the  frontier  line.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  were  nearly  pure  Melanochroi." 

In  describing  the  '  Hindu  type,'  Topinard  *  divides  the 
'  population  of  the  Indian  peninsula  into  three  strata,  viz.,  the 
Black,  the  Moivgolian,  and  the  Aryan.  "The  remnants  of 
the  first,"  he  says,  "  are  at  the  present  time  shut  up  in  the 
mountains  of  Central  India  under  the  name  of  Bhils,  Mahairs, 
Ghhonds,  and  Khonds;  and  in  the  south  under  that  of 
Tenftdis,  Maravers,  Kurumbas,  Veddahs,  etc.  Its  primitive 
characters,  apart  from  its  black  colour  and  low  stature,  are 
difficult  to  discover,  but  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  travellers  do 
not  speak  of  woolly  hair  in  India.  The  second  has  spread 
over  the  plateaux  of  Central  India  by  two  lines  of  way,  one 
to  the  north-east,  the  other  to  the  north-west.  The  rem- 
nants of  the  first  invasion  are  seen  in  the  Dravidian  or 
Tamil  tribes,  and  those  of  the  second  in  the  Jhats.  The  third 
more  recent,  and  more  important  as  to  quality  than  as  to 

A  Mammals,  living  and  extinct. 

^  Vide  Madras   Mnsenm  Bull.  No.  2,  Vol.  II,  p.  119,  sq  :  also  Toott- 
<;hippingf,  KAdirs,  antea,  p.  143. 

^  'Anthropology.'    Tranidfttion. 

O  0 


188 

nninber,  was  the  Arjan."     In  speaking  further  of  the  Anstra* 
lian  type,  charaotensed  by  a  oombination  of  smooth  hair  with 
Negroid  features,  Topinard  states  that  '^  it  is  clear  that  th& 
Australians  might  very  well  be  the  result  of  the  cross  between 
one  race  with  smooth  hair  from  some  other  place,  and  a  really 
Negro  and  autochthonous  race.     The  opinions  expressed  by 
Huxley  are  in  harmony  with  this  hypothesis.     He  says  the 
Australians   are   identical  with  the  ancient    inhabitants  of 
the  Deccan.    The  features  of  the  present  blacks  in  India, 
and  the  characters  which  the  Dravidian  and  Australian  Ian- 
guages  have  in  common,    tend  to    assimilate    them.     The 
existence  of  the  boomerang  ^  in  the  two  countries,  and  some 
remnants  of  caste  in  Australia,  help  to  support  the  opinion. 
But  the  state  of  extreme  misery  oi  the  inferior  tribes  may 
equally  explain  some  of  the  physical   differences  which  they 
present.     Woolly  hair  appears  now  to  be  but  seldom  seen,     A 
lew  examples  have  been  noticed  in  the  York  peninsula  and  the 
north-west  point,  which  might  bo  accounted  for  by  the  immi- 
gration of  Papuans  from  New  Gruinea,  and  in  the  south  by 
the  passage  over  to  the  other  side  of  Behring's  Straits  of  some 
Tasmanians  to  the  continent.     On  the  other  hand,  on  study- 
ing the  Australian  skull,  we  notice  tolerably-marked  differ- 
ences of  type,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  Polynesians  landed  at 
some  period  or. other  in  the  north-west,  and  the  Malays  in  the 
north-east.     Lastly,  if  the  Australians  are  thorough  Hindoos 
as  regards  their  hair,  they  are  Melanesians,  or,  if  you  will,  new 
Hebrideans,  new  Caledonian  Negroes,  in  every  other  respect. 
The  question  may,  therefore,  be  left.     We  are  still  in  ignor- 
ance as  to  whether  the  present  Australian  race  took  its  origin 
on  the  spot,  with  the  characters  that  we  admit  as  belonging  ta 
it,  or  whether,  on  the  contrary,  it  was  altogether  constituted 
in  Asia,  or  whether  it  is  a  cross  race,  and,  in  that  case,  of  what 
elements  it  is  composed.     Those  which  we  might  consider  in 
India  as  of  the  same  race  are  the  Bhils,  Grhonds,  Ehonds,. 
Mahairs,  Yaralis,  Mundas ;  Yeddahs,  Yan&dis,  and  Maravers 
of  the  coast  of  Goromandel.     Among  the  Todas  of  the  NiU 
gherries,  and,  strangely  enough,  farther  on  towards  the  north, 

^  Vide  Oppert,  Journal,  Madras  Literature  Society,  Vol.  XXV,  Boo- 
merangs are  used  by  the  Tamil  Maravars  and  Kalians  when  hunting  deer^ 
The  lubdras  Masenm  collection  contains  three  (two  ivoiy,  one  wooden) 
from  the  Tanjore  armoary.  In  the  arsenal  of  the  Fndakk<$ttai  B&ja  a 
stock  of  wooden  boomenngs  is  always  kept.  Their  name  in  Tamil  is  ralai 
tadi(bent  stick).  When  thrown,  a  whirling  motion  is  imparted  to  the 
weapon,  which  causes  it  to  return  to  the  place  from  which  it  was  thrown^ 
The  Natiyea  are  well  acquainted  with  this  peculiar  fact. 


189 

among  oertain  of  the  Ainus,  two  of  the  fundamental  Austra- 
lian traitB  are  met  with ;  namely,  the  very  projecting  super- 
ciliary aroh,  and  the  abundant  hair  over  the  whole  body.  In 
the  same  Nilgherry  hills,  in  the  desired  conditions  for  con- 
cealing, the  remnants  of  ancient  races,  two  tribes,  the  Irulas 
and  Kurumbas,  especially  afford  matter  for  reflection."  And 
to  these  must  be  added  the  Fanijrans,  Kadirs,  Sholigas,  and 
other  jungle  tribes,  in  the  investigation  of  which  I  am  at 
present  interested.  Finally,  Topinard  points  out,  as  a  some- 
what important  piece  of  evidence,  that,  in  the  west,  about 
Madagascar,  and  the  point  of  Aden  in  Africa,  there  are  black 
tribes  with  smooth  hair,  or,  at  all  events,  large  numbers  of 
individuals  who  have  it,  mingled  particularly  among  the 
Somalis  and  the  G-allas,  in  the  region  where  M.  Broca  has  an 
idea  that  some  dark  and  not  Negro  race,  now  extinct,  once 
existed.  He  also  refers,  in  a  sketch  of  ethnic  characters,  to 
the  institution  of  caste,  which  is  regularly  established  in  India, 
and  found  in  Australia  in  a  rudimentiu^  state,  as  well  as  in 
some  parts  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

At  the  last  meeting  of  the  British  Association,  Mr. 
W.  Crooke  gave  expression  to  the  view  that  the  Dravidians 
represent  an  emigration  from  the  African  continent,  and 
discounted  the  theory  that  the  Aryans  drove  the  '  aboriginal ' 
inhabitants  into  the  jungles  witti  the  suggestion  that  the 
Aryan  invasion  was  more  social  than  racial,  viz.,  that  what 
India  borrowed  from  the  Aryans  was  manners  and  customs. 
According  to  this  view  it  must  have  been  reforming  '  aborigi- 
nies '  who  gained  the  ascendancy  in  India,  rather  than  new 
comers ;  and  those  of  the  *•  aborigines '  who  clung  to  their  old 
ways  got  left  behind  in  the  struggle  for  existence. 

In  an  article  devoted. to  the  Australians,  Professor  B. 
Semon  writes  as  follows^ :  '^  We  must,  without  hesitation,  pre- 
sume that  the  ancestors  of  the  Australians  stood,  at  the  time 
of  their  immigration  to  the  continent,  on  a  lower  nu^  of 
culture  than  their  living  representatives  of  to-day.  They 
must  have  brought  with  them  their  only  domestic  animal,  the 
Dingo  dog,  for  they  could  not  have  round  it  in  Australia, 
which  contains  marsupials,  but  no  placental  mammals. 
Whence,  and  in  what  manner  the  immigration  took  place,  it 
is  difficult  to  determine.  In  the  neighbouring  quarter  of 
the  globe  there  lives  no  race,  which  is  closely  related  to  the 
Australians.    Their  nearest  neighbours,  the  Papuans  of  New 


•  Die  Natnr.  No.  20, 17  Maj,  1896. 


190 

€hiinca,  the  Malays  of  the  Suuda  lalands,  and  the  Maoris  of 
New  Zealand,  stand  in  no  elose  relationship  to  ihem.  On 
the  other  hand,  we  find  further  away,  among  the  Dravidian 
aborigines  of  India,  types  which  remind  us  forcibly  of  the 
Aiistralians  in  their  anfliropological  characters.  In  drawing 
attention  to  the  resemblance  of  the  hill-tribes  of  the  Deccan  to 
the  Australians,  Huxley  says  :  '  An  ordinary  cooly,  such  as 
one  can  see  among  the  sailors  of  any  newly-arrived  East 
Indian  vessel,  would,  if  stripped,  pass  very  well  for  an  Austra- 
lian, although  the  skull  and  lower  jaw  are  generally  less 
coarse.'  Huxley  here  goes  a  little  too  far  in  his  accentuation 
of  the  similarity  of  type.  We  are,  however,  undoubtedly  con- 
fronted with  a  number  of  characters — ^skuU  formation,  features, 
wavy  curled  hair — in  -common  between  the  Australians  and 
Dravidians,  which  gain  in  importance  from  the  fact  that,  by 
the  researches  of  Norris,  Bleek,  and  Caldwell,  a  number  of 
points  of  resemblance  between  the  Australian  and  Dravi- 
dian languages  have  been  discovered,  and  this  despite  the  fact 
that  the  homes  of  the  two  races  are  so  far  apart,  and  that  a 
number  of  races  are  wedged  in  between  them,  whose  languages 
have  no  relationship  whatever  to  either  the  Dravidian  or 
Australian. 

* 

"  There  is  much  that  speaks  in  favour  of  the  view  that  the 
Austr.alians  and  Dravidians  sprang  from  a  common  main 
branch  of  the  human  race.  According  to  the  laborious 
researches  of  Paul  and  Fritz  Sarasin,  the  Veddas  of  India  and 
Ceylon,  whom  one  might  call  pre-Dravidians,  would  represent 
an  off-shoot  from  this  main  stem.  When  they  branched  off, 
they  stood  on  a  very  low  rung  of  development,  and  seem  to 
have  made  hardly  any  progress  worth  mentioning.  The 
remarkable  ainus  of  Japan,  and  the  '  Khmers  '  and  Chams  of 
Cambogia  seem  to  be  scattered  off-shoots  of  the  Dravidian- 
Australian  main  branch. 

"  The  Caucasians  have  probably  sprung  from  the  Dravi- 
dians, and  we,  Europeans,  should,  therefore,  have  to  look  upon 
the  low  savages  of  Australia  as  relations,  very  distant  it  is 
true,  but  yet  nearer  related  to  us  than  Negroes,  Malays,  and 
Mongols.  It  has  been  pointed  out  by  several  observers  that 
the  features  of  the  Australians,  wiui  all  their  ugliness  and 
coarseness,  frequently  remind  one  of  low  types  of  the  Cauca- 
sian features.  To  those  who  regard  it  as  a  degradation  to 
the  human  race,  when  science  draws  the  oonolusion  that  man 
has  sprung  from  the  brute  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  and 
stands  in  close  relationship  with  the  ape-family,  tiie  reflection 
will  be  also  impleasant  that,  among  the  human  species,  the 


191 

Oauoaaians,  who,  for  severaL  thonsand  years,  have  progressed 
so  splendidly  and  so  far,  have  as  near  relations  the  nomad 
savages  of  Australia,  and  the  Yeddahs  who  are  designated 
monkeys  in  the  Hindu  legend.  To  soienoe  the  only  consider-^ 
ation  is  whether  the  oonofiisions  are  correot,  not  whether 
they  are  according  to  the  personal  taste  of  the  few.  It  is 
difficult  to  understand  how  there  can  be  anything  degrading 
in  belonging  to  a  race,  which,  from  crude  beginnings,  has 
worked  itself  up  to  the  still  rather  modest  level  of  modem 
Caucasian  civilisation  through  stages,  which  are  represented 
by  the  Yeddahs,  Australians,  and  Dravidians.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  something  sublime  in  the  conviction  that  the 
development  of  the  human  race^  both  bodily  and  intelleotualy 
is  as  yet  unfinished,  and  that  our  present  state  of  civilisation, 
burthened  with  innumerable  imperfections,  will  be  regarded 
by  our  descendants  in  the  far  future  as  a  long  surpassed  one, 
as  derisively  as  we  now  look  down  on  the  state  of  civilisation 
and  culture  of  the  Australians  and  Veddahs." 

In  desJing  with  the  Australian  problem^Mr.  A.  H.  Keane  ' 
refers  to  the  time  when  Australia  formed  almost  continuous 
land  with  the  African  continent,  and  to  its  accessibility  on  the 
north  and  north-west  to  primitive  migration  both  from  India 
and  Papoasia.  ^^  That  such  migrations,"  he  says,  ''  took 
place,  scarcely  admits  of  a  doubt,  and  the  Be  v.  John  Mathew  ^^ 
concludes  that  the  continent  was  first  occupied  by  a  homo- 
geneous branch  of  the  Papuan  race  either  from  New  Guinea 
or  Malaysia,  and  that  these  first  arrivals,  to  be  regarded  as 
true  aborigines,  passed  into  Tasmania,  which  at  that  time 
probably  formed  continuous  land  with  Australia.  Thus  the 
now  extinct  Tasmanians  would  represent  the  primitive  type, 
which,  in  Australia,  became  modified,  but  not  effaced,  by 
crossing  with  later  immigrants,  chiefly  from  India.  These  are 
identified,  as  they  have  been  by  other  ethnologists,  with  the 
Dravidians,  and  the  writer  remarks  that  ^  although  the 
Australians  are  stiU  in  a  state  of  savagery,  and  the  Dravidians 
of  India  have  been  for  many  ages  a  people  civilized  in  a  great 
measure,  and  possessed  of  literature,  the  two  peoples  are 
affiliated  by  deeply-marked  characteristics  in  their  social 
system  as  shown  by  the  boomerang,  which  unless  locally 
evolved,  must  have  been  introduced  from  India.  But  the 
variations  in  the  physical  characters  of  the  Natives  appear  to 
be  too  great  to  he  accounted  for  by  a  single  graft ;  hence 

•  *  Ethnology,'  1896. 

»  Proo.  B.  Soo.  N.  S.  Wftleii  XXm,  part  III. 

PP 


192 

MalajB  also  are  inirodaoed  from  the  Eastern  AxohipelagOi 
which  would  ozplain  both  the  straight  hair  in  maay  distriote, 
aad  a  number  of  pure  Malay  words  in  several  of  the  native 
languages."  Dealing  later  with  the  ethnioal  relations  of  the 
Dravidas,  Mr.  Eeane  says  thalT "  although  they  preceded 
the  Aryan-speaking  Hindus,  they  are  not  tiie  true  aborigines 
of  the  Deooan,  for  they  were  themselves  preceded  by  dark 
peoples,  probably  of  aberrant  Negrito  type.  They  are  usually 
regarded  as  a  Mongoloid  people,  who  entered  India  from  the 
north-westy  leaving  on  the  route  the  Brah^is  of  Baluchistan, 
whose  language  shows  some  remote  resemblance  to  Dravidian. 
But  at  present  the  type  cannot  be  called  MongoKc ;  it  scarcely 
differs  from  the  average  Hindu,  except  in  some  districts, 
where  it  has  been  somewhat  modified  oy  contact  with  the 
Eolarians  and  dark  aborigines  ....  It  would  seem 
that  the  position  of  the  Indian  Dravidas  is  somewhat  analo- 
gous to  the  Gaucasic  type,  and  both  have  accepted  Aryan 
culture,  while  preserving  intact  their  non-Aryan  speech." 

Placing  the  Dravidians  with  the  Negrito  and  Negrito- 
Papuan  families  of  the  Negrito  section  of  the  Indo-Melane- 
sian  branch  of  the  Negro  or  Ethiopian  trunk,  de  Quatrefages  ** 
lays  special  stress  on  the  influence  of  crossing  (m^tissaffe)^ 
whQe  recognising  that  the  Kuruojbas,  and  other  jungle  trioesi 
have  preserved  their  purity  of  blood  and  ethnological  charac- 
ters more  or  less  completely.  Which  purity  of  blood  and 
S reservation  of  characters  are  imhappily  commencing  to 
egenerate  as  the  result  of  the  opening  up  of  the  jungles  for 
tea  and  coffee  estates,  and  the  contact  with  more  civilised 
tribes  and  races,  black  and  white.  '^  In  the  Gangetio  penin- 
sula, "  de  Quatrefages  says,  "  and  the  whole  qj  India  to  the 
foot  of  the  Himalayas,  this  crossing  is  carried  out  on  an 
immense  scale.  All  the  so-called  Dravidian  population,  and 
many  others  known  by  different  names,  indicate,  by  their 
physical  characters,  the  presence  of  a  black  ethnological 
element.  Documents  of  all  sorts,  photographs,  skulls,  etc., 
testify  that  this  element  is  almost  constantly  Negrito.  The 
rdle  played  in  this  admixture  by  the  three  fundamental  i^pes 
is  very  unequal,  and  varies  according  to  the  country  which 
one  examines.  But,  wherever  Dravi£ans  exist,  the  Blacks 
constitute  the  foundation  of  the  half-breed  race.  Most  fre- 
quently it  is  the  yellow  race,  represented  by  the  Thibetans, 
which  has  united  with  them.    The  white  race  only  ranks  in 


"  *  Hutoire  ^n^nJ9  49b  Raooa  HmnaiiMa.' 


193 

the  third  line.  The  legend  of  B4ma  permits  us  to  allow  that 
the  Aryans,  on  their  arrival  in  Southern  India,  did  not  disdain 
to  oontraot  political  alliances  with  these  little  black  people. ^^ 
In  India  most  of  the  Dravidian  tribes  appear  to  owe  their 
oharaoters  to  an  admixture  of  black  and  yellow.  In  the 
valleys  of  the  Upper  Br&hmaputra,  and  many  other  localitieB^ 
the  influence  of  Thibetan  races  is  very  marked.  The  general 
type  has  been  altered  by  crossing  with  Br&hmanical  Aryans, 
and  other  white  races.  It  is  this  ensemble  of  half-caste 
races,  all  haviug  Negrito  blood  in  common,  possibly  also 
some  traces  of  Australian  blood,  that  I  propose  to  designate 
by  the  name  of  Dravidians.  In  a  region  invaded  a  thousand 
tunes  since  the  most  remote  times,  many  of  the  peoples 
cannot  but  have  been  profoundly  modified  from  an  ethnolog- 
ical point  of  view,  though  preserving  their  languages  ;  whUe 
others  forffot  the  language  of  their  fatliers,  whose  essential 
physical  characters  they,  however,  preserved.'^ 

Turning  now  to  writers,  who  have  spent  a  great  part  of 
their  lives  in  the  Madras  Presidency.  In  the  '  Manual  of  the 
Administration  '  of  this  Presidency,  Dr.  G.  Maclean  writes  as 
follows  :  "  The  history  proper  of  the  south  of  India,  may  be 
held  to  begin  with  the  Hindu  dynasties  formed  by  a  more  or 
less  intimate  admixture  of  the  Aryan  and  Dravidian  systems 
of  Qovemment.  But,  prior  to  that,  three  stages  of  historical 
knowledge  are  recognizable ;  first,  as  to  such  aboriginal  period 
as  there  may  have  been  prior  to  the  Dravidian  ;  seoondlj,  as 
to  the  period  when  the  Aryans  had  begun  to  impose  their 
religion  and  customs  upon  the  Draviddans,  but  the  time 
indicated  by  the  early  dynasties  had  not  yet  been  reached. 
Gheology  and  natural  history  alike  make  it  certain  that,  at  a 
time  within  the  bounds  of  human  knowledge,  Southern  India 
did  not  form  part  of  Asia.  A  large  southern  continent,  of 
which  this  country  once  formed  part,  has  ever  been  assumed 
as  necessary  to  account  for  the  different  circumstances.  The 
Sanscrit  Pooranic  writers,  the  Ceylon  Boodhists,  and  the 
local  traditions  of  the  West  Coast,  all  indicate  a  great 
disturbance  of  the  point  of  the  Peninsula  and  Ceylon  within 

^*  Ho<7  great  mnst  have  been  the  influence  of  hybridisation  on  the  popu- 
lation of  Southern  India,  when  carried  on  through  ages,  is  accentuated  bj 
reference  to  the  practical  outcome  of  only-  a  few  centuries  of  contact 
between  Europeans  and  Natives,  which  has  resulted  in  the  creation  and 
establishment  of  a  fertile  half -breed  race,  numbering,  according  to  the 
Madras  Presidency  Census  return,  1891,  26,648— vtde  Madras  Museuo^ 
Bulletin,  Vol.  II,  No.  2,  1898. 


194 

leoent  tiiiies.^*  Investigatioiis  in  relation  to  race  show  it  to 
be  by  no  means  impossible  that  Southern  India  was  ODce 
the  passage-ground,  by  which  the  ancient  progenitors  of 
Northern  and  Mediterranean  races  proceeded  to  the  parts  of 
the  globe  which  they  now  inhabit.  In  this  part  of  the  world, 
as  in  others^  antiquarian  remains  show  tke  existence  of 
peoples,  who  used  sucoessiyely  implements  of  unwrought 
stone,  of  wrought  stone,  and  of  metal  fashioned  in  the  most 
primitive  manner.^^  These  tribes  have  also  left  cairns  and 
stone  circles  indicating  burial  places.  It  has  been  usual  to  set 
these  down  as  earlier  than  Dravidian.  But  the  hill  Goorum- 
bar  of  the  Palmanair  plateau,  who  are  only  a  detached 
portion  of  the  oldest  Known  Tamulian  population^  erect 
dolmens  to  this  day.  The  sepulchral  urns  of  Tinnevelly 
may  be  earlier  than  Dravidian,  or  they  may  be  Dravidian. 
It  has  been  stated  that  the  wild  tribes  of  Southern  India 
are  physiologically  of  an  earlier  type  than  the  Dravidian 
tribes.  This  position  has  been  found  not  to  be  proved, 
the  conclusions  being  of  a  negative  nature.  The  evidence 
of  the  grammatical  structure  of  language  is  to  be  relied  on 
as  a  clearly  distinctive  mark  of  a  population,  but,  from  this 
point  of  view,  it  appears  that  there  are  more  signs  of  the 
great  lapse  of  time  than  of  previous  populations.  The 
fi^rammar  of  the  south  of  India  is  exclusively  Dravidian,  and 
bears  no  trace  of  ever  having  been  anything  else.  The  hiU, 
forest,  and  Pariah  tribes  use  the  Dravidian  forms  of 
grammar  and  inflection  ....  The  Dravidians,  a  very 
primeval  race,^^  take  a  by  no  means  low  place  in  the  con- 
jectural history  of  humanity.  They  have  aflSnities  with  the 
Australian  aborigines,  which  would  probably  connect  their 
earliest  origin  with  that  people.     But  they  have  emerged 

^'  "  It  is  evident  thai,  dnring  mnoh  of  the  tertiary  period,  Ceylon  and 
South  India  were  bounded  on  the  north  by  a  considerable  extent  of  sea, 
and  probably  formed  part  of  an  eztensiye  southern  continent  or  great 
island.  The  very  numerous  and  remarkable  cases  of  affinity  with  Malaya 
require,  however,  some  closer  approximation  to  these  islands,  which 
probably  occurred  at  a  later  period."  Wallace,  *  G«ographioal  Distribution 
of  Animals.' 

^^Vide  Breeks'  'Primitive  Tribes  and  Monuments  of  the  Nilgiris' ; 
Phillips  *  Tumuli  of  the  Salem  district ' ;  Bea,  *  Prehistoric  Burial  Places 
in  Southern  India ' ;  and  the  Madras  Museum  collection.  Mr.  B.  Bruoe 
Foote  has,  I  am  happy  to  say,  in  hand  the  preparation  of  a  catalogue 
raisonn^  of  his  magnificent  collection  of  Indian  *  Prehistoric  Implements, 
fto.' 

**  Sir  John  Evans,  in  his  Presidential  address  at  the  meeting  of  the 
'British  Association,  1897,  referred  to  the  possibility  of  Southern  India 
toeing '  the  cradle  of  the  human  race.' 


L 


195 

horn  the  lower  typey  and  acquired  oharaoteristies  putting^ 
them  at  no  great  distance  in  the  physiological  scale  from  the 
later  developed  Semitic  and  Caucasian  races.  A  a  now 
known,  they  are  not  straight-haired  like  the  Malays  and 
Mongolians,  but  more  or  less  ourly-hairod,  like  both  of  the 
last  named.  The  theory  that  they  came  to  India  from 
without,  passing  over  the  north-west  boundary,  and  through 
tSeinde,  does  not  rest  on  sufficient  evidence.  If  the  Dravi- 
dians  moved  into  India  at  all,  it  may  be  more  reasonably 
conjectured  that  they  came  from  the  south  or  the  east. 

•'About  2,000  or  3,000  years  B.C.,  perhaps  at  the 
beginning  of  what  has  been  styled  the  Kaliyog,  or  3101  B.C., 
the  Sanscrit-speaking  Aryans  came  into  India  from  their 
original  home  at  the  sources  of  the  Oxus  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Bokhara,  where  they  had  resided  till  the  period  when 
the  Iranic  branch  of  the  tribe  went  to  the  south-east.  The 
Indie  branch  of  the  Aryans  advanced  down  the  basins  of  the 
Indus  and  the  Ganges  to  the  estuary  of  both  rivers ;  and 
then  proceeded  by  different  routes  into  the  lower  and  middle 
range  of  the  HimSilaya,  up  the  valley  of  Assam,  down  the  Coast 
of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  as  far  as  Chicacole  in  the  Gkmj&m 
district,  across  the  rivers  Nerbudda  and  Mahanuddy  into 
Central  India,  and  along  the  West  Coast  as  far  south  as  Qoa. 
Another  portion  of  the  same  branch  went  by  sea  to  Ceylon, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Singhalese  civilization." 

Adopting  a  novel  classification,  Dr.  Maclean,  in  assuming 
that  there  are  no  living  representatives  in  Southern  India 
of  any  race  of  a  wholly  pre-i)ravidian  character,  sub-divides 
the  Dravidians  into  pre-Tamulian  and  Tamulian,  to  designate 
two  branches  of  the  same  family,  one  older  or  less  civiUsed 
than  the  other. 

Bishop  Caldwell^®,  in  summing  up  the  question  whether 
the  forest  tribes,  the  lower  castes,  and  tne  so-called  '*  outcasts" 
which  speak  the  Dravidian  languages,  are  of  the  same  origin 
and  of  the  same  race  as  the  Dravidians  of  the  higher  castes, 
expresses  his  opinion  that  the  supposition  that  the  lower 
castes  in  the  Dravidian  provinces  belong  to  a  different  race 
from  the  higher,  appears  to  him  untenable.  '^  It  seems,"  he 
says, ''  safer  to  hold  that  all  the  indigenous  tribes,  who  were 
found  by  the  Aryans  in  Southern  India,  belonged  substan- 
tially to  one  and  the  same  race.  It  is  probable  enough  that 
the  Dravidians  were  broken  up  into  tnbes  before  the  Aryan 


^  '  Compax»tive  Grammar  of  the  Drayidian  LaDipna^i,' 


196 

munigratioiiy  and  Obat  tlie  diBtinotions,  not  only  of  liober 
and  poorer,  but  alao  of  master  and  slave,  had  already  oome 
into  existoDoe  amon^  them.  Those  distinctions  may  have 
formed  the  foundation  of  the  oaste  system,  which  their 
Brahmanioal  civilisers  built  up,  and  which  was  moulded  by 
degrees  into  an  exact  counterpart  of  the  caste  system  of 
Northern  India." 

In  his  '  Original  Inhabitants  of  Bharatavarsha  or  India,' 
Dr.  Q.  Oppert  contends  that  the  names  of  many  Dravidian 
tribes  are  derived  from  the  Dravidian  roots '  mal '  and  *  ku  * 
both  meaning  a  mountain.  He  thus  traces  an  ultimate 
philological  identity  between  the  names  of  tribes  and  castes 
scattered  throughout  India,  such  as  the  M&las,  Malay&lis, 
and  Maravars  ;  the  Kois,  Khonds,  G-onds,  Koravas,  Kurum- 
bas,  Kodagus ;  and  very  many  others.  The  relation  of  the 
existing  hill  and  jungle  tribes  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  plains 
is  discussed  in  the  IVansactions  of  the  Ethnological  Society^^ 
by  Mr.  J.  Crawfurd,  who  there  challenges  the  theory  which 
supposes  the  rude  mountaineers  to  be  the  sole  ^  aborigines ' 
of  India,  while  it  imagines  the  civilised  inhabitants  to  be 
intrusive  strangers,  who,  in  a  remote  antiquity,  invaded 
India,  conquered  it,  and  settled  in  it  under  the  imposed 
names  of  Aryans  for  Northern  and  Turanian  for  Southern 
India.  "  To  suppose/'  Mr.  Crawfurd  writes,  "  so  sreat 
and  fertile  a  r^on  of  the  earth,  and  one  oonseqaentiy  so 
favourable  to  the  promotion  of  an  early  civilisation,  to  have 
been,  within  the  historical  period,  destitute  of  any  other 
original  inhabitants  than  the  few  rude  tribes  now  confined 
to  its  least  favourable  localities,  until  it  came  to  be  peopled 
by  immigrant  strangers  from  remote  countries,  is  contrary  to 
what  is  Known  to  be  the  case,  in  all  other  portions  of  the 
globe.  For  my  own  part,  I  am  satisfied  that  both  the  moun- 
taineers and  the  inhabitants  of  the  open  plains  and  valleys 
are  alike  Natives  of  the  soil  and  of  the  same  race,  allowance 
being  made  for  such  varieties  of  type  as  are  found  to  exist 
in  ower  large  regions  of  the  earth.  .  .  .  It  is  an  opinion 
very  generally  entertained  by  Indian  ethnologists  that  the 
races  which  they  suppose  to  be  the  aborigines  of  India 
partake  of  a  Negro  character,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
civilised  people  of  the  low-lands  ;  but  this  is  a  notion,  for 
which  I  am  satisfied  there  is  no  ground  whatever.  Through- 
out the  continent  of  India  no  Negro  or  Negroid  race  nas 

"  Vol.  VI,  1868— The  Bnpposed  Aborigine!  of  India  m  diitiiiguiabeA 
from  its  CiviliMd  Inbabitcmts. 


197 

erer  been  found  to  exist.  WhereTer  Negritos  or  Negroid 
races  exist,  their  presence  is  unmistakably  pronounced,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  Andaman  Islands." 

In  an  article  entitled,  ''Caste  and  Colour"  Mr.  C 
Johnston  (Calcutta  Beview,  1895)  (livides  the  people  of  India 
on  a  simple  colour  basis  into  four  or  five  principal  types,  with 
a  series  of  intermediate  types  gradually  melting  into  eaoh 
other.    These  principal  types  are — 

1.  Fair,  almost  white.     Brfthman. 

2.  Bed.    Baiput. 

3.  Yellow.    Purest  examples,  the  Kocoh  and  Sant&li 

in  lower  Bengal,  and  the  S&vara  in  Madras. 

4.  Black,  or  nearly  black.     Dravidian. 

"  We  must,"  Mr.  Johnston  says,  "  content  ourselyes  for 
the  present  with  saying  that  it  seems  fairly  certain  that 
there  is  a  great  ethnical  family  in  Southern  India,  distin- 
guished primarily  by  black  or  almost  black  skin ;  that  this 
ethnical  family  cannot  number  less  than  a  hundred  million 
indiyiduals ;  and  that  this  great  ethnical  family  is  not  related 
to  any  other  ethnical  family  in  Asia,  but  is  isolated  and 
distinct ;  so  that  we  must  seek  for  the  ethnical  kindred  of  the 
black  Dravidian,  if  such  kindred  exist,  outside  Asia  altogether, 
in  some  direction  at  present  undermined.  ...  It  has 
for  a  long  time  been  conceded  that  the  fourth  caste  of  the 
Brfthmanical  polity  was  drawn  from  this  black  race." 


Conversion  TalU, 


In. 

Cm. " 

Ft. 

In. 

Cm. 

2-54 

1 

0 

30*48 

1 

508 

1 

6 

45-72 

t 

7-62 

2 

0 

60-96 

4 

1016 

2 

6 

76-20 

5 

12-70 

3 

0 

91-44 

6 

15-24 

3 

6 

106-68 

7 

1778 

4 

0 

121-92 

8 

20-32 

4 

6 

13716 

9 

2286 

6 

0 

152-40 

10 

25-40 

6 

6 

167-64 

11 

27-94 

6 

0 

182-88 

12 

30-48 

6 

6 

19812 

/^ 


AGENTS  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  GOVERNMENT 

PUBLICATIONS. 


IN  IIVIDIA. 

Nbwman  &  Co.,  Calcutta. 
TiiACKER,  Spixk  &  Co.,  Calcutta. 
HiGoiKBOTHAH  &  Co.,  Mount  Boad,  Madras* 
Thacker  &  Co.  (Limited),  Bombay. 
E.  Seymoub  Halb,  Bombay. 


IN  LONDON. 

E.  A.  Arnold,  37,  Bedford  Street,  Strand,  W.C. 

C0N8TARLB  &  Co.,  2,  WbitebaU  Gardens,  8.W. 

Sampson  Low,  Marston  &  Co.,  St.  Dunstan's  House,  Fetter 
Lane,  E.C. 

P.  S.  King  &  Son,  9,  Bridge  Street,  Westminster,  8.W. 

Luzac  &  Co.,  46,  Great  Russell  Street,  W.C. 

Keqan  Paul,  Trench,  Trubner  &  Co.,  Charing  Gross  Eoad, 
W.C. 

B.  QuARiTCH,  15,  Piccadilly.  W. 


ON  THE  CONTINENT. 

Friedlander  &  SoHN,  11,  Carlstrasse,  Berlin. 

Otto  Harrassowitz,  Leipzig. 

Karl  W.  Hiersemann,  Leipzig. 

Ehnest  Leroux,  28,  Rue  Bonaparte,  Paris. 

Martinus  Nijuoef,  Tbe  Hague,  IloUand. 


E\: 


er 


» 


I