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^outi)  BaHota  ^tbool  of  jEtnes  |  '^^^ 

^/  '  JBULLETIN  NO.   12  -•  - 

Departments  of  Geology  aud  Glieiniskry    . 


The  Occurrence,  Chemistry, 

Metallurgy  and  Uses 

of  Tungsten 

With  Special  Reference  to  the  Black  Hills 
of  South  Dakota 

By 

J.  J.  RUNNER  and  M.  L.  HARTMANN 


^Including 

A  Bibliography  of  Tungsten 

By  M.  L.  HARTMANN 

RAPID  CITY,  SOUTH  DAKOTA 

September,  1918 


-^ 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines, 
Rapid  City,  March  15,  1918. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  paper  by  Professor  J.  J. 
Runner  of  our  Department  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrography  and  Professor 
M.  L.  Hartmann  of  our  Department  of  Chemistry,  entitled  "The  Occur- 
rence, Chemistry,  Metallurgy  and  Uses  of  Tungsten  with  Special  Reference 
to  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota"  including  "A  Bibliography  of 
Tungsten"  by  Professor  M.  L.  Hartmann.  The  paper  is  an  important  one 
and  should  prove  of  value  to  all  who  may  be  interested  in  the  occurrence 
and  uses  of  tungsten. 

I  submit  the  paper  with  the  recommendation  that  it  be  published  as 
Bulletin  No.   1  2  of  the  South  Dakota  State  School  of  Mines. 

Respectfully, 
CLEOPHAS  C.   O'HARRA,  President. 

HON.  T.  W.  DWIGHT, 

President  Regents  of  Education. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PART  I. — Geological  occurrence  of  tungsten  with  special  reference  to 
the  Black  Hills,  by  J.  J.  Runner. 
CHAPTER   I.      The   geological   occurrence   of   tungsten. 
Tungsten   minerals. 

Minerals  for  which  tungsten  ores  are  frequently  mistaken. 
Mineral  associates  of  tungsten  in   the  ores. 
Rocks  associated  with  tungsten  ores. 
Types  of  deposits. 

Segregation   deposits. 

Pegmatites. 

Veins. 

Replacement  deposits. 

Contact  metamorphic  deposits. 

Placers. 
Persistence  of  tungsten  ores  in  depth. 
Important  tungsten  deposits  of  the  United  States. 
Foreign    occurrences. 

CHAPTER   II.      Geology  of  the   Black  Hills. 
Topography. 

General    geologic   relations. 
Pre-Cambrian  formations  and  history. 

Rocks  of  sedimentary  origin. 

Intrusive  Igneous  rocks. 

Structure    p.nd    metamorphism. 

Pre-Cambrian  history. 
Post-Algonkian  sedimentary   formations. 
Structure  of  the  post-Algonkian  sedimentary  rocks. 
Tertiary  igneous  intrusives. 

Structural  relations  of  the  Tertiary  igneous  intrusives. 
Post-Algonkian  history. 

CHAPTER  III.      The  tungsten  deposits  of  the  Black  Hills. 
Historical. 

Location  of  deposits. 
Types   of   deposits. 
Deposits  of  the  Harney  Peak  area. 
Deposits  of  the  Nigger  Hill  area. 
Summary  of  characteristics   of  the  tungsten  deposits  in  pre- 

Cambrian  rocks. 
Origin  of  the  tungsten  deposits  in  the  pre-Cambriau  rocks. 
The   deposits   of   the   Lead-Deadwood   area. 

General   geology  of  the  district. 

Location    of   the    deposits. 

Deposits  of  the  Homestake  Mining  Company. 


Deposits  of  Wasp  No.    2   Mining  Company. 
Deposits  at  the  Etta  Mine.    (Lawrence   Co.) 
Deposits  at  Deadwood. 
Deposits  on  the  Denis  Renault  claims. 
Deposits  on  upper  Two  Bit  Creek. 

Origin   of   the   tungsten   deposits   of   the    Lead-Deadwood 
area. 

CHAPTER  IV.      Concentration  and  production  of  ore. 
Concenti'ation   of    the   ores. 
Statistics   of   production. 

PART    II.      Chemistry,    Metallurgy    and    Uses    of    Tungsten    by    M.    L. 
Hartmann. 

CHAPTER  V.      Historical. 

CHAPTER   VI.      Preparation    of   metallic      tungsten      and      ferro- 

tungsten. 
Decomposition    of    wolframite. 

Sodium   carbonate    fusion   method. 

Soda  solution  method. 

Aqua  Regia  method. 

Carbon  tetrachloride  method. 

Bisulphate    method. 
Decomposition  of  scheelite. 
Acid  method. 
Alkali  fluoride  method. 
Reduction  of  tungstic  oxide  to  a  metal. 

By  carbon  in  crucibles. 

By  carbon  in  the  electric  furnace. 

Reduction  by  aluminum. 

Reduction  by  Silicon  carbide. 

Reduction   by  Boron  and  silicon. 

Reduction  by  zinc. 

Reduction  by  gases. 
Preparation  of  ductile  tungsten. 
Manufacture   of   ferro-tungsten. 

By  reduction  with  carbon  in  crucibles. 

By    the    alumino-thermic    method. 

By  the  silico-thermic  method. 

By  direct  reduction  in  electric  furnace. 
Decarburization   of  ferro-tungsten  and  cast  tungsten. 
Dephosphorization   of   ferro-tungsten. 
Quality  of  ore  demanded  by  users. 
Chemical  treatment  of  impure  ores. 

CHAPTER  VII.      Properties  of  the   metal. 
Physical    properties. 


Chemical   behavior. 
Atomic  weight. 

CHAPTER   VIII.      Uses   for   the   metal. 
In  iron  alloys. 

Introduction. 

History  of  use  in  steel. 

Manufacture  of  alloy  steel. 

Heat  treatment  of  alloy  steel. 

Theory   of  high  speed   steels. 
In  non-ferrous  alloys. 
In  metal  filament  lamps. 
Miscellaneous  uses. 

CHAPTER  IX.      Compounds  of  tungsten  and  their  uses. 
Oxides. 
Acids. 
Tungstates. 

Tungsten  and  halogens. 
Tungsten  and  sulfur. 
Tungsten  and  nitrogen. 
Tungsten  and  phosphorus. 
Tungsten   and  arsenic. 
Tungsten   and  boron. 
Tungsten   and   carbon. 
Tungsten  and  silicon. 
Organic  salts  of  tungsten. 

CHAPTER  X.      Analytical  chemistry. 
Qualitative   detection   of  tungsten. 
Quantitative  determination  of  tungsten. 
Specific  gravity  methods. 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Plate    I. 

Topographical    map    Black    Hills. 
Plate    11  A, 

Wolframite — Hill    City. 
Plate    II B. 

Tungsten   Ore — Robinson   claim.      Spokane,    S.    D. 
Plate    III  A. 

Granular  Wolframite  replacing  dolomite.     Homestake  Mine,  Lead,   S.  D. 
Plate  IIIB. 

Wedge  shaped  crystals   of  wolframite   grown   in   open   cavities.      Home- 
stake    Mine,    Lead,    S.    D. 

Plate   IV   A. 

Radiating    group,  of    bladed    crystals    of    hubernite.       Two    Bit    Creek, 
Lawrence  County,   S.   D. 

Plate  I\  B, 

Crystalline    wolframite    in    cavities    and    seams    of    rhyolito    porphyry. 
Henault   claim,    near   Lead,    S.    D. 

Plate  V. 

The   Harney  Range   from   the   west. 
Plate   VI  A. 

Harney   Peak   from   the   west. 
Plate    VI  B. 

Harney  Peak   from   the   south. 
Plate    VII. 

Topographical    map    of    Harney    Peak    area    showing    location    of    prin- 
cipal   tungsten    deposits. 

Plate  VIII. 

Topographical    map    of    Lead-Deadwood    region     showing     location     of 
principal   tung-sten   deposits. 

Plate   IX  A. 

Nortliern    Hills    near    Homestake    wolframite    deposits. 
Plate   IX  B. 

W^asp    No.    2    open    cut. 
Plate  X  A. 

Homestake    tungsten    mine,    Lead,    S.    D. 
Plate   X  B. 

Homestake    tungsten    mill.    Lead,    S.    D. 
Plate  XI  A. 

Wasp   No.    2   mill. 
Plate   XI  B. 

Elkhorn    Tungsten    Co.'s    plant. 
Fig.   1. 

Columnar   section   of   the   Black   Hills   region. 
Fig.   3. 

Diagram    illustrating    occurrence    of    tung'sten    ores    in    cambrian    dolo- 
mite.     Homestake    mine.    Lead,    S.    D.      (After    A.    J.    M.    Ross) 


PREFACE 

For  some  time  past  and  especially  during  the  last  three 
years,  the  South  Dakota  State  School  of  Mines  has  received 
numerous  requests  from  citizens  of  the  state,  and  from  many 
others,  for  information  regarding  tungsten  and  tungsten  de- 
posits. These  inquiries  have  been  for  data  upon  a  wide 
range  of  subjects,  including  the  chemistry,  metallurgy,  uses, 
minerals,  and  geologic  occurrence  of  tungsten  in  other  locali- 
ties, as  well  as  in  the  Black  Hills.  The  general  field  was  par- 
tially covered  by  brief  articles  on  various  phases  of  the  sub- 
ject, published  in  the  Tungsten  Number  of  the  School  of 
Mines  Magazine,  The  Pahasapa  Quarterly,  in  February  1916, 
but  the  limited  supply  of  this  publication  was  soon  exhausted. 
The  issue  of  this  number  of  the  magazine  has  resulted  in 
stimulating  the  demand  for  more  information. 

This  bulletin  is  written  in  the  attempt  to  bring  together 
pertinent  information  concerning  the  general  subject  of 
tungsten.  Some  of  this  material  has  already  appeared  in  the 
literature,  but  is  not  readily  accessible  to  many  persons  in- 
terested in  the  subject.  Other  parts,  especially  those  relating 
to  the  deposits  of  the  Black  Hills,  are  the  result  of  field 
work  and  laboratory  research  by  the  authors. 

It  was  the  original  intention  to  make  the  chapter  on  the 
geologic  occurrence  of  tungsten  very  complete,  but  the  ap- 
pearance last  year  of  an  excellent  treatment  of  this  sub- 
ject in  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  Bulletin  652,  on  Tungsten 
Minerals  and  Deposits  by  Mr.  Frank  L.  Hess,  seems  to  ren- 
der a  thorough  treatment  of  this  subject  quite  superfluous.  In 
Chapter  1,  however,  some  data  have  been  included  not  found 
in  Hess'  bulletin,  that  may  prove  to  be  of  value  to  many 
readers.  In  this  chapter  the  data  presented  by  Hess  have 
been  freely  used  in  order  that  they  might  be  available  to 
some  not  in  possesssion  of  his  publication. 

The  authors  wish  to  express  their  thanks  to  ex-Supt. 
Richard  Blackstone,  and  to  Supt.  Bruce  C.  Yates  of  the  Home- 
stake  Mining  Company,  and  to  Messrs.  A.  J.   Clark,   W.  J. 


Sharwood,  A.  J.  M.  Ross,  and  Patrick  Hayes,  of  the  same 
company  for  information  regarding  the  Homestake  deposits; 
to  Mr.  Ed  Manion  for  information  regarding  the  Wasp  No.  2 
and  Bismarck  deposits;  and  to  Mr.  Otto  Ellerman,  and  Mr. 
George  Coats  for  data  on  various  properties. 

We  wish  also  to  express  our  appreciation  of  the  generous 
services  rendered  by  Miss  Delia  M.  Haft  and  Messrs.  W.  C. 
Bochert,  and  W.  W.  Waldschmidt  in  preparing  the  manu- 
script, and  in  various  other  ways. 

Finally  we  desire  to  record  our  gratitude  to  Pres.  C.  C. 
O'Harra  and  to  the  Regents  of  Education  for  making  possible 
the  publication  of  this  report,  and  to  Pres.  O'Harra  also,  for 
his  hearty  co-operation  and  his  valued  suggestions  upon 
numerous  phases  of  the  work. 


INTRODUCTION 

About  the  middle  of  1915,  after  the  war  had  been  in 
progress  for  nearly  a  year,  the  war  industries  awoke  to  the 
fact  that  no  rapid  tool  steel  was  to  be  obtained  because  Ger- 
many had  forseen  the  situation  and  had  secured  a  monopoly 
on  the  tungsten  ore  production.  A  violent  sepeculative  rise 
in  the  price  of  tungsten  stimulated  intensive  search  for  new 
sources  of  the  ores,  and  as  a  result  many  new  deposits  were 
opened,  and  increased  production  was  reported  from  nearly 
all  fields. 

Dr.  C.  G.  Fink  says  that  every  age  has  had  its  "key" 
substance,  on  the  existence  of  which  its  civilization  has  large- 
ly depended.  In  the  stone  age  the  tribe  which  controlled  the 
best  flint  deposits  had  the  upper  hand  until  some  other  tribe 
discovered  bronze.  Bronze  as  "key  metal"  was  displaced  by 
steel,  which  in  turn  gave  place  to  lead  for  use  in  bullets.  Still 
later,  copper  became  the  key,  because  it  made  possible  the 
percussion  cap.  Tungsten  is  the  key  metal  of  today,  because 
by  the  use  of  tungsten  steel,  modern  manufacturing  methods 
have  been  revolutionized.  "To  deprive  a  nation  of  tungsten 
is  to  cripple  its  military  power  in  time  of  war,  and  its  indus- 
trial power  in  time  of  peace.  Without  high  speed  steels,  ma- 
chine tools  could  not  be  produced  nor  operated  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  make  the  'seventy-five'  and  its  thousands  of 
shells,  the  rifle  and  machine  gun  and  its  millions  of  cart- 
ridges. Nor  could  automobiles,  farm  machinery,  ships,  or  en- 
gines be  replenished  after  the  sword  has  been  happily  sheath- 
ed— it  may  some  day  well  be  said  that  cnngsten  made  demo- 
cracy possible." 

Popular  interest  in  tungsten  has  also  been  developed  by 
its  common  use  in  incandescent  electric  lights,  which  with 
an  efficiency  over  five  times  as  great  as  the  old  carbon  fila- 
ment lamps,  have  added  much  to  the  comfort,  convenience 
and  welfare  of  man. 

In  1916,  the  United  States  produced  more  tungsten  than 

10 


any  other  country.  Burma  ranked  second  and  Portugal  third. 
Then  followed  Australia,  Bolivia  and  Argentina. 

In  the  United  States,  Colorado  is  the  largest  producer, 
followed  closely  by  California,  with  Nevada  and  Arizona  about 
even  for  third  place,  then  in  order.  South  Dakota,  Idaho, 
Utah  and  Missouri. 

The  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota  have  already  produced 
over  a  million  dollars  worth  of  tungsten  ores,  and  many  of 
the  deposits  are  as  yet  not  thoroughly  developed.  There  is 
considerable  promise  of  increased  production  in  the  future. 


11 


PART  I. 

GEOLOGICAL     OCCURRENCE     OF     TUNGSTEN     WITH 
SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  THE  BLACK  HILLS 

BY  J.  J.  RUNNER 


12 


APOP  THE  BLACK  HILLS 


ccyrc^K    iV7f,,,^     ^^^  ^, 


GE 


12 


PART  I. 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  GEOLOGICAL  OCCURRENCE  OF  TUNGSTEN 

In  nature  tungsten  has  not  been  found  as  a  metal,  but 
always  in  combination  with  other  elements.  It  is  certainly 
known  combined  with  other  elements,  in  but  eleven  minerals, 
a  relatively  small  number  when  compared  with  the  number  of 
minerals  in  which  many  of  the  other  metals  occur.  It  is, 
however,  the  chief  constituents,  by  weight,  of  nearly  all  of 
the  tungsten-bearing  minerals.  Many  metals,  such  as  iron 
and  calcium,  occur  in  traces  as  impurities  in  a  large  number 
of  minerals;  tungsten  on  the  other  hand,  has  been  identified 
in  relatively  few  minerals,  even  among  those  with  which  it  is 
commonly  associated  in  pegmatites  and  quartz  veins.  In  its 
natural  occurrences  the  element  is  not  a  base  forming  one, 
and  therefore  does  not  act  as  a  true  metal  in  any  of  its 
mineral  compounds. 

In  certain  types  of  ore  deposits,  tungsten  minerals  are  of 
frequent  occurrence  and  have  a  wide  distribution,  but  in  the 
aggregate,  the  amount  of  the  metal  present  is  usually  small. 
It  might  be  said,  therefore,  to  occupy  the  apparently  para- 
doxical position  of  being  a  somewhat  rare  metal  of  compara- 
tively common  occurrence. 

Tungsten  Minerals. 

The  following  are  the  known  tungsten  minerals: 

The  wolframite  series — 

Ferberite  (80 '<   to  100%  FeWOJ   (20  "^  to  0%  MnWOJ 
Wolframite  (80%  to  20%  FeWOJ   (20%  to  80%  MnWO,) 
Hubnerite  (20-   to  0%   FeWO,)    (80 '^   to  100%   MnWOJ 

Scheelite  CaWO,. 

Powellite  Ca(Mo,W)0,. 

Stolzite  PbWO,.  (Tetragonal) 

Raspite  PbWO,.    (Monoclinic) 

Cuprotungstite.  CuW0,.2H,0. 

Tungstite  WO,.H,0   (Tungstic  ocher) 

Ferritungstite  Fe,0,.W0,.6H,0. 

Tungstenite  WS... 

13 


Reinite  (FeWO^)  is  given  by  Dana  as  a  separate  species, 
but  is  now  regarded  as  ferberite  pseudonmorphous  after 
scheelite. 

The  wolframites  have  been  shown  by  Hess*  to  form  a 
complete  series,  with  an  infinite  number  of  members  from 
FeWO^  to  MnWO^  so  that  he  has  proposed  the  following 
definition : 

"Ferberite  should  be  considered  as  an  iron  tungstate 
(FeWOJ  contaminated  by  not  more  than  20  per  cent  MnWO^, 
a  proportion  equivalent  to  4.69  per  cent  MnO,  or  3.63  percent 
Mn,  in  the  pure  tungsten  mineral." 

Hubnerite  should  be  considered  as  manganese  tungstate 
(MnWOJ  contaminated  by  not  more  than  20  per  cent  FeWO^, 
a  proportion  equivalent  to  4.74  percent  FeO,  or  3.69  percent 
Fe. 

Wolframite  should  cover  the  ground  between  the  limits 
above  indicated.  That  is,  wolframite  should  be  considered  a 
mixture  of  iron  and  manganese  tungstates  containing  not  less 
than  20  per  cent  nor  more  than  80  per  cent  of  either." 

Hess  further  states: 

"Except  the  light  colored  hubnerites,  most  of  these  mix- 
tures cannot  be  distinguished  by  the  eye  or  by  simple  tests, 
and  in  the  absence  of  analyses  it  is  therefore  convenient  to 
refer  to  the  dark  minerals  of  the  series  as  wolframites." 

Ferberite  and  wolframites  when  pure  are  black.  When 
partly  oxidized  they  may  appear  brownish,  from  the  presence 
of  iron  oxide.  Hubnerite  is  characteristically  brown.  Some 
specimens  are  yellowish,  others  reddish,  while  some  are  near- 
ly black. 

The  members  of  the  wolframite  series  are  all  monoclinic 
in  form  and  the  crystallographic  constants  of  the  end  mem- 
bers have  not  been  found  to  show  any  characteristic  differen- 
ces. Ferberite,  however,  seems  to  show  a  greater  tendency  to 
form  well  defined  crystals  than  do  the  other  members.  Crys- 
tals of  ferberite  and  wolframite  are  frequently  wedge  shaped 
and  usually  small.  Such  forms  are  common  in  ores  where 
the  crystals  have  grown  in  open  cavities.  Such  crystals  are 
shown  in  Plate  HIB.     Boulder  county,   Colorado,   ferberite, 


=  U.  S.  Geol.   Surv.  Bull.   652.  page  22. 

14 


often  crystallizes  in  cuboid  and  elongated  rhombic  forms.  In 
quartz  veins  wolframite  seldom  shows  good  crystal  bound- 
aries, but  occurs  in  tabular  or  irregular  masses.  (See  Plate 
II  A.)  Hubnerite  exhibits  a  strong  tendency  to  form  radia- 
ting groups  of  thin,  bladed  crystals,  such  as  the  hubnerite 
from  Two  Bit  Creek,  Lawrence  Co.,  S.  D.,  shown  in  Plate  IVA. 
Dense,  fine-grained  aggregates  of  closely  packed  crystals  that 
have  interfered  with  each  other  in  growth,  and  show  only 
irregular  boundaries,  frequently  occur.  When  such  masses 
are  broken  they  may  exhibit  small  shiny,  cleavage  surfaces, 
which  may  be  mistaken  for  crystal  faces.  An  example  of 
such  an  occurrence  may  be  seen  in  Plate  III  A. 

In  hardness,  all  members  of  the  wolframite  are  a  little 
over  5,  and  can  be  scratched  with  the  point  of  a  knife.  Their 
specific  gravities  range  from  7.2  or  7.3  in  hubnerite,  to  7.5  in 
ferberite,  with  wolframite  intermediate. 

Crystals  of  all  members  of  the  series  split  readily  along 
very  perfect  planes  in  one  direction.  The  plane  of  cleavage  is 
at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  elongation  in  the  tabular 
forms.  This  relation  of  cleavage  to  the  form  of  the  mineral 
is  well  shown  in  Plate  II  A.  On  newly  broken  cleavage  sur- 
faces of  the  unweathered  mineral,  the  luster  is  brilliant 
metallic.  Crystal  faces  are  usually  duller  and  their  luster 
ranges  from  sub-metallic  to  dull.  When  the  mineral  is  crush- 
ed fine,  or  is  drawn  over  a  surface  of  rough  porcelain  a 
powder  is  produced  that  diff"ers  somewhat  from  the  color  of 
the  mineral.  This  powder,  or  the  streak  of  the  mineral,  as 
it  is  frequently  called,  is  dark  brown  to  nearly  black  in  the 
case  of  ferberite,  dark  brown  to  reddish  brown  for  wolf- 
ramite, and  is  brownish  red  or  even  greenish  yellow  in 
hubnerite. 

Scheelite  is  calcium  tungstate,  or  is  sometimes  spoken  of 
as  lime  tungstate.  In  color  scheelite  is  usually  white,  light 
gray,  or  honey  yellow.  Less  commonly  it  is  bright  yellow, 
greenish  yellow,  brown  or  reddish  brown.  Its  luster  is  often 
greasy,  or  may  be  simply  glassy.  Frequently  specimens  are 
found  that  are  slightly  translucent,  but  seldom  are  clear 
transparent  ones  seen. 

Good  crystals  of  scheelite  are  very  rare.    It  is  commonly 

15 


found  in  granular  masses,  or  irregular  lumps  of  a  coarser 
texture.  In  the  Black  Hills  it  is  frequently  seen  coating 
wolframite  in  small  botryoidal  masses  resembling  drops  of 
honey. 

The  hardness  of  scheelite  is  a  little  less  than  5,  so  that  it 
may  be  scratched  easily  with  the  point  of  a  knife  blade.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  approximately  6,  which  is  less  than  that  of 
the  members  of  the  wolframite  series.  It  possesses  four  di- 
rections of  fairly  good  cleavage,  that  may  be  seen  in  freshly 
broken  massive  specimens. 

Scheelite  frequently  occurs  as  a  secondary  mineral, 
while  the  wolframites  apparently,  rarely  do.  Scheelite  oc- 
curs in  small  quantities  in  nearly  all  wolframite  veins,  while 
wolframites  are  rare  in  the  scheelite  veins. 

Tungstite  (WO.H.O)  or  tungstic  ocher,  is  a  bright  yel- 
low powdery  mineral,  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the 
other  tungsten  minerals.  It  commonly  occurs  associated  with 
oxides  of  iron  or  manganese,  coating  surfaces  or  filling 
cracks  in  scheelite  or  the  wolframites.  It  is  very  rarely 
found  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  of  commercial  importance. 
Powellite,  stolzite,  raspite,  cuprotungstite,  ferritungstite 
and  tungstenite,  are  very  rare,  and  hence  of  little  economic 
importance,  therefore  seem  to  merit  no  description  here.  For 
information  regarding  them  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
standard  texts  on  mineralogy. 
Minerals  For  Which  Tungsten  Ores  are  Frequently  Mistaken 

Among  minerals  which  have  been  frequently  mistaken 
for  the  wolframites  may  be  mentioned ;  specular  hematite, 
magnetite,  cassiterite,  columbite,  spahalerite,  tourmaline, 
manganese  dioxide,  and  even  graphite.  In  one  instance  that 
came  to  the  author's  attention,  a  prospector  had  mined  and 
hand  sorted  several  tons  of  quartz  containing  black  tourma- 
line. In  another  case  a  large  mass  of  black  sphalerite  was 
exhibited  and  placarded  as  assaying  TO'/'c  WO...  In  the 
field,  "especially  rich  ore"  has  been  seen  that  was  mostly 
graphite.  Numerous  specimens  of  the  other  minerals  listed 
above  have  been  received  at  the  South  Dakota  State  School 
of  Mines  to  be  assayed  for  tungsten.  Such  mistakes  are,  of 
course,  natural  among  prospectors  in  new  fields,  and  in  fact 

16 


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are  not  unknown  among  technically  trained  mining  men. 
Some  of  the  larger  companies  have  shown  a  very  commend- 
able spirit  in  furnishing  specimens  of  their  ore  to  the  pros- 
pectors for  comparisons.  It  is  to  be  highly  recommended  to 
the  man  unacquainted  with  tungsten  minerals,  that  he  collect 
specimens  for  study  before  doing  much  prospecting,  even 
should  he  be  able  to  get  determinations  of  his  mineral  finds 
made  free  of  charge. 

Magnetite,  cassiterite,  columbite,  tourmaline,  and  man- 
ganese dioxide,  can  usually  be  readily  distinguished  from  the 
wolframites  by  their  lack  of  good  cleavage,  which  the  tungs- 
ten minerals  possess  to  a  high  degree.  The  cleavage  of  the 
wolframites  may  be  readily  recognized  by  their  flat,  shiny 
surfaces  produced  upon  breaking  the  minerals.  Micaceous 
hematite  flakes  off  in  thin,  shiny  leaves,  that  may  be  mis- 
taken for  the  cleavage  of  wolframite.  Its  reddish  brown 
streak,  furthermore,  is  not  unlike  that  of  some  of  the  wolf- 
ramites. Its  color,  however  is  more  of  a  steel  blue,  while  that 
of  the  wolframites  is  dark  brown  or  black,  and  the  cleavage 
flakes  of  the  micaceous  hematite  are  usually  very  much  thin- 
ner than  can  readily  be  obtained  from  any  of  the  tungsten 
minerals.  Tourmaline  lacks  cleavage,  is  much  harder  than 
any  of  the  tungsten  minerals,  and  has  more  of  a  glassy  than 
a  metallic  luster.  It  is,  furthermore,  commonly  in  long,  slen- 
der crystals,  with  a  rounded  triangular  cross  section. 
Graphite  is  so  soft  that  it  soils  the  fingers.  Sphalerite,  tour- 
maline, graphite  and  manganese  dioxide  differ  from  the  wolf- 
ramites in  being  much  lighter  in  weight  and  can  with  a  little 
practice  be  readily  distinguished  by  this  property. 

Cases  in  which  scheelite  has  been  mistaken  for  other 
minerals,  or  in  which  a  variety  of  other  minerals  have  been 
thought  to  be  scheelite  have  come  to  the  author's  attention. 
The  more  common  errors  have  been  in  connection  with  cal- 
cite,  garnet,  quartz,  apatite,  amblygonite,  barite,  and  felds- 
par. Of  these  minerals,  quartz,  and  garnet  are  much  harder 
and  will  readily  scratch  glass,  whereas  scheelite  can  be 
easily  scratched  with  the  point  of  a  knife  blade.  Feldspars 
are  scratched  with  great  difficulty  with  a  knife  and  further- 
more  always    cleave    readily    along    smooth      planes,      while 

17 


scheelite  does  not  show  good  cleavage  surfaces,  barite  has  a 
superior  cleavage  and  is  much  softer  than  scheelite.  Ambly- 
gonite  has  a  perfect  cleavage  in  one  direction  and  is  with 
difficulty  scratched  with  a  knife.  Calcite  has  three  perfect 
cleavages  and  is  much  softer  than  scheelite.  Apatite,  as  well 
as  all  the  other  minerals  here  mentioned,  has  a  specific  grav- 
ity decidedly  less  than  that  of  scheelite  and  in  a  majority  of 
cases,  can  be  distinguished  from  it  because  of  this  fact. 

Tungstite  and  yellow,  hydrous  iron  oxide  are  often  con- 
fused. The  most  satisfactory  method  of  distinguishing  these 
minerals,  and  it  might  be  added,  the  most  conclusive  test  for 
any  of  the  tungsten  minerals,  is  a  chemical  one. 

A  simple,  and  usually  a  very  satisfactory  test  is  to  boil 
the  finely  powdered  mineral  in  hydrochloric  acid,  when  if 
tungsten  is  present,  a  bright  yellow  powder  (WO.)  will  be 
formed.  Upon  the  addition  of  metallic  zine  or  tin  the  yellow 
powder  will  be  changed  to  a  blue  and  finally  to  brown. 

In  case  the  yellow  powder  and  blue  color  do  not  appear, 
when  treated  as  given  above,  fuse  the  finely  powdered  mineral 
with  sodium  carbonate,  or  sodium  bicarbonate  and  then  dis- 
solve the  fused  mass  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  add  tin  or 
zinc.    If  any  tungsten  is  present  the  indigo  color  will  appear. 

Mineral  Associates  of  Tungsten  in  the  Ores 

Inasmuch  as  tungsten  ores  most  commonly  occur  in 
veins,  closely  associated  with  granites,  acid  porphyries  and 
pegmatites,  a  list  of  the  minerals  most  commonly  associated 
with  tungsten  ores  in  reality,  becomes  a  partial  list  of  acid 
pegmatites  and  deep  vein  minerals.  Upon  reviewing  the 
literature  describing  the  most  important  deposits  of  the 
United  States  and  foreign  countries,  the  author  has  found 
the  following  to  be  the  more  common  associates  of  tungsten ; 
quartz,  muscovite,  cassiterite,  molybdenite,  pyrite,  arsenopy- 
rite,  topaz,  tourmaline,  fluorite,  chalcopyrite,  gold  and  silver; 
and  to  a  lesser  extent  feldspars,  biotite,  beryl,  apatite,  bis- 
muth, bismuthinite,  sphalerite,  columbite,  graphite,  sylvanite, 
and  many  less  common  ones. 

In   general   there   seems   to   be  a     greater     variety     of 


minerals  in  the  wolframite  veins  than  in  the  scheelite  veins, 
Scheelite  veins  are,  perhaps,  more  commonly  associated  with 
gold  ores  than  with  ores  of  silver  or  the  base  metals.  Minerals 
of  copper,  lead,  zinc,  tin,  silver,  nickel,cobalt,  arsenic,  anti- 
mony, and  bismuth,  are  apparently  more  common  in  wolf- 
ramite veins  than  in  scheelite  veins. 

Rocks  Associated  With  Tungsten  Ores 

Among  rocks,  granites,  acid  pegmatites,  and  acid  por- 
phyries, are  by  far  the  most  common  igneous  associates  of 
tungsten  deposits.  These  rocks  are  all  characterized  by  an 
excess  of  silica,  that  has  crystallized  in  the  form  of  quartz, 
and  quartz  is  easily  the  most  common  mineral  associate  of 
the  tungsten  ores.  In  some  cases  the  ore  bodies  lie  wholly 
within  the  igneous  rocks,  in  other  cases  they  extend  into 
slates,  quartzites  and  other  rocks  at  the  sides,  or  lie  at  the 
contact  of  the  igneous  rocks  and  sedimentaries,  but  in  a 
great  majority  of  cases  igneous  rocks  of  the  acidic  type  are 
to  be  found  nearby.  Tungsten  deposits  are  frequently  with- 
in, or  in  close  proximity  to  metamorphic  rocks,  such  as  slates, 
schists,  or  crystalline  limestones,  for  the  very  intrusion  of 
the  igneous  rocks  themselves  have  in  many  cases  brought 
about  the  metamorphism. 

Types  of  Deposits 

The  known  deposits  of  tungsten  of  the  world  may  be 
conveniently  classified  according  to  their  mode  of  occur- 
rence as  follows:  (1)  segregation  deposits;  (2)  pegmatites; 
(3)  veins;  (4)  replacement  deposits;  (5)  contact  metamor- 
phic deposits;  (6)  placers.  Of  these  types  the  vein  and 
placer  deposits  have  furnished  much  the  greater  part  of  the 
product. 

(Segregation  Deposits.)  During  the  crystallization  of  an 
igneous  magma  it  sometimes  occurs  that  minerals  of  one  kind 
will  be  concentrated  within  a  limited  space  and  there  separate 
out  in  greater  amounts  than  are  in  the  average  of  the  rock 
as  a  whole.  In  the  Whetstone  Mts.,  Cochise  County,  Arizona, 
is  an  occurrence  of  this  kind  where  wolframite  occurs  in  por- 
tions of  a  granite  in  quantities  sufficient  for  a  small  produc- 
tion.    In  the  Renault  property  near  Lead,  South  Dak.,  crys- 

19 


tals  of  wolframite  have  been  found  intergrown  with  the 
feldspar  and  quartz,  of  a  rhyolite  porphyry,  that  has  appar- 
ently segregated  out  from  the  magma  and  concentrated  near 
the  margin  of  the  dike. 

(Pegmatites.)  As  a  molten  mass  of  igneous  material 
from  below  the  outer  crust  of  the  earth  rises,  it  comes  into 
contact  with  relatively  colder  rock  and  begins  to  solidify. 
Those  materials  least  soluble  under  the  existing  conditions  of 
temperature,  pressure  and  concentration  separate  first,  leav- 
ing a  solution  that  continually  becomes  richer  in  the  more 
fluid  materials.  The  fluidity  of  the  residual  solutions  is 
greatly  increased  by  the  presence  of  certain  substances 
known  as  mineralizers,  or  as  one  might  say,  fluxes.  Among 
the  mineralizing  agents,  are  water;  boric,  hydrochloric,  and 
hydrofluoric  acid ;  and  compounds  of  phosphorus,  sulphur, 
arsenic,  lithium,  beryllium,  cerium,  niobium,  tantalum,  and 
tungsten.  During  a  later  stage  of  the  solidification  of  the 
parent  magma,  the  liquid  portions  find  avenues  of  escape  out- 
ward through  the  cracks,  formed  as  a  result  of  the  shrink- 
age of  the  solidified  portions  as  they  crystallized  and  cooled, 
and  are  forced  into  these  openings  and  even  out  into  the 
surrounding  rock  along  planes  of  weakness,  where  they  final- 
ly solidify  in  dikes,  sills,  or  pipe-like  masses.  The  resulting 
rocks  in  the  case  of  a  parent,  acid  magma,  are  characterized 
by  quartz,  alkali  feldspars,  muscovite,  biotite,  lepidolite, 
topaz,  tourmaline,  fluorite,  apatite,  beryl,  columbite,  cassi- 
terite,  spodumene,  amblygonite,  tungsten  minerals,  monazite, 
and  frequently  a  small  amount  of  arsenides  and  sulphides  of 
the  base  metals.  Such  rocks  are  the  acid  pegmatites.  In 
case  the  tungsten  content  of  the  original  magma  were  suflFi- 
ciently  high  the  pegmatite  forms  an  ore-body  from  which  the 
tungsten  may  be  profitably  recovered.  Such  pegmatites  are 
always  associated  with  deep  seated  rocks  of  the  acid  type  and 
often  may  be  traced  into  granites  by  insensible  gradations. 
From  their  mode  of  origin  it  may  be  readily  seen  that  the 
pegmatites  will  frequently  be  found  at  the  outer  margins  of 
the  granite  masses.  Often,  however,  they  have  differentia- 
ted in  place  and  may  be  found  in  irregular  masses  within  the 
granite,  and  not  separated  from  it  by  sharp  boundaries. 

20 


On  the  whole  the  pegmatites  are  more  commonly  found 
in  dikes,  but  frequently  they  occur  in  sills  and  irregular  pipe- 
like forms.  Whether  in  dikes,  sills  or  pipes,  their  forms  and 
sizes  are  extremely  variable.  Few  of  them  maintain  a  uni- 
form thickness  and  direction  for  more  than  short  distances. 
The  distribution  of  the  minerals  within  is  likewise  very 
erratic.  Rich  spots  of  ore  intervene  with  barren  stretches, 
suddenly  and  frequently,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  method  of 
predicting  the  character  of  the  body  a  few  feet  distant  from 
the  exposed  portion.  In  general  the  pegmatites  seem  to  be 
less  favorable  for  ores  of  tungsten  than  the  veins. 

The  deposits  of  Cornwall,  England,  Torrington,  N.  S.  W., 
and  some  of  the  Queensland  deposits  are  perhaps  the  most 
important  occurrences  of  tungsten  in  pegmatites.  Tungsten 
bearing  pegmatites  occur  near  Hill  City  in  the  Black  Hills  of 
South  Dakota, 

(Veins.)  The  relations  of  the  quartz-tungsten  veins  to 
the  pegmatites,  or  to  other  acidic  rocks,  is  very  similar  to  the 
relation  of  the  pegmatites  to  the  granite  rock,  i.  e,  they  are 
products  of  the  separation  and  solidification  of  the  more  solu- 
ble parts  of  the  original  solution.  In  the  pegmatites  of  the 
Black  Hills  the  author  has  noted  numerous  cases  of  the  oc- 
currence of  wolframite  in  the  quartz-rich  portions  of  the 
pegmatite.  In  some  cases  these  quartz-rich  portions  are  in 
the  form  of  local  segregations  of  irregular  form,  in  others 
they  are  in  the  form  of  veins.  Some  of  the  veins  have  ex- 
tended beyond  the  pegmatites  and  into  the  surrounding 
schists,  and  it  is  in  these  veins  that  the  richest  ores  exist. 
So  that  it  is  true  that  the  more  promising  deposits  occur 
in  vein  area  beyond  the  pegmatites  just  as  many  of  the 
richer  pegmatites  lie  at  the  border  of  the  granite  area.  Tung- 
sten minerals  and  quartz,  perhaps  in  aqueous  solution,  appear 
in  this  case  to  have  been  the  most  fluid  portions  of  the  origi- 
nal magma  and  to  have  separated  most  completely  and  to 
have  travelled  farthest.  Cassiterite  appears  to  have  been 
less  soluble  and  crystallized  more  commonly  in  the  pegma- 
tites. 

On  the  whole  the  minerals  of  the  quartz-tungsten  veins 
are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  pegmatites.     They,  however, 

21 


contain  a  much  smaller  percentage  of  silicates,  except  per- 
haps tourmaline  and  muscovite ;  phosphates ;  columbates 
and  tantalates;  lithia  minerals;  and  a  greater  percentage  of 
native  metals ;  sulphides  of  iron,  copper,  zinc,  lead,  molybden- 
um, silver,  and  antimony ;  arsenic  minerals ;  and  tungsten 
minerals.  Furthermore  the  veins  frequently  contain  carbon- 
ates which  are  not  found  in  the  pegmatites. 

Tungsten  veins  may  occur  singly,  or  in  zones  of  rock 
permeated  by  many  parallel  or  anastomosing  veins.  Veins 
frequently  branch,  pinch  and  swell.  Some  are  lense  shaped, 
others  thin,  sheet-like  forms,  and  some  are  thick,  plug-like 
masses.  The  greater  number  cannot  be  traced  far  along  the 
strike  or  dip,  but  some  persist  for  great  distances  and  are 
remarkably  uniform  in  thickness.  Sudden  changes  in  direc- 
tion are  common.  The  mineral  content  is  as  variable  as  the 
other  physical  features. 

The  veins  are  the  chief  source  of  tungsten  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  The  ferberite  veins  of  Boulder  County,  Colorado ; 
the  scheelite  veins  of  California;  the  wolframite  veins  of 
Burma,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Portugal,  and  South  America, 
have  furnished  much  the  greatest  part  of  the  world's  produc- 
tion of  tungsten,  and  bid  fair  to  continue  their  output  for 
years  to  come. 

(Replacement  Deposits.)  Where  ore  bearing  solutions 
encounter  soluble  rocks,  they  may  react  with  them  removing 
the  original  material,  and  leaving  in  its  place  the  silica  and 
ore  minerals  of  the  solution.  In  many  cases  the  intimate 
structure  of  the  original  rocks  is  preserved,  although  com- 
pletely changed  in  composition.  In  the  act  of  solution  cavi- 
ties are  frequently  formed  that  later  may  be  lined  with 
crystals  of  the  ore.  Carbonate  rocks  are  especially  favorable 
for  replacement,  apparently  on  account  of  their  greater  solu- 
bility. 

Perhaps  the  best  known  and  most  important  deposits  of 
this  type  occur  in  the  Northern  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota, 
where  a  dolomitic  limestone  has  been  partially  replaced  by 
silica  and  wolframite.  The  ore  solutions  ascended  through 
vertical  cracks  in  the  dolomite  until  they  reached  an  imper- 

22 


vious   shale  and  were  forced   to   spread   laterally,   and   here 
formed  horizontal  lenses  of  rich  ore. 

(Contact  Metamorphic  Deposits.)  Where  molten  mag- 
mas come  into  contact  with  other  rocks  the  high  tempera- 
ture, and  the  solutions  and  gases  emanating  from  the  magma, 
frequently  cause  intense  mineral  changes.  Especially  is  this 
true  in  the  carbonate  rocks.  The  carbon  dioxide  is  driven  off 
and  the  lime,  magnesia,  and  iron  of  the  carbonates,  reacts 
with  silica,  alumina,  and  other  materials  of  the  magmatic 
solution,  causing  the  destruction  of  the  original  rock,  and  the 
development  in  its  place  of  an  aggregate  of  new  minerals, 
chiefly  silicates  of  calcium,  magnesium  and  iron.  Among  the 
minerals  characteristic  of  contact  metamorphism  are,  gar- 
net, vesuvianite,  epidote,  tremolite,  actinolite,  wollastonite, 
diopside,  axinite,  and  many  others.  The  magmatic  solutions, 
as  in  the  case  of  veins  and  replacement  deposits,  frequently 
bear  metallic  ores  and  these  are  precipitated  in  the  zone  of 
metamorphism. 

The  tungsten  deposits  near  Bishop,  Inyo  County,  Cali- 
fornia, are  of  this  type.  A  description  of  this  occurrence  will 
be  found  below. 

(Placers.)  As  the  chemical  and  mechanical  agents  of 
weathering  act  upon  an  ore  body  exposed  at  the  surface,  it  is 
gradually  disintegrated  and  carried  away.  The  materials 
easily  dissolved  are  removed  in  solution,  while  the  more  re- 
sistant ones  are  washed  down  by  running  water,  or  may  be 
gradually  removed  by  gravity  to  stream  beds,  where  they  are 
sorted  by  the  stream.  The  heavier  materials  of  the  gravel 
bed  gradually  work  toward  the  bottom  and  there  become  con- 
centrated. Tungsten  minerals,  for  the  most  part  are  resist- 
ant to  chemical  weathering,  and  on  account  of  their  high 
specific  gravity  readily  concentrate  in  rich  placers. 

Deposits  of  this  type  have  furnished  a  large  amount  of 
the  tungsten  production  of  Burma  and  the  Malay  Peninsula. 
Placer  production  in  the  United  States  has  been  small,  but 
locally  some  rich  gravels  have  been  worked  in  California, 
Arizona,  and  Nevada. 


23 


Persistence  of  Tungsten  Deposits  in  Depth 

The  persistence  of  tungsten  deposits  in  depth,  and  the 
maintenance  of  values,  are  questions  of  vital  importance  to 
those  interested.  Unfortunately  but  few  deposits  have  been 
developed  far  enough  to  determine  their  true  nature,  so  that 
we  have  not  a  sufficient  amount  of  real  data  upon  which  to 
base  definite  conclusions. 

Geologists  are  fairly  well  agreed  that  granites  are  rocks 
formed  at  considerable  depth  below  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  association  of  tungsten  deposits  with  granite  and  their 
occurrence  in  veins  and  pegmatites  with  such  minerals  as 
tourmaline,  topaz,  beryl,  muscovite,  and  others  believed  to  be 
formed  only  at  high  temperatures,  seems  to  point  fairly  clear- 
ly to  the  formation  of  most  tungsten  deposits  at  considerable 
depths.  This  would  seem  to  imply  conditions  of  more  or  less 
uniformity,  within  a  comparatively  large  zone  bordering  the 
granitic  mass,  so  that  although  tungsten  veins  might  not 
form  everywhere,  they  are  likely  to  form  anywhere,  within 
this  zone.  The  evidence  seems  clearly  to  indicate  that  a  great 
number  of  pegmatites  and  associated  quartz  veins,  were  sud- 
denly and  under  great  pressure  forced  into  the  surrounding 
rocks.  Such  a  mode  of  origin  would  likely  produce  irregular- 
ity in  their  forms. 

Among  tungsten  deposits  we  frequently  find  veins  of 
very  limited  extent  vertically  as  well  as  horizontally  with  ir- 
regular swelling  and  pinchings,  and  yet  some  are  known,  such 
as  the  Boulder  County,  Colorado,  veins,  that  seem  to  persist 
for  considerable  distances  along  the  strike  and  for  at  least 
900  feet  vertically.  In  one  of  the  Atolia  mines  the  greatest 
quantity  of  ore  was  found  below  a  depth  of  400  feet,  and  the 
mine  has  good  ore  at  a  depth  of  over  500  feet,  which  is  over 
1000  feet  along  the  dip  of  the  vein.  A  deposit  of  scheelite  in 
Halifax  County,  Nova  Scotia,  is  reported  to  have  been  follow- 
ed three  miles  along  the  strike  of  the  vein.  The  deposits  of 
scheelite  and  the  genetically  related  gold  reefs  of  Hillgrove, 
N.  S.  W.  are  believed  to  persist  vertically  for  upward  of  1500 
feet. 

It  would  seem  therefore,  that  despite  the  characteristic 
bunchiness  of  so  many  tungsten  bearing  lodes  and  of  their 

24 


sudden  termination,  there  are  lodes  that  maintain  their 
values  over  a  considerable  distance  along  the  strike  and  along 
the  dip.  The  development  of  one  vein  of  limited  extent 
might  easily  lead  to  the  discovery  of  others,  and  the  opening 
of  these  to  still  others.  At  least  it  seems  that  other  lodes 
are  likely  to  be  found  within  the  zone  of  known  deposits. 

No  authenticated  case  of  secondary  enrichment  to  any 
important  extent,  in  tungsten  deposits,  has  yet  been  describ- 
ed. It  appears  improbable,  furthermore,  that  any  of  the 
wolframite,  hubnerite,  or  ferberite  in  the  more  important  de- 
posits are  secondary,  so  that  there  is  no  apparent  reason  for 
believing  that  some  of  the  rich  deposits  have  become  so  be- 
cause of  secondary  enrichment,  and  that  for  this  reason  would 
grow  poor  in  depth. 

Below  is  given  a  brief  description  of  some  of  the  more 
important  deposits  of  tungsten  in  the  United  States  and  in 
foreign  countries.  A  description  of  the  important  deposits  of 
Japan  and  of  some  other  countries,  as  well  as  some  within  the 
United  States,  that  otherwise  would  have  been  included,  were 
omitted  because  of  the  meager  information  on  them  obtain- 
able in  the  literature. 

Important  Tungsten  Deposits  of  the  United  States 

(Colorado.)  The  principal  tungsten  producing  district 
of  Colorado  occupies  a  strip  approximately  4x20  miles  in 
southwestern  Boulder  County  and  northern  Gilpin  County. 
The  rocks  of  the  district  comprise  sedimentary  gneiss  and 
schist,  and  intrustive  gneissic-granite  of  pre-Cambrian  age ; 
all  of  which  are  cut  by  later  dikes  ranging  in  composition 
from  limburgite  to  granite  pegmatite.  On  the  northwest  and 
southwest  sides  of  the  tungsten  area  are  gold  and  silver  bear- 
ing veins  having  the  same  trend  as  the  tungsten  veins.  These 
are  believed  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  gold  belt  of  Clear 
Creek  and  Gilpin  Counties.  The  tungsten  veins  are  in  many 
ways  similar  to  the  gold  veins  of  the  district  and  seem  to 
have  a  close  connection  with  them  in  genesis.  The  gold  veins 
bear  sylvanite,  pyrite,  molybdenite,  roscoelite,  barite,  adul- 
aria,  and  chalcedony.  The  mineralogy  of  the  tungsten  veins, 
is    similar    to    that    of    the    gold    veins,    but    they    carry 

25 


in  addition  several  other  minerals.  Both  gold  and 
tungsten  veins  occupy  sheeted  zones  characterized  in 
places  by  brecciation.  A  close  relationship  between  the  tung- 
sten veins  and  the  pitchblend  veins  of  Gilpin  County  lying 
in  the  same  belt,  has  also  been  noted. 

The  tungsten  bearing  veins  are  to  be  found  largely  in  the 
pre-Cambrian  granite,  in  the  sedimentary  gneiss  and  at  the 
contact  of  the  two.  The  schistose  parts  of  the  gneiss  have 
proven  less  favorable  for  ore  bodies.  In  places  veins  follow 
dikes  of  granite  pegmatites,  and  occur  both  within  them,  and 
at  their  borders.  In  other  places  veins  are  to  be  found  in 
the  dikes  and  masses  of  the  later  fine  grained  granite.  In 
places  the  veins  turn  sharply  from  the  dikes  of  pegmatite  and 
granite  and  enter  the  surrounding  rocks.  In  general  the  ore 
bodies  seem  to  follow  no  regular  system,  but  in  the  Neder- 
land-Beaver  Creek  area  they  follow  approximately  the  direc- 
tion of  trend  of  the  tungsten  bearing  area  as  a  whole.  The 
veins  dip  for  the  most  part  steeply,  and  rarely  as  low  as  45'. 
In  width  the  lodes  vary  from  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to  as  much 
as  14  feet,  averaging  perhaps,  between  2  and  4  feet.  In 
length,  width,  direction  of  strike,  persistence  in  depth,  and 
quality,  the  veins  vary  considerably. 

In  physical  characteristics  the  ores  are  of  three  types: 
(1)  crystals  of  ferberite  occur  in  crusts,  vugs,  and  open  brec- 
cias ;  (2)  fine  grained  and  massive  ore  filling  the  seams  in  the 
wider  and  less  brecciated  portion  of  the  vein;  and  (3)  highly 
siliceous  ores  in  which  fine  grained  ferberite  occurs  in  various 
quantities,  scattered  through  chalcedonic  silica.  In  associa- 
tion with  the  ferberite,  which  is  the  principal  ore  mineral,  are 
to  be  found  some  wolframite  and  scheelite,  also  sphalerite, 
galena,  chalcopyrite,  molybdenite,  pyrite,  sylvanite,  magne- 
tite, hematite,  adularia,  hamlinite,  chalcedony,  quartz,  silver, 
and  gold.  The  ores  are  notable  for  their  lack  of  cassiterite 
and  tourmaline  and  the  very  small  percentage  of  quartz. 

(California.)  The  most  important  tungsten  prooducing 
district  of  California  extends  from  near  Atolia  in  north- 
western San  Bernardino  County,  to  near  Ransburg  in  eastern 
Kern  County.  A  second  area  of  considerable  importance  lies 
in  Inyo  County  near  Bishop  in  Owen's  Valley, 

26 


The  Atolia-Randsburg  district  occupies  an  area  approxi- 
mately 2^2x10  miles  in  extent.  The  country  rock  is  largely 
a  gnessic  grano-diorite  cutting  hornblend  and  mica  schists. 
In  the  grano-diorite,  intrusive  igneous  dikes  occur  in  places. 
Adjacent  to  the  grano-diorite  occur  also  limestones,  quartz- 
ites  and  slates.  The  ores  consist  of  scheelite  in  quartz  veins, 
chiefly  in  the  grano-diorite ;  but  also  cutting  the  schists ;  at 
the  margins  of  the  intrusive  dikes ;  and  to  some  extent  at  the 
contact  of  limestones  and  schist.  The  veins  follow  zones  of 
shearing,  and  in  general  are  well  defined.  Some  are  mere 
lenses,  while  others  are  persistent  over  a  considerable  range, 
both  along  the  strike  and  along  the  dip,  and  have  been  follow- 
ed to  depths  of  over  500  feet.  In  places  they  have  a  thickness 
of  three  feet  or  more.  The  material  of  the  veins  consists  of 
crushed  grano-diorite,  that  is  in  places  partially  replaced  by 
silica;  quartz;  calcite;  siderite;  scheelite;  and  a  little  wolf- 
ramite. Some  of  the  veins  are  gold  bearing.  Placers  of 
scheelite  derived  from  the  veins  have  proved  very  profitable 
locally. 

In  the  Inyo  County  tungsten  area  the  rocks  are  granite, 
inclosing  masses  of  various  sediments  including  limestone. 
The  principal  ore  bodies  follow  the  bedding  of  the  sedimen- 
tary strata  inclosed  in  the  granite  and  contain  scheelite,  gar- 
net, epidote,  quartz,  calcite,  hornblend,  pyroxene,  apatite, 
magnetite,  and  traces  of  various  sulphides.  Other  ores  occur 
with  a  considerable  amount  of  phlogopite  mica.  The  WO3  con- 
tent of  the  ores  varies  on  the  average,  from  1.5  to  2  per  cent. 
The  ore  bodies  are  known  to  have  a  vertical  range  of  at  least 
700  feet.  This  occurrence  is  of  considerable  scientific  inter- 
est inasmuch  as  it  is  a  contact  metamorphic  type  of  deposit, 
which  is  not  a  common  one  among  tungsten  deposits. 

(Arizona.)  Tungsten  deposits  are  of  very  wide  distribu- 
tion in  Arizona.  The  most  important  deposits  in  this  state 
are,  perhaps  those  of  the  Dragoon  and  Whetstone  Mountains 
in  Cochise  County;  of  the  Guijas  Mountains  in  Pima 
County;  of  the  Acquarius  and  Yucca  districts  of  Mohave 
County;  and  of  Eureka,  Tip  Top,  and  Tule  Creek  districts  in 
Yavapai  County. 

In  the  Dragoon  Mountains  numerous  quartz  veins  occur 


cutting  granite,  that  bear  hubnerite,  scheelite,  pyrite,  chal- 
copyrite,  and  fluorite.  Many  of  the  veins  have  proved  rich 
but  of  rather  limited  extent.  Rich  placer  deposits  derived 
from  the  veins  have  proved  rich. 

In  the  Whetstone  Mountains  wolframite  and  scheelite  as- 
sociated with  pyrite,  bornite,  chalcopyrite,  and  mica  occur  in 
quartz  veins  cutting  granite,  and  on  the  contact  of  granite 
and  schist.  Wolframite  also  occurs  in  the  granite  as  a  pri- 
mary constituent. 

At  Arivaca  in  the  Guijas  Mountains  of  Pima  County, 
hubnerite,  wolframite  and  scheelite  occur  in  quartz  veins 
cutting  granodiorite,  and  acid  porphyry  dikes.  In  places  the 
veins  occur  singly,  in  others  the  lodes  are  composed  of  verti- 
cal zones  of  country  rock  permeated  by  a  great  number  of 
thin  seams  of  quartz.  Associated  with  the  tungsten  minerals 
are  chalcopyrite,  pyrite,  galena,  and  gold. 

In  the  Acquaris  district  of  Mohave  County  wolframite 
occurs  in  quartz  veins  cutting  granite.  Some  of  the  lodes  are 
fissure  veins  from  1  to  3  feet  thick  and  have  been  followed 
for  upward  of  2000  feet  along  the  strike.  In  the  Yucca  dis- 
trict of  the  same  county  wolframite  and  scheelite  occur  in 
quartz  veins  in  schist,  at  the  contact  of  limestone  and  schist, 
and  at  the  contact  of  limestone  and  granite.  Associated  with 
the  tungsten  minerals  are  molybdenite  and  copper  sulphide. 

In  the  Eureka,  Tip  Top  and  Tule  Creek  districts  of  Yava- 
pai County  hubnerite  and  wolframite  occur  in  quartz  veins 
associated  with  granite.  Some  of  the  veins  were  formerly 
worked  for  their  rich  silver  content  and  the  tungsten 
minerals  discarded  as  worthless.  In  recent  times  many  of 
the  old  mine  dumps  have  been  worked  for  their  tungsten  con- 
tent with  good  results. 

(Nevada.)  The  tungsten  production  of  Nevada  has  come 
largely  from  the  deposits  in  the  Snake  Range  of  eastern 
White  Pine  County.  The  rocks  of  the  tungsten  area  are 
Cambrian  quartzites  and  argyllites  and  intrusive  granite  por- 
phyry. Hubnerite  and  a  little  scheelite  occur  in  quartz  veins 
with  pyrite,  fluorite,  gold  and  silver.  The  veins  range  from  a 
few  inches  to  three  feet  in  thicknesss  and  dip  steeply.  The 
ore   minerals   occur   irregularly    scattered   through   the   vein 

28 


material,  in  fine  disseminated  grains  and  in  irregular  masses. 
In  places  the  hubnerite  has  been  concentrated  along  the  vein 
walls. 

Foreign  Occurrences 

(Burma,  Siam,  and  the  Federated  Malay  States.)  From 
the  southern  Shan  States  of  Eastern  Burma  there  extends  an 
area  of  metamorphic  rocks  and  intrusive  granites  southward 
through  Lower  Burma,  the  Siamese  Malay  States,  and  the 
Federated  Malay  States  to  the  extremity  of  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula. A  continuation  of  the  same  granite  appears  on  the  is- 
lands to  the  south  as  far  as  Banka  and  Billiton.  This  area 
furnished  the  majority  of  the  world's  tin  and  has  been,  for  a 
number  of  years  a  region  of  foremost  importance  in  the  pro- 
duction of  tungsten.  The  geologic  conditions  under  which  the 
tungsten  occurs  throughout  this  great  area,  are  sufficiently 
uniform  to  permit  of  a  general  description  of  the  deposits 
rather  than  to  necessitate  a  considerable  number  of  more  de- 
tailed ones.  Both  tin  and  tungsten  are  obtained  from  lode 
as  well  as  placer  deposits,  closely  associated  with  the  granite 
in  distribution  and  genesis. 

The  granite  is  a  coarse  rock  commonly  bearing  feldspar, 
quartz,  biotite,  tourmaline,  and  in  places,  some  cassiterite.  At 
contacts  with  the  schists,  granite  is  frequently  porphyritic. 
In  the  granite,  at  the  contact  of  granite  and  schists,  and,  to 
some  extent,  in  the  schists,  occur  quartz  veins  bearing  wolf- 
ramite, cassiterite,  pyrite,  chalcopyrite,  arsenopyrite,  molyb- 
denite, bismuthinite,  muscovite,  and  tourmaline.  In  places 
the  veins  are  richer  in  wolframite  in  the  schists  and  richer  in 
cassiterite  within  the  granite,  as  though  the  cassiterite  had 
been  precipitated  at  a  higher  temperature  than  the  wolfram- 
ite. In  the  veins  the  muscovite  is  often  concentrated  along 
the  walls.  The  wolframite  is  very  unevenly  distributed.  It 
occurs  in  places  in  bunches  of  massive  ore,  and  again  in  fine 
needles  and  small  crystals  with  intervening  barren  spaces. 
The  lodes  are  composed  of  single  veins,  of  zones  of  parallel 
veins  and  of  stockworks,  and  are  variable  in  extent  and  thick- 
ness. Some  quartz  veins  bearing  scheelite  in  association  with 
fluorite,  have  been  found  near  areas  of  limestone. 

For  the  most  part,  the  mining  has  been  in  the  oxidized 

29 


zone,  where  the  ores  were  easily  removed  and  Httle  know- 
ledge has  been  gained  as  to  the  continuity  of  the  lodes  in 
depth. 

In  the  valleys  below  the  lodes  occur  rich  placers  from 
which  a  considerable  percentage  of  the  production  has  been 
derived. 

(Portugal.)  In  Portugal,  the  largest  of  the  European 
producers  of  tungsten,  the  greater  part  of  the  output  comes 
from  the  northern  provinces  of  Tres-Os-Montes  and  Beira 
Baixa.  The  area  is  underlain  largely  by  a  granite  that  oc- 
curs extensively  over  western  Spain  and  northern  Portugal. 
In  the  province  of  Tres-Os-Montes  the  ore  occurs  in  quartz 
veins  in  the  granite  or  at  the  contact  of  the  granite  with 
sedimentary  rocks.  The  veins  are  very  irregular  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  wolframite  within  them  is  very  erratic.  In 
some  veins  cassiterite  accompanies  the  wolframite,  but  there 
is  a  general  lack  of  other  minerals  than  quartz  in  most  of  the 
veins.  In  the  Panapqueira  district  of  Beira  Baixa  the  ore  oc- 
curs in  quartz  veins,  in  schists.  Associated  with  wolframite  in 
the  veins  are  pyrite,  arsenopyrite,  cassiterite,  mica,  and  car- 
bonates of  copper.  No  igneous  rock  occurs  in  association 
with  the  ores  but  granites  outcrop  at  a  distance  of  about  11 
kilometers. 

(Bolivia.)  In  Bolivia  tungsten  comes  largely  from  the 
departments  of  Oruro,  LaPaz,  and  Potosi,  where  it  is  closely 
associated  with  ores  of  tin,  and  occasionally  with  silver.  Wolf- 
ramite occurs  in  quartz  veins  cutting  sedimentary  rocks  for 
the  most  part,  in  the  neighborhood  of  rhyolites,  and  trachy- 
tes that  are  believed  to  have  given  rise  to  the  ores.  Associa- 
ted with  wolframite  in  the  veins  are  arsenopyrite,  chalcopy- 
rite,  bismuth,  cassiterite,  and  sometimes  silver,  niobium  and 
tantulum  minerals.  Some  of  the  veins  are  extensive  and  rich 
and  have  produced  a  large  amount  of  ore. 

(Argentina.)  Among  the  most  important  deposits  of 
tungsten  in  Argentina  are  those  of  the  Cerro  del  Morro  in 
the  province  of  San  Luis,  and  those  of  the  Sierra  de  Cordoba. 
In  the  Sierra  del  Morro  granites  have  invaded  and  metamor- 
phosel  sediments  of  Silurian  age.  Later  followed  intrusions 
of  andesite.     The  acid  intrusives  comprise  aplite,  pegmatite, 

30 


and  micaceous  quartz-veins,  some  of  which  bear  tourmaline. 
The  tungsten  occurs  in  wolframite  in  the  quartz  veins  and  is 
frequently  accompanied  by  apatite  and  fluorite.  Some  of  the 
pegmatites  carry  a  considerable  amount  of  magnetite,  and 
hematite  pseudomorphous  after  magnetite.  The  tungsten 
veins  are  from  2  to  4  feet  wide  and  in  them  the  wolframite 
occurs  irregularly,  the  richer  portions  rarely  exceeding  a 
length  of  12  feet  along  the  vein.  In  the  Sierra  de  Cordoba, 
quartz  veins  bearing  wolframite  and  secondary  scheelite  oc- 
cur cutting  granites  and  crystalline  schists.  Associated  with 
the  tungsten  minerals  are  copper  sulphides,  molybdenite,  seri- 
cite,  apatite,  fluorite,  tourmaline,  and  a  little  topaz. 

(Peru.)  The  chief  deposits  of  Peru  are  located  in  the  de- 
partments of  Ancachs  and  La  Libertad.  Wolframite  and  hub- 
nerite  occur  in  quartz  veins  on  the  contact  of  granite  with 
slates  and  quartzites  and  within  the  sedimentary  rocks.  The 
tungsten  ores  are  associated  with  others  of  copper  and  silver. 

(England.)  For  a  number  of  years  a  few  hundred  tons 
of  tungsten  concentrates  have  annually  been  produced  from 
the  celebrated  mines  of  Cornwall,  England,  best  known  for 
their  tin  and  copper  ores. 

On  the  Cornish  Peninsula  occur  sedimentary  strata  of 
Cambrian,  Ordovician,  Silurian,  and  Devonian  age,  that  were 
intruded  by  granite,  probably  during  late  Carboniferous  times. 
The  granite  appears  in  five  large,  and  several  small  bosses 
that  are  probably  connected  below,  inasmuch  as  the  granite 
surfaces  extend  downward  at  low  angles  and  have  been  en- 
countered at  many  places  below  the  sediments.  The  granites 
have  pronounced  metamorphic  effects  on  the  surrounding 
sedimentary  formations  near  their  contacts.  From  the  gran- 
ites extend  apophyses  of  quartz  and  felsite  porphyry,  known 
as  "elvans."  The  elvans  vary  in  thickness  from  1  to  100 
meters,  and  some  have  been  followed  along  the  strike  for  a 
distance  of  20  kilometers.  The  lodes  occur  along  the  margins 
of  the  elvans,  partly  within  the  granite  itself,  and  partly  in 
the  surrounding  metamorphosed  slates.  Some  ore  bodies  oc- 
curring at  the  surface  of  the  slates  have  been  followed  down- 
ward into  the  granite.  The  lodes  in  places  follow  joint  planes 
in  the  granite,  forming  impregnated  zones  and  stockworks, 

31 


also  they  occupy  tectonic  zones  characterized  by  brecciated 
structure.  The  ore  minerals  are  chiefly  cassiterite  and  some 
stannite;  chalcopyrite,  boronite,  and  chalcocite;  wolframite 
and  scheelite;  arsenopyrite  and  other  arsenic  minerals.  Of 
lesser  importance  are  tetrahedrite ;  sphalerite;  bismuthinite; 
silver,  cobalt,  and  nickel  minerals;  pitchblende;  and  various 
secondary  minerals  of  iron,  manganese,  copper,  and  lead.  As 
gangue  minerals  quartz,  chlorite,  tourmaline,  fluorite,  and 
kaolin  are  abundant,  while  topaz  and  axinite  occur  sparingly. 
The  copper  ores  prevail  near  the  surface,  while  the  tin  and 
tungsten  ores  occur  chiefly  at  greater  depths,  and  often  are 
confined  to  lodes  in  the  granite. 

(Queensland.)  In  Queensland  the  important  tungsten 
deposits  are  uniformly  associated  with  granite  but  occur  also 
in  greisen,  felsite,  quartz  porphyry,  schist,  slate,  and  quartz- 
ite.  The  deposits  are  of  various  types,  consisting  chiefly  of 
fine  quartz  veinlets;  large  masses  and  lenticular  bodies  of 
quartz;  irregular  masses  of  quartz,  chlorite,  and  mica;  and 
impregnations  of  granite  and  greisen.  The  lodes  are  irregu- 
lar in  form  and  size  and  exhibit  a  marked  tendency  toward 
suddenly  pinching  out.  The  mineral  associates  of  the  wolf- 
ramite are  molybdenite,  and  minerals  of  bismuth,  tin,  copper, 
uranium,  cerium,  iron,  manganese,  zinc,  and  lead.  The  chief 
gangue  minerals  are  quartz,  topaz,  fluorite,  tourmaline,  beryl, 
muscovite  and  biotite. 

(New  South  Wales.)  In  New  South  Wales  the  most  im- 
portant tungsten  deposits  are  the  wolframite  deposits  of  the 
Mole  Tableland,  or  Torrington  district  and  the  scheelite  de- 
posits of  the  Hillgrove  district. 

In  the  Torrington  district  clay  slates  have  been  invaded 
by  granites  and  pegmatites,  causing  silicification  and  indura- 
tion of  the  host  rock.  Wolframite  occurs  in  the  pegmatites 
and  in  quartz  veins  in  the  granite  and  metamorphosed  slate, 
Associated  with  the  wolframite  are  bismuth,  molybdenite, 
chalcopyrite,  arsenopyrite,  cassiterite,  ilmenite,  monazite, 
fluorite,  topaz,  beryl,  smaltite,  and  lithia-mica,  A  large 
number  of  deposits  have  proved  erratic  in  form,  size  and  in 
tungsten  content. 

In  the  Hillgrove  district  quartz  veins  bearing  scheelite 

32 


cut  granite  and  slates.  Accompanying  the  veins  are  dikes 
of  granite  porphyry  and  diorite.  Some  of  the  veins  appear  to 
be  true  fissure  veins  while  others  occupy  contraction  joints 
in  the  granite.  The  tungsten  lodes  or  "reefs"  accompany 
gold  reefs,  and  in  places  valuable  ores  of  gold  have  been  mined 
in  conjunction  with  the  scheelite.  In  places  a  considerable 
amount  of  stibnite  accompanies  the  scheelite.  Many  of  the 
veins  have  proved  very  thin  and  the  ore  irregular  in  its  oc- 
currence, yet  some  are  known  to  be  persistent  over  a  verti- 
cal distance  of  1600  feet. 

(New  Zealand.)  In  New  Zealand  valuable  scheelite  de- 
posits occur,  accompanied  in  the  majority  of  cases  by  gold 
ores.  The  veins  traverse  schists  for  the  most  part,  where 
they  are,  in  some  cases,  of  the  bedded  type,  and  in  others  oi 
the  fissure  type.  The  scheelite  occurs  irregularly  in  pockets 
and  in  lenticles  in  quartz,  and  is  accompanied  by  pyrite  and 
arsenopyrite. 


33 


CHAPTER  II. 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  BLACK  HILLS 


Topography.  The  Black  Hills  occupy  an  area,  elliptical 
in  outline,  having  a  length  of  about  100  miles  from  north- 
west to  southeast  and  a  maximum  width  of  about  50  miles. 
The  hills  rise  rather  abruptly  from  the  surrounding  plains 
to  elevations  of  more  than  7,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
central  area  may  be  compared  to  an  elevated  basin,  elong- 
ated from  north  to  south,  and  with  a  plateau  rim  of  varying 
width.  Rising  above  the  floor  of  the  basin  are  ranges  of 
hills  attaining  for  the  most  part,  altitudes  slightly  less  than 
that  of  the  rim,  but  containing  one  elevation,  Harney  Peak, 
that  is  the  highest  point  in  the  entire  hills  area.  The  larger 
streams,  that  drain  the  central  basin,  head  near  its  western 
margin  and  flow  eastward  through  broad  park-like  valleys 
until  they  reach  the  central,  or  the  eastern  portion  of  the  ba- 
sin, where  they  enter  narrower  depressions,  and  finally  find 
their  way  northward,  eastward,  and  southward  through  the 
plateau  and  flanking'  ridges,  by  way  of  deep  canyons.  The 
plateau  surrounding  the  central  area  is  broad  on  the  west, 
where  the  dip  of  the  rocks  is  gentle,  and  narrow  on  the  eastern 
side  where  the  formations  dip  more  steeply.  Its  surface  con- 
forms to  that  of  the  massive,  resistant  Pahasapa  limestone.  In 
it  streams  have  carved  numerous  deep  gorges,  flanked  by  near- 
ly vertical  walls  of  gray  limestone.  On  the  outer  flanks  of 
the  limestone  plateau  occurs  the  Red  Valley,  a  race-track 
like  depression,  completely  encircling  the  main  hills  area. 
The  slopes  of  the  Red  Valley  on  the  inner  side  toward  the 
limestone  plateau,  are  paved  with  the  gently-dipping,  hard 
Minnekahta  limestone.  On  its  outer  margin  it  faces  the 
steep,  truncated  edges  of  the  outward-dipping,  resistant 
sandstones  of  the  Lakota  and  Dakota  formations,  .that 
form  the  prominent  hog-back  ridge  on  the  outskirts  of  the 
hills.    The  outer  slopes  of  the  hog-back  ridge  descend  gently 

34 


with  the  surface  of  the  Dakota  sandstone  to  the  plains,  that 
present  broad  expanses  of  rolling  prairies. 

General  Geologic  Relations.  Occupying  the  central  area 
are  crystalline  metamorphic  rocks  and  granites  of  pre-Cam- 
brian  age.  Surrounding  them,  occur  in  sequence  outward,  the 
formations  of  the  Paleozoic  and  Mesozoic  groups,  and  finally 
the  Cenozoic  formations.  The  latter  formations  overlap  in 
places  the  upturned  and  eroded  edges  of  the  older  rocks  but 
mostly  lie  at  the  surface  of  the  plains  beyond.  In  the  north- 
ern portion  of  the  area  are  numerous  dikes,  sills,  and  lacco- 
liths of  early  Tertiary  age,  intrusive  into  the  pre-Cambrian, 
Paleozoic,  and  Mesozoic  formations.  Structurally  the  Black 
Hills  uplift  is  a  somewhat  elongated  dome.  The  sedimentary 
formations  dip  outward  in  all  directions  from  the  central 
axis  and  disappear  beneath  the  younger  formations  of  the 
plains. 

Pre-Cambrian  Formations  and  History. —  (Rocks  of  Sedi- 
mentary Origin.)  The  oldest  formations  exposed  within 
the  Black  Hills  Uplift  consist  for  the  most  part  of  a  group 
of  alternating  beds  of  schists,  slates,  gneisses,  quartzites, 
and  lesser  amounts  of  quartzite  conglomerate,  limestones, 
and  iron  formations  of  sedimentary  origin.  These  sedimen- 
tary rocks  are  believed  by  the  author  to  belong  to  two  sys- 
tems separated  by  an  unconformity  that  appears  along  the 
eastern  margin  of  the  crystalline  area  in  the  vicinity  of 
Nemo  on  Box  Elder  Creek, 

The  older  system  covers  much  of  the  larger  part  of  the 
area  of  crystalline  rocks  in  the  central  region  of  the  hills.  In 
it  rocks  originally  argillaceous  are  perhaps  in  greater  abun- 
dance, while  arenaceous  beds  are  of  slightly  less  importance. 
In  places,  much  of  the  argillaceous  rock  is  also  calcareous 
and  in  other  places  graphitic.  As  a  result  of  the  great 
pressure  accompanying  the  folding  of  these  rocks  they  have 
been  changed  to  slates  and  phyllites.  Near  granite  intrusions 
they  have  been  metamorphosed  to  garnetiferous,  staurolitic, 
and  tourmalinic-mica  schists.  Arenaceous  rocks  have  been 
metamorphosed  to  quartz-mica  schists  and  where  less  pure, 
to  gneisses  and  graywackes.  Of  less  importance  quantita- 
tively but   of  great   value  in  deciphering  the   pre-Cambrian 

35 


history  are  rocks  once  dominantly  calcareous.  These  present 
material  for  exceedingly  interesting  studies  in  metamorphism 
on  account  of  the  great  variety  of  rocks  that  have  been 
derived  from  them.  Near  Nemo  the  original  limestones  have, 
in  places,  been  dolomitized  and  today  remain  as  normal  dolo- 
mites while  in  other  places  the  dolomites  have  been  altered 
to  talcose  schists.  Some  of  the  original  limestones  in  the 
same  region  have  been  silicified  so  completely  as  to  resemble 
normal  quartzites,  while  others  have  been  replaced  partly  by 
iron  oxide  and  partly  by  silica  forming  banded  quartz- 
hematite,  and  quartz-magnetite  rocks.  In  contact  with  the 
intrusive  granites,  near  Custer,  the  original  limestones  have 
been  altered  to  an  aggregate  of  actinolite  and  phlogopite 
which  grades  away  from  the  contact  into  crystalline  dolo- 
mitic  marble.  Near  Rochford  and  Lead,  where  affected  pre- 
sumably by  thermal  solutions  bearing  silica  and  iron,  and 
probably  of  igneous  origin,  calcareous  rocks  have  been  par- 
tially recrystallized  with  the  production  of  quartz  and  cum- 
mingtonite  at  the  expense  of  the  original  carbonates,  garnet, 
chlorite  and  mica.  This  hydro-thermal  metamorphism  followed 
the  period  of  dynamic  metamorphism  by  pressure  which  had 
resulted  in  a  development  of  garnet  and  of  flakes  of  mica 
and  chlorite  in  parallel  position  and  had  given  the  rock  a 
fair  cleavage.  The  crystals  of  cummingtonite  developed  dur- 
ing the  second  period  of  metamorphism  penetrate  the  origi- 
nal cleavage  in  radiating  groups  but  themselves  show  no 
tendency  toward  parallel  orientation.  Calcareous  shales  and 
possibly  other  rocks  in  the  Lead  and  Rochford  areas  have 
been  metamorphosed  to  chlorite  and  mica  schists. 

The  exact  delimitations  of  the  younger  system  and  the 
trend  of  the  unconformable  contact  are,  as  yet,  matters  of 
some  doubt  so  that  no  exact  description  can  be  made  of  this 
system.  So  far  as  interpreted,  however,  the  younger  system 
comprises  a  thick  basal  conglomerate  containing  pebbles  and 
boulders  of  the  iron  formation  and  quartzite  with  which  it  is 
in  contact,  and  a  siliceous  and  ferruginous  dolomite  similar 
to  those  of  the  older  system.  The  evidences  for  the  uncon- 
formity will  furnish  the  subject  of  a  paper  to  be  published  at 
a  later  date  and  will  not  be  discussed  here. 

36 


Although  repeated  by  folding  to  an  unknown  extent,  the 
total  thickness  of  the  pre-Cambrian  sedimentary  systems  is 
probably  very  great  and  is  to  be  measured  by  several  tens 
of  thousands,  and  perhaps  many  tens  of  thousands  of  feet 
rather  than  in  units  of  a  lesser  order. 

(Intrusive  Igneous  Rocks.)  Into  the  sedimentary  forma- 
tions were  intruded  at  different  times,  but  largely  before,  or 
during,  the  period  of  principal  dynamic  metamorphism,  nu- 
merous basic  igneous  rocks  in  the  forms  of  sills,  dikes,  and 
possibly  laccoliths.  These  different  intrusives  show  varying 
amounts  of  dynamic  metamorphism  but  universally  exhibit 
a  certain  amount  of  parallelism  of  biotite,  chlorite  and  am- 
phibole  crystals  that  produces  a  fair  cleavage  parallel  to  the 
cleavage  of  the  deformed  sediments.  The  amount  of  con- 
tact metamorphism  produced  by  these  rocks  seems  to  have 
been  small  on  the  whole.  In  places  w^here  in  contact  with  cal- 
careous rocks,  little  or  no  changes  have  resulted.  The  basic 
intrusives  are  widely  distributed  throughout  the  pre-Cam- 
brian sediments  and  their  total  mass  must  be  very  great. 

In  the  valley  of  Little  Elk  Creek  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  crystalline  area,  outcrops  a  considerable  mass  of 
granitic  gneiss.  This  rock  is  very  probably  a  flow-granite 
and  probably  was  intruded  after  the  main  deformation  of 
the  pre-Cambrian  sediments  had  been  accomplished.  The 
gneissic  banding  parallels  the  direction  of  dominant  cleavage 
in  the  neighboring  schists.  This  gneiss  may  be  a  phase  of 
the  Harney  Peak  granite  described  below. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  area,  centering  about  Har- 
ney Peak,  occurs  a  mass  of  coarse  pegmatitic  granite,  that  is 
intrusive  into  the  sediments  and  basic  igneous  rocks  of  the 
pre-Cambrian.  Within  an  area  four  miles  in  length  from 
north  to  south  and  perhaps  half  as  wide,  granite  containing 
numerous  inclusions  of  schist  is  the  predominant  rock.  Pass- 
ing outward  from  the  central  granite  area  the  scists  become 
more  abundant,  until  finally  they  predominate,  but  contain 
numerous  dikes  of  granite  and  pegmatite  lying  for  the  most 
part,  in  directions  nearly  parallel  to  the  strike  of  the  original 
folds  in  the  sediments  (approximately  N.-S.)  the  area  with- 
in which  the  granite  occurs  is  an  elliptical  one,  probably  ex- 

37 


ceeding  by  a  little  a  total  length  of  25  miles  from  north  to 
south  and  a  width  of  15  miles  from  east  to  west. 

It  is  thought  likely  that  the  Harney  Peak  granite  may 
underlie  a  large  portion  of  the  Black  Hills  area,  for  rock  of 
precisely  similar  character  has  been  brought  to  the  surface 
by  the  Tertiary  intrusives,  in  the  vicinity  of  Whitewood 
Peak,  three  miles  east  of  Deadwood,  and  again  in  the  Nigger 
Hill  uplift,  fifteen  miles  west  of  Lead,  and  in  the  Bear  Lodge 
Mountains  twenty  miles  farther  to  the  northwest.  The 
metamorphism  of  calcareous  rocks  to  form  cummingtonite 
and  chlorite  schists  in  the  Lead  and  Rochford  regions  further- 
more, point  to  the  presence  beneath,  of  some  agent  of  hydro- 
thermal  alteration.  In  the  Lead  area  intrusive  igneous  rocks 
of  Tertiary  age  occur  in  considerable  abundance  but  are  be- 
lieved not  to  be  the  agents  of  the  metamorphism  that  pro- 
duced the  schists,  for  the  Cambrian  dolomites  show  no  such 
changes  and  hence  the  alteration  is  thought  to  h^ve  been 
produced  in  pre-Cambrian  times.  In  the  Nemo  region  the 
pre-Cambrian  basic  intrusives  are  in  places  in  contact  with 
dolomites  that  show  no  such  alteration,  while  in  the  Rochford 
district,  where  cummingtonite  rocks  are  so  prevalent,  there 
is  no  apparent  relation  between  the  basic  intrusives  and  the 
cummingtonite.  Cummingtonite  rocks  have  developed 
throughout  this  area  wherever  calcareous  rocks  occur,  but 
basic  intrusives,  although  abundant,  are  by  no  means  found 
where  the  calcareous  rock  exists,  and  furthermore,  exhibit 
only  a  very  inconsiderable  tendency  to  produce  metamorphic 
effects  at  contacts.  It  would  seem  more  probable,  therefore, 
that  the  Harney  Peak  granite  is  of  wide  extent  below  the 
surface  and  is  part  of  a  large  batholith. 

Mineralogically  the  Harney  Peak  granite  consists  in 
general  of  orthoclase,  anorthoclase,  albite,  and  oligoclase; 
quartz,  biotite  or  muscovite,  tourmaline,  and  small  amounts 
of  garnet,  apatite,  and  other  minor  accessories.  Much  of  the 
rock  shows  a  coarse  graphic  intergrowth  of  quartz  and  feld- 
spar and  a  perthitic  intergrowth  of  orthoclase  and  oligoclase. 
The  texture  even  at  the  border  of  the  central  mass  is  very 
coarse.  Feldspar  masses  weighing  several  pounds,  mica 
plates  as  large  as  one's  hand  and  tourmaline  crystals  two  or 

38 


three  inches  long  are  not  at  all  uncommon.  In  some  of  the 
dikes  the  texture  is  much  finer,  while  in  those  dikes  and 
masses  containing  lithia  minerals,  such  as  spodumene  and 
amblygonite,  the  texture  is  very  coarse.  These  pegmatites 
will  be  described  further  in  another  place. 

(Structure  and  Metamorphism.)  The  pre-Cambrian  group 
of  sediments  has  been  closely  compressed  throughout  into  a 
number  of  steeply  pitching  isoclinal  folds.  The  axial  planes 
of  the  folds  as  well  as  the  beds  strike  in  general  about  N.  20° 
-40°  W.  and  dip  eastward  at  high  angles  of  75  -90\  The 
most  notable  exceptions  to  this  general  rule  are  to  be  found 
in  the  region  of  the  Harney  Peak  granite,  where  low  dips  in 
all  directions  have  been  noted.  At  points  along  the  limbs 
near  the  apexes  of  the  folds,  strikes  in  other  directions  than 
northwest  naturally  occur.  The  only  folds  of  this  type  known 
to  the  author  on  anything  more  than  a  very  minor  scale, 
occur  in  the  Lead,  the  Nemo,  and  the  Rochford  areas.  The 
folding  in  the  Lead  area  is  referred  to  by  Jaggar,  Irving,  and 
Emmons,*  and  the  Nemo  fold  in  a  paper  read  before  the 
Geological  Society  of  America  in  1916  by  Sidney  Paige.  The 
folding  in  the  Rochford  area  was  also  referred  to  by  Paige  in 
the  same  paper  but  had  subsequently  been  independently  dis- 
covered and  announced  by  the  author  in  the  summer  of  1915. 
Small  drag  folds  are  common  and  have  from  the  first  been 
recognized,  but  the  larger  units  have  remained  unknown  or 
at  least  unannounced  until  recent  years. 

Sidney  Paige  has  described  two  major  faults,  one  lying 
just  west  of  and  parallel  to  the  Homestake  ore  body  at  Lead 
and  a  second  in  the  Nemo  district.  Numerous  small  faults, 
especially  well  marked  in  quartzites  where  closely  folded, 
have  been  observed  by  the  author  in  various  places  and  very 
probably  are  quite  common. 

The  pre-Cambrian  sedimentary  rocks  and  much  of  the 
basic  intrusives,  throughout  the  hills  show  a  good  cleavage 
parallel  to  the  bedding  except  where  small  folds  exist,  or,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Harney  Peak  granite.  From  this 
fact  it  would  seem  that  the  pre-Cambrian  of  this  area  rep- 


*U.  S.  G.  S.  Professional  Paper  No.   26,    (1903). 

39 


resents  but  a  portion  of  a  much  larger  structural  unit.  In 
the  vicinity  of  Harney  Peak  the  slates,  limestones  and 
quartzites  that  were  invaded  by  the  granite  were  subjected 
to  great  pressures,  exerted  in  a  direction  normal  to  the 
granite  surface,  and  in  them  has  been  developed  a  secondary 
cleavage  parallel  to  the  granite  contact.  If  the  directions  of 
the  micaceous  cleavage  of  the  scists  thus  developed  were  to 
be  followed  it  would  lead  one  to  completely  encircle  the 
granite. 

(Pre-Cambrian  History.)  The  earliest  period  of  which  we 
have  any  record  was  a  long  one,  during  which  many  thou- 
sands of  feet  of  muds,  sands  and  limes  were  laid  down  and 
later  compacted  and  cemented  into  solid  rock.  These  rocks 
were  then  folded  into  a  series  of  anticlines  and  synclines  and 
raised  to  such  an  elevation  that  erosion  cut  deeply  into  them 
before  they  were  depressed  and  a  second  system  of  rocks, 
largely  conglomerates  and  sandstones,  was  deposited  over 
them.  Both  systems  were  then  intruded  by  masses  of  basic 
igneous  material  in  the  form  of  thick  sills  and  dikes  which 
was  accompanied  by,  or  closely  followed  by,  a  period  of  most 
extreme  compression,  deforming  the  rocks  into  a  more  com- 
plex series  of  folds  and  perhaps  faulting  them.  Following  this 
deformation,  after  an  unknown  interval,  occurred  the  intru- 
sion of  the  Harney  Peak  granite  which  caused  further 
changes  in  structure,  especially  near  to  its  surface.  From 
the  granite,  thermal  solutions  penetrated  the  rocks  at  the 
sides  and  above,  resulting  in  important  changes  in  mineral 
composition  in  the  rocks,  both  by  reactions  between  rock  and 
solutions,  and  by  the  preciptation  of  materials  injected  under 
pressure,  forming  veins.  Veins  of  quartz,  tungsten,  and 
gold  were  formed  in  this  way  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
granite  and  perhaps  at  considerable  distances  from  it. 

After  the  intrusion  of  the  Harney  Peak  granite  and  be- 
fore Middle  Cambrian  times  the  rocks  of  the  region  were 
deeply  eroded  and  the  granites  and  pegmatites  were  exposed 
at  the  surface. 

In  age,  the  pre-Cambrian  sediments  are  probably  the 
equivalents  of  one  of  the  Huronians  or  the  Animikean  of  the 
Lake  Superior  District. 

40 


^' 


FORMATION 


Q       PLEISTOCENE     g^jL'Jiii'^'"' 
MIOCENE 


CARI_ILE 
GREENHORN 


3AKOTA 

-USON 

.(INNEWAST* 


iMORRISON 
J?   UNKPAPA 
SUNDANCE 


I?  SPEARFISH 


PAHA8APA 


OEADWOOD 


ALCONVOAN 


PRODUCTS 

OOLD,  TIN,  CLAY 
VOLCANIC  ASH 

FULLERS  EARTH 
VOLCANIC  ASH 


PETROLEUM 

SUILDINSSTONC 
^    FIRECLAY 

BUILDING  STONE, 
COAL 

BUILDINGSTONE 


GYPSUM 
LIME.  CEMENT 


SOLD,  SILVER. 
LEAD,  LIMC 

COLO,  SILVER. 
LEAD.  TUNGSTEN 

COLO.SILVEn?.LEAO, 
TIN,COPPER.  IRON, 
TUNGSTEN,  MtC  A, 
LITHIA,  GRAPHITE 


Post-Algonkian  Sedimentary  Formations.  The  follow- 
ing table  and  columnar  section  give  the  principal  characteris- 
tics of  the  sedimentary  formations  of  the  Black  Hills  area. 
Those  of  importance  in  connection  with  the  tungsten  de- 
posits are  described  in  more  detail  in  Chapter  III. 

System  Formation  Prineinal    Characters  Thickness 


Pleistocene  No   Name...    Conglomerate,     gravels      

^,.                             I ,,.,  ..       T3:,.  Conglomerate,    sandstone,    shale,    vol- 

Ohgocene  ;  W  hite    Rix..        ^^^^^    ^g,^    ..600  Ft. 

/Laramie.  .  .  .     Sandstone,    shale,    lignite     2,500  Ft. 

IFox     Hills..     Sandstone,    shale     250  Ft. 

]Pierre Dark-gray     shale     1,400  Ft. 

Cretaceous  /Niobrara....    Impure   chalk,   calcareous   shale    175  Ft. 

iCarlile Gray    shale    with    concretions    700  Ft. 

(Graneros...      Dark    shale,    some    sandstone    1,000  Ft. 

Dakota Buff   sandstone   with   iron   concretions .  100  Ft. 


Comanchean 


(  Fuson Massive    shale    50   Ft. 

"/Dakota Coarse,    cross    bedded    sandstone 200   Ft. 


i  Morrison  ... .    Massive    greenish-gray    shale    120   Ft. 

Jurassic  -'Unkpapa.  .  ..    Massive    gray   sandstone    75   Ft. 

(Sundance...     Gray   shale,   buff   sandstone    275   Ft. 


Triassic  Spearfish...      Red   sandy,  shale    witli    gypsum    beds.. 600   Ft. 

Permian 

Pennsylvanian       Minnelusa..      Buff  and  red  sandstone   and  limestone  500   Ft. 

Mississippian 

Ordovician  Whitewood.     INIassive    buff    limestone    80   Ft. 


iMinnekahta.    Gray    limestone      40   Ft. 

1  Opeche Red   sandstone,    sandy   shale    80   Ft. 


(  Pahasapa.  .  .    Massive    gray    limestone    500  Ft. 

(Englewood.      Pink    slabby    limestone     50   Ft. 


(  Conglomerate,     sandstone.     greenish- 

Cambrian  -^Deadwood..  gray    shales    and      dolomitic      lime- 

(  stone      400   Ft. 

41e-onkian             -K'o    Xame           Slates,    schists,    gneisses,      crystalline 
Aigonkian  -^:so    Aame...         Hmestones     Very    Great 

Structure  of    the    Post-Algonkian    Sedimentary    Rocks. 

The  major  structure  is  that  of  a  dome,  somewhat  elongated 
in  a  northwest — southeast  direction.  Were  the  sediments 
that  have  been  eroded  away  from  the  central  area  to  be  re- 
placed, their  upper  surface  would  lie  more  than  8,000  feet 
above  the  present  surface  of  the  crystalline  rocks  of  the  cen- 
tral hills.  Near  the  axis  of  the  uplift  the  dip  of  the  Cam- 
brian and  other  sediments  that  remain  is  low.  On  the  west- 
ern flank  of  the  uplift,  dips  are  gentle,  while  on  the  east  they 

41 


are  much  steeper.  On  the  flanks  of  the  dome  are  several 
minor  flexures.  Notable  among  these  subordinate  folds  is 
one  extending  northward  from  Crow  Peak,  another  lying  near 
Whitewood,  a  third  south  of  Belle  Fourche,  a  fourth  west  of 
Edgemont  and  two  near  Hot  Springs.  These  flexures  are 
characterized  by  gentle  dips  to  the  east  and  steeper  dips  to 
the  west.  They  run  out  under  the  plains  with  declining  pitch. 
Faults  in  general  are  uncommon  except  where  the  sediments 
have  been  intruded  by  igneous  rocks.  Local  doming  of  the 
sediments  caused  by  laccolithic  intrusions  are  numerous  in 
the  northern  portions  of  the  area. 

Tertiary  Igneous  Intrusives.  In  the  northern  portion  of  the 
area  on  the  flanks  of  the  uplift  as  well  as  near  the  central 
axis  occurs  a  remarkable  series  of  intrusive  igneous  rocks 
varying  in  texture  from  even  grained  and  porphyritic  apha- 
nites  to  medium  coarse  phanerites,  and  in  composition  from 
thoroughly  acid  thyolites  to  alkaline  phonolites,  and  types  as 
basic  as  diorite.  Irving  has  distinguished  the  following 
families.* 

Grorudite  family. — Alkaline  rocks  containing  orthoclase, 
quartz,  aegerite-augite,  and  aegerite,  with  some  albite,  micro- 
cline  and  biotite. 

Phonolite  family. — Soda  rich  rocks  composed  of  or- 
thoclase, anorthoclase,  microcline,  aegerite-augite,  nephelite, 
noselite,  with  accessory  hauynite,  biotite,  magnetite,  titanite, 
and  garnet. 

Rhyolite  family. — Rocks  of  this  type  vary  in  texture  and 
are  characterized  by  a  fine  ground  mass  of  quartz  and  feld- 
spar with  phenocrysts  of  orthoclase,  plagioclase  and  quartz. 
Small  amounts  of  hornblende  and  biotite  occur.  Silica  varies 
from  65%  to  78%. 

Andesite  family. — Rocks  of  moderately  dense  but  mark- 
edly phorphyritic  texture  and  basic  character.  They  show  a 
fine  ground  mass  of  plagioclase  with  accessory  quartz  and 
chlorite  and  phenocrysts  of  plagioclase,  orthoclase,  horn- 
blende and  biotite.    Silica  averages  about  55'/; . 

Dacite  family. — Consists  of  a  fine  ground  mass  of  quartz 


*Annals  N.  Y.  Acad.  Sci.,  Vol.  12,  No.  9,  page  224  et  seq. 

42 


and  orthoclase  in  which  phenocrysts  of  plagioclase,  ortho- 
clase  and  quartz  occur.  Titanite,  magnetite,  and  biotite  are 
common  accessories. 

Diorite  family.  —  Gray  rocks  composed  of  horn- 
blende, plagioclase,  quartz,  biotite,  and  accessory  orthoclase 
and  having  a  granitoid  texture. 

Lamprophyres, — Contain  fine  automorphic  crystals  of 
augite  and  feldspar  with  accessory  hornblende  and  magnetite. 

Structural  Relations  of  the  Tertiary  Igneous  Rocks.     The 

structural  relations  and  dynamics  of  intrusion  of  the  Tertiary 
igneous  rocks  have  been  admirably  described  by  Jaggar,* 
Irving,**  and  Paige.***  For  fuller  information  on  this  sub- 
ject the  reader  is  referred  to  these  publications.  In  the 
central  part  of  the  Black  Hills  the  Tertiary  eruptives  have 
invaded  the  older  rocks  in  three  horizons,  viz.,  the  pre-Cam- 
brian  schists  and  slates,  the  Deadwood  formation,  and  the 
Pahasapa  limestone.  The  form  of  the  intrusion  has  been 
governed  in  no  small  degree  by  the  character  of  the  invaded 
rock. 

In  the  pre-Cambrian  rocks  where  the  bedding  and  cleav- 
age are  nearly  vertical,  the  intrusives  take  the  form  of  dikes 
parallel  to  the  bedding  except  where  the  mass  is  large  or 
where  apparently  intruded  under  great  pressure,  and  even  in 
these  cases  the  general  trend  of  the  intrusion  conforms  to 
the  structural  lines  of  weakness.  At  the  lower  surface  of  the 
nearly  horizontal  Cambrian  beds,  however,  the  intrusives  ex- 
hibit a  marked  tendency  toward  lateral  spreading.  The  joint- 
ed character  of  the  Cambrian  sandstone  and  the  compressi- 
bility of  the  shale  has  allowed  fractures  to  form  and  the 
magma  was  able  to  rise  to  higher  horizons  at  various  points 
where  it  might  spread  out  in  the  form  of  a  sheet.  Where  the 
magma  was  large  in  volume  or  the  force  of  intrusion  great, 
the  overlying  rocks  were  in  many  cases  bowed  up,  producing 


♦Laccoliths  of  the  Black  Hills,  U.  S.  G.  S.,  21st.  Ann.  Rep.  Pt.  3, 
Economic  Resources  of  the  Northern  Black  Hills,  Professional  Paper, 
U.  S.  G.  S.,  No.   26,  pp.   22-23. 

♦♦Economic  Resources  of  the  Northern  Black  Hills,  Professional 
Paper   26,  pp.    22-23. 

***Journal   of   Geology,   Vol.    2  9,    pp.    .'J41. 

43 


laccoliths.  Within,  and  at  the  base  of  the  Cambrian,  sills 
are  numerous,  especially  below  shale  horizons  which  are 
thought  to  have  acted  as  cushions,  and  were  compressed. 
The  more  competent  Pahasapa  limestone  was  not  so  easily 
compressed  and  furthermore  was  capable  of  supporting  a 
greater  load  when  arched  so  that  beneath  it  we  find  the  larger 
laccoliths.  In  places  the  limestone  was  fractured  and  the 
igneous  rock  was  able  to  move  to  a  higher  horizon,  but  the 
increased  viscosity  of  the  magma  did  not  permit  a  free  move- 
ment and  we  find  more  irregular,  steep  sided  masses  within 
the  formation,  as  subordinate  laccoliths.  The  unsymmetrical 
laccoliths  are  a  result  of  initial  dip  of  strata  or  a  sloping  con- 
duit. Breccias  were  formed  of  fragments  of  the  host  rock, 
probably  by  the  force  of  intrusion.  There  is  no  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  any  volcanoes  in  the  region  at  the  time  of  the 
intrusion  of  the  sills  and  laccoliths.  In  places  rhyolites  cut 
phonolites,  in  others,  the  reverse  is  true,  so  that  no  clearly 
defined  sequence  of  intrusion  has  been  worked  out  for  the 
various  rock  types.  There  is  good  evidence  for  believing  that 
there  had  been  some  deformation  of  the  strata  before  the 
intrusion  and  there  was  certainly  a  great  deal  in  connection 
with  it,  so  that  the  uplift  probably  began  before  the  intru- 
sions, but  was  largely  coeval  with  them.  In  as  much  as  beds 
of  Laramie  age  are  affected  by  the  deformation  and  Oligo- 
cene  and  conglomerates  contain  pebbles  of  the  intrusive  por- 
phyries, the  intrusion  and  hence  the  Black  Hills  uplift,  is 
believed  to  have  taken  place  during  the  early  Eocene, 

Post  Algonkian  History.  The  interval  of  time  between 
the  formation  of  the  latest  pre-Cambrian  and  the  earliest 
Paleozoic  rocks,  was  an  exceedingly  long  one,  during  which 
erosion  had  levelled  high  mountain  ranges,  leaving  their 
cores  or  crystalline  rock  exposed  on  a  surface  of  moderate 
relief,  probably  near  sea  level. 

During  much  of  the  Paleozoic  and  Mesozoic  Eras  the 
present  site  of  the  Black  Hills  was  covered  by  shallow  marine 
waters,  or  by  detached  epicontinental  seas  in  which  deposits 
of  clastic  sediments  washed  down  from  the  surrounding  lands, 
or  limestones  from  the  accumulation  of  animal  remains,  were 

44 


forming.  The  Cenozoic  Era  has  been  largely  a  time  of  ero- 
sion of  the  area  uplifted  at  the  end  of  the  Mesozoic. 

The  Paleozoic  Era  in  the  Black  Hills  area  was  a  time 
when  conditions  varied  from  those  of  rapid  deposition  in 
agitated  waters,  to  deposition  in  rather  quiet,  clear  waters 
where  limestone  might  accumulate,  and  conditions  of  emer- 
gence, following  withdrawals  of  the  sea,  when  erosion  of  the 
deposits  already  formed,  took  place.  Shallow  marine  waters 
lay  over  the  area  during  the  Middle  Cambrian  and  Ordovician 
times,  and  to  an  unknown  extent,  during  the  Silurian  and 
Devonian.  The  latter  part  of  the  Devonian  surely,  and  very 
probably  much  of  the  interval  between  the  Ordovician  and 
Mississippian  periods,  was  a  time  or  erosion.  During  the 
Mississippian  Period,  again  the  area  was  the  site  of  a  warm, 
clear  epicontinental  sea.  The  closing  periods  of  the  Paleozoic 
were  marked  by  more  variable  conditions  when  the  formation 
of  beds  of  sandstones,  shales,  and  limestones,  more  rapidly 
alternated  with  times  of  erosion.  The  seas  were  shallow 
and  the  climatic  conditions  more  severe. 

The  early  Mesozoic  was  a  time  of  arid  climate,  when  the 
area  was  covered  probably  by  a  detached  arm  of  the  sea. 
Later  the  waters  disappeared  and  erosion  ensued,  followed 
in  turn  by  a  readvance  of  marine  waters  in  late  Jurassic 
times.  Still  later  in  the  Jurassic  Period  the  waters  again 
withdrew  and  deposits  were  formed  in  fresh  waters.  The 
Cretaceous  Period  was  marked  by  the  advance  of  a  great  sea 
from  the  south,  in  which  thousands  of  feet  of  sands  and  muds 
were  deposited.  Upon  the  retreat  of  this  sea,  in  late  Creta- 
ceous times  marshes  and  lakes  abounded  in  which  were  de- 
posited sands  and  muds  and  the  plant  remains  that  formed 
the  coal  beds  of  the  Laramie.  Following  the  Laramie  occur- 
red the  principal  uplift  of  the  Black  Hills,  accompanied  by 
the  intrusion  of  a  considerable  amount  of  igneous  material 
into  the  rocks  of  the  Northern  Hills. 

The  early  Cenozoic,  following  the  uplift,  was  a  time  when 
erosion  cut  deeply  into  the  formations,  developing  a  surface 
of  gentle  relief,  probably  at  a  comparatively  low  elevation. 
During  the  Oligocene,  deposits  again  formed  in  parts  of  the 
area,  in  swamps,  along  river  plains,  and   possibly  in   lakes. 

45 


Since  the  Oligocene  the  area  has  been  elevated  at  various 
times  but  no  great  amount  of  deformation  has  taken  place. 
It  has  been  during  this  recent  period  that  the  Black  Hills 
have  taken  on  their  present  topographic  form,  described  in 
the  first  paragraph  of  this  chapter. 


4r. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  TUNGSTEN  DEPOSITS  OF  THE  BLACK  HILLS 


Historical.  The  presence  of  tungsten  minerals  in  the 
pegmatites  and  quartz  veins  in  the  southern  Black  Hills  and 
in  the  Nigger  Hill  district  has  been  known  practically  since 
the  development  of  those  districts  for  tin  which  began  in  the 
early  eighties.  Up  to  the  year  1916  little  development  or 
even  prospecting  for  tungsten  was  done  in  these  areas  and 
the  total  production  was  very  small.  In  1906  the  Reinbold 
Metallurgical  Co.  mined  and  shipped  about  100  tons  of  tung- 
sten ore  to  Germany  from  its  mine  on  Sunday  Gulch  south  of 
Hill  City.  In  1907  the  American  Tungsten  Co.  was  organized 
and  erected  a  small  shaft  house,  hoist,  power  plant  and  con- 
centrating mill  on  their  claims  four  miles  east  of  Hill  City. 
A  shaft  was  sunk  to  a  depth  of  100  feet  and  drifts  and  cross- 
cuts run.  Some  excellent  ore  was  obtained  and  stored.  Sub- 
sequently the  property  has  remained  idle.  In  1913  the  Black 
Hills  Tungsten  Mining  and  Milling  Co.  was  organized.  On 
the  property  four  miles  east  of  Hill  City,  shaft  houses,  hoists, 
a  power  plant  and  a  small  mill  were  erected  and  several  hun- 
dred tons  of  ore  were  mined,  concentrated  and  marketed.  For 
a  time  the  property  remained  idle,  but  was  operated  again  in 
1916  for  a  short  time.  Since  that  time  the  ownership  of  the 
property  has  been  changed  to  the  Elkhorn  Tungsten  Co. 
At  present  the  property  is  idle.  During  1916  and  1917,  while 
attempting  to  work  tin  ores  in  the  vicinity  of  Hill  City  the 
Hill  City  Producer's  Co.  concentrated  at  the  old  Harney  Peak 
Tin  Co.'s  mill,  and  sold  several  tons  of  tungsten  ores  obtained 
from  leased  claims.    This  property  is  also  now  idle. 

There  seems  to  be  some  doubt  as  to  the  exact  date  of 
discovery  of  tungsten  in  the  Northern  Hills.  It  is  claimed 
by  some  that  Prof.  Jenney  made  the  discovery  of  a  tungsten 
mineral  at  the  Comstock  mine,  now  the  property  of  Mr.  S. 
R.  Smith,  4  miles  southeast  of  Deadwood,  on  one  of  his  early 
expeditions  to  the  Black  Hills.     The  author,  however,  could 

47 


find  no  mention  of  this  occurrence  in  any  of  the  early  reports 
by  Prof.  Jenney.  In  the  edition  of  1893  of  Dana's  Descriptive 
Mineralogy,  however,  the  mention  of  Black  Hills  hubnerite 
is  made,  the  source  of  which  is  said  to  be  the  Comstock  Mine, 
but  the  collector's  name  is  not  given.  This  is  the  first  re- 
ference to  tungsten  occuring  in  the  Black  Hills  that  the 
author  was  able  to  locate.  Headden  gives  an  analysis  of  hub- 
nerite from  the  same  mine  in  volume  HI  of  the  Proceedings 
of  the  Colorado  Scientific  Society  published  in  1906,  and 
states  that  the  presence  of  the  mineral  at  this  place  was 
known  in  the  early  eighties.  It  is  fairly  clear  then,  that  the 
hubnerite  at  the  Comstock  mine  was  the  earliest  known  oc- 
currence of  tungsten  in  the  Northern  Hills  but  evidence  is 
lacking  that  this  discovery  was  made  prior  to  the  discovery 
of  wolframite  in  the  Southern  Hills  mentioned  by  Blake  as 
early  as  1883*  and  again  by  the  same  author  in  1885**. 

In  1899  was  made  the  discovery  of  tungsten  minerals  in 
the  vicinity  of  Lead  in  the  Northern  Hills.  For  some  years 
what  had  been  known  as  "black  iron"  had  been  mined  with 
the  refractory  siliceous  gold  ores  from  the  vicinity  of  Lead 
and  on  Yellow  Creek.  Most  of  this  material  contained  such 
low  values  in  gold  that  it  was  sorted  from  the  gold  ores  and 
used  as  waste  to  fill  old  workings.  Some  of  it  had  been  ship- 
ped to  the  smelters  for  extraction  of  gold,  with  no  knowledge 
of  the  true  nature  of  the  black  material.  Its  great  weight, 
however,  attracted  the  attention  of  Mr.  O.  A.  Ritz,  a  teacher 
in  the  Lead  High  School,  who  investigated  its  character  and 
found  it  to  be  wolframite.  The  announcement  of  this  dis- 
covery attracted  the  attention  of  manufacturers  of  tungsten 
steel  and  during  the  early  part  of  1899  some  seventeen  tons 
of  ore  containing  about  53%  tungstic  acid  were  shipped  to 
the  East  by  Mr.  S.  W.  Deininger  of  Phoenixville,  Penn.  This 
was  the  first  shipment  of  tungsten  ore  from  the  hills.  From 
1899  to  1915  small  amounts  of  the  ore  were  mined  along 
with  the  siliceous  gold  ores  of  the  Cambrian  dolomites  and 
were  shipped  from  time  to  time,  but  no  serious  attempts  were 


*Am.  Jour.  Sci.  3rd  Series  Vol.  2G,  page  235. 
**Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.  Vol.  13,  page  694. 

48 


Plnte    VI  A. 


HARXEY    PKAK     FROM    THK    AVKST 


IMate    VI  B. 


HAHM-n      I'KAK     KHCMI     'llll',     SOI    111 


<^i' 


'1. 


^^S-  ^' 


->i^ 


v^^ 


^-  Vy^ 


SlllP©^:-   ■  J^^^f 


^r^(^,  <^^, 


<  r. 


iyiMM_Mi 


i 


made  to  produce  the  metal  until  the  great  advance  in  price-? 
due  to  the  European  War  made  the  industry  an  exceedingly 
profitable  one.  Since  1915  the  production  in  the  Northern 
Hills  has  progressed  steadily.  More  details  of  productions 
will  be  given  in  another  place. 

Location  of  Deposits.  The  tungsten  deposits  of  the 
Black  Hills,  so  far  as  known,  are  confined  to  three  distinct 
districts.  The  largest  area  is  in  the  vicinity  of  Harney  Peak, 
largely  in  the  western,  northwestern,  and  northern  parts  of 
the  granite  area.  One  occurrence  is  known  at  Spokane  7 
miles  east  of  Harney  Peak  and  at  least  one  near  Keystone, 
6  miles  northeast  of  the  peak.  A  second  area  lies  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Lead  and  Deadwood  in  the  Northern  Hills  and  a  third 
area  in  the  Nigger  Hill  district,  15  miles  west  of  Lead. 

Types  of  Deposits.  The  deposits  may  conveniently  be 
classified  into  five  rather  distinct  groups  according  to  their 
geological  mode  of  occurrence,  viz.,  (1)  pegamites;  (2)  quartz 
veins;  (3)  replacement  deposits;  (4)  segregation  deposits; 
and  (5)  placers.  Types  1,  2  and  5  are  confined  to  the  Harney 
Peak  and  Nigger  Hill  districts  and  types  2  and  4  to  the  Lead- 
Deadwood  district. 

Deposits  of  the  Harney  Peak  Area.  The  deposits  of  the 
Harney  Peak  district  are  closely  associated  in  distribution  as 
well  as  in  genesis  with  the  pegmatitic  phases  of  the  Harney 
Peak  granite.  They  occur  both  within  the  pegmatites  and 
genetically  related  quartz  veins  and  within  the  schists  de- 
veloped by  the  metamorphic  action  of  the  granite.  The 
granites  and  schists  have  been  briefly  described  in  the  section 
on  pre-Cambrian  rocks.  The  pegmatites  and  quartz  veins 
merit  a  more  detailed  description. 

Ziegler*  recognizes  in  the  Harney  Peak  granite  and  as- 
sociated permatites  and  quartz  veins  seven  types  of  differenti- 
ation products.  For  the  purposes  of  adequate  discussion  of 
the  tungsten  deposits  it  seems  best  to  somewhat  modify  his 
classification  and  to  recognize  the  following  types:  1,  the 
granite;  2,  lithia  bearing  pegmatites;  3,  pegmatites  contain- 


*Economic  Geology,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  264-277. 

49 


ing  little  or  no  lithium  minerals ;  4,  tin  veins ;  and  5,  quartz 
veins ;  some  of  which  carry  tungsten  minerals. 

From  a  mineralogical  standpoint  the  lithia  bearing  peg- 
matites are  perhaps  the  most  remarkable,  and  therefore, 
most  interesting,  both  on  account  of  the  great  number  of  dis- 
tinct mineral  species  found  in  them  and  because  of  the  large 
dimensions  attained  by  some  of  the  crystals.  In  the  Etta 
pegmatite  near  Keystone,  the  number  of  species  and  the 
dimensions  of  crystals  reach  a  maximum.  No  less  than  48 
minerals  have  been  reported  from  this  one  mass,  while  in  it 
a  crystal  spodumene  is  known  to  have  attained  a  length  of  at 
least  42  feet  and  others  to  have  a  diameter  of  fully  five  feet. 
The  Etta  has  produced  a  few  specimens  of  wolframite  and 
some  scheelite  but  neither  in  anything  like  commercial 
quantities.  The  lithia  bearing  pegmatites  do  not  appear,  on 
the  whole,  to  be  favorite  hosts  for  tungsten  minerals.  The 
most  important  minerals  of  the  lithia  bearing  pegmatites  as 
a  group  are  orthoclase,  microcline,  albite,  oligoclase,  musco- 
vite,  lepidolite,  biotite,  quartz,  tourmaline,  spodumene,  ambly- 
gonite,  beryl,  apatite,  triphyllite,  lithiophylite,  columbo- 
tantalite,  with  lesser  amounts  of  garnet,  struverite,  andalu- 
site,  and  various  sulphides. 

In  the  pegmatites  that  are  not  lithia  bearing,  the  miner- 
alogy is  much  simpler.  The  important  species  in  these  rocks 
are  the  feldspars  mentioned  above,  quartz,  muscovite,  biotite, 
tourmaline,  garnet,  and  in  places  a  little  pyrite.  In  this  phase 
tungsten  minerals  are  more  common,  especially  in  the  parts 
rich  in  quartz. 

In  the  tin  veins  we  find  cassiterite  associated  chiefly 
with  feldspars,  quartz,  muscovite,  and  in  places  small  amounts 
of  columbite  and  wolframite. 

In  the  quartz  veins  the  chief  minerals  besides  quartz  are 
muscovite  and  graphite  both  of  which  show  a  tendency  to- 
ward concentration  along  the  walls  of  the  vein.  This  type  is 
the  most  important  one  of  the  granite  differentiates  as  a 
source  of  tungsten. 

The  following  brief  description  of  the  tungsten  properties 
in  the  Harney  Peak  region  gives  the  important  geological 
characteristics  of  each.     The   number  at  the   head  of  each 

50 


paragraph  will  assist  in  locating  the  property  on  the  ac- 
companying topographic  map.  It  is  possible  that  some  mis- 
takes have  been  made  in  names  and  that  some  claims  may 
have  been  omitted  from  the  descriptions.  The  data  here  pre- 
sented are  all  that  the  author  was  able  to  gain  in  the 
time  that  he  was  in  the  field. 

1.  Downing's  Claim,  7  miles  southwest  of  Hill  City.  On 
the  principal  claim  coarse  and  fine  crystals  of  black  tungsten 
minerals  occur  with  pyrite,  muscovite  and  biotite  in  a  quartz 
vein.  The  micas  are  especially  well  developed  along  the  bor- 
ders of  the  vein.  The  vein  pinches  and  swells  and  has  a 
maximum  width  of  about  14  inches.  The  strike  is  N.  60°W. 
and  the  dip  steep  to  the  southwest.  The  development  con- 
sists of  prospect  cuts  for  50  feet  along  the  strike  and  for  a 
maximum  depth  of  15  feet  below  the  surface.  Nearby  is  a 
pegmatite  containing  some  wolframite. 

Two  other  claims  belonging  to  Wright  and  Virtue  and 
to  Mr.  H.  H.  Francis  are  reported  to  contain  tungsten  min- 
erals in  this  vicinity.    These  were  not  visited. 

2.  Reinbold  Claim,  5  miles  south  of  Hill  City.  The 
tungsten  ores  are  located  mostly  on  the  contact  between 
small  veins  of  pegmatite  and  schist,  also  in  the  pegmatites, 
and  in  seams  in  the  schist.  The  schists  are  penetrated  by 
small  kidneys,  lenses,  and  veinlets  of  pegmatite  containing 
quartz,  biotite,  muscovite,  feldspar  and  tourmaline,  and  by 
quartz  veins  carrying  some  muscovite.  The  quartz  and  peg- 
matite have  in  places  cemented  brecciated  masses  of  schist. 
The  width  of  the  main  lead  probably  does  not  exceed  5  feet 
on  the  surface.  It  seems  to  be  a  vertical  zone  more  or  less 
impregnated  with  fine  veinlets,  rather  than  a  continuous, 
uniform  mass.  The  mineralized  zone  runs  N.  35'  W.  and 
from  the  direction  of  an  inclined  shaft  apparently  dips  steeply 
to  the  southwest.  To  the  west  of  the  main  vein  lies  a  small 
quartz  mica  vein  containing  some  tungsten  and  manganese 
minerals,  of  unknown  extent.  The  tungsten  mineral  is  hub- 
nerite  occurring  in  slender  crystals  of  from  V2  to  2  inches  in 
length.  An  analysis  by  Headden*  shows  the  mineral  to  be 
composed  of  92.S'/r  MnWO^  and  7.2',  FeWO,.  The  surface 
material   is   much   weathered   and   the   hubnerite   is   covered 

*Colo.  Sci.  Soc.  Proc,  Vol.  8,  Page  176. 

51 


with  brown  iron  oxide  and  black  oxide  of  manganese.  De- 
velopment work  on  the  property  consists  of  6  small  prospect 
cuts  and  1  inclined  shaft  100  ft.  in  depth. 

3.  Tungsten  Lode  (Wehrlick,  Faust  and  Gowan),  6 
miles  south  of  Hill  City  on  the  western  flank  of  Harney  Peak. 
The  tungsten  minerals  occur  in  a  coarse  pegmatite  containing 
feldspar,  quartz  and  muscovite,  about  30  feet  in  thickness 
with  an  apparent  length  of  about  350  feet,  dipping  westward 
with  the  schists.  The  wolframite  is  most  abundant  in  parts 
rich  in  quartz  and  muscovite.  In  places  tourmaline  occurs 
in  streaks  through  the  pegmatite  and  on  the  contact  with 
the  schist.  Garnet  also  is  abundant  in  places.  The  pegmatite 
has  included  fragments  of  schist. 

4.  McKinnon  and  Millers  Claim,  41/2  miles  southeast  of 
Hill  City.  Crystals  of  wolframite  are  found  in  quartz  segreg- 
ations and  veinlets  in  a  pegmatite  sill  from  1  ft.  to  3  ft.  in 
thickness  that  dips  75  to  the  west.  The  pegmatite  contains 
rather  fine  quartz,  muscovite,  feldspar,  pink  garnet  and 
green  tourmaline.  The  wolframite  is  in  places  closely  associ- 
ated with  garnet.  In  places  there  is  considerable  secondary 
manganese  dioxide.  The  outcropping  edge  of  the  pegmatite 
has  been  opened  up  in  numerous  places  for  about  200  feet 
along  the  strike.  The  wolframite  is  especially  abundant  along 
the  north  end.  An  analysis  of  the  mineral  was  calculated  by 
Hess**  to  contain  71.4%  FeWO,  and  28.6',^  MnWO,  and  is 
therefore  wolframite.  A  second  sill  50  feet  west  of  the  one 
described,  and  paralleling  it,  outcrops  for  100  feet  along  the 
surface.     This  vein  is  thin  but  richer  in  spots  than  the  other. 

5.  Michigan  Placer  Ground  (Nelson),  41/2  miles  south- 
east of  Hill  City  on  Palmer  Gulch.  Wolframite  occurs  in  a 
sill  of  pegmatite  containing  quartz,  feldspar,  muscovite,  gar- 
net and  tourmaline,  and  in  a  quartz  vein  from  3  inches  to  2 
feet  in  thickness.  The  veins  are  exposed  for  20  feet  along 
the  surface  and  dip  with  the  schist  15°  to  the  northwest.  The 
crystals  of  wolframite  are  small.  Muscovite  is  concentrated 
along  the  vein  walls. 

6.  Pettit  and  Pfander's  Claim,  3  miles  southeast  of  Hill 


**U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bui.  583,  page  30. 

52 


City.  Tungsten  minerals,  wolframite  and  scheelite  occur 
along  the  walls  of  a  tissue  filled  with  gouge  consisting  of 
clay,  brown  chalcedony,  limonite  and  manganese  oxide,  cut- 
ting a  coarse  pegmatite  dike  30  or  more  feet  in  thickness  and 
dipping  steeply  westward.  The  tungsten  minerals  occur  on 
the  pegmatite  surfaces  and  penetrate  the  gouge  and  are  crys- 
tallized in  druses.  The  crystals  are  considerably  weathered 
and  are  stained  with  brown  limonite  and  black  manganese  ox- 
ide. The  scheelite  coats  the  wolframite  in  honey  like  drops. 
The  width  of  the  fissure  is  from  3  inches  to  1  foot  and  the 
strike  is  northwest.  The  pegmatite  is  coarse,  containing 
feldspar,  quartz,  muscovite  and  tourmaline.  On  top  of  the  dike 
20  feet  north  of  the  main  vein,  a  small  cut  exposes  other  fis- 
sures of  the  same  sort.  The  dev-elopment  consists  of  a  shaft 
20  feet  in  depth,  and  a  cut  into  the  face  of  the  dike  25  feet 
long  and  10  feet  vertically,  parallel  to  the  main  vein. 

7.  The  High  Lode  (Canfield)  on  the  east  side  of  Summit 
Peak,  3  miles  southeast  of  Hill  City.  The  wolframite  occurs 
in  good  crystals  in  four  quartz  veins  from  1  to  12  inches  in 
width,  cutting  a  pegmatite  composed  of  quartz,  feldspar  and 
muscovite. 

8.  Vida  May  (Pettit  and  Nash)  414  miles  southeast  of 
Hill  City. 

This  property  was  not  visited.  The  description  here 
given  is  that  of  Hess. 

"The  vein  *****  jg  visible  for  less  than  100  feet 
along  the  surface  and  is  irregular  in  thickness,  strike  and 
dip.     The  dip  is  30'  and  more  southward. 

The  dike  occupies  a  fissure  along  an  overthrust  fault  of 
unknown  throw.  At  some  points  it  reaches  10  inches  in 
thickness  and  at  others  it  pinches  out.  In  the  thicker  part 
wolframite  occurs  in  chunks,  some  of  which  are  several  inches 
thick.  In  places  the  dike  pinches  to  half  an  inch  and  is 
almost  wholly  made  up  of  wolframite.  Some  muscovite  is 
present  through  the  vein  and  shows  a  tendency  to  form  in 
lines  that  give  the  vein  a  somewhat  banded  appearance. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  vein  is  a 
layer  of  impure  graphite  on  each  side  from  half  an  inch  to 
2V2  inches  thick.     Muscovite  occurs  in  this  layer  also   and 

53 


shows  thin  lines  of  minute  flakes  parallel  to  the  vein.  No 
structure  of  the  graphite  can  be  definitely  made  out.  The 
graphite  is  undoubtedly  segregated  from  the  graphitic 
schists  through  the  agency  of  the  vein-forming  materials. 
Smaller  amounts  of  graphite  have  been  noted  at  a  number  of 
places  as  included  in  the  pegmatite  dikes,  but  it  seems  signifi- 
cant that  along  quartz  veins,  the  magmatic  segregation  which 
was  probably  most  watery  at  the  time  of  its  intrusion,  the 
most  graphite  should  have  been  deposited.  The  same  phe- 
nomenon was  noted  in  Slaughterhouse  Gulch.  It  is  strongly 
suggested  by  these  occurrences  that  the  graphite  is  brought 
into  solution  by  the  hot  waters  accompanying  the  intrusion." 

9.  Blackbird  Claim  (Canfield,  Hicks,  and  Roush),  41/2 
miles  southeast  of  Hill  City.  A  quartz  vein  of  variable  thick- 
ness is  exposed  in  a  prospect  trench  for  a  distance  of  75  feet 
along  the  strike  and  in  a  vertical  shaft  perhaps  40  feet  in 
depth.  The  strike  of  the  vein  is  N.  45-  W.  and  its  dip  nearly 
vertical.  It  cuts  schists  dipping  northwest  at  a  low  angle. 
The  vein  was  not  well  exposed  and  its  extent  and  size  are  un- 
known, but  it  is  small,  at  the  surface.  Some  specimens  of 
fairly  good  ore  were  found  on  the  dump. 

10.  Martha  Washington  (C.  H.  Kammon),  41/2  miles 
southeast  of  Hill  City.  A  quartz  vein  containing  muscovite 
and  some  high  grade  wolframite  is  exposed  in  a  prospect 
trench  for  100  feet  along  the  strike.  The  vein  strikes  N.  65° 
E.  and  at  the  surface  dips  southward  at  a  low  angle.  Near 
its  eastern  end  small  veins  of  quartz  cut  the  main  vein  and 
extend  for  short  distances  into  the  schists.  The  main  vein 
cuts  the  schists  both  along  the  dip  and  along  the  strike  at 
high  angles.  Southwest  from  this  vein  occurs  a  second  one 
exposed  in  a  prospect  cut  for  a  distance  of  25  feet  along  the 
strike.  The  latter  vein  is  from  6  to  12  inches  thick,  has  a 
variable  strike  from  west  to  northwest,  and  dips  southward 
at  a  low  angle.  Very  little  tungsten  was  exposed  in  the  vein 
at  the  time  of  visit. 

11.  Property  of  the  Elkhorn  Tungsten  Company,  41/2 
miles  southeast  of  Hill  City.  On  this  property  are  exposed  at 
least    five,    apparently    distinct    veins    of    tungsten    bearing 

54 


I 


quartz,  cutting  garnetiferous,  mica  schists,  that  are  in  places 
graphitic. 

The  westernmost  vein  was  developed  by  an  inclined 
shaft  along  the  dip,  and  at  the  time  of  the  visit  had  apparent- 
ly been  largely  worked  out,  for  no  ore  was  found  in  place. 
The  vein  had  a  strike  of  N.  45"  W.  and  a  dip  of  75  to  the 
southwest.  In  form  the  vein  was  apparently  lens  shaped  and 
was  observed  to  have  pinched  out  laterally,  along  the  strike. 
The  vein  material  had  evidently  been  quartz  with  a  little  mus- 
covite  and  possibly  graphite.  On  the  dump  were  found 
masses  of  schists  penetrated  by  veinlets  of  garnetiferous 
pegmatite,  showing,  in  places,  segregations  of  quartz,  especi- 
ally along  the  margins.  None  of  these  were  observed  to  bear 
any  tungsten.  Garnets  were  more  abundant  in  the  host 
rock  near  the  vein  contact  and  had  evidently  been  developed 
as  a  result  of  reaction  with  the  vein  material.  Specimens 
of  good  ore  were  obtained  that  had  come  from  this  vein. 

400  feet  east  of  this  vein,  one  and  perhaps  two  veins, 
occur  near  the  power  house.  One  vein  of  quartz,  containing 
muscovite,  graphite,  and  wolframite,  averaging  one  foot  in 
thickness,  is  exposed  for  50  feet  along  the  strike  in  an  open 
cut,  and  in  an  inclined  shaft  along  the  dip  for  perhaps  40  feet. 
At  the  surface  the  vein  swells  and  narrows  very  perceptibly. 
The  vein  exhibits  a  rude  banding  parallel  to  its  length  in 
consequence  of  segregations  of  mica,  graphite,  and  wolframite 
in  planes.  Graphite  and  mica  are  especially  abundant  at  the 
margins. 

75  feet  northwest  of  this  second  vein  outcrops  what  is 
apparently  a  separate  vein  that  strikes  N.  35  W.  and  dips 
steeply  to  the  southwest.  This  vein  varies  considerably  in 
the  direction  of  its  trend  and  in  its  thickness  at  the  surface. 
It  is  said  to  persist  to  a  depth  of  at  least  90  feet  in  the  shaft 
and  to  continue  for  a  considerable  distance  along  the  strike, 
in  the  underground  workings.  Its  width  where  seen  at  the 
surface  averaged  perhaps  24  inches.  The  vein  is  developed 
by  a  shaft  and  underground  drifts  and  raises.  Some  ore  has 
been  stoped  out  from  the  vein,  milled  and  marketed.  Speci- 
mens of  the  ore  obtained  were  of  good  quality. 

Another  vein  lying  perhaps   150  feet  northeast   of  the 

55 


power  house,  was  exposed  in  a  prospect  trench  for  100  feet 
along  the  strike.  The  vein  varies  in  thickness  and  direction 
of  strike.  It  contains  quartz  with  some  muscovite  and  wolf- 
ramite. 

200  yards  south  of  the  power  house  is  another  vein  of 
quartz,  containing  small  amounts  of  muscovite  and  wolf- 
ramite. The  vein  is  exposed  in  prospect  cuts,  and  in  a  small 
shaft  of  unknown  depth.  The  trend  of  the  vein  is  N.  75° 
W.  and  the  dip  steep  toward  the  southwest.  At  the  surface 
its  width  is  from  8  to  24  inches. 

On  the  property  are  a  power  plant,  hoist,  and  a  small 
well  equipped  concentrating  mill.  Some  ore  was  mined  and 
milled  by  the  Black  Hills  Tungsten  Mining  and  Milling  Com- 
pany in  1916.  Since  that  time  the  property  has  mostly  re- 
mained idle. 

12.  Success  Claim  (Amer.  Tungsten  Co.),  4  miles  east 
of  Hill  City.  Wolframite  occurs  in  a  quartz  vein,  cutting 
graphitic  schists,  with  muscovite  well  developed  along  the 
border  and  in  seams  in  the  quartz.  Wolframite  occurs  in 
bladed  aggregates  up  to  a  length  of  2V2  inches  and  in  places 
is  especially  rich  along  the  borders  of  the  vein.  The  vein 
varies  from  8  to  18  inches  in  thickness.  It  strikes  N.  45°  W. 
and  dips  steeply  northeast.  It  is  exposed  along  the  strike 
for  75  feet  in  prospect  cuts  and  in  a  small  shaft  25  feet  in 
depth. 

13.  Good  Luck  Claim  (American  Tungsten  Company), 
4  miles  east  of  Hill  City.  Wolframite,  ferberite  and  a  little 
scheelite  occur  in  a  quartz  vein  cutting  graphite  mica  schist. 
The  trend  of  the  vein  is  parallel  to  the  strike  of  the  schists 
and  is  about  N.  30°  W.  The  dip  is  variable,  but  averages 
about  60°  to  the  southwest.  The  width  of  the  vein  is  from 
18  to  30  inches,  averaging  throughout  its  known  extent  per- 
haps 24  inches.  The  vein  is  exposed  in  the  main  shaft  to 
the  40  foot  level ;  and  at  that  depth  in  a  drift  for  97  feet 
along  the  strike ;  again  in  a  small  shaft  47  feet  southeast  of 
the  main  shaft  to  the  40  foot  level ;  and  also  in  a  winze  sunk 
from  the  40  foot  level,  near  the  main  shaft,  to  a  depth  of  30 
feet.  On  the  40  foot  level  the  vein  is  ore-bearing  for  at  least 
50  feet  of  its  length,  and  in  the  winze,  to  the  bottom. 

56 


The  quartz  shows  minute  cavities  in  lines  parallel  to  the 
walls  of  the  vein.  It  contains  a  little  muscovite  in  cracks  near 
the  margin  of  the  vein  which  in  places  is  mixed  with  gra- 
phite. The  wolframite  occurs  in  tabular  masses,  roughly 
paralleling  the  vein  walls.  Some  of  these  masses  attain  a 
weight  of  8  or  10  pounds,  and  single  cleavage  blades  have 
been  found  with  a  length  of  over  8  inches.  A  little  green 
scheelite  that  is  almost  surely  original  has  been  found  in  the 
quartz.  Where  weathering  has  affected  the  tungsten  min- 
eral pitted  surfaces  filled  with  iron  oxide  occur.  Some 
scheelite,  also  occurs  as  an  alteration  product  of  the  wolf- 
ramite. An  analysis  of  the  concentrate,  reported  by  C.  H. 
Fulton  in  a  private  mine  report  has  been  calculated  as 
representing  a  mineral  with  86.5 "/f  FeWO^  and  13.5% 
MnWO^  which  would  be  classed  as  ferberite.  An  analysis  by 
M.  L.  Hartmann,  of  the  black  mineral,  shows  it  to  contain 
69.1%  FeWO,  and  30.9%  MnWO,,  and  hence  the  specimen 
was  wolframite. 

The  development  work  consists  of  a  100  foot,  two  com- 
partment shaft,  fully  timbered  to  within  2  sets  of  the  bottom ; 
97  feet  of  drifts  on  the  40  foot  level;  a  30  foot  winze  from 
the  40  foot  level ;  a  28  foot  crosscut  from  the  bottom  of  the 
main  shaft;  and  a  second  small  shaft  47  feet  down  the  hill 
side  and  12  feet  below  the  collar  of  the  main  shaft,  cutting 
the  drift  on  the  40  foot  level  at  a  depth  from  the  surface  of 
18  feet. 

The  equipment  comprises  a  power  plant,  shaft  house, 
hoist,  mine  tools  and  mill  well  equipped  for  concentration. 

In  an  ore  bin  near  the  shaft  house  are  stored  about  40 
tons  of  good  ore  that  was  stoped  out  from  above  the  40  foot 
level.  At  the  house  of  Mr.  A.  H.  Wabel,  the  owner,  the 
author  has  seen  several  specimens  of  ore  weighing  from  50 
to  100  pounds  that  he  would  estimate  to  contain  15%  or  more 
WO3. 

14.  Cleveland  Lode  (American  Tungsten  Co.),  4. miles 
east  of  Hill  City.  Wolframite  occurs  in  crystals  up  to  2iA 
inches  in  length  with  a  little  muscovite  in  a  vein  of  glassy 
quartz.  The  vein  strikes  N.  30-  W.  and  dips  steeply  to  the 
northeast.    Its  width  averages  about  8  inches  at  the  surface. 

57 


In  places  the  vein  is  much  fractured.  The  vein  cuts 
garnetiferous  schist  that  dips  westward  at  a  low  angle.  The 
ore  is  exposed  in  prospect  holes  for  a  distance  of  40  feet 
along  the  strike  of  the  vein. 

15.  Champion  Lode  (Pennington  and  Smith),  41/2  miles 
east  of  Hill  City.  Wolframite  occurs  in  the  quartz  and  mus- 
covite  rich  parts  of  a  coarse  pegmatite  that  contains  also 
feldspar  and  tourmaline.  The  pegmatite  is  banded  parallel  to 
the  walls.  The  dike  is  from  3  to  6  feet  in  thickness  and  is  in 
places  split  by  schist  horses.  The  dike  strikes  northeast 
parallel  to  the  schist  and  dips  45''  to  the  northwest,  more 
steeply  than  the  schist  except  at  the  south  end  where  it  be- 
comes a  sill.  The  dike  is  opened  up  by  several  cuts  to  a  depth 
of  20  feet  for  a  distance  of  600  feet  along  the  strike.  Across 
the  road  from  the  south  end  of  the  Champion  Lode  peg- 
matite, occurs  a  quartz  vein  from  1  to  2  feet  in  thickness  con- 
taining good  crystals  of  wolframite.  The  vein  has  been 
opened  up  by  a  15  foot  prospect  hole. 

16.  Gireau's  Claim,  41/9  miles  northeast  of  Hill  City. 
The  tungsten  vein  is  exposed  in  a  shaft  30  feet  in  depth.  The 
shaft  was  not  accessible  at  the  time  of  the  visit,  but  from 
specimens  on  the  dump  wolframite  apparently  occurs  in  a 
quartz  vein. 

17.  Edna  Hazel,  41/2  miles  northeast  of  Hill  City.  Wolf- 
ramite crystals  from  1/2  to  2  inches  in  length  occur  in  a  vein 
of  clear  glassy  quartz  from  a  few  inches  to  2  feet  in  width, 
cutting  schist.  In  places  the  vein  is  very  rich.  Its  direction 
is  N.  20"  W.  and  its  dip  is  vertical.  An  analysis  by  M.  L. 
Hartmann  showed  the  mineral  to  be  composed  of  69.7% 
FeWO^  and  30.7^   MnWO^,  and  hence  to  be  wolframite. 

18.  Rundle,  Mills,  and  Casler  Claim,  2  miles  southeast 
of  Hill  City.  Black  tungsten  mineral  occurs  on  the  contact 
of  the  schists  with  a  small  quartz  vein  containing  tourmaline, 
mica  and  some  graphite.  The  vein  is  exposed  for  a  hundred 
feet  along  the  strike  (N.  10°  E.) 

19.  Dyke  Claim,  1/2  mile  east  of  Hill  City.  Black  tung- 
sten mineral  occurs  in  a  thick  dike  of  pegmatite  containing 
quartz,  feldspar,  muscovite,  tourmaline  and  graphite.  The 
dike  strikes  N.  50 '  W,  and  dips  steeply  westward.     The  dike 

58 


is  exposed  for  a  total  length  of  350  feet  and  is  developed  by 
prospect  holes  and  a  small  shaft. 

20.     Black  Metal  Claims,  1  mile  north  of  Hill  City. 

The  excellent  descriptions  of  the  occurrences  of  tungsten 
bearing  veins  on  this  property,  given  by  Hess*  v^ill  be  quoted 
here,  for  without  a  claim  map  the  author  was  unable  to  check 
a  number  of  locations  on  the  claims  described.  On  the  more 
important  geological  relationships  of  the  principal  occur- 
rences the  author  is  in  essential  agreement  with  Hess. 

"About  400  feet  from  the  south  end  of  the  group,  on  the 
center  line  of  Black  Metal  claim  No.  3,  which  lies  on  the 
west  side  of  China  Gulch,  is  a  quartz  vein  6  to  8  inches  wide 
striking  N.  23°  W.,  dipping  steeply  to  the  east,  but  almost 
vertical,  and  about  30  feet  long.  It  cuts  a  gray  fine-grained 
quartzose  mica  schist  which  strikes  N.  75°  W.,  with  a  dip  of 
35°  N.  15°  E.  The  walls  are  loose  and  show  the  effects  of 
some  slipping.  The  wolframite  is  of  a  bright,  shining  black 
color  in  irregular  masses  as  much  as  an  inch  in  thickness  and 
several  inches  in  length.  So  far  as  developed  at  the  time,  it 
was  probably  not  rich  enough  to  pay  for  mining.  There  is  a 
small  amount  of  muscovite  mica,  apparently  following  cracks 
in  and  thus  later  than  the  quartz.  Thin  seams  of  pyrites 
also  follow  cracks  in  the  quartz.  The  wolframite  decays, 
leaving  in  places  a  little  scheelite,  but  generally  only  iron 
oxide.  A  similar  vein,  striking  N.  88°  W.,  with  a  steep  dip 
to  the  north,  though  almost  vertical,  lies  42  feet  farther 
south.  This  vein  has  been  followed  on  the  surface  for  60 
feet.  It  is  faulted  about  3  feet  at  the  shaft.  From  the  bot- 
tom of  the  shaft,  w^hich  is  47  feet  deep,  the  quartz  showed 
pyrites  along  cracks  and  some  that  was  possibly  original. 

Wolframite  extends  into  the  quartz  from  the  sides  of  the 
vein  in  blades  up  to  one-eight  of  an  inch  thick  and  2  inches 
long,  which  must  have  been  formed  either  before  or  con- 
temporaneously with  the  quartz.  Like  the  other  vein,  this 
one  is  only  a  prospect,  but  it  is  one  which  encourages  further 
work. 

Farther  north,  on  the  west  side  of  China  Gulch,  on  Black 


=  U.    S.    Geol.    Surv.,    Bui.    380.    pp.    152-153. 

59 


Metal  claim  No.  5,  is  a  quartz  vein  9  to  12  inches  thick,  which 
is  exposed  in  two  prospect  holes.  The  vein  strikes  N.  50^-55° 
E.,  dips  45°  N.  35°-40°  W.,  and  has  been  followed  for 
about  125  feet.  It  carries  considerable  black  tourmaline  in 
crystals  an  inch  or  more  in  length  by  one-sixteenth  to  one- 
eight  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  Some  wolframite  is  found 
mixed  with  light-colored  cassiterite  in  masses  up  to  2  pounds 
in  weight.  The  color  of  the  cassiterite  is  in  places  hidden  by 
stains  of  iron  oxide.  During  the  tin  excitement  this  ground 
was  held  as  a  tin  claim. 

On  Black  Metal  claim  No,  6,  near  the  north  end  of  the 
group,  is  a  quartz  vein  6  to  8  inches  thick,  striking  N.  5°  W. 
and  standing  nearly  vertical.  A  vertical  shaft  about  4  feet 
wide  has  been  sunk,  with  the  vein  in  the  middle  at  the  top. 
At  a  depth  of  65  feet  the  vein  is  in  the  east  wall  of  the  shaft. 
The  vein  is  generally  free,  but  is  in  places  "frozen"  to  the 
walls.  The  country  rock,  as  in  the  other  claims  of  the  grouj, 
is  quartzose  mica  schist,  in  places  graphitic  and  here  and 
there,  near  the  vein,  impregnated  with  small  needles  of  black 
tourmaline. 

The  vein  carries  wolframite  intimately  intergrown  with 
light-gray  cassiterite,  some  of  which  is  almost  colorless. 
These  minerals  form  tabular  masses  reaching  II/2  inches  in 
thickness  and  probably  8  to  10  inches  in  breadth.  They  oc- 
cur near  the  middle  of  the  vein,  and  C,  G,  Todd,  in  charge 
for  the  Black  Metal  Mining  Company,  stated  that  none  had 
been  seen  on  the  sides  of  the  vein,  A  granitic  dike  a  few 
inches  in  width  is  said  to  lie  along  the  vein  in  places,  and  at 
such  points  the  vein  is  richest, 

A  small  shaft  house  has  been  erected  and  drifts  have 
been  carried  on  the  vein  for  about  30  feet  each  way  at  a 
depth  of  65  feet.  The  vein  is  said  to  be  widening  a  little 
toward  the  north.  What  seems  to  be  the  same  vein  is  seen 
several  hundred  feet  farther  north,  but  it  shows  neither  wol- 
framite nor  cassiterite  at  that  point. 

Southwest  of  this  vein,  on  the  same  claim,  is  a  quartz 
vein  4  to  8  inches  thick,  with  a  strike  of  N.  55°  E,  and  a 
variable  dip.  It  carries  some  wolframite,  slender  needles  of 
black    tourmaline,    and    some    muscovite.      In    places    thin 

60 


branch  veins  enter  the  schist,  which  is  here  graphitic,  and  at 
some  points  bunches  of  wolframite  occupy  the  whole  width 
of  the  vein,  so  that  the  wolframite  is  said  to  be  in  the 
"slate,"  the  name  by  which  the  schists  are  generally  known 
in  the  locality.  The  vein  is  traced  for  only  a  short  distance. 
On  Black  Metal  claim  No.  7  a  thin  quartz  vein  carries 
wolframite,  small  pieces  of  green  and  white  scheelite,  brown 
cassiterite,  pyrites,  and  a  little  mica.  On  Black  Metal  claim 
No.  8  is  an  irregular  quartz  vein  that  carries  some  wolframite 
and  small  particles  of  scheelite,  original  in  the  vein.  Part  of 
the  scheelite  is  of  a  delicate  green  color.  There  is  some 
cassiterite,  which,  where  free  from  iron-oxide  stains,  is  light 
gray  in  color,  and  some  pyrites." 

21.  Hayes  Claim,  200  yards  northeast  of  Burlington 
railroad  station  Hill  City.  Small,  dull  crystals  of  wolframite 
occur  in  a  pegmatite,  containing  feldspar,  muscovite  and 
quartz.  The  dike  strikes  N.  25°  W.  and  the  dip  is  vertical  at 
the  south  end,  but  westerly  farther  north.  The  dike  is  3 
feet  thick  near  the  south  end  and  thickens  to  the  north.  The 
dike  cuts  slates  dipping  to  the  southwest  and  striking  to  the 
northwest.  In  its  neighborhood  are  a  number  of  small 
stringers  of  pegmatite  and  quartz  lenses  and  "blowouts".  The 
dike  has  been  prospected  by  cuts  for  total  length  of  200  feet. 
An  analysis  by  M.  L.  Hartmann  shows  the  mineral  to  be 
composed  of  36.3  ^c  FeWO,  and  63.7%  MnWO,  and  hence  to 
be  wolframite. 

22.  The  Annie,  I/2  mile  west  of  Hill  City  on  Slaughter- 
House  Gulch.  Wolframite  occurs  in  a  quartz  vein  from  4  to  6 
feet  wide  in  places  with  graphite  and  muscovite  especially 
along  the  vein  walls.  A  little  cassiterite  and  bismuth  also 
occur  in  the  vein.  On  the  surface  the  vein  shows  numerous 
pittings  containing  iron  oxide  from  which  wolframite  has 
probably  weathered.  The  vein  strikes  N.  20=  W.,  and  dips 
steeply  eastward.  50  feet  east  of  this  vein  a  second  occurs 
wider  than  the  first.  It  strikes  N.  10=  E.  and  dips  35^  W. 
A  small  amount  of  wolframite  occurs  in  this  vein.  Associated 
with  the  first  vein  is  a  pegmatite  dike,  from  which  the  vein 
is  probably  a  segregation.  The  dike  contains  quartz,  feldspar, 
muscovite  and  cassiterite,  and  has  been  one  of  the  more  im- 

61 


portant  tin  prospects  of  the  region.    The  quartz  vein  has  pro- 
duced some  tungsten. 

23.  The  Wolfram  Lode  (Mills)  on  the  south  side  of 
Slaughter  House  Gulch  600  feet  southeast  of  the  Annie. 
Wolframite  in  small  crystals  occurs  in  a  quartz  vein  con- 
taining graphite,  biotite*  and  muscovite  along  the  border.  The 
vein  has  a  width  of  from  2  to  3  feet.  It  strikes  N.  10°  W. 
and  dips  80°  to  the  northeast.  The  vein  cuts  graphitic 
schist  whose  strike  is  parallel  to  the  strike  of  the  vein  but 
which  dips  southwest. 

24.  Coates  Claim,  1  mile  southwest  of  Hill  City.  This 
claim  the  author  was  not  able  to  locate  in  the  field,  but  from 
descriptions  by  the  owner,  is  a  typical  pegmatite  containing 
small  amounts  of  wolframite. 

25.  Mills  Brothers'  Prospect,  1  mile  south  of  Hill  City 
on  the  east  side  of  Spring  Creek  valley  250  feet  above  the 
railroad.  On  a  northeast  extending  ridge  are  exposed  num- 
erous quartz  veins  and  bunches  of  milky  quartz.  The  wolf- 
ramite bearing  vein  contains  some  muscovite  and  graphite 
both  along  the  walls  and  inclosed  in  the  quartz.  The  in- 
closing rock  is  a  graphitic  slate  which  evidently  has  furnished 
the  graphite  contained  in  the  quartz.  The  trend  of  the  vein 
is  20°  W.  Its  dip  was  not  determined.  The  wolframite  is 
exposed  only  at  the  north  end  for  a  few  feet  where  a  shaft 
had  been  sunk  to  a  depth  of  25  feet.  At  the  north  end  where 
the  wolframite  occurs  the  vein  apparently  does  not  exceed 
1  foot  in  thickness  but  widens  to  3  feet  farther  south  where 
it  is  barren  on  the  surface. 

26.  Fern  Cliff  (F.  G.  Robertson)  1/2  mile  north  of 
Spokane,  7  miles  east  of  Harney  Peak.  This  occurrence  is 
of  especial  interest  for  two  reasons,  first;  it  lies  in  a  region 
near  the  lithia  bearing  pegmatites,  where  with  but  two  minor 
exceptions  tungsten  is  unknown,  second ;  it  is  the  only  known 
occurrence  in  the  Black  Hills  of  primary  scheelite  in  im- 
portant quantities. 

On  the  property  two  quartz  veins  occur  that  apparently 
apex  to  the  north.  The  western  vein  strikes  approximately 
N.-S.,  and  the  eastern  one  N.  30°  W.  The  western  vein  is 
from  IV2  feet  to  4  feet  in  thickness  and  the  eastern  one  is 

62 


about  2  feet  thick.  Both  were  observed  to  pinch  and  swell 
along  the  strike  and  in  the  direction  of  dip.  At  the  point 
where  they  seemed  to  apex  the  vein  is  easily  4  feet  thick. 
Both  veins  are  apparently  vertical.  The  eastern  vein  is  ex- 
posed for  100  feet  along  the  surface  and  the  western  one  for 
perhaps  50  feet.  At  the  apex  the  veins  are  exposed  in  a 
shaft  to  a  depth  of  30  feet,  and  from  the  bottom  of  this 
shaft  in  a  drift  along  the  east  vein  for  a  distance  of  30  feet, 
A  short  distance  from  the  main  shaft  is  a  smaller  one  on  the 
west  vein  that  has  been  sunk  to  a  depth  of  24  feet. 

The  ore  minerals  scheelite  and  wolframite  occur  inti- 
mately intergrown,  and  separately,  in  irregular  masses,  some 
of  which  measure  3  or  4  inches  in  diameter,  in  a  glassy 
quartz  matrix.  With  the  tungsten  minerals  and  separately 
in  the  quartz,  occurs  a  considerable  amount  of  pyrite.  Seams 
of  pyrite  in  the  quartz  as  much  as  1/2  inch  in  thickness  were 
observed.  No  graphite  or  muscovite  were  seen  either  at  the 
margin  or  in  the  quartz  vein,  although  the  inclosing  schists 
are  graphitic.  The  greater  part,  at  least,  of  the  scheelite  is 
unquestionably  primary  and  was  precipitated  simultaneous- 
ly with  the  wolframite  and  pyrite  in  the  quartz.  A  photo- 
graphic reproduction  of  a  specimen  of  the  ore  may  be  seen 
in  plate  II  B.  In  amount,  the  scheelite  probably  exceeds  the 
wolframite.  At  the  surface  the  tungsten  minerals  and  py- 
rite have  disintegrated  and  much  of  the  quartz  is  stained 
red  from  iron  oxide.  Two  pegmatite  dikes  occur  to  the  east 
of  the  tungsten  veins  at  distances  of  200  feet  and  400  feet 
respectively,  and  one  to  the  west  at  a  distance  of  perhaps 
150  feet. 

In  places  the  ore  is  very  high  grade  and  should  the 
veins  prove  persistent  for  considerable  distances  and  main- 
tain throughout  the  tungsten  content  th-ey  show  at  the  sur- 
face, the  property  ought  to  be  a  valuable  one. 

28.  Reinbold  Claim,  1/2  rnile  northwest  of  Spokane. 
Tungsten  minerals  occur  in  seams  of  quartz  from  1  to  18  in- 
ches in  width  cutting  a  pegmatite.  The  property  is  develop- 
ed by  a  shaft  50  feet  in  depth  and  by  several  prospect  cuts. 

29.  The    Etta    (The    Standard    Essence    Co.),    2    miles 

63 


south  of  Keystone.  The  Etta  has  been  described  briefly 
above.    As  a  producer  of  tungsten  it  is  not  important. 

A  small  amount  of  wolframite  and  possibly  scheelite 
have  been  found  in  placers  in  the  Harney  Peak  district,  but 
the  commercial  importance  of  this  type  of  deposit  is  probably 
negligible. 

The  Deposits  of  the  Nigger  Hill  Area.  The  Nigger  Hill 
or  Tinton  district  lies  approximately  15  miles  west  of  Lead 
near  the  Wyoming-South  Dakota  line.  Nigger  Hill  is  the 
center  of  a  laccolithic  intrusion  of  monzonite  and  syenite 
porphyries,  of  early  Tertiary  age.  Within  the  laccolith 
are  areas  of  schist,  pegmatites  and  other  intrusives 
of  Algonkian  age.  The  pre-Cambrian  rocks  are  either 
detached  masses  of  the  underlying  rocks  that  have  been 
floated  up  on  the  intrusive  porphyries  or  are  islands  in  the 
surrounding  younger  rocks  that  still  maintain  connections 
with  the  other  pre-Cambrian  rocks  below.  The  pegmatite 
dikes  are  of  the  same  general  composition  as  the  tin  bearing 
dikes  of  the  Southern  Black  Hills.  They  contain  quartz,  feld- 
spar, muscovite,  tourmaline,  and  small  amounts  of  pyrite, 
cassiterite,  columbite,  and  wolframite.  These  dikes  have 
been  worked  for  their  tin  content  but  tungsten  minerals  have 
not  been  found  in  sufficient  amounts  to  attract  much  atten- 
tion. 

An  insignificant  amount  of  wolframite  has  been  found 
in  placers. 

Summary  of  Characteristics  of  the  Tungsten  Deposits  in 
Pre-Cambrian  Rocks.  Wolframite  is  the  most  important  of 
the  tungsten  bearing  minerals.  Primary  scheelite,  hubnerite, 
and  ferberite  are  relatively  rare  but  in  some  deposits  scheel- 
ite, and  in  others  hubnerite,  are  the  dominant  ore  minerals. 
Secondary  scheelite  in  small  quantities  is  not  uncommon. 

The  tungsten  minerals  occur  in  pegmatites  with  quartz, 
feldspar,  muscovite,  tourmaline,  garnet,  and  smaller  amounts 
of  pyrite,  cassiterite,  and  biotite.  In-  the  pegmatites  the 
crystals  of  tungsten  minerals  are  commonly  small  and  many 
are  dull  in  luster.  The  tungsten  bearing  pegmatites  are 
commonly  coarse  in  texture,  but  not  so  coarse  as  the  lithia 
bearing  pegmatites.     In  general   the  tungsten   minerals  are 

64 


Plate    \  111. 
TOI'0<;UAPHI(  AI,      ^lAI'      OF      MO  \  IJ-DKA  nA\  (K>l)      Hi:(;i(>\      SH<>\\I\(; 

!><)<  A  ri<>\  OK  J'in\<  H'Ai,  'rr\<;sri;\  uki'osits 


"f 


Plate   IX  A. 

XORTHERX     HILLS     \EAR     HOUIESTAKE     AVOLFRA3IITE     DEPOSITS 

AVASP  NO.  ::  oPE>  cut 


Plate    1\"  n. 


more  abundant  in  the  parts  of  the  pegmatite  rich  in  quartz, 
and  in  many  cases  are,  in  fact,  in  veinlets  of  quartz  within 
the  pegmatite.  After  quartz,  muscovite  is  the  closest  as- 
sociate of  tungsten  in  the  pegmatites.  The  pegmatites  have 
in  many  places  exerted  a  strong  metamorphic  action  upon  the 
inclosing  schists,  accompanied  by  the  development  of  mica, 
tourmaline  and  garnet,  at  and  near  the  contact.  On  the 
whole  the  tungsten  minerals  are  less  commonly  found  in  the 
pegmatites  and  the  crystals  are  of  smaller  size  than  in  the 
quartz  veins.  Probably  it  is  also  true  that  the  tungsten 
bearing  pegmatites  are  not  as  rich  as  the  tungsten  bearing 
quartz  veins. 

The  strike  of  the  pegmatite  dikes  conforms  closely  to 
the  strike  of  the  schists,  in  dip,  they  are  both  parallel  to,  and 
cut  across  the  bedding  planes  of  the  schist.  The  pegmatites 
are  variable  in  thickness  along  the  strike  and  dip  and,  in 
general,  cannot  be  followed  for  great  distances  along  the 
surface.  Some  are  dike-like  in  form,  while  others  more  close- 
ly resemble  the  form  of  plugs. 

The  quartz  veins  are  closely  related  to  the  pegmatites  in 
distribution  and  genesis.  Pegmatites  may  be  found  near 
most  of  the  well  developed  quartz  veins.  Quartz  veins  may 
be  traced  into  pegmatites  both  along  the  strike  and  along  the 
dip.  Many  quartz  veins  are  found  in  the  pegmatites.  Beside 
quartz,  muscovite  is  easily  the  most  common  mineral  of  the 
veins.  Much  tourmaline  and  graphite  also  occur  in  places 
and  frequently  exhibit  a  tendency  toward  segregation  along 
the  vein  walls  and  in  planes  parallel  to  the  vein  walls.  The 
graphite  is,  so  far  as  observations  have  extended,  confined  to 
those  veins  cutting  graphitic  rocks,  and  hence  is  believed  to 
have  been  assimilated  from  the  surrounding  rocks.  In  places 
the  host  rock  appears  to  have  been  somewhat  altered  near 
the  veins,  but  the  metamorphic  effect  of  the  quartz  veins  is 
less  common  and  less  intense  than  that  of  the  pegmatites. 

The  quartz  veins  vary  in  width  from  the  thinnest  vein- 
lets  to  thicknesses  of  four  feet,  and  perhaps  more.  The  veins 
exhibit  a  strong  tendency  to  pinch,  swell,  and  branch.  Many 
veins  lie  parallel  to  the  bedding  of  the  schists,  while  others 
intersect  the  schists  at  high  angles.     Probably  a  majority  of 

65 


the  veins  lie  nearly  parallel  to  the  direction  of  strike  of  the 
schists,  especially  where  the  schists  dip  steeply.  Many  veins 
change  abruptly  in  direction  of  strike  and  in  angle  of  dip. 
There  are  zones  in  which  veins  are  very  abundant  that  can 
be  traced  for  more  than  a  mile  but  within  these  zones  no  in- 
dividual vein  has  been  traced  uninterruptedly,  on  the  surface, 
for  more  than  a  few  hundred  feet.  In  places  quartz  veinlets 
of  minute  size  have  impregnated  considerable  masses  of 
schist,  but  form  no  well  defined  vein.  The  veins  in  places 
occupy  zones  of  weakness,  clearly  formed  by  movements  in 
the  host  rock.  In  most  cases  the  materials  seem  to  have 
been  injected  under  pressure  and  to  have  forced  a  passage. 

The  occurrence  of  the  tungsten  minerals  within  the 
veins  is  as  erratic  as  the  veins  themselves.  The  crystals  vary 
greatly  in  size,  form  and  distribution.  In  places  the  minerals 
are  concentrated  along  the  vein  walls  and  in  other  places,  in 
shoots  of  irregular  form  and  size.  Rich  spots  occur  both  in 
the  thin  parts  of  the  vein  and  in  the  thicker  parts. 

Tungsten-bearing  quartz  veins  appear  to  be  much  more 
numerous  near  the  outer  margin  of  the  pegmatite  area  than 
near  the  central  mass  of  Harney  Peak  granite.  A  small  area 
from  4  to  41/2  miles  east  and  southeast  of  Hill  City  contains 
more  ore-bearing  veins  than  any  other  equal  area  within  the 
district.  That  there  may  be  some  connection  between  a  con- 
siderable number  of  the  veins  in  this  area  seems  highly 
possible. 

So  little  development  work  has  been  done  that  there  are 
few  data  on  the  depth  to  which  individual  veins  persist. 
Judging,  however,  from  the  lack  of  persistence  of  many  of 
the  veins  in  lateral  extent,  and  their  variability  in  size  with- 
in the  shallow  zone  of  observation,  it  is  doubtful  that  many 
of  them  extend  downward  for  any  great  distance.  However, 
there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  thinking  that  a  system 
of  veins,  or  the  zone  in  which  veins  may  be  found,  does  not 
extend  to  great  depths. 

Origin  of  Tungsten  Deposits  in  Pre-Cambrian  Rocks. 
The  source  of  the  ores  is  undoubtedly  the  Harney  Peak 
granite.  During  its  crystallization  the  minerals  most  soluble 
under  the  existing  conditions,  remained  in   solution  after  a 

66 


« 


part  had  solidified  and  were  then  injected  along  the  planes  of 
weakness  into  the  granite  and  surrounding  schists.  The  last 
minerals  to  crystallize  in  many  cases,  were  the  quartz,  mus- 
covite,  wolframite  and  scheelite.  These  form  the  quartz- 
tungsten  veins.  In  some  cases  no  such  separation  took  place, 
and  the  wolframite  crystallized  with  the  feldspars,  quartz  and 
mica  in  pegmatites. 

The  Deposits  of  the  Lead-Deadwood  Area. —  (General 
Geology  of  the  District.)  The  rocks  of  the  Lead-Deadwood 
area  of  importance  in  connection  with  the  tungsten  deposits 
consist  of  a  folded  and  metamorphosed  series  of  sedimentary 
and  intrusive,  basic-igneous  rocks,  and  a  small  amount 
of  coarse  grained  granite,  of  pre-Cambrian  age;  a 
series  of  conglomerates,  sandstones,  and  impure  dolomites, 
limestones  and  shales  of  Cambrian  age ;  thin  Ordovician  lime- 
stones; a  series  of  thin  bedded  and  massive  pink  and  gray 
Mississippian  limestones ;  and  numerous  intrusive  dikes,  sills, 
and  laccoliths  of  Tertiary  rhyolite  porphyry. 

The  pre-Cambrian  rocks  are  exposed  within  an  elongated 
area  eight  or  nine  miles  in  length,  from  southeast  to  north- 
west, surrounded  and  partly  covered  by  Paleozoic  sediments. 
Within  this  area  also  are  considerable  masses  of  Tertiary  in- 
trusive rocks,  which  break  the  continuity  of  the  pre-Cam- 
brian rocks,  and  in  many  places  cover  them.  The  pre-Cam- 
brian comprises  a  thick  series  of  quartzites,  garnetiferous 
and  biotite  schists,  and  calcareous  and  normal  clay  slates. 
These  rocks  form  two  distinct  groups.  The  one  lying  to  the 
west  of  Lead  consists  chiefly  of  clay  slates  and  various 
quartzite  layers  striking  N.  20--30-  W.  and  the  second  chiefly 
of  calcareous  slates,  garnetiferous  and  biotite  schists  and 
quartzite,  striking  slightly  east  of  north.  The  line  of  junc- 
tion between  these  divergent  groups  of  rocks  is  considered 
by  Sidney  Paige*  to  represent  the  line  of  a  fault.  The  sup- 
posed fault  lies  very  close  to  a  line  joining  the  tungsten  area 
of  the  Homestake  with  the  Etta,  Bismarck  and  Wasp  No.  2 
mines.  Paige  regards  the  fault  as  forming  the  western 
boundary  of  the  Homestake  gold  ore  body. 


*Bul.  of  the  Geological  Society  of  America,  Vol.  24,  pp.   293-300. 

67 


As  a  whole  the  rocks  are  closely  folded,  in  general  with 
a  steep  isoclinal  dip  eastward.  Near  the  supposed  fault  the 
western  group  is  folded  into  a  steeply  northwest  pitching 
anticline,  and  the  eastern  group  into  a  complex  anticline  with 
a  subordinate  syncline  on  its  western  flank.  This  syncline 
plunges  southward  and  is  an  important  structural  feature  of 
the  Homestake  gold  ore  body. 

The  pre-Cambrian  rocks  of  the  Homestake  mine  show  the 
effects  of  hydro-thermal  metamorphism,  that  probably  ac- 
companied the  introduction  of  the  ores.  This  metamorphism 
resulted  in  the  development  of  iron  and  magnesium  silicates, 
such  as  cummingtonite  and  chlorite,  in  the  calcareous  series 
that  had  previously  been  intricately  folded  and  compressed. 

Pre-Cambrian  igneous  rocks  comprise  numerous  dikes  of 
amphibolites  and  an  isolated  occurrence  on  the  western  flank 
of  Whitewood  Peak  of  a  coarse  pegmatitic  granite.  The  lat- 
ter consists  mainly  of  quartz  and  alkali  feldspar  in  graphic 
intergrowth,  muscovite,  tourmaline  and  garnet,  similar  in 
every  respect  to  the  granites  of  Harney  Peak.  The  total  mass 
of  exposed  granite  is  very  small,  but  it  is  of  great  significance 
in  as  much  as  it  proves  conclusively  the  presence  of  granite 
in  the  pre-Cambrian  of  the  Northern  Hills.  This  granite  has 
evidently  been  floated  up  upon  an  intrusive  mass  of  porphyry 
of  Tertiary  age.  With  it  is  a  mass  of  dark  basic  schist 
probably  of  igneous  origin,  into  which  the  granite  is  intrusive. 

Rocks  of  the  Cambrian  System,  locally  known  as  the 
Deadwood  Formation,  overlie  unconformably  the  upturned 
and  truncated  edges  of  the  pre-Cambrian  beds  on  a  relative- 
ly mature  erosion  surface  of  slight  relief.  The  basal  mem- 
ber of  the  Deadwood  Formation  is  commonly  a  massive,  red- 
dish-brown quartzitic  sandstone.  In  most  places  the  basal 
sandstone  is  more  or  less  conglomeratic  and  in  many  it  gives 
place  entirely  to  a  coarse  conglomerate  with  pebbles  several 
inches  in  diameter.  The  materials  are  largely  derived  from 
quartz  veins  in  the  pre-Cambrian  and  are  of  local  origin.  The 
basal  conglomerate  is,  in  places,  as  much  as  25  feet  thick 
but  averages  perhaps  5  or  6  feet.  The  conglomerates  are  in 
places  auriferous  and  form  the  so  called  "fossil  placers," 
which  in  former  years  were  an  important  source  of  revenue. 

68 


The  total  thickness  of  quartzite  and  conglomerate  rarely  ex- 
ceeds 30  feet.  Resting  upon  the  basal  quartzite  member,  or, 
where  this  is  absent,  directly  upon  the  pre-Cambrian  forma- 
tion is  normally  to  be  found  about  200  feet  of  impure  gray 
flaggy  dolomites  and  limestone  conglomerates  interbedded 
with  layers  of  green  shale,  grading  downward  into  soft  brown 
shales  and  calcareous  red  sandstone.  The  dolomitic  beds 
where  fresh  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  glauconite. 
Much  of  the  original  dolomite  has  been  replaced  by  silica  and 
contains  well  formed  rhombohedrons  of  quartz  as  pseudo- 
morphs  after  the  carbonate.  Where  much  weathered  this 
rock  passes  into  a  soft  "sand  rock"  heavily  impregnated  with 
oxides  of  iron  and  in  places  with  oxides  of  manganese,  yet 
exhibiting  a  marked  stratification  due  to  thin  layers  of  shale. 
Above  the  dolomitic  beds  lie,  upward  of  100  feet  of  red  sand- 
stone with  interbedded  glauconitic  sandstones  and  shales  and 
finally  a  thin  layer  of  soft  green  shales. 

The  Ordovician  System  is  represented  in  the  northern 
portion  of  the  Black  Hills  by  the  Whitewood  Formation. 
This  formation  comprises  about  80  feet  of  massive,  buff  lime- 
stone, in  places  with  a  few  feet  of  greenish  shale  at  the  top. 
Its  hardness  and  massive  character  cause  it  to  form  benches 
in  canyons,  where  exposed. 

Overlying  the  Whitewood  formation  in  the  Northern 
Hills,  in  apparent  structural  conformity,  occur  beds  of  the 
Mississippian  System  and  locally  known  as  the  Englewood 
formation.  This  formation  consists  chiefly  of  about  60  feet 
of  thin-bedded,  pinkish-buff  limestone,  with  in  places,  some 
shale.  The  Englewood  formation  grades  upward  into  the 
Pahasapa  formation  also  of  Mississippian  age.  The  Pahasapa 
formation  is  a  gray  to  buff  massive  limestone  about  500  feet 
in  thickness.  It  outcrops  conspicuously  in  precipitious  cliffs 
or  forms  the  surface  of  board  flat  plateaus.  Ores  of  gold  and 
silver  occur  in  the  Pahasapa  formation  in  the  Ragged  Top 
district  and  ores  of  lead  and  silver  in  the  Carbonate  district. 

Dikes  and  sills  of  rhyolite  porphyry  of  Tertiary  age  oc- 
cur near  or  in  immediate  contact  with  all  known  occurrences  of 
tungsten  in  the  Northern  Hills.  The  porphyry  is  a  thorough- 
ly acid  rock,  with  a  dense  almost  aphanitic  texture  and  a  gray- 

69 


ish  white  color.  Small  phenochrysts  occur  sparingly.  Frac- 
tured surfaces  are  in  many  places  coated  with  black  den- 
drites of  manganese  dioxide  and  brownish  red  stains  of  iron 
oxide.  Under  the  microscope  the  ground  mass  is  resolved 
into  a  fine  aggregate  of  orthoclase  and  quartz  and  a  little 
alkali  plagioclase.  Phenochrysts  of  quartz  and  orthoclose  oc- 
cur.   Very  little  if  any  ferro-magnesian  mineral  is  present. 

(Location  of  Deposits.)  Tungsten  is  known  to  occur  (1) 
on  the  property  of  the  Homestake  Mining  Co.  on  the  divide 
between  Gold  Run  and  Deadwood  Creek  to  the  west  of  the 
Homestake  open  cuts,  just  north  of  Lead ;  (2)  on  the  divide 
between  Yellow  and  Whitewood  Creeks,  at  the  Etta  Mine  V2 
mile  southwest  of  Kirk;  and  again  on  the  same  divide  near 
Flatiron  on  the  properties  of  the  (3)  Bismarck  and  (4)  Wasp 
No.  2  Mining  Companies,  V/-?  miles  farther  south;  (5)  on 
west  Strawberry  Creek  1  mile  south  of  Pluma;  (6)  on  upper 
Two  Bit  Creek,  4  miles  south-southeast  of  Deadwood ;  and 
(7)  within  the  city  limits  of  Deadwood,  on  the  north  side  of 
Deadwood  Gulch  on  the  divide  between  City  and  Spring 
Creeks. 

The  numbers  given  above  correspond  with  those  on  the 
accompanying  topographic  map  (Plate  VIII)  and  will  assist 
in  the  location  of  the  deposits. 

Deposits  of  the  Homestake  Mining  Company.  Tungsten 
ores  have  been  mined  from  the  Harrison,  Durango,  Golden 
Summit,  St.  John,  Reddy,  Grant,  Towa,  St.  Patrick  and  Golden 
Crown  claims  of  the  Homestake  Company.  The  deposits  are 
all  near  the  base  of  the  flat  lying  Deadwood  Formation  and 
are  found  intermittently  over  a  total  area  of  perhaps  15  acres. 
The  formation  within  this  area  consists  of  a  thin  basal  con- 
glomerate and  quartzite,  on  the  average  less  than  5  feet  in 
thickness,  lying  upon  the  vertical  schists.  The  quartzite  is 
overlain  by,  from  30  to  36  inches  of  impure  partially  silicified 
dolomite,  containing  thin  shale  layers  and  this  by  calcareous 
shales.  In  places  the  quartzite  and  conglomerate  are  absent 
and  the  dolomites  lie  directly  upon  the  schists.  Upon  the 
shales  near  by  lies  a  thick  sill  of  intrusive  rhyolite  porphyry 
and  some  of  the  middle  Deadwood  Formation  but  in  the  area 
of  the  tungsten   deposits  the   igneous   rock   as   well   as   the 

70 


medial  and  upper  beds  of  the  Deadwood  Formation  have  been 
eroded  away. 

The  tungsten  ores  occur  chiefly  as  replacement  deposits 
in  the  lower  dolomite  but  to  a  small  extent  also  in  thin  shale 
layers  within  the  dolomite  also  in  the  quartzite  and  as  cement 
in  the  conglomerate.  In  the  shale,  quartzite  and  conglomer- 
ate the  tungsten  minerals  have  probably  replaced  only  the 
calcareous  portions.  No  tungsten  has  been  found  at  this 
point  in  the  pre-Cambrian  rocks,  nor  in  the  Deadwood  For- 
mation above  the  lower  dolomite. 

In  form  the  ores  are  largely  irregular,  tabular  masses 
from  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to  2  feet  in  thickness  and  with  a 
width  parallel  to  the  bedding,  of  from  an  inch  to  as  much  as 
53  feet.  The  ore  bodies  branch,  pinch  and  swell  and  in  places 
appear  on  the  breast  of  the  stopes  as  isolated  kidney  and 
lens  shaped  masses  of  varying  width  and  thickness.  Within 
a  single  dolomite  layer  30  inches  in  thickness  as  many  as  4  or 
5  horizontal  ore  bodies  occur,  separated  in  some  cases  by  thin 
shale  members.  In  the  calcareous  shale  members  of  the  dolo- 
mite beds,  in  places  some  replacement  has  taken  place,  but  the 
form  and  general  nature  is  not  essentially  different  from  the 
bodies  occurring  in  the  dolomite  proper  and  are  in  most  cases 
merely  extensions  of  the  latter.  Within  the  quartzite  the 
tungsten  occurs  much  less  commonly  and  in  masses  of  much 
smaller  extent  than  in  the  dolomite  but  in  general  take  the 
same  forms.  Only  a  very  few  occurrences  of  tungsten  have 
been  found  in  the  conglomerates  where  it  fills  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  pebbles  that  probably  had  been  previously  occu- 
pied by  calcareous  cement.  The  shapes  of  these  bodies  are 
very  irregular  and  their  total  volume  very  small.  The  ores 
follow  lines  of  fracture  called  verticals  and  extend  laterally 
from  them  as  a  center.  The  verticals  are  perhaps  more  nu- 
merous parallel  to  the  underlying  schist  layers  than  in  other 
directions.  One  vertical  in  the  Harrison  Mine  was  followed 
for  a  distance  of  fully  500  feet,  along  which  mineralization 
had  taken  place  for  an  average  width  of  about  30  feet 
throughout  its  entire  length.  In  most  cases  the  mineraliza- 
tion is  as  variable  in  extent  along  the  strike  of  the  verticals 
as  the  laterals  are  variable  in  width  and  thickness  and  it  is 

71 


very  difficult  to  give  anything  like  an  average  for  the  length, 
width,  thickness  or  number  of  ore  bodies  within  a  single  dolo- 
mite layer. 

The  tungsten  ores  in  the  Homestake  property  are  every 
where  intimately  associated  with  silicious  gold  ores  of  the 
Deadwood  Formation  but  there  is  by  no  means  tungsten  ore 
where  ever  gold  ores  occur.  Irving*  regards  the  tungsten 
as  merely  a  basic  phase  of  the  gold  ores  and  not  as  a  separate 
and  distinct  deposit.  The  gold  ores  where  unweathered  con- 
sist of  a  hard,  brittle,  gray  rock  composed  largely  of  silica, 
carrying  pyrite,  barite,  fluorite  and  gypsum.  It  is  largely 
within  these  siliceous  ore  bodies  and  to  a  lesser  extent  around 
their  margins  and  as  cappings  over  them  that  the  tungsten 
ores  occur.  The  general  relations  are  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying cut,  figure  2. 

In  the  tungsten  areas  the  siliceous  gold  ores  are  largely 
oxidized  and  are  stained  brown  with  oxide  of  iron  and  in 
places  black  manganese  dioxide.  In  striking  contrast  to  these 
soft  brown  oxidized  gold  ores,  the  portions  bearing  tungsten 
show  very  little  effect  of  weathering  and  are  practically 
everywhere  hard,  brittle,  bright,  sharply  defined  masses. 
Where  the  siliceous  gold  ores  are  unoxidized  the  line  of  separ- 
ation betwen  the  tungsten  bearing  portions  and  the  gold  ores 
are  in  places  sharp,  while  elsewhere  they  grade  by  impercep- 
tible variations  into  each  other. 

The  ore  varies  from  a  dense  heavy  black  rock  with  a  fine 
texture  to  nearly  solid  wolframite  grains,  to  a  gray  quartzose 
rock  containing  small  black,  shiny  specks  of  the  mineral.  The 
wolframite  in  these  phases  does  not  commonly  exhibit  crystal 
boundaries  but  shows  small  flat  metallic  cleavage  surfaces. 
Individual  grains  are  rarely  more  than  one  thirty-second  of 
an  inch  in  diameter  but  recently  ores  have  been  found  that 
contain  individual  curved  cleavage  surfaces  of  more  than 
an  inch  in  diameter.  The  mineral  in  uniformly  jet  black 
aand  exhibits  a  brilliant  metallic  luster  on  cleavage  faces. 
A  considerable  amount  of  black  manganese  dioxide  in 
places    has    impregnated    the    rock     and    has    often    been 


*Trans.  Amer.   Inst.  Min.   Eng.,  Vol.  XXXI,  page   689. 

72 


72 


^^^ifm 


vo  rx  K/a 

TO :  rvfMAj, 

fftr 


WC'C^ 


^ 


/    /     / 


// 


THE    CONGLOMCRATB   ISNOT,Ai  A.   P.OlC,  FOUND    UNOCR  THE   PART 
CONTAINING    WOlfftAHIT£ 


PORPHYK   ■       [g^g      SHALC  hj'V  .1  IMPURE  DOL  ^'^"*^^^     HCPRACTOnY 

.  ~~~~        (SAND  ROCK)       ^^^       SILICIOUS    OPE 

WOLFPAMIT£       ^|]   COHOLOMEHAie    [^      OL-A/?7-2-/r£-  [^      SC/y/STJ 


Fig.   2. 

DIAGRAM  ILLl  STRATIXr; 
r\  CAMBRIAV  DOLOMITK. 
A.   J.    M.   ROSS) 


THE     OCCIRKNCK     OF     TIXGSTFX     ORES 
HO-MESTAKE     :»II\E.     l.EAIJ.    S.    U.        (After 


mistaken  for  ore.  It  is  easily  distinguished  from  the 
wolframite  by  its  dull  luster,  its  lack  of  cleavage,  and 
its  lighter  weight.  Barite  in  well  formed  tabular  crys- 
tals, grouped  in  interpenetrating  and  in  radiating  aggregates, 
is  a  prominent  feature  in  places.  Cavities  of  various  sizes  and 
forms  lined  with  well  formed  wolframite  crystals  and  others 
lined  with  druses  of  barite  or  quartz  are  not  uncommon. 
The  wolframite  crystals  show  knife  like  edges  and  somewhat 
resemble  the  form  of  axinite.  For  the  most  part  the  crystals 
are  very  small,  the  largest  attaining  a  diameter  of  scarcely 
more  than  14  inch.  Small  rounded  aggregates  of  scheelite 
crystals  resembling  drops  of  honey  in  form  and  color  fre- 
quently occur  on  the  wolframite  druses.  This  scheelite  is 
regarded  as  most  probably  secondary.  Thin  seams  occur  en- 
tirely filled  with  well  formed  ingrowing  crystals  of  wolfra- 
mite. In  the  weathered  ore  drusy  surfaces  occur  that  are 
coated  with  yellowish  material  that  has  often  been  mistaken 
for  tungstite  but  which  in  the  specimens  examined  by  the 
author  proved  to  be  jarosite.  It  is  probable  however,  that 
some  tungstite  may  occur  in  this  form. 

Under  the  microscope  the  leaner  ores  from  the  dolo- 
mites show  well  formed  wolframite  crystals  occurring  in  a 
matrix  of  quartz  much  of  which  exhibits  the  form  of  the 
dolomite  rhombohedron.  In  sections  from  the  ore  bearing 
quartzite  the  wolframite  occurs  in  the  irregular  interstitial 
spaces  between  the  rounded  quartz  grains.  In  both  types 
scheelite  may  be  seen  intercrystallized  with  the  wolframite 
and  much  of  this  is  believed  to  be  primary  scheelite.  The 
dense  ore  under  the  microscope,  is  opaque  except  where 
small  masses  of  quartz  occur. 

According  to  W.  J.  Sharwood  (personal  communication) 
all  analyses  of  the  ore  have  shown  the  ore  minerals  to  be 
wolframite  low  in  manganese  with  small  amounts  of  scheelite. 
Thus  a  typical  carload  of  concentrate  containing  60-61%  WO., 
would  probably  carry  between  3  and  4%  manganese,  with 
about  17't  iron  and  1%  calcium,  a  minute  amount  of  phos- 
phorus, and  not  more  than  a  trace  of  tin  or  copper.  The  follow- 
propositions  of  the  principal  minerals  of  a  specimen  of  the 
ore  have  been  calculated  formerly  from  analyses  by  W.   F. 

73 


Hillebrand.*      These    results    show    perhaps    more    scheelite 
than  is  contained  in  the  average  ore. 

Per  cent 

Wolframite    (FeMn)    WO,    75.60 

Quartz  SiO,  12.54 

Scheelite    CaWO, 4.77 

Barite   BaSO,    06 

Ferric  Oxide  Fe,0,    3.85 

Water  H,0    20 

Arsenic    Oxide    1.25 

Residual  Clay   (kaolin)    1.34 

In  the  Homestake  ore  tin,  copper  and  antimony,  occur 
only  in  traces;  while  in  the  Wasp  No.  2  ore  antimony  fre- 
quently occurs,  and  occasionally  appreciable  amounts  of  cop- 
per. Tin  is  almost  universally  present  in  the  southern  Hills 
concentrate.  In  some  parts  of  the  Homestake  Mine  porous 
oxide  of  manganese  (psilomelane)  occurs  at  considerable 
depth,  filling  small  fissures  in  porphyry  (rhyolite).  This  has 
been  found  to  contain  a  small  amount — about  1% — of  tungs- 
tic  oxide. 

The  ore  concentrated  at  the  mill  for  the  past  years  has 
averaged  nearly  3  per  cent  WO,,  and  $4.00  in  gold  per  ton. 
The  gold  values  recovered  have  been  sufficient  to  pay  most 
of  the  costs  of  mining  and  milling. 

(Deposits  of  the  Wasp  No.  2  Mining  Company.)  The  de- 
posits of  tungsten  on  the  property  of  the  Wasp  No.  2  Min- 
ing Company  are  in  all  essential  respects  similar  to  the  de- 
posits at  the  Homestake,  so  that  the  above  description  may 
very  well  serve  for  both  after  a  few  minor  differences  have 
been  noted.  At  the  Wasp  No,  2  a  greater  percentage  of  ore 
has  been  obtained  from  the  basal  quartzite  member  of  the 
Deadwood  Formation  than  at  the  Homestake.  At  the  Wasp, 
basal  quartzite  is  in  places  20  feet  thick  and  has  proved  ore 
bearing  to  an  important  extent.  In  this  property  rhyolite 
porphyry  occurs  in  numerous  dikes,  sills,  and  irregular 
masses  which  have  caused  faulting  in  several  places  in  the 
Deadwood  Formation.     The  rhyolite   occurs  in   intimate  as- 


*U.  S.   G.  S.  Prof.  Paper  26,  page  167. 

74 


sociation  with  the  g9ld  ores  and  to  some  extent  with  the 
tungsten  ores.  An  interesting  mineral  ocurrence  in  connec- 
tion with  the  wolframite  in  the  Wasp  mine  that  has  not  been 
reported  from  the  Homestake  is  that  of  stibnite  in  long  radi- 
ating acicular  crystals.  Small  amounts  of  malachite  have  al- 
so been  found.  An  analysis  of  the  ore  by  Hillebrand  has 
been  calculated  to  represent  the  following  minerals: 

Per  cent 

Wolframite  (FeMn)  WO,  51.58 

Quartz    SiO,    9.60 

Scheelite   CaWO,    27.68 

This  analysis,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Homestake  ore  given 
above,  probably  represents  one  containing  more  scheelite  than 
the  average. 

The  total  area  over  which  wolframite  has  been  found  to 
occur  is  perhaps  12  to  14  acres. 

(Deposits  of  the  Bismarck  Mining  Company.)  On  the 
property  of  the  Bismarck  Company  lying  adjacent  to  and 
north  of  the  Wasp  No.  2  Mine,  wolframite  deposits  occur  with 
gold  ores  as  replacements  in  the  lower  dolomites  and  to  some 
extent  in  the  basal  quartzite  of  the  Deadwood  Formation,  as 
in  the  Wasp  and  Homestake.  Numerous  dikes  and  a  30  foot 
sill  of  rhyolite  porphyry  that  has  caused  faulting  in  the  ore 
beds,  occur  in  association  with  the  ores.  The  deposits  have 
not  produced  more  than  a  very  small  quantity  of  tungsten 
ore  but  ore  is  known  to  occur  in  places  over  an  area  of  6  or  8 
acres. 

(Deposits  at  the  Etta  Mine.)  At  the  time  the  author 
learned  of  the  occurrence  of  tungsten  in  this  mine  he  was 
unable  to  make  a  visit  to  the  property  on  account  of  the 
deep  snow.  From  descriptions  furnished  by  various  parties 
that  have  visited  the  property  it  would  apear  that  the  geolo- 
gic relations  are  very  similar  to  those  existing  at  the  Wasp 
No.  2  and  Bismarck.  The  property  lies  north-northwest  of 
the  latter  at  a  distance  of  about  %  of  a  mile.  Rhyolite  por- 
phyry is  said  to  occur  in  dikes  and  sills  and  to  have  caused 
considerable  displacement  of  the  lower  beds  of  the  Deadwood 
Formation  probably  along  faults.  Ores  of  gold  as  well  as 
the  tungsten  ores  occur  in  intimate  association  with  the  por- 

75 


phyry.  Specimens  obtained  from  the  property  contain  wol- 
framite in  important  quantities  and  appear  similar  in  every 
respect  to  average  samples  from  the  Wasp,  Bismarck  and 
Homestake. 

(Deposits  at  Deadwood)  During  the  early  days  of  1916 
when  tungsten  ore  was  selling  at  record  prices,  an  interest- 
ing discovery  of  its  occurrence  was  made  within  the  city  of 
Deadwood  in  rocks  that  had  been  widely  prospected  for  gold 
in  years  past.  The  ore  had  lain  unnoticed  for  years  although 
within  plain  view  of  everyone.  The  rock  had  been  quarried 
for  the  foundations  of  several  houses  in  the  vicinity,  and  in 
that  of  a  house  which  had  burned,  the  author  found  numer- 
ous blocks  that  in  sufficient  quantities  would  prove  valuable 
ore.  One  block,  perhaps  one  cubic  foot  in  volume,  was  esti- 
mated to  carry  15  per  cent  WO... 

This  occurrence  lies  directly  above  the  town  on  the  north 
upper  slope  of  Deadwood  gulch  between  City  and  Spring 
Creeks.  The  ore  has  been  found  in  many  places  over  a  total 
area  of  perhaps  12  acres.  The  tungsten  occurrences  noted 
were  in  the  basal  quartzite  of  the  Deadwood  Formation  which 
at  this  place  is  about  20  feet  thick.  The  dolomite  has  been 
apparently  eroded  away  from  most  of  the  area  and  the 
quartzite  forms  the  surface  capping  of  the  upper  valley  slope, 
where  it  is  exposed  in  numerous  steep  cliffs.  To  the  north, 
pre-Cambrian  garnetiferous  schists  and  a  quartzite,  heavily 
impregnated  with  iron,  locally  known  as  the  Great  Iron  Dike, 
appear  at  the  surface.  Farther  north  as  well  as  in  the  south 
side  of  Deadwood  Gulch  at  this  place  occurs  a  thick  sill  of 
rhyolite  that  probably  once  extended  across  the  tungsten 
area  above  the  ore  horizon. 

The  ore  occurs  in  thin  seams  and  in  lenses  of  from  2  to 
6  inches  in  thickness  and  from  a  few  inches  to  a  few  feet  in 
length,  as  replacements  in  what  probably  were  calcareous 
portions  of  the  quartzite.  In  places  elongated  cavities  occur, 
along  the  margins  of  which  the  tungsten  mineral  occurs  in 
thin  sheets,  but  no  crystals  were  seen  lining  the  cavities.  The 
ore  appears  in  all  essential  respects  like  the  average  ore  from 
the  Homestake.  No  ore  masses  noted  were  very  large  nor 
were  there  more  than  a  few  of  them  found  at  any  one  point, 

76 


although  large  masses  may  well  occur.  Most  of  the  ore  ob- 
served was  of  low  grade  but  a  few  boulders  were  found  which 
contained  important  amounts,  some  perhaps  upward  of  15 
per  cent  WO.^.  Very  little  development  has  been  done  in  con- 
nection with  the  tungsten  and  the  value  and  extent  of  the 
ores  is  purely  problematical. 

(Deposits  on  The  Denis  Renault  Claims.)  The  occurrence 
of  tungsten  on  the  property  of  Denis  Renault  on  lower  West 
Strawberry  Creek  are  of  especial  interest  because  of  their 
geological  relationships  and  the  light  they  may  throw  on  the 
rhyolite  as  a  source  of  the  tungsten  rather  than  for  their 
known  economic  importance.  Black  tungsten  mineral,  prob- 
ably wolframite,  occurs  at  two  separate  points.  One  occur- 
rence is  on  the  west  facing  slope  of  West  Strawberry  Creek 
100  feet  north  and  50  feet  above  the  Renault  cabin.  The 
tungsten  is  exposed  in  a  small  prospect  hole  of  about  6  feet 
in  diameter  and  of  about  the  same  depth,  in  a  dike  of  rhy- 
olite porphyry.  The  dike  trends  in  an  east  west  direction  and 
can  be  followed  for  several  hundred  feet  along  the  valley^ 
slope.  Its  width  is  perhaps  50  feet.  Cutting  this  dike  near 
the  tungsten  occurrence,  is  what  appeared  to  be  a  second 
dike  of  tinguaite  porphyry.  The  extent  of  the  latter  and  its 
exact  relationships  are  unknown  for  at  the  time  of  the 
author's  visit  it  was  largely  covered  with  snow.  The  rhyolite 
is  a  light  gray  rock  with  numerous  phenocrysts  of  quartz 
from  1-16  to  1-4  inch  in  diameter  with  a  dense  ground  mass 
of  quartz  and  orthoclase. 

The  wolframite  occurs  apparently  intergrown  with  the 
quartz  and  feldspar  of  the  rhyolite;  in  small  bladed  crystals 
filling  thin  seams  in  the  rock;  and  in  druses  with  quartz 
crystals,  lining  small  open  cavities.  In  the  latter  the  crystals 
of  wolframite  are  very  small  and  thin  resembling  minute  axe 
blades  probably  in  no  case  exceeding  the  length  of  V;!  inch. 
In  some  cases  the  open  spaces  strongly  resemble  mairolitic 
cavities  while  in  some  cases  the  connection  of  the  cavities 
with  the  small  veinlets  seems  to  favor  their  origin  as  a  result 
of  solution  along  cracks  in  the  fractured  rock.  Had,  however, 
the  crystals  of  wolframite  found  intergrown  with  the  quartz 
and  feldspar,  been  introduced  by  replacement  after  the  rhy- 

77 


olite  had  solidified  it  would  seem  that  the  solutions  in  which 
the  tungsten  was  carried  should  have  affected  the  rock  in 
the  vicinity  of  these  crystals  to  some  extent.  The  rhyolite 
in  contact  with  th^  tungsten  appears  in  no  way  different 
from  that  found  at  a  distance  from  it.  It  seems  more  likely 
then,  that  the  wolframite  was  a  part  of  the  rhyolite  magma 
and  that  some  of  it  was  crystallized  with  the  quartz  and 
feldspar  and  some  at  a  later  period  of  crystallization,  in 
spaces  formed  by  shrinkage  of  the  rock  on  solidification. 
More  data  are  needed  before  this  important  problem  can  be 
conclusively  settled.  A  photographic  reproduction  of  a  speci- 
men illustrating  this  type  of  occurrence  may  be  seen  in  plate. 
IV  B. 

About  20  feet  below  the  wolframite  occurrence  the  dike 
lias  been  opened  up  by  means  of  a  tunnel  for  a  distance  of 
over  30  feet.  While  no  tungsten  occurs  at  this  point  the 
rhyolite  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  pyrite  and  sphaler- 
ite, in  small  grains  intergrown  with  the  other  rock  constitu- 
ents, and  in  thin  veinlets  sphalerite  and  calcite  occur.  The  rock 
in  both  exposures  is  said  to  be  gold  bearing,  in  fact  the  dis- 
covery of  the  .tungsten  was  made  while  the  rock  was  being 
prospected  for  gold.  Zinc  ore  is  being  sought  in  the  lower 
tunnel.  The  places  of  occurrence  of  the  tungsten  and  of  the 
sphalerite  and  pyrite  are  both  below  the  basal  Cambrian  beds 
at  this  point. 

The  second  occurrence  of  tungsten  on  this  property  lies 
about  100  feet  above  and  500  feet  north  of  the  one  described. 
At  this  place  a  dike  of  rhyolite  has  penetrated  the  pre-Cam- 
brian  schists.  Along  the  contact  a  breccia  has  been  develop- 
ed composed  of  schist  fragments  bound  together  apparently 
by  infiltered  rhyolite.  The  breccia  grades  on  one  side  into 
rhyolite  inclosing  schist  fragments  and  on  the  other  into 
schist  penetrated  by  minute  veinlets  of  porphyry.  At  the 
contact  of  the  rhyolite  is  very  dense  and  contains  minute 
crystals  of  pyrite.  The  wolframite  occurs  in  small  bladed 
crystals  in  thin  seams  in  the  rhyolite  and  with  quartz  crys- 
tals lining  small  irregular  cavities  in  the  breccia.  Here  again 
gold  is  said  to  occur  in  association  with  the  tungsten. 

A  tunnel  has  been  run  in  parallel  to  the  contact  for  a  dis- 

78 


tance  of  about  30  feet,  along  which  the  tungsten  occurs  for 
the  entire  distance.  The  total  amount  of  development  on  the 
property  is  so  small  that  no  estimates  are  possible  as  to  the 
extent  or  grade  of  the  ore.  In  neither  occurrence  is  there 
any  indication  of  a  tungsten  ore  body  of  any  considerable 
magnitude  and  all  the  samples  obtained  were  of  low  grade. 

(Deposits  on  Upper  Two  Bit  Creek.)  On  a  branch  of  upper 
Two  Bit  Creek  lying  parallel  to  and  about  one  half  mile  west 
of  the  Galena-Deadwood  road,  tungsten  has  been  found  at  two 
distinct  but  closely  contiguous  points.  The  northernmost  of 
the  two  occurrences  is  of  historic  interest  inasmuch  as  it  is 
said  to  be  the  first  known  tungsten  occurrence  in  the  North- 
ern Hills.  In  the  early  eighties,  specimens  of  hubnerite  are 
reported  to  have  been  collected  and  recognized  as  a  tungsten 
mineral.  The  property  at  that  time  was  known  as  the  Com- 
stock  mine.  It  is  now  the  property  of  Mr.  S.  R.  Smith.  The 
tungsten  ore  has  been  obtained  from  a  tunnel  on  the  east  side 
of  the  valley  a  few  feet  above  the  creek  level. 

So  much  of  the  bed  rock  in  the  vicinity  is  covered  with 
soil  and  so  small  an  amount  of  ore  was  exposed  in  the  tunnel 
that  it  is  difficult  to  give  an  adequate  description  of  the 
geological  relations.  The  ore  occurs  in  what  is  apparently 
the  lower  part  of  the  dolomite,  near  the  base  of  the  Deadwood 
Formation.  Above  the  tungsten  bearing  formation,  the  dolo- 
mite is  highly  siliceous  and  in  places  highly  impregnated  with 
pyrite.  Much  of  the  dolomite  rock  is  porous  and  vugs  fre- 
quently occur  lined  with  well  developed  quartz  crystals. 
Shales  overlie  the  dolomite  rock,  and  above  them,  higher  up 
the  valley  side,  with  a  covered  area  intervening,  occurs  a 
thick  sill  of  rhyolite  porphyry.  It  appears  more  likely  that  the 
tungsten  occurs  in  solution  cavities  in  the  dolomite  than  that 
it  has  intimately  replaced  the  dolomite  or  that  it  occurs  in  a 
true  vein.  However,  some  of  the  ore  has  the  appearance  of  a 
vein  deposit.  The  hubnerite  occurs  chiefly  in  irregular 
masses  of  various  sizes  of  closely  aggregated,  divergent 
groups  of  bladed  crystals,  here  and  there  interspersed  with 
masses  and  crystals  of  glassy  quartz.  The  mineral  evidently 
was  precipitated  in  open  spaces,  for  crystal  aggregates  fre- 
quently occur  that  have  grown  unhindered  to  lengths  of  3  or 

79 


4  inches  (see  plate  IV  A),  Many  drusy  surfaces  are  to  be 
found  covered  with  quartz  crystals,  A  considerable  amount 
of  the  ore  has  been  oxidized  and  earthy  manganese  dioxide 
occurs  in  considerable  quantities.  Manganite  was  observed  in 
mats  of  beautiful  steel  gray,  wire  like  aggregates,  also  a  num- 
ber of  exceedingly  perfect  pseudomorphs  of  manganese  di- 
oxide after  dolomite  rhombohedrons,  as  large  as  one  inch 
across  the  face.  An  analysis  of  the  tungsten  mineral  by  M. 
L.  Hartmann  shows  it  to  be  composed  of  96.8%  MnWO^  and 
3.2%  FeWO^  and  an  analysis  by  Headden*  of  a  sample  from 
the  same  mine  was  calculated  by  Hess  and  Schaller  to  con- 
tain 94  per  cent  MnWO^  and  6  per  cent  FeWO^.  The  mineral 
is  therefore  to  be  classed  as  hubernite. 

So  far  as  was  noted  the  tungsten  occurred  only  in  the 
floor  of  the  tunnel  and  no  good  exposures  of  it  were  seen  in 
place  so  that  little  idea  was  gained  of  its  total  extent.  Speci- 
mens obtained,  and  most  of  the  ore  sacked  in  the  mine,  were 
of  very  high  grade.  One  specimen  weighing  perhaps  40 
pounds  was  estimated  to  contain  perhaps  40%  WO^.  About 
1600  pounds  of  high  grade  hand  picked  ore  were  mined  and 
marketed  in  1916. 

The  southernmost  of  the  occurrences  on  upper  Two  Bit 
Creek  lies  on  the  west  side  of  the  valley  about  200  yards 
south  of  the  Smith  property.  This  claim  is  the  property  of 
Mr.  Martin  Bresnahan. 

At  this  point  the  vertical  pre-Cambrian  schists  are  ex- 
posed in  a  small  cut  overalin  by  about  10  feet  of  the  based 
quartzite  of  the  Deadwood  Formation.  Upon  the  quartzite 
lies  silicified  dolomite  perhaps  three  feet  in  thickness  and 
upon  it  a  sill  of  intrusive  rhyolite  the  thickness  of  which  was 
undetermined  because  of  cover.  About  30  feet  above  the 
lower  dolomite  are  numerous  angular  boulders  of  mineralized 
dolomite  in  the  soil,  that  are  very  probably  derived  from  rock 
in  place  at  this  immediate  point.  If  so  dolomite  lies  above  the 
porphyry  sill.  Farther  up  the  valley  side  another  sill  of  por- 
phyry of  unknown  extent  is  exposed. 

The  rhyolite  porphyry  is  a  dense  grayish  white  rock  with 


♦Proceedings  of  Colorado  Scientific  Society,   Vol.   VIII,   page    175. 

80 


IMate    X  A. 


H03IESTAKE    Tl'XGSTKX    MIXK.    LEAD.    S.    D. 


Plate    X  B, 


HOMESTAKE    Tl  \<;STE\     ^IIM,,    l,E.\l).    S.    I>. 


Plate   XI  A. 


WASP    ISO.    2    MIL,!. 


Plate    A  I  n. 


loi.KiioHN    11  \(;sri:\    co.-s   pi.w 


a  fine  grained  ground  mass  of  quartz,  orthoclase  and  a  little 
alkali  plagioclase  containing  phenocrysts  of  orthoclase  and 
quartz.  Under  the  microscope  titanite  was  seen  to  occur  but 
no  ferro-magnesian  minerals  were  noted.  In  various  sections 
minute  black  specks,  possibly  wolframite,  occur.  Specimens 
of  the  silicified  dolomite  taken  from  near  the  porphyry  con- 
tact and  viewed  under  the  microscope  show  a  high  percent- 
age of  quartz,  a  considerable  amount  of  which  occurs  in  clear- 
ly defined  rhombohedrons  as  pseudomorphs  after  dolomite.  A 
few^  minute  bladed  crystals  of  dark  green,  slightly  pleochroic 
amphibole  were  detected  in  one  section. 

The  tungsten  occurs  chiefly  in  the  dolomite  both  above 
and  below  the  porphyry  sill  in  well  formed  bladed  crystals 
intergrown  with  quartz,  also  in  crystals  with  quartz  lining 
open  cavities  and  to  some  extent  apparently  as  replacements 
of  the  dolomite.  A  lesser  amount  occurs  in  minute  bladed 
crystals  in  thin  seams  in  the  quartzite.  From  the  porous  na- 
ture of  the  ore,  the  well  formed  crystals  of  hubnerite  and 
quartz,  and  from  the  high  percentage  of  clear  vein  quartz 
in  the  ores  it  appears  that  the  minerals  have  grown  freely  in 
open  spaces  of  considerable  size.  Whether  or  not  the  ores 
follow  a  vein  system  could  not  be  determined  as  only  a  small 
amount  of  the  ore  was  exposed  in  place.  It  is  highly  more 
probable  however  that  it  has  been  formed  largely  in  solution 
cavities  in  the  dolomite.  The  richest  specimens  and  the  most 
persistent  mineralization  were  found  at  or  very  near  the  con- 
tact of  rhyolite  and  dolomite.  No  tungsten  was  positively 
identified  in  the  rhyolite  although  well  formed  crystals  of  hu- 
bernite  were  found  coating  surfaces  of  the  igneous  rock  at 
the  lower  surface.  The  occurrence  above  the  rhyolite  were 
not  found  in  place  but  the  large  number  of  angular  fragments 
of  considerable  size,  their  uniformity,  the  lack  of  rock  frag- 
ments of  other  kinds  in  more  than  very  small  quantities  and 
the  depth  (3  feet  or  more)  at  which  they  were  found  in  the 
soil  points  strongly  to  the  occurrence  of  the  ores  in  place 
above  the  porphyry. 

No  analyses  of  the  tungsten  mineral  were  made  but 
from  its  similarity  to  the  hubnerite  found  200  yards  down 
the  gulch  it  is  believed  to  be  the  same  mineral.    Slender  blad- 

81 


ed  crystals  of  hubnerite  from  2  to  3  inches  in  length,  inter- 
grown  with  quartz  crystals,  occur  in  places  in  radiating  and 
interpenetrating  groups.  Crystals  Y)  inch  in  length  extend- 
ing inward  from  what  were  the  sides  of  elongated  cavities, 
but  which  now  are  filled  with  quartz,  are  common.  Within 
solid  masses  of  quartz  many  crystals  occur  lying  in  various 
positions.  One  surface  was  found  from  which  tabular  wedge 
shaped  crystals  in  parallel  growth  V4.  inch  thick,  one  half  inch 
wide  and  fully  one  inch  in  length,  had  grown.  The  hubnerite 
is  a  dark  brownish  black  and  shows  brilliant  metallic  cleavage 
faces.  Where  weathered,  it  is  frequently  dull  black  or  brown 
with  oxides  of  manganese  or  iron.  A  considerable  amount  of 
manganese  dioxide  is  found  coating  rock  surfaces.  No  scheel- 
ite  or  tungstite  were  observed.  The  dolomites  are  said  to  be 
gold  bearing  at  this  place. 

The  development  work  on  the  property  is  small,  consist- 
ing of  three  small  prospect  cuts,  one  of  which  has  not  even 
pentrated  rock  in  place.  From  the  meagre  data  it  is  im- 
possible to  say  anything  definite  regarding  the  likelihood  of 
a  profitable  ore  body.  The  ore  samples  obtained  were  of  a 
good  grade  and  if  found  in  sufficient  quantities  could  doubt- 
less be  mined  at  a  profit. 

(Origin  of  the  Tungsten  Deposits  of  the  Lead-Deadwood 
Area.)  In  a  paper  presented  before  The  American  Institute  of 
Mining  Engineers  in  1901  J.  D.  Irving*  describes  the  tungsten 
deposits  at  Lead  now  belonging  to  the  Homestake  Company, 
and  the  deposits  of  the  Wasp  No.  2  Company  on  Yellow 
Creek,  and  said  regarding  their  origin: 

"That  they  are  formed  through  the  gradual  replacement 
of  the  country  rock  by  wolframite  seems  to  the  writer  to  be 
clearly  indicated  by  the  character  of  the  ore,  the  nature  of  the 
beds  in  which  it  is  found,  and  the  metasomatic  origin  of  the 
ores  with  which  it  is  inseparably  connected.  First,  the  wol- 
framite itself  is  filled  with  cavities  of  irregular  form  and  dis- 
tribution such  as  are  almost  always  to  be  observed  in  ores 
formed  by  replacements  where  the  aggregate  volume  of  the 


^Trans.    Am.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    Vol.    31,    1901,    pp.    694-695. 

82 


mineral  introduced  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  original  rock ; 
secondly,  the  beds  in  which  the  ore  occurs  are  composed 
chiefly  of  magnesian  limestone,  often  quite  impure,  it  is  true, 
but  of  a  prevailingly  soluble  character;  thirdly,  wolframite  is 
an  integral  part  of  shoots  of  siliceous  gold-ore,  the  metaso- 
matic  origin  of  which  has  been  conclusively  proved  by  care- 
ful microscopic  study. 

As  regards  the  source  from  which  the  tungsten  minerals 
have  been  derived,  no  positive  conclusions  can  be  formed ;  but 
the  relation  of  the  deposits  to  the  geology  and  to  the  other 
ore  bodies  of  the  neighborhood  seems  to  furnish  some  evi- 
dence as  to  their  derivation.  They  are  found  at  two  rather 
widely  separated  localities  on  the  west  side  of  the  outcrop  of 
the  Homestake  ore-body.  Along  this  line  there  has  taken 
place,  first,  the  heavy  mineralization  of  the  Algonkian  rocks, 
which  has  produced  that  well  known  ore-body;  secondly,  the 
mineralization  of  the  Cambrian  above  resulting  in  the  forma- 
tion of  siliceous  gold  ores,  which  are  richer  and  contain  a 
more  varied  assortment  of  secondary  character  than  ores  of  a 
similar  character  away  from  the  Homestake  lode;  and,  third- 
ly, the  formation  of  the  wolframite-ores  themselves.  It 
seems,  then,  that  the  line  of  strike  of  the  Homestake  lode  is 
also  a  line  along  which  mineralization  has  been  both  varied 
and  unusually  intense.  During  this  extensive  mineralization, 
the  circulation  of  waters  capable  of  dissolving  the  metallic 
contents  of  the  surrounding  rocks  must  have  been  active. 
That  these  waters  were,  in  the  case  of  the  siliceous  ores,  and 
hence  in  the  case  of  the  wolframite,  ascending  waters  is  prov- 
ed by  the  concentration  of  these  deposits  beneath  impervious 
beds.  It  is  therefore  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  if 
wolframite  occurred  in  the  Algonkian  rocks  at  some  point  be- 
low the  deposits  now  worked,  just  as  it  occurs  in  its  normal 
relations  at  other  points  within  the  Hills,  the  action  of  ascend- 
ing thermal  waters  upon  this  material  should  have  given  rise 
to  the  mineral  bearing  solutions  which  carried  the  wolframite 
up  to  its  present  position,  and,  there  encountering  rock  suffi- 
ciently soluble  to  admit  of  metasomatic  interchange,  should 
have  redeposited  their  metallic  contents." 

Regarding  the  source  of  wolframite  in  the  siliceous  gold 

83 


ores  of  the  northern  Black  Hills  Irving*  in  1903  said  in  part : 

"Wolframite  occurs  in  considerable  quantities  in  rocks  of 
the  Algonkian  associated  with  tin  deposits,  both  in  Nigger 
Hill  and  in  the  Southern  Hills.  Its  occurrence  suggests  that 
similar  deposits  and  bodies  of  eruptive  granite  may  exist  be- 
low the  schist  in  the  vicinity  of  the  tungsten  deposits  near 
Lead  and  if  so  they  may  readily  be  supposed  to  have  sup- 
plied this  mineral  to  ascending  thermal  waters.  It  is,  of 
course,  possible  that  tungsten  is  present  in  the  eruptive  rocks, 
but  if  so,  it  is  yet  undetected.  In  the  light  of  the  evidence 
of  the  direction  of  flow  of  mineral  solutions  no  such  assump- 
tion is  essential." 

In  1909  Hess**  described  the  then  known  occurrences  of 
tungsten  in  the  Black  Hills  and  after  presenting  Irving's 
theory  of  the  origin  of  the  Northern  Hills  ores,  says  regard- 
ing the  relation  of  the  deposits  of  the  Harney  Peak  and  Lead 
areas : 

"To  the  present  writer  it  seems  more  likely  that  the 
ores  of  the  two  areas  are  more  closely  related  genetically, 
than  this  hypothesis  allows.  It  has  been  shown  that  in  the 
Southern  Hills  wolframite  occurs  with  ordinary  pegmatites 
and  with  the  later  phases  of  such  dikes  that  are  seen  in 
quartz  veins.  In  the  Lead  region  there  are  many  rhyolite 
dikes,  closely  related  in  composition  to  the  pegmatite  dikes 
farther  south.  It  is  probable  that  either  from  them  or  from 
other  intrusions  closely  related  to  a  granitic  magma  watery 
solutions  separated,  holding  a  more  tenuous  solution  than 
that  which  made  the  quartz  veins  of  the  Hill  City  and  Key- 
stone region,  so  that  veins  were  not  formed,  but  instead  solu- 
ble carbonates  were  removed  and  replaced  by  quartz,  wol- 
framite, scheelite,  pyrite,  gold,  and  other  minerals  held  in 
solution." 

That  Irving's  theory  of  the  source  of  the  tungsten  has 
much  in  its  favor  is  evidenced  by  the  data  he  presents  and 
further  by  the  fact  that  pre-Cambrian  granite  is  now  known 
to  occur  in  the  Northern  Hills  on  the  west  flank  of  White- 
wood  Peak.    The  author  has  presented  other  evidences  of  its 


*U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Professional  Paper,  No.    26,  page   158. 
**U.   S.  Geol.   Survey,  Bull.   380,  page 

84 


presence  below  the  Lead  area  in  a  portion  of  the  previous 
chapter  deahng  with  the  pre-Cambrian.  The  presence  of 
tungsten  in  the  Etta  Mine  southwest  of  Kirk,  was  unknown 
to  Irving.  This  discovery  adds  one  more  occurrence  to  those 
he  mentions  along  the  line  of  mineralization  parallel  and  ad- 
jacent to  the  Homestake  ore  body.  And  if,  as  Sidney  Paige 
believes,  this  is  the  line  of  a  fault  along  which  solutions 
traveled,  the  idea  would  seem  to  have  gained  further 
strength.  This  theory  then,  must  receive  serious  considera- 
tion until  other  evidence  of  a  positive  nature  is  presented  for 
the  origin  of  the  ores  from  some  other  source. 

The  theory  presented  by  Hess  that  the  rhyolites  are 
probably  the  source  of  the  tungsten  is  apparently  based  on 
the  fact  that  "in  the  Lead  region  there  are  many  rhyolite 
dikes  closely  related  in  composition  to  the  pegmatite  dikes 
farther  south."  This  is  good  enough  for  the  rhyolites  as  a 
possible  source  of  the  tungsten,  since  acidic  magmas  are  pre- 
dominantly the  parents  of  tungsten  ores  but  it  is  not  evidence 
that  they  furnish  the  ores  in  this  region. 

The  occurrence  of  the  tungsten  at  Deadwood,  on  Two  Bit 
Creek  and  on  west  Strawberry  Creek  are,  of  course,  not  re- 
lated to  the  line  of  mineralization  of  the  Homestake  ore  body. 
A  line  drawn  between  no  two  of  these  occurrences  is  parallel 
to  either  the  strike  of  the  pre-Cambrian  schists  nor  does  it 
coincide  with  any  known  line  of  mineralization.  The  direction 
of  strike  of  the  pre-Cambrian  rocks  in  all  three  of  these  lo- 
calities is  north-northeast.  The  "Great  Iron  Dike"  in  the 
pre-Cambrian  that  outcrops  just  north  of  the  Deadwood 
tungsten  area  can  be  easily  traced  to  a  point  just  south  of 
Lead  where  it  meets  a  northwest  striking  series  of  quartzites 
that  lie  just  west  of  the  Homestake  ore  body. 

Sills  and  dikes  of  rhyolite  are  in  intimate  association 
with  the  tungsten  ores  in  the  Etta,  Bismarck,  Wasp  No.  2, 
Henault,  and  Breshnahan  and  Smith  properties.  The  evi- 
dence is  good  that  rhyolite  sills  once  extended  over  the 
Homestake  and  Deadwood  areas  of  tungsten  and  is  certainly 
now  to  be  found  near  by.  Mineralization  of  the  dolomites 
has  occurred  in  contact  with  the  rhyolite  sills  in  the  Bresna- 
han  claim  and  tungsten  mineral  ther^  occurs  at  the  immediate 

85 


lower  surface  of  the  rhyolite  and  probably  very  near  to  its 
upper  surface.  Tungsten  minerals  occur  in  cavities  in  the 
rhyolite  and  almost  certainly  also  were  crystallized  with  the 
feldspar  and  quartz  of  this  rock  on  the  Henault  prop- 
erty. A  considerable  number  of  cases  of  gold  ore  associated 
with  pyrite  are  known  in  the  rhyolites.  From  these  evidences 
it  seems  highly  probable  to  the  author  that  it  was  from  the 
rhyolites  or  as  Hess  suggests  "from  other  intrusions  closely 
related  to  the  granitic  magma"  that  the  solutions  bearing  the 
tungsten  emanated.  It  appears  significant  that  outside  the 
areas  of  acid  intrusives  no  tungsten  is  known  to  occur  in  the 
Northern  Hills. 

In  regard  to  the  age  of  mineralization  Irving*  says : 
"Mineralization  along  fractures  that  are  cut  by  eruptives 
has  always  exercised  an  influence  on  the  porphyry  either  by 
producing  a  slight  silicification  at  the  point  of  contact  or  by 
the  extension  of  the  more  powerful  of  the  mineralizers,  like 
fluorite,  beyond  the  ore  into  the  minute  crevices  of  the 
eruptive  rock.  Eruptives  have  never  been  observed  to  con- 
tain angular  fragments  of  ore,  which  would  probably  have 
been  the  case  had  magmas  broken  through  such  an  extremely 
brittle  material.  These  conditions  have  been  observed  to  hold 
good  for  all  of  the  varieties  of  eruptive  rock.  The  minerali- 
zation is,  therefore,  later  than  the  igneous  activity." 

Admitting  this,  it  would  seem  then,  that  except  in  the 
one  case  where  tungsten  minerals  evidently  crystallized  with 
the  magma  and  possibly  where  the  tungsten  formed  at  the 
contact  of  the  rhyolite  and  dolomite,  the  portions  of  the  rhyo- 
lite that  were  intruded  into  the  ore  bearing  rocks  were  not 
necessarily  the  sources  of  the  ore.  The  igneous  rocks  that 
reached  into  the  Deadwood  and  overlying  formations  may 
have  been  the  first  to  crystallize,  or,  to  state  it  in  other 
terms,  they  may  have  been  the  first  diff'erentiation  products 
of  the  parent  magma.  As  is  the  rule  in  a  great  majority  of 
cases  in  the  Harney  Peak  and  other  areas,  among  the  most 
soluble  materials  of  the  magma  are  the  silica  and  tungsten. 
The  differentiation  may  have  taken  place  at  a  considerable 


=  U.   S.   Geol.   Surv.   Prof.   Paper  No.    26,   page    154. 

86 


depth  below  the  present  surface  and  in  larger  bodies  of  the 
magma  than  appear  in  the  dikes  and  sills  intruded  into  the 
Deadwood  and  overlying  formations.  As  the  less  soluble  ma- 
terial separated  out,  the  silica,  wolframite,  gold,  pyrite,  a 
little  fluorite,  and  some  other  materials  remained  in  a  liquid 
form.  These  it  is  thought,  followed  upward  in  aqueous  solu- 
tions through  crevices  opened  up  by  the  earlier  invasions  of 
magma  and  were  precipitated  in  the  easily  replaceable  dolo- 
mites. The  evidence  that  the  ores  are  replacements,  as  Irving 
points  out,  is  indisputable.  The  supposed  fault  at  the  western 
border  of  the  Homestake  ore  body  may  have  been  a  con- 
venient avenue  along  which  solutions  might  travel  and  have 
caused  the  localization  of  a  number  of  deposits. 

Scheelite  occurs  in  cavities  crystallized  upon  the  wol- 
framite, and  interstitially  with  the  wolframite  in  some  of  the 
ores  of  the  Homestake  and  Wasp  No.  2.  If  some  of  this 
scheelite  is  secondary,  as  is  believed  to  be  the  case,  it  prob- 
ably has  been  dissolved,  at  least  in  part,  from  ores  lying 
above  and  precipitated  in  its  present  position.  In  so  far  as 
this  is  true  the  ores  containing  secondary  scheelite  may  be 
regarded  as  having  been  secondarily  inriched.  The  extent  to 
which  this  action  has  taken  place  is  unknown,  but  probably 
small. 

If  the  porphyries  are  the  source  of  the  tungsten  they 
are  probably  also  the  source  of  the  gold,  for  gold  occurs  in 
considerable  quantities  in  several  of  the  tungsten  deposits 
and  is  said  to  occur  at  least  in  small  quantities  in  all  of  the 
others. 


ST 


CHAPTER  IV. 


CONCENTRATION  AND  PRODUCTION  OF  ORE 


Concentration  of  the  Ores 

Up  to  the  year  1915  practically  all  of  the  Black  Hills 
tungsten  ore  sold,  was  marketed  in  the  form  of  hand  picked 
ore.  Since  that  time  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  product 
has  been  concentrated.  Inasmuch  as  the  degree  of  success 
of  the  milling  operation  has  contributed  in  no  small  way  to 
the  profitableness  of  the  industry  it  seems  advisable  to  de- 
scribe briefly  the  methods  employed  by  the  two  principal 
producers. 

At  the  Homestake  tungsten  mill,  during  1917,  254  tons 
of  concentrates  of  various  grades  were  produced  from  ap- 
proximately 7200  tons  of  ore,  that  averaged  from  29©  to  31/2 
per  cent  WO,.  The  percentage  of  tungsten  recovered  ap- 
proximated 73f/r.  In  addition  to  its  tungsten  content  the  ore 
carried  on  the  average  between  $4.00  and  $5.00  per  ton  in 
gold,  which  when  extracted  was  sufficient  to  pay  for  the 
treatment  of  the  ore. 

The  ore  is  delivered  to  the  mill  in  ore  wagons,  teamed 
from  the  mine  some  distance  away.  At  the  mill  it  is  dumped 
into  bins,  from  which  it  passes  to  a  5K  gyratory  crusher. 
The  discharge  from  the  crusher  is  carried  by  means  of  a 
belt  conveyor  to  the  battery  bin. 

5  900-pound  stamps  and  2  small  ball-mills  complete  the 
crushing  and  fine  grinding  equipment.  The  stamps,  similar  to 
those  in  the  company's  gold  mill,  have  a  crushing  capacity  of 
approximately  20  tons  per  24  hours.  These  crush  the  ore  to 
pass  a  screen — 2  mesh  by  12,  giving  opening  0.023  by 
0.052  inches.  The  pulp  from  the  battery  on  passing  through 
the  screen  flows  over  a  4-foot  amalgamation  plate,  to  recover 
any  free  gold  present  in  the  ore. 

The  concentrating  equipment  consists  of  one  Wilfley 
sand  table  and  three  Deister  sliming  tables.  The  discharge 
from   the   plates  passes   to   a   classifying   cone,   from   which 


the  coarse  product  is  sent  direct  to  the  Wilfley  table.  The 
following  products  are  made  by  the  Wilfley;  (1)  a  70'y  WO., 
concentrate,  (2)  a  bO^/c  WO.,  concentrate,  (3)  middlings  and 
(4)  tailings.  The  middlings  are  sent  to  two  small  ball-mills 
for  regrinding. 

The  overflow  from  the  classifying  cone  is  treated  in  two 
dewatering  cones,  and  the  thickened  product  is  treated  on  the 
first  Deister  Slimer,  where  a  60%  WO,  concentrate,  middlings 
and  tailings  are  produced.  The  middlings  together  with  the 
reground  product  from  the  ball-mills  are  treated  on  the  two 
remaining  Deister  tables.  These  last  tables  make  a  35%  WO3 
concentrate,  a  middling  and  a  tailing  product.  The  middling 
product  is  then  returned  to  the  ball-mills. 

The  tailings  from  all  the  tables  are  sent  to  the  com- 
pany's gold  mill  where  it  joins  the  gold  ore  tailings  and  passes 
with  them  over  amalgamation  plates,  through  the  regrind 
plant,  cyanide  plant,  etc.,  effecting  thereby  the  recovery  of  a 
large  per  cent  of  the  remaining  gold. 

The  four  grades  of  concentrates,  produced  in  the  tungs- 
ten mill  are  separately  dried  on  steam  driers  and  sacked  for 
shipment. 

For  the  milling  practice  at  the  Wasp  No.  2  mine  the 
author  quotes  from  an  article  by  Supt.  Ed.  Manion:* 

"The  ore  after  being  mined  is  taken  to  the  ore  house 
and  there  sorted  and  cobbed.  It  is  then  crushed  to  about  one 
half  inch  and  sampled  and  then  sold  to  the  highest  bidder.  .." 

"We  have  recently  constructed  a  concentrating  plant  to 
treat  our  low  grade  ores.  This  ore  is  crushed  to  one-eighth 
inch  mesh  by  rolls  and  from  there  through  a  trommel  screen, 
sixteen  mesh.  The  oversize  goes  to  the  jig  and  from  there 
to  a  small  set  of  rolls,  returning  to  the  trommel  screen.  The 
through  product  from  the  screens  goes  to  a  cone  classifier 
from  which  the  agitated  slimes  go  to  canvas  tables  and  the 
sands  to  Wilfley  tables.  The  sand  from  the  Wilfleys  goes  to 
a  4x5  ball-mill,  discharging  into  an  8  inch  elevator  which 
elevates  and  returns  the  reground  sand  to  the  classifier.  The 
slimes  go  from  the  classifier  to  nine  4x60  feet  canvas  tables 


♦Pahasapa  Quarterly.     February,   1916. 

89 


which  catch  the  concentrates,  the  slimes  passing  through  a 
launder  at  the  end  of  the  tables  and  from  there  to  an  eight- 
inch  elevator  which  deposits  the  treated  slimes  into  a  420-ton 
tank  as  tails.  Here  the  tails  which  carry  high .  in  gold  are 
treated  by  cyanide. 

"We  are  making  three  grades  of  concentrates,  the  first 
grade  about  65%  WO,,  the  second  grade  about  45%  WO3, 
and  the  third,  which  are  slimes  from  the  canvas  tables,  run 
about  35%  WO3."    ' 

The  old  mill  of  the  Harney  Peak  Tin  Company  at  Hill 
City  was  used  in  1916  and  1917  by  the  Hill  City  Producer's 
Company  to  concentrate  both  tin  and  tungsten  ores.  Other 
mills  in  the  Southern  Hills  that  have  concentrated  small 
amounts  of  ore  are  those  of  the  American  Tungsten  Com- 
pany and  the  Elkhorn  Tungsten  Company  near  Hill  City.  All 
of  these  mills  contain  standard  types  of  crushing,  fine  grad- 
ing and  concentrating  machinery.  None  of  them  are  oper- 
ating at  the  present  time. 

Statistics  of  Production 

During  the  past  three  and  one  half  years,  January  1915 
to  June  1918  inclusive,  the  total  value  of  tungsten  ore  pro- 
duced in  the  Northern  Black  Hills  has  exceeded  one  million 
dollars.  During  the  same  period  the  Southern  Hills  have  pro- 
duced ores,  the  value  of  which  probably  did  not  exceed 
$25,000. 

In  these  days  of  high  prices  and  increased  production 
one  is  inclined  to  concentrate  attention  upon  the  fields  with 
outputs  of  first  rank  and  forget  the  conditions  existing  in 
the  same  fields  before  the  war,  and  to  overlook  the  fields  of 
lesser  importance.  In  this  regard  some  interesting  facts  may 
be  learned  by  a  comparison  of  the  average  value  of  the  annual 
production  of  the  Boulder  County,  Colorado  district,  for  the 
ten  pre-war  years,  1904-1914  inch,  and  the  value  of  the  Black 
Hills  ores  produced  in  the  past  three  years.  During  the  ten 
year  period  mentioned,  the  average  value  of  the  annual  pro- 
duction of  the  Boulder  field  was  $345,000,  and  the  industry 
was  regarded  as  a  very  profitable  one  except  for  the  year 
1908.     Now  when  we  consider  that  the  1915  production  in 

90 


the  Black  Hills  was  practically  all  obtained  during  the  latter 
half  of  that  year,  the  production  can  be  figured  as  amount- 
ing to  approximately  $335,000  per  year,  for  the  three  year 
period  ending  July  1st,  1918.  This  $335,000  per  year  un- 
doubtedly furnished  a  much  higher  percentage  of  profit  to 
the  producer,  than  did  the  $345,000  of  the  Boulder  deposits, 
for,  enough  gold  was  recovered  from  the  Black  Hills  ores 
nearly,  if  not  fully,  to  pay  costs  of  mining  and  milling,  not  to 
mention  the  probability  that  the  tonnage  of  ore  treated  in 
the  Black  Hills  was  considerably  less. 

Estimating  the  Homestake  production  for  the  first  half 
of  1918  at  the  same  rate  that  was  maintained  throughout 
1917  and  the  first  four  months  of  1918,  this  company  will 
have  produced  by  July  1st  1918  tungsten  ore  to  a  value  of 
nearly  $750,000.00.  The  total  production  of  the  Wasp  No.  2 
company  has  exceeded  a  value  of  $265,000.00.  The  amount 
of  production  of  the  Hidden  Fortune  Company,  former  own- 
ers of  the  Homestake  tungsten  property,  probably  did  not  ex- 
ceed 150  tons  of  high  grade  ore  and  concentrate.  The  Smith 
and  Bresnahan  properties  have  produced  a  few  hundred 
pounds. 

In  the  Southern  Hills  the  Black  Hills  Tungsten  Com- 
pany and  the  Hill  City  Tungsten  Producer's  Company  have 
probably  furnished  the  majority  of  the  output,  which  is  very 
small.  From  practically  all  of  the  claims  in  the  Hill  City  dis- 
trict, described  in  this  bulletin  a  few  hundred  pounds  of  ore 
have  been  obtained.  The  great  majority  of  these  properties 
are  in  the  prospect  rather  than  in  the  producing  stage  of 
their  history. 

The  following  table  is  believed  accurate  for  the  larger 
productions  but  may  be  somewhat  in  error  for  the  smaller 
ones. 


91 


Prior  to   1915 

Cone,   or 
Producer —  High  Grd.  Value 

Homestake    *§150   tons  $ 

Wasp  No.    2    25   tons 

Black  Hills  Tungsten  Co. 

Miscellaneous -..    §125   tons 

Total    -    §300    tons         §$  25,000 

1915 

Cone,   or 
Producer —  High   Grd.  Value 

Homestake    25   tons        $     31,331 

Wasp  No.   2   187    tons  147,730 

Black  Hills  Tungsten  Co. 

Miscellaneous    .-..  1    ton  1,425 

Total 213    tons  $180,486 

1916 

Cone,   or 

Producer —                                                                  High   Grd.  Value 

Homestake 250   tons  $281,982 

Wasp  No.   2 36    tons  97,869 

Black  Hills  Tungsten  Co 5   tons  10,000 

Miscellaneous     2   tons  2,000 

Total     ; 293    tons        $391,851 

1917 

Cone,   or 
Producer —  High  Grd.  Value 

Homestake 254   tons        $299,447 

Wasp  No.  2 12   tons  19,561 

Black  Hills  Tungsten  Co.   

Miscellaneous     1    tons  1,000 

Total 26  7   tons        $319,00  8 

1918  to  July  1st. 

Cone,   or 
Producer —  High   Grd.  Value 

Homestake §125   tons      §$135,000 

Wasp    No.  2 

Black  Hills  Tungsten  Co 

Miscellaneous 

Total 125    tons        $135,000 

*Includes  production  of  Hidden  Fortune  Co.  prior  to  1915. 
§Estimated. 

92 


At  the  present  time  the  production  from  the  Homestake 
deposits  is  being  maintained  at  the  rate  of  about  25  tons  of 
concentrates  of  all  grades  per  month,  and  bids  fair  to  main- 
tain this  rate  for  some  time  to  come.  The  Bismarck  mine 
has  recently  been  leased  by  Mr.  Ed  Manion,  the  former  oper- 
ator of  the  Wasp  No.  2  mine.  It  is  the  intention  to  concen- 
trate the  tungsten  ores  and  to  cyanide  the  tailings  for  gold, 
as  is  being  done  at  Homestake  and  as  was  done  at  the  Wasp 
No.  2.  It  is  possible  that  the  operation  of  the  Bismarck  may 
cause  the  production  of  tungsten  in  the  Black  Hills  to  in- 
crease in  the  year  1918. 

As  to  future  production,  it  appeals  to  the  author  that 
there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that  the  present  output 
may  be  maintained  for  a  considerable  number  of  years  and 
even,  that  it  might  be  increased.  Resumption  of  normal 
conditions  may  see  the  Wasp  No.  2  again  producing,  the 
Homestake  and  Bismarck  continuing,  and  a  number  of  pros- 
pects opened  up. 

If,  as  is  believed  to  be  the  case,  the  rhyolites  are  the 
source  of  the  tungsten,  it  would  seem  more  than  likely  that 
new  discoveries  may  be  made  within  the  areas  in  which  they 
occur.  It  seems  entirely  possible  that  tungsten  ores  might  be 
found  in  the  Pahasapa  limestone  as  is  the  case  with  gold, 
silver,  and  lead  ores.  Perhaps  scheelite  is  more  likely  to  form 
in  the  Pahasapa  limestone  and  might  remain  undetected  for  a 
long  time,  on  account  of  its  light  color. 

In  the  Southern  Hills  good  ores  occur  in  quite  a  number 
of  the  prospects.  The  important  question  regarding  their 
value  is  the  extent  of  the  deposits.  As  was  stated  in  the 
chapter  in  which  these  deposits  were  described  ore  bodies  of 
this  type  are  characteristically  "bunchy,"  and  likely  to  ter- 
minate suddenly,  but  certainly  valuable  deposits  of  precise- 
ly this  type  occur  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  it  seems 
entirely  possible  that  out  of  the  many  well  known  occurren- 
ces one  or  more  may  prove  profitable.  It  would  be  a  rash  as- 
sertion to  say  that  the  present  amount  of  development  has 
either  proved  or  disproved  the  existence  of  a  deposit  of  con- 
siderable magnitude  in  this  region. 


93 


PART  II. 

THE  CHEMISTRY,  METALLURGY,  AND  USES  OF 
TUNGSTEN 

BY  MINER  LOUIS  HARTMANN 


94 


PART  II. 

CHEMISTRY,  METALLURGY  AND  USES 

CHAPTER  v.. 


HISTORICAL 

The  element  tungsten  has  probably  had  more  names  than 
any  other  element.  In  literature  it  has  been  designated  by 
the  words  "wolfram",  "woolfram",  "wolframium",  "wolferan", 
"wolfart",  "wolfort",  "wolfrig",  ''scheelium",  "tungsteen", 
and  "tungsten".  Even  today  the  metal  is  called  by  the  names 
wolfram  and  tungsten,  altho  the  latter  is  preferred. 

The  minerals  of  tungsten,  especially  those  associated 
with  tin  ores,  were  known  many  years  before  the  element  nad 
been  discovered.  The  Cornish  tin  miners  knew  wolframite  as  an 
"obnoxious"  ore  because  "it  eats  up  the  tin  as  the  wolf  eats 
up  the  sheep."  (A.  Gurlt,  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.  22, 
236,  1893.)  The  minerals  were  also  known  in  the  tin  mines 
of  Saxony  and  Bohemia.  The  Germans  named  it  "wolfert", 
"wolfart"  or  "wolfrig",  from  which  the  present  name  of  the 
mineral  is  derived. 

The  name  "tungsten"  is  of  Swedish  origin,  meaning 
"heavy  stone".  It  was  originally  applied  to  calcium  tungstate 
(our  scheelite),  on  account  of  its  high  specific  gravity. 

The  discovery  of  the  metal  has  been  claimed  for  both 
Scheele,  the  famous  Swedish  chemist,  and  for  the  Spanish 
d'Elhuyar  brothers.  Scheele  undoubtedly  first  discovered  (in 
1781)  that  the  mineral  then  known  as  "tungstein"  (scheelite) 
contained  a  new  element.  According  to  the  published  ac- 
counts, the  d'Elhuyar  brothers  were  the  first  to  isolate  the 
metal.  However  there  is  good  evidence  to  show  that  the  work 
of  these  Spanish  chemists  was  along  lines  laid  down  by 
Scheele,  for  they  undoubtedly  worked  under  the  direction  of 
Scheele  and  Bergan  for  several  years.  In  fact  they  made  no 
claim  in  the  published  account  of  being  the  discoverers  of  the 
metal,  which  indicates  further  that  Scheele  had  probably  al- 
ready prepared  the  metal.    They  made  the  metal  by  reducing 


the  oxide  with  carbon.  They  also  described  some  alloys  of 
tungsten  with  gold,  silver  and  lead. 

Tungsten  was  considered  a  rare  element  with  no  practi- 
cal use  until  about  1850,  when  some  investigations  were  made 
to  determine  its  commercial  utilization,  especially  in  steel  al- 
loys. Some  tungsten  s.teel  was  made  and  used,  but  it  was 
not  until  Hadfield,  in  1903,  reported  the  results  of  extensive 
tests  of  tungsten  steel,  that  the  industry  developed  to  any 
great  extent. 

The  use  of  tungsten  in  metal  filament  lamps  brought  the 
element  before  the  public,  although  the  amount  of  tungsten 
used  for  this  purpose  is  very  small  compared  to  the  quantity 
used  in  alloy  steel.  The  history  of  the  development  of  the 
tungsten  steel  and  the  tungsten  lamp  industries  will  be  dis- 
cussed more  fully  under  those  titles. 


90 


CHAPTER  VI. 


PREPARATION  OF  METALLIC  TUNGSTEN  AND  FERRO- 

TUNGSTEN 


Most  of  the  tungsten  used  in  the  industries  is  made 
either  in  the  form  of  tungsten  powder  or  as  an  iron  alloy  con- 
taining a  high  percentage  of  tungsten  (ferro-tungsten).  In 
recent  years  about  90  per  cent  of  the  tungsten  has  been  used 
as  ferro-tungsten  and  10  per  cent  as  tungsten  powder. 

Working  details  of  the  processes  at  present  used  for 
making  tungsten  powder  and  ferro-tungsten  are  not  available 
in  the  literature,  and  much  of  the  information  is  carefully 
guarded  at  the  plants.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to  give  a 
detailed  account  of  the  methods.  However  certain  general 
facts  are  well  known  concerning  the  various  operations. 

Decomposition  of  Wolframite 
Sodium  Carbonate  Fusion  Method.  The  process  of  de- 
composing the  ores  most  generally  used  in  making  tungsten 
metal  and  tungsten  compounds  is  the  sodium  carbonate  fusion 
method.  This  was  patented  in  1847  by  Oxland  and  is  still 
used  with  only  slight  changes.  The  ore  or  concentrate — 
usually  wolframite  (The  term  wolframite  will  be  used  here 
for  iron-manganese  tungstates)  is  finely  pulverized  and 
mixed  with  soda  ash  (sodium  carbonate)  and  a  small  amount 
of  sodium  nitrate.  The  mixture  is  charged  into  reverberatory 
furnaces  on  a  hearth  of  dolomite.  After  the  mass  is  sintered 
(not  fused)  it  is  drawn  out  and  crushed.  In  some  plants  it  is 
sintered  again,  in  order  to  make  the  extraction  of  tungsten 
more  nearly  complete.  The  sintered  mass  in  either  case  is 
leached  with  hot  water  in  filter  tanks.  The  tungsten  dissolves 
as  sodium  tungstate  (Na.WO,)  while  the  iron,  calcium  and 
most  of  the  manganese  remain  insoluble.  Some  silicic  acid 
and  phosphoric  acid  also  dissolve  in  the  form  of  the  complex 
silico-tungstates  and  phospho-tungstates.  Some  sodium  man- 
ganate  is  formed  in  the  presence  of  the  nitrate  during  the 

97 


fusion,  and  this  also  dissolves,  but  its  presence  is  not  objec- 
tionable in  most  cases.  The  manganese  may  be  easily  remov- 
ed at  a  later  stage  in  the  process. 

The  silica  and  phosphorus  are  removed  by  converting  the 
normal  sodium  tungstate  into  sodium  para-tungstate.  This  is 
accomplished  by  adding  to  the  boiling  solution  of  the  normal 
tungstate  (Na^WOJ  (which  contains  an  excess  of  alkali  car- 
bonate) enough  hydrochloric  acid  to  give  a  neutral  solution. 
On  cooling,  large  tri-clinic  crystals  of  sodium  para-tungstate 
(NajoWi.Oii28H.O)  precipitate  out.  These  crystals  are  known 
in  commerce  as  "tungstate  of  sOda."  The  silico-tungstates 
and  phosphotungstates  of  sodium  are  more  soluble  and  remain 
in  the  mother  liquor.  To  recover  the  tungstic  acid  remaining 
in  the  solution  calcium  carbonate  is  added,  which  gives  a  pre- 
cipitate of  calcium  tunstate.  This  precipitate  can  then 
be  treated  as  scheelite  by  one  of  the  methods  described  be- 
low. 

The  para-tungstate  can  be  transformed  back  into  the  nor- 
mal tungstate  by  the  addition  of  sodium  hydroxide  solution. 
Tungstic  acid  can  be  obtained  from  the  boiling  solution  by 
adding  to  it  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  important  to  pour  the 
tungstate  solution  into  the  acid  rather  than  the  acid  into  the 
tungstate.  In  the  latter  case,  there  will  be  formed  para-tung- 
state which  is  only  decomposed  into  the  free  tungstic  acid  by 
long  boiling  with  hydrocloric  acid.  The  tungstic  acid  is  sep- 
arated by  filtration,  washed,  and  ignited  to  tungsten  trioxide 
(WO3)  and  is  then  ready  for  reduction  to  the  metal. 

Soda  Solution  Method.  The  tungsten  factory  at  Lutin, 
England  (in  1915)  decomposed  the  wolframite  by  boiling  the 
finely  ground  ore  with  a  solution  of  soda,  whereby  sodium 
tungstate  is  formed.  The  tungstic  acid  is  precipitated  by 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  oxide  formed  by  ignition  of  the 
dried  tungstic  acid.  (The  only  description  of  this  process 
found  in  the  the  literature  is  in  Mineral  Industry  1915,  page 
702). 

The  Aqua  Regia  Method.  The  ore,  if  very  finely  ground, 
may  be  decomposed  by  boiling  with  nitric  and  hydrochloric 
acids   (aqua  regia)   and  evaporating  to  dryness.     This  gives 

98 


insoluble  tungstic  acid  (or  the  trioxide  depending  upon  the 
temperature  of  drying) ,  and  most  of  the  impurities  are  in  the 
form  of  insoluble  salts,  except  silica,  columbic,  tantalic  and 
metastannic  acids.  The  soluble  salts  are  washed  out  and  the 
residue  treated  with  ammonia,  which  dissolves  all  of  the 
tungsten  as  ammonium  tungstate  and  part  of  the  columbium, 
tantalum  and  tin  as  ammonium  columbate,  tantalate  and  stan- 
nate.  On  concentrating  the  solution,  ammonium  tungstate 
crystals  separate  out  and  on  igniting,  are  decomposed  into 
ammonia  and  tungstic  oxide.  The  small  quantities  of  colum- 
bium and  tantalum  are  usually  not  harmful,  at  least  in  metal- 
lurgical operations,  but  they  may  be  removed  if  desired  by 
treating  the  oxides  with  ammonium  sulfide,  which  dissolves 
the  tungsten  but  not  the  columbium  and  tantalum.  The 
tungstic  oxide  is  then  recovered  by  making  the  sulfide  solu- 
tion acid  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  igniting  the  precipitated 
tungstic  acid. 

Carbon-Tetrachloride  Method.  A  process  for  the  de- 
composition of  tungsten  ores  by  means  of  carbon  tetrachloride 
was  patented  in  1914  by  Jannasch  and  Leiste  (German  Pat. 
266,973).  The  ore  is  heated  in  a  current  of  carbon  tetra- 
chloride vapor  and  the  tungsten  chlorides  distilling  over  ore 
decomposed  by  means  of  mineral  acids. 

Bi-sulfate  Method  (especially  for  tin-bearing  ores.) 
When  tin  is  present  in  appreciable  quantities,  it  must  be  re- 
moved because  of  the  brittleness  which  it  imparts  to  steel.  If 
present  in  large  quantities,  it  is  of  course  valuable  for  itself^ 
and  in  this  case  it  must  be  free  from  tungsten.  Magnetic 
separation  of  the  wolframite  from  the .  cassiterite  has  been 
used  quite  successfully,  but  rarely  gives  a  separation  with, 
less  than  one  per  cent  tin  oxide  with  the  wolframite. 

The  tin  bisulfate  method  (1233)  described  below  has 
been  successfully  used  for  the  decomposition  of  tin-bearing 
tungsten  ores. 

The  ore  is  decomposed  in  a  mufi'le  furnace,  the  hearth  of 
which  is  made  with  silica  agglomerated  with  pitch.  Potas- 
sium acid  sulfate  is  fused  in  the  furnace  with  the  doors  clos- 
ed. After  complete  fusion,  the  finely  ground  ore  is  thrown  in,, 
the  mass  stirred  continually  and  the  temperature  gradually 

99 


increased  until  the  mass  is  fluid  enough  to  run  out  of  the 
furnace.  After  solidification,  the  fusion  is  ground  up  and 
treated  with  water  which  dissolves  the  soluble  sulfates  and 
phosphoric  acid  and  leaves  insoluble  potassium  acid  tungs- 
tate  as  a  white  amorphous  precipitate.  The  compound  is  in- 
soluble only  in  the  presence  of  an  excess  of  acid,  so  that  about 
50  per  cent  excess  of  bisulfate  over  that  theoretically  re- 
quired, is  used  to  decompose  the  ore.  The  insoluble  portion 
contains  besides  the  tungsten  compound  also  silica,  cassiterite 
and  the  insoluble  sulfates.  It  is  dried  and  treated  with  a 
warm  solution  containing  ammonium  carbonate,  or  with  cold 
water  into  which  is  passed  ammonia  and  carbon  dioxide.  Un- 
der these  conditions,  the  potassium  acid  tungstate  dissolves, 
leaving  the  silica,  and  cassiterite  and  the  insoluble  sulfates. 
The  solution  is  evaporated  to  crystallization,  which  gives  am- 
monium tungstate  5(NHJ.0.12WO.,.nH.O  where  "n"  is  from 
11  to  5  according  to  the  temperature  of  evaporation.  When 
heated  in  contact  with  air,  the  salt  gives  off  ammonia  and 
water  leaving  tungstic  oxide. 

If  a  purer  tungstic  acid  is  required  as  for  chemical  uses, 
the  ammoniacal  solution  is  treated  with  hydrogen  sulfide,  to 
form  ammonium  sulfo-tungstate.  This  salt  is  only  slightly 
soluble  in  cold  water  and  deposits  as  orange  red  crystals.  On 
heating,  the  trisulfide  (WS3)  is  formed,  which  changes  to  the 
trioxide  on  roasting. 

If  sodium  bisulfate  with  an  excess  of  sulfuric  acid  is  used 
in  place  of  the  potassium  salt,  a  solution  of  sodium  acid 
tungstate  is  obtained.  This  solution  contains  the  soluble  sul- 
fates of  the  other  metals  present.  These  may  be  precipitated 
by  electrolysis.  The  resulting  solution  is  evaporated,  the 
sodium  sulfate  separates  and  is  removed.  The  tungstic  acid 
is  then  precipitated  by  hydrochloric  acid,  and  this  on  ignition 
gives  the  trioxide.  This  process  was  patented  in  Germany 
in  1902.     (149,556). 

Decomposition  of  Scheelite 
Acid  Method.    Scheelite  is  easily  decomposed  by  heating 
with  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  or  nitric  acid  giving  cal- 
cium chloride  or  nitrate  and  tungstic  acid.    This,  after  wash- 

100 


ing  and  heating,  gives  crude  tungstic  oxide.  If  a  purer  oxide 
is  desired,  the  washed  but  not  ignited  precipitate,  is  dissolved 
in  ammonia  and  ammonium  carbonate  solution.  The  ammon- 
ium tungstate  may  be  crystallized  out.  Ignition  of  these 
crystals  gives  tungstic  oxide. 

Alkali-Fluoride  Method.  (1233)  Scheelite  may  be  fused 
in  a  reverberatory  furnace  with  potassium  fluoride,  produc- 
ing soluble  potassium  tungstate  and  insoluble  calcium  fluor- 
ide, which  are  easily  separated.  The  solution  of  tungstate  is 
then  decomposed  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  tungstic 
oxide  obtained  by  ignition. 

Reduction  of  Tungstic  Oxide  to  the  Metal 
By  Carbon  in  Crucibles.  The  yellow  oxide  of  tungsten 
(WO.)  can  be  reduced  by  heating  with  carbon  or  carbona- 
ceous materials  in  crucibles.  Slightly  less  than  the  propor- 
tion of  carbon  (coke,  anthracite  coal  or  charcoal)  theoreti- 
cally required  for  the  reduction  of  the  metal  with  the  forma- 
tion of  carbon  monoxide,  is  intimately  mixed  with  the  powder- 
ed tungstic  oxide.  The  crucibles  are  then  covered  and  heated 
to  high  temperature,  which  causes  the  reduction  to  metallic 
tungsten.  On  account  of  the  very  high  melting  point  of 
tungsten,  the  metal  does  not  fuse  but  remains  as  a  fine  gray 
powder  mixed  with  coarser  crystals  and  some  unreduced  or 
partly  reduced  oxide.  The  coarse  crystals  are  separated  by 
washing  out  the  fine  particles  which  are  added  to  the  next 
charge. 

By  careful  control  of  operations  this  process  can  be  used 
quite  successfully.  A  number  of  plants  in  the  U.  S.  are  using 
it,  with  possibly  some  modifications.  High  Speed  Steel  Alloys, 
Limited,  at  Widnes,  the  English  company  which  was  organ- 
ized to  supply  the  English  steel  works  with  tungsten  after  the 
outbreak  of  the  war,  uses  this  method.  The  tungstic  oxide 
powder,  produced  by  the  sodium  carbonate  fusion  method,  is 
ground  with  anthracite  coal  and  charged  into  crucibles,  which 
are  then  heated  in  coke  and  producer  gas  furnaces  for  24 
hours.  The  crucibles  are  allowed  to  cool  for  12  hours  before 
opening  in  order  to  prevent  oxidation.  The  product  is  a 
heavy  chocolate  colored  powder,  running  about  98  V2  Per  cent 

101 


tungsten  metal.  This  is  claimed  to  be  at  least  one  per  cent 
better  than  the  tungsten  powder  supplied  by  German  pro- 
ducers before  the  war  (77). 

By  Carbon  in  the  Electric  Furnace.  The  oxide  can  be  re- 
duced directly  in  the  electric  furnace  by  means  of  carbon. 
This  was  the  method  used  by  Moissan  (40)  (46)  (49).  The 
metal  is  readily  obtained  in  the  melted  form  but  Moissan 
found  that  it  could  be  produced  free  from  carbon  if  the  heat 
was  not  allowed  to  actually  melt  it.  According  to  Gin,  fused 
tungsten  containing  not  over  two  per  cent  carbon  can  be 
made  in  the  electric  furnace  by  using  a  little  less  carbon  than 
is  required  for  the  production  of  carbon  monoxide  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  tungstic  oxide.  An  intermediate  electrode  con- 
sisting of  a  trough  filled  with  tungsten  is  used  between  the 
two  main  electrodes.  There  is  formed  at  the  contact  of  the 
fused  slag  of  tungstic  oxide  with  the  metal  an  upper  reduc- 
tion zone  and  a  lower  oxidation  zone,  which  gives  better 
purification.  Considerable  loss  is  caused  by  volatilization  of 
the  oxide  of  tungsten  at  the  high  temperature.  This  may  be 
recovered  in  the  flue  dust  along  with  any  fine  particles  car- 
ried over  mechanically  by  the  gases. 

If  the  metal  is  produced  in  melted  condition  in  the 
ordinary  electric  furnace,  it  can  be  decarburized  by  the 
methods  given  later,  producing  high  grade  ferro-tungsten. 

Reduction  by  Aluminum.  Powdered  aluminum  easily 
reduces  tungstic  oxide.  The  method  of  Goldschmidt  (53)  is 
quite  simple.  An  intimate  mixture  of  the  oxide  and  powdered 
aluminum  is  charged  into  a  crucible,  and  ignited  by  a  fuse 
of  sodium  or  barium  peroxide  mixed  with  some  aluminum 
powder.  On  account  of  the  excess  heat  of  formation  of 
aluminum  oxide  over  that  of  tungsten  oxide,  the  aluminum 
takes  the  oxygen  from  the  tungsten  and  liberates  the  free 
metal.  A  slight  excess  of  tungsten  oxide  is  used  because 
otherwise  some  aluminum  tungsten  alloy  forms  and  dissolves 
in  the  metallic  tungsten  and  impairs  its  value  for  metallur- 
gical work.  The  slight  excess  of  tungstic  oxide  forms  an 
aluminum  tungstate  of  unknown  composition,  which  goes 
into  the  slag. 

102 


A  modification  of  the  Goldschmidt  aluminum  reduction 
process  has  been  made  by  Voigtlaender  (French  Patent, 
455,313  [1914]  ).  The  mixture  of  tungstic  oxide  and  alum- 
inum is  brought  to  high  temperature  by  external  heat,  so 
that  after  the  reduction  reaction,  the  temperature  will  be 
high  enough  to  melt  the  tungsten  produced. 

While  the  aluminum  process  is  easy  to  carry  out,  its 
use  is  limited  by  the  high  cost  of  the  aluminum.  Theoreti- 
cally 184  parts  by  weight  of  tungsten  require  54  parts  of 
aluminum,  and  at  the  present  price  of  aluminum,  the  carbon 
and  electric  furnace  methods  are  very  much  cheaper.  In  ad- 
dition, the  losses  of  tungsten  in  the  slag  are  said  to  be  ex- 
cessive. 

Reduction  by  Silicon  Carbide.  This  process  was  patented 
by  F.  M.  Becket  in  1907.  The  process  involves  the  reduction 
in  two  stages,  the  first  by  carbon  and  the  second  by  silicon 
carbide.  The  first  charge  is  heated  in  an  electric  furnace 
with  carbon  and  reduced  to  a  lower  oxide.  Silicon  carbide 
is  then  added  and  complete  reduction  is  effected.  Metallic 
tungsten  with  low  carbon  content  is  thus  obtained.  (U.  S. 
Pat.  858,329). 

Reduction  by  Boron  and  Silicon.  Becket  has  also  patent- 
ed a  process  for  reducing  tungstic  oxide  by  means  of  metallic 
silicon  and  metallic  boron  in  an  electric  furnace.  The  product 
is  said  to  be  very  low  in  carbon.  (U.  S.  Pat.  854,018 ;  930,027 ; 
930,028). 

Reduction  by  Zinc.  Tungstic  oxide  can  be  reduced  by 
heating  with  metallic  zinc  in  an  inert  atmosphere.  The  ex- 
cess zinc  is  removed  by  volatilization  and  the  zinc  oxide  dis- 
solved out  with  a  solution  of  sodium  hydroxide.  The  method 
is  not  used  commercially. 

Reduction  by  Gases.  Very  pure  tungsten  powder  can 
be  produced  by  reducing  the  purified  oxide  by  hydrogen, 
carbon  monoxide,  or  other  reducing  gases.  Hydrogen  is  con- 
sidered the  best  and  this  method  is  used  for  production  of 
tungsten  metal  for  electric  lamp  filaments.  This  process 
will  be  described  in  detail  in  the  following  section  on  the 
manufacture  of  ductile  tungsten. 

103 


Preparation  of  Ductile  Tungsten. 

Until  about  1909,  tungsten  was  known  and  described 
as  a  hard,  brittle  metal  which  could  not  be  mechanically 
worked  into  shape.  In  connection  with  the  manufacture  of 
the  tungsten  electric  lamp  filaments,  search  was  made  for  a 
method  of  producing  tungsten  in  a  ductile  form  so  that  it 
could  be  drawn  into  wires.  It  was  found  that  by  properly 
heating  and  working,  tungsten  loses  its  crystalline  character 
and  can  be  drawn  into  the  finest  wires. 

For  this  purpose,  a  very  pure  tungsten  powder  must 
be  produced.  The  tungstic  oxide  as  made  by  any  of  the  above 
described  processes  contains  too  many  impurities  from  the 
ore,  such  as  iron,  manganese,  silica,  molybdenum,  phosphorus, 
arsenic  and  sodium  salts.  Two  methods  of  purification  are 
used,  either  (1)  the  solution  of  the  oxide  in  ammonia  and 
the  precipitation  of  tungstic  oxide  with  hydrochloric  acid,  or 
(2)  the  solution  of  the  oxide  in  ammonium  and  recrystalliza- 
tion  and  decomposition  of  ammonium  paratungstate.  Still 
greater  purity  can  be  obtained  by  using  a  combination  of  the 
two  methods. 

The  pure  tungsten  oxide  then  obtained  is  reduced  usually 
by  hydrogen.  Carbon  may  be  used,  but  the  process  is  dif- 
ficult to  control.  The  physical  state  of  the  powdered  tung- 
sten produced  is  quite  important  as  a  factor  in  the  ductiliza- 
tion  of  the  metal.  The  powder  must  also  be  free  from  carbon 
or  oxygen. 

The  reduction  by  hydrogen  is  most  generally  used  be- 
cause the  process  is  easily  controlled.  Electric  resistance 
tube  furnaces  are  used  for  the  reduction.  The  powdered 
oxide  is  placed  in  boats  and  the  current  of  pure,  dry  hydrogen 
passed  thru  the  tube  at  a  regulated  rate.  The  temperature  is 
gradually  brought  up  to  about  1100"  C.  The  rate  of  heating 
and  the  rate  of  hydrogen  flow  effect  the  properties  of  the 
reduced  metal.  If  properly  regulated,  the  product  is  a  gray, 
amorphous  powder. 

The  dry  tungsten  powder,  without  a  binder  of  any  kind, 
is  placed  evenly  in  a  heavy  mould  and  pressed  under  very 
great  pressure  into  a  bar  about  0.5x0.5x15  centimeters.  This 
fragile  bar  is  placed  in   an   electric   resistance   furnace   and 

104 


heated  to  about  1300'  C,  which  causes  a  slight  sintering  of 
the  tungsten  particles. 

The  bar,  which  can  now  be  handled  without  danger  of 
breakage,  is  clamped  between  two  water-cooled  clamps,  and  a 
water-cooled  cover  is  placed  over  it,  •  in  order  to  main- 
tain an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen  around  the  bar.  A 
heavy  electric  current  is  passed  through  the  bar  for 
a  few  minutes,  which  heats  it  almost  to  the  melting 
point  (3200-  C).  The  bar  is  now  thoroly  sintered, 
but  it  is  not  ductile.  The  bar  is  next  heated  to  1500"  in  a 
resistance  furnace  thru  which  hydrogen  is  flowing.  It  is 
then  rapidly  transferred  to  the  swaging  machine,  hammered 
a  few  times,  reheated  and  swaged  until  a  bar  long  enough 
to  be  fed  thru  the  machine  by  rolls  is  obtained.  After  this  it 
is  drawn  thru  a  gas  furnace  to  heat  it  before  going  into  the 
machine.  The  temperature  is  gradually  decreased  and  when 
the  diameter  of  the  wire  is  about  one  millimeter  (30  mils) 
the  tungsten  has  become  ductile  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

From  this  size  down  to  the  fine  wires  used  in  tungsten 
lamp  filaments,  the  wire  is  drawn  thru  diamond  dies.  At 
first  the  temperature  is  kept  at  about  600°  C,  gradually  de- 
creasing as  the  wire  becomes  smaller.  The  steps  between  the 
dies  are  gradually  decreased  from  one  mil  between  thirty  and 
fifteen  mils,  to  one-twentieth  mil  decrease  per  step  below  fif- 
teen mils.  Wire  as  small  as  .0004  inches  in  diameter  has 
been  drawn.  This  is  about  one  seventh  of  the  diameter  of  a 
human  hair  (.003  inch)  and  only  about  twice  the  diameter  of 
a  strand  of  spider's  silk  (.0002  inch). 

It  has  been  found  that  a  small  amount  of  thorium  oxide 
(less  than  1  %)  added  to  the  tungsten  oxide  before  reduction, 
causes  the  product  to  be  much  more  ductile.  This  is  prob- 
ably related  in  some  way  to  the  use  of  metallic  thorium  in 
tungsten  filaments  to  prevent  recrystallization. 

The  effect  of  the  thorium  oxide  in  increasing  the  duc- 
tility of  tungsten  is  not  thoroly  understood.  According  to  the 
theory  advanced  by  Jeffries  and  Fahrenwald,  (327,  328,  329) 
from  their  studies  of  crystal  growth  in  metals,  the  thorium 
oxide  accumulates  at  the  boundaries  of  the  crystals  of  tung- 
sten during  their  formation,  and  prevents  their  growth.     In 

105 


most  cases  the  presence  of  a  foreign  substance  would  produce 
weakness  in  the  mass,  but  in  the  case  of  tungsten,  the  tho- 
rium oxide  seems  to  be  in  such  form  that  it  not  only  prevents 
crystal  growth,  but  also  maintains  the  strength  of  the  mass. 

The  operation  of  hot  forging  also  tends  to  reduce  the 
size  of  the  crystals,  thus  changing  the  brittle,  coarsely  crys- 
talline material  to  ductile,  very  finely  crystallized  tungsten. 

The  ductile  and  malleable  tungsten  can  be  made  into 
other  forms  by  hot  forging.  Such  articles  cannot  be  shaped 
by  machining  when  cold  because  of  the  hardness  of  the  cold 
metal.  Tungsten  can  be  melted  and  cast  into  shape,  but 
under  these  conditions  it  is  very  hard  and  brittle,  and  is 
limited  in  its  applications. 

Manufacture  of  Ferro-Tungsten 

Ninety  percent  of  the  tungsten  extracted  from  the  ores 
goes  into  high  tungsten  alloys  with  iron,  which  are  known  as 
ferro-tungsten.  The  proportion  of  tungsten  in  these  alloys 
varies  from  50  to  85  percent. 

Ferro-tungsten  before  the  War  was  produced  almost  en- 
tirely in  Germany.  Since  then  the  number  of  ferro-tungsten 
plants  in  the  U.  S.  and  in  England  has  increased  greatly. 
"The  Hudson  Reduction  Co.  at  Latrobe,  Pa.,  operated  in  1916 
33  electric  furnaces  for  making  the  alloy  and  the  metal.  The 
Primos  Chemical  Co.,  greatly  increased  its  capacity;  the 
Chemical  Products  Co.,  completed  a  large  reduction  plant 
near  Washington,  designed  particularly  for  the  treatment  of 
lower-grade  concentrates;  The  Tungsten  Products  Company 
of  Maryland  began  operating  a  new  plant  early  in  January 
1917  for  making  ferro-tungsten — using  small  electric  fur- 
naces ;  The  Manhattan  Reduction  Co.,  also  produced  metal. 
In  France  there  are  important  works,  e.  g.  those  of  Girod^ 
Schneiders,  Chamoux,  Keller,  and  Leeux,  and  the  Froges  and 
Giffre  works.  In  England,  the  Thermo-Electric  Co.,  at  Luton, 
the  High-speed  Steel  alloys,  Ltd.,  at  Widnes,  the  Continuous 
Reaction  Co.,  at  Hyde,  the  British  Thermit  Co.,  at  Yarston, 
and  a  number  of  others."  (C.  G.  Fink,  Mineral  Industry  1916, 
p.  742). 

106 


Production  of  Ferro-tungsten  by  Reduction  With  Carbon 
in  Crucibles.  One  method  which  has  been  used  to  some 
extent  for  making  ferro-tungsten  is  the  reduction  of  tungsten 
ores  by  carbon  in  crucibles.  The  concentrated  ore  is  placed 
in  a  clay-lined  crucible,  together  with  a  suitable  flux  and 
coke  or  charcoal  and  the  whole  heated  in  a  gas  fired  furnace, 
together  with  the  correct  proportion  of  iron  or  steel  scrap. 
For  a  thirty  percent  tungsten  alloy,  the  crucibles  will  last 
about  three  heats,  but  for  a  65  to  75  percent  product,  they 
last  but  one  heat.  Most  of  the  ferro-tungsten  was  made  by 
reducing  tungstic  oxide  and  iron  in  crucibles  up  until  the  in- 
troduction of  the  electric  furnace  about  1900.  This  method 
is  still  used  to  a  small  extent.  (275). 

Production  of  Ferro-tungsten  by  Alumino-thermic 
Method.  Ferro-tungsten  can  be  made  by  reduction  of  wolf- 
ramite, ferberite  or  scheelite  with  aluminum.  Rossi  (207) 
reduced  ferberite  with  aluminum  in  a  Sieman's  type  electric 
furnace,  and  obtained  an  alloy  containing  75.9  percent  tung- 
sten, 21.4  percent  iron,  1.6  percent  silicon,  .08  percent  sulfur 
and  .9  percent  carbon. 

The  ores  and  tungsten  trioxide  may  also  be  reduced  by 
the  use  of  aluminum  as  the  reducing  and  heating  agent,  as  in 
the  regular  "Thermite"  reaction.  The  oxygen  for  the  burn- 
ing of  the  aluminum  is  furnished  by  the  oxides  of  the  metals 
in  the  ore.  The  requisite  amounts  of  tungstic  oxide  or  con- 
centrates and  aluminum  powder  are  mixed  in  a  magnesia 
crucible  and  ignited  in  the  usual  way  by  a  fuse  of  sodium  or 
barium  peroxide  and  aluminum  powder.  The  ferro-tungsten 
which  is  formed  is  almost  free  from  carbon,  but  may  contain 
aluminum,  unless  there  is  a  slight  excess  of  ore  or  tungsten 
oxide.  The  percentage  of  tungsten  in  the  ferro-tungsten 
produced  depends  upon  the  amount  of  iron  .present,  either  in 
the  ore  or  as  added  hammer  scales.  The  product  will  contain 
any  other  reducible  metals  such  as  copper,  manganese  etc. 
which  may  be  present  in  the  ore. 

Preparation  of  Ferro-tungsten  by  the  Silico-thermic 
Method.  Gin  has  produced  ferro-tungsten  by  the  reduction 
of  scheelite  or  artificial  calcium  tungstate  by  20  percent  ferro- 
silicon,  in  an  electric  furnace,  with  two  contiguous  hearths  in 

107 


series,  having  ferro-silicon  electrodes  and  an  intermediate 
electrode  of  fused  ferro-silicon.  Upon  the  melted  bath  of 
ferro-silicon  is  placed  scheelite,  which  melts,  the  silicon  oxi- 
dizes at  the  expense  of  the  tungstic  oxide  and  forms  a  slag 
of  calcium  silicate,  while  the  iron  unites  with  the  tungsten  to 
form  ferro-tungsten.  A  small  amount  of  silicon  goes  into  the 
alloys,  (1233) 

Direct  Reduction  of  Tungsten  Ores  in  the  Electric  Fur- 
nace. The  most  common  method  for  the  production  of  ferro- 
tungsten  is  by  the  reduction  of  tungsten  ore  concentrates  in 
the  electric  furnace  with  carbon  as  a  reducing  agent.  This 
product  usually  contains  more  carbon  than  is  desired  for  the 
manufacture  of  alloy  steels,  and  must  be  decarburized  (see 
below).  Ferberite,  wolframite  and  huebnerite  are  easily  re- 
duced by  this  method,  but  scheelite  is  more  difficult,  because 
of  sticky,  basic  slags.  Manganese  is  either  volatilized  or  goes 
into  the  slag.  (275) 

The  furnaces  used  are  usually  of  the  intermittent  tilting 
type.  The  reduced  charge  is  tapped  from  the  furnace  and 
cast  in  molds  or  allowed  to  solidify  and  then  broken  out  of 
the  furnace.   (275) 

In  experiments  conducted  by  Keeney,  (269)  (275)  a 
flux  of  lime  and  fluorspar  was  used  with  Colorado  ferberite 
and  iron  ore.  After  the  reduction  reaction  was  complete  a 
decarburizing  slag  of  iron  ore  lime  and  fluorspar  was  added 
to  the  furnace  and  allowed  to  act  for  ten  to  twenty  minutes. 
The  percentage  of  carbon  in  this  product  was  kept  below  2 
percent,  and  the  amounts  of  phosphorus,  silicon,  manganese, 
and  sulfur  which  went  into  the  ferro-tungsten  were  small. 
Four  to  eight  percent  tungsten  was  lost  in  the  slags. 

Ferro-tungsten  as  made  in  the  electric  furnace,  contains 
from  50  to  80  percent  tungsten.  One  dealer  in  ferro-tung- 
sten guarantees  his  product  to  contain  72-78  percent  tung- 
sten, and  not  over  .07  percent  sulfur,  0.06  percent  phos- 
phorus, 1.0  percent  carbon,  .75  percent  silicon. 

In  1912,  it  was  reported  (264)  that  the  Ampere  Company 
of  Berlin  was  employing  a  process  of  reducing  scheelite  di- 
rectly from  the  ore  in  the  electric  furnace  with  sulfide  of  iron 
as  flux  and  carbon  as  the  reducing  agent.     Ferro-tungsten 

108 


with  low  carbon  content  was  produced.  The  silica  contained 
in  the  scheelite  was  fluxed  by  the  addition  of  lime.  The  slag 
was  easily  fusible.  Further  information  concerning  the  pro- 
cess seems  not  to  be  available. 

Decarburization  of  Ferro-tungsten  and  Cast  Tungsten. 
As  stated  above,  the  carbon  content  of  ferro-tungsten  must 
be  kept  as  low  as  possible  for  the  manufacture  of  alloy  steels. 
As  made  by  reduction  with  carbon,  either  in  crucibles  or 
directly  in  the  electric  furnace,  both  ferro-tungsten  and  me- 
tallic tungsten  usually  contain  more  than  the  desired  quantity 
of  carbon.  The  common  practice  seems  to  be  to  reduce  the 
carbon  content  in  the  electric  furnace  after  reduction  has 
taken  place,  by  means  of  a  decarburizing  slag  as  explained 
above. 

Tungsten  metal  produced  by  the  carbon  reduction  in  the 
electric  furnaces  may  be  high  in  carbon.  The  carbon  content 
can  be  reduced  by  adding  either  tungstic  trioxide,  tungstic 
dioxide,  hammer  scale,  or  iron  oxide.  It  is  necessary  in  the 
case  of  tungsten  metal  to  add  metallic  iron  before  decarburiz- 
ing. Using  iron  oxide,  the  carbon  content  can  be  reduced  as 
low  as  0.15  percent.  (275)    (278 [a]) 

The  electric  furnace  with  melted  electrodes  may  also  be 
used.  The  carburized  tungsten  is  cast  into  electrodes  which 
are  used  in  the  furnace  with  contiguous  hearths,  using  a  soft 
steel  intermediate  electrode.  The  bath  above  the  metal  is  of 
tungsten  dioxide  and  magnesium  aluminate.  The  electrodes 
melt  and  their  carbon  is  burned  out  by  the  tungsten  dioxide. 
The  resulting  alloy  will  contain  not  more  than  0.15  to  0.25 
percent  carbon.  The  oxidation  of  the  carbon  by  oxide  of  iron 
results  is  the  formation  of  tungstate  of  iron  which  entails 
losses;  the  amount  thus  formed  may  be  reduced  by  adding 
silica,  in  order  to  form  ferrous  silicate.   (1233) 

(Dephosphorization  of  ferro-tungsten.)  Ferro-tungsten 
can  be  dephosphorized  by  the  method  of  Becket  (U.  S.  Pat. 
1,081,569).  The  solid  ferro-tungsten  in  finely  divided  form 
is  fed  onto  the  surface  of  molten  basic  oxidizing  bath,  for 
example  of  scheelite  and  lime,  maintained  at  a  temperature 
equal  to  or  higher  than  the  melting  point  of  the  ferro-tung- 
sten. 

109 


(Quality  of  ore  demanded  by  users.)  The  following  quo- 
tation from  bulletin  No.  652  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  "Tungsten  Minerals  and  Deposits"  by  Frank  L.  Hess 
gives  the  results  of  his  extensive  inquiry  into  the  quality  of 
tungsten  ores  demanded  by  the  consumers  in  the  United 
States. 

Inquiries  were  addressed  by  the  Geological  Survey  to  firms  known 
to  be  reducing  tungsten  ores,  asking  what,  for  their  purposes,  was 
the  relative  desirability  of  the  tungsten  ore  minerals,  the  impurities 
most  hurtful,  and  the  limiting  percentages  of  impurities  that  would 
be  accepted. 

Eight  firms  courteously  gave  the  desired  information  in  con- 
.siderable  detail,  and  another  with  less   detail. 

Of  these  Arms,  one  reduces  its  ores  by  sodium  carbonate  (Na^ 
CO  ),  leaching  with  water  separating  tungsten  trioxide  by  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  reducing  the  trioxide  to  a  metallic  powder;  two 
reduce  the  ores  by  other  wet  chemical  processes;  two  use  both  the 
sodium  carbonate  fusion  process  and  direct  reduction  in  an  electric 
furnace;  two  use  an  electric  furnace  only;  one  uses  processes  in 
-which  the  ores  are  first  treated  with  wet  chemicals  and  reduction  is 
then  completed  in  an  electric  furnace.  Another  firm,  the  Crucible 
Steel  Company,  has  in  use  a  number  of  processes,  part  of  which  are 
covered  by  the  Johnson  patents. 

By  the  sodium  carbonate  fusion  process,  only  powdered  metallic 
tungsten  is  obtained.  One  of  the  other  wet  chemical  processes  pro- 
duces powdered  tungsten,  and  another  makes  powdered  ferro  tung- 
sten.     The   electric   furnaces   produce    only   ferro-tungsten. 

Most  of  the  processes  used  for  reducing  tungsten  from  its  ores 
also  partly  or  wholly  reduce  nearly  all  the  metallic  and  some  other 
impurities  in  the  ores,  and  these  impurities  are  carried  with  the 
tungsten  into  the  steel  to  which  it  is  added.  For  such  use  iron  makes 
no  difference,  but  a  number  of  other  elements  are  not  wanted, 
either  because  like  copper  and  phosphorus,  they  are  detrimental  to 
the  steel,  or  because,  like  manganese,  if  they  are  wished  in  the 
steel,  they  can  be  added  more  advantageously  in  some  other  way. 
Objectionable  impurities  found  in  tungsten  ores  are  antimony,  arse- 
nic, bismuth,  copper,  lead,  manganese,  nickel,  tin,  zinc,  phosphorus  and 
sulfur.  Few  of  these  occur  in  large  quantity  in  ores  found  in  this 
country.  Copper  is  perhaps  the  commonest  hurtful  impurity,  and  there- 
fore most  is  said  about  it,  but  ores  from  some  foreign  countries  con- 
tain nearly  all  the  impurities  mentioned.  During  the  early  part  of 
1916  tungsten  ores  were  so  eagerly  sought  that  nearly  all  offered 
were  bought  with  little  objection  to  impurities,  but  under  more 
normal  conditions  consumers  are  much  more  particular. 

The  wet  chemical   processes  give  more  opportunity  to   get   rid   of 

110 


most  impurities  than  the  electrolytic  process  so  that  companies 
using  wet  chemical  processes  are,  as  a  rule,  though  not  uniformly, 
least  particular  about  the  ores  they  buy.  Two  of  the  firms  that  use 
wet  chemical  processes  buy  tungsten  ores  almost  without  regard  to 
the  impurities  present,  but  one  objects  to  more  than  two  percent 
copper,  and  both  buy  ores  containing  as  little  as  twenty  percent 
tungstic  oxide. 

Only  the  one  firm  mentioned  is  known  that  does  not  object  to 
copper  in  any  grade  of  ore.  Another  will  take  cupriferous  ore  if 
"the  content  of  WO^  is  sufficiently  high".  The  others  either  will  not 
take  copper  bearing  ore,  when  other  ores  are  to  be  obtained  or  set 
limits  of  0.2  to  2.0  percent  copper,  and  not  less  than  50  percent 
WO. ,  except  that  one  firm  will  take  ores  that  carry  five  percent  or 
more  copper,  for  such  a  percentage  will  pay  for  separation. 

Two  companies  take  ores  without  regard  to  impurities  other 
than  copper,  provided  the  content  of  WO,  is  sufficiently  high.  Most 
of  the  companies  object  to  tin,  sulfur,  phosphorus,  antimony,  arsenic, 
bismuth,  lead,  and  zinc,  two  of  them  object  to  manganese,  and  one 
to  nickel.  The  last  company  referred  to  set  extreme  limits  of  0.25 
percent  for  phosphorus,  0.25  percent  for  nickel,  6.0  percent  for 
manganese,  and  a  trace  of  arsenic. 

As  to  the  different  tungsten  ore  minerals — ferberite,  wolframite, 
huebnerite,  and  scheelite — two  companies  using  wet  chemical  pro- 
cesses reported  that  they  made  no  discrimination;  a  company  using 
both  processes  reported  that  it  made  no  discrimination  if  the  ores 
carried  more  than  60  percent  WO  ;  one  company  uses  ferberite  and 
scheelite  and  will  not  use  wolframite  or  huebnerite;  another  prefers 
scheelite  but  will  take  any  tungsten  ore  mineral;  a  user  who  does 
not  make  steel  and  whose  product  does  not  enter  into  steel  also 
prefers  scheelite.  Three  others  gave  their  estimates  of  the  com- 
parative values  as  follows  (the  estimate  being  stated  in  the  same 
order)  :  if  ferberite  can  be  bought  at  $7  per  unit  then  wolframite  is 
worth  $7,  $6.30,  $6.25;  Huebnerite,  $6.50,  $5.60,  $6.25;  scheelite  $6, 
$6.60,   $6.50. 

So  far  OS  can  now  be  learned,  the  foreign  buyers  are  quite  as 
various  in  their  demands  as  the  domestic  users,  and  are  in  general 
more  strict  in  the  limits  set,  and  they  also  demand  a  purity  of  65  to 
70  percent  WO  ,  which  means  loss  in  concentration,  for  ores  cannot 
ordinarily  be  concentrated  to  so  high  a  percentage  without  great 
waste  in  slimes. 

Brokers  are  naturally  ruled  by  the  consumers  to  whom  they 
sell  and  make  the  same  restrictions  as  to  quality  of  the  ores 
bought. 

From  the  very  different  ways  in  which  the  ores  are  valued  by 
different  buyers,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  general,  a  seller  should 
know  the  market  well,  especially  what  the  different  buyers  will 
pay  before  disposing  of  his  product.    (915a) 

111 


(Chemical  Treatment  of  Impure  Ores.)  Several  pro- 
cesses have  been  devised  and  patented  for  decreasing  the 
quantity  of  the  objectionable  impurities  in  ores  from  certain 
localities. 

Wolframite  concentrates  from  parts  of  Arizona  and  Bo- 
livia contain  impurities  which  are  severely  penalized  by  ore 
buyers.  Baughman  (76)  has  used  chemical  treatment  to  re- 
move these  objectionable  impurities.  The  concentrate  is 
digested  in  strong  hydrochloric  acid  containing  nitric  acid  for 
four  hours,  or  until  manganese  and  iron  are  in  solution,  using 
steam  for  heating  and  agitation.  The  solution  is  filtered  off 
and  the  gold  and  bismuth  precipitated  by  passing  in  hydrogen 
sulfide  gas.  The  solution  is  then  evaporated  to  dryness  in  a 
retort  into  which  is  charged  solid  ferrous  chloride  collecting 
the  hydrochloric  and  nitric  acid  distillate  in  a  coke  tower. 
The  residue  is  leached  with  strong  sodium  chloride  solution 
to  dissolve  silver,  and  the  silver  precipitated  by  passing  the 
solution  over  scrap  iron.  The  residue  in  the  digester  is 
washed  with  hot  water,  the  tungstic  acid  dissolved  in  am- 
monia, and  the  solution  evaporated  to  obtain  ammonium 
tungstate  which  is  99  percent  pure.  The  cost  of  the  treat- 
ment is  claimed  to  be  considerably  less  than  the  difference 
in  market  value  of  the  pure  and  impure  products. 

Becket  has  patented  several  processes  particularly  for 
removing  phosphorus  and  manganese  from  tungsten  ore.  The 
ore  or  concentrate  is  first  subjected  to  a  reducing  action  by 
heating  with  carbon,  hydrogen  carbon  monoxide,  producer 
gas,  or  other  reducing  gas  below  the  melting  point  of  the 
product.  This  reduced  product  is  treated  for  the  removal  of 
some  manganese  and  phosphorus  by  adding  an  excess  of 
sulfuric  acid  (1.2  sp.  gr.)  and  allowing  to  stand  for  24  hours, 
with  frequent  stirring.  The  solution  is  drained  off  and  used 
for  further  treatment  of  ores.  Seventy  percent  of  the  man- 
ganese is  removed  and  also  much  iron  and  phosphorus,  and  a 
corresponding  concentration  of  the  tungsten.  The  product  is 
now  melted  in  an  electric  furnace  with  or  without  carbon  or 
reducing  agent,  depending  on  the  completeness  of  the  first 
reduction,  giving  directly  a  commercially  available  metal  or 
ferro-alloy. 

112 


Certain  ores  may  be  treated  directly  with  concentrated 
sulfuric  acid.  The  ore  is  first  ground  to  100  mesh  and 
treated  with  excess  of  acid.  Thirty  to  ninety  percent  of  the 
phosphorus  and  less  than  one  percent  of  tungsten  goes  into 
solution.  High  phosphorus  ores  do  not  respond  to  this  simple 
treatment.  These  ores  are  first  given  an  oxidizing  roast 
and  then  reduced  and  treated  as  above.  Good  results  are 
claimed. 

Mixed  acids  and  oxidizing  solutions  are  also  used.  If  the 
ore  is  deposited  near  an  inert  anode  (for  example,  lead  in 
sulfuric  acid),  the  solvent  action  is  improved.  If  the  purified 
ores  are  smelted  in  the  electric  furnace  with  silicon  as  a  re- 
ducing agent,  the  product  is  low  in  both  carbon  and  phos- 
phorus. (U.  S.  patents  1,081,568;  1,081,570;  1,081,571;  1914). 

In  a  later  patent,  Becket  recommends  treating  the  ore 
(in  this  case  scheelite)  with  concentrated  sulfuric  acid  at 
red  heat,  whereby  phosphorus  goes  into  solution,  and  tung- 
sten remains  insoluble.   (U.  S.  Patent  1,153,594;  1915). 


113 


CHAPTER   VII. 
PROPERTIES  OF  THE   METAL 

Physical 

Tungsten  is  ordinarily  obtained  as  a  powder  or  semi- 
fused  crystalline,  brittle  metal  harder  than  glass  and  having 
a  specific  gravity  between  16  and  17.  That  obtained  by 
Moissan  in  the  electric  furnace  has  a  specific  gravity  of  18.7 
and  was  softer  than  glass. 

The  properties  of  pure  ductile  tungsten  are  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  powdered  or  cast  metal.  The  hard- 
ness varies  from  4.5  to  8  (razor  steel  is  about  6),  depending 
on  the  manner  of  working.  The  hardest  will  readily  scratch 
topaz.  The  density  of  the  pure  wrought  tungsten  ranges 
from  19.3  to  21.4,  depending  on  the  mechanical  treatment  of 
the  metal.  For  comparison,  aluminum  has  a  density  of  2.7 ; 
iron  7.8;  lead  11.4;  gold  19.3.  Only  three  other  metals  have 
a  higher  specific  gravity,  platinum  21.5,  iridium  22,4,  and 
osmium  22.5. 

The  melting  point  is  higher  than  that  of  any  other  metal 
Langmuir  gives  it  as  3267°  C.  (5913°  F.)  while  Worthing 
determined  it  as  3357°  C.  The  boiling  point  has  been  esti- 
mated at  3700'  C,  but  this  has  not  been  determined  directly. 
The  vapour  pressure  of  tungsten  at  2000°  C.  is  6.45x10 — 12 
mm.  (of  mercury)  and  1.14x10 — 3  mm.  at  3100°  C. 

At  1227°  C.  the  conductivity  was  found  to  be  0.98  watts 
per  cm.  per  degree  centigrade.  The  specific  heat  was  0.04  to 
0.05  between  1600  and  2200°  C.    (114) 

The  following  table  compiled  by  C.  G.  Fink  (Mineral 
Industry  1914)  gives  a  number  of  the  physical  properties  of 
the  common  metals  and  tungsten. 


114 


Physical   Properties   of   Alaminnin.   Copper,   Nickel,   Iron    anti    Tungrsten. 


rooo 

2.7 
8.87 
8.75 
7.8 
19.6 

•i-i"^  t(  ,c 

,  , 

O       (V  o 

g§ 

rN  .^ 

0=^-- 

o  to 

nsile 
•engt 
unds 
uare 

)dulu 
istici 
unds 
uare 

Ol  ^  o  c* 

E-i  m  C  to 

g  QJ  p.  aj 

21.8  by  10-" 

43,000 

10  by  10-" 

15.9  by  10-" 

66,000 

19  by  10-« 

12.7  by  10-" 

96,000 

29  by  lO-" 

11.2  by  10-« 

450,000 

30  by  10-« 

3.5  by  10-« 

610,000 

60  by  10-" 

cS      O 


S      !» 


§.£ 


Aluminum 
Copper 
Nickel 
Iron       . . . . 
Tungsten 


0.214 
.091 
.106 
.105 
.034 


660 
1,083 
1,453 
1,600 
3,267 


2.62 

1.589 

6.93 

8.85 

4.42 


Note. — The  figures  given  for  iron  in  the  third  and  fourth  columns  are 
for  high  tensile  strengtn  steel.  Of  the  figures  for  tungsten  those  showing 
specific  heat  are  given  by  Honda,  those  showing  the  melting  point  by 
Langmuii';    the   others   were   determined   by   Pink. 

Tungsten  becomes  more  ductile  and  malleable  after  being 
heated  and  hammered.  It  increases  in  tensile  strength  dur- 
ing the  process.  When  properly  treated,  it  can  be  drawn  into 
wires,  having  a  diameter  of  only  .0004  inch  or  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  average  diameter  of  a  human  hair. 

Chemical   Behavior 

Tungsten  is  unaffected  by  air  or  oxygen  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  At  red  heat,  it  burns  with  incandescence  in 
air  or  oxygen.  Likewise  water  does  not  attack  it  below  red 
heat,  but  above  red  heat  the  water  is  decomposed  and  the 
metal  oxidized.  It  does  not  combine  directly  with  nitrogen. 
Molten  phosphorus  and  sulfur  attack  it  slowly,  and  their 
vapors  much  more  readily  at  red  heat.  When  heated  with 
carbon,  silicon  or  boron  in  the  electric  furnace,  it  forms  car- 
bides, silicides  and  borides,  which  are  bright  metallic  sub- 
stances with  great  hardness.  Fluorine  attacks  it  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  with  incandescence.  Chlorine  attacks  it  very 
slowly  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  quite  readily  above  250° 
C.  The  fine  black  powder  dissolves  readily  in  a  mixture  of 
ammonia  and  hydrogen  peroxide.  (149) 

W.  E.  Ruder  gives  the  following  experimental  re- 
sults on  the  solubility  of  ductile  and  malleable  tungsten. 
Tests  were  made  on  disks  about  18  mm.  in  diameter  and  2.5 
mm.  in  thickness.  The  surface  area  was  650  sq.  mm.  on 
the  average.  The  weight,  according  to  thickness,  varied 
from  nine  to  twelve  grams. 


115 


Solubility  in  Hydrochloric  Acid.  Wrought  tungsten  is  insoluble 
in  hydrochloric  acid  of  any  concentration  at  room  temperature  and 
only  very  slightly  so  at  110°  C.  After  4  5  hours  the  hot  concen- 
trated acid  (sp.  gr.  1.15)  showed  no  effect  upon  the  tungsten.  After 
175  hours,  however,  a  black  coating  of  oxide  formed  and  the  metal 
lost  0.5  percent  in  weight. 

In  dilute  acid,  at  110°  C,  it  lost  0.05  percent  after  22  hours 
but  showed  no  further  loss  after  50  hours.  After  175  hours  the 
metal  was  coated  with  tungstic  oxide  and  there  was  a  gain  in  weight 
of  one  percent  due  to  oxidation.  This  oxide  formed  an  adherent 
coating  and  protected  the  metal  against  further  loss. 

Solubility  in  Sulfuric  Acid.  At  room  temperature  this  acid  has 
no  effect  upon  wrought  tungsten  nor  has  the  dilute  acid  at  110°  C. 
Concentrated  acid  attacks  it  very  slowly  at  110°  C,  the  loss  in 
weight  being  0.1  percent  after  eighteen  hours,  0.16  percent  after  40 
hours,  and  0.63  percent  after  175  hours.  Increased  temperature 
hastens  the  action  for  at  200°  C.  0.62  percent  was  lost  in  four 
hours.      In   another  experiment   1.18    percent   dissolved   in    8    hours. 

Solubility  in  Nitric  Acid.  Concentrated  nitric  acid  at  110°  C. 
showed  no  action  on  tungsten  after  4  8  hours  other  than  a  slight 
dulling  of  the  bright,  metallic  surface.  The  dilute  acid,  however, 
produces  the  yellow  oxide  on  the  surface.  There  is  a  slight  gain  in 
weight  after  15  hours  and  then  no  further  change  even  after  175 
hours'   immeraion. 

Solubility  in  Aqua  Regla.  Aqua  regia,  at  room  temperatures, 
oxidizes  the  surface  to  tungstic  oxide.  After  215  hours  the  loss  in 
weight  was  0.31  percent.  At  110°  C.  the  chlorine  was  all  driven  off 
in  about  four  hours  and  the  tungsten  disk  had  lost  0.1  percent  and 
it  was  covered  by  a  tough,  greenish  yellow  deposit.  If  this  coating 
of  oxide  was  allowed  to  remain,  continued  boiling  in  fresh  aqua 
regia  had  no  further  effect  upon  the  metal. 

Solubility  in  Hydrofluoric  Acid.  .  The  acid,  hot  or  cold,  did  not 
attack  tungsten,  not  even  to  the  extent  of  dulling  the  surface,  during 
numerous  evaporations  of  the  acid. 

Solubility  in  Potassium  Hydroxide.  Potassium  hydroxide  solu- 
tion, of  any  concentration,  does  not  attack  wrought  tungsten,  but  the 
fused  alkali  attacks  the  metal  slowly.  In  this  case  there  was  31  percent 
loss  in  weight  after  15  hours,  and  in  about  40  hours  the  disk  had  all 
dissolved. 

Solubility  in  Alkaline  Carbonate.  In  fused  sodium  carbonate, 
potassium  carbonate,  or  mixtures  of  the  two,  tungsten  dissolves 
slowly.  About  2.5  percent  loss  was  noted  in  four  hours.  The  addi- 
tion of  potassium  nitrate  hastens  the  solutions  considerably.  In  this 
experiment   3  2   percent  dissolved  in  six  hours. 

Other  Experiments.  A  saturated  sodium  hypochlorite  solution 
was   found   to  attack  tungsten   at  the   rate   of   4.2  7   percent   in   twenty 

116 


hours.  A  mixture  of  sulfuric  acid  and  chromic  anhydride  did  not 
act  upon  the  metal.  A  mixture  of  hydrofluoric  and  nitric  acids  dis- 
solves tungsten  very  rapidly  with  the  evolution  of  nitric  oxide  and 
the  production  of  tungstic   oxide. 

Atomic  Weight  of  Tungsten.* 

The  anatomic  weight  of  tungsten  has  been  determined  by 
numerous  investigators.  Schneider  (152a)  by  the  reduction  of 
tungsten  trioxide  to  the  metal  and  oxidation  of  the  metal  to  the 
trioxide  found  the  average  value  IS 4.11,  while  Marchand  (153b) 
found  an  almost  identical  value.  Roscoe  (527)  by  the  same  method 
obtained  the  number  183.48,  and  by  the  analysis  of  the  hexa- 
chloride  the  number  184.02,  while  Waddell  (155)  by  the  reduction 
of  the  trioxide  found  the  higher  number  184.33.  More  recently 
Pennington  and  Smith  and  Desi  (157)  have  found  the  still  higher 
number  184.8  by  Schneider's  method,  but  their  results  have  been 
criticised  by  Schneider  (157a)  as  untrustworthy.  The  investigations 
carried  out  by  Smith  and  Exner  (163)  who  converted  the  hexa- 
chloride  into  the  trioxide  by  the  action  of  water  and  synthesized 
the  trioxide  from  the  metal,  gave  an  average  value  for  the  atomic 
weight  of  184.06.  (1245)  The  accepted  value  at  the  present  time 
is   184.0. 


*From  Roscoe  and  Schorlermeyer,   "Treatise  on  Chemistry." 


117 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

USES  FOR  THE   METAL 

In  Iron  Alloys 

Introduction.  By  far  the  greatest  use  of  tungsten  is  as 
a  constituent  in  steel  alloys,  especially  in  those  known  as 
high-speed  steels.  High-speed  steels  have  revolutionized 
modern  manufacturing  industries.  By  means  of  tungsten 
steels  (and  other  alloy  steels)  machines  and  lathes  can  be 
run  at  much  higher  speed,  thus  saving  in  both  machines  and 
men.    The  saving  amounts  to  many  millions  of  dollars  a  year. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  efficiency  of  high-speed  steel 
and  its  effect  on  the  price  of  a  familiar  product,  it  was  stated 
by  Mr.  Ellwood  Haynes  of  the  Haynes  Automobile  Company 
that  his  company  would  be  compelled  to  increase  the  selling 
price  of  each  automobile  about  $200.00  if  they  should  have 
to  use  carbon  steel  in  place  of  high  speed  steel  tools.  The 
efficiency  is  from  three  to  five  times  that  of  carbon  steel  for 
cutting  tools. 

The  value  of  high  speed  steel  not  only  depends  upon  the 
greater  hardness,  but  also  upon  the  fact  that  the  tools  can 
be  used  for  cutting  other  metals  at  such  a  rate  that  friction 
raises  the  cutting  point  to  over  500  C.  (red  heat)  without 
injury. 

Historical.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  old  Damascus 
steel,  always  celebrated  for  its  retention  of  temper,  has  been 
found  to  contain  both  tungsten  and  chromium,  altho  probably 
not  intentionally  added. 

The  first  attempts  to  produce  tungsten  steel  were  prob- 
ably made  in  1855  by  Jacobs  and  Koeller  in  Austria.  They 
obtained  patents  in  France  for  its  production.  They  noted 
the  fine  silky  grain  produced  by  tungsten  upon  iron  in  the 
presence  of  carbon. 

Mayr  in  Styria  is  also  credited  with  producing  tungsten 
steel  about  this  time  on  a  commercial  scale  and  it  was  claim- 
ed that  his  steel  was  equal  to  Krupp's  steel. 

118 


Oxland  in  England  took  out  patents  in  1857  for  the  pro- 
duction of  tungsten  steel.  In  the  same  year  Mushet  patented 
several  methods  for  producing  it.  Mushet  did  more  than  any 
one  else  to  perfect  tungsten  steel.  He  manufactured  tool 
steel  for  many  years  under  the  name  "Mushet's  metal",  keep- 
ing his  manufacturing  methods  secret.  He  must  have  over- 
come great  difficulties  for  the  alloys  needed  were  obtained 
.with  great  difficulty  and  were  of  uncertain  composition.  His 
steel  contained  from  7  to  12  percent  of  tungsten,  from  1.5  to 
2  percent  carbon  and  about  2  percent  manganese. 

Other  investigators  worked  on  tungsten  steel.  In  France 
in  1865,  tungsten  steel  springs  were  made  for  railway  cars 
but  they  did  not  possess  any  remarkable  advantages.  In 
1868,  steel  rails  were  manufactured  containing  a  small  per- 
centage of  tungsten,  but  an  unfavorable  report  was  made  on 
their  use. 

In  1886,  Heppe,  in  Germany  recommended  tungsten 
steels  for  cutting  tools  of  all  kinds,  as  well  as  for  rails,  loco- 
motive tires,  axles,  etc. 

In  1900,  high  speed  tool  steels  containing  tungsten  and 
chromium  manufactured  by  Taylor  and  White  at  the  works 
of  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Company  were  exhibited  at  the  Paris 
Exhibition,  and  created  a  great  sensation  among  those  fami- 
liar with  metal  working.  These  tools,  by  suitable  heat  treat- 
ment, could  be  used  for  cutting  up  to  a  temperature  of  300° 
C.  without  losing  their  cutting  edge.  This  temperature 
would  ruin  any  carbon  steel  tool.  It  was  stated  that  a  young 
machinist  had  lighted  a  cigarette  with  a  newly  cut  chip, 
which  was  almost  unbelievable  at  that  time. 

In  1903,  Hadfield  published  the  results  of  very  extensive 
investigations  of  the  properties  of  tungsten  steels.  Since 
then  the  investigation  of  alloy  steels  has  added  many  varie- 
ties for  many  different  uses. 

Manufacture   of   Tungsten   Steel. 

The  following  extract  from  Bulletin  No.  100,  United 
States  Bureau  of  Mines  "Manufacture  and  Uses  of  Alloy 
Steels"  by  Henry  D.  Hibbard,  gives  an  excellent  account  of 

119 


the   manufacture   and    uses   of   simple   tungsten    steels,   and 
high  speed  tungsten  steels. 

Simple  Tungsten  Steel.  Tungsten  steel  is  generally,  if  not  al- 
ways, made  by  the  crucible  process.  The  pots  are  charged  cold  by 
packing  in  the  materials,  the  tungsten  being  placed  at  the  top  to 
counteract  in  a  measure  its  tendency  to  settle  because  of  its  high 
specific  gravity.  If  this  tendency  operated  unchecked  there  might 
be  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot  a  rather  infusible  mush  of  high-tungsten 
alloy,  which  would  not  pour  out,  and  if  it  did  the  ingot  would  have 
an  irregular  composition  because  of  the  uneven  distribution  of  the 
tungsten. 

The  steel  is  melted  and  then  "killed"  in  the  crucibles  by  holding 
them  in  the  furnace  for  30  to  40  minutes  after  the  charge  has  melted, 
until  the  steel  ceases  to  bubble  or  work  and  lies  dead  in  the  pot. 

The  pots  are  sometimes  cast  singly  or  doubly  by  hand  pouring 
or  collectively  by  means  of  a  ladle  into  which  all  of  the  pots  of  a 
furnace  charge  are  emptied.  Good  tungsten  steel  makes  remarkably 
sound  solid  ingots,  except  for  the  pipe,  tho  tungsten  itself  is  not  con- 
sidered to  aid  in  removing  or  controlling  either  the  oxides  or  the 
gases.  It  is  added  solely  for  its  effect  on  the  finished  and  treated 
steel. 

This  lack  of  power  of  tungsten  to  deal  with  oxides  and  gases 
arises  no  doubt  from  its  low  calorific  power,  its  heat  of  combustion 
being  given  (with  qualification)  as  about  1000  calories,  whereas  iron 
burned  to  Fe  O     gives  1,612   calories. 

3       4 

Method  of  AVorking.  Simple  tungsten  steels  of  commercial 
grade  are  heated,  forged  and  rolled  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
other  high  carbon  steels,  presenting  no  special  problems  or  dif- 
ficulties. 

Properties  and  Uses,  Simple  tungsten  steel  is  at  present  chiefly 
used  in  permanent  magnets  for  electric  meters,  in  small  dynamos  and 
hand  use,  for  which  it  has  been  used  for  thirty  to  forty  years.  The 
consumption  in  1913  is  thought  to  have  been  between  5000  and  6000 
tons.  This  steel  contains  about  0.6  percent  carbon  and  6  percent  of 
tungsten.  Some  has  been  made  in  recent  years  containing  0.2  to  0.3 
percent  of  vanadium,  chromium,  or  molybdenum,  which  were  con- 
sidered at  the  time  to  give  greater  retentivity  to  the  steel,  but  those 
ingredients  are  now  generally  held  to  be  of  no  practical  value,  adding 
nothing  to  the  fitness  of  the  steel  for  its  purpose. 

Some  buyers  of  magnet  steel  do  not  specify  composition  but 
only  performance,  that  is,  what  magnetic  properties  the  steel  must 
have. 

To  make  permanent  magnets  retain  their  magnetism  as  much  as 
possible  they  are  made  very  hard  by  heating  and  quenching.  They 
are  then    magnetized,   and   if  they   are  to  be   used   for   electric   meters 

120 


they  are  seasoned  by  a  treatment  involving  protracted  heating  to  100° 
C.  (212°  F.)  to  make  their  magnetism  as  nearly  constant  as 
possible. 

A  variety  of  tungsten  steel  containing  about  1  per  cent  of 
carbon  and  3  to  4  per  cent  of  tungsten  is  made  and  used  as  a  tool 
steel  for  taking  finishing  cuts  on  iron  and  steel  in  the  machine  shop. 
It  acts  more  like  a  simple  steel  than  a  self-hardening  steel,  as  it 
requires  to  be  hardened  by  quenching  in  water  and  then  drawn  in 
the  same  general  way  that  simple  steels  have  been  drawn,  pre- 
sumably for  thousands  of  years.  It  will  cut  at  a  higher  speed  than 
a  simple  steel,  say  40  feet  per  minute  on  steel  having  a  tensile 
strength  of  80,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  is  also  more  durable. 

The  presence  of  tungsten  in  steel  is  generally  stated  to  lower 
the  fusion  point  of  the  steel.  Mars  (272)  gives  a  table  of  fusion 
points  of  tungsten  steels  with  contents  of  tungsten  ranging  from  0.5 
to  17  per  cent,  from  which  he  concludes  that  tungsten  lowers  the 
fusion  point.  However,  when  his  results  are  corrected  for  the  lower- 
ing effects  of  the  contained  carbon,  silicon,  and  manganese  doubt 
arises  as  to  the  correctness  of  his  conclusion.  Thus,  a  steel  con- 
taining 0.66  per  cent  C,  0.03  per  cent  Si,  0.04  per  cent  Mn,  and 
3.11  per  cent  W  fused  at  1,488°  C.  The  carbon  would  lower  the 
fusion  point  about  60°  C,  and  the  silicon  and  manganese  slightly, 
so  that  the  plain  iron-tungsten  alloy  should  have  a  fusion  point  a 
little  above  1,548°  C,  which  is  about  20°  C.  above  that  of  pure  iron. 
Seemingly  this  is  the  effect  of   3.11   percent   tungsten. 

The  erosion  of  the  bore  of  cannon  by  the  powder  gases  is  held 
to  depend  largely  on  the  fusion  point  of  the  metal  of  the  tube  or 
liner,  the  higher  the  point,  the  greater  being  the  resistance  to  ero- 
sion. So  it  has  been  found  that  the  nearer  the  metal  comes  of  being 
pure  iron,  the  higher  its  fusion  temperature  and  the  better  it  resists 
erosion,  but  the  strength  required  compels  a  certain  amount  of 
hardening  and  strengthening  elements  to  be  present  in  the  steel. 
Tungsten  raises  the  strength  and  possibly  the  temperature  of  fusion 
and  so  has  been  employed  for  the  tubes  of  cannon,  particularly  by  the 
Government  of  Austria.  Arnold  and  Read  (280)  found  that  steel  with 
0.71  percent  carbon  and  5.4  percent  tungsten  had  in  the  annealed 
state  the  tensility  of  88,900  pounds  per  square  inch,  an  elastic 
limit  of  60,200  pounds,  an  elongation  of  20  percent,  and  a  concen- 
tration of  area  of  34.7  percent,  values 'that  compare  favorably  with 
those   of  the  steels   usually   employed   in   the   manufacture   of   cannon. 

They  give  data  regarded  a  series  of  annealed  tungsten  steels 
as  follows: 


121 


Dnta    Regarding-    Annenled    Tungsten     Steels 


Composition 


Tensile    Properties 


c 

b: 

m 

§ 

^ 

ifi 

< 

cR 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

.Zoo 


+.1  o 


?c5c 


O     CM 


Condition    wlien 
turned 


0.73 
0.71 
0.70 
0.73 
0.72 
0.67 


2.4 

5.4 

9.7 

15.0 

21.1 

26.3 


0.11    I 
0.11    I 

0.04  I 
I 

0.03  I 
I 

0.06    j 

0.06   I 


m 

cc 

to 

02 

*" ' 

^ 

u 

o 

o 

# 

^ 

^ 

w 

'^ 

,— i 

o 

o 

O 

o 

o 

o 

84,200 

88,900 

126,100 

98,500 

104,300 

110,600 


48,100 
60,200 
90,000 

57,300 


I  I  I 

20.5   I   31.5   I  Moderately   tough. 


20.0    I    34.7 

I 
14.0 

25.0 


Tough,    (see    note) 


20.5 
9.0 


22.1  I   Very    tough. 
I 

43.3  I   Very    tough. 
I 

39.2  I  Very    tough    and 
I        slightly    hard. 

11.4  I   Ditto. 


Note: — Tough  means  that  the  lathe  chips  curled  off  in  spirals. 

The  strength  and  hardness  of  these  steels  may  be  greatly  in- 
creased by  heat  treatment,  involving  quenching  and  with  only  rela- 
tively small   decrease   in   ductility. 

Theory  of  Tungsten  Steel.  Arnold  and  Read  concluded  that 
the  carbon  in  the  steels  they  examined  was  combined  with  iron 
when  the  tungsten  was  low,  but  that  the  higher  the  tungsten  the  more 
of  the  carbon  was  combined  with  it  until  in  steel  containing  11.5 
percent  of  tungsten,  none  of  the  carbon  was  combined  with  iron,  but 
all  of  it  with  tungsten.  With  still  higher  tungsten  content  the  excess 
of  tungsten  was  combined  with  iron. 

High-Speed  Tool  Steels.  High-speed  tool  steels,  also  called 
rapid  steels  have  in  the  past  fifteen  years  worked  a  remarkable  revo- 
lution in  the  machine  shop  business  of  the  whole  world,  affording 
largely  increased  outputs  and  commensurate  lower  costs.  As  a  con- 
sequence they  are  now  being  used  very  generally  and  in  some  shops 
almost  exclusively  for  machining  iron  and  steel  as  well  as  some 
others  by  cutting  operations  by  machine  tools. 

The  revolutionary  feature  wherein  tools  made  of  these  steels 
differ  from  and  exceed  in  service  the  tools  formerly  used  in  their 
ability  to  maintain  a  sharp  strong  cutting  edge  while  heated  to  a 
temperature  far  above  that  which  would  at  once  destroy  the  cutting 
ability  of  simple  steel  tool.  Because  of  this  property  a  tool  made  of 
high-speed  tool  steel  can  be  made  to  cut  continuously  at  speeds 
three  to  five  times  as  great  as  that  practicable  with  other  tools,  and 
when,  as  the  result  of  the  friction  of  the  chip  on  the  tool,  it  may  be 
red  hot  at  the  point  on  top  where  the  chip  rubs  hardest,  and  the 
chip  itself  may,  by  its  friction  on  the  tool  and  the  internal  work 
done  on  it  by  upsetting  it,  be  heated  to  a  blue  heat  of  296°  C. 
(565°  F.)   or  even  hotter  to  perhaps  340'=  C.    (644'=   F.) 


122 


This  property  of  red-hardness  or  ability  to  retain  hardness  at  a 
red  heat  may  be  imparted  to  steels  of  suitable  composition,  com- 
prising chromium  and  tungsten,  by  the  unique  heat  treatment  to 
which  they  may  be  subjected.  This  treatment,  described  later,  was 
introduced  by  F.  \V.  Taylor  and  Maunsel  White,  as  has  been  described 
by  Taylor,  (236)  at  the  works  of  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Co.,  in  1S99, 
and  the  tools  so  treated  were  shown  at  the  Paris  Exposition  in 
1900,  where  they  naturally  created  a  sensation  among  those  familiar 
with   the   machining  of  metals. 

In  this  country  in  1913  about  7000  tons  of  highspeed  or  rapid 
tool  steel  was  made  by  some  fifteen  makers,  that  output  requiring 
about    8000    tons   of   ingots. 

Manufacture  of  High-Speed  Tool  Steels.  High-speed  tool  steels 
are  all  made  by  the  crucible  or  electric  furnace  process.  Except 
at  one  works,  the  crucibles  or  pots  are  made  of  graphite.  The 
average  life  of  the  crucibles  or  pots  varies  in  different  works  from  six 
to  nine  melts.  Some  makers  use  clay  lined  graphite  pots  in  melting 
this  steel  to  prevent  or  hinder  the  absorption  of  carbon  from  the  pot. 
The  clay  lining  is  only  one-eighth  to  three-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
thick,  and  is  sometimes  cut  through  on  the  second  or  third  melt;  in 
that  event  the  molten  steel  may  absorb  too  much  carbon.  Other 
makers  use  a  graphite  pot  twice — first  for  melting  other  kinds  of 
steel  and  then  for  rapid  steel  when  the  inner  surface  of  the  pot  is 
somewhat  slagged  over,  because  of  which  the  absorption  of  carbon 
is  much  less  that  when  the  pot  was  new. 

The  large  producers  use  gas-fired  melting  furnaces  for  heating 
the  pots,  which  are  charged  into  the  furnace  at  the  top.  Each 
melting  hole  contains  six  pots  and  each  pot  takes  a  charge  of  90  to 
100  pounds.  The  charge  is  melted  and  then  "killed"  in  the  usual 
way  by  being  held  3  0  to  40  minutes.  Such  procedure,  together 
with  the  presence  of  the  large  amount  of  alloy,  regularly  gives  sound 
piping  steel.  If  run  continuously  a  furnace  full  of  pots  Avill  be 
melted  about  every  four  hours. 

In  packing  a  pot  with  the  charge  for  rapid  steel  the  tungsten 
must  be  placed  on  top  of  the  charge — as  with  simple  tungsten  steel 
- — to  guard  as  far  as  possible  against  the  tendency  of  the  tungsten 
to  settle  because  of  its  high  specific  gravity.  That  tendency  seems 
to  be  less  Avith  the  rapid  steels  than  with  the  simple  tungsten  steels. 
Whether  the  chromium  of  the  former  influences  or  hinders  the 
settle  of  the  tungsten  is  conjectural. 

The  smaller  ingots,  which  are  made  from  one  pot  of  steel,  vary 
from  3.5  to  5  inches  square.  The  steel  is  sometimes  teemed  directly 
into  the  mold  by  hand  pouring,  but  in  some  works  clay  funnels  are 
placed  on  top  of  the  mold  to  direct  the  stream  down  the  center  of 
the  mold  to  avoid  cutting  its  wall,  as  might  happen  if  the  stream 
impinged  directly  on   it.     li'unnel   pouring  is   also  advantageous   when 

123 


two  pots  are  to  be  combined  to  make  a  larger  ingot,  as  the  steel  can 
be  poured  into  the  funnel  from  opposite  sides  at  the  same  time,  a 
procedure  that  will  mix  the  liquid  steel  and  give  a  more  uniform 
ingot  than  when  one  pot  follows  another,  as  in  hand  pouring  when 
no  funnel  is  used. 

Some  of  the  larger  producers  of  rapid  steels  use  for  casting 
a  large  bottom-pouring  ladle  into  which  the  steel  is  poured  from  the 
pots  of  one  or  more  furnaces,  and  from  which  the  ingots  are  top- 
cast;  that  is  the  molds  are  filled  from  the  top.  This  method  pre- 
sents the  advantages  that  (1)  the  product  is  more  uniform;  (2) 
the  individual  pot  charges  which  might  not  be  of  the  prescribed  com- 
position or  might  be  otherwise  unsatisfactory,  are  merged  with  the 
others  without  detriment  to  the  whole;  (3)  large  ingots  are  easily 
made;  (4)  one  analysis  serves  for  the  whole  number  of  pots;  (5) 
one  test  serves  for  the  whole  ladleful  of  steel.  It  is  a  matter  of 
experience  that  complaints  from  customers  become  much  less 
frequent  after  the  introduction  of  the  ladle  for  casting  this   steel. 

The  strong  tendency  of  rapid  steel  to  pipe  is  checked  consider- 
ably in  most  plants  by  the  use  on  each  ingot  of  a  hot  "dozzler", 
which  is  a  clay  ring  preheated  red  hot,  that  is  placed  on  the  ingot 
top  and  filled  with  molten  steel.  This  arrangement  keeps  the 
top  of  the  ingot  molten  long  enough  so  that  the  pipe  is  of  dimin- 
ished size  and  nearly  or  quite  all  contained  within  the  part  of  the 
ingot  surrounded  by  the  "dozzler".  The  proportion  of  the  ingot  to 
be  rejected  on  account  of  the  pipe  is  therefore  much  decreased.  The 
molds  are  usually  closed  at  the  bottom  end  and  are  either  made  wuth 
parallel  walls  or  tapered  so  that  the  ingot  is  larger  at  the  top  than 
at  the  bottom.  The  molds  must  be  split  when  the  walls  are  parallel 
and  are  sometimes  split  when  the  ingots  are   tapered. 

High-speed  tool  steel  as  cast  has  a  coarse  structure  and  dark 
color,  as  compared  with  the  structure  and  color  of  simple  steels 
of  the  same  carbon  content.  A  corner  is  broken  from  the  top  of 
each  ingot  to  show  the  grain  and  the  ingots  when  hand  poured  direct- 
ly from  the  pots  are  classified  by  the  eye  as  in  the  production  of 
simple  crucible  steels.  If  the  ingots  are  cast  from  the  large  ladle 
a  test  is  taken  for  analysis  which  determines  the  disposition  of  the 
whole  ladleful  of  steel. 

As  a  rule  the  ingots  show  a  strong  columnar  structure  or  ar- 
rangement of  crystals,  whose  axes  are  normal  to  the  cooling  surface. 
Some  makers  refer  to  the  structure  as  a  "lemon  structure",  the 
crystals  of  the  metal  being  thought  to  resemble  the  cells  forming 
the  pulp  of  a  lemon.  If  the  casting  temperature  is  lower  than  usual, 
this  "lemon"  structure  may  be  absent,  and  in  that  case  the  interior 
of  the  ingot  will  have  a  much  finer  grain  than  the  ingots  cast  at 
the  usual  higher  temperature.  The  subsequent  heating  and  working 
of  the   steel    entirely    destroys   the    crystalline   structure    of   the   ingot, 

124 


and  the  worked  steel,  on  a  fresh  fracture,  shows  a  most  beautiful 
porcelanic  structure. 

The  ingots  run  from  3.5x3.5  inches  to  16x16  inches  but  most 
of  them  are  from  5x5  inches  to  9x9  inches.  For  hot  working  they 
are  heated  in  the  furnace  chamber  having  a  temperature  of  about 
1,180°  C.  (2,156°  F.)  At  this  high  heat  the  steel  may  be  worked 
satisfactorily  under  the  hammer  or  press  and  may  be  quickly  worked 
down  to  the  dimensions  desired. 

Composition  of  High-speed  Tool  Steels.  The  tendency  of  the 
makers  is  toward  a  somewhat  uniform  composition  as  regards  the 
contents  of  the  alloying  elements,  whose  benefits  have  become  fairly 
well  known,  and  whose  use  as  a  consequence  may  be  considered  as 
established.  Specifically,  these  alloying  elements  are  tungsten  and 
chromium.  The  addition  of  vanadium  and  cobalt  in  important  pro- 
portions is  considered  by  some  makers  to  give  distinct  improvement 
to  high-speed  steel,  and  some  vanadium  is  almost  always  present. 

The  following  analyses  are  of  steels  recently  made,  most  of  which 
are  considered  to  be  good  commercial  steels: 

Results   of   Analyses    of   High-Speed    Steels    31ade    in    1013   or    1914. 


Samples 

:i 

1 

35 

P4 

^ 
^ 

> 

d 

g 
^ 

d 

Remarks 

A        

0.65 
.66 
.74 
.63 
.69 
.66 
.64 
.67 
.75 
.68 
.69 
.57 
.61 
.68 
.70 
.60 
.64 
.72 
.77 
.67 
.64 
.64 
.71 
.55 
.70 
.74 

0.15 
.27 
.31 
.13 
.34 
.22 
.21 
.23 
.28 
.38 
.36 
.20 
.23 
.45 
.50 
.23 

2.29 
.37 
.16 
.16 
.23 
.30 
.14 
Tr. 
Tr. 
.31 

0.20 
.14 
.13 
.07 
.14 
.17 
.16 
.25 
.36 
.40 
.38 
.26 
.35 
.40 
.39 
.12 
.12 
.18 
.21 
.20 
.29 
.26 
.26 
.23 
.18 
.13 

0.02 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.03 
.03 
.03 
.02 
.03 
.03 
.04 
.02 
.04 
.04 
.05 
.03 
.02 
.03 
.02 
.02 
.02 
.02 
.03 
.02 
.01 
.04 

0.03 
.05 
.02 
.05 
.04 
.02 
.03 
.02 

'  .03 

'  '.02 
.01 
.02 
.02 
.02 
.02 
.01 
.03 
.04 
.02 
.02 

1 
4.75  17.50 

0.90 

.70 

.67 

.45 

.64 

.73 

.66 

.70 

.75 

.53 

.50 

.50 

1.00 

1.09 

1.07 

.90 

.59 

2.50 

1.35 

1.08 

.54 

1.22 

.97 

.80 

.88 

.67 

B-1      

B-2      

B-3      

B-4      

C-1      

4.51 
4.20 
4.26 
5.28 
3.44 
3.30 
3.85 
4.10 
4.65 
4.67 
4  82 

17.48 
15.63 
17.16 
16.35 
16.51 
16.06 
16.06 
19.00 
17.85 
17.90 

In  38 

4.22 
2.70 
3.80 
5.28 

0.17 

'o".26 

C-2      

C-3      

4.02 

.  .  .  . 

D-1      

Good 

D-2     

D-3      ..  .. 

Do 

D-4      .... 

Do 

E-1      .... 

4.10;i7.20 
4.00  14.26 
4.08  14.50 
3  90  17.27 

Good 

E-2      .... 

Inferior 

E-3      .... 

Do 

E-4      .... 

Do 

F-      

G-      

4.39 
4.50 
4.05 
4.66 
4.57 
2.93 
2.97 
4.46 
4.25 
4.20 

16.09 
13.30 
18.64 
13.86 
19.10 
18.71 
18.21 
16.05 
15.50 
15.63 

.28 

H-1      .... 

H-2      .... 

1       

J-1     

J-2       .... 

K-1      

K-2     .... 
K-3      

4.72 
4.72 
2.70 

■  .18 

0.72 
.67 

Xote: — Sample  A  to  I  represent  American  steels,  the  numerals  in- 
dicating different  samples  from  the  same  maker;  Sample  J  represented 
an   English   steel;   Sample   K   represented   a   German    steel. 

Samples  D-1  and  E-1  gave  excellent  results  in  a  competitive 
test,  whereas  D-2,  0-3,  E-2,  and  E-3,  manufactured  by  the  same 
makers,   gave   distinctly  inferior  results   in   the   same   shop. 


125 


The  occurrence  of  nickel  in  four  of  the  samples  may  have  been 
accidental,  having  been  clue  to  nickel  in  some  of  the  scrap  steel  used 
in  the  charge.  Most  makers  now  put  in  vanadium  and  steel  like 
that  represented  by  sample  G,  which  had  the  highest  vanadium  con- 
tent of  all  the  samples  represented  in  the  table,  was  the  winner  in 
a  recent  competitive  test. 

The  average  specific  gravity  of  the  steels  represented  in  the  table 
was  about  8.8,  the  increase  over  the  specific  gravity  of  iron  being 
due  chiefly  to  the  tungsten  content. 

There  are  so  many  factors  beside  the  ultimate  composition  that 
affect  the  value  of  rapid  tool  steels,  that  no  conclusion  can  be 
drawn  from  the  analyses  alone.  The  melting,  hot-working,  and  heat 
treatment  all  must  be  done  correctly  or  the  final  result  will  not 
conform  to  expectations. 

Carbon  in  High-speed  Tool  Steel.  The  proportion  of  carbon 
aimed  at  in  high-speed  tool  steels  is  about  0.65  percent,  which  in  a 
simple  steel  would  not  be  enough  to  give  the  maximum  hardness 
even  if  the  steel  were  heated  above  the  critical  point  and  quenched 
in  water,  and  still  less  so  when  the  steel  is  cooled  as  slowly  as  these 
steels  are  in  their  treatment.  This  shows  that  the  carbon  acts  in  a 
different  way  from  what  it  does  in  simple  steels,  as  is  discussed  later. 

Tungsten  in  High-speed  Tool  Steel.  Tungsten  is  well  established 
as  the  most  important  if  not  indespensible  ingredient  of  commercial 
tool  steels,  being  almost  or  quite  universally  used  in  quantity 
therein.  The  best  proportion  of  tungsten,  all  things  considered, 
seems  to  lie  between  16  and  20  percent,  the  tungsten  content  in  9  5 
percent  of  all  the  American  steel  coming  within  these  limits.  Some 
published  analyses  of  European  high-speed  tool  steels  shows  a 
higher  content  of  tungsten  than  this,  but  American  makers  generally 
agree  that  any  tungsten  in  excess  of  twenty  percent  adds  nothing  to 
the  usefulness  of  the  steel,  and  they  therefore  make  that  proportion 
the  upper  limit  of  the  amount  added.  One  effect  of  the  tungsten 
is  that  the  best  percentage  of  carbon  in  rapid  steels  is  but  about 
half  that  required  in  simple  tool  steels  intended  for  the  same  kind 
of  service. 

Chromium  in  High-speed  Tool  Steels.  The  effect  of  chromium 
in  high-speed  tool  steel,  as  in  other  steels,  is  undoubtedly  as  a 
hardener,  entering  into  double  carbide  of  tungsten  and  chromium 
which  gives  or  causes  the  proper  cutting  edge.  Although  the  pro- 
portion of  this  element  present  in  these  steels  varies  considerably, 
it  is  always  large,  perhaps  never  less  than  2  percent  or  more  than 
6  percent  in  American  steels,  and  in  European  steels  the  upper 
limit  is  at  least   9  percent. 

The  Heat  Treatment  of  High-speed  Tools.  The  heat  treatment 
given  to  high-speed  steels  for  the  commoner  uses  as  lathe  and 
planer    tools    has    generally    been    simplified    to    heating    to    incipient 

126 


fusion  and  quenching  in  oil.  Cooling  by  an  air  blast  and  double 
treatment,  which  were  formerly  recommended,  are  now  not  common, 
except  that  a  second  (drawing)  heating  is  given  to  milling  cutters 
and  similar  tools,  the  temperature  imparted  to  the  tool  depending  on 
the  material  to  be  cut. 

The  treatment  is  usually  done  by  the  blacksmith,  who  heats  the 
tool  in  his  forge  fire  and  then  immerses  it  in  a  tank  containing 
enough  oil  so  that  its  temperature  does  not  rise  materially.  Ten 
gallons  of  oil  is  a  common  quantity  to  use  when  the  size  and  number 
of  the  tools  is  moderate,  as  in  most  shops.  The  fire  is  a  deep  com- 
pact coal  fire,  the  coal  in  the  center  where  the  tool  is  heated  being 
pretty  thoroly  coked,  that  is,  most  of  its  volatile  matter  distilled 
out.  This  manner  of  heating  has  the  advantage  that  free  oxygen 
does  not  get  at  the  tool  to  oxidize  it,  but  its  environment  is  non- 
oxidizing,  or  even  reducing,  owing  to  the  presence  of  an  excess  of 
burning  carbon  surrounding  the  tool.  Any  flame  is  more  or  less 
oxidizing,  at  least  unless  heavily  charged  with  smoke  or  free  carbon, 
and  a  piece  of  steel  heated  directly  by  a  flame  as  in  the  ordinary 
heating  chamber  of  a  furnace  is  likely  to  be  somewhat  oxidized  on 
its  surface,  the  depth  to  which  the  oxygen  penetrates  varying  ac- 
cording to  the  conditions,  particularly  the  temperature,  the  access 
of  air,  and  the  length  of  time.  Heating  in  a  muffle  will  also  result 
in  oxidizing  the  steel  unless  extraordinary  precautions  are  taken  to 
keep  out  oxygen  or  to  consume  all  that  enters.  The  temperature  of 
quenching  usually  about  1,260°  C.  (3,300°  C),  is  determined  by 
the  fusion  of  the  scale  and  its  visible  collection  into  drops  or  beads 
on    the    surface   of    the   tool. 

Quenching  is  done  by  quickly  plunging  the  heated  tool  into  the 
oil  as  soon  as  it  has  reached  the  desired  temperature  and  moving  it 
about  in  the  oil  until  cold.  Cooling  in  oil  is  thought  by  some  to 
give  a  better  tool  than  cooling  in  the  air  blast,  one  reason  seemingly 
being  the  protection  of  the  steel  from  free  oxygen  while  it  is  hot 
enough  to  be  oxidized  thereby.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  blast  forms  a 
scale  of  oxide  on  the  hot  steel  and  the  ojfygen  probably  penetrates 
the  metal  below  the  scale  to  some  extent,  injuring  the  quality  as 
deep  as  it  goes.  A  tool  on  its  second  grinding  when  the  oxidized 
metal  is  removed  may  then  give  better  service  than  on  the  first, 
unless  the  first  grinding  has  for  that  reason  been  heavy  enough  to 
remove  the  oxidized  metal. 

In  some  shops,  however,  the  original  treatment  recommended  by 
Taylor  (236)  and  White  is  given,  the  cutting  edge  of  the  tool  being 
heated  to  incipient  fusion  and  then  immersed  in  a  bath  of  melted 
lead  at  about  565°  C.  (1050°  F.).  The  heating  is  done  in  a  small 
furnace  over  a  deep  coke  fire,  blown  by  an  air  blast  so  that  the 
environment  of  the  tool  while  being  heated  is  substantially  non- 
oxidizing.  Flames  of  carbonic  oxide  play  out  of  the  openings  thru 
which    the    tools    are    inserted    indicating    little    if    any    free    oxygen 

127 


within.  In  these  shops  however,  milling  cutters  and  other  tools 
that  are  machined  to  a  particular  form  are  treated  by  heating  them 
to  a  slightly  lower  temperature,  in  order  not  to  damage  the  cutting 
edges  and  then  plunging  them  into  cold  oil. 

When  cooled  to  the  temperature  of  the  lead,  it  is  taken  out  and 
placed  in  an  air  blast  to  complete  the  cooling.  Some  tools  desired 
to  be  especially  tough  so  as  not  to  break  in  service  are  given  a 
second  heating  to  565°  C.  and  then  cooled  in  the  open  air  or  air 
blast  if  saving  time  is  important. 

Rapid  steel  when  well  annealed  will  bend  considerably  v.-ithout 
breaking  even  in  as  large  a  section  as  2.5  by  1.25  inches,  the  bending 
being  edgewise,  as  in  a  tool   at  work. 

Gledhill  (226)  found  that  one  of  these  steels  after  having  been 
annealed  twelve  to  eighteen  hours  at  760°  C.  (1400°  F. )  had  a 
tensility  of  129,200  pounds  per  square  inch,  an  elastic  lisnit  of 
89,600  pounds  per  square  inch,  an  elongation  of  18  percent  in  two 
inches  and  a  contraction  of  area  of  3  5  percent.  The  ductility  is 
rather  high  and  would  enable  a  tool  to  be  bent  considerably  without 
breaking.  Such  annealed  steel  may  be  easily  machined  for  making 
milling  cutters  and  other  shapes  that  require  machining. 

Carpenter  (225)  found  that  the  higher  the  temperature  from 
which  rapid  steel  is  cooled  the  more  it  resisted  etching  for  metallo- 
graphic  work.  He  also  found  that  no  tempering  change  occurred 
when  it  was  reheated  at  a  temperature  of  less  than  550°  C.  (1022° 
F.)  to  a  visible  red  in  the  dark,  indicating  a  stability  that  is 
doubtless   the   cause   of   its   property   of   red    hardness. 

Whether  a  rapid  steel  is  made  harder  by  the  heat  treatment 
given  it  depends  somewhat  on  the  conditions  of  the  bar  before  treat- 
ment. If  it  has  previously  been  annealed,  the  treatment  hardens  it, 
whereas  heat  treatment  may  not  harden  a  piece  in  the  natural  state. 
Taylor  (236)  found  that  some  tools  having  useful  red  hardness 
could  be  filed  rather  readily.  Edwards  (243)  on  the  other  hand 
found  treated  high-speed  steels  to  be  exceedingly  hard — as  hard  as 
any  steel  could  be  made  by  quenching.  Gledhill  (226)  found  that 
high-speed  steel  was  good  for  turning  chilled  rolls  which  are  ex- 
tremely hard  and  require  to  cut  them  the  hardest  kind  of  tool. 

Trials  on  window  glass  of  a  number  of  different  rapid  steels 
showed  that  the  cutting  edge  of  some  but  not  of  all  would  scratch 
it.  The  same  was  true  of  the  untreated  ends  of  the  same  tools,  as 
some  would  and  some  would  not  scratch  the  window  pane. 

The  hardness  of  the  steel  when  cold  is  not  the  determining 
factor  of  usefulness  in  any  case.  It  is  the  hardness  when  heated 
under  conditions   of   work. 

The  cutting  edge  of  a  rapid  steel  tool  at  work  is  probably  never 
as  "hot  as  the  metal  just  back  of  it,  where  the  heating  caused  by  the 
friction   of   the  chip  as  it  is  deflected  and   rubs   hard   on    the   tool,   is 

128 


most  intense.  The  edge  itself  is  kept  relatively  cool  by  the  cold 
metal   flowing  upon   it. 

Theory  of  High  Speed  Steels.  Carpenter  found  the  heating 
and  cooling  curves  of  a  rapid  steel  to  be  radically  different  from 
each  other,  and  also  that  the  cooling  curve  when  the  steel  was 
cooled  from  930°  C.  (1706°  F.)  was  greatly  different  from  that  when 
the  steel  was  cooled  from  1250°  C.  (2282°  F.).  When  the  steel  was 
cooled  from  930°  C.  the  curve  had  an  abrupt  jog,  which  showed  a 
great  retardation  in  rate  of  cooling,  occurring  between  700°  C.  and 
750°  C.  (1292°  F.  to  1382°  F.).  The  jog  did  not  occur  when  the 
steel  was  cooled  from  1250°  C,  320°  higher,  the  line  repres- 
enting variations  in  rate  of  cooling  being  nearly  straight.  The  rate 
of  cooling  to  get  these  curves  was  slow  or  at  least  not  accelerated, 
and  one  cannot  say  what  the  curve  would  be  like  if  the  rate  of 
cooling  were  hastened,  as  in  quenching,  but  the  curves  obtained  seem 
to  show  much  light  on  the  question.  The  property  of  red  hardness 
seems  to  be  connected  with  the  elimination  of  the  great  retardation 
mentioned. 

The  following  explanation,  based  on  the  work  of  Carpenter 
(225)  and  Edwards,  (243)  of  the  properties  of  high-speed  steels, 
seems   to   be   helpful   or  even   satisfactory: 

Their  researches  on  the  heating  and  cooling  of  these  steels  have 
shown  that  such  steels  have  an  extraordinary  stability  of  composition 
after  they  have  been  heated  to  1,200°  C.  (2,193°  F.)  or  more,  and 
that  a  second  heating  of  550°  C.  (1,022°  F.)  has  no  softening  or 
drawing  effect.  It  seems  fairly  evident  that  red  hardness  depends 
on  or  is  the  natural  result  of  these  facts. 

At  a  temperature  higher  than  1,200°  C.  (2,192°  F.)  a  double 
carbide  of  chromium  and  tungsten  is  formed,  which  persists  largely 
even  when  the  steel  is  cooled  slowly  as  in  the  open  air,  and  more  so 
when  cooling  is  accelerated.  This  double  carbide  imparts  to  the 
steel  the  high  degree  of  hardness  and  is  stable  at  all  temperatures  up 
to  550°  C.  (1,022°  F.)  or  somewhat  higher.  At  550°  C.  the  steel 
has  a  low  red  color  visible  in  the  dark. 

If  the  above  theory  be  true,  then  at  a  temperature  of  1,200°C. 
(2,192°  F.)  the  chromium  and  tungsten  must  have  a  stronger 
affinity  for  carbon  than  iron  has  w,hereas  at  lower  temperatures  say 
from  around  930°  C.  down  to  the  critical  point  the  affinity  of  carbon 
for  iron  is  slightly  stronger  than  that  of  either  chromium  or  tung- 
sten or  both,  and  the  carbon  then  exists  wholly  or  in  part  as  carbide 
of  iron,  or  a  complex  carbide  of  iron  with  one  or  both  of  the  other 
elements. 

Carbide  of  iron  or  hardening  carbon  which  causes  the  hard 
condition  of  iron  in  simple  steel  that  has  been  quenched  from  a 
temperature  higher  than  the  critical  point,  is  unstable  at  even  slight 
elevations  of  temperature  above  atmospheric  temperature,  its  un- 
stableness  increasing  with  the  degree  of  heat   though   not   being  pro- 

129 


portional  thereto.  Boynton  (236a)  has  shown  that  between  400"^  C. 
(752°  F.)  and  500=  C.  (952°  F.)  the  amount  of  change  and  con- 
sequent softening  is  much  greater  than  at  other  temperatures,  either 
lower  or  higher. 

The  proportion  of  carbon  in  rapid  steel  should  perhaps  be  only 
as  much  as  will  combine  with  the  chromium  and  tungsten  at  1,200° 
C.  (2,192°  F.)  and  leave  none  to  exist  as  unstable  hardening  carbon 
of  hardened   simple   steel. 

Uses  of  Tungsten  in  Non-Ferrous  Alloys. 

Tungsten  alloys  readily  with  nickel,  cobalt,  molybdenum, 
uranium,  chromium,  iron,  manganese,  vanadium  and  tita- 
nium, and  less  easily  with  most  of  the  other  metals.  Alloys 
of  tungsten  of  many  kinds  and  for  many  purposes  have  been 
invented  but  in  numerous  cases  the  cost  of  the  alloy  is  alto- 
gether out  of  proportion  to  its  usefulness.  Only  the  more 
recent  important  alloys  will  be  discussed  here. 

"Stellite",  invented  by  Haynes,  (321)  is  one  of  the  chief 
competitors  of  high-speed  steel.  It  is  an  alloy  of  about  75 
percent  cobalt,  20  percent  chromium  and  5  percent  tungsten. 
Other  elements  are  sometimes  added.  The  alloy  has  some 
very  valuable  properties  for  cutting  tools. 

"Partinium"  is  an  alloy  of  aluminum  and  tungsten  which 
is  very  light  and  strong.  It  has  been  used  in  automobile 
construction.  Tin,  copper,  magnesium  and  other  metals  are 
sometimes  added. 

"Duralium"  is  another  alloy  of  aluminum  containing  2  to 
3  percent  tungsten.  It  is  much  harder  than  aluminum  metal. 
An  aluminum  alloy  containing  10  percent  copper  and  ten  per- 
cent tungsten  has  been  patented  by  de  Buigne  for  type  metal. 
An  alloy  with  copper  and  aluminum  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  propeller  blades. 

Numerous  patents  have  been  taken  out  for  alloys  of 
tungsten  and  small  amounts  of  thorium.  (323)  The  thorium 
has  the  property  of  making  the  tungsten  ductile,  and  this 
alloy  is  used  in  making  drawn  tungsten  wire.  An  alloy  of 
one  percent  thorium  and  0.2  percent  platinum  with  tungsten 
makes  a  tough  ductile  alloy   (U.  S.  Pat.  1,167,827). 

"Tungsten-nickel"  containing  varying  amounts  of  the 
two   elements  was   used  at   one  time  in  making  metal   fila- 

130 


ments  for  electric  lamps  because  it  is  a  ductile  alloy.  (See 
following  sesction.  Irmann  (325)  found  that  the  18  percent 
tungsten  alloy  with  nickel  is  ductile  and  very  resistant  to 
dilute  sulfuric  acid. 

"Chrome-tungsten"  is  made  by  reduction  of  chromic 
tungstate  with  tungsten  silicide  (Gin)  (1233).  The  chrom- 
ium tungstate  is  made  by  mixing  solutions  of  chromium  sul- 
fate and  sodium  tungstate.  This  alloy  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  high-speed  steel. 

Tungsten-molybdenum  alloys  varying  in  composition  from 
pure  tungsten  to  pure  molybdenum  have  been  studied  by 
Fahrenwald  and  Jeffries.  (327,  328,  329).  The  alloys  are 
made  in  the  same  way  as  ductile  tungsten.  The  tungsten 
molybdenum  alloys  are  all  ductile  and  malleable.  They  are 
being  used  as  substitutes  for  platinum  in  dentistry, 

E.  Weintraub  has  patented  an  alloy  of  20  to  60  percent 
tungsten  and  80  to  40  percent  platinum  for  use  in  electrical 
contacts,  jewelry,  etc.   (U.  S.  Pat.  1,096,655.) 

Uses  of  Tungsten  in  Metal  Filament  Lamps.* 

Tungsten  has  become  a  household  word  thru  the  intro- 
duction of  the  drawn  tungsten  filament  lamps.  Briefly  sum- 
marized, the  transition  from  the  carbon  filament  lamp  to  the 
present  day  gas  filled  tungsten  lamp  was  as  follows.  The 
carbon  filament  lamp  had  an  efficiency  of  three  watts  per 
candle  power.  It  was  succeeded  by  the  "metallized"  carbon 
filament,  (that  is,  a  carbon  filament  on  which  had  been  de- 
posited a  hard,  lustrous  coating  of  carbon  by  heating  elec- 
trically in  an  atmosphere  of  ligroin  or  benzine)  which  used 
2.5  watts  per  candle  power.  Then  came  the  drawn  tantalum 
filament  lamps  which  were  used  extensively  from  1905  to 
1911.  Their  efficiency  was  1.7  watts  per  candle  power.  The 
"squirted"  tungsten  filaments  were  next  used,  with  an  effi- 
ciency of  1.25  watts  per  candle  power.  The  chief  disadvant- 
ages of  these  filaments  were  their  fragility.  This  defect  was 
corrected  in  the  drawn  tungsten  filaments  and  the  efficiency 


♦Material    for   this    section    was    taken    largely    from    S.    T.    John- 
stone,  "The  Rare   Earth   Industry",   London,    1915. 

131 


was  also  increased,  i.  e.  1  watt  per  candle  power.  More 
recently  the  gas  filled  drawn  tungsten  filament  lamp  has  been 
developed  with  the  remarkable  efficiency  of  0.5  watts  per 
candle  power. 

The  savings  which  have  resulted  from  the  introduction  of 
the  tungsten  filament  lamps  amount  to  millions  of  dollars  per 
year.  Not  only  has  the  cost  per  candle  power  been  reduced, 
but  the  number  of  consumers  has  increased  greatly,  and 
offsets  any  loss  to  the  producer  of  electric  current  by  the  in- 
creased efficiency  of  the  lamps.  Furthermore,  the  low  cost 
allows  otherwise  impossible  extension  of  artificial  lighting, 
with  the  resulting  benefit  and  pleasure  of  man. 

The  high  melting  point  of  tungsten  (3200°  C)  suggested 
it  as  a  possible  metal  for  filaments.  It  has  been  shown  by 
Waidner  and  Burgess  (89)  that  the  light  emitted  by  an  in- 
candescent metal  varies  as  the  twelfth  power  of  the  tempera- 
ture, while  the  energy  required  varies  as  the  fifth  power  of 
the  temperature.  It  can  be  seen  that  a  high  melting  point  is 
an  important  advantage.  Tungsten,  as  it  was  known  at  the 
time  of  its  introduction  in  electric  lamps  (1904-5),  was  a 
hard,  brittle  metal,  which  it  was  impossible  to  draw  into  wires. 
The  filaments  were  therefore  produced  by  a  "squirting"  pro- 
cess, or  by  producing  a  coating  of  tungsten  on  a  core  of  car- 
bon or  other  refractory  substance.  The  many  processes 
which  have  been  employed  up  to  the  present  time  may  be 
classified  as  follows: 

(1)  Substitution;  (2)  amalgamation;  (3)  squirting  a 
paste  containing  tungsten  powder;  (4)  squirting  colloidal 
tungsten;  (5))  drawn  wire;  (6)  alloy  processes. 

In  the  first  process,  a  filament  of  carbon  is  made  by 
"squirting"  as  was  the  usual  method  of  carbon  filaments. 
This  carbon  filament  was  then  heated  in  an  atmosphere  con- 
taining a  volatile  compound  of  tungsten,  such  as  the  oxy- 
chloride,  and  a  small  amount  of  hydrogen.  When  the  filament 
was  heated  to  redness  by  passing  an  electric  current  thru  it, 
the  tungsten  displaced  the  carbon. 

In  the  amalgamation  process,  a  mixture  of  metallic  tung- 
sten powder  and  an  amalgam  of  cadmium  and  mercury  was 
"squirted"  thru  small  die  in  the  usual  way.     The  cadmium 

132 


and  mercury  in  the  filament  thus  produced  were  volatilized 
by  heat.  The  tungsten  filament  thus  formed  was  very  brit- 
tle, but  after  moderate  heating  it  became  pliable  and  could 
be  bent  into  shape. 

Many  modifications  of  the  paste  squirting  process  were 
invented.  The  binder  may  be  such  that  it  volatilizes  on 
heating,  leaving  a  carbonaceous  residue  and  reduces  or  partly 
reduces  the  tungsten.  Substances  used  were  gum,  sugar, 
gelatine,  or  nitrocellulose  dissolved  in  amyl  acetate.  It  is  dif- 
ficult to  remove  the  last  traces  of  carbon  from  the  filament. 
A  binder  might  also  be  used  which  would  hold  the  material 
together,  but  would  not  leave  a  carbonaceous  residue  after 
heating,  such  as  paraffin,  wax,  camphor,  and  pinene  hydro- 
chloride. In  this  latter  case,  the  heating  of  the  pressed  fila- 
ment is  done  in  hydrogen  in  order  to  reduce  the  tungsten 
compound  used  with  the  binder. 

In  some  processes,  metallic  tungsten  powder  was  made 
into  a  paste  with  a  non-carbonizing  binder,  squirted  into 
threads  and  heated  to  dry  the  binder,  and  ignited  by  passing 
an  electric  current  thru  them  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen. 

Plastic  tungstic  acid  can  be  made  for  production  of 
squirted  filaments  without  binders.  Hydrated  tungstic  oxide 
is  boiled  with  ammonia  until  crystallization  occurs.  The 
crystals  are  heated  to  250°  and  then  boiled  with  water  until 
the  mass  changes  to  a  viscous  plastic  mass,  which  is  then 
ready  for  squirting  into  filaments  (French  Patent  379,069 
[1907]). 

Plastic  tungsten  acid  for  this  purpose  can  also  be  made 
by  treating  the  hydrated  oxide  with  ammonia  at  — 20°  C. 

Some  claim  that  the  lower  oxides,  either  the  brown  di- 
oxide or  the  violet  pentoxide  are  better  than  the  yellow  tri- 
oxide  for  squirted  filaments. 

The  colloid  tungsten  process  for  making  filaments  was 
one  of  the  most  successful  and  interesting  processes.  The 
advantages  are  that  no  binder  is  required  and  there  is  no 
carbon  to  remove.  The  process  is  covered  by  several  patents 
granted  to  Dr.  Kuzel  about  1904.  Other  metals  beside  tung- 
sten have  been  made  into  colloidal  form  and  can  be  made 
into  filaments. 

133 


The  colloidal  tungsten  is  prepared  by  allowing  an  electric 
arc  to  form  between  electrodes  of  tungsten  under  water.  The 
finely  divided  tungsten  can  be  separated  from  the  water  by 
slow  evaporation  and  the  plastic  product  squirted  into  fila- 
ments. The  filaments  as  first  prepared  are  not  good  con- 
ductors of  electric  current,  but  after  heating  to  60'  C.  they 
conduct  well  enough  to  allow  final  drying  and  sintering  of  the 
particles  by  the  electric  current.  Sometimes  a  voltage  of 
400-1000'  is  used  for  the  drying  and  sintering.  (English 
Pat.  12,968)  1908. 

In  order  to  avoid  irregularities  in  the  filament  the  heat- 
ing is  conducted  in  an  inert  or  reducing  atmosphere  and  the 
pressure  kept  down  to  150  mm.  or  less.  During  this  process 
a  continuous  current  of  gas,  consisting  of  80 'c  nitrogen  and 
20%  hydrogen  is  passed  thru  the  apparatus. 

Drawn  wire  tungsten  filaments  were  developed  in  the 
highly  organized  research  laboratory  of  the  General  Electric 
Company.  The  general  principles  of  the  method  used  for 
preparing  the  ductile  tungsten  for  drawing  into  filaments 
has  been  described   (see  page  ). 

The  bars  of  ductile  tungsten  are  drawn  usually  thru 
draw  plates.  The  dies  are  of  diamond  or  ruby.  The  succes- 
sive dies  used  vary  only  slightly  in  diameter,  thus  starting 
with  a  wire  of  0.65  mm.  diameter,  they  decrease  about  0.0125 
mm.  as  far  as  0.35  mm.  diameter.  From  this  size  down  to  0.1 
mm.  the  interval  is  .0065  mm.  and  from  0.1  to  .075  mm.  the 
interval  is  .03  mm.  From  0.075  to  0.0375  mm.  it  is  .0025  mm. 
and  finally  from  .0375  down  to  the  smallest  wires  drawn  .01 
mm.  the  size  of  the  dies  change  by  only  .00125.  Over  a 
hundred  dies  are  required  for  drawn  lamp  filaments.  The 
filaments  in  the  regular  lamps  are  probably  the  finest  wire 
ever  produced  by  straight  drawing. 

The  draw  plate  is  lubricated  by  deflocculated  graphite 
and  water.  To  point  the  wires,  in  order  to  start  them  thru 
the  next  smaller  die,  they  are  immersed  in  melted  potassium 
nitrate  until  they  are  reduced  to  the  proper  size.  If  the  wires 
are  already  small  in  diameter  they  may  be  reduced  by  mak- 
ing them  anodes  in  a  solution  of  potassium  cyanide. 

During  the  drawing  the  wire  is  protected  from  oxidation 

134 


by  an  inert  or  reducing  atmosphere.  They  may  also  be  pro- 
tected from  oxidation  by  plating  with  gold,  silver  or  copper 
(Eng.  Pat.  21,513    [1916]). 

The  drawn  tungsten  filaments  are  very  much  stronger 
than  squirted  filaments  and  have  practically  entirely  replaced 
them. 

When  pure  tungsten  is  used,  no  matter  by  what  process, 
the  filaments  become  brittle,  after  being  used  a  short  time. 
This  defect  is  due  to  crystallization  of  the  tungsten.  This  is 
obviated  to  a  large  extent  by  the  addition  of  thorium  oxide 
to  the  tungsten  oxide  before  reduction. 

Numerous  alloys  of  tungsten  with  other  elements  have 
been  invented  for  use  in  filaments.  In  some  of  these,  the 
foreign  element  is  removed  in  the  finished  filament,  while  in 
others,  it  remains. 

An  example  of  the  first  type  is  the  process  of  Siemens 
Brothers  of  London.  An  alloy  of  tungsten  with  nickel  is 
quite  ductile  and  can  be  drawn  into  fine  wires.  Thus  an  alloy 
was  made  by  mixing  nickel  tungstate  with  tungstic  acid  and 
heating  to  1650  in  hydrogen.  The  12%  nickel  alloy  was 
usually  made.  After  the  filaments  are  made,  the  nickel  was 
volatilized  by  heating  in  a  vacuum.  On  account  of  blacken- 
ing of  the  bulb,  this  process  has  been  discontinued. 

The  other  type  process  is  illustrated  by  the  tungstic 
thorium  filament.  This  process  consists  in  producing  a  fila- 
ment composed  of  tungsten  alloyed  with  thorium  and  other 
rare  earth  metals.  The  filament  thus  produced  is  said  to  be 
very  ductile,  even  in  the  cold  and  remains  in  this  condition 
even  after  being  used  for  some  time.  Different  processes 
for  making  the  tungsten  thorium  alloy  have  been  devised. 
The  mixture  of  colloidal  metals  may  be  used,  or  the  mixture 
of  oxides  may  be  reduced  in  hydrogen. 

Gas  filled  tungsten  lamps  have  been  developed  in  the  last 
few  years.  The  account  of  the  invention  was  first  published 
by  I.  Langmuir  and  T.  A.  Orange  (376).  While  investigat- 
ing the  cause  of  blackening  of  metallic  filament  lamps,  they 
found  that  this  was  due  to  volatilization  of  the  metal  fila- 
ment and  that  it  was  lessened  by  putting  an  inert  gas  into 
the  bulb.    Nitrogen  was  first  used  because  the  loss  of  heat  by 

135 


convection  was  much  less  than  with  hydrogen.  It  was 
found  that  the  loss  in  efficiency  of  a  tungsten  filament  in  an 
atmosphere  of  inert  gas  was  greater  for  wires  of  small  diam- 
eter (.002  inch)  than  for  large  wires  (over  .005  inch).  This 
lead  to  the  practice  of  coiling  the  fine  wires  into  tightly 
wound  helices.  The  helex  is  supported  on  a  "spider".  Such 
lamps  have  the  advantage  of  giving  a  maximum  of  light  in 
the  horizontal  plane.  Gas  filled  lamps  are  also  much  more 
efficient  than  evacuated  lamps,  consuming  only  about  0.5 
watts  per  candle  power.  The  light  is  of  a  penetrating  charac- 
ter and  is  better  adapted  for  replacing  arc  lamps  than  for 
lighting  small  interiors.  They  are  furnished  in  capacities  up 
to  2000  candle  power. 

Miscellaneous  Uses. 

The  unique  properties  of  tungsten  make  it  very  valuable 
for  other  purposes  than  for  alloy  steel  and  electric  lamp  fila- 
ments. Its  melting  point  is  higher  than  that  of  any  other 
known  metal ;  its  tensile  strength  exceeds  that  of  iron  and 
nickel;  it  is  para  magnetic;  it  can  be  drawn  to  smaller  sized 
wires  than  any  other  metal ;  and  its  specific  gravity  is  70  per 
cent  higher  than  that  of  lead. 

One  of  the  most  important  uses  for  tungsten  is  in  re- 
placing platinum  and  platinum  iridium  alloys  for  contact 
points  in  spark  coils,  voltage  regulators,  telegraph  instru- 
ments and  other  electrical  devices.  It  is  better  than  plati- 
num, due  to  its  greater  hardness,  higher  heat  conductivity 
and  lower  vapor  pressure. 

Great  savings  in  platinum  have  been  made  by  the  sub- 
stitution of  gold  coated  tungsten  dental  pins  in  the  last  few 
years. 

Electric  furnaces  (laboratory)  with  resisters  of  tungsten 
are  also  used.  In  some  of  these  tungsten  wire  is  wound 
around  a  suitable  refractory  shell  and  protected  from  oxida- 
tion by  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen.  Other  furnaces  use  a 
tungsten  metal  tube  to  take  the  place  of  the  helical  carbon 
resister  in  vacuum  furnaces. 

Tungsten  gauze  is  acid  and  alkali  resisting  and  is  useful 
for  separating  solids  from  liquids.    The  gauze  has  been  used 

136 


in  some  of  the  apparatus  designed  by  Cottrell  for  the  elec- 
trastatic  precipitation  of  fumes. 

Wrought  tungsten  targets  for  X-Ray  tubes  are  now 
generally  used.  The  great  advantage  is  the  high  density  of 
the  metal.  The  targets  are  sometimes  made  with  a  surface 
of  tungsten  on  a  backing  of  some  other  metal,  as  silver  and 
copper  which  conduct  the  heat  away  more  rapidly. 

Finely  divided  tungsten  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  cata- 
lytic agent  in  the  production  of  ammonium  from  nitrogen 
and  hydrogen. 

Besides  these,  many  other  applications  have  been  sug- 
gested. Owing  to  its  chemical  stability,  and  the  fact  that  it 
can  be  drawn  down  to  .0004  inches  in  diameter,  it  would  be 
useful  for  galvanometer  suspension  and  cross  hairs  for 
telescopes.  It  also  has  been  suggested  to  use  thin  wires  in 
surgical  operations  in  place  of  the  coarser  gold  and  silver 
wires.  Laboratory  apparatus  has  been  made  from  wrought 
tungsten  and  is  useful  for  certain  purposes.  Since  it  is  para- 
magnetic and  elastic,  it  has  been  tried  out  in  electrical  meters 
and  watch  springs,  which  can  never  be  magnetized.  Many 
of  the  possible  uses  of  tungsten  will  probably  never  be  made 
commercially,  because  of  its  cost.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
new  uses  are  being  found  for  the  metal,  and  its  field  of  use- 
fulness is  not  yet  fully  explored. 


137 


CHAPTER   IX. 
COMPOUNDS  OF  TUNGSTEN  AND  THEIR  USES.* 

Oxides.  Tungsten  is  said  to  form  a  number  of  oxides  the  sepa- 
rate existence  of  which  is  not  definitely  settled.  Thus,  when  sul- 
phuric acid  acts  on  metallic  tungsten  under  varying  conditions,  the 
blue  oxides,  WO,  WO,  WO,  WO,  are  formed;  sulphurous  acid 
acts  on  tungsten  forming  the  oxide  W.O  ,  and  a  beautiful  purple 
oxide  with  a  yellow  metallic  lustre,  WO,  Is  obtained  by  heating  am- 
monium metatungstate  to  a  bright  red  heat  or  by  fusing  tungstic 
acid  with  potassium  iodide.   44  9 

The  hydroxide  W^O  ,  HO,  a  dark  blue  powder  with  a  purple 
lustre,  is  formed  when  tungstic  acid  is  reduced  with  stannous  chloride 
and  hydrochloric  acid,  or  by  heating  the  acid  with  hydrogen  iodide 
in  a  sealed  tube  at  200°.  With  ammonia  it  yields  ammonium  tung- 
state  and  the  hydroxide,  W.O^,  H.^0.    (454) 

The  only  oxides  which  are  definitely  known  are  WO^,  W_0  , 
WO,^. 

Tungsten  dioxide,  WO,,  may  be  prepared  by  the  reduction  of  the 
trioxide  or  an  alkaline  metatungstate  with  zinc  and  hydrochloric 
acid,  (594)  or  by  heating  the  trioxide  to  dull  redness  in  hydrogen. 
(459a)  (35)  It  may  be  obtained  crystalline  by  reducing  lithium 
paratungstate  with  hydrogen.    (471c) 

Tungsten  dioxide  may  be  formed  by  heating  an  intimate  mixture 
of  tungsten  trioxide  and  1/5-1/10  its  weight  of  glycerol,  ethylene 
glycol  or  similar  hydroxyl  compound,  to  a  bright  red  heat  for  some 
hours.   (Eng.  Pat.   18,922;    1907;  J.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.   1908,   22) 

Tungsten  dioxide,  prepared  in  fhe  wet  way  is  of  a  copper  red 
color,  prepared  in  the  dry  way  it  is  a  brown  powder.  It  is  readily 
oxidized  to  the  trioxide;  heated  in  chlorine  it  yields  a  yellow  oxy- 
chloride  WO, CI,.  When  amorphous  it  is  soluble  in  hydrochloric  and 
in  sulphuric  acid,  but  it  is  quite  unacted  on  when  crystalline. 

Blue  tungstic,  oxide  W^O  ,  formed  when  tungsten  trioxide  is 
reduced  with  hydrogen  at  250°-300°,  (26)  or  by  electrolysing  fused 
sodium  tungstate   (439)    is  readily  oxidised  to  the  trioxide. 

Tungsten  trioxide,  WO.,  occurs  naturally  as  wolframite  and  as 
tungstite  or  meymacite,  (899)  also  in  the  form  of  tungstates  in 
wolfram  and  scheelite.  It  may  be  prepared  by  calcining  in  contact 
with  air,  the  lower  oxides,  the  metal,  a  sulphide  or  its  hydrate  (tung- 
stic acid). 


*Quoted    from    Thorpe's    Dictionary    of    Applied    Chemistry,    1913 
Edition. 

138 


Tungsten  trioxide  forms  a  yellow  powder  which  may  be  ob- 
tained crystalline  by  heating  the  amorphous  metal  to  a  very  high 
temperature  in  air  or  by  fusion  of  tungstic  acid  with  borax  in  a 
porcelain  vessel;  (864)  or  by  passing  hydrogen  chloride  over  tungstic 
acid  or  a  mixture  of  sodium  tungstate  and  sodium  carbonate  at  a 
white  heat.  (43  7a)  Its  sp.  gr.,  when  amorphous,  varies  between 
5.27-7.13.  when  crystalline  between  6.30-6.38.  It  is  fusible  with 
difficulty  and  is  insoluble  in  water.  When  heated  in  hydrogen  it 
gives  the  blue  oxide  at  250°,  the  dioxide  at  a  red  heat,  and  the 
metal  if  the  latter  action  is  prolonged.  It  is  also  reduced  wheu 
heated  with  zinc  and  certain  other  metals.  (59)  "When  heated  with 
chlorine  or  sulphur  monochloride,  it  is  converted  into  a  volatile  oxy- 
chloride  and  in  the  former  case  also  into  the  hexachloride.  (451) 
(603)    (779) 

The  oxide  is  soluble  in  hydrofluoric  acid,  but  not  in  hydro- 
chloric or  nitric  acids  or  in  aqua  regia.    (142) 

Plastic  masses  of  tungsten  oxide  for  incandescent  lamp  filaments 
may  be  prepared  by  treating  the  oxide  or  hydrated  tungstic  acid 
with  ammonia  at  -20°  or  below,  or  when  in  alcoholic  suspension 
with  gaseous  ammonia.  (Eng.  Pat.  14S50;  J.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.  1908 
1198,  1104) 

Tungstic  Acids.  Tungsten  trioxide  forms  two  well  character- 
ized acids,  WO  ,  H  O  or  H  WO     and   (WO  )  H  O   or  H  W  O    .In  ad- 

3  2  2  4  :-!      4       2  2         4       IS 

dition  the  salts  of  a  number  of  polytungstic  acids  are  known.  (509) 
Tungstic  acid  H  WO  may  be  obtained  by  precipitating  a  solution 
of  a  tungstate  with  excess  of  hot  acid.  If  cold  acid  is  used,  the 
white  hydrate  H^WO  ,H  O  is  formed,  from  which  the  acid  may  be 
obtained  by  boiling.  It  is  prepared  by  digesting  a  tungsten  mineral 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  then  with  aqua  regia  until  the  brown  powder 
has  become  yellow,  when  the  iron  and  manganese  have  been  dissolved 
out.  The  residue  is  well  washed  and  then  shaken  with  ammonia 
which  dissolves  the  free  tungstic  acid.  On  filtration  and  evaporation 
the  tungstic  acid  crystallises  out.  The  finely  powdered  mineral 
may  be  fused  with  calcium  chloride  or  with  alkali  carbonates  or 
sodium  chloride.  The  melt  is  lixiviated  and  the  calcium  or  other 
metallic  tungstate  residue  is  then  decomposed  with  nitric  or  hydro- 
chloric acid. 

Tungstic  acid  may  be  prepared  from  wolfram  or  other  minerals 
containing  tungsten,  by  heating  the  mineral  under  pressure  with  a 
concentrated  solution  of  potassium  hydroxide,  lime  or  baryta  being 
added  to  form  insoluble   compounds    with  some  of  the   impurities. 

The  tungstic  acid  is  then  separated  from  the  solution  either  by 
fractional  precipitation  with  acid,  the  impurities  separating  first,  or 
the  whole  of  the  precipitate  formed  by  adding  sufficient  acid,  is 
fractionally   redissolved   by   alkali.      The    process   is   said   to   be   econo- 

139 


mical,    convenient,    and    to    give    very    pure    acid.     (Fr.    Pat.    389040; 
1908;    J.    Soc.    Chem.   Ind.    1908,    93  9) 

Tungstic  acid  may  be  purified  by  treating  tungsten  trioxide  with 
carbon  tetrachloride  vapour  at  a  red  heat.  The  resulting  volatile 
chlorine  compound  is  sublimed,  condensed  and  treated  with  aqua 
regia;  the  tungstic  acid  formed  is  then  further  purified  by  solution  in 
ammonia  and  reprecipitation  with  dilute  nitric  acid.  (U.  S.  Pat.  926,- 
984;   J.  Soc.  Chem.   Ind.   1909,   794) 

Tungstic  acid  is  a  yellow  powder  insoluble  in  water  and  almost 
so  in  all  acids  except  hydrofluoric  acid,  in  which  it  dissolves  to  the 
extent  of  44.7  p.  c.  at  25°,  55.3  at  50°,  using  50  p.  c.  hydrofluoric 
acid.    (476)    It  is  readily  soluble  in  alkalies. 

Freshly  prepared  tungstic  acid  dissolves  in  aqueous  solutions  of 
most  aliphatic  amines  forming  substituted  ammonium  tungstates 
such  as  (NMeH^)  W.O^  ,6H^O,  which  crystallise  on  evaporation. 
When  heated  they  are  decomposed  forming  the  amine,  tungstic  acid 
and  the  blue  oxide  of  tungsten.  (567)  It  also  gives  crystalline  pre- 
cipitates with  pyridine  and  quinoline.    (476) 

Colloidal  tungstic  acid  may  be  prepared  by  adding  hydrochloric 
acid  to  concentrated  sodium  tungstate  solution  until  it  has  an  acid 
reaction.  The  white  gelatinous  precipitate  formed,  protected  from 
currents  of  air,  is  washed  by  decantation  several  times  at  0°  to  5°; 
15  parts  of  the  acid  are  then  dissolved  in  1  part  of  concentrated 
oxalic  acid  by  gently  warming,  and  the  liquid  is  subjected  to  dialysis. 
If  the  outer  water  is  changed  frequently,  the  oxalic  acid  may  be 
completely  removed.   (4716)    (474a) 

Colloidal  tungstic  acid  may  be  obtained  by  dissolving  5  grms.  of 
tungsten  tetrachloride  in  about  50  c.  c.  of  a  mixture  containing  equal 
volumes  of  ethyl  alcohol  and  ether;  the  filtered  solution  is  diluted 
to  2  50  c.  c.  with  alcohol  and  then  mixed  with  an  equal  volume  of 
water.  The  colloidal  solution  thus  obtained  behaves  as  a  positive 
colloid;  it  may  be  kept  for  some  days  without  appreciable  opalescence 
being  observed,  but  coagulation  occurs  more  quickly  by  adding  a 
larger  quantity  of  water,  and  immediately  when  small  quantities  of 
neutral  salts,  hydroxides,  or  strong  acids  are  added.  Weak  organic 
acids  or  rise  in  temperature  exert  no  effect.  If  an  electric  current 
is  passed  through,  a  deep  blue  precipitate  separates  at  the  cathode. 
^480)     (478)     (69) 

The  colloidal  acid  is  also  prepared  by  dialysing  a  5  p.  c.  solu- 
tion of  sodium  tungstate  to  which  sufficient  hydrochloric  acid  has 
been  added  to  combine  with  the  sodium.  Colloidal  tungstic  acid 
forms  a  gum-like  mass  which  may  be  heated  at  200°  without  becoming 
insoluble  and  which  at  a  red  heat  is  converted  into  the  trioxide. 
The  colloidal  acid  has,  probably,  the  constitution  of  the  meta  acid. 

Tungstic  acid  and  sodium  tungstate  are  used  in  the  production 
of  color  resists  for  aniline  black.  200  grms.  sodium  tungstate  dis- 
solved  in    1   litre   of   gum    tragacanth   paste   constitutes   a   white   resist 

140 


which  may  be  rendered  more  lustrous  and  opaque  by  passing  the 
printed  tissue,  after  steaming,  through  a  solution  of  barium  chloride. 
The  compound  thus  formed  may  be  colored  by  pigments,  such  as  ver- 
milion, ultramarine  blue  and  chrome  green,  a  series  of  pale  resist 
colors  being  formed,  along  with  which  the  usual  albumin  and  tannic 
acid  color  mixtures  may  be  printed.    (472) 

Tungstic  acid  may  also  be  employed  in  the  production  of  resist 
effects  upon  p-nitraniline  red  and  of  discharge  effects  upon  indigo- 
dyed  tissues.  In  the  latter  case,  the  tissue  dyed  with  the  indigo 
is  padded  in  a  solution  of  sodium  tungstate,  dried  and  printed  with 
a  steam  discharge  mixture  containing  barium  chlorate,  potassium 
ferro-cyanide  and  a  basic  dyestuff  able  to  withstand  the  oxidizing 
action,  such  as  rhodamine  6  G,  ultramarine,  or  chrome  yellow.  The 
colors  are  rendered  faster  by  the  addition  of  albumin  together  with 
an  alkali  citrate   or  tartrate. 

Metatungstic  acid  H  W  O    ,7H  O,  first  isolated  by  Scheibled,(488) 

2         4      13  2 

may  be  prepared  by  decomposing  the  lead  salt  with  hydrogen  sulphide 
or  the  barium  salt  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  It  crystallizes  in  small 
yellow  octahedra,  very  soluble  in  water,  giving  a  bitter  solution  and 
loses  its  water  of  crystallization  at  100°.  For  its  behavior  on  elec- 
trolysis see  Leiser.    (475) 

Paratungstic  acid,  the  acid  corresponding  to  the  salts  of  the  for- 
mula 12W0  ,5M  O,  Aq.  has  been  prepared  in  dilute  solution  by  mix- 
ing barium  paratungstate  with  a  quantity  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
not  quite  sufficient  for  complete  decomposition.  The  solution  cannot 
be  concentrated  even  in  vacuo  without  decomposition,  and  when 
boiled  it  yields  tungstic  acid.    (472a) 

Tuiigstates.  The  alkaline  tungstates,  M^WO  Aq,  are  prepared 
by  fusing  a  naturally  occurring  tungstate  with  sodium  or  potassium 
hydroxide  or  carbonate,  preferably  with  the  addition  of  a  silicious  or 
other  flux.  The  alkali  tungstate  falls  to  the  bottom  and  may  be 
tapped  off,  or,  after  cooling,  the  slag  may  be  removed.  (Eng.  Pat. 
30053,    1897;    6045,    1900) 

The  sodium  salt  crystallizes  in  thin  prisms,  soluble  in  4  parts  of 
cold,  in  2  parts  of  hot  water,  the  solution  having  a  bitter  taste  and 
and  alkaline  reaction.     It  has  m.  p.  698°.    (513) 

The  potassium  salt  forms  large  prismatic  crystals.  The  am- 
monium salt  is  very  unstable. 

Calcium  tungstate,  CaWO  ,  occurs  native  as  scheelite  and  may 
be  prepared  artificially  by  the  interaction  of  calcium  chloride  and  a 
normal  tungstate.  If  the  amorphous  white  precipitate  so  obtained  is 
mixed  with  lime  and  heated  in  a  current  of  hydrogen  chloride,  it  is 
obtained  crystalline.  The  corresponding  barium  tungstate  was  pre- 
pared  by  Rousseau   for  use   instead   of  white   lead.    (505  [a]) 

Lead  tungstate  occurs  native  as  stolzite  and  crystallizes  in  red 
tetragonal  pyramids. 

141 


Ferrous  tungstate  occurs  as  wolfram  (FEMn)WO  forming  dark 
grey  or  brownish-black  prisms. 

Manganese  tungstate  is  found  as  hubnerite.  Granger  has  pro- 
posed the  employment  of  the  tungstates  in  the  ceramic  industry. 
(450)    (457) 

Ammonia  copper  tungstate  CuWO  ,4NH  ,  deep  blue  crystals,  are 
readily  decomposed.     A  similar  zinc  salt  is  also  known.    (508a) 

The  copper  compound  CuO,4WO  ,6NH  ,8H  O,  has  been  obtained 
by  the  interaction  of  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  sulphate 
and  ammonium  tungstate.      It  forms  small  blue  needles.    (508a) 

Sodium    paratungstate   Na    W    O    ,Aq   is    known    commercially    as 

°  10         12      41 

tungstate  of  soda  and  may  be  prepared  on  a  large  scale  by  roasting 
wolfram  with  soda  ash  and  lixiviating  the  fused  mass.  The  boiling 
solution  is  then  nearly  neutralized  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  allow- 
ed to  crystallize  when  large  tricline  crystals  of  the  salt  separate.  It 
is  sometimes  used  as  a  mordant  instead  of  sodium  stannate  in  dyeing 
.and  calico  printing.  It  also  renders  cotton,  linen,  etc.,  non-inflam- 
mable. The  corresponding  potassium  salt  is  formed  in  glistening 
scales  when  normal  potassium  tungstate  is  boiled  with  a  little 
water. 

For  various  paratungstates  see  Hallopeau.  (505)  (507) 
Metatungstates  Mi^W  O  ,Aq  were  discovered  by  Margueritte. 
(522)  The  alkali  salts  are  readily  formed  when  the  normal  tung- 
states are  boiled  with  tungstic  acid  until  the  filtrate  no  longer  gives 
a  precipitate  on  addition  of  hydrochloric  acid.  The  other  meta- 
tungstates are  best  prepared  by  double  decomposition  of  the  barium 
isalt  with  the  required  sulphate  or  carbonate.  The  metatungstates 
have  a  bitter  taste,  are  generally  readily  soluble  in  water  and  de- 
posit tungstic  acid  on  prolonged  boiling.  A  large  number  of  them 
are  known  but  there  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  their 
constitution.    (511)     (513a)     (514a)     (514b)     (508) 

Pertungstates  MiWO  ,Aq  are  formed  by  boiling  a  paratungstate 
with  hydrogen  peroxide;  (493a)  or  by  electrolysing  a  slightly  acid 
solution  of  sodium  tungstate.  (504)  More  highly  oxidized  compounds 
are  formed  by  treating  the  pertungstates  with  hydrogen  peroxide. 
,(500a)    (506a) 

Tungsten  Bronzes  are  compounds  of  the  alkali  metals  with  tung- 
sten and  oxygen,  which,  owing  to  their  color  and  insolubility  in  acids 
and  alkalis  have  been  employed  as  substitutes  for  bronze  powders. 
Their  exact  constitution  is  not  known,  although  they  are  generally 
regarded  as  compounds  of  the  tungstates  with  tungsten  dioxide. 
They  may  be  obtained  by  the  reduction  of  the  tungstates  heated  to 
redness  with  hydrogen,  coal  gas,  zinc,  iron  or  tin. 

Tungsten  bronzes  may  be  prepared  electrolytically  by  fusing 
tungstic  acid  with  the  calculated  amount  of  metallic  carbonate  and 
electrolysing    the    mass.      A    series    of    brightly    colored    mixed    alkali 

142 


and    alkaline    earth    tungsten    bronzes    of    various    compositions    are 
described  by  Engels.    (524a)    (509) 

Four  tungsten  sodium  bronzes  are  known,  Na^W  .0  of  a  golden 
yellow    color,    Na  WO       of    a    blue    color,    Na  WO     of    a    purple    red 

•^  2         fi      15  2         3      0 

color,    and    Na  W^O  ^    which    forms    red-yellow    cubes    and    yields    a 
brown-yellow  powder.    (523) 

Potassium  forms  one  bronze,  K  W  O    .    (524) 

2        4      12       ^ 

Blue  lithium  bronzes  are  described  by  Hallopeau.    (471c) 

Tungstates  of  the  rare  earths  are  described   by  Hitchcock.    (496) 

Tungsten  and  the  Halogens.  Tungsten  hexachloride  WCI  is 
prepared  by  heating  metallic  tungsten  in  excess  of  pure  dry  chlorine, 
particular  care  being  taken  to  exclude  all  traces  of  air  and  moisture 
in  order  to  avoid  the  formation  of  the  oxychloride.  (527)  A  small 
quantity  of  the  latter  is  formed  at  the  beginning  of  the  reaction, 
however,  in  spite  of  all  precautions.  It  should  be  driven  off  beyond 
the  portion  of  the  tube  where  the  chloride  is  to  be  collected.  Tung- 
sten hexachloride  forms  dark  violet  opaque  crystals,  which  are  very 
stable  when  pure  but  are  readily  decomposed  by  moist  air  or  water, 
if  the  slightest  trace  of  the  oxychloride  is  present.  It  has  m.  p. 
275°,   b.   p.   346.7°/759.5   mm. 

Tungsten  pentachloride  WC1_  is  formed  by  the  incomplete  re- 
duction of  the  hexachloride  in  a  current  of  hydrogen.  It  is  volatile 
and  when  redistilled  forms  long,  pure  black  shining  crystals,  m.  p. 
248°,  b.  p.  275.6°.  It  is  hygroscopic  and  dissolves  in  water  forming 
an  olive-green  solution,  but  most  of  it  decomposes  into  the  blue 
oxide  and  hydrochloric  acid.    (527) 

Tungsten  tetrachloride  WCI  forms  the  non-volatile  residue  in 
the  production  of  the  pentachloride.  It  may  also  be  prepared  by  the 
distillation  of  the  latter  or  of  the  hexachloride  or  better,  a  mixture  of 
the  two  chlorides  in  a  current  of  hydrogen.  It  forms  a  greyish-brown 
crystalline  powder.  (527)  It  is  hygroscopic,  infusible,  is  partially 
decomposed  by  water  and  is  reduced  by  hydrogen  to  the  metal. 

Tungsten  dichloride  WCl^  is  best  prepared  by  heating  the  tetra- 
chloride in  a  current  of  carbon  dioxide  at  the  temperature  of  a 
moderately  hot  zinc  bath.  It  is  a  grey  non-volatile  powder  partly  de- 
composed and  partly  dissolved  by  water  forming  a  brown  solution. 
(527) 

Tungsten  dioxydichloride  W0_C1_,  obtained  by  passing  chlorine 
over  the  dioxide,  forms  light  lemon-yellow  scales.  Heated  with  am- 
monia it  forms  the  compound  W  O  N  H  .    (529a) 

4       14       2 

Tungsten  oxytetrachloride,  beautiful  red  needle-shaped  crystals, 
m.  p.  210.4°,  b.  p.  227.5°  is  formed  by  the  interaction  of  the  trioxide 
and  phosphorus  pentachloride;  (528)  or  by  passing  the  vapor  of  the 
hexachloride  over  the  heated   trioxide. 

Tungsten  hexabromide,  WBr  ,  obtained  by  heating  tungsten  with 
dry   bromine   vapor   in    an   atmosphere    of    nitrogen,    forms    blue-black 

143 


needles  which  decompose  when  heated  to  a  high  temperature,  give  a 
colorless  solutioon  in  aqueous  ammonia,  fume  in  air  and  give  a  royal 
blue  oxide  when  treated  with  water.    (529f) 

Tungsten  pentabromide,  prepared  by  passing  dry  hydrogen  bro- 
mide over  tungsten  hexachloride  at  300°,  or  betted  by  the  action  of 
excess  of  bromine  on  tungsten,  forms  fern-like  aggregates  of  dark 
needles  with  green  reflex,  m.  p.  276°,  b.  p.  33  3°.  It  is  very  hygro- 
scopic, yields  the  blue  oxide  when  treated  with  water  and  diluta 
acids  and  is  decomposed  by  alkalies,  alkali  nitrates,  carbonates  and 
bisulphates.    (529h) 

Tungsten  oxybromides  WO.^Br^,WOBr  and  the  compounds  WCl  - 
Br  ,  WCl  ,   3WBr     are  also  knownl"    (529g^) 

Tungsten  tetriodide  WI  ,  obtained  by  the  action  of  an  excess  of 
liquid  hydrogen  iodide  on  tungsten  hexachloride  at  110°,  is  a  black 
crystalline  substance  of  sp.  gr.  5.2  at  18°,  decomposed  by  water, 
alkali-hydroxides  and  carbonates.  Soluble  in  absolute  alcohol. 
(529f) 

Tungsten  diiodide,  WI^,  obtained  by  the  action  of  hydrogen 
iodide  on  tungsten  hexachloride  at  400°,  is  an  amorphous,  insoluble, 
infusible,  non-volatile  brown  powder  of  sp.   gr.   6.9   at  18°.    (529e) 

Tungsten  hexafluoride  WF  may  be  obtained  by  the  interaction 
of  tungsten  hexachloride  with  anhydrous  hydrofluoric  acid  or  with 
arsenic  trifluoride,  or,  best  of  all,  antimony  pentafluoride.  It  has 
m.  p.  2.5°  and  b.  p.  19.5°.  Is  readily  soluble  in  alkalies,  attacks 
glass  and  most  metals  and  forms  double  salts  with  alkali  fluorides. 
When  acted  on  by  water  it  yields  tungstic  acid.    (530) 

Tungsten  oxytetrafluoride  WOF  ,  obtained  by  the  interaction  of 
the  oxytetrachloride  and  anhydrous  hydrogen  fluoride,  forms  small 
colorless  hygroscopic  plates,  m.  p.  110°,  b.  p.  185°-190o,  is  decom- 
posed by  water  forming  tungstic  acid  and  absorbs  large  quantities  of 
ammonia  in   the   cold.    (530) 

Tungsten  dioxydifluoride  is  known  in  an  impure  state.  For 
various  double  fluorides  see  Marignac,    (489)     (529b)     (529c)     (5291) 

Tungsten  and  sulphur.  Tungsten  disulphide  WS^  may  be  pre- 
pared by  passing  hydrogen  sulphide  over  tungsten  hexachloride  at 
375°-550°,  or  by  fusing  an  intimate  mixture  of  pure  dry  potassium 
carbonate,  flowers  of  sulphur  and  tungsten  trioxide.  It  is  a  grey- 
black  crystalline  powder,  insoluble  in  water,  fairly  stable,  and  has  sp. 
gr.   7.5  at  10°.    (532d) 

Tungsten  trisulphide  WS  ,  best  obtained  by  treating  a  sulpho- 
tungstate  with  excess  of  acid,  is  a  brown  powder  which  becomes 
black  when  dried,  is  slightly  soluble  in  cold  water,  more  so  in  hot 
water,  and  readily  in  alkali  hydroxides  and  carbonates.  (532b)  It 
has  been  obtained  in  the  colloidal  state  by  Mimsinger.    (53  2c) 

The  compounds,  WCl  ,  3WS  and  WO  S  (532c)  and  a  number 
of    metallic    sulpho-    or    trio-tungstates,     M_^WS       (53  2b)     have    been 

144 


described.       A    di— and    tri-selenide     (53  2a)     and    a    tri-telluride    are 
also  known. 

Tungsten  nitrides  W.  N^.W^N. ,  a  number  of  oxynitrides,  nitre- 
tamido  and  oxynitretamido  compounds,  and  also  a  hydroxylamine 
tungstate  have  been  obtained.  (534)  (564)  (449)  (454)  (533a) 
(534a) 

Tungsten  and  Phosphorus.  Tungsten  combines  directly  with 
phosphorus  when  heated  to  redness,  forming  a  dark  green  phos- 
phide W  P  . 

Tungsten  diphosphide  WP,  produced  by  heating  tungsten  hexa- 
chloride  at  450°  in  a  current  of  hydrogen  phosphide  forms  a  black 
crystalline  mass  insoluble  in  water,  sp.  gr.  5.8.  The  phosphorus  is 
readily  displaced  by  the.  halogens  and  by  sulphur  and  nitrogen  at 
high  temperatures.  It  may  be  reduced  by  heating  with  hydrogen, 
zinc  or  copper.    (543a) 

If  tungsten  diphosphide  is  heated  with  a  large  excess  of  copper 
phosphide  in  a  graphite  crucible  in  a  wind  furnace  and  the  product 
treated  with  dilute  nitric  acid,  it  yields  the  monophosphide  WP,  grey 
lustrous  prismatic  crystals,  sp.  gr.   8.5.    (5  43b) 

Another  phosphide  W^P  is  formed  by  reducing  a  mixture  of 
phosphorus  pentoxide  (2  mols)  and  tungsten  trioxide  (1  mol.)  in  a 
charcoal  crucible  at  a   high  temperature.    (542a) 

Phosphotungstic  acid.  Tungstic  acid  combines  with  phosphoric 
and  also  with  arsenic,  antimonic  and  vanadic  acids  to  form  complex 
compounds  of  varying  composition,  M^0.:W0^  =  1:7  to  1:24  ana- 
lagous  to  the  molybdates.  Phosphotungstic  acid  is  used  as  a  reagent 
for  the  precipitation  of  alkaloids,  proteins  and  some  of  their  pro- 
ducts of  hydrolysis,  also  for  the  detection  of  potassium  and  am- 
monium salts  with  which  it  gives  insoluble  precipitates.  It  may  be 
prepared  by  acidifying  a  solution  of  4  parts  of  sodium  tungstate  and 
1  part  of  sodium  phosphate  with  sulphuric  acid  and  extracting  the 
phosphotungstic  acid  with  ether.    (543) 

Literature  on  phosphotungstic  acids  and  the  phosphotungstates. 
(542c)    (542b)     (543c) 

Tungsten  and  Arsenic.  Tungsten  arsenide  WAs,  prepared  by 
heating  tungsten  hexachloride  in  a  current  of  hydrogen  arsenide  at 
150°-360°,  is  a  black  crystalline  insoluble  powder  of  sp.  gr.  6.9  at 
18°. 

Tungsten  chloroarsenide  W._AsCl^,  obtained  by  heating  the 
above'  substances  in  a  sealed  tube  at  60°-70°,  forms  hygroscopic 
bluish-black   crystals,    decomposed   by    water   and   acids.    (543b) 

For  arsenictungstic  acids  and  tungstates  see  Kehrmann  and 
Ruttimann.    (545d) 

Vanadotungstates  (545a)  (545e)  (543c);  antimoniotungstates 
(545c);  zirconetungstates  (545b);  alumino-  and  alumino-phospho 
and  arsenotungstates   (545f) 

145 


Tungsten  boritle  WB^,  prepared  by  fusing  the  two  elements  to- 
gether in  an  electric  furnace,  crystallizes  in  hard  octahedra,  sp.  gr. 
9.6.    (550a) 

Tung.steu  and  Carbon.  When  tungsten  trioxide  is  fused  with 
calcium  carbide  in  an  electric  furnace,  it  forms  an  iron-grey  carbide, 
CW^,  which  is  harder  than  corundum  and  has  sp.  gr.  16.06  at  18°. 
In  the  presence  of  a  large  excess  of  iron,  the  carbide  CW,  an  iron- 
grey  crystalline  powder  of  sp.  gr.  15.7  at  18°,  is  formed.  (553) 
(554a) 

Chromium  tungsten  carbide  CW.^,3C^Cr  is  formed  by  heating 
a  mixture  of  chromic  oxide,  tungstic  acid  and  carbon  in  a  carbon 
crucible  in  an  electric  furnace  for  five  minutes  with  a  current  of 
40  0  amperes  at  7  5  volts  and  treating  the  product  with  warm  hydro- 
chloric acid,  then  with  concentrated  ammonia  solution.  It  forms 
small  hard  stable  crystalline  grains  of  sp.  gr.  8.41  at  22°.  By  the 
addition  of  tungsten  to  chromium  steels,  the  formation  of  this  stable 
hard  carbide  might  give  rise  to  the  production  of  new  steels  with  spe- 
cial qualities.    (555) 

Iron  tungsten  carbide  3W  C,2Fe  C,  a  magnetic  substance,  sp. 
gr.  13.4  at   18°,  has  also  been  prepared.    (554)    (554b) 

Tungsten  and  Silicon.  Tungsten  silicide  WSi^  has  been  pre- 
pared by  heating  copper  silicide  with  amorphous  tungsten  in  an 
electric  furnace,  using  a  current  of  800-900  amperes  and  50  volts, 
the  resulting  product  is  then  washed  successively  with  nitric  acid, 
caustic  potash,  warm  hydrofluoric  acid  and  water.  It  may  also  be 
prepared  by  reducing  a  mixture  of  silica  and  tungstic  anhydride 
with  sulphur  and  alumina.  It  forms  brilliant,  grey  crystals,  of  sp. 
gr.  9.4,  which  are  not  magnetic  and  are  very  stable.    (560)    (559a) 

The  silicide  W^Si  is  obtained  by  heating  the  trioxide  with 
silicon  in  the  electric  furnace,  after  which  the  mass  is  suspended  in 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid  (1  in  10)  and  electrolysed.  The  excess  of 
metal  dissolves  and  the  silicide  is  removed,  washed  with  aqua  regia, 
then  with  ammonia,  and  is  finally  separated  from  carbon  silicide 
gravimetrically  by  suspension  in  methyl  iodide.  (559)  It  forms 
beautiful  steel  grey  crystals  with  a  metallic  lustre,  sp.  gr.  10.9. 
(563a) 

Tungsten  aluminum  silicide  forms  black  hexagonal  crj^stals. 
(762) 

Silicotungstic  acids  of  the  formulae,  H^W^^^SiO^^.SH.^O;  H^W^.,- 
SiO    ,20H  O,    H  W    SiO    ,29H  O       etc.        were      discovered      bv  ""  Ma- 

42  2  S         12  42  2 

rignac.  (558)  The  acid  corresponding  to  the  last  formula  is  formed  by 
precipitating  its  salts  with  mercurous  nitrate  and  decomposing  the 
mercury  salt  with  hot  hydrochloric  acid.  It  crystallizes  in  largo 
tetragonal  prisms,  is  readily  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether, 
and    forms    a    valuable    reagent    for    alkaloids.       The    salts,     most    of 

146 


which  are  soluble  in  water,  are  prepared  by  boiling  gelatinous  silicic 
acid  with   metallic  polytungstates.    (545e)    (558a) 

Organic  Salts  of  Tungsten.  Esters  of  tungstic  acid  aro  de- 
scribed by  Smith  and  Dugan;  (565)  alkali  tungsten  tartrates  by 
Henderson  and  Barr,  (5  64b)  citrates  by  Henderson,  (565a)  Orr  and 
Whitehead;   tungsten  oxalates  by  Rosenheim    (564a). 

Tungsten  forms  ozosalts  which  are  readily  soluble  and  difficult 
to  obtain  free  from  the  normal  salts  used  in  their  preparation.  The 
following   have   been   described: 

Sodium  ozotungsten  oxalate  NaC  O  WO  ,5H  O  and  also  the  corre- 

2      4  4  2 

spending   ammonium    and    calcium    salts    which    have    only    1    mol.    of 
water  of  crystallization.    (566) 

Complex  compounds  of  the  tungstic  acids  with  organic  acids 
have  been  obtained  by  Grossmann  and  Kramer;  (565c)  and  by  Maz- 
zuschelli  and  Borghi;  (568)  and  additive  compounds  of  the  tetra, 
penta,  and  hexachloride  with  organic  esters  by  Rosenheim  and 
Loewenstamm.    (565b) 


147 


CHAPTER   X. 
ANALYTICAL   CHEMISTRY. 

Qualitative  Detection  of  Tungsten.  In  minerals.  (593) 
Tungsten  may  ordinarily  be  detected  in  minerals  by  boiling 
the  finely  powdered  material  with  concentrated  hydrochloric 
acid  until  insoluble  yellow  tungstic  acid  is  formed.  Zinc  or 
tin  is  then  added  and  if  tungsten  is  present  in  appreciable 
amounts  a  blue  color  forms  in  the  solution  or  the  yellow 
residue  turns  blue,  due  to  reduction  by  the  nascent  hydrogen. 

If  only  small  amounts  of  tungsten  are  present,  a  larger 
portion  (about  half  a  gram)  of  the  finely  powdered  material 
may  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  four  grams  of  sodium  car- 
bonate and  fused.  The  fused  or  well  sintered  mass  is  dis- 
solved by  boiling  water  in  the  crucible.  The  aqueous  solution 
is  next  ecidified  with  an  equal  volume  of  concentrated  hydro- 
chloric acid,  a  small  piece  of  tin  added,  and  the  solution 
warmed  gently  if  necessary.  The  volume  of  the  solution 
should  not  be  over  10-20  cc.  A  fine  blue  color  in  the  solution 
or  a  blue  residue  indicates  the  presence  of  tungsten.  In 
either  case,  if  reduction  is  continued  long  enough,  a  brown 
color  is  obtained. 

These  tests,  if  properly  used,  will  show  the  presence  of 
tungsten  in  materials  as  low  as  two  per  cent,  and  by  using 
special  precautions,  will  detect  tungsten  in  even  lower  grade 
materials.  Tin  is  preferred  to  zinc  for  the  reducing  action, 
because  if  only  a  small  quantity  of  tungsten  is  present,  the 
zinc  reduces  it  very  quickly  to  the  brown  oxide,  and  the  blue 
color  may  be  unnoticed.  The  action  of  tin  is  slower  but 
much  more  certain.  If  much  tungsten  is  present,  either  tin  or 
zinc  gives  good  results. 

Columbium  is  the  only  element  at  all  likely  to  give  a 
blue  color  followed  by  a  brown  color  under  the  conditions 
of  this  test.  The  columbium  blue  is  not  so  brilliant,  and  can 
be  distinguished  from  the  blue  of  tungsten  oxides  by  the 
fact  that  it  disappears  when  the  blue  solution  is  diluted  with 
water.  Vanadium  also  gives  a  blue  color  when  solutions  of 
its  salts  are  reduced,  but  tartaric  acid  also  will  cause  this 

148 


reduction,  whereas  it  will  not  reduce  tungstic  oxide.  Molyb- 
denum on  reduction  goes  thru  a  series  of  color  changes  from 
violet  to  blue  to  black.  Titanium  gives  a  violet  color.  No 
other  elements  will  originally  interfere  with  the  reduction 
test  for  tungsten. 

The  following  procedure  (617)  will  remove  the  above 
elements  which  if  present  may  obscure  the  tungsten  blue 
color.  The  solution  obtained  by  extracting  the  sample  after 
fusion  with  sodium  carbonate  (or  caustic  alkali)  is  acidified 
with  hydrochloric  acid  and  boiled.  The  precipitate,  which 
may  contain  antimony,  molybdenum,  columbium,  silica,  tan- 
talum, tin  and  tungsten,  is  filtered  off  and  the  moist  resi- 
due treated  with  a  solution  of  yellow  ammonium  sulfide.  An- 
timony, molybdenum,  tin  and  tungsten  pass  into  the  filtrate, 
columbium  and  tantalum  remain  on  the  filter.  The  ammoni- 
cal  sulfide  extract  is  acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid  and 
boiled.  The  precipitate  is  filtered  and  washed  with  a  little 
hydrochloric  and  nitric  acid.  Antimony,  molybdenum  and  tin 
pass  into  the  filtrate,  while  sulfur  and  tungsten,  as  tungstic 
acid,  remain  on  the  filter.  Tungsten  is  now  confirmed  as 
follows,  portions  of  the  precipitate  being  taken : 

1.  The  residue  is  suspended  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid 
and  a  piece  of  zinc,  aluminum  or  tin  placed  on  the  solution, 
A  blue  colored  precipitate  or  solution  indicates  tungsten. 

2.  A  portion  of  the  precipitate  is  warmed  with  ammo- 
nium hydroxide  and  the  extract  absorbed  with  strips  of  filter 
paper.  A  strip  of  this  paper  is  moistened  with  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  warmed.  A  yellow  coloration  is  produced  in 
the  presence  of  tungsten.  Another  strip  is  moistened  with  a 
solution  of  stannous  chloride,  which  produces  a  blue  color 
in  presence  of  tungsten.  A  third  strip  dipped  into  cold  am- 
monium sulfide  remains  unchanged  until  warmed,  when  the 
paper  turns  green  or  blue  if  tungsten  is  present. 

The  following  test  for  tungsten  in  steel  is  given  by 
Johnson  (692) : 

Dissolve  0.2  gram  of  the  sample  with  '>  cc.  sulfuric  acid  (1  to3  ) 
in  a  test  tube  *****  if  the  steel  has  .100  to  0.3  per  cent  of 
tungsten,  a  black  insoluble  residue  will  be  found  in  the  bottom  of 
the  tube.  This  black  sediment  forms  also  with  small  amounts  of 
molybdenum   and    phosphorus.      But    on    addition    of    1    c.    c.    of    nitric 

149 


acid  (1.20  sp.  gr.)  to  such  a  solution  the  black  entirely  disappears  if 
due  to  the  presence  of  the  two  last  named  elements.  The  black  pre- 
cipitate, if  caused  by  a  small  quantity  of  tungsten,  on  addition  of  the 
nitric  acid,  changes  to  a  yellow.  If  the  amount  of  the  latter  is 
small,  it  is  better  to  put  the  test  tube  back  on  the  water  bath  and 
permit  the  tungstic  acid  to  settle  for  two  hours,  when  it  can  be 
seen  plainly  as  a  yellow  spiral  thread  rising  up  thru  the  solution 
by  giving  the  test  tube  a  rotary  motion. 

Other  qualitative  tests  are  known,  but  the  above  will  suf- 
fice for  nearly  all  cases,  if  properly  carried  out. 

Quantitative  Determination.  The  methods  for  the  quan- 
titative determination  of  tungsten  in  ores  and  other  ma- 
terials are  quite  varied  and  in  recent  years,  on  account  of  the 
high  price  of  tungsten,  there  has  been  much  dispute  con- 
cerning the  proper  methods  of  obtaining  the  true  tungsten 
content.  The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Standards,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Dr.  W.  F.  Hillebrand  is  now  making  a  careful  study 
of  the  methods  of  analysis  of  tungsten  materials,  with  the 
idea  of  developing  a  standard  method.  In  view  of  this  fact, 
a  comprehensive  discussion  of  methods  will  not  be  made  at 
this  time.  There  are  given  herewith  several  well  known 
methods  which  are  now  in  common  use  for  the  determination 
of  tungsten. 

Ammonia   Method   for   Tungstic   Oxide   in   Ores  and   Concen- 
trates.    (Ledoux  and  Company,  New  York)  * 

The  sample  for  analysis  should  be  ground  impalpably  fine;  half 
an  hour's  work  with  an  agate   mortar  will  save  time   in  the  end. 

Weigh  1  gram  into  a  2  50  c.  c.  beaker  and  treat  it  with  40  c.  c. 
HCl,  (1.20  S.  G.)  digest  for  half  an  hour  on  a  steam  bath  and  add 
5  to  10  cc.  HNO.^  (1.42  S.  G.).  Stir  well  to  break  up  crusts  .of 
tungstic  oxide  and  evaporate  to  dryness,  stirring  from  time  to  time. 
(In  this  and  subsequent  evaporations  it  is  important  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  a  steam  bath,  that  is  85°  to  95°  C,  shall  not  be  exceeded,  es- 
pecially when  the  mass  is  nearing  dryness;  otherwise  the  tungstic 
oxide  may  become  rather  insoluble  in  ammonia.)  Add  20  c.  c.  more 
HCl,  stir  thoroughly  to  break  up  all  incrustations  on  the  bottom  of 
the  beaker,  add  3  c.  c.  of  HNO,  and  again  evaporate  to  dryness. 
Add  5  c.  c.  more  HCl  and  again  evaporate  to  dryness.  The  object  of 
the  final  evaporation  with  HCl  is  to  expel  all  HNO  . 

To  the  dry  residue  add  1  c.  c.  of  HCl,  warm  for  a  moment  to 
dissolve  Fe,   Mn   and  Ca   chlorides,   then   add    150    c.   c.    of   water   and 


♦Private    communication,    1916. 

150 


boil.  There  is  a  slight  tendency  toward  bumping,  but  it  is  not 
serious.  To  the  hot  solution  add  2  c.  c.  of  a  10 '{  solution  of  cin- 
chonin  (in  1-1  HCl)  and  let  stand  over  night.  Filter  using  a  little 
paper  pulp  in  the  apex  of  the  filter  paper  and  wash  the  residue,  con- 
sisting of  tungstic  acid  in  insoluble  matter  with  2'/^,  HCl  solution. 
Wash  the  residue  in  the  filter  back  into  the  beaker  with  a  fine  jet 
of  water,  using  as  little  water  as  possible,  add  about  10  c.  c.  of 
strong  (NH  )0H,  warm  until  the  tungstic  acid  dissolves  and  filter 
through  the  same  filter  as  before  into  a  platinum  dish,  wash  with 
dilute  (NH  )OH  (lOf;/,  strong  ammonia  90 <^,  water)  to  entirely  re- 
move tungstic  acid  from  the  filter. 

Set  the  ammonia  solution  to  evaporate  and  in  the  meantime  pro- 
ceed with  the  examination  of  the  insoluble  silicious  residue,  which  in 
some  ores  may  still  contain  a  little  tungsten.  Ignite  it  in  a  platinum 
crucible,  cool,  add  5  c.  c.  HF  and  2  drops  H  SO^  and  slowly  evaporate 
to  dryness  to  expel  silica.  Add  2  or  3  grams  of  Na.^Co^  to  the 
crucible  and  fuse  well.  Cool,  dissolve  fusion  in  water  and  filter.  The 
aqueous  solution  contains  as  sodium  tungstate  whatever  tungsten 
may  have  been  in  the  insoluble  residue.  Acidulate  it  with  HCl,  add 
2  or  3  c.  c.  of  cinchonine  solution  and  let  stand  at  a  temperature  of 
50°  C.  or  thereabouts  for  two  or  three  hours.  If  any  tungsten  pre- 
cipitate appears,  filter  it  off,  wash  with  very  dilute  cinchonine  solu- 
tion, dissolve  in  ammonia  and  add  this  solution  to  the  main  solution 
in  the  platinum  dish  which  has  now  been  evaporated  to  dryness,  or 
nearly  so.  Continue  the  evaporation  to  dryness  and  heat  the  residue 
gently  over  a  bunsen  flame  until  ammonia  salts  are  decomposed, 
finally  heat  strongly  for  a  minute,  leaving  a  residue  of  tungstic 
oxide  which  also  may  contain  a  little  silica  and  traces  of  other 
impurities.  Treat  the  residue  in  the  dish  with  2  c.  c.  of  HF  and  2 
drops  HSO  bringing  the  solution  into  contact  with  all  of  the  residue, 
evaporate  to  dryness  and  ignite  gently  at  first,  and  finally  at  the 
full  heat  of  a  good  bunsen  burner  for  five  minutes,  cool  in  dessicator 
and  weigh.  Fuse  the  residue  in  the  dish  with  4-5  grams  Na^CO.^  and 
dissolve  the  fusion  in  hot  water.  The  small  amount  of  insoluble 
matter  may  consist  of  traces  of  iron,  manganese  or  lime,  filter  it  off, 
wash  thoroughly  with  hot  water,  ignite  the  residue  in  the  platinum 
dish  and  weigh  again.  The  difference  between  this  weight  and  the 
first  weight  of  dish  and  tungstic  oxide  is  pure  WO... 

Hydrofluoric  Difference  Method  for  Tungstic  Oxide  in  Ores 
and  Concentrates.  (Ledoux  and  Company,  New  York)* 

Treat  one  gram  of  the  finely  ground  ore  in  a  platinum  dish  with 
10  c.  c.  hydrofluoric  acid,  25  c.  c.  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
10  c.  c.  of  25%  sulfuric  acid.  Heat  gently  until  solution  is  complete, 
adding  more  of  each  acid  except  sulfuric,   if  necessary.      Evaporate  to 


♦Private  Communication,  191G. 

151 


fumes  of  SO  ,  dilute  with  water,  transfer  to  400  c.  c.  beaker,  and  ad^ 
100  c.  c.  aqua  regia.  The  WO.^  can  usually  be  completely  removed 
from  the  platinum  dish  by  rubbing  with  a  finger  cot,  but  if  any 
stain  adheres  it  can  be  removed  with  ammonia  and  added  to  the 
solution.  The  aqua  regia  solution  is  evaporated  to  20  c.  c,  diluted 
to  250  c.  c.  with  cold  water,  10  c.  c.  cinchonine  solution  added  and 
the  beaker  set  aside  for  two  hours  to  allow  the  precipitate  to  settle. 
Filter,  wash  with  water  containing  cinchonine,  and  ignite  residue  at 
dull  red.  Treat  with  hydrofluoric  and  sulfuric  acid  and  ignite  to 
constant  weight.  Fuse  the  residue  in  the  crucible  with  sodium 
carbonate,  dissolve  in  water,  and  filter,  washing  thoroughly  with 
hot  water.  The  residue  is  ignited  in  the  same  crucible,  and  weighed, 
the   difference  in  weight  being  taken  as  WO,. 

The  filtrate  from  the  last  carbonate  fusion  of  the  WO,,  is  tested 
for  a  possible  Al,  Ta,  Nb,  Sn.  etc.,  contamination  as  follows: 

Make  filtrate  acid  with  hydrochloric,  add  5  grams  ammonium 
chloride,  and  then  add  ammonia  water  until  just  alkaline,  followed 
by  an  excess  of  about  5  c.  c.  Heat  to  60°  or  until  precipitate 
coagulates,  filter,  ignite  and  weigh.  The  weight  of  any  precipitate 
thus  obtained  should,  of  course,  be  deducted  from  the  WO  previously 
found. 

Determination  of  Tungstic  Oxide  in  Ores.  (A.  H.  Low,  Tech- 
nical Methods  of  Ore  Analysis,   1914) 

The  following  method  is  in  regular  use  in  my  laboratory: 
In  all  cases  the  substance  should  be  ground  to  the  finest  possible 
powder  in  an  agate  mortar. 

Ores  and  silicious  material. — Weigh  1  gram  into  an  8-oz.  copper 
flask.  Add  4  grams  of  dry  sodium  sulphate  and  4  cc.  of  strong  sul- 
phuric acid.  Heat  over  a  free  flame,  with  the  flask  in  a  holder, 
until  the  free  sulphuric  acid  has  been  expelled  and  a  nearly  or  quite 
red-hot  melt  is  obtained.  Rotate  the  flask  in  cooling  so  as  to  dis- 
tribute the  melt  over  the  sides.  When  cold,  add  2  5  c.  c.  of  strong 
hydrochloric  acid  and  10  cc.  of  strong  nitric  acid.  Boil  down  to 
about  20  c.  c,  add  50  c.  c.  of  hot  water,  heat  to  boiling,  and  then 
allow  to  stand  on  the  hot-plate  until  well  settled.  Filter  through  a 
9-cm.  filter  and  wash  ten  times  with  hot,  dilute  hydrochloric  acid, 
(1:10).  Reserve  the  filtrate.  Dissolve  the  tungstic  acid  on  the 
filter  with  a  mixture  of  2  volumes  wood  alcohol  and  1  volume  strong 
ammonia,  and  also  any  adhering  tungstsic  acid  in  the  flask.  Wash 
with  the  above  mixture  at  least  ten  times.  Receive  the  filtrate  in  a 
small  beaker.  Reserve  the  washed  residue.  Transfer  the  filtrate  to 
a  platinum  dish,  evaporate  to  dryness  on  a  water-bath  and  ignite  the 
residue.  Burn  the  reserved  filter  and  washed  residue  in  platinum 
or  porcelain  and  warm  the  ash  for  a  short  time  with  a  little  strong 
sodium  hydroxide  solution.  Dilute  sufficiently,  filter  into  a  beaker 
and    wash    with    hot    water.      Acidify    the    filtrate    with    hydrochloric 

152 


acid.  Add  to  this  solution  5-6  cc.  of  a  solution  of  25  grams  of  cin- 
chonine  in  200  cc.  of  1:1  hydrochloric  acid,  heat  nearly  to  boiling 
and  then  allow  to  stand  on  the  hot-plate  and  settle  for  some  time. 
All  these  operations  may  be  conducted  while  the  main  solution  is 
evaporating.  Filter  through  an  11-cm.  ashless  filter  and  wash  at 
least  ten  times  with  warm,  dilute  cinchonine  solution  (6cc.  of  the 
above  cinchonine  solution  to  100  cc.  of  water).  Add,  filter  and 
precipitate  to  the  ignited  tungstic  acid  in  the  platinum  dish  and 
again  ignite  until  all  the  carbon  is  burned  off.  The  total  tungstic 
acid  obtained  will  usually  contain  a  little  silica.  Add  a  few  cc.  of 
hydrofluoric  acid  and  evaporate  to  dryness  on  a  water-bath.  Again 
ignite  strongly  and  weigh  as  WO... 

In  most  cases  the  residual  silica  will  amount  to  only  about 
0.0008  gram.  It  will  therefore  frequently  suffice  to  dispense  with 
the  platinum  dish  and  hydrofluoric  acid,  making  the  evaporation  in  a 
large  porcelain  crucible  and   allowing  for   the   above   correction. 

Determination  of  Tungstic  Oxide  in  Steels  and  Alloys.  (W.  W. 

Scott,  Standard  Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis,  1917) 

Low  tungsten  steel  may  be  decomposed  with  hydrochloric  or 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  the  greater  part  of  the  iron  being  removed  in 
solution  and  tungsten  remaining  behind  as  metal  with  a  small 
amount  of  iron.  The  residue  is  then  fused  with  sodium  carbonate, 
the  tungstate  extracted  with  water,  and  tungsten  determined  gravi- 
metrically.  Bearley  and  Ibbotson  recommended  the  following 
procedure: 

Five  grams  of  the  sample  are  digested  with  50  to  100  cc.  of 
concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  just  short  of  the  boiling  point.  The 
iron  is  easily  attacked,  but  tungsten  is  not.  On  adding  a  few  drops 
of  concentrated  nitric  acid  the  ferrous  chloride  changes  to  the  ferric 
form  and  tungsten  is  visibly  acted  upon  until  the  clear  orange- 
colored  ferric  chloride  blackens  again,  showing  that  some  ferrous 
chloride  has  reformed.  By  repeating  the  addition  of  nitric  acid  as 
required,  for  converting  all  of  the  iron  to  the  ferric  state  and  adding 
a  slight  excess  the  sample  completely  passes  into  solution  in  a  few 
minutes.  The  essential  points  of  the  process  consist  in  the  presence 
of  sufficient  hydrochloric  acid  to  keep  the  tungstic  oxide  in  solution 
until  decomposition  is  complete,  and  maintaining  the  strength  of  the 
acid  during  the  decomposition.  The  smaller  the  excess  of  acid  over 
necessary  requirements,  the  greater  the  economy  of  material,  and  of 
time  occupied  in  the  subsequent  evaporation.  No  more  oxidant  is 
used  than  is  necessary  to  completely  oxidize  the  iron  and  tungsten. 
If  the  acid  solution  of  the  metal  is  boiled  until  the  tungstic  acid 
begins  to  separate  out,  and  then  diluted  with  at  least  twice  its 
volume  of  hot  water  and  again  boiled,  all  the  oxide  is  precipitated 
except  2  or  3  milligrams.  The  oxide,  WO. ,  is  generally  contaminated 
with    silica,    which    may    be    removed    by    volatilization    with    hydro- 

153 


fluoric  acid  and  it  contains  traces  of  ferric  iron,  which  may  be 
estimated  by  fusion  of  the  residue  with  sodium  carbonate  and  ex- 
tracting the  tungsten  with  hot  water;  the  iron  remaining  may  be 
ignited  and  weighed  and  the  weight  subtracted  from  that  of  the 
previously  weighed  oxides  WO     and  Fe^O. . 

In  tungsten-molybdenum  steels  90  cc.  of  strong  hydrochloric 
acid  and  10  cc.  of  concentrated  nitric  acid  are  recommended.  The 
solution  is  evaporated  to  pastiness  and  then  taken  up  and  boiled  with 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid  (1:4),  tungsten  and  silica  remaining  un- 
dissolved and  molybdenum  and  iron  passing  into  the  filtrate. 

Steel  containing  a  high  percentage  of  tungsten  is  extremely 
hard,  so  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  get  filings  or  borings 
without  contaminating  the  sample  with  material  from  the  cntiinj 
tool.  The  substance  is  best  prepared  by  hammering  into  a  coarse 
powder  in  a  steel  mortar.  These  coarse  particles  are  not  readily 
decomposed  by  the  usual  acid  treatment  or  by  the  alkali  carbonate 
and  nitrate  fusion.  Opening  up  of  the  material  may  be  easily  ac- 
complished by  fusion  with  potassium  acid   sulphate. 

About  0.5  gram  of  the  coarse  powder  is  heated  with  ten  times 
its  weight  of  KHSO  over  a  low  flame,  with  covered  crucible,  the 
flame  being  removed  if  the  action  becomes  violent.  The  melt  is 
cooled  slightly  and  an  additional  5  grams  of  bisulphate  added  ;-ind 
the  treatment  repeated.  Finally  a  third  5  gram  portion  of  the  acid 
sulphate  is  added  and  the  material  heated  to  a  cherry  redness  for  a 
few  minues.  About  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  are  sufficient  to  de- 
compose the  material.  The  heating  should  be  conducted  cautiously 
so  that  only  a  gentle  evolution  of  gas  occurs,  and  the  mass  kept  in  a 
molten  state  until  the  black  particles  of  steel  have  entirely  dissolved. 
The  mass  is  now  cooled,  the  crucible  and  cover  placed  in  50  to  75  c. 
c.  of  water  and  boiled  to  disintegrate  the  fused  mass.  The  liquid  is 
treated  with  20  cc.  of  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  until  the  precipi- 
tated tungstic  acid  is  yellow.  After  settling,  the  precipitate  is  filtered 
off  and  washed  with  10  r A-  ammonium  nitrate  solution.  The  residue 
is  then  dissolved  in  hot  dilute  ammonium  hydroxide,  the  ammonium 
tungstate  then  evaporated  in  a  weighed  platinum  crucible  to  dryness, 
then  covered  with  a  watchglass  and  the  residue  heated  to  decompose 
completely  the  ammonium  salt.  Tungstic  oxide,  WO,^,  remains  and  is 
so   weighed. 

Should  silica  be  present  in  the  sample  it  will  contaminate  the 
oxide,  WO  .  It  is  removed  by  volatilization  with  hydrofluoric  acid. 
A  small  amount  of  tungsten  passes  into  the  filtrate  from  the  acid 
treatment,  which  is  recovered  by  repeated  evaporation  with  hydro- 
chloric acid. 

Ferro-Tun^.sten  Alloys  may  be  dissolved  by 'covering  1  to  2  grams 
of  the  alloy  placed  in  a  platinum  dish  with  hydrofluoric  acid  and 
adding  nitric  acid  in  small  portions,  the  dish  being  kept  covered 
during  the  intervals  between  the  additions.      When   the   energetic   ac- 

154 


tion  subsides  10  to  15  cc.  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  are  added  and  the 
material  digested  until  the  decomposition  is  complete.  The  mixture 
is  now  evaporated  to  SO.  fumes  over  low  flame.  (Air  blown  over 
the  solution  assists  evaporation.)  The  residue  is  collected  on  a 
filter  and  washed  well,  then  ignited  and  weighed  as  WO^. 

Specific  Gravity  Methods  for  Ores.  It  is  frequently  de- 
sirable to  know  the  approximate  percentage  of  tungsten  or 
tungsten  trioxide  in  an  ore,  when  a  chemical  laboratory  or  an 
analyst  are  not  available.  The  method  of  estimating  the 
approximate  tungsten  content  by  determination  of  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  the  ores  has  been  much  used  in  various  tung- 
sten districts.  The  method  much  used  in  the  Boulder  field, 
as  described  by  Hess  915(a)  is  given  below. 

The  Wolf  Tongue  Mining  Co.  originated  a  method  which  has 
been  used  by  it  and  others  on  the  ferberite  ores  of  the  Boulder  field 
with  excellent  results,  and  the  constants  used  there  have  been  found 
serviceable  in  other  fields.     The  mode  of  operation  is  as  follows: 

The  articles  needed  are  a  flask  holding  about  1500  cubic  centi- 
meters of  water  and  scales  weighing  in  grams  up  to  3  or  4  kilos.  The 
flask  is  counterbalanced,  then  1,500  grams  of  water  is  weighed  into 
it  and  the  height  marked  on  the  neck. 

For  determinations,  1,300  grams  of  water  is  weighed  into  the 
flask  and  then  dry  ore  is  poured  in  until  the  water  Is  raised  to  the 
1,500  gram  (c.  c.)  mark.  This  means,  of  course,  that  the  ore  oc- 
cupies 200  cubic  centimeters  and  that  an  equal  bulk  of  water  weighs 
200  grams. 

The  weight  of  water  in  the  flask,  1,3  00  grams,  is  subtracted  from 
the  total  weight,  and  the  difference,  which  is  the  weight  of  the  ore, 
is  divided  by  200  grams,  the  weight  of  the  water  displaced,  thus 
giving  the  specific  gravity,  which  is  compared  with  a  table  giving 
the  equivalent  percentage  of  WO^. 

At  the  Wolf  Tongue  mill  the  table  has  been  elaborated  so  that 
weights  may  be  directly  read  into  percentages  by  referring  to  the 
table,  as  shown  below. 

The  figures  given  are,  of  course,  not  exact  specific  gravities  but 
are  approximations  close  enough  to  give  valuable  data  as  to  the 
probable  metallic  content  of  the  ore.  Such  a  method  is  applicable 
wherever  there  are  no  other  heavy  minerals  in  the  ore  and  wherever 
the  gangue  is  of  fairly  constant  composition.  Corrections  would 
have  to  be  made  for  the  use  with  particular  ores.  For  example,  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  Boulder  ferberite  is  7.499,  or  say,  7.5,  and  the 
specific  gravity  of  scheelite  is  about  6,  so  that  for  equally  high  per- 
centage the  scheelite  ore,  if  free  from  heavy  minerals,  such  as 
galena,  pyrite,  and  hematite,  will  have  a  somewhat  lower  specific 
gravity. 

155 


PERCENTAGE   OF  TUNGSTEN   TRIOXIDE   INDICATED   BY   AVEIGHTS   OF 
300    CUBIC    CENTIMETERS    OP    FERBERITE    ORE    PLUS    1,300    CUBIC 

CENTIMETERS    OF    WATER,    IN    BOULDER    FIELD,    COLO. 


o^  ' 


a;  xii 


Oj        On 


>  c  o 
^  <ij  „ 
t^  >  «i 

in- ? 
ijuiifl 

o  c 


^  si  S 


CoC 


815. 
820. 
825. 
830. 
835. 
840. 
845. 
850. 
855. 
860. 
865. 
8  70. 
875. 
880. 
885. 
890. 
895. 
900. 
905. 
910. 
915. 
920. 
925. 
930. 
935. 
940. 
945. 
950. 
955. 
960. 
965. 
970. 
975. 
980. 
985. 
990. 
000. 
005. 
010. 
015. 
020. 
025. 
030. 
035. 
040. 
045. 
050. 
055. 
060. 
065. 
070. 
075 
0 
085 
090 
095 
100 
105 
110 
115 
120 
125 
130 
135 
140 
145 
150 
155 
160 


575 
600 
625 
650 
675 
700 
2.725 
2.750  I 
2.775 
2.800 
2.825 
2.850 
2.875 
2.900 
2.925 
2.950 
2.975 
3.000 
3.025 
3.050 
3.075 
3.100 
3.125 
150 
175 
200 
225  I 
250  I 
275  I 
300  I 
3.325  I 
3.350  I 
375  I 
400  I 
425  I 
450  I 
475  I 
500  I 
525  I 
550  I 
575  I 
600  I 
625  I 
3.650  I 
3.675  I 
3.700  I 
3.725 
3.750 
3.775  1 
3.800 
3.825 
3.850 
3.900 
3.925 
3.950 
3.975 
4.000 


2.650 
2.650 


025 

050 

075 

100 

125 

150 

175 

4.200 

4.225 

4.250 

4.275 

4.300 


2.724 

2.748 

2.772 

2.796 

2.821 

2.847 

2.873 

2.899 

2.925 

2.951 

2.979  I 

3.007  I 

3.035  I 

3.063  I 


3.096  I 
3.129  I 
3.162 


3.195 
3.228 


3.263 
3.296 
3.329 
3.362 


3.395 
3.432 

24 
25 

3.471 
3.510 

26 

27 

3.549 

28 

3.588 
3.629 

29 
30 

3.673 

31 

3.717 
3.761 



32 
33 

3.805 

34 

3.850 
3.899 

35 
36 

3.948 

37 

3.997 

38 

4.046 

39 

4.094 

40 

4.155 

41 

4.211 

42 

4.267 

43 

165. . . 
170.  .  . 
175.  . . 
180.  .  . 
185.  . . 
190.  .  . 
195.  . . 
200.  . . 
205.  .  . 
210.  .  . 
215.  .  . 
200.  . . 
225. . . 
230.  . . 
235.  .  . 
240..  . 
245.  .  . 
250.  .  . 
255.  .  . 
260.  . . 
265.  .  . 
270.  .  . 
275.  .  . 
280.  .  . 
285.  .  . 
290.  .  . 
295.  .  . 
300.  . . 
305.  . . 
310.  .  . 
315.  .  . 
320.  . . 
325.  . . 
330.  .  . 
335.  .  . 
340.  .  . 
345.  . . 
350.  .  . 
355.  .  . 
360.  .  . 
365. . . 
370.. . 
375.  .  . 
380. .  . 
385.  . . 
390.  .  . 
400. . . 
405.  .  . 
410. . . 
415.  .  . 
420.  . . 
425.  . . 
430. . . 
435.  .  . 
440.  . . 
445.  .  . 
450.  .  . 
455.  .  . 
460.  .  . 
465. . . 
470. . . 
475. . . 
480.  . . 
485.  .  . 
490.  . . 
495.  .  . 
500.  . . 
505.  .  . 
510.  . . 


.325 
.350 
.375 
.400 
.425 
.450 
.475 
.500 
.525 
.550 
.575 
.600 
.625 
.650 
.675 
.700 
.725 
.750 
.775 
.800 
.825 
.850 
.875 
.900 
.925 
.950 
.975 
.000 
.025 
.050 
.075 
.100 
.125 
.150 
.175 
.200 
.225 
.250 
.275 
.300 
.325 
.350 
.375 
.400 
.425 
.450 
.475 
.500 
.525 
.550 
.575 
.600 
.625 
.650 
.675 
.700 
.725 
.750 
.775 
.800 
.825 
.850 
.875 
.900 
.925 
.950 
.000 
.025 
.050 


4.323 


4.383 


4.448 


4.513 
4^578 


4.643 

■iiiog 


4.783 


4.858 


4.933 


5.008 


5.088 


5.177 


5.266 


5.355 


5.444 


5.553 


5.639 


5.745 


5.851 


5.957 

eioeo' 


44 
45 


46 


4," 
48 


49 
50 


51 

52 

53 

'54 

'55 


56 


57 
58 


59 


60 


61 


62 


63 


64 
65 


156 


The  details  of  a  similar  method  used  in  the  Atolia  field 
are  given  as  follows:  915(a) 

The  apparatus  used  by  me  in  making  these  specific  gravity  de- 
terminations was  a  small  scale  for  weighing  out  from  1  to  4  kilos 
of  the  scheelite  ore.  I  had  a  2,000  cubic  centimeter  glass  graduate 
which  was  about  18  or  20  inches  in  height  and  some  2  i^  inches  in  di- 
ameter. I  filled  this  with  water,  generally  for  convenience  to  the 
1,000  cubic  centimeter  mark,  and  then  introduced  the  charge  of  1  or 
more  kilos.  The  displacement  of  the  ore  was  noted  and  the  specific 
gravity  calculated  from  it.  Then  by  reference  to  my  chart,  which  was 
being  made  more  accurate  all  the  time  by  reason  of  the  various 
analyses  to  check  the  specific  gravity,  I  was  able  to  get  at  an  ex- 
tremely close  idea  of  the  content — so  close  in  fact,  that  I  latterly 
came  to  rely  more  on  it  than  on  analyses,  more  particularly  for  the 
reason  that  at  that  time  many  chemists  used  different  schemes  and 
there  were  many  discrepancies  between  them  for  a  time. 

Later  I  made  also  the  accompanying  table  of  specific  gravity  as 
against  WO    content  and  did  not  then  have  to  refer  to  the  chart. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  note  that  I  always  required  scheelite  ores 
to  be  clean- — that  is,  with  the  usually  accompanying  magnetite  re- 
moved, as  it  is  quite  evident  that  otherwise  my  specific  gravity  de- 
terminations would  have  been  vitiated. 

The  table  compiled  by  Mr.  Draper  and  Mr.  F.  H.  Lerchen  is  as 
follows: 


157 


PER  CENT  OF  TUXGSTEX   TRIOXIDE   INDICATED   BY    SPECIFIC   GRAV- 
ITY   OF    SCHEELITE    ORES    OF   THE    ATOLIA   FIELD 


c 

0) 

u 

u 

'o  > 

W  bn 

s 
s 

1—* 

Specific 
gravity. 

S 

'5  > 

M  Si 

OJ 
01 

3.00 

15.40 

4.77 

61.80 

5.19 

68.00 

1 

5.60 

73.20 

3.10 

18.40 

4.78 

62.00 

5.20 

68.10 

5.61 

73.30 

3.20 

1      21.20 

4.79 

62.00 

5.21 

68.20 

1      5.62 

73.40 

3.30 

1      24.50 

4.80 

62.10 

5.22 

68.40 

;      5.63 

73.50 

3.40 

1      28.00 

4.81 

62.20 

5.23 

68.50 

1      5.64 

73.60 

3.50 

31.20 

4.82 

62.40 

i      5.24 

68.60 

5.65 

73.70 

3.60 

1      34.00 

4.83 

62.80 

5.25 

68.70 

5.66 

73.80 

3.70 

37.00 

4.84 

63.00 

5.26 

69.00 

5.67 

73.90 

3.80 

39.60 

4.85 

63.20 

5.27 

69.10 

5.68 

74.00 

3.90 

1      42.20 

4.86 

63.30 

5.28 

69.20 

5.69 

74.10 

4.00 

44.80 

4.87 

63.40 

5.29 

69.40 

5.70 

74.20 

4.10 

47.30 

4.88 

63.60 

5.30 

69.60 

5.71 

74.32 

4.20 

49.60 

4.89 

63.70 

5.31 

69.70 

5.72 

74.44 

4.30 

1      51.60 

4.90 

63.80 

5.32 

69.80 

5.73 

74.56 

4.40 

1      54.00 

4.91 

64.10 

5.33 

70.00 

5.74 

74.68 

4.50 

56.20 

4.92 

64.20 

5.34 

70.10 

5.75 

74.80 

4.51 

56.40 

4.93 

64.30 

5.35 

70.20 

5.76 

74.92 

4.52 

56.70 

4.94 

64.40 

5.36 

70.40 

5.77 

75.04 

4.53 

57.00 

4.95 

64.50 

5.37 

70.60 

5.78 

75.16 

4.54 

57.30 

4.96 

64.70 

5.38 

70.70 

5.79 

75.28 

4.55 

57.50 

4.97 

64.80 

5.39 

70.80 

5.80 

75.40 

4.56 

1      57.60 

4.98 

65.00 

5.40 

71.00 

5.81 

75.54 

4.57 

57.80 

4.99 

65.20 

5.41 

71.10 

5.82 

75.68 

4.58 

58.00 

5.00 

65.40 

5.42 

71.20 

5.83 

75.82 

4.59 

58.20 

5.01 

65.50 

5.43 

71.30 

5.84 

75.96 

4.60 

58.40 

5.02 

65.60 

5.44 

71.40 

5.85 

76.10 

4.61 

58.60 

5.03 

65.80 

5.45 

71.50 

5.86 

76.24 

4.62 

59.00 

5.04 

66.00 

5.46 

71.60 

5.87 

76.38 

4^.63 

59.20 

5.05 

66.10 

5.47 

71.70 

5.88 

76.52 

4.64 

59.30 

5.06 

66.30 

5.48 

71.80 

5.89 

76.66 

4.65 

1       59.50 

5.07 

66.40 

5.49 

71.90 

5.90 

76.80 

4.66 

1      59.80 

5.08 

66.60 

5.50 

72.00 

5.91 

76.94 

4.67 

60.00 

5.09 

66.80 

5.51 

72.10 

5.92 

77.08 

4.68 

60.10 

5.10 

66.90 

5.52 

72.24 

5.93 

7.7 .  22 

4.69 

60.20 

5.11 

67.00  . 

5.53 

72.36 

5.94 

77.36 

4.70 

60.40 

5.12 

67.10 

1       5.54 

72.48 

5.95 

77.50 

4.71 

60.60 

5.13 

67.20 

5.55 

72.60 

5.96 

77.64 

4.72 

60.70 

5.14 

67.30 

5.56 

72.72 

5.97 

77.78 

4.73 

61.00 

5.15 

67.60 

j      5.57 

72.84 

5.98 

77.92 

4.74 

1      61.20 

5.16 

67.70 

1      5.58 

72.96 

5.99 

78.06 

4.75 

61.40 

5.17 

'      67.80 

I      5,59 

73.08 

6.00 

78.20 

4.76 

61.60 

1 

5.18 

1 

67.90 

1       • 
I 

1 

1 

Runner  (652)  (915a)  has  drawn  curves  showing  the  re- 
lation of  specific  gravity  and  tungstic  oxide  content  for  wolf- 
ramite from  a  number  of  localities.  The  results  from,  these 
curves  are  not  as  accurate  as  from  the  tables  worked  out  for 
particular  deposits,  as  in  the  preceding  methods. 

The  following  equation  given  by  Runner  can  be  applied  to 
the  ore  from  any  particular  field  and  tables  or  curves  of  spe- 
cific gravity  and  tungstic  oxide  content  can  be  worked  out. 

Assuming  the  density  (d)  of  the  gang  to  be  2.65,  of  wolframite 
to  be  7.35,  of  scheelite  to  be  6.0   and  the  WO     content  of  wolframite 


158 


I 


74.58  <;;<,  and  of  scheelite  80  7f,  the  WO  content  of  ores  is  computed 
by  means  of  the   following  formulas: 

(xXdj^j)  (100— X)  100X(do— d^j) 

dQ  = '"('^G'^ )  '^^    ^~ 

100  100  (^M"~^G^ 

where  x/100=:%  by  vol.  of  mineral  in  ore;  dQ  =  sp.  gr.  of  the  ore; 
djyj  =  sp.  gr.  of  the  pure  ore-mineral;  dQ  =  sp.  gr.  of  the  gang; 
xXd^j/do=:7c  by  wt.  of  mineral  in  ore  (W)  ;  WX%WO^  in  ore. 
minerals    =      7c  W  O         in       ore.  The       WO^       content       of        18 

ores  as  detd.  by  chemical  analysis  and  by  the  com- 
putation method  are  reported  in  a  table,  showing  a  mean  dif- 
ference (except  in  the  presence  of  SnO)  of  0.65%.  The  method  is 
not  applicable  to  ores  containing  cassiterite,  unless  the  content  of  the 
latter  is  constant  and  can  be  figured  with  the  gangue.  Runner  re- 
commends that  the  density  be  determined  by  means  of  a  pycnometer, 
using  rather  coarsely  ground  ore,  freshly  boiled  HO,  and  removing 
air  under  the  pump.  An  ordinary  flask  with  a  mark  on  neck  may 
be  used  for  less  accurate  determinations.  Curves  may  be  drawn 
showing  the  ratio  of  density  of  tungsten  minerals  to  the  richness  in 
WO  .  The  method  is  recommended  for  rapidly  obtaining  approximate 
results. 

In  all  of  these  specific  gravity  methods  the  assumption 
is  made  that  either  the  gangue  material  is  quartz,  or  rock 
of  low  specific  gravity,  and  that  it  remains  somewhat  con- 
stant. The  presence  of  heavy  minerals  such  as  cassiterite, 
barite  and  so  forth,  will  of  course,  vitiate  the  results.  It  is 
said  (915a)  that  one  dealer  was  ruined  in  1916  by  purchasing 
ore  on  the  specific  gravity  basis  which  had  been  "salted" 
with  barite. 


159 


PART  II. 
A  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  TUNGSTEN 

By  Miner  Louis  Hartmann 


INTRODUCTION 

The  phenomenal  rise  in  importance  of  tungsten  in  the 
last  few  years  has  created  a  demand  for  reliable  information 
concerning  this  metal.  The  literature  of  the  subject  is  widely 
scattered  thru  the  technical  periodicals  and  much  that  has 
been  written  is  merely  a  brief  restatement  of  facts  taken 
from  older,  more  complete  descriptions.  In  making  a  special 
study  of  the  subject  of  tungsten  during  the  last  three  years 
the  author  has  felt  the  need  of  a  bibliography,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages  is  presented  as  complete  a  list  of  references  as 
is  permitted  by  the  library  facilities  available. 

The  subject  has  been  divided  into  ten  general  sections, 
with  sub-divisions  as  follows: 

I.  Early  References. 

(a)  Earliest  references  to  wolfram. 

(b)  Important  early  references. 

II.  Preparation  of  tungsten  metal  and  its  important  com- 

mercial compounds. 

III.  Properties  of  tungsten. 

(a)  Physical  properties  of  the  metal. 

(b)  Chemical  behavior  of  the  metal. 

(c)  Atomic  weight. 

IV.  Uses  of  metallic  tungsten. 

(a)  Uses  of  tungsten  in  iron  alloys. 

(b)  Uses  of  tungsten  in  non-ferrous  alloys. 

(c)  Uses  of  tungsten  in  incandescent  lighting. 

(d)  Uses  and  preparation  of  ductile  tungsten. 

(e)  General  and  miscellaneous  uses  of  tungsten. 

160 


V.  Compounds  of  tungsten. 

(a)  Oxides. 

(b)  Acids. 

(c)  Tungstates. 

(d)  Bronzes. 

(e)  Tungsten  with  the  halogens. 

(f)  Tungsten  and  sulfur. 

(g)  Tungsten  and  nitrogen, 
(h)  Tungsten  and  hydrogen, 
(i)  Tungsten  and  phosphorus, 
(j)  Tungsten  and  arsenic. 

(k)  Tungsten  and  zirconium. 

(1)  Tungsten  and  aluminum, 

(m)  Tungsten  and  boron. 

(n)  Tungsten  and  carbon, 

(o)  Tungsten  and  silicon 

(p)  Organic  compounds. 

VI.  Analytical  chemistry  of  tungsten. 

(a)  Qualitative  detection. 

(b)  Quantitative  detection. 

(c)  Quantitative  determination  of  tungsten  in  ores. 

(d)  Quantitative  determination  of  tungsten  in  steel  and 
other  alloys. 

(e)  Analysis   of  metallic   tungsten   and   tungsten   com- 
pounds. 

(f)  Tungsten  compounds  as  reagents. 

(g)  Quantitative    separation    of    tungsten    from    other 
elements. 

1.  Arsenic  and  phosphorus. 

2.  Silicon. 

3.  Tin. 

4.  Molybdenum. 

5.  Vanadium. 

6.  Columbium  and  tantalum. 

7.  Titanium. 

8.  Antimony. 

9.  Manganese, 

10.     Miscellaneous  Separations. 

161 


VII.  Mineralogy  of  tungsten. 

VIII.  Geological  occurrence  of  tungsten  minerals. 

(a)  United  States. 

(1)  Alaska. 

(2)  Arizona. 

(3)  California. 

(4)  Colorado. 

(5)  Connecticut. 

(6)  Idaho. 

(7)  Missouri. 

(8)  Montana. 

(9)  Nevada. 

(10)  New  Mexico. 

(11)  Oregon. 

(12)  South  Dakota. 

(13)  Texas. 

(14)  Washington. 

(b)  Foreign. 

(1)  Australia. 

(2)  Bohemia. 

(3)  Burma. 

(4)  Canada. 

(5)  China  and  Japan. 
.    (6)  England. 

(7)  France. 

(8)  Germany. 

(9)  Greenland. 

(10)  Italy. 

(11)  Malay  States. 

(12)  New  Zealand. 

(13)  Portugal. 

(14)  Russia. 

(15)  South  Africa. 

(16)  South  America. 

(17)  Spain. 

(18)  Sweden. 

(c)  Miscellaneous  geological  references. 

IX.     Mining  and  milling  tungsten  ores. 

162 


X.     Miscellaneous. 

(a)  General  reviews. 

(b)  Miscellaneous  references  concerning  tungsten, 

(c)  Tungsten  production  and  markets. 

The  abbreviations  for  periodicals  are,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  same  as  those  used  in  "Chemical  Abstracts"  (See  Chemi- 
cal Abstracts  11,  pp.  VII-XXV,  1917).  The  volume  number  is 
given  first  in  bold  face  type,  followed  by  the  page  numbers, 
and  the  year  in  parenthesis.  In  case  the  series  is  given,  it  is 
placed  in  paranthesis,  preceding  the  volume  number;  parts  of 
volume  in  Roman  numerals  follow  the  volume  number.  In 
some  cases  where  the  exact  title  was  not  known  the  contents 
have  been  indicated  in  place  of  the  title. 

The  classification  of  references  has  necessarily  been 
made  largely  from  the  titles  rather  than  from  the  contents, 
but  as  far  as  possible,  cross  references  to  different  sections 
have  been  given  when  the  article  was  known  to  contain  in- 
formation relative  to  more  than  one  section.  Certain  refer- 
ences have  been  repeated  when  they  were  considered  very  im- 
portant in  more  than  a  single  section. 

The  patent  literature  has  been  omitted  entirely,  largely 
because  of  incomplete  library  facilities.  It  seemed  best  not 
to  publish  any  patent  references  unless  the  list  was  known  to 
be  fairly  complete. 

The  author  will  appreciate  any  corrections  or  additions 
to  the  following  list  of  references  to  the  literature  of  tung- 
sten. 

Rapid  City,  South  Dakota, 
May,  1918. 


163 


I.     EARLY  REFERENCES 


(A)      EARLIEST  REFERENCES  TO  WOLFRAM 

1.  Ercker,  Lazarus,  "Fleta  Minor."   1574    (German  treatise  on  as- 

saying, translated  by  Sir  John  Pettus.  16  83,  London).  Ref- 
erence  to   "wolfram". 

2.  Albinus,     P.      "Meissnische     Berg     Chi-onika,"     Dresden     1590. 

Reference  to  wolfram. 

3.  von   Schonberg,   A.      "Berg — Information"    Leipzig   1693. 

4.  Rossler,     Balthassar,     "Speculum    metallurgiae    politis.simLum." 

Dresden,    1700.      Reference   to   wolffert. 

5.  Cramer,    J.    A.      "Elementa   artis   docimasticae,"    Leyden    1739. 

Mentions  wolfram  as  a  mineral  occuring  in  tin  ores.  English 
translation   London    1741. 

6.  Henckel,  J.  F.  "Pyritologie,  or  a  History  of  the  Pyrites."  Lon- 

don   1757. 

7.  Pryce,  W.,  "Mineralogia  Cornubiensis,"  London   1778. 

8.  Rinman,    S.,    "Jerneto   Historia,"    Stockholm    1782. 

9.  Gurlt,    A.,    Etymology   of   name   Wolframite,    Trans.    Am.    Inst. 

Min.   Eng.   22,   237    (1892). 

1(b).      IMPORTANT   EARLY    REFERENCES. 

10.  Scheele,  C.  W.,  Kong.  Vet.  Akad.  Handl.   1781,   89. 

11.  de  Elhujar,  Freres,  Memoir  on  the  nature  of  wolfram  and  the 

new  metal  which  enters  into  its  composition.  L'Academle 
Royale  des  Sciences,  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres  de  Toul- 
ouse,   1784. 

12.  Kirwan,  R.     Elements  of  Mineralogy.      London,   1784. 

13.  Scheele,  C.  W.     Chemical  essays,  Vol.  2,   119;   English  transla- 

tion by  J.  Murray,  London  1786;  reissued  London  1901, 
Scott,  Greenwood  and  Company. 

14.  de  Elhujar,  Gebruder,  Chemical  composition  of  wolfram.  Ger- 

man  translation   by   Gren,    Halle,    17  86. 

15.  Duhamel  du  Monceau,  H.   L.  Encyclopedia  Methodique.  Vol.   1, 

Paris,    178  6. 
15a.      Vauquelin,  L.  N.      Journ.  des  Mines,  4,  5. 

16.  Richter,   J.    B.      On   the   newer   subjects   of   chemistry.      Books 

(German)    1791-1802.     Vol.  1  and  10. 
16a.      Ruprecht.      Ann.    chim.    phys.   8,    3    (1791). 

17.  Klaproth,   M.   H.      Contribution  to  the  chemical   knowledge   of 

minerals.      Berlin  and   Stettin,   1795-1815,  Vol.    3,  p.   44. 

18.  Vauquelin,  L.  N.  and  Hecht,  J.  des  Mines,  19,  p.  3. 

19.  Buchholz,  J.  F.   Chem.  u.  Physik,    (Schweigger)   3,   1    (1811). 
19a.      Berzelius,  J.   J.      Ann.  Phil.  3,   245    (1814). 

164 


19b.      Allen  and   Aiken.      Encycl.   Meth.  6,   311    (1815). 

20.  Berzelius,  J.  J.  J.   F.   Chem.   u.  Physik,    (Schweigger)    16,   476 

(1816). 

21.  Berzelius,    J.    J.    On    the   composition   of   tungstic    acid.      Ann. 

Chim.  Phys.    (2)    17,   13-6    (1821). 

22.  Wohler.  F.  Pogg.      Ann.  2,  3'45    (1824). 

23.  Margueritte,  M.  J.   Pharm.    (3)    7,   222. 

24.  Berzellius,  J.   J.      Pogg.   Ann.  8,   147    (1825). 

25.  Berzellius,   J.   J.      Pogg.   Ann.   8,   267    (1826). 
25a.      Berthier.      Ann.  chim.   phys.    44    (1834). 

26.  Malaguti,   M.   J.      On  the  existence  of  intermediate  oxides  and 

clilorides  of  tungsten.  Ann.  Chim.  Phys.  II  60,  271-290 
(1835));  Compt.  rend.  1,  292  (1835).  J.  Prakt.  Chem.  8, 
179-194    (1836). 

26a.      Laurent,  A.      Ann.   chim.   phys.  67,    219    (1838). 

26b.      De   la   Rive   a    Marcet.      Ann.    chim.    phys.    75,    113. 

27.  Mitscherlich,    E.       Textbook    of    chemistry.       German,    1844-7, 

Vol.    2,    p.    536. 
27a.      Margueritte.      Ann.  chim.   phys.  21,  62    (1847). 
27b.      Laurent,   A.      Ann.    chim.    phys.    17,    477    (1846). 

28.  Laurent,   A.      Re.searches  on  tungsten.      Ann.    chim.    phys.    (3) 

21.    54-68    (1847). 
28a.      Desprez.      Compt.  rend.  20,   549    (1849). 
28b.      Schneider.      J.  prakt.  chem.  50,  154    (1850). 
28c.      Marchand.      Ann.   77,   263    (1851). 
28d.      Wohler,  F.      Nachr.  Ges.  Wiss.  Getting,  1850,  No.   3. 

29.  Wohler,   F.      Ann.   77,    262    (1851). 

30.  von    Borch,    (Investigations   on   tungsten),    Oefvers    af.    k.    Vet. 

Akad.   Fork   1851,   149. 

31.  Persoz,    M.    J.       (Studies   on   tungsten)    Compt.    rend.    34,    135 

(1852). 
3  2.      Juno.    (Metallic  tung.sten)    L'Institute,   1853. 
3  2a.      Wright.      Ann.   70,   221    (1853). 

33.  Wohler,   F.      Metallic  tungsten,  Ann.   94,   25  5-6    (1855). 

34.  Wittstein,  Repertorium  f.  d.  Pharm.  73,   82. 

3  5.      Riche,    A.      Re.searches    on   tungsten   and   its   compounds,    Ann. 

chim.   phys.    (3)    50,    5-80    (1857). 
36.      Bernoulli,  F.  A.     Tungsten  and  some  of  its  compounds.      Pogg 

Ann.   Ill,   576    (1860). 
36a.      Geuther  and   Forsberg.      Ann.   120,    270    (1862). 
3  7.      Persoz,   M.   J.      Studies  on  tungsten.      Ann.   chim.   phys.    (4)    1, 

93-115    (1864);    Compt.    rend.    58,    1196    (1864). 
3  8.      Zettnow,  Pogg.  Ann.  130,  45    (1867). 


165 


II.     PREPARATION    OF    TUNGSTEN    METAL    AND    ITS 
COMMERCIAL  COMPOUNDS 


3  9.  Uslar.  Contribution  to  the  knowledge  of  tungsten  and  moly- 
bdenum. Dissertation.  Gottingen,  18  55;  Ann.  94,  255 
(1855). 

3  9a.      Buckholz.       (Preparation  of  tungsten.)    Pogg.   Ann.    1860  III, 

576. 

40.  Moissan,    H.      (Reduction    of    tungstic    acid    by    carbon    in    the 

electric  furnace).      Compt.   rend.    73,    13    (1872). 

41.  Jean.       (Preparation    of   metallic    tungsten)     Ann.    chim,    anal. 

appl.    9,    321;    Compt.   rend.   81,    95    (1875). 

42.  Filsinger.       Preparation     of    metallic     tungsten...     Chem.     Ind. 

1878,   229. 

43.  Siemans,    C.    W.    and    Huntington,    A.    K.      Chem.    N.    46,    164 

(1882). 

44.  Riddle,   R.   N.      Craystallized  tungsten.      Am.   J.    Sci.   38,    160-1 

(1889).    - 
44a.      Seubert  and  Schmidt.      (Preparation  of  tungsten)      Ann.  267, 
218    (1890). 

4  5.      Sternberg,  A.   and  Leutch,   A.      Production  of  tungsten...   Ber. 

26,    902    (1893). 

46.  Moissan,   H.      Preparation  of  refractory  metals   in  the   electric 

furnace.      Compt.  rend.   116,   1225-7    (1893). 
46a.      Krieg.      (Metallic   tungsten.)      Z.  angew.   chem.    1893,   50. 

47.  Warren,   H.   N.      Reduction  of  refractory'   earths   by  hydrogen. 

Chem.   News.   70,   10  2    (1894). 

48.  Street,  E.  A.  G.      (Reduction  of  tungsten  oxide  in  the  electric 

fui'uace).      Mon.   Sci.    (4)    9,  623    (1895). 

49.  Moissan.  H.     Researches  on  tungsten.     Compt.  rend.  123,  13-6 

(1896). 

50.  Defacqz,   E.      Electric  preparation  of  metallic  tungsten.  Comp. 

rend.   123,   1288    (1896). 

51.  Warren,    H.    N.       Calcium    carbide;     a    new     reducing    agent. 

Chem.  News.  75,  2    (1897). 
51a.      Gin,   G.       (Ferro-tung.sten)    Compt.   rend.   25,   213    (1897). 

52.  Goldschmidt,  H.  and  Vautin,   C.     Aluminiun  as  a  heating  and 

reducing  agent...  J.   See.   Chem   Ind.   17,   543    (1898). 

53.  Goldschmidt,  H.  A  new  method  of  obtaining  liigh  temperatures 

and   the  preparation  of   very  refractory   carbon   free    metals. 
Z.  Elektrochem.  4,  494    (1898). 

54.  Hallopeau,  L.  A.     Production  of  crystalline  tungsten  by  elec- 

trolysis.     Bull.    soc.    chim.     (3)     19,    997-8     (1898);    Compt. 
rend.  127,  755. 

166 


5  5.      Borchersc,  W.     Notes  on  the  metallurgy  of  tungsten.      Mineral 

Ind.  8,  632    (1S99). 

56.  Kupelwieser,  F.      (Prepjiration  of  metallic  tungsten).    Oesterr. 

Z.   Berg.-Huttenw.   47   No.    12    (1899). 

57.  Stavenhagen,  A.     Preparation  of  tungsten  by  use  of  liquid  air. 

Ber.   32,    1513-6,    3064    (1899);    Compt.   rend.    127,    755. 

58.  Holloway,    G.    T.    and    Lake,    H.    W.      Preparation   of   tungsten 

and  its  alloys.     J.   Sec.  Chem,  Ind.   19,   542    (1900). 

59.  Delepine,  M.     The  reduction  of  tungstic  oxide  by  zinc  for  the 

preparation  of  pure  tungsten.      Bull.  See.  Chim.   (3)   23,  675; 
Compt.  rend.  131,  184-7    (1900). 

60.  Reichard,    C.      Reduction   of   the   acids   of   titanium,   vanadium, 

tungsten  and  molybdenum.      Chem.   Zeit.  27,   1-5    (1903). 

61.  Arrivant,  G.      Pure  alloys  of  tungsten  and  manganese  and  the 

preparation  of  tungsten.      Compt.   rend.    143,    594-6    (1906). 

62.  Burger,  A.     Reduction  by  calcium.     Dissertation,  Basel  (1907). 

63.  Gin.   G.      Method  of  decomposition  of  tungsten  ores.    Oesterr. 

Z.  Berg-Huttenw.  55,  81    (1907). 

64.  Martin,    A.      Preparation   of   metallic    tungsten.      Dissertation, 

Munchen,    (1908). 

65.  Nicolardot,  P.     Early  metallurgy  of  tungsten.      Rev.   metal.  5, 

9-24,    (1908). 

66.  Prandtl,  W.  and  Bleyer,  B.     Preparation  of  metallic  tungsten. 

Z.  anorg.  chem.  64,   223    (1909). 

6  7.      Pring,   J.   N.   and   Fielding,   W.      Preparation  at  high  tempera- 

ture of  some  refractory  metals  from  their  chlorides."  J.  Chem. 

Soc.  95,   1497    (1909). 
68.      Weiss,  L.,  Martin,  A.  and  Stimmelmayr,  A.     Metallic  tungsten. 

Z.  anorg.  Chem.  65,   279-340    (1910). 
6  9.      Wohler  and  Engels.      Colloidal  tungsten.      Z.   Elektrochem.  16, 

693    (1910). 

70.  Muller,   A.      Colloidal  tungsten,  .   Z.   Chem.   Ind.   Kolloide.      8, 

93    (1911). 

71.  Erhard,  G.     The  production  of  metallic  tungsten.     Metallurgie. 

9,  441-6    (1912). 

72.  Anon.      Methods  of  treating  tungsten  ores    (Becket's  process). 

Eng.  Mining  J.  98,  16    (1914). 

73.  Anon.     Progress  in  the  metallurgy  of  tungsten...  Elektrochem. 

Z.  22,  110,   146    (1915). 

74.  Kremer,   D.      Tungsten.      Engineering.    102,    6  23    (1916). 

75.  Anon.     Preparation  of  tungstic  metals...  Mining  Sci.  Press.  112, 

134    (1916). 

76.  Baughman,    W.     Methods    of    treating    impure    tungsten    ore. 

Mining  Sci.  Press.   114,   800    (1917). 

77.  Anon.     Tungsten  manufacturing  works  at  Widnes.     Engineer- 

ing. 104,  432-4   (1917). 


167 


III.     PROPERTIES  OF  TUNGSTEN 


(A)    PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES   OF   METALLIC    TUNGSTEN 

77a.      Regnault.       (Specific    heat.)       Ann.    chim.    phys.     (2)     73,    48 

(1840). 
77b.      Zettnow.      Pogg.    Ann.    Ill,    16    (1860). 
77c.      Regnault.       (Specific    heat)      Ann.     chim.     phys.     (3)     63,     23 

(1861). 
See  also  under  IVd  and  V. 

78.  Thalin.       Spark    Spectra.      Nova    Acta    Soc.    Upsal.     (3)     6,    68 

(1868). 
78a.      Schroder.      (Volume  constitution  of  solid  bodies)      Ann.    173, 
71-5    (1874). 

79.  Lockyer.       Arc    Spectra.       Trans.    Camb.    Phil.     Soc.    173,     561 

(1881). 

80.  Donath,    E.    and    Mayrhofer.      Atomic   volume.      Ber.    16,    1588 

(1883). 

81.  Vogel.      Practical  spectroscopy.      Berlin,    1889. 

8  2.      Traube,  M.       (Atomic  volume  of  tungsten).  Z.  anorg.  Chem.  8, 

12    (1895). 

83.  Grodspeed,  A.  W.  and  Smith,  E.  F.     The  specific  heat  of  tung- 

sten.     Z.   anorg.   Chem.   8,    207-12    (1895). 

84.  Meyer.      Magnetic   properties   of   tungsten.      Wied.    Ann.    Phys. 

u.   Chem.   68,   324;    Monatsh.  20,    369    (1899). 

85.  Rydbert.      The   hardness    of    the    elements.      Z.    physik.    Chem. 

33,    353    (1900). 

86.  Defacqz,    E.    and   Guichard,    M.      The      determination      of      the 

specific  heat  of  tungsten  and  molybdenum.     Ann.  chem.  phys. 
(7)    24,    139-44     (1901). 

87.  Hasselberg,      The  spectrum  of  tungsten.      Kgl.   Sv.  Vet.   Akad. 

Handl.  38,    (1904). 

88.  Moissan,  H.     The  ebullition  and  distillation  of  tungsten   (etc.) 

Compt.   rend.   142,   425-30;    Bull.   soc.   chim.   35,   944    (1906). 

89.  Waidner,    C.    W.    and    Burgess,    G.    K.      The   melting   point   of 

tungsten  and  tantalum.     Bur.  Standards  Bull.  2,  319    (1906). 

90.  Wartenberg,    H.    von.      The    melting    point    of    pure    tungsten. 

Ber.  40,  3287-91   (1907). 

91.  Pollack.  '  Spectra   of   solutions    of   tungsten.      Proc.    Roy.    Soc. 

Dublin   1907,  185. 

9  2.      Nrodmeyer,    P.    and    Bernoulli,    A.    L.      Specific   heats   between 

—  185°   and  _j_  20°   C.  Ber.   physik.   Ges.   5,   175    (1907). 
93.      Zeeman,   P.      The  spectrum  of  tungsten  in  the  magnetis  field. 
Arch.  Neerland  sci.  13,  260    (1908). 

168 


94.  Coblentz,   W.   W.      Radiation   constants  of  metals.      Bur.    Stan- 

dards  Bull.   5,   372    (1909). 

95.  Coblentz,   W.    W.      The  thermo-electric   properties   of   tungsten 

and  tantalum.     Bur.  Standards  Bull.  6,   107-10    (1909). 

96.  Stock,  J.     Asynietric  triplets  in  the  tungsten  spectrum,    Physik. 

Z.  10,  694-7    (1909). 

97.  Jack,   R.      The  Zeeman  effect   with  tungsten   and  molybdenum. 

Ann.  phys.    (4)   28,  1032-66    (1909). 

98.  Eder,   J.   M.   and   Valenta,    E.      The  spark  .spectra   of  tungsten. 

Ber.  Wien.  Akad.  (Ila)  118,  1098  (1909);  (Ila)  119,  606 
(1910). 

99.  Ruff,  O.  and  Goecke,  O.     The  melting  point  of  tungsten,      Ber. 

43,   1564    (1910). 

100.  Wartenberg,    H.    von.      Optical    constants   of    certain    elements. 

Verb.  deut.  physik.  Ges.   12,  105    (1910). 

101.  Pirani,    M.   von.      The  melting  point   of  tungsten.   Verb.    deut. 

Physik.  Ges.  12,  301    (1910). 

102.  Coblentz,    W.    W.       The    reflecting    power    of    tungsten     (etc.) 

Phys.  Rev.  30,   645-7;    J.   Frank.   Inst.   170,   169    (1910). 

103.  Honda,    K.       Thermomagnetic    properties    of    tungsten.       Ann. 

phys.    (4)    32,   1027    (1910). 

104.  Pirani,  M.  von  and  Meyer,  A.  R.      The  melting  points  of  tung- 

sten and  molybdenum,      Ber.  Physik.   Ges.   14,   4  26-8    (1912). 

105.  Corbino,   O.    M.      Thermal   constants   of  tungsten  at  high  tem- 

perature. Atti.  accad.  Lincei.  21  (1)  18  8-94;  346-51 
(1912). 

106.  Langmulr,  I.     The  vapor  pressure  of  metallic  tungsten.      Phys. 

Rev.   2,   329-42    (1912). 

107.  Lohse,  Ultraviolet    spectrum    of    tungsten.      Publik.    Astro- 

phys.  Observ.  Pottsdam  No.    41,  p.   161. 

108.  Worthing,  A.   G.      The  variation  from  Lambert's  cosine  law  of 

emission  from  tungsten  and  carbon  at  glowing  temperature. 
Proc.  Am.  Phys.  Soc.  35,  7  6-7;  Elec.  Rev.  West.  Elec.  62, 
706    (1913). 

109.  Northrup,    E.    F.      Tungsten    and    molybdenum — their    thermal 

electromotive  force.      Met.   Chem.   Eng.    11,    4  5    (1913). 

110.  Richardson,  O.  W.     The  emission  of  electrons  from  tungsten  at 

high  temperature.  Phil.  Mag.  26,  354-50;  Science.  38,  57- 
61;   Physik.  Z.   14,   793-6    (1913). 

111.  Pirani,    M.    von.      Specific    resistance   and   ab.sorptiv.e    power    of 

tungsten  at  high  temperature.      Physik.  Z.   13,   753-4    (1913). 

112.  Broglie,    M.    de.      The    X-Kay    spectrum    of    tungsten.      Compt. 

rend.    157,    1413-16    (1913). 

113.  Langmuir,  I.     The  vapor  pressure  of  metallic  tungsten.  Physik. 

Z.    14,   1273-80    (1914). 

169 


114.  Worthing,  A.   G.      The  themal  conductivities  of  tungsten,   tan- 

talum and  carbon  at  incandescent  temperatures  by  an  optical 
pyrometer  method.     Phys.  Rev.  4,   535    (1914). 

115.  Herweg,    J.      The   X-Ray    spectrum    of   tung.sten.      Verh.    deut. 

physik.  Ges.  16,  73-8    (1914). 

116.  Worthing,   A.   G.      Thomson  effects   in  tungsten,   tantalum   and 

carbon    at    incandescent    temperatures,    dettermined    by    an 
optical  pyrometer  method.     Phys.  Rev.  5,  445-51    (1915). 

117.  Smith,    K.    K.       Negative    thermionic    currents    from    tungsten. 

Phil.  Mag.  29,  802-22    (1915). 

118.  Richrads,    J.    W.    and   Bartlett,    E.    P.      The    compressibility   of 

tungsten.     J.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  37,  470-81    (1915). 

119.  Langmuir,   I.      Pure  electron  discharge  for  wireless  telegraphy 

and    telephony.      Gen.    Elec.    Rev.    18,    3  27;    Electrician.    75, 
240    (1915). 

120.  Langmuir,    I.      The  melting  point  of  tungsten.      Phys.   Rev.   6, 

138-57    (1915). 

121.  Barnes,  J.     High  frequency  spectrum  of  tungsten.      Phil.   Mag. 

30,  368-70    (1915). 

122.  Worthing,    A.    G.      The    true    temperature    scale    for    tungsten 

and   its    emissive   ijowers    at   incandescent   temperatures.      J. 
Frank.   Inst.   181,   417-8    (1916). 

123.  Compton,  A.  H.      X-ray  spectrum  of  tungsten.      Phys.  Rev.    (2) 

7,   498-9    (1916). 

124.  Siegbahn,    M.    and   Freman,    E.      High   frequency    spectrum    of 

tungsten.     Ann.   Physik.  49,   616-24;    J.   Chem.   Soc.   110,  II. 
362;   Physik.  Z.  17,  176-8;   Phil.  Mag.  32,  39-49    (1916). 

12  5.      Compton,  A.  H.     High  frequency  spectmm  of  tungsten.     Phys. 

Rev.    (2)    7,   646-59    (1916). 

126.  Sieg,   L.   P.      The   torsional  elasticity   of   drawn   tungsten   Avire. 

Phys.  Rev.   9,  337    (1916). 

127.  Moeller,  and  Hoffmann,       The  heat  of  combustion  of  tungsten. 

Z.  Elekstrochem.  21,  511    (1916). 

128.  Hyde,  E.  P.,  Cady,  F.  E.  and  Forsythe,  W.  E.     Color  tempera- 

ture scales  for  tungsten  and  carbon."     J.    Frank.    Inst.    181, 
418-30    (1916). 

129.  Hull,    A.    W.    and    Rice,    M.      The   liigh   frequency   .spectrum   of 

tungsten.     Proc.  Nat.  Acad.   Sci.  2,   26  5-70    (1916). 

13  0.      Hull,    A     W.      The   X-Ray   specti-um   of   tungsten.      Gen.    Elec, 

Rev.  July    (1916). 

131.  Gorton,  W.  S.     The  X-Ray  spectrum  of  tungsten.     Phys.  Rev. 

7,   203-8    (1916). 

132.  Dodge,   H.    L.      The  effect  of   temperature   on   the   elasticity   of 

tungsten.     Iowa  Acad.  Sci.    (1916). 

133.  Dershem,  E.     The  tungsten  X-Ray  si>ectrum.     Iowa  Acad.  Sci. 

(1916). 

170 


13  4.  Broglie,  M.  de.  Higlily  penetrating  radiations  for  tungsten. 
Compt.  rend.  162,  596-7    (1916). 

13  5.  Luckey,  G.  P.  The  tungsten  arc  under  pressure.  Phys.  Rev. 
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136.  Ledoux-Lebard,  R.  and  Dauvillier,  A.  The  K  series  spectra  of 
tungsten  and  the  excitation  of  X-Rays  from  the  point  of  view 
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13  7.  Ledoux-Lebard,  R.  and  Dauvillier,  A.  The  li  series  spectra  of 
the  elements  of  high  atomic  weight.  Compt.  rend.  164,  687- 
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13  8.  Dershem,  B.  Wave  lengths  of  the  tungsten  X-ray  spectrum. 
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13  9.      Worthing,   A.   G.      Thermal  e.xpansin  of  tungsten  at  high  tem- 
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See  also  under  I. 


171 


Ill(b)  CHEMICAL  BEHAVIOR  OF  METALLIC  TUNGSTEN 


140.  Smith,    E.    F.      On   the   reactions   of  metallic   molybdenum   and 

tungsten  on  solutuions  of  silver,  gold  and  other  metals.      Z. 
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141.  Smith,    E.    F.    and    Oberholtzer,    A.      The    action    of   gasses    on 

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142.  Ehrenfeld,  C.   H.      Study  of  the  chemical  behavior  of  tungsten 

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143.  Delepine,  M.  and  Hallopeau,  L.  A.     On  the  heat  of  oxidation  of 

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144.  Sackur,  O.     Passivity  of  tungsten.     Chem.  Zt.  28,  954    (1904). 

145.  Muthmann,    W.      Passivity   of   tungsten.      Z.    Elektrochem.    10, 

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147.  Matignon,   C.   and   Desplantes,   G.      Oxidation  of   metals   in   the 

cold    in    presence     of     ammonia.       Compt.     rend.     140,     853 
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148.  LeBlanc,    M.   and   Byers.    H.    G.      Anodic  behavior  of  tungsten. 

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150.  Fischer,    A.      Electrochemistry    of   tungsten    and   uranium.      Z. 

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151.  Koerner,   W.    E.      The  electrolytic  behavior  of  tungsten.      Met. 

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152.  Koerner,  W.   E.      The  electrolytic  behavior  of  tungsten.      Met. 

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See  also  under  I.  and  V. 


172 


Ill  (c)  ATOMIC  WEIGHT  OF  TUNGSTEN 


153.  Wohler,    F.       The    equivalent    weight    of    tungsten.       Am.    77, 

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154.  Dumas,  M.  J.      The  equivalent  of  tungsten.      Ann.  chim.  Phys. 

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156.  Waddell,    J.   Atomic    weight    of    tungsten.       Trans.    Roy.    Soc. 

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157.  Smith,  E.   F.  and  Desi,  E.  D.      Z.  anorg.  Chem.  8,   205    (1895). 
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158.  Shinn,  O.  L.     Thesis,  Univ.  of  Pa.   (1896);  J.  Am.  Chem.  Soc 

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159.  Hardin,  W.  L.     J.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  19,  657   (1897). 

160.  Smith,    E.    F.    and    Hardin,    W.    L.       J.    Am.    Chem.    Soc.    21, 

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161.  Thomas,    G.    E.      J.   Am.    Chem.    Soc.   21,    373    (1899);    Thesis, 

Univ.  of  Pa.    (1898). 

162.  Taylor,  T.  M.     Thesis,  Univ.  of  Pa.   (1901). 

163.  Smith,  E.  F.  and  Exner,  F.  F.     J.  Am.   Chem.   Soc.  26,   1082; 

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See  also  under  I. 


173 


IV.     USES   OF   METALLIC   TUNGSTEN 


(A)  USES  OF  TUNGSTEN  IN  IRON  ALLOYS 

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168.  Le  Guen.      Tung-sten  iron.      Compt.   rend.  56,   593    (18  63). 

169.  Percy,  J.     Metallurgy  of  Ii-on  and  Steel.     Book,  London,  1864. 

170.  Le  Guen.     Influence  of  tungsten  on  the  properties  of  cast  iron. 

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171.  Le   Guen.      Tungsten  .steel  as  ordnance  material.      Ann.   chem. 

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172.  Le  Guen.     Tung.sten  steel.     Compt.  rend.  61,  593    (1866). 

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175.  Kellermann.      Tungsten    steel.      Deut.    Ind.    Ztg.     1872,    127. 

176.  Kick.      Tung.sten  steel.      Deut.   Ind.  Ztg.   1872,   3  46. 

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178.  Gruner.      Mushet's   special   steel.      Bull.    soc.    encour.    ind.    nat. 

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186.  Heppe,   G.      Industrial   uses   of   tungsten.      Oest.-ung.    Mont.    u. 

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187.  Osmond,  F.      Influence  of  tungsten  on  iron  and  steel.      Compt. 

rend.   104,   986    (1887). 

174 


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189.  Osmond,  F.     The  citical  points  of  iron  and  steel.     J.  Iron  Steel 

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190.  Osmond,  F.      Influence  of  tungsten  on  iron  and  steel.      Compt. 

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191.  Poleck,   T.   and   Grutzner,   B.      Crj'stallized  iron-tungsten  alloy. 

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193.  Langley,    J.    W.      The   properties    of   steel    (including   tungsten 

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194.  Bedford,  J.     On  tungsten.     Book,  Sheffield    (1893). 

195.  De   Benneville,   J.    S.      Some   alloys  of  iron  with  molyhdenum, 

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196.  Blair,  T.     Tungsten  iUloys.     Paper  before  Sheffield  Society  of 

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200.  De  Benneville,  J.   S.      The  .study  of  some  alloys  with  iron  car- 

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202.  Leepin,    V.      Tungsten.      Russ.    Min.    Jour.     (1897);     Iron    and 

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203.  Norton,  T.  H.     Alloy  of  tungsten  and  iron.     J.  Am.  Chem.  Soc. 

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204.  Helmhacker,    R.      Relative   resistance   of   tungsten    and   niolyb- 

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317.  Moissan,    H.    and    Kuznetzow,    A.      Chromium-tungsten-carbide. 

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329.  Fahrenwald,   F.    A.      The   development   of   practical   substitutes 

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343.  Laring,   G.      Tungsten  and  other  lamps.      J.   Frankl.   Inst.    167, 

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349.  Howell,   J.   W.      Metal   filament  lamps.      Proc.   Am.    Inst.    Elec. 

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3  54.  Grau,  Short  survey  of  the  development  of  the  incandes- 
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3  5  5.  Miller,  W.  H.  The  tung.sten  lamp  situation  in  France. 
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3  5  6.  Anon.  The  Brimsdown  metal  lamp  works.  Electrician, 
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35  7.  Vallet,  C.  Advantages  of  metallic  filaments.  L'Electrl- 
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364.  Merrill,    G.     S.       New    metallic    filament    lamps.       J.     Frankl. 

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365.  Anon.        The     development     of     the     tungsten     incandescent 

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366.  Hutchinson,      R.      W.        High      efficiency      electrical      illumin- 

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Rev.      (London)     71,     471-3      (1912). 
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3  8  4.  Muller,  A.  New  developments  in  the  production  of  duc- 
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3  8  5.  Boehm,  C.  R.  Filaments  made  of  colloidal  tungsten. 
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386.  Kuzel,     H.      Filaments    made    of    colloidal     tungsten.      Z.     Be- 

leuchtung.   19,    492;    Chem.    Ztg.   37,    1431    (1913). 

387.  Weber,   C.   H.      Metal   filament  lamps.      Book.   Leipzig,   1914. 

388.  Muller,     A.      Pressed    tungsten    filaments.      Z.     angew.     Chem. 

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3  8  9.  Mueller,  N.  L.  The  manufacture  and  properties  of  metal 
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390.  Mackay,  G.  M.  J.  Characteristics  of  gas  filled  tungsten  lamps. 
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3  91.  Howell,  J.  W.  The  manufacture  of  drawn  wire  tungsten 
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392.  Glazebrook,  R.  F.  and  Patterson,  C.  C.  Experiments  on  tung- 
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3  93.  Duschnitz,  B.  The  nitrogen  filled  tungsten  lamp;  its  manu- 
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3  9  4.  Anon.  The  making  of  "Wotan"  and  tantalum  lamps.  Elec- 
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3  9  5.  von  Pirani,  M.  and  Meyer,  A.  R.  The  new  gas  filled  tung- 
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3  9  6.  Dailey,  E.  J.  Recent  incandescent  lamp  developments.  Elec. 
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3  9  7.      Hamburger,    L.      Effects    of    small    quantities    of   methane    and 

carbon   monoxide   upon   the   life   of   nitrogen-tungsten   lamps. 
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398.  Gimlngham,   E.   A.   and   Mullard,   S.   R.    (Enclosed  tungsten  arc 

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399.  Langmuir,  I.      The  characteristics  of  tungsten  filaments.      Gen. 

Elec.    Rev.    March,    1916;    Physical    Rev.    7,    302-30     (1916). 

4  00.      Eisler,   C.      Tungsten  lamp  manufacture.      Machinery.  23,   3  21- 

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401.      Anon.      Early  history  of  the. tungsten  lamp       Elec.   Rev.   West. 

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40  2.      Bottger,  W.      Manufacture  of  filiform  tungsten  crystals.  Chem. 

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See  also  IV  d. 
IV (d).      USES   AND  PREPARATIOX   OF   DUCTILE   TUNGSTEN. 
403.      Fink,   C.    G.      Ductile  tungsten  and  molybdenum.      Trans.   Am. 

Electrochem.    Soc.    17,    229-34    (1910);    Met.    Chem.    Eng.   8, 

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184 


404.  Coolidge,    W.    D.      Ductile    tungsten.      Proc.    Am.     Inst.     Elec. 

Eng.  29.  n,   961-5    (1910);    Elec.   World.   50,   1368    (1910); 
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405.  Anon.      Ductile  tungsten.      Elec.   World.  57,   627    (1911). 

406.  Ruff,     O.      The    production    of    ductile    tung.sten.      Z.     angew. 

Chem.  25,   1899-1897    (1912). 

407.  Mueller,  N.   L.      Tungsten  and  the  liistory  of  its   ductili/.ation. 

Z.  angew.   Chem.   26,   404-7,   422-3    (1912). 

408.  Kruh,   O.      The  production  of  drawn   tungsten   wire.      Ijlektro- 

techn.  Maschinenb.  31,  313-9,  338-42    (1913). 

409.  Moore,  R.  W.      Ductile  tungsten.      Met.   Chem.   Eng.    12,   186-7 

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410.  "St."      Manufacture  of  tungsten  wire.      Elektrotech.   36,   477-8 

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411.  Anon.      Manufacture  of  drawn  tungsten  wire.      Electrician.  76, 

633-4    (1916). 
See  also  II  and  IV  c. 

IV (e).      GENERAL   AND    MISCELLANEOUS    USES   FOR   METALLIC 

TUNGSTEN. 

412.  Walter,   L.    H.      The  metal   tungsten   as   a   valve  electrode.      J. 

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413.  Limb,    C.       (Tungsten   as    anode   in    a    mercury   lamp).      Acad. 

Sci.  30,  January  1911;   L'  Ind.  elec.  20,  120    (1911). 

414.  Fischer,  F.'and  Tiede,   E.      Tungsten  electrical  resistance  fur- 

nace.     Ber.   44,    171     (1911). 

415.  Coolidge,  W.   D.      Some  applications  for  Avroiight  tungsten  and 

molybdenum.      J.    Ind.   Eng.   Chem.   4,   2-4    (1912). 

416.  Vasselin,    R.      Tungsten    projectiles.      Bull.    Soc.    encour.    ind. 

nat.   121,  220    (1912). 

417.  Fink  C.   G.      Applications  of  ductile  tungsten.      8th   Int.    Cong. 

Appl.  Chem.  26,  503    (1912). 

418.  Coolidge,    W.    D.      3Ietallic   tungsten   and   some   of   its   applica- 

tions.     Proc.  Am.   Inst.   Elec.   Eng.  31  I,   1219-2  9    (1912). 

419.  Coolidge,     W.     D.      A    powerful     X-ray     tube,      Phys.     Rev.     2, 

409    (1912). 
4  20.      Baumhauer,    H.    F.      Tungsten    and    its    technical    applications. 
Bayer.    Ind.    Gewerbebl.    1912,    141;    L'Industrie.    26,     414; 
Ind.  Chim.  12,  343-4. 

421.  Anon.      Tungsten    shells.      Z.     ges.     Schiess.     Sprengstoffw.     7, 

207    (1912). 

422.  Skinner,  R.  P.      Tungsten  and  its  uses.      Daily  Consular  Trade 

Reports.    15,    793    (1913). 

423.  Kruger,    R.      Colloidal    tungsten    as    substitute   for   bismuth    in 

Roetgen    sketches    of    the    gastro-intestinal     canal.      Munch. 
Med.   Wochenschr.  59,  1910    (1913). 

185 


424.  Fink,    C.    G.      Applications   of   ductile   tungsten.      J.    Ind.    Eng. 

Chem.  5,  8;   Met.  Chem.  Eng.  10,  580,   684    (1913). 

425.  Coolidge,  W.  D.      Roetgen  ray  research.      The  use  of  tungsten 

for  the  target.      Met.  Chem.  Eng.  10,  146    (1913). 

426.  Vasselin,  R.      Tungsten  projectiles.      Rev.  d'Artillerie.  83,  3  43- 

50;   Rev.   Met.   11,  II,  769    (1914). 

427.  Jardine,     R.      Valves    of    tungsten    steel.      Autocar    33,     127-9 

(1914). 

428.  Chapman,   S.   and  Bryant,   W.   W.      Wire   suspensions   for  mag- 

netometers.     Nature.  92,   585    (1914). 

429.  Dushman,   S.      A  new  device  for  rectifying  high-tension  alter- 

nating currents.      Gen.   Elec.   Rev.   18,   156    (1915). 

430.  Wilson,  M.      A  new  tungsten  arc  lamp.      J.   Roentgen   See.    12, 

83-4    (1916). 

431.  Morphy,   B.   H.   and   Mullard,   S.   R.   The  enclosed  tungsten  arc 

as    a    source     of    ultra-violet    light.      J.     Roentgen     Soc.     12, 

70-4    (1916). 
43  2.      Meikle,    G.    S.      Hot    cathode    rectifier.       Gen.    Elec.    Rev.    19, 

297    (1916). 
433.      Mackay,  G.  M.  J.  and  Ferguson,  C.  V.      Arcs  in  gases  between 

non-vaporizing  electrodes.      J.   Frankl.   Inst.    1916,    209. 
43  4.      Gardner,    J.    H.       Tungsten    target    for    X-ray    tubes.      Nature. 

97,   67-8    (1916). 
435.      Fahrenwald,    F.    A.      A    tungsten    laboratory    furnace.      J.    Ind. 

Eng.  Chem.  8,  436    (1916). 
43  6.      Anon.      The    uses    of    tungsten.      Chem.     News.       114,     125-6 

(1916). 
43  7.      Russell,    R.    E.      The    tungar    rectifier.      Gen.     Elec.    Rev.    20, 

209-16    (1917). 


386 


COMPOUNDS    OF    TUNGSTEN 


(a)       OXIDES. 

43  7a.      Debray.      (Preparation   of   tungstic    oxide)    Compt.    rend.    55, 

2S7     (1S62). 
43  S.      Michaelis.      (Action     of     phosphorus     tricliloride     on     tungsten 

oxide)      Jenaische  Z.   7,   110    (.ISTl). 
43  9.      Smith.     Blue  oxide  of  tungsten  by  electrolysis  of  fused  sodium 

tuugstate.      Ber.  13,  753    (ISSO). 

440.  Hodkinson.    D.    and    Lowndes.    F.    K.      Reaction    of    potassium 

Clorate    (on  tungsten  oxide).   Chem     News.   58.    309    (ISSS). 

441.  Fowler,  G.  J.  and  Grant.  J.      The  influence  of  different  oxides 

on  the  decomposition  of  potassium  chlorate.      J.   Chem.   See. 
57,   272    (1S90). 
4  42.      Rauter.    G.      Silicon    tetracliloride     (action    on    tunstic    oxide). 
Ann.  27,  236    (1S92). 

443.  Sabatier,  P.  and  Senderens.  J.   B.      Actions  of  oxides  of  nitro- 

gen on  oxides  of  metals.  Compt.  rend.  114,  1429-3  2 
(1S92). 

444.  Sabatier.  P.  and  Senderens.  J.   B.      An   unusual  class  of  reac- 

tions of  the  metallic  nitrates.  Compt.  rend.  115,  236 
(1892). 

445.  Read.  A.   A.      Behavior  of  the  more  stable  oxides  at  high  tem- 

peratures.     J.    Chem.   Sec.   65,    313-4    (1S94). 

446.  Sabatier.   P.  and   Senderens.  J.   B.      Action  of  oxides  of  nitro- 

gen on  the  metals  and  the  metallic  oxides.  Bull.  Soc.  chim. 
(3)    13,  870;   Compt.  rend.   120,   61S    (1S95K 

4  4  7.  Ehrenfeld.  C.  H.  A  study  of  the  chemical  behavior  of  tung- 
sten and  molybdenum  and  their  trioxides.  J.  Am.  Chem. 
Soc.  17,  381-97    (1595);    Thesis.  Univ.   Pa.   1S94. 

44S.  Sabatier.  P.  and  Senderens.  J.  B.  Researches  on  the  oxides  of 
nitrogen.      Ann.  Chim.  phys.    (7»    7,  3  4  8-415    (1S96). 

4  49.  Desi.  E.  D.  The  oxides  of  tungsten.  J.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  19, 
213-242    (1S97). 

450.  Granger.    A.      On   the    production    of    tungsten   blue    on   porce- 

lain.     Compt.    rend.    127,    106-7     (1898);     Bull.    soc.    chim. 
(3)    19,  793. 
450a.      Hallopeau.    L.    A.       (Tungsten    dioxide)       Compt.    rend.    127, 
512     (1898). 

451.  Smith.  E.  F.  and  Fleck.  H.      The  action  of  sulfur  monochloride 

upon  tungstic  oxide.  J.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  21,  1008-1013 
(1899). 

452.  Bielher.   P.      Use   of  tungstic   oxide  in  producing  color  resists 

and  discharges.      J.   Soc.  Chem.  Ind.   19,  1107    (1900). 

187 


453.      Scheuer,  A.      Use  of  tungstic  oxide  in  dyeing.      Chem.  Ztg.  25, 

273    (1902). 
45  4.      Allen,    E.    T.    and    Gottschalk,    V.    H.      Investigations   on   tung- 
sten oxides.      Am.   Chem.   J.   27,   3  28-4  0    (1902). 
455.      Biltz.  W.      The  behavior  of  certain  inorganic  colloids.      Nachr. 

kgl.  Ges.  Wlss.  Getting.  1904,  1-15. 
4  5  6.      Blitz,    W.      On    the    mutual    influence    of    colloids.      Ber.    37, 

1095    (1904). 
4  5  7.      Granger,  A.      Property  of  anhydrous  tungstic  acid  for  coloring 

ceramics.      Compt.    rend.    140,    93  5-6    (1905). 
4  58.      Biltz,     W.     and     Geibel,     W.      Ultramicroscopic     ob.servations. 

Nachr.  kgl.  Ges.  Wiss.  Getting.   1906,  141. 
45  9.      Groth,    G.      Crystalline   structure   of   anhydrous   tungstic   oxide. 

Chem.    Kryst.I,    110    (1906). 
459a.      Greenwood.        (Preparation     of     tungsten     dioxide)        Trans. 

Chem.   Sec.   1908,   1493. 

460.  Hertwig.       (Tungsten    in    glass    coloring).      Keramische    Rund- 

schau.     1910,   105-7. 

461.  Langmuir,  J.   Chemical  reactions  at  very  low  pressures.  Clean- 

up of   oxygen   in   a   tungsten   lamp.      J.    Am.    Chem.    Sec.    35, 
105-27    (1913). 

462.  Olssen,    O.      Reduction    of  tungstic   acid  and   the  lower   o.xides 

of  tung.sten.      Ber.  46,   56  6-8  2    (1913). 

463.  Wedekind,  E.  and  Herst,  C.      Magnetizability  of  oxides  of  man- 

ganese,   clu'omium,    molybdenum,    uranium,    tungsten.      Ber. 
48,   105-12    (1915). 

464.  Wohler,    L.    and    Prager,    W.      Determination    of   the   heteroge- 

nous   equilibrium    of    water    vapor,    particidarly    in    the    case 
of  iron  and  tungsten.      Z.'  Elektrechem.  23,   199-206    (1917); 
J.  Chem.   Sec.   112,  II,  455. 
See  also  II. 

V  (b).      ACIDS. 

465.  Anthon,    E.    F.      On   the   hydrates   of  tungstic   acid.      J.    Prakt. 

chem.  9,  6-8    (1836). 

466.  Schafarik,     A.      Some     tungsten     and     vanadium     compounds. 

Sitzb.  akad.  Wiss.  Wien.  II.  47,  346    (1863). 

467.  Graham,  T.      Colloidal  tungstic  acid.      J.  Chem.  Sec.   1864,  325. 

468.  Liesegang.      The  photochemical  activity  of  tungstic  acid.   Pho- 

teg.    Arch.    1865,    152. 

469.  Gibbs,   W.      Researches  on  the   complex   inorganic   acids.   Prec. 

Am.    Acad.    Arts.    Sci.    15,    1    (1879);    J.    Am.    Chem.    Sec.    1, 
111. 

470.  Huntington,  A.   K.      Tungstic  acid  and  its  compounds.      J,   Soc. 

Chem.  Ind.  4,  116    (1885). 

471.  Eisenmann.      Tungstic    acid   battery.      Dingler's    Pelyt.    J.    263, 

540    (1887). 

188 


471a.      Hallopeau,  L.  A.      ( Paratuiigstic  acid)      Compt.  rend.    121,   61 

(1895). 
471b.      Sabaneef.      (Colloidal  tuiigstic  acid)    Z.  anorg.   chem.   14,   354 

(1897). 
47  2.      Scheurer,     A.      Color    resists    for    aniline    black    produced    by 

tungstic   acid.      Bull.    see.    ind.    Mulhouse.    1898,    122;    1»00, 

138. 
4  73.      Blelher.    P.      Use    of   tungstic    acid   in   producing    color    resists 

and  discbarges.      Rev.   gen.   mat.   col.   4,   313    (1900). 
4  7  4.      Wyman,    L.    P.      Tbe    purification    of    tungstic    acid.       Thesis, 

Univ.    of   Pa.    1902. 
474a.      Pappada,   N.      (Colloidal  tungstic  acid)    Gazz.   chim.    Ital.   32, 

II,    22    (1902). 
4  75.      Leiser.    H.      Electrolytic    bebavior   of   tungstic    acid.      Z.    Elek- 

trochem.   13,   690    (1907). 
476.      Rosenheim,   A.   and    Bernhari-Grisson.       (Solubility   of   tungstic 

acid    in    hydrofluoric    acid).      Proc.     7th.     Int.     Cong.     Appl. 

Chem,  X,   120    (1909). 
4  7  7.      Rosenheim,  A.      Electrolytic  reduction  of  tungstic  acids.   Proc. 

7th  Int.  Cong.  Appl.  Chem.  X,  122-9;   J.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.  30, 

208    (1909). 
478.      Lottermoser,    A.      Colloidal   tungstic    acid.      Verb.    ges.    d.    Na- 

turf.  Aerzte.   11,   70    (1910). 

47  9.      Muller.    J.    H.      Action    of    salicylic    acid    upon    metallic    acids. 

J.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  33,  1506    (1911). 

480.  Muller,     A.      Preparation     of    bydrosol    of     tungstic     acid.      Z. 

Chem.  Ind.  Kolloide.  8,  93-5    (1911). 

481.  Vasil'ev,  A.   Th.      Photocbemical  behavior  of  colloidal  tungstic 

acid.      Z.  Wlss.   phot.    12,   1-5    (1913);    J.   Russ.   phys.    chem. 
soc.  44,  819-36    (1913). 

48  2.      Lottermoser,   A.      Optical   investigation   of  the  precipitation  of 

tungstic  acid  by  acids  on  sodium  tungstate.      Kolloid.   Z.    15, 
145-9    (1914). 
See  also  II;   V   (i)    (j)    (m)    (n). 

V  (c).      TUNGSTATES. 

483.  Anthon.    E     F.      On   the  compounds   of   tungstic   acid   witli    al- 

kalies.     J.  Prakt.  Chem.  8,  399-406    (1836). 

484.  Anthon,     E.     F.      Some    tungstic    acid    compounds.      J.     Prakt. 

Chem.  »,  337-347    (1836). 

485.  Sacc.      Barium  tungstate   as   paint  material.      Les   Mondes.    1!>, 

230    (1844). 
485a.      Manross.       (Tung.states)      Ann.   81,    243    (1852). 
485b.      Manross.       (Tungstates)       Ann.    82,    348    (1852). 

486.  Christ,  K.      Preparation  of  sodium  tungstate.      Dinglers  Poly- 

tech.   J.    124,   398    (1853). 

189 


488a. 

489. 

489a. 

489b. 

487.  Lotz,    W.      Investigation   of   the   salts   of  tungstic  acid.      Ann. 

91,   49-75    (1854). 

488.  Scheibler.      Investigation    on    the    salts    of    tungstic    acid.       J. 

Prac.  Chem.  83,  273-332   (1861). 
Schultze.       (Tungstates)      Ann.    126,    56    (1863). 
Marignac,    M.     C.      On    tungstates,    fluotungstates    and    silico- 

tungstates.      Ann.  chim.  phys.    (3)    69,   5-86    (1863). 
Ullik.       (Tungstates)      Ber.   Wien.   Akad.  56,   157    (1867). 
Lefort.      (Tungstates)   Ann  chim.  phys.  9,   96    (1876);   Compt. 

rend.  82,   1182. 

490.  Hautefeuille.       (Use   of   potassium    tungstate  in   preparation  of 

artificial  minerals).  Compt.   rend.  84,   1301;   85,   9  52    (1877). 
490a.      Lefort.       (Tungstates)    Ann.   chim.   phys.    15,   325    (1878). 
490a2.      Maschke.      (Tungstates)    Z.   anal.   chem.   16,   427    (1878). 
490b.      Lefort.       (Tungstates)       Ann.    chim.    phys.    17,    477;    Compt. 

rend.   88,    798    (1879). 
490c.      Lefort.       (Tungstates)    Ann.   chim.    phys.   22,    234    (1883). 
490d.      Klein.      (Tungstates)      Bull.   soc.   chim.   36,    643;    Ann.    chim. 

phys.  28,   398    (1883). 
490e.      von  Knorre      (Tungstates)      J.  prakt.  chem.  27,  49    (1883). 
490f.      von  Knorre.       (Tungstates)      Ber.    18,    326    (1885). 
490g.      von   Knorre.       (Tungstates)       Ber.    19,    821    (1886). 
490h.      Gonzalez.      (Tungstates)      J.   prakt.  chem.  36,   52    (1887). 
490i.      Dufet.      (Tungstates)      Bull.  soc.  franc,  miner,  13,  203    (1890) 

491.  Perrey.       (Use   of   sodium  tungstate   in   the   preparation   of   so- 

dium heryllium  silicate).      Compt.  rend.   110,   334    (1890). 
49  2.      Rothenbach,    F.      Double   salts   of   tungstic  and  vanadic   acids. 
Ber.  23,   3050-60    (1890). 

493.  Bernstein    and   Kohan.      Physiological    action    of   sotlium   tung- 

state.     Centralbl.  f.  med.  Wis.  1891,   44. 
493a.      Pechard.      (Pertungstates)      Compt.  rend.   112,   1060    (1891); 
Ann.  chim.  phys.  22,   20  2    (1891). 

494.  Smith,  E.  F.  and  Dieck,  H.  L.      A  crystalline  chromium  tung- 

state.     J.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.   15,   151    (1893). 

495.  Merti    and    Luchsiner.      Pliysiological    action    of    sodium    tung- 

state.     Med.  Centralbl.  20,   6  73. 

4  96.  Hitchcock,  F.  R.  M.  The  tungstates  and  molybdates  of  the 
rare  metals.     J.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  17,   483    (1895). 

4  97.  Nievenglowski.  Photograpliic  properties  of  tungsten  com- 
pounds.     Jahrb.    Phot.    1895,    24. 

49  8.  Knecht,  E.  Tungsten  (.sodium  tungstate)  as- a  wool  mordant. 
J. Soc.  Dyers  and  Colorists.   1897,   13  5. 

499.  Hallopeau,  L.  A.      Antimonio-tungstates  and  the  separation  of 

tungsten  and  antimony.      Bull.  Soc.  Chim.  17,  170-5    (1897). 

500.  Radiguet.       (Use  of  calcium  tungstate   for  Roentgen   screens). 

Compt.  rend.  124,  179    (1897). 

190 


500a.      Melikoff   and    Pissarjewsky.       (Pertungstates)       Ber.    31,    632 
(1898). 

501.  Granger,   A.      Production  of  blue  glaze   by  reduction   of  tung- 

states     in     porcelain     furnace.      Compt.     rend.      127,      lOC-7 
(1898). 

502.  Scheurer,      A.      Metallic     tungstates     employed     with      barium 

tungstate  white.      Bull.  See.  Ind.  Mulhouse.      1898,  122-3. 

503.  Hallopeau,    L.    A.      On    potassium    para-tungstate.      Bull.     see. 

chim.    (3)    21,   266-9    (1899). 

504.  Thomas,    G.    E.      The   preparation    of    sodium   pertungstate   by 

the  electric  current.      J.  Am.  Chem.  Sec.  21,  373    (1899). 

505.  Hallopeau,    L.    A.      Some    properties    of   paratungstates.      Ann. 

chim.  phys.    (7)    19,  9  2-143    (1900). 
50  5a.      Schoen.      Calcium    and    barium    tungstates)       J.    Soc.     Chem. 
Ind.  1900,  740. 

506.  Cmith,  E.  F.  and  Exner,  F.  F.      Ammonium  venedo-tungstates. 

J.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  24,  573    (1902). 
506a.      Pissarjewsky.       (Pertungstates)      J.    Russ.    Phys.    Chem.    Soc. 

34,  472    (1902). 
50  7.      Taylor,    T.     M.      The    ammonium    tungstates.      J.     Am.     Chem. 

Soc.  24,  629    (1902). 
50  8.      Just,    A.      Complex    double    salts   of   tungstic    oxide    and    man- 
ganic acid.      Ber.   36,   3619-22    (1903). 
508a.      Briggs.      (Copper  ammonia  tungstate)      J.  Chem.  Soc.  85,  675 

(1904). 
50  9.      Schaefer,    E.       Contribution    to    tlie    knowledge      of      tungsten 

compounds.      Z.   anorg.   Chem.   38,   142    (1904). 
509a.      Rosenheim    and   Jacobsohn.       (Tungstates)      Z.    anorg.    chem. 

50,   297    (1906). 

510.  Wells,    R.    C.      The  instability   of   certain   tungstates   in   water. 

J.   Am.   Chem.   Soc.    29,    112    (1907). 

511.  Copaux,  H.     The  nature  of  metatungstates  and  optical  activity 

of  potassium  metatungstate.  Comp.  rend.   148,  633-6    (1909). 
511a.      Seidl,   O.      (Tungstates)      Chem.    Ztg.    June    16    (1909). 

512.  Robson.      (Sodium      tungstate     in     fire     proofing).      Dyer  and 

Calico   Printer.   30,    74    (1910). 

513.  Parravano,  N.      Anhydrous  tung.states.      Gaz.   chim.   ital.  39,  II, 

55-60    (1911). 
513a.      Copaux,    H.       (Metatungstates)       Z.    anorg.     chem.     70,     297 
(1911). 

514.  Gooch,  F.  A.  and  Kuzirian,  S.  B.     Use  of  sodium  paratungstiite 

in    the    determination    of    carbon    dioxide    in    carbonates    and 
nitrogen   pentoxide  in   nitrates   by   loss   on   ignition.      Am.   J. 
Sci.    (4)   31,   497-500    (1911). 
514a.      Rosenheim,   A.      (Metatungst^ites).      Z.   anorg.   chem.   09,   249 
(1911). 

191 


514b.      Rosenheim,   A.       (Metatuiigstates)       Z.    anorg.    chem.    70,    418 
(1911). 

515.  Copaux,    H.      The    basicity   of    complex    tungstates.      Bull    soc. 

chim.   13,   324-32;    Compt.    rend.    156,    71-6    (1913). 

516.  Copaux,    H.       The    constitution    of    paramolybdates    and    para- 

tungstates.      Compt.   rend.    156,    1771-4    (1913). 

517.  Kancher,  V.   K.      Critical  examination  of  tungstic  and  tungsto- 

chromic  compounds.      J.   Russ.   Phys.   Chem.   Soc.   46,    729-42 
(1914). 

518.  Watkins,    C.    and   Jones,   H.    C.      Conductivity   and  dis.sociation 

of  some  rather  unusual  salts  in  an  aqueos  solution.     J.  Am. 
Chem.  Soc.  37,   2626-36    (1915). 

519.  Rosenheim,  A.  Pieck,   M.  and  Pinsker,  J.     The  constitution  of 

the    polymoljbdates,     polytungstates     and     ijolyvandate-s*.      Z. 
anorg.  allgem.  Chem.  96,   131-8    (1916). 

520.  Carnot,  A.     Cobaltammino  molybdate,  tungstate  and  vanadate. 

Compt.  rend.  164,  897-903    (1917). 
See  also  V(d)    (Bronzes). 

V(d).  BRONZES. 
5  21.      Anthon,   E.    F.      On  blue  and   yellow  pigments   from   tungsten. 

J.  Prakt.  Chem.  9,  8-11    (1836). 

522.  Margueritte,  M.     A  novel  series  of  compounds  of  tung.stic  acid 

with    the    alkalies.       Ann.     Chim.     Phys.      (3)      17,     475-483 
(1846). 

523.  Philipp,   J.      Tungsten  bronzes.      Ber.    15,    499-510    (1882). 
523a.      Schnitzler.        (Tungsten    Bronzes)       Dingler's    Polyt.    J.    211, 

484    (1874). 
523b.      Feit.       (Tungsten   Bronzes)       Ber.    21,    133     (1888). 
5  24.      von  Knorre,   G.   and   Schafer,   E.      Potassium   tungsten  bronze. 

Ber.   35,   3407-17    (1902). 
524a.      Engels,   W.       (Tung.sten   Bronzes)      Z.    anorg.    chem.    37,    125 

(1903). 

V  (e).   TUNGSTEN  WITH  THE  HALOGENS. 

525.  Blomstrand,    C.    W.      The    hi.story    of    tungsten    chlorides.      J. 

prakt.   Chem.  82,   408-432    (1861). 
525a.      Forcher.       (Halogens    and   tungsten)       Ber.    Wien.    Akad    44, 
163    (1862). 

526.  Blomstrand,  C.   W.      Remarks  on  tungsten  chloride.      J.   prakt. 

Chem. 89,    230-240     (1863). 

527.  Roscoe,    H.     E.      On    some     tungsten    compounds.      Ann.     162, 

349-368     (1872). 

528.  Schiff,   H.      Oxychlorides  and   chlorides  of   tung.sten.   Ann.    197, 

188     (1879). 

529.  Schulze.      On  the  oxidation  of  halogen  salts.      J.   Prakt.   Chem. 

(2)    21,   434,    437,   441,    (1880). 

192 


529a.      Quantin.      (Halogens  and  tungsten)      Compt.  rend.   106,  1074 

(188S). 
529a2.      Smith,    E.    F.    and    Shinn.       (Oxy chlorides    of   tungsten)      Z. 

anorg.  chem.  4,  381    (1893). 
529a3.      Smith,   E.   F.   and   Oberholtzer,   A.      (Oxj-clilorides  of  tungs- 
ten).    Z.  anorg  .chem.  5,  63    (1894). 
529b.      Marchetti.      Halogens    and    tungsten)       Z.    anorg.    chem.    lO, 

66    (1895). 
529c.      Miolati   and  Rossi.      (Halogens   and  tungsten)      Real.    Accad. 

Lincei   (5)  5  II,  223    (1896). 
529d.      Schaffer,    and    Smith,    E.    F.       (Halogens    and    tungsten)       J. 

Am.  Chem.  Soc.   18,   1098    (1897). 
529e.      Defacqz,    E.       (Halogens   and   tungsten)       Compt.    rend.    136, 

,962     (1898). 
5  29f.      Defacqz,    E.       (Halogens    and   tungsten)       Compt.    rend.    127, 

510    (1898). 
5  29g.      Defacqz,    E.       (Halogens    and    tungsten)       Compt.    rend.    129, 

515    (1899). 
529h.      Defacqz,  E.      (Halogens  and  tungsten)     Ann.  chim.  phys.   (7> 

22,  247    (1901). 
529i.      Ephriam   and   Heymann.    (Halogens  and   tungsten)      Ber.   43, 

4456    (1909). 

530.  Ruff,   O.    Eisner,   F.   and   Heller,   W.      Preparation  and  proper- 

ties   of    fluorides    of    hexivalent    tungsten.       Ber.     38,     742 
1905);   Z.  anorg.  Chem.  52,  256-69    (1907). 

531.  Rosenheim,   A.      Halogen     compounds     of     molybdenum     and 

tungsten.     Z.  anorg.   Chem.  54,   97-103    (1907). 

532.  Hill,  J.  B.     Xew  derivatives  of  tungsten.     J.  Am.   Chem.  Soc. 

38,    2383-91     (1916). 

V  (f).      TUNGSTEN  AND  SULFUR. 

532a.      Uelsmann.      (Tungsten  and  sulfur)      J. 1860,   92. 

532b.      Corleis.      (Tungsten  and  sulfur)      Ann.  232,    244    (1885). 
53  2c.      Winssinger.      (Tungsten  and  sulfur)      Bull.   Assoc.   Sci.    Belg. 

15,    390    (1888). 
53 2d.      Defacqz.      (Tungsten    and    sulfur)       Compt.    rend.    128,    609' 

(1899). 

533.  Brunck,    O.      The    action    of    sodium    sulfide    on    metal    salts. 

Ann.  336,   291    (1905). 

V  (g).      TUNGSTEN    AND    NITROGEN. 

533a.      Wohler,  F.      (Tungsten  and  Nitrogen)      Chem.  Soc.  Trans.  3, 
171    (1851). 

53  4.      Wohler,  F.      Nitride  of  tungsten  and  molybdenum.      Ann.   105,. 
258    (1858);  J.  prakt.  Chem.  74,  80. 

534a.      Rideal.      (Tungsten  and  Nitrogen)      Chem.   Soc.   Trans.    1889,. 
41. 

193 


63  5.  Emich,  F.  Action  of  oxides  of  nitrogen  on  certain  metals  at 
higher  temperatures.      Monatsch.   15,   3  7  5-90    (18  94). 

53  6.  Langmuir,  I.  Chemical  reactions  at  very  low  pressures.  The 
chemical  cleanup  of  nitrogen  in  a  tungsten  lamp.  J.  Am. 
Chem.   See.   35,    931-45    (1913). 

537.  Olsson,    O.      Complex    cyanides    of    quadrivalent    tungsten.      Z. 

anorg.  Chem.  88,   49-73    (1914). 

538.  Olsson,    O.         A    new    type    of    complex    tung.sten    and    molyb- 

denum cyanides.      Ber.   47,    917-23    (1915). 

539.  Rosenheim,  A.   and   Dehn,   E.      Cyanides  of  tungsten.   Ber.   47, 

392-400    (1914). 

540.  Rosenhein,    A.    and    Dehn,    E.      The   cjanides   of    tungsten   and 

molybdenum.      Ber.  48,   1167-78    (1915). 

V  (h).      TUNGSTEN   AND  HYDROGEN. 

541.  Sieverts,  A.   and   Bergner,  E.      Tantalum,  tungsten,  and  hydro- 

gen.     Ber.   44,    2394-2402    (1911). 

V  (i)        TUNGSTEN  AND  PHOSPHORUS. 

542.  Wohler,  P.      Phosphides  of  tungsten,      Ann.   79,  244-7    (1851). 
542a.      Wohler,   F.      (Tungsten  and  pho.sphorus)      Chem.   Sec.   Trans. 

5,    94    (1853). 
542b.      Kehrmann.       (.Tungsten    and    pho.sphorus)       Z.    anorg.    chem. 

1,   428    (1891). 
542c.      Soboleff.      (Tungsten  and  pho.sphorus.)      Z.   anorg.    Chem.    12, 

16    (1896). 

543.  Winterstein,     E.      Preparation     of     pure     phosphotunstic     acid. 

Chem.   Z.   22,   539    (1898). 
543a.      Defacqz.       (Tung.sten    and    pho.sphorus)       Compt.    rend.     130, 

915    (1900). 
543b.      Defacqz.       (Tung.sten    and    phosphorus)       Compt.    rend.    132, 

32,   38    (1901). 
543c.      Rogers.       (Tungsten   and   phosphorous)       J.    Am.    Chem.    Soc. 

25,    298    (1903). 

544.  Miolati,   A.    and    Pizzighelli.      The    neutralization    of   pho.sphor- 

tungstic  acid.      J.   prakt.   Chem.  77,   417    (1908). 

545.  Rindle,    M.      A   rever.sible   photochemical   reaction.      S.    African 

Jour.-  Sci.   11,  362-6    (1916). 

V  (j).      TUNGSTEN  AND  ARSENIC. 

545a.  Friedheim,  C.  (Tungsten  and  arsenic)  Z.  anorg.  chem.  6, 
11    (1894). 

545b.  Hollopeau,  L.  A.  (Tungsten  and  arsenic)  Compt.  rend. 
122,    1419     (1896). 

545c.  Hollopeau,  L.  A.  (Tungsten  and  ar.senic)  Compt.  rend.  123, 
1065    (1896). 

545d.  Kehrmann  and  Ruttiman.  (Tungsten  and  arsenic)  Z.  an- 
org.  chem.   22,    285    (1899). 

194 


5  4  5e.      Friedheim,  C.  and  Henderson.      (Tungsten  and  arsenic)     Ber. 

35,   3242    (1902). 
545f.      Daniels.       (Tungsten    and    arsenic)       J.    Am.    Chem.    Soc.    30, 

1846    (1908). 

546.  Guglialmelli,      L.      Arseno-tungstic      acid     as     a     reagent     for 

phenols.      Anales.    soc.    quim.    Argentina.    4,    119-26    (1916); 
Chem.  Abst.   12,   66  4. 

547.  Guglialmelli.    L.      Arseno-tungsto-niolibdic    acid    as    a    reagent 

for  phenols.      Anales  soc.  quim.   Argentina.  4,   183-4    (1916); 
Chem.  Abst.  12,  664. 

548.  Guglialmelli,     L.      General    method    for    detection    of    phenols 

in    es.sential    oils.      Anales.    soc.    quim.    Argentina.    5,   .11-23 
(1917);    Chem.   Abstr.    12,   665. 

549.  Guglialmelli,    L.      Identification    of    naphthols    by    arseno-tung- 

stic acid.      Anales.  soc.   quim.   Argentina.  5,   97-101    (1917); 
Chem.  Abstr.  12,  66  5. 

V  (k).      TUNGSTEN    AM)    ZIRCONIUM. 

550.  Metzger,    K.      I'reparation    of    zirconium    and    tungsten    alloys. 

Dissert.   Munchen.   1910,  p.   3  6. 

V  (m).      TUNGSTEN     AND     BORON. 

550a.      Klein.        (Borotungstates)       Ann.    chim.    phys.    28,     374,    427 

(1883). 
550b.      Tucker    and    Moody.       (Tungsten    and    boron)       Chem.    Soc. 

Trans.    1902,    16. 

V  (1).      TUNGSTEN     AND    ALUMINUM. 

See  IV  (b). 
5  51.      Copaux,    H.      Complex   tungstates,    especially   borotungstes   and 

metatungstates.      Ann.   chim.   phys.    17,   217-63    (1909). 
552.      Copaux,    H.      The   borotunstic    acids.      Compt.    rend.    147,    973- 

6    (1910). 

V  (n).      TUNGSTEN     AND     CARBON. 

5  53.      Moissan,    H.      Preparation    of    carbides    by    action    of    calcium 
carbide   on   oxides.      Compt.    rend.    125    II,    83  9-844     (1897). 

554.  Williams.    P.      Double   carbide   or   iron   and  tungsten.      Compt. 

rend.  127,  410-2    (1898). 
554a.      Williams,    P.       (Tungsten    and    carbon)       Compt.    rend.    126, 

1722    (1898). 
554b.      Carnot,  A.  and  Goutal.      (Tungsten  and  carbon)   Compt.   rend. 

128,   207    (1899). 

555.  Moissan,     H.     and     Koutznezow.      Chromium-tungsten    carbide. 

Compt.   rend.  137,  292    (1903). 

556.  Hilpert,   S.   and   Ornstein,   M.      A   simple  preparation  of  molyb- 

denum and  tungsten   carbides.      Ber.   4(»,    1669-75    (1913). 

195 


557.  Ruff,   O.   and   Wunsch,   R.      Investigation  of  tungsten  and  car- 

bon  at   higher   temperatures.      Z.    anorg.    Chem.    83,    292-328 
(1914). 
See  also  IV (a)    and  V(p). 

V(o).      TUNGSTEN    AND    SILICON. 

558.  Marignac,    M.    C.     Researches    on    silicotungstic    acids.      Ann. 

chim.   phys.    (4)    3,   5-76    (1864). 
.558a.      Wyrouboff.       (Tungsten   and  silicon)      Bull.    soc.    franc.    Min. 
19,   219    (1896). 

559.  Vigouraux,  E.      Silicides  of  tungsten.      Compt.   rend.  127,  393- 

5    (1898). 
559a.      Lebeau.       (Tungsten    and    silicon)       Compt.    rend.     128,    933 

(1899). 
.559a2.      Flurscheim.       (Tungsten    and   silicon)       Dessert.    Heidelburg 

1901. 
'559b.      Pinegal.      (Tungsten  and  .silicon)      Dissertation,  Berne,   1904. 
559c.      Defacqz,   E.      (Tungsten  and  silicon)      Compt.   rend.  144,   848 

(1907). 

560.  Honigschmid,  O.      Silicides  of  molybdenum,  tungsten  and  tan- 

talum.     Monatsch.    28,    1017     (1907). 

561.  Defacqz,  E.      The  silicides  of  tungsten  and  molybdenum.  Bull. 

soc.  chim.    (4)   3-4,  577-8    (1908). 

562.  Copaux,    H.      Preparation    of    Silicotung.stic    acids.      Bull.    soc. 

chim.    (4)    3,   101-9    (1908). 

563.  Javillier,    M.      Silico-tungstates  of  coniine,   sparteine,   atropine. 

Chem.   Centralblat.   1910,  II,    885. 
563a.      Frilley.       (Tung.sten    and    silicon)       Rev.    de    Metallurgie    8, 

457    (1911);    J.   Soc.   Chem.   Ind.    1911,   1018. 
563b.      Hermann,    S.       (Silicides    of   tungsten)       Elektrochem    Z.    17, 

190     (1910). 

V(p).      ORGANIC  TUNGSTEN  COMPOUNDS. 

564.  Wohler,   F.      On   the   amino   compounds   of  tungsten.   Ann.    73, 

190-8    (1850). 
564a.      Rosenheim,  A.      (Tungsten  oxalates)      Ber.  26,   1191    (1893). 
564b.      Henderson  and  Barr.      (Alkali  tungsten  tartrates)   Chem.  Soc. 

Trans.  1896,  1456. 

565.  Smith,    E.   F.,   Barrett,   E.   A.,   Hall,   C.   and    Degan,    C.      Tung- 

sten alkyls.      J.   Am.    Chem.    Soc.   21,    1013-17  -  (1899). 
565a.      Henderson,    Qrr,    and    Whitehead    (Alkali    tungsten    citrates) 

Chem.  Soc.  Trans.  1899,  547.. 
565b.      Rosheim,   A.    and   Loewenstamm       (Tungsten   organic   esters) 

Ber.  35,   1115    (1902). 
565c.      Grossman    and    Kramer.      (Complex    organic-tungstic    acids). 

Z.  anorg.  chem.  41,   43    (1904). 

566.  Mazzucchelli,   A.    and   Inghliere,    C.      Atti.    acad.    Lincei.l7,   II. 

30-3    (1908). 

196 


56  7.      Ekeley,   J.   B.      Some  organic  tungstates.      J.   Am.   Cheni.    Soc. 

31,    664-6     |:1909). 
568.      Mazzucchelli,    A.    and    Borghi,    M.      Complexes    of    pertuugstic 

and    permalybdic    acids    with    active    organic    acids.      Gazz. 

chim.   ital.  40,  II,   241-61    (1911). 
56  9.      Fischer,    A.     and     Michael     L.      A    derivative     of    pcntavalent 

tungsten.      Z.    anorg.   Chem.   81,    10  2-15    (1913). 
570.      Turner,  E.  E.      Attempt  to  prepare  organometallic  derivatives 

of  tungsten.      Proc.   Chem.   Soc.   30,   4    (1914). 


197 


VI.     ANALYTICAL  CHEMISTRY  OF  TUNGSTEN 


(a)      QUALITATIVE    DETECTION 

571.  Bunsen,   W.      Flame   reactions.      Ann.    138,    25  7    (1866). 

572.  Skey,    W.      Xew   reactions    of   the    oride    of    tungsten.      Chem. 

News.   14,   256    (1866);   ibid.   17,   157    (1868). 
5  73.      Horner,    C.      The   spectra   of    boric   and   phosphoric   acid   blow- 
pipe beads.      Chem.   News.    29,    6  6    (1874). 

574.  Mallet.      Xew   reactions   of  tung.sten.      J.    Chem.    Sec.    (2)    13, 

1228-33    (1875);    Chem.   Ncavs.    31,    276    (1875). 

575.  Ross.      Bead  reactions.      Chem.   News.  41,   187    (1880). 

5  76.  Haushofer.  Microscopic  reactions  for  the  detection  of  tung- 
sten.     Ber.    18,    238     (1885). 

5  77.  Hempel,  W.  Xew  methods  of  decomposition  for  qualitative 
analysis.  Pharm.  C.  H.  38,  847-50  (1897);  Centralblatt. 
1898    I,    221. 

578.  Goldschmidt,   H.      Bead  reactions.      Z.   Kryst.   29,    33;    Z.    anal. 

Chem.  38.   105    (1899). 

579.  Ohly,  J.      The  analysis,  detection  and  commercial  value  of  the 

rare  metals.      Min.   Rept.   Dec.    5,    1901. 
5  80.      Dunstan,  B.      AVolfram;   how  to  know  it.      New  Zealancj   Mines 
Rec.  Nov.   16,  1904;   Min.   Rept.  Dec.   1,   1904. 

581.  Faktor.      Use    of    sodium    tliiosulfate    in    qualitative    analysis. 

Pharm.    Post.    1901,    840;     Pharm.    C-H.    43,    291;     Z.    anal. 
Chem.  43,  410    (1904). 

582.  Frabot.      Color  reactions  of  tungsten.      Ann.   chim.   anal.    appl. 

.9,   371    (1904). 

583.  Noyes,  A.  A.      A  sy.stem  of  qualitative  analysis.      Tech.   Quart. 

14,  No.   2    (1906);   Chem.  News.  93,   134    (1906). 

5  84.  Noyes,  A.  A.  and  Bray,  W.  C.  A  system  of  qualitative  analy- 
sis.     J.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  29,  137    (1907). 

585.  Fenton,  H.  J.  The  detection  of  tungsten.  Proc.  Chem.  Soc. 
24,    133;    J.    Chem.    Soc.    93,    1064    (1908). 

5  8  6.  Wohler,  L.  and  Engels,  W.  A  new  colloidal  phenomena  in 
analy.sis.      Kolloidchem.    Beihefte   I,    454    (1910). 

587.      Hess,    F.    L.      Tests    for    tungsten.      Min.    Sci.    62,    31     (1910). 

58  8.  Kafka,  E.  Potassium  iodide  and  mercurous  nitrate  as  sen- 
sitive reagents  for  tungsten  and  molybdenum.  Z.  anal. 
Chem.  51,   482-3    (1912). 

589.  Pozzi-Escot,  E.  Sensitive  reaction  of  tung.sten  and  molyb- 
denum of  mercury.  Bull.  soc.  chim.  13,  402-3,  1042 
(1913). 

198 


590.  Folin,  O.  and  Macallum,  A.  B.  The  blue  color  reaction  of 
pho.sphotuiig.stic  acid  with  uric  acid  and  other  substances. 
J.  Biol.  Chem.  11,  26.5-6    (1913). 

5  91.  Torossian,  G.  Modification  of  the  reduction  test  for  tungsten. 
Am.  J.   Sci.  38,   537-8    (1914). 

592.  Folin,   O.   and   Denis,   D.      Pho.sphotung.stic   and  phosphomolyb- 

dic   compounds   as   color   reagents.      J.    Biol.    Chem.    12,    239- 
43    (1914). 

593.  Hartmann,  M.  L.      The  reduction  test  for  tungsten.      Pahasapa 

Quart.  5,   23-6    (1916);    Min.    Sci.   Press,   112,    941-2    (1916). 

VI  (b).      QUANTITATIVE    DETEKMIXATIOX    OF    TUXGSTEN 

(General). 
5  9  4.      Pfordten,    O.    F.   von    der.      Contribution  to  the   knowledge  of 

molybdenum  and  tungsten.      Ann.   222,    13  7-166    (1884);    Z. 

anal.  Chem.  23,  413;    Ber.   16,   508    (1883). 
59  5.      Schmidt,  H.      The  titration  of  acid  tungstates.      Am.  Chem.   J. 

8,    16-22    (1885). 
596.      Haushofer.      Microscopic  chemical  analysis.   Sitzb.   bayr.   Akad. 

Wiss.  15,  206-26;   Z.  wiss.  Mikroskop.  2,   422-7    (1886). 

59  7.      Landolt.      Polarimetric    methods   for      determination    of   ssolu- 

tions   of  tungstic  acid.      Ber.  20,   9  83    (1887). 
5  98.      Smith,    E.   F.   and   Bradbury,    H.      Estimation   of   molybdic   and 
tungstic   acid.      Ber.    24,    2930-6    (1891). 

599.  Hundshagen,    F.      Xew    u.ses    of    alkalimetry    and    acidimetry. 

Chem.   Ztg.    18,    547    (1894). 

600.  Brearley,    H.      Xotes    on    the    estimation    of    tungsten.      Chem. 

News.   79,    64-66    (1899). 

601.  Jannasch,    P.    and    Bettges,    W.      Determination    of    tung.sten. 

Ber.37,  2219    (1904). 

602.  Desvergnes,     L.      On     the     determination     of     tungsten.      Ann. 

chim.    anal.    appl.  9,    321    (1904). 

603.  Bourion,     F.      Estimation     of     tungstic     acid    in     ini.xtures     by 

chlorine     and     sulfur     chloride.      Compt.     rend.      146,      110  2 
(1908). 

60  4.      von   Knorre.   G.   A  new  method  for  the  determination  of  tung- 

sten.     Ber.    38,    783     (1905);     Stahl    u.     Eisen    24,     (1906); 
Z.  anal.  Chem.  47,   337-66    (1908). 

605.  Pozzi-Escot,     E.      Qualitative    and    quantitative    .separation     of 

tungsten    in    system    of    analysis    of    the    bases.      Bull.    see. 
chim.  Belg.  22,  3  27    (1908). 

606.  Tschilikin,      M.      Estimation     of     tungsten.      Ber.     42,      1302-4 

(1909). 

607.  V.  Knorre,  G.      Determination  of  tungsten  in  presence  of  chro- 

mium     by      benzidine      reaction.        Chem.     Ztg.     34,      405-7 
(1910). 

199 


608.      Knecht,    E.    and    Hibbert,    E.      A    volumetric    process    for    the 

estimation  of  tungsten.      Proc.   Chem.   See.   25,    227    (1910). 

Analyst.  36,   96-8. 
60  9.      Divani,  M.      The  estimation  of  tungsten.      Bull.  soc.  chim.    (4) 

9,   122-4;    Bull.  soc.   chim.   Belg.  25,   41-2;    Ann.   chim.   anal. 

16,    132-4    (1911). 

610.  Kantschew,  W.      Determination  of  tungsten.      11th  Mencleljew 

Kongress.   13,   21    (1911). 

611.  Kafka,    E.      Quantitative    precipitation    of    tungstic    oxide    by 

aromatic   amines.     Z.    anal.    Chem.    52,    601-6    (1913). 

612.  Kanchev,  V.  K.      New  rajjid  method  for  tungsten  based  on  the 

titration  of  easily  hydrolizable  benzidine  salt,  with  caustic 
alkali.      Chem.   Ztg.   36,    199    (1913). 

613.  Arnold,    H.      Studies  on  the   analytical  investigation   of   tung- 

sten.     Z.   anorg.   Chem.   88,    74-87    (1914). 

614.  Gutbier,   A.    and  Weise,    G.    L.      Separation   and  determination 

of  tungstic  acid.  A  new  use  of  "nitron."  Z.  anal.  Chem. 
53,   426-30    (1914). 

615.  Kanchev,   V.    K.      Quantitative   determination  of  tungsten.     J. 

Russ.   Phys.   Chem.   Soc. 46,   729-42    (1914). 

616.  Mennicke,    H.      Quantitative   methods   for    the    examination   of 

molybdenum,  vanadixun  and  tungsten,  their  ores,  steels, 
alloys  and  compounds.      Book.    Berlin,    1914. 

617.  Scott,  W.  W.      Standard  methods  of  chemical  analysis.   Book. 

New  York,   1917. 

VI  (c).      QUANTITATIVE     DETERMINATION      OF     TUNGSTEN     IN 

ORES. 

618.  Rusag,    K.      On  the  analysis  of   commercial   scheelite.      Chem. 

Ztg.  12,  1316    (1888): 

619.  Setik,   B.      Technical  analysis  of   wolframite;      Chem.   Ztg.    13, 

1474    (1889). 

620.  Burghardt,    C.    A.      On    some    applications    of   caustic    soda    or 

potash  and  carbon  in  the  analysis  of  minerals.  Memoirs 
and  Proc.  Manch.  Lit.  Phil.  Soc.  3,  (18  8  9-90);  Chem. 
News.   61,   261    (1890). 

6  21.  Cremer,  F.  Determination  of  tungsten  ores.  Eng.  Min.  J. 
59,  345    (1895). 

622.  Bailey.  Determination  of  tungsten  in  tin  slags.  Chem. 
News.  73,  88    (1896). 

6  23.  Helmhacker,  R.  Determination  of  tungsten  in  ores.  Eng. 
Min.   J.  61,   153-4    (1896). 

6  24.  Bullnheimer,  P.  The  determination  of  tungsten  in  ores. 
Chem.  Ztg.  24,  870    (1900). 

625.  Borntrager,  H.  Determination  of  tungsten  in  ores  and  I'esi- 
dues.        Z.    anal.   Chem.   39,   361-2    (1900). 

6  26.  McKenna,  A.  G.  Determination  of  tungstic  acid  and  separa- 
tion of  silica.      Chem.  News.   84,    75    (1901). 

200 


627.  Fritschie,    O.    P.      Determination    of    tungsten    in    ores.      Eng. 

Min.  J.  71,  720    (1901). 

628.  Annabl,  H.  W.      The  assays  of  tungsten  ores.  Eng.  Min.  J.  72, 

63    (1901). 

629.  Parker,  G.  M.      Tungsten  analysis.     Aust.   Min.   Stand.   Jan.   2, 

1902. 

630.  Mackenzie,    G.    L.       (Determination    of    tungsten    in    tin    ore). 

Eng.  Min.   J.   77,   928    (1904). 

631.  Anzenot,    H.      Determination    of   tungsten    in    tin    ore.      Z.    an- 

gew.    Chem.   17,   74,    520    (1904). 

632.  Anzenot,   H.    (Determination   and   separation   of   tin   and  tung- 

sten).     Z.   angew.   Chem.    19,    140    (1906). 
63  3.      Donath,    E.      Determination    of   tin   and   tungsven.      Z     angow. 

Chem.   19,   473-4    (1906). 
63  4.      Watts,    H.    F.      Determination   of   tungstic   acid   in   wolframite 

ores    and    concentrates.      West.    Chem.    Met.    2,    July,    1906; 

Chem.  News.  95,   19. 
6  3  5.      Robinson,   V.    A.      Estimation    of   tungstic   acid.      West.    Chem. 

Met.  4,  244-5    (1908). 
63  6.      Ekeley,   J.   B.   and  Kendall,   G.   D.      A  new   and  short  method 

for    the    determination    of    tungstic    acid    in    tungsten    ores. 

West.  Chem.   Met.  4,  1    (1908);    Min.   Jour.  83,   216    (1908). 
63  7.      vpn  Knorre,  G.      Determination  of  tungsten  in  alloys  and  ores. 

Z.  angew.  Chem.  47,  33  7    (1908). 
637a.   Scheef,    E.      (Short   method   for   tungsten   in   ores).      Erzberg- 

bau  5,  262    (1909). 
63  8.      Hutchins,    H.    W.  -and    Tonks,    F.    J.     The    determination    of 

tungstic  acid  in  low  gi'ade  tung,sten   ores.      Bull.    Inst.    ?tlin 

Met.  56,  May    (1909);    Eng.  Min.  J.  87,   1141    (1909). 
63  9.      Bourion,     F.      Analysis     of    wolframite     and     scheelite.      Ann. 

chim.   phys.    (8)   20,   547;    (8),  21,   98-109    (1910). 
640.      Weiss,  L.  and  Martin,  A.      Analysis  of  wolframite.      Z.   anorg 

Chem.  65,   286    (1910). 
6  41.      Watts,   H.   F.      Notes   on   the  analysis  of  tungsten   ores.      Met. 

Chem.  Eng.  9,  414-5    (1911). 

642.  Rzehulka,  A.      The  evaluation  of  ores.      Z.   angew.    Chem.   24, 

444-7    (1911). 

643.  Hutchins,     H.     W.      The     assay     of     Avolframite     concentrates. 

Analyst. 36,   398-403    (1911). 
6  44.      Hermann,     H.      The     quantitative     determination     of     tungstic 
acid  and  silicic  acid.      Z.  anal.  Chem.  51,  736-48    (1912). 

645.  Trautmann,   W.      Determination   of  tungsten  in  wolframite  in 

presence  of  molybdenite.  Z.  angew.  Chem.  24,  2142 
(1912). 

646.  Chesnau,    G.,    Bourion,   F.,    and   Nicolardot,    P.      Determination 

of  the  rare  elements  in  minerals  and  in  steels.  Report  of 
International  Committee  on  Analyses.  Proc.  8th  Int.  Cong, 
appl.   Chem.   1-24. 

201 


6  4  7.      Hermann,    H.      Quantitative   estimation   of   tungstic   antl   silicic 

acids.      Z.   anal.    Chem.   52,    557-68    (1913). 
6  48.      Low,    A.    H.      Technical  methods   of  ore   analysis.      Book.    New 

York.      7th   edition,    1914. 
649.      Sheda,    E.   J.      Determination   of  tung.sten   in  ores.      Eng.    Min. 

J.   101,  1076    (1916). 
6  50.      Hartmann,     M.     L.      Rapid    method     for    tungsten.      Min.     Sci. 

Press.   112,   563    (1916). 
6  51.      McDonald,   P.   B.      Specific  gravity  method  of  estimating  tung- 
sten.     Min.  Sci.  Press.   112,  40-1    (1916). 
6  5  2.      Runner,   J.   J.      Specific  gravity  method  for  tungsten   analysis. 

Min.    Sci.   Press.    113,   11-13    (1916). 
653.      Guglialmelli,    L.    and    Hordh,     U.      Betermination    of    tungstic 

acid  in  wolframite.      Anales.   soc.   quim.   Argentina.    5,    81-90 

(1917);    Chem.    Abst.    12,    794. 
6  5  4.      Hutchins,    H.    W.      Determination    of    tung-sten    in    ores.      Min. 

Mag.   17,   85-9    (1917). 
655.      Low,     A.     H.      Determination     of    tungsten     in     ore.      Chemist 

Analyst.  Xo.  23   (1917). 
65  6.      Foote,    F.    W.    and    Ransom,    R.    S.      Rapid    determination    of 

tungsten  .      Eng.   Min.   J.   105,   83  6    (1918). 
See  also  VI    (d)    (e)    (g). 

VI     (d).      QUANTITATIVE     DETERMINATION     OF     TUNGSTEN     IN 
STEEL   AND   OTHER    ALLOYS. 

6  5  7.  Schoffel,  R.  Detei-mination  of  chromium  and  tungsten  in 
steel  and  iron  alloys.  Ber.  12,  1863  (1879);  Chem.  News. 
41,   31    (1880). 

658.  Kern,   S.      Quantitative  analysis  of  certain  metals   in  iron  and 

steel.      Chem.   News.   35,   67.   247,    270    (1877). 
658a.      Lefort.      (Tungsten  in  alloys)    Compt.  rend.   92,  1461    (1881). 

659.  Perillon,     M.      E.stimation    of     tungsten     in     steel.      Bull.     soc. 

indust.  Mineral.  13,  119    (1884). 

660.  Anon.      Analyses   of  tungsten    iron   alloys.      Vienna   Assay    Of- 

fice.    Loeben  Jahrbuch.     32,  39    (1884). 

661.  Fresenius,    R.    and    Hintz.      Analysis    of    hard    tin    containing 

tung.sten.     Z.  anal.  Chem.   24,   412    (1885). 
6  62.      Schneider    and    Lipp.      Analysis    of    tungsten    .steel    and    iron. 

Z.  anal.  Chem.  24,   (1885);  Chem.  News.  51,  297. 
662a.      Perillon,   A.       (Tungsten  in  alloys)      Ber.    19,    181    (1886). 
6  63.      Ziegler,    V.      Determination    of   tungsten   in   metallic   tungsten, 

ferro-tungsten,    tungsten    steel,    etc.      Chem.    Ztg.    13,    1060; 

Dingler's   Polytech.   J.   274,    513-28    (1889). 
663a.      Vosmaer.       (Ferro-tungsten    analysis)       Z.    anal.     chem.    28, 

324    (1889). 
6  6  4.      Namias.      Estimation    of    tung.stic    oxide    in    rich     alloys    and 

and  steel.s.      Stahl   u.   Eisen.    11,   757-60    (1891). 

202 


664a.      Ziegler,   V.      (Tungsten   in  alloys).      Dingler's   Polyt.    J.   279, 

163;    Moit.   Scient.    (4)    5,    705    (1891). 
665.      Parry,   J.    and   Morgan,   J.   J.      The   analy.sis   of   iron   and   steel. 

Chem.  News.      67,   259    (1893). 
665a.      Pollock    and    Grutzner.       (Tungsten    in    alloys)       Ber.    26,    35 

(1893). 
665b.      Spuller  and  Kalmann.      (Tungsten  in  alloys)      Chem.  Ztg.   17, 

1412    (1893). 
6  6  5c.      Behrens   and   van   Linge.      (Tungsten   in   alloys)      Rec.    Trav. 

Chim.   Pays.-Bas.   13,   155;    Z.   anal.  chem.  33,   513    (1894). 
66  6.      de     Benneville,     J.     S.      Analysis     of     ferro-tungsten.      J.     Am. 

Chem.   Soc.   16,   73  5-57    (1894). 
6  6  7.      Kemery,    P.      The   determination    of    tungsten    in    steel.      Proc. 

Eng.  Soc.  West.  Pa.  9,  11    (1894). 
667a.      Foerster.      (Tungsten    in    alloys)       Z.    anorg.    chem.    8,     274 

(1895). 
66  8.      Handy.      Analysis     of     tungsten     aluminum     alloys.        J.     Am. 

Chem.  Soc.  18,   7  74    (1896). 
66  9.      Wdowiszewski,    A.      Determination    of    tungsten    in    ferro-tung- 
sten.     Stahl  u.  Eisen.  15,  676    (1895);   Przeglad  Techneczny. 
1896  I;   Abstract  J.  Iron  Steel  Inst.   1895  II  59  7. 

66  9a.      Carnot,  A.      (Tungsten  in  alloys)      Ann.  Min.   (9)    8,  357,  481 

(1895). 
670.      Auchy,    G.      Rapid    estimation    of    tung.sten    in    steel.      J.    Am. 

Chem.   Soc.  21,  239-245    (1899). 
6  71.      Ibbotson,   F.   and   Brearley,  H.      The  estimation  of  tungsten  in 

steel     and     steel     making     alloys.      Chem.     News.     82,      224 

(1900). 
6  72.      McKenna,    A.    G.      Analysis   of   ehrome-tungsten    steels.      Proc. 

Eng.  Soc.  West.  Pa.    16,  119    (1900);   Abstract  Chem.  News. 

82,   67;    Abstract   Eng.   Min.   Jour.   70,   124. 
6  72a.      Bagley    and    Brearley.       (Tungsten    in    alloys)       Chem.    News 

82,    270    (1901). 
6  73.      Fieber,    R.      The   determination   of   tungsten   in   tung.sten   steel. 

Chem,    Ztg.   25,   1038    (1901). 
6  74.      Herting,   O.      Critical  remarks  on  McKenna's  method  of  analy- 
sis of  tungsten  and  cliromium  steels.  Z.  angew.  Chem.  14,   165 

1901;    Chem.    News.    84,    75     (1901). 
674a.      Bischoff.        (Tungsten    in    alloys)        Stahl     u.     Eisen    22,     710 

(1902). 
674b.      Jervis.      (Tung.sten  in  alloys)      Chem.  News,   86,   271    (1903). 

675.  Kuklin,    E.      Determination  of   tungsten  in  tungsten   steel   and 

ferro-tungsten.      Stahl    u.    Eisen.   24,    27    (1904). 

676.  Campredon.       Determination    of    tungsten    in    commercial    tin. 

Ann.  chim.  anal.  appl.  9,   41    (1904). 

67  7.      von    Knorre,    G.      New   method      for      tlie      determination      of 

tungsten  in  tungsten  steels,  etc.      Ber.  38,   783-89    (1905). 

203 


677a.  Ulzer.  (Tungsten  in  alloys)  Mitt,  technol.  Gewerb.  Mus. 
(2)    15,    219,    1905. 

6  78.  Lind.  S.  C.  and  Trueblood,  B.  C.  Alkalimetric  method  for  de- 
termination of  tungsten  in  steel.  J.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  29, 
477-81    (1907). 

6  79.  Hinricksen,  F.  W.  On  the  determination  of  tungsten  in  steel 
in  the  presence  of  chromium.  Stahl  u.  Eisen,  27,  1418 
(1907). 

6  79a.  von  Knorre.  (Tungsten  in  alloys)  Stahl  u.  Eisen,  26,  1489 
(1907). 

6  80.  Zinberg,  S.  The  determination  of  tungsten,  chromium  and 
silicon  in  chrome-tungsten  steels.  Stahl  u.  Eisen.  28, 
1819-20    (1908). 

6  81.  Svensson,  C.  The  estimation  of  tungsten,  chromium,  nickel, 
molybedenum  and  vanadium  in  a  steel,  where  these  ele- 
ments are  present  together.  Stahl  u.  Eisen,  28,  853-5 
(1908). 

6  8  2.  von  Knorre,  G.  On  the  estimation  of  tungsten  in  steel  in 
presence  of  chromium.      Stahl   u.    Eisen,   July   8,   ip08. 

6  83.  Hinricksen,  F.  W.  and  Wolter,  L.  Determination  of  tungsten 
and  chromium  in  steel.     Z.  anorg.  Chem.  59,  183-97    (1908). 

684.  Lehalleur,  J.  P.  Analysis  of  special  steel.  Monit.  Scient.  (4) 
23   I.,    263    (1909). 

6  8  5.  Bartonec,  H.  The  determination  of  tungsten  in  tungsten 
.steel.      Oest.  Chem.   Ztg.    (2)    12,   114-5    (1909). 

6  8  6.  Hinrichsen,  F.  W.  and  Dieckmann,  T.  The  analysis  of  crome- 
tungsten  .steels.     Stahl  u.  Eisen  29,  1276-8    (1909). 

6  8  7.  Hinrichsen,  F.  W.  Analysis  of  tungsten  steel.  Chem.  Ztg.  32, 
935    (1909);   J.  Soc.  Chem.   Ind.  28,   713    (1909). 

6  88.  Wolter,  L.  The  determination  of  tungsten  in  tungsten  steel. 
Chem.  Ztg.  34,   2    (1910). 

689.  Kuczynski,  T.  Methods  of  analysis  of  alloys  containing  high 
percentages  of  tungsten.  Bull,  inter,  acad.  aci.  Cracovie. 
1911  A,   542-4. 

6  90.  Hinrichsen,  F.  W.  Analysis  of  chrome  tung.sten  steel.  Mitt. 
Kgl.   Materialpruf.   28,    229-46    (1911). 

6  91.  Fieber,  R.  Rapid  and  exact  determination  of  tungsten  in 
ferro-tungsten.      Chem.   Ztg.  36,   334    (1913). 

692.  Johnson,  C.  M.  Chemical  analysis  of  special  steels,  steel- 
making  alloys  and  graphites.  Book.  New  ork,  1914,  2nd. 
edition. 

6  93.  Fettweiss,  F.  Analysis  of  high  speed  steel.  Stahl  u.  Eisen. 
34,    274    (1914). 

694.  Kelley,  G.  L.,  Myers,  F.  B.  and  Illingsworth,  C.  B.  Deter- 
mination of  titanium,  nickel,  cobalt,  aluminum,  chromium, 
vanadium  and  tungsten  in  steels.  J.  Ind.  Eng.  Chem.  9, 
852    (1917). 

204 


695.      van    Duin,    C.    F.      Determination    of    tungsten    and    silica    in 
tungsten  steel,      Chem.   Weekblat.    14,    169-73    (1917). 
See  also  VI    (b),    (g). 

VI.  (e)  ANALYSIS  OF  METALLIC  TUNGSTEN  AND  TUNGSTEN 

COMPOUNDS 

700.  Phillip,     J.       Analysis     of    tungsten     bronzes.       Ber.     15,     500 

(1882). 

701.  Ibbotson,    F.    and   Brearley,    H.      The      analysis      of      tungsten 

compounds.      Chem.  News,  80,   29  3-4    (1899). 

702.  Ibbotson,  F.  and  Brearley,  H.      The  rapid  evaluation  of  metal- 

lic tungsten  poAvders.     Chem.  News.  80,   294-5    (1899). 
70  3.      Ibbotson,   F.   and  Brearley,   H.      The   estimation  of  manganese 

and    clu'omium    in    tungsten    alloys.      Chem.    News.    82,    209 

(1900). 
70  4.      Brunner.      Analysis  of  tungsten  bronzes.      Inaugural    Disserta- 
tion.     Zurich,   1903. 
70  5.      Copaux,    H.    and    Borteaux,    G.      Determination   of   tungsten   in. 

borotungstates.      Bull.  soc.  chim.    (4) -5,   217    (1909). 
706.      Dennstedt,    M.    and   Klunder,    T.      Determination   of   carbon   in 

tungsten,      Chem.   Ztg.   34,    48  5    (1910). 
70  7.      Trautmann,  W.     Determination  of  sulfur  in  tungsten.  Z.   anal. 

Chem.   49,    360    (1910). 

708.  Johnson,    C.    M.      Determination   of   phosphorus   in   ferrotungs- 

ten,  metallic  tungsten,   tungsten  powder   and  tungstic  oxide 
by  direct  solution.     J.   Ind.   Eng.  Chem.  5,   297-8    (1913). 

709.  Anon.      Methods   of   analysis   of   carbon-free   metals.      Booklet, 

1913.      Goldschmidt  Thermit  Co.,  N.   Y. 

710.  Arnold,    H.       The    analytical    investigation    of    tungsten.      De- 

termination   of    silica,    phosphorus,    arsenic    and    carbon    in 
metallic  tungsten.      Z.   anorg.    Chem.   88,    3  3  3-40    (1914). 
VI   (f)   TUNGSTEN  COMPOUNDS  AS  REAGENTS 

711.  Werner.      Detection    of    sugar    in    urine.      Pharm.     C.     H.    30, 

515     (1889). 

712.  Schar.      Tungstic  acid  tests  for  morphine  and  acetarilid.  Arch. 

Pharm.    232,    249. 

713.  Bertrand,  G.     Silico-tungstic  acid  as  reagent  for  the  alkaloids. 

Comp.  rend.  128,   742-5    (1899). 

714.  Wormer,  E.     Phosphotung.stic  acid  as  a  reagent  for  potassium. 

Ber.   pharm.   Ges.   10,   4-6    (1899). 

715.  Mylius.     The  albumen  reaction  of  acids.     Ber.  36,   775    (1903). 

716.  Hall,  R.   D.  and   Smith,   E.   F.      (Reactions  of     alkaloid.s     and 

phenols  with  potassium  tungsten   o.\y-f louride ) .      Proc.   Am. 
Phil.    Soc.   44,   196    (1905). 

717.  Moreigne,    H.      Color   reactions   of   pho.spho-tungstic   acid  with 

uric  acid.     Ann.  chim.  anal.  appl.  10,  15-17    (1900). 

718.  Meyer,    G.    C.      Phosphotung.stic    acid    as   a   reagent    for   potas- 

sium.    Chem.  Ztg.  31,  158    (1907). 

205 


719.  Jannasch,    P.       Fused    .sodium    tung.state    in    direct    determina- 

tion   of    carbon    dioxide    and    nitric    acid.       Verh.    Nat.    Med. 
Ver.   Heidelberg,  9,    74    (1908). 

720.  Tsuchiya,    I.      Volumetric   estimation   of   protein    by   means    of 

pho.sphotungstic  acid.  Centr.   Med.  2f>,   605-9,   10  5-15    (1908). 

721.  Cervello,    C.      Sodium   phosphotung.state   as   a   reagent   for  uric 

acid    and    other    reducing    agents.       Chem.    Zentr.,    1909    II, 
2098. 

722.  Bertrand,   G.  and  Javillier,   M.      Silicotungstate  of  nicotine  and 

the    estimation    of    that    alkaloid.       Bull.    soc.    chim.    5,    241 
(1909);   Ann.  chim.  anal.  appl.   14,   165-70. 

723.  Guillemard.      The  u.se   of  silicotungstic   acid  in   urine  analj.sis. 

J.   Physiol,  path.  gen.   12,  490    (1910). 

724.  Javillier,    M.    and   Guerithault,    B.      Silicotungstates   in   the   de- 

termination of  cinchona  alkaloids.      Bull.  sci.   Pharmocol.   18, 
93    (1911). 

72  5.      Wechsler,  E.      The  teclinic  of  precipitation  with  pho.sphotungs- 

tic acid.      Z.    Physiol.    Chem.    73,    138-43    (1911). 

726.  Jacobs,  W.  A.     Removal  of  phosphotung.stic  acid  from  aqueous 

solutions.      J.    Biol.   Chem.    12,    429-30    (1912). 

727.  Javillier.      The   combinations    of   silicotungstic   acid   with    anti- 

pyrine  and  pyramidon.     Bull.  aci.  Pharmocol.   19,   70    (1913). 

728.  Spallino,  R.      The  determination  of  nicotine  as  the  silicotungs- 

tate.     Gazz.   chim.   ital.   43,   II,   482-6    (1913). 

729.  May,    C.    E.      The  use   of  phosphotungstic   acid  as   a   clarifying 

agent  in  urine  analysis.      J.   Biol.   Chem.   11,   81-3    (1913). 

730.  Dem'Yanovskii,   S.      Precipitability  of   some  notrogeous  extrac- 

tives  by   phosphotungstic  acids  and  mercuric   salts.      Z.    phy- 
siol.   Chem.  80,   212-7    (1913). 

731.  Fernez,   A.   and   David,   L.      New  silicotungstic  acid  method  for 

qualitative   estimation    of   alkaloids.      Pharm     Post.    47,    559- 
63     (1914). 

732.  Hough,    A.    J.      Application    of   tungsten    salts    for    analysis    of 

tanning  materials.     J.   Soc.  Chem.  Ind.  33,  847-8    (1914). 

733.  Guglialmelli,  L.     Arsenotungstic  acid  as  a  reagent  for  phenols. 

Anales.  soc.  quim.  Argentina.  4,  119-26    (1916);   Chem.  Abst. 
12,   664. 

734.  Guglialmelli,  L.      Arsenotung.sta-molybdic  acid  as  a  reagent  for 

phenols.      Anales     soc.    quim.    Argentina.    4,    183-4     (1916); 
Chem.   Abst.    12,    664. 

73  5.      Guglialmelli,    L.      General   method   for   tlie   detection   of   phen- 

ols in  essential   oils.      Anales  soc.   quim.   Argentina.   5,    11-23 
(1917);    Chem.   Abst.    12,    665. 

736.  Guglialmelli,     L.      Identification     of     naphthols.      Anales      soc. 

quim.  Argentina.  5,  97-101    (1917);    Chem.  Abst.   12,  665. 

737.  Kuzirian,   S.   B.      The   u.se  of  sodium   paratungstate   in   the   de- 

termination   of   metallic   oxides   in   cyanides.      J    .Am.    Chem. 
Soc.  39,  2356-8    (1917). 

206 


VI      ({•).      QUANTITATIVE     SEPARATION     OF     Tl  NGSTEX     FROM 
OTHER    ELEMENTS. 

VI    (g).      1.      SEPARATION    OF    TUNGSTEN    FROM    ARSENIC    AND 

PHOSPHORUS. 

738.  Gooch,  A.   M.      Separation   of  tungsten  from  arsenic  and  phos- 

phoru.s.      Am.   Chein,   J.    1,    412    (1879). 

739.  Cobenzl.       (Separation    of    tung.sten    from    arsenic).       Z.    anal. 

Chem.  21,  114    (1882). 

740.  Gibbs,    W.      Separation    of    tungsten    fnmi    ar.senic    and    plios- 

Ijhorus.      Am.   Chem.   J.   7,   337. 

741.  Kehrmaiin.      (Separation  of  tung.sten  from  arsenic).      Ber.  20, 

1813    (1887).      Ann.   245,   56    (1888). 

742.  Friedham,   C.   u.   Michaelis.      (Separation  of  tungsten   from  ar- 

senic).     Ber.    28,    1414     (-1895). 
7  43.      Barber.       (Separation   of  tungstic   acid  from   phosphoric   acid.) 
Monatsh.   27,   379    (1906). 

74  4.      von    Knorre,    G.      The    separation    of    tungstlc    and   phosphoric 

acids.      Z.    anal.    Chem.    47,    37-57    (1908). 
7  4  5.      Hilpert,  S.  and  Dieckmann,   T.      The  separation  of  arsenic  and 

tung.sten.      Ber.    46,    152-5     (1913). 
7  46.      Dieckmann.  T.   and  Hllpert,  S.      The  separation  of  arsenic  and 

tungsten.      Ber.    47,    2444-6     (1914). 
7  4  7.      Sweeney,     O.     R.      Analy-sis     of     certain     tung.sten     derivatives 

(ar.senic)).      J.   Am.   Chem.   See.   38,   2377-83    (1916). 
748.      Dewar,    W.      The    estimation    of    tungsten    in    the    presence    of 

phosphorus.      Mining  Mag.    16,   252    (1917). 

VI.  (g).      2.      SEPARATION   OF   TUNGSTEN   FROM   SILICA. 
7  4  9.      Perillon,     M.       (Separation     of     tungsten     from     silica).      Bull. 
See.   Ind.   Mines.   1884  No.    1. 

750.  Preusser,    J.       (Separation   of   tungsten   from   silica).      Z.    anal. 

Chem.   28,    173    (1880). 

751.  Setllk,   B.       (Separation  of  tungsten  from  silica).      Chem.   Ztg. 

13,    1474     (1889).' 

752.  Tram.       (Separation  of  tungsten  from  silica).      Chem.   Ztg.   13, 

680    (1889). 

753.  Namlas.       (Separation     of     tungsten     from     silica).      Stahl     u." 

Eisen.      11,   757    (1892). 

75  4.      de   Benneville,   J.   S.      Note  on   the  separation  of  tungsten  and 

.silica.      J.  Am.  Chem.  See.   19,  377    (1897). 

755.  Borntrager,  H.       (Separati<m  of  tungsten  and  silica).      Z.  anal. 

Chem.  30,   361    (1900). 

756.  Ibbotson,   F.  and    Brearley,   H.      (Separation   of  tungsten  from 

silica).      Chem.    News.    80,    293-4     (1900). 

757.  McKenna,   A.    G.       (Separation   of  tungsten   and  silica).   Chem. 

News.  82,  6  7    (1900). 

207 


758.  Herting,    O.      Deteiinlnation    of    tungstic    at-id    antl   separation 

from  sUica.     Z.  angew.  Chem.   14,  165-6    (1901). 

759.  Walls,    H.    L.    and    Metzger,    F.    J.      Quantitative   separation   of 

tungstic    acid    from    silicic    acid.      J.     Am.     Chem.     Soc.     23, 
356-8    (1901). 

760.  McKenna,    A.    G.       (Separation    of    tungsten    from    silica).      Z. 

angew.   Chem.   14,    828    (1901). 

761.  Kehrmann    and    Flurschelm.       (Separation    of    tungsten    from 

silica).      Z.   anorg.   Chem.  39,   9  8    (1904). 

762.  Manchot    and    Kieser,     A.    J.       (Separation    of    tung.sten    from 

silica).      Ann.    337,    3  53     (1904). 

763.  Kieser,    A.    J.       (Separation  of  tungsten   from   silica).      Disser- 

tation.     Wurtzburg.      1905. 

764.  Friedheim,   Henderson   and   Pinazel.      (Sejjaration   of   tungsten 

from  silica.)      Z.    anorg.   Chem.   45,    3  96    (1905). 

765.  Ruben.       (Separation    of    silica   from    tungsten.)      Dissertation. 

Bonn.      1905. 

766.  Watts,    H.    F.       (Separation    of   silica    from   tungsten.)      Chem. 

News.      95,   19    (1907). 

767.  Nicolardet,  P.      Separation  of  tungstic  acid  and  silica.   Compt. 

rend.  147,  795-7    (1908);   Chem.  Ztg.  1908,  1178. 

768.  Bourion,    F.       (Separation    of    tungsten    from    silica).      Compt. 

rend.   138,   760    (1912). 

769.  Hermann,  H.      (Separation  of  tungsten  from  silica).      Z.   ana- 

lyst.  Chem.   51,    736    (1912). 

VI  (g).      3.      SEPARATIOX     OF     TUNGSTEN     FROM     TIN. 

770.  John.      "Chem.  Laboratorium".      1808.      305. 

771.  Talbot.      (Separation    of   tungsten    and    tin).      Z.    anal.    Chem. 

10,  343    (1870);   Chem.  News.  22,  230;   Ber.  4,   279    (1871). 

772.  Donath,  E.  and  Muller,  F.      Separation  of  tin  oxide  from  tung- 

stic  acid.      Monatsh.   8,    647-9    (1887). 

773.  Preusser.      (Separation  of  tung.sten  and  tin.)      Z.   anal.   Chem. 

28,    173    (1889). 
773a.      Setlik.       (Separation   of   tungsten   and   tin)       Chem.    Ztg.    13, 
1479    (1889). 
*774.      Ibbotson,    F.    and    Brearley,    H.       (Separation    of   tungsten   and 
tin).      Chem.   News.   80,   293    (1900). 

775.  Defacqz,    E.       (Separation   of   tungsten   and   tin).      Ann.    chim. 

phys.    (7)    22,    281    (1901). 

776.  Reichard,   C.       (Separation   of  tungsten  and  tin.)      Chem.    Ztg. 

27,   4    (1903). 

777.  Angenot.       (Separation     of     tung.sten     and     tin).      Z.      angew. 

Chem.    19,    140,    756    (1906). 

778.  Donath,    E.       (Separation    of    tungsten    and    tin.)      Z.    angew. 

Chem.    19,   473-4    (1906). 

208 


779.  Defacqz,   E.      On  a  new  method  of  separating  silica  and  tung- 

stic     anhydride.      Compt.     rend.     146,     1319      (1908);     Bull. 
Sec.  chim.    (4)   3,   8  92;   Chem.  Ztg.   1908,   72  2. 

780.  Treadwell,    W.    D.      The    electrolytic    separation    of    tin    from 

tungsten.      Z.   Elektrochem.   19,   381-4    (1913). 

781.  Dittler,    E.    and   von   Graffenried,   A.      Determination   of   tung- 

sten   and    its    separation    from    tin.      Chem.     Ztg.    40,     681 
(1916);   J.  See.  Chem.  Ind.  35,  968. 

782.  Travers.      A  new  separation  of  tin  and  tungsten  in  staniferous 

wolfram  ore.      Compt.  rend.   165,  40  8-10    (1917). 

VI  (g).   4.   SEPARATION  OF  TUNGSTEX  AND  MOLYBDENUM. 

783.  John.      "Chem.   Lahoratorium".      1808,   30  5. 

784.  Pfaff.  (Separation     of     tungsten     and     molybdenum).      Handb. 

anal.   Chem.   1822  II,   501. 

785.  Debray.      (Separation  of  tungsten  and  molybdenum).      Compt. 

rend.  46,   1101    (1858). 

786.  Waddell,     J.      (Separation     of     tungsten     and     molybdenum). 

Am.    Chem.    J.      8,    280     (1886);    Z.    physik.    Chem.    3,    491 
(1889). 

787.  Friedheim,   C.   and   Meyer,  R.     Preparation  of  tungstates  free 

from  moljbdenum.      Z.  anorg.   Chem.   1,  76-81    (1892). 
78  8.      Pechard.      (Separation  of  tungsten  and  molbdenum).      Compt. 
rend.   114,   173    (1892). 

78  9.      Traube,     M.      (Separation     of     tungsten     and     molybdenum). 

N.   Jahrb.   Miner.   Bell.   7,    232    (1890);    Her.  25,   47    (1892). 

790.  Smith,  E.  F.  and  Oberholtzer,  A.       (Separation  of  tungsten  and 

molybdenum).      Z.    anorg.    Chem.    4,    236     (1893). 

791.  Hitchcock.       (Separation    of    tungsten    and    molybdenum).      J. 

Am.  Chem.  Soc    17,  483,  .520    (1895). 

79  2.      Pennington,  M.  L.  and  Smith,  E.  F.      (Separation  of  tungsten 

and  molybdenum).      Z.  anorg.  Chem.  8,  198   (1895). 
793.      Desi,    E.    D.       (Separation   of   tungsten   and   molybdenum).      J. 

Am.  Chem.  Soc.  19,  213    (18  97). 
79  4.      Brearley,     H.       (Separation     of     tungsten     and     molybdenum). 

Chem.  News.   79,   6  4    (1899). 
79  5.      Ibbotson,    F.    and    Brearley,    H.      (Separation   of  tungsten   and 

molybdenum),      Chem.  News.  80,   294    (1899);    Chem.  News. 

81,  13    (1900). 
796.      Ruegenberg,    ]\r.    J.    and    Smith,    E.    F.      Separation   of   tungstic 

trioxide    from    molybdenum    trioxide.     J.    Am.    Chem.     Soc. 

22,    772-3     (1900). 
79  7.      Hommel,     W.       (vSeparation     of     tungsten     and     molybdenum). 

Dissertation,   Gressen,    1902. 
79  8.      Reichard,     C.      (Separation     of    tungsten     and     molybdenum). 

Chem.  Ztg.  27,  4    (1903). 
799.      Jannasch,    P.    and    Bettges,   W.      (Separation   of   tungsten   and 

molybdenum).      Ber.   37,    2219    (1904). 

209 


800.  Smith,   E.   F.  and   Exner,  F.   F.       (Separation  of  tungsten  from 

molybdenum).      Chem.   News.   90,   37    (1904). 

801.  Marbaker,    E.    E.      Separation   of   tungsten    from    molybdenum. 

J.   Am.   Chem.   See.  37,   86-95    (1915);    Thesis.   Unive.   of  Pa., 
1914. 

VI    (g).      5.      SEPARATION  OF  TUNGSTEN   AND  VANADIUM. 

802.  Safarik.       (Separation  of  tungsten  and  vanadium).      Ann.    10!), 

84    (1859). 

803.  V.     Hauer.       (Separation     of     tungsten     and     vanadium)       Ber. 

Wien.   Akad.  39,   44  8    (1860). 

804.  Brauner.       (Separation    of    tungsten    and    vanadium).      Monat- 

sche.3,   58    (1882). 
80  5.      Gibbs,   W.      Researches   on  the   coniple.v   inorganic   acids.   Proc. 

Am.  Acad.   Arts,   Sci.   18,   232;   Am.   Chem.   J.   4,   377;   5,   361, 

391;    Chem.    News.    48,    155    (1883). 
80  6.      Carnot,   A.       (Separation  of  tungsten   and  vanadium).      Compt. 

rend.    104,    1803,    1850;    105,    119;    Chem.    News.   56,    16,    42 

(1887). 
807.      Rosenheim,   A.      Vanadotungstic  acid.      Ann.  251,  197    (1889); 

Ber.   23,   3208    (1890);    Z.   anorg.   Chem.   32,    181    (1902). 
80  8.      Friedheim,     C.      Separation     of     vanadic     from     tungstic     acid. 

Ber.  23,  353    (1890). 

809.  Rothenbach,     F.       (Separation    of    tungsten    frimi    vanadium), 

Ber.   23,   3050    (1890). 

810.  Rosenheim,    A.    and    Friedheim,    C.       (Separation    of    tungsten 

and  vanadium).      Z.    anorg.    Chem.    1,    313     (1892). 

811.  Fischer.       (Separation   of   tungsten   and   vanadium).      Disserta- 

tion.     Rostock,   1894. 

812.  Gibbs,    W.       (Separation    of    tungsten    and    vanatlium).      Proc. 

Am.   Acad.  Art.  Sci.  18,   232;   Am.  Chem.  J.   7,   361,   377.  391 
(1886). 

813.  Browning     and     Goodmann.      Use     of     organic     acids     for     tlie 

estimation  of  vanadium.      Z.   anorg.    Chem.    13,    427    (1897); 
Am.   J.   Sci.    (4)    2,   355    (1897). 

814.  Reichard,      C.       (Separation      of      tung.sten      and      vanadium), 

Chem.  Ztg.  27,  4    (1903). 

815.  Beard,    Noel.      Methods    of    determination     and    separation    of 

vanadium    and    tungsten.      Dissertation,    Univ.    of    Lausanne 
(1904). 

VI     (g).      6.      SEPARATION     OF     TUNGSTEN     FROM     COLUMBIIM 

AND  TANTALUM, 

816.  Ruegenberg,    M.    J.    and    Smith,    E.    F.       (Separation    of    colum- 

bium   and  tantalum   from   tungsten),   J.   Am.    Chem.    See.    22, 
772    (1900);   Chem.  News.  83,  5    (1901). 

817.  Reichard,    C.       (Separation    of    tungsten    fnnn    columbium    and 

tantalum).      Chem.    Ztg.    27,    4     (1903). 

210 


818.  Bedford,    von    Hume.       (Separation    of    tungsten    from    colum- 

bium  and  tantalum).      J.   Am.   Chem.   Soc.   27,    1216    (1905). 

819.  Smith.    E.    F.       (Separation   of   tungsten    from   eolumbium   and 

tantatlnm).      Proc.   Am.   Phil.   Soc.   44,   151    (1905). 

VI  (s).      7.      SEPARATION   OF   TUNGSTEN   AND   TITANIUM. 

820.  Defacqz,   E.       (Separation  of  tung.sten  from  titanium).   Compt. 

rend.    123,   823    (1896). 

821.  Carnot,    A.    and    Goutal.       (Separation    of    tungsten    from    tita- 

nium).     Compt.    rend.    12.5,    7  5    (1897). 

822.  Reichard.  C.       (Separation  of  tungsten  from  titanium).   Chem. 

Ztg.    27,    4    (1903). 

VI  (g).      «.      SEPARATION   OF   TUNGSTEN   AND  ANTIMONY. 

823.  John.      "Cliem.  Laboratorium".   1808,   p.   305. 

824.  Cobenzl.       (Separation    of    tungsten    and    antimony).      Z.    anal. 

Chem.  21,   114    (1882). 

825.  Hallopeau,  L.  A.      Antimonic  tungstates.      Bull.  soc.  chim.     17, 

170    (1897). 

826.  Reichard,   C.       (Separation   of  tung.sten  and  antimony) .   Chem. 

Ztg.  27,   4    (1903). 

VI      (g).      !).      SEPARATION     OF     TUNGSTEN     AND     MANGANESE. 

827.  Smith,   E.   F.   and   Taggart.   W.    T.      The   separation   of   manga- 

nese   from    tungstic    acid.      J.    Am.    Chem.    Soc.     18,     1053-4 
(1896). 

828.  Ibbotson,    F.    and    Brearley,    H.       (Separation    of   tungsten    and 

manganese).      Chem.    News.   82,    209     (1900). 
8  29.      von    Knorre,    G.       (Separation    of    tungsten    and    manganese). 
Stahl  u.  Eisen.  27,  380    (1907). 

VI     (g).      10.      MISCELLANEOUS    SEPARATION. 

830.      Cobenzl.       (Separation   of  tungsten  from  iron,  ar.senic   and   an- 
timony).     Z.   anal.   Chem.   21,    114    (1882). 
831.      De     Boisbaudran.       (Separation     of     tungsten     from     gallium). 
Compt.  rend.  97,  521;   Chem.  News.  48,  148    (1883). 

83  2.  Smith,  E.  F.  and  Frankel,  L.  K.  Electrolytic  separations  of 
tungsten  from  mercury,  silver  and  cadmium.  Am.  Chem.  J. 
12,    104,    428-35;    J.    Frank.    Inst.    2,  "3     (1890). 

S;:-.  Smith,  E.  F.  and  Wallace,  D.  L.  Electrolytic  .separations.  Ber. 
25,   779-785    (1892). 

834.  Handy.       (Separation    of    tungsten    from    aluminum).      .J.    Am. 

Chem.   Soc.   18,   766    (1896). 

835.  Burgass.       (Reaction   of   tungsten    with    nitroso-beta-naplithol) . 

Z.  angew.   Chem.   18»<i,   59  6. 
83('       .Tjinnasch,    P.    and   Aefters.       (Separation      of      tungsten      from 

mercury).      Ber.    31,    23  7  7     (1898). 
837.      Ibbotson,    F.    and    Brearley,    H.       (Separation    of   tungsten   and 

uranium).      Chem.    News.   80,    293    (1899). 

211 


83  8.  Ibbotson  F.  and  Brearley,  H.  (Separation  of  tungsten  antl 
chromium).      Chem.    News.    82,    20  9     (1900). 

839.  Reichard,  C.  (Separation  of  tungsten  and  gallium).  Chem. 
Ztg.   27,    4    (1903). 

8  40.  Jannasch,  P.  and  Stephen.  (Separation  of  tungsten  from 
platinum).      Ber.    37,    1980     (1904). 

841.  Jannasch,   P.   and   Bettges,   W.      On  the   sei>aration   of  mercury 

from  moljbdenum  and  tungsten  by  hjdrazine  and  the  de- 
termination of  tungsten  and  molybdenum.  Ber.  37,  2219 
(1904). 

842.  Miller.      (Separation  of  tungsten  from  gold).      J.    Am.    Chem. 

See.   26,   1255    (1904). 

843.  Jannasch,    P.    and    Rostosky.       (Separation    of    tungsten    from 

palladium).      Ber.    37,    2441    (1904). 

844.  Hendricksen,    F.    W.      [Separation    of    tungsten    and    carbon). 

Stahl  u.  Eisen.  27,   1418    (1907). 

845.  von   Knorre,    G.      The   separation   of   tung.sten   from   chromium 

and  the  detennination  of  tungsten  in  steels,  containing 
chromium.      Z.   anal.   Chem.   47,   33  7-6  6    (1908). 

8  46.  Wunder,  M.  and  Schapiro,  A.  Separation  of  tungsten  in 
presence  of  iron,  beryllium,  and  aluminum.  Ann.  chim. 
anal.   17,  323    (1912). 

8  4  7.  Jannasch,  P.  and  Routals,  O.  Quantitative  separation  of  cop- 
per from  tungsten,  etc.  in  saccharose  solutions.  Ber.  45, 
598-604    (1912). 

8  48.  Wunder,  M.  and  Schapiro,  A.  Separation  of  tungsten  from 
thorium,  lanthanum,  cerium,  erbium,  didymium  and  silica. 
Ann.    chim.   anal.   18,    2  57-6  0    (1913). 

8  4  9.  Meller,  J.  W.  Treatise  on  quantitative  analysis.  Book.  Lon- 
don,   1913. 

850.  Lavers,  H.  Effect  of  tungsten  on  ammonium  molybdate  assay 
for  lead.  Proc.  Aust.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.  1913,  243-5;  Min. 
World.  40,  54. 

8  51.  Treadwell,  W.  D.  Electro-analytical  separation  of  copper 
from  tungsten  and  molybdenum.  Z.  Electrochen;.  10,  219- 
21    (1913). 

852.  McKay,  L.  R.  W.  and  Furman,  N.  H.  Use  of  hydrofluoric  acid 
in  the  sejparation  of  heavy  metals  from  tin,  antimony,  tungs- 
ten and  molybdenum  by  the  electric  current.  J.  Am.  Chem. 
Soc.    38,    640-62    (1916). 


212 


VII.     MINERALOGY  OF  TUNGSTEN 


853.      Silliman,   B.      Tungsten  ochre.     Am.  J.    Sci.  4,   52    (1822). 
S54.      Richardson,    T.      Analysi-s    of    wolfram.      Thompson's    Records 
of  General  Science.  1,  451    (1835). 

855.  Ebelmen,  J.  J.     Xote  on  the  composition  of  wolframite.     Ann. 

des  Mines    (4)    4,   407    (1843). 

856.  Domeyke.  I.     Ann.  des  Mines.      (3)    15,    (1843). 

8  5  7.  Kerndt,  T.  On  crystal  forms  and  chemical  composition  of 
natural  and  artificial  compounds  of  tungsten.  J.  parkt. 
Chem.  42,   9  7    (1847). 

8  58.  Descloizeaux,  A.  Memoir  on  the  crystalline  forms  of  wolf- 
ramite.    Ann.  chim.  phys.    (3)  28,  163    (1850). 

8  59.  Schneider,  R.  On  the  chemical  composition  of  tungsten 
minerals.     J.  prakt.  Chem.  49,  332    (1850). 

860.  Lettsom   and   Grey.      Tungsten   oclu-e.      Brit.    Min.    1858,    349; 

Dana's  Min.  1854. 

861.  Dauber.     Scheelite  (measurement  of  angles).     Pogg  Ann.  107, 

272    (1859). 

862.  Bernoulli,    F.    A.      On    tungsten    and    some    of    its    compounds. 

Pogg.  Ann.  Ill,   576    (1860). 
86  3.      Hunt,  T.  S.     Analysis  of  Canadian  wolfi-am.  Canadian  Jour.   5, 

303    (1860). 
864.      Nordenskjold.     Tungsten  ochre.     Oefvers  af.  v.  Vetensk.  Akad. 

Forh.   17,  440    (1860);    Pogg.    Ann.   114,   623    (1861). 
8  6  5.      Liebe,  K.  L.  T.     A  new  wolframite  from  Spain.     Neues  Jahrb. 

1863,    641-53. 
8  6  6.      Shepard,    C.    V.      Mineralogical    Notes.    ..Am.    J.    Sci.     (2)     37, 

407    (1864). 
8  6  7.      Ralnmelsberg,    C.    F.      The   chemical   composition   of   ferherite. 

K.   Akad.  Wiss.   Berlin  Monatsber.    1865,   17  5-6. 
86  8.      Shepard,    C.    V.       On    scheelitin    at    the    Southampton     (Mass.) 

lead  mine.      Am.  J.  Sci.    (2)   41,  215-6    (1866). 
869.      Groth,    P.      Mineral   collection    of    Stras.sburg.    p.    157     (1868). 
8  70.      Domeyko.    I.      Notes    on    some    minerals    of    Chili.      Ann.    des 

mines   (6)    16,  537-8    (1869). 

871.  Descloizeaux,    A.      New   crystallographic    forms    of   wolframite. 

Ann.  chim.  phys.    (4)    19,  168    (1870). 

872.  Bauer.      Scheelite      (measui-ement     of     angles).      Jahr.      ver. 

Wurtt.    129,    (1871). 
8  73.      Jeremejew.    P.      Wolframite    crystals    in    comparison    with    co- 
lumbite  crystals.      Russ.    mineral   Ges.    St.    Petersburg.    Verb. 
(2)    7,  301    (1872). 

213 


874.  Groth,  P.  and  Arzruni,  A.  On  the  crystal  forms  and  optical 
properties   of  wolframites   and  their  similarity  to   columbite. 

Pogg.  Ann.    (5)   29,  235    (1873). 

8  75.  Carnot,  A.  Some  minerals  of  tungsten  from  Meymae,  C'or- 
reze,  France.  Bull.  see.  chim.  (2)  20,  488  (1873);  Compt. 
rend.   79,  477;   Ann.  chim.  phys.    (5)    3,   466    (1874). 

8  76.  Groth,  P.  The  mineral  collection  of  the  Kaiser-Willielm 
University,   Strassburg.    p.    161     (1S7S). 

8  77.  Luedecke,  O.  Keinite,  a  new  iron  tungstate.  Neues  Jahrb. 
1879,    288. 

8  78.  Bauermann,  H.  Descriptive  mineralogy  and  systematic  mine- 
ralogy.     Book.    London,    1881. 

879.  Hillebrand,     W.     F.     and     Cross,     W.      Miscellaneous     mineral 

notes.      U.  S.   Geol.   Surv.  Bull.  20,   9  6    (1885). 

880.  Slpoez,   L.      Chemical  compo.sition  of  some  rare  minerals   from 

Hungary.      Min.    pet.    Mitt.    7,    270    (1S86). 

881.  Seligmann,     G.      Wolframite      (measurement     of     angles).      Z. 

Kryst.  Min.   11.      347    (1886). 

882.  Genth,    F.    A.      The   minerals   of   North   Carolina.      U.    S.    Geol. 

Surv.   Bull.  74,   80    (1891). 
8  83.      Melville,    W.    H.      Powellite,    calcium   tungsto-molybdate.      Am. 
J.   Sci.    (3)    41,    138-41    (1891). 

884.  Penfield,     S.     L.      Contributions     to     mineralogy.        Hubnerite 

from  Colorado.      Am.  J.   Sci.    (3)    43,   184-7    (1892). 

885.  Genth,  F.  A.  and  Penfield,  S.  L.      (Contributions  to  mineralogy. 

Am.   J.   Sci.    (3)    43,    187    (1892). 

886.  Williams,    G.    H.      Piedmontite  and  .scheelite   from   tlie   ancient 

rhyolite  of  South  Mountain,  l*enns>lvania.      Am.   J.    Sci.    (3) 
46,    50-7    (1896). 
8  87.      Domeyko,      I.      Hubnerite     from      Peru.      INlineralojia.      2,      92 
(1897). 

888.  Hlawatsch,   C.      (Kaspite).      Ann.    Mus.   Wien.    12,    38    (1897). 

889.  Granger.       (Hubnerite).      Compt.  .rend.   127,  106    (1898). 

890.  Jimbo,.  K.      The   minerals    of   Japan.      Tokyo.    Coll.    Sci.    Jour. 

11,    213    (1899). 

891.  Cumenge.      "Robellazite".      Bull.   Soc.   Min.  23,   17    (1900). 

89  2.  Warren,  C.  H.  Cry.stals  of  iron  wolframite  from  South  Da- 
kota.     Am.   J.   Sci.    (4)    11,   372    (1901). 

8  93.  Cesaro,  G.  Artificial  production  of  stolzite.  Ann.  soc.  geol. 
Belg.  37B,  81-6. 

8  9  4.  Florence,  W.  Scheelite.  N.  Jahrb.  Mines.  1903,  725;  Z. 
Kryst.  41,  648    (1906). 

8  9  5.  Anderson,  C.  Topaz,  beryl,  vesuvianite,  tourmaline,  and  wol- 
framite.     Aust.    Mus.   Records.   5,    303    (1904). 

896.  Spencer,  L.  J.  Minerals  from  Bolivia.  Mineral.  Mag.  14,  334 
(1905). 

89  7.      Granger.       (Hubnerite).      Compt.   rend.   140,   93  5    (1905). 

214 


S9S.  Headden,  W.  P.  3Iineralogical  Notes.  Hubnerite  from  South 
Dakota.      Colo.   Sci.   Soc.    Proc.   8,    175    (1906). 

8  9  9.  Walker,  T.  L.  A  review  of  the  minerals  tungstite  and  mey- 
niacite.  Am.  J.  Sci.  (4)  25,  305  (1908);  Z.  Kryst.  48,  110 
(1911). 

900.  Baskerville,     C.      The    rare    minerals. — Tungsten.      Eng.     Miu. 

J.  87,  203    (1908). 

901.  Blake,     W.     P.      Minerals    of    Arizona.      Report     to     Governor. 

Booklet.     Tucson,  Arizona,   1909. 

902.  Ekeley,    J.    B.      The    composition    of    .some    Colorado    tungsten 

ores.      Univ.    of   Colo.    Studies.   6,    93-6    (1909);    Min.    World 
30,    280     (1909). 

903.  Dana,   J.    D.    and    E.    S.      Sjstem   of  mineralogy.      Book.      New 

York,    (1909).      6th    edition.      1st    and    2nd    Appendices. 

904.  Eberhard.      Scandium  in  wolframite.      Ber.   1910,    404. 

90  5.      Winchell.   A.    X.      \otes   on   the   tungsten   minerals   from   Mon- 
tana.     Econ.    Geol.    5,    158-165    (1910). 

906.  Schaller,     W.     T.      Ferritungstite.      Am.     J.    Sci.     (4)     32,     161 

1911);    U.   S.    Geol.   Surv.   Bull.   509,    83-4    (1912). 

907.  Tronquoy,    R.      Hubnerite.      Soc.   franc.    Mineral.   Bull.   36,    113 

(1913). 

908.  Hess,   F.   L.   and   Schaller,   W.   T.      (\)lorado  ferberite  and  wol- 

framite series.      U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  583,    (1914). 
90  9.      W'herry,    E.    T.      Notes   on   wolframite,    beraunite,   and   axinite. 
Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.  47,  501-11    (1914). 

910.  Jimbo,  K.      Ferberite  from  Kurasawa,  Kai  and  hubnerite  from 

Nishizawa,    Shimotsuke.      Beitr.     Mineral.     Japan.    5,     256-9, 
(1915). 

911.  de   Rhoden,   C.      Cathodic   phosphorescence   of  scheelite.      Ann. 

chim.   3,   338-66    (1915). 

912.  Fitch.  R.  S.  and  Laughlin,  G.  F.      Wolframite  and  scheelite  in 

Colorado.      Econ.   Geol.    11,   30-6    (1916). 

913.  Brown,     J.     C.      Solubility     of    tungsten    minerals.      Min.     Sci. 

Press.   115,   302    (1917). 

914.  Knox,   N.   B.      Solubility   of  tungsten    (Avolframite).      Min.    Sci. 

Press   115,   818    (1917). 

915.  Anon.      Solubility  of  tungsten  minerals.      Min.   Sci.   Press    115, 

298    (1917). 
915a.      Hess,   F.   L.      (Tungsten  minerals   and  deposits)      U.   S.   Geol. 

Surv.    Bull.    652    (1917). 
915b.      Wells,  R.   C.  and  Butter,  B.  S.     Tungstenite,  a  new  mineral. 

J.  Wash.   Acad.    Sci.   7,    (20)    596-99    (1917). 
See  also  I  and  VIII. 


215 


VIII.     GEOLOGICAL  OCCURRENCE  OF  TUNGSTEN 


(a)   UNITED  STATES 

1.   ALASKA 

916.  Knopf,     A.      The     mineral     deposit     of     the     Lost     River     and 

Brooks  Mountain  Region,   Seward   Peninsula,   Alaska.      U.   S. 
Geol.   Surv.    Bull.   345,    (1908). 

917.  Knopf,  A.      Geology  of  the  Seward  Peninsula  tin  deposits.      U. 

S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  358,  (1908). 

918.  Knopf,  A.      AVolframite-topaz  ore  from  Alaska.      Science.   New 

series.  27,   924    (1908). 

919.  Johnson,    B.    L.      Occurrence   of   wolframite   and   cassiterite  in 

the   gold   placers   of   Deadwood   Creek.   Birch   Creek   district, 
Alaska.      U.   S.    Geol.  Surv.   Bull.  442,    246    (1910). 

920.  Brooks,    A.    H.      Geologic    features    of    Alaskan    Metalliferous 

lodes.      U.   S.   Geol.    Surv.  480,   8  8-90    (1911). 

921.  Bateman,  A.   M.      A  tungsten  deposit  near  Fairbanks,  Alaska. 

Econ.   Geol.   13,   112-15    (1918). 

VIII    (a).      2.      ARIZONA. 

922.  Blake,     W.     P.      Hubnerite     in     Arizona.      Trans.      Am.      Inst. 

Min.  Eng.  28,   543-6    (1898). 

923.  Blake,    W.    P.      OccuiTence    and    production    of    wolframite    in 

Arizona.      Mineral  Industry.  7,  720-22    (1898). 

924.  Blake,   W.   P.      Wolframite  in  Arizona.      Eng.   Min.   J.   65,   608 

(1898). 

925.  Church,     J.     A.      The     Tombstone,     Arizona     Mining     District. 

Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.  33,  3    (1903). 

926.  Rickard,  F.      Notes  on  the  tungsten  deposits  of  Arizona.   Eng. 

Min.  J.  78,  263-5    (1904). 

927.  Kellogg,  L.  O.      Sketch  of  the  geology  and  ore  deposits  of  the 

Cochise    Mining    districts,     Arizona.      Econ.     Geol.     1,     6  5  4-5 
(1906). 

928.  Surr,    G.      Tungsten   in   Arizona.      Am.    Min.   Rev.    22,   Nov.    23 

(1907). 
9  29.      Richards,    R.    W.      The    Dragoon,    Arizona    tungsten    depo.sits. 

Min.  Sci.  57,  93-4    (1908). 
93  0.      Schrader,   F.    C.      The   mineral   deposits   of   the   Cerbat   Range, 
Black    Mountains    and    Grand    "Wash    Cliffs,    Mohave    County, 

Arizona.      U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  340,  53-83    (1908). 
931.      Hill,    J.    M,      Note    on    the    occurrence    of    tungsten    minerals 

near    Calabasas,     Arizona.      L".     S.     Geol.     Surv.     Bull.     340, 

164-6    (1909). 

216 


932.  Hess,    F.    L.      Notes   on   a   wolframite   deposits   in  the  AVheat- 

stone    3Iountains,    Arizona.      U.     S.     Geol.     Surv.     Bull.     380, 
164-5    (1909). 

933.  Guild,   F.   N.      The   mineralogy   of   Arizona.      Book.    1910. 

934.  Anon.      A    tung.sten    deposit   in   AVestern   Arizona.      Eng.    Min. 

J.  90,   1103    (1911). 
93.5.      Rubel,  A.   C.      Tungsten    (in  Arizona).      University   of  Arizona, 
Bur.  of  Mines.     Bull  No.  11    (1916). 

VIII  (a).      3.      CALIFORNIA. 

93 G.      Hanks,     H.     G.      The    minerals    of    California.      Reports    State 

Mineraligist.      1SS4. 
93  7.      Surr,  G.      Tungsten  near  Randsburg.      Am.  Min.  Rev.  22,  Nov. 

9    (1907). 

935.  Hess.   F.   L.      Note  on  a  tungsten-bearing  vein  near  Raymond, 

California.      U.    S.   Geol.    Surv.    Bull.   340,    2  71    (1908). 

93  9.      Surr,    G.      Tungsten    at    Victorville.     Am.    :\Iin.    Rev.    24,    July 

11.    (1908). 

940.  Williams.  J.  H.  Tungsten  deposits  near  Ivanspah,  San  Ber- 
nardino County,  California.      Min.  Rev.   Oct.   30,    (1909). 

9  41.  Dolbear,  S.  H.  Occurrence  of  tungsten  in  the  Rand  District, 
California.      Eng.  Min.  J.  90,   904-5    (1910). 

942.  'Williams,  J.  H.      Tungsten  deposits  of  San  Bernardina  County, 

California.      Min.    Sci.    Press.    103,    54  5     (1911). 

943.  Nevius,  J.  N.      Notes  on  the  Randsburg  tungsten  di-strict,  Cali- 

fornia,     Mining  and  Oil  Bull.  May  1916. 

944.  Storms,    W.    H.      New    scheelite    discovery.      Min.    Sci.    Press. 

113,    768    (1916). 

945.  Hutchinson.    C.   T.      The  tungsten  mines  of  Atolia.      Min.    Sci. 

Press.   May   27,    1916. 

946.  Glasgow,   J.   AV.      Tungsten  mining  at  Atolia,  California.    ^lin. 

and  Oil  Bull.  Jan.  1916. 
9  47.      Anon.      Tungsten  mines  of  Inyo  County,  California.      Min.   Sci. 

Press.   115,  95    (1917). 
9  48.      Knopf.    A.      Tungsten    deposits    of   northwestern   Inyo   County, 

California.      U.   S.   Geol.   Surv.   Bull. 640  L,   229-49    (1917). 

VIII    (a).      4.      COLORADO. 

94  9.      Comstock,    T.    B.      The   distribution   of  San   Juan   ores.      Eng. 

Min.    J.    38,    29,    45,    98,    200,    315,    328     (1885). 

950.  Cooper,   C.   A.      The  tungsten  ores  of  San  Juan  County,  Colo- 

rado.     Eng.   Min.  J.  67,   499    (1899). 

951.  Lee,    H.    A.      Tungsten    ores    in    Colorado.      Eng.    Min.    J.    71, 

466    (1900). 

952.  Lee,  H.  A.      Tungsten  ores.      Mining  Bureau  of  Colorado.  Bull. 

4,   12,   1901;    Bull.  5,   20    (1902). 

217 


9  53.  Ransome,  F.  L.  Report  on  the  economic  geology  of  the  Sil- 
vertcii  Quadrangle,  Colo.  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  182, 
(1901). 

9.54.  Anon.  Tungsten  at  Cripple  Creek.  ]\Iln.  Reporter.  51,  133 
(1905). 

95  5.      Thomas,  K.      The  Boulder  County  Coloriido  tungsten  deposits. 

Min.  World.  23,    (1905). 
9  56.      Anon.      The   tungsten   industry    of   Boulder    County,    Colorado. 

Min.  Reporter.  51,  5    (1905). 
957.      Moses,    A.     J.      Crystallized    wolframite    from    Boulder,     Colo- 
rado.     Am.  J.   Sci.    (4)    20,   281    (1905). 
9  58.      Lindgren,  W.  and  Ransome,  F.  L.      Geology-  and  gold  deposits 

of  the   Cripple  Creek  district,   Colorado.     U.    S.    Geol.    Surv. 

Prof.  Paper  54,  127    (1906). 
9  5  9.      Greenawalt,  W.   E.      The  tungsten  deposits  of  Boulder  County, 

Colorado.      Eng.   Min.   J.   83,    951-2    (1907). 
9  6  0.      Lindgren,    AV.      Some   gold    and   tung.sten   depo.sits    of   Boulder 

County,   (\>lorado.      Econ.    Geol.    2,    453-63    (1907). 
961.      George,   R.   D.   and   Crawford,   R.    D.      The  main  tungsten  area 

of     Boulder     County,     Colorado.      Colo.     Geol.     Surv.     First 

report,    1908. 

96  2.      George,   R.    D.   and  Crawford,   R.   D.      The  main  tungsten   area 

of    Boulder    County,     Colorado.      Proc.     Colo.     Sci.     Soc.     J), 

181-216    (1909). 
96  3.      Von    Wagenen,    H.    R.      Tung.sten    in    Colorado.      Quart.    Colo. 

School     of    Mines,     April,     1909;     Bull.     Colo.     Sch.     Mines, 

3,   138. 
96  4.      Prosser,     W.     C.      Tungsten    in    San    Juan    County,    Colorado. 

Eng.   Min.  J.   90,   320    (1910). 
96  5.      Wood,     J.     R.      Rare     metals     in     Boulder     County,     Colorado. 

Min.    Sci.   62,    11    (1910). 
96  6.      Ackermann,    E.      Production    of    tungsten    in    Colorado.      Rev. 

de  chim.  Ind.  April  1911. 
96  7.      Carl,  P.  H.      Tungsten,  Colorado  and  el.sewhere.      Min.  Sci.  63, 

92-4    (1911). 
968.      Dalzell,  T.  J.      Tungsten.      Biennial  Report  Colo.  State  Bureau 

of  Mines.  1911,  21-23 
96  9.      Dalzell,   T.   J.      Deep  mining  for  tungsten  in  Colorado.      Min. 

Sci.   63,  498-9    (1911). 
9  70.      Greenawalt,  W.  E.      The  tungsten  deposits  of  Boulder  County, 

Colo.      Cornell   Civ.   Eng.   20,   197-202    (1912). 
9  71.      Tomblin,    M.    B.      Tung.sten:    History,   occurrence,    uses.      Facts 

concerning     tungsten     mining     in      world's     greatest      field, 

Boulder  County,  Colo.      Boulder  County  Metal   Mining  Assoc. 

Bull.   No.  3,   1912. 

972.  Anon.  Tungsten  in  Colorado.  Min.  and  Eng.  Rev.  Sept.  5, 
1913. 

218 


9  73.      George.     R.     D.      TuiiRsten     in     Colorado.      Eng.     Miu.     J.     {)5, 

186    (1913). 
974.      Palmer,     L.     A.      Tungsten     in     Boulder     County,     Colo.      Eng. 

Mill.  J.   96,   99-105    (1913). 
9  75.      Bastin,    E.    S.      Ores    of    Gilpin    County,    (^olorado.      Ec.    Geol. 

»,    262-96    (1915). 
9  76.      Bastin,    E.    S.      Preliminary    report    on    the    economic    seolt>R.v 

of    Gilpin    (\>unty,    Colorado.      U.    S.    Geol.    Surv.    Bull.    620 

(1910). 

977.  Kirk,    C.    T.      Tungsten   district    of   Boulder   County,    (\)lorado. 

Min.  Sci.  Press.   112,  791-5    (1916). 

978.  Wolf,  H.   J.        and  Barbour,  P.  P.      The  Boulder  County  tung- 

sten  di.strict.      Eng.    Min.    J.    102,    (1916). 

VIII    (a).      5.      CONNECTICUT. 

9  7  9.  Gurlt.  A.  On  a  remarkable  deposit  of  wolfram  ore  in  the 
United  States.  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.  22,  236-42 
(1893). 

980.  Hobbs,  W.   H.      The  old  tungsten  mine  at  Trumbull,  Connecti- 

cut.     U.    S.    Geol.    Surv.    22nd.    Annual    Report,    part    2,    7-22 
(1901). 

981.  Hobbs,    W.    H.      Tungsten    mining    at    Trumbull,    Connecticut. 

U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  213,  98    (1903). 

VIII    (a).      6.      IDAHO. 

9  82.      Auerbach,    H.     S.      Tungsten    ore    deposits    of    the    Couer    d'- 
Alene.      Eng.   Min.   J.   86,    1146-8    (1908). 

983.  Rowe,     G.     P.      The     Couer     d'Alene     Mining     district,     Idaho. 

Min.    World.    29,    739,    777,    843,     (1908);    30,    11,    89.    117. 
318,    357,    428     (1909). 

984.  Lind    J.    G.      Geology   and   tungsten   deposits   of   the   Patterson 

Creek    district,     Idaho.      Private     report,     p.     8,     1912     (See 
Hess,  U  S  Geol.   Surv.   Bull.   652). 

985.  Umpleby,   J.    B.      Geology   and   ore   deposits   of  Uemhi   County, 

Idaho.      U.    S.    Geol.    Surv.   Bull.   528,    (1913). 

VIII    (a).      7.      MISSOURI. 

986.  Haworth,    E.      A   contribution  to  the  Ardiean   geology   of   Mis- 

souri.     Am.   Geol.   1,   294-5    (1888). 

VIII    (a).      8.      MONTANA. 

987.  Pearce,   R.      The   association   of   minerals   in   the   Gagnon   v«'iii, 

Butte    City,    Montana.      Trans.    Am.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.    16,    6  4 
(1888.) 

988.  Goodale.  C.  W.        and  Ackers,  W.  A.      Notes  on  the  geology  of 

the    Flint    Creek    Mining    district.      Trans.     Am.     Inst.     Min. 
Eng.   18,   248    (1890). 

219 


989.  Tomek,     F.      Tungsten     in     3Iontana.      Min.     World..   28,     63 

(1908). 

990.  Weed,    W.    H.      Geology    and    ore    deposits    of    Butte    District, 

3Iontana.      U.   S.   Geol.  Surv.   Prof.  Paper,  74,   80    (1912). 
991.      Morris,   C.   E.      Tungsten  in  Montana.      Eng.   Min.   J.   92,    784 
(1912). 
9  92.      Winchell,  A.  N.      The  mining  districts  of  the  Dillon  Quadran- 
gle.     U.   S.   Geol.   Surv.    Bull.   574,    123    (1914). 

VIII     (a).      9.      NEVADA. 

993.  Weeks,    F.    B.      An    occurrence    of    tungsten    ore    in    Eastern 

Nevada.      U.    S.    Geol.    Surv.    21st.    Annual    Report,    part    6, 
319-20    (1901). 

994.  Smith,   F.    B.      Tlie   Osceola,   Nevada  tungsten    depo.sits.      Eng. 

Min.  J.   73,   304-5    (1902). 
9  9  5.      Weeks,  F.   B.      An  occurrence  of  tungsten  ore  in  Eastern  Ne- 
vada.     Eng.  Min.  J.  72,   8    (1902). 
9  96.      Weeks,  F.   B.      Tungsten  ore  in   Eastern  Nevada.      U.   S.   Geol. 

Surv.    Bull.   213,    (1903). 
99  7.      Weeks,  F.   B.      Tungsten  deposits  in  the  Snake  Range,   AVhite 

Pine  County,  Eastern  Nevada.      U.   S.   Geol.   Surv.   Bull.  340, 

263-70    (1908). 
998.      Burgess,  J.  A.       (Hubnerite  and  scheelite  at  Tonopah).      Econ. 

Geol.  6,  22   (1911). 
99  9.      Eakle,   A.    S.      The  minerals   of   Tonopah,   Nevada.      California 

Univ.  Dept.  of  Geol.  Bull.  7,   1-20    (1912). 
10  00.      Hess,  F.  L.  and  Hunt,  W.  F.      Triplite   (with  hubnerite)    from 

Eastern  Nevada.     Am.  J.  Sci.    (4)   36,   51-4    (1913). 

Vni    (a).      10.      NEW    MEXICO. 

1001.  Llndgren,  W.,   Graton,  L.  C.   and   Gorden,   C.   H.      The  ore   de- 

posits  of   New   Mexico.      U.    S.    Geol.    Surv.    Prof.    Paper    68, 
180,    292,    336    (1910). 

VIII    (a).      11.      OREGON. 

1002.  Lindgren,    W.      The  gold  belt  of  the   Blue   Mountains   of  Ore- 

goA.      U.     S.     Geol.     Surv.     22nd.     Annual     Report     II,     644 
(1901). 

VIII    (a).      12.      SOUTH   DAKOTA. 

1003.  Anon.      (Discovery   of  tungsten  in  Black   Hills).      Black   Hills 

Min.  Rev.  Jan.  16,   (1899). 

1004.  Forsyth,  A.      (Discovery  of  tung-sten  near  Lead).      Black  Hills 

Min.    Rev.    5,   No.    32    (1899). 

1005.  Irving,  J.   D.      Some  recently  exploited  deposits   of  wolframite 

in    the    Black    Hills,    of    South    Dakota.      Trans.    Am.     Inst. 
Min.   Eng.   31,    083-95    (1901). 

220 


1006.  Raymond,  R.  W.      Discussion  of  paper  by  Ii-A^ing  on  wolfram- 

ite   in    Black    Hills    of    South    Dakota.      Trans.     Am.     Inst. 
Min.   Eng.  31,   1025-6    (1901). 

1007.  OHarra,   C.    C.      The  mineral  wealth  of  the  Black   Hills.        S. 

D.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  Xo.  3;   S.  Dak.  School  of  Mines  Bull.  C, 
11    (1902). 

1008.  Simmons,    J.      Tungsten    ores    of    the   Black    Hills.      Min.    Rep. 

50,   217-8    (1904). 

1009.  Irving.     J.    D.      Ore    deposits    of    the    Northern    Black    Hills. 

Rpt.   of  Proc.  Am.  Fg.  Cong.   6th  Am.   Sess.    1904,  p.    38-55. 

1010.  Irving,   J.    D.      The   ore  deposits   of  the   Northern  Black   Hills. 

U.  S.   Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  225,   123-40    (1904). 

1011.  Anon.      Tungsten    ores    in    the    Black    Hills.      Min.     Repl     50, 

217    (1904). 

1012.  Irving,   J.    D.      The   ore  deposits   of   the   northern  Black   Hills. 

Min,   Rep.   50,   430-1    (1904). 

1013.  Irving,    J.     D.     Economic    resources    of    the    northern    Black 

Hills.      U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Prof.  Paper,  26,  43-222    (1904). 

1014.  Hess,    F.    L.      Tin,    tung.sten    and    tantalum    deposits    of   South 

Dakota.      U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  380,  131-161    (1909). 

1015.  Quinney,  E.  H.      Tungsten  in  the  Black  Hills  and  methods  for 

its    determination.      Min.    Sci.    P.    65,    45-6     (1913). 

1016.  Ziegler,  V.     The  minerals  of  the  Black  HiUs.      S.  Dak.  School 

of  Mines  Bull.  10,  218,  222    (1914). 

1017.  Ziegler,   V.      The  mineral  resources  of  the  Harney  Peak  peg- 

matites.     Min.  Sci.  Press.  108,   604-8,  654-6    (1914). 

1018.  Simmons,  J.      The  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota  as  a  good  pro- 

ducer of  tungsten.      Min.   World,   Nov.    20    (1915). 

VIII     (a).      13.      TEXAS. 

1019.  Comstock.  T.  B.      Report  on  the  Geology  and  mineral  resources 

of    the    central    mineral    region    of    Texas.      Report    of    Geol. 
Survey  of  Texas.     1890,  597-600. 

1020.  Simonds,     F.     W.      The    minerals     and     mineral     localities     of 

Texas.      Texas     Univ.     Min.     Surv.     Bull.     5,     3-95      (1902); 
Science.   14,  796    (1902). 
10  21.      Hess,    F.    L.      Minerals   of   the   rare   earth   metals   at   Baringer 
Hill.  Llano  County,  Texas.      U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  340,  286- 
294    (1908). 

Mil    (a).      14.      WASHINGTON. 

1022.      Thyng.     W.     S.      Tungsten     deposits     in     AVashington.       Eng. 

Min.  J.  73,  418    (1902). 
10  23.      Joseph,    M.    H.      Tungsten    ore    in   Washington.      Eng.    Min.    J. 

81,   409    (1906). 
10  24.      Bancroft,    H.      Notes    on    tungsten    depo.sits    near    Deer    Park, 

Wa.shington.      U.  S.   Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  430.   214-16    (1910). 

221 


1025.  Wolf,    A.      Tungsten    ore   in    Washington.      INIines    &    Minerals. 

31,   307    (1910). 

1026.  Anon.      A    Tungsten    in    Stevens     County,     Washington.      Erz- 

bergbau.   1J)10,   343. 

1027.  Bancroft,    H.      The    ore    deposits   of   northeastern    Washington. 

U.   S.   Geol.   gurv.   Bull.  550,    (1914). 

VIII    (h).      FOREIGN. 

1.      AUSTRALIA. 

1028.  Liversldge,    A.      The    minerals    of    New    Soutli     Wales,       1888. 

p.  85. 

1029.  Carne,    J.     E.      Tungsten    ores    in     New    Soutli    Wales.      Aust. 

Min.  Stand.  Jan.  6  and   13    (1898). 

1030.  Carne,    J.    E.      Notes    on    the    occurrence    of    tungsten    ores    in 

New    South    Wales.      N.     S.     W.     Geol.     Surv.     Min.     Res.     2, 
(1898). 

1031.  Pittmann,   E.   F.      The  mineral  resources  of   New  Soutli  Wales. 

N.  S.  W.  Geol.  Surv.   1901,   294-303. 

1032.  Waller,     G.     A.      AVolfram    near    Pieman     Heads     (Tasmania). 

Aust.   Min.    Stand.   Nov.    14    (1901). 

1033.  Cameron,   W.    E.      Wolfram,   molybdenite   and   bismuth   mining 

at     AVolfram     Camp,     Hodgkinson     Goldfield.      Queens.     Gov. 

Min.   J.  July   15,   1903. 
103  4.      Cameron,      W.      E.      Wolfram      and     molybdenite     mining     in 

Queensland.      Queens.    Gov.    Min.    J.   Feb.    15.    1904;    Queens. 

Geol.  Surv.  Rep.  188,  13    (1904). 
103  5.      Plummer,      J.      Australian     tungsten.      Min.     World.      Dec.      3, 

1904. 
103  6.      Andrews,    E.    C.      The   geology   of   the    New    Kngland   Phiteau. 

N.   S.  W.  Geol.  Surv.  8,   138-141    (1905). 
1037.      Dunstan,    B.      Wolfram   in   Queensland.      Queens.    Gov.    Min.   J. 

6,   334    (1905);    Undersecretary   for  Mines.    Annual   Rep.   for 

1903,   p.    151    (1904). 
103  8.      Conder,     H.      The    wolfram    deposits    of    New    England,     New 

South  AVales.      Eng.    Min.   J.    78,    170-1    (1905). 

1039.  Anon.      Tungsten  in  Au.stralia.      Eng.   Min.   J.   78,   900    (1905). 

1040.  Simpson,  E.  S.  and  Gibson,  C.  G.      The  distribution  and  occur- 

rence of  the  baser  metals  in  AVestern  Australia      Bull.  West. 
Aust.  Geol.  Survey  No.  30,  p.  15  5-317    (1907). 

1041.  Twelvetrees,  W.   H.      Report  on  the  Bill  Mount  and  Middlesex 

district,  Ta.smania.      Tasm.   Geol.    Surv.   Rept.    1007,   1-30. 

1042.  Cherry,    F.    J.      Mining   for   wolfram    and      copper      on      Noble 

I.sland.      Queens.    Gov.    Min.    J.   9,    263    (1908). 

1043.  Anon.      AA'olfram   mining  in  North  Queensland.      Queens.    Gov. 

Min.    J.    9,    226     (1908). 
10  4  4.      Playford,   E.   C.      Goldfields  and  Mining.      Chief   Warden's   Re- 
port  on   the   Northern    Territory,    1907;    Adelaide,    1908,    28, 
30,   31,   41. 

222 


1045.  IMacdonalcl.  A.   R.      The  Queensland  Mining-  Industry.      Queens. 

Gov.    Min.    J.    12,    110    (1911). 

1046.  Ball,   L.  C.      Woll'rani  and  molybdenite  in  Queen-iland.  Queens. 

Gov.    Min.   J.    12,    (1911). 

1047.  Carne.    J.    E.      The    tungsten    mining;   industry    of    New    Soutli 

Wales.      Bull.    Imp.    Inst.    10,    688    (1912). 
10  48.      Ball,  L.   C.      A  resume  of  recent  field  studies  on  tung.sten  ore. 

Queens.   Gov.  Min.  J.  Jan.   15    (1913). 
1049.      Ball,  L.   C.      Wolfram  mines  at  Mount  Carbine.      Queens.   Gov. 

Min.  J.   14,   70    (1913). 
10  50.      Ball,   L.    C.      The  wolfram,  molybdenite  and  bismuth  mines  of 

Bamford,   Xortli  Queensland.      Queens.    Gov.    Min.   J.   No.    14, 

1914. 
10  51.      Anon.       Molybdenite    and    wolframite    in     New    South    Wales. 

Iron  Coal  Trades  Rev.  88,   914    (1914). 

1052.  Hills,   L.    and   Waterhouse,   L.    L.      Tungsten   and   molybdenum 

in    Tasmania,    1!)16.      Tasmania    Geol.    Survey    (1916). 

1053.  Gray,  G.  J.  and  Winters,   R.  J.      Report  on  Yenberrie  wolfram 

and    molybdenite    field.       Northern     Territory     of     Australia 

Bull.    15A,    3    (1916). 
10  54.      Saint-Smith,    E.    C.       Devon    wolfram    mine,      near    Coolgarra, 

Queensland.     Queens.  Gov.  Min.  J.  Feb.  15,  1916. 
10  54a.      Gudgeon,   C.   W.      (The  scheelite  deposits  of   Otago  Province, 

South    Island,    Au.stralia)       Proc.    Aust.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.    21, 

1916;    Min.    Mag.    15,    103    (1916). 
1054b.      Anon.       (Tungsten   deposit   near   Booroowa,   N.   S.    W.)       Min. 

Journ.   March   10    (1917);    Min.   Journ.    114,   597. 

VLLL    (b).      2.      BOHEMIA   AND   HUNGARY. 

1055.  Weidinger,  G.      Analysis  of  wolframite  crystals  from  Zinnwald. 

Zeit.  Pharm.  7,  73    (1855). 

1056.  Rammelsberg,   C.   F.      Wolframite  from  Bohemia.      Handb.   der 

Mineral.   Chem.   p.    309    (1860). 

1057.  Krenner,  J.  A.      Wolframite  from  the  trachyte  of  Fel.so-Banya. 

Min.   pet.   Mitt.  5,   9    (1875). 

1058.  Sandberger,    F.       (Tungsten   in   Northern   Bohemia).    K.    bayer. 

Akad.   Munchen.   Math.  phys.  Classe.   Sitzber.   1888,   4  23. 

1059.  Helmhacker,   R.      Wolfram  ore.      Eng.   Min.  J.  62,   153    (1896). 

VIH    (b).      3.      BURMA. 

1060.  Fermor,   L.   L.      Note  on   an   occurrence  of  wolfram   in   Nagpur 

district   Central   Provinces.      Records,    Geol.    Surv.    India.    3(>, 
IV,    301-11    (1908). 

1061.  Bleeck,    A.    W.    G.      On    some   occurrences   of   wolframite   lodes 

and  deposits  in  the  Tavey  district  of  lower  Burma.   Records, 
Geol.  Survey  of  India.  Vol.  431,  48-74    (1913). 
106  2.      Anon.      Minerals  in  Burma.      Rangoon   Gazette,   May   28,    1913 
(Quoted  by  Hess,  U.  S.  G.  S.  Alin.  Resources  1012,  p.   9  96). 

223 


1063.  Anon.  Tungsten  in  India.  Geol.  Surv.  India.  45  III,  (1915). 
10  64.      Maxwell-Lefroy,   E.      AVolframite  in  lower  Burma.      Bull.   Inst. 

Min.  Met.  London,  Dec.  1915;  Eng.  Min.  J.  99,  6  84  (1915). 
106  5.      Charter,  C.  W.     Tin  and  wolfram  mining  in  Burma.     Iron  and 

Coal  Trades  Rev.  90,  8  80    (1915). 

1066.  Page;  J.  J.  A.     Remarks  on  E.  Maxwell-LeFroj 's  "Wolframite 

Mining  in  the  Tavoy  District."  Inst.  Min.  Met.  Bull.  138,  47 
(1916). 

1067.  Jones,    W.    R.      Tin    and   tung.'iten   lodes    (Burma),    Min.    ]\Iag. 

17,    230    (1917). 
106  8.      Griffiths,  H.   D.      The  wolfram  depo.sits  of  Burma.      Min.   :\Iag. 
17,   60    (1917). 

VIII    (b).      4.      CANADA. 

1069.  Johnson,    R.    A.    A.      Hubnerite.      Can.    Geol.    Surv.    Rept.  .11, 

lOR    (1898). 

1070.  Ross,  A.  C.     Tungsten  ores  in  Cape  Breton.      Eng.   Min.   J.  08, 

370    (1899). 

1071.  Johnson,  R.  A.   A.      (Tungsten  occurrences  in  Canada).      Can. 

Geol.  Surv.  Min.  Res.    (1904). 

1072.  Atkin,   A.   J.   R.      An  occurrence  of  scheelite  near  Baskerville, 

British  Columbia.      Geol.   Mag.  2,   116-7    (1905). 

1073.  McCallum,    A.    L.      An    interesting    occurrence    of    scheel'te    iu 

Nova  Scotia.      Can.   Min.  J.  29,   456-7    (1908). 

1074.  Walker,    T.    L.      The   occurrence   of   tungsten   ores   in    Canada. 

Can.  Min.  J.  29,  302-3  (1908);  Can.  Min.  Inst.  Journ.  lA, 
367-71    (1908). 

1075.  Walker,  T.  L.     Report  on  the  tungsten  ores  of  Canada.     Can. 

Dept.   Mines  Report,  No.  25    (1909). 

1076.  Walker,    T.    L.      Tungsten   ores   in    Canada.      Min.    World.    30, 

747    (1909). 
10  7  7.      Hayward,    A.    A.      Tungsten    and    the    3Ioose    River    schcelite 
veins.     J.  Min.  Soc.  Nova  Scotia.  15,  65-78    (1909). 

1078.  Faribault,    E.    R.      Southern   part    of   Kings   and   Ea.stern   part 

of  Lunenburg  counties.  Nova  Scotia,  Canada.  Can.  Geol. 
Surv.  Sum.  Rep.  1908,   150-8    (1909). 

1079.  Faribault,  ^.    R.      Tung.sten    deposits    of    Moos&    River,    Nova 

Scotia.  Can.  Geol.  Surv.  Sum.  Rep.  1909,  228-234  (1910); 
Can.  Min.  J.  31,  428-30    (1910). 

10  80.  Young,  G.  A.  A  descriptive  sketch  of  the  geologj-  and  econo- 
mic minerals  of  Canada,  Can.  Geol.  Surv.  (1909);  Abstract 
Can.  Min.  J.  30,  6  8  4-5    (1909). 

10  81.  Anon.  Scheelite,  a  new  tungsten  camp  in  Nova  Scotia.  Can. 
Min.  J.  Sept.  15,  19^0. 

1082.  Faribault,  E.  R.  Structure  of  tungsten  deposits  of  Moose 
River,  Nova  Scotia.  J.  Min.  Soc.  Nova  Scotia.  15,  15  9-6  4 
(1910);  Industrial  Advocate,  April  (1910);  Min.  World. 33, 
659-70    (1910). 

224 


1083.      Anon.      The  tungsten  ores  of  Canada.      Eng.   Min.    J.   88,   729 

(1910). 
10 S 4.      Walker,    T.    L.      Recently    discovered    wolframite    deposits    in 

New  Brunswick.     Econ.  Geol.  6,  397    (1911). 

108  5.      McCallum,  A.  L.     Scheelite  in  Nova  Scotia.     Nova  Scotia  Inst. 

Sci.  Proc.  and  Trans.  12,  III,  250-2    (1912). 

1086.  Hills,  V.  G.     A  tungsten  mine  in  Nova  Scotia.     Min.  Sci.  Press. 

106,   448-50    (1913). 

1087.  Walker,  T.   L.     Report  on  the  tungsten  ores  of  Canada.      Ot- 

tawa Bureau  of  Mines,  1914. 

VIII     (b).      5.      CHINA    AND    JAPAN. 

loss.      Jeremejew,  P.     On  the  Avolframite  from  Demidow  copper  mine 

in  the  neighborhood  of  Kolywan  mine,  Altai.     Russ.  mineral. 

ges.  Verh.   31,    404    (1894). 
1089.      Wada,    T.      Minerals   of  Japan.       (translated  by   T.   Ogawa)    p. 

77    (1904). 
10  90.      Anon.      Tungsten    deposits    of    the    Kurasawa    mine.    Province 

Kai.     Bull.  Geol.  Surv.  Japan,  17,  23. 
1090a.     Hansen,  C.  C.     Daily  Cons.  Tr.  Kept.  October  26    (1914). 
1090b.      Curtice,  R.  S.     Daily  Cons.  Tr.  Rept.  September  21    (1914). 
1090c.      Kirjassoff,  M.  D.     Comm.  Rept.  August   26    (1916)    and  Feb. 

1917. 
1090d.      Arnold,  J.  R.     Comm.  Rept.  March   27    (1917). 
1090e.     Hansen,  C.  C.     Comm.   Rept.  March  24    (1917). 

1091.  Anon.     "Wolframite  in  South  China.     Min.   Sci.  Press.   116,   84 

(1918). 

VIII    (b).      6      ENGLAND. 

1092.  Collins,   J.   H.      Notes  on  some  of  the  less  common  metals   of 

the  West  of  England.     Eng.  Min.  J.  81,  1225    (1906). 

1093.  Finlayson,  A.  M.     The  ore  bearing  pegmatite  of  Carrock  Fell, 

Cumberland,  and  genetical  importance  of  tungsten  ores. 
Geol.  Mag.  7,  19-28    (1910). 

109  4.      Collins,  J.  H.     Tin  and  tung.sten  in  the  West  of  England.  IMin. 

Mag.  Oct.  1915. 

1095.  Dewey,   H.,    Bromehead,   C.    E.   N.      and      Corruthers   ,    R.      G. 

Tungsten  and  manganese  ores  in  Graet  Britain.  Geol.  Surv. 
of  England,  1,  20  (1915);  Abstract,  Min.  Mag.  14,  172 
(1916). 

1096.  Terrell.    E.      Tungsten  in  AVest  of  England.      Min.    Mag.   Nov. 

1915. 
109  7.      Abraham,  G.  D.     The  most  valuable  mine  of  today.      Autocar, 
Jan.  27,  1917. 

VIII    (b).      7.      FRANCE. 
1098.      Damour,  A.     Tantaliferous  tungsten  minerals  from  the  Haute- 
Vienne    department.      Soc.    Geol.    France.    Bull.     (2)    5,    108 
(1848). 

225 


1099.  Bertrand,    E.      On   the   hubnerite   of   the  Pyrenees.      Soc.    Min. 

de  France.  Bull.  5,  90    (1882). 

1100.  La    Croix,    A.       Wolframite    in    France.     ..Mineral.    France    et 

Colonics.      4  I,   293    (1910). 

VIII      (b).      8.      GERMANY. 

1101.  Schneider,     R.      AVolframite     from     Hartz     Mountains.      Pogg. 

Ann.    (4)    3,   474    (1854). 
110  2.      Beck,    R.      A  recently   opened   tungsten   ore   deposit   and   other 
new  exposures  in  Saxon  tungsten  mines.      Z.  prakt.   Geol.   15, 
37-45    (1907). 

VIII    (b).      9.      GREENLAND. 

1103.  Boggild,    O.    B.      Minerals    of    Greenland.      Mineral    and    Geol. 

Mus.     Univ.     Copenhagen.       Contrib.     to     mineral.       No.     6, 
p.    182    (1905). 

1104.  Boggild,     O.     B.      Minerals     of     Greenland.      Meddelelsen     om 

Greenland,  No.  32,  p.   179    (1905). 

Vin     (b).      10.      ITALY. 

1105.  Lovisato,    D.      The   tungsten   minerals   of   Genna   Gui'en,   Italy. 

Atti.  Accad.  Lincei.    (5)    16,  I,  632-8    (1907). 

1106.  Granigg,   B.   and  Koritschoner,  J.   H.      The  tourmaline-bearing 

copper-scheelite    deposits    of   Mount   Mulatto    near   Predazzo. 
Z.  prakt.  Geol.  21,  484    (1913). 

VIII     (b).      11.      MALAY    STATES. 

1107.  Berlich,    H.      Mining  in   Trengganu    (Malay).      Min.    Mag.    13, 

263    (1915). 

1108.  Anon.      Tungsten   ores  in    the   Federated  Malay  States.      Min. 

Mag.     14,   347    (1916). 
1108a.      Scrivenor,    J.    B.      Report   on   the   occurrence   of   tungsten  in 
the   Federated   Malay   States)       Min.    Journ.    114,    384,    406, 
433    (1916);  Min.  Mag.  14,  348    (1916). 

VIII    (b).      12.      NEW   ZEALAND. 

110  9.  McKay,  A.  On  the  geology  of  Stewart  Island  and  the  tin 
deposits  of  Port  Pegasus  district.  New  Zeal.  Col.  Mus. 
Geol.  Surv.  Rept.  Geol.  Expl.   during  1888-9.     p.   84    (1890). 

1110.  Finlayson,    A.    M.      The    scheelite   of    Otago.     New    Zeal.    Inst. 

Trans.   Proc.  40,  112    (1908). 

1111.  Gudgeon,    C.    W.      Scheelite    mining    in    New    Zealand.     Aust. 

Min.   Stand.  Nov.    13    (1913). 

1112.  Gudgeon,  C.  W.      The  scheelite-gold  mines  of  Otago,  New  Zea- 

land.     Proc.    Australian    Inst.    Min.    Eng.    Nov.    21     (1916); 
Abst.  Min.  Mag.  15,  103    (1916). 

226 


VIII   (b).      13.      PORTUGAL. 

1113.  Preus,     "\V.      The     Panasqucira     tungsten      district,     Portugal. 

Eng.   Mill.   J.      83,   843    (1907). 

1114.  Bronckart,   F.      Tungsten  in  Portugal.      Ann.    See.    Geol.   Belg. 

1908,    B.    182     (1909). 

1115.  von    Bonhourst,    C.      Tungsten    and   iron   in    Portugal.      Chem. 

Ztg.  1912,  689;    Min.  Sci.  Press.  Dec.   14    (1912). 

1116.  Dorpenhouse,    W.    T.      The    tin,    tungsten    and    uranium    mines 

of  the  Atlantic  coast  ranges  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula.   Metal 
u.   Erz.      2,   297-301,   339-46    (1913). 

1117.  Down,   T.  A.      Tin  and  tungsten   in  Portugal.      Min.    Mag.    14, 

19-24    (1916). 

VIII    (b).      14.      RUSSIA. 

1118.  von  Koulibin,  N.      Hubnerite  from  the  Bajewsk  deposits  in  the 

Urals.      Russ.  Mineral  ges.  Verh.    (2)   3,    (1868). 

1119.  Beck,    W.    and   Teich,    N.      On   wolframite   and   scheellte   from 

Fundorten,  Russia.      Russ.  Mineral,  ges.  St.   P.  Verh.    (2)    4, 
315-6    (1869). 

VIII    (b).      15.      SOUTH  AFRICA. 

1120.  Johnson,    J.    P.      The    ore    deposits    of    South    Africa.      Book. 

1908.  p.   40. 

1121.  Rumbold,  W.  R.      The  South  African  tin  deposits.      Trans.  Am. 

Inst.  Min.   Eng.  39,  783    (1909). 
1121a.      Anon.       (Tungsten  in  British  South  Africa)      So.    Afri.    Min. 
Journ.  1915,   344. 

1122.  Anon.      The    tungsten    deposits    of    Essexvale,    Southern    Rho- 

desia.     Roy.    Soe.    Arts.    Aug.    31,     (1917);    Bulawayo    Chro- 
nicle,   May    18,    1917;    Abstract,    Chem.    News,    116,     291-3 
(1917). 
1122a.      Anon.      (Tungsten  in  German  Southwest  Africa)      So.  Africa 
Min.  Journ.  July  1,   1916. 

1123.  Zealley,    A.    E.    V.      Tungsten   at   Essexvale,    Rhodesia.      Rhocl. 

Geol.  Surv.  1917;  Abst.  Min.  Mag.  17,  92    (1917). 

Vin   (b).      16.      SOUTH  AMERICA. 

1124.  Bogenbender,    G.      The   tungsten   mines    from    Sierre    Cordoba, 

Argentina.      Z.    prakt.    Geol.    Nov.    (1894),    p.    409. 
112  5.      von  Keyserling.      Wolfram  deposits  in  the  Argentina  Republic. 
Z.  prakt.  Geol.   17,  156    (1909). 

1126.  Weckwarth,   E.      The   occurrence  of  the  rare  metals   in  Peru. 

Digest  translation.      Min.  Jour.  April  24    )1909). 

1127.  Anon.      Discovery  of   tungsten  deposits   in  Chile.      Chem.    Ind. 

33,    792    (1911). 

1128.  Tarnawiecki,  H.  C.      The  Huaura  wilfram  mines    (Peru).   Min. 

Journ.  July  8,   1911. 

227 


1129.  Wepfer,   G.   W.      Tungsten  in  Bolivia.      Eng   Min.   J.    June   20, 

1914. 

1130.  de  Habech,  T.   A.  V.      Tungsten  in  Peru.      Bull.    11,   Peruvian 

Corps  of  Mining  Engineers. 
113  0a.      Bliek,  P.  P.  and  Soehnlein,  M.  G.  F.      (Tungsten  deposits  of 

Bolivia)      Eng.    Min.    J.    101,    173    (1916). 
1130b.      Hale,    A.    H.       (Tungsten    in    Peru)       Min.    Eng.    World    302 

(1915). 

1131.  Beder,    R.      Wolframite    in    Argentina.      Director    General     of 

Mines,    Bull.    3,     (1917);    Abstrast    Min.       Sci.    Press.    116, 
204    (1918). 

VIII   (b).      17.      SPAIN. 

1132.  McBride,    H.    A.      Tungsten    mines    of    Spain.      Monthly    Con- 

sular and  Trade  Rept.  June   1910.     No.  357,  p.   159-161. 

1133.  Anon.      Wolfram    deposits    of    Bodajoz,    Spain.      Eng.    Min.    J. 

Jan.    3,    (1914). 

1134.  Carbonell,  A.   and  Figueroa,  T.      Tungsten  in  the  Provence  of 

Cordosa.      Rev.  Minera.  Jan.  16  and  24    (1917). 

VIII  (b).      18.      SWEDEN. 

113  5.      Anon.      Tungsten  in  Sweden.      Min.    Wld.   Dec.    3,    1904. 
1136.      Doss,  B.      A  new  tungsten  ore  deposit  in  Saxon  Vogtland.      Z. 
prakt.   Geol.  23,   138-49    (1915). 

113  9.      Sushchinskii,    P.    P.      Geological    structure    of    some    new    de- 

posits of  wolframite  in  Southern  Tranbaikal.      Bull  acad.  sci. 
Petrograd.      1917,   507-20;    567-90. 

VIII    (c).      MISCELLANEOUS    GEOLOGICAL    REFERENCES. 

1138.  Merrill,    G.    P.      Guide   to, the   study   of  the   collections   in  the 

.section    of    applied    geology.      U.    S.    Nat.    Mus.    Ann.    Rept. 
1899.      pp.   156-483. 

1139.  Spurr,     J.     E.       (Tungsten    in     .silicious     rocks).      Trans.     Am. 

Inst.  Min.  Eng.  33,   322    (1902). 

1140.  Merrill,      G.      P.      The     non-metaJlic     minerals.      Book.      New 

York   1904. 

1141.  Launay.      Distribution    of    tungsten    over    the    earth.       Compt. 

rend.   138,  712    (1904). 

1142.  Bogenrieder,    C.      AVolfram   ores,    occurrences   and   uses.    Aust. 

Min.  Stand.  40,  557  ff.    (1905). 

1143.  Ries,   H.      Economic  geology.      Book.      New  York,    1905. 

1144.  Ohly,   J.      Rare  metals  and  others.      Min.  Rep.   May  18,    1905. 

114  5.      Lindgren,    W.      Relation    of    ore    deposition    to    physical    con- 

(Utions.      Econ.    Geol.   2,   453-463    (1906). 

1146.  Bogenrieder,   C.      Wolfram  ores,  occurrences  and  uses.      Aust. 

Min.  Stand.  Nov.   18    (1908). 

1147.  Surr,     G.      A     new    tungsten     find.      Am.     Min.     Rev.     23,     9 

(1908). 

228 


1148 


1149 


1150 


1151 


1152 


1153 


1154 


1154 


1156 

1157 

1158 

1159 

1160 

1161 
1162 

1163 


Surr,  G.      Genesis  of  tungsten.      Am.   Min.   Rev.  23,  F<:ib.   1,  8, 

15    (1908). 
Anon.      Occurrence    and    utilization    of    tungsten    ores.      Unll. 

Imp.  Inst.  7,  Nos.   2,  3    (1909). 
Walker,   T.   L.      Tungsten,  its  uses  and  geological   occurrence. 

Min.  Woicl    ;?1,  547-8   (1909 1. 
Steinhart,   O.   J.      Classification,  occurrence,  identification  and 

properties  of  tungsten  ores.      Min.  Ind.   17,  830    (,1909). 
Surr,    G.      Tungsten    deposits    and    surface    enrichment.      Min. 

World.  30,   19-20    (1909). 
Anon.      Tungsten:    its   occurrence   and  use.      Mines   and   Mine- 
rals. 30,  387    (1910). 
Surr,    G.      Tungsten    and    vanadium.      Los    Angeles    Min.    Rev. 

Sept.    24,    (1910). 
Various.      (Occurrences   of  tin   and   tungsten).      See    complete 

list   of   references   if   F.   L.   and    Eva   Hess,    "Bibliography   of 

tin."     Smithsonian  Misc.  Collections.     Vol.  58  No.  2    (1912). 
Barham,    G.    B.      Tungsten    and    tungsten    ores.      Min.    Journ. 

Jan.  10    (1914). 
Chase,   E.  E.      An  engineers  observation  on  the  tungsten  belt. 

Min.  American.      73,  4    (1916). 
Runner,     J.     J.      Geology    of    tungsten    deposits.         Pahasapa 

Quarterly.  5,  13-22   (1916). 
Taft,    H.    H.      Notes    on   the   tungsten   ores   of   the   Southwest. 

Min.  World.  44,  1047-8    (1916). 
Ball,    S.   H.      Tin,  tungsten  and  bismuth  deposits   a  source  of 

molybdenite.      Eng.   Min.   J.    104,   336    (1917). 
Anon.      Tungsten   ores.      Engineering,   Aug.    3,    1917. 
Emmons,  W.  H.      The  enrichment  of  ore  deposits.      U.  S.  Geol. 

Surv.   Bull.  623,   427-432    (1917). 
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Eng.   Min.   J.    105,   780    (1918). 
See  also  I   and  VII. 


229 


IX.     MINING  AND  MILLING  OF  TUNGSTEN  ORES 


1164.  Skewes,  E.  Magnetic  separation  of  tin  and  wolfram  at  Gun- 
nislake  Clitters,  Cormvall.      Eng.   Min.   J.   76,   424    (1903). 

116  5.  von  Wagenen,  H.  R.  Concentration  of  Colorado  tungsten 
ores.  Bull.  Colo.  School  Mines.  3,  138  (1906);  Mining 
Mag.  13,  327    (1906);   Chem.  Eng.     4,  217    (1906). 

1166.  Walker,  E.  Tin  ore  dressing.  East  Pool,  Cornwall.  Eng. 
Min.  J.  83,  941    (1907). 

116  7.  Treloar,  A.  and  Johnson,  G.  The  separation  of  tin  oxide 
from  wolframite.  Elektrochem.  Z.  16,  10;  Inst.  Min.  Met. 
Trans.    17,   137    (1907). 

116  8.  Dietzsch,  P.  (Concentration  of  tin  and  tungsten  in  Corn- 
wall). Trans.  Inst.  Min.  Met.  15,  2  (1906);  Min.  Jour.  78, 
No.  3662;   Eng.  Min.  J.  83,  112    (1907). 

1169.  Terrell,  S.   L.      The  final  stages  of  tin  and  wolfram  dressing. 

Min.  Jour.  June   13,    (1908). 

1170.  Goe.    H.    H.    and    French,    S.    W.      Magnetic    versus    hydraulic 

concentration  of  tungsten  ores.      Min.  Sci.   July   2,   1908. 

1171.  Anon.      Tungsten  mining  in  California.      Eng.   Min.   J.  86,   573 

(1908). 

1172.  Wood,   H.   E.      Notes   on  the   magnetic  separation  of  tungsten 

minerals.      Proc.     Colo.     Sci.     Soc.     9,     154-8     (1909);     Min. 
World.  30,  968    (1909). 

1173.  Hills,  V.   G.      Tungsten  mining  and  milling.      Proc.    Colo.    Sci. 

Soc.    9,    135-153    (1909);    Min.    World.    30,    1021-4     (1909); 
Eng.  Min.  J.  102,  126-7    (1916). 

1174.  George,   R.   D.      Tungsten  industry  of  Boulder  County,  Colora- 

do, in   1908.      Eng.   Min.   J.  87,   10  55    (1909). 

1175.  Paddock,    C.    H.      Tungsten   mining  in   Boulder   County,    Colo- 

rado.     Min.  Sci.    62,  172-4   (1910). 

1176.  Anon.      Tungsten  mining  in  Colorado.      Eng.   Min.  J.  90,   1058 

(1910). 

1177.  Parmelee,    H.    C.      The    problems    of    tungsten    concentration. 

Met.    Chem.    Eng.    9,    341-2;    409-11     (1911);    Can.    Min.    J. 
32,   458    (1911). 

1178.  Mennicke,   H.      Separation  of  tungsten  from  tin  ores   and  tin 

slags.      Monograph     of     applied     electrochemistry.     39,     138 
(1911). 

1179.  Longbottom,    W.    A.      Scheelite   mining   in   New   South  AVales. 

Aust.  Min.  Eng.  Rev.  3,   200    (1911). 

1180.  Freise,    F.     Mill   and  laboratory'   practice  in   dressing   of  gold 

ores,    monazite,    and    wolframite.      Oest.    Z.    Berg.    Huttenw. 
59,  284   (1911). 

230 


1181.  Russell,     IM.      Schcelite     mining:     in     New     Zealand.      Queens. 

Gov.   Mill.  J.   March    (1912). 

1182.  Pickings,    H.    B.      Tungsten    milling;    practice    of    Nova    Scotia. 

Min.  Eng.  World.  37,  60    (1912). 

1183.  Hills,    V.    G.      Tung-.sten    mining   in    Nova    Scotia,      Proc.    Colo. 

Sci.  Soc.   10,  203-10    (1912). 

1184.  Anon.      AVolfrani  mining  in   New  South  Wales.      Min.   Mag.   6, 

44    (1912). 
118.5.      Hills,   V.   G.      Notes  on  tungsten   mining  in  Nova  Scotia.   Min. 
Eng.    World.      38,    443     (1913);    Min.    Sci.    Press.    106,    448 
(1913). 

1186.  Falkenberg,    O.      Treatment   of  tinstone   and  wolframite.    Min. 

Jour.  Aug.  23,  1913. 

1187.  Ackermann,     E.      The     concentration     of     tungsten     ores.      J. 

Mines  Met.   1,  16  2-3    (1913). 

118  8.      Anon.      Cornwall    (methods   of  concentration).      Min.    Mag.    8, 

165    (1913). 

1189.  Freise,    F.      Experiments   in   concentrating  monazite   and   wol- 

framite.     Metal   u.   Erz.    11,    573-8,    587-94    (1914). 

1190.  Gudgeon,  C.  W.      Treatment  of  gold  bearing  scheelite.      Aust. 

Min.  Stand.  50,  409;  Min.  Eng.  World.  40,  49    (1914). 

1191.  Vogel,     F.     A.      Magnetic     separation     of     tin-wolfram-bismuth 

ores.      Eng.    Min.    J.    99,    287     (1915). 

1192.  Taylor,    M.    T.      Separation   of   Avolfram   from   tin.      Min.    Mag. 

12,    351    (1915). 

1193.  ]\Iaxwell-Lefroy,  E.      Wolframite  mining  in  the  Tavoy  di.strict. 

Lower   Burma.     Trans.    Inst.    Min.    Met.    25,    82-120    (1915). 
1193a.      Savage,    F.    A.       (Mining   and   concentrating   tungsten   ore    in 
Bolivia)      Compressed    Air   Mag.   31,    7877    (1915). 

1194.  Anon.     Mining  in  Peru.      Mex.  Min.  J.  March,  1915. 

119  5.      Anon.      Wolfram   mining  in  Burma.      Min.   Jour.   1915,    532. 
119  6.      Scott.    W.    A.      Concentrating    tungsten   ores,    Boulder    County, 

Colorado.      Min.    Eng.   World.   -15,    697-701    (1916). 

1197.  Robertson,    A.    J.      On   concentration   tests   of   tungsten-molyb- 

denum ores  from  Callie  Creek,  Poona,  Murchison  Goldiields. 
Geol.  Surv.  West.  Aust.  Bull.  64,   (1916). 

1198.  Parmelee,    H.    C.      Recent   practice   in   concentrating    Colorado 

tungsten  ores.      Met.  Chem.  Eng.  14,  301   (1916). 

1199.  Miner,  F.  L.      The  new  milling  plant  for  the  Nevada  tungsten 

property.      Min.   Eng.  World.  44,   1078    (1916). 

1200.  I\Iiner,  F.  L.      Tungsten  camps  of  AVhite  Pine  County,  Nevada. 

Salt  Lake  Min.  Rev.  May  30,  1916. 

1201.  McDonald,    P.    B.      Scheelite    mining    and    grading.      Min.    Sci. 

Press.  112,  40    (1916). 

1202.  McDonald,    P.    B.      Tungsten   mining   in    the   West.      Min.    Sci. 

Press.    112,    757    (1916). 

1203.  Magee.     J.     F.      The    milling     of    tungsten     ores     (Colorado). 

Eng.  Min.  J.   101,  717-8    (1916). 

231 


1204.  Hill,  J.  M.  Notes  on  some  mining  districts  in  Eastern  Ne- 
vada.     U.   S.   Geol.   Surv.   Bull.  648,    62-3    (1916). 

120  5.  Leslie,  E.  H.  Tungsten  in  the  Boulder  County  district. 
Min.  Sci.  P.  113,  353    (1916). 

120  6.  Hibbs,  J.  G.  Boulder  County  tungsten  district  as  it  is  today. 
Min.  Eng.  World.  44,  9  53-4. 

1207.  Grossberg,  A.      Separating  wolframite  from  tin.      Eng.   Min.   J. 

102,   139-40    (1916). 

1208.  Fleck,   H.      Concentration   of   tungsten  ore.      Min.    Sci.   P.    112, 

166    (1916). 

1209.  Bochert,  W.  C.      Review  of  mining  operations  in  the  Northern 

Black  HUls    (S.   Dak.)      Pahasapa   Quart.   June    1916. 

1210.  Bland,    J.      Tin    and    tungsten    in    South    Dakota.      Min.    Sci. 

Press.    114,    441    (1916). 

1211.  Anon.      Boulder    County    milling    practice.      Met.    Chem.    Eng. 

14,    559-65    (1916). 

1213.  Goodrich,    R.   R.   and    Holden,   H.    E.      Experiments   in   the  re- 

covery  of  tungsten  and  gold  in   the  Murray   district,   Idaho. 
Bull.  Am.   Inst.   Min.   Eng.   1917,   1173-80. 

1214.  Fischer,   S.      Modern  concentration  of  Colorado  tungsten  ores. 

II.      Met.   Chem.   Eng.   16,   559    (1917). 

1215.  Fischer,   S.      Modern  concentration  of  Colorado  tungsten  ores. 

Met.  Chem.  Eng.  17,   73-S    (1917). 

1216.  Anon.      Boidder   Colorado  milling  practice.      Met.    Chem.    Eng. 

17,    207    (1917). 

1217.  Anon.      Boulder   Colorado  milling  practice.      Met.    Chem.    Eng. 

17,   73    (1917). 

1218.  Anon.      Tungsten    mining    in    Eastern    Nevada.      Eng.    Min.    J. 

104,   741    (1917). 

1219.  Anon.         Tungsten    and    molybdenite    in     North    Queensland, 

Australia.      Eng.    Min.    J.    104,    16  2    (1917). 

1220.  Anon.      Flow    sheet    of    Round    Valley     (California)     tungsten 

mUI.      Eng.  Min.  J.   104,  925    (1917). 


232 


X.     MISCELLANEOUS 


(a).      GENERAL   REVIEWS. 

1221.  Joly,  A.      Niobium,  tantalum,  tungsten.      In.    E.  Fremy,    Ency- 

clopedie  Chimique.  3,  Paris,   18  8  8. 

1222.  -Dammer,    O.      Handbuch   tier    cliem.    Technologic.      5,    1895-8; 

Anorganische  Chemie  III,  1893. 

1223.  Castner,   J.      Tungsten  and  its  significance  in  industry.      Stahl 

u.   Eisen.   1896,   517. 

1224.  Ohly,  F.      Rare  metals  and  minerals.      Ores  and  metals,  Octo- 

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1225.  Defacqz,    E.      Contribution    to    the    study    of   tungsten    and   its- 

compounds.      Thesis,    Univ.    Paris,    1901;    Ann.    chim.    phys. 
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1226.  Truchot,  P.      The  rare  metals.      Book,  Paris,   1904. 

1227.  Anon.      Tungsten,   its   use    and  value.      Eng.    Min.    J.    78,    750 

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1228.  Ohly,  J.      Rare  metals.      Book.  London,  1905. 

1229.  von    Wagenen,    H.    R.      Tungsten   in   Colorado,      Frenzel    Prize 

Thesis,  Colo.  Sch.  Mines,  1906. 
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707. 
1231.      Riebe,     E.     C.      The    rare    minerals,     their    pre.sent    industrial 

status.      Min.   World,   May   4    (1907). 
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steel  industry.      Oest.   Z.   Berg.   Huttenw.   56,   177    (1908). 
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complex    ores    of    tungsten.      Trans.    Am.    Electrochem.    Soc. 

13,   481-541    (1908). 
123  4.      Dickinson,    H.    P.      Occurrence,    character,    and    u.ses    of    some 

rare   methals.      Min.    Sci.      57,    123-4    (1908). 

1235.  Baskerville,  C.      Rare  metals,  tungsten.      Eng.  Min.  J.  87,   203 

(1909). 

1236.  Escard,    J.    G.      The    special   metals    and   their    industrial   com- 

pounds.     Book.    Paris,    1910. 

1237.  Leiser,  I.   H.      Tung.sten.      Book,  Leipzig,    1910. 

1238.  Leiser,    I.   H.      The  industrialization  of  tung.sten.      Chem.    Ztg. 

35,    665-6     (1911). 
123  9.      Gmelin-Kraut.     Handbuch    der    anorgani.schen    Chemie.    3,    I, 

702-874;    1395-1445.      Book.  Heidelberg,   1912. 
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Bayer.    Ind.    u.    Gewerbehl.    1912,    141;    L'Industria.    26,    414 

(1912);   Ind.  Chim.  12,  343-4    (1912). 


233 


1241.  Prenzel,  A.  B.      Growth  of  the  rare  metal  industry.      ]Min.   Sci. 

65,   73-4    (1912). 

1242.  Mennicke,     H.      Metallurgie     des     Wolframs.      Book.     416     pp. 

Berlin,  1912. 

1243.  Holloway,    G.    T.      Tungsten.      Thorpe's    Dictionary    of    Applied 

Chem.  Vol.  5,   562-71.   London,   1912. 

1244.  Baskerville,     C.      The     chemistry     of     tungsten.      Met.     Chem. 

Eng.  11,  319-20    (1913). 

1245.  Roscoe,  H.  E.  and  Schorlemeyer.      Treatise  on  chemistry.  Vol. 

ii,    1082-1104.      New   York    1913. 

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234 


t 


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1291.  Hess,  F.  L.     U.  S.  Geol.   Surv.  Min.  Res.   1907  I,  711-22. 

1292.  Anon.      American   Production    of   Tungsten      Elec.    World,    50, 

757    (1907). 

1293.  Thomas,   K.      Mining  in  Colorado   1907.      Min.    World   28,    164 

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1294.  Anon.      Min.  Ind.   17,   827-35    (1908). 

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235 


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1303.  Hess,  F.  L.     U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Min.  Res.  1912  I,   987-1001. 

1304.  Anon.     The  tungsten  industry.      Eng.   Min.  J.  93,   39    (1912). 

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1315.  Anon.      Tungsten   in   the   British   Empire.      Eng.    Min.    J.    100, 

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1319.  Willis,   C.    F.      Tung.sten  mining  in  Arizona.      Min.    Sci.    Press, 

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236 


AUTHOR  INDEX  TO  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


(The    figures    refer    to    the    bibliographic    number) 


Abraham,     G.     D 1097 

Ackermann,    E 966,    1187,    1260 

Ackers,     W.     A 988 

Aeffers 836 

Aiken      19b 

Albinus,     P 2 

Allen,    E.    T 454 

Allen 19b 

Anderson,     C 895 

Anderson,    R.     J 301 

Andrews,     E.     C 1036 

Annabl,    H.    W 628 

Anonymous      1054b,     1121a,     1122a 

Anonymous 72,    73,    75,   77,    208,    209,    253,    264,    281,    282,    294, 

295,  296,  297,  303,  344,348,356,365,394,401,405, 
411,  421,  436,  660,  709,  777,  915,  934,  497,  954, 
956,  972  1003,  1011,  1026,  1039,  1043,  1051, 
1062,  1063,  1081,  1083,  1090,  1091,  1108,  1122, 
1127,  1133,  1135,  1149,  1153,  1161,  1171. 
1176,  1184,  1188,  1194,  1195  1211,  1216, 
1217,  1218,  1219,  1220,  1227,  1230,  1255,  1259, 
1264,  1265,  1266,  1267,  1270,  1271,  1272,  1273, 
1274,  1275,  1277,  1279,  1281,  1290,  1292,  1294, 
1298,  1300,  1302,  1304,  1314,  1315,  1316,  1317, 
1321,  1322,  1323,  1327,  1328. 

Anthon,  E.  F 465,  483,  484,  521 

Angenot,  H 631,  632,  777 

Armstrong-,  G.  T 276 

Arnold,  H 613,  710 

Arnold,  J.  0 280 

Arnold.  J.  R 1090d 

Arrivant,  G 61,  319 

Arzruni,  A 874 

Aston   320a 

Atkin,  A.  J.  R 1072 

Auchy,  G 241,  670,  982 

Auerbach,  H.  S 982 

IJ. 

Bagley   672a 

Bailey   622 

Bainville,  A 341 

Ball,  L.  C 1046,  1048,  1049,  1050 

Ball.  S.  H 1160 

Bancroft,    H 1024,     1027 

237 


Barber       743 

Barbour,    P.    P 978 

Barham,    G.    B .-...369,    1156 

Barnes.    J 121 

Barret,    E.    A 565 

Bartlett,     E.     P 118 

Barr      564b 

Barret,     W.     F 312 

Bartonec,     H 685 

Baskerville,    C 379,    900,    1235,    1244 

Bastin.    E.    S 975,    976 

Batemann,    A.    M 921 

Bauer        872 

Bauermaun,      H '. 878 

Baughman,      W :  76 

Baumhauer,    H.    F 420,     1240 

Beard,     X 815 

Beck,     R 1102 

Beck,    W 1119 

Becker,     D.     M 254 

Beder,     R 1131 

Bedford,    J 194 

Bedford,    von     Hume     818 

Beellis,     A.     E 298 

Behrens      665c 

Berg-,     C.     P 255 

Bergner,     E 541 

Berlich,      H 1107 

Berminger       346 

Bernegan      308,      346 

Bernhardi-Grisson       476 

Bernoull,    A.    L 36,    92 

Bernoulli,    F.    A 36,    302,    862 

Bernstein       493 

Berthier 25a 

Bertraand,     E 1099 

Bertrand,     G 713,     722 

Berzelius.     J.     J 19a 

Berzelius,   J.    J 20,    21,    24,    25 

Bettges,    W 601,    799,    841 

Bielher,      P .  ■ 452,      473 

Biltz,    W 455,     456,     458 

Bischoff      674a 

Blair,      T 196 

Blake,    W.    P 901,    922,    923,    924 

Bland,     J 1210 

Bleeck,    A.     W.    G 1061 

Bleyer,     B 66 

Bliek,    P.    F 1130a 

Blomstrand,    C.    W .525,    526 

Blondel,     A 340 

Bochert,    W.    C 1209 

Boehm,    C.    R 335,    337,     385 

Boerder,     A 289 

Bogenbender,     G 1124 

Bogenreider,    C 1142,    1146 

Boggild,    O.    B 1103,    1104 

Bohler       211 

Borchers,    W 55,     1276 

238 


Borghi,     M 568 

Borntragrer,    H 625,     755 

Borteaux,     G 705 

Bottger,    'W 402 

Bottomley,    J.    T 30  i 

Bourion,    F 603,    639,    646,    768 

Bourielly       3GI 

Boynton,    H.     C 236a 

Bradbury,     H 50S 

Brauner       801 

Bray,    W.    C 584 

Brayshaw,    S.     X 'i'il 

Brearley,     H 672a 

Brearley,   H 263,    600,    671,    701,    702,     703,    75G,    774,    794, 

795,   828,   837,   838. 

Bredig,    G 313 

Briggs       508a 

Brislee,    F.     J 377 

Broglie,   M.   de    see    de    Broglie 

Bromehead,    C.    E.    X 1095 

Bronchart,     F 112  4 

Brooks,    A.    H 920 

Brown.    J.    C 913 

Brown,      W 312 

Browne,    DeC.     B 293,     299 

Browning       313 

Brunck,     O 533 

Brunner        704 

Bryant.    W.    W 428 

Buckholz       39a 

Buckholz        18 

BuUnheimer,     F C-  '* 

Bunsen.     W 571 

Burgass        S35 

Burgess      320a 

Burger,    A ''2 

Burgess,     J.     A yS*^ 

Burgess,    G.    K ^^ 

Burghardt,    C.    A 620 

Burley,    G.    W .274 

Butler,    B.     S 915b 

Byers,    H.    G 148 

C. 

Cady,    F.    E 128 

Campbell,     W 316 

Cameron,    W.    E 1033,    1034 

Campredon      676 

Carbonell,     A 1134 

Carl,    P.    H 967 

Carne,    J.    E 1029.    1030,    1047 

Carnot,    A 520,    806,    821,    875 

Carnot,    A 554b,    669a 

Caron      173a 

Carpenter,   H.   C.    H 225,    232,    240,    242 

Castner,    J 201,     1223 

Cervello,     C 721 

Cesaro,     G 893 

239 


Chapman,     S 428 

Charter,    C.    W 1065 

Chase,     E.     E 1157 

Cheneveau       345 

Cherry,    F.    J 1042 

Chesnau,      G 646 

Christ,     K 486 

Church,    J.    A 925 

Clarage,    E.    T 230 

Clark,     P.     W 164 

Clark,      J 177 

Cobenzl      739,      824,      830 

Coblentz.    W.    W 94,    95,    102 

Collins,    J.    H 1092,    1094 

Compton,    A.    H 123,     125 

Comstock,    T.    B 949,    1019 

Conder,     H 1038 

Coolidg-e,   W.   D 350,    404,    415,    418,   419,    425 

Cooper,     C.     A 950 

Copaux,     H 513a 

Copaux,    H 511,    515,    516,    551,    552,    562,    7T»5 

Corbino,     O.     M 105 

Corleis      •. 532b 

Coruthers,    R.    G 1095 

Cox 184 

Crawford,    R.     D 961,     962 

Cramer,    J.    A 5 

Cremer,     F 621 

Cross,     W 879 

Cullen,    J.    F 278a 

Cumenge        891 

Curtice,    R.    S 1090b 

D. 

Dailey,     E.     J 396 

Dalzell,    T.    J 968,    969 

Dammer,      0 1222 

Damour,     A 1098 

Dana,    J.    D.    and    E.    S 903 

Daniels     545f 

Dauber       '.  .  .  : 861 

Dauvillier,     A 136,     137 

David,     L 731 

Day,    D.    T 1268,     1269 

De   Benneville,  J.   S 195,   199,    200,    666,   754 

De     Boisbaudran      831 

Debray       785 

Debray     437a 

De    Broglie,    M 112,     134 

De    Elhujar     11,    14 

Defacqz,  E 50,  86,  561,  775,  779,  820,  1225 

Defacqz,  E 529e,  529f,  529g-,  529h,  532d,  543a,  543b,  559c 

Degan,  C 565 

de    Habech,    T.    A.    V 1130 

Dehn,     E 539,     540 

de    Lamercodie,    G 339 

De    la   Rive    a    Marcet    26b 

Delepine,    M 59,    143 

de    Luyres,    Due     166 

240 


Delvaux    de    Penneffe     167 

Dem'Yanovskii,     S 730 

Denis,     W 592 

Dennstedt,      M 706 

de    Rhoden,    C 911 

Dershem,     E 133,     138 

Descloizeaux,    A 858,     871 

Desi,    E.    D 157,    449,    793 

Desplantes,     E 1-J7 

Desprez      • 28a 

Desvergnes,     L 602 

Deutch,    A ■ 45 

Dewar,      W 748 

Dewey,     H 1095 

Dickenson,     H.     P ; 1234 

Dieck,     H.     L 494 

Dieckmann,    T 686,    745,    746 

Dietzsch,     F 1168 

Dittler,     E 781 

Divani,     M 609 

Dodge,    H.    L 132 

Dodge,    J.    M "87 

Dolbear,     S.     H 941 

Domeyko,    1 856,    870,    887 

Donath,    E 80,    633,    772,    778 

Dorpenhouse,    W.    T 1116 

Doss,     B 1136 

Down,     T.     A 1117 

Dufet      4901 

Duhamel    du    Monceau,    H..  L 15 

Dumas,    M.     J 154 

Dunstan,    B 580.     1037 

Duschnitz,     B 352,     393 

Dushman,     S 429 

E. 

Eakle,    A.     S 999 

Ebelman,    J.    J 855 

Eberhard 904 

Eder,    J.    M 98 

Edwards,    C.    A 243,     286 

Edwards,    E.     T 265 

Ehrenfeld,    C.    H 142,    447 

Eisenmann      471 

Eisler,     C 400 

Eisner,     F 530 

Ekeley,    J.    B 567,    636,    902 

Emich,    F 535 

Emmons,    J.     V 279,     285 

Emmons,     W.     H 1162 

Engels,     W 69,     586 

Engels,    "W 524a 

Ephraim      529i 

Ercker,     Lazarus      1 

Erhard,      G 71 

Escard,    J.    G 320,    380,    1236 

Exner.    F.    F ...163,    506,    800 

241 


F. 

Fahrenwald,    F.    A 328,    329,    330,    435 

Faktor       581 

Falkenberg-,     O 1186 

Faribault,    B.    R 1078,    1079,    1082 

Fenton,     H.     J 585 

Feree,     J 309 

Ferguson,     C.     V , 433 

Fermor,    L,.    L 1060 

Fernez,     A 731 

Fettweiss,     F 693 

Feit     523b 

Fieber,    R 673,     691 

Fielding,     W 67 

Figuero,     T 1134 

Filsinger       42 

Fink,   C.    G 403,    417,    424,    1305,    1307,    1309,    1318 

Finlayson,    A.    M 1093,    1110 

Firming        181 

Fischer,    A 150.     569 

Fischer,     F 363,      41'i 

Fischer,     S 1214,     1215 

Fischer      811 

Fitch.    R.    S 912 

Fleck,    H 451,     1208,     1248 

Fleming,     W.     L 1296 

Florence,      W 894 

Flurscheim       761 

Flurscheim      559a2 

Foerster      667a 

Folin,    0 590,     592 

Foote,    F.    W 656.     1326 

Foote,    W.    M 1263 

Forbes,     D 174 

Forcher     525a 

Forsberg      : 36a 

Forsythe,     A 1004 

Forsythe.     W.     E ' 128 

Fowler,    G.    J 441 

Frabot      582 

Frankel,    L.    K " 832 

Fraunberger     F 146 

Freidheim,    C 545a,    545e 

Freiherr,     L 323 

Freise,     F 1180,     1189 

Freman,     E 124 

French,    S.    W 1170 

Frenzel.    A.    B 1241 

Frery       34,5 

Fresenius.     R 661 

Friedheim.    C 742,    764,    787,    808,    810 

Frilley      563a 

Fritchie,     O.     P 627 

Furman,     X.     H 852 

G. 

Gardner.     J.     H 434 

Garrison,     L.     F 306 

242 


Geibel,     W 458 

Genth,    F.    A 882,    885 

George,    R.    D 961,    962,    973,    1174 

Gerber       1253 

Geuther      36a 

Gibbs,    W 469,    740,    805,    812 

Gibson.     C.     G 1040 

Gimins'ham,     E.     A 398 

Gin,    G 51a 

Gin,    G 63,    1233 

Girod,      P 256 

Glascow,     J.     W 946 

Glazbi-ook.     R.     F 392 

Gledhill,    J.     M 226 

Gmelin-Kraut       1239 

Goe,    H.    H 1170 

Goecke,     O 99 

Goldschmidt,    H 52,     53,    578 

Gonzalez     490h 

Gooch,     A.     M 73S 

Gooch,     F.     A 514 

Goodale,     C.     W 988 

Goodman        813 

Goodrich,     R.     R 1213 

Gordon,     C.     H 1001 

Gorton,     W.     S 131 

Gottschalk,    V.    H 454 

Goutal       821 

Graham,     T , 467 

Granger,    A 450,     457,     501 

Granger     889,     897 

Granigg,      B 1106 

Grant,      J 441 

Graton,    Ij.    C 1001 

Grau        354 

Gray,    G.    J 1053 

Greenawalt,    W.    E 959,    970 

Greenwood      459a 

Grey      800 

Griffiths,     H.     D 1068 

Grodspeed,    A.    W 83 

Grossberg,     A 1207 

Grossman      565c 

Groth,    P 459,    869,     874,     87R 

Gruner       178 

Grutzner      665a 

Grutzner,     B 191 

Gudgeon,    C.    W 1054a 

Gudgeon,    C.    W 1111,    HOO,    1112 

Guerithault,      B 724 

Guglialmelli,  L 546,   547,   548,  549,   653,    733,   734,   735,   736 

Guichard,    M 86 

Guild,    F.    N 933 

Guillemard        723 

Guillet,  L 219,    220,    221,   222,    231,   313 

Gurlt,     A 9,      979 

Gutbier,     A 614 


243 


H. 

Hadfield.    R.    A 210,     312 

Haenig.    A 257,     267,     1232 

Hale,   A.   H 1130b 

Hall.     C 565 

Hall,    R.    D 716 

Hollopeau,   L.   A 54,    143,    499,    503,    505,    825 

Hallopeau,    L.    A 54,    143,    499,    503,    505,    825 

Hamburger,      L 397 

Hamilton,     L.     P 314 

Hammond,     E.     K 266 

Handy      668,     834 

Hanks,    H.    G 936 

Hansen,    C.    C 1090a,     1090e 

Harcourt,     H 239 

Hardin,    W,    L 159,    160 

Hardy,    C 1324,    1325 

Hardy,    T.    W 298 

Hartmann,    M.    L 593,     650,     1251 

Hasselberg        87 

Haushofer     576,     596 

Hautefeuille       490 

Haynes,    E 321,     326 

Hayward,     A.     A 1077 

Haworth,     E 986 

Headden,    W.    P 898 

Heawatsch,    C 888 

Hecht 18 

Heeren        180 

Heller,     W 530 

Helmhacker,    R 204,    623,    1059 

Hempel,    W 577 

Henckel.    J.    F 6 

Henderson       764 

Henderson     *. 545e,    564b,    565a 

Heppe,    G .' 186,     188 

Herbert,    E.    G 249,     268 

Hermann,    H 644,    647,    769 

Hermann,    S 563b 

Herting,     0 674,     758 

Hertwig       460 

Herweg.     J 115 

Hess,    F.    L, 915a 

Hess,   F.    L 587,    908,    932,    938,    1000,    1014,    1021,    1246,    1289, 

1291,    1295,    1297,    1299,    1301,    1303,    1306,    1308, 

1310. 

Heymann      5291 

Hibbard,    H.    D 284 

Hibbert,      E 608 

Hibbs,     J.     G 1206 

Hill,     J.     B 532 

Hill,    J.    M 931,     1204 

Hillebrand,    W.    F 879 

Hills,      L 1052 

Hills,   Y.    G 1086,    1173,    1183,    1185 

Hilpert,    S 556,     745,     748 

Hinricksen,   F.    W 679,    683,    686,    687,    690,    844 

Hintz       661 

Hitchcock,    F.    R.    M 496,    791 

244 


Hobbs,    W.    H 980,    981 

Hodkinson,     D 440 

Hoffman       127 

Holilen,    H.    E 1213 

Holloway,     G.     T 58,     1257,     1243 

Hommel,     W 797 

Honda,    K " 103,    290,    300 

Honigschmidt,     O 560 

Hordh,     U 653 

Horner,     C 573 

Horst.     C 463 

HouKh.    A.    J 732 

Howe,     H.     M 233 

Howell,    J.    W 349,    350,     391 

Hull,    A.    W 129,     130 

Hunrtshagen,     F 599 

Hunt,     T.     S 863 

Hunt,    W.     F 1000 

Huntington,    A.     K 43,     470 

Hutchins,    H.    W 638,    643,    654,    1252 

Hutchinson,    C.     T 945 

Hutchinson,    R.     W 366 

Hyde,    E.    P 128 

I. 

Ibbotson,    F 671,    701,    702.    703,    756,    774,    795,    828,    837,    838 

Illingsworth.    C.    B 694 

Inghliere.     C 566 

Irman,     R 325 

Irving,    J.    D 1005,    1009,    1010,    1012,    1013 


J. 

Jack,     R 97 

Jacobs.     W.     A 726 

Jacobsohn       509a 

Jannasch,   P 601,    719,   799,   836,    840,    841,    843,    847 

Jardine,      R 427 

Javillier,    M 563,    722,    724,    727 

Jean       41 

Jeffries,     Z 327 

Jeremijew,    P 873,     1088 

Jervis     674b 

Jimbo,     K 890,     910 

John     770,     783,     823 

Johnson,     B.     L. 919 

Johnson,    C.    M 692,    708 

Johnson,     G 1167 

Johnson,     J.     P 1120 

Johnson,    R.    A.    A 1069,    1071 

Johnstone,    S.    J 1249 

Joly,      A 1221 

Jones,    H.    C 518 

Jones,    W.    R 1067 

Joseph,    M.    H 1023 

Juno      32 

Just,    A 508 


245 


K. 

Kafka,     B 588,     611 

Kancher,    V.    K 322,    517,    612,     615 

Kantschew,      W 610 

Keeney,     L.     H 270 

Keeney,    R.    M ■ 258,    269,    275 

Keeney,    R.    M 278a 

Kehrniann     542b,    545d 

Kehimann      741,      761 

Kellermann      175 

Kelley.     G.     L 694 

Kellog-g-,    L.    0 927 

Kendall,     G.      D 636 

Kenery,      P 667 

Kern,     S 205,     658 

Kernda,    T 857 

Kick       176 

Kieser,    A.    J 762,    763 

Kikkawa,      H 286 

Killing,     C 332 

Kirjassoff,    M.    D 1090c 

Kirk,     C.     T 977 

Kirwan.      R 12 

Klaproth,     M.     H 17 

Klein      490d,      55a 

Klunder,      T 706 

Knecht     E 498,     608 

Knopf,    A 916,    917,    918,    948 

Knox,     X.     B 914 

Koerner,    "W.    E 151,     152 

Kohan      493 

Korff,     F.     H 292 

Koritschoner,     J.     H 1106 

Kramer       : 565c 

Kremer,     D 74 

Krenner,     J.     A 1057 

Krieg    46a 

Kruger,      R 423 

Kruh,      O 408 

Kuczynski,      T .- 689 

Kuklin,     E .  .675 

Kupelweieser,     F 56 

Kuzel,     H 386 

Kuzirian.     S.     B ' 514.     737 

Kuznetzow,     A 317,     555 

LaCroix,     A 1100 

Lake,    H.    ^" 58 

Landolt       597 

Langley.    J.    W 193 

Langmuir,   1 106,   113,    119,   120,   193,    376,    399,    461.    535 

Lantsberry,    F.    C.    A.    H 291 

Laring.     G 343 

Laug-hlin,     G.     F 912 

Launay      1141 

Laurent,    A 26a,    27b 

Laurent,     A 28 

246 


Lavender,    F.    H.    R 347 

LeBlanc,      U 148 

Ledebur,     A 216 

Lederer,    A 383 

Ledoux-Lebard,     R 136,     137 

Lee,    G.    M 258 

Lee.    H.    A 951,     952 

Leepin,    A' 202 

LeGuen     168,    170,    171,    172,    173 

Lehalleur,    J.    P 684 

Lebeau      559a 

Lefort     489b,    490a,    490b,     490c,    658a 

Leiser,     H 475 

Leiser,    I.    H 1237,     1238 

Leslie,    E.    H 1205 

Lettsom 860 

Levallois      179 

Levers,     H 850. 

Liebe,    K.    L.    T 865 

Liesingang- 468 

Limb,     C 413 

Lind,    J.    G 984 

Lind,    S.    C 678 

Lindgren,    W 958,    960,    1001,    1002,    1145 

Lipp 662 

Liversidge,      A 1028 

Lockyer       79 

Lohse      107 

Longbottom,     W.     A 1179 

Loring,     G 343 

Lottermoser,    A 338,    478,    482 

Lotz,    W 487 

Lovisato,     D 1105 

Low,    A.    H 648,     655 

Loewenstamm       565b 

Lowndes,    F.    K 440 

Luchsiner       495 

Luckey,    G.     P •. 135 

Luedecke,    0 877 

Lukens,    H.    S 1262 

Luninier       375 

Lyon,    D.    A 278a 

M. 

Mccallum.     A.     B 590 

Macdonald,    A.     R 1045 

Mackay,    G.    M.     J. 390,     433 

Mackenzie    G.    L 630 

Magee,    J.    F 1203 

Malaguti,     M.     J 26 

Mallet      574 

Manchot       762 

Manross     485a,     485b 

Marchand     28c,    153b 

Marchetti       529b 

Marbaker,    E.    E 801 

Margueritte.    M 23,    522 

Margueritte      27a 

Marignac,    M.    C 489,    558 

247 


Markham,     E.     A 224 

Mars,     G 251,     272 

Martin,    A 64,    68,    640 

Maschke      490a2 

Matigon,     C 147 

Matthews.    J.    A 206,    277,    316 

Maxwell-Lefroy,    E 1064,    1193,    1313 

May,    C.     E 729 

Mayerhofer       80 

Mazzucchelli,    A 566,     568 

McBride,    H.    A 1132 

McCallum,    A.    L 1073,    1085 

McDonald,    P.    B 651,    1201,    1202 

McKay,     A 1109 

McKay,    L.    R.     W 852 

McKenna,   A.    G 626,    672,    757,    760 

McKenna,    R.    C 283,    1312 

Meeks,    R 1286,     1288 

Meikle,    G.    S 432 

Melikoff      500a 

Mellor,     J.     ^V 843 

Melville,     TV'.     H 883 

Mennicke,    H 616,    1178,    1242 

Merrill,    G.    S 364 

Merrill,    G.    P 1138,    1140 

Merti       4i^5 

Metcalf,     W 183 

Metzger,    F.    J 759  ' 

Metzger,     K 550 

Mey,     K •' 374 

Meyer       84 

Meyer,    A.    R 104,    381,    395 

Meyer,    G.    C 718 

Meyer.     .1.     F 362 

Meyer,    R.    B 353 

Meyer,      R 787 

Meyer,     R.     J ' 1254,     1256 

Michael,    L 569 

Michael      301a 

Michaeli.s     438,     742 

Miller,    W.     H 355 

Miller      842 

Miner,    F.    L, 1199,    1200 

Mioloti       529c 

Miolati.     A 544 

Mitscherllch,     E 27 

Moeller       127 

Moi.ssan,   H 40,    46,    49,    88,    317,    553,    555 

Montpellier,    J.    A 360 

Moody      550b 

Moore,    R.    W 409 

Moreigne,    H 717 

Morgan,    J.    J 665 

Morphy,     B.     H 431 

Morris,    C.    E 991 

Morris,    H.    C 1261 

Moses,    A.    J 957 

Mourlon,     C 368 

MuUard,    S.    R 398,    431 

Mueller,   X.    L 389,    407 

248 


Muller      ' 197 

Muller,    A 70,     384,     388,     ISO 

Muller,      F 772 

Muller,    J.    H 17!) 

Mulhmann,     W 145,     146 

Myers,    F.    B 691 

Mylius      715 

Xamias 664,     753 

Neumann 246 

Xevius,    J.    M 943 

Newborn,     S 227 

Nicolardot,     P 65,     646,     767 

Nicolson,    J.    T 223 

Nieveng-lowski       497 

NordenskjoUl      864 

Xordmeyer,     P 92 

Xorthrup,    E.    E 109 

Norton,    T.    H 203 

Noyes,    A.    A 583,    584 

O. 

Oberholtzer,    A 141,    790 

Oberholtzer     529a3 

Oehler,    A.    G 359 

Ogley,    O.    H 373 

O'Harra,   C.   C 1007,    1320 

Ohly,    J.    s 212,    579,    1144,    1224,    1228 

Olsson,    0 462,    537.    538 

Orange,    J.    A 376 

Ornstein,    M 556 

Orr      565a 

Osmond,   F 187,    189,    190 

P. 

Paddock,    C.    H 1175 

Page,    J.    J.    A 1066 

Paige,    A.    E 288 

Palmer,    L.    A 974 

Palmer,    W.    S 1163 

Pappada,    N 474a 

Parker,    G.    M 629 

Parmelee,     H.     C 1177,     1198 

Parravano,    N 513 

Parry,    J 665 

Patterson,    C.    C 392 

Pearce,     R 987 

Pechard        788 

Pechard      493a 

Pendlebury,     C 217 

Penfield,   S.   L. 884,    885 

Pennington,    M.    L 792 

Percy,    J 169 

Perillon,     A 662a 

Perillon,    M 659,    749 

Perrey      491 

Persoz,    M.    J 31,    37 

Pfaff      784 

249 


Philipp,    J ; 523,    700 

Pickings,    H.     B 1182 

Pieck,    M 519 

Pietruska,     K 185 

Pinazel       764 

Pinegal     559b 

Pinsker,    J 519 

Pirani,    M.    von    see    von    Pirani 

Pissarjewsky     500a,     506a 

Pittman,    E.    F : 1031 

Pizzighelli       .....' 544 

Eoleck,     T 191 

Pollock       91 

Pollock     665a 

Playford,    E.    C 1044 

Plummer,    J 1035 

Pozzi-Escot,    E 589,    605 

Pra&er,    W 464 

Prandti,     W 66 

Pratt,    J.    H 213,    1278,    1280,    1282,    1283,    1284,    1287 

Pratt,    L.    R 259 

Preus,    W 1113 

Preusser,    J 750,    773 

Pring,    J.    N 67 

Prosser,   W.    C 964 

Pryce,    W 7 

Q. 

Quantin      529a 

Quinney,    E.    H ...1015 

R. 

Radiguet        500 

Rammelsberg,   C.    F 867,    1056 

Ransome,    F.    L 953,    958 

Ransom,    R.    S 656 

Rauter,     G .' 442 

Raymond,    R.    W .' 1006 

Read,    A.    A 280,     445 

Regnault    77a,    77c 

Reichard,  C 60,   776,   798,   814,   817,   822,   826,   839 

Reeve,   A.    B -. 372 

R.    E.    N 358 

Rice,    M 129 

Richard,    M.    G 342 

Richards,    J.    W 318 

Richards,    R.    W 929 

Richards,    T.    W 118 

Richardson,    O.    W 110 

Richardson,     T 854 

Riche,     A 35 

Richter,    J.    B 16 

Rickard,     F 926 

Riddle,    R.    N 44 

Rideal     534a 

Riebe,    B.    C 1231 

Ries,    H 1143 

Rindl,     M 545 

Rinman,    S 8 

Ripper,    W 274 

250 


Roberts-Austen,    W.    C 307 

Robertson,    A.     J 1197 

Robinson,    V.    A 635 

Robson       512 

Rogers      5  43c 

Roscoe,    H.    E 527,    1245 

Rosenheim,   A 476,    477,    519,    531,    539,    540,    807,    810 

Rosenheim     509a,    514a,    514b,    564a,    565b 

Ross      575 

Ross,    A.    C 1070 

Rossi,    A.    J 207 

Rossi      D 529c 

Rossler,    B *4 

Rostosky       843 

Rothenbach,    P ■ 492,    809 

Routals,    O 847 

Rovve,    G.    P 983 

Rubel,    A.    C t 935,    1250 

Ruben       765 

Rudder,    W.    D .- 149 

Rueg-enberg-,     M.     J.     796,     816 

Ruff,   0 99,    406,    530,    557 

Rumbold,    W.    R 1121 

Rumschottel,    O 324 

Ruprecht     16a 

Runner,    J.    J 652,    1158 

Rusag-,    K 618 

Russell,    A.    S 1249 

Russell,    M 1181 

Russel,    R.    E 437 

Ruttimann      545d 

Rydbert      85 

Rzehulka,    A 642 

S. 

Sabaneef     471b 

Sabatier,    P 443,    444,    446,    448 

Sacc 485 

Sackur,    0 144 

Safarik       802 

Saint-Smith,    E.    C 1054 

Sandberger,     F 1058 

Sargent,    C.    L 311 

Savage,    F.    A 1193a 

Schaffer,    E 509,    524 

Schaffer    529d 

Schafarik,      A 466 

Schaller.    W.    T 906,    908 

Schapiro,    A 846,    848 

Schar       712 

Scheef ,    E 637a 

Scheele,    C.    W 10,    13 

Scheibler        488 

Scheurer,   A 453,    472,    502 

Schiff,    H 528 

Schlesinger,    G 273 

Schmidt     44a 

Schmidt,    H 595 

Schneider    28b,    153a,    157a 

251 


Schneider,    L, 182 

Schneider       662 

Schneider,    R 859,     1101 

Schnitzler     523a 

Schoen      550a 

Schoffel,    K 657 

Scholl,    G.    P 371 

Schroder 78a 

Schroeder,  H 362 

Schrader,  F.  C 930 

Schorlemeyer   1245 

Schuchard,  E 315 

Schultze   488a 

Schulz,  H 331 

Schulze   529 

Schuster   346 

Scott,  C.  F 350 

Scott,  W.  A , 1196 

Scott,  W.  W 617 

Scrivenor,  J.  B 1108a 

Seidl,  0 511a 

Seligrnann,     G 881 

Selwyn-Brown,    A 1285 

Senderens,    J.   B 443,    444,    446,    448 

Serivenor,    J.    B 1108a 

Setlik     , 773a 

Setlik,    B 619,     751 

Seubert     44a 

Sheda,    E.    J.    7 649 

Sheldon,    S .' 305 

Shepard,    C.    V 866,    868 

Shinn     529a2 

Shinn,    O.    L 158 

Sieg:,    L.    P 126 

Siegbahn,    M 124 

Siemans,    A 382 

Siemans,    C.    W 43 

Sieverts,    A 541 

Silliman,    B 853 

Simmons,    J 1008,      1018 

Simmonds,-  F.    W 1020 

Simpson,    E.    S - 1040 

Sipoez,    Ij 880 

Skewes,      E 1164 

Skey,    W 572 

Skinner,    R.    P 422 

Smith       439 

Smith,    E.    F 529a2,    529a3,    529d 

Smith,    E.    F 83,    140,    141,    157,    160,    163,    165,    314,    451,    494, 

506,    565,    598    716,    790,    792,    796,    800,    816,    819. 

827,    832,    833. 

Smith,     F.     B 994 

Smith,    G.    0 1311 

Smith,    K.    K 117 

Smith,    W.    G 260 

Soboneff      542c 

Soehnlein,    M.    G.    F 1130a 

Spallino,     R 728 

Spencer,    L.    J 896 

252 


Spuller      665b 

Spurr,    J.    E 1133 

"St."       410 

Stagg-,    H.    J 277 

Stansfield,    A 238 

Stassano,     E 244 

Stavenhagen,    A 57,    310,    315 

Steinhart,   O.    J 234,    235,    1151,    1247 

Stephen      840 

Sternberg',    A 45 

Stimmelmayr,     A 68 

Stock,     J 96 

Storms,    W.    H 944 

Street,    E.    A.    G 48 

Sullivan,    W.    B 262,    271 

Surr,    G 928,    937,    939,    1147,    1148,    1152,    1154 

Sushchinskli,    P.    P 1139 

Svensson,     C 681 

Sweeney,    O.    R V47 

Swinden,    T 237,    250,    252 

T. 

Taft,    H.     H 1159 

Tag:gaf t,    W.    T 827 

Takagi,    H ; 290 

Talbot       771 

Tarnau        214 

Tarnawiecki,     H.     C 1128 

Tawara,     K 290 

Taylor,    P.    W 236,    247 

Taylor,    M.     T 1192 

Taylor,    T.    M 162,    507 

Teich,      N 1119 

Terrell,     E 1096 

Terrell,    S.    L 1169 

Thalin       78 

Tiede,    E 414 

Thomas,    G.    E 161,    504 

Thomas,    K 955,    1293 

Thyng",     W.     S 1022 

Tomblin,    M.    B 971 

Tomek,    F 989 

Tonks.     F.     J 638 

Toropsian,    G 591 

Tram        752 

Traube,    M 82,     789 

Trautmann,     W 645,     707 

Travers       782 

Treadwell,    W.    D 780,    851 

Treloar,     A 1167 

Tronquoy,    R 907 

Trowbridge,     J 305 

Truchot,    P 1226 

Trueblood,    B.    C 678 

Tschilikin,    M 606 

Tsuchiya,      1 720 

Tucker     550b 

Turner,    E.    E 570 

Turner,     T 228 

Twelvetrees,    W.    H 1041 

253 


u. 

Uelsmann      532a 

Ullik     489a 

Ulzer       677a 

Umpleby,     J.     B 985 

Uppenborn      334 

Uslar       39 

V. 

Valenta,     E 98 

A'alentine,    A.    L -• 248 

Vallet,     C 357 

van    Duin,    C.    F 695 

van    Linge    198 

Van    Linge    665c 

Various       1155 

Vasmaer    663a 

Vasil'ev,     A.     Th 481 

A^asselin,    R 416,     426 

Vauquelin     15a 

Vauquelin,    L.    N 18 

Vautin,      C 52 

Venator      245 

Vigourou,    E 215,    229,    559 

Vogel,    F.    A 1191 

Vogel      81 

von    Bonhourst,    C 1115 

von     Borch     30 

von   der   fordten,   O.    F 59  4 

von    Graffenried,    A "781 

von    Hauer     803 

A'on    Knorre    490e,    490f,    490g,    670a 

von    Keyserling    1125 

von    Knorre,   G 524,    604,    607,    637,    677,    682,    744,    829,    845 

von     Koulidin,     X 1118 

von  Pirani    , 378,   395,   101,   104,   111 

von    Schonberg,    A 3 

von    Wagenen,    H.    R 963,    1165,    1229 

von    Wartenberg,    H 90,    100 

Vosmaer      663a 

Voss      -• 336 

W. 

Wada,    T 1089 

Waddell,    J 155,    156,    786 

Wahl,     W 192 

Waidner,    C.    W 89 

Wallace,   D.    L 833 

Waller,    G.    A 1032 

Walls,   H.    L 759 

Walker,    T.    L 899,    1074,    1075,    1076,    1084,    1087,    1150 

Walker,    E 1166 

Walker,    L.    H 412 

Warren,    C.    H 892 

Warren,    H.    X 47,    51 

Watkins,    C •  •  518 

Waterhouse,    L.     I^ 1052 

Watts,    H.    F 634,    641,    766 

254 


Wdowiszewski,      A 669 

Weber,    C.    H 387 

Wechsler,     E 725 

Weckwarth,    E 1126 

Weclekind,     E 463 

Weed,    W.    H 090 

Weeks,   F.   B 993,   995,   996,   997 

Weidenger,     G 1055 

Weise,    G.    L 614 

Weiss,    L. 68,     640 

Wells,    R.    C 510 

Wells,    R.    C 9  1 5b 

Wepfer,    G.    W 1129 

Werner       711 

Wherry,    E.    T 909 

Whitehead ...  565a 

Willcox,    F.    W 351 

Williams,    P 22  7a,    554a 

Williams,    P 554 

Williams,    G.    H 886 

Williams,     J.    H 940,    942 

Willis,    C.     F 1319 

Wilson,     M ■ 430 

Winchell,    A.    X 905,    992 

Winn  singer     532c 

Winter,    H 1256,    1258 

Winters,    R.    J 1053 

Winterstein,    E 543 

Wittstein 34 

Wohler,    F 28d,    301a.    533a.     542a 

Wohler,    F 22,    29,    33,    153,    534,    542,    564 

Wohler,   L 69,    464,    586 

Wolf,     A 1025 

Wolf,     H.     J 978 

WoRer,     L 683,     688 

Wood,    H.     E 1172 

Wood,    J.    R 965 

Wormer,     E 714 

Worthing,   A.    G 108,    114,    116,    122,    139 

Wright     32a 

Wunder,    M 846,    848 

M'unsch,     R 557 

Wyman,    L.    P 474 

Wyrouboff       558a 

Wysor,    R.    J 278 

Y. 

Young,    G.    A lOSO 

Z. 

Zealley,    A.    E.    V 1123 

Zeeman,    P 93 

Zettnow      38 

Zettnow     77b 

Ziegenberg,     R 370 

Ziegler,    V '663 

Ziegler,   A' 664a 

Ziegler,    Victor     1016,     1017 

Zinberg,      S 680 

Zinck      326 

255 


Index  to  Part  I 


A. 

Page 

Acquarius  District  Arizona,  tungsten  in 38 

Algonklan    formations    49 

Amblygonite,  resemblance  of,  to  scheelite 17,  18 

American  Tungsten  Co.,  claims  of 56,  58 

milling  of  tungsten  ore 90 

production   of   tungsten 47 

Andesite,    description    of 42 

Annie   tungsten    claim 61 

Antimony,  association  of,  with  wolframite 19 

Apatite,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

resemblance  of,  to  scheelite 18 

Argentina,  tungsten  deposits  of 30 

Arivaca  District,  Arizona,  tungsten  in 28 

Arizona,   tungsten  in    27—28 

Arsenic,  association  of,  with  wolframite 19 

Arsenopyrite,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

Atolia-Randsburg  District,  Calif.,  tungsten  deposits  of 26-27 

B. 

Barite,  resemblance  of,  to  scheelite 17,  18 

Beryl,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

Biotite,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

Bismark  Mining  Co.,  tungsten  deposits  of 75 

Bismuth,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

Bismuthinite,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

Black  Metal  tungsten  claim 54 

Blake,  W.  P.,  on  Black  Hills  tungsten  deposits 48 

Bolivia,   tungsten  deposits   of 30 

Boulder  Co.,  Colorado,  tungsten  deposits  of 25-26 

Bresnahan,  Martin,  tungsten  property  of 80 

Burma,   tungsten   deposits   of 29 

C. 

Calcite,  resemblance  of,  to  scheelite 17,  18 

California,  tungsten  deposits  of .  26-27 

Cambrian  Formations    41,  68 

Carlile  Formation   41 

Cassiterite,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18,  21 

resemblance  of,  to  tungsten  minerals 16,  17 

Cenozoic  Era,  geologic  history  during 45 

Chalcopyrite,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

Champion  Lode,  tungsten  claim 58 

Cleavland  Lode   tungsten   claim 57 

Coates  tungsten  claim 62 

Cobalt,  association  of,  with  wolframite 19 

Colorado,  tungsten  deposits  of 25-26 

Columbite,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

resemblance  of,  to  tungsten  minerals 16,  17 

Comanchean    formations    41 

Comstock   Mine    48,  79 

'257 


Page 

Contact  Metamorphic  Deposits,  formation  of 23 

minerals  of    23 

tungsten   in    23 

Copper,  association  of,  with  wolframite 19 

Cornwall,   England,   tungsten   deposits   of 31 

Cretaceous  formations    41 

Cuprotungstite,  composition  of 13 

D. 

Dacite,  formation  of 42 

Dakota   Formation 41 

Deadwood    Formation    41,  68 

Deadwood,  tungsten  deposits  at 76 

Diorite,  description  of 42 

Downing  tungsten  claim 51 

Dragoon  Mts.,  Ariz.,  tungsten  deposits  of 27 

Dyke  tungsten  claim 58 

E. 

Edna  Hazel  tungsten  claim 58 

Elkhorn  Tungsten  Co.,  milling  of  tungsten  ores 97 

property   of    54 

England,   tungsten   deposits   of 31 

Englewood    Formation     41,  69 

Enrichment,   secondary,   of   tungsten   deposits 25,  87 

Etta  Mine   (Keystone),  tungsten  in 63 

Etta  Mine  (Lead) ,  tungsten  in 75 

Eureka  District,  Arizona,  tungsten  deposits  of 28 

F. 

Feldspar,  association  of,  with  tungsten  deposits 18 

resemblance  of,  to  scheelite 17,   18 

Ferberite,    composition   of 14 

physical    properties   of 14-15 

Fern   Cliff,   tungsten    claim 62-63 

Ferritungstite,    composition    of 13 

Fluorite.  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

Fox  Hills   Formation 41 

Fulton,  C.  H.,  on  analysis  of  ferberite 57 

Fuson  Formation    41 

G. 

Garnet,  resemblance  of,  to  scheelite 17,  18 

Gireau  tungsten  claim 58 

Gneiss,  Little  Elk  Creek,  description  of 3  7 

Gold,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18,  87 

association  of,   with  wolframite 19 

Good  Luck  tungsten  claim 56 

Graneros    Formation     41 

Granite,  Bear  Lodge  Mountain,  description  of 38 

Harney  Peak,  description  of 38 

Nigger   Hills,   description   of 38 

Whitewood  Peak,  description   of 38,  68 

Graphite,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

resemblance  of,  to  tungsten  minerals 16,  17 

Grorudite,  description  of 42 

H. 

Harney  Peak  area,  tungsten  deposits  of 49 

Hartmann,  M.  L.,  on  analysis  of  wolframite 57,   58,   61 

258 


Page 

on  analysis  of  hubnerite 80 

Hayes   tungsten   claim • 61 

Headden,  W.  P.,  on  chemical  analysis  of  tungsten  ore 48 

on  analysis  of  huberite 51,  80 

Hematite,  resemblance  of,  to  tungsten  minerals 16,  17 

Henault,  Denis,  tungsten  claims  of 77 

Hess,  F.  L.,  on  analysis  of  wolframite 52 

on  origin  of  Northern  Hills  tungsten  ores 84 

Hess,  F.  L.  and  Schaller,  W.  T.,  on  analysis  of  hubnerite 80 

Hidden  Fortune  Company,  tungsten  production  of 92 

High   Lode   tungsten   claim 53 

Hill  City  Tungsten  Producer's  Company,  milling  of  tungsten  ore.  .  90 

production    of   tungsten 47,    91,  92 

Hillebrand,  W.  F.,  on  analysis  of  Homestake  tungsten  ore 73 

on  analysis  of  Wasp  No.  2  tungsten  ore 74 

History,  geologic,  pre-Cambrian 40 

post-Algonkian     44 

of  tungsten  industry  in  Black  Hills 47 

Homestake  Mining  Company,  deposits  of  tungsten 70 

milling  of  tungsten  ores 88-89 

production   of   tungsten 90—93 

Hubnerite,    composition    of 14 

physical    properties    of 14—15 

I. 

Inyo  County  California,  tungsten  deposits  of 27 

Irving,  J.  D.,  on  origin  of  Northern  Hills  tungsten  ores.  .  .  .82-83,  84 

on  relation  of  tungsten  to  gold  ores 72 

on  Tertiary  igneous   rocks 42,  43 

J. 

Jaggar,  T.  A.,  on  Tertiary  igneous  rocks 43 

Jurassic   formations    41 

L. 

Lakota   Formation    41 

Lamprophyre  in  Black  Hills,  description  of 43 

Laramie   Formation    41 

Lead,  association  of  with  wolframite 19 

Lead-Deadwood  area,  general  geology  of 67 

tungsten   deposits    of 67 

M. 

McKinnon  and  Miller  tungsten   claim 52 

Magnetite,  resemblance  of  to  tungsten  minerals 16,  17 

Malay  States,  tungsten  deposits  of 29 

Manganese  dioxide,  resemblance  of  to  tungsten  minerals 16,  17 

Manion,  Ed.,  on  tungsten  milling  at  Wasp  No.  2  mine 8  9 

Martha  Washington  tungsten  claim .' 54 

Mesozoic   Era,   geologic   history   during 45 

Metamorphism  of  Black  Hills  pre-Cambrian  rocks 36-3  9 

Michigan  Placer  tungsten  claim 52 

Mill  Brothers  tungsten  claim 62 

Minerals  associated  with  tungsten 18 

Minerals  similar  in  appearance  to  tungsten  ores 16 

Minnekhata   Formation    41 

Minnelusa  Formation   41 

Mississippian  Formations 41,  69 

Molybdenite,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

Morrison  Formation   41 

259 


Page 
Muscovite,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

N. 

Nevada,  tungsten  deposits  of 28 

New  South  Wales,  tungsten  deposits  of 32—33 

New  Zealand,  tungsten  deposits  of 33 

Nickel,  association  of,  with  wolframite 19 

Nigger  Hill  District,  tungsten  deposits  of .  6  4 

Niobrara  Formation    41 

O. 

Oligocene  formations    41 

Opeche   Formation    41 

Ordovician    formations     41,   69 

Origin  of  tungsten  orea,  Southern  Black  Hills 6  6—6  7 

Northern  Black  Hills 82-87 

P. 

Pahasapa  Formation    41,   69 

Paige,  Sidney,  on  folds  and  faults  in  the  Black  Hills  pre-Cambrian   39 

Paige,  Sidney,  on  Homestake  fault 67 

on  Tertiary  igneous  rocks 43 

Paleozoic  Era.  geologic  history  during 45 

Pegmatites,    formation    of 20—21 

Harney  Peak,  description  of 49 

minerals   of    20 

physical  characters   of 20—21 

relation  of  to  granites 20 

tungsten  in    21 

Pennsylvania  formations    41 

Permian  formations    41 

Pettit  and  Pfander  tungsten  claim 52 

Phonolite,  description  of 42 

Pierre  Formation    41 

Placers,    formation    of 23 

tungsten   in    23 

Placer  tungsten  deposits  of  Harney  Peak  District 64 

Pleistocene    formations     41 

Portugal,  tungsten  deposits  of 30 

Post-Algonkian   sedimentary   formations 41 

Powellite,    composition    of 13 

Pre-Cambrian,  igneous  rocks  of  Black  Hills,  description  of 37,   68 

rocks  of  Black  Hills,  metamorphism  of 39 

rocks  of  Black  Hills,  structure  of 36—39 

sedimentary  formations  of  Black  Hills,  description  of 35 

Production  of  tungsten  in  Black  Hills,  statistics  of 90-93 

Pyrite,  association  of  with  tungsten 18 

Q. 

Quartz,  association  of  with  tungsten 18 

resemblance  of  to  scheelite 17,  18 

veins  of  Harney  Peak,  description  of 50 

Queensland,  tungsten  deposits  of 32 

R. 

Raspite,  composition  of 13 

Reinbold  Metallurgical  Company,  tungsten  production  of 47 

Reinbold  tungsten  claim  near  Hill  City 51 

near   Spokane    63 

Replacement   deposits,   formation   of 22 

260 


Page 

tungsten   in 22 

Rhyolite,  description  of 42,   69,    70 

tungsten  in 74,    77 

Rock  associates  of  tungsten  ores 19 

Rundel,  Mills  and  Casler  tungsten  claim 58 

S. 
Scheelite,  chemical  and  physical  properties  of 15-16 

mineral  associates  of 19 

Secondary  enrichment  of  tungsten  ores.  . 25,  87 

Segregation  deposits,  formation  of 19 

tungsten  in    19-20 

Sharwood,  W.  J.,  on  analysis  of  Homstake  tungsten  ore 73 

Siam,  tungsten  deposits   of 29 

Silver,   association   of   with   scheelite 19 

association  of  with  tungsten 18 

Smith,  S.  R.,  tungsten  property  of 79 

Spearfish  Formation    41 

Sphalerite,  association  of  with  tungsten 18 

resemblance  of  to  tungsten  minerals 16,  17 

Stolzite,  composition  of 13 

Structure  of  Black  Hills  pre-Cambrian  rocks 39 

of  post-Algonkian  formations 41 

of  Tertiary  igneous  rocks 43 

Success   tungsten  claim 56 

Sundance   Formation    41 

Sylvanite,  association  with  tungsten 18 

T. 

Tertiary  igneous  intrusives,  description  of 42,  69 

Test,  chemical  for  tungsten 18 

Tin,  association  of,  with  wolframite 19 

Topaz,  association  of,  with  tungsten 18 

Topography  of  Black  Hills,  description  of 34 

Tourmaline,  association  of,   with  tungsten 18 

resemblance  of,  to  tungsten  minerals 16,  17 

Triassic    formations    41 

Tungsten,  in  veins,  Harney  Peak,  description  of 50 

minerals,  chemical  and  physical  properties  of 13—16 

ores,  milling  of  at  Homestake  mill 88—89 

ores,  milling  of  at  Wasp  No.  2  mill 89 

production  of  in  Black  Hills 90-93 

Tungsten  deposits,  of  Black  Hills,  types  of 49 

depth    of     .  .• 24 

of  Harney  Peak  District 25 

of  Lead-Deadwood    25,67 

of  Nigger  Hill  District 64 

of  U.  S.,  description  of 25 

relation  of  to  acidic  rocks 19,  24 

types  of 19 

Tungsten  Lode  claim 52 

Tungstenite,  composition   of 13 

Tungstite,  chemical  and  physical  properties  of 16 

Two  Bit  Creek,  tungsten  deposits  of 79 

U. 

Unkpapa  Formation    41 

V. 

Veins,  tungsten,  formation  of 21 

261 


Page 

minerals  of    21-22 

physical  characters  of 21-22 

relation  of  to  pegmatites 21 

Vida  May  tungsten  claim 53 

W. 

Wasp  No.  2  Mining  Company,  tungsten  deposits  of 74 

tungsten   production    of 90—93 

Whetstone  Mountains,  Arizona,   tungsten  deposits  of 28 

Whitepine  County,  Nevada,  tungsten  deposits  of 28 

White  River  Formation 41 

Whitewood  Formation   RQ 

Wolframite,    composition    of 14 

mineral  associates  of 19 

physical   properties   of 1 4—1 5 

Wolfram  Lode  tungsten  claim 62 

Wright  and  Virtue  tungsten  claim 51 

Y. 

Yavapai  County,  Arizona,  tungsten  deposits  of 28 

Z. 

Ziegler,  V.,  on  Harney  Peak  granite 49 

Zinc,  association  of,  with  wolframite 19 


Index  to  Part  II 


A. 

Page 

Alloys,  determination  of  tungstic  oxide  in 153-155 

Ammonia  method  for  determination  of  tungstic  oxide 150-151 

Arsenic,  compounds  of,  with  tungsten 145 

B. 

Boron  and  tungsten,  compounds  of . 146 

Bronze,  tungsten,  preparation  of 142-143 

C. 

Carbon,  compounds  of,  with  tungsten 146 

Carbon  in  high-speed  steels 126 

Chromium  in  high-speed  steels 126 

F. 

Ferro-tungsten  alloys,  determination  of  tungstic  oxide  in 154-155 

Ferro-tungsten,    decarburization    of 109 

manufacture    of     106—109 

production  of,  by  alumino-thermic  method 107 

by  reduction  with  carbon  in  crucibles 107 

by  reduction  of  ores  in  electric  furnace 108 

by  silico-thermic  method 107 

H. 

Halogens,  compounds  of,  with  tungsten 143-144 

Hydrofluoric  acid  method  for  determination  of  tungstic  oxide  151-152 

262 


L. 

Page 

Lamps,  tungsten  filament 131-136 

Low,  A.  H.,  method  for  determination  of  tungstic  oxide  described 

by 152-153 

N. 
Nitrogen,  compounds  of,  with  tungsten 145 

O. 

Ores,  tungsten,  determination  of,  by  specific  gravity  methods  155-157 

direct  reduction  of,  in  electric  furnace 108 

quality  demanded    110 

treatment   of    impure 112 

Oxides  of  tungsten,  preparation,  composition  and  uses  of 138 

P. 

Phosphorus,  compounds  of,  with  tungsten QRT 

S. 

Scheelite,  production  of  tungstic  oxide  from 100-101 

Silicon,  compounds  of,  with  tungsten 146 

Specific  gravity  methods  for  determination  of  tungsten  in  ores .  . 

155-157 

Steels,  determination  of  tungstic  oxide  in 153—154 

Steels,  high-speed  tool 122 

carbon  in 126 

chromium  in    126 

composition   of 125 

theory  of    .  .  •  •  •  • 129 

tungsten   in    .  .  .  , 126 

Steel,  tungsten,  manufacture  of .  .  . 119,   120,   123 

theory  of    122 

Sulphur,  compounds  of,  with  tungsten 144-145 

T. 

Tools,  high-speed,  heat  treatment  of 126 

Tungstates,  preparation,  composition  and  uses  of 141-143 

Tungsten,  atomic   weight  of 117 

chemical  behavior  of 115 

compounds   of,  with   arsenic 145 

with  carbon 146 

with   the   halogens 143-144 

Tungsten,  compounds  of,  with  phosphorus 145 

with  silicon    146 

with  sulphur    144-145 

in  high-speed  tool  steels 126 

organic   salts   of 147 

qualitative    detection    of 148_150 

quantitative  determination  of 150-157 

solubility  of.  in  alkaline  carbonates 116 

in   aqua   regia 116 

in  hydrochloric  acid 116 

in  hydrofluoric  acid 116 

in    nitric    acid 116 

in  potassuim  hydroxide 116 

in   sulphuric   acid 116 

boride     146 

bronzes     142-143 

cast     109 

ductile    104-106 

2«S 


Page 

metal,  chemical  behavior  of 115 

physical   properties   of 114 

uses  for,  in  metal  filament  lamps 131—136 

in   iron   alloys 11 8—1 1 9 

miscellaneous     136—137 

in  non-ferrous  alloys 130—131 

nitrides,  composition  of 145 

ores,  direct  reduction  of,  in  electric  furnace 108 

quality  demanded    110 

quantitative  determination  of  by  specific  gravity.  .  .  .155-157 
treatment  of,  impure 112 

oxides  of,  preparation,  composition  and  uses  of 138 

Tungsten  steels,   manufacture   of 119,   120,   123 

theory  of    122 

Tungstic  acids,  preparation,  composition  and  uses  of 139-141 

oxide,  determination  of,  by  ammonia  method 150-151 

by  hydrofluoric  acid  method 151-152 

by  method  described  by  A.  H.  Low 152-153 

in  steels  and   alloys 153—155 

production  of,  from  ores,  acid  method 100 

alkali-fluoride   method    101 

aqua  regia  method 98 

bi-sulphate  method 99 

carbon  tetrachloride  method 99 

soda  method    98 

sodium  carbonate  method 97 

from  scheelite   •. 100-101 

from  wolframite    97-100 

reduction  of,  to  metal  by  aluminum 102 

by  boron  and  silicon 103 

by  carbon,  in  crucible 101 

in  electric  furnace 102 

by  gases 103 

by  silicon  carbide 103 

by  zinc 103 

W. 

Wolframite,  production  of  tungstic  oxide  from 97-100 


ERRATA 

Page  14,  line  25,  "wolframites"  should  read  "wolframite." 

Page  15,  line   13,  insert  "series"  after  "wolframite." 

Page   16,  line   29,  "spahalerite"  should  read  "sphalerite." 

Page   20,  line   20,  "has"  should  read  "have." 

Page   22,  line   10,  "lense"  should  read  "lens." 

Page   28,  line     3.  omit  "rich." 

Page  42,  line     7,  "thyolites"  should  read  "rhyolites." 

Page  43,  line   14,  "central  part"  should  read  "north  central  part. 

Page   44,   line   32,  "or"  should  read  "of." 

Page   49,   line   20,  "types  2  and  4"  should  read  "types  3  and  4." 

Page   80,  line   27,  "based"  should  read  "basal." 


264 


3. 

South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 

Bulletin  No.   13 
DEPARTMENT  OF  GEOLOGY 


THE  WHITE  RIVER  BADLANDS 

By 

Cleophas  C  O'Harra,  Ph.  D..  LL.  D., 
President  and  Professor  of  Geology 
South  Dakota  State  School  of  Mines 


Rapid  City,  South  Dakota 
November,    1920 


THE  WHITE  RIVER  BADLANDS 

(A  revised  reprint  of  South  Dakota  State  School 
of  Mines  Bulletin  No.  9,  The  Badland 
Formations  of  the  Black  Hills  Region) 

Publication  authorized  by  Regents 
of  Education,  October  2,  1919. 
Members  at  date  of  authorization: 

T.  W.  Dwight,  President 

J.  W.  Campbell 

August  Frieberg 

F.  A.  Spafford 


The  picture  which  geology  holds  up  to  our  view  of  North  America 
during  the  Tertiary  ages  are  in  all  respects,  but  one,  more  attractive 
and  interesting  than  could  be  drawn  from  its  present  aspects.  Then  a 
warm  and  genial  climate  prevailed  from  the  Gulf  to  the  Arctic  Sea; 
the  Canadian  highlands  were  higher,  but  the  Rocky  Mountains  lower 
and  less  broad.  Most  of  the  continent  exhibited  an  undulating  sur- 
face, rounded  hills  and  broad  valleys  covered  with  forests  grander 
than  any  of  the  present  day,  or  wide  expanses  of  rich  savannah,  over 
which  roamed  countless  herds  of  animals,  many  of  gigantic  size,  of 
which  our  present  meager  fauna  retains  but  a  few  dwarfed  represen- 
tatives. Noble  rivers  flowed  through  plains  and  valleys,  and  sea-like 
lakes,  broader  and  more  numerous  than  those  the  continent  now 
bears,  diversified  the  scenery.  Through  unnumbered  ages  the  seasons 
ran  their  ceaseless  course,  the  sun  rose  and  set,  moons  waxed  and 
waned  over  this  fair  land,  but  no  human  eye  was  there  to  mark  its 
beauty,  nor  human  intellect  to  control  and  use  its  exuberant  fertility. 
Flowers  opened  their  many-colored  petals  on  meadow  and  hill-side, 
and  filled  the  air  with  their  perfumes,  but  only  for  the  delectation  of 
the  wandering  bee.  Fruits  ripened  in  the  sun,  but  there  was  no 
hand  there  to  pluck,  nor  any  speaking  tongue  to  taste.  Birds  sang 
in  the  trees,  but  for  no  ears  but  their  own.  The  surface  of  lake  or 
river  whitened  by  no  sail,  nor  furrowed  by  any  prow  but  the  beast 
of  the  water-foul;  and  the  far-reaching  shores  echoed  no  sound  but 
the  dash  of  the  waves  and  the  lowing  of  the  herds  that  slacked  their 
thirst  in  the  crystal  waters.  J.  S.  NEWBERRY. 


PREFACE 


Is  it  of  interest  to  jou  that  the  White  River  Badlands 
are  the  most  famous  deposits  of  the  kind  in  the  world?  Do 
you  know  that  aside  from  their  picturesque  topography  they 
tell  a  marvelous  nature  story;  a  story  of  strange  climate, 
strange  geography,  and  strange  animals;  of  jungles,  and 
marshes,  and  tranquil  rivers,  of  fierce  contests  for  food,  and 
life,  and  supremacy;  of  a  varied  series  of  events  through 
ages  and  ages  of  time  showing  the  working-out  of  well-laid 
plans  with  no  human  being  to  help  or  interfere?  Most  peo- 
ple know  something  of  these  things  but  generally  it  is  in  an 
indefinite  piecemeal  way.  Except  to  scientific  men  the 
Badlands,  instead  of  affording  the  intellectual  delight  that 
they  should,  are  commonly  little  else  than  a  sterile  wonder. 

This  book  is  written  in  order  that  the  intellectually 
alert,  the  indifferent  thinker,  the  old  and  the  young,  irre- 
spective of  educational  advantage  or  technical  training  may 
have  opportunity  to  get  a  clearer  and  more  comprehensive 
idea  of  this  wonderful  part  of  nature's  handiwork. 

The  landscape  views  given  herein,  have  never  been  sur- 
passed, it  is  believed,  for  clearness  of  expression  or  for  de- 
tail of  configuration  and  the  reproductions  of  the  animals, 
made  by  the  best  vertebrate  paleontologists  of  America,  are 
marvels  of  beauty  and  accuracy.  Among  the  pictures  of 
animals  both  in  fossil  form  and  restored  to  life  and  activity 
as  they  were  in  their  ancient  White  river  home  are :  Bronto- 
therium,  the  huge  thunderbeast ;  Metamynodon,  the  bulky 
rhinoceros;  Moropus,  the  grotesque  chalicothere;  Mesohip- 
pus,  the  three  toed  horse;  Oreodon,  the  ruminating  hog; 
Poebrotherium,  the  ancestral  camel;  Protoceras,  the  six- 
horned  herbivore;  Hoplophoneus,  the  savage-tooth  tiger; 
Stylemys,  the  large  dry  land  tortoise;  Crocodilus,  the  old- 
time  crocodile;  and  many  others  long  since  vanished  from 
earth's  activity.  The  book  indicates  why  the  camel  of  that 
time  had  no  pads  on  his  feet  and  the  deer  no  antlers  on  his 
head,  why  the  saber-tooth  had  his  enormously  vicious  teeth, 
why  dogs  had  retractile  claws  like  the  cat,  why  the  horse 


had  three  toes  on  each  foot  instead  of  one,  and  many  other 
things  of  like  kind. 

Geologists  and  paleontologists  have  been  engaged  for 
three-quarters  of  a  century  in  unravelling  the  intricate 
story  of  these  strange  lands  and  I  have  drawn  liberally 
from  the  published  works  of  these  men.  My  gratitude  for 
this  material  is  hereby  most  gratefully  acknowledged.  Some 
of  the  more  important  publications  consulted  are  listed 
under  the  heading,  Bibliography.  Those  wishing  a  more 
complete  record  of  papers  with  annotations  on  the  same 
should  consult  my  Bibliography  of  the  Geology  and  Mining 
Interests  of  the  Black  Hills  Kegion,  published  as  South 
Dakota  School  of  Mines  Bulletin  Xo.  11,  1917.  I  have 
endeavored  in  the  text  or  in  the  figures  and  plate  descrip- 
tions to  indicate  in  proper  way  the  source  of  material  used. 

It  is  an  especial  pleasure  to  record  here  the  favors  ex- 
tended by  Professor  Henry  F.  Osborn  of  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  by  Professor  W.  B.  Scott  of 
Princeton  University,  and  by  The  Macmillan  Company  of 
New  York  City  in  permitting  the  use  of  many  excellent 
figures  and  plates  from  the  two  great  books,  Osborn's  Age 
of  Mammals  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America,  and 
Scott's  History  of  Land  Mammals  in  the  Western  Hemis- 
phere. These  books  deserve  a  large  audience.  They  should 
be  consulted  by  all  who  wish  acquaintance  with  mammalian 
progress,  and  particularly  by  those  interested  in  our  White 
River  Badlands,  the  classic  vertebrate  fossil  ground  of 
America. 

The  subject  is  of  absorbing  interest  but  I  have  en- 
deavored to  treat  it  without  exaggeration,  sensation  or 
cheapness.  The  present  book  while  following  somewhat 
closely  the  plan  and  wording  of  the  earlier  publication  is 
arranged  with  a  little  more  consideration  for  the  general 
reader.  The  revised  form  freed  from  technical  references 
and  faunal  lists  in  the  body  of  the  book  and  with  a  more 
generous  use  of  figures  and  plates  should  be  readily  and 
entirely  assimilated.  It  is  believed  especially  that  the  gen- 
eral reader  and  teachers  and  high  school  students  interested 
in  natural  history  subjects  should  find  the  information  val- 
uable and  inspirational. 

CLEOPHAS  C.  O'HARRA. 
November  4,  1920. 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Importance  and  Distribution  of  the  Badlands 19 

History  of  Exploration 23 

Classification  and  Correlation  of  the  Deposits 31 

Nature  of  the  Deposits 36 

Oligocene     38 

The  Chadron  Formation   38 

The  Brule  Formation    38 

The  Oreodon  Beds 40 

The  Protoceras  Beds 42 

Lower  Miocene    42 

The  Arikaree  Formation  42 

The  Monroe  Creek  Beds  44 

The  Harrison  Beds    44 

The  Rosebud  Beds 45 

Middle  Miocene   47 

The  Sheep  Creek  Beds 47 

Upper  Miocene    47 

The  Nebraska  Beds   47 

Pliocene     47 

Manner  of  Deposition    49 

Geologic  History  50 

Physiographic    Development    51 

Concretions,  Sand  crystals,  Dikes,  Veins  and  Geodes ....  56 

Devils  Corkscrews    (Daemonelix)    59 

Economic  Mineral  Products 61 

Fossils   64 

Extinction,  Evolution  and  Distribution  of  Animals   ....  65 

Collecting  and  Mounting  of  Fossil  Bones 70 

Classification  and  Naming  of  Extinct  Animals  72 

Carnivores    77 

Creodonta    78 

Canidae   78 

Felidae     83 

Mustelidae    87 

Insectivores    88 

Rodents   88 


Page 

Ungulates  (Herbivores)   90 

Perissodactyls    90 

Rhinocerotoidea   91 

Lophiodontidae    96 

Chalicotheridae    96 

Tapiridae    99 

Equidae     100 

Titanotheridae   110 

Artiodactyls    118 

Elotheridae  and  Dicotylidae  118 

Anthracotheridae    122 

Oreodontidae    123 

Hypertragulidae    128 

Camelidae   132 

Cervidae    138 

Remains  of  Animals  other  than  Mammals 139 

Turtles     140 

Crocodiles   142 

Birds'  Eggs 143 

Badland  Life  of  Today 144 

Recent  History    145 

How  to  see  the  Badlands 147 

List  of  the  Fossil  Mammals  Found  in  the  Badlands  ....  149 

Names  of  Vertebrates  other  than  Mammals 160 

Bibliography 161 

Index   175 


ILLUSTRATIONS  ' 

FiGUEE  1.  The  first  fossil  discovered  in  the  White  River  Badlands. 

"  2.  The  earliest  Badland  fossil  described  by  Joseph  Leidy. 

"  3.  The  White  River  Badland   formations  as   exposed   in   South 

Dakota,  Northwestern  Nebraska  and  Eastern  Wyoming. 

"  4.  The  Agate  Spring  fossil   quarries. 

"  5.  Paleogeography  of  North  America  during  Pierre  deposition. 

"  6.  North  America  in  the  Tertiary  period. 

"  7.  The  Cretaceous,  Tertiary,  and  Pleistocene  formations  of  the 

western   states. 

"  8.  The  Tertiary  formations  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region. 

"  9.  Birds-eye  view  of  the  Big  Badlands. 

"  10.  Section  from  Round  Top  to  Adelia   (Nebraska). 

"  11.  Section  along  the   Nebraska-Wyoming  line. 

"  12.  Section  from  Hat  Creek  to  Wind  Springs. 

"  13.  Section  from  Porcupine  Butte  toward  White  River. 

"  14.  Section  showing  the  conjectural  Daemonelix  series. 

"  15.  Steneofiber  barbouri  in  daemonelix  rhizome. 

"  16.  Land  areas  of  the  world  during  Late  Cretaceous  and  Basal 

Eocene  time. 

"  17.  Land  areas  of  the  world  during  Oligocene  time. 

"  18.  Land  areas  of  the  world  during  Miocene  time. 

"  19.  Land  areas  of  the  world  during  Pliocene  time. 

"  20.  Group  of  Promerycochoerus  skeletons  as  found. 

"  21.  Fine  group   of   ancestral   camels   as   found   in   the   Carnegie 

Museum  Stenomylus  quarry. 

"  22.  Skeleton  of  Hyaenodon  cruentus. 

"  23.  Hind  foot  and  fore  foot  of  Daphoenodon  superbus. 

"  24.  Skull  of  Daphoenodon  superbus. 

"  25.  Skeleton  of  Daphoenodon  superbus. 

"  26.  Skull  of  Cynodictis  gregarius. 

"  27.  Skeleton  of  Cynodictis  gregarius. 

"  28.  Skull  of  Dinictis  squalidens. 

"  29.  Heads  of  Dinictis   squalidens  and   Hoplophoneus   primaevus 

showing  manner  of  attack. 

"  30.  Fore  foot  and  hind  foot  of  Hoplophoneus  primaevus. 

"  31.  Skeleton  of  Hoplophoneus  primaevus. 

"  32.  Skeleton  of  Dinictis  squalidens. 

"  33.  Skeleton  of  Steneofiber  fossor. 

"  34.  Skull  of  Metamynodon  planifrons. 

"  35.  Skull  of  Caenopus  tridactylus. 

"  36.  Skeleton  of  Hyracodon  nebrascensis. 

"  37.  Skeleton  of  Metamynodon  planifrons. 

"  38.  Skeleton  of  Caenopus  tridactylus. 

"  39.     Skeleton  of  Moropus  cooki. 

"  40.     Skeleton  of  Mesohippus  bairdi. 


FiGUBE  41. 

" 

42. 

" 

43. 

" 

44. 

" 

45. 

" 

46. 

" 

47. 

<( 

48. 

« 

49. 

" 

50. 

« 

51. 

" 

52. 

" 

53. 

" 

54. 

.. 

55. 

" 

56. 

" 

57. 

" 

58. 

" 

59. 

60. 

61. 

62. 

63. 

64. 

65. 

66. 

67. 

68. 

69. 

70. 

71. 

72. 

73. 

74. 

75. 

Plate 

1. 

" 

2. 

« 

3. 

" 

4. 

" 

5. 

" 

6. 

Skeleton  of  Neohipparion  whitneyi. 

Hind  foot  and  fore  foot  of  MesoMppus  intermedius. 

Evolution  of  the  foot  in  the  Horse  family. 

Fore  foot  of  the  earliest  known  one-toed  horse. 

Skull  of  Parahippus  nebrascensis. 

Skull  of  PlioMppus  lullianus. 

Phylogeny  of  the  Horses. 

Evolution  of  the  Horse. 

Skull  of  Megacerops  marshi. 

Skull  of  Brontotherium  platyceras. 

Male  and  female  skulls  of  TitanotJierium  elatum. 

Skeleton  of  Megacerops  rohustus. 

Skeleton   of   Titanotherium  prouti. 

First  and  last  known  stages  in  the  evolution  of  the  Titan- 

otheres. 
Skull  and  lower  jaws  of  Dinohytis  hollandi. 
Palatal  view  of  skull  of  Dinohyus  hollandi. 
Skeleton  of  Elotherium   (Entelodon)   ingens. 
Skeleton  of  Dinohyus  hollandi. 
Upper  and  lower  jaws  of  Desmathyus    (Thinohyus)    Sioux- 

ensis. 
Skull  of  Hyopotamus    (Ancodus)    Irachyrhynchus. 
Skeleton  of  Hyopotamus  (Ancodus)   irachyrhynchus. 
Skeleton  of  Agriochoerus  latifrons. 
Skeleton   of  Promerycochoerus  carrikeri. 
Skeleton  of  Leptauchenia  decora. 
Skeleton  of  Leptomeryx  evansi. 
Fore  and  hind  foot  of  Protoceras. 
Skull   of   Syndyoceras   cooki. 
Skull  of  Poehrotherium  wilsoni. 
Skeleton  of  Oxydactylus  longipes. 
Phylogeny  of  the  Camels. 
The  Evolution   of  the   Camel. 
Skeleton  of  Blastomeryx  advena. 
Head  of  Stylemys  nebrascensis. 
Part  of  the  head  of  Crocodilus  prenasalis. 
Head  of  Caimanoides  visheri. 


The  Gateway,  School  of  Mines  Canyon. 

Map  of  the  "White  River  Badland  Formations  of  the  Black 

Hills  Region. 
Columnar  section  of  the  Black  Hills  Region. 
Earliest  published  view  of  the  White  River  Badlands. 
Hayden's  early  view  of  the  Big  Badlands. 
Hayden's    earliest    geological    map    of    the    Upper    Missouri 

country. 
Hayden's    second    geological    map    of    the    Upper    Missouri 

country. 


IS' 

Plate     8,    Some  of  the  men  who  have  studied  the  White  River  Badlands. 
"        9.     Section  showing  divisions  of  the  Age  of  Mammals. 
"      10.    A.  and  B.     Rock  slabs  showing  fossil  bones  in  place. 
"       11.    A.  Head  of  Hoplophoneus  primaevits. 

B.  Head  of  Syndyoceras  cooki. 
"      12.    A.  Restoration  of  head  of  Megacerops. 

B.  Restoration  of  head  of  Smilodon. 
"      13.    A.  Head  of  Daphoenus  felinus. 

B.  Heads  of  fossil  rodents. 
"      14.    A.  Head  of  Hyracodon  nebrascensis. 

B.  Head  of  Protapirus  validus. 
"      15.     Skull  of  Caenopus  (Aceratherium)  oceidentalis. 
"      16.    A.  Head  of  Mesohippus  hairdi. 

B.  Head  of  Mesohippus  bairdi  compared  with  that  of  Eqiiv,s- 
caballus. 
"      17.    A.  Right  hind  foot  of  Moropus  elatus. 

B.  Fore  foot  of  Moropus  elatus. 
18.     A.  Right  hind  foot  of  Titanothere. 

B.  Right  fore  foot  of  Titanothere. 

C.  Right  hind  leg  of  Titanothere. 
"       19.    A.  Upper  teeth  of  Titanothere. 

B.  Lower  jaw  of  Titanothere. 
"      20.     Skull  of  Titanotlierium  ingens. 
"      21.    A.  Head  of  Merycoidodon  (Oreodon)  gracile. 

B.  Head  of  Merycoidodon  (Oreodon)  culbertsoni. 
"      22.     A.  Skull  of  Eporeodon  major. 

B.  Left  half  of  skull  of  Eporeodon  major. 

C.  Right  half  of  skull  of  Eporeodon  major. 
"      23.     A.  Head  of  Protoceras  celer. 

B.  Skull  of  Protoceras  celer   (From  above). 

C.  Skull  of  Protoceras  celer   (From  below). 
"      24.    A.  Skeleton  of  Neohipparion  whitneyi. 

B.  Skeleton  of  Merycoidodon   (Oredon)  culbertsoni. 
"      25.    A.  Restoration  of  Hyaenodon. 

B.  Animals  of  the  Fayum,  Egypt. 
"      26.    A.  Restoration  of  Diceratherium  cooki. 

B.  Restoration   of  Daphoenodon  superbus. 
"      27.     Skeleton  of  Hoplophoneus  primaevus. 
"      28.    Restoration  of  Hoplophoneus  primaevus. 
"      29.     Restoration  of  Metamynodon  planijrons. 

"      30.     Group  restoration  of  Metamynodon,  Hydracodon,  and  Dinictia. 
"      31.    A.  Skeleton  of  Hyracodon  nebrascensis. 

B.  Restoration  of  Moropus  cooki. 
"      32.    Restoration  of  Moropus  Elatus. 
"      S3.    Restoration  of  Mesohippus  bairdi. 
"      34.    Restoration  of  Neohipparion  whitneyi. 
"      35.    Restoration  of  Titanotherium   (Brontops). 
"      36.    Restoration  of  Brontotherium  gigas. 


Plate    37.    A.  Restoration  of  Archaeotherium  ingens. 

B.  Restoration  of  Dinohyus   hollandi. 
"      38.    Restoration  of  Elotherium   (Entelodon)   imperator. 
"      39.     Skeleton  of  Merycoidodon  (Oreodon)  gracilis. 
"      40.    Restoration  of  Merycoidodon   (Oreodon)   culbertsoni. 
"      41.    A.  Restoration  of  Agriochoerus  antiguus. 

B.  Restoration  of  Leptauchenia  nitida. 
"      42.    A.  Restoration  of  Promerycochoerus  carrikeri. 

B.  Restoration  of  Blastomeryx  advena. 
"      43.     Skeleton  of  Protoceras  celer. 
"      44.    Restoration  of  Protoceras  celer. 
"      45.     Restoration  of  Syndyoceras  cooki. 
"      46.    Restoration  of  Poebrotherium  labiatum. 
"      47.    A.  Daemonelix  and  Daemonelix  Beds. 

B.  Head  of  Crocodilus  prenasalis. 
"      48.    A.  A  petrified  birds  egg. 

B.  The  turtle,  Stylemys  nebrascensis. 
"      49.     Types  of  Sioux  Indians. 

"      50.     Hall  of  Fossil  Mammals  American  Museum  Natural  History. 
"       51.     Geological  Museum,  South  Dakota  State  School  of  Mines. 
"      52.     Sand-calcite  crystals  from  Devils  Hill. 
"      53.    A.  White  River  near  Interior. 

B.  Cheyenne  River  near  mouth  of  Sage  Creek. 
"       54.     A.  Suncracked   surface  of  an  alluvial   flat. 

B.  Spongy  surface  of  disintegrating  Titanotherium  clay. 
"      55.     A.  The  early  day  postoffice  of  Interior. 

B.  An  early  day  cowboy  home  in  Corral  Draw. 
"       56.     A.  A  ranch  home  near  the  Great  Wall. 

B.  The  beginning  of  a  farm  near  the  Great  Wall. 
"      57.    A.  Detail  of  the  Great  Wall,  near  Interior. 

B.  The  Great  Wall  at  Cedar  Pass. 
"       58.     A.  Cattle  in  the  Badlands. 

B.  The  6L  Ranch  near  Imlay. 
"       59.     A.  Geology  class  in  Indian  Creek  Basin. 

B.  Geology  class  at  top  of  Sheep  Mountain. 
"       60.     A.  The  water  canteen. 

B.  The  steep  road  near  the  Hines  ranch. 
"       61.    A.  A  resistant  clay  dike. 

B.  An   erosion  pinnacle. 
"      62.     A.  Geology  class  in  School  of  Mines  canyon. 

B.  Midway  down  School  of  Mines  Canyon. 
"      63.    A.  The  Great  Wall  near  Big  Foot  Pass. 

B.  South  side  of  Sheep   Mountain. 

C.  Steep  walled   canyon   near   Sheep   Mountain. 
"       64.     A.  Early  day  School  of  Mines  camping  ground. 

B.  School  of  Mines  students  on  Sheep  Mountain  Table, 
"      65.    A.  Balanced  rock  on  the  Great  Wall. 

B.  Balanced  rock  near  head  of  Indian  Draw. 


n 

Plate    66.    A.  Oreodon  Beds  near  Big  Foot  Pass. 
B.  Erosion  forms  in  Corral  Draw. 

67.  A.  Titanotherium  Beds  near  Big  Foot  Pass. 
B.  Oreodon  Beds  in  Indian  Draw. 

68.  A.  Erosion  forms  north  of  the  Great  Wall  near  Cedar  Pass. 
B.     Erosion   forms  north  of  the  Great  Wall  near  Big  Foot 

Pass. 

69.  A.  Erosion  forms  near  Sheep  Mountain. 
B.  Erosion  forms  in  Corral  Draw. 

70.  A.  Great  Wall  north  of  Interior. 
B.  Great  Wall  north  of  Interior. 

71.  A.  Clay  balls  in  small  ravine. 
B.  Conglomerate  dike  in  Indian  Draw. 

72.  A.  General  view  of  Titanotherium  Beds. 
B.  General  view  of  Oredon  Beds. 

73.  A.  Protoceras  Beds  near  Sheep  Mountain. 
B.  Protoceras  Beds  near  Sheep  Mountain. 

74.  A.  Oredon  Beds  of  Indian  Draw — Corral  Draw  divide. 
B.  Erosion  detail  in  School  of  Mines  canyon. 

75.  A.  and  B.  Agate  Spring  fossil  quarries. 

76.  A.  General  view  of  Slim  Buttes. 
B.  Fort  Union  Sandstone  of  the  Cave  Hills. 

77.  North  face  of  Pine  Ridge. 

78.  Students  studying  concretions  in  Indian  Draw. 

79.  School  of  Mines  party  near  top  of  Sheep  Mountain. 

80.  Protoceras  Beds  of  Sheep   Mountain. 

81.  Steep-walled  canyons  of  Sheep  Mountain. 

82.  Climbing  among  the  precipices  of  Sheep  Mountain. 

83.  View  across  the  eastern  slope  of  Sheep  Mountain. 

84.  View  from  Sheep  Mountain  toward  White  River. 

85.  Erosion  forms  north  of  the  Great  Wall  near  Interior. 

86.  Panoramic  view  South  of  Sheep  Mountain. 

87.  Panoramic  view  of  the  Great  Wall  near  Saddle  Pass. 

88.  Roadway  through  Cedar  Pass. 

89.  Approaching  the  top  of  Sheep  Mountain. 

90.  General  view  of  School  of  Mines  camping  ground. 

91.  Midway  down  School  of  Mines  Canyon. 

92.  Near  the  Gateway,  School  of  Mines  Canyon. 

93.  Detail  of  the  Great  Wall  north  of  Interior. 

94.  Protoceras   Beds   and    Oreodon    Beds      of      School    of    Mines 
Canyon. 

95.  Geological  party  descending  School  of  Mines  Canyon. 

96.  A  guardian  of  the  Gateway,  School  of  Mines  Canyon. 


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The  White  River  Badlands 


THEIR  IMPORTANCE  AND  DISTRIBUTION 

The  White  River  Badlands  constitute  the  most  im- 
portant badland  area  of  the  world.  They  lie  chiefly  in 
southwestern  South  Dakota  but  a  prominent  arm  known  as 
Pine  Ridge  extends  through  northwestern  Nebraska  into 
eastern  Wyoming.  Most  of  the  drainage  is  by  way  of  White 
river,  hence  the  name.  The  area  is  very  irregular  and  there 
are  many  outliers  particularly  to  the  west  and  northwest  of 
the  central  portion.  Southward  geological  formations 
similar  to  those  of  White  river  extend  over  much  of  Ne- 
braska and  eastern  Colorado  but  here,  except  along  the  forks 
of  the  Platte  the  badland  feature  is  not  prominent. 

Originally  the  badland  formations  made  up  a  vast  earth 
blanket  stretching  for  hundreds  of  miles  north  and  south 
along  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  front.  Their 
greatest  plainsward  extension  cannot  now  be  definitely  de- 
termined, but  in  South  Dakota  they  reach  beyond  the  Mis- 
souri to  near  the  James  river  valley.  They  seem  to  have  en- 
tirely surrounded  the  Black  Hills  and  of  this  uplift  only 
the  higher  portions  remained  uncovered.  From  these  re- 
stricted areas  and  from  the  rising  Rocky  Mountains  detrital 
materials  had  opportunity  throughout  a  long  period  to  add 
their  volume  to  the  deposits  of  the  bordering  lowlands. 
Later  this  vast  series  of  sediments  was  elevated  and  was 
gradually  trenched  by  innumerable  streams  and  most  of  the 
material  washed  away.  Along  with  these  changes  the  bad- 
land  topography  developed  and  has  continued  to  develop  to 
the  present  time. 

The  Badlands  do  not  readily  lend  themselves  to  ac- 
curate definition  nor  to  brief  description.  They  are  in  con- 
sequence a  much  misunderstood  portion  of  American  terri- 
tory. The  name  is  a  literal  translation  of  the  Manvaises 
Terres  of  the  early  French  Canadian  trappers  who  had  in 
turn  appropriated  the  still  earlier  MalxO  Sica  (mako,  land; 
sicha,  bad)  of  the  Dakota  Indians.  It  signifies  a  country 
difficult  to  travel  through  chiefly  because  of  the  rugged  sur- 


20  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLAND-S 

face  features  and  the  general  lack  of  good  water.  The 
term  is  unduly  detractive  although  apt  enough  in  frontier 
days  when  hardships  of  travel  were  rigorous  even  under  the 
best  of  circumstances. 

Much  the  greater  portion  of  the  area  within  the  badland 
region  as  commonly  understood  is  level  and  fertile  and  is 
covered  with  rich  wild  grasses  and  recent  occupation  by 
thousands  of  settlers  has  brought  out  the  fact  that  over 
large  tracts,  especially  on  the  higher  tables,  good  refreshing 
water  may  be  obtained  by  sinking  shallow  wells  in  the  soil 
and  gravel  mantle  that  lies  rather  widespread  on  the  sur- 
face. The  country  has  in  years  gone  by  been  of  much  value 
as  an  open  range  for  the  grazing  of  cattle  and  horses.  Now 
that  it  has  been  made  accessible  by  railway  the  land  has 
largely  passed  from  the  government  to  private  ownership 
and  farming  and  dairying  on  an  extensive  scale  are  being 
carried  on.  Within  little  more  than  a  stone's  throw  of 
where  the  early  explorers  spoke  of  the  region  as  an  inferno 
for  heat  and  drought  men  have  built  homes  for  themselves 
and  their  families  and  are  now  raising  good  crops  of 
vegetables,  tame  grasses  and  staple  grains. 

But  the  purpose  of  this  book  is  more  particularly  to 
indicate  the  value  of  the  Badlands  as  an  educational  asset. 
Nowhere  in  the  world  can  the  influences  of  erosion  be  more 
advantageoufely  studied  or  more  certainly  or  quickly  under- 
stood. Nowhere  does  the  progress  of  mammalian  life  reveal 
itself  with  greater  impressiveness  or  clearness.  Nowhere 
do  long  ago  days  connect  themselves  more  intimately  with 
the  present  or  leave  more  helpful  answers  to  our  wondering 
questions  as  to  the  nature  and  import  of  the  earth's  later 
development. 

The  most  picturesque  portion  of  the  White  River  Bad- 
lands lies  between  White  river  and  Cheyenne  river  south- 
east of  the  Black  Hills.  This  is  known  as  the  Big  Badlands, 
and  the  chief  topographic  features.  Sheep  Mountain  and  the 
Great  Wall,  high  remnants  of  an  extensive  tableland  now 
reduced  to  a  narrow  watershed,  are  flanked  by  a  marvelous 
network  of  rounded  hillocks,  wedge  slopes,  grassy  flats,  and 
sheer  declivites.  (For  illustrations  of  these  see  the  views  in 
the  plate  section).  The  Great  Wall  viewed  from  White  river 
valley  presents  a  particularly  rugged  aspect  and,  like  the 
great  wall  that  it  is,  stretches  for  many  miles  in  a  nearly 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF    MINES  21 

east-west  direction,  disclosing  for  much  of  the  distance  a 
continuous  serrated  skyline  series  of  towers,  pinnacles  and 
precipitous  gulches.  Sheep  Mountain,  the  cedar  covered  top 
of  which  overlooks  all  of  the  surrounding  country,  presents 
a  view  that  is  hopelessly  indescribable.  One  side  leads 
gently  down  to  a  high  intricately  etched  grass-covered  flat 
covering  a  few  cramped  square  miles.  In  all  other  direc- 
tions everything  is  strange  and  wierd  in  the  extreme.  Far 
away  cattle  or  horses  may  be  seen  feeding  on  levels  of  green 
and  here  and  there  distant  dots  in  ruffled  squares  indicate 
the  abodes  of  happy  homesteaders.  Immediately  about  all 
is  still.  Until  recently  the  sharp  eye  could  occasionally 
detect  a  remnant  bunch  of  mountain  sheep,  once  numerous 
in  this  locality,  but  quickly  and  quietly  they  would  steal  to 
cover  among  the  intricate  recesses  of  the  crumbling  preci- 
pices. Song  birds  are  present  but  they  are  prone  to  respect 
the  solitude.  Only  an  occasional  eagle  screams  out  a  word 
of  curiosity  or  deflance  as  he  sails  majestically  across  the 
maze  of  projecting  points  and  bottomless  pits.  Magniflcent 
ruins  of  a  great  silent  city  painted  in  delicate  shades  of 
cream  and  pink  and  bufl!  and  green!  Domes,  towers,  min- 
arets, and  spires  decorate  gorgeous  cathedrals  and  palaces 
and  present  dimensions  little  dreamed  of  by  the  architects  of 
the  ancients. 

At  first  as  one  looks  over  the  strange  landscape  there 
may  come  a  feeling  of  the  incongruous  or  grotesque  but 
studying  more  closely  the  meaning  of  every  feature  the 
spirit  of  this  marvelous  handiwork  of  the  Great  Creator 
develops  and  vistas  of  beauty  appear.  Here  on  Sheep 
Mountain  or  on  the  higher  points  of  the  Great  Wall  the 
contemplative  mind  weaves  its  way  into  the  long  geologic 
ages.  There  are  visions  of  Cretaceous  time.  A  vast  salt 
sea  stretches  as  a  broad  band  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the 
Arctic  regions  and  slowly  deposits  sediments  that  are  des- 
tined to  form  much  of  the  great  western  plains  of  the  con- 
tinent. Strange  reptiles  sport  along  the  shores  of  this  sea 
and  myriads  of  beautiful  shellfish  live  and  die  in  its  mud 
laden  rush-fringed  bays.  Changes  recur,  the  salt  becomes 
less  pronounced,  the  sea  shallows,  brackish  conditions  pre- 
vail but  the  animals  and  plants  with  many  alterations  and 
much  advancement  live  on.  Deep  rumblings  in  the  neighbor- 
ing Black  Hills  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  with  accom- 


22  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

panying  intrusions  of  igneous  rocks  portend  widespread 
changes,  the  shallowing  sea  slips  away  and  fresh  water 
marsh-lands  and  deltas  prevail.  The  Tertiary  comes  and 
with  the  close  of  its  earlier  divisions  the  White  Eiver  bad- 
land  formations  begin  to  be  deposited.  Barriers  somewhere 
are  let  down  and  a  great  horde  of  animals  higher  in  type 
than  any  known  before  begins  to  appear.  Here  in  the  fore- 
ground gently  flowing  streams  push  their  muddy  way 
through  reedy  marshlands  and  vigorous  forests  and  furnish 
a  lazy  playground  for  countless  turtles  and  occasional 
crocodiles.  In  favored  recesses  groups  of  rhinoceroses  may 
be  seen,  some  heavy  of  bulk  and  water  loving,  others  grace- 
ful and  preferring  dry  land.  Little  fleet-footed  ancestral 
horses  with  names  as  long  as  their  legs  nibble  the  grass  on 
the  hillsides  or,  by  means  of  their  spreading  three-toed  feet, 
trot  unhindered  across  the  muddy  flats,  the  nearest  restrain- 
ing rider  being  more  than  a  million  years  away.  Here  and 
there  we  see  a  group  of  predaceous  dogs  and  not  infrequent- 
ly do  we  get  a  glimpse  of  a  ferocious  tiger-like  cat.  On  the 
higher  ridges,  even  far  within  the  distant  hills  and  moun- 
tains six  horned  herbivores  reveal  their  inquisitive  pose 
and  perhaps  anon,  like  the  antelope,  show  their  puffs  of 
white  as  they  scamper  from  the  nearing  presence  of  some 
stealthy  foe.  But  the  "reigning  plutocrat"  is  the  titan- 
othere.  In  great  numbers  we  see  his  majestice  form  as  he 
moves  among  his  kin  and  crops  at  his  leisure  the  coarse 
grasses  of  the  lowlands.  Here  and  there  are  beavers  and 
gophers  and  squirrels  busy  with  their  toil  and  their  play,  and 
hedgehogs  and  moles  and  swine  and  deer  and  tapirs  and 
camels,  and  many  other  creatures  too  strange  to  mention 
without  definition.  Although  the  Badlands  as  we  now 
know  them  were  until  recently  little  frequented  by  man  ex- 
cept in  favored  places,  do  not  think  the  country  was  in  the 
ages  gone  by  a  barren  waste  or  a  place  of  solitude.  To  all 
these  animals  it  was  home.  Here  they  fought  for  food  and 
life  and  supremacy.  To  them  the  sun  shone,  the  showers 
came,  the  birds  sang,  the  flowers  bloomed,  and  stately  trees 
gave  convenient  shade  to  the  rollicking  young  of  many  a 
creature. 

But  "everlasting  hills'  have  their  day  and  rivers  do  not 
flow  on  forever.  These  animals,  under  a  Guiding  Provi- 
dence,  having   inherited   the   more   essential    characters   of 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


23 


their  ancestors,  in  turn  transmitted  to  later  individuals  the 
features  best  fitted  to  serve  their  purpose  in  the  winning  of 
life's  great  race.  Cue  by  one,  group  by  group,  they  died, 
the  bodies  of  most  of  them  quickly  feeding  the  surrounding 
elements  but  a  chosen  few,  tucked  away  by  the  kindly  hand 
of  nature,  remaining  as  unique  monuments  of  the  dawning 
time  of  the  great  mammalian  races,  are  now  being  revealed 
as  gently  by  nature  again  in  these  the  days  of  man. 

HISTORY  OF  EXPLORATION 

Our  first  knowledge  of  the  White  River  badlands 
worthy  of  record  dates  from  1847.  Early  in  this  year  Dr. 
Hiram  A.   Prout  of  St.   Louis  described  in  the  American 


Figure  1 — Fragment  of  the  lower  jaw  of  a  Titanothere,  the  first  fossil 
discovered  in  the  Big  Badlands.  Described  by  Dr.  H.  A.  Prout  of 
St.  Louis,  1846-47. 

Journal  of  Science  a  fragment  of  the  lower  jaw  of  the  great 
Titanothere,  he  calling  it  a  Paleotherium.  A  few  months 
later  Dr.  Joseph  Leidy  described  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia  a  fairly  well 
preserved  head  of  what  he  termed  a  Poebrotherium.  The 
name  implies  belief  in  the  ruminating  nature  of  the  animal 
and  later  investigation,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  showed  it  to 
be  an  ancestral  camel.  The  two  specimens  referred  to  were 
obtained  from  representatives  of  the  American  Fur  Com- 
pany. Their  exact  locality  is  not  known  but  it  is  believed  to 
be  somewhere  between  the  present  towns  of  Scenic  and 
Wall. 


24 


THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 


The  descriptions  of  these  specimens  aroused  much  in- 
terest among  men  of  science  and  in  1849,  Dr.  John  Evans  in 
the  employ  of  the  government  under  the  direction  of  David 
Dale  Owen  of  the  Owen  Geological  Survey,  visited  the 
region  for  the  purpose  of  studying  its  peculiar  features  and 
of  collecting  additional  fossils  in  order  to  determine  the  age 
of  the  strata.  This  visit  was  of  the  greatest  importance  and 
the  results  were  early  published  in  a  most  careful  scientific 
manner.  The  report,  chiefly  the  work  of  Dr.  Leidy,  who 
described  the  fossils  and  Mr.  Evans  who  through  Mr.  Owen 
reported  upon  the  geography  and  geology,  gave  to  the  world 
the  first  authentic  description  of  the  nature  of  the  badland 
country.  (Plate  4).  Thaddeus  A.  Culbertson  visited  the 
region  during  the  following  year,  1850,  and  obtained  at  the 
request  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  a  small  but  import- 


Figure  2 — Head  of  an  ancestral  camel,  PoehrotheriuTn,  the  earliest 
Badland  fossil  described  by  Dr.  Joseph  Leidy,  of  Philadelphia, 
1847. 

ant  series  of  specimens.  F.  V.  Hayden  (Plate  8)  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  of  the  Territories  made 
several  explanatory  trips  particularly  in  1853,  '55,  '57  and 
'GG.  Often  in  grave  danger  and  hindered  by  varied 
hardships  he  nevertheless  succeeded  in  unraveling  in  large 
measure  the  main  geologic  features  of  the  country.  Plates  5, 
G  and  7).  All  of  these  parties  collected  vertebrate  fossils  of 
the  greatest  scientific  value  and  Dr.  Leidy  (Plate  8)  whom  I 
have  already  mentioned,  being  recognized  as  the  best  fitted 
man  in  America  to  determine  the  nature  of  such  fossils, 
was  called  upon  to  write  their  description.  Important 
papers  rapidly  issued  from  his  pen  and  each  new  description 
served  to  point  out  the  need  of  further  exploration.  He  pub- 
lished in  1869  in  the  Journal  of  the  Academy  of  Natural 


STATE  SCHOOL  OF  MINES 

MAP  OF  THE 

BLACK  HILLS 
REGION 

Arraased  by  Cleopbaa  C.  O'Hirri 

Rapid  City,  South  Dtkota 


A  *'*'^^^^^^y^^AKY  MAP  OF  THE   BAI>LAND   10UM.\'riONS    OF    THE    IJLACK    HILLS    REGION 

Middle  M."'r:°!:     ^-^^^^    to    contain 


R.^  Moatly  Lower 

t^^-^         Middle  Min„^,-      ,.      ""     ""^    i:omain 

^=^         >»ceae  °°'  """^  "">"■■».  P"ocene.  and   PlelB- 


■"""eMlaled  01ie„ce„e 


(Chlotly  Chadron  formation). 


Lower    Oiigocene.       Chadron     Formation     (Tltanottierlum 
Beds). 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  25 

Sciences  of  Philadelphia  his  mouuineutal  work  ''The  Extinct 
Mammalian  Fauna  of  Dakota  and  Nebraska."  In  this  large 
volume  he  brought  together  the  accumulated  information  of 
more  than  twenty  years  and  in  consummate  manner  estab- 
lished the  White  River  badlands  as  one  of  the  great  fossil 
vertebrate  repositories  of  the  world. 

A  new  epoch  in  the  investigation  followed.  New  men 
entered  the  field  and  institutions  not  hitherto  represented 
began  to  send  out  exploratory  and  collecting  expeditions. 
Among  the  institutions  were  Yale  Universitj^,  University  of 
Princeton,  United  States  Geological  Survey,  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  University  of  Nebraska,  Uni- 
versity of  South  Dakota,  Carnegie  Museum,  Amherst  Col- 
lege, Field  Columbian  Museum  and  the  South  Dakota  State 
School  of  Mines. 

The  first  Yale  party,  under  direction  of  Professor  O.  C. 
Marsh  ( Plate  8 )  visited  the  region  in  1870.  Professor  Marsh, 
not  satisfied  with  the  crude  methods  of  collecting  with  which 
the  earliest  investigators  had  to  content  themselves,  under- 
took extensive  quarrying  for  the  fossils,  and  developed  also 
more  refined  methods  of  utilizing  detached  and  broken 
pieces.  In  this  way  a  number  of  well-preserved,  complete, 
or  nearly  complete,  skeletons  were  obtained  where  before  the 
material  was  weathered  and  fragmentary.  Complete  re- 
storations of  skeletons  disclose  structural  features  much 
more  readily  than  detached  bones  and  imperfect  fragments, 
and  Prof.  Marsh  first  extensively  developed  this  feature  for 
the  fossil  vertebrates  of  the  White  River  and  other  western 
badlands.  He  was  thus  able  to  emphasize  more  easily  the 
nature  of  these  animals  and  to  point  out  more  clearly  their 
profoundly  significant  relation  to  present-day  life.  Prof. 
Marsh  continued  field  work  for  many  years,  the  collecting 
being  done  sometimes  by  expeditions  directly  from  Yale, 
some  times  by  collectors  hired  for  the  purpose.  Following 
the  first  Yale  expedition  of  1870,  other  Yale  expeditions  were 
in  the  region  in  1871,  '73,  '74  and  hired  collectors  in  1886, 
'87,  '88,  '89,  '90,  '94,  '95,  '97,  '98.  The  institution  was  repre- 
sented in  northwestern  Nebraska  also  in  1908. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  stated  that  during  the 
years  1886-'90,  much  of  the  field  work  directed  by  Professor 
Marsh  was  done  under  the  auspices  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  the  materials  collected  being  later  trans- 


26 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


ferred  to  the  National  Museum.  Much  of  this  collecting, 
particularly  during  the  years  1886,  '87,  '88,  was  in  imme- 
diate charge  of  Mr.  J.  B.  Hatcher,  one  of  the  most  original 
and  successful  collectors  that  has  ever  worked  in  the  bad- 
lands. 

The  University  of  Princeton  was  first  represented  by  an 
expedition  under  direction  of  Professor  W.  B.  Scott  in  1882. 
Another  expedition  directed  by  Prof.  Scott  came  in  1890. 
A  third  came  in  1893,  directed  as  before  by  Prof.  Scott,  with 
whom  was  associated  Mr.  J.  B.  Hatcher.  A  fourth  party 
came  in  1894,  this  time  under  the  full  direction  of  Mr. 
Hatcher.  (Plate  8).  The  results  of  these  expeditions  were  of 
very  great  importance.  The  abundant  fossil  remains  collected 
enabled  Prof,  Scott  to  describe  in  most  complete  manner  a 
number  of  the  more  noted  extinct  animals  and  to  indicate 
with  more  certainty  their  proper  classification  and  rela- 
tionship. 

The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  entering  the 
field  in  1892,  ^as  favored  from  the  very  first  by  important 
discoveries.     Since  the  first  expedition,  several  parties  have 


Figure  3 — Areal  distribution  of  Oligocene  and  Miocene  exposures  in 
South  Dakota,  Northwestern  Nebraska,  and  Eastern  Wyonaing. 
N.  H.  Darton,  modified  by  Matthew  and  Thomson,  19  09. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  27 

represented  this  institution  in  its  field  investigations. 
Backed  by  abundant  means  and  made  up  of  capable  investi- 
gators, they  have  been  able  to  carry  home  a  large  amount 
of  extraordinarily  valuable  material.  This  has  given  op- 
portunity to  establish  more  accurately  the  details  of 
stratigraphy  and  correlation  and  to  indicate  with  greater 
certainty  the  characteristics  and  habits  of  the  various 
animals  while  in  the  living  state.  The  years  in  which  par- 
ties have  been  in  the  field,  either  in  South  Dakota  or  north- 
western Nebraska  are  1892,  '93,  '94,  '97,  '03,  '06,  '08,  '11,  '12, 
'13,  '14,  '16.  Under  the  direction  of  Prof.  H.  F.  Osborn,  (Plate 
8),  Curator  of  the  Department  of  Vertebrate  Paleontology, 
earlier  a  co-worker  with  Prof.  Scott  in  the  Princeton  investi- 
gations, many  of  the  best  preserved  skeletons  complete  in 
practically  every  detail  and  mounted  with  the  greatest  skill, 
have  been  clothed  with  flesh,  life  and  activity.  Reproduc- 
tions of  a  number  of  these,  reference  to  which  is  made  on 
other  pages,  are  given  in  this  book. 

The  University  of  Nebraska  sent  expeditions  into  the 
field,  the  parties  being  under  direction  of  Prof.  E.  H.  Bar- 
bour in  1892,  '94,  '95,  and  '97,  '05,  '07,  '08  and  later.  Much  of 
their  collecting  was  done  in  northwestern  Nebraska,  but  a 
considerable  part  of  it  in  South  Dakota  and  Wyoming.  Prof. 
J.  E.  Todd  of  the  University  of  South  Dakota,  spent  a  brief 
time  in  the  field  in  1894.  He  made  a  second  visit,  accom- 
panied by  several  students  in  1896.  The  University  has 
more  recently  carried  on  additional  investigations  but  the 
publications  issued  have  been  largely  in  connection  with 
the  fauna  and  flora  of  the  present  day. 

New  impetus  was  given  the  geological  and  paleontolo- 
gical  work,  particularly  among  the  Miocene  formations  of 
northwestern  Nebraska  and  eastern  Wyoming,  by  the  in- 
auguration in  1902  of  explorations  by  the  Carnegie  Museum 
of  Pittsburg.  This  has  continued  to  the  present  time.  Mr. 
Hatcher  directed  much  of  the  earlier  work,  while  later,  Mr. 
O.  A.  Peterson  has  had  charge  of  it.  This  museum,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  American  Museum,  has  been  particularly  success- 
ful, and  many  new  and  strange  species  have  been  discovered 
and  described.  A  discovery  of  special  note  is  that  of  the 
rich  and  important  bone  deposits  near  Agate  Springs  found 
in  1904. 


28 


THE   WHITE    RIVER    BADLANDS 


Amherst  College  sent  a  party  into  the  region  under 
directon  of  Prof.  F.  B.  Loomis  in  1903  and  another  in  1907. 
Field  Columbian  Museum  was  represented  by  a  party  under 
Curator  O.  C.  Farrington  in  1901.  The  United  States  Geolo- 
gical Survey  renewing  its  investigations  in  1897  under  Mr. 
N.  H.  Darton  continued  work  in  the  region  for  several  years, 
the  chief  purpose  being  to  study  the  various  geological  for- 
mations with  reference  to  underground  water  resources. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  fact  that  the  South 
Dakota  badlands  extend  across  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
state  through  northwestern  Nebraska  into  eastern  Wyom- 
ing.    The  northwestern  Nebraska  area  has  in  recent  years 


Figure  4 — The  Agate  Spring  fossil  quarries,  Sioux  county,  Nebraska, 
and  their  related  topography.  Holland  and  Peterson,  1914.  A,  First 
excavation,  B,  Carnegie  hill,  C,  University  hill.  Amherst  hill  lies 
about  two  miles  east  of  this. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL   OF   MINES  29 

attracted  much  attention,  due  in  large  measure  to  the  extra- 
ordinary deposits  found  on  the  James  Cook  ranch  near 
Agate  Springs  on  the  Niobrara  river  approximately  forty 
miles  south  of  Ardmore,  South  Dakota.  Osborn  states  that 
they  are  the  most  remarkable  deposits  of  mamalian  remains 
of  Tertiary  age  that  have  ever  been  found  in  any  part  of 
the  world.  It  is  in  connection  with  these  deposits  that  most 
of  the  later  White  River  badland  work  of  the  museums  and 
other  educational  institutions  has  been  done.  The  bones 
are  not  only  extremely  abundant  and  well  preserved  but 
complete  or  nearly  complete  skeletons  are  fairly  common 
and  in  several  instances  considerable  groups  of  good  skele- 
tons have  been  found  in  little  disturbed  condition.  Three 
small  hills  in  which  quarries  have  been  worked  in  the 
search  for  bones  have  been  designated  as  Carnegie  Hill, 
University  Hill  and  Amherst  Hill,  these  having  been  first 
opened,  in  the  order  given,  by  representatives  of  the  respec- 
tive institutions,  Carnegie  Museum,  University  of  Nebraska, 
and  Amherst  College. 

The  South  Dakota  State  School  of  Mines  has  nearly 
every  year,  beginning  with  1899,  sent  a  party  into  the  bad- 
lands either  to  Sheep  Mountain  or  to  some  place  along  the 
Great  Wall.  Aside  from  the  publication  by  the  institution 
in  1910  of  a  summary  description  under  the  title  "The  Bad- 
land  Formations  of  the  Black  Hills  Region"  the  chief  pur- 
pose of  these  visits,  covering  generally  only  a  few  days,  has 
been  to  give  students  an  opportunity  to  study  physiographic 
processes  and  topographic  types.  The  visits  have  served  to 
give  name  to  what  is  perhaps  the  ruggedest  drainage  feature 
of  all  the  White  River  badlands,  namely,  School  of  Mines 
canyou.  (See  Plates  1,  91,  92,  91,  95,  9G,  and  others).  This 
cuts  a  deep  gash  into  the  highest  part  of  Sheep  Mountain 
and  connects  through  a  picturesque  gateway  with  Indian 
creek  an  affluent  of  Cheyenne  river. 

In  addition  to  the  expeditions  equipped  by  the  several 
institutions,  private  collectors  have  obtained  large  quantities 
of  valuable  material  and  these  specimens,  either  directly  or 
through  dealers,  have  found  their  way  into  the  best  mus- 
eums, both  at  home  and  abroad.  Now  that  access  to  every 
part  of  the  White  River  badlands  is  readily  gained,  investi- 
gators are  constantly  visiting  the  region  and  activity  in  the 
development  of  knowledge  concerning  these  wonderful  de- 


30 


THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 


posits  has  perhaps  never  been  more  vigorous  nor  better 
planned  than  it  is  at  the  present  time.  Each  succeeding 
year  enhances  the  quality  and  importance  of  the  investiga- 
tion and  doubtless  this  will  continue  for  many  years  to 
come. 


Figure  5 — North  America  during  the  time  when  the  Pierre  (Cretac- 
eous) shales  in  the  form  of  mud  were  being  laid  down  in  the 
sea.  Schuchert,  1908.  White  represents  land  areas;  diagonal 
lines  Pacific  and  Atlantic  ocean  areas;  horizontal  lines  Arctic 
conditions;  vertical  lines  Gulf  conditions;  black  represents  for- 
mation outcrops. 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  31 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  CORRELATION  OF  THE 

DEPOSITS 

The  history  of  the  earth  since  the  advent  of  life  on  its 
surface  is  commonly  divided  into  certain  time-divisions 
called  eras.  Beginning  with  the  oldest,  these  are  the 
Archeozoic,  the  Proterozoic,  the  Paleozoic,  the  Mesozoic,  and 
the  Cenozoic*  Each  of  these  eras  is  divided  into  shorter 
time-divisions  known  as  periods,  varying  somewhat  among 
authors.  For  example  the  Paleozoic  may  be  divided  into  the 
Cambrian,  Ordovician,  Silurian,  Devonian,  Mississipian, 
Pennsylvanian,  and  Permian  periods;  the  Mesozoic  into 
Triassic,  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous;  the  Cenozoic  into  the 
Tertiary  and  Quaternary.  The  periods  may  in  turn  be 
divided  into  epochs,  as  for  example,  the  Tertiary  into  the 
Paleocene,  the  Eocene,  the  Oligocene,  the  Miocene,  and  the 
Pliocene  epochs;  the  Quaternary  into  the  Pleistocene,  or 
Glacial  epoch,  and  the  Recent  or  Human  epoch.  The  rocks 
laid  down  during  the  various  epochs  or  periods  are  spoken 
of  as  being  grouped  into  formations  (not  to  be  confused 
with  the  ill-defined  expressions  often  used  for  any  natural 
oddity)  the  name  of  each  formation  being  usually  derived 
from  some  town,  stream,  tribe  of  people,  or  other  feature  of 
local  interest  where  the  formation  was  first  carefully  studied 
and  described.  The  Black  Hills  and  the  Badlands  together 
form  a  nearly  continuous  series  from  very  old  rocks  to  the 
very  youngest.  The  following  section  in  order  of  deposi- 
tion, the  oldest  being  at  the  bottom  shows  the  various  for- 
mations of  this  part  of  the  country : 


*I  regret  the  apparent  advisability  of  following  conservative 
classification  rather  than  joining  present  events  with  anticipated  con- 
ditions and  adding  the  beautifully  expressive  term  "Psychozoic  Era," 
the  Age  of  Man,  introduced  by  Prof.  Joseph  LeConte  many  years  ago 
and  used  by  him  in  the  various  editions  of  his  elements  of  Geology. 


X 


32 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


Table  of  Geologic  Divisions  for  Western  South  Dakota 


Cenozoic 


Mesozoic 


Quaternary 


Tertiary- 


Cretaceous 


Jurassic 
Triassic 


f  Recent     alluvial      (flood 
I       plain)    deposits. 
i  Older     high     -     level 
I       gravels,       sands       and 
L      clays. 


Pliocene 


Miocene 


Oligocene    ] 
Eocene 


(  Not   sub- 

I  divided. 

f  Nebraska 

]      Beds 

I  Sheep  Creek 

I      Beds 

I  Arikaree 
Brule 
Chadron 
Ft.  Union 
Beds 


?    Lance  Formation 


■Laramie 

Fox   Hills 

Pierre 

Niobrara 

Carlile 

Greenhorn 

Graneros 

Dakota 

Fuson 

Minnewasta 

Lakota 

Morrison 


7  J  Unkpapa 
■  I  Sundance 

?    Spearflsh 


Paleozoic 


Proterozoic 

Archeozoic 


^Carboniferous 
Permian 


Pennsylvanian 

Mississippian 
Devonian 

Silurian 

Ordovician 
Cambrian 
(Saratogan) 

Algonkian 


i  Minnekahta 
<  Opeche 


Minnelusa 

«  Pahasapa 
(  Englewood 
[Not  represented?] 

[Not  represented?] 

Whitewood 
Deadwood 


Not   yet  differentiated 
[Not  represented] 


I 

(0 

< 

It 

< 
u 

u 

U) 

7 

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i°2 


o  2-jz  z 

IE  QLJQ  J  Q 

I-  =!y=!<  =! 

Q.  mLtou  o 


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J  3l 

Ul  J 

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J  < 

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13  J 

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111 

7 

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0 

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a. 

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pif 


HiHH 


ilML-Jlilliffii 


ill 


WK 


llilil 


liliiilliji 


z 

q: 

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X 

z 

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q: 

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It 

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32 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


Table  of  Geologic  Divisions  for  Western  South  Dakota 


Cenozoic 


Quaternary 


f  Recent     alluvial      (flood 
I       plain)    deposits. 
■!  Older     hi  g  h     -     level 
gravels,      sands      and 
L      clays. 


fpiic 


Not   sub- 
divided. 


i 

G 

—1 

0 

c 

MiT.C. 

I 

Q 

'^ 

i 

1 

Mei 

Pal. 

.^ 

■i\ 

O 

.j  .     ' 

Proi 

Archeozoic 


[Not  represented] 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OP   MINES 


33 


The  rock  formations  of  the  White  Kiver  badlands  repre- 
sent a  late  time  in  geologic  history.  From  the  earliest  days 
of  their  exploration  they  have  been  recognized  as  of  Tertiary 
age  and  of  non-marine  character.  The  particular  horizon 
within  the  Tertiary  to  which  the  various  subdivisions  should 
be  referred  have  been  less  easy  to  determine.    Leidy  in  his 


Figure  6 — Map  of  North  America  in  the  Tertiary  period,  Black  areas 
represent  known  exposures  of  marine  Tertiary;  lined  areas,  sea; 
dotted  areas,  non  marine  formations.     Scott. 


earliest  studies  of  the  extinct  animals  considered  the  beds 
as  Eocene.  Fuller  study  indicated  to  him  and  others  a 
wider  range  in  age  than  was  first  suspected  and  many  fea- 
tures showed  a  later  Tertiary  character.  As  a  result  they 
became  designated  as  Miocene  and  Pliocene,  then  as  Lower 
Miocene  and  Pliocene,  the  Miocene  (or  lower  Miocene)  be- 


34 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


ing  often  referred  to  as  the  White  Kiver  group.  Later  as 
the  methods  of  correlation  became  more  refined  and  as 
representative  fossils  came  more  abundantly  and  in  better 
condition  from  the  hands  of  the  collectors,  giving  better 
opportunity  for  comparison  with  similiar  fossils  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  the  lower  beds  were  found  to  be  equi- 
valent to  the  Oligocene  and  the  upper  beds  to  the  Miocene, 
chiefly  Lower  Miocene.  This  is  now  the  accepted  correla- 
tion.   Pliocene  deposits  are  know  to  occur  along  and  to  the 


GRE/T  PLAINS  SECTION 


■iiiiMi 


CRETACEOUS   ySM^X^M&^M^i 


_-  -  r  ---r  z  -  --  -  -  ^-^  :£t-R.Tfffi  R^_-  -  . 


Figure  7 — Diagram  showing  the  chronological  and  stratigraphic  suc- 
cession of  the  Cretaceous,  Tertiary,  and  Pleistocene  formations 
of  the  western  states,  in  which  fossil  mammals  are  found.  Osborn. 
1907. 


( 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


35 


south  of  the   South   Dakota-Nebraska  boundary   line  and 
Pleistocene  gravels  are  found  in  occasional  places. 


Figure  8 — Diagram  showing  the  successive  and  overlapping  Tertiary- 
formations  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  with  names  of  the  im- 
portant life  zones.      Osborn.      1909. 

An  important  work  of  investigators  has  been  to  further 
subdivide  the  deposits  and  to  correlate  in  so  far  as  possible 
the  resulting  subdivisions.     Hayden  early  attempted  a  sub- 


36 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


division  and  with  marked  success  so  far  as  information 
then  at  hand  would  allow.  Later  workers  with  better  means 
at  their  command  have  made  corrections  and  added  new 
features  until  now  the  main  history  is  fairly  well  outlined. 

The  present  classification  shown  of  some  local  and  con- 
flicting peculiarities  is  given  herewith  and  this  is  followed 
by  an  idealized  birdseye  view  of  the  Big  Badlands  by  Os- 
born  in  which  the  thickness  of  the  beds  and  the  chief  char- 
acteristics are  given. 


GENERALIZED  GEOLOGIC  SECTION  OF  WHITE  RIVER  BADLANDS 


Pliocene 

Upper  Miocene- 
50-200  ft. 

Middle   Miocent 
ft. 


Little  White   River  Beds    Hlpparion   Zone 


Nebraska  Beds 
Sheep  Creek  Beds 

Harrison   Beds 


Lower  Miocene — )  Arikaree 
600-900    ft.       (  Formation 


Procamelus  Zone 


(Merycochoerus  Zone 

J.  with   Daemonelix 
( Sandstone. 


Monroe  Creek  Beds 


(Chiefly  P 
■(  oerus  Zon 
( Gering    Sa 


Upper  Oligocene- 
150-250  ft. 


Middle  Oligocene— 
200-400  ft. 


Lower  Oligocene 
0-180  ft. 


Brule 
Formation 


Promerycoch- 
with 
g   Sandstone. 

f  Leptauchenia    Zone 
(Plains  fauna)   with 
Protoceras  Beds    ■!  Protoceras    sandstone 
(Forest  and  Fluviatile 

[fauna) 

fOreodon  Zone  (Plains 
J  fauna)  with  Metamyno- 
I  don  sandstone  (Forest 
[and    Fluviatile    fauna.) 


Oreodon   Beds 


Chadron         Titanotherium   Beds   Titanotherium  Zone 
Formation 


NATURE  OF  THE  DEPOSITS 

The  rock  materials  of  the  White  River  badlands  vary  in 
different  localities  and  in  the  different  beds.  The  older  de- 
posits are  chiefly  fine  partially  consolidated  clays  interlaid 
with  occasional  irregular  beds  of  coarse  argillaceous  sands 
and  gravels.  Concretions  are  abundant  and  they  often 
grade  into  fairly  continuous  sandstone.  Clay  dikes  occur 
frequently  and  are  widely  distributed.  In  certain  localities 
thin  veins  of  hard  bluish-gray  chalacedony  check  the  softer 
sediments  in  great  profusion.  Limestones  are  not  common 
but  among  some  of  the  marginal  outcrops  particularly  those 
toward  the  Black  Hills  they  reach  importance.  Likewise 
near  the  Black  Hills  conglomerates  are  occasionally  of  con- 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL  OF  MINES 


37 


Figure  9 — Idealized  birds-eye  view  of  the  Big  Badlands,  showing 
channel  and  overflow  deposits  in  the  Oligocene  and  Lower  Mio- 
cene.    Looking  southeast  from  the  Black  Hills.     Osborn,  1909. 


38  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

sequence.  Volcanic  ash  occurs  at  certain  horizons  and  one 
or  two  beds  in  the  later  formations  cover  considerable  areas. 
The  several  geological  formations  have  particular  char- 
acteristics that  serve  to  distinguish  them  in  the  field.  In 
view  of  the  importance  of  these  formations  the  makeup  of 
each  is  here  described  in  some  detail  beginning  with  the 
Chadron  which  is  the  oldest.  The  others  follow  in  the  order 
of  their  age. 

OLIGOCENE 
The  Chadron  Formation 

The  Chadron  formation,  better  known  by  the  much 
older  term,  the  Titanotherium  beds,  from  the  name  of  the 
large  extinct  animals,  whose  bones  occur  in  it  so  abundantly, 
receives  its  name  from  the  town  of  Chadron  in  northwestern 
Nebraska.  The  formation  is  best  developed  and  has  been 
most  studied  in  and  near  the  Big  Badlands  of  South  Dakota, 
but  is  of  importance  along  the  northerly  facing  escarpment 
of  Pine  Ridge  in  South  Dakota,  Nebraska  and  Wyoming. 
Owing  to  the  slight  dip  of  the  strata  away  from  the  Black 
Hills,  the  Pine  Ridge  outcrop,  lying  as  it  does  at  the  base  of 
the  high  escarpment,  passes  quickly  beneath  younger  for- 
mations and  leaves  only  a  long  narrow  east-west  band  for 
observation.  In  and  near  the  Big  Badlands  the  White  and 
Cheyenne  rivers  and  their  tributaries  have  cut  deeply  into 
and  across  the  deposits,  and  there  the  Chadron  is  exposed 
over  a  large  territory.  The  beds  are  known  to  underlie  an 
extensive  area  of  later  formations  within  and  beyond  the 
Black  Hills  region  and  are  well  exposed  in  the  valley  of 
North  Platte  river  in  western  Nebraska,  and  of  South  Platte 
river  in  northeastern  Colorado. 

The  formation  is  made  up  chiefly  of  a  sandy  clay  of 
light  greenish-gray  color,  with  generally  coarser  sandy  ma- 
terials at  or  near  the  bottom,  including  sometimes  deposits 
of  gravel  or  conglomerate  several  feet  thick.  The  beds  im- 
mediately above  the  gravels  are  often  of  a  yellowish,  pinkish, 
reddish,  or  brownish  color,  and  Mr.  Darton  states  that  in 
northwestern  Nebraska,  near  Adelia,  the  red  color  is  espe- 
cially prominent.  Aside  from  this  the  color  in  the  main  is 
a  greenish  white,  the  green  showing  as  a  very  delicate  tinge 
on  weathered  slopes,  but  a  distinctly  deeper  olive  green  in 
fresh  exposures.    The  clays  sometimes  partake  of  the  nature 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  39 

of  fullers'  earth,  but  generally  they  contain  more  or  less 
sand.  In  most  of  the  beds  little  cementing  material  is  pres- 
ent, although  the  clays  are  often  quite  compact  Occasion- 
ally thin  persistent  bands  of  knotty,  grayish  limestone  or 
lime  clay  concretions  are  found.  These  weather  to  a  chalky 
white,  and  although  seldom  prominent  individual  bands  may 
sometimes  be  traced  over  considerable  areas.  Concerning 
the  sandy  layers  within  the  Big  Badlands,  Hatcher  says: 

"The  sandstones  are  never  entirely  continuous,  and 
never  more  than  a  few  feet  thick.  They  present  every  de- 
gree of  compactness,  from  loose  beds  of  sand  to  the  most 
solid  sandstones.  They  are  composed  of  quartz,  feldspar, 
and  mica,  and  are  evidently  of  granitic  origin.  When  soli- 
dified the  cementing  substance  is  carbonate  of  lime. 

"The  conglomerates,  like  the  sandstones,  are  not  con- 
stant, are  of  very  limited  vertical  extent,  never  more  than  a 
few  feet  thick.  They  are  usually  quite  hard,  being  firmly 
held  together  by  carbonate  of  lime.  A  section  of  the  beds 
taken  at  any  point  and  showing  the  relative  position  and 
thickness  of  the  sandstones,  clays  and  conglomerates  is  of 
little  value,  since  these  vary  much  at  different  and  quite 
adjacent  localities."* 

The  total  thickness  of  the  formation  within  the  Big 
Badlands  is  approximately  180  feet.  Hatcher  and  others 
subdivide  the  formation  in  that  locality  as  follows :  Lower, 
50  feet ;  Middle,  100  feet ;  Upper,  30  feet.  The  sub-divisions 
are  based  on  the  nature  of  the  Titanotheres  found  at  the 
various  horizons.  Along  Pine  Ridge  the  formation  is  much 
thinner.     Darton  gives  it  as  approximately  30  to  60  feet. 

THE    BRULE    FORMATION 

The  Brule  formation,  like  the  underlying  Chadron  for- 
mation, outcrops  chiefly  in  the  Big  Badlands  and  along  the 
northward  facing  escarpment  of  Pine  Ridge.  As  now  com- 
monly understood,  it  may  for  the  Big  Badlands  be  best  con- 
sidered under  its  two  subdivisions,  namely,  the  Oreodon 
Beds,  constituting  the  lower  part,  and  the  Protoceras  Beds, 
constituting  the  upper  part. 

♦Hatcher,  J.  B.  The  Titanotherium  Beds.  Am.  Nat.,  Vol.  27, 
1893,   pp.   204-221. 


40 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


Gray   sands   with   pipy   con- 
cretions      

Loose  gray  sands  with  gray 
and  pebbly  streaks   

Stratified  and  cross-bedded 
sands     

Unconformity     

Volcanic   ash    

Pink  clays    

Volcanic   ash    


Light  buff-gray  shales    .  .  . 
Sandstones 

Greenish  sands  and  sandy 
clays    

Greenish   sands    


Pierre  shale? 


Figure  10 — Section  from  Round  Top  to  Adelia,  Sioux  county,  Ne- 
braska. Above  the  Pierre  shale  to  3725  is  Chadron  formation, 
3725  to  4275  is  Brule,  4275  to  4390  is  Gering,  4390  to  4525  is 
Arikaree.     Darton,   1905. 

The  Oreodon  Beds.  The  Oreodon  beds,  so  named  be- 
cause of  the  abundant  remains  of  Oreodons  found  in  them, 
are  made  up  chiefly  of  massive  arenaceous  clays,  lenticular 
sandstones,  and  thin  layers  of  nodules.  A  particular  feature 
of  the  beds  is  the  color  banding.  The  general  color  is  a  gray 
or  faint  yellow,  but  this  is  often  much  obliterated  by  hori- 
zontal bands  showing  some  shade  of  pink,  red  or  brown. 
They  are  present  in  greater  or  less  prominence  over  large 
areas,  particularly  in  the  Big  Badlands,  and  in  places  be- 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  41 

come  a  rather  striking  feature.  Their  thickness  varies  from 
an  inch  or  less  to  occasionally  several  feet.  Sometimes  they 
are  repeated  in  rapid  succession  without  great  contrasts  in 
color.  More  often  a  few  bands  stand  out  with  prominence, 
especially  if  moistened  by  recent  rains  and,  seen  from  some 
commanding  point,  may  be  traced  for  long  distances. 

The  sandstones  being  of  a  lenticular  nature  are  often 
absent  or  of  little  consequence,  but  in  many  localities  they 
reach  considerable  thicknesses.  One  series  near  the  middle 
of  the  bed  is  of  particular  importance.  It  reaches  in  the 
Big  Badlands  a  thickness  of  twenty  feet  or  more,  and  ac- 
cording to  Wortman,  covers  an  area  approximately  twelve 
miles  in  length  and  a  mile  or  a  mile  and  a  half  in  width. 
It  contains  fossil  remains  in  abundance  of  the  ancestral 
rhinoceros,  Metamynodon,  hence  is  commonly  known  as  the 
Metamynodon  sandstone. 

Of  the  nodular  layers,  one  just  above  the  Metamynodon 
sandstone  is  of  paramount  importance.  For  description  of 
this  I  quote  from  Mr.  Wortman,  1893 :  "There  is  one  layer 
found  in  the  Oreodon  Beds  which  is  highly  characteristic  and 
is  perhaps  more  constant  and  widely  distributed  than  any 
other  single  stratum  in  the  whole  White  River  (Oligocene) 
formation.  This  is  a  buff-colored  clay  carrying  numerous 
calcareous  nodules  in  which  are  imbedded  remains  of  turtles 
and  oreodons.  The  fossils  are  almost  invariably  covered 
with  a  scale  of  ferruginous  oxide  when  first  removed  from 
the  matrix,  and  are  of  decidedly  reddish  cast.  Upon  this 
account  this  stratum  is  known  to  the  collector  as  the  'red- 
layer.'  It  is  situated  somewhere  between  40  and  50  feet 
above  the  top  of  the  Titanotherium  beds  and  can  almost 
always  be  easily  identified.  It  varies  in  thickness  from  10  to 
20  feet,  and  in  some  rare  instances  it  is  replaced  by  sand- 
stone. I  have  also  found  it  without  the  nodules  in  places, 
but  this  is  also  quite  a  rare  occurrence." 

Another  tolerably  constant  fossiliferous  nodular  layer 
occurs  at  from  75  to  100  feet  above  the  nodular  layer  just 
described.  This  higher  horizon  was  provisionally  con- 
sidered as  marking  the  top  of  the  Oreodon  beds.  The  pres- 
ent tendency  is  to  extend  the  Oreodon  beds  upward  so  as  to 
include  the  series  of  non-fossiliferous  clays  about  100  feet 
thick,  lying  just  above  the  upper  nodular  layer.  The  total 
thickness  of  the  beds  in  the  vicinity  of  Sheep  Mountain  is 


42  THE   WHITE   RIVER    BADLANDS 

from  250  to  300  feet.  The  stratigraphy  iii  Piiie  Ridge  dif- 
fers in  some  important  respects  lithologically  from  that  of 
the  Big  Badlands  and  the  exact  equivalent  there  of  the 
Oreodon  beds  does  not  yet  seem  clear. 

The  Protoceras  Beds.  The  Protoceras  beds,  earlier  con- 
sidered as  part  of  the  Oreodon  beds,  were  first  differen- 
tiated by  J.  L.  Wortman  as  a  result  of  field  work  done 
during  the  summer  of  1892  for  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  The  name  is  derived  from  the  character- 
istic and  highly  interesting  extinct  animal,  the  Protoceras, 
which  occurs  in  the  sandstones  of  these  beds  in  considerable 
abundance, 

Lithologically  the  beds  are  made  up  of  isolated  patches 
of  coarse,  lenticular  sandstones,  fine-grained  clays,  and 
nodular  layers.  The  sandstones  occur  in  different  levels  and 
are  usually  fossiliferous.  They  are  seldom  continuous  for 
any  great  distance  and  often  change  abruptly  into  fine- 
grained barren  clays.  Immediately  overlying  the  sand- 
stones there  is  a  pinkish  colored  nodule-bearing  clay,  con- 
taining abundant  remains  of  Lepthauchenia  and  other  forms, 
hence  the  name  Leptauchenia  zone  often  used  in  connection 
with  these  beds.  The  Protoceras  beds  have  been  clearly 
differentiated  only  in  the  Big  Badlands.  Elsewhere  the 
lithologic  conditions  do  not  generally  serve  to  indicate  their 
presence,  hence  if  they  occur  outside  of  the  Big  Badlands, 
the  determination  of  their  areal  distribution  must  in  a  large 
measure  await  the  study  of  the  paleontologist.  The  total 
thickness  of  the  beds,  including  with  them  the  Leptauchenia 
clays,  is  approximately  150  to  175  feet. 
LOWER  MIOCENE 
The  ArUx-aree  Formation 

The  Arikaree  formation,  first  designated  as  such  by 
Darton,  receives  its  name  from  the  Arikaree  Indians,  who 
were  at  one  time  identified  with  the  area  in  which  it  is  most 
largely  developed.  Its  greatest  development  is  in  Pine 
Ridge  and  southward.  It  is  of  Lower  Miocene  age  and  lies 
uncomformably  on  the  Brule  and  in  places  overlaps  the 
margins  of  that  formation. 

The  Arikaree  is  largely  a  soft  sandstone,  varying  in 
color  from  white  to  light  gray.  Calcareous  concretions 
occur  throughout  the  formation  in  abundance.  They  are 
usually  of  cylindrical  form  and  are  often  more  or  less  con- 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL  OF  MINES 


43 


nected  into  irregular  sheets.  It  is  to  this  feature  especially 
that  the  Pine  Ridge  escarpment  and  other  prominent  topo- 
graphic features  of  that  part  of  the  country  are  due.  For 
the  manner  of  development  of  these  concretionary  forms,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  discussion  of  concretions  and  sand- 
calcite  crystals  elsewhere  in  this  paper. 


Figure  11 — Diagramatic  section  of  the  Arikaree  on  the  Nebraska- 
Wyoming  line  west  of  Harrison.  Osborn,  modified  from  Peter- 
son,  1906-09. 

The  Arikaree  has  not  been  carefully  defined  for  all  the 
area  where  it  has  been  found,  and  owing  to  the  variable 
nature  of  the  formation  in  different  localities  a  number  of 
terms  in  this  connection  need  to  be  referred  to  and  defined. 
Darton  in  his  studies  in  western  Nebraska  some  years  ago, 
differentiated  certain  sands  and  standstones,  lying  below 
the  Arikaree  deposits,  as  the  Gering  formation.  More  re- 
cent study  seems  to  show  that  much  of  this  material  is  little 
more  than  non-continuous  river  sandstones  and  conglomer- 
ates that  traverse  the  lower  Arikaree  claj^s  and  occupy  in 
places  irregular  channels  in  the  partly  eroded  upper  Brule 
formation,  the  relation  to  the  Arikaree  clays  being  in  such 
places  much  as  that  of  the  Titanotherium,  Metamynodon 
and  Protoceras  sandstones  to  the  clays  in  which  they 
severally  occur.  The  general  tendency  at  present  seems  to 
be  to  consider  them  as  a  special  depositional  phase  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  Arikaree.  According  to  Hatcher,  the 
Arikaree  in  Sioux  County,  Nebraska,  and  Converse  County, 
Wyoming,  is  lithologically  and  faunally  divisible  into  two 
easily  distinguishable  horizons,  namely,  the  Monroe  Creek 
beds,  below,  and  the  Harrison  beds  above. 


44 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


The  Monroe  Creek  Beds.  The  Monroe  Creek  beds, 
Hatcher  states,  are  well  shown  in  the  northern  face  of  Pine 
Ridge  at  the  mouth  of  Monroe  Creek  Canyon,  five  miles 
north  of  Harrison,  where  they  overlie  the  Gering  sand- 
stones, and  are  composed  of  300  feet  of  very  light  colored, 
fine-grained,  not  very  hard,  but  firm  and  massive  sandstones. 
The  thickness  decreases  rapidly  to  the  east  and  increases  to 
the  west.  The  beds  are  generally  non-fossiliferous,  though 
remains  of  Promerycochoerus  are  found  in  it,  hence  the 
name  Promerycochoerus  zone. 

The  Harrison  Beds.  The  Harrison  beds  receive  their 
name  from  Harrison,  in  the  vicinity  of  which  town  the  beds 
are  well  exposed.  As  stated  by  Hatcher,  they  are  composed 
of  about  200  feet  of  fine-grained,  rather  incoherent  sand- 
stones, permeated  by  great  numbers  of  siliceous  tubes  ar- 
ranged vertically  rather  than  horizontally.  They  are  further 
characterized  by  the  presence,  often  in  great  abundance,  of 


Figure   12 — Section   from   Hat  creek   south   through    Sioux   county   to 
Wind  Springs,  a  distance  of  approximately  fifty  miles.  Cook,  1915. 

those  peculiar  and  interesting,  but  as  yet  not  well  under- 
stood, fossils  known  as  Daemonelix,  (hence  called  Dae- 
monelix  beds  by  Barbour,  who  first  studied  them),  and  by 
a  considerable  variety  of  fossil  mammals  belonging  to 
characteristic  Miocene  genera. 

Later  investigation  has  shown  that  in  some  places  the 
division  is  not  readily  made  on  lithologic  features  alone, 
but  that  the  formation  can  in  all  places  be  separated 
faunistically  into  lower  and  upper  levels  as  indicated.  The 
section  by  Osborn,  modified  from  Peterson,  shows  the  rela- 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF    MINES  45 

tions   of   the    Nebraska-Wyoming    line    west    of    Harrison. 
(Figure  15). 

The  Rosebud  Beds.  The  Arikaree  has  been  studied 
with  much  care  near  Porcupine  Butte  and  farther  east  on 
White  river  by  representatives  of  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History.  Matthew  and  Gidley,  who  first  collected 
fossils  there,  designated  the  series  of  strata  as  the  Rosebud 
beds.  These  beds  are  believed  to  be  approximately  equi- 
valent to  the  Arikaree  formation  as  the  latter  is  now 
coming  to  be  understood,  but  exact  relations  have  not  yet 
been  fully  determined  over  any  very  large  section  of  the 
country.  Matthew  describes  the  beds  in  their  typical 
eastern  locality  as  follows:  "The  western  part  of  the 
formation  attains  a  thickness  estimated  at  500  feet  on  Por- 
cupine creek,  a  southern  tributary  of  White  river.  The  base 
is  taken  at  a  heavy  white  stratum  which  appears  to  be 
identical  with  the  stratum  capping  the  White  River  for- 
mation on  Sheep  Mountain  in  the  Big  Badlands.  This 
stratum  can  be  seen  extending  interruptedly  across  the  river 
to  Sheep  Mountain,  about  twenty  miles  distant,  capping 
several  intervening  buttes  and  projecting  points  of  the 
underlying  formation.  The  Rosebud  beds  at  the  bottom 
approximate  the  rather  hard  clays  of  the  upper  Leptauchenia 
beds,  but  become  progressively  softer  and  sandier  towards 
the  top,  and  are  capped  at  Porcupine  Butte  by  a  layer  of 
hard  quarzitic  sandstone.  Several  white  flinty,  calcareous 
layers  cover  the  beds,  one  of  which,  about  half  way  up,  was 
used  to  divide  them  into  Upper  and  Lower.  The  strati- 
fication is  very  variable  and  inconstant,  lenses  and  beds  of 
soft  fine-grained  sandstone  and  harder  and  softer  clayey 
layers  alternating  with  frequent  channels  filled  with  sand- 
stones and  mud-conglomerates,  all  very  irregular  and  of 
limited  extent.  The  hard  calcareous  layers  are  more  con- 
stant. A  bed  of  volcanic  ash  lies  near  the  top  of  the  for- 
mation, and  there  may  be  a  considerable  percentage  of  vol- 
canic material  in  some  of  the  layers  further  down.  These 
volcanic  ash  beds  should  in  theory  be  of  wide  extent,  and 
may  be  of  considerable  use  in  the  correlation  of  the  scattered 
exposures  on  the  heads  of  the  different  creeks — a  very  dif- 
ficult matter  without  their  aid. 


46 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


Porcupine  Butte 
Volcanic  ash  layer 


Mefycock<erus 
zone 


B/astomeryx 

Parahlppus 

Cynoc/esmus 

Phlaocyon 

Oligobunis' 

Mega/ictis 

Oxydacty/us 

Desmathyus 

Protomeryx 

Merycochoerus 

Merych/us  (abundant) 

Aelurocyon 

Arctoryctis 

Enioptychus 

Lepus 


Galcar'eous_shal;^ 
imestone  layers 


Fromery- 
cochoerus 
zone 


Promerycochoerus 
(very  dbun  dan  t 

and  characteristic) 

D/'cerather/um 

Elotherium 

Stencof/ber 

fiypertragu/us 

Parahippus  (small  sp) 

Leptauchenia 
(near  base) 

Nlmraifus 
Moropus 
D/'nohyus 
Mcsorcpdor, 


Figure  13 — Columnar  section  from  Porcupine  Butte  northward  to- 
ward White  river  as  observed  by  Matthew  and  Thomson  in  1906. 
Osborn,   1912. 

The  beds  form  the  upper  part  of  the  series  of  bluffs 
south  of  White  river  on  the  Pine  Ridge  and  Rosebud  Reser- 
vations, and  are  exposed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  various 
tributary  creeks."* 

For  a  section  of  these  beds  see  Figure  13,  from  U.  S. 
Geol.  Survey  Bulletin  No.  361,  p.  70,  Cenozoic  Mammal 
Horizons  of  Western  North  America,  etc.,  by  Osborn  and 
Matthew. 


*Matthew,  W.  D.     A  Lower  Miocene  Fauna  from  South  Dakota. 
Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull.,  Vol.  23,   1907,  pp.   169-219. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  47 

MIDDLE  MIOCENE 

The  Middle  Miocene,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  has  not  been 
identified  within  the  area  covered  by  the  Black  Hills  map, 
except  in  the  southern  part,  chiefly  in  Nebraska.  Strata  of 
this  age  have  been  studied  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  south- 
southwest  of  Agate  Springs,  and  they  have  there  yielded  a 
limited  fauna.  Matthew  and  Cook  designate  them  as  the 
i^hccp  Creek  beds,  and  describe  them  briefly,  as  follows: 
''They  consist  of  soft  fine-grained  sandy  'clays'  of  a  light 
buff  color,  free  from  pebbles,  and  containing  harder  cal- 
careous layers.  Their  thickness  is  estimated  at  100  feet. 
Near  the  top  is  a  layer  of  dark-gray  volcanic  ash,  two  feet 
thick." 

UPPER  MIOCENE 

The  Nebraska  Beds.  The  Nebraska  beds,  Nebraska 
formation  as  designated  by  Scott,  are  represented  in  various 
areas  not  yet  carefully  mapped  along  the  Niobrara  river, 
where,  as  widely  scattered  river  channel  and  flood  plain 
deposits,  they  immediately  overlie  the  Harrison  beds.  Fur- 
ther south  they  pass  beneath  or  blend  into  the  Oglalla  for- 
mation, which  covers  so  much  of  western  and  southwestern 
Nebraska.  They  have  been  studied  by  Hatcher  and  by 
Peterson.  Hatcher  describes  them  as  consisting  of  a  series 
of  buff  colored  sandstones  of  varying  degrees  of  hardness 
and  unknown  thickness,  with  occasional  layers  of  siliceous 
grits,  which  protrude  as  hard  undulating  or  shelving  masses 
from  the  underlying  and  overlying  softer  materials.  Peter- 
son states  that  the  thickness  cannot  be  greater  than  150  or 
200  feet,  and  he  gives  a  section  near  the  Nebraska- Wyoming 
line  showing  only  70  feet.  The  beds  have  afforded  many  in- 
teresting fossils  of  vertebrates,  some  of  which  are  described 
elsewhere  in  this  publication. 

PLIOCENE 

Pliocene  strata  are  found  irregularly  distributed  on  the 
eroded  surfaces  of  Upper  Miocene  beds  bordering  Little 
White  river  valley  and  the  valley  of  the  Niobrara.  They 
contain  important  fossils  but  the  beds  have  not  been  care- 
fully mapped.  As  a  consequence  local  names  have  been 
used  to  designate  the  beds  in  the  several  localities  where 
fossil  hunting  has  been  carried  on.     Among  these  names 


48 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


are  Snake  Creek,  Oak  Creek,  Little  White  River,  Niobrara 
Eiver  and  Spoon  Butte. 

The  beds  are  of  Lower  Pliocene  age  and  are  of  especial 
stratigraphic  value  in  that  Pliocene  mammals  are  not  well 
known  in  North  America  and  the  mammalian  fauna  which 
the  beds  have  yielded  has  helped  materially  in  filling  in  the 
gap. 

GEOLOGIC  SECTION  OF  THE  BIG  BADLANDS 


Approximate    estimate    thick- 
ness   of    the    beds 


Characteristic  Species  and  General 
Nature   of  the   Rock 


Protoceras    Beds     • 


100   feet 


50-75   feet 


I  Leptauchenia  layer;  nodule-bearing, 
<  pink-colored  clays  widely  distribu- 
I      ted. 


Coarse   sandstones,   occupying   different 
levels,   not   continuous. 


Oreodon  Beds  ■< 


100   feet 


75-100  feet 


10-20   feet 


ro  feet 


Lig-ht  colored  clays.     Few  fossils. 

f  Nodulous  clay  stratum.    Bones  white. 

I  Sandstones     and     clays.       Bones     rusty 
L      colored. 


Oreodon  layer;  nodule-bearing,  very 
constant  and  widely  distributed.  Nu- 
merous Oreodons  and  turtles  im- 
bedded in  nodules.  Bones  always 
covered  with  scale  of  ferruginous 
oxide.      "Red    layer"    of   collectors. 


Metamynodon  layer;  sandstones,  some- 
times replaced  by  light  colored  bar- 
ren clays.  Bones  usually  rusty  col- 
ored. 


Reddish   gritty   clay,   sometimes   bluish, 
Bones   white. 


Titanotherium 
Beds 


rSO  feet 


100  feet 


50  feet 


Clays,    sandstones   and   conglomerates. 

f  Clays,    toward    the    base    often    reddish, 
or   variegated.     The   prevailing  color, 
I      however,     is     a       delicate       greenish 
\      white.      Bones    are   always    light   col- 
ored or  white,  sometimes   rusty. 
Clays    and     sands,       sometimes     fullers 
earth. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  49 

MANNER  OF  DEPOSITION 

Geologists  who  first  studied  the  badland  formations  of 
the  western  plains  early  formulated  the  theory  that  the 
deposits  were  collected  by  streams  from  the  highlands  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Black  Hills  and  were  laid 
down  as  sediment  in  great  fresh  water  lakes.  These  lakes 
were  thought  to  have  varied  in  position  and  extent  in  the 
different  periods  of  time  during  which  the  several  forma- 
tions were  being  deposited.  They  were  believed  in  general 
to  have  had  their  origin  in  certain  structural  changes, 
either  a  slight  depression  along  the  western  side  or  the 
elevation  of  some  drainage  barrier  on  the  east,  and  to  have 
been  obliterated  by  the  development  of  new  drainage  chan- 
nels accompanied  possibly  by  general  uplift,  and  by  the 
progressive  aridity  of  the  climate. 

More  recently  doubts  began  to  be  entertained  as  to  the 
accuracy  of  this  attractive  lacustrine  theory,  more  detailed 
study  disclosing  many  facts  at  variance  with  the  usual 
conditions  of  lake  deposition,  both  with  reference  to  the 
physical  character  of  the  deposits  and  to  the  nature,  con- 
dition, and  distribution  of  the  fossil  remains  found  in  them. 
There  now  seems  to  be  abundant  evidence  for  the  belief  that 
the  deposits  were  of  combined  lagoon,  fluviatile,  floodplain 
and  possibly  eolian  origin  instead  of  having  been  laid  down 
over  the  bottom  of  great  and  continuous  bodies  of  standing 
water  as  was  first  supposed. 

The  lacustrine  theory  originated  in  the  earlier  accepted 
idea  that  all  horizontally  bedded  sedimentary  rocks  were 
deposited  in  bodies  of  comparatively  still  water,  either 
marine,  brackish,  or  fresh.  It  was  believed  that  the  fine- 
grained banded  clays  were  deposited  in  the  quiet  deeper 
waters  of  the  lake,  that  the  sandstones  and  conglomerates 
were  deposited  along  the  shores  and  about  the  mouths  of 
tributary  streams,  and  that  the  wide  distribution  of  the 
animals  now  found  as  fossils  was  accomplished  by  the  drift- 
ing about  in  the  lake  of  the  decaying  bodies  washed  down 
by  the  inflowing  streams.  The  fossils  obtained  by  the 
earlier  students  of  the  region  showed  a  general  lack  of  an 
aquatic  fauna.  As  a  result  the  idea  developed  that  the 
waters  of  this  great  lake  although  receiving  the  drifting 
bodies  of  land  animals  were  themselves  of  such  a  saline  or 
alkaline  nature  that  they  were  incapable  of  supporting  life. 


50  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

It  has  more  recently  been  shown  that  the  waters  were  not 
only  not  saline,  but  that  they  were  eminently  fitted  for  the 
support  of  aquatic  life  and  in  fact  in  some  localities  did 
support  such  life,  both  plant  and  animal  in  great  abundance. 
It  seems  that  the  topography  of  the  plains  region  dur- 
ing deposition  of  the  badland  materials  was  nearly  level, 
the  slope  then  as  now  being  very  gentle  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Black  Hills.  Broad  streams  found 
their  way  slowly  across  this  great  tract  and  developed  upon 
it  a  net  work  of  changing  channels,  backwaters,  lagoons 
and  shallow  lakes  interspread  here  and  there  with  reed- 
bearing  marshes  and  grass-covered  flats.  Climatic  changes 
gradually  brought  about  conditions  of  aridity,  the  rivers  and 
other  water  bodies  dwindled  and  wind-driven  materials  be- 
gan to  assert  their  prominence.  Thus  the  clays,  sandstones, 
conglomerates,  fullers  earth,  eolian-sands  and  even  the 
volcanic  dust,  wind-borne  from  far  away  craters  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  or  the  Black  Hills,  are  all  accounted  for 
and  the  life  conditions  of  the  time  are  in  reasonable  measure 
made  plain. 

GEOLOGIC  HISTORY 

The  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust  retain  to  a  marked  ex- 
tent a  record  of  their  history.  Sometimes  this  is  indicated 
by  composition,  sometimes  by  manner  of  erosion,  some- 
times by  relation  to  one  another,  sometimes  by  fossil  con- 
tents, et  cetera.  Often  several  such  characters  are  avail- 
able in  the  same  formation.  In  such  cases  the  history  may 
be  unraveled  with  much  fulness. 

A  detailed  history  of  the  Tertiary  of  the  Black  Hills 
region  may  not  be  entered  upon  here,  but  a  brief  review  of 
the  general  physical  changes  is  desirable  in  order  that  the 
setting  of  conditions  and  activities  discussed  elsewhere 
laay  be  better  understood. 

Preceding  the  deposition  of  the  Tertiary  rocks,  that  is 
during  the  Cretaceous  period,  the  Black  Hills  region  had 
for  a  long  time  been  surrounded  and  largely  if  not  wholly 
covered  by  a  great  sea.  In  this  sea  countless  marine  or- 
ganisms flourished  and  died.  The  sea  from  time  to  time, 
and  particularly  near  the  close  of  the  period,  tended 
through  a  brackish  to  a  fresh  water  nature.  Approximately 
coincident  with  the  full  development  of  fresh  water  con- 
ditions the  Black  Hills  region  was  subjected  to  disturbance, 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  51 

profound  elevation  took  place  and  a  more  active  erosion 
was  inaugurated.  The  history  here  for  a  time  is  not  well 
disclosed  but  beginning  with  the  Oligocene  the  conditions 
become  more  evident.  By  that  time  the  streams  had  be- 
come sluggish  and  muddy  and  by  meandering  had  developed 
vast  flood  plains  across  which  they  shifted  their  lazy  way 
and  deposited  and  redeposited  the  debris  obtained  from  the 
higher  lauds  to  the  west-  Following  the  Oligocene  there  was 
further  uplifting  and  erosion  was  correspondingly  quick- 
ened but  the  general  history  continued  much  as  before. 

The  climate  for  a  considerable  time  in  the  history  of 
the  deposition  seems  to  have  been  moist  to  a  marked  degree. 
Later  a  more  arid  condition  prevailed  and  it  was  then  that 
transportation  and  deposition  by  wind  became  a  feature  of 
importance. 

The  great  disturbances  in  the  early  part  of  the  Tertiary 
resulting  in  the  pronounced  doming  of  the  Black  Hills 
region  and  the  uplifting  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  front  were 
accompanied  and  followed  by  profound  igneous  intrusion. 
The  White  River  region  was  influenced  only  in  a  general 
way  by  the  disturbances  and  no  volcanic  outbursts  occurred 
there.  However  some  of  the  igneous  material  within  the 
Rockies  and  possibly  some  also  in  the  northern  Black  Hills 
connecting  with  the  throats  of  vigorous  volcanoes  was  from 
time  to  time  hurled  high  above  the  surface.  Here  favorable 
winds,  catching  up  the  finely  divided  fragments,  bore  them 
far  to  the  eastward  and  there  gently  dropped  them  as  thin 
widespread  ashen  blankets  to  become  an  integral  and  in- 
teresting portion  of  the  general  badland  deposits. 

Subsequent  to  the  Pleiocene  the  history  of  the  White 
River  badlands  is  largely  one  of  rapid  weathering  and 
vigorous  erosion. 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC  DEVELOPMENT 
The  White  River  badlands  are  the  result  of  erosion, 
controlled  in  part  by  climatic  conditions  and  in  part  by  the 
stratigraphic  and  lithologic  nature  of  the  deposits.  There 
is  a  too  frequent  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  work  of  com- 
mon disintegrating  and  carrying  agents  and  many  an  in- 
dividual speculates  upon  the  mighty  upheavals  and  the 
terrific  volcanic  forces  that  to  him  have  produced  the  won- 
derful ruggedness  of  the  badlands,  when  the  real  work,  so 


52  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

far  at  least  as  immediate  topography  is  concerned,  wholly 
apart  from  the  forces  of  vulcanism,  have  been  performed 
under  a  kindly  sun  and  through  benevolent  combination  by 
ordinary  winds  and  frosts  and  rains,  and  to  a  lesser  degree 
by  plants  and  animals.  What  the  earliest  beginning  may 
have  been  is  not  known.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  then,  as  now, 
the  sun  shone,  the  winds  blew,  and  the  rains  came,  and  such 
irregularities  as  may  have  existed  influenced  in  some  de- 
gree the  earliest  run  off.  Season  by  season  the  elements 
weakened  the  uplifted  sediments,  and  little  by  little  the 
growing  streams  cut  the  yielding  surface.  In  time  lateral 
tributaries  pushed  their  way  into  the  interstream  areas  and 
these  tributaries  in  turn  developed  smaller  branches,  the 
series  continuing  with  ever  increasing  complexity  to  the 
delicate  etching  at  the  very  top  of  the  highest  levels.  All 
the  important  streams  give  indications  of  an  eventful  his- 
tory, but  for  this  there  is  little  opportunity  for  discussion 
here.  Cheyenne  river  and  White  river  are  the  chief  factors 
today  in  the  production  and  continuation  of  the  badland 
features,  and  of  these,  White  river  clings  most  closely  to  its 
task.  The  Cheyenne  has  already  cleared  its  valley  of  the 
badland  deposits  except  in  the  important  locality  southeast 
of  the  Black  Hills  and  in  the  western  Pine  Ridge  area  be- 
yond the  headwaters  of  White  river  and  even  in  these  areas 
the  main  stream  has  cut  entirely  through  the  formations 
and  in  most  places  deeply  into  the  underlying  black  Cre- 
taceous shales.  White  river,  on  the  other  hand,  for  more 
than  fifty  miles  of  its  middle  course,  meanders  across  a  wide 
alluvial  bottom,  underlain  by  badland  sediments,  while  its 
many  branched  head  and  all  of  the  larger  tributaries  from 
the  south  and  many  from  the  north  continue  to  gnaw  vig- 
orously into  deposits  that  retain  much  of  their  original 
thickness. 

Among  the  innumerable  tributaries  within  the  badlands 
proper,  few  are  of  great  length,  but  many  are  of  note  in  the 
physiography  of  the  region,  in  the  history  of  early  day 
travel,  and  in  the  yielding  of  important  specimens  to  the 
fossil  hunter.  Of  those  leading  from  the  Badlands  to  the 
Cheyenne  river,  the  following  are  important  and  often 
referred  to  in  the  scientific  literature:  Bull  creek,  Crooked 
creek.  Sage  creek,  Hay  creek.  Bear  creek,  Spring  crek,  In- 
dian creek.  Little  Corral   draw,   Big  Corral  draw,   Quinn 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL   OF   MINES  53 

draw,  and  Cedar  draw.  Nearer  the  head  of  the  river  are 
Hat  creek,  Old  Woman  creek.  Lance  creek,  and  others. 
Three  streams  rising  east  of  the  Big  Badlands  and  north  of 
the  Great  Wall  flow  eastward  between  Cheyenne  river  and 
White  river  and  form  the  head  of  Bad  river.  These  are 
Cottonwood,  White  Water  and  Buffalo  creeks.  The  White 
river  tributaries  from  the  north  are  short,  and  of  these  Cain 
creek,  Cottonwood  creek,  and  Spring  creek  rising  near  the 
heart  of  the  Big  Badlands  are  the  most  important.  The 
White  river  tributaries  on  the  south  are  numerous,  and  of 
considerable  size.  Well  known  ones  within  the  Pine  Ridge 
Indian  reservation,  are:  Pass  creek.  Eagle  Nest  creek. 
Bear  in  the  Ledge  creek.  Corn  creek,  Pumpkin  creek,  Yel- 
low Medicine  creek.  Medicine  Root  creek.  Porcupine  creek. 
Wounded  Knee  creek,  and  White  Clay  creek.  Little  White 
river  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  streams  flowing  into 
White  river.  It  rises  west  of  Manderson  in  the  southern 
part  of  Pine  Ridge  reservation  and  flows  eastward  and 
northward  into  and  through  the  Rosebud  Indian  reserva- 
tion. Many  valuable  fossils  have  been  found  among  the 
outcrops  exposed  along  its  valley. 

The  southern  slopes  of  Pine  Ridge  are  drained  by  Nio- 
brara river.  This  river  rises  in  Wyoming  and  flowing  east- 
ward approximately  parallels  Pine  Ridge  and  the  South 
Dakota-Nebraska  state  line.  It  may  for  our  purpose  here 
serve  to  mark  the  southern  limit  of  the  area  described. 

In  addition  to  the  streams  certain  features  need  men- 
tion because  of  their  commanding  position.  These  are  Pine 
Ridge,  Porcupine  Butte,  Eagle  Nest  Butte,  Sheep  Mountain, 
and  The  Wall,"  the  latter  being  more  fully  designated  by 
the  various  local  names:  Sage  creek  wall,  White  Water 
wall,  and  Big  Foot  wall.  Besides  these,  the  following  passes 
or  natural  roadways,  well  known  to  all  the  travelers  within 
the  Big  Badlands,  are  of  historic  importance  and  of  physi- 
ographic significance:  Sage  Creek  pass.  Big  Foot  pass. 
Cedar  pass.  Chamberlain  pass,  et  cetera. 

Less  noted  in  the  literature,  but  of  much  importance, 
are  the  numerous  mesas  or  tables.  They  stand  at  various 
heights  up  to  three  hundred  feet  or  more  above  the  basins  or 
valleys.  Some  of  these  are  of  large  size  and  those  east  of 
the  Cheyenne  river  have  been  given  individual  names  by  the 


54  THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 

people  who  have  settled  upon  them.  The  larger  ones  are 
Sheep  Mountain  table,  about  six  miles  south-southwest  of 
Scenic;  Hart  table,  between  Indian  creek  and  Spring 
creek ;  Kube  table,  between  Spring  creek  and  Bear  creek ; 
Seventy-one  table,  between  Bear  creek  and  Hay  creek ;  Quinn 
table,  between  Hay  creek  and  Sage  creek;  Crooked  Creek 
table,  between  Sage  creek  and  Bull  creek ;  Lake  Flat  between 
Bull  creek  and  the  headwaters  of  Cottonwood  creek;  White 
Kiver  table,  at  head  of  Quinn  draw.  The  last  named  lies 
within  the  Pine  Ridge  Indian  reservation  and  is  of  historic 
interest  in  that  it  was  used  as  a  fortress  by  the  Indians  dur- 
ing the  Indian  outbreak  of  1891. 

The  chief  factors  in  badland  development  are  these: 
first,  a  climate  with  a  low  rainfall  more  or  less  concen- 
trated into  heavy  showers;  second,  scarcity  of  deep  rooted 
vegetation;  third,  slightly  consolidated  nearly  homogenous 
fine-grained  sediments  lying  at  a  considerable  height  above 
the  main  drainage  channels,  the  occasional  hard  layers  or 
beds  that  may  be  present  being  thin  and  in  horizontal  posi- 
tion. All  of  these  favor  rapid,  steep,  and  diversified  sculp- 
turing. As  already  stated,  the  White  and  the  Cheyenne 
rivers,  not  far  separated  from  each  other,  serve  as  the  main 
drainage  channels  for  the  Badlands  and,  having  cut  far  be- 
low the  topmost  mesas  or  tables,  afford  abundant  oppor- 
tunity for  rapid  run  off.  The  vegetation  is  scanty.  Rich, 
short  grasses  are  abundant  over  large  areas,  but  these  have 
not  sufficient  root-strength  to  prevent  cutting.  The  gnarled 
cedars  of  the  higher  points  also  lack  such  strength,  for  even 
these  often  wage  a  losing  fight  and  especially  in  the  elongat- 
ing gulches  and  on  the  narrowing  tables  they  progress  to- 
ward inevitable  destruction. 

The  rock  material  is  largely  an  excessively  fine  clay, 
not  thoroughly  indurated,  sometimes  massive,  sometimes 
laminated.  Sandstones  occur  locally  in  some  abundance, 
especially  in  the  upper  beds,  but  never  of  great  thickness 
and  seldom  of  much  lateral  extent.  Concretions  are  com- 
mon and  these  as  well  as  the  sandstones  accentuate  the 
irregularity  of  erosion.  The  bare  clay  slopes  under  the 
influence  of  occasional  rains  and  the  beating  suns,  generally 
show  a  spongy  surface,  the  loosening  porous  clay  often  ex- 
tending to  a  depth  of  several  inches.     This  feature  is  com- 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  55 

mon  on  the  sloping  surface  of  the  Oreodou  beds  and  is 
especially  characteristic  of  the  rounded  hillocks  of  the 
Titanotherium  beds.  This  preliminary  loosening  of  the 
clay,  explains  perhaps  more  than  any  other  one  feature,  the 
surpassing  ease  with  which  the  countless  tiny  channels  are 
formed  and  how  it  is  that  the  streams  become  turbid  with 
every  passing  shower. 

Any  hard  layer  that  may  be  present  tends  to  resist 
erosion  and  this  at  once  initiates  surface  irregularities. 
The  unconsolidated  clays  being  more  rapidly  removed,  the 
harder  stratum  soon  stands  out  in  distinct  relief  and  later 
by  undercutting,  a  precipice  develops.  Joints  often  ac- 
celerate the  erosion  along  certain  vertical  planes  and  the 
result  is  the  development  sometimes  of  cave-like  excavations 
and  sometimes  of  columnar  masses.  Columns  are  likely  to 
develop  also  in  connection  with  hard  strata  made  up  of 
concretionary  masses.  They  are  especially  abundant  in  the 
Protoceras  beds,  where  concretionary  masses  and  jointed 
sandstones  are  both  abundant. 

Generally  the  transportation  lags  perceptibly  behind 
the  disintegration  and  as  a  consequence  a  thin  fan  of  sedi- 
ment clings  to  the  base  of  every  pillar,  mound  or  table. 
The  full  extent  of  these  alluvial  fans  is  often  not  fully  dis- 
cerned. Being  formed  by  the  conjoint  action  of  many  little 
streams  and  made  up  of  excessively  fine  sediment,  their 
surface  slope  is  low  and  one  readily  confuses  the  alluvial 
materials  with  the  undisturbed  beds  on  which  they  lie. 
As  may  be  readily  inferred,  there  is  much  transient  carry- 
ing of  sediments  and  much  meandering  of  maturer  streams. 
A  single  season  or  even  a  single  freshet  often  makes  im- 
portant changes  in  a  stream's  position  and  there  is  a  de- 
cided tendency  in  the  medium  sized  streams  to  quickly 
develop  box-like  trenches.  Cheyenne  river  and  White  river 
are  active  throughout  the  year,  and  during  the  rainy  season 
they  flow  in  large  volume,  but  the  tributary  streams  coming 
from  the  badlands  are  dry  much  of  the  time.  Some  are  able 
to  struggle  along  in  continuous  flow  for  a  little  while  after 
the  rainy  reason,  but  later  in  most  of  them  little  is  left  but 
dusty  sands  and  stingy  pools  of  water,  the  latter  clear  if 
strongly  alkaline,  otherwise  turbid  to  the  consistency  of 
mud  porridge. 


56  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

CONCRETIONS,  SAND  CRYSTALS,  DIKES,  VEINS 
AND   GEODES 

Concretions.  A  concretion  is  a  spherical,  cylindrical, 
elliptical,  or  nodular  body  produced  by  the  tendency  of  cer- 
tain mineral  constituents  to  orderly  aggregate  about  a 
common  center  within  an  embedding  rock  mass.  The  dis- 
covery in  the  White  River  badlands  several  years  ago  of 
what  are  known  as  sand  or  sand-calcite  crystals  has  added 
much  to  our  knowledge  of  concretionary  development  and 
has  served  well  to  indicate  the  local  conditions  with  refer- 
ence to  these  abundant  and  interesting  forms. 

Concretions  vary  greatly  in  size,  shape,  composition, 
manner  of  distribution  and  method  of  growth.  They  are 
common  in  the  Great  plains  formations.  In  some  of  the 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  beds  they  may  be  found  in  prodi- 
gious numbers.  They  occur  in  many  places  and  in  various 
horizons  and  of  all  sizes  up  to  several  feet  in  diameter.  Any 
horizon  which  contains  the  concretions  at  all  is  likely  to 
contain  many  of  them  and  often  they  coalesce  horizontally 
and  form  continuous  strata.  More  frequently  they  are 
separate  and,  being  harder  than  the  surrounding  material, 
they  often  tend  under  the  influence  of  erosion  to  become 
the  caps  of  earth  pillars.  The  material  of  which  they  are 
made  is  generally  an  arenaceous  clay  with  calcium  car- 
bonate as  a  cementing  material,  but  iron  oxide  is  often 
times  present  in  considerable  quantity. 

Sand  Crystals.  The  sand  crystals  are  made  up  of  ap- 
proximately sixty  per  cent  of  sand  and  about  forty  per 
cent  of  calcium  carbonate.  The  former  occurs  as  an  in- 
clusion, while  the  latter,  the  mineralizing  agent,  is  the 
crystal  proper.  The  size  varies  in  length  from  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  or  less  to  fifteen  inches.  They  occur  chiefly  in  the 
Arikaree  formation,  which  is  largely  a  soft  sandstone. 
Much  of  the  rock  is  concretionary,  and  not  a  little  of  it  is  in 
cylindrical  or  pipe-like  masses,  often  many  feet  or  yards  in 
length.  These  often  disclose  evidence  of  some  internal 
molecular  or  crystalline  arrangement  and  weathered  speci- 
mens not  infrequently  show  a  radiate  or  rosetted  structure, 
due  to  the  tendency  of  lime-salts  to  crystallize  according  to 
the  laws  governing  calcite  as  far  as  the  interference  in  the 
part  of  the  sand  grains  will  allow.     (Plate  52). 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  57 

The  first  discovered  and  most  noted  locality  is  on  Pine 
Kidge  Keservation  at  Devils  Hill,  near  Corn  creek,  about 
twenty  miles  south  of  White  river.  Concerning  their  oc- 
currence here,  Prof.  Barbour,  who  has  visited  the  locality, 
says :  "The  mode  of  occurrence  of  these  crystals  seems  most 
unusual  and  remarkable.  In  a  bed  of  sand  scarcely  three 
feet  thick,  and  so  soft  as  to  resemble  the  sand  on  the  sea- 
shore, occur  these  crystals  in  numbers  which  can  best  be 
figured  in  tons.  We  dug  them  out  with  our  bare  hands. 
They  are  mostly  single  crystals,  with  numerous  doublets, 
triplets,  quadruplets  and  multiplets.  In  other  words  every 
form  from  solitary  crystals  to  crowded  bunches  and  per- 
fect radiating  concretions  were  obtained.  It  was  a  matter  of 
special  interest  in  the  field  to  note  that  at  the  bottom  of  the 
layer  the  bulk  of  these  sand- lime  crystals  are  solitary;  one 
foot  higher  there  is  an  evident  doubling  of  the  crystals, 
until  within  another  foot  they  are  in  loosely  crowded 
clusters,  a  little  higher  in  closely  crowded  continuous 
clusters,  pried  out  in  blocks  with  difficulty;  still  higher  they 
occur  in  closely  crowded  concretions  in  contact  with  one 
another,  making  nearly  a  solid  rock.  A  little  higher  this 
mineralizing  process  culminates  in  pipes,  compound  pipes 
and  solid  rocks  composed  wholly  of  crystals  but 
so  solidified  that  their  identity  is  lost,  and  is  detected 
only  by  a  certain  reflection  of  light,  which  differentiates  the 
otherwise  invisible  units  by  showing  glistening  hexagonal 
sections.  There  could  not  have  been  a  more  gradual  and 
beautiful  transition,  and  all  confined  to  a  bed  six  or  eight 
feet  in  thickness." 

The  relation  of  the  crystals  to  concretions,  as  indicated 
above,  discloses  an  important  step  in  the  development  of 
concretions  in  general,  and  doubtless  to  some  such  cause  as 
this  crystallographic  tendency  is  due  the  development  of 
all  of  the  concretions  of  the  Badland  strata. 

Dikes  and  Veins.  Dikes  and  veins  are  ordinarily 
elongate,  vertical,  or  nearly  vertical  rock  or  mineral  masses 
occupying  fissures  in  a  pre-existing  rock.  The  filling  body, 
if  intruded  as  an  igneous  rock  while  in  the  molten  condi- 
tion, is  commonly  referred  to  as  a  dike.  If  filled  in  by  a  slow 
process  of  deposition  from  aqueous  solution  it  is  known 
as  a  vein.  It  is  now  recognized  that  fissures  sometimes 
become  filled  with  broken   (clastic)   material  derived  from 


58  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

adjacent  or  nearby  rock  masses  without  any  immediate  in* 
lluence  either  of  heat  or  of  solvent  action.  These  clastic 
bodies  are  known  as  dikes  also. 

Many  writers  have  commented  upon  the  nature  and 
abundance  of  the  dikes  and  veins  in  the  Badlands.  Al- 
though constituting  minor  features  of  the  landscape  they 
are  nevertheless  extremely  abundant  in  places  and  not 
infrequently  they  display  themselves  in  an  interesting 
and  complicated  manner.  The  dikes  are  made  up  generally 
of  a  soft  greenish  sand  or  sandy  clay.  This  usually  wears 
away  a  little  more  readily  than  the  enclosing  strata  but 
sometimes  it  resists  weathering  better  and  then  the  dike 
projects  above  the  general  surface.  The  prevailing  attitude 
is  nearly  perpendicular  and  the  dike  outcropping  in  a 
straight  line  may  occasionally  be  traced  across  gulches  and 
draws  and  over  ridge  and  pinnacle  and  mound  for  a  mile  or 
more.  The  thickness  is  commonly  not  more  than  a  few 
inches  but  it  sometimes  reaches  two  or  three  feet.  The 
dikes  are  supposed  to  occupy  preexisting  cracks,  the  ma- 
terial having  been  forced  in  from  below  by  hydrostatic 
pressure  or  by  the  weight  of  the  superincumbent  strata. 
It  is  possible  that  in  some  cases  the  material  may  have 
come  from  above. 

The  veins  are  chiefly  chalcedony.  They  resemble  the 
dikes  so  far  as  concerns  position  and  form  and,  aside  from 
the  fact  that  they  were  deposited  from  solution,  are  believed 
to  have  much  the  same  history.  They  average  thinner  than 
the  dikes,  are  much  harder,  and  are  in  many  places  more 
abundant.  They  resist  weathering  much  better  than  the 
enclosing  clays,  hence  commonly  present  a  jagged  line  above 
the  surface.  As  the  supporting  clay  becomes  loosened  and 
is  carried  away  the  thin  chalcedony  breaks  into  platy 
angular  fragments  and  these  falling  upon  the  surrounding 
surface  protect  it  from  further  erosion  much  as  would  a 
shingle  roof. 

Geodes.  Geodes  are  spheroidal  masses  of  mineral  mat- 
ter formed  by  deposition  of  crystals  from  some  mineral 
solution  on  the  walls  of  a  rock  cavity.  The  growth  is  con- 
stantly inward  toward  the  center.  If  the  process  of  deposi- 
tion has  continued  sufficiently  long,  the  crystals  reach 
across  the  depositional  space,  interlock  with  each  other,  and 
the  geode  becomes  solid.     Often  the  crystals  project  only 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL  OF  MINES  59 

part  way,  leaving  a  considerable  cavity  and  then  the  geode 
when  broken  presents  a  crystal  lining  of  much  beauty  and 
interest.  Commonly  the  geodes  are  more  or  less  siliceous, 
especially  in  the  outer  portions  and,  resisting  weathering 
better  than  the  enclosing  rock  mass,  may  often  be  found 
freed  from  the  matrix  lying  on  the  disintegrating  surface. 
Not  infrequently  crystal  fragments  become  detached  within 
the  shell,  and  these,  striking  against  the  inner  walls  when 
the  geode  is  shaken,  serve  to  make  a  sound.  For  this  reason 
the  geodes  are  often  referred  to  locally  as  rattle  stones. 

Many  geodes  have  been  collected  from  the  Big  Bad- 
lands. The  diameter  varies  from  one  inch  or  less  to  several 
inches.  The  prettiest  ones  of  rather  small  size  are  found 
near  Imlay.  They  have  commonly  an  irregular  shell  of 
chalcedony  more  or  less  filled  with  bright  clear-cut  white 
or  colorless  quartz  crystals,  the  latter  varying  from  micro- 
scopic size  to  one-half  inch  or  more  in  length.  The  finer 
white  crystals  much  resemble  white  sugar,  hence  the  name 
sugar  geodes.  Selenite  (crystalized  gypsum)  is  occasion- 
ally present.  The  origin  of  the  geodes  is  doubtless  closely 
connected  with  the  origin  of  the  chalcedony  veins  described 
above. 

DEVIL'S    CORKSCREWS    (Daemonelix) 

Among  the  interesting  materials  of  the  badland  de- 
posits few  have  given  rise  to  more  speculations  as  to  their 
origin  than  what  are  known  as  the  Devil's  Corkscrews  of 
the  Harrison  beds.  Devil's  Corkscrews,  or  Daemonelix,  as 
they  are  technically  called,  have  been  known  by  the  early 
residents  of  northwestern  Nebraska  for  many  years  but  it 
was  not  until  1891  when  Prof.  Barbour  made  a  collecting 
trip  to  Harrison  and  the  Badlands  that  these  strange  ob- 
jects were  brought  to  the  attention  of  scientific  men.  What 
they  really  represent  or  how  they  were  formed  is  still  a 
matter  of  conjecture.  The  more  typical  forms  are  upright 
tapering  spirals  and  they  twist  to  the  right  or  to  the  left 
indiscriminately.  The  spiral  sometimes  encloses  a  cylin- 
drical body  known  as  the  axis  but  it  is  more  often  without 
the  axis.  Sometimes  the  spiral  ends  abruptly  below  but 
more  often  there  projects  from  the  lower  part  one  or  two 
obliquely  ascending  bodies  placed  much  as  the  rhizomes  of 
certain  plants.     The  size  of  the  well  developed  form  varies 


60 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


considerably.  The  height  of  the  corkscrew  portion  often 
exceeds  the  height  of  a  man  while  the  rhizome  portion  is 
ordinarily  about  the  size  of  one's  body. 

They  are  known  to  occur  especially  between  the  head 
waters  of  White  and  Niobrara  rivers  chiefly  in  Sioux 
county,  Nebraska,  but  extend  westward  to  Lusk,  Wyoming, 
and  eastward  to  Eagle  Nest  Butte,  South  Dakota.  The 
vertical  range  of  strata  carrying  them  is  approximately 
200  feet.  In  certain  localities  they  are  found  in  the  greatest 
profusion,  sometimes  stretching  like  a  forest  over  many 
acres  and  sometimes  so  closely  placed  that  they  are  inex- 
tricably entangled  and  fused  together.     (Plate  47). 


Daemonelix  regular. 
40  to  45  meters. 


Daemonelix  irreg^tlar, 
6  to  8  meters. 

Daemonelix  cigars  or  fingers,  6  to  8 
meters  and  upward. 
Daemonelix  balls,  8  meters 


Daemonelix  cakes.  8  meters. 
Daemonelix  fibers. 


Figure  14 — Diagramatic  section  showing  the  relative  positions  of  the 
several  forms  in  the  Daemonelix  series  according  to  Barbour, 
1896. 


Prof.  Barbour  who  has  given  these  interesting  forms 
most  study  considers  them  as  representing  some  kind  of 
plant  life  and  has  apparently  found  much  to  corroborate 
this  view.  Some  have  considered  that  they  represent  low 
plant  organisms  such  as  algae,  others  that  they  may  be 
remains  of  higher  plants,  in  which  all  has  decayed  away  ex- 
cept the  cortical  layer.  Still  others  and  these  with  much 
reason  have  considered  them  as  casts  of  well  preserved 
burrows  of  animals.  Among  the  earliest  to  suggest  the  latter 
idea  were  Dr.  Theodore  Fuchs  of  Germany  and  Prof.  Cope. 
More  recently  Mr.  O.  A.  Peterson  emphasized  the  latter 
view  as  a  result  of  the  finding  of  numerous  fossils  of  bur- 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  61 

rowing  rodents  within  the  corkscrews.     ( See  Figures  15  and 
53). 


Figure  15 — Field  sketch  of  a  weathered  rhizome  containing  the  type 
specimen  of  the  burrowing  rodent,  Steneofiber  barbouri.  Peter- 
son,  1905. 


ECONOMIC  MINERAL  PRODUCTS 

The  White  River  badlands  have  not  attracted  par- 
ticular attention  as  a  source  of  mineral  wealth.  Sand- 
stones and  limestones  are  found  in  various  places  but  they 
seldom  meet  the  requirements  of  a  high  grade  building 
stone.  They  are  nearly  always  thin-bedded  and  generally 
are  more  or  less  argillaceous.  The  sandstones  are  often  of 
coarse  or  irregular  texture  and  poorly  cemented. 

Clays  occur  in  unlimited  abundance  and  analyses  show 
that  they  could  be  utilized  if  desired,  in  various  ways,  par- 
ticularly in  the  manufacture  of  brick  and  cement.  Some 
of  the  clays  especially  those  near  the  bottom  of  the  Titan- 
otherium  beds  have  the  property  of  decolorizing  or  clarify- 
ing oils,  hence  are  known  as  fullers  earth. 

Prof.  Heinrich  Ries  of  Cornell  University,  gives  the 
following  analyses  for  the  localities  mentioned,  analyses  1, 
2,  3,  6  being  of  material  from  near  Fairburn,  and  analyses  4 
and  5  of  material  from  near  Argyle, 


62  THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 

Analyses  of  Fullers'  Earth  From  the  Titanotherium  Beds. 


Constituent 


2 


Silica    (SiOJ     

Alumina    (Al  O  )     .... 

2      3 

Ferrous  oxide    (FeO)    . 

Lime    (CaO)     

Magnesia    (MgO)     .... 
Loss  on   ignition    

Total      

'  a — Fe  O 


Per  cent 
68.23 
14.93 
3.15 
2.93 
0.87 
6.20 


Per  cent 

60.16 

10.38 

14.87 

4.96 

1.71 

7.20 


Per  cent 

56.18 

23.23 

a      1.26 

5.88 

3.29 

IV  11.45 


96.31 


99.28 


101.29 


b — H  O. 


Constituent 

4 

5 

Per  cent 
57.00 
17.37 
2.63 
3.00 
3.03 
9.50 
5.85 

6 

Silica    (SiO  )     

Per  cent 
55.45 
18.58 
3.82 
3.40 
3.50 
8.80 
5.35 

Per  cent 

58.  72 

Alumina    (Al  0  )     

16.90 

Ferrous  oxide    (FeO)    

4.00 

Lime    (CaO)     

4    06 

Magnesia    (MgO)     

2.56 

Loss  on   ignition    

8    10 

Volatile     

Alkali      

2.11 

Moisture      

2.30 

Total      

98.90 

98.35 

98.45 

Volcanic  ash  has  been  mentioned  in  the  description  of 
the  deposits.  It  occurs  rather  widely  distributed  over  the 
country.  A  prominent  bed  lies  near  the  top  of  Sheep 
mountain  and  extends  outward  from  it  for  many  miles  along 
the  walls  and  the  remnant  buttes  that  are  high  enough  to 
retain  it.  Other  beds  are  found  near  and  within  the 
neighboring  Black  Hills  and  here  some  effort  has  been  made 
to  place  the  material  upon  the  market.  Deposits  of  a 
similar  nature  in  Nebraska  have  been  worked  for  many 
years.  The  ash  when  not  mingled  with  other  sediment  is 
nothing  more  than  minute  angular  fragments  of  natural 
glass  and  these  having  sharp  cutting  edges  give  to  the  ash 
a  value  as  a  polishing  powder  or  in  the  prepared  state  is  an 
important  constitutent  of  abrasive  soaps. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


63 


The  fossil  bones  found  in  the  badland  deposits,  like  the 
bones  of  present  day  animals,  generally  contain  much 
phosphate.  There  is  little  reason,  however,  to  believe  that 
the  phosphate  can  be  utilized  commercially.  Men  speak  of 
the  abundance  of  the  fossil  bones,  but  it  should  be  stated 
that  this  is  more  particularly  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
scientist  interested  in  their  educational  value  rather  than 
that  of  the  manufacturer  of  commercial  bone  products. 
There  seems  never  to  have  been  any  very  great  tendency  for 
the  phosphate  to  leach  out  from  the  bones  and  concentrate 
into  beds. 

For  those  interested  in  the  chemical  nature  of  the  bones, 
I  give  the  following  analyses  made  many  years  ago  by  Dr. 
Francis  V.  Greene  from  material  collected  by  the  Owen 
Survey  and  published  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science, 
1853,  also  analyses  made  recently  in  the  State  School  of 
Mines  laboratories  by  Mr.  George  Enos. 

Analyses  of  Badland  Fossils   (Greene) 


Constituent 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Phosphoric    Acid     (P^O  ) 

Silica    (SiOJ     .'.  .  . 

Ferric   Oxide    (Fe^O^)     .  . 

Fluorine     (F)      .  ." 

Magnesia    (MgO)     

Lime    (CaO)    

Per  cent 
33.98 
0.09 
1.77 
0.40 
0.33 
49.77 
0.31 
1.13 
0.36 

Per  cent 

39.15 

0.48 

Per  cent 

35.97 

0.79 

Per  cent 

31.19 

0.26 

0.04 
0.22 
51.80 
0.24 
1.28 

1.42 
0.53 
51.23 
0.23 
0.75 

2.46 

1.14 

50. .83 

Potash    (K  0)     

Soda    (Na  6)     

0.28 
1.57 

Baryta    (BaO)     

Chlorine   (CI) 

1.10 

0.02 

Sulphuric    Anhydride 

(SO  )      

0.88 

1.01 
3.17 
0.62 
2.54 

1.51 
2.83 
2.10 
2.66 

2.19 

Carbonic   Acid    (CO J     .  . 
Water     (H,0)      ...".... 
Organic    Matter    

Total    

4.08 
2.04 
5.67 

2.77 
1.97 
4.09 

100.81 

100.55 

100.02 

99.87 

In  the  above  anaylses,  No.  1  is  that  of  a  Titanothere 
bone.  No.  2  of  a  Titanothere  tooth  (enamel),  No.  3  of  a 
Titanothere  tooth  (dentine).  No.  4  of  an  Archaeotherium 
(Elotherium)  bone. 


64 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 
Analyses  of  Badland  Fossils    (Enos) 


Composition 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Silica    (SiO  )     

Per  cent 
8.96 

46.30 

1.97 

27.17 

.50 

6.08 

.65 

.08 

Trace 

Per  cent 
2.10 

33.40 

2.80 

20.00 

32.36 

.14 

.80 

Per  cent; 
23.78 

20.00 

5.00 
24.10 

1.44 
.04 
.72 

3.80 

Per  cent 
71.80 

Phosphoric     Anhydride 
(P  0  )      

4.34 

^2      5^ 

Iron   and  Aluminum 

Oxides    

.18 

Lime    (CaO)    

8.80 

Magnesia    (MgO)     

Soda    (Na  0)     

3.22 
2.80 

Potash    (K^O)     

Baryta    (BaO)     

Chlorine    (CI)     

TTlnnrinp     (W\ 

1.16 

Sulphuric    Anhydride 

(SO  )      

.56 
4.65 
1.40 
1.17 

.97 
5.90 
1.32 

.42 

18.70 

2.04 

.25 

Carbon   Dioxide    (CO^)  .  . 
Water  at  110°C    ...."... 
Organic    Matter    

7.19 

Total    

99.49 

99.79 

100.04 

99.74 

Remarks:  — 

No.  1  is  part  of  the  upper  tooth  of  a  brontothere. 

No.  2  is  part  of  lower  tooth  of  a  young  titanothere. 

No.  3  is  part  of  lower  jaw  with  teeth   (oreodon)   and  matrix. 

No.  4  is  a  coarse  sandstone  with  clay  pebbles  and  bone  frag- 
ments from  Protoceras  beds. 

The  above  specimens  are  all  from  the  Big  Badlands  of  South 
Dakota. 

FOSSILS 

Fossils  as  generally  understood  are  the  parts  of  ani- 
mals and  plants  living  before  the  present  era  that  have 
been  buried  in  the  rocks  and  preserved  by  natural  causes. 
The  manner  and  degree  of  preservation  vary  greatly.  The 
essential  thing  is  the  sealing  up  of  the  remains  in  the  rocks 
so  that  destruction  and  decay  may  be  prevented.  Animals 
such  as  the  ice-entombed  mammals  of  Siberia  and  the 
amber  enclosed  insects  of  the  Baltic,  are  practically  perfect 
as  the  day  they  were  buried,  but  they  are  exceptional.  Gen- 
erally only  the  hard  parts,  such  as  bones  or  teeth,  or  shells 
remain.     Not  infrequently  these  are  replaced  particle  by 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  65 

particle  by  new  mineral  matter  of  some  kind,  particularly 
silica  or  pyrite,  then  they  become  petrifactions.  Sometimes 
only  the  form,  or  the  impression  of  the  original  parts  are 
preserved,  hence  the  terms  molds  and  casts.  Occasionally 
the  relics  are  limited  to  footprints,  or  trails,  or  burrows,  or 
borings  or  eggs. 

Animals  living  in  the  water  or  frequenting  marshy 
places  for  food  and  drink  are  more  easily  and  more  quickly 
buried  beneath  sediments,  hence  their  fossils  are  usually 
more  abundant.  The  bodies  of  dry  land  animals  are  subjected 
to  the  vicissitudes  of  sun  and  rain  and  wind,  and  frost,  and 
are  often  feasted  upon  by  scavenger  birds  and  beasts  and 
insects.  Furthermore  their  burial  is  commonly  brought 
about  only  during  flood  season.  All  of  these  tend  to  the 
destruction  or  dismemberment  of  the  various  parts.  Again, 
even  if  once  nicely  buried,  they  may  later  be  obliterated  by 
metamorphism  or  be  destroyed  by  disintegrating  and  de- 
nuding agencies.  As  a  result  of  all  this,  the  history  of  cer- 
tain groups  of  animals  is  meagre  in  the  extreme  and  doubt- 
less hordes  of  species  have  left  no  worthy  evidence  of  their 
ever  having  lived. 

EXTINCTION,  EVOLUTION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF 

ANIMALS 

The  progress  of  animal  organisms  is  constantly  directed 
toward  the  goal  of  perfection.  Each  individual  shares  in 
the  improvement  but  the  perfection  to  be  attained  consists 
not  so  much  in  the  exquisite  relation  the  various  organs 
bear  to  one  another  as  it  does  in  the  harmony  that  the  ani- 
mal in  all  its  characters  shows  to  its  environment. 

When  life  began,  and  how,  no  one  knows.  It  is  evident 
that  in  the  beginning  it  was  represented  by  very  simple 
forms.  These,  because  of  varying  conditions,  were  followed 
in  orderly  sequence  by  creatures  of  growing  com|)lexity. 
All  animals  pass  through  innumerable  vicissitudes-  and 
existence  is  a  constant  struggle.  Those  best  fitted  to  meet 
difficulties  tend  to  survive  and  leave  posterity.  It  thus 
happens  that  advantageous  variations  are  perpetuated  and 
those  of  less  use  are  eliminated.  In  this  way  changes  oc- 
cur, characters  are  modified,  and  life  forms  sooner  or  later 
take  on  an  appearance  and  a  nature  quite  different  from 
their  ancestors. 


66 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


Just  as  individuals  suffer  distress  and  destruction  so, 
sometimes,  entire  animal  groups*  battling  for  position  in 
life's  long  race  and  gaining  for  a  time  supremacy  in  their 
field  are  in  turn  oppressed  and  in  the  end  obliterated  by  the 
contending  forces.  Of  the  animals  described  in  this  book 
several  groups  are  wholly  extinct,  no  relatives  of  any  rea- 
sonable nearness  being  found  living  today.  Notable  among 
such  are  the  Titanotheres,  the  Oreodons  and  the  Moropus. 
Reference  to  the  extinction  of  others  is  given  in  connection 
with  their  description. 

Often  extinction  is  apparent  rather  than  real  and  the 
seeming  obliteration  may  be  only  the  normal  expression  of 
constant  change.  For  example,  in  the  horse,  camel,  rhin- 
oceros and  other  families  the  consecutive  changes  may  be 
traced  through  a  long  continued  series  of  replacements  by 
the  process  of  gradual  development.  Again  the  seeming 
extinction  may  be  only  a  migration  from  the  locality  in 


Figure  16 — Land  areas  of  the  world  during  Late  Cretaceous  and 
Basal  Eocene  time.  Period  of  extinction  of  the  great  Reptilia. 
A  time  of  elevation,  favoring  an  interchange  of  archaic  life  be- 
tween South  and  North  America,  also  between  North  America 
and  Europe.  South  America  probably  united  with  Australia  via 
Antarctica,  allowing  an  interchange  of  carnivorous  and  herbi- 
vorous marsupials.  A  partial  community  of  fauna  between 
North  America  and  Eurasia  with  Africa.  Rearranged  from  W. 
D.  Matthew,  1908.  H.  F.  Osborn:  The  Age  of  Mammals  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America,  1910.  Published  by  The  Mac- 
millan   Company.      Reprinted  by  permission. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF    MINES 


67 


question  and  in  the  new  environment  activity  may  continue 
as  favorable  as  before. 

In  case  of  actual  extinction  it  is  often  not  possible  to 
ascertain  the  immediate  causes.  Sometimes  the  extinction 
is  due  wholly  to  conditions  external  to  the  animals  them- 
selves, such  as  unfavorable  climate,  alteration  of  food  sup- 


Figure  17 — Land  areas  of  the  world  during  Oligocene  time.  A  period 
of  continental  elevation  and  reunion  followed  by  the  reestablish- 
ment  of  connections  between  the  life  of  the  New  and  Old  Worlds. 
Central  Europe  submerged  or  partly  archipelagic.  African  mam- 
mals and  birds  partly  similar  to  those  of  Europe.  Madigascar 
united  with  Africa.  South  America  entirely  separated,  its  mam- 
mals developing  independently.  Australia  entirely  separated. 
Closing  the  Oligocene,  another  long  interval  of  separation  be- 
tween North  America  and  Europe.  Rearranged  after  W.  D. 
Matthew,  1908.  H.  F.  Osborn.  The  Age  of  Mammals  in  Europe, 
Asia  and  North  America,  1910.  Published  by  the  Macmillan 
Company.     Reprinted  by  permission. 


ply,  ravages  of  disease,  encroachment  of  hostile  species,  in- 
sect pests,  et  cetera.  Again  extinction  may  be  due  largely 
to  lack  of  internal  adaption  or  adaptability,  for  example, 
the  teeth  may  be  fitted  for  too  little  variation  of  food,  or  the 
brain  may  be  deficient  in  size  or  quality  so  that  the  animal 
lacks  resourcefulness,  alertness  and  enterprise. 


68 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


The  distribution  of  animals  is  closely  related  to  their 
development  and  has  been  in  large  measure  controlled  by 
geographical  conditions.  A  study  of  paleogeography  shows 
that  the  several  continents  have  had  a  varied  career. 
Changes  have  taken  place  in  them  through  all  the  ages  and 
migration    roads    and    barriers,    in    long    procession,    have 


Figure  18 — Land  areas  of  the  world  during  Miocene  time.  A  period 
of  continental  elevation  and  emergence,  consequently  of  re- 
newed land  connections  and  migrations.  Africa  broadly  united 
with  Europe  across  the  Arabic  peninsula,  and  a  typical  Asiatic 
fauna  roaming  westward  into  Europe  and  Africa.  Asia  connect- 
ed with  the  East  Indies  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  Florida 
elevated  at  the  close  of  the  Miocene.  South  America  divided  into 
northern  and  southern  halves  by  a  broad  gulf,  the  northern  half 
perhaps  connected  with  North  America.  Australia  entirely  sep- 
arated from  Asia.  Rearranged  after  W.  D.  Matthew,  1908.  H. 
F.  Osborn:  The  Age  of  Mammals  in  Europe,  Asia  and  North 
America,  1910.  Published  by  The  Macmillan  Company.  Re- 
printed t)y  permission. 


formed  and  disappeared.  With  the  advent  of  mammalian 
life  interest  in  these  physiographic  changes  increases  and 
their  interpretation  is  made  with  greater  assurance  of 
accuracy. 

Life  in  the  older  geologic  time  was  simple.  The  forms 
increased  in  complexity  as  the  ages  came  and  passed.  Primi- 
tive mammals  appeared  during  the  Mesozoic  but  not  until  the 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL  OF  MINES 


69 


Cenozoic  did  they  reach  importance.  They  then  became  the 
ruling  type  and  the  Cenozoic,  for  this  reason  is  often  called 
The  Age  of  Mammals.     (See  Plate  9). 

In  early  Tertiary  time  North  America  was  apparently 
not  connected  by  land  with  South  America.  It  was,  how- 
ever, connected  with  Asia  by  way  of  Alaska  and  with 
Europe  by  way  of  Greenland  and  Iceland.  These  land 
bridges  and  the  Panama  region  are  known  to  have  changed 
greatly  during  and  subsequent  to  the  Tertiary  and  a  fair 
understanding  of  their  influence  will  explain  many  per- 
plexing features  of  animal  and  plant  distribution. 


Figure  19 — Land  areas  of  the  world  during  Pliocene  time.  A  period 
of  continued  continental  elevation  especially  in  Europe  and  East- 
ern North  America.  Seasons  of  aridity  or  summer  drought,  in- 
creased aridity  of  the  Great  Plains  of  North  America.  South 
America  connected  with  North  America  by  migration  routes 
which  allowed  free  interchange  of  mammals.  Australia  still 
united  with  New  Guinea  and  Tasmania.  Rearranged  after  Mat- 
thew, 1909.  H.  F.  Osborn.  The  Age  of  Mammals  in  Europe, 
Asia  and  North  America,  1910.  Published  by  The  Macmillan 
Company.     Reprinted  by  permission. 


70 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


THE  COLLECTING  AND  MOUNTING  OF  FOSSIL 

BONES 

In  the  earliest  explorations  in  the  Badlands  little  care- 
ful effort  was  made  to  secure  complete  skeletons,  the  ex- 
plorer apparently  contenting  himself  with  securing  only 
the  better  heads  or  other  fragments  lying  on  or  near  the 
surface.  Later  extensive  digging  was  resorted  to,  but  for 
some  years  this  was  done  in  a  crude  way.  The  bones  are 
generally  more  or  less  broken  and  disarticulated  and  when 
once  the  fragments  become  separated  the  proper  assembling 
of  the  pieces  again  becomes  a  difficult  task.  In  course  of 
time  a  method  of  bandaging  developed.     Now  the  fragments 


Figure  20 — Group  of  three  Promerycochoerus  carrikeri  skeletons  in 
position  as  found.  Showing  the  disturbed  conditions  of  the 
specimens  even  when  the  bones  are  well  preserved  and  the  skele- 
tons fairly  complete.     Peterson,   1914. 

while  being  excavated  are  kept  together  by  laying  on  with 
flour  paste  strips  of  muslin  or  burlap  or  other  coarse,  loose- 
woven  cloth.  Plaster  of  paris  may  also  be  used  especially 
where  heavy  pieces  are  involved  or  where  extreme  care  is 
necessary.  Soft  bones  are  treated  with  some  preparation 
of  shellac  or  gum  to  harden  them  for  transportation-  Exact 
location  of  the  skeleton  and  the  relative  position  of  every 
bone  in  the  skeleton  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  Sketches 
and  photographs  are  made  as  the  work  progresses  and  all 
pieces  removed  are  carefully  labelled.  A  knowledge  of  the 
stratigraphical  horizon  is  essential  to  determining  much  of 
the  relationship  and  life  history  of  the  animal  and  the 
proper  location  of  each  bone  with  reference  to  neighboring 
bones   of  the   same   excavation   may   serve   greatly   in   the 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL  OF  MINES 


71 


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72  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

mounting  of  the  restored  skeleton.  Often  considerable 
masses  of  the  enclosing  earth  or  stone  are  quarried  out  and 
shipped  to  the  museum  where  time  and  proper  instruments 
will  permit  a  more  satisfactory  extraction  of  the  bones.  ( See 
Plate  10  and  Figures  20  and  21). 

Reaching  the  preparator's  laboratory  the  bandages  are 
carefully  removed,  all  useless  matrix  cleared  away  and  the 
bone  fragments  assembled  and  cemented  together.  Injured 
bones  are  then  repaired  and  missing  bones  reproduced  in 
some  suitable  artificial  preparation.  The  mounting  is  often 
facilitated  by  study  of  the  living  relatives  of  the  fossil  form. 
Where  there  is  no  living  animal  nearly  related,  recourse  is 
had  to  the  studies  of  the  rugosities  of  the  bones  where  the 
main  muscles  were  attached  in  life,  the  facettes  of  the  joints 
and  the  general  shape  and  character  of  the  various  bones. 

All  this  work,  if  properly  done,  requires  much  patience 
and  skill  in  manipulation  as  well  as  intelligent  insight  into 
the  general  nature  of  the  animal  to  be  mounted.  Many 
weeks  or  months  may  be  required  in  the  laboratory  work 
alone,  the  expense  of  preparation  usually  far  exceeding  the 
time  and  money  spefit  in  collecting  the  specimens  in  the 
field.  It  may  be  readily  inferred  that  the  money  value,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  educational  importance  of  the  completed 
skeleton,  particularly  if  it  is  the  type  specimen  of  a  new 
series,  is  often  very  great.     (Plate  50). 

THE  CLASSIFICATION  AND  NAMING  OF  EXTINCT 

ANIMALS 

The  naming  of  animals,  both  living  and  extinct  is 
closely  interwoven  with  their  classification.  Classification 
is  a  process  of  comparison.  Its  object  is  to  bring  together 
the  like  forms  and  to  separate  the  unlike.  This  is  best  ac- 
complished by  comparing  the  various  characters  which  are 
the  most  constant.  The  natural  result  is  the  arrangement 
of  groups  within  groups  in  a  continuous  manner,  the  various 
groups  being  given  particular  names,  as.  Kingdom,  Sub- 
kingdom,  Class,  Order,  Family,  Genus,  Species,  et  cetera. 
The  scientific  name  by  which  any  animal  is  indicated  is 
formed  by  combining  the  generic  and  specific  names  much 
as  we  combine  our  own  family  and  Christian  name  except 
that  in  the  scientific  nomenclature  the  specific  term  comes 
last.     To  illustrate:     The  scientific  name  of  the  domestic 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  73 

dog  is  Canis  familiaris  Linnaeus,  Canis  being  the  name  of 
the  genus  and  familiaris  the  name  of  the  species.  The  third 
non-italicized  portion  may  be  considered  a  part  of  the  name 
although  this  really  refers  only  to  the  naturalist  who  first 
carefully  described  and  properly  named  the  creature.  It  is 
often  omitted,  especially  in  the  case  of  fairly  common  or 
well  known  animals  or  w^here  there  is  no  mistaking  the  in- 
dividual who  gave  the  name.  In  scientific  literature,  how- 
ever, and  particularly  in  paleontology  where,  on  account  of 
imperfect  material,  there  is  liability  of  error  in  determina- 
tion this  is  usually  given  as  it  not  infrequently  becomes 
essential  for  clearness  in  referring  to  the  species.  Omitting 
it  from  the  name  for  the  time  being,  the  complete  classifica- 
tion of  the  dog  may  be  represented  as  follows: 

Kingdom,  Animalia. 

Sub-kingdom,  Vertebrata. 
Class,  Mammalia. 

Sub-class,  Eutheria. 

Infra-class,  Monodelphia. 
Cohort,   Unguiculata. 
Order,   Carnivora. 

Sub-order,  Fissipedia. 
Family,  Canidae. 
Genus,   Canis. 

Species,   Familiaris. 
Variety,   "Shepherd." 
Individual,    "Shep." 

Continuing  the  illustration  the  scientific  name  of  the 
tiger  is  Felis  tigris  Linnaeus;  of  the  ox,  Bos  taurus  Linnaeus; 
of  man,  Homo  sapiens  Linnaeus.  These  names  are  simple 
enough  when  once  understood  and  indeed  many  names  we 
now  look  upon  as  common  have  been  transferred  bodily 
from  the  scientific  generic  nomenclature,  as  for  example, 
rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  bison,  and  mastodon. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  common  names  by  which  ani- 
mals now  living  are  designated  are  often  not  sufficiently 
accurate.  The  name  in  order  to  be  properly  useful  must  be 
sufficiently  distinctive  to  indicate  clearly  the  animal  to  which 
reference  is  made.  For  example,  there  are  five  existing 
species  of  rhinoceroses,  the  clear  definition  of  which  by  com- 
mon names  is  perhaps  difficult  enough,  to  say  nothing  of  the 


74  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

score  or  more  of  fossil  forms  besides  a  still  larger  number 
of  extinct  animals  closely  allied  to  the  rhinoceroses  and 
falling  under  the  general  Class,  Khinocerotoidae.  Again 
sometimes  the  common  name  is  deceptive.  For  example  the 
well  known  pronghorn  antelope,  Antilocapra  americana,  of 
our  western  plains  is  considered  by  some  zoologists  as  not 
being  an  antelope  at  all.  On  the  other  hand  our  Eocky 
Mountain  goat  Oreanus  Montanus  is  a  member  of  the  true 
antelope  family.  True  antelopes  at  the  present  day  inhabit 
chiefly  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa.  They  include  many 
species,  the  better  known  ones  being  designated  in  common 
speech  as  hartebeests,  gnus,  elands,  gazelles,  klipspringers, 
gemsbocks,  springboks,  waterbucks,  duickerboks,  saigas, 
etc.  Several  of  these  are  subdivided.  For  example  the 
duickerboks  alone  are  credited  with  thirty-eight  species.  If, 
therefore,  we  are  going  to  name  animals  in  conformity  with 
their  recognized  distinctions,  and  for  clearness  of  concep- 
tion there  is  generally  no  alternative,  then  the  various 
duickerbok  species  must  each  be  given  a  name — thirty-eight 
in  all.  Thus  antelope  being  in  reality  a  misnomer  here  in 
this  country  and  losing  much  of  its  distinctive  significance 
even  in  the  old  world,  becomes  little  more  than  a  loose  ex- 
pression for  a  great  group  of  animals,  some  of  them  no 
larger  than  a  jack-rabbit,  and  others  comparable  in  size  to 
a  horse. 

Generally,  in  designating  the  species,  the  words  of  the 
scientific  name  refer  to  some  important  character,  or  they 
express  some  relationship  or  resemblance,  or  indicate  some 
fact  of  distribution  or  discovery.  Sometimes  the  meaning 
Is  obscure  in  which  case  it  may  be  necessary  to  consult  the 
work  of  the  original  author  for  the  interpretation.  Often, 
however,  the  name  needs  little  explanation  other  than  that 
given  by  a  good  comprehensive  dictionary. 

The  generic  names  are  usually  of  classic  origin,  most  of 
them  being  Latinized  forms  of  Greek  names.  They  may  be 
either  simple  or  compound  words  and  they  often  have 
modifying  or  descriptive  prefixes  or  suffixes.  The  specific 
names  show  a  somewhat  wider  latitude  of  origin  than  the 
generic  names.  Sometimes  they  are  geographical,  sometimes 
personal,  oftentimes  descriptive.  The  following  names  of 
badland  fossils  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  principle: 
Procamelus  occidentalis  Leidy,  an  ancestral  camel  of  the 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  75 

new  world,  described  by  Leidy;  Magacerops  brachycephalus 
Osborn,  a  short  headed  animal  with  a  great-horned  appear- 
ance, described  by  Osborn;  Ncohipparion  whitneyi  Gidley, 
a  new  world,  small  horse  described  by  Gidley  and  named  in 
honor  of  W.  C.  Whitney;  Protoceras  celcr  Marsh,  a  fleet- 
footed  first-horned  animal  described  by  Marsh;  Protosorex 
crassus  Scott,  a  large  sized  primitive  shrew,  described  by 
Scott. 

It  would  lead  us  too  far  away  to  go  into  the  full  details 
of  this  nomenclature.  One  additional  feature,  however,  de- 
serves notice  in  view  of  its  not  infrequent  perplexity.  The 
individual  who  first  describes  a  new  species  is  supposed  to 
give  it  a  name  which  must  not  conflict  with  any  name  used 
previously  for  another  species.  According  to  the  rules  gov- 
erning the  matter  the  name  by  reason  of  its  priority  can  not 
be  changed  subsequently  except  for  cause.  Often  in  paleon- 
tological  work  where  poor  or  insufficient  or  aberrant  ma- 
terial has  been  first  studied  later  discoveries  have  shown 
errors  of  description  or  improper  identification  in  which 
case  a  new  name  may  become  necessary.  The  new  name, 
if  properly  given  becomes  the  accepted  name  while  the  old 
name  is  referred  to  as  a  synonymn.  In  not  a  few  cases  there 
are  several  synonyms  and  not  infrequently  it  is  a  matter  of 
some  conjecture  as  to  just  which  is  the  most  appropriate 
under  the  circumstances. 

With  rare  exceptions  the  animal  life  of  the  White 
River  badlands  is  restricted  to  the  Vertebrata — the  back- 
boned animals.  Aside  from  turtles  of  which  there  are  many, 
and  a  few  crocodiles,  lizards,  and  birds  eggs,  all  of  the 
fossil  remains  of  the  vertebrates  thus  far  found  within  the 
area  belong  to  the  great  class  "Mammalia."  The  term 
"Mammalia"  includes  all  hair-clad,  vertebrated  animals, 
the  females  of  which  are  provided  with  glands  for  secreting 
milk  for  the  early  nourishment  of  the  offspring.  They  are 
the  highest  of  the  vertebrates,  possessing  that  happy  com- 
bination of  anatomical  and  physiological  simplicity  and 
complexity  tending  toward  highest  efficiency  as  organisms. 
They  are  not  only  the  most  important  animals  of  today, 
but  they  have  been  the  rulers  of  the  animal  world  since 
early  Tertiary  time.  Continuing  back  in  geological  history 
with  ever  increasing  simplicity  toward  a  generalized,  omni- 
vorous, allotherian  ancestry  they  may  be  traced  with  cer- 


76  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

tainty  to  Triassic  time.  Since  their  beginning  multitudinous 
changes  have  taken  place  in  the  structure  and  activity  of 
the  many  species  that  have  originated,  developed  and  died 
and,  as  a  result,  the  expression  of  relationship  must  often 
be  indefinite  or  uncertain. 

Following  the  custom  of  many  authors  three  main 
subclasses  of  the  Mammalia  may  be  recognized,  namely,  the 
Prototheria  or  primitive  mammals,  the  Metatheria  or 
pouched  mammals  and  the  Eutheria  or  perfect  mammals. 

The  Prototherian  mammals  are  restricted  to  a  few 
simple  forms  such  as  the  Echidna  (Australian  Ant  Eater) 
and  the  Ornithorynchus  (Duck-billed  Platypus)  which  lay 
large  yolked  eggs  much  after  the  fashion  of  reptiles  and 
birds.  They  are  not  represented  in  the  White  River  bad- 
lands either  living  or  fossil,  hence  need  no  further  consider- 
ation here. 

The  Metatheria  are  those  intermediate,  marsupial 
mammals  which,  having  only  a  rudimentary  or  primitive 
placental  structure,  bring  forth  their  young  in  a  very  im- 
mature state  and  carry  them  for  a  considerable  time  in  a 
pouch  provided  for  the  purpose.  The  opossum,  the  kanga- 
roo and  the  Tasmanian  "wolf"  are  well  known  representa- 
tives. Like  the  Prototheria  the  Metatheria  are  not  found 
in  the  White  River  badlands. 

The  Eutheria  include  a  vast  assemblage  of  forms  of  all 
sorts  of  perfection  of  development  from  lowly  primitive 
creatures  to  man.  These  are  grouped  somewhat  differently 
by  different  authors  but  all  of  the  fossil  forms  obtained 
from  the  region  under  discussion  fall  naturally  into  four 
main  divisions,  namely,  the  Insectivora  (insect  eaters)  the 
Carnivora  (flesh  eaters),  the  Rodentia  (gnawers),  and  the 
Ungulata  (hoofed  mammals),  the  Ungulata  (Herbivora)  j 
being  represented  by  two  orders,  the  Perissodactyla  (ererr-  atil^ 
toed  mammals)  and  the  Artiodactyla  (©4d-toe^  mammals). 

The  Insectivores  include  moles,  hedgehogs,  shrews  and 
other  small  animals  of  antiquated  structure.  They  are 
generally  plantigrade  (walking  upon  the  sole  of  the  foot), 
the  snout  is  often  prolonged  into  a  short  proboscis,  and 
their  chief  food  is  insects.  The  Carnivores  include  animals 
whose  chief  food  is  flesh.    They  may  be  terrestrial,  arboreal, 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  77 

or  aquatic.  They  have  a  simple  stomach,  a  well  developed 
brain,  toes  provided  usually  with  long,  sharp  claws,  and 
generally  they  have  a  body  capable  of  much  agility  in  the 
capture  of  prey.  They  walk  either  upon  the  entire  sole  of 
the  foot  or  upon  the  under  surface  of  the  toes  but  never 
upon  the  tips  of  the  toes  as  do  the  Ungulata.  The  carni- 
vorous structure  is  common  to  all  of  the  class  but  the 
carnivorous  habit,  though  general  is  not  universal.  Living 
representatives  vary  in  size  from  the  little  active  ermine  to 
the  powerful  grizzly  bear.  The  Rodents  include  a  group  of 
small  to  moderately  large  animals  the  most  prominent  and 
universal  character  of  which  is  their  dentition.  Canine 
teeth  are  absent.  The  deeply  set  incisors,  separated  by  a 
considerable  vacant  interval  from  the  molars,  are  long  and 
flat  edged  and  are  of  paramount  importance.  Since  they 
lengthen  by  persistent  growth  they  serve  admirably  for 
vigorous  chisel-like  cutting  of  hard  materials,  hence  the 
name  "gnawers."  The  animals  are  usually  plantigrade, 
often  burrowing,  not  infrequently  arboreal,  and  occasionally 
acquatic.  They  are  today  represented  by  the  squirrels, 
prairie  dogs,  rabbits,  rats,  mice,  beavers,  porcupines,  and  a 
host  of  others.  The  Ungulates  (Herbivores)  are  plant- 
feeding  animals  with  hoofs  rather  than  claws  or  nails,  and 
with  limbs  perfected  for  running  and  not  for  climbing  and 
grasping.  Viewed  from  the  point  of  usefulness  to  man  they 
are  the  most  important  of  all  animals  in  that  they  furnish 
him  with  food,  clothing  and  working  assistance. 

CARNIVORES 

The  Carnivora  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  three 
sub-divisions  (sub-orders),  namely,  the  Creodonta  or  primi- 
tive carnivores,  the  Fissipedia  or  true  carnivores,  and  the 
Pinnipedia  or  aquatic  carnivores.  Of  these  the  Creodonts 
are  found  only  in  the  fossil  state;  the  Fissipedes  include  our 
common  carnivorous  animals  such  as  the  Canidae  (dogs  or 
dog-like  creatures)  and  the  Felidae  (cat  family),  and  are 
both  fossil  and  living.  They  are  found  in  large  numbers 
among  the  fossils  of  the  badlands.  The  Pinnipedes  include 
the  aberrant  animals,  the  seals  and  walruses.  The  Creodonts 
are  represented  in  the  White  River  badlands  by  but  one 
family,  the  Hyaenodonts.  The  Pinnipedes  are  not  found 
there  at  all. 


78  THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 

CREODONTA 

The  Cerodonts  originated  in  the  earliest  Tertiary  and 
were  evidently  the  predatory  flesh  eaters  of  their  time. 
They  were  the  primitive  ancestors  of  the  true  carnivores 
and  they  held  a  position  relative  to  contemporary  animals 
similar  to  that  which  the  true  carnivores  hold  among  the 
animals  of  today. 


Figure    22 — Skeleton    of    the    Oligocene    creodont    Hyaenodon    cruentus 
Scott.      1895. 

There  w^ere  numerous  families  but  of  all  these  only 
the  Hyaenodons,  the  latest  and  most  specialized  are  found 
in  the  White  River  badlands.  (See  Plate  25).  The  indi- 
vidual fossils  are  not  abundant  although  several  species  are 
represented.  The  skull  of  the  largest  Hyaendon  horridus  in- 
dicates an  animal  of  wolf-like  appearance  approaching  in 
size  the  present  day  black  bear.  The  life  habits  of  these 
animals  are  not  entirely  clear.  It  is  not  even  known  whether 
they  were  digitigrade  or  plantigrade.  They  may  have  been 
semi-plantigrade.  It  has  been  suggested  that  they  were 
semi-acquatic  but  this  is  quite  uncertain.  The  Hyaenodons, 
unlike  most  of  the  class,  seem  to  have  lived  on  carrion. 

CANIDAE 

The  Canidae  are  abundantly  represented  in  the  White 
River  badlands.  More  than  tw^enty  species  are  known.  The 
earliest  North  American  Canidae  recognized  as  such  are 
found  in  the  Upper  Eocene.     They  first  appeared  in  Europe 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  79 

at  about  this  time  also  and  were  abundant  in  both  Europe 
and  North  America  during  Oligocene  and  Miocene  times. 
They  are  known  to  have  reached  India  by  the  early  part  of 
the  Pliocene  and  seem  to  have  migrated  along  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  to  South  America  as  soon  as  it  emerged  from 
the  sea  at  the  dawn  of  Pliocene  time.  It  is  of  interest  to 
note  in  this  connection  that  the  nearest  living  allies  of  the 


Figure   23 — Dorsal   view  of   the  hind   foot  and     the      fore      foot     of 
Daphoenodon  superbus.     Peterson,  1910. 

White  River  Oligocene  and  Miocene  forms  are  certain  foxes 
now  inhabiting  South  America. 

According  to  Cope,  the  Canidae,  so  far  as  concerns 
structure,  occupy  a  position  intermediate  between  the  gen- 
eralized carnivores,  such  as  the  raccoons,  and  the  highest 
specialized  forms,  the  cats;  but  in  brain  character  they  dis- 
play superiority  to  all  of  the  other  carnivore  families.     The 


80 


THE   WHITE    RIVER    BADLANDS 


chief  difference  between  the  Tertiary  and  the  living  forms 
lie  in  the  higher  specialization  of  the  latter,  particularly  as 
regards  foot  structure  and  brain  character. 

The  Canidae  seem  almost  certainly  to  have  descended 
directly  from  the  early  Eocene  Creodonta,  but  so  undoubt- 
edly did  the  Felidae.  During  the  Oligocene  time  the  two 
families  were  much  generalized  and  had  many  characters  in 


Figure  24 — Skull  of  DapJioenoclon  superbus.     Peterson,  1906. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


81 


o 
*; 

§• 
Q 

DO 

o 


;3 
bo 


82  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

common,  particularly  in  the  dentition,  the  structure  of  the 
skull,  the  vertebrae,  the  limbs,  and  the  feet.  One  feature  of 
surprising  interest,  first  indicated  by  Prof,  Scott,  is  that 
some  at  least  of  the  Canidae  had  sharp  pointed,  high,  com- 
pressed, hooded  claws,  as  in  the  cats,  instead  of  curved, 
cylindrical  cones,  as  in  the  dogs,  and  had  the  unmistakable 
ability  of  retracting  the  claws  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 


Figure  26 — Skull  of  Cynodictis  gregarius.     Scott,  1898. 

Although  many  specimens  of  the  Canidae  have  been 
found  in  the  White  River  badlands,  few  complete  skeletons 
have  been  obtained.  Until  recent  jears  little  had  been  col- 
lected but  heads.  Of  the  several  species  Cynodictis  gregar- 
ius, Daphoeniis  felinus  and  Daphoenus  superbus  are  the 
best  known.  Cynodictis  gregarius  was  most  abundant  and 
as  the  name  implies  seems  to  have  roved  the  country  in 
packs.  It  was  smaller  than  the  common  red  fox  of  the 
eastern  states.  Daphoenus  felinus  reached  approximately 
the  size  of  the  coyote,  while  Daphoenus  superhus  was  as 
large  as  a  full  grown  gray  wolf.  (See  Plate  20).  One 
species,  Ischyrocyon  hyacnodus,  includes  individuals  of 
larger  size.  Partial  remains  of  a  young  individual  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  full  grown  animal  would  compare  favor- 
ably with  the  modern  grizzly  bear. 

Daphoenus  seems  to  represent  in  pretty  fair  manner 
the  ancestral  stage  of  the  present-day  wolf.  Cynodictis  has 
many  characters  resembling  those  of  the  modern  fox  but 
close  relationship  has  not  been  proven.  A  small  brain  was 
characteristic  of  all  of  the  Canidae  and  this  was  particu- 
larly true  of  Daphoenus. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL  OF  MINES 


88 


Figure    27 — Skeleton    of      the      Oligocene      dog,      Cynodictis    gregarius. 
Matthew,   1901. 

FELIDAE 

The  cat  family  is  well  represented  in  fossil  form  in  the 
White  River  region,  although  neither  the  species  nor  the 
individuals  were  so  numerous  as  were  the  Canidae.  Two 
genera  are  of  particular  prominence,  namel^^,  Hoplophoneus 
and  Dinictis.  These  are  early  forms  of  what  are  commonly 
known  as  saber-tooth  cats  or  tigers  (Machaerodonts),  a 
name  given  them  by  reason  of  two  great  sword  or  saber-like 
canine  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw.  They  were  not  so  large  as 
certain  later  forms  of  this  great  group,  nevertheless  they 
were  vicious  creatures  and  Hoplophoneus,  the  larger  of  the 


■Ju.  Fr. 


Figure     28 — Skull      of     the      Saber-tooth      tiger,      Dinictis      squalidens. 
Matthew,   1905. 


84 


THE  WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 


two,  was  doubtless  fully  as  large  as  the  present  day  leopard 
and  apparently  much  more  powerful.  (Plates  27  and  28). 
The  two  represent  well  separated  stages  in  the  evolution  of 
saber-tooth  cats,  and  while  Dinictis  seems  to  have  reached 
as  high  a  stage  of  specialization  as  Hoplophoneus,  it  was  evi- 
dently fitted  to  a  somewhat  different  life. 

An  important  feature  of  the  lower  jaw  is  the  extreme 
downward  projection  of  its  anterior  portion.  This  seems  to 
be  a  co-incident  feature  necessitated  by  the  unprecedented 
development  of  the  powerful  canine  teeth  already  mentioned. 


Figure  29 — Heads  of  White  River  Saber-tooth  tigers  showing  open 
jaws  ready  for  attack,  (a)  Hoplophoneus  primaevus  (b)  Dinictis 
sgualidens.     Matthew. 


These  upper  canine  teeth  curve  forward  and  downward 
nearly  parallel  with  each  other,  and  passing  behind  the 
much  smaller  lower  canines,  continue  approximately  to  the 
lowest  portion  of  the  anterior  downward  prolongation  of  the 
chin.  In  general  they  are  laterally  compressed  and  the 
edges  are  more  or  less  serrulated.  They  are  implanted  by  a 
strong  fang  and  reach  two  and  one-half  or  three  inches  in 
length.  In  Hoplophoneus,  these  fangs  were  very  long  and 
slender  and  the  protecting  jaw  flange  was  correspondingly 
deep.  Dinictis  had  shorter  canines  and  a  less  prominent 
jaw  flange. 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


85 


The  cause  of  the  development  of  the  abnormally  power- 
ful upper  canines  and  the  uses  to  which  they  were  put  have 
been  the  cause  of  nuich  speculation.  (Plates  11  and  12.) 
W.  D.  jMatthew  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory in  discussing  this  indicates  that  in  his  opinion  there 
is  definite  evidence  of  the  adaptation  of  the  canines  to 
a  particular  method  of  attack.  The  head  is  so  shaped 
that  good  attachment  is  allowed  for  strong  muscles,  en- 
abling the  animal  to  strike  downward  with  its  saber  teeth 
with  enormous  power  and  the  changes  in  the  cranial  por- 


Figure   30 — Dorsal    view   of   the   fore   foot   and   the   hind   foot    of   Hop- 
lophoneus  primaevus.    Adams  1896. 

tion  allowing  for  the  attachment  for  the  increasingly  pow- 
erful muscles  were  in  strict  correlation  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  saber-teeth.  Along  with  these  changes  was 
the  degeneration  and  change  in  shape  of  the  lower  jaw, 
allowing  the  mouth  to  be  opened  to  an  unusual  extent  so  as 
to  give  greatest  freedom  to  the  saber-teeth  in  stabbing  the 
prey.  Hoplophoneus  in  addition  to  his  terrible  teeth  had  a 
strong  body,  stout  neck  and  legs  and  highly  developed  strong 
retractile  claws.  His  food  must  have  been  in  large  measure 
the  thick  skinned  rhinoceroses,  elotheres,  oreodonts,  and 
other  similar  animals  of  the  time.    The  lighter  proportioned 


86 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  87 

Dinictis,  with  its  less  powerful  canines,  doubtless  preyed 
more  successfully  on  the  smaller  swift-footed  animals,  the 
securing  of  which  demanded  superior  speed  and  endurance. 


Figure     32 — Skeleton     of     the     Oligocene     saber-tooth     tiger     Dinictis 
squalidens.     Matthew,  1901. 

The  White  Kiver  badlands  furnished  the  earliest  dis- 
covered remains  of  Saber-tooth  cats  in  America.  Leidy  who 
described  the  first  species  gave  it  the  name  Macliaerodus 
primacvus.  Later  this  was  changed  to  Depranodon  prim- 
aevus,  and  still  later  to  Uoplophoneus  primaevus^  the  name 
it  now  bears.  From  time  to  time  other  species  have  been 
discovered  until  now  about  a  dozen  are  known.  They  were 
all  most  terrible  beasts  of  prey  and  one  of  them  Eusmilus  da- 
kotensis,  approaching  the  size  of  the  African  lion  was  the 
largest  carnivore  of  its  time. 

MUSTELIDAE 

The  Mustelidae  of  the  present  day  include  such  animals 
as  the  badgers,  minks,  martens,  weasels,  ermines,  skunks, 
otters,  and  ratels-  Fossil  members  of  the  family  have  been 
found  in  some  abundance.  The  more  ancestral  forms  con- 
tinue back  to  Eocene  time,  but  no  clearly  defined  species 
have  as  yet  been  identified  in  the  White  River  badlands  in 
rocks  older  than  the  Miocene. 

None  of  the  remains  discovered  are  complete,  and  nearly 
all  are  more  or  less  mutilated.  Those  of  MegaUctis  ferox, 
however,  are  sufficiently  characteristic  to  indicate  much  of 
the  nature  of  the  animal.  They  represent  a  very  large  mus- 
teline.    The  head  is  short,  wide,  and  massive,  brain  small, 


88  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

tail  long  and  powerful,  limbs  short  and  stout,  feet  planti- 
grade, number  of  toes  five,  claws  large  and  non-retractile. 
The  animal  is  characterized  as  a  gigantic  wolverine,  equal- 
ling a  jaguar  or  a  black  bear  in  size,  but  in  proportion  more 
like  the  ratel.  It  was  evidently  predaceous  like  the  wolver- 
ine, but  seems  to  have  been  to  some  degree  of  burrowing  dis- 
position. 

INSECTIVORES 

Remains  of  insectivorous  animals  are  recognized  as  far 
back  as  earliest  Tertiary  time,  but  the  fossils  are  not 
abundant.  The  White  River  badlands  have  yielded  several 
species,  but  they  are  fragmentary.  They  belong  to  several 
families,  particularly  the  hedgehogs,  the  shrews  and  the 
golden  moles.  The  identification  of  fossil  remains  of  the 
golden  mole  in  South  Dakota  brought  up  certain  important 
questions  and  speculations.  True  moles  (Talpidae)  are  now 
found  in  the  subarctic  or  temperate  zones  of  all  the  northern 
continents,  but  not  in  or  south  of  the  tropics.  However,  in 
the  south  temperate  zone,  there  are  animals  which  have 
adopted  mole-like  habits  and  superficially  resemble  the  true 
moles  to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  The  Chrysochloridae  or 
golden  moles  of  South  Africa  are  of  this  nature.  A  similar 
animal  in  fossil  form  has  been  found  in  the  Upper  Miocene  of 
southern  South  America.  The  peculiar  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  certain  animals  and  plants  of  southern  lands 
has  long  been  a  source  of  speculation  and  study  and  this 
finding  of  a  fossil  golden  mole  in  South  Dakota  so  far  re- 
moved from  its  present  day  and  fossil  relatives,  adds  a  new 
feature  of  interest. 

RODENTS 

The  rodents  or  gnawers  as  regards  numbers  are  over- 
whelmingly predominant  among  living  mammals.  Their 
most  prominent  and  universal  character,  the  dentition,  shows 
the  absence  of  canine  teeth  and  the  paramount  importance 
of  front  teeth  or  incisors.  They  appear  to  have  originated 
in  North  America  in  early  Eocene  time  and  to  have  been 
rather  rapidly  distributed  to  the  other  great  land  masses  of 
the  earth.  In  the  White  River  region  they  appear  first  in 
the  Middle  Oligocene,  ancestral  squirrels,  rabbits,  beavers, 
and   rats,   being   represented.      The   beavers   or   beaver-like 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


89 


animals  coutiiiue  into  the  Upper  Oiigocene,  the  Lower  Mio- 
cene and  the  Upper  Miocene.  They  are  particularly 
abundant  in  the  Lower  Miocene.  Babbits  occur  also  in  the 
Lower  Miocene  as  well  as  certain  poorly  preserved  forms 
supposed  to  be  related  to  pocket  gophers. 

The  number  of  specimens  found  indicates  a  consider- 
able abundance  of  rodents  in  the  region  during  Tertiary 
time,  and  the  number  of  species  adds  emphasis  to  this.  It 
happens,  however,  that  but  few  complete  skeletons  have 
been  obtained,  the  best  material  consisting  largely  of  skulls 
and  lower  jaws,  and  in  several  of  the  species  named,  the 
description  has  been  based  on  still  more  fragmentary  ma- 
terial. 

The  earliest  specimens  of  the  rodents  obtained  were 
found  by  Hayden  in  the  Big  Badlands,  and  described  by 
Leidy.  With  the  exception  of  two  other  species  described 
many  years  ago  by  Cope,  little  further  information  became 
available  until  the  last  few  years,  during  which  time  Mr. 
Peterson  of  the  Carnegie  Museum,  and  Mr.  Matthew  of  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  each  described  a 
number  of  species.  The  Carnegie  Museum  material  has 
come  chiefly  from  northwestern  Nebraska  and  eastern  Wyom- 
ing, the  American  Museum  material  from  Little  White  river. 


Figure   33 — Skeleton    of   the   Lower   Miocene    burrowing   rodent    Steneo- 
fiber  fossor.     Peterson,  1905. 

The  commonest  fossil  is  Steneoflber.  This  is  especially 
abundant  in  the  Lower  Bosebud  beds  of  Little  White  river 
and  in  the  Harrison  (Daemonelix)  beds  in  northwestern 
Nebraska  and  in  eastern  Wyoming.  Entoptychus,  the 
gopher-like  rodent,  seems  to  be  fairly  common  in  the  Little 
White  river  area  also.     Peterson  found  many  specimens  of 


90  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

Steneofiber  fossor  in  close  association  with  the  Devil's  Cork- 
screws of  the  Harrison  beds  and,  as  referred  to  elsewhere, 
suggests  the  reason  for  the  association.  This  animal  was 
smaller  generally  than  the  present  day  beaver.  Its  skull  is 
comparatively  large,  the  lower  jaws  heavy,  neck  short,  limbs 
and  feet  powerful,  tail  round,  rather  heavy  and  of  moderate 
length.  Peterson  states  that  the  limb  presents  a  striking 
similarity  to  that  of  other  burrowing  rodents  and  ap- 
proaches that  of  the  mole  in  its  position.  The  elongated  and 
narrow  scapula  of  the  mole,  the  heavy  clavicle,  the  strongly 
built  humerus,  and  the  broad  foot  with  the  long  and  power- 
ful unguals,  is  rather  suggestive  of  the  habits  of  this  animal, 
which  was  probably  burrowing  to  a  considerable  degree.  The 
animal  is  related  to  the  beaver,  but  is  evidently  not  in  the 
direct  line  of  ancestry. 

UNGULATES 

The  order  Ungulata  ( Herbivores )  as  now  constituted  in- 
cludes the  mammals  once  loosely  classed  as  Ruminants,  and 
Pachyderms.  The  earliest  known  forms  much  resemble  the 
primitive  Carnivores.  The  ancestors  of  both  seem  to  have 
been  omnivorous. 

For  some  reason  there  appeared  very  early  among  the 
Ungulates  a  tendency  to  develop  the  herbivorous  type  of 
tooth  and  the  digitigrade  foot  (walking  upon  the  tips  of  the 
toes).  The  change  in  the  foot  from  the  five  toed  plantigrade 
form  progressed  along  two  different  lines  and  thus  there 
were  produced  two  very  different  types,  ,namely,  the  odd-toed 
type  and  the  even-toed  type.  In  the  odd-toed  type  the  axis 
of  the  foot  is  in  the  third  or  middle  digit  (mesaxonic). 
Animals  of  this  type  are  known  as  Perissodactyls.  In  the 
even-toed  types  the  axis  of  the  foot  is  between  the  third  and 
fourth  digits  (paraxonic).  Animals  of  this  type  are  known 
as  Artiodactyls.  The  horse,  the  tapir,  and  the  rhinoceros 
are  well  known  representatives  of  the  perissodactyls.  Among 
Artiodactyls  are  the  camel,  lama,  deer,  giraffe,  antelope,  ox, 
sheep,  goat,  and  bison. 

PERISSODACTYLS 

Perissodactyls,  as  above  stated,  have  the  axis  of  the  foot 
in  the  third  or  middle  digit.  They  are  generally  odd  toed, 
the  third  toe  being  the  largest  and  sometimes  the  only  func- 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  91 

tional  one.  The  tapir,  an  anatomically  unprogressive  crea- 
ture, is  a  partial  exception  in  that  it  has  four  toes  on  the 
front  foot  and  three  toes  on  the  hind  foot.  Similar  excep- 
tions or  seeming  exceptions  occasionally  existed  in  the  evolu- 
tionary development  of  other  perissodaetyls,  nevertheless  the 
bisection  of  the  third  toe  by  the  median  plane  of  the  foot 
early  asserted  itself  and  has  continued  with  firm  persistence. 

Existing  perissodaetyls  include  animals  of  greatly  dif- 
fering appearance  and  habits  but  their  skeletal  characters 
indicate  with  certaintly  their  relationship  and  skeletal 
characters  indicate  also  the  wide  gap  between  them  and 
other  hoof-bearing  creatures. 

The  perissodaetyls  constitute  a  restricted  group  and 
although  many  prehistoric  forms  are  known — in  all  about 
five  hundred  species — living  species  are  confined  to  the  three 
well  known  families,  rhinoceroses,  tapirs,  and  horses.  Of 
fossil  forms  the  following  families  are  represented  in  the 
White  river  badlands :  Titanotheridae,  Equidae,  Tapiridae, 
Lophiodontidae,  Hyracodontidae,  Amynodoutidae,  and  Rhin- 
ocerotidae. 

The  living  forms  so  far  as  concerns  their  present 
natural  habitat,  with  the  exception  of  the  American  tapirs, 
are  all  confined  to  the  Old  World.  Gidley  calls  attention  to 
the  fact  that  this  is  the  more  interesting  since  North  America 
seems  to  have  been  the  birth  place  or  at  least  the  stage  for 
the  development,  not  only  of  the  early  representatives  of  all 
the  living  Perissodaetyls,  but  of  most  of  the  extinct  groups 
of  the  order  as  well  and  that  half  the  total  number  of 
perissodactyl  species  described  have  been  founded  on  speci- 
mens from  the  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  formations  of  this 
country. 

RHINOCEROTOIDEA 

The  finding  of  fossil  bones  of  true  rhinoceroses  in  the 
Big  Badlands  by  Alexander  Culbertson  in  1850,  and  their 
prompt  and  accurate  identification  by  Leidy,  constitute  one 
of  the  most  interesting,  unexpected,  and  instructive  paleon- 
tological  discoveries  of  America. 

Existing  rhinoceroses  are  confined  to  Africa,  the  Indian 
Archipelago  and  the  southern  parts  of  Asia.  These  form 
but  a  small  representation  of  the  numerous  ancestry  that 
abounded  in  North  America  from   Middle  Eocene  to  late 


92 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


Figure  34 — Skull  of  Metamynodon  planifrons.    Osborn,  1896. 

Miocene  time  and  in  Europe  from  Eocene  to  Pliocene  time. 
There  is  much  reason  for  believing  that  the  rhinoceros 
family  originated  in  North  America  and  subsequently  spread 
to  the  old  world  but  this  has  not  as  yet  been  proven. 

All  rhinoceroses,  living  and  extinct,  are  divided  by  Os- 
born into  three  subdivisions,  as  follows.  The  Hyracodonti- 
dae  or  cursorial  (upland)  rhinoceroses;  the  Amynodontidae 
(aquatic)  rhinoceroses,  and  the  Rhinocerotidao  or  true  (low- 
land) rhinoceroses.    Of  these  the  first  two  are  found  onlv  in 


Figure  35 — Skull  of  Caenopus  tridactylus.     Osborn,  1898. 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


93 


the  fossil  state,  the  third  is  found  both  fossil  and  living.  In 
America,  the  cursorial  rhinoceroses  are  found  first  in  the 
Middle  Eocene,  the  aquatic  rhinoceroses  in  the  Upper 
Eocene,  and  the  true  rhinoceroses  in  the  Lower  Oligocene. 
The  first  two  became  extinct  here  in  the  Oligocene,  but  the 
true  rhinoceroses  endured  until  after  the  close  of  the  Mio- 
cene. All  three  occur  in  fossil  form  within  the  area  described 
in  this  paper,  the  cursorial  and  aquatic  species  in  the  Oligo- 
cene, chiefly  in  the  Middle  Oligocene,  the  true  rhinoceroses 
throughout  both  the  Oligocene  and  the  Miocene. 

The  three  families  differed  greatly  from  one  another, 
both  in  exterior  form  and  in  dental  and  skeletal  structure. 
The  Hyracodonts  were  small,   light   chested,   swift   footed, 


Figure    36 — Skeleton    of    the    small,    swiftfooted    Oligocene    rhinoceros, 
Hyracodon  nebrascensis.     Osborn,  1898. 

hoofed,  hornless  creatures,  much  resembling  the  Miocene 
horses  and  evidently  well-fitted  for  living  on  the  grass- 
covered  higher  lands.  (Plates  30  and  38).  The  Amyno- 
donts  were  heavily  built,  short-bodied,  hornless  animals, 
with  spreading  padded  feet,  four  functional  toes  in  front, 
eyes  and  nostrils  much  elevated  supposedly  for  convenience 
in  swimming,  canine  teeth  enlarged  into  recurved  tusks, 
and  a  prehensile  upper  lip,  apparently  tending  toward 
proboscoid  development.  (Plates  29  and  30).  The  ani- 
mal evidently  much  resembled  the  present  day  hippo- 
potamus, both  in  build  and  in  habit.     One  adult  skeleton, 


94 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


that  of  Metamyiiodon  planifrons  in  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  measures  nine  and  one-half  feet  long  and 
four  and  one-half  feet  high  at  the  shoulders.  The  true  rhin- 
oceroses began  as  light  limbed,  hornless  animals,  interme- 
diate in  proportion  between  the  two  just  mentioned,  and  in 
size  and  structure  were  not  greatly  unlike  modern  tapirs. 
During  much  of  their  early  life  history  they,  like  the  more 
primitive  Hyracodonts  and  Amynodonts,  were  entirely  with- 
out horns. 


Figure  37 — Skeleton  of  the  heavy,  marsh  loving  Oligocene  rhinoceros, 
Metamynodon  pJanijrons.    Osborn,  1898. 


The  true  rhinoceroses  constitute  in  many  respects  the 
most  important  of  the  three  subdivisions  and  to  the  paleonto- 
logist are  of  profound  interest.  They  lived  in  great  num- 
bers in  the  region  of  the  Black  Hills  during  Oligocene  and 
Miocene  time,  and  their  skeletons  in  certain  favored  local- 
ities, particularly  in  the  Big  Badlands  and  in  Sioux  County, 
northwestern  Nebraska,  have  been  collected  in  abundance. 
The  Oligocene  forms  are  especially  characterized  as  being 
without  horns,  hence  the  old  name  Acerathere.  (Plate  15). 
The  Miocene  forms  have  generally,  but  not  always,  a  rudi- 
mentary or  fairly  well  developed  pair  of  horns  placed 
transversely  across  the  anterior  part  of  the  head,  hence 
the  name  Dicerathere.  (Plate  26).  Present  day  rhino- 
ceroses, it  should  be  remembered,  have  either  no  horn  or 
one  or  two  horns,  but  the  arrangement  when  horns  are 
present   is   always   medial,   never   transverse.      It   is   of   in- 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


»5 


96  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

terest  to  note  also  that  while  all  living  rhinoceroses  have 
feet  that  are  functionally  tridactyl,  some  of  the  ancestral 
true  rhinoceroses,  at  least  so  far  as  concerns  the  front  feet, 
were  functionally  tetradactyl.  This  is  known  to  be  true  of 
Trigonias  oshorni  and  is  suspected  of  others.  This  lessening 
of  the  number  of  functional  toes  corresponds  to  similar  alter- 
ations in  other  animals  and  indicates  progressive  change. 
Indeed,  the  rhinoceroses  show  in  many  ways  gradual  trans- 
formations, particularly  with  reference  to  the  feet,  the  teeth, 
and  the  development  of  horn  cores. 

Among  the  Aceratheres  Cacnopus  mitis  was  the  small- 
est, its  height  at  the  shoulders  being  approximately  twenty- 
eight  inches.  Among  the  Diceratheres  Dicer atherium  schiffi 
was  the  smallest.  It  was  also  most  specialized.  The  largest 
of  the  Aceratheres,  in  fact  the  largest  of  all  the  true  rhin- 
oceroses, seems  to  have  been  Caenopiis  platycephalus.  It 
considerably  surpassed  the  present  day  Sumatran  rhinoceros. 
Among  the  others  Caenopus  copei  was  about  the  size  of  the 
American  tapir  and  Caenopus  tridactylus,  measuring  seven 
feet,  nine  inches  in  length,  and  four  feet  high  to  top  of  the 
rump,  was  nearly  as  large  as  the  Sumatran  rhinoceros. 

LOPHIODONTIDAE 

The  lophiodonts,  closely  related  to  the  ancestral  tapirs, 
are  the  most  generalized  of  all  known  perissodactyls.  The 
fossils  that  have  been  found  are  in  general  very  fragmentary 
but  they  indicate  a  group  of  animals  of  great  interest.  Much 
uncertainty  prevails  as  to  the  exact  relationship  of  the 
Lophiodonts,  but  they  are  known  to  have  many  of  the  primi- 
tive characters  of  the  tapir,  the  hyracodont,  and  the  horse. 

CHALICOTHERIDAE 

The  study  of  fossil  bones  has  oftentimes  brought  out 
very  unexpected  information.  The  unravelling  of  the  story 
of  the  Chalicotheres  is  a  good  illustration  of  this  in  that  it 
presents  a  pronounced  exception  to  Cuvier's  law  of  correla- 
tion. Certain  peculiar  foot  bones  found  at  Eppelsheim, 
nearly  one  hundred  years  ago  were  pronounced  by 
Cuvier  to  be  those  of  a  gigantic  pangolin  (an  edentate). 
These  were  described  by  Lartet  under  the  name  Macrother- 
ium  (Big  Beast).  Later  some  skull  fragments  with  teeth 
found  in  the  same  Eppelsheim  locality  were  described  under 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


97 


,osee*aa. 


98  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

the  name  Chalicotherium  (Beast  of  the  Gravel).  The  teeth 
were  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  the  rhinoceros  hence  these 
head  parts  were  regarded  as  belonging  to  one  of  the  un- 
gulates. Some  paleontologists  believed  at  first  that  they 
represented  the  artiodactyles  but  later  they  were  generally 
considered  as  representing  the  perissodactyls.  The  foot 
bones  continued  to  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Edentates. 
Filhol,  a  French  paleontologist,  in  1887  reflecting  upon 
the  fact  that  Macrotherium  foot  bones  were  not  uncommon 
and  that  Chalicotherium  teeth  were  pretty  well  known  but 
that  no  one  had  discovered  feet  of  the  latter  nor  head 
of  the  former,  began  to  suspect  that  the  two  represented 
the  same  creature.  The  discovery  a  little  later  of  nearly 
complete  skeletons  under  favorable  conditions  definitely 
established  the  correctness  of  this  supposition.  It  is  of 
interest  that  in  more  recent  years  American  discoveries 
have  added  greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  these  strange 
creatures.  Several  localities  have  afforded  remains  of 
which  the  most  important  has  been  the  famous  Agate 
Springs  locality  in  northwestern  Nebraska.  The  de- 
posits are  known  as  the  Harrison  beds.  Director  W.  J. 
Holland  and  Mr.  O.  A.  Peterson  of  the  Carneige  Museum  in 
1909  described  in  elaborate  manner  some  of  the  best  Agate 
Springs  material  found  up  to  that  time  and  summarized  in 
good  form  the  descriptions  given  in  the  publications  of 
other  investigators.  Later  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History  made  important  discoveries  in  the  Agate  Springs 
locality  and  in  their  five  summers  (1911-1914,  1916)  of  exca- 
vation unearthed  there  within  an  area  of  about  thirty-six 
feet  square  nearly  complete  skulls  of  ten  individuals  and 
skeletal  parts  of  seventeen  individuals.  This  material  added 
new  information  of  importance  until  now  the  size  and  na- 
ture of  the  animal  are  known  to  a  high  degree  of  certainty. 

All  of  the  chalicotheres  found  in  the  Agate  Springs 
quarries  have  been  designated  as  belonging  to  the  genus 
Moropus.  Several  species  have  been  described.  The  largest 
is  Moropus  elatus,  an  animal  as  large  or  larger  than  the 
African  rhinoceros.  (Plate  31).  Others  are  considerably 
smaller. 

Moropus  in  life  was  evidently  very  grotesque  in  appear 
ance.     The  head  resembles  not  a  little  that  of  the  .*ior«e,  or 
the  primitive  rhinoceros.     The  neck  is  heavier  than  that  of 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  99 

the  horse  although  very  similar  in  shape,  while  the  body  has 
some  resemblance  in  general  outline  to  the  rhinoceros.  Tlie 
head  is  small  but  the  body  is  heavy  and  is  supported  by  heavy 
limbs  and  feet.  The  fore  limbs  are  larger  than  the  hind 
limbs  and  this  gives  to  the  animal  a  corresponding  pose. 
The  feet,  terminating  in  bifid,  clawlike  bones  are  especially 
distinctive,  combining  in  peculiar  manner  characteristics  of 
the  ungulates  and  apt>arent  characteristics  of  the  Carni- 
vores, and  of  animals  accustomed  to  digging.  (Plates  17 
and  32).  Osborn  says,  '^Moropus  may  be  characterized  as  a 
forest-loving,  slow  moving  animal,  not  improbably  fre- 
quently rather  swampy  ground.  The  small  head,  relatively 
long  neck,  high  fore  quarters,  short,  downwardly  sloping 
back,  straight  and  elongated  limbs,  suggest  a  profile  contour 
only  paralleled  by  the  forest-loving  okapi  among  existing 
mammals.  The  foot  structure,  of  course,  is  radically  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  okapi,  but  we  should  not  regard  it 
as  fossorial,  or  of  the  digging  type,  because  it  is  not  corre- 
lated with  a  fossorial  type  of  fore  limb.  It  would  appear 
that  these  great  fore  claws,  in  which  the  phalanges  were 
sharply  flexed,  were  used  in  pulling  down  the  branches  of 
trees  and  also  as  powerful  weapons  of  defense."  The  illu- 
strations give  a  better  idea  of  the  animal  than  can  readily 
be  obtained  by  simple  description. 

TAPIEIDAE 

The  present  day  tapirs,  like  the  horse,  are  the  descend- 
ants of  a  very  ancient  family.  Unlike  the  horse,  however, 
specialization  in  the  tapir  has  not  advanced  to  a  high  degree, 
and  so  far  as  foot  structure  is  concerned,  and  to  a  consider- 
able extent  tooth  structure  also,  the  modern  representatives 
of  the  tapir  are  in  much  the  same  condition  as  the  early 
ancestral  horses.  They  are  very  similar  to  the  Lophiodonts 
just  mentioned.  Indeed,  these  animals  and  the  ancestral 
tapirs  show  so  many  characteristics  of  such  decided  similar- 
ity or  of  such  a  vague  nature  as  to  render  their  separation 
and  classification  a  matter  of  difficulty  and  some  uncer- 
tainty. 

Fossil  remians  of  the  Tapiridae  are  comparatively  rare. 
They,  however,  have  had  a  wide  geographical  distribution 
and  are  known  to  be  present  in  rocks  of  nearly  every  period 
since  earliest  Tertiary  time.     Three  species,  described  from 


100  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

the  Big  Badlands,  all  belonging  to  the  genus  Protapirus,  are 
believed  to  be  in  the  direct  line  of  ancestry  from  the  modern 
tapirs.  (Plate  14).  All  of  the  specimens  secured  have 
come  from  within  or  near  the  Big  Badlands.  The  material 
is  not  abundant  and  consists  chiefly  of  skulls,  lower  jaws, 
and  certain  limb  bones. 

Prof.  Scott  suggests  that  the  scarcity  of  the  remains  is 
probably  because  tapirs  have  always  been  forest-haunting 
animals,  hence  their  habits  must  have  kept  them  in  places 
remote  from  areas  where  the  accumulation  of  sediments  was 
in  progress  and  thus  only  occasional  stragglers  were  buried 
and  preserved. 

EQUIDAE 

Of  all  the  fossils  of  the  White  River  badlands  perhaps 
none  have  elicited  more  genuine  interest  than  those  of  the 
Equidae,  or  horse  family.  The  ancestry  of  the  horse  is  in 
full  harmony  with  the  proud  position  he  holds  among  present 
day  animals.  No  other  mammal  displays  such  a  lengthy, 
well  connected  lineage,  nor  discloses  a  more  beautiful  handi- 
work in  the  well-ordered  development  of  structure  and  habits. 
For  perhaps  three  million  years  or  more,  members  of  the 
family  have  roamed  the  hills  and  dales  of  the  earth,  molding 
their  nature  to  an  ever  changing  environment,  discarding 
many  things  inherited  from  their  evident  Cretaceous  five- 
toed  progenitors,  and  taking  on  new  features  leading  to  the 
exquisite  relation  of  organs  and  actions  in  the  finely-built 
horse  of  today. 

The  earliest  known  members  of  the  family  is  the  little 
Hyracotherium,  or  Eohippus  of  the  Eocene,  less  than  one 
foot  in  height,  with  four  well  developed  toes  on  each  front 
foot,  and  three  on  each  hind  foot.  Splint  bones  indicate  the 
earlier  presence  of  five  toes  on  the  front  foot  and  four  on  the 
hind  foot,  and  there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that  at  some 
still  earlier  stage  the  pentadactyl  nature  was  complete.  In 
connection  with  the  progressive  enlargement  of  the  middle 
toe,  profound  alteration  also  took  place  in  other  parts  of 
the  anatomy,  particularly  the  lengthening  of  the  jaws,  in- 
creasing complexity  of  the  teeth,  pronounced  elongation  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  limbs,  and  the  degeneration  of  the 
ulna  and  fibula. 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


101 


;^ 


102  THE   WHITE   RIVER    BADLANDS 

The  phjlogeny  of  the  horse  was  first  suggested  by  the 
great  French  paleontologist,  Cuvier.  The  earliest  attempt 
at  its  expreession  was  made  by  Kowalevsky,  the  Russian.  He 
was  followed  in  succesive  order  by  Huxley  of  England, 
Marsh,  Cope,  Wortman  and  Scott  of  America,  and  Schlosser 
of  Germany,  and  more  recently  by  Osborn  and  others.  Inter- 
pretation by  the  earlier  men  showed  inconsistencies  and 
omissions,  but  with  increasing  collections  of  well-preserved 
material  it  has  been  possible  to  eliminate  aberrant  forms  and 
to  add  needful  material,  until  now  the  genealogical  series 
is  fairly  complete.  In  the  unraveling  of  the  relationships 
the  monophyletic  origin  theory  has  seemed  to  lose  much  of 
its  earlier  supposed   significance  as   supported   by   Marsh. 


Figure  41 — Skeleton  of  the  beautifully  preserved  Upper  Miocene 
three-toed  horse.  Neohippariqn  whitneyi.  Original  now  in  the 
Anaerican  Museum  of  Natural  History.  W.  B.  Scott,  A  History 
of  Land  Mammals  in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  1913.  Published 
by  The  Macmillan  Company.     Reprinted  by  permission. 

Later  paleontologists,  particularly  those  following  the  work 
of  Osborn  in  his  study  of  the  Titanotheres  and  Khinoceroses 
and  Osborn  and  Gidley  in  their  study  of  the  Equidae  in- 
clined to  the  polyphyletic  theory,  that  is,  that  the  representa- 
tives of  a  family  instead  of  being  necessarily  derived  from  a 
single  Eocene  ancestor  may  be  representative  of  several 
contemporaneous  phyla  represented  by  as  many  distinct 
types  of  the  Eocene.  For  a  diagrammatic  representation  of 
the  more  important  evolutionary  changes  see  Figure  48. 

Fortunately  the  fossils  representing  the  extinct  horses 
are  abundant  and  often  well  preserved.  For  some  years  the 
Peabodv  Museum  of  Yale  Universitv  excelled  all  others  in 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MIXES 


103 


the  exieJir  and  imp^oriaiiee  of  its  collections,  but  more  re- 
cently the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  has  stir- 
passed  it.  Gidley  stated  in  1907  that  the  latter  collection 
then  contained  several  thousand  specimens — Eocene  to  Plei- 
stocene, inclusive.  Granger.  190S.  says  that  the  Hyraco- 
theres  « Eocene  •  alone  were  represented  by  several  hundred 
specimens.  Matthew  and  Cook.  1909,  add  the  information 
that  in  their  recent  work  in  the  Pliocene  of  northwestern 
i^ebraska,  they  collecte*!  some  hundreds  of  incomplete  jaws 
and  ab«3ut  ten  thousand  sejiarate  teeth,  besides  great  numbers 
of  limbs  and  foot  bones.  While  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  al>ove  collections  represent  to  a  lai^e  extent  frag- 
mentary material.  Ost»om  states,  that  in  all  the  museums  of 
the  world  there  were  in  1904  only  eight  complete  mounted 
skeletons  of  fossil  horses,  but  that  of  these,  five  were  in  the 
American  Musetim. 


Figure  42 — Rigbt  hind  foot  and  lefi  fore  foot  of  the  three-toed  horaew 
Mesohippu*  interme^iiti.  front  and  side  riews.  Osbm&  and 
Wortman.      1S95. 


104 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


The  abundance  of  the  fossil  remains  and  their  wide- 
spread distribution  geologically  and  geographically,  clearly 
indicate  that  for  ages  members  of  the  horse  family  ranged 
over  the  country  in  countless  numbers.  They  were  numerous 
in  both  North  America  and  South  America,  Beginning,  as 
they  evidently  did,  in  the  earliest  Tertiary  or  late  Cretaceous 
in  some  generalized  form  of  small  height,  probably  no  great- 
er, according  to  Marsh,  than  a  rabbit,  they  continued  in 
increasing  size  to  individuals  larger  than  the  largest  draft 
horses  of  the  present  day.  The  earliest  and  the  latest  known 
members  of  the  familj^  do  not  occur  in  the  deposits  described 
in  this  paper,  but  intermediate  forms  are  found  in  consider- 
able numbers.  These  intermediate  forms  merit  our  chief  at- 
tention. 


fVsst 


fK&t 


Figure    43 — Illustration    to    show   evolution    of    the   fore    foot    in    the 
Horse  family.     Osborn. 


With  one  exception  all  horses  of  the  White  River  bad- 
lands had  three  toes  on  each  foot.  Those  of  the  older  for- 
mations, particularly  of  the  Oligocene,  stand  approximately 
midway  in  the  genealogical  line  and  show  characters  of  ab- 
sorbing interest. 

It  may  be  noted  here  that  Eocene  horses  are  four 
toed,  with  short  crowned  teeth;  Oligocene  horses  are  three 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


105 


toed  with  short  crowned  teeth;  Miocene  horses  are  three 
toed  with  progressively  long-crowned  teeth;  Pliocene  horses 
are  sometimes  three  toed  and  sometimes  one  toed,  with  long 
crowned  teeth ;  and  Pleistocene  horses  are  one  toed  with  very 


long  crowned  teeth. 


Figure    44 — Right   fore    foot   of    the    earliest   known    one-toed    horse, 
Pliohippus  lullianus.    Front,  side  and  back  views.   Troxell,  1916. 

The  earliest  one  toed  horse  of  which  we  have  knowledge 
is  Pliohippus  lulUanus  Troxell,  a  ten  months  old  colt,  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  skeleton  of  which  was  found  in  the 
summer  of  1916  in  the  valley  of  Little  White  river  near  the 
town  of  Mission  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Rosebud  Indian 
Reservation.  Remains  of  another  monodactyl  species 
Pliohippus  pcrni.r  found  somewhere  on  the  Niobrara  river 
was  described  in  1874  by  Marsh. 


106 


THE   WHITE    RIVER    BADLANDS 


Of  the  many  species  discovered,  the  commonest  and 
most  noted  one  is  Mesohippus  Bairdi  of  the  Middle  Olio- 
cene.  (Plates  16  and  33).  In  consequence  of  the  fact  that 
all  of  the  earlier  skeletons  found  were  much  broken  and 
poorly  preserved,  and  only  the  best  bones  saved,  for  forty 
years  little  was  known  of  this  animal  except  what  could 
be  learned  from  the  foot  bones  and  the  head.  Since  1890 
several  well  preserved,  nearly  complete  sketletons  have 
been  found  and  some  of  these  have  been  dscribed  in  much 
detail.  The  adult  animal  averaged  about  eighteen  inches  in 
height,  approximately  the  height  of  the  coyote.  It  was  a 
slender-limbed  creature,  very  well  adapted  for  speed.  The 
hind  limbs  were  much  longer  than  the  fore  limbs,  more  so 
proportionately  than  in  the  present  day  horse,  and  the  spines 
of  the  lumbar  vertebrae  were  nearly  if  not  quite  as  high  as 
those  of  the  dorsal  region,  so  that,  according  to  Farr,  the 
rump  must  have  been  much  elevated  above  the  withers  if 
the  different  parts  of  the  limbs  were  not  very  much  more 


Figure    45 — Skull    of    the    browsing    three-toed    horse    Parahippus    ne- 
brascensis.     Osborn   1918.      (Lower   Miocene.) 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


107 


flexed  on  each  other  than  would  seem  justifiable,  judging 
from  recent  animals.  Scott  states  that  the  obliquity  of  the 
faces  of  the  dorsal  and  lumbar  vertebrae  show  that  the  back 
was  decidedly  arched. 

The  skull  was  about  seven  inches  in  length.  The  brain 
was  large  and  apparentl}^  well  convoluted.  It  weighed  about 
one-third  as  much  as  the  brain  of  the  average  present  day 
horse.  The  number  of  teeth  was  forty-four,  the  arrangement 
on  each  side,  above  and  below,  as  follows:     Incisors,  three; 


Figure  46 — Skull  of  the  earliest  known  one-toed  horse  PUohippus 
lullianus.  (A  colt  ten  months  old.)  Named  by  Troxell  and 
found  near  Mission,  on  the  Rosebud  Indian  Reservation,  South 
Dakota  in  beds  of  probably  Lower  Pliocene  age.     Osborn,  1918. 


108 


THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 


canines,  one;  pre^molars,  four;  molars,  three.  Thej  were  of 
the  crested  or  lophiodont  type  and  show  the  intermediate 
stage  in  the  conversion  of  the  short,  round-knobbed  and 
enamel  covered  crown,  into  the  long,  sharp-crested  crown 
of  cement,  dentine,  and  enamel,  as  in  the  present  day  horse, 
so  arranged  that  the  unequal  density  of  these  tissues  pro- 
duces a  hard,  uneven  grinding  surface  at  all  stages  of  wear. 


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Figure  47 — Phylogeny  of  the  Horses.  R.  S.  Lull  Organic  Evolution, 
1917.  Published  by  The  Macmillan  Company.  Reprinted  by 
permission. 

The  animal,  unlike  its  present  day  representative  evidently 
had  to  limit  its  food  to  soft  vegetable  tissue.  Indeed  it  is  of 
interest  that  the  magnificent  tooth  battery  of  the  horse 
developed  pretty  much  in  unison  with  the  incoming  of  the 
hard  grasses. 

The  most  striking  feature  is  the  tridactyl  nature  of  the 
feet.    There  were  three  well-developed  toes  on  each  foot,  fore 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


109 


110  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

and  hind.  These  represent  the  second,  third  and  fourth  toes 
of  five-toed  animals.  In  addition  to  these,  a  splint  bone  on 
each  fore  foot  represents  the  fifth  toe,  and  a  small  nodule  of 
bone  is  recognized  as  being  the  last  lingering  remnant  of  the 
first  toe.  The  middle  or  third  toe  is  longer  and  larger  than 
the  lateral  ones  and  terminates  in  an  enlarged,  somewhat 
triangular  bone,  corresponding  to  the  hoof  bone  of  the  pres- 
ent horse. 

Among  the  later  horses  from  the  badland  formations, 
Neohippario7i  whitneyi  of  the  Upper  Miocene  is  noteworthy. 
The  type  specimen  found  on  Little  White  river  by  Mr.  H.  F. 
Wells  of  the  American  Museum  expedition  in  1902,  and 
described  by  Mr.  Gidley  in  1903,  is  the  most  perfect  fossil 
horse  skeleton  ever  discovered.  (Plates  24  and  34)  The 
preservation  of  the  skeleton  is  extraordinary,  even  the  rib 
cartilages  being  found  in  place  as  well  as  the  tip  of  the  tail. 
The  skeleton,  approximately  forty  inches  high,  was  that  of  a 
mare,  and  was  found  in  association  with  the  incomplete 
skeletons  of  five  colts.  It  was  proportioned  like  the  Virginia 
deer,  "delicate  and  extremely  fleet-footed,  surpassing  the 
most  highly  bred  modern  race-horse  in  its  speed  mechanism, 
and  with  a  frame  fashioned  to  outstrip  any  type  of  modern 
hunting  horse,  if  not  thoroughbred." 

Notwithstanding  the  highly  developed  nature  of  its 
skeleton  Neohipparion  represents  a  side  branch  of  the  horse 
family  and  for  some  reason,  like  Hypohippus,  the  "forest 
horse"  and  Parahippus,  became  extinct.  Protohippus,  an 
animal  of  about  the  same  size  as  Neohipparion,  survived  and 
established  for  itself,  as  did  the  earlier  Mesohippus,  a  de- 
finite place  in  the  genealogical  line  leading  to  Equus  of  to- 
day. 

TITANOTHERIDAE 

The  Titanotheres  are  the  largest  animals  found  in  the 
White  River  badlands.  With  the  exception  of  turtles  and 
Oreodons  they  are  also  the  most  abundant.  The  family  was 
a  comparatively  short-lived  one  but  it  has  proven  to  be  one  of 
the  most  interesting  known  to  vertebrate  paleontology. 

Dr.  Hiram  A.  Prout  of  St.  Louis,  in  1846  and  1847, 
described  briefly  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science  a  por- 
tion of  the  lower  jaw  of  one  of  these  animals,  the  first  speci- 
men ever  obtained  from  the  White  River  badlands,  and  called 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL  OF  MINES 


111 


Figure  49 — Skull  of  the  Titanothere  Megacerops  marshi.     Osborn,  1902. 

it  a  Paleotherium.  Later  the  true  character  of  the  specimen 
was  recognized,  a  new  name  was  necessitated,  and  Titan- 
otherium  (Titanbeast)  suggested  by  Dr.  Leidy  in  1852, 
came  into  use.  Since  the  finding  of  the  earliest  specimen 
many  species  have  been  described.  The  following  White 
River  phyla  are  now  recognized:  Menodus,  Allops,  Bront- 
ops,  Megacerops,  Brontotherium.  They  are  distinguished 
from  one  another  by  differences  in  tooth  and  horn  structure, 
the  shape  of  the  head,  and  the  relative  length  and  massive- 
ness  of  the  limbs.  They  are  all  included  under  the  general 
term  Titanotheres.  Of  these  the  Brontotheres  were  the  lat- 
est and  the  largest. 


Figure    50 — Skull    of    the    Titanothere    Brontotherium    platyceras.      Os- 
born, 1896. 


Mr.  Hatcher  in  1880,  while  searching  for  Titanothere 
remains  in  South  Dakota  and  northwestern  Nebraska,  dis- 
covered that  certain  forms  of  the  skulls  of  the  Titanotheres 


112 


THE   WHITE   RIVER    BADLANDS 


are  charactertistic  of  certain  horizons  in  the  beds,  and  this 
indicated  to  him  the  importance  of  keeping  an  exact  record 
of  the  horizon  from  which  each  skull  or  skeleton  was  taken. 
Continued  search  showed  that  a  regular  and  systematic  de- 
velopment took  place  in  these  animals  from  the  base  to  the 
top  of  the  beds.  The  most  notable  change  was  a  gradual  and 
pronounced  increase  in  size.     Hatcher  says:    "This  increase 


Figure  51 — Skulls  of  Titanotherium  elatum.     Upper   skull,  male;    lower 
skull,   female.      Osborn,   1896. 

in  size  from  the  base  to  the  summit  of  the  beds  was  attended 
by  a  very  marked  development  in  certain  portions  of  the 
skeleton,  noticeable  among  which  are  the  following :  A  varia- 
tion in  shape  and  an  increase  in  the  size  and  length  of  the 
horncores  as  compared  with  the  size  of  the  skulls  was  at- 
tended, near  the  summit  of  the  beds  at  least,  by  a  decided 
shortening  of  the  nasals.  There  were  also  changes  taking 
place  in  the  dentition  of  these  animals,  especially  in  the 
number  of  incisors  and  in  the  structure  of  the  last,  upper, 
true  molar.  The  number  of  incisors,  though  probably  never 
constant,  even  in  the  same  species,  shows  a  tendency  to 
decrease    in    skulls    found    near   the    summit    of    the    beds. 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


113 


114  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

At  the  base  of  the  beds  the  number  of  incisors  is 
from  one  to  three  on  a  side,  while  at  the  top  there  are 
never  more  than  two  on  a  side,  often  only  one,  sometimes 
none.  In  skulls  from  the  very  lowest  beds  the  incisors  have 
already  become  so  rudimentary  as  to  be  no  longer  func- 
tional. As  would  be  expected,  the  number  of  incisors  de- 
creased after  they  became  of  no  functional  value.  In  the 
matter  of  incisors  the  Titanotheridae  at  the  time  of  their 
extermination,  were  in  a  fair  way  to  accomplish  just  what 
the  somewhat  related,  but  more  persistent,  Rhinocerotidae 
have  nearly  succeeded  in  doing,  namely:  the  elimination  of 
the  incisor  dentition.  In  view  of  this  weak  frontal  dentition 
it  would  seem  that  for  the  securing  of  its  food,  the  animal 
must  have  been  provided  with  a  long  tongue  and  a  prehensile 
lip. 

The  Titanothers  had  their  origin  in  early  Eocene  time, 
were  of  considerable  importance  throughout  the  Bridger  and 
Uinta  periods,  reached  their  culmination  during  Lower  Oli- 
gocene  time,  and  became  wholly  extinct  at  the  close  of  the 
latter  period.  (See  Fig.  53).  They  present  one  of  the  most 
interesting  illustrations  known  of  rapid  evolution  in  size  and 
special  characters  followed  by  quick  extinction.  They  de- 
veloped slowly  at  first,  and  although  they  may  be  traced  for 
perhaps  half  a  million  years,  they  seem  to  have  left  abso- 
lutely no  descendants.  Outside  of  North  America  the  Titan- 
otheres  have  been  recognized  only  in  Hungary  and  Bulgaria, 
these  latter  localities  have  but  one  representative  each. 

During  the  time  of  their  greatest  development  the  Titan- 
otheres  were  the  largest  of  all  the  mammals  in  the  localities 
where  they  lived.  They  were  well  prepared  by  size  and  of- 
fensive weapons  for  combating  the  attacks  of  predaceous  ani- 
mals and  they  were  possessors  of  perhaps  the  most  efficient 
dental  equipment  ever  developed  for  masticating  coarse  vege- 
table food,  such  as  evidently  flourished  in  abundance  in  the 
region  at  that  time.  Their  size  was  comparable  to  that  of 
the  present  day  elephant,  averaging  slightly  smaller.  One  of 
the  best  known  skeletons,  that  of  Megacerops  rohustus  found 
in  Corral  Canyon  and  restored  in  1895  by  Osborn  and  Wort- 
man  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  measures 
thirteen  feet,  eight  inches  in  length,  seven  feet,  seven 
inches  in  height,  and  breadth  across  the  pelvis  three  feet,  ten 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


115 


116  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

inches.     This   would  indicate  an   animal   fourteen   feet  or 
more  in  length  and  fully  eight  feet  high. 

In  general  appearance  the  Titanothere  showed  some 
resemblance  to  the  rhinoceros,  particularly  as  to  the  head. 
The  limbs  are  stouter  than  in  the  rhinoceros,  the  fore  limbs 
especially  so.  The  limbs  have  some  likeness  to  those  of  an 
elephant,  but  are  shorter  and  apparently  more  supple.  There 
are  four  short  thick  hoofed  toes  on  the  front  foot  correspond- 
ing to  the  second,  third,  fourth  and  fifth  of  five  toed  animals. 
(Plate  18).  On  the  hind  foot  only  the  second,  third,  and 
fourth  are  present.  The  hodj  of  the  animal  is  short,  as  in 
the  elephant,  and  the  shoulder  is  conspicuously  high,  much 
as  in  the  bison,  (Plates  35  and  36).  This  is  caused 
by  the  great  elongation  of  the  spinous  process  of  the  an- 
terior dorsal  vertebrae.  The  projecting  parts  have  well 
roughened  extremities  and  doubtless  served  to  support  in 
great  measure  the  stout  muscles  required  to  manipulate  the 
powerful  head  in  feeding  and  to  give  opportunity  for  its 
aggressive  use. 

The  skull  is  particularly  grotesque  and  noteworthy.  It 
is  a  long,  low,  saddle-shapped  affair,  with  remarkable  nasal 
prominences  at  the  extreme  end,  bearing  in  most  species, 
(Plate  20)  especially  the  later  ones,  powerful  bony  protu- 
berances. These  protuberances  are  commonly  spoken  of  as 
horns  or  horn  cores,  but  there  is  much  doubt  as  to  their  ever 
having  been  sheathed  in  horn.  The  skull  varies  much  in  the 
different  genera  and  species,  considerably  in  the  different 
sexes,  and  individual  variation  is  not  uncommon.  Its  full 
length  in  some  of  the  larger  species  reaches  as  much  as  three 
feet  or  even  more.  The  width  is  generally  less  than  two 
feet,  although  in  occasional  skulls,  especially  of  Bronto- 
therium,  it  may  reach  more  than  thirty  inches.     (Plate  36). 

The  horn-cores  are  more  or  less  cellular  at  the  base  and 
are  placed  transversely  and  project  upward  and  outward. 
Their  size,  shape  and  position,  like  other  parts  of  the  skull, 
vary  much  with  species  and  sex.  The  ears  are  placed  far  to 
the  rear,  while  the  eyes  are  surprisingly  near  the  front.  The 
brain,  like  the  brain  of  nearly  all  early  mammalian  types, 
was  very  small.  It  was  scarcely  as  large  as  a  man's  fist,  and 
the  living  animal  was  evidently  a  very  stupid  creature.    The 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF    MINES 


117 


teeth,  usually  thirty-eight,  were  large.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  the  grinders  in  the  upper  jaw.  (Plate  19 ) ,  Not  infre- 
quently in  the  larger  species  the  well-fanged,  nearly  square 
upper  molars  measui-ed  more  than  four  inches  in  diameter. 
The  neck  was  short  and  stout  and  the  head  in  ordinary  posi- 
tion was  evidently  held  declined.  The  Titanothere  was  a 
perissodactyl  and  a  pachyderm.  The  nature  of  its  thick  skin 
is  not  positively  known,  but  relying  on  skeletal  characters 
common  to  thick-skinned  animals,  the  restorations  that  have 
been  made  are  believed  upon  considerable  evidence  to  be 
within  reasonable  limits  of  accuracy.     (Plates  35,  36). 


^/^^ 


Figure  54 — First  and  last  known  stages  in  the  evolution  of  the  Titan- 
otheres.  (a)  Eotitanops.  (b)  Brontops  robustus.  Believed  to 
be  the  most  accurately  restored  Titanotheres  published.  Osborn, 
1914. 


Titanothere  remains  are  abundant  and  several  hundred 
heads  have  been  found  but  complete  skeletons  are  rare. 
Hatcher  in  1902,  gives  the  total  number  in  the  whole  country 
as  four,  as  follows :  One  in  the  Carnegie  Museum,  from  War 
Bonnet  creek,  northwestern  Nebraska  one  at  Yale  Univer- 
sity, from  near  Chadron;  one  in  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  from  the  Big  Badlands;  and  one  in  Prince- 
ton Museum  from  the  Big  Badlands.  Of  these  the  Carnegie 
Museum  skeleton  is  from  the  Lower  Titanotherium  beds,  the 
other  three  from  the  Upper  Titanotherium  beds. 


118 


THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 


ARTIODACTYLS 

As  previously  indicated  the  artiodactyls  include  those 
herbivores  in  which  the  axis  of  the  foot  is  between  the  third 
and  fourth  digits.  They  nearly  always  have  an  even  number 
of  toes  on  each  foot,  either  two  or  four.  None  have  less  than 
two.  Occasionally  three  or  five  are  present  but  this  is  dis- 
tinctly exceptional. 

Artiodactyls  have  a  long  time  constituted  the  domin- 
ant ungulate  order.  They  include  a  great  assemblage  of  crea- 
tures of  many  types  but  with  marked  unity  of  structure,  the 
size  varying  from  the  little  chevrotain  to  the  huge  hippopo- 
tamus. They  have  always  been  most  abundant  in  the  old 
world,  nevertheless  they  have  had  from  near  their  beginning 
a  good  representation  in  North  America  and  the  White  River 
badlands  have  disclosed  a  remarkably  interesting  series. 
Practically  all  of  these  White  River  forms  are  described  in 
the  following  pages. 

ELOTHERIDAE  AND  DICOTYLIDAE 

Few  fossil  animals  of  the  White  River  badlands  have 
afforded  more  real  puzzling  features  than  the  ancestral  swine 
(giant  pigs).  Several  genera  and  a  number  of  species  have 
been  identified,  including  several  classed  as  ancestral  pec- 
caries, but  usually  the  material  is  fragmentary  and  con- 
fined mostly  to  the  head  and  lower  jaws.  Elotherium  is  the 
best  known  genus,  its  skeleton  being  represented  by  consider- 
able material.     It  was  evidently  a  very  grotesque  animal. 


Figure    55 — Skull    and    lower    jaws    of    Dinohyus    Jiollandi.      Peterson, 
1906. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MIXES 


119 


Considered  as  indirectly  ancestral  to  present  day  swine,  it 
nevertheless  showed  few  of  the  distinct  siiilline  characters. 
In  not  a  few  respects  it  resembled  the  hippopotamus.  Its 
size  varied  considerably,  ranging  in  some  species  to  near  the 


Figure    56 — Palatal    view    of    skull    of    Dinohyus    hoUandi. 
1906. 


Peterson, 


size  of  the  present  day  rhinoceros,  the  head  alone  reaching 
sometimes  more  than  three  feet  in  length.  Dinohi/us  hoi- 
landi,  a  nearly  related  gemis.  had  a  skull  whose  length,  ac- 
cording to  Peterson,  reached  more  than  thirty-five  inches. 
(Plates  37  and  39  i.  The  Elothere  skull  is  remarkable  in 
many   ways.      The   muzzle   is   long   and   slender,    the   eyes 


Figure  57 — Skeleton  of  the  giant  Oligocene  pig  Elotherium   (Entelodon) 
ingens.     Peterson,  1909. 


120 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


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SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


121 


shifted  far  back,  the  cranium  short,  brain  cavity  absurdly 
small,  the  sagittal  crest  high  and  thin  and  the  zygo- 
matic arches  enormously  developed.  Other  odd  fea- 
tures are  the  pendant  compressed  plates  given  off  from 
the  ventral  surface  of  the  jugals  and  two  pairs  of  knob- 
like processes  on  the  ventral  borders  of  the  lower  jaw.  In 
young  individuals  the  knob-like  processes  are  only  rough 
elevations,  in  some  adults,  especially  the  smaller  species,  they 
are  little  more  than  rounded  knobs,  but  in  the  larger  forms 
they  become  greatly  elongated  and  club-shaped.  Their  use 
seems  to  be  wholly  unknown.  The  dentition  above  and  be- 
low on  each  side  is  as  follows:    Incisors,  three;  canines,  one; 


Figure  59 — Anterior  portions  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  of  the 
ancestral  peccary.  Desmathyus  {Thinohyus)  Siouxensis.  Peter- 
son,   1905. 

pre-molars,  four;  molars,  three;  total,  fourty-four.  The 
canines  both  above  and  below  are  large  and  powerful.  They 
do  not  appear  to  be  of  any  sexual  significance  as  the  females 
developed  them  as  fully  as  the  males.  Their  use  seems  to 
have  been  that  of  digging  up  roots,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
certain  well  preserved  specimens  show  deep  grooves  on  the 
posterior  side  of  the  lower  teeth  near  the  gums,  grooves  that 
could  not  have  been  caused  by  the  attrition  of  the  other 
teeth.  The  neck  is  short  and  massive  and  well  arranged  for 
the  attachment  of  strong  muscles  necessitated  by  the  great 
length  and  weight  of  the  head.     The  limbs  are  long,  par- 


122  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

ticulaiiy  the  fore  limb,  and  this  in  connection  with  the  high 
shoulder  prominence,  gives  to  the  animal  a  peculiar  stilted 
appearance.  The  foot,  fore  and  hind,  has  two  functional  toes 
corresponding  to  the  third  and  fourth  of  five  toed  animals. 
The  second  and  fifth  are  present,  but  only  in  rudimentary 
form.  Much  that  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  structural 
features  of  the  Elotheres  applies  also  in  a  general  way  to  the 
Dicotylidae,  but  the  latter  represent  a  later  development  and 
tend  more  definitely  toward  the  modern  peccaries. 


Figure    60 — Skull    of    Hyopotamus    (Ancodus)     brachyrhynchus.      Scott, 
1895. 

Concerning  all  of  the  forms,  it  may  be  said  that  they 
with  the  Suidae  were  apparently  derived  from  a  common 
Eocene  ancestry.  According  to  Matthew  and  Gidley  the 
peccaries  originated  in  the  new  world  and  have  always  re- 
mained here,  while  the  true  pigs  (suinae)  originated  in  the 
old  world  and  never  of  their  own  accord  reached  the  new 
world,  their  presence  here  now  of  the  latter  being  due  solely 
to  introduction  by  man  since  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus. 

ANTHKACOTHERIDAE 

The  Anthracotheridae  include  species  of  an  extinct 
family  of  stoutly  built,  generalized,  primitive  animals,  evi- 
dently resembling  to  some  extent  the  present  day  pig  but 
having  some  characters  possessed  by  the  hippopotamus.  Their 
nearest  important  relatives  of  White  River  time  were  ap- 
parently the  Oreodontidae.  These  they  resembled  very 
closely.    Scott  states  that  the  likeness  as  shown  in  the  skull, 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  123 

teeth,  vertebrae,  limbs,  and  feet,  is  fundamental  and  indi- 
cates a  common  pentadactyl  ancestry  of  perhaps  middle 
Eocene  time. 

Fossils  representing  various  species  of  the  family  are 
widely  distributed  over  the  earth,  more  particularly  in  the 
old  world.  The  name  Anthracotherium  (Coal-beast)  arises 
from  the  fact  that  their  remains  were  first  discovered  in  coal 


Figure  61 — Skeleton     of     the     Oligocene     Anthracothere,     Hyopotamiis 
(Ancodus)   trachyrliynclius.     Scott,  1895. 

deposits, — the  brown-coal  deposits  of  Savoy.  A  few  nearly 
complete  skeletons  of  Bothriodon  the  commonest  Oligocene 
form  have  been  obtained  from  the  channel  sandstones  of  the 
Big  badlands. 

OREODONTIDAE 

The  Oreodontidae  include  the  commonest  fossil  mam- 
mals of  the  White  River  badlands.  Representatives  of  the 
family  are  found  only  in  North  America.  They  originated 
in  the  Eocene,  ranged  through  the  Oligocene  and  Miocene 
and  became  extinct  in  Lower  Pliocene.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished by  many  primitive  characters  and  according  to 
Cope  they  constitute  one  of  the  best  marked  types  of  Mam- 
malia the  world  has  seen.  They  occupy  a  position  some- 
what intermediate  between  the  ruminants  (cud-chewing 
animals)  and  the  suilline  pachyderms  (pig-like  thick- 
skinned  animals). 


124  THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 

The  skull  has  to  some  extent  the  form  of  the  present 
day  peccary.  The  cranial  portion  is  much  like  that  of  the 
camel.  The  skeleton  as  a  whole  more  nearly  resembles  that 
of  the  pig,  but  the  number,  general  proportions,  relative 
position  and  plan  of  construction  of  the  teeth  are  more 
nearly  those  of  the  ruminants  and  it  is  this  relationship  to 
the  ruminants  that  has  governed  the  classification  of  the 
family.  Leidy  in  his  description  of  the  Oreodon  suggested 
that  it  might  very  appropriately  be  called  a  "ruminating 
hog."  One  remarkable  feature  is  the  highly  developed 
canine  teeth  in  both  jaws.  These  teeth  or  tusks  are  three 
sided  with  round  borders,  the  upper  pair  curving  forward, 
downward  and  slightly  outward,  the  lower  pair  nearly  or 
quite  straight  and  pointing  upward,  forward  and  outward. 
They  give  to  the  jaws  something  of  the  appearance  of  the 
wolf's  jaws  but  it  is  only  a  resemblance  and  does  not  indi- 
cate any  close  relationship.  (Plates  21  and  22).  As  in  the 
pigs  the  eyes  were  small,  the  neck  and  legs  short.  With  the 
exception  of  the  older  forms  all  of  the  Oreodontidae  had 
four  toes  on  each  foot.  These  represent  the  second,  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  of  five  toed  animals.    Agriochoerus  and  the 


Figure  62 — Skeleton  of  the  Oligocene  Oreodont,  Agriochoerus  latifrons. 
Wortman,   1896. 

far  commoner  Oreodon  had  five  on  the  front  feet.  The  tail 
was  long  and  slender.  The  animals  varied  considerably  in 
size  but  the  common  forms  were  about  the  size  of  the 
peccary.  Promerycochoerus,  the  largest,  was  about  the  size 
of  the  wild  boar. 

Of  the  several  genera,  Oreodon,  Leptauchena,  Agrio- 
choerus, and  Promerycochoerus  are  the  best  known.  Oreo- 
don is  by  far  the  most  abundant  but  the  others  are  found 
in  considerable  numbers.  (Plates  40  and  41).    They  seem  to 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


125 


126  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

have  ranged  in  great  herds  over  the  Oligocene  and  Mio- 
cene lands  of  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Colorado,  Wyoming, 
Montana  and  North  Dakota.  It  is  interesting  in  this  con- 
nection to  note  that  the  Oreodontidae,  in  addition  to 
giving  their  name  to  the  Oreodon  beds  of  the  Middle  Oligo- 
cene furnished  names  also  for  three  of  the  zones  above  the 
Middle  Oligocene,  namely,  the  Laptauchenia  zone,  the 
Promerychocrus  zone,  and  the  Merycochoerus  zone. 

Leptauchenia  was  founded  on  fossil  remains  obtained  by 
Prof.  Hayden  in  1855  from  near  Eagle  Nest  butte.  This  ani- 
mal is  of  interest  in  that  its  structure  seems  to  indicate  an 
acquatic  habit.  (Plate  42 j.  The  teeth  resemble  somewhat 
those  of  the  llama  (Auchenia)  hence  the  name  Leptauchenia. 
Agriochoerus,  is  remarkable  in  that  its  toes  were  apparently 
armed  with  claws  instead  of  hoofs  and  the  first  toe  (thumb) 
of  the  fore  foot  seems  to  have  been  opposable.  Aside  from 
its  foot  structure  the  animal  was  much  like  the  Oreodon. 
(Plate  42).  It  was  approximately  three  feet  long  not  includ- 
ing the  rather  long  tail.  Mesoreodon  is  likewise  remarkable 
in  that  the  thyroid  cartilage  of  the  larynx  was  ossified  much 
as  in  the  howling  monkey  and  according  to  Prof.  Scott  it 
must  have  had  most  unusual  powers  of  voice. 

Promerycochoerus,  a  larger  and  heavier  animal  than 
those  of  the  earlier  genera,  has  been  found  in  considerable 
numbers  in  northwestern  Nebraska  and  eastern  Wyoming. 
The  restored  skeleton  of  Promerycochoerus  carrikeri  is 
more  than  five  and  one-half  feet  long  and  evidently  indicates 
a  large  bodied  slow  moving  animal,  the  habits  of  which  as 
has  been  suggested  were  perhaps  somewhat  the  same  as 
those  of  the  hippopotamus.  Peterson  described  the  animal 
briefly  as  having  a  massive  head,  a  short,  robust  neck,  dorsal 
vertebrae,  provided  with  prominent  spines,  lumbar  vertebrae 
heavv,  thoracic  cavity  capacious,  and  the  feet  large.  (Plate 
38)." 

The  Oreodons  are  found  in  the  Lower  and  Middle  Oli- 
gocene and  are  particularly  common  in  what  is  known  as 
the  "lower  nodular  layer"  (red  layer)  of  the  Middle  Oligo- 
cene fifteen  or  twenty  feet  above  the  Titanotherium  beds. 
It  is  on  account  of  the  abundance  of  these  fossils  and  their 
early  discovery  in  the  Middle  Oligocene  that  this  division 
of  the  badland  formations  was  by  Hayden  given  the  name 
of  Oreodon  beds.     Leidv  tells  us  that  as  earlv  as  1869  he 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


127 


128  THE   WHITE   RIVER    ^. -^  ^ANDS 

had  observed  fossils  of  approximately  five  hundred  indi- 
viduals among  the  collections  sent  him  for  study.  Few 
general  badland  collections  fail  to  show  specimens  of  these 
interesting  creatures,  but  most  of  the  material  is  made  up  of 
skulls  and  detached  bones.  Few  complete  skeletons  have 
been  obtained  and  until  recent  years  little  attempt  was  made 
at  restoration.  The  dentition  is  remarkably  complete,  the 
total  number  of  permanent  teeth  being  forty-four  arranged 
in  nearly  unbroken  series  in  both  jaws.  Of  the  Oreodons 
Oreodon  cluhertsoni  is  by  far  the  most  common,  Leidy  says 
that  of  the  five  hundred  he  had  observed  about  four  hundred 
and  fifty  were  of  this  species.  Oreodon  gracilis,  about  two- 
thirds  as  large  as  Oreodon  culbertsoni  was  perhaps  the  next 
in  abundance.  Its  skull  was  about  the  size  of  the  red  fox 
and  a  skeleton  mounted  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Gilmore  of  the  U.  S. 
National  Museum  measured  twenty-seven  inches  in  length 
and  is  twelve  and  one-half  inches  high  at  the  shoulders. 
Eporeodon  major,  earlier  called  Oreodon  major  is  still  rarer. 
It  is  about  one-fifth  larger  than  Oreodon  culbertsoni  or 
nearly  twice  as  large  as  Oreodon  gracilis. 
HYFERTRAGULIDAE 

The  Hypertragulidae  include  some  of  the  most  interest- 
ing fossil  mammals  ever  discovered.  They  are  ancient 
selenodonts  (ruminants)  resembling  in  a  way  the  little 
chevrotain  or  "deerlet"  of  India  and  the  musk  deer  of  the 
Asiatic  highlands  but  they  are  in  reality  not  closely  related 
to  either.  They  seem  to  represent  an  independent  offshoot 
of  the  primitive  ruminant  stock  but  near  relatives,  either 
ancestral  or  descendent  are  not  known. 

They  are  distinguished  from  all  other  American  rumin- 
ants by  the  combination  of  functionally  tetradactyl  front 
feet  with  didactyl  hind  feet.  Of  the  seven  genera  thus  far 
recognized  from  the  White  River  region,  Protoceras  is  the 
most  interesting  and  the  best  known.  ( Plate  43 ) .  It  is  found 
only  in  the  Upper  Oligocene  and  because  of  its  importance 
the  strata  containing  it  are  known  as  the  Protoceras  beds. 
Of  the  other  genera  Leptomeryx  has  been  most  carefully  de- 
scribed but  with  the  exception  of  one  find  of  twenty-six 
skeletons  in  one  associated  group  and  described  by  Riggs, 
Bull.  G.  S.  A.,  vol.  25,  p.  145,  the  materials  available  have 
not  been  so  abundant  nor  so  complete  as  in  the  case  of 
Protoceras. 


SOUTH  rJ^kOTA  SCHOOL   OF   MINES  129 

The  first  Protoceras  specimen  was  obtained  by  Mr.  J. 
B.  Hatcher  in  1890.  It,  like  all  subsequent  material  of  this 
kind,  was  found  near  the  highest  part  of  the  Big  Badlands, 
where  the  Protoceras  beds  are  well  exposed.  In  January, 
1891,  Prof.  Marsh  described  the  animal  in  the  American 
Journal  of  Science  under  the  name  Protoceras  celer  in  al- 
lusion to  the  early  appearance  of  horns  in  this  fleet-footed 
group  of  artiodactyls.  Before  this  discovery  no  horned 
artiodactyls  were  known  to  have  lived  earlier  than  Pliocene 
time.  Marsh  states  it  as  an  important  fact  that  while  all 
existing  mammals  with  horns  in  pairs  are  artiodactyls  and 
none  of  the  recent  perissodactyls  are  thus  provided,  the  re- 
verse of  this  was  true  among  the  early  forms  of  these 
groups. 

The  head  is  especially  unique.  (Plate  23).  It  displays 
in  many  ways  the  modernized  type  of  structure,  and  shows 


Figure    65 — Skeleton    of    the    Oligocene    ruminant,    Leptomeryx    evansi. 
Scott,    1891. 

sexual  differences  unparalleled  among  the  ancient  artio- 
dactyls. The  most  obvious  characters  are  the  bony  protu- 
berances from  various  parts  of  the  head  in  the  male. 
In  the  female  these  are  only  faintly  indicated.  In  the 
male  a  pair  of  protuberances  project  upwards  from  the 
rear  part  of  the  head  in  much  the  same  position  as  the 
horns  of  the  present  day  pronghorn  antelope.  Near  the 
anterior  end  of  the  face  there  is  a  second  pair,  laterally 
compressed  and  more  prominent  than  the  first  pair.     Over 


130 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


the  eyes  there  is  a  third  pair  serving  as  a  sort  of  pro- 
tective awning  for  the  eyes.  In  front  of  these  and  slightly 
nearer  the  median  line  of  the  face  there  is  a  fourth  pair. 
These  are  much  less  prominent  than  the  others  mentioned 
but  their  presence  is  clearly  indicated.  Finally  a  fifth 
pair,  slightly  more  prominent  than  the  last,  but  less  promin- 
ent and  especially  less  horn-like  than  the  others,  is  placed 
at  the  side  of  the  face  nearly  above  the  anterior  molar  tooth. 


Figure  66 — Fore  and  hind  foot  of  Protoceras,  the  six-horned  ruminant 
of  the  Upper  Oligocene,  Scott,  1895. 

The  head  is  long  and  narrow,  tapering  rapidly  toward 
the  anterior  end,  where  the  muzzle  becomes  extremely 
slender.  The  cranium  is  capacious  and  well  formed.  The 
brain  case  is  of  good  size  and  indicates  a  brain  fairly  well 
convoluted,  in  fact  the  brain  development  of  Protoceras 
seems  to  have  been  more  advanced  than  any  other  animals 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF    MIXES 


131 


of  the  time.  The  nasals  are  remarkable  in  that  they  indi- 
cate a  long  flexible  nose  if  not  a  true  proboscis.  Among 
recent  ruminants  such  a  proboscidiform  muzzle  is  found 
only  in  the  saiga  antelope  and  to  a  less  extent  in  the  moose. 
The  four  toes  of  the  front  foot  are  functional  and  corre- 
spond to  the  second,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth,  of  five-toed 
animals.  The  hind  foot  shows  onlv  two  toes,  the  third  and 
fourth.  Small  short  splint-like  processes  disclose,  however, 
the  rudimentary  second  and  fifth.  The  hind  limb  compared 
with  the  fore  limb,  is  large  and  long.  The  tail  is  larger  and 
better  developed  than  in  the  present  day  deer. 


Figure    67 — Skull    of    the    ruminant    Syndyoceras    cooki    of    ttie    Lower 
Miocene.     Barbour,   190  5. 


The  size  of  Protoceras  is  practically  that  of  the  sheep, 
but  the  general  build  seems  to  have  corresponded  more 
nearly  to  that  of  the  pronghorn  antelope.  (Plate  44).  The 
animal  is,  however,  not  very  closely  related  to  either. 
Syndyoceras  had  a  head  that  in  the  male  was  as  fantastic  as 
that  of  Protoceras.  There  were  two  pairs  of  horns  or  horn- 
like outgrowths, — one  pair  situated  above  the  eyes  and 
curving  toward  each  other,  like  those  of  the  present  day 
cow  and  one  pair  arising  anteriorily  nearly  midway  between 
the  eyes  and  nostrils  and  curving  outward  away  from  each 
other.     (Plate  45, 


132 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


CAMELIDAE 

The  camel  originated  in  North  America.  The  earliest 
and  most  primitive  ancestors  are  found  here  and  the  evi- 
dence shows  that  the  family  had  traveled  far  on  its  road  to- 
ward modern  camels  before  conditions  became  favorable 
for  their  migation  to  other  continents. 

At  present  the  family  consists  of  but  two  phyla, 
Camelus  and  Llama.  Of  the  camels  proper  there  are  but 
two  species,  Camelus  dromedarius  or  Arabian  (one-hump- 
ed) camel,  and  Camelus  hactrianus  or  Bactrian  (two- 
humped)  camel.  They  inhabit  the  desert  regions  of  North- 
ern Africa,  Arabia,  and  Central  Asia.  The  llamas,  includ- 
ing alpacas,  guanacos,  and  vicunas,  live  only  in  the  arid 
highlands  of  South  America. 


Figure   68 — Skull     of     the     Oligocene     camel,     Poebrotherium    wilsoni. 
Wortman,  1898. 

The  camels  are  among  the  earliest  domesticated  ani- 
mals of  which  we  have  knowledge  and  since  the  dawn  of 
human  history  they  seem  not  to  have  been  known  in  the 
truly  wild  state.  We  lose  ourselves  in  meditation  as  we 
think  of  the  position  these  stupid  ungainly  creatures  have 
made  for  themselves  in  the  history  of  old  world  transporta- 
tion but  let  us  not  fail  to  reflect  that  their  earliest  ancestral 
history  lies  at  our  own  door-way.  Ages  before  Joseph  was 
sold  by  his  brethren  to  the  Ishmaelitic  caravan  from  Gilead 
the  forerunners  of  these  useful  beasts  of  burden  were  roam- 
ing in  great  numbers  the  wilds  of  what  we  now  know  as 
South  Dakota  and  neighboring  states  seeking  the  comforts 
of  a  primitive  living  and  looking  forward  in  some  mysterious 
way  to  the  convenience  of  elastic  pads  for  their  feet,  fleshy 
humps  for  their  backs  and  water  pockets  for  their  stomachs. 
Concerning  their  distribution  Scott  says: 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


133 


134  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

"Under  modern  conditions,  no  mammals  could  seem 
more  completely  foreign  to  North  America  than  those  of  the 
camel  family,  which,  now  restricted  to  two  well-defined 
genera,  inhabit  central  Asia  and  the  colder  parts  of  South 
America.  Yet,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  this  family  passed 
through  nearly  the  whole  of  its  development  in  North 
America  and  did  not  emigrate  to  the  other  continents  be- 
fore the  late  Miocene  or  early  Pliocene,  and  it  is  this  North 
American  origin  of  the  family  which  explains  its  otherwise 
inexplicable  distribution  at  the  present  time.  To  all  appear- 
ances, the  whole  family  had  completely  disappeared  from 
this  continent  in  the  later  Pleistocene,  but  in  the  middle  and 
earlier  portions  of  that  epoch  both  true  camels  and  large 
llama-like  animals  were  very  abundant.  *  *  * 

"The  most  ancient  known  camels  of  the  Old  World  are 
found  in  the  Pliocene  of  India,  and  the  first  llamas  recorded 
in  South  America  are  also  Pliocene.  Since  both  camels  and 
llamas  existed  together  in  North  America,  it  may  be  reason- 
ably asked  why  only  one  phylum  migrated  to  Asia  and 
only  the  other  to  South  America.  Why  did  not  each  con- 
tinent receive  migrants  of  both  kinds?  Without  knowing 
more  than  we  are  ever  likely  to  learn  about  the  details  of 
these  migrations,  it  will  not  be  possible  to  answer  these 
questions,  though  plausible  solutions  of  the  problem  suggest 
themselves.  It  is  to  be  noted,  in  the  first  place,  that  a  mi- 
gration from  the  central  portion  of  North  America  to  Asia 
was  by  way  of  the  far  north  and  thus  involved  very  different 
climatic  conditions  from  those  which  must  have  been  en- 
countered in  passing  through  the  tropics  to  South  America. 
It  is  perfectly  possible  that  animals  which  lived  together  in 
temperate  North  America  should  have  had  very  different 
powers  of  adaptation  to  heat  and  cold  respectively,  and  the 
northern  route  may  have  been  impassable  to  one  and  the 
southern  route  to  the  other.  To  this  it  might  perhaps  be 
objected  that  llamas  are  cold-country  animals,  but  this  is 
true  only  of  the  existing  species,  for  fossil  forms  are  found 
abundantly  in  the  Pleistocene  of  Ecuador,  Brazil  and  Ar- 
gentina. Another  possibility  is  that  both  phyla  did  actually 
migrate  to  both  continents  and  that  only  the  camels  suc- 
ceeded in  permanently  establishing  themselves  in  Asia  and 
only  the  llamas  in  South  America,  though  for  this  solution 
the  fossils  afford  no  evidence." 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OP   MINES 


135 


Within  the  area  described  in  this  book,  a  number  of 
ancestral  species  have  been  identified,  some  from  the  Oligo- 
cene  and  some  from  the  Miocene.  These  are  preceded  else- 
where by  still  older  forms,  the  oldest  of  all  so  far  as  yet 
known  being  ProtijJopus  peter soni  a  little  four  toed  creature 
scarcely  larger  than  a  jackrabbit,  found  a  few  years  ago  in 
the  Upper  Eocene  beds  of  the  Washaki  basin,  Wyoming,  and 


Extinct 

Protomeryx        (Gazelle-camel) 
Slenomylua 


PanUj/lopus 


Comphotkeriitm. 

\ 

Pcebrothenum 


Protylopua 


Figure  70 — Phylogeny  of  the  Camels.  R.  S.  Lull;  Organic  Evolution, 
1917.  Published  by  the  Macmillan  Company.  Reprinted  by 
permission. 

described  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Matthew  of  the  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History. 

The  best  known  South  Dakota  species,  the  one  first  dis- 
covered, and  the  one  that  has  received  the  most  merited 
recognition  is  Poehrotherium  icilsoni.  (Plate  46).  The  col- 
lection of  Big  Badland  material  given  by  Mr.  Alexander  Cul- 


136  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

bertson  in  1847  to  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Phil- 
adelphia contained  a  broken  skull  of  this  animal  and  Dr. 
Leidy  in  describing  the  specimen,  the  first  of  the  many  South 
Dakota  badland  fossible  vertebrates  studied  by  him,  gave  it 
the  name  it  bears.  (See  Figure  2).  He  first  regarded  the 
animal  as  allied  to  the  musk  deer  but  later  indicated  its 
cameloid  nature.  Since  the  description  of  this  earliest 
Poebrotherium  skull  abundant  other  remains  have  been 
found  but  generally  they  have  not  been  complete.  In  1890 
the  Princeton  expedition  was  fortunate  in  securing  a  very 
excellent  skeleton  of  Poebrotherium  wilsoni  almost  entire 
and  Prof.  Scott  has  described  this  in  a  most  careful  man- 
ner. It  is  not  possible,  nor  would  it  be  profitable  to  go  into 
the  details  of  this  description  here.  Briefly  it  may  be  said 
that  the  animal  was  a  lightly  built,  graceful  creature  with 
apparently  some  external  likeness  to  the  llama  but  of  about 
the  size  and  build  of  the  existing  gazelle.  It  shows  its 
relationship  in  many  features  of  its  skeleton  but  as  in  many 
extinct  animals  the  bones  show  a  primitive  or  generalized 
nature,  and  its  connection  with  the  llamas  is  perhaps  as 
close  as  with  the  true  camels.  The  eyes  are  farther  back 
than  in  the  present  day  camel,  the  ribs  are  more  slender, 
and  the  foot,  armed  with  small  pointed  hoofs  was 
apparently  without  a  pad.  Like  the  existing  camel 
the  foot  has  only  two  toes,  the  third  and  fourth,  but 
traces  of  the  second  and  fifth  remain  as  evidenced  by  the 
metapodial  nodules.  The  metatarsal  bones  are  separate  but 
pressed  closely  together  and  plainly  anticipate  the  definite 
union  into  a  "cannon  bone"  during  the  subsequent  Miocene. 
The  animals  varied  considerably  in  size,  the  larger  indi- 
viduals reaching  a  height  of  twenty-four  inches. 

Among  the  Miocene  forms  Procamelus  has  long  been 
known.  This  genus  is  of  interest  in  that  the  camels  and 
llamas  of  today  seem  to  have  descended  directly  from  it. 
The  gazelle  camel,  Stenomylus,  and  the  giraffe  camel,  Oxy- 
dactylus,  were  discovered  later  but  they  have  received  full 
description.  Their  remains  have  been  found  in  particular 
abundance  in  northwestern  Nebraska.  Several  dozen  skele- 
tons of  Stenomylus,  were  obtained  from  one  excavation  near 
Agate  Springs.  Peterson  says  it  is  seldom  that  the  complete 
knowledge  of  the  osteology  of  a  genus  has  been  acquired  so 
rapidly  after  its  discovery  as  that  of  Stenomylus  and  that 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL  OF  MINES 


137 


EVOLUTION   OF  THE  CAMELS 


S 


Pleistocene 


Recent 


Auchenlo 
(Llama) 


Skull 


Feet 


Teeth 


I— 


niocene 


Procamelus 


Miocene 


Poebrotherium 


Chgocene 


Protylopus 


Eocene 


B 


Mesozoic  or  Age  of  Reptiles 


Hypothetical  five -toed  Ancestor 


Figure  71 — The  evolution  of  the  camel  as  indicated  by  the  skull,  feet 
and  teeth.  (Modified  from  Scott)  R.  S.  Lull:  Organic  Evolution, 
1817.  Published  by  The  Macmillan  Company.  Reprinted  by 
permission. 


138  THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 

more  complete  remains  of  this  genus  have  been  found  than 
that  of  any  other  Miocene  camel.  The  accompanying  sketch 
by  Peterson,  page  71,  shows  a  number  of  the  skeletons 
as  they  were  found  in  the  quarry.  These  graceful  llama-like 
little  camels  lived  apparently  in  herds  in  an  upland  country 
where  hard  grasses  constituted  their  chief  food.  In  general 
it  may  be  said  that  the  Miocene  forms  became  increasingly 
more  cameloid  in  that  they  are  larger,  the  side  toes  disappear, 
the  metatarsal  bones  become  more  fully  united  and  rugosi- 
ties of  the  hoof  bones  indicate  the  presence  of  a  small  foot 
pad. 

With  the  close  of  the  Miocene  important  geographical 
changes  came  about  including  the  raising  of  the  isthmus  of 
Panama  above  sea  level  and  the  forming  of  a  land  connec- 
tion across  Behring  Strait.  In  this  way  widespread  migra- 
tion became  possible.  The  camels  during  and  immediately 
subsequent  to  the  development  of  these  land  bridges  were 
especially  abundant  and  diversified  throughout  North 
America,  hence  readily  took  advantage  of  the  opportunity 
to  enter  South  America  in  the  one  direction  and  Asia  and 
thence  to  Europe  and  Africa  in  the  other.  Later  during 
Pleistocene  time  by  reason  of  unfavorable  climate  or  other 
conditions  the  North  American  branches  of  the  family  all 
died  out  while  some  at  least  of  the  more  favorably  situated 
foreign  members  lived  on.  Thus  in  the  light  of  their  an- 
cestral history  the  wide  separation  of  such  nearly  related 
animals  as  the  camel  and  the  llama,  so  long  a  perplexing 
question,  is  readily  understood. 

CERVIDAE 

Until  1904  nothing  was  known  of  the  ancestral  deer 
within  the  region  of  the  White  River  badlands.  In  that 
year  Mr.  Matthew  described  a  fragmentary  jaw,  Blasto- 
meryx  wellsi  from  the  Upper  Miocene.  Since  then  several 
other  species  have  been  noted. 

The  earliest  material  obtained  gave  little  information 
as  to  the  definite  relation  of  Blastomeryx  to  present  rumin- 
ants but  in  the  study  of  the  later  collections  Mr.  Matthew 
discovered  it  to  be  a  primitive  deer  approximately  ances- 
tral to  the  American  Cervidae  and  derivable  in  its  turn 
from  the  Oligocene  genus  Leptomeryx  whose  relation  to  the 
Cervidae  had  not  before  been  suspected.    Its  nearest  relative 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL   OF   MINES 


139 


structurally  among  the  present  day  Cervidae  is  the  musk 
deer.  The  general  proportion  of  the  skull  is  much  as  in  the 
musk  deer  and  like  that  animal  it  has  no  trace  of  horns  or 
antlers  such  as  gradually  developed  in  later  times  and  the 
upper  canines  are  in  the  form  of  long,  slender,  recurved 
tusks.  The  skeleton  as  a  whole  has  many  primitive  char- 
acters but  the  various  species  all  show  the  general  cervid 
affinities.  The  animal  in  life  stood  from  one  to  one  and  a 
half  feet  high  at  the  shoulders. 


Figure    72 — Skeleton    of    the    primitive    Lower    Miocene    deer,    Blasto- 
meryx  advena.    Matthew,  1908. 

KEMAINS    OF   ANIMALS    OTHER    THAN    MAMMALS 

As  indicated  elsewhere  fossil  remains  of  backboned 
animals  other  than  mammals  in  the  Badlands  are  in  general 
of  little  numerical  consequence.  Only  in  the  case  of  tur- 
tles is  there  a  decided  exception.  Occasional  fragmentary 
remains  of  lizards  and  crocodiles  are  found  and  a  few  petri- 
fied birds  eggs  have  been  picked  up  but  these  are  all  that 
are  worthy  of  mention.  Shelled  animals  lived  in  the  region 
but  their  remains  are  generally  rare  and  of  little  conse- 
quence except  from  the  standpoint  of  refined  science.  The 
beautiful  and  well  known  invertebrate  shells  from  south- 
western South  Dakota  so  often  seen  in  museums  are  from 
older  geological  formations.  Coming  chiefly  from  the  Chey- 
enne river  and  its  tributaries  they  are  erroneously  supposed 
by  many  to  be  of  the  same  age  as  the  mammal-bearing  beds 
of  the  Tertiary. 


140  THE  WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

Interest  naturally  attaches  to  the  turtles,  crocodiles 
and  birds  eggs,  the  first  because  of  their  size  and  abundance, 
and  the  second  because  of  their  having  lived  in  this  latitude 
and  the  third  because  of  the  general  rarity  of  fossil  eggs. 
These  may  be  briefly  described. 

TURTLES 

Few  Badland  fossils  are  more  abundant  or  more  widely 
distributed  or  better  preserved  than  the  turtles.  The  size 
of  the  individuals  varies  from  a  few  inches  in  length  to 
more  than  two  feet.  Specimens  three  feet  long  are  oc- 
casionally obsen^ed.  These  large  sized  Tertiary  forms 
should  not  be  confused  with  the  far  larger  Cretaceous  tur- 
tles found  in  the  black  Pierre  shales  near  the  Big  Badlands. 
These  Cretaceous  turtles  became  veritable  monsters  and 
reached  a  greater  size  than  any  others  yet  found  anywhere 
in  the  world,  either  living  or  fossil.  The  type  specimen, 
found  near  Railroad  Buttes,  southeast  of  the  Black  Hills 
and  described  by  Mr.  Wieland  in  1896,  had  a  total  length 
of  approximately  eleven  feet,  and  fragmentary  portions  of 
a  still  larger  individual  showed  a  length  of  forty  inches  for 
the  head  alone. 

From  the  various  Badland  formations  in  the  White 
River  region  ten  species  of  turtles  have  been  described.  Of 
all  these  only  Stylemys  nehrascensis  occurs  in  abundance. 
(Plate  48).  So  far  as  I  have  learned  each  of  the  other 
species  is  known  by  only  one  or  two  specimens.  Published 
reference  to  these  latter  is  meagre  and  confined  in  the  main 
to  brief  scientific  description. 

Stylemys  nehrascensis,  the  common  form,  was  first  de- 
scribed in  1851  by  Dr.  Joseph  Leidy,  and  is  the  earliest  dis- 
covered fossil  turtle  in  America.  The  first  specimens  were 
obtained  by  Dr.  John  Evans  of  the  Owen  Geological  Survey 
in  1849  and  since  then  hundreds  of  specimens  have  found 
their  way  into  the  museums  of  the  world.  The  visitor  in 
the  Badlands  can  scarcely  fail  to  find  them  if  he  walks 
along  the  outcrops  of  the  containing  strata  and  in  favorable 
localities  he  may  see  them  with  surprising  frequency.  I 
myself  have  observed  many  dozens  of  them  in  a  few  hours 
walk  in  Indian  draw  and  there  are  other  places  where  they 
seem  to  be  as  abundant.  They  are  found  particularly  in  the 
Oreodon  beds  but  occur  in  the  Protoceras  beds  also.  As  yet 
none  have  been  found  in  the  Titanotherium  beds. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF    MINES 


141 


The  shell  body  is  often  preserved  with  remarkable  per- 
fection but  owing  to  the  fact  that  weathering  readily  sep- 
arates the  bones,  specimens  exposed  on  the  surface  are 
usually  more  or  less  disintegrated.  The  head  and  feet  are 
rarely  found.  Dr.  Leidy,  who  first  described  the  species 
stated  that  he  had  seen  hundreds  of  shells  but  no  skull. 
Even  today  there  is  record  of  only  two  skulls.  One  of  these 
in  the  Carnegie  Museum  of  Pittsburg  is  accompanied  by  the 
shell.  The  other  is  in  the  Princeton  Museum  but  the  body 
to  which  it  belonged  was  not  found.  The  general  absence 
of  the  head  is  due  perhaps  to  the  fact  that  Stylemys  was 
a  dry  land  tortoise  and  any  freshet  that  might  be  able  to 
carry  or  roll  the  heavy  decaying  body  into  water  where 
deposition  was  taking  place  would  wrench  the  head  away. 
This,  separate  from  the  body,  would  be  inconspicuous  and 
hence  fail  of  ready  detection. 

Several  fossil  turtle  eggs  have  been  found  in  the  Bad- 
lands and  thev  are  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  common 


Figure  73 — Head  of  the  abundant  Oligocene  dryland  tortoise, 
Stylemys  nebrascensis.  Natural  size,  (a)  view  of  right  side;  (b) 
view  from  above;    (c)  view  from  below.     Hay,  1906. 

species  just  described.  Hay  states  that  they  are  slightly 
elongated  but  he  indicates  that  this  is  perhaps  due  to  de- 
formation by  pressure  from  an  original  globular  form.  They 


142 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


are  a  little  less  than  two  inches  in  diameter.  They  were 
formerly  in  the  James  Hall  collection  but  are  now  in  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 

CROCODILES 
Two  species  of  crocodiles  have  been  described  from  the 
White  River  badlands.  These  were  found  near  Sheep 
mountain.  Fragments  of  others  have  been  obtained  from 
the  Finney  breaks  near  Folsom.  All  of  the  specimens  are 
from  the  Titanotherium  beds.  Besides  other  parts  each 
species  is  represented  by  a  considerable  portion  of  the  head. 


Figure  74 — Anterior  portion  of  head  of  the  Oligocene  crocodile, 
Crocodilus  prenasalis  found  in  Indian  draw,  (a)  view  from 
above;    (b)  view  from  below.     Loomis,  1904. 

The  author  found  the  first  of  these,  Crocodilus  pre- 
nasalis, in  1899.  (Plate  47).  In  this  the  nasal  opening  is 
placed  forward  hence  the  specific  name.  The  part  of  the 
head  that  is  preserved  is  broad. and  short  and  contains  the 
root  portions  of  eighteen  teeth,  two  of  which  retain  the 
nearly  complete  crowns.  These  are  conical  and  slightly 
recurved  and  the  longest  is  approximately  one  half  inch  in 
length.    The  portion  of  the  head  preserved  shows  a  width  of 


Figure   75 — Head     of     the     Oligocene     crocodile     Caimanoides   visheri. 
Mehl,  1916. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  143 

two  and  five-eights  inches  within  two  inches  of  the  nasal 
end.  The  animal  in  life  was  perhaps  six  feet  long.  The 
second  species,  Caimanoidea  vishcri,  found  in  1911,  shows 
characters  tending  toward  the  alligators.  Its  length  in  life 
was  about  five  and  one  half  feet. 

These  fossils  are  of  interest  in  showing  in  striking 
manner  the  Floridian  character  of  the  climate  in  the  White 
River  region  during  early  Oligocene  time  and  they  add  to 
other  evidence  that  the  country  was  then  a  land  of  inunda- 
tion. 

BIRDS  EGGS 

Several  fossil  birds  eggs  have  been  found  in  or  near  the 
Big  Badlands.  Unlike  eggs  found  elsewhere  as  fossils  the 
badland  birds  eggs  are  distinctly  petrified,  that  is  they  show 
a  practically  complete  replacement  of  the  original  matter  by 
mineral  material.  Soft  animal  tissues  quickly  decay  and 
only  exceptional  conditions  allow  for  their  preservation  or 
petrefaction.  Turtle  eggs  are  occasionally  found  filled  with 
hardened  mud  and  eggs  of  certain  extinct  birds  have  been 
preserved  by  reason  of  the  thickness  of  their  shells  but  the 
Badland  birds  eggs  show  not  only  the  thickness  of  the 
original  shell  but  apparently  also  the  position  of  the  white 
and  the  yolk  of  the  egg. 

One  of  the  Badland  eggs  found  by  Mr.  Kelly  Robinson 
in  1896  has  been  carefully  described  by  Dr.  O.  C.  Farring- 
ton  of  the  Field  Museum.  The  shell  portion  is  made  up  of 
dark  colored  chalcedony,  the  color  being  due  to  organic 
matter.  The  portion  representing  the  white  of  the  egg  is 
gray  translucent  chalcedony  with  occasional  black  blotches 
the  exact  nature  of  which  was  not  determined.  The  yolk  is 
replaced  by  opal  in  two  portions  of  about  equal  size  but 
with  different  texture.  The  egg  measures  2.03  inches  by 
1.49  inches,  long  and  short  diameters,  conforming  in  size 
and  general  shape  to  that  of  the  present  day  Florida  duck 
{Anas  fulvigula).     Plate  48.) 

Since  the  publication  of  the  paper  by  Mr.  Farrington 
other  birds  eggs  from  the  Badlands,  perfect  in  outline  and 
similar  in  size  and  shape  to  the  one  described  have  been 
found.  One  of  these  is  now  in  the  geological  museum  of  the 
South  Dakota  State  School  of  Mines. 


144  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

THE  BADLAND  LIFE  OF  TODAY 

Conditions  for  present  day  animal  and  plant  life  in  the 
Badlands  are  fairly  favorable.  The  average  annual  rainfall 
is  approximately  seventeen  inches.  Of  this  amount  about 
thirteen  inches  comes  during  the  five  crop  growing  months, 
April,  May,  June,  July  and  August.  The  average  annual 
temperature  is  about  44  deg.  Fahrenheit. 

The  soil  varies  considerably.  Much  of  the  flatter  coun- 
try is  covered  by  a  silty  or  sandy  loam  which  nourishes  rich, 
native  grasses  and  it  has  proven  under  cultivation  to  be 
favorable  for  the  growing  of  vegetables  and  grains. 

The  native  plants  incline  toward  the  hardy  semi-arid 
types.  Annuals  are  conspicuous  in  many  places  especially 
where  moisture  lingers  longest.  Pubescent-leaved  peren- 
nials with  their  well-anchored  roots  are  widely  distributed. 
There  is  a  surprising  abundance  of  flowers  and  they  appear 
in  tenaceous  succession  through  the  summer.  Grasses  are 
the  predominant  plants  over  much  of  the  country.  Chief 
among  the  many  species  are  buffalo  grass,  grama  grass, 
wheat  grass,  needle  or  spear  grass,  blue  stem  and  wire 
grass.  Of  these  the  buffalo  grass  and  grama  grass  have 
been  of  the  greatest  value  in  making  of  the  region  a  great 
cattle  range.  Cacti  and  yuccas  among  the  gorgeously 
blooming  plants  and  sage  brush  among  the  woody  shrubs 
are  abundant  and  conspicuous  but  they  are  by  no  means 
uniformly  distributed.  The  chief  wild  fruits  are  plums, 
chokecherries,  sandcherries,  buffalo  berries,  gooseberries, 
currants,  wild  grapes,  raspberries  and  service  berries. 

Trees  are  abundant  in  places  but  well  wooded  areas 
are  greatly  restricted.  Cottonwoods  are  common  along 
some  of  the  alluvial  flats  and  red  cedar  and  the  western 
yellow  pine  form  considerable  of  a  forest  growth  among  the 
higher  breaks.  Pine  Ridge,  a  prominent  irregularly  etched 
escarpment  and  an  integral  part  of  the  area  under  discus- 
sion owes  much  of  its  picturesque  nature  to  the  presence  of 
the  pines  and  cedars  scattered  so  promiscuously  among  its 
otherwise  nearly  bare  slopes  and  precipices.  In  addition  to 
these  there  are  in  much  less  abundance  the  box  elder,  ash, 
elm,  hackberry,  stunted  oak,  and  willow. 

There  are  or  were  until  recently  more  than  forty  native 
mammals  frequenting  the  Badlands.     Approximately  three 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL   OF   MINES  145 

hundred  species  of  birds  have  also  been  found  visiting  or 
making  their  homes  in  the  region-  The  commonest  of  the 
birds  are  the  cliff  swallow,  the  rock  wren,  the  meadow  lark 
and  the  chikadee  but  others  may  be  found  in  considerable 
numbers.  Mammals  once  occupying  the  country  in  an  im- 
portant manner  but  now  nearly  or  wholly  dispersed  are  the 
bison,  elk,  deer,  bear,  antelope,  mountain  sheep  and  puma. 
Among  those  that  are  yet  to  be  found  in  abundance  or  in 
considerable  numbers  are  the  following:  Coyote,  gray  wolf, 
gopher,  jack  rabbit,  cottontail  rabbit,  prairie  dog,  badger, 
skunk,  porcupine,  raccoon,  bobcat,  kitfox,  weasel,  mice  and 
shrews. 

RECENT  HISTORY 
The  history  of  the  White  River  Badlands  in  so  far  as 
it  relates  to  man  before  the  advent  of  the  white  settler  has 
to  do  chiefly  with  the  Teton  Indians.  When  white  men  first 
penetrated  the  region  they  found  Indians  frequenting  the 
country  and  calling  it  a  part  of  their  possessions.  In  the 
earliest  days  the  Crows,  (Absarokas)  controlled  the  coun- 
try and  later  the  Cheyennes  but  sometime  before  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century  the  lands  passed  into  the  possession 
of  the  Tetons  of  the  Dakota  Sioux.  The  claims  of  the  sev- 
eral Teton  tribes  shifted  from  time  to  time,  the  Brules  and 
the  Minneconjous  for  a  while  occupying  much  of  the  country 
but  later  the  Oglalas  assumed  a  large  control.     (Plate  49). 

The  earliest  white  men  to  see  the  Badlands  were  traders 
and  trappers  in  search  of  furs.  Their  coming  led  in  due 
course  to  military  and  exploratory  expeditions.  Conflicts  of 
diverse  kinds  occurred  between  the  Indians  and  the  new- 
comers and  for  a  number  of  years  an  irritating  warfare  pre- 
vailed. However,  most  of  the  actual  fighting  took  place 
outside  the  region  under  consideration.  The  severest  con- 
flict in  the  Badlands  proper  occurred  during  the  Messiah 
Craze  of  1890.  This  is  commonly  known  as  the  Wounded 
Knee  affair.  It  was  an  unfortunate  clash  between  federal 
troops  and  the  Indians  in  which  200  Indians,  men,  women, 
and  children,  and  sixty  soldiers  were  killed. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  with  the  growing 
preponderance  of  white  people  the  Indians  have  progressed 
toward  civilization  and  many  of  their  homes  show  semblance 
of  comfort,  stability  and  wealth.     The  traveller  finds  them 


146  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

today  kind  and  considerate  and  many  a  white  settler  has 
reason  to  rejoice  in  their  friendship.  The  fathers  and 
mothers,  notwithstanding  their  disadvantages,  have  gen- 
erally a  fair  knowledge  of  English  and  most  of  the  children 
are  receiving  training  in  good  elementary  and  industrial 
schools.  The  expansive  reservations  established  years  ago 
have  nearly  disappeared.  In  opening  up  these  reservations 
the  Indians  first  receive  liberal  individual  allotments  of 
land,  then  that  which  remains  is  available  for  settlement  by 
the  whites.  Opportunity  for  good  financial  returns  from  a 
large  part  of  the  Badlands,  notwithstanding  their  detractive 
name,  has  been  abundantly  proven  and  with  better  under- 
standing of  conditions,  the  wealth  of  the  region  will  greatly 
increase. 


4 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL   OF   MINES  147 


HOW  TO  SEE  THE  BADLANDS 

The  White  Eiver  Badlands  are  readily  accessible. 
Many  of  their  features  may  be  observed  with  pleasure  and 
satisfaction  from  a  Pullman  window.  Well-travelled  wagon 
roads  connect  the  better  known  passes  and  these  give 
opportunity  through  much  of  the  year  for  delightful  auto- 
mobile drives.  0£f-the-road  places  may  be  reached  by  saddle 
or  in  pedestrian  boots. 

Railroads  cross  the  country  in  several  places  and  give 
abundant  opportunity  to  visit  almost  any  desired  locality. 
The  Pierre,  Eapid  City  and  Northwestern  railroad  now 
merged  with  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  system,  going 
up  Bad  River  valley  and  thence  over  into  the  Cheyenne 
valley  crosses  a  narrow  northerly  projecting  arm  at  the 
town  of  Wall,  South  Dakota.  The  Chicago  and  Northwestern 
railroad  from  Omaha  crosses  Pine  Ridge  from  southeast  to 
northwest  at  Chadron,  Nebraska.  The  connecting  Chadron- 
Lander  line,  following  up  the  head  of  White  River  cuts 
Pine  Ridge  from  northeast  to  southwest  near  Crawford  and 
again  farther  west  in  a  nearly  east-west  direction  in  Con- 
verse county  (now  Converse  and  Albany  counties)  W^yom- 
ing.  The  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  railroad  from 
Lincoln  traverses  the  Crawford  locality  from  southeast  to 
northwest,  it  being  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  Chadron- 
Lander  connection  of  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern. 

The  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  railroad  gives  to 
the  car  window  sightseer  the  best  and  most  abundant  op- 
portunity to  view  the  general  ruggedness  of  the  Badlands 
and  affords  also  a  very  good  opportunity  to  study  close  at 
hand,  though  in  hasty  manner,  many  things  of  interest.  For 
many  miles  this  railroad  winds  its  way  up  White  River 
valley  along  the  southern  face  of  the  Great  Wall,  then 
plunges  into  the  very  heart  of  the  picturesque  Big  Badlands 
the  culminating  feature  of  all  the  area  included  under  the 
name.  White  River  Badlands.  From  near  Kadoka  to  Scenic 
there  is  a  never  ceasing  array  of  those  topographic  pecular- 
ities  that  make  the  region  famous  and,  in  the  Big  Badlands, 
they  are  placed  together  in  most  fantastic  manner.  Sheep 
Mountain    (Cedar  Point),  the  most  famous  locality  of  all 


148  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

this  wonderful  country  lies  a  few  miles  south  of  Scenic.  It 
may  be  seen  from  the  car  window  but  its  strange  grandeur 
can  be  understood  only  by  a  special  visit  and  its  chief  fea- 
ture— School  of  Mines  canyon — should  be  traversed  only 
with  proper  equipment  and  guide.  Those  wishing  to  study 
the  Great  Wall  will  find  it  accessible  from  any  of  the  near- 
by railway  towns.  Interior  is  the  largest  and  in  some  re- 
spects the  most  convenient  place  from  which  to  drive  or 
walk  but  there  are  facilities  at  every  station  and  at  some  of 
them  they  are  nearly  or  quite  as  good  as  at  Interior. 

Those  desiring  to  visit  remote  areas  either  in  south- 
western South  Dakota,  northwestern  Nebraska  or  south- 
eastern Wyoming  will  have  little  difficult}^  in  obtaining 
direction  and  suggestion.  The  people  generally  will  be 
found  accommodating  to  the  point  of  urgent  hospitality. 
One  needs  of  course  to  bear  in  mind  that  much  of  the  coun- 
try is  still  sparsely  settled  and  that  as  in  any  other  place 
annoying  weather  conditions  may  at  times  prevail  but  the 
real  lover  of  the  great  out-of-doors,  man  or  woman,  will 
usually  find  little  of  real  hardship.  He  who  has  oppor- 
tunity to  ramble  over  this  strange  country  in  the  bright 
mornings  of  early  summer  when  the  short  grasses  are  bril- 
liant green  or  who  in  the  on-coming  autumn  can  camp  near 
some  good  spring  and  enjoy  the  beauty  of  the  prairie  even- 
ing and  the  stillness  of  the  arid  night  is  blest  with  a  golden 
privilege. 

The  Badlands  are  strange,  and  inspirational  and  good. 
For  many  years  only  those  technically  trained  in  nature's 
ways  could  appreciate  them  but  now  in  these  days  of  wider 
opportunity  with  railway  facilities,  good  roads,  numerous 
settlers  and  the  omnipresent  automobile  every  one  can 
cultivate  a  growing  comprehension  of  their  meaning.  Even 
the  name  is  rapidly  losing  its  forbidding  aspect.  Until 
recently  the  country  was  to  the  causal  visitor  but  a  gro- 
tesque quarry  for  dry  bones.  It  should  be  to  all  men  a 
living  storehouse  of  wonderful  works. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL  OF   MINES  149 


A  List  of  the  Fossil   Mammals   Found   in   the   White  River 

Badlands* 


LOWER    OLIGOCENE     (TiTANOTHERIUM    ZONE.) 

Carnivora    (Fissipedia). 
Canidae. 

Daphoenus   dodgei   Scott.      Am.    Phil.    Soc,    Trans.,    voL    19, 
1898,  p.   362.     Nw.  Neb. 
Felidae. 

Dinicitis  fortis  Adams. 
Perissodactyla. 

Rhinocerotidae. 

Trigonias  obsborni  Lucas.     U.   S.  Nat.   Mus.,   Proc,   vol.    23, 

1900,  pp.   221-223.      So.  Dak. 
Leptaceratherium    trigondum    Osborn    and    Wortman.      Am. 
Mus.  Nat.   His.,   Bull.,  vol.    6,    1894,   pp.   201-203,    (Acera- 
therium).     So.  Dak. 
Caenopus  cf.  platycephalus  Osborn  and  Wortman.     Am.  Mus. 
Nat.    Hist.,    Bull.,   vol.    6,    1894,    p.    206,    (Aceratherium). 
So.  Dak. 
Caenopus  mitis  Cope. 
Lophiodontidae. 

Colodon    (Mesotapirus)    occidentalis  Leidy. 
Equldae. 

Mesohippus    proteulophus    Osborn. 
Mesohippus  hypostylus. 

Mesohippus   celer   Marsh.      Am.   Jour.    Sci.,   vol.    7,    1874,   p. 
251,   (Anchitherium).     Nw.  Neb. 
Titanotheridae   (Brontotheridae). 
Titanotherium   prouti   Leidy. 
Titanotherium   helocerus    (Cope). 
Titanotherium   trigonoceras    (Cope). 

Megacerops  dispar   (Marsh).     Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.   34,   1887, 
p.    328,    (Brontops).     So.   Dak. 


•Fossil  forms  too  poorly  preserved  to  admit  of  careful  description  and 
naming  have  been  omitted  from  this  list.  In  compiling-  the  list  I  have 
made  extensive  use  of  Matthew's  Paunal  Lists  of  the  Tertiary  Mammalia 
of  the  West  as  given  in  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  Bulletin  No.  361,  1909.  I 
have  made  no  effort  on  my  own  part  to  indicate  the  relative  value  of 
synonyms  where  synonyms  exist,  but  have  endeavored  to  follow  closely 
the  nomenclature  as  given  by  Matthew  and  by  later  authors.  For  addi- 
tional convenient  helpful  literature  the  reader  is  referred  to  Hay's  Biblio- 
graphy and  Catalogue  of  tlie  Fossil  Vertebrata  of  North  America,  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey  Bulletin  No.  179,  1902,  and  to  Palmer's  Index  Generum 
Mammalium;  a  list  of  the  Genera  and  Families  of  Mammals,  U.  S.  De- 
partment  of   Agriculture,    Division    of  Biological   Survey,   1904. 

Effort  has  been  made  to  indicate  the  scientific  paper  in  which  each 
form  was  first  described  and  named,  its  year  of  publication,  also  the  ap- 
proximate locality  within  the  area  covered  by  the  accompanying  map  of 
the  Black  Hills  region  where  the  earliest  or  type  specimen  was  found. 
Such  reference  is  omitted  in  a  few  instances  where  I  have  not  had  op- 
portunity to  examine  the  original  publication.  In  a  few  instances  fossils 
found  south  of  the  Niobrara-Platte  river  divide  and  fossils  found  near 
and  to  the  east  of  Ft.  Niobrara  are  included  but  generally  such  forms 
are  not  considered  as  coming  within  the  scope  of  this  paper.  So.  Dak| 
means  in  all  cases  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state.  Mauv.  Terrea 
where  used  corresponds  fairly  well  to  the  Big  Badlands,  hence  refers  gen- 
erally to  fossils  from  South  Dakota. 


150  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

Megacerops  tichoceras  Scott  and  Osborn.     Mus.  Comp.  Zool., 

Bull.,  vol.   13,  1887,  pp.  159-160,    (Menodus).     So.  Dak. 
Megacerops    robustus     (Marsh).      Am.    Jour.    Sci.,    vol.    34, 

1887,   pp.   326-327,    (Brontops).     Nw.   Neb. 
Megacerops    brachycephalus    Osborn.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist., 

Bull.,   vol.    16,    1902,   pp.   97-98.      So.    Dak.? 
Megacerops  bicornutus  Osborn.     Am.   Mus.  Nat.   Hist.,   Bull., 

vol.   16,   1902,  p.   99.      So.   Dak.? 
Megacerops  marshi  Osborn.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull.,  vol. 

16,   1902,  pp.   100-101.     So.  Dak.? 
Allops   serotinus   Marsh.      Am.   Jour.   Sci.,   vol.    3  4,    1887,   p. 

331.      So.   Dak. 
Allops    crassicornis    Marsh.      Am.    Jour.    Sci.,    vol.    42,    1891, 

pp.    268-269.      So.   Dak. 
Allops  amplus    (Marsh).      Am.  Jour.   Sci.,  vol.    39,   1890,  pp. 

523-524,    (Diploclonus).     So.  Dak. 
Symborodon    montanus    (Marsh).      Am.    Jour.    Sci.,    vol.    9, 

1875,   p.    246,    (Anisacodon).      Nw.   Neb. 
Symborodon    copei    Osborn,    Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    vol.    24, 

1908,   pp.    616-617.      So.      Dak. 
Brontotherium  ramosum    (Osborn). 
Brontotherium  dolichoceras   (Scott  and  Osborn).  Mus.  Comp, 

Zool.,   Bull.,  vol.   13,   1887,   pp.   160-161,    (Menodus).     So. 

Dak. 
Brontotherium    leidyi   Osborn.      Am.    Mus.   Nat.    Hist.,    Bull., 

vol.   16,   1902,  pp.   105-106.     So.  Dak. 
Brontotherium  hatcheri  Osborn.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull., 

vol.   24,  1908,  pp.   615-616.     So.  Dak. 

Artiodactyla. 

Elotheridae    (Entelodontidae). 

Elotherium    (Entelodon)    crassum    Marsh.      Am.    Jour.    Sci., 
vol.    5,    1873,    pp.    487-488. 
Anthracotheridae. 

Hyopotamus   (Ancodon)    americanus  Leidy.     Acad.  Nat.  Sci., 
Phila.,  Proc,  vol.   8,   1856,  p.    59.      So.  Dak. 
Oreodontidae    (Agriochoeridae). 

Oreodon     (Merycoidodon)     hybridus    Leidy.       Ext.    Mam.    of 

Dak.   and  Neb.,    1869,   pp.    105-106.      Mauv.   Terres. 
Oreodon    (Merycoidodon)    af finis  Leidy.      Ext.   Mam.   of  Dak. 

and  Neb.,  1869,  p.  105.     Mauv.  Terres. 
Oreodon   (Merycoidodon)   bullatus  Leidy.     Ext.  Mam.  of  Dak. 
and  Neb.,   1869,  p.   106.     Mauv.  Terres. 
Hypertragulidae. 

Heteromeryx  dispar  Matthew. 

MIDDLE   OLIGOCENE    (OREODON   ZONE.) 

Carnivora    (Creodonta). 
Hyaenodontidae. 

Hyaenodon   horridus   Leidy.      Acad.    Nat.    Sci.,    Phila.,    Proc, 

vol.    6,    1853,   pp.    392-393.      Mauv.   Terres. 
Hyaenodon   cruentus    Leidy.      Acad.    Nat.    Sci.,    Phila.,    Proc, 

vol.   6,   1853,  p.   393.      Mauv.  Terres. 
Hyaenodon    crucians    Leidy.      Acad.    Nat.    Sci.,    Phila.,    Proc. 

vol.   6,   1853,  p.  393.      Mauv.  Terres. 
Hyaenodon  paucidens  Osborn  and  Wortman.     Am.  Mus.  Nat 

Hist.,  Bull.,  vol.   6,   1894,   pp.   223-224.     So.  Dak. 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  151 

Hyaenodon    leptocephalus    Scott    and    Osborn.      Mus.    Comp. 

Zool.,   Bull.,  vol.    13,    1887,   p.    152. 
Hyaenodon  mustelinus  Scott.     Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  Jour., 

vol.    9,   1894,   pp.    499-500.      So.   Dak. 
Carnivora    (Flssipedia). 
Canidae. 

Daphoenus  vetus  Leidy.     Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  Proc,  vol. 

6,  1853,  p.  393,  Mauv.  Terres. 
Daphoenus  hartshornianus    (Cope). 
Daphoenus  felinus  Scott.     Am.  Philos.  Soc,  Trans.,  vol.   19, 

1898,  pp.   361-362.      Nw.  Neb. 
Daphoenus   nebrascensis    (Hatcher).      Carnegie   Mus.,    Mem., 

vol.   1,   1902,   pp.    95-99,    (Proamphicyon) .     Nw.   Neb. 
Daphoenus    inflatus    (Hatcher).      Carnegie   Mus.,    Mem.,   vol. 

1,  1902,  pp.   99-104,    (Protemnocyon).     Nw.  Neb. 
Cynodictis  gregarius    (Cope). 
Cynodictis    lippincottianus    (Cope). 

Felidae. 

Dinictis  felina  Leidy.     Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  Proc,  vol.   8, 

1856,  p.   91,  Mauv.  Terres. 
Dinictis   squalidens    (Cope). 
Dinictis  paucidens   Riggs. 
Hoplophoneus  primaevus    (Leidy). 
Hoplophoneus  occidentalis    (Leidy).     Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila., 

Jour.,    vol.    7,    1869,    pp.     63-64,     (Depranodon).       Mauv. 

Terres. 
Hoplophoneus  oreodontis  Cope. 
Hoplophoneus  marshi  Thorpe.     Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.  50,  1920, 

pp.    211-214.      Nw.   Neb. 
Hoplophoneus    molossus    Thorpe.      Am.    Jour.    Sci.,    vol.    50, 

1920,   pp.   220-224.     Nw.  Neb. 
Insectivora. 

Erinaceidae. 

Proterix  loomisi  Matthew. 
Leptictidae. 

Leptictis  haydeni  Leidy. 
Ictops  dakotensis  Leidy. 
Ictops   bullatus   Matthew.      Am.   Mus.   Nat.    Hist.,   Bull.,   vol. 

12,  1899,  p.  55.     So.  Dak. 
Ictops   porcinus    (Leidy). 
Soricidae. 

Protosorex    crassus    Scott.      Acad.    Nat.    Sci.,    Phila.,    Proc, 

1894,   pp.    446-448.      So.   Dak. 

Rodentia. 

Castoridae. 

Eutypomys   thomsoni    Matthew. 
Ischyromyidae. 

Ischyromys  typus  Leidy.     Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  Proc,  vol. 
8,   1856,  p.   89,  Mauv.  Terres. 
Muridae. 

Eumys  elegans  Leidy.     Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  Proc,  vol.   8, 
1856.  p.  90,  Mauv.  Terres. 
Leporidae. 

Palaeolagus   haydeni   Leidy.      Acad.   Nat.   Sci.,    Phila.,    Proc, 
vol.   8,   1856,  pp.   89-90,  Mauv.  Terres. 
Palaeolagus  turgidus  Cope. 


152  THE  WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

Perissodactyla. 

Hyracodontidae, 

Hyracodon  nebrascensis  Leidy. 

Hyracodon    major    Scott    and    Osborn.      Mus.    Comp.    Zool., 
Bull.,  vol.   13,   1887,  p.   170.     So.   Dak.? 
Amynodontidae. 

Metamynodon    planifrons    Scott    and    Osborn.       Mus.    Comp. 
Zool.,  Bull.,  vol.  13,  1887,  pp.   165-169.     So.  Dak. 

Rhinocerotidae. 

Caenopus    (Subhyracodon)    occidentalis   Leidy. 

Caenopus     (Subhyracodon)    copei    Osborn.      Am.    Mus.    Nat. 

Hist.,   Mem.,   vol.    1,    1898,   pp.    146-150,    (Aceratherium). 

So.  Dak. 
Caenopus   (Subhyracodon)   simplicidens  Cope. 
Leptaceratherium   trigonodum    (Osborn   and   Wortman). 
"Hyracodon"    planiceps    Scott    and    Osborn.      Mus.     Comp. 

Zool.,  Bull.,  vol.  13,  1887,  pp.   170-171.     So.  Dak. 
Lophiodontidae. 

Colodon    (Mesotapirus)    procuspidatus  Osborn  and  Wortman. 

Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull.,  vol.  7,  1895,  pp.  362-364.     So. 

Dak. 
Colodon     (Mesotapirus)     dakotensis    Osborn    and    Wortman. 

Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Bull.,    vol.    7,    1895,    pp.    362-364. 

So.  Dak. 
Colodon   (Mesotapirus)   longipes  Osborn  and  Wortman.    Am. 

Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull.,  vol.  7,  1895,  p.  366.     So.  Dak. 
Tapiridae. 

Protapirus   simplex   Wortman    and    Earle.      Am.    Mus.    Nat. 

Hist.,  Bull.,  vol.  5,  1893,  pp.  168-169.     So.  Dak. 
Equidae. 

Mesohippus  bairdi  Leidy. 

Mesohippus  obliquidens  Osborn.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull., 

vol.   20,   1904,  p.   173.     So.   Dak. 
Mesohippus    trigonostylus    Osborn.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist., 

Mem.,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  (new  series)   1918,  pp.  47-48.    So.  Dak. 

Artiodactyla. 

Elotheridae   (Entelodontidae). 

Elotherium    (Enteloden)    mortoni   Leidy. 

Elotherium     (Entelodon)     ingens    Leidy.       Acad.    Nat.    Sol., 
Phila.,  Proc,  vol.   8,   1856,  pp.   164-165.      Mauv.  Terras. 
Dicotylidae    (Tagassuidae). 

Perchoerus    probus    Leidy.      Acad.    Nat.    Sci.,    Phila.,    Proc, 

vol.   8,   1856,  p.   165.      Mauv.  Terres. 
Perchoerus  nanus    (Marsh).      Am.   Jour.   Sci.,   vol.    48,    1894, 
p.   271,    (Thinohyus).      So.  Dak. 
Anthracotheridae. 

Anthracotherium  curtum    (Marsh).     Am.  Jour.   Sci.,  vol.    47, 

1894,  p.  409,  Heptacodon.     So.  Dak. 
Hyopotamus    (Ancodon)    rostratus    Scott.      Acad.    Nat.    Sci., 
Phila.,  Jour.,  vol.   9,   1894,  Appendix,  p.   536.     So.  Dak. 
Leptochoeridae. 

Leptochoerus    spectabilis    Leidy.       Acad.    Nat.    Sci.,     Phila., 

Proc,  vol.  8,  1856,  p.  88.     Mauv.  Terres. 
Lepthochoerus  gracilis  Marsh.     Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.  48,  1894, 
pp.    271-273.      So.   Dak. 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  153 

Stibarus  quadricuspis   (Hatcher).     Carnegie  Mus.,  Ann.,  vol. 

1,    1901,    pp.    131-134,    (Leptochoerus). 
Oreodontidae    (Agriochoeridae). 
Agriochoerus  antiquus  Leidy. 
Agriochoerus  latifrons  Leidy.     Ext.  Mam.  of  Dak.  and  Neb., 

1869,  pp.  135-141.     Mauv.  Terres. 
Oreodon    (Merycoidodon)    culbertsoni    (Leidy). 
Oreodon    (Merycoidodon)    gracilis  Leidy. 
Oreodon    (Merycoidodon)    sp.   cf.   bullatus   Leidy. 
Hypertragulidae. 

Hypertragulus  calcaratus  Cope. 

Leptomeryx  evansi  Leidy.     Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  Proc,  vol. 

6,  1853,  p.  394.     Mauv.  Terres. 
Hypisodus  minimus   Cope. 
Hypisodus  alacer  Troxell.     Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.  49,  1920,  pp. 

393-396. 
Camelidae. 

Poebrotherium  wilsoni  Leidy.     Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  Proc, 

vol.  3,  1847,  pp.   322-326.     Mauv.  Terres. 
Poebrotherium   labiatum   Cope. 
Poebrotherium    eximium    Hay.       U.    S.    Geol.    Surv.,     Bull.    No. 

179,   1902,   p.    67.     This  was  first  described   by  Wortman 

as  Poebrotherium  wilsoni  Leidy.     See  Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist., 

Bull.,  vol.  10,  1898,  pp.  111-112.     So.  Dak. 
Poebrotherium   andersoni  Troxell.      Am.   Jour.   Sci.,   vol.    43, 

1917,  pp.  381-389. 
Paratylopus  primaevus  Matthew.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull., 

vol.  20,  1904,  pp.  211-213.     So.  Dak. 

UPPER  OLIGOCENE 

(Protoceras  and   Lower   Leptauchenia   Zones.) 

Carnivora   (Fissipedia). 
Canidae. 

Cynodictis    temnodon    Wortman    and    Matthew.      Am.    Mus. 
Nat.   Hist.,   Bull.,  vol.   12,   1899,  p.   130. 
Felidae. 

Dinictis   bombifrons   Adams. 

Hoplophoneus  insolens  Adams.     Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.  1,  1896, 

p.   429.     So.   Dak. 
Eusmilus  dakotensis  Hatcher.     Am.  Nat.,  vol.   29,   1895,  pp. 
1091-1093.     So.  Dak. 

Rodentia. 

Castoridae. 

Steneoflber    nebrascensis    (Leidy).      Acad.    Nat.    Sci.,    Phila., 
Proc,  vol.  8,  p.  89.     Mauv.  Terres. 
Perissodactyla. 

Rhinocerotidae. 

Caenopus    tridactylus    Osborn.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Bull.. 

vol.    5,    1893,   pp.    85-89,    (Aceratherium) .      So.   Dak. 
Caenopus  platycephalus  Osborn  and  Wortman. 
Tapiridae. 

Protapirus  obliquidens  Wortman  and  Earle.     Am.  Mus.  Nat. 

Hist.,  Bull.,  vol.   5.   1893,  pp.   162-169.     So.  Dak. 
Protapirus   validus   Hatcher.      Am.   Jour.    Sci.,   vol.    1,    1896, 
pp.   162-168.      So.   Dak. 


154  THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 

Equidae. 

Mesohippus   intermedius   Osborn   and   Wortman.      Am.    Mus. 

Nat.  Hist.,  Bull.,  vol.  7,  1895,  pp.  334-356.     So.  Dak. 
Mesohippus  meteulophus  Osborn.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.  Bull., 

vol.   20,   1904,  pp.   174-175.     So.  Dak. 
Mesohippus     brachystylus     Osborn.       Am.     Mus.     Nat.     Hist., 

Bull.,  vol.  20,  1904,  pp.   175-176.     So.  Dak. 
Miohippus  validus  Osborn.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.   Hist.,  Bull.,  vol. 

20,  1904,  p.  177.     So.  Dak. 
Miohippus    gidleyi    Osborn.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,   vol.    20, 

1904,  p.   178.     So.  Dak. 
Miohippus  crassicuspis  Osborn.     Am.   Mus.   Nat.   Hist.,   Bui., 

vol.   20,    1904,   pp.    178-179.      So.  Dak. 
Colodon  copei  Osborn  and  "Wortman.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist., 

Bull.,  vol.  7,  pp.  356-358,  1895.     So.  Dak. 
Parahippus    cognatus    Leidy.      Acd.    Nat.    Sci.,   Phila.,    Jour., 

vol.   7,  p.   314,   1869.     Nw.  Neb. 

Artiodactyla. 

Elotheridae   (Entelodontidae). 

Elotherium  (Entelodon)  cf.  ingens  Leidy. 
Elotherium  (Entelodon)?  crassus  Marsh. 
Elotherium    (Entelodon)    bathrodon   Marsh.     Am.   Jour.   Sci., 

vol.    7,    1874,   p.    534.      So.   Dak. 
Dicotylidae    (Tagassuidae). 

Perchoerus    robustus     (Marsh).      Am.    Jour.    Sci.,    vol.    48, 

1894,  p.   94,    (Thinohyus). 
Perchoerus   platyops    (Cope).      Hayden   Surv.,    Bull.,   vol.    6, 

pp.   174-175,    (Palaeochoerus).      So.   Dak. 
Anthracotheridae. 

Anthracotherium  karense  Osborn  and  Wortman.      Am.   Mus. 

Nat.  Hist.,  Bull.,  vol.   6,  1894,  pp.  222-223.     So.  Dak. 
Hyopotamus    (Ancodon)    brachyrhynchus   Osborn   and   Wort- 
man.     Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Bull.,    vol.    6,    1894,    pp.    220- 
221.     So.  Dak. 

Oreodontidae    (Agriochoeridae). 

Agriochoerus    major   Leidy.      Acad.   Nat.    Sci.,    Phila.,    Proc, 

vol.  8,  1856,  p.  164.     Mauv.  Terres. 
Agriochoerus    gaudryi    (Osborn    and    Wortman).      Am.    Mus. 

Nat.   Hist.,   Bull.,  vol.   5,   1893,   pp.    5-13,    (Artionyx).      So. 

Dak. 
Agriochoerus    migrans    (Marsh).      Am.    Jour.    Sci.,    vol.    48, 

1894,  pp.   270-271,    (Agriomeryx) .     So.  Dak. 
Eporeodon      ( ?Eucrotaphus)       major     (Leidy).         Smithson. 

Contr.  to  KnowL,  vol.  6,  p.   55,    (Oreodon).     So.  Dak. 
Eucrotaphus  jacksoni  Leidy. 
Hypertragulidae. 

81-82.      So.   Dak. 
Protoceras  comptus   Marsh.     Am.   Jour.   Sci.,   vol.    48,    1894, 

pp.   93-94.      So.  Dak. 
Protoceras  nasutus  Marsh. 
Galops   cristatus   Marsh.      Am.   Jour.    Sci.,    vol.    48,    1894,    p. 

94.      So.  Dak. 
Galops  consors  March. 
Camelidae. 

Pseudolabis  dakotensis  Matthew.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull., 

vol.   20,  1904,  p.   211.     So.  Dak. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  155 

LOWER   MIOCENE. 
Carnivora. 
Canidae. 

Nothocyon   gregorii   Matthew.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    BuIL, 

VOL   23,   1907,  p.   183.      So.   Dak. 
Nothocyon   vulpinus    Matthew.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Bull., 

vol.   23,  1907,  pp.   183-184.     So.  Dak. 
Nothocyon   annectens    Peterson.      Carnegie    Mus.,    Ann.,    vol. 

4,   1908,  pp.   53-54.     Nw.  Neb. 
Nothocyon?    lemur   Cope. 
Daphoenodon     superbus     Peterson.       Carnegie     Mus.,     Ann. 

vol.    4,    1908,   pp.    51-53.      Nw.  Neb. 
Daphoenodon    periculosus    Cook.      Neb.    Geol.    Surv.,    vol.    3, 

1909,  pp.  268-270.     Nw.  Neb. 

Mesocyon   robustus    Matthew.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Bull., 

vol.  23,  1907,  p.   185.     So.  Dak. 
Enhydrocyon    crassidens    Matthew.       Am.     Mus.    Nat.     Hist., 

Bull.,  vol.  23,  1907,  pp.  190-193.     So.  Dak. 
Cynodesmus  thomsoni  Matthew.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull., 

vol.   23,   1907,  pp.   186-188.     So.  Dak. 
Cynodesmus    minor    Matthew.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.    Bull., 

vol.  23,  1907,  p.  189.     So.  Dak. 
Temnocyon   venator   Cook.      Neb.    Geol.    Surv.,   vol.    3,    1909, 

pp.   262-266.     Nw.  Neb. 
Temnocyon  percussor  Cook.     Neb.  Geol.  Surv.,  vol.   3,   1909, 

p.  266.     Nw.  Neb. 
Borocyon  robustum  Peterson.     Carnegie  Mus.,  Mem.,  vol.   4, 

1910,  pp.  263-267.     Nw.  Neb. 

Paroligobunis  simplicidens  Peterson.     Carnegie  Mus.,   Mem., 
vol.  4,  1910,  pp.  269-278.     Nw.  Neb. 

Mustelidae. 

?Brachypsalis   simplicidens   Peterson.      Carnegie   Mus.,   Ann., 

vol.   4,   1908,  pp.   44-46.     Nw.  Neb. 
Oligobunis    lepidus    Matthew.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Bull., 

vol.  23,   1907,  pp.   194-195.     So.  Dak. 
Megalictis  ferox  Matthew.      Am.   Mus.  Nat.   Hist.,   Bull.,  voL 
23,   1907,  pp.    197-204.      So.   Dak. 
Aelurocyon  brevifacies  Peterson.     Carnegie  Mus.,  Ann.,  vol. 

4,   1908,  68-72.     Nw.  Neb. 
Felidae. 

Nimravus    sectator    Matthew.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Bull., 

vol.  23,  1907,  pp.  204-205.     So.  Dak. 

Insectivora. 

Chrysochloridae. 

Arctoryctes  terrenus  Matthew. 
Rodentia. 

Castoridae. 

Euhapsis    brachyceps   Peterson.      Carnegie   Mus.,    Mem.,   vol. 

2,    1905,   pp.    179-184,    (platyceps).      Nw.   Neb. 
Euhapsis    gaulodon    Matthew.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Bull., 

vol.    23,    1907,    pp.    208-210.      So.    Dak. 
Steneoflber?  pansus  Cope. 
Steneofiber   fossor   Peterson.      Carnegie   Mus.,    Mem.,   vol.    2, 

1905,  pp.   140-166.     Nw.  Neb. 
Steneofiber    barbouri    Peterson.      Carnegie    Mus.    Mem.,    vol. 
2,  1905,  pp.  166-171.     Nw.  Neb. 


156  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

Steneofiber    simplicidens    Matthew.       Am.     Mus.    Nat.    Hist., 

Bull.,  vol.  23,   1907,  pp.  205-207.     So.  Dak. 
Steneofiber  sciuroides  Matthew.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.   Hist.,  Bull., 

vol.  23,  1907,  p.   207.     So.  Dak. 
Steneofiber  brachyceps  Matthew.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull., 

vol.  23,  1907,  p.  208.     So.  Dak. 
Geomyidae. 

Entoptychus  formosus  Matthew.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull., 

vol.  23,   1907,  pp.   212-213.      So.  Dak. 
Entoptychus  curtus  Matthew.      Anm.   Mus.   Nat.   Hist.,    Bull., 

vol.  23,  1907,  pp.  213-214.     So.  Dak. 
Leporidae. 

Lepus    primigenius    Matthew.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Bull., 

vol.   23,  1907,  p.   216.     So.  Dak. 
Lepus   macrocephalus   Matthew.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    vol. 

23,  1907,  pp.  214-216.     So.  Dak. 
Perissodactyla. 

Rhinocerotidae. 

Diceratherium    cooki    Peterson.      Science,   vol.    24,    1906,    pp. 

282-283.      Nw.    Neb. 
Diceratherium  niobrarense  Peterson.     Science,  vol.  24,  1906, 

pp.   281-28  2.     Nw.  Neb. 
Diceratherium  arikarense  Barbour. 
Diceratherium  petersoni  Loomis. 
Diceratherium  schiffi  Loomis. 
Metacaenopus    egregius    Cook.       Neb.     Geol.     Surv.,    vol.     3, 

pp.   245-247.     Nw.  Neb. 
Metacaenopus  stigeri  Loomis. 
Epaiphelops  virgasectus  Cook. 

1908,   pp.   245-247.      Nw.   Neb. 
Chalicotheridae. 

Moropus?   elatus  Marsh.     Am.  Jour.,   Sci.,  vol.   14,   1877,  pp. 

250-251.     So.  Dak. 
Moropus    cooki    Barbour.      Neb.    Geol.    Surv.,    vol.    3,    1908, 

(Considered  by  Holland  and  Peterson  as  Moropus  elatus). 

Nw.  Neb. 
Moropus  petersoni  Holland.     Science,  vol.   28,   1908,  p.   810. 

Nw.  Neb. 
Moropus  hollandi  Peterson.      Science,  vol.    38,   1913,  p.    673. 

Nw.   Neb. 
Moropus    matthewi   Holland    and    Peterson.      Carnegie    Mus., 

Mem.,  vol.   3,  1914,  pp.  230-231.     Ne.  Colo. 
Moropus  parvus  Barbour. 
Equidae. 

Miohippus   equinanus   Osborn.      Am.   Mus.   Nat.    Hist.,   Mem., 

vol.  2,  pt.   1    (new  series),   1918,   pp.   65-66.   So.  Dak. 
Miohippus  gemmarosae  Osborn.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Mem. 

vol.  2,  pt.  1   (new  series),  1918,  pp.   66-68.     So.  Dak. 
Parahippus    pristinus    Osborn.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Men. 

vol.  2,  pt.  1   (new  series),  1918,  pp.  76-77.     So.  Dak. 
Parahippus  pawniensis  atavus  Osborn.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist., 

Mem.  vol.  2,  pt.  1   (new  series),  1918,  pp.  79-80.  Nw.  Neb. 
Parahippus    nebrascensis    primus    Osborn.      Am.    Mus.    Nat. 

Hist.,    Mem.   vol.    2,    pt.    1    (new   series),    1918,    pp.    80-82. 

Nw.  Neb. 
Parahippus  aff  crenidens  Scott. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  157 

Parahippus    nebrascensis    Peterson.       Carnegie    Mus.     Ann., 

vol.   4,   1908,  pp.   57-60.     Nw.  Neb. 
Parahippus  tyleri  Loomis.     Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.  26,  1908,  pp. 

163-164.     Nw.   Neb. 
Kalobatippus  agatensis  Osborn.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Mem. 

vol.  2,  pt.   1    (new  series),   1918,  pp.   71-73.     Nw.  Neb. 
Proboscidea. 

Gomphotherium    conodon    Cook.       Am.    Jour.    Sci.,    vol.    28, 

1909,  pp.   183-184.     Nw.  Neb. 

Artiodactyla. 

Elotheridae,   ( Entelodontidae ) . 

Dinohyus    hollandi    Peterson.       Science,    vol.     22,    1905,    pp. 

211-212. 
Dicotylidae    (Tagassuidae). 

Desmathyus    siouxensis    (Peterson).      Carnegie    Mus.,    Mem., 

vol.   2,   1906,  pp.   308-320,    (Thinohyus).     Nw.  Neb. 
Desmathyus   pinensis   Matthew.      Am.    Mus.   Nat.   Hist.,   Bull., 

vol.    23,    1907,   pp.    217-218. 
Anthracotheridae. 

Ancondon    (?Bothodon)    leptodus   Matthew.      Am.   Mus.   Nat. 

Hist.,  Bull.,  vol.   26,  pp.   1-7.      So.   Dak. 
Oreodontidae,    (Agriochoeridae). 

Mesoreodon  megalodon   Peterson.      Carnegie  Mus.  Ann.,   vol. 

4,   1908,  pp.   24-26.     Nw.  Neb. 
Promerychochoerus     carrikeri     Peterson.        Carnegie     Mus., 

Ann.,  vol.   4,   1908,  pp.   26-29.     Nw.  Neb. 
Promerychochoerus  vantasselensis   Peterson.      Carnegie   Mus. 

Ann.,  vol.   4,   1908,  pp.   36-37.     Nw.  Neb. 
Phenacocoelus  typus  Peterson.     Carnegie  Mus.,  Ann.,  vol.   4, 

1908,  pp.   29-32.      Nw.   Neb. 
"Merychyus  elegans   Leidy." 
"Merychyus"   harrisonensis   Peterson.      Carnegie  Mus.,   Ann., 

vol.   4,   1908,  pp.   37-40.     Converse  Co.,  Wyo. 
Merychyus  minimus  Peterson.     Carnegie  Mus.,  Ann.,  vol.   4, 

1908.  pp.    41-44.     Nw.  Neb. 
Leptauchenia   decora   Leidy.      Acad.   Nat.   Sci.,   Phila.,    Proc, 

vol.  8,  1856,  p.  88.     So.  Dak. 
Leptauchenia    major   Leidy.      Acad.    Nat.    Sci.,    Phila.,   Proc, 

vol.   8,   1856,  pp.   163-164.      Mauv.  Terres. 
Leptauchenia   nitida   Leidy.      Acad.    Nat.    Sci.,    Phila.,    Jour., 

vol.   7,  1869,  pp.   129-131.     So.  Dak. 
Camelidae. 

Stenomylus  gracilis  Peterson.      Carnegie  Mus.,   Ann.,  vol.    4, 

1908,    pp.    41-44.      Nw.    Neb. 
Stenomylus    hitchcocki    Loomis.      Am.    Jour.    Sci.,    vol.    29, 

1910,  pp.    298-318.      Nw.    Neb. 

Stenomylus    crassipes    Loomis.       Am.    Jour.    Sci.,    vol.     29, 

1910,  pp.  319-323.     Nw.  Neb. 
Protomeryx  halli  Leidy.     Acad.   Nat.  Sci.,   Phila.,   Proc.,  vol. 

8,    1856,    p.    164.      So.    Dak. 
Protomerj^x  leonardi  Loomis.     Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.   31,   1911, 

pp.   68-70.      S.  E.  Wyo. 
Protomeryx?cedrensis   Matthew. 
Oxydactylus    longipes    Peterson.      Carnegie    Mus.,    Ann.,    vol. 

2,  1904,  pp.  434-468.     Nw.  Neb. 


158 


THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


Oxydactylus   brachyceps  eterson.      Carnegie   Mus.,   Ann.,   vol. 

2,   1904,   pp.    469-471,    (brachyodontus) .      Nw.  Neb. 
Oxydactylus    longii'ostris    Peterson.       Carnegie    Mus.,    Ann., 

vol.    7,    1911,   pp.    260-266.      Nw.   Neb. 
Oxydactylus    lulli    Loomis.      Am.    Jour.    Sci.,    vol.    31,    1911, 

pp.   66-68.      S.   E.   Wyo. 
Oxydactylus  gibbi  Loomis  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.   31,   1911,  pp. 

67-68.      S.   E.  Wyo. 
Oxydactylus   campestris   Cook,    Am.   Nat.,   vol.    43,    1909,    pp. 

188-189. 
Oxydactylus   brachyodontus  Peterson. 
Hypertragulidae. 

Syndyoceras  cooki  Barbour.     Science,  1905,  vol.  33,  pp.  797- 

798. 
Hypertragulus  "calcaratus  Cope." 

Cervidae. 

Blastomeryx  advena   Matthew.     Am.   Mus.   Nat.   Hist.,   Bull., 

vol.  23,  1907,  p.   219.     So.  Dak. 
Blastomeryx   primus   Matthew.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Bull., 

vol.   24,   1908,  p.   543.     So.   Dak. 
Blastomeryx   olcotti   Matthew.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Bull., 

vol.    24,    1908,    p.    543.      So.   Dak. 

UPPER  MIOCENE 
Carnivora. 
Canidae. 

Aelurodon   saevus    (Leidy).      Acad.    Nat.    Sci.,    Phila.,    Proc, 

1858,  p.   21.     Nw.  Neb. 
Aelurodon  haydeni    (Leidy).     Acad.  Nat.   Sci.,   Phila.,   Proc, 

1858,  p.   21.     Nw.  Neb. 
Ischyrocyon    hyaendus    Matthew.       Am.     Mus.     Nat.     Hist., 
Bull.,  vol.   20,   1904,  pp.    246-249.      So.  Dak. 

Mustelidae. 

Potamotherium  lacota  Matthew.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull., 

vol.  20,  1904,  pp.  254-255.     So.  Dak. 
Lutra  pristina  Matthew.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull.,  vol.  20, 
1904,  pp.  256-257.     So.  Dak. 

Rodentia. 

Castoridae. 

Eucastor    (Dipoides)    tortus   Leidy.      Acad.   Nat.   Sci.,   Phila., 
Proc,    1858,  p.   23.     Nw.  Neb. 
Mylagaulidae. 

Mylagaulus  monodon   Cope. 

Perissodactyla. 

Rhinocerotidae. 

?Aphelops  brachyodus  Osborn.     Am.   Mus.  Nat.   Hist.,   Bull., 
vol.  20,  1904,  p.  322.     So.  Dak. 

Equidae. 

Hypohippus    affinis    Leidy.      Acad.    Nat.    Sci.,    Phila.,    Proc, 

1858,   p.   26.     Nw.  Neb. 
Protohippus   perditus  Leidy.      Acad.   Nat.   Sci.,   Phila.,   Proc, 

1858,  p.   26.      Nw.  Neb. 
Protohippus   placidus   Leidy.      Acad.   Nat.   Sci.,   Phila.,   Jour., 

vol.  7,  1869,  pp.  277-279.     Nw.  Neb. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  159 

Protohippus  supremus  Leidy.     Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  Jour., 

vol.   7,  1869,  p.   328.     Nw.  Neb. 
Protohippus   pernix    (Marsh).     Am.   Jour.   Sci.,   vol.    7,   1874, 

pp.   252-253.     Nw.  Neb. 
Protohippus  simus  Gidley.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull.,  vol. 

22,    1906,   pp.    139-140. 
Neohipparion   whitneyi   Gidley.      Am.    Mus.   Nat.   Hist.,   Bull., 

vol.   19,    1903,   pp.   467-476.      So.   Dak. 
Neohipparion   occidentale    (Leidy).      Acad.   Nat.   Sci.,   Phila., 

Proc,  vol.  8,  1856,  p.  59,   (Hipparion).     So.  Dak. 
Neohipparion  dolichops  Gidley.     Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull., 

vol.  22,  1906,  pp.   148-151.     So.  Dak. 

Artiodactyla. 

Dicotylidae    (Tagassuidae). 

Prosthemnops    crassigenis    Gidley.       Am.     Mus.    Nat.     Hist., 
Bull.,  vol.  20,  1904,  pp.  265-267.     So.  Dak. 
Camelidae. 

Procamelus     occidentalis    Leidy.       Acad.     Nat.     Sci.,     Phila., 

Proc,   1858,  pp.   23-24.     Nw.  Neb. 
Procamelus  robustus   Leidy.     Acad.   Nat.   Sci.,    Phila.,   Proc, 
1858,  p.  89.     Nw.  Neb. 
Cervidae. 

Blastomeryx   wellsi    Matthew.      Am.    Mus.    Nat.    Hist.,    Bull., 
vol.  20,   1904,  pp.   125-126.     So.  Dak. 
Blastomeryx   marshi   Lull.      Am.   Jour.,   Sci.,   vol.    50.      1920,   pp. 
125-130.     Nw.  Neb. 
Aletomeryx  gracilis  Lull.     Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.  50,  1920.  pp. 
85-124.      Nw.   Neb. 

PLIOCENE* 
Perissodactyla. 
Equidae. 

Pliohippus  lullianus  Troxell.     Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.   24,   1916, 

pp.    335-348.      So.    Dak. 
Pliohippus  pernix  Marsh.     Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.   7,   1874,  pp. 

252-253.      Nw.  Neb. 
Pliohippus   robustus    Marsh.      Am.    Jour.    Sci.,    vol.    7,    1874, 

p.    253.      Nw.  Neb. 
Pliohippus   leidyanus   Osborn.      Am.    Mus.   Nat.    Hist.,    Mem., 
vol.  2,  pt.  1  (new  series),  1918,  p.  162.     Nw.  Neb. 


♦For  a  faunal  list  of  beds  of  this  age  found  in  Southern  Sioux 
County,  Nebraska,  see:  Matthew,  W.  D.  and  Cook,  H.  J.  A  Pliocene 
Fauna  from  Western  Nebraska.  Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull.,  vol.  26, 
pp.  361-414,  1909. 


160  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


A  List  of  Fossil  Vertebrates  Otlier  Than  Mammals  Found  in 
the  White  River  Badlands. 


TURTLES* 

LOWER  OLIGOCENE 
Graptemys  inornata  Loomis.     Am.   Jour.   Sci.,   vol.    18,    1904,   p.    429. 

So.  Dak. 
Testudo  brontops  Marsh.     Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.   40,   1890,  p.   179.     So. 

Dak. 
Xenochelys  formosa  Hay.     Am.   Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,   Bull.,  vol.   22,   1906, 

p.  29.     So.  Dak. 

MIDDLE  AND  UPPER  OLIGOCENE 

Stylemys   nebrascensis   Leidy      Acad.    Nat.    Sci.,    Phila.,    Proc,    vol.    5, 

1851,  p.   172.     So.  Dak. 
Testudo  laticunea  Cope. 
Testudo  thomsoni  Hay.     Hay's  Fossil  Turtles  of  North  America,  1908, 

pp.   400-401.      So.  Dak. 

LOWER  MIOCENE 
Testudo  arenivaga  Hay.     Carnegie  Mus.  Ann.,  vol.  4,  1906,  pp.  16-17, 

Nw.  Neb. 
Testudo  emiliae  Hay.     Hay's  Fossil  Turtles  of  North  America,   1908, 

pp.    419-420.      So.    Dak. 

UPPER  MIOCENE 

Testudo  edae  Hay.     Carnegie  Mus.,  Ann.,   vol.   4,    1906,   p.    19.     Nw. 

Neb. 
Testudo  hollandi  Hay.     Carnegie  Mus.,  Ann.,  vol.  4,  1906,  p.  18.     Nw. 

Neb. 
Testudo  niobrarensis  Leidy.     Acad.  Nat.   Sci.,   Phila.,   Proc,    1858,   p. 

29,  Nw.  Neb. 

LIZARDS 
Aciprion  formosum  Cope. 

Rhineura  hatcheri  Bauer.     Am.  Nat.,  vol.   27,   1893,  p.   998. 
Hyporhina  antigua  Bauer.     Am.  Nat.,  vol.   27,  1893,  p.   998. 

CROCODILES 

Crocodllus  prenasalis  Loomis.     Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.  18,  1904,  pp.  427- 

429.      L.   Olig.   of  So.   Dak. 
Caimanoidea  visheri  Mehl     Jour.  Geol.,  vol.  24,  1916,  pp.  47-56.     So. 

Dak. 

BIRDS 

Birds   egg    (Anatidae?)    Farrington.      Field   Mus.,    Geol.    Ser.,   vol.    1, 
1899,  pp.  193-200.     L.  Olig.  of  So.  Dak. 


♦The  nomenclature  here   given   for   the  turtles  is   that  of   O.    P. 
Hay  in  his  work,  The  Fossil  Turtles  of  North  America,   1908. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  161 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


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note  in  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  1846.) 

Leidy^  Joseph.  On  a  New  Genus  and  Species  of  Fossil 
Rumiuantia:  Poebrotherium  Wilsoni.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci., 
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CuLBERTSON^  Thaddeus  A.  Joumal  of  an  Expedition 
to  the  Mauvaises  Terres  and  the  Upper  Missouri  in  1850. 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Fifth  Ann.  Rept.  1851,  pp.  84-145. 

Leidy,  Joseph.  Description  of  the  Remains  of  Extinct 
Mammalia  and  Chelonia  from  Nebraska  Territory,  Collected 
During  the  Geological  Survey  under  the  Direction  of  Dr. 
David  Dale  Owen.  Report  of  a  Geological  Survey  of  Wis- 
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Nebraska  Territory  by  David  Dale  Owen,  United  States 
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Owen,  David  Dale.  Incidental  Observations  on  the 
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162  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

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Hayden,  F.  V.  Notes  on  the  Geology  of  the  Mauvaises 
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Hayden,  F.  V.  On  the  Geology  and  Natural  History 
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Newberry,  J.  S.  The  Ancient  Lakes  of  Western  Am- 
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Kept.,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  of  Wyoming  and  Portions  of  Con- 
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Hayden,  F.  V.  Geology  of  the  Missouri  Valley.  Prelim. 
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Marsh^  O.  C.  Ancient  Lake  Basins  of  the  Rocky 
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Marsh^  O.  C.  Introduction  and  Succession  of  Verte- 
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Cope^  Edward  D.  The  Relation  of  Horizons  of  Extinct 
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Newton,  Henry^  and  Jenney,  W.  P.  Report  on  the 
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U.  S.  Geogr.  and  Geol.  Surv.  Special  Report.  Wash., 
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Cope.  Edward  D.  The  Tertiary  Formations  of  the 
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164  THE   WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 

ScoTT^  W.  B.  and  Osborn^  H.  F.  Preliminary  Account 
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Scott,  W.  B.  and  Osborn^  H.  F.  Preliminary  Account 
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Marsh,  O.  C.  Recent  Polydactyl  Horses.  Am.  Jour. 
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Osborn,  H.  F.  The  Rise  of  the  Mammalia  in  North  Am- 
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Wortman,  J.  L.  On  the  Divisions  of  the  White  River 
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Wortman,  J.  L.  and  Earle,  Charles.  Ancestors  of  the 
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Osborn,  H.  F.  and  Wortman,  J.  L.  Fossil  Mammals  of 
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Todd,  James  E.  A  Preliminary  Eeport  on  the  Geology 
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Scott,  W.  B.  The  Later  Tertiary  Lacustrine  Forma- 
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Scott,  W.  B.  The  Structure  and  Relationship  of 
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Scott,  W.  B.  The  Osteology  of  Hyaenodon.  Acad.  Nat. 
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Scott,  W.  B.  The  Osteology  and  Relations  of  Proto- 
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WORTMAN,  J.  L.  On  the  Osteology  of  Agriochoerus. 
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Adams,  George  I.  The  Extinct  Felidae  of  North  Am- 
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OSBORN,  H.  F.  Prehistoric  Quadrupeds  of  the  Rockies. 
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KiES,  Heinrich.  The  Fullers  Earth  of  South  Dakota. 
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Scott,  W.  B.  The  Osteology  of  Elotherium.  Am.  Phil. 
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Scott,  W.  B.  Notes  on  the  Canidae  of  the  White  River 
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Farrington,  O.  C.  a  Fossil  Egg  from  South  Dakota. 
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Davis.  W.  M.  Continental  Deposits  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
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Matthew,  W.  D.  Fossil  Mammals  of  the  Tertiary  of 
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Matthew,  W.  D.  and  Gidley,  J.  W.  New  or  Little 
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OSBORN,  H.  F.  The  Causes  of  Extinction  of  Mammalia. 
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Peterson,  O.  A.  The  Agate  Spring  Fossil  Quarry. 
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GiDLEY,  James  W.  Revision  of  the  Miocene  and  Plio- 
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170  THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 

LuLL^  EiCHARD  S.  The  Evolution  of  the  Horse  Family, 
as  Illustrated  in  the  Yale  Collections,  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol. 
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Matthew^  W.  D.  A  Lower  Miocene  Fauna  from  South 
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Hay^  O.  p.  The  Fossil  Turtles  of  North  America.  Car- 
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Leonard,  A.  G.  Geology  of  Southwestern  North  Da- 
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LooMis^  F.  B.  Rhinocerotidae  of  the  Lower  Miocene. 
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Matthew,  W.  D.  Osteology  of  Blastomeryx  and 
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Matthew^  W.  D.  Mammalian  Migrations  Between 
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Peterson^  O.  A.  The  Miocene  of  Western  Nebraska 
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Darton^  N.  H.  Geology  and  Underground  W^aters  of 
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Day^  p.  C.  Summary  of  the  Climatological  Data  for 
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Herman^  A.  Modern  Laboratory  Methods  in  Verte- 
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SOUTH  DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  171 

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OSBORN,  H.  F.  and  Matthew^  W.  D.  Cenozoic  Mam- 
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Peterson^  O.  A.  A.  Revision  of  the  Entelodontidae. 
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LooMis,  F.  B.  Osteology  and  Affinities  of  the  Genus 
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Matthew,  W.  D.  The  Phylogeny  of  the  Felidae.  Am. 
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O'Harra,  Cleophas  C.  The  Badland  Formations  of 
the  Black  Hills  Region.  So.  Dak.  State  Sch.  of  Mines,  Bull. 
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Osborn,  H.  F.  Correlation  of  the  Cenozoic  Through  Its 
Mammalian  Life.     Jour,  of  Geol.,  vol.  18,  1910,  pp.  201-215. 

Osborn,  H.  F.  The  Ase  of  Mammals  in  Europe,  Asia, 
and  North  America.  8  vo.,  635  pp.  220  figs..  New  York,  1910. 

Osborn,  H.  F.  Correlation  of  the  Cenozoic  Through 
Its  Mammalian  Life.  Jour,  of  Geol.,  vol.  18,  pp.  201-215,  4 
figs.,  1910. 

Peterson,  O.  A.  Description  of  New  Carnivores  From 
the  Miocene  of  Western  Nebraska.  Carnegie  Mus.  Mem., 
vol.  4,  No.  5,  pp.  205-278,  69  fig.,  12  pis.,  1910. 

Bassler^  R.  S.  (Secretary).  Symposium  on  Ten 
Years  Progress  in  Vertebrate  Paleontology.  Geol.  Soc.  Am., 
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Cook,  H.  J.  Faunal  Lists  of  the  Tertiary  Formations 
of  Sioux  Countv,  Nebraska.  Neb.  Geol.  Surv.,  vol.  7,  pt.  5, 
pp.  33-45,  1912."^ 

Knipe,  Henry  R.  Evolution  in  the  Past.  242  pp., 
many  plates,  London,  1912. 


172  THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 

Perisho,  E.  C.  and  Fisher,  S.  S.  A  Preliminary  Re- 
port Upon  the  Geography,  Geology,  and  Biology  of  Mellette, 
Washabaugh,  Bennett,  and  Todd  Counties,  South  Dakota. 
So.  Dak.  State  Geol.  and  Biol.  Survey.  Bull.  No.  5,  152  pp., 
50  pis.,  and  maps,  1912. 

O'Harra,  Cleophas  C.  O'Harra's  Handbook  of  the 
Black  Hills,  159  pp.  Many  illustrations,  Kapid  City,  So. 
Dak.,  1913. 

Scott,  W.  B.  A  History  of  Land  Mammals  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere.  8  vo.,  693  pp.,  304  figs.,  New  York, 
1913. 

Holland,  W.  J.  and  Peterson,  O.  A.  The  Osteology  of 
the  Chalieotheroidea,  with  special  reference  to  a  mounted 
skeleton  of  Moropus  Elatus  Marsh,  now  installed  in  the 
Carnegie  Museum.  Carnegie  Mus.  Mem.,  vol.  3,  pp.  189- 
406,  115  figs.,  pis.  48-77,  1914. 

Peterson,  O.  A.  The  Osteology  of  Promerycochoerus. 
Carnegie  Mus.  Annals.,  vol.  9,  pp.  149-219,  41  figs.,  10  pis., 
1914. 

Cook,  H.  J.  Notes  on  the  Geology  of  Sioux  County, 
Nebraska  and  Vicinity.  Neb.  Geol.  Surv.,  vol.  7,  pt.  11, 
pp.  59-75,  1  pi.,  7  figs.,  1915. 

Matthew,  W.  D.  The  Tertiary  Sedimentary  Record 
and  Its  Problems.  Problems  American  Geology,  8  vo.,  pp. 
377-478,  40  figs.    Yale  University,  1915. 

Scott,  W.  B.  The  Isthmus  of  Panama  in  Its  Relation 
to  the  Animal  Life  of  North  and  South  America.  Science, 
vol.  43,  pp.  113-124,  1916. 

Troxell,  E.  L.  An  Early  Pliocene  One-Toed  Horse, 
Pliohippus  Lullianus.  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.  42,  pp.  335-348, 
7  figs.,  1916.  See  also  Geol.  Soc.  Am.  Bull.,  vol.  27,  pp. 
151-152,  1916. 

Troxell,  E.  L.  Oligocene  Fossil  Eggs.  Wash.  Acad. 
Sci.,  Jour.,  vol.  6,  pp.  442-445,  5  figs.,  1916. 

O'Harra,  Cleophas  C.  A  Bibliography  of  the  Geology 
and  Mining  Interests  of  the  Black  Hills  Region.  So.  Dak. 
State  Sch.  of  Mines  Bull.  No.  11,  223  pp.,  1917. 


SOUTH   DAKOTA   SCHOOL   OF   MINES  17  3 

OsBORN^  H.  F.  Observations  on  the  Skeletons  of 
Moropus  Cooki  in  the  American  Museum.  Geol.  Soc.  Am. 
Bull.,  vol.  29,  pp.  131-133,  1918. 

OsBORN^  H.  F.  Equidae  of  the  Oligocene,  Miocene  and 
Pliocene  of  North  America,  Iconographic  Type  Revision. 
Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Mem.,  vol.  2,  pt.  1  (new  series),  217 
pp.,  173  figs.,  54  pis.,  1918. 

Geologic  Atlas  Folios: 

Darton,  N.  H.      Oelrichs  Folio,  No.  85,  1902. 

Darton  N.  H.  and  Smith_,  U.  S.  T.  Edgemont  Folio, 
No.  107,  1904. 

Darton,  N.  H.     Sundance  Folio,  No.  127,  1905. 

Darton,  N.  H.  and  O'Harra,  C.  C.  Aladdin  Folio,  No. 
128,  1905. 

Darton,  N.  H.  and  O'Harra,  C.  C.  Devils  Tower  Folio, 
No.  150,  1907. 

Darton,  N.  H.  and  O'Harra,  C.  C.  Belle  Fourche 
Folio,  No.  164,  1909. 

Books.     (Latest  Editions.) 

Scotts   Introduction   to   Geology. 

Chamberlain  and  Salisbury's  Geology.  (College  Edi- 
tion, one  vol.  or  vol.  3  of  the  larger  work.) 

Le  Conte's  Elements  of  Geology. 

Pirsson  and  Schuchert's  Textbook  of  Geology. 

Woodward's  Outline  of  Vertebrate  Paleontology. 

Beddard's  Mammalia. 

Palmer,  T.  S.  Index  Generum  Mammalium;  a  list  of 
the  Genera  and  Families  of  Mammals.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr., 
Biolog.  Surv.,  1904. 

Osborn,  H.  F.     Evolution  of  Mammalian  Molar  Teeth. 

Bibliographies. 

U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  127.     (1732-1891). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  188-189  (1892-1900). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Suv.  Bull.  301  (1901-1905). 


174  THE   WHITE    RIVER   BADLANDS 

U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  372  (1906-1907). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  409  (1908). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  444  (1909). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  495  (1910). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  524  (1911). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull  545  (1912). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  584  (1913). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  617  (1914). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  645  (1915). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  665  (1916). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  684  (1917). 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Buell.  698  (1918). 
U.    S.    Geol.    Surv.    Bull.   22    (Hayden,   King,    Powell, 
Wheeler  Surveys). 

U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  179  (Fossil  Vertebrata  of  North 
America). 

U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  191  (Geologic  Formation 
Names ) . 


INDEX* 


A  Page 

Academy      of      Natural      Sci- 
ences, Philadelphia  23,  24,    136 

Aceratheres     94,      96 

^ceratheriuin     ....149,    152,    153 

Aciprion     160 

Adams,    Geo.   1 85.    165 

Adelia     (Neb.)     38,      40 

Aelurocyon     46,    155 

Aelurodon    158 

Agate    Springs    27 

28,   29,   47,   98,    136 
Agriochoeridae    ...150,    153,    154 

Agriochoerus    124 

136,    153    154 

Agriomeryx     154 

Aletomeryx     15  9 

Allops     Ill,    150 

Alluvial    fans    54 

American  Fur  Company  ...  23 
American  Journal  Science,  23,  110 
American     Museum     Natural 

History     8 

25,     26,     27,     42,     45,     85,      89 

94,      98,     103,      110,      113,    114 

117,    135,    142 

Amherst   College    25,      28 

Amherst    Hill    29 

Amynodontidae    91 

92,    94,    152 
Analyses 

Fossils     63,      64 

Fullers    Earth    62 

Anatidae    160 

Anchitherium     149 

Ancodon     150 

152,    154,    157 

Ancodus    123 

Anisacodon     150 

Antelopes     7  4 

Anthracotheridae    122 

123,    150,    152,    154    157 

Anthracotherium     123 

152,    154 

Aphelops    158 

Archaeotherium     63 

Arctoryctes    46,    155 

Argyle    61 

Arikaree     32 

36,    40,    42,    43,    45,      46 

Artiodactyla     76,     90 

118,    150,    152.    154,    157,    159 

*The  plates  are  not  indexed. 


B  Page 

Badlands,    Meaning    of 19 

Bad  river 53 

Barbour,    E.    H 27.    44.  57 

59,    60,   97,    131,   165,    167,  168 

Bassler,  R.  S 171 

Bear    creek     52,  54 

Bear  in   the  Ledge  creek.  .  .  53 

Beavers    22 

Bibliography    ..8,    149,    173,  174 

Big    Badlands     20,  36 

38,   39,   40,   41,   42,   45,   53,  59 

64,    89,    91,    94,    100,    117,  129 

135,    143,    147,  149 

Big  Corral  draw 52 

Big  Foot  pass 53 

Big   Foot    wall    53 

Birds    (present   day)     145 

Birds    eggs    (fossil)     ...139.  140 

143.  160 

Bird's  Eye  view    37 

Black    Hills    20,  21 

38,     47,     49,     50.     51.     52..  62 

94,     140,  149 

Blastomeryx    46,  138 

139,    158.  159 

Bone   phosphate    63 

Borocyon    155 

Bothrodon     123,  157 

Brachypsalis    155 

Brontops    ....111,   117,  149,  150 

Brontotheridae    149 

Brontotherium.  .  11,   64,   116,  150 

Bruce     163 

Brule    formation    32.  36 

39.    40,    43,  46 

Buffalo   creek    53 

Building  stone    61 

Bull  creek    52,  54 

C 

Caenopus..    95,  96,  149.  152.  153 

Caimanoides     143.  160 

Cain    creek    53 

Calops     154 

Camelidae     132-137 

153.    154,    157,  159 

Camels    22,    71,    132-137 

Canidae    77,    78-82 

149,   151,   153,   155.  158 

Carnegie   Hill    29 

Carnegie   Museum    25,  27 

71,   89,   98,   117,  141 


176 


THE  WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


Page 
Carnivores     76,     77-87,      90 

149,    150,    151,    153,    155,    158 

Case,    E.    C 165,    166 

Castoridae.  .  .151,    153,    155,    158 

Causes   of  badlands    54 

Cedar    draw     53 

Cedar   pass    53 

Cedar    point    147 

Cenozoic    31,      32 

Cervidae 138-139,    158,    159 

Chadron    (Neb.)    ...38,   117,    147 

Cbadron   formation    32,      36 

38,      40 

Chalcedony   viens    36,      58 

Cbalicotheridae    96-98    156 

Chamberlain   pass    53 

Cheyenne   river    20,      29 

38,    52,    53,      55 

Chrysochloridae   88,   155 

Classification   of  animals.  ..  72-76 
Classification   of   formations.      31 

Clay    dikes    3  6 

Clays    36,    42,      61 

Climate    50,    51,    144 

Collecting    70-72 

Colodon     149,     152,    154 

Color    banding    40 

Columns     5  5 

Concretions.  .36,   42,    43,   54,      56 

Conglomerates     3  6 

Continental      outlines.      (See 

Paleogeography. ) 

Cook,   H.   J 29,      44 

47,    103,    159,    171,    172 

Cook's    ranch    29 

Cope,   E.   D 60,      79 

102,    123,   163 

Corn  creek 53,      57 

Corral    draw    113 

(See  Little  Corral  draw   and 

Big  Corral  draw.) 

Correlation    31 

Cottonwood  creek    53,      54 

Crawford    (Neb.)     147 

Creodonta    77,    78,    80.    150 

Cretaceous    30,    50,      66 

Crocodiles    22,    139 

140,    142-143,    160 

Crocodilus    142,    160 

Crooked    creek    52 

Crooked   creek   table    54 

Culbertson,    Alex 91,    135 

Culbertson,   T.   A 24,    161 

Cuvier    102 

Cynodesmus    46,    155 

Cynodictis 82,    83,    151,    153 


D  Page 

Daemonelix    44,    59,  60 

Daemonelix  beds  ...  .36,  44,  89 

Dairying     20 

Dall,  W.  H 164 

Daphoenus 82,  149,  151 

Daphoenodon.  .  .    79,   80,    81,  155 

Darton,  N.  H 26,   28,  38 

39,     40,     42-43,     167,     168,  169 

170,  173 

Davis,   W.    M 167 

Day,  P.  C 170 

Deers     28,     138-139 

Deposition     22 

Depranodon     87,  151 

Desmathyus    46,    121,  157 

Devils  Corkscrews 59,  90 

Devils    Hill    57 

Diceratheres    94 

Diceratherium 46,    96,  156 

Dicotylidae.  .  .152,    154,    157  159 

Dikes     57,  58 

Dinictis 83,  84 

87,    149,    151,  153 

Dinohyus.  .46,  118,  119,  120,  157 

Dipoides    158 

Distribution  of  animals.  ...  65-69 

Dog3    22 

Diploclonus    150 

E 

Eagle  Nest  butte....53,    60,  126 

Eagle  Nest  creek    53 

Early  explorers 20 

Earth    pillars    36 

Economic  mineral  products.  .  61 

Edentates     9  6 

Eggs 

Birds    143 

Turtles     141 

Elotheres    118-122 

Elotheridae      118-122,  150 

152,    154,  157 

Elotherium.  .  .  .46,    63,    118,  119 

150,  154 

Enhydrocyon    155 

Enos,  George    63,    64 

Entelodon.  .  .119,    150,    152,  154 

Entelodontidae    ....118-133,  150 

152,   154,  157 

Entoptychus    46,    89,  156 

Eocene     31,    32,  100 

Eohippus    100 

Eolian    50 

Eotitanops    117 

Epaiphelops    156 

Eporeodon 128,  154 

Equus     110 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL  OF  MINES 


17^ 


Page 

Equidae 91,  100-110 

149,    152,    154,    156,    158,    159 

Erinaceidae   151 

Erosion 54 

Eucastor    158 

Eucrotaphus    154 

Euhapsis    155 

Eumys    151 

Eusmilus     87,    153 

Eutheria    76 

Eutypomys     151 

Evans,   John    24,   140 

Evolution    65,    109,    137 

Exploration     20,      23 

Extinction     65,      66 

F 

Fairburn    61 

Farming    20 

Farr,    M.   S 101,   165 

Farrington,    O.    C.  ..28,    143,    166 
Felidae 77,   80,   83-87 

149,    151,    153,    155 
Field    Columbian    Museum..      25 

28,    143 

Filhol     98 

Finney  breaks 142 

Fissipedia     77,    149 

151,    153 

Flowers    144 

Folsom    142 

Ford,  W.   E 167 

Fort  Union  beds 32 

Fossils,    definition   of    ...64,      65 

Fossils,  list  of 149-160 

Fruits     144 

Fuchs,  Theodore 60 

Fullers  Earth   ...39,   48,  61,      62 
G 

Geodes    58,      59 

Geographical    changes.     (See 
Paleogeography. ) 

Geologic    divisions    3  2 

Geologic  history    50 

Geologic  sections    36 

Geomyidae    156 

Gering  formation.  .36,  40,  43      44 
Gidley,    J.    W 45,    91,   102 

103,    110,    122,    169 

Gilmore,    C.    W 128 

Golden   moles    88 

Gomphotherium     157 

Gophers    22 

Grand    river    

Granger,  Walter 103 

Grant,  Madison 168 

Graptemys    160 


Page 

Grasses    144 

Gravels   36 

Grazing    20 

Great  Plains  deposits 35 

Great  Wall 20,      21 

29,  53,  147,    148 

Greene,  F.  V 63,   161 

H 

Hall,   Prof.   James    142 

Harrison,    (Neb.)     44,     45 

Harrison  beds    36,      43 

44,   47,    59,    89,    90,      98 

Hart    table    54 

Hatcher,  J.  B 27,  39,      43 

44,      47,      111,      112,      117,    129 
164,    165,    168 

Hat  creek    53 

Hay,   O.  P 149,    170 

Hay,   Robert    164 

Hay   creek    52,   54 

Hayden,    F.    V 24,     89 

126,    161,   162,   163 

Hedgehogs    22 

Heilprin,    Angelo    165 

Heptacodon    152 

Herbivores    76,    77,      90 

Herman,    A 170 

Heteromeryx     150 

Hipparion    159 

Hipparion   Zone    36 

History,  Geologic    31 

History  of  exploration 23 

Holland,    W.    J 28,    98,    172 

Homesteaders    21 

Hoplophoneus     83,      84 

85,    86,    87,   151 

Horses 22,    91,    100-110 

Huxley,  Prof.  Thos 102 

Hyaenodon 77,   78,   150,    151 

Hyaenodontidae   150 

Hyopotamus 122,    123 

150,   152,    154 
Hypertragulidae      128-131 

150,    153,    154,    158 
Hypertragulus    ....46,    153,   158 

Hypisodus    153 

Hypohippus     110,    158 

Hyporhina 160 

Hyracodon    93,    152 

Hyracodontidae    91,      92 

93,  94,   152 

Hyracotheres    103 

Hyracotherium    100 

I 

Ictops    151 

Imlay    59 


178 


THE  WHITE   RIVER   BADLANDS 


Page 

Indians    145,  146 

Indian    creek    29,    52,  54 

Indian   draw    142 

Indian   outbreak    54,  145 

Indian  reservations   146 

Interior    148 

Insectivores  ...  .76,  88,  151,  155 

Ischyrocyon    82,  158 

Ischyromyidae    151 

Ischyromys    151 

J 

Jenney,  W.  P 163 

K 

Kadoka    147 

Kalobatippus    157 

Knipe,   Henry   R 171 

Kowalevsky    102 

Kube   table    54 

li 

Lacustrine    theory    49 

Lake  flat 54 

Lance   creek    53 

Le   Conte,    Joseph    31 

Leidy,   Joseph    23,  24 

33,   89,   91,   111,   124,   128,  136 

140,        141,        161,        162,  163 

Leonard,  A.  G 170 

Leporidae    151,  156 

Leptaceratherium 149,  152 

Leptauchenia    42,  46 

124,    126,    127,  157 

Leptauchenia  beds    .  . 45,   46,  48 

Leptauchenia   zone    36,  37 

42,    46,    126,  153 

Leptictidae   151 

Leptictis     151 

Leptochoeridae      152 

Leptochoerus    152 

Leptomeryx.  .128,    129,    138,  153 

Lepus    46,  156 

Life  of  today 144-145 

Limestones   36 

Little    Corral    draw    52 

Little  White  river 47,  48 

53,    89,    105,  110 

Little  White   river   beds....  36 

Lizards    139,  160 

Llamas    132,  134 

Loomis,   F.    B 28,  142 

168,   170,  171 

Lophiodontidae    91,  96 

149,  152 

Lower   Miocene    42,  160 

Lower  Oligocene    149,  160 

Lower  Pliocene    48,  107 

Lower  Rosebud  beds    89 


Page 

Lucas,  F.  A 167,   168 

Lull,   R.  S 108,    135,   137,   170 

Lusk,   Wyoming    60 

Lutra 158 

M 

Macmillan   Company    8 

Machaerodonts    83-87 

Machaerodus   87 

Macrotherium     96,      98 

Mammalia    75,     76 

Mammals  (present  day)  .  .  144-145 

Manderson    53 

Manner  of  deposition 49 

Marsh,   O.   C 25,    102 

104,    105,    129,    163,    164,    166 

Matthew,    W.    D 26,      45 

46,  47,  66,  67,  68,  69,  83,      84 

85,     89,     103,     109,     122,   135 

138,    139,    149,    159,    166,    168 

169,    170,   171,   172 

Mauvaises   Terres    19,   149 

Medicine  Root  creek    53 

Megacerops    Ill,   113 

114,  149,    150 

Megalictis 46,    87,   155 

Mehl,  M.  G 142 

Menodus Ill,   150 

Merrill,  S.  P 168,    169 

Merychyus    46,    157 

Merycochoerus    46 

Merycochoerus   zone    ....36,      37 

46,    126 

Merycoidodon    150,    153 

Mesas 53 

Mesaxonic    90 

Mesocyon 155 

Mesohippus     101,   103 

106,    110,    149,    152,    154 

Mesoreodon     46,   157 

Mesotapirus    149,   152 

Messiah  craze    145 

Metacaenopus    156 

Metamynodon.  .  .  41,    92,    94,    152 

Metamynodon     sandstone     .  .      36 

41,   43,      48 

Metatheria    76 

Middle  Miocene    47 

Middle  Oligocene 150,   160 

Migration    68 

Mineral   products    61 

Miocene     26,      27 

31,   32,   33,  34,      68 

Miohippus    154,    156 

Mission,    S.    D 107 

Moles    22 

Monroe  Creek  beds..  36,   43,      44 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL  OF  MINES 


179 


Page 
Moropus..46,   66,  97,  98,   99    156 

Mountain    sheep    21 

Mounting  of  skeletons   ....70-72 

Muridae 151 

Mustelidae 87-88,    155,    158 

Mylagaulidae    158 

Mylagaulus    158 

N 

Naming  of  extinct  animals,  72-76 

Nebraska    (Northwestern)...      27 

28,   38,   43,   59,   60,   71,   89,      94 

98,     103,     111,     117,     126,    136 

148,    147 

Nebraska   beds    32,    36,      47 

Neohipparion    ....102,    110,   159 

Newberry,  J.  S 5,   162 

Newton,  Henry    163 

Nimravus    46,    155 

Niobrara  river   29,      47 

48,    53,    60,    105 

Nodular  layer    41,  42,   126 

Nomenclature    75 

Nothocyon    155 

O 

Oak  creek    48 

Oglala   formation    47 

O'Harra,   C.   C 171,    172,    173 

Old  Woman  creek    53 

Oligobunis     46,    155 

Oligocene.26,  31,  32,  34,  51,      67 

Oreodon  beds 36,      37 

39,    40,    41,    48,    55,    150 

Oreodons     40,      64 

66,  123-^28,  153,    154 

Oreodontidae    123-128 

150,    152,   154,    157 

Osborn    8,  27,      29 

34,  35,  36,  37,  44,  46,  66,  68 
69,  86,  92,  93,  94,  95,  99,  102 
103,  104,  106,  107,  111,  112 
113,  114,  115,  117,  164,  165 
166,  167,  168,  169,  171,  173 

Owen,  D.  D 24,  161 

Owen  Gelog.   Survey,  24,   63,   140 

Oxydactylus    46,   133 

136,   157,    158 
P 

Pachyderms    90 

Paleochoerus 154 

Palaeolagus   151 

Paleogeography    33,     66 

67,    68,   69,    138 

Paleotherium    23,   111 

Palmer,   T.   S 149,   173 

Parahippus 46,  106 

110,  154,  156,    157 


Page 

Paratylopus    153 

Paraxonic    90 

Paroligobunis    155 

Pass   creek    53 

Passes    53 

Peabody  Museum    102 

Peccaries    122 

Penfield,   S.   L 167 

Perchoerus    153,   154 

Perisho,  E.  C 172 

Perissodactyls    76,   90,      91 

149,    152,    153,    156,    158,    159 

Peterson,    O.   A 27 

28,  44,  47,  60,  61,  70 
71,  79,  80,  81,  89,  90,  98 
118,  119,  120,  121,  125,  126 
133,    136,    169,    170,    171,    172 

Phenacocoelus    157 

Phila.  Acad.   Nat.  Sci.      (See 
Acad.   Nat.    Sci.,   Phila.) 

Phlaocyon    46 

Phosphate    63 

Phylogeny     108,   135 

Physiographic  development.  .      51 

Pierre  shales 30 

Pine   Ridge    19,   38,      39 

42,  43,  44,  46,  52,  53,  144,    147 
Pine   Ridge    Indian    Reserva- 
tion     53,      57 

Pinnipedia     77 

Plants   (present  day)    144 

Platte  river 38 

Pliocene.  .31,  32,  33,  47,  69,    159 

Pliohippus    105,  107,    159 

Pocket  gophers 89 

Poebrotherium   23,   132 

135,  136,    153 
Porcupine  butte  .  .37,  45,  46,      53 

Porcupine   creek    45,      53 

Potamotherium     158 

Princeton   Museum    ....117,   141 
Princeton  University  ....  25,     26 

27,   136 

Proboscidea 157 

Procamelus    136,   159 

Procamelus  zone 36 

Promerycochoerus    44,      46 

70,    124,    125,    126,    157 

Promerycochoerus  zone  ....      36 

37,    44,   46,    126 

Prosthemnops    159 

Protapirus 100,   152,   153 

Proterix 151 

Protoceras   128,   129 

130,   131,   154 


180 


THE  WHITE   RIVER  BADLANDS 


Page 

Protoceras   beds 36,    37,  39 

42,    43,   48,   54,   64,    128,  129 

Protoceras   zone    153 

Protohippus 110,  158,  159 

Protomeryx     46,  15  7 

Protosorex    151 

Prototheria    76 

Protylopus 135 

Prout,  H.  A 23,   110,  161 

Pseudolabis   154 

Pumpkin  creek 53 

Q 

Quinn  draw   52,  54 

Quinn  table 54 

R 

Railroads 147 

Railroad    buttes     140 

Rainfall      144 

Reagan,  A.  B 169 

Recent  history 145-146 

Red   layer    41,   48,  126 

Rhineura 160 

Rhinoceroses    22,   74,   91-96 

Rhinocerotidae    91,  92 

149,  152,  153,  156,  158 

Rhinocerotoidea     91-9  6 

Ries,  Henry    61,  166 

Riggs,  E.  S 128 

Roads    147 

Robinson,  Kelly    143 

Rocky   Mountains    19,   21 

49,  50,  51 

Rodents     76,  77 

88-90 

Rodentia 151,    153,    155,  158 

Rosebud    beds    45,  46 

Rosebud       Indian       Reserva- 
tion    46,  53,  105,  106,  107 

Round  Top    40 

Ruminants     90 

S 

Sabertooth  tiger    83-87 

Sage    creek     52,  54 

Sage   Creek   pass    53 

Sage   Creek   wall    53 

Sand-calcite    crystals     ...43,  56 

Sandstones     ....36,    41,    42,  54 

Scenic    23,    54,    147,  148 

Schlosser    102 

School  of  Mines    ....25,   29,  63 

School  of  Mines  canyon.  .29,  148 

Schuchert,    Charles    30 

Scott,  W.   B..  .8,   26,   27,   33,  47 

82,  86.   100,  102,  107,  115,  122 

123,    126,    129,    130,    132,  136 

137,    164,    165,    166,    172,  173 


Page 
Sections    (Geologic)     ....34,      35 

36,     37,     40,     43,     44,     46,      48 
Seeing   the   Badlands.  ...  147-148 

Settlers    146 

Seventy-one    table    54 

Sheep   Creek   beds...  32,    36,      47 
Sheep    Mountain 20,      21 

29,    41,    45,    53,    62,    142,    147 
Sheep    Mountain    table    ....      54 

Sinclair,    W.    J 127 

Sioux  county.  Neb..  .  .40,  43,      44 

Smith,   U.    S.   T 173 

Smithsonian    Institution    ...      24 

Snake    creek     48 

Soil     144 

Soricidae    151 

Spoon   butte    48 

Spring  creek    52,      54 

Squirrels     22 

Steneofiber     37,      46 

61,       89-90,       153,       155,    156 

Stenomylus     136,    157 

Stenomylus    quarry    71 

Stibarus      152 

Stylemys 140,    141,    160 

Subhyracodon    152 

Suidae     122 

Swine     22,    122 

Symborodon     150 

Syndyoceras     131,   158 

T 
Table    of    geologic     divisions 

32,      36 

Tables    (Mesas)     53 

Tagassuidae.  .152,    154,    157,   159 
Tapiridae.  .91,    99-100,    152,   153 

Tapirs    22,    91,    99-100 

Temnocyon    155 

Tertiary    31,      33 

Testudo     160 

Thinohyus.  .  .121,    152,    154,   157 

Thomson,    Albert     26,      46 

Titanotheres     22,     23,      39 

66,  110-117 
Titanotheridae.91,     110-117,   149 

Titanotherium     63,      64 

111,    112,    115,    149 
Titanotherium  beds.. 36,   37,      38 

39,     43,     48,     55,     61.     62,   142 

Titanotherium    zone    149 

Todd,  J.  E 27,   165,    166 

Topography    20,      21 

Tortoise    (See  turtles) 

Trees     144 

Trigonias     96,   149 

Troxell,  E.  L 105,   107,    172 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  SCHOOL  OF  MINES 


181 


Page 
Turtles.  .  .22,  139,  140-102,  160 
Turtle   eggs    141,   143 

U 

Ungulates     76,77,      90 

University    Hill     29 

University   of   Nebraska.  .  25,      27 
University      of      South      Da- 
kota      25,      27 

Upper    Miocene.  ...  47,    158,   160 

Upper     Oligocene 153,   160 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey..  25,      28 
U.  S.   National  Museum..  26,   128 

V 

Vegetation     54,   144 

Veins     57,      58 

Vertebrata    75 

Visher,    S.    S 172 

Volcanic  ash..  38,  40,  45,  46,      62 

W 

Wall,  S.  D 23 

Wall,  The  great 20 

War    Bonnet   creek    117 

Warren,  Lieut 162 

Wells,    H.    F 110 

White   Clay  creek    53 


Pa^e 

Whitney,   W.   C 75 

White   river 19,    20,  38 

45,  52,  53,  55,  57,  60,  147 
White    River    formation     (or 

group)     34 

White    River   creek    53 

White  River  table    54 

White   River   wall    53 

Wieland,    Geo.    R 140 

Wild    fruits    144 

Wind    Springs     44 

Wortman,    J.    L 41,    42,  102 

103,    113,    114,    115,    124,  132 

164,    165,  166 

Wounded  Knee  affair    145 

Wounded   Knee  creek    53 

Wyoming     (Southeastern)  .  .  27 

28,    43,    60,    89,    126,    147,  148 

X 

Xenochelys    160 

Y 

Yale    Scientific    expedition..  25 

Yale   University    ...25,    102,  117 

Yellow  Medicine   creek    ....  53 


Hippie  Printing  Co.,  Pierre,   S.   D. 


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PLATES 


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South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    No.    IH.    Tlate    No.    6. 


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MAi'ni  m:i;ii\Mv.\ 

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Reproduction  of  Hayden's  Earliest  Geological  Map  of  the  Upper  Missouri 
country.  The  original  map  is  colored  to  show  the  several  rock  divi- 
sions as  then  Known.  Note  the  erroneous  extension  of  the  Black 
Hills  to  the  Yellowstone  river,  Hayden,  1857. 


South   Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    No.    7. 


Reproduction  of  Hayden's  second  Geological  Map  of  the  Upper  Missouri 
country.  This  map  is  the  first  ever  published  showing  any  details  of 
the  geology  of  the  Black  Hills.  The  geology  of  the  surrounding 
country,  including  the  Badlands,  is  more  fully  indicated  than  in 
Hayden's  earlier  map.     Hayden,  185S. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    No.    13.    Plate    No.    8. 


Some  of  the  men  who  have  done  noteworthy  work  in  tmravelling  the 
history  of  the  White  River  Badlands.  For  description  of  their  work 
see  the  text  pages. 


South  Dakota  School   of  Mines 


Bulletin   Xo.    13.      Plate   No.    9. 


THE     AGE     or     MAMMAL.S 

CfNOZt'lC      UR      rfKTtAPV      AND     OUATLRNAWV 

WESTERN    LAKE    BASINS  and    CHARACTERISTIC    MAMMALS 


n  I'Kirjs]      i.\m:  iusins       j'.||*Jj  iiukm  ii  iimii  msmm\i> 
PUISTOC[NE  '  EOUUS  A«o  MEGAIOKYX       .     •" 

PlIOCfNE    FuWco  >s-.  PAir,  iHJCO   pso' ■    ^  ■■      -  • 


Divisions  of  the  Age  of  Mammals.     Characteristic   fossil  mammals,  and 
the  geological  formations  in  which  they  are  found.     Matthew,   1903. 


i 


South   Dakota  School   of  :Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    I'late   No.    lU. 


A.  Matrix  contains  skeletons  of  one  adult  and  four  young  individuals  of 
Merycoclioerns  proprius.     Matthew,  1901. 


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B.  Bones   are   chiefly   those   of   Diccratherium.   Moropus.    Dinohyus.    and 
Dinocyon.     Barbour,  1909. 

Rock  slabs  showing  abundance  and  arrangement  of  fossil  bones  as  found 
in  the  quarry  and  indicating  some  of  the  difficulties  of  restoration. 


South  Dakota   School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    No.    13.    Plate    Xo.    11. 


A.  Head    of   Hoplophoiicu.s   pi-iniacvus.    Leidy    1S69. 


B.  Head  of  Sinidyoceras  Cooki.     Barbour.     1905. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines        Bulletin   No.    13.    Plate   No.    12. 


A.  Restoration  of  head  of  the  Titanothere  Megacerops.     Lull,  1905. 


B.  Outline  restoration  of  head  of  the  Saber-tooth  tiger,  Smilodou,  to 
show  the  wide  open  jaw  and  the  opportunity  the  animal  had  of  us- 
ing the  great  canine  fangs  for  stabbing  and  ripping  its  prey. 
Matthew,  1905. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines  Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    Xo.    13. 


A.  Head  of  Daphoenus  feJinus.     Hatcher,  1902. 


B.  Fossil  rodents  from  the  Harrison  Beds.     (Upper  Miocene).     Peterson. 
1905. 


South  Dakota  Scliool  of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate   No.    14. 


A.  Head  of  Hyrocodon   nebrascensis.  An  oligocene  rhinoceros.  Scott,  1896. 


B.  Head  of  the  White  River  tapir,  Protapirus  i-alidus.  Restored  from  a 
skull  in  the  museum  of  Princeton  University.  W.  B.  Scott,  A  His- 
tory of  Land  Mammals  in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  1913.  Pub- 
lished by  the  Macmillan  Company.     Reprinted  by  permission. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin   Xo.    13.   Plate   No.    15. 


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Skull  of  White  River  rhinoceros,  Caviiopus    (Aceratherium)    occidentalis. 
Upper  view,  side  view,  and  palatal   view.     Osborn,   1898. 


South  Dakota   Scliool  of  Mines 


Bulletin    No.    13.    Plate    No.    16. 


A.  Head   of  Mcsohippus   bairdi.     Scott.   1891. 


B.  Head  of  the  Oligocene  three  toed  horse,  Mcsohippus   hairdi  compared 
with  that  of  the  present  day  horse  Equiis  cahallus. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin   No.    13.   Plate   No.    17. 


A.  Right  hind  foot  of  Moropus  clatus    1.  External  view.  2.  Anterior  view. 
Holland  and  Peterson,  1914. 


B.  Fore  foot  of  Moropus  clatHs.     1.  Ulnar  view.     2.  Anterior  view.     Hol- 
land and  Peterson,  1914. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    No.    13.    Plate   Xo.    18. 


A.  Right  hind  foot  of  Titanothere.  Marsh,  1876. 

B.  Right  fore  foot  of  Titanothere,   Marsh,   1876. 

C.  Right  hind   limb  of  Titanothere    (Megacerops),   Lull.    1905. 


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South   Dakota   School   of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    liJ.    Plate    Xo.    20. 


Skull  of  TitanotJicrium  iiigeus  viewed  from  above.     The  anterior  end  is 
toward  the  top  of  the  plate.     Marsh,  1874. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines  Bulletin  Xo.   13.   Plate  Xo.   21. 


A.  Head  of  Merycoidodon    {Oreodon)   gracile.  Leidy.  1S69. 


B.  Head  of  Merycoidodon    (Oreodon)   culbcrtsoni.     Leidy.  1S69. 


South   Dakota  School  ot  Mines  Bulletin    No.    13.   Plate   No.    22. 


A.  Skull  of  Eijoreodon   major.     Leidy,  1869. 


B.  Left  half  of  skull  of  Eporcodon  major,  as  seen  from  above.  Leidy,  1869. 


C.  Right  half  of  skull  of  E^orcodon   major,  as  seen  from  below.     Leidy, 
1869. 


South   Dakota   School  of  Mines       Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    No.    23. 


A.  Head  of  Protoceras  <  .  /.  / .     Alarc-h,  1897. 


B.  Skull  of  Protoceras  celer  as  seen  from  above.     Marsh,  1897. 


C.  Skull  of  Protoceras  cclcr  as  seen  from  below.     Marsh,  1S97. 


South   Dakota   School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.     i:?.    Plate    Xo.    24. 


A.  Skeleton  of  the  Upper  Miocene  three  toed  horse  Neohipimrion  xcMtneyi. 
Osborn.  Copyrighted  by  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History. 
Reprinted  by  permission. 


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B.  Skeleton  of  the  primitive  antiodactyl  Mcrycoidodon  (Orcodon)  cul- 
hertsoni  of  the  Oligocene.  Osborn.  Copyrighted  by  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History.     Reprinted  by  permission. 


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South  Dakota  School   of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    No.    26. 


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A.  The  small  paired-horned  rhinoceros,  Biceratlierhim  cooki  of  the  Lower 
Miocene.  Restored  from  a  skeleton  in  the  Carnegie  Museum.  Pitts- 
burgh, W.  B.  Scott.  A  History  of  Land  Mammals  in  the  Western 
Hemisphere,  1913.  Published  by  The  Macmillan  Company.  Reprint- 
ed by  permission. 


B.  The  Lower  Miocene  bear  dog  Daphocnodon  siipcrhus.  Restored  from 
a  skeleton  in  the  Carnegie  Museum.  Pittsburgh.  W.  B.  Scott.  A 
History  of  the  Land  Mammals  in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  1913. 
Published  by  The  Macmillan  Company.     Reprinted  by  permission. 


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South   Dakota   School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    Xo.    31. 


A.  Skeleton  of  Hyracodon  nehrascensis.  Restoration  in  Museum  of 
Princeton  University.  Sinclair.  Head  of  same  shown  enlarged  in 
Plate  14  A. 


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B.  Moropus  cooki.  as  restored  by  Barbour,  1909. 


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Bulletin   No.    13.   Plate   No.   37. 


A.  The  giant  pig  Archaeotheriiim  ingens.  Restored  from  a  skeleton  in 
the  museum  of  Princeton  University.  W.  B.  Scott.  A.  History  of 
Land  Mammals  in  the  Western  Hemisphere.  1913.  Published  by 
The  Macmillan  Company.     Reprinted  by  permission. 


B.  Model   of  the  giant   entelodont,   Dinohyus    hoUandi    of   the   Oligocene. 
From    a    skeleton    in    the    Carnegie    Museum.      Peterson,    1909. 


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Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    No.    41. 


A.  Agrioclwerus  antiquus.  Restored  from  a  skeleton  in  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History.  W.  B.  Scott.  A  History  of  Land  Mam- 
mals in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  1913.  Published  by  The  Macmil- 
lan    Company.     Reprinted   by   permission. 


B.  Lcpt  a  lichen  ia  nitida.  Restored  from  a  skeleton  in  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History.  W.  B.  Scott.  A  History  of  Land  Mam- 
mals in  the  Western  Hemisphere.  1913.  Published  by  The  Macmil- 
lan    Company.     Reprinted    by   permission. 


South   L>akota    Si-houl   Ol    Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    Ki.    Plate    Xo.     1' 


A.  Model  of  Promerycoclioerus  carrikeri.     From  a   skeleton   in   the  Car- 
negie Museum.     Peterson,  1914. 


B.  The  Lower  Miocene  hornless  deer,  Blastomeryx  advena.  Restored 
from  a  skeleton  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  W.  B. 
Scott.  A  History  of  Land  Mammals  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
1913.  Published  by  The  Macmillan  Company.  Reprinted  by  per- 
mission. 


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South   Dakota   School   of  INlines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    No.    44. 


Restoration  of  the  six  horned  herbivore  Protoceras  ccler  of  the   Upper    Oligocene. 

Osborn.     Copyrighted   by   the   American    Musetim   of    Nattiral    History. 

Reprinted  by  permission. 


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Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    Xo.    47. 


A.  Daemonelix    or    "Devils    corkscrews"    in    the    Daemonelix    beds    near 
Harrison,  Sioux  county,  Nebraska.     Photograph  by  Barbour. 


B.  Anterior   portion   of  head   of   the  Oligocene  crocodile,   Crocodilus   pre- 
nasalis  found  in  Indian  draw,  1899. 


South   Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    No.    13.    Plate    No.    48. 


A.  Petrified   egg   of   a    supposed   anatine    (duck    like)    bird    of    Oligocene 
age.     Farrington,  1S99. 


B.  Stylemys  nehi'ascensis.   the   commonest    fossil    lurilt-   ui'   the    Big   Bad- 
lands, Leidy,  1853. 


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Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    Xo.    52. 


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Sand-Calcite  Crystals   from   the  Miocene   of   Devils    Hill.     Foote    ;\Iineral 

Co.,   Philadelphia. 


Soutli  Dakota  Scliool  of  Mines 


Biilk'tin    Xo.    13.    Plate    Xo.    53. 


Photograph  by  O'Harra,   1909. 

A.  White  River  at   wagon  bridge  near   Interior. 


Photograph  by  O'Harra,   1899. 

B.  Cheyenne  River  near  mouth  of  Sage  Creelv. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    Xo.    54. 


Photograph   by  O'Harra,   1909. 

A.  Sun-cracked  surface  of  an  alluvial  flat  showing  loosening  and  curling 

of  the  drying  mud. 


Photograph    by    Todd. 


B.  Spongy  surface  of  disintegrating  Titanotherium  clay.     The  gumbo  lily, 
as  here  shown,  not  infrequently  finds  root  in  the  porous  material. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin   Xo.    13.    Plate    No.    55. 


5B.     .:.  --, 


A.  The  old  postoffice  of  Interior  on  White  River  in  the  heart  of  the 
Badlands  before  the  coming  of  the  railroads  and  the  days  of  the 
automobile. 


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B.  A    cowboy    home    in    Corral    Draw    in    the    early    days    of    Badlands 

settlement. 


South   Dakota   School   of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    i:?.    Plate    No.    56. 


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Photograph  by  O'Harra,   1911. 

A.  A  new  ranch  home  near  the  Great  Wall  north  of  Interior. 


Photograph  by  O'Harra.   1911. 

B.  The  beginning  of  a  farm  near  the  Great  Wall  northwest  of  Interior. 
Newly   plowed   sod   in   the   foreground. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin   No.    13.    Plate    No.    57. 


Photograph  by  O'Harra.   1911. 

A.  Detail  of  the  Great  Wall  north  of  Interior. 


Photograph    by   O'Harra,    1912. 

B.  The  Great  Wall  at  Cedar  Pass  northeast  of  Interior.  A  roadway  suit- 
able for  automobiles  winds  up  this  slope  and  reaches  the  top  at  the 
lowest  skyline  depression  to  the  left  of  the  center.     See  Plate  8S. 


South   Dakota  School   of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    Xo.    oS 


A.  Cattle    descending    from    grass-covered    table    land    to    grass-covered 
valley  below.     Rlcard  Art  Co.,  Quinn,  S.  D. 


B.  The    6L    Ranch    near     Imlay    showing    success    in     soil    cultivation. 
McNamara's  Book  Store,  Rapid  City. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Tlate    Xo.    59. 


A.  Geology    class    of    South    Dakota    State    School    of    Mines    in    Indian 

Creek  Basin,  1900. 


Photograph   by  O'Harra. 


B.  Geology  class  of  South  Dakota  Sta;te  School  of  Mines  at  top  of  Sheep 
Mountain    (Cedar  Point  I    the  highest   part  of  the  Big  Badlands. 


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Bulletin    No.    13.    Plate    No.    64. 


Photograph    by    O'Harra,    1899. 

A.  Rtigged  wall  approximately  350  feet  high  separating  the  grassy  valley 
of  Indian  Draw  from  the  grass  covered  flat  known  as  Sheep  Moun- 
tain Table.  Site  of  the  School  of  Mines  camp  in  the  early  overland 
trips  of  the  Geology  class  to  the  Big  Badlands.  For  a  more  general 
view  see  Plate  87. 


Photograph    by    C.    A.    Best.    1920. 

B.  South    Dikota    State    School    of    Mines    students    on    Sheep    Mountain 
Table.     A  short  distance  from  the  edge  of  the  Wall  shown  in  A. 


South   Dakota  School  of  Klines 


Bulletin    No.    13.    Plate    No.    65. 


A.  Balanced  rock  on  Great  Wall  near  Big  Foot  Pass. 


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B.  Balanced  rock  near  head  of  Indian  Draw. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    No.    13.    Plate    Xo.    66. 


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Photograph  by  O'Harra,  1910. 

A.  Oreodon   Beds  near   Big  Foot  Pass  showing  color  bands. 


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Photograph    by    O'Harra,    1912. 

B.  Erosion  forms  near  head  of  Corral  Draw. 


South   Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    No.    6; 


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Photograph    by   O'Harra.    1909. 

A.  Erosion  detail  of  Titanotherium  Beds  near  B:g  Foot  Pass. 


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B.  Erosion  detail  of  Oreodon  Beds  in  the  vallev  of  Indian  Creek. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin   No.    13.    Plate   No.    68. 


Photograph  by  O'Harra,  1910. 

A.  Erosion  forms  north  of  the  Great  Wall  near  Cedar  Pass. 


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Photograph  by  O'Harra,   HtlO. 

B.  Erosion  forms  north  of  the  Great  Wall  near  Big  Foot  Pass.     The  flat 
remnants  are  protected  by  a  thin  covering  of  well-rooted  grasses. 


South   Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    Xo.    60. 


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riKitdgraiih    liy    O'Harra.    lS;i;i. 

A.  Looking    southeast    toward    Sheep    Mountain    from    Valley    of    Indian 

Creek. 


Photograph   by  O'Harra,   1912. 

B.  Erosion   forms   in   Corral   Draw. 


South   Dakota   School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    No.    70. 


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Photograph    by    O'Harra.    1910. 

A.  Detail  of  Great  Wall  north  of  Interior  chiefly  Protoceras  Beds. 


Photograph    by    O'Harra,    1910. 

B.  Detail   of  Great  Wall   north   of   Interior  chiefly   Protoceras   Beds. 


Soutli   Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    No.    13.    Plate    Xo.    71. 


Photograph    by   O'Harra,    1909. 


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A.  Clay  balls  in  bed  of  little  ravine  near  Big  Foot  Pass. 


Photograph    by   O'Harra,    1899. 

B.  Conglomerate  dike  in  valley  ol'  Indian  Creek. 


South   Dakota   School  of  Mines  Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    No.    72. 


Photograph   by  O'Harra,   1899. 
A.  General  view  of  Titanotheriiim  Beds,  Valley  of  Indian  Creek. 


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Photograph  by  O'Harra,   1899. 

B.  Oreodon  Beds.     Valley  of  Indian  Creek. 


South   Dakota   School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    Xo.    73. 


Photograph   by  O'Harra,   1899. 

A.  Protoceras  Beds  near  top  of  Sheep  Mountain. 


Photograph   by  O'Harra,   1899. 

B.  Protoceras  Beds  near  top  of  Sheep  MouDtain. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    No.    13.    I'late    Xo.    74. 


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Photograph  by  O'Harra.   1912. 
A.  Oreodon  Beds  along  the   Indian   Draw — Corral    Draw   divide. 


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Photograph   bj'   Best,    19  20. 

B.  Erosion  detail  of  the  wall  of  School  of  Mines  Canyon. 


South   Dakota  School  of  :\Iines 


liulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    Xo.    75. 


A.  Agate  Springs  Fossil  Quarries  looking  Southeast.     University  Hill  on 
the  left;  Carnegie  Hill  on  the  right. 


Photographs   by  Cook,    1915. 


B.  Stenomylus  quarry  of   Amherst   Hill,   one  of  the  Agate  Springs   fossil 

quarries. 


South  Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin   No.   13.    Plate   No.    76. 


Photuyr, 


.\    uUai-ra,    1915 


A.  General  view  of  Slim  Buttes,  Perkins  county,   South   Dakota,   capped 
by  White  River  Tertiary  deposits. 


I'hotograph   by  O'Harra,   11118. 


B.  Detail  of  the  southern  end  of  South  Cave  Hills,  Harding  county. 
South  Dakota.  Shows  Fort  Union  sandstone  of  einiier  Tertiary  age 
than  the  White  River  Beds. 


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l'hotog:rai)]i    by    O'Harra.    i;ilu. 

Details  of  Great  Wall  north  of  Interior.      Chiefly  Protoceras  Beds. 


South   Dakota  School  of  Mines 


Bulletin    Xo.    13.    T'late    Xo.    94. 


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Protoceras  Beds  and  Oredon  Beds  of  School  of  Mines  Canvon. 


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South   Dakota  School  of  Mines  Bulletin    Xo.    13.    Plate    No.    95. 


Photograph    by    O'Harra.    101.". 

A  Geological  party  descending  School   of  Mines  Canyon. 


South   Dakota  School   of  Mines        Bulletin    Xo.    18.    Plate    No.    96. 


Photograph  by  O'Harra.   T.n'ii 

A  Guardian  of  the  Gateway,  School  of  Mines  Canyon. 


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