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BULLETIN 


FIELD  MUSE 


OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 


Volume  38 
Number  7 

January  1967 


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EVERAL  TIMES  3  year  the  Museum 
staff  is  enlivened  by  the  appearance  of  an 
assortment  of  Antioch  College  co-op 
students.  These  students  perform  many 
and  varied  services  throughout  the  Mu- 
seum which  may  be  summarized  b)'  this 
excerpt  from  a  citation  of  appreciation 
presented  to  the  Museum  in  1956  by 
Samuel  B.  Gould,  then  President  of  An- 
tioch College,  Yellovv'  Springs,  Ohio: 
"They  have  cleaned  skulls,  split  shale, 
prepared  fish  skeletons,  made  card  cata- 
logues, mounted  plants,  sorted  pieces  of 
pottery,  pinned  insects,  catalogued  geo- 
logic maps,  prepared  albums  of  pictures, 
reconstructed  fossils,  and  done  many  of 
the  chores  required  for  the  maintenance 
of  a  large  museum  whose  primary  pur- 
pose is  education." 

In  addition  to  their  work-tasks,  the 
Antioch  students  have  for  years  been 
providing  Museum  staff  members  with 
anecdotes  which  have  become  richer  and 
more  elaborate  with  the  telling,  until 
they  are  now  an  integral  part  of  Mu- 
seum lore.  The  humor  is  often  wry, 
sometimes  rueful,  but  always  shows  an 
appreciation  of  both  the  on-the-job  ca- 
pabilities of  the  students  and  of  their 
achievements  in  post-Museum  years. 

That  this  appreciation  is  justified  is 
pro\en  by  a  brief  list  of  the  professions 
now  involving  Antioch-Field  Museum 
alumni.  Among  those  known  are  three 
college  professors,  four  librarians,  five 
public  school  teachers,  a  wildlife  techni- 
cal editor,  marine  biologist,  anthropolo- 
gist, museum  technician,  recreational 
land  use  planner,  an  artist,  an  art  dealer, 
food  production  manager,  copy  editor, 
transportation  planner,  psychologist,  so- 
cial worker,  designer,  childcare  coun- 
selor and  the  usual  number  of  housewive 

Further,  six  of  these  graduates  have 
obtained  their  Ph.D.'s  and  at  least  five 
more  are  working  toward  their"s.  Over 
half  of  this  group  have  their  Master's 
degrees — many  of  them  in  museum-re- 
lated fields  including  two  in  geology, 
two  in  anthropology,  one  each  in  re- 
source development,  zoology,  wildlife 
management,  library  science,  botany, 
and  two  in  biology.  Even  the  professor 
of  Political  Science  has  setded  in  the  pol- 
itics of  natural  resources  development  as 
his  major  professional  interest. 

The  Museum  staff  has  long  been  as- 
sessing the  Antioch  students — both  offi- 


cially  and  otherwise.  As  suspected,  the 
co-ops  have  made  a  few  assessments  of 
their  own  and  in  late  1965  and  the  spring 
of  '66  those  who  worked  three  or  more 
months  in  the  Antioch-Museum  pro- 
gram were  asked  to  put  some  of  their 
opinions  in  writing. 

Of  the  1 77  Antioch  students  employed 
as  co-ops  by  the  Museum,  the  survey 
reached  65,  and  of  these  40  students  re- 
sponded, providing  thoughtful  answers 
to  the  questions  asked  of  them. 

On  the  question  "Do  you  feel  thai  your 
experience  at  the  Museum  influenced  your 
choice  oj field  oj  concentration?"  the  alumni 
were  evenly  divided.  A  New  Zealand 
scientific  officer  with  a  Ph.D.  in  Botany 
who  had  worked  in  the  Zoology  Depart- 
ment said,  "Yes.  It  was  important  in  de- 
termining my  interest  in  biology  and  as  the  re- 
sult I  majored  in  biology.  K.  P.  Schmidt,  at 
that  time  Chief  Curator  oj  ^oology,  also 
strongly  advised  studying  outside  the  U.S.A. 
which  later  I  did  {one  year  graduate  study  in 
the  .\etherlands) .''^  A  professional  librar- 
ian who  had  worked  in  the  Museum 
Library  agreed,  'Tm,  in  a  way.  I  had 
already  decided  to  become  a  librarian,  but  not 
necessarily  a  natural  history  librarian."  So 
did  a  wildlife  technical  editor  who  had 
worked  in  the  Geology  Department.  He 
wrote,  "I'm.  //  was  my  first  working  expe- 
rience in  the  natural  sciences.  I  was  intrigued 
by  the  opportunities  I  discovered."  Another 
alumnus,  now  in  social  work,  found  value 
in  a  negative  aspect  of  the  Museum  work 
experience;  his  quote,  "Yes.  I  had  been 
contemplating  Geology  as  a  major  and  from 
this  experience  I  decided  against  it.  This  was 
a  blessing/or  me  and  for  the  Field  of  Geology." 

The  question  "Was  the  Museum  work 
experience  helpful  to  you  in  establishing  your 
vocational  orientation.''"  resulted  in  another 
even  division  of  replies. 

A  graduate  student  majoring  in  evolu- 
tionary biology  who  had  worked  in  the 
Botany  Department  said,  "//  gave  me  an 
inkling  of  what  taxonomy  and  paleobotany  are 
all  about;  helped  me  to  realize  I  liked  field 
work,  teaching  better."  A  Ph.D.  student  in 
the  history  of  science  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University  who  had  worked  in  the  .An- 
thropology Department  felt  that,  "// 
strengthened  my  desire  for  an  academic  life 
and  I  am  definitely  considering  museum  work 
after  my  degree." 

The  next  two  quotes  indicate  that,  al- 
thona;h  a  scientific  institution,  the  Mu- 


seum's aid  to  vocational  orientation  is 
not  restricted  to  scientists.  ".\'ly  chosen 
field  is  art.  Contact  with  ethnological  collec- 
tions increased  my  awareness  of  world  art 
forms  and  increased  my  interest,"  said  a  can- 
didate for  Master's  degree  in  art  educa- 
tion at  N.Y.U.  who  had  worked  in  the 
Anthropology  Department.  "Before  op- 
ening my  own  art  business,  I  worked  for  five 
years  running  Craft  Cottage  Industry  in  the 
Andes  of  Peru,  Ecuador  and  Colombia.  I  also 
set  up  marketing  corporations  for  Latin  Amer- 
ican governments  on  a  contract  with  the  Alli- 
ance for  Progress  (State  Department),"  from 
an  art  dealer  specializing  in  pre-Colum- 
bian-Peruvian art  who  had  worked  in 
the  Department  of  Anthropology. 

In  response  to  the  question  "Did  the 
.Museum  increase  or  decrease  your  interests  in 
natural  science?"  eighty-five  per  cent  of 
the  alumni  stated  that  their  interest  in 
natural  science  had  been  increased. 

.Antioch  College  has  long  known  that 
both  the  job  and  living  situation  are  val- 
uable educationally  and  personally,  thus 
the  question  "Did  living  in  Chicago  and 
working  at  the  .Museum  contribute  to  your  per- 
sonal maturity?"  Ninety  per  cent  of  those 
responding  said  it  had.  One  former  co- 
op, now  a  Ph.D.  candidate  in  anthropol- 
ogy, who  had  worked  in  the  Anthro- 
pology Department  said,  "/  seriously  be- 
lieve so.  At  the  .Museum  I  was  given  responsi- 
bility and  then  recognition  when  I  succeeded.  It 
was  here  I  gained  much  of  the  respect  I  have  for 
the  labors  of  the  field  in  which  I  am  now  en- 
gaged." A  graduate  student  in  evolu- 
tionary biology  who  had  worked  in  the 
Botany  Department  felt  he  had  "Learned 
to  live  in  apartment,  shop  in  big  city,  learned 
what  streets  were  safe,  and  when,  learned  the 
problems  of  transition  neighborhoods  by  par- 
ticipating in  Quaker  work  camps.  Learned  to 
be  part  of  the  nine-to-five  crowds."  A  New 
York  artist-teacher  who  had  worked  in 
the  Museum  Library,  "enjoyed  seeing  the 
differences  and  similarities  of  another  large 
city.  The  isolation  of  being  in  that  vast  city 
and  vast  museum  built  up  my  self-reliance." 

And  lest  you  begin  to  feel  that  you  are 
reading  "Pollyanna  Goes  to  Antioch," 
there  is  this  bit  of  leavening  ".  .  .  I  feel 
Chicago  is  a  dreadful  city  and  little  would  be 
lost  if  Lake  Michigan  moved  in  and  covered 
it  up — slums,  corruption,  miserable  climate 
and  all,"  from  the  New  Zealand  scien- 
tific officer. 

Most  Antioch  students  have  about  six 


different  employers  during  their  under- 
graduate years,  providing  a  wide  field 
for  comparison.  To  the  question  requir- 
ing the  alunmi  to  evaluate  the  Museum 
work  experience  in  comparison  to  others, 
seventy-eight  per  cent  found  it  a  helpful 
one  for  a  variety  of  personal  and  profes- 
sional reasons,  such  as  contact  with 
prominent  scientists,  experience  in  field 
of  academic  interests,  familiarity  with 
valuable  collections,  exposure  to  schol- 
arly atmosphere.  The  question,  "Was 
there  anything  about  the  Museum  work  expe- 
rience that  was  particularly  helpful  to  you  as 
contrasted  with  other  work  experiences?"  drew 
responses  citing  some  less  obvious  Mu- 
seum values.  Some  are  "Long  lunch  hour 
(one  hour)  so  I  could  pursue  additional  inter- 
ests in  the  museum,"  and  "Mainly  I  think, 
the  lasting  influence  has  been  the  fine,  human 
qualities  of  the  people  there.  There  was  an 
obvious  respect  for  one  another  not  always 
found  in  other  places,"  and  "Museum  per- 
sonnel savour  their  work  rather  than  endure  it. 
Also,  I  felt  my  work  was  important,  not  rou- 
tine, as  other  jobs  had  been." 

A  second  work-evaluation  question 
"What  did  you  like  most,  and  least,  about 
your  Museum  work?"  affords  greater  in- 
sight into  the  alumni's  reactions.  Many 
alumni  only  indicated  what  they  liked 
most,  some  responded  plurally  as  to  their 
likes  and  dislikes,  and  three  happily  said 
that  they  liked  everything ! 

Nineteen  alumni  (nearly  half),  indi- 
cated that  they  most  liked  the  people 
with  whom  they  were  associated,  men- 
tioning particularly  their  friendliness  and 
dedication.  The  work  itself  and  the 
■'atmosphere"  were  the  next  most  pop- 
ular categories. 

Interestingly  enough,  the  work  itself 
was  high  on  the  lists  of  both  least-liked 
and  most-liked  aspects  of  the  Museum 
job.  The  only  other  "dislike"  attaining 
a  measure  of  unanimity  was  low  pay. 
(A  pay  raise  effective  Oct.  1,  1965  has 
since  been  favorably  received.)  Other 
leaders  among  the  least-liked  were  typ- 
ing, working  conditions,  "hostile  attitude 
of  some,"  prejudice  against  females  on 
trips,  dusting  storerooms,  pasting  photo- 
graphs, lack  of  challenge,  and  feeding 
snakes. 

Only  1 8%  of  those  surveyed  have  ha'd 
any  contact  with  the  Museum  since 
their  co-op  student  days — one  joined 
{Continued  on  Page  7) 


JANUARY    Pages 


I  I ODAY  OUR  TECHNOLOGY  enables  us  to  reach  from  Earth 
I  I  into  the  Solar  System  and  beyond  so  that  planets,  satel- 
U  lites  and  other  extraterrestrial  bodies  are  coming  under 
closer  scrutiny  than  ever  before.  In  these  efforts  special  in- 
terest centers  on  the  "terrestrial"  or  earth-like  planets,  Mer- 
cury, Venus,  Earth  and  Mars,  here  given  in  order  of  increas- 
ing distance  from  the  Sun.  Although  we  will  deal  with  \'enus 
in  this  article,  it  is  useful  to  consider  briefly  the  more  general 


subject  of  the  "planetology"  of  the  terrestrial  planets  as  a 
whole. 

Among  the  terrestrial  planets,  Mercury  and  Mars  are  the 
smallest,  with  diameters  less  than  twice  that  of  our  Moon. 
By  contrast,  Venus  is  only  a  little  smaller  than  Earth  and  is 
of  practically  the  same  density,  so  that  it  seems  safe  to  infer 
that  these  two  sister  planets  are  made  of  approximately  the 
same  types  of  materials.     All  the  terrestrial  planets  are  be- 


lieved  to  be  composed  of  rock,  although  their  varying  sizes 
and  densities  indicate  that  the  dominant  type  of  rock  may 
vary  from  planet  to  planet. 

Also,  because  of  their  different  sizes  and  distances  from 
the  Sun,  the  terrestrial  planets  represent  a  series  of  radically 
different  environments  with  respect  to  the  chemical  and  phys- 
ical nature  of  their  surfaces  and  atmospheres.  They  are  thus 
valuable  subjects  for  studies  in  comparative  planetology.  Such 


E 


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study  may  reward  us  with  much  information  about  the  origin 
and  history  of  the  Solar  System  and  oiu-  own  Earth,  and  per- 
haps of  the  development  of  life  itself.  From  the  nature  of 
these  problems,  we  know  that  the  processes  involved  depend 
crucially  on  the  chemical  constitution  of  the  environment  and 
more  particularly  on  the  chemical  behavior,  or  reactivity,  of 
planetary  materials.  By  this  we  mean  whether  or  not  the 
prevailing  temperature  and  pressure  conditions  will  give  rise 


FIELD  MUSEUM  RESEARCH  ASSOCIATE  AND  ASSISTANT 


DV    DnDCDT    C     MIICI  I  CD   ricLU  Mu;>kuivi  KtstAKun  AssuuiAit  anu  AssibiAni 
DI    nUDCnl     r.  fflUCLLtn   PROFESSOR  OF  PETROLOGY.  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


Photograph  oj  Venus-Regulus  conjunction  taken  by  pete  d.  turner  of  Boulder,  Colorado. 


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to  chemical  compounds  similar  to  those  formed  on  the  Earth 
or  whether  quite  different  substances  arc  to  be  expected. 

To  answer  these  questions  we  must  first  consider  the  type 
of  chemical  reaction  most  fundamental  to  planetary  studies — 
the  reaction  which  may  occur  between  atmospheric  gases  and 
surface  rocks.  It  is  this  type  of  reaction  which  governs  not 
only  the  kind  of  atmosphere  which  can  develop,  but  also  the 
detailed  characteristics  of  the  surface.  VVe  know  that  the 
minerals  of  rocks  contain  many  gases  in  chemical  combina- 
tion and  that  these  gases  are  released  when  the  rocks  are 
heated,  and  absorbed  when  they  are  cooled.  The  more  sig- 
nificant of  these  reactions  involve  oxygen,  water  and  carbon 
dioxide  since  these  gases  play  important  roles  in  mineral  and 
organic  processes  including  the  metabolism  of  living  things. 
These  reactions  may  be  represented : 

(1)  oxidized  rock< — »unoxidized  rock +gaseous  oxygen 

(2)  hydrated  rock  < — »  dehydrated  rock  -\-  water 

(3)  carbonated  rock< — 'decarbonated  rock  +carbon  dioxide. 
The  reversed  arrows  are  used  to  indicate  that  these  reac- 
tions may  proceed  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left.  It  is  well 
known  that  all  these  reactions  proceed  to  the  right  (— »)  more 
strongly  as  the  temperature  is  increased.  However,  for  each 
reaction  a  certain  minimum  temperature  is  required  before 
the  reaction  can  take  place  at  all,  either  to  the  right  or  the  left. 

If,  for  example,  we  consider  a  cold  planet  such  as  Mars, 
we  know  from  astronomical  measurements  that  the  average 
surface  temperature  is  so  low  that  all  three  types  of  reaction 
should  be  practically  "frozen'"  on  the  surface.  However, 
since  planetary  temperatures  should  increase  rapidly  with 
depth  it  is  possible  that  the  reactions  are  effective  deep  within 
Mars"  interior,  and  that  the  observed  atmospheric  gases  of 
this  planet  are  the  result  of  leakage  from  this  hotter  region. 

In  general,  the  average  temperature  of  Earth's  surface  is 
also  too  low  for  these  reactions  to  be  very  effective.  One  re- 
sult is  that  green  plants  produce  oxygen  by  photosynthesis 
much  faster  than  it  can  be  absorbed  by  rocks  (according  to 
reaction  1).  This,  of  course,  is  fortunate  for  air-breathing 
animals.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  as  in  the  case  of  Mars, 
other  atmospheric  and  surface  substances,  such  as  carbon 
dioxide  and  water,  have  their  source  in  the  deep  interior  of 
our  planet  where  the  temperature  is  high  enough  to  drive  the 
reactions  to  the  right.  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  for  car- 
bon dioxide  the  relationship  is  apt  to  be  very  complex,  since 
this  gas  is  used  by  plants  in  making  food  for  themselves. 
The  Origin  of  the  Venusian  Atmosphere 

During  the  last  decade  we  have  learned  a  great  deal  from 
the  analysis  of  light  and  radio  waves  emitted  by  a  planet  or 
reflected  from  its  atmosphere  or  surface.  Some  of  this  critical 
information  was  obtained  from  the  space  probe  Mariner  II. 
One  of  the  most  important  things  we  have  learned  from  these 
sources  is  that  Venus  is  quite  hot,  perhaps  as  hot  as  800°  F. 
on  the  average.  This  is  of  particular  importance  to  planetary 
studies  because  of  its  profound  effect  on  the  chemical  reac- 
tions, as  we  have  already  discussed. 

The  high  temperatures  of  Venus  are  accompanied  by  an 
atmosphere  peculiar  in  the  extreme  by  our  standards.  For 
example,  oxygen  comprises  21  percent  by  volume  of  Earth"s 
atmosphere,  whereas  on   \'enus  this  constituent  occurs  in 


such  extremely  minute  quantities  that  actually  it  never  has 
been  detected  at  all.  Water,  too,  is  scarce  on  Venus:  one 
would  expect  that  the  high  temperatures  would  boil  away 
oceans  of  water  into  the  atmosphere,  and  yet  barely  a  trace 
has  been  observed  there  by  use  of  the  most  sensitive  instru- 
ments. By  contrast  to  the  apparent  extreme  scarcity  of  oxy- 
gen and  water,  carbon  dioxide  is  perhaps  100,000  times  more 
abundant  in  \'enus"  atmosphere  than  in  ours.  The  explana- 
tion for  these  chemical  peculiarities  can  be  provided  by  ex- 
perimental and  theoretical  chemistry. 

We  have  already  seen  that  chemical  reactions  between 
rocks  and  atmosphere  not  only  require  a  minimum  tempera- 
ture to  be  effective,  but  also  that  these  reactions  run  to  the 
right  faster  with  increasing  temperature  so  that  the  higher  the 
temperature,  the  more  gases  are  liberated  into  the  atmos- 
phere. Chemistry  tells  us  that  with  Venus'  high  surface  tem- 
perature, the  mininuim  threshold  for  reactivity  should  be 
exceeded  for  all  the  reactions,  and  that  contrary  to  the  case 
of  Mars  and  Earth,  we  should  expect  these  reactions  to  exert 
profound  control  over  the  atmospheric  composition.  Al- 
though we  know  that  the  high  temperature  will  cause  all 
three  reactions  to  emit  more  gases  into  the  atmosphere,  we 
must  be  careful  to  differentiate  between  them.  For  example, 
although  reactions  1  and  2  will  liberate  oxygen  and  water 
from  the  \enusian  rocks  faster  than  they  do  from  the  rocks 
of  Mars  and  Earth,  they  still  do  so  at  a  rate  so  low  that  they 
can  produce  only  minute  quantities  of  free  oxygen  and  water. 
This  is  especially  true  of  oxygen,  and  in  order  for  significant 


Schematic  drawing  of  Mariner  II.  Light  and  radio  waves 
emitted  or  reflected  by  planets  were  measured  on  its  1962 
space  probe.  This  information  formed  a  basis  for  estimates 
of  the  average  temperature  on  Venus. 


or  even  measmable  quantities  of  this  gas  to  be  produced, 
\'enus  would  have  to  be  several  times  as  hot  as  it  is!  The 
real  effect  then  of  these  reactions  is  actually  to  bring  about 
the  absorption  of  any  oxgen  or  water  which  might  be  produced 
by  other  means,  such  as  photosynthesis.  Thus,  the  low  ob- 
served value  of  these  constituents  in  the  atmosphere  is  actu- 
ally in  good  agreement  with  chemical  theory. 

Considerations  based  on  this  theorv  also  inform  us  that 


Page  6    JANUARY 


reaction  3  should  run  to  the  right  with  great  rapidity,  and 
this  again  agrees  with  the  great  abundance  of  observed  car- 
bon dioxide  in  the  atmosphere  of  this  planet.  When  similar 
calculations  are  applied  to  countless  other  chemical  com- 
pounds, in  general  they  tell  us  that  the  high  temperatures  tend 
to  favor  the  simpler  molecules.  They  also  tell  us  that  in  gen- 
eral, conditions  on  a  hot  planet  such  as  Venus  should  be 
simpler  than  on  cooler  bodies  where  more  complex  substances 
can  form  and  persist.  Of  course,  life  as  we  know  it  depends 
on  these  complex  substances,  so  that  from  almost  any  stand- 
point, living  creatures  should  find  Venus  hostile  to  their  origin 
and  even  to  their  survival. 
The  Nature  of  the  Venusian  Surface 

We  may  also  ask  what  effect  the  high  temperatures  will 
have  on  the  character  of  the  Venusian  surface  and  what  rocks 
and  minerals  we  are  likely  to  find  there.  First,  we  may  say 
that  the  similarity  of  the  size  and  density  of  Venus  and  Earth 
favors  the  idea  that  these  planets  have  had  internal  histories 
at  least  roughly  similar.  This  means  that  we  should  expect 
mountainous  zones  on  Venus  similar  in  horizontal  extent  to 
those  on  Earth.  Some  recent  radio-telescopic  observations 
seem  to  confirm  this  idea.  However,  some  important  modi- 
fications may  affect  the  Venusian  mountains  as  a  consequence 
of  the  higher  surface  and  crustal  temperatures.  Curious  as  it 
may  seem,  even  solid  rocks  are  weakened  by  heat;  and  weak 
rocks  could  not  be  expected  to  stand  very  high  as  mountains, 
unless  the  elevating  forces  were  exceptionally  strong.  There- 
fore, it  seems  likely  that  the  \'enusian  mountains  might  be 
somewhat  less  impressive  than  our  own  in  terms  of  height, 
although  they  may  occupy  fully  as  much  area. 

Because  of  the  similarity  of  scale,  \"enus  should  also  have 
a  crust  of  at  least  roughly  the  same  composition,  since  this 
feature  is  derived  by  differentiation  of  deep-seated  material. 
The  most  abundant  mineral  of  our  own  crustal  rocks  is  feld- 
spar, and  we  should  expect  the  same  of  Venus,  so  that  basalt 
and  granite,  the  familiar  terrestrial  rocks,  should  also  bulk 
large  on  X'enus.  But  we  cannot  carry  this  analogy  too  far, 
since  we  know  that  the  higher  temperatures  will  prevent  the 
formation  of  any  mineral  which  contains  too  many  dissolved 
gases.  This  would  be  especially  true  of  such  minerals  as  clays, 
which  contain  water  and  which  make  up  much  of  Earth's 
soils  and  sediments.  It  may  also  be  true  of  certain  mica  and 
hornblende-bearing  rocks  which  are  formed  at  high  tempera- 
tures on  Earth,  for  these  also  have  water  in  them. 

The  picture  that  emerges  of  the  Venus  surface  is  certainly 
a  ijlcak  one  in  many  respects:  rather  subdued  mountains  or 
hills,  and  plains  unrelieved  by  bodies  of  water  or  vegetation, 
probably  swept  by  continuous  dust  storms  which  agitate  the 
heavy  dry  atmosphere  of  noxious  gases.  Yet  it  is  also  possible 
that  some  curious  and  interesting  sights  might  be  revealed  to 
a  close  observer.  For  example,  in  such  an  environment  we 
might  observe  minerals  grow  before  our  very  eyes  or  dissolve 
just  as  rapidly  in  the  atmospheric  gases.  Conditions  might 
also  favor  the  deposition  of  valuable  ores  directly  on  the  sur- 
face, rather  than  deep  in  the  crust  as  on  Earth,  so  that  the 
\'cnusian  surface  might  be  of  enormous  technologic  and  eco- 
nomic interest.  .Answers  to  these  and  other  speculations  are 
eagerly  expected  from  future  probes  of  this  planet. 


Sti)o«»ft^  otfei.  .  .  (continued  from  page  3) 
the  Southwest  Archaeological  Expedition  in  1957  and  1958, 
one  married  a  staff  member,  and  another  has  been  on  the 
Museum  staff  for  nine  years. 

The  final  question  in  the  survey  was  "  What  advice  would 
you  give  the  Aiuseum,  the  school  and  current  students  regarding  the 
Museum  program?  How  can  it  be  improved?'''  The  alumni  gave 
advice  with  gusto  and  good  sense.  Much  of  it  is  pertinent 
only  to  those  engaged  in  the  work  experience  program,  but 
the  following  may  be  taken  as  good  advice  not  only  to  the 
co-op  but  to  anyone  in  any  job.  "From  my  experience  there  and 
that  of  others  I  have  talked  to,  initial  assignments  are  very  routine, 
and  could  become  tedious  if  the  student  allows.  The  more  complex  and 
interesting  tasks  are  given  when  the  co-op  shows  by  performance  and 
attitude  that  he  is  ready  to  accept  them.  This  is  good,  but  may  be 
disconcerting  to  the  beginner  who  expects  to  jump  in  at  the  top,"  from 
an  elementary  school  teacher  who  worked  in  the  Library. 

As  all  good  questionnaires  should,  this  one  provoked  a  de- 
sire on  the  part  of  many  to  express  "just  one  moie  thing." 
For  example,  this  from  a  museum  exhibits  technician  who 
worked  in  the  Geology  Department,  '^^ If  the  Field  Atuseum  has 
not  yet  opened  its  various  art  departments  and  preparation  labs  {model 
making,  taxidermy,  habitat  group  construction)  to  students,  then  a  vast 
source  of  wealth  is  remaining  untapped  in  the  area  of  co-op  training, 
for  there  is  so  much  there  to  indicate  a  direction  to  follow  toward  one's 
career.  Careers  are  there  that  one  could  never  imagine  except  by  lour- 
ing the  laboratory  labyrinth.  I  hope  that  the  atmosphere  prevails 
yet,  for  to  me  the  epitome  of  ''Museum"  resides  in  Chicago." 

A  concluding  quotation  reflects  the  sometimes  surpris- 
ing individuality  typical  of  both  the  .Antioch  students  and  the 
Museum  personnel  in  their  approaches  to  jobs,  life,  and  one 
another.  Perhaps  it  is  this  very  individuality  which  has  made 
the  program  a  success. 

'^ I  hope  I  may  be  pardoned  a  final  personal  note.  I  had  spent  World 
War  II  in  a  camp  for  conscientious  objectors  and  went  directly  from 
the  camp  to  the  .Museum.  I  was  not  sent  to  the  Museum  by  Antioch 
and  perhaps  was  not  officially  a  co-op  student.  I  went  to  the  .Mu- 
seum at  Mr.  Dawson's  suggestion  but  without  an  official  letter  of 
introduction.  I  was  hired  by  a  retired  military  man,  a  colonel,  I  be- 
lieve. He  questioned  me  briefly  about  my  status  as  a  conscientious 
objector,  cautioned  me  about  the  possibility  of  discrimination  on  the 
part  of  other  employees,  and  hired  me  without  ado.  His  willingness 
to  hire  me  at  a  time  when  I  needed  the  .Museum  more  than  the  .Museum 
needed  me  was  broadminded  and  generous  on  his  part,  and  I  have 
always  been  grateful  for  it." 

Specifically,  this  survey  indicates  that  the  Field  Museum 
has  contributed  significantly  to  the  preparation  of  at  least  14 
.•\ntioch  alumni  who  are  now  professionally  engaged  in  work 
related  to  that  done  at  the  Museum,  and  at  least  seven  others 
still  in  graduate  school  preparing  for  related  work. 

The  Museum  intensified  most  of  the  students'  interest  in 
natural  history  and  has  helped  them  in  important  decisions 
concerning  their  futures.  By  their  own  admission,  working 
at  the  Museum  effected  subtle  changes  in  the  personalities 
and  thinking  of  several  dozen  now  staid  and  mature  .'Antioch 
alumni.  In  return,  the  .Antioch  co-ops  have  provided  a  fillip 
of  youth — occasionally  deflating,  often  exhilarating,  and  al- 
ways refreshing  to  the  Museum  staff. 


J.ANUART     Page  7 


picture  makingf 
by  Apes 
and  its 
evolutionary 
significance 

by  A.  L.  Rand 

Chief  Curator,  Zoology 


The  picture  making  ability  of  chimpanzees  first  received  recognition  in  1957  when 
Betsy  and  Congo  had  a  two-chimp  exhibit  at  the  Institute  of  Contemporary  Art  in 
London.  In  the  same  year,  the  work  of  Zippy  was  exhibited  in  the  Senate  House 
Museum,  Kingston,  New  York.  Eight  paintings  by  these  chimps  are  now  on  exhibit 
here  at  Field  Museum.  The  paintings,  the  gift  of  the  late  Mrs.  Emily  Crane  Chad- 
bourne,  are  now  a  part  of  the  study  collection  of  the  Zoology  Department,  as  an 
illustration  of  the  behavior  of  great  apes  in  a  field  considered  restricted  to  man. 

Congo,  an  experimental  animal  studied  by  Mr.  Desmond  Morris  of  London,  was 
a  television  personality  who  made  384  pictures  between  1956  and  1959  when  he 
was  two  to  four  years  old.  Much  of  his  color  work  was  done  with  a  brush.  At  his 
London  show,  some  pictures  sold  well  at  inflated  prices,  after  which  the  others  were 
withdrawn  from  the  market  and  filed  for  documentation  and  study.  Much  of  what 
we  know  about  the  biology  of  chimpanzee  art  comes  from  Morris'  studies  at  the 
London  Zoo.     His  book.  The  Biology  of  Art,  deals  with  these  studies. 

Betsy  of  Baltimore,  also  a  zoo  animal  and  television  personality,  is  best  known  for 
her  finger  paintings,  the  sale  of  which  helped  fill  the  coffers  of  the  Baltimore  Zoo. 
Zippy  is  a  less  well-known  figure.  She  worked  in  a  Washington  department  store 
painting  pictures  for  sale,  some  of  which  Mrs.  Chadbourne  purchased. 

It  could  be  argued  that  this  material  belongs  to  the  study  of  art,  or  that  since  it 
throws  light  on  certain  aspects  of  the  innate  behavior  of  man,  it  belongs  in  anthro- 
pology. True,  it  can  be  used  in  either  of  these.  But  here,  we  view  it  in  the  wider 
context  of  the  whole  evolutional  process,  making  it  properly  zoological  material. 

One  must  accept  that  real  and  important  ideas  can  emerge  from  the  study  of  this 
ape  picture  making.  Because  it  is  so  easy  to  burlesque  picture  making  by  non-hiuiian 
primates,  the  main  point  may  be  inissed — that  though  these  ape  artists  offer  an  obvi- 
ous opportunity  to  deflate  some  pomposities  of  the  art  world,  their  picture  making 
is  not  at  all  a  zoological  joke.  It  takes  a  discerning  eye  and  a  receptive  mind  to  see 
them  for  what  they  are:  documents  and  records  of  a  biological  approach  to  art. 

The  show  in  London  was  opened  by  the  noted  British  biologist.  Sir  Julian  Huxley, 
who  maintained  that  the  pictures  by  Congo  and  Betsy  showed  that  chimpanzees  had 
artistic  potential.  By  inference,  our  ape-like  ancestors  had  this  primitive  artistic 
potential  to  which  man  has  added  his  unique  capacity  for  symbol  making. 

Morris  shows  that  the  chimp-painted  pictures  have  basic  artistic  qualities. 
They  show  composition  control,  calligraphic  development,  and  aesthetic  varia- 
tion. These  characteristics  appear  only  at  a  minimal  level,  it  is  true,  but  they  are 
there,  the  basic  fundamentals  of  aesthetic  creativity. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  evolutionary  studies  in  biology,  the  intricacies  of  art 
need  not  concern  us  beyond  establishing,  as  Morris  has  done,  that  the  aesthetic 
potential  of  Homo  sapiens  has  its  roots  in  a  similar  open-pattern  instinct  of  a  pre- 
human ancestor,  and  that  traces  of  it  can  be  fovmd  in  present-day  sub-human  spe- 
cies. (.An  open-pattern  instinct  is  one  which  is  susceptible  to  modification  by  expe- 
rience and  in  some  forms  is  capable  of  being  codified  into  traditional  behavior.  A 
closed-pattern  instinct  is  one  not  modifiable  by  experience.) 

The  investigation  into  animal  behavior  in  terms  of  open  and  closed  instinctive 
patterns  is  in  its  infancy.  It  is  a  study  that  promises  a  much  richer  understanding 
of  animal  behavior  and  its  evolution,  from  lowest  to  highest  forms. 


CALENDAR  OF  EVENTS 

Museum  open  9  a.m.  until  4p.m.  weekdays, 
until  5  p.m.  weekends. 

through  February  28  Winter  Journey : 
Who's  Who  in  the  Prehistoric  Zoo 
A  self-guided  tour  of  the  prehistoric 

animals  hall;  direction  sheets  available 

at  the  Information  Desk  and  at  both 

entrances. 

January  1-31    Exhibit: 

Paintings  by  Chimpanzees 

An  exhibit  of  eight  paintings  by  three 
chimpanzees,  and  photos  of  the  animals 
at  work.    In  Stanley  Field  Hall. 

January  1 5  Movie  :  Sponsored  by  Ill- 
inois .-Audubon  Society 

Gone  With  The  Wilderness 
Karl  Maslowski's  film  features  a  mink 
and  a  moth.    In  James  Simpson  Theatre 
at  2:30  p.m. 

MEETINGS: 

Chicago  Shell  Club 

January  8  at  2  p.m. 
Chicago  Nature  Camera  Club 

January  10  at  7:45  p.m. 

February  5  at  2:30  p.m. 
Illinois  Orchid  Society 

January  15  at  2  p.m. 


This  month'' s  cover  shows  Duncan  Foley,  an 
Antioch  College  '''co-op,^^  working  among  the 
hundreds  oj  cases  oj  mineral  specimens  in  our 
Department  oJ  Geology. 


FIELD     MUSEUM 

OF  NATURAL   HISTORY 

ROOSEVELT  ROAD  AT  LAKE  SHORE  DRfVE 
CHICAGO.  ILLINOIS  60605  AC.  312,  922-9410 
FOUNOeP  BY  MARSHALL  FIELD.  1893 

E.  Leland  H'ehher,  Director 

BULLETIN 


Edward  G.  Nash,  Managing  Editor 
Bea  Paul,  Associate  Editor,  graphics 


Page  8    JANUARY 


PUNTED  BY  FIELD  .MUSEUM  PRESS 


Volume  38,  Number  2   February,  1967 


BULLETIN  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 


FROM  THE  OFFICE  OF  THE  DIRECTOR 


I  am  very  pleased  to  tell  you  about  an  unusual  opportunity  being  offered  to  mem- 
bers of  Field  Museum  -  a  tour  of  Guatemala,  a  land  spectacular  in  its  beauty  and  diversity. 
As  the  site  of  many  Field  Museum  expeditions  and  the  subject  of  many  of  our  publications, 
Guatemala  is  a  logical  first  destination  for  a  planned  series  of  Field  Musevim  tours. 

One  of  the  greatest  strengths  of  the  Museum  is  its  members.  People  join  Field 
Museum  because  they  are  interested  in  the  natural  sciences,  in  our  research  and  exhibit 
programs  -  interested  in  the  world  around  them.   It  was  with  this  in  mind  that  our  Guate- 
mala tour  was  planned,  for  it  will  be  something  quite  different  from  an  ordinary  tour. 

It  has  been  carefully  planned,  not  just  to  skim  the  surface,  but  to  achieve  an 
understanding  of  the  flora  and  archaeology  of  Guatemala  and  a  personal  acquaintance 
with  its  people.  Members  of  the  Museum  staff  will  participate  in  the  tour  adding  their 
knowledge  of  the  area  to  the  value  of  the  experience.  Of  particular  interest  will  be 
visits  in  the  homes  and  gardens  of  leading  Guatemalans. 

The  group  will  be  limited  to  60  persons,  divided  into  two  sections  of  30  each. 
Transportation  in  Guatemala  will  be  in  limousines  driven  by  English-speaking  chauffeur- 
guides,  with  no  more  than  four  passengers  to  a  limousine. 

The  cost  of  the  trip  is  $1,260  per  person,  of  which  $^+00  is  a  tax  deductible 
contribution  to  Field  Museum. 

One  section  of  the  tour  will  be  led  by  Phil  Clark,  our  Public  Relations  Covuasel, 
who  has  led  many  garden  tours  of  Guatemala  and  Mexico  and  has  an  intimate  knowledge  of 

Page  2     FEBRUARY 


Donald  Collier 


Antonio  Molina 


Malcolm  Collier 


Phil  Clark 


the  area.  Mr.  Clark  will  also  act  as  a  tour  botanist.   The  leader  and  botanist  for  the 
other  section  will  be  Dr.  Antonio  Molina  of  Honduras,  a  Field  Associate  of  the  Museum's 
Department  of  Botany,  who  has  worked  for  many  years  in  Central  America.   The  tour 
anthropologists  will  be  Dr.  Malcolm  Collier  and  Dr.  Donald  Collier,  Chief  Curator  of 
Anthropology  who  is  a  specialist  in  Central  and  South  American  anthropology. 

I  hope  that  many  of  you  will  take  this  opportunity  to  join  our  staff  members  and 
me  in  visiting  Guatemala,  the  locale  of  one  of  our  important  overseas  field  programs 
in  one  of  the  most  beautiful  areas  in  the  Western  Hemisphere.   In  the  next  few  pages,  we 
present  the  itinerary  of  the  tour  day  by  day.  Later  on  in  this  issue  there  is  an  appre- 
ciation of  Guatemala  by  Dr.  Louis  Williams,  Chief  Curator  of  Botany,  and  head  of  Field 
Museum's  Flora  of  Guatemala  project,  one  of  our  most  important  scientific  programs. 
All  of  us  hope  that  tours  like  this  will  lead,  in  future  years,  to  an  ever- 
increasing  involvement  of  the  members  in  the  life  and  work  of  Field  Museum. 

Sincerely, 


E.   Leland  Webber,   Director 


FEBRUARY    Page  3 


Guatemala  is  the  beautiful  —  and  the  unexpected.  Green  and  blue 
parrots,  not  drab  crows,  raid  cornfields.  Tropical  jungle  and  tem- 
perate pine  forests  are  within  minutes  of  each  other.  Ornate 
baroque  stands  side-by-side  with  sleekly  modern  architecture.  The 
ruins  of  an  ancient  and  proud  culture  sit  in  the  jungle  silence  as 
they  have  for  centuries.  On  these  pages,  Phil  Clark  traces  day  by 
day  Field  Museum's  Guatemalan  Tour,  designed  so  that  you  may 
come  to  know  the  flora,  the  people,  the  civilization  of  Guatemala. 


Busy  scene  in  Guatemala  City. 


1  Friday,  October  27— you  leave 
from  O'Hare  Field,  taking  Delta 
Airlines  to  New  Orleans  and 
Pan  American  to  Guatemala  City. 
The  temperature  will  be  spring-like 
but  it  won't  take  you  long  to  know 
you  are  in  the  tropics:  the  huge 
orange  flowers  of  the  tulip  trees 
and  the  massed  magenta  of  bou- 
gainvillea  will  tell  you.  Your  hotel, 
the  new  Ritz  Continental,  is  in  the 
center  of  the  capital.  Dinner  will 
be  in  the  hotel's  skyroom  with  a 
sweeping  view  of  the  National 
Palace  Square  and  the  mountain- 
circled  city.  After  dinner,  a  talk 
on  tropical  fruits  by  Dr.  Antonio 
Molina,  tour  botanist. 


' Midst  flowering  azaleas,  don  Craig  Hodgsdon  welcomes  tour  members  in  patio  garden. 


An  ancient  sculpture  at  the  Museum  oj  Ar- 
chaeology and  Ethnology  in  Guatemala  City, 


2  Saturday,  October  28— This 
morning  you  visit  the  Muse- 
um of  Archaeology  and  Eth- 
nology and  the  partially  excavated 
ruins  of  Kaminaljuyu,  a  great  cere- 
monial center  of  the  highland 
Maya,  the  foundations  of  which 
were  laid  before  500  B.C.  After 
lunch,  a  call  at  the  home  of  don 
Mariano  Pacheco,  dean  of  Guate- 
malan horticulturists,  whose  patio 
is  a  miniature  botanical  garden  of 
native  plants.  Later,  a  visit  to  the 
National  Palace,  built  in  the  grand 
style  of  hispanic  houses  of  state, 
containing  many  nationally  cre- 
ated art  works.  A  pause  in  a 
splendid  Spanish  colonial  church, 
cocktails  with  a  plantation  owner 
in  his  townhouse,  and,  in  the  eve- 
ning, a  discussion  of  the  ancient 
and  modern  Maya  with  tour  an- 
thropologists Donald  and  Mal- 
colm Collier. 


3  Sunday,  October  29 — This  morning  you  meet  Jose  Yurrita,  the  son  of  the  planter  who  designed  and  built 
Yurrita  Church,  as  thanksgiving  for  the  miraculous  rescue  of  his  family  after  having  been  buried  for  three  days 
under  volcanic  debris.  You  visit  the  Church,  a  strange  blend  of  gothic  and  hispanic  styles.  During  the  after- 
noon, you  visit  four  private  homes  and  gardens,  each  one  quite  different  from  the  others.  The  first  is  a  gem-like 
patio  garden  in  the  Spanish  colonial  style;  another  belongs  to  the  Republic's  most  daring  architect;  the  third  com- 
bines traditional  Spanish  with  modern  informal  landscaping  and  at  the  fourth  you  meet  many  of  Guatemala  City's 
leading  citizens  at  a  party  in  a  palatial,  traditional  home  surrounded  by  sweeping  gardens. 


Page  4    FEBRUARY 


Monday,  October  30  —  You  leave  for  Antigua  — 
the  capital  of  Spanish  colonial  Central  America. 
Founded  in  1543,  Antigua  was  destroyed  by 
earthquakes  in  1773.  After  lunch  you  explore 
this  city  that  time  forgot.  Here  are  the  ruins 
of  some  of  the  16th  Century's  most  monu- 
mental churches — Nuestra  Senora  de  la  Merced, 
San  Francisco  and  others — the  Palace  of  the  Cap- 
tains General,  and  one  of  the  first  universities  in 
the  Americas,  San  Carlos,  where  a  stunning  col- 
lection of  colonial  sculpture  and  painting  is  dis- 
4  played.  After  dinner,  a  talk  by  Dr.  Wilson 
Popenoe,  a  noted  authority  on  tropical  horti- 
culture, on  the  Spanish  colonial  garden. 


Founded  in  167S,  San  Carlos  University  still  stands  in  Antigua. 


Tuesday,  October  31  —  You  take 
an  excursion,  with  picnic  lunch, 
into  the  tropical  lowlands,  to  visit 
the  coffee  plantation  of  Hugh 
Craggs,  a  progressive  farmer  who 
tells  you  how  he  has  achieved  the 
highest  coffee  yield  in  Central 
America  and  demonstrates  the 

5  processing  of  coffee.  His 
handsomely  landscaped  es- 
tate is  also  well  known  to  or- 
chidists;  many  orchid  hybrids  have 
originated  here  for  this  and  other 
plant  breeding  are  hobbies  of  don 
Hugh.  On  your  return  trip  to  An- 
tigua, you  stop  to  view  the  land- 
scaped waterfall  of  the  Grutas  de 
San  Pedro  Martir. 


Royal  palr-i.  It,!,-  thf  c.ituu'.ce  to  the 
waterjail  gardens  oj  San  Pedro  Martir. 

Wednesday,  November  1 — During  the  morning,  you  see  an  All  Saints 
Day  procession  at  a  nearby  Indian  village,  with  its  strange  combination 
of  the  Indian  and  the  medieval  spirits.  For  another  colorful  glimpse  of 
Indian  life,  you  tour  the  great  Antigua  market  and  visit  some  textile  loom- 

6ing  shops.  During  the  afternoon  you  visit  several  small  patio  gar- 
dens showing  varying  degrees  of  modernization  of  the  old  Spanish 
houses,  including  the  completely  authentic  Casa  Popenoe. 


Black  beans  are  favorites  among  the  many  varieties  sold  in  Antigua's 


market. 


7 


Thursday,  November  2 — Today  you  take  an  excursion  to  the  great  planta- 
tion-garden El  Zapote,  almost  on  the  rim  of  the  smoking  volcano  Fuego. 
The  lady  of  this  estate,  Mrs.  Carmen  Pettersen,  one  of  Guatemala's  most 
enthusiastic  gardeners,  will  show  her  gardens  with  their  artificial  lakes  of  water- 
lilies  and  give  a  talk  on  her  exciting  life  in  Guatemala.  The  plantation's  main 
crops  are  the  drug  quinine  and  the  spice  cardamon. 


Volcan  Fuego  smokes  above  an  ash-streaked  moun- 
tainside, seen  Jrom  El  Z'^pote  plantation-garden. 


FEBRUARY    Page  5 


8  Friday,  Novembers — Today  you  enter  the  real  In- 
dian Guatemala  in  the  highlands.  You  pass 
through  Indian  villages  and  stop  at  the  colorful 
market  of  Patzun  and  at  the  Mayan  ruins  of  Iximche, 
where  temples  and  pyramids,  now  silently  framing  Vol- 
can  Fuego,  were  busy  Indian  centers  when  the  Span- 
iards came.  Finally,  you  reach  magnificent  Lake  Atit- 
lan,  a  volcano-circled  oval  of  brilliant  azure,  its  waters 
deep  and  pure.  After  settling  in  your  cottage  at  the 
garden  hotel,  Casa  Contenta,  you  visit  the  nearby  mar- 
ket town  of  Solola,  where  the  men  wear  gray  woolen 
coats  embroidered  with  stylized  black  bats,  and  plaid 
skirts  over  striped  pajama-like  trousers.  In  the  evening, 
a  dance,  with  marimba  band. 


A  busy  cniin  hrjuie  liir  Spaniards  came,  temples  at  Iximche  now  :,tand  deserted. 


Saturday,  November  4 — A  launch  takes  you  across  Lake  Atitlan  to  Santiago  Atitlan,  a 
village  of  Tzutuhil-speaking  Indians.  The  women  wear  bright  red,  tightly-wrapped  skirts, 
white  huipiles  and  "halo"  headdresses  made  by  winding  red  ribbon  around  their  heads; 

men  wear  white  shirts,  red  sashes  and  short  white  trousers  embroidered  with  butterflies.    During  the  afternoon,  swimming 

in  Lake  Atitlan  and  a  botanical  hike  along  a  nearby  river  are  scheduled. 


9 


^  ^^  Sunday,  November  5 — Market  day  at  Chichicastenango, 
I  I  1  1 7  corkscrew  miles  up  the  mountain  through  heavy  pine 
A\^  forests.  When  you  reach  this  mountain-top  town,  you 
know  that  here  is  one  of  the  last  strongholds  of  the  Indian  in  the 
Americas — the  very  street  mood  suggests  another,  different  culture. 
At  Santo  Tomas  church,  clouds  of  black  "pom"smoke  rise  heaven- 
ward from  the  stairs  up  which  worshippers  climb  a  step  at  a  time. 
They  chant  prayers  in  Maya  as  did  their  ancestors  in  the  temples. 
Inside  the  church  is  aglow  with  candles,  and  squatting  Indians 
chant,  as  they  sprinkle  flower  petals  on  the  floor.  Dinner  at  the 
hotel,  the  charming  Spanish  colonial  Mayan  Inn. 


Hand-loomed  textiles  are  offered  by  girls  oj  Santiago  Atitlan 


n    Monday,  November  6 — A  hike  up  the  mountain  Pas 
qual  Abaj  through  cornfields  and  pine-oak  forest 
brings  you  to  the  black  stone  idol  of  the  god  Tur- 
kaj,  still  worshipped  in  the  area.    Freshly  cut  flowers 
and  perhaps  animal  offerings  lie  before  him  and 
smoke  and  incense  still  rise  before  three  Maya 
crosses.  On  the  way  back  to  Chichicastenango, 
you  stop  at  the  mask-maker  to  examine 
hand-carved  wooden  masks  of  animals 
and  human  faces  and  to  watch  a  Con- 
quest dance.    At  tea,  guide  Oscar 
Martinez  gives  a  talk  on  the  In- 
dians of  Chichicastenango. 


Page  6    FEBRUARY 


Tikal's  great  temples  loom  above 
the  surrounding  rainforest. 


12 


Tuesday,  November  7 — An  early  start  for  Quezaltenango,  55  miles  to  the 
north,  with  a  stop  at  the  market  town  of  Totonicapan,  famous  for  its 
colorful  woolen  blankets.  Amazing  terraces  make  patchwork  of  the  steep 
mountainsides  on  which  corn  and  wheat  are  grown.  Black  sheep  are  tended  by  shepherds  wearing  a  sort  of  Indian  kilt  in 
brown  and  black  checks.  In  Quezaltenango,  you  visit  an  hacienda-style  home  with  an  impressive  library  and  an  unusual 
columnar  Guatemalan  holly  tree.    The  recently  built  Bonifaz,  our  hotel  for  the  night,  is  in  the  Spanish  Revival  style. 


^  ^^  Wednesday,  Novembers — The  trip  back  to  Guatemala  City  is  via  the  Pacific  road,  which  passes  through 
I  ^  lowland  jungles.  Growing  at  the  roadside  are  purple  sobralia  orchids,  orchid  cacti,  tree  ferns,  Spanish 
At  ^J  cedar,  balsa,  and  teak  trees  and  fields  of  pineapple,  sugar  cane.  There  are  plantations  of  cacao,  banana 
and  coffee.  Santa  Maria  volcano  is  framed  by  palms.  You  stop  for  a  conducted  tour  of  a  tropical  agriculture 
station  where  chocolate,  lemon  grass,  annatto  dye,  rubber,  black  pepper  and  vanilla  orchids  are  grown.  Today's 
trip,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  is  the  longest  day's  driving  on  the  tour,  through  mostly  tropical  country. 


gm  ^  Thursday,  November  9 — An  early  morning  plane 
I  xl   across  rainforest  to  Tikal,  where  pyramids  and 

Ji  iB  temples  soar  over  the  jungle.  Artifacts  as  old 
as  500  B.C.  have  been  found  here.  This  was  the  largest 
Maya  city  of  the  Classic  Period,  uncovered  and  partly 
reassembled  by  University  of  Pennsylvania  archaeolo- 
gists in  recent  years.  The  period  of  most  active  build- 
ing was  300-700  A.D.  The  city,  probably  a  religious 
and  ceremonial  center,  was  mysteriously  abandoned 
about  869  A.D.  Its  magnificent  stelae,  pyramids  and 
palaces  were  left  to  the  jungle  where  amid  monkeys 
and  exotic  birds  it  moldered  until  recent  times.  You 
will  stay  at  the  simple  Jungle  Inn,  where,  after  dinner. 
Dr.  Collier  will  talk  about  the  restoration  of  the  ancient 
city.  The  sight  of  the  Temple  of  the  Jaguar  in  the  moon- 
lit jungle  is  an  unforgettable  moment. 

Guatemala' s  national  flower,  the  white 
nun  orchid,  Lycaste  virginalis  alba. 


Smoke  rises  from  censors  swung  on  steps  oj  Santo  Tomas  Church  in  Chichicastenango. 


16 


afl  H  Friday,  November 
1  ^  JO— A  further  look 
A  V^  at  the  ruins  of  Tikal, 
and  after  lunch,  the  return  to 
Guatemala  City. 


Saturday,  November  7/— In  the  morning,  you  tour  Guatemala  City  market.     In  the  afternoon,  you  are  on  your  own. 
This  evening  both  groups  reunite  for  dinner  and  a  farewell  party  and  program  at  El  Patio  restaurant. 


17 


Sunday,  November  12— The  return  to  Chicago. 


Guatemala: 

an  appreciation 
by  Louis  0.  Williams,  Chief  Curator,  Botany 

I  CONSIDER  GUATEMALA  inv  second  homeland.  It  contains 
more  things  of  interest,  for  those  whose  curiosity  is  not  bounded 
by  everyday  affairs,  than  any  equal  area  that  I  know. 

Even  though  I  have  been  asked  to  write  about  Guatemala's 
plants,  I  should  be  derelict  in  my  duty  if  I  did  not  tell  you  to 
see,  observe  and  talk  to  the  Guatemalan  people.  A  friendlier 
people  are  to  be  found  nowhere,  and  more  interesting  ones 
are  hard  to  imagine.  One  must  remember  that  the  civiliza- 
tion from  which  they  come  is  old.  It  was  good  and  they  are 
justly  proud  of  it  and  you  will  be  deeply  respectful  of  it  too, 
I  am  sure,  when  you  see  the  ruins  that  remain  from  a  great 
epoch  in  their  history. 

During  your  days  in  Guatemala  you  will  see  some  splen- 
did mountain  landscapes,  dominated  always  by  volcanoes 
and  volcanic  lands.    Please  notice  Santa  Maria  volcano  when 

you  go  to  Quezaltenango;  it  is 
the  most  symmetrical  cone  I 
have  seen  ans'where. 

It  will  almost  certainly  be  a 
day  long  remembered  when  you 
first  look  down  on  Lake  AtidSn, 
— far  below  and  the  bluest  of 
blue.  Look  at  the  shoreline  and 
emba)ments and  count  the  inany 
gleaming  white  villages.  The 
volcanoes  circling  the  lake  seem 
to  be  sentinels  standing  guard. 
One  of  your  days  at  the  lake  will  be  market  day  at  nearby 
Solola.  Perhaps  there  are  better  Indian  markets  in  Guate- 
mala, but  this  is  especially  fine  for  the  many  colorfully  dressed 
Indians  who  come  in  from  the  surrounding  area.  Relatively 
few  tourists  visit  Solola,  for  it  is  somewhat  off  the  beaten  track. 
The  western  highlands,  "Los  Altos,"  are  especially  noted 
for  the  textiles  that  are  woven  there.  Vou  will  be  besieged  by 
vendors  of  blankets,  tablecloths,  ties,  dress  material — all  the 
things  that  it  is  possible  to  weave  by  hand  loom.  Selecting 
judiciously,  you  can  buy  some  very  good  things  at  reason- 
able prices. 

Guatemala  is  not  very  big,  but  its  flora  was  blessed  by  a 
benevolent  creator.  From  the  sea  to  the  top  of  the  highest 
volcano,  the  distance  is  very  small.  But  the  distance  in  cli- 
mate and  plant  habitats  is  immense.  You  will  especially 
notice  the  difference  as  you  go  quickly  from  Quezaltenango 
down  to  the  coastal  plain.  Habitat  and  climate  change  is 
greater  in  those  few  minutes  than  that  from  Chicago  to  Miami. 
If  you  go  out  everyday  from  Chicago  into  the  uncultivated 


areas  still  remaining  within  100  miles  and  if  you  are  a  careful 
and  critical  observer,  you  might  find  two  thousand  kinds  of 
wild  plants  during  a  whole  season.  An  observer  would  find 
that  number  in  western  Guatemala  in  only  a  few  days.  In 
all  the  United  States,  there  are  about  15,000  native  flowering 
plants.  I  don't  know  how  many  there  are  in  tiny  Guatemala, 
for  its  flora  is  still  relatively  unknown,  but  probably  there  are 
1 0,000.  The  Flora  of  Guatemala  now  contains  2,500  pages  and 
when  completed  will  be  a  work  of  about  4,000  pages.  This 
indicates  the  great  variety  of  plants  in  this  small  area. 

You  shall  see  several  radically  different  kinds  of  plant 
associations  in  Guatemala:  those  in  the  hot,  often  dry.  Pacific 
coastal  plain;  the  rain  forests  of  Tikal;  and  the  subalpine 
zone  of  the  high  mountains,  where  frost  is  a  common  oc- 
currence in  winter  months,  and  where  some  of  the  fin- 
est coniferous  forests  remaining  on 
the  continent  grow.  A  rare  but  out- 
standing conifer  here  is  Abies  guate- 
malensis,  the  Guatemalan  fir  locally 
called  pinabete.  I  think  that  this  is 
the  largest  fir  in  the  world.  Seen 
from  a  distance  it  is  distinctive,  for 
in  the  forest  it  appears  black.  Dr. 
Antonio  Molina,  who  will  be  with 
you,  is  a  specialist  on  the  kinds  of 
Central  American  conifers  and  will 
identify  the  plants  for  you. 

You  will  go  through  deciduous  forests  of  several  kinds  as 
you  travel.  These  range  from  the  relatively  dry  Pacific  to  the 
temperate  highlands  and  the  wetter  region  of  Tikal.  Oaks 
are  common  most  everywhere,  except  at  the  lower  elevations, 
but  these  trees  are  not  all  oaks!  When  you  have  a  chance, 
walk  into  the  woods  and  observe  the  trees;  you  will  find  most 
are  complete,  if  attractive,  strangers,  even  the  oaks. 

There  is  one  very  obvious  difference  between  broadleaf 
forests  in  the  tropics  and  northern  regions.  In  this  country 
you  may  find  a  hillside  covered  with  one  kind  of  maple  or 
oak,  the  population  containing  literally  thousands  or  even 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  the  same  species  of  tree.  In  Guate- 
mala, this  is  not  so.  It  will  be  a  poor  broadleaf  forest  in 
Guatemala  where  Dr.  Molina  cannot  point  out  twenty  or 
thirty  kinds  of  trees  in  a  few  minutes'  walk. 

It  will  be  worth  your  while  to  go  first  into  a  highland  for- 
est and  then  at  Tikal  to  see  the  kinds  of  trees  that  grow  in  the 
lowlands.    Mostly  they  will  be  quite  different. 

Trees  are  not  the  only  kinds  of  plants  that  you  will  see  in 
abundance.  You  will  be  in  Guatemala  as  the  wet  season  is 
ending.  This  is  the  period  when  you  will  find  the  greatest 
number  of  plants  in  flower. 

In  the  western  highlands  it  is  the  rule  rather  than  the 
exception  to  find  several  kinds  of  Salvia  in  bloom.  There 
are  purples,  blues  and  reds,  herbs  and  shrubs,  inconspicuous 
and  flamboyant  ones. 

You  will  also  find  Compositae  (aster  family)  everywhere  at 
this  time.  Blue  ageratums  overflow  cornfields,  and  the  woods 
and  open  hillsides  are  pink  and  yellow  and  white  and  brown 
with  daisies  and  dahlias,  growing  as  trees  or  as  low  annuals. 

Orchids  and  bromeliads  are  fovmd  in  all  the  areas  that 


you  will  visit.  These  arc  both  interesting.  Most  are  epi- 
phytes, growing  on  trees  but  taking  nothing  from  them.  Epi- 
phytism  is,  in  part,  an  adaptation  to  get  away  from  the  com- 
petition at  ground  level  and  to  get  up  into  the  sun.  There 
also  are  orchids  growing  on  the  ground,  often  in  great  abim- 
dance.  The  road  from  Quezaltenango  down  to  the  coastal 
plain  passes  through  a  canyon  where  Sobralia  macrantha  covers 
the  slopes.  This  species  produces  the  largest  flower  of  Guate- 
mala's over  500  kinds  of  orchids.  I  hope  that  you  will  see  it, 
for  although  the  lavender  flower  lasts  a  day  at  most,  it  is  a 
sight  not  to  be  forgotten. 

Naturally,  in  a  country  so  rich  in  wild  plants,  the  gardens 
are  colorful  almost  beyond  imagining.  Not  only  are  the  gar- 
dens given  an  exotic  touch  by  the  many  plants  brought  in 
from  the  whole  tropical  world  but  numerous  Guatemalan 
wild  plants  are  utilized.  Phil  Clark,  who  will  be  one  of  the 
plant  specialists  with  the  tour,  and  who  has  for  many  years 
been  the  garden  editor  of  a  Mexican  newspaper,  will  tell  you 
in  which  countries  the  plants  originated  and  also  tell  you  some- 
thing of  the  Spanish  principles  of  garden  design  typified  by 
most  of  the  gardens,  either  modern  or  traditional. 

You  will  see  gardens  in  a  variety  of  climatic  situations 
which  will  further  widen  their  styles  and  plant  materials. 
Gardens  will  go  all  the  way  from  a  cool  7,700  feet  at  Quezal- 
tenango to  a  coffee  plantation  garden  at  2,000  feet,  with  those 
in  between  at  5,000  feet  in  Antigua  and  Guatemala  City. 
There  will  even  be  one  huge  garden  estate  on  the  side  of 
Volcdn  de  Fuego. 

Man  lives  from  plants  in  Guatemala  just  as  he  does  else- 
where in  the  world.  His  agriculture  is  everywhere  to  be  ob- 
served :  some  of  it  is  rational  and  not  destructive  of  the  land, 
but  much  that  you  will  see  is  wasteful  of  the  non-renewable 
resource  which  is  the  land.  A  few  miles  before  you  reach 
Quezaltenango,  you  will  observe  wheat  growing  on  hillsides 
so  steep  that  terraces  are  necessary. 

When  you  stop  along  the  Pan  American  Highway  at  a 
point  where  you  can  look  north  to  the  city  of  Totonicapin — 


you  will  view  a  checkerboard  valley  of  cultivated  fields.  Most 
of  the  forests  have  been  cut  away  and  wheat  and  occasionally 
other  crops  are  grown.  When  I  first  came  to  this  region  more 
than  twenty  years  ago  this  whole  valley  was  forested,  like 
other  still  heavily  forested  areas  which  you  will  enjoy. 

Traveling  from  Guatemala  City  to  the  highlands  and 
back  again,  then  up  northward  to  Tikal  and  back  you  will 
see  some  magnificent  examples  of  tropical  vegetation,  ^'ou 
will  also  have  brought  forcefully  to  your  attention  man's  de- 
pendence on  plants. 


FEBRUARY    Page  9 


THE  Great  Auk,  a  large,  black  and  white,  flightless 
sea  bird  of  the  North  Atlantic  became  extinct  in  1844, 
thus  making  an  unenviable  record  as  being  the  first 
North  American  species  to  become  extinct  in  historical  times. 
It  was  followed  into  oblivion  in  1875  by  the  Labrador  Duck 
(one  shot  on  Long  Island),  in  April,  1904  by  the  Carolina 
Parakeet  (last  seen  at  Taylors  Creek,  Florida),  and  by  the 
Passenger  Pigeon  (Martha,  the  last  bird,  died  in  the  Cincin- 
nati Zoo  in  1914).  Any  self-respecting  museum  with  a  col- 
lection of  North  American  birds  needs  examples  of  all  these. 
The  Field  Museum  already  had  specimens  of  the  last  three, 
but  not  the  Great  Auk. 

The  chances  of  ever  getting  a  specimen  seemed  remote, 
since  the  Great  Auk  had  already  been  extinct  for  about  50 
years  when  the  Field  Museum  was  founded  in  1893,  and 
there  were  only  about  80  specimens  in  existence.  Most  of 
them  were  in  European  museums,  with  9  in  America,  and 
museums  do  not  lightly  part  with  such  material.  Then,  in 
1966,  a  colleague  of  ours,  Mr.  James  Baillie  of  the  Royal  On- 
tario Museum,  Toronto,  wrote  us  that  they  had  finally  re- 
ceived a  Great  Auk  for  their  Museum.  It  was  formerly  at 
\'assar  College,  and  was  the  one  Audubon  purchased  in  Lon- 
don before  1836,  and  painted  for  his  Birds  of  America.  More 
important  to  us  than  the  transfer  of  a  Great  Auk  from  Vassar 
to  Toronto  was  Baillie's  news  that  in  Brussels  the  Jnstitut 
Royal  des  Sciences  Naturelles  wanted  a  representative  series 
of  North  American  birds,  and  might  be  willing  to  exchange 
one  of  their  two  Great  Auks  for  it. 

We  wrote  Dr.  A.  Capart,  Director  of  the  Royal  Institute, 
and  found  he  was  favorably  inclined  to  such  an  exchange. 
We  sent  him  a  fairly  complete  series  of  strictly  North  Amer- 
ican birds,  males,  females  and  young,  and  received  in  ex- 
change the  Great  Auk. 

The  first  news  of  the  arrival  of  our  bird  was  a  telephone 
call  from  Chicago  customs  that  they  had  a  penguin  for  us. 
An  awful  thought  came  to  mind.  Had  they  opened  the  pack- 
ing case  and  had  it  identified  by  a  local  bird  watcher  as  a 
penguin,  which  a  Great  Auk  superficially  resembles?  Was 
it,  indeed,  a  penguin?  A  man  was  dispatched,  posthaste. 
My  fears  were  groundless.  The  case  was  intact,  but  the  "Fac- 
ture  pro  forma"  was  in  French  and  listed  the  contents  as  a  Pin- 
gouirt.  Of  course !  In  modern  French  texts  auks  are  called 
pingouins  and  penguins  are  called  manchots.  As  an  early  his- 
torian of  the  Great  Auk  wrote,  it  was  known  by  different 
names  in  different  places.  Anatole  France's  Penguin  Island 
was  really  inhabited  by  auks.  In  nineteenth  century  Eng- 
land, the  name  great  auk  vied  with  garefowl  for  popularity, 
the  latter  name  based  on  the  Icelandic  geirfugl,  the  gaeiic 
gearjhul.  The  "geir"  or  "gare"  of  the  name  referring  to  the 
spear-like  bill,  while  auk  is  an  old  English  name  for  the  re- 
lated razor  bill. 

Our  Great  Auk,  as  we  now  call  it,  the  only  one  in  the 
L'nited  States  west  of  the  Atlantic,  is  a  magnificent  bird. 

•Standing  upright  on  its  toes,  it  is  about  21^  inches  high. 


THE  GREAT 

Zoology  Chief  Curato'i 
acquisition  of  mi 


Page  10    FEBRUARY 


The  blade-like  bill  that  gives  the  bird  one  of  its  names  has 
curious  grooves  across  the  end  and  the  nostril  opens  in  a  slit. 
The  head  has  a  big  white  patch  in  front  of  the  eye,  but  is 
otherwise  black,  as  are  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  all  the  upper- 
parts  except  for  narrow  white  tips  to  the  inner  flight  feathers 
of  the  absurdly  small  wings.  The  underparts  are  white,  which 
color  ends  in  a  sharp  point  on  the  upper  neck.  The  tail  is 
short  and  the  three  front  toes  fully  webbed,  as  in  other 
auk  species. 

Evidently,  it  is  an  adult  in  summer  plumage.  As  the 
sexes  are  externally  alike  we  can't  tell  if  it  is  male  or  female. 
Along  with  name  and  number,  oiu-  specimen  has  "De.  E. 
de  Selys"  on  the  label.  It  is  the  specimen  that  Baron  de  Selys- 
Longchamps  wrote  of  in  "Ibis"  in  1870.  During  his  travels 
in  Italy  he  saw  four  specimens  in  collections  there,  and  also 
purchased  the  present  specimen  in  1840  in  Turin,  from  a 
M.  Verany  with  whom  it  had  been  left  for  sale,  on  commis- 
sion, by  M.  Verreaux.  For  a  time,  the  Baron  kept  it  at  his 
place,  Longchamps,  near  Warenne,  Belgiinn,  and  later  gave 
it  to  the  Brussels  Museum.  Now  it  is  in  the  Field  Museum  in 
Chicago.  Its  earliest  history  we  can  only  deduce.  No  speci- 
mens of  undoubted  American  origin  are  known  and  as  the 
chief  student  of  Great  Auk  history,  Alfred  Newton,  wrote  that 
most  of  the  specimens  extant  are  known  to  have  come  from 
Eldey  Island,  Iceland,  in  the  period  1830-1844,  we  can  as- 


sume this  is  the  origin  of  our  Great  Auk.  There  is  one  minor 
corroborating  detail.  A  superficial  examination  of  the  speci- 
men suggests  that  it  has  been  skinned  through  a  cut  across 
the  lower  abdomen  between  the  legs,  in  the  same  manner  as 
Icelandic  foxes  and  other  specimens  prepared  by  Icelanders. 
(Another  method  for  auks  was  to  make  a  slit  under  the  right 
wing  and  stuff  the  skins  with  fine  hay.) 

The  value  placed  on  Great  Auk  specimens  in  the  1800's, 
when  people  of  substance  were  stocking  their  cabinets  with 
show  pieces,  is  best  appreciated  by  realizing  that  a  Great  Auk 
was  a  gift  worthy  of  a  king.  Baron  de  Selys-Longchamps, 
once  the  possessor  of  our  specimen,  wrote  in  1870  that  the 
Marquis  de  Breme,  Grand  Master  of  the  Royal  Household, 
gave  his  collection  of  birds,  including  a  Great  Auk,  to  King 
Victor  Emmanuel  who  housed  it  in  the  Veneria  Reale,  Turin. 
At  the  request  of  the  King  of  Portugal,  Victor  Emmanuel's 
son-in-law,  also  distinguished  as  a  patron  of  Ornithology, 
this  Great  Auk  was  presented  to  the  Museum  in  Lisbon  in 
1867,  where  it  is  today.  Later,  the  King  of  Italy  was  able 
to  replace  it  in  his  collection  with  another,  transferred  to  the 
Museo  de  Zoologia,  Rome,  in  1902,  with  the  rest  of  the  King's 
collection.  As  well  as  illustrating  the  value  placed  on  such 
material,  this  illustrates  how  the  private  collections  helped 
save  early  natural  history  material,  preserving  it  until  it 
flowed  finally  into  public  museums  by  donation  or  purchase. 


\UK  COMES  TO  CHICAGO 


ustin  L 
f  the  78 


.  Rand  tells  about  Field  Museum's  recent,  but  long-awaited 
remaining  specimens  of  the  extinct  Great  Auk 


Taxidermist  Carl  Cotton  gingerly  unpacks 
Great  Auk  ajter  its  passage  Jrom  Brussels. 
Close  examination  revealed  that  the  bird  com- 
pleted the  trip  unscathed.  At  right,  .Mrs. 
Herman  Dunlap  Smith,  Associate  in  Birds 
and  President  of  Field  Aiuseuni's  IVomen^s 
Board,  who  managed  the  difficult  and  time- 
consuming  details  of  our  exchange,  and  Em- 
met R.  Blake,  Curator  of  Birds,  admire  the 
Great  Auk. 


FEBRUARY    Page  11 


This  is  a  trend  that  is  still  going  on. 

But  some  Great  Auks  did  go  through  the  market  places. 
Priceless  as  they  are  to  museums  in  showing  the  kinds  of 
things  that  exist,  commission  merchants  and  traders  did  put 
a  money  value  on  them.  A  few  examples  of  this  may  interest 
our  readers. 

In  the  early  19th  century,  Great  Auks  changed  hands  for 
as  little  as  £2  and  as  much  as  £15,  with  prices  in  other  cur- 
rencies quoted  as  200  francs,  50-200  florins  and  20  thalers. 
In  the  late  1800's  the  prices  had  risen  and  two  mentioned  are 
600  dollars  gold  and  £350.  The  latest  I've  seen,  1934,  in  a 
London  sale:  two  Great  Auks  from  the  estate  of  a  Mr.  G.  D. 
Rowley,  one  priced  480  guineas,  the  other,  500  guineas.  Our 
exchange,  a  suite  of  North  American  birds,  was  not  cheap. 
Much  time  and  efTort  would  have  gone  into  starting  from 


Auks  generally  bear  a  striking  likeness  to  penguins.  One 
can  say  that  Auks  in  northern  oceans  are  the  ecological  equiv- 
alent of  the  penguins  of  southern  oceans.  However,  all  auks, 
even  the  Great  Auks,  have  well-developed  wing  quills  which 
penguins  all  lack. 

The  Great  Auk  is  the  finest,  most  specialized,  of  the  auks, 
notable  for  its  flightlessness.  Presumably  it  spent  most  of  the 
year  swimming,  diving,  and  living  on  fish.  It  was  tame  and 
gullible.  Fishermen  were  reported  to  have  captured  birds 
by  holding  out  a  fish  to  a  swimming  bird  and  enticing  it  to 
the  edge  of  a  boat  so  that  it  could  be  stunned  with  a  blow  of 
an  oar.  Birds  captured  alive  were  said  to  have  survived  for 
as  long  as  4  months  and  were  fed,  among  other  things,  pota- 
toes mashed  in  milk. 

Only  at  nesting  times  did  the  birds  come  on  land,  on 


John  James  Audubon' s  painting  of  Great  Auks  for  his  "Birds  oj  America."    Audubon  purchased  a  Great  Auk  specimen  in  London  sometime  before  1836  and 
used  it  in  this  painting.     The  bird  later  belonged  to  Vassar  College  and  is  now  housed  in  the  Royal  Ontario  Museum,  Toronto. 


scratch  and  building  up  such  a  collection.  This  is  not  the 
first  such  exchange  that  has  been  made.  In  1860,  a  German 
naturalist  acquired  a  Great  Auk  specimen  in  exchange  for 
the  skin  of  an  Indian  Tapir. 

There  has  been  a  great  deal  written  about  the  Great  Auk. 
Most  of  it  is  from  the  viewpoint  of  an  antiquarian.  No  nat- 
uralist ever  studied  the  living  bird  and  what  is  known  of  its 
biology  is  collected  from  many  scattered  sources.  The  Great 
Auk,  Alca  impennis  of  Linnaeus,  Pinguinus  impennis  of  present- 
day  ornithologists  is  classified  in  the  Family  Alcidae  which 
also  includes  such  well-known  birds  as  razorbills,  murres, 
dovekies,  gullimots,  murrelets,  auklets,  and  puffins.  All  are 
heavy-bodied,  web-footed,  short-tailed,  and  rather  short- 
winged  sea  birds  which  use  their  wings  in  underwater  swim- 
ming.    All  hut  the  Great  Auk  fly  well. 


rocky  off-shore  islands,  to  lay  their  single  egg.  In  winter  the 
black  of  the  underside  of  the  head  was  replaced  by  white 
feathers,  and  young  birds  were  like  the  winter  adults. 

The  Great  Auk  was  a  victim  of  its  specialization.  Living 
most  of  its  life  in  the  water,  where  it  swam  with  its  wings  as 
do  its  relatives,  the  Great  Auk  evolved  flightless.  Coming 
ashore  only  on  isolated  islands  where  there  were  no  four- 
footed  predators  such  as  foxes,  it  developed  a  remarkable 
tameness  and  docility.  No  doubt  it  thrived  in  the  mid-lati- 
tudes of  the  North  Atlantic  where  the  relatively  shallow,  fish- 
rich  waters  provided  its  food,  until  man  arrived.  Not  modern 
man,  but  Stone  Age  man  brought  the  first  discordant  note 
into  its  elysium.  From  the  remains  in  stone-age  middens  of 
north-western  Europe  and  Indian  middens  from  New  Bruns- 
wick to  Cape  Cod,  we  know  that  early  man  found  it  breeding 


Page  12     FEBRUARY 


on  many  off-shore  islands.  At  least  occasionally,  the  Great 
Auk  visited  Gibraltar  where  its  bones  were  found  in  a  cave 
along  with  those  of  Neanderthal  man.  There  is  evidence 
also,  that  it  visited  eastern  Florida,  where  its  bones  have 
been  found  in  Indian  mounds. 

By  historical  times  the  Great  Auk's  breeding  range  had 
been  reduced  to  three  locations.  One  of  these  was  Geirfugl- 
asker  rocks,  off  Iceland.  This  colony  vanished  in  1830  with 
the  island  itself  due  to  volcanic  activity.  Presumably,  the 
birds  transferred  to  Eldey  Rock  nearby,  where  the  birds  con- 
tinued to  come  until  June  3,  1844,  when  the  last  known  indi- 
vidual was  killed.  The  third  locality  was  Funk  Island,  off 
Newfoundland.  Here  the  birds  existed  in  such  numbers  that 
the  sailing  directions  of  the  early  1700's  gave  the  presence  of 
Great  Auks  as  one  of  the  surest  evidence  of  the  location  of  the 
Grand  Banks  where  fishermen  came  for  cod.  These  fisher- 
men found  Great  Auks  a  welcome  source  of  food,  and  killed 
them  in  large  numbers. 

In  1 940  the  species  was  known  from  but  80  collected  speci- 
mens, plus  some  eggs  and  bones.  But  even  these  mute  rem- 
nants of  the  species,  even  these  were  not  safe,  for  during  the 
air  raids  over  Germany  in  World  War  II,  two  specimens,  one 
in  Mainz  and  one  in  Dresden,  were  bombed  out  of  existence. 
There  was  no  haven  for  even  a  dead  Great  Auk. 

The  attitude  of  early  man  toward  animals  was  militant 
and  utilitarian.  Subsequent  periods  added  commercialism. 
This  is  well  illustrated  by  one  of  the  historians  of  the  Great 
Auk,  S.  Grieve,  writing  in  1885,  "yet  the  bird,  whilst  dis- 
appearing has  in  so  far  helped  to  the  attainment  of  a  higher 
object  .  .  .  the  prosecution  of  fishing  on  the  banks  of  New- 
foundland." 

Although  it  is  generally  agreed  now  that  the  last  Great 
Auk  died  in  1844,  English  naturalists  continued  to  search  for 
the  auk  for  several  decades,  and  Alfred  Newton,  writing  in 
1861,  said  he  believed  a  few  still  existed.  However,  the  near- 
est he  came  to  first  hand  evidence  when  he  was  in  Iceland  in 
1858  was  as  follows:  An  old  man  named  Erlendur  Gudmunds- 
son  showed  him  the  gun  with  which  he  shot  a  Great  Auk  in 
1809.  Reports,  all  suspect,  dwindled  and  disappeared  by 
mid-century.  However,  in  the  late  1930's  circumstantial  ac- 
counts of  sightings  of  Great  Auks  in  the  Loften  Islands  were 
so  convincing  that  an  English  naturalist  investigated  and 
found  that  they  were  based  on  introduced  King  Penguins. 
In  1936  the  Norwegians  had  introduced  9  birds,  2  of  which 
survived  until  1944. 

The  Great  Auk  has  joined  the  ranks  of  some  45  bird  spe- 
cies (and  another  43  subspecies)  that  have  become  extinct 
within  the  last  300  years,  as  summarized  by  J.  C.  Greenway 
in  his  book,  Extinct  and  Vanishing  Birds.  It  is  significant  that 
41  of  these  45  species  lived  on  islands,  and  that  of  12  more 
species  probably  extinct,  all  were  island  birds. 

Not  a  single  species  is  known  to  have  become  extinct  in 
this  period  in  continental  Europe,  -Africa  or  South  America. 
In  North  America  there  are  two  species  (Carolina  Parakeet 
and  Passenger  Pigeon;)  in  Asia,  one  (Crested  Shelldrake); 
and  in  Australia,  one  (Scrub-bird). 

Island  birds,  living  only  on  islands,  or  living  in  the  sea 
and  nesting  only  on  islands,  seem  particularly  viJnerable  to 


the  forces  of  extinction. 

But  what  are  those  forces  of  extinction?  In  some  cases, 
the  factors  that  killed  the  last  individual  specimen  of  a  spe- 
cies are  known.  The  killing  of  the  last  Great  Auk  was  by 
a  man  on  June  3,  1844  as  mentioned  above.  The  Stephen 
Island  Wren  was  discovered  and  exterminated  by  a  lighthouse 
keeper's  cat  in  1894  and  the  last  Passenger  Pigeon  died  of  old 
age  in  a  zoo  in  1914. 

In  other  cases  the  introduction  of  cats,  rabbits,  goats,  mon- 
gooses or  pigs  is  thought  to  have  wiped  out  species,  or  the  con- 
verting of  the  natural  landscape  to  cultivated  fields  has  elimi- 
nated a  species  habitat,  and  with  it,  the  species.  Greenway 
gives  a  chart  showing  the  general  inverse  relationship  in  the 
West  Indies  between  the  number  of  acres  forested  on  an  is- 
land and  the  number  of  species  of  birds  that  have  become 
extinct  there.  The  fewer  forested  acres  the  more  birds  that 
have  disappeared. 

But  no  hard  and  fast  rules  will  explain  all  cases.  It  seems 
that  if  we  must  generalize,  the  most  valid  generalization  is 
that  certain  birds  and  other  animal  species  are  incompatible 
with  the  changed  environment  wrought  by  man.  Imagine 
what  it  would  be  like  to  have  herds  of  buffalo  roaming  the 
wheat  and  corn  fields  of  the  Midwest,  or  wolves  and  grizzly 
bears  prowling  about  through  the  suburbs  of  Chicago.  To 
be  sure  of  saving  many  species  it  will  be  necessary  to  estab- 
lish preserves. 

Island  species  seem  especially  vulnerable.  Examples  from 
the  41  species  mentioned  above  that  come  to  mind  are  the 
Dodo  of  Mauritius,  10  species  of  honey  creepers  of  the  Ha- 
waiian Islands,  a  sandpiper  of  Tahiti,  a  macaw  of  Cuba,  and 
a  kingfisher  of  the  Riu  Kiu  Islands.  Such  birds  live  on  is- 
lands where  the  fauna  is  impoverished,  competitors  are  few, 
and  predators  are  scarce.  In  this  splendid  isolation  they  de- 
velop no  tolerance  for  changed  conditions.  It  is  probably  no 
accident  that  the  world's  largest  living  turtles  evolved  on 
islands  like  those  of  the  Galapagos,  where  they  were  isolated. 
They  have  no  adaptability  to  survive  when  overtaken  by 
change.  The  very  isolation  that  produced  them  was  their 
undoing  when  change  came. 

About  1900  Alfred  Newton  wrote,  "As  on  the  death  of  an 
ancient  hero  myths  gathered  around  his  memory  as  quickly 
as  clouds  around  the  setting  sun,  so  have  stories,  probable  as 
well  as  impossible,  accumulated  over  the  true  history  of  the 
species."  This  of  course  is  material  for  a  gifted  writer  to 
weave  into  tales,  either  with  or  without  a  moral.  One  lesson 
from  the  Great  Auk's  history  was  drawn  by  the  late  Will 
Cuppy  in  his  collection  How  to  Become  Extinct:  "Under  con- 
ditions prevailing  in  the  civilized  world,  any  bird  that  can't 
make  a  quick  getaway  is  doomed,  and  more  so  if  it  is  good 
to  eat,  if  its  feathers  are  fine  for  cushions,  and  if  it  makes  ex- 
cellent bait  for  Codfish  when  chopped  into  gobbets.  Such  a 
bird,  to  remain  in  the  picture,  must  drop  everything  else  and 
develop  its  wing  muscles  to  the  very  limit.  It  does  seem  as 
though  that  should  be  clear  even  to  an  Auk." 

For  those  who  would  read  more  of  the  Great  Auk,  I  sug- 
gest pages  27 1  to  294  of  Extinct  and  Vanishing  Birds  of  the  World 
by  J.  C.  Greenway,  and  for  a  dramatization,  the  first  part  of 
the  Signet  book,  The  Great  Auk  by  A.  W.  Meckert. 


FEBRUARY    Page  13 


The  Museum's  Spring  1967  series  of  film  lectures  again  offers 

nine  exciting  programs  on  Saturday  afternoons  starting  March  4th. 

This  spring's  series,  open  to  adults  and  the  children  oj  Museum  Members 

and  their  guests,  is  the  127th  in  the  biannual  series.     The  programs 

are  held  in  the  James  Simpson  Theatre  at  2:30;  seats  are  held 

for  members  until  2:25,  after  which  adult  non-members  are  seated. 

Any  seats  remaining  open  after  2:30  may  be  used  by  high-school  students. 

127th  FILM-LECTURE  SERIES 


March  4     Laurel  Reynolds 

THE  WORLD  AT  YOUR  DOOR 
Exquisite  color  filming  of  the  interesting  bits  of  natural 
history  found  close  at  hand.  From  time-lapse  sequences  of 
flowers  unfolding  to  the  taming  of  a  lizard,  Mrs.  Reynolds 
covers  a  wealth  of  delightful  subjects  of  the  out-of-doors,  with 
pictures  and  stimulating  commentary. 

March  11     Maynard  Malcolm  Miller 

THE  MOUNT  KENNEDY  EXPEDITION 
Dr.  .miller,  .noted  rese.arch  geologist  at  the  University  of 
Michigan,  served  as  deputy  project  leader  of  the  expedition 
to  survey  the  Mt.  Hubbard-Mt.  Kennedy  Massif  in  the  St. 
Elias  Mountains  of  Alaska,  which  was  sponsored  by  the 
National  Geographic  Society  in  cooperation  with  the  Boston 
Museum  of  Science.  This  film  of  the  exciting  storms,  heli- 
copter flights,  and  surveying  activities  set  in  the  magnificent 
mountain  wilderness  up  to  almost  14,000  feet  above  sea-level, 
is  his  record  of  the  expedition.  It  includes  a  short  sequence 
on  the  climb  itself,  in  which  Sen.  R.  F.  Kennedy  took  part. 

March  18     Cleveland  P.  Grant 

AFRICAN  ELEPHANT 
The  story  of  \  five-month  one-man  safari  to  study  and  film 
the  natural  behavior  of  lions  and  elephants.  In  his  own  cam- 
era-safari car  Mr.  Grant  traveled  and  filmed  in  South  West 
Africa,  South  Africa,  Rhodesia  and  Mozambique.  He  shows 
exciting  color  footage  of  the  wildlife  of  the  Kalahari  desert : 
zebra,  kudu,  springbok,  gemsbok,  giraffe,  various  eagles,  os- 
triches and  other  birds.  The  film's  highpoint  is  its  coverage 
of  hundreds  of  elephants  of  all  ages,  engaged  in  all  their  nat- 
ural pursuits.  .\  spectacular  close-up  sequence  of  a  pride  of 
lions  closes  the  film. 


March  25     Ed  Lark 

ISRAEL 
A  film  of  contrasts — the  ancient  with  the  modern,  the  bar- 
ren with  the  fertile,  the  hostile  with  the  peaceful — because 
Israel  is  a  land  of  contrasts.  The  perceptive  camera  takes  us 
to  all  the  sites  of  religious  significance,  ancient  and  modern, 
and  to  the  bustling  evidences  of  the  emerging  industrial  society. 
From  busy  modern  Haifa,  to  ancient  Beersheba,  this  film 
shows  us  the  old  beside  the  new.  We  see  bedouins  ride  their 
camels  past  modern  housing  developments  on  their  way  to 
the  market  place.  Nazareth,  the  home  of  Jesus,  changed 
little  through  the  centuries,  is  shown;  as  well  as  King  Solo- 
mon's Mines,  in  operation  again  after  3,000  years. 

April  1     Lewis  Cotlow 

THE  AMAZON 
This  color  document.arv  of  the  people  and  creatures  of  the 
Amazon  valley  delves  into  the  mysteries  of  the  all  but  im- 
passable rain  forest.  The  areas  inhabited  by  various  ex- 
tremely primitive  tribes  were  reached  by  traveling  1300  miles 
up  the  river  by  wood-burning  boat  and  dugout  canoe,  with 
exciting  nature  footage  all  the  way.  Sequences  filmed  in 
the  tribal  villages  themselves  show  curious  customs,  exotic 
methods  of  hunting,  fishing,  fighting. 

April  8     Edgar  T.  Jones 

ARCTIC  CANADA 
Bush  flying  in  the  remote  regions  of  the  northland  forms 
the  exciting  backdrop  for  this  film  of  arctic  wildlife,  featuring 
the  famous  reindeer  roimdup  at  Kidluit  Bay,  a  complete 
Eskimo  whale  hunt,  and  sports  fishing  in  arctic  lakes.  The 
film  also  deals  with  the  economies  of  the  North  Country,  and 
family  life  among  the  eskimos. 


Page  14    FEBRU.ART 


-SPRING,  1967 


April  15     Kenneth  Richler 

IMAGE  OF  GREECE 
Greece,  whose  past  is  the  past  of  the  entire  Western  world, 
retains  its  ties  with  antiquity  through  monuments  and  tradi- 
tions. This  perceptive  fihn  takes  us  to  the  places  of  the  an- 
cient glories,  and  tells  something  of  what  happened  where. 
The  camera  calls  at  the  Palace  of  Minos  at  Knossos,  the 
temple  to  Apollo  at  Delphi,  the  Acropolis  and  the  Parthenon. 
Among  the  great  cities  it  films,  are  Corinth,  Sparta,  and 
Salonika.  Yet  it  also  shows  the  here  and  now  of  Modern 
Greece — big  industry,  contemporary  education  and  modern 
agriculture. 

April  22      Walter  Breckenridge 

THE  MYSTERIES  OF  BIRD  MIGRATION 
Dr.  breckenridge,  director  of  the  Minnesota  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  presents  this  superb  color  documentary  cov- 
ering a  wealth  of  bird  species,  and  various  types  of  migration. 
He  also  deals  with  anatomy  and  feather  structure,  and  sur- 
veys current  research  into  unsolved  problems  of  migration. 

April  29     Fran  William  Hall 

TRAILER  'ROUND  THE  WORLD 
This  color  film  record  of  the  longest  trailer  trip  ever  made 
is  filled  with  thrills  and  fun,  accidents  and  heartaches.  The 
roughest  part  for  the  45-trailer  caravan  was  the  drive  from 
Singapore  to  Lisbon.  The  group  ranged  in  age  from  1  to  75, 
and  ranged  in  space  over  34,725  miles  in  32  countries,  spend- 
ing a  year  and  a  half  on  the  round-the-world  trip.  They  took 
with  them  everything  from  their  own  doctor  to  the  kitchen 
sink;  their  adventures  included  everything  from  being  guests 
of  the  King  of  Nepal  at  a  rare  Sacred  String  Ceremony 
to  struggling  across  the  "Desert  of  Death"  in  Afghanistan. 


recent  acquisitions — library 

18th  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  SHELLS 

The  library  has  recently  acquired  a  fine  copy  of  William 
Huddesford's  edition  of  Martin  Lister's  Historia  Conchyliorum, 
published  at  Oxford,  England,  in  1770.  The  first  edition  of 
this  celebrated  work,  a  copy  of  which  is  in  our  collections,  was 
issued  in  parts  between  1685  and  1692.  It  consisted  of  over 
1,000  plates  with  one  or  more  figures  per  plate,  depicting  all 
the  land,  fresh-water  and  marine  shells,  both  recent  and  fos- 
sil, then  known.  There  was  no  text  as  such,  but  some  de- 
scriptions and  indications  of  locality  were  engraved  on  the 
plates.    There  was  no  index. 

Huddesford's  edition  is  essentially  a  reprint  of  this,  ex- 
panded to  include  additional  plates,  6  pages  of  notes  from 
Lister's  manuscripts,  and  two  indexes  in  Latin  and  English 
giving  the  Linnean  names  for  many  of  the  species  illustrated. 

Lister  (1638?-f  712),  an  English  physician  and  naturalist, 
has  been  cited  as  the  first  to  approach  the  study  of  mollusks 
in  a  scientific  way.  The  arrangement  of  the  plates  in  the 
Historia  Conchyliorum  was,  to  some  extent,  derived  from  his 
studies  of  molluscan  anatomy  and  was  not  haphazard.  S.  Peter 
Dance,  in  his  Shell  Collecting;  An  Illustrated  History  (London, 
1966),  notes  that,  "Despite  his  extremely  artificial  system, 
Lister  was  far  ahead  of  his  time  in  segregating  species  into 
apparently  discrete  groups."  Lister  had  intended  to  follow 
the  publication  of  the  plates  with  anatomical  descriptions  of 
each  of  these  groups  but  did  not  complete  the  work. 


Because  it  was  so  much  used  by  the  systematists  and  col- 
lectors of  the  eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth  centuries,  includ- 
ing Linnaeus,  the  Historia  Conchyliorum,  even  in  its  incomplete 
state,  still  holds  an  important  place  in  molluscan  literature. 
—  W.  Peyton  Fawcett,  Associate  Librarian 

FEBRUARY    Page  15 


NSF  GRANT  FOR  MAZON  CREEK  RESEARCH 

A  two-vear  grant  in  support  of  systematic  and  paleoecological  studies  of  fossils  from 
the  Mazon  Creek  area  of  northern  Illinois  has  been  awarded  Eugene  S.  Richard- 
son, Jr.,  Curator  of  Fossil  Invertebrates  at  Field  Museum  and  Ralph  G.  Johnson, 
Museum  Research  Associate  and  Associate  Professor  at  the  University  of  Chicago. 
Thev  will  continue  their  study  of  more  than  50,000  specimens,  with  intensive  study 
of  about  125  undescribed  species. 

The  results  of  this  investigation  of  Middle-Pennsylvanian  marine  fauna  will  be 
published  in  Volume  1 2  of  Fieldiana :  Geology,  which  has  been  set  aside  for  papers 
on  Mazon  Creek  fossils;  the  completed  work  will  present  in  one  volume  the  fauna 
of  the  area  and  period  as  a  whole.  The  Mazon  Creek  area  with  the  adjoining  strip 
mines  is  one  of  the  world's  great  fossil-bearing  localities.  For  more  than  a  century, 
amateur  collectors  and  professional  paleontologists  have  worked  together  to  bring 
to  light  the  rich  fauna  of  the  coal-swamp  forests  of  250  million  years  ago.  This 
research  will  continue  the  work  and  carry  it  into  the  shallow  offshore  marine  waters. 

NEW  BOOK  TO  AID  TROPICAL  MEDICINE 

"EcTOP.-\R.\siTES  OF  P.^NAM.'ii,"  an  860-page  book  produced  by  some  twenty 
scientific  collaborators  under  the  sponsorship  of  the  United  States  Army  and  Field 
Museum,  has  been  published  by  Field  Museum  Press.  The  massive  work,  which 
contains  descriptions,  identification  keys  and  environmental  studies  of  hundreds  of 
species  of  fleas,  parasitic  flies,  chiggers,  mites,  ticks,  and  other  blood-sucking  in- 
sects will  be  of  enormous  help  in  controlling  diseases  which  affect  millions  of  people 
in  the  tropics.  Dr.  Rupert  Wenzel,  Curator  of  Insects  and  co-editor  of  the  book 
points  out,  "Only  with  this  kind  of  information  in  hand  can  the  public  health  worker 
determine  which  insect  is  responsible  for  a  disease  and  how  to  eliminate  it." 

Lieutenant  Colonel  \'ernon  J.  Tipton,  U.-  S.  Army  Medical  Service  Corps,  is 
co-editor  of  the  book,  and  co-ordinated  the  field  efforts  of  the  Army,  the  Middle 
American  Research  Unit  of  the  National  Institutes  of  Health,  the  Gorgas  Memorial 
Laboratory,  and  other  research  institutions.  This  field  work,  one  of  the  most  in- 
tensive ever  undertaken  in  Central  America,  provided  most  of  the  study  material 
for  the  book.  Field  Museum's  part  in  this  major  undertaking  continues  its  historic 
interest  in  the  natural  history  of  Latin  America. 

CALENDAR   OF   EVENTS 

Museum  open  during  February  from  9  a.m.  until  4  p.m.  weekdays,  until  5  p.m.  on  weekends. 

through  February  28  \Vinter  Journey :  Who's  Who  in  the  Prehistoric  Zoo? 

through  February  28  Exhibit:  The  Gre.^t  Auk 
In  Stanley  Field  Hall;  see  story  on  page  10. 

through  February  21    Photo  Exhibit:  22nd  Chicago  International  Exhibition 
OF  Nature  Photography.    In  Hall  9  Gallery. 

February  28  Concert:  Indiana  University  Baroque  Chamber  Players 

The  third  in  the  Chicago  Showcase  of  Music  Series,  presented  by  the  Indiana 
University  School  of  Music.    At  8:15  p.m.  in  James  Simpson  Theatre. 

March  1—31    Exhibit:  The  Third  Annual  Chicago  Shell  Club  Show. 

March  4  Movie:  The  World  at  Your  Door,  by  Laurel  Reynolds. 

March  1 1  Movie :  The  Mount  Kennedy  Expedition,  by  Maynard  Malcolm  Miller 
The  above  two  events  are  part  of  the  Spring  Lecture  Series,  described  on  page  1 4. 

March  12  Movie:  Northwest  to  Alaska,  by  Walter  H.  Berlet. 

.Shows  the  great  wildfowl  breeding  grounds  of  the  arctic  northwest.     It  is  pre- 
sented by  Illinois  Audubon  Society.    .'\t  2:30  p.m.  in  James  Simpson  Theatre. 


EXHIBIT    LAB    FUNDED 

BY  Mccormick  trust 

Field  Museum  has  been  given  S300,000 
by  the  trustees  of  the  Robert  R.  McCor- 
mick  Charitable  Trust.  This  is  the  larg- 
est gift  given  by  the  McCormick  Trust 
in  1966.  The  funds  will  be  used  to  cre- 
ate a  modern,  centralized,  exhibit  prep- 
aration laboratory  at  the  Museum,  for 
the  recently  formed  Department  of  Ex- 
hibition. 

Museum  President  James  L.  Palmer, 
in  announcing  the  gift,  said,  "Although 
the  Museum's  exhibits  are  among  the 
most  extensive  in  the  world  and  in  some 
areas  the  finest,  much  revision  must  be 
done  to  make  our  exhibits  contemporary 
in  terms  of  scientific  content,  modern  ex- 
hibition technique,  and  contemporary 
design  and  decor.  It  will  be  most  diffi- 
cult to  undertake  any  significant  program 
until  such  a  laboratory  is  created." 

The  preparation  laboratory  will  pro- 
vide studio  and  laboratory  space  for  the 
Department  of  Exhibition's  artists,  de- 
signers, technicians  and  preparators.  A 
museum-wide  coordinated  program  of 
exhibition  which  is  now  being  developed 
will  be  executed  in  the  lab.  Old  ex- 
hibits will  be  renovated,  new  ones  de- 
signed and  built,  and  new  techniques 
and  materials  for  exhibition  will  be  tested 
and  developed. 

The  Department  of  Exhibition,  under 
Chief  Curator  Emeritus  John  R.  Millar, 
was  formed  in  March  of  last  year.  It 
establishes  a  centralized  control  over  the 
Museum's  preparation  of  exhibits.  For- 
merly, each  scientific  department  was 
responsible  for  its  own  exhibits.  The 
department  is  composed  of  12  artists  and 
technicians.  Each  e-xhibit  in  the  muse- 
lun  is  a  one-time-only  project,  using 
many  different  materials  and  methods, 
and  each  represents  many  months  of 
skilled,  painstaking  work  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Department. 


MEETINGS 

Open  to  club 
members  and 
interested  non- 
members. 


Illinois  Orchid  Society,  February  19  at  2  p.m. 
Illinois  Audubon  Society,  March  1  at  7:30  p.m. 
Chicago  Shell  Club,  March  12  at  2  p.m. 
Chicago  Nature  Camer.\  Club,  March  14  at  7:45  p.m. 
Illinois  Orchid  Society,  March  19  at  2  p.m. 


FIELD     MUSEUM 

OF   NATURAL    HISTORY 

ROOSEVELT  ROAD  AT  LAKE  SHORE  DRIVE 
CHICAGO.  ILLINOIS  60605    AC.  312.  922-9410 

FOUNDED  BY  MARSHALL  FIELD.  1893 

E.  Leland  Webber,  Director 

BULLETIN 

Edward  G.  Nash,  Managing  Editor 
Bea  Paul,  Associate  Editor,  graphics 


Page  16    FEBRUARY 


PRINTED  BY  RBLO  MUSEUM  PRESS 


BULLETIN  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

Volume  38,  Number  3  March,  1967 


SPRING   JOURNEY-ON   AFRICA, 
DRAWS  ON  YOUTHFUL  TALENT 

By  Judith  Phelps  Little,  Raymond  Foundation 

Up  many  steps,  into  vast  white  space,  speed  to  giant  black- 
ened, battling  elephants,  then  grinning  victorious  Gorgosau- 
rus.  then  where?  Mummies!  Some  interest  in  sea  mammals 
along  the  way:  at  last  the  mummies.  Wonder  why  they  were 
made?  What  kind  of  people  were  they?  What  are  the  pic- 
tures and  picture-writings  on  their  mummy  cases?  Unan- 
swered questions  from  the  natural  curiosity  of  a  child  faced 
with  things  strange — what  a  fertile  field  for  the  educator. 

The  selection,  organization  and  presentation  of  a  muse- 
um's collections  try  to  sow  this  field  meaningfully.  Some 
questions  are  answered  in  labels;  exhibitions  often  present 
ideas  as  well  as  objects,  the  composition  of  their  materials 
illustrating  a  principle  or  telling  a  story.  In  addition,  how 
ever,  presentation  to  children  needs  special  consideration. 
This  is  the  particular  concern  of  one  of  the  Museum's  educa- 
tional divisions — Raymond  Foundation. 

Raymond  Foundation's  Museum  Journey  program  is  one 
approach  to  the  problem.  It  is  designed  for  children  in  the 
Museum,  alone,  with  friends,  or  with  families.  The  Journey 
itinerary,  singling  out  one  subject  or  theme,  and  new  every 
quarter,  can  be  picked  up  by  any  Museum  visitor.  Here  are 
questions,  many  like  those  the  child  would  ask  himself,  which 
he  must  answer,  in  writing,  by  looking  at  the  objects  in  the 
cases  and  reading  labels,  some  prepared  especially  for  him. 
W^hen  he  finishes,  he  has  followed  a  logically  developed  theme 
in  which  selected  important  points  have  been  made.  His 
head  is  not  just  a  jumble  of  "I  wonder"s.  He  knows,  for  ex- 
ample, the  traveling,  hunting  ways  of  the  American  Plains 
Indians  or  how  animals  prepare  themselves  for  winter. 

This  kind  of  concentration,  in  a  vast  museum  like  ours, 
is  good,  and  the  Journey  Program  has  been  enjoyed  by  many 
in  its  twelve  years.  In  fact,  this  year's  Spring  Journey  will 
concentrate  further,  increasing  in  depth  an  understanding  of 
its  subject.  The  subject,  African  sculpture,  merits  this.  Time 
is  required  to  comprehend  or  even  enjoy  a  work  of  art,  par- 
ticularly that  of  a  strange  culture. 

The  traveler  on  this  Journey  will  draw  his  subjects.  African 
figures  and  masks  in  the  Hall  of  Primitive  Art.  He  will  learn 
in  this  way  to  see  the  complex  forms,  and  their  articulation, 
of  the  .African  sculptor.  Certainly  he  will  also  be  excited  by 
the  bold  expressions  of  the  faces  he  meets. 

To  test  this  idea,  a  few  fourth  graders  visiting  the  Museum 
with  their  class  were  given  crayon  and  paper  and  asked  to 
draw  some  figures  they  liked.  They  were  encouraged,  but 
not  coached.  The  three  drawings  on  this  page  represent  their 
work.  They  were  done  by  Donald  Peterson  (top),  Susan 
Seibert  (middle)  and  \'incent  Zarlenga  (bottom),  of  the  Jef- 
ferson School  in  Niles,  Illinois.  It  is  hoped  that  our  young 
Journeying  artists  this  spring  will  enjoy  this  experience  and 
discover  a  new  pleasure  in  the  Museum. 


Page  2     MARCH 


9  LWteM^J0Jta  ^IAjcU: 


BY  EMMET  R.  BLAKE  CURATOR  BIRDS 


^^—  ROM  ITS  earliest  years  much  of 
1^  Field  Museum's  interest  has  cen- 
M  tered  in  the  nations  of  tropical 

America.  Museum  expeditions 
seeking  specimens  and  data  have  scoured 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  southern 
continent.  Few  regions,  however  re- 
mote, have  been  overlooked  by  our  cura- 
tors and  subsidized  collectors. 

Today,  almost  seventy-five  years  after 
its  founding,  the  Museum's  tropical 
American  collections  bulge  with  millions 
of  specimens  and  are  conceded  to  be 
among  the  finest  in  the  world.  This  ma- 
terial has  been  put  to  good  use  in  scores 
of  published  books  and  several  thousand 
technical  reports  of  interest  to  specialists 
in  many  fields. 

Of  the  Central  American  countries, 
Guatemala  has  perhaps  received  the 
most  attention,  especially  from  the  De- 
partments of  Botany  and  Zoology.  Field 
work  in  Guatemala  was  begun  by  the 
Division  of  Birds  as  early  as  1904.  Its 
interest  in  the  country's  remarkably  di- 
verse avifauna  has  never  since  abated. 
And  small  wonder.  Although  scarcely 
the  size  of  New  York  State,  Guatemala 
boasts  some  800  kinds  of  birds,  including 
a  number  that  are  endemic  or  rare. 

The  exceptional  wealth  of  bird  life  is 
due  to  several  favorable  factors.  Most 
important  are  the  antiquity  of  Guate- 
mala's geological  history  and  the  high 
degree  of  volcanic  activity  that  has  given 
rise  to  a  remarkably  complex  topography 
and  several  distinct  climates,  these  often 
replacing  each  other  very  abruptly.  Peri- 
ods of  long  isolation,  whether  geograph- 


ical or  topographical,  favor  the  evolu- 
tion of  distinct  forms.  These  may  in 
turn  be  modified  by  the  invasion  of  still 
other  forms  when  isolation  has  ended. 
Important  also  is  the  country's  location, 


Pharomachrus  mocinno — 
commonly  known  as  the 
Quetzal,  national  bird  of 
Guatemala.  This  species, 
becoming  increasingly  rare, 
is  protected  by  the  govern- 
ment of  Guatemala.  The 
president  of  Guatemala 
granted  permission  for  Em- 
met Blake  to  collect  two 
specimens  for  the  Field 
Museum  collections.  This 
is  one  of  them. 


which  favors  the  presence  of  both  north- 
ern and  tropical  species.   ItflP  «• 

Three  major  life  zones,  each  with  its 
characteristic  plant  and  animal  life,  are 
represented  in  Guatemala.  The  Trop- 
ical Zone  extends  from  sea-level  to  alti- 
tudes of  3,000-4,000  feet,  the  Subtropi- 
cal Zone  from  4,000-6,000  feet  (much 
higher  in  places),  and  the  Temperate 
Zone  from  5,000-13,000  feet.  Several 
subdivisions,  based  largely  on  humidity 
and  soil,  increase  the  diversity  of  habitat 
that  is  essential  for  so  varied  a  bird  fauna. 
Lists  of  the  representative  species  of  each 
would  serve  no  useful  purpose  in  the 
present  context.  Sufficient  to  say  that 
wherever  one  travels  in  Guatemala,  he 
will  find  birds  in  abundance  and  in 
enough  varaiety  to  stound  and  please 
even  the  most  blas^  tourist  from  the 
North. 

Those  who  visit  the  country  in  fall  or 
winter  can  expect  an  additional  bonus  in 
the  presence  of  scores  of  northern  mi- 
grants seemingly  quite  at  home  in  trop- 
ical surroundings.  Many,  especially 
among  the  warblers,  tanagers,  and  ori- 
oles, may  be  seen  for  the  first  time  in 
their  subdued  and  not  easily  recognized 
winter  plumage.  The  first  glimpse  of  a 
wood  thrush,  catbird  or  perhaps  a  Bal- 
timore oriole  feeding  unconcernedly  in 
company  with  toucans,  trogons,  mot- 
mots  or  other  tropical  birds  may  jolt  one 
into  questioning  his  sobriety. 

Of  all  the  tropical  countries  I've  vis- 
ited in  the  interest  of  ornithology  over  a 
period  of  thirty  years,  Guatemala  re- 
mains my  first  love.    Besides  ornitholog- 


FiELD  Museum's  Guatemala  Tour — There  are  still  a  very  few  reservations  open  for  Field  Museum's  Guatemala  Tour, 
October  27-November  12,  1967.  Reported  in  full  in  last  month's  Bulletin,  the  tour  will  be  limited  to  60  persons,  in  two 
separate  groups,  each  of  which  will  be  accompanied  by  members  of  the  Museum's  scientific  stafT.  For  reservations  and  in- 
formation, write  Guatemala  Tour,  Field  Museum,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive.  Chicago,  Illinois,  60605.  Tour  price 
(all  expense)  is  $1260,  including  $400  tax-deductible  donation  to  Field  Museum. 


MARCH    Pages 


ical  reasons,  there  are  the  more  general 
ones  of  easy  access  from  the  United 
States  by  air,  sea  or  highway;  the  superb 
chmate — never  too  cold  and  seldom  ex- 
cessively hot;  the  diverse  and  magnifi- 
cent scenery;  the  numeros  pre-Colum- 
bian and  colonial  ruins,  silent  reminders 
of  long-past  periods  of  grandeur;  the  col- 
orful clothing  and  weaving  of  the  rural 
population,  descendents  of  the  once 
lordly  Mayas. 

/I  /I  Y  MEMORIES  of  thc  "Land  of 
/  I  XI  Eternal  Spring"  date  back 
/  If  f  to  1934.  At  that  time  the 
Museum  commissioned  me  to  make  a 
representative  collection  of  birds  and  also 
to  collect  both  plant  and  animal  speci- 


birds  of  several  families  and  many  spe- 
cies. An  isolated  fruiting  tree  is  usually 
the  scene  of  frantic  avian  activity  from 
dawn  until  dusk  and  there  are  few  better 
sites  for  observing — or  collecting — a  di- 
verse assemblage  of  birds.  All  of  the 
material  needed  for  one  of  my  assign- 
ments, a  Caribbean  lowland  forest  group, 
was  packed  for  shipment  to  Chicago 
within  ten  days  after  setting  up  my  first 
camp  near  Puerto  Barrios.  Two  species 
of  toucan,  the  keel-billed  and  collared 
aracari,  are  featured  in  the  exhibit.  Sev- 
eral other  tropical  birds  and  a  wintering 
wood  thrush  are  also  shown  in  it. 

Caciques  and  oropendulas,  colonial- 
nesting  relatives  of  blackbirds,  meadow- 
larks  and  orioles,  are  characteristic  of 


the  Museum's  order  for  a  typical  nesting 
colony  of  oropendulas  obviously  pre- 
sented problems  of  some  magnitude. 

My  companion  in  this  venture  was  the 
late  Karl  P.  Schmidt,  Curator  of  Rep- 
tiles (later  Chief  Curator  of  Zoology),  a 
born  naturalist  and  indefatigable  col- 
lector. His  presence  reassured  me,  and 
in  due  course  we  located  a  suitable  col- 
ony in  the  crown  of  an  enormous  ceiba 
tree.  But  there  were  complications.  The 
trunk  was  a  good  five  feet  in  diameter 
and  its  base  heavily  buttressed  and  quite 
impossible  to  scale.  Worse  yet,  several 
swarming  wasp  nests  were  scattered 
among  the  upper  branches.  I  was  dis- 
mayed but  Karl  dismissed  my  qualms 
with  a  disdainful  "duck  soup."  We  pon- 


Field  Museum  habitat  group  showing  nesting  colony  of  Montezuma  oropendulas.    In  Hall  20. 


mens  for  three  exhibits  of  distinctive  nat- 
ural habitats  and  their  associated  bird 
life  (now  in  Hall  20).  First  on  my  agenda 
was  material  for  an  exhibit  showing  a 
segment  of  tropical  rain  forest,  specifi- 
cally the  forest  crown  and  its  character- 
istic birds. 

Most  tropical  species  are  non-migra- 
tory but  at  certain  seasons  many  range 
widely  in  search  of  trees  with  ripening 
fruit.  In  the  course  of  a  day  such  a  tree 
mav  be  visited  bv  a  hundred  or  more 


tropical  America.  One  of  the  largest 
and  most  spectacular  species  is  Monte- 
zuma oropendula,  a  crow-sized  oriole, 
mainly  chestnut  in  color  with  a  bright 
yellow  tail.  Their  pendant  nests,  3-5 
feet  deep,  are  woven  of  grass  and  are 
usually  attached  to  the  top-most  branches 
of  large  trees.  At  a  distance  the)'  resem- 
ble elongated  gourds.  A  colony  may  in- 
clude a  hundred  or  more  closely-spaced 
nests  and  often  is  associated  with  wasp 
nests,  evidently  for  protection.     Filling 


dered  the  situation  and  agreed  on  a 
stratagem. 

Hours  before  dawn  next  day,  we  ar- 
rived at  the  tree  with  ax  and  lantern. 
As  chief  of  mission  and  much  my  senior 
in  the  Museum  hierarchy  Karl  demand- 
ed, and  was  quickly  granted,  the  honor 
of  drawing  "first  blood."  I  smote  mos- 
quitoes, gave  moral  support,  and  held 
the  lantern.  It  was  strenuous  work. 
Karl,  stripped  to  the  waist,  set  to  with  a 
right  good  will.    As  time  passed  and  f)er- 


Page  4     MARCH 


spiration  poured,  I  applauded  his  efforts 
and  praised  his  axmanship,  the  vigor 
and  accuracy  of  his  stroke,  the  size  of 
the  chips  and,  especially,  the  stamina  of 
so  mature  a  man  of  science.  But  beware 
the  young  ornithologist  of  vacuous  mien ! 
His  guile  may  be  that  of  the  fox,  and  his 
deviousness  that  of  the  serpent. 

In  due  course  the  tree  crashed  to  the 
ground,  and  with  it  a  tangle  of  127  nests 
in  various  stages  of  completion.  As  egg- 
laying  had  scarcely  begun,  the  destruc- 
tion was  not  lasting.  Breeding  oro- 
pendulas  quickly  rebuild  their  colonies 
and,  in  any  case,  spend  much  of  their 
time  attempting  to  dismantle  unguarded 
nests  of  their  neighbors.  The  retrieval 
of  nests  and  the  preservation  of  plant  ac- 


Rare  homed guan,  Oreophasis  derbianus. 

cessories  needed  for  the  Museum's  ex- 
hibit took  several  days,  for  work  was  often 
interrupted  by  attacking  wasps. 

/\  TRIP  OVER  the  Pan-.Amcrican 
^^^1  highway  of  Guatemala  will  am- 
X  I  ply  reward  anyone  who  has  an 
interest  in  birds.  The  Pacific  slope  is 
much  drier  and  less  heavily  forested  than 
the  Caribbean,  and  its  avifauna  conse- 
quently strikingly  different.  Although 
some  species  are  common  to  both  re- 


gions, even  these  usually  are  represented 
by  distinct  geographical  races  or  varie- 
ties. Many  birds  of  the  Pacific  littoral 
have  no  close  relative  in  the  wet  forests 
of  the  other  coast,  and  faunally  the  two 
areas  are  different  worlds. 

Even  more  arresting  than  either  is  the 
bird  life  of  the  arid  interior  valleys,  as 
that  of  the  upper  Motagua  River.  The 
region  is  essentially  a  desert,  which  has  a 
quite  distinctive  flora  and  fauna  both  as 
to  species  and  genera.  Although  remote 
from  either  coast  it  is  easily  accessible  to 
tourists.  The  village  of  Salami  was  for 
a  time  my  base  of  operations  while  col- 
lecting desert  birds.  The  region  abounds 
with  quail,  terrestrial  cuckoos,  motmots, 
desert  woodpeckers  and  wrens  of  several 
species,  flycatchers  and  gaudy  orioles. 

Collecting  here  began  at  earliest  dawn 
and  usually  before  the  heat  of  noon  there 
were  enough  specimens  to  keep  one  busy 
at  the  skinning  table  until  late  at  night. 
As  my  collection  grew,  it  became  neces- 
sajjy  to  travel  farther  each  day,  and 
finally  to  the  distant  pine-clad  moun- 
tains. This  called  for  earlier  and  earlier 
departures  and  better  transportation. 
For  a  time  I  depended  on  a  reluctant 
mule  of  scant  ambition,  but  ultimately 
I  rented  a  weary  bicycle  on  which  I  la- 
bored as  much  as  fifteen  miles.  Each 
way,  that  is.  After  three  decades,  I  re- 
member not  so  much  the  strenuous  field 
work  and  bountiful  bird  life  as  the  de- 
bacle on  my  final  day  afield.  While 
speeding  down  a  footpath  that  seemed 
needlessly  circuitous  I  impetuously  tried 
a  shortcut  across  the  desert.  Cactus 
grew  in  abundance  and  I  quickly  gained 
new  respect  for  that  desert  weed  and 
what  it  can  do  to  bicycle  tires  and  hu- 
man skin. 

Many  technical  papers  and  even  book- 
length  reports  about  birds  that  occur  in 
Guatemala  have  been  published.  One 
species,  of  which  very  little  is  known,  is 
especially  noteworthy  by  reason  of  its 
rarity  and  remarkably  restricted  range. 

The  Giant  Grebe  numbers  fewer  than 
200  individuals  and  is  found  only  on 
Lake  Atitlan,  a  relatively  small  body  of 
water  that  nestles  between  symmetrical 
volcanoes.  A  place  of  spectacular 
beauty.  Lake  Atitlan  is  a  focal  point  for 
most  visitors  to  Guatemala. 

V'isiting  bird  lovers  who  yearn  for  a 
red  letter  day  or  an  enviable  conversa- 


tion piece  that  will  serve  for  decades 
should  be  alert  to  any  Pied-billed  Grebe 
of  luiusual  appearance.  Large  size, 
heavy  bill  and,  especially,  a  black  head 
and  neck  are  its  hallmarks. 

Z\ST  .\ND  MOST  important  item  on  the 
Museum's  agenda  was  the  quet- 
»zal,  Guatemala's  national  bird 
and  the  most  spectacular  member  of  the 
pan-tropic  trogon  family.  This  fabled 
species,  scarcely  the  size  of  a  pigeon,  was 
revered  by  the  pre-Columbian  Indians 
who  invested  it  with  special  religious  sig- 
nificance. Male  quetzals  are  bright 
green  above,  deep  crimson  below  and 
have  a  distinctive  helmet-like  crest. 
Filmy  plumes  of  the  rump  may  extend 
almost  three  feet  beyond  the  white  tail, 
adding  much  to  the  bird's  distinctive 
beauty.  The  female,  lacking  the  crest 
and  elongated  plumes,  is  relatively  drab. 
Quetzals  live  in  humid  forests  at  me- 
dium altitudes,  from  southern  Mexico  to 
western  Panama.  Tree  ferns  and  epi- 
phytes are  conspicuous  elements  of  this 
"cloud  forest"  flora.  Llianas  lace  the 
trees,  and  the  trees,  like  the  ground  be- 
low, are  often  covered  with  deep,  spongy 
moss.  In  recent  years  much  of  this  dis- 
tinctive habitat  has  been  destroyed  by 
man.  But  here  and  there  undisturbed 
plots  remain,  sheltering  the  diminishing 
populations  of  quetzals,  horned  guans 
and  other  unique  birds  that  cannot  sur- 
vive the  loss,  or  even  modification  of 
their  habitat. 

Few  persons  today  are  privileged  to 
see  quetzals  in  their  natural  surround- 
ings. However,  visitors  to  the  Museum 
will  find  in  Hall  20  a  carefully  recon- 
structed segment  of  a  Guatemala  "cloud 
forest,"  together  with  a  pair  of  birds 
mounted  as  they  appeared  in  life  above 
my  camp  on  the  slopes  of  \'olc£n  de 
Tajumulco. 

Note :  The  following  bird  guides,  avail- 
able in  the  Museum's  Book  Shop,  are 
recommended  for  Guatemala. 
Blake,  Emmet  R.  Birds  of  Mexico:  a  guide 
for  field  identification.   University  of  Chi- 
cago Press,  1953.     $8.50.     Although 
written  for  Mexico,  this  fieldguide  in- 
cludes the  descriptions  of  virtually  all 
Guatemala  birds. 
Smithe,  Frank  B.      The  Birds  of  Tikal. 
American  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, 1966.    $7.50. 


MARCH     Pages 


NATURE  PHOTOGRAPHY  EXHIBITI0N-22ND  YEAR 


We  show  here  a  small  sampling  of  the 
moic  than  125  prints  just  exhibited  at  the 
Museum  in  the  Annual  Nature  Photo 
Show.  For  twenty-two  years  the  Chica- 
go Nature  Camera  Club  has  culled  the 
best  from  thousands  of  entries  from  all 
over  the  world,  with  the  aid  of  distin- 
guished juries  of  naturalists  and  photog- 
raphers. This  year's  jury  panel  was 
made  up  of  Hymen  Marx,  Associate 
Curator  of  Reptiles  and  Amphibians, 
Field  Museum;  Dr.  John  Clarke,  Asso- 
ciate Curator  of  Sedimentary  Petrology 
also  at  the  Museum;  Dr.  Frank  E.  Rice, 
Fellow  of  the  Photographic  Society  of 
America;  Grace  H.  Lanctot,  photogra- 
phy instructor  and  nature  lecturer;  and 


Thomas  M.  Iverson,  General  Foreman 
of  Floriculture,  Garfield  Park  Conserv- 
atory. 

One  of  the  judges.  Dr.  Clarke,  had 
these  comments  on  the  wealth  of  mate- 
rial he  was  called  on  to  evaluate:  "This 
was  my  first  experience  as  a  judge  for 
this  show,  and  I  was  impressed  with  the 
large  number  of  exceedingly  well-taken 
photographs.  It  seemed  to  me  that  the 
methods  of  the  club  in  registering  judges' 
selections  were  the  most  objective  pos- 
sible imder  the  circumstances.  Each  of 
the  five  judges  rated  each  picture  inde- 
pendently with  no  knowlege  of  how  the 
others  were  voting.  Then  those  photo- 
graphs with  the  highest  scores  were  dis- 


cussed, and  another  independent  vote 
was  taken.  In  some  cases  three  or  four 
votings  were  required  to  choose  a  winner. 
Although  no  one  of  us  agreed  with  all  of 
the  final  selections,  by  and  large  the  se- 
lections represented  a  consensus.  Our 
main  standards  were  photographic  qual- 
ity, artistic  composition,  and  representa- 
tion of  nature,  not  necessarily  in  that 
order.  I  must  emphasize  how  difficult 
it  was  to  choose  from  more  than  3,200 
slides  and  about  420  prints;  it  was  ex- 
ceedingly hard  work,  but  I  think  I  can 
speak  for  all  of  us  in  saying  that  we  en- 
joyed it,  and  the  club  treated  us  so  gra- 
ciously that  it  was  a  pleasure  to  do." 
The  Chicago  Nature  Camera  Club  was 


Page  6    MARCH 


1  'RAUPE"       -    FRANZ   DUTZLER.   EFIAP.    HONORARY   DCP/LINZ,   AUSTRIA 

2  -CHANGE  OF  SEASONS"       -        JAMES   A.    McGILL/VALPARAISO,    INDIANA 

3  -QUEEN   OF  THE   NIGHT"  -  AGNES    M.    HOLST/PHOENIX.   ARIZONA 

4  -POOKIE.   NIGHT  APE.  GALAGO" 

-   WILLIAM   J.  CURRY/LONG   BEACH.  CALIFORNIA 


organized  in  1944,  the  first  organization 
of  its  kind  in  the  United  States.  In  1943, 
Field  Museum  itself  sponsored  what  is 
probably  the  forerunner  of  this  annual 
event,  a  show  called  "Lenses  on  Na- 
ture," as  part  of  its  50th  Anniversary 
Celebration.  The  following  year  Hu- 
bert J.  Johnson,  an  Associate  of  the  Pho- 
tographic Society  of  America,  organized 
the  Nature  Camera  Club  of  C:hicago, 
which  from  the  beginning  was  adiliated 
with  the  Photographic  Society  of  Amer- 
ica. The  new  organization  undertook 
the  organization  of  the  first  Chicago  In- 
ternational Exhibition  of  Nature  pho- 
tography, since  then  held  annually  at 
Field  Museum. 

In  addition  to  the  prints,  both  black 
and  white  and  color,  some  800  slides  are 
selected  each  year  and  are  presented  at 
two  successive  weekend  afternoon  slide 
shows  in  the  Museum's  James  Simpson 
Theatre.  Through  the  years  this  show 
has  earned  the  reputation  of  being  the 
largest  show  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  and 
of  providing  the  best  service  to  prospec- 
tive exhibitors  in  the  handling  of  slides 
and  prints  submitted.  The  club  wel- 
comes entries  from  photographers  all 
over  the  world. 

An  affiliate  of  the  Chicago  Area  Cam- 
era Clubs  Association,  the  club  also  wel- 
comes interested  visitors  at  its  monthly 
meetings  held  in  the  2nd  floor  Meeting 
Room  at  Field  Museum  on  the  second 
Tuesday  of  each  month  at  7 :45  p.m. 


FROSCH   AKROBAT'- 


LEO   VRANA.    AFIAP.   OGOP/VIENNA.    AUSTRIA 


6      -SUNSET   FLIGHT" 

-  PAUL   D.   YARROWS.  APSO.   ARPS.  FKCC/ROCHESTER.   NEW    YORK 


7      HONORABLE    MENTION     'THE   FAMILY'- 

-    WALTER    ROSSINI.   APSSA/JOH ANNESBURG.   SOUTH   AFRICA 


MARCH    Page? 


_.,_.,_..r-»     i-ki-     r-\  ir-Ki-rr^     Museum  open  from  9  a.m.  to 
CALENDAR     OF     EVENTS     5  p.m.  during  March  and  Apnl 

March  1 -May  31  Spring  Journey:  Africa:  Faces  of  the  Forest  and  Grassland 
A  self-guided  tour  of  African  cultural  exhibits  for  youngsters.  Direction  sheets 
available  at  information  desk  and  at  Museum  entrances.    See  story  on  page  2. 

March  1-31    Exhibit:  Third  Annual  Chicago  Shell  Show.    Stanley  Field  Hall. 

March  1 1    Film-lecture:  Mount  Kennedy  Expedition,  by  Maynard  M.  Miller. 

March  12  Film:  Northwest  to  Alaska,  by  Walter  H.  Berlet.  A  film  of  the  great 
wildfowl  breeding  grounds,  presented  by  the  Illinois  Audubon  Society. 

March  18-April  9  Exhibit:  Variations  on  a  Theme.  A  photographic  study  of  the 
geometric  perfection  of  the  stonecrops,  a  group  of  succulent  plants.    In  Hall  29. 

March  1 8  Film :  African  Elephant,  by  Cleveland  P.  Grant. 

March  25  Film :  Israel,  by  Ed  Lark. 

April  1    Film:  The  Amazon,  by  Lewis  Cotlow. 

April  8  Film :  Image  of  Greece,  by  Kenneth  Richter. 
All  films  are  shown  at  2:30  p.m.  in  James  Simpson  Theatre. 

April  18  Concert:  Indiana  University  Jazz  Ensemble 

Free  to  the  public  at  8:15  p.m.  in  James  Simpson  Theatre. 

Chicago  Shell  Club,  March  12  and  April  9  at  2  p.m. 
Chicago  Nature  Camera  Club,  March  Hand  April  11  at? :45p.m. 
Illinois  Orchid  Society,  March  19  at  2  p.m. 
Illinois  Audubon  Society,  April  5  at  7  p.m. 


MEETINGS 


FIRMS   CONTRIBUTE  TO   MUSEUM   BUDGET 

The  Development  Committee  of  Field  Museum's  Board  of  Trustees,  formed  in 
early  1966,  has  achieved  notable  success  in  its  initial  program.  The  Committee, 
vmder  the  Chairmanship  of  Mr.  Harry  O.  Bercher,  President  of  International  Har- 
vester Company,  assumed  the  responsibilities  of  determining  Field  Museum's  long 
term  needs  and  planning  the  means  by  which  to  meet  these  needs. 

To  secure  one  segment  of  necessary  annual  operating  income,  solicitation  of  con- 
tributions from  Chicago  corporations  and  professional  firms  was  begun.  The  appeal 
was  the  first  of  its  kind  since  the  Museum's  founding.  More  than  100  corporations 
and  businesses  responded  with  contributions,  38  giving  one  thousand  dollars  or  more. 
These  38  corporations  have  been  elected  Corporate  Associates  of  Field  Museum. 
Firms  which  each  year  contribute  a  thousand  dollars  or  more  to  the  operating 
budget  of  the  Musevun  will  be  honored  on  a  special  plaque  now  being  designed  for 
display  in  Stanley  Field  Hall. 

An  increased  annual  operating  income  is  perhaps  the  most  immediate  need  of 
Field  Museum.  Funds  for  necessary  building  maintenance  and  repair,  updated 
employee  benefits,  and  expanded  research,  exhibition  and  educational  programs  are 
essential  for  maintaining  Field  Museum's  position  as  a  great  world  museum.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  excellent  response  of  Chicago  business  to  the  present  program  will 
stimulate  other  corporations  and  individuals  to  provde  additional  and  essential 
financial  support. 

Current  Corporate  Associates  of  Field  Museum  are : 


Arthur  Andersen  &  Co. 

.Appleton  Electric  Company 

Borg-Warnee  Corporation 

Carson  Pirie  Scott  &  Co. 

Chicago  Daily  News 

Chicago  Sun-Times 

Chicago  Title  &  Trust  Company 

Columbia  Pipe  &  Supply  Company 

Commerce  Clearing  House,  Inc. 

A.  B.  Dick  Company 

Reuben  H.  Donnelley  Corporation 

Draper  &  Kramer,  Inc. 

Marshall  Field  &  Company 

First  National  Bank  of  Chicago 

General  Biological  Supply  House,  Inc. 

\V.  \V.  Grainger,  Inc. 

Harris  Trust  and  Savings  Bank 

Hart  Schaffner  &  Marx 

Ii.iiNois  Bell  Telephone  Company- 


Inland  Steel  Company 
International  Harvester  Company 
Jewel  Companies,  Inc. 
Jupiter  Corporation 
M.  S.  Kaplan  Company 

Kirkland,Ellis,Hodson,Chaffetz&M.\sters 
LaSalle  National  Bank 
Link  Belt  Company 
John  Mohr  &  Sons 
Northern  Trust  Company 
Peoples  Gas  Light  and  Coke  Company 
Playboy  Magazine 
Quaker  Oats  Company 
Rollins  Burdick  Hunter  Co. 
G.  D.  Searle  &  Co. 
Sears  Roebuck  and  Co. 
Sunbeam  Corporation 
,  Texaco  Inc. 
Victor  Comptometer  Corporation  '  "■ 


NSF  GRANT  FOR  VIPER 
RESEARCH   BY  MARX,  RAAB 

The  National  Science  Foundation  has 
awarded  a  $27,100  grant  to  Field  Mu- 
seum for  work  by  Hymen  Marx,  Associ- 
ate Curator  of  Reptiles  and  Amphibians 
and  George  B.  Rabb,  Museum  Research 
Associate,  Division  of  Reptiles  and  Am- 
phibians. Mr.  Rabb  is  also  Associate 
Director,  Chicago  Zoological  Society. 
The  grant  will  support  an  investigation 
into  the  phylogeny  (evolutionary  history) 
of  the  poisonous  snakes — the  vipers,  and 
into  the  phylogeny  of  the  characters  of 
advanced  snakes.  This  study  is  an  out- 
growth of  previous  research. 


"Kruger  Park  Derby,"  awarded  an  hon- 
orable mention  in  the  22nd  Chicago  Interna- 
tional .Nature  Photography  Exhibition  held 
last  month  at  the  Museum,  was  taken  by 
LuDi   Blum,   APSSA,  of  Johannesburg. 


FIELD    MUSEUM 

OF   NATURAL   HISTORY 

ROOSEVELT  ROAD  AT  LAKE  SHORE  DRIVE 
CHICAGO.  ILLINOIS  60605  A.C.  312.  922-9410 
FOUNDED  BY  MARSHALL  FIELD.  1893 

E.  Leland  Webber,  Director 

BULLETIN 

Edward  G.  Nash,  Managing  Editor 
Bea  Paul,  Associate  Editor,  graphics 


Page  S     MARCH 


printed  by  field  museum  press 


BULLETIN  FIELD  WlUSEUWl  OF  NATURAL^HISTORY 


V  X' 


^w- 


*■ 


MEMBERS-  WIGHT  FRIDAY,  MAY  5th,  1967 

It  will  be  an  evening  in  Guatemala  on  Members'  Night  May  5,  when  members  and  their  families  will  also  take 
the  traditional  look  behind  the  scenes  of  world-wide  Field  Museum  research. 

The  evening's  events  will  continue  from  6  to  10  o'clock.  Research  areas  will  open  at  7  and  the  cafeteria  will 
be  open  from  6  to  8.  Chartered  buses,  free  to  members,  leave  at  frequent  intervals  from  Jackson  and  State  Streets 
to  provide  convenient  transportation. 

The  Guatemalan  theme  will  be  carried  out  in  a  self-guided  tour  of  Museum  exhibits  featuring  Guatemalan 
subjects  in  anthropology,  botany,  geology  and  zoology.  The  tour  as  a  whole  will  give  the  in-museum  "tourist"  a 
good  look  at  the  little  Central  American  republic  with  Indians  still  living  lives  out  of  the  past  and  its  vividly 
contrasting  mountain  highlands  and  tropical  lowlands.  Staff  members  will  be  posted  at  many  exhibits  to  comment 
and  answer  questions. 

A  highpoint  of  the  evening  will  be  presentation  of  a  just-published  volume  in  the  monumental  series,  "Flora  of 
Guatemala,"  by  Dr.  Louis  O.  Williams,  Chief  Curator  of  Botany,  to  a  representative  of  the  Republic  of  Guatemala. 

Marimba  music  and  Latin  American  refreshments,  including  Guatemalan  black  bean  Boquitos,  chia  and  Jamaica 
will  be  served. 

Films  on  Guatemala  and  on  Maya  civilization  will  be  shown.  Dr.  Louis  O.  Williams  will  discuss  Guatemalan 
plants  and  peoples  in  an  illustrated  lecture  and  Loren  P.  Woods,  Curator  of  Fishes,  will  speak  and  show  slides  on 
"Fishing,  Farming  and  Festivals  in  Guatemala  and  Southern  Mexico." 

A  special  exhibit  for  Members'  Night  of  Guatemalan  contemporary  handicrafts  will  be  displayed  in  Hall  Nine, 
where  the  Costa  Rican  gold  figures — Central  American  Indian  work  done  in  pre-Spanish  times — will  also  be 
shown.  New  acquisitions  such  as  the  Great  Auk  and  the  chimpanzee  paintings  will  be  displayed. 

\  Guatemalan  market  stall  will  be  operated  by  the  Botany  Department.  The  Department  will  also  display 
work  from  manuscript  to  finished  volumes  on  the  "Flora  of  Guatemala"  and  will  exhibit  herbarium  specimens 
from  Guatemala.  Evolution  and  reproduction  of  plants  will  be  shown  in  fungi,  ferns  and  flowering  plants. 

The  Department  of  Anthropology  will  display  Guatemalan  Indian  textiles,  recent  acquisitions  in  African  eth- 
nology, and  specimens  and  methods  of  research  on  New  Ireland  art.  Dr.  Kenneth  Starr  and  Dr.  Hoshien  Tchen 
will  conduct  an  East  Asian  open  house,  with  displays  of  materials  and  consultations  on  Chinese  art  and  archaeology. 
Mrs.  Christine  Danziger  will  demonstrate  the  treatment  of  leather  and  cleaning  of  wooden  specimens  in  the 
Robert  R.  McCormick  Conservation  Laijoratory. 

Dr.  Emmet  R.  Blake  will  preside  over  a  display  of  Guatemalan  Ijirds  in  the  Division  of  Birds,  while  in  the 
Mammals  Division  Guatemalan  mammals  will  be  displayed  and  an  exhibit  will  illustrate  the  meaning  of  color  in 
mammals.  The  Division  of  Fishes  will  emphasize  the  diversity  of  salt  and  fresh  water  fishes  in  one  display,  while 
in  another,  "Fish  Bones  from  Guam,"  it  will  be  shown  how  ichthyologists  and  anthropologists  cooperate.  Major 
types  of  poisonous  snakes  from  Guatemala  will  be  displayed  in  the  Division  of  Reptiles  and  Amphibians. 

Synhranchus  marmoratus,  a  Guatemalan  eel-like  air  breathing  fish  that  starts  life  as  a  female  and  ends  life  as  a 

Continued  on  page  8 


Page  2     APRIL 


THE 

CALABASH 

TREE 


^*- 


>t. 


Kli  J.B^t«>\V.ltiU<Um-iJIIIIHIII  ■!  ■•JBMCaBI.- 


^_)'  Low/i'  0.  Williams,  Chief  Curator,  Botany 


Crescentia  alata  HBK.  is  one  of  the  commonest  trees 
alons;  the  Pacific  from  Mexico  to  Nicaragua.  It  occurs 
also  on  the  Atlantic  coast  but  less  commonly,  and  up 
into  the  mountains  of  Central  America  to  about  3000  feet 
elevation.  The  tree  has  been  carried  to  and  is  cultivated 
occasionally  in  the  tropics  of  the  old  world.  On  the  arid 
Pacific  plain  of  Central  America  from  Guatemala  to  Nica- 
ragua jicaros  or  morros,  as  they  are  usually  known  locally, 
sometimes  occur  in  almost  pure  stands,  especially  in  level 
places  where  the  drainage  is  poor  and  water  is  likely  to  collect 
and  stand  during  the  wet  season. 

T\\c  jicaros  or  morros  have  attracted  the  attention  of  Euro- 
pean peoples  since  the  time  of  discovery  because  of  their  uses. 


The  leaf  has  the  shape  of  a  cross  and  has  l)een  taken  to  be  of 
religious  significance  by  many  people.  In  clearing  fields  or 
pastures  the  country  people  will  very  often  leave  the  jicaro 
trees,  either  because  of  the  presumed  religious  connection  or 
l>ecause  of  the  economic  value  of  the  tree.  The  early  explorers 
in  Central  America  thought  that  the  Indians  of  the  region 
must  surely  have  had  knowledge  of  the  cross  and  its  signifi- 
cance because  the  leaves  of  this  tree  were  cruciform. 

Oviedo  y  Valdes  in  his  "Historia  General  de  las  Indias" 
(Lib.  VIII,  Cap.  IV,  1535)  described  lx)th  species  of  Crescen- 
tia quite  accurately  and  in  fact  knew  more  aliout  them  than 
did  Linnaeus  more  than  200  years  later  when  he  supplied 
one  of  them  with  a  botanical  name.  Oviedo  marvelled  at  the 


APRIL  Page  3 


H—  His  Majesty  Charles  III,  King  of  Spain,  issuet 
Spain  and  to  send  a  scientific  expedition  to  collect 
specimens.  Two  artists  accompanied  the  expedition, 
that  one  of  them  prepared  the  original  of  the  illustrati 
The  expedition  of  Sesse  and  Aiocitio,  the  two  pr. 
which  they  collected  finally  found  their  way  back  to 
imagining,  were  stored  away  in  Madrid  and  there 
Museum  in  1935  for  study  by  Paul  C.  Standley.  Inti 
been  shipped  from  Alexico  to  Spain  some  130  years 
studied  soon  after  they  were  made  they  would  now 
than  a  century  most  of  them  had  been  re-collected  at 


30  803 

1  A^-3>,te 


^|ii|ii|miiju|,.ju 


cross-shaped  lea\-es  of  the  jicaro  and  took  some  of  them  back 
to  Spain  with  him.  Oviedo  was  one  of  the  first  to  suggest  that 
the  Indians  could  not  have  been  ignorant  of  the  cross  because 
of  the  e\idence  of  the  leaves  of  the  jicaro. 

The  wood  of  the  jicaros  has  been  used  to  make  special 
things.  It  is  not  difficult  to  work  when  recently  cut  but  as  it 
seasons  it  becomes  as  "hard  as  iron"  and  is  resistant  to  wear. 

Stirrups  have  been  made  from  the  wood  oi  jicaro  trees  in 
Central  America  since  colonial  times  and  some  stirrups, 
which  might  be  considered  objets  d'art,  still  exist  and  occasion- 
ally are  to  be  found  in  use.  The  wood  is  still  used  to  make 
stirrups  but  the  workmanship  of  most  of  those  now  made  is 
very  much  less  skillful  than  that  of  those  made  in  the  past. 
This  apparent  decadence  in  artisanship  applied  to  stirrups 
could  well  be  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  decreasing  im- 
portance of  saddle  animals  in  travel. 

Containers  for  liquids  and  for  foods  are  made  from  the 
durable  shell  of  the  fruits  of  the  jicaro  and  from  a  related 
species,  Crescentia  cujete  L.  These  cups  or  containers,  often 


called  suacales  as  reported  b\'  Oviedo  425  years  ago,  are  com- 
monly used  by  the  country  people  of  Central  America  and 
are  sold  in  all  markets.  Occasionally  the  surface  of  the  shell 
is  carved  with  intricate  designs  and  the  fruits  used  for  mantle- 
piece  ornaments. 

The  pulp  of  the  jicaro  fruit  is  said  to  be  used  as  a  food  but 
it  must  not  be  commonly  eaten.  I  found  it  usually  quite  un- 
palatable. The  seeds  of  the  jicaro,  however,  are  an  ingredient 
used  in  preparing  a  refreshing  drink  called  horchata.  The  seeds 
are  often  to  be  had  in  village  or  city  markets.  Mi.xed  with 
the  seeds  of  maize  they  are  also  fermented  to  make  a  kind  of 
beer  which  is  sometimes  called  chicha.  This  chicha  was  prob- 
ably one  of  the  kinds  of  fermented  drinks  known  to  the 
Central  American  Indians  before  the  conquest. 

Cattle  eat  the  contents  of  the  jicaro  fruits  and  seem  to  find 
them  nutricious.  Fermentation  takes  place  in  the  fruits  after 
they  fall  to  the  ground  and  in  due  course  the  pulp  and  seeds 
dry  out.  The  cattle  are  said  to  eat  them  when  they  are  fer- 
mentina:  and  after  the\-  ha\e  dried  out.   Forage  is  usuallv 


Page  4     APRIL 


a/  Order  on  October  27,  1786  to  establish  a  botanical  garden  in  New 
iral  objects  and  to  make  the  illustrations  necessary  to  elucidate  these 
'.  Dios  Vicente  de  Cerda  and  Athanasio  Echeverria.  It  may  be  assumed 
rft,  oj  the  calabash  tree,  now  in  Field  Museum's  herbarium, 
botanists,  continued  in  Mexico  from  1788  until  7804.  The  materials 
inical  garden  in  Madrid.  These  collections,  at  that  time  rich  beyond 
nainedjor  more  than  100  years.  The  specimens  were  sent  to  Field 
y  enough  they  arrived  in  Chicago  in  the  same  packets  in  which  they  had 
If  the  collections  of  Sesse,  Moctho  and  their  companions  had  been 
'£  to  our  knowledge  of  the  Mexican  flora.  Neglected  for  well  more 
ibed  by  other  botanists. 


Left,  shield  of  Nicaragua  among  other 
designs  carved  on  container  made  from 
parts  of  three  jUaro  fruits. 

Center,  decoratively  carved  Spanish  Colo- 
nial stirrup  made  from  jicaro  wood. 

Below,  the  orchid  Laelia  rubcsccns 
grows  abundantly  in  the  branches  nf 
a  jicaro  tree. 


limited  along  the  coastal  plain  during  the  dry  season,  which 
occasionally  is  quite  severe,  so  it  is  not  unlikely  that  cattle 
would  find  the  fruit  acceptable  as  forage  in  that  season. 

The  relative  abundance  of  the  calabash  tree,  and  of  certain 
kinds  of  leguminous  trees,  may  be  at  least  partly  due  to  the 
cattle  eating  these  seeds  and  some  of  the  seeds  passing  through 
the  animal  still  in  condition  to  germinate.  I  have  seen  seed- 
lings of  the  calabash  tree,  or  jicaro,  and  of  some  leguminous 
trees  emerging  from  cow  dung  after  the  first  rains  of  the  wet 
season.  The  cow  dung  supplies  the  fertilizer  which  gives  the 
seedlings  a  greater  chance  of  survival  on  these  sterile  coastal 
plains. 

The  fruits  of  the  calabash  tree  are  usually  oval  to  nearly 
round  and  vary  greatly  in  size.  Normally  they  are  some  four 
to  six  inches  long  and  three  to  five  inches  in  diameter.  Fruits 
have  been  reported  as  much  as  a  foot  long.  I  have  not  seen 
any  this  large  and  Ijelieve  that  these  reports  are  due  to  con- 
fusion of  the  fruit  of  the  calabash  tree  with  the  calabash  gourd. 

The  small  flat  and  shining  seeds  may  be  separated  from  the 


pulp,  when  the  fruits  are  mature,  either  by  drying  or  first 
fermenting  naturally  and  then  drying.  The  seeds  are  found 
in  the  markets  in  this  semi-cleaned  condition. 

A  use  which  may  prove  of  greater  importance  than  any  of 
the  present  ones  may  be  the  utilization  of  the  oil  in  the  seeds. 
The  unhulled  seeds  are  alxjut  35%  oil.  The  oil,  which  may 
be  extracted  by  hydrolic  pressure  and  probably  in  other  ways, 
is  a  bland  and  relatively  staijle  edible  oil.  It  may  well  partially 
fill  the  need  for  edible  oils  in  the  region  where  the  tree  grows 
so  abundantly.  I  do  not  know  of  the  oil  being  expressed  and 
used  in  Central  America  but  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any 
reason  why  it  should  not  be. 

The  calabash  trees  along  the  coastal  plain  from  Guatemala 
to  Nicaragua  are  hosts  to  three  kinds  of  orchids  which  often 
occur  on  them  in  great  abundance.  Two  of  these  orchids  are 
species  of  Oncidiuni  and  Epidendrum,  and  not  very  con- 
spicuous. The  third  is  Laelia  rubescens  which  is  quite  showy  and 
when  in  flower  gives  these  attractive jjcaro  trees  somewhat  the 
aspect  of  a  peach  tree  in  flower. 


.APRIL     Page  5 


Pre-Columbian 

Isthmian 

Goldwork 

by  Donald  Collier,  Chief  Curator,  Anthropology 


One  of  the  most  interesting  aspects  of 
pre-Columbian  art  in  the  Isthmian  re- 
gion of  Central  America  is  the  large 
number  of  gold  ornaments  found  in 
graves.  When  the  Spaniards  explored 
Panama  and  Costa  Rica  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  they  found  the  Indians 
making  a  variety  of  metal  ornaments. 
We  now  know  that  this  metal-working 
art  had  been  going  on  in  this  area  for  at 
least  a  thousand  years  before  the  Span- 
ish conquest. 

A  special  exhiijition  called  Aborigi- 
nal Met.-\l\vork  in  Lower  Centr.al 
Americ.\  will  be  shown  in  H.-\ll  9 
G.ALLERY  from  .'\pril  1  through  May  7. 


This  exhibition,  which  was  organized 
by  Doris  Stone  and  Carlos  Balser  of  the 
National  Museum  of  Costa  Rica,  con- 
tains more  than  100  objects  illustrating 
the  forms  and  technology  of  Costa 
Rican  metal  ornaments.  These  are  il- 
lustrated and  discussed  in  a  catalogue 
which  will  be  available  during  the 
exhibition. 

Metal  was  used  in  Costa  Rica  main- 
ly for  ornaments,  not  for  tools.  Most 
common  were  objects  of  gold,  gold- 
copper  alloy  (called  tumbaga),  and  cop- 
per. Many  of  these  ornaments  were 
made  with  holes  or  rings  for  suspension 
as  pendants  or  parts  of  necklaces,  inter- 


spersed  with  gold  or  tuinljaga  beads. 
Other  forms  served  as  breast- plates,  ear 
rings,  ear  plugs,  and  miniature  bells. 
These  ornaments  were  in  the  form  of 
human  and  animal  figures.  The  favorite 
animals  depicted  were  the  jaguar,  deer, 
monkey,  lizard,  frog,  catfish,  and  birds. 
The  favorite  bird,  usually  called  an 
eagle  by  modern  collectors,  probaljly 
represents  a  vulture. 

The  three-dimensional  ornaments 
were  cast  by  the  lost  wax  process,  which 
consisted  of  four  basic  steps.  A  figure 
was  modelled  in  wax  and  enclosed  in  a 
clay  mold  with  venting  holes.  The  mold 
was  then  heated  to  harden  the  clay  and 
melt  out  the  wax  model.  While  the  mold 
was  still  hot,  molten  metal  was  poured 
into  the  cavity  vacated  by  the  wax. 
Hollow  casts  were  made  by  modeling 
the  wax  over  a  core  of  clay  and  charcoal 
which  remained  behind  when  the  wax 
was  melted  out.  This  core  could  i)e  re- 
moved after  the  metal  figure  was  cast, 
but  was  sometimes  left  in  place. 

Gold  was  hammered  into  sheets  to 
be  made  into  ornaments.  During  this 
process  the  gold  was  heated  (annealed) 
from  time  to  time  to  overcome  the 
brittleness  and  cracking  that  resulted 
from  cold  hammering.  The  gold  orna- 
ments were  then  shaped  by  hammering 
and  cutting  and  the  designs  were  made 
by  incising,  embossing,  chasing,  and  by 
cutting  out  small  sections  of  metal. 
Sheets  of  metal  and  parts  of  ornaments 
were  joined  by  welding,  soldering,  and 
crimping.  Tumbaga  ornaments  were 
gilded  by  the  mise  en  couleur  process  in 
which  the  surface  copper  in  the  alloy 
was  dissolved  by  pickling  in  acid  plant 
juices,  which  left  a  higher  gold  content 
on  the  surface. 

The  steps  in  casting,  and  all  these 
other  metallurgical  techniques  and 
processes  are  illustrated  by  specimens  in 
the  special  exhibition  of  Costa  Rican 
metal  work. 

In  spite  of  the  variety  and  complex- 
ity of  Isthmian  metallurgy  and  its 
considerable  antiquity,  there  is  clear 
archaeological  evidence  that  metal 
working  did  not  originate  locally  but 
diff"used  from  South  America.  The 
earliest  gold  working  in  Peru  is  from  the 
Chavin  culture  of  700  B.C.,  and  gold  and 
copper  casting  were  developed  in  Peru 


by  the  time  of  Christ.  Gold  working,  in- 
cluding lost  wax  casting,  seems  to  have 
Iseen  de\eloped  in  Columbia  i)y  the 
first  century  .\.v>.  Gold  working  had 
spread  to  Panama  by  the  third  century, 
and  to  Costa  Rica  by  .^.d.  500-700. 

It  is  a  surprising  fact  that  the  great 
Classic  cultures  of  Mesoamerica,  such  as 
the  Teotihuacan  culture  of  Mexico  and 
the  Maya  culture  of  Yucatan  and 
Guatemala,  dating  from  A.D.  300-900, 
included  no  metallurgy.  It  is  curious 
because  to  the  north  the  Old  Copper 
Indians  of  Wisconsin  were  making 
copper  tools  before  2000  B.C.  and  the 
later  W'oodland  Indians  of  the  Midwest 
continued  to  use  copper  for  tools  and 


ornaments.  To  the  southeast  in  Panama 
and  Costa  Rica,  as  we  have  seen,  metal 
working  was  common  by  the  middle  of 
the  Classic  period  in  Mesoamerica.  The 
earliest  gold  found  in  a  Maya  site  is  a 
trade  piece  from  Panama  at  Copan, 
Honduras,  on  the  southeast  border  of 
the  Maya  area,  dating  from  A.D.  780. 
Only  a  few  other  finds  of  trade  gold 
have  been  made  in  Late  Classic  Maya 
cities.  Not  until  the  Post-Classic  period, 
after  A.D.  1000,  docs  metal  working  be- 
come common  in  Guatemala  and 
Mexico.  And  in  the  centuries  before 
Cortez  it  was  not  the  Mayas  but  the 
Aztecs  and  the  Mixtecs  who  became 
the  great  goldsmiths  of  Mesoamerica. 


Far  left,  lizard,  open 
filigree  casting 

Left,  human  effigy  in  gold  alloy 

Above,  parrot  with  tail  like  that 
of  a  Cebus  monkey 

Right,  frog  with  spine  markings 
done  in  open  back  casting 

The  raffish  figure  on  the  cover  is 
cataloged  simply,  "Man  with 
a  bottle." 

The  pieces  shown  here  were 
selected  from  the  exhibit  In 
Hall  9  Gallery.    All  measure 
less  than  three  inches. 


APRIL     Page  7 


CALENDAR   OF   EVENTS 


MEETINGS 


Museum  open  from  9  a.m.  to  5  p.m. 
during  April,  and  until  6  p.m.  in  May. 

April  1  -May  7  Exhibit:  Ancient  Isthmian  Metalwork.  Small  sculptures,  mostly  in 
gold,  of  monkeys,  birds  and  reptiles,  ornaments  and  ceremonial  objects,  made 
by  pre-Columbian  Indians.  From  the  National  Museum  of  Costa  Rica. 

through  May  31  Spring  Journey:  Afric.\-faces  of  the  Forest  and  Grassland.  A 
self-guided  tour  of  African  cultural  exhibits  for  young  people.  Direction  sheets 
available  at  information  desk  and  at  Museum  entrances. 

April  18  Concert:  Indiana  University  Jazz  Ensemble. 
8:15  p.m.  in  James  Simpson  Theatre. 

April  1 5  Film-lecture:  Image  of  Greece,  by  Kenneth  Richter. 

April  1 5  Museum  Traveler  D.\y.  Boys  and  girls  who  have  successfully  completed 
groups  of  4,  8,  12,  16,  or  17  Museum  Journeys  will  receive  awards  at  10:30  a.m. 
in  James  Simpson  Theatre.  Following  the  presentations  the  color  film,  Islands 
OF  the  Se.\  will  be  shown;  it  deals  with  some  of  the  wild-life  seen  by  Charles 
Darwin  on  the  voyage  of  the  Beagle.  All  boys  and  girls  are  welcome. 

April  22  Cub  Scout  Day  Program:  Mountains  of  America,  the  April  theme  of  the 
Cub  Scouts,  will  be  emphasized  in  a  film  presentation  at  10:30  a.m.  which  will 
show  some  of  the  natural  history  of  mountains.  All  boys  and  girls  are  welcome. 

April  22  Film-lecture:  Mysteries  of  Bird  Migration,  by  Walter  Breckenridge. 

April  29  Camp  Fire  Girl  Day  Program:  "Real  Movies."  Films  on  puppet 
shadow  play  tie  in  with  the  Camp  Fire  Girl's  theme  of  creative  arts.  After  the 
film  presentation  direction  sheets  on  related  Museum  exhibits  will  be  made 
available.  Open  to  all  boys  and  girls  at  10:30  in  James  Simpson  Theatre. 

April  29  Film-lecture:  "Trailer  'Round  the  World,"  by  Fran  William  Hall. 

May  5  Members'  Night:  An  Evening  in  Guatemala,  see  story^  page  2. 

Nature  Camera  Club  of  Chicago,  April  11  and  May  9  at  7:45  p.m. 
Illinois  Orchid  Society,  April  16  at  2  p.m. 

MEMBERS'     NIGHT     {Continuedjrompagel) 

male,  will  be  studied  in  an  exhibit  offered  by  the  Division  of  Vertebrate  Anatomy. 
The  special  adaptations  in  the  respiratory  organs  of  the  fish  as  they  relate  to 
airbreathing  will  be  shown.  "The  fish  is  capable  of  living  out  of  water  for  long 
periods,"  according  to  Dr.  Karel  F.  Liem,  Assistant  Curator  of  Vertebrate  Ana- 
tomy. "Another  interesting  feature  is  that  each  fish  starts  out  as  a  female.  After 
two  to  three  years,  the  fish  changes  sex  and  becomes  a  male." 

A  species  of  tiny  beedes  which  includes  no  males  will  be  the  subject  of  an  ex- 
hibit in  the  Division  of  Insects.  "Rats,  Bats  and  Bugs  of  Panama"  will  be  a  display 
on  a  book  vital  to  the  health  of  millions  in  the  tropical  world,  "Ectoparasites  of 
Panama,"  published  in  January  by  Field  Museum  Press. 

The  Department  of  Geology  will  illustrate  its  current  research  and  its  continuing 
scientific  work.  There  will  also  be  an  exhibit  of  Guatemalan  volanic  materials. 

Literature  on  Guatemala,  including  books  on  pottery,  textiles,  flora  and  fauna 
will  be  shown  in  the  library.  Sketches  made  by  participants  in  the  Spring  Journey, 
"Faces  of  Africa,"  will  be  shown  beside  their  African-mask  originals  in  the  Hall  of 
Primitive  Art.  A  perennially  interesting  area,  the  taxidermy  laboratory,  where 
animals  are  mounted  for  exhibition,  will  be  open.  Taxidermist  Carl  Cotton  and 
tanner  Mario  Villa  will  demonstrate  their  work. 

Newly  constructed  and  furnished  offices  of  the  Raymond  Foundation,  the  De- 
partment of  Planning  and  Development,  the  Division  of  Public  Relations  and  the 
Women's  Board  will  be  open  for  members'  inspection. 

Throughout  the  day,  the  blue  and  white  flag  of  the  Republic  of  Guatemala,  with 
its  quetzal  bird  crest,  will  be  flown  beside  the  stars  and  stripes  in  front  of  the  Museum. 

NEW  TOUR  GROUP  SLATED 

The  October  27-November  12  Guatemala  Tour  has  been  filled  and  a  later  tour, 
equal  in  every  respect,  has  been  scheduled  for  November  17-December3.  Others  who 
wish  to  make  the  trip  may  write  Guatemala  Tour,  Field  Museum,  for  reservations. 

Pages    APRIL 


FIELD    MUSEUM 

OF    NATURAL    HISTORY 

Roosevelt  Rd.  &  Lake  Shore  Drive 
Chicago,  Illinois  60805 

Founded  by  Marshall  Field,  1893 
BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 

Lester  Armour 
Harry  O.  B ere  her 
William  McCormick  Blair 
Bowen  Blair 

William  _R.  Dickinson,  Jr. 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Marshall  Field 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Clifford  C.  Gregg 
Samuel  Insull,  Jr. 
Henry  P.  Isham 
Hughslon  M.  McBain 
Remick  McDowell 
J.  Roscoe  Miller 
William  H  Mitchell 
James  L.  Palmer 
John  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
John  Shedd  Reed 
John  G.  Searle 
John  M.  Simpson 
Gerald  A.  Sivage 
Edward  Byron  Smith 
William  Swartchild,  Jr. 
Louis  Ware 
E.  Leland  Webber 
J.  Howard  Wood 

HONORARY   TRUSTEES 

Walter  J.  Cummings 
William  V.  Kahler 

OFFICERS 

James  L.  Palmer,  President 
Clifford  C.  Gregg,  First  Vice-President 
Joseph  N.  Field,  Second  Vice-President 
Bowen  Blair,  Third  Vice-President 
Edward  Byron  Smith, 

Treasurer  arui  Assistant  Secretary 
E.  Leland  Webber,  Secretary 

DIRECTOR   OF  THE    MUSEUM 

E.  Leland  Webber 

CHIEF  CURATORS 

Donald  Collier, 

Department  of  Anthropology 
Louis  0.  Williams, 

Department  oj  Botany 
Rainer  .^angerl. 

Department  of  Geology 
Austin  L.  Rand, 

Department  oJ  ^oology 

bulletin 

Edward  G.  Nash,  Managing  Editor 

Beatrice  Paul,  Associate  Editor,  graphics 

PRINTED  BY  FIELD  MUSEUM   PRESS 


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BULLETIN  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATU 


I  STORY 


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^f'  -'"■^."■:^\'',  '-':-^''w-  :.r'^*?^r' 


.,  Number  5  May,  1967 


Bird  of 

the  Mangrove  Swam% 

by  Michelle  B.  Grayson,  Research  Assistant,  Bird; 


Young  Hoaizins  are  helped  in 

climbing  through  the  trees  by  finger  claws 

on  their  wings,  right;  they  lose  the 

claws  as  adults. 

Far  right;  a  yiestling  eats 

partially  digested  food.   The 

baby  bird  puts 

its  bill  into  the  mouth 

of  the  parent 

to  get  its  meal. 


o 


Illustrated  by  Tibor  Peren 


CCASIONALLY,  WHILE  POKING  through  collcctions  or  browsing  in  the  literature,  one  uncovers  some 
fact  so  fresh  and  exciting  that  he  breaks  his  routine  to  share  it  with  others.  For  me,  such  a  discovery 
was  the  Hoatzin.  Few  people  would  classify  this  bird  as  beautiful.  It  is  certainly  not  graceful  or 
colorful;  nor  unusually  large  or  powerful,  but  unquestionably  unique.  From  appearance  to  habits  it  ranks 
alone.  The  Hoatzin  (family  Opisthocomidae)  is  a  sedentary  bird  of  the  heavily-wooded  river  banks  and 
permanently  flooded  forests  along  overgrown  river  banks  of  South  America.  The  Amazon  is  considered 
the  center  of  distribution  although  Hoatzins  occur  from  Guiana  and  Brazil  to  Colombia  and  Bolivia.  These 
birds  can  exist  only  where  certain  marshy  plant  foods  are  available.  They  eat  the  tough  leaves,  flowers 
and  fruits  of  these  plants  as  well  as  small  animals  (fish  or  crabs)  picked  from  the  mud  under  the  brush. 
In  general  appearance,  they  are  slender  birds.  A  little  over  two  feet  long,  head  to  tail,  they  weight  only 
about  one  and  three-quarter  pounds.  The  plumage  of  the  back  is  dark  brown,  spotted  in  places  with  white. 
The  underparts  are  a  light  rusty  color.  The  tiny  head  sports  a  long,  erect,  and  bristly  reddish-brown  crest. 
Breeding,  which  is  apparently  not  restricted  to  a  specific  season  of  the  year,  occurs  in  colonies.  The 
nests  consist  of  simple  stick  platforms  in  the  trees,  usually  four  to  fifteen  feet  above  the  water.  The  normal 
clutch  includes  two  to  four  small  yellowish  eggs  with  pinkish  spots.  To  feed,  the  almost  featherless  young 
put  their  heads  into  the  gaping  bill  of  the  parent.  The  chicks  are  adventurous  and  make  excursions  early. 
They  have,  in  contrast  to  the  adults,  a  good  grip  with  their  feet  and  employ  their  bills  in  a  manner  similar 
to  the  parrots  for  climbing. 

When  alarmed,  nestlings  will  dive  into  the  water.    They  swim  on  or  below  the  surface,  utilizing  both 


Page  2    MAT 


their  wings  and  feet  in  the  process.  An  intruder  is  often  un- 
able to  mark  the  progress  of  these  remarkable  babies  except 
by  the  periodic  reappearance  of  pairs  of  watchful  eyes.  Later, 
with  danger  passed,  they  climb  out  of  the  water  onto  over- 
hanging branches.  This  escape,  which  is  very  suggestive  of 
climbing  reptiles,  is  aided  by  large  temporary  claws  (move- 
able by  special  muscles  and  reminiscent  of  the  wing  structure 
o{  ArchaeopUryx,  extinct  for  150  million  years)  on  the  first 
and  second  fingers  of  the  wings.  The  corresponding  flight 
feathers  of  the  wing  are  retarded.  Mature  birds  lose  these 
claws  and  have  normal  flight  feathers.  However,  they  retain 
the  habit  of  using  their  wings  for  climbing,  often  breaking 
their  primaries  in  the  process. 

The  single  representative  of  its  family,  the  Hoatzin  is  note- 
worthy in  many  respects.  Systematically,  it  is  believed  to  be 
closest  to  the  quails,  pheasants,  and  turkeys,  but  it  retains 
many  similarities  to  other  birds  ranging  from  the  primitive 
Archaeopteryx  to  very  advanced  living  birds.  The  digestive 
system,  unlike  most  other  birds,  makes  use  of  the  crop  rather 
than  the  gizzard  for  breaking  up  food.  The  resulting  size 
and  weight  of  a  full  crop  tend  to  make  the  bird  top  heavy  and 

cause  him  to  crouch 
and  rest  his  breast- 
bone, which  has  a 
specially  -developed 
callous,  against  the 
perch.  Adults  main- 
tain their  equilibri- 
um while  hopping 
between  branches 
by  spreading  their 
wings  and  flapping 
their  tails. 

Another  distinc- 
tive feature  prompts 
the  local  name 
"stinking  bird."  They  have  a  musky  odor  which  varies  with 
the  season  and  individual.  The  widely-accepted  rumor  that 
the  flesh  also  contains  this  odor  accounts  for  the  natives'  ne- 
glect of  the  birds  except  for  occasional  medicinal  purposes. 
The  presence  of  a  group  of  Hoatzins  is  heard  from  afar. 
Their  voice  is  remarkable  for  its  harshness,  varying  from  a 
hissing  screech  to  a  grunting  croak.  The  name  "Hoatzin"  is 
of  pre-Colombian  origin  and  supposedly  resembles  the  call. 
Hoatzins  are  easily  captured.  A  strong  light  seems  to 
transfix  them  enough  to  allow  a  man  to  lift  one  off  its  perch. 
However,  they  do  not  live  well  in  captivity. 

Their  inflexible  routine  is  illustrated  by  the  onset  of  breed- 
ing with  every  rainy  season,  independent  of  the  frequency  per 
year.  There  is  also  a  case  of  note  in  which  several  breeding 
Hoatzins  returned  to  their  nests  in  a  fallen  tree.  These  birds 
starved  to  death  while  others  lived  nearby  in  growing  trees. 
So  far,  these  birds  have  not  been  exploited.  They  have 
been  allowed  to  remain  obscure  because  no  real  use  has  been 
discovered  for  them.  Useful  or  not,  they  too  are  beginning 
to  feel  the  effects  of  civilization.  Their  already  limited  en- 
vironment is  dwindling  and,  therefore,  man  is  their  greatest 
though  most  unintentional  predator. 


lecture 

DR.  J.  L  FRANCO  ON  AZTEC  MUSIC 

On  Sunday,  May  21st  at  3  p.m..  Dr.  Jose  Luis  Franco  C,  a 
Mexican  archaeologist,  will  give  an  illustrated  lecture  at  the 
Museum  on  the  pre-Hispanic  music  of  Mexico. 

Dr.  Franco  has  spent  many  years  studying  the  archaeol- 
ogy and  the  ancient  writings  of  Mexico  to  understand  the 
systems  of  pictographic  writing  developed  by  the  Olmecs, 
Mayans,  Zapotecs,  and  the  Aztecs.  As  part  of  his  general 
interest  in  the  living  culture  of  Middle  America  as  it  existed 
iieforc  the  Spanish  conquest.  Franco  specialized  in  the  music 
of  that  period  and  has  become  one  of  the  outstanding  experts 
on  the  pre-Hispanic  music  of  Mexico. 

By  consulting  the  works  of  Fray  Bernardino  de  Sahagun 
and  other  Spanish  observers  who  wrote  shortly  after  the  con- 
quest he  was  able  to  learn  much  about  the  Indian  schools  of 
music,  the  part  that  music  played  in  pre-Hispanic  culture, 
and  even  to  get  an  idea  of  how  the  music  sounded. 

Pre-conquest  sources  such  as  the  Aztec  and  Mayan  co- 
dices occasionally  depict  pre-Hispanic  nuisical  instruments 
and  show  them  in  use.  Stone  and  clay  representations  of 
musical  instruments  are  numerous  and  there  are  a  surprising 
number  of  drums,  flutes,  whistles  and  raspers  that  have  sur- 
vived from  pre-Hispanic  times.  It  is  possible  to  play  the  clay 
and  bone  flutes  and  the  rattles  and  bells  that  have  been  exca- 
vated from  archaeological  sites.  Dr.  Franco  has  mastered 
several  of  these  instruments  during  the  course  of  his  studies. 

The  music  of  ancient  Mexico  was  an  important  part  of  the 
festivals  held  several  times  each  limar  month  to  honor  the 
gods.  The  rhythm  of  the  music  was  carried  by  voices  singing 
in  monosyllables  and  polysyllables  in  cadence  with  the  instru- 
ments. This  use  of  a  repetitive  mixture  of  syllables  to  keep 
time  was  quite  common,  but  there  were  also  songs  that  told 
a  story. 

Pre-Hispanic  musical  instruments  include  both  percus- 
sion and  wind  instruments.  One  of  the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant of  the  percussion  instruments  was  the  huehuell,  an 
upright  drum  made  of  a  hollow  log  topped  with  a  skin  drum- 
head which  stood  waist  high  to  the  player.  This  instrument 
was  accompanied  by  the  teponaztli,  a  smaller  hollowed  log 
set  on  its  side  and  played  by  striking  the  square  tongues  of 
wood  that  almost  cover  the  "H"-shaped  orifice  of  this  instru- 
ment. The  two  tongues  were  of  different  length,  which  re- 
sulted in  giving  each  a  different  pitch.  Fortunately,  several 
examples  of  both  kinds  of  drum  survive  from  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  conquest.  These  instruments  are  still  being  used  to- 
day in  the  state  of  Tlaxcala  and  elsewhere  in  central  Mexico. 
A  third  type  of  drum  was  made  of  pottery  and  had  a  skin  head. 

The  wind  instruments  included  flutes,  ocarinas,  whistles, 
and  trumpets.  These  were  made  of  bone,  pottery,  shell, 
cane  or  wood.  The  numerous  raspers,  rattles  and  flutes  un- 
earthed in  Mexico  make  up  in  interest  for  their  lack  in  size. 

Dr.  Franco's  discussion  of  the  pre-Hispanic  music  will 
ofl'er  a  unique  opportunity  to  learn  about  an  important  but 
little  known  aspect  of  ancient  Mexican  life.  Dr.  Franco  will 
speak  in  the  Museum  Lecture  Hall.  Members  and  the 
general  public  are  cordially  invited  to  attend. 

- — by  John  Hobgood,  Chicago  Teachers  College 

MAY    Pages 


AS  DONE   BY  WALTER   KEAN 


0' 


,NE  OF  THE  con- 
sistently popu- 
lar exhibits  in  the 
nmseuin  is  the  Hig- 
inbothain  Hall  of 
Gems.  The  gem 
specimens  in  it  con- 
sist both  of  faceted 
or  carved  stones  and 
examples  of  the 
rough  starting  mate- 
rial minerals  from 
wlucli  gems  arc  fashioned.  Although  we  exhibit  a  large  num- 
ber of  small  stones  of  a  few  carats  or  less  (there  are  roughly 
140  carats  to  an  ounce),  we  attempt,  whenever  possible,  to 
obtain  larger  stones  of  10  carats  and  up  to  provide  spectacu- 
lar examples  of  the  gems  themselves  as  well  as  the  gem  cutter's 
art.    Over  the  years  the  public  has  come  to  expect  specimens 


GEM  FACETING 

on  exhibit  as  good  examples  of  rough  stones.  Generally,  the 
thought  was  always  in  mind  that  some  day  some  of  these 
rough  stones  should  be  faceted,  although  we  were  never  cer- 
tain just  how  this  would  be  accomplished.  Then  in  1963, 
through  a  series  of  fortunate  coincidences,  the  museum  made 
arrangements  with  Mr.  Walter  Kean  of  Riverside,  Illinois  to 
cut,  initially,  a  large  rough  specimen  of  kunzite,  which  had 
been  acquired  two  years  earlier. 

Mr.  Kean  is  not  a  professional  gem  cutter.  He  is,  in  fact, 
a  radio  engineer  and  heads  a  consulting  engineering  firm 
which  works  primarily  with  the  design  of  output  antennas  for 
broadcasting  stations.  Gem  faceting  is  a  hobby  he  started  in 
1961,  teaching  himself  on  homemade  equipment.  After  two 
years  of  self  training  and  experimentation  he  entered  his  first 
competition,  the  Chicago  Lapidary  Club-Chicago  Park  Dis- 
trict annual  show.  His  entries  won  him  trophies  for  the  best 
faceting  work  and  the  best  master  exhibit.  He  received  the 
same  awards  again  in  1964,  and  in  1965  he  entered  the  mid- 


Above,  Research  Associate  Walter  Kean  holds  huge  topaz  he  faceted  for  Field  Museum. 
1,413  carats.    Below,  diagrams  of  Standard  cuts  used  by  gem  cutters,  and  photos 


of  extraordinary  beauty  and  size  in  the  major  museums  of  the 
world,  and  indeed  a  museum  is  generally  the  only  place  where 
large  stones  are  to  be  seen  at  all,  excepting  the  few  remaining 
crown  jewel  exhibits  scattered  aroimd  the  world. 

One  of  the  major  problems  for  museum  gem  collections 
today  is  that  of  getting  large  gemstones  cut  and  faceted.  For 
many  reasons  commercial  gem  cutting  companies  do  not  care 
to  handle  very  large  stones,  and  even  if  they  could  be  induced 
to  cut  them  the  cost  would  be  prohibitively  high. 

Over  the  years  the  Field  Museum  has  slowly  acquired  a 
number  of  rough  gems  of  moderate  to  large  size.  Some  of 
these  were  added  to  the  study  collections  and  others  were  put 


west  regional  competition  which  is  run  annually  by  the  Mid- 
west Federation  of  Gem  and  Mineral  Societies.  In  this  he 
received  a  ribbon  for  the  best  work  in  the  masters'  class,  and 
a  trophy  for  the  best  faceting  of  the  whole  show.  Since  1963 
Mr.  Kean  has  faceted  an  impressive  array  of  stones  for  the 
museum:  Kunzite — 63.5  carats.  Tourmaline — 13.3  carats. 
Topaz — 91.0  carats,  Kunzite — 294.8  carats,  Orthoclase — 8.0 
carats,  Aquamarine — 9.1  carats.  Beryl — 169.7  carats.  Aqua- 
marine— 11.0  carats.  Beryl — 117.0  carats. 

Added  to  this  list  just  recently  is  a  giant,  flawless  white 
topaz  which  weighs  1413  carats  (about  two-thirds  of  a  pound). 
This  particular  piece  came  from  a  rough  stone  which  had 


Page  4     MAY 


A  PRECISE  ART 


been  in  the  mineral  collection  for  45  years  and  was  not  con- 
sidered to  be  of  gem  quality.  Mr.  Kean  ran  across  it  quite 
by  accident  and  thought  it  had  "possibilities"  (see  photo). 
It  is  the  largest  stone  he  has  ever  attempted  to  cut  and  the 
results  are  spectacular.  This  piece  will  be  on  exhibit  in  the 
Hall  of  Gems. 

His  remarkable  success  in  gem  faceting  in  just  these  few 
years  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  he  has  approached 
this  work  more  as  an  engineering  problem  than  a  strictly  ar- 
tistic one.  In  reality,  gem  faceting  is  not  an  art  in  the  ac- 
cepted sense  as  it  applies  to  painting,  sculpture  or  music.  A 
painter,  for  instance,  attempts  to  capture  a  mood  or  thought 
— if  he  is  too  literal  in  the  technique  he  uses,  he  may  be  ac- 
cused of  being  photographic  and  not  truly  artistic.  In  the 
cutting  of  gem  stones,  however,  there  is  no  great  latitude  in 
technique.  A  gemstone  has  a  number  of  physical  character- 
istics which,  in  themselves,  can  aid  or  hamper  the  faceting. 
The  cutter  cannot  ignore  them.    Gem  garnets,  for  example. 


Walter  Kean  approaches  each  stone  as  a  unique  problem. 
He  rarely  uses  formulas,  but  designs  each  stone  around  its 
own  color,  refraction  index,  natural  flaws,  and  size.  He 
works  with  home  made  equipment  by  choice.  When  he  be- 
gan cutting  stones,  he  looked  over  the  existing  manufactured 
equipment  and  was  not  happy  with  what  he  saw.  Most  of  it 
was  not  precise  enough  for  extremely  precise  work.  So  Mr. 
Kean  designed  and  made  his  own  equipment,  doing  a  great 
deal  of  the  machining  necessary.  He  also  modified  some 
commercial  equipment  to  gain  the  tolerances  he  needed  for 
close  work. 

The  results  of  all  this  care  are  truly  remarkable.  The  best 
example  of  his  precision  approach  can  be  seen  by  comparing 
standard  faceting  with  his  work  in  the  Hall  of  Gems. 
We  have  on  exhibit  two  specimens  of  gem  orthoclase,  both 
from  the  same  mine  in  Madagascar.  One,  a  5.6  carat  stone, 
was  commercially  faceted;  the  other,  eight  carats,  by  Walter 
Kean.     The  difference  is  startling.     The  first  stone  is  rcla- 


e  stone,  pictured  at  right  and  on  the  cover,  weighs 
uncut  gem-stones  in   the    Museum's   collection. 


have  a  deep  wine  red  color,  often  so  intense  that  faceted 
stones  which  are  thicker  than  a  fraction  of  an  inch  appear 
black.  Such  stones  demand  a  very  shallow  cut,  just  to  allow 
light  through. 

.All  gems  have  an  optical  characteristic  called  the  index 
of  refraction.  How  high  or  low  this  value  may  be  governs 
the  angles  which  the  many  facets  make  with  each  other.  A 
stone  faceted  with  the  wrong  angles  for  its  index  of  refraction 
will  look  dead  no  matter  how  fine  a  polish  the  cutter  may 
give  it.  It  would  be  quite  possible  to  cut  the  finest  diamond 
in  the  world  and  make  it  look  like  a  piece  of  glass,  by  using 
the  wrong  set  of  angles. 


tively  dull  and  pale  yellow.     Kean's  stone  shows  a  gleaming 
array  of  colors  and  a  brilliant  polish. 

Besides  cutting  gemstones  for  the  museum,  Mr.  Kean  has 
been  instrumental  in  our  acquisition  of  a  number  of  rough 
stones  as  well  as  the  giant  blue  Chalmers  Topaz  (5890  carats), 
which  was  acquired  already  faceted.  In  recognition  of  the 
services  he  has  performed  for  the  museum,  Mr.  Kean  has  just 
been  appointed  to  the  honorary  position  of  Associate  in  Min- 
eralogy in  the  Department  of  Geology.  Thus,  our  museum 
is  at  last  in  the  enviable  position  of  having  a  resident  gem 
cutter,  which  means  the  gem  collection  will  be  able  to  grow 
actively  over  the  coming  years. 


MAT    Pages 


i 


<Fie!d  Museum  archaeoiogists  work  in  "wickiup" 

similar  to  pit  houses  found  at  Hay  Hotlow»> 


AERtAL  PERSPECTIVE  PROJECTIONS  BY  UDO  LUCCHESI 


Map  at  left  locates  a  20  square  mile  section  of  Navajo  Country, 
the  location  of  Hay  Hollow  and  other  excavation  sites.    Carbon-l-ii 
sand  years.    The  dry  stream  bed  fills  only  after  heavy  rains.    Th(,| 
500  feet  above  the  valley  floor.    At  top  is  a  section  of  Hay  ki 
cooking  and  storage  pits.     Most  pits  were  three  feet  deep.    The  | 


Page  6    MAT 


nil.  The  enlarged  aerial  perspective  view  of  it  (above)  shows 
c  es  indicate  that  the  valley  was  inhabited  for  some  two  thou- 
■  le  in  the  background  is  an  ancient  lava  flow.  The  ridge  rises 
I  V  Site  itself,  showing  three  of  the  bouses  found,  and  various 
J  es,  all  facing  east  were  15  feet  in  diameter. 


lyil'        <*»^N!!WR!»'-«*««>»'^M»^\*^&^       *^     ^^VS/.s^v^*f*Mw\^ 


'*w,*vfl,yvwy  ^'*^  -^/^v   ■ 


by  PAUL  S.  MARTIN,  Chief  Curator  Emeritus,  Anthropology 

r~\  BOUT  2,000  YEARS  AGO,  in  eastern  Arizona,  a  small 
/  A  \  group  of  Indians  was  wresting  a  living  from  a  fonnid- 
/  li  \  able  and  arid  area.  Their  living  pattern  was  centuries 
LrVJlold,  for  their  forefathers  had  hunted  big  mammals — 
mastodons,  horses,  camels — and  probably  had  eaten  nuts, 
berries,  seeds  and  roots.  When  the  big  game  became  extinct, 
they  hunted  smaller  animals — deer,  mountain  sheep,  rabbits 
— and  continued  to  gather  and  eat  wild  plant  foods.  Some- 
time prior  to  a.d.  1,  they  had  heard  about  planting  seeds 
(corn)  to  produce  food;  and  they  had  begun  in  a  dilatory 
fashion  to  experiment  with  this  novelty.  Eventually,  the  use 
of  this  new  plant  profoundly  modified  the  way  of  life  of  all 
later  Indians. 

This,  in  capsule  form,  was  what  we  knew  or  thought  we 
knew  about  Hay  Hollow  Valley,  eastern  Arizona,  in  1963. 
Our  suppositions  were  based  on  our  knowledge  of  the  cul- 
tural history  of  the  area  and  on  our  comprehensive  examina- 
tion of  the  valley. 

Since  1963,  we  have  been  seeking  new  directions  and  val- 
ues for  our  archaeological  researches.  One  of  our  chief  aims 
was  to  discover,  trace  and  describe  the  evolution  of  the  social 
and  cultural  development  in  a  restricted  area. 

The  catch-all  phrase  "social  and  cultural"  means:  man's 
adaptation  to  his  total  environment,  social  and  physical;  his 
ability  to  adjust  to  changes  in  the  environment;  his  social  in- 
stitutions, such  as  rules  of  marriage,  definition  of  kin-folks, 
connections — blood  and  social — between  persons  and  fam- 
ilies; rules  of  descent  and  inheritance;  inventory  of  artifacts — 
tools  of  stone,  bone  and  of  fired  clay  (pottery);  methods 
of  making  artifacts  and  their  functions;  houses;  places  o 
worship;  ritual;  clothing;  foods  and  methods  of  preparing — 
and  so  on.  In  short,  it  includes  everything  man  does,  thinks, 
creates.  One  may  say  that  this  is  culture  and  one  might  or- 
ganize these  categories  into  three  segments,  the  economic, 
social,  and  religious  subsystems.  If  any  segment  of  this  deli- 
cately balanced  articulation  of  components  is  disturbed  by 
change  of  climate,  by  warfare,  by  movements  of  people,  by  any 
demand  or  strain,  the  other  subsystems  or  segments  probably 
will  also  change  accordingly. 

To  work  out  the  social-cultural  system  in  this  little  valley, 
we  had  first  to  examine  the  valley  with  care  and  to  determine 
the  chronological  spread,  the  geographical  boundaries,  and 
the  range  of  cultural  diversity  as  represented  by  sites. 

This  we  have  done  in  part.  We  know  the  valley  was  first 
settled  by  1000  B.C.  or  earlier,  inhabited  continuously  until 
a.d.  1350,  at  which  time  it  was  abandoned.  The  valley  is 
roughly  20  miles  long  and  from  2  to  10  miles  wide.  The  cul- 
tural variability  ranges  from  hamlets  occupied  seasonally 
by  hunters  and  gatherers  through  villages  of  pit-houses, 
through  villages  of  a  few  surface  contiguous  rooms  to  very 

MAY    Page  7 


large  villages  of  contiguous  rooms  several  stories  in  height. 

We  have  excavated  and  reported  on  two  of  the  larger, 
latest  villages;  we  are  now  engaged  in  investigating  the  earlier 
end  of  the  time  scale.  For  the  past  two  summers,  we  have  con- 
centrated on  Hay  Hollow  Site,  occupied  between  200  b.c. 
and  A.D.  200  by  a  hunting-gathering  folk  who  were  in  the 
process  of  adopting  and  adapting  to  corn  agriculture.  The 
work  has  been  done  with  the  support  of  National  Science 
Foundation  and  National  Science  Foundation  Undergradu- 
ate Participation  Program. 

Although  analyses  are  incomplete  and  conclusions  ten- 
tative. I  should  like  to  give  you  a  glimpse  of  what  we  found 
and  what  we  think  about  it. 

This  ancient  village  is  located  on  a  gently  sloping  terrace 
or  shelf  that  stands  about  30  feet  above  the  Valley  floor.  The 
Valley  was  once  watered  by  a  permanent  stream,  but  now 
carries  water  to  its  parent  stream,  the  Little  Colorado  River, 
only  during  and  after  heavy  snow  or  rain. 

The  crude  huts  that  once  sheltered  the  himters-gatherers 
were  protected  from  the  violent  wintry  winds  by  a  pink, 
shaggy  sandstone  cliff  some  60  feet  in  height.  Scattered  about 
at  the  bottom  of  this  rocky  outcropping  are  huge  roundish 
boulders  that  look  as  if  they  had  been  tumbled  there  by  giants. 

The  countryside  was  pleasing,  and  although  arid,  was  not 
a  barren,  sandy  wasteland.  On  the  contrary,  pinyon  and 
juniper  trees  were  common  and  although  not  more  than 
twenty  feet  in  height,  presented  a  pleasing  contrast  to  the 
pink  and  gray  cliffs.  Near  the  stream  grew  wild  walnut  trees 
and  willows,  the  bark  of  which  could  have  been  used  to  make 
a  brew  with  aspirin-like  characteristics.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  was  13  inches. 

The  reddish  soil  produced  a  score  or  more  of  wild  plants 
and  grasses,  most  of  which  the  Indians  utilized  for  food,  medi- 
cine, or  dye.  A  few  of  the  more  common  plants  still  present 
in  the  area  are  barberry,  beargrass,  goose-foot,  groundcherry, 
Indian  rice  grass,  mallow,  mountain  tea  {Ephedra),  plants  of 
the  mustard  family,  saltbush,  sagebrush,  squawbush,  yucca. 

In  the  Valley  were  several  other  contemporary  villages 
similar  to  ours,  hence  social  contacts  were  available. 

This,  then,  was  the  scene  of  primitive  human  activities 
some  2,000  years  ago — a  valley  where  water  was  available, 
game  present,  with  an  abundance  of  vegetal  foods  waiting  to 
be  harvested,  wood  for  constructing  houses  and  for  use  in 
fires,  and  stones  of  all  varieties  from  which  tools  and  imple- 
ments could  be  fashioned. 

The  village  2,000  years  later,  as  we  first  saw  it,  was  recog- 
nized as  an  "early"  site  only  because  of  the  well-trained, 
sharp  eyes  of  the  observers.  The  tell-tale  signs  were  occa- 
sional slabs  of  sandstone  reddened  by  fire,  bits  and  pieces  of 
chipped  flint,  chunks  of  tough  igneous  rocks  that  were  bat- 
tered, large  boulders  that  had  been  transported  to  the  site 
by  man  to  be  used  as  cores  from  which  usable  flakes  could  be 
struck,  and  portions  of  milling  stones.  No  sign  of  a  house  or 
of  pottery. 

Now,  two  years  and  thousands  of  man-hours  later,  we 
know  a  great  deal  about  the  physical  appearance  of  the  site, 
and  a  little  later  we  shall  be  able  to  make  statements  con- 
cerning the  social  life  and  order  of  the  village. 


A  random  sample  of  60%  of  the  entire  site  was  examined 
and  excavated  and  90%  of  all  features  (houses,  firepits,  stor- 
age pits,  charcoal  stains)  were  completely  excavated.  All 
stone  chips,  stone  tools,  milling  stones  and  fire-cracked  rock 
were  saved  and  taken  to  our  field  headquarters  for  weighing, 
measuring,  classifying,  description  and  tabulation.  Samples 
of  dirt  from  which  fossil  pollen  might  be  extracted  were  taken 
from  200  key  spots.  All  pieces  of  charcoal  were  salvaged  by 
means  of  tweezers  and  wrapped  in  heavy  aluminum  foil  to 
prevent  contamination.  Twenty-two  chunks  were  sent  to  a 
laboratory  for  carbon  14  dating. 

If  you  had  visited  the  site  while  work  was  in  progress,  you 
might  have  been  disappointed.  Indeed,  some  of  our  visitors 
asked  "where  is  it?"  You  would  have  seen  piles  of  sifted 
dirt,  stakes,  holes,  pits,  rocks,  leveled-off  places  and  charcoal- 
stained  areas.  But  out  of  this  apparent  chaos,  we  have  ob- 
tained an  amazing  amount  of  significant  data. 

Preliminary  analyses  suggest  that  most  of  the  features  fall 
into  three  major  clusters,  each  separated  from  the  others  by 
one  hundred  feet  or  so.  Each  cluster  contains  from  one  to 
three  houses,  one  to  three  large  pits  (6  to  12  feet  in  diameter) 
and  many  smaller  pits,  some  of  which  served  as  hearths  and 
some  as  storage  chambers.  The  firepits  and  general  refuse 
areas  all  lie  downwind  from  the  houses. 

Each  house  was  round,  about  1 6  feet  in  diameter,  and  was 
provided  with  a  saucer-like  dirt  floor,  the  center  slightly  lower 
than  the  rim.  Around  the  rim  or  edge,  juniper  or  pinyon- 
wood  poles  were  set  in  holes.  The  poles  were  placed  about 
6  inches  apart  and  leaned  slightly  toward  the  center  of  the 
house.  We  are  not  sure  just  how  these  poles  were  fastened  at 
the  top-side.  It  may  be  that  they  were  tied  together  like 
those  of  a  tepee,  leaving  a  small  smoke  hole  where  all  the  poles 
met;  or  the  poles  may  have  been  slightly  arched  and  fastened 
to  a  superstructure  so  as  to  form  a  dome-like  hut.  In  this  case, 
the  house  would  have  resembled  a  contemporary  Apache 
wickiup.  W^e  tend  toward  this  latter  interpretation,  although 
we  are  guessing. 

The  interstices  between  the  upright  poles  were  chinked 
with  grass,  brush  and  mud,  very  much  like  the  chinking  in 
early  American  log  cabins.  Great  hunks  of  this  chinking  were 
actually  found  on  house  floors.  The  chinking  was  mud,  leav- 
ing the  imprint  of  grass,  fingerprints,  brush  and  twigs,  and 
preserved  by  great  heat.  In  other  words,  when  the  house  was 
destroyed  by  fire  (and  they  had  all  burned),  the  chinking 
was  roasted  to  brick-like  color  and  consistency!  This  kind 
of  construction  is  called  "wattle  and  daub,"  or  by  the  Spanish 
term,  jacal. 

The  Indians  entered  the  house  by  crawling  through  a 
roofed  tunnel  about  6  feet  long.  The  covered  entryway  al- 
ways opened  toward  the  east  and  was  roofed  and  walled  by 
means  of  wattle  and  daub.  The  floor  of  the  tunnel  sloped 
slightly  downward  toward  the  center  of  the  house.  It  is  prob- 
able, although  the  evidence  for  this  is  not  too  good,  that  the 
eastern  or  outer  end  of  the  tunnel  could  be  closed  by  means 
of  upright  slab-doors  or  a  skin  portiere.  As  the  crawling  vis- 
itor to  the  house  reached  the  house — or  west  end  of  the  tunnel 
— he  would  have  been  confronted  by  a  two-foot-high  parti- 
tion made  of  upright  slabs  that  curved   in  a  gentle  spiral 


Pages     MAT 


The  drawing  at  right  shows  how  a  prehistoric 
"wickiup"  might  have  looked.  Pit  houses  were 
constructed  with  a  series  of  posts  in  a  circle. 
The  posts  were  pulled  together  into  a  dome  shape 
and  covered.  The  covering  material  used  at 
Hay  Hollow  was  most  probably  mud  daub. 
All  of  the  houses  found  at  Hay  Hollow  had 
been  destroyed  by  fire. 


Uj  v^^JJ^JE-J*** 


U<»*e«\ 


Examples  of  Southwest  Indian  stone  tools.,  all 
taken  from  Hay  Hollow  Site.  Large  stone  at 
top  is  a  typical  core,  from  which  flakes  are 
struck  (right).  These  flakes  are  then  shaped 
into  various  tools.  Lower  row,  left  to  right,  a 
scraper,  used  on  wood,  bone  and  skins;  a 
wedge,  for  splitting  bone  or  wood;  a  projectile 
point,  for  hunting;  a  graver,  for  carving  designs 
and  personal  marks  on  stone,  wood  and  bone; 
and  a  knife,  used  for  cutting  meat  and  leather. 
The  tools  shown  came  from  different  cores, 
some  flint,  others  quartzile.  Relative  frequencies 
of  tools  in  a  specific  area  of  the  site  may  give 
clues  to  the  function  of  that  area;  thus,  presence 
of  cores,  flakes,  and  debris  may  indicate  that 
the  area  was  a  tool  manufacturing  area;  pres- 
ence  of  both  knives  and  scrapers  might  indicate 
a  food  and  skin  processing  area. 


CORE 


PROJECTILE 
SCRAPER  WEDGE  POINT  GRAVER 


KNIFE 


toward  the  rear,  leaving  a  space  just  wide  enough  to  accom- 
modate a  thin  person.  This  partition  was  placed  there  as  a 
kind  of  deflector  to  keep  cold  draughts  from  striking  and  scat- 
tering the  embers  of  the  fire  or  from  chilling  the  occupants. 

The  interior  furnishings  of  the  house  were  simplicity  itself; 
a  small  fire  hearth,  a  few  covered  food  storage  pits,  a  milling 
stone  or  two,  a  few  stone  knives  and  perhaps  several  skins  that 
served  as  cushions  or  blankets. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  note  that  all  houses  of  this  type  as 
well  as  all  later  pit  houses  in  the  Southwest  were  provided 
with  east-facing  tunnel  entrances  and  with  deflectors.  In  fact, 
the  ventilator  tunnel  and  shaft  found  in  almost  all  southwest- 
ern kivas  (religious  structures)  of  later  times  evolved  from  the 
earlier  entry-tunnel  and  likewise  opened  toward  the  east  or 
southeast.  Further,  almost  all  kivas  were  supplied  with  de- 
flectors— some  of  which  were  painted. 

Near  the  east  or  outer  opening  of  the  house  tunnel  were 


two  firepits.  These  may  have  been  used  for  household  cook- 
ing since  the  interior  hearth  was  used  exclusively  for  heat 
or  light. 

Each  cluster  of  houses  was  adjacent  to  several  large  pits 
and  many  smaller  ones.  The  large  ones  may  have  been  fur- 
nished with  pine  boughs  and  furry  skins  and  in  these  some  of 
the  family  may  have  slept  as  do  the  contemporary  Apache 
Indians.  Conversely,  they  might  have  served  as  barbecue 
pits  or  for  food  storage. 

The  numerous  smaller  pits  were  undoubtedly  used  in  con- 
nection with  cookery  of  some  kind.  Some  may  have  been 
utilized  for  "cooking"  flint  rock  or  to  put  it  more  elegantly, 
for  thermal  treatment  of  flint  cores. 

Don  Crabtree,  of  Idaho  State  Museum,  Pocatello,  Idaho 
has  demonstrated  that  untreated  flint  (chert)  is  fractious  and 
difficult  to  flake.  Long,  slow  thermal  treatment  (48  hours  or 
more)  and  slow  cooling  of  raw,  unworked  flint  nodules  makes 


MAT     Page  9 


thciii  glassy  in  appearance  and  as  easily  worked  or  chipped  as 
glass  or  obsidian  (volcanic  glass).  Natural  glass  is  the  easiest 
of  all  rocks  from  which  chipped  or  flaked  implements  (arrow- 
points  and  the  like)  may  be  made.  An  expert  can  detect  a 
thermal-treated  flint  tool  at  a  glance. 

By  means  of  tedious  counting,  classifying  and  even  weigh- 
ing of  over  50,000  worked  or  chipped  pieces  of  flint,  of  over 
thousands  of  fire-cracked  sandstone  slabs,  of  tough  igneous- 
rock  hammers,  of  milling  stones,  of  pottery  fragments,  so  that 
the  distribution  of  the  frequencies  of  each  tooltype  could 
be  plotted  on  site  maps,  we  have  an  excellent  idea  of  the 
village's  "activity-structure."  By  this,  I  mean  the  kinds  of 
work  programs  that  were  carried  on  and  where  the  work  was 
actually  accomplished  and  who  did  it.  This  type  of  informa- 
tion is  essential  if  we  wish  to  make  statements  about  how  the 
village  was  organized  for  doing  certain  jobs  and  who  was  in- 
volved in  this  organization.  This,  in  turn,  gives  us  clues 
about  the  social  organization. 

The  artifacts  were  distributed  spatially  in  a  non-random 
manner.  That  is  to  say  the  various  tools  were  not  scattered 
in  a  haphazard  way  but,  rather,  were  left  more  or  less  exactly 
where  the  people  used  the  tools  and  left  them.  We  are  fairly 
certain  that  certain  tasks  were  almost  always  accomplished 
in  prescribed  places.  It  follows,  then,  that  when  we  find  a 
clustering  of  a  tool  type  in  a  specific  area,  we  have  found  the 
area  in  which  a  particular  job  was  done. 

Potsherds  (broken  pieces  of  pottery)  are  a  good  example. 
Potsherds  are  chiefly  associated  with  hearth  areas.  This  dis- 
tribution indicates  that  pottery  was  used  primarily  for  cook- 
ing and  not  for  storage.  Two  more  facts  about  the  pottery 
strengthen  this  hypothesis:  all  the  sherds  are  sooty,  and  the 
vessels  are  of  so  small  a  size  as  to  almost  preclude  the  possi- 
bility of  their  use  as  storage  containers.  Incidentally,  this 
pottery  may  be  among  the  earliest  in  the  Southwest,  be- 
cause it  was  surely  present  at  400  B.C.  or  earlier. 

Other  examples  of  clusterings  of  tool  types  are  1)  milling 
stones  were  found  only  in  or  near  houses.  Since  reducing 
seeds  and  other  foods  to  flour  or  paste  is  the  job  of  women  in 
most  documented  "primitive"  societies,  it  seems  likely  that 
milling  was  done  by  women  in  or  near  houses;  2)  tools  em- 
ployed for  cutting,  sawing,  hacking,  and  scraping  occurred  in 
large  numbers  in  the  vicinity  of  smaller  roasting  pits.  This 
correlation  indicates,  at  the  minimum,  that  butchering  and 
cutting  of  carcasses  and  scraping  of  skins  for  clothing  were 
carried  on  near  hearths;  3)  an  aggregation  of  the  bases  or 
stem-ends  of  projectile  points  and  quantities  of  stone  flakes 
suggested  the  area  in  which  the  men  of  the  group  manufac- 
tured projectile  points.  After  a  hunt,  spear  or  arrow  shafts 
were  brought  home  for  re-use.  If  the  tip  of  the  projectile 
point  had  broken  off  when  striking  and  wounding  the  game, 
the  basal  portion  would  remain  in  the  shaft  and  could  be  re- 
placed by  a  new  point. 

The  location  of  the  work  areas  is  thus  spotted  by  plotting 
the  frequency  distributions  of  each  tool  type  and  this  is  made 
possible  by  having  "control"  of  the  find-spot  of  each  chip, 
artifact  and  sherd. 

Now,  from  these  data  what  can  we  say  about  the  social 
units  that  performed  tasks  necessary  for  the  day-to-day  survival 


of  the  group?  At  the  moment,  only  a  few  suggestive  hypoth- 
eses can  be  made.  Our  analyses  must  proceed  further  before 
we  can  say  more. 

Each  house  probably  housed  a  single  family — father, 
mother,  and  2  or  3  children.  The  residence  pattern  was  prob- 
ably neo-local.  This  term  implies  that  upon  marriage,  the 
newlyweds  built  a  new  house.  This  is  in  contrast  to  the  hus- 
band taking  up  residence  with  his  wife's  family  (matrilocal) 
or  the  wife,  with  her  husband's  family  (patrilocal).  Cooking 
was  mostly  done  outside  by  means  of  stone-boiling,  by  roast- 
ing, or  by  barbecuing.  We  don't  know  if  the  families  living 
in  each  cluster  were  related  by  blood,  or  brought  together  by 
similar  work  tasks. 

Up  to  this  point,  I  have  merely  described  the  site,  our 
findings,  and  our  tentative  hypotheses.  I  have  dealt  ex- 
clusively with  events,  details  and  particulars.  As  a  basis  for 
further  studies,  these  particulars  are  important;  but  we  must 
take  the  next  steps,  the  first  one  of  which  is  to  generalize 
from  these  details.  We  are  eager  to  go  on  to  discuss  the  cul- 
tural process,  which  is  one  of  the  goals  of  anthropology. 

When  our  analyses  are  complete,  we  will  possess  a  set  or 
a  network  of  functionally  related  culture  elements,  like 
building  blocks  all  put  together,  articulated  in  working 
order  to  produce  a  whole-a  system.  The  structural  units  of 
our  system  comprise  some  of  the  things  I  have  mentioned : 
type  and  size  of  house  and  its  relation  in  space  to  other 
houses;  cooking  and  storage  pits;  kinds  of  tools  and  pottery; 
foods  and  methods  of  preparing;  specific  areas  where  cer- 
tain tasks  were  carried  on;  division  of  labor;  probable  com- 
position of  work  groups  and  of  social  organization;  and 
forces  that  intergrated  the  people  into  a  functioning  society. 

This  is  a  system  as  seen  at  a  single  point  in  time,  and  must  be 
formulated  before  we  can  make  comparisons  or  deal  with 
culture  processesand  regularities  or"laws" — our  ultimate  goal . 

A  process  involves  change  with  continuity;  a  process  is 
the  study  of  how  a  "system"  at  2,000  years  ago  is  transformed 
into  a  diff"erent  "system"  at  A.  D.  500  or  A.  D.  1 ,000  or  at  any 
later  point  in  time.  Process,  then,  represents  views  of  cul- 
tural patterns  vmdergolng  change.  It  is  like  a  movie  with 
one  frame  (a  system  at  a  single  point  in  time)  succeeding 
another.  The  viewing  of  this  movie  is  basic  to  our  task.  But 
it  is  not  all. 

Our  final  goal  is  to  seek  trends  and  causes  of  human  be- 
haviour. Culture  exhibits  certain  lawfulness — it  is  not 
irregular  or  capricious.  If  we  study  events  (systems,  culture 
processes)  with  the  view  of  discovering  their  regularities,  we 
shall  perceive  that  cultures  behave  in  accordance  with  fixed 
and  universal  laws.  By  "law,"  I  mean  a  statement  of  a  con- 
stant relationship  between  two  or  more  classes  of  phenomena 
under  stated  conditions.  For  example,  the  more  adapted  and 
and  specialized  a  culture,  the  less  adaptable  it  becomes. 
Hence,  its  downfall  is  a  probable  outcome  of  its  successes, 
as  in  dynastic  Egypt. 

It  will  be  some  years  before  we  can  formulate  the  laws 
from  our  Hay  Hollow  Valley  data.  They  will  be  the  pro- 
duct of  many  students  working  together  and  pooling  their 
efforts.  All  we  can  claim  now  is  that  we  have  made  a 
strong  beginning. 


Page  10     MAT 


Missionaries  as  Collectors 

by  Christopher  C.  Legge,  Custodian  of  Collections,  Anthropology 
and  Patricia  M.  Williams 


NONE  OF  THE  Pacific  missionaries  of  Michener  and 
Maugham  is  more  interesting  than  John  Williams, 
James  Calvert  and  Dr.  Richard  Burdsall  Lyth.  In  addition 
to  fulfilling  their  mission  work,  each  of  these  men  made  valu- 
able ethnological  collections,  specimens  of  which  are  in  the 
Museum's  outstanding  Fuller  Collection. 

According  to  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  John 
Williams,  1796-1839,  ".  .  .  was  the  most  successful  missionary 
of  modern  times.  He  acquired  the  languages  and  adapted 
himself  to  the  varying  characters  of  the  races  he  encountered 
in  a  manner  most  remarkable  for  a  man  of  his  defective  edu- 
cation." Williams  was  sent  to  the  Pacific  in  1817  by  the 
London  Missionary 
Society  and  made  his 
permanent  headquar- 
ters at  Raiatea  in  the 
Society  Islands  Group. 
He  became  an  active 
and  ambitious  mission- 
ary of  many  accom- 
plishments. In  1819 
he  introduced  sugar 
cane  into  Tahiti  and 
erected  a  cane  mill.  In 
1827  at  Raratonga  in 
the  Austral  Group, 
Williams  built  The 
Messenger  of  Peace,  an 
80-ton  ship.  This  was 
a  particularly  ingeni- 
ous feat  as  he  had  no 
iron  nails,  saws  or  other  proper  tools.  (The  ships  of  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society  have  sailed  under  the  name  John 
Williams  since  1844.  The  vessel  presently  in  service  is  the 
John  Williams  VII.)  Williams  translated  the  New  Testament 
into  Raratongan  and  in  1 834  he  returned  to  England  to  have 
his  translation  published.  His  Narrative  of  Missionary  Enter- 
prise in  the  South  Seas  was  published  in  1837. 

Williams  then  returned  to  the  Pacific  only  to  meet  a  grisly 
fate.  He  was  killed  and  eaten  by  the  natives  of  Eromango 
Island  in  the  New  Hebrides.  Presumably,  his  murder  was 
committed  in  retaliation  for  cruelties  inflicted  upon  the  na- 
tives by  a  party  of  sandal-wood  traders. 

There  are  three  specimens  originally  collected  by  Wil- 
liams in  the  Museum's  Fuller  Collection :  a  fishhook  from  the 
Society  Islands,  a  Tahitian  headrest  and  a  Samoan  coconut- 
stalk  club.  The  large,  barbless  hook  is  made  of  black-lipped 
pearl  shell,  with  sennet  fiber  binding  attached.  Originally, 
Williams  presented  the  hook  to  his  biographer.  Rev.  Ebe- 
nezer  Prout,  F.G.S.  The  four-legged  headrest  is  cut  out  of 
one  piece  of  light  brown  wood.  The  Samoan  club  is  of  light 
brown  wood  covered  with  incised  designs.  An  old  manu- 
script tag  attached  to  the  club  reads:  "This  club  was  brought 


back  to  England  in  1834  by  John  Williams,  Missionary — 'the 
Martyr  of  Eromango'." 

James  Calvert,  1813-1892,  was  one  of  the  first  Methodist 
Missionaries  in  the  Fiji  Islands.  He  arrived  in  the  Fijis  in 
1838  when  he  was  25  years  old  and  remained  until  he  was  43. 
He  was  co-author,  with  Rev.  Thomas  Williams,  of  Fiji  and 
the  Fijians.  Williams  wrote  Volume  I  devoted  to  the  islands 
and  their  inhabitants,  and  Calvert  wrote  Volume  1 1  on  mis- 
sion history. 

The  Fuller  Collection  houses  three  specimens  from  Cal- 
vert's collection.  The  first  is  a  headrest  from  Tahiti  made  of 
dark  wood.    It  is  in  three  sections — the  bar  is  the  Fijian  type 

and  the  supports  are 
like  those  of  Tonga. 
The  second  specimen 
is  a  throwing  club  from 
Tonga,  the  head  of 
which  is  patterned 
and  round  in  shape. 
Third  in  the  collection 
is  an  intricately  carved 
set  of  two  bowls  con- 
nected by  a  wooden 
ring.  Remarkably,  the 
entire  set  was  carved 
out  of  one  piece  of  dark 
brown  wood.  The  ring 
links  through  a  perfo- 
rated lug  at  the  end  of 
each  flower-shaped 
bowl. 

The  final  member  of  this  trio  of  missionaries  is  Dr.  Rich- 
ard Burdsall  Lyth,  1810-1887,  who  was  the  first  qualified 
medical  missionary  in  the  Pacific.  He  began  working  in  the 
Tonga  Group  early  in  1838  and  moved  to  the  Fiji  Islands  the 
following  year,  where  he  stayed  until  1854.  He  served  as 
Chaplain  to  the  British  forces  in  Gibraltar  from  1859  to  1878. 
The  Museum  has  one  piece  which  was  collected  by  Dr. 
Lyth,  a  breast  ornament  from  Fiji  made  of  a  single  gold  or 
orange  cowrie  shell  with  a  hole  piercing  one  side.  This  shell 
is  the  rare  Callistocypraea  aurantium  (Gmelin).  When  Fuller 
obtained  the  specimen  about  1 905  there  was  a  small  note  in 
it  which,  in  part,  reads:  "The  Orange  Cowrie  is  only  found 
at  one  spot  in  the  world  viz  on  the  reef  of  Nadroga  (from  Na- 
ndro-nga  with  accent  on  last  syll.)  or  Flying  Duck,  S.  W.  of 
Viti  Levu,  Fiji  Is.  Specimens  with  a  hole  in  them  have  been 
worn  by  the  betes  or  priest  while  performing  solemn  acts  of 
divination  under  the  inspiration  of  their  gods.  The  shells 
were  always  oiled  on  these  occasions  as  were  also  the  bodies 
of  the  betes.  This  specimen  has  been  so  used  and  treated. 
From  Rev.  R.  B.  Lyth.  Rev.  J.  Nettleson"  This  information 
is  incorrect  insofar  as  the  cowrie  may  be  found  in  other  parts 
of  the  Pacific. 


MAY     Page  U 


HUMANITIES  FOUNDATION  GRANT 

A  c;R.\Nr  (IF  $7,100  has  been  awarded  to  Field  Museum  by  the  newly  established 
National  Foundation  on  The  Arts  and  The  Humanities.  The  grant  will  support 
a  project  under  the  direction  of  James  W.  \'anStone,  Curator  of  North  American 
Archaeology  and  Ethnology,  entitled  "Ethnography  and  Recent  Prehistory  of  the 
Nushagak  River  Eskimos,  Alaska."  These  Eskimos  live  in  southwest  Alaska  in 
an  area  first  penetrated  by  the  Russians  in  the  early  19th  century.  Since  that  time, 
the  Eskimos  of  the  area  have  had  more  or  less  continuous  contact  with  western 
civilization  through  missionaries,  miners,  the  fishing  industry  and  government 
services.  Mr.  \'anStone  will  investigate  the  culture  of  these  Eskimos  as  it  was  be- 
fore western  contact,  and  the  changes  in  their  society  as  a  result  of  more  than  a 
century  of  contact.  "An  Annotated  Ethnohistorical  Bibliography"  of  the  previous 
work  done  on  these  Eskimos  has  already  been  accepted  for  publication  by  Field 
Musevim  Press  in  the  series  Fieldiana:  Anthropology.  The  bibliography  will  be  the 
first  of  several  monographs  planned  by  Mr.  VanStone  on  the  people  of  the  Nusha- 
gak River  area. 

The  general  mission  of  the  National  Foundation  on  the  Arts  and  the  Humanities 
is  to  bring  the  American  public  into  a  more  meaningful  contact  with  the  humanis- 
tic traditions;  accordingly,  the  Foundation  is  encouraging  museums  involved  in  the 
study  and  preservation  of  these  traditions.  Field  Museum  has  entered  into  an  in- 
tern program  with  the  Foundation,  to  train  Museum  curators  of  small  museums 
in  the  techniques  and  skills  necessary  for  the  most  effective  preservation,  restoration 
and  exhibition  of  collections,  as  well  as  to  give  an  insight  into  the  relation  of  these 
collections  with  the  traditions  of  human  society.  Field  Museum  participates  in  this 
program,  one  of  the  first  established  by  the  new  Foundation,  along  with  nearly  a 
dozen  other  Museums  throughout  the  country,  including  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, the  University  Museum,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  New  York  State 
Historical  Association. 

ADD  EXPERTS  TO  TOUR  ROSTER 

Specialists  on  birds  and  handicraft  from  Guatemala  will  help  make  Field  Muse- 
um's Guatemala  Tours,  October  27-November  12  and  November  17-December  3, 
more  informative.  Arrangements  have  been  completed  recently  for  Dr.  Jorge 
Ibarra,  Director  of  the  National  Museum  of  Natu- 
ral History  in  Guatemala  City,  Editor  of  the  nat- 
ural history  and  conser\-ation  magazine,  Historia 
Natural  Y  Pronatura,  and  Central  America's  leading 
ornithologist,  to  accompany  the  Field  Museum 
Tour  groups  on  bird  walks  near  Lake  Atitlan  and 
to  address  them  on  Guateman  birds. 

Dofia  Lilly  de  Jongh  Osborne,  author  of  books 
about  Guatemala  and  its  handicrafts,  will  meet 
the  groups  at  dinner  in  Antigua  and  will  speak  to 
them  following  dinner.  Born  in  Costa  Rica  and  a 
resident  of  Guatemala  City  since  1905,  Doiia  Lilly 
is  generally  regarded  as  the  leading  authority  on  Indian  handicrafts  in  Guatemala 
and  El  Salvador.  She  is  the  author  of  Indian  Crafts  of  Guatemala  and  El  Salvador  and, 
together  with  Vera  Kelsey,  of  Four  Keys  to  Guatemala.  Her  collection  of  Guate- 
malan costumes  and  textiles  is  famous. 

Other  Tour  specialists  include  Dr.  Wilson  Popenoe,  Horticulturist  of  Antigua, 
and,  accompanying  the  tour.  Dr.  Antonio  Molina,  Botanist  of  Escuela  .-^gricola 
Panamericana  in  Honduras,  Phil  Clark,  Garden  Editor  of  The  News  of  Mexico  and 
Tour  Leader,  Dr.  Donald  Collier,  Field  Museum  Chief  Curator  of  Anthropology, 
and  Dr.  Malcolm  Collier,  former  Assistant  Editor  of  The  American  Anthropologist. 
Talks  on  life  in  Guatemala  by  Dona  Carmen  de  Pettersen,  and  on  coffee  growing 
by  Don  Hugh  Craggs,  both  plantation  owners,  also  will  be  featured 

Further  information  may  be  obtained  by  writing  Guatemala  Tour,  Field 
\Iuseum. 

Page  12     MAY 


CALENDAR  OF  EVENTS 

Museum  open  9  a.m.  to  6 p.m.  every  day 

May  15  -  June  30 
Exhibit: 

American  Medicine  Before  Columbus 
One  hundred  small  clay  sculptures 
from  tombs  of  ancient  Middle  America, 
on  loan  from  the  collection  of  Dr.  Abner 
I.  Weisman.  The  two-and-a-half-cen- 
tury-old human  figures  indicate  physical 
ailments  and  their  surprisingly  sophisti- 
cated treatment  in  pre-Columbian  times. 
In  Hall  9  Gallery. 

May  20 

Chicago  Area  Science  Fair 

Best  of  the  student  science  projects; 
display  sponsored  by  Chicago  Area 
Teachers  Science  Association.  In 
Stanley  Field  Hall. 

May  21 

Lecture: 

The  Music  of  Ancient  Mexico 

Noted  Mexican  archaeologist.  Dr. 
Jose  Luis  Franco  lectures  on  Aztec  mu- 
sic displaying  and  actually  playing  in- 
struments recovered  from  Aztec  tombs. 
At  3  p.m.  in  Ground  Floor  Lecture  Hall. 

June  through  August 

Summer  Journey : 
Animal  I.mmigrants 

Self-guided  tour  for  young  people  of 
exhibits  showing  animals  found  in  the 
United  States,  but  native  to  other  coun- 
tries. Direction  sheets  and  information 
available  at  both  Museum  entrances 
and  at  information  desk. 

MEETINGS 

Chicago  Shell  Club 

May  21  at  2  p.m.  and  June  11 
Illi.nois  Orchid  Society 

May  21  at  2  p.m. 
Illinois  Audubon  Society 

June  7  at  7  p.m. 
Chicago  N.-\ture  Camera  Club 

June  1 3  at  7 :  45  p.m. 


FIELD     MUSEUM 

OF   NATURAL   HISTORY 

ROOSEVELT  ROAD  AT  LAKE  SHORE  DRIVE 
CHICAGO.  ILLINOIS  60605  A.C.  312.  922-M10 
FOUNDED  BY  MARSHALL  FIELD.  1893 

E.  Leland  Webber,  Director 

BULLETIN 


Edward  G.  Nash,  Managing  Editor 
Bea  Paul,  Associate  Editor,  graphics 


BULLET.,  f  .EtD  MUSEUM  Of 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


Volume  38 
}fumber  6 


June, 


1967 


'm^)^ 


ANIMAL  IMMIGRANTS 


by  George  Fricke, 
Raymond  Foundation 


Summer  Journey  tells  the  story  of  animals 

introduced  and  naturalized  in  America 

Animal  Immigrants  is  the  title  of  the  Summer  Journey  for 
boys  and  girls  that  will  be  available  during  the  months  of 
June,  July,  and  August. 

The  Journey  will  point  out  some  of  the  common  animals 
that  have  been  introduced  into  America.  Some  of  these  ex- 
otics, as  immigrant  or  alien  animals  are  called,  have  become 
naturalized  here;  others  failed  to  survive. 

Some  birds,  like  the  Ring-necked  Pheasant  and  the  Euro- 
pean or  Gray  Partridge,  were  introduced  to  provide  sport. 
The  Ringneck  was  successfully  introduced  in  1881 ;  the  Gray 
Partridge  in  1908. 

The  two  most  common  and  widespread  of  all  exotics  are 
the  English  Sparrow  and  the  European  Starling.  They  are 
considered  by  many  to  be  pests,  precisely  because  of  their 
success. 

The  English  Sparrow  was  introduced  in  1850  by  Euro- 
peans who  were  homesick  for  this  familiar  bird.  The  Starling 
was  introduced  in  1890  by  Eugene  Schleifflin,  a  wealthy 
New  York  manufacturer  fond  of  both  birds  and  Shakespeare. 
He  wanted  to  introduce  all  of  the  birds  mentioned  in  Shake- 
speare's works. 

Many  insects  have  been  introduced  into  America,  often 
by  accident.  The  common  white  Cabbage  Butterfly  arrived 
here  in  the  1860's  from  Europe.  Early  colonists  introduced 
the  Honeybee  about  300  years  ago. 


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More  than  77,000  boys  and  girls  have  taken  Museum  Journeys  since  the  pro- 
gram was  started.  Heer,  three  young  men  take  notes  about  the  snow  leopard  of 
Central  Asia. 


Two  rodents  accidentally  introduced  are  the  House  Mouse 
and  the  House  (Norway)  Rat.  Both  arrived  here  acciden- 
tally as  stowaways  on  ships  sailing  from  Europe.  The  House 
Mouse  came  here  soon  after  English  colonists  came  to  Amer- 
ica.   The  House  Rat  arrived  in  1775. 

Carp  were  brought  from  Asia  to  Europe  in  historic  times, 
and  to  America  around  1880.  In  Europe  and  Asia  they  are 
desirable,  but  they  are  looked  upon  as  pests  in  our  country. 
The  Carp's  relative,  the  Goldfish,  was  brought  over  as  an 
aquarium  fish.  People  who  tire  of  them  often  release  them 
in  lakes. 

This  is  only  a  partial  list  of  common  animal  immigrants 
found  in  America  today.  A  complete  list  would  fill  several 
pages. 

Journey  No.  50 

Animal  Immigrants  is  Journey  No.  50  in  the  Raymond 
Foundation's  Journey  program.  The  Journey  program  was 
planned  to  help  children  discover  objects  and  items  of  interest 
in  the  Museum.  The  program  helps  children  and  adults  to 
know  how  or  where  to  enjoy  the  many  opportunities  ofTered 
in  the  Museum. 

Four  different  journeys  are  presented  each  year.     Only 
80  children  took  the  first  journey,  on  Drums,  offered  in  the 
Spring  of  1955.    Since  1955,  over  17,000  have  taken  journeys^ 
Some  take  only  one  or  two,  but  others  complete  enough  to 
earn  award  certificates. 

An  award  program  was  set  up  to  give  some  form  of  recog- 
nition for  the  children's  accomplishments  in  the  Journey 
program. 

When  a  child  successfully  completes  four  journeys,  he  re- 
ceives a  Traveler's  Award.  When  eight  are  completed,  he 
gets  an  Adventurer's  Award,  and  with  12  done,  he  becomes 
an  Explorer. 

Upon  completion  of  16  journeys,  which  takes  four  years, 
the  Explorer  becomes  a  Beagler,  and  is  presented  with  a  copy 
of  Charles  Darwin's  Voyage  of  the  Beagle.  Then  he  is  ready 
for  the  special  Journey  taking  him  through  the  Museum  halls 
to  see  some  of  the  specimens  and  objects  Darwin  saw  on  his 
historic  journey. 

Upon  completion  of  this,  the  youngster  becomes  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Museum  Discoverer's  Club.  Some  125  children 
are  either  past  or  present  members  of  the  Museum  Discov- 
erer's Club. 

Each  Spring,  a  Traveler's  Day  is  held  in  the  James  Simp- 
son Theatre.  In  April  of  this  year,  205  children  were  pre- 
sented different  awards. 

Journeys  are  offered  free  of  charge.    The  program  is  one 
of  the  many  functions  of  the  Raymond  Foundation,  one  ot- 
the  Museum's  educational  divisions.    Journeys  and  informav_. ' 
tion  on  the  program  can  be  picked  up  at  either  the  North  or 
South  Door  or  at  the  Information  Booth. 


Page  2     JUNE 


^ARTS  AND  SCIENCE 

An  able  staff  of  artists  use  their  talents  to 
aid  the  Museum  research  effort. 

By  Patricia  M.  Williams 


FIELD  museum's  series  of  scientific  publications,  Fieldiana, 
has  long  been  recognized  as  a  fine  record  of  scientific  re- 
search and  achievement  in  the  Museum's  four  fields  of  inter- 
est— Zoology,  Geology,  Botany  and  Anthropology.  The 
successful  presentation  of  this  research  has  been  due  in  no 
small  measure  to  consistently  excellent  scientific  illustration. 

Illustrations  for  Fieldiana  have  been  done  by  staff  artists, 
independent  artists  on  commission  and,  occasionally,  by  the 
author  himself.  Henry  Dybas,  Associate  Curator,  Insects, 
has  added  technique  to  talent  to  produce  many  of  his  own 
drawings. 

Artistic  ability  has  also  been  discovered  among  staff  mem- 
bers engaged  in  other  Museum  work.  Janet  Wright,  then 
Secretary  to  the  Division  of  Amphibians  and  Reptiles,  con- 
tributed many  fine  drawings  to  the  publications  of  Dr.  Rob- 
ert Inger  and  Mr.  Hyman  Marx.  Mrs.  Lenore  Warner  of 
the  Department  of  Botany,  has  recently  provided  a  number  of 
..illustrations  for  Dr.  Louis  Williams'  "Tropical  American 
^^lants."  Joan  Davis  Levin  learned  the  art  of  scientific  illus- 
tration while  working  as  assistant  to  the  late  Dr.  Dwight  D. 
Davis  and  her  work  appeared  in  his  widely  acclaimed  mono- 
graph "The  Giant  Panda."  This  publication  was  "in  the 
works"  for  many  years  and  the  illustrations  in  it  represent 
the  work  of  a  number  of  artists,  one  of  whom  had  spent  many 
years  as  an  engraver.  His  work  is  easily  recognized  by  its 
minute  and  exquisite  detail. 

The  use  of  color  in  Fieldiana  is  practically  non-existent 
because  of  its  high  cost,  therefore,  most  of  Fieldiana'%  illustra- 
tions are  rendered  in  pen-and-ink  and,  occasionally,  in  pen- 
cil. Recently,  however,  several  interesting  variations  have 
been  seen.  Ranier  Zangerl,  Chief  Curator,  Geology,  used 
pencil  on  acetate  for  his  drawings  in  "A  New  Shark  of  the 
Family  Edestidae."  Douglas  Tibbitts,  a  former  staff"  artist 
now  free-lancing,  uses  pen-and-ink  in  combination  with  a 
wash  for  his  bird  illustrations  to  appear  in  Emniett  R.  Blake's 
Manual  of  Neotropical  Birds. 

As  is  true  in  all  things,  professional  and  personal,  com- 
munication is  a  major  problem  for  the  science  illustrator.  For 
the  scientist  to  adequately  convey  what  he  sees  in  his  mind's 
eye  to  the  artist  is  an  often  frustrating  and  time-consuming 
process.  Once  a  rapport  has  been  established  between  artist 
and  scientist,  the  work  can  move  quickly  and  satisfyingly  for 
all  involved. 
^^  The  commercial  artist  is  free  to  distort  his  subject  to 
^^chieve  the  desired  "image."  For  example,  a  car  may  be 
drawn  longer  and  lower  than  it  actually  is,  a  refrigerator  may 
appear  taller  and  slimmer  than  it  is  in  fact.    Also,  the  com- 


Artist  Marion  Pahl  working  on  an  insect  exhibit.  Miss  Pahl, 
like  many  artists  on  the  staff,  works  in  the  Department  of 
Exhibition,  as  well  as  doing  scientific  drawings,  charts  and 
maps  for  individual  scientists. 


mercial  illustration  must  frequently  connote  the  subject's  in- 
tangible qualities.  .\  bottle  of  soda-pop  must  seem  at  once 
to  be  not  only  cold  and  refreshing,  but  zestful,  youthful  and 
gay,  as  well. 

The  "popular"  artist  may  portray  a  snake  as  an  exotic, 
sinister  reptile,  eyes  glittering  with  evil  as  it  slithers  sinuously 
out  of  the  firelight  into  the  shadows.  In  Fieldiana,  the  same 
snake  would  be  a  neatly  tagged  and  coiled  specimen  carefully 
arranged  to  best  show  individual  variation  in  scale  pattern 
of  the  species. 

Because  the  illustrations  in  the  series  are  meant  to  be  used 
as  aids  to  research  and  not  as  decorations,  the  artist  must 
strive  for  faithful  reproduction  and  absolute  accuracy.  A 
flower  need  not  appear  to  be  dew-drenched  and  fragrant. 
In  fact,  it  is  far  better  if  it  does  not.  The  dewiness  may  im- 
ply a  scientifically  inaccurate  texture. 

Although  a  scientific  illustration  may  not  be  a  deliberate 
expression  of  the  artist's  personality,  like  handwriting,  it  al- 
ways bears  the  inescapable  imprint  of  the  individual.  John 
Pfiff"ner's  bold,  sure  pen-stroke;  the  delicate,  lace-like  quality 
of  Lenore  Warner's  botanical  drawings;  and  the  fine  precision 
of  Marge  Moran's  moUusk  illustrations  are  all  unmistakably 
unique. 

Even  though  photographs  are  more  quickly  done  and, 
therefore,  less  expensive,  it  is  sometimes  impossible  to  use  this 
method.  For  example,  an  anthropologist  may  wish  to  pic- 
torially  recreate  a  scene  from  the  past  featuring  artifacts  he 


JUNE     Pages 


has  studied;  or  a  botanist  may  base  the  description  of  a  new 
genus  on  field  notes  and  the  study  of  a  dried  plant  specimen. 
A  photograph  of  such  a  specimen  could  not  adequately  indi- 
cate the  stamens,  calyx,  pistils,  etc.  or  picture  the  flower  as  it 
appears  in  life.  A  fossil,  because  of  its  angle  of  projection, 
size  or  te.xturc  may  not  photograph  adequately  for  use  in  sci- 
entific study. 

However,  the  Museum's  Division  of  Photography,  under 
the  leadership  of  John  Bayalis,  has  long  since  proven  that  when 
photographs  are  used  they  can  be  enormously  effective. 
Homer  Holdren,  who  has  had  wide  experience  as  a  commer- 
cial photographer,  brought  his  own  style  to  many  Fieldiana 
plates.  Whenever  possible  he  uses  light  and  shadow  to  high- 
light texture,  brighten  a  luster,  create  interest  and,  always. 
to  show  a  specimen  to  its  greatest  advantage. 

Many  of  the  photographs  appearing  in  Fieldiana,  espe- 
cially those  taken  "on  location,"  have  been  taken  by  the 
scientists  themselves.  When  in  Borneo  Dr.  Robert  Inger, 
Curator,  Amphibians  and  Reptiles,  rigged  up  a  system  of 
lights  and  wires  and,  using  infra-red  film,  was  able  to  photo- 
graph nocturnal  animals  in  their  natural  habitat.  Dr.  Louis 
Williams,  Chief  Curator,  Botany,  has  taken  hundreds  of  pic- 
tures of  Central  America — a  number  of  which  have  appeared 
in  Fieldiana.  Loren  Woods,  Curator,  Fishes,  and  his  ubiqui- 
tous Minox  went  shutter-clicking  across  the  Indian  Ocean  to 
return  with  a  pictorial  record  of  the  expedition.  Hymen 
Marx,  Assistant  Curator,  Reptiles,  has  made  many  fine  pho- 
tographs of  reptiles  in  the  lab  and  several  of  these  have  ap- 
peared in  Fieldiana. 

Whether  drawings  or  photographs,  the  editors  oi  Fieldiana 
have  always  made  every  effort  to  obtain  the  finest  plate- 
making  services  available  to  do  full  justice  to  the  illustrations. 
Finally,  the  printers  of  the  Museum  Press,  notably  William 
and  George  Sebela,  a  father-son  team  without  peer  in  their 
craft,  use  their  considerable  skill  to  assure  quality  on  the 
printed  page. 

It  becomes  evident,  then,  that  excellence  is  the  natural 
result  of  the  care  and  skill  spent  on  Fieldiana's  illustrations 
from  their  conception  in  the  scientist's  mind  to  their  ultimate 
printed  reproduction. 


This  month's  Cover  shows  two  draw- 
ings in  wash  and  pencil  by  Douglas 
Tibbitts,  a  former  Museum  staff  mem- 
ber who  now  does  free-lance  work  for 
Emmet  Blake,  Curator  of  Birds.  Tib- 
bitts is  preparing  the  illustrations  for  the 
Manual  of  Neotropical  Birds.  These 
drawings  represent  an  interesting  inno- 
vation in  ornithological  illustration. 
The  taxonomically  important  details  of 
the  bird  are  shown  in  line  around  a  por- 
trait of  the  bird  as  it  appears  in  life. 
Top  drawing  shows  the  California 
Quail,  Lophortyx  californicus;  the  lower 
bird  is  the  Buff-crowned  Wood-Quail, 
Dendrortyx  leucophrys. 


Associate  Curator  of  Insects  Henry 
Dybas  is  one  of  several  Curators  at 
Field  Museum  who  do  much  of  their 
own  artwork.  Dybas  is  self-taught. 
Shown  here  is  a  drawing  of  a  wing  from 
a  feather-wing  beetle.  Dybas  drew  the 
wing  magnified  100  times.  Readers 
may  recall  that  a  photograph  of  a  simi- 
lar wing  appeared  on  the  cover  of  the 
BULLETIN  in  April  1966. 


The  snail  shells  shown  here  in  various 
aspects  were  made  by  Margaret  Moran, 
a  young  artist  working  for  Alan  Solem, 
Curator  of  Lower  Invertebrates.  Miss 
Moran's  technique  is  so  painstaking, 
detailed  and  exact,  that  often,  as  in 
these,  only  a  section  of  the  shell  is 
shown. 


Page  4     JUNE 


John  Pfiffner  is  a  free-lance  artist  work- 
ing with  Research  Curator  Philip  Hersh- 
kovitz  on  the  marmosets  of  South 
America.  After  experimenting  with 
other  techniques,  Pfiffner  settled  on 
scratchboard  and  pencil  as  the  best 
medium  for  illustrating  furred  monkeys. 
Slight  variations  in  hair  patterns  and 
colors  are  systematically  important  in 
South  American  monkeys,  and  scratch- 
board  has  enabled  Pfiffner  to  detail  the 
very  minute  white  hairs  of  some  ani- 
mals, even  against  a  dark  skin.  Along 
with  its  other  virtues,  the  method  is 
cheaper  and  faster  than  pen  and  pencil. 


Davida  Simon,  student  at  University  of 
inois,  works  for  Louis  Williams,  Chief 
Curator,  Botany,  during  her  vacations 
preparing  illustrations  for  Flora  of  Gua- 
temala. Several  other  artists  have  pre- 
pared illustrations  for  this  flora;  in  recent 
years  Sam  Grove,  Leonore  Warner  and 
Davida  Simon  have  been  the  principal 
contributors. 

Pen  and  ink  illustrations  have  some 
advantage  over  photography.  Char- 
acters that  the  scientist  wants  shown 
can  be  emphasized,  flower  shape  can 
be  restored,  and  technical  characters 
shown  by  enlargements. 


JUNE     Page  5 


Record  Crowd 


AN  ATTENDANCE  RECORD  was  set  for/^*^ 
Members'  Night  when  4,000  persons  cele-^ 
brated  "an  evening  in  Guatemala"  and  took 
a  look  at  scientific  research,  at  Field  Museum. 
They  heard  Guatemalan  music,  watched  the 
dances  of  the  country,  sipped  Guatemalan 
punches  and  tasted  boquitas.  They  also 
participated  in  a  signal  event  of  Field  Mu- 
seum Press — presentation  of  an  issue  in  the 
monumental  series,  "Flora  of  Guatemala"  by 
Chief  Curator  of  Botany  Louis  0.  Williams  to 
Mrs.  Catalina  Contreras  de  Garcia,  represent- 
ing Guatemala,  photo  left. 


Frank  Boryca,  center  left,  explains  how  plas-^^ 
tic  leaves  and  flowers  are  cast  from  botanicalf    ^ 
originals.    Microscopes,  above,  tell  a  surpris- 
ing story  of  reproduction  in  fungi,  ferns  and 
flowering  plants,  while  a  young  member,  left, 
confronts  a  giant  Brown  Bear,  in  taxidermy. 

Paged    JUNE 


Enjoys  Members'  Night  Fiesta 


Guatemalan  marimbist  Jose  Bethancourt 
and  his  orchestra  send  a  young  Guate- 
malan couple  swinging — Leonel  Alvarado 
from  San  Pedro  de  Laguna  Atitlan  and 
Frieda  Garcia  from  Antigua,  top  photos, 

»yvhile,  above.  Botany  Department  "Guate- 
malans" Alfeida  Rehling  and  Valerie  Con- 
nor offer  market  candies  and  tropical  fruits. 
Members,  lower  right,  admire  hand- 
loomed  woolen  blanket. 

JUNE   Page  7 


I        ./I 


CALENDAR    OF    EVENTS 


Museum  open  9  a.m.  to  6  p.m.  every 
day;  from  June  24,  open  to  8  p.m.  on 
Wednesday,  Friday,  Saturday,  Sunday. 
Through  June  30   Exhibit:  pre-Columbian  Medical  Miniatures  (see  stor\-  below) 
Through  June  30  Exhibit:  Handcrafted  Gem  and  Jewelry  Competitive  Exhi- 
bition.   Sponsored  by  the  Chicago  Lapidary  Club,  the  exhibit  features  more 
than  500  prize-winning  gems  and  pieces  of  jeweln,'  fashioned  in  the  Chicago  area. 
July  6    Film  for  children:  The  Cambodian  Jungle.    Describes  a  small  boy's  life 
in  the  southeast  Asian  country.    In  the  James  Simpson  Theatre,  10  and  1 1  a.m. 
July  13   Film  for  children:  A  Bit  of  Canada.    Previews  of  what  can  be  seen  on 

the  way  to  Expo  '67.    James  Simpson  Theatre,  10  a.m.  and  1  p.m. 
Through  August  Summer  Journey:  Animal  Immigrants.    A  self-guided  tour  for 
young  people  of  exhibits  showing  animals  found  in  the  United  States  but  native 
to  other  countries.    Direction  sheets  and  information  available  at  both  Mu- 
seum entrances  and  the  information  desk. 

Chicago  Shell  Club,  June  11,2  p.m. 

N.\ture  Camera  Club  of  Chicago,  June  13,  7:45  p.m. 


MEETINGS 


TWIN  FIGURES  ACQUIRED;  TALK  SET 

In  May  Field  Museum  acquired  an  extensive 
collection  of  twin  figures  cai-ved  by  the  Yoruba 
people  of  Western  Nigeria.  The  Yoruba,  long 
noted  for  the  complexity  of  their  traditional 
technology,  religion  and  art,  used  these  statu- 
ettes primarily  to  house  the  spirits  of  deceased 
twins.  The  collection  numbers  sixty-nine 
items,  including  thirteen  sets  of  twins.  Mr. 
John  Underwood,  the  artist,  found  and  se- 
lected the  figures  during  three  years  he  spent 
in  Nigeria  making  films  for  that  nation's  Min- 
istry of  Information.  Field  Museum  will  pre- 
sent this  new  acquisition  to  the  public  on 
July  12.  The  exhibition  will  use  supplemen- 
tary materials  to  direct  attention  to  the  ethno- 
logical and  esthetic  importance  of  the  collec- 
tion. In  conjunction  with  this  opening  Mr. 
Underwood  will  give  an  illustrated  lecture  on 
the  ways  in  which  twin  figures  express  certain 
principles  of  Yoruba  art  and  philosophy. 


Artist  John  Underwood  shows  E.  Leland 
Webber  Toruba  twin  statues. 


MEDICAL  MINIATURES   ON   DISPLAY 

A  hundred  pre-Columbian  miniatures,  on  loan  from  New  York  physician  Dr. 
Abner  I.  Weisman,  will  be  on  display  until  the  end  of  this  month  in  the  Hall  9 
Gallery  of  the  Museum.  Unearthed  from  tombs  in  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
they  illustrate  a  wide  variety  of  medical  conditions,  such  as  headache,  toothache, 
malnutrition,  various  stages  of  pregnancy  and  childbirth. 

Precisely  why  ancient  sculptors  created  these  statues  is  a  mystery.  Some  ar- 
chaeologists claim  they  were  buried  as  part  of  the  personal  treasure.  Others,  that 
they  were  designed  to  explain  the  nature  of  the  person's  illness  to  the  gods.  Dr. 
Weisman  feels  that  they  may  have  been  used  as  teaching  models  by  ancient  phy- 
sicians and  surgeons. 

In  connection  with  the  opening,  a  Symposium  on  "Mental  Illness  and  Its 
Management  in  Ancient  Times"  was  held  at  the  Stone-Brandel  Center  of  Chicago. 
Moderated  by  Dr.  Karl  Menninger,  the  symjjosiuni  included  talks  by  Dr.  \Veis- 
man  and  several  other  experts.  After  the  Symposium,  a  number  of  the  guests 
came  to  Field  Museum  to  view  Dr.  Weisman's  collection. 


MUSEUM  REGISTRAR  RETIRES 

The  registrar  of  Field  Museum  is  a  {per- 
son charged  with  many  duties.  Amory^  . 
other  things,  she  must  keep  the  mastlL. 
file  on  accessions  to  the  collections,  items 
ranging  from  sets  of  rare  books  to  war 
canoes.  She  also  maintains  the  jDerson- 
nel  records  on  a  staff"  of  several  hundred 
people,  some  of  whom,  at  any  given 
time,  will  be  living  in  the  Bornean  jun- 
gle or  in  an  Eskimo  village,  or  in  other 
odd  corners  of  the  world,  beset  with 
quite  different  problems. 

On  April  30  of  this  year,  Miss  Marion 
G.  Gordon  left  Field  Museum  to  take 
an  early  retirement.  Miss  Gordon,  a 
graduate  of  the  University  of  Illinois, 
was  Registrar  for  24  years,  coming  to  the 
Museum  as  Assistant  Registrar  in  1943, 
and  assuming  the  fiJl  duties  of  the  office 
two  years  later.  The  period  of  her  asso- 
ciation with  the  Museum  was  one  of  tre- 
mendous growth  for  the  organization  and 
she  played  an  integral  part  in  handling 
the  details  and  burdens  resulting  from 
the  complexity  and  diversity  of  this 
growth.  She  was  a  key  member  of  the 
administrative  staff",  fulfilling  her  many 
respKjnsibilities  cheerfully  and  efTectiveljT 
Miss  Gordon  will  be  gready  missed.  Her 
ability  to  answer  the  myriad  questions 
and  difficulties  which  arise  in  the  day-to- 
day operation  of  a  large  Museum  was 
important  to  the  staff",  but  even  more 
valuable  was  her  willingness,  her  loyalt\' 
and  her  friendship.  Miss  Gordon  has 
moved  to  Clinton,  New  York. 

Miss  Gordon's  replacement  as  Regis- 
trar is  Miss  Mary  A.  Hagberg,  who 
joined  the  staff"  on  February  1,  1967. 
Miss  Hagberg  is  a  graduate  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Minnesota  and  the  William 
Mitchell  College  of  Law  in  St.  Paul. 
Before  coming  to  Field  Museum,  she 
served  as  a  records  analyst  for  Records 
Control  Inc.  of  Chicago. 


FIELD    MUSEUM 

OF   NATURAL   HISTORY 

ROOSEVELT  ROAD  AT  LAKE  SHORE  DRIVE 
CHICAGO.  ILLINOIS  60605  A.C.  312.  922-9410 
FOUNDED  BY  MARSHALL  FIELD.  1893 

E.  Leland  Webber,  Director 

BULLETIN 

Edward  G.  Nash,  Managing  Editor 


L 


Pages    JUNE 


BULLETIN 

FIELD  MUSEUM 
OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

Volume  38,  Number  7    July,  79S7 


■»■■•*' 


fM£^ 


Above,  a  radiograph  of  the  skull  and  shoulder  region 
of  the  little  Pennsylvanian  shark,  Ornithoprion 
hertwigi,  in  a  near  perfect  state  of  preservation. 
Completely  encased  in  black  shale,  the  specimen 
could  only  be  seen  by  X-ray.  It  was  collected  from 
a  strip  mine  south  of  Wilmington,  Illinois,  by  Mr. 
Vernon  Lake  of  Chicago.  Around  it  are  a  spike 
near  the  lower  jaw  and  a  smaller  spine  above  the 
snout,  from  other  animals. 


radiography,  a  valuable  research  tool 

X-RAYS,  or  Roentgenrays  (after  their  discoverer  Wilhelm 
Konrad  von  Roentgen),  are  invisible  rays  of  short  wave- 
length that  have  the  ability  to  penetrate  matter.  Soon  after 
their  discovery,  just  before  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, they  were  tested  in  a  variety  of  scientific  fields  for  their 
potential  usefulness  in  demonstrating  hidden  structures.  For 
obvious  reasons,  intense  application  of  radiographic  tech- 
niques developed  in  medical  diagnosis  where  x-rays  now  play 
a  most  significant  role.  It  is  rather  curious  to  note  that  in 
other  sciences  where  x-rays  work  equally  well,  namely,  in 
zoology,  paleontology  and  in  petrology,  radiographic  tech- 
niques have  not  become  a  standard  research  tool  and  have 
in  the  past  been  utilized  by  only  a  rather  small  number  of 


scientists  throughout  the  world.  This  in  spite  of  a  few  classic 
studies  that  have  clearly  demonstrated  the  merits  of  radio- 
graphic techniques  as  often  superior  to  any  others.  One  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  these  is  the  monograph  by  Max 
Kiipfer  (1931)  on  the  mode  of  bone  formation  during  devel- 
opment in  the  legs  of  horse  and  donkey. 

At  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  x-rays  have  been 
used  for  diagnostic  purposes  as  long  ago  as  the  middle  twen- 
ties, when  they  served  the  investigation  of  the  contents  of 
mummies.  This  work  culminated  in  a  monograph  on  "Ro- 
entgenological studies  of  Egyptian  and  Peruvian  mummies" 
by  the  noted  paleopathologist  Roy  L.  Moodie  (Fieldiana: 
Anthropology  Memoir  3,  1931). 

The  equipment  available  was,  by  present  standards  an, 


Page  2     JULY 


fhif  fatsih 


by  Rainer  ^angerl.  Chief  Curator,  Geology 


archaic  machine  called  snook  that  produced  excellent  pic- 
tures to  be  sure,  but  was  extremely  dangerous  to  operate. 
From  about  1945  on,  the  machine  was  housed  in  the  depart- 
ment of  geology  where  it  served  the  study  of  fossils.  Unques- 
tionably, the  most  significant  and  extensive  use  came  with 
the  Museum's  Mecca  and  Logan  Quarry  project  in  west- 
central  Indiana.  There  a  fascinating  fauna  of  sharks,  palae- 
oniscoid  fishes  and  acanthodians  occurs  in  black  (carbona- 
ceous) sheety  shales  of  Pennsylvanian  age  (280  million  years 
ago).  A  vast  number  of  specimens  was  collected  from  these 
shales,  many  of  them  representing  species  new  to  science. 
The  investigation  of  these  shales  and  their  fossil  content  is 
almost  wholly  contingent  upon  the  availability  of  .x-ray  equip- 
ment because  the  mechanical  preparation  of  the  specimens 
is  not  only  extremely  time-consuming,  but  moreover  injuri- 
ous to  such  microscopic  structures  as  the  skin  denticles  of 
sharks,  and  small,  brittle  bones  and  teeth.  These  carbona- 
ceous shales,  on  the  other  hand,  are  easily  penetrated  by  x-rays 
and  the  enclosed  fossils  show  up  very  clearly  as  shadow  pic- 


tures. Since  it  takes  only  a  few  minutes  to  make  an  x-ray 
picture,  it  was  both  necessary  and  possible  in  this  case  to 
scrutinize  several  hundreds  of  pieces  of  shale  containing  fossils. 

Museum  Retires  SNOOK 

With  the  internal  rebuilding  of  the  Department  of  Geol- 
ogy in  1965  the  old  s.nook  had  to  be  retired,  since  it  is  against 
state  law  to  move  and  reinstall  obsolete  x-ray  equipment. 
This  temporarily  stopped  work  on  the  Mecca-Logan  fauna. 

The  Department  of  Geology  is  now  in  possession  of  new 
x-ray  equipment.  Through  the  good  offices  of  a  fellow  pale- 
ontologist, Dr.  W.  Stiirmer,  a  senior  scientist  with  Siemens 
AG,  of  Erlangen,  Germany,  this  firm's  Medical  Division  has 
presented  Field  Museum  with  a  heliodor-duplex,  a  diag- 
nostic x-ray  machine,  equipped  with  a  Pantix  tube. 

The  new  equipment  will  serve  several  scientists  on  the 
Gology  staff,  but  it  will  be  the  main  research  tool  in  the  sys- 
tematic study  of  the  numerous  species  of  fishes  in  the  Mecca 
and  Logan  Quarry  shales  of  Indiana. 


^  ^ 

^B^ 

^m 

•• 

'  >#^^^^^^^| 

Above,  a  positive  print  of  a  radiograph.  Another  specimen  oj  the  same  shark, 
skull  slightly  disarticulated.  Because  this  specimen  contained  little  pyrite, 
x-rays  revealed  more  of  the  major  skull  structures  of  the  shark,  enabling  the 


author  to  produce  the  drawing,  below,  of  the  skull  of  the  fish.  The  drawing 
was  made  by  studying  stereoscopic  pairs  of  X-ray  photographs,  which  per- 
mitted three-dimensional  visualization. 


r '.  -r.~ 


JULT     Page  3 


I  he  birth  of  twins  and  their  subse- 
quent relationship  to  each  other  and  to 
their  society  have  always  fascinated  men, 
but  nowhere  has  this  interest  been  so 
tangibly  and  intensively  expressed  as 
among  the  Yoruba  (pronounced  YO- 
ruba)  people  of  Western  Nigeria.  Our 
own  concern  with  twinning  lies  mainly 
in  the  fields  of  human  biology  and  psy- 
chology; this  is  expressed  in  research  and 
the  publication  of  data.  The  traditional 
Yoruba  apparently  did  not  speculate 
upon  the  nature  of  twins;  to  him  they 
were  an  established  fact  of  his  religion; 
his  concern  was  with  their  souls  and  it 
found  expression  in  the  carving  and 
tending  of  images  intended  to  enable  the 
souls  of  deceased  twins  to  stay  their  al- 
lotted time  among  men. 

This  sculptural  aspect  of  Yoruba  in- 
terest in  twins  shows  an  extreme  devel- 
opment of  the  religious  concept  but  does 
little  to  explain  its  social  background  or 
its  significance  for  Yoruba  art.  In  them- 
selves these  appealing  wooden  statuettes 
can  do  no  more  than  to  stimulate  and 
direct  lines  of  inquiry. 

Field  Museum  can  now  provide  a  stra- 
tegic point  from  which  the  study  of  twins 
in  Yoruba  religion  and  sculpture  can 
proceed.  In  May  it  acquired  a  large 
collection  of  Yoruba  twin  figures  which 
were  found  and  selected  in  Nigeria  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  this  decade  by  Mr. 
John  Underwood,  an  English  artist  who 
was  then  making  films  for  that  nation's 


ministry  of  information.  The  collection 
includes  sixty-eight  figures,  including 
thirteen  presumptive  pairs  of  twins. 

We  cannot  be  sure  that  in  each  in- 
stance a  pair  of  twins  is  represented;  al- 
though the  images  are  almost  certainly 
carved  by  the  same  hand,  there  is  some 
possibility  of  figures  of  twins  from  differ- 
ent pairs,  but  made  by  the  same  carver, 
coming  upon  the  market  together  and 
gaining  acceptance  as  replicas  of  true 
siblings.  For  reasons  to  be  discussed,  Mr. 
Underwood  chose  not  to  try  to  buy  fig- 
ures from  the  families  that  owned  them 
but  instead  obtained  them  from  traders 
who  were  in  a  better  position  to  know 
which  images  were  dispensable.  As  most 
European  buyers  are  not  interested  in 
the  provenience  or  identity  of  twin  fig- 
ures, traders  do  not  trouble  to  document 
them.  Our  collection  therefore  agrees 
with  those  of  other  museums  in  that  we 
do  not  know  the  precise  identity  of  the 
person  whom  the  figure  represents. 
Nevertheless,  by  its  size  and  diversity 
Mr.  Underwood's  collection  offers  sig- 
nificant data  for  an  intensifying  study 
of  Yoruba  sculpture  and  religion. 

Yoruba  Culture 

The  study  of  Yoruba  sculpture  and 
religion — inseparably  linked  subjects — 
must  be  intensive  because  of  the  com- 
plex nature  of  Yoruba  culture.  The 
Yoruba  are  a  group  of  peoples  closely 
related  by  language,  culture  and  his- 
tory, although  they  do  not  claim  a  com- 
mon origin.  Most  of  them  live  in  West- 
ern Nigeria  and  eastern  Dahomey,  in 
country  which  ranges  from  rain  forest 


differs  markedly  from  ours  in  two  re- 
spects. First,  the  Yoruba  city-dweller 
is  also  a  farmer,  sustained  by  the  hoe- 
cultivation  of  such  crops  as  yams  and 
maize  on  family  land  outside  the  city. 
Second,  the  Yoruba  city  tends  to  be  an 
agglomeration  of  large  family  units  liv- 
ing together  in  compounds  which  in  turn 
make  up  separate  quarters  of  the  city. 

Some  of  the  factors  determining  these 
conditions  would  be  the  concept  of  king- 
ship and  a  stress  upon  the  military  ex- 
pansion of  the  holdings  of  kings  and 
their  descendants.  Before  European  ad- 
ministration, powerful  rulers  fortified 
their  cities  and  attracted  large  popula- 
tions of  refugees  escaping  the  danger  and 
the  devastation  of  warfare.  The  larger 
towns  were  somewhat  on  the  order  of 
"city-states"  and  often  exerted  consid- 
erable  influence   over   outlying  towns. 

Many  of  the  traditional  Yoruba  insti- 
tutions reflect  the  complexity  of  this 
people's  history  and  their  remarkable 
urban  pattern  of  existence.  Crafts  were 
skillfully  and  intensively  practiced;  their 
practitioners  were  often  organized  into 
guilds.  Examples  of  weaving,  dyeing, 
forging,  brass-casting  and  wood-carving 
show  a  concern  for  excellence  and  origi- 
nality on  the  part  of  the  craftsman  and 
sophistication  on  the  part  of  the  buyer. 
Yoruba  culture  strongly  emphasized 
commerce;  trade  was,  and  still  is,  one  of 
the  main  bases  of  its  economic  system. 
The  Yoruba  standard  of  living  was  high. 
Yoruba  religion  is  the  despair  of  any 
scholar  whose  objective  is  the  discovery 
of  universal  principles  and  a  fixed  inven- 


the  TWINS  of  YORl 


An  exhibit  of  wooden  statues  of  twins] 

opens  at  Field  Museum,  July  12.    At  i\ 

wtio  collected  the  figures,  will  gi\  \ 


to  open  savanna.  Yorubaland  has 
about  6,000,000  inhabitants.  Its  pop- 
ulation density  is  remarkable,  ranging 
from  5,720  to  43,372  people  per  square 
mile.  Even  more  remarkable  is  the 
Yoruba  pattern  of  settlement.  The  Yo- 
ruba are  traditionally  urban,  living  in 
large  towns  surrounded  by  wide  belts 
of  farmland.  Six  cities  have  populations 
of  over  100,000.     Their  urban  pattern 


tory  of  tribal  beliefs  and  rituals.  Earlier 
authors  dealt  with  the  religion  of  one 
town  or  region  and  tended  to  give  the 
impression  that  all  Yoruba  religion  fol- 
lowed that  pattern.  Later  studies 
showed  a  remarkable  range  of  variation. 
Certain  beliefs,  however,  do  seem  to 
have  been  more  or  less  universal  in  tra- 
ditional times.  Some  of  these  are  found 
also  in  the  religious  systems  of  peoples 


Page  4    JULY 


adjacent  to  the  Yoruba.  The  worship 
of  certain  deified  ancestors,  who  are 
known  as  orisha,  was  common  to  all  of 
the  Yoruba.  Although  a  few  orisha  are 
widely  worshipped,  the  greater  number 
are  of  limited  distribution  or  only  local 
importance.  Moreover,  the  nature  of 
worship  differs:  the  cult  may  be  individ- 
ually or  privately  observed  or  it  may  de- 
velop into  a  sizeable  association.  The 
requisites  for  membership  in  a  cult  can 
differ  greatly  in  any  one  town :  some 
people  have  the  option  of  inheriting  the 
cult  belonging  to  their  family,  while 
others  may  be  "called"  to  a  cult. 

The  orisha  are  candidly  and  explicitly 
personified  deities,  figures  in  a  rich  my- 
thology quite  comparable  to  the  mythol- 
ogies of  Europe  in  its  understanding  of 
human  foibles.  Most  orisha  seem  to  be 
associated  with  specific  places  or  wa- 
ters. Some  widely  worshipped  orisha 
are,  however,  associated  with  universal 
phenomena,  for  instance;  Eshu  is  the 
orisha  of  mischief  and  trickery,  Egun  is 
the  orisha  of  war  and  iron,  and  Shango  is 
the  orisha  of  thunder  and  lightning. 

The  Twin  Cult 

Distinctive  customs  relating  to  twins 
are  observed  over  the  greater  part  of 
Yorubaland.  The  Ewe  peoples  to  the 
west  of  the  Yoruba  hold  similar  but  less 
intensively  developed  beliefs.  Yet  we 
cannot  deal  with  a  Yoruba  cult  of  twins 
with  any  great  degree  of  assurance.  In 
the  first  place  we  cannot  be  sure  that  the 
twin  customs,  although  squarely  within 
the  field  of  religion,  make  up  a  cult  in 
the  sense  of  worshipping  orisha,  of  per- 


that  represent  twins.  We  cannot  deter- 
mine whether  the  Ibeji  orisha  is  personi- 
fied in  any  other  form  than  twins  and 
their  wooden  replicas.  Nor  can  we  as 
yet  tell  whether  the  person  who  treats 
the  image  of  a  twin  according  to  custom 
does  so  to  placate  an  orisha  or  the  spirit, 
or  spirits,  of  the  twins  themselves.  We 
can  find  a  very  cursory  account  of  a 
temple  of  the  twin  cult  at  the  town  of 
Erapo  in  the  southwestern  corner  of  Ni- 
geria, but  this  tells  us  nothing  of  its  na- 
ture, other  than  that  it  was  the  destina- 
tion of  many  twins  and  parents  of  twins 
on  pilgrimage.  We  read  more  often  that 
the  images  of  twins  are  kept  in  family 
shrines  after  they  have  served  their  pri- 
mary ritual  purpose.  It  seems,  how- 
ever, that  in  some  cases  these  shrines  and 
altars  are  dedicated  to  clear-cut  orisha 
"belonging"  to  the  family. 

So  far,  then,  we  can  speak  of  a  twin 
cult  in  the  sense  that  twins  are  regarded 
as  supernatural  beings  and  cared  for 
with  a  certain  amount  of  ritual.  Even 
then,  we  do  not  understand  precisely 
why  twins  are  so  highly  regarded  among 
the  Yoruba,  and  why,  of  all  the  peoples 
of  Africa  who  share  this  regard,  the  Yo- 
ruba have  developed  the  concept  to  the 
most  remarkable  extent. 

This  development  is  all  the  more  pro- 
vocative when  we  note  that  the  Ondo 
Yoruba  in  the  southeast  do  not  have  a 
tradition  of  twin  images;  indeed,  some 
authorities  claim  that  they  destroy, 
rather  than  welcome,  twins.  This  con- 
dition may  also  be  true  of  the  southern- 
most  Ekiti   Yoruba,   neighbors  of  the 


BALAND 


by  Leon  Siroto,  Assistant  Curator, 
African  Ethnology 


n  the  Yoruba  people  of  Western  Nigeria 
m.  that  evening,  Mr.  John  Underwood, 
1  illustrated  lecture  on  Yoruba  art. 


forming  primary  collective  rituals  and 
of  owning  temples  and  priests.  In  the 
second  place,  we  cannot  be  certain  that 
all  the  Yoruba  observe  precisely  the 
same  usages:  it  would  be  remarkable  if 
they  did. 

Some  authorities  have  written  of  Ibeji, 
the  orisha  of  twins.  The  Yoruba  word 
ibeji,  literally  'twice  born,'  means  twin; 
by  extension,  it  refers  also  to  the  images 


Ondo,  who  seem  not  to  make  twin  im- 
ages. The  most  frequently  advanced 
explanation  for  this  difference  is  the  in- 
fluence of  the  twin-abhorring  Edo  peo- 
ples— especially  manifest  through  the 
former  Benin  empire — upon  their  Yo- 
ruba neighbors. 

It  may  be  that  the  remarkable  stress 
placed  by  Yoruba  upon  twins  is  of  rela- 
tively recent  development.     The  Jekri 


of  the  Niger  delta  and  the  Igala  of  the 
Niger-Benue  confluence  although  sepa- 
rated from  the  Yoruba,  speak  languages 
significantly  similar  to  theirs.  They  do 
not  hold  twins  in  any  great  esteem.  The 
Jekri  regarded  twin  births  as  a  mishap 
and  promptly  rid  themselves  of  the  in- 
fants. One  Igala  group  is  said  to  have 
welcomed  twins  without  reservation,  but 
another  is  said  to  have  done  away  with 
one  child  under  the  impression  that  its 
birth  portended  the  death  of  a  parent. 
In  this  latter  case,  an  image  of  the  dead 
twin  was  made  and  tended  in  the  same 
way  as  the  surviving  twin,  a  custom 
which  may  be  of  great  importance  in 
our  coming  to  understand  the  nature  of 
the  characteristic  Yoruba  observances. 
The  Yoruba  believe  in  reincarnation: 
the  soul  of  an  ancestor  continues  to  pass 
into  the  bodies  of  his  descendants  through 
time.  This  transmission  is  detected  either 
through  special  attributes  of  the  child  or 
through  divination.  The  concept  often 
finds  expression  in  giving  the  child  such 
names  as  babalunde  'father  returned'  or 
omotunde  'son  returned.'  In  the  case  of 
twins,  however,  there  is  no  such  refer- 
ence to  family  souls.  Their  separate  na- 
ture is  set  forth  in  two  or  three  fixed 
names  which  are  borne  by  all  Yoruba 
twins  of  either  sex:  the  first  born,  re- 
garded as  the  younger,  is  called  Taiwo; 
the  following  twin  is  called  Kehinde.  In 
certain  unexplained  cases  a  twin  may  be 
called  Edun.     The  child  who  follows 


JULY    Page  5 


r 


Three  figures  from  the  city  of  Oyo,  probably  carved  by  the  same  group  of  carvers,  but  representing  three  different 
sets  of  twins.  Their  similarity  to  each  other  indicates  that  they  were  not  intended  to  be  faithful  portraits. 
Height  of  full  figures  from  left  to  right:  ll^.  10)4,  11^  iru:hes. 


twins  is  usually  called  Idowu. 

This  practice  of  naming  may  imply 
that  twins  are  not  considered  to  be  rein- 
carnated members  of  the  family  but  in- 
stead sojourning  spirits  of  a  higher  order. 
This  seems  to  be  indicated  by  the  cere- 
mony that  surrounds  the  birth,  life  and 
death  of  twins  and  in  the  claim  that  their 
ad\ent  brings  good  fortune.  The  mother 
of  twins  who  have  died  prays  that  they 
be  born  to  her  again.  Supernatural  at- 
tributes are  also  imputed  to  the  child 
who  is  born  after  the  twins;  one  saying 
equates  him  with  Eshu.  the  orisha  of 
mischief. 

We  know  little  more  about  the  quan- 
tity of  the  supernatural  component  of 
Yoruba  twins  than  of  its  quality.  Most 
authors  imply  that  twin  souls  are  born 
into  twin  bodies.  Certain  groups  be- 
lieve in  a  double  creation :  a  soul  is  born 
on  earth  and  its  counterpart  in  heaven. 
In  the  case  of  twins,  it  may  be  that  the 
heavenly  soul  comes  to  earth  as  a  twin. 

Whomever  the  soul  of  a  twin  may  rep- 
resent, it  seems  almost  inseparably  locked 
with  that  of  its  other  twin.  This  is  evi- 
dent in  the  production  and  use  of  twin 
images.  As  far  as  we  now  know,  these 
sculptures  have  no  other  reason  to  exist 
than  the  maintenance  of  this  linkage. 
W'hen  twins  are  born,  their  father  con- 
sults a  diviner  who  uses  the  Ifa  oracle  to 
indicate  the  special  ceremonies  that  the 
family  must  observe  for  their  new  twins. 
The  suggestions  offered  through  this  pro- 
cedure concern  such  questions  as  the 
future  of  the  twins,  their  dedication  to 

Page  6     JULY 


the  cults  of  certain  orisha,  their  repre- 
sentation by  images,  the  foods  to  be  pre- 
pared for  their  ceremonies  and  the  spe- 
cial behavior  of  their  parents  in  public. 
Infant  mortality  was  high  in  tradi- 
tional Africa,  and  the  mortality  rate  of 
twins  is  known  to  be  higher  than  that  of 
single  births.  One  or  both  of  the  twins 
often  died.  In  this  case,  the  parents 
would  have  to  order  an  image  of  the 
deceased  child.  This  figure  was  prob- 
ably consecrated  in  some  way  and  there- 
after served  as  the  dwelling  place  of  the 
soul  of  the  dead  twin. 

Care  of  Twins 

In  a  sense,  twins  are  regarded  as  one 
person;  they  must  always  be  treated  in 
the  same  way.  When  they  are  alive, 
they  are  given  the  same  food,  the  same 
beads  and,  if  of  the  same  sex,  the  same 
clothing.  If  one  is  hurt,  its  twin  is  hurt 
in  the  same  place. 

This  equivalence  is  observed  after  the 
death  of  one  or  both  twins.  At  intervals 
the  image  is  symbolically  fed,  washed, 
and  beautified  with  both  pigments — 
indigo  or  European  laundry  blueing  ap- 
plied to  its  headdress  and  a  red  ointment 
of  powdered  camwood  and  palm  oil 
rubbed  on  its  face  and  body — and  orna- 
ments such  as  beads,  shells  and  metal 
rings.  These  ornaments  are  as  much 
intended  to  show  esteem  for  the  twins 
and  pride  in  the  family  wealth  as  to  en- 
hance the  appearance  of  the  image. 
Should  the  surviving  twin  injure  hiin- 
self,  the  image  of  his  twin  is  injured  in 


the  same  way  in  the  same  place.  If  the 
surviving  twin  is  given  a  cloth  for  a  gar- 
ment, small  pieces  of  it  are  cut  off  to 
clothe  the  images.  If  this  is  not  done, 
it  is  believed  that  the  neglected  soul  will 
be  jealous  and  depart,  taking  his  twin 
with  him.  If  both  twins  die,  a  mother 
who  neglects  their  images  risks  becom- 
ing sterile. 

The  continual  washing  and  feeding  of 
the  images  tends  to  wear  down  the  fea- 
tures of  their  faces.  Figures  made  face- 
less in  this  way  are  not  uncommon.  In 
some  pairs,  apparently  carved  at  the 
same  time,  the  face  of  one  image  is  far 
more  worn  away  than  that  of  the  other 
indicating  that  one  had  died  and  the 
other  survived  or,  otherwise,  died  much 
later.  Why,  then,  the  need  for  a  ritu- 
ally  superfluous  image  of  the  living  twin? 
Perhaps  the  images  of  both  are  carved 
at  the  same  time  so  that  the  balance  will 
not  be  disturbed :  the  soul  of  the  living 
thus  need  not  envy  the  soul  of  the  dead 
its  attractive  resting-place. 

The  mother  is  charged  with  tending 
the  image  of  the  deceased  twin  imtil  the 
survivor  is  old  enough  to  take  over  its 
care.  In  the  case  of  both  twins  dying 
early,  the  mother  tends  them  for  the  rest 
of  her  life.  Those  who  care  for  the  im- 
ages carry  them  to  be  blessed  at  the  cere- 
monies of  important  cults  or  bring  them 
together  with  other  twin  images  in  the 
family  compound  at  special  times  for 
ceremonies  said  to  be  held  primarily  in 
the  interest  of  twins  and  their  parents. 

This  painstaking  treatment  seems  to 
be  more  than  doll-play  or  literal-minded 
observance  of  a  dimly  understood  tradi- 
tion. Yoruba  girls  have  dolls  which  are 
quite  different   in  form   and   meaning 

Over  the  years  after  the  ritual  feeding  and  washing 
of  the  image  gradually  wears  away  its  face.  Twin 
figures  wear  diverse  beads  which  proclaim  wealth  and 
cult  affiliation.  The  face  of  this  figure  probably  re- 
sembled that  of  right  hand  figure  at  lop  of  next 
page.    Height:  1)4,  inches. 


Twin  figures  showing  the  extent  of  regional  variation. 
Both  are  from  western  Yorubaland.  Left,  llj^,  a 
style  oj  the  Shaki  region  in  the  north;  right,  9  J^,  the 
region  of  Abeokuta  about  100  miles  to  the  south. 

from  the  twin  figures.  The  guardian 
of  the  image  seems  to  strongly  feel  his  or 
her  responsibility  to  its  indwelling  soul. 
Quite  elderly  Yoruba  women  have  been 
seen  tending  the  images  of  their  twin 
sisters.  Early  in  this  century  anthropol- 
ogists succeeded  in  buying  away  such 
images,  but  only  after  certain  rites  were 
performed  to  transfer  the  soul  into  a  new 
image.  Later  travellers  in  Yorubaland 
— such  as  Mr.  Underwood — were  more 
considerate  of  family  affairs  and  ob- 
tained their  twin  figures  through  traders 
who  obtained  them  mostly  from  Muslim 
and  Christian  converts.  On  the  other 
hand,  with  the  decline  of  the  twin  cus- 
toms in  the  more  modernized  Yoruba 
centers,  carvers,  noting  European  inter- 
est in  these  easily  handled  epitomes  of 
traditional  sculpture,  have  turned  to 
making  them  for  sale  as  souvenirs. 

Looking  at  a  large  number  of  twin 
images  carved  by  one  man  or  his  fol- 
lowers gives  us  an  idea  of  the  respect 
that  the  twins'  families  feel  for  their  de- 
ceased members.  We  also  see  that  de- 
spite their  belonging  to  different  fam- 
ilies, the  figures  resemble  each  other  very 
closely.  But  for  ornamental  scar  pat- 
terns, their  faces  are  almost  identical, 
and  sometimes  these  patterns  are  the 
same.    The  images  are  clearly  not  por- 


traits in  our  sense  of  the  word,  and  yet 
they  are  quite  recognizable  to  their  fam- 
ilies, to  the  extent  that  they  can  be  used 
as  genealogical  reference  points. 

Upon  the  death  of  the  guardian,  the 
images  are  no  longer  carefully  tended. 
They  are  still  kept  by  the  family,  to- 
gether with  other  twin  images,  in  a  spe- 
cial place  which  may  be  the  shrine  or 
the  altar  of  a  family  orisha.  They  are 
apparently  kept  as  long  as  circumstances 
permit;  an  example  found  in  one  Yo- 
ruba town  was  traced  back  to  110  years 
earlier.  The  twin  image  thus  seems  to 
undergo  a  functional  transformation 
from  soul-container  to  commemorative 
figure. 

Although  not  a  faithful  portrait  of  an 
individual,  the  twin  figure  does  have 
attributes  which  serve  as  makers  of  so- 
cial status  and  which  may  be  sufficient 
for  establishing  its  identity  within  its 
family.  Types  of  coiffure  and  beads  may 
be  said  to  symbolize  affiliation  with  cults 
or  professional  groups  (often  the  two 
forms  of  association  are  not  distinct  from 
each  other). 

The  Statues  as  Traditional  Sculpture 

Even  though  the  features  of  twin  fig- 
ures may  not  lead  us  to  discover  the 
identity  of  the  persons  they  represented, 
they  can  greatly  help  in  the  identifica- 
tion of  Yoruba  carvers.  These  days,  the 
study  of  African  traditional  sculpture  in 
its  original  contexts  must  be  pursued  as 
quickly  as  possible;  in  most  parts  of  the 
continent  the  conditions  that  sustained 
the  old  forms  of  wood-carving  are  chang- 
ing rapidly  and  abruptly.  The  Yoruba 
offer  the  best  field  for  the  investigation 
of  most  aspects  of  this  subject.  In  the 
sense  of  maintaining  the  framework  of 
their  traditional  institutions  and  of  ad- 
hering to  their  fundamental  religious 
concepts,  they  are  conservative.  Even 
where  they  have  been  nominally  ac- 
cepted, Christianity  and  Islam  have  not 
replaced  the  traditional  religion.  (The 
persistence  of  the  old  beliefs  is  demon- 
strated by  the  observance  of  the  Yoruba 
twin  customs  by  Brazilians  of  Yoruba 
descent;  in  eastern  Brazil  the  customs 
have  been  reinterpreted  into  the  cult  of 
the  twin  Saints,  Cosmas  and  Damian.) 
The  traditional  cults  and  customs  re- 
quired a  sizeable  inventory  of  carved 
paraphernalia.     Cults  in  this  populous 

JULY    Page  7 


land  gave  rise  to  and  sustained  many 
carvers,  some  of  whom,  although  anony- 
mous, arc  notable  for  their  excellence, 
both  in  our  terms  and  those  of  the  Yo- 
ruba. The  intensive  production  of  sculp- 
ture occasioned  considerable  striving  for 
self-expression  and  individuality  within 
traditional  dictates  of  form. 

Some  anthropologists  believe  that 
twin  figures  offer  a  basic  field  for  the 
study  of  Yoruba  sculpture.  William 
Fagg,  the  foremost  authority  on  Yoruba 
twin  figures,  states  this  point  concisely: 
"Almost  all  the  Yoruba  have  the  custom 
of  replacing  dead  twins  by  carved  fig- 
ures of  more  or  less  constant  size  (about 
10  inches)  and  posture,  and  almost  every 
Yoruba  carver  nmst  have  carved  exam- 
ples of  them,  thus  providing  closely  com- 
parable material  for  stylistic  comparison; 
the  range  of  sculptural  expression 
achieved  within  the  rather  narrow  limits 
of  this  art  form  is  extraordinary,  and  the 
individuality  of  the  carvers  stands  out  all 
the  more  strikingly  because  of  the  un- 
varying subject  matter." 

Thus  we  can  often  discern  quite  dis- 
tinct styles  in  the  gross  features  of  a  ran- 
dom selection  of  twin  figures  from  differ- 
ent parts  of  Yorubaland.  A  modest 
amount  of  documentation  enables  us  to 
attribute  some  of  these  styles  to  certain 
large  regions  and,  perhaps  less  often,  to 
certain  towns.  The  tradition  of  the  twin 
figure,  as  Fagg  has  pointed  out,  grants 


This  shirt  covered  with  cowry  shells  honors  the  twin 
and  indicates  its  family's  wealth:  the  Toruba  for- 
merly used  cowries  as  money.  The  overlapping  ar- 
rangement of  the  shells  may  symbolize  the  twin's 
dedication  to  a  certain  cult.  The  shirt  came  into  the 
collection  without  any  figure. 


the  investigator  a  technique  for  more 
precise  documentation  of  styles  and  in- 
dividual carvers. 

Where  other  sculptures  are  often,  by 
virtue  of  their  size,  situation  and  sculp- 
tural elaboration,  liable  to  damage  and 
consequently  to  abandonment,  twin  fig- 
ures, small  and  compact,  are  carefully 
kept  in  relatively  protected  situations. 

Since  their  families  regard  them  as  in- 
dividuals and  thus  can  refer  to  them  in 
genealogical  reckoning,  twin  figures  rep- 
resent points  in  time.  These  points, 
when  correlated  with  the  work  of  a 
named  carver,  can  indicate  the  develop- 
ment of  a  local  or  an  individual  style, 
one  which  could  also  be  expressed  in 
sculptures  of  major  importance. 

The  Yoruba  had  many  twins;  statis- 
tics indicate  that  their  proportion  of  twin 
births  may  be  considerably  greater  than 
that  of  Europeans.  Understandably,  the 
twin  figure  is  the  commonest  type  of 
Voruba  sculpture.  Its  abundance  can 
reveal  the  existence  and  even  disclose 
the  identity  of  carvers  who  might  other- 
wise remain  forever  obscure. 

This  discussion  of  twin  images  should 
suggest  the  many  problems  posed  by 
their  form  and  function.  Many  of  these 
problems — and  certain  others — are  evi- 
dent in  Mr.  Underwood's  collection, 
since  it  covers  a  good  part  of  the  twin 
image-producing  part  of  Yorubaland. 
Quite  conceivably  it  may  also  cover  a 
good  span  of  time.  A  few  of  the  images 
show  such  old  features  as  the  lip-plug 
once  worn  by  women  and  the  codpiece- 
style  breeches  worn  by  Europeans  in  the 
16th  Century.  We  hope  to  make  the 
collection  more  representative  through 
acquisition  of  examples  of  certain  well- 
known  styles  from  eastern  and  northern 
Yorubaland.  Even  as  the  collection  now 
stands,  students  of  African  art  and  re- 
ligion should  welcome  this  large,  diver- 
sified group  to  the  Museum. 


FIELD    MUSEUM 

OF   NATURAL   HISTORY 

ROOSEVEUT  ROAD  AT  LAKE  SHORE  DRIVE 
CHICAGO.  ILLINOIS  60605  A.C.  312.  922-9410 
FOUNDED  BY  MARSHALL  FIELD.  1893 

E.  Leland  Webber,  Director 

BULLETIN 

Edward  G.  Nash,  Managing  Editor 


BRENTON  SAILS  AGAIN 

Francis  Brenton,  who  last  year  singlehandedly  piloted  two  canoes  lashed  together 
from  the  Colombian  coast  three  thousand  miles  to  Chicago  and  Field  Museum,  left 
early  in  June  on  an  even  more  difficult  and  dangerous  trip.  Brenton  left  Diversey 
Harbor  bound  for  West  Africa,  via  the  Great  Lakes,  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  North 
Atlantic.  He  sails  in  the  same  26-foot  dugout,  the  Sierra  Sagrada,  in  which  he 
sailed  from  South  America  last  year.  He  has  added  a  fiberglass-covered  pontoon, 
a  20  horse  power  long-shaft  motor  and  a  fiberglass  kayak,  for  exploring  West  Afri- 
can rivers. 

He  goes  with  a  shopping  list  for  the  Museum's  Department  of  Anthropology, 
which  is  interested  in  obtaining  handicrafts,  fishing,  hunting  and  agricultural  tools. 
He  expects  to  reach  St.  Louis,  his  first  port  of  call  in  Africa,  on  the  frontier  between 
Senegal  and  Mauritania,  in  five  months.  He  will  then  head  up  the  Senegal  River 
in  his  kayak  on  the  first  leg  of  a  tour  of  the  West  African  bulge  which  will  lead  him 
ultimately  to  Timbuktu  in  Mali. 

The  final  portion  of  his  trip  will  be  across  the  Atlantic  to  British  Guiana  and 
Brazil,  and,  sometime  toward  the  end  of  next  year,  a  return  to  Chicago. 

Museum  open  9  a.m.  to  6  p.m.  every 

CALENDAR      OF      EVENTS       day;  open  to  S  p. m.  on   Wednesday, 

Friday,  Saturday  and  Sunday 

July  12  through  August  Exhibit:  Yoruba  Twin  Figures.  The  Underwood 
Collection  of  twin  statuettes  from  Nigeria.    See  Cover  Story.     Hall  9  Gallery. 

July  12  Lecture:  Yorub.a  Twin  Figures.  Artist  John  Underwood  speaks  on  the 
twin  cult  and  Nigerian  art  at  8  p.m. 

July  1 3  Film  for  children:  A  Bit  of  Can.^d.^.  Previews  of  what  can  be  seen  on 
the  way  to  Expo  '67.    James  Simpson  Theatre,  10  a.m.  and  1  p.m. 

July  20  Film  for  children:  Water  Fun.  James  Simpson  Theatre,  10  a.m.  and 
1  p.m.;  special  program  for  Cub  Scouts  at  11  a.m. 

July  27  Film  for  children:  Yellowstone  National  Park  .\nd  Its  Bears.  James 
Simpson  Theatre,  10  a.m.  and  1  p.m. 

August  3  Film  for  children :  Potlatch  Country:  Idaho.  A  wilderness  of  adven- 
ture.   10  a.m.  and  1  p.m.  James  Simpson  Theatre. 

August  5-27  Exhibit:  The  Enigma  of  Colors  and  Patterns.  31  photographs 
and  drawings  illustrate  such  phenomena  as  protective  coloration  and  adaptation 
in  the  Animal  Kingdom. 

August  10  Film  for  children:  Living  Giants.  The  biggest  living  things  in  the 
world  today.    James  Simpson  Theatre,  10  a.m.  and  1  p.m. 

Through  August  Summer  Journey :  Animal  Immigrants.  A  self-guided  tour  for 
young  people  of  exhibits  showing  animals  found  in  the  United  States  but  native 
to  other  countries.  Direction  sheets  and  information  available  at  both  Museum 
entrances  and  the  information  desk. 

MEETINGS   1   Chicago  Shell  Club,  July  9  and  August  13,  2  p.m. 

FIVE  TOUR  SPOTS  STILL  OPEN 

Five  openings  remain  on  the  October  27-November  12  Field  Museum 
Tour  of  Guatemala,  according  to  Phil  Clark,  Museiun  Public  Relations  Counsel 
and  leader  of  the  Tour. 

The  Tour,  for  two  groups  of  30  each,  now  has  55  registrations.  It  will  visit 
Spanish  Colonial  towns,  Indian  villages  and  markets,  ruins  of  Maya  temples  and 
pyramids,  volcano-circled  lakes,  pine-covered  mountains,  rainforest  jungles  and 
private  homes  and  gardens.  Experts  on  archaeology,  ethnology,  botany  and  gar- 
dening will  accompany  the  Tour,  which  will  also  hear  Guatemalan  specialists  on 
birds  and  handicrafts. 

Price  of  the  Tour,  all  expenses  included,  is  $1,260,  including  a  $400  tax  de- 
ductible donation  to  Field  Museum.  Information  is  available  by  writing  Field 
Museum's  Guatemala  Tour,  Field  Museum. 


Pages     JILT 


PRINTED  BY  FIELD  MUSEUM  PRESS 


BULLETIN  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

Volume  38,  Number  8    August,  1967 


■"!»*.. 


Cabbages  and  Kin 

by  Louis  0.  Williams,  Chief  Curator,  Botarv, 


Spanish  half-long  radish  is  a 
root  of  the  Earth  Vegetable 
category,  black  in  color  and 
tasting  like  a  turnip. 


Botanists  and  others  who  work  with  the  systematics  of  plants 
sometimes  are  inclined  to  overlook  the  prosaic  things  that  are 
our  food  plants,  or  even  to  consider  them  unworthy  of  serious 
study.  But  just  consider  a  few  food  plants,  and  you'll  see  how 
mistaken  this  view  is. 

The  mustard  family  of  plants  {Crucijerae)  contributes  a 
number  of  interesting  things  to  our  everyday  diet,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  ubiquitous  yellow  paste  commonly  spread  on  ham- 
burgers and  hotdogs.  For  example,  Brussels  sprouts  is  an 
herbage  vegetable  of  the  mustard  family. 

A  close  relative  of  the  cabbage,  Brussels  sprouts  goes  by 
the  botanical  name  Brassica  oleracea  var.  gemmijera.  Brassica 
oleracea  is  the  common  cabbage,  the  variety  gemmijera  is  the 
kind  of  cabbage  that  is  "bud  or  sprout  bearing."  These  mini- 
ature "cabbages"  of  Brussels  sprouts  develop  from  axillary 
buds  along  the  stem  of  the  plant.  Another  characteristic  of 
the  cabbage-type  vegetables  in  the  mustard  family  is  the  cool 
climate  they  require.  The  Brussels  sprouts  plant  will  not  de- 
velop the  edible  buds  where  the  temperature  average  is  much 
above  55  degrees  F.  In  northern  Europe,  the  climate  is  well 
suited  for  growing  cabbage-type  vegetables.  As  its  name 
suggests,  Brussels  sprouts  grows  well  in  the  climate  and  soil 
of  Belgium,  and  it  is  likely  the  plant  existed  there  as  early  as 
1200.  Brussels  sprouts  was  first  described  in  a  record  dated 
1587,  but  little  was  known  about  it,  even  by  botanists,  until 
the  17th  century.  Despite  its  long  history,  Brussels  sprouts  is 
a  newcomer  to  the  dinner  table.  Frozen  food  processing  has 
made  Brussels  sprouts  conveniently  available  and  greatly  in- 
creased its  production  in  the  regions  where  it  can  grow. 

No  self-respecting  food  store  is  without  Brussels  sprouts  in 
its  frozen  food  section,  yet  there  are  many  people  who  do  not 
know  what  the  plant  that  produces  this  vegetable  looks  like. 
This  month's  Bulletin  cover  will  help  remedy  this.  It  shows 
a  model  of  Brussels  sprouts  recently  completed  by  Mr.  Frank 
Boryca  of  the  Museum's  Exhibition  Department,  placed  on 
exhibition  in  the  Hall  of  Useful  Plants.  The  next  time  you 
come  to  the  Museum,  go  to  Hall  28  to  see  it  and  other  plants 
useful  to  man. 

Plants  of  economic  importance,  those  that  supply  varied 
products  that  are  useful  to  man,  are  a  relatively  small  group 
in  comparison  to  all  the  kinds  of  plants.  There  are  probably 
no  more  than  a  dozen  plants  of  major  importance  to  man. 


This  is  the  stem  of  a  Kohlrabi  plant.  The  fleshy, 
edible  structure  develops  jusi  above  the  ground  and  has 
large  leaves,  cut  off  in  this  model,  growing  out  of  it. 


Page  2     AUG  US/ 


The  average  consumer  is  likely  to  associate  plants  of  similar  usage;  thus,  carrots, 
radishes,  beets  arui  parsnips  are  somehow  similar,  since  we  eat  their  roots.  Often, 
however,  the  true  systematic  relationships  are  quite  different.  The  plant  models  pic- 
tured in  this  month's  Bulletin, /rom  the  .Museum's  Hall  oj  Vsejul  Plants,  are  all 
crucijers,  named  for  the  cross-shaped  flower  common  to  the  family. 


Certainly,  the  plant  most  useful  to  man  is  maize,  and  rice, 
wheat,  the  potato  and  beans  rank  high.  Corn  is  found  in  more 
food  stuffs  and  industrial  products  than  any  other  plant. 

Man  is  by  nature  a  classifier,  and  the  types  of  useful  plants 
have  been  classified  in  various  ways.  Dr.  Albert  F.  Hill's 
Economic  Botany  (McGraw-Hill,  1952)  is  a  thorough  and  in- 
teresting reference  book  on  economically  valuable  plants. 
Dr.  Hill  provides  a  simple  classification  of  economic  plants, 
dividing  them  into  four  major  categories  based  on  the  uses 
they  serve:  Industrial  Plants  and  Plant  Products;  Drug  Plants 
and  Drugs;  Food  Plants;  and  Food  .Adjuncts.  Each  one  of 
these  categories  is  subdivided  into  more  specific  divisions. 

-According  to  Dr.  Hill's  system  of  classification,  Brussels 
sprouts  falls  into  the  group  Food  Plants.  Dr.  Hill  subdivides 
these  into  the  following:  Major  Cereals;  Minor  Cereals  and 
Small  Grains;  Legumes  and  Nuts;  \'egetables;  Fruits  of  Tem- 
perate Regions;  and  Tropical  Fruits.  Turning  to  the  V'ege- 
tables,  we  find  that  these  are  broken  down  into  the  following 
categories:  Earth  Vegetables,  such  as  the  potato,  carrot  and 
onion  in  which  the  food  is  stored  in  underground  parts;  Fruit 
Vegetables  like  tomato,  avocado  and  eggplant  which  are 
technically  fruits,  but  are  cooked  as  vegetables  or  used  raw 
in  salad;  and  Herbage  Vegetables  like  spinach,  asparagus  and 
cabbage  in  which  the  nutrients  are  stored  above  ground. 
Brussels  sprouts  and  the  other  cabbage-types  are  classified 
among  the  Herbage  Vegetables. 


Theie  is  no  clear-cut  distinction  between  vegetables  and 
fruits,  but  generally,  plants  or  plant  parts  that  are  cooked 
and  seasoned  with  salt  are  vegetables,  and  those  flavored 
with  sugar  are  fruits.  The  radish  fits  neither  category, 
since  it  is  eaten  raw,  but  as  a  root,  it  is  classed  an  Earth 
Vegetable. 


Cauliflower  is  a  Fruit  Vegetable  of  the 
mustard  family.  Like  broccoli,  the  modi- 
fled,  partly  developed  flower  structures  and 
stems  are  the  edible  part  of  the  cauliflower. 


Ule  of  ^  TIKI 

by  Christopher  C.  Legge,  Custodian  of  Collections,  Anthropology 
and  Edward  G.  Nash 


That  remarkable  century,  the  Eight- 
eenth, saw  the  beginnings  of  much  of  our 
modern  world.  The  Industrial  Revolu- 
tion and  political  revolutions  reshaped 
the  social,  political  and  physical  life  of 
Western  man.  The  rise  of  scientific  in- 
quiry in  the  modern  sense  changed  man's 
view  of  his  universe.  Natural  sciences 
were,  in  effect,  born  during  the  eight- 
eenth century  as  true  systematic  sciences. 
The  establishment  of  the  Linnaean  sys- 
tem of  classification  (1753  for  flowering 
plants,  1758  for  animals)  provided  bench- 
marks for  all  later  nomenclatura!  work 
on  living  things.  The  great  public  mu- 
seums date  from  the  eighteenth  century : 
the  British  Museum  was  created  by  Par- 
liament in  1753.  Twenty  years  later  the 
Vatican  opened  a  public  museum.  The 
Louvre  was  established  as  a  museum  in 
1793  by  the  French  Republic.  Many  of 
these  museums  grew  out  of  the  collec- 
tions of  art,  artifacts  and  specimens  made 
by  interested  amateurs;  collections  which 
coalesced — often  rather  haphazardly — 
into  the  modern  museums. 

Page  4     AUGUST 


One  such  collector  was  Sir  Ashton 
Lever,  of  Alkrington  Hall,  near  Man- 
chester. In  1760,  Lever  was  reputed  to 
have  the  finest  aviary  in  the  British  Isles. 
His  attention  turned  to  fossils  and  shells 
after  buying  several  hogsheads  of  shells  in 
France.  Lever  finally  became  a  human 
magpie,  collecting  all  kinds  of  natural 
objects,  savage  costumes  and  weapons. 

In  1774,  he  moved  his  collection  from 
Alkrington  Hall  to  Leicester  House, 
London.  In  this  stately  mansion  that 
forty  years  before  had  been  the  home  of 
George  II  when  he  was  Prince  of  Wales, 
Lever  opened  a  museum  which  he  called 
the  Holophusikon,  meaning  that  it  em- 
braced all  nature.  He  filled  16  rooms 
and  many  passages  with  26,000  items. 

The  Dictionary  of  National  Biography 
says  that  Lever  grew  eccentric  in  dress 
and  manner  as  he  grew  older.  The  as- 
sertion seems  to  be  based  on  an  entry  in 
Fanny  Burney's  diary  for  December  31st 
1782,  when  she  visited  the  museum.  She 
wrote,  "He  may  be  an  admirable  natur- 
alist but  I  think  that  if  in  other  matters 


you  leave  the  'ist'  out  you  will  not  much 
wrong  him."  Fanny  Barney  went  on  to 
say  that  he  pranced  around  dressed  in 
green,  with  feathers  in  his  hat,  a  bundle 
of  arrows  under  one  arm  and  a  bow  in 
his  hand.  He  may  not,  however,  have 
been  the  only  man  in  England  whose 
conduct  was  eccentric  on  a  New  Year's 
Eve.  Moreover,  Lever  always  had  a 
passion  for  archery.  When  he  died  of 
apoplexy  in  1788,  he  was  sitting  with  the 
other  magistrates  of  Manchester.  He 
was  capable  of  holding  responsible  office 
to  the  end. 

At  some  point  during  the  years  Lever 
maintained  his  museum  (1774-1785), 
he  added  to  the  26,000  pieces  in  his  col- 
lection a  small  hei-tiki,  a  Maori  neck 
pendant  of  a  female  figure  in  green  stone. 
Captain  James  Cook's  second  and  third 
voyages  to  the  South  Pacific  returned  to 
England  during  these  years,  and,  in- 
deed, no  other  European  had  visited 
New  Zealand.  The  tiki  must  have  come 
on  one  of  these  voyages.  Perhaps  Cook, 
who  undoubtedly  knew  Lever,  presented 
it  to  him  after  the  second  voyage.  But 
Lever  acquired  a  large  number  of  ob- 
jects from  Cook's  voyages  in  1781.  The 
third  expedition  had  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1780  after  the  explorer's  murder 
in  Hawaii,  and  it  is  more  probable  that 
the  piece  arrived  on  that  voyage. 

Tikis  were  fairly  common  ornaments 
in  New  Zealand.  Gilbert  Archey  in 
South  Sea  Folk  (1949)  writes,  "It  has  been 
suggested  that  the  curious  shape  of  the 
hei-tiki  indicated  a  human  foetus,  and 
that  it  was  a  fertility  charm  to  be  worn 
only  by  women,  but  records  of  early  ex- 
plorers show  that  it  was  commonly  worn 
by  men.  Moreover,  nearly  all  human 
figures  in  Maori  wood  carving  have  large 
heads  and  cramped  limbs,  and  a  more 
recent  view  is  that  the  hei-tiki  is  a  coun- 
terpart in  green  stone  of  a  human  figure 
in  wood  carving."  Lever's  tiki  is  four 
inches  high  and  two  or  so  wide.  The 
detail  is  good,  but  the  circular  inlaid 
paua  shell  eyes  look  badly  done,  due, 
perhaps,  to  the  flaking  off  of  the  upper 


layers  of  shell.  A  bird  bone  toggle  is  at- 
tached to  the  suspension  cord,  which  is 
looped  through  the  hole  between  the 
right  arm  and  the  side  of  the  figure. 

By  the  early  1 780's,  then,  the  tiki  had 
already  traveled  13,000  miles.  It  still 
had  some  distance  to  go.  Sir  Ashton's 
collecting  approached  mania,  and  his 
fortune  was  sadly  depleted.  A  Parlia- 
mentary committee  praised  the  high 
quality  of  the  collection  and  appraised  it 
at  53,000£.  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
whose  contribution  to  the  British  naval 
successes  of  the  Napoleonic  Wars  has 
never  been  fully  acknowledged,  was  a 
member  of  the  committee,  and  he  con- 
sidered the  collection  better  than  any  he 
had  seen  on  the  continent.  Another 
member.  Baron  Dimsdale,  an  early  ad- 
vocate of  innoculation,  had  seen  the  mu- 
seums at  St.   Petersburg  and   Moscow 


Copyright  British  Museum 

when  he  journeyed  to  Russia  to  innocu- 
late  Catherine  the  Great  and  the  Grand 
Duke  Paul  against  small  pox.  He  felt 
that,  even  taken  together,  the  two  mu- 
seums could  not  compare  with  Lever's. 
In  1783,  he  offered  it  to  the  British  Mu- 
seum for  somewhat  less  than  the  ap- 
praised value.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson 
hoped  that  the  Museum  would  purchase 
it,  but  the  trustees  declined. 

A  special  Act  of  Parliament  in  1785 
gave  Lever  permission  to  sell  his  collec- 
tion by  public  lottery.  36,000  tickets  at 
a  guinea  each  were  printed.  Unhap- 
pily, only  8,000  were  sold,  and  Lever 
realized  only  about  8400  £,  less  the  cost 
of  the  lottery. 


Mr.  James  Parkinson  won  the  lottery. 
At  the  end  of  1 787  he  moved  the  entire 
collection  to  the  Rotunda,  a  building 
near  Blackfriars  Bridge,  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Thames,  erected  by  Parkin- 
son for  the  collection.  The  name  be- 
came Museum  Leveriarum  and  for  a 
number  of  years  remained  one  of  the 
sights  of  London.  Parkinson  published 
a  series  of  six  volumes  called  Museum 
Leveriarum,  containing  descriptions  of  the 
collection  in  English  and  Latin,  with 
colored  plates  of  birds,  mammals  and 
reptiles.  Field  Museum  has  a  copy  in  its 
Rare  Book  Room. 

By  1806,  the  Museum  had  become 
neglected;  the  collection  was  broken  up 
into  nearly  8,000  lots  and  auctioned  off. 
The  sale  lasted  two  months,  with  a  cata- 
log running  to  406  pages.  William  Bul- 
lock, a  Liverpool  jeweler,  bought  a  num- 
ber of  the  lots  and  became  the  owner  of 
the  tiki.  He  opened  a  museum  in  Liver- 
pool and  published  a  catalog  in  1808 
which  described  specimens  from  Cook's 
voyages  and  other  items.  About  1812, 
Bullock,  and  the  tiki,  returned  to  Lon- 
don. He  housed  his  collection  in  the 
new  Egyptian  Hall  in  Piccadilly,  which 
later  became  known  as  the  London  Mu- 
seum. Bullock  eventually  turned  into 
something  of  a  Barnum.  He  bought  the 
carriage  used  constantly  by  Napoleon 
from  the  Moscow  campaign  to  Waterloo 
for  2500£.  Bullock  made  ten  times  that 
amount  by  exhibiting  it.  In  1819,  the 
year  of  Victoria's  birth,  Bullock  sold  off 
his  collection  to  obtain  funds  for  newer 


and  gaudier  projects.  The  tiki  became 
lot  47,  "Superb  idol  of  jade  stone  from 
New  Zealand."  The  tiki  then  disap- 
pears from  the  record. 

Queen  Victoria  had  been  on  the 
throne  for  60  years,  and  the  age  which 
took  her  name  was  nearing  its  end  when 
the  tiki  reappeared.  In  1897,  the  con- 
tents of  Hengrave  Hall,  a  fine  Tudor 
house  at  Bury  St.  Edmonds,  Suffolk, 
was  put  up  for  sale  by  the  trustees  of 
John  Lysaght.  Among  the  many  items 
was  Lever's  tiki,  still  carrying  the  label 
placed  on  it  in  Parkinson's  London  Mu- 
seum: "107  Idol,  New  Zealand,  curi- 
ously carved  in  beautiful  nephritic  stone 
or  jade,  worn  round  the  neck.  This  is 
the  largest  and  finest  that  was  in  the  col- 
lection of  the  Leverian  Museum." 

If  it  had  been  in  Hengrave  Hall  all 
those  years,  then  it  must  have  been  pur- 
chased in  1819  by  Thomas  Gage,  then 
the  master  of  Hengrave.  If  it  came  to 
Hengrave  later,  it  passed  through  that 
untraceable  and  amorphous  link  called 
"many  other  hands."  A  successful  Ip- 
swich dry  goods  man,  Alfred  Pretty, 
bought  it  at  the  Hengrave  sale. 

In  1913  the  tiki  came  into  the  collec- 
tion of  the  famed  Oceanic  collector, 
Captain  A.  W.  F.  Fuller  and  remained 
in  his  home  at  Tulse  Hill,  Surrey.  In 
1958,  Field  Museum  acquired  more  than 
5,000  specimens  of  Fuller's  excellent  col- 
lection, and  the  tiki  crossed  the  Atlantic. 
Field  Museum  placed  it  in  Hall  F,  de- 
voted to  Polynesia  and  Micronesia.  And 
there  it  rests. 


Leicester  Square  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,     Leicester  House^  with  a  small  courtyard  in  front, 
is  at  the  upper  right  corner  oj  the  Square.    Here  Sir  Ashton  Lever  had  his  museum  for  11  years. 

Copyright  London  Museum. 


AUGUST     Pages 


Fall  Workshops  for  Members'  Children 

An  opportunity  to  meet  Museum  staff  and  work  with  specimens  and  materials  from  the  Museum's  scientific 
collections  is  again  offered  in  a  series  of  unique  workshops  open  to  the  children  and  grandchildren  of  Members. 
Designed  by  the  Raymond  Foundation  to  stimulate  and  develop  interest  in  the  study  of  nature  and  man,  these 
small  group  workshops,  geared  to  different  age  levels,  have  been  enthusiastically  received  by  Museum  Members 
and  their  families  since  they  began  in  1963.  These  Saturday  programs  last  about  one  hour  for  the  younger 
children  and  one  and  a  half  hours  for  the  older  children.  Allow  extra  time  if  children  are  to  bring  specimens 
for  identification. 

Reservations  are  necessary,  and  application  forms  are  inserted  in  this  issue  of  the  Bulletin.  Since  it  will 
probably  not  be  possible  to  accommodate  all  applicants,  we  urge  you  to  mail  in  your  applications  early. 
Please  list  the  program,  date  and  hour  you  wish,  in  order  of  preference.  Each  applicant  will  be  scheduled 
into  one  program  only,  and  reservations  will  be  accepted  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  received.  Applicants 
accepted  will  receive  a  confirmation  card  which  will  serve  as  an  admission  card  to  the  workshop. 

Make  your  selections  and  send  your  application  now,  to  Raymond  Foundation,  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 


September  30 

Indians  of  Woodlands  and  Plains 

Harriet  Smith,  Leader 
For  ages  8-10  10:30  A.M. 

For  ages  11 -14  1:30  P.M. 

Indian  tribes  have  developed  ways  of  life  that  are  adapted  to 
their  environment,  and  they  have  also  shown  great  skill  in 
utilizing  materials  furnished  by  nature  to  suit  man's  pur- 
poses. In  this  workshop,  youngsters  will  handle  various  nat- 
urally-occiuring  raw  materials  and  see  how  the  Indians 
utilized  them  in  making  tools,  weapons  and  household  equip- 
ment. Movies  showing  how  Indian  life  varied  in  the  wood- 
lands and  western  plains  will  also  be  shown. 

Insects 

George  Fricke,  Leader 
For  ages  9-10  10:30  A.M. 

Forages  11-12  1:30  P.M. 

Work  with  Museum  specimens  will  show  structure  and  parts 
of  insects.  Emphasis  will  be  on  collecting,  preserving  and 
displaying  insects. 


October  7 


Life  in  an  Old  Dead  Tree 

Marie  Svoboda,  Leader 


For  ages  5-7 

Parents  are  also  invited. 


10:30  A.M. 
and  1:30  P.M. 


This  is  a  special  program  for  family  groups.  It  will  demon- 
strate the  different  kinds  of  animals  that  might  make  their 
home  in  an  old  dead  tree.  Such  a  dwelling  place  is  picked, 
not  for  its  beautiful  setting  or  for  its  lovely  view,  but  for  the 
protection  it  affords. 


Boneyard  Menagerie 

Ernest  Roscoe,  Leader 
For  ages  6-7  10:30  A.M.  and  1 :30  P.M. 

This  workshop  will  "rattle  the  skeletons  in  a  few  closets"  by 
discussing  the  prehistoric  relatives  of  familiar  animals  found 
in  zoos  and  aquaria.  Children  should  be  accompanied  by 
at  least  one  parent.     Be  prepared  for  a  few  surprises! 


Page  6     AUGUST 


October  14 


Birds 

George  Fricke,  Leader 


Forage?  10:30  A.M. 

Work  will  be  done  with  Museum  specimens  to  point  out  the 
parts  of  a  bird.  Emphasis  will  be  given  to  attracting  birds 
and  feeding  them  in  winter. 

Insects 

George  Fricke,  Leader 
For  age  8  1 :30  P.M. 

For  a  description  of  this  workshop  see  the  September  30  work- 
shop on  Insects. 

Rock  and  Mineral  Kingdom 

Ernest  Roscoe,  Leader 
Forages  10-13  10:30A.M. 

This  is  a  slightly  advanced  program  on  rocks  and  minerals. 
After  a  talk  on  the  qualities  and  characteristics  for  identifying 
different  species  of  rocks  and  minerals,  youngsters  will  be  sent 
to  the  exhibition  halls  with  question  sheets  to  answer  on  their 
own.  Children  may  bring  their  own  specimens  for  identi- 
fication. 

October  21 

Caveman  to  Civilization 

Edith  Fleming,  Leader 
For  ages  10-1 3  10:30  A.M.  and  1 :30  P.M. 

A  movie  on  the  life  of  the  cave  men,  showing  how  they  hunted 
prehistoric  animals,  opens  this  workshop.  In  the  discussion 
and  demonstration  period  following,  boys  and  girls  will  exam- 
ine real  tools  used  by  cave  men  thousands  of  years  ago,  learn 
how  they  were  made,  and  compare  them  to  tools  used  today. 

From  Fish  to  Man 

Ernest  Roscoe,  Leader 
For  ages  10-1 3  10:30  A.M. 

This  workshop  will  trace  the  development  of  the  vertebrates, 
animals  with  backbones.  Starting  with  fish,  the  first 
members  of  the  vertebrates,  the  workshop  will  proceed  to 
amphibians,  then  reptiles,  birds  and  the  most  complex  verte- 
brates, the  mammals,  culminating  in  man. 

October  28 

Rockology 

Ernest  Roscoe,  Leader 
For  ages  8-9  10:30A.M. 

Parents  are  also  invited.  and  1 :30  P.M. 

For  a  good  introduction  to  rocks  and  minerals,  apply  for  this 
workshop.  There  will  be  specimens  to  study,  demonstrations 
and  an  informative  session  in  the  exhibition  halls.  You  can 
bring  your  own  specimens  for  identification. 


NEW  MINERAL  HONORS 
STANLEY  FIELD 

A  NEW  mineral,  stanfieldite,  not  known  in  terrestrial  rocks, 
has  been  discovered  in  the  Esterville  meteorite.  The  mete- 
orite fell  in  1879  in  Emmet  County,  Iowa,  near  the  town  of 
Esterville.  Several  large  masses  totaling  over  700  pounds 
were  recovered.  Specimens  of  this  meteorite  have  been  used 
for  various  scientific  studies  for  several  years,  but  this  new 
mineral  was  not  discovered  until  recently.  The  mineral  is  a 
phosphate  of  calcium,  magnesium,  and  iron  and  has  the 
chemical  formula:  Ca4Mg3Fe2  (P04)6.  Only  a  few  grains  of 
the  mineral  have  been  found  in  a  piece  of  the  meteorite 
2'  X  1"  X  ^''  in  size.  The  largest  grain  measures  1/25  of  an 
inch  in  diameter;  however,  this  is  sufficiently  large  for  the 
determination  of  its  properties  and  chemical  composition  by 
modern  analytical  methods. 

Over  the  years  the  Museum  has  acquired  pieces  of  the 
Esterville  meteorite.  At  the  present  time  the  Museum's  hold- 
ings consist  of  146  individual  pieces  which  total  twenty-one 
poimds. 

Although  meteorites  are  usually  named  after  the  geograph- 
ical locality  where  they  are  found,  new  minerals  found  in 
meteorites  are  often  named  after  persons  who  were  or  are 
prominent  investigators  of  meteorites,  or  after  persons  who 
have  performed  other  valuable  services  to  the  field  of  meteo- 
ritics.  The  mineral  farringtonite,  for  example,  was  named 
after  Dr.  O.  C.  Farrington  (1864-1933),  former  Curator  of 
Geology  at  Field  Museum.  He  and  the  late  Mr.  Stanley  Field, 
former  Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  were  largely  re- 
sponsible for  building  up  the  meteorite  collection  of  the  Mu- 
seum to  one  of  the  world's  largest  by  means  of  purchases, 
exchanges,  and  field  finds.  The  new  mineral,  stanfieldite,  is 
named  in  recognition  of  Mr.  Stanley  Field's  participation  in 
this  achievement.  When  a  name  has  been  assigned  to  a  min- 
eral, the  same  name  may  not  be  used  to  designate  another 
mineral.  The  name  fieldite  was  used  many  years  ago  with 
reference  to  another  mineral  and  honoring  a  different  Field. 
Hence,  in  this  case,  the  new  mineral  was  named  by  com- 
pounding Mr.  Stanley  Field's  first  and  last  names.  It  is  one 
of  a  group  of  rare  phosphate  minerals  which  has  recently 
been  found  by  the  writer  in  several  meteorites.  Others  are 
brianite  (named  after  Dr.  Brian  Mason  of  the  U.  S.  National 
Museum)  and  panethite  (named  after  the  late  Dr.  F.  Paneth 
of  the  Max  Planck  Institute  for  Chemistry,  Mainz,  Germany). 

The  mineral  and  name  have  been  approved  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Commission  on  New  Minerals  and  Mineral  Names 
of  the  International  Mineralogical  Association.  Members  of 
this  Commission  voting  were  from  the  following  countries: 
Belgium,  Czechoslovakia,  Bulgaria,  Canada,  Denmark,  Egypt, 
Finland,  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  Japan,  Neth- 
erlands, New  Zealand,  Norway,  Spain,  U.S.A.,  and  the 
U.S.S.R. 

An  article  describing  the  properties  and  presenting  the 
crystallographic  data  for  stanfieldite  will  be  submitted  to  a 
scientific  journal  in  the  near  future. 

— Louis  H.  Fuch.i 

Argonne  National  Laboratory 


AUGUST     Page  7 


rA^A'A^    ' 


\  •.4"«   •   •' 


A  .    fc*%'A'-,T/.  A  < 


FAMED  ARCHAEOLOGIST  JOINS  TOUR 

One  of  the  most  prominent  living  specialists  on  Guatemalan  archaeology,  Dr. 
Edwin  M.  Shook,  will  join  Dr.  Donald  Collier,  Field  Museum  Chief  Curator  of 
Anthropology,  in  accompanying  and  giving  expert  interpretation  to  members 
of  Field  Museum's  Guatemala  Tour,  October  27-November  12,  it  was  announced 
recently  by  Phil  Clark,  Field  Museum  Public  Relations  Counsel  and  Tour  Leader. 

Dr.  Shook,  who  headed  the  Tikal  project  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
from  its  foundation  in  1955  until  1964,  is  also  well  known  for  outstanding  work  in 
excavation  and  interpretation  of  the  ruins  of  Kaminaljuyu  and  Iximche,  included 
on  the  Tour's  itinerary.  He  is  the  Executive  Director  of  the  John  Lloyd  Stephens 
Foundation,  which  specializes  in  Maya  research,  and  has  served  as  Archaeologist 
and  Research  Associate  in  Archaeology  for  the  Carnegie  Institution,  as  Director 
of  the  Guatemala  Training  Program  in  Archaeology  of  Rockefeller  Foundation, 
as  Research  Staff  Archaeologist  for  the  Associated  Colleges  of  the  Midwest  Cen- 
tral American  Studies  Program  and  as  Professor  at  the  Universidad  de  Costa  Rica. 

A  few  openings  still  exist  on  the  October  27-November  1 2  Tour,  according  to 
Mr.  Clark.  Price  of  the  all-expense,  16-day  Tour,  including  a  tax-deductible  $400 
donation  to  Field  Museum,  is  $1,260.  Further  information  may  be  obtained  by 
writing  Field  Museum's  Guatemala  Tour. 

Other  specialists  accompanying  the  Tour  will  include  Dr.  Antonio  Molina, 
Field  Botanist  for  Field  Museum,  of  the  Escuela  Agricola  Panamericana,  and 
Mr.  Clark,  who  is  a  garden  writer  and  specialist  on  Mexi- 
can and  Central  American  plants;  speakers  will  include 
these  prominent  Guatemala  residents.  Dr.  Wilson  Popenoe, 
horticulturist,  dofia  Lily  de  Jongh  Osborne,  on  handi- 
crafts, Dr.  Jorge  Ibarra,  bird  specialist  and  Director  of 
the  National  Museum  of  Natural  History,  and  dona 
Carmen  de  Pettersen  and  don  Hugh  Craggs,  estate  owners. 

Dr.  Shook  replaces  Dr.  Malcolm  Collier,  wife  of  Field 
Museum's  Chief  Curator  of  Anthropology,  who  was  unable 
to  accompany  the  Tour  because  of  other  commitments  in 
anthropology. 

Museum  open  9  a.m.  to  6  p.m.  every 

CALENDAR     OF      EVENTS      ''^y;  "P'"  '"  ^  P-'"-   «"    Wednesday, 

Friday,  Saturday  and  Sunday 

August  5  —  27  Exhibit:  Color  and  Patterns  in  the  Animal  Kingdom,  A  Smith- 
sonian Traveling  Exhibit.  31  photographs  and  drawings  illustrate  such  phe- 
nomena as  protective  coloration  and  adaptation  in  the  Animal  Kingdom. 
Stanley  Field  Hall. 

August  10  Film  for  children:  Living  Giants.  The  biggest  living  things  in  the 
world  today.    James  Simpson  Theatre,  10  a.m.  and  11  a.m. 

Through  August  Exhibit:  Yoruba  Twin  Figures:  Carvings  from  Nigeria.  A 
collection  of  statuettes  of  twins  made  for  religious  and  artistic  purposes  by  the 
Yoruba  people  of  Western  Nigeria.    Hall  9. 

Through  August  Summer  Journey:  Animal  Immigrants.  A  self-guided  tour 
for  young  people  of  exhibits  showing  animals  found  in  the  United  States  but 
native  to  other  countries.  Direction  sheets  and  information  available  at  both 
Museum  entrances  and  the  information  desk. 

September  8  — 24  Exhibit:  Drawings  by  Students  of  the  Junior  School  of 
the  Art  Institute.  About  50  color  illustrations  and  constructions  of  Museum 
exhibits  made  by  artists  seven  to  14  years  old.    Hall  9. 

September  Through  November  Fall  Journey:  Ancient  Rome.  A  self-guided 
tour  through  exhibits  that  illustrate  many  aspects  of  daily  living  at  the  time  of 
the  Roman  Empire. 

,,rr._,.,__         Shell  Club,  Sept.  10,  2  p.m. 
MEETINGS:        „  /-         c     .   n   ^  ^c 

Camera  Club,  Sept.  12,  7:45  p.m 


PREPARATOR  RETIRES 

After  26  years  at  Field  Museum,  Wal- 
ter Reese,  Preparator  in  the  Department 
of  Anthropology,  recently  retired.  In 
1941,  Reese  was  apprenticed  to  John 
Anderson,  carpenter  in  the  Department, 
and  was  appointed  Preparator  in  1951. 

A  good  Museum  Preparator  is  a  jack- 
of-all  trades,  and  a  master  of  many.  He 
is  intimately  concerned  in  the  prepara- 
tion, planning,  design,  building  and  in- 
stallation of  exhibits.  He  works  with 
dozens  of  different  materials,  wood,  tex- 
tiles, plastics,  metal,  and  so  forth.  He 
has  a  good  eye,  a  wide  knowledge  of  the 
resources  available,  and  he  is  clever  with 
his  hands.  Walter  Reese  has  all  these 
abilities  and  more:  a  friendly  and  help- 
ful disposition. 

Mr.  Reese  worked  in  the  Department 
of  Anthropology  during  a  period  of  in- 
novation and  intense  activity  in  the  ex- 
hibition program.  Eight  Halls  were 
completely  redone,  including  five  Amer- 
ican Indian  Halls,  Polynesia,  the  Hall  of 
Primitive  Art  and  Hall  32  South,  China 
in  Ch'ing  Dynasty,  and  a  ninth,  Tibet, 
is  well  under  way.  The  colorful,  didac- 
tic style  in  which  they  were  done  has 
strongly  influenced  methods  of  exhibi- 
tion in  other  American  and  many  for- 
eign museums.  Reese's  ingenuity  played 
a  large  part  in  the  success  of  these  ex- 
hibits. When  the  Robert  R.  McCormick 
Conservation  Laboratory  was  built  in 
1964,  he  designed  and  built  several  ac- 
cessory pieces  of  equipment  for  the  resto- 
ration and  preservation  of  artifacts  in  the 
anthropology  collections. 

Mr.  Reese's  outside  activities  were,  in 
part,  a  continuation  of  his  work.  He 
built  the  house  to  which  he  has  retired, 
near  Pentwater,  Michigan,  and  he  was 
involved  in  many  do-it-yourself  projects 
over  the  years,  projects  useful  to  himself, 
his  wife,  and  his  neighbors. 


FIELD     MUSEUM 

OF   NATURAL    HISTORY 

ROOSEVELT  ROAD  AT  LAKE  SHORE  DRIVE 
CHICAGO.  ILLINOIS  60605    A.C.  312.  922-9410 

FOUNDED  BY  MARSHALL  FIELD.  1893 

E.  Leland  Webber,  Director 

BULLETIN 

Edward  G.  Nash,  Managing  Editor 


Page  8     AUGUST 


PRINTED   BY  FIELD  MUSEUM   PRESS 


BULLETIN  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

Volume  38,  Number  9    September,  1967 


underground  art 

by  Matthew  H.  Nitecki,  Assistant  Curator  of  Fossil  Invertebrates 


The  concretions  shown  on  the  cover  and  above  were  selected  for  their 
unusual  and  attractive  shapes.  In  general,  observers  do  not  identify 
them  as  naturally  occurring  rocks.  Their  shapes  strongly  suggest  that 
they  are  man-made,  but  in  fact  these  specimens  are  claystone  concretions 
collected  in  the  American  Northeast. 


From  time  to  time  stones  of  unusual  and  attractive  aspect  are 
collected,  of  shapes  so  unusual  they  seem  to  be  the  product  of 
human  creative  activity.  Some  stones  are  elongated,  some 
are  round  and  many  have  indescribable  forms — but  some, 
shown  in  the  accompanying  photographs,  look  like  objects  of 
art.  Of  a  group  of  students  who  saw  these  rocks,  some  iden- 
tified them  as  "primitive  art,  .  .  .  fertility  symbols,  perhaps 
related  to  Eskimo  art  .  .  .  certainly  very  primitive  objects." 
Other  students  were  certain  that  these  rocks  were  "modern 
art."  Most,  however,  considered  them  to  be  archaeological 
finds  associated  with  early  human  culture. 

In  this  light  these  stones,  called  concretions,  raise  a  pro- 
voking problem  about  the  definition  of  art,  as  well  as  a  geo- 
logical problem.  We  might  think  of  Art  as  something  that 
can  please  our  esthetic  tastes.  Proceeding  from  this  defini- 
tion, does  it  make  a  difference  what  produces  the  object, 
man  or  natural  forces,  so  long  as  the  form  impresses  us  with  its 
beauty?  Who  decides  what  beauty  is?  I  leave  this  and  many 
other  pertinent  questions  to  the  reader.  .  .  . 

Concretions  are  commonly  found  in  sedimentary  rocks. 
They  are  of  varying  composition  and  frequently  are  harder 
than  their  surrounding  rock  matrix.  Concretions  are  obvious 
even  to  cursory  examination,  since  they  are  more  resistant  to 
weathering  and  erosion  and  often  stand  out  from  their  matrix. 

The  name  "concretion"  is  derived  from  the  Latin  con- 
crescere,  meaning  to  grow  together.  Materials  in  solution  in- 
side a  rock  are  drawn  to  scattered  centers  where  they  grow 
to  form  the  harder  discrete  bodies,  or  concretions. 

The  common  sedimentary  rocks  in  which  concretions  are 
found  are  limestone,  shale  and  sandstone.  These  consist 
mainly  of  grains  of  calcite,  clay  or  quartz,  which  initially 
accumulated  to  form  loose  sediments.  All  the  chemical  and 
physical  processes  which  transform  these  loose  sediments  into 
hard  rocks  are  called  diagenesis.  During  the  time  that  dia- 
genetic  processes  occur,  a  great  number  of  phenomena  takes 
place,  including  dewatering,  compaction,  ce  nentation  and 
even  removal  of  part  of  the  rock  by  subsequent  solution. 
Rock  dissolved  in  one  area  may  be  transported  and  precipi- 
tated in  another  area.  Concretions  are  distinct  objects  be- 
cause they  are  formed  by  processes  different  from  those  occur- 
ring in  the  surrounding  sediment. 

Thus,  mud  is  transformed  into  shale  by  dewatering,  com- 
paction and  little  or  no  cementation.  However,  the  precipi- 
tation of  calcium  carbonate  among  the  clay  minerals  around 
isolated  centers  forms  concretionary  bodies  which  are  harder 
than  the  enclosing  shale.  In  lime  muds,  the  precipitation  of 
silica  around  nuclei  results  in  the  formation  of  chert  or  flint 
nodules  or,  in  other  words,  concretions  enclosed  by  limestone. 

Many  varied  shapes  and  sizes  of  concretions  exist.  They 
may  have  a  nucleus,  commonly  a  fossil.  When  a  fossil  is  pres- 
ent, it  appears  that  the  organic  remains  were  the  cause  for  the 
growth  of  the  concretion.  The  familiar  concretions  of  cherts 
and  flints  consist  of  fine-grained  silica,  generally  of  irregular 
shape.  However,  some  beautiful  spherical  cherty  concretions 
have  been  collected. 


Page  2     SEPTEMBER 


Concretions  in  many  fascinating  shapes  are  displayed  in  Hall  34 
and  at  the  east  end  of  Hall  37,  where  fossil-like  formations  are 
distinguished  from  true  fossils. 


Concretions,  common  in  the  Illinois  shales,  are  well  known 
to  amateur  collectors  and  rock  hunters.  After  being  cut  and 
polished,  some  specimens  from  the  Illinois  shales  are,  in  my 
opinion,  especially  beautiful,  because  they  have  cracks  filled 
with  calcite  or  other  minerals.  Other  celebrated  concretions 
are  found  in  the  famous  Mazon  Creek  localities  in  Illi- 
nois. These  contain  many  delicately  preserved  ferns,  horse- 
shoe crabs,  and  unusual  soft-bodied  animals.  The  most  un- 
usually shaped  concretions  are  found  in  glacial  soils,  and 
many  of  this  type  have  been  found  in  the  state  parks  of  north- 
ern Illinois. 

The  claystone  concretions  from  Vermont,  Connecticut 
and  upper  Michigan  are  the  most  eye-catching.  They  are 
a  composite  of  small  discs,  formed  from  spheres  which  have 
coalesced  in  the  rock.  How  beautiful  and  interesting  they 
can  be  is  illustrated  on  the  cover. 


Geology  Tours  Set 
For  Adult  Members 

The  country  in  and  around  Clhicago  is  relatively  rich  in  geo- 
logical sites.  Many  interesting  locations  are  to  be  found  with- 
in the  limits  of  the  metropolitan  area.  For  example,  in  rocks 
over  four  hundred  million  years  old  coral  reefs  can  be  seen, 
with  the  characteristic  marine  faunas  of  semi-tropical  seas  of 
Silurian  times.  Upon  this  very  old  bedrock  the  geologically 
young  glacial  sediments  were  deposited.  The  glaciers  left 
millionsof  tons  of  unconsolidated  material  that  formed  ridges 
called  moraines,  with  undrained  ponds  and  marshes.  These 
ridges  were  subsequently  cut  and  dissected  by  rivers  that  left 
behind  wide  and  flat  channels. 

A  few  miles  from  the  great  congestion  of  the  metropolis  a 
somewhat  different  geologic  record  can  be  seen.  To  the  west 
the  sandstone  and  limestones  half  a  billion  years  old  have 
been  gently  deformed,  and  thus  exhibit  the  evidence  of  the 
enormous  forces  that  continually  change  the  face  of  the  earth's 
crust.  This  spectacular  fold  is  in  the  picturesque  canyon  of 
the  Illinois  River  and  its  tributaries  in  LaSalle  County. 

To  the  south  the  activities  of  the  coal  miner  have  changed 
the  topography  of  the  land  and  laid  bare  the  coal.  This  rep- 
resents a  remnant  of  a  great  swamp  along  the  shore  of  the  sea 
that  existed  in  Illinois  some  three  hundred  million  years  ago. 

Farther  to  the  southeast  there  is  a  puzzling  structure  of 
disturbed  rocks,  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  caused  by  a 
meteoritic  impact. 

A  series  of  four  one-day  field  trips  for  adult  Museum 
Members  will  be  led  by  M.  H.  Nitecki,  Assistant  Curator 
of  Fossil  Invertebrates,  to  these  areas  during  the  Saturdays  of 
October.  The  series  will  begin  on  October  7th,  at  8  A.M. 
and  the  orientation  meeting  will  be  held  on  Saturday,  Sep- 
tember 30th  at  11  A.M.  Because  private  transportation  will 
be  used,  the  group  will  be  limited  in  size.  The  trips  will  be 
free  of  charge.  Those  interested  please  write  Raymond  Foun- 
dation, Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Roosevelt  Road  at 
Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605  for  an  application 
blank.  Reservations  are  limited  in  number  and  will  be  ac- 
cepted in  the  order  in  which  they  are  received.  Applicants 
accepted  will  receive  a  confirmation  card  which  will  serve  as 
their  admission  ticket. 


Associate  Honored  by  American 
Federation  of  Mineral  Societies 

Mr.  Walter  Kean,  Associate  in  Mineralogy,  has  recently 
won  the  highest  award  obtainable  in  the  United  States  for 
his  gem  cutting  work.  In  the  last  few  years  Mr.  Kean  has 
won  top  awards  in  the  Chicago  area  and  in  the  Midwest 
Regional  competitions,  and  this  year  he  entered  his  work  on 
a  national  level.    At  the  annual  convention  of  the  American 


Federation  of  Mineral  Societies,  held  at  the  Washington 
Hilton,  Washington  D.  C,  from  June  29  to  July  2nd,  Mr. 
Kean  received  the  trophy  for  the  best  gem  faceting  work  in 
the  U.  S. 

Field  Museum  is  particularly  fortunate  in  having  a  close 
association  with  Mr.  Kean.  He  is  currently  planning  some 
special  exhibits  of  gem  stones  for  the  coming  year. 


SEPTEMBER     Page  3 


in  the  Piedmont  ^one  of  northwest  Iraq,  in  the  area  near  Kirkuk 
on  the  map. 


Bones  of  Palegawra 


by  Priscilla  Turnbull 

Everyone  knows  that  anthropological  expeditions  are  usu- 
ally concerned  with  recovering  the  bits  and  pieces  from  an- 
cient cultures.  Field  workers  carefully  collect  fragments  of 
pottery,  flint  tools  and  flakes,  beads,  and  even  cloth  shreds. 
Human  burials  are  painstakingly  excavated  and  removed  to 
a  museum  for  study.  The  walls  of  ancient  mud  villages  are 
uncovered  and  reconstructed,  and  ashes  from  long-cold 
hearths  are  sifted.  Often  the  bones  of  animals  hunted  and 
eaten  by  the  former  residents  are  among  the  most  numerous 
elements  present.  Lists  of  these  animals  associated  with  man's 
life  are  usually  published  along  with  the  details  of  the  exca- 
vation, particularly  when  the  site  is  a  prehistoric  one.  Occa- 
sionally, a  detailed  study  of  these  bones  is  made,  as  much  for 
its  zoological  importance  as  for  the  light  it  sheds  on  the  past 
environment,  and  for  the  understanding  it  yields  of  the  way 
of  life  of  the  ancient  people. 

For  some  time  I  have  been  involved  in  such  a  study  in  a 
field  midway  between  paleontology  and  zoology,  osteo-ar- 
chaeology,  which  perfectly  illustrates  the  interdependence  of 
these  disciplines.  The  materials  I  deal  with  were  collected 
in  the  Near  East,  chiefly  in  Iraq,  by  the  Oriental  Institute 
(University  of  Chicago)  Iraq-Jarmo  Expeditions  of  the  1950's. 
These  journeys  were  under  the  general  direction  of  Dr.  Rob- 
ert J.  Braidwood,  and  their  purpose  was  to  investigate  and 
excavate  the  earliest  settled  villages  known  to  date.  The 
various  sites — caves,  rock  shelters,  open  air,  and  settled  vil- 
lages— were  inhabited  during  that  vastly  important  and  crit- 
ical period  between  the  end  of  the  Pleistocene  ice  age  and  the 
beginning  of  historic  time  a  few  thousand  years  ago. 


Photo  1>»  the  Prehistoric  Project — Orieittal  Imtitute 

One  of  these  sites,  a  cave  known  as  Palegawra,  has  been 
especially  important  because  of  the  large  amount  of  bone 
found  in  it.  Based  on  comparable  horizons  at  Shanidar  for 
which  Carbon-14  dates  exist,  it  has  been  estimated  that  Pale- 
gawra cave  was  occupied  about  11,500  years  ago.  The  cave 
lies  in  the  foothills  of  the  Zagros  Mountains,  northeast  of 
Baghdad,  in  the  Baranand  Dagh,  one  of  a  series  of  Cretaceous 
anti-clinal  ridges.  It  is  a  small  cave,  measuring  about  nine 
feet  high  at  the  mouth,  with  an  interior  1 5  feet  deep  by  1 8  feet 
across.  Palegawra's  absolute  elevation  is  3,250  feet,  and  it 
lies  about  230  feet  above  the  valley  floor.  It  faces  south, 
overlooking  the  Bazian  valley  in  the  bottom  of  which  a  stream 
drains  toward,  but  rarely  reaches,  a  main  tributary  of  the 
Tigris  River. 

Many  people  have  been  involved  in  the  excavation  of  this 
little  cave.  Dr.  Bruce  Howe  of  Harvard  University,  Asso- 
ciate Director  of  the  expedition,  acting  on  behalf  of  the  Bagh- 
dad School  of  the  American  Schools  of  Oriental  Research, 
first  tested  Palegawra  in  1951  and  excavated  it  in  1955  with 
the  help  of  Kurdish  field  workmen.  Dr.  Charles  A.  Reed, 
zoologist  with  the  expedition,  now  Professor  of  Anthropology 
and  Biological  Sciences  at  the  University  of  Illinois  at  Chi- 
cago Circle,  visited  the  site  during  excavation  and  was  in 
charge  of  the  preparation  and  study  of  the  faunal  remains. 
I  have  been  responsible  for  the  laboratory  study  of  the  mam- 
malian bones,  which  have  now  been  cataloged  in  the  Field 
Museum's  paleontological  collection  in  the  Department  of 
Geology.  The  Iraq-Jarmo  Expedition  had  many  other  mem- 
bers— specialists  in  geology  and  botany,  pottery  experts,  tool 
specialists — all  involved  in  aspects  of  the  expedition  work.  To 
describe,  assess,  and  integrate  the  work  accomplished  at  a 
score  of  sites  will  take  many  years  and  many  publications. 

The  people  who  took  shelter  in  Palegawra  11,500  years 
ago  were  hunters;  they  did  not  cultivate  crops  or  raise  do- 
mestic animals.  Perhaps  they  followed  the  wandering  herds 
of  game  or  came  into  the  valley  occasionally  seeking  food. 
It  is  not  likely  that  the  cave  was  occupied  continually  for  long 
periods  of  time;  it  is  too  small  to  be  comfortable  for  more  than 
a  few  people,  and  the  archaeologists  found  no  hearths  that 
would  have  provided  warmth  in  winter.  Besides,  the  cave 
drips  with  water  during  rains,  and  winter  time  can  be  very  wet 
indeed  in  northeast  Iraq.  The  cave  would  offer  a  cool  retreat 
from  hot  summer  sun,  however,  and  temporary  shelter  for  a 
small  group  or  family  at  any  time. 

The  human  artifacts,  that  is,  the  tools,  flint  projectile 
points,  scrapers,  etc.,  are  of  a  microlithic  type  of  assemblage 
that  anthropologists  term  Zarzian.  It  is  usually  very  difficult 
or  impossible  to  identify  the  animals  from  which  the  bone 
tools  are  made,  though  I  have  identified  beads  made  of  in- 
cisor teeth  of  deer.  It  is  the  unworked  but  broken,  charred, 
and  gnawed  bone  that  is  of  importance  to  this  study.  Prob- 
ably between  5,000-10,000  bones — bits  of  skulls,  fragments 
of  ribs,  ends  of  limb-bones,  pieces  of  shoulder  and  hip  bones, 
fingers,  toes,  and  teeth — were  collected  from  Palegawra  cave 
and  sent  back  to  the  Museum  for  detailed  study. 

There  are  several  ways  to  look  at  collections  from  early 
man  sites.  The  cultural  anthropologist  would  consider  the 
Palegawra  assemblage  exceedingly  primitive  and  very  an- 


Page  4    SEPTEMBER 


cient.  A  paleolithic  specialist,  on  the  other  hand,  would  look 
upon  the  Palegav\  ra  tool  kit  as  quite  advanced.  To  one  whose 
background  has  been  paleontological,  as  mine  has,  the  mam- 
malian remains  are  entirely  modern;  all  are  from  animals 
that  exist  today,  or  did  until  very  recently,  in  the  same  or 
nearby  regions.  Perhaps  the  most  peculiar  aspect  of  this  type 
of  collection,  at  least  to  the  paleontological  eye,  is  that  almost 
all  the  bones  have  been  broken  "unnaturally"  as  a  result  of 
man's  butchering  and  cooking. 


Examples  of  Palegawran  equid  bones,  Equus  hemionus.  Left  side, 
three  upper  jaw  fragments  with  several  teeth  in  each.  Right  side,  top  to 
bottom,  end  of  cannon  bone  (metapodial) ,  and  first,  second  and  third  toe 
bones  {phalanges).  Many  of  the  bones  were  more  fragmentary  and  less 
well  preserved. 

Many  of  the  bones  represent  the  discarded  parts  of  an- 
cient meals.  Others  are  from  scavengers  that  lived  and  died 
alongside  man — for  example,  rats  and  mice.  Still  other  bone 
pieces  were  casual,  chance  catches;  the  birds  and  turtles, 
though  not  really  game,  would  have  added  a  tasty  bit  of  vari- 
ety to  the  diet,  The  work  of  sorting,  cleaning,  cataloging, 
and  identifying  the  bones  of  Palegawra  is  now  proceeding  in 
the  laboratories  of  the  Museum.  A  large  per  cent  of  the  frag- 
ments lacks  diagnostic  shape,  edge,  angle,  or  curve,  and  there- 
fore are  not  identifiable  at  all.  Nevertheless,  over  4,000  Pale- 
gawran bones  have  been  identified. 

Among  the  game  (food)  mammals,  bones  of  the  onager  or 
half-ass,  Equus  hemionus,  are  the  most  abundant  in  the  Pale- 
gawra collection,  indicating  that  the  cave's  visitors  were  fond 
of  "horsemeat."  Bone  fragments  of  the  large  red  deer,  Cervus 
elaphus;  wild  sheep,  Ovis  orientalis;  and  wild  goats,  Capra  hircus 
aegagrus,  are  also  numerous.  Bone  pieces  identified  as  belong- 
ing to  the  pig,  Sus  scrofa;  gazelle,  Ga^ella  subguUurosa;  and 
cattle,  Bos  primigenius,  are  also  present.  Rabbit,  pika,  fox, 
martin,  polecat,  badger  and  cat  probably  represent  occa- 


sional chance  food  animals.  Seven  genera  of  rodents  have 
been  identified;  two  genera  of  insectivores  and  one  bat  are 
also  recognized.  Among  non-mammalian  animals — various 
birds,  small  land  turtles,  at  least  two  genera  of  land  snails, 
and  fresh-water  crabs — have  been  identified. 

To  the  anthropologists,  the  relative  abundance  of  the  vari- 
ous animals  is  an  indication  of  their  economic  importance  to 
the  hunters.  To  the  zoologist,  the  occurrence  of  these  ani- 
mals in  a  prehistoric  site  extends  our  knowledge  of  their  his- 
tory. For  example,  the  onager  in  Iraq  has  been  identified  in 
decorative  motifs  within  historic  time  (much  more  recent 
than  11,500  years  ago)  and  has  been  reported  in  herds  as 
recently  as  1927.  Currently,  though,  it  is  extinct  in  that 
country.  Now  we  know  definitely  that  the  half-ass  lived  in 
northeastern  Iraq  during  the  period  between  the  latest  Pleis- 
tocene and  earliest  Recent  time.  Three  genera,  the  pika, 
Ochotona;  the  hamster,  Mesocricetus,  and  the  vole,  Arvicola,  were 
first  reported  among  the  fauna  of  Iraq  by  the  Palegawra  expe- 
dition. We  now  know  they  once  lived  in  the  Zagros  foothills. 
Whether  they  are  now  extinct  in  Iraq,  or  are  simply  too  clever 
to  get  trapped,  is  an  open  question.  Nevertheless,  these  three 
animals  are  well  known  elsewhere  in  Asia. 

Careful  study  of  the  bone  fragments  can  correct  miscon- 
ceptions that  have  existed  many  years.  A  species  of  small 
cattle  was  assumed  to  have  lived  throughout  the  Near  East 
in  late  prehistoric  time.  At  the  first  casual  glance,  some  of 
the  Palegawra  bones  were  identified  as  such  a  species.  De- 
tailed study,  however,  soon  indicated  that  instead  of  small 
cattle,  these  animals  were  large  deer.  Of  course,  I  do  not 
know  if  all  the  animals  that  have  been  identified  as  "small 
cattle"  in  southwestern  Asia  are  deer,  but  at  Palegawra  the 
evidence  is  irrefutable. 

Consideration  of  the  Palegawra  fauna  gives  some  strong 
indications  about  the  climate  and  vegetation  of  the  past. 
The  animals  identified  from  the  bone  fragments  could  live  in 
a  climate  and  setting  very  similar  to  those  that  exist  today 
in  the  Zagros  foothills.  Dr.  Reed  believes  that  this  area  was 
cooler  and  dryer  during  the  late  prehistoric  period. 


Fortunately  for  the  identification  of  osteo-archaeological 
collections,  the  Museum  is  almost  unrivaled  in  the  extent  of 
comparative  materials  available.  The  skulls  and  jaws  in  the 
Mammal  Division  and  the  skeletons  in  the  Anatomy  Division 
are  the  bases  on  which  students  and  I  can  work  on  "recent" 
fossils  from  ancient  man's  garbage  dumps. 


SEPTEMBER     Page  5 


October?  Into  Siberia  Raphael  Green 

Starting  in  Samarkand,  the  ancient  capital  of  Tamerlane, 
this  film  takes  you  on  a  journey  across  Russia,  with  stops  in 
Tashkent,  the  largest  city  of  Central  Asia,  and  other  historic 
places.  You  will  also  see  the  native  peoples  of  Siberia,  the 
Kazakhs,  Uzbeks  and  Tadzhiks,  at  work  on  their  collective 
farms  or  textile  mills  and  shopping  in  their  bazaars  and  side- 
walk stalls. 


October  1 4 

Tales  of  the  Blue  Danube 

Philip  Walker 

All  the  sights  along  the  Danube  from  its 
mouth  at  the  Black  Sea  to  its  source  in 
the  German  Black  Forest,  are  high- 
lighted. In  the  delta,  you  see  fishing 
villages,  and  a  short  way  upstream, 
Bucharest,  "the  Paris  of  East  Europe." 
The  trip  also  includes  a  visit  to  Sofia,  the 
capital  of  Bulgaria,  and  Yugoslavia's 
capital,  Belgrade.  After  navigating 
through  the  famous  Iron  Gate  of  the 
Carpathian  Mountains,  it's  on  to  Hun- 
gary. High  points  of  the  film  are  the  visit 
to  a  traditional  Viennese  wine  restau- 
rant and  inn,  and  the  beautiful  Wachau 
Valley  with  its  castles  and  monasteries. 

October  21  Iran        Nicol  Smith 

The  vivid  distinctions  of  the  old  and  new 
features  of  Iran  are  emphasized  in  this 
film-lecture.  Teheran's  buildings  and 
university  give  it  the  look  of  a  modern 
city;  the  splendid  ruins  of  Persepolis  and 
the  nearby  tombs  of  Cyrus  the  Great 
and  the  Achaemenian  kings  epitomize 
the  historical  image  of  Iran.  The  oil 
fields  developed  in  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
the  immense  refinery  at  Abadan,  along 
with  the  new  port  now  under  construc- 
tion. Bandar  Abbas,  are  parts  of  the  new 

face  of  Iran.  The  region  of  Kurdistan,  however,  reveals  the 
native  villages  that  have  maintained  their  customs  and  ways 
of  living  for  over  a  thousand  years. 

October  28       NorSB  Adventure    Hjordis  K.  Parker 

The  Viking  spirit  pervades  this  panoramic  view  of  Norway, 
from  Lapland  to  Oslo.  You  will  see  the  importance  of  winter 
sports  to  the  hearty  Norwegians;  hiking,  mountaineering, 
tobogganing  and  most  of  all,  skiing.  The  older  cities  still 
bear  the  mark  of  their  Viking  founders.  Trondheim,  estab- 
lished in  997  by  the  Vikings'  first  Christian  King,  displays  its 
original  cathedral,  and  Bergen,  the  1 3th  century  capital,  re- 
tains its  medieval  palace. 


November  4  The  Philippines  Clifford  J.  Kamen 
This  documentary  shows  the  rich  diversity  in  the  culture  and 
natural  wonders  of  the  Philippines,  a  nation  of  7,100  islands. 
The  modern  port  and  capital,  Manila,  contains  the  old  walled 
city,  Intramuros,  and  the  St.  Augustine  Church,  built  in  1599 
by  the  Spanish  settlement.  In  the  northern  part  of  Luzon 
Island,  you  see  Pagsanjan  Falls  and  ride  the  rapids  in  a  dug- 
out. In  this  region  also  is  Taal  Volcano,  with  two  concentric 
lakes  in  its  crater.  To  the  south  on  Cebu  Island  is  the  cross 
erected  by  Magellan  on  the  first  journey  around  the  world. 

Fall  Film-Lecture  Series 

The  1967  Fall  Film-Lecture  Series  features  the  eight  programs  listed  below.  They 
will  be  held  in  the  James  Simpson  Theatre  of  Field  Museum  at  2:30  P.M.  on 
successive  Saturdays  beginning  October  7  through  November  25.  Reserved  seats 
for  Museum  members  will  be  held  until  2:25. 


November  11   Men  Against  the  Ice      BJorn   Stalb 

Opens  with  highlights  of  a  31 -day  journey  across  the  Green- 
land Ice-Cap,  with  its  treacherous  blizzards  and  ice-crevasses. 
It  also  takes  you  along  on  an  expedition  to  the  North  Pole, 
the  most  ambitious  since  Admiral  Peary's  in  1 909.  The  docu- 
mentary reveals  a  new  type  of  adventure,  one  in  which  men 
equipped  with  the  latest  technical  equipment  for  Arctic  navi- 
gation and  radio  communication  still  must  rely  on  their 
courage  and  ingenuity  to  survive  the  dangers  of  the  Arctic. 


SEPTEMBER     Page  6 


November  18 


Red  China 


Jens  Bjerre         BOOK  REVIEW 


This  authentic,  uncensored  fihn-lecture  shows  what  is  going 
on  in  Red  China  today.  It  reveals  as  much  as  possible  about 
this  vast  land  in  which  one  of  the  most  dramatic  revolutions 
in  history  is  taking  place.  You'll  learn  about  China's  an- 
cient history,  the  revolution  and  the  changing  life  of  730 
million  people,  one-quarter  of  the  Earth's  population.  In- 
cluded is  an  unforgettable  trip  from  Moscow  on  the  Great 
Siberian  Railway  across  Mongolia  (the  Gobi  Desert)  to 
China,  and  you  will  have  opportunity  to  follow  the  life  of 
the  Chinese  people  in  the  country  and  in  the  big  cities; 
Peking,  Hangchow,  Shanghai,  Soochow.  You'll  see  the 
traces  of  an  ancient  culture  in  temples,  palaces,  old  Chinese 
art,  and  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world:  The  Great  Wall. 
Also,  the  collective  farms,  workers-brigades,  factories,  schools, 
kindergartens,  homes,  beautiful  landscapes  and  gardens. 
And  you  will  witness  the  enormously  powerful  propaganda — 
100,000  Chinese  in  a  political  demonstration. 

November  25  England  and  Wales 

Gerald  Hooper 

You'll  explore  many  places  that  travelers  know  well  and  a 
few  that  are  far  off  the  beaten  paths  in  England  and  Wales. 
Included  are  the  eminent  buildings  and  picturesque  canals 
of  London,  the  Zero  Meridian  and  Naval  College  in  Green- 
wich, and  at  Gravesend,  the  burial  place  of  Princess  Poca- 
hontas. In  Wales  you'll  see  the  principality's  capital,  Cardiff, 
and  Coventry,  renowned  for  Lady  Godiva's  visit.  Known 
for  its  roses  and  magnificent  scenery,  Wales  is  shown  at  its 
best  in  this  film,  particularly  at  the  "Trooping  to  Colour," 
with  all  its  splendor  and  Royal  pomp. 


Guatemala  Tour 
Still  Open 


Field  Museum's  Guatemala  Tour  still  has  a  very  few  open- 
ings before  it  reaches  the  limit  number  of  60  persons,  accord- 
ing to  Phil  Clark,  Tour  Leader.  The  Tour,  October  27 
through  November  12,  will  be  broken  into  two  groups  of 
30  each,  once  in  Guatemala.  It  will  be  accompanied  by 
experts  in  botany  and  archaeology  and  will  take  bird  walks 
and  hear  talks  by  leading  Guatemalan  specialists  in  various 
fields.  Besides  stops  at  Indian  villages,  Spanish  colonial  ruins 
and  archaeological  zones,  the  Tour  will  visit  private  Guate- 
malan gardens.  Price  is  $1260,  including  a  $400  tax  de- 
ductible donation  to  Field  Museum.  Information  and  res- 
ervations are  available  from  Field  Museum's  Guatemala 
Tour,  Field  Museum. 


Shell  Collecting:  An  Illustrated  History 

by  S.  Peter  Dance 

There  are  rare  occasions  in  literature  when  one  book  takes 
a  field  of  knowledge,  previously  existing  as  unrelated  trivia 
scattered  wildly  through  an  untold  number  of  obscure  sources, 
and  welds  these  facts  into  a  sharply  delineated  story.  Peter 
Dance  has  done  this  for  shell  collecting.  The  extent  of  his 
scholarship  can  be  appreciated  by  his  citation  of  337  refer- 
ences and  his  apology  for  the  brevity  of  the  bibliography. 
This  is  a  book  that  could  only  have  been  written  by  utilizing 
the  vast  bibliographic  sources  of  the  British  Museum  and  by  a 
person  with  an  encyclopaedic  knowledge  of  and  a  profound 
love  for  the  magnificent  historical  collections  of  Europe.  Other 
people  can  and  will  amend  this  history  in  minor  respects,  but 
it  will  not  be  superseded  or  surpassed. 

Unfortunately,  this  book  will  be  little  appreciated  by  the 
average  shell  collector.  It  is  not  a  handbook  for  identifica- 
tion. It  is  not  a  manual  of  collecting  techniques.  It  does  not 
name  active  shell  dealers  or  try  to  indicate  current  shell  prices. 
It  does  not  (except  indirectly)  mention  scientists  or  scientific 
studies.  It  is  not  a  history  of  malacology.  It  is  not  a  book 
that  would  have  been  written  by  an  American  or  by  an  ama- 
teur collector. 

Simply  and  clearly,  it  is  a  history  of  shell  collecting  from 
the  Roman  Empire  to  World  War  I.  Focusing  partly  on 
species  highly  prized  at  one  time  or  another,  partly  on  the 
curiosity  cabinets  of  earlier  centuries  and  partly  on  the  great 
scientific  collections  of  the  19th  century.  Dance  presents  a 
kaleidoscopic  view  of  the  changing  fashions  and  values  in 
shell  collections.  Since  shell  collecting  has  been  connected 
intimately  with  the  description  of  moUusks,  personal  glimpses 
of  many  names  familiar  to  shell  collectors — Lamarck,  Bru- 
guiere.  Reeve,  Sowerby,  Cuming,  Gray,  Broderip,  for  exam- 
ple— are  given  and  will  be  of  interest  to  all.  Historical  reci- 
tation has  not  been  allowed  to  interfere  with  personal  opinion. 
Thus,  some  plates  in  one  book  are  "shockingly  engraved,"  a 
book  presents  "a  turgid  but  illuminating  account  of  the  tri- 
umphs and  disappointments  of  a  shell  collector  in  the  field," 
and  one  famous  book  contains  "nightmarish  illustrations." 

Perhaps  the  best  preparation  for  appreciation  of  this  book 
is  to  read  the  last  bit  of  Dance's  historical  survey — "Today's 
collector  is  a  very  different  character  from  the  collector  of  a 
century  ago;  his  collecting  activities  are  more  specialized,  his 
collection  is  usually  smaller  and  he  is  a  better  judge  of  good 
and  bad  material.  He  does  not  rely  exclusively  on  auctions, 
dealers  and  personal  wealth  for  his  shells,  but  either  collects 
them  himself  (and  contributes  many  interesting  facts  useful 
to  science  in  the  process),  or  relies  on  the  postman  to  bring 
them  to  him.  But  in  one  respect  he  differs  in  no  way  from  his 
predecessors  of  a  hundred  or  even  a  thousand  years  ago :  he 
finds  enchantment,  solace  or  enlightenment  in  the  contempla- 
tion and  study  of  shells."  I  hope  many  of  you  will  find  the 
same  in  contemplation  of  this  fascinating  book. 

— Alan  Solem,  Curator,  Lower  Invertebrates 


SEPTEMBER    Page  7 


LOWRY  RUINS  MADE  NATIONAL  LANDMARK 

LowRY  INDIAN  RUINS,  located  in  the  southwest  corner  of  Colorado,  has  recently 
been  designated  a  National  Historic  Landmark.  This  prehistoric  village  and  re- 
ligious center  was  first  excavated  in  1930-31  by  Paul  S.  Martin,  Chief  Curator 
Emeritus  of  the  Anthropology  Department  of  Field  Museum.  The  ruins  are  about 
800  years  old.  Roof  beams  have  been  dated  to  1090,  and  bits  of  evidence  indicate 
that  50  to  60  people  lived  there  from  the  middle  of  the  11th  century  until  the  great 
drought  of  1276-99. 

The  Indian  village  has  the  remains  of  a  three-story  apartment  type  building 
constructed  with  various  kinds  of  stone  and  brick.  Martin  estimates  it  contained 
from  37  to  as  many  as  50  rooms.  Many  artifacts  were  found  in  the  ruin,  including 
different  styles  of  pottery,  projectile  points,  knives,  scrapers,  needles,  manos  and 
metates.  Some  of  these  are  on  display  in  the  Museum's  Southwest  Indian  Hall 
(Hall  7). 

The  University  of  Colorado's  Anthropology  Department  and  the  Bureau  of 
Land  Management  are  now  preparing  the  3.2  acre  hill-top  site  as  a  public  recrea- 
tion-education center. 

Dr.  Martin  has  been  with  the  Museum  since  1929.  He  was  chief  Curator  of 
Anthropology  from  1934  to  1964,  when  he  was  appointed  Chief  Curator  Emeritus. 


CALENDAR   OF   EVENTS 


September  hours:  open  9  a.m.  to  5 p.m. 
every  day. 


September  8  —  24  Exhibit:  Drawings  by  Students  of  the  Junior  School  of  the 

Art  Institute.     About  50  color  illustrations  and  constructions  of  Museum 

exhibits  made  by  artists  seven  to  14  years  old.    Hall  9. 
September  Through  November   Fall  Journey:  Your  Day  in  Ancient  Rome.    A 

self-guided  tour  through  exhibits  that  illustrate  many  aspects  of  daily  living  at 

the  time  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
October  7    Film-Lecture:  Into  Siberia.    The  first  of  the  Fall  Series.    For  details 

see  page  6. 
October  10  — November  26  Exhibit:  Silent  Cities:  An  Architect's  View  of 

Ancient  Mexico  and  the  Maya.    A  display  of  photographs  of  Mexican  and 

Mayan  temples  and  monuments  made  by  architect  Norman  Carver,  Jr.    Hall  9. 

Shell  Club,  Sept.  10  and  Oct.  8,  2  p.m. 

Nature  Camera  Club,  Sept.  12  and  Oct.  10,  7:45  p.m. 

Orchid  Society,  Sept.  17,  2  p.m. 

Audubon  Society,  Oct.  4,  7  p.m. 


MEETINGS: 


MUSEUM  DONORS  GET  HIGHER  DEDUCTION 

Field  museum  has  received  good  news  from  the  Internal  Revenue  Service,  a  source 
often  associated  with  another  kind  of  news.  By  a  ruling  recently  issued.  Museum 
donors  may  give  gifts  which  will  be  deductible  to  the  extent  of  30%  of  the  donor's 
adjusted  gross  income  for  any  given  year.  Heretofore,  museums  have  not  been 
eligible  for  the  30%  deduction  limit  which  had  been  granted  a  number  of  years 
ago  to  such  organizations  as  universities,  churches,  and  hospitals.  The  origin  of 
this  welcome  legislation  and  subsequent  ruling  is  President  Kennedy's  Tax  Mes- 
sage to  Congress  of  1963.  In  this  message  he  stated  that  the  increased  deduction 
for  all  charities  "which  are  publicly  supported  and  controlled  .  .  .  will  prove 
advantageous  to  the  advancement  of  highly  desirable  activities  in  our  communi- 
ties. ..."  Under  resulting  regulations,  a  tax-exempt  museum  is  considered  to  be 
"publicly  supported"  if  it  normally  receives  a  substantial  part  of  its  support  from 
direct  or  indirect  contributions  from  the  general  public  or  from  a  governmental  unit. 
As  Field  Museum  turns  increasingly  to  its  members  and  others  in  the  com- 
munity for  financial  support,  it  will  be  of  great  importance  that  donors  can  deduct 
the  additional  10%  over  and  beyond  the  general  20%  limitation  on  deductibility 
of  contributions  to  charity. 


FIELD    MUSEUM 

OF    NATURAL    HISTORY 

Roosevelt  Rd.  &  Lake  Shore  Drive 
Chicago,  Illinois  60605 

Founded  by  Marshall  Field,  7893 
BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 

Lester  Armour 
Harry  O.  Bercher 
William  McCormick  Blair 
Bowen  Blair 

William  R.  Dickinson,  Jr. 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Marshall  Field 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Clifford  C.  Gregg 
Samuel  Insult,  Jr. 
Henry  P.  Isham 
Hughston  M.  McBain 
Remick  McDowell 
J.  Roscoe  Miller 
William  H.  Mitchell 
James  L.  Palmer 
John  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
John  Shedd  Reed 
John  G.  Searle 
John  M.  Simpson 
Gerald  A.  Sivage 
Edward  Byron  Smith 
William  Swartchild,  Jr. 
Louis  Ware 
E.  Leland  Webber 
J.  Howard  Wood 

HONORARY  TRUSTEE 

William  V.  Kahler 

OFFICERS 

James  L.  Palmer,  President 
Clifford  C.  Gregg,  First  Vice-President 
Joseph  N.  Field,  Second  Vice-President 
Bowen  Blair,  Third  Vice-President 
Edward  Byron  Smith, 

Treasurer  and  Assistant  Secretary 
E.  Leland  Webber,  Secretary 

director   OF  THE   MUSEUM 

E.  Leland  Webber 

CHIEF  curators 

Donald  Collier, 

Department  of  Anthropology 
Louis  O.  Williams, 

Department  of  Botany 
Rainer  ^angerl, 

Department  of  Geology 
Austin  L.  Rand 

Department  of  ^oology 

BULLETIN 


Edward  G.  Nash,  Managing  Editor 


Page  8     SEPTEMBER 


PRINTED  BY  FIELD  MUSEUM  PRESS 


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BULLETIN  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

Volume  38,  Number  10     October,  1967 


Pyramid  of  the  Sun  at  teotihuacan.     A  view  of  the  central  stairway  is  shown  on  the  cover.     This  stone-faced  structure  200  feet  high  and  700  feet  on  a 
side  was  the  base  for  a  temple,  now  disappeared.    The  ancient  city  flourished  from  A.D.  100  to  TOO  and  at  its  height  contained  50,000  to  100,000  inhabitants. 


Mr.  Carver,  the  recipient  of  two  Fulbright  Awards,  is  a  prac- 
ticing architect  in  Kalamazoo,  Michigan.  He  is  also  the 
author  of  the  pictographic  essays  Form  and  Space  of  Japa- 
nese Architecture  and  Silent  Cities:  Mexico  and  the  Maya 
A  photographic  chronicle  of  ancient  Mayan  and  Mexican 
architecture,  based  on  Carver's  book  on  that  subject,  will  go 
on  display  in  Hall  9  Gallery  on  October  10.  Both  hook 
and  exhibit  developed  from  his  conviction  that  the  visual  qual- 
ities oj  this  architecture  are  too  often  buried  in  excessive  ar- 
chaeological and  historical  detail,  and  that  the  powerful  forms 
are  too  often  reduced  to  incidental  aspects.  The  original 
preparation  of  "Silent  Cities"  involved  more  than  four  years 
of  research  and  travel  in  Mexico,  Guatemala  and  Honduras. 
From  the  hundreds  of  photographs  made,  65  have  been  se- 
lected, along  with  14  drawings  of  the  sites,  to  illustiate  14 
Pre-Columbian  cities  of  architectural  distinction. 


Mexico  witnessed  a  succession  of  cultures  spread  over  almost 
two  thousand  years,  with  each  centered  around  a  great  city. 
The  wide  range  of  conditions  in  which  these  Mexican  cities 
were  built  included  the  low,  wet  jungles  of  the  east  coast,  the 
dry  moonscape  of  the  central  plateau,  and  the  high  pleasant 
valleys  of  South  Central  Mexico.  In  spite  of  this  range,  the 
basic  forms  and  techniques  of  Mexican  culture  were  only 
slightly  modified,  and  a  remarkable  unity  exists  over  the 
great  stretches  of  time  and  space. 

Architectural  form  is  essentially  abstract,  and  its  funda- 
mental expressive  qualities  exist  independent  of  its  cultural 
motivations.  Despite  the  diversity  of  cultures,  conditions, 
and  details,  there  is  an  underlying  unity  to  Mexican  and 
Mayan  architecture.  The  functional  requirements  and  the 
technological  means  were  essentially  the  same. 

The  ancient  Mexicans  and  Mayans  lacked  metal 
tools  and  the  wheel,  except  as  a  toy.  The  materials 
available  were  stone,  a  type  of  cement  and  stucco. 
The  most  commonly  used  masonry  consisted  of  a 
rough  facing  over  a  rubble  core  which  was  then 
finished  with  a  heavy  stucco  to  provide  a  smooth 
and  paintable  surface.  The  enclosure  of  space  is 
the  point  of  greatest  divergence  in  Mexican  and 
Mayan  building.  Though  they  have  long  since 
disappeared,  wooden-roofed  structures  were  fre- 
quently used  in  Mexico  and  Toltec  Chichen  Itza 
to  span  large  spaces.  Mayan  builders,  however, 
used  wood  only  in  lintels;  consequently  interiors 
were  confined  to  long,  narrow  spaces. 


MONTE  alban'j  commanding  position  on  an  isolated  group  of  hills 
at  the  juncture  of  several  fertile  valleys  is  the  reason  for  its  occupation 
from  prehistoric  times.  The  central  hill  of  the  group  was  sculpted 
into  an  acropolis  of  plazas,  pyramids  and  platforms. 


Page  2     OCTOBER 


Functionally,  all  the  "Silent  Cities,"  with  the  exception  of 
Teotihuacin,  were  not  residential  or  commercial  centers,  but 
principally  served  as  religious  compounds.  They  were  proto- 
type cities,  the  ceremonial  centers  intended  to  awe  and  over- 
power the  beholder.  The  impact  of  these  large,  brilliantly 
colored  structures  that  parted  the  jungle  or  capped  a  plateau 
was  a  strong  force  in  daily  lives  of  the  Mexicans  and  Mayans. 
These  cities  did  not  require  the  sophistication  of  Greek  or 
Egyptian  architecture.  Splendor  was  paramount  in  the  fact 
of  their  existence,  and  their  existence  required  only  the  sim- 
plest geometry  to  separate  them  sharply  from  the  background 
and  everyday  experience  of  the  people.  These  "Silent  Cities," 
with  their  imposing  forms,  marked  a  place  where  man  ap- 
peared to  control  his  destiny  and  where  each  generation  could 
satisfy  its  wish  for  immortality. 

In  addition  to  the  dominant  temple-pyramids  of  obvious 
religious  purpose,  most  cities  included  a  variety  of  additional 
structures  whose  precise  use,  except  for  the  ball  courts,  can 
only  be  guessed,  and  the  names  given  them  are  merely  con- 
venient or  legendary.  These  structures,  along  with  the  tem- 
ple-pyramids, are  seldom  located  in  any  discernible  proces- 
sional or  hieratic  spatial  order.  Rather,  by  their  irregular 
multi-level  placement,  by  their  freedom  from  a  rigid  overall 
symmetry,  the  importance  and  individuality  of  each  is  em- 
phasized. These  separate  and  solid  masses  are  the  piositive 
elements  of  the  composition  and  the  space  becomes  what  is 
left  over,  what  is  staked  out  by  free  and  emphatic  forms. 
Within  an  overall  assymmetry,  however,  individual  com- 
plexes and  buildings  are  nearly  always,  if  loosely,  axially 


TiKAL  is  the  greatest  Maya  city. 
Four  lofty  temples,  like  the  one  shown 
to  the  left,  are  placed  around  a  central 
plaza. 


MITLA  is  unique  both  in  the  precision 
of  its  forms  and  the  absence  oj  monu- 
mental temple-pyramids.  Here  archi- 
tectural elegance  and  control  have  re- 
placed overwhelming  scale  as  a  symbol 
of  power.  In  spite  of  their  more  inti- 
mate scale,  though,  the  buildings  still 
convey  the  sense  of  impenetrable  mass. 


PALENQUE  is  distinguished  by 
its  carved  stone  and  molded 
stucco  signifying  its  release 
from  heavy,  monumental  style. 


The  Puuc  style  of  Mayan  are 
chitecture  displays  a  decorative 
motif  abstracted  from  the  tied- 
pole  walls  of  the  houses.  Here 
stone  masonry  developed  such 
precision  it  was  used  as  veneer. 


ordered.  The  freedom  of  this  local  symmetry  further  em- 
phasizes the  self-contained  quality  of  individual  structures. 
The  lack  of  overall  order  can  partly  be  attributed  to  the 
growth  of  these  cities  by  accretion,  as  over  the  generations 
buildings  were  added  or  enlarged  and  concepts  or  plans  were 
superseded  and  revised. 

At  TULA  these  Atlanteanfigures  stand  atop  the  Quelzalcoatl pyramid.  They  were 
once  the  interior  supports  of  a  walled  temple. 


Only  at  TeotihuacSn  does  a  strong  axial  order,  defined 
by  the  Street  of  the  Dead,  appear  to  have  been  imposed,  and 
all  subsequent  building  ordered  by  it.  One  can  clearly  see 
at  TeotihuacSn  how  such  overall  order  tightens  the  relation- 
ship of  the  various  structures  in  space,  lessens  their  individ- 
uality and  emphasizes  the  importance  of  echoing  rhythms. 
The  whole  composition  assumes  greater  impwrtantfe  than  its 
parts.  At  Teotihuac4n  perhaps  the  original  architects  sensed 
that  the  scale  of  the  Mexican  landscape  here  demanded  this 
vast  geometry  which  resulted  in  the  largest  spatial  composi- 
tion ever  conceived  by  man. 

Since  this  architecture  presently  exists  with  colors  faded 
and  the  stucco  gone,  its  initial  impact  and  monumentality  is 
enhanced  by  the  visible  weight  of  stone  piled  upwn  stone — a 
sense  of  structure  and  process  that  was  not  conveyed  in  the 
original.  The  weight-destroying  stucco  covering  meant  that 
the  impact  depended  on  sheer  size,  vividness  of  color  and  ar- 
ticiJateness  of  form.  The  development  of  New  World  archi- 
tectural forms  reveals  an  increasing  concern  for  the  nuances 
of  their  basic  shapes.    There  is  growing  awareness  that  articu- 

OCTOBER     Page  3 


lated  silhouette  actually  and  mystically  separates  mass  from 
environment  and  experience;  that  clearly  defined  and  exag- 
gerated corners  strengthen  the  less  sure  lines  and  optically 
sharpen  the  total  form;  that  the  insistent  horizontality  of  line, 
plane  and  shadow  unify  form;  and  that  carefully  propor- 
tioned and  contained  decoration  not  only  astounds  the  eye 
but  increases  the  visual  separation  of  facade  planes.  It  is  this 
stepped,  hovering  horizontality  of  the  facade  planes  and  their 
implied  mass  which  reintroduces  a  sense  of  weight  and  struc- 
tural integrity.  Even  in  the  occasional  use  of  columns,  their 
shape  and  proportion  to  the  voids  continue  the  implied  in- 
tegrity of  the  solid  facade  and  the  impenetrability  of  the  mass. 

UXMAL  is  not  large,  nor  are  its  buildings  particularly  numerous,  but  their  high 
quality  and  setting  combine  for  a  beautifully  impressive  effect.  Erected  in  the 
Classic  period,  Uxmal  is  the  masterwork  in  Mayan  architecture.  This  photo 
shows  part  of  the  Nunnery  group,  in  general  arrangement  and  detail  related  to  the 

palaces  of  Mitla, 
though  considerably 
larger  and  more  loosely 
ordered.  The  Nun- 
nery was  named  for  its 
resemblance  to  a  Span- 
ish convent.  It  prob- 
ably served  as  a  public 
forum  with  each  build- 
ing representing  some 
element  of  the  society. 


Dominating  uxmal  in  its  elevated  position  and  majestic  size  is  the  Governor'' s 
Palace.  It  is  the  supreme  achievement  of  Mayan  architecture,  the  refinement  of  its 
major  tenets,  and  perhaps  the  last  work  at  Uxmal. 

Mayan  traditions,  which  began  in  one  of  the  world's  raini- 
est regions,  are  initially  softer  and  more  sculptural  than  Mex- 
ican forms  which  have  always  had  a  greater  precision  of  shape 
and  crispness  of  edge,  developing  from  the  influence  of  the 
clear,  dry  light  of  the  Mexican  plateau.  This  same  quality 
of  precision  increases  in  the  Mayan  work  when  it  moves  into 
the  harsh  light  of  Yucatan. 


UXMAL 'i  Pyramid  of  the  Magician. 

In  Yucatan,  Mayan  stone  masonry  develops  the  precision 
that  allows  it  to  be  used  like  finely-cut  veneer.  The  clarity 
of  the  veneer  in  turn  allows  the  stucco  to  be  radically  thinned, 
or  in  some  cases,  to  be  entirely  dispensed  with.  Decorated 
facades,  elsewhere  soft-edged  stucco,  become  large  scale  stone 
mosaics,  and  as  a  means  of  manipulating  light  and  shade, 
become  at  once  more  extensive  and  more  geometric. 

The  symbolic  meanings  of  most  Maya  decoration  are  un- 
known, but  it  has  several  architectural  eff'ects.  First,  it  obvi- 
ously enriches  large  areas  of  otherwise  blank  surface  and 
thereby  provides  the  underlying  pattern  for  coloration  of  the 
facades.  Second,  its  spell-binding  textures  and  rhythms  in- 
crease the  sense  of  monumental  presence  and  magnificence. 
Third,  within  the  limited  vocabulary  of  Mayan  architecture, 
changes  in  decoration  are  one  of  the  few  ways  similar  forms 
could  be  strongly  varied.  Finally,  consciously  or  not,  the 
slight  added  three-dimensionality  of  upper  facades  increases 
the  feeling  of  weight  and  bearing  on  the  plain  base,  intro- 
ducing a  rudimentary  sense  of  structure  to  the  mass. 

CHICHEN  rrzA,  the  superbly  proportioned  Temple  of  the  Warriers  in  its  profile 
recalls  Teotihuacan,  but  its  serpent  columns  and  the  columned  market  that  sur- 
rounds its  base  seem  a  duplication  of  Tula,  the  supposed  Toltec  capital. 


^•^c^'-^^g^M^ataaAlJSiut-a 


In  both  Mexican  and  Mayan  architecture,  the  conflict 
between  the  more  precise  geometry  implied  by  the  masonry 
and  the  freer  plasticity  allowed  by  the  stucco.  Early  the  plas- 
tic qualities  of  the  heavy  stucco  dominate  and  only  later,  as 
stone  cutting  becomes  more  skillful  and  stucco  thins  and  ar- 
ticulate form  becomes  of  greater  concern,  does  the  precision 
of  the  masonry  assert  itself. 


Page  4     OCTOBER 


FROM  THE  OFFICE  OF  THE  DIRECTOR 


---^ 


rJS""^ 


,    ,,       These  datea 
^.  OF  FIELD  iWSBaW  ^     ^^^11  U-21.  ^^„ 

.a  Hu^eu.-  ^9^^  "^'''T  Jo.  Holy  «--  ^°^'\    ,U  tour  vUX  V>e  sXowXV 
I-ield  Museum  folW-o'^®  o^  ,     Y)est.  This 

paced  and  ^^^  ^^  pXane,   to  ^^^  ^,  w^B 

trips  i^  ««^°°  '       ,      Short  tril-  --^^  ' 

!Lticular  regions.  ^^^^p,   gxv 

°^  ^         .nil  fo=^-  ^logy  viill  accompany  ^^^^ology 

. „+s  into  full  antbropologJ  eardeni^S'  ^ 

^*  .      «  t)laatB  and  a»  ,,„  in  botany.   S'*'-  .  ^es 

"°*  ,11  M  »"  ''^  h.  .till  "  '  ,  .t»aj  •»*  "• 

„f  Mexico-  vax-deductil5le  •'^        Bulletin- 

Valley  of  W  i^cludi^e  ^  ^     ^,ck  cover  of  this         ^^^^ 

Museum.  ^^  intimately  reia        ^^^e  experxen 


s'.-LeiandWeb^^'^ 
Director 


„„,  .  cH,c.oo.  .UUNO.S  eoeo. 


OCTOBER     Page  5 


Photo  by  Mexican  Tourism  Council 


i  Vamonos  a 
Mexico 
Amigo! 


by  Phil  Clark 


Plumed  Serpent  Head  grins  from  Quetzalcoatl  Temple,  Teotihuacan, 


Mexico  casts  a  unique  spell— so  extraordinary  it  can  only  be  capsuled  by  a  popular  Mexican 
aphorism:  "i Mexico,  no  hay  dos!"  There  are  not  two  in  the  world,  yet  there  are  many  Mex- 
icos  within  Mexico — the  Indian  and  the  Spanish,  the  stand-pat  primitive  and  the  stridently 
modern,  the  traditional  and  the  revolutionary,  all  bound  together  in  robust,  emphatic,  insistent 
Mexicanness. 

For  being  Mexican  is  like  being  nothing  else.  Where  else  would  you  find  a  skyscraper  covered 
with  a  flame  and  purple  mosaic  of  a  feathered  serpent?  And  who  else  would  create  a  feath- 
ered serpent,  in  any  age? 

Yet  Mexico  is  more  than  a  hard  Indian  hand  in  an  elaborate  Spanish  glove.  It  is  an  equally 
indigenous  Nature:  it  is  spiky  century  plants  twisted  against  desert  hills,  or  sinuous  limbs  of 
ceiba  that  cast  bold  shadows  on  rippling  savanna  grass,  or  scarlet  salvia  under  the  Montezuma 
pines  high  in  the  Sierras,  or  a  tangle  of  giant  leaves  and  flowers  crowding  the  shores  of  a  jungle 
lake.  These  scenes  are  all  and  equally  Mexico,  and  all  contain  the  color  that  makes  magenta 
and  orange  natural  partners  in  Mexican  art;  all  provide  the  settings  so  boldly  dramatic  that 
pyramids  like  Teotihuacan,  Xochicaico,  Uxmal  and  Chichen  Itza  complete,  not  jostle,  the  land- 
scape.   So  be  prepared,  on  your  tour  April  4  to  21,  to  be  bewitched  .  .  . 


All  Tour  photos  by  Phil  Clark 
except  when  otherwise  indicated. 


Page  6     OCTOBER 


1  Thursday,  April  4—  Fly  from  O'Hare  Airport  on  one  of  Mexi- 
cana's  new  jet  airliners,  arriving  late  afternoon  in  Mexico  City, 
where  you  inspect  the  Plaza  of  Three  Cultures.  The  Plaza  tells 
an  abbreviated  history,  with  its  Spanish  colonial  church  standing 
on  the  rennains  of  an  Aztec  pyramid,  in  the  midst  of  the  ultra- 
modern Nonoalco-Tlateloico  housing  development.  You  unpack 
in  Maria  Isabel  Hotel,  located  in  a  quiet  section  of  the  elegant 
Paseo  de  la  Reforma  close  to  the  shopping  and  museum  centers, 
then  attend  a  Welcome  Dinner  with  mariachi  music,  followed  by 
a  talk  on  the  Museo  Nacional  de  Antropologia — one  of  the  world  s 
outstanding  new  museums. 


Cacti  add  bizarre  note  to  the  j\attonal  Botanical  Garden. 


Tlaloc,  the  Rain  God,  guards  Anthropology  Aiuseum  entrance 


2  Friday.  April  5 — The  story  of  the  cloud-burst  that  climaxed 
the  placement  of  Tlaloc,  the  180-ton  figure  of  the  rain  god, 
at  the  National  Museum's  entrance  is  a  typical  example  of  the 
way  Mexico's  past  mingles  with  the  present  in  the  modern  build- 
ing, opened  in  September  1964.  Your  tour  here  begins  in  the 
Museum  theater  where  pyramids,  temples,  and  whole  civilizations 
literally  rise  up  out  of  the  floor.  The  same  illusion  of  the  living 
past  goes  with  you  through  the  Museum's  halls.  Many  of  the 
exhibits  include  temples  and  huge  monoliths,  like  the  great  Aztec 
calendar  stone  and  the  Olmec  heads,  which  are  arranged  in  the 
outdoor  sections  of  the  Museum.  You  will  take  the  dark  descent 
into  a  reconstruction  of  Palenque's  tomb,  and  in  the  ethnology 
section,  see  life-like  dancers  representing  the  Maya,  Huastec, 
Mixtec  and  Zapotec  peoples.  Later,  in  the  City's  exclusive  Lomas 
section  where  Spanish  Colonial  and  Mexican  modern  architecture 
uniquely  blend,  you  visit  the  gardens  of  Bruno  Pagliai  and  his 
wife.  Merle  Oberon,  and  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Luis  Menocal  Jr. 


Momiced  library  created  by  Juan  0^  Gorman. 


3  Saturday,  April  6— This  morning  you  see  some  of  the  world's 
most  original  architecture  at  the  always  colorful,  sometimes 
bizarre,  campus  of  the  National  University  of  Mexico.  Here  is 
Juan  O'Gorman's  mosaic-covered  library.  Diego  Rivera's  relief 
murals  that  cover  the  stadium,  and  numerous  other  buildings 
that  180  of  Mexico's  leading  architects  and  engineers  erected  in 
the  1950's.  At  this  season,  the  campus  is  given  added  color  by 
the  flowering  coral  trees.  You  preview  Mexico's  plantlife  in  the 
University's  botanical  garden  and  recently  completed  orchid  caves 
where  over  800  varieties  grow.  You  also  shop  in  the  arts  and 
crafts  market.  Bazaar  Sabado,  then  combine  a  picnic  lunch  in  the 
lava  fields  with  a  visit  to  Cuicuiico,  a  cone-like  structure  that 
antedates  the  Aztec  Age  as  much  as  the  Aztec  does  ours.  During 
the  afternoon  you  are  poled  in  a  flower-covered  boat  along  the 
ancient  canals  of  Xochimiico  ...  in  the  evening,  entertained  at 
Hacienda  Los  Morales,  renowned  for  its  singers. 


OCTOBER     Page  7 


4  Palm  Sunday.  April  7 — You  breakfast  in  Sanborn's  House  of 
Tiles,  then  visit  the  Church  of  San  Francisco  to  observe  the 
items  of  ornately  woven  palms  on  sale  outside.  You  find  Mexi- 
ico's  famous  Ballet  Folklorico  is  at  its  best  in  its  home  theater, 
Palacio  de  Bellas  Artes.  After  the  colorful  performance — in- 
digenous dances  with  motifs  taken  from  all  regions  of  Mexico — 
you  view  some  of  the  country's  greatest  art  work:  murals  by 
Jose  Clemente  Orozco,  Diego  Rivera,  David  Alfaro  Siquieros  and 
Rufino  Tamayo  along  with  paintings  by  Jose  M.  Velasco  and 
others.  In  a  neighborhood  that  purveys  the  Spanish  Colonial 
charm  of  San  Angel,  you  lunch,  and  just  up  the  cobbled  street 
are  invited  into  the  house  and  gardens  of  Ismael  Pizarro  Suarez. 
The  next  stops  are  in  the  Pedregal,  at  the  modern  house  and  lava 
rock  garden  of  the  Melvin  0.  Lundahls  and  at  the  vividly  mosaiced 
house-in-a-cave  of  Helen  and  Juan  O'Gorman. 


5  Monday,  April  S— Just  north  of  Mexico  City  you  visit  the 
first  and  largest  city  of  the  ancient  New  World,  Teotihuacan, 
a  metropolis  which  at  its  height  was  larger  than  Imperial  Rome. 
Teotihuacan's  Pyramid  of  the  Sun,  shown  on  the  cover  of  this 
Bulletin,  is  as  broad  at  its  base  as  the  great  Egyptian  Pyramid  of 
Cheops.  The  ornately  carved  temple  of  the  Plumed  Serpent  God, 
Quetzalcoatl,  is  a  grand  achievement  in  the  integration  of  sculp- 
ture and  architecture.  A  large  portion  of  this  ancient  city,  includ- 
ing the  Street  of  the  Dead,  has  been  restored  since  1962.  On 
the  return  to  Mexico  City,  you  stop  at  Roman  Catholicism's 
most  important  shrine  in  the  Western  hemisphere,  the  massive 
Basilica  of  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe. 


Indians  battle  Spaniards  in  Diego  Rivera's  murals. 


Photographers  delight  in  newly  restored  Temple  of  Mari- 
posas,  Teotihuacan. 


Photo  by  Mtxieana  Airiineii 


Private  gardens  gleam  with  brilliant  color  in 
Mexican  Capital. 


6  Tuesday,  April  9 — A  gracious  castle,  once  a  summer  palace  for  the 
Spanish  Viceroys,  stands  on  the  Hill  of  Chapultepec.  Here,  in  1 847 
Mexican  cadets  fought  the  invading  U.  S.  Army,  and  from  the  same 
heights.  Empress  Carlota  watched  Emperor  Maximilian  ride  from  the 
National  Palace.  Many  of  Mexico's  presidents  made  their  homes  here, 
and  now  you  find  it  brings  its  own  rich  history  to  light  in  the  throne 
rooms,  republican  council  halls  and  great  historical  murals,  including  one 
recently  completed  by  Juan  O'Gorman.  After  lunch  at  the  hotel,  you 
pack  and  set  out  by  bus,  stopping  at  the  City's  great  central  square  to 
see  the  National  Cathedral  and  National  Palace,  where  Rivera  painted 
important  murals.  Then  you  head  south  through  pine-covered  mountains 
to  Cuernavaca.  This  subtropical  city  is,  at  this  season,  ablaze  with  bou- 
gainvillea  and  flaring  masses  of  orange  royal  poincianas,  with  airy  blue 
trumpets  of  jacaranda  in  contrast.  Your  hotel,  the  Casino  de  la  Selva, 
is  set  in  a  tropical  garden  with  mosaiced  swimming  pool  and  lobbies 
decorated  by  Jorge  Gonzalez  Camarena,  Jose  Reyes  Meza  and  Francisco 
Icaza.  The  evening  is  for  listening  to  the  music  of  strolling  cancioneros 
in  the  town's  central  plaza. 


Page  8     OCTOBER 


7  Wednesday,  April  70— During  the  morning,  you 
visit  the  Spanish  Colonial  house  and  garden  of 
Colonel  and  Mrs.  Pedro  Chapa,  who  will  show  you 
their  antiques  and  art  treasures.  Their  garden,  styled 
after  Spanish  landscapes,  contains  a  variety  of  tropical 
plants.  After  lunch  at  the  garden  restaurant.  Las 
Mananitas,  you  stop  at  the  Cathedral  of  Morelos  where 
Bishop  Sergio  Mendes  Arceo,  a  strong  supporter  of 
the  Vatican  Council's  Spirit  of  Aggiornamento,  has 
created  a  powerful  blend  of  modern  and  early  Colonial 
church  styles.  You  also  view  Rivera's  famous  murals 
at  the  Palace  of  Cortez. 

8  Holy  Thursday,  April  1 7— On  the  way  to  Taxco 
this  morning,  you  investigate  some  of  the  most 
mysterious  ruins  in  Mexico— Xochicaico,  a  group  of 
white  pyramids  baking  in  the  hot,  brown,  desert  moun- 
tains. On  an  isolated  hilltop  stands  the  low,  profusely 
decorated  Pyramid  of  the  Plumed  Serpent.  The  pyra- 
mid contains  motifs  typical  of  Teotihuacano,  Toltec 
and  Maya  cultures  and  perhaps  commemorated  a  con- 
ference on  the  calendar  held  by  Middle  American 
religious  leaders.  You  stay  at  the  Hotel  Santa  Prisca 
just  off  Taxco 's  main  square  where  it  overlooks  this 
mountainside  town  of  silver  craftsmen,  cobbled  streets, 
ornate  churches  and  strong  traditionalist  religion.  In 
the  afternoon  you  peruse  the  silver  shops  and  by  eve- 
ning watch  the  awesome  procession  of  thousands  of 
men,  women  and  children  carrying  candles  through  the 
winding  streets.  Many  in  the  procession  are  masked 
in  black,  and  hundreds  drag  heavy  chains  or  carry 
crosses,  often  made  of  thorny  branches  weighing  as 
much  as  1 50  pounds,  strapped  to  their  bleeding  backs. 
They  march  slowly  behind  images  of  Christ,  while 
drums  sound  a  funereal  rhythm. 

9  Good  Friday,  April  12 — This  morning  the  proces- 
sion bears  the  figure  of  the  Suffering  Christ 
through  the  streets.  An  image  of  Saint  Veronica  stiffly 
hands  the  Lord  the  handkerchief  with  which,  accord- 
ing to  tradition.  He  wiped  His  face.  The  Three  Marys, 
images  borne  from  nearby  churches,  say  farewell. 
Then  Pilate,  a  living  man  dressed  for  the  role,  reads 
an  official  order  for  the  crucifixion,  and  the  people 
carry  it  out,  using  an  image  of  the  Crucified  Christ. 
You  return  by  bus  to  Mexico  City. 

1  C\  ^^^^'^d^y  ^^^  Glorious,  April  13 — A  morning 
I  w  flight  takes  you  to  Oaxaca  City,  where  during 
the  forenoon  you  see  the  burning  of  the  Judases,  a 
Saturday  the  Glorious  tradition,  and  visit  the  market, 
famous  for  its  black  pottery  and  handloomed  black 
and  white  woolen  sarapes.  After  lunch  at  the  garden 
hotel,  Victoria,  you  drive  to  Monte  Alban,  where  the 
ancient  Oaxacans  leveled  off  the  top  of  the  mountain 
and  built  temples  and  pyramids.  Here  are  ruins  rang- 
ing from  the  6th  century  B.C.  up  to  the  16th  century. 

(Continued  on  page  13) 


recent  acquisitions  — anthropology 

Pre-Columbian  Mexican  Art 

Recently  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Raymond  J.  VVielgus  gave  the 
Museum  two  important  and  beautiful  works  from  ancient 
Mexico.  These  two  specimens  will  go  on  display  in  October. 


One  of  the  objects  is  a  basalt  head  of  a  boy  or  young  man 
in  classic  Aztec  style,  believed  to  come  from  Texcoco  in  the 
V'alley  of  Mexico.  This  sculpture,  which  is  in  excellent  con- 
dition except  for  some  battering  on  the  nose,  belongs  to  the 
somewhat  rare,  naturalistic  strain  of  Aztec  sculpture,  char- 
acterized in  representations  of  human  figures  and  animals, 
especially  dogs.  In  the  more  common  type,  symbolic  sculp- 
ture, Aztec  artists  were  concerned  with  the  depiction  of 
deities  and  the  portrayal  of  religious  symbolism.  This  head 
was  not  broken  from  a  complete  figure,  but  was  sculpted 
separately,  a  rare  occurrence  in  Aztec  art.  Judging  from 
the  style,  it  probably  was  made  in  the  late  15th  century. 

The  other  new  specimen  is  a  rare  tripod  bowl,  6}/^  inches 
in  diameter,  decorated  in  the  "paint-cloisonne"  technique. 
The  designs,  in  six  colors,  show  the  plumed  serpent  in  typ- 
ically flamboyant  Toltec  style.  The  bowl  is  supposed  to 
have  been  found  in  TeotihuacSn,  on  the  northeastern  edge 
of  the  Valley  of  Mexico.  This  great  city  was  abandoned 
and  already  in  ruins  by  Toltec  times  (a.d.  900-1200),  but 
its  renown  persisted  and  the  Toltecs  used  it  as  a  burial  place. 
The  specimen  may  well  have  come  from  a  Toltec  grave  at 
Teotihuacan,  though  it  probably  was  made  in  Western 
Mexico  in  the  States  of  Sinaloa  or  Nayarit.  This  verdict  is 
based  on  the  facts  that  the  tripod  bowl  is  a  West  Mexican, 
not  Toltec,  type  and  that  "paint-cloisonne"  pottery  vessels 
were  common  in  Sinaloa  during  the  Toltec  period. 

An  unusual  feature  of  this  bowl  is  its  two  layers  of  deco- 
ration; a  second  coating  of  alfresco  plaster,  or  more  likely 
lacquer,  was  placed  over  the  original  lacquer-cloisonne  de- 
sign, much  as  Toltec  and  Aztec  pyramids  were  remodelled 
and  covered  over  periodically,  perhaps  at  the  end  of  a  52- 
year  calendrical  cycle.  The  second  (outer)  coating  of  dec- 
oration was  in  bad  condition  when  Mr.  Wielgus  acquired 
the  bowl.  Except  for  a  few  key  areas,  he  removed  the  second 
layer  to  reveal  the  first  in  its  beautiful  condition. 

It  is  reasonable  to  speculate  that  the  vessel  was  made  in 
Sinaloa  and  decorated  by  a  local  artist  strongly  influenced 
by  Toltec  symbolism.  Later  it  was  taken  to  the  Valley  of 
Mexico  and  redecorated  by  a  Toltec  artist,  less  a  master  of 
the  "paint-cloisonn^"  technique  than  the  original  artist. 
Finally,  it  was  placed  in  a  grave  at  Teotihuac&n. 

— Donald  Collier,  CfiieJ  Curator,  Anthropology 

OCTOBER     Page  9 


,J^ 


In  the  Anthropology 
Department  Charles 
Newlin,  of  Reed  Col- 
lege, worked  with  the 
Paleolithic  and  Neolithic  collection.  Advised  by  Dr.  Glen 
Cole,  Chuck  sorted  through  the  drawers  of  stone  tools  which 
were  collected  for  the  Museum  in  the  1930's.  Chuck  meas- 
ured and  grouped  them  into  such  categories  as  hammer 
stones,  cutting  knives  and  other  implements  manufactured 
by  the  prehistoric  men. 

Though  Chuck's  major  field  of  interest  is  social  anthro- 
polog>%  he  will  follow  up  his  summer's  experience  in  Pale- 
olithic and  Neolithic  anthropology  with  course  work  on  these 
periods  when  he  returns  to  Reed.  Like  most  of  the  Shinner 
Scholars,  he  emphasizes  the  value  of  working  with  all  the  re- 
sources available  at  the  Museum,  the  collections,  curators, 
staff  and  students,  as  well  as  the  library  facilities. 


Kenneth  Brecher  was  also  selected  to  work  in  the  Anthro- 
pology Department,  but  tending  the  collections  held  little 
fascination  for  him.  After  working  a  few  weeks  with  the 
American  Indian  artifacts  collection,  he  created  an  alter- 
nate program  for  his  Museum  work.  With  Chief  Curator 
Donald  Collier's  approval.  Ken  left  the  storage  rooms  to 
look  into  the  Indian  communities  in  Chicago  for  newly- 
made  artifacts  and  Indians  who  could  give  first-hand  reports 
on  their  tribal  dances  and  crafts  and  personal  accounts  of 
the  customs  they  practiced.  Ken  talked  to  many  Indians 
and  experts  on  American  Indian  culture  and  anthropology. 
He  also  corresponded  with  representatives  on  several  res- 
ervations. This  approach  to  American  Indian  studies  signi- 
fies just  one  of  the  unexpected  values  that  have  come  out  of 
the  Shinner  Scholarship  Program. 


Unfortunately,  Ken 
will  not  be  around  to 
carry  on  with  the  pro- 
gram  he  has  sug- 
gested. Having  grad- 
uated from  Cornell, 
he  will  be  going  to 
Oxford  this  fall  on  a 
Rhodes  Scholarship, 
where  he  will  con- 
tinue to  study  anthro- 
pology. 


Alberta  Blumin,  a  comparative  literature  major  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  California  at  Berkeley,  was  given  comparisons  to 
make  in  another  field  during  her  summer  at  the  Museum. 
From  a  rock  pile  that  Dr.  William  Turnbull  brought  back 
from  his  fieldtrip  to  the  Southwest,  Alberta  separated  out 
the  small  black  bits  which  will  be  analyzed  in  the  search  for 
bone  fragments  of  the  earliest  mammals.  Although  her 
major  field  of  interest  did  not  overlap  with  Museum  studies. 
Alberta  had  developed  a  fine  skill  last  year  in  a  paleontology 
course.  She  cleaned  and  prepared  fossils  with  dental  tools. 
This  skull  was  an  asset  to  her  work  with  Dr.  John  Clark.  For 
his  current  research  she  cleaned  fossilized  skulls  and  removed 

the  lower  jaws. 

For  Alberta,  one  of 
the  most  rewarding 
aspects  of  the  sum- 
mer at  Field  Museum 
was  meeting  and 
working  jointly  with 
the  Geology  staff  and 
other  students. 


Interviews  with  some  of  tlie  SHINNER  SCHOLARS 

During  the  summer.  Field  Museum  granted  11  Shinner  Scholarships  to  college  students  who  are 
interested  in  Museum  work.  The  students  worked  closely  with  their  designated  Curators  to  get 
some  experience  in  the  methods  oj  museum  research  and  collection  care.  Other  students,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  interviewed,  who  were  awarded  Shinner  Scholarships  irwlude  the  following:  Har- 
Kwun,  of  Mount  Holyoke  College,  worked  in  the  Botany  Department;  Terry  Chase,  of  Witten- 
berg University,  Springfield,  Ohio,  worked  in  the  Geology  Department;  Robert  Morton  of  Western 
Illinois  University,  worked  also  in  Geology  and  Harold  Stewart  of  Westminster  College,  Fulton, 
Missouri,  worked  in  the  Division  of  Insects. 

Income  for  the  Shinner  Scholars  comes  from  a  grant  from  The  Shinner  Foundation.     This  is 

the  second  annual  appropriation  made  to  the  Museum.    The  late  Ernest  Shinner  was  a  successful 

south-side  Chicago  businessman  who  established  this  Foundation  primarily  to  help  deserving 

young  people.     The  Museum  Officers  are  grateful  for  the  interest  shown  by  the  Foundation's 

Trustees:  Mr.  Robert  F.  Bradburn,  Dr.  William  T.  Carlisle  and  Mr.  John  J.  Chavanne,  Jr. 


Page  10    OCTOBER 


The  Division  of  Rep- 
tiles was  well  assisted 
by  Eric  Ahlvin,  a  zoology  student  from  Indiana  University. 
One  of  Eric's  assignments  as  a  Shinner  Scholar  was  to  up- 
date the  catalog  of  reprinted  articles  on  reptiles  and  amphib- 
ians. Eric  corrected  and  revised  many  of  the  old  reference 
cards  and  made  brief  summaries  of  new  articles  he  added 
to  the  catalog. 

Eric  is  from  the  Chicago  area,  but  admitted  he  knew  very 
little  about  Field  Museum  until  this  summer.  In  addition 
to  desk  work  and  assisting  Mr.  Hyman  Marx,  Eric  was  sent 
with  the  Department's  Research  Assistant,  Thomas  Olec- 
howski,  to  the  University  of  Kansas  to  receive  the  Museum's 
recently  acquired  collection  of  reptiles  and  amphibians. 
Overall,  Eric  says  his  summer's  experiences  have  helped  him 
greatly  to  choose  his  field  of  specialization,  herpetology. 


Robert  Weir  applied  for  the  Shinner  Scholarship  Program 
through  the  University  of  Montana  where  he  is  a  science 
major.  Like  several  others  on  the  program.  Bob  was  at 
first  a  bit  surprised  by  the  amount  of  work  required  to  care 
for  a  collection.  For  example,  the  hundreds  of  fish  speci- 
mens stored  in  jars  for  study  reference  must  be  dusted  and 
refilled  periodically  with  alcohol  preservative.  However, 
tending  the  collection.  Bob  says,  became  very  interesting 
when  he  took  advantage  of  this  opportunity  to  examine  the 
individual  species  and  learn  their  names  and  classification. 
Getting  acquainted  with  the  behind-the-scenes  organiza- 
tion of  the  Division  of  Fishes  was  valuable  training,  accord- 
ing to  Bob.  In  addition,  he  found  the  reference  work  he  did 
in  the  Museum  Library  for  Dr.  Loren  Woods'  forthcoming 
publication  on  fishes  particularly  interesting.  Next  sum- 
mer. Bob  hopes  to  continue  working  with  fishes,  perhaps  at 

a  marine  laboratory 
in  the  Caribbean  or 
on  Cape  Cod. 


Christine  Miller  spent 
her  summer  at  the 
Museum  working  in 
the  Anthropology 
Department  at  a  va- 
riety  of  projects. 
When  Dr.  Fred  Rein- 
man  returned  from 
Guam,  Chris  helped  to  unpack,  label,  sort  and  organize  the 
collection  he  brought  back.  Another  task  in  the  Pacific 
Research  Laboratory  was  to  assist  Dr.  Phillip  Lewis  in  mak- 
ing an  IBM  locator  file  for  the  Micronesian  and  Philippine 
collections. 

Chris's  experience  at  Field  Museum  has  confirmed  her 
intention  to  become  a  museum  anthropologist.  After  grad- 
uating from  the  University  of  Michigan  next  spring,  she 
expects  to  enter  the  new  muscology  graduate  program  at 
the  University  of  Wisconsin. 


Daniel  Dresner  has 
spent  his  summer  at 
the  Museum  at  a 
drawing  board  in  the 
Division  of  Birds,  but 
"^^  no  sketches  of  birds 
have  emerged  from  his  pen.  Instead,  Dan  has  been  compil- 
ing a  phytogeographical  map  of  South  America  for  a  study 
of  the  birds  and  mammals  of  that  continent  by  Curators 
Philip  Hershkovitz  and  Melvin  Traylor.  No  map  of  such 
detail,  size  and  scope  was  available  for  study.  Working 
from  vegetation  maps  and  from  the  written  records  made 
by  explorers,  Dan  has  done  a  great  deal  of  research  and  all 
the  execution  on  this  map  which  locates  ten  different  types 
of  vegetation  in  South  America.  For  his  information,  he 
had  to  turn  to  sources  written  in  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
French  and  German,  as  well  as  English. 

Dan  is  currently  a  student  in  Biology  at  Roosevelt  Uni- 
versity. Since  most  of  Dan's  previous  research  has  been  with 
living  animals,  the  study  of  vegetation  to  determine  what 
types  of  birds  might  survive  in  the  different  regions  has  been 
an  interesting  methodological  discovery.  When  asked  if 
the  study  of  South  America  has  roused  his  interest  to  visit 
there,  Dan  answered  .  .  .  "I've  been  wanting  to  go  there 
all  summer." 


OCTOBER     Page  11 


MUSEUM   HONORS   FORMER  CURATOR 

On  OCTOBER  10,  the  Museum  will  make  a  special  award  to  J.  Eric  S.  Thompson, 
the  distinguished  Maya  Scholar  in  celebration  of  the  40th  anniversary  of  the 
first  publication  by  Field  Museum  of  his  book  The  Civilization  of  the  Mayas.  There 
are  now  over  25,000  copies  of  this  work  in  print,  and  it  is  in  its  sixth  edition. 
The  award  will  be  made  at  a  luncheon  given  in  Mr.  Thompson's  honor  by  the 
Women's  Board.  Other  guests  will  include  his  son,  Donald  E.  Thompson,  sev- 
eral of  Mr.  Thompson's  colleagues  in  Maya  archaeology,  and  Mr.  Norman  F. 
Carver,  Jr.,  who  made  the  photographs  in  the  exhibition  "Silent  Cities:  An 
Architect's  View  of  Ancient  Mexico  and  the  Maya,"  opening  that  day. 

Eric  Thompson  is  an  Englishman,  educated  at  Cambridge  University.  He 
was  Assistant  Curator  of  Central  and  South  American  Archaeology  at  Field 
Museum  from  1926  to  1935.  During  this  period  he  went  on  six  Museum  expe- 
ditions to  Mexico,  Guatemala  and  British  Honduras  and  published,  in  addition 
to  Civilization  of  the  Mayas,  a  number  of  important  papers  and  monographs  in 
the  Museum's  Anthropology  Series.  His  field  work  was  centered  mainly  in 
British  Honduras,  where  he  studied  and  excavated  numerous  Maya  sites  and 
investigated  the  culture  of  the  contemporary  Mayas.  A  major  part  of  the  Mu- 
seum's Mayan  archaeological  and  ethnographic  material  was  collected  on  these 
expeditions.  His  most  famous  paper  published  by  the  Museum  (1927)  is  en- 
titled "A  Correlation  of  the  Mayan  and  European  Calendars."  The  most  widely 
accepted  correlation  today  is  known  as  the  Goodman-Thompson  correlation. 
His  life  work  on  Maya  hieroglyphs  is  summed  up  in  Maya  Hieroglyphic  Writing: 
An  Introduction,  published  by  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington  in  1950 
and  in  1 960  put  out  in  its  second  edition  by  the  University  of  Oklahoma. 
*-iH.      '    "'  In  1955  Mr.  Thompson  joined  the  staff  of  the 

Carnegie  Institution,  where  he  continued  his 
Maya  studies  until  1957.  He  now  lives  in  "retire- 
ment" in  the  Essex  village  of  Ashdon,  not  far  from 
his  colleagues  and  friends  at  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity. There,  surrounded  by  his  superb  library  on 
the  Mayas  and  their  Middle  American  neighbors, 
he  continues  to  turn  out  scholarly  papers  at  an 
unabated  rate. 


CALENDAR  OF  EVENTS 


October  hours:  Openfrom  9  a.m.  to  5p.m. 
every  day. 

October  through  November  Fall  Journey:  Your  Day  in  Ancient  Rome.  A 
self-guided  tour  through  exhibits  that  illustrate  many  aspects  of  daily  living 
at  the  time  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

October  7  Film-Lecture:  Into  Siberi.\.  2:30  p.m.  in  the  Museum's  James 
Simpson  Theatre.  Lecturer  Raphael  Green,  of  the  University  of  Minnesota, 
illustrates  his  talk  with  a  color  film  of  this  vast,  little  known  region. 

October  10  -  November  26  Exhibit:  Silent  Cities:  An  Architegt's  View  of 
Ancient  Mexico  and  the  Maya.    For  details  .see  page  2. 

October  1 8  New  Acquisition :  Pre-Coh»ibian  Mexican  Art.  Two  new 
pieces  donated  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Raymond  J.  Wielgus.  Stanley  Field  Hall. 
For  details,  see  page  9. 


MEETINGS: 


Audubon  Society,  Oct.  8  and  Nov.  5,  7  p.m. 
Shell  Club,  Oct.  8  and  Nov.  12,  2  p.m. 
N.\TURE  Camera  Club,  Oct.  10,  7:45  p.m. 
Orchid  Society,  Oct.  15,  2  p.m. 


CLARENCE   B. 
RANDALL 

1891-1967 

With  the  death  of  Clarence  B.  Randall 
on  August  4,  Field  Museum  lost  one  of 
its  most  admired  friends  and  associates. 
Mr.  Randall,  a  Trustee  of  the  Museum 
from  1946  to  1961,  had  three  distin- 
guished careers  in  his  active  lifetime,  as 
businessman,  governmental  advisor  and 
author.  He  first  came  to  Inland  Steel 
in  1925,  and  rose  to  be  president  from 
1949  to  1953  and  chairman  from  1953 
to  1956.  He  was  nationally  known  as 
spokesman  for  the  steel  industry,  and,  in 
President  Kennedy's  words,  as  "a  force- 
ful and  articulate  philosopher  of  the  role 
of  business  in  a  free  society."  On  his  re- 
tirement in  1956  at  the  age  of  65,  Mr. 
Randall  was  made  special  advisor  to 
President  Eisenhower  on  foreign  eco- 
nomic policy  and  served  with  distinc- 
tion under  Eisenhower  and  his  succes- 
sors. Presidents  Kennedy  and  Johnson. 
He  was  author  of  several  books  on  busi- 
ness philosophy,  and  in  1956  published 
his  own  reminiscences.  Over  My  Shoulderi 
Mr.  Randall's  association  with  the 
Museum  was  not  only  an  expression  of 
his  interest  in  public  service,  but  of  his 
love  of  nature.  He  was,  as  he  put  it  him- 
self, "a  pot  hunter  turned  bi.'-der  turned 
photographer,"  and  throughout  his  busy 
career  he  managed  to  find  time  to  enjoy 
these  pastimes.  As  those  who  have  seen 
his  pictures  well  know,  he  brought  the 
same  competence  to  his  photography 
that  he  showed  in  all  his  work. 


FIELD     MUSEUM 

OF    NATURAL   HISTORY 

ROOSEVELT  ROAD  AT  LAKE  SHORE  DRIVE 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS  6060S    A.C.  312,  922-9410 

FOUNDED  BY  MARSHALL  FIELD.  1893 

E.  Leland  Webber,  Director 

BULLETIN 

Edward  G.  Nash,  Managing  Editor 


Page  12     OCTOBER 


PRINTED  BY  FIELD  MUSEU.VI  PRESS 


^  <|  Easter.  April  /4— You  may  attend  Mass  at  the  richly 
I  I  designed  Spanish  Colonial  Church  of  Santo  Do- 
nfiingo  and  view  its  great  Colonial  paintings  and  sculp- 
tures. Later,  at  the  State  Museum,  where  you  see  jewelry 
from  Tomb  Seven,  Monte  Alban,  the  sophistication  of  the 
Zapotec  and  Mixtec  cultures  is  revealed  to  you.  In 
the  afternoon,  you  explore  the  ruins  of  Mitia,  18  miles 
southeast  of  Oaxaca.  Particularly  beautiful  are  the  com- 
plex spiral  fret  patterns  of  the  Hall  of  Mosaics.  From 
MitIa,  it  is  a  short  drive  to  Santa  Maria  del  Tule  to  see  its 
Montezuma  cypress — 1 60  feet  around  and  1 65  feet  tall — 
estimated  to  be  thousands  of  years  old. 


A  f^  Monday,  April  75— You  fly  to  Villahermosa,  Ta- 
I  ^^  basco,  in  the  tropical  lowlands.  With  lunch  at 
the  Hotel  Manzur,  you  then  tour  the  unique  Park  Museum. 
Archaeological  exhibits  are  in  a  lush  setting  of  botanical 
garden  and  zoological  park.  The  mysterious  Olmec  heads 
and  carved  altars  are  considered  the  works  of  the  mother- 
culture  of  Mexico's  pre-Hispanic  civilizations. 


^  ^  Tuesday,  April  75— You  ride  by  bus  through  trop- 
I  v3  leal  savanna  and  forest  to  the  ruins  of  Palenque, 
in  the  State  of  Chiapas.  Here,  with  a  backdrop  of  jungled 
mountains,  you  explore  the  tomb  in  the  Temple  of  In- 
scriptions, the  Palace  with  its  relief  carvings  and  other 
pyramids  and  temples.  This  center  of  ruins  has  been 
described  by  many  archaeologists  and  travelers  as  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  Maya  sites. 


14-15 


Mixtec  Indian  woman  sells  pottery  in  Oaxaca  market. 


Photos  on  back  cover:  Artisan  paints  pottery  cat, 
Cancionero  and  guitar,  Relief  mitral  by  David  Alfaro 
Siqueiros — photo  by  Homer  Holdrcn,  Coral  tree's  scar- 
let flotver.  Holy  Thursday  in  Taxco — photo  by  Juan 
Estrada. 


Wednesday-Thursday,  April  17-18 — You 
visit  the  Villahermosa  Museum,  then  take 
a  flight  to  Merida,  Yucatan  and  a  bus  from  Merida  to 
Uxmal,  where  you  spend  the  afternoon  and  most  of  the 
following  day  at  the  ruins.  The  earliest  temples  and  pyra- 
mids of  this  great  Maya  city  were  built  during  the  13th 
century.  Much  local  handicraft  is  available  at  your  hotel, 
the  Hacienda  Uxmal. 


Pkotoa  by  Juan  Ettrada 


Holy  Thursday  Procession  builds  to  a  climax  amid  slow  drum  beats,  peni- 
tents and  their  burdens  of  thorn  branches  and  the  reverently  bornt  figure  of 
the  Crucified  Christ, 

A  ^  Friday,  April  75— You  ride  by  bus  to  the  ruins  of 
I  O  Chichen  Itza,  witli  lunch  at  the  Hotel  Mayaland. 
During  the  afternoon  you  tour  this,  the  best  preserved 
archaeological  site  in  the  Maya  area.  Particularly  im- 
pressive is  the  Temple  of  the  Thousand  Columns,  with 
its  limestone  relief  carvings  of  warriors  and  its  dramatic 
plumed  serpents.  Highlights  are  the  baJJcourt,  the  enig- 
matic Chac-Mool  and  the  sacred  well  in  which  Maya 
maidens  were  sacrificed. 


i|  "^  Saturday,  April 20— You  continue  your  exploration 
I  I  of  the  ruins.  After  lunch  at  the  Hotel  Mayaland, 
you  ride  into  Merida,  to  view  the  central  square  and  the 
Casa  Montejo.  By  plane  you  return  to  Mexico  City  for  a 
farewell  dinner  at  the  Hotel  Tecali  with  its  terrace  views 
of  the  great  city  at  night. 


1  Q.   ^'^"^^y-  April  21 — You  return  to  Chicago  on  a 
I  ^?    morning  Mexicana  flight,  with  arrival  in  the  early 
afternoon. 


OCTOBER    Page  13 


make  youh  i-esei-valiohs  NOW 

foh  FIELD  MUSEUM'S  MEXICAN  TOUR 

April  4  +0  21 


be  in  Taxco  for  the  awesome  Holy  Thursday  processions,  visit  the  impressive 
ruinsof  the  Aztecs  and  Teotihuacanos,  the  Zapotecs  and  Mayas,  see  tropics 
and  highlands  during  flowering  trees"  season,  be  entertained  in  important 
private  homes  and  gardens,  tour  the  great  museums,  Iceep  abreast  of  trends 
in  art  and  architecture,  shop  in  native  marlcets,  travel  with  specialists  in 
Mexican  plants  and  gardening  and  in  Mexican  archaeology  and  folk  history 
ONLY  $975  INCLUDING  A  $200  TAX  DEDUCTIBLE 
DONATION  TO  FIELD  MUSEUM 

(also  corers  all  costs  -  -  hotels,  meals,  gratuities,  taxes  and  fees, 
guides,  transportation  and  baggage  handling) 


act  now— 

the  number 

of  reservations 

is  limited 


CUP  AND   MAIL  THIS  COUPON  TODAY 
I  would  like reservations  for  your  Mexican  Tour  and  I  enclose  my  check 

(HOW   MANY) 

for  a  $200  deposit  for  each  reservation 


Name 


Address 

City State 

□  Please  check  if  single  rooms  are  desired,  at  extra  charge. 


Zip 


Please  send  information  about  this  tour  to  my  friends  listed  below: 


Name 


Address 
City 

Name . . 
Address 
City  .... 


State 


Zip 


State 


Zip 


BULLETIN  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

Volume  38,  Number  11     November,  1967 


The  two  careers  of  Fritz  Haas 


by  Alan  Solem,  Curator,  Lower  Invertebrates 


On  October  20,  1908,  the  fourth  number  in  the  fortieth 
volume  of  the  Nachrichtshlatt  der  Deutschen  Malakozoologischen 
Gesellschqft  was  issued  in  Frankfurt-am-Main.  Among  the 
many  technical  reports,  there  were  three  short  papers  on 
fresh-water  clams  written  by  a  young  German  zoologist, 
Fritz  Haas.  Since  the  preceding  year,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Wilhelm  Kobelt,  he  had  been  studying  the  variation  and 
ecology  of  unionid  clams  in  the  Upper  Rhine  basin. 

Now,  at  the  start  of  his  sixtieth  year  as  a  publishing  sci- 
entist, it  is  appropriate  to  review  and  summarize  his  career. 
As  these  words  were  being  written,  Fritz  Haas  was  reading 
galley  and  page  proof  of  two  much  longer  papers.  One 
summarizes  the  living  and  fossil  genera  of  unionid  clams  for 
the  "Bivalvia"  section  in  the  Treatise  on  Invertebrate  Palaeon- 
tology. It  numbers  only  a  few  hundred  manuscript  pages. 
The  other  is  a  synopsis  for  "Das  Tierreich"  covering  all  liv- 
ing species  of  unionid  clams.  It  comprises  about  1 ,000  typed 
pages.  Either  monograph  would  be  a  major  contribution 
from  any  systematist.  Both  were  written  by  Fritz  Haas  con- 
siderably after  the  normal  retirement  age  of  65. 

The  bare  statistics  of  his  career  are  impressive — a  bibli- 
ography with  319  entries  and  a  list  of  385  new  genera  and 
species  produced  over  six  decades.  Very  few  scholars  com- 
pile such  a  record,  but  Fritz  Haas  will  be  remembered  long- 
est, not  for  the  number  of  papers  he  wrote,  nor  for  the  many 
taxa  he  described,  but  for  the  major  synthetic  papers  he 
published  and  the  many  more  "species"  that  he  reduced  to 
synonymy.  His  1940  revision  "A  tentative  classification  of 
the  Palearctic  Unionids"  grouped  1,309  described  forms  of 
unionid  clams  into  only  19  species,  with  65  geographic  races. 
The  "Bivalvia"  section  in  Bronn's  Klassen  und  Ordnungen  des 
Tierreichs  (1929-1956),  "Die  Unioniden"  in  Martini-Chem- 
nitz (1910-1919),  the  series  of  papers  on  Spanish  moUusks 


worked  with  Wilhelm  Kobelt.  Both  men  had  a  profound 
influence  on  his  subsequent  career.  Meticulous  descriptions 
and  well  chosen  illustrations  characterize  Haas'  papers,  and 
his  early  descriptions  follow  the  pattern  used  by  Boettger. 
Haas'  continuing  interest  in  the  unionid  clams,  his  grasp  of 
ecology  and  his  great  interest  in  zoogeography,  all  came 
from  early  association  with  Kobelt. 

In  this  day  of  population  biology  and  the  application  of 
evolutionary  theory  to  systematics,  it  is  difficult  to  realize 
the  status  of  molluscan  taxonomy  during  the  early  1900's. 
As  nineteenth  century  Europe  had  been  torn  and  divided 
by  the  Napoleonic  and  Franco-Prussian  wars,  so  malacol- 
ogy had  become  divided  into  opposed  camps.  Starting  in 
the  1870's,  under  the  leadership  of  Bourguignat,  workers  in 
France  and  Italy  began  describing,  literally  by  the  hun- 
dreds, "species"  of  land  and  fresh-water  moUusks.  Their 
"nouvelle  ecole"  totally  ignored  factors  of  the  soft  anatomy, 
phenotypic  and  intrapopulational  variation,  geography, 
hinge  structure,  and  shell  sculpture  in  the  unionids.  They 
used  a  completely  typological  approach,  relying  on  a  few 
gross  shell  measurements  and  simple  ratios  to  discriminate 
their  "species."  Carried  to  its  logical  extreme,  almost  every 
specimen  became  a  "species."  The  influence  of  this  school 
still  haunts  systematic  malacology,  since  it  is  far  simpler  to 
propose  new  names  than  to  prove  that  named  forms  are 
minor  variations  of  biological  species. 

Even  at  the  height  of  Bourguignat's  influence,  many 
malacologists  did  not  accept  his  premises.  In  France, 
Drouet  and  the  Fischer  family,  in  Germany  Kobelt  and  the 
Boettgers,  most  of  the  English,  American  and  Scandinavian 
workers  began  to  grope  toward  an  understanding  of  geo- 
graphic and  phenotypic  variation.  Kobelt  focused  atten- 
tion on  the  probable  importance  of  hydrographic  bound- 


Two  surprises  greeted  Fritz  on  October  20th.  First  was  the  publication  of  Fieldiana:  Zoology, 
Volume  53,  Number  2,  "New  iVIolluscan  Taxa  and  Scientific  Writings  of  Fritz  Haas,"  a  complete 
list  of  his  publications  and  new  molluscan  names.  This  will  be  an  invaluable  bibliographic  aid 
to  malacologists  of  this  and  succeeding  generations. 


co-authored  with  Arturo  BofiU  (1919-1921),  the  "Lamelli- 
branchia"  section  in  Die  Tierwelt  der  Nord-  und  Ostsee  (1926), 
"Fauna  Malacologica  Cataluna"  (1929),  "Bau  und  Bildung 
des  Perlen"  (1931),  and  his  two  latest  synoptic  studies  on 
the  unionids  will  assure  his  place  in  the  history  of  malacol- 
ogy, even  without  the  many  descriptions  of  new  taxa. 

Born  January  4,  1886,  the  youngest  of  four  children  in  a 
Frankfurt  banker's  family,  Fritz  was  a  naturalist  from  child- 
hood. Early  interests  in  insects  and  geological  specimens 
were  transferred  to  mollusks  through  the  influence  of  his 
Gymnasium  teacher,  Oscar  Boettger,  a  famous  malacologist 
and  herpetologist,  then  near  the  end  of  a  long  and  illustrious 
career.    Through  Oscar  Boettger,  the  young  Haas  met  and 


aries  and  local  variation  in  unionid  evolution,  but  he  was 
too  old  for  the  intensive  field  work  and  collection  study  re- 
quired. Fritz  Haas  provided  the  evidence  and  hard  work 
needed  to  confirm  Kobelt's  inspired  hypotheses. 

Although  Boettger  and  Kobelt  were  primarily  respon- 
sible for  the  form  and  substance  of  Fritz  Haas'  work,  his 
Ph.D.  was  obtained  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Buetschli 
at  Heidelberg.  A  source  of  quiet  pride  to  Fritz  was  the  re- 
ceipt of  a  certificate  from  Heidelberg  on  February  22,  1960 
honoring  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  Ph.D.  examinations. 
While  working  for  his  degree  he  made  his  first  foreign  field 
trip,  to  Norway,  for  studies  in  marine  biology.  His  disser- 
tation was  concerned  with  the  evolution  of,  and  distribu- 


Page2     NOVEMBER 


tional  patterns  shown  by  the  unionids  in  the  Upper  Rhine 
Valley.  Considerable  field  work,  both  winter  and  summer, 
was  required.  Collecting  unionids  is  not  at  all  glamorous, 
but  is  a  wet  and  muddy  activity.  Although  Fritz  was  work- 
ing for  a  Ph.D.,  even  during  the  winter  months  he  felt  it  was 
prudent  to  walk  the  streets  until  his  clothes  dried,  rather 
than  coming  home  wet  and  muddy  to  face  his  mother's  con- 
cern. This  problem  is  common  with  young  naturalists  today 
and  is  solved  in  similar  fashion. 

Early  in  1910  be  began  publishing  a  continuation  of  the 
"Die  Unioniden"  in  Martini-Chemnitz  and  on  January  1, 
1911  was  appointed  Assistant  Keeper  of  Invertebrate  Zool- 
ogy at  the  Natur-Museum  Senckenberg,  Frankfurt.  Field 
activities  in  many  parts  of  southern  Germany,  a  continuous 
stream  of  publications  on  unionids  and  work  with  the  huge 
unionid  collection  were  mixed  with  reports  on  moUusks  from 
Indonesia  and  the  Sudan,  his  first  of  many  papers  on  expe- 
dition materials. 

In  August,  1914,  Fritz  and  two  companions  were  on  a 
collecting  trip  in  the  Pyrenees.    Human  habitations  and  in- 


Museum.  She  proved  indispensable,  and  on  March  30, 
1922,  shortly  after  Fritz  had  been  promoted  to  Keeper  of 
Invertebrate  Zoology,  she  became  Mrs.  Fritz  Haas.  Forty- 
five  years  later,  she  is  still  assistant  and  helper  in  his  work 
and  his  devoted  companion. 

Economic  conditions  ended  publication  of  his  work  "Die 
Unioniden"  as  part  of  Martini-Chemnitz,  but  an  invitation 
to  write  the  "Bivalvia"  section  for  Bronn's  Klassen  und  Ord- 
nungen  des  Tierreichs  provided  another  outlet  for  Fritz's  ener- 
gies. Eventually  this  project  was  to  number  over  2,400 
printed  pages.  The  first  section  was  issued  in  1 929,  but  not 
until  1956  did  the  final  part  appear.  During  the  1920's,  he 
also  wrote  the  "Lamellibranchia"  section  in  Die  Tierwell  der 
Nord-  und  Ostsee  (1926),  "Fauna  Malacol6gica  Cataluna" 
(1929)  and  "Bau  and  Bildung  des  Perlen"  (1931). 

During  part  of  1931  and  1932  he  was  in  southern  Africa 
as  a  member  of  the  Schomburgk  Expedition.  Material  from 
the  Congo,  Angola,  Rhodesia,  Kenya  and  South  Africa, 
much  of  which  was  self-collected,  was  reported  on  in  his 
"Binnen-MoUusken  aus  Inner-Afrika"  (1936). 


—  Second  was  the  presentation  of  1 25  congratulatory  letters  from  malacologists  in  all  parts  of 
of  the  world  and  from  his  museum  colleagues.  In  gentle  retribution  for  years  of  etymological 
puns,  the  letters  were  bound  with  a  frontispiece  (this  month's  flt///e^>j  Cover)  featuring  European 
hares.  The  German  word  for  hare  is  Haas.  Artist  iVlarge  IVloran  included  several  animal  species 
named  after  Fritz  Haas,  among  them  a  frog,  a  fish,  several  clams  and  snails,  a  leech  and  parts 
of  an  isopod. 


teresting  land  moUusks  seldom  are  found  together,  and  their 
infrequent  visits  to  small  towns  were  only  to  replenish  sup- 
plies. Many  informal  and  officially  unobserved  crossings  of 
the  French-Spanish  border  were  made.  Unexpectedly,  a 
visit  to  a  small  French  town  provided  a  turning  point  in  his 
career.  Unknown  to  the  collectors,  full  troop  mobilization 
of  the  French  and  German  armies  had  been  ordered.  Shoot- 
ing had  not  started,  but  people  were  alert  for  spies  and  sabo- 
teurs. The  appearance  of  three  Germans  in  a  French  border 
town  resulted  in  swift  arrest.  Fortunately,  the  local  magis- 
trate was  intelligent  and  no  more  in  favor  of  war  than  were 
the  German  snail  collectors.  Instead  of  being  interned,  the 
Germans  were  kept  under  comfortable  armed  guard  for  one 
night,  then  allowed  to  go  by  train  to  Sete,  where  they  just 
managed  to  obtain  passage  to  Spain  on  a  crowded  ship. 

Hence  World  War  I  saw  Fritz  Haas  stranded  in  Spain 
rather  than  interned  in  France.  It  was  not  until  1919  that 
he  returned  to  Germany,  but  the  intervening  years  had  been 
very  productive.  He  made  quite  extensive  collections,  pub- 
lished studies  on  historical  unionid  collections  in  Spanish 
museums,  sent  letters  to  Frankfurt  outlining  his  intensive 
collecting  efforts  in  the  Pyrenees  and  began  to  prepare  the 
long  series  of  papers  (1919-1921)  with  Arturo  Bofill  that 
remain  as  definitive  works  on  the  Spanish  fauna. 

The  inflation  and  economic  turmoil  of  Germany  in  the 
1920's  restricted  Fritz's  field  work,  but  barely  slowed  his  re- 
search activity.  Early  in  1 920  he  became  editor  of  the  Archiv 
Jur  Mollusktnkunde,  the  successor  of  the  venerable  Nachrichts- 
blatt.  In  1921,  a  volunteer  worker  from  Mainz,  Helene 
Ganz,  was  assigned  to  help  Fritz  Haas  at  the  Senckenberg 


Increasing  governmental  persecution  of  Germans  be- 
longing to  the  Jewish  faith  penetrated  even  into  museums 
and  forced  his  removal  as  Keeper  of  Invertebrate  Zoology 
at  the  Natur-Museum  "Senckenberg"  on  June  30,.  1936. 
It  became  obvious  that  the  Haas  family  had  to  leave  Ger- 
many. Personal  savings  were  used  for  Fritz  to  visit  Brazil 
and  the  United  States  in  search  of  a  job.  During  the  first 
part  of  1937  he  collected  in  northeastern  Brazil,  the  osten- 
sible reason  for  the  trip,  and  was  aided  by  R.  von  Ihering, 
nephew  of  the  famous  Hermann  von  Ihering,  with  whom 
Fritz  had  collaborated  for  many  years.  His  first  attempts 
at  job  hunting  in  the  United  States  failed.  Economic  con- 
ditions of  1937  and  1938  did  not  permit  hiring  of  malacolo- 
gists by  American  museums.  After  considerable  difficulty, 
and  with  the  help  of  the  Emergency  Committee  in  Aid  of 
Displaced  German  Scholars  and  the  generosity  of  the  Jewish 
Welfare  Fund  of  Chicago,  Fritz  Haas  was  hired  as  Curator 
of  Lower  Invertebrates  by  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Chicago.  Although  the  United  States  did  not  re- 
quire his  return  to  Germany  before  re-entering  the  United 
States  as  an  immigrant,  in  order  to  be  certain  that  his  wife 
and  two  children  could  join  him,  he  went  back  to  Frankfurt 
in  March,  1938.  Permission  to  leave  included  taking  only 
10  marks  for  each  adult,  and  on  July  22,  1938  the  Haas  fam- 
ily landed  in  New  York.  On  August  1 , 1 938  he  started  work 
at  the  Field  Museum. 

At  the  age  of  52,  when  many  scientists  are  actively  plan- 
ning for  retirement,  Fritz  Haas  had  to  begin  a  second  career. 
From  the  huge  collections  and  fantastic  library  resources  of 
Senckenberg,  which  rank  among  the  finest  in  the  world,  he 


NOVEMBER     Page  3 


Fritz  in  1938,  siiortly  after  coming  to  Chicago 
and  Field  Museum 

came  to  a  Museum  where  the  only  invertebrates  were  left- 
over exhibits  from  the  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893,  there 
had  never  been  an  invertebrate  zoologist,  and  only  minimal 
literature  on  mollusks  was  available. 

During  his  first  28  years  of  research  activity  he  had  at  his 
fingertips  unequaled  raw  materials  and  library  facilities. 
Now,  instead  of  using  established  facilities,  he  had  to  de- 
velop these  resources.    The  Frankfurt  Museum  had  accu- 


ing  the  sea  shells  until  last.  The  sight  of  these  numbered 
specimens,  lying  loose  in  huge  wooden  trays  with  the  old- 
fashioned  exhibition  labels  lying  torn  and  dirty  beside  them, 
gave  me  some  feeling  of  what  the  first  few  months  at  Field 
Museum  must  have  meant  to  Fritz  Haas. 

At  first,  with  all  his  efforts  required  to  organize  the  col- 
lection, publications  were  few.  Early  years  in  Chicago  saw 
his  "A  tentative  classification  of  the  Palearctic  Unionids" 
(1940),  summarizing  33  years'  work  on  unionids  in  Europe, 
several  notes  resulting  from  his  work  on  the  Field  Museum 
mollusk  collection,  and  the  first  few  descriptions  of  South 
American  non-marine  mollusks.  In  1942,  Field  Museum 
purchased  the  Walter  F.  Webb  collection  of  land  and  fresh- 
water shells.  Consisting  primarily  of  the  Gerard  K.  Gude 
collection,  supplemented  by  one  part  of  the  Quadras  Philip- 
pine collection,  plus  many  other  shells  purchased  by  Webb, 
this  provided  the  nucleus  of  a  research  collection.  Many 
small  collections  from  numerous  sources  were  received  and 
processed.  By  1954,  when  the  20,000  sets  of  the  Webb  col- 
lection finally  were  completely  integrated,  54,000  entries 
comprised  the  Field  Museum's  mollusk  collection.  Essen- 
tially, all  of  these  had  been  labeled,  catalogued  and  reiden- 
tified  by  Fritz  Haas. 

Through  the  years,  much  material  from  South  America 
came  to  Fritz  Haas  for  study.  Some  were  taken  on  Field 
Trips  and  Expeditions  of  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
others  came  from  correspondents  or  resident  scientists  in 
Latin  America.  Fritz  Haas  also  made  several  brief  trips  to 
different  parts  of  the  United  States,  Bermuda,  Cuba  and 
Canada.  While  he  produced  many  short  papers  on  these 
collections,  his  main  efforts  were  devoted  to  descriptions  and 


—  The  occasion  of  the  presentation  was  also  a  "bon  voyage"  party:  two  days  later  Dr.  and 
Mrs.  Haas  flew  to  Frankfurt,  Germany,  as  honored  guests  at  the  150th  anniversary  of  the 
Natur-Museum  Senckenberg. 


mulated  the  collections  of  competent  specialists  for  120  years; 
at  Chicago  there  was  miscellaneous  material  of  little  scien- 
tific importance  and  a  few  pretty  sea  shells  from  exhibits. 
Over  the  next  18  years,  with  only  occasional  help  from 
summer  workers  and  volunteers,  he  expanded,  rehoused,  re- 
labeled, and  reidentified  the  miscellaneous  collections  of 
mollusks  in  the  Field  Museum.  With  the  strong  backing 
of  Chief  Curator  of  Zoology,  Karl  P.  Schmidt:  the  Museum 
Director,  Cliflford  C.  Gregg;  and  President  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees,  Stanley  Field,  an  excellent  molluscan  library  was 
gradually  accumulated,  modern  storage  facilities  were  pro- 
vided and  the  nucleus  of  a  research  collection  established. 
With  admirable  foresight,  recognizing  the  inevitable  growth 
of  collections,  he  developed  a  system  of  specimen  storage 
that  uses  far  less  space  per  set  of  shells  than  is  required  in 
other  museum  collections.  Although  at  Frankfurt  he  had 
emphasized  research,  he  greatly  enjoyed  bringing  order  out 
of  chaos  and  seeing  the  collection  begin  to  reach  usable  pro- 
portions. Progress  was  slow,  and  when  I  first  met  Fritz 
Haas,  in  1943,  parts  of  the  original  marine  shell  collection 
still  had  to  be  reordered.  Naturally,  he  had  given  first  atten- 
tion to  the  unionid  clams  and  all  non-marine  mollusks,  leav- 


distributional  studies  on  Latin  American  shells.  Next  to  the 
Unionidae,  he  described  more  taxa  of  Bulimulidae  than  any 
other  group.  Most  of  these  names  date  from  his  work  in 
Chicago  during  the  1950's  and  early  1960's. 

In  1956,  I  was  added  to  the  staff  as  Assistant  Curator  of 
Lower  Invertebrates,  and  on  January  1,  1959,  Fritz  Haas 
officially  retired  to  become  Curator  Emeritus  of  Lower  In- 
vertebrates. Thus  progressively  freed  from  administrative 
responsibility,  and  for  the  first  time  in  his  working  days, 
having  assistance  in  the  routine  of  specimen  processing, 
Fritz  could  adjust  his  work  habits  to  a  new  schedule.  Morn- 
ings he  devoted  to  checking  identifications  and  cataloguing 
material  from  the  great  influx  of  formed  molluscan  collec- 
tions that  were  received  by  the  Museum  during  the  late 
1 950's.  At  first  he  missed  typing  his  own  labels  and  housing 
the  specimens  himself,  but  he  soon  began  to  enjoy  this  new 
freedom  from  drudgery.  Through  1 965  these  morning  en- 
deavors added  an  average  5,000  sets  per  year  to  the  mollusk 
collection.  The  156,000  catalogued  sets  of  mollusks  now  in 
the  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  were  possible  only 
because  Fritz  Haas  devoted  so  many  years  to  routine  speci- 
men processing. 


Paged    NOVEMBER 


Afternoons  were  reserved  for  research.  From  the  sum- 
mer of  1961  until  late  in  1964,  every  afternoon  was  spent 
preparing  his  manuscript  for  "Das  Tierreich."  The  grow- 
ing staff  was  treated  to  a  never  ending  rattle  of  his  typewriter 
as  the  manuscript  piled  higher  and  higher.  A  "two-fingered" 
typist,  Fritz's  speed  was  legendary  among  museum  secre- 
taries. After  completing  the  unionid  revision,  Fritz  switched 
to  full-time  work  on  the  formed  collection  backlog,  except 
for  occasional  study  of  new  South  American  material.  In 
December,  1965  he  suffered  a  stroke  and,  until  recently,  was 
only  partly  active.  Resumption  of  activity  and  arrival  of 
galley  sheets  fortunately  coincided. 

For  decades  his  hobby  has  been  etymology  and  his  lin- 
guistic abilities  are  considerable.  By  his  own  reckoning,  he 
speaks  German,  English,  French,  Spanish  and  Catalonian, 
and  can  read  and  understand  Portuguese,  Italian,  Dutch, 
Swedish,  Danish,  Latin  and  Greek.  More  than  slight  knowl- 
edge of  several  other  languages  was  often  evident,  but  he 
never  claimed  fluency.  Throughout  his  life  he  has  been  a 
voracious  reader  and,  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  Fritz  Haas 
is  a  truly  educated  man.  His  knowledge  of  the  humanities 
is  encyclopaedic.  In  later  years,  he  over-awed  generations 
of  students  from  Antioch  College  who  could  not  believe  that 
a  scientist  would  know  more  art,  literature  or  music  than  a 
college  major  in  that  subject. 

Of  equal  amazement,  then  delight  to  successive  student 
workers,  and  of  continual  plessure  to  the  Museum  staff,  is 
his  pixilated  sense  of  humor.  Often  one  is  left  speechless. 
Although  slowed  by  the  stroke,  his  humor  remains  undimin- 
ished. In  mid-1966,  our  new  divisional  secretary,  Mrs.  Ren- 
dleman,  was  brought  up  short  by  being  called  "Mrs. 
Debarker."!  Although  managing  to  retaliate  with  "Dr. 
Bunny,"  she  was  corrected,  with  a  twinkle,  as  to  her  mis- 
taken etymology.  On  his  return  this  year  from  Florida, 
where  he  had  been  a  refugee  from  cold  and  snow  since 
Christmas,  he  replied  to  questions  about  how  he  felt  with 
"My  doctor  hasn't  told  me  yet!"  In  keeping  with  this, 
although  many  species  and  several  genera  have  been  named 
after  him,  his  greatest  pleasure  was  in  learning  of  Pisidium 

'  Rendleman  may  be  derived  from  the  German  Rindenmann,  the 
person  who  strips  the  bark  off  logs  in  a  sawmill. 


Fritz  in  1964,  at  the 
meetings  of  the  American 
Malacological  Union 


lepus  Kuiper,  1957,  a  translation  of  his  name  well  fitting  his 
sense  of  humor. 

Throughout  the  years,  he  has  served  as  a  major  resource 
for  the  scientific  and  library  staff  of  Field  Museum.  Some 
of  my  earliest  memories  concern  the  streams  of  Museum 
staff  with  questions  as  to  European  or  African  localities, 
letters  to  be  translated,  or  classical  allusions  to  be  explained. 
Instead  of  coffee  breaks,  Fritz  takes  walking  breaks  through 
the  other  scientific  departments.  It  soon  became  a  habit  to 
hold  queries  for  him.  Often  the  short  walk  developed  into 
a  long  absence  during  which  he  aided  in  some  translation 
or  helped  locate  some  obscure  locality.  He  was  often  the 
despair  of  our  telephone  operator  who  had  to  locate  him 
"somewhere"  in  the  building. 

Work  has  always  been  a  personal  and  private  matter  for 
Fritz  Haas.  In  keeping  with  the  tradition  of  Kobelt,  who 
refused  to  publish  his  own  views  on  unionid  evolution  until 
after  Bourguignat  was  dead,  Fritz  has  not  indulged  in  pub- 
lished controversy.  It  is  only  with  the  utmost  difficulty  that 
he  can  be  persuaded  to  comment  on  papers  written  by 
others,  particularly  work  relating  to  the  unionids.  Simi- 
larly, despite  almost  25  years  of  association  and  friendship, 
the  only  comments  he  has  ever  made  on  my  manuscripts 
have  been  to  correct  the  gender  of  a  name  or  to  insert  needed 
diacritical  marks.  By  the  same  token,  his  manuscripts  were 
not  shown  to  other  malacologists  prior  to  publication  for 
comments  and  suggestions.  Conversations  with  Fritz  on 
any  subject  but  scientific  matters  are  delightful  and  fasci- 
nating, but  none  of  his  Museum  colleagues  can  recall  having 
had  a  lengthy  scientific  discussion  with  him. 

This  seeming  aloofness  from  controversy  and  lack  of  com- 
munication with  fellow  scientists  express  the  mores  of  a 
gentler  era  and  the  view  of  a  truly  inner  directed  man. 
Throughout  his  two  careers,  in  Frankfurt  as  the  user  of 
major  research  facilities,  and  in  Chicago  as  the  developer 
of  major  research  facilities,  his  life  has  been  guided  in  a 
successful  search  for  knowledge.  Few  people  have  a  dis- 
tinguished career  of  thirty  working  years.  We  are  proud 
and  grateful  that  Fritz  Haas'  second  thirty-year  career  is 
being  spent  at  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History. 


Eskimo  Whaling; 
Charms 


By  James  W.  VanStone,  Associate  Curator, 

North  American  Archaeolog'y  and  Ethnology 


The  village  of  Point  Hope  on  the  Bering  Strait,  is  some 
700  air  miles  from  Anchorage.  The  author  relates  two 
objects  collected  there  in  1897  to  his  own  observations  on 
Eskimo  culture,  made  seventy  years  later. 


In  field  museum's  ethnographic  collec- 
tions from  northwest  Alaska  are  two 
skillfully  carved  representations  of  the 
bowhead  whale  {Balaena  mysticetus),  an 
animal  intimately  associated  with  the 
economic  and  ceremonial  life  of  the  peo- 
ple of  this  area .  Both  these  objects  were 
collected  in  the  coastal  village  of  Point 
Hope  in  1897  by  Mr.  Miner  W.  Bruce 
and  acquired  by  the  Museum  the  follow- 
ing year.  Mr.  Bruce  had  come  to  Alaska 
as  first  superintendent  of  the  reindeer 
station  at  Port  Clarence  on  Seward  Pen- 
insula. 

My  interest  in  these  carvings  grew  out 
of  a  general  interest  in  the  Eskimos  of 
northwest  Alaska  and  specifically  in  the 
village  of  Point  Hope  where  I  lived  for 
more  than  a  year  in  1955-56.  With  the 
idea  of  learning  more  about  these  par- 
ticular carvings,  as  well  as  other  objects 
in  the  Museum's  Eskimo  collections,  I 
returned  to  Point  Hope  in  the  summer  of 
1967  with  photographs  of  the  specimens 
to  show  to  elderly  villagers.  I  hoped 
that  the  pictures  would  encourage  some 
people  to  recall  details  about  the  signifi- 
cance of  these  objects  to  their  nineteenth 
century  forebears.  Some  of  the  infor- 
mation that  I  obtained  is  included  here.' 

'  I  would  like  to  thank  Mr.  David  Frank- 
son  and  Mr.  Jimmy  Killigvuk  of  Point  Hope, 
and  Mr.  Charlie  Jensen  of  Kotzebue  for  their 
assistance  in  collecting  the  field  data  on  which 
this  paper  is  based. 


Since  both  of  these  carvings  are  closely 
related  to  Eskimo  whaling  and  the  whale 
cult,  it  seems  worthwhile  to  make  some 
brief  comments  about  this  activity  at 
Point  Hope.  Like  the  residents  of  a 
number  of  other  communities  in  north- 
west Alaska,  Point  Hopers  have,  for  cen- 
turies, hunted  the  great  bowhead  whales 
each  spring  as  they  move  up  the  coast 
on  their  annual  migration  into  the  Beau- 
fort Sea.  Whaling  is  a  communal  activ- 
ity involving  a  number  of  crews,  each 
one  using  a  large  skin-covered  boat,  an 
umiak.    Each  whaling  captain  (umelik)  is 


responsible  for  preparing  his  boat  and 
equipment  and  securing  the  services  of 
a  crew.  Historically,  the  umelik  has  held 
an  important  position  in  Point  Hope  vil- 
lage life.  He  was  normally  the  wealthi- 
est man  in  the  large  extended  family 
that  characterized  village  social  struc- 
ture, and  his  position  and  prestige  were 
achieved  through  skill,  energy  and  the 
inheritance  of  property.  Very  often  he 
was  a  shaman  (angatkok)  as  well.  Angat- 
koks  were  men  or  women  who  had  vision- 
al experiences  and  special  powers  which 
segregated  them  as  persons  possessing 
unusual  control  over  nature  and  natural 
forces.  There  was  always  one  in  every 
whaling  crew. 

When  the  whales  begin  to  appear  op- 
posite the  village  in  early  April,  the 
crews  go  out  to  the  edge  of  the  ice  where 
the  boats  are  drawn  up  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  can  be  launched  at  a  moment's 
notice.  When  a  whale  is  sighted,  all 
boats  set  out  in  pursuit.  The  harpooner 
sits  at  the  front  of  the  boat  and  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  whale,  he  stands  up  and 
drives  the  harpoon  deep  into  the  ani- 
mal's body.  The  whale  then  sounds, 
taking  with  it  the  line  attached  to  the 
harpoon  and  to  a  series  of  floats.  All 
boats  gather  in  the  vicinity  of  the  place 
where  the  strike  was  made  and  wait  for 
the  floats  to  reappear,  a  sign  that  the 
whale  will  soon  surface.  When  the  ani- 
mal appears,  the  boats  rush  forward  and 
attempt  to  affix  other  harpoons  until 
the  whale  comes  to  the  surface  dead. 


A  Successful  Whaling  hunt. 


Page  6     XOVEMBER 


After  the  whale  has  been  killed,  the 
carcass  is  towed  back  to  solid  ice  where 
the  entire  village  participates  in  the 
butchering  process.  All  the  boats  share 
in  the  whale,  each  boat  crew  being  en- 
titled to  a  particular  portion  depending 
on  the  order  of  arrival  at  the  scene  of  the 
kill.  Whale  hunters  remain  continually 
on  the  ice  as  long  as  there  are  open  leads 
or  large  ponds  where  whales  can  breathe. 
When  the  wind  shifts  and  closes  the 
leads,  the  crews  go  ashore  for  much 
needed  rest.  By  early  in  June,  most  of 
the  bowhead  whales  have  passed  Point 
Hope  and  the  season  is  over. 

This  is  the  manner  in  which  whales 
were  hunted  during  many  centuries  of 
Eskimo  prehistory  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  certain  technical  innovations 
such  as  harpoon  guns  and  bombs  in- 
stead of  slate  harpoon  blades,  it  is  the 
way  in  which  the  activity  is  carried  out 
today. 

The  Eskimos  of  Point  Hope  hunt  seals, 
walrus,  polar  bear,  caribou  and  many 
other  animals  besides  whales.  As  might 
be  expected,  therefore,  the  supernatural 
relationship  between  men  and  animals 
was  a  very  important  one  in  aboriginal 
times  and  was  expressed,  for  the  most 
part,  through  the  medium  of  charms  or 
angoaks.  An  angoak  was  a  simple  charm 
worn  on  the  body  or  clothing,  or  kept  in 
a  special  place.  It  could  be  a  stone,  cer- 
tain bones,  the  head  of  a  loon,  or  just 
about  anything.  In  some  supernatural 
manner,  a  p)erson's  angoak  associated  him 
with  certain  animals  that  would  assist 
him  in  hunting  and  rescue  him  from 
danger.  In  a  very  real  sense,  they  were 
guardians,  but  no  visional  experience 
was  necessary  to  obtain  them. 

At  Point  Hope  a  person  usually  re- 
ceived his  charms,  together  with  a  com- 
plex set  of  instructions,  in  early  child- 
hood from  some  elderly  person  who 
wished  to  transfer  his  own.  The  child 
usually  took  one  of  the  names  of  his 
benefactor  thus  becoming  his  namesake. 
But  charms  could  also  be  given  by  par- 
ents in  which  case  they  were  often  the 
angoaks  of  deceased  relatives.  Very  fre- 
quently food  taboos  were  associated  with 
charms. 

As  might  be  expected,  there  were 
many  angoaks  associated  directly  with 
whaling  and  this  brings  us  to  a  discus- 


sion of  the  wooden  carvings  in  the  Mu- 
seum's collections.  Figure  1,  a  and  b, 
is  the  lid  of  a  box  in  which  whaling 
charms  were  kept,  and  it  contained  not 
only  those  angoaks  belonging  to  the  ume- 
lik,  but  also  those  of  the  harpooner  and 
other  members  of  the  crew.  This  lid 
features  the  carving  of  a  whale  in  promi- 
nent relief  on  the  outer  surface  (a) ;  the 
eyes  of  the  animal  are  small  blue  beads. 
On  the  lower  edge  of  the  specimen,  holes 
have  been  drilled  in  such  a  way  as  not 


often  fashioned  in  the  shape  of  a  whale 
rather  than  just  having  a  whale  repre- 
sented on  the  lid  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Museum's  example.  Often  they  were 
marked  with  soot  or  grease,  a  mark  be- 
ing made  for  each  whale  taken  by  the 
owner  of  the  umiak.  An  extra  supply  of 
harpoon  blades  and  other  equipment  as- 
sociated with  whaling  might  also  be  kept 
in  such  boxes.  While  the  umiak  was  at 
sea,  the  box  was  placed  under  the  gun- 
wales at  the  bow. 


Figure  1.  Lid  of  box  for  whaling  charms.    On  left,  view  (a);  on  right,  view  (6).  cat.  no. 
53i2S,  3i.5  cm.  wide,  wood. 


to  penetrate  the  outer  surface  of  the  lid. 
Sinew  thongs  fastened  the  lid  to  the  box. 
It  is  the  reverse  (b)  side  of  this  speci- 
men, however,  that  is  of  particular  inter- 
est, since  directly  in  the  center  is  an  inset 
triangular  piece  of  chipped  quartzite. 
According  to  informants  at  Point  Hope, 
this  was  someone's  personal  angoak,  prob- 
ably that  of  an  iimelik,  and  it  was  kept 
in  the  box  lid  so  that  it  would  be  avail- 
able for  instant  use.  If  the  captain  was 
also  an  angatkok,  as  was  frequently  the 
case,  he  would  have  the  ability  to  swal- 
low an  angoak  like  this  one  and  disgorge 
it  at  will. 

These  boxes  in  which  whaling  charms 
were  kept  are  called  udlun  which  means, 
literally,   "a  nest."     They  were  more 


Not  all  whaling  charms  were  kept  in 
boxes  like  the  one  just  described.  A 
charm  might  be  fastened  directly  to  the 
prow  of  the  umiak  and  an  example  of  this 
type  oi  angoak  is  illustrated  in  Figure  2. 
Such  a  charm  belonged  to  the  whaling 
captain  and  was  usually  carved  by  the 
angatkok  in  his  crew,  although  it  could 
be  inherited.  The  Museum's  specimen 
would  have  been  placed  at  the  very  front 
of  the  umiak  between  the  gunwales  and 
lying  flat  on  the  up-curved  end  of  the 
keel.  There  are  holes  for  lashing  with 
sinew  or  baleen  to  the  gunwales.  The 
carved  whale  is  in  high  relief  and,  like 
the  one  on  the  box  lid,  has  blue  beads 
for  eyes.  When  the  umiak  was  not  being 
used   for  whaling,   this  type  of  angoak 


NOVEMBER     Page  7 


would  be  removed  from  the  boat  and 
stored  in  the  umelik's  house. 

With  reference  to  whaling  charms  in 
general,  it  can  be  said  that  they  were 
believed  to  have  a  compulsive  effect 
that  served  to  bring  the  whale  close  to 


Figure  2.  Whaling  charm  for  attachment  to  an 
umiak.  Wood,  cat.  no.  5Si2i,  S6  em.  wide. 

the  boat.  In  fact,  informants  called 
the  angoak  just  described,  poesowruk 
which  means  "luck  for  whale  to  come 
up  close  to  the  boat."  Charms  also 
served  to  make  the  animal  more  tracta- 
ble and  amenable  to  harpooning.  Since 


it  was  believed  that  the  whale's  soul 
passed  into  another  whale  when  it  was 
killed,  any  irregularity  of  procedure  was 
thought  to  disturb  it.  The  whale  could 
see  the  preparations  that  were  being 
made  to  kill  it  and  on  that  basis  could 
decide  whether  to  allow  itself  to  be 
taken  by  men.  The  charms,  therefore, 
served  both  to  placate  the  whale  and  to 
compel  it  to  come  close  by  magical 
means. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  like  to  point 
out  that  this  brief  discussion  in  no  way 
does  justice  to  the  complexity  of  Eskimo 
theory  regarding  man's  relationship  to 
the  supernatural  world.  It  does,  how- 
ever, attempt  to  indicate  the  cultural 
significance  of  two  very  fine  exam- 
ples of  Eskimo  craftsmanship.  Although 
much  has  been  written  on  Eskimo 
whaling  and  associated  beliefs,  angoaks 
and  related  objects  resembling  these 
have  not  previously  been  described  or 
illustrated.  But  more  important  than 
this  is  the  fact  that  our  discussion  here 
indicates  there  is  still  much  to  be  learned 
about  museum  specimens  from  the  de- 
scendants of  those  who  made  them.  In 
northwest  Alaska  it  is  no  longer  pos- 


sible to  obtain  ethnographic  specimens 
similar  to  those  on  exhibit  in  Hall  10 
and  in  the  Museum's  study  collections. 
But  it  is  possible  to  elicit  additional 
information  about  these  specimens  that 
were  collected  so  long  ago.  Such  in- 
formation can  add  immeasurably  to  the 
scientific  value  of  the  collections.  Be- 
cause of  the  nature  of  culture  change  in 
the  area,  northwest  Alaska  is  far  from 
being  an  ideal  place  in  which  to  recon- 
struct ethnography.  But  the  very  fact 
that  there  is  something  left  for  the  stu- 
dent of  traditional  material  culture, 
suggests  the  possibilities  that  may  exist 
in  parts  of  the  world  where  the  impact 
of  Euro-American  culture  has  been  less 
intense  and  where,  as  a  result,  culture 
change  has  progressed  at  a  slower  rate. 

REFERENCES 

Rainey,  F.  G.,  The  Whalehunters  of  Tigara 
Anthropological  Papers  oj  the  Amtrican  Museum 
oj  Natural  History,  Vol.  41,  pt.  2.  New  York, 
1947. 

Spencer,  R.  F.,  The  North  Alaskan  Eskimo 
A  Study  in  Ecology  and  Society.  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology,  Bulletin  171,  Washington 
D.  C,  195<). 

VanStone,  J.  W.,  Point  Hope,  an  Eskimo  Village 
in  Transition.  University  of  Washington 
Press,  Seattle,  1962. 


Ba  rrow 


'^t''. 


PribJIof      Islands 


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^^•«^Vo         k^ 


Page  8     NOVE.MBER 


recent  acquisition — zoology 

Little-known  Caecilians  Feature  of 
New  Collection 

The  Field  Museum  of  Natural  Histor)'  has  recently  re- 
ceived a  most  noteworthy  herpetological  collection.  The 
purchase  of  over  1 0,000  specimens  of  reptiles  and  amphib- 
ians from  Dr.  Edward  H.  Taylor,  Professor  Emeritus  of  the 
Department  of  Zoology,  University  of  Kansas,  has  greatly 
complemented  our  Division  of  Amphibians  and  Reptiles 
collection.  This  acquisition  represents  the  second  large  col- 
lection received  from  Dr.  Taylor,  for  in  1959  over  25,000 
reptiles  and  amphibians  that  he  amassed  were  incorporated 
into  the  Museum's  herpetological  holdings. 


1^^ 

m^Ei 

^^^^^B  i^^H^Sr  .^H 

wflHBAi^H^^I^HH! 

^myijg^imgi^ 

Siphonops  annulatus,  a  worm-like  amphibian 

The  new  material  greatly  strengthens  our  representa- 
tions in  two  areas.  It  contains  much  of  the  studied  material 
Dr.  Taylor  used  in  his  three  volumes  on  the  reptiles  and 
amphibians  of  Thailand.  This  extensive  systematic  treat- 
ment of  the  Herpetology  of  Thailand  and  the  availability  of 
the  collection  of  specimens  will  form  an  excellent  base  for 
further  systematic  research  on  the  herpetological  fauna  of 
southeastern  Asia  and  the  Indo-Australian  Archipelago.  In 
addition,  parasitologists  and  ecologists  (to  mention  a  few 
other  biologically  interested  fields)  will  have  available  litera- 
ture and  specimens  for  confirmation  of  species  used. 

In  addition,  a  900-page  volume  by  Dr.  Taylor  will  ap- 
pear during  the  latter  part  of  1 967,  monographing  the  entire 
order  of  caecilians — Order  Gymnophiona  (or  Apoda).  A  major 
portion  of  the  matrrial  for  this  scientific  text  is  contained  in 
this  collection.  The  earthworm-like  caecilians  represent  one 
of  the  three  major  groups  of  amphibians,  the  other  two  being 
frogs  and  salamanders.  These  "worms"  of  the  vertebrate 
world  are  one  of  the  least  known  and  least  studied  of  the 
major  groups,  due  primarily  to  the  extreme  rarity  of  speci- 
mens in  research  collections.  Secretive,  burrowing  animals 
in  tropical  forests,  they  are  difficult  to  collect.  Adding  his 
collection  of  this  rare  group  of  vertebrates  will  increase  the 
number  of  the  Field  Museum  specimens  two  and  one-half 
times  and  its  scientific  value  immeasurably. 

In  addition,  there  is  herpetological  material  from  all 
areas  of  the  world — southeast  Asia;  tropical  Africa;  Austra- 


lecture — December  first 

Dr.  Wylie 

to  speak  on 

Tibetan  Religion 


Dr.  Turrell  V.  Wylie,  Associate  Professor  of  Tibetan  lan- 
guages and  Civilization,  the  University  of  Washington,  will 
speak  on  Tibetan  Religion  at  Field  Museum  on  Friday, 
December  1,  at  8:30  p.m.  in  the  Museum's  Lecture  Hall. 
.•\  leading  Tibetan  scholar.  Dr.  Wylie  has  been  executive 
Chairman  of  the  University  of  Washington's  Inner  Asia 
Project  since  1962.  He  has  published  a  number  of  articles 
on  Tibetan  culture,  poetry  and  history. 

Tibetan  religion  is  composed  of  two  elements :  the  first, 
an  indigenous  primitive  system,  and  later,  a  highly  devel- 
oped form  of  Buddhism  derived  from  India. 


Siphonops  devouring  an  earthworm.     Both  caecilian  photos  by  Carl  Cans. 

lia;  and  North,  South  and  Central  America.  To  emphasize 
the  extent  of  this  material.  Dr.  Taylor  has  incorporated 
much  of  it  in  approximately  2,300  published  pages  on  her- 
petology from  1960  through  1967. 

Dr.  Edward  H.  Taylor's  long  history  of  herpetological 
publications,  dating  from  the  early  part  of  this  century  has 
left  its  mark  on  the  history  of  Herpetology.  His  prolific  pen 
has  produced  a  geographically  large  variety  of  scientific 
texts,  and  much  of  the  material  his  scientific  activities  pro- 
duced will  be  housed,  cared  for  and  used  extensively  in 
future  research  at  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History. 
— Hymen  Marx,  Associate  Curator, 

Amphibians  and  Reptiles 


NOVEMBER     Page  9 


Nicaragua  Commemorates 
Its  Orchids 

Orchid  collecting,  and  growing  orchid  plants  have  en- 
joyed an  enormous  increase  in  interest  in  recent  years.  In 
1 940  I  became  editor  of  the  American  Orchid  Society  Bulletin, 
then  a  small  quarterly  magazine  which  we  hoped  to  change 
to  a  monthly.    There  were  about  200  members  in  the  society 


8 

% 

NICARASUA 

1 

■3l 

X 

NICAftAGUA 

B 

MICARAOUA 

NICARAGUA 

5" 


at  that  time,  as  I  remember.  The  Bulletin  "caught  on"  and 
sparked  a  latent  interest  in  orchid  growing.  The  American 
Orchid  Society  began  to  grow  by  leaps  and  bounds  and  with 
it,  of  course,  the  Bulletin.  When  I  was  called  away  in  early 
1943,  the  Bulletin  went  to  thousands  instead  of  hundreds  of 
members — Gordon  W.  Dillon,  a  colleague  and  friend  be- 
came editor.  The  Bulletin  nearly  25  years  later  goes  to  al- 
most 12,000  members  of  the  Society,  an  indication  of  the 
interest  in  orchids  in  our  country.    The  American  Orchid 


Society  has  215  regional  societies  as  affiliates.  Not  all  the 
members  of  the  affiliated  societies  belong  to  the  parent  or- 
ganization. 

Philatelists  are  another  group  of  people  who  collect — in 
this  case  postage  stamps.  There  is  enough  interest  in  col- 
lecting stamps  that  show  orchids  for  the  American  Orchid 
Society  to  sponsor  a  quarterly  Orchid  Stamps  News.  Some 
stamp  collectors  put  into  their  collections  all  the  stamps  they 
can  get.  Most,  of  necessity,  limit  their  collections  in  one 
way  or  another,  perhaps  to  a  country  or  group  of  countries 
— or  even  to  tropics.  The  collecting  of  stamps  that  show 
only  orchids  (such  a  collection  was  shown  at  the  last  orchid 
show  in  the  Museum)  must  now  be  an  exciting  hobby,  for 
more  and  more  of  these  stamps  appear.  Thereby  hangs 
a  tale. 

Alfonso  H.  Heller  moved  to  Nicaragua  a  number  of 
years  ago.  The  orchids  of  that  botanically  little-known 
Central  American  country  attracted  his  attention.  He  be- 
gan to  collect  them  and  soon  found  that  there  were  many 
more  kinds  of  orchids  in  Nicaragua  than  had  been  suspected. 
Mr.  Heller  began  to  study  them  critically  and  to  make  very 
accurate  drawings  of  them  from  living  material.  Concur- 
rently he  described  them  from  the  same  living  material. 
Mr.  Heller  is  the  first  person  who  has  had  an  opportunity, 
and  the  artistic  skill,  to  do  this  type  of  botanical  research  for 
a  Central  American  country. 

A  friend  suggested  that  Nicaragua  should  have  a  series 
of  stamps  showing  native  Nicaraguan  orchids.  Mr.  Heller 
prepared  the  material  for  a  set  of  stamps  and  from  his  work  a 
series  of  ten  stamps  was  made.  The  issue  is  illustrated  here. 

Collectors  of  natural  history  stamps  will  be  pleased  to 
know  a  set  of  Nicaraguan  butterfly  stamps  has  been  re- 
leased recently.  These  are  based  on  Mr.  Heller's  collec- 
tions also.    — Louis  0.  Williams,  Chief  Curator,  Botany 


Route  of  the  Mexican  Tour 


Field  museum's  Mexican  tour  April  4-21  will  make  the  long 
strides  by  air  (solid  lines)  and  the  short  distances  by  air  con- 
ditioned motor  coach  (shown  in  broken  lines),  permitting 
economical  use  of  time  and  thorough  study  of  the  entire 
setting  and  ecology  of  the  areas.  The  Tour  will  travel  from 
Mexico  City  to  TeotithuacSn  and  from  Mexico  City  to 
Cuernavaca,  Xochicalco  and  Taxco  by  motor  coach.  It 
will  fly  to  Oaxaca  City,  but  go  by  bus  to  Monte  Alban, 
Mitla  and  Santa  Maria  del  Tule.  After  flight  to  Villa 
Hermosa,  in  Tabasco,  the  group  will  visit  the  ruins  of 
Palenque,  in  Chiapas,  by  motor  coach  and  fly  to  Merida, 
busing  to  the  Maya  centers  of  Uxmal  and  Chich^n  Itzi  in 
Yucatan.  Specialists  in  horticulture,  botany  and  archae- 
ology  will  accompany  the  Tour,  which  will  visit  private 
homes  and  gardens  and  wild  areas  as  well  as  museums  and 
archaeological  sites.  Tour  price,  including  all  expenses  and 
a  S200  tax  deductible  donation  to  Field  Museum,  totals 
S975.  For  further  information  or  reservation  (accom- 
panied by  $200  deposit),  write  Field  Museum's  Mexican 
Tour,  Field  Museum. 


Page  10     NOVEMBER 


lA/kat  r  V  ludeum  r  If lemberdnl 


fudeum 


-Members'  Night,  meeting  Curators  and  Staff 
who  guide  you  through  the  worldng  areas 


-Reserved  seats  at 
18  Film-Lectures 
during  the  year 


— Special  showings  and  previews 
of  new  exhibits 


f 


means 


to 


V 


ou..* 


— Ten  percent  dis- 
count on  books 
and  curios  at  the 
Boo/c  Shop,  free 
admission  and 
checking 


—Use  of  the  Library,  with  its  160,000 
volumes  on  natural  history 


"*:Vv{v'^ 


and  the  Bulletin 


— Natural  history 
workshops  for  your 
children  and  grand- 
children 


-And  most  important,  you  are  supporting 
research  in  our  laboratories  and  in  the  field 


L^ii/e  Irludeum  I V lemberSnipA  for  L^krht 


mad 


^J^etp  uour  friends  ^i^joif  thede  benej^its 


UAetL 


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ecia 


I  envelope  enclosed. 


op> 


PANAMA  HONORS 
SCIENTISTS 

The  Panamanian  and  American  flags 
flew  together  over  Field  Museum  on 
October  23,  when  Field  Museum's  Dr. 
Rupert  L.  Wenzel  and  Lt.  Col.  Vernon 
J.  Tipton,  U.  S.  Army  Medical  Service 
Corps,  received  the  National  Decoration 
of  the  Government  of  Panama,  granted 
by  special  decree  of  Panamanian  Presi- 
dent, Marco  A.  Robles.  Mrs.  Angela 
Munoz  de  Lew,  Consul-General  of  the 
Republic  of  Panama,  decorated  the  two 
scientists  with  the  Orden  de  Nunez  de  Bal- 
boa in  the  grade  of  "Caballero"  in  recog- 
nition of  their  co-editorship  of  Ectopara- 
sites oj  Panama. 


Mrs.  Angela  MuRoz  de  Lew  decorates 
Lt.  Col.  Tipton  and  Dr.  Wenzel. 

The  book's  material  on  ectoparasites 
is  the  most  complete  study  ever  made 
of  these  biting  insects  in  any  tropi- 
cal country.  It  contains  descriptions, 
illustrations  and  environmental  studies 
of  hundreds  of  kinds  of  fleas,  biting  flies, 
chiggers,  ticks  and  other  blood-sucking 
insects.  Ectoparasites  of  Panama  is  al- 
ready being  used  in  vital  bio-medical 
surveys  now  underway  along  proposed 
routes  for  a  new  canal  linking  the  oceans. 
The  surveys  are  aimed  at  determining 
what  disease  carriers  are  present  along 
the  proposed  routes  so  that  measures  can 
be  taken  for  their  control.  This  use  of 
the  Ectoparasites  of  Panama  is  just  a  sug- 
gestion of  its  potential  benefit  to  the 
health  of  people  living  in  tropical  re- 
gions of  America. 


FIELD     MUSEUM 

OF   NATURAL   HISTORY 

ROOSEVEUT  ROAD  AT  LAKE  SHORE  DRIVE 
CHICAOO,  ILLINOIS  60605    A.C.  312.  922-9410 

FOUNDED  BY  MARSHALL  FIELD.  1893 

E.  Leland  Webber,  Director 

BULLETIN 

Edward  G.  Nash,  Managing  Editor 


MUSEUM    SPONSORS   INDIANA  UNIVERSITY 
THIRD  CONCERT  SERIES 

Indiana  University  will  present  three  concerts  in  its  third  annual  Chicago 
Showcase  of  Music.  Two  of  these  will  be  free  concerts  at  the  Museum:  Feb- 
ruary 6,  1968,  Alfonso  Montecino,  Pianist;  and  March  26,  1968,  The  Baroque 
Chamber  Players.  Tickets  for  these  concerts  may  be  obtained  by  sending  a 
request  to  Indiana  University  Concerts,  care  of  Field  Museum. 

The  first  concert  will  be  presented  at  Orchestra  Hall,  Monday,  November 
20,  1967,  and  will  be  by  the  Indiana  University  Philharmonic  Orchestra. 
Tickets  for  this  concert  may  be  purchased  at  Orchestra  Hall.  However,  in 
appreciation  of  the  Museum's  cooperation  in  the  presentation  of  the  Showcase 
of  Music  Series,  the  Indiana  University  Foundation  has  made  available,  for 
Museum  members,  a  limited  number  of  free  tickets.  These  tickets  will  be  sent 
to  members  requesting  them,  as  long  as  the  supply  lasts.  Requests  will  be 
filled  in  the  order  received. 


QAICMQAp    Qp    FVENTS      November  hours:  Open  from  9  a.m.  to 

4 p.m.  daily  and  until  5 p.m.  Saturdays, 
Sundays,    Thanksgiving  and  Nov.  24. 

November  4  Film-Lecture:  The  Philippines  by  CliflTord  J.  Kamen.  2:30  in 
James  Simpson  Theatre. 

November  5  Audubon  Film  Series:  Tidewater  Trails  by  Charles  T.  Hotch- 
kiss.  This  color  film  recaptures  the  wild  beauty  of  1 8th  century  tidewater 
Virginia.    2:30  p.m.  in  James  Simpson  Theatre. 

November  1 1     Film-Lecture :  Men  Against  the  Ice  by  Bjorn  Staib.    2 :30  p.m. 

November  18    Film- Lecture :  Red  China  by  Jens  Bjerre.    2:30  p.m. 

November  25    Film-Lecture :  England  and  Wales  by  Gerald  Hooper. 
2:30  p.m.  in  James  Simpson  Theatre. 

November  29  Members'  Preview  of  New  Permanent  Exhibition :  Tibet — 
High  Land  of  Monk  and  Nomad.  Hundreds  of  specimens  portray  both 
the  religious  and  secular  lives  of  the  little-known  Tibetans  whose  ancient 
way  of  life  is  rapidly  changing  under  the  Chinese  Communist  regime.  A 
movie  shows  the  remote  Himalayan  civilization.  The  exhibit  opens  to  the 
public  the  following  day. 

Through  November  26  Exhibit:  Silent  Cities:  An  Architect's  View  of 
Ancient  Mexico  and  the  Maya  by  Norman  F.  Carver.     Hall  9  Gallery. 

Through  November    Fall  Journey:  Your  Day  in  Ancient  Rome. 

December  1  Lecture  on  Tibet  by  Dr.  Turrell  V.  Wylie,  Associate  Professor 
of  Tibetan  Language  and  Civilization  at  the  University  of  Washington, 
Seattle.  Dr.  Wylie  will  talk  on  Tibetan  religion,  illustrating  his  points  with 
color  slides.    8:30  p.m.  in  the  Museum's  Lecture  Hall. 

December  10- January  21  Exhibit:  New  Guinea:  Birds,  Books  and  Stamps. 
This  exhibit  annoimces  the  American  release  of  the  book  Handbook  of  Birds 
of  New  Guinea  by  Drs.  Rand  and  Gilliard,  and  the  recent  acquisition  of  a 
large  collection  of  study  skins  of  New  Guinea  birds.    Hall  9  Gallery. 

December  1 6  City- Wide  Youth  Orchestra  Concert.  Under  the  leadership 
of  Mrs.  Fanny  Hassler,  50  Chicago  area  youngsters,  aged  12  to  17,  present 
music  by  Franck,  Brahms,  Tchaikovsky  and  Mendelssohn.  2  p.m.  in  James 
Simpson  Theatre. 

Audubon  Society,  Nov.  1,  7  p.m. 

..^,.^,,,-,„         Chicago  Shell  Club,  Nov.  12,  2  p.m. 
MEETINGS:        ,..  „  ^         at       ^A   n  ac 

Nature  Camera  Club,  Nov.  14,  7:45  p.m. 

Illinois  Orchid  Society,  Nov.  19,  2  p.m. 


Page  n     NOVEMBER 


PRINTED   BY    FIELD   MUSEUM    PRESS 


BULLETIN  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 


Volume  38,  Number  12     December  1967 


New 
Exhibit 
Opens 


In  creating  its  new  permanent  exhibit 
'Tibet,  High  Land  of  Monk  and  Nomad," 
Field  Museum  drew  on  its  two  greatest 
resources:  the  superb  collections  of  cultural 
materials,  and  the  varied  skills  and  talents 
of  its  staff. 

The  Tibetan  collections,  in  the  main,  were 
gathered  by  Berthold  Laufer  on  the  Mrs.  T.  B. 
Blackstone  Expedition  to  China  and  Tibet 
from  1 908  to  1 91 0.    Laufer,  Chief  Curator 
of  Anthropology  for  many  years,  was  a 
famed  Sinologist  and  Tibetanist.    He  amassed 
a  wide  variety  of  materials  and  artifacts, 
ranging  from  toys  and  costumes  to  kitchen 
utensils  and  religious  objects.    His  material, 
along  with  some  later  additions,  has  enabled 
Field  Museum  to  give  something  of  the  "feel" 
of  life  in  nineteenth  century  Tibet.    Since 
religion  dominated  the  social  structure  and 
life  of  Tibet,  the  new  exhibit  gives  a 
strong  emphasis  to  the  religious  life  of  the 
Tibetan  Buddhist,  although  many  common, 
everyday  things  are  displayed. 
The  Tibetan  project  began  some  four  years 
ago,  with  the  completion  of  the  Chinese 
Hall,  "China  in  the  Ch'ing  Dynasty." 
Kenneth  Starr,  Curator  of  Asiatic  Archaeology 
and  Ethnology,  was  in  over-all  charge  of 
the  planning  of  the  exhibit.    Working  closely 
with  him  were  artist  Theodore  Halkin  and 
Assistant  Georgette  Meredith,  a  student 
of  Tibet,  now  on  the  faculty  of  the  University 
of  Wichita.    The  physical  design  of  the 
exhibit  is  Halkin's  work  and  he  has  introduced 
a  number  of  departures  in  museum 
exhibition.    The  use  of  carpeting  and  color, 
particularly  a  rich  Tibetan  red,  greatly 
enhances  the  attractiveness  of  the  exhibit. 
See-through  exhibit  cases  are  used  for  the 
greater  display  of  material.    Perhaps  the 
most  interesting  innovation  is  the  construction 
of  a  small  theater  in  which  a  short  film 
on  Tibet  will  be  shown.    The  film  was  taken 
in  1926  and  1927,  when  the  traditional 
ways  of  nineteenth  century  Tibet  had  not 
yet  been  disturbed.   The  ten-minute  film  serves 
as  a  kind  of  focus  for  the  entire  exhibit, 
showing  the  high,  rugged  landscape,  nomads 
with  their  herds  of  yak,  a  market  scene, 'and 
a  pageant  in  one  of  the  great  Tibetan 
monasteries. 


Page  2     DECEMBER 


Curator  Kenneth  Starr  assembles  a  "ghost  trap"  for  exhibit  opening.  The  trap, 
which  is  supposed  to  attract  illness-causing  ghosts,  is  used  in  treating  the  sick. 
It  was  made  for  the  Museum  by  Dagmola  Sakyapa,  of  Seattle.  Mr.  Sakyapa  and 
his  wife  demonstrated  Tibetan  music  and  dance  at  the  Members'  Preview  of  the 
exhibit.  The  University  of  Washington  is  an  important  center  of  Tibetan  studies 
and  the  Tibetan  colony  in  Seattle  is  probably  the  largest  in  the  country. 


Dozens  of  people  become  involved  as  an 
exhibit  progresses.    While  Ted  Halkin  worked 
on  the  physical  concept  of  the  exhibit, 
beginning  with  a  small  cardboard  and  plywood 
mock-up.  Miss  Meredith  worked  on  the 
scientific  end,  researching  the  files  and  catalogs 
of  the  collections,  and  preparing  the  hundreds 
of  labels.    Mrs.  Christine  Danziger, 
Conservator,  and  Walter  Reese,  Preparator, 
restored  many  of  the  objects  in  the  Museum's 
Robert  R.  McCormick  Conservation 
Laboratory.    With  the  dirt  and  stains  of  the 
years  removed,  and  the  surfaces  treated,  a 
large  number  of  the  objects  appear  in  the 
exhibit  as  they  appeared  when  first  purchased 
in  the  markets  of  Tibet. 
As  time  went  on,  the  activity  spread. 
James  Shouba,  Building  Superintendent, 
became  a  kind  of  general  liaison  between  the 
Departments  of  Anthropology  and 
Exhibition  and  the  various  service  divisions 
and  suppliers.    His  knowledge,  energy — and 
natural  diplomacy — solved  a  good  many 
problems.    The  physical  construction  of 
the  exhibit  involved  the  work  of  the  Museum's 
carpenters,  electricians,  engineers  and 
painters.  The  Museum  Press  edited  and  printed 
the  labels.    The  Divisions  of  Photography 
and  Motion  Pictures  lent  their  skills. 
The  final  installation  of  the  exhibit  was  the 
work  of  the  newly-formed  Department 
of  Exhibition.    After  Ted  Halkin  began  a  leave 
of  absence  (he  is  teaching  this  year  at 
Kendall  College  in  Evanston),  artist  Walter 
Boyer,  who  had  been  working  with  Halkin  for 
nearly  two  years,  supervised  the  installation. 
Assisting  Boyer  were  artist  Marion  Pahl, 
Preparator  Walter  Huebner  and  other 
members  of  the  Department  of  Exhibition. 
The  arrangements  for  the  exhibit's  opening, 
including  a  special  Members'  Preview 
on  November  29th  were  made  by  the 
Department  of  Planning  and  Development. 
In  short,  few  people  in  the  Museum 
organization  are  left  untouched  by  an  exhibit 
of  this  size,  and  many  share  the  credit 
for  its  success. 


Above,  Marion  Pahl  paints  mural  based  on  Chi- 
nese block  print.  The  mural  serves  as  a  connecting 
link  with  the  adjacent  Chinese  Hall  China  and  Tibet 
have  long  been  closely  connected  culturally  and  eco- 
nomically. Some  of  the  artifacts  collected  in  Tibet  are 
actually  of  Chinese  manufacture,  made  in  Peking  for  the 
Tibetan  market. 

Below,  Building  Superintendent  James  Shouba, 
left,  and  artist  Walter  Boyer  inside  an  exhibit  case.  On 
the  table  are  Buddhist  prayer  wheels.  Magic  knives,  used 
in  certain  ceremonies,  are  suspended  from  the  ceiling  of 
the  case. 


DECEMBER    Page  3 


•'C:" 


--'**>"Srv«'7^*^X*'«vviv|*\'*v^-*'-\v^^v>  •\\>*'«- s.■\^. 


<.\.-^-v-  V— v.-\-<. 


The  Museum  received  this  letter  from  the  Dalai  Lama, 
in  exile  in  India,  about  the  exhibit. 


Translation 

I  am  happy  to  learn  that  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 
in  Chicago  is  opening  a  new  Tibetan  exhibition  gallery.  I 
feel  confident  that  it  will  help  to  create  a  better  understanding 
of  our  unique  Tibetan  culture  for  the  great  many  visitors  who 
come  to  the  Museum  every  year. 

While  thanking  the  people  who  have  made  this  Tibetan 
exhibition  possible,  I  also  pray  sincerely  for  the  success  of 
this  noble  task  which  contributes  much  towards  the  preser- 
vation of  various  cultures  of  the  world. 

The  Dalai  Lama 
Swarg  Ashram 
Dharmsala  Cantt. 
District  Kangra  Wj^ ' 

Himachal  Pradesh,  Bk    " 

India 


Preparator  Walter  Huebner  mounts  a  relief  map 
of  the  "Roof  of  the  World"  in  the  exhibit  theater. 


A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  TIBET 


Parts  of  tibet  were  occupied  from  prehistoric  times,  when, 
as  now,  the  region  was  peripheral  to  the  main  Asian  cul- 
tural centers.  In  early  times  Tibet  was  an  isolated  land 
occupied  by  clans  whose  independent  leaders  exercised  au- 
thority over  their  own  small  territories.  During  the  6th 
century  a.d.  a  group  of  clan  chiefs  united  behind  one  leader, 
and  by  mid-7th  century  the  country  had  become  a  military 
power  with  its  capital  at  Lhasa  in  central  Tibet.  The  first 
historical  king,  Namri  Sontsan,  led  successful  forays  into 
China,  India  and  Turkestan.  About  a.d.  640  his  son.  King 
Songsten  Gampo,  demanded  royal  wives  from  China  and 
Nepal,  and  it  was  these  Buddhist  princesses  who  were  re- 
sponsible for  the  introduction  of  the  Buddhist  religion  into 
Tibet.  In  the  following  centuries,  Tibetan  history  and  cul- 
ture became  inextricably  entwined  with  Tibetan  religion, 
for  with  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  came  the  beginnings 
of  a  new  civilization,  and  subsequent  political  events  were 
accompanied  by  the  successive  promotion  or  proscription  of 
either  Buddhism  or  the  native  animistic  Bon  religion.  Even 
after  the  final  victory  of  Buddhism  in  the  11th  century,  con- 
flicts for  political  power  continued  between  the  adherents 
of  the  various  sects. 


In  the  10th  century  religious  controversies  contributed 
to  the  disintegration  of  central  authority,  and  Tibet  once 
again  became  a  land  of  many  local  chieftaincies.  The  dis- 
trict of  Guge,  located  in  western  Tibet,  became  an  impor- 
tant cultural  center  at  that  time.  The  11th  century  was  a 
period  of  particularly  intense  religious  activity.  Students 
were  sent  to  India  to  clarify  doctrinal  points,  and  two  great 
masters  of  Buddhism,  Atisa  and  Padmasambhava,  were  in- 
vited to  come  to  Tibet.  These  two  theologians  traveled 
widely  throughout  the  country,  and  their  teachings  were 
responsible  for  far-reaching  reforms  and  the  development  of 
important  new  sects. 

When  the  Mongols  attacked  the  still  divided  country  in 
A.D.  1239,  the  influential  head  lama  of  the  Sakya  sect  was 
empowered  to  deal  with  the  Mongol  leaders,  who  made  him 
the  ruler  of  central  Tibet.  The  nephew  of  the  monk  so  im- 
pressed Kublai  Khan  that  the  Khan  took  religious  instruc- 
tion from  him  and  made  Lamaism  the  national  religion  of 
his  empire.  When  Mongol  power  collapsed,  the  power  of 
the  Sakya  hierarchy  declined,  and  another  period  of  politi- 
cal and  religious  chaos  followed. 


Page  4     DECEMBER 


TAKLA    MAKLAN    OCSERT 


Toward  the  end  of  the  14th  century,  another  great  re- 
former, Tseng  Khapa,  founded  the  Yellow  Hat  sect,  the 
Gelugpa.  The  concept  of  priestly  rebirth,  which  later 
developed  into  the  doctrine  of  reincarnation  of  deities  in 
human  form  epitomized  by  the  Dalai  Lamas,  originated 
with  this  sect. 

Internal  political  wars  continued  throughout  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries.  The  Mongols,  who  attacked  Tibet 
again  in  1566,  were  attracted  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Ge- 
lugpa, and  in  1588  the  grandson  of  the  Mongol  Altan  Khan 
was  selected  as  the  4th  Dalai  Lama.  With  the  help  of  the 
Mongols  the  great  5th  Dalai  Lama  defeated  the  rebellious 
king  of  Tsang,  or  Central  Tibet,  thereby  achieving  com- 
plete spiritual  and  temporal  power  for  his  sect  over  all  of 
Tibet.    This  control  lasted  until  the  mid-20th  century. 

Out  of  gratitude,  the  5th  Dalai  Lama  appointed  his  re- 
ligious preceptor  head  lama  of  the  Tashilumpo  Monastery, 
and  proclaimed  him  a  reincarnation  of  Amitabha,  the  spir- 
itual guide  of  Avalokitesvara,  the  deity  embodied  in  the 
Dalai  Lama.  The  next  incarnation  of  this  lama  became 
known  as  the  Panchen  (or  Tashi)  Lama.  Although  Panchen 


Lamas  have  not  been  officially  involved  in  temporal  affairs, 
subsequent  incarnations  became  political  pawns  whose  fa- 
vors were  curried  by  the  Chinese,  and  later  by  the  British, 
when  the  Dalai  Lamas  were  reluctant  to  cooperate  with 
them.  During  the  following  four  centuries,  the  holders  of 
these  two  high  offices  were  destined  to  recurring  exile  and 
triumphant  return,  depending  upon  the  constantly  vacillat- 
ing political  situation. 

The  Chinese,  suspicious  of  British  assistance  to  Nepalese 
Gurkha  invasions  of  Tibet,  closed  Tibet  to  foreign  contact. 
It  was  not  until  the  bloody  Younghusband  Expedition  of 
1903-04  that  Tibet  came  under  British  influence.  During 
the  first  half  of  the  20th  century  the  British,  who  supported 
the  Dalai  Lama,  continued  to  vie  for  control  of  Tibet  with 
the  Chinese,  who  backed  the  Panchen  Lama.  After  the 
Chinese  Communists  gained  control  in  1951,  both  lamas 
were  permitted  seats  in  the  National  Peoples  Congress,  but 
in  1959  the  Dalai  Lama  for  the  second  time  was  forced  to 
return  in  exile  to  India,  and  the  Panchen  Lama  continued 
in  forced  cooperation  with  the  Chinese. 


DECEMBER     Page  5 


Nama,  god  of  death 


An  Introduction 

The  religion  of  Tibet  consists  of  two  components,  one, 
an  indigenous  primitive  system  of  beliefs  and  practices  and, 
two,  a  highly  developed  form  of  Buddhism  subsequently  de- 
rived from  India. 

The  original  Tibetan  religion,  called  Bon,  was  charac- 
terized by  good  and  evil  spirits  who  inhabited  every  aspect 
of  the  natural  world,  and  who  could  be  controlled  or  ap- 
peased by  magicians  using  spells,  charms  and  even  human 
sacrifice.    Bon  existed  in  Tibet  from  very  early  times. 

Buddhism  was  first  introduced  into  Tibet  from  India  in 
A.D.  640.  By  that  time  it  already  was  characterized  by  the 
presence  of  many  Buddhas  and  other  deities  that  had  been 
incorporated  into  the  faith  during  the  prior  1100  years  of 
its  existence  in  northern  India.  Although  actively  pro- 
moted by  the  reigning  Tibetan  monarchs,  Buddhism  was 
not  accepted  by  the  majority  of  the  Tibetan  people  until  it 
incorporated  as  protective  deities  all  the  demons  of  the  Bon 
religion  which  had  continued  to  prevail.  The  first  Buddhist 
monastery  in  Tibet  was  founded  in  a.d.  779  at  Samye  in 
southcentral  Tibet,  and  there  devotees  learned  from  highly 
respected  Indian  and  Tibetan  teachers  the  doctrine  and 
techniques  for  escaping  from  the  misery  of  the  never-ending 
life  cycle  described  originally  by  the  historical  Buddha.  In 
competition  with  Buddhism,  the  native  Bon  religion  ac- 
quired a  similar  doctrine  and  pantheon,  and  for  many  years 
an  active  struggle  for  power  went  on  between  the  corre- 
sponding noble  and  ecclesiastical  members  of  the  two  faiths. 
By  the  11th  century  Buddhism  had  gained  the  upper  hand, 
and  the  formation  of  rival  sects  began.  Reforms  continu- 
ally were  undertaken  to  halt — if  only  temporarily — the  con- 
stant tendency  of  the  Tibetan  version  of  Buddhism  to  rely 
more  strongly  on  magic  and  demon  worship  for  salva- 
tion, rather  than  on  proper  knowledge  and  behavior. 
As  they  grew  powerful  the  various  Buddhist  sects  be- 
came ever  more  involved  in  temporal  affairs.  Their 
rise  and  status  also  became  a  matter  of  active  inter- 
est to  the  governments  of  China  and  Mongolia 
with  whom  Tibet  had  maintained  cultural  and 
political  relations  since  early  in  the  7th  century. 
China,  in  particular,  most  especially  in  the 
\  17th  century,  played  a  major  role  in  Tibet- 

an politics.     The  most  recent  of  the  re- 
formed sects,  the  Gelugpa,  or  Yellow  Hat 
sect,   gained  ecclesiastical  and  cultural 
control   in   the    17th   century,   and   its 
head,  known  popularly  as  the  Dalai 
Lama,  an  incarnation  of  the  guard- 
ian deity  of  Tibet,  still  held  sway 
until  Tibet  again  fell  under  Chinese 
control  in  the  present  century. 


Page  6     DECEMBER 


Sectarianism  in  Tibetan  Buddhism 

by  Turrell  V.  Wy/ie,  Associate  Professor  of  Tibetan  Languages  and  Civilization 


The  Vajrayana  form  of  Mahayana  Buddhism  was  actively 
introduced  into  Tibet  in  the  8th  century  A.D.  by  the  Indian 
guru  Padmasambhava.  Subsequently,  there  arose  politico- 
religious  conflict  between  those  who  embraced  the  new  re- 
ligion and  those  who  remained  faithful  to  the  teachings  of 
Bon  (Pon),^  the  native  shamanism  of  Tibet.  This  conflict 
culminated  in  the  persecution  of  Buddhism  during  the  reign 
of  King  Glang-dar-ma  (Lang-dar-ma),  who  was  assassinated 
in  A.D.  842.  The  assassination  led  to  schisms  in  the  royal 
lineage  and  the  final  collapse  of  the  Tibetan  empire;  while 
the  persecution  resulted  in  a  hiatus  in  the  oral  transmission 
of  the  proper  interpretation  of  the  psycho-sexualized  teach- 
ings of  the  annuttarayoga  class  of  Tantras;  consequently, 
the  practice  of  the  Tantras  became  degenerative. 

The  renaissance  of  Buddhism  is  attributed  to  the  trans- 
lator, Rin-chen  bzang-po  {Rin-chen  sang-bo)  (958-1055); 
however,  the  emergence  of  sectarianism  can  be  ascribed  to 
the  great  Indian  guru,  Atisa  Dlpankarajnana  (982-1054), 
who  arrived  in  Western  Tibet  in  A.D.  1042.  Atisa  set  out 
to  rectify  the  degenerate  practice  of  the  Tantric  teachings 
and  his  chief  disciple,  'Brom-ston  (Drom-don) ,  established  the 
first  reformed  sect.  The  disciples  of  Atisa  and  'Brom-ston 
called  themselves  Bka'-gdams-pa  (Ga-dam-ba),  "One-of-the- 
oral-instruction."  The  followers  of  the  unreformed  teach- 
ings of  Padmasambhava  were  called  the  Rnying-ma-pa 
{Nying-ma-pa) ,  "The-old-ones." 

Not  long  after,  two  more  major  sects  arose.  The  Tibetan 
translator.  Mar-pa  of  Lho-brag  (Hlo-drak)  (1012-1097),  mas- 
tered the  teachings  of  the  Indian  gurus  Tilopsa  and  Naropa 
and  passed  them  on  to  his  disciple,  the  great  poet-hermit 
Mi-la-ras-pa  {Mi-la-re-ba).  Mi-la-ras-pa,  revered  by  all 
Tibetans  regardless  of  sectarian  ties,  is  renowned  as  a  yogi 
who  achieved  absolute  enlightenment  in  one  lifetime.  His 
disciple,  Dwags-lha  Sgam-po-pa  {Tak-hla  Gam-bo-ba),  is 
credited  with  the  formulization  of  the  teachings  and  the 
establishment  of  the  Bka'-brgyud-pa  {Ga-gyu-ba),  "One-of- 
the-oral-lineage,"  sect.  Several  sub-sects  developed  within 
the  Bka'-brgyud-pa  school :  the  most  influential  of  which  is 
the  Karma-pa  (Garma-ba). 

The  Sa-skya-pa  {Sa-gya-ba),  "One-of-the- Whit- 
ish-earth," sect  derives  its  name  from  the  color  of  the 
soil  where  the  original  monastery  was  founded  in 


■  Because  of  the  frequent  disparity  between  the 
orthography  and  pronunciation  of  Tibetan  words,  I 
give  a  phonetic  approximation  in  parentheses  after 
the  first  occurrence. 


1073.  Sa-chen  Kun-dga'  snying-po  (Sa-c/ien  Gun-ga  nying-bo) 
(1092-1158)  is  revered  as  the  founder  of  the  Sa-skya-pa 
sect. 

Various  sub-sects  and  splinter  schools  developed  in  Ti- 
bet, but  the  last  and  most  significant  sectarian  development 

(Continued  on  Page  12) 


Gilt  bronze  image  of  Buddha  Shakyamuni 


DECEMBER     Page  7 


The  publication  of  the  Handbook  of  New 
Guinea  Birds  by  Austin  L.  Rand  and  the 
late  E.  T.  Gilliard  of  the  American  Mu- 
seum, has  prompted  a  special  exhibit  en- 
titled "New  Guinea:  Birds,  Books  and 
Stamps,"  on  view  in  Field  Museum's 
Hall  9  Gallery  from  December  8  through 
mid-January.  The  American  Museum 
has  the  largest  and  best  collection  of  New 
Guinea  birds  in  the  world  and  to  facilitate 
the  work  on  the  Handbook,  sent  a  repre- 
sentative collection  to  Chicago.  In  partial 
return.  Field  Museum  is  sending  a  col- 
lection of  birds  from  Southern  Asia,  an 
area  in  which  our  collections  are  particu- 
larly strong.  In  the  following  article,  Dr. 
Rand  discusses  the  fascinating  avifauna 
of  the  world's  largest  island. 


The  Birds  of  New  Guinea 

by  Austin  L.  Rand,  Chief  Curator,  Zoology 


New  guinea  is  a  tropical  island,  1500  miles  long,  lying  just 
below  the  Equator.  It  is  north  of  Australia  and  east  of  the 
East  Indies.  A  backbone  of  mountains  runs  its  length,  the 
highest  peak,  Mt.  Carstensz  with  snow  on  its  summit,  is 
16,500  feet  in  altitude.  The  rich  and  diverse  habitats:  rain 
forest,  lakes,  swamps,  and  locally  savanna  and  grasslands  of 
the  lowlands,  wet  evergreen  forests  of  several  types  on  the 
mountain  slopes,  and  alpine  grassland  wherever  the  ranges 


rise  above  about  10,000  feet,  all  have  provided  a  fertile  area 
for  the  evolution  of  its  rich  bird  fauna. 

Often  in  meeting  new  people,  one  of  the  things  you  learn 
about  them  is  whether  their  ancestors  came  to  America  on 
the  Mayflower,  or  because  of  the  potatoe  famine,  whether 
they  lived  in  a  log  cabin,  or  fought  at  Hastings.  Let  us  look 
at  New  Guinea  birds  from  this  point  of  view.  Their  an- 
cestors certainly  came  from  Asia.    First,  we  will  consider  the 


Page  8     DECEMBER 


Five  species  of  Birds  of  Paradise.  Ribbon  tailed  Astrapia  (top  left). 
Blue  Bird  of  Paradise  (top  right).  Red  Bird  of  Paradise  (center 
left),  Lesser  Bird  of  Paradise  (center  right),  Raggiana  Bird  of  Para- 
dise (bottom). 


New  Guinea-Australian  avifauna  together,  for  while  the 
Austro-Papuan  region  has  long  been  separated  from  Asia, 
with  immigration  hindered  by  the  ancient  water  gaps  in  the 
East  Indian  Archipelago,  New  Guinea  has  only  recently 
been  separated  from  Australia  by  the  shallow  Torres  straits, 
and  the  difference  between  the  avifauna  of  the  two  is  due 
to  ecological  factors,  rather  than  ones  of  physical  geography. 
New  Guinea,  as  we  have  said,  is  dominated  by  a  wet  trop- 
ical climate  and  rain  forest  and  evergreen  mountain  forests. 
Australia  is  dominated  by  subtropical  and  temperate,  dry 
climate  conditions  and  desert,  grasslands  and  open  wood- 
lands. 

Many  large  groups  of  Asiatic  birds  never  reached  the 
Austro-papuan  region.  Pheasants,  trogons,  barbets,  wood- 
peckers, broadbills,  bulbuls,  and  true  finches  are  absent. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  New  Guinea-Australian  area  is  re- 
markably rich  in  pigeons,  parrots,  kingfishers,  cuckoo- 
shrikes,  old  world  flycatchers  and  waxbills,  all  families  well 
represented  in  Asia  and  the  Sunda  Islands.  Eleven  families 
have  evolved  in  the  isolation  of  the  Papuan-Australian  area : 
Cassowarys,  Emues,  megapodes,  owlet-frogmouths,  lyre 
birds,  scrub  birds,  flowerpeckers,  honeyeaters,  bell  magpies, 
mudlarks,  birds  of  paradise,  and  bower  birds.  These  are  the 
results  of  ancient  colonization  at  long  intervals. 

A  few  groups  of  Asiatic  birds  have  sent  colonists  to  New 
Guinea  more  recently:  a  crested  swift,  a  hornbill,  and  a 
shrike,  that  have  not  yet  reached  Australia. 

Some  notable  groups  with  headquarters  in  New  Guinea 
rather  than  Australia  are  the  birds  of  paradise  of  43  species 
(four  in  Australia  and  one  shared)  Cassowaries,  3  spe- 
cies (one  in  Australia)  Pigeon,  39  species  (22  in  Australia) 
Kingfishers,  19  species  (10  in  Australia)  Flycatchers,  49 
species  (30  in  Australia). 

Australia,  on  the  other  hand,  has,  in  addition  to  the  emu 
and  the  scrub  birds,  many  sea  birds,  not  only  of  pan-tropical 
groups,  but  also  those  of  southern  waters,  such  as  petrels 
and  penguins. 

At  the  species  level,  when  New  Guinea  birds  occur  in 
Australia  they  are  likely  to  be  in  the  small  areas  of  rain  for- 
est in  Eastern  Queensland;  when  Australian  species  occur 
in  New  Guinea  they  are  likely  to  be  in  the  limited  savannas 
of  south  New  Guinea. 

About  650  species  of  birds,  many  of  which  are  found  no- 
where else,  have  been  recorded  in  New  Guinea,  which  has 
an  area  of  about  300,000  square  miles.  The  richness  of  this 
avifauna  is  evident  by  comparing  it  with  that  of  Australia, 
about  ten  times  its  size,  but  with  only  about  the  same  num- 
ber of  species.  North  America,  between  Mexico  and  the 
Arctic  Circle,  is  more  than  twenty  times  as  big  as  New 
Guinea,  but  has  only  about  691  species  of  birds. 

There  are  richer  areas  of  comparable  size,  but  they  are 
parts  of  continental  tropical  faunas  like  Colombia  in  South 


America,  with  an  area  of  439,000  square  miles  and  an  avi- 
fauna of  about  1556  species. 

These  figures  graphically  illustrate  the  richness  of  the 
humid  tropics  compared  with  arid  and  temperate  condi- 
tions. There  is  another  rule  to  consider:  continents  have 
more  bird  species  than  do  islands,  and  larger  islands  have 
larger  avifaunas  than  do  comparable  smaller  ones.  That 
New  Guinea,  the  largest  habitable  island  in  the  world,  con- 
forms to  this  rule  is  indicated  by  the  figures  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 

New  Guinea.  .  .300,000  square  miles.  .  .  .650  bird  species 

Borneo 290,000       "  "     540     " 

Java 48,000       "  '     340     " 

Most  New  Guinea  birds  are  forest  species,  but  there  are 
grassland,  marsh,  coastal,  and  water  birds.  The  most  in- 
teresting pattern  of  distribution  is  the  altitudinal  zonation 
of  forest  species.  As  one  leaves  the  lowlands  and  goes  up 
the  mountains,  species  after  species  found  at  lower  altitudes 
disappear  and  other  species  appear,  some  to  be  left  behind 
in  their  turn  until  at  timber  line  the  birds  of  the  forest  are 
nearly  all  different  from  those  of  the  lowlands.    Thus: 

.iltitudinal  distribution  of  Horuteaters  of  the  genus  Myzomela 


SPECIES 

Mangrove  myzomela 

Dusky 

Red  spot 

Black 

Mountain 

Black  &  red 


ALTITUDINAL  RANOE 

sea  level  only 

to  300  feet 
to  3,000  feet 
"       to  3,900  feet 
2,700  to  6,000  feet 
3,700  to  1 1 ,000  feet 


Three  Honeyeaters.  Cinnamori-breasted  Watllebird  (lop  left),  spotted 
Xanthotis  (top  right),  Redr-backed  Honeyeater  (bottom). 

The  number  of  bird  species  found  at  different  altitudes 
also  decreases  with  altitude: 

Bird  species  in  the  Snow  Mountains,  .V«/>  Guinea 


Sea  level .  .  .  . 

.  .  (marsh,  river,  forest) 

.  1 50  species 

2,700  feet   . 

.  .  (forest) 

,.96       " 

9,000    "   .  . 

.  .  (forest) 

.65      " 

11,000    "   .  . 

.  .  (forest,  marsha,  lake) 

.50       " 

12,000    "   .  . 

.  .  (alpine  grass  &  shrubbery) . 

.14      " 

13,000    "   .  . 

.  .  (alpine  grass  &  rock) 

..3      " 

DECEMBER     Page  9 


Another  important  biological  aspect  related  to  altitude 
is  bird  size.  VV^here  one  goes  from  a  warmer  to  a  colder  part 
of  a  bird's  range,  the  individuals  within  a  species  tend  to  be 
larger.  This  has  been  codified  as  "Bergmann's  rule"  in  re- 
lation to  latitude,  and  correlated  with  area  of  surface  vs. 
weight  and  reduction  of  heat  loss.  A  similar  change  occurs 
within  many  species  on  the  slopes  of  New  Guinea  Moun- 
tains, which  also  are  colder  at  higher  altitudes.  Two  exam- 
ples of  this  are  given  in  the  following  tables : 

Increase  in  size  with  altitude 
Swiftlet  {Collocalia  hirundinacea) 

ALTITUDE  WING  LENGTH 

3,600-4,000  meters  129-135  mm. 

3,225  '■  121-128    " 

2,200  ••  121-124    ■' 

1,600  "  118-120    " 

White  Cockatoo  {Cacatua  galerila) 

ALTITUDE  WING  LENGTH 

1,200  meters  335-358  mm. 

50       "  302-312    " 


Palm  Cockatoo 

One  might  assume  that  if  this  increase  in  size  with  alti- 
tude were  due  to  natural  selection,  that  species  as  well  as 
subspecies  that  have  evolved  at  higher  altitudes  would  be 
larger  than  those  in  the  lowlands.  But,  this  is  definitely  not 
true  as  the  following  figures  show  for  parrots: 

Wing  length  and  altitude  of  parrots  on  north  slope  of 
Snow  Mountain 


WING  U 

:ngth 

(in  millimeters) 

61- 

81-     91- 

101- 

161- 

191- 

70 

90     100 

160 

190 

365 

Total 

In  lowlands 2 

1 

4 

4 

4 

75  (species) 

At  1,200  meters  .      1 

1 

3 

2 

4 

11 

At  2,200  meters  .  . 

2 

3 

1 

6 

Over  3,000  meters. 

1 

3 

4 

As  with  parrots,  in  general  the  largest  and  the  smallest 
species  live  at  low  altitudes,  intermediate-sized  ones  at  higher 
altitudes.  Presumably,  factors  other  than  temperature  op- 
erate. Rather,  it  correlates  with  the  smaller  size  of  the 
plants,  the  smaller  spaces  between  them  and  the  smaller 


size  of  insects  and  fruits  the  units  of  the  birds  food,  at  higher 
altitudes. 

This  would  correlate  well  with  the  large  birds  at  lower 
altitudes.  The  fact  that  the  smallest  species  also  live  at 
low  altitudes  seems  a  contradiction  at  first,  but  it  may  be 
that  larger  species  leave  vacant  small  niches,  which  only 
small  species  can  occupy.  A  more  general  statement  might 
be  that  where  one  phyletic  line  has  tended  toward  larger 
and  larger  forms,  another  has  produced  smaller  ones  to  fill 
in  the  spaces  between  the  big  ones. 


Single-tvattled  Cassowary 

Some  New  Guinea  birds  reach  unusual  extremes  in  size, 
both  large  and  small  as  the  range  in  total  length  of  the  spe- 
cies in  certain  groups  in  the  following  table  shows: 


3>^  to  6  feet  high 
10  to  39  inches  long 
4K  to  24 
6  to  23 
5  to  31 
3  to  25 
514  to  27 


Species 

Cassowaries 3 

Hawks 29     .  . 

Gallinaceous  birds  .  .      10 

RaUs 18     .  . 

Pigeons 44 

Parrots 46 

Cuckoos   21 

Kingfishers 24     4      to  16 

Songbirds —     2  J^  to  22 

(But,  the  long-tailed  astrapia,  with  body  the  size  of  a  jay 
has  a  length  of  46  inches.) 

When  we  look  over  our  collection  of  New  Guinea  birds, 
the  incidence  of  bright  colors  seems  very  high.  There  are, 
of  course,  the  birds  of  paradise  to  be  mentioned  later,  but 
there  are  also  the  parrots  (46  species)  with  red,  yellow  and 
green  conspicuous  in  most  species,  with  the  exception  of  the 
white  and  the  black  cockatoos;  the  fruit  pigeons,  green  with 
markings  of  red,  orange,  yellow,  purple,  pink  or  lavender  in 
outlandish  combinations:  kingfishers  with  glistening  light 
blue  or  pale  blue,  one  with  pink  underparts,  some  vividly 
buffy  yellow,  some  with  rich  rufous  feathers;  pittas  with 
brilliant  blue  and  red:  yellow  cuckoo  shrikes,  shiny  blue 
fairy  wrens;  whistlers  with  vivid  yellow;  black  and  red 
honeyeaters,  and  a  yellow,  black  and  green  flowerpecker, 
and  another  one  that  is  blue  and  green. 

Conspicuous  and  bright  as  these  colors  are  in  specimens, 
this  is  not  true  in  the  field.  I've  looked  into  a  fig  tree  where 
I  knew  there  were  fruit  pigeons,  but  couldn't  see  one,  until 
I  clapped  my  hands  and  a  dozen  flew  out.    The  bright  lories 


Pagt  W     DECEMBER 


climbing  about  in  a  flowering  epiphyte  are  no  more  conspic- 
uous than  brown  rats  would  have  been.  Bright  yellow  fly- 
catchers and  flowerpeckers  among  the  leaves  seem  no  more 
conspicuous  than  their  duller  relatives.  It  is  as  though  the 
birds  are  protected  by  the  foliage  in  which  they  feed  so  that 
natural  selection  had  relaxed  its  severity  and  allowed  colors 
to  run  riot  as  they  do  among  the  fishes  of  a  tropical  coral  reef. 

Of  all  the  birds  that  have  bright  colors,  the  birds  of  para- 
dise stand  out,  even  when  compared  with  fancy  pheasants 
from  Nepal,  quetzals  from  Guatemala,  or  the  cock  of  the 
rock  from  Venezuela.  If  you  prefer  bright,  gaudy  yellows, 
oranges,  reds  or  blues,  look  at  the  King  bird  with  a  spun 
glass  quality  to  its  red  back;  the  long,  orange  plumes  of  the 
raggiana  bird  of  paradise  or  the  blue  plumes  of  the  blue  bird 
of  paradise.  If  you  prefer  metallic  colors,  backed  with  black, 
look  at  the  superb,  and  the  astrapias  with  patches  of  irides- 
cent green,  blue,  purple,  bronze,  violet,  and  flaming  copper. 

The  birds  of  paradise  are  notable  not  only  for  their  col- 
ors, but  also  for  their  exaggerated  display  plumes  which 
bear  some  of  the  colors :  these  decorations  take  the  form  of 
elongated  breast  shields,  flank  plumes,  neck  ruffs,  and  wire- 
like plumes  with  or  without  flags  at  the  tip  on  head,  flanks 
or  tail.  These,  of  course,  are  the  decorations  of  the  male 
and  used  in  his  displays,  each  according  to  his  kind,  singly  or 
in  parties,  on  the  ground  or  in  undergrowth,  or  in  tree  tops. 

By  comparison,  the  bower  birds  are  dull,  brownish, 
tawny,  or  blackish,  although  two  have  long,  yellow-orange 
crests.     Their  displays  take  an  architectural  form,  which 


Victoria  Crowned  Goura  Pigeon 

appears  only  in  a  primitive  way  in  the  cleared  arena  in 
which  some  of  the  birds  of  paradise  display.  The  gardener 
bower  bird  actually  builds  a  tepee-shaped  "hut"  and  dec- 
orates a  "garden"  in  front  of  the  door  with  bright  bits  of 
flowers  and  shells.  These  birds,  of  course,  are  polygamous, 
the  plain  female  carrying  on  all  nest  duties,  as  is  also  true 
for  the  birds  of  paradise. 


There  are  other  odd  decorations  on  New  Guinea  birds: 
the  head  wattles  of  the  brush  turkey,  certain  starlings,  a 
shrike-tit,  and  some  birds  of  paradise,  the  wrinkles  on  the 
base  of  the  hornbill's  great  bill,  and  the  long,  central  tail 
feathers  of  some  kingfishers  and  lories.  Crests,  too,  appear 
time  after  time;  shaggy  crest  of  the  great  black  cockatoo,  the 
trim  yellow  crest  of  the  white  cockatoo,  the  long  head  fan 
of  the  goura  pigeon,  and  the  sharp  crest  of  the  demure 
crested  berrypecker.  A  few  small  parrots  have  elongated 
fan-like  tufts  on  the  sides  of  the  head. 

The  oddest  shaped  birds  are  perhaps  the  owlet  frog- 
mouths  and  frogmouths.  The  frogmouths  are  large,  13-21 
inches  long  and  colored  like  an  owl  in  complicated  patterns 
of  brown,  gray  and  black,  have  an  enormous  gape  (from 
which  they  take  their  name)  with  a  heavy,  horny  rim  about 
it.  They  are  wonderful  examples  of  omnivorous  feeders, 
eating  large  insects,  frogs,  lizards,  mice,  and  small  birds. 
Nocturnal  birds,  they  sit  up  on  branches  in  the  daytime 
and  may  point  their  bills  skyward,  as  though  imitating 
broken-ofi"  stumps,  which  they  resemble  in  color. 


Great  Papuan  Frogmouth 

The  owlet-frogmouths  are  similar,  but  are  smaller  and 
more  delicately  made  birds.  They  are  even  more  owl-like 
but  without  hooked  bills.  Five  of  the  seven  known  species 
live  in  New  Guinea  (2  in  .Australia).  They  may  spend  the 
day  in  holes  in  trees,  but  they  are  so  secretive  that  almost 
nothing  is  known  about  tlieir  habitats,  and  specimens  are 
so  few  that  just  how  many  species  there  are  is  a  problem. 

Among  birds  with  peculiar  methods  of  feeding  and  re- 
lated structures,  there  is  the  kingfisher  with  a  big  shovel- 
shaped  bill  that  digs  worms  from  the  soil  of  the  forest  floor, 
the  hornbill  with  a  great  bill  that  helps  lengthen  his  reach 
to  get  fruits  from  small  twigs  in  the  tree  tops  as  the  toucan 
does  in  tropical  America.  There  are  the  flower-feeding 
brush-tongued  lorys  in  which  the  tongue  spreads  out  like 
a  brush  to  sweep  up  nectar  and  flower  parts,  and  the  brush- 
tongued  honeyeater  whose  tubular  tongue  is  used  to  suck 
up  nectar.  A  tiny  parrot  climbs  over  the  trunk  of  a  forest 
tree  seeking  the  wood  fungus  on  which  it  feeds.  A  flower- 
pecker  that  feeds  on  sweet  berries  has  its  stomach  so  reduced 
that  it  is  non-functional  for  berries.  They  go  right  on  into 
the  intestines  for  digestion.    The  bird  sometimes  eats  spiders 

(Continued  on  page  14) 


DECEMBER     Page  11 


was  the  reformation  carried  out  by  Tsong-kha-pa  {Dsong- 
ka-ba)  (1357-1419).  Originally  a  follower  of  the  Bka'- 
gdams-pa  sect,  Tsong-kha-pa  founded  a  new  reformed  sect, 
which  became  known  as  the  Dge-lugs-pa  {Ge-luk-ba),  "One- 
of-the-virtuous-system."  To  distinguish  themselves  from 
the  other  unreformed  clergy,  members  of  the  Dge-lugs-pa 
wore  yellow  hats  instead  of  the  traditional  red  ones  of  other 
sects;  hence,  the  name  "the  Yellow  Hat  sect." 

By  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  the  Yellow  Hat  sect 
had  risen  to  political  supremacy  through  the  military  assist- 
ance of  the  Qosot  Mongols  and  the  Dalai  Lama  became  the 
spiritual  ruler  of  Tibet.     The  concept  of  the  "incarnate 


Maitreya,  the  Coming 
Buddha,  holding  the 
stem  of  a  lotus  in  each 
hand. 


lama,"  a  development  uniqvie  to  Tibetan  Buddhism,  arose 
in  the  14th  century  in  the  Black  Hat  Karma-pa  sect  and 
was  soon  adopted  by  the  other  sectarian  groups.  An  "in- 
carnate lama"  is  believed  to  be  a  physical  manifestation  of 
the  absolute  Buddhahood  emanated  for  didactic  purposes. 
Although  the  Dalai  Lama  is  regarded  as  the  highest  spiritual 
emanation  of  Buddhahood  in  Tibet  due  to  his  position  of 
temporal  ruler,  each  sectarian  group  looks  to  its  head  lama 
for  doctrinal  guidance  and  authority. 

There  are  some  general  differences  between  the  reformed 
Dge-lugs-pa,  the  semi-reformed  Bka'-brgyud-pa  and  Sa- 
skya-pa,  and  the  unreformed  Rnying-ma-pa.  The  Rnying- 
ma-pa  accept  Kun-tu-bzang-po  {Gun-du  sang-bo)  as  the  Adi- 
buddha,  and  they  revere  Padmasambhava  as  the  "Second 
Buddha."  The  other  three  sects  accept  Rdo-rje-'chang 
(Do-je-chang)  as  the  Adibuddha.  Celibacy  is  mandatory  on 
all  Dge-lugs-pa  initiates;  optional  for  those  other  than  fully- 
ordained  monks  of  the  Sa-skya-pa  and  Bka'-brgyud-pa;  and 
of  no  dogmatic  significance  whatever  to  the  Rnying-ma-pa. 

In  addition  to  the  general  characteristics,  there  are  subtle 
and  profound  differences  between  the  four  major  sectarian 
groups  in  regard  to:  (1)  the  lineage  of  the  gurus,  (2)  the 
basic  doctrinal  text,  (3)  the  special  tutelary  deity,  (4)  the 


Silver  image  ofAva- 
lokitesvara,  god  of 
compassion,  the 
most  highly  revered 
deity  in  Tibet.  This 
is  the  form  that  is 
incarnate  in  the 
Dalai  Lamas. 


particular  defender-of-the-faith,  (5)  the  ontological  view  of 
absolute  existentiality,  and  (5)  the  fundamental  tantric  text. 
Due  to  the  brevity  of  this  paper,  a  detailed  listing  of  the  first 
four  characteristics  is  not  possible;  therefore,  only  the  last 
two  will  be  reviewed. 

There  are  two  ontological  views  projxjunded  in  the  Dbu- 
ma  (U-ma)  (Sanskrit:  Madhyamika)  Buddhist  teachings 
propagated  in  Tibet.  The  first  is  the  rang-rgyud-pa  {rang- 
gyu-ba),  or  "self-essense"  (svatantrika)  view,  which  main- 
tains that  phenomenal  objects  perceived  by  the  senses  do 
not  exist  per  se,  but  they  do  have  ontological  "self-essence" 
because  they  are  constituted  from  the  four  basic  elements: 
earth,  water,  fire,  and  air.  The  second  is  the  thal-'gyur-pa 
(ta-gyu-ba),  or  "association"  (prasangika)  view,  which  states 
that  phenomenal  objects  are  devoid  of  any  existence  in  truth 
and  even  the  four  elements  are  compounded  and,  therefore, 
impermanent  and  relative  concepts.  According  to  the  "as- 
sociation" view,  the  nature  of  the  state  of  absolute  existen- 
tiality is  beyond  all  conceptualization.  The  true  nature  of 
all  things  is  unknowable  and  indefinable.  For  the  sake  of 
didactic  communication,  it  is  called  Stong-pa-nyid  (Dong- 
ba-nyi),  "Devoidness"  (Sanskrit:  sunyata). 

Besides  the  ontological  views  of  the  Madhyamika  sys- 
tem, there  is  the  Sems-tsam-pa  {Sem-dsam-ba),  or  "Mind- 
only"  view  of  the  Yogacara  system  of  Buddhism,  which,  like 
subjective  idealism  in  Western  philosophy,  denies  the  exist- 
ence of  phenomenal  objects  external  to  the  observer.  The 
"mind-only"  school,  which  is  the  fundamental  teaching  of 
Zen  Buddhism,  was  rejected  during  a  debate  on  ontologi- 
cal views  held  at  the  monastery  of  Bsam-yas  {Sam-ya)  in  the 
8th  century  and  only  the  Madhyamika  views  were  consid- 
ered orthodox  for  Tibetan  Buddhism. 

The  following  illustrates  the  differences  in  the  arguments 
put  forth  by  the  ontological  views  mentioned.  The  ordinary 
individual  says,  "This  is  a  wheel.  It  exists  because  I  can 
see  it  and  grasp  it."  The  "mind-only"  view  says  the  wheel 
has  no  existence  other  than  the  illusion  of  wheel  produced 
in  the  mind  by  discursive  thought.    The  "self-essence"  view 


Page  12     DECEMBER 


says  the  wheel  does  not  exist,  because  the  word  'wheel'  is  a 
relative  abstraction.  Scatter  the  wood  and  nails  of  the 
"wheel"  over  the  ground  and  the  "wheel"  is  no  longer  per- 
ceived. The  wood  of  the  "wheel,"  however,  does  have  "self- 
essence"  for  it  is  constituted  of  the  four  elements,  which  do 
exist.  The  "association"  view  maintains  that  the  wood  has 
no  "self-essence"  because  even  the  four  elements  are  com- 
pounded and,  therefore,  relative  abstractions.  The  self- 
nature  of  the  wood  in  its  state  of  absolute  existentiality  is 
the  unknowable  "devoidness"  (Stong-pa-nyid). 

Another  way  of  explaining  the  absolute  state  of  "devoid- 
ness" is  to  use  the  atomic  theory  of  modern  science.  All 
phenomenal  objects  are  made  up  of  atoms.  An  atom  is 
nothing  more  than  positive  and  negative  charges  of  elec- 
tricity whirling  about  each  other.  "Positive"  and  "nega- 
tive" are  relative  terms  of  reference.  What  then  is  the 
nature  of  that  absolute  state  of  existentiality  out  of  which 
"electricity"  comes?  The  answer,  according  to  the  "asso- 
ciation" view  of  the  Madhyamika  Buddhist  doctrine,  is: 
Stong-pa-nyid — the  unknowable,  indefinable,  "devoidness." 

Regarding  the  views  of  the  four  sectarian  groups  in  Tibet, 
the  Dge-lugs-pa  and  Sa-skya-pa  teach  only  the  Thal-'gyur- 
pa  ("association")  view.  The  Bka'-brgyud-pa  teach  the 
Rang-rgyud-pa  ("self-essence")  view  in  the  lower  levels, 
but  abandon  it  for  the  "association"  view  at  the  higher  levels 
teaching.  The  Rnying-ma-pa  are  said  to  combine  the  "as- 
sociation" view  with  that  of  the  "mind-only"  system.  In 
the  17th  century,  the  Jo-nang-pa,  a  sub-sect  of  the  Sa-skya- 
pa,  was  all  but  obliterated  from  the  Tibetan  monastic  scene 
by  the  orthodox  Dge-lugs-pa  because  it  stressed  the  "mind- 
only"  view  in  its  teachings. 

Monk  wearing  the  yellow  hat  of  the  Gelugpa  sect.  In 
his  left  hand  is  a  rosary,  in  his  right  hand  a  censer,  and 
hanging  from  his  belt  is 
a  brocade  case  that  con- 
ceals a  tiny  holy  water 
bottle. 


Before  discussing  the  issue  of  the  fundamental  tantric 
text  it  is  necessary  to  clarify  the  distinction  between  the  so- 
called  "right-handed"  and  "left-handed"  tantras,  both  of 
which  are  found  in  the  annuttarayoga  class  and  both  of 
which  utilize  sexual  symbolisms  for  psychological  processes. 
The  "right-handed"  tantras  are  based  on  the  mandala  of 


the  Five  Buddhas  of  Meditation,  with  Vairocana  as  the 
central  deity.  These  tantras  were  introduced  from  Kashmir. 
The  "left-handed"  tantras  are  based  on  a  mandala  of 
female  partners  (yogini),  usually  nine  in  number,  with  the 
Aksobhya  Buddha  as  the  central  deity.  These  tantras  were 
introduced  from  Nepal  and  are  considered  unorthodox  by 
the  reformed  Dge-lugs-pa  sect. 

Tibetan  nomad  dressed  in  a  traditional  chupa.  or  long 
robe,  carrying  a  charm  box  that 
holds  an  image  and  paper  charm 
for  protection  against  demons, 
disease,  bullets  and  other  mis- 
fortunes. 


The  Rnying-ma-pa  regard  almost  any  tantric  text  as  be- 
ing acceptable,  but  the  Dge-lugs-pa  accept  only  four  tantras 
and  all  of  these  are  of  the  "right-handed"  Vairocana  type. 
The  Bka'-brgyud-pa  select  from  both  the  "right"  and  "left- 
handed"  tantras;  while  the  Sa-skya-pa  accept,  in  addition, 
some  of  the  Rnying-ma-pa  tantric  teachings.  Ritually,  the 
Sa-skya-pa  are  close  to  the  Rnying-ma-pa.  This  is  un- 
doubtedly due  to  the  origin  of  the  Sa-skya-pa  teachings. 
The  founder  of  the  Sa-skya  monastery  and  father  of  the 
formulator  of  the  Sa-skya-pa  doctrine  was  a  Rnying-ma-pa 
lama.  Many  of  the  ritual  objects,  together  with  their  cere- 
monies, are  rejected  by  the  Dge-lugs-pa,  but  utilized  by  the 
other  three  sects.  Thus,  the  paradox  exists  that  the  re- 
formed Dge-lugs-pa  and  the  semi-reformed  Sa-skya-pa  are 
close  on  the  issue  of  philosophy,  but  apart  on  the  question 
of  ritual  practices. 

In  conclusion,  then,  one  often  reads  about  Tibetan  sec- 
tarianism as  the  "Yellow  Hat  Sect"  opposed  to  the  "Red 
Hat  Sect";  or,  the  "reformed  sect"  versus  the  "unreformed"; 
but,  there  are,  in  fact,  many  fundamental  differences  be- 
tween the  four  major  sectarian  groups  in  Tibet,  not  to  men- 
tion the  various  sub-sects. 

SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CoNZE,  Edward,  Buddhism:  Its  Essence  and  Development,  Harper  Torch- 
books,  New  York,  1959. 

Evans-Wentz,  W.  Y.,  editor,  Tibetan  Toga  and  Secret  Doctrines,  Oxford 
University  Press,  1967. 

GuENTHER,  Herbert  V.,  Tibetan  Buddhism  without  Mystification,  E.  J. 
Brill,  Leiden,  1 966. 

Hoffman,  Helmut,  The  Religions  of  Tibet,  London,  1961. 

Snellgrove,  David,  Buddhist  Himalaya,  Oxford,  1 957. 

Tucci,  Giuseppe,  Tibetan  Painted  Scrolls,  3  vols.,  Rome,  1949. 

Waddell,  L.  Austine,  The  Buddhism  of  Tibet  or  Lamaism,  Cambridge, 
reprinted  1958. 


DECEMBER     Page  13 


and  when  it  does,  these  go  into  the  reduced  stomach  and 
receive  the  same  treatment  that  most  birds'  food  gets. 

For  peculiar  nesting  habits,  there  is  the  megapode  who 
scratches  up  a  great  mound  on  the  forest  floor  in  which  it 
lays  its  eggs  to  be  incubated  by  the  heat  of  the  decaying 
vegetation.  The  yoimg  hatch  down  covered,  dig  their  own 
way  out,  and  independently  go  their  way,  never  knowing  a 
mother's  care.  Many  parrots  in  other  parts  of  the  world 
dig  nests  in  termite  mounds  and  in  tree  trunks  as  do  New 
Guinea  species,  but  one  New  Guinea  species  digs  its  burrow 
up,  instead  of  down,  and  then  changes  direction  and  finally 
excavates  the  nest  chamber  above  the  entrance,  a  system 
that  certainly  would  keep  out  tropical  rains. 


r^- 


"^1 


VuUurine  Parrot 

It  is  well  known  that  sunbirds,  of  which  only  two  reach 
New  Guinea,  build  pendant,  dome-shaped  nests.  But,  it 
seems  to  have  escaped  most  bird  students  that  in  building 
this  nest,  most  of  the  material  is  added  from  the  inside.  Near 
the  mouth  of  the  Fly  River,  I  watched  a  nest  being  built. 
First,  the  female  made  a  loose  pendant  strand  of  spider  web 
and  plant  material;  then  she  forced  her  way  into  it  and 
added  material  on  the  inside  as  the  walls  became  thinner 
while  she  forced  them  out  to  the  proper  shape  and  size. 

One  of  the  swiftlets  nests  in  the  complete  darkness  of 
deep  caves.  There  it  glues  its  nest  to  the  wall,  lays  its  eggs, 
and  raises  its  young.  It  feeds  the  young  insects  caught  on 
the  wing  during  the  day  above  the  forest.  Presumably,  the 
swiftlet  is  able  to  use  echo  location  to  guide  its  flight,  and 
find  and  recognize  its  nest  in  complete  darkness  as  the  oil 
bird  of  South  America  does,  and  similar  to  the  way  bats  use 
echo  location. 

These  swiftlets  are  relatives  of  the  Asiatic  swifts  whose 
nests,  made  wholly  of  saliva,  furnish  the  basic  ingredient  of 
the  Chinese  bird  nest  soup.  The  nests  of  these  New  Guinea 
birds,  little  shelves  glued  to  the  cave  wall,  also  contain  saliva, 
but  they  contain  so  much  plant  material  in  addition  that 
their  use  for  soup  is  impractical. 

Of  course,  some  of  the  cuckoos  lay  their  eggs  in  foster 
parents'  nests,  as  our  cowbird  does,  and  the  hornbill  female 


Papuan  Hornbill 

is  sealed  into  the  hole  in  a  tree  with  her  eggs,  to  be  fed  dur- 
ing incubation  through  a  slit  left  in  the  doorway  by  the  male. 


It  was  more  than  thirty-five  years  ago  when  I  first 
walked  in  a  New  Guinea  forest,  collected  bird  specimens 
there,  watched  birds  of  paradise  displaying  and  wrote  ac- 
counts of  their  habits.  In  the  writing  and  publishing  of 
Handbook  of  New  Guinea  Birds,  there  were  a  long  series  of 
delays  and  disheartening  events,  including  such  things  as 
the  repudiation  of  our  contract  by  one  publisher,  and  the 
mislaying  of  the  original  color  art  work  by  another.  These 
brought  back  to  my  mind  the  obstacles  to  field  work  in  New 
Guinea.  We  had  a  saying,  "In  New  Guinea,  if  anything 
can  go  wrong,  it  will!"  A  Catholic  Mission  Brother  of  the 
back  country  put  it  more  concretely,  "If  you  have  the  lamp 
you  do  not  have  the  kerosene;  if  you  have  the  kerosene  you 
do  not  have  the  lamp.  It  is  Papua."  This  was  in  the  old 
days  when  we  travelled  on  foot,  with  carriers,  in  unmapped 
country;  we  had  escorts  of  police  or  soldiers  for  protection. 
Only  half  in  jest  we  said  the  old  gods  were  jealous. 

There  were  changes  coming,  but  belief  in  the  old  was 
still  strong.  One  evening,  on  the  upper  Fly  River,  when  the 
new  moon  was  very  young  the  cook  boy  left  off  singing  a 
methodist  hymn  to  come  and  complain  that  the  second  cook 
was  working  magic  to  do  him  harm.  The  second  cook  said, 
not  so.  True,  he  was  working  magic  with  a  sweet  potato 
and  a  piece  of  broken  bottle,  which  he  showed  me,  but  these 
and  the  words  he  had  been  saying  were  used  in  his  village 
in  the  far  distant  d'Entrecasteaux  Islands  to  insure  that  the^ 
new  moon  would  safely  ride  across  the  sky. 

In  the  present-day  scene  in  which  the  emerging  world  of 
the  Papuan  preparing  for  independence  is  linked  to  the  so- 
phisticated world  of  Chicago  by  airplane  and  radio,  there 
would  seem  to  be  no  room  for  malign  spirits.  Yet,  in  Oc- 
tober, a  tape-recording  of  New  Guinea  bird  voices,  sent 
from  Port  Moresby,  New  Guinea  through  the  kind  offices 
of  Mr.  W.  S.  Peckover,  arrived  for  use  in  our  exhibit.  It 
was  completely  blank.  An  explanation  was  found,  of  course, 
involving  the  U.  S.  Customs,  an  X-ray  search  for  contra- 
band, and  magnetic  fields.  Later,  Mr.  Peckover  sent  a  re- 
placement tape  which  arrived  unscathed. 


Page  14     DECEMBER 


In  these  days  of  bird-watching  tours,  a  comment  on  pos- 
sibilities in  New  Guinea  is  in  order.  The  amateur  bird 
watcher  who  lands  at  Port  Moresby  in  Southeast  New 
Guinea  can  drive  through  the  savannas  to  Rouna  Falls  on 
the  Laloki  River,  twenty-two  miles  distance,  in  less  than  an 
hour  and  be  on  the  edge  of  the  rainforest  where  birds  of 
paradise  display.  The  Laloki  Canyon  presents  some  of  the 
most  spectacular  views  in  New  Guinea.  To  give  an  idea  of 
what  one  may  see,  I  can  point  out  that  the  late  Dr.  E.  T. 
Gilliard  spent  February  7  -  April  1 1  in  this  area  studying 
birds  and  collecting  material  for  a  bird  of  paradise  group 
now  installed  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 
in  New  York.  He  published  a  list  of  about  140  species  he 
saw  in  the  general  area.  These  included  13  species  of 
pigeons,  11  parrots,  9  kingfishers,  5  cuckoo  shrikes,  10  fly- 
catchers, 9  birds  of  paradise,  and  8  honeyeaters. 

In  the  above,  the  unusual  aspects  of  the  avifauna  have 
been  stressed,  but  the  visitor  from  the  new  world  will  see 
many  birds  similar  in  shape  and  feathering  to  those  he 
knows,  even  if  they  differ  in  color,  pattern,  and  detai^  of 
structure  to  indicate  they  may  not  be  closely  related. 

In  the  forest  are  perching  birds,  rails,  pigeons,  mega- 
podes,  that  walk  over  the  forest  floor;  kingfishers,  warblers, 
flycatchers,  fairy  wrens,  shrike-like  and  whistler-like  birds 
share  the  undergrowth  and  low  trees.  Nuthatch-like  and 
creeper-like  birds  climb  on  the  tree  trunks;  other  warblers, 
flycatchers  and  vireo-like  whistlers  gleaning  insects  from  leaf 
and  twig.  Perched  on  trees  above  the  forest  and  sailing  out 
for  insects  are  the  black  and  white  wood  swallows  and  the 
demure  grey  and  black-crested  swifts. 

The  flower  feeders  and  fruit  eaters  of  the  tree  tops  reach 
a  particular  richness  here  that  is  hardly  surpassed  even  in 
the  American  tropics.  There  are  parrots  and  lories,  pigeons, 
honeyeaters,  flowerpeckers  and  berrypeckers,  birds  of  para- 
dise, and  starlings,  which  may  swarm  into  a  tree  top  in  be- 
wildering numbers  and  variety. 

Much  of  the  above  data  on  birds,  and  more,  is  in  the 
Handbook  oj  New  Guinea  Birds,  in  a  systematic,  species-by- 
species  arrangement.  The  writing  of  the  Handbook  took 
three  years,  and  publication,  several  more.  This  has  had 
some  unexpected  side  effects.  One  was  a  request  to  write 
an  article  on  birds  of  paradise  for  the  English  magazine, 
"Animals."  Ahother  was  in  connection  with  the  issu- 
ance of  four  New  Guinea  stamps,  each  with  the  picture  of  a 
parrot,  by  the  postal  authorities  in  Port  Moresby.  They 
wanted  a  brochure  describing  the  pictured  parrots.  The 
late  Dr.  Gilliard  had  already  done  one  for  an  issue  of  birds 
of  paradise  stamps.  I  was  asked  to  do  the  one  for  parrots. 
First  day  covers  with  the  four  parrot  stamps  on  them  were 
issued  in  Port  Moresby  on  November  29. 

The  special  exhibit  entitled  "New  Guinea:  Birds,  Books 
and  Stamps"  is  on  exhibit  in  Hall  9  of  the  Museum.  It  shows 
a  selection  of  the  more  striking  bird  specimens  received  by 
the  exchange,  the  Handbook  we  helped  to  prepare,  and  some 
of  the  side  effects  of  the  research,  such  as  the  first  day  covers 
with  parrot  stamps. 


Winter  journey 

Magic,  Medicine  and  Minerals 

Today  we  take  for  granted  man's  ability  to  hurl  himself  into 
space;  to  dig,  by  remote  control,  in  the  surface  of  the  moon. 
It  is  too  easy  for  us  to  forget  the  awesome  aspect  which  the 
physical  environment  presented  to  man  in  his  pre-scientific 
stage.  Lacking  knowledge  of  scientific  laws  he  deified  nat- 
ural forces  and  turned  to  an  organized  system  of  supersti- 
tious beliefs  to  explain  the  unexplainable,  to  understand  the 
unknowable.  Slowly  he  crawled  up  from  this  quagmire  of 
superstition.  He  stands  now  at  almost  the  extreme  opposite 
position,  exhibiting  an  almost  child-like  faith  in  the  ability  of 
twentieth  century  science  and  technology  to  solve  the  many 
pressing  problems  relating  to  man  and  his  environment. 

Only  a  tick  ago  on  the  geological  clock,  man  believed 
that  minerals  possessed  powers  which  could  cure  disease, 
protect  from  danger,  and  insure  success  in  all  undertakings. 
Chalcedony,  the  lapidaries  informed  us,  warded  against 
drowning  and  being  tempest-tossed.  The  color  of  an  opal 
faded  when  worn  by  the  deceitful,  but  united  the  special 
virtues  of  all  gems  when  worn  by  the  innocent.  Jade  was 
prescribed  for  kidney  diseases,  while  garnet  prevented  fever, 
and  made  its  wearer  agreeable,  powerful  and  victorious. 
Such  beliefs  have  prevailed  from  earliest  times,  but  were 
especially  prevalent  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Medieval 
books  on  minerals — called  lapidaries — were  essentially 
handbooks  of  magic  and  medicine.  From  such  beginnings 
arose  the  science  of  mineralogy,  hastened  by  the  rise  and 
widespread  development  of  the  mining  industry  in  Europe. 

The  Winter  Journey  will  provide  boys  and  girls,  indeed 
the  whole  family,  a  chance  to  explore  what  to  them  may 
be  a  hitherto  unsuspected  chapter  in  the  natural  history  of 
the  mineral  kingdom.  As  you  learn  of  the  superstition  you 
will  see  in  the  Geology  Halls  actual  examples  of  the  mineral 
involved.  Optional  visits  to  the  Gem  Room,  Hall  of  Jades, 
and  some  of  the  Anthropology  Halls  will  provide  an  oppor- 
tunity to  see  some  of  the  finest  examples  of  the  lapidary  art, 
both  ancient  and  recent.  A  wide  variety  of  gem  minerals 
is  worn  today  solely  for  their  intrinsic  beauty. 

The  current  Journey  is  No.  52  in  a  series  begun  in  1955. 
With  the  successful  completion  of  each  four  journeys,  boys 
and  girls  are  awarded  a  certificate  and  title :  Museum  Trav- 
eler (4  journeys) ;  Museum  Adventurer  (8  journeys) ;  Mu- 
seum Explorer  (12  journeys).  After  16  journeys  have  been 
completed  the  Explorer  becomes  a  Beagler,  ready  to  under- 
take a  special  journey  which  carries  him  throughout  the 
Museum  to  study  some  of  the  natural  history  materials  ob- 
served by  Charles  Darwin  on  his  famous  "Voyage  of  the 
Beagle."  Successful  Beaglers  are  awarded  a  certificate  mak- 
ing them  members  of  the  elite  Museum's  Discoverer's  Club. 

There  is  no  charge  for  taking  any  of  the  Museum  Jour- 
neys. Copies  of  the  Journey  question  sheet  and  further  in- 
formation on  the  program  may  be  obtained  at  the  North  or 
South  Door  or  at  the  Information  Booth.  The  Winter 
Journey  runs  from  December  1  to  February  29. 

— by  Ernest  J.  Roscoe,  Raymond  Foundation 


DECEMBER     Page  15 


JOIN    THE  MEXICAN  TOUR 

Places  are  still  open  in  Field  Museum's  Mexican  Tour,  scheduled  April  4-21, 
according  to  Phil  Clark,  Tour  Leader. 

The  Tour,  guided  by  Field  Museum  specialists  in  archaeology,  horticulture 
and  botany,  will  explore  Mexico  in  its  many  varied  dimensions:  Aztec,  Toltec, 
Zapotec  and  Maya  ruins,  and  the  mysterious  Olmec  sculptures,  forceful  mural 
art  and  revolutionary  architecture,  Spanish  Colonial  and  strikingly  modern 
private  homes  and  colorful  tropical  gardens,  wild  plants  in  settings  of  pine- 
forested  mountains  and  tropical  rain  forest,  the  exciting  pageantry  of  Holy 
Week's  processions  and  Passion  enactments  and  the  flowering  trees  which  domi- 
nate the  April  landscape. 

Major  distances  within  the  country  will  be  covered  by  plane,  supplemented 
in  each  area  by  probing  trips  by  motor  coach — "to  fully  see  the  country,  but 
with  an  economy  of  time  and  maximum  of  comfort,"  according  to  Mr.  Clark. 
Principal  stops  will  be  at  Mexico  City,  Teotihuacan,  Cuicuilco,  Cuernavaca, 
Xochicalco,  Taxco,  Oaxaca  City,  Monte  Alban,  Mitla,  Santa  Maria  del  Tule, 
Villa  Hermosa,  Palenque,  Merida,  Uxmal,  Kabah  and  Chichen  Itza. 

Price,  including  all  meals,  hotels, 
transportation  and  expenses,  and  a  tax- 
deductible  $200  donation  to  Field  Mu- 
seum, is  $975.  The  full  itinerary  appeared 
in  the  October,  1967,  issue  of  the  bul- 
letin. Reservations,  including  a  $200 
deposit,  may  be  mailed  to  Field  Mu- 
seum's Mexican  Tour,  Field  Museum. 


Olmec  sculpture  in  the  Villahermosa,  Tabasco 


Closed  on  Christmas  and  New  Yearns 
Days.    Hours  Jor  December  and  Janu- 
ary are  9  a.m.  until  4  p.m.  weekdays; 
until  5  p.m.  weekends  and  during  the 
week  of  December  26th. 
December  through  February    Winter  Journey:  Magic,  Medicine  and  Min- 
erals, a  self-guided  tour  concentrating  on  the  mythology  of  gemstones. 
December  1    Lecture :  Tibetan  Buddhism  by  Turrell  V.  Wylie,  Associate  Pro- 
fessor of  Tibetan  Languages  and  Civilization  at  the  University  of  Washing- 
ton, Seattle.    8:30  p.m.  in  the  Lecture  Hall. 
December  8  through  Mid- January  Exhibit:  New  Guinea:  Birds,  Books  and 
Stamps  with  commentary  written  by  Dr.  Austin  L.  Rand,  Chief  Curator 
of  Zoology. 
December  1 6    City-wide  Youth  Orchestra  Concert.  The  Orchestra,  com- 
posed of  50  Chicago  area  youngsters,  aged  from  12  to  17,  is  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Mrs.  Fanny  Hassler  and  sponsored  by  Chicago  Park  District.    The 
program  includes  music  by  Franck,  Brahms,  Tchaikovsky  and  Mendelssohn. 
2  p.m.  in  James  Simpson  Theatre. 
December  17    Audubon  Wildlife  Film:  Three  Seasons  North,  by  D.J.  Nel- 
son.   A  color  film  of  a  family  back-packing  into  the  lake  country  of  British 
Columbia.    2:30  p.m.  in  James  Simpson  Theatre. 

Nature  Camera  Club  of  Chicago,  Dec.  12,  7:45  p.m. 

Illinois  Orchid  Society,  Dec.  17,  2  p.m. 

Sierra  Club,  Great  Lakes  Chapter,  Dec.  19,  7:30  p.m. 


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CALENDAR  OF  EVENTS 


MEETINGS: 


DR.  PRESS  TO  GIVE 
HOLIDAY  LECTURES 

Dr.  frank  press  of  M.LT.  will  deliver 
the  6th  annual  series  of  Holiday  Science 
Lectures  on  December  28  and  29.  These 
lectures,  entitled  "The  Internal  Consti- 
tution of  the  Earth,"  are  presented  by 
The  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science  in  cooperation 
with  Field  Museum.  Eight  hundred 
high  school  students  who  have  demon- 
strated interest  and  outstanding  ability 
will  be  invited,  with  their  science  teach- 
ers, to  hear  the  four  talks. 

Dr.  Press  is  currently  the  Chairman  of 
the  Department  of  Geology  and  Geo- 
physics at  M.LT.  In  addition  to  Uni- 
versity positions,  he  has  worked  with 
government  panels  and  committees,  in- 
cluding programs  to  develop  seismic 
methods  of  policing  nuclear  tests  and  to 
create  an  earthquake  warning  system. 
Dr.  Press's  principal  research  activities 
are  in  the  fields  of  crustal  and  mantle 
structure,  earthquakes  and  seismology, 
exploration  geophysics,  planetary  phys- 
ics, submarine  geology  and  theory  of 
elastic  wave  propagation. 


The  general  purpose  of  the  Holiday 
Lecture  Series  is  to  impress  selected  high 
school  students  with  the  excitement  and 
inspiration  of  scientific  research.  In  past 
years,  both  students  and  teachers  have 
been  very  enthusiastic  about  this  event 
in  Field  Museum's  educational  program. 


FIELD     MUSEUM 

OF   NATURAL   HISTORY 

ROOSEVELT  ROAD  AT  LAKE  SHORE  DRIVE 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS  60605    A.C.  312.  922-9410 

FOUNDED  BY  MARSHALL  FIELD.  1893 

E.  Leland  Webber,  Director 

BULLETIN 

Edward  G.  Nash,  Managing  Editor 


Page  16     DECEMBER