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Bulletin 46

August, 1897

NEW HAMPSHIRE COLLEGE

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

1. AN EXPERIMENT WITH A STEAM DRILL

2, METHODS OF ROAD MAINTENANCE

BY CHARLES H. PETTEE

NEW HAMPSHIRE COLLEGE

OF

AGRICULTURE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS

DURHAM, N. H.

NEW HAMPSHIRE COLLEGE

OF

AGRICULTURE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Durham, N. H.

BOARD OF CONTROL

Hon. GEO. A. WASON, Chairman, New Boston.
Pres. CHAS. S. MURKLAND, ex officio, Durham.
CHARLES W. STONE, A. M., Secretary, Andover.
Hon. JOHN G. TALLANT, Pembroke.
Hon. FRANK JONES, Portsmouth.

THE STATION COUNCIL

Pres. CHAS. S. MURKLAND, A. M., Ph. D., Acting Director.
FRED W. MORSE, B. S., Vice-Director and Chemist.
CHAS. H. PETTEE, A. M., C. E., Meteorologist.
HERBERT H. LAMSON, M. D., Bacteriologist.
CLARENCE M. WEED, D. Sc, Entomologist.
FRANK WM. RANE, B. Agr., M. S., Agriculturist and Horti-
culturist.

ASSISTANTS

LEIGH HUNT, B. S., Assistant Horticulturist.
CHARLES D. HOWARD, B. S.s Assistant Chemist.
CLEMENT S. MORRIS, Clerk.
E. H. FORRISTALL, Farm Foreman.

The Bulletins of this Station are sent free to any resident of New Hamp-
shire upon application.

AN EXPERIMENT WITH A STEAM DRILL

BY CHARLES H. PETTEE

OBJECT OF EXPERIMENT

The experiment herewith described has been carried out with
certain definite ends in view, and incidentally the location has
been so chosen as to partially carry out a far-reaching improve-
ment that is at present beyond the means of the town, and yet
is absolutely essential to properly set oft' the approaches to the
college. The definite ends were as follows :

ist. To use a steam drill on a sufficiently large scale to deter-
mine how far its well-known advantages may be applicable to
country road work.

2d. To study the question of comparative cost of moving
road material, differing in kind and having a variable length of
haul.

3d. To incidentally make a further study of the question of
what a standard grade should be.

4th. To experiment with different available materials for
surfacing.

DESCRIPTION OF LOCATION AND OF WORK DONE

The locality selected for experiment lies upon the main
thoroughfare through the village of Durham, with the property
of the New Hampshire College upon either side. This thor-
oughfare, for over a mile, is bordered upon one or both sides
for nearly the whole distance by land of this institution. The
street itself as laid out is 66 feet in width, and is nearly straight,
but the traveled portion varies considerably from a straight
line. Here and there masses of rock encroach upon this trav-
eled way and force it to one side. In other places, deep

60 AN EXPERIMENT WITH A STEAM DRILL

ravines, requiring heavy fills, have been equally potent in
pushing the roadway from the centre, and both together have
caused the sidewalk to curve out toward the centre of the road
until that thoroughfare has been encroached upon seriously in
places.

Commanding the approach to the main college buildings
from the village side, was a hill 510 feet in length, having a
continuous grade the whole distance, except for 50 feet near the
top, which was level. While the grade was continuous, it
varied from one in eight for a distance of 55 feet to one in
thirty for a distance of 120 feet, and these grades were so sit-
uated as to give a sharp rise for 90 feet in length near the bot-
tom ; then an easy grade for 175 feet ; then a very steep ascent
for 55 feet, with an easy slope beyond. These grades may be
seen as represented by the broken lines in plate 1, figure 1, in
which the vertical scale is exaggerated five times over the hori-
zontal. The whole line in the same figure shows the grade of
the road since its improvement. The lower part of the hill has
been reduced to a uniform grade of one in twenty, while the
upper portion has a grade of one in twenty-two. In plate 1,
figure 2, the straight or nearly straight dotted lines show the
former course of the traveled way and sidewalk ; the broken
lines show the present position of sidewalk, and the whole
lines give the bounds of the street as laid out and the bounds of
the traveled way as now built. The dotted curved lines indi-
cate the former position of rock areas now removed by blasting.
The frontispiece and plates 2-6 give views taken before, dur-
ing, and since the reconstruction of the road. The traveled
way has been graded 22 feet in width, with dirt slopes of one
to one at the sides. The sidewalk upon the north side has
been rebuilt in its proper place upon the outer edge of the laid-
out way, for which purpose a large amount of rock excavation
and fill were necessary. Ultimately, as the land on the south
is improved, the grade of the road should be carried to the full
width of 66 feet. In the part experimented upon, which in-
cludes about three fourths of the grading required for its full
renovation, care has been taken to do no work which will have
to be undone, but the remainder may be carried forward at any
time with no interruption to travel. Enough has been done to

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AN EXPERIMENT WITH A STEAM DRILL

prepare this portion of the road for macadamizing, an improve-
ment which it is hoped the town may be able to undertake at
no distant day.

RESULTS IN DETAIL

The following table gives in detail the actual results accom-
plished, together with the cost of each part of the work. The
expenses include what were actually incurred and what would
have been incurred if the town had been doing the work with-

out aid from the college.

GRADING.

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Material.

Aver'ge length
of haul.

Source.

Basis of esti-
mate.

Average cost
per cubic
yard haul-
ing.

Total cost.

554

Clay.

3/8 mile.

College barn.

Count of loads.

27i Cts.

$152.35

146

Hard pan.

5-16 mile.

Rear of Sci-
ence buildi'g.

Count of loads,

27^ cts.

40.15

24

Hard pan.

V2 mile.

Hoitt bank.

Count of loads.

27| cts.

6.60

50

Hard pan.

200 feet.

Stripping.

Measurements.

27i cts.

13.75

22

Hard pan.

100 feet.

Ditch.

Measurements.

15 cts.

3.30

15

Cinders.

5-16 mile.

Power station.

Count of loads.

22£ cts.

3.32

16

Gravel.

2j miles.

Lee gravel
bank.

Count of loads.

65£ cts.

10.E0

130

Stone.

250 feet.

Stone wall.

Measurement in
embankment.

45J cts.

59.18

258

Stone.

125 feet.

Blasted from
ledge.

Measurement in
ledge.

Ill cts.

286.38

Spreading earth and shaping road-bed $28.04

Supervision, 36 days at $2.00 72.00

520 loads of earth at 10 cents 52.00

Two culverts— 64 feet of pipe, $9.60; labor, $7.72 17.32

Total value of work d one •• $744.89

Acutal outlay to college $500.00

If of total cost we rebate amounts for supervision, value of
earth furnished, amounts charged for use of drill and machinery,
and excess of value of farm teams above $3.00 per day (college
experiments are usually carried on upon a basis of expense of
$3.00 per day per team, while in table this has been charged

THE STEAM DRILL

63

at $3.50 per day), and if we allow something for the value of
the stone reserved by the college, the actual net outlay will re-
main nearly $500, as given above.

Of the total fill, one third was for sidewalk, two thirds for
roadway. Of the rock excavation, two thirds was for sidewalk,
and one third for roadway. On the whole, 56 percent, of cost
was for roadway, and 44 per cent, for sidewalk.

The cost of moving clay, hard pan, and strippings varied
from 25 to 40 cents per yard, differing mainly with the kind of
labor employed in shoveling.

RESUME

827 yards earth, estimated to shrink in place 1-10
lo .«•••••••

258 yards stone, less 20 yards drawn to college
barn, equals 238 yards, estimated to increase in
place 1-6, to

Wall stone in place .....

Fills according to above estimates
Fills from rough, direct measurements

Average ......

1,135 yal"ds at 64 cents (average price)
$727.57 plus $17.32 (expense of culverts) .

744 yards.

275 yards.
130 yards.

1 ,149 yards.
1,120 yards.

1,135 yards.

$727-57
$744.89

THE STEAM DRILL

Steam drills are in common use in cities for grading and
sewer excavation, quarrying stone for crushing, etc. They
have not hitherto been considered as necessary or even desir-
able machines for smaller towns. With reference to them, the
object of this experiment was (1) to determine whether they
are adapted to work carried on by more or less inexperienced
hands; (2) to see if the use of the drill as a portable machine
for small amounts of work in a place is practically feasible.

While the work done was all within a limited area of a few
hundred square feet, the arrangements were on a portable
basis, and as a matter of fact, the whole apparatus was moved
several times so satisfactorily as to amply justify more frequent

64

AN EXPERIMENT WITH A STEAM DRILL

changes and removals to longer distances when necessary.
Therefore, a detailed history of the experiment will apply as
evidence to both of the above questions.

After consultation with various parties using drills, the
writer, having had no practical experience with them, decided
to place himself in the hands of some reputable party, handling
a reliable article, and follow his advice. Such a party was
found in the person of M. S. Harlow, M. E., New England
agent for the Ingersoll-Sergeant Drill Co., with headquarters
in Boston. After learning the nature of the experiment to be
tried, Mr. Harlow loaned the college an Ingersoll B. drill that
had been used a few times and yet was practically as good as
new, so that the results obtained by its use were perfectly satis-
factory. A man was sent from Boston to run the drill for such
time as was necessary to teach those on the ground how to
handle it, the college paying for this expense. With the
exception of the loan of the drill, any other party would have
been treated in the same manner by the drill company, and
any machine sold would have been fully warranted.

EQUIPMENT

The following list of articles was found necessar
equipment :

i Ingersoll B. drill and tripod

25 feet steam hose ......

1 set special blacksmith tools ....

Duplicate set octagon drill steel

Battery, leading wires, etc. ....

Extra fittings, bushings, sand pump, etc.
Portable 9-horse power boiler, with fittings com
plete ........

50 feet of i-inch pipe in variable lengths with fit

tings

1 large and 1 medium Stillson wrench and 1 large
monkev wrench .......

2 water barrels, pails, etc. .....

1 portable forge and anvil .....

Total cost .......

y for full

$220.00
15.00

8.00
16.00
25.00

3.00

210.00
5.00

5.00

1. 00
24. CO

$532.00

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66 AN EXPERIMENT WITH A STEAM DRILL

The prices given above are about those that will be accorded
to any careful buyer. It will rarely be necessary for a town
at the start to secure the boiler or the forge. In almost any
town may be found small stationary boilers that may be hired
at certain seasons and made portable by mounting upon anv
low truck. By putting a few dollars extra into steel, the
blacksmith work may be economically done at any shop in
town, a part of the drills being used while others are carried to
the shop. The special blacksmith tools, however, will still be
necessary. Under these circumstances, the necessary expense
of outfit may be reduced to about $300.

The following force will be required to run the machine:
one man for the drill ; one man at the boiler; one blacksmith,
or one boy to carry drills to shop ; and one laborer working
near to be called upon as needed. If either the man at the
drill or at the boiler be a blacksmith, the drill may be run
till all the steel is dull. Then shut down and sharpen up.

In the work now being described, the person who was to
learn the use of the drill acted as assistant, and gradually was
allowed to assume control of the machine.

In most cases, more or less stripping of earth from the rock
is necessary. This should be thoroughly done well ahead of
the drill, which may then be placed in the most advantageous
positions.

WORK DONE

Seventy-four holes, averaging 3 feet, 3 inches, in depth, or
238 feet in all, were drilled in 67 hours, or at the rate of 3^
feet per hour. This time included one breakdown, using up
3 hours, and various delays due to seamy rock, stopping to
instruct blacksmith, moving boiler, lack of steam, etc., but did
not include 7 hours spent in blasting, 10 hours setting up and
taking down twice each, and 1^ days, time of operator com-
ing, going, and waiting for drill, all of which are included in
the tabular expense account heretofore given. The rock
drilled was syenite, exceedingly hard, quite seamy, and conse-
quently slow drilling.

In comparison with hand work, not only is the amount done
per dollar of expense more, but a class of work may be

NEED OF ROCK EXCAVATION ON COUNTRY ROADS 67

attempted that hand work cannot touch, because of the depth
to which the holes may be driven by steam power.

The total cost of handling rock, including the work with the
drill, was very moderate, being at $1.11 per cubic yard less
than the average contract price, which is usually about $1.75
per yard. With the experience gained, the work could be
duplicated at a considerable saving of expense. Upon one job,
carried on since with our own help, an average of 4 feet per
hour was attained, with a labor account per day less than half
that in the former case. One run of S hours gave 42 feet with
14 holes. These are not record-breaking results, but what has
been actually done in very hard rock by amateurs.

NEED OF ROCK EXCAVATION ON COUNTRY ROADS

In order to investigate the question of the need of rock exca-
vation on our country roads various computations were made,
and a section of road 5^ miles long was carefully examined to
find what amount of rock work was required.

1. Since it is evident from the table, page 62, that yard for
vard rock excavation is much more expensive than earth fill,
great care should be exercised not to handle rock when earth
can be easily drawn to cover the same. In the experiment
already related, if the grade had been carried two feet higher,
thus avoiding all rock excavation except for sidewalk, the fol-
lowing computation would hold :

Extra embankment, 1,100 yds. earth, at 27^ cts. . $300.00
Extra embankment for sidewalk, 51 yds. earth, at

27^ cts. ........ 14.00

Total increase in expense .... $314.00

Stone, replaced by earth at saving of 83^3 cts. per

yd., 181 yds., ....... 151.00

Net saving by larger use of steam drill . . . $16300

If a grade one foot higher than that adopted had been used,
practically the same rock surface would have been covered and
the total expense have been still greater. Therefore, as a mere
matter of expense, a standard grade was attained in the best
way.

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RESUME 69

2. The examination of the 5% miles of road referred to
above showed at least fifty places where rock excavation is
necessary, either to open up the side ditches so as to keep the
water out of the traveled way or for the improvement of grade.
No account was taken of the numerous cases where earth could
be more cheaply drawn and thus save ledge excavation. This
highway is about an average of the better class of country
roads in the hill towns of New Hampshire.

RESUME

As a result of both experiment and investigation it would
then seem legitimate to draw the following conclusions :

1. There is need of a large amount of rock-work upon the
average country road.

2. The steam drill is absolutely essential for the economical
handling of considerable rock masses, and is capable of doing
exceedingly economical work, in portable form, for small
amounts of work in a place.

3. The ownership of the necessary plant, especially with
boiler and forge omitted, is within the means of a large num-
ber of towns.

4. A good opportunity for starting such an innovation as
above outlined may be found frequently in connection with the
carrying out of some single large improvement involving rock
excavation. In such case the total expense of plant may be
saved the first season.

5. The obvious objections are connected with the lack ot
permanent organization of the department of roads and the
frequent changes of management in our country towns. This
is illustrated by the fact that probably two thirds of all the road
machines in the state winter in the open air.

6. On the other hand, a steam drill is not bulky and would
be left usually in the care of the person who had learned to run
it. In that case it would receive all necessary attention.

7. A steam drill is simple in construction ; is made to stand
banging, and is less liable to get out of order than many arti-
cles of modern farm machinery in common use.

70 AN EXPERIMENT WITH A STEAM DRIEI.

COMPARATIVE COST OF MOVING ROAD MATERIAL

Different materials moved were as follows: Rock thrown
out by blasting, rock from an old wall, clay from barn cellar,
hard-pan full of bowlders and small stones, a small amount of
cinders and gravel easily handled. For details of number of
yards, length of haul, cost, etc., see table, page 62.

The cost of moving ledge rock is altogether too great to
allow its profitable use in ordinary embankment. When,
however, the rock must be moved, it can often be used to
advantage in grading. Deep drilled holes, a good quantity of
at least 75 per cent, dynamite, and a battery for use in explod-
ing were found necessary for the satisfactory breaking up of
masses of rock, while a hand derrick, which may be hired for
about one dollar per day, was found to give far more economi-
cal results in handling rock than could be attained without.
Without going into details, all these points are of special
importance and can hardly be emphasized too strongly when
rock-work is under consideration.

We see by examination of table that the economic value
of an old wall for grade at a distance above fifty feet is exceed-
ingly problematic. The size of the stone will be the determin-
ing factor. In the case under consideration, about two thirds
of the stone had to be handled with bars and many stones were
loaded upon the drag by aid of horses. When we consider
further the additional expense required in packing the rocks
together to make a fairly compact fill, it may be regarded as
settled that it would be cheaper to draw earth at least one half
mile than to utilize a wall of large stone over fifty feet distant.

The cost of handling earth varied from 15 to 66 cents per
yard, the variation being largely due to the difference in the
efficiency of the shovelers and not appreciably to differences in
length of haul as great as one fourth mile. The highest cost,
except for gravel, viz., 40 cents, was for earth moved only a
little more than one fourth mile. Again, it can not be too
strongly emphasized that the selection of the right number of
shovelers and the right number of teams, proportioned to the
distance to be covered and the kind of material to be moved, is
a vital factor. I have in mind one third section of a town

72 \\ KXPERIMENT WITH A STEAM DRIEE

where most of the road work for several years has been done
by a single team, sometimes with and sometimes without an
extra shoveler. It would be hard to say which combination
was worse for the town. While this is an extreme case, indi-
vidual instances of such wasteful work are of daily occurence.
Perhaps equally important is the size of the load drawn. It
was found that an average team ought to draw on a main road,
not too hilly and free from mud, at least forty feet or thirty-two
bushels of earth. Yet twenty bushels or less than a yard is
nearer the average load hauled by teams working for our towns.
Failure to attend to these details frequently triples the neces-
sary expense. In this experiment, the cost of hauling earth and
rock was less than the average cost to contractors and consider-
ably less than the average cost to towns for road work. The
clay moved from under the college barn had dried and hard-
ened into an exceedingly compact mass, every inch of which
had to be picked or otherwise broken up. Dynamite was
tried several times quite successfully, but on the whole muscle
and picks proved cheaper. With less effective muscle, how-
ever, the result might have been reversed.

A STANDARD GRADE

In reducing the grade of a hill to a standard of one twentieth
or a little less, it was not expected that much additional light
would be thrown upon the question of what a standard grade
should be. It was a single example, and whether the college
or the people of Durham thought this particular grade the
most profitable or at all better than the old, is of little moment
to outsiders. Towns, however, will go on cutting down their
grades to about the proportions that the experience of Europe
and of the more thickly settled portions of this country advises
as fast as they get round to the point of making good roads, and
this experience has been followed in the case under considera-
tion.

It may be profitable, however, to notice some of the argu-
ments employed by a few individuals to show that the new
grade was no improvement over the old. It will be seen by
Plate I, that formerly the grade was concentrated largely at
two points, and it has been argued that this concentration

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74 AN EXPERIMENT WITH A STEAM DRILL

enabled a team to get over the elevation more quickly and
easily than now with a longer hill having a uniform grade. In
this case, there was no increase in the total length of road,
rather a slight decrease, but only an increase in the length of
the hill. There can be no question that, with the same road
surface in two cases, a heavy load would steer clear of a grade
of one eighth every time, and also of a grade of one twelfth for
as great a distance as ninety feet, in favor of a uniform stand-
ard grade of one twentieth. Moreover, since it is found that a
driving horse with a light load will trot steadily along on a
standard grade and that a heavy load may be easily started
upon such a grade, it remains at least doubtful whether the
extra speed claimed even in the case of a medium-sized load on
the concentrated grades is not taken out of the animal driven.

In riding a bicycle, it is noticeable that an ordinary rider may
climb a hill at a standard grade without marked increase of
effort, and with regular, steady motion, while upon a steeper
hill, even if quite short, a special effort is necessary to get up
sufficient momentum to carry one up the steep part, and this
effort leaves one out of breath at the top, or, perhaps, only halt
way to the top. We think it is the same with the horse on the
steep grades, and that the extra effort required to climb a hill
quickly comes out of the reserve strength of the animal, and,
therefore, is no real gain. It may be easier in some cases for
the driver to concentrate his efforts at a few points while
urging on the average horse but the owner of the animal would
prefer the standard grade.

One fact was clearly shown as a result of the experiment,
viz., that a hard surface may counterbalance a steep grade.
After the completion of the grading a portion only of the hill
was graveled, and that lightly. As a result the road was un-
usually muddy the following spring, and there is no doubt but
that the harder surface with the steeper grade would have been
preferable for the time. As the question of surfacing, at least
as well as before work began, involves simply the expendi-
ture of a few dollars for gravel, there is no argument there
against reducing grade. It is important, however, as teaching
the great utility, yes, even absolute necessity, of surfacing in
order to procure good roads.

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76 AN EXPERIMENT WITH A STEAM DRILL

ROAD SURFACING.

It was intended to carry out a series of experiments with
different materials in surfacing, but so much effort was found
necessary to complete the grading that only a small amount of
work was done in this line. The main experiments were post-
poned, and mean-time a careful study of surfacing methods
was entered upon in connection with the study of town manage-
ment of roads, as specially exemplified in the town of Durham.
Therefore, the little that was done will be considered in con-
nection with the latter subject.

A PRACTICAL STUDY OF ROAD MAIN-
TENANCE

UV CHARLES H. PETTEE

PRELIMINARY REMARKS

Conclusions drawn from actual practical work, when the
surrounding conditions are carefully studied, are frequently
very instructive. With this thought in mind, and with a pur-
pose to accomplish as much as possible witli the available col-
lege resources, the highway agents of the town of Durham
were consulted, and, with their willing cooperation, the task
was entered upon of studying for a year the work done by
them, and of making report thereof, so far as lessons of public
interest would warrant.

Infallibility in criticism is not claimed, and the writer is
glad at the outset to testify to the honesty, ability, and general
business acumen shown by all the members of the board of
highway agents, and to the gentlemanly treatment accorded
to himself and others with whom they came into business
relations.

All personal criticisms* made, whether favorable or other-
wise, are such as might easily apply to a large number of high-
way agents throughout the state, and refer to matters that gen-
erally need attention and correction.

ORGANIZATION FOR l8o,6-'o,7

At the town election in March, 1S96, three highway agents
were chosen, whom we will speak of as A, B. and C. A was
reelected and thus brought to the service of the town an experi-

*A11 personal criticisms made have been submitted to the individuals concerned, and
are published with their consent.

jS STUDY OF ROAD MAINTENANCE

ence and knowledge of previous work which was very valua-
ble, and which tended to strengthen the growing conviction
that highway agents should have a longer tenure of office than
one year.

B also had had practical experience in working on roads and
knew thereby how a well-surfaced road should be made. A
and B worked together through the year without any divi-
sion of territory or money.

C took about one third of the town for his territory, a cer-
tain portion of the total appropriation being set apart by agree-
ment for his use. By this division an interesting illustration of
both single and double management of roads was presented.
As each proved successful in its way, it would seem to be per-
tinent to call attention here to the elasticity of our present law,
by virtue of which it adapts itself to all sorts of conditions and
personalities.

CRITICISMS

B knew how to make a good road surface. Conditions
favored him in the early spring and he drew considerable
quantities of gravel economically after the snow left and before
the frost came out of the ground. This was spread where
needed and worked into the mud as the frost came out, leaving
as a result a remarkably hard and smooth surface. The best
example of this work may be seen upon a hill on our main
thoroughfare. The agent for the previous year had made
an excellent and much needed beginning by drawing clay
to reshape the road which here was practically washed out.
The gravel which B put on in the spring was incorporated
with the clay, making an extremely hard and durable surface,
which was smooth through the summer, came out dry and hard
in a remarkably muddy spring which followed, and has with-
stood the wash of heavy rains in an exceptionally wet season
since. It is possible that some such combination of clay and
good gravel will furnish the coming road for many sections of
our state. It appears especially adapted to withstand wash-
ing on our hills, and when thoroughly underdrained remains
dry and hard in the spiing. The incorporation of clay and
gravel in the spring seems to be unusually thorough and there-

CRITICISMS 79

tore desirable. The same result may frequently be accom-
plished at less cost by drawing gravel late in the fall, or by
sled in the winter. In the latter case a double handling is
generally necessary, which is not usually economical.

As a whole, A and B did not pay sufficient and prompt at-
tention to little things. Such gullies as existed for months in
numerous places on our main roads should have been filled up
within a week of their formation. All catch basins should have
been kept clear, and water should not have been allowed to
run down the middle of the road on hills, while loose stones
should have been picked up. Prompt attention to inexpensive
details through the season will make and save more dollars
than anything else. People enjoy riding over a smooth road.
For best method of securing this attention to details, see
44 Highway laws," page 85.

If any great mistake was made in C's district it was the
very natural and exceedingly common one of expecting to do
more than could possibly be done with the money at hand, and
consequently finding that the money would not hold out to go
round. This error is quite excusable in the case of a zealous
worker who takes up the business for the first time, as was the
case here. It resulted, however, in an undue expenditure of
money upon the roads first repaired, while others which in
some respects needed it most had to suffer. It should be stated,
however, that the main road through one half the district was
put in fine condition and kept so through the season.

Another criticism, applicable, however, to the work of all
three agents, was the method of use of the road machine in
many places. Doing too much for mere smoothing and too
little for the repairs really needed, it frequently created a
nuisance by stirring up the traveled way and leaving it rough
with sods, stone, etc. For details of what ought to have been
done see " Road machines," page 81.

During the year considerable permanent work was accom-
plished, such as relaying the abutment of a bridge, rebuilding
numerous large and small culverts, and improving the grade in
several places, thus setting an excellent example for other
towns to follow. In an average year with a fair appropriation,
some permanent work always ought to be done. On the whole,

So STUDY OF ROAD MAINTENANCE

the roads of the town were distinctly improved as the result of
the year's work.

C kept his accounts in a model manner. A pocket note-
hook showed at a glance, at any time, just what work had been
done, with all amounts due on the same. It would be well
if there were more such clear accounts of our public business
in existence.

A and B kept their accounts well in hand, and knew —
largely by memory — about what their outstanding bills were
from time to time. They had, however, the usual horror of
all book accounts outside of a single casli statement stating
what had been paid out. Where business has to be done
upon a credit basis, as is the case usually in road construction
for at least six months of the year, attention to outstanding ac-
counts is imperative. It should be the business of some one to
keep a record of all work done and every article bought, and
report the same to headquarters systematically, not depending
upon bills brought in after months have elapsed since service
was rendered.

As a result of the special study of the roads of Durham, and
of other roads for many years, the writer desires to add a few
thoughts on each of several subjects.

ROAD SURFACING

Proximity to almost any kind of a gravel bank seems to be
the most frequent controling element in deciding what material
shall be used for surfacing. This gravel may be good, bad. or
indifferent for its purpose, and the road follows suit, but the
gravel is used all the same. While it is true that very excel-
lent results may be attained by a proper admixture of even
pure sand with a heavy clay soil, it does not follow that the
sand alone would make a good surfacing material. I find a
quite general disposition to use a gravel with too much sand in
its composition. With heavy soils, at certain seasons, it pro-
duces fair results, but usually before it can become properly
incorporated it is washed to the bottom of the hill or into the
side ditches. Surfacing material is too costly to throw away
in this manner. In all cases, the coarser material is more

ROAD MACHINES 8l

durable and makes a harder surface, and at anywhere near
the same cost should be preferred. Many times I have seen
teamsters pass over the coarser gravel in a gravel bank because
the finer shoveled easier. The incorporation of somewhat uni-
form stony gravel with clay on a well-drained foundation gives
a surface in some respects superior to macadam.

ROAD MACHINES

Road machines are adapted to the work of the quick and
economical removal of earth from the sides to the middle of
roads, and they are excellent for smoothing up a rutted road,
provided the blade of the machine is inclined backward instead
of forward, as in common use. I will only speak of the former
use. If it is necessary to remove earth to the centre from the
sides, the road machine may be profitably used, but it is not
always desirable to do this to a road. A road surface should
be hard, smooth, and properly shaped. Months of travel are
frequently necessary to consolidate the material on a road sur-
face. This should not be ruthlessly torn up or covered with
sods and sand each year, for the sake of making people think
that something is being done. In ordinary cases, outside of
villages, we cannot obtain grade in any way so cheaply or well
as by the employment of a road machine, but when a piece of
road is once taken in hand, a thorough job should be done.

The road should be properly shaped clear to the side ditches,
and then covered with sufficient good gravel to smooth over
and bind together the sods, sand, stones, etc., brought in from
the ditches. In any country town raising on the average $25
or more per mile, I would not use a road machine upon a main
thoroughfare without following with the cart to cover sods,
stones, etc., with good surfacing material. If I could not do
a whole road one year, I would do the worst places first, espe-
cially the hills, rounding them up and obtaining as hard a sur-
face as possible. I would leave the completion of the work
for the following year. Thereafter, with the occasional excep-
tion of repairing damages by freshets, etc., I would keep the
road machine largely at home, doing enough each year, and
each season of the year, with the cart, or simply with the

82 STUDY OF ROAD MAINTENANCE

shovel, to hold the road where it has heen placed. On level
or nearly level ground, this work will be found very slight,
provided only a good surfacing material is available and the
traffic is not of the largest amount or heaviest kind. The con-
stant passage of stone and other heavy teams is very trying even
to a good road.

Hills, particularly steep ones, require constant attention and
expenditure ; hence a strong argument in favor of permanently
cutting down grades.

The shape of the road-bed is important. Usually one of two
extremes in using the road machine is met with. Either the
operator is afraid of cutting down the hips of a road, and so
leaves a ditch on each side inside the main ditch, which very
commonly results disastrously, especially on hills; or else the
hips are cut entirely down, leaving a steep, rounded shoulder
which narrows up the way, exposes the surface to unnecessary
wash, is fi'equently positively dangerous for passing teams, and
allows the road, in homely phrase, to squat out at the sides.
The surface should be a straight line from the centre to the
side ditches, with a suitable grade to each side adapted to the
longitudinal grade of the road, being more crowning as the hill
is steeper. If the hips are' in the way, cut them down just
enough for the grade and no more. Be sure to carry the
grade straight from centre to inner edge of ditch ; frequently
to bottom of ditch when elevation of road-bed or drainage does
not require an extra depth to these appendages.

HIGHWAY LAWS THE OLD AND THE NEW

During the recent session of the legislature of New Hamp-
shire, an effort was made to return to the old district sys-
tem of highway management. This attempt failed, but was
supported by many of the rural communities because of dis-
satisfaction with the working of certain features of the new
law. As both the old and the new laws are very generally
understood, it will not be necessary to quote them entire in
commenting upon certain portions of them here.

There were two features of the old law, so frequently vicious
in their practical working, that it is doubtful if it were wise
for any town to readopt them. One of these, viz. : the clause

HIGHWAY LAWS — THE OLD AND THE NEW 83

allowing taxes to be worked out in labor, has been frequently
discussed, and that with varying expressions of opinion.

The other, which made the district the unit for raising high-
way money, and in general for expending it, was, at times
even more vicious in practice, and, what is more, its evil' was
not generally recognized. Let us examine the practical work-
ing of these two features of the old law. Under the first, the
district highway surveyor was at the mercy of his employes,
who many times would work only when it was convenient,
and as they chose, frequently not working at all. Shrewd
men, not desiring to work out their own taxes, sold the
privilege to their neighbors for so much on the dollar. If
coaxing failed to secure the tax in some form, other means,
though lawful, were rarely resorted to. In short, the tendency
of this part of the law was evil, and if it had not been for an-
other excellent and restraining feature, would long ago have
proved unbearable. Again, the district was the unit, and, as
a rule, taxes were assigned to the districts where they were
assessed. A special effort had to be made, and therefore was
rarely made, to take money from one district into another.
If important roads in some poor district were going to pieces
the selectmen would allow the surveyor money raised for gen-
eral town purposes to help him out rather than offend other
districts by withdrawing what they were accustomed to look
upon as their own. Quite a number of back country towns,
with large road mileage, find it a serious burden to raise
$15 per mile of road per year; $25 to $30 is perhaps a
fair average of our country towns. A few come up to
the limit allowed by law of $50 per mile. Our cities,
acting under charters, may expend several hundred dollars per
mile of road and still not be taxed at nearly as high a rate as
the small town which raises the $15. While the expense per
mile for construction and maintenance increases rapidly with
the larger traffic of the village or city street, this increase is
nowhere near in proportion to that in resources. There is no
difficulty whatever in convincing any fair-minded person that
money ought to be taken from these large centres and expended
upon the roads in the country towns, and the demand for
this is just. It is one of the fundamental arguments in favor of

Sj. STUDY OF ROAD MAINTENANCE

some state system of highway construction. Frequently,
however, when we ask the individual, who formerly lived in
a favored highway district, with taxes in many cases not more
than half worked out, to apply the same principle to his own
town, he does not look at it in the same light, but will be
found calling: for a return to the old law. I have talked with
numerous men, most of whom were well-informed and intend-
ed to be fair-minded and just, who have complained bitterly
because the new road law took away so much of their highway
tax. On further inquiry, I have found in several instances
that such parties had been living in some of these favored dis-
tricts that had been kept up at the expense of other portions
of their towns. It will take a generation to fully outgrow the
effects of this system, and meantime every reasonable effort
should be made to clearly set forth the unfairness of any law
which practically would require the expenditure of highway
taxes in the districts in which they are assessed.

Let us turn now and look for some of the better features of the
old law. I do not hesitate to say that the best feature — that
which mitigated, and perhaps in many instances entirely sup-
pressed, the general tendency to evil, was that which gave us the
district unit for the expenditure of highway money. Let it be
clearly understood that I do not mean the district system for
raising money. The town itself is too small a unit for this pur-
pose, but it is the best we can obtain at present. The old law
went too far in expending all the money by the district plan,
but experience has proved that the people desire to have some
one in each neighborhood who has authority and a reasonable
amount of money for making all the ordinary small repairs as
they are needed throughout the season.

Let us consider for a few moments what an ideal system of
road maintenance within a town would be. Without doubt, it
would consist in the selection, possibly by the board of select-
men, of a practical road builder, who should devote his entire
time to a study of the needs of the town and to the superin-
tendence of all the work done. This is the method adopted in
the city and in a few of the largest towns. It is not applicable
to the country. In many, many towns the total money raised
for roads would not pay the salary of a man who was skilled in

HIGHWAY LAWS — THE OLD AND THE NEW 85

road construction and maintenance. The ideal system, then,
is out of the question. Evidently, therefore, we should seek
the aid of that man in town who hest understands the problems
involved ; who is practical in carrying out his ideas, and who
is willing to devote some of his time to the public without ex-
pecting to make a business for himself out of it.

How best can such a man be found? Some say by appoint-
ment of selectmen ; others by election. I will not pretend to
answer this question. In the long run, I would quite as soon
trust the people as the wisdom of a board, though not always
by any means. In any case, after appointment, he should
have the selection of sub-agents ; should have the power to
remove them for cause, and preferably, should be allowed to
arrange the several districts under the limitations of the law
which should require the appointment of such sub-agents with
jurisdiction covering not more than four miles of road each.
Monthly statements by each sub- agent of all work done should
be required, payment for same being conditioned upon the
presentation of such reports within a specified time. All large
repairs, including necessary running of road machine, extensive
repairs to bridges and culverts, gravelling sections of road,
grading hills, etc., should be done only under direct supervi-
sion of road agent or by his special order.

The great advantage claimed for this system is that a partial
application of it has worked well in practice. In short, the
salvation of the old law was the small district in which the sur-
veyor had a personal interest and pride, and which in many
instances impelled him and those working with him to work
with extra fidelity, and in many cases extra time to get the
roads into suitable condition. Lack of supervision, however,
and power to concentrate a portion of the funds in special dis-
tricts, prevented all extensive improvements under the old law.
Under the new, there is nothing to hinder the appointment of
sub-agents, but practically this has been largely prevented ;
(1) by the election of three highway agents in each town.
With only one third the money to expend, most agents have
been unwilling to divide the money further by sharing with
sub-agents this expenditure. (2) Even when one agent has
been given a whole town, he has usually felt it his duty to

S6 STUDY OF ROAD MAINTENANCE

personally superintend about all the work done. This has fre-
quently caused delay in attending to needed repairs, and often
entailed needless expense on account of distance traveled,
particularly when so few of those elected road agents have
been specially fitted for their work. Under these circum-
stances, the people have been uneasy and jealous of the ab-
sorption of so large a per cent, of the road money by a single
individual and frequent changes in the personnel of the office
have been the rule.

An amendment to our present law which would limit the
number of highway agents to one, and which would compel
this one to appoint an average of not less than one sub-agent
for each four miles of road, with other limitations already indi-
cated, and with permission to towns to adopt this amendment
or not as they chose (it might not be advisable for a few of the
larger towns) would do more to popularize the present law
than anything else I could suggest, and would restore us in im-
proved form that feature of the old law which in the present
state of evolution of road construction and repair, is about the
only one worth preserving. The recent amendment placing
the highway agents under the selectmen seems liable to be of
doubtful utility. While it may in some instances prove a
needed restraint, is there not danger of unnecessary friction
in placing one set of elective officers absolutely over another
with whose appointment or discharge they have nothing to do?
The selectmen should by law be compelled to thoroughly audit
the accounts, including all outstanding accounts, of road agents
at least every three months, and not a dollar should be allowed
them above what has been voted. In emergencies arising after
road money is expended, necessary repairs should be made di-
rectly by the selectmen. The great objection to the present law
arises from the concentration of so much power and patronage
in so few hands, when those elected have so little fitness for the
work, and merely use the office to draw as much money as pos-
sible into the pockets of their families and themselves.

No law should define too closely the duties of the sub-agent.
He should be under the highway agent and amenable to him.
The law should imply a wise, general but inexpensive super-
vision by the chief. It might be expected to work in practice

HIGHWAY LAWS THE OLD AND THE NEW 87

something as follows: With an ordinary or even weak man at
the head it would amount to a division of the money among
districts, with the advantage of a distribution each year accord-
ing to the needs of the several parts of the town. With a
strong1 man at the helm the work would be systematized and
co-ordinated, and real progress would be possible. In any
case, as the sub-agents would be appointees of the highway
agent, and presumably his friends, they would to some extent
assist and restrain, while being in a state of mind open to con-
viction as to practicability of new methods suggested by their
chief. In this way progressive views would make rapid
progress, and we should have growing up in each district
men who were really competent to manage the roads of a
whole town.

A good highway agent should be allowed more than one year
of service. In three years he ought to prove what was in him.
Under the limitations above suggested it would be reasonably
safe to require a two-thirds vote to proceed to the election of a
highway agent on each of the two years following the election
of such agent. Otherwise he might hold his place unmolested.

Finally, we should strive to perfect the present law rather
than work backwards. The strong point in its favor, as it
Stands, is its elasticity. Under it a town can have the best sys-
tem if it elects the right man, but this very elasticity has proved
a strong temptation to selfish men to use the office for their
own advantage, and therefore I feel that some amendment
restricting or distributing the power is advisable. Until it is
amended we may perhaps wisely use our influence with our
agents to experiment in some of the directions I have outlined.

PUBLIC OPINION ON HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE

On the whole, it is my judgment that people in country
towns expect too much of highway agents. Unable or unwil-
ling to pay the price of skilled labor, and usually unwilling to
allow any one person to remain in office long enough to learn
by experience, our citizens often think that if only they could
take hold a different showing would be made. When they try
it, they find it is not easy to make a great advance with from
$15 to $40 per mile of road. I am sure that the number in

S8 STUDY OF ROAD MAINTENANCE

any one town, who are competent to expend our road money, is
quite limited, though, with all our faults, we make a better
showing in economy than the cities. Some who are competent
will not bother with the business. With all these drawbacks,
it is not strange that numerous false moves are made.

The lack of sub-agents to properly present the needs of each
small district, together with the meager records in our town
reports of work done, leads many honest citizens living in
neglected districts, or in those where the necessary amount of
work is small, to conclude that very little work has been done
anywhere. As a result, combinations are frequently made to
elect men to represent new sections the following year. In
this way many come to think that they have been specially
elected to put their own districts in order, which they im-
mediately proceed to do, looking after their own personal
interests while they have the opportunity. Of course such a
spirit is detrimental to the interests of a town. The appoint-
ment of sub-agents would remove much of this trouble.
Moreover, great gain would result from the concentration of
public opinion upon some broad-minded man of good judg-
ment in selecting assistants ; having the ability to work through
these agents, while holding them to a strict accountability ; a
person to whom this work would be incidental, and not the
main source of livelihood ; preferably one who had no team
that he desired employed a large portion of the time.

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