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Agricultural Experiment Station
VOLUME IX
BOTANICAL
of the
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
Publications
>
consisting of
BULLETINS 85-95
ANNUAL REPORTS 1918-1921
TIMELY HINTS FOR FARMERS 136-139
AND
EXPERIMENT STATION CIRCULARS 33-41
Tucson, Arizona, 1918-1921
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GOVERXIXG BOARD
(REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY)
Ex-Officio
HIS EXCELLENCY, THE GOVERNOR OF ARIZONA
THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION
Appointed by the Governor of the State
EPES RANDOLPH, Chancellor Tucson
ESTMER W. HUDSON, Tempe
JAMES G. CdMPToN, Secretary Tucson
JOHN H. CAMPBELL, LL.M., Treasurer Tucson
WILLIAM SCARLETT, A.B., B.D Phoenix
TIMOTHY A. RIORDAN Flagstaff
EDMUND WELLS Prescott
LOUIS D. RICKETTS, ScD., LL.D Warren
RUFUS B. VON KLEINSMID, A.M., D..Sc., J.D President of the University
D. W. WORKING, B.Sc, A.M Dean College of Agriculture, Direct )r
♦ROBERT H. FORBES. Ph.!) : Kosearch SiMcialist
JOHN J. TIIoRNDER, A.M Botaui.st
ALBERT E. VINSON, I'h.D Agricultural Chemist
GEORGE E. P. SMITH, B.S., C.E Irrigation Engineer
RICHARD H. WILLIAMS, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
WALTER S. CUNNINGHAM, B.S Dairv Husbandman
CHARLES T. VORHIES, Ph.D ■...Entomologist
WALKER E. BRYAN, M.S Plant Breeder
GEORGE E. THOMPSON, B.S.A Agronomist
FRANKLIN J. CRIDER, M.S Horticulturist
JAMES G. BROWN, M.S Pl.nnt Patholosrist
tFRANClS R. KENNEY, B.S.A Poultry Husbandman
ROYAL B. THOMPSON. B.S.A I'ouJtrv Husbandman
tHEBER H. GIBSON, A.M Professor of Agr-rulturnl Education
CLIFFORD N. CATLIN, A.M ^...Associate Agricultural Chemist
WILLIAM E. CODE, B.S. C.E Assistant Irrigation Engineer
ALLEN F. KINNISON, B.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
RALPH S. HAW^KINS, B.S.A Assistant Agronomist
HAROLD C. SCHWALEN, B.S Assistant Irrigation Engineer
ELIAS H. PRESSLEY, B.S Assistant Plant Breeder
STANLEY P. CLARK, B.S Assistant Agronomist
RICHARD N. DAVIS, B.S Assistant Dairy Husbandman
DAVID W. ALBERT. B.S Assistant Horticulturist
ERNEST B. STANLEY, B.S , Assistant Animal Husbandman
tSTUART W. GRIFFIN. M.S Assistant Agricultural Chemist
tWILLlAxM E. SCHNEIDER, B.S Instructor in Animal Husbandrj-
ETHEL N. IKENBERRY, B.S Secretary College of Agriculture
iF. H. SIMMONS ;Foreman, Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station
C. J. WOOD Foreman, Salt River Vallev Experiment Farm
T. L. STAPLEY Foreman, Tempe Date Orchard
CARL CLARK, B.S. Foreman, Prescott Dry-Farm
M. H. WOODY Foreman, Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm
LESLIE BEATY, B.S Foreman. Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station
J. R. REED Foreman, University Farm
*tJn leave.
[■Resigned.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME JX
Page
Bulletin No. 85 — March 1, 1918. A Study oi" M.\rketing Conditions in the
S.-\LT River Valley, Akizon.v, J. H. Collins.
Bulletin No. 86 — October 30, 1918. IM.\chine-Made Cement Pipe for Irri-
gation Systems and Other Purposes, G. E. P. Smith 71
Bulletin No. 87 — December, 1918. Insect Pests of Interest to Arizona Cot-
ton Growers, A. W. Morrill 173
Bulletin No. 88 — May 15. 1919. Use -and Waste of Irrigation Water,
G. E. P. Smith 207
Bulletin No. 89— August 15, 1919. The Yuma Mesa, A. E. Vinson, F. J.
Critler, and G. E. hompson 225
Bulletin No. 90 — December, 1919. Growing Cotton in Arizona, G. E.
Thompson and C. J. Wood 267
TwentA'-ninth Annual Report, Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1918:
Financial statement, report of operations by Dr. R. B. von
KleinSmid, Acting Director ; reports from the departments
by the Staff 277
Bulletin No. 91 — Fattening Native Steers for Market: 1920, R. H. Williams 359
Bulletin No. 92 — September, 1920. The Supply, the Price, and the Qual-
ity of Fuel Oils for Pump Irrigation, G. E. P. Smith 397
Thirtieth Annual Report, Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1919:
Financial statement, report of operations, Director D. W.
Working ; reports from the departments by the Staff 397
Thirty-first Annual Report, Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1920 :
Financial statement, report of operations. Director D. W.
Working ; reports from the departments by the Staff 42.T
Bulletin No. 93 — August, 1921. Feeding Cotton Seed and Cotton Seed Prod-
ucts TO Range Steers, E. B. Stanley 485
Bulletin No. 94— January, 1922. The Olive in Arizona, F. J. Crider 493
Bulletin No. 95 — February 25. 1922. The Colorado River and Arizona's In-
terest IN its Development, G. E. P. Smith 529
Thirty-second Annual Report, Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1921 :
Financial statement, report of operations. Director D. W.
Working; reports from the departments by the Staff 547
Note : Therel is a duplication of paging in Bulletin 92 and in the Thirtieth and
Thirty-first Annual Reports.
UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 85
ASTUDY OF MARKETING
CONDITIONS
in the
SALT RIVER VALLEY.
ARIZONA
By J. H. COLLINS,
Investigator in Market Surveys, Bureau of Markets, United States
Department of Agriculture
University of Arizona and U. S. Department of Agriculture
Co-operating.
Tucson, Arizona, March i, 1918.
UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
GOVERNING BOARD
(REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY)
Ex-Officio
HIS EXCELLENCY, THE GOVERNOR OF ARIZONA
THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION
Appointed by the Governor of the State
WILLIAM V. WHITMORE, A. M.. M. D Chancellor
RUDOLPH RASMESSEN Treasurer
WILLIAM J. BRYAN, JR., A. B Secretary
WILLIAM SCARLETT. A. B., B. D Regent
JOHN P. ORME Regent
E. TITCOMB Regent
JOHN W. FLINN Regent
CAPTAIN J. P. HODGSON Regent
RUFUS B. VON KLEINSMID, A. M., Sc. D President of the University
Agricultural Staff
ESTES P. TAYLOR, B. S. Agr Assistant Dean and Director of Extension
.JOHN J. THORNBER, A. M Botanist
ALBERT E. VINSON, Ph. D Biochemist
CLIFFORD N. CATLIN, A. M Assistant Chemist
GEORGE E. P. SMITH, C. E Irrigation Engineer
FRANK C. KELTON, M. S Assistant Engineer
GEORGE F. FREEMAN, Sc. D Plant Breeder
WALKER E. BRYAN, M. S Assistant Plant Breeder
STEPHEN B. JOHNSON, B. S Assistant Horticulturist
RICHARD H. WILLIAMS, Ph. D Animal Husbandman
WALTER S. CUNNINGHAM, B. S Assistant Animal Husbandman
HERMAN C. HEARD, B. S. Agr Assistant Agronomist
AUSTIN W. MORRILL, Ph. D Consulting Entomologist
CHARLES T. VORHIES, Ph. D Zoologist
LELAND S. PARKE, B. S State Leader Boys' and Girls' Clubs
AGNES A. HUNT Assistant State Leader Boys' and Girls' Clubs
MARY PRITNER LOCKWOOD, B. S
State Leader Home Demonstration Agents
IMOGENE NEELY County Home Demonstration Agent, Maricopa County
HAZEL ZIMMERMAN
County Home Demonstration Agent, Southeast Counties
CHARLES R. ADAMSON, B. S County Agent, Cochise County
LEO L. LAYTHE, B. S County Agent Pima-Pinal Counties
CHARLES R. FILLERUP County Agent, Navajo-Apache Counties
ALANDO B. BALLANTYNE, B. S County Agent, Graham-Greenlee Counties
"W. A. BARR, B. S County Agent, Maricopa County
W. A. BAILEY, B. S County Agent, Yuma County
DeLORE NICHOLS, B. S County Agent, Coconino County
HESTER L. HUNTER Secretary Extension Service
FRANCES M. WELLS Secretary Agricultural Experiment Station
The Experiment Station offices and laboratories are located in the Uni-
versity Buildings at Tucson. The new Experiment Station Farm is situated
one mile west of Mesa, Arizona. The date palm orchards are three miles south
of Tempe (cooperative, U. S. D. A.), and one mile southwest of Yuma, Ari-
zona, respectively. The experimental dry-farms are near Cochise and Pres-
cott, Arizona.
Visitors are cordially invited, and correspondence receives careful atten-
tion.
The Bulletins, Timely Hints, and Reports of this Station will be sent free
to all who apply. Kindly notify us of errors or changes in address, and send
in the names of persons who may find our publications useful.
Address, THE EXPERIMENT STATION,
Tucson, Arizona,
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 5
Geography and Topography - 7
CHmatic Conditions 9
Soil Conditions H
Transportation FaciUties - 1 1
Land Values I3
Storage Facilities I4
Industries Allied with Agriculture I5
Specific Marketing Problems i8
Grain i8
Alfalfa 21
Dairy Products 25
Cotton 29
Cantaloupes 3^
Honey 42
Fruit 43
Livestock 49
Potatoes 51
Lettuce 53
Miscellaneous 5"
The Marketing Problem as a Whole 59
Present and Future Outlets 59
General Problems and Difficulties 62
General Remedial Measures 66
Conclusions 69
ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. I Pima Cotton at the Tempe Gin, Salt River Valley....Frontispiece
Fig. 2 Poorly Graded Alfalfa Hay 23
Fig. 3 A Substantial Factor in the Newer Dairy Industry 28
Fig 4 Loading Cantaloupes at Glendale 39
Fig. 5 A Typical New Citrus Development on the North Side of
the Salt River Project 44
Fig. 6 Bearing Date Palms in the Tempe Orchard 58
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A STUDY OF MARKETING
CONDITIONS
m the
SALT RIVER VALLEY, ARIZONA
By J. H. Collins,
Investigator in Market Surveys, Bureau of Markets, United States
Department of Agriculture.
INTRODUCTION
That portion of Maricopa County, Arizona, known as the Salt
River Valley, since the completion of the Roosevelt Dam in 191 1, has
enjoyed a position of considerable prominence among irrigated dis-
tricts of the Far West. It would appear that a commercial study of
the agriculture of this area should be of major importance to those in-
terested in western irrigation agriculture. The investigation outlined
in this report while ostensibly embracing Maricopa County in its en-
tirety has been confined for obvious reasons to the intensively farmed
district within the County. Since more than four-fifths of the irrigated
area lies in the Valley of the Salt River, it has seemed advisable to
refer to the entire area under consideration as the Salt River Valley.
This decision has been strengthened by a realization of the fact that
this terminology carries a greater significance outside the State of
Arizona, where persons who have heard of this Valley do not readily
connect it in their minds with the less well known County of which
it is a part. The irrigated area lying below the confluence of the Salt
and Gila Rivers known as the Buckeye and Arlington Valleys, together
with scattered areas in outlying portions of the district, comprising a
total of about 30,000 acres, are often considered as not belonging to
the Salt River Valley proper. The distinction, however, is a rather
fine one, and since the agriculture of these areas belongs essentially to
the entire district it has seemed best to avoid confusion by ignoring
unnecessary distinctions. The term Salt River Valley as used in this
bulletin refers to all lands which, because of topographical relations,
would naturally be a part of the entire Valley and should be dis-
tinguished from the Salt River Project whose lands constitute only a.
6 Bulletin 85
portion of the Salt River Valley and are watered exclusively from
irrigation works constructed by the United States Government.
Several interesting economic conditions make a study of market-
ing conditions in the Salt River Valley a matter of keen interest to the
student of the commercial side of agriculture. This compact and
fertile Valley affords an excellent study of a clearly defined agricultural
unit. Surrounded on all sides by desert and with no similar area of
any consequence within more than 200 miles, the Salt River Valley is
practically an independent unit. Another important fact is that for the
area embraced, this Valley has a more diversified form of agriculture
than can be found in most other areas of like size. Records compiled
for the years 1916 and 1917 show that more than 16 crops were pro-
duced with aggregate acreages exceeding 500 acres each. This classi-
fication takes no recognition of the varied nature of the livestock in-
terests of the Valley and does not take into consideration other forms
of agricultural wealth. The farms of the Salt River Valley are tilled
by farmers from all parts of the world. Many of these farmers are
comparatively recent additions to the population of the Valley and
hence the communal and commercial interests of the producers have
not yet become fused so that community action is the regular and ac-
cepted procedure. Then, too, it must be remembered that the com-
mercial problem has only recently come to the front as such. In this
respect the Salt River Valley differs materially from many of the
irrigated districts of California. The latter state has long been a
region of surplus production and the problem of finding an outlet for
products not saleable locally has been for some time a pressing one
for the California grower. The result has been that many of Califor-
nia's problems have been worked out through years of experience,
and most of the older communities in that state have established a
proper commercial procedure. This procedure is now in the formative
stage in Arizona.
While irrigation by white settlers in the Salt River Valley dates
back to about 1867, the district is comparatively new in commercial
development. The advent of Federal assistance in 1902-1904 marked
the beginning of the present regime in the Valley. The Roosevelt Dam
was completed in 191 1. and at that late date came the emergence of
the Salt River Valley as an established region of surplus production,
together with the problems attending such a changed condition.
Many of the newer order of farmers came from the humid dis-
tricts of the East and Middle West and found themselves facing con-
Introduction — Geography and Topography 7
ditions with which they had had httle or no previous experience. The
period of expansion immediately following the opening of the Gov-
ernment Project was largely a period of rearrangement so far as agri-
cultural plans and activities were concerned. The natural questions
which first arose in the minds of \'^alley farmers concerned themselves
with the most profitable form of agriculture to be adopted. Fertile
soils and excellent climatic conditions have operated to give full sway
to a period of what might be termed experimental research on the part
of producers and State and Federal experiment stations. Having thor-
oughly established the fact that a great range of activity is permitted
under natural conditions, it has been gradually becoming more apparent
that future profits must lie in a coordination of activities and a system-
atizing of the entire agriculture of the Valley. The present era is
therefore one of readjustment and to that extent has made a commer-
cial study of interest and importance.
This study of marketing conditions was made during the crop
season of 191 7 and the recommendations made in this bulletin and the
conclusions reached have to do with conditions as they exist. It has
been necessary in some cases to overstep the boundaries of a survey
devoted purely to marketing problems. It often has been found im-
possible to segregate the financial and commercial problems from other
factors which have entered into a consideration of the farmers' returns
for products sold. There has been, therefore, no attempt to eliminate
those extraneous matters which at first glance might not appear per-
tinent to the value of the work. A commercial viewpoint of the entire
problem has necessitated a complete survey of the field.
Geography and Topography In view of the fact that the geo-
graphical location of Maricopa County and the internal arrangement
of the irrigated territory within this County have a bearing on the
commercial phases of agriculture, it seems best briefly to review these
conditions.
Reference to a map will show that Maricopa County is located in
the south-central part of Arizona. The irrigated areas which col-
lectively constitute the Salt River Valley, range in altitude from about
950 feet to 1250 feet. The average altitude is about iioo feet.
The main body of irrigated land is irregularly oblong in shape and
extends from the Agua Fria River on the west to the Eastern Canal
which lies east of Gilbert and Chandler. The approximate total length
of this oblong district is about 36 miles, while its average width is
8 Bulletin 85
about 12 miles. Another strip of land lying below the confluence of
the Salt and Gila Rivers with an average width of three miles and
extending foi about 20 miles along the Gila River constitutes the
Buckeye and Arlington Valleys. The main body of irrigated land is
roughly divided into two nearly equal parts by the Salt River. Phoenix,
the commercial center of this territory is also the geographical center
of the irrigated district. The entire district may be divided arbitrarily
into several groups based on sources of water supply. The Salt River
Project comprises an area of about 205,000 acres, constituting by far
the largest individual unit in the V^alley. Another area of about 21,000
acres lying immediately south and west of Tempe also receives water
from canals constructed by the Government, but the land owners in
this territory are not members of the Salt River Valley Water Users'
Association. Their water supply is based on old water rights existing
before the inauguration of the Salt River Project. Water is brought
to this land by Project canals, the land owners through a co-operative
association paying a certain annual rental for the use of these Project
canals. Another district of about 2500 acres lying north and east of
Mesa and known locally as the Lehi District is also watered from Project
canals on approximately the same basis as are the lands operated under
the Tempe rights. It thus will be seen that a total of about 230,000
acres consisting of (i) the Salt River Project, (2) lands operated
under the Tempe rights, and (3) the Lehi District, are all irrigated
from water impounded by the Roosevelt Dam and furnished through
canals constructed by the Government. The Buckeye and Arlington
districts referred to in a previous paragraph, together comprise about
20,000 acres and are watered from the Gila River. As a matter of fact,
a large portion of the waters flowing through the channel of the Gila
River in this territory consists of seepage and surplus waters from the
irrigation of the larger Valley above and does not really constitute the
normal flow of the Gila River from regular sources. An area which
lies in the delta between the New River and the Agua Fria, and north-
west of the Salt River Project is known as the Marinette District. This
land derives its water supply from the flood waters of the Agua Fria
supplemented by water pumped from wells during periods when the
gravity flow is not sufficient adequately to supply this territory. A
scattered acreage which lies southeast of the Salt River Project in the
vicinity of Higley, comprising an aggregate acreage of about 2000 acres,
is watered by pumps. A recent development immediately south of
Chandler has brought about 5000 acres under irrigation through the
Introduction — Climatic Conditions 9
installation of pumping machinery. An additional acreage is being re-
claimed in this district. It will be noticed that by far the greater part
of the farm land is irrigated from the gravity flow and that pumping
or supplementary pumping cares for a relatively small percentage of
the total area being farmed.
There seems to be no particular specialization of crops in any of
the above mentioned districts which collectively constitute the Salt
River Valley. However, a study of crop conditions for the season of
191 7 leads to the conclusion that for reasons other than the arbitrary
division of territory according to water supply, there is a rather ill
defined specialization. For instance, it is found that while alfalfa hay
is shipped in commercial quantities from all points in the Valley, there
is a more pronounced development of this particular industry on the
south side of the Salt River Project. Shipments from the towns of
Mesa, Gilbert and Chandler constitute more than 50% of the total
hay shipments from Maricopa County. Citrus and deciduous fruits
while produced in scattered acreages over the entire Valley are pro-
duced more extensively on the higher lands of the north side. In a
strip of territory extending from Glendale to Scottsdale and lying near
the Arizona Canal, we find the greater portion of the fruit development
in the Salt River Valley. Cantaloupes are produced in fairly restricted
areas around Glendale, Mesa and Phoenix. Long staple cotton, while
universally grown throughout the entire territory, probably finds its
greatest development on the south side. The grain acreage is scat-
tered but there is a more or less marked consolidation of the grain
producing territory in the western part of the north side and on the
south side in the vicinity of Tempe. Alfalfa seed production is largely
confined to the Buckeye Valley. Potatoes are grown in commercial
quantities only in the western and northwestern sections of the north
side. Watermelons are produced around Phoenix and Glendale. All
this crop specialization, however, has very little to do with the arbitrary
division of the territory according to water supply. Climatic and soil
conditions in most cases have been the deciding factors in the cropping
scheme.
Climatic Conditions The climate of the Salt River Valley is
marked by extremes in both the daily and annual range of temperatures
with very little rainfall and a small amount of humidity. The sum-
mers are long and hot while the winters are mild and dry with only
occasional freezing temperatures. Records of the Weather Bureau at
Phoenix show that an average of 267 days in the year receives more
lO BULLKTIN 85
than 80 per cent of the possible amount of sunshine. Data compiled by
the Phoenix office of the Weather Bureau shows that for the period
from 1905 to 1916 the lowest recorded temperature was 16° while the
highest was 117°.
The growing season is longer than in almost any other irrigated
district. Reports of the United States Weather Bureau show that the
growing season, that is, the season between killing frosts, is approxi-
mately ten months at Phoenix.
There is a fairly wide variation in extreme winter temperatures in
certain portions of the Valley. The areas having the highest altitudes
lying near the foothills are of course less subject to frost. In fact, the
frost risk in certain of these favorably located districts is so small that
citrus groves have been a decided commercial success. There is no
area in the entire Valley which can be considered as strictly frost proof
but the risk in what might be termed the citrus belt is not too great for
commercial success. In general, climatic conditions in the Salt River
Valley have admitted of a very great diversification of production. Prac-
tically all of the staple crops which have ever been grown under irri-
gated conditions can be produced in this section successfully. The ex-
treme length of the growing season coupled with the hot summers and
mild winters have permitted the growing of certain important special
crops whose success is dependent upon climatic conditions. There is
perhaps no more favorable location in the United States for the produc-
tion of long staple cotton. Dates bear abundantly and many of the
finer varieties seem to find the Salt River Valley a natural habitat.
Olives, figs and citrus fruits are successful by reason of the compara-
tively mild winters.
An annual rainfall of slightly more than eight inches is distributed
rather irregularly throughout the year, the least occurring in April,
May and June and the heaviest in July. Rains occur occasionally dur-
ing the winter months. The comparatively small rainfall makes it pos-
sible to produce and cure alfalfa hay of excellent color. Occasional
unexpected rains during the spring and early summer months cause
some damage to both hay and grain. It so happens that the rainiest
season of the year is coincident with the harvesting period for canta-
loupes. The problem is not as serious practically as it appears from
casual observation. There have been, however, some decided losses of
melons caused by unwelcome rainfall. A rain during the cantaloupe
picking season may result in many of them cracking open in the field
and considerable quantities of those which appear superficially to be
Introduction — Soil Conditions — Transportation Facilities ii
undamaged do not stand up well under shipment. Rainy periods, even
during the month of July, are usually far enough apart so that most
of the merchantable melons can be safely loaded for market. The dan-
gers of unexpected rain during the summer months have deterred many
apricot and peach growers from attempting to dry any considerable
portion of their output. The condition of the dried fruit market, how-
ever, during the 19 17 season induced many growers to try drying their
fruit and in general the results were satisfactory. It is possible that the
dangers attending such a procedure have been magnified in the minds
of the growers and it is probable that if market conditions warrant
there will be an even greater quantity dried during succeeding seasons.
Soil Conditions There are in general about six types of soils
existing in relatively large areas throughout the agricultural district
in the Salt River Valley. The Maricopa Gravelly Loam lies near the
outskirts of the Project and occurs in largest quantity around Peoria
and along the Arizona Canal in the vicinity of Camelback Mountain.
Most of the citrus development in the Valley occurs on this type of
land. The Maricopa Sandy Loam constitutes the greater portion of
the soil on the south side surrounding Mesa and Gilbert. There is
also a considerable area of this soil on the north side adjoining the
Maricopa Gravelly Loam. A slightly heavier soil known as Glendale
Loess constitutes nearly one-third of the soil area on the north side
of the Salt River Project and lies in the center of the north side. The
Maricopa Loam, a still heavier loam soil, lies in irregular patches
north and west of Phoenix and south of Tempe. A relatively incon-
siderable area of clay loam and some heavy adobe soil which lies
immediately around Phoenix and just south of Tempe constitute the
principal other types of soil in the Valley.
This variation in soil types has been reflected more or less in the
character of the crops produced on those soils and has resulted in some
crop specialization on soil types particularly fitted to certain crops.
For example, most of the commercial potato acreage lies in the lighter
loam soils west of Glendale. The same territory also produces most
of the bean crop of the Valley. Cotton, grain and alfalfa are largely
grown irrespective of soil types, while it appears that dates do well on
■ soil which is too alkaline to produce other crops. There are certain
districts in the Valley having alkaHne soils, but the greater portion of
the Valley is free from this defect.
Transportation Facilities . Present facilities for crop transpor-
tation are adequate, although the Salt River Valley is not reached by the
12 Bulletin 85
main line of any railroad. The Arizona Eastern, which connects with
the main east and west line of the Southern Pacific system at Mari-
copa, and a branch of the Santa Fe System, known as the Santa Fe,
Prescott and Phoenix Railroad, which joins the main line of the Santa
Fe at Ash Fork, Arizona, connect the Valley with outside markets.
While the advantages of a main trunk line are obvious the transporta-
tion problem for this district is not an acute one because of this lack.
The Arizona Eastern Railway being a subsidiary property of the
Southern Pacific Company, and the Santa Fe. Prescott and Phoenix
Railroad being a part of the Santa Fe System, the Salt River Valley
is furnished the same class of service as is furnished elsewhere through-
out the country by these two systems. In so far as concerns the trans-
portation of perishable commodities under refrigeration from distant
markets, the Pacific Fruit Express Company furnishes the necessary
cars for the Arizona Eastern, and the Santa Fe Refrigerator Despatch
Company furnishes the necessary cars for shippers on the Santa Fe,
Prescott and Phoenix Railroad. In its efficiency the service is the
same as that furnished elsewhere in sections served by these refrig-
erator car lines. An interurban electric line 10 miles long extends
from Phoenix to Glendale and traverses an important fruit and truck-
ing belt. Considerable quantities of fruits and vegetables are trans-
ferred from this line to the steam lines at Phoenix and Glendale. The
total railroad mileage within the irrigated district alone is about 100
miles. One principal line enters the Valley at Marinette in the north-
west corner of the main irrigated district and passing through Peoria
and Glendale terminates at Phoenix. The other carrier enters the
irrigated district at a point about 9 miles south of Tempe and also has
a terminus at Phoenix. Branches of the latter road also extend from
Phoenix westward to Hassayampa through the Buckeye Valley and
Eastward through Tempe and Mesa, to points beyond. At Mesa a
further subdivision occurs, one line extending south through Chandler
and passing out of the irrigated territory at the edge of the cotton dis-
trict, while the other branch extends in a southeasterly direction
through Gilbert and leaves the irrigated territory in the vicinity of
Higley. The most remote points in the Valley are about 12 miles frorn
transportation facilities, while the average distance from farm to
loading station is from 4 to 6 miles. There are within the farming
district about 10 billing stations and about 15 non-agency stations, or
a total of about 25 loading points for farm products. Refrigerator
cars are iced at Mesa, Phoenix and Glendale. Icing facilities have
Introduction — Land \'alues 13
been sufficient in the past for refrigerator shipments from Phoenix
and Glendale, but during the 191 7 cantaloupe season icing equipment
at Mesa was taxed to capacity during rush periods.
In so far as the Arizona Eastern Railway is concerned, it never has
a solid train load of cantaloupes ready to move at any one time. It keeps
in touch with the despatcher's force on the main line of the Southern
Pacific and whenever it is possible for an eastbound train to pick up
any cantaloupes at Maricopa, the requisite number of cars are sent
down from Mesa to Maricopa in an "extra" for that purpose.
Freight rates on agricultural products are still more or less in
process of readjustment and although complete tariff schedules are
in effect, there doubtless will be some revision in the future. Surplus
production of certain crops is a relatively new phase of agriculture
in the Salt River \^alley and it may take some time for the carriers to
adjust themselves to changing conditions. There doubtless will be
more favorable commodity rates offered on certain products, notably
potatoes, when the acreage becomes of sufficient importance to con-
stitute a valuable source of income to the railroads.
Land Values In general it may be said that prices for good
farming land in the Salt River Valley are moderate when consideration
is given to the various factors which influence land values. The fertility
of the soil in this territory would naturally have a decided influence
on prices. Another factor which has considerable commercial signifi-
cance is the long growing season. Since the completion of the Roose-
velt Dam, the question of an adequate supply of water for most of the
land in the Valley has been settled, and water-right litigation has been
reduced to a minimum. There has been, of course, a considerable rise
in values since the completion of the Salt River Project. The exten-
sion of the area which could be devoted to the production of citrus
fruits and olives and the success which the long staple cotton growers
have attained during the past season have had a tendency to increase
general farm prices. Irrigated land ready for crop sells at from $100
to $500 per acre. The average price for good land, however, will range
from $150 to $200 per acre. Under the Reclamation Project the water
cost is to be repaid the Government on liberal time arrangements. It
will be seen from this statement that livestock production, dairy farm-
ing, and general farming can be successfully carried on without the
necessity for carrying too heavy an overhead charge for land rentals.
It seems altogether likely that livestock production, dairying and gen-
14 BUI.LETIN 85 — Storage Facilities
eral farming will continue to be the most important forms of agricul-
ture in the Salt River Valley, although the long staple cotton industry
lias come into distinct prominence during the 191 7 season. At present
land prices are not sufficiently high to prohibit diversification. This
is evidenced by the fact that there is great diversification throughout
the entire Valley. The Salt River Valley has gained immeasurably
from the fact that land values have not been inflated unduly and it
thus has been possible for the farmer to have a wide latitude in his
attempts to determine the most profitable crops to produce.
Storage Facilities Storage facilities for farm products are largely
in the hands of private individuals. There are practically no farmers'
co-operative warehouses or storage in this district. This is significant
in view of the fact that large quantities of farm products are produced
which would normally go into storage for periods ranging from one
to six months. Commercial storages for grain are operated by millers,
seed merchants and others whose business is the buying and selling of
grain. These warehouses have individual capacii"ies ranging from
3,000,000 pounds to 8,000,000 pounds. The total storage capacity of
the commercial grain warehouses operated by the seven principal grain
handlers is approximately 65,000,000 pounds. There is only one grain
elevator in the Valley, the balance of the storage space providing only
for grain stored in sacks. Other elevators are now building to fill
present deficiencies. Estimating the average yield of barley to be 1,800
pounds per acre and the average yield of wheat to be i ,500 pounds per
acre, it will be seen that present storage space is adequate to care for a
grain crop from about 40,000 acres. Any sudden increase in acreage
above that noted would necessitate farm storage or the building of
additional warehouse space. There are four grain warehouses in
Phoenix, two in Mesa, four in Tempe and two in Glendale. Grain
producers in the Buckeye District are farthest removed from storage
facilities. It is difficult to estimate the quantities of grain normally
stored on the farm, but at most it is a relatively small percentage of
the total crop. There is need for adequate grain storage space at
some point in the Buckeye Valley. It also would save considerable
hauling if a grain warehouse should be built at some point about six
or seven miles west of Phoenix on the railroad which serves the Buck-
eye Valley.
The usual charge for grain storage is five cents per 100 pounds
ior the season. One of the disadvantages of the public storage to the
Introduction — Industries Allied With Agriculture 15
small grain producer who has good grain, is that unless he has a
reasonably large quantity to store, his grain is stacked with that of
other farmers, and in case of withdrawal for sale he might have re-
turned to him grain other than that which he placed in storage. The
large grain producer can usually arrange at the warehouse to have his
grain kept in a separate stack, which can be inspected by buyers if
necessary.
Hay warehouses are located at Gilbert, Peoria, Glendale, Phoenix,
Tempe and Mesa. Only a relatively small proportion of the hay pro-
duced in the Salt River Valley is baled and placed under cover. There
are a number of large hay sheds owned by some of the larger alfalfa
growers and capable of storing relatively large quantities of baled hay
on the farm. Most of the hay crop in the Valley, however, is stacked
in the open and either fed loose from the stack or baled later for ship-
ment. There are no covered storages other than those on the farms
which are available for the hay producer. While, of course, the cheap-
est method of storing hay is the stack method, it is evident that addi-
tional hay storage space for good baled hay would be profitable for the
farmers. Cold storage space for perishable commodities is available
in Glendale. Phoenix and Mesa. Practically all of the space which is
utilized for storing of dairy products or fruits and vegetables is used
by local creameries or wholesale dealers. Storage by farmers or farm-
ers' associations is practically unheard of.
At the present time the storage question is one which should be
given attention. During the average season the farmer who stores
his grain at harvest time and sells it at a later period often benefits
from such a practice. The same statement applies to hay. The 19 17
season was, of course, an exceptional one, but the fact remains that
hay prices at the time of the first cutting of alfalfa averaged around
$12, while October prices approximated $25 per ton. Certain farmers
who held part of their surplus for a later market have nearly doubled
their income by such procedure. This, of course, brings up the ques-
tion of the advisability of building additional hay storage space and
there seems little doubt that considerable additional space can be
utilized by the producers of high grade baled alfalfa hay.
Industries Allied With Agriculture While the Salt River
Valley is essentially unorganized for either production or marketing,
there has been built up a fairly permanent series of allied industries
which naturally accompany any large agricultural enterprise. In 191 7
i6 Bulletin 85
there were three creameries and one evaporating plant to care for dairy
products; one canning plant and one sugar factory (both of which
were inoperative during 191 7) ; four flour mills to care for grain
products ; eight cotton gins and one cotton oil mill to care for cotton
products ; and two pickling plants for olives. During the 1916 season
four creameries instead of three were in operation, but at the time of
writing three creameries and one evaporating plant were handling
larger quantities of butter fat than had been handled when the fourth
creamery was in operation. A second evaporating plant was in process
of construction during 1917. The total number of cotton gins in iyi6
was five.
Some interesting changes have occurred during the five years
ending in 191 7. During this period there was a very rough and un-
systematic rearrangement of agricultural activities. Dairying gradu-
ally has been coming into its own as one of the primary sources of
farm wealth in the Salt River Valley. This gradual growth of the
dairy industry appears to have been merely a healthy development of a
profitable industry. Long staple cotton prior to 191 7 occupied a com-
paratively modest place in the general planting scheme. The sudden
increase in demand and the success attending the experimental grow-
mg of the two leading long staple cottons in the Salt River Valley,
caused a phenomenal increase in the acreage planted in 191 7. The
production of market hay has fluctuated from season to season, while
the total acreage in alfalfa for the five years ending in 1917 was fairh"^
constant. During the growing season the farmer usually has had his
choice of selling large quantities of his hay for shipment or feeding it
to stock on the farm. The condition of the baled hay market usually
determines whether or not any considerable quantity of hay is shipped.
Grain production has varied directly with the market price at harvest
time. A season of low prices has almost invariably been succeeded by
a period of decreased acreage. The livestock industry has been a fairly
constant quantity, although war demands have curtailed the normal
increase which might be expected along this line. The most notable
fact concerning the livestock industry in 1917 was the great decrease
in the number of hogs over previous seasons. Data compiled by the
iJnited States Reclamation Service shows a decrease on the Project
!n 1917 of about 60 per cent in the total number of hogs.
It is not strictly correct to state that there has been no community
taction in the Salt River \'allev. There alwavs has been a realization
Introduction- 17
of the fact that community effort is desirable, but activities up to the
time of writing- have been sporadic and not part of any organized plan.
Two types of organization have been attempted in the past. A few
efforts have been made to bring the growers of certain communities
together for co-operative selling. In some instances these efforts have
met with some measure of success, but in general such organizations
have failed through lack of strength. Another type of organization,
designed not especially for marketing, but for general community bet-
terment, has been tried out with fair success. A number of Farm
Improvement Associations have been organized a few years at vari-
ous points in the Valley. These, together with other farmers' organ-
izations, are being made the basis of a County Farm Bureau, with wide
and useful functions, but not developed at this time as a special mar-
keting organization.
The existence of these various community groups is desirable chiefly
because they can be revived temporarily if necessary and made to serve
as nuclei for concerted action. In many cases, they constitute the only
tangible bond which unites the producers of a community and it has
been possible in the past to make use of their existence to reach the
individual through his connection with the association.
As might be expected, attempts also have been made to organize
producers along more strictly commercial lines. During the 1917
season there were in existence three or four such farmers' marketing
associations. Their membership at best is limited and their existence
is largely due to the efforts of a few individuals. Practically all these
organizations have been built up entirely around the ideas of their
farmer organizers, who have not had the benefit of expert advice or
counsel in planning the organization. A few have remained in exist-
ence for periods ranging from one to three years, while some hav^
gone through various forms of reorganization and are still !n existence.
In all cases, there has been a definite and decided problem to solve and
the organizers have gone at the solution of this problem in the most
direct way. The goal to be attained has been always prominently
before them, but it is unfortunate that their plans have not been definite
enough in some instances to secure desirable results. With one or two
exceptions, these farmers' marketing associations are such only in
name. They are weak because their individual and collective obliga-
tions have been ill stated in their constitutions and by-laws, and such
contracts as have been entered into have not been sufficiently binding
i8 Bulletin 85 — Grain
to stand up under adverse conditions. As might be expected, also, few
of them have made adequate provisions for proper financing.*
One or two small marketing associations, however, stand out from
the rest so far as strength and stability are concerned. The association
which handled practically all of the commercial lettuce crop of the
Valley in 191 7 was well organized and well managed in many respects.
The strength of this organization rests largely upon the fact that they
have narrowed their field of operations to certain specific purposes and
have not attempted to handle more than could be satisfactorily handled
through an association which necessarily had a limited membership.
The citrus growers' association has never adopted a systematic selling
plan. This is the one important inconsistency in connection with this
organization. The association has been, however, the prime factor in
holding the citrus interests together and for this reason alone can be
said to have fulfilled its mission.
SPECIFIC MARKETING CONDITIONS
Grain The Salt River Valley is not a region of surplus grain
production. The principal grains are barley, milo maize, wheat, oats
and corn. The latter two are grown in comparatively small quantities.
The annual acreage planted to grain is not a uniform quantity from
season to season. Prevailing market prices determine very largely the
annual acreage which is devoted to the production of small grains. A
great reduction in the quantity of wheat produced in 191 7 was largely
caused by the fact that most of the 1916 crop was sold by producers
at $1.65 per 100 pounds, which made this crop comparatively unprofit-
able.
Yields vary with the season and with the individual. Barley will
average about 1,800 pounds to the acre, and wheat about 1,500 pounds.
More than 90 per cent of the wheat is Early Baart, a semi-hard wheat
which does well in this section. A small quantity of California Club
wheat is also produced. Little effort has been made to encourage the
production of well matured, clean grain. One weakness in the present
system of marketing is the fact that the farmer whose grain is dirty
receives practically the same price as the farmer who has been careful
to produce a high class, marketable product. This has practically
placed a premium on slack methods of harvesting and has not encour-
* U. S. Department of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 541, Co-operative
Organization By-laws, by C. E. Bassett and O. B. Jeeness, 1918.
Specific Marketing Problems 19
aged the production of good grain. Individual grain acreages are com-
paratively small. Material assembled by the Arizona State Council of
Defense and the County Agricultural Agent in 19 17, covering 476
typical grain fields with a total acreage of 21,420 acres, shows that 458
of these fields, comprising 16.880 acres, were each 120 acres or less
in extent.
Most of the grain is sold by the farmers at harvest time to local
buyers. Millers, wholesale grain dealers and seed merchants buy over
90 per cent of the commercial output. Warehouse space can, of course,
be secured for commercial storage, but, as a rule, most of the grain
stored in these warehouses has already been purchased by the ware-
house owner. Buyers owned about 80 per cent of the grain stored in
1916. It is significant, however, that in 191 7 approximately one-half
of the grain in storage on September i was owned by farmers. The
following table shows the quantity of wheat, milo maize, barley and
flour shipped into the Salt River Valley in 1916 and 1917 from points
outside of the State:
Table I Grain and Flour Shipped into the Salt
River Valley
Commodity Carloads,
VjIO
Carloads. V.H7
{To October)
Wheat „ 4
7
Barley . 30
25
Milo Maize 18
Flour 101
13
91
It will be noted that the quantity of wheat imported is negligible,
while fair quantities of milo maize and barley are brought in from Cali-
fornia. On the other hand, practically no grain or flour is shipped
from Valley points to points outside of the State. It will be seen that
the local markets of the Valley and State consume much more grain
and flour than is produced in the Salt River Valley. The two prin-
cipal problems for the Valley grain producer are those relating to seed
and prices. No systematic attempt has been made to provide seed to
grain growers at reasonable prices. Some seed is brought in from
California, Kansas and the Northwest, and still larger quantities are
supplied from local sources. Many grain growers dispose of prac-
tically their entire crop at harvest time and then re-buy at advanced
prices for the next season's planting.
Strange as it may seem, a reasonable price basis for grain has
never been established between the producer and the buyer. The cus-
20 Bulletin 85
tomary condition of the local wheat market emphasizes this lack.
Every year millers and grain wholesalers base local prices on the price
for wheat at terminal market points. The growers have always taken
the stand that inasmuch as the Salt River Valley is not a district of
surplus production, and practically no grain or flour goes outside the
State, the local market prices should be the prices at terminal market,
plus the freight necessary to bring grain into the Valley. There has
been no attempt on the part of the two factions to compromise on this
matter and neither side has cared to make a clean-cut statement of the
issues at stake. It will be noted that while comparatively little wheat
is annually imported, there are considerable quantities of flour shipped
into the Valley, largely from Kansas points. The contention of the
farmers is that if the Kansas miller can afford to buy wheat at terminal
market prices, convert it into flour, pay the freight on this flour to
Valley points, and sell this flour in competition with that manufactured
locally, the local miller should be able to purchase wheat on the basis
of terminal prices, plus the freight to Valley points and operate as
profitably as the Kansas miller. The growers, however, fail to recog-
nize the fact that most of the flour so imported is hard wheat flour,
while much of that manufactured from Valley wheat is milled from
semi-hard wheat. There is an active demand for both classes of flour
in Arizona, but there is a price differential of 40 cents to 50 cents per
100 pounds in favor of the hard wheat product. The local miller thus
has an argument which is more or less sound. It would appear from
a careful investigation of the entire situation that the proper price for
local wheat should lie somewhere between the two price extremes men-
tioned. A fair scale of prices would encourage grain production in
the Salt River Valley greatly and by increasing the volume of their
business should enable grain handlers to operate with no reduction of
annual profit, but on a slightly smaller margin of profit per 100 pounds
of grain handled. As matters now stand, it is annually an open ques-
tion as to what will be the price basis for Valley grain.
Four flour mills were in active operation in the Salt River Valley
in 191 7. The daily flour output of each of these mills approximated
50 to 60 barrels per 1 1 hour run. The two Phoenix mills consolidated
7iear the close of the 191 7 season. Another Valley mill was destroyed
by fire and will be rebuilt on a modern scale in time to care for the
1918 crop. Hence, there will be three large flour mills in operation
during the 1918 season. Less than one-half of the flour milled in the
Specific Marketing Problems — Alfalfa 21
Valley is sold at points within the Valley proper. The remainder is
shipped largely to mining towns throughout Arizona.
Over 90 per cent of the grain is handled in sacks. The labor cost
of sacking this grain, the cost of the sack itself, and unnecessary labor
charges for extra handling are of course reflected in the price received
by producers. One of the Valley mills now has an elevator arrange-
ment for handling bulk grain, while another mill is building a large
modern elevator and will encourage its patrons to furnish bulk grain.
The handling of grain in sacks is such an expensive operation that
there is little excuse for its continuance in this district.
It does not seem practicable or feasible to urge the formation of a
co-operative grain marketing organization. The chief drawback is
that individual acreages vary greatly and the membership of a grain
marketing association would change so appreciably from season to
season that it would not be possible to introduce the necessary flexi-
bility into the plan of organization. There should be concerted action,
however, by grain growers looking toward better grading of their
product for market, more economical methods of handling the grain
?.nd better understanding with the buyers as to prices.
Alfalfa In common with other irrigated sections of the West,
the Salt River Valley produces large quantities of alfalfa. Prior to
191 7 approximately 50 per cent of the irrigable territory in the Valley
was devoted to alfalfa. In general, this alfalfa acreage is utilized by
producers for pasture, for commercial hay production and for seed. It
is difficult to estimate the total acreage used annually for pasturing
livestock. Many fields are devoted very largely to this purpose. A
still larger area is pastured occasionally between cuttings. When it
is remembered that the Valley is a very important dairying district
and that fattening range stock for market is also an important phase
of agriculture, it is possible to appreciate the value of alfalfa pasture
to Valley farmers.
This district has been for a good many years a region of surplus
hay production. Certain districts, notably near Gilbert, Peoria and
Chandler, produce large quantities of hay for commercial shipment.
This hay is field-baled and usually moves to market shortly after har-
vest. The following table shows the number of cars of hay shipped by
stations from the principal Valley points in 1916 and 1917:
22 Bulletin' 85
Table II Carloads of Hay Forwarded ix 1916-1917
Station Carload, 1916
Carload, 1917
I (To Octohcr)
Peoria I 661 | 597
Glendale I 475 1 • 503
Phoenix 1 457 | 632
Tempe I 262 | 290
Mesa and Gilbert I 1781 I 1877
Chandler - I 563 1 565
Total I 4199 | 4464
It will be noted that there is a heavy movement of hay from cer-
tain sections of the Valley. Yields vary with soil and cultural condi-
tions, but average 5 tons per acre. Little or no attempt has been made
to grade alfalfa hay. The careless producer secures nearly as good
prices as the farmer who has gone to some trouble to put up a superior
product. Johnson grass is a troublesome pest in some sections of the
Valley and where it has taken hold it constitutes the chief foreign
element in the hay. Weed seeds carried by the wind and irrigation
water have caused the hay in certain fields to be of inferior grade.
Climatic conditions are such that hay of an excellent color can be put
up if care is exercised.
Large quantities are shipped to the mining centers in Arizona and
New Mexico. Jerome, Globe, Douglas, Bisbee, Nogales, Naco, Fort
Huachuca and Prescott, in Arizona, and Hachita, Deming, Lordsburg
and Gallup, in New Mexico, use large quantities of Salt River Valley
hay. Much of the hay billed to Naco, Douglas and Nogales finds its
way into the mining districts of Northern Mexico. During the past
two years there has also been a considerable movement of hay from
Valley points to El Paso for diversion to points across the border into
Mexico or to smaller towns in Western Texas. In 19 17, owing to the
drought which prevailed in Western Texas, hay from the Salt River
Valley was shipped as far East as Houston and San Antonio. As a
matter of fact, Western Texas is usually an excellent market for con-
siderable quantities of alfalfa hay from the Salt River Valley and other
irrigated valleys in the West.
Hay prices to producers have varied greatly in past years. Data
compiled by the United States Reclamation Service indicates that prices
have ranged as low as $6 per ton at the farm. The average price
paid the farmer for hay in 1916 ranged from $12 to $15 per ton.
Prior to the first cutting in 1917, some growers were contracting with
buyers for hay delivery at about $12 per ton. With an extraordinary
demand becoming manifest early in the season, the price rose rapidly,
Sr'F.CH-ic Makki-tinc. ruoi'.LEMS
23
24 Bulletin 85
averaging about $18 in the middle of the season and closing in Decem-
ber at approximately $30 for good baled hay delivered to the loading
platforms.
Practically all the hay sold from the farm is purchased by local
buyers who in turn re-sell to their customers in other parts of the
Southwest. About five local firms ship approximately four-fifths of
all hay which goes out of the Valley. Only in exceptional cases is
there direct sale from producer to consumer. With the local market
largely controlled by a very few firms, the hay producers of the Valley
have in many cases doubted whether or not a real competitive market
existed. On several occasions large hay producers in the Valley have
attempted to negotiate directly with buyers in nearby mining towns
for direct sale. Usually they have found themselves unable to make
such sale because they were unable to guarantee the grade of hay
which would be delivered. The buyer in practically all cases preferred
to deal with local dealers with whom he had established business rela-
tions and upon whose representations he could rely. The farmer has
had no means of assuring buyers that he could deliver hay which was
up to specifications. The complete lack of any system of local inspec-
tion has therefore entirely precluded the possibility of direct selling.
A system of local hay inspection, whereby the producer could utilize
the services of a competent hay inspector at a nominal fee would
enable the farmer to place his hay on the market on equal terms with
the large hay shipper and thus save for himself the speculative profits
which are absorbed by local hay handlers.
Very few farms have hay sheds which are sufficiently large to
care for any considerable quantities of baled hay. It usually is neces-
sary for the farmer either to stack his hay in the field or to bale it
and sell at once. Farm storage for baled hay is necessary if producers
are to get the benefit of seasonal price changes in the hay market.
Very small quantities of alfalfa seed are produced in the main
body of irrigated land in the \^alley. Most of the alfalfa seed whicb
is produced in this territory comes from the Buckeye A^alley. Even
in this district alfalfa seed production is usually incidental to hay pro-
duction. If seasonal and price conditions are satisfactory, growers in
this district allow one cutting of alfalfa to go to seed, harvest the crop
and then again resume hay production. As might be expected, the
annual production of seed varies greatly. During some seasons it is
difficult to secure a good crop of alfalfa seed, while in other seasons
the alfalfa seed crop is the most profitable one of the season. The
Specific Marketing Problems — Daiuy Products 25
alfalfa seed chalcis fly has been an important factor in reducing yields
of seed in the Buckeye District in past years. During some seasons
the damage is relatively small. In other years from one-third to one-
half the crop has been destroyed. The seed is of fair quality and is
usually clean. Practically all of the crop is sold to a few local buyers
who re-sell the seed in other parts of the Valley and also do some
shipping to outside points. The high prices paid for alfalfa hay in
191 7 resulted in a relatively small quantity of seed being produced, but
should conditions be reversed another season, seed would doubtless
again become an important feature of alfalfa production in the Buckeye
Valley. Most of the alfalfa seed is sold immediately after harvesting.
It has been found that at this time there is little active competition
from other districts and prices have usually been more satisfactory
than those prevailing a few months later. There is no adequate pro-
vision for the storage of alfalfa seed. Some seed doubtless could be
stored on the farm, but few farms have proper storages for this com-
modity. It does not appear, however, that this is a serious problem,
because the producers are anxious to sell their seed immediately.
Dairy Products The dairy industry is one of the most important
forms of specialized agriculture in the Salt River Valley. The natural
adaptation of the Valley to the production of alfalfa, the large grain
yields which can be secured and the possibility of growing large quan-
tities of practically all desirable dairy feeds, coupled with mild winters
prevailing in this section, make the Salt River Valley an excellent dis-
trict for dairying. The national census for 1910 credited Maricopa
County with 12,660 dairy cows out of a total of 28,862 in the entire
State of Arizona. The same authority states that in 1909 2,357,753
gallons of milk, 22,004 gallons of cream, 626,583 pounds butterfat
were sold. The annual report of the United States Reclamation
Service states that in 191 6 there were 48,628 dairy cattle on the Salt
River Project alone, while the same authority states that in 1917 this
total had risen to 50,975 head. In addition to stock on the Project
proper, there is probably one-half as much again in other parts of the
Valley. It should be understood, however, that not all of these were
milking cows at the time the report was issued. The approximate
number of milking cows in the entire Valley in 191 7 was probably
about 50,000.
Most of the dairy herds of the Valley are of Holstein-Friesian
stock. Practically all other standard breeds of dairy cows are repre-
sented, however. The 1917 project report of the Reclamation Service
26 Bulletin 85
indicates that 21,460 cows whose owners report complete returns
brought in an average of $173,375 per month. This shows an average
of $8.07 per cow per month and probably is a representative figure for
the entire Valley. As might be expected in a district where extensive
development of the dairy industry has been fairly recent, there is a
considerable amount of inferior stock. At the same time, there are
some very fine individual herds and the general character of dairy
stock is improving each year. A comparatively sudden interest in
silo building was manifested in 1917, and has had a most beneficial
effect on the entire dairy industry in the Valley. About 17 silos were
in existence in the Valley early in 191 7. By midsummer this number
had increased to about 40 and in November 45 silos were in use and
3 or 4 were in process of construction.
The dairy industry in the Valley has built itself largely around
the problem of supplying milk and butterfat to creameries and
evaporating plants. Considerable quantities of milk and cream are also
retailed in Phoenix, Mesa and Tempe. There are in existence at the
present time three creameries, all located in Phoenix, one evaporating
plant located in Tempe and another evaporating plant in process of
construction at Glendale. During 1916 and for the first seven months
of 1 91 7, there w^as another creamery in operation at Glendale. These
plants care for most of the dairy products originating in the Valley.
No stringent requirements are laid by the creameries upon their
patrons. Practically all milk or cream which is in even a reasonably
satisfactory condition is accepted and this has acted in some cases to
encourage slack methods of handling milk and cream on the farm.
In 191 6 about 4,001,900 pounds of butterfat were collectively handled
by the commercial plants in the Valley, while about 3,501,000 pounds
were handled by the same firms during the first nine months of 1917.
These figures indicate more graphically than words the volume
of the commercial dairy business in the Salt River Valley. Prices paid
for dairy products during the past two years have varied from 31 cents
for butterfat in cheese milk in September. 191 6, to 55 cents for butter-
fat in the same form in October, 1917. The following table represents
an average of prices paid by all creameries and evaporating plants dur-
ing certain months of 191 7 and shows the very rapid increase in price
which became manifest during the later months of 1917:
Specific Marketing Problems
27
Table HI Average Prices Paid for Butterfat in 1917
- - , In Churn 1 In Sweet In Cheese
J^onth Cream 1 Cream Milk
1 1 1
In Who}.
MiJk
February
42c
40c
41c
45c
47c
45.0c
42.0c
47.0c
48.0c
51.5c
47.5c
46.0c
47.0c
50.0c
53.0c
47.5c
April
48.5c
July
52.5c
September
56.0c
October
59.0c
The prices paid for butterfat in various forms have been fairly
well in line with prices for dairy products in other sections, when
overhead charges and costs of operation are taken into consideration.
Evaporated milk, butter and cheese are the chief products turned out
by the manufacturing plants. Data collected from the creameries indi-
cate that the overrun in these plants varies from about 21 to 24^/2 per
cent. The quantity of cheese produced per 100 pounds of milk ranges
from about 7^ to 93^ pounds. In 1916 about 2.750,000 pounds of
butter and 1,100.000 pounds of cheese were collectively produced by
the creameries in the Valley. This does not include the butter and
cheese manufactured on the farm, but represents only that which was
produced by commercial plants specializing in the production of these
commodities. During the first nine months of 191 7 about 1,850,000
pounds of butter and 1,250,000 pounds of cheese were produced by the
same concerns. Only one grade of butter is turned out by each plant.
This butter is packed in one-pound cartons of the flat type customary
in the West. Full cream and half-skim cheese have been produced at
various times, although at the present time some of the creameries are
producing full cream cheese only. By far the greater part of the but-
ter and cheese produced in the Salt River Valley finds a market in the
Valley itself or in other parts of Arizona. Some butter goes to points
in New Mexico, to El Paso, Texas, and even as far as San Antonio
and Houston. Occasionally carloads of cheese have been placed in
Los Angeles, while in 191 7 two carloads of cheese went as far East
as Philadelphia. The principal market, however, for butter and cheese
is within the State borders of Arizona, and of that sold within State
borders about two-thirds of the butter and one-half of the cheese is
sold outside the Salt River Valley in the mining centers of the State.
One of the heaviest charges which the dairymen in the Valley
have to pay is that for the collection of butterfat. More than half of
the milk and cream which is handled by the creameries and evaporating
plants is gathered on motor trucks operated by these plants. As might
be expected, with plants doing a competitive business, the various col-
28
Bulletin 85
Fig. 3 — A substantial factor in the newer dairy
industry.
Specific Marketing Problems — Cotton 29
lecting routes are duplicated niauy tiuies iu the rei^ular course of busi-
ness and this in turn makes the cost of collection per pound of butter
fat relatively heavy. Investiij^ations show that the cost of collecting
butterfat ranges from about 2 cents per pound to as high as 6^ cents
per pound. This wide range is traceable to the fact that it is more
economical to collect butterfat in cream than in whole milk and also
it is relatively expensive to haul either cream or milk from more
distant points in the \'alley. As a matter of fact, motor trucks operated
by creameries haul milk and cream for distances as great as 50 miles.
The average length of haul, however, is much less than this, and prob-
ably does not exceed from 7 to 9 miles. Some important economies
could be effected by arranging a division of territory for gathering
purposes. It is altogether possible to add from 2 to 4 cents per pound
to prices paid for butterfat if waste energy be eliminated in gathering
milk and cream. The 35 trucks now devoted to the collection of milk
and cream in the Valley probably could be replaced bv 20 to 25 trucks
if the average territory covered by each truck were enlarged by elimin-
."ting duplication of routes.
Cotton In 191 7 the production of long staple cotton ceased to be
a side line in general agriculture and became one of the leading indus-
tries in the N'alley. I' or a number of years prior to 1917, cotton was
produced on a fairly extensive scale, the acreage ranging from 1,500
acres to c),ooo or 10.000 acres. The development of superior types of
cotton, the sudden realization on the part of growers that Arizona is
climatically suitable for the jiroduction of Egyptian long staple- cotton,
and the prevailing high prices paid for cotton ginned in 1916, all com-
bined to create a sudden flurry in the cotton industry of the Valley.
Several years ago it was established experimentally that long staple
cotton could be produced in the Valley. This information, however,
was not utilized immediately by farmers in the Valley, who took
merely a passive interest in cotton growing. When prices for long
staple cotton passed the 50 cent mark, however, a large number of
producers began to take more than a passing interest in the possibilities
of cotton culture. The following table shows the approximate long
staple cotton acreage for a period of years, together with the number
of bales ginned each year :
30 Bulletin 85
Table IV Acreage and Yields of Long Staple Cotton
Acreage Balt9 Ginned
1913 1 5,000 1 - 2,030
1914 1 11,500 I 6,060
1915 i 3,300 I 1,145
1916 1 7,300 I 3,260
1917 ' 32,000 *13,500
* Approximately.
It will be noted that average yields are not extremely high. On
the other hand, it must be remembered that long staple cotton pro-
duction in this section of the country is still in an experimental stage
with respect to individual experience. This was especially true in
191 7, when an imusual acreage was planted. A large part of this
cotton was cultivated by growers who had had little or no experience
in cotton culture. A few cotton growers had produced short staple
cotton in the Southern States, but even this did not materially assist
them in handling the problems of long staple production. The cotton
producers have not yet found themselves and it will doubtless take a
number of years' practical experience on a large scale before they will
be able to make the most of natural advantages. All things considered,
however, they have produced an excellent crop in spite of their in-
experience.
For several years prior to 191 7 there had been a steadily de-
creasing acreage of short staple cotton. In 191 7. however, the danger
of attempting simultaneous production of both long and short staple
cottons was thoroughly brought home to the growers and no short
staple cotton was planted at any point in the Valley. Two varieties of
long staple cotton were grown in 191 7. Of the total acreage of about
32,000 acres, approximately 6,700 were of the Pima type, while the
remainder was of the Yuma type. Both of these cottons had been
grown in previous years in the Valley. Practically all of the long-
staple cotton produced prior to 191 7 was of the Yuma type, while
Pima cotton had been produced only in a small way. Both of these
cottons have been developed through the efforts of plant breeding
experts of the United States Department of Agriculture. The acre-
age of Pima cotton in 191 7 represented the first widespread production
of this variety. Pima cotton was developed at the Government plant
breeding station at Sacaton just south of the Salt River Valley and
was experimentally produced for several years prior to 191 7. In the
latter year a sufficient quantity of pure bred Pima seed was available
Si'ix'ii'ic M.\KKi;Ti\r. Pkoklkms 31
to plant a]~»proximately 6,700 acres. The control of this seed rested
largely with the United States Department of Agriculture, whose
experts were anxious to preserve a pure strain of this desirable type.
In order that there might be no admixture of the Pima and Yuma
strains, it was determined to restrict the planting of Pima seed to a
definite territory within the \'alley, to have this cotton ginned sepa-
rately from Yuma cotton, and to prevent the planting of any of this
seed within any territory which was contiguous to plantings of Yuma
cotton. The Tempe Cotton Exchange administered the distribution of
Pima seed to growers in a limited district south of Tempe. No Pima
seed was planted outside of this district and no Yuma cotton was pro-
duced within the arbitrary boundaries of this restricted area. In
order that tliere might be no misunderstanding as to the purposes and
provisions of this plan, every cotton grower who secured Pima seed
through the Tempe Cotton Exchange executed a contract which was
designed to continue the control of l^ima seed by the Tempe Cotton
Exchange. A copy of this contract follows :
TEMPE COTTOX EXCHANGE
PIMA COTTON growers' CONTR.ACT
THIS AGREEMENT MADE BETWEEN
a resident of the County of IMaricopa, and State of Arizona, herein-
after called the Grower, and the Tempe Cotton Exchange, a corpora-
tion, having its place of business at Tempe, in said County and State,
hereinafter called the Exchange, witnesseth :
That the Grower as is now and
will at all times prior to the first day of March, 1918, continue to be
in sole control of acres of land
hereinafter particularly described, on which he proposes to grow and
harvest a crop of pima cotton during the season of 191 7, which said
land is situate near Tempe, in the County of Maricopa. State of Ari-
zona, as particularly described as follows, to-wit :
in Township Range..- of the Gila and Salt
River Base and Meridian, containing acres.
That the Grower is desirous of securing from the Exchange a
sufficient quantity of Pima cotton seed to plant said land during the
season of 1917, and has applied to said Exchange for said seed;
^2 Bulletin 85
That the Grower, in consideration of the Exchange furnishing"
said PIMA cotton seed to him, and of the benefits and privileges to be
received by him from the Exchange under this contract for himself,
his executors, administrators and assigns, hereby covenants and agrees
with the Exchange, its successors and assigns, as follows :
1. To plant the seed furnished him under this contract only upon
such ])art of the land above described as may be selected and approved
by the duly authorized representative of the Exchange, and under no
circumstances will any of said seed be planted on any other land, or
used or disposed of for any purpose whatsoever than the planting of
all or such part of the above described premises as may be selected and
approved by said representative of the Exchange, and should any seed
furnished under this contract be not planted on said land prior to the
first day of May, 1917, then the Grow'er shall return all unplanted
seed to the exchange not later than the tenth day of May, 191 7.
2. That none of said seed will be planted within a distance of
less than one-quarter of one mile of any land on which cotton of any
variety other than pi ma is then being or is to be planted during
the season of 191 7, or upon any land which shall have been planted
to cotton of any variety, other than pima. during the season of 1916;
Provided that the Exchange may. in writing endorsed on this con-
tract, w^aive the foregoing requirements of this clause "2".
3. That the Grower shall deliver to the Exchange, for the pur-
pose of ginning, and baling, all of the seed cotton that may be pro-
duced or grown from the seed furnished under this contract, and the
Exchange, its successors or assigns, shall have the sole right and
privilege of ginning and baling all the products of the cotton croi)
produced from the seed that may be so furnished.
4. That the representatives of the United States Department of
Agriculture and the representatives of the Exchange, or either of
them, shall at all times have the right to go upon the above described
premises of the Grower for the purpose of seeing iiie said land is
properly suited for the growing of Pima cotton ; that said land is
properly prepared for planting ; that the seed furnished under this
contract is properly planted ; that the Grower at all times after the
seed is planted, properly thins, cultivates, irrigates and otherwise
handles and cares for the crop grown from the seed so furnished.
5. That the representatives of said De])artment or the Exchange,
or either or both, may go upon said premises at any and all times and
*'rogue" all of such portion of the cotton plants ])roduced from saifi
seed as said representative or any of them may deem best, and that
said representatives, either of the Department or of the Exchange,
mav at anv time destroy any of such plants or portions of si id crop as
thev mav deem best with a view of maintaining the purity of said
pima variety of cotton, and should such rei)resentatives or any
thereof so require, this ajiiilicar.t will, at his own exi)ense, destroy any
Si'i:cii-ic Makkktinc. Pkcklicms 33
such plants or parts of said cro]) as said representatives or any of them
may direct.
6. That the Ivxchant^e. its assents or assigns, shall at all times
during the period in which said crop is being planted, grown, matured
and harvested, have the right to enter upon said premises, and inspect
said crop or any and all work done or being done in connection there-
with and take any and all such measures as it may deem necessary or
proper to protect such crop and thereafter handle and manage the
same, for such period as the Exchange may deem best, and from time
to time, as the croj) or any part thereof jiroduced from said seed shall
have been harvested and delivered to the gin of the Exchange, and at
all times thereafter, the F^xchange. its successors and assigns, shall be
deemed the sole and unconditional owner thereof, for the purpose of
insuring and otherwise protecting the same, and shall have the exclu-
sive right of possession and control thereof for the purpose of ginning
the same and baling the lint cotton and recovering the seed therefrom,
and the collection and disbursement of all proceeds from the sale of
said lint cotton.
7. The Grower will receive and in good faith comply with ail
suggestions and directions relative to the i)reparation of the land there-
for, and the ])lanting. thinning, cultivating, irrigating, harvesting and
delivering of the cro]) grown from said seed as may be given from
time to time by the representatives of the Inited States Department
of Agriculture or of the Exchange or both.
8. That all seed ])roduced from the imm.x seed furnished under
this contract shall at all times not only after the same is harvested,
and ginned, but at all times while the same is being grown, matured
and harvested, be and remain the sole i)ro])erty of the Exchange, it
being understood, however, that the Exchange will pay the Grower
for the merchantable cotton seed so grow^n and delivered to it pursuant
to this contract, at local oil mill prices as the same may exist on the
respective dates when the cotton from said crop may be ginned.
9. The Grower hereby promises to pay to the Exchange on de-
mand for all seed that mav be furnished to him under this contract
prior to April i, 1917, at 'the rate of $60 per ton. and for all seed
that may be furnished to him under this contract after April i, 1917,
at the rate of $65 per ton. and further promises to pay to the
Exchange on demand all other indebtedness of every kind and naturr-
which may become due and owing by him to the Exchange on account
of or in any wise connected with or incident to this contract or the
production of the crop to be grown from the seed furnished under this
contract, whether said indebtedness be for services rendered, materials
furnished, money advanced, accounts or obligations guaranteed or
assumed or otherwise, and for the purpose of securing and guarantee-
ing the payment of anv and all sums of money and indebtedness as
above provided, the Exchange shall at all times have a first lien and
claim not only against the seed that may be furnished under this con-
34 Bulletin 85
tract, but also against all crops and products of every kind produced
from said seed, as well as the proceeds from the sale of any and all
such crops and products, which said lien shall attach and at all times
remain against said seed and the crops and products produced there-
from, not only prior to the time when such seed may be planted, but
also at all times while such crops and products are being grown,
matured, harvested, ginned, baled and marketed. For the purpose of
effectively securing the payment to the Exchange of all such sums of
money and indebtedness as above provided, the Exchange shall have
the sole and exclusive right and the Grower does hereby irrevocably
appoint the Exchange as his agent to collect, receive, receipt for and
disburse all proceeds that may be received from the sale of any and
all crops and products grown from any and all seed furnished under
this contract.
The Exchange in consideration of the faithful performance by
the Grower of each and all his foregoing covenants, agreements and
promises, hereby agrees with the Grower as follows :
1. That during the period of growing, maturing, harvesting,
ginning and baling of the crop produced from the seed furnished the
Grower under this contract, it will assist the Grower in any reasonable
way that it may be able to so do, to obtain any necessary financial aid
which the Grower may require to enable the Grower to properly grow,
mature, harvest, gin, bale and market the lint cotton produced from the
seed furnished under this contract.
2. That it will receive from the Grower at its gin in Tempe,
Arizona, or at such other place as it may select, all merchantable seed
cotton produced from the seed furnished under this contract and in
the due operation of its gin during the ginning season of 1917, gin and
bale such cotton and charge the Grower for such ginning and bajing
at a rate not exceeding three (3) cents per pound of the gross weight
of each bale of lint cotton ginned from said crop.
3. That it will pay the Grower for all merchantable cotton seed
grown from the seed furnished the Grower under this contract and
delivered to it pursuant to the terms of this contract at local oil mill
prices as the same may exist on the respective dates when the seed
cotton grown from the seed furnished under this contract may be
ginned during the season hereinbefore mentioned.
4. That in addition to the ginning charges above mentioned, it
will charge the Grower on the lint cotton ginned and baled at the rate
of one-half cent per pound on the gross weight of each bale of lint
cotton ginned from said crop to cover the expenses of insuring, pro-
tecting, storing and handling the products produced from the seed
furnished under this contract.
It is hereby mutually agreed between Grower and Exchange
that from time to time as the lint cotton produced from the
seed, furnished under this contract shall be sold and the proceeds
SrECii'ic MAKKirriM. 1'k(ii;i.i;.ms 35
thereof received by the Exchange, also as the seed from tlie crop pro-
duced from the seed furnished under this contract shall be ginned as
hereinbefore provided and the value thereof credited by the Exchange
to the Grower, the Exchange will first deduct from any such proceeds
and credits all or such oart of any sums of money or indebtedness as
it may deem best then owing by the Grower to the Exchange, and will
then pay any balance of such proceeds and credits, if any, to the
Grower, or to his successors or assigns.
The several covenants and agreements of the respective parties
hereto shall extend and be binding upon their respective heirs, execu-
tors, administrators, successors or assigns.
In witness whereof, the Grower has hereunto set his hand
and the Exchange has caused this agreement to be executed by
its President, attested by its Secretary, and its corporate seal to be
hereto affixed this day of 1917.
Grower
Tempe Cotton Exchange
By
President
ATTEST :
Secretary
This interesting contract was sufficiently explicit to provide for
the perpetuation of a pure strain of Pima seed. An expert cotton
classer connected with the Bureau of Markets of the United States
Department of Agriculture, who spent several months in the Salt
River Valley in icjij. directed the classing of more than 1,000 bales
of cotton prior to December i. His investigations showed that the
Pima staple ranged in length from i^)-^ inches to i^ inches, averaging
I 11-16 inches. Yuma staple averaged Ys inch shorter than Pima.
Thfe greater length of the Pima staple doubtless will be a deciding
factor in future plantings. Buyers in 191 7 had little to guide them in
differentiating between varying lengths of staple. In general, how-
ever, Yuma cotton sold for from 2 to 6 cents per pound less than Pima
cotton of the same grade.
The problem of securing labor for picking the 191 7 crop was a
very serious one. The Salt River Valley Cotton Growers' Association,
an organization of cotton producers, designed largely to care for labor
problems, undertook to solve the difficulty by bringing laborers into
36 Bulletin 85
the Valley from the southern states and from Mexico. A fund was
raised by subscription among cotton growers and dealers in the Valley
and this money was used for- labor importation. Railroad fare was
advanced to prospective laborers and they were required to repay this
advance from the first wages secured in the cotton fields. Growers
who desired to secure cotton pickers applied at the central employment
office of the association and were assigned a share of the laborers
who were brought into the Valley. The prices paid for cotton picking
ranged from $2.50 to $4.00 per 100 pounds of seed cotton. Prevailing
high prices for other forms of farm labor took many pickers from the
cotton fields and the crop was not harvested as rapidly as was desired
bv the growlers. In all likelihood the labor problem will remain one
of the serious problems connected with cotton culture in the Salt River
A'alley.
There are at present in the Valley eight cotton gins, located at
Glendale, Phoenix, ToUeson. Tempe, Mesa and Chandler. There are
Tio cotton compresses in the Valley and the bales arc shipped as they
are turned out from the gin. Prices received for long staple cotton
have varied greatly in past years. In 19 14, owing to the demoralized
condition of the general cotton market, prices to the grower ranged as
low as I4>4 cents per pound of lint. In 1916 the price started at 30
cents a pound, rose with rapidity to 47 cents a pound and in November
had reached 53 cents. Forty-four bales of Pima cotton of the 1916
crop, which were held until early in the Spring of 191 /, sold for 58.6
cents per pound. A considerable portion of the 1917 crop was sold
under contract prior to harvest. These contracts, some of which were
executed in the early Spring before cotton was planted, and others as
the season progressed, called for delivery at picking time at price.^
ranging from 30 cents a pound to more than 50 cents a pound. The
cotton which was unsold at picking time opened at about 53 cents, rose
rapidly to 58 cents, then to 75 cents, and by December i a few sales of
Pima cotton had been made at the unprecedented figure of 80 cents
per pound.
It appears that Arizona long staple cotton is especially suited to
the manufacture of high class automobile tire fabric and a considerable
proportion of this cotton is being so utilized. Its tensile strength also
makes it desirable for the manufacture of the fabric used for aero-
plane wings. A considerable part of the Yuma cotton produced in
1917 was grown by or sold under contract to automobile tire com-
Si'ia'ii-ic M.\Ki;i:riN(. TuoitLKMS .?7
panics. Several tliousand acres, however, of this type, together witli
most of the Pima cotton was open for competitive bid.-, at the be.s:innin^'
of the pickinjT^ season.
Cotton marketing: is largely an individual pn^imsition and there
are no farmers' co-operative associations designed entirely for the
marketing of cotton. In 1917 representatives of thread companie.-;.
together with buyers representing important cotton factors in the East,
offered an outlet for that cotton which was not .sold for tire fabric.
The commercial center of the cotton industry in the Salt River \alley
!.; at Tempe. At this point there is the only large open cotton market
in the Vallev and competitive buying is conducted on a more extensive
scale than at an\ other ])oint.
A .serious difficulty in 1917 was the lack of authentic informa-
tion on the part of the growers concerning prices for Sakellardies and
other Egyptian cottons. This, together with the confusion of ideas
conccrnhig the relative commercial values of Arizona long staple cot-
ton and the im])orted product from Egypt provoked an imsettled
market. The (|uestion of relative values was settled largel\ by pre-
liminary reports made by the cotton expert of the United States
department of Agriculture. These rei^orts. cou])led with authentic
i^rice quotations on ICgyptian cottons, determined primary prices paid
to ])roducers and offered the first .satisfactory price basis established
in the \alley. With preliminary prices established at a fair figure,
the bulk of the sales was made at prices which reflected true values
under conditions ])revailing on the long staple cotton market. It i-^
desirable that authentic price quotations for Egyptian and Sea Island
cottons be published in local papers i)eriodically throughout the season
in order that growers may be informed as to general long staple cotton
conditions. It is also desirable that an open competitive market be
maintained in the Valley in order that producers may benefit by gen-
eral market changes. It may prove necessary for growers to consign
some of their product to storage in New England if prices in the local
market are not satisfactory. Cotton stored at some convenient point
in New England would be readily salable as spot cotton to spinner,
who might not otherwise manifest an interest in Arizona cotton. Action
of this sort would presuppose some form of co-operation among the
growers. As a matter of fact, it probably will be necessary for the
growers to consider at an early date the question of uniting for
co-operative marketing.
38 lU'LLETix 85 — Cantaloupes
Caxtaloupes The cantaloupe crop is the most important of what
might be termed the "speculative" crops of the Salt River Valley.
Practically all of the crop is produced in fairly restricted areas around
Glendale. Mesa. Phoenix and Chandler. The industry started in a
small way in igo8 and has maintained a fairly steady growth to the
present time, although there have been some intervening years when
the acreage was small. In 1916 the total commercial acreage was
about 2,000 acres. In 191 7 about 3,100 to 3,200 acres were planted to
cantaloupes, but the area from which marketable melons were actually
harvested did not exceed about 2,800 acres. Cantaloupe growing in this
Valley, as in all similar districts of the West, is a very specialized
form of agriculture. Practically all of the crop is grown under con-
tracts executed between growers and eastern commission houses.
About 6 or 8 cars were handled independently l^y local firms in the
Salt River Valley, while an inconsiderable acreage furnished melons
for local consumption. One or two inexperienced growers attempted
independent growing of cantaloupes in 191 7 and having neglected to
provide marketing facilities, found themselves unable to sell their
melons for prices which would pay for the expenses of harvesting.
The contract referred to is essentially the same as that in vogue in
other cantaloupe districts in the West. The provisions of these con-
tracts have already been discussed in considerable detail in publications
of the United States Department of Agriculture.^
They provide for the furnishing of seed and crate material by the
distributor at specified prices to the grower, for cash advances to the
grower through the growing season and at harvest time, and stipulat-e
that for service rendered the distributor shall receive a commission of
15 per cent of the gross sales. The practice of making liberal cash
advances to growers throughout the growing season is gradually being
eliminated. Some of the distributors each year have been lowering
the usual cash advances, while in 191 7 one of the large distributor^
made no cash advances whatever, although customary advances of seed
and crate material were made as formerly.
All melons are packed on the farm in field packing sheds. The
standard crate, containing 45 melons, the pony crate, containing 54
melons, the standard flat crate, containing 12 or 15 melons, and the
jumbo flat crate, designed to care for larger melons, are the chief
1 See Schleu.ssner, O. W., and Kitchen, C. W., Marketing and Distribution
of Western Miiskmelons in 1915. TT. S Department ot Agriculture Bulletin
401
Spkcii-ic M.\KKi:iiN(. l'u(ii:i.i:.\i;
39
40 Bulletin 85
containers in use. Small quantities were shipped in 1917 in special
containers, such as the pony flat crate and the special flat crate for
pink meat melons.
Inspection is accomplished at the loading platform when melons-
are delivered by the grower for shipment. Field inspectors for the
distributing concerns attempt to visit as many field packing sheds as
practicable each day in order to advise with growers as to methods of
picking and packing. Most of the cantaloupes, however, are produced
on small individual acreages and it is manifestly impossible for a
limited inspection force to give adequate inspection at packing sheds.
Hence, the real inspection is that given at the loading platform. oMany
of the cantaloupes are grown by Japanese growers. In 191 7 more
than one-half of the commercial acreage was controlled by the Japan-
ese. This was particularly true in the Glendale-Phoenix district, where
the Japanese cantaloupe growers were greatly in the majority. In past
seasons most of the pink meated melons were grown in the Glendale
district, while the production of this type on the south side around
Mesa was merely incidental. A noticeable feature of production in
191 7 however, was the small acreage in Burrell Gems. Only about 300
acres or approximately 10 per cent of the total acreage were pink meat
melons and most of these were produced around Mesa. This was
largely due to the fact that Glendale growers received unsatisfactory
returns in 1916 on their pink meats and in 1917 abandoned this type.
The growers of Burrell Gems in the vicinity of Mesa, however, re-
ceived very satisfactory returns in 1917 and it is likely that the 1918
season will see an increased acreage of pink meat melons produced in
the Valley. About 60 acres of the white rind melons, known to the
trade as the "Honey-Dew" melon, were grown in 1917. Most of
these were produced on the north side near Glendale. Owing to the
comparatively limited demand for this type of melon, it does not seem
likely that there will be any material increase in the 1918 acreage.
The following table gives the shipments of cantaloupes by stations in
1916 and 1917:
Table A' Shii'.mexts of Caxt.\loupes, 1916-1917
Stations
1 Shipments
hj carloads
1916
1917
Glendale .
1 362
536
Mesa
Phoenix
Chandler
Fair Grounds
1 388
1 103
1 12
433
68
18
258
Total
1 865
1314
Specific jNIakketinc. Proulkms 41
rickiiiij starts durini:^ the last week in June and extends throii<T;h
July and into the first week of August. Melons from this district
reach practically every large market in the United States from Boston
to Denver and so compete with late offerings from Imperial Valley,
early shipments from the Turlock district and cantaloupes from
Georgia and other eastern producing districts. A cold backward
vSpring in 191 7 was doubtless responsible for the poor flavor and
carrying quality of the crop. Most of the cantaloupes were distin-
guished by relatively large seed cavities and a low sugar content.
( )wing to the unusual moisture content and the large seed cavity,
many of the melons arrived at market in a greatly deteriorated con-
dition and in spite of an active demand, the prices which were received
reflected something of the true value of the melons. Ordinarily, how-
ever, cantaloupes from the Salt River Valley are of good quality and
are well and favorably known on practically every large market in the
country. Prices in 191 7 were satisfactory. The delivered value of
the melon's ranged from $2.25 to $3.25 per standard crate. Customary
yields of from 150 to 160 standard crates to the acre were materially
reduced in 1917. The average delivered value of the 1917 crop was
about $2.40 to $2.50 per standard crate, which was equivalent to from
$1.25 to $1.40 f. o. b. \'alley points. Returns to growers ranged from
$0.75 to $2.00 per standard crate and averaged about $1.10 per standard
crate.
The marketing problem for the cantaloupe producer is ordinarily
not an acute one. although the speculative nature of the crop some-
times causes some fairly heavy losses for the growers in a bad season.
About 10 car lot shippers or distributors operated in the Valley in
1917. More than three-fourths of the crop, however, was moved by
five or six of these shippers. On the whole, this system of marketing
has been satisfactory, and it is doubtful whether a farmers' co-operative
marketing association could secure a more widespread distribution of
melons than was effected by the combined efforts of the distributing
concerns who handled the crop in 19 17. The season, however, was
marred by the operations of one or two irresponsible concerns who
took advantage of the small grower's inability to care for his business
interests and failed to make complete returns on all shipments. The
Market News Service, conducted by the Bureau of Markets of the
United States Department of Agriculture, supplied necessary infor-
mation to the growers concerning prices and market conditions. There
is need, however, for some agencv to act as advisor to the small grower
42 Bulletin 85 — Honey
who intends to enter into a contract with a distributor. Most of the
concerns operating in the Salt River Valley are reliable, but experience
in 191 7 indicated the need for looking into the credentials and past
history of some operators who have been guilty of rather sharp
practices.
Honey Honey usually is produced in the Salt River Valley as
a side line on the farm. The total annual production of this com-
modity, however, makes it a fairly important one. The report of the
State Apiary Inspector in 191 5 indicated that in Maricopa County
there were 52 beekeepers owning about 24,440 colonies of bees. Recent
estimates indicate that in 19 17 the total number of colonies had been
reduced by from 5 per cent to 10 per cent. More than 95 per cent of
the honey is extracted and placed in 5-gallon cans. Two of these cans
constitute a case, which is the unit for marketing. The average annual
yield per colony ranges from 50 to 70 pounds, the average in 191 7
being about 65 pounds. The small portion of the crop which is sold
as comb honey is disposed of locally. The commercial output of
extracted honey is divided into four grades, known as water white,
light amber, amber and dark amber. The various amber honeys are
produced from alfalfa bloom and constitute more than 90 per cent of
the commercial output. A small quantity of mesquite honey is classed
as water white and sold accordingly. A native desert plant known
locally as Cat's Claw furnishes nectar for a white honey which could
almost be classed as water white. A mixture of Cat's Claw and alfalfa
honey makes an excellent type of light amber honey.
Of the total quantity of honey produced in the Valley, about one-
third is used locally and two-thirds finds its way to outside markets.
Records indicate that in 1916 about 26 carloads of honey were for-
warded from various points in the Valley. There is an association of
honey producers in the Valley known as the Arizona Honey Exchange,
which handles more than one-half of the product which goes to market.
The balance is handled by a local independent buyer who represents
several larger honey bviyers.
The plan of selling honey through the Exchange is simplicity
itself. The extracted honey is delivered to the Association Secretary,
who negotiates with wholesale buyers in various parts of the country
and places the honey with the concerns offering the highest bid. For
his services the Secretary receives a small commission. There are no
closely drawn contracts connected with the association business. It
Specific Marketing Problems — Fruit 43
largerly rests on a general understanding between the various members
and the association. \'cry httle honey is sold by the producer to large
outside buyers. Most of the extracted honey shipped from the Salt
River Valley ultimately passes into the hands of wholesale biscuit
manufacturers, wholesale drug manufacturers, tobacco manufacturers
and confectioners.
Prices for amber honey have ranged from $4.50 per case in 1916
to $12.40 per case in 191 7. Prices for amber honey during the latter
part of 1916 ranged from $5.40 to $6.00 per case of 120 pounds, while
prices early in 1917 averaged about $8.40 per case. This price rapidly
lose as the 1917 season progressed to 11 cents, then to 12.2 cents and
closed at about 12.4 cents. Small quantities of mesquite honey in 1917
brought $13.00 per case. These prices were fairly well in line with
prevailing market quotations. There is at present no general dissatis-
faction with the local honey markets. It is likely that better market-
ing arrangements could be made if all the honey producers of the
Valley were organized into one association to care for the selling in-
terests in a businesslike way. As long as prices received, however, are
lairly well in line with wholesale market quotations, it does not seem
likely that the beekeepers of the Valley will organize more extensively.
On the whole, there is no serious problem in connection with the mar-
ket for Salt River \'alley honey and there seems to be no need to
recommend any changes at this time.
Fruit The production of fresh fruit for market is not one of
the leading industries in the Valley. This phase of agriculture, how-
ever, is not limited to any considerable extent by clim.atic or soil con-
ditions and could easily be made one of the most important agricul-
tural activities in this section of the Southwest. There are in general
two types of fruit produced. The output of deciduous fruits consists
very largely of peaches and apricots, while oranges and grapefruit
constitute the chief offerings of citrus fruit. A few plums and figs
produced in a very small w^ay complete the list of tree fruits produced
in the Salt River \^alley.
The output of deciduous fruits is rather evenly divided, about
one-half being peaches and one-half apricots. The apricots are largely
Newcastles, Royals, Blenheims and Moorparks. Almost every variety
of peach which can be grown in this climate is produced and the
variety list ranges from Elbertas to Salways. Most of the peaches are
Elbertas however. The wide range of varieties noted above has re-
44
Bulletin 85
Specific Marketing Problems 45
suited in a fairly long producing season and to this extent has prevented
local market gluts to a considerable extent. About 2,100 acres in the
Salt River X'alley are now devoted to the production of deciduous
fruits. The individual acreages, however, are small and a comparatively
large number of growers are interested. Individual acreages range
from 3 acres to 160 acres. Most of the plantings, however, range from
5 to 10 acres. Few of the orchards are handled by experienced fruit
growers and this has tended to demoralize partially the commercial
production of this class of fruit.
The season of 191 7 was fairly typical of conditions as they now
exist and may be reviewed profitably. The crop was fairly large,
although a few individual orchards had a small yield. Most of the
trees, especially the apricot trees, bore too large a crop of fruit. Be-
cause of poor market prospects, few of the growers considered it
necessary to thin their fruit properly early in the season and, as a
result, a large part of the crop was of excellent quality, but was small
and unattractive for market purposes. With but few exceptions no
arrangements were made for marketing the crop prior to harvest.
The first fruit ripening in the trees found the growers with no ideas
as to its disposition. The local market was soon glutted and low prices
offered locally caused several of the growers to make no attempt to
harvest their fruit. As a result there was a considerable loss of fruit
which, while not first class marketable stock, could nevertheless have
been handled at a profit if more favorable circumstances had prevailed.
Prices for local sales averaged to the grower about i cent per pound
for apricots on the trees and from 2 to 3 cents per pound picked into
lug boxes. Larger quantities than usual were dried and canned, but
in spite of this effort at conservation, there was a relatively heavy loss
of good fruit. Despite the local situation, there was a reasonably
active demand for peaches and apricots in the mining towns of Arizona
and New Mexico, while the larger cities in Kansas, Texas and Okla-
homa were offering about $2.50 per 25-pound box. A few shippers in
the Valley eased the local market by moving fruit to outside points.
Early in the season, before the California apricot crop began to
mature, 3 or 4 cars of Newcastles went forward to Los Angeles. This
fruit met with a satisfactory sale, but shipment in this direction was
soon curtailed because local shipments from California drove the
Arizona product from coast markets. One growers' association at
Glendale as a side line shipped considerable quantities of peaches and
apricots in small express lots to mining towns in Arizona. Returns
46 BULLETIX 85
on these shipments were also satisfactory. One large shipper, who pur-
chased the entire output of several orchards on the trees, placed a
number of express shipments of apricots on the Texas markets and
realized from $1.35 to $1.75 per 25-pound box f. o. b. Phoenix. In
general, sales outside of the Valley were very satisfactory, returning
from 3 cents to 7 cents per pound to Valley growers, as against the
local market of i cent to 2 cents. However, practically all of the fruit
shipped from the Valley was selected and graded stock and hence
possessed a greater intrinsic value than the large quantity of mediocre
fruit which was sold locally for prices which hardly paid expenses.
Total shipments of peaches and apricots by freight and express in
1917 were equivalent to approximately 12 carloads. While only a
relatively small part of the fruit crop of 191 7 was good marketable
stock, nevertheless at least twice as much could have been sold outside
of the Valley had the growers been in a position to consolidate their
output and assure prospective customers of a reasonably dependable
supply. With but few exceptions the growers do not know how to
grade and pack their fruit for market. This indictment is not intended
to be a sweeping one, as there are several growers who have in the
past shipped some excellent fruit. These exceptions, however, merely
indicate the possibilities open to the fruit growers of this section and
emphasize the lack of knowledge w^hich prevails among the growers
in general. At the present time there are no grades and standards
which apply to deciduous fruits in the Valley.
Peaches and apricots are merely shipped as such and the buyer
has not even a tentative grading system to safeguard him on his pur-
chases. In general, two types of package are used for shipment out-
side of the Valley. The ordinary lug box common to all fruit districts
in the West is used extensively for shipment to mining towns and even
as far as El Paso. Careful hand packing is unnecessary when these
boxes are used if reasonable care is used in the selection of the fruit
which goes into them. They constitute a cheap and satisfactory pack-
age for shipments which do not have to go more than 500 or 600 miles.
Large southwestern cities, such as Dallas. New Orleans, San Antonio
and Houston, prefer the western fruit box with the fruit packed in
splint baskets and arranged in tiers. It is more expensive to put up a
pack of this nature, but if the fruit is of good carrying quality and
reasonably free from defects, it will find a ready and profitable sale.
Los Angeles and other Pacific coast cities are reasonably good mar-
kets for early offerings of apricots. It is necessary to utilize these
Specific Marketing Problems 47
markets with discretion, however, and to cease shipping when the
CaHfornia crop begins to mature. The mining towns of Arizona and
New Mexico always will utilize large quantities of fruit in lug boxes
and are not quite so particular as the larger cities with respect to
grading and packing. These mining town markets have never been
thoroughly utilized by Valley fruit growers because they have not
been able to guarantee the buyers in these towns a dependable supply
of saleable fruit. As a result buyers have learned to look to other
districts for their fruit supply. It probably will be better for the
peach growers to confine their shipments rather largely to the mining
districts. The large peach crop from the southern states moves to
market at about the same time as does that from the Salt River Valley
and growers in the latter district will hardly be able to compete with
Texas, Oklahoma and Arkansas.
Briefly stated, the commercial problem of the deciduous fruit
rjrower in the Salt River Valley will be first and foremost to secure
a better understanding as to what constitutes good marketable fruit,
jt goes without saying that fruit growers will find it necessary to in-
form themselves more thoroughly with respect to early thinning of
their fruit and proper methods of grading and packing. There should
unquestionably be some method of consolidating the output of de-
ciduous fruit for carload shipping and to insure a dependable supply
10 customers. Provision also must be made for adequate inspection
of all fruit. This inspection cannot rest with the individual grower,
who has small knowledge of market values. The entire problem is
one of co-operative effort and a fruit shippers' association is needed
to insure a dependable supply of well graded, well packed and care-
fully inspected fruit. The fruit acreage in the Valley is hardly large
enough to warrant the creation of a complete co-operative marketing
association designed to care for all the commercial interests of the
growers. An association, however, for the purpose of co-operative
shipping and designed to promote better inspection and better grading
methods is entirely feasible and will in a large measure answer the
present question of the grower who is blindly looking for a market.
There are at present about 2,300 acres planted to citrus fruits in
the Valley. Individual groves range in size from 5 acres to 75 acres,
but, as with the deciduous fruit industry, the individual acreage is
relatively small. Oranges are the principal citrus offering, but the
success of earlier grapefruit plantings has stimulated later plantings.
Most of the oranges are Navels, Jaffas and Valencias. There are.
48 Bulletin 85
however, small plantings of Mediterranean Sweets, Blood Oranges,
and various seedlings. Because of climatic conditions, the oranges of
the Salt River Valley have established an enviable reputation at mar-
ket. The fruit is highly colored, sweet and juicy, with a thin, tender
skin. The citrus industry is in a much more satisfactory condition
than is the deciduous fruit business.
The greater part of the citrus output of the Valley is shipped
through the Arizona Orange Association, an incorporated stock com-
pany composed of growers who have organized for marketing. Hold-
ings of stock in this association vary with individual acreages and
every share of stock carries with it one vote. The association main-
tains a packing house in Phoenix, where the fruit is assorted, graded
and packed for market. Methods of selling the crop through the
association have varied considerably in past years. In 1914 and 191 5
the oranges were sold through a general selling agency, which operated
branch offices in most of the principal markets of the country. In
1916 it was decided that the association should undertake to sell direct
to the wholesale trade, and a sales manager, who was also a member
of the association, was charged with the duty of handling the deal.
Shortly after the season opened, it was necessary for the sales manager
to resign from his position and another member was chosen to carry
on the work. This unexpected change in plans at the last moment
handicapped the association and, while the returns were fairly satis-
factory, it was not possible for the association to handle the crop as
efficiently as had been planned. The 19 17 crop is being handled again
by the association, which has entered into agreements with members
of the trade in many of the principal markets. It remains to be seen
whether this procedure will prove satisfactory.
In 1916, 71 cars of oranges were shipped. Most of the citrus out-
put finds a market in the large cities of the East. The Arizona orange
lipens in time to meet the heavy demand during the holiday season.
This district is one of the very few orange producing districts in the
country which can place fruit on the market in time for the Thanks-
giving trade, while the Christmas holidays find a considerable portion
of the crop at market or in transit. It will be seen that marketing
conditions are especially favorable for citrus fruit from this district,
which enjoys a near-monopoly during a season of the year when the
demand for citrus fruit is at its height. This earliness of maturity,
coupled with excellent quality, causes the orange from the Salt River
Valley to command a decided premium over such other citrus offer-
Specific Marketing Problems — Livestock 49
ings as are marketed at the same time with the Arizona product. This
premium averages from 50 cents to $1.00 per box.
The citrus marketing problem at present is not to find a market
for the fruit, but to insure the growers a price which will reflect
accurately the true commercial value of the citrus crop in this district.
It would appear desirable for the Arizona Orange Association to estab-
lish a permanent marketing policy instead of changing general plans
season by season. Affiliation with the California citrus growers for
marketing the entire citrus crop of the Southwest is a matter which
should be given serious and earnest attention by the orange and grape-
fruit growers in the Salt River Valley. It is possible that a satisfactory
plan of co-operation could be worked out between California and Ari-
zona growers which would be mutually beneficial. It might also be
well for the Arizona Orange Association to consider whether or not
the organization would be strengthened by giving each member of
the association one vote, instead of voting according to stock holdings.
As matters stand at present, two or three growers can control the
policy of the association completely and even the possibilities of such
action on their part will always have a tendency to make smaller stock-
holders suspicious of the larger growers.
The principal limitation to the citrus industry in this Valley is a
climatic one. The area which is sufficiently free from frost to offer
chances of success is very limited and even groves most advantageously
situated are sometimes visited by frost. In the past this has acted to
influence greatly citrus shipments from year to year. Most of the
growers are converted to the principle of orchard heating, but even
with this safeguard, there is a certain risk attached to the industry.
The relatively high prices received for fruit, however, and the ready
market which is always available, has caused the citrus industry to
assume a healthy growth which would easily become an outright boom
if frost limitations did not interfere.
Livestock Fattening livestock for market is an important indus-
try in the Valley. Because of the large quantities of alfalfa and grain
which have been produced, the livestock industry always hai been a
very important one in this section of the country. Each year finds a
large number of cattle and sheep from the outlying range districts
brought into the Valley for fattening. In 1916 about 920 carloads of
livestock were shipped from Valley points to outside markets. Ship-
ments in 191 7 approximated 1,000 cars. Most of this stock moved to
50 Bulletin 85
Los Angeles, although Kansas City ranked a fairly close second. A
noticeable feature of the livestock industry in 1916-1917 was the great
decline in the number of hogs held on farms in the Valley. This
decline was very largely due to the prevailing high prices for feed,
which made the hog business unprofitable for the time being.
Small producers who annually turn out from 3 to 8 head of stock
find it necessary to dispose of their animals to local buyers. This stock
is either killed locally or consolidated by these buyers into carlots for
shipment to terminal markets. Large livestock shippers sell at prevail-
ing wholesale prices, while prices received by small producers are not
so well established. The small farmer is entirely dependent upon the
local buyer and prices paid by these buyers have varied greatly in the
past. Where producers are fairly well informed as to market con-
ditions, the local buyer often has been forced to pay a price which
vv^ould approximate true values. In other cases, the buyer has taken
advantage of the small producer and prices have ranged from 4 cents to
8 cents below prevailing market prices. As matters now stand the
small producer has no alternative. He has not sufficient quantity of
stock to ship to market and so finds it necessary to accept the best bid
he can secure from the local speculators.
It will be seen that the real livestock problem in the Salt River
Valley is that of the small producer who cannot ship to market direct.
There is an evident remedy for this condition of affairs. The farmers'
co-operative livestock shipping association is the most elementary form
of co-operative agricultural effort. There are a sufficient number of
small livestock producers in certain restricted areas in the Salt River
Valley to make it feasible to organize community livestock shipping
associations in a few districts where there is a sufficient quantity of
stock to warrant the formation of such organizations. It is suggested
that community associations might be organized at Scottsdale, Glen-
dale, Fowler, and at some point centrally located on the South side,
possibly Gilbert or Chandler, These associations require no elaborate
financial arrangements and can readily be conducted by producers who
wish to secure true market values. There is nothing in the livestock
industry of the Valley which would make it necessary for these ship-
pers to modify materially the general plan of operation under which
such livestock shipping associations have been organized in the Middle
West.^ These associations have been very successful in the latter ter-
1. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin 718, Co-operative
Livestock Shipping Associations, by S. W. Doty and L. D. Hall, 1916.
Specific Marketing Problems — Potatoes 51
rjtory and should be equally successful in the Salt River Valley, where
marketing conditions are not essentially different.
Potatoes The production of potatoes for market is not an im-
portant activity in this district. Most of the crop is produced in the
sandy loam soils near the Agua Fria River, west of Glendale. The
crop is marketed during the month of June as a rule. In 1917 the
commercial movement started during the first week in June and ended
about the middle of July. Most of the crop moved during the last
two weeks in June. Yields vary with seasonal conditions and in the
past have ranged from 30 to 100 bushels per acre. In 191 7 the yield
v/as reasonably good and averaged from 80 to 100 bushels per acre.
The usual field is about 25 acres in extent, although fields in 191 7
ranged from 10 acres to 160 acres each. About 90 per cent of the
crop is grown by a dozen growers in the territory mentioned above.
The potatoes are loaded in sacks holding from 95 to no pounds each
and shipped to market in decked cars. Practically all shipments from
this section are decked, except local shipments to mining towns within
the State, where the average time in transit is from 24 to 48 hours.
Refrigerator cars are used for shipping purposes. In 1916 38 cars of
potatoes were shipped from Valley points, while in 1917 the commer-
cial movement was 115 cars.
Marketing conditions in 191 7 were fairly characteristic of average
conditions and may well be discussed at some length. The writer
secured a complete financial statement covering the commercial hand-
ling of 83 cars out of the total of 115 cars shipped in 1917. The first
car rolled on June 9. while the last car went forward on July 12. No
preliminary arrangements were made by the growers for disposition
of their crop and at the last moment the producers, in lieu of a better
arrangement, collectively entered into a joint contract with two local
commission houses, who agreed to handle the growers' potatoes on
joint account. The contract was a very loosely-worded agreement
which laid no specific obligations on either party. It was, in fact, a
rather indefinite Memorandum of Agreement rather than a bona fide
contract. According to its provisions the potatoes were to be handled
by the two local firms on a commission basis. It was understood that
these firms were to attempt to secure prices for Valley potatoes which
would be equivalent to those secured by California growers who were
shipping at the same time. The selling agencies were not obligated to
secure such returns, however, but merely agreed to use their best
52 Bulletin 85
business judgment in disposing of the crop. Their remuneration was
to be 7 per cent of gross sales.
Notices and quotations were sent by mail or .telegraph to pros-
pective buyers in Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Colorado, Oklahoma
and Kansas. A large number of replies were received and the pre-
liminary outlook was very favorable. The first cars were sold on
order f. o. b. Glendale, subject to inspection by the purchaser on arrival.
These first cars were billed out at from $3.50 to $3.75 per 100 pounds
f. o. b. Glendale. It soon became necessary to revise this selling plan
and so arrangements were made between the two local firms and
brokers in Denver and El Paso. At this point, it may be stated, that
Jiside from 12 to 15 cars sold to buyers in mining towns in Arizona, all
of the potatoes from the Salt River Valley were sold in El Paso or
Denver, the shipments being rather evenly divided between these two
points.
Shortly after the first cars were received complaints began to
arrive, accompanied by claims for allowances. No inspection what-
ever was made at loading stations or in the field and so there was
doubtless room for complaint by the buyers in many cases. There
seems to have been no reason, however, for some of the excessive
claims which were made later in the season other than that market
conditions were weaker and buyers found losses staring them in the
face. Practically all claims were allowed by the local firms who rep-
resented the growers. It was very difficult for these firms, operating
fiS they were, to verify reports given by buyers, and in order to main-
tain an even demand all of these claims were allowed. Allowances
made for various causes ranged from $20.57 P^^ ^^- ^^ $613.75 per
car. The total allowances made by selling agencies to all buyers for
all purposes amounted to $14,046.12 on the 83 cars.
Final records showed that the 83 cars nominally billed out at
$71,249.47 f. o. b. Valley points, after commissions, brokers' fees and
decking costs had been deducted, actually returned $51,534.00 to
growers, equivalent to about $2.15 per 100 pounds. This heavy loss
was chiefly due to lack of inspection when the cars were loaded. A
second important factor was the inadequate protection afforded the
growers against unjust claims for damages. Some loss was also caused
the growers because rates on potatoes from the Salt River Valley to
El Paso were higher than rates from Southern California to the same
point. The freight differential in favor of Southern California ship-
ments amounted to 123/2C per 100 pounds and in order to compete
Specific Marketinx Problems — Lettuce 53
actively in El Paso with Southern California offerings, it was neces-
sary for the Salt River Valley growers to allow I2^c per loo pounds
on sales made in that city to cover freight differences. It estimated
that had there been adequate inspection before shipment, and had the
growers been afforded proper protection against unjust claims for
damages, fully $12,000 could have been saved to the shippers on these
83 cars alone.
Experiences in 191 7 and during previous years have indicated
that individual action by the growers is usually disastrous. Since
practically all of the potatoes are produced by about n dozen growers
in a very limited district it would seem feasible to organize a small
potato shipping association, organized for the purpose of consolidating
the output and handling the crop as a unit. It does not appear expedi-
ent to recommend that the growers attempt their own selling. A potato
shipping association, however, would have a sufficient quantity of
marketable potatoes to enable it to contract for the marketing of the
entire crop with some reliable potato-selling agency, who could and
should enter into individual contracts with the members of the asso-
ciation to handle all potatoes on a commission basis This contract
should obligate the sales agency to furnish complete inspection services
at loading platforms and this agency should also undertake a certain
amount of educational work among producers during the digging
.season in order to insure the harvesting of good commercial stock.
By the terms of this contract, the potato growers should be obligated
to dispose of all their potatoes for the season through the agency with
whom the contract is executed and should also be required to accept
the judgment of the agency's inspector at the loading platform. Be-
cause hot weather usually prevails at harvest time it is very desirable
that Salt River Valley potatoes be dug as early as possible, be care-
fully sacked, and rolled to market as rapidly as possible. If these
conditions are fulfilled, and an adequate inspection service is offered,
there is no reason why the potato crop from this section should not
be permanently profitable.
Lettuce The lettuce crop ranks next in value to cantaloupes as
a speculative crop. The acreage has varied greatly from year to year
in response to the stimulus of changing prices. Practically all of the
crop is produced in the vicinity of Glendale and shipped from that
l)oint. In 1917 about 225 acres were grown. Most of this acreage
-•vas seeded to the New York Head variety, although some of the
Boston Head variety was grown in a relatively small way. Individual
54 Bulletin 85
jicreages varied from 2 acres to 20 acres. In 191 7 abcut 100 carloads
were shipped. Less than 10 per cent of the total crop is marketed
within the boundaries of the State of Arizona. The ^reat bulk of the
movement is to the large markets East of Denver, notably Kansas City,
Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh and New York.
The lettuce growers afford the best example of co-operative effort
in the Salt River Valley. Until late years the lettuce industry has
been on a very unsatisfactory basis and attempts to market the crop
independently have been almost uniformly unsuccessful. The crop in
191 7 was handled in a way which was distinctly creditable to the
growers who had organized for marketing. The United Produce
Growers' Association of Arizona handled all of the lettuce from the
Valley, with the exception of 5 or 6 cars assembled by local commis-
sion houses.
This association is a regularly equipped stock corporation with
an authorized capitalization of $50,000, divided into 5,000 shares of
])ref erred stock and 5,000 shares of common stock, all of which has a
par value of $5 per share. The purpose of the common stock was to
raise a fund of $25,000 from outside sources, mainly from busines.s
men and others interested in the development of the trucking industry.
I'his stock is a non-voting stock and also a non-dividend-earning stock.
After the association was fairly started and a number o^ shares of com-
mon stock had been sold, it was decided to withdraw this class of stock
from the market, as it was felt unnecessary to have such a large capital
available. The preferred stock is offered to growers only and consti-
tutes the voting stock of the corporation. Sales are limited to one
share to each grower and in turn each grower who intends to utilize
the services of the association for marketing must be a shareholder.
The funds resulting from the sale of this stock constitute the capital
which at present is required to transact business.
It was the intention of the organizers to divide this association
into distinct sections, each administering its own functions and duties
and nominally connected with the central association known as the
United Produce Growers' Association of Arizona. The lettuce section,
however, is at present the really active section, although about 80 or
90 cars of cantaloupes were handled by the association in 191 7. Some
deciduous fruit was also shipped by this association in 1917, although
the cantaloupe and deciduous fruit sections were not organized on
exactly the same basis as was the lettuce section. As a matter of fact,
the association operated as one association in 1917 for the conduct of
Specific Marketinx Problems 55
all its business, and, strictly speaking, the plan of dividing the associa-
tion into sections was not in effect in 1917.
The business operations of the association are conducted through
a Secretary-Treasurer, an executive committee of five members, an
acreage committee, a crate committee and a seed committee. In the
past the Secretary-Treasurer has been the chief business officer of the
association. The acreage committee inspects land which it is proposed
to plant and is expected to act in an advisory capacity toward the
growers. The crate committee is charged with the duty of arranging
for containers for shipment of the crop. The seed committee confines
its attention to arranging for a suitable supply of seed and the execu-
tive committee, of which the Secretary-Treasurer is 1 member, main-
tains a general oversight of the business and during the shipping sea-
son allots consignments to the various produce houses with whom
connections have been established. The Secretary-Treasurer is the
only salaried member connected with the association. In 1917 an in-
spector was employed by the association to supervise harvesting, pack-
ing and loading.
The small quantity of lettuce sold in Arizona and New Mexico is
shipped in express lots and sold f. o. b. Glendale. Practically all of
the lettuce shipped locally is sold on standing order and statements are
made on a weekly or monthly basis, according to preliminary arrange-
ments. The great bulk of the crop moves to the Eastern markets in
carloads and is handled entirely on a consignment basis. Reliable com-
mission firms are selected in several of the principal markets. The
regular commission of 10 per cent is paid to these representatives. In
1917 the association was represented by firms in Kansas City, Cleve-
land, Indianapolis, Chicago, Pittsburgh and New York. The associa-
tion has definitely decided that it will not sell on an f. o. b. basis sub-
ject to inspection on arrival at destination. Careful inspection, both
in field and at the loading platforms, was in practice in 1917, and no
lettuce was shipped which was not of superior quality, and well graded
and packed.
A two-tier ventilated crate peculiar to this district has been used
with considerable success. This crate is paper-lined and contains from
24 to 40 heads. Early shipments in 191 7 were pre-cooled in a small pre-
cooling plant and were then loaded into iced cars and rolled to market
at once. With the advent of warm weather during the middle and
latter part of the season, however, it was found desirable to pack the
lettuce with cracked ice between the two layers in each crate. In addi-
56 Bulletin 85 — Miscellaneous
lion the refrigerator cars were iced well in advance of loading and the
thoroughly chilled lettuce was shipped at once. The results of this
careful attention were accurately reflected in the returns which the
growers in this district secured in competition with lettuce growers in
other districts.
Up to and including April 17, 1917. 61 carloads had been shipped
to eastern markets and 3,233 crates equivalent to about 8 carloads had
been sold locally in Arizona and New Mexico. The first 61 cars were
distributed to Kansas City, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, New
York, Chicago and Denver, more than one-half of this number going
to Kansas City, Chicago and Pittsburgh. From April 17 to the close
of the season about 39 additional cars were shipped, in addition to
moderate express shipments to the mining towns of Arizona. Market-
ing conditions during the early part of the season were very favorable
and because of their excellent pack and grade the growers secured
some attractive returns. The first 21 cars which rolled to market re-
turned to the growers a total of $14,732.99, or an average f. o. b. return
per crate of $1.57. Returns for the next 40 cars were not so high,
ranging around $1.00 per crate, but still netting a fair margin of
profit. Near the close of the season, however, there was a decided
slump in market prices, caused by heavy offerings from other sections.
The unexpected drop in market prices found the association with more
than 20 cars in transit and some unfortunate losses were sustained,
Vv'hich partially offset the large profits made earlier in the season.
In addition to offering a sales service the association furnished to
growers during the season more than $8,000 worth of supplies. These
supplies were secured in large lots and re-sold to growers at prices be-
low those which they would have had to pay on independent purchases.
Considering the volume of their business and the speculative nature
of their product, it is doubtful whether it will be possible for the lettuce
growers greatly to improve their system of marketing. It is impossible
to remove entirely the hazards connected with the marketing of a
perishable crop like lettuce. On the whole, however, these growers
have worked out for themselves an excellent and efficient system of
marketing when it is considered that their output is limited and their
association a small one. The success of this association has been an
encouragement to those who believe that co-operative effort will solve
the marketing problems of the Salt River Valley.
Miscellaneous About 56 cars of watermelons were shipped in
19 1 6 and 78 cars in 191 7. This crop is produced in the vicinity of
Specific Marketing Problems
57
Phoenix and is handled through the Union Melon Growers' Associa-
tion. This organization has headquarters at Phoenix and while not
in the strictest sense of the word a farmers' co-operative marketing
association, is nevertheless an organization for the purpose of con-
solidating watermelon shipments. The marketing of this crop is purely
a local problem and, as the following table will show, practically all
of these melons were sold in Arizona and New Mexico :
Table VI Destinations of Watermelon Shipments in 1917
Destination
J^umher of
Cars
Destination
Number of
Cars
Gallup, N. M
22
7
5
5
4
Globe, Ariz 4
Albuquerque, N. M
Bisbee, Ariz 4
Douglas Ariz.
Other Arizona Points | 22
Prescott, Ariz
Other N. M. points 1 5
Flagstaff, Ariz
1
Except for supplying Arizona and New Mexico, it is doubtful
whether watermelons ever will be produced in surplus quantities in
the Salt River Valley. This crop differs materially from the canta-
loupe crop in this respect, since the latter is a fairly in^portant factor
on the large markets of the United States.
Less than lOO acres of grapes are grown in the Salt River Valley.
Most of these are of the Thompson Seedless variety and are ready for
market in advance of the offerings of California table grapes. The
commercial acreage is in the vicinity of Mesa, from which point about
9 cars were shipped in 191 7. Some of these grapes are sold locally
in the Valley, but many of them move to large Eastern markets, not-
ably Chicago. The marketing is largely on a consignment basis.
Dates are perhaps the most interesting of the special crops in the
Valley. The principal orchard is near Tempe and is controlled by the
University of Arizona. In addition, there are small quantities of edible
dates produced incidentally on many of the farms in the Valley. It is
difficult to ascertain the total acreage in dates outside of the Tempe
orchard, which is the only important commercial orchard in the Valley.
The latter contains about 10 acres of bearing palms and produces a
wide range of desirable varieties. The Hayani and Rhar are among
the more important of the so-called soft varieties, while the Deglet
Noor is an interesting example of the harder date, which matures later
in the season.
Dates from palms owned by farmers over the Valley are all sold
locally in the towns in the Valley. Most of the output of the Tempe
58
Bulletin 85
Fig. 6 — Bearing date palms in the Tempe
orchard.
Marketing Problem as a Whole — Present and Future Outlet 59
orchard is also sold in the Valley, although considerable quantities were
shipped in small express lots of from 2 to 15 pounds to eastern mar-
kets in 1917. Many of those shipped out of the State, however, were
sold on orders placed in the Valley. The 191 7 crop was packed in ordi-
nary berry cups holding one pound each. After being hand picked, the
fruit was pasteurized for a short period and then packed in layers into
square berry cups which were lined with paper, topped with an at-
tractive, colored lithograph and tied with colored fiber ribbon. These
small baskets were then placed in crates holding from 2 to 15 pounds
and were ready for shipment. Practically all of the crop in 191 7 was
sold at a uniform price of 20 cents per pound packed at the orchard.
The dates retailed on the local markets in Phoenix, Tempe and Mesa
at from 30c to 35c per pound. No attempt was made by the manage-
ment of the orchard to secure higher prices, since this orchard is main-
tained for experimental purposes. The demand far exceeded the sup-
ply in 191 7 and the same condition has prevailed in previous years.
The date crop in the Valley is normally an excellent one. while the
market is always active. The only real limitation to the expansion of
this industry is the difficulty of securing a suitable number of off-
shoots of desirable varieties. It requires some care and experience to
get a young grove started, but having once become thoroughly estab-
lished the date palm is easy to care for. Should it be possible in the
future to import any real quantities of desirable offshoots from the
Orient, it is probable that there will be a decided expansion of date
growing in the Valley.
In 191 7 about 475 acres were devoted to olives, while a number
of young groves have been set since the beginning of the season. The
olive does well in the Salt River Valley, but the production of this
commodity is relatively small. Practically all of the crop is sold locally
to pickling factories, which normally put up considerable quantities of
this product. Most of the crop is pickled in a ripe or semi-ripe con-
dition.
THE MARKETINa PROBLEM AS A WHOLE
Present and Future Outlets Agriculture in the Salt River
Valley has not been built around a national market and producers have
not learned to consider the distant market as a logical outlet for any
great quantity of their produce. In this respect this district is more or
less unique among the important irrigated districts in the far West.
6o Bulletin 85
While it is not entirely accurate to state that the local or State market is
the principal one for products from this area, it is true nevertheless that
the local market plays a much more important part than in many other
irrigated districts.
Of late years, however, there have been certain exceptions to
these generalizations. During the past two years approximately 20 per
cent of the commercial hay crop of the Valley, which was marketed in
carlots, moved to points in Texas and over the international border
into Mexico. The growth of the cotton industry has caused a corre-
sponding decrease in the production of crops which normally are mar-
keted in Arizona and New Mexico. The cantaloupe crop also fur-
nishes relatively large quantities of a product more than 85 per cent
of which is marketed at points from 1,500 to 3,000 miles from origin.
Probably 75 per cent of the lettuce and potato crops annually find a
market beyond State borders. In the future there doubtless will be a
reasonable expansion of trade with markets more distant than those to
which Valley farmers have become accustomed. The increase in the
cotton industry, exemplified by the large acreage planted in 1917, will
doubtless be responsible for an important increase in the value of
products which move to distant markets.
The local and State markets for products from the Salt River
Valley never have been fully appreciated by producers. These mar-
kets are at present among the most important outlets for Valley
products and in future years will continue to be profitable consuming
centers of an increasing quantity of farm products from the irrigated
districts of the State. These markets at present use all of the grain
products produced in the Salt River Valley and in addition import
large quantities of feed and mill products from points outside the
State. Most of the hay crop in the Valley which is baled for market
is sold in mining towns throughout the State. Similar towns in New
Mexico offer the next best outlet for hay. More than 90 per cent of
the dairy products in the Valley are consumed within the States of
Arizona and New Mexico, the mining towns of Arizona taking the
greater portion of the surplus from the Valley. While the deciduous
fruit output is very limited most of the commercial crop which is not
used within the Valley itself is shipped in express lots to the mining
towns of the State, where in the past it has been disposed of at prices
satisfactory to the growers. Large quantities of meat products are
also consumed by these towns. In contrast to the cantaloupe crop,
practically all of the watermelons produced in the Valley are sold
Marketing Problem as a Whole 6i
tfither in Arizona or New Mexico. Large quantities of miscellaneous
farm products are produced in a small way in the Valley which have
a considerable aggregate value and which are sold within the State.
The very fact that these products are produced in small individual lots
makes it imperative that the local market be utilized as extensively as
possible.
The advantages of the local markets of the State should be obvi-
ous to the small producer in particular. As a rule, these markets
(lesire good commercial packs and grades, but arc not so insistent on
fancy packs and careful grading as are the larger markets further
East. The comparatively short haul necessary to place products in
these markets, coupled with the correspondingly small express rates,
have made these markets seem attractive to the small shipper. As a
matter of fact, the mining towns, while consuming large quantities
iinnually, prefer to have their products in relatively small quantities at
regular intervals. Except for a few of the staple products they are
important as 1. c. 1. markets and are so used by producers.
It is doubtful if many of the shippers who use these markets
realize the total quantities which they ordinarily consume. In 1916
10 small mining towns, selected at random along one railroad north
of the Valley, used a total of 251 cars of flour and feed. During the
same year four of these same towns used a total of 60 cars of fruits
and vegetables, in addition to the large quantities of these products
received in less than carload lots. x\gain referring to 1916 figures, it
is found that 10 of these towns used 445 cars of hay, while during the
same year 18 towns along this line used a total of 161 cars of grain.
All of these towns have relatively small populations and are not among
the important mining centers in the State, which use still larger quan-
tities of all classes of farm products. The volume of business handled
in some of the larger towns may be inferred from the statement that
in 1916 about 222 carloads of fruits and vegetables were unloaded in
Bisbee alone, exclusive of the large quantity which came to this city
in small lots. Records show that the mining district around Ray
received 30 cars of fruits and vegetables from Phoenix during the first
nine months of 1917. The above figures have been selected more or
less at random in order to emphasize the fact that the importance of
the mining towns in Arizona as markets should not be underestimated
by the producers in any part of the State. As a matter of fact, these
towns secure only a small fraction of their products from the Salt
River Valley. Most of the fruit and vegetable supply of these towns
62 Bulletin 85 — General Problems, Etc.
comes from California and other surrounding states, while consider-
able quantities of flour, feed and other staples also come from points
outside the State. This condition has been brought about because buy-
ers in these towns have learned that they cannot rely upon the Salt
River Valley for a dependable supply from season to season. Negotia-
tions in the past with Arizona producers and shippers have been rather
unsatisfactory and buyers have learned to look elsewhere for their sup-
plies.
Enough has been said to indicate the possibilities which are open
to the producers of the Salt River Valley through the expansion of
what might be termed the local market. It is probable that double the
present quantity of Valley fruits and vegetables would be used in the
mining towns of the State if the producer were able to guarantee a
reasonably dependable supply and could offer a product which would
compare favorably with the output from California and other western
districts. At the present time there is a very active market in these
mining towns for grain, hay, flour and other staple products of the
Valley and it hardly seems probable that this phase of the business is
susceptible of as great expansion as is the traffic in more perishable
commodities.
General Problems and Difficulties Strictly speaking, the Salt
River Valley is unorganized for agricultural marketing purposes. De-
velopment along these lines has been natural and gradual and not the
result of any clear, well formulated plans. As a result, the present
agricultural marketing plan of the Valley, if we may so dignify un-
organized effort, is simply the result of individual enterprise working
along strictly individual lines.
One of the most striking features of agricultural enterprise in
the A'alley is the wide range of production. Natural causes have con-
cributed toward diversification. The results are exactly what might be
expected. There has been little or no community of mterest between
producers from the very fact that crop and marketing plans have
almost invariably been individual plans and resulting problems have
been individual problems. This, of course, has militated against com-
munity effort and has caused postponement of co-operative action.
The producers in this section are just beginning to realize clearly that
there must be community action of some sort if commercial success
is to be obtained. For example, while the total acreage in truck crops
and deciduous fruits is fairly large, the crop scheme /s so arranged
Marketing Problem as a Whole 63
that growers are not reaping the benefit of large-scale production.
The total acreage in these crops is composed of a large number of
small units, and is not as well centralized geographically as would be
desirable for concerted action. There are, of course, certain well
defined areas devoted to these crops, but in general we find small
individual acreages scattered over almost the entire \'allcy. The indi-
vidual grower finds that he does not produce enough to warrant car-
lot shipping and does not feel that returns from outside markets offer
him a sufficient margin of safety. As a result the local Valley mar-
kets are usually oversupplied for short periods, while excellent outside
markets are untouched because the individual cannot obtain the carlot
rate on his small output.
Another factor which has greatly hindered efficient marketing is
the seasonal change in the acreage of each crop. It is nearly impossible
for growers to organize for marketing when the man who grows 20
acres of wheat this year will produce no wheat next year and his
neighbor, who may have grown no grain for 2 or 3 years, suddenly
enters the field for one year as a producer of, let us say, 40 acres.
Thus, it happens that one man is actively interested in a certain crop
this year and his interest next year in the same crop may be passive
because he has reduced or entirely eliminated his own acreage. This
condition of affairs may not at first appear to be productive of serious
results, but, as a matter of fact, it exemplifies one of the most difficult
problems in the Valley.
If individual production were fairly stable or well standardized
it would be possible to assemble the producers of certain communities
for definite, concerted action. As conditions are at present, however,
the membership of any association organized for the purpose of car-
mg for specific crops, of necessity would change its membership to a
considerable degree each season. The acreage in certain crops, notably
alfalfa and fruit is a fairly constant quantity from year to year. The
individual acreage in almost all other crops, however, is dictated largely
by individual fancy or preference and up to the present time this indi-
vidual preference has borne no relation to prospective community action
for the purpose of marketing. In other words, it does not occur to
the farmer who contemplates planting 10 acres of potatoes next year
or who may contemplate reducing his potato acreage to that figure, that
this decision has any relation to beneficial co-operative effort on the
part of his neighbors. The following table compiled by the United
States Reclamation Service and applying to the Salt River Project,
64
Bulletin 85
which in turn comprises about three-fourths of the irrigated territory
of the Salt River Valley, shows the seasonal changes in total acreages
for different crops, but does not show the decided changes in individual
acreages for the same crops.
Table VII Acreages of Principal Crops on Salt River Project
Alfalfa
Barley
Beans
Cotton
Corn
Cantaloupe
Fruit, citrus
Fruit, deciduous
Milo maize, e*'C...
Oats
Olives
Potatoes
Wheat
Watermelons ....
laiit
1915
191G
1917
86,930
86,733 1
24,946
17,066 1
1,623
567 1
4,545
11,501 1
1,889
2,315 1
981
1,846
707
707
1,436
1,246
22,572
12,651
2,399
1,930
133
133 1
478
232 1
1 9,493
9,744 1
1 350
826 1
83,006
16,459
1,111
2,160
1,193
1,604
1,054
1,944
26,260
3,374
135
267
11,230
462
84.355
13,295
710
6,033
984
1,584
1,259
1,248
28,589
1,433
487
381
10,081
262
67,964
9,309
1,425
23,444
1,851
2,096
967
1,250
25,471
900
500
373
3,794
426
It will be noted that there has been a fairly pronounced variation
so far as total acreages are concerned. This is important as indicating
the variable quantities of farm products which must find a market each
year. The totals indicate, to a certain degree, the problem which out-
side buyers must face when entering the Valley as commercial factors.
One of the most important considerations to the prospective buyer is
the possibility of securing a uniform quantity season by season. Where
both individual and total acreages vary to as pronounced an extent as
they do in the Salt River Valley, the outside buyer finds it difficult,
if not impossible, to adjust his business to care for fluctuating supply.
He prefers to turn elsewhere to districts which will furnish a depend-
able annual supply. This one fact alone probably has operated to a
considerable extent to keep Salt River Valley products from the local
mining town markets of the State.
The size of the average farm in the Salt River Valley bears a
certain relation to the commercial problem. This territory has never
been one of bonanza farming. There has been in the past a number
of large holdings, aggregating several thousand acres each. The indi-
vidual holdings, as a rule, have been comparable to those throughout
the more intensively farmed sections of the Middle West. According
to the provisions of the Reclamation Act, which apply to all lands
within the boundaries of the Salt River Project, the individual hold-
ings must be reduced to a maximum of 160 acres for each owner. This
Marketing Problem as a Whole 65
tact has served in itself to break up the larger farming units into farms
which could be handled by resident owners. Some large individual
acreages have been developed in the outlying districts, where water
rights are independent of the restrictions laid down by the Reclamation
Act. Records of the Salt River Valley Water Users' Association show
that on an ownership basis the average individual holding on the Salt
River Project approximates 58 acres. ]\Iany tracts are subdivided
among several tenants, who in turn operate these subdivisions as sepa-
rate units. Data compiled by the United States Reclamation Service
in 191 7 indicate that 4.342 farmers (both owners and tenants) oper-
ated 196,586 acres on the Project, or an average of 45 acres to the
individual.
Thus it will be noted that individual holdings, while not extremely
large, are sufficient to permit general farming. Until the average hold-
ings fall below 40 acres, it will not be necessary to resort to specialized
forms of agriculture in order to provide an adequate labor return.
Tenant farming also had a decided influence on commercial pros-
pects. Referring to records compiled by the United States Reclamation
Service, we find that, according to the 191 7 report, 41 per cent of the
farmers on the Salt River Project are tenants. The form of tenantry
varies. Some of the tenants operate on a share basis, while a large
number operate on a cash rental basis. The latter form was particu-
larly prevalent in 19 17 among the newer cotton growers and, because
of the prospects of large financial returns, good cotton land rented m
1017 at from $15 to $25 per acre, the average rental being $20. Tenant
farming has made it difficult to organize for commercial purposes on
a permanent basis. The tenant farmer who has no sure tenure natur-
ally does not manifest the requisite interest in building up a permanent
producers' organization when his membership in such an organization
may be short lived. Proper financing of such an organization is more
difficult with the tenant farmer than with the permanent land owner.
The human factor presents one of the most difficult problems in
connection with the betterment of market conditions in the Salt River
Valley. This problem is a more or less intangible one and is not sub-
ject to a careful statistical analysis. At the present time individualism
is still the key note of communal conditions in the Valley. Many of
the present producers have come from other districts into the midst of
conditions that are more or less strange to them. As might be expected,
this fact has reacted adversely on any tendency toward co-operative
action. The primary weakness of widespread individual action in a
66 Bulletin 85 — General Remedla.l Measures
district where conditions demand community action is strikingly in
evidence. It appeared from observation in 1917 that the individual
idea is being replaced gradually and it is altogether possible that co-
operative action in the near future will be as important a feature of
commercial agriculture in the Salt River Valley as it has been in most
other western irrigated districts.
The distance of the Salt River Valley from m.etropolitan dis-
tributing centers in some cases has given pause to prospective investors.
The following table shows the approximate distance from Phoenix to
the principal outside markets :
Table VIII Distance from Phoenix to Certain Markets
Citv Dtitanct
By Rail
City
Distance
By Ra,1
Los Angeles | 499 miles New Orleans |1,624 miles
El Paso I 433 miles Kansas City |1,487 miles
San Antonio 1 1,052 milesl Chicago |1,938 miles
It will be noted that the average distance from market is rather
great and, at first glance, this problem would appear to be a most
serious one. Its importance, however, is minimized when it is remem-
bered that relatively small quantities of farm products are shipped to
distant markets. The local and State markets have in the past con-
tributed largely to the support of agriculture in the Salt River Valley,
and as time goes on it is more than likely that these markets will in-
crease in importance to the farmers in this territory and offer an outlet
for still greater quantities of surplus products.
General Remedial Measures Previous discussions have indi-
cated that the producers of the Salt River Valley are not facing a single
problem, but are confronted with a series of problem? which can be
co-ordinated only with difficulty. It hardly seems desirable or feasible
to advocate the formation of a series of farmers' co-operative associa-
tions for the purpose of marketing the many diverse crops in the Valley
and having no general affiliations with each other or with a stronger
central agency. In the first place, it would appear that these associa-
tions would lack the financial strength which is so desirable in an
organization of this character. The overhead and operating expenses
of the small association are also relatively heavy and probably a large
number of producers would not be inclined to view with favor the pros-
pect of sharing the expenses of such an organization. It also would
seem that there does not exist the requisite commercial leadership for
Marketing Problem as a Whole 67
each set of producers unless general costs of operation are increased
by the employment of skilled marketing assistance.
While the arguments against the formation of a large number of
small organizations are difficult to overcome, it is at the same time
desirable that some action be taken looking toward the consolidation
of the output of certain commodities so that producers may benefit by
marketing in relatively larger quantities than they do at present. For
example, if the deciduous fruit growers in the Valley are to establish a
reasonably satisfactory market for themselves, it will be necessary for
their product to be assembled for market in larger quantities and that
it be carefully inspected prior to shipment. The small livestock pro-
ducer in order to benefit by prevailing market conditions must arrange
for co-operative shipping with his neighbors. Marketing conditions
among the potato growers in the past have been relatively unsatisfac-
tory, but no permanent remedial measures can be adopted by these
producers until their output is handled as a unit, so that systematic
marketing plans can be adopted. But even the elementary co-operative
action just indicated would need some stronger agency to advise and
direct a movement of producers.
The rather sweeping statement already has been made that there
is at present in the Salt River \' alley no large and influential farmers'
co-operative organization. This statement had reference to organiza-
tions for marketing purposes. Co-operative action along another line,
iiowever, has met with considerable measure of success. The Salt
River Valley Water Users' Association is one of the most substantial
farmers' organizations in the United States. This association was
organized for the purpose of co-operating with the Government in
securing a permanent w^ater supply for the land in the Salt River Val-
ley through the provisions of the Reclamation Act. The association
has a present membership of about 3,500 and represents a total of
205,000 irrigated acres. It is a stock corporation regularly incorpor-
ated under the laws of the State of Arizona, with a capital stock of
$18,000,000. divided into 300,000 shares of the par value and denom-
ination of $60 each. The ownership of stock is confined to land own-
ers and the division of stock is proportionate to the acreage owned.
The association is permanent in nature, owns an office building in the
City of Phoenix, and is amply financed, the charter providing for the
maintenance of a treasury fund not exceeding $100,000, with which to
care for emergencies. The membership of this organization includes
68 Bulletin 85
the majority of farm operators in Maricopa County and so the associa-
tion constitutes a very substantial nucleus from which to operate.
Investigation indicates that the participation of the Salt River
^ alley Water Users' Association in the marketing problem is eminently
desirable from the point of view of the producer. The organization as
already in existence, is capably managed and directed, and is financed
more completely and thoroughly than any farmers' co-operative mar-
keting association could hope to be. It would be possible for the asso-
ciation to provide a division designed to offer to the farmers of the
Valley competent marketing advice. A marketing specialist might be
retained and his duties outlined substantially as follows:
1. To advise with growers and growers' associations as to
markets.
2. To negotiate for the sale of farm products on request of
growers.
3. To investigate on request of growers any malpractices or dis-
honesty on the part of outside sales agencies with whom the grower?
may deal.
4. To advise with growers as to the provisions of any contracts
which they may enter into with commission houses or other sales
agencies.
5. To handle claims of growers against railroads for damage to
goods or loss in transit.
6. To represent actively the combined growers of the Valley in
securing fair and equitable freight rates on Valley products.
7. To assist actively in developing and establishing grades and
standards for Salt River Valley products.
8. To publish a market review for distribution to producers,
summarizing all market information of value to local producers.
It will be noted that the activities of such a division would cover
a very wide range, while at the same time no obligations would be
assumed by the growers except such as might be entered into tem-
porarily for the purpose of arranging sales through the general divi-
sion. The cost of such activities would be inconsiderable when benefits
are considered, and the financing of this work could be handled in the
same manner as is the financing of other special lines of work in con-
nection with the irrigation system. The simplicity of such a plan is
its strongest point and the fact that such an arrangement could be con-
Marketing Problem as a Whole — Conclusions 69
summated through the association with no reorganization whatever
should make the idea appeal to those who believe that marketing condi-
tions in the Salt River Valley should receive the scrutiny and attention
of someone competent to care for such matters.
Conclusions The commercial problem is one of the most import-
ant and is economically of such nature that it can be solved by the
producers themselves. Briefly summarized, the principal problems
are ( i ) the present inability of growers to supply dependable quantities
to buyers who desire to negotiate for such products year after year;
(2) the lack of grading and standardization which now prevails
throughout the entire district and applies to practically all farm
products; (3) the serious lack of consolidation of the annual output
to enable growers to place surplus products in outside markets. The
solution of the first problem will come with the stabilizing of cropping
plans. It is an illuminating fact that the agriculture of the Valley is
now actively in process of being standardized and within a compara-
tively short time it is altogether probable that a more or less permanent
cropping system will be in effect throughout the Valley, because gen-
eral conditions are making it necessary for producers to unify their
plans. The question of better grades and standards, and plans for the
consolidation of products for large lot shipping, will result from more
complete co-operative action on the part of the farmers in the Valley,
who will not be long in realizing that the individual can stand alone no
more advantageously in the Salt River Valley than in any other district
as distant from large markets.
The University of Arizona
College of Agriculture
Agricultural Kxperiment Station
Bulletin No. 86
Irrigation pipe with tongue and groove JoiJit.
Machine-Made Cement Pipe for Irrigation Systems
and Other Purposes
By G. E. P. Smith
Tucson, Arizona, October 30, 1918
The University of Arizona
College of Agriculture
Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 86
*%4Jp
Irrigation pipe with tongue and groove Joint.
Machine-Made Cement Pipe for Irrigation Systems
and Other Purposes
By G. E. P. Smith
Tucson, Arizona, October 30, 1918
REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY
Ex-Officio
His Excellency, The Governor of Arizona
The State Superintendent of Public Instruction
Appointed by the Governor of the State
John T. Hughes Chancellor
William J. Bryan, Jr., A.B Treasurer
William Scarlett, A.B., B.D Regent
Mrs. Madge Roberts " Regent
Mrs. Bettie White • . Regent
H. S. McCluskey Regent
Mrs. Louise Foucar Marshall Secretary
J. W. Chapman Regent
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
RuFus B. von KlEinSmid, A.M., Sc.D President of the University ; Director
EsTEs P. Taylor, B.S.A Assistant Dean, College of Agriculture
Robert H. Forbes, Ph.D Research Specialist
John J. Thornber, A.M Botanist
Albert E. Vinson, Ph.D Biochemist
George E. P. Smith, C.E Irrigation Engineer
Richard H. Williams, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
W^alter S. Cunningham, B.S Dairy Husbandman
Charles T. Vorhies, Ph.D Entomologist
G. E. Thompson, B.S.A Agronomist
F. J. CridER, M.S Horticulturist
Clifford N. Catlin, A.M Assistant Chemist
♦Arthur L. EngEr, B.S., C.E Assistant Irrigation Engineer
Walker E. Bryan, M.S Assistant Plant Breeder
C. O. Bond, B.S.A Assistant Plant Breeder
W. E. Code, B.S.' Assistant Irrigation Engineer
A. E. KiNNisoN, B.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
R. S. Hav^kins, B.S.A Assistant Agronomist
Austin W. Morrill, Ph.D Consulting Entomologist
D. C. George • . . Consulting Plant Pathologist
The Experiment Station offices and labrratories are an integral part of the
University at Tucson. The Salt River Valley Experiment Station Farm is
situated one mile west of Mesa, Arizona. The date palm orchards are three
miles south of Tempe (co-operative U. S. D. A.) and one mile southwest of
Yuma, Arizona, respectively. The experimental dry-farms are near Cochise and
Prescott, Arizona.
Visitors are cordially invited, and correspondence receives careful attention.
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE
EsTEs p. Taylor, B.S.A Director Agricultural Extension Service
Leland S. Parke, B.S State Leader Boys' and Girls' Clubs
Mary Pritner Lockwood, B.S State Leader Home Demonstration Agents
W. M. Cook, A.B State Leader County Agricultural Agents
A. B. Ballantyne, B.S County Agent, Graham-Greenlee Counties
C. R. FiLLERUP County Agent, Navajo- Apache Counties
De Lore Nichols, B.S County Agent, Coconino County
J. R. SandigE, B.S County Agent, Gila County
C. R. Adamson, B.S.A County Agent, Cochise County
H. C. Heard, B.S County Agent, Maricopa County
J. W. LongstrEth County Agent, Yuma County
Leo L. Laythe, B.S County Agent, Pima-Pinal Counties
Agnes A. Hunt Assistant State Leader Boys' and Girls' Clubs
Edward B. OxlEy, B.S County Club Leader, Maricopa County
HazEl Zimmerman Home Demonstration Agent, Pima-Pinal Counties
Florence D. Sandige. B.S Home Demonstration Agent, Gila County
Amy L. DinsmorE, B.S Home Demonstration Agent, Maricopa County
Flossie D. Wills, B.S Home Dem. Agent, Graham-Greenlee Counties
Grace I. Tufts Home Demonstration Agent, Yuma-Yavapai Counties
Louise SporlEdEr Home Demonstration Agent, Cochise County
Nora LamorEaux Home Demonstration Agent, Apache County
*On leave.
CONTENTS
PVGE
IntrtKluction 1^
Manufacture of cement pipe ^7
McCracken pipe machine ^'
Other pipe niacliines 81
Sherman ^i.
Schenk J;
National •" °"
Monarch ^]
Thomas- Hammond °;
Allen
Sanders (Pomona) ...
Kellar-Thomason
Pneumatic air tampers
Duryee-Cole
Hand-made cement pipe.
86
86
88
9()
90
90
Wet-poured concrete pipe ^
Pipe making ^
The mortar ^
Curing 00
Waterproohng J"^
Pipe laying and pipe-line failure s JO^
Pipe laying |0^'
The trench.
103
Methods of laving J04
Risers 08
Effect of high temperatures jVg
Effect of wetting dry pipe JY^
Tests ; ]Y
Internal pressure and percolation tests 11^
External pressure tests |^'^
Loads on pipe in ditches and design of pipe lines 131
Absorption tests j;^;
Internal friction tests |^^
Capacity tables J^^
Durability J^"
Pipe line structures J^"^
Gates J2j
Risers \]^
Pipe line systems J^^
Special structures j4^
Other uses of cement pipe j^3
Sewers |^^
Bridges and culverts |^^
Drain tile ]^\
Gates 62
Underflow collecting flumes and inverted siphons loZ
Domestic supply pipe lines J63
164
Summary
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Stack of McCracken machine-made pipe, showing tongue and groove
joint Cover cut
Fig. 1. Stackyard at Continental, Arizona, and "ramada" forcuring the pipe
under cover Frontispiece
Fig. 2. Stack of 15-inch cement pipe made by the irrigation department,
University of Arizona, in 1907 T^
Fig. 3. Small irrigation ditch near Tucson, showing loss of entire flow by
seepage 74
Fig. 4. The McCracken No. 2 pipe machine at Continental, Arizona 76
Fig. 5. View of 20-inch packer-head used at Continental, Arizona 76
Fig. 6. The McCracken No. 3 pipe machine with equipment for bell-end
sewer pipe 78
Fig. 7. McCracken sewer pipe with bell and spigot joint 79
Fig. 8. Schenck packer-head, the trowel and 4 wings 82
Fig. 9. The National pipe machine 83
Fig. 10. The Thomas-Hammond pipe machine 85
Fig. 11. The Sanders (Pomona) pipe machine 87
Fig. 12. The Kellar-Thomason pipe macliine 88
Fig. 13. Filling the ordinary hand molds with a pneumatic tamper 89
Fig. 14. Pipe molds for hand-tamped pipe 92
Fig. 15. Johnson reinforced pipe joint 94
Fig. 16. Cage of Triangle Mesh reinforcement witli wires properly spliced... 95
Fig. 17. Yaqui Indians tamping 15-inch cement pipe 100
Fig. 18. Laying the concrete pipe for water supply main for City of Tucson. .105
Fig. 19. Laying 20-inch cement pipe in shallow ditch at Continental 105
Fig. 20. A cracked gate pit at Continental, caused by expansion of pipe line. .110
Fig. 21. Longitudinal crack in 20-inch pipe line Ill
Fig. 22. Increase in weight and expansion of cement pipe 112
Fig. 23. Effect of saturation on pipe that had been broken in testing machine. . 114
Fig. 24. Testing 16-inch machine-made pipe for resistance to internal press-
ure, at the Tucson city pumping plant, 1917 118
Fig. 25. Test specimens broken in internal pressure testing machine 119
Fig. 26. Apparatus for making external pressure tests 124
Fig. 27. Cement pipe, completely disintegrated while curing 141
Fig. 28. Design for square gate pit 143
Fig. 29. Riser and circular valve for taking out water for orchards or row
crops 144
Fig. 30 Method of irrigation from pipe line at Continental, used on the bot-
tomland 145
Fig. 31. Method of irrigation from pipe line at Continental, used on the side
slopes 146
Fig. 32. Method of construction of orchard pipe lines in the citrus district
around Riverside. California 148
Fig. 33. Map of a 540-acre field at Continental, showing 10-ft. contours and
layout of main supply line and laterals 148
Fig. 34. A division and measuring pit where main supply of water is divided
into two equal heads 151
Fig. 35. Sneci;d gate pit for forcing water up a lateral on a steep grade 152
Fig. 36. Carryin"" capacities of cement pipe and corrugated iron culverts of
equal diameters 159
Fig. Zl . Common type of gate in ditch bank 161
MACHINE-MADE CEMENT PIPE
FOR
IRRIGATION SYSTEMS AND OTHER PURPOSES
By G. E. P. Smith
INTRODUCTION
Eleven years ago this Station published a bulletin on hand-
tanii>ed cement i)ipe.* At that time cement pipe was unknown in
Arizona, while in southern California it was in disrepute owing to
the many failures of pipe lines which had been laid about a decade
before. The failures were due in some cases to unsound cement,
and in Other cases to insufficient cement or poor methods of mixing,
tamping, or curing. Several machines which made and laid the pipe
continuously in the trench had been tried unsuccessfully, and finally
abandoned. However, a few i)ipe lines which had been well con-
structed of hand-tamped pipe, especially those built by Mr. Arthur
S. Bent of Los Angeles, demonstrated the great possibilities of
cement i)ipe for irrigation distributing systems. In preparation for
the bulletin above referred to, the writer made considerable 15-inch
pipe, using various mixtures, and studied the water-tightness and
other characteristics, and as a result the bulletin strongly recom-
mended the use of cement pipe for irrigation lines, sewers, culverts,
ditch gates, drain tile, and underflow collecting systems.
Since 1907 a great deal of hand-tamped cement pipe has been
laid in Arizona. At the present time several companies in the State
are devoted to this work exclusively, and many farmers have pur-
chased forms and made their own pipe. Arizona cities, however,
continue to use clay sewer tile, although it is more expensive and is
in some other respects inferior to cement pipe. In California the
use of hand-tamped cement pipe has increased greatly, and it is
estimated that over 5000 miles of such pipe have been constructed,
effecting an enormous saving of water from evaporation and seep-
age losses in open ditches.
Meanwhile, there have been developed in the Middle West, not-
ablv in Iowa, some excellent machines for manufacturing cement
►Bull. 55, Arizona Agricu'tuial Experiment Station, 1907.
72
Bulletin 86
tile and jointed pipe with great rapidity and at a low cost. These
machines have been used chiefly for drainage tile, for which there is
a great demand in Iowa and neighboring states, but at the present
time they are coming into use for sewer pipe also. In the South-
Pig. 2. — Stack of 15-inch cement pipe made by the irrigation department, University
of Arizona, in 1907. (From Bulletin 55.)
west the need is for irrigation pipe and to a much less extent for
drainage tile, sewer pipe and culverts. It now appears strange
that this section has been so slow to adopt this valuable type of
machinery.
In August, 1916, the owners of the Continental Ranch near
Tucson decided to use cement pipe lines throughout the ranch for
the distribution of irrigating water. The required sizes varied from
8 inches to 20 inches in diameter, and about 10 miles of pipe line
were needed the first year. After a careful investigation of pipe
machines by the writer and with the assurance of securing highly-
trained expert operators, the machine-made pipe was adopted and
a contract was let to a representative of the Sioux City Engine and
Machinery Co., the manufacturers of the McCracken cement pipe
machines. This gentleman had operated the McCracken machines
for many years, and brought with him from Iowa two other ex-
perienced men ; and, inasmuch as both cement and sand of excellent
quality were available and were to be furnished at the machine by
Introduction 73
the owners of the ranch, it was beHeved that no risk was being
taken.
Difficulty arose, however, in obtaining the necessary equipment,
owing to pressure of business in the foundries of the Middle West,
and work was not commenced until December 14, 1916. In the
meantime, since it was necessary to have three miles of pipe line
laid by February 1, 1917, a portion of the contract was taken away
and re-let to a company making hand-tamped pipe. This company
began work about November 28, and finished pipe-making January 9.
The conditions, therefore, were ideal for obtaining a comparison
between machine-made and hand-tamped pipe. Both parties were
experienced, both were using the same sand and cement, and both
were curing their pipe under absolutely the same climatic condi-
tions. The two methods could be compared as to speed and cost,
and the pipe made could be compared as to strength, perviousness,
and frictional resistance to flowing water. The tests were planned
and partly carried out, but, unfortunately, an insufficient number of
the hand-made pipe were held out at the time of laying. Some tests,
therefore, were made only on the machine-made pipe. All tests
made are reported later on in this bulletin.
In the fall of 1917 the town of Glendale, Arizona, voted bonds
for a main sewer line and outfall sewer to New River. Bids were
received under the specifications for both clay and cement pipe
sewers. Although the specifications were more severe for the ce-
ment pipe, the bids on it were low-er than for the clay pipe. The
contract w^as awarded to the lowest bidder, who proposed to furnish
pipe made on a Thomas-Hammond pipe machine. The machine was
brought to Glendale from Los Angeles in October and was engaged
in pipe-making for about four months. The laying was completed
in May, 1918. Altogether the following list of pipe w^as delivered
laid in the trench :
4,050 ft. of 14-inch pipe
25,425 " " 15- "
3,450 " " 18- "
The great advantage of the use of cement pipe for irrigation con-
duits lies in the fact that the seepage and evaporation losses from
open ditches are prevented. These losses are appalling. Dr. Samuel
Fortier, Chief of Irrigation Investigations, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, states that "a large percentage of the water, estimated
at 40 percent of the amount taken in at the heads of the main canals,
is lost by absorption and percolation along the routes."* These
•Bull. 126, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1914. p. 1.
74
Bulletin 86
losses in the Salt River Valley were reported in 1915 by the Recla-
mation Service as 45 percent, and in 1917 as 32 percent. For small
canals these losses are often over 5 percent per mile in adobe soil
and 15 to 20 percent per mile in porous soil. An extreme case is
shown in Fig. 3. Here the entire flow is lost. The ditch has a
valuable water supply at its head and the vain effort is made to
hurry the water over the sand on a steep grade. When the photo-
graph was taken, the last drop of water was sinking away near the
willow tree shown by the arrow, while three miles away alfalfa and
other crops dependent on this stream were drying up and dying.
In southern California there are extensive distribution systems
Fig. 3. — Small irrigation ditch near Tucson, showins- less of entire How by seepage.
(From Bulletin 55.)
that are piped throughout so that the loss of water in distrilnition is
practically nothing. As a result of this and other economies the
duty of the water is nearly nine acres per (Arizona) miner's inch of
flow. The average duty of water in southern Arizona can be in-
creased greatly by the use of cement pipe for small ditches and con-
crete linings for larger ditches and canals.
There are additional reasons for the use of cement pipe for
irrigation ditches. The maintenance of open ditches is difficult.
Under the subtropical skies of Arizona, weeds and algae grow
rankly and occupy the whole cross-section of the ditch. Bermuda
and Johnson grass thrive along the banks. Unless this vegetation is
IXTRODLCTIO.X 75
icniuNC'd at frequent intervals, it ul)structs and diminishes the tlow.
Ditch cleaning is very expensive. The small Flowing Wells ditch
near Tucson, before it was lined, cost $80 per mile annually for
cleaning alone. In the Yuma X'alley the cost of cleaning lateral
canals by hand is about $550 per mile. Furthermore, gophers per-
forate open ditch banks and cause the waste of rivulets tor days or
even weeks before the holes are repaired. Sometimes the holes
enlarge, and the ditch bank breaks, with consecpient loss of the
entire stream. .\ break on the TurUjck canal of Calift)rnia. in 1910,
thought to ha\e been due to a go])her hole, caused 1000 feet of the
canal an a steep hillsi<le to be washed out, and the canal was out of
service for six weeks of the period of maximum need for water; the
actual cost of repairs was $20,000, but the damage to crops was
estimated at $1,000,000. The maintenance of cement i)ii)e lines is
so small as to be negligible.
Another reason for using cement pipe is that the distribution
lines can be run through low ])laces and over ridges; it is not neces-
sary to follow grade lines, for tlie water can be carried under
pressure through the low ]H)rti<)ns ^^i the line. This makes it pos-
sible to square uj) the lields much better and to reduce the cost of
grading. ].,ess labor is rccpiired. also, to irrigate from pipe lines
than from o])en ditches.
Again, there is a great saxing of land. ()])en ditches occupy
a]:)out one ])ercent o.' the land, but the necessity for turning teams
on each side makes the loss three or four percent. An open ditch is
a trreat obstruction and interferes with farm operations. With
cement pipe the loss of land is ])ractically nothing.
Si)ecial effort has been made to investigate and report on the
various causes of failures of pipe lines. As these causes become
fully understood, designers and pipe men will so adjust their prac-
tices that the danger of failures will quite disappear.
.Acknowledgment is hereby made to Messrs. A. L. Enger. F. C.
Kelton. H. C. Schwalen, and F. W. Sharman for assistance in con-
ducting the various tests of cement pipe, and to Mr. W. E. Code and
Miss Hester Hunter for their services in proof-reading.
76
Bui.le;tin 86
Pig 4 —Cement pipe plant at Continental, Arizona, showing the Mc Crack en No. 2
pipe machine and accessories, the mixer, the iack shaft, and the cement house.
The rameda is located at the right.
Fig 5— McCracken packer-head for 2l!-inch cement pipe. The five vanes are fol-
lowed by the cylindrical trowel.
MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT PIPE
THE Mccracken pipe machine
The pipe machine at the Continental Ranch is known as the
McCracken machine, after the designer. It is made at Sioux City,
Iowa. A view of the machine and ecpiipment is given in Fig. 4. A
cut showing all features of the McCracken mechanism is shown in
Fig. 6. The main frame is bnilt of angle iron and is strongly braced.
The frame of the No. 2 machine at Continental is 7 feet 6 inches long
by 3 feet 8 inches wide by 10 feet high. The pulley shown at the
extreme right is the main pulley, driven by belt, at a speed of about
225 R.P.M. The heavy vertical shaft at the front of the machine is
called the packer shaft. It rotates at 330 R.P.M., meanwhile rising
and descending through the pulley at the top. The vertical motion
is given to the packer shaft by a powerful lever, hinged at the back
and operated by a slow-moving crank on the large gear wheel. The
outside form, or jacket, rests on a table, which is revolving for all
sizes up to 14 inches, and is stationary for larger sizes. The cement
mortar, after being transferred from a concrete mixer, is fed into
the hopper seen at the extreme left. The mortar is carried up by
the link bucket elevator and discharged through a chute into the
pipe mold. The size and number of buckets is determined by the
size of the pipe. The operation of the machine is controlled by a
clutch on the main pulley.
On the lower end of the packer shaft is the packer-head, shown
separately in Fig. 5. It consists of a cylinder made of the hardest
grade of white iron surmounted by backward-curved vanes, either
two, four, or five, depending on the size of pipe being made. The
vanes (often called wings) catch the mortar as it falls into the form
and plaster it rigidly against the form. The rotating cylinder,
called the trow^el, follows, and increases the density, and, at the
same time, gives the interior of the tile or pipe a smooth uniform
glazed surface. The packer rod makes 50 revolutions during each
ascent. At least two sets of forms are used, so that while one is
being used at the machine, the other can be taken to the curing
shed, where it is "stripped" ofif from the tile and returned to the
machine. Two-wheeled carriers with long handles are used for
moving the tile, since even a 12-inch tile and mold are heavy, weigh-
ing about 150 pounds, and a 16-inch green tile and mold weigh about
240 pounds.
The operation, then, is to set a form, or jacket, on the table, ro-
tate the table so that the jacket comes beneath the packer-head, and
78
BuLLIvTlN 86
Fig. 6.~McCracken No. 3 pipe niiicliine with equipment for bell-end sewer pipe.
Mani'Facti'rk (»!• Ckmknt Pll'I':
79
start the machine, whereupon the packer descends to the table and
then begins to rise again. Mortar is discharged automatically into
the jacket, and the packer-head, beginning at the bottom, revolving
and gradually rising, forms the mortaf^nto a tile. In case a perfect
tile is not formed, as happens occasionally, then it is "stripped" im-
mediately and the mortar is shovelled back into the hopper again.
Experience in handling the machine is of much importance ; the
selection and screening of the sand and the degree of wetness of
the mortar are of even greater importance.
Fig. 6 shows the largest size sewer pipe machine, in which the
table is turned, and a special bell packer at the bottom is operated
automatically. The bell and spigot joint is shown in Fig. 7. In
California and the Southwest, however, the bell and spigot joint is
not much used, the tongue and groove joint being preferred. This
joint is illustrated in the cover cut.
The groove is made at the bottom by
means of a small iron ring or pallet
placed in the form, and the tongue
at the top by an equivalent ring on the
under side of the guide hopper. A great
advantage of the tongue and groove
joint is that the pipe can be laid in the
trench much faster than bell-ended
pipe. Also, there is less breakage in
handling the tongue and groove pipe
There is no valid reason why this joint
should not be used for sewer pipe as
well as for irrigation pipe ; indeed, it
should be preferred in the interest of
economy.
Since the forms are corrugated, the outer surface of the pipe is
corrugated. This probably adds to the strength somewhat, but the
more immediate purpose of the corrugations is to prevent the tile
from slipping from the mold while being carried to the curing floor.
Corrugations on the inside, however, would be very objectionable,
since they w^ould reduce the capacity of a pipe line greatly.
The bottom pallets must be left under the pipe until the mortar
is set sufficiently to permit turning the pipe over. If the pipe are
cured in the open air, this requires from 24 to 48 hours, depending
upon the season of the year. The pallets are released by a gentle
tap of the hammer. Many pipe manufacturers in the Middle West
Fig. 7. — McCracken sewer pipe
with bell and spigot joint.
80
Bulletin 86
cure the pipe in steam chambers, which accelerates the hardening
process.
The thickness of the pipe recommended is given in Table I. The
thickness of the drain tile is about one-twelfth of the diameter of
the pipe, of the sewer pipe one-tenth of the diameter, and the thick-
ness of the irrigation pipe is intermediate between the other two.
If the irrigation pipe is to be subjected to considerable heads, it
should be "one-tenth pipe.''
TABLE I. THICKNESS AND WEIGHT PER FOOT OE MACHINE-MADE PIPE
Tnside
Irrigation pipe
diameier
Drainaee tile*
(for low heads) i
Sewer pipe
Inches
4
Inches
Pounds
Inches
Pounds
Inches
Pounds
6
8
"Va
"n
"Vi
10
Vs
1
1
12
1
42
w?,
47
m
52
14
1^/^
55
Wa
61
w%
67
16
m
75
1/2
82
w?,
89
18
1^
92
15/8
100
Wa
108
20
m
112
\y%
120 !
2
128
22
2
141
2
141
2V^
159
24
2
153
2%
163
23/8
185
The capacity of the McCracken machine per hour for irrigation
pipe is about 300 feet of 6-inch pipe, 200 feet of 12-inch pipe, 120
feet of 16-inch pipe, and 80 feet of 24-inch pipe. Straight tile are
turned out somewhat faster. The older machines make pipe of 24
inches length, but the most recent models make the tile or pipe 30
inches in length. The range of sizes for the No. 2 machine is from
4 inches to 24 inches in diameter.
A complete outfit consists of the machine, an engine or motor of
25 horsepower, a concrete mixer, and two-wheeled carriers ; jackets,
pallets, and packer-heads for each size of pipe which it is desired
to make ; and two sizes of elevator buckets.
The proportions for the mortar should be 1 cement to 3 sand,
except for city sewer pipe and irrigation pipe under high head, for
which the proportions may be 1 to 2^ or 1 to 2^. In many cases
pipe have been made of leaner mixtures,l:4 or 1:5, but failures
have resulted sometimes, and the leaner mixtures require better
conditions of curing.
The force of men required to make pipe, as exemplified at Con-
tinental, is as follows : At first there were three skilled laborers, —
the foreman, the machine operator, and the stripper ; and five un-
•For very deep trenches, heavier pipe should be used.
Manufacture of Cement Pipe 81
skilled laborers, — the mortar maker, the mortar feeder, two carriers,
and one man to sprinkle the pipe in the curing and stack yard. After
all the laborers had become accustomed to their work, the foreman
was disjiensed witii. \\'hile making 18 and 20-inch pipe two extra
laborers were required.
To protect the freshly-made pipe from sun and rain, a shelter
was built just to one side of the pipe machine. It was constructed
of poles, branches, and river brush and is called, locally, a raniada.
It is 65 feet by 75 feet in size. The frontispiece is a view of the
pipe yard in August, 1917. It shows the ramada in the background.
OTHER PIPE MACHINES
The date of the first manufacture of cement pipe by machine is
uncertain. Cement pipe was being used largely for sewers in Maine
about 1870. An advertisement in an old directory of Maine of 1868
contains the commendation of a prominent architect who states that
he had known of the use of cement pipe in Boston for 30 years. The
pipe made by the advertiser, in the city of Portland, was of various
sizes up to 18 inches in diameter, both circular and egg-shaped in
section. It is claimed that this man had a machine for making pipe
and that the principle of packing was similar to that of the Sanders
machine described on page 86. At that time natural cement was
used exclusively for the pipe, Portland cement being too costly, and
probably the pipe was of very inferior quality.
THE SHERMAN
About 1885 the Sherman patent sewer pipe machine was de-
signed and built at Omaha, Neb. It was moved from there to
Brooklyn, where for twenty years it supplied that city with cement
sewer pipe in great quantities. The machine employed the tamping
principle, and was the prototype of the Thomas-Hammond machine
described on page 84. The Sherman machine had eight metal
tampers and an inside core which was pulled upward when the
forms were filled. The outside form rotated with the table on
which it stood. The smaller sizes of pipe, of 6, 9, and 12-inch
diameters, were circular in section, and the larger sizes, 15, 18, and
24-inches in diameter, were of egg-shaped section, which is the ideal
section for important sewers. All sizes had fiat bases. The wall
thicknesses were 1 inch for the 9-inch pipe, 1^ inches for the 15-inch
pipe, and 1^ inches for the 24-inch pipe. They were made of cement,
sand, and broken trap rock in proportions 1 : 1^ : 23^. Much of the
82
Bui^le;tin 86
pipe was "carbonized" in kilns with coke gas and steam and it is
said that three days in the kiln were equal to two weeks of curing in
air. Prior to the advent of the Sherman machine, all the sewer pipe
used in Brooklyn was made by hand tamping, using natural, or
"Rosendale," cement.
the; schenk
A pipe machine which has been used extensively in Iowa and
neighboring states is the Schenk, made at Waterloo, Iowa. This
was the pioneer tile machine, the first one having been built in 1906.
It was the first centrifugal packer, and, as might be expected, was
troublesome to operate at first, but many improvements have been
introduced and the Schenk has become entirely reliable.
The principles of the Schenk ma-
chine are very similar to those of the
McCracken, the differences being in
the mechanical details. The packer
shaft is rotated by gearing and is ele-
vated by a lever the rear end of which
is controlled by a heart-shaped cam
wheel, which in turn is operated by
worm drive from the main shaft. The
original Schenk packer-head was
shaped like an ordinary earthen jug,
but the one now in use has vanes
and a cylindrical trowel exactly like the McCracken.
The range of sizes possible with the regular No. 2 Schenk ma-
chine is from 4 inches to 18 inches, with lengths of either 12 or 18
inches. There is also a Schenk sewer pipe machine with range of
sizes from 4 to 30 inches, and in length either 24 or 30 inches. The
Schenk is said to be a very fast machine for the smaller sizes of tile.
The manufacturers guarantee that it will make 3000 feet of 6-inch
straight tile per day with six men. It is not known that they have
yet furnished pallets for tongue and groove pipe, but doubtless
would do so if the demand warranted it.
Fig. 8. — The Schenck packer-
head, showing trowel and wings.
THE NATIONAL
A pipe machine, called the National, made at Boone, Iowa, dif-
fers from the two preceding in that both outside and inside forms
are used and the mortar is tamped in place. It is adapted to making
large pipe, particularly from 20-inch to 45-inch, though the range
Manufacture of Cement Pipe
83
of sizes in the regular equipment is from 14 inches to 36 inches
diameter. The lengths used are 24, 30, and 36 inches.
A view of the National pipe machine is sht)\vn in Fig. 9. The
heavy steel frame is seen to carry a short main shaft (8) driven by
pulley, and a long countershaft (6) at the top driven by chain. The
countershaft operates two vertical tampers (4), which play up and
down like trip hammers, alternately striking tamping blows, 350 per
Fig. 9. — The National pipe machine.
minute each, with a force of 75 pounds. The tampers begin at the
bottom and work up with the concrete. The table (2) on which the
forms are set is rotated, bringing all parts of the tile under the
tampers. The mortar or concrete is elevated (1) and dropped into
the mold as in the other machines. Five horsepower is said to be
required on the belt and a 10-horsepower gasoline engine is ad-
visable.
84 Bulletin 86
The rate of output claimed for the National machine is 700 feet
of 14-inch tile per day, 600 feet of 18-inch, 550 feet of 24-inch, and
350 feet of 30-inch. Eight men are needed for sizes up to the 20-
inch and eleven men for larger sizes. The wall thicknesses of the
pipe are the same or a little greater than those given in Table I.
The mortar is mixed drier than for the McCracken, as otherwise the
tampers work through it instead of on it.
One form of made-up reinforcement that has been used with the
National machine consists of two rings of heavy wire, one close to
the inside of the pipe and the other near the outside, the two rings
being connected at intervals by wire spacers, all electrically welded.
It is called double hoop reinforcement.
THE MONARCH
The manufacturers of the National also make the Monarch,
which ia similar in principle to the McCracken and Schenk machines.
It has a solid heavy cast frame, surmounted at the top by a sort of
walking beam which raises and lowers the packer shaft. The beam
is attached to the shaft through a ball thrust bearing. The Monarch
is designed for making drain tile from 5 to 20 inches in diameter.
The table on which the smaller sizes are made has six stands for
the jackets, so that the operation of the machine is very rapid. Two
lengths of tile can be made, 12 and 18 inches.
THE THOMAS-HAMMOND
All of the preceding machines except the Sherman are made in
Iowa. Another machine, the Thomas-Hammond, originated in Ta-
coma, Washington, in 1908. The product of the Thomas-Hammond
machines is called "glazed cement pipe," and is accepted by leading
cities on the Pacific coast for sanitary sewers.
Several changes have been made in the original design of the
machine so that it is now much more compact, accessible, and port-
able. The newest model is now called the Hammond, and about a
score of them are now in service. This machine uses the tamping
principle, but, while the outside form and tile revolve under the
tamper, the inside form stands still and serves to give the tile a
smooth or glazed interior surface. The concrete is fed into the
mold in a uniform stream and in layers about 1^ inches deep. The
tamper strikes 400 blows per minute, each blow being from 300 to
500 pounds, depending on size of pipe. The revolving table is so
timed that the blows overlap. The tamper is of oak or hickory and
rises automatically, due to the compacting of the concrete. When
M.\Ni-i'ACTrKi-: oi" Cr-MKxT riiM-:
85
the forms arc filled, the inner form is withdrawn and the outside
form with the tile is taken away on a wheeled carrier. On the older
machines the inner form was withdrawn downward, but in the latest
models it is pulled upward. The older models have two tampers ;
the later models, one. The range of pipe sizes is from 4 inches to
30 inches in diameter on the largest of the three sizes of machines.
The pipe machine used at Glendale recently is a Hammond. Its
construction is shown in Fig. 10. A vertical shaft is concealed in the
heavy cast iron standard.
This shaft operates the
tamper which is carried
on a swinging arm. At
the bottom is a horizontal
shaft which drives the
vertical shaft and rotates
the table on which the
pipe is made. This shaft
carries a winding drum,
also, by means of which
the inside form is with-
drawn upward. The hori-
zontal shaft is driven by
a quarter-turn belt from a
jack shaft above, and the
jackshaft is driven from
the main shaft which also
drives the tw^o-sack batch
mixer and the endless
belt elevator. A 20-horse-
power electric motor fur-
nished the power at Glen-
dale.
The outside forms are of heavy steel, in halves, held with screw
clamps. The inside form is a long cylinder with surface well pol-
ished by the rubbing to which it is subjected when a tile is being
made. The Thomas-Hammond machine has been used mostly for
bell-ended pipe and the Glendale specifications required bell and
spigot joints. When the body of the pipe has been tamped full, a
special form to make the bell is put in place, and the tamping is then
continued. The pipe rests on a cast iron ring with three blunt feet.
When a fresh pipe is wheeled to the curing space the bell form is
Fig. 10. — The Thomas-Hammoncl pipe machine.
86 Bulletin 86
first removed, then the outside forms, and a light galvanized ring is
slipped onto the top edge of the bell, as otherwise its weight might
cause the bell to slump off. The pipe is then left standing on its
bottom ring for at least a day.
The pipe making crew at Glendale was composed of eight men.
Only one man, the foreman, came with the machine, and great diffi-
culty was had in breaking in green men, especially since the force
kept changing. The best day's record of pipe making was 722 feet
of 15-inch pipe, and the average day's run was from 575 to 600 feet.
The pipe was cured in an open yard and was kept wet for seven
days. It was hauled over rough roads to the line of trench but
there was practically no breakage. Tests were made on about 100
specimens in a frame quite similar to that shown in Fig. 24. With
the full pressure from the city main, about 30 pounds, none of the
pipe broke and none of them showed any seepage, save a few small
spots that became moist. The pipe were inspected carefully. A
few, perhaps one percent, were rejected on account of burnt in-
terior surfaces, short bells, or cracks, most of the cracks being at the
spigot end.
THE ALLEN
The Allen machine has a revolving table and a tamper. Both in-
side and outside forms rotate with the table. The machine is de-
signed for sizes from 3 inches to 24 inches in diameter. About six
of these machines have been built, two of which have been in use at
Phoenix for se\'eral years. It is understood that no more of these
machines are being built.
THE SANDERS
More recently two more pipe machines have been put on the
market in southern California. One is the Sanders, built by the
Pomona Manufacturing Company and the other is built by Kellar-
Thomason Company of Los Angeles.
The Sanders pipe machine has a steel frame work, the base of
which is only 4 feet by 8 feet. This frame is mounted on four small
wheels, so that the machine can be shifted around in the pipe yard
or can be moved readily from one job to another. A 6 horsepower
distillate engine is mounted on the back end of the frame and is
belted to the main shaft located at the top of the frame, directly
above the front end. The vertical packer rod is driven from the
main shaft by beveled gears. The weight of the machine is ap-
proximately 1800 pounds and a 6-horsepower engine weighs about
1000 pounds additional.
MaXL'FACTI'RIv of CKMIvNT Pll^g
87
The ordinary forms, consisting of core, jacket, and tongue and
groove rings, such as are used for hand-tamped pipe, are used with
the Sanders machine. Thus, a contractor who has an equipment of
forms for hand-made pipe need not buy a new equipment. The
packer is a long revolving cylinder which is lowered into the space
between the core and jacket. On the bottom of the packing cylin-
der and held by rivets, there are three or more chilled iron flat-
bottomed "shoes" which are tilted at a small angle. When the
Fig. 11. — The Sanders (Pomona) pipe machine.
cylinder reaches the bottom, shovelers begin to throw mortar into
the forms. The mortar accumulating and passing beneath the re-
volving shoes raises the cylinder and the mortar is packed into the
form densely, the pressure being downward rather than outward as
in the McCracken system. When the cylinder reaches the top it is
held by a band brake while the table is rotated so as to bring another
(empty) jacket under the packer, and the cylinder is then lowered
again by partially releasing the brake. Meanwhile the top, or
tongue, joint is made on the cement pipe by workmen, and the core
is removed. The form containing the pipe is wheeled away to the
curing floor, where the jacket is stripped ofY. The packing cylinder
makes about 40 revolutions per pipe, the number depending upon
how fast the mortar is fed, and about 30 seconds of time is required
in this operation.
The table on which the forms rest has three grates for forms,
so that while one pipe is being made, another is being removed and
88
Buivi^ETiN 86
the forms for a third pipe are being made ready. The table has a
socket bearing at the center, about 1^ inches diameter, resting on a
spindle so that it turns easily when the operator raises the spindle
by stepping on the end of a foot lever. About ten of these machines
are now in use. The range of sizes is from 6 to 14 inches in
diameter.
THE KElvIvAR-THOMASON
The Kellar-Thomason machine is larger and requires a 20-horse-
power engine or motor. The machine is quite similar to the Mc-
■
^^^ i 11
'i'^vBR^I
Hi
Fig. 12. — The Kellar-Thomason pipe machine.
Cracken and uses the trowelling process, but is more compact and
of sturdy construction, as seen in Fig. 12.
The ordinary split jacket for hand-tamped pipe is used, but no
core, and the mortar is packed securely against the jacket by the
winged trowel. The usual crew is five men for small pipe and
seven men for large pipe. The range of pipe sizes is from 4 to 20
Manufacture of Cfment Pipe
89
inches and the capacity of the machine is from 1000 to 2000 feet per
nine hours, according to the size.
The manufacturers state that they have made internal pressure
tests on their machine-made pipe, and found 8-inch pipe to with-
Fig. 13. — Filling the ordinary hand molds with a pneumatic tamper. There are six
plants in California where these tampers are used successfully.
Stand from 65 to 85 pounds per square inch, 10-inch pipe a maximum
of 77 pounds, 16-inch pipe 65 pounds, the pipe being made of 1 : 3^
mixture. They state also that tests on 1 : 5^4 pipe showed strength
about 60 percent of the above figures.
The first of these machines w^as installed at Van Nuys, Cali-
90 Bulletin 86
fornia, in March, 1916, and has been in successful operation since
that time. Another machine is in service in Yuba City, California.
PNEUMATIC AIR TAMPERS
Several pipe contractors, who still use the ordinary hand molds,
have installed air compressors in their yards, and use pneumatic
tampers, v^hich are similar to pneumatic hammers and drills. The
Ingersoll tamper, which is preferred, weighs about 20 pounds and is
suspended from a tripod with pulley and counterweight. It has a
5-inch stroke, and strikes 750 blows per minute. The head of the
tamper is three-fourths of an inch thick and 6 inches long, in circular
form to conform to the curve of the mold. The air pressure is 90
pounds per square inch. The compressed air is piped about the
yards and several pipe crews can use it at once. A 7-inch by 6-inch
compressor, displacing 75 cubic feet per minute, will supply two
crews. About 10 percent more pipe can be made than by hand
tamping, and the pipe is tamped more uniformly and more densely.
THE DURYEE-COLE
A continuous pipe machine, the Duryee-Cole, is in process of
manufacture and will doubtless be tried out soon.
HAND-MADE CEMENT PIPE
Cement pipe made and tamped by hand has become very com-
mon throughout southern California and Arizona. The usual style
of outfit is that shown in Fig. 14. It consists of outside and inside
collapsible forms, a rimmer for forming the tongue on the top end
of the pipe, enough bottom pallets for one or two days' run, hopper,
tampers, scoop, and shovels. Bell-ended pipe is made by hand in
the Middle West. An example of such pipe is shown in Fig. 2.
After the forms are placed in position and a batch of mortar is
made ready, one man feeds the mortar into the forms while another
tamps vigorously. Care must be taken not to feed the mortar faster
on one side of the ring than on the other, nor faster than it can be
thoroughly tamped. The mortar is made of a rather dry consist-
ency ; most pipe makers make it unnecessarily dry. When the forms
are filled and the top joint (tongue) has been made, the forms are
carried by hand to the curing floor, where the inside form, or core,
is first removed from the tile and then the outside form, or jacket,
is removed.
Manufacture of Cement Pipe
91
There are six cement pipe plants in California where pipe is
made of very wet consistency, so wet that the jacket cannot be re-
moved in the ordinary way lest the mortar slump to the ground.
Instead of opening the jacket to remove it, the jacket is shaken ofif
by quick jerking movements upward. When the jacket comes free,
the tile settles over an inch in its length. The tile thus made be-
comes strong and is exceedingly impervious. More skill is required
than in making dry or semi-wet pipe.
The hand-made pipe is thicker than machine-made pipe, except
in the larger sizes. The usual thickness and weight for the common
sizes is given in Table II. The large sizes should be made with
thicker walls. It is seen from the table that the 12-inch pipe has
wall thickness one-eighth of the pipe diameter, while the 36-inch
pipe has w^all only one-twelfth of the diameter. Most of the serious
pipe failures have occurred on large pipe lines. This matter is
discussed further on page 133.
TARLE IT. THICKNESS AND WEIGHT PER FOOT OF HAND-MADE PIPE
Diameter
Thickness
Weight per foot
Inches
Inches
Pounds
4
1
6
1/8
'26
8
VA
31
10
m
44
12
1/2
57
14
m
68
16
m
87
18
m
100
20
m
114
22
-?
141
24
2%
163
30
234
36
3
Extra strong pipe can be made by using an oversize outside form.
One contractor in this way makes 8-inch pipe of two strengths, one
having the wall thickness one-eighth inch greater than the other.
Sometimes a 14-inch jacket is used with a 12-inch core and the pipe
is, therefore, 2^ inches thick. A contractor who makes very wet
pipe in this manner states that he guarantees it under 100 feet
pressure.
The working force at Continental for hand-tamped pipe con-
sisted of two skilled men and four unskilled laborers, though the lat-
ter were not all employed to advantage. The tamper was unusually
strong and active, and had had long experience in pipe making and
laying. He was able to make from 270 to 300 feet of 16-inch pipe
92
BuLivr;TiN 86
in a nine-hour day, which is an exceptional record. In May, 1916,
near Tucson, two experienced pipe makers, working on a contract,
made 200 to 220 feet of 12-inch pipe or 110 feet of 16-inch pipe per
eight-hour day. Later, at the same place, one man with two in-
experienced helpers made 12-inch pipe at the rate of 180 feet per
day. About the same time and only a few miles away, another pipe
crew brought from Los Angeles was making 1000 feet of 18-inch
pipe. The making required ten days, partly on account of the ex-
Fig. 14. — Pipe molds for hand-tamped cement pipe.
treme heat, though the foreman stated that, ordinarily, a crew
should make 220 feet per day. On the University campus consider-
able 8-inch pipe is used from time to time. It is made by two
workmen who turn out 100 to 120 feet per eight hours.
It is apparent, therefore, that no uniformity in the rate of pipe
making by hand exists, and standards cannot be safely set. One
pipe maker may accomplish twice as much as another. In case a
farmer purchases forms and makes his own pipe, as sometimes oc-
Manufacture; of Cement Pipe 93
curs, he should not try for a record output until he first learns how
to make pipe of high quality.
The proportions used with hand molds are 1 of cement to 3 or 4
of sand and gravel or broken stone, the richer mixture being used
for pipe to be placed under some pressure or where sand alone is
used for the aggregate. In one instance recently, near Tucson, a
contractor made pipe with a 1 : Ayz mixture instead of 1:3 as had
been directed. The pipe was weak and very porous. With hand
molds much coarser aggregates are allowable than with the Mc-
Cracken pipe machine, gravel even up to on"e-half the thickness of
the pipe being permissible. Such particles do not interfere with
hand tamping, but they do prevent the formation of the desirable
"polished" surface with the revolving packer-head. The advantage
of including small gravel is that the same strength can be obtained
with a smaller proportion of cement.
The greatest advantage of the hand-made pipe is that it can
always be made at or near the place where it is to be used. Usually
sand of suitable quality can be found within a moderate distance and
the wagon haul for sand and cement is not expensive. On the
other hand, machine-made pipe presupposes a factory at some cen-
tral location for supplying the demand for pipe in an irrigated or
drainage district. Only on large contracts would it be profitable to
move a large machine to the work. A portable Pomona machine
obviates this difficulty to some extent. A freight charge on the pipe
plus the cost of a long wagon haul might increase the cost of the
pipe to a point where the superior qualities of the machine-made
pipe would be more than offset by its greater cost. Therefore, there
will always be a field, small jobs and in isolated locations, where the
hand-made pipe will be employed.
WET-POURED CONCRETE PIPE
Wet-poured pipe, also, can be considered as hand-made, though
it differs materially from that described above. The fact that the
concrete is poured wet makes it necessary to leave the pipe in the
molds until the concrete is thoroughly set. This requires many sets
of forms and the investment in forms is so great that wet-poured
pipe is used only for large sizes. Usually, too, wet-poured pipe is
for pipe lines under considerable hydraulic pressure, and the pipe
usually is reinforced.
Two large contracts for wet-poured pipe have been executed at
Tucson, one for the water-supply main from the city's supply wells
four miles south of Tucson to the main pumping plant on Osborne
94
Bulletin 86
Avenue, built in 1914, and the other the outfall sewer, built in 1917.
The same forms were used on both jobs. They are four feet
long and the pipe is 30 inches inside diameter with a shell 3^ inches
thick. The pipe for the water-supply line was made at a yard, in
the center of which was a high derrick. The boom was long and
reached over a wide area. Each pipe was moved from the pouring
floor out into the yard just before removing the forms and the der-
rick was used again later to load the pipe for hauling to place along
the trench. The concrete mixture was 1 of cement, 2 of sand, and
4 of broken stone or screened gravel. The reinforcement was of
round iron wound spirally and was designed to withstand an inter-
nal pressure, varying from zero at the upper end to 30 pounds per
square inch at the lower end of the line, with 15,000 pounds per
square inch allowable working stress in the steel.
For the outfall sewer the pipe was made along the trench and
the forms were moved along as the work progressed. This obviated
the necessity of hauling the pipe long distances, but required much
hauling while making and curing the pipe. The mixture was the
same as for the water-supply line, but the reinforcement was uni-
form the whole length of the line and consisted of 3^ inch round
iron rings spaced 6 inches apart, and 4 rods of the same size running
longitudinally through each
joint from the end of the
tongue to the end of the
groove. The maximum dif-
ference in elevation in the
sewer line is 7?) feet.
The only criticism of the
pipe just described is that
the longitudinal reinforce-
ment does not extend con-
tinuously across the joints.
This continuity can be ob-
tained in various ways, and
some ingenious joints have
been patented, notably the
Johnson and the Meri-
wether, the former of which is shown in Fig. 15. The Johnson pipe
uses special bar reinforcement, and the Meriwether uses "Triangle
Mesh." Ordinarily longitudinal reinforcement is not needed. It
is needed, however, if the bed of the trench is of uneven bearing
power and settlement is liable to occur. An inverted siphon laid
Fig. 15. — The Johnson reinforced pipe joint.
(From Bulletin 55.)
Manufacture of Cement Pipe
95
beneath a river should have heavy reinforcement longitudinally.
A long section of the city supply pipe was unjoined when a river
flood broke into the unfilled trench and floated the pipe line upward.
Usually the longitudinal reinforcement is introduced merely for the
purpose of holding the horizontal rings in place.
The circular reinforcement is designed usually to take all of the
internal tension, allowing 16,000 pounds i:>er square inch for the
unit stress. If the tension is
due to internal water pressure,
the steel is placed near the out-
side of the pipe, but buried in
the concrete about an inch to
protect it from rust. If the re-
inforcement is to resist the
weight of backfill, then the
steel rings are made elliptical,
so that they are near the inside
of the pipe at top and bottom
and near the outside on the two
sides. For pipe over 24 inches
in diameter it is practical to al-
low higher pressure heads, be-
cause the pipe layers can work
inside of large pipe and can
make better joints; Many con-
crete pipe lines with heads be-
tween 100 and 200 feet are in
successful use.
The Massey Company make
reinfnrrpd ronrretp rnlvert nine^'^- 16.— Cage of Triangle Mesh reinforcement
remiorcea concrexe cun eri pipe ^j^j^ ^^'iTes properly spliced.
for railways and highways. For
small sized pipe they use steel mesh, with steel uprights and bell
rings, while in the larger sizes they use a cage of ^-inch Havemeyer
bar for vertical bars and all rings, all hand-tied with No. 14 annealed
wire. The mix is 1:2:4.
Reinforced concrete pipe, wet-poured, is also constructed in
place in many instances, a local example being the cross-cut col-
lecting head of the Tucson Farms Company near the southwest
corner of the city. The power conduit at the Roosevelt Reservoir
has two inverted siphons constructed in this manner, one of them
crossing Cottonwood Canyon at a depth of 75 feet below the grade
line of the canal.
96
Bulletin 86
PIPE MAKING
THE MORTAR
The materials for making cement pipe must be of good quality.
The cement must pass the standard specifications of the American
Society for Testing Materials. A comparatively quick setting ce-
ment is desirable. Riverside (California) cement was used at Con-
tinental. Four carloads were sampled and tested for strength and
fineness. The normal consistency was obtained with 25^^ percent
water in 1917 and 24 percent in 1918.
TABLE III. TENSILE STRENGTH OE RIVERSIDE CEMENT
Car
Date of
sample
, , ^ ^ 7-day test
1-dav test
28-day test
Tested by
No.
Neat Neat 1:3
Neat
1:3
1
2
3
4
Oct., 1916
June, 1918
Pn„«^c [ Pounds
215 502
216 598
408 1 745
396 ' 698
Pounds Pounds
218 ' 672
239 649
288 835
257 745
Pounds
286
239
408
372
F. C. Kelton
Smith, Emery & Co
« « « (1
TABLE IV. FINENESS OE RIVERSIDE CEMENT, OCTOBER 2, 1916
Car No.
Percent passing screen
lOO-mesh
200-mesh
1
2
3
4
Percent
97.8
97.7
99.1
99.0
Percent
80.1
81.5
86.6
86.3
The percentage of magnesia (MgO) was 4.1, as determined in
June, 1917, and again in June, 1918.
Users of cement should take samples occasionally and have stan-
dard tests made for soundness, strength, fineness, and percentage of
magnesia. In every large city there are commercial testing engi-
neers, and in Arizona the University offers to make these tests for
a moderate charge to cover the cost.
The sand for cement pipe must be clean, and should be composed
of sharp quartz particles. If it comes from gravel beds and is for
use on a McCracken or other trowel machine, it should be screened
through a half-inch mesh screen, for larger pieces are apt to roll
under the action of the packer-head. For tamped pipe, whether
made by hand or on one of the tamping machines, a considerable
percentage of coarse gravel or broken stone is desirable, for the
strength of the pipe is enhanced thereby. All the better class of
pipe contractors who tamp are coming to use coarse aggregate with
]M.\N'L'FACTURK OF CemEXT PipE
97
the sand. The usual ratio is 5 of sand to 3 of broken stone. A
larger proportion of stone might be stronger but there would be
some cavities, and more danger of seep spots. Broken stone give.«i
greater strength than gravel. If pipe is broken up for examination,
the pieces of broken stone are more often broken through, while the
breaks run around the gravel. Stone that passes through a ^-inch
screen is suitable for 12-inch pipe, and stone from a 1-inch screen
for 18-inch pipe. If it is possible to obtain broken stone that has
passed through a ^^ j-inch screen, it could be used in a limited way in
packer-head pipe.
For tamped pipe, therefore, the most favorable proportions are
1 of cement, 2^ of sand, and 1^^ of J4 irich to ^ inch broken stone.
If no stone is available, the mix should be 1 of cement to 3 of sand.
For sewer pipe the proportions used in many cases are 1 :25^, but so
rich a mix is not necessary unless the sewer is laid very deep or is
in soil containing a high percentage of white alkali, particularly
sodium sulfate.
Two samples of the sand being used at Continental were taken
on April 3, 1917, and two samples on June 26, 1918. They were
subjected to mechanical analysis.
TABLE V. MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SCREENED SAND AT CONTINENTAL,
ARIZONA
Percent pasriin^ screen
Separa-
Screen
tion
Sample
Sample '
Sample
Sample
Classification
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3 i
No. 4
Meshes
per lin. in.
Mm.
%
%
%
%
Very fine sand
200
0.10
0.4
0.6
.33
.21
Fine sand
ISO
0.135
0.7
1.1
.64
.44
Fine sand
100
0.20
1.7
2.6
1.25
.89
Fine sand
70
0.25
4.8
6.4
2.55
1.99
Medium sand
40
0.44
177
21.2
8.85
8.49
Coarse sand
20
1.00
51.2
57.0
33.85
43.99
Fine gravel
10
2.07
79.1
82.3
59.85
75.29
6
74.95
87.39
4
•■•
84.35
92.99
A cement mixer of the batch type, such as the Blystone, should
be used at all cement pipe plants. The cement and sand should be
mixed dry for about a minute before the water is let in from a meas-
uring tank attached to a frame just over the mixer. Mixing is then
98
Bulletin 86
continued for at least one minute more before the mixer is dumped.
The mortar on the floor must be used up quickly and no dry or set
mortar should be retempered and used.
At Continental 607 cubic inches, or 22 pounds, of water were
used for a one sack batch. This is 23.4 percent of the weight of the
cement. The mortar when dumped was just wet enough to retain
its form when compressed in the hand. But when the outside jacket
was stripped from the fresh tile, the tile quaked like stiff jelly, and
small drops of water stood on the surface. When the mortar had
set, the surface was covered with a fine water-web ; this web may be
accepted as the test for correct consistency. The strength and im-
perviousness of the pipe depend in large part upon the percentage
of water used ; in every case it must be carefully watched, for the
amount of water needed varies with the brand of cement and with
the fineness of the sand. If the mortar is mixed too dry the pipe
may be pervious, and if too wet the strength is reduced.
The unit quantities of sand and cement per tile, or per 100 feet,
is somewhat variable even on the same machine. The outside jack-
ets, when old, become stretched, and the packer-heads become worn ;
both of these causes tend to increase the thickness and weight of the
tile. The rate of feeding the elevator buckets and the speed of the
machine tend to vary the density of the tile walls. An approximate
estimate of the quantities required can be had from the following
data obtained at Continental.
TABLE VL QUANTITIES OE MATERIAL FOR MCCRACKEN CEMENT PIPE
Diameter of
Thickness
Pipe per cubic yard
Pipe per sack
pipe
of sand
of cement
Inches
Inches
Lineal feet
Lineal feet
12
Wa
69.0
7.0
14
m
56.2
5.5
16
m
40.2
3.9
18
m
38.3
3.5
20
m
30.7
3.1
The handling of the machine is an art and cannot be learned
from a bulletin. The normal method of learning to run a machine
is to serve an apprenticeship. The purchaser of a machine to be
used in Arizona should include in the contract that the manufac-
turers send an experienced pipe maker to install the machine and
to operate it for at least a month.
The operator stands with the right hand on the clutch lever,
holding a large trowel in the left hand. With the trowel he can
hold back the mortar in the chute or can help it along. Too much
mortar chokes the packer-head and puts a heavy load on the engine.
Manufacture of Cement Pipe 99
To change the machine from one size of tile to another requires
about an hour's time. This is done sometimes during the noon hour
or after working hours in the afternoon.
The advantage derived from reinforcing machine-made pipe is
not fully determined, but it seems probable that much reinforced
pipe will be used in the future with the extension of the field for
cement ])ipe. For machines of the National type, double hoop rein-
forcement is the best. For packer-head pipe machines some form
of cage in which the circular rings are supported is preferable. At
Continental electro-welded hoops of No. 7 wire were tried first. The
rings were of a size to fit into the corrugations of the jacket, where
they were securely held. Three rings per 2-foot pipe were used,
and they were found to be firmly imbedded in the concrete. But
there was difficulty in getting the rings properly welded in local
machine shops, and on account of the surface position of the rings
they could not be expected to resist corrosion. Cages made of hog
wire were next tried with success, and later similar cages made of
"Triangle Mesh." The last proved to be the best adapted to the pur-
pose ; it is rigid and stays in position in the jacket. The mesh comes
in rolls of 150 feet, and in various widths, of which the 20-inch width
was selected. The longitudinal wires in the mesh are 4 inches apart
and are thoroughly braced by the cross wires which run diagonally.
When the reinforced pipe were tested in the internal-pressure
machine, the results were disappointing. There was no increase in
strength, and there was some leakage along the lines of the wires.
This same type of reinforcement was tried in a tamping machine in
California, and it was found that the steel weakened the pipe
greatly. A correspondent who uses double-hoop reinforcement
writes that the reinforcement is not considered to prevent the tile
from cracking, but it does prevent the tile from collapsing in case
cracks occur. Despite these discouraging reports, it is believed
that a technique can be found for making reinforcement effective in
packer-head pipe. The action of the trowel compacts the mortar
to so great an extent that it appears to have the consistency of
jelly, and this should be enough to create a bond between the
cement and steel. It may be that the curing process in the open
air permits the cement to break from the steel through shrinking.
The author was able to make but a few tests, and believes that
full investigation will reveal a method of successfully reinforcing
McCracken and other similar pipe.
100
Bullet IN 86
CURING
Curing the tile requires that it be kept wet until the mortar has
not only set but has hardened. Seven to ten days is the usual time
for curing but two weeks is preferable. A water supply under
pressure is desirable, and several automatic sprinklers should be
provided. It is awkward and difficult to keep the pipe wet with
hand sprinklers or with water that has to be handled with a pail, as
Pig. 17.— Yaqui Indians tr-mpingr 15-inch cement pipe at Flowing Wells ranch.
(From Bulletin 55.)
from a ditch. An occasional wetting is not enough ; the pipe must
be kept wet.
For at least twenty-four hours and preferably forty-eight, the
pipe should be protected from the sun. Any cheap shed covering is
■NlAXUrACTURK OF CKMIvXT PipE 101
satisfactory ; overlapped palm leaves are good. The shed should be
close to the pipe machine and on level ground. In moving the pipe
from the shed to the stackyard, each length is turned on its side
and rolled, care being taken to avoid striking any hard object.
Nearly all hand-tamped pipe is made and cured in the open air.
Here is opportunity for reform. In a humid climate it may be pos-
sible to cure pipe in the open, but in Arizona a covering is needed
during most of the year.
In a few cases farmers have rolled their new-made pipe into the
irrigation ditch or a creek when the pipe was about three days old.
In each case unusually good pipe has resulted.
Steam curing, as practiced in the Middle West, is exceedingly
effective. The green tile are placed on the platforms of low cars
and run on tracks into tunnels. When a tunnel is full, the doors
are closed tight and saturated steam from a boiler is admitted. The
boiler pressure is kept at about 5 pounds. The hot, dripping atmos-
phere accelerates the setting and hardening, and makes the curing
independent of unfavorable weather conditions, especially freezing
temperatures. After 36 hours in a steam chamber the pipe can be
loaded and shipped immediately.
In southern Arizona less difficulty is experienced from freezing
than from the extreme heat and dryness of the summer months.
One efYect of the dry heat is to make some cements set before the
mortar can be placed. During the construction of the Laguna dam,
a shipment of California cement persisted in setting in one minute.
It was necessary to dig the concrete out of the mixer with chisels
and drills. Another California brand gave the same trouble in
another locality. The author rejected two carloads of a Kansas
cement in 1908, because the cement took its initial set in three min-
utes. In this case the author's tests were confirmed by a commer-
cial testing firm in Philadelphia. This phenomenon of abrupt set-
ting is not well understood, but it is a safe conclusion that the stor-
age of cement in hot, dry places for long periods may be dangerous,
and furthermore the cement pile and sand pile should be kept as
cool as possible in midsummer, possibly by sprinkling the sand pile
with water.
The importance of curing should be emphasized for it is the
feature of pipe manufacture that is most apt to be neglected. Un-
doubtedly much cement pipe, both hand-made and machine-made,
never attains the strength of which it is capable, because it is al-
lowed to become dry before the hardening process has progressed to
a proper point.
102 Bulletin 86
waterproofing
Machine-made cement pipe is impervious at ordinary pressures ;
no waterproofing is necessary for it.
Hand-made pipe usually leaks when first put into use, but the
leakage decreases gradually and finally ceases. The original leak-
age depends upon the proportions of the mortar, the consistency,
and the thoroughness of mixing and tamping. It is customary to
paint the inside of the pipe with a w^ash made of cement and water
to reduce the seepage.
Hydrated lime is effective in waterproofing concrete but is sel-
dom used in pipe manufacture. The Cement Pipe Company of
Phoenix have used it in both machine and hand-made pipe. They
use 10 pounds per sack of cement. In case the pipe will be under
considerable pressure this amount should not be exceeded, and per-
haps 8 pounds is a safer limit. In the tests of 1907 the author made
pipe with mixtures in which a heavy percentage of lime was de-
pended upon in part for the strength of the pipe. At present prices
there is no economy, however, in the substitution of lime for cement.
There is another advantage in the use of hydrated lime in hot
weather, in that the mortar holds water better and the pipe is more
readily cured. Tar compounds have not been used for waterproof-
ing cement pipe.
PIPE LAYING AND PIPE LINE FAILURES
PIPE LAYING
The pipe should be laid in the trench in the same manner as
sewer pipe is laid, with straig^ht alignment and uniform grade. Many-
lines, where the pressure is light, are laid by the contractor without
any preliminary surveying. It is better, however, in all cases to
have the grades established and stakes set every 50 feet by a sur-
veyor. A map and ])rofile showing alignment, elevations, and gates
and valves is worth the cost. An undulating grade involves many
air pockets, which tend to induce water hammer and to decrease the
flow.
THE TRENCH
The width of the trench should be 10 inches greater than the
external diameter of the pipe. This allows room for the pipe layer
and for the bander who must straddle the pipe.
The bed of the trench should be prepared with care. If the
trench is cut too deep and refilled to grade, the refilling should be
tamped. There is likely to be a very slight settlement of the entire
pipe line, but if it is uniform throughout the length no injury will
result. Unequal settlement, however, produces cracks.
At the University Farm a pipe line was carried across a ravine
on an earth fill. In the center was a 5-foot culvert, the top of which
was close to the invert of the pipe line. The earth fill settled while
the culvert was unyielding, with the result that the pipe line cracked
just over the culvert several times until, finally, the settlement
ceased.
The manner of backfilling must depend upon the size of the
pipe, the depth of earth to be supported by the pipe, and the nature
of the soil. Many expensive failures of pipe lines, usually of large-
sized pipe, have been due to insufficient backfilling beneath the in-
vert. Soil which breaks up in chunks, such as clay, does not settle
back beneath the pipe, while sandy soil or any soil that pulverizes is
known to the pipe layer as "a good pipe soil." The best methods of
filling the space beneath the pipe are by flooding a small depth of
backfill and by tamping. In one district where clay soil predomi-
nates, it is customary to backfill only to the top of the pipe and
then run a small stream of water down the line. This settles the
heavy soil under the pipe, and this supporting soil is allowed to dry
out before the trench is filled. Sometimes the flooding is repeated
104 Bulletin 86
when two or three feet of earth have have been placed over the pipe.
No extensive flooding should be done, however, without first filling
the pipe line, as there is danger of floating an empty pipe line up-
ward and breaking the joints. If the flooding is not feasible, the
soil can be tamped in until the backfill is above the center of the
pipe. One contractor has his backfiller straddle the pipe and as he
pulls the soil in with a shovel he continually tramps upon it. In the
drainage districts of the Middle West usually the bed of the trench
is shaped semi-circular to fit the drain tile and it is considered poor
practice to lay the tile on a flat bed. The soils are, of course, heavy
and wet, and there are no convenient facilities for flooding as there
are along an irrigation pipe line. A 2-inch layer of sand is some-
times spread on a clay trench bottom to serve as a bed for the pipe.
In case the pipe has lain in the pipe yard until it is thoroughly
dry, it is a good precautionary measure to run water over a shallow
backfill before or at the same time that the water is turned into the
line, in order to guard against failures such as described on page 110.
METHODS OF LAYING
Cement pipe with tongue and groove joints are laid in the trench
with great facility. The mortar used for this purpose should be
rich. It is usually mixed with two parts of sand to one ot cement.
Hydrated lime adds to the smooth working qualities of the mortar,
making the mortar "fat," but it is not essential. It was used at Con-
tinental for a time, then discontinued, and afterwards used again.
Six or eight pounds per sack of cement is the proper amount to use.
The pipe are distributed along the trench by team, and are
handed down and stood on the groove ends in the trench. A gal-
vanized iron form about 12 inches long, called the laying core, is
inserted in the groove end, projecting about three inches. The space
between the form and the groove is then filled with mortar, and ad-
ditional mortar is placed under the tongue in the trench. The joint
of pipe is tipped over and jointed quickly. While a helper raises it
slightly with a pair of pipe tongs, or a leather strap, the pipe layer
stooping down gives the pipe a quick thrust which closes the groove
tightly over the tongue. Small sizes are handled by the layer with-
out a helper. The laying core is then drawn out through the end
of the pipe and placed in the groove end of the next pipe. The pipe
layer reaches in with a long-handled brush and smooths the joint.
A third man, following along in the trench, spreads a band of mor-
tar about three inches wide over the joint. This is called banding.
It is omitted sometimes on pipe lines of small pipe that are to be
Pipe Laving and Pipk Line Failures
105
Fig. 18. — Laying the concrete pipe fo:
i;..ii;, I'.'r 'J.ly .ji Ti
under slight pressure head. A fourth man prepares the mortar and
brings it in pails to the trench, and one or two laborers, following
Fig. 19. — Laying 20-incli cement pipe in shallow ditch at Continental.
close back of the bander, backfill the trench enough to cover at least
two inches over the pipe. In hot weather it should be backfilled at
least 8 inches over the pipe. A water tank mounted on wagon trucks
106 Bulletin 86
is moved forward with the mortar boxes several times a day. Large
sizes of pipe are lowered by means of tripod or derrick with block
and tackle.
The custom in other places is to use a smaller laying crew — only
three or four men. The layer handles pipe up to 16 inches in diame-
ter alone. The addition of a few more unskilled men does not add
materially to the cost per day and it permits of much faster progress.
Sixty percent of the pipe layers, it is said, do not use a laying
core. Over half of the pipe at Continental was laid without one.
Pipe layers are much divided in opinion as to the usefulness of the
core. Many layers make good water-tight joints, with smooth in-
side surfaces, without it. However, a man with limited experience
or who is inclined to shirk his work is much surer to place a proper
amount of mortar, and to secure it throughout the full circle of the
joint, if he uses a core, and for that reason it is recommended that
specifications require its use. The inside joint should always be
brushed even when a core is used.
There is one pipe manufacturer in California who makes Mc-
Cracken bell-end pipe for irrigation pipe lines. His method of lay-
ing is as follows. The layer faces the bell-end of the last pipe laid,
and the helper straddles it. The helper washes the bell-end with
water and places mortar in the lower half of the bell while the layer
builds a fillet of mortar around a core projecting from the spigot end
of the upright pipe. The pipe is shoved into the bell-end, and the
helper fills the top of the bell with mortar. A bander finishes the
joint, and a mixer and a back filler complete the laying crew. No
excavation is made for the bells. The experience of this contractor
does not reveal any superiority of the bell and spigot pipe over the
tongue and groove pipe.
The specifications for laying the sewer line at Glendale were as
follows. "Before a pipe is laid, the lower half of the hub of the pre-
ceding pipe shall be plastered on the inside with a stiff mortar mixed
1:1, and sufficient thickness to bring the inner bottoms of the abut-
ting pipes flush and even. After the pipe is laid, the remainder of
the hub shall be thoroughly filled with similar mortar and the joint
wiped inside and finished to a smooth bevel outside."
A new feature introduced recently on the Thomas-Hammond
machine is the self-centering joint. The lower part of the bell is
beveled so that the spigot, when it is forced into the bell, becomes
accurately centered. This tends to give maximum flow capacity to
the pipe line. However, it was found at Glendale that the mortar
on the bottom interfered with the centering by raising the spigot
Pipe Laying and Pipe Line Failures 107
end and, therefore, much of the line was laid without first placing
the mortar in the bottom of the bell. Without the bottom mortar it
becomes difficult to fill the annular space beneath the pipe and this
work is likely to be done carelessly. The annular space is only ^-
inch, which is so narrow that no tool can work in it easily. Mr. F.
N. Holmquist, the engineer, states that in his opinion there is con-
siderable leakage through the joints at Glendale due to insufficient
mortar in the joint. The leakage is probably greater in those por-
tions of the line that were in caving ground, where trenching and
placing could not be carried on ahead of the jointing.
The rate of speed in pipe laying is quite variable. Ordinarily
about 700 feet of 12 or 14-inch pipe, or 500 feet of 16-inch pipe per
day is considered good. One foreman reports 900 feet of 12-inch
pipe, without the laying core, on straight work with no connections
or short turns. At Continental one pipe laying gang with three
skilled men and two laborers laid as high as 1075 feet of pipe, part
12-inch and part 14-inch, in eight hours. At a later date, a single
skilled pipe layer, with six unskilled helpers, laid over 1000 feet of
12-inch pipe in nine hours. The highest rate reported for 16-inch
pipe is 800 feet. In this case two experienced men alternated at
jointing the pipe and banding. Experience at Continental indicates
the following average rates :
TABLE VII. AVERAGE RATE OF SPEED IN PIPE LAYING
Diameter of pipe
No. of feet per 8-hour day
Inches
Feet
12
700
14
600
16
500
18
400
20
350
These rates do not include the installation of risers and valves.
This work is usually included in the contract price, but sometimes it
is done on force account.
There is great danger that a newly-laid pipe line may dry out
before the joint mortar has properly set and hardened. Whenever
laying ceases, as at noon, a plug of wood or sacks should be put in
the end to prevent a draught of air from blowing through the line.
As soon as possible after laying, a stream of water should be turned
into the line to keep it thoroughly wet, certain valves, of course,
being left open so that the line cannot be subjected to any pressure.
108 BuLivETiN 86
RISERS
The risers are made by cutting a hole in the side of a joint of
pipe, and inserting another joint, the end of which is cut in the shape
of a saddle. The two pieces are then cemented together. For ma-
chine-made pipe the cutting and shaping are done a few hours after
the pipe is made, but hand-made pipe, being much less hard, can be
cut in the field. Often the holes are cut after the pipe line is laid.
The making of Y's and T's and other fittings such as bends is
an undeveloped business. The present method of making the pieces
and cementing them together is unsatisfactory. It is slow and ex-
pensive and the joints when made look patchy. These specials
should be cast in one piece in special molds, using rich mortar or
thicker walls. The molds, especially in the large sizes, would be
expensive, but contractors whose business is pipe making or laying
can afford to have them.
The riser valves are usually cemented onto the risers in the field,
though it is preferable to do this work in the pipe yard, if the lengths
of the risers can be known in advance. Cement work of this nature
can be cured more easily and better in the yard than in the field.
Risers should be of smaller diameter than the pipe line. If they are
of the same diameter, the line is unduly weakened at the point where
the hole is cut for the connection.
EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURES
On account of the high temperatures in midsummer in southern
Arizona, pipe laying at that time is attended by some danger. The
expansion and contraction of mortar and concrete with changes in
temperature are high, and a freshly-laid pipe line has little resist-
ance to breaking if contraction occurs at once, usually the first night.
This was illustrated at the University Farm in June, 1916, when a
new pipe line a quarter mile long broke at almost every joint. It
became necessary to uncover the line and make the joints over
again, and in some cases a third time. The work had been guaran-
teed and the loss fell on the pipe contractor. Another instance oc-
curred the previous summer in the Antelope Valley, at the head of
the hot Mojave desert, where every joint for two miles had to be
made over. In case the pipe laying cannot be put off until fall, then
the only precautions possible are to have the pipe well wetted before
laying, to backfill the trench promptly and deeply, to run water
through the pipe at once, and possibly to lay pipe only from daylight
Pipe Laving and Pipe Line Failures 109
to a few hours after sunrise and again after sunset. Customarily the
pipe is covered only a couple of inches at first, the better to observe
leaks when the pipe line is tested.
These precautions are not necessary in climates that are cool
with cloudy days. But in parts of Arizona and neighboring states
the summer temperatures are so high and the humidity is so low
that it is doubtful whether cement and concrete work of this char-
acter should be attempted in midsummer. Certainly it is preferable
to defer such work to the safer part of the year. The first and only
recognition of this important limitation, so far as known, is in the
contract of Yuma County for road culverts, dated December 15,
1915. The clause reads as follows: "It is further agreed that the
contractor shall not do any concrete work from June 1st, 1916, to
October 1st, 1916, unless with the written permission of the Board
of Supervisors." This clause should be used in contracts for many
kinds of cement work, possibly with the initial date changed to May
I. At Continental very little pipe was laid during the summer of
1917; the pipe making was continued, but special care was given to
curing the pipe and part of the pipe in the stackyard was covered
with arrowweed and brush.
On a pipe line in British Columbia, where contraction cracks
were feared, slip joints were provided every 30 feet. They were
made as follows : When the pipe molds were three-fourths filled, a
galvanized iron thimble 5 inches wide was inserted and pressed
down in the mortar. The thimble was coated with heavy oil and
when half buried a layer of oil was poured on the mortar, after
which more mortar was put in and the molds were filled.
EFFECT OF WETTING DRY PIPE
Another cause of expansion and contraction of cement pipe lines
is variation in the degree of dryness. The drying out of mortar or
concrete produces contraction, while the saturation of mortar causes
it to expand. Running water through a line of pipe which has been
thoroughly dried out before it is laid causes the line to expand
with great force. This expansion may exert a tremendous pressure
against structures such as gate pits, division boxes, and weir boxes.
At Continental several of the gate pits as first constructed were de-
stroyed in this way. Fig. 20 shows the cracks on four sides of a
gate pit due to pressure from the south side. The pipe line at this
point runs north with a lateral towards the east. The cracked gate
pits were not removed, but the lower portions were enclosed in a
no
Bulletin 86
4-inch concrete jacket containing substantial horizontal reinforce-
ment. After this experience the design of gate pits was changed
and they were all built with the lowest section heavily reinforced.
None of the reinforced pits gave any trouble.
In the early summer of 1918 a great deal of trouble was had with
a 20-inch pipe line when the water was put in the line. The failures
were bv long longitudinal cracks running along the top and the
iVaST ^IDB ^OUTH 3lDB BAST ^IDB NOQ-TH ^IDB
Fig. 20. — A cracked gate pit at Continental, caused by expansion of pipe line.
bottom of the line. In the first break twenty-two lengths of pipe
were cracked both top and bottom. In this case the break occurred
at a bend in the line about midway between two gate pits, both of
which had been reinforced. The bend was the point of greatest
weakness, and a heavy longitudinal shear must have been developed
in the pipe. The line was under only three pounds internal pressure
and the fractured pipe was found to be dense and hard. Fig. 21 is
a picture of the second break. Each time, as soon as a break was
repaired and the water was turned into the line another similar
break occurred. The breaks were confined wholly to the 20-inch
pipe, though one pipe line telescoped where a 14-inch pipe joined a
16-inch. The 20-inch pipe was made in the summer of 1917 and
was stacked in the open air where it became bone-dry. The pipe
was laid early in 1918, but no water was turned into it until April.
When it seemed apparent that the 20-inch pipe were failing from
longitudinal compression, the line was broken open at intervals and
expansion joints were put in. In some cases where the line was
not under pressure the expansion joint was made by leaving about
an inch between two pipe and wrapping a band of tar roofing paper
around the line, fastening it with wire. Where the line was under
some pressure the expansion joint was made with asphalt. A thim-
ble of galvanized iron six inches long was first placed on the inside
of the joint. The edges of the thimble were sealed with wet adobe
Pipe Laying and Pipe Line Failures
111
,«v:..- ■■ i.-j'- JBRara?^'
a:j;;i..-, iV-.-o-.-
■A.
Fig 21 —Longitudinal crack in 20-inch pipe line. The open section has been broken
^ out with hammer. Photo by W. C. Axe'.ton.
112
Bulletin 86
mud. A piece of tar paper was then placed around the outside but
was left open at the top. Heated asphalt was then poured into the
joint and allowed to harden there. The cost of these expansion
joints was about $1.70 for each joint.
The cracks did not appear to come in the pipe for several hours
or a few days after water was admitted, and in some cases one or
two weeks elapsed before the cracks appeared. It was very desir-
able to ascertain more directly the relationship between the satura-
tion of the pipe line and the expansion, to determine what may be
/r
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Fig. 22. — Increase in weight and expansion of two 14-inch cement pipes.
called a saturation-time curve showing the rate of absorption from
the time of the immersion, and also an expansion-time curve show-
ing the rate of expansion beginning at the time of immersion. This
was studied by immersing two 14-inch pipe that were about one and
a half years old and had been exposed to the sunlight and wind dur-
ing all of this time, in consequence of which they were absolutely
dry. The pipes were provided with metal discs inlaid on the sur-
face 20 inches apart from each other, and the exact distance between
points on these discs was determined to the nearest five-thousandth
of an inch. After weighing, one of the pipes was immersed entirely
PiPK Laving axu Pipe Line Failures 113
and the other was laid on its side in shallow water so that the lower
quarter of the pipe was immersed. The pipes were withdrawn fre-
quently, well wiped with towels, and weighed and measured. The
results are shown in the graphs of Fig. 22. The pipe which was im-
mersed entirely gained about five percent of its weight by absorp-
tion of water, and gained it very rapidly. The increase in weight
was practically completed in one and one-half hours. The second
pipe gained about one-quarter as much in the same period of time.
This indicates that the water does not creep upward through the con-
crete by capillarity except at a very slow rate. The expansion curves
for the first pipe and for the lower side of the second pipe are almost
identical. They exhibit a remarkable lag behind the saturation-time
curve, suggesting that the expansion is due to recrystallization.
The percentage of elongation is .0005. If this figure is multiplied
by the modulus of elasticity for concrete it will give the internal
stress which would result in a pipe line with immovable ends. The
pipe being of a rich mixture and well aged, the modulus should be
about three million, and, therefore, the internal stress equivalent
should be at least 1500 pounds per square inch.
The saturation-time curve for internal wetting would be con-
siderably different from that shown in Fig. 22. On account of the
dense, hard interior surface of the pipe the absorption of water
would be very slow. On the other hand, an internal pressure head
of several pounds would tend to increase the rapidity of absorption.
The pipe that was immersed over one-fourth of its surface was
observed to show a hair crack at the tongue end on the hiside top,
extending inward about 5 inches. Another experiment was made,
therefore, by taking a 16-inch pipe that had been broken by internal
pressure (see Fig. 25) and immersing it over one-fourth of its sur-
face. The pipe was laid in the water with the open crack on top.
Another broken pipe was immersed over one-half of its surface.
These pipes had been provided with inlaid metal measuring points
spaced 8 inches apart symmetrically across the top, so that the open-
ing or closing of the crack could be measured. The results of these
tests are shown in Fig. 23. The saturation of the lower part of the
pipes caused the cracks first to close and then to reopen in part.
This proves that the absorption of water was largely from the out-
side and, as the water penetrated toward the center, the pipe, like a
compound spring, closed. When the penetration passed the center
of the pipe wall, the spring began to open.
In the case of a dry pipe line in which water is admitted, the
absorption is from the inside, though slow ; and the expansion of the
114
Bulletin 86
inner portion of the pipe tends to produce cracks in the outer por-
tion. The inner portion, being of rich mortar and dense, has a
relatively high percentage of expansion due to saturation. After
a crack has started on the outside, internal pressure or other causes
may complete the rupture. Test specimens while being tested for
percolation and resistance to internal pressure sometimes fail as a
result of the penetration of water into the inner wall.
In case, however, that the first flow into a dry pipe line does not
fill the pipe, then the saturation and expansion of the invert creates
"~
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pressure testing machine.
a bending moment at the crown and tends to produce a crack which
will begin to open from the inside, if the saturation is wholly from
the inside, the first effect is tension throughout the section at the
crown, and this is changed to a bending moment as the penetration
of the water into the invert increases toward the outer surface of
the pipe wall. The bending moment reaches its maximum when
the saturation of the wall is complete. The expansion of the lower
half of the pipe has the same effect as swelling a wooden wedge in
the bottom. If the distortion is enough to cause failure, a crack
will occur at the top and will show first on the inside at or near the
crown. Rupture at the top may be followed by another crack at
the bottom. The strain at the top of the pipe will be greatest when
the pipe line is about half filled with water. In the case of freshly-
laid dry pipe, therefore, it is preferable to run a full head of water
the first time, or perhaps a very small stream at first to help cure
PirE Laying and Pipe Line Failures 115
the joint mortar, to be followed about three days later by a full
head. The safest method is to leave the pipe line open at intervals
so that a part of the water can rise and flow in the trench, and thus
the walls will absorb water from the outside and from the inside
simultaneously.
In the light of these experiments it seems apparent that the
longitudinal cracks at Continental were due to progressive satura-
tion of the pipe wall from the inside and greater saturation of the
under side of the pipe than of the upper side. Of course, other forces
were working. The expansion of the invert, together with the ex-
ternal load pressure, the internal hydraulic pressure, and longitudi-
nal shear on curves, all produce tension at the top of the pipe, that is,
these forces are all additive. A break may be the result of a combi-
nation of several or all of them.
It is known that concrete under high stress flows to a consider-
able extent and thus tends to relieve itself of stress.* It would ap-
pear, however, from the experience had at Continental and else-
where that the mortar does not flow fast enough to prevent the de-
velopment of very high stresses.
It is known also that concrete and mortar when wetted, after
being cured in dry air, temporarily lose a considerable part of their
strength. Van Ornum reports for short concrete cylinders a loss of
forty percent.t In the case of rich mortars the percentage of loss
may be even greater.
Failures of pipe lines have occurred in the San Joaquin Valley
under similar conditions and for similar reasons. Scores of gate
pits have been destroyed, curves have buckled out of line and pipe
lines have opened at top and bottom. It appears that the true cause
has never been assigned to these failures. In humid regions the
pipe does not become dry enough to cause trouble.
Several important lessons are to be learned from the experiences
at Continental. In the first place, it is much safer to do cement-
pipe making and laying in the cooler part of the year. In arid cli-
mates extreme drying of the pipe in the stackyard should be pre-
vented. If pipe is made in the summer time and must be stacked
in the open it should be stacked high instead of being spread over
a large area. The stacks should be covered with brush or should
be under good roofs. The pipe should be wetted occasionally, espe-
cially for a few weeks before the pipe is to be laid. If it is neces-
sary to lay bone-dry pipe, larger than 14-inch diameter, the pipe
•-Tour. Amer. Cone. Inst., Feb.. 1917.
tTrans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. LXXVII, p. 438. 1014.
116 Bulletin 86
should be given a three hours' dip in in irrigation ditch or in a vat
shortly before laying.; or water should be run down the trench on
top of a shallow backfill at the same time that water is admitted into
the line. This is easily accomplished by leaving the riser valves
open.
At Continental there has been no failure of pipe smaller than 20-
inches in diameter, though several gate pits were crushed by the
longitudinal expansion of dry 12 and 16-inch pipe lines. Expansion
joints placed near gate pits relieve the pressure against these struc-
tures and would be useful on curves. Accuracy in alignment is ad-
visable. In hot weather the pipe making should be slowed down to
the same rate as pipe laying, so that the pipe can be laid within a
few days after its curing period. Cement pipe plants should not
carry a large stock of pipe out of doors through the summer.
Accidents and failures are likely to occur on all pipe lines,
whether clay or cement, when they are new. The pipe layer should
stay on the work while the pipe is being tested and proven. Almost
never does an accident occur on an old line.
TESTS
INTERNAL PRESSURE AND PERCOLATION TESTS
The resistance to internal pressure has long been a standard test
for sewer pipe, but the test has not been applied to irrigation pipe
or drain tile to any extent. Comparatively little irrigation pipe has
been laid where it could be subjected to high pressure heads, and
failures of drain tile are due invariably to external loads.
The test is madf by sealing the ends of the pipe in some way and
forcing the water into the pipe by means of a small pump, or admit-
ting the water from a water pipe line. Usually a single joint of pipe
is taken, but in some instances several joints of pipe have been
cemented together and tested as a unit. An entire pipe line, or sec-
tions of a line, can be tested after the laying and backfilling are
completed, but, of course, no effort is made to test such lines to
destruction.
The equipment used for making the tests here reported is shown
in Fig. 24. The equipment is at the Tucson city pumping plant.
There is a heavy frame with a platform at the bottom and an in-
verted jackscrew at the top. On the platform is a heavy circular
iron plate, through the center of which is connected a -)4-inch pipe.
Gaskets of rubber three-sixteenths of an inch thick were used at
both top and bottom. On the upper gasket a •_>'4-inch circular cast
iron plate and a circular wooden cover 3 inches thick were placed,
and over the latter a short block of wood 4 inches by 4 inches. The
upper cover carried a small pipe outlet, to permit the escape of air.
The maximum water pressure obtainable was about 50 pounds per
square inch. A pressure gauge was attached so that it measured
the pressure at the midheight of the pipe. In order to control the
pressure readily and to apply it slowly without shock, a bleeder
valve was provided as shown in the lower right hand corner of
Fig. 24. This equipment had been used previously to test clay
sewer pipe.
Usually, when the tests to be made are few in number, the pipe
is laid on its side and two wooden or iron bulkheads are fastened
on with one or several longitudinal rods running through the tile
or just outside it. Nuts on the ends of these rods are tightened
sufficiently to prevent leakage around the gaskets. The vertical
frame and jackscrew have the advantage of convenience and speed.
Internal pressure tests are attended by considerable difficulty.
118
Bulletin 86
The ends of the tile are usually somewhat rough and may not lie in
a plane, wherefore it is difficult to prevent leakage around the
gaskets. Leakage is objectionable for two reasons; first, the over-
flowing water from the top gasket wets the outside of the tile and
prevents observations on the percolation of water through the tile
walls ; second, the leakage is often so great as to reduce the pressure
head that can be applied to the pipe. In order to make the gaskets
Fig. 24. — Testing 16-inch machine-made pipe for resistance to
internal pressure, at the Tucson city pumping plant, in 1917.
tight, the jackscrew is likely to be turned down until an excessive
pressure is put upon the test specimen.
The criticism is made that a heavy longitudinal stress must
seriously afifect the resistance to bursting. One specification has
forbidden the tests to be made in such a way that the gaskets are
held on the pipe ends by longitudinal pressure. Other engineers
have asserted that the pipe would burst as the efifect of the heavy
compressive stress. As a matter of fact the ends of the pipe must
Tests
119
be strengthened somewhat by anchored bearings, but at the center
of the pipe a shearing stress is developed which might induce failure
under some extreme conditions. This shearing stress will be a
mathematical average in value between the unit tension and the
unit compression, both being considered as positive and will be a
maximum on an angle of 45 degrees. In all the tests at the City-
Water Works no pipe was observed to fail while the jackscrew was
being turned in the effort to reduce the leakage past the gaskets.
Fi^
Tl'SL specimens biukL-u in intni nul-in^
lilt- te.stiiig" machine.
Nor were there any breaks which showed a failure in shear at the
midheight of the specimen. On a similar testing frame recently
three men attempted to break an 8-inch pipe by applying the utmost
pressure, but were unable to injure the pipe.
The record of tests, excluding some that were rejected, is given
in Tables VIII and IX. The first of these two tables gives the pre-
liminary measurements and age of the test pieces, and the second
table gives the results of the tests.
Examination of Table VIII proves that the wall thickness of
machine-made pipe is very uniform, the variation being less than
one-eighth inch. The thickness of hand-made pipe is uniform at the
120
Bulletin 86
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Tests 121
groove end, but is likely to vary a quarter inch or more at the tongue
end. The reason for this eccentricity is that the pipe is made v^rjth
the groove end on the ground, and that the forms become displaced
somewhat by reason of unequal tamping as the forms are gradually
filled. The machine-made pipe is accurate as to length and uniform
in weight.
Usually the breaks occurred suddenly and a single crack opened
about one-sixteenth inch or less, extending vertically from bottom
to top. In one case the crack opened slowly, beginning at the bot-
tom, and in several cases the crack appeared to start definitely at
the bottom. A few of the cracks extended upward spirally. Inas-
much as longitudinal breaks in pipe lines produce cracks in both
top and bottom, it might be expected that there would be two cracks
in the broken test pieces. There was no indication, however, of a
second crack in the pipe wall with two exceptions. The cracks in
the machine-made pipe opened much wider than those in the hand-
made pipe.
In the author's tests there were six or eight cases in which the
pipe broke at very low pressure. Three of the machine-made pipe
broke at less than ten pounds per square inch. Several possible
explanations of these tests should be considered. They are :
1. Injury to the pipe in hauling or unloading.
2. Water hammer or pulsations due to the proximity of the
testing machine to the city pumps.
3. Eccentric loading or combination of central load at top with
two side supports at bottom. The location of the breaks might in-
dicate this.
4. Reduction of strength due to saturation.
5. Expansion of the interior part of the pipe wall, perhaps one-
third or one-fourth of the thickness, due to partial penetration of
the water. The pipe were dry when tested.
It is believed that the last named was the main cause of the early
failures. Expansion of the inner shell would produce tensile stresses
in the outer portion which would increase with the penetration of
water. This tension, added to that due to internal pressure, might
crack the outside portion, and the remaining wetted portion would
be too thin to resist even the low internal pressure.
More recently the author, while visiting another pipe yard,
watched the testing of two specimens. Both withstood 80 pounds
pressure. He then asked to make a test in the same manner as
practiced at Tucson, and picked a pipe which had been lying in the
sun for two months. It broke at 15 pounds. The first tests were
122
Bulletin 86
made by running the pressure up quickly ; the last test and all the
tests at Tucson were preceded by a 15-minute seepage test.
These results demonstrate that consideration should be given to
the condition of the pipe specimens and to the technique of testing.
Specifications do not mention either of these matters, but merely
fix a minimum pressure, usually 33 pounds, which the pipe must
stand.
Four of the 12-inch pipe, two of which could not be broken in
the tests of 1917, were tested in June, 1918. The results are given
in Tabic X. All of these pipes were machine-made. During this
TABLE X. TESTS OF FOUR 12-INCH MCCRACKEN PIPE UNDER VARYING
CONDITIONS OF SATURATION
Percolation
Max. 1
No.
Condition
press-
Remarks
10 lbs. for 5 mins.
ure
Pounds
1
Dry; stood in open
Small wet spot under
38
Full city pressure ;
air for 15 months
top corrugation
did not break
1
(On following day)
Two small spots
38
Stopped to remove
obstruction i n
supply pipe
1
A.fter holding water
a total of 31 mins
33
Broke suddenly
2
(mmersed 51 hrs
prior to testing
No seepage
35
Full pressure ; did
not break
3
[mmersed 1^/2 hrs.
prior to testing
NTo seepage
35
Full pressure; did
not break
4
Dry ; in open air 15
months
10
Failed at tongue
end first ; then
at groove end
long period the four pipes had stood in the open air at the City
Water Works. Two of the four pipes were tested dry ; the others
were immersed in water, one for IjA hours, the other for
51 hours. The two dry pipes failed ; the wet ones could not be
broken. One and a half hours, in the case of No. 3, was long enough
to expand the pipe and stabilize the even distribution of stresses in
the pipe wall. In the case of No. 1, tested dry, the pipe was weak-
ened by holding water 31 minutes. During 10 minutes of this time
the pressure was kept at 10 pounds and twice the full city pressure
of 38 pounds was turned on. Finally the pipe broke at 33 pounds,
although in March, 1917, before the pipe had become dry, it had
withstood 47 pounds for 19 minutes. Pipe No. 4, also tested dry,
failed a quarter of a minute after the pressure reached 10 pounds,
although it had withstood 50 pounds pressure in March, 1917.
These tests tend to confirm the conclusions reached above.
Tests 123
The sweating through the walls of the hand-made pipe at 5
pounds pressure was quite strong, and with 10 pounds pressure the
percolation was rapid. Even at 2 pounds or less, the uneven char-
acter of the pipe was apparent, the less carefully tamped portions
becoming wet on the outer surface immediately. It has been noted
often in the field that a new pipe line is quite porous; but it has
been found that the pipe improves rapidly in this respect and soon
becomes impervious except perhaps at occasional spots where tamp-
ing was poorly done. Hand-made pipe is usually coated on the in-
side with a wash of neat cement, partly to make it watertight and
partly to increase its carrying capacity.
The machine-made pipe was practically impervious at 15 pounds
pressure. The slight sweating on the top corrugation is believed to
have come through the joint under the gasket. The inner surface as
made by the packer-head is very dense. Where the pipe is laid in a
trench with rich mortar in the joints, even the slight sweating on the
corrugation at the groove end is impossible. In no other way is the
superiority of the machine-made pipe so pronounced as in the perco-
lation test.
Some advocates of clay pipe for sewers are asking that the per-
colation test be discontinued. However, the American Society for
Testing ]\Iaterials, in standard specifications just adopted, has in-
cluded percolation tests at 5 and 15 pounds for both clay and cement
sewer pipe. The test can be made in connection with the internal
pressure test without additional apparatus, and undoubtedly it will
be used increasingly in the future. The specifications of the A. S.
T. M. should be amplified to cover the condition of the pipe.
One advantage of the hydrostatic tests is that they test every
part of the pipe in detail. For instance, if the tongue end is made
with an insufficiency of mortar in the hopper, or if the wall on one
side is thin, or in spots the mortar was not well tamped, the pipe
will fail because the defective part fails. On the other hand, the
external pressure test is much less likely to reveal a local weakness.
Records of pipe tests have been noted in which the pipe stood
considerably over 100 pounds pressure with no seepage. These
tests have been made usually on 8-inch pipe, which has thicker walls
comparatively than the larger sizes commonly used in irrigation
pipe lines.
The question of what pressure heads can be considered safe for
machine-made cement pipe lines is an important one. A consider-
able factor of safety must be used by designers to allow for occa-
sional defective pipe that may get past the inspector and for the
124
Bulletin 86
effect of water hammer. The evidence of tests indicates that pipe
lines made of 1 : 3 mortar will be safe with 20 or 25 feet pressure
head, or with 30 feet head if there is no possibility of water hammer
and if the full pressure need not be applied until the pipe line is well
cured in the trench. In case higher heads must be provided for, the
mortar can be mixed in the proportions of 1 : 2>4, the walls can be
made thicker, and, if necessary, wire reinforcement can be used.
Hand-made pipe made of 1 : 3 mortar (or of 1 : 2>4 : 1>4 concrete)
withstands pressures about one-half as great as machine-made pipe.
Applying the same factors of safety, hand-made pipe can be con-
sidered safe under 10 or 12 feet head, or under 15 feet head if there
is no danger of water hammer. Several hand-made pipe lines are
under heads exceeding 20 feet. The strength of 1 : 4 pipe is about
two-thirds as great as that of 1 : 3 pipe. Where the line is under
little or no pressure 1 : 4 pipe may prove successful, but the -added
security, less breakage in handling, and slight difference in cost will
justify the stronger pipe in almost every case.
EXTERNAL PRESSURE TESTS
In order to test the resistance of cement pipe to external press-
ure, a testing equipment, as shown in Fig. 26, was prepared. The
joint of pipe to be tested was bedded on a box of sand so that one-
fourth of the perimeter of the center line of the shell was supported
in the sand. A bottomless box or frame was then placed over the
pipe and filled with sand so as to distribute the pressure similarly
Fig. 26. — Apparatus for making external-pressure tests.
over the upper fourth of the pipe. A short piece of plank rested on
the sand and on that was a steel knife edge. No support was given
to the sides of the pipe. This arrangement of bearing at top and
bottom is called the sand bearing; it is known also as the Iowa bear-
ing. It has been found by experiment that the breaking loads as
found with sand bearings approximate very closely to the actual
Tests
125
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126 Bulletin 86
supporting strength of tile in ditches* ; the bedding of the tile in
the sand is not difficult or onerous, and this method should be pre-
ferred to the other methods in use, all of which depend upon doubt-
ful conversion factors.
Downward pressure was provided by means of a lever. The ful-
crum was fastened to a tree stump, and the free end carried a
suspended box into which pails of sand could be poured. The ratio
of lever arms was one to five. Proper allowance was made for the
weight of the apparatus resting on the pipe. The time required, in-
cluding the measurements, was from 25 to 50 minutes per pipe.
The internal diameters were measured vertically and horizon-
tally, and the wall thickness was measured on top, bottom, and each
side at the tongue end. Each pipe was weighed before testing. The
data of the tests in 1917 are given in Table XL
The 12-inch, 16-inch, and 20-inch machine-made pipe, tested dry,
.were of almost identical strength. The breaking loads ranged from
4400 to 6300 pounds. The 14-inch pipe were weaker, the average
breaking load being 3440 pounds. This is due in part to the age
of the pipe, but an additional reason for the low strength is evi-
dent from an inspection of the wall thicknesses. To be consistent,
the 12-inch pipe might be one-eighth inch thinner or the 14-inch pipe
an eighth inch thicker. An accurate comparison can be had by com-
puting, for each group of pipe tested, the modulus of rupture, that
is, the maximum stress in pounds per square inch in the pipe shell
at the moment of failure. This comparison is made in Table Xllf.
Inspection of the last column shows the highest modulus of rupture
for the 12-inch pipe and the least for the 14-inch pipe. Apparently
there is considerable gain in strength after the first month. Exclud-
ing the 14-inch pipe, which was only one month old when tested,
the evidence is that the smaller the pipe the better and more densely
it was packed. This is perhaps characteristic of packer-head pipe
and indicates that the packer-head principle is better adapted to
small sizes of pipe than to large sizes. All the moduli are high as
compared with other tests on 1 :3 cement mortars.
♦Report of Investigations on Drain Tile of Committee C-G of the American
Society for Testing Materials, published as bulletin of Iowa State College of Agri-
culture and Mechanic Arts. Vol. XII, No. 34. p. 102.
tFor method of computation, see Ibid., page 87.
Tests
127
TABLE XII. MODULUS OF RUPTURE OF MACHINE-MADE CEMENT PIPE, DRY
Group
Diam.
Min.
thickness
Breaking
load per
lineal foot
Radius
of center
line
Maxi-
mum
bendingr
moment
Modulus
of
rupture
Inches
12.0
14.0
16.1
20.2
Inches
1.28
1.35
1.62
1.84
Pounds
2633
1721
2828
2780
Inches
6.64
7.68
8.86
11.02
In.— Lb.
29\
220
417
510
Pounds
1067
725
953
904
The strength of the machine-made pipe in each group is com-
paratively uniform. This should be characteristic of pipe made by-
machinery, all pipe being compressed exactly the same way and
the same amount. Such uniformity is very improbable in the case
of hand-made pipe.
The 16-inch hand-made pipe broke at loads three-fifths as great
as the machine-made pipe. This may be accepted as the approxi-
mate ratio of strength of the two classes of pipe, inasmuch as the
wall thicknesses and ages were approximately the same.
The data obtained on pipe made of washed sand are somewhat
equivocal. The tests on 12-inch pipe do not show any advantage
from the washed sand, and the tests on 20-inch pipe are not con-
clusive. ,
Owing to the difficulties previously had with the internal press-
ure tests, it was thought that the strength might be reduced ser-
iously by thoroughly wetting the pipe just before testing them. To
investigate this possibility, pipes Nos. 8, 9, and 10 were immersed in
a tank of water, then weighed and tested immediately. No. 8 was
immersed 36 minutes, it gained 1.5 pounds, and broke at 4560
pounds, a reduction of 18 per cent from the strength when tested
dry. Nos. 9 and 10 were soaked 46 minutes, and lost 36 per cent in
strength.
These tests, while few in number, are sufficient to establish the
point that cement pipe, cured and dry, is weakened by immersing in
water. The weakening may be due, in part, to differential expan-
sion, or it may be due wholly to the condition of saturation. Van
Ornum found that the loss of strength of concrete cylinders is tem-
porary, and the original strength is regained and perhaps exceeded
in the course of a few weeks* ; but the maximum load on a pipe line,
laid dry, may occur when it is at the lowest point of its strength.
Usually it is possible to apply the load by degrees ; deep trenches
can be backfilled in part only, until sometime after water has been
•Trans. Amer. Soc. C. E.. Vol. LXXVII. p. 438.
128
Bulletin 86
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130 Bulletin 86
put in the line, and the first run of water should fill the pipe without
subjecting it to much pressure head.
The exact relation between the loss of strength and the absorp-
tion of water can be obtained only by systematic testing on a com-
prehensive plan. The hypothesis is offered, however, that the weak-
ening can be reduced by extending the period of curing, and this
should be done in most cases. Most pipe makers cure their pipe
only from six to ten days, and the duration of time of curing ot
large sized pipe or of pipe that is not to be laid immediately may
well be extended to 15 or even 30 days.
External pressure tests were made on another group of pipe on
April 27, 1918. The data are given in Table XIII. Pipe No. 1 of
this group was a 14-inch pipe, which had been in use in the ground
for over a year but was removed during some change in the line. It
was dried in the sun before testing. The pipe was under the usual
weight because the tongue and groove were broken off. The next
three pipe were five months old and were tested dry.
The 20-inch pipe consisted of four specimens that were made of
mortar mixed in the proportions of one of cement to three of sand,
and four specimens of 1 :234 mortar. The two lots were approxi-
mately the same age. The leaner mixture showed the greater
strength. This is contradictory to common knowledge of the varia-
tion of strength with richness of the mortar. Possibly it would be
better not to publish the results. It may be, however, that these
results are linked in some way to the pipe failures described on page
110. If differential expansion causes weakening of the pipe, differ-
ential contraction at some stage of the curing or just afterward may
have caused minute shallow cracks, which would be more likely to
come on the outer surface of the pipe, and would tend to weaken the
pipe permanently.
Another test series was made in June, 1918, to determine the ef-
fect of variations in the curing of pipe. All of the test specimens
were of 16-inch pipe and were taken at the pipe plant at one time,
so that they were of the same proportions and consistency. The
original program of testing was not carried out, however, be-
cause the pipe maker failed to follow instructions for curing the
test specimens.
The results are given in Table XIV. Four pipe were tested at
the end of seven days. After 28 days 12 pipe were tested. Of these
12, four had been kept wet by sprinkling, four had been cured for
10 days and then placed in the stackyard, and four had been cured
and stacked but were soaked in water for 5 hours just before test-
Ti;sTS 131
ing. At the end of 52 days tests were made on four pipe, of which
two had been cured by sprinkling for 30 days, and two had been
stacked after 10 days. Through a mistake a top sand box 14 inches
wide was used during all of the tests of this series. The average
results are as follows :
The first group of four pipe, age 7 days, broke at an average of
2437 pounds. This is about half of the strength which the pipe
should attain ultimately. The second group, after 28 days curing,
broke at 3644 pounds, an increase of about 50 percent over the
strength at 7 days. From a consideration of the 14-inch pipe in
Table XUl a further increase in strength could be expected if the
curing were continued.
The third group, four pipe, were cured in the usual way. The
average breaking load was 5248 pounds. 'iMie next group were cured
in the usual way, but w^ere immersed in water for five hours just be-
fore testing. The efifect of the soaking was to reduce the strength
32 percent.
The last four tests included two pipe that w-ere cured 10 days and
two that were supposed to have been cured 30 days. The two
former had a slightly higher average strength, but the number
tested was so small that no conclusions can be drawn.
The resistance of cement pipe to crushing depends to a large
extent on the moisture content of the pipe. It is useless to standard-
ize the details of testing and disregard the condition of the test
specimens. The object of testing is not to obtain the maximum
possible strength, but to ascertain the strength under actual work-
ing conditions. Cement pipe is used to convey water, and after
laying it is certain to become saturated. The strength of dry pipe,
therefore, is artificial and abnormal, and does not measure the
strength of the pipe when buried in a trench. At the present time
specifications for pipe testing do not stipulate the condition of the
pipe. The following clause should be added to cover this feature.
All test specimens shall be tested when wet. Preferably
they shall be kept thoroughly wet for at least a week prior to
testing. If it is necessary to test dry pipe on short notice, they
shall be immersed in water for at least four hours before testing.
Pipe tests at the University of Arizona hereafter will be made
with the pipe in a thoroughly wet condition.
LOADS ON PIPE IN DITCHKS AND DESK'.N OF PIPE LINES
The external loads which are borne by a pipe line are due to the
backfilling in the trench and any superimposed loads, such as the
132
Bulletin 86
weight of a wagon or tractor. Both theory and experiment have
shown that the pressure due to the backfilling is a function of the
width of the trench, and not a function of the width of the pipe.
The downward pressure of backfilling can be approximated from
the following formula developed by Professor Anson Marston at
the Iowa State College*.
L=C W B^
in which
I L=the load on a pipe in a ditch, in pounds per lineal foot,
from the weight of ditch filling.
C=coefficient, taken from a table or diagram.
W=weight of ditch filling material, in pounds per cubic
foot.
B=the breadth of the ditch, a little below the top of the
pipe, in feet.
The coefficient "C" depends upon the nature of the ditch filling
material and upon the ratio of the height of fill above the pipe, H,
to the breadth of ditch, B. Marston has provided a table of safe
working values of C, and also a convenient diagram from which
the values can be takenf . A much condensed table is given here in
Table XV for the convenience of designers.
TABLE XV. APPROXIMATE SAFE WORKING VALUES OE "c"
Ratio
H
Minimum —
Maximum
Maximum —
Damp soils
for ordinary-
black loam
Completely
B
before setting
sand
saturated clay
0.5
.46
.46
.47
.48
1.0
.83
.85
.86
.90
2.0
1.40
1.47
1.51
1.62
3.0
1.78
1.90
1.99
! 2.19
4.0
2.04
2.22
2.35
2.65
6.0
2.34
2.61
2.81
I 3.32
8.0
2.48
2.82
3.06
' 3 7\
10.0
2 54
2.92
3.20
4.01
Trenches are dug about ten inches wider than the outside diame-
ter of the pipe. For 12-inch pipe and 20-inch pipe, therefore, the
trenches are 25 and 35 inches wide, respectively.
The downward pressure for 12, 16, and 20-inch pipe under var-
ious depths of filling, as computed by the Marston formula, is given
in Table XVI. The filling is assumed to be sandy soil.
♦Bulletin of Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Vol XII,
No. 34, p. 96.
Tlbid., pp. 95-96.
Tests 133
tablk xvi. downward pressure on pipes in ditches in pounds
PER IvINEAL FOOT
Breadth Depth of ditch filling in feet
i^Tilf "^ of ditch \
of pipe 3 2.5 5 10 15
Inches Inches Pounds Pounds I Pounds Pounds
1? ^S 480 840 I 1240 1 1450
16 30 600 , 1130 1680 1990
20 35 710 I 1350 2160 2660
Comparing these loads with the strength of the pipe as shown
in column 4 of Table XII, it is apparent that while the smaller sizes
of pipe have ample strength, the 20-inch pipe, when buried over 10
feet, has a very small margin of safety. It is recommended that
designers should use a factor of safety of 1.25 to 1.5, depending on
how much care is likely to be taken in laying the pipe. It is not
practicable ordinarily to demand pipe of varying wall thicknesses
because pipe makers cannot afford to carry more than one set of
pallets for each size ; but the requisite strength can be secured in
other w-ays, especially by the control of the curing of the pipe, and
in important cases it may be necessary to require extra thick pipe
walls.
Although the external pressure tests exhibit approximately equal
supporting strength for the various sizes of pipe, this is not a
rational relation ; the larger pipe should have greater strength. The
present-dav practice with respect to thickness of pipe is exhibited
in Table II. The practice should be changed by using slightly thin-
ner walls for small pipe and increasing the wall thickness of the
larger sizes. A great deal of 36-inch pipe is made with 3-inch walls.
It is said in defense that more gravel can be used in the concrete in
large pipe and that it can be better tamped than can small pipe.
But the percentage of failures of 36-inch pipe is greater than for any
other size. Thirty-six-inch pipe should have walls 3^ inches in
thickness.
From the few tests made on hand-tamped pipe, it is seen that
16-inch pipe of that character is in danger of crushing if buried 10
feet in depth.
Unlike drain tile and sewer pipe, both of w^hich are laid on even
gradients, irrigation pipe can follow the surface undulations, and
hence it is seldom laid over six feet in depth. Usually the internal
pressure head is the limiting factor for which the strength of the
pipe must be designed. Occasionally, however, a pipe line is placed
under a deep fill, and in those cases the considerations relating to
external pressure cannot be overlooked.
134 BULLKTIX 86
ABSORPTION TESTS
The absorption is determined in the following manner: A piece
of concrete, weighing from one to two pounds, is broken out of each
pipe to be tested. These test pieces are dried in an oven at a tem-
perature of 110^ F. for at least seven days, and are then weighed.
They are then soaked in water for three days and weighed again.
The gain in weight, expressed as a percentage of the dry weight, is
called the absorption.
The absorption is a measure of the watertightness of concrete.
The test is especially important if the pipe is to be used under con-
siderable water pressure or in alkali soil. With clay pipe, however,
the test is not a positive indication of perviousness. If the pipe is
thoroughly vitrified the absorption may be low and yet the pipe
may be pervious.
Absorption is a measure, also, of the density, and the density of
concrete is an index of its strength. Given the ingredients and the
proportions, the strength depends directly upon how densely the
concrete is packed. It is possible to tamp pipe by hand so thor-
oughly as to give it great density ; much depends on the man who
does the tamping and on the rate at which the mortar is fed into the
molds. It is likely, even, that pipe made in the morning will be
denser than that made in the afternoon, and different parts of the
same pipe must vary in density. On the other hand, the density
of machine-made pipe is very uniform.
The results of the tests for absorption are placed in Table XI
in order to study the effect of the porosity upon the strength. The
absorption for the machine-made pipe varies from 5.15 to 6 58 per-
cent, average 5.7 per cent. The absorption for the hand-made pipe
is shown to be considerably higher.
Test pieces from pipe Nos. 4 to 7 of Table XI were boiled three
hours and then were left in the water for three days before weigh-
ing. The average absorption was 7.6 per cent. The figures are not
placed in the table because they are not comparable with the others.
The tentative specifications adopted recently by the American So-
ciety for Testing Materials for sewer pipe require that, after thor-
ough drying at a temperature not less than 110°, the specimens shall
be kept in boiling water five hours. Doubtless this method of mak-
ing the absorption test will come into general use. Boiling must
result in expelling all the air from the test specimens, but the
acceleration of the hydration of the cement is likely to make the
porosity appear to be greater than it is.
Tests
135
In November, 1916, some McCracken sewer pipe made of one
part cement to two and a half parts of sand, and some vitrified clay
sewer pipe were tested for absorption. The clay pipe was being
used for street sewers in Tucson. The McCracken cement pipe had
been offered in the bidding:, but was not accepted on account of
undue prejudice against the use of cement pipe for sewers. The
results of the tests are given in Table XVII. They show that clay
pipe mav have a very low ])crcentage of absorption and yet be very
pervious to water.
TABLK XVII. .\r.SORPTlOX TESTS OX SEWER PIPK, TUCSON, 1916
Sample
Absorption
Perviousness
1 Clay tile, nearlj" vitrified
" " thornughly vitrified
" " nearly vitrified
" " semi-vitrified
Cement pipe, hodv
" bell
3.07
2.43
2.98
5.59
4.61
2.89
No seepage 15 pounds 5
minutes
Sweat uniformly all over.
" on Yz of surface
" all over in ^ min.
Not tested for seepage
INTERNAL FRICTION TESTS
Tests to determine the friction loss in hand-made cement pipe
were made at the University Farm in 1916. The object was to
furnish a basis for the design of two additions to the distributing
system.
All of the old line Avas 12 inches in diameter and all except the
first 360 feet was built with rectangular outlet boxes spaced every
36 feet. These boxes are 22 inches long by 30 inches wide, and have
two discharge notches at the top, one toward the right of the pipe
line, one toward the left. The flow of water expands on entering
a box and contracts on leaving, so that there is a considerable loss
of head in each box. These boxes were designed by a former super-
intendent of the farm. The design is not to be recommended.
In making the tests, the discharge of water was measured over a
weir just before entering the pipe line, and the water levels were
noted in each box by measuring down from a point on the top. A
line of levels had been run to determine the elevations of the points
on the tops of the boxes. The cement pipe when new had received
a coat of neat cement wash on the inside surface.
After the additional pipe line had been laid in the summer of
1916, pipe friction tests were made in that portion which had 12-
inch outlet risers and valves of the California pattern ; that is, the
riser is a joint of pipe cemented into an opening in the top of the
136
BuLIvETiN 86
pipe line. In this case the loss of head must be moderate since the
flow of water is expanded on the top side only, the filaments of
water on the lower side moving in straight lines. The results of
all the tests are given in Table XVIII.
TABLE XVIII. FRICTION LOSSES IN HAND-MADE CEMENT PIPE AT THE
UNIVERSITY FARM
Loss of head
Increase 1
Loss per box
Pipe line
Discharg-e
per 100 feet
in loss
or riser
Second-feet
Feet
%
Velocity. heads
Straight, no boxes
1.6
.222
Rectangular outlet
boxes every 36 ft.
1.6
.368
66
0.87
Circular outlet ris-
ers every 36 ft. . .
1.6
.300
35
0.47
The results in Table XIX will be of value to designers of pipe
lines. While pipe friction tables are easily available, data on the
effect of boxes and risers have not been published. The value ob-
tained in the straight pipe without risers corresponds to a value of
"n" in Kutter's formula of .013. This is the value most used for
cement and concrete surfaces.
Tests of pipe friction were made at Continental in 1917. The
flow of water is northward from the pumping plant, through about a
mile of machine-made pipe, thence eastward across the railway and
through a quarter mile of 16-inch hand-made pipe. Readings were
taken at the several gate pits built at intervals along the line.
There are no outlet risers on the line of pipe as tested except in the
16-inch line, where the risers are 280 feet apart. A summary of the
tests is given in Table XIX.
Tests
137
TABLE XIX. FRICTION TESTS ON CEMENT PIPE LINES AT CONTINENTAL'
From
To
Dist.
^jg_ I Loss
Diam. charKel °^
Time Value
after ad-j of
April 26, 1917
Lateral No. 2
Lateral No. 3
R. R. Crossing
Ft.
Uteral No. 3 897
[ 2063
R. R. Crossing I
illOO
Riser No. 4 ' 1120
In.
14
14
12
16
Sec.-ft. I Ft.
2.44 I 2.85
2.44 11.83
2.15 . 0.99
Sept. 27, 1917
Lateral No. 2
Lateral No. 3
R. R. Crossing
Lateral No. 3 897 14
[ 2063 14
R. R. Crossing i
I illOO 12
Riser No. 4 ^ ^^^° ^^
Oct. 8, 1917
Lateral No. 2
Lateral No. 3
Lateral No. 3' 897
f 2063
R. R. Crossing'
1100
R. R. Crossing ' Riser No. 4^
Oct. 8, 1917
Lateral No. 2
1120
14
14
12
16
8.22
8.00
0.82
Lateral No. 3
R. R. Crossing
Lateral No. 3* 897 14
[2063 14
R. R. Crossing* 1 \
[noo 12
Riser No. 4' . 1120 16
2.49
2.45
2.38
2.13
8.26
1.21
1 02 0133
1 24 0130
1 02 i .0130
3 20 0130
3 20 I 0117
3 20 ' .0135
1—3:00 P. M. 2—2:35 P. M. 3—3.22 P. M. 4—5:20 P. M.
Tests were made on three different dates. Considerable diffi-
culty was experienced in getting consistent results in these tests.
For example, in the first set of tests the friction losses between
Lateral No. 2 and the railroad crossing appeared to be inexplicably
large. In the tests as repeated on September 27, the loss between
Lateral No. 2 and Lateral No. 3 is too great.
It was thought at first that the reason might be that considerable
portions of the pipe were not running full, even though all pipe ends
in the gate pits were well covered. This hypothesis was disproved
when it was found that the friction losses were less in the second
set of tests, although the water levels in the gate pits were lower
than in the first set. A better explanation is that in the long line
running north from the pump to the railroad on a descending grade,
a great deal of air is trapped. This air cannot work back upstream
against the water friction, and so it is slowly rolled along down-
stream until it escapes at the gate pits. At one gate pit, where the
author had a chance to observe, great globules of air, from one to
138 Bulletin 86
three quarts at a time, were still coming out of the pipe line at inter-
vals of about a minute, and this was an hour and forty minutes after
the gates had been adjusted. On the east side of the railroad this
effect was not encountered. On that side the line has an ascend-
ing grade and the entering water doubtless carries all the air out
promptly.
The important bearing of these observations is that, as in many
other lines of design, a factor of safety is necessary in designing
pipe lines on descending grades, and, furthermore, there should be
many air vents or open standpipes on descending grades. In com-
puting capacities, pipe lines are assumed to be running full of water,
but no recognition is made of possible unfavorable conditions. It
is interesting to note from Table XIX that the friction loss between
Lateral No. 3 and the railroad was 43 percent greater in one test
made 18 minutes after adjusting the gates than in another test made
3 hours and 20 minutes after adjusting the gates. Also, in the
same line, on October 8, with a discharge of 2.08 second-feet, the
loss of head decreased from 8.65 feet Z7 minutes after adjusting the
gates for this test to 8.22 feet one hour after adjusting the gates,
and 8.00 feet 1 hour and 24 minutes after adjusting the gates.
From all the above tests it may be concluded that the friction
factor, "n," for hand-tamped and washed pipe is .013 and for ma-
chine-made pipe the factor is a little less than .013. This assumes
that the joints are well made by careful workmen. If it is assumed
that the joints will be left rough and projecting on the inside, then
the designers should use a friction factor of .014 or .015.
CAPACITY TABLES
As a basis for determining the proper sizes of pipe required in the
design of any particular project. Table XX has been prepared. This
table is computed from Kutter's formula, using a friction factor of
.013. This is a conservative basis for straight lines without risers,
and well executed machine-made cement pipe lines may have some-
what greater capacities than those given.
In the case of lines with tee risers of the same size it will be
about right to assume an increase of friction loss of 12^ per cent
for each riser in 100 feet of pipe*. Thus, if the risers are spaced 50
feet apart, increase the allowance for friction 25 per cent ; if they
are spaced Z2i feet apart, increase the allowance about 38 per cent.
Sometimes tee risers of smaller size than the pipe line are used. In
*See page 136.
Thsts
13S»
such cases the increase in friction loss will be less than 12^ per cent
for each riser in 100 feet.
The horizontal lines which occur in Table XX indicate the mini-
mum grades allowable for each size of pipe in cases where the water
carries much sediment. For example, a l2-inch pipe line must have
a fall of at least 0.4 foot per hundred feet in order to prevent the
deposition of sand in the pi])e. In case the water is clear or can
be passed through a settling basin before entering the pipe, the
flatter grades can be used, or perhaps the line can be flushed out
occasionally through cleanouts.
The capacities are stated in cubic feet per second, but the quan-
tities can be reduced to Arizona miner's inches by multiplying by
forty.
T.\BLK XX. C.MWCITIKS OF V.VRIOUS SIZES OF CFMKNT PIPE RUNNING FULL
Orade
Per
100 ft.
Feet
1.0
.6
.4
2
.1
.05
Inside diameter
8 in.
12 in.
15 In.
18 in.
20 in.
24 in.
30 in.
36 in.
1 Sec.-ft.
Sec.-ft.
Sec.-ft.
Sec.-ft.
Sec.-ft.
Sec.-ft.
Sec.-ft.
Sec.-ft.
1.10
3.40
6.29
10.38
13.88
23.3
41.4
67.6
0.84
2.64
4.88
8.04
10.71
17.6
31.8
52.2
0.69
2.15
3.97
2.79
6.55
4.60
8.75
6.20
4.39
14.3
10.83
7.12
6.33
25.9
18.2
12.9
11.5
42.5
! 0.48
0.34
0.30
0.25
1.51
1.06
0.94
0 73
29.9
1.96
1.73
1.35
3.23
2.88
22\
21.1
3.92
3.10
18.8
4.97
9.0
14.8
DURABILITY
It is assumed frequently by those who are unfamiliar with its
use that cement pipe is of doubtful permanence. Advocates of clay
tile have disparaged cement pipe many times and have magnified
the significance of such failures as have occurred. In most cases
these failures have been traceable easily to preventable causes.
On the contrary, cement pipe improves with age. Sewer pipe
that has been in use for over thirty years has been examined and
single joints removed to show that it is in perfect condition. The
Cloaca Maxima, one of the sewers of Rome, built about 700 B. C, is
still in use. It is an accepted fact that concrete is not injured by
ordinary sewage. There are many hundreds of irrigation pipe lines
which have been in the ground from ten to thirty years, and which
are stronger now than when they were laid.
In some parts of the United States concrete placed in strong
alkali soils has been injured or destroyed. The exact action ana
conditions of the injury have been the source of much inquiry and
discussion. Cooperative investigations of the effect of alkali on
tile are being made by the U. S. Bureau of Standards with several
other organizations. Eight carloads of tile were shipped to eight
of the best known concentrated alkali districts, one of them being
Yuma, Arizona. The progress report* at the end of two years
states that tile made of cement mixtures, not leaner than one part
cement to three parts aggregate, made by the wet process, which
requires that the molds be held in place for several hours after
molding, are apparently unaffected structurally when exposed for
two years in operative drains in concentrated alkali soils similar to
those included in this investigation. There was no evidence of alkali
in the walls of any of these tile. The great majority of the tile
manufactured by the dry process, which is now the most commonly
used commercial method of manufacturing cement tile, were also
unaffected, but there were some exceptions, as indicated by strength
tests and by the appearance of alkali salts in their fractured surfaces.
The exceptions, however, occurred in other states than Arizona.
The tile placed at Yuma, in Section 4, Township 16 South, Range 23
East, S. B. M., in concentrated alkali soil were not injured.
The third progress? report shows considerable effect from alkali,
particularly in Colorado. Yuma stands at the foot of the list, show
•Reclamation Record, Vol. 7, No. 8, August. 1916, p. 369.
tBuieau of Standards. Technolosic Paper No. 9n, November. 1917.
DlRAIillJTV
141
ing the least effect. The grand average crushing strength of the 16
kinds of tile in the eight locations has not diminished in the three
years, but many tile show alkali salts in the fracture. Some of the
tile, notably the leaner and drier mixtures, are partly disintegrated.
It is concluded tentatively that the injury to cement pipe is propor-
tional to the sulfate and magnesia present in the soil water and to
the degree of concentration of the salts. Hand-tamped tile are
not so resistant as machine-made tile, and tile made of sand cement
Fig. 27. — Cement pipe, completely disintegrated while curing, due to unsound ce-
ment. This is not an argument against the use of cement pipe, but it demonstrates
that good material and skill must be utilized in its manufacture.
have less resistance than those made with Portland cement. It is
recommended that tile should be made not leaner than 1 : 3, of quak-
ing consistency, and as dense as possible.
In the Salt River Valley concrete structures in great numbers
have been built by the U. S. Reclamation Service and other parties,
142 Bulletin 86
but there is not a single instance of disintegration or weakening due
to alkali. Only one case has been observed by the author of pos-
sible deterioration from alkali. In that case the pipe was made by
a novice and was poorly tamped. The seepage through the porous
spots, which are usually narrow, perhaps one-half inch to an inch
along the pipe line, has apparently carried away the cement in solu-
tion. The intervening portions are still hard and ring when struck
with a hammer. This pipe line is ten years old.
It has long been known that certain pozzuolanic cements are ex-
ceedingly resistant to the action of sea water and consequently to
similar soil alkalies. Some efforts are now being made to produce
a "marine cement" or "alkali-proof cement" by regrinding Portland
cement with pozzuolanic materials, especially diatomaceous earth.
Laboratory tests show such mixtures to be resistant to chemical
action and to be actually stronger in sea water than in soft water.
Good cement pipe cannot be made from unsound cement. Fig.
27, reprinted from Bulletin 55, shows cement irrigation pipe which
disintegrated while curing and for which the cement manufacturers
paid damages. Cement should be purchased with the standard
specifications of the American Society of Civil Engineers. Unsound
cement is met with much less frequently than it was twenty years
ago.
PIPE LINE STRUCTURES
GATF.S
After the pipe line is laid in the trench, the auxiliary structures
are built in place. Gate pits are located at frequent intervals, de-
pending on the fall, or gradient, and the location of laterals. A
^E.CT10rf
^E-CTIOM
Fig 28. — Desig-n for square pit, with
bevelled-seat gate. Circular gate pits are
more easily reinforced and can be made
in sections in pipe molds.
Pl.at^
144
BuivLE^TlN 86
design for a square gate pit is shown in Fig. 28. The walls are of
1:2:4 concrete 4 inches thick. The base is extended to prevent
undercutting in case the flow overtops the pit. The largest size
of gate that can be set in so small
a pit is 18 inches in diameter. If
the pit is at the head of a lateral,
two gates are set, one on each out-
flow. No gate is put on the inflow
pipe because the pit serves as an
outlet for air. The most frequent
type of gate pit is made of regular
lengths of cement pipe. Usually
small sizes are employed and it
is not possible to descend into the
pit to repair or replace the gate,
as would be feasible in a pit 30
inches in diameter. In general,
gate pits, like tanks and reser-
voirs, should be circular in sec-
tion.
Several good designs of gates
are on the market. One has a
beveled seat and is brought to
place by means of a square-
threaded nut engaging a long
rack. There can be no water
hammer caused by a gate of this
type. Another design has a lock-
nut and, when it is loosened, the
gate can be lifted or dropped
to another position and there
clamped. The plain slide gates
are not to be recommended; they depend upon the water pressure
to make them tight, and they usually leak.
Fig. 29. — Riser and circular valve for
taking out water for orchards
or row crops.
RISERS
The ordinary risers used in orchards are as shown in Fig. 29. A
riser is placed at the head of each row of trees and the four small
streams of water taken through the small openings are run down
four furrows, two on each side of the trees. From 5 to 30 gallons
a minute are run in each stream, depending on the character of the
soil, the slope of the land, and the length of run
Pipe Line Structures
145
In clay soil it is easy to keep the four streams separate, but in
sandy soil the streams are apt to run together. Usually 12-inch
pipe is used tor four side openings, and 16-inch pipe or pipe hoods
for six openings. For easily eroded soil, the 16-inch hoods are
advisable for four openings.
Risers and hydrants of various designs are used for alfalfa, but
it is believed that a simple riser and valve terminating 2 inches
v;>jV}XwUMf^J^JU»MXfM'
•"^v <^"'^.
CiQ^Kj
^
m
\r'-^ r\ r:\
i v.^ ^.j^ '^^
GaoUfiD PC^/i
Fig 30.— Method of irrigation from pipe line at Continental, used on the bottom-
land where the general slope is about 20 feet per mile.
below the ground level is preferable to the more expensive systems.
The long lines of 6-inch light galvanized iron pipe with taper joints,
called "surface pipe," are a source of much labor, expense, and leak-
age, and their use should be discouraged. Surface pipe of canvas is
sometimes employed, but it is most unsatisfactory.
■,Jl UJ ^w^* \.,J? ^ .<»
; !- : - l-g?
fr^i ^'^ rTo n^9 0
vj W CJ V..J--' ^,
)ij :. , ■- 'Z3
iri^ ^% ^v^ ,<^^b
0©0C3
For row crops there is no
uniform practice. The sys-
tems at Continental are
shown in Figs. 30 and 31.
For laterals on the flat bot-
tomland, risers are provided
in the pipe line at intervals
depending on the slope, so
that the fall from one riser
to the next shall not exceed
6 inches. An open ditch is
maintained directly over the
pipe line.
This system requires only
short risers and the ordinary
circular valves placed at in-
tervals along the pipe line.
Where the heads are high
and the escaping stream
erodes the ditch banks, a
short length of pipe is ce-
mented on above the valve.
The head of water, 1100 gal-
lons a minute, is divided be-
tween three risers, and the
stream from each riser is
divided between from 15 to
25 furrows, the number de-
pending on the soil, the
slope, and the length of the
furrows. The furrow inter-
n^al in 1917 was three and a
half feet, but in 1918 the in-
terval was reduced to three
feet. Where necessary, the
field i s cross-leveled for
about 50 feet near the head
ditches, so that the water
flows out into all the fur-
rows equally well.
Fig. 31 illustrates the
system used on the sloping
lands which border the bot-
Pipe Line Structures 147
tomland. These sloping lands have grades of from one to three
feet per hundred feet, and the soil is gravelly loam or sandy loam.
The furrows are run straight down the steepest slope or nearly so.
Risers are placed on the main supply pipe line and on the laterals.
Each riser hood has four 2-inch side openings, and each opening
serves three furrows, not simultaneously but in rotation, beginning
always with the highest. Cultivation is in many cases continuous
across more than one plat.
The quantity of water per furrow is regulated by means of the
valve and is measured by the height of the water level above the
center of the openings. The discharges per opening were meas-
ured and are given in Table XXI.
TABLE XXI. discharge FROM 2-INCn SIDE OPENINGS IN HOODS
Head aboAje center of openings
Discharge
Inchci
Gallons per minute
1
9.4
2
14.0
3
18.0
4
22.0
5
25.0
6
28,0
7
31.0
In California small galvanized iron tubes with slip gates are
much used in place of the open holes. A correspondent, in reply
to a request for measuring the discharge from the galvanized tubes,
states that the discharges are as given in Table XXII.
TABLE XXII. DISCHARGE FROM GALVANIZED GATES 2>^ INCHES LONG
Head over top of gate
Diameter of gate
Inches
3% inches 7 inches
Gallons per minute Gallons per minute
1/2 17 24
2 30 43
3 62 88
A system which is still found occasionally consists of risers with
the top sealed by a cement plug while the galvanized gates are on
the outside instead of inside. The gates leak and the system is
unsatisfactory. Another system that should be discontinued is one
in which the pipe line is only half buried in the ground and gal-
vanized gates are placed directly on the pipe line at intervals equal
to the furrow spacing. A light earth covering is placed on the pipe
line between the galvanized gates, but the line is not protected ade-
148
Bulletin 86
quately against changes of temperature and against being damaged
\y farm machinery.
The systems of outlets and gates used in California are of many
designs. One of the ingenious schemes, Fig. 32, is that used by
orange growers near Riverside, for small streams, where the slopes
are from one to four feet per hundred. The gate pits are made of
DB.TAtL. OF OVE.B.FLOW
A >
1 0
Fig. 32. — Method of construction of orcliard pipe lines in the citrus district around
Riverside, California. Each overflow stand holds back the water at a definite level
and permits irrieating: from the risers between it and the next overflow stand.
8-inch and 16-inch pipe. Their frequency on the line depends upon
the fall. When the gate is closed, the water rises in one column
and overflows into the line again. The water level is held at the
desired height without the aid of valves. This system is modified
^i!^
Fier. 33. — Map of a 540-acre field at Continental, showing-
Pipe Line Structures
149
sometimes, where the slopes are steeper, by using valves in the
upward-flow branches of the standpipes.
Many citrus groves in California are on land which has a natural
slope of 10 to 40 feet per 100 feet. It is impracticable to run the
furrows down the slope; they are made to follow the contours ot
the land with just a little fall. The cement-pipe head ditches for
these orchards are run down the hillsides, often following a ridge,
with overflows at such intervals that the fall from one to another
is not over six or eight feet. A\'ater is taken from riser valves,
through hoods, and is run along the contours to both right and left
of the head ditches. This practice is well exemplified in the La
Habra Hills, where the soil is of a clayey composition and resists
erosion.
Terracing and heavy grading have the disadvantage that the
good soil is removed from certain parts of the ground and on
such places the trees or other vegetation may be stunted and
unproductive.
The overflow system may be called the open system, while the
svstems at Continental are closed, that is, each riser requires a
valve. The closed system is better adapted to uneven land, and it
permits of the use of slightly smaller pipe sizes. The open system
requires more carefully executed surveys.
Riser valves are of brass. In some makes sheet rubber gaskets
are used, in others braided hemp boiled in tallow. The valves are
set, sometimes on the groove ledge at the top of the riser, some-
times in the riser so that the top of the valve handle is at the level
of the top of the riser. Two to one mortar is used for setting the
risers and valves.
10-foot contours and layout of main supply line and laterals.
150 Bulletin 86
pipe line systems
A key map of a 540-acre field at Continental is shown in Fig. 33.
The arrows indicate the direction of irrigation. The 10-foot con-
tours exhibit the steepness and the rolling character of the land.
The field is composed of a succession of fans built by the intermit-
tently flooded side washes. The pipe-line system is laid out so as
to divide the land into fields of quite uniform slopes. The possi-
bility of running the main supply line over fans and through the
intermediate low districts is of great advantage over open gravity
ditches. The supply line shown in Fig. 33 continues a total length
of over six miles, the entire water supply, 7.6 second-feet, being
derived from the two wells shown.
On important pipe-line systems, where many men are permitted
to adjust the gates and riser valves, a set of rules for the operation
of the system will be useful. The three following rules may be
placed at the head of the list.
1. Always provide some place for the water to go. Begin the
irrigation with too many valves open and regulate by closing one
valve at a time until the desired head is flowing from each of the
open valves.
2. Open or close each gate or valve slowly.
3. Do not shut oflf one gate or set of valves until another has
been opened.
SPECIAL STRUCTURES
Special structures are often required. A division and measuring
gate pit is shown in Fig. 34. In this case it is necessary to divide
the flow from the 20-inch supply line into two equal parts. Two
equal weirs are provided. The certainty of equal division is as-
sured, for if it is assumed that the irrigators on Line A do not take
their full half of the water and that the water in their line is backed
up onto the weir, then the hydraulic gradient in the pit at the head
of Line A will be higher than in Pit B and will also be flatter than
the normal gradient, while the gradient in Line B will be steeper;
hence the gate pit with closed gate on Line A will be the first to
overflow. Therefore, the irrigators on Line A will be warned by
the overflowing gate pit and will open more valves. The irrigators
are instructed to watch their gate pit and keep water level at nor-
mal elevation.
Another special structure at Continental is a gate pit in the
corner of the nursery. The nursery lateral is on a 1.66 percent
Pi PIC Line Structures
151
ascending grade, and if the ordinary gate pit had been built its
height would have been 21 feet. The covered compartment is
reinforced with steel and corrugated iron. When the gate is closed
or partly closed, water can be taken from any or all risers on the
nursery line. At other times the gate is kept open.
; I 2-11' 1 '■ '■
u*
r-4- f-U- —^^-6^ 1- /-«■-!-
' —4- ^4- ^•
^ecT/orf
sSltCT/O/f
Fig. 34. — A divlsioh and
measuring pit where main
supply of water is divided
into two equal heads.
Many unusual cases arise and require special treatment, particu-
larly on rolling and hilly topography. Many of our Southwestern
valleys, however, are almost plane surfaces and only standard struc-
tures are needed.
152
Bulletin 86
■^EiCTIOn
Fig 35. — Special eate pit for forcing water up a lateral on a steep grade. An alter-
native is a gate stand with closed top, the gate stem passing through a stuffing box.
OTHER USES OF CEMENT PIPE
In addition to irrigation systems, there are many other forms of
construction for which cement pipe is admirably adapted. Among
them are sewers, culverts, drain tile, gates, underflow collecting
flumes, and water pipe lines.
SEWERS
At the present time over eighty American cities are giving the
preference to cement pipe for sewers. Bulletin 55, issued by this
Station in 1907, advocated its use very strongly. Quoting from that
bulletin, page 181,
"For many years it has been an active competitor of clay tile in
sewer construction despite the usuallv much lower cost of the latter.
The city of Brooklyn, N. Y., has used cement sewer pipe almost ex-
clusively for forty years, and now has over 400 miles of cement
sewers in active use. No less an authority than Rudolph Hering
advocates it in preference to clay tile*. Its advantages are many.
It can be molded to any sectional form and will retain it, while
vitrified pipe shrinks and warps while burning. It is tougher than
vitrified pipe and withstands rough handling with less breakage.
When washed inside with pure cement it is equally as smooth and
frictionless as clean glazed tile, while both pipes soon become so
coated with sewage that the character of the original surface is lost.
In Arizona, conditions are especially suited to the use of cement
sewer pipe. The long freight haul makes vitrified tile very costly.
For the 8-inch size the cement pipe will cost 30 per cent less than
the tile, and in the larger sizes the economy will be still greater.
Throughout Arizona these conditions are practically the same, and
it is to be recommended that each city use the cement pipe. It can
be made by the city or contracted to an experienced cement worker,
in either case under the supervision of the city engineer."
Despite this publicity, Arizona cities have continued to use clay
pipe for sewers. A large sewer contract was let in Tucson in 1916.
The lowest bid for the inside city work (excluding the outfall sewer)
was $66,305 for McCracken machine-made cement pipe. But, owing
to a malicious campaigner against the use of cement pipe for
sewers, the city accepted a bid of $73,612 for vitrified clay pipe.
Inconsistently, however, at the same time the city accepted a bid of
$41,750 for a 30-inch cement pipe outfall sewer.
When the contract was about half completed controversy arose
over the quality of the clay pipe that was being furnished for the
•The Concrete Review. Vol. 1. No. 4. March. 1907.
154 Bui^LETiN 86 ,
inside city sewers, and the contract was held up for several weeks.
The pipe was from a Los Angeles factory and was mostly 8-inch
pipe. Many tests that were made showed that the pipe did not
measure up to the specifications. A committee of engineers was
appointed by the mayor to report on the quality of the pipe, par-
ticularly "as to whether the pipe is of good, first-class, and standard
quality, such as will provide this city with good sewers when laid."
The report of this committee follows:
REPORT OF COMMITTEE
Nov. 8th, 1916.
To the Mayor and Common Council of the City of Tucson.
Gentlemen : The undersigned, your committee appointed to in-
vestigate and report relative to the quality of the sewer pipe now
being laid in your city, under contract with T. J. Shea, begs to sub-
mit the following report.
In a letter from the Mayor dated Nov. 7, it is stated that you
desire our views "as to whether this pipe is of good, first-class and
standard quality, such as will provide this city with good sewers
when laid.''
The committee has personally inspected considerable of the pipe
stacked up alongside the streets in the north part of the city, and
has selected and tested nine of those pipes. We tested also three
pipes said to have been taken from the last carload and one addi-
tional pipe.
The first test stipulated in the city specifications is that of perco-
lation. Our tests show that the pipes with few exceptions do not
withstand 15 pounds per square inch hydrostatic pressure, and some
of them do not stand a pressure of even 5 pounds. Tests were made
also with a pressure of 2^ pounds per square inch lasting 20 min-
utes. One specimen was sweating at the end of this time, but the
others were dry on the outside.
The importance of the percolation test is mainly with reference to
its bearing upon the strength of the pipe, inasmuch as slow percola-
tion is of little moment from a sanitary or engineering point of view,
in all but rare cases, such as when the sewer line is laid below the
groundwater level and drinking supplies are obtained in the vicinity.
It is the common opinion of all engineers that the pores of both clay
and cement tiles gradually close up after they are put in service.
Certainly it is unnecessary to demand that new tiles should stand
as high as 15 or even 5 pounds internal pressure, equivalent to 35,
or 12 feet head of water. Our special test of 2]^ pounds pressure
approximates the actual conditions of the pipe in the trench, and
we feel safe in saying that the percolation under these conditions
will be negligible.
The important test in the case of sewer pipe is that of strength,
particularly strength to resist external pressures, for practically all
Other Usf.s of Cement Pipe 155
failures of sewer pipe are due to crushing in by the overlying load.
The specifications require that the pipe should withstand an internal
pressure of 25 pounds per square inch, and also the equivalent of a
20-foot backfill. Our tests show that with few exceptions the pipe
will stand much higher internal pressures than 25 pounds. The im-
plication, therefore, is that the sewer pipe is of exceptionally strong
quality.
However, inasmuch as the relationship between the hydrostatic
pressures and the equivalent external pressures has never been de-
termined, we recommend that the pipe shall be tested also to deter-
mine its resistance to external loads, according to any one of several
methods that are in use in other places. It is not essential that the
pipe laying shall be held up while the apparatus for making these
tests is being prepared.
We find a small percentage of underburned, cracked, and warped
tiles, but these are discovered and thrown out by the inspector, ac-
cording to the system universally in use.
In conclusion, we would say that in our judgment the pipe being
laid is the equal of the average of such pipe; that from the stand-
point of durability, sanitation and general fitness for the service to
which it will be subjected it will be satisfactory. But we believe
that in general the pipe is somewhat overburned and would advise
that the pipe to be delivered for the balance of the contract shall be
somewhat less vitrified, so as to have a breaking strength of from
25 to 40 pounds and so as to make a better showing in the perco-
lation test.
Respectfully submitted,
G. E. P. Smith,
J. C. McClure,
I. McAvoY.
In general, it may be said that the sewer pipe is as good as can
be obtained from California factories, presumably as good as can
be made from California clays. It is unfortunate that the specifica-
tions were drawn so rigidly as otherwise lower bids might have
been received.
In making the tests it was noticeable that there were two kinds
of vitrification exhibited. In one case the surface was of a purple
black color, excessively fused and glazed, and the interior was
burned black. This pipe was found to be very strong, but also
pervious. In the other type the surface color was a dark neutral
tint, the glazing smooth and pimply, apparently less fused, and the
color of the fracture was slightly yellow instead of solid black. This
pipe was less strong than the other type, but much more imper-
vious. It can be concluded that excessive burning in the kiln hard-
ens the pipe, increasing the strength but making it porous. A small
156 Bulletin 86
percentage of the pipe were light on the exterior, yellow on the
fracture, and were therefore much underburned.
After these tests the author took steps to ascertain the practice
in other cities. The first city to use a percolation test was Brook-
lyn, and the reason there was that many of the sewer lines are be-
low groundwater level and the sewage has to be pumped into the
seas; therefore, if the pipe is pervious a considerable volume of
groundwater will have to be handled by the pumps. Kansas City
adopted the Brooklyn specification, although the reasons for using
it at Brooklyn did not exist at Kansas City. Furthermore, it was
found very early that any pipe which stands the internal pressure
test of 33 pounds per square inch will stand the percolation test of
10 pounds (no duration of time being stated), and hence the test
fell into disuse, although it was still retained in the specifications.
At the author's request, the city engineer of Kansas City on Decem-
ber 11, 1916, kindly tested six clay pipe for percolation. The sizes
ranged from 8-inch to 21-inch, and all six pipes withstood 15 pounds
for 5 minutes with "no percolation." It is evident that the pipe
clay of the Middle West is superior to that of California or that the
art of burning the pipe is better developed in the Middle West.
It has been suggested* that the percolation test be replaced by
the test for absorption, that is, to ascertain not under v.'hat pressure
the pipe begins to sweat, but what proportion of the pipe is voids.
However, in the tests of sewer pipe at Tucson the pipe which
showed the least porosity was one which sweat freely and uni-
formly all over when tested for perviousness. Also no definite re-
lation between porosity and strength of clay pipe has been deter-
mined. The absorption test is easier to make than internal press-
ure and percolation tests, but since it fails of having a definite
significance, it would seem that in those cases where percolation
is of importance the percolation test should be retained. The speci-
fication requirements for percolation should be modified to fit the
actual conditions in each case.
Sewer pipe is not subjected, ordinarily, to more than one or two
pounds pressure, and it is the common belief of engineers that
sewer pipe, either clay or cement, soon becomes sealed up and
covered with a slime. A slight percolation when the pipe is new
might result in a damp soil surrounding the pipe, but oxidation
would prevent any objectionable result, excepting in those cases
where the pipe is laid below or near the water table and in the
vicinity of domestic water supplies.
•EnKln. News. Vol. 77. No. 8. Feb. 22. 1917. p. 329.
Other Uses of Cement Pipe 157
The town of Glendale is the first in Arizona to use machine-made
cement pipe for sewer lines. (See page 7Z.) The town has voted
additional bonds and will enlarge its sewer system, using the same
kind of pipe. The city of Globe, also, is to adopt machine-made
cement pipe for an extensive sewer system. Other cities in Arizona
may well follow the example of Glendale and thereby save the
difiference in cost between cement and clay pipe.
BRIDGES AND CULVERTS
Pipe culverts are much used for stormwater conduits on public
highways, though in Pima and some other counties the substitu-
tions of dips (depressions in the grade) is increasing. Where the
watershed to be drained is local and the maximum flow can be
estimated with some certainty the culverts are advisable, on ac-
count of the even grade of the road, the low cost to install, and
practically no upkeep. But there are thousands of drainage cross-
ings where a usually insignificant channel overflows into a river tor-
rent occasionally, usually for an hour or less at a time, and for such
places the dip is advisable. Dips should be floored with concrete ;
"gravel dips" are a failure, but in a few localities, where the best
caliche binder is available, "lime-bound" gravel dips may be justi-
fiable. Dips should have thick, heavy, and sloping cutofif walls on
the downstream side and thin but deeper walls on the upstream
side. The dip is not a suitable type of construction for rivers, since
it is impossible to design them to resist undermining at reasonable
cost.
For road culverts a range of sizes from 18 to 30 inches is feasible.
Smaller culverts become clogged with floating debris ; larger than
30 inches are expensive and with much less capacity than dips or
slab bridges.
The culverts should be sunken so that the thickness of earth
covering over the crown is equal to the diameter of the pipe. The
backfilling should be done very thoroughly, so that the bottom and
sides of the pipes are well supported. End walls of concrete or
rubble are necessary to prevent cutting out by the swirl of the water
or by the flow creeping along the outside of the pipe.
Pipe culverts ofifer an ideal substitute for the wooden bridges
over irrigating ditches both in the fields and in highways. It often
happens that a single ranch owner has from six to twenty such
bridges to build and maintain. The pipe culverts are actually less
158 Bulletin 86
costly at the outset and cost nothing at all for maintenance. Cul-
verts of 15 to 24 inches capacity have been installed for ditch
crossings with only a few inches of earth over them. Usually they
support the loaded farm wagons that pass over them, but not
always. It is safer to give them a good cover, even though the
road grade has to be raised.
During the past few years most of the culverts built in Arizona
have been of corrugated iron, usually the so-called ingot-iron cul-
verts. Ingot-iron is said to be nearly pure iron and to resist cor-
rosion as well as wrought iron. A comparison of the merits of
ingot-iron and cement pipe is presented in the hope that it may be
of value, especially to state and county officials.
1. Portability: Here the ingot-iron culverts have some advantage
in case the cement pipe must be hauled a long distance. If the ce-
ment pipe can be made in the vicinity it may be easier to transport
it on a short haul than to haul the iron culverts from a distant rail-
way station.
2. Strength: The crushing strength of eleven 12-inch corrugated
iron pipes were tested at the University of Maine*. The actual in-
side diameters varied from 10 to 12}^ inches. The crushing loads
per lineal foot for five lap rivetted pipes averaged 4470 pounds.
This is somewhat more than the average for 12-inch cement pipe
as given on page 125. Instances have been observed on Arizona
state highways where ingot-iron culverts, placed too near the grade
line, have been flattened, crushed, and broken through by freight
wagons. Cement pipe culverts have failed when placed too near
the surface. Both classes of pipe are safe if buried their own depth.
Yuma County has employed McCracken cement pipe culverts
for the extensive bond-built highways of that county. The specifi-
cations called for 12, 18, and 24-inch diameters, and mortar propor-
tions of 1 to 3>1 An interesting test was made of this pipe by the
county engineer. He statesf :
"Before we used the pipe, a test was made at the factory, on 12-
inch pipe covered with one foot of dirt. A wagon was loaded at
about approximately three tons on the rear wheels. A 6 by 6 was
laid across the driveway just before the wagon was driven over the
pipe, thus throwing the load six inches higher and dropped from
this height onto the ground just above the pipe. The load was run
across and dropped onto the pipe repeatedly. Upon taking up the
pipe, no defects whatever could be found. This machine-made pipe
•T^niv. Me. Technol. Exp. Sta., Bui. II, 1, (191fi). » ^
tFrom a private communication from C. M. Hindman, County Engmeer, August
10, 1916.
Other Uses of Cement Pipe
159
has been much more satisfactory for our use than the hand-tamped.
Have purchased and used both and very much prefer the machine-
made."
In answer to an inquiry some months later as to how the cement
pipe culverts were withstanding the traffic, the county engineer
states* :
"These culverts are in good condition and show no signs of
weakness. After being laid, heavy rollers and motor trucks have
run over them. Since road has been completed heavy motor trucks
Fig. 36. — Carrying- capacities of cement pipe and corrugated iron culverts
of equal diameters.
weighing, when loaded twenty-two thousand pounds, including load
and weight of vehicle, have been operated over road and have not
injured the concrete pipe culverts in the least."
For culverts for special service, where great strength is required,
reinforced concrete pipe can be used. (See page 93.)
3. Capacity: The smooth interior of cement pipe has a great ad-
vantage over the corrugated interior of metal culverts. Every cor-
rugation causes eddies with consequent loss of head. The carrying
capacities of long pipe lines of corrugated iron have been found to
•From a private communication from C. M. Hindman, May 11, 1917.
160 Bulletin 86
be only one-half as great as for cement pipe lines of equal diameter.
For short pipes, such as culverts, the differences are not so great.
Fig. 36 is presented to show the relative capacities of 25-foot cul-
verts of the two kinds and of three sizes. The capacities as given
in Fig. 36 are computed according to the principles of hydraulics.
Actual experiment might vary them to a slight degree. Many
scores of small corrugated iron culverts in Arizona have become
clogged and filled with earth.
The uncovering and washing out of corrugated metal culverts
has been very frequent in the past. Doubtless these misfortimes
have been due, in part, to the fact that the county officials who pur-
chased the culverts have not appreciated the low carrying capacity
of the corrugated culverts, and have purchased culverts too small
for the locations where they have been installed.
4. Permanence: Both classes of pipe may be expected to have
long life. Good cement construction grows harder with age, and
the ingot-iron, also, has been proven to resist oxidation much more
than ordinary steel.
Metal culverts may be subjected to two destructive influences:
the erosive action of water carrying sharp sand, and chemical ac-
tion. Galvanized metal flumes have been used extensively in the
U. S. Reclamation Service projects during the past ten years, and
experience indicates that unprotected galvanized flumes will have a
life of 10 or 12 years, except under the most trying conditions, i. e.,
high velocity of water carrying sand and fine gravel, where the life
in one particular instance was only four seasons use*. Tests were
made on a flume of the Uncompahgre project using various pro-
tective coatings such as paints, elastic graphite, and tar compounds.
The conclusion reached after the coatings had been on one season
was that coal tar is the best and cheapest mixture available. The
erosive action of sand or grit, carried at velocities over 3 feet per
second, is quite pronounced, but road culverts in Arizona, as a rule,
do not carry water save for a few hours each year. In other states
both kinds of culverts have been destroyed by alkali, but no cases
of injury of this sort in Arizona are known.
5. Cost: In Arizona the cost of ingot-iron culverts up to 30 inches
in size is just about double the cost of cement pipe culverts of the
same nominal diameter. On the basis of carrying capacities, the
ratio is about two and a half to one. The cement pipe culverts are
admittedly much more economical.
•Reclamation Service Record, Vol. 7, No. 11, 1916, p. 519.
Otiii:r Usi;s of Cemicnt Pipe
161
6. .1 home industry: Another argument of considerable impor-
lance is that nearly all of the cost of metal culverts is sent away
from the county purchasing the culverts, while in the case of cement
pipe only the cost of the cement is sent away, while the balance of
the cost is paid locally for labor, sand, and gravel, and a home in-
dustry is encouraged.
DRAK\ TILE
Drainage is coming to be known as concomitant to irrigation.
Due to the downward percolation of water from irrigation conduits
and from irrigated fields, the water table rises over large areas, and
valuable cultivated lands become water-logged, and in some cases
IT
* .■ ■ * •
. ■ # • .
t / i
l_^IO 0a/. Iron Jit/m.j
J*.T i-o Concrt,y'€.
PLAN
Detail for. Slid a. Notch
Q
^/a tSa/. Iron S/iJt <Stfii
t
Ot*--
iiviiiiiia'
SE.CTlOn
Fe.OIiT E.LE.V'ATIOli
Fig. 37. — Common type of ffate in canal bank at head of lateral.
alkalied. Two drainage districts, one near Tempe and one near
Thatcher, organized under state laws are now engaged in reclaim-
ing areas which had become alkalied, and in preventing the exten-
sion of the injury to adjacent lands. The Reclamation Service is
carrying out a drainage scheme for the whole Yuma Valley. Other
sections of the Salt River Valley are facing the same problem.
162 Bulletin 86
Drain tile is made with square ends, without bell or socket, and
is laid end to end with open joints to admit water. Cement pipe
cannot be recommended for drain tile except with some qualifica-
tion. A chemical analysis of the groundwater to be drained should
first be made. As noted on page 141, the action of alkali on con-
crete depends on the character of the alkali, the degree of concen-
tration, and the density of the concrete. The evidence at hand in-
dictates that wet-poured or machine-made cement pipe, made of
carefully selected materials so as to have great density, would prove
satisfactory in Arizona. More evidence as to the life of cement
pipe in drainage ditches is very desirable. When the Tempe drain-
age canal was first opened the water at the outlet contained 1665
parts per 100,000 of soluble solids, but after one year the soluble
solids had decreased to 351 parts per 100,000.
The Thatcher drainage district is using clay tile. The cost is
about 50 percent greater than for machine-made cement pipe.
GATES
The cheapest material for directing water in and out of laterals
and open head ditches and for taking the water from the head
ditches onto the lands is the earth always close at hand, but the
time consumed in building and removing the earth taps makes its
use very arduous and costly. Lumber gates are, therefore, em-
ployed sometimes, but the alternate wetting and drying soon de-
strovs them. Cement pipe in 2-foot lengths with sheet-iron curtains
are to be recommended for this purpose. A good type of cement
pipe gate is shown in Fig. 37. If the ditch banks are high and
wide, an additional 2-foot length of pipe should be used so as to
reach entirely through the bank.
UNDERFLOW COLLECTING FLUMES AND INVERTED
SIPHONS
Many of the dry water courses of the Southwest carry a strong
underflow, and after the flood seasons are past much water is ob-
tained by opening ditches or burying wooden flumes as deeply as
possible in the river beds. But the recurrent floods fill the ditches
and oftentimes float away the buried boxes so that the expense
of maintenance and the loss of water at critical times is very dis-
couraging.
Othkk L'sks of Ckment PlI-K 163
Frequently, too, canals and ditches have to be carried acr(»ss
and beneath rivers. The Woodruff (Arizona) canal intersects the
Little Colorado River three times. The Flowinjj^ Wells ditch is
carried under the Santa Cruz River in an inverted siphon 3200 feet
long.
It is evident that conduits for these purposes should have weight
or be anchored down w^th piling, and they should have great bend-
ing strength, as portions of them may be undermined during floods.
Some form of reinforced concrete pipe should be used. The amount
of steel reinforcement can be varied to meet the requirements and
although the pipe line should be buried beyond the probable reach
of floods, yet if a portion is undermined by the scour or is subjected
to lateral pressure, the longitudinal reinforcement will be very ef-
fective in maintaining the stability of the line.
For that portion of the line safely outside of the river bed plain
cement pipe will be adequate.
DOMESTIC SUPPLY PIPK LINES
The excellent characteristics of machine-made pipe suggest an-
other use for it. In view of the almost prohibitive price of cast-
iron and wTought-iron pipe at the present time, it may be prac-
ticable to substitute cement pipe, in some cases reinforced, in cases
where the internal pressure is less than 20 pounds per square inch.
Twelve-inch cement pipe of an extra rich mixture, extra thick, and
containing some steel reinforcement can be made in Tucson for
about one-sixth the cost of standard W^ I. pipe of the same diameter
and capacity. Under favorable conditions the cement pipe will not
deteriorate, while iron pipe does. The only disadvantage on the
side of the cement pipe, probably, is the great danger from water
hammer, but this could be obviated by careful designing. In small
villages, mining camps, cantonments, and for farm homes much
cement pipe could be employed economically.
COSTS
The cost of cement pipe or of cement pipe lines cannot be stated
readily because of the variable local conditions. For example, the
cost of good, clean sand in the Casa Grande Valley is two or three
times the cost at a point situated close to a good supply. The loca-
tion with respect to the railway, living accommodations, the char-
acter of labor, and the size of the job all have a bearing on the cost.
In Iowa and neighboring states the custom is to establish large
factories at central points and to ship the pipe by rail to the points
where it is needed. The pipe is used mainly by drainage districts,
and in large quantities. The manufacturers furnish pipe to the con-
tractors, or they take the full contract themselves.
In the Pacific Coast states contracts are taken for the pipe line
laid complete, and the contractors make their own pipe. This has
been the custom in Arizona also. It has the advantage that there
is no divided responsibility. If the pipe line fails, the layer cannot
claim that the pipe was defective while the manufacturer claims that
the pipe was injured in handling, or the trench bed was not brought
to grade, or the joint mortar was not properly cured.
The cost of making can be estimated in advance for a particular
case where conditions and prices are known. Some assumptions
must be made, such as for rate of work per day. Depreciation and
maintenance of the plant, taxes, and interest on the investment
should be computed. Maintenance of equipment is costly on ac-
count of the wear on packer-heads, rings, and other parts. A liberal
percentage should be added for contingencies, for the work may be
stopped, due to non-arrival of cement, severe storms or freezing
weather may cause delay or damage, and there are many other un-
foreseen difBculties that may arise.
The following estimate of the cost of McCracken machine pipe
is presented as illustrative of the method to be used. It is based
on Tucson prices in 1918. The figures should not be quoted as
general or average costs.
Table XXIII. ANNUAL FIXED CHARGES ON INVESTMENT OE $6,000
Item Percent I Amount
Maintenance and depreciation.
Interest
Taxes
Total
25
8
1
34
$1500
480
60
$2040
COFTS
165
If we assume that the plant is in operation 250 days per year,
the fixed charge is $8.00 per day. Continuous operation requires
that a good business has been established, that ample capital is
available to carry a large amount of pipe in the stackyard during
the winter seasons, and that it is not necessary to move the machin-
ery from place to place.
The total cost given in Table XXIV does not include any ofifice
expenses, or the cost of a traveling salesman or the cost of collec-
tions. When expenses of this nature and a good working profit are
added, the pipe should sell at about 22 to 25 cents per foot for the
12-inch size, and 45 to 55 cents for the 20-inch size. No allowance
has been made for the cost of water supply for the plant. This item
is usually negligible. The allowance for contingencies is ten per-
cent.
TABLE XXIV.
COST
PER FOOT
OF MCCK.VCKEN M.XCIIINE PIPE
Diam.
No. of
Cement
Sand
Labor Con-
of
feet
Fixed
\@ $3.4r)
<fi>
Power $20 per tin-
Total
pipe
per day
charges
1 per bbl.
$1.50
1 day gencies
Inches
Feet I
Cents
Cents
Cents
Cents Ce7its , Cents
Cents
12
1600
0.5
12.3
2.2
0.3 1.2 1.6
18.1
14
1400 :
0.6
i 15.7
2.7
0.4 1.4 2.0
22.8
16
1200
0.7
22.1
3.7
O.S 1.7 2.8
31.5
18
1000
0.8
24.6
3.9
0.6 2.0 3.2
35.1
20
800
1.0
27.8
4.9
0.7 2.5 3.7
40.6
The cost of hand-tamped pipe is necessarily higher than that
of McCracken pipe, since the rate of making is only about one-
seventh as fast. If we assume an investment of $1500 in equip-
ment, the fixed charges will be only $2 per day, but the fixed charges
per foot of pipe will be twice as great as for the machine pipe. The
labor cost will be three times as great. Sand and cement are likely
to cost more for the hand-tamped pipe.
There is an advantage in a permanently-installed, centrally-
located plant, especially for the engine-driven machine plants. The
plant should be situated close to an abundant supply of good sand
and on a railroad spur. Unless the cost of transportation from the
plant to the point of use exceeds 25 percent of the cost at the plant,
it will be more economical usually to buy the machine pipe than to
make the pipe on the ground by hand tamping.
The contracts made at Continental in 1916 were of an unusual
character. The company preferred to furnish both sand and ce-
ment, so as to have control of the quality of each and of the propor-
tions of the mortar. The contractors furnished the equipment. All
hauling was done by the company. Sixteen-inch pipe will be taken
166 BuivivETiN 86
as a basis for comparison. The first contract was for two miles of
the McCracken pipe. The price for making and curing the 16-inch
pipe was 8 cents per foot, and the price for laying was 5 cents per
foot. The second contract was for 6500 feet of hand-tamped pipe
and included opening the trench and backfilling, the earth cover
above the pipe to be at least 12 inches. The price for the 16-inch
size was 22^/4 cents per foot. The price bid for the making and
curing alone was 12 cents. In the other sizes there was a little more
economy in the machine-made pipe in the smaller sizes, a little less
economy in the larger sizes. Both contracts proved to be profitable
for the contractors.
Another bid received was for hand-made pipe for the whole sys-
tem, and was from a very reliable pipe maker. His bid for 16-inch
pipe, for making and laying but no trenching, was 20 cents per foot.
List prices of hand-tamped pipe in southern Arizona vary from
25 to 40 cents per foot for 12-inch pipe and from 40 to 50 cents for
16-inch pipe, these prices being at the pipe yard. List prices are
usually intended to apply for small quantities ; discounts can be
given on large contracts.
The unit prices for the pipe at Glendale could not be learned.
The unit prices for the pipe laid in the trench were as follows :
14-inch pipe, $0.90 per lineal foot of trench
15- " " 1.14 " " " "
18- " " 1.40 " " " "
The contractor's bid included prices also for 8 and 10-inch pipe,
55 and 62 cents per foot, respectively, but no pipe of those sizes was
laid.
The item of cement in Table XXIV constitutes about two-thirds
of the cost of the pipe. The price per barrel as stated, $3.45, is 50
percent higher than the price one year ago. Since no cement is
made in xA.rizona, the price is relatively high. There are many lo-
calities where cement pipe can be produced much more cheaply, on
account of the lower cost of cement.
The cost of pipe laying consists of the labor and the cement, sand,
and water distributed along the ditch. According to the data on
page 107, the labor cost varies from 2 cents a foot for 12-inch pipe to
4 cents a foot for 20-inch pipe. The cost of the mortar materials
will be about an equal amount, and a contractor must charge an ad-
ditional sum for taking the responsibility for obtaining a strong and
durable pipe line.
The cost of trenching depends upon the depth of the trench and
the nature of the material. For deep trenches and for hardpan, a
Costs 167
steam-driven trenching machine is advisable, provided one can be
secured at favorable terms. But for shallow trenches in soil that
requires little or no pick work, excavation with a shovel is cheaper
than by machine. The cost of shovel trenching where the depth
does not exceed 4 feet is from 15 to 30 cents per cubic yard, equal to
from 4 to 8 cents per lineal foot for a trench 30 inches wide and 3
feet deep. Deep trenches should not be opened much in advance
of the pipe laying, because the caving of the side walls increases
rapidly after the earth is exposed to the weather.
Hauling is a matter of some importance. Each length of pipe
should be laid on its side lengthwise of the wagon bed. It is cus-
tomary to haul about fifty feet of 12-inch pipe or twenty feet of 20-
inch pipe on a two-horse load. The pipe are packed in cars simi-
larly, on side and longitudinally with the car.
The cost of pij^e distribution systems varies from $15 to $30 per
acre of land. Assuming 12-inch lateral lines 1000 feet apart, the
cost is about $13 per acre for these laterals and the main supply lines
may cost as much more.
■ In the sewer contract referred to on page 153, the vitrified
clay tile cost 22' 1> cents per foot f. o.b. Tucson, while the pro-
posal was made to furnish 8-inch McCracken cement pipe at 15 cents
per foot. The clay drain pipe used at Thatcher in 1916 cost 20,
29>4, and 39 cents per foot, respectively, for the 8, 10, and 12-inch
sizes. The pipe was of the weight known as double-strength, the
12-inch pipe weighing 46.2 pounds per foot.
Prices of pipe culverts, in place, in Pima County in 19 17 were
as shown in Table XXV.
TABLE XXV. PRICES BID ON CULVERTS EOR PIMA COUNTY, 1917
Quantity Size i Corrugated iron
Feet Inches \
308 I 12 $ 432
1232 ! 18 I 2340
1280 24 3200
McCracken pipe
$ 200
1232
1935
For large streams of water wdiich would require pipe greater
than 36 inches in diameter, cement-lined ditches are advisable*,
provided the line can be laid out with a suitable gradient.
*See U. S. Department of Agriculture bulletin, No. 126, "Concrete Lining as
Applied to Irrigation Canals."
SUMMARY
This bulletin is a general treatise on cement pipe, its manufac-
ture, its characteristics and its applications. The bulletin describes
the various machines used in pipe making, the details of making
and of laying, the dangers inherent in cement pipe making and in
pipe lines, the testing of pipe and the results obtained, the design
of pipe lines and structures, and the utility of cement pipe for
various purposes.
PIPE MACHINES
1. Pipe-making machines of many designs have proven success-
ful, not only for plain tile, but for jointed pipe also.
2. The two general classes of pipe machines are : first, those
employing the tamping principle, and, second, centrifugal or packer-
head machines. The latter type have greater speed and capacity
per day and are especially adapted to small sizes of pipe.
3. Pipe making by machinery requires skill and experience and
will always depend upon specially trained operators. The purchase
of a machine and equipment requires an investment of from $4000
to $10,000.
4. Good pipe requires good materials — cement, sand, and small
broken rock ; thorough mixing ; expert handling of the machine ; and
careful, thorough curing, preferably under protection from sun and
drying winds.
5. Machine-made pipe has admirable qualities ; it is true in
dimensions and shape, smooth inside, dense, strong, impervious,
and of relatively low cost.
6. Some problems relating to machine-made pipe are still to be
solved, notably the problem of how to make steel reinforcement
effective in such pipe.
HAND-MADE PIPE
7. Making pipe by hand in molds has been done successfully
for many years. Such pipe has been widely used. Its use is now
being supplanted by that of machine-made pipe. However, there
will always be a field for hand-made pipe, particularly for small jobs
and in localities far removed from railroads.
8. Hand-made pipe, as produced in different pipe yards, is
extremely variable in quality, ranging from weak, porous, mis-
shapen pipe, mostly sand, cured in the open air. to sound, well-
Summary 169
tamped pipe, made of rich well-proportioned mortar, under a roof,
and thoroughly cured.
9. Tamping alone does not produce a smooth interior, and the
pipe should be washed inside with neat cement.
10. Greater strength can be secured by increasing the thickness
of the pipe wall and by using a wet consistency of the mortar.
WET-POURED PIPE
11. Wet-cast pipe is usually of large diameter, and is rein-
forced. When properly made, it attains great strength, and is
adapted for use under high heads, as in water-supply mains and in
important siphons. On account of the great number of forms re-
quired, its cost is relatively high.
PIPE L.WING
12. The bell and spigot joint is used largely in the East and
the tongue and groove joint in the West. While the former is the
logical joint for cast-iron pipe, the latter has important advantages
for cement pipe and can be recommended for sewer pipe as well as
for irrigation pipe.
13. Pipe should not be laid in hot weather, except in the early
part of the day before the pipe becomes heated, as otherwise con-
traction cracks may occur. All concrete work of similar nature
should be done in cool weather if possible.
14. Pipe should be laid with straight alignment and even
grades. The cover of earth should be at least 12 inches. Mortar
of one to two proportions with 8 percent hydrated lime is best for
the joints.
FAILURES OF CEMENT PIPE
15. The ordinary causes of failure are excessive internal press-
ure (in irrigation pipe), great depth of backfill (in sewer pipe and
drain tile), contraction while curing, unequal settlement, and water
hammer in pipe lines in which air is trapped.
16. In hot, dry climates there are special dangers in the use of
pipe that is allowed to become dry after it is cured. When such
pipe absorbs water again, it may destroy pipe-line structures, may
buckle on curves, and may fail by distortion of the pipe section or
by differential expansion of the pipe wall. The best remedy is pre-
vention ; dry pipe should not be laid.
17. The nature of the soil and the character of the bedding are
170 Bulletin 86
important factors of the resistance of cement pipe to external
pressure.
18. I'rom the records of tests that have been published, de-
signers can draw plans and prepare specifications. Specifications
foT important contracts should provide for ample tests of the pipe
before it is laid, and for trial tests of the line when completed.
19. Injury from alkali in water or in soil depends upon the
quality and concentration of the alkali and the density of the pipe.
Little difificulty from this cause is to be anticipated in Arizona, but
very alkaline soils should be analyzed before pipe lines are built in
them.
STRKNCTH AND WATKRTIGHTNESS
20. Cement pipe gains in strength for at least one month, and
probably for three months, after its manufacture.
21. Tests of cement pipe should be made with the pipe in a
wet condition. The strength of dry pipe is abnormally high.
22. When dry pipe is wetted by immersion, the internal stresses
become entirely equalized within a few hours. If the pipe is laid
and is wetted from the inside only, it may be many days before the
penetration of water causes the maximum internal stresses in the
pipe wall.
23. Machine-made pipe, as ordinarily made, is safe when sub-
jected to hydrostatic heads up to 25 feet. The strength of hand-
made pipe of good quality is about one-half as great. Wet-cast
pipe can be designed to carry water under heads of somewhat over
100 feet.
24. Machine-made cement pipe up to 20 inches in diameter is
safe in trenches under ten feet of backfill and the smaller sizes are
safe for much greater depth. Hand-made pipe 16 inches in diame-
ter, well made and cured, can be used under ten feet of earth. Tests
should be made, however, in all important cases, to determine the
strength of the pipe.
25. Machine-made pipe is practically impervious. Good hand-
made pi])e washed inside with neat cement, is nearly impervious and
becomes entirely so in time.
PIPIC l-RICTION AND CARRVINc) CAPACITV
26. I'Viction factors are well known and permit close designing.
The value of "n" in Kutter's formula should be taken as .013.
Proper allowance should be made for the eft'ect of frequent risers on
the line, and on descending grades an allowance should be made for
the effect of entrapped air.
Summary 171
USES OF CKMKNT PU'lv
27. Cement pipe is eminently adapted for irrigation pipe lines.
It effects a great saving of water and land and labor; the pipe lines
can be run through low places and over ridges, making it possible
to square up the fields and reducing the cost of grading; ditch clean-
ing is obviated, and burrowing animals are defeated. Cement pipe
is the logical conduit to replace small earth ditches as soon as the
land owners are financially able to make the change.
28. Pipe lint' structures for the division and application of the
water have been ingeniously developed in various places, to suit
the local conditions and purposes. \'arious designs are cited in the
bulletin.
29. Cement pipe of good quality is in all respects the equal of
vitrified clay pipe for use in sewer lines. In Arizona, where the
cost of cement pipe is much less than that of clay pipe, the cement
pipe should be employed.
30. Cement pipe, likewise, should have the preference for farm
and road culverts. When properly made and placed, it is more
durable, has a greater carrying capacity, and is much cheaper than
corrugated iron pipe.
31. Cement pipe, if used for drain tile in alkaline areas, should
be of great density and impervious. Before it is adopted on im-
portant drainage projects, advice should be sought and chemical
analyses should be made of the soils and soil waters.
32. There are sundry other applications for cement pipe, such
as for ditch gates, and around farm buildings. It is likely to replace
iron pipe to some extent as a conduit for domestic water supplies
that are under low head.
COSTS
33. The cost of cement pipe depends on prices, which at present
are on a relatively high level, and on local conditions, such as the
distance from a good gravel supply and from the railroad.
34. If the volume of business is ample, packer-head machine-
made pipe can be produced more cheaply than hand-made pipe.
The University of Arizona
College of Agriculture
Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 87
1
1
1 ^:^r
(W^
At the left the cotton boll weevil. At the right a native non-Injurious
weevil which is frequently mistaken for the boll weevil by Arizona cotton
growers. Both insects en!argefl 3^4 times.
Insect Pests
of Interest to Arizona Cotton Growers
By A. W. Morrill
Tucson, Arizona. December, 1918
The University of Arizona
College of Agriculture
Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 87
At the left the cotton boll weevil. At the right a native non-injunous
weevil which is frequently mistaken for the boll weevil by Arizona cotton
growers. Both insects enlarged Z% times.
Insect Pests
of Interest to Arizona Cotton Growers
By A. W. Morrill
Tucson, Arizona. December, 1918
REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY
Ex-Officio
His Excellency, The Governor of Arizona
The State Superintendent of Public Instruction
Appointed by the Governor of the State
John T. Hughes Chancellor
William J. Bryan, Jr., A.B Treasurer
William Scarlett, A.B., B.D Regent
Mrs. Madge Roberts Regent
Mrs. Bettie White • . Regent
H. S. McCluskey Regent
Mrs. Louise Foucar Marshall Secretary
J. W. Chapman Regent
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
RuFus B. VON KlEinSmid, a.m., Sc.D President of the University; Director
Estes p. Taylor, B.S.A Assistant Dean, College of Agriculture
Robert H. Forbes, Ph.D Research Specialist
John J. Thornber, A.M Botanist
Albert E. Vinson, Ph.D Biochemist
George E. P. Smith, C.E Irrigation Engineer
Richard H. Williams, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
Walter S. Cunningham, B.S Dairy Husbandman
Charles T. Vorhies, Ph.D Entomologist
G. E. Thompson, B.S.A Agronomist
F. J. CridEr, M.S Horticulturist
Clifford N. Catlin, A.M Assistant Chemist
♦Arthur L. EngEr, B.S., C.E Assistant Irrigation Engineer
Walker E. Bryan, M.S Assistant Plant Breeder
C. O. Bond, B.S.A .' Assistant Plant Breeder
W. E. Code, B.S Assistant Irrigation Engineer
A. F. Kinnison, B.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
R. S. Hawkins, B.S.A Assistant Agronomist
Austin W. Morrill, Ph.D Consulting Entomologist
D. C. George Consulting Plant Pathologist
The Experiment Station offices and laboratories are an integral part of the
University at Tucson. The Salt River Valley Experiment Station Farm is
situated one mile west of Mesa, Arizona. The date palm orchards are three
miles south of Tempe (co-operative U. S. D. A.) and one mile southwest of
Yuma, Arizona, respectively. The experimental dry-farms are near Cochise and
Prescott, Arizona.
Visitors are cordially invited, and correspondence receives careful attention.
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE
Estes P. Taylor, B.S.A Director Agricultural Extension Service
Leland S. Parke, B.S State Leader Boys' and Girls' Clubs
Mary PritnEr Lockwood, B.S State Leader Home Demonstration Agents
W. M. Cook, A.B State Leader County Agricultural Agents
A. B. BallantynE, B.S County Agent, Graham-Greenlee Counties
C. R. Fillerup County Agent, Navajo- Apache Counties
De Lore Nichols, B.S County Agent, Coconino County
J. R. SandigE, B.S County Agent, Gila County
C. R. Adamson, B.S.A County Agent. Cochise County
H. C. Heard, B.S County Agent, Maricopa County
J. W. LoNGSTRETH County Agent, Yuma County
Leo L. LaythE, B.S County Agent. Pima-Pinal Counties
Agnes A. Hunt Assistant State Leader Boys' and Girls' Clubs
Edward B. OxlEy, B.S County Club Leader, Maricopa County
Hazel Zimmerman Home Demonstration Agent, Pima-Pinal Counties
Florence D. Sandige. B.S Home Demonstration Agent. Gila County
Amy L. DinsmorE, B.S Home Demonstration Agent, Maricopa County
Flossie D. Wills, B.S Home Dem. Agent, Graham-Greenlee Counties
Grace I. Tufts Home Demonstration Agent, Yuma-Yavapai Counties
Louise SporlEdEr Home Demonstration Agent, Cochise County
Nora LamorEaux Home Demonstration Agent, Apache County
*On leave.
CONTENTS
IWCV.
The Mexican cotton boll weevil 173
The cotton bollworm 175
The pink bollworm 178
The cotton leaf worm 181
The salt marsh caterpillar 183
The cotton leaf perforator 184
The cotton square daubers 186
The Southwestern cotton stainer 190
The brown cotton bug 192
Grasshoppers 194
The cotton aphis 196
The cotton thrips 200
The rod spider 201
Otiier cotton pests 202
Cotton seed and seed cotton quarantine 203
References 205
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Frontispiece. Power sprayer and spray boom arranged for spraying cotton
for aphis.
Sprayer in use in cotton field.
Fig. 1. The cotton boll weevil ^^'^
Fig. 2. Cotton square with bracts spread to show boll weevil puncture 175
Fig. 3. Arizona wild cotton plant (Thurheria) growing in mountain canyon
of southern Arizona 1'°
Fig. 4. The cotton bollworm moth 177
Fig. 5. The cotton bollworm caterpillar feeding on a cotton boll 177
fig. 6. The pink bollworm 178
Fig. 7. Cotton bolls showing difference between injury of common boll-
worm and pink bollworm 179
Fig. 8. Cotton seeds infested by pink bollworm 179
Fig. 9. The cotton leaf worm 182
Fig. 10. The salt marsh caterpillar 183
Fig. 11. The cotton leaf perforator 184
Fig. 12. Work of cotton leaf perforator on Egyptian cotton leaf 185
Fig. 13. Egyptian cotton plant showing work of cotton leaf perforator 186
Fig. 14. Nymph of tarnished plant bug 187
Fig. 15. Adult tarnished plant bug 187
Fig. 16. Adult cotton square dauber 187
Fig. 17. Southwestern cotton stainers 191
Fig. 18. Work of cotton stainer 191
Fig. 19. Effects of plant bug attack on cotton bolls 193
Fig. 20. The brown cotton bug 194
Fig. 21. The differential grasshopper 194
Fig. 22. The large cotton grasshopper 195
Fig. 23. Cotton plants stripped of leaves by differential grasshoppers 196
Fig. 24. The cotton aphis 197
Fig. 25. The convergent lady bird, an enemy of the cotton aphis 198
Fig. 26. Hymenopterous parasite attacking aphis 199
Fig. 27. Parasitized specimens of aphis 199
Fig. 28. Work of cotton thrips on seedling cotton plant 200
Fig. 29. The two spotted red spider 202
Power sprayer and spray boom arranged for spraying cotton for aphis (Lauderdale)
Sprayer in use in cotton field (Lauderdale)
Insect Pests
of Interest to Arizona Cotton Growers
B\ A. IV. Morrill
Cotton growers in Arizona should know something about the
general appearance and methods of attack of the more important
insect enemies of cotton, inchiding those which already occur in
the State as well as those which the State Commission of Agricul-
ture and Horticulture and its agents are trying to keep out. This
bulletin has been prepared to give in concise form general informa-
tion concerning the principal cotton pests which are of interest to
Arizona cotton growers. For those who need or desire more
detailed information references are given at the end to a few reports
of the Arizona Commission of Agriculture and Horticulture and to
bulletins of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL
Every cotton grower has heard of the Mexican cotton boll weevil
(Anthonomiis grandis Boh,) and many farmers now located in Arizona
have had experience with it in Texas, Oklahoma, and other states
of the so-called cotton belt. This pest has never as yet been found
in the cotton fields in Arizona, altho a variety (Anthonomus grandis
thurheriae Pierce,) is known to exist in certain mountain ranges in
southern Arizona where it infests a wild cotton plant (Fig. 3)
known botanically as Thiirberia thespesiodes.
There are many different kinds of weevils and several of these
are confused by cotton growers with the boll weevil. This is not
strange, for in some cases weevils of entirely different habits re-
semble one another so closely that only an entomologist can dis-
tinguish the difference between them. While it is important for
cotton growers and others to w^atch carefully for the appearance of
strange cotton pests, it is desirable that specimens of such pests
be submitted to an entomologist for identification.
Acknowledgments: The illustrations used in this bulletin are from bulletins-
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and annual reports of the Arizona Com-
mission of Agriculture and Horticulture, except figures 7 and 8 which are used
through the courtesy of Florida Plant Commissioner Wilmon Newell, figures 1&
and 16 which are reproduced from Bulletin 346 of Cornell Agricultural Experiment
Station, and the frontispiece cuts which are from original photographs by Mr. J. Li.
E. Lauderdale.
174
BuivLKTIN 87
The adult boll weevil is usually about one-fourth inch in length,
some specimens being as small as an eighth inch and others as large
as one-third inch. This measurement includes the snout which is
about one-half the length of the body. The color of the adult is
almost uniformly grayish or brownish. The adult weevil may hiber-
nate in cotton seed, weeds, trash, haystacks, etc. It flies to the
cotton fields in the spring and breeding soon begins. The eggs are
Fig. 1 — The cotton boll weevil, a and b, adults, c, larva, d, pupa, e, adult
feeding- on cotton boll, section removed to show larva within (natural size), f,
;arva in square.
laid in cavities eaten by the female weevils in cotton squares and
bolls. The grub lives entirely inside the square or boll and in from
seven to ten days changes to the pupa. In this stage it does not
feed, but in about five days transforms into the adult or winged
stage. The boll weevil adult is not known to feed on any other
Insect Pests of Interest to Cotton Grower?
175
plant than cotton and never lays eggs except in the cotton square
or boll. The cell in which the pupal stage is passed in the boll,
after going thru a gin, resembles a seed in form and size. The weevil
is rarely found inside the seed hull, but nevertheless is frequently
found with cotton seed, since squares, small bolls and pupal cells
containing the adult insects usually go thru the gin without being
Fig. 2— Cotton square with bracts spread to show boll weevil puncture.
crushed. Cotton seed and seed cotton from boll weevil infested
sections are therefore very likely to carry the boll weevil even tho
the seed itself is not, strictly speaking, infested.
THE cotton BOLLWORM
The cotton bollworm (Chloridea ohsoleta Hubn.) is an entirely dif-
ferent insect from the boll weevil, but the two are frequently con-
fused. The adult of the bollworm is a large moth which lays its
eggs in large numbers on various parts of the cotton plant. The
176
Bulletin 87
eggs are laid singly and not in clusters like the eggs of certain other
moths. The larva or worm hatches in the course of a few days,
and after feeding for a short time on the leaves it bores into squares
and bolls. When first hatched the bollworm is so small that in
feeding on a cotton square it makes only a very small hole. As it
passes from square to square and finally to the bolls, it eats larger
and larger holes and when full grown may make an opening a
quarter inch in diameter. The bollworms are very variable in color
and markings, including pale green, pinkish and dark brown as the
: ^
■p
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/
^
im-^
/«
f
■■-■
"^J^^^
¥^ #-;
\
A Ja r^' ^^■^
if.
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■■''• ■''#^'*#;i!K. .
fe.
--, '
^t^-
-^
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Pig. 3 — Arizona wild cotton (Thurberia) grow-
ing in mountain canyon of Southern Arizona.
ground color, with markings of green and brown. The cotton boll-
worm is the same as the corn ear worm and is found everywhere in
the country where either cotton or corn is grown. The female
moths may lay as many as 3000 eggs. They prefer to lay these on
the fresh silks of corn and consequently this crop may be used as
a "trap crop" for the protection of cotton. The bollworm also
breeds on alfalfa and attacks bean pods and green tomatoes, in the
latter case sometimes being known as the green tomato worm.
The cotton bollworm passes the winter in a cell in the ground,
and fall and winter plowing of cotton and corn fields breaks up
many of these cells and exposes the pupae to destruction by birds
and rodents. Injury to cotton by the bollworm in Arizona has not
Insect PtsTs of Intkrkst to Cotton Growers
177
proved of much consequence except in a few sections of the Salt
River Valley in 1917 where as high as 20 percent of the bolls were
destroyed by the pest. In cases of serious attack on cotton the
plants should be poisoned with i)owdorcd arsenate of lead or with
calcium arsenate.
Fig. 4 — The cotton boll worm moth
(enlarged).
Pig. 5 The cotton boll worm caterpillar feeding on a cotton boll.
The eggs of the bollworm are attacked by parasites which help
greatly to keep the pest in control. It has many other insect
enemies but in a sense it may be said to be its own greatest enemy.
178
Bulletin 87
The worms are quarrelsome and cannibalistic; whenever two of
them meet a deadly combat follows, and as a result both worms
sometimes die. The concentration of a large number of eggs on
the silks of an ear of corn saves the egg parasites much trouble in
hunting out scattering eggs and insures a heavy mortality from
cannibalism. Altho the average number of bollworm eggs on the
silks of each ear is high, sometimes in excess of 100, it is rare that
more than one or two worms succeed in penetrating into the tip
of the corn ear and developing to maturity.
THE PINK BOLLWORM
During the past year occasional references have been made in
newspapers and farm journals to the Egyptian pink bollworm
Fig. 6 — The pink bollworm. 1. Fullgrown larva. 2 and 3. Pupae. 4, Adult. 5 and
6, Injured cotton seeds. (Hunter)
(Pectinophora gossypiella Saunders). This insect is reported to be
even more serious than the cotton boll weevil. It is supposed to
have originated in India and to have been shipped in cotton seed
from India to Egypt several years ago. From Egypt the pest has
been distributed in cotton seed to various parts of the world includ-
ing Brazil and Mexico.
Insect Pests of Interest to Cotton Growers 179
Fig. 7 — Cotton bolls showing difference between injury by common bollworm
and pinic bollworm. At left injury by common bollworm (Chloridca obsoleta) — note
the large orifice and raised edges; at right injury by pink bollworm— note the com-
paratively small clean cut orifices in carpel^ (Hunter, from Quar. Bull. State Plant
Bd. of Fla.)
Pig 8 —Cotton seeds infested by pink bollworm. Above "double" or "twm"
seeds characteristic of the work of larva of this insect in its last stage. (Hunter,
from Quar. Bull. State Plant Bd. of Pla.)
180 BULI.ETIN 87
In 1914 a shipment of cotton seed from Egypt was received by
the president of a cotton ginning company in the Salt River Valley
of Arizona. Upon examination at the office of the State Ento-
mologist this seed was found to be grossly infested with the
Egyptian pink bollworm and was consequently destroyed by burn-
ing. It is safe to say that if the condition of this seed had not
been discovered the pink bollworm would have become established
in Arizona and have made Egyptian cotton growing unprofitable.
Unfortunatel}^ there were no agencies in Mexico to prevent the
importation and planting of infested Egyptian seed in that country.
As a consequence the insect was established in the Laguna district
of Northern Mexico. From there it has been scattered to other
cotton growing districts, including two or three points in Texas.
The Texas state government has passed a very drastic law and the
Federal government has appropriated a large sum of money for
the eradication of the pink bollworm. No effort will be spared to
make this undertaking a success.
The pink bollworm moth is a small gray colored insect less
than half an inch long. The eggs are deposited on the cotton bolls
as a rule. These hatch in the course of a few days and the habits
of the larva or worm are similar to those of the bollworm. The
grown worm is a little less than half an inch long. Very young
worms are white in color but become pink when full grown. The
worm bores into the interior of the boll and feeds upon the cotton
seed. Frequently two or more seeds are fastened together by the
worm in such a way as to allow of its passage from one to another.
The "double" seeds are regarded as a sure indication of the presence
of the pink bollworm altho the live worms may also be found in
single seeds. There is no other cotton pest so well adapted for
transportation in cotton seed as this one. In addition to cotton,
this insect attacks hollyhocks and species of hibiscus, the two
species so far recorded as subject to infestation being known as
Indian hemp and okra. No doubt other species of hibiscus will
also be found to be subject to attack by this insect. The fact that
the pink bollworm is not confined to cotton as is the cotton boll
weevil adds somewhat to the difficulties in controlling or eradicat-
ing it.
The misfortune of the introduction of the pink bollworm into
Egypt will add to the expense of producing long staple cotton in
that country, and consequently the freedom of the cotton fields of
the arid Southwest from this pest represents a distinct economic
advantage for the Egyptian cotton growing industry in this section.
Insect Pests of Interkst to Cotton Growers 181
THE cotton leaf worm
The cotton leaf worm, (Alabama argillacca llubu) is one of the
best known cotton insects of North America. It is not known to
have any other food plant than cotton, including the Arizona wild
cotton. This insect is believed not to winter over as rule in the
United States but to come in each season by flight of the adults from
Central and South America. The moth is of an olive gray color,
with a wing expanse of one and one-third inches. Eggs are laid
singly on the under surfaces of the leaves near the top of the plant.
Each female lays about 500 eggs. These hatch in three or four
days and the larvae at first are of a pale yellow color but soon
become greenish. The full grown worms are nearly half an inch
long, slender, bluish green in color with black spots and frequently
with black stripes along the back. They walk by looping and
when disturbed drop from the plant. \Vhen full grown the worms
spin light silken cocoons on the cotton plant, usually within a fold
of the leaf, and transform to brown pupae. The moth develops
from the pupa in the course of a week in warm weather. Several
generations occur during a season, and the insects multiply at an
almost unbelievable rate. It has been estimated that if it were
not for the destruction of many of the insects by natural enemies
the progeny of one female moth in four generations would amount
to more than 300,000,000,000 individuals. The third generation, if
placed end to end, it is said, would encircle the earth more than
four times at the equator.
Fortunately there are a great many natural enemies of the cot-
ton leaf worm which help to prevent excessive multiplication. In
past years before the boll weevil entered this country, the cotton
worm was regarded as a pest and poisoning of the cotton plants for
its destruction was commonly practiced. Since the boll weevil
made its appearance, however, the work of the cotton worm has
not been regarded as serious as a rule, and in a great many cases
it has been recognized as a distinct advantage, owing to the fact
that the partial defoliation has tended to hasten maturity of the
bolls, and the stripping of the plants has deprived the late emerging
boll weevils of a much needed food supply.
In Arizona the cotton leaf worm has been found attacking cot-
ton in the Salt River Valley, the Gila Valley, and near Tucson. It
has also been found attacking the wild cotton plant, which has
already been mentioned as a food plant of a variety of the cotton
boll weevil. The cotton leaf worm does not appear every year in
182
BuivivETiN 87
Fig. 9— The cotton leaf worm: Larvae, pupae and adults.
Insect Pi-sts of Interest to Cotton Growers
183
southern Arizona and from observations so far made it does not
seem likely that it will ever prove to be a serious cotton pest in the
arid Southwest. The tendency seems to be for Egyptian cotton
plants to grow too rank, and in most cases the partial defoliation
which results from an attack of the cotton leaf worm late in the
season will prove a decided benefit in maturing the cotton crop. If,
however, the insect should make its appearance earlier than usual
in the season, and consequently multiply to injurious numbers and
threaten serious injury to the crop, it may be poisoned by dusting
the plants with Paris green, arsenate of lead, or calcium arsenate as
is still done occasionally in parts of the eastern cotton belt.
THE S.\LT MAKSII CATERPILLAR
The salt marsh caterpillar (Estigmcnc acraca Dru) appears every
year in greater or less numbers in the cotton fields in southern
Fig. 10 — Salt marsh caterpiMar. a. Female moth; b. half^own
larva; c. mature larva, lateral view; d. egg mass.
Arizona. It has many food plants in addition to cotton and may be
found multiplying on trees, field crops or weeds. In the Salt River
Valley it sometimes does considerable damage to the bean crop.
Among the weeds probably its favorite food plant is one known
as the yellow flowered ground cherry (Physalis angulata variety
linkiana). In the only instance when the salt marsh caterpillars were
184
Bulletin 87
found in excessive abundance in Arizona cotton fields, the insects
had first attacked the ground cherry and turned their attention to
the cotton plants only after they had completely stripped the weeds.
The salt marsh caterpillar is one of those commonly known as
"woolly bears." The hairs are black and red. The general appear-
ance of the caterpillar and moths is well shown in the illustration.
THE COTTON LEAF PERFORATOR
A very conspicuous type of insect injury to cotton plants is pro-
duced by the larvae of a tiny moth which has a wing expanse of
^_.-.. 1
^^BB^t - . . . ;f*,i'^jwi
^^^^^^^^^^^SuibihTAy^SSe^ti
i ! ; -M
' J.J
Xk
HHW^^^^jj
m
Fig. 11 — The cotton leaf perforator: 1, adult. 2, pupa skin attached to cocoon.
3, cocoon of leaf perforator. 4, cocoon of salt marsh caterpillar.
only about a third of an inch. The larvae during the first stages
are so small tliat they live inside the leaf tissue where they pro-
duce a serpentine mine. W'hen nearly full grown they eat their
way to the surface of the leaf and during the last stage feed on the
surface of the leaves in which they make small perforations. On
account of this injury, which suggests the eft'ect of small shot from
a shotgun, the common name "cotton leaf perforator" (Buccnlatrix
thnrherieUa Busck) has been suggested. During the period when
the larva is living on the surface of the leaf it molts once. This
Insect Pests of Interest to Cotton Growers
185
process takes place inside of a thin, white silken cocoon which is
formed on the surface of the leaf and in which the caterpillar, bent
in the form of the letter "U,"' can be faintly seen. Finally, when
the worm is full grown, it spins a white, ribbed cocoon about five-
sixteenths of an inch long. This is attached to the cotton stalk or
to other parts of the plant. In this cocoon it transforms first to a
pupa, from which the delicate, grayish white moth eventually
Fig. 12 — Work of cotton leaf perforator on Egyptian cotton leaf (greatly en-
larged). 1, mine containing larva. 2. mine which ha.s been vacated by larva.
3, work of caterpillar after leaving leaf mine.
emerges. These insects are subject to attack by minute wasp-like
parasites which some seasons keep them so reduced in numbers
that they are not conspicuous. So far no distinct damage to cotton
plants has been noted in Arizona, although it is not impossible that,
with a start unusually early in the season and with conditions un-
favorable for the activity of the parasites, some damage might be
done. As observed so far, however, the perforation of the leaves
has usually been a benefit rather than otherwise, for the same
reason as has been noted in the case of the partial defoliation of
cotton plants by the cotton leaf worm.
186
Bulletin 87
Pig. 13 — Egyptian cotton plant, showing work of leaf perforator.
THE COTTON SQUARE DAUBERS
The most destructive pests in Arizona up to this time are certain
sucking plant bugs of the tarnished plant bug group which, on
account of the characteristic effects upon the cotton plant, may be
called the "cotton square daubers"^ (Lygus clisns hespcnts Knight
and L. pratensis var. oblineatus Say). There are several closely re-
lated species and varieties of the tarnished plant bug genus and
while representatives are common in the eastern cotton growing
states, they have not so far proved destructive to cotton except in
the arid southwest.
The cotton square daubers were first noted as cotton pests in
Arizona in 1914 when they became noticeably destructive in one
locality in the Salt River Valley a few miles southwest of Phoenix.
The next season they did sufficient damage in a large cotton field
near Glendale to make the crop unprofitable- Since then they have
been destructive in one locality or another each season-. In 1918
^Seventh Annual Report, Ariz. Comm. Agr. & Hort., pp. 44-45.
'Eighth Annual Report. Ariz. Comm. Agr. & Hort., p. 49. Ninth Annual Re-
port, Ariz. Comm. Agr. & Hort., pp. 58-59.
Insect Pests oe Interest to Cotton Growers
187
the average loss from these insects in Arizona is estimated to have
been between 3 and 5 percent. Accordingly the total loss would be
placed between $420,000 and $700,000.
The cotton square daubers are usually destructive to cotton only
during the month of August. The immature stages have never
Fig. 15. — Adult tarnished
plant bug (natural size
and enlarged).
Fig. 14. — Nymph of tarnished plant
bug (enlarged nine times).
Fig. 16. — Adult cotton
square dauber (en-
larged about twice).
been found in abundance on cotton plants. Evidently they do not
find the cotton field a suitable breeding place. Alfalfa fields appear
to be the principal source of the adults which invade the cotton
fields. In one instance it was estimated that there was an average
of one adult square dauber to each square foot of area in an alfalfa
field. If all of these insects in a single acre of this alfalfa were dis-
tributed in cotton fields so that there would be an average of one
per plant there would be more than suf^cient to prevent all setting
of bolls in from 6 to 8 acres of cotton. The insects were observed
in one instance exceeding 20 per plant on a few rows on one side
of a cotton field. An average of one of the bugs per plant is be-
lieved by the w^riter to be sufficient to cause maximum damage, and
all in excess of this may, therefore, be considered harmless. This
188 Bulletin 87
matter will be considered later in connection with the discussion
of remedies.
The adult cotton square daubers are about a fifth to one-fourth
of an inch in length. They are very variable in color. One form,
Lygus elius var. hesperus Knight/ is pale brownish green or green-
ish brown, the males conspicuously marked with red on the wing
•covers and with more or less black on the front third of body, the
females being paler and more uniformly colored than the males.
The darker form, found on cotton less commonly than the first
mentioned, is the true tarnished plant bug, Lygus pratensis var.
■oblineatus Say.^ The general color is yellowish or bronzy brown,
with black and grayish or yellowish markings.
The adults feed inside the bracts of the cotton square, sucking
the rich plant juices from the developing parts of the flower bud.
The sucking organs are more slender than the finest needle and
leave no trace where they penetrate, but the interior of the injured
bud quickly decays, the bracts flare and the whole square becomes
yellowish in color and drops from the plant within a few days.
Shedding of the squares frequently follows irrigation or heavy
rainfall. Shedding caused by the square daubers can be distin-
guished by the daubs of yellow excrement which the insect leaves
•on the inside of the bracts and on the flower bud. This excrement
is a liquid which has a varnish like appearance when dry. Squares
v^hich show this characteristic daubing, with no other external
evidence of injury, are invariably in process of decay. Very small
bolls are also subject to attack but the principal damage is
to the squares. Cotton growers should learn to recognize the
appearance of the squares and bolls destroyed by the daubers in
•order to distinguish between the shedding of the forms from natural
causes and from the insect attack.
The cotton square daubers have been found in injurious abund-
ance in a cotton field two miles from the nearest alfalfa, but, as a
rule, excessive infestations are traceable to surrounding or adjoining
alfalfa fields. The adults can not be destroyed by any spray as far
as known and their habits of feeding inside the bracts would make
the use of any spray impracticable even if an effective one were
"known. The problem of controlling the insects in cotton, therefore,
centers in preventing their undue spread from neighboring alfalfa
fields and in taking advantage of their activity, when disturbed, to
drive them out of a cotton field or to concentrate them in such a
way as to reduce the damage.
>Specimens determined by Mr. H. H. Knight of Cornell University.
Insect Pests of Interest to Cotton Growers 189
The greatest damage to cotton arises from cotton square daubers
being driven in from an adjoining alfalfa field when the crop is
cut. If the cutting begins on the side farthest from the cotton and
continues toward the cotton the square daubers and grasshoppers
are gradually concentrated on the side of the field and finally when
the last land is cut large numbers of the pests are virtually driven
into the cotton fields. In one such case an average of one of the
daubers to each cotton square was noted on a few rows.
On account of both the square daubers and grasshoppers alfalfa
cutting and raking should be started on the sides of a field and
continued toward the central land which should be left temporarily
as a trap. When concentrated on a limited area in this way large
numbers of the insects can be captured with a hopper dozer such as
is used for grasshoppers. In one instance where the daubers aver-
aged one to a square foot, or about 43,000 per acre, more than 7000
of the insects were captured on a little less than an acre in the course
of fifteen minutes. In addition to the square daubers about 3500
specimens of the alfalfa hopper (Stictocephala festina Say) and about
1000 specimens of the differential grasshopper {Mclanoplus differen-
tialis) were captured at the same time. This was accomplished
after dark with two lanterns suspended over the pans of oil and
water.^ Further experience is necessary in order to perfect this
method, but the results so far justify the use of the hopper dozer
against the square daubers in alfalfa fields in cases of excessive
infestation, and especially after the insects have been concentrated
as advised above. Even if no attempt is made to destroy the insects
after concentrating them near the center of the field the method
will be of great advantage. The strip or patch of uncut alfalfa
should be left undisturbed until the rest of the field has made con-
siderable new growth. In the meantime, the grasshoppers should
be poisoned with poisoned baits, or both the grasshoppers and
square daubers collected with a hopper dozer, used at night to avoid
unnecessary scattering of the insect pests by driving away from
the trap patch many of those not captured. After the insects are
concentrated near the center of the field, prompt action against the
grasshoppers must be taken when necessary in order to prevent
their cleaning up the alfalfa leaving nothing but the bare stems.
In this condition the trap patch would not be effective in holding
the active square daubers.
^To Mr. J. Li. Moore, a cotton and alfalfa grower located west of Phoenix,
credit is due for the idea of using- the hopper dozer at night.
190 Bulletin 87
The plan suggested can be modified to suit the conditions and
individual ideas of the alfalfa grower. For instance, instead of a
single land or strip across the middle of a field a square patch ex-
tending across two or three lands may be left in the center of the
field. This method is specially desirable when there is cotton on.
more than two sides of the alfalfa.
Alfalfa growers who have no cotton of their own to protect will
frequently secure full returns in benefits to the alfalfa crop itself
from the adoption of the foregoing suggestions. Owners of neigh-
boring cotton fields should be given an opportunity to assume the
expense of these measures, rather than be obliged to sufifer with-
out recourse severe losses from insects driven in from alfalfa fields.
Cotton growers should keep in touch with their neighbors and ar-
range with the owners of adjoining alfalfa fields for cooperation in
the control of pests.
Reference has been made to the matter of driving the cotton
square daubers out of a cotton field or of concentrating them within
the field. Attention has also been called to the fact that an excess
of the insects above the number capable of causing maximum dam-
age may be considered as harmless, for the time being at least.
The unusual activity of the adult cotton square daubers can, the
writer believes, be taken advantage of in driving the insects by
means of a device which he has designed. A second device is de-
signed to capture the insects after they have been concentrated on
a few rows. One of each of these devices has been constructed and
the work of perfecting them will be continued as the opportunity
for further field tests is presented.
THE SOUTHWESTERN COTTON STAINER
The Southwestern cotton stainer (Dysdercus albidivcntris Stal.)
has been found on cotton in various parts of the Salt River Valley
and at Sacaton. This insect is related to the Florida cotton stainer,
which is a well known cotton pest in the Sea Island cotton growing
district of Northern Florida. Other species occur in the West
Indies, Central, and South America. The adult cotton stainer is
from six to seven-sixteenths of an inch in length, the males being
considerably smaller than the females. The adults are strikingly
colored with a combination of black, straw yellow, orange brown,
and orange red. The insects breed upon the cotton plants. In
the immature or nymphal stages the bright orange red is the pre-
dominating color. The cotton stainer does its damage by feeding
Insect Pksts of Intkrest to Cotton Growers
191
on the immature bolls. By means of delicate, threadlike parts of
the mouth organ known as setae the bug- punctures the carpel of
the boll and the seed coat, and sucks the juices from the inside of
the seed. This results in an abnormal
growth or proliferation being produced
on the inside of the carpel at the point
of entrance of the setae and in the
decay of the attacked seed and sur-
rounding lint. There is no mark on
the outside of the boll to indicate this
internal injury. In the West Indies in-
vestigations have shown that a similar
decay is caused by a fungus which is
supposed to be introduced into the interior of the bolls by sucking
bugs, principally cotton stainers. It is probable that the internal
Fig. 17 — Southwestern cotton
stainer. Female at left, male at
right. (About natural size).
Fig. 18— Work of cotton stainer. -One lock shrivelled and decayed.
decay of cotton bolls which occurs in the United States is also due
to a fungus introduced by sucking bugs.
The Southwestern cotton stainers are not generally injurious
throughout the Salt River Valley, but in one locality during the
192 Bulletin 87
year 1916 they were destructive on several farms, destroying" from
50 to 75 percent of the immature bolls. In one section of a cotton
field comprising four or five acres it was estimated that the insects
had destroyed fully 90 percent of the bolls.
In addition to the complete destruction of young bolls cotton
stainers do much damage by attack on bolls which are mature or
nearly so. When such bolls are attacked the injury appears in the
form of stained lint. In one instance observed by the writer the
Florida cotton stainer damaged a crop of about 1000 bales of Sea
Island cotton to the extent that 200 bales were classed as stained. .
The Southwestern cotton stainers were not present in injurious
numbers in any part of the Salt River Valley during 1917 and 1918.
They may be expected to vary greatly in numbers from year to
year. They should be recognized by all cotton growers as being
capable of causing considerable damage. Whenever any are found
they should be watched carefully and whatever steps may be neces-
sary should be taken to prevent breeding on weeds or other plants
in the neighborhood of cotton fields, while in the cotton fields the
stainers should be collected and destroyed whenever they appear
in threatening numbers. The bugs have a habit of congregating
in large numbers on the bolls, and their conspicuous color makes it
easy to destroy them by knocking them by hand into a bucket or
other convenient vessel containing water with a small amount of
coal oil on the surface.
THE BROWN COTTON BUG
A third species of plant bug which has caused noticeable dam-
age to cotton in Arizona is known as the brown cotton bug (Buschis-
tus impictiventris Stal.) This is very closely related to the brown
cotton bug which is known as a cotton pest in Texas and other
states of the cotton belt. This insect belongs to the group com-
monly known as "stink bugs". The adult is broad and flattened, a
little over half an inch in length, has rather sharp shoulders and is
yellowish below and marked with dark brown or black punctures
above. The brown cotton bug injures the crop by sucking the
juices from the bolls. The thread-like mouth organs are used to
. penetrate through to the interior of the developing seed. The effect
is similar to that produced by the cotton stainer. The brown cotton
bug is found in nearly all cotton fields in Arizona, sometimes in
considerable numbers. No excessive damage, however, has thus
far been observed. The importance of this pest consists in its gen-
Insect Pests or Interest to Cotton Growers
195
eral occurrence in nearly all cotton fields rather than occasional
serious outbreaks, such as observed in the case of the cotton stainer.
The brown cotton bug- here referred to does not seem to breed to
f 1
/
Fig. 19— Effects of plant bug attack on cotton bolls. 1, Boll with shrivelled
lock. 2. 3. 4 and 5. Small bolls, stunted and decayed as a result of plant bus at-
tack 6, Immature cotton boll broken open to show decayed condition of locks as
result of plant bug attack. 7, Same with lint and seeds removed to show prolifera-
tion or abnormal wartlike growth on insides of carpels produced by plant bug-
punctures.
any extent upon the cotton plants. It is quite likely that it multi-
plies principally on wild food plants and migrates to the cotton
plants when these wild food plants become overstocked with the
insects or, in the case of annuals, reach maturity and die. The
brown cotton bug is rarely found in sufficient numbers to require
treatment except m small areas. Judging from observations made
on related species each adult of the brown cotton bug is capable of
destroying a large number of bolls. An average of one of these
bugs to a plant should be considered as threatening very noticeable
194
BuLivETiN 87
damage. The only remedies which can be suggested consist in
making observations to determine where the insects are breeding
and in destroying them by spraying with coal oil or by burning
whenever they are found concentrated in considerable numbers.
If they have appeared in the cotton fields the only remedy available
consists in hand picking. Each adult
of this species is capable of destroying
from two to five cents worth of cotton
lint and it is unquestionably very
profitable to collect them by hand
when this work can be done at a slight
cost, as for instance 10 or 15 cents a
hundred.
Fig. 20. — The brown cotton bug.
Fig. 21 — The difEerential grasshopper,
natural size.)
(About
GRASSHOPPERS
Three species of grasshoppers have been observed doing dam-
age to cotton in Arizona. The attacks of these insects in large num-
bers may result in the complete destruction of the crop. In several
instances noted the plants have not only been completely stripped
of all leaves but the green bark has been gnawed from the main
stem and branches., Grasshoppers in cotton growing sections
breed principally in alfalfa fields and are very apt to migrate from
the alfalfa to cotton immediately after a heavily infested crop of
alfalfa is cut for hay and removed from the field, particularly when
the cutting and raking is started on the side away from the cotton
and these and other cotton pests are virtually driven out. The prin-
cipal grasshopper damage to cotton in Arizona is by a species
known as the dififerential grasshopper (Mclanophis differ entialis
Thos.) This insect is light brownish in color with black markings.
The adult females are over an inch and a half in length. The vo-
racity of these insects is indicated by a calculation made by the
writer showing that when the adults average about 16 to a square
Insect Pests of Interest to Cotton Growers
195
yard they may consume the equivalent of a ton of hay a day in a
forty acre alfalfa field. The number mentioned represents only a
moderate infestation.
The other two species of grasshoppers destructive to cotton in
Arizona are closely related (Schistocerca shoshone and S. vega.J
They are nearly twice as large as
the differential grasshopper. One is
brown in color and the other is green.
So far they have been excessively
numerous in only one instance, where
they completely defoliated a small
field of cotton.
Grasshoppers may be destroyed in
cotton fields with comparatively slight
expense. The method consists in
spreading broadcast a poisoned bait.
The standard grasshopper bait con-
sists of bran, molasses, Paris green,
finely chopped lemons or oranges and
water. Experiments by the writer
during 1917 and 1918 have shown
that a half and half mixture of bran
and sawdust is as effective as the
bran alone. Ground canteloupe (culls)
have been found as effective as lemons
or oranges. The evidence so far favors
the conclusion that the addition of
molasses to the bait does not increase
its attractiveness to the grasshoppers. The proportions of the ma-
terials in a bait successfully used in Arizona are as follows:
Bran, 12^-15 pounds.
Sawdust, 12^/2 pounds.
Paris green, 1 pound.
Canteloupe, 1 pound. (Use 5 lemons or oranges if canteloupes
are not available.)
Water, enough to make a crumbly mixture.
The Paris green should be mixed with the dry sawdust and bran.
This may be done by placing the bran, sawdust and Paris green in
a barrel, tub or special mixing vat, and using a hoe. A wet sponge
or a gauze mask should be used to protect the operator against
breathing the Paris green dust. The finely ground canteloupe^
lemons or oranges should be mixed with about a gallon of water
/
X
\
7
V
/
i
Fig. 22 — The large cotton grass-
hopper, Shistocerca shoshone (nat-
ural size).
196 ' Bulletin 87
and this mixture then thoroly stirred into the bran-sawdust-Paris
green combination. More water is added as needed to make a
moist crumbly mixture. This mixture should be sown broadcast
in the infested cotton fields. Observations on the habits of the dif-
Pig. 23. — Cotton plants in foreground stripped of leaves by differential
grasshoppers wtiich migrated from adjoining alfalfa field.
-ferential grasshopper have shown that late afternoon is not a favor-
able time for spreading the bait in cotton growing sections of
Arizona.
The advantages of concentrating grasshoppers and cotton square
<iaubers in the center of alfalfa fields rather than driving them out
with mowers and rakes, as is sometimes done with disastrous re-
sults to adjoining cotton, has been discussed under the subject of
the control of the cotton square daubers. Heavy applications of
poisoned baits in proportion to the abundance of the insects in the
xmcut area, or the use of the hopper dozer, are the best available
methods of disposing of the grasshoppers after they have been
concentrated.
THE COTTON APHIS
During the first two or three weeks in the spring after the young
cotton plants come through the ground cotton growers are fre-
quently alarmed by the attack of small greenish or greenish black
insects known as the cotton aphis (Aphis gossypii Glov.) The same
species attacks and sometimes destroys melon vines and is perhaps
iDetter known as the melon aphis. It occurs everywhere in the
XJnited States where cotton is grown, but is not ordinarily of much
Insect Pests of Interest to Cotton Growers
197
importance as a cotton pest on account of the effectiveness of its
natural enemies, particularly a black wasp-like parasite.
There are two forms of the adult, winged and wingless females.
Males are not known. The body of one of the full grown insects
is about a fifteenth of an inch long. The folded wings in the case
of the winged form extend approximately another fifteenth inch
(DUt.
^.. -Ob.
Pig. 24 — The cotton aphis.
beyond the end of the body. The migrating or winged adults
spread into the cotton fields from mallow and other weeds which
have remained infested throughout the wanter. Eggs are laid on
the young cotton plants soon after they come through the ground.
These soon hatch and the nymphs in the course of a few days de-
velop into wingless adults^ These are each capable of giving birth
to six to ten young per day. As these in turn become full grown
in less than a week and are ready to reproduce it is apparent that
no crop could long survive if such an increase were unchecked.
Fortunately, wasp-like or hymenopterous parasites, principally
Aphidius tcstaceipes Cress, lady birds, principally Hippodamia conver-
gens Guerin., lace wing flies or chrysopas and predaceous flies
known as syrphus flies, are very effective as a rule in preventing
undue multiplication. Before the death of the parasitized aphis
occurs the body of the insect turns light brown in color and becomes
198 BuLi^ETiN 87
almost globular in form. The insect before dying attaches itself
rigidly to the leaf on which it was feeding. These parasitized in-
sects and the empty shells which remain after the adult parasite
emerges are very conspicuous and a farmer should learn to recog-
nize them. Each adult female of the parasites is capable of destroy-
ing around two hundred aphis individuals. That is, each adult
parasite will parasitize or deposit an egg in the body of each of two-
hundred or more specimens as long as the supply of aphis holds out.
The effectiveness of parasites, lady birds and other natural ene-
'•^'ig. 25 — The convergent lady bird, an enemy of the cotton aphis, a,
Adult, b, Pupa, c, Full grown larva. (All greatly enlarged.)
mies of aphis, is dependent on the weather. Cold weather during
the crop growing season is unfavorable for the natural enemies and
therefore favorable for the aphis. During warm or hot weather
the parasites are capable of multiplying so much faster than the
aphis that the latter are relatively unimportant among cotton pests.
The natural enemies of this species of aphis for some reason are
much more reliable in the control of the pest on cotton than on
melons and other crops. Owing to this indirect relation of the
weather to the effectiveness of the parasites it is a common belief
among farmers and gardeners that the hot weather destroys the
aphis. As a matter_of fact the aphis will thrive in our hottest mid-
summer weather and do much damage if for any reason the para-
sites and other natural enemies are not active.
In 1914 and again in 1918 the cotton aphis was notably destruc-
tive in the Yuma Valley. In July, 1918- the attack was especially
severe and for a time threatened the complete destruction of the
crop. Soon after the first of August, however, hymenopterous para-
sites increased sufficiently to control the pest. Lady birds, which
are more conspicuous and therefore better known as enemies of this
Insect Pests of Interest to Cotton Growers
199
aphis, were of no practical importance during the 1918 midsummer
outbreak according to the observations of Mr. J. L. E. Lauderdale.
Similar observations in regard to lady birds were made by the
writer in 1914. The following account^ of the ineffectiveness of
Fig. 26 — Hymenopterous parasite attacking an aphis.
Fig. 27 — Parasitized specimens of aphis.
the lady birds at the time of the first serious outbreak is quoted
to emphasize the impracticability of relying upon these natural
enemies for the control of the cotton aphis in midsummer :
"On August 19-20, 1914, a visit by the State Entomologist to
numerous cotton fields on both the California and Arizona side of
the Colorado River near Yuma disclosed the fact that all kinds of
natural enemies were scarce, particularly the lady-bird noted above.
In some fields there had been a decrease in the number of aphis due
to internal parasites. In several infested fields large numbers of
convergent lady-birds had been liberated some weeks previously.
Wherever this had been followed by a decrease in the amount of
aphis the introduction of the natural enemies was generally cred-
ited with the supposed benefits. A close examination, however,
showed that these introductions could have had no beneficial effects
whatever since the lady-birds in any stage were as scarce in these
fields, which had been stocked with the beneficial insects, as in
fields which had not been so supplied. Furthermore, an examina-
tion of the plants failed to disclose any evidence of the lady-birds
having bred in the fields. Such evidence would have been easily
found in the presence of large numbers of pupae or empty pupal
^Sixth Annual Report Ariz. Comni. Agr. & Hort., pp. 37-38, 1914.
200
Bulletin 87
skins attached to the cotton stalks if they had been breeding in num-
bers capable of accomplishing results."
The feasibility of spraying for the control of the cotton aphis on
plants from 3 to 3>4 feet high was demonstrated at Yuma by Mr.
Lauderdale with an improvised power sprayer and spray boom ar-
ranged for spraying 5 rows of cotton at a time. He found that
about thirty acres of cotton could be sprayed in a day by two men
at a cost of about $1.25 per acre for materials. The total cost per
acre should be less than $1.90. The insecticide used was nicotine
sulfate (Black Leaf 40) and soap. The sprayer used by Mr. Lau-
derdale is shown in the frontispiece.
THE COTTON THRIPS
The cotton thrips (Thrips arizonensis n. sp. Morgan) is a slender
yellowish insect which when full grown is scarcely over a fifth of
an inch in length. It attacks young seedling cotton plants and is
capable of doing much damage. Characteristic effects upon the
Fig. 2S — Work of cotton thrips on seedling cotton plant.
Insect Pksts of Interkst to Cotton Growers 201
plants are shown in Fig. 28. The insects work on the under sur-
faces of the primary leaves and on young leaves of later growth
which are soon crinkled by their attacks. It is probable that this
insect infests certain weeds and other vegetation in and near cotton
fields and that clean culture will act as a preventive of injurious
attacks. When the young plants are seriously infested spraying is
the only available remedy. For this purpose nicotine sulfate — soap
solution is probably the best insecticide. This should be used at
the rate of six ounces of nicotine sulfate (Black leaf 40) and two
and one-quarter pounds of whale oil or fish oil soap in fifty gallons
of water. The spray should be applied with as strong pressure as
can be used without injury to the plants. A right angle nozzle or
a combination of angle nozzle and elbow joint giving a ninety
degree spray is needed in order to reach the under surfaces of the
leaves and to drive the spray into the crinkled leaves from all sides.
Fortunately the cotton thrips, so far as observed, is destructive
only when the plants are small, and the early injury is usually out-
grown by otherwise thrifty plants.
THE RED SPIDER
During the past few years the two-spotted red spider (Tetrany-
chiis himaculatiis Harvey) has become quite prominent among the
cotton pests of the Southeastern United States. This same species
is of common occurrence in the Salt River Valley where it attacks
violets, climbing roses (Dorothy Perkins), strawberries, blackber-
ries, and beans. So far, how-ever, it has not been observed on cot-
ton plants in Arizona. It seems very likely that sooner or later
this insect will be found doing damage to cotton in the fields, al-
tho, apparently, conditions for the infestation of cotton are not
as favorable here in Arizona as they are in the Southeastern states.
The red spider is a true mite rather than an insect, having eight
legs instead of six in the adult stage, lacking antennae and other-
wise differing from true insects. The adult female is only one-
fiftieth of an inch in length and the adult male is only about half as
large as the female. Infested cotton leaves turn deep red on the
upper surface, producing a condition sometimes called "rust". An
examination of the under surfaces of the leaves, however, reveals
the presence of the minute red mites. Badly infested leaves become
distorted and finally drop. The pest develops very rapidly, produc-
ing in a single season as many as seventeen generations. It is of
special interest in the arid Southwest on account of belonging to a
202
Bulletin 87
group notoriously favored by hot, dry weather. In the Southeast-
ern states the influence of weather on breeding activity was found
to be very noticeable. Hot, dry conditions favored rapid develop-
ment while cool, wet weather retarded it, the rate of egg laying
varying from none to twenty per day
according to temperature.
In view of the possibility of this
spider appearing in Arizona cotton
fields sooner or later, preventive meas-
ures should be closely observed. Vio-
let and strawberry plants and the
Dorothy Perkins rose are food plants
which are very likely to be a means of
spreading and maintaining the pest.
Not all beds or specimens of these food
plants in the Salt River Valley are in-
fested with the red spider. It is also
probably true that there are many
other kinds of plants which are sub-
ject to infestation and more or less
dangerous. It is advisable, however,
for cotton growers either not to per-
mit the plants named to grow near
cotton fields, or to examine them care-
fully from time to time to detect the
first infestation should the red spider
appear. Weeds or other plants supposed to be infested with the
red spider should be submitted to the Office of the State Ento-
mologist, Phoenix, or the Department of Entomology, College of
Agriculture, Tucson, for examination. When preventive measures
have not been given proper attention or have failed to protect the
cotton field, spraying with potassium sulphide, lime sulfur solution,
kerosene emulsion, or flour paste solution is recommended. Flow-
ers of sulfur and "Atomic Sulfur", which are efifective against most
species of red spider, have not proved effective against this one.
Fig. 29 — The two spotted red
spider (greatly enlarged).
OTHER COTTON PESTS
Of the pests discussed in the foregoing pages all except the Mex-
ican cotton boll weevil and the pink bollworm occur in Arizona. A
very close relative of the Mexican boll weevil, however, is found
in certain mountain ranges of the Southern part of the State. In
addition there are over twenty other species of insects known to
Insect Pests of Interest to Cotton Growers 203
feed upon the cotton plant in Arizona. Their numbers have been
insignificant so far as observed, or injurious attacks have been con-
fined to very small tracts. Such pests include certain cutworms and
other moth caterpillars, a white ant or termite, several sucking plant
bugs related to those herein mentioned, and two beetles, Myochroiis
longulus Lee. and Blapstiniis pimalis Casey, which attack cotton
seedlings sometimes necessitating- replanting. The cotton fields
should be closely watched by the grower from the time the seed
sprouts, and specimens of any unrecognized pests should be sent at
once to an entomologist for examination.
COTTON SEED AND SEED COTTON QUARANTINE
For the protection of the Arizona cotton growing industry
against pests likely to be transported with cotton seed and seed
cotton the Arizona Commission of Agriculture and Horticulture
has placed in eflfect the following Quarantine Order and Inspection
and Quarantine Regulation :
QUARANTINE ORDER NO. 15
Seed Cotton and Cotton Seed
In order to prevent the introduction and dissemination of the
cotton boll weevil {Anthonomus grandis) and the pink bollworm
(Pectinophora gossypiella) into and within the State of Arizona, it
is hereby ordered :
(a) That the introduction of cotton seed and seed cotton into
the State of Arizona from any other state or territory of the United
States or from any foreign country, except as herein provided, is
hereafter prohibited.
(b) That the transportation of cotton seed and seed cotton from
any county in the State of Arizona into any other county in the
State of Arizona is hereafter prohibited except under special au-
thorization from the State Entomologist.
(c) That paragraph (a) of this quarantine order shall not apply
to seed cotton or cotton seed grown in that part of the State of Cali-
fornia adjoining the Colorado River and included in the Yuma
Reclamation Project, and paragraphs (a) and (b) shall not apply
to cotton seed for experimental purposes shipped by the U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture or the Arizona Agricultural Experiment
Station under special authorization from the State Entomologist
(d) That all persons, firms or corporations in the State of Ari-
zona are prohibited from having possession of, transporting, selling
or giving away any seed cotton or cotton seed introduced into the
state or transported within the state in violation of this order.
(e) That Quarantine Orders Nos. 5 and 9 are hereby rescinded.
Adopted November 16, 1917,
204 BuLiviCTiN 87
I
REGULATION NO. 3
Car-lot Shipments Emigrants' Goods From Cotton Growing States
and Counties and Alfalfa Weevil Infested States and Counties
In order to make more effective the provisions of Quarantine
No. 1 against the alfalfa weevil and of Quarantine No. 15 against
cotton pests, it is hereby ordered :
(a) That upon arrival at any common carrier station in the
State of Arizona of any carlot shipment of emigrants' goods from
the states of Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Tennessee, Alabama,
Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas, Missouri, the
counties of Graves and Fulton in the State of Kentucky, of Mont-
gomery in the State of Kansas, and of Imperial and Riverside in the
State of California, such shipment shall be held intact and not
delivered to consignee until notice has been given to and certificates
of release received from the State Entomologist, Assistant Ento-
mologist or a Crop Pest Inspector.
(b) That the unloading or unnecessary moving, by any person
or persons, of carlot shipments of emigrants' goods from any of the
states mentioned in the foregoing paragraph before a proper cer-
tificate of release has been received is prohibited.
(c) That where there is no local inspector designated to attend
to inspections for the Commission of Agriculture and Horticulture
notice of the arrival of the shipment may be sent to the State Ento-
mologist in Phoenix by wire, the expense to be borne by the State,
and a telegraphic message from the State Entomologist, or officer
acting in charge, authorizing the release of the shipment may be
accepted and filed by the common carrier agent in lieu of the cus-
tomary certificate of release.
Insect Pksts of Ixti-rkst to Cotton Growers 205
REFERENCES
For Free Distribution by U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.
Farmers Bulletin 831 — The Red Spider on Cotton and How to
Control It (E. A. McGregor).
Farmers Bulletin 848— The Boll Weevil Problem (W. D.
Hunter).
Farmers Bulletin 872 — The Bollworm or Corn Ear Worm (F. C.
Bishopp).
Farmers Bulletin 890 — How Insects AflFcct the Cotton Plant and
Methods of Combatting Them (W. D. Pierce).
For Sale by Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C.
Bulletin 86, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture. Plant Bugs Injurious to Cotton Bolls (A. W. Morrill).
Price 20 cents.
Bulletin 723, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The Pink Boll-
worm with Special Reference to Steps Taken by the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture to Prevent Its Establishment in the United
States (W. D. Hunter). Price 5 cents.
For Free Distribution by Arizona Commission of Agriculture and
Horticulture.
Fifth Annual Report, Including Discussion of Cotton Pests, pp.
38-48 (A. W. Morrill).
Sixth Annual Report, pp. 37-46.
Seventh Annual Report, pp. 41-45.
Eighth Annual Report, pp. 45-49.
Ninth Annual Report, pp. 53-59.
The University of Arizona
College of Agriculture
Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 88
An irrigation canal near Tempe.
USE AND WASTE OF IRRIGATION WATER
By G. E. P. Smith
Tucson, Arizona, May 15, 1919
REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY
Ex-Officio
His Excellency, The Governor of Arizona
The State Superintendent of Public Instruction
Appointed by the Governor of the State
EpEs Randolph Chancellor
William J. Bryan, Jr., A.B Treasurer
James G. Compton Ser.ret,-iiy
William Scarlett, A.B., B.D Regent
John H. Campbell, LL. M Regent
Timothy A. Riordan Regent
Edmund W. Wells Regent
Louis D. Ricketts, Sc.D., LL.D Regent
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
RuEus B. von KlEinSmid, A.M., ScD President of the University
Daniel W. Working, B.Sc, A.M Director
♦Robert H. Forbes, Ph.D Research Specialist
ToHN J. Thornber, A.M Botanist
Albert E. Vinson, Ph.D Chemist
George E. P. Smith, B.S.. C.E Irrigation Engineer
Richard H. Williams, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
Walter S. Cunningham, B.S Dairy Husbandman
Charles T. Vorhies, Ph.D Entomologist
G. E. Thompson, B.S.A Agronomist
F. J. Crider, M.S Horticulturist
Clifford N. Catlin, AM Research Specialist in Agric. Chemistry
Francis R. KennEy, B.S.A Poultry Husbandman
♦.Arthur L. Enger, B.S., C.E Assistant Irrigation Engineer
Walker E. Bryan, M.S Assistant Plant Breeder
W. E. Code, B.S Assistant Irrigation Engineer
A. F. KiNNisoN, B.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
R. S. Hawkins, B.S.A Assistant Agronomist
A usTiN W. Morrill, Ph.D Consulting Entomologist
D. C. George Consulting Plant Pathologist
C. J. Wood, Foreman Salt River Valley Experiment Farm. Mesa
G. J. Darling, Foreman University Farm, Tucson
D. C. .A.EPLI, Foreman Date Palm Orchard. Yuma
T. L. StaplEy, Foreman Date Palm Orchard. Tempe
T. F. Wtllcox. Foreman Prescott Dry-Farm. Prescott
F. H. Simmons, Foreman Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm. Cochise
The Experiment Station offices and laboratories are an integral part of the
College of Agriculture of the University at Tucson. The Salt River Valley Ex-
periment Farm is situated one mile west of Mesa, Arizona. The date palm
orchards are three miles south of Tempe (co-operative U. S. Department of Ag-
riculture) and one mile southwest of Yuma. Arizona, respectively. The experi-
mental dry-farms are near Cochise and Prescott. Arizona.
Visitors are cordially invited and correspondence receives careful attention.
•On leave.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction •. 207
Transpiration 207
Water Losses 210
Losses from canals and field laterals 211
Evaporation from irrigated fields 212
Seepage loss from irrigated fields 215
Wilful or careless waste 220
Efficiency of irrigation 221
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
An irrigation canal near Tempe Cover cut
Fig. 1. Border irrigation from a ccmcnt-lincd ditch Frontispiece
Fig. 2. Cleaning a canal with a giant "Vee" 209
Fig. 3. Lining an irrigation ditch with concrete 212
Fig. 4. Class A evaporation station 213
Fig. 5. An orchard ruined by a rising water table 217
Fig. 6. Cotton field with poor stand due to shallow water table 217
Fig. 7. An alfalfa field, irrigated in corrugations 219
Fig. 8. Diagram showing distribution of irrigation water into useful portion
and various losses 221
Fig. 9. Layout of an irrigated field for efficient irrigation 223
USE AND WASTE OF IRRIGATION WATER
By G. E. P. Smith
What becomes of the irrigation water? The irrigator knows
that in a general way the water is beneficial, in fact, is necessary ;
he does not know just where the water goes after it sinks into the
ground, nor does he know just how much of the water applied to
the land actually does useful service and how much of it is wasted.
In the early days of irrigation in any country, the chief interest
and energy are exerted in developing the water. But when the
water supplies are so fully developed as they are in Arizona at the
present time, then farmers and others interested in agriculture must
study the efficiency of irrigation in order that Avaste of water may be
reduced and the water supplies may be made to serve as large an
acreage as possible. It must be confessed that in some communi-
ties the various losses of irrigation water aggregate as high as 80
percent of the total quantity of water diverted from the stream. If
the losses in such a community can be cut down to 60 percent, the
remaining useful portion is increased from 20 percent to 40 percent,
that is, it is increased two-fold. There are, indeed, inviting possi-
bilities of doubling the irrigated area in certain Arizona valleys
where already the entire water resources are thought to be fully
developed.
A survey of the water supplies of the State at the present time
indicates a shortage in the supply for this year on many streams,
and the Roosevelt Reservoir contains less than one-half of its full
capacity. Reservoir supplies must be conserved as far as possible,
in the fear that the present dry year may be followed by another
equally dry. It is very pertinent, therefore, that this year the
farmers should make a special study of their methods of irrigation
in the effort to conserve the water supplies to the utmost.
TRANSPIRATION
Plants, like animals, breathe. The surfaces of leaves, and to a
less extent of stems, are covered with innumerable minute breath-
ing pores. Thru these small openings carbonic acid gas is taken
in from the atmosphere and moisture is given out. It is a vital
function of all plants to gather moisture thru their roots and to
expire the moisture thru the minute stomatal pores into the air.
208 Bulletin 88
Plant growth is dependent in large measure upon the presence of
an abundant supply of soil moisture. Surely the irrigating water
which actually passes thru the plant in this way does a most useful
service ; all that portion of the irrigating water which does not pass
thru the plant is wasted, so far as crop production is concerned.
The transpiration rate, even for the same plants, varies greatly
according to climatic conditions, being least in humid countries and
increasing greatly with aridity. The rate must be high in Arizona.
Like the evaporation rate, it depends upon the temperature, the
wind movement, and the relative humidity. The characteristic of
high transpiration rate in this State must be acknowledged.
Many investigators have measured the quantity of water trans-
pired by various plants. The U. S. Department of Agriculture*
conducted extensive tests of this kind in northeastern Colorado.
Some of their results are given in the following list, in which the
transpiration is stated as the number of pounds of water required to
produce a pound of dry matter, sometimes called the transpiration
ratio. The soil used was "rich, dark loam."
WATER ABSORBED BY PLANT ROOTS DURING GROWTH
(Based on total dry matter produced)
Crop
Alfalfa
Barley, average of 4 varieties...
Wheat, average of 5 varieties . . .
Potato
Corn, average of 3 varieties
Sorghum, average of 5 varieties.
Pound.s of water per
pound of dry matter
1068
539
507
448
369
306
When the production of grain alone was considered, the water
requirement of wheat was found to be 1357 pounds of water per
pound of dry matter, and of sorghum 790 pounds of water. The
sorghum family of plants is specially adapted to arid climates and
in particular to those localities where the limitations of w^ater
supply are felt seriously. It is evident, too, that alfalfa is the
water gourmand, suggesting therefore that farmers, especially those
under pumping plants wdth high lifts, should restrict their alfalfa
to the amount needed for feeding their own necessary stock.
Most investigators believe that the texture and tilth of the soil,
and the fertility, have a pronounced effect on the transpiration ratio.
Thus, on clayey soils and very sandy soils plants transpire more
water per unit of crop produced than on good loam ; and compara-
*U. S. Dept. Agri., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. No. 284, 1913.
Use and Waste of Water
209
o 5
41 ho
or
■M O
cs:
K. m
r o
- a
-J *>
O —
»>^ o
S^
3_
M)^
210 Bulletin 88
tive tests have shown the water requirement on sand and clay to
be reduced more than fifty percent by the addition of fertilizers. On
rich loams, however, the addition of fertilizer appears to have little
effect upon the ratio of water transpired to crop produced.
It is not likely that the actual transpiration ratio in broad fields
is so high as given in the table. Nevertheless, the table indicates
the relative rates of different crops and the possibility of tremen-
dous demands for water by plants under adverse soil and climatic
conditions.
The water requirements of crops in Arizona have not been de-
termined in an adequate manner. Observations and meager records
indicate that, for the Salt River Valley, alfalfa that is grown con-
tinuously through the summer should have about eight 6-inch
irrigations per year on medium loam soil, and about twelve 4-inch
or 5-inch irrigations on sandy soils. Cotton requires from two acre-
feet per acre on fertile loam soil to three acre-feet on light sandy
soil and new desert soil, and milo maize about one and a half or
two. The yield of alfalfa increases almost in proportion to the
amount of water applied, at the rate of one ton of hay per acre-
foot of water, even up to seven or eight acre-feet per acre ; but with
grain and other crops the yield is reduced by applying more than
the optimum amount. The duty of water is higher in some cases
due to subirrigation.
There is one school of irrigators in the Valley who do not irri-
gate alfalfa during part of July and through August. Allowing
the alfalfa to rest during this period tends to keep out water grasses
and tends to avoid damage by insects. Under this system the
water requirements are less than the amount stated above, and the
total yield also is reduced.
WATER LOSSES
The water transpired by plants constitutes, ordinarily, but a
small part of the total water diverted for irrigation. Beginnino- at
the point of diversion, the supply stream suffers continuous losses.
The sequence of these losses is as follows : seepage (and evapora-
tion) from canals; seepage from the field laterals; evaporatir.n
upward from the irrigated fields ; seepage downward from the
fields ; and wilful or careless waste. These losses will be discussed
separately and suggestions will be offered as to how they can be
reduced.
Use and W-ASTt: oi* \\'ati:r 211
LOSSES FROM CANALS AND FIELD LATERALS
Earth canals arc more or less porous; new canals in sandy soils
are sometimes little better than sieves. Fortunately, most of the
irrigating supplies taken from streams in Arizona carry consider-
able line silt ; and this silt, settling in the canals, forms a blanket
and reduces to some extent the excessive losses which occur in new
canals. Since the construction of the Roosevelt Reservoir the pro-
portion of clear water carried in the canals of Maricopa County
has increased greatly and the loss by seepage from the canals has
increased correspondingly.
Measurements of seepage losses on scores of ditches and canals
in the Western states have been compiled and published.* The
results are startling. Losses of over 10 percent per mile are not
infrequent, and it is concluded that "a large percentage of the water,
estimated at 40 percent of the amount taken in at the heads of the
main canals, is lost by absorption and percolation along the routes."
The records of the U. S. Reclamation Service in the Salt River
Valleyf state that during the past six years the canal losses between
the Granite Reef and Joint Head diversion dams and the points
where water is delivered to the water users have been from 40 to
45 percent of the total amount diverted. While the losses as given
in the records may be overstated somewhat, it is certain that at least
one-third of the water diverted is lost in the canals. The loss from
the Avondale Canal is 40 percent in the first four miles.
Practically all of the loss in canals is by seepage, for the loss
by evaporation is small. The evaporation from a free water sur-
face during the summer months at Tucson averages 10 inches per
month in depth. On that basis a canal with a water surface 10
feet wide and carrying 25 second-feet of water would lose just one
acre-foot per month per mile by evaporation w^hile the total dis-
charge in the same time would be 1500 acre-feet.
An excessive seepage loss can be reduced somewhat by puddling
the canal with clay. This method, however, is not recommended
for general practice, for it is a temporary half-way measure, and
the puddling must be repeatedly injured by ditch cleaning. Oil
lining has been tried to some extent in California and is said to
reduce the seepage about 50 percent, but it does not prevent the
growth of weeds and ditch cleaning becomes more difficult. The
best method is to line the canal with concrete, or, in the case of
*U. S. Dept. Agri.. Bull. No. 126. 1914. This bulletin, designed for irrigation
engineers and superintendents, contains descriptions of many concrete linings.
tReclamation Record, 9, 11, Nov., 1918, p. 532.
212
Bulletin
small ditches, as from pumping plants, to convey the water in
cement pipe lines. Concrete linings are coming into use widely,
and they will be employed more extensively as projects become
thickly settled and the value of the water increases. The Tucson
Farms Company has lined 2>^ miles of its canals with 3-inch re-
inforced concrete. The cost of this lining was about $18,000, while
the value of the water saved is at least $40,000. An excellent
example of concrete lining for field laterals is to be found on the
ranch of B. A. Fowler near Phoenix, as shown in the frontispiece.
The Agricultural Products Corporation has used cement pipe lines
j.-jg 3 — Lining earth canals with a 2-inch lining of concrete at Litchli3l<l,
Arizona. The total cost of this work in 1918 averaged 11 cents per square foot.
thruout for its distribution system, twenty-six miles in all. The
Southwest Cotton Company uses both canal linings and cement
pipe lines and ultimately will carry all irrigation water in concrete.
Concrete linings and pipe lines have additional advantages: ditch
cleaning is nearly or quite eliminated; breaks, especially those
caused by the gopher holes, cannot occur; and the labor cost of
irrigating is reduced.
EVAPOR.^TION FROM IRRIGATED FIELDS
The direct evaporation of water from the ground surface may
account for from 10 to 40 percent of the water applied. This loss
Use and Waste of Water
213
214 Bulletin 88
is much larger on heavy loams and adobe soil than on sandy soil.
It is greatest, of course, during and just after each irrigation and
decreases gradually until the next irrigation. In the case of alfalfa
it is comparatively high after each cutting and decreases as the
plants grow again and shade the ground. It is greater on an open
wind-swept area than on one protected by w^indbreaks.
Many methods for reducing the evaporation loss are available
to the farmer. They are :
1. Deep plowing. A shallow seed bed underlain by packed
soil tends to cause a high evaporation loss. From seven to nine
inches of soil should be turned over by the plow.
2. Cultivation. In the case of crops planted in rows, such as
corn, the ground between the rows should be cultivated as soon as
possible after each irrigation. In the case of orchards, the ground
should be furrowed just before irrigating and cultivated just after-
ward. If the furrows are 6 inches in depth, one may expect to save
60 percent or more of the loss which would occur without the
mulch. Even alfalfa needs cultivation at least twice a year, and
particularly after the soil has been packed by winter pasturing.
3. Increase in soil fertility. It is difficult to make a mulch
when humus is lacking. A fertile soil takes water readily and, if
cultivated, retains it with comparatively little loss by evaporation.
Straw should be spread on the ground and plowed in. Weeds,
"trash, and perhaps a green manure crop can be utilized to improve
the fertility. All stable manure should be spread and plowed into
the soil.
4. More thoro and less frequent irrigation. This practice, be-
sides saving water, tends to establish deep root feeding, while
frequent light irrigations encourage shallow roots. For alfalfa one
irrigation per cutting is ample except for sandy soils, where two
lighter irrigations are preferable.
5. Irrigation at the right time. Irrigate heavily before plant-
ing, and withhold water after the planting for a considerable time.
In the case of alfalfa, irrigate about a week before cutting. This
will supply the water when it is most demanded for plant growth,
and after cutting, the ground being still moist, the new crop will
spring up quickly and shade the ground. Wheat should be planted
in thoroly irrigated ground, and, with the aid of good winter rains,,
no irrigation is needed until the boot or flower stage. Cotton
should be irrigated sparingly in the early stages of growth.
6. Irrigation at night. Evaporation is much restricted in the
Use and Wastk of \Vati:r 215
night compared with the day time. It is a great mistake to shut
down pumping plants each evening.
7. I'^limination of weeds. The waste of water to raise weeds
should be inchided with evaporation losses. Weed farming is
unprofitable.
8. Windbreaks. They should be planted along the ditch banks
and the road sides. Every farmer should raise his own fence posts
and fire wood. W^ind movement in the Salt River Valley is greatly
reduced by the long rows of magnificent cottonwoods with which
the landscape is checkered. The nearby fringes of fields require
additional fertilization, but the net result of the windbreaks is
beneficial.
SEEPAGE LOSS FROM IRRIGATED FIELDS
As a rule, this loss is even greater than the preceding one. It
is particularly severe on light soils. It could be avoided to a large
extent if no moie water were ai)plied at each irrigation than the
amount that can be held by the soil within reach of the plant roots.
An ideal irrigation consists in ap])lying the right amount of
water, evenly distributed over the field. Thruout the central and
southern portion of Arizona the practice for field crops is to lay out
the field in long strips or "lands." In many observed cases the
water, turned in at one end, requires from one to three hours to
traverse a land to its lower end. As soon as the water reaches the
lower end the ditch water is turned to another land. For one or
two hours, then, the head end of a land gets water, part of which
soaks downward beyond the reach of, and beyond the needs of, the
plant roots, while at the far end the land receives water for fifteen
to forty minutes. Surely, this is not an ideal irrigation. In 1913
the author made several tests of the evenness of distribution of the
water. In one case, on heavy loam, it w^as found that the per-
centage of soil moisture at the head of a land, for six feet depth,
was increased from 24.1 to 26.3 percent by a 4-inch average irriga-
tion, w^hile at the tail end the soil moisture w^as increased from 15.4
to 18.2 percent. In another case on sandy loam the soil moisture
at the head end was increased from 14.3 to 21.1 percent and at the
tail end from 8.3 to 12.2 percent. In both cases, therefore, the head
end had more soil moisture before irrigating than the tail end had
after irrigating — a preposterous condition. Inasmuch as the alfalfa
near the foot of each land was making excellent growth it follows
that the head ends of the land were getting unnecessarily large,
wasteful amounts of water. On one of the fields thus tested the
216 PuLivETiN 88
average depth of water applied in 1914 was 108.2 inches. Unques-
tionably, 50 percent of the water thus applied sank to the water
table and was wasted. Many similar cases have been observed in
alfalfa irrigation and in furrow orchard irrigation, where the quan-
tity of water absorbed at the head ends of the furrows was found
to be excessive and wasteful. When these conditions exist, the
remedy is less water more rapidly applied, by means of a larger
head, or shorter runs, or steeper slopes.
As a result of the downward percolation of irrigation water from
canals and from fields, nearly all irrigation projects are encount^ir-
ing difficulties due to waterlogged or seeped lands or to the conse-
quent rise of the alkali. The rising water table is disastrous to
crops, causing the death of orchards and alfalfa. On several
projects of the U. S. Reclamation Service the necessity for drainage
works became urgent before the irrigation systems were fully
completed. On one of the projects the water table over nearly
30,000 acres rose from 90 feet average depth to less than five feet
depth in six years, and about 6000 acres of the land became a marsh.
Over 15 percent of the total area in the arid region irrigated by
individuals and corporations in the past has been abandoned on
account of waterlogging. Already there are four important sec-
tions of the Salt River Valley which need drainage, and an extensive
project for lowering the groundwater table over a large area has
been financed by a bond issue and has been begun. An important
area in the Upper Gila Valley is being reclaimed by a system of
clay tile drains. At a school house near Pima the water table has
risen to the surface of the ground and the alkali has crept upward
in the brick work to the top of the door. Extensive drainage works
are being constructed in the Yuma Valley.
Although in general the head ends of the fields are given too
much water, yet there are exceptions to this rule. Thus, on clay
loam and heavy adobe soils, if the lands have considerable fall, the
irrigating water runs quickly to the lower ends of the lands without
soaking into the ground more than a few inches. A similar effect
is produced by very silty water, such as that of the Gila and
Colorado rivers ; a silt-blanket is formed at the upper end of the
lands and becomes almost impervious. In such cases the remedy
is either to divide the head of water over more lands, or to use a
flatter gradient, and silt-blankets must be broken up and mulched.
The frequently discussed problems of what slope to give the
lands and what head of water is best are interrelated, and involve
also a discussion of the length and width of lands, and the character
Use and Waste of Water
217
Fiu r, ^-A pcuih urcluud in Salt Kivt-r \alKy killed 1 y the rise of the water
table. Alfalfa likewise is subject to root rot, due to a rising, or ttuctuatui.^'
shallow, water table.
A ^ .dBI «▼. -._«&* hKa. . t-i_ ^^ ... -i A* " •« , ■<
# . 't' 1-
- ».. v''- , ■„
Fig. 6.— A large area in a cotton field, where the seed did not germinate,
due to the shallow water table.
218 Bulletin 88
of the soil. Any one of these live factors can be taken as a function
of the other four factors. The problem is complex and should be
solved separately for each crop and for each locality. In some
communities the lands are graded level or on a very slight gradient
at an additional expense of $20 to $40 per acre. This outlay is of
doubtful utility. The lands should be graded down the natural
slope or aj^proximately so. Surely any lands w^ith slope from 3 to
40 feet per mile can be laid out and irrigated without material
change in the general direction of the slope. The other factors,
then, can be determined so as to give the most uniform distribution
of water. Thus, on light soil with a grade of 20 feet per mile,
where a large head of water is available, perhaps the lands can be
laid out 50 feet w^ide and 880 feet long. If the head of water is
small, as from a No. 5 centrifugal pump, then the lands should be
not over 30 feet wide and 440 feet long. If, however, the grade is
only 10 feet per mile, the lands, perhaps, should be 660 feet long
for the large head and 330 feet long for the small head. These
values are intended to be suggestive ; on shallow soils underlain
by caliche the lands can be longer; in some cases lands 1300 feet
long are irrigated successfully. For heavy loams the lands can be
considerably longer than for sandy soil, and in general the flatter
the grade, the shorter should be the runs and the larger should be
the head of water.
The final adjustment to obtain an even distribution should be
made by varying the head of water in each land or in each furrow.
This adjustment should be made last because it is the easiest to
make. Recently an irrigator near Mesa complained that the stand
of alfalfa was better in the lower part of his field than in the upper
part. He wished to regrade the field so as to reduce the fall. But
the remedy was much simpler than that. His head of water de-
livered by the Reclamation Service was 300 miner's inches. By
changing his order and obtaining 275 miner's inches he would get a
uniform irrigation and uniform crop. Many irrigators have difB-
culty in getting the water across their land. They require a larger
unit head. They should order more water, or concentrate it in
fewer lands or furrows, or if this cannot be done without increasing
the unit head to a point where it will erode the soil, then the length
of run should be reduced.
In cases where the distances between head ditches, especially
cement pipe lines, prove to be too great, special methods of irrigat-
ing can be used. One method is to open an intermediate head
ditch midway between the permanent ditches. The intermediate
Use and Waste of Water
219
ditch can be used for the preHniinary irrigation and possibly for the
first irrigation after planting, after which the gronnd will become
settled and packed and the ditch can be leveled off and planted
also. In the case of fnrrow irrigation, double heads can be run in
alternate furrows and subdivided about two-thirds of the way down
the field. Later, the intervening furrows can be treated the same
way, and thus the proportion of water received by the lower end
is increased. Another ])ractice is to turn a large head down each
furrow at first, and. when the water reaches the lower end, to re-
Fig. 7. — An alfalfa field in Navajo County, irrigated by the corrugation
method. The corrugations are about three inches deep, are spaced at intervals
of about tliirty inches, and run down the steepest slope. This method is advan-
tageous particularly where the soil is heavy and tends to bake on the surface
if flooded.
duce the head to such an amount as will continue just to reach
the lower end.
Good control over the division of the stream of water into fur-
row streams or into separate heads for the lands is essential. Some-
times it is well to divide the stream into two, three, or more parts
by means of a division box. Then each part can be more readily
divided into furrow-heads. Spiles, made of laths or of narrow
boards, are effective in the final distribution. The spiles are set in
the ditch bank at the natural ground surface. Sometimes the w^ater
is let into forebavs and then distributed thru spiles. Wooden
220 Bulletin 88
spiles are much used in the Northwest ; in Arizona, however, spiles
should be of some other material than wood, which cannot long;
withstand the alternate wetting and drying in this climate. Gal-
vanized iron, or clay, or cement tile would be preferable. The
division of water from cement pipe lines can be made with ease
and accuracy, an important argument for their use.
Frequency of irrigation is a related subject. The smaller the
application at each irrigation, the more often the field must be irri-
gated. Investigations along this line have not been conclusive
except for the peculiar set of conditions under which the tests were
made. Many a test has been terminated by the untimely death of
the young plants when the irrigations were too infrequent. Sandy
soils or other soils that are shallow and underdrained by gravel
need frequent applications, while a deep, rich loam, with its large
capillary storage capacity, will require much fewer applications.
Heavy clay soils, in some places, require frequent irrigations
because it is impossible to make them take much water at an
application, either because of their physical condition or because
they are shallow and are underlain by hardpan that is nearly
impervious.
There is much diversity in Arizona in methods of laying out
fields and irrigating. Farmers in the Yuma Valley prefer to grade
the lands level from end to end. Elsewhere in southern Arizona,
the general cvistom is to run water down the slope parallel to the
steeper side of the field, the lands varying from 30 to 100 feet in
' width, and the lengths of runs depending on the slope, soil, crop
and the available head of water. In northeastern Arizona the cor-
rugation method is used without borders and the water is run
down the steepest slopes. In Yavapai County the Colorado system
of flooding from field laterals is used for alfalfa and grain.
Most Arizona soils take water readily. Uniformity of distribu-
tion is possible, but requires thought and skill on the part of the
irrigator. The use of the proper unit head in each land or in
each furrow will prevent waste of water in the upper or lower end
of the field and will give an even appearance to the field of grain
or other crop.
WILFUL OR CARELESS WASTE
This loss includes allowing excess water from the lower end of
a field to run onto unused land or, as sometimes happens, into the
highways. It is due sometimes to the absence of a good tail border,
sometimes to gopher holes, sometimes to a sleepy or forgetful
Use and Waste of Water
221
irrigator. On some irrigation projects the loss has been proved to
exceed 10 percent of the water applied. In Arizona, however, and
especially in the Salt River Valley, there is a strong public senti-
ment against wilful or careless waste, and the total loss of this
character is comparatively small. The method of measuring the
water to each user and charging him for just what he uses has
made the water user more diligent in distributing the water over his
own fields and somewhat loath to turn it back into the system or
to let it run to waste. Would that he might take an equal interest
in preventing the water from escaping downward beyond his con-
trol, or upward by evaporation from a crusted soil.
In the grading of a field the lower 40 or 50 feet should be graded
This area represents
l"he p#rccntoj« of woter
lost in conols
TViis isthe loss
b^ «voporQtion
jrom the (leld
This is the loss bvj
seepaa* down word
below The r*acV< o\
plant rooti
T>ii5-th« use-
•ful port-istreni-
pir«d b^ th«.
plant's
Fig. 8. — What becomes of the Irrigating water supplies diverted from the
streams is shown by the diagram. The area of each rectangle is proportional ap-
proximately to the percentage of the total water supply lost or utilized as indi-
cated.
level in the direction of the irrigation. The lands should terminate
in one common land running at right angles across the field, or the
furrows should be connected so that the furrow streams will be
equalized at their lower ends. Very few irrigators are able to
gauge the irrigation and shut off the water from each land at just
the right time ; invariably some lands receive too much and fre-
quently the water overflows the levee at the lower end of the land.
A common crosswise land prevents this loss and usually will have
the heaviest alfalfa.
EFFICIENCY OF IRRIGATION
Every progressive farmer can easily investigate the general effi-
ciency of his irrigation system. In the first place, he should set a
weir or other measuring device and keep a record of the amount
of water applied to each field. His records will serve as a basis for
comparisons. There are several simple means by which he can
ascertain the nature and extent of his water losses. Some of the
most useful are the following.
222 BuIv1vE:tin 88
1. He can note with a watch the number of minutes during
which the head end and the center and the tail end of the lands or
furrows get water.
2. Pits dug to a depth of six feet with a pesthole digger at
different points in a field will show whether or not the irrigation
is uniform, and whether the soil is wet amply or too much. The
pits should be dug about 12 hours after the irrigation. In lieu of
the pits, a sharp stick can be thrust into the ground at various
points and much can be learned thereby of the penetration of the
water. The Southwest Cotton Company uses a pointed metal rod
with a groove one foot long in the side near the point. By driving
the rod to any depth, rotating it there, and then withdrawing it, a
sample of the soil at that depth is obtained. A soil augur is a con-
venient and useful tool ; every farmer can well afford to own one.
3. Observation of the water level in nearby wells may indicate
whether the groundwater plane is rising due to over-irrigation.
4. Does the soil surface bake? If so, there must be a heavy
loss of water by evaporation. A farmer can easily demonstrate to
his own satisfaction how far evaporation losses can be reduced by
cultivation.
Ditch losses are best measured by setting weir boards and meas-
uring the quantity of water at two points.
The efficiency of irrigation can be defined as the ratio of that
portion of the water actually utilized by the crop to the total quan-
tity applied to the land. It is the farmer's province to endeavor to
make this ratio as high as possible, and thus to decrease the amount
of water needed for his ranch.
The courts of Arizona have excellent opportunities in their
decisions in cases establishing water rights to limit the diversion
and applications of irrigating water to the real needs of crops, plus
a reasonable allowance for water losses which it is impractical to
prevent. Usually the courts have established the duty of water
much lower than it should be. The Kent decree in Maricopa
County and the Lockwood decree in Pinal County fix the limit of
application at 5.5 acre-feet per acre annually, the water to be
measured at the land. The records of the Salt River Valley Water
Users Association show that the average amount of water bought
and paid for by farmers during the past six years has varied from
2.36 acre-feet per acre to 3.67 acre-feet. The decree of 1905, adjudi-
cating water rights of Graham County, fixes the duty of water at
"one-half miner's inches continuous flow to the acre." This is
equivalent to 9 acre-feet per acre annually. Under the license of
Use and Waste of Water
223
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224 Bulletin 88
the decree, many farmers have over-irrigated their lands and some
localities have become water-logged and alkalied. A temporary
decree in Apache County in 1917 established the duty of water at
St. Johns at one cubic foot per second for 75 acres, at Eagar at one
second-foot for 100 acres, and at Greer at one second-foot for 150
acres. The distinction between the conditions at different altitudes
is logical and is an important step forward. In 1918 the decree was
changed so as to allow one second-foot per 90 acres at St. Johns,
110 acres at Eager and 180 acres at Greer. Inasmuch as rotation
of water is practiced thruout Arizona, the duty of water should
be stated in acre-feet per acre per year or a monthly schedule can
be decreed for the limiting use of water.
Irrigation districts and cooperative companies can influence the
use and waste of water under their canals by their method of
charging for water. The old flat rate, a fixed amount per ucre per
year, was a constant challenge to each irrigator to use as much
water as he could obtain. It was as unreasonable as a proposition
to buy the family flour supply at a fixed sum per annum. The
water should be measured to each water user and each user should
pay on the basis of the amount which he uses. In the Salt River
Valley the change from the old flat rate to the new basis in 1912
resulted immediately in a decreased use of water : what remains to
be done is the installation of weirs or other measuring devices so
that the measurements can be made more accurately than they are
at present.
With the exception of some projects which will require Federal
aid, surface water supplies in Arizona are quite thoroly appro-
priated, and the limit of development of groundwater supplies will
be reached in a few years. But the water supplies must be made
to serve more land and this must be brought about thru a reduction
of the water losses. No longer is it considered justifiable for ap-
propriators to divert and use excessive amounts of water even tho
they may have been doing so for many years. The modern view-
point of courts in the other arid states is that no man has a right to
take more water than he can put to beneficial use together with a
reasonable allowance for conveyance and other losses. But each
appropriator is expected to make such expenditures on his ditches
and in the preparation of his land and in his care of the land that
his losses will be small and the general water supply thereby con-
served. As Judge J. H. Kibbey said in his decree covering water
rights in the Salt River Valley, "No man has a right to waste a
drop of water."
The University of Arizona
College of Agriculture
Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 89
The Gate\\ay tu the Vuma Mesa
THE YUMA MESA
By A. E. Vinson, F. J. Crider and
G. E. Thompson
Tucson, Arizona, August 15, 1919
REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY
Ex -Officio
His Excellency, The Governor of Arizona
The State Superintendent ok Public Instruction
Appointed by the Governor of the State
1 :pEs Randolph Chancellor
William J. Bryan, Jr., A.B Treasurer
James G Compton Secretary
William Scarlett, A.B., B.D Regent
ToHN YL Campbell. LL.M Regent
Timothy A. Riordan Regent
Edmund W. Wells Regent
Louis D. Ricketts, Sc.D., LL.D Regent
Agricultural Experiment Station
RuFus B. von KlEinSmid, A.M., Sc.D., J.D President of the University
Daniel W. Working, B.Sc, A.M Director
■^'Robert H. Forbes, Ph.D Research Specialist
John J. Thornber, A.M Botanist
Albert E. Vinson, Ph.D Chemist
George E. P. Smith, C.E Irrigation Engineer
Richard H. Williams, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
Walter S. Cunningham, B.S Dairy Husbandman
Charles T. VorhiEs, Ph.D Entomologist
George E. Thompson, B.S.A Agronomist
Franklin J. Crider, M.S Horticulturist
Walker E. Bryan, M.S Plant Breeder
Clifford N. Catlin, A.M Research Specialist in Agricultural Chemistry
Francis R. KennEy, B.S.A Poultry Husbandman
Norton L. Harris Extension Poultry Husbandman
Charles U. PickrEll. B.S.A Extension Animal Husbandman
W. E. Code, B.S- Assistant Irrigation Engineer
A. F. KiNNisoN. B.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
R. S. Hawkins, B.S.A Assistant Agronomist
E. H. PrEsslEv. B.S.A Assistant Plant Breeder
Howard W. Estill. M.S Assistant Chemist
H. C. ScHWALEN. B.S Assistant Irrigation Engineer
Agricultural Extension Service
PASTES P. Taylor, B.S.A Director
Leland S. Parke, B.S State Leader Boys' and Girls' Clubs
Mary Pritner Lockwood. B.S State Leader Home Demonstration Agents
W. M. Cook, A.B State Leader County Agricultural Agents
Ballantyne. B.S County Agent, Graham-Greenlee Counties
Fillerup County Agent, Navajo- Apache Counties
Heard, B.S County Agent, Maricopa County
Adamson, B.S.A County Agent, Cochise County
LongstrETh County Agent, Yuma County
(JEORGE W. ScheErEr. B.S.A County Agent, Yavapai County
W. W. PiCKRELL, B.S.A County Agent. Pima-Santa Cruz Counties
C. K. WildErmuth, B.S County Agent, Pinal County
F. A. Chisholm, B.S County Agent, Coconino County
Agnes A. Hunt Assistant State Leader Boys'and Girls' Clubs
?TazEL Zimmerman Home Demonstration Agent, Southern Counties
P'l.ossiE D. Wills, B.S Home Demonstration Agent, Maricopa County
Grace I. Tufts Home Demonstration Agent, Northern Counties
Louise SporlEdEr TTome Demonstrntion Agent, Cochise County
Cooperative Specialists
D. A. Gilchrist Rodent Control Specialist, Bur. Biol. Survey, U.S.D.A.
Paul G. Redington U. S. Forest Service, U.S.D.A.
J. P. Jacks.. Veterinarian, Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S.D.A.
*On leave.
A.
B.
C.
R.
H.
C.
C.
R.
T.
W.
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Three-year-old Washington Xavel orange on the N'uma Mesa Frontispiece
Cieneral view on the Yuma Mesa 226
Windbreak of evergreen tamarisk on the Yuma ]\Iesa, 18 months
from planting 228
Windbreak of Eucalyptus on the Blaisdell citrus orchard, 26 vears
old " .... 232
Castor beans used as a temporary windbreak in a young citrus
orchard on the Yuma Mesa 232
Alfalfa used as a cover crop in the Blaisdell citrus orchard 240
Cover crop of cowpeas planted in rows in Hill's citrus orchard on
the Yuma Mesa 240
View in ten-acre block of Valencia oranges in the Blaisdell orchard
on tlic Yuma Mesa •. . .246
Individual lemon tree on the Yuma Mesa 248
Individual Marsh grapefruit tree on the Yuma Mesa 248
Citrus orchard of George M. Hill on the Yuma Mesa, 8 months from
planting 249
The same orchard as shown in Fig. 11, one year later 250
The same orchard as shown in Fig. 11, two years later 250
Washington Navel orange produced on the Yuma Mesa 252
Valencia orange produced on the Yuma Mesa 252
Grapefruit produced on the Yuma Mesa 256
Lisbon lemon produced on the Yuma Mesa 256
Two-year-old grape vine on the Yuma Mesa 258
Three-acre fig orchard on the Yuma Mesa 259
Cotton on the Yuma Mesa on land under second vear's cultivation. . .262
Fig.
2
Fig.
3.
Fig.
4.
Fig.
5.
Fig.
6.
Fig.
7.
Fig.
8.
F'ig.
9.
Fig.
10.
Fig.
11.
Fig.
12.
Fig.
13.
Fig.
14.
Fig. 15.
Fig.
16.
Fig. 17.
Fig.
18.
Fig.
19.
Fig.
20.
CONTENTS
PAGE
General information 225
Topography of the Yuma Mesa 226
Climate of the Yuma Mesa 227
Soil of the Yuma Mesa 234
Chemical composition of the Yuma sand 235
Fertilitv of the Yuma sand 239
Alkali 241
Physical characters of the Yuma Mesa sand 242
Fruit crops on the Yuma Mesa 246
First citrus plantings 246
Recent citrus plantings 247
Insect and plant disease problems on the Mesa 249
Characteristics of fruit grown on Yuma Mesa 249
General adaptation of varieties of citrus to the Yuma Mesa 254
Oranges 254
Grapefruit 255
Lemons 255
Other fruits adapted to the Mesa 257
Dates 257
Olives 258
Grapes 258
Figs 259
Truck crops 260
Field crops on the Yuma Mesa 261
Summary 263
Three-year-old Washington Navel orange at Mulford Winsor's residence on the
Yuma Mesa
THE YUMA MESA
B\ A. E. J'inson, J'. J. Crider, and G. E. Thompson
GENERAL INFORMATION
For many vears the irrigation of the Vuma Mesa with the
water of the Colorado River has been discussed. Variovis attempts
by individuals and companies to accomplish this end have been
undertaken with more or less success ; and investigations made by
engineers of the U. S. Reclamation Service have shown the recla-
mation of large tracts on the Mesa to be possible at reasonable
cost. It has been realized, however, that the determining factor in
the establishment«of a permanent project of this nature has been
whether or not the agricultural possibilities are such as to warrant
the necessary investment. As early as 1891 Mr. C. B. Colling-
wood, at the request of Mr. H. W. Blaisdell, investigated the char-
acter of the soil of this Me.sa and made a special study of the
amount and composition of the silt carried by the Colorado River.
These results were published as Bulletin No. 6 of the Arizona
Agricultural Experiment Station. Aside from the general soil sur-
vey of the Yuma district by J. Garnet Holmes, of the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bureau of vSoils, in 1903, and minor observa-
tions made in reports of the Reclamation Service engineers, noth-
mg further bearing on this phase of the project has been attempted.
At the request of the Reclamation Service, this commission was
appointed by Dr. R. B. von KleinSmid, President of the University
of Arizona, to make such investigation and report upon the agri-
cultural possibilities of the Yuma Mesa with special reference to
the production of citrus and other commercial fruit crops. This
commission was composed of the agricultural chemist, the horti-
culturist, and the agronomist of the University of Arizona, College
of Agriculture, who were already more or less conversant with con-
ditions on the Mesa, having made previous observations there in
connection with their regular work.
After thoro consideration of all available information the com-
mission visited the tract again early in November, 1918, to make
further investigations. In this work they were generously as-
sisted by Mr. W. W. Schlecht, Project Manager of the Yuma Re-
clamation Project; Mr. J. W. Longstreth, Agricultural Agent of
Yuma County ; Mr Geo. M. Hill, a citrus grower, and other persons
226 JJfLLHTix 89
having knoAvledge of conditions on the Mesa. Careful studies were
made of the citrus plantings and of other crops and vegetation now
growing there, and inquiries were made concerning the past his-
tory of these crops, particularly the old citrus grove known as the
Blaisdell Orchard. Units A and B of the project, as surveyed by
the Reclamation Service, were inspected by several automobile and
foot trif)s. Soil samples representative of the different soil phases
were taken for chemical and mechanical analysis, and for physical
tests and pot cultures. Fruit samples were obtained for physical
and chemical analysis, and for comparison with similar fruits from
Florida and California.
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE YUMA MESA
The Yuma Mesa rises abruptly about 100 feet a'bove the valley
of the Colorado River and stretches to the mountains on the east,
sloping gently southward into Mexico. Depressions, commonly
spoken of as pot holes, are found at a few places. The entire region,
probably, was once the floor of the upper end of the Gulf of Cali-
Fig. 2. — General view on the Yunia Mesa
fornia, which accounts for the prevalence of sands. Frequent
draws lead from the mesa to the valley below making the margin
quite rough. The great body of the Mesa, however, is level and
may be brought under cultivation with little expense for grading
creosote bushes. A few dunes, too large for leveling, occur, but
other than the leveling of small sand dunes, collected about the
The Yuma Mesa 227
these are not extensive and, judging from the old shrubbery on
their tops, show little evidence of shifting. While much of the
tract is not easily accessible on account of sands, good road build-
ing material is easily available. The northern point of the Mesa
extends well into the city of Yuma and is the site of many well-
kept suburban homes, which have afforded additional evidence of
the capacity of the soil to support a good growth when water is
applied.
The city of Yuma, situated at the northern end of the project,
is on the main line of the Southern Pacific Railroad, insuring prompt
shipment, quick delivery, and lessened expense in marketing crops
produced. When it is considered that many commercial fruit dis-
tricts are located on branch roads, this advantage becomes ap-
parent.
CLIMATE OK THE YUMA MESA
Climate more than anything else has been the determining
factor in the location and development of the citrus districts of
the world. The physical nature of the soil may be modified, plant
food supplied, and water problems solved, but unless a region has
the natural and fundatnental requisites of climate, it cannot be-
come a commercial citrus producing center. In this particular
the Yuma Mesa qualifies preeminently. Its climate is unique
among the citrus districts of the country in that no other area in
North America has occuring together the smallest rainfall, lowest
relative humidity, and greatest percentage of sunshine — a com-
bination which makes possible the production of fruit of the finest
quality, the highest color, and with the earliest ripening period.
A product with this distinctive excellence wins favor, extra high
prices, and a permanent place in the market. Furthermore, the
fruit can be allowed to remain on the trees until it attains maturity
without fear of competition. The history of plantings on the Mesa
shows that the Navel crop can be placed on the market in November
and December, and at this time is of such perfect quality as to
command a price far in excess of oranges from any other district.
Grapefruit at this time also has extremely superior quality over
that found on the market from other citrus districts, which insures
the highest selling price.
Another climatic feature of paramount importance found on
the Yuma Mesa is immunity from injurious frost. The tract is
composed for the most part of a broad table land with a gentle
slope towards the edge of the Mesa, which breaks up into numerous
228
RULLETIN 89
wide draws, affording excellent air drainage to the valley below.
Coupled with this ideal topography there is an almost constant
circulation of air. Observations on the Mesa covering a period of
twenty-six years (the age of the oldest citrus planting in this dis-
trict) with accurate weather records covering the greater portion
t)f this time, show no serious injury from cold. In the disastrous
treeze of 1913 when the temperature in the Southwest v^as lower
than had been known for a period of sixty years, lemon trees on
the Mesa were only slightly affected, the thermometer registering
from three to eight degrees higher than in the citrus districts of
California. It can. therefore, be stated most positively that the
frost hazard, a matter which should receive first consideration in
the selection o/ a location for citrus growing, is a negligible factor
Fit
.",. — Wiiidlireak of evergreen tamarisk on tlie Yuma Mesa, 18 months
from planting
in this district, and should give the prospective citrus grower no
concern. In view of the great expense involved in the use of
smudge pots, as practiced in some of our older citrus regions, im-
munitv from frost injury is an item of extreme economic import-
ance.
Weather records kept at the Blaisdell Orchard from October,
1893, to June. 1987, are given in Bulletin 58 of the Arizona Agri-
cultural Experiment Station and are reproduced here in Table I.
The Yuma Mesa
229
TABLE I — WEEKLY MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES TAKEN
AT THE BLAISDELL ORCHARD
1893 Max.
Oct. 30 80
Nov. 6 91
Nov. 13 85
Nov. 20 79
Nov. 27 12>
Dec. 4 79
Dec. 11 83
Dec. 18 81
Dec 25 76
1894
Jan. 1 74
Jan. 8 69
Jan. 15 65
Jan. 22 71
Jan. 29 11
Feb. 5 74
Feb. 12 71
Feb. 19 72
Feb. 26 76
Mar. 5 82
Mar. 12 78
Mar. 19 95
Mar. 26 :... 84
Apr. 2 96
Apr. 9 95
Apr. 16 95
Apr. 23 96
.\pr. 30 101
Mav 7 95
May 14 105
May 21 100
May 28 100
" June 4 100
June 11 96
June 17 101
June 25 102
Julv 2 105
July 9 115
July 16 112
July 23 107
Julv 30 115
Aue. 6 Ill
Au£i. 13 101
AuEj. 20 107
.\ug. 27 lOQ
Sept. 3 1(^6
Sept. 10 o«
Sept. 17 103
Sept. 24 108
Oct. 1 110
Oct. 8 101
Oct. 15 99
Oct. 22 QQ
Oct. 28 91
Nov. 5 91
Nov. 12 91
Min.
50
48
45
40
34
41
44
44
42
38
32
30
33
30
2,7
32
29
31
33
36
46
34
49
50
54
45
55
45
57
52
57
59
53
60
61
61
67
7^
71
76
n
70
6S
75
60
64
60
68
68
58
62
58
50
53
46
1894 Max.
Nov. 19 84
Nov. 27 85
Dec. 3 82
Dec. 10 11
Dec. 17 65
Dec. 24 71
Dec. 31 66
1895
Jan. 6 11
Jan. 13 81
Jan. 21 IZ
Jan. 28 65
Feb. 4 71
Feb. 11 11
Feb. 18 76
Feb. 25 81
Mar. 4 86
Mar. 11 85
Mar. 18 79
Mar. 25 90
Apr. 1 97
Apr. 8 90
Apr. 15 101
Apr. 21 96
Apr. 29 94
Mav 6 100
Mav 13 108
Ma'v 20 102
Ma'v 21 98
June 3 95
Tune 10 104
June 17 105
June 24 109
July 1 110
lulv 8 107
July 15 107
Tulv 22 Ill
July 29 108
An?. 5 113
Aug. 12 112
Aug. 19 110
Aug. 26 106
Sept. 2 103
Sept. 9 105
Sept. 16 1C6
Sept. 23 104
Sept. 30 104
Oct. 7 96
Oct. 14 97
Oct. 21 93
Oct. 28 86
Nov. 4 93
Nov. 11 79
Nov. 18 87
Nov. 23 87
Dec. 2 11
Min.
42
47
36
37
Zl
41
46
31
1%
41
Zl
35
39
36
44
44
45
38
41
42
41
17
5(J
51
50
62
58
55
49
60
60
60
65
65
(^1
67
70
6S
71
12>
73
60
59
64
54
58
54
56
52
49
48
40
40
32
37
230
Bulletin 89
TABLE I — WEEKLY MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES TAKEN
AT THE BLAISDELL ORCHARD — Continued
1895 Max. Min.
Dec. 9 76 39
Dec. 16 82 43
Dec. 23 65 33
Dec. 30 65 26
1896
Feb. lO;.'..."..'.'..". .'. 68 38
Feb. 17 72 37
Feb. 24 85 42
Mar. 2 83 44
Mar. 9 92 45
Mar. 16 80 35
Mar. 23 88 48
Mar. 30 93 50
Apr. 6 101 47
Apr. 13 87 47
Apr. 20 90 40
Apr. 27 87 42
May 4 87 47
May 11 91 4b
May 18 92 50
May 25 97 58
June 8 105 57
June 14 100 61
June 22 115 67
June 29 116 63
July 6 105 64
July 13 104 53
July 20 108 80
July 27 103 73
Au'g. 4 102 69
Aug. 11 102 67
Aug. 17 105 69
Aug. 24 Ill 72
Aug. 31 101 71
Sept. 7 107 69
Sept. 14 104 70
Sept. 21 99 68
Sept. 28 105 58
1896 Max.
Oct. 5 100
Oct. 12 98
Oct. 19 99
Oct. 26 90
Nov. 2 88
Nov. 9 80
Nov. 16 76
Nov. 23 82
Nov. 30 84
Dec. 7 70
Dec. 14 77
Dec. 21 75
Dec. 28 71
1897
Jan. 4 74
Jan. 11 61
Jan. 18 70
Jan. 25 60
Feb. 1 72
Feb. 8 70
Feb. 15 72
Feb. 22 69
May 1 ' 73
May 8 80
Mav 13 72
May 20 72
Mav 27 82
Apr. 3 97
Apr. 10 94
Apr. 17 82
Apr. 24 92
May 1 97
May 8 97
May 15 94
May 22 101
May 29 99
June 5 109
June 11 106
June 18 105
Min.
52
54
59
57
54
45
38
52
45
36
38
40
40
41
38
40
38
40
42
42
37
36
35
35
37
43
47
56
44
47
50
49
54
58
53
62
60
56
From May, 1916, to the present time detailed weather recoids
have been kept on the Mesa by Mrs. Geo. M. Hill. A summary of
these records is given in Table II.
The effects of summer heat and strong winds are items that
should receive consideration in establishing a citrus planting; but
they are not matters that would prove detrimental to citrus grow-
ing in this particular locality. While the heat is quite intense
during portions of the summer, proper methods of pruning obviate
any serious difficulty from this quarter. Injury from winds has
been observed to occur only on the outer edges of the orchards on
The Yuma Mi^sa
231
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232
Bl'LLETIN 89
FiK. 4. — Windbreak of IOucal,\ ijtus on the Blaisdell tHius urcliard, :itj years
from planting
-2%%.
'■d^
•^^^
Fig-. 5. — Castor beans used as a temporary windbreak in a young citrus orchard
on the Yuma Mesa
Thk Yuma Mi-sa 233
the north and west sides, and is easily remedied by planting wind-
breaks. Two plants that have been found particularly well adapted
to this section for the purpose of windbreaks are eucalyptus (Euca-
lyptus riidis) and the evergreen species of tamarisk (Tamarisk articu-
lataj. The latter is very ornamental and if generally used would form
a most attractive landscape feature of the district. Furthermore,
it is easily propagated from cuttings, and on the Yuma Mesa has
made a growth of 25 feet in 18 months, becoming sufficiently large
to serve as a windbreak in less than two years from the time of
planting. See Figure 3.
SOIL OF THE YUMA MESA
The soil of the Yuma Mesa has been classified by the U. S.
Department of Agriculture Bureau of Soils as Yuma Sand. It is
probably of marine origin and consequently is quite uniform over
a large area. In common with marine soils it does not contain a
large total amount of plant food elements. The abrupt edges of
the Mesa left by the erosion of the river valley show some stratifica-
tion. Bands of shale-like clay of varying thickness may be seen
where vertical sections are exposed. It is not definitely estab-
lished to what extent these clay bands reach out under the Mesa.
At several points clay strata reach the surface, but dip ofif rapidly
again beyond the reach of an ordinary spade. Drilled wells have
encountered clay in several locations. The clay strata are often
strongly alkiline. With the exception of these bands, the sands
are deep and well drained.
The most striking character of the Yuma Sand is its highly
calcareous nature ; even the drifting sands and dune sands effer-
vesce strongly with acid. The lime does not exist as grains of
calcium carbonate, excepting to a small extent in the silt and clay
separates, but as a more or less uniform incrustation on all the soil
particles. This incrustation remains on the particles thru the
process of separation in mechanical analysis, and all separates
from the finest to the coarsest effervesce with acids. The incrusted
particles give the soil a characteristic appearance, which at once
suggests the name "tarnished sand." The lime content varies in
the vertical section, and usually a band of cemented soil a foot or
more in thickness is found at or near the surface. The surface
appearance of the Yuma Mesa is that of gravelly and sandy streaks
and patches alternating. By following the gravelly areas a light
automobile can be driven over the Mesa. Investigation shows that
the gravelly areas in a general way mark the places where the
lime cemented strata come near the surface. A vertical section
thru one of these lime cemented strata shows a mottled or marble-
like appearance, due to the cutting of limy concretions varying in
size from a wheat grain to a walnut. In places the lime becomes
so dominant as to form semi-chalky layers. These are hard when
dry, but soft as clay when wet. An explanation of the surprising
fertility of these seemingly barren sands may be found in the dis-
tribution of the calcareous incrustation over the surface of the soil
grains. This probably averages 8 or 10 percent of the total weight
The Yuma Mesa
235
of the soil. Associated with the calcareous incrustation occurs a
considerable part of the phosphorus and potassium found in the
soil, which would account for the ready availability of the mineral
plant foods present.
CHEMICAL COMPOvSITIOX OF THE YUMA SAND
In Bulletin No. 6 of the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, Collingwood reports the analysis of a sample of this soil
taken from Blaisdell Heights and compares it with an analysis of
a sample from the Fruitdale Tract, Fresno, California, made by
Dr. Hilgard. The analyses are comparable, having been made
from the same portion of the soil by the same methods of analysis.
In each case the "fine earth" passing 0.5 m. m. sieve w^as used,
and solution was effected by the same strength (1.115-sp. gr.)
hydrochloric acid. Analyses are given in Table III.
TABLE HI — ANALYSIS OF FRESNO AND YUMA HEIGHTS SOIL
Fruitvale
Tract
Fresno, Cal.
Blaisdell
Heights
Yuma, Ariz.
Insoluble matter
Potash
Soda
Lime
Magnesia
Oxide of iron
Alumina
Pliosphoric acid
Sulpluiric acid
Carbonic acid
Water and organic matter
';
%
78.91
84.30
0.82
0.64
0.29
0.32
1.14
4.57
1.58
0.51
7.51
1.07
6.30
3.28
0.07
0.07
0.01
0.01
3.73
3.28
1.50
The Fruitdale soil showed more acid soluble constituents, one,
however, to large amounts of iron and alumina ; whereas the Yuma
Mesa soil showed very much more calcium carbonate. In the
Yuma soil the sum of the lime and carbonic acid corresponds almost
exactly to the theoretical amount of calcium carbonate correspond-
ing to the carbonic acid. This indicates that practically all the
lime found in the acid soluble portion of the soil existed as calcium
carbonate. The acid soluble phosphoric acid content of the two
soils was identical, and the potash content corresponded quite
closely. The inference would be that the Yuma soil was the equal
if not the superior of the Fresno soil due to the association of its
plant food elements wath well distributed calcium carbonate rather
than with iron and alumina.
236 BuLivETiN 89
For the investigation which forms the basis of this report
two series of samples were taken : one set of ten for chemical
analysis and another of eight large samples for pot cultures and
physical tests. A few other samples for special determinations
were also taken. The chemical analysis was restricted to thr:
determination of acid insoluble material, of total potassium and
phosphorus, and 1.115 sp. gr. hydrochloric acid and 2 percent
citric acid soluble potassium and phosphorus. The results are re-
ported in Table IV.
6915. Small area of shale-like clay soil adjoining Hill's nursery;
possibly the same as the clay strata seen on the edge of the
mesa.
6917. Surface foot of sandy soil from center of Sec. 9; this layer
did not show lime concretions.
6917a. Second foot in same hole containing abundant lime concre-
tions.
6918. Average of first three feet avoiding surface six inches of
wind blown sand ; soil homogeneous to bottom of hole ; south
side of N. W. corner of Sec. 15 near the edge of a pot hole;
Project A.
6919. Tarnished sand from south of center of east of S. W. ^ of
Sec. 4 at depth of three feet. Surface was calcareous cemented
sand ; typical of the tarnished sands that make up the greater
part of the Mesa soil.
6920. Surface cemented sand from same hole as 6919. Fifty feet
away this same cemented sand occurred at depth of two feet ;
sometimes spoken of as hardpan, but disintegrates immed-
iately when moistened.
6922. First foot from a little N. W. of the S. E. corner of the
proposed experiment station tract. A small amount of lime
was seen near bottom of the hole at about three feet depth.
6923. Third foot from south of middle of Sec. 7, Project B. The
sand at this depth appeared slightly less tarnished than the
first foot, which was the typical tarnished sand of the Mesa.
6924. Second foot from same hole, containing some lime concre-
tions.
6925. First foot same hole ; typical of a large tract wdiich shows
less variation than the north end of the Mesa in Project A.
The material represented in 6915 is not important, since it was
niiled at dv near the surface in very small areas. It is a highly
calcareous alkaline clay which accounts for the low content of
msoluble matter. It is probably the most abundantly supplied
with mineral plant food of any soil on the Mesa, and when sufficient
water is available can be leached free from injurious amounts ot
alkali. It is omitted in averaging the composition of the Mesa
soils.
The Yuma Mesa
2Z7
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238
Bulletin 89
The remaining samples, which are all tarnished sands varying
chiefly in their content of calcium carbonate, compare favorably
with the medium and less fertile soils of the United States with
regard to phosphorus, but are very deficient in potash — a matter
that need give little concern since the Colorado water, as will be
shown, carries large amounts of water soluble potash. The aver-
age acid soluble phosphorus in 2,000,000 pounds of the Mesa tar-
nished sand as shown by nine analyses is 681 pounds, as compared
with 875 pounds shown by 262 samples of surface soils of California
according to Hilgard (Hopkins' Soil Fertility, p. 102). The aver-
age of the Yuma Mesa set is lowered much by a single sample
(6917) which contains only 419 pounds. The richest sand from the
Mesa contained 908 pounds. While the acid soluble phosphorus
content is not high, the citric acid soluble phosphorus shows a
large part of it readily available. An average of nearly one-third
of the strong hydrochloric acid soluble phosphorus is also soluble
in 2 percent citric acid, whereas it has been estimated roughly that
in humid regions usually only one percent annually of the total
phosphorus could be rendered available by practical cultural means.
In a few cases only about one-half of the total phosphorus dissolved
m 1.115 sp. gr. hydrochloric acid. The high apparent availability
of the phosphorus agrees with the rapid growth made by vege-
tation when sufficient water is supplied. This condition would be
expected in an almost rainless region where slow weathering has
gone on for ages with no leaching.
For comparison the average composition of the very sandy
orange soils of Florida is given in Table V.
TABLE V. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FLORIDA SANDY ORANGE SOILS
Percent
Percent of
the element
Elements in
2,000,000 lb. soil
Silica
Phosphoric acid .
Potash
Soda
Lime
Magnesia
Iron and Ahiniina.
Nitrogen
Humus ,
Loss on ignition.
93.82
.085
.039
.107
.295
.129
.760
.054
.64
3.11
.037
.032
Pounds
740
640
While the Yuma Mesa sand is quite similar to the Florida
sand with regard to phosphorus, it probably has a decided ad-
vantage with regard to easy availability of the phosphorus, since
The YrMA Mksa
239
the P'Jorida soil occurs in a region of abundant rainfall, and the
easily available jihosphorus would be leached out. The potash
content of the Yuma sand is several times that of the Florida sand.
FERTILITY OF THE YUxMA SAND
The average plant food content of citrus fruits is nitrogen .118
percent, phosphoric acid .054 percent, and potash .293 percent. If
we take 400 boxes of about 70 pounds each as a large yield per acre,
there will be required for the annual crop 33 pounds of nitrogen,
6.7 pounds of phosphorus and 68.1 pounds of potassium. A report
by G. Harold Powell, Secretary of the Citrus Protective League
of California, based on the practice of 271 ranches containing 8095.9
acres, showed the expenditure of $44.20 per acre annually for
chemical fertilizers and barnyard manure. Florida growers also
find heavy fertilization profitable. The waters of the Colorado will
in large part furnish the fertilizers which prove so expensive in
other citrus districts.
Table VI, showing the plant food carried in the waters of the
Colorado during 1900, has been compiled from Bulletin 44 of the
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, The River-Irrigating
Water of Arizona, by R. H. Forbes.
TABLE VI — COMPOSITION OF THE WATER OE THE COLORADO RIVEJR
Parts per Pounds per
100,000 acre-foot
Nitrogen in silt and water Average .274
Nitrogen as nitrates Average .079
Potassium soluble Average 1.51
Phosphorus in sediment
7.45
2.15
41.07
5.56
Since not less than Zy^ acre-feet of water would be applied
annually, the minimum amount of plant food added from this
source would be : Total nitrogen 18.6 pounds, of which 5.4 pounds
would be nitrate nitrogen ; potassium 102.7 pounds, phosphorus
12.9 pounds. A comparison of the crop composition with the plant
food content of the irrigating water shows the potassium require-
ment to be supplied in excess. The nitrogen requirement is about
one-half covered, but it should be mentioned in this connection that
much nitrogen would be supplied by leguminous cover crops which
should be grown to raise the humus content of the soil and im-
prove its physical condition. The phosphorus requirement ap-
|)ears to be more than covered by that carried in the silt but this
figure is somewhat uncertain for these reasons. The analysis
240
BULLF.TIX 89
Fig. 6. — Alfalfa used as a cover crop in the Blaisdell citrus orchard
', .^
Fig. 7. — <.'o\i'r criip of cnw i)eas planted in rows in Hill's citrus orchard on Yuma
Mesa. The land between the trees had received no water or cultivation up to the
time the trees were planted
Thk Ylm.\ Mesa
241
shows the silt in the river water itself and not the residue deliv-
ered to the land ; this amount is extremely variable thru the year
and the average found might vary widely from that actually de-
livered. The phosphorus content of the sediment would probably
be very slowly available. Based on these considerations, fertilizer
needs on the Mesa would probably be found covered best by light
applications of acid phosphate, stable manure and leguminous cover
crops — a relatively inexpensive practice when compared with that
in use in other citrus districts. See Figure 6 and 7 for cover crop.
ALKALI
Small areas of alkali occur in the Yuma Mesa, but are neither
so extensive nor will they be so difificult to handle as in the valley.
These areas are not readily detected due to the shifting surface
sands, but it is said they may be traced immediately after a rain.
Where alkali does occur it is probably related to the heavier soil
phases, such as the clay bands. Collingwood found the following
amounts of alkali in the clay seams exposed in the railroad cut at
Yuma :
TABLE VII — ALKALI IX CLAY SEAMS UNDER YUMA MESA
Sample
Soluble
solids
Sodium
chloride
Sodium '
sulphate
Sodium
carbonate
4 ft. beneath surface
8 ft. beneath surface
0.25
(1.75
%
0.15
0.60
% 1
0.10 '
0.15
%
trace
trace
The analyses given in Table VIII show the nature and amount
of alkali in a few spots that show surface indications of alkali.
TABLE VIII — ALKALI IN ALKALI SPOTS ON YUMA MESA
Sample
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
6915
6926
6927
Waaler
Calcium
soluble
Sodium
sulphate or
Sodium
solids
chloride
equivalent
carbonate
%
%
%
%
0.232
.004
.119
0.952
.032
.370
2.452
.400
.631
1.412
.840
.087
1.784
.572
.762
5.600
4.200
22.241
Sample 6915 was the alkaline calcareous clay described else-
where ; 6926 and 6927 were taken from strong alkali spots that had
developed after irrigation on the same tract from which Nos. 1, 2
and 3 were taken before irrigation. Further analysis showed 6927
to contain much calcium chloride.
242 Bi-LLF;ri.\ 89
Altho alkali spots do occur, the tarnished sands which make
up the greater portion of the Mesa soil are free from injurious
amounts of water soluble salts as shown by the analyses in
Table IX.
table: IX ALKALI IN TARNISHED SANDS ON YUMA MESA
Water
Calcium
soluble
Sodium
sulphate or
Sodium
solids
chloride
equivalent
carbonate
%
%
%
0.120
0.020
0.054
0.200
0.052
0.087
0.092
0.008
0.004
0.664
0.276
0.087
0.196
0.052
0.044
0.124
0.016
0.044
0.148
0.020
0.065
0.140
0.016
0.087
0.128
0.016
0.065
6917
6917a
6918 .
6919
6920
6922
6923
6924
6925
The results indicate the absence of injurious amounts of sol-
uble salts and the entire absence of sodium carbonate or black
alkali in the sands. Some apprehension has been expressed that
black alkali would develop from the action of irrigating water on
the calcium carbonate which occurs so abundantly on all parts of
the Mesa. The fact that almost without exception the soils tested
had the capacity to neutralize considerable black alkali, and that
the Colorado River water has a high permanent hardness thruout
the year, should remove any danger from this source. Sodium
chloride is also much in excess of sodium sulphate in the river
water and this has been shown to inhibit largely the reverse re-
action between sodium sulphate and calcium carbonate which gives
rise to black alkali. Some white alkali may rise from frequent
shallow irrigation, but can be leached back easily into the deeper
subsoil. Analyses show the alkali found in the valley to carry 1
part of potassium to 4.3 parts of sodium and the year's average of
the river flow to be 1 part of potassium to 9 parts of sodium, with
a much higher ratio of potassium during flood periods. White
alkali then becomes an important source of readily available potash
in these soils.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE YUMA MESA SAND
The soil of the Yuma Mesa when dry is for the most part
loose easily shifted sand, but when wet it resembles a sandy loam.
The dry appearance and the mechanical analysis are both some-
what misleading, due to the calcareous incrustations on the soil
TiiK Vr.M.\ .Mi".s.\
243
grains. 'I'his incrustation and the tine silt and clay particles which
are often cemented are not broken down entirely by shaking with
ammonia. Under the microscope the sand grains have a rough-
ened appearance and as mentioned elsewhere, even the coarsest
separates effervesce strongly with acid. The roughened surface of
the sand grains probably accounts for the relatively high w^ater
holding capacity of this sand. The mechanical analysis of a few
typical samples of the tarnished sand are given in Table X.
table; X — MECH.XNICAL ANALYSIS OF YUMA MEISA SOIL
Gravel
Fine
soil
2.0 m. m.
Fine
Coarse
Medium
Fine
Very fine
Sample
In diam.
gravel
sand
sand
sand
sand
Silt
Clay
%
%
%
1 % -i
%
%
%
%
6942...
3.8
2.3
3.5
7.7
13.7
30.3
29.5
12.9
6943...
13.3
8.3
15.7
24.7 ■
25.3
11.2
8.4
5.1
6944...
4.4
7.1
19.6
33.0
29.2
6.9
3.3
0.2
6945...
none
2.2
3.8
4.5
26.2
42.5
13.9
6.7
6947...
12.9
2.3
4.7
10.0
34.9
31.4
9.7
6.4
6949. . .
none
1.6
5.5
24.5
47.7
17.2
1.9
1.4
6922...
2,.7
14.6
20.8
36.3
19.3
3.1
1.9
6923...
1.6
13.7
22.3
50.7
7.9
2.5
0.9
6924. . .
1.6
9.1
18.8 1
45.8
17.6
5.8
1,3
6925...
2.8
12.1
16.0
41.5
21.4
4.0
1.8
Nos. 6922, 6923, 6924 and 6925 are the same soils described
under chemical coraposition.
No. 6942. Top foot of silt from the Colorado River water
mixed with sand as it occurs on the old Blaisdell Orchard. Cover
crops had been plowed under, but no recent manure had been ap-
plied. Orange roots were abundant in this layer half way between
the tree rows.
No. 6943. So-called hardpan of gravelly sand with some lime
concretions; about one foot thick, occuring as sub-soil beneath
6942.
No. 6944. Clean tarnished sand beneath 6943 ; containing few
orange roots probably due to insufficient irrigation to penetrate
the third foot.
No. 6945. Virgin tarnished sand betw^een the old Blaisdell
Orchard and Hill's Orchard. A little lime was noticeable.
No. 6946. Indurated sand with much lime from just outside
S. W. corner of Hill's Orchard.
No. 6947. Surface from gravelly area between the Hill and
Hibbard places; immediately overlying the excessively limy sam-
ple 6948.
244
Bulletin 89
No. 6948. Very limy material beneath 6947.
No. 6949. Blown sand from beneath creosote bushes ; found on
the surface on all parts of the Mesa and appears less tarnished than
the bedded sands.
The moisture equivalent and wilting percentage as determined
by C. A. Jensen of the Bureau of Plant Industry and given in the
engineer's report on the Yuma Mesa Project are repeated in Table
XL The following quotation is from Mr. Jensen's report to the
project manager:
"The moisture equivalent represents approximately the amount
of moisture the soil will hold 24 hours after irrigation, and is prob-
ably about the optimum. Some of these soils have the lowest
wilting percentage of any that I have ever seen. The difiference
between the moisture equivalent and wilting percentage repre-
sents approximately the amount of available moisture, that is,
about the percentage that a plant can get after an irrigation less
the amount lost by evaporation."
TABLE XI — MOISTURE EQUIVALENT AND WILTING POINT YUMA MESA
SOILS — BY C. A. JENSEN
Sample
Depth below surface
Moisture equivalent
Wilting percentage
%
%
1
4 in.
23.9-
13.0
2
18 in.
7.0
3.8
3
3 ft.
8.3
4.5
4
4 ft.
8.4
4.6
11
Surface
9.8
5.3
12
12 in.
4.2
2.3
13
2 ft.
2.5
1.35
14
3 ft.
1.54
0.85
15
4 ft.
1.75
0.95
No. 1. 2, 5, 4 are from the old Blaisdell Orchard in N. E. >4»
N. W. M S. 33, T. 8 S., R. 2Z W.
No. 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 are from 300 feet S. W. of N. E. cor-
ner N. W. Ya N. E. Va S. 4, T. 9 S.. R. 23 W. Of 6 samples taken
at different points of the Mesa, this sample was found to be, by
mechanical analysis, the coarsest ; i. e. it contained the lowest
amount of fine material.
Table XII gives the moisture holding capacity of the same
series of soil as was used for the mechanical analysis reported in
Table X. Only the soil passing a 2.0 m. m. sieve was used, and
the determinations were made with the soil packed in brass tubes
on the iron compactor in the usual way. From 2 or 3 to 24 hours
were required for water to rise thru the soil when the tubes were
placed under a water head equal to their height, about 10 inches.
Tine Yi'MA Mksa
245
Very little water drained off the tubes under the force of gravity
during the first 24 hours, and after that time almost none. If the
depth of water equivalent to that retained after 24 hours be com-
puted, it is seen that approximately 4 inches of water is retained
per foot of soil. The silty surface soil in the old orchard shows a
much higher water holding capacity. It would thus appear that
under ordinary irrigation, especially with a scant supply, the soil
would not be wet very deeply, even though it appears to be sandy.
The relatively high water holding capacity of these sands must be
attributed to the roughness of the soil particles, which in turn is
caused by the calcareous incrustation.
TABLK XII — PHYSICAL rROPERTlRS OF YUMA MESA SOILS
j Apparent
j
W^ater
Water
Water
1 Depth of water
1 sp. g-r.
when
retained ,
retained
retained in
i of fine
Wt. per
satur- .
after
per acre
one acre ft.
Sample
soil
acre ft.
ated
1 24 hours i
ft.soil
soil
Pounds 1
9f
i '/r 1
Pounds
Inches
6942...
1.380
3.758,050
28.2
37.5 t
1,033,363
4.6
6943...
1.497
4,075,582
23.1
22.7 !
924,157
1 4.1
6944...
1.540
4,192,650
22.7
22.3
934,960
41
6945... 1
1.405
1 3,825,112
28.1
27.1
1,036,505
4.6
6946...
1.412
3,844,170
20.2
19.9
764,989
3.4
6947.:.
1.398
3,806,055
25.1
24.4
928,677 !
41
6948...
1.351
3,678,097
26.7
26.2
963,661
4.2
6949...
1.582
1 4,306,995 1
20.5
20.3
874,318
3.9
The belief has been expressed that great difficulty would be
experienced in getting water to penetrate the silt that would be
deposited on the surface from the Colorado water, and, when once
through the surface blanket, water would sink very rapidly be-
yond the reach of crops. In the light of data recorded in Table
XII, and the incrusted nature of the said, these fears seem with-
out foundation. The soil, which in its virgin state shows good
water holding capacity, \\\\\ be improved by the Colorado silt.
Silt will probably be deposited at the rate of about .034 inches a
year, or 1 inch in 30 years. For many years this silt can be broken
and incorporated with the sand by ordinary tillage implements,
and for many additional years there will be the possibility of bring-
ing sand to the surface with power subsoiling tools.
FRUIT CROPS ON THE YUMA MESA
FIRST CITRUS PLANTINGS
Too much credit can not be given the pioneer citrus grower
of the Yuma Mesa, Mr. H. W. Blaisdell, who had the foresight to
realize something of the possibilities of this district for citrus pro-
duction and established here in 1892 an orchard of twenty acre*,
and eight years later another orchard of forty acres. Considered
in the light of actual returns, it can not be said that the orchards
have proven a financial success, but the plantings are of extreme
value and importance in that they have furnished sufficient evidence
to show that orchards operated under more favorable circum-
stances would be profitable.
Fig. 8. — View in ten-acre block of Valencia oranges in Blaisdell orchard on the
Yuma Mesa
A review of the methods employed in the handling of these
oichards shows that crops requiring clean cultivation were grown
between the rows while the trees were young. In later years the
practice generally followed was to allow sour clover, together with
a natural growth of weeds and grass, to cover the entire area
during summer. This was turned under in the fall or winter. The
present appearance of the orchard would indicate that Bermuda
grass and sand burrs have been allowed to encroach severely upon
Thiv Yuma .Mf.sa 247
the trees, in some instances entirely choking them out. When the
orchards were set about a pound of bone phosphate was applied in
each tree hole. This was supplemented by liberal applications of
stable manure to crops planted between the rows of trees. Furrow
irrigation was practiced, but very frequently the trees suffered
from a lack of water. During several summers they were injured
to such an extent as to cause their leaves to drop.
From a careful study of the orchards, and from information
secured from past as well as present owners and managers, it
appears that the failure of these plantings to yield profitable re-
turns was largely due to the following causes :
1. High cost of water, with consequent lack of sufficient irriga-
tion.
2. The absence of methods of culture tending to improve the soil,
particularly the growing of leguminous cover crops between
the rows of trees.
3. Absentee control, with frequent changes of managers.
4. Orchard trees being planted wider apart than necessary with
numerous vacancies being allowed to exist.
5. The use of too large a number of varieties rather than a few
standards.
6. General neglect, particularly during later years, in matters of
cultivation, pruning, and irrigation.
RECENT CITRUS PLANTINGS
In addition to the old citrus grove of sixty acres there are at
the present time on the Mesa eighty-eight acres of young orchards,
set in the spring of 1916. As evidenced by Figures, 11, 12 and 13,
the trees have made a very substantial growth. By actual meas-
urement the growth per season has averaged from two to four
ieet, which compares very favorably with the growth made by
young trees in older citrus regions. The methods employed in
the handling of these orchards are extremely simple and such as
would make practical the development of large areas. The trees
have been fertilized in some cases with stable manure, but no soil-
building crops have been grown, owing to the added expense of
supplying them with water. If water is furnished in abundance at
reasonable cost such crops can be planted between the rows of
trees, in which case a better growth of tree will result and the
matter of handling the orchards will be still further stimulated.
In order to determine the possibility of growing cover crops
on the Yuma Mesa, Mr. George M. Hill planted a small area of his
248
I>l-lij-:ti\ 89
Fij4. ;t. — ludi\ iduiil It-iiioii Uer on tlit- Yuma A1<:-^J;
Fig. 10. — Individual Mar.sh grapefruit tree on tiie Yuma Mesa
Thk Yuma Mesa
249
orchard to cowpeas, tepary beans, and peanuts, all of which made a
very substantial q;ri)\vth, see Fig'ure 7.
INSECT AND I'L.XXT DISKASP: PROBLEIMS ON THE MESA
A feature of the Mesa as a citrus district not to be overlooked
is its freedom from injurious insect and plant diseases. In the'
large citrus regions of both (California and Florida, the cost to the
growers in the control of these pests is a heavy expense — mater-
ially cutting down profits — which serves to emphasize the very
great economic advantage of a district where these control meas-
ures are unnecessary. It cannot be hoped that the Yuma Mesa
will always be entirely free from such infestation, but with the
rigid quarantine against foreign importations that is now being
maintained in the State of Arizona, it should be a long time before
any serious difficulty of this sort arises.
CHARACTI^R1S'1'ICS OV I'Rl'IT GROWN ON YUMA MESA
While it is commonlv known that citrus fruits attain the very
highest qualitN in an arid soil and climate, special efifort has been
made to determine if this in reality applies to the fruit produced on
the Yuma Alcsa, and if so in what way and to what extent. Repre-
Fig. 11. — Citrus orchard of George M. Hill on the Yuma Mesa, S months
from planting
250
BuijJvTix 89
Fig-. 12. — The same orchard as shown in Pigoire 11, one year later
Fig. 13. — The same orchard as shown in Fig-ure 11, two years later
VVM A Ml'.SA
251
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252
UrLLKTIN 89
Fig-. 14. — Washington Navel orange produced on the Yuma Mesa. (Thickness
of rind due to pulling before fully ripe.)
Fig. 15. — Valencia orange produced on the Yuma :\Iesa
TiiK Yuma Mi:s.\ 2S.^
sentative samples of the leadings varieties now growings in this dis-
trict were closely studied and compared with similar varieties of
other commercial citrus growing regions — particularly California
and Florida. Table XIII is a summary of the physical analyses of
Yuma fruits.
For comparison with the fruit of the older citrus regions the
physical analysis of the California Washington Navel, as given in
the California Experiment Station report of 1902, is given in Table
XIV. The figures represent the average of a number of samples
collected from the leading citrus districts of California. They were
taken during the latter part of November — one or two weeks later
than the Yuma Mesa samples.
It will be observed that in percentages of rind and juice con-
tent, the Yuma Navels are superior at this season to the California
Navels.
Table XV gives the composition of the fruit on the Yuma
Mesa as relates to sugar and acid content. This analysis represents
the average of two determinations; samples taken November 15.
FAULK X\" CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF YUMA MESA CITRUS FRUITS
Total Apparent Citric Cane Invert Total
Variety weight sugar acid sugar sugar sugars
Decrees
■ ■ : >:< '/, %
Washington Navel
orange 337.2 12.22 .57 5.99 4.16 10.15
Valencia orange.... 187.1 11.88 1.12 4.22 4.38 8.60
Mediterranean
Sweet orange 143.6 12.02 1.88 3.75 3.66 7.41
Marsh Seedless
grapefruit 323.4 11.34 2.00 3.68 4.18 7.86
Eureka lemon 147.3 10.17 7.04
Lisbon lemon 143.8 10.19 7.05
This analysis shows that the Washington Navel variety of
orange has attained by the middle of November a degree of ripe-
ness or of total sugar content of 10.15 percent, which, according
to Wickson, is .16 percent in excess of a fully ripe Southern
California Navel and exceeds by 2.70 percent the Navel as produced
m Florida. The percentage of citric acid in fully ripe Southern
California Navels, as given by Wickson, is 1.45 i)ercent and that
of Florida Navels .95 percent, whereas, the samples from the Yuma
Mesa orchard show only .57 percent. This low acid content, to-
gether with the high sugar content, establishes a record for sweet-
ness in the Navel variety of orange that is unsurpassed. The
V alencia, Mediterranean Sweet, and Marsh Seedless are not ex-
254 Bulletin 89
pected to approach this variety in sweetness during fall ; however,
they show a remarkably high percentage of sugar for the season.
The acidity and juice content of the Eureka and Lisbon varieties
of lemon are both high — as much so as could be desired in this
fruit.
In summing up the results of both the physical and chemical
analyses of the fruits in question it can be said that the excellent
flavor, abundant juice, fine texture of flesh, thinness of rind, high
color, earliness of maturity and freedom from blemishes combine
to give it a distinctive and unparalleled quality, presenting most
clearly a unique and enviable advantage which the Yuma Mesa
possesses as a commercial citrus district.
GENERAL ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF CITRUS TO
THE YUMA MESA
A\'hile there is much room for experimentation in the mattei
of varieties of citrus best suited to the Yuma Mesa, several of the
standard varieties have been grown for a number of years and
have already demonstrated their adaptability to the conditions
found in this district. Outstanding facts regarding these varieties
are as follows :
ORANGES
The Washington Navel, Valencia, and Mediterranean varieties
have all produced satisfactory crops on the Mesa and could be
relied upon under proper methods of culture and irrigation to give
good returns ; but of the three the Washington Navel appears to
offer the greatest promise to the commercial grower. Its early
shipping season, beginning in the first part of November, allows
this variety to be placed on the market in advance of fruit from
other citrus districts. The bulk of the crop could be marketed just
previous to the holiday season when citrus fruits are in greatest
demand. These facts, together with the high quality and general
popularity of the Navel, furnish the grower the very best ad-
v^antages of market, and consec[uently insure for him the very
highest prices. This variety has been known to produce an aver-
age of from five to nine boxes per tree in the old orchard, and
during the present season there are a number of individual trees
that are giving equally good yields. Another advantage of the
Navel is its early bearing habit, as much as 16 finely formed fruit
having been produced on two-year-old trees on the Mesa. See
Frontispiece. The \'alencia varict\- in the old orchard is carrying
TiiK Yuma Mksa . 255
a crop this year that will average from 6 to 8 boxes per tree for a
ten-acre block. Although excellent in quality and a good yielder,
this variety does not appear to lend itself quite so well to com-
mercial planting from the fact that it comes in later in the season
when the California croj) is being placed on the market in great
quantity. The Mediterranean Sweet has given good results in the
old orchard, and its season being only a little later than the Navel
should make it a very satisfactory variety.
GRAPEFRUIT
The Marsh Seedless grapefruit, universally considered the
leadmg commercial variety, has given a good account of itself on
the Mesa, and promises to become a very profitable crop for this
district. It is highly enough colored and sufficiently sweet to be
placed on the market in November, but as there is no special ad-
vantage in seeking out an early market for this fruit, it might be
allowed to remain on the tree until in absolutely prime condition,
(climate offering no obstacles), at which time it is of most superior
quality and commands a fancy price. The latter fact is illustrated
by the Los Angeles market report as printed in a February issue
of the Los Angeles Times in 1912 as follows :
Marsh Seedless grapefruit, local or Southern California, $1.75 to
$2.25 per box.
Marsh Seedless grapefruit. Northern California, $2.25 to $2.75 per
box.
Marsh Seedless grapefruit, Yuma Mesa, $5.00 to $5.50 per box.
LEMONS
Both the Eureka and Lisbon varieties of lemon have given
splendid yields on the Mesa, and the fruit has all the requisites of
a good commercial product, being particularly high in juice con-
tent and having a very thin rind. An outstanding feature of this
fruit as grown on the Mesa, is its freedom from discoloration,
which makes washing unnecessary. It has been noted that the
lemon as grown in this locality tends to produce the greater por-
tion of its crop in the fall — a time when the market demand is
rather low. However, there should be no difficulty in holding the
crop in storage thru the winter, as is practiced in many of the
older lemon districts, until early summer when it could be mar-
keted to advantage.
256
Bulletin 8^)
Fig. 16. — Grapefruit produced on tile Yuma Mesa
F\t^. 17. — Lisbon lemon produced on the Yuma Mesa
TiTK YiMA Mi:s.\ 257
In general, the varieties in the old orchard have given a good
account of themselves, when the adverse circumstances under
which they have been handled are considered. They give genuine
evidence of profitable yields that could be increased and made
constant with proper methods of culture and irrigation. In speak-
ing of this orchard the present manager, Mr. R. M. Moore, states:
'"We own two orange groves in California and earnestly believe
that the Yuma Mesa is the best location for an orange, lemon, or
grapefruit grove of any place in the United States, as samples of
fruit have shown us that there is none better grown."
OTIIh:R FRUITS ADAI'Tl-.D TO THE .M KSA
In addition to or in combination witli citrus fruits the Yuma
Mesa offers most ideal conditions for the commercial production of
a number of other fruits, among the most important of which are
dates, olives, grapes, and iig.s. Also there are a number of truck
crops that could be produced with profit.
D.\Tii;s
While the lower altitudes of the greater portion of southern
Arizona arc well adapted to date culture, the Yuma Mesa presents
special advantages in the growing of this fruit, particularly such
varieties as the Deglet Noor that matures late in the season. With
practical immunity from frost, together with relatively low humid-
ity during harvest (under which conditions the date palm ripens
its fruit to best advantage), afforded by this district, the Deglet
Noor and kindred varieties could be allowed to remain on the trees
until fully mature, becoming enriched to the highest degree in
flavor and sugar content. The knowledge that this world-famous
variety can be profitably produced only in specially favored regions
lends interest to the fact that the Yuma Mesa appears to possess
the proper requisites for its successful culture. While the Deglet
Noor variety is emphasized, this does not preclude the fact that
many other varieties would succeed admirably well here. As proof
sufficient that the date would thrive on the Mesa there are at
present a number of old, neglected seedling trees along the road-
side on the Blaisdell Orchard that bear heavy crops. At the low
estimate of ten cents per pound (fresh dates are now selling at from
twenty-five cents to one dollar per pound) it is easily possible for
the grower to make enormous net profits per acre.
258
BuLLiynx 'S9
OUVKS
The olive, like the date, is peculiarly adapted to arid conditions
such as are found in the Southwest, and should receive favorable
consideration as an adjunct planting on the Mesa. Its value for
both pickles and oil has become so fully established that the de-
mand for these products is permanently assured. With proper
handling this fruit should yield very profitable returns.
GRAPES
It is believed that the grape would give quicker returns on the
Yuma Mesa than any of the fruits, paying crops being produced
the second year from planting. Furthermore, the grape can be
Hii& ;^_ ,^ ..^m^
WF^
'*^''
^
ILm ^mm
_ * '
^"^^
msi^ ^M
' \% ., ' -• T.v''.'
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-4Jtr-r .,r>^- .■..^.. ,, .
!Bk^*'>'."-, ■'■: ,, ■
•
.-^^
;
-JiM
t
Fig. IS. — Two-year-old grape vines on the Yuma Mesa
relied upon to bear every year. Both the soil and climate are con-
ducive to the production of the highest quality European grapes,
nnequaled in point of earliness by any other section of the United
States. By planting early maturing varieties, such as the Thomp-
son Seedless, table grapes could be grown and placed on the mar-
ket in advance of the bulk of the grape crop from the older com-
mercial grape growing centers, and as a consequence command
the best prices. It is not only true that table grapes could be profit-
'Pi lie ViMA Mi-:s.\
259
ably j;ro\vn here to advantage, but very excellent raisins could also
be produced, as the absence of rain during the harvest season
affords excellent opportunity for curing the raisin crop. Grapes
have already been grown in a small way in this district, sufficiently
to demonstrate beyond question that the Mesa land will produce
a vigorous growth of vine and heavy yields. See Figure 18. The
grape could be interplanted between rows of citrus with good re-
sults, but it is believed that it is of sufficient importance to warrant
the making of special plantings.
FIGS
The Mesa is particulaily adapted to the production of the
Smyrna or dried fig of commerce. To produce this fig of the
Fig. ly. — Three-acie fig orcliard on the Yuma Me.sa
finest quality, thinnest skin, and richest sugar content requires a
warm, dry climate, such as is afforded by this region. Moreover,
the climate is such that the little wasp (Blastophaga grossorum)
necessary for the pollination of this type of fig could be colonized
permanently. Like the grape, the fig can be depended upon abso-
lutely to produce a crop every year, and the fact that our importa-
tions of Smyrnas are constantly increasing, the annual amount
averaging not far from 13,000 tons, is in itself sufficient indication
of the possibilities of a great industry under the favorable con-
260 Bulletin 89
ditions presented by this section. To successfully produce the
dried fig it is not only necessary that a warm, practically frost free
climate be had, but there must be an absence of rain during harvest
ni order that the crop may be dried successfully, which condition
is found here.
Evidence of the thrifty growth of figs on the Mesa is shown
by the condition of the three-acre orchard of Adriatic figs now
growing on the old Blaisdell ranch. Figure 19 shows a picture
of this orchard as it now stands.
TRUCK CROPS
The mild climate of the Yuma Mesa aflfords an opportunity
for the successful production of a number of the truck crops, par-
ticularly cantaloupes, tomatoes, and sweet potatoes. These crops
are well adapted to growing between the rows of citrus trees
while the orchards are young, and the fact that they could be
produced exceptionally early gives them a distinct market ad-
vantage. It might be mentioned that in the early years of the old
citrus orchard on the Mesa cantaloupes were grown between the
rows of trees and were found quite profitable.
While the crops mentioned above appear to have an out-
standing value as regards profitable production on the Mesa, there
are doubtless others that individual growers would find equally
satisfactory.
TiTK Yi-.MA Mksa 261
FIELD CROPS ON THE YUMA MESA
Field crops growing under virgin soil conditions were com-
pared with crops growing on land that has been under cultivation
for upwards of twenty years. All improved farms of the Mesa
were visited, and their condition noted. The native vegetation of
the Yuma Mesa also was observed and examined as an indication
of the natural productiveness of the soil. Much information re-
garding the results secured in the growing of field crops upon the
Mesa was secured from old residents of the vicinity.
The chemical and mechanical analysis of the Mesa soils are
reported upon in another section of this report, and will not be
discussed here. It is sufficient to say that the total amount of
plant food is relatively low, but the available amount relatively
high, consequently when water is supplied in sufificient quantities,
crops adapted to the climate of the Yuma Mesa may be expected
to grow and produce in a satisfactory manner. The soil is deficient
in organic matter, and also in nitrogen. As stated elsewhere in
this report, the irrigation water from the Colorado River carries
considerable nitrogen and a very heavy deposit of silt. For this
reason irrigation will build up these soils and the longer they are
held under cultivation and irrigated with water from the Colorado
River, the more productive they should become, provided green
manure crops are sufficiently utilized and a well regulated crop-
ping system followed.
On the Mesa lands near the Blaisdell Orchard in 1918 there
was a field of cotton of approximately 10 acres, on land said to be,
and appearing to be, virgin soil. This field was not uniform in
growth, but taken on the average it was a very creditable field and
was estimated by competent parties to yield approximately one-
half bale of short staple cotton per acre. Examination of the field
showed that it had not been supplied with sufficient water, as the
portions of the field along the irrigation ditches, and the portions
toward the lower side of the field, showed a more rank growth ot
cotton stalk and a greater quantity of lint. See Figure 20.
In another field near this same orchard, milo was grown in
1918 on soil that had previously grown one other crop. This field
likewise suffered from lack of water, and the stand was very thick,
but even with these handicaps, the milo made a creditable forage
growth. The yield of grain was light.
Reliable parties report that in previous times barley, oats, and
wheat have been grown with more or less success, but, mainly due
to the high irrigating costs, they were seldom profitable. It is
262 J;uij,i;ti.\ 89
reasonable to suppose from the character of the soil that a con-
siderable number of truck crops could be profitably handled, and
probably peanuts and certain of the vetches could be made to yield
moderate crops.
There is no question but that Sudan grass sufficiently irrigated
would return large yields of hay, or would supply a considerable
amount of pasture. Many of the common varieties of sorghum
can also be grown to advantage.
An engineer's report on this Mesa project, issued some months
ago, indicates that it probably would cost in the neighborhood of
ip/.OO per acre foot to deliver irrigating water to this land. Con-
sidering the fact that this land is comparatively porous and open,
and the climate dry and hot, it will doubtless require large amounts
of irrigation to give relativelv satisfactorv results with common
im
BI^^^^^M
V?.^.^--:^-U
\: .'.^ Civ;:.
'i«-4: '*■■*
W^r^ . ^#1
mv-*>- '*>
*<^^^
- .. ' N c«-
Fig. 20. — Cotton on Yuma Mesa on land under second year's cultivation.
held crops. It is very questionable whether any of the field crops
previously mentioned can be made profitable from the market
standpoint. They can, however, be grown by the farmer who is
living upon his land and developing a citrus orchard. Properly
handled they will be sufficiently productive to enable him to live
upon his own farm without being forced to buy expensive feeds
through the local markets, and by the use of these crops and the
use of alfalfa and various beans and pea crops, the farmer will be
able gradually to improve the fertility and the texture of the Mesa
soils.
In proof of the above statement, examination of the older por-
tion of the Blaisdell Orchard shows that the sandy Mesa soil has
Ijeen so thoroly changed by irrigation, deposits of silt, and the
The Yuma Mesa 263
decay of crops grown that the surface 18 inches to 2 feet now
appears to be, and is often called, a heavy adobe soil. Alfalfa
planted as a cover crop in this old orchard has done very well in-
deed, as is shown by one of the pictures accompanying this report.
Likewise cow peas have made an excellent growth. Sesbania, a
rank growing legume, has been used on the Mesa for green man-
uring purposes and it promises to be very satisfactory.
SUMMARY
The climate of the Yuma Mesa combines the smallest rainfall,
the lowest relative humidity, and the greatest percentage of sun-
shine of any citrus region in North America. This combination
and its freedom from injurious frost make the Mesa a most prom-
ising region for citrus culture.
The fruit grown on the Yuma Mesa is unexcelled in color,
quality, early maturity and freedom from blemishes.
The Mesa is now and probably can be kept free from injurious
citrus pests.
The Mesa is particularly well adapted to growing such other
crops as dates, olives, grapes, figs and early truck.
The Yuma Mesa, joining the main line of the Southern Pacific
at Yuma, is insured efficient shipping facilities.
While ordinary field crops probably cannot compete with simi-
lar crops grown in the valley, they can be produced in quantities
sufficient for home needs.
The total plant food in the soil of the Mesa is relatively low,
but its availability is high. Chemical analyses show it to compare
favorably with soils from the citrus districts of California and
Florida.
The irrigating waters of the Colorado River will in large part
supply the fertilizing elements which prove so expensive in many
citrus sections.
Cover crops which have been found desirable in the handling
of all orchards can be grown successfully on the Mesa.
In view of the findings set forth in this report this commission
hereby recommends that the Yuma Mesa be brought under irriga-
tion according to the plans proposed by the engineers of the Recla-
mation Service, and developed by the growing of citrus and other
sub-tropical fruits.
The University of Arizona
College of Agriculture
Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 90 t,.'.
Arizona grown long-staple cotton
Growing Cotton in Arizona
By G. E. Thompson and C. J. Wood
Tucson, Arizona, December, 1919
OFFICERS OF THE UNIVERSITY
BOARD OF REGENTS
Ex-Officio Members
His Excellency, Thomas E. Campbell, Governor of Arizona Phoenix
Hon. Charles O. Case, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. .Phoenix
Appointed Members
EpES Randolph, Chancellor Tucson
William J. Bryan, Jr., A.B., Treasurer Tucson
James G. Compton, Secretary Tucson
William Scarlett, A.B., B.D Phoenix
John H. Campbell, LL.M Tucson
Timothy A. Riordan Flagstaff
Edmund W. Wells ■ Prescott
Louis D. RickEtts, ScD., LL.D Warren
Agricultural Experiment Station
RuEus B. VON KlEinSmid, a.m., Sc.D President of the University
D. W. Working, B.Sc. A.M Dean College of Agriculture, Director
-^Robert H. Forbes, Ph.D Research Specialist
John J. Thornber, A.M Botanist
Albert E. Vinson, Ph.D Chemist
George E. P. Smith, C.E Irrigation Engineer
Richard H. Williams, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
Walter S. Cunningham, B.S Dairy Husbandman
Charles T. VorhiEs, Ph.D Entomologist
George E. Thompson, B.S.A Agronomist
Franklin J. Crider, M.S Horticulturist
Walker E. Bryan, M.S Plant Breeder
Clifford N. Catlin, A.M Research Specialist in Agricultural Chemistry
Francis R. Kenney, B.S-A Poultry Husbandman
W. E. Code, B.S Assistant Irrigation Engineer
A. F. KiNNisoN, B.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
R. S. Hawkins, B.S.A Assistant Agronomist
E. H. PresslEy, B.S- a Assistant Plant Breeder
H. C. Schwalen, B.S Assistant Irrigation Engineer
S. W. Griffin, A.B Assistant Chemist
*On leave.
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Fig. 1. Cotton should be cultivated as soon as the plants are through
the ground well enough to make the row Frontispiece
Fig. 2. Good plowing 267
Fig. 3. Poor plowing 267
Fig. 4. Volunteer cotton 271
CONTENTS
PAGE
Types of cotton 265
Seed 265
Land adapted to growing cotton 266
Preparation of land for planting 266
Planting 268
Thinning 269
Cultivation 269
Irrigation of cotton 270
Picking 270
Volunteering or ratooning 271
Topping 272
Fertilizing cotton 272
Angular leaf spot 273
Bichloride of mercury treatment for angular leaf spot 273
Cotton anthracnose 274
Root rot 274
Insect pests 274
Cotton in Arizona 274
Short-staple cotton 274
Summarv 275
'%:■>
mw
>x
GROWING COTTON IN ARIZONA
By G. B. Tlwinpsoii and C. J. Wood
TYPES OF COTTON
At the present time two general types of cotton are grown in
Arizona — the American Egyptian, represented by the Pima variety,
and the short staple, represented by the variety called Mebane's Tri-
umph or Mebane and others more or less similar.
American Egyptian is so called because the original stock, from
which our present strains were secured, came from Egypt. We are
indebted wholly to the United States Department of Agriculture for
the selection and development of the varieties now used in Arizona.
Fiber of this cotton is longer and stronger than the fiber of the varie-
ties commonly called short-staple cotton. The bolls are smaller, usually
having three locks or parts instead of five, as is the case with short-
staple cotton. In general the plants are larger and coarser, and the
shape of the leaf is different, making it very easy to distinguish the
two general classes under field conditions. The Salt River Valley and
the Santa Cruz Valley are growing but one variety of cotton — the
Pima variety of American Egyptian. The Yuma Valley and the Up-
per Gila Valley are growing principally short-staple varieties — Me-
bane's Triumph being the most important one at the present time.
The discussions of this bulletin refer primarily to American Egyp-
tian cotton. At the end of the bulletin those particulars in which
short-staple cotton differs from long staple are given special mention.
SEED
Great pains to secure the best possible seed should be exercised
by all who grow cotton. Seed of an inferior strain will result in a de-
creased yield and a poor quality of fiber. It is advisable for farmers
to buy seed for planting purposes from responsible cotton growers'
associations. At least one of these associations at the present time (and
others are preparing to do the same) make it a business through their
cotton experts to produce and sell high-quality seed to members of the
association. One of the associations now maintains, and the other as-
sociations should maintain, a separate gin for handling this cotton.
Cotton seed that goes through the regular commercial gins is certain
Acknowledgment: The authors of this bulletin wish to express grateful ap-
preciation to H. C. Heard, J. W. Longstreth, C. K. W^ildermuth, and others for
reading the manuscript and offering many helpful suggestions.
266 BuLLKTiN 90
to be mixed more or less with inferior seed, and its use will in time
result in decreased yields.
Those who have the time and who are especially interested in cot-
ton breeding may find it worth while to grow a separate small field
of cotton from which seed is selected for the following year's planting.
On this special field great care should be taken to rogue out and de-
stroy all plants of undesirable or inferior type and all plants that fail
to produce a reasonable number of matured bolls. In addition to this
general precaution, the fiber itself should be examined ; and if any of
the plants have produced fiber that is short and weak, they should be
discarded. The seed that is to be used for planting purposes should be
fully matured before the first freeze of consequence in the fall. Be-
cause early setting and maturing of bolls is very desirable in American
Egyptian cotton, it is advisable to select seed from plants that show
this character.
The average farmer in Arizona uses twenty-five to thirty-five
pounds of seed per acre when planting cotton. Although one-half of
this amount will give a sufficient stand if seed is good and soil and
weather conditions are ideal, still it is advisable to use the amount in-
dicated and later thin to the proper stand.
LAND ADAPTED TO GROWING COTTON
A rich sandy loam soil, well supplied with humus, is ideal for the
growing of cotton. Very light sandy soils as a rule do not produce
heavy crops of cotton. Heavy adobe soils are unsatisfactory because
of the trouble experienced in securing a good stand, and because of
the difficulty of irrigating properly. However, with good care, cotton
can be produced upon practically any soil that is suitable for general
farming.
PREPARATION OF LAND FOR PLANTING
Thorough preparation of the land for cotton pays, and pays well.
Cotton is a cash crop. A good quality of clean, strong fiber brings a
better price than fiber that is weak, dirty, or inferior for any other
reason. Well-prepared land will produce more fiber, longer fiber,
and stronger fiber than poorly prepared land. Cotton from a field that
produces a heavy crop is easier to pick and keep clean and free from
dirt and trash than cotton with small, poorly opened bolls. If land is
to be properly prepared for cotton, the preparation should begin sev-
eral months before the planting season. Coarse trash or other material
on the ground must be chopped fine and plowed under or otherwise
Cotton GRowixr. ix Arizona
267
Fig.2— Good plowing— the first step in preparing <a satisfactory seed-bed
Fig 3— Poor plowing— with such plowing as this it is impossible to prepare
a satisfactory seed-bed
268 Bulletin 90
put in such shape that it will not interfere with the cultivation of the
cotton plants. The ground should be plowed rather deep (7 to 8 inches)
as early as possible and allowed to weather till planting time. From
five to ten days before planting, the ground should be thoroughly irri-
gated. This time should be just sufficient to allow the ground to dry
out properly and be worked to a good seed-bed. Many farmers make
a mistake in the preparation of their cotton land by not having suffi-
cient moisture in the ground before planting. Water should be held
on the land long enough to insure its being wet to a depth of four to
five feet. Land left rough after plowing takes water better than land
that has been disked and harrowed to a smooth surface. Land that
has been irrigated when rough, particularly if it is of a heavy adobe
type, should be harrowed with a spike-tooth harrow as soon as dry
enough to permit of this treatment. This harrowing will save con-
siderable moisture, knock off the tops of large clods, and fill the small
depressions. The disk, followed by the spike-tooth harrow when nec-
essary, can be used to work up a satisfactory seed-bed. An ideal seed-
bed consists of about two and one-half inches of finely mulched sur-
face soil with a firm and moist soil beneath. It is not advisable to
plant cotton and "irrigate it up" because of the difficulty often en-
countered with the baking of the ground over the sprouting cotton
seeds.
PLANTING
The time of planting cotton will vary somewhat with the kind of
soil and with the locality of the State in which the planting is made.
Recommendations differ greatly in this regard, but the consensus of
opinion of the practical cotton growers is that the best time for plant-
ing in an average season is during the last ten days of March and the
first ten days of April. Farmers handling sandy types of soil can
plant one to two weeks earlier than those handling heavy or adobe
types of soil. It pays to plant as soon as the ground is sufficiently
warm to insure good germination and thrifty plants. Early plantings
when the ground is cold often result in a thin stand and weakened
plants ; likewise early planting in cold ground, particularly if the days
are warm and the nights cold, favors the development of the disease
called "sore shin." Late plantings do not allow sufficient time for
the plants to set and mature a large crop. The sooner the cotton can
be planted after the ground is well warmed and danger of frost is past,
the better the average results that will be secured. Cotton should be
planted as shallow as possible and still get the seed deep enough into
moist ground to insure good germination.
Cotton Growing in Arizona 269
THINNING
The thinning of cotton is a question on which the best cotton grow-
ers hold widely differing opinions. We believe that the distance to
which cotton plants are to be thinned should be governed largely by
the soil. Heavy, rich land will stand thick plantings of cotton. Thin,
light land should have cotton spaced relatively far apart. This thin
planting, however, should not be carried to such an extreme that the
land will not be utilized to its full capacity to produce. With heavy
rich ground some cotton growers prefer that the plants be from six
to ten inches apart. A few growers will prefer even less space than
this. The average cotton grower with typical cotton land of the Salt
River Valley will space his cotton from 12 to 18 inches apart in the
row, with rows 3^^ feet apart. On thin poor land it may be advisable
to increase the spacing to 24 or 30 inches. The purpose of thinning
cotton is so to space the plants that they may have light, air, moisture,
and plant food in such proportions that they will produce the maxi-
mum number of matured bolls per acre. Cotton given too much space
is very likely to produce a large, coarse plant, from which the branches
may be broken in the fall by heavy winds. Cotton given a reasonable
spacing can stand more drying or more severe conditions and still re-
cover than cotton closely spaced. American Egyptian long-staple cot-
ton should be thinned on the sandy light soils when the plants are from
four to eight inches high, and on the heavy rich soils when the plants
are from eight to twelve inches high. On the extremely rich soils
thinning can be delayed till the plants are fourteen to sixteen inches
high.
Time of thinning has a great deal to do with the control of vege-
tative branches. The development of vegetative branches is undesir-
able in American Egyptian cotton. Early thinning encourages their
development while late thinning discourages their development.
CULTIVATION
The cultivation of cotton should begin as soon as the plants are
through the ground well enough to mark the row, and be continued
every 10 to 15 days till the plants are too large to permit the use of a
regular cultivator. Sometimes the cultivation can be continued by the
use of a one-horse cultivator, especially in the wider spaced rows and
on heavy soils that tend to bake. Early cultivation checks evapora-
tion, warms the soil, and will kill weeds and grass at the stage at which
they are most easily destroyed. It will also eliminate much hand work
or hoeing. For the most part the early cultivations may be compara-
270 Bulletin 90
tively deep and reasonably close to the plant. Late cultivations must
be shallow in order to avoid cutting and breaking numerous cotton
roots.
IRRIGATION OF COTTON
The proper irrigation of cotton is the most important single item
in the profitable growing of the crop. Even though all other condi-
tions are right, if the irrigation is wrong the yields will not be satis-
factory. Over-irrigation stimulates plant growth, and to a certain ex-
tent prevents the forming of cotton squares and the setting of bolls;
while light irrigation encourages the setting of fruit and the dwarfing
of the plant, which are highly desirable especially in the earlier stages
of growth of American Egyptian cotton. However, this dwarfing of
the plant is neither necessary nor desirable on light desert soils defi-
cient in both nitrogen and humus. When a plentiful supply of water
is suddenly applied, following a period when the plant has been suf-
fering for water, it will cause a quick stimulation of growth and the
plant will shed or drop much of the young fruit already set. It is
best to withhold irrigation after planting as long as possible and still
keep the plants in a growing condition. Cotton will not be injured by
wilting slightly in the middle of the day, provided it fully recovers its
fresh appearance by late afternoon or early evening, and provided there
is enough moisture deep in the soil to encourage deep root penetration.
As long as there is sufficient moisture in the ground to permit trans-
piration to maintain the leaves in a cool condition during the heat of
the day, the plant is not suffering, but when the leaf feels warm to the
hand irrigation must be immediately supplied. After cotton begins to
bloom the moisture supply should be kept as uniform as possible.
Cotton should be kept growing steadily, but excessive growth should
be prevented. If examination during the blooming stages shows that
the vegetative growth has practically stopped and the cotton is bloom-
ing to the top of the plant, water has been withheld too long. In other
words, the terminal bud should be kept growing slightly in the lead of
the flowers on the fruiting branches.
Prior to fruiting the desirable method is to give as little water as
possible, forcing roots to penetrate deeply for soil moisture stored prior
to planting. The system changes after the fruiting begins, and the pur-
pose then is to maintain a thrifty and uniform though not rank growth.
PICKING
In Arizona, cotton picking is usually begun during the last half of
September. It does not pay to begin picking until sufficient cotton
CoTTox Growing in Arizona
271
is open to allow the gathering of 500 to 700 pounds of seed cotton per
acre at the first picking. In nearly all cases it will be advisable to
pick the fields two or three times before the gathering of the crop is
complete. Care should be taken in picking to see that no dirt, leaves,
sticks, or other trash gets mixed with the fiber. It is extremely diffi-
cult to separate the dirt from the fiber in a roller gin, and dirty cotton
always brings a low price. With short-staple cotton, leaves and other
trash can be separated to a considerable extent. Saw gins are used
with short-staple cotton.
\^OLUNTEERING OR RATOONING
The volunteering or ratooning of cotton for two or three years in
succession from the same planting was practiced in Egypt a good many
years ago, but has been abandoned there. It has been tried in this
IM^"^:^
f
Fig. 4 — Volunteer cotton (the 1919 crop from 1917 planting). Volunteering
cotton does not pay
State with varying results. The practice is to be condemned for sev-
eral reasons. In many seasons the volunteer stand of cotton is insuf-
ficient to produce a maximum yield. Usually the fiber produced from
volunteer cotton is shorter and weaker than the fiber produced from
cotton planted each year. In addition to these difficulties, the practice
of volunteering cotton favors the increase of injurious insect pests and
the development of troublesome cotton diseases. The practice has
much to condemn it and very little to favor it. It is only under the
most extreme or unusual conditions that the volunteering of cotton will
pay.
272 Bulletin 90
TOPPING
The topping of cotton, or the pinching- or cutting off the terminal
buds, has been advocated and practiced by many. as a means of pre-
venting excessive plant growth and as a means of stimulating the for-
mation of bolls. The results secured from this practice have been con-
flicting. In some cases, particularly on heavy rich ground, reports
state that the practice has been profitable. Up to the present time no
reports have been received showing that the practice is profitable on
medium or thin lands. Properly grown cotton plants should not re-
quire topping. Uncontrollable conditions, such as a high water table
or excessive rains, may make topping desirable. If topping is to be
practiced at all, it is recommended that it be delayed until about the
middle of August. Early topping, instead of checking plant growth,
may stimulate the production of vegetative branches if growing con-
ditions are favorable, while late topping ought to further the develop-
ment of bolls already set.
FERTILIZING COTTON
Considerable interest has developed in the last two years in the
fertilizing of cotton. For the most part the desert soils in Arizona
are deficient in nitrogen, and it is possible that on such soils nitrogen
fertilizers may prove beneficial. Experience indicates that desert land
that has been plowed and irrigated a number of times and brought
into a condition of good tilth will produce better cotton than similar
land that has received but little cultivation. This is shown by the fact
that the second crop of cotton on desert soil is often better than the
first crop. On old lands that have grown legumes for a number of
years, if any fertilizer proves profitable, it will be one containing phos-
phorus. Nitrogen fertilizers probably will not pay on such lands.
It is not advised that farmers buy phosphorus fertilizers or any other
fertilizers on an extensive scale until they have first tried them on small
plots in their own fields. Applications of 200 to 500 pounds of acid
phosphate per acre at the time the cotton is planted promise to give
beneficial results ; yet several farmers who have made small tests failed
to note appreciable benefits, and tests on the Salt River Valley Experi-
ment Station have so far failed to give increases in yield.
During the last year many questions have been asked regarding
the advisability of planting cowpeas in the growing cotton for the pur-
pose of increasing the available nitrogen. This recommendation has
usually been to the effect that the cowpeas should be planted about
thirty days after the cotton is planted, and then destroyed about the
Cotton Growing in Arizona 273
time the cowpeas are coming into full bloom. A more practical
method is to plant the cowpeas at the time the cotton is planted, as
this avoids the necessity of special irrigation to bring up the cowpeas.
It is claimed that the planting of cowpeas in this way has a beneficial
effect upon the growing cotton. In handling the cowpeas in this man-
ner, it has been customary to plant two rows of cotton and the third
row of cowpeas. We do not have accurate or conclusive information
regarding the benefit of planting cowpeas with cotton. There is con-
siderable evidence to prove that a legume crop may have beneficial
effects upon a companion crop, but whether it will pay in the case of
cotton remains to be proven. If cotton is planted in this manner, it
should be considered an experiment and an accurate comparison should
be made with the common methods of planting.
ANGULAR LEAF SPOT
Fortunately there are not many cotton diseases of serious conse-
quence in Arizona at the present time. Probably the disease that has
caused heaviest losses is one that farmers have observed but little,
even though it may be present to a considerable degree. This is a
disease called Angular Leaf Spot or Black Arm Disease of cotton.
This disease attacks the plant in all stages of its growth, appearing on
the younger plants as small dark angular spots on the leaves. Later
the disease attacks the stems and fruit, showing as darkened, shrunken
spots. Control measures are still in the experimental stage, but there
is evidence that control, at least in the seedling stage, can be effected
by careful treatment of the seed before planting. If treatment of
seed to control this disease is attempted, the following is recommended.
bichloride oe mercury treatment for angular leaf spot
Dissolve one ounce of bichloride of mercury in a small quan-
tity of hot water, then mix into seven and one-half gallons of water.
Dip the seed into this solution, stirring to make sure that it is thor-
oughly wet and allow to soak for one hour. Spread the seed out and
dry thoroughly before putting into sacks.
Do not dip more than three lots of seed into the same solution, as
each lot of seed weakens the solution.
Bichloride of mercury is a poison, and the solution should be
destroyed in order that people or animals may not drink it by mistake.
Bichloride of mercury corrodes metal and solutions of it must not
be placed in metal utensils. Wooden or earthenware vessels should be
used.
274 BuivivETix 90
COTTON ANTHRACNOSE
Cotton Anthracnose is a disease that has caused great loss in the
south, but Httle if any in Arizona. Importation of cotton seed should
be avoided, as this disease is carried on or within the seeds. No satis-
factory methods of controlling this disease are known.
ROOT ROT
Root rot of cotton is a disease and lives over in the ground from
year to year. The only practical known method of control on infected
soil is to grow for at least two years in succession some crop not af-
fected by root rot. Such crops are corn, the various varieties of
sorghum, and the small grains, such as wheat, barley, etc. Alfalfa and
certain other tap-rooted plants are subject to root rot and must not be
grown when attempting to rid the ground of this disease. Since cer-
tain weeds may be affected by root rot, deep plowing and clean culti-
vation are recommended as control measures.
INSECT PESTS
Due largely to the strict quarantine that has been maintained, cot-
ton boll weevil, pink boll worms, and many other troublesome insect
pests of cotton have been kept out of Arizona. It is urged that every
farmer within the State use his influence to help enforce this quaran-
tine. If insect troubles of any kind are encountered, notify at once
the Experiment Station at Tucson, or the State Entomologist's oface
at Phoenix. A complete discussion of cotton insect pests will be found
in Bulletin 87 of this Station, which may be had on application.
COTTON IN ARIZONA AGRICULTURE
At the present time (1919) cotton is the most important cash crop
in Arizona. It is unlikely that the present high price of cotton will be
maintained indefinitely and farmers should bear in mind that any system
of agriculture that is to be permanently successful must be well bal-
anced. Cotton should not be grown to such an extent that other crops
or livestock are reduced below a safe amount or number. It should
be the aim of every good farmer to maintain the soil at all times in
a high state of fertility and to this end an intelligently planned crop
rotation must be followed.
SHORT-STAPLE COTTON
Short-staple cotton will mature in a shorter growing season than
Cotton Growing in Arizona 275
American Egyptian cotton and therefore can be grown further north
and at higher elevations. The soil requirements and the preparation
of the seed-bed should be the same for the two classes of cotton.
Because of its shorter growing season short-staple cotton can be
planted one to three weeks later than American Egyptian. A smaller
amount of seed is required per acre — fifteen to twenty-five pounds being
sufficient.
The thinning of short-staple cotton should be done when the plants
are four to six inches high, and the plants are usually spaced from six-
teen to twenty-four inches in the row, with rows three and one-half
feet apart. With very rich soils, both the spacing between the plants
in the rt)\v and the distance between rows is increased.
The general principles applying to the irrigation and cultivation
of American Egyptian cotton apply to short-staple cotton.
SUMMARY
In growing cotton, good seed is extremely important.
A rich sandy loam soil, well supplied with humus, is ideal.
Early, deep plowing and thorough preparation of the land are
i
necessary.
The seed-bed should be wet to a deptli of four to five feet.
Plant early, but not until the ground is sufficiently warm to in-
sure good germination and thrifty plants.
The character of the land should govern the rate of thinning.
Cultivation should begin as soon as the plants are through the
ground well enough to mark the row.
Proper irrigation is the most important single item in the growing
of cotton.
x\fter planting, withhold irrigation as long as possible.
Prevent excessive growth.
The terminal bud should be kept growing slightly in the lead of
the flowers on the fruiting branches.
In picking, keep the cotton clean.
Volunteering cotton does not pay.
Report trouble with disease or insect pests to the Agricultural
Experiment Station, or the State Entomologist.
Do not allow the soil to become depleted ; practice crop rotation ;
maintain a balanced agriculture.
University of Arizona College of Agriculture
Agricultural Experiment Station
Twenty-Ninth Annual
Report
For the Year Ending June 30, 1918
(With subsequent items)
Consisting of reports relating to
Administration,
Agronomy, Botany, Horticulture,
Plant Breeding, Animal Husbandry,
Entomology, Chemistry,
Irrigation Investigations.
Tucson, Arizona, December 31, 1918.
University of Arizona College of Agriculture
Agricultural Experiment Station
LfBRART
NEW YORK
botaxjcal
Twenty-Ninth A^nnual
Report
For the Year Ending June 30, 1918
(With subsequent items)
Consisting of reports relating to
Administration,
Agronomy, Botany, Horticulture,
Plant Breeding, Animal Husbandry,
Entomology, Chemistry,
Irrigation Investigations.
Tucson, Arizona, December 31, 1918
GOVERNING BOARD
(Regents of the University)
llx-Officio
His Excellency, The Goveknok of Arizona
The State Superintendent of Puplic Instruction
.Ipf^oiiitcd by the Goz'cnior of the State
John T. Hughes. . . Chancellor
William J. Bryan, Jr., A.B Treasurer
William Scarlett, A.B., B.D Regent
Mrs. Madge Roberts Regent
Mrs. Bettie White Regent
H. S. McCluskev Regent
Mrs. Louise Foucar M.\rshall Secretary
J. W. Chapman Regent
Agricultural Staff
RuFUS B. von IvlEinSmid, A.M., Sc.D President of the University ; Director
Estes p. Taylor, B.S.A Assistant Dean, College of Agriculture
RorERT H. FoREES, Ph.D Research Specialist
John J. Thorneer, A.M Botanist
Aleert E. Vinson, Ph.D. Biochemist
George E. P. Smith, B.S., C.E Irrigation Engineer
Rtchard H. Williams, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
Walter S. Cunningham, B.S Dairy Husbandman
Charles T. Vorhies, Ph.D Entomologist
G. E. Thompson, B.S.A Agronomist
F. J. CridEr, M.S Horticulturist
Clifford N. Catlin, A.AI Assistant Chemist
*Artliur L. Enger, B.S.. C.E Assistant Irrigation Engineer
Walker E. Bryan, M.S Assistant Plant Breeder
C. O. Bond, B.S.A Assistant Plant Breeder
W. E. Code, B.S .\ssistant Irrigation Engineer
A. F. KiNNisoN, B.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
R. S. Hawkins, B.S..A Assistant Agronomist
Austin W. Morrill, Ph.D Consulting Entomologist
D. C. George Consulting Plant Pathologist
Leland S. Parke, B.S State Leader Boys' and Girls' Clubs
Mary Pritner Lockwood. B.S- State Leader Home Demonstration Agents
W. M. Cook, A.B State Leader County Agricultural Agents
A. B. BallantynE, B.S County Agent, Graham-Greenlee Counties
C. R. FillErup County Agent, Navajo- Apache Counties
De Lore Nichols. B.S County Agent, Coconino County
J. R. SandigE, B.S County Agent, Gila County
C. R. Adamson, B.S.A County Agent, Cochise County
H. C. Heard, B.S County Agent. Maricopa County
J. W. LoNGSTRETH County Agent, Yuma County
Leo L. LaythE, B.S County Agent, Pima-Pinal Counties
Agnes A. Hunt Assistant State Leader Boys' and Girls' Clubs
Edward B. OxlEy, B.S County Club Leader, Maricopa County
Hazel Zimmerman Home Demonstration Agent, Pima-Pinal Counties
Florence D. SandigE, B.S Home Demonstration Agent. Gila County
Amy L. DinsmorE, B.S Home Demonstration Agent. Alaricopa County
Flossie D. Wills, B.S Home Dem. Agent, Graham-Greenlee Counties
Grace I. Tufts Home Demonstration Agent, Yuma-Yavapai Counties
Louise SporlEdEr Home Demonstration Agent. Cochise County
Nora LamorEaux Home Demonstration Agent, Apache County
The Experiment Station offices and laboratories are an integral part of the
University at Tucson. The Salt River Valley Experiment Station Farm is
situated one mile west of Mesa, Arizona. The date palm orchards are three
miles south of Tempe (co-operative U. S. D. A.) and one mile southwest of
Yuma. Arizona, respectively. The experimental dry-farms are near Cochise
and Prescott, Arizona.
Visitors are cordially invited, and correspondence receives careful attention.
*On Ifave.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
To His Excellency, The Governor of Arizona,
Executive Department, Phoenix. Arizona.
Sir: I have the honor herewith to transmit t(j you the Twenty-
ninth Annual Report of the Ariz:)na As^ricultural Experiment Station,
of the College of Agriculture. L'niversity of Arizona, for the fiscal year
ending Jtme 30, 1918.
This report is made in accordance with the Act of Congress, ap-
proved March 2, 1887, establishing Agricultural Experiment Stations,
and the Act of Congress, approved March 16, 1906, known as the
Adams Act.
Faithfully yours,
R. B. VON KlEinSmid,
President.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Administration -''
Agricultural Experiment Station farms 278
Tempe Cooperative Date Orchard 278
Salt River Valley Farm 278
Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station 279
Sulphur Spring Valley Dry- farm 279
Personnel 280
Publications 281
Proj ccts 282
Financial 285
x\^ronomy 287
Salt River Valley Farm 287
Legumes 288
Field peas 289
Velvet beans 290
Table beans 290
Alfalfa 290
Corn 290
Sorghums 291
Wheat " 291
Oats 292
Barlev 292
Cotton 293
Miscellaneous crops 293
Prescott Drj^-farm 293
Sulphur Spring Valley Drv-farni 294
Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station 295
University Farm , 296
Acknowledgment 296
Botany 297
Weather conditions and the grazing range 297
Poison plant investigations 298
Publications 299
Notes on plant introduction 300
Plant disease studies 301
Scientific 302
Horticulture 303
Pomologv 303
Dates 304
A study in the culture and management of date orchards 308
A study of cultural methods with citrus fruits 308
Date propagation 309
Olericulture . .T 309
Irish potato studies 310
Spinach as a market crop for southern Arizona 311
Ornamental gardening 312
Special investigations 312
Miscellaneous 313
Plant Breeding 314
Wheat 314
Beans 317
Alfalfa 318
Grain sorghums 320
Animal Husbandry 322
Feeding vucca to starving range cows 324
Hogs . . ; ■; ; ;325
Fattening hogs on garbage alone 325
Two methods of raising registered Duroc-Jersey gilts 325
Garbage vs. grain for growing and fattening hogs 326
Feeding work horses on corn silage .... 328
PACE
Sheep ^29
The wool dip -i^
Marketing wool in 1918 ^^
Cottonseed cake for dairy cows 330
Instruction and executive work ■^^
Entomology ^^^
Zoology . ^^
Publications -^^
Chemistry • ^|^
Resistance of crops to alkali -^^
Miscellaneous Analyses ^5
Tempe Drainage Ditch ^
Alkali studies ^46
Date processing and marketing -> 34»
Educational and Extension work 349
Irrigation Investigations 351
Status of irrigation water supplies 351
An irrigation code 351
Caisson wells 352
Pump irrigation .••••: ,rf
Cement pipe for irrigation pipe lines • 354
Cement pipe failures 354
Method of testing cement pipe 356
Reinforcement for cement pipe 356
Tractor power on farms 356
ILI^USTRATIONS
Fig. 1. Robert Humphrey Forbes Frontispiece
Fig. 2. Cow peas— Salt River Valley Farm j^
Fig. 3. Club wheat and Early Baart wheat— Salt River Valley Farm 29^
Fig. 4. Papago sweet corn— Prescott Dry-farm 294
Fig. 5. Crack in 20-inch pipe line 353
Fig. 6. A cracked gate-pit -^^^
ROBERT HUMPHREY FORBES
Chemist of Experiment Station, September 1, 1894 to May 6, 1899; Director May 6,
1899 to February 15, 1918; Research Specialist, on leave, February 15, 1918,—
Twenty-ninth Annual Report
ADMINISTRATION
I'he period co\ creel by this rej^ort is one of particvilar interest
from an agricultural standpoint for it was during this time that our
country was engaged in the war.
Never before were farmers and stockmen of Arizona spurre^l
on for increased production as during this time. The dire need
of food and supplies for domestic consumption, for our troops
abroad and for our Allies, made agricultural effort a pleasure from
a patriotic standpoint. Prices of agricultural products have never
been better.
A rapid adaptation to the needs of the war period was effected
by those engaged in agricultural production in Arizona. The very
definite program of production outlined and advised as a result of
the Agricultural Mobilization Conference called by the College of
Agriculture of the University of Arizona, and held at Tucson on
April 20 and 21, proved to be the guiding plan of the farmers, stock-
men, and housewives during the year following.
Arizona farmers first set about the production of crops to sup-
port local mining industries which were producing war materials.
Agricultural and livestock products were also adopted which were
in greatest demand under the conditions of war and which were
peculiarly adapted to the State. In this class came Arizona wool
and cotton. Advantage was taken of the double cropping possi-
bilities of southern Arizona districts and a greater utilization of the
farming land was secured than ever before.
Wheat, the great war crop, has been liberally grown as well
as the grain sorghum crops so well adapted to the Southwest for
silage and emergency human food. Potatoes, beans, fruits, and
vegetables have entered largely into the year's agricultural output
during the w^ar period.
Livestock, including beef, mutton, dairy products, pork, and
poultry products, have been produced in quantity in spite of a
continuation of the drouth period which has made feed for livestock
scarce and expensive. The loss of livestock upon the range due
to shortage of forage has been serious with many and has greatly
emphasized the need of better range livestock management and the
growth of supplemental feeds and silage.
This period of continued drouth has also affected the dry
278 Annual Rkport Agricultural Experiment Station
farmer who is dependent partially or wholly upon rainfall. It has
also reduced the amount of storage water and stream flow for irri-
gation and made greater economy of water necessary.
During the period of this report, the most notable change by
farmers and housewives in methods has been in the direction of
economy and conservation. Remarkable agricultural achievements
mark the period in spite of the handicap of serious labor shortage.
Arizona agriculture, thus put to the test under the pressure of war,
has achieved results which would have been impossible otherwise.
The doing of things in new and better ways by farmers wall bring
permanent good to our agriculture.
THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION FARMS
A very complete description of the Experiment Station farms,
accompanied by maps of the properties, was published in the
Twenty-eighth Annual Report. Since that time various minor
improvements have been effected but no large developments have
taken place, due to the exigencies of war work and numerous
changes in the personnel of the Agronomy Department. Cultural
operations, as usual, have been pursued on the farms and are re-
viewed in the report of the Agronomist.
Several of the farms w^ere inspected and reported upon by com-
mittees of the Board of Regents. A resume of the reports of these
committees follow^s :
TEMPE cooperative date orchard
This property was visited by Member William Scarlett during
the harvest season of 1918. Mr. Scarlett found that no particular
improvement in the w^ay of buildings had been made ; that the crop
of dates had been profitable ; and that the farm was becoming able
more and more to take care of itself. Certain experiments looking
largely toward the production of seed from which dates can be
grown were progressing.
The conditions wdiich some time ago threatened the existence
of the farm and a large section of the farming community round
about, in the rise of the w^ater level of the valley, w^ere being cor-
rected by a drainage ditch and, apj^arently, that danger had largely
passed. The date crop appeared not to have been aft'ected.
SALT RIVER valley FARM
The University Experiment Farm near Mesa also was visited
by Mr. Scarlett. He reported that extensive experiments in the
growing of peas and beans for fodder and as renewers of the soil
UxiviiRSiTY OF Arizona 279
had been carried on in the course of the year. Valuable experi-
ments regarding- the spacing of cotton plants had led to conclusions
that will be of great benefit to the future cotton industry of the
Valley. The people of the Valley more and more had been making
use of the farm. Every day numerous telephone calls had been
received and visitors averaged three or four daily. The farm was
found to be answering more and more the purpose for which it had
been created — a demonstration-experiment farm for the Valley. In
the course of the year there had been several improvements on the
farm. A 120-ton capacity silo had been erected ; a new metal grain
bin had been installed; new wagon scales purchased, and a small
cottage erected. Much new machinery had been bought in the
course of the vear and the mechanical side of the farm was first
class.
The needs of the farm were a central cottage for the foreman,
a barn for machinery, and a shed for storing hay. Otherwise, the
farm was in excellent condition and numerous experiments of
various kinds were going on. It was suggested that all experi-
ments bordering the highway be clearly marked so that people
going by might understand exactly what was taking place.
YUMA DATK ORCHARD AND HORTICULTURAL STATION
This property was visited December 14, 1918, by Member
Bettie White. Mrs. White reported a marked degree of efficiency
in the management of this station. Not only the date orchard, but
various other phases of work, such as the winter garden, rotation
of crops, etc., showed ability, energy, and foresight. The station
was admirably located, having fine Warrenite roads on two sides.
The work was proving of great value to the surrounding country
as numbers of persons seeking information call at the station almost
daily. The improvements were in good condition with the excep-
tion of a shed used as a barn. This was reported to be of little
value as a means of protection to stock and detracted materially
from the otherwise pleasing appearance of the grounds.
The limited acreage seemed unfortunate to the committee, there
being but 13 acres in the tract. The purchase of additional land
was recommended.
THE SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY DRY-EARM
This farm was also visited by Member White December 21,
1918. Seventy of the 160 acres were found in cultivation. All land
provements were found to include a comfortable, seven-roomed
was enclosed with barbed wire and rabbit-proof fences. The im-
280 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
residence and other necessary farm buildings ; a well, equipped with
a splendid pump and pump house ; two silos of 47 tons capacity-
each, one built in 1916, the other in 1918. The farm was well
equipped with stock and implements. Tests were being made in
growing wheat, barley, oats, and sweet clover. About three acres
were in orchard, 3 years old, containing apples, pears, peaches, apri-
cots, nectarines, and six varieties of grapes. The culture of tepary
beans was found to be, perhaps, the most successful test that has
been made on the farm. This crop was planted July, 1916, har-
vested October, 1916, and yielded a net profit of $37.89 per acre.
Mr. Spaulding, who had been on the farm about three years, m-
formed the committee that thus far no experiments in dry-farming,
unaided by some irrigation, had proved sufficiently profitable to
warrant advising prospective farmers to rely on dry-farming as a
means of support ; however, he called attention to the fact that the
well on the farm was only 100 feet deep and had been drilled to the
third stratum of water. The supply of water was sufficient for
domestic purposes and with the rainfall would irrigate ten acres.
The number of visitors at this farm was limited. This was be-
lieved to be due to two facts ; the thinly populated section in which
the farm is located and the narrow limits within which experiments
have been carried on.
On both the Yuma Date Orchard and the Sulphur Spring Val-
ley Dry-farm failures as well as successes had been met in experi-
mental work. This was forcibly illustrated by an immense date
pa^m in the Yuma Orchard. The tree was large and laden with
fruit, but the quality rendered is of no value. In closing, the com-
mittee reported :
We believe that failures demonstrate facts of as much value as
the successful work. The "danger signal" is as necessary as the
"sign board" that points to the path of safety ; hence, we consider
the work on the experimental farms, under efficient management,
of inestimable value and believe the money thus spent by the State
is a wise investment.
PERSONNEL
The Administration and Stafif of the Experiment Station has
suffered numerous changes during the fiscal year. Director R. H.
Forbes, after more than twenty years efficient and devoted service
as Chemist, Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, and
Dean of the College of Agriculture, has been appointed Research
Specialist on leave so that his wide experience and exact knowledge
University of x\rizona 281
of semi-arid, subtropical agriculture might be made available to
one of our Allies. Director Forbes has taken charge of experi-
mental work for the Societe Sultanienne D'Agriculture at Cairo,
Egypt. Without doubt this cooperation between two countries
with almost identical cultural conditions will result in great mutual
benefit.
Following the resignation of Director Forbes, the President of
the University assumed the duties of Dean and Director of the
College of Agriculture.
The Department of Agronomy has lost Mr. H. C. Heard, As-
sistant Agronomist, who has conducted the work of the department
since the resignation of Dr. Macfarlane. Mr. Heard has been
appointed County Agricultural Agent for Maricopa County. In
May Professor G. E. Thompson was appointed Agronomist in
charge of the department. The Department of Horticulture has
lost Mr. S. B. Johnson, Assistant Horticulturist, who has entered
commercial work. June 1 Professor F. J. Crider, Horticulturist,
took charge of the department..
Minor changes have taken place in other departments and at
several of the Experiment Station farms. Mr. H. E. Webber, assist-
ant in Plant Breeding, resigned to enter military service, and Mr.
C. O. Bond has been ai)pointed to the position. Mr. C. R. Adamson,
assistant in Animal Husbandry, has resigned to become County
Agricultural Agent for Cochise County. After the resignation of
Mr. F. H. Simmons, foreman of the Tempe Date Orchard, Mr. W.
O. Hodgson was placed in charge to market the crop. Mr. G. F.
Williams succeeded Mr. Hodgson in this position when Mr. Hodg-
son was appointed foreman of the University Farm at Tucson, left
vacant by the resignation of Mr. J. B. McGuf^n. This position he
later resigned to enter Y. M. C. A. war work. Mr. G. J. Darling
succeeded as foreman of the University Farm. At the Prescott
Dry-Farm, Mr. T. F. Wilcox was appointed foreman. Changes in
the personnel of the Extension Service are noted in the report of
the Director.
PUBLICATIONS
Publications by the Experiment Station Staff for the year, in-
cluding Annual Reports, Bulletins, Timely Hints for Farmers, and
Scientific and Technical Papers are as follows :
Bulletin 81, November 15, 1917. How to Combat Rabbits, Gophers, Prairie
Dogs, Coyotes, Ants, and Grasshoppers.
—By Arthur L. Paschall
Bulletin 82, December 1, 1917. Johnson Grass Control. —By H. C. Heard
282 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin 83, December 20, 1917. Poisonous Animals of the Desert.
—By Charles T. Vorhies
Twenty-eighth Annual Report, December 31, 1917. —By the Station Staff
Bulletin 84, February 1, 1918. Dry-Farming in Arizona.
—By A. M. McOmie and Others
Bulletin 85, March 1, 1918. A Study of Marketing Conditions in the Salt River
Valley. — By J. H. Collins
Timely Hints for Farmers:
No. 127. Julv 15, 1917. Raising Dairy Calves. —By W. S. Cunningham
No 128. August 15, 1917. Head Lettuce Growing in Southern Arizona.
— By S. B. Johnson
No. 129. September 15, 1917. Curing Meat on the Farm.
_By R. H. Williams
No. 130. October 15, 1917. How Much Seed to Sow. —By S. B. Johnson
No 131. November 15, 1917. Sanitary Water Supply for the Home.
—By J. J. Thornber
No. 132 December 15, 1917. Hairy Peruvian Alfalfa. —By W. E. Bryan
No. 133. January 1, 1918. A Little Farm Well-Tilled. —By R. H. Forbes
No. 134. January 15, 1918. Unproductive Soils, Their Cause and Management.
—By A. E. Vinson
No 135. February 1, 1918. Soapwecd or Palmilla (Yucca data) as Emer-
gency Forage. —By J. J. Thornber
Scientific and Technical Papers :
Notes on the Fauna of Great Salt Lake.
American Naturalist, August, 1917. —By Charles T. Vorhies
Grading Land for Furrow Irrigation. Western Engineering, IX, 1 Jan. 1918.
—By G. E. P. Smith
PROJECTS
The projects listed in the Twenty-eighth Annual Report for
the- year 1917-1918 have been continued, or completed and several
new projects have been approved. The list of projects approved
for the year 1918-1919 follows.
1. Groundwater supplies and pump irrigation in the Casa Grande Valley.
State fund. G. E. P. Smith.
2. A study of pumping machinery to determine fundamental facts relating
to the action and efficiencv of various types of pumping machinery.
Adams fund. G. E. P. Smith.
3. The relation of evaporation rate to the duty of water; and the study
of the factors controlling evaporation.
Adams fund. G. E. P. Smith.
4. A study of the culture and management of date orchards with special
reference to the improvement of the yield and quality of the fruit and the
rooting of offshoots.
State fund. F. J. CridEr.
5. A study of the cultural methods with citrus fruits.
Hatch fund. F. J. CridER.
6. A study of the effect of different methods of orchard management on
the growth, yield, and size of the fruit of the olive.
Hatch fund. F. J. Crider.
7. A study of conditions affecting the production of fall Irish potatoes
in southern Arizona.
State Horticultural and Hatch funds. F. J. Crider.
8. A study of spinach as a market garden crop for southern Arizona.
State Horticultural fund. F. J. CridEr.
9. A study of cultural and storage methods of the sweet potato.
State and Hatch funds. F. J. Crider.
F.
J-
Crider.
F.
J-
Crider.
F.
J-
Crioer.
University of Arizona 283
10. Miscellaneous liorticultural studies including stone fruits, citrus fruits,
vine fruits, small fruits, pomes, nuts, nursery stock, ornamentals, vegetables, etc
State and I'niversity of Arizona Maintenance funds. F. J. CridEr.
11. Student practice garden and greenliouse laboratory. University Campus.
State Maintenance fund. F. J. Crider.
12. An intensive quarter acre garden plat at Yuma Experirtient Farm.
State Horticultural fund. — - -
13. The same as Project 9. At Cocliise Dry-Farm.
Cochise Dry-Farm and General Farm fund.
14. The same as Project 9. At Prescott Dry-Farm.
Prescfitt Dry-Farm and General Dry-Farm fund.
15. The production by plant breeding methods of a superior variety of
alfalfa, free, if possible, from the liairiness and stemmy character of Peruvian
alfalfa. Methods of determining the water requirements of different varieties
of alfalfa; and tlie biological analysis of alfalfa into its hereditary units with
manipulation of these units in constructive breeding, is within the scope of
this study.
Adams, State Plant Introduction and Breeding funds. W. E. Brv.an.
16. The hybridization and selection for Arizona conditions of a superior
grain sorghum combining, if possible, the following characters : large, upright
head; uniform ripening; upright stalk; dwarf habit; earliness ; drought resist-
ance ; and large individual grains.
State Plant IntroducticMi and Breedin'? fund. W. E. Bryan.
17. A physiological and biological study of southwestern varieties of Indian
corn to determine heat and drought resistant characters; and biological analysis
of these corns with a view to the use of hereditary characters in constructive
plant breeding operations.
Adams fund. W. E. Bry.^n.
18. The biological analysis of the genus Phaseolus and the improvement of
varieties of beans by selective breeding. This project includes the improvement
of Tepary beans.
Adams, and State Plant Introduction and Breeding funds. W. E. Bryan.
19. A study and comparison of durum, poulard, and bread wheats with
biological analysis and constructive breeding operations for the purpose of devel-
oping a bread wheat which will retain its hardness under southwestern conditions.
Adams, and State Plant Introduction and Breeding funds. W. E. Bryan.
20. The production by crossing, selection, and inbreeding of Deglet Noor
dates which will be of high quality and ripen naturally under Arizonan conditions.
State Date Orcliard funds. W. E. Bryan.
21. Study of rodent control on grazing ranges.
Adams fund. C. T. Vorhies-
22. Development of a collection of economic insects.
Hatch fund. C. T. Vorhies.
23. Economic studv of grasses and grass-like plants.
Hatch fund. J. J. Thornber.
24. Botanical and economical study of poison range plants.
Hatch fund. _ J. J. Thorneer.
25. A study of range grass improvement through fencing.
Hatch fund.' J. J. ThornbEr.
26. Tamarisks for growing in alkaline soils.
Hatch, and State Plant Introduction funds. _ J. J. Thorneer.
27. A study of certain mulberries with reference to fruit production, the
quality of fruit and its possible use in the home or in the yard.
Hatch, and Plant Introduction and Breeding funds. J. J. Thornber.
28. To determine the practicability of growing pistach trees and nut trees in
the Southwest.
Hatch, and Plant Introduction and Breeding funds. J. J. Thornber.
29. Native wild fruits and nuts as stock for grafting purposes.
Hatch, and Plant Introduction and Breeding funds. J. J. Thornber.
30. Experiments in the growing of jujube nuts under our conditions.
Hatch, and Plant Introduction and Breeding funds. J. J. ThornbEr.
284 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
31. A study of trees and shrubs suitable for ornamentation, wind-break,
and shade at the following locations :
(a) Prescott Dr\'-Farm, Prescott.
(b) Cochise Dry-Farm, Cochise.
(c) Tempe Date Palm Orchard, Tempe.
(d) University Farm, Tucson.
Hatch fund. J. J. Thorxeer.
32. Identitkation and studies of the life histories of certain fungi causing
rot in date fruits.
Adams fund. J.G.Brown.
33. Feeding dry farm silage to range cattle to study the effectiveness of
this ration for carrying cattle over short range.
Hatch fund. R. H. Wjlli.\ms
W. S. Cunningham
3\. Economic combinations of high and low-priced feeds for meat pro-
duction.
Hatcli fund. R. H. Williams
W. S. Cunningham
35. A study of livestock management on the range ; the present status of
livestock production on the range.
Hatch fund. R. H. Williams,
W. S. Cunningham.
36. Systems of livestock farming; the coordination of livestock farming
into units best suited for results, including: (1) Sheep raising on irrigated farms
in Arizona; (2) Hog raising on Arizona farms; (3) A combination of hogs,
beef cattle, and poultry on irrigated land; (4) Special cattle and sheep feeding
operations.
Salt River A'alley Farm Maintenance fund. R. H. Williams,
W. S. Cunningham.
37. Lambing ewes on irrigated farms; to ascertain the ration best suited
for feeding range ewes during the lambing period in irrigated valleys.
Salt River Valley Farm Maintenance fund. R. H. Williams,
W. S. Cunningham.
38. Supplements to silage for wintering range cattle at the Cochise Dry-
Farm. Cochise Dry-Farm fund. R. H. Williams,
W. S. Cunningham.
39. Cooperative crop experiments en farmers' lands, dry-farming fund.
G. E. Thompson.
40. A continuation of study at the Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm fund. G. E. Thompson.
41. A continuation of study at the Prescott Dry-Farm.
General Dry-Farm and Prescott Dry-Farm funds G. E- Thompson,
42. A study of culture and varieties of legumes adapted to southwestern
conditions.
Salt River Valley Farm and Hatch funds. G. E. Thompson,
43. A study of the varieties and methods of culture of Indian corn and
the various sorghums.
Salt River Valley Farm and Hatch funds. G. E. Thompson,
44. The culture and field nvanagement of Egyptian cotton.
Salt River Valley Farm, Yuma Date Orchard, and Hatch funds.
G. E. Thompson.
45. The culture and management of winter and spring grains, including
wheat, oats, and barley.
Salt River Valley Farm and Hatch funds. G. E. Thompson.
46 Effect of dynamiting field soil on field crops.
General Dry-Farm fund. G. E. Thompson.
47. A varietal and cultural test of grain and forage crops and of grasses
and miscellaneous crops.
Salt River ^'alley Farm fund. G. E. Thompson.
48. Grasshopper control.
Hatch fund. A. W. Morrill.
University of Arizona
285
49. Cotton square staincr or tarnislicd plant bug control.
1 latcli fund. A. W. Morrill.
50. Ozoniuni root disease of cotton and other crops. Occurrence, life
history, and methcds of control of the disease.
Adams fund. D. C. George.
51- Gummosis of stone fruit trees. Occurrence, causes and methods of
control of this disease.
Hatch fund. D. C. George,
52. Effect of weather conditions on processing and pasteurizing dates.
State, Hatch, and Date Orchard Sales funds. A. E. Vinson,
C. N. Catlin.
53. Alkali soil studies. Concomitant soil conditions that affect the toxicity
of black alkali and means for the amelioration of the effects of alkali on soil
and plant.
Adams fund. A. E. Vinson, C. N. Catlin.
54. Miscellaneous routine chemical analyses.
Adams fund. A. E. Vinson, C. N. Catlin.
55. Reclamation of alkali land at the University Farm.
University Farm Maintenance Fund A. E. Vinson, C. N. Catlin.
56. Meteorological observations.
llatcli funds. C. N. Catlin,
FIX.\XCI.\L
Increased costs incident to our entering the war have necessi-
tated extreme economy and the curtaihnent of much work that had
been planned. The resources of the Station for the fiscal year,
1918-1919, remain the same as reported in the Twenty-eighth An-
nual Report U)v the hiennium beginning July 1, 1917, as follows:
Colleee cf Agrvicultvre ar.d Experiment Station
Instruction
Administration
Improvements
Greenhouse for agriculture
Extension Service (not Smith-Lever)
(with " " )
University of Arizona Farm — Maintenance. . . .
" " ■ — Improvements...
Dry-Farming Investigations — Maintenance. . . .
■ — Improvements . . .
Plant Introduction and Breeding Investigations
Tempe Date Orchard — Maintenance
" " " • — Improvements
Underflow Investigations
Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station
— Maintenance
— Improvements
Salt River Valley Farm Fund — Maintenance..
.Agricultural Printing
1917-18
; 3,650.00 i.
7,500.00 i.r.
5,450.00 i.r.
1,000.00 e
4,574.59 e
11,850.001.
2,300.00 i.
10,140.00 r.
500.00 r.
3,000.00 r.
2,330.00 r.
600.00 r.
2,400.00 r.
2,600.00 r.
675.00 r.
10,000.00 r.
4,000.00 i.r.
Total I $72,569.59
1918-19
$ 3,650.00 i.
7,500.00 i.r.
5,450.00 i.r.
2,500.00 i.r.
1,000.00 e
6,004.15 e
11,850.001.
2,300.00 i.
10,140.00 r.
3,000.00 r.
1,770.00 r.
600.00 r.
2,400.00 r.
2,600.00 r.
400.00 r.
10,000.00 r.
4,000.00 i.r.
$75.164.15
Those items marked / are intended primarily for instructional
purposes : those marked r are intended for the research work of the
station ; while those marked c are for extension purposes.
286
Annual Report Agricultur.\l Experiment Statioi
Available resources for the year ending- June 30, 1918, are as
follows :
Hatch Fund from U. S. Treasur}- $15,000.00
Adams Fund from U. S. Treasury $15,000.00
Sales funds 1917-1918 as fellows:
Salt River Valley Farm -.
Yuma Date Orchard
Tempe Date Orchard
Prescott Dry-Farm
Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm
Northern Arizona Drv-Farm
Hatch Sales Balance 1916-17 $2,609.01
Collections 2,518.99
$ 9,768.66
1,153.79
4,860.45
294.50
73.57
25.50
5,128.00
Dry-Farming Fund ( Supervision) $ 3,000.00
( Prescott) 3.690.00
Date Palm Orchards 2.630.C0
Yuma Plorticultural Station 3,275.00
Salt River Valley Farm 10,000.00
Underflow Water Investigation 2,400.00
Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm 3,700.00
Maintenance " 11,150.00
Plant Introduction and Breeding 3,000.00
Printing 4,000.00
46,845.00
$98,149.47
EXPENDITURES BY FUNDS AND SCHEDULES EOR THE YEAR ENDING
JUNE 30, 1918
State
Abstract
appro-
Sales
Hatch
Adams
Total
priations
fund
fund
fund
Salaries
$14,243.36
$ 1,838.91
$11,192.81
$11,940.59
$39,215.67
Labor
10,009.00
9,749.54
133.17
749.39
20.641.10
Publications
3,986.55
173.89
1,051.51
5.211.95
Postage and station-
ery
340.96
956.83
765.51
79.80
2.143.10
Freight and express
238.14
337.45
71.47
333.85
980.91
Heat, light, water.
and power
301.40
183.80
1.073.17
1,558.37
Chemicals and labo-
ratory supplies ....
.76
25.10
125.62
151.48
Seeds, plants, and
.sundrv supplies. . .
1,035.11
1,242.56
96.41
146.89
2.520.97
Fertilizers
5S4.61
75.3S
659.99
Feeding stuffs
103.70
220.39
40.92
•365.01
Library
10 95
138.70
10 23
159 88
Tools, machinery.
and appliances ....
3.333.20
1,089.74
12.25
73.46
4,508.65
Furniture and fix-
tures
11.80
65.75
23.99
101 54
Scientific apparatus
and specimens ....
36.50
17.50
882.53
936.53
Livestock
675.00
675.00
Traveling expenses . .
2.598.99
1.211.00
441.01
607.72
4,858.72
Contingent expenses
242.33
63.09
305.42
Buildings and land. .
2,872.62
2,297.98
9.00
5,179.60
$39,939.03
$20,234.86
$15,000.00
$15,000.00
$90,173.89
A. E. Vinson,
AGRONOMY
During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1918, experimental work
in Agronomy has been carried on the Salt River Valley Farm
near Mesa, on the Prescott Dry-Farm near Prescott, on the Cochise
Dry-Farm near Cochise, and on the grounds of the Yuma Date
Orchard and Horticultural Station. Demonstration work along
agronomic lines on plats used for teaching purposes has been
carried on the University Farm near Tucson.
SALT RIVER VALLEY FARM
The experimental work with Johnson grass reported upon in the
Twenty-eighth Annual Report has been completed and results sum-
marized and published in Bulletin No. 84 by Professor H. C. Heard.
During the year covered by this report the work of the Salt River
Valley Farm has been more varied than in previous years. Corn,
long staple cotton, wheat, oats, barley, kafir, milo, hegari, darso,
sumac sorghum, feterita, Sudan grass, alfalfa, cowpeas, soy beans,
velvet beans, field peas, and several varieties of table beans have
been among the crops tested. In order to handle this large variety
of crops it has been necessary to double crop a considerable portion
of the land of the experiment farm. Practically all of the acreage
given to wheat during the winter and spring was planted during
the early summer to some one or more of the various legumes
mentioned above. A small portion of the wheat and barley land
was planted to kafir, milo, and other sorghum crops. We realize
that such a system of double cropping means a severe drain upon
the soil fertility, and provision has been made to maintain the soil
in good tilth and in a fertile condition by plowing under green
manure and by rotating the crops in a careful manner. Some long
time experiments covering this feature are now being arranged,
which in course of time will become valuable demonstrations for
the Salt River Valley and the State at large.
During the season covered by this report one difficulty of
unusual severity has been encountered. This difficulty was the
extremely destructive work of the lesser corn stalk borer. Practi-
cally every variety of beans planted on the experiment farm during
the season was destroyed by this insect. Most of the varieties of
cowpeas were attacked to a lesser degree. All of the sorghums
were injured and in some cases the stand materially lessened. Ap-
parently due to the weakening of the stalks, a considerable portion
of the milo fell down and lodged badly just previous to harvest
288 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
time. Examination of the stalks that had fallen down showed that
in nearly every case these stalks had been injured by the lesser corn
stalk borer when the plants were small.
Unless a practical method of controlling this insect can be
worked out soon it promises to become a serious menace.
LEGUMES
With the exception of tests made with cowpeas previous trials
with annual legumes have resulted largely in negative results. As
a basis for further work 17 varieties of cow peas and the same
number of soy beans were tested on plots of ground ranging in size
from 1/20 acre to 1 acre. These varieties were as follows :
cow peas soy beans
Brabham Mammoth Yellow
Groit Virginia
White Crowder Arlington
Brown Crowder Chiquita
Wonderful Manchu
Early Ramshorn Biloxi
• Potomac Peking
Arlington Early Brown
Monetta Tarheel Black
Early Buff - Lot 3 Manchuria
Early Catjang Hollybrook Early
Two Crop Clay Fancy Yellow
Clay Ito San
Blackeye Wilson Early
Cream Wilson No. 5
Red Ripper Tokio
Tavlor ■ Blackeyebrow
Careful observation throut the growing season and at harvest
time indicates that the soy beans are decidedly inferior in value to
the cow peas for the conditions of the Salt River Valley. Altho some
varieties of the soy beans made a creditable growth practically
every variety produced an inferior quality of beans. The beans
shrivelled badly and for the most part are unmarketable. It is
possible that this shrivelling is due to the very dry atmosphere,
since the ground was kept in first class condition thruout the time
that the soy beans were growing and maturing. The three varieties
of soy beans giving most promise this year are the Biloxi which is
a rather large late growing and upright variety, the Wilson No. 5
which is a medium sized and medium early maturing variety but
which has the disadvantage of shattering rather badly, and the
Ito San. The latter is a small, early maturing variety but one of
the few that produced a good quality of beans.
University of Arizona
289
Of the cow pea varieties a number gave indications of being
valuable and profitable under average fa;m conditions of the Salt
River Valley. Groit and ljrabh..m cow peas planted after wheat
both produced an excellent green manure crop. Groit produced
the most seed but Brabham has a little achantage from the green
manure standpoint. The Red Ripper variety, tried under a num-
ber of conditions, was uniformly good. Two Crop Clay was very
promising- and a considerable number of other varieties are worthy
of further trial. The results secured this year with cow peas would
indicate that this crop can be used successfully as a green n)n.?y.u-ing
a||||^|j|AA|||HJj^
f'^'^P%.'^- ' ^ '^^^
0Mm±%:.-x-^..:^^.r.^^^^^
Cow peas— Salt River Valley Farm.
crop following wheat. It is quick enough in growth to allow fall
planting and working of the ground to a good seed bed in time for
reseeding to wheat or other small grains.
Inoculation tests were made with both cow peas and soy beans.
Further tests are necessary, however, before we are justified in
publishing the results.
FIELD PEAS
A limited number of field peas were planted in the fall of 1917
and harvested in the spring of 1918. The variety called Warsaur
290 An'nual Report Agriculti-ral Experiment Statkjn
proved best. It made a good vine growth and also prcKluced seed
of marketable quality.
VELX'ET beans
The following varieties of velvet beans were planted on June
14: Early Bird, Yokohama, One Hundred Day, Chinese White, and
Osceola. A study of these varieties during the growing season
indicated that the Earl}^ Bird and One Hundred Day were two
names for the same variety. The Chinese White variety failed to
make a satisfactory stand and was plowed up. The Yokohama
made a poor stand but the few plants that did germinate grew well.
The Osceola is a promising variety, and deserves further trial. The
results indicate that velvet beans should be planted earlier in the
season.
TABLE BEANS
The following varieties of table beans were planted on a field
scale : Pinto, Bates, Tepary, and Pink. As mentioned earlier in
this report ever}- one of them was severely injured by the lesser
corn stalk borer. The only varieties that were not plowed up due
to this injury were the Teparies and the Pintos. As was proven
later, the Pintos were so badly damaged that they should have been
plowed up and the yield of Teparies 'was probably reduced 60 per-
cent. Of all the varieties of table beans tested this year, Teparies
were the most promising and they were far from satisfactory.
ALFALFA
There are 26 acres in the Salt River Valley Farm now given
over to the growing of alfalfa. Ten of these will be plowed up this
winter. This alfalfa has been handled principally as a commercial
crop. Its effect in smothering out Johnson grass is being noted,
and it is our purpose a little later to grow pure Hairy Peruvian
seed for distribution.
corn
During the season of 1918 all varieties of corn tested were
planted after wheat or other small grain, plantings being made the
latter part of July. The varieties tested were as follows : Mexican
June, Sacaton June, Hammond's Select, Reid's Yellow Dent, Giant
Red Cob, Giant White Two Ear, Hasting's Prolific, Frazee's Pro-
lific, Mosby's Prolific, Improved Leaming, and a special unnamed
variety the seed of which was secured from Mexico.
Due to some unusual and, so far as we are concerned, un-
University of Arizona 291
explainable condition not one of these varieties was satisfactory
this year. The complaint was general thruout the Salt River Val-
ley that it was a poor corn season. The best of the varieties were
those planted from carefully selected strains of Mexican June corn.
None of the large late growing varieties, such as Giant Red Cob,
Giant White Two Ear, etc., were worth while. The Frazee's Pro-
lific, which was sent to us with very high recommendations, proved
no better than the others and inferior to Mexican June. The year's
results as well as previous results secured would indicate that
various varieties of sorghums properly handled are more profitable
than corn under the conditions of the Salt River Valley.
SORGHUMS
The variety tests of sorghums were incomplete yet very prom-
ising. Of the grain sorghums the varieties tested were dwarf
milo, hegari, feterita, kafir, and a variety developed by the Okla-
homa Station called "darso." This latter variety has been recom-
mended for a combined grain and forage crop, but this season's
results indicate that it is inferior to milo, hegari, or kafir
from the grain standpoint, and inferior to kafir, hegari, or sumac
sorghum from the fodder standpoint. The only variety of forage
sorghum tested was the sumac variety and as the seed was pur-
chased locally the variety was badly mixed and, while promising,
the results are not conclusive. Hegari yielded 65 bushels per acre,
and kafir 40. The milo averaged 72 bushels per acre. The milo
and hegari are quick to mature, and were fully ripened some little
time before frost. The kafir was somewhat immature when
frosted the last of October. The hegari stands up well. The grain
is produced on a straight neck while the milo grain is produced on
a crooked neck, and this gives a decided advantage to the hegari.
WHEAT
Wheats grown on the Salt River Valley Farm yielded well and
were very profitable crops. The Early Baart variety averaged 45
bushels per acre. The principal acreage was devoted to this variety.
Various tests as to rate of seeding, date of seeding and quantity of
water applied were conducted with this variety, but it seems inad-
visable to publish the results until the figures for several years have
accumulated. Club wheat made a good yield, but was badly mixed
and considerably affected by smut, and of inferior baking quality to
the Early Baart. Red Turkey yielded well, being a close second to
292
Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
Karly Baart. Two varieties of macaroni gave verv excellent yields
but under present conditions there is no estal)lished market for
this variety in the Salt River Valley and it is not advisable to plant
this variety generally at the present time. Sonora wheat proved
reasonably good, but tlie qualit\ of grain was inferior to Early
Baart and the ^■ield was also less.
Jmk\ im..
H^; '■ '*'
JB^", - . 'V'l
1
1
^^*f<.^*^\
■'^%-^^
■•^■'.-'^■''■;--*-v».-ir'--'-. ,
H
HI
i"^^
Bps^- 'i.^-"^>^ : •■'^t'^^^
^-••'
.'^■^i^^y^fx
■ ■ ^ti. v-
-V— 7*
Club wlicut a.iid K;uly i;a,urt wUcat — SuU
illc\' F.irm
OATS
Two varieties of oats were grown on a commercial basis. The
varieties were San Saba, and Red Texas. Red Texas proved the
best, the yield ranging l)etween 90 and 95 bushels per acre.
P.ARLICV
Two varieties of barley were grown, namely. Common Six
Row, and Wisconsin Pedigree No. 6. The latter variety produced
a heavy yield of grain but the straw just below the head was very
weak and many of the heads broke off and fell to the ground before
harvest time. Consequently the yield secured was less than on the
Common Six Row barley. This is a common fault of the Wiscon-
sin No. 6 barley in this section of the country, and ap;>arently will
Univkrsitv of Arizona 293
eliminate it as a commercial crop. The yield of Common Six
Row barley averaged 66 bushels per acre, thus making a very
profitable and satisfactory small grain crop.
COTTON
No short staple cotton was grown. Nineteen acres were given
over to the growing of Egyptian long staple of the Pima variety.
One acre of this was volunteer, that is, it was allowed to grow from
the stubs of the previous year's planting. This acre looked very
promising during the growing season, producing the first blossoms
and open bolls of any cotton on the farm. However, examination
of the plants at picking time showed that a considerable number of
bolls were moldy or rotten. The fiber is weak and short, and the
percentage of lint to seed is small. This year's results would indi-
cate that it is decidedly unprofitable to grow volunteer cotton.
Rate of thinning experiments were conducted, also date of planting
experiments.
MISCELL.\NEOUS CROPS
A number of miscellaneous crops were tried on a small scale
during the year. These crops include fiax, buckwheat, castor beans,
rye, rape, and kale. Two or three varieties of flax gave consider-
able promise. The buckwheat would be considered a complete
failure. The castor beans, altho planted late, made an extremely
vigorous growth and produced considerable seed. Rye was less
valuable than either oats or barley.
PRESCOTT DRY-FARM
The fall of 1917 was extremely dry and it was impracticable to
plow the various fields of the Prescott Dry-Farm. Thus the spring
planted crops of 1918 were started under a serious handicap. The
growing season of 1918 proved less favorable than for a number of
years preceding. However, creditable silage yields were secured
from Club Top sorghum, darso, kafir, and milo, also from a number
of varieties of corn. The grain yields of all were very light and
most of the varieties were harvested for silage purposes. A total
of 125 tons of silage was secured. Tests with potatoes this year
proved a failure. Likewise Canada field peas were a failure and
the results secured with beans were of mediocre value.
A considerable number of sweet clover plantings made at inter-
vals of two weeks failed to germinate uniformly, and no results
worth while were secured from them. Sudan grass again proved
294 Annual Report Agricultural Explrimext Statiox
one of the most promising crops of the farm. Two cuttings of hay
were secured and a reasonable seed crop, estimated at 450 pounds
per acre was harvested. The season's results substantiate the results
of previous years, in that a careful farmer, who is prepared to handle
livestock, can grow profitably sufficient forage and silage crops to
take care of a reasonable sized herd of livestock, and by this means
he will be able to make a good living from a farm of ordinary size.
Fig. 4. Papago sweet corn — Prescott i'ry Farm
SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY DRY-FARM
The season of 1918 in Sulphur Spring Valley was extremely
dry and followed the dry season of 1917, consequently there was no
reserve moisture in the soil. Practically every crop planted under
strictly dry land conditions on the experiment farm proved a total
failure. The same conditions prevail on the privately owned farms
thruout the valleys. Various crops planted with supplemental irri-
gation gave reasonable yields. Among them may be mentioned
kafir, Freed's sorghum, Sudan grass, and cow peas. Soy beans
were not satisfactory. Velvet beans made considerable growth, but
it is doubtful if they will prove worth while. One plot of sweet
clover planted in 1917 made a reasonable growth and a small
amount of seed. Yields of wheat, oats, and barley were extremely-
light. Mexican June corn planted in the early season without irri-
gation had sufficient moisture to germinate and while it lived thru-
out the season, at harvest time in the fall much of it was not above
3 feet in height, and the silage yield from the best of it was only
University of Arizona 295
3300 pounds per acre. It did not pay for the time and labor ex-
pended on it.
It is planned to change the cropping system on this farm some-
what, omitting the growing of much corn or small grains and de-
pending mainly upon certain of the quickest maturing and most
drought resistant sorghums for silage purposes, maintaining the
fertility of the soil by the use of legumes plowed under as green
manure. Some experiments will be carried to determine the le-
gumes most satisfactory for this purpose, but unless others are
found which prove good, tcpary beans and cow peas will be used.
During the season the Giant Powder Company of Los Angeles
furnished dynamite and a supervisor for the work, and one acre of
ground was dynamited for the purpose of breaking up the hard
strata of subsoil called caliche. This dynamiting was done on 15
feet centers in holes from 23/2 to 3j^ feet deep, varying with the
depth of the caliche, and using one-half stick of dynamite in each
hole. It is planned to grow the same crop on this dynamited acre
and on an undynamited adjoining acre for a period of three years,
comparing the yields of the dynamited and undynamited area.
Freed's sorghum was planted for this purpose this year, but due
to the dry season neither area made a growth sufficient to be
harvested.
YUMA DATE ORCHARD AND HORTICULTURAL
STATION
A limited amount of experimental work was carried on the
Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station. The following
varieties of sorghums were tested following wheat : Dwarf niilo,
hegari, kafir, feterita, Sumac sorghum, Collier sorghum. Honey
Drip, and White African. Every one of these varieties made a
first class growth. The milo made an excellent grain yield and,
as was the case in the Salt River Valley, the hegari was the most
promising of any grain sorghum. Of the sweet sorghums Honey
Drip made a very heavy growth of forage of good quality and was-
perhaps the best. Sumac sorghum ranked second altho it fell
down rather badly.
Some plantings of flax gave considerable promise and will be
carried further next year. Two varieties of buckwheat made a
small growth but from the practical standpoint were without value.
A most excellent green manure crop of tepary beans was grown.
A considerable number of vetch varieties were planted in the fall of
296 Annuai. Report Agricultural Expkrimlnt Station
1918. Likewise a small area of five different varieties of root crops
was tested during the winter oi 1918 and 1919, but the results from
these crops were not satisfactory.
UNIVERSITY FARM
No regular experimental work was carried on the University
Farm, but some demonstration work was conducted and all crops
grown upon the farm were utilized for teaching purposes. Several
varieties of cotton, several varieties of sorghum, and a few of corn
were grown. Cow peas, soy beans, peanuts, hemp, and various
other crops were grown on small areas of ground.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The experiments with winter grains reported above were out-
lined and planted under the direction of Dr. R. H. Forbes and
Professor H. C. Heard. The summer crop plantings were outlined
and planted under the direction of the present agronomist. Dr.
Forbes having gone to Egypt, in the service of the British govern-
ment, in February of the present year, and Professor Heard having
left the University to take up County Agricultural work June 1,
The" present agronomist began work with the Arizona Experiment
Station on May 1, 1918.
G. E. Thompson,
Agronomist.
BOTANY
WEATHER COx\DlTiOXS AND THE GRAZING RANGE
Due both to the shortage and untimely distribution of rainfall,
the year ending with June 30, 1918, was a very serious one for the
grazing industry. The rainfall for the period, July to September,
1917, was generally above the average over the State. At Tucson
it was 7.09 inches, or 66.6 percent of the total precipitation for the
year. Following this, there was practically no rainfall thruout the
State during the three months, October to December, inclusive.
The excellent growth of grasses and other forage plants that began
with the summer rains ended by the first of October. This reduced
somewhat the forage growth. However, the long dry fall favored
the natural curing of the grasses on the ranges. It was remarked
during the winter season that, even with short feed, stock were
looking well. With average winter and spring rains, grazing con-
ditions would have been satisfactory.
The winter rainy season began with the second week in Janu-
ary and ended in the latter part of March. It was o; rather short
duration and the precipitation was about one-half the average
amount for this period. A few light showers of almost no conse-
quence fell during the three months, April to June, 1918. In addi-
tion to the above shortage of moisture, the summer rains over much
of the State for July to September, 1918, inclusive, were only one-
half the average precipitation for this season. Much of the rainfall
during the past year came as light showers and hence did not wet
the soil to any depth.
On account of the above conditions, losses of stock on the
ranges have been necessarily heavy, and, but for the fact that many
animals have been shipped out to be sold or fed, the losses would
liave been heavier. A trip over much of the grazing part of the
State in July and August, 1918, showed that the grazing ranges,
generally, were in very bad condition, and that large numbers of
stock must continue to be shipped out before another season or
else be fed. The only grazing districts observed to be in fair con-
dition were those about Flagstafif, Williams, Linden, Lakeside,
Showlow, Prescott, Pine, and Payson. The rains in September
were light ; at best they came rather too late in the season, except
at altitudes below 4.000 feet, to result in much additional growth.
Some feeding with native forage and concentrates has been
done. In a number of instances singed chollas and prickly pears
have been fed in considerable quantity on southern Arizona ranges.
298 Annual Ri^port Agriculturai. ExperimiSnt Station
With an increasing number of stockmen, the feeding of soapweed
or pah-nilla (Yucca elata) as an emergency forage has become estab-
lished. This is prepared by chopping in small pieces the succulent
stems of the yucca, or soapweed plant, as described in a recent
Timely Hint published by this department of the Experiment Sta-
tion. By means best suited to his local conditions, the successful
stockman must plan to carry a reserve feed supply sufficient to
tide his herd over an unfavorable period of six months or longer.
Until he does this his business is destined to continue uncertain.
This may be done by putting up hay or silage, growing forage under
irrigation, feeding concentrates, maintaining winter irrigated or
range pastures, or thru diversified grazing ranges.
Unfavorable seasonal conditions like the present period, which
have now extended over one full year, must make clear to stock-
men the value of grazing ranges that have a diversified forage
growth over those that have but one type of forage growth, as for
example, the bunch grasses. Not only have losses of stock gen-
erally been less on ranges with a diversified growth of shrubs,
grasses, and miscellaneous plants than on ranges with one domi-
nant type of plant growth, but stock have likewise come thru the
year in better condition. Such ranges are practically year-round
pn.stures, tho their maximum forage production during favorable
seasons may not be as great as that of some of the better perennial
grass ranges. During the present droughty period the desert ranges
have been of least value, since, outside of the growth of cacti, which
alone is not sufficient to sustain animals, they have produced little
forage. High mountain ranges, naturally, supply feed for but six
or seven months at best, and during the winter period the stock
must be moved to the lower altitudes and grazed or fed.
POISON PLANT INVESTICxATIONS
The writer was a member of the squad of livestock specialists
that visited the stock raising areas of north central and eastern
Arizona during the past summer. Beginning with August 13, three
weeks were devoted to this work which was planned by Director
Taylor of the Agricultural Extension Service. The subject discussed
by the writer was poison plants of our grazing ranges. Prepared
specimens of our more important poisonous plants were shown and
the commoner poisonous plants of the locality were collected and
studied in the field. Eighteen meetings were held and generally a
fine interest was shown by stockmen. Particular attention was
given towards helping the stockman to know poison plants on the
University of Arizona 299
range, and also the most i)ractical means of preventing losses. The
greatest interest was shown in the loco weeds which are wide-
spread, growing both at low and high altitudes, and affecting all
classes of stock ; larkspurs, of which there are several species, all
poisonous to cattle but not poisonous to sheep ; pingue, or Colo-
rado rubber plant, which grows at rather high altitudes and causes
heavy losses among sheep in the spring and fall ; western sneeze-
weed, which also is a high mountain plant and causes the spewing
sickness in sheep ; and death camas and water hemlock or wild
parsnip, which plants are very poisonous to all classes of stock.
Water hemlock is spreading in moist canyons in eastern Arizona
about Springerville, Eager, Lakeside, Showlow, and Snowflake.
Information was secured concerning a number of plants that
are believed by stockmen to be poisonous, but that heretofore have
not been regarded as such. It is planned to continue this work on
poison plants during the coming summer and publish the results as
a bulletin. On this trip important collections of economic plants
were made at various places and opportunity was afforded the
writer to study additional types of grazing ranges over the State.
PUBLICATIONS
Timely Hint No. 31, "Sanitary Water Supply for the Home,"
was published in November. This includes a discussion of wells
and surface contamination, contamination of water in wells thru
seepage, and small storage tanks, and the pollution of water in
them. A study of the commoner algae growing in open water tanks
in southern Arizona was made. In some instances a layer of these
plants six inches deep was found floating in the water. With par-
tial decomposition of this material, such water becomes unsanitary,
having a bad odor and a brackish taste. Open tanks require clean-
ing every month or two in the warmer part of the year. It was
found that by covering tanks with wooden tops this plant growth
ceased immediately and did not reappear until the tops were re-
moved. Copper sulphate treatment with one part copper sulphate
to 1,000,000 parts of water was successful, but since this treatment
should be repeated every sixty days, it is not recommended for
small lots of v/ater that are are changed frequently thru pumping.
Timely Hint No. 135, "Soapweed or Palmilla (Yucca elata) as
Emergency Forage," was published in February. This discusses
the distribution and abundance of yucca plants over the State with
brief botanical notes, the preparation of yucca forage for stock, and
chemical and microscopical analyses of chopped yucca forage. A
300 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
study was made of feeding yucca to cattle as practiced at WiJlcox,
Arizona. An improvised yucca feed chopper was described as
made at small expense from a discarded pump-jack. With care a
silage cutter may be used. There are at this time several yucca
choppers, or yucca shredding machines, on the market, which are
desirable for use where a considerable number of stock are to be fed.
The chemical analysis of yucca forage as made by the Chem.-
istry Department of the Experiment Station shows that the protem
content is little higher than that of native cactus forage ; the fiber
was somewhat more than double that in cactus forage, and the
•carbohydrates or nitrogen-free extract averaged 21.94 percent as
against 15 percent in cactus feed. Aside from the fact that yucca
forage acts as a succulent when fed along with dry range feed, its
value as a feed lies chiefly in the carbohydrates. A microscopic
study showed that the carbohydrates present were largely in the
form of glucose, which explains the sweet taste of the freshly chop-
ped feed.
Circular No. 22, "The Home War Garden," was published in
August by the Extension Service. This is a revision of Timely
Hint No. 106, "The Home Vegetable Garden," which publication it
replaces. This circular attempts a popular presentation of present
day gardening under southwestern conditions. The different vege-
tables are considered in part from their botanical and physiological
characters. The first half of the circular discusses the following
topics : soil and location ; fertilization, irrigation and cultivation ;
flat culture versus ridged culture, rotation of crops ; botanical group-
ing of vegetables; crop pests; seeds and seed-testing; aids to earli-
ness in the garden ; and, altitudes and seasons of planting. The
second half discusses vegetables for the winter and spring garden
and likewise those for the summer garden.
NOTES ON PLANT INTRODUCTION
Japanese Kudzu vine (Fucraria hirsuta). This herbaceous
climber, noted in a recent Annual Report of this station, deserves
further mention as an economic plant. It grows from starchy,
tuberous roots, increasing in vigor as these become larger. The
stems are hairy, and the leaves resemble those of the common bean,
but are larger. The flowers are purple, produced in clusters, and
pea-like. They are not showy. The pods are flat, hairy, two to
- four inches long, and contain several small, mottled beans. The
plant propagates readily from root cuttings and by layering. It
can also be grown from seeds. Being semitropic, the Kudzu vine
University of Arizona 301
grows most rapidly during the summer season. In the introduc-
tion garden vines have grown 50 feet in a season. This is the most
rapid growing of our herbaceous climbers and with its dense foliage
is excellent for shade for poultry yards and fences, sheds, and even
for houses. It is much planted in parts of Japan as a covering for
homes, and for the forage, which is relished by animals. It is best
suited for growing in Arizona below altitudes of 2,500 feet, prefer-
ably in rich, well irrigated soils. It blossoms about September 15,
and with an early frost will hardly mature seed. The leaves and
stems of the season's growth are killed with minimum temperatures
of 29 degrees F., and the older woody stems, which ordinarily live
over, are killed with temperatures of 6 degrees F. This plant should
have value as forage for growing along irrigation ditches or in areas
not readily accessible to cultivation.
PLANT DISEASE STUDIES
For the most part, the plant diseases that have been destructive
during the recent growing season are the ones that were predomi-
nant during the previous year. These include tomato wilt, which
has been serious in many sections, cotton sore shin disease, cotton
root-rot, alfalfa root-rot, fruit tree root-rot, melon wilt, and crown
gall. Besides these, a serious disease of the common pepper has
appeared at Tubac and in the Rillito Valley near Tucson. When
nearly mature the plants cease growth, gradually turn yellow and
begin to die from the roots with a full crop of peppers. In a num-
ber of respects the disease resembles tomato wilt. Practically all
the plants within an affected area are killed. A study is being made
of this disease. A careful rotation of crops will help both in this
disease and in tomato wilt.
A serious canker disease of cottonwood and poplar trees caused
by Cytospora chrysospenna* has been found in a number of localities
in Arizona. These include Flagstaff, Williams, Prescott, Douglas,
Nogales, Continental, and Tucson. This disease attacks both na-
tive and introduced poplars, but is most destructive to introduced
species, including the Carolina poplar and the Lombardy poplar.
A considerable number of these trees have died in Flagstaff from
this cause. The disease may be recognized by the presence of
sunken, dead areas on the bark of the larger limbs of trees. The
inner bark of these areas is blackish and has a pronounced odor.
Later, small reddish, pustule-like fruiting bodies appear on the sur-
face of dead areas of bark. On old bark these reddish bodies can
*Lone:. W. H. Journal of Agric. Research, XIII, 6, 1918.
302 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
often be seen in the fissures. Affected trees rarely live longer than
two or three years and serve to spread the disease. It is recom-
mended that persons who desire cottonwood or poplar trees plant
the native cottonwoods, since these are more resistant to the canker
disease than introduced species like the Carolina poplar. There
are several species of native cottonwood in Arizona which thrive
at our various altitudes.
SCIENTIFIC
The work on the herbarium, which claimed so large an amount
of time last year, was completed early during the present year.
The University plant collections now number 74,000 sheets. Our
plant collections are complete enough now to enable one to work
to advantage, both on the native and cultivated plants. During the
year a collection of biological literature, numbering 2,500 pamphlets
and separates, has been classified and arranged systematically for
convenience in work in botany. Many of these books and pam-
phlets were presented to the Botanical Department by the Depart-
ment of Botanical Research of the Carnegie Institution, Tucson,
Arizona. Others have been secured thru exchange of botanical
material, including plant specimens.
J. J. Thornber,
Botanist.
HORTICULTURE
The Horticulturist having' entered upon his duties near the
close of the present hscal year, the major portion of his time during
the remainder of the period was given to the study of the general
horticultural conditions of the State, and in formulating plans for
the future development of the work of the department as pertains
both to instruction and investigation. Nine distinct station pro-
jects have been outlined and accepted, and work on some of them
is now under way. The work of the Department of Horticulture
falls naturally into three main divisions : Pomology, Olericulture,
and Ornamental Gardening. Progress has been made during the
past year in these respective branches as follows :
POMOLOGY
Plans have been developed for fruit plantings at the Salt River
Valley Farm consisting of a variety orchard of eleven acres, to-
gether with additional blocks of three acres each of the standard
varieties of such fruits as the fig, olive, and apricot, that have
proved themselves ])articularly adapted to commercial growing in
southern Arizona. The plantings of standard varieties will be used
as a basis of experimentation in pruning, spraying, and other phases
of orchard culture and management. As other varieties demon-
strate their worth, block plantings will afso be made of them. The
first planting in the variety orchard was made with dates in July,
1918, including seventy varieties. The remainder of the orchard will
be set during the coming spring.
A three-acre orchard is being developed on the University
Farm at Tucson, comprising representative varieties of the leading
species of cultivated fruits. This orchard is designed primarily
for student instruction in Pomology, but is adaptable as well for
purposes of experimentation.
The unplanted portion of the horticultural block at the Yuma
Date Orchard and Horticultural Station will be set this fall with
citrus and other sub-tropical fruits. The planting of citrus fruits
is made with a view to determining an effective method of pre-
venting frost injury, and to testing the adaptability of the Man-
darian group of orange to the Yuma Valley.
The deciduous orchard at the Yuma Date Orchard and Horti-
cultural Station is now in its second year. The trees have made a
very satisfactory growth, and a few varieties have borne their first
crop. The Smyrna and Rea Mammoth varieties of quince, and the
304 Annual Rkport Agricultural Experiment Station
Royal and Newcastle varieties of apricot each produced a small
number of fruit this year. The Wonderful and Papershell varieties
of pomegranate produced heavy yields for the age and size of the
plants.
dates
The date orchards at the Tempe Date Orchard and the Yuma
Date Orchard and Horticultural Station have continued in thrifty
condition, and during the past season have produced very satisfac-
tory crops, furnishing additional evidence of the value of the date
as a commercial fruit crop for southern Arizona. The blossoming
record of the palms was not high at either orchard, but the most
excellent weather that prevailed thruout the harvest made it pos-
sible to gather a maximum crop from every tree that bore. Even
varieties that during ordinary seasons are almost worthless yielded
relatively good returns. Another feature of this year's crop was
the almost total absence of fungus spots, wdiich have been a source
of serious loss of some varieties in the past, particularly during
moist weather. These facts considered in the light of losses sus-
tained in the past due to rainy weather point to climate as a most
important factor in the harvesting of the date crop.
Considered from the standpoint of yield, size, quality, and ap-
pearance, the varieties that did best at the Tempe Orchard are :
Hayany, Tadala, Rhars, and Deglet Noor ; and at the Yuma
Orchard : Deglet Noor, Hellawee, and Kaiby. The following is a
summary of the yields and returns at the Tempe and Yuma Date
Orchards for the past season :
University of Arizona
305
TAiiUli I. YIELD OF DATE VARIETIES AT THE TEMPE ORCHARD
j
1
Av erase
Average
Variety i
No. of 1
Harvest season
yield
Total
receipts
Total
trees '
per tree
yield
per tree
Dollan
receipts
Pounds ^
Pounds
Dollars
Aman
3
Aug.
12-Oct. 17
91.16
273V,.
21.41
64.24
2
1
Sept.
Oct.
22-Oct. 5
4-Nov. 17
36
2??
72
222
8.13
55.06
16.26
A'oochet .
55.06
Arechti
1
Oct.
3- Oct. 31
20
20
4.98
4.98
Apdandon
1
Sept.
5-Oct. 31
/3
75
16.79
16.79
Aschcra.'^i
2
Oct.
2-Oct. 12
13
26 ,
3.5
6.10
Amhat
1
Sept.
28- Oct. 28
12
12
2.01
2.01
Aniri
2
Oct.
24-Dec. 1 1
57
115
10.85 ;
21.70
Bent Kebala
1
Sept.
30-Nov. 22 '
294
294
81.84
81.84
Boo Affar
2
Sept.
28- Dec. 5
15
3134
3.47 ,
6.94
Burni
2
4
Oct.
Sept.
9-Nov. 16
50- Nov. 3
79
148
159
595
19.13
37.52
38.27
Berhi
150.08
Bagam Jnrghi. .
1
Sept.
8-Oct. 15
51
51
11.34
11.34
Besser Haloo. .
1
Nov.
27- Dec. 1
55
50
6.40
6.40
Bedraihe
2
Oct.
l-Dec. 2
• 214
42S
22.03
44.06
1
Oct.
26- Dec. 5
62
(^1
6.10
6.10
Dishtari
1
Aug.
31-Oct. 31
96
96
22.29
22.29
Deglet Noor. . .
28
Oct.
11-Dec. 1
108
3043
36.25
1015.10
Deglet Barka. . .
1
Dec.
5-
70
70
7.00
7.00
Gasby
1
Aug.
23-Oct. 5
120
120
27.59
27.59
Gush
1
Sept.
5-Oct. 12
27
27
6.57
6.57
Goondee
1
Dec.
1-
40
40
4.00
4.00
Gaggar
1
Nov.
21- Dec. 5
163
163
16.30
16.30
Havany
9
.'^l.lg.
23-\ov. 4
213
1921
51.77
465.98
riamraia
4
Oct.
5-Nov. 17
63
2S\
16.49
65.96
Hellawce
1
Sept.
28-Oct. 24
31
31
7.45
7.45
Halloua
2
Nov.
15-Dec. 1
64
129/2
6.47
12.95
3
Nov.
4-Dec. 1
39
119
3.96
11.90
Hurshut
1
Sept.
25-Oct. 19
45
^5
9.84
9.84
Halawi
3
Sept.
28-Oct. 2S
85
25"
21.09
63.26
Itima
1
1
Oct.
Oct.
16-Nov. 8
12- Dec. 1
37
173
37
\73
9.09
51.21
9.09
Tteem Jolicr. . . .
51.21
Karoov
1
Sept.
9-Oct. 5
44
44
9.35
9.35
7
Sept.
10-Oct. 31
62
439
14.93
104.51
Khadrawi
2
Sept.
22-Oct. 15
32
6}
6.97
13.94
Khedrwee
3
Sept.
5-Oct. 24
73
220
15.15
45.45
Khir
1
Sept.
1-Oct. 16
87
87
20.31
20.31
Kenta
2
Oct.
19-Nov. 21
18
37/2
1.87
3.75
Kalara
1
1
Sept.
Sept.
9-Oct. 13
9-Oct. 17
80
125
80
125
17.12
1 27.66
17.12
Koroch
27.66
Khedrwee
1
Aug.
31-Oct. 26
25
25
1 5 82
5.82
Kesba
1
Dec.
1-
5
5
\ .50
.50
Karba
1
Sept.
10-Nov. 15
34
34
7.08
7.08
Kaibv
1
Oct.
15-Oct. 28
34
34
8.24
8.24
M'Kentichi,
,
Degia
2
Dec.
1-
1 104
208
10.40
20.80
306
Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
TAIILE I. — YIELD OF DATE VARIETIES AT THE TEMPE ORCHARD — Continued
Average
Avera.s;e
Variety
No. of
Harvest season
yield
Total
receipts
Total
trees
per tree
yield
per tree
receipts
Pounds
Pounds
Dollars
Dollars
Maktum
2 •
Oct.
17-Dec. 1
113
227
30.10
60.20
Menakher
1
Oct.
17-Oct. 27
40
40
10.71
10.71
Mozati ■
1
Sept.
9-Oct. 31
51
51
11.29
11.29
Nakkelet
Feraocn
I
Oct.
10-Oct. 31
43
43
10.54
10.54
Nazel
1
Dec.
1
ICO
ICO
lO.CO
10.00
Naklet el Leef.
1
Oct.
1-Oct. 30
130 1
130
28.74
28.74
Lagoo
1
Sept.
22-Oct. 30
30
30
3.00
3.00
Nesheem
1
Oct.
1-Nov. 1
182
182
45.10
45.10
Lockzec
1
Oct.
1-Oct. 20
30
30
6.55
6.55
Purdv Seedlinj?
3
Sept.
28-Nov. 2
56
169
12.92
38.76
Rhazi
2
1
Sept.
Oct.
5-Oct. 15
6-Nov. 11
64
21
128
21/2
17.29
4.55
34.58
Ret'oet Regaia. .
4.55
Ret Bel Abdella
1
Oct.
4-Nov. 2
62
62
16.27
16.27
Rhars
111
1 •
Aug.
Nov.
17-Oct. 21
17-Dec, 1
87
98 ^
9685
98/2
21.03
9.85
2334.17
Roghm Gazal. . .
9.85
Rogina
1
Sept.
27- Nov. 25
23
23
4.72
4.72
Seedling
(West)
2
Oct.
6- Oct. 6
25
5
.50
1.00
Seba Lcosif. . . .
1
Sept.
23- Oct. 24
94
94
21.27
21.27
S?ver
3
1
Sept.
Nov.
11- Oct. 25
10- Nov. 28
101
91
303
91/2
19.01
7.05
57.03
Seba Boo Dra. .
7.05
Safraia
■?
Sept.
11- Dec. 1
50
100
5.10
10.20
Sukeri
2
9
Sept.
Sept.
22- Nov. 18
28-Nov. 23
143
47
287
427
14.45
24.50
28.90
Savdeh
220.48
Timdjotiert
(Yellow)....
Tadaia
4
Oct.
4- Nov. 20
54
219
13.92
55.66
2
Sept.
10-Oct. 31
146
293
34.56
69.11
Tennessim
4
Sept.
19- Nov. 20
127
511
25.81
103-25
Taflzaonit
Oct.
15- Dec. 3
266
266
72.23
72.23
Tentebiisht
Oct.
13- Nov. 2
Q
2734
2.31
6.94
Taurarhet
Nov.
4- Dec. 5
67
67
7.45
7.45
Takadet
Oct.
4- Nov. 18
82
165
18.93
37.85
Totee
Nov.
2- Dec. 3
130
130
34.13
34.13
■Tanizoohart. . .
Sept.
27- Nov. 17
66
66
15.45
15.45
Tcorekhet
Nov.
4- Dec. 5
67
67
7.45
7.45
Tozerzaid
Khala . . .
Oct.
15- Dec. 1
120
120
31.16
31.16
Tazizaoat
Oct.
4- Dec. 1
250
250
55.48
55.48
Thoree
Oct.
6- Dec.
5\
270
5.39
26.95
Toojat
Oct.
Oct.
26- Nov. 3
16- Nov. 6
40
124
40
124
3.90
31.09
3.90
Taremoont
31.09
Tefezo'nt
Nov.
28- Dec. 1
85
85
8.50
8.50
Zerza
Oct.
5- Dor. 1
128
128
12.60
12.60
Zehedi
Dec.
1
U
1?
1.40
1.40
7rai
Dec.
1
5
0
.50
.50
Zoozia
Dec.
Dec.
1
1
>^5
iro
85
ICO
8.50
10.00
8.50
\a"-al
10.00
No Name
Sent.
9- Dec. 1
3\
239
10.59
74.17
Crlls
Aug.
12- Dec. 5
4988 '/i
1 631.40
University of Arizona
307
TABLE II. YIELD OF DATE VARIETIES AT THE YUMA ORCHARD
Variety
Angoo
Bent el Marad. .
Black Seedlings
Beed H amnion
Boo Fa Goo. . . .
Bread Dates. . .
Deglct Xoor. . .
Gasley
Hayan\-
liellawec
Itima
Kaiby
Khedrwee
Lagoo
Rhars
Rogina
Saba BooDra..
Saydeh
Tinidjouert
(Yellow)....
Tinidjouert
(Red)
No Name
Ctd!s
No. of
trees
1
1
1
2
2
5
32
1
1
8
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
4
Harvest season
Nov.
Aug.
Sept.
Sept.
Scot.
Nov.
Sept.
Aug.
Sept.
Aug.
Sept.
Sept.
Aug.
Nov.
Sept.
Sept.
Oct.
Sept.
.10
19-Xov.
31-Sept
9- Sept
20 NOV. 8
24-Oct. 7
13-Xov. 30
21 -Nov. 30
26-
4-Sept
26- Sept
7- Oct.
7- Nov
24- Sept. 13
23-Vov. 26
3-Sept. 13-
9
5-\'ov. 2^
l6-\ov. 12
30
23
22
Sept. 3-Sept. 9
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
13
30\'ov. 12
2- Nov. 30
Average
yield
per tree
Pounds
91
12
12
66.5
139
63
50.5
31
10
87.12
2.S.5
114.8
43.5
43
3.5
2
54
23.25
98
Total
yield
Pounds
91
12
12
133
278
319
1616
31
10
697
57
229.5
87
43
7
4
lOS
93
11
5
98
319.83
Average
receipts
per tree
Dollars
11.37
3.00
2.80
15.90
35.34
7.43
15.14
4.65
2.57
22.92
6.94
26.77
11.93
5.12
.90
.50
12.48
5.68
.81
1.25
21.52
Total
receipts
Dollars
11.37
3.00
2.80
31.80
70.68
37.16
484.56
4.65
2.57
183.35
13.88
53.54
23.85
5.12
1.80
1.00
24.95
22.71
3.25
1.25
21.52
37.16
A large number of vacant places in both the Yuma and Tempe
Orchards were set with palms during the summer. The off- shoots
used in the Yuma Orchard were taken directly from the trees, being
too large to place in the propagating house, whereas those used
in the Tempe Orchard were rooted. Upon examination in Novem-
ber, 52 of the 81 plants set in the Yuma Orchard were showing
signs of growth. The Tempe planting is interesting from the fact
that the soil in the orchard is at present extremely alkaline. While
the older trees do not appear to be disturbed by the presence of
alkali, it was feared that the young plants probably would not fare
so well. As a precaution, therefore, about a cubic yard of sweet
soil was placed in the holes prepared for the off-shoots and a heavy
straw mulch applied to prevent the rise of the alkali. No ill effects
from the alkali have yet been observed, as the majority of the plants
give evidence of growing.
A rather unusual feature of blossoming was observed at the
Yuma Orchard, in that certain varieties failing to bloom during
their normal blossoming period in the spring, flowered most pro-
fusely towards the latter part of the summer. A number of the
blossoms were pollinated in order to study the future behavior of
the fruit, particularly as to its ability to stand thru winter.
308 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
Progress has been made on definite projects in Pomology as
follows.
a study in the CULTl'RK AND MANAGEMENT OF DATE ORCHARDS
This ])roject conducted at the Yuma Date Orchard and Horti-
cultural Station was begun in the summer of 1918. The work in-
volves a comprehensive study of a number of features of orchard
culture and management, with particular reference to the compara-
tive effect of clean tillage, cover crops, sod, and mulches, together
with dift'erent methods of fertilizing, on the yield, quality, time of
ripening, size of fruit and growth of tree. The orchard contains
about four acres, and the trees have been set 10 years. It is divided
into six plots with each plot containing two rows of trees. The plots
are being handled as follows :
No. (1) Planted to alfalfa, cuttings allowed to remain where
they fall.
No. (2) Planted to sour clover in the fall, followed by cow-
peas in summer.
No. {3) Planted to vegetables during both summer and win-
ter.
No. (4) Wide, shallow basin maintained about each tree with
a heavy manure mulch.
No. (5) Wide, shallow basin maintained about each tree with
a thick straw mulch.
No. (6) Clean culture thruout the year.
The rows are divided crosswise to allow four different treat-
ments with commercial fertilizer.
A STUDY OF CULTURAL METHODS WITH CITRUS FRUITS
These investigations, begun in the summer of 1918, are being
conducted on the Yuma Mesa in cooperation with Mr. George W.
Hill. The orchard in which the tests are being made contains about
ten acres, and the trees composed of the Washington Navel variety
of orange and the Marsh Seedless variety of pomelo, were set in
the spring of 1916. The area is divided into ten plots, each of
which is being given a distinct method of culture, particularly in
the matter of cover crops. The plots are divided crosswise so as
to allow four trees in each plot being given a different fertilizer
treatment. Records of growth and general phenological notes are
being made, and it is hoped that during the next few years data
may be gathered on the cumulative effect of each cultural method
and fertilizer treatment on the growth of tree and the size and
quality of the fruit.
University of Arizona
309
DATE PROPAGATION
The results secured in the propagation of the date, have not
been as satisfactory as was anticipated, and the matter has become
the subject of further investigation. The off-shoots placed in the
propagating house at the Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural
Station in the summer of 1917 were a complete failure but this can,
however, be attributed to soil conditions. The soil being heavy and
not well drained it remained cool, whereas the temperature during
summer was very high, making extremely adverse conditions for
root development. In the summer of 1918 this house was removed
to a location where the soil is sandy and well drained, and as a result
the off-shoots arc rooting satisfactorily. A careful examination in
the latter part of November showed that out of 237 oft'-shoots placed
in the house only }>7 failed to show evidence of growth. Several indi-
v^iduals were observed as having developed a good root system,
whereas suckers on the outside of the house, although alive, showed
no signs of root formation. In the case of suckers placed in an ordi-
nary cutting bench in the green house, where there was a daily
range of temperature from 90 to 114 degrees, roots two to four
inches long were formed in six weeks.
Following is a summary of the temperature of the atmosphere
and soil inside the date propagating house at the Yuma Date
Orchard and Horticultural Station as compared with the outside
temperature during the months of August, September, October, and
November — readings made daily at 12:30 P. M.
TABLE III. AIR AND SOIL TEMPERATURE IN' DATE PROPAGATING
HOUSE, YUMA
Temp, inside propagating house 1 Temp, outside propagating houat
Month
Atmospliere
Soil
August . .
September
October . .
November
Degrees Fahr.
115
110
97
79
Degrees Fahr.
90
86
73
59
Atmosphere
Degrees Fahr.
103
100
90
72
Soil
Degrees Fahr.
84
83
74
61
It will be remembered that while a large number of off-shoots
on the inside of the propagating house had rooted by November
there was no sign of root development in the case of those planted
in an open bed on the outside.
OLERICULTURE
Attention was given during the past year to the maintenance
of an all-the-vear familv garden at the Yuma Date Orchard and
310 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
Horticultural Station and on the University grounds at Tucson,
with a view to stimulating a greater interest in home gardening as
a means of increasing the food supply. With good cultivation and
ample irrigation, tomato, eggplant, pepper, okra, carrot, and the
edible cowpeas were made to produce during the hottest portion of
the summer. Tomatoes did not yield a heavy crop during this
period, but shaded parts of the plants continued to bear some fruit.
Further tests will be made with summer vegetables with the hope
of adding other varieties to the list that can be successfully grown
during the hot weather of this season.
Of special interest this year was the fall garden. Notes taken
October 25 in the garden at Tucson showed the following vege-
tables in edible condition : snap bean, chard, cucumber, cowpea,
carrot, endive, kale, lettuce, mustard, onion, radish, salsify, spinach,
tomato, and turnip. Other vegetables that were growing nicely at
this time, and that will be available for use during winter and early
spring are broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, collard,
corn salad, kohlrabi, leek, parsley, parsnip, and rutabaga. All of
these vegetables were planted during the month of August and in
early September, except tomato, carrot, and salsify, which were
started in the spring.
IRISH POTATO STUDIES
These investigations, directed towards the accumulation of
facts regarding the production and storage of Irish potatoes in
southern 7A.rizona, are being conducted at the Yuma Date Orchard
and Horticultural Station. The varieties Irish Cobbler, Triumph,
and White Rose were planted February 25 and harvested on July 5.
The yields per acre were as follows :
Irish Cobbler, 10,192 pounds; Triumph, 9,800 pounds; White
Rose, 10,976 pounds.
Immediately after harvesting a definite amount of each variety
was placed under different methods of storage as follows :
No. 1. Placed in ventilated bins under shade.
No. 2. Coated with paraffin.
No. 3. Spread out thinly on ground under shade.
No. 4. Placed in twelve inches of soil undeV shade.
No. 5. Placed in a veiitilated dugout made three feet deep in
a well drained soil.
University of Arizona
311
Following is a summary of the storage tests as revealed Sep-
tember 15 when the potatoes were examined:
TAIILIC IV. — STORAGE TESTS WITH POTATOES
Storage method
Variety
Sound potato
Xo. 1. V'cntil;itcd bins
Irish Cobbler
Triumph
Wiiite Rose
Percent
90
90
95
No. 2. Paraffined
Irish Cobbler
Triumph
White Rose
None
.\o. 3. On ground
Irisli Cobbler
Triumpli
White Rose
75
75
50
Xo. 4. Dry soil
Irish Cobbler
Triumph
White Rose
None
95
No. 5 D'lKOut
Irish Cobbler
Trirmph
White Rose
95
80
95
In the case of the potatoes that were coated with paraffin the
entire lot rotted by the end of four weeks, which indicates that the
exclusion of air is absolutely detrimental to the keeping qualities
of the potato, and emphasizes the importance of thoro ventilation
during storage. As shown in the table, the method of storage in
which the potatoes were spread out thinly in ventilated bins, as
well as the dugout method of storage, gave a rather high percent-
age of sound potatoes. While these results are not conclusive, they
do indicate that it is easily possible for the home gardener to pre-
serve the spring crop of potatoes thrti the summer for culinary use
and as seed for a late summer crop.
In tests made to determine the best depth and time of planting
for the late summer crop, practically all the potatoes rotted in the
ground. This was apparently due to the hot temperature of the
soil at planting time, coupled with excessive moisture conditions.
It is believed that modified methods of planting contemplated
for trial next season will give more satisfactory results. Plantings
are being continued thruout fall, winter, and spring at intervals of
ten days in order to determine the best planting date for the spring
crop.
SPINACH AS A MARKET GARDEN CROP FOR SOUTHERN ARIZONA
Ranking first in importance among the vegetables grown for
"greens" in the United States, and being particularly well adapted
312 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
to climatic conditions such as are found in southern Arizona,
spinach promises to become a vahiable market crop for this section.
In view of these facts, a series of investigations was begun in the
fall of 1918 for the purpose of securing specific information as to
the best cultural practices to be followed in the production of this
crop— including methods and time of planting, variety tests, and
fertilizer comparisons. The following methods of planting were
used :
No. 1. Level planting with flooding — rows ten inches apart.
No. 2. Bedding four rows ten inches apart, made on low, flat
beds with irrigation water run between the beds.
No. 3. Row and furrow method — rows two feet apart, and ir-
rigation water run between the rows.
The varieties Savoy, Victoria, Prickly Winter, and Long Stand-
ing, typifving as many different groups of spinach, were used in
each plot. The first planting was to have been made September 1,
with additional planting at intervals of two weeks until November
15, but a delay in the arrival of seed necessitated its postponement
until October 1. The plots are subdivided crosswise to permit of
fertilizer tests with stable manure, cotton seed meal, nitrate of soda,
and acid phosphate. The work has not reached the point where
final conclusions can yet be drawn.
ORNAMENTAL GARDENING
The work in Ornamental Gardening has consisted largely in
the developing of plans for the beautifying of the grounds at the
different branch stations, particular attention having been given the
Tempe Date Orchard and the Yuma Date Orchard and 1 lorticul-
tural Station. The central grounds at the Yuma Station have been
set to lawn grass, and, during the coming spring, shrubbery and
other ornamentals will be added. In addition to plantings of tested
varieties of trees and shrubbery, other sorts will be set with a view
to determining their adaptability to specific localities. A special
feature in this connection is the attempt to establish alkali resistant
types at the Tempe Date Orchard, the soil of which is very alkaline.
No work has been done in floriculture, but with the added green
house and garden facilities, which are soon to be provided, some-
thing in this field will be undertaken.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
The Horticulturist served as a member of a commission ap-
pointed by the President of the University of Arizona to investigate
University of Arizona 313
the agricultural possibilities of the Yuma Mesa with special refer-
ence to citrus culture. In connection with these investigations con-
siderable time has been spent in studying the climatology, to-
pography, and general features of the soil and in making detailed
descriptions of the fruit now being grown in the district and com-
paring it with that produced in other citrus regions. The entire
matter will be treated in greater detail and published as a joint
report by the committee.
MISCELLANEOUS
A number of trips were made during the past year to different
parts of the State in the interest of extension work in Horticulture.
The activities in this field, however, were confined largely to demon-
strations in fruit and vegetable conservation by drying, in which
the sulphuring process was used.
Considerable time was given to the general supervision of the
work at the Tempe Date Orchard and at the Yuma Date Orchard
and Horticultural Station.
Very valuable service was rendered the department during the
past year by the foremen of the different branch stations in their
careful execution of the work as outlined for them. The horticul-
tural work has been given further impetus in the recent appoint-
ment of Mr. A. F. Kinnison as Assistant Horticulturist.
F. J. Crider,
Horticitlfnrist
PLANT BREEDING
Work in the department during the past year has been con-
fined to wheat, beans, alfalfa, and grain sorghums. The wheat
work during the year has received especial consideration owing
to the increased interest shown in bread wheat varieties.
WHEAT
The breeding work with wheat during the past year has been
along four distinct lines : (I) The testing of the promising hybrid
macaroni-bread wheat races which have been increased from last
vear's selections. (II)The growing and comparing of the second seed
generation (first plant generation) of new hybrids secured by cross-
ing Turkey and macaroni wheats on the native Sonora. (HI) A
study of the inheritance of the various characters in the bread
wheats, the Poulard wheats, and the macaroni wheats. (IV) The
field testing of various pure lines of wheat. The milling and baking
qualities, and also yield received especial consideration-
I. The work with the macaroni-bread wheat crosses at Yuma
included three series oi plots; the plant rows, the small pedigree
increase plots, and the tenth- acre field plots. There were 540 plant
rows grown from plants of good habit and producing grain of
apparently good gluten content. Each row of this series was har-
vested and threshed separately, and the grain worked over in the
laboratory for type, texture, and total yield. The seed from about
one-third of these rows will be used in planting increase plots next
year, so that the excellent strains may be increased as rapidly as
possible.
There were 100 pedigree increase plots planted from promising
plant rows of 1917. These have been carried thru a severe elimina-
tion test from which about 30 will be selected for testing under field
conditions in 1919 with the present best milling wheats of the State,
such as Early Baart.
There were twenty-five tenth-acre field plots of hybrid wheats
which occupied the entire area of the Dyer block of the Yuma
Station. Some promising yields were obtained from this series;
one produced at the rate of 60 bushels per acre and two others be-
tween 50 and 55 bushels per acre. This is about 20 bushels per
acre more than was produced by the Early Baart. The quality of
these high yielders was fairly good, but neither the grain nor the
plants were of sufficient uniformity to be recommended for bread
wheat planting, and will require one or two more season's selec-
UXIVEKSITY OF ARIZONA 315
tions before they will be ready for general planting. However,
these wheats are regarded as very promising on account of their
high yield and strong straw which stands up well when the wheat
is grown on irrigated lands rich in organic matter. One of the
worst troubles in growing the present standard milling wheats of
the State is that, when they are planted immediately after alfalfa,
or other lands rich in nitrogen, they lodge badly.
II. The main object sought in the wheat breeding at this
Station is to find, or produce by hybridization, a wheat of high
gluten content of superior quality. In an effort to combine the
high gluten contents of the hard wheats of Kansas, such as the
Turkey Red, with the early, high yielding Sonora wheat, crosses
of these wheats were made in the screen garden on the campus in
the spring of 1917. Thirty-three hybrids from this cross were
grown in the screen garden during the winter and s])ring of 1917
and 1918. Notes were taken on the earliness of the plants, type of
head and other plant characters, and quality of the grain. The first
heads of these hybrids appeared between April 16 and April 23,
while the first heads of the Turkey parent appeared between April
29 and May 12. It thus appears that there is a possibility of get-
ting an early Turkey wheat selection out of these hybrids when it
breaks up into various types in succeeding generations. Earliness
in wheat, especially in the irrigated valleys of Arizona, is regarded
of prime importance in establishing a wheat wnth a high gluten con-
tent of superior quality. When wheats continue growing in the
warm days of late spring abundant irrigation is necessary which
always reduces both the quantity and the quality of the gluten in
the grain.
III. Another series of wheat hybrids was made the past year
for the sole purpose of studying the manner of inheritance of the
various characters in wheat. Wheats were selected for these crosses
in such a way that every visible character was paired with its oppo-
site or its absence. In the succeeding generations a study will be
made of the factors controlling gluten content, strength of straw,
and the various factors which control yield.
IV. Several selections from each of Early Baart, Turkey Red,
Arizona 39, Sonora, Algerian Macaroni, and Alaskan wheats have
been under test for several years. As result of these tests one or
two high yielding strains have been developed from each of these
varieties. In addition to yield, the milling and baking qualities,
rust resistance, and strong, non-lodging straw under irrigation have
316
Annual Report Agricultuk-xl Experimkxt Station
received attention. Table V gives the yields obtained from these
wheats on the Salt River Vallev Farm for 1918.
TABLE V. YIELDS FROM PURE R.VCES OF WPI
SALT RIVER VALLEY FARM^
EAT IN FIEL
1918
D PLOTS ON
Plot No.
Name
Area planted
Acres
0.2362
0.4724
0.2362
0.4862
0.2224
(>.2362
0.4864
0 2224
0.2362
0.2362
0.2224
0.2224
0.2362
Yield
per acre
34
35-12
Early Baart
Sonora
Founds
2180
2032
2193
2557
2549
2032
2742
2414
2616
2650
2338
2315
2349
Bushels
36.33
33.86
36-43
Turkey
36.55
36-51
42.62
37- 1
38- 1
Poulard
42.49
33.87
39A- 5
39A- 9
4CA- 8
40A-57
.\rizona 39
Selected
45.70
40.24
43.60
44.17
41 A- 1
"
38.96
lE-13
lE-88
Macaroni
38.59
39.16
The varieties represented in this table are those which have
been selected for several years for either yield, or quality of grain,
or both. It is seen from Table V that the highest yielder in the lot
is Arizona 39, selection 5 (39A-5) producing at the rate of 45.7
bushels per acre. This is approximately 10 bushels more per acre
than was produced by a plot of Early Baart grown in the same
field under similar conditions. Section No. 9 of Arizona 39 (39A-9)
also produced nearly 5 bushels more per acre than the plot of Early
Baart. Baking tests have also been made of Arizona 39, but it is
inferior to Early Baart in flour strength, as will be seen from an in-
spection of Table VI. Table VI. gives the results of the latest
baking test with the varieties of wheat listed in Table V.
TABLE VI. BAKING TEST OF ARIZONA WHEATS
Maximum [
Volume
Weight
No.
Name
Absorption
volume of
of
of
dough
loaf
lo.if
c. c.
c. c.
Grams
34-16
Early Baart
63.7
2050
1940
526
35-12
Sonora ....
63.7
2000
1780
528
36-43
Turkey ....
70.3
2050
1675
544
36-51
"
69.3
2200
1630
529
37- 1
Poulard . . .
72.7
1750
1400
560
38- 1
"
70.0
1750
1405
554
39A- 5
Arizona 39.
63.7
1900
1710
522
39A- 9
" "
65
2000
1725
527
40A- 8
Selected . . .
62
1600
1310
520
40A-57
"
68.3
2050
1715
535
41 A- 1
"
68.8
2150
1630
543
lE-13
Macaroni . .
73.3
1750
1390
560
lE-88
. . . " .
78.3
1900
1640
576
University of Arizona 317
From Table VI it is seen that Early Baart (34-16) surpasses
every other variety represented in the table in volume of loaf. In
all these tests the same quantity of flour was taken for baking the
loaf. The column of figures representing loaf volume, therefore, is
of primary importance in judging the strength of the flours. Ari-
zona 39 (39A-9) and Sonora (35-12) came nearest to the Early
Baart in baking strength, but the difiference is great enough to
place Early Baart considerably ahead in this quality.
Of all the varieties tested so far by this department. Early
Baart outranks all others as a milling wheat. Its yield is about
the average of bread wheats in the State, and there is, therefore,
room for considerable improvement in this direction. Early Baart
has the disadvantage of being awned (bearded). Some farmers
object to the presence of awns, for, \l it becomes necessary to cut
the grain for hay, the hay produced- is of an inferior quality. The
beards also render the handling of the wheat previous to threshing
somewhat uni)leasant. For this reason the department is bringing
forward as rapidly as possible certain other bread wheat strains
which, it is believed, will yield, with a few year's further breeding,
as well as the Early Baart and which will at the same time be a
good millling wheat free from awns.
BEANS
The work of the department with beans this year has been
largely along investigational lines related to the various Mendelian
genetic factors of the plant. It was anticipated that along with
this scientific investigation an economic result might in the end be
accomplished. The better the plant is known, genetically, the
easier will it be to combine characters in the attempt to produce
nearer the ideal.
Particular study was given to the variation of the internodes
as afifecting the variances in height of the plant and also as affecting
the variation in the percentage of supernumerary leaves. In the
anticipation of the latter it was assumed that internode length could
vary to zero thereby causing a crowding together into within a
practicallv immeasurable zone of the first two or three, or four
nodes, each node carrying its leaf, and thus giving a set of super-
numerary leaves. The plant having all internodes measurably shows
two leaves at the first node and one at each node thereafter. Thus
in the case of a zero length of the first internode we would find
three primary leaves ; zero length of the first and second internodes,
four primary leaves, etc. Data covering about three years' work
318 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station .
showed 92 percent of all plants having zero length of the first inter-
node, 66 percent having zero length of the first and second, and 1
percent having zero length of the first, second and third internodes.
This leaves 8 percent having two primary leaves. Then 92 percent
of 66 percent, or 61 percent, of all plants should have had four or
more, thus leaving 92 less 61, or 31 percent, of all plants with three
primaries. Also 1 percent of 61 percent, or 0.6 percent, of all plants
should have had five primary leaves, leaving about 60 percent with
four primaries. Table VII shows how nearly the actual count in
one race approaches the theoretically expected.
TABLE VII. — NUMBER PRIMARY LEAVES
2
3
4
5
No. 202 Theoretically expected . .
No. 202 Actual count
8
9
25
27
68
64
2
0
A number of pure races of teparies were planted in the screen
garden on the campus during the last spring and summer wdth the
plan in view to obtain a number of reciprocal crosses in order that a
new set of hybrids might be produced. Considerable efforts were
expended in developing a practical and effective method of open
field cross pollination of beans.
An interesting segregation appeared this year coming from
the Fi seed of a cross between a taine and a wild tepary. A further
investigation wnll be made with the various segregates.
ALFALFA
The work with alfalfa has been with three series of plots. One
of these plots is located in the screen garden on the campus, and
the other two are on the Salt River Valley Farm,
The plot in the screen garden consists of 342 transplanted plants
from various sources. Most of these plants were taken from the
best plots of the Evergreen Nursery when the work at that place
was discontinued in 1916. About twenty-five of these plants were
taken from the Hairy Peruvian alfalfa which w-as growing on the
north side of the Salt River Valley Farm in the fall of 1917. An
individual plant study has been made of (1) heat resistance, as indi-
cated by rapidity of growth and yield of consecutive cuttings as the
heat of the summer comes on, and (2) quality, as indicated by size
of stems and percentage of leaves. The work was confined mostly
to the study of heat resistance. The entire plot was irrigated about
University of Arizoxa
319
once a week so that the lack of water was probably not a limiting
factor of growth. Kach plant was cut as soon as the first blooms
appeared. Table \'I11 shows the dates of cuttings and yields per
plant from fifteen selected plants selected from Plot 156, which
came originally from the Evergreen Nursery. A similar study was
made of each of the 342 plants.
TABLE VIII. — WEIGHTS OF ALFALFA PRODUCED PER PLANT WITH DATES FOR
EACH CUTTING, 1918
1st cutting
2nd cutting |
3rd cutting
4th cutting
No.
Date
wt.
Date
wt.
Date
wt.
Date
wt.
Grams
Grams
Grams
Grnms
1
April
11
840
May
18
636
June
14
400
July 10
242
1
April
23
120
May
30
130
June
22
80
July 26
25
3
April
11
841
May
18
655
June
22
501
Julv 26
170
4
April
23
368
May
23
247
June
22
216
Tuly 26
130
5
April
11
842
May
18
584
June
22
429
July 26
128
6
May
3
800
June
5
422
Tuly
2
200
Julv 26
48
7
April
11
962
May
18
671
June
22
540
July 26
140
9
April
20
923
May
22
514
June
22
307
July 26
205
10
April
15
984
Mav
18
578
June
22
322
July 26
140
11
April
23
323
May
30
420
July
2
211
12
April
13
308
May
22
214
July
2
165
13
April
15
1840
May
22
980
June
22
689
July 26
274
14
April
11
1784
May
18
1025
June
22
845
July 26
272
18
April
24
547
May
22
416
June
22
200
July 10
63
20
April
3
810
May
7
544
June
5
310
July 2
187
It is seen from an inspection of Table VIII that all plants are
considerably reduced in yield as the summer advances. In no case,
except in that of plant No. 1, was the yield of the fourth cutting
more than one-fourth of that or the first cutting. The yields of
plant No. 6 dropped from 800 grams at the first cutting on May 3,
to 48 grams at the fourth cutting on July 26. In these studies it is
not the absolute yield per plant which is considered important, since
it has not been shown that yield per plant is indicative of mass yield.
Selections for increase will be made from those plants whose sum-
mer cuttings are high percentages of their respective first cuttings.
The 61 pedigree races sown in rows, and the 18 large field
plots on the Salt River Valley Farm were continued in 1918 for
further study of yield and quality of hay for the different strains.
Owing to the shortage of water due to a break in the irrigation
main in mid-summer only three cuttings which furnished com-
parable data were made from the field plots. The last cutting was
made July 1. In searching for high summer yielders a comparison
was made between the yields of the first cuttings, April 16, and
those made July 1. Table IX shows these comparisons.
320
Annual Rei'Ort Agricultural Experiment Station
TABLE IX.— YIELDS OF ALFALEAS SALT RIVER VALLEY FARM, 1918
Mo.
Variety
No.
plots
Yield per acre
cutting April 16
Y'^ield per acre
cutting- July 1
Percent July 1
cutting of
April 16
cutting
11
22
Variegated
Arabian
3
3
Pounds
3779
3098
Pounds
3378
2663
89
86
24
Algerian
2
4110
3018
73
27
Turkestan
1
3682
2994
77
35
Siberian
1
4477
3500
78
39
Peruvian
6
4024
2625
65
41
French
2
5180
3918
76
No. 41, a French variety, was the highest yielder of all the alfal-
fas tested in field plots. As will be seen from the table its yield,
both in April and in July, surpassed the Hairy Peruvian (39) by
more than a thousand pounds per acre for each of these cuttings.
Another significant fact in connection with No. 41 is that the cut-
ting of July 1 is 76 percent of the cutting of April 16, while the
percentage of the cutting of July 1 of the Hairy Peruvian (39) was
only 65 percent of the cutting of April 16. The French variety will
probably not grow as well through the cool winters of southern
Arizona as Hairy Peruvian, but it seems to be a much more vigor-
ous summer grower. It has been planned to take seed crops from
these alfalfas next year and if these high yielders prove to be good
seed producers, seed crops will be taken as rapidly as possible for
general distribution.
GRAIN SORGHUMS
The work during the past year with sorghums was confined to
breeding for type of plant in milo. In the fall of 1916 about 60
•dwarf milo plants were selected from the Yuma plots. Nothing
was done on the grain sorghum project in 1917 owing to insufficient
help in the department. Each of these plants had a single upright
head producing neither suckers nor branches. The purpose in mak-
ing these selections was to make a study of the eft'ect of selection on
tillering and branching. It is believed that a plant prcMlucing a
single upright head, provided size of head and size of grain can be
maintained, would have many points of advantage over the ordinary
branching plants with pendant heads. Thirty-four of the best heads
from the 60 selections of 1916 mentioned above were planted in
head rows on the Mesa Farm in July, 1918. When the plants were
in full head a study was made of the branching habits of the plants,
type of head, size of grain, and height of plant. Of the 5,270 plants
grown on the 34 rows, about 80 plants were found which came true
University of Arizona 321
to the single head type, and about half of the heads of these plants
were upright.
It appears from these studies that some of the plants were pure
for the type selected, while others, due to some unusual position in
the field, such as crowding or lack of moisture, failed to develop
normally. Selections were made for carrying the work further next
season.
W. E. Br VAN,
Acting Plant Breeder.
C. O. Bond,
Assistant Plant Breeder.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
A combination of scarcity of forage in most range districts,
high prices of roughages and concentrates, expensive and inef^cient
labor, scarcity of money, and relatively low prices of animals have
made stock-raising difhcnlt in Arizona during the past year. A
second year of drought has prevailed in all parts of the State, except
for scattered districts and ranges in Coconino, Yavapai, and Mohave
-jounties. Rains have been unusually local in distribution, there
being small areas in the dry belt that have supplied good forage.
Losses have been great among sheep and cattle, and the lamb and
calf crop were below normal. Fortunately, a mild winter in the
northern part of the State was most favorable for range c_ttle and
sheep, but lack of feed and water made it necessary to purchase
cottonseed cake, hay, and silage for the animals.
For the most part, stock production has been profitable on irri-
gated farms, but the high price of feeds made cattle and sheep feed-
ing operations less remunerative than formerly. Where actual cost
of production was considered, dairying has been profitable, although
not as large returns were secured as would have been possible by
selling the feed at market value. A distinct tendency to reduce the
number of horses, cattle, and hogs on irrigated farms has prevailed.
Many stockmen not owning their farms, or operating on a long
term lease, have been forced out of the business by high price of'
feed, expensive leases, and scarcity of labor. The light rainfall
made it difficult to raise crops on dry-farm areas during the past
year. In too many cases, a reserve of feed was not retained, and
when the drought came dry-farmers found it difhcult to maintain
their animals.
The winter of 1917 and 1918 was one of the most trying for
sheepmen since 1904. Owing to the drought, scarcity of water, and
the cool weather, feed did not grow on the desert. Many ewes
died, and the lamb crop was much below normal. In some flocks,
the lamb crop will not be sufficient to replace the loss among the
ewes. Many of the ewes were moved to irrigated districts, where
feed for them cost as much as $3.00 to $4.00 a head. Pastures in
the SaU River Valley cost from $25.00 to $40.00 per acre for a
period of six weeks with hay at $35.00 per ton. Fortunately, the
prices of lambs and wool were unusually good, and sheepmen will
make a normal profit in spite of mortality and increased cost of
production.
The cattle industrv has had a serious set-back in Arizoni
University of Arizona 323
during- the past year. Drought prevailed in southern and north-
eastern counties, and many animals were forced to market. The
prices of heavy cattle, two and three-year-old steers and up, in-
creased appreciably, but there was a tendency for yearlings and
cows to decrease during the year. The demand for stockers in the
fall of 1917 was below normal, and many that would normally be
marketed had to be wintered. The shortage of range feed and the
overstocked condition of the ranges caused many thousands of cattle
to starve in the drought stricken areas. Some cattle were fed, and
those strong enough to stand shipping to market were sent to
packers, without regard to age or sex. The number of cattle in the
State has been materially reduced during the past year, and there
will not be the normal number to go to market next year unless
forced liquidation continues on account of the drought and scarcity
of money.
A distinct tendency to place the production of range animals
on a more secure and substantial basis has been observed during
the past year. Over 5,000,000 acres of range land have been pur-
chased and an equal area leased during the past two years. The
control of the land in this way makes it possible for the stockmen
to protect their range by fencing, developing water, and avoiding
overgrazing. B}- the application of improved methods stockmen
claim that they can double the carrying capacity of the range, and
reserve feed to carry the animals over drought. Tanks and deep
wells have been installed, allowing a more even distribution of the
animals on the range, besides making available large areas of little
value for stock production without water. More registered sires
have been used than at any previous time, and they are certain to
effect a distinct improvement in the quality of the offspring. The
large number of cowboys and sheep herders who enlisted in the war
made it necessary to perfect measures for conducting operations
with a smaller labor force. Not a few of the large cattle and sheep
outfits have purchased irrigated farms which are operated in con-
junction with the range business. Forage crops are being pro-
duced wherever possible, and conserved in stacks and silos to be
L'sed in drought emergencies. As a result of these improvements
stockmen are able to give the animals closer attention and with less
labor, so that losses will be reduced in the future, and with normal
rainfall there will be greater production and larger returns from
Arizona ranges in spite of the apparent increase in all the items
figured in cost of production.
324 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
FEEDING YUCCA TO STARVING RANGE COWS
During the past year thousands of cattle were kept from starva-
tion by feeding them chopped yucca. Where this plant grows
abundantly it makes a good emergency feed for starving cattle and
sheep. The plant is found over most of Arizona at altitudes of
3,000 to 5,000 feet. It is prepared for stock by chopping with a
special machine which was placed on the market early in the year.
The machine works on the same principle as a root chopper and is
driven by a 6 to 10-horsepower gasoline engine. One of these small
machines will chop one to two tons of yucca per hour, or sufficient
to keep 500 cattle alive. Only the thinnest and weakest stock are
fed, but calves can be satisfactorily weaned on 10 to 20 pounds of
soapweed and one pound of cottonseed cake a day. Cows are given
twice as much of the pulp and will gain in strength on it, but the
addition of one-half to one pound of cake daily will give better re-
sults. Cows can be fed on the pulped stems and leaves at $1.00 to
$1.50 per month where it is not necessary to haul the yucca over
four miles. Animals that have become so weak that they cannot
get up alone will gain strength and do well on this feed, but it is
best to begin feeding before they become so weak. The animals
should be placed in separate lots so they can be classified according
to strength and food requirements. They soon learn to eat the
yucca and grow fond of it. Feeding is done by scattering the pulp
on the ground or placing it in feed bunks. It is best to allow the
stronger animals the freedom of a large pasture where they can
gather dry grass and browse.
Pulped yucca has been demonstrated to have sufficient food
quality to keep both cows and sheep alive. Undoubtedly 75 percent
or more of the cows that have been fed on yucca would have died if
some kind of feed had not been supplied them. While yucca will
certainly keep starving cows alive, it is considered best to supple-
ment the range by growing crops wherever possible by dry-farming,
floodwater, or irrigation methods. The labor of preparing the yucca
is considerable and the work is not pleasant. As this plant grows
slowly, the supply will become exhausted so that yucca does not
offer a permanent means of relief during dry periods which retard
the growth of range forage.
Early in the spring of 1918 the problem of using yucca for tiding
cattle over short range was studied. The results of these observa-
tions are given in Extension Circular No. 21.
University of Arizona
325
HOGS
During the year a careful record was maintained of the hogs
at the University Farm and valuable information secured regarding
the effect of feeding certain foods to growing and fattening hogs.
fattening iior.s on garbage alone
Eight pigs in ordinary field condition, weighing a total of 605
pounds, were fed over a period of 25 days on garbage alone. At
the outset the pigs seemed to relish the feed, and ate it greedily.
All animals did well, making rapid and uniform gains. At the end
of 25 days the pigs weighed 981 pounds, making a total gain of 376
pounds. This gain at 16 cents a pound, which was the local price
at that time, would amount to $60.16 for the gain in live weight.
The following statement gives the results of this test :
Average weight at beginning, 75.6 pounds.
Average weight at end of 25 days. 122.6 pounds.
Average gain per pig, 47.0 pounds.
Average gain per pig per day, 1.88 pounds.
TWO METHODS OF RAISING REGISTERED DUROC-JERSEY GILTS
Five gilts, born January 10. 1918. have been under observation
lor a period of 284 days. They were weaned when about eight
weeks old, and weighed approximately 35 pounds each. All five
animals were from the same litter and uniform in size, vigor, and
quality. Two of them were sold April 6. 1918. and raised in the
ordinarv manner used in the district. The other three received
good care and attention, being fed on rolled barley and corn bran
until July 15 w^hen they were given rolled barley; after this date
they were fed on garbage. The weights of these animals on Octo-
ber 21, 1918. when the pigs were 284 days old. are given in Table X.
TABLE X. — WEIGHTS OF PIGS RAISED ACCORDING TO TWO METHODS
Pig No.
Farmer
Method of feeding
Weight Oct. 21
Pouvds
1
A
Ordinarv
105
9
A
"
145
3
B
Good
295
4
B
"
315
5
B
"
303
It is interesting to note that the two gilts on Farm A weighed
a total of 250 pounds, which is 40 pounds less than the lightest gilt
raised on Farm B. The average weight of a giU raised on Farm
A was 125 pounds, while the average weight of gilts raised on
326 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
Farm B was 304.33 pounds. The pigs were not alike in any respect
except color and it would require an expert judge to distinguish
much merit in pigs No. 1 and 2. Undoubtedly these pigs would
have been just as good if fed the same way. It will be most inter-
esting to continue this study to see if they will become as large,
attractive, and useful animals as those raised on Farm B. Table
XI gives data regarding the weight and gains of the five pigs.
TABLE XI. — RATE OE GAINS IN PIGS RAISED ACCORDING TO TWO DIEEERENT
METHODS
.
Weight at
Weight at
284 days
Gains
since
weaning
A.verage daily gains since
1 56 days
Birth
Weaning
1
9
3
4
5
Pounds
35
35
35
35
35
Pounds
105
145
295
315
303
Pounds
70
110
260
280
268
Pounds
.37
.51
1.04
1.07
1.07
Pounds
.31
.48
1.14
1.23
1.18
A thrifty breeding gilt should gain fully a pound a day from
the time of birth, and slightly more from the time of weaning.
Gains are made more rapidly as the animal becomes larger. The
pigs maintained on Farm A gained only one-third to one-half as
much as those on the other farm.
Undoubtedly it is unprofitable to withhold feed from young
pigs, and registered breeding stock must have a liberal allowance
oi food. These animals have been developed to yield maximum re-
turns from liberal feeding. Scrubs would probably do better under
neglect. Razor-back hogs of the South, or wild Havalina or Pecary
pigs in the Southwest, will probably thrive better than the pure
breds where they must rustle for feed on the range.
GARBAGE VERSUS GRAINS EOR GROWING AND FATTENING HOGS
An experiment was conducted the i)a.st year to ascertain the
value of garbage as a food for growing and fattening hogs. The
garbage used in this test was of average quality, collected daily
from the University dining hall, and fed as 'nearly as possible on
the day collected.
Three registered Duroc-Jersey gilts, farrowed January 10, 1918,
and weaned March 7, 1918, were fed grains and garbage over dif-
ferent periods. From March 7 to July 15 they were fed on dry
grain, and also from September 16 to 30. Their feed consisted
wholly of garbage from July 15 to September 15 and from Septem-
ber 30 to November 11. While they were being fed garbage, this
food and water constituted their onlv ration.
University of Arizona
327
The pigs were weighed at weekly intervals beginning May 20
and continuing to November 11. Table XII gives the date, kind of
feed and average daily gain of each pig while on test.
TABLE XII. COMPARISON OF GAINS OF PIGS FED ON GARBAGE AND GRAINS
Jan. 10 to May 20
May 20 to July 15
July 15 to Sept. 16
Sept. 16 to Sept. 30
Sept. 30 to Nov. 11
Feed
Average daily gain
Pigl
Pig 2
Pig 3
Mother's milk and grains
Grains
Pounds
0.68
1.32
1.17
1.07
1.82
Pounds
0.62
1.30
1.51
1.43
1.83
Pounds
0.71
1.20
Garbage
1.37
Grains
1.21
Garbage
1.19
Table XII indicates that with two exceptions each time the
pigs were changed from a grain ration to garbage, the average daily
gain increased appreciably. On the other hand when changed from
garbage to grain, which took place September 16 to September 30,
each animal slumped decidedly in daily gain. Two of the animals
showed a decided increase in daily gain when changed from a rolled
liarley ration to one of garbage during the last period of the
experiment.
Table XIII gives the average daily gain in pounds for each
of the three pigs while fed on garbage as compared to grain.
TABLE XIII. — AVERAGE DAILY GAIN OF PIGS FED ON GARBAGE AND GRAIN
Date
Mav 20 to July 15 and
Sept. 16 to 30
July 15 to Sep. 16 and
Sept. 30 to Nov. 11...
Feed
Average daily
gain
Pig 1 Pig 2
Pig 3
Pounds 1 Pounds
Pounds
Grains
1.19 1 1.36
1.20
Garbage
1.49 I 1.67
1.28
Average
of all
Pounds
1.265
1.455
The three gilts which weighed 81, 89, and 92 pounds, respec-
tively, on May 20, weighed 328, 346, and 320 pounds, respectively,
at the end of 175 days. The gain during this period was 724 pounds.
They were fed garbage 105 days, during which time they gained
464.2 pounds and they were fed grain 65 days, gaining 259.8 pounds.
At this rate the average daily gain for the entire group amounted
to 1.455 pounds for the garbage fed hogs and 1.265 pounds for the
period they were fed on grains. This indicates that greater gains
were produced on garbage than grains as each of the pigs made
greater gain while being fed garbage.
The garbage fed to the three gilts cost approximately $5.00 a
month or a total of $17.50 for the 105 days. Considering the fact
328 x\nnuaIv Report Agricultural Experiment Station
that hogs were worth $16.00 per 100 pounds this is a very good
profit from feeding garbage. If the pigs had been fed on grains
during this time i.t would require fully 5 pounds of grain to produce
a pound of gain in live weight.. This grain costs locally 3 cents per
pound and, at this rate, it would have cost 15 cents to produce a
pound of gain or $69.60 for the 464.2 pounds gain. Thus garbage
effected a saving of $52.10 compared with a grain ration. This
saving amounted to $12.50 per hundred pounds of gain in live
weight.
The feeding tests with garbage prove emphatically that it is
a splendid food for growing and fattening hogs. Thruout the feed-
ing period the animals were in slaughter condition. Garbage is a
cheaper source of food for hogs than grain, at present market prices,
and wherever it can be secured it should be used. Anyone situated
within a reasonable distance of a supply such as that secured from
hotels, restaurants, or mining camps would do well to use garbage
for the production of high-priced pork at low cost. Where reason-
able intelligence is used in keeping the garbage fresh and placing
nothing except clean, wholesome food in the garbage can, there is
no danger of disease or losses from feeding it.
FEEDING WORK HORSES ON CORN SILAGE
Silage is sometimes fed to work horses, but frequently with
injurious results. During the winter of 1918 a man at Tucson lost
five horses from feeding moldy silage. Other reports in the State
also indicate that silage may be highly toxic for horses, but no
instances have been found of it injuring cattle or sheep when
properly fed.
On the Prescott Dry-Farm four horses have been fed a con-
siderable portion of silage the past three years. During this time
they were usually given all the alfalfa hay they would eat, but from
time to time silage constituted the only roughage. When worked
they were given an addition of about 8 pounds of rolled barley per
head daily. This amount of grain was greatly reduced when the
horses were idle and at times they received nothing but silage.
From April 1, 1918, until late in the summer, the horses were given
all the silage they would eat at all times. Daily feed records were
maintained from June 15 to August 12, and the amount of silage
consumed ranged from 130 to 490 pounds per day and averaged
during this period 299 pounds per day for four work horses. The
average amount per head was 74.75 pounds daily during the period,
and varied from 32.5 to 122.5 pounds per head daily. If the silage
Univkrsity of Arizona 329
contained 30 percent dry matter each horse averaged approximately
22 ponnds of dry matter in the silage daily.
No injurious results were observed from feeding the silage.
The animals were in good vigorous condition at all times, and
worked well. vSome observations, however, have been made to
the effect that the muscles seem to be a little soft and the animals
lack somewhat in ambition. One would seem justified in conclud-
ing that silage may be safely fed to horses at all times if given m
reasonable amounts, and after it has been ascertained that it con-
tains no poisonous substances. It is important, however, that the
animals should be gradually accustomed to the feed and that not
more than half of the dry matter is made up of silage. Where grain
is abundant in the material used for silage, one should reduce the
quantity of grain given to the animals. The greatest danger from
feeding silage is allowing horses to consume molded material, which
often proves fatal.
SHEEP
THK WOOL CLIP
Twelve sheep, including five mature and six yearling cross-bred
ewes, and one Hampshire ram, yielded a total of 80.75 pounds of
wool. The yearlings averaged 5.83 pounds per head, and the ma-
ture sheep 7.63 pounds. The registered flock consisted of 37 ani-
mals and these gave a total weight of 236 pounds of wool or an
average of 6.38 pounds per head. Table XIV gives the wool clip
for 1918.
T.NBLE XIV. — YIKLD OF WOOL, 1918
I Fleeces Weight of Average weight Average net value of
Flock No. wool per animal wool per animal
I Pounds Pounds Dollars
Mesa... 12 80.75 6.73 3.56
U. of A. 37 236.00 6.38 I 3.18
It is most interesting to note that these sheep gave an average
net return of $3.37 per head, for the annual clip of wool. The re-
turns suggest that every farmer would do well to maintain a small
flock of sheep. They are especially valuable in gleaning fields and
keeping weeds in check in pasture fields and out-of-way places.
MARKETING WOOL IN 1918
The wool produced by the sheep during the past year was
sent to two commission firms in Chicago with the request that it
330 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
be graded and sold according to quality. The report from these
firms is given in Table XV.
TAIiLE XV. COMMISSION FIRm's REPORT OF ARIZONA WOOL
Commis-
sion firm
Weight
of wool
Grade
Price per
pound
Expense of
marlieting
Total
Per lb.
Pounds
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
A
78
Western and low medium
.60
4.99
.064
B
54
J4 Semi
.58
10.16
.043
B
182
Vs Semi
.53 J
The cross-bred sheep yielded wool that was graded '\vestern
and low medium," while wool from registered Hampshire and
Shropshire sheep was classified "^ Semi and }i Semi." The price
secured for the cross-bred wool was distinctly higher than that
from the other sheep, but this is thought due primarily to the mar-
keting ability of the two commission firms. Another probable rea-
son for the difference may be the fact that over half the registered
sheep gave fleeces that were only 10 months old, and on this account
the wool w'as short in staple. Naturally the cross-bred wool has
more length of staple than that secured from the registered Hamp-
shire and Shropshire sheep, and there was a special demand for
that kind of wool during the past year.
COTTONSEED CAKE FOR DAIRY COWS
With the development of the cotton industry in Arizona, quan-
tities of cottonseed by-products have become available as stock
foods. It is well known that these feeds are high in food value and
they are used extensively for live stock feeding in the older cotton
districts. Their use in Arizona has become quite extensive since
under government supervision they have been placed on the market
at very reasonable prices.
This experiment was planned to test the value of cold pressed
cottonseed cake as a su])i)lement to alfalfa hay and corn silage. To
test the relative value of various combinations three rations were
taken, each containing as nearly as possible the same energy value.
The rations used were as follows:
Ration 1 — 15 lbs. alfalfa hay
40 " silage
Ration 2 — 22 lbs. alfalfa hay
4 " cottonseed cake
University of Arizona
331
Ration 3 — 11 lbs. alfalfa hay
40 " silage
3 " cottonseed cake
Eleven cows were available for the test. These were divided
into three groups : four in each of two groups and three in the other.
Since it was impossible to balance the groups evenly the test was
divided into three periods of twenty-eight days each, and the rations
were alternated so that each ration was fed to each group of cows
for the same length of time. In this way it was possible to over-
come the effects of difference of breed, period of lactation, and indi-
viduality of the cows. One week interval was allowed between
each period to allow the cows to become used to the change in
rations.
No attempt was made to draw any conclusions from the data
secured during any one period because of so many factors entering
in to influence the results, but the combined results of each ration
for the three periods were studied. Table No. XVI shows the
total number days each ration was fed, total feed consumed, total
milk produced, and total fat yield.
T.4BLE XVI. SUMMARY OF FEEDS FED AND MILK AND FAT PRODUCE.)
Number
Rations
Total feed
Total milk
Total fat
days in
con.su med
yield
yield
Pounds
test
Pounds
Pounds
Ration 1
* Alfalfa hay 15 lbs...
4.956
7810.5
262.3
84
Silage 40 " . .
12,320
Ration 2
*Alfalfa hav 22 lbs. . .
7,028
8270.2
289.1
84
Cottonseed cake 4 " . .
1,232
Ration 3
*Alfalfa hav lllbs...
3.72\
Silage 40 " . .
12.320
7679.4
268.9
84
Cottonseed cake 3 " . .
924
*3 lbs. alfalfa hay per cow per day was added during last period.
The cows gave 459.7 pounds of milk and 26.79 pounds of fat
more when receiving alfalfa hay and cottonseed cake than from
alfalfa and silage, and 590.8 pounds of milk and 20.2 pounds of
butter fat more than from the alfalfa, silage, and cottonseed meal
ration. This would indicate that the cottonseed cake was a better
supplement for alfalfa hay than silage, yet Ration 3, which contains
three pounds of the cake in combination with silage and alfalfa,
failed to produce as much milk as the alfalfa and silage ration. The
amount of milk varies almost directly with the amount of alfalfa fed.
332 Annual Report Agricultur.\l Experiment Station
Table XVII shows the cost of the feed fed, the cost of the feed
per gallon of milk and per pound of butter fat, the value of the milk
produced from each ration during the test if figured at 30 cents per
gallon, and the profit over cost of feed.
TABLE XVII. — COST OF PRODUCTION AND PROFIT OVER COST OF FEED
Rations
Cost of
feed
Cost per
gallon of
millc
Cost per
pound
fat
Value of
milk at
30 cts.
per gallon
Profit
ever cost
Of feed
Ration 1
Alfalfa hay
Silage
15 lbs..
40 lbs..
Dollars
117.39
Cents
12.9
Cents
45.1
Dollars
272.43
Dollars
155.04
Ration 2
Alfalfa hay
Cottonseed cake
22 lbs..
4 lbs..
115.57
12.2
38.9
288.48
173.91
Ration 3
Alfalfa hay
Silage
Cottonseed cake
nibs.. '
40 lbs.. 1
3 lbs.. 1
122.76
13.6
45.6
267.87
146.11
To compute the costs of production the prices of the feeds were
fixed as follows : alfalfa hay, $25.00 per ton ; silage, $9.00 per ton,
and cold pressed cottonseed cake, $60.00 per ton. These are be-
lieved to be about an average of the prevailing market prices during
the past year. The cows were fed most cheaply on Ration 2 while
Ration 3 was most expensive. The cost of milk per gallon was 12.9
cents on Ration 1, 12.2 cents on Ration 2, and 13.6 cents on Ration 3.
The cost per pound of butter fat was less on Ration 2 than on
either of the other rations. When milk was figured at 30 cents per
gallon, the profit over cost of feed was $18.87 more for Ration 2
than for Ration 1, and $27.80 more than for Ration 3. The profit
over cost of feed per day per cow was as follows. Ration 1 — 50.3
cents. Ration 2 — 56 cents. Ration 3 — 47 cents.
The results of this experiment are unusual, since the best bal-
anced ration gave the poorest returns while the most unbalanced
ration made the largest and most profitable production. Consider-
ing the fact that Ration 2, containing 22 pounds of alfalfa hay and
4 pounds of cottonseed cake gave a much better result than Ration
3, consisting of 11 pounds of alfalfa hay, 40 pounds of silage, and
3 pounds of cottonseed cake, it would seem that the larger propor-
tion of hay was more responsible for the increased and more
economical production than was the cottonseed cake. This experi-
University of Arizona
333
ment is being repeated with some minor modifications, and no defi-
nite conclusions will be drawn until it is seen whether the similar
results are secured from it.
INSTRUCTION AND EXECUTIVE WORK
With the declaration of war by the United States, new responsi-
bilities were forced upon the nation. The members of the depart-
ment attempted to do something of immediate importance to in-
crease the surplus live stock from the State. Many short and
timely articles have been prepared for i)ublication during the past
year. The stockmen were encouraged to initiate certain improve-
ments and apply methods which were best suited to local conditions.
It must be said that the stockmen in the State rallied almost to a
man, and patriotically did everything they C(juld to produce more
meat for the nation. In many cases they spent more money at-
tempting to keep animals alive by giving them high priced feeds
than they could secure from them.
During the year the registered Jersey cow, Gipsy Draconis,
owned by the University, has completed a semi-official test for a
year. This cow gave 10,162.7 pounds milk, 498.77 pounds butter
fat, equivalent to 586.78 pounds of 85 percent butter, in 365 days.
She has the distinction of leading every cow in the State in the
amount of butter yield for the year. Other cows were tested for
breeders of Holstein and Jersey cattle during the year. Table
XVIII gives the yield of cows in the University herd during the
past year.
TABLE XVIII. — YIELDS OF DAIRY COWS AT THE UNIVERSITY FARM,
1917-1918
Name of cow
Princess of Chewanbeek
Childberte
Gipsv Draconis
Belle Liscomb De Kol 2d . .
Josephine Ariz. Maid
Theresa Belle Monona
Josephine Ariz. Maid 2d...
*Margaret De Kol Johanna . .
Madison Martha 2d
*Miss Pell Pietertje
Thersa Belle Moncna .
Average for herd
Breed
Jersey
Holstein
Days
in milk
Y'ield
Milk
Pounds
307
S777A
328
6,281.3
406
10,693.1
260
8.125.1
324
13,216.2
326
9,765.9
276
8,960.0
233
3.396.1
291
8,077.1
332
5,639.1
467
7,934.0
318
7^7.7
Butter
fat
Averag^e
butter fat
Pounds
%
299.30
474
360.83
5.74
575.54
5.40
269.80
3.32
382.90
2.89
325.52
3.42
251.21
2.80
106.30
3.19
243.89
3.09
219.63
3.95
251.92
3.17
298.79
3.74
♦Part of the lactation period.
334 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
The number of registered Hereford cattle, Duroc-Jersey hogs,
Hampshire and Shropshire sheep have been increased by maintain-
ing some of the females produced by these animals. During the
year a small flock of Rambouillet sheep has been added to the
equipment, and these will be highly desirable for demonstration and
class room purposes.
The department plans to continue the following lines of study
during the coming year :
1. Systems of live stock management
2. Lambing ewes on irrigated farms
3. Tiding range cows over drought
4. Finishing cattle for market
5. Pig feeding experiments
6. Poultry managements
The Animal Husbandry Department has been short handed in
the past, and a reorganization which will allow more specialization
is recommended. With this end in view, a Dairy Department has
been established with Professor W. S. Cunningham in charge. This
department plans to carry out the following projects during the
coming year
1 Study of systems of dairy management
2. Economical rations for dairy cattle
3. Raising calves on milk substitutes
4. Cheese making
5. Milk sanitation
The poultry interest in the State demands a specialist who will
be able to devote his entire time to this branch. A specialist in
veterinary science is also urgently needed to study local diseases
that are peculiar to the district. In order to permit any specializa-
tion within the department it will be necessary to have a general
assistant who will devote most of his time to teaching. The general
live stock interests in range districts warrant the selection of a
specialist in Animal Plusbandry for agricultural extension work.
R. H. Williams,
Animal Husbandman.
W. S. Cunningham,
Dairy Husbandman.
ENTOMOLOGY
In continuation of the experiments with grasshopper baits be-
gun in 1917, forty combinations were tested in 1918, beginning in
the month of May. Definite records were made concerning appli-
cations of these combinations to 269 acres of alfalfa and cotton
lands. In this work assistance was rendered in various ways by
Messrs. O. C. Bartlett, D. C. George, J. L. E. Lauderdale, George
Acuff, M. E. Kimscy, and R. H. Armstrong. The work was directed
against the same species as in 1917, the differential grasshopper,
Melanoplns diffcrcntialis. The tests were all made in the Salt River
Valley with the excc])ti()n of one application made by the writer
in a len-acre alfalfa field in the Verde \'alley near Camp Verde.
The movement or drifting of the grasshoppers in the fields
both toward and away from poisoned areas tends to confuse the
results of experiments with poisoned baits and makes it necessary
to repeat the tests many times under various conditions before
drawing final conclusions. Tentative conclusions from the work
done in 1917 are as follows:
1. A combination of half and half wheat bran and pine saw-
dust is fully equal to wheat bran alone for the bulk of the substance
of the bait and is easier to distribute than when all wheat bran is
used.
2. All sawdust is decidedly inferior to all bran or to a half and
half bran- sawdust mixture.
3. For the fruit, oranges are in no degree inferior to lemons
and are perhaps slightly better.
4. Canteloupes are in no degree inferior to lemons but on the
contrary are apparently slightly superior as well as cheaper.
5. Molasses is not only an unnecessary ingredient of poisoned
baits but wdien used w^ith citrus fruits the effectiveness of the bait is
reduced rather than increased.
From the experiments conducted in the summer of 1918 the
following tentative conclusions are drawn concerning poisoned baits
for the differential grasshopper :
1. Half and half and 60-40 percent wheat bran and sawdust
mixtures are fully as good as all bran.
2. Barley middlings is not entirely satisfactory as a substitute
for wheat bran although it usually gives fairly good results when
used in half and half mixtures with sawdust.
3. Dry horse manure is not a satisfactory substitute for wheat
bran altho it is not without merit for use in emergencies.
336 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
4. A mixture composed of wheat and corn bran (not over 50
percent of the latter) is as good as straight wheat bran.
5. Canteloupes are fully equal to lemons as ingredients of
poisoned baits.
6. Molasses does not add to the value of the bait.
7. London purple as the poisonous ingredient in baits is in-
ferior to Paris green.
Owing to the shortage of wheat bran, barley middlings was
extensively used in Arizona in 1918 as a substitute in grasshopper
baits. It was necessary to use sawdust with the barley middlings
to prevent lumping, the proportion used and advised being from
two-fifths to one-half sawdust. In the experiments here considered
in which combinations of barley middlings were used approximately
120 acres of infested lands were treated. The results were not as
satisfactory as observed in many other cases where barley middlings
and sawdust mixtures were used on large areas in demonstrations
and in subsequent work by alfalfa and cotton growers. Fortunately
it is probable that hereafter there will rarely if ever be any occasion
for the use of barley middlings as a substitute for wdieat bran.
Horse manure has been recommended by the writer and suc-
cessfully used in Arizona in grasshopper baits, mixed according to
the formula known as "Criddle mixture," but this has not been
tested particularly against the differential grasshopper as far as
known. Outbreaks of the differential grasshopper occurred in 1918
in localities where neither wheat, bran, barley middlings or sawdust
were available. In one instance it was reported that a farmer used
dry horse manure in the place of bran with good results. Tests
made in the Salt River Valley in 1918 with dry horse manure in
various combinations did not give very satisfactory results but
more work with this material is very desirable and is planned for
next season.
Corn bran alone appeared inferior to barley middlings and saw-
dust but the conditions were such in the tests of this that even
tentative conclusions could not be drawn. A wheat and corn bran
mixture was used with almost perfect results. This mixture was
purchased as wheat bran but was apparently nearly one-half corn
bran.
Of the nine series of experiments in 1918. six gave results re-
lating to the use of molasses. In four series in which molasses was
omitted in one or more tests this did not appear to reduce the effec-
tiveness of the baits. In one experiment in which the molasses was
increased two-thirds over the usually recommended amount no
University of Arizona 337
effect could be detected. In one series in which a medium Hght
grade of molasses was used instead of the usually recommended
darker grade the results were almost perfect, tending to show, inde-
pendent of all other experiments, that a darker grade, particularly
"Black Strap," is not necessary.
Baits for use against the differential grasshopper which can be
tentatively recommended as a result of two seasons' work reduce
the cost of the materials from approximately 50 cents to less than
35 cents. When cull canteloupes are available the cost runs as
low as 30 cents per acre. This is on the basis of one pound of
Paris green to 5 acres of land.
Poisoned baits are the principal means of combatting cutworms.
The regular grasshopper baits are generally recommended thruout
the United States at present, altho a few years ago the simple
combination of bran and Paris green with or without water was
considered satisfactory. As far as know^n to the writer there are
no published results of cutworm experiments showing the value of
either lemons or molasses in combination wath the bran and Paris
green. An excellent opportunity for testing the bran, Paris green,
and water combination against a common alfalfa pest (Feltia annexa
'JV.) was afforded in the fall of 1918 with apparently perfect results.
No live worms could be found in the treated field three weeks after
the application altho they remained in destructive numbers in a
nearby field which had not been poisoned. Cutworm poison con-
sisting of half a sack of bran (32^ pounds) and one pound of Paris
green costs at the present time at the rate of 36 cents per acre as
compared with 50 cents or more per acre for the usual grasshopper
bait containing molasses and lemons. It seems reasonable to as-
sume until actual tests prove the contrary that molasses and lemons
are unnecessary and of no value in baits for cutworms.
In connection with investigations of grasshoppers and cotton
square daubers (Lygiis clisiis var. hesperus Knight and L. pratensis
ohlincatus Say) it was discovered that many cotton fields suffer from
these pests as a result of the insects being driven out of adjoining
alfalfa fields when the alfalfa crop is cut. As a result of observa-
tions made on this point an article was prepared and published in
leading publications in cotton growing districts of the State recom-
mending a system which helps to protect cotton from injury from
this source. Alfalfa cutting and raking in fields adjoining cotton
fields should be started on the sides and continued toward the cen-
tral land or a land near to it on which alfalfa should be left
standing temporarily. The grasshoppers and cotton square dau-
bers aie thus concentrated near the center of the field. The grass-
338 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
hoppers can then be destroyed by means of a comparatively heavy
application of poisoned bait or by means of a hopperdozer. The
hopperdozer proved successful in capturing large numbers of other
destructive insects, particularly cotton square daubers and the three-
cornered alfalfa hopper. In one test the daubers were captured at
a rate of more than 7000 of the insects per acre. It is estimated
that this number of the square daubers liberated in or driven into
an Egyptian cotton field would be capable of doing damage amount-
ing to between $5.00 and $15.00 per day. The cost of using the
hopperdozer would not exceed 25 cents per acre. Even if the in-
sects are not destroyed by this or other means it is very important
in cutting alfalfa that they be driven into the middle of the field
or away from the cotton rather than toward it.
The cotton square daubers are active fliers and if disturbed
when feeding quickly emerge from the feeding place inside the
bracts of the square and dart away, usually alighting on another
plant a few feet distant. Two contrivances have been designed by
the writer for the protection of cotton fields against these insects.
The first is for the purpose of driving the bugs to the outside rows
of the field where, when concentrated, they may be captured by
means of the second device. Even if the insects are left concen-
trated on the outside rows there is a decided advantage in this
system, since two or three of the insects per plant are sufficient to
destroy all the squares as fast as they are developed, and concentrat-
ing the insects on outside rows so that there will be several times
as many of them per plant can not, therefore, result in any additional
injury. When concentrated in excessive numbers, however, there
would probably be a tendency for the insects to spread out again
over the field unless some other means was used against them. An
important feature of the work planned for the coming season con-
sists in the development of the devices mentioned to a point where
they can be recommended to cotton growers.
Publications by the Consulting Entomologist during the fiscal
year included the Annual Report of the State Entomologist in the
Ninth Annual Report of the Arizona Commission of Agriculture
and Horticulture, pages 15 to 61, December 30, 1917, and a paper
entitled "Experiments with Grasshopper Baits, with Incidental Ob-
servations on the Habits and Destructiveness of the Differential
Grasshopper (Melanoplus diffcrcntialis)" in Journal of Economic Ento-
mology, Vol. II. No. 2. pp. 175-186, April 1918.
A. W. Morrill,
Consulting Entomologist.
ZOOLOGY
Early in the college year 1917-18, the writer was transferred
from the College of Arts and Sciences to the College of Agriculture
and the Experiment Station, as Zoologist, this line of work having
been previously represented in the Station only by Entomology
under the Consulting Entomologist.
The first work taken up was an investigation of cutworms in
Arizona, and the preparation of a bulletin to be referred to later.
Shortly after taking up the cutworm work, attention was directed
to the range problems of the State, particularly with reference to
the injurious efifects of rodents on the native grass lands. This
problem soon loomed so large as to make it desirable to drop the
cutworm work, and take up an. intensive study of certain range
rodents, which was done. Cooperation with the Forest Service,
the Biological Survey, and the Carnegie Institution has led to the
development of important range studies which are being conducted
on the Santa Rita Range Reserve, 40 miles south of Tucson. The
I'orest Service, under the direct recommendation of the Biological
Survey, has furnished funds (about $800) for the construction of
special fences for experimental plots, the first fences of their kind
ever built. The Forest Service has also cooperated in furnishing
the conveniences of a headquarters camp on the edge of the Reserve,
thru the courtesy of Mr. Hensel, Forest Examiner in charge. The
writer has been occupied to a considerable extent with supervision
of construction of these fences, as well as actual labor on same, and
with rodent studies, especially on kangaroo rats, carried on month
by month with the fencing work. It was expected to have these
experimental areas fenced by June 30, 1918, but difficulties in secur-
ing materials and labor forced an extension of time, and they were
not entirely completed until late fall. However, the drought was
so severe on the Reserve, and especially on those portions of it
where the experiments are located, that the inauguration of certain
features of the v^^ork will have to await the next summer's rainy
season
Severe injury to corn in the Rillito Valley near Tucson, by a
stalk borer, was reported to the writer in October, 1917. This borer,
according to Dr. Morrill, State Entomologist, was first reported in
this State in 1915 from Cochise County. (See Eighth Ann. Rep.
Ariz. Com. Agri. and Hort.) Some life-history observations were
undertaken in cooperation with the Commission of Agriculture and
Horticulture in order to secure adult moths and determine whether
340 Annual Ri^port Agricultural Experiment Station
this pest is identical with the larger corn stalk borer of the East.
Moths have been secured which appear to be identical, but this
latter point is not yet fully settled. Further reports have been re-
ceived the past season indicating the presence of this borer at
Sahuarita, in the Santa Cruz Valley. As a preventive measure
where this borer occurs, the corn stubble should be plowed under
during the fall or winter, and such stubble as is left on top of the
ground should then be raked up and burned.
A beginning has been made on the task of building up a repre-
sentative collection of the insects of the State, emphasizing espe-
cially the economic forms, for demonstration, and for general study
purposes in the courses in Entomology in the College of Agricul-
ture. This task will necessarily be continuous for a number of
years.
The growing importance of honey during the sugar shortage and
the extremely high market value of the product led to a decision
to start, in a small way, an apiary for demonstration purposes and
for study. Four standard 10-frame hives have been secured, and
three of these now contain thriving colonies of bees, transferred
from old boxes on a neighboring ranch. At the University Farm
four hives, left there by some former foreman, have been cleaned
up and house as many strong colonies. Thus seven colonies are
ready for active operation in the next honey season. From the
Farm hives some surplus chunk honey was secured the past season,
which is being held against possible need in bringing all colonies
thru the winter in good condition. There was also taken from
these hives 24 pounds of comb honey, which was sold for thirty
cents a pound, wholesale.
PUBLICATIONS
The preparation of Bulletin No. 83, on Poisonous Animals of
the Desert, occupied a considerable amount of time in the earlier
part of the year. This bulletin is perhaps a bit out of the ordinary
in the usual run of Experiment Station bulletins. It deals with not
only the poisonous animals of this region, but gives reliable informa-
tion concerning many popularly feared, but actually harmless forms.
The demand for this bulletin has justified its preparation.
Chas. T. Vorhies,
Zooho;ist.
CHEMISTRY
The activities of the Chemists, as heretofore, have fallen undcr
three divisions: research, routine analytical work, and instruction.
The facilities for research in soil alkalinity have been improved much
by the construction of a screened garden so that now laboratory
investigations may be accompanied by pot cultures and even small
plot experiments. Such facilities are indispensable for protection
against birds, insects, and rabbits, which because of the scarcity of
green food in a semi-arid country preclude experiments on a small
quantitative scale in the open. The general laboratory equipment
has been improved by completing the equipment of a dark and
nearly constant temperature room. The room is located near the
center of the agricultural chemistry laboratories in the new Agri-
culture Building. Besides desks for calorimeter and polariscope
the equipment includes a special table for ether extractions. A
large refrigerator occupies the space beneath the table usually given
to cupboards and is provided with water coils, which supply ice
water for condensing purposes. For several months in the year
tap water cannot be used for condensing ether, a fact that hereto-
fore has worked great inconvenience, requiring special cooling de-
vices or the postponement of fat determinations until the winter
months.
Routine analytical work has covered a considerable range of
material. Many irrigating waters and soils for alkali have been
examined for farmers in the State, and much analytical work was
required in connection with expert advice furnished other branches
of the State and Federal Governments. The Chemist, accompanied
bv the Agronomist of the Station, examined and reported on a num-
ber of parcels of land offered the State for a state prison farm. In
the case of all properties olTered soil and water tests were made at
the laboratory.
During November and December the Chemist was again called
upon to serve on a commission, together with the Agronomist and
Horticulturist, whose duty it was to investigate the suitability of
the mesa at Yuma for citrus and other subtropical fruit culture,
when irrigated with the silty waters of the Colorado as proposed
by the U. S. Reclamation Service. The analytical and soil experi-
mental work required in. investigating this problem has occupied
the personnel and facilities of the laboratories for several weeks.
Total, acid soluble, and citric acid soluble potassium and phosphorus
are being determined on a number of typical soil samples from the
342 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
Mesa. Mechanical analyses and tests of water holding capacities
are being made, and parallel pot cultures using inoculated legumes
are also included in the investigation. In cooperation with the
Horticulturist a series of samples of citrus fruit from the old Blais-
dell orchard on the Yuma Mesa have been analyzed with a view to
showing their early maturing and other qualities. The details of
these several lines of investigation will be found in the report of
the commission to the Project Manager of the U. S. Reclamation
Service at Yuma. This report, which is a joint report from the
three departments concerned will be published as a bulletin by the
Experiment Station and is here referred to as forming a part of
the Chemist's annual report.
RESISTANCE OF CROPS TO ALKALI
A series of soil analyses illustrating the resistance of cotton
and other crops to alkali under field conditions have accumulated
in the laboratory and are given in Table XIX.
An inspection of Table XIX reveals the extreme difficulty of
attempting to establish limits of tolerance for alkali under field con-
ditions. Possible reasons may be oft'ered for some of the dis-
crepancies. First should be mentioned the difficulty of getting
soil samples that really represent the conditions under which the
plants are growing. The surface crust is always very alkaline and
should not enter into the sample in greater relative proportion than
it occurs. The roots of the plants may be drawing on other zones
than the one sampled, alkali being known to vary abruptly with
depth. In cultivated fields the variation in concentration also varies
greatly within a few feet. The mechanical composition of the soil
undoubtedly has much to do with alkali tolerance. In the case of
black alkali dissolved organic matter possibly may be poisonous.
One salt also influences the effect of another. Water soluble salts
due to calcium sulphate are harmless, but calcium chloride or
soluble magnesium salts are harmful forms of white alkali.
The soil 6819 carries excessive amounts of soluble salts, mostly
Swdium chloride, but it was said good crops were produced the
previous year, and the land had again been prepared for planting.
The sample analyzed was moist subsurface when collected. Dry
surface clods with capillary contact ran much higher in soluble salt.
The high tolerance in this case may be explained by the subirriga-
tion which kept the soil constantly wet.
Barlev soils 682v3 and 6824 show the best growth in the case of
University of Arizona
34:^
TABLE XIX. RESISTANCE OF CROPS TO ALKALI UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS
Crop
Cotton
6819
Milo
6821
Cotton
6822
Barley
6823
Barley
6824
Barley
6825
Barley
6826
Cotton
6827
Cotton
5828
Cotton
6752
Cotton
6753
Cotton
6754
Teparies
5887
Teparies
5888
Teparies
5889
Teparies
5890
Teparies
5898
Asparagus
6161
Barley
6004
Barlev
6005
Barley
6006
Barley
6007 _
Feterita
6203
Feterita
6204 _
Feterita
6205 _
Feterita
6206
Description
Good crop previous year ; sub-
irrigated by seepage from
canal
Adjoining above ; yielded some
milo previous year
V/i bales to acre ; near above. .
Just failure at tliis point
Same field; just profitable
Growing but failure ; hard soil ;
poor water relations
Same field ; commencing to
head at 12 to 15 inches; thin
Failure previous year; old
stalks 1 foot high ; land prob-
ably bakes
Part same field ; cotton good ;
soil very hard
X'o cotton
Same ticld ; some growth
Tall cotton
Edge of bare spots
Same ; l)arc spots
Same ; edge of bare spots
Same ; 50 percent injury
Same healtliy
Plants just alive
3" to 5" high ; same field
Sy/' high ; same field
V to 7" high ; same field
i" high ; same field
Barely existing
Same ; scattering light growth
Same; 35 percent stand
Same ; 50 percent stand
Soluble
salts
Sodium . I Sodium • Calcium
chloride carbonate 1 sulphate
equivalen) equivalent' squivalen)
1.06
.66
.44
.80
.71
.30
.26
.35
.24
2.29
0.47
.37
.63
1.30
.55
.42
.30
1^0
1.32
.43
.88
.41
.50
.49
.23
.24
%
.636
.360
.016
.306
.\48
.040
.004
.068
.02
1.408
.168
.152
.124
.516
.112
.076
.008
.50
.50
.008
.26
.008
.012
.012
.008
.008
%
%
.22
.02
.034
.017
.12
.15
.12
.06
.04
.48
.07
.02
15
20
• ■••
09
10
02
07
.609
.109
.065
.152
.416
.174
.109
.022
»544 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
TABLE XIX. — Continued
1
Sodium
Sodium
Calcium
Crop
Description
Soluble 1
chloride
carbonate
sulphate
salts \
equivalent
equivalent
equivalent
%
%
%
%
Feterita
Same ; good crop
.22
.008
.02
6207
Feterita
Adpacent land ; 25 percent stan(
.32
.008
.22
6212
Feterita
Same ; good crop
.30
.008
.06
6213
Feterita
Same ; almost killed
.2Z
.008
.12
6214
Feterita
Same ; verv good crop
.32
.008
.03
6215
Milo
6210
Milo
6211
Alfalfa
Adjacent land ; barely existing
.59
.036
.13
Same ; very good crop
.32
.008
.05
At head of land; no alfalfa...
.57
.152
.19
5979
Alfalfa
Same ; good alfalfa
.38
.048
.10
5980
Alfalfa
FCilled
.82
.024
.ZZ
6197
Alfalfa
Same ; just existing.
.42
.012
.12
6198
Alfalfa
Same ; affected
.27
.012
.05
6199
Alfalfa
Same ; good growth
.29
.012
.04
6200
the latter which contained one-third more black alkali ; but it is to
be noted that the first contains twice as much sodium chloride. The
failure in 6825 and 6826 as compared with 6824 was due probably
to a hard condition of the soil intensified by the deflocculating effect
of the black alkali so that water did not penetrate well when the soil
was irrigated — so-called slick land.
In the case of cotton soils 6752, 6753, and 6754 white alkali is
the limiting salt but there is no apparent explanation for the marked
difference in growth between 6753 and 6754. Teparies are appar-
ently quite sensitive to soluble chlorides. Asparagus, which is
ordinarily a salt-loving plant, was affected by black alkali in the
presence of the rather excessive amount of white alkali. The series
of barley soils 6004, 6005, 6006, and 6007 seem to yield no conclusive
evidence. The injury thruout was ])robably due to a tight soil in-
tensified by the varying amounts of black alkali present which
prevented it from taking sufficient water. The feterita and milo
series were taken from sandy ^oils at the University Farm, which
are discussed in the section of this report dealing with alkali studies.
This soil is particularly favorable for study of black alkali tolerance,
since the sodium chloride is uniformly low, the white alkali being
University of Arizoxa
.345
due to sodium sulphate. Here again, however,- results are not en-
tirely consistent, probably due to water conditions. In general .10
seems to be the limiting percent of black alkali for these crops,
altho in one case a considerable stand was found where .22 percent
was present and considerable injury was noted where .06 percent
was present in samples believed to represent the soil under field
conditions. The alfalfa soils illustrate to a certain extent the in-
fluence of texture. Sample 5980 was a rather heavy soil occurring
near Wellton, Arizona, while 6197, 6198, 6199, and 6200 were from
the sandy soil of the University Farm.
MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES
One interesting set of samples came from a mining com])any
that had failed in an attempt to raise a war garden and sought a
remedy. The soil was impregnated with copper, and the mine
water which was used for irrigating carried so much copper that
possibly it might have been recovered with profit. Such conditions
would inhibit practically all plant growth.
Various materials of agricultural interest other than soils and
irrigating waters have been examined by the Chemists. These in-
clude foods and feeding stuffs such as barley flour, barley bran,
cottonseed meal, and fish meal. Only moisture, ash, and ether
extract were determined in the barley flour. Barley flour, being a
wartime product, probably will be of transient interest, but since
the product is rather uncommon and produced in Arizona the re-
sults are recorded in Table XX.
TABLE XX. — composition OF ARIZONA BARLE^Y FLOUR
Date of Mill Run
Moisture
Ash
Ether Extract
August 12. 1918
13, "
14, "
15, "
7.63
7.72,
6.57
6.45
%
1.13
1.12
1.19
1.25
%
2.18
2.19
2.08
2.21
Fertilizing materials or materials supposed to carry fertilizer
values, especially bat guanos, have been sent in from tiiue to time.
On one occasion the Chemists visited a bat cave deposit with a
prospector and advised against the shipment as unprofitable.
At the time when food stuffs in general were suspected of
having been tampered with, a number of samples of corn meal and
cocoa were sent in to be examined for powdered glass. Several
346
Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
grams of the material were dissolved in boiling sulphuric acid till
almost colorless, the acid diluted and decanted from any residue
remaining undissolved. All the corn meals left small residues of
easily identified minerals, such as quartz and garnet, but no glass.
One sack of meal contained several large fragments of glass which
could not have been eaten and evidently were intended to create
prejudice rather than to do injury. No fine glass was found in
any of the samples, but the millers in all cases were cautioned to
clean their corn so that no adhering soil would be carried into the
meal, causing grit that might be mistaken for glass. One sample
of cocoa was found to contain a few very minute fragments of
glass-like material which may have been chipped off the porcelain
lining of some machinery used in its preparation. One sample of
bran that was reported to have killed a calf was found to contain
cyanide.
THE TEMPE DRAINAGE DITCH
In continuation of the work reported in the Twenty-seventh
and Twenty-eighth Annual Reports occasional analyses of the dis-
charge of the Tempe drainage ditch have been made. The results
for the year 1918 are detailed in Table XXI which should be studied
in connection with previous results given in the Twenty-eighth An-
nual Report on page 475.
TABLE XXI. monthly VARIATION IN COMPOSITION OF WATER FROM THE
TEMPE DRAINAGE DITCH, PARTS PER 100,000 BY C. N, CATLIN
Date
1918
Jan. 10
Feb. 10
Mar. 10
Apr. 10
May 11
June 5
July 8
Aug. 1
Sept.
Oct. 10
Nov. 3
Dec. 12
Chlo-
Total
rides
as !
Solids
NaCl.
212.6
133.0
322.0
219.0
303.0
211.0
226.4
154.0
351.2
248.0 i
296.6
207.0 1
301
206.0 !
249.8
181.0
205.8
137.0
245.0
170.0
216.6
138.0
Hardness
(perma-
nent)
CaSOi
1.1
11.5
78.5
11.9
6.5
1.1
Hardness
(temporary)
Ca(HC03)2
2.2
127.5
130.0
127.2
112.6
128.4
118.3
113.8
69.5
No Sample
93.5
87.4
127.5
Alka-
linity
NaoCOa
1.7
2.5
5.9
5.9
Qualitative
S04
CaO
MgO
Str.
Mod.
SI.
Str.
Mod-S
Mod.
Str.
Mod-S
Mod.
M.S.
M.
M.S.
M.S.
M.
M.
M.S.
M.
M.
S.
M.
M.
M.S.
M.
M.
M.S.
M.
M.
M.S.
M.
M.
M.S.
M.
M.
ALKALI STUDIES
The research w^ork of the department conducted under the
Adams Fund has been limited to alkali problems. During the past
year the Chemists have studied the influence of various chemicals in
different amounts on the rate of percolation and on the composition
Univicrsitv of Arizona 347
of the percolate. This involves much analytical work. Attempts
were made to parallel the laboratory studies by pot cultures which
at first proved unsatisfactory due to the difficulty of preventing
leaching when the j)Ots were irrigated and the consequent change
of concentration of alkali in the soils. Successful pot culture
studies in this climate require that the pots be sunk in soil to pre-
vent too high temperature and excessive drying. Benches have
now been constructed in the screened garden in which the pots
Tire sunk in sand at the level of the surrounding soil and any perco-
lating water due to heavy irrigating is caught in receptacles and
returned to the pots. The pots are paraffined to prevent losses by
transfusion.
The percolation experiments with gypsum have been espe-
cially interesting. When a percolation test is made comparing
untreated University Farm soil with samples to which the theoreti-
cal amount and half that amount of gypsum have been added, it is
found that the second half of the gypsum applied has two or three
times the elTect of the first half in promoting percolation. Large
plot experiments are now being conducted which are planned to
test this result in a practical way. Several lands at the University
Farm have been divided into numerous small plots each of which
has been analyzed to a depth of three feet and the necessary
amount of gypsum calculated separately for each plot of 1500 to
2000 square feet. These lands had been treated previously by
applying gypsum uniformly over the surface, but without reclaim-
ing them successfully. After the proper amount of gypsum has
been applied, the lands will be leached by confining the water
on the more alkaline areas. Without gypsum, percolation is very
slow, altho the soil is a very fine sand. In the laboratory water
applied an inch deep to the wet soil in 10-inch flower pots and
covered to prevent evaporation has stood for two or three weeks
without entirely disappearing. It appears from the investigations
in the laboratory that light or insufficient applications of gypsum
would be unprofitable. On some areas it is necessary to apply 30
or even 40 tons of gypsum to the acre. Under some conditions
this would be prohibited, and never could be considered for large
areas. Gypsum beds, however, are available near the University
Farm and hauling is done by the farm teams when other work is
light. Small areas of black alkali in otherwise good lands, as is
the condition at the University Farm, would often warrant the
expenditure of several hundred dollars for reclamation. How per-
manent the effect will be remains to be shown. The groundw^aters
348 Annual, Report Agriculturai, Experiment Station
are slightly black alkaline and occasionally rise to within seven or
eight feet of the surface. The effect of gypsum on the rate of
percolation with this soil in 10-inch pots is given in Table XXII.
table XXII. — percolation thru university farm soil aeter
GYPSUM treatment
Amount used
None
Half enough to neutralize Na2CQ3. .
Just enough to neutralize Na-COs..
Twice amount to neutralize Na2C03
Percolate In 24
Percolate in 24
hours' after
hours^ after
standing 5 days
standing 7 days
C.C
C,C.
400
288
880
696
2560
2112
3680=
4320
1. Calculated from a 6-hour test by adding lOOOC.C. of water to each pot.
2. Insufficient head to keep up percolation for 5 hours. 3. Calculated from a 5-
hour test by adding 1000 C.C. of water to each pot. Note: The 10-inch pots used
in these tests each contained 10 kilos of soil. The soil used gave the following
analysis: Total water soluble salts dried at 110° C. .70 percent, chlorides as sodium
chloride .012 percent, black alkali as sodium carbonate .254 percent.
An analysis of the percolates showed a saving in humus and
all plant foods with the exception of potassium. The saving in
nitrogen values at customary fertilizer prices would go far toward
paying for the gypsum treatment, even if it were possible to reach
the black alkali from the soil without the previous application of
gypsum.
DATE PROCESSING AND MARKETING
During the summer the appliances for ripening and processing
dates at the Tempe Date Orchard were inspected and put in order
for handling the fall crop. Several visits were made to the orchard
during the harvest to supervise the packing house operations and
give instructions in handling the different varieties under vary-
ing weather conditions. A suitable packing house for the Yuma
Orchard has been designed but not yet constructed. Before the
arrival of the Horticulturist the Chemist temporarily supervised
cultural operations at the date orchards.
In the opinion of the writer after thirteen years of close study,
the date industry in Arizona, properly managed, can be recom-
mended to the investing public. Fresh dates of the soft varieties
which can be grown of such excellent quality in Arizona and mar-
keted as safely as any other crop are becoming known thruout the
country, and orders and inquiries from every part of the United
States are coming in quantities — a marked contrast to the condi-
tion ten years ago when the foreman of the orchard with diffi-
culty disposed of a few hundreds pounds at a nominal price by
University of Arizona 349
house to house 2)cddhnij in nearby towns. During the past year
over $6000 without soHciting have been received for the product
of pahiis that could have been placed on about four acres. After
paying liberal wages and other operating expenses, exclusive of the
foreman's salary, a net profit of 'lO or 50 per cent on the gross sales
will be realized. Had the usual business policy of selling for
all the market would bear been followed, the gross sales
probably would have reached $10,000. The policy followed, how-
ever, has been to maintain a uniform, fair price, estimated safely
to cover expenses, and limit sales to the individual. A part of
the crop has been marketed in the east to introduce the product and
create a market for future growers. The immediate vicinity would
have consumed the crop many times over at even higher prices,
had limitations not been placed on sales to the individual. The
Experiment Station has proven at least some of the varieties that
are successful in Arizona ; climatic difficulties have been overcome
to the extent that losses due to this cause are almost negligible ;
and a market has been made that will take the output of a large
acreage at profitable prices. Fresh soft dates, such as Hayany,
Rhars, Tadala, and similar varieties, promise to become a staple
food as soon as they can be supplied in quantity, and may be carried
for months in dry cold storage without serious deterioration in
quality. Culls and stock that have been damaged for the fresh date
trade by weather conditions can be processed quickly for ordinary
commercial dried dates. The close of the war should mark the im-
portation of large numbers of Hayany offshoots from Egypt, and
the establishment of the date industry in Arizona on a firm basis.
EDUCATIONAL AND EXTENSION WORK
Altho the department is not identified with the Extension
Service, a large amount of correspondence regarding soils and irri-
gating waters is necessarily carried on with the farmers of the
State. These demands, as previously mentioned, often require
much analytical work. In February and March a four weeks' short
course for farmers was given, during which the Chemist conducted
a class in soils for two periods each week. A correspondence course
in soil physics is being given. In the College of Agriculture the
Chemist has conducted classes in soil physics and soil fertility. A
laboratory course in agricultural chemical analysis is also offered,
but due to temporary disarrangements has not been given. Two
new courses in household chemistry for young women in Home
350 Annual Rkport Agricultural Expijrimknt Station
Economics are being given. The first semester's course, after a
brief introduction to organic chemistry, largely nomenclature, deals
with the chemistry of foods. The laboratory exercises are designed
to familiarize the student with the compounds occurring in foods
rather than as a drill in analytical methods. The second semester
deals with textiles and laundering, including the removal of stains.
The department is well equipped for work with advanced or
graduate students. Some of the problems under investigation in
the Experiment Station may be entered into by the students or
independent investigations may be made. Work in this line should
be encouraged by offering suitable fellowships which would be to
the mutual benefit of the student, the department, and the Experi-
ment Station.
A. E. Vinson,
Chemist.
C. N. Catlin,
Assistant Chemist^
IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS
Owin^ to the absence of the assistant engineer, Capt. A. L
Enger, and the difficulty in obtaining technical assistance, the work
of this department has been much restricted during the past year.
Certain features of Experiment Station work inseparable from the
office were performed as in previous years, while other features,
and especially research, suffered disproportionately.
STATUwS OF IRRIGATION WATER SUPPLIES
The year has been one of light rainfall and the necessity for
irrigation has increased. The stream flows have been meagre and
many areas have suffered for water. The advantage of water stor-
age has been exemplified in the Salt River Valley where plentiful
water has been available for an increased acreage, because of the
supply in Lake Roosevelt, stored during the flood years of 1915 and
1916. The lack of similar storage on the Gila River has been felt
keenly. The hundreds of thousands of acre-feet of water that were
wasted to the sea in 1915 and 1916 could have been used with great
advantage in 1917 and 1918 if a storage reservoir had been available.
Surely no other project in Arizona oflfers such inducement for gov-
ernmental action as the building of the San Carlos dam and irriga-
tion project. On the Colorado River, too, the time has arrived
when storage is necessary, for the natural flow during the period of
low discharge is entirely appropriated, and it will be necessary soon
for Arizona to join with other states in storage projects on the
Colorado, else even the right to flood waters of the river will be
lost. The Parker Valley, especially, should be provided with a
water supply at the earliest possible time. The need for action in
the development of storage projects has become more urgent by the
call for new lands on which returning soldiers can make homes.
Arizona is one of the states in which there is abundant opportunity
to prepare new lands under projects that are known to be economi-
cally feasible.
AN IRRIGATION CODE
Arizona, the most arid state, the one most in need of the modern
system of establishing and administering rights to water, is the only
irrigated state which has not adopted the system. The chaotic
condition of water rights in the Gila River watershed is retarding
the development of agriculture in southern Arizona and the lack of
352 Annual Report Agricultural Expp:kimlnt Station
a state water commission is jeopardizing the interests of this State
in the waters of the Colorado River. In Yuma County the water
rights have never been adjudicated and in the other counties, with
the exception of Maricopa, the adjudications have been only partial,
are admittedly ineffective, and in many instances are counter to well-
established irrigation law. Moreover, there are scores of small
sources of supply, where a few farmers struggle for the water and
not infrequently a murder is the inevitable result.
Water rights should be as well protected by the State as are
land rights, and the irrigation supplies which belong, and always
will belong to the State, should be administered by the State. This
department has exerted its efforts to stimulate a demand on the
part of the agriculturists for the modern code. It is hoped that the
coming legislature will attack this problem and enact a code based
on the principles of the Wyoming and Oregon codes but with such
modifications as are needed to meet the needs of this State.
In the absence of any workable method of adjudication of the
water rights of the Gila watershed, the conflicting interests of Pinal
County have endeavored to settle their priorities b}' mutual agree-
ment, but so far without success. This department is assisting in
the negotiations.
CAISSON WELLS
The type of well, originated b}' this Station in 1907, has
proved to be well adapted to the groundwater conditions of such val-
leys as the Santa Cruz, and these wells are being adopted increas-
ingly. The station is called upon frequently to plan and start the con-
struction of wells, — sometimes in emergencies where the ground-
water must be developed quickly in order to save a crop. The high
cost of steel casing during the past year has increased the preference
for concrete caisson wells.
PUMP IRRIGATION
The acreage of land irrigated from wells has been increased
greatly during the past two years. The location of the best ground-
water supplies is being ascertained and the high prices of agricul-
tural products have warranted even a high cost for irrigation. Prob-
lems of pumping machinery are being given more attention. No
new types of machinery have demonstrated any advantages over
older types, but more care is being observed in designing pumping
plants to fit the conditions of lift and discharge.
UnivivRSitv of Arizona
353
Fig. 5. — Longitudinal crack in 20-incli pipe line. The open .section has been broken
out with hammer. Photo hy TV. C. Axelton.
354 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
A few years ago pump irrigators had available an engine fuel
oil of suitable quality, but of low cost. This oil has been called by
various names, including tops and gas oil. Gas oils with a flash
point of about 100° F. and with a gravity of about 44° B. were to
be bought at five to six cents a gallon. Recently, while the price
has been going up the quality has been going down. The tops now
being furnished by many refineries is of about 37° gravity and is
very troublesome in engines of the ordinary type and size. Mean-
while engine distillate has depreciated in quality until it is no better
for irrigation pumping than was the gas oil of five years ago, altho
the price is three times as great. The increase in cost is due in part
to the fact that the engine distillate is classified as a finished product
and therefore takes the same freight rate as gasoline. The Fuel
Administration offers no relief. A few of the smaller oil companies
continue to furnish a satisfactory tops at a reasonable price. Pump
irrigators should demand an unrefined distillate of 40° to 44° gravity
and with flash point under 120° F. This oil takes a low freight
rate, and moreover the cost of refining will be saved. Unless some
relief is obtained in this matter, pump irrigation will be more re-
stricted and less profitable than has been thought hitherto.
CEMENT PIPE FOR IRRIGATION PIPE LINES
CEMENT pipe; failures
Several important studies of cement irrigation pipe have been
made during the past year.
The study of failures of cement pipe was necessitated by failure
z-a'-
SEiTlvetrf FORMS TfOT
CB.ACK£D
fV£.3T ^IDB 30UTH ^JDB BAST ^IDB NOB.TH ^IDB
Fig. 6 — A cracked gate pit at Continental, caused l.y exiiansion of i>ii)e line.
of a long line of 20-inch pipe at Continental, Arizona. Sections of
this line, from 20 to 1000 feet at a time, failed by longitudinal cracks.
An example of a break is shown in Fig. 5. The photograph was
University of Arizona 355
taken after a cross-section of the pipe had been broken out by the
pipe layer. Patching of these breaks was not possible and the long
sections were renio\ ed from the trench and replaced.
The cause of the breaks was not apparent and inquiry among
cement pipe men did not throw any light upon the problem.
Additional trouble was being had with the gate pits which occur
at intervals of about a thousand feet along the line, and this trouble
was not confined to the. line of 20-inch pipe. In Fig. 6 is shown
a broken gate pit. Examination showed that the gate pits were
being destroyed by the thrust of the pipe lines caused by longi-
tudinal expansion. Most of the pipe had been allowed to become
very dry in the stack yard, as is recommended by pipe men. This
caused a considerable shrinkage. When water was admitted to the
completed pipe line, the pipe walls absorbed it slowly and ex-
panded, crushing the gate pits. In experimenting with expansion
joints, it was found that these joints must be placed closer than
200 feet in order to absorb expansion.
Some laboratory tests were made to determine the nature and
rate of expansion, and its relation to the absorption of water. It
was found that the absorption of water under no head was rapid on
the outside of the pipe specimens but extremely slow on the inside,
the difference being due to the glaze left on the inside in the
process of manufacture. Under considerable head the absorption
on the inside would be more rapid. The expansion lagged some-
what behind the absorption.
The first longitudinal break occurred on a curve and it was
thought therefore that the cause might be longitudinal shear.
Mathematical analysis of the problem demonstrated that while this
might be true for pipe lines laid on sharp curves, the deviations
from a straight line made by a careless pipe layer could not account
for the cracks.
Two 16-inch pipe which had been broken in the internal press-
ure testing machine and had subsequently become dry, were further
tested in the laboratory by being placed horizontally and immersed
to cover the lower one-fourth and lower one-half, respectively. The
pipes were placed so that the open cracks were at the top. Absorp-
tion from the outside caused the cracks first to close and then to re-
open in part. In a similar test on a 14-inch unbroken pipe, the
lower side was found to expand almost normally while no expan-
sion occurred on the top, and a slight crack opened on the inside
at the top at one end.
While making percolation and internal pressure tests of pipe,
356 Annual Report Agricultural Experiment Station
it was found that certain specimens failed at very low pressures.
The pipe walls when broken showed that the water had penetrated
from one-fourth to one-third of the thickness. Apparently the ex-
pansion of the inner portion of the wall produced tension in the un-
wetted portion and caused the pipe to burst. This action, which
may be called differential expansion, doubtless is the main cause
of the failures of pipe lines by longitudinal cracks.
The intensity of differential expansion must vary with many
factors, including the thickness of the pipe walls, the richness of
mixtures, the mortar consistency, and the climate. It is believed also
that the magnesia content in the cement affects the amount of
expansion.
Several methods of overcoming the danger have been proposed,
but it is believed that the only thoroly safe method is to prevent
the drying of the pipe between the curing and laying. The curing
should be continued up to the time of laying.
METHODS OF TESTING CEMEjNT PIPE
The technique of cement pipe testing has not been well stand-
ardized and different methods are in use by those engaged in pipe
testing. It is quite impossible, therefore, to make comparisons be-
tween pipes made and tested in different places. Factors of safety
in design must depend on the methods employed in testing. A
paper on this subject, discussing certain alternative methods and
pointing out the importance of standardizing the condition of the
test specimens as well as the methods of testing, has been con-
tributed to the technical press.*
REINFORCEMENT FOR CEMENT PIPE
Several trials of reinforcing cement pipe were made during
the year, but in all cases the reinforced pipe was found to be weaker
than plain pipe. Electro-welded wire rings, hog wire, and Triangle
Mesh were tried. Reports from other sources show similar disap-
pointing results. This matter needs further extensive investiga-
tion. If a means of making the reinforcement effective can be
found, the field of usefulness of cement pipe will be widened greatly.
The publication of the bulletin on cement pipe noted in the
last annual report has been delayed, but the bulletin is now in
press and will be issued shortly as No. 86 of the Station series.
TRACTOR POWER ON FARMS
This department has watched the development of traction en-
♦Concrete, VoL 13, No. 5, p. 156.
University of Arizona ^^7
gines with a view to their usefuhicss on Arizona farms. Tractors
have been bought quite freely in Arizona and every type on the
market has been represented among those in use. During the past
year, particularly, many new tractors have been brought into the
State, partly on account of the widespread change from alfalfa
farming to cotton, which requires much more plo\ving.
Many of the tractors first used in Arizona did not prove suc-
cessful. Some were too heavy and too expensive for the purposes
to which they were put, some suffered from operators who could
neither care for nor repair them, and some were ill-suited to the
soil conditions. In many cases the usual number of mules or horses
were retained on the farm, and repair bills have been very heavy.
The writer has tended to favor the round-wheel type of trac-
tor ; four wdieels ; slow speed engines ; number of cylinders propor-
tional to the power, one or two cylinders for small tractors ; long
stroke ; and a transverse main shaft. As a rule, the more closely
a tractor engine resembles automobile engines, the less useful it
will prove to be. High speed eng'ines cannot burn low grade dis-
tillates. The rating of many tractors is not very liberal, and usually
they should be loaded with one less plow than they are advertised
to pull. The rating by manufacturers is very variable; of two trac-
tors much used* in Arizona, one rated at 20 horsepow^er and one at
25, the 20-horsepower tractor has the more power. Wide tires with
cleats are required for farm work. The utmost protection is needed
against the dust and fine sand which usually flies during the plowing
seasons. Gears should be housed and run in oil wherever possible.
Forced feed lubrication for cylinders and bearings is very desirable.
The standard speed adopted by tractor engineers is two and one-
third miles per hour ; higher speeds are not to be recommended.
The creeping tread tractor is justifiable on California unirrigated
grain lands where the spring planting is done while the ground is
still soft from the winter rains, and on difficult tasks such as drag-
ging the giant V's that clean the Yuma lateral canals.
The criteria for estimating the relative success of a tractor on
any farm are : The type of farming, and number of days per year
when the tractor is used ; the mechanical ability of the OAvner or
operator ; and the fitness of the type and size of tractor to the soil
and nature of the work to be done. There are many farms where
tractors can be employed profitably ; there are many others where a
tractor would be a proverbial white elephant.
The employment of tractors in custom work should be in-
creased. This implies that each tractor is operated by an expert
358 Annual Rkport Ac.rici'ltural Expkrimpcnt Station
tractioneer and in most cases that he is the owner of the machine.
Faihires that have occurred in this line have been due usually to
ihe fact that the owners underestimated certain items of costs, such
as repairs and depreciation and fixed their prices too low. Tractor
garages should be established in agricultural centers, w^here tractors
can be engaged for farm Avork.
G. E. P. Smith,
Irrigation Engineer.
The University of Arizona
College of Agriculture
Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 91
Steers in Lot VI, February 12, 1920
Fattening Native Steers for Market: 1920
By R. H. Williams
Tucson, Arizona, September 1, 1920
ORGANIZATION
Board of Regents
Ex-Officio Members
His Excellency, Thomas E. Campbell, Governor of Arizona Phoenix
Hon. Charles O Case, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Phoenix
Appointed Members
Epes Randolph, Chancellor Tucson
William J. Bryan, Jr., A.B., Treasurer Tucson
James G. Compton, Secretary '. Tucson
William Scarlett, A.B., B.D Phoenix
John H. Campbell, LL.M Tucson
Timothy A. Riordan Flagstaff
Edmund W. Wells Prescott
Louis D. Ricketts, Sc.D., LL.D Warren
RUFUS B. von KleinSmid, A.m., D.Sc, J.D President of the University
Agricultural Experiment Station
D. W. Working, B.Sc, A.M Dean College of Agriculture, Director
*ROBERT H. Forbes, Ph.D Research Specialist
John J. Thornber, A.M Botanist
Albert E. Vinson, Ph.D Agricultural Chemist
George E. P. Smith, B.S., C.E Irrigation Engineer
*RICHARD H. Williams, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
Walter S. Cunningham, B.S Dairy Husbandman
Charles T. Vorhies, Ph.D Entomologist
George E. Thompson, B.S. A Agronomist
Franklin J. Crider, M.S Horticulturist
Walker E. Bryan, M.S Plant Breeder
James G. Brown, M.S Plant Pathologist
Clifford N. Catlin, A.M Associate Agricultural Chemist
R. B. Thompson, B.S Poultry Husbandman
W. E. Code, B.S.C.E Assistant Irrigation Engineer
A. F. KiNNISON, B.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
R. S. Hawkins, B.S.A Assistant Agronomist
E. H. Pressly, B.S Assistant Plant Breeder
H. C. Schwalen, B.S Assistant Irrigation Engineer
D. W. Albert, B.S Assistant in Horticulture
E. B. Stanley, B.S Assistant Animal Husbandman
S. P. Clark, B.S Assistant in Agronomy
R. N. Davis, B.S Assistant in Dairy Husbandry
Agricultural Extension Service
W. M. Cook, A.B Director
County Home Demonslraiion Agents
fALlCE V. Joyce State Leader
Hazel Zimmerman (South Counties) Tucson
Flossie D. Wills, B.S. (Maricopa) Phoenix
Nydia M. Acker, B.S. (North counties) Prescott
Grace Ryan (Southeast counties) Douglas
County Agricultural Agents
W. M. Cook, A.B State Leader
C. R. Adamson, B.S. (Cochise) Willcox
F. A. Chisholm, B.S. (Coconino) Flagstaff
A. B. Ballantyne, B.S. (Graham and Greenlee) Thatcher
H. C. Heard, B.S. (Maricopa) Phoenix
C. R. Fillerup (Navajo and Apache) Snowflake
C. B. Brown, B.S. (Pima and Santa Cruz) Tucson
E. S. TURVILLE (Pinal) Casa Grande
ttM. M. WiNSLOW, M.S.A. (Yuma) Yuma
•On leave.
tAppointment effective October 1, 1920.
ttAppointment effective September 16, 1920.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction ^^^
Plan of the experiment ^"^
Animals used ^^^
Feed lots and equipment ^^^
Weighing the animals ^62
Feeds used ^^^
Rations 364
Placing cattle on feed ^^^
Changes in feed ^"^
Refused feed 366
Duration 367
Results of the experiment 369
Alfalfa hay compared with alfalfa hay and silage 369
Silage and Alfalfa hay compared with silage and cottonseed meal; also will)
silage, alfalfa hay, and cottonseed meal 372
Alfalfa hay compared with ground milo maize as a supplement to silage
and cottonseed meal 3/4
Alfalfa hay added to a ration of silage, cottonseed meal, and ground milo
maize 376
Financial statements ■"°
General discussion 3/9
Cost of 100 pounds gain with varying feed prices 379
Amount of feed cattle will consume 380
Rate of gain made by steers 382
Feed required per pound gain 382
Dry matter, total digestible nutrients, and therms consumed per 100
pounds gain 383
Cost of gains in live weight 383
Margin in cattle feeding 384
Length of time required to finish cattle 384
Dressed percentage ot cattle 385
Kind of cattle to feed 386
Shrinkage in fat cattle 388
Supplemental test — feeding 9 steers for 40 days . . . .' 391
Summary 394
Main test — 36 steers for 77 days 394
Supplemental test— 9 steers for 40 days 396
ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. 1.— Experiment steers in feed lots January 23, 1920 Frontispiece
Fig. 2. — Experiments steers as they came from field, January 8, 1920 .... 361
Fig. 3.— Steers in feed lots, March 29, 1920 368
Fig. 4.— Steers in Lot I, February 12, 1920 371
Fig. 5.— Steers in Lot II, May 5, 1920 392
■im
Fattening Native Steers for Market: 1920
By R. IT. Williams
INTRODUCTION
Cattle feeding has been an important industry for many years
in the irrigated valleys in Arizona. Annually upwards of 30,000 cattle
are finished for market in the Salt River Valley alone. Conditions
have been especially favorable there for cattle feeding. A diversified
system of crop production and rotation is necessary in the irrigated
districts. Certain high-priced crops must have other crops rotating
with them to maintain fertility and occupy the ground. Cattle offer
a special means for marketing home-grown feeds; in this way bulky
feeds may be concentrated into gains in weight and the finished ani-
mals shipped to market On almost all farms can be found certain
by-products, such as cotton stalks, Bermuda grass, Johnson grass,
corn stalks, or even silage and winter pasturage, which cannot find
a profitable market except through livestock. Barley and other
green feeds may be secured at small expense and animals finished for
market on these feeds alone.
Arizona is favorably situated for cattle feeding. The light rain
fall and absence of cold stormy weather, combined with bright sunny
winters with even temperatures, are favorable for cattle feeding from
December to April. Range cattle are grown close to the irrigated
farms and may be taken into the valleys after the fall round-ups and
fed during the winter months when there is little other work to do.
Not only the Salt River Valley but the other irrigated districts
in Arizona, as well as dry farms, are suited to cattle feeding. The
area of irrigated lands will be greatly increased and a large acreage
suitable for dry-farming by means of floodwater will be developed.
Large quantities of feed will be produced. These home-grown feeds
are of a bulky nature so that it is difficult to secure a market for them.
There is always a good local demand for home grown beef, and Ari-
zona farmers should be able to supply this market rather than have
meat shipped in from other states'.
The cattle-feeding industry is in its infancy in Arizona. There
are many new problems to be solved in this phase of the business.
A careful investigation is necessary in order to supply feeders with
practical information regarding the cattle-feeding industry.
PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENT
The Agricultural Experiment Station conducted a cattle-feeding
test during the winter of 1920 at the Salt River Valley Farm. Little
has been done, heretofore, to study the various phases associated with
this industry.
The object of the steer-feeding trials was to obtain information
relating to the problems of feeding these animals. The effect of the
various rations was one of the aims. These rations were so planned
that common feeds in the district could be studied. Since a large
number of steers are fed on alfalfa hay alone, one of the lots was given
this feed for a ration. Two of the lots were not given any alfalfa
hay, five lots were given silage, and four cottonseed meal. The
detailed objects of the experiment from the standpoint of the rations
alone were: (I) To compare alfalfa hay with a ration of alfalfa hay
and silage; (II) To compare silage and alfalfa hay with silage and
cottonseed meal, and also to compare these two rations together
forming one of silage, alfalfa hay, and cottonseed meal; (III) to com-
pare the addition of alfalfa hay to a basal ration of silage and cotton-
seed meal with the addition of ground milo maize; and (IV) to deter-
mine the effect of adding alfalfa hay to a basal ration of silage, cotton-
seed meal, and ground milo maize. Other secondary considerations
included: (1) the amount of feed cattle will consume; (2) rate of
gains made by steers; (3) feed required per pound gain; (4) dry matter,
total digestible nutrients, and therms consumed per hundred pounds
gain; (5) cost of gains in live weight; (6) the margin in cattle feeding;
(7) length of time required to finish cattle for market; (8) the dressed
percentage of cattle as affected by the different rations; (9) kind of
cattle to feed; (10) shrinkage in shipping fat cattle, and other matters
of general interest.
ANIMALS USED
Thirty-six steers were selected for the experiment. Twenty-
seven of these were polled, being out of native cows, mostly Holsteins,
and sired by a Polled Shorthorn bull. The remaining nine were
high-grade Holsteins. All the animals were raised in the Salt River
Valley and were in good pasture condition averaging 889 pounds,
and about 30 months old. The steers had been maintained on alfalfa
pasture, but some of them were accustomed to eating hay. These
cattle were divided into six lots of six steers each. Each lot was
made as nearly alike as possible in size, condition, age, previous treat-
Plan of the Experiment
361
Fig. 2. — Experiment steers as tliey came from the field, January 8, 1920
ment, conformation, weight, and other characteristics, with the one
exception that the animals in Lot I were high-grade Holsteins, and
Lots IV, V, and VI each contained one of the high-grade Holstein
steers. There was very little difference in the condition of the differ-
ent animals, but the Holstein steers were probably a little thinner
than those sired by the Polled Shorthorn bull. The animals cost
10 cents a pound, the weights being taken after they were driven
about six miles without feed or water. Each of the animals was
TABLE I— ANIM.ALS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EXPERIMENT,
JANUARY 9 1920
Average
weight
of steer
in lot
No.
of steers
in lot
Weight distribution of the steers in the lots
Lot
1000 lb.
900 to
1000 lb.
800 to
900 lb.
700 to
800 lb.
600 to
700 lb.
I
Pounds
6
0
2
4
0
0
II
889
6
3
1
0
1
III
890
6
1
3
1
0
IV
889
6
2
2
1
0
V
889
6
2
2
1
0
VI
888
6
2
2
1
0
362 Bulletin 91
given a number to identify him and records were taken throughout
the test according to the number of the animals. Table I gives a
statement of the steers in each lot at the beginning of the experiment.
Lot I averaged 891 pounds or a little heavier than any of the other
lots. The average weight of the steers in Lots II, IV, and V was
889 pounds. Lot III weighed an average of 890 pounds, and Lot VI
was the lightest, averaging 888 pounds.
Although there was considerable difference among the steers in
each lot, yet the animals in the various lots were similar. The animals
in Lot I were slightly thinner than those in the other lots, but they
were the most uniform in weight. Two of them weighed between
900 and 1000 pounds, and the other four between 800 and 900 pounds.
Lot III contained three animals whose weight ranged between 800
and 900 pounds, one animal over 1000 pounds, one between 900 and
1000 pounds, and the other between 700 and 800 pounds. Lot II
had one animal that weighed over 1000 pounds; three weighed between
this and 900 pounds; one in the 800 to 900 pounds group; and one
weighed a little less than 700 pounds. The animals in Lots IV, V,
and VI fell into the same general distribution.
FEED LOTS AND EQUIPMENT
Six feed lots 48 by 60 feet were used for the experiment. In each
lot was a feed manger 3 feet wide and 36 feet long, which was ample
for containing the feed. An automatic drinking fountain placed in
each lot kept fresh water before the animals at all times. No cover-
ing or shed was needed, and the earth floor of the lots was dry and
firm throughout the test except after a few light rains. The highest
temperature while the experiment was in progress was 82 degrees
F. and the lowest was 31 degrees F. No snow fell during the time
the steers were in the feed lots. The days were bright and clear
there being a total of only 3.13 inches rainfall during the feeding period.
The cattle were in a public place where many visitors inspected them,
so that they were more restless than they would be on an average
farm.
WEIGHING THE ANIMALS
At the beginning of the test each animal was weighed. The
cattle at this time had suffered a reasonable shrinkage in weight from
the time they left the pasture field. Every Friday morning through-
out the test the animals were weighed individually. On Thursday
night they were given a regular feed but no water till after weighing.
Plan of the Experiment
363
Frequently a small amount of feed was left in the mangers from the
night before, but the cattle were weighed with a small shrinkage esti-
mated to be about 2 percent, or half the amount usually allowed in
marketing such animals. The cattle were weighed as soon after 8
o'clock as possible and according to a regular system, so that the
weights would be uniform each week.
FEEDS USED
The feeds selected were those most available and commonly used
by cattle feeders in the Salt River Valley. Loose alfalfa hay, sorghum
silage, cottonseed meal, thrashed ground milo maize, and thrashed
ground hegari were used in this experiment. The prices of these
feeds at the time the experiment began were as follows:
Loose alfalfa hay, $25 per ton.
Sorghum silage, $8 per ton.
Thrashed ground milo maize, $54 per ton.
Thrashed ground hegari, $54 per ton.
Cottonseed meal, $80 per ton.
The above prices have been used in calculating the cost of the
rations and the cost of producing gains. The quality of the feeds was
about average. The hay was fairly free from weeds but somewhat
coarse in texture. The sorghum silage varied somewhat from time
to time, but it had been cut when fairly green and was of about average
quality. While the cottonseed meal was purchased and labelled to
contain 47 percent protein, the direct analysis showed that it had only
38.46 percent of protein. The chemical composition of the various
feeds used was determined by direct analysis by the Department of
Agricultural Chemistry as given in Table IL
TABLE II—
CHEMICAL
(Expressed
COMPOSITION OF FEEDS USED
in percent of fresh substance)
Dry
Substance
Protein
Carbohydrates
Ash
Feed
Fiber
Nitrogen
free extract
Fat
Alfalfa hay
%
96.30
%
15.73
%
29.75
%
40.59
%
8.02
%
1.67
Sorghum silage
24.83
1.13
6.41
13.93
2.88
0.48
Corn silage
25.57
1.89
7.30
14.13
1.84
0.42
Cottonseed meal
94.45
38.46
12.23
31.38
6.44
5.94
Ground milo maize
91.41
12.13
1.81
74.67
1.60
1.20
Ground hegari
89.76
9.41
1.88
75.27
1.44
1.76
364 Bulletin 91
RATIONS
The experiment was planned after consulting many local feeders
who have made a careful study of the business. It was finally decided
to use rations bulky in character, similar to those most frequently
used in the district. Cattle are not made prime in Arizona. The
local market pays as much for half-finished cattle as for those that are
fat. Since the last hundred pounds of gain usually requires a longer
time and more feed, as well as a ratiorj of more concentrated nature,
local feeders prefer to give only' small amounts of grains. The lots
receiving cottonseed meal were limited to a maximum of three pounds
per steer daily, and at no time was more than six pounds of ground
milo maize fed to a steer. The animals receiving silage or hay were
given all of either or both of these feeds they would consume. The
various lots received a bulky ration not suitable for making large or
rapid gains. The rations supplied the animals are given in Table III.
TABLE IIJ.— RATIONS FED THE DIFFERENT LOTS
Lot
RATION
I
Loose alfalfa hay ad lib.
il
Alfalfa hay ad lib, sorghum silage ad lib.
III
Silage ad lib. cotton'ieed meal 2 60 lb.
IV
Silage ad lib, cottonseed meal 2.66 lb., alfalfa hay ad lib.
V
Silage ad lib, cottonseed meal 2.66 lb., ground milo maize 5.70 lb.
VI
Silage ad lib. cottonseed meal 2.66 lb., ground milo maize 5.77 lb., alfalfa hay ad lib.
The steers in Lot I received all the loose alfalfa hay they would
eat; no other feed was given them. Lot II was fed a combination of
alfalfa hay and sorghum silage. The aim was to supply each lot
with as much of these rations as they would consume and not have
any left over. Lot III received a ration of all the silage they would
eat together with 2.66 pounds of cottonseed meal per head daily.
The steers in Lot IV were given all the silage and alfalfa hay they
would eat and in addition an average of 2.66 pounds of cottonseed
meal per head daily. This lot was a combination of Lots II and III
from the standpoint of feed. Lot V. was allowed all the silage they
would eat and 2.66 pounds of cottonseed meal per head daily and
5.70 pounds of ground milo maize. This lot was fed the same as
Lot III but given the addition of a light feed of grain. The cattle
in Lot VI were given all four of the feeds, being allowed all the silage
Plan of the Experiment 365
and hay they would eat, but limited to 2.66 pounds of cottonseed meal
and 5.77 pounds of ground milo maize.
PLACING CATTLE ON FEED
The cattle were in dry lots throughout the test, and they could
not receive anything that they were not given. The daily allowance
of feed was given the steers in two feeds, one in the morning after
8 A. M. and the evening feed from 4 to 6 P. M. From the outset,
the animals receiving hay and silage were given all of these feeds they
would consume. The first week all the cattle receiving cottonseed
meal were given one pound per head daily; the second week this
amount was increased to two pounds; and after the third week they
were given three pounds per head daily. The steers in Lots V and
VI were given four pounds of thrashed ground milo maize per head
daily the fii-st week, five pounds the second, and six pounds through-
out the rest of the experiment.
CHANGES IN FEEDS
From January 9 to February 14the sorghum was the Goose Neck
and Honey Drip varieties. This sorghum was cut somewhat green
and produced silage that was sour and not so good in quality as the
silage used after February 14. After this time the silage was from
Orange Cane sorghum. This was riper, sweeter, and had more grain
than the sorghum previously fed. The steers preferred this silage to
the varieties fed up to this date.
Beginning March 15 the cattle were given corn silage made from
Mexican June corn and a small amount of cowpeas. The steers did
not eat this silage with as much relish as the sorghum silage previously
used. They seemed restless, nosed over the silage, ate a few bites,
and then moved around the corral. A few days were required for
them to change to the corn silage, which they eventually ate with
relish.
Thrashed ground milo maize was fed from January 9 to February
29 covering a period of 51 days. Beginning March 1 hegari that had
been thrashed and then ground was supplied the animals until the
end of the test. In discussing the results "milo maize" is used, but
it should be remembered that hegari replaced the milo maize after
March 1. No difference was observed in the palatability or feeding
quality of these two grains.
366
Bulletin 91
REFUSED FEED
A small quantity of the feed given the cattle in each lot was
wasted. Good mangers were used and an effort was made to supply
the cattle with only the amount of feed they would consume without
waste. Small quantities of feed dropped from the mouths of the
cattle to the ground and some waste resulted in this manner. All
feed the animals did not eat and left in the manger was weighed and
a careful record kept of it. The alfalfa hay was easily separated
from the other feed and a close record of the amount of hay actually
consumed by the animals was secured. The silage lost moisture so
that the record of the refused silage has little significance. The
cracked grain and cottonseed meal became so mixed with the silage
that it was difficult to ascertain how much of each of these feeds was
refused by the different lots. It was noticed, however, that the cattle
made an effort to eat the grain and cottonseed meal, and no doubt
onl> small quantities of these concentrates were left behind as refuse.
The amount of feed refused in the various lots is given in Table IV.
TABLE IV.— HAY AND.SILAGE REFUSED BY THE CATTLE IN THE DIFFERENT LOTS
Feed refused by the steers
Lot
Alfalfa hay
Silage
I
Pounds
316
%
2
Pounds
%
II
181
4
65
0.3
III
297
1.0
IV
164
8
70
0.2
V
618
3.0
VI
138
8
60
0.3
As was to be expected, Lot I left more alfalfa hay than any of the
other lots, but the refused hay in this lot was only 2 percent, although
a total of 316 pounds of hay was weighed back. Lots II, IV, and VI
refused from 138 to 181 pounds of alfalfa hay, this amount being from
four to eight percent of the total given these lots. Lots III and V
received no alfalfa hay. It is believed that if they had been allowed
the refused alfalfa hay from the other four lots they would have eaten
it and probably made better gains.
Lot V refused 618 pounds of silage. This was more than twice
as much as the silage refused by Lot III. Most of the silage refused
Plan of the Experiment 367
by l.ot V was during the lime that two steers in this lot were off feed.
These were the only two steers in the experiment that were not al-
ways read>- to eat their feed. The proportion of loss of silage is much
less than that of refused alfalfa hay. Lot V had 3 percent of the
silage weighed back; Lot Till percent; and Lots IT, IV, and VI each
less than 1 percent. Here again it is believed that if the refused silage
in the five lots had been given the steers in Lot I that received no
silage, they would have made good use of it. Since these amounts
of feed are ordinarily wasted in practical feeding, and the steers selec-
ted the best of the feed, leaving the inferior portions, the steers were
charged with all the refused feeds in calculating the costs.
DURATION
The steers w^ere placed in the feed lot on January 9, 1920, and the
test was completed after the cattle had been on feed 77 days ending
March 25. At this time, an offer of 11 cents per pound live weight,
deducting 4 percent shrinkage from the filled weight was accepted.
This was an extremely satisfactory price, considering the market at
that time. During Januarv and February the outlook for higher
prices was especially favorable. February 20 a local buyer offered
12 cents a pound for the animals for delivery April 1. This was a
good price and would have allowed a profit on the feeding operations.
Other feeders in the district had been offered 13 cents a pound for
similar steers to be delivered April 1. Shortly after this time Kansas
City packers began shipping dressed beef to the Salt River Valley.
This intimidated the local butchers, as the Kansas City beef was
placed on the market at a lower price than the cost of beef from home
fed cattle. Towards the first of April the Federal Government sold
large quantities of frozen beef that had been in storage two years.
Los Angeles, one of the most promising markets for cattle fed in the
Southwest, purchased large quantities of this frozen beef at very low
prices. Another contributing factor to the drop in prices of finished
cattle resulted from the desert range being unusually good, and the.
cattle maintained on these ranges were sufficiently fat for butchers
as early as the middle of April. With all -these contributing factors,
as well as a depressed market in Denver and Kansas City, we felt
extremely fortunate in being able to secure 11 cents a pound for the
steers. They were purchased by Cowden and Babbitt, and shipped
to Flagstaff for local consumption.
A careful estimate was made of the value of the steers in the differ-
368
Bulletin 91
Fig. 3. — Steers in the feed lots, March 29, 1920
ent lots at the close of the test. Table V gives the value of the ani-
mals at the end of the first 77 days on feed.
TABLE v.— ESTIMATED VALUE OF ANIMALS AT THE END OF 77 DAYS
Value per hundred
live weight
Lot I
$10.25
Lot II
$10.75
Lot HI
$10.60
Lot IV
$11.20
Lot V
$11.35
Lot VI
$11.59
Local butchers estimated that there was a range of $1.25 per
hundred between the value of the steers in Lots I and VL Lot II
was fatter than Lots I and III and estimated to be worth 15 cents
per hundred more than Lot III. Lots IV, V, and VI were distinctly
fatter than any of the other lots.
RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT
Extreme care was exercised in planning and conducting the
experiment to secure results which would be reliable and accurate for
the different lots. The weighing of the feeds and the animals was as
thorough and uniform as possible. The results of the experiment and
the following discussion are based on these weights.
ALFALFA HAY COMPARED WITH ALFALFA HAY AND
SILAGE
A few years ago, when alfalfa hay cost $5 to SlO per ton, it was
often used as an exclusive ration for fattening cattle. Since 1918 the
price of this feed has increased greatly, and now feeders are endeavor-
ing to secure a more effective ration than alfalfa hay alone. Many
silos have been constructed in the State, and feeders wish to know if
silage when added to alfalfa hay will make larger and more economical
gains.
Two lots of steers containing six animals each were used for this
test. Lot I was given all the alfalfa hay they would eat, and Lot II
allowed all the alfalfa hay and silage they cared for. The steers were
fed twice a day. In Table VI is given a summary of the results giv-
ing a comparison of the weights, gains, average daily rations, feeds
required per pound gain, nutrients required per 100 pounds gain,
cost of 100 pounds gain, and the total cost of the animals, their value
and profit at the end of the test in Table VI.
At the beginning of the test, the six steers in Lot I averaged 2
pounds heavier than those in Lot 11. During the 77 days the steers
fed on alfalfa hay alone gained 107 pounds per head, while those fed
on alfalfa hay and silage gained 184 pounds per head. The average
daily gain was only 1.40 pounds per head in Lot I, and 2.39 pounds
in Lot II. Not one of the steers in Lot I gained as much as the
lightest steer gained in Lot II. This shows that the addition of silage
to alfalfa hay made the animals gain more rapidly. Steers fed on
alfalfa hay alone will gain an average of about 1.40 pounds per head
daily during the first 11 weeks. On the other hand, if silage is added
to a ration of alfalfa hay, they will gain almost a pound more daily.
This increased gain in the lot where the steers were allowed all the
silage they cared for in addition to alfalfa hay means the difference
between rapid and slow gains. The steers in Lot I gained slowly and
would have required a long feeding period to finish, while the steers
in Lot II made what would be considered medium gains.
370 Bulletin 91
TABLE VI.— SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS FOR LOTS I AND II FED 77 DAYS
Number of steers in lot
Ration
Average initial weight..
Average final weight....
Average gain
Average daily gain
Average daily ration:
Alfalfa hay.
Silage
Feed required per pound gain:
Alfalfa hay.
Silage
Nutrients required per 100 lbs. gain:
Dry matter
Total digestible nutrient
Number of therms
Cost of 100 pounds gain..
Lot I
Alfalfa hay
891 lb.
998 lb.
107 lb.
1.40 1b.
28.63 lb.
20.51 lb.
1869.29 lb.
1055.00 lb.
700.00 therms
$25.63
Alfalfa hay and
silase
889 lb.
1073 lb.
184 1 .
2.39 lb.
8.99 lb.
47.14 1b.
3.76 lb.
19.71 lb.
793.72 lb.
456.49 lb.
442.68 therms
$12.58
Initital cost per head at $10.00 cwt .
Feed cost per head
Interest on investment at 8%
Estimated cost of marketing
Total cost..
Value per cwt. March 26
Returns per head without shrink..
Loss per head
Profit per head
Necessary .=;el!ing price per cwt...
$89.10
27.55
1.50
1 45
$119.60
S 10.25
102.33
17.27
$88.90
23.18
l.SO
1.45
$115.03
$ 10.75
115.38
.35
10.72
The average daily ration consumed by the steers in Lot I was
28.63 pounds of alfalfa hay. The first four weeks they consumed an
average of 25.87 pounds per day; the second four weeks, 30.30 pounds;
and the last three weeks 30.08 pounds. Steers weighing 891 pounds
and about 30 months old will consume slightly less than 30 pounds of
alfalfa hay daily for the first 11 weeks they are in the feed lot. The
first few days they will probably be nervous and not accustomed to
the feed, but after the first month they should reach their maximum
capacity. The steers in Lot II consumed an average of 47.14 pounds
of silage and 8.99 pounds of alfalfa hay per head daily throughout the
■ test. At the outset these cattle ate more hay and less silage, but as
the period progressed they ate less alfalfa hay and more silage. In
each of the lots, the animals seemed to be well contented with their
feed and did as well as could be expected from the kind of feed given
them.
The steers in Lot II did not require as much dry matter, total
Results oi- the Experiment
371
Fig. 4. — Steers in Lot I, February 12. 1020
digestible nutrients, or therms to make 100 i)ounds of gain as the
cattle in Lot I. This would indicate that the addition of silage to
a basal ration of alfalfa hay balanced the feed constituents in some
way so that the animals could utilize the nutrients more efficiently.
Owing to the greater variety in the ration supplied to the steers in
Lot II, they consumed more feed, or else the ration was more con-
centrated so the cattle could make greater gains and at less cost.
Gain in Lot I cost $25.63 per 100 pounds and in Lot II only $12.58,
or a little less than half as much. The total cost of feed in Lot I
was higher than in Lot II, so that the cattle fed on alfalfa hay alone
required more money to buy the feed for them than where a combina-
tion ration was fed. Gains, however, were not in proportion to the
cost of the feed, and the increase in the value of the animals was also
less with the steers fed on alfalfa hay. This means that alfalfa hay
alone is not so good a ration as alfalfa hay and silage from the stand-
point of rate of gains, cost of the daily feed ration, cost of gains, or
increasing the value of the animals. The steers fed on alfalfa
hay lost an average of $17.27, while the cattle fed on alfalfa hay and
silage made an average profit of 35 cents per head. To break even,
the selling price would have had to be $10.72 per hundred for Lot II
and $11.98 for Lot I. In every particular it was found that the addi-
tion of silage to a ration of alfalfa hay was beneficial.
372
Bulletin 91
SILAGE AND ALFALFA HAY COMPARED WITH SILAGE AND
COTTONSEED MEAL; ALSO WITH SILAGE. ALFALFA HAY,
AND COTTONSEED MEAL
Having proved that a ration of silage and alfalfa hay is better
than alfalfa hay alone for fattening steers, it is next desired to com-
pare this ration with silage and cottonseed meal and with a combina-
tion of all three of the feeds. Three lots of steers were used to make
this study. Lot II was fed on silage and alfalfa hay; Lot HI, silage
and cottonseed meal; and Lot IV, silage, cottonseed meal, and alfalfa
hay. Each lot receiving silage or alfalfa hay was given all of these
feeds they would eat, and Lots III and IV were given an average of
2.66 pounds cottonseed meal per head daily for the entire period.
It will be noted that Lot IV was given a combination of the rations
given Lots II and III. A detailed summary of the results of this
test is given in Table VI I.
TABLE VII.— SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS WITH LOTS II. Ill
AND IV.
Lot 11
Lot III
Lot IV
Number of steers in lot
6
6
6
Ration
Silage,
alfalfa hay
Silage,
cottonseed meal
Silage, alfalfa hay,
cottonseed meal
889 lb.
1073 lb.
184 lb.
2.39 lb.
890 lb.
1041 lb.
151 lb.
1.96 lb.
889 lb.
1086 lb.
197 lb.
2.55 lb.
Average daily ration:
8.99 lb.
47.14 1b.
4.20 lb.
Silage
61.76 lb.
2.66 lb.
60.68 lb.
2.66 lb.
Feed required per pound gain:
.'Alfalfa hay
3.76 lb.
19.71 lb.
1.65 lb.
31.49 lb.
1.36 lb.
23.78 lb.
1.04 lb.
Nutrients required per 100 pounds gain:
793.72 lb.
456.49 lb.
442.68 therms
843.37 lb.
520.41 1 ..
628.06 therms
789.41 lb.
479.61 lb.
532.55 therms
$12.58
$18.03
$15.73
$ 88.90
23.18
1.50
1.45
$ 89.00
27.22
1.50
1.45
$ 88.90
30.93
1.50
1. 5
Total cost
$115.03
$119.17
$122 78
S 10.75
115.38
$ 10.60
110.35
8.82
$ 11.20
Returns per head without shrink
121.59
1.19
.35
10.72
Xece?sary selling price per cwt
11.45
11.31
Results of the Experiment 373
Although the steers were as nearly alike as possible at the begin-
ning of the test, yet the ration given them soon began to prove that
the steers in Lot IV were making the most rapid gains and Lot III
the slowest. At the end of 77 days the average gain in Lot IV was
197 pounds; Lot II, 184 pounds; and Lot III only 151 pounds. The
average daily gain was 2.55 pounds in Lot IV, 2.39 pounds, in Lot II
and 1.96 pounds in Lot III. The average steer in Lot IV gained .16
pound per day more than the average steer in Lot II and .59 pound
more than those in Lot III. The steers given all three feeds made
the most rapid gains, and those fed on alfalfa hay and silage gained
more rapidly than steers given a limited quantity of cottonseed meal
and all the silage they would eat.
Each lot received all the silage they would eat. Lot II ate only
47.14 pounds of silage along with 8.99 pounds of alfalfa hay. Lot III
consumed most silage, averaging 61.76 pounds per day, along with
2.66 pounds of cottonseed meal; and Lot IV ate about a pound less
of silage per day than Lot III, the same quantity of cottonseed meal,
and in addition 4.20 pounds of alfalfa hay. Owing to the small gains
made by the steers in Lot III, and the large gains by the animals in
Lot IV, relatively less feed and nutrients were required to produce
an equal gain in weight in Lot IV than in Lot III. The steers in
Lot II seemed to make better use of their feed than those in Lot IV,
except in the total amount of dry matter required to produce 100
pounds gain. The cost of 100 pounds gain was lowest in Lot II,
averaging $12.58; highest in Lot III, being $18.03; and Lot IV ranked
between the other two, costing an average of $15.73. The steers in
Lot IV made the largest gain, but at the highest feed cost. These
steers were much fatter than those in the other lots and were valued
at a higher price at the end of the test. The difference in the condi-
tion of the cattle in Lot IV and the greater gain in weight did not
overcome the more efTective utilization and the lower feed cost of
the steers in Lot II, so that the steers in this lot made a profit of 35
cents per head, while those in Lot IV lost an average of $1.19 per head.
The ration in Lot III was decidedly inferior to that in Lots II and IV,
for the average steer in Lot III lost more money than the entire six
steers in Lot IV. The necessary selling price per 100 pounds at the
end of the 77 days, in order to break even without gain or loss, was
$10.72 for Lot II, $11.31 for Lot IV, and $11.45 for Lot III. These
selling prices are based on a cost price of $10 per hundred for the
feeders, the cost of the feeds consumed, the interest on the money
374 Bulletin 91
invested for cattle, and cost of marketing, as well as the rate of gain
made by the difTerent lots. A margin between the cost price of feeders
and the selling price of the finished steers at the end of 77 days of
72 cents per hundred for Lot II, $1.31 for Lot IV and $1 .45 for Lot III
would have been necessary to cover the entire expenses in the different
lots;
ALFALFA HAY COMPARED WITH GROUND MILO MAIZE
AS A SUPPLEMENT TO SILAGE AND
COTTONSEED MEAL
Lots IV and V were used for this test. The steers in Lot IV were
given all the silage and alfalfa hay they would eat and 2.66 pounds of
cottonseed meal per head daily. Each steer in Lot V received 2.66
pounds of cottonseed meal, 5.70 pounds of ground milo maize, and
all the silage they would eat. The daily consumption of silage in
Lot IV was 60.68 pounds per steer, while those in Lot V ate 52.70
pounds. Each steer in Lot IV ate 7.98 pounds more silage daily,
the same amount of cottonseed meal, and 4.20 pounds of alfalfa hay
in place of 5.70 pounds of ground grain consumed in Lot V. Table
VIII gives the summary of the results with this test.
The steers in the two lots weighed an average of 889 pounds at the
beginning, but those in Lot IV gained 197 pounds and the steers in
Lot V 189 pounds each. At the end of the test the steers in Lot IV
had gained an average of 8 pounds more than those in the other lot.
Less dry matter, total digestible nutrients, and therms were required
to produce 100 pounds of gain in Lot IV than in Lot V. The animals
fed more evenly in Lot IV throughout the test and seemed to be more
vigorous and to relish their feed better than those in Lot V. Two
steers were off feed for a week in Lot V, and three in this lot gained
less than 140 pounds each, while the lightest gain in Lot IV was
160 pounds.
Owing to the greater gain made by the steers in L-ot IV and the
apparently more effective use of the feed, which was of a bulky nature
costing less than the concentrated feed given Lot V, the cost of gains
was less in Lot IV than in Lot V. The cost of feed to produce 100
pounds of gain in Lot IV was $15.73, and in Lot V it was $19.18.
During the feeding period the average steer in Lot IV cost $30.93
for feed, and in Lot V, $36.28. In spite of the larger gains made by
Results of the Experiment
375
TABLE VIII.— SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS WITH LOTS IV AND V FED 77 DAYS
Lot IV
Lot V
Number of steers in lot
6
6
Ration
Silage, cottonseed meal,
alfalfa hay
Silage, cottonseed meal,
ground milo maize
889 lb.
1086 lb.
197 lb.
2.55 lb.
889 lb.
1078 lb.
189 lb.
2.46 lb.
Averape daily ration:
4 20 lb.
60.68 lb.
2.66 lb.
52.70 lb.
2.66 lb.
5.70 1b.
Feed required per pound gain:
1.65 lb.
23.78 lb.
1.04 lb.
21.45 lb
Cottonseed meal
1.08 lb.
2.32 lb.
Nutrients required per 100 pounds gain:
Drv matter
789.41 lb.
795.12 Ih.
479.61 lb. 5.S0.81 lb.
532.55 therms 64S.37 therm.s
Cost of 100 pounds gain
$15.73
$19.18
Initial cost per head at $10.00 cwt
$ 88.90
30.9.S
1.50
1.45
$ 88.90
Feed cost per head
36.28
1.50
1.45
Total cost
$122.78
$128.13
Value per cwt. March 26.
$ 11.20
121.59
1.19
'U.3\
$ 11.35
122.39
5.74
Profit per head
Necessary selling price per cwt
11.88
the steers fed on silage, cottonseed meal, and alfalfa hay, the steers
given silage, cottonseed meal, and ground milo maize fattened more
rapidly and Avere valued at 15 cents more per hundred at the close
of the experiment than those in the other lot. The steers in Lot IV
seemed to grow rather than to finish for market. The average steer
in Lot IV lost $L19 and in Lot V the average lost $5.74. In order
to break even on the two lots, it would have been necessary to sell
the steers in Lot IV at $11.31 per 100 pounds and those in Lot V at
$11.88 per 100 pounds. The margin required to feed the steers in
Lot IV was $1.31 per 100 pounds, and in Lot V it would have been
necessary to sell the animals at Si. 88 more than their purchase price.
376
Bulletin 91
ALFALFA HAY ADDED TO A RATION OF SILAGE, COTTON-
SEED MEAL, AND GROUND MILO MAIZE
A ^•ariety of feeds is considered advisable in a ration for animals.
Two lots of six steers each were fed in making this test. The steers
in Lot V were given 2.66 pounds of cottonseed meal, 5.70 pounds of
milo maize, and all the silage they would consume. In Lot VI the
steers were given the same amount of cottonseed meal, almost the
same quantity of ground milo maize, and allowed free choice of alfalfa
hay and silage. A summary of results -with Lots V and VI is given
in Table IX.
T.^BLE IX.— SUMMARY OF RESULTS WITH LOTS V, AND VL FED 77 DAYS
Lot V
Lot VI
Number of steers in lot
6
6
Ration
Silape. cottonseed meal,
ground milo maize
Silage, cottonseed meal,
ground milo maize,
alfalfa hay
Average initial weight
889 lb.
1078 lb.
189 lb.
2.46 lb.
888 lb
Average final weight
1080 lb.
Average gain
192 lb
Average daily gain
2 49 lb
Average daily ration:
Alfalfa hay.
52''76 lb.
2.66 lb.
3 97 lb
Silage
48.38 lb.
Cottonseed meal
2.66 lb.
Ground milo maize
5.70 1b.
5.77 lb.
Feed required per pound gain:
Alfalfa hay.
1.60 lb.
Silage
21.45 lb.
1.08 lb.
2.32 lb.
19.43 lb
Cottonseed meal
1.07 lb.
Ground milo maize
2.32 lb.
Nutrients required per 100 pounds gain:
Dry matter
795.12 lb.
.S50.81 lb.
648.37 therms
893.98 lb.
Total digestible nutrients
605.62 lb.
Number of therms
669.88 therms
Cost of 100 pounds gain
S19.18
$20.30
Initial cost per head at $10.00 cwt
$ 88.90
36.28
l.SO
1.45
$ 88.80
Feed cost per head
38.91
Interest on investment at 8%
1.50
Estimated cost of marketing
1.45
Total coat
$128.13
$130.66
Value per cwt. March 26
$ 11.35
122.39
5.74
$ 11.50
Returns per head without shrink
124.20
Loss per head
6.46
Profit per head
Necessary selling price per cwt
11.88
12.10
Results of the Experiment 377
The rations in the two lots were the same except that the steers
in Lot VI consumed an average of 3.97 pounds alfalfa hay per head
daily, while those in Lot V were given no alfalfa hay and they ate
4.32 pounds more silago per head daily than the steers in Lot VL
The steers in Lot V gained a total of 189 pounds or an average of
2.46 pounds per head daily, and those in Lot V gained 192 pounds
during the feeding period, or an average of 2.49 pounds per head
daily. The amount of feed required per pound gain was very similar
in each lot, Lot VI using 2.02 pounds less silage, but 1.60 pounds
more of alfalfa hay.
From the standpoint of the efficiency of the rations as indicated
by the nutrients required to make a hundred pounds of gain, the
steers in Lot V seemed to have a distinct advantage in this respect.
In dry matter, total digestible nutrients, and number of therms re-
quired to produce 100 pounds of gain, the steers in Lot VI required
about ten percent more than those in L-ot V. The feed in Lot V
seemed to be more efficient than in Lot VI in making gain, or else
the tables giving the digestibility of feeds are not reliable for Arizona
conditions. Throughout it was observed that there was an apparently
greater food value attached to alfalfa hay than actually obtained in
this test, or the constituents in silage as given in text-books on the
subject were underestimated. There is an apparently illogical con-
dition in the tables giving the nutrients consumed or required to
produce 100 pounds gain.
The feed cost was $36.28 for an average steer in Lot V and $38.91
in Lot VI. The gains in Lot VI were not sufficiently greater to
counteract this increased cost of the food, for gain costs $19.18 per
100 pounds in Lot V and $20.30 in Lot VI. Both of the lots lost
money. Lot V losing $5.74 per head and Lot VI $6.46. In order to
purchase the animals, to supply them with feed, pay interest on the
cost price of the steers, and to market them, $11.88 per 100 pounds
was necessary in Lot V and $12.10 in Lot VI.
The chief differences between the two lots were: (1) greater
uniformity of gains made by the steers in Lot VI; (2) the animals in
Lot VI finished more rapidly for market; (3) better appetites of the
animals in Lot VI ; and (4) the higher price received for them at the
end of the test. There seemed to be some quality associated with
the alfalfa hay which had a beneficial effect on the animals. The
steers in Lot VI were all in good vigorous condition with ready ap-
petites but two of the steers in Lot V went off feed during the test.
378
Bulletin 91
These were the only steers in the entire experiment that showed a
tendency to refuse feed at any time. Three of the animals in Lot V
made very light gains, and two of them gained large amounts. In
Lot VI all the steers made large gains, and at the end of the test the
animals in this lot were much more uniform and fatter than those
in Lot V. One may conclude that, from the standpoint of keeping
animals in good condition, with good vigorous appetites, and in order
to make them finish for market at an early date, without many culls,
the addition of alfalfa hay to a ration of silage, cottonseed meal, and
milo maize is beneficial.
In each of the lots receiving alfalfa hay, with the exception of
Lot I where the steers were fed exclusively on this feed, alfalfa hay
seemed to have a beneficial effect. Animals do not care for more
than three or four pounds of alfalfa hay per day, but they will do
better if given this amount. They will gain more rapidly, feed more
uniformly, and take on flesh faster than when no alfalfa hay is given
them. Apparently the cost of producing gains may be slightly more
when the alfalfa hay has been fed, but at least a small amount of
alfalfa hay or some other good substitute for it should be used in
cattle feeding.
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
FINANCIAL STATEMENT FOR 36 STEERS, 1920
Cost of steers (32,020 lb.) at 10 cents..
Cost of feed
Interest on investment at 8%
Estimated cost of marketing
Total cost.
Returns from 23 steers Wt. (25,398 4% shrink) at 11 cents..
Returns from 13 steers Wt. (14,802 4% shrink) at 11 cents..
Total returns..
Loss
Loss per steer
$3202.00
1360.29
54.00
52.20
$4668.49
S2682.03
1572.60
$4254.63
413.86
11.50
FINANCIAl STATEMENT ASSUMING ALL STEERS WERE SOLD AT THE END OF
77 DAYS AT 11 CENTS PER LB. AND 4% SHRINK
S3202.00
1104.45
54.00
Estimated cost of marketing
52.20
$4412.65
S4027.58
Loss
S 385.07
Loss per steer
10.70
GENERAL DISCUSSION
COST OF 100 POUNDS GAIN WITH VARYING FEED PRICES
The main object in feeding cattle is to make a profit. In order
to make a profit the feeder must select feeds which will produce good
gains at low cost. The use of home-grown feed will often bring a
larger return if marketed through live stock than when shipped to
somt^ distant market. Table X has been prepared to give the cost
of 100 pounds of gain with varying prices of feed.
TABLE X.— COST OF 100 POUNDS GAIN WITH VARYING FEED PRICES
Alfalfa hay
S12.00
S18,0()
S-'5.00
Alfalfa hay
Silage
S 6.00
S 8.0o[$10.00
S 6.00
S 8.00S10.00
S 6.00
S 8.00
SIO.OO
S12.60
$18.00
$25.00
Lot I — Alfalfa hay...
12.30
18.45
25.63
Lot II— Alfalfa hay
and Silage
8.17
10.14
12.12
9.29
11.26
13.24
10.61
12.58
14.56
Lot III — Silage and
cottonseed meal.
Cottonseed S60
meal S70
$80
13.52
14.20
14.88
16.67
17.35
18.03
19.82
20.50
21.18
Lot IV— Alfalfa hay,
Silage and Cotton-
11.25
11.77
12.29
13.63
14.15
14.67
16.01
16.53
17.05
11.74
12.26
12.78
14.12
14.64
15.16
16.50
17.02
17.54
12.32
12.84
13.36
14.70
15.22
15.74
17.08
17.60
18.12
Cottonseed fS60
meal -^$70
tS80
Lot V — Silage, milo
and cottonseed
meal
Milo
30.00
13.17
13.71
14.25
40.00
16.47
17.01
17.55
54.00
20.25
20.79
21.33
Cottonseed ( S60
meal S70
lS80
Lot VI— Alfalfa hay.
silage, milo and
cottonseed meal
Milo
Cottonseed ($60
meal S70
$80
30.00
13.47
14.00
14.54
40.00
16.57
17.10
17.64
54.00
20.14
20.67
21.21
30.00
13.95
14.48
15.02
40.00
17.05
17.58
18.12
54.00
20.62
21.15
21.69
30.00
14.50
15.03
15.57
40.00
17.60
18.13
18.67
54.00
21.17
21.70
22.24
The different prices have been taken for the various feeds as
follows: Alfalfa hay, sS12, $18, and $25 per ton; silage $6, $8, and
$10 per ton; cottonseed meal $60, $70, and $80 per ton; and ground
milo maize $30, $40, and $50 per ton.
The method of using this table is as follows: Suppose the feeder
is considering what the cost of 100 pounds of gain will be with alfalfa
hay at $25 per ton, silage at $8, cottonseed meal at $80, and milo
maize at $40 per ton. First look under the heading of alfalfa at $25
380 BULLETIN 91
per ton; follow down the column marked silage at $8 per ton until
the milo column marked $40 a ton is reached; follow down from here
to the figure opposite cottonseed meal at $80 per ton, and the sum of
$18.67 is found. This amount is the cost of 100 pounds of gain if
the above prices are used and gains are made the same as the steers
in Lot VI. Other combinations of feeds and prices are found in the
same manner. Thus alfalfa hay at $12 per ton, silage at $6 and cotton-
seed meal at $60 a ton will cost $11.25 to make 100 pounds of gain
at the rate made by the steers in Lot IIL Where alfalfa hay alone
is fed, the cost of 100 pounds of gain is about the same as the cost
per ton of the hay.
Table X has been given to supply a ready reference to cattle
feeders. It is believed that it will give a close approximation of the
costs of making 100 pounds gain in steers with any of the six rations
used in this test. Before beginning the feeding operations, it would
be wise to compare the ruling prices of feeds with this table to ascertain
whether to feed or not. It almost always costs more to make cattle
gain in live weight than one can secure for the finished animals.
With a two cent margin over a short feeding period one can expect
the cost of gains to be two to four cents per pound greater than the
fat cattle will bring.
In order to give a brief summary of the test which will enable
one to follow the data from the lots fed in the six different ways and
make a comparison of them a complete summary is presented in
Table XL Some secondary factors of interest to stockmen are found
in this table. Among these may be mentioned: (1) amount of feed
cattle will consume; (2) rate of gain made by steers; (3) feed required
per pound gain; (4) dry matter, total digestible nutrients, and therms
consumed per 100 pounds gain; (,S) cost of gains in live weight; (6)
margin in cattle feeding; (7) length of time required to finish cattle
for market; and (8) dressed percentage of cattle as affected by the
different rations.
AMOUNT OF FEED CATTLE WILL CONSUME
According to the results obtained in this test, steers weighing
891 pounds will consume an average of 28.63 pounds of alfalfa hay
per day. For the same length of time a similar animal, when given
free choice of alfalfa hay and silage, will consume 8.99 pounds of the
former and 47.14 pounds of the latter. When steers are given a
limited amount of concentrated feed along with roughage consisting
of silage or alfalfa hay or both, the amount of roughage consumed will
General Discussion
381
T.\BLE XI.— COMPLETE SUMMARY OF
THE TEST FOR 77
DAYS
Lot I
Lot 11
Lot III
Lot IV
Lot V
Lot VI
Number of steers in lot
6
6
6
6
6
6
Ration
Alfalfa hay
Alfalfa hay.
silage
Silage,
cottonseed
meal
Pounds
890
1041
151
1.96
Alfalfa hay.
silage.
cottonseed
meal
Silage,
cottonseed
meal
milo maize
Alfalfa hay
silage,
cottonseed
meal
milo maize
Average initial weight
Pounds
891
99S
107
1.40
Pounds
889
1073
184
2.39
Pounds
889
1086
197
2.55
Pounds
889
1078
189
2.46
Pounds
888
1080
Average daily gain
2.49
;
Average daily ration
Alfalfa hay
Pounds
28.63
Pounds
8.99
47.14
Pounds
61.76
2.66
Pound':
4.20
60.68
2.66
Pounds
.S2.7C
2.66
5.70
Pounds
3.97
Silage
Milo maize
5.77
Feed required per lb. gain:
Pounds
20.51
Pounds
3.76
19.71
■ Pounds
31.49
1.36
Pounds
1.65
23.78
1.04
Pounds
Pounds
1.60
21.45
1 08
2.32
19.43
Milo maize
Nutrients required per
100 lbs. gain:
Pounds
1869.29
1055.00
700.00
Pounds
793.72
456.49
442.68
Pounds
843.37
520.41
628.06
Pounds
789.41
479.61
532.55
Pounds
795.12
550.81
648.37
Pounds
893.98
605.62
669.88
Total digest, nutrients®.
Therms®
Cost of 100 lbs. gain
$25.63
$12.58
$18.03
$15.73
$19.18
$20.30
Initial cost at SIO.OO cwt..
$89.10
27 55
1.50
1.45
$ 88.90
23.18
1.50
1.45
S 89.00
27.22
1.50
1.45
$ 88.90
30.93
1.50
1.45
$ 88.90
36.28
1.50
1.45
S 88.80
38.91
1.50
1.45
Interest at 8%
Estimated cost of marketing
$119.60
115.03
$119.17
$122.78
$128.13
130.66
Value per cwt. March 26 ..
$ 10.25
$ 10.75
S 10.60
$ 11.20
$ 11.35
$ 11.50
Returns per head
$102.33
$115.38
$110.35
$121.59
$122.39
$124.20
$ 17.27
$ 8.82
$ 1.19
$ 5.74
$ 6.46
Profit per steer
$ .35
Necessary selling price
$ 11.98
$ 10.72
$ 11.45
$ 11.31
$ 11.88
$ 12.10
Necessary margin
$ 1.98
$ .72
$ 1.45
$ 1.31
$ 1.88
$ 2.10
Time required to finish®
steers for market
139 days
81 days
99 days
76 days
79 days
78 days
54%®
57%®
57.2%®
57.7%®
58.5%®
58.9%,®
®"Feeds and Feeding" by Henry and Morrison. . , -,
©Based on the length of time it would require the steers to gain 194.5 pounds at the rate ot Z.i>i
pounds gain per day.
!l^ Estimated dressing per cent at the end of 110 days.
©Estimated dressing per cent from 77 days and 110 days.
©Actual dressing per cent at the end of 77 days. j „f i in Havs
©Estimated for only 1 steer at the end of 77 days, the others at the end of HO days.
382 Bulletin 91
depend upon the quantity of concentrated feed. If 2.66 pounds of
cottonseed meal are fed to steers, they will consume an average of
61.76 pounds of sorghum silage per day. Steers given 2.66 pounds
of cottonseed meal will consume an average of 4.20 pounds of alfalfa
hay and 60. 6S pounds of silage per day. When 2.66 pounds of cotton-
seed meal and 5.70 pounds of rnilo maize are given, an average steer
will take 52.70 pounds of silage. When all four of the feeds are com-
bined, the steers being limited to 2.66 pounds of cottonseed meal and
5.77 pounds of milo maize, an average of 3.97 pounds of alfalfa hay
and 48.38 pounds of silage will be about the daily consumption. It
is believed that the above amount of feeds will he a close approxima-
tion to what it may be expected 2-year-old steers weighing 889 pounds
will consume during the first 77 days in the feed lot. Steers that
have been accustomed to silage before being placed in the feed lot
will consume relatively larger quantities of silage and less alfalfa hay
when these feeds are in the ration. It should be a simple matter for
stockmen to estimate the amount of feed the animals will require
daily when any of these rations are used. A slight modification may
be made in the amount of feeds animals will consume if other rations
are planned.
RATE OP^ GAINS MADE BY STEERS
The average daily gain made by the steers in the various lots
ranged from 1.40 pounds to 2.55 pounds. The steers receiving alfalfa
hay, silage, and cottonseed meal made the most rapid gains, averag-
ing 2.55 pounds per head daily. The second largest gain was made
by Lot VI on alfalfa hay, silage, cottonseed meal, and milo maize,
these steers averaging 2.49 pounds per head daily. Lot V, receiving
silage, cottonseed meal, and milo maize, ranked third with a daily
gain of 2.46 pounds. The steers fed on alfalfa hay and silage made
an average daily gain of 2.39 pounds. Lot III gained an average of
1.96 pounds per head daily from a ration of silage and cotton-seed
meal. The lowest daily gain was obtained in Lot I fed on alfalfa
hay alone, and they averaged only 1.40 pounds per head daily.
FEED REQUIRED PER POUND GAIN
The amount of feed required to make a pound of gain was 20.51
pounds of alfalfa hay in Lot I. Lot II consumed 3.76 pounds of
alfalfa hay and 19.71 pounds of silage for every pound of gain. Lot
III consumed 31.49 pounds of silage and 1.36 pounds of cottonseed
meal per pound of gain. The feed required to make a pound of gain
General Discussion 383
in Lot IV was 1.65 pounds of alfalfa hay, 23.78 pounds of silage, and
1.04 pounds of cottonseed meal. In Lot V 21.45 pounds of silage,
1.08 pounds of cottonseed meal, and 2.32 pounds of ground milo maize
were required to make a pound of gain. Lot VI required 1.60 pounds
of alfalfa hay, 19.43 pounds of silage, 1.07 pounds of cottonseed meal
and 2.32 pounds of ground milo maize to make a pound of gain.
DRY MATTER, TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS, AND
THERMS CONSUMED PER 100 POUNDS GAIN
Lot I consumed the largest amount of dry matter and total
digestible nutrients as well as the greatest number of therms for 100
pounds gain, the amount being 1869.29 pounds dry matter, 1055.00
pounds total digestible nutrients, and 700.00 therms. This lot re-
ceived distinctly more of the constituents required to make gains
than any of the other lots. Lot VI ranked the next highest, averag-
ing 893.98 pounds of dry matter, 605.62 pounds of digestible nutrients
and 669.88 therms. In total dry matter Lot III was the third highest,
but in the other constituents Lot V ranked decidedly ahead of Lot
III. Lot 1 1. consumed slightly more dry matter than Lot IV, but in
total digestible nutrients and therms required to produce 100 pounds
of gain Lot II was the most efficient in the experiment. It is interest-
ing to note that less than half as much dry matter or digestible nu-
trients were required to make 100 pounds of gain in Lot II as in
Lot I. There seems to be a close association between the rate of gains
and the amount of nutrients required to produce them. The rule is
that steers gaining most rapidly require relatively smaller amounts
of nutrients to make gains than the animals that increase slowly in
weight. A slight tendency was observed in lots receiving relatively
larger proportions of concentrates to require more nutrients to make
gains.
COST OF GAINS IN LIVE WEIGHT
The cost of making 100 pounds of gain in the steers varies from
$12.58 in Lot II to $25.63 in Lot I. Thus gain was produced in Lot
II at about half the cost of gain in Lot I. The other four lots varied
from $15.73 in Lot IV to $20.30 in Lot VI. Lot III cost $18.03 to
make 100 pounds of gain, and Lot V $19.18. Several factors seem
to have a pronounced effect upon the cost of gain. The first un-
doubtedly was the cost of the different feeds. Alfalfa hay was very
expensive when fed in large amounts. Cottonseed meal and milo
maize also seemed to be more expensive than silage. The rate of
384 ' Bulletin 91
gain made by the animals was one of the prominent factors affecting
the cost of making 100 pounds increase in weight. Another factor
was the combination of the feed. Thus alfalfa hay when fed alone
was too bulky to be suitable for making rapid gains. On the other
hand, when this feed was supplemented with silage the cheapest gains
were secured. It is interesting to note that the lots making the
cheapest gains were fed on alfalfa hay and silage, and alfalfa hay,
silage, and cottonseed meal.
MARGIN IN CATTLE FEEDING
The margin, which is the difference between the cost price of
feeders and the selling price of the finished animal, often determines
whether or not a profit is made in feeding cattle. As a rule, the
longer cattle are fed the wider must be the margin. These cattle were
fed only 77 days, and it was necessary to have a margin of from 72
cents to $2.10 in order to pay for the feed and other expenses in feed-
ing the animals. The necessary margin for the different lots varied
closely according to the cost of producing gains in live weight. Lots
II, IV, and III were distinctly the lowest, while Lots I, V, and VI
required $1.98, $1.88, and $2.10 respectively. Lot VI required the
largest margin of all the lots due to the highest cost of feed and the
greatest finish made by the animals. In a measure this wide margin
was justified, for the animals were worth more than those of any
other lot at the close of the test. In spite of the fact that the cost of
feed amounted to less in Lot I than in Lots IV, V, and VI, it was
necessary to secure a margin of $1.98, or more than tAvice as much as
in Lot II, in order to avoid loss. When prices of feeds are as high as
during this test, it is necessary to receive a margin of at least $2.00
per 100 pounds to break even.
LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED TO FINISH CATTLE
"The shorter the feeding period the lower the cost of making
gains and the greater the profit," is the rule often followed by stock-
men. All the steers in Lots IV and VI were considered finished for
market at the end of 77 days. During this time Lot IV had made a
gain of 197 pounds and Lot VI, 192 pounds per head. From these
data it was calculated that steers gaining 2.53 pounds daily would
be finished for market when they had gained 194.5 pounds. There
will be variations from this weight due to individuality and a tendency
for the cattle to grow rather than to fatten. Calculated according
to this basis. Lot IV required 76 days. Lot VI 78 days, Lot V 79 days,
General Discussion
385
Lot II 81 days, Lot III 99 days, and Lot I would have required 139
days to finish. From these data it will be noticed that the steers
receiving a ration of hay, silage, and cottonseed meal, or these feeds
and the addition of ground grain, make an early finish. Steers fed
on alfalfa hay alone require approximately twice as long to come to
a finish as where alfalfa hay, silage, cottonseed meal, or these with
the addition of ground milo maize are fed.
DRESSED PERCENTAGE OF CATTLE
The report from Babbitt Brothers, Flagstaff, Arizona, who
dressed the animals and retailed the beef, was that the carcasses from
the steers were satisfactory for that trade.
All the steers in Lots IV and VI were sent to market after being
in the feed lots 77 days. In each of Lots III and V one steer was thin.
None of the steers in Lot I were sold at this time, and only one in
Lot II. This made it necessary to estimate the dressed percentage
of the steers in the various lots at the end of the 77 days. In Lots IV
and VI the dressed yield was 57.7 and 58.9 percent respectively.
Making allowance for the one steer in Lot V, it was estimated that
this lot would average 58.5 percent, and similarly in Lot III, 57.2
percent. It is doubtful if Lot I would have dressed as high as 54
percent, while 57 percent was estimated for Lot II. The actual
dressed percentage of the animals remaining 110 days was secured.
From these figures it may be concluded that the steers with milo
maize in their ration were fatter and dressed a higher percentage than
those receiving no concentrates. The following table gives the weight
of the cattle off cars at Flagstaff, dressed weight of the cooled beef,
and the percentage yield in beef:
TABLE XII.— DRESSED PERCENTAGE OF STEERS
Number of steers
23 steers
13 steers
Total for
36 steers
Average per
steer
Weight at Flagstaff off cars
22290 lb.
13029 lb.
58.45%
12810 1b.
7272 lb.
56.77%
35100 1b.
20301 lb.
57.84%
975 lb.
564 lb.
57.84%
The 23 steers weighed a total of 22,290 pounds off the cars and
yielded 13,029 pounds of beef, which was an average of 58.45 percent.
The 13 steers gave a dressed percentage of 56.77 percent. The
average dressed percentage of beef from the 36 steers was 57.84.
The average weight of the 36 steers was 975 pounds weighed off the
cars at Flagstaff, and they gave 564 pounds of beef, which was 57.84
percent of the live weight.
386
Bulletin 91
KIND OF CATTLE TO FEED
A study was made of the steers in this experiment to determine
the effect of size on the rate of gain and length of time required to
finish them. The steers were classified into large, medium, and
small sizes. The basis of this classification was the size of the frames
and the conformation of the animals. The animals varied imper-
ceptibly from large to medium and from medium to small ; and it was
extremely difficult to secure a different standard for these different
groups. As a rule the large steers weighed more than those in either
of the other groups. There were twenty steers in the large sized
group and eight in each of the other groups.
At the end of the test the steers were classified according to their
condition. The fullness of the cods, and the thickness and covering
of flesh over the body and flanks were used as a basis in estimating
the condition of the steers. The animals were grouped by this
method into fat, medium, and thin classes. None of the steers,
however, were prime, so that the term fat is of relative importance
indicating that group was among the more fleshy ones in the experi-
ment. Table XIII gives the number and percentage of the animals
of different sizes, finishing fat, medium, and thin.
TABLE XIII.— CONDITION OF THE ANIMALS AS AFFECTED BY SIZE
Number and percentage finishing
Size
Fat
Medium
Thin
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
20 Large
13
65.0
6
30.0
1
5 0
8 Medium
7
87. 5
1
12.5
0
0.0
8 Small
4
50.0
3
37.5
1
12 5
There was a tendency for the large animals to become fat more
rapidly than the small ones; but a greater percentage of the medium-
sized steers was fat at the end of the test than of any of the other
groups. None of the medium-sized steers were considered thin at
the end of the experiment.
The steers were grouped into three classes according to the amount
of gain made. Group I was called "Good" and contained steers
which gained from 170 to 343 pounds. Steers in the "Medium"
General Discussion
387
group gained from 140 to 159 pounds; and the "Low" group gained
less than 139 pounds. The data showing the effect of the size of the
animals on the rate of gains made by them are given in Table XIV.
TABLE XIV.— SIZE OF STEERS AS AFFECTING THE AMOUNT OF GAINS
Good gains
Medium gains
Low gains
Size
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
10
50.0
4
20.0
6
30 0
8 Medium
4
50.0
2
25.0
2
25.0
8 Small
2
25.0
3
37.5
3
37.5
Of the 16 steers that made good gains ten were large, four medium,
and two small. There seemed to be a slight tendency for the medium-
sized steers to make larger gains than either of the other lots. The
small steers made distinctly less gains than the medium or the large-
sized animals.
In order to make a comparison of the size of the animals and the
average gain made by them, the Table XV has been prepared.
TABLE XV.— ACTUAL GAINS MADE BY THE STEERS CLASSIFIED AS LARGE.
MEDIUM AND SMALL
Size
Initial weight
Final weight
Gains
20 Large
Pounds
947
Pounds
1116
Pounds
169
856
1025
169
8 Small
779
952
173
There was little or no difference in the average gain made by
steers from the large, medium or small groups. The three groups
varied only from 169 to 173 pounds.
A further study of the animals shows that there was a greater
range among the individuals of the same groups than the average of
the different groups. The study, however, goes to indicate that there
may be a slight advantage in selecting medium-sized, blocky steers
that are smooth in conformation, in preference to the large, coarse
steers or the small, fine animals. It was unfortunate that the indi-
vidual dressing percentage could not be secured for each of the ani-
mals, for probably there is a closer relationship between the dressed
percentage and the size than in any other respect.
388 Bulletin 91
From the standpoint of making gains and rapid finish, it is more
important to select steers which are vigorous and gentle than to
select according to size. Fleshy animals are better than thin ones;
for they will be ready for market sooner, and not so wide a margin is
necessary with such cattle. Other things being equal, the steers of
medium size with short legs, wide, deep bodies, broad foreheads, short
well-dished faces, large heart girths, strong loins, large barrels, and
showing beef breeding will be best.
SHRINKAGE IN FAT CATTLE
A study of the shrinkage in the animals when ready for market
was made with the steers in the feeding test. In Arizona the custom
has been to stand cattle 12 hours in a dry lot without feed or water
or deduct 4 percent from the feed lot weight.
There is a distinct difference in the shrinkage of cattle, whether
they are Aveighed out of the feed lot or after having been driven from
One to ten miles through the dust in the warm weather. Cattle driven
even a short distance will undoubtedly lose weight more rapidly than
when standing or lying down contentedly in the feed lot. The more
nervous and restless animals are, the more they will lose in weight.
Cattle driven to market will perspire and lose more excrement than
when maintained in the feed lots where they are quiet and contented.
Twenty-three of the thirty-six steers were in the feed lot for 77
days and the remaining 13 for 117 days. The method of handling
these steers previous to weighing was slightly different. The 23
steers were weighed between 4 and 5 p. m. after having received
nothing since the morning's feed. The 13 steers received their regu-
lar morning feed and about 3 p. m. an additional quantity of four
pounds of alfalfa hay per steer. These steers ate most of their hay,
and, as water was in the lots, probably drank freely of it. About
4:30 p. m. each of the lots were weighed and returned to their respec-
tive feed lots; they were again weighed about 8:30 o'clock the next
morning. Some of the animals had a small amount of feed left from
the morning's rations, and this was removed at 7 p. m. and the water
fountains adjusted so the cattle could receive no more water. After
weighing the animals the next morning, they were turned back to the
feed lots for about an hour, then allowed to mix together in an open
space where they frisked around for half an hour. After this the
steers were driven to the Mesa stockyards, a distance of two miles,
and weighed at 11:45 a. m. The steers were shipped to Phoenix the
same evening, unloaded, given hay and water, and shipped to Flagstaff
General Discussion
389
the next day, where they were weighed off cars. The weather was
quite warm when the 13 steers were shipped to market, but cool and
comfortable the day the 23 were shipped. The summary of the
weights of the cattle, pounds lost, and the percentage of shrink
at difTcrent times are given in Table XVI.
The 23 steers after being off feed and water for 16 hours lost 1026
pounds in weight, or 4.04 percent of the total weight; and the 13 steers
under similar conditions, except that they were given about 4 pounds
of alfalfa hay, lost a total of 698 pounds or a shrinkage of 4.69 percent.
No doubt the large shrinkage in the group of 13 steers was due in
part to the steers having taken large quantities of water after consum-
ing the alfalfa hay; but the weather was also warmer and this may
have been a contributing factor. It is interesting to note, however,
that each lot lost fully 4 percent in vC-eight during the 16 hours which
elapsed between the weighings.
Between the time they were weighed at 8:30 a. m. and agam at
11:45 a. m., the 23 animals lost a total of 342 pounds and the 13 lost
519 pounds. The loss due to shrinkage was 1.40 percent with the
large group and 3.66 percent with the 13 steers. It is noteworthy
that in 3)4 hours these steers lost an average of 2.23 percent while
standing in the feed lots, walking a distance of two miles, and remain-
ing in the stock yards.
TABLE XVI.— STATEMENT OF SHRINKAGE FOR 36 STEERS
Number of steers
23 steers
13 steers
Total for
36 steers
Average
per steer
FiUed weight n feed lot. t-5 P. M
25398 lb.
14892 lb.
40290 lb.
1119 1b.
Shrunk weight in feed lot 8-9 A. M
24372 lb.
14194 lb.
38566 lb.
1071 lb.
Shrinkage
1026 lb.
698 lb.
1724 1b.
47.89 lb.
Percent of shrinkage
4.04%
4.69%
4.28%,
4.28%
Weight at yards after driving two miles;
11:45 A. M
24030 lb.
13675 lb.
37705 lb.
1047 lb.
Shrinkage
342 lb.
519 lb.
861 lb.
23.92 lb.
Percent of shrinkage
1.40%
3.66%
2.23%
2.23%
Weight at Flagstaff off cars
22290 lb.
12810 1b.
35100 lb.
975 lb.
Shrinkage
1740 lb.
865 lb.
2605 lb.
72.36 1b.
7.24%
3108 lb.
6.33%
2082 lb.
6.91%
5190 lb.
6.91%
Total shrinkage
144.17 lb.
Total percent of shrinkage
12.68%
14.68%
13.42%
13.42%
390 BULLETIN 91
The weights off cars at Flagstaff showed that the 23 steers had lost
in transit 1740 pounds, or 7.24 percent from the time they were weighed
in the Mesa stock yards. The total shrinkage of the 23 steers from
the time they were weighed directly out of the feed lots until they
were unloaded at Flagstaff was 3,108 pounds or 12.68 percent. The
13 steers lost a total of 2082 pounds or 14.68 percent from the time
they were weighed out of the feed lots until they were weighed off
cars at Flagstaff.
The average shrinkage of the two groups of steers was 13.42 per-
cent. This is divided into an average loss of 4.28 percent for the first
16 hours shrinkage in the feed lot, 2.23 percent lost between the
shrunk weight out of the feed lot and the weight of the animals after
S^ hours in the stock yards two miles distant, and 6.91 percent lost
between the Mesa and Flagstaff stockyards. The percentage losses
in the two groups were very similar in every respect, except that the
13 steers had a greater total loss of 2 percent, which took place during
the first 19 hours. These steers were v/eighed several times in the
stockyards at Mesa. They lost 2.78 percent during the drive from
the feed lot, .91 percent the first 45 minutes they were in the feed lot,
1.76 percent between 11:45 a. m. and 3 p. m. During the four hours
these steers were in the stock yards they lost an average of 7.02 pounds
an hour, or .66 percent per hour. The weather was warm and the
cattle restless; for during this time they were hair branded.
SUPPLEMENTAL TEST— FEEDING 9 STEERS FOR 40 DAYS
Nine of the 13 steers remaining from the first test were continued
in two lots until May 4. Lot I had four steers and Lot II five. The
animals remained in the same lots as previously and all were given
2.56 pounds of cottonseed meal per head daily and all the alfalfa hay
and silage they would eat. The steers in Lot I were high-grade
Holsteins and those in Lot II were sired by a Polled Shorthorn bull.
Those in Lot I were much thinner than the steers in Lot II and had
been fed previously on alfalfa hay, while those in Lot II received
alfalfa hay and silage. The first three days the steers in Lot I were
fed alfalfa hay, and those in the other lot alfalfa hay and silage.
After this a mixed ration was given.. The weight of each steer was
taken weekly and a careful record kept of the amount of feed con-
sumed. The objects of this test were to learn if the high-grade
Holsteins would make as rapid gains as the other steers, to study the
effect of previous rations on the rate of gains, and to learn the amount
of roughages these animals would consume when given a small amount
of cotton-seed meal.
After being on feed for forty days the animals were sold. At
the end of this time they were as fat as the steers sold March 25.
Table XVII gives a brief summary of this second test.
TABLE XVII.— SUMMARY OF TEST WITH 9 STEERS FOR 40 DAYS
Lot I
Lot II
Number steers in lot
Ration
Alfalfa hay,
silage
cottonseed meal
Alfalfa hay,
silage
cottonseed meal
Average initial weight
Average final weight
Average gain
Average daily gain
Average daily ration:
Alfalfa hay
Silage
Cottonseed meal
Feed required per pound gain
Alfalfa hay.
Silage
Cottonseed meal
Cost of 100 pounds gain
Pounds
1030
1181
151
3.78
Pounds
1070
1185
115
2.88
10.67
48.58
2.56
4.93
54.23
2.56
2.82
12.85
0.68
$11.39
1.71
18.83
0.89
$13.23
392
BULLETLN 91
The steers in Lot I averaged 40 pounds lighter than those in
Lot II at the beginning of the test. At the end of 40 days the steers
in Lot I had gained an average of 151 pounds or 3.78 pounds per head
daily; those in Lot II made an average gain of 115 pounds or 21.88
pounds per head daily. The steers in Lot I gained almost a pound
a day more per head than those in Lot II. They were allowed the
same ration. It is believed that steers which have been maintained
Fig. 5. — Steers in Lot II, May 5, 1920
a considerable length of time on alfalfa hay will make more rapid
gains than animals that have been given a combination of feed. No
doubt the higher condition of the animals in Lot II induced them to
make slower gains than the thinner animals. Neither of the lots,
however, were fat. This test also indicated that the grade steers with
Holstein blood predominating made just as rapid gains as those with
beef blood predominating. There was, however, an apparent differ-
ence due to breeding. Lot I did not finish into as full, smooth animals
or have as high proportion of high-priced cuts as the steers in Lot II.
It was believed that a somewhat longer period would be required to
feed the steers in Lot 11.
The steers in Lot I consumed 10.67 pounds of alfalfa hay and
.58 pounds of silage, while those in Lot II ate only 4.93 pounds of
alfa hay and 54.23 pounds of silage. The steers in Lot I consumed
Supplemental Test— Feeding .9 Steers for 40 Days 393
twice as much hay but hardly as much silage as those in Lot II. It
was apparent that steers accustomed to alfalfa hay, but not to silage,
required some time to adjust their rations, and there was a tendency
for them to reduce the amount of alfalfa hay and increase the con-
sumption of silage.
The cost of 100 pounds of gain was $11.39 in Lot I and $13.23 in
Lot II. The steers in Lot I consumed more feed when given a variety,
and made larger as well as cheaper gains. No doubt the ration of
alfalfa hay alone was somewhat bulky, monotonous, and unbalanced ;
and when a variety and concentrates were added to the alfalfa hay, the
animals were induced to consume larger quantities of feed with good
results. The test also proved that the Holstein steers made just as
rapid and economical gains as the steers sired by a Polled Shorthorn
bull when given the same ration.
SUMMARY
MAIN TEST 36 STEERS FOR 77 DAYS
ALFALFA HAY ALONE COMPARED WITH ALFALFA HAY AND SILAGE
1. Steers fed on alfalfa hay gained an average of 1.40 pounds
per day ; on alfalfa hay and silage, 2.39 pounds. The addition of silage
to the alfalfa hay increased the daily gain at the rate of .99 pounds
per steer.
2. The addition of silage to a ration of alfalfa hay will make
steers gain more rapidly in weight, shorten the feeding period, reduce
the cost of making gains, increase the market value of the animals,
and increase the profits.
3. Steers averaging 891 pounds and 30 months old will consume
about 30 pounds of alfalfa hay daily the first 77 days in the feed lot.
4. Steers fed on alfalfa hay and silage finished more rapidly than
those given alfalfa hay and were worth 50 cents per hundred more
at the end of the test.
5. Each steer fed on alfalfa hay lost $17.27, and those given
silage and alfalfa hay made a profit of 35 cents per steer.
6. The cost of feed was $27.55 per steer for alfalfa hay in Lot I,
and these steers gained an average of 107 pounds; while in the other
lot the cost of feed was $23.18 per steer, and these steers gained an
average of 184 pounds.
7. All the steers given silage and alfalfa hay gained more than
any of the steers fed exlusively on alfalfa hay.
8. A margin of $1.98 per hundred pounds was necessary in the
lot fed hay and only 72 cents per hundred pounds was necessary
where the steers were fed silage along with hay.
9. The cost of producing a hundred pounds gain was $25.63
with alfalfa hay and $12.58 with silage and alfalfa hay, or less than
half as much in the lot where silage was fed with alfalfa hay.
10. The addition of 47.14 pounds of silage per head daily de-
creased the consumption of alfalfa hay 19.64 pounds.
11. The steers receiving alfalfa hay and silage consumed less
dry matter, total digestible nutrients, and therms per hundred pounds
gain.
12. Alfalfa hay alone is not a balanced ration for fattening two-
year-old steers, and the addition of silage to a ration of alfalfa hay
was beneficial in every respect.
Summary 395
SILAGE AND ALFALFA HAY COMPARED WITH SII AGE AND COTTONSEED MEAL;
ALSO WITH SILAGE ALFALFA HAY AND COTTONSEED MEAL
1. The steers fed on all the silage and alfalfa hay they would
eat and 2.66 pounds of cottonseed meal made the most rapid gains
and were worth most at the end of the test.
2. Steers fed silage and cottonseed meal made the lowest and
most costly gains and were worth less than cither of the other lots at
the end of 77 days.
3. When cottonseed meal costs $80 per ton, it is doubtful if it
is a profitable supplement to a ration of silage and alfalfa hay when
steers are fed 77 days.
4. When alfalfa hay was added to a ration of silage and cotton-
seed meal, 7.71 pounds less silage and .32 pounds less cottonseed
meal were required to make a pound of gain.
5. The steers receiving alfalfa hay, silage, and cottonseed meal
consumed less dry matter than the steers receiving silage and hay or
silage and cottonseed meal.
6. Although the steers receiving alfalfa hay and silage did not
make as large gains as those in Lot IV, and the animals were not
worth as much per hundred pounds at the end of the test, yet the
steers brought a profit of 35 cents per head due to the cheapness of
bulky feed and low cost of gain.
7. The use of alfalfa hay as a supplement to silage proved more
satisfactory than cottonseed meal, giving larger, more rapid, and
cheaper gains, and the animals were worth 15 cents more per hundred
at the end of the test.
ALFALFA HAY COMPARED WITH GROUND MILO MAIZE TO SUPPLEMENT SILAGE
AND COTTONSEFD MEAL FOR FATTENING STEERS.
1. The Steers fed on silage, cottonseed meal, and alfalfa hay
gained an average of .09 pounds more per head daily than those fed
on silage, cottonseed meal, and a light feed of ground grain.
2. The cost of feed for the cattle in Lot IV was $30.93 per steer
and in Lot V $36.28.
3. Ground milo maize in the ration fattened the steers more
rapidly and increased their selling value 15 cents per hundred.
4. The ration in which alfalfa hay was used as a supplement
gave larger gains per steer, was less expensive, and produced gain
at less cost.
5. The steers receiving the alfalfa hay supplement consumed less
dry matter and apparently made more efTective use of the feed than
those which received milo maize.
396 BULLETIN 91
ALFALFA HAY ADDED TO A RATION OF SILAGE, COTTONSEED MEAL, AND GROUND
MILO MAIZE
1. The addition of alfalfa hay to a ration of silage, cottonseed
meal, and ground milo maize increased the rate of gain .03 pounds
daily per steer.
2. The addition of 3.97 pounds of alfalfa hay per head daily
decreased the amount of silage consumed by 4.32 pounds.
3. Steers fed silage, cottonseed meal, and ground milo maize
required an expenditure for feed of $19.18 per hundred pounds of
gain; those fed silage, cottonseed meal, ground milo maize, and alfalfa
hay required an expenditure of $20.30 per hundred pounds gain.
4. The steers in Lot V were valued at $1 1 .35 per hundred pounds,
and returned a loss of $5.74 per steer; the steers in Lot VI were valued
at $11.50 per hundred pounds, and gave a loss of $6.46 per steer.
5. The addition of alfalfa hay to the ration made the steers
finish more rapidly for market.
6. More uniform gains were made by the steers in Lot VL All
the steers in this lot continued well on feed; two of the steers in the
lot not receiving alfalfa hay went off feed about a week.
7. The chief advantage of adding alfalfa hay to a ration of silage,
cottonseed meal, and milo maize was in the more uniform gains made
by the cattle, but at slightly greater cost.
SUPPLEMENTAL TEST, 9 STEERS FOR 40 DAYS
1. Holstein steers will make as rapid and as economical gains
as steers from Polled Shorthorn bulls.
2. Steers that have been maintained on a ration of alfalfa hay
alone will gain more rapidly when placed on a variety of feed than
similar animals that have been maintained on a mixed ration.
3. A few days are required for steers to adjust their appetites
to a changed ration. There was a tendency for these steers to reduce
the amount of alfalfa hay and increase the silage as the test progressed.
University of Arizona College of Agriculture
Agricultural Experiment Station
Thirtieth Annual Report
For the Year Ended June 30, 1919
(With subsequent Items)
Consisting of reports relating to
Administration
Agricultural Chemistry, Agronomy, Animal Husbandry,
Botany, Dairy Husbandry, Entomology, Horticulture,
Irrigation Investigations, Plant Breeding,
Poultry Husbandry
Tucson, Arizona, December 31, 1919
University of Arizona College of Agriculture
Agricultural Experiment Station
Thirtieth Annual Report
For the Year Ended June 30, 1919
(With subsequent items)
Consisting of reports relating to
Administration
Agricultural Chemistry, Agronomy, Animal Husbandry,
Botany, Dairy Husbandry, Entomology, Horticulture,
Irrigation Investigations, Plant Breeding,
Poultry Husbandry
Tucson, Arizona, December 31, 1919
REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY
Ex-Officio
His Excellency, the Governor of Arizona
The State Superintendent of Public Instruction
Appointed by the Governor of the State
EpEs Randolph President of the Board and Chancellor
William Scarlett, A.B., B.D Regent
John H. Campbell, LL.M Regent
Timothy A. Riordan Regent
James G. Compton Secretary
William Jennings Bryan, Jr., A.B. Treasurer
Edmund W. Wells Regent
Louis D. Ricketts, Sc.D., LL.D Regent
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF
*RuFUs B. VON KleinSmid, a.m., Sc.D President of the University, Director
**D. W. Working, B.Sc, A.M Dean College of Agriculture, Director
fRoBERT H. Forbes, M.S., Ph.D Research Specialist
John J. Thornber, A.M Botanist
Albert. E. Vinson, Ph.D Chemist
Clifford N. Catlin, A.M Associate Chemist
fHoWARD W. Estill, M.S Assistant Chemist
George E. P. Smith, B.S., C.E Irrigation Engineer
W. E. Code, B.S Assistant Irrigation Engineer
H. C. SchvvalEN, B.S- Assistant Irrigation Engineer
JGeorge F. Freeman, Sc.D Plant Breeder
tC OmEr Bond, B.S. A Assistant Plant Breeder
Walker E. Bryan, M.S Assistant Plant Breeder
Richard H. Williams, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
Charles T. Vorhies, Ph.D Entomologist
^Austin W. Morrill, Ph.D Consulting Entomologist
JD. C. George Consulting Plant Pathologist
Walter S. Cunningham, B.S Dairy Husbandman
Franklin J. Crider, M.S Horticulturist
A. F. Kinnison, B.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
George E. Thompson, B.S.A Agronomist
R. S. Hawkins, B.S.A Assistant Agronomist
Francis R. KennEy, B.S.A Poultry Husbandman
Ethel Stokes Secretary Agricultural Experiment Station
•Until February 28, 1919.
••After March 1, 1919.
tOn leave.
JResigned.
LETTERS OF TRANSMITTAL
To His Excellency, Thomas E. Campbell,
Governor of Arizona,
Phoenix, Arizona.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit to you herewith the Thirtieth
Annual Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the Univer-
sity of Arizona College of Agriculture for the fiscal year ended June
30, 1919, with subsequent items.
This report is made in accordance with Act of Congress, approved
March 2, 1887, establishing agricultural experiment stations. Act of
Congress, approved March 16, 1906, known as the Adams Act, and
Article 4483, Title 42, Revised Statutes of Arizona, 1913.
Respectfully yours,
Epes Randolph,
Chancellor and President of the Board of Rey_cnts.
Honorable Epes Randolph,
Chancellor and President of the Board of Regents.
University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.
Sir : I beg to submit herewith my report as President of the
University of Arizona covering- the work of the Agricultural Experi-
ment Station of the College of Agriculture for the fiscal year ended
June 30, 1919.
Faithfully yours,
R. B. VON KleinSmid,
President.
President R. B. von KleinSmid,
University of Arizona,
Tucson, Arizona.
Dear Sir : Herewith I submit the Thirtieth Annual Report of
the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Arizona
College of Agriculture for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1919. with
subsequent item j.
D. W. Working,
Dean and Director.
CONTENTS
' PAGE
Administration 397
College organization 397
The Experiment Station 397
The Extension Service 398
Personnel 398
Publications 399
Projects 399
Finances 4<)1
Agricultural Chemist}' 404
Adams Fund work 404
Sampling field soils 405
Reclamation of alkali 406
Cotton tolerance to alkali in field 408
Tempe Drainage Ditch 409
The Salton Sea 412
Agronomy -. . . .415
Studies at Prescott Dry-farm 415
Studies at Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-farm 416
Legumes and their culture 417
Cultivation of Indian corn and the sorghums 418
Cultivation and management of Egyptian cotton 418
Cultivation of winter and spring grains 419
Effect of dynamiting sub-soil on field crops 419
Tests of grain and forage crop, grasses, and miscellaneous 419
Field studies with legumes 420
Cooperative crop experiments 420
Animal Husbandry 421
Ran^^e conditions during year 421
Investigations 422
Lambing ewes on feed 422
Cattle feeding 423
Two methods of raising gilts 424
Fattening hogs" on garbage vs rolled barley 424
Marketing hogs dressed vs. selling them alive 425
Instruction and executive work 425
Needs 426
Botany 427
Work on poison plants .- 428
Notes on plant introduction work 430
Studies of grasses and grass-like plants 431
Dairy Husbandry , .433
Dairv feeding experiment 433
Raticms 434
Cows .434
Plan of feeding 434
Duration of test 435
Summary of milk and fat produced 435
Cost of production and profit over feed cost 435
Entomology Ayj
Horticulture 439
Pomolocry 439
Dates ...Ay)
Citrus 440
New fruits 441
CONTENTS
PACK
Olericulture ^^
Irish potato '^^
Sweet potato 443
Spinach ^^
Tomato ^^
Ornamental gardening 445
Miscellaneous 445
Irrigation Investigations 447
Casa Grande Valley 447
San Simon Valley 451
State water code 451
Cement pipe 452
Durability of cement pipe 452
Use and waste of irrigation water 453
Continental rubber plantation 453
Water supply for Yuma Mesa Experiment Station -45^
Water tank and tower .455
Plant Breeding 456
Alfalfa 456
Beans 457
Wheat 438
Poultry Husbandrv 463
ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. 1. Honey Drip sorghum— University Farm, Tucson Frontispiece
Fig. 2. Green manuring with Canada field peas— Prescott Dry-farm 417
Fig. 3. Wisconsin barley and Abruzzi rye— State Experiment Station, Mesa..4a)
Fig. 4. Water table fluctuations in Casa Grande Valley over a period of
live Years -449
Thirtieth Annual Report
ADMINISTRATION
D. W. Working
This report covers a period of shift and of adaptation to new
conditions. At the beginning of the fiscal year the Great War was
at its greatest intensity and every, man and woman connected with
agriculture was working under a serious strain. The farmers of
Arizona had undertaken to produce, more than in any previous
year. They were working out a plan that had been adopted at a
conference called by Dean R. H. Forbes and held at the University
of Arizona on April 20 and 21, 1917. This conference resulted in a
production program which led to increased output of farm and
garden crops and had the added advantage of bringing the College
of Agriculture and its workers into closer and more sympathetic
and helpful relations with the people on the farms. The latter
achievement is one that needs to be frankly recognized and more
fully appreciated.
COLLEGE ORGANIZATION
The College of Agriculture of the University of Arizona is a
teaching organization with its special group of teachers of technical
agricultural subjects. In addition to its teachings on the Univer-
sity campus, and an increasing amount of instruction by corre-
spondence, the College has two special kinds of work of outstanding
importance. As an investigating agency, it functions through its
Agricultural Experiment Station ; as an extension agency it works
through its Agricultural Extension Service.
THE EXPERIMENT STATION
The Agricultural Experiment Station exists to study the more
fundamental scientific problems that underlie agricultural practice,
as well as to make such experiments as will enable it to answer
with sure confidence the questions arising in connection with the
growing of the common crops of the vState and the breeding, feed-
ing, and management of livestock.
398 Thirtieth Annual Report
In order to do its work as it should, the Station needs to have
a strong and relatively permanent staff of trained investigators.
The State cannot afford to adopt or to tolerate a policy that will
result in the doing of slovenly work and the publication of bulletins
and reports of less than the highest standard of scientific excellence.
This implies that the State must make such provision for the ade-
quate support of an organization that needs an increasing financial
support if it is even to maintain its present standard of efficiency ;
it is to be remembered that Arizona is making great advances as an
agricultural state. During the past ten years the rural population
has increased tenfold. The Experiment Station is thus brought
face to face with new crop problems, and into direct contact with
an enlarging number of farmers d!nd others, who call at the Station
offices and laboratories in Tucson and at the several Station farms.
THE EXTENSION SERVICE
The Agricultural Extension Service, like the Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, is an integral part of the College of Agriculture.
It is the College working throughout the State for the purpose of
teaching by means of demonstrations, lectures, extension schools,
and popular publications, the facts, principles and practices which
it presents on the University campus by class and laboratory
methods. The Extension Service, in order to meet its obligations
to the public, will continue to need increasing financial support.
Its accomplishments for the year are set forth in detail in a separate
report. But it covers a broader teaching field, for the reason that
cooperative agricultural extension work includes the field of home
economics.
PERSONNEL
After the resignation of Dr. R. H. Forbes, effective February
15, 1918, President von KleinSmid became Dean of the College of
Agriculture and Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station.
March 1, 1919, the appointment of D. W. Working took effect.
On August 30, 1918, Dr. G. F. Freeman left the Station to be-
come Botanist to the Sultanic Agricultural Society, Cairo, Egypt.
Mr. C. O. Bond resigned as Assistant Plant Breeder, April 30, 1919.
The services of Dr. A. W. Morrill, Consulting Entomologist, and
Mr. D. C. George, Consulting Plant Pathologist, terminated with the
D. C. George, Consulting Plant Pathologist, terminated with the
fiscal year June 30, 1919. The Department of Animal Husbandry
was divided, Assistant Professor W. S. Cunningham being made
head of a new Department of Dairy Husbandry under the title of
Arizona Agricui/iukal Expkrimicnt Station 399
associate professor. BVances R. Kenney was appointed Associate
Professor of Poultry Husbandry, February 1, 1919. Two other
appointments were made on January 1. Mr. R. S. Hawkins as
Assistant Professor of Agronomy, and Mr. A. F. Kinnison as
Assistant Professor of Horticulture. Each of these appointments
carried the corresponding Station title.
PUBLICATIONS
Measured by the number of publications issued, the year has
been comparatively lean. Following is a list of numbers, titles,
and authors. The number of copies of each publication is given
in parenthesis.
Bulletin No. 86, "Machine-Made Cement Pipe for Irrijiation Systems and Other
Purposes." by G. E. P. Smith. October 30, 1918. (6C00).
Bulletin No. 87. "Insect Pests of Interest to Arizona Cotton Growers," by A. W.
Morrill. December. 1918, (60C0).
Bulletin No. 88, "Use and Waste of Irrigation Water," by G. E. P. Smith.
May 15. 1919, (60C0).
.Agricultural Experiment Station Index, \'ol. VII, (3000).
Twenty-ninth Annual Report, December 31. 1918. By the Station Staff
Circular No, 23, "The Citrus Thrips," by A. W. Morrill. August, 1918, (4000).
Circular No. 24, "Wheat Planting and the Seed Supply," by E. P. Taylor. Sep-
tember, 1918, (6C00).
Circular No. 25, "The Hot Lunch for Rural Schools," by Mary Pritner Lock-
wook, Agnes A. Hunt, and Hazel Zimmerman. November, 1918, (4000).
Circular No. 26, "Water Storage and the Water Code," by G. E. P. Smith.
December, 1918, (6CC0).
There is an increasing demand for our bulletins and circulars, making
necessary large editions to avoid the necessity of expensive reprinting.
PROJECTS
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY
A. E. Vinson, C. N. Catlin, H. W. Estill (From Jan. 1, 1919)
Alkali Soil Studies : Concomitant soil conditions that affect the
toxicity of black alkali and means for the amelioration of the
effects of alkali on soil and plant Adams
Chemical Analyses : Miscellaneous Hatch
Meteorological observations Hatch
Effect of weather conditions on processing and pasteurizing dates. .State Hatch
Reclamation of alkali land at the University Farm State
AGRONOMY
G. E. Thompson, R. S. Hawkins (From Jan. 1, 1919)
Cooperative Crop E.xperiments : Seeds of various crops have been
furnished farmers in order to make comparative tests with each
other and with the varieties already being grown State
Corn and Sorghums : Variety tests and cultural methods State Hatch
Cotton : Date of planting, irrigation tests, thinning methods, in-
tercropping with legumes, and leaving every third row blank. .. State Hatch
Crop Studies on Prescott Dry-Farm and Sulphur Spring Valley
Dry-Farm : Variety tests, rate and date of seeding tests, meth-
od planting tests, inoculation of legumes ; tests to determine
whether drv-farming to raise feed for stock is feasible State
400
Thirtieth Annual Report
Dynamiting : Effect of dynamiting subsoil on the succeeding field
crops State
Grains, Forage Crops, and Grasses and Miscellaneous Crops:
Varietal and cultural tests State
Legumes : Variety and cultural tests to determine the worth of
the various legumes and varieties of legumes for Southwest
conditions State Hatch
Legumes (Inoculation) : A study to ascertain the necessity for
inoculation and the possibility of increasing yields by inter-
cropping with legumes • • - • .Adams State
Winter and Spring Grains : Culture and management of winter
and spring grains, including wheat, oats, barley, and rye State Hatch
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
R. H. Williams
Cattle Feeding (at Prescott) : To determine minimum amount
of silage required to keep thin cows alive Hatch State
Hog feeding experiment at University Farm State Hatch
Lambing rantje ewes in dry lot (at Mesa Farm) Hatch State
Systems of livestock management Hatch State
BOTANY
J. J. Thorneer, J. G. Brown, D. C. George
Funiii causing rot in date fruits: Identification and study of... Adams
Grasses and Grass-like Plants : Economic study of Hatch
Jujube Fruits : Adaptability to the Southwest Hatch State
Mulberries: A study with reference to fruit production Hatch State
Pistasch Trees : Practicability of growing pistasch trees in the
Southwest " Hatch State
Poison Range Plants : Economic study of ..Hatch
Range Improvement Through Fencing : A study of Hatch
Resistant Native Stocks for Grafting Hatch State
Tamarisks : Their growth in alkaline soils Hatch State
Trees and Shrubs for Ornamentation: An economic study of.. Hatch
Ozonium Rrot Disease of Cotton and other crops : Occurrence,
life history, and methods of control Adams
Gummosis of Stone Fruits : Occurrence, causes, and methods of
control Hatch
DAIRY HUSBANDRY
W. S. Cunningham
Rations for Dairy Cows: A comparison of (1) alfalfa and silage,
(2) alfalfa hay and cottonseed meal, and (3) alfalfa hay, silage,
and cottonseed meal Hatch State
ENTOMOLOGY
C. T. VoRHiEs, A. W. Morrill
Rodent Control : A study of grazing ranges Adams
Insect Collection : Collecting and arrangement of economic in-
sects Hatch State
Grasshopper Control Hatch
Cotton-square staincr or tarnislied plant bug control Hatch
HORTICULTURE
F. J. CrioKr, a. F. Kinnison (.From Jan. 1, 1919)
Citrus : The effect of different methods of culture, fertilizer
treatment, and pruning upon the growth of tree and the size
and quality of fruit ._• .Hatch
Date : Culture and management of date orchards with special
reference to the improvement of the yield and quality of fruit
and the rooting of offshoots State
Arizona Agricultural Experimknt Station 401
Olive: The effect of different methods of orcliard management
and pruning upon the growth of tree and yield Hatch
Potato: Study of conditions affecting the production of pota-
toes in Arizona Hatch ' State
Spinach : Study of spinach as a market garden crop for south-
ern Arizona ' State
Sweet Potato: Study of cultural and storage methods Hatch State
Variety Studies: Type and varietal adaptation of fruits, vege-
tables, and ornamentals '. State
IRRIGATION
G. E. P. Smith, \V. E. Code (From Nov. 4, 1918)
A study of the relation of the evaporation rate to the duty of
water and of the factors controlling evaporation .^ Adams
Ground-water supplies and pump irrigation in the Casa Grande
Valley and San Simon Valley Adams State
Pumping Machinery: A study to determine fundamental facts
relating to the action and efficiency of various types Adams
PLANT BREEDING
G. F. Freeman (Until Aug. 30, 1918) W. E. Bryan
Alfalfa : Breeding for yield and quality Adams State
Bean : Biological analysis of genus Plwscolus .Adams State
Corn : Selective breeding for the improvement of corn varieties
adapted to general farming in .\rizona State
Date: To produce by crossing, selection, and inbreeding a va-
riety of dates of high quality which will ripen nautrally under
Arizona conditions State
Wheat: (a) To produce a wheat which will be productive and
at the same time maintain a high average of bread-making quali-
ties under Arizona conditions; (b) to make a biological analysis
of the unit characters of wheat varieties Adams State
FINANCES
Table A following gives a complete statement of receipts and
disbursements for the College of Agriculture, including the Experi-
ment Station and the Agricultural Extension Service. It does not
include amounts spent by the Federal Department of Agriculture
in partial support of cooperative agricultural extension workers.
These items are shown in detail in the separate report of the Exten-
sion Service. Table B shows receipts and expenditures for the
Agricultural Experiment Station as reported to the Director of the
Office of Experiment Stations of the United States Department of
Agriculture. Table C gives in detail the several appropriations by
the State Legislature for the two years following the year covered
by this report.
402
Thirtieth Annual Report
TABLE A. — SHOWING RECEIPTS FROM ALL SOURCES AND DISBURSEMENTS FOR
ALL PURPOSES ON ACCOUNT OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE FOR YEAR ENDED
JUNE 30, 1919
Fund
Balance
Receipts
Total
Disburse-
inents
Balances
College of Agriculture
•
Maintenance
$
$ 13,535.86
$ 13,535.86
$ 13,535.86
$
Morrill
3,056.10
3,056.10
3,056.10
Farm Maintenance
18.77
11, 85o.ro
11,868.77
11,868.77
Farm Improvement
303.90
2,302.75
2,606.65
2.6C6.65
Printing
2,926 00
2,926.00
2 926 00
Improvement ....
2,256.85
2.256.85
2,256.85
Plant Introduction
.4i
3,000.00
3,000.41
2,999.41
1.00
Tempe Date Palm
Orchard Fund. .
33.52
2,650.00
2,683.52
2,665.62
17.99
Yuma Date Or-
chard Horticul-
tural Station.,.
3,136.19
3,136.19
3,136.19
Dry-farming Fund
.62
3,C00.C0
3,000.62
3,000.62
Prcs.cott Dry-farm-
ing Fund
.20
3.690.00
3,690.20
3,690.20
Salt River Vallev
Farm
1.70
10,000 CO
10,001 70
9,997 1 1
4 59
Sulphur Spring
Valley Farm ....
911.69
3,700.00
4,611.69
4.594.95
16.74
Surface Water In-
vestigation
175.43
3,000.00
3,175.43
3.155.74
19.69
Underflow Water
Investigation . . .
227.50
2,400.00
2,627.50
2,627.50
Experiment Farm
Sales
1,068.74
22,548.07
23,616 81
23,375.37
241.44
University of Ari-
zona Farm Sales
1,517.82
7,771.97
9,289.79
8,283.56
1,006.23
Hatch Sales
.87
2,625.49
2,626.36
2.036.07
590.2f^
Adams
15,000.00
15.000.00
15,000.00
Hatch
15,000.00
15.0«0.(]0
15,000.00
Student Fees
134.50
134.50
81.38
53. i 2
Smith-Lever
16,004.15
16,004.15
16,004.15
State Extension. .
1,029.67
1,029.67
1,029.67
County Extension
Work \...
573.89
12,062.76
12,636.65
9,129.79
3,506.86
Cooperative A g r i.
•
Extension
6,004.15
6,004.15
6,004.15
Total
$4,835.06
$168,684.51
$173,519.57
$168,061.71
$5,457.86
Grand Total . .
$173.51
9.57
$173,519.57
Arizona Agricultural KxtkrimivNT Station
403
table r.. — KXrivNDITURIvS I?V FUNDS AND SCHEDULES EOR THE YEAR
ENDED JUNE 30, 1919
Abstract
State
fund
Sales
fund
Hatch
fund
Adams
fund
Total
Salaries
Labor
Publications . .,
Postage and Station-
ery
Freight and Express
Heat, light, water,
and power
Chemicals and labo-
ratory supplies. . . .
Seeds, plants, and
sundry supplies. . .
Fertilizers
Feeding stuffs
Library
Tools, machinery,
and appliances. . . .
Furniture a n d fix-
tures
Scientific apparatus
and specimens. . . .
Livestock
Traveling expenses.
Contingent expenses
Buildings and land..
Returned t o State
Treasurer
Balance
$11,828.01
9,064.10
2,926.00
200.32
345.57
256.84
23.00
1,290.01
709.06
1,038.98
2,475.41
64.33
33.89
600.C0
2,449.55
377.62
1,954.91
40.23
10,855.15
250.85
$11,758.62
75.46
$11,737.76
1.104.81
$35,677.83
$35,324.39
21,024.06
3,252.25
1,376.57
1,034.28
1,572.74
396.27
3,624.69
839.32
1,922.77
12.21
5,864.65
253.29
402.99
1,110.00
6,228.57
455.85
6,354.14
281.67
590.29
$91,921.00
TABLE C. — STATE APPROPRIATIONS FOR THE TWO-YEAR PERIOD BEGINNING
JULY 1, 1919
Fund
Maintenance • . •
Irnprovements. .
University Farm Maintenance
University t^rm Improvement
Dry-farming Supervision
Printing:
Citrus Investigation
Plant Introduction and Breeding Investigations.
Prescott Drv-farm Maintenance
Prescott-Dry-farm Improvement
Salt River Valley Experiment Farm
Sulphur Sprins: Valley Dry- farm
Tempe Date Orchard
Underflow Water Investigations
Surface Water Investigation
Yuma Date Palm Orchard Maintenance
Yimia Date Rqlm Orchard Imorovement
College of Agriculture Extension
Cooperative Agricultural Extension
1919-20
$16
8
12,
6
4
4,
10
4
6
2
16.
4
3
2,
3
5
12
18
7
950.00
150.00
500.00
050.00
500.00
500.00
000.00
260.00
,090.00
000.00
,510.00
,490.00
.175.00
,400.00
.000.00
,925.00
500.00
COO.OO
433.71
$148,433.71
1920-21
$16,950.00
8.150.00
12,500.00
2,250.00
4,500.00
4,500.00
5,000.00
4,260.00
5,690.00
1,500.00
12,510.00
4,540.00
2,575.00
2,400.00
3,000.00
4,825.00
' is.'oo'o.oo
10,000.00
$123,150.00
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY
A. E. VINSON, C. N. CATLIN, S. W. GRIFFIN
The Department of Agricultural Chemistry has been strength-
ened materially and the work promoted by the appointment of
Mr. C. N. Catlin, formerly Assistant Chemist, as Research Spe-
cialist and the addition of an assistant chemist for analytical work.
Mr. Howard W. Estill was Assistant Chemist from January, 1919,
until September; since that date Mr. S. W. Griffin has served in
that capacity.
The number of analyses of irrigation water and soil for alkali
made by the department has been increasing continually with the
increasing agricultural development of the State. While this is a
public service akin to the extension service and county agent work,
it occasionally presents problems of more general interest and im-
portance. With the aid of the Assistant Chemist we have been
able to meet these demands and make a number of feeding stuff
analyses for other departments, although considerable work of
this kind remains uncompleted. A very few miscellaneous exami-
nations, mostly for poisons, have been made.
ADAMS FUND WORK
The research work of the department has been concentrated
on the study of black alkali. In this connection progress has been
made in working out the technique of a method of determining the
colloidal swelling of dry soils when wetted. The further study of
the influence of chemical treatment on the rate of percolation
through black alkaline soil is being deferred until it can be accom-
panied by and correlated with the colloidal swelling studies.
Pot cultures are being conducted with a view of establishing
the tolerance for black alkali in a type soil, which it is proposed
to use later in the study of the influence of concomitant conditions
on tolerance. For this purpose soils of uniform texture from close
proximity in the same field, but showing different black alkali on
analysis, are selected and mixed to give any desired series. The
white alkali constituents are added to bring all pots to uniform
concentration and all other influences are equalized as far as pos-
sible. Excessive plant foods are given all pots, water supply is
held constant in all cases, soil temperatures equalized, and pedigreed
seed from a single mother plant used. After a definite point of
tolerance has been established with the type soil and strain of
Arizona Agricultural Experimknt Station 405
«
wheat, the black alkali content will be held constant and other
factors varied until the influence of concomitant conditions has
been analyzed. To facilitate and shorten the time of this work
the present equipment for pot culture should be greatly increased.
Considerable difficulty was experienced in getting large sam-
ples of soil of desired alkali concentration to be used in these
experiments. At first field samples were taken, analyzed, and a
wagonload of soil from the selected spot brought to the laboratory.
This was dried, mixed by repeated shoveling on a cement floor, the
whole passed through a 2 m.m. sieve, again mixed, sampled and
analyzed. It was soon discovered that the field samples bore prac-
tically no relation to the large sample taken several days later
from the same spot. It was, therefore, necessary to take the large
samples without preliminary sampling and run the chance of their
being usable.
SAMPLING FIELD SOILS
The difficulties of sampling field soils have long been recognized,
and Lipman and his associates have shown that single field samples
are usually of little value. This is perhaps more true of alkali than
any other soil constituent. The movement of alkali in a field is
best described as billowy ; always in motion, shifting up and down
and laterally. During the year we were asked to inspect a farm
two miles south of Tucson. Surface appearances and the native
vegetation indicated the general presence of black alkali. Samples
of 'the first and secoud foot taken with the soil auger showed no
black alkali, but a fair amount of gypsum, or its equivalent in other
black alkali neutralizing salts. The analyses are shown as Nos.
7161 and 7162 in Table I. Since the analysis seemed contrary to
field indication, several days later a square yard was marked off
in the same field not far distant from the place where the auger
samples had been taken. The soil in this yard was removed care-
fully with trowels in two-inch layers to the depth of two feet, each
layer being thrown on a canvas and carefully sampled. The results
of the analyses are recorded in Table I, Nos. 7173 to 7184. The
surface layer was weakly of the gypsum type, changing into black
alkali in the third and fourth inch. The black alkali increased to a
maximum at the eighth inch, then decreased and changed back into
gypsum type at the sixteenth inch. In very large numbers of sam-
ples taken on small areas at the University Farm in connection
with field experiments in neutralizing black alkali with gypsum,
the most erratic results were obtained from adjacent borings.
406
Thirtieth Annual Report
TABLE I. COMPOSITION OF 2-INCH SUCCESSIVE LAYERS IN A YARD SQUARE
HOLE ON ALKALINE LAND. SAMPLING TEST
1
Total
Chlorides
CaSOi
Na^COa
Laboratory No.
Depth
soluble
as
Equiva-
Black
solids
NaCl
lent
alkali
%
%
%
%
7173
0"- 2"
1.05
.048
.033
7174
2"- 4"
0.888
.052
.059
7175
4". 6"
0.780
.050
.064
7176
6"- 8"
0.720
.032
.102
7177
8"- 10"
0.632
.016
.093
7178
10"- 12"
0.628
.016
.076
7179
12"-14"
0.660
.020
.034
7180
14"-16"
0.724
.024
.013
7181
16"-18"
1.05
.024
.326
7182
18"-20"
1.41
.028
.517
■ • •
7183
20"-22"
1.70
.036
.778
7184
22"-24"
1.49
.030
.560
Soil auger sample
near bv
7161'
1st ft.
1.86
.056
.511
7162
2nd ft.
1.03
.052
.144
RECLAMATION OF ALKALI
An experiment in the reclamation of alkaline land on a tract
adjoining the Tempe Drainage Ditch adjacent to the Date Orchard
was cooperated in by the department. The experiment was planned
by Messrs. Goodin and Eder and nearly completed before our co-
operation was invited ; consequently, certain points were over-
looked, the original experiment having had in view the growing of
rice rather than the leaching of alkali. The soils were not sampled
before leaching began and sampling was delayed several days after
leaching closed, probably resulting in rapid rise of alkali from the
ground water as seemed to be indicated in a later experiment. An
estimate of the original condition of the tract can be based only
on the alkali left in high spots which received little leaching and
an adjacent unleached tract. Some years ago the land used for
the experiment was among the best in the Salt River Valley, but,
due to rising water table, had been abandoned to Bermuda grass,
which was finally killed out and gave place to saltbush. The Drain-
age Ditch has reduced the water table four to five and one-half feet
below the surface which is not sufficient for effective leaching and
permanent reclamation. The results, however, are highly inter-
esting and show among other things the completeness with which
white alkali may be leached and the tenacity with which black alkali
resists leaching. The higher white alkali shown by Nos. 7359,
7360, and 7361 as compared with Nos. 7383 and 7384 probably marks
the rapid rise of alkali in the interval after the first flooding and
Arizona Agricultural Expe;riment Station
407
sampling; the latter samples were taken immediately after the
leaching had ceased. The analyses of these soils are given in
Table II.
TABLE 11. ALKALI IX SOILS RKCLAI MKU BY
LICACIIINL
Black
I^ab.
Depth
Total
Chlorides
alkali
No.
Description ,
feet
Soluble
as
as
salts
NaCl
Na^jCOa
%
%
%
7359
Irrigated 4 times, one week
0- 4
.408
.044
.216
apart ; submerged periods
4-12
.404
.080
.229
of 10 days each in July
12-24
.4as
.174
.167
and August
7360
Flooded 6 times in June and
0- 4
.560
.104
.288
earlv Julv, then submerged
4-12
.512
.154
.237
30 days'
12-24
.320
.126
.161
7361
Same treatment as 7360
0- 4
.464
.072
.233
4-12
.540
.15
.220
12-24
.440
.18
.161
7362
Elevated land flooded 4
0- 4
3.856
2.52
.254
times (hiring season
4-12
2.008
1.26
.110
12-24
.496
.26
.161
7363
High land ; flooded but never
0- 4
2.16
1.60
.038
kept submerged ; repre-
4-12
.320
.072
.135
sentative of original
12-24
.168
.048
.085
7364
Irrigated twice in season of
0-4
1.36
.58
.271
1919
4 12
.752
.32
.186
12-24
.332
.096
.153
7365
Not irrigated for 2 years;
0- 4
1.52
.8S
.322
4-12
0.369
.12
.191
12-24
0.256
.06
.169
7383
Same as 7360 ; resubmerged'
0-12
.32
.020
.135
7384
Same as 7361 ; resubmerged'
0-12
.296
.012
.178
7366
Frankenburg ranch % mile
0- 4
.536
.16-1
.220
distnnt: similar untreated
4-12
.736
.288
.178
land*
12-24
.526
.220
.119
7367
Same'
0- 4
1.3
.74
.102
4-12
0.840
.44
.135
12-24
0.520 .
.24
.161
7368
S.E. ;4 "f same section*
0- 4
.36
.060
.051
4-12
.52
.236
.169
12-24
.512
.204
.186
1 The lands represented by samples 7360 and 7361 were again submerged for
21 days, using- between four and five acre feet of water. The seepage was much
greater than when the treatment was started. 2. Land fallow for six or seven years
with exceptions of one or two unsuccessful attempts to grow milo; flooded in winter,
1918; planted to cotton April, 1919; no irrigation during season; fair stand of cotton.
3. Badly run out Bermuda when Bermuda was killed by alkali; new Bermuda trans-
planted in 1917 and irrigated every ten or twelve days, fair stand by fall; in 1918
Bermuda broken up and planted to cotton, irrigated only after planting, yield one-
half bale; heavily irrigated in fall and winter, 1918; planted to cotton in 1919. yield
three-fourths bale or more per acre. 4. Cropped continuously in past years. In 191S
yielded one bale cotton and has yielded well; irrigated after last picking and heavily
during winter but never during crop season.
408 Thirtieth Annual Report
COTTON TOLERANCE TO ALKALI IN FIELD
In the Twenty-ninth Annual Report of this Station are reported
several analyses of alkaline soil showing different degrees of dam-
age to crops in the field. Similar observations have recently been
made by Mr. Catlin on cotton in Salt River Valley. Here again the
difficulty of securing soil samples representing the actual conditions
under which the crop is growing are almost insurmountable. The
results of this investigation will be found in Table III. Other data
for alkali resistance by cotton are given by Nos.7366, 7367, and 7368,
Table II. None of the failures can be attributed definitely to black
alkali but seem to be due to soluble salts and chlorides. These re-
sults in a general way show good cotton produced on soil contain-
ing .4 percent soluble salts with low chlorides ; stunted, unprofitable
cotton on soils containing .4 to .6 percent soluble salts with .1 to .3
percent chlorides; and total destruction of the crop on soils con-
taining upwards of .6 percent soluble salts of which one-half or
more was chlorides. The relatively high tolerance on No. 7627
cannot be accounted for; it may have been due to rise of alkali late
in the season.
Arizona Ac.kicultural Exi'Krimknt Station
409
TABLK III. — fii;ld tolerance of cotton for alkali, 1919.
C. N. CATLIN
CaSOj
Bhuk
Lab. 1
Total
Chlorides
or
alkali
Xo.
Description
soluble
as
Equiva-
as
solid:^
NaCl ;
lent
Na^CO.^
%
% ;
Vo
'■''■
7627
N.W. of Phoenix Indian
School ; good cotton
.704
.512 i
.051
7628
Same; cotton 3J/^ ft. high
.424
.092
.017
7629
Same; cotton 2 ft high
.412
.08
.044
7630
Same ; no cotton
.792
.44 ,
.087
7631
1 mile south of Tempe ;
good cotton
.340
.048
.087
7632
Same ; cotton 1 ft. high
.52
.192
.022
7633
Same ; no cotton
1.632
.636
.022
7634
Redden place, south Date
1
Orchard ; good cotton
416 •.
.056
Neutral
7635
Same ; small stalk of cot-
ton
.608
.228
.022
7636
Same ; no cotton
.676
.336
.065
7637
Frank Parker, W. Adams
St. ; good cotton
.388
.048
.044
7638
Same ; cotton 3 ft. high
.504
.220
.017
7639
Same; cotton 1 ft. high
.588
.352
.102
76^0
Same ; no cotton
.872
.544
.135
7641
Bargthold place ; fair cot-
ton
JW
.304
.(144
7642
Same ; no cotton
1.212
.576
.220
7643
Pickerell estate. 1 mile
east of Date Orchard;
fair cotton
.400
.144
.017
7644
Same; cotton 1 ft. high
.344
.092
.051
7645
Same ; no cotton
1.336
.832
.109
7646
Hudson land, 1 mile
south of Tempe ; good
cotton
.368
.060
.068
7647
Same ; cotton 1 ft. high
.352
.044
.034
7648
Same ; no cotton
1 1.308
.676
.186
THE TEMPE DRAINAGE DITCH
In 1916 when water began flowing in the Tempe Drainage
Ditch, then still under construction, this department began the
study of the changes that take place in the character of the drainage
water. Monthly samples, with a few omissions, have been analyzed,
giving an almost continuous record for more than three years. The
analyses have been published in the Annual Reports of the Station.
While the composition has varied considerably from month to
month, the general tendency has been for the drainage water to be-
come less saline. The first few months, while construction was
under way, were marked by excessively salty waters, freshening
rapidly as the ditch was extended. The average monthly compo-
410
riiiKTiKTH Annual Kepoki
sition for the three years since the completion of the ditch was as
follows :
1917 1918 1919
Total solids 308 266 262
Chlorides as NaCl 209 182 173
Several times during the interval the character of the water has
changed from black alkaline to gypsum (permanent hardness) and
back to black alkaline. The monthly analyses for 1919 are recorded
in Table IV.
TABIvH IV. MONTHLY VARIATIONS IN COMPOSITION OI" WATER FROM TH B
TEMPE DRAINAGE DITCH, 1919. PARTS PER 100,000
Str.
Mod. Str.
Mod. Str.
Mod. Str.
Str.
Str.
Mod. Str.
Mod. Str.
Mod. Str.
Mod. Str.
Mod.
Mod. Str.
Mod. Str.
Mod. Str.
Mod.
Mod. Str.
Mod.
Mod.
Mod.
Mod.
Mod.
Mod.
Mod.
Mod. Str
Str.
Str.
str. — Strong. Mod. Str. — Moderately strong. Mod. — Moderate. Neut. — NeutraL
In the Twenty-eighth and Twenty-ninth Annual Reports there
were published analyses of Arizona feeding stuiTs, many of them
being materials concerning which little information is available.
Since data of this sort have considerable value to others and are not
likely to be recorded elsewhere, the list is extended here by the
addition of recent analyses in Table V.
Arizona Agkicllti'kal Exi'Ki<iMh:NT Station
411
TA15LK V. — COMPOSITION OF ARIZONA FEEDING STUFFS
j
Nitro-
Crude
Ether j
gen •
Con-
Ash
pro-
Crude
ex-
free
No.
Feeding stuffs
dition ,
Water
tein
flber
tract 1
ex-
%
1
tract
% :
%
%
%
%
7199
Sorghum silage^
fresii
75.17 1
2.88
1.13
6.41
.48
13.93
dry
6.65
10.82
4.27
24.09
1.79
52.38
7200
Fcterita .milage'
fresh
54.29 ,
2.43
3.92
6.57
1.13
34.07
dry
6.03
4.74
7.65
12.83
2.20
66.55
7201
Darso silage, some
fresh 1
57.66
2.82
3.18
6.69
1.04
28.62
fcterita'
dry j
frcsli
6.75
69.76
6.22
2.44 !
6.99
1.68
14.73
6.83
2.28
.76
63.03
7202
Sorghum and hcgari
17.52
silage, mixed'
dry
4.01
7.75 1
5.36
21.69
2.40
58.8
7203
Alfalfa hav' 1918-19
3.70
8.02 ;
15.73
29.75
1.67
40.59
7204
Cowpea hav' 1917-18
3.70
8.07 '
9.51
29.18
2.16
47.38
7205
Barley'
6.70
5.ri
4.67 ,
6.35
; 1.61
59.87
6.37
1.85
10.62
68.73
7206
Cottonseed meal'....
7214
Corn silage'
fre-h
74.43
1.84
1.89
7.3"
0.42
l'4.i3
dry
5.24
6.82
6.99
27.C6
1.57
52.32
7215
Poppies ; full flower'
fresh
.S6.99
1.79
2.92
1.40
0.44
6.45
dry
5.70
13.01
21.16
10.15
3.23
46.75
7228
Woolly foot (Bott-
tcloua criopodaf . .
drx
2.80
7.66
5.61
30.31
1.54
52.08
7229
Cotton top (Panlcum
lacnaiillium) new
growth^
drv
2.81
8.46
4.62
32.62
1.36
50.11
7230
Same old growth*...
dry
2.47
8.67
4.00
34.33
1.11
50.58
7231
Spruce top g r a m a
(Boutcloua b r 0 -
moidcs)^
•Iry
2.L'6
6.31
5.63
31.49
1.24
53.24
7232
Tangle top (Hctcro-
pogOH contort us)"
drv
1..35
5.L'6
3.39
33.43
1.07
55.70
7252
Calycoscris IVrigh tii'
drv
5.97
11. C5
10.47
22.37
5.63
44.51
7253
Poppies ; pods'*
, In-
4.^3
6.63
16.28
32.17
12.53
27.96
7254
Indian wheat ; whole
plants"
dry
6.84
7.83
15.21
5.85
10.26
12.89
31.75
38.75
1.09
0.50
34.85
7255
Indian wheat ; seeds*
34.18
7271
Spanish dagger"
drv
8.55
7324
Boutcloua Roth-
fresh
' 64.56
2.99
2.99
l'3.6.3
0.72
l'6.56
rockii'^^
dry
fresh
1 5.12
1 75.97
8.25
2.69
8.25
1.83
35.90
9.73
1.97
0.37
45.63
7325
Cliactochloa, sp.^'. . . .
10.47
dry
\ 4.27
10.74
7.31
38.76
1.49
41.71
7326
Boutcloua curtipen-
fresh
67.16
3.48
3.35
13.22
0.81
13.59
diila"
dry
fresh
4.53
82.82
10.13
2.14
9.75
1.56
38.44
6.52
' 2.36
0.28
39.52
7336
Elephant grass
6.68
drv
3.91
12.47
9.C6
37.93
1.64
38.90
7536
Cottonseed mear\ . .
dr)-
5.55
6.44
38.46
12.23
5.94
31.38
7537
Milo maize, threshed,
cracked'*
dr.N-
8.59
1.60
12.13
LSI
1.20
1
' 74.67
7538
H e g a r i ; threshed,
!
cracked'''
drv
dry
10.24
1.44
9.41
3.31
1.8S
i 1.76
!
j ....
i 75.27
7491
Grama grass ; old
heads and tops'^. .
1
7492
Same ; old bottoms'^
dry
....
3.50
. ....
412 Tthrtieth Annual Report
1. Feeds used in sheep feeding experiments by Animal Husbandry Depart-
ment. 2. Full bloom; many seed pods; relatively few buds. 3. Also called wire
grama; Santa Rita pasture March 16, 1919; no cattle' grazed last year; % 1918
growth, Vi older, would probably be eaten in this proportion; seeds fallen; stem 6
to 8 inches high. 4. New growth starts on sides of old stems; V4, lower stems re-
jected, sample 5 to 7 inches long. Old growth, 2 or 3 years old containing 14 stem
towards roots; 2 to 4 inches long. 5. Fine clean stems; 5 to 10 inches long; all
seeds fallen; perhaps one-tenth old stem. 6. Tall and co.arse; reddish; one-third
16 inches long, few seeds; one-third 12 inches long, no seeds; one-third 8 Inches
long, no seeds. 7. Entire plant with roots twisted off. S. Pods almost mature,
containing much pvilp. 9. Plants pulled, ropts and lower stems cut off; some
seeds had fa len; .'-■ample would represent average forage a'out March 16. 10. Pulp
of the yucca leaf after the fiber had been removed for commercial purposes.
11. Collected August 9, 1919; in head; knee high; just passing pollen stage.
12. Collected August 9, 1919; waist high; past blooming. 13. Collected August 9,
1919, nearly waist high; past pollen stage. 14. Feeds used in steer feeding ex-
periments by Animal Huslandry Department. 15. Old grama grass from range
south of Elgin: stock apparently starving; 7491 heads and tops of stems; 7492 bot
lorn leaves from base of old plants.
THE SALTON SEA
In 1907 the Department undertook, in cooperation with the
Desert Botanical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, a study of
the changes in the chemical composition of the Salton Sea as evapo-
ration took place after the closing of the break in the Colorado
River. Annual analyses for ten consecutive years were made, but
owing to the pressure of war work and the belief that less frequent
anayses from that time would suffice, the eleventh sample was not
taken till June 17, 1919. The analysis of this sample has been
made by the chemist as time would permit. Since these analyses
have developed wide scientific interest and have not been published
in collected form since the eighth analysis, they are given here in
Table VI.
Several phenomena have been observed and reports published
by this Station and the Carnegie Institution. Three substances
have been disappearing unmistakably from the water : Calcium car-
bonate, potassium, and phosphorus. The calcium carbonate has
been accounted for in the formation of tufa, notably on mesquite
brush that had been submerged when the Salton Sink filled with
water. No adequate explanation of the fate of potassium and phos-
phorus has yet been made. At the suggestion of the writer,
Mr. S. W. Griffin undertook a comparison of the potassium and
phosphorus content and the potassium-sodium ratio in the tufa on
the mesquite with the tufa from the ancient sea at Travertine Point.
The ancient tufa contained potassium .20 percent, sodium .16 per-
cent; the recent tufa, potassium .19 percent, sodium 1.27 per cent.
It must be noted however, that the mesquite branches bearing the
recent tufa were removed from the salty water and dried without
rin«;ing, while the ancient tufa has been exposed to the weather
perhaps for centuries. Nevertheless, the potassium-sodium ratio
in the recent tufa is 1 : 6, while the water from which it was removed
Arizona Agricultural Experimknt Station
413
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414 Thirtieth Annual Report
showed a similar ratio of about 1 : 90. There was an unmistakable
concentration of potassium in the recent tufa.
With regard to phosphorus estimated as phosphate ion the
ancient tufa contained .167 percent and the modern tufa .116 per-
cent. The formation of the tufa was undoubtedly accompanied by
the fixation of phosphorus. In the first few years after the filling of
the sink a distinct and even weighable precipitate of ammonium
phosphomolybdate could be formed from one or two liters of the
water, but in 1916 no positive reaction for phosphorus could be
gotten by working three liters of the water.
If calcium had concentrated at the same rate as total solids
there would have been about 71.34 parts per 100,000 of calcium in
1919 instead of 43.5 parts. Thus, the equivalent of 27.84 parts per
100,000 of calcium has been lost. In like manner the .009 parts of
phosphate ion present in 1907 would now amount to .064 parts,
whereas all has been lost. There should also be at present 16.49
parts per 100,000 of potassium instead of 9.98 parts ; that is, there
has been a loss of 6.51 parts of potassium.
An analysis of the tufa being deposited from Salton Sea in 1912
made in this laboratory by Mr. C. N. Catlin and published in "The
Salton Sea" (Carnegie Institution of Washington, page 47) gave
about 70 percent of calcium carbonate. Assuming that the tufa
used by 'Griflin also contained 70 percent of calcium carbonate, we
find the 27.84 parts of calcium lost from the water, would require
the loss of .115 parts of phosphate ion and .19 parts of potassium.
Thus the loss of the entire amount of phosphorus originally present
can be attributed to the formation of the tufa, but only about 3
percent of the potassium lost can be accounted for in this way. It
appears, therefore, that nearly all the potassium that has disap-
peared from the Salton water must have been adsorbed. (See
Abstraction of Potassium during Sedimentation, J. W. Watson.
Thesis, University of Virginia, 1913.) Deep deposits of mud have
been thrown up on the flat shore lines along the eastern margin
of the sea near Nilands. These muds may contain a large part of
the lost potassium.
AGRONOMY
G. E. Thompson'. R. S. Hawkins
During the period covered by tliis report G. Iv Thompson
has been in charge of the Department of Agronomy. On January
1, 1919, R. S. Hawkins joined the department as Assistant Agrono-
mist, and on October 1, 1919, S. P. Clark joined the department
with the title of Extension Agronomist, but with the understand-
ing that one-half his time would be given to the regular work of
the department.
The strictly experimental work of the department is organized
under projects. These projects cover the various ])hases of crop
work under investigation and are placed in the different agricultural
regions in the State but are located principally on the Experiment
Farms of the Salt River Valley, the Yuma \'alley. the Sulphur
Spring Valley, and on the Dry-Farm near Prescott, Arizona. The
various projects with a brief history and report of progress are
listed below.
1. A CONTINUATION OF STUDIES AT PRESCOTT DRY-FARM.
In the general work of the Prescott Dry-Farm we desire to
determine the agricultural practices necessary by means of which
the dry-farmer with limited land can make a reasonably good liv-
ing. Consequently, the work of this farm includes not only the
testing of the various crops adapted to the climatic conditions of
the Prescott district and the methods of planting, cultivating, and
handling these crops, but it also includes the putting up and feeding
out of silage, and minor* investigations and observations of other
farm practices. During the summer of 1919 the farm was divided
into five principal fields, the arrangement of the fields permitting a
rotation of crops from year to year and permitting the economical
handling of farm help, machinery, etc.
No grain yields of importance were secured except from dwarf
milo maize. This crop planted in early summer and given good
care, made a very satisfactory and profitable grain crop.
From the silage standpoint, Papago sweet corn was the most
satisfactory crop grown on the Experiment Farm. The field on
which this crop was planted received some run-off water from
higher ground above, thus giving it an extra opportunity to produce
a larger yield. Weights taken at the time the crop was cut and
placed in the silo showed a yield from the best part of the field
slightly in excess of 25 tons of silage per acre. The corn matured
416 Thiktiktii Annual Ricport
satisfactorily and from those portions of the field left until maturity-
seed of good quality was harvested for the plantings of 1920.
A local variety of corn called Bloody Butcher produced some
reasonably good corn and approximately 12 tons of silage per acre.
Another variety of corn developed in Gila County, Arizona, and for
years grown under dry-farming conditions, produced first-class ears
and shows considerable promise for this locality. Seed has been
saved and the variety will be tested further in 1920.
A considerable number of varieties of sorghums were tested,
but of them all dwarf milo maize proved most satisfactory. The
varieties tested included red amber. South Dakota amber, Freed
sorghum, Darso, feterita, hegari, and sumac. The fact that Pres-
cott has an elevation of approximately 5,300 feet, resulting in cool
nights during the summer months and cool weather in the spring
and fall, makes this climate better adapted to corn than to sorghums.
The sorghums that did not make a satisfactory grain yield
were harvested and stored as silage, thus providing feed and facili-
ties for the Animal Husbandry Department to carry on feeding
experiments.
Sudan grass planted in cultivated rows 42 inches apart pro-
duced a first-class seed crop and that portion of the field harvested
for hay produced two satisfactory cuttings. Sudan grass is well
adapted to the region about Prescott and is a satisfactory field
crop.
II. A CONTINUATION OF STUDIES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY DRY-FARM.
The purpose and work of the Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm
is very similar to that outlined for the Prescott Dry-Farm. Al-
though the conditions are dryer and consequently more severe,
resulting in smaller yields, still the results throughovit are com-
parable with the results secured on the Prescott Dry-Farm. How-
ever, the growing season is a little longer and sorghum crops are
more satisfactory, partly because of lower elevation. Perhaps the
best crop grown on the farm under strictly dry-farm conditions was
a field of red amber sorghum planted in late March. This field
withstood the extremely dry weather of June, July, and August,
and when a good rain of early September supplied needed moisture
the crop developed rapidly and made considerable silage. Black-
hulled kafir planted at the same time under the same conditions
made more silage, but did not mature as well ; consequently its
feeding value was not as good as that of the red amber.
Sudan grass proved a failure in 1919. The small Sudan grass
plants died of drouth before they had attained sufficient size to
Arizona Agricultural Exi>i:rimknt Station
Kig.
-Green mamiriiif
Willi Caiiciila lii-Ul |..-.i.-,— 1 'i t-.-^clL 1 )i > -I'ai iii
establish a good root system. In an average year we believe Sudan
grass should be a satisfactory crop. Under dry-farming soy beans,
cowpea.'^. and velvet beans were failures.
fii. lp:gumes and tiikir culture for southwest conditions.
Under this project plantings were made on the five farms under
control of the University. In all, 12 varieties of vetch were tested,
10 varieties of cowpeas, 4 of soy beans, 3 of velvet beans, 4 of
clover. A considerable number of miscellaneous crops were tried
out on a small scale. In the Yuma Valley a number of the varieties
of vetch were very promising, practically every one of them making
a satisfactory growth and producing seed. In the Salt River Val-
ley an unusually sharp frost occurred just after the vetches were
up, and every variety, either from this or some unknown cause,
died.
Of all the varieties of cowpeas tested, Red Ripper seems the
most desirable. Groit stands second. From the standpoint of
foliage alone, Brabham is perhaps as desirable as either of the other
two. However, the Brabham variety produces seed very sparingly,
consequently its usefulness as a field crop is limited. The Taylor
variety was good in the Salt River Valley, but Whippoorwill gave
only medium success.
418 Thirtieth Annual Report
As has been the case in previous years, soy beans were not
satisfactory ; although a good vine growth was secured with most
of the varieties, practically every variety, if it produced seed at all,
produced a shrivelled and unmarketable bean. This is probably
due to the very hot and dry atmosphere, as shrivelled beans were
produced regardless of the supply of moisture in the ground. Soy
beans cut a little before maturity and allowed to cure in the shock
produced a much better quality of beans than those allowed to cure
on the vine.
IV. A STUDY OF THE VARIETIES AND METHODS OF CULTIVATION OF
INDIAN CORN AND THE VARIOUS SORGHUMS.
In handling this project plantings were made on the five 'farms
under the control of the Experiment Station and on farms of
numerous individuals throughout the State. In the Salt River
Valley, Mexican June corn or improved strains of it proved the
best of all the varieties tested. The large, coarse, and late maturing
corns of the eastern states were very unsatisfactory ; none of them
were able to withstand the hot and dry atmosphere of our valleys.
In the Salt River Valley, milo maize ranked first as a grain-
sorghum crop with hegari as a close second. Either of these crops
can be planted after a small-grain crop such as wheat or barley, and
still have time for complete maturity. Yields in excess of 4,000
pounds of threshed grain per acre were secured with both milo and
hegari.
From the silage standpoint, orange sorghum gives promise of
being our best variety. Sumac sorghum promises to rank a close
second. Honey-drip sorghum and goose-neck sorghum will make
larger yields than the tw^o first named, but they are larger, coarser,
and more difficult to handle and require a longer growing season.
v. THE CULTIVATION AND FIELD MANAGEMENT OF EGYPTIAN COTTON.
All of the experiments in connection with this project were
handled on the Salt River Valley Experiment Farm. The work
covered date of planting tests ranging from March 1st to May 15th.
It covered a series of fertilizer tests in which acid phosphate, sodium
nitrate, cottonseed meal, commercial fertilizer, and barnyard ma-
nure were used at various rates and in various combinations. Nt>
striking nor conclusive results were secured from the fertilizer
tests. The various tests in the spacing of cotton were consider-
ably injured by a severe storm in late August and the results were
not conclusive. A few preliminary experiments were made with
the topping of cotton. Excellent results were secured in the con-
Arizona Agriclltural Exi'Krimicnt Station 419
trol of black arm during the seedling stage. Tests were made to
determine the effects of planting every third row to cowpeas in-
stead of planting by the common methods. Various inoculating
media were used in these tests for comi)arison with plantings of
the same variety without inoculation and the wide spacing of cotton
without cowpeas. The largest yield secured from any planting was
that from the acre planted in the ordinary manner except that
every third row was omitted.
VI. CULTIVATION AND M.VNAGEMENT OF WINTER AND SPRING GRAINS
INCLUDING WHEAT, OATS, AND BARLEY.
Some of the work in this project was carried on on the Salt
River Valley Experiment Farm. Plantings of wheat included rate
of planting tests, and date of planting tests, as well as variety tests.
Early Baart wheat for average conditions proved the best of the
varieties tested. Good yields were secured from a locally developed
strain of Red Turkey wheat. Kanred, the best hard winter wheat
of central Kansas, did not prove the equal of the Early Baart or
local Turkey wheat. Durham wheats made a good yield, but are
difficult to market, consequently their usefulness is limited.
A very striking and successful demonstration was given in the
control of stinking smut or bunt. One plot of wheat planted from
untreated seed showed 66 percent of smut infection, while the plot
planted with treated seed showed less than one-half of 1 percent
infection.
Common six-row barley proved superior to the other varieties
tested.
Abruzzi rye made a very large growth of straw and produced a
fair quality and yield of rye. Red rust-proof Texas oats were the
best oats tested.
VII. EFFECT OF DYNAMITING SUB-SOIL ON FIELD CROPS.
This project was handled on the Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-
Farm. During the season of 1919 no difference was found in the
yield of sorghum produced on the dynamited or undynamited
ground.
VIII. A VARIETAL AND CULTURAL TEST OF GRAIN AND FORAGE CROP ANE
OF GRASSES AND MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
Under this project tests were made with Smilo grass, Napier
grass, Rhodes grass, Harding grass, rice, flax, and a number of
other crops. All of these tests were of a preliminary nature and
are incomplete.
420
'I'lIlKTir.I 11 Ax MAI. KKI'OK'I
Pig. 3. — Wisconsin barley and Abriizzi rye — State Experiment Station, Mesa.
IX. FIKLD STUDI]>;S WITH LP.GUMES.
This is a very definite project outlined to answer the two
questions : "Is inoculation of legumes necessary in Arizona ?" and
"Does intercropping of field crops with a legume increase the
yield?" Various inoculation materials are used and various crops
are tested. This work has been conducted on the Sulphur Spring
Dry-Farm, on the Prescott Dry-Farm, on the Mesa Farm, and on
the University Farm at Tucson, and will be continued during the
season 1920.
X. COOPERATIVE CROP EXPERIMENTS.
In handling this project, the Agronomy Department supplied
seeds and planting instructions to various farmers in different sec-
tions of the State. Corn, wheat, cowpeas, and the sorghums were
the principal crops under investigation. This work will be con-
siderably increased during the season of 1920.
During the fiscal year covered by this report considerable farm
machinery was added to the various Experiment Farms. Likewise
much time and money were spent in levelling land and improving
the irrigation facilities. The department is in much better shape
now than at any previous time to handle detailed experimental
work.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
R. H. Williams
The work in the Department of Animal Husbandry deals with
a study of economical methods of producing beef, pork, and mutton.
The investigations of the department cover a wide field of search
into the factors which have a direct bearing on the industry.
RANGE CONDITIONS THE PAST YEAR
The past fiscal year continued dry throughout the Southwest,
and in the southern and eastern parts of the State forage was very
inferior. In the northern part of the State the winter was un-
usually cold and many animals perished. It is doubtful if as many
animals died in a single year since the great drouth in 1892-93. A
combination of lack of feed, thin animals, deep snow, and extremely
cold weather in the northern part of the State, made the winter
one of the most trying in the history of the business. The market
for animals was inferior and cattlemen have had a setback. Many
stockmen situated in the southern part of the State leased fenced
pastures in Mexico and thousands of cattle were moved across the
line where feed was abundant.
The winter range on the desert was late in coming, but was
good after the middle of February. The lamb crop was about nor-
mal, losses being light and the price of wool and lambs high, so
that the sheepmen have had a prosperous year. The sheep and
goat industries in Arizona are on a sound, economic basis.
Commencing the last day of June, 1919, the three years' drouth
in southern Arizona was broken. Feed began to grow everywhere ;
in places where old-timers believed there never would be any re-
vegetation the old palatable species sprang up and showed the un-
usual revegetative qualities of these grasses.
At the close of 1919 there were undoubtedly fewer cattle in
Arizona than at any time since 1890. During the drouth the ranges
were overstocked, but with abundant rainfall and the small number
of animals to be maintained the carrying capacity should increase.
The number of sheep on Arizona ranges is about an average of
that of the past five years.
Farmers in irrigated districts have plowed up many acres of
alfalfa to plant cotton. The supply of alfalfa is being reduced very
materially. Farmers have reduced the number of all kinds of live-
stock maintained, but there is a tendency for them to increase the
422 THIRTIKTII AnNL-.\I, RlCl'ORT
number of cattle and sheep finished for market. Farmers on irri-
gated land are increasing the number of pure-bred Hereford cattle
and registered sheep, as they find a good demand for breeding males
from range stockmen. Dry-farmers have continued to use livestock
as a means for marketing their crops. There is a tendency for dry-
farmers to cooperate more with range cattlemen in feeding cattle
for market and in carrying range cows over periods of drouth.
INVESTIGATIONS
Four different lines of investigation have been pursued in the
Department of Animal Husbandry during the past year. They
were:
1. Lambing ewes on feed.
2. Feeding range cows.
3. Hog feeding tests.
4. Range livestock production.
LAMBING EWES ON FEED.
Each winter close to a million sheep are brought from ranges
in northern Arizona to winter on the desert ranges in the central
part of the State. During seasons of abundant rainfall the sheep
do well on the desert. At times, however, feed and water are not
available on the desert and it is necessary to feed the sheep or else
move them to irrigated valleys to be fed. During the winter of
1917-18 approximately 400,000 ewes were fed on irrigated farms.
Little was known regarding the best method of feeding sheep and
losses were excessive.
In order to secure some information regarding the best feeds
for lambing ewes on irrigated farms, an experiment was conducted
during the winter of 1918-19. Two hundred range-bred ewes were
selected and placed in dry feed lots on the Mesa Experiment Farm.
They were divided into ten different groups of twenty in a lot and
fed as follows:
Silage.
Silage ad libitum, one-fourth pound cottonseed meal.
Silage ad libitum, one-half pound cottonseed meal.
Silage, six pounds ; one and one-half pounds alfalfa hay.
Silage, four pounds ; two pounds alfalfa hay.
Silage, four pounds; two pounds pea hay.
Alfalfa hay, three pounds ; whole barley one-half pound.
Alfalfa hay, one and three-fourths pounds ; pea hay, one
and three-fourths pounds.
Pea hay, three and one-half pounds.
Alfalfa hay, three and one-half pounds.
Lot
I
Lot
11
Lot
III
Lot
IV
Lot
V
Lot
VI
Lot
VII
Lot VIII
Lot
IX
Lot
X
Arizona Aciricuutral Extkrimknt Station' 423
The sheep were maintained in the feed lots for seven weeks.
At the outset they were extremely thin and began to lamb a week
after being placed in the feed lots. Complete records were taken
regarding the amount of feed consumed, dates of lambing, weights
of the lambs and ewes, mortality in the different lots, and the vigor
and condition of the lambs. From the flock 170 ot the ewes lambed
and there were 24 dry ewes. Ninety percent of a lamb crop was
raised from the ewes that lambed, or 76.5 percent of a lamb crop
raised from the entire flock. As a result of the test, it was clearly
demonstrated that thin range ewes require an abundance of good
feed to place them in proper condition for lambing. Silage alone
made the ewes fat, but was extremely inferior for milk production.
The addition of cottonseed meal to the ration increased the milk
flow. Pea hay was too coarse for the ewes and not as satisfactory
as alfalfa hay. There is no reason why sheep cannot be fed in dry
lots in such a way as to maintain the animals in good, vigorous
condition for lambing, to have strong lambs at time of birth and
raise as good lambs there as on the desert. The ewes, however, if
thin at the outset of the test, should be forced to a maximum of
their capacity for at least three weeks before lambing. This means
that the ewes will require much more feed than that recommended
by the feeding standards.
CWTTLE FEEDINC.
On the Prescott Dry-farm 20 thin, old range cows were selected
and divided into four different lots containing five each. The cows
in Lot I were fed 30 pounds of silage per day ; Lot H, 40 pounds
of silage per day; Lot III all the silage they would eat; and Lot IV
all the silage they would eat and two pounds of cottonseed meal
daily.
This test indicated that 30 pounds of silage was not enough to
maintain these cows and probably all would have died on this
amount. Forty pounds of silage per cow^ daily was almost suffi-
cient to maintain them, but they gradually became weaker and
probably would not have lived on this allowance. It is believed,
however, that if either Lot I or II had been given the freedom of a
browse range or dry pasture where they could have secured a small
amount of forage they would have done well on 30 pounds of silage
per head daily. The cows given all the silage they would take did
not make rapid or cheap gains. They became strong and vigorous,
taking a good fill the first few weeks, which increased their weight,
but after the third week little gain was made. These cows ate
424 Thirtieth Annual Report
about 60 pounds of silage per head daily. Silage alone is not a
satisfactory ration to fatten thin range cows.
The cows fed on a combination of silage and two pounds of
cottonseed meal made good gains and finished for marketing in
about 100 days. It is believed that this ration is a cheap and effi-
cient one for finishing cows for market.
TWO METHODS OF RAISING GILTS.
The five Duroc-Jersey gilts from the same littler have been
under inspection another year. These pigs were divided into two
groups consisting of two gilts maintained on one farm and three
on another. When they were 779 days old, or approximately 25^
months, the two gilts raised on an ordinary farm weighed 175 and
222 pounds, respectively, while the three gilts maintained under
good conditions weighed 575 pounds, 610 pounds, and 630 pounds,
respectively. The number of pigs raised by the gilts from the two
different farms did not vary much. It may be that the pigs from
Farm B were too fat and those from Farm A were too thin for the
best results. It is planned to exchange two of these gilts from
one farm to the other and to study the development of the large
ones under inferior conditions and the small ones under good con-
ditions.
FATTENING HOGS ON GARBAGE VS. ROLLED BARLEY.
Eight hogs averaging 122.2 pounds live weight were divided
into two lots. Lot I was fed on garbage secured from the Univer-
sity Dining Hall and Lot II rolled barley from a self-feeder. The
pigs were fed over a period of four weeks. The garbage cost $25.00,
while the pigs fed on rolled barley were given $10.66 worth of feed.
These pigs ate an average of 19.04 pounds of rolled barley per day
and they weighed an average of 551.4 pounds during the feedmg
period, so that they consumed an average of 34.52 pounds of rolled
barley per thousand pounds live weight.
The pigs in Lot I gained a total of 227 pounds during the four
weeks, while those fed on rolled barley gained only 97 pounds. The
average daily gain of the pigs fed on garbage was 2.03 pounds per
head, while those fed on rolled barley gained only .87 pounds daily.
Although the pigs fed on garbage were fed at considerably more
expense, yet they made much more rapid gains and cost only $10.73
per one hundred pounds increase in live weight, while those in Lot
II, fed rolled barley, cost $10.99. Hogs were selling on the local
market during the period while the test was being conducted at 16
cents per pound live weight. The profit secured from feeding the
Arizona Agricultural Exi'Eriment Station 425
hogs amounted to $5.27 for the pigs in Lot I, and $5.01 per 100
pounds gain in Lot II. The pigs in both lots were vigorous and
ate their feed with apparent relish.
M.VRKETING HOGS DRESSED VS. SELLING THEM ALIVE.
Eight pigs weighing a total of 1358 pounds and ranging in
weight from 128 to 217 pounds each were offered for sale to local
butchers. The highest bid received was 16 cents per pound, or a
total of $217.28 without any deduction made for shrinkage. These
pigs were maintained twelve hours without feed or water before
killing them. They were then weighed, dressed, and allowed to
hang over night to cool. They dressed a total of 1050 pounds,
which was sold at 26 cents a pound, yielding a total of $273.00. A
careful record was secured of the actual expense of dressing the
hogs, which amounted to $1,225 per pig. At this rate the gross '■e-
turns received for dressing the pigs amounted to $55.72, or $6,965
per head, or a net return of $5.74 per head.
On March 21, 1919, four hogs ranging in weight from 148 1/2 to
208 pounds were offered to local butchers for sale. The best bid
secured was 16>^ cents per pound live weight. As the four pigs
weighed 697 pounds, this would amount to $115.00. The pigs were
dressed at a cost of $1 per pig and the offal. They were then sold
at 25 cents a pound for the dressed carcasses, yielding a gross re-
turn of $127.62, or an increase of 12.525 cents for dressing them.
This is an average of $3,156 per pig, or a net profit of $2,156 per
pig for dressing them.
The results of these two tests indicate very emphatically that
local farmers would do well to slaughter their hogs and sell the
dressed carcasses.
INSTRUCTION AND EXECUTIVE WORK
The office work in the Department has been unusually heavy
during the past year. This work has called for the supervision of
the livestock, planning new equipment, purchasing new animals,
judging livestock at fairs, addressing meetings, and personal con-
ferences with stockmen. Quite a number of articles have been pub-
lished in technical journals and local periodicals. An initial selec-
tion has been made of a Rambouillet buck and four ewes.
426 TiiiK'iiETii Annual Report
NEEDS.
The Animal Husbandry Department has been greatly handi-
capped due to lack of animals suitable for investigation, lack of
land and pasture and forage crops, fences and other equipment for
experimental purposes. The Station should have an experimental
range consisting of at least ten sections in area, properly fenced and
equipped. This range should be located where it will be as repre-
sentative as possible of range conditions in the State. \\'ith such
an area properly equipped and stocked, it would be possible to study
fundamental problems relating to the production of livestock under
range conditions. The methods of determining the cost of produc-
tion can only be developed through a series of investigations involv-
ing herds and flocks maintained on ranges under typical conditions.
The study of increasing the carrying capacity of our ranges and the
practical management of animals so as to make the best use of the
forage grown is of greatest importance to stockmen in the State.
The Department is confronted with many questions upon which it
has no information, and it is urged that provision be made for land
and equipment where long-time experiments may be undertaken to
develop cheaper methods of producing animals on Arizona ranges.
BOTANY
J. J. TlIORXHnR
The year ended June 30, 1919, was far from being favorable for
the grazing industry. The rainfall for this period was considerably
below the average throughout the State. This was particularly
true of the summer season, the precipitation of which was scant and
came mostly in light showers separated by dry, hot spells of from
one to three weeks' duration. The rainfall for this twelve-month
period at Tucson was 9.58 inches, which was proportionally greater
than in many other parts of the State. Of this amount 3.13 inches,
or 32.7 percent, came during the summer period, July to October
inclusive, and 5.31 inches, or 55.4 ]jercent, during the winter and
spring months, November tu .\pril. inclusive. The remaining 1.14
inches fell during May and June, 1919, and was not sufficient to
increase materially forage growth on the desert ranges. However,
on the prairies and in the foothills at altitudes of 3500 to 6000 feet
the rains in May were generally good and helped very much the
growth of the perennial grasses.
The dry summer of 1918, unfortunately, was preceded by a
very dry winter and spring, with the result that conditions on the
stock ranges in the winter of 1918-19 were very bad and losses were
necessarily heavy. On many of the ranges there was practically no
feed during the winter season, and to prevent larger losses it was
necessary to ship stock out or feed them. This was noted in pan
in the Annual Report for the year ending June 30, 1918.
With some exceptions, the winter and spring rainfall through-
out the State was nearly up to the average. Though never heavy
at any time, the winter rains, mostly in the form of showers, con-
tinued more or less regularly from November to May. inclusive.
January was the driest month, with but .26 of an inch rainfall :
while for the months of November, December, and April the rain-
fall averaged more than one inch. One-half the winter rainfall came
prior to February 1, during which season the temperatures are too
low for good winter annual growth, even at the lower altitudes
where the climate is mildest. The forage growth on the grazing
ranges during the spring months was slightly below the average,
but it was very timely. This, together with the favorable rains in
May, helped very much to carry stock on the ranges until July 1,
1919, when the summer rainy season set in heavily.
428 Thirtieth Annual Ricport
WORK ON POISON PLANTS
The work on poison range plants begun last year has been con-
tinued. The commoner poison plants in the southern and central
parts of the State have been studied carefully, both in the field and
by means of numerous plant collections. Data have been collected
relative to their poisonous properties, their seasons of growth, flow-
ering, and fruiting, and conditions favoring or discouraging their
growth. Some work has also been done on practical means of
eradication. In the instance of loco plants, digging seems to be
the simplest method. The plants are invariably killed when cut
off at the roots two to four inches below the crown. Even wherfc
the plants are moderately abundant on grazing ranges, a consider-
able area can be cleared by one person in a week's time with a good
sharp hoe, or better, a spud. The latter is a tool resembling a hoe,
but with a short, straight neck and a stout blade about two-thirds
as wide as a common hoe.
On the majority of grazing ranges in southern Arizona the
loco plants grow rather scatteringly and are rarely abundant. But
even where they are abundant on the range it is recommended that
they be dug out. It is only necessary to dig out the larger and
more luxuriant growing plants, since these are the ones from which
stock eat enough of the loco forage to produce the disease. The
smaller and weaker plants will either die out during the year or
else grow to be large enough the following year so as to be easily
seen. As far as possible, no loco plants should be allowed to
mature seed, and to prevent this the cutting or digging should begin
either before or by the time that the plants first begin to flower.
Occasional reports of stock poisoning, apparently caused by
plants that are not known to be poisonous, have been received
from different localities. In some instances stockmen suspect very
strongly certain plants as causing the trouble. Some of the plants
that are believed to cause stock poisoning, at least at certain seasons
of the year, are rayless golden-rod or burro weed (Bigeloicia coronopi-
folia and B. Hartwegi), B. hctcrophylla, B. H'rightii, Baccharis ptcro-
Hoidcs, Lupinus Kingii, and a species of Ijnum. \\'(irk now is being
done on some of these plants.
In the vicinity of Dewey, Arizona, during February and March,
1919, stock were poisoned on several different occasions from eating
bledo or careless weed (Amaranthus Palmeri) hay. This case of
poisoning was so apparent that it could not reasonably be doubted.
The hay was fed in racks in stock corrals, and the animals were
healthy and in good condition. Practically all the animals that ate
Arizona Agricultural Expkriment Station 429
any quantity of the hay were poisoned, and the ones worst affected
died in the corrals 6 to 15 hours afterwards. The writer examined
very carefully a sample of the hay weighing 25 pounds and found
it to be almost pure bledo or careless weed. There were a few
small specimens of other common plants that are not known to be
poisonous. These represented altogether less than one percent of
the total weight. The Experiment Station chemist made careful
analyses to determine if any of the commoner poisonous substances
might be found present, but in none of the tests was even a trace
of any poisonous substance found. Without more study it is im-
possible to suggest the cause of this poisoning.
Careless weed is commonly regarded as one of our best sum-
mer annual forage plants and is invariably relished by stock, either
as dry coarse hay or as succulent green feed. Like alfalfa, occa-
sionally it causes bloat with stock when eaten greedily by hungry
animals, or following a rain or heavy dew. Considerable hay is
made from careless weed for winter roughage along the Gila, Santa
Cruz, and San Pedro rivers in southern Arizona, and, with the ex-
ception of the case noted above and perhaps one other at Verde,
Arizona, it has not been known to cause poisoning with stock.
Careless weed greens are considered a delicacy for the table in
summer and are regarded as equal to those of good spinach. In the
past the writer has suggested that desirable strains of bledo be
selected and grown as a garden vegetable.
In November, 1918, the writer made investigations concerning
losses of stock on certain foothill ranges in southern Arizona in the
vicinity of Douglas.These losses occur late in the fall and winter
seasons usually following cold weather and rains and curiously
enough the fattest animals are the ones that are usually found dead.
Commonly two or more animals die at a time within a small radius,
mostly at places where stock collect to rest. None of the animals
show any evidence of struggling or violence, but usually are in
positions indicating rest or sleep. Along with stock from other
parts of the range, these animals drink from a tank of good water
located in a canyon some distance below. The location where
nearly all these animals have been found dead is a limestone hill a
half mile or so in extent and surrounded by foothills of native rock
which is non-calcareous. Similar losses of stock are known to have
occurred on this hill for the past eight or ten years. The range m
this vicinity is one of the best in southern Arizona, the forage being
about equally divided between perennial grasses and browse, and
430 TiiiRTiF/rii Annual Rkport
nowhere in the State were stock observed coming through the long
droughty period in better condition than here.
Due in part to the character of the soil, some species of plants
were growing on this hill that were not observed elsewhere in the
immediate vicinity, while still other species were growing in greatei
abundance than on soils derived from other rock formations. How-
ever, the species were not unusual for southern Arizona conditions
and none could be suspected of being poisonous to stock. When
the writer visited this range no animals had died for some weeks
and the plant growth was rather closely grazed. Any poison plants
that might have been growing here had been grazed down so as
not to be easily recognizable. It was suggested that until such
time as a careful study could be made of all the conditions affecting
the grazing on this area, at least the lower part of the hill, where
the animals die, should be fenced to keep stock off from November
until March, inclusive.
The following is a list of the commoner plants growing on this
limestone hill, as identified by the writer. The symbols, a, b, c,
and d after the plant names, indicate as follows : a signifies abun-
dant; b signifies common; c signifies occasional; d signifies in-
frequent.
( 1 ) Opinitia spinosior b (12) J'igucra cordata b
( 2 ) Ceanothus Greggii c (13) Nofholacna sinuafa b
(3) Cercocarpus paucidcnfafus a (14) Bontcloua curtipcndula . . .a
( 4 ) Agave Palmcri (not (15) Artistida purpurea b
grazed, b (16) Muhlenbergia Vaseyana. .c
( 5 ) Briekellia IVrightii c (17) Triodia sp d
( 6 ) Opuntia Bngelmanni c (18) Bragrostis lugens b
(7) Garrya IVrightii c (19) Bupatorium arizonicum. . .c
(8) Dasylirion Wheeleri b (20) Andropogon saccharoides c
( 9 ) Andropogon eirratus a (21) Mentzelia multiflora d
(10) I'ouquiera spJcndens c (22) Quercus Toumeyi c
(11) Rhus coriophylla b
Dr. Lon Durham, a government veterinarian, very kindly ac-
companied the writer on this trip and cooperated in this study.
Dr. Durham failed to locate any definite symptoms of stock disease
that might be responsible for losses of these cattle and gave it as
his opinion that the trouble was due to some poison plant, possibly
as yet unknown as such.
NOTES ON PLANT INTRODUCTION WORK
A considerable number of new plant introductions, including
trees, shrubs, and hardy flowers were set in the plant introduc-
Arizona Acricultikal E.\im;rimi:.\t Station 431
tion gardens at the University Campus and the University I'artn.
Among those are inchided the following: Cuprcssits Bcnthami; C.
mxcrocarpa; C. glabra; C. goveniana : Libdocedrns dccurrens; Junip-
eriis sabina; J. phocnicaca; Qncrcus sitbcr; Pistascia atlantica; P.
vera; Ulmas pmnila; Elaegnus pnngcns; Carpcntcria calif ornica; Bcr-
beris Thunbergii; B. trifoliolata; Ceanothus thrysiHorus ; Forsythia
suspensa; Spartcum junccum; Sophora japonica; Syringa cliincnsis
sougeana; Phyllostachys qniloi: Diervillca florida; Tamarix algcrica:
T. parviflora purpurea; Bonvardia triphylla: Hibiscus syriacus;
Mesembryanthcmum arboreum; Staticc arborca : . S. pscudanncria:
Hunnemannia fumariaefolia; Iponwea mexicana : I. Lcarii ; Pcntstc-
mon antirrhinoides ; P. centranthif alius; P. cordatus; P. hcterophyllus;
P. hybridus; P. spectabilis; P. IVrightii, and P. Torreyi.
A list of trees and other ornamental plants was selected and
planted at the Experiment Station dry-farm, Cochise, Arizona, the
altitude of which is about 4000 feet. Another list was made for
planting at the Tempe Date Orchard, Tenipe, Arizona. The plants
for the date palm orchard were selected with reference to alkali
resistant qualities.
STUDIES OF GRASSES AND GRASS LIKE PLANTS
The writer gave most of the summer season of 1918 to field
studies of our native grasses and other forage plants of the central
and northern parts of the State, with a view to secure as much prac-
tical information as possible relative to the abundance, distribution,
life history, and grazing value of these plants. A part of the fall
season was spent in a similar study of the forage plants on the bet-
ter class of ranges in southern Arizona. This season was peculiarly
interesting, since in many localities on account of the shortage of
grass, stock were subsisting largely on browse.
During the early months of the school year, one-half of the
writer's time was taken ud with instruction work, including classes
in botany in the University and in physiology and hygiene in the
S. A. T. C. Following the abrupt close of the S. A. T. C. work with
the signing of the armistice, the writer began a study of the plants
of the Juncaceae or Bog-rush family and of the Cyperaceae or Sedge
family, both families of which are fairly well represented in oui
State. This latter was completed with the exception of the genus
Carex, the plant collections of Arizona of which are too incomplete
to make possible a satisfactory study. Although Bog-rushes and
Sedges are not grasses, they resemble grasses and in their growth
are usually associated with grasses, and besides they are of eco-
432 Thirtieth Anntal Rki'Ort
nomic value to the stockman chiefly because of their forage pro-
duction.
The remainder of the year, beginning with January, 1919, was
divided between instruction in the University, which included two-
fifths time, and investigation work in the Experiment Station, in-
cluding the plant introduction and poison plant work already noted
and the beginning of a comprehensive economic study of our
grasses.
DAIRY HUSBANDRY
\V. S. Cunningham
The Dairy Department was organized about November 1, 1918,
the dairy work being separated from the Department of Animal
Husbandry at that time. Much of the year was spent in adjusting
conditions in the department, so that little experimental work was
done.
Records were kept of the milk and fat production for the year
and the results are given in Table VII.
TAI5LK VII. — YIELDS OP* DAIRY COWS AT UNIVERSITY EARM , 1918-19
.Name of cow
Days dry
before
calving
Days
milk
yield ill pound -
Milk
Butter-
fat
Princess of Chewanbeek
Childeberte
*Gipsy Draconis
Myrtle of Nogales
Arizona s Butter Girl. . .
Average
Jersey
29
66
n
53
360
338
365
260
260
316
Belle Liscomb de Kol 2d
Josephine Arizona Maid
Moensje Jesse Aspirante
Theresa Belle. 3rd
Josephine Ariz. Maid II
Madison Martha, 2d
Miss Pell Pietertje
Johanna Madison
Pauline
Theresa Belle De Vrier
tMolly Artis Pontiac
Mercedes
Theresa Belle Monona..
Average
Holstein Friesian
11
365
89
365
88
365
66
264
0
360
65
349
131
365
113
365
58
365
363
0
282
8.294.1
6,364.3
9,452.8
6,481.3
4.676.4
7,053.8
399.5
366.3
418.3
267.8
275.3
345.5
10,344.3
14,136.3
13,423.2
11,350.2
7,458.4
11,679.0
10,750.8
11,106.5
11,066.9
6,275.2
3,820.1
10,128,3
330.2
408.7
416.5
362.0
241.0
336.3
392.4
287.8
357.2
189.2
130.1
313.8
m 'A
> D
<J-2
4.74
5.75
4.42
4.13
5.88
4.89
3.19
2.88
3.10
3.19
3.23
2.89
3.65
2.59
3.22
3.01
3.40
3.09
♦Died December 29. 1919.
tSold.
DAIRY CATTLE FEEDING EXPERIMENT
In the spring of 1918 an experiment was conducted to deter-
mine the value of cottonseed cake as a supplement to alfalfa hay
and silage, for milk production. The results of that experiment
were not what was expected since the most unbalanced ration of
alfalfa hay and cottonseed cake gave the best results, both in quan-
tity of milk produced and in net profits.
434 TlIlRTIKTII AXNI'AL REPORT
Another experiment was planned and conducted along the same
line so as to be a check on the first experiment. Some few changes
were made in that cottonseed meal was substituted for cottonseed
cake and the amounts of all feeds were increased. In addition to
the regular ration of alfalfa hay, silage and cottonseed meal, rolled
barley was given to those cows producing more milk than was
provided for in the regular ration.
RATIONS
All of the rations were figured so that each lot received the
same nutrients according to the amount of milk ])roduced.
The rations used were as follows :
Ration 1. Alfalfa hay, 22 lbs. Silage, 45 lbs.
Ration 2. Alfalfa hay, 30 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 4 lbs.
Ration 3. Alfalfa hay, 15 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 4 lbs., and
silage, 45 lbs.
In addition to the above rations, the Holstein cows were fed
one pound of rolled barley for each three pounds of milk produced
over 30 pounds daily, while the Jerseys were fed one pound of rolled
barley to each three pounds of milk over 25 pounds.
cows
Nine cows were used in the test. All of these cows were giv-
ing a fairly good flow of milk and none of them was about to go
dry. They were divided into three lots of three cows each. The
lots were balanced as well as possible in regard to breed, period of
lactation, and quantity of milk given. To overcome any differences
in the above points and in individuality, the lots were changed to
different rations each month. In interpreting results, the rations
and production have been calculated for three periods collectively
and no attempt has been made to draw conclusions for any one
period.
The cows were divided into lots as follows :
Lot 1 Lot 2 Lot 3
.Mrir-arct I)c Kol Johanna Miss Pell Pieterje Madison Martlia TI
Johanna Madison Pauline Pclle Liscomh De Kol II Arizona Maid 2nd
Arizona Butter Girl Gipsy Draconis Princess
PLAN OK FRODING
The plan of feeding was as follows :
1st period Lot I was fed Ratitm 1
Lot II " " " 2
Lot III " " " 3
.Vkizo.na .\(;kicultur.\l Eximckimknt St.ktiox
435
2ncl period
Lot 1 was fed Ration 2
Lot II " " " 3
Lot III " " " 1
3rd period
Lot I was fed Ration 3
Lot II " " " 1
Lot III
DURATION 01' TEST
The test was divided into three ])cri()ds of fovir weeks each.
One week was allowed between each ])eriod for the changing of
rations.
The first period began November 18th, A. M.
The first period ended December 15th, P. M.
The second period began December 23rd, A. M.
The second i)eriod ended January 20th, P. M.
The third period began January 28th, A. M.
The third period ended February 25th, P. M.
The summary of milk and butterfat produced by cows while on
each of the three rations is given in table :
SUMM.\RY Ol' MILK AND FAT PRODUCED
Rations
Total milk
Poiindi
yioki
Total fat yield
Pounds
Number days
in test
Ration 1
Ration 2
Ration 3
6084.8
6776.2
6675.1
238.05
237.95
250.07
84
84
84
During the 84 days of the test, the production for ration 1 was
6084.8 pounds of milk and 238.05 pounds of fat ; for ration 2, 6776.2
pounds of milk and 237.95 pounds of fat; and for ration 3, 6675.1
pounds of milk and 250.07 pounds of fat. Ration 2 caused the larg-
est production of milk while ration 3 produced the inost fat.
The following table shows the feed cost of milk and fat pro-
duced with feeds at the prices prevailing at the time the experiment
was started, and the profit over feed-cost obtained from the inilk
valued at 30 cents per gallon :
COST OE PRODUCTION AND PROFIT OVER FEED COST
Rations
Ration 1
Ration 2.
Ration 3.
C3st of
feed
Dinars
115.44
123.84
126.21
Feed cos^
per gallon
of m,ilk
Cents
16.6
16.1
16.8
Feed co jl
per pound
fat
Ce>its
4R.3
54.4
51.7
Value o.
milk @
30c gallon
Dollars
212 2?
236.34
232.83
Front
over feed
Dollars
Q'^7S
112.50
106.62
436 Thirtieth Annual Report
Feeds were priced as follows : Alfalfa hay, $25 per ton ; silage,
$9 per ton ; cottonseed meal, $45 per ton ; barley, $60 per ton.
Ration 2 consisting of alfalfa hay and cottonseed meal proved
to be the most economical ration for milk production while ration 1
consisting of alfalfa hay and silage proved to be the most economi-
cal producer of fat.
With milk valued at 30 cents per gallon ration 2 gave $15.72
more profit over feed cost than ration 1 and $5.88 more than ration 3.
The results of this test would indicate that for short periods
of time a very narrow ration can be fed with satisfactory results.
However, on account of the common opinion among stockmen that
rations containing a great excess of proteins afifect the breeding
qualities and general health of animals if fed to them for a long
period of time, such narrow rations as alfalfa hay and cottonseed
meal should be fed with caution.
ENTOMOLOGY
C. T. VORHIES
The chief activity of this department during the summer and
autumn months of the year 1918-1919 lay in continuing the investi-
gations planned and begun the previous year on grazing range
rodents, with special reference to the Large Kangaroo Rat, Dipoaomys
spectahilis. The chief base of operations for this work is on the U. S.
Range Reserve on the northwest slope of the Santa Rita Mountains.
Difficulties in securing some of the fencing materials needed, and
also in securing labor when wanted, owing to war conditions, de-
layed the completion of the fences for the experimental areas until
late autumn. It was expected, when plans were made", to have these
fences finished by July, 1918, in time for the summer growing sea-
son. However, the summer rains of that year were so scanty that
practically no grass growth occurred on the selected areas, but the
delay in fencing did not afYect the course of the experiments, which
were in many phases postponed one year by the unfavorable season.
Life-history and ecological studies of the Large Kangaroo Rat, and
to some extent of the Merriam Kangaroo Rat (Dipodomys merriami),
and of the jack rabbits and occasionally of other rodents, were con-
tinued throughout the year, resulting in the securing of considerable
valuable data.
The fencing was finally completed in November, 1918, with
the assistance of two University professors while the University
was closed on account of the influenza epidemic. Approximately
eight hundred dollars were expended by the Forest Service in ma-
terials and construction of these fences under the cooperative agree-
ment whereby the U. S. Forest Service, the U. S. Biological Survey,
the Carnegie Institution, and the University of Arizona Experiment
Station are working on this grazing range project.
As opportunity offered, the department also carried on the
work of building up the collection of Arizona insects. Two steel
cabinets containing four dozen Schmitt boxes were secured in which
to house the collection. Some investigation of the distribution of
the Arizona wild cotton (Thurberia thespcsioides) and of the native
boll weevil which lives upon it was conducted during the year.
This was undertaken with reference to the possible future bearing
of the results upon the extension of the area of cultivated cotton up
the Santa Cruz and Rillito valleys.
438 Thirtieth Annual Report
In April, 1919, specimens of a small beetle were received from
Mr. C. J. Wood of the Mesa Experiment Farm with the report that
they were destroying cotton by feeding just below the surface of
the soil on the seedlings as they were emerging from the ground.
So large a percentage of the cotton in one experimental half-acre
was thus destroyed as to make replanting necessary. This particu-
lar half-acre was being tested with cottonseed meal as a fertilizer,
and the assumption was that the fertilizing material was attractive
to the beetles. The pests were most numerous in this plot and a
quantity was taken for feeding tests. These tests, while not con-
clusive, indicated the probable correctness of the above assumption.
The beetles fed readily on crushed cotton seeds and particularly on
the lint remaining with the seeds before any seeds had germinated
or where no young plants were present. When young plants ap-
peared they seemed to attack them only in part and as a sort of
change or variation of diet. Irrigation of the affected area of soil
was effective in preventing damage to the replanting, and is there-
fore suggested as the proper control measure. This pest is a small
dark brown to black beetle, oblong, and between three-sixteenths
and one-fourth of an inch long. It is provisionally classified as
Blapstinns pimalis.
The corn stalk borer mentioned in the Twenty-ninth Annual
Report has been identified as Diatraea lineola, a species not hitherto
recorded as an economic insect. It is, however, so closely allied to
the larger corn stalk borer of the East (Diatraea zeacolella) , and its
habits and life history appear to parallel that pest so closely, that for
all practical purposes it may be regarded as the same.
During the year the department moved into new quarters m
the Agriculture Building, thus securing adequate space for its pres-
ent activities, but with only the most meager equipment. Funds
for this fiscal year did not permit the immediate remedying of this
weakness, and while in the end the change will result in great
benefit to our work, it placed a certain temporary handicap thereon,
which it is expected will be largely removed in the next fiscal year.
HORTICULTURE
F. J. Crider, a. F. KixNisoN
The activities of the Department of Horticulture in matters of
the Experiment Station have consisted largely in foundational
work on projects as outlined in last year's report and in broadening
the general scope of work so as to better serve the horticultural
interests of the State. It is believed that good progress has been
made and that conditions are favorable for greater growth and
service. The lines of work pursued fall naturally into three main
divisions — Pomology, Olericulture, and Ornamental Gardening.
POMOLOGY
A ten-acre orchard composed of 400 varieties of the leading
fruits was started at the Salt River Valley Experiment Station
Farm during the past spring and a three-acre orchard at the Uni-
versity Farm. Also additional plantings were made at the Yuma
Date Orchard and Horticultural Station. These plantings are for
the purpose of determining the relative value of varieties and to
serve as a basis for experimentation in other phases of orchard
culture. The trees have made a remai-kably good growth, and in
the case of the fig and jujube have set a few fruits. The older plant-
ings at the Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station and at
thePrescott and Cochise Stations have reached a stage of growth
where they should in a short time give some results, particularly in
the matter of variety comparison. It is planned to enlarge the
orchards at these stations next year.
DATES
The behavior of varieties of dates during the past season was
interesting as compared with the previous year in that the weather
conditions were entirely different. The season of 1918 was almost
ideal for date ripening, which made it possible for every bearing
variety to mature a maximum crop, whereas the rainy weather of
the past season developed the fact, as has been shown in previous
years, that there is a great variation in the adaptability of varieties
to moist conditions. At the Tempe Orchard the Rhars variety was
almost a total failure due to souring, which was brought about by
the wet weather. The Deglet Noor was very badly affected by
fungus spots at the Tempe Orchard, but at the Yuma Orchard
where the rain was less a reasonably good quality date was pro-
440
Thirtieth Annual Re;port
duced. Even in the Yuma Valley, however, there is too much
moisture present to- produce ideal dates of this variety. The
Hayany maintained its established record for withstanding ad-
verse weather conditions ; also Bentkabala, Nesheem, Nazi al Bacha,
Tennessim, and Tadala suffered very little damage.
In this connection it is believed that other districts of the State
having less rainfall and lower humidity would prove better adapted
to date production. For further experimentation along this line
plantings will be made on the Yuma Mesa (w^here the relative
humidity is probably lower than in any other part of the State) and
in portions of the Salt River Valley next to the foothills.
In view of the detailed statement in the Twenty-ninth Annual
Report of yields at the Tempe and Yuma Orchards, it is thought
that this feature might be eliminated and only the total number of
trees, yields and returns given, as indicated in Table VIII.
TABLE VIII. YIELDS AND RETURNS FROM THE TEMPE AND YUMA DATE
ORCHARDS
Orchard ^o. bear-
ing trees
Total yield ^,£]^
in pounds pounds
Total
returns
Avg. returns
per tree
Tempc
Yuma
307
120
17,107 55
8,938 62
4531.16
3C00.C0
14.77
20.77
In the case of rooted palms used in filling vacancies at the
Tempe Orchard last year, a rather large percentage have started
into growth. This is interesting from the fact that the soil here
is extremely alkaline and it was feared that the young offshoots
could not survive such a condition. As a precaution against the
action of salts, however, about a cubic yard of sweet soil was
placed in the tree holes at the time of planting and a heavy straw
mulch applied on the surface to prevent the rise of alkali. It is
believed that the entire setting of offshoots would otherwise have
been lost.
The results in propagating the date have not been as satisfac-
tory as was anticipated, but it is thought that the difficulty has been
located and that future efforts will be atended with greater success.
It is planned to propagate the present available offshoot crop from
both the Tempe and Yuma Orchards on the Yuma Mesa, where the
conditions of climate and soil are most favorable for such work.
CITRUS
Citrus investigations in methods of culture, including fertilizer
and orchard cover crop tests, have been conducted as outlined in
Akizona AcKicri/nR ai. Rxi'Kkimknt Station 441
last year's report. While no detinite results have been secured,
quite a difference in the behavior of summer orchard cover crops
was noted on the Yuma Mesa. The lack of a sufficient water sup-
ply prevented the planting of large areas, but small plots of cow-
peas, garavanza, tepary beans, peanuts, and velvet beans were used.
The cowpeas proved far superior, making a larger growth and
withstanding drouth to a greater degree than any of the other
crops. In the matter of ground-cover during summer the peanuts
ranked next to the cowpeas. The velvet beans made very little
growth during summer, but grew rapidly in early fall, climbing onto
the trees to the extent of precluding their use as an orchard cover
crop. A notable feature in connection with the experiment is the
fact that the orchard cover crops grew on absolutely virgin soil,
the land between the tree rows not having been cultivated or irri-
gated previous to the planting of the crops.
Variety plantings of citrus were made at the Salt River Valley
Farm and the Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station during
the past spring; also plantings to determine the best methods of
pruning the Washington Navel Orange and Marsh Seedless Grape-
fruit.
With the added land and equipment for citrus investigation
that is now available it will be possible to broaden the citrus inves-
tigational work very materially next year.
NEW FRUITS
With a view towards testing the value of fruits other than the
standard sorts, a number of the newer kinds that show promise are
being tested at the Salt River Valley Farm, the University Farm,
and at the Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station. Among
these are white sapote, jujube, feijoa, avocado, guava, paw paw, and
hovenia dulcis. The sapote, feijoa, and jujube made a most satis-
factory growth during the past season, having withstood a winter
temperature of twenty degrees at Tucson. The avocado trees were
badly acected by the hot, dry weather of summer and another
attempt will be made to grow them by supplying temporary shade
during the season of severest heat.
In this connection an introduction garden has been established
at the Y^ima Date Orchard and Horticultural Station where new
varieties of fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants from the De-
partment of Agriculture and other sources will be tested.
442 Tiiiki]i:Tii Annual Kkpokt
OLERICULTURE
Effort was made to maintain an all-the-year family garden at
each of the; sub-stations except the Tempe Date Orchard, where soil
conditions are not satisfactory for general gardening.
Best results along this line were attained at the Yuma Date
Orchard and Horticultural Station where it was found possible to
produce vegetables throughout the entire winter as well as a few
during the hottest portion of summer. Among the less frequently
grown vegetables that are being tested are roselle, Chinese cabbage,
Chinese mustard, and chayote.
IRISH POTATO
During the year plantings of one of the standard varieties .of
potatoes, the Early White Rose, were made at intervals of everv
two weeks at the Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station
to determine the best time of planting. The highest yield was from
plantings made the middle of January and the second highest yield
from plantings made the first of February. November and Decent
ber plantmgs were very promising until the plants were killed by
a cold spell of weather in January.
Potatoes planted at Yuma during the latter part of the summer
were a failure, the seed having rotted in the ground due to high soil
temperature. However, the same variety, the Lookout Mountain,
at Tucson gave promising yields for the season. Table IX shows
the result of this test.
TABLE IX. — LATE SUMMER PLANTINGS OF THE) LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN
VARIETY OF POTATO
Planting date
Average yield per hill , Yield per acre
June 1
July 6
Augrst 1 . . . .
September 16
.24 lb. I 3528 lbs.
.33 lb. 3S57 lbs.
.32 lb. 4704 lbs.
.27 lb. 3969 lbs.
A variety test with some of the leading varieties of Irish po-
tato was made at the Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station.
The yields secured in this test are shown in Table X. All the varie-
ties were planted on the same date, February 5th.
Arizona Agkicultukal Exi'i:uimi:xt Station 443
TABLE X. — VARirrV VIKLD 01" IRISH POTATO
Variety Avera!?o yielil per hill Yield per acre
Mammoth Pearl 1.00 lb. 14.508 lbs.
Karlv Si.x Weeks 1.12 1b. 16.611 lbs.
Rural New Yorker .79 lb. 11.539 lbs.
Earliest of All .60 lb. 9,995 lbs.
FlafrstafF Red .70 1b. 10.613 lbs.
Producer ..>^ 1'-. 7><'<' l^s
Karlv Rose .50 lb. 7.438 lbs.
Bliss Triumph .60 lb. 9.759 lbs.
White Rose .65 lb. 9.672 lbs.
Downing .75 11). 11.157 lbs.
Burbank .87 lb. 13.009 lbs.
Pride of Multanomah .37 lb. 5.5% lbs.
Snow .83 lb. 12.465 lbs.
Hoosier .22 lb. 3,163 lbs.
Storage tests as outlined in last year's report were continued
in an effort to find a satisfactory method of carrying the spring
crop of potatoes through the summer. Best results were secured
from the method in which the potatoes were spread out thinly on
the ground under an open shed, and next to this the method in
which the potatoes were spread out in thin layers in slatted bins.
The percentage of loss in the first-named method did not exceed
5 percent; in the latter method the loss was about 10 percent.
Sound potatoes from these tests will be used for planting next
spring. The potato studies will be broadened next year tn include
fertilizer and spraying tests in the potato districts of northern Ari-
zona. Also seed potatoes produced in the northern ])art of the
State will be tested for yield and quality in the other potato districts.
SWEET POT.VTO
Commercial storage tests with the sweet potato were conducted
in which adobe houses were used as a means of storage. Two
houses were utilized for the experiment, one constructed esi)ecially
for storage purposes, and the other an old adobe converted into a
storage house. Five thousand pounds of potatoes were placed in
each house and an effort made to maintain a temperature of 85 to 90
degrees during the first two weeks of storage and 55 to 60 degrees
during the remainder of the storage period. On the whole, the re-
sults were very satisfactory. In one house, where a uniform size
potato was used and where the temperature was allowed to vary
but little from the standard set, no spoilage whatever developed.
In the other house, where the potatoes were not graded (extremely
large and very small sizes being mixed together), a rather large
percentage of spoilage resulted. While these tests will be con
tinned, it is believed that, by the exercise of care in grading and
444
TiiiRTiKTii Annual RitPoKi
handling and the regulation of temperature, the adobe house will
prove a most satisfactory method of commercial sweet potato
storage.
SPINACH
Cultural tests with spinach, as outlined in last year's report,
were conducted at the Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Sta-
tion which included variety tests, methods of planting and different
planting dates. The results are shown in Tables XI and XX.
TABLE XI. YIELD PER VARIETY WITH REGARD TO TIME OF PLANTING
Planting date
Varieties
Victoria
Savoy
Lona; I Prickly Winter
Standing
Oct. IS..
Oct. 29..
Nov. 12.
Nov. 26.
Dec. 10..
Dec. 24..
139 lbs.
89^ lbs.
68 lbs.
273/^ lbs.
84^^ lbs.
90 lbs.
21214 lbs.
12734 lbs.
124 lbs.
%y2 lbs.
151 lbs.
204!^ lbs.
UOVj lbs.
1141^ lbs.
109 lbs.
61 lbs.
105 lbs.
1171/ lbs.
169 lbs.
941/2 lbs.
170^ lbs.
UVA lbs.
130 lbs.
176'/ lbs.
TABLE XII. — YIELD PER VARIETY WITH REG.XRD TO METHOD OF PLANTIN*;
Method of planting
Varieties
Victoria
Savoy
Lonsr
StardiPg
IPrickly Winter
Level row
Furrow
155 lbs.
2C034 lbs.
143 lbs.
26U4 lbs.
314^4 lbs.
340i< lbs.
175 lbs.
266^^ lbs.
2C6 lbs.
322 lbs.
236^ lbs.
263 1^ lbs.
Bed
TOMATO
Tests with twenty-six varieties of tomatoes were conducted
at the Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station with a view
towards determining the bearing season and yield. The restilts arc
shown in Table XHI.
Arizona Agricultural Experimknt Station
445
TABLE XIII. VARIETY TEST WITH TOMATOES SHOWING BEARING SEASON
AND YIELD
Variety
Bearing season
June Pink
Tex-Seed Black Land....
Burbank
.'\cnie
Redfield Beauty
Clark s Triumph
Stone
Chalk's Early Jewel
Livingston's Cureless
Truckers' Favorite
Tex-Seed Beauty
Texseed McCk'c
Spark's Earliajia
Livingston's (ilobe
Bonny Best.
Trophy
Golden Ponderosa
Matchless
Red Rock
Ponderosa
Earlibell . . . .'
Livingston's Dwarf Stone.
Dwarf Champion
Phoenix Special
Early Detroit
June
June
June
June
June
June
June
June
July
July
June
June
June
July
June
June
Jily
Jrly
July
July
June
June
June
July
June
12-Aug.
16- Aug.
24- Aug.
30-Aug.
24- Aug.
24-Aug.
30-Aug.
24-Aug.
5-Aug.
5-Aug.
30-Aug.
16-Aug.
16-Aug,
16-Aug.
24-Aug.
24-Aug.
5-Aug.
5-Aug.
5-Aug.
9-Aug.
24-Aug.
30-Au^.
24-Aug.
14-Autr.
30-July
1
7
1
16
7
16
7
16
16
16
16
16
7
16
16
7
16
16
16
7
16
7
26
16
25
Season of great- [
Yield
est ripening
per acre
luly
5-July
23
37,338
June
30-July
14
34,873
June
30-July
18
26,480
July
5-July
18
24,767
Julv
14-July
25
24,592
Julv
9- July
18
24,342
July
5-July
18
22,487
Tulv
5-July
14
22,225
Juh
14-July
28
21,348
Tulv
9-July
18
21,336
Julv
9-July
19
21,336
Tulv
30-July
14
21,336
Tulv
5-July
16
20,446
Tulv
16-Aug.
1
19,402
Tulv
9-July
16
16,891
1 Tulv
9-July
18
16,002
1 Tulv
14-July
28
16,002
Tulv
18-July
28
15,897
Tulv
14-July
28
15,897
Tulv
14-July
25
15,365
Tulv
5-July
9
12,157
Tulv
9-July
16
12,157
' Julv
5-July
14
11,379
1 Tulv
16-Aug.
1
7,948
Julv
9-July
14
6,078
ORNAMENTAL GARDENING
Plans have been prepared for beautifying- the grounds at the
different branch stations and execution of the designs begun at the
Tempe Date Orchard, Cochise Dry-farm, Salt River Valley Farm,
and Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station. These plant-
ings furnish opportunity for determining the adaptability of various
species of shade trees, shrubbery and flowers to conditions in the
different sections of the State. The new greenhouse and adjaceat
grounds on the University Campus will furnish additional oppor-
tunity for work in ornamental gardening.
MISCELLANEOUS
Considerable time was required of the Horticulturist in the
general supervision of w^ork at the Tempe Date Orchard and the
Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station as well as in start-
ing the citrus investigational work on the Yuma Mesa. It was also
necessary for both the Horticulturist and Assistant Horticulturist
to spend a rather large portion of their time in the interest of hor-
ticultural extension. In addition to regular project work in exten-
sion service, numbers of trips were made to different parts of the
State to assist in special field problems. More than five hundred
446 Thirtieth Annual RiCport
letters were written in answer to inquiries concerning different
phases of horticultural work.
Very valuable service was rendered the department during
the year by the foremen of the different branch stations in the
careful execution of work as outlined.
IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS
G. E. P. Smith, \V. E. Code
In November, 1918, this office was strengthened by the appoint-
ment of W. E. Code as Assistant Engineer. The position had been
vacant for eighteen months, owing to the Great War. In Jnnc.
1919, H. C. Schwalen was added to the staff in order to assist in
the extensive investigations in the San Simon \'alley and to carry
on extension service work relating to pumping for irrigation.
THE CAS A GRANDE VALLEY
Conditions have been favorable for continued study o; the
groundwater supply. Unusually heavy rainfall has aided in the
investigations of recharge and the large acreage under i)ump irri-
gation, 5200 acres, has made possible definite conclusions on the
effect of pumping on the groundwater table. The rapid develop-
ment of the valley agriculturally has added interest in the con-
clusions to be drawn from these studies.
Surface runoff measurements have been made with more preci-
sion than in any previous year. The river discharges at Tucson
for the year 1919 were 42,200 acre-feet for the Rillito and 28,700
acre-feet for the Santa Cruz. The discharge at Sasco was 57,200
acre-feet, 10,500 acre-feet of which was from the Robles Wash.
The loss, therefore, by seepage between Tucson and Sasco was
24,200 acre-feet plus the flow from Canada del Oro and a few small
tributaries. Of this flow, 6,800 acre-feet reached the Southern
Pacific Railroad at Eloy and 7,900 acre-feet at Lirim and Mari-
copa, representing a loss of 42,500 acre-feet between Sasco and the
railroad.
A large percentage of the water that passed Eloy did not reach
the Gila River. On two occasions when floods of considerable
magnitude passed Eloy the water did not reach to the main high-
way leading east from Casa Grande.
The Santa Rosa Wash which drains a large area to the south,
debouches upon the Casa Grande Valley at a point 14 miles south-
west of Casa Grande. The waters of this wash spread over the
valley and the flow crosses the Southern Pacific Railroad near
Maricopa. The flows are intermittent and usually of short dura-
tion, bat it is thought that they have some value in replenishing
the ground w^aters on the western side of the valley. During dry
vears the run-off is practically negligible.
448 Thirtieth Annual Report
The U. S. Indian Service, through the agency of an employee,
has been keeping flood data at Cockleburr for several years. During
1919 there were three summer floods and one winter flood. It is
estimated from the records that not over 6,000 acre-feet entered the
valley and from records taken at the railroad culverts it is thought
that about one-sixth of this amount passed the railroad.
Water table fluctuations have been greatest along the north
margin of the valley, representing the extensive recharge due to
floods in the Gila River. Considerable variations of water level
have been found in the vicinity of areas irrgated by flood waters
from the Gila, and some effects noted have been due to seepage
froin the Florence Canal. Some erratic fluctuations of the water
table west of Casa Grande can be explained by the character of
the buried topography, which includes a long flat hill of volcanic
rock.
The depression of the water table due to pumping operations
has been most marked between Casa Grande and the Casa Grande
Ruins, the greatest being near the Tweedy and W. S. Prouty
ranches. The average depression for the season was about one
foot. The recovery during the fall and winter has been complete
over about two-thirds of the area of depression.
A group of water-table records is shown in Fig. 4. The Vas-
quez well is situated about three miles south of Casa Grande, the
Elliott well two miles west of Casa Grande, the Ward well just
below the Florence reservoir, the Bigelow well near the center
of the main pumping area, and the Munk well a mile south of the
Gila River.
Some determinations of the quality of the well waters have
been made for comparison with former records. In some cases the
alkalinity has changed slightly, but in general the composition of
the soluble contents has remained practically constant.
Progress has been made on the negotiations with the United
States Department of the Interior with a view to storing and
utilizing the floodwaters of the Gila River. It is hoped that the
project of the United States Indian Service for building a diversion
dam at Sacaton will be abandoned in favor of the pro])osed diver-
sion dam fourteen miles upstream from Florence. The Sacaton
dam would be very costly, would be difflcult to maintain, and
would serve a comparatively small acreage. The Florence dam
would be only one-fifth as long as the Sacaton dam, would be tied
to bedrock except for about 200 feet in mid-channel, and would
serve the lands of both Indian and American farmers equally well.
Arizona Agricultural Expkrimknt Station
449
Y C AR
1915 1916 1917 I9ia 1919 ]
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Fig. 4. — "Water table
years. The dotted
fluctuations in the Casa Grande Va'ley over a period of five
curves are for periods when no records were obtained.
450
Thirtieth Annual Rki'ort
The stream flow records to 1917 have been published in pre-
vious reports. Table XIV completes the record to 1920.
TABLE XIV. — RUN-OFF RECORDS FOR SANTA CRUZ AND RILLITO RIVERS,
1917, 1918, AND 1919
Month
Santa
Cruz at
Tucson
1917
January .
February
March '. .
April . . .
May ....
Tune ....
July
August . .
September
October .
November
December
TOTAL
1918
January .
February
March ". .
April ...
May ....
Tune ....
July
August . .
September
October .
November
December
TOTAL
0
0
0
0
n
0
8,5^0
10,5C0
9,410
0
0
0
Rillito
near
Tucson
L720
274
8
0
0
5.110
2,840
643
0
0
0
Santa
Cruz at
Sasco
28,500
10,595
262
0
n
0
0
0
19,8C0
ii,2ro
8,290
0
0
u
39.552
0
32
14
0
0
73
225
4,620
0
22
~0
79
5,070
0
7
*7,820
0
4,260
488
147
7
0
39
6
5
118
0
0
0
0
0
915
5.610
1.C50
0
0
lf6
0
0
0
0
0
0
182
279
0
0
(:
4
No record
No record
No record
No record
No record
No record
No record
No record
No record
N'o record
No record
No record
12,779
7.799
465
Culverts
Culverts
Culvert
near
near
at
E!oy
Lirim
Maricopa
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
362
528
455
172
454
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
909
362
700
1919
January . . .
0
13
0
0
0
0
February . .
0
815
0
0
0
0
i\Tarch ....
0
332
0
0
0
0
April
0
65^
0
0
0
0
May
0
0
0
0
0
0
Tune
0
0
0
0
0
0
July
15.5CO
31, ceo
37,5C0
4,920
1,510
6,60C
August ....
9,920
4,160
12,3C0
1,470
1,360
3,960
September .
2,1^0
467
2,210
84
0
0
October . . .
0
0
312
0
0
0
November .
592
2.010
3,790
292
1,700
t
December .
480
2,770
726
46
1,770
i
TOTAL .
28.682
42,235
57,238
6,812
6,340
*Estima
ed.
fNo recorrt.
Akizdna Ac.uruutlkal Expicrimicnt Station 451
THE SAN SIMON V ALLEY
By special act of the Fourth Legislature, an appropriation was
made for water supply investigations in Cochise County. The
largest item in the appropriation is for an artesian test Avell in the
San Simon Valley; and inasmuch as the artesian water supply is
closely related to the other sources of supply, it seemed wise to
concentrate the investigations in that valley until the principal
problems were solved.
The artesian wells of the valley have been visited, and the
pressures and discharges have been measured for comparison with
previous measurements. Attention has been given also to the
shallow-well water supplies. The valley and surrounding moun-
tains have been searched for reservoir sites, and the two best loca-
tions so far found have been surveyed with a view to their use as
storage reservoirs.
In order to study the surface run-off, gaging stations have
been established on San Simon Creek, and on six of the creeks
issuing from the Chiricahua Mountains.
The drilling of the artesian well has been deferred, partly in
the hope that the well of the U. S. Oil & Refining Co. would prog-
ress rapidly and would indicate the formations likely to be encoun-
tered in the State test w^ell, and partly in the belief that the price
of well casing would be reduced. Specifications for the test well
have been prepared and bids for drilling the well will be asked
at once.
THE STATE WATER CODE
As a sequel to Circular No. 11 of the College of Agriculture,
Circular No. 26, entitled "Water Storage and the Water Code," was
published in December, 1918. This circular pointed out the avail-
able lines of irrigation water supply development in Arizona, and
emphasized the dependence of future development on the adoption
of a water code similar to the codes of the other irrigated states.
A state water code bill prepared by this department was intro-
duced in the Fourth Legislature, and its provisions and purposes
were explained in detail to the members of the Legislature. The
bill was passed on March 13, 1919, and is now in full effect. The
most important feature of the law is the provision for the determi-
nation of all existing water rights, taking an entire watershed at
one time, and the fixing of titles of these water rights, so that every
water user may know his exact status with respect to every other
water user. The establishing of these water rights makes it pos-
452 Thirtieth Annual Report
sible to determine the extent of the unappropriated floodwaters and
to design engineering works for storage. Proposals for private
undertakings and for federal projects will no longer be confronted
with the impossibility of determining the extent of the available
water supply, and several large projects may be expected to go
forward rapidly.
The state water code, in addition, makes it necessary for ap-
propriators to obtain a permit from the state water commissioner
bciore diverting water from a stream. The effect of this provision
is to protect those now using water in their rights. No water user
with established rights need fear that some new settler or project
will divert his water to other lands. The commissioner is given
authority with police powers to distribute the waters of the State
to those entitled to use them. Plans for dam and canal structures
must be submitted to the commissioner for approval, and he is given
authority to examine and inspect the construction, with a view
to securing safety of life and property on the lands below such
structures.
A special appropriation is provided for the adjudication of
water rights in the Gila River watershed.
CEMENT PIPE
The results of the investigations on cement pipe made during
the past three years are now available in Bulletin 86. This treatise
covers not only the manufacture and characteristics of cement pipe,^
but also reports of tests, analysis of pipe failures, discussion ot
applicability of cement pipe to various uses, and the design of pi])e
lines and pipe-line structures.
DURABIUTY OF CEMENT PIPE
Since the publication of the bulletin, the author has had the
opportunity to participate in the testing by the U. S. Bureau of
Standards of eight-inch cement tile of twenty different varieties
that had been buried in a drain in alkaline soil near Yuma for six
years. In most cases four tile of a series were tested. The tile
were excavated and were tested to destruction immediately in an
external pressure machine to determine the loads required to break
the tile. The broken segments were then examined for evidence
of injury by the alkali. Other specimens of the same series had
been removed from the ground and tested in 1914, 1915, and 1916.
The tests of 1919 showed practically the same or increased strength
as compared with the earlier tests and in no case was there evidence
of any disintegration. However, there was a marked difference in
Arizona AcKKiLirRAL Expkkimknt Station- 453
the appearance of the fractured surfaces, the more porous tile ap-
pearing damp or wet and showing more or less alkali salt in the
fracture, while the denser tile were dry and absolutely free from
any signs of alkali. The densest and strongest tile were those that
had been mixed with quaking or wet consistency, and the tests have
established definitely that drain tile for strongly alkaline soil should
be mixed wet. One series of tile had been dijiped or painted with
cement grout ; the grout was intact in its original condition. Tar
coating was less eftective than the gruut, and ferrous sulfate in
the mixing water was shown to be of no value. Both hand-tamped
and machine-made pipe were among those tested, and both classes
showed definitely that dense concrete is not affected by alkali.
This conclusion is substantiated by information received concerning
tests on similar series of drain tile buried in alkali soil in other
Western states and tested by the U. S. Bureau of Standards.
It can be stated, then, that hand-made drain tile of wet con-
sistency*, or high grade machine-made pipe is entirely safe for
drainage projects in Arizona. The reason why such pipe should
be used in preference to clay tile is because of the great saving in
cost.
USE AND WASTE OF IRRIGATION WATER
Bulletin 88, under the above caption, was published in May,
1919. It is the result of observation and study relative to methods
of irrigation during the past fifteen years. It discusses the useful
function of irrigation (transpiration), and classifies the various
losses to which irrigation supplies are subject, offering many sug-
gestions for reducing the losses to a minimum.
The efficiency of irrigation is defined as the ratio of that portion
of the water actually utilized by the crop to the total quantity ap-
plied to the land. It is the farmer's province to make this ratio
as high as possible.
The bulletin was written particularly for those districts in Ari-
zona like the Salt River Valley where the water table has risen to
dangerously high levels, and for the pump irrigators, whose water
supplies are so costly that the water must be conserved to the
utmost limit.
THE CONTINENTAL RUBBER PLANTATION
The report, on the basis of which the rubber plantation was
located at Continental, near Tucson, was made by the Irrigation
*See Bulletin 86, Arizona Experiment Station, page 91. Much cement pipe of
this class is being made in the Salt River Valley at the present time.
454 TuiRTiL'Tii Annual Rkport
Engineer in 1916. Since that time the Irrigation Engineer has de-
signed the general layout for the 4000 acres of irrigable land, the
water-supply development, the distribution system, the works for
flood protection, and various minor agricultural engineering works.
This connection has provided the opportunity for demonstrating
many ideas advocated by the irrigation department, and has made
possible the preparation of Bulletin 86, which is the first general
treatise on cement pipe.
WATER SUPPLY FOR YUMA MESA EXPERIMENT
STATION
A water-supply system for the irrigation of the Citrus Investi-
gations Station on the Yuma Mesa has been designed, and all ma-
terial required has been ordered. Much care has been given to
making this an ideal system ; and, according to the custom in the
past in connection with water-supply development on Experiment
Station farms, a description of the system will be made a matter
of record.
The water supply is derived from the east main canal in the
Yuma Valley and is elevated to the Mesa by pumping through a
long pipe line. Power is available from the Somerton transmission
line by means of a branch line one mile in length. An Allis-Chal-
mers direct-connected pumping unit, consisting of a 5 inch, Type S,
double-suction pump and a 40 horsepower, 440-volt, 3-phase, 60-
cycle, 6-pole motor will be set in a dug pit 45 feet from the canal
and slightly lower than the water level in the canal, so that the
pump will always be primed. The switchboard and starting box
will be on the ground floor above the pump. The suction pipe is
of 8 inches diameter and there will be an 8-inch gate-valve on each
side of the pump. The combined efficiency of pump and motor is
guaranteed to be 63 percent. The over-size motor is required by
the location in a pit and in a hot climate.
The pipe line to the Mesa is 1050 feet long. Standard spiral
steel pipe with flanged joints was first selected, but later the design
was changed to use redwood machine-banded stave pipe. The steel
pipe would have several advantages, ease of installation, freedom
from troubles, and high salvage value, but the stave pipe is of lower
first cost and will give direct opportunity to study the behavior
and life of this type of construction. On account of the short
supply and high cost of steel, it would be of great moment if the
characteristics of wood pipe were such that it could be recom-
mended for water lines, particvilarly those under high head or
Arizona Acku iutural Exi'i;kimicnt Station 455
subjected to water hammer, while for lines under low head,
cement jiipe is by tar the most advisable to use. The pipe line is
10 inches in diameter and the head due to friction will be less than
eight feet. A check valve is to be placed in the line 135 feet from
the pump.
At the edge of the Mesa the water will be delivered through a
circular standpii)e into a 14 inch cement pipe and will flow by
gravitv to the citrus orchard.
W ATER TANK AND TOWER
The subject of an elevated water tank f.ir the Mesa Experiment
Farm has been studied, and i)lans and sjiecifications iov a ta;-k
have been prepared.
PLANT BREEDING
0. F. Frfckman. \A'. E. J'.rvax, E. H. Prksslf^v
ALFALFA
Alfalfa studies during the past year have been confined, first, to
the field plots one-fourth acre in size ; second, to plot rows, each of
which was planted from seed taken from a single mother plant ;
and, third, to a study of variation from the recognized type in both
Bairy Peruvian and the common types.
Of the twenty field p!ots of variety tests at the Salt River Val-
ley Experiment Farm, four were selected for future increase and
testing by farmers in different parts of the State, in order to test
their yields in the different alfalfa sections. By referring to last
year's report (p. 157) it will be seen that the French variety (No.
41) was the highest in yield of these ph^ts, and that the yields of
its summer cuttings were relatively high. For these reasons No.
41 (French) and a plot each u{ Hairy Peruvian. Algerian, and
Turkestan alfalfas were saved last summer for seed. The other
sixteen plots of this series were discontinued. A rather light seed
crop was matured on these plots last season, but on the day (August
24) they were cut for seed, a severe storm occurred and so scat-
tered and mixed the varieties that none of the seeds could be used.
For this reason another season at least will be necessary to obtain
the final seeding for this series.
Of the 61 pedigreed races grown in rows last season, 36 were
selected for increase and testing in field plots. These selections
were made on the basis of yield and quality of hay. The quality
of the hay was based on a high percentage of leaves and relatively
small size of stems. Sufficient data on these characters have been
accumulated to permit a number of the best selections to be made
and seed will be taken from these next season.
In connection with alfalfa seed certification in this State, the
question of type of plant has become important. For example, in
a so-called Hairy Peruvian field, are the various forms usually found
the result of normal variation within a pure line, or do these forms
come about as a result of mixtures or of cross-pollination? In an
attempt to secure data which will answer this question, the follow-
ing line of work has been ])lanne(l and begun at the Salt River
X'alley Experiment Farm.
.\Kizr)N.\ AcRicri/rru \i. I'.xi'Kui mi:xt Station 457
Beginning on the west side of Border E 68, ten rows of com-
mon alfalfa extending the entire length of the border were planted;
next, ten rows of Hairy Peruvian with seed coming from a field in
the Yuma Valley certified as commercially pure ; next, one row
each of No. 41 (French), Siberian (35), Turkestan (27), Algerian
(24), Arabian (22), Common (17), Variegated (H). one selection
from Hairy Peruvian (39), and one row of Baltic. The remaining
four rows of the border were planted to Hairy Peruvian from the
same source as the ten rows mentioned above.
Work with these alfalfas has been planned as follows : ICach
variety will be thinned to one typical plant in a place, with two feet
of space between the plants in the row. Some of the plants of
each variety will be covered with screen wire cages during the
flowering stage in order to secure self-pollinated seed. Seeds wdl
also be taken from plants of each variety which have grown in the
open and been exposed to cross-fertilization by insects. The seed
grown from self-pollinated plants under cages and seed from plants
grown in the open from each of the above varieties will be planted
in adjacent rows for the purpose of studying the variation of plants
grown from self-pollinated seed and that of plants from seed grown
in the open. This comparative study will be made through at least
three seed generations. In addition to furnishing data for the
determination of the extent of cross-pollination by insects in an
open field of alfalfa, those pure races from self-pollinated plants
will furnish good material for the study of variation within the
same pure lines of alfalfa. It is believed that pure lines may be
established by the time three successive seed generations have
been taken from self-pollinated plants.
BEANS
Work \vith beans during the past year was confined to testing a
number of varieties introduced by the Department of Agriculture.
Eighty-nine varieties from foreign countries having climatic condi-
tions more or less like those of Arizona were planted. Owing to the
small space available for these plantings, only a single short row
could be planted to each variety. Along with these foreign intro-
ductions were planted the Pink, Bates, Bayou, Hansen, and Pinto
beans. The entire lot was planted in the early spring and came
into bearing about mid-summer. The yield from each of the native
beans was very low, and in the case of the Bayou and Hansen no
pods at all were set. On the other hand, some of the introductions
set numerous pods which were well filled. 'Eleven varieties from
these introductions were selected for further testing.
458 Tlllkl II'.TII AXNTAL Kkpokt
WHEAT
Work with wheat during the past year has included a compara-
tive field test of fifteen hybrid races and six pure races, including
Early Baart, two selections from Arizona 39, 36-51, Kanred, and a
Macaroni selection (1 E-88) ; and the selection and the growing of
the second plant generation of the Turkey-Sonora cross which was
made in the spring of 1917.
The comparative field tests of hybrid and pure races were lo-
cated at both the Yuma Horticultural Station and the Salt River
Valley Experiment Station. Table XY gives the yield of hybrid
and pure races.
T.\BLE; XV. YIELD OF HYBRID AND PURE: RACES OF WHEAT
Number
Hybrid 615 ..
Hybrid 650 ...
Hybrid 625 ..
Hybrid 713 ..
Hybrid 1088 ..,
Hybrid 1C90 ...
Early Baart . .
Arizona 39 (5)
Arizona 39 (9)
36-51
Size of plot
Yield per acre
Feet
Pounds
12.5x596
2772
12.5 X 596
3515
12.5x596
2678
12.5 X 596
2731
12.5 X 596
2099
12.5 X 596
2807
16 x576
2921
16 x576
1883
16 x576
2545
16 x576
2993
The yields of some of the hybrids exceeded that of the Early
Baart. These hybrids have been produced from a cross between
Sonora and Algerian Macaroni wheats made in the spring of 1913.
This was the first year these hybrids have been grown on a field
scale, and while the yield is rather high and the baking tests
(see Table XVI) show a good quality of gluten, there appeared
in each of these plots a number of different types of plants. For
this reason these wheats at present would not be satisfactory for
general field planting, and it will be necessary to repedigree each
of these hybrids by head selections.
Early Baart, as usual, gave a rather high yield. No. 36 51, a
Turkey selection, also produced well. Mr. C. J. Wood, foreman of
the Salt River Valley Experiment P*arm, placed a sample of this
wheat (36-51) on display at the recent Kansas City Dry-Farming
Exhibition, where it took second prize as a hard winter wheat in
competition with all hard winter wheats displayed. The Arizona
39 wheats were low in yield this year. This is partly due to a
severe attack of smut which destroyed nearly half the heads.
Milling and baking tests were made from these wheats and
the results are given in the following tables:
Arizona .\gricuuur.\l K-XPEuiMiiNT Sr-vrioN
459
TABLE XVI. — UAKING 'IKSTS^'S CROP OF 1919
Patent
St.
grade
Hybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid
39A-5
flour
flour
.Vrizona li.xp. Station No.
615
625
713
Kansas
hard
Kansas
hard
Loaf No
13
14
15
16
17
18
Absorption
64.3
194
65.0
192
65.7
209
60.3
215
58.3
241
59.1
Time of fermentation
235
Maximum volinnc of dough
2050
2075
2050
2000
2175
2125
Oven rise
5.25
525
4.05
527
4.50
540
3.05
525
5.15
510
4.60
Weight of loaf
517
Volume of loaf
1980
1830
1900
1740
1910
1880
Color of crumb
92
93
93
91
91
93
Texture of crumb
94
92
94
87
95
95
Bread quality factor
95
92.16
94
88.3
94.16
94
Rank
3 ;
10-11 1
5-6
16-17
4
5-6
*The baking test, analyses of wlieai and nour, and milling tests reported in the
following tables were made by the Milling Department of the Kansas State Agri-
cultural College.
TABLE xvi. — Contimicd
Arizona Exp. Station No.
34-16
36-51
39A-5
39A-0
Wizard
D. F.
Sonora
Loaf No
Absorption
1
62.0
212
2100
5.5
2C05
507
94
96
96.75
1
2
59.7
194
1875
5.35
1920
524
92
93
93.67
7
3
59.7
220
2050
4.55
1875
508
92
93
92.90
9
4
60.0
206
2225
4.05
1850
513
92
92
92.16
10-11
5
57.7
220
1800
2.45
1680
506
89
92
88.30
16-17
6
63.7
Time of fermentation
Maximum volume of dough
Oven rise
219
1975
3.85
V^olume of loaf
1760
Weight of loaf
526
91
Texture of crumb
Bread quality factor
Rank
90
89.67
15
TABLE xvL — Continued
Arizona Exp. Station No.
Loaf No
-Absorption
Time of fermentation
Maximum volume of dough
Oven rise
Weight of loaf
Volume of loaf
Color of crumb
Texture of crumb
Bread qualitv factor
Rank
Irr'g"d
Sonora
Kanred lE-88
7
63.3
210
1925
3.6
514
1825
92
92
91.75
13
8
61.3
214
2125
4.25
522
1860
91
92
92
12
9
71.7
200
1975
4.45
556
1810
92
92
91.5
14
H-650
H-IOSS
H-1090
10
11
12
63.3
70.0
63.3
196
199
188
2000
1925
2075
5.05
1.35
5.45
520
550
522
1920
1545
2015
92
87
94
92
80
95
93.3
81.4
96.58
8
18
2
460
'riiiKTiirni -Vnnlal KKroRT
T.\BLE XVII. — ANALYSIS OF WHKAT, CROP OF 1919
Arizona No.
Moisture
Ash
Acidity
Phos-
phorus
Protein
34-16 '
9.47
9.17
9.92
9.45
9.24
1.908
1.674
1.782
1.304
2.078
.423
.396
.401
.297
.495
.395
.343
.376
.244
.439
1465
36-51
[ 17.54
39A-5
17.78
39A-9
13.68
Wizard
13.11
D. F. Sonora ...
8.24
1.940
.531
.409
16.36
Irrigated Sonora !
8.58
1.530
.351
.294
13.38
Kanred
8.28
1.706
.459
.370
14.48
IE-88
8.24
8.63
1.728
1.516
.414
.441
.371
.336
18 84
Hybrid 650
15.29
Hybrid 1088
8.08
1.886
.522
.434
16.07
Hybrid 1090 1
8.68
1.776
.468
.416
15.39
Hybrid 615
8.69
1.484
.396
.318
16.27
Hybrid 625
8.67
1.672
.495
.388
15.36
Hybrid 713
8.68
1.766
.518
.408
15.45
39A-5 Mesa
9.50
1.672
.450
.380
10.86
TABLE XVIII. — MILLING OF WHEAT, CROP OF 1919
Arizona No.
34-16
36-51
39A-5
39A-9
Wizard
D. F. Sonora
Irrigated Sonora.
Kanred
lE-88
Hybrid 650
Hybrid 1088
Hybrid 1090
Hybrid 615
Hybrid 625
Hybrid 713
39A-5 Mesa
Test
Temper-
weiglit
ing
62.3
5.0
60.0
6.5
52.4
5.0
; 57.2
5.0
j 58.7
5.0
60.6
5.0
63.8
5.0
61.0
7.0
59.6
7.0
61.1
5.0
63.3
7.0
62.1
5.0
62.3
5.0
61.3
5.0
63.0
5.0
60.0
5.0
Flour
%
65.88
70.28
65.84
68.76
66.16
59.12
68.72
74.00
69.32
65.32
75.28
62.92
65.68
59.08
62.52
70.88
Feed
%
33.92
31.72
34.24
31.60
34.04
41.12
32.04
27.52
32.36
34.44
26.28
36.68
35.12
40.92
38.56
30.44
Scouring
loss
%
1.48
1.84
2.60
2.08
1.52
1.56
1.48
1.92
2.00
2.00
1.96
2.28
1.72
2.20
1.92
1.04
Milling
loss
%
#1.28
#3.84
#2.68
#2.24
#1.72
#1.08
#2.24
#3.44
#3.68
#1.76
#3.52
#1.88
#2.52
#2.20
#3.C0
#2.36
ThIKTIIvTH A.\xu.\l Kki'ort
461
T.\r,LlC XIX. — .\X.\LVSIS OF FLOUR. CROP OF 1919
Arizona No.
34-16
36-51
39A-5
39A-9
Wizard ....
D. F. Sonora
Irrigated So-
nora . .
Kanred . .
lE-88
Hybrid 650
Hybrid 1088
Hybrid 1090
Hybrid 615
Hybrid 625
Hybrid 713
39A-5 Mesa
Moist-
ure
12.35
12.56
12.85
12.26
12.16
11.18
11.40
12.47
12.55
11.72
12.52
11.50
11.92
11.35
11.61
12.24
Ash
Acidity
Plios-
plioru.s
Pioteiii
Wet
?luten
Dry
gluten
.408
i
.176
.092
12.01
.448
.144
.103
15.62
.430
.176
.098
15.49
.428
.126
.076
11.60
.448
.131
.084
10.97
.640
.167 1
.114
14.39
.496
.144
.099
11.51
.482
.153
.106
12.67
.706
.212
.154
17.10
.482
.162 '
.094
12.65
.834
.270
.183
14.08
.402
.171
.103
12.80
.448
.176
. .105
14.28
.544
.180
.108
12.63
.472
.162
.109
13.00
.496
.140
.097
9.46
36.77
53.17
44.92
37.12
40.65
50.79
38.17
42.45
53.49
38.39
43.67
42.57
47.07
44.15
45.24
27.84
12.98
15.57
15.22
11.78
12.37
16.15
12.50
13.15
17.20
13.10
14.05
14.94
15.72
14.69
15.04
9.73
The second plant generation of the Turkey-Sonora cross gave
some very interesting results last season. One of the main objects
sought in this cross is to produce an early wheat having the gluten
quality of the Turkey. In other words, an attempt is being made to
place the Turkey wheat grain on the early Sonora plant. Of the
4910 second generation plants which were grown, 66 were as early
as the Sonora. Of these 66 plants, 12 had grains all as hard as
the Turkey parent. These 12 hard-grained plants and other later
hard-grained segregates will be used as the foundation stock for
establishing an early hard wheat. In these hybrids there seems to
be a marked positive correlation between fertility, as indicated by
number of grains per spikelet, and earliness. These plants were
all grown in rows one foot apart and four inches between plants in
the row, so as to provide the same amount of space per plant. Table
XX shows this correlation.
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POULTRY HUSBANDMAN
Francis R. Kl•:^■^"l•.^
The Poultry Department was created February 1, 1919, and
has been in existence only during- the last five months of the present
fiscal year. The P^oultry Husbandman has spent most of his time
in getting the poultry plant on the campus stocked with desirable
birds and in securing ecpiipmcnt and housing facilities for the
proper functioning of the department. The poultry yards and
buildings and all of the brooders, incubators, and other equipment
and appliances have been prepared for use.
A few good breeding birds have been purchased and several
hunred chicks hatched out. There are now on the plant several
good pens of Single Comb Rhode Island Reds, Barred Plymouth
Rocks, Single Comb White Leghorns, and Single Comb Anconas.
The five months during which this dejiartment has existed
this year have been used almost entirely in preparation for the
next year's work, and no projects have l^een completed.
i(D
The I'liivcTsily o\ AnVona Collc^-c of Aij^riciilturc
Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 92
Distilhitioii nppnrntiis, flash-point tester, and li\(lroiiietei- in the labonilory
lit iIk' Agricultural Kxperiincnt Station.
THE SUPPLY, THE PRICE, AND THE QUALITY
OF FUEL OILS FOR PUMP IRRIGATION
Bv G. E. P. Smith
Tucson. Arizona. Novcniljcr 1?. 1920
ORGANIZATION
BOARD OF REGRNTS
Ex-Officio Members
HIS EXCELLENCY, THOMAS E. CAMIMtELL, Governor of Arizoivi Phoenix
HON'. CHARLES O. CASE, Slnte Superintenrtent of Public Instruction Phoenix
Appointed Members
EPES RANDOLPH, Chancellor Tucson
ESTMER \V. HUDSON Tenipe
JAMES G. COMPTON, Secretary Tucson
JOHN H. CAMPBELL, LL.M., Tre.nsurer Tucson
WILLUM SCARLETT, A.B., B.D Phoenix
TIMOTHY A. RIORDAN Flasrstaff
EDMUND \V. WELLS Preseott
LOUIS D. RICKETTS, Sc.D., LL.D Warren
RUFUS B. VON KLEINSMID, A.M., Sc.D., J.D President of the University
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT ST,\TIi)X
D. \V. WORKING, B.Sc, A.M Dc.mi ( ollese of Acriculture, Director
•ROBERT H. FORBES, Ph.D Research Speci,ilist
JOHN J. THORNBER, A.M Botaniirt
ALBERT E. VINSON. Ph.D _ Agricultural Chemist
GEORGE E. P. SMITH. B.S., C.E Irrigation Engineer
*RICHAI?D H. WILLIAMS, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
WALTER S. CUNNINGHAM, B.S Dairy Husbandman
(HART-ES T. VORHIES, Ph.D Entomolosri.st
GEORGE E. THOMPSON, B.S. A .. . Apronomist
FRANKLIN J. CRIDER. M.S Horticulturist
WALKER E. BRYAN, M.S ;. : Plant Bree.Ier
JAMES G. BROWN. M.S PUmt Pathologist
CLIFFORD N. CATLIN. A.M A.ssociatc Aaricultural Chemist
R. B. THOMPSON. B.S.A Poultry Husb'indman
W. E. CODE, B.S. C.E Assistant hrisration Eng-inecr
A. F. KINNISON, p,.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
R. S. HAWKINS. B.S.A .• Assistant Aerononiist
E. H. PRESSLEY. B.S Assistant Plant Breeder
H. C. SCHWALEN. B.S.M.E Assistant Irrisation Engnneer
E. B. STANLEY, B.S Assistant Animal Husbandman
D. W. ALBERT. B.S Assistant in Horticulture
S. P. CTjARK, B.S Assistant in .\ffronomv
R. N DAVIS, B.S ; Assistant in Dairy Husbandry
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE
W. M. COOK, A.B Director
Countv Home Demonstration Apents
ALICE V. jnvCE. . State Leader
HAZEL ZIMMERMAN rSouth Counties) Tucson
FT,OSSIE D. A\TTJ.S. B.S. rMnricona) Phoenix
NYDIA M. ACKER. B.S. (North Counties) Pre^cott
CRACE RYAN ("Southeast Counties) Douglai
County Asricultural Agents
W. M. COOK. A.B State Leader
C R. ADAMSON. B.S. rCochi=:e) Willcox
V. A. CHISHOI.M, B.S. rCoconino) Fla-staflf
•A. B. r.ALTANTYNE. B.S. rGrnhani .ind Greenlee) Tha"tcher
H. r. HEARD, B.S. fMaricopa) .'....".'.."...".'."...Phoenix
C. R. FILLERT^P fNnvaio and Apache) .. ' Snowflake
C. B. BROWN. B.S. rPima and Santa Cruz) ' " " Tucson
E. S. TURVILLE (Pinal) Casa Grande
M. M. \VINSLOW, P.S.A, (Yuma)... Yum:.
*0n leave.
CONTENTS
PAGK
Introduction 397
History of punii) irri<;ation in Arizona 397
Tlie price advance of Fehrnary, 1^20 399
Freight rates on fncl oils 400
Fuel oils available in Arizona 401
Tops or gas oil 402
27-plns oil 404
24-plns oil 404
Boiler fnel oil 405
Tests 405
Gravity 405
Flash poin t 406
lUirning point 407
P>oiling rans^c 407
Solidifying })oint 408
vSulphtn- content 408
\\'ater and sand conlml 408
Thermal value 40')
Other tests 409
Tests of fuel oils at the Agricultural lv\i)erinient Station 40''
Specifications 418
The outlook for pump irrigation 420
Alternative sourcc-s of power '. 421
Conclusions 424
ILLUSTRATIONS
Apparatus for testing fuel oils Cover cut
Fig. L Relation of freight rates to gi-avily of fuel nils. . . I^'rontispiecc
Fig, 2. Boiling ranges or three samples of gasoline 414
Fig. 3. Boiling ranges of three samples of gas (lil 415
Fig. 4. Boiling ranges of three samples of kerosene 415
Fig. 5. Boiling ranges of four samples of gas oil 416
Fig. 6. Boiling ranges of 27 -plus oil, 24-plu? oil. and a gas oil .... 417
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Of"
The Supply, the Price, and the Quality of Fuel
Oils for Pump Irrigation
/iv (/'. H. P. S:-itli
IXTRODI'CTION
The year 1920 has been an unlurtunaie one for puni]) irrigalors of
Arizona. With high prices for fuel oil, with unusually light rainfall,
and with dull markets antl low prices for crops, there has been little f)r
no profit in most cases.
The Arizona Agricultural Kxperimetit Station has served in a con-
sulting cai)acity ft)r pump irrigators for the past fifteen years, and has
studied the related probleius of groundwater supply, wells, power, and
fuel oils. This bulletin is the result of studies of fuel oils. The studies
are not complete, but the publicaiion is hastened in the hopf tiiat it will
be available in time to be of service in contracting for the fuel oil supply
for 1921.
HIST(3RY OF I'L'AIP IRRIGATION IX ARIZ(JXA
Although pumping water for irrigation was common in Califi)rnia
before 1900, only a few unsuccessful atteiupts had been made in this
State, the earliest being at the Hartt ranch in Pima County in 1889.
The development in California was due to the stimulus of an abundant
supply of gasoline at five to seven cents per gallon, while Arizona had
no available fuel oil supply at low cost.
Between 1900 and 1910, many small puniping plants \\ere installed,
most of them in Pima County ; but they were confined to shallow-water
areas, the pumping lift being from ten to forty feet. For many of these
])lants the power was derived from wood-burning steam boilers ; a
greater number employed gasoline engines burning engine distillate No.
1, which was an excellent fuel, almost the equivalent of the gasoline of
398 BcLLKTiN 92
toflay. Electric power was used in a few plants. These early plants
were described, with tests of their operation, in two bulletins of this
Station.* The distillate plants possessed a great advantage over the
steam plants in the cost of attendance, an item which in the small steam
plants outweighed the diliierence in fuel costs. In 1910 it appeared that
the most feasible power for pumping was to be obtained from central
power plants burning boiler fuel oil.
The available gasoline supply was quickly absorbed by the rapid
increase in the number of automobiles and motor trucks. The standard
of commercial gasoline was reduced from 68° Baume to 60° Baume and
consequently the supply of engine distillate or its quality had to be
reduced. California engine distillate dropped from 55° B. to 50° B.,
and has since been reduced as low as 43°. California pump irrigators
have continued to use the refined distillate to the present day, partly
because of their comparative proximity to the refineries and consequent
light freight charges.
In 1912, it was found that the cheap, abundant distillates of 37°
to 44" Baume gravity, costing 2H cents per gallon in carloads, f.o.b.
Los Angeles and nearby points, could be utilized for fuel by slight
modifications of the fuel mixers of the standard gasoline engines. The
modifications consist of preheating the air or a part of the air and
introducing a small amount of hot water into the fuel mixture. Strong,
high-tension magnetos, also, have a great advantage over low-tension
magnetos or wet batteries in burning this fuel, and another aid to good
combustion that has been used to some extent is lengthening the con-
necting rod so as to increase the compression pressure. The cheap
distillates were obtained at first by "topi)ing" heavy crudes in order
better to fit them for use in locomotives ; this process gave a low flash
l)oint to the "tops". Later, somewhat similar oils were obtained as
straight cuts in the refining process. These products were called tops
or gas oil, and were adopted widely in Arizona. Being unrefined, they
have always taken the same freight rate as boiler fuel oil and other
unrefined fuel oils. Lender the stimulus of the cheap tops or gas oil,
l)ump irrigation has grown by leaps and l)ounds since 1912. It is prob-
able that the numl)er of plants has increased ten-t(^lfl and the amount of
water pumped a hundred-fold. The area of puinji irrigation has spread
*Hul. -lit. Co'st of runipins for Irrigation, and Hiil. di. (Jrouinlwator Siiiijily ami Trrieation
in the Rillito Valley, Chapter VII. Since 1910 two additional bulletins for pump irriirators have
been issued: H\il. 71 on Care and Operation of Gasoline Engines and Bui. 7-1 on Oil Kngines for
I'uinp Irrigation and the Cost of Pumping.
Ki'EL Oils for Pump Irrigation 399
to include sonic laiuls where the Hft is a hundred feet and more, and it
is probable that the average pumping lift for Arizona is now over fifty
feet, with consequent large power requirements and heavy investments
for wells and machinery. If gas oil suitable for the type of pumping
engines now in use ceases to be available at moderate cost, hundreils
of pumping plants will be put out of service, at least until some other
and cheaper form of power can be obtained. If pump irrigation be-
comes impracticable from any cause, it will result in the abandonment
of hundreds of improved farms.
THE PRICE ADVANCE OF FEBRUARY, 1920
Until the present year, tops or gas oil has been obtainable from Cali-
fornia refineries in ample quantity, and at very low prices. In Decem-
ber, 1919, CLUtracts were being made for gas oil of 38° to 40° B. grav-
ity at 53/4 cents i)cr gallon. As late as January 22, a twelve-month
contract was made at 6J/2 cents. About the end of January, without
warning, gas oil was withdrawn from the market. Those communities
which had not arranged contracts for the year's supply became alarmed
and made strenuous efforts to protect themselves. In March one coin-
;nunity sent a representative to California to find oil. After a long
search he contracted with a jobber for 60 carloads at 11 cents a gallon :
only seven carloads were obtained on this contract, however, and by
mistake they were billed as kerosene, making the freight charge about
six cents per gallon.
Thus the price was practically doubled in one advance. Additional
advances during the summer brought the price to 14^2 cents in August.
But the seriousness of these advances is not measured in cents. A
motorist uses only one or two gallons of gasoline per day, and lience
a slight advance in price of gasoline is not a crucial matter. A farmer
with a lOOO-gallon pump requires from 50 to 150 gallons per day.
depending on his vertical lift, and an advance of eight and a half cents
per gallon in price means an additional expense of $4 to $13 per twenty-
four hours. Allowing the freight charge of 343/< cents per 100 pounds
and allowing a vertical lift of 60 feet, the cost of gas oil per acre irri-
gated, for land in alfalfa or any double-cropped land, is increased from
$6.75 to $13.40 per year. The cost of pumped water is necessarily high.
To the cost of fuel there must be added the fixed charges of deprecia-
tion, interest, and taxes ; also, the cost of lubricating oil, attendance,
and repairs. There are many ranches from which the net returns in
400 BULLKTTN 92
the past ha\e been nieagre, and with the increased cost of irrii;"ation
the balance sheet can show only a loss. During the past summer many
ranchers have irrigated much less than was needed, on account of the
high cost of fuel, and the lack of water was reflected in tlie low crop
yields.
The cause of the advance in price of gas oil is not understood
clearly. The production of crude oil in California in 1919 was 101,-
000,000 barrels, and the production in 1920 has been approximately the
same amount. The amount of gasoline derived from tiie crude oil in
1919 (by conventional atmospheric refining methods) was ap])roxi-
mately 418.000,000 gallons, which is almost exactly ten })ercent ol tl:e
crude oil produced.
During the present year some of the largest oil companies have
added largely to the gasoline supply by a process of "cracking" heavier
distillates — a process of increasing the A'ield of low boiling hydro-
carbons by heating the distillates while under high pressiu-c. The plan
of the largest companies, it is understood, is to crack the "cut" between
gasoline and kerosene to make gasoline, and to crack the cut betweeu
"kerosene and lubricating oil to increase the supply of kerosene. If tlu
smaller companies follow this plan, as is probable, it will do away with
all California fuel oils suitable for the ordinary farm engines, except
kerosene and gasoline.
Price advances in boiler fuel oil and in gasoline, also, occurred last
winter, but these advances were of small moment. In repl\ to an
inquiry by the Railroad Commission of California, the Standard Oil
Company stated that considerations of profits did not enter into their
price advance ; that their action was designed to protect the fuel oil and
gasoline supply by stinudating i)roduction and by checking consumption.
Increased demand doubtless was the largest factor in the price
advance of gas oil. However, the largest refiners have not manufac-
tured any gas oil for some time, and the small refiners are not equipped
to convert gas oil into products of higher value. The law of supjjly
and demand is very sensitive if it can account for the price advance of
150 percent, mostly in three winter months.
FREIGHT RATES OX FUEL OILS
For man}' years the rates from southern California refineries to
Tucson were 83 cents i)er 100 pounds for gasoline and kerosene. f)6
cents for engine distillate, and 30 cents for unrefined oils. As a war
Fuel Oils i'or Pumt Irrigation 401
measure. 4J'2 cents per hundred was added to each of those rates. Re-
cently all freight rates in the Western district have heen advanced 25
percent. The new rate for fuel oil is 43 cents. Fuel oils are figured
at 7yl pounds per gallon, and refined oils at 6.6 pounds. The advance
from 30 cents to 43 cents is, therefore, an increase from 2J/3 to 3^
cents per gallon, an increase of minor importance when compared
with the chanji^e in price at the refineries. Some fuel oil users protested
against the recent advance in letters to the Arizona Corporation Com-
mission, but interstate rates are outside iho jurisdiction of that Com-
mission.
There is excellent reason for loweriiij^ the rate on kerosene. Kero-
sene is equivalent to a me<Hum or iDW-gradt- tops for use in internal-
combustion engines, and in case tops is unobtainable, as was threatened
several times during the past )ear, kerosene could be used, at least to
mature crops already planted. Rates on the various oils should be
governed in part by the values of the oils ; the value of kerosene at
shipping points is about one-half that of gasoline. The application of
the same rate to both oils is an anachronism, dating back to the time
when kerosene was the more valuable of the two oils. Furthermore,
gasoline has a flash point below, and kerosene has a flash point above,
ordinary air temperatures, .so that gasoline is dangerous to transport,
while kerosene and gas oils are not. The relative densities and freight
rates arc shown graphically in Fig. I. In that figure kerosene is
>hown to be of the .same density as jjas oil. while its freight rate is
ecjual to tb.at of gasoline.
FUEL OILS AVAILABLE IN ARIZONA
At the present time C November) the fuel oil market i^ much easier
than it was in midsunuiier. This is due in part to the slowing down of
industries, and in part to the diminution in export, caused by the
present rates of exchange. These causes are transitory ; the shortage
next summer probably will be as great as it was this year.
Arizona is situated much closer to the California oil field than to
any other, and freight rates are lower from the west than from the
nearest field to the east. Nevertheless, since midsummer of 1919 most
of the gasoline shipped into Arizona has come from Texas, Oklahoma,
and Wyoming, and during the past year most of the kerosene has come
from those fields. Also beginning in August, considerable gas oil for
pumpintr engines has been shipped from Ranger, Texas, to Casa
Grande, Flfri<la, McNeil, and Willcox.
402 Bulletin 92
With gasoline retailing at 35 cents, engine distillate at 23, and
kerosene at 233/2, these oils are too costly for pump irrigation. The
demand for gasoline will increase still further with the increase in
number of automobiles and motor trucks, but with the installation of
more plants for cracking lower grade distillates into gasoline, the
supply is likely to keep pace with the demand for some years. The
recent opening of government oil lands in California to lease, also, is
helping to increase the supply.
Despite the frequent lurid accounts of newly discovered cheap fuel
substitutes, it can be stated that neither denatured alcohol nor any other
substitute can compete in price with mineral oil.
Tors OR GAS OIL
This is the fuel oil on which the present development of pump
irrigation, exclusive of a few localities in which electric power is avail-
able, has been founded. The consumption of gas oil in Arizona for
pump irrigation in 1920 has been approximately 1,300.000 gallons.
Had not a large part of this been contracted in advance, the cost to
Arizona farmers would have been over $200,000.
The California gas oils of six years ago were of about 44° B.
gravity, but the quality has been forced down gradually to 38°. During
the war some Z7° oil was used, but it was found unsatisfactory in most
engines.
In March, 1920. shipments of gas oil running between 35° and 36'
were received at Higley, Casa Grande, and Tucson, and samples were
forwarded to the Experiment Station for testing. These oils were
burned with the greatest difficulty, engines smoked badly and carbon-
ized rapidly. One experienced operator stated that five gallons of
gasoline were required to warm up a cold engine, though previously
with a good gas oil only a gill had been used. It was stated, also,
that three gallons were required to do the work of two gallons of good
gas oil. Owing to the vigorous protest, no more oil of so poor quality
was shipped at that time, but later in the summer several shipments of
unsatisfactory gas oil were received. Many farmers who obtained oil
from these shipments purchased gasoline also to mix with the gas oil.
It is believed that the California supply of gas oil will be further
reduced by the extension of plants for cracking, and there is no indi-
cation that the price will be lower next season than it has been in 1920.
Furthermore, the quality of gas oil that is now being offered to inquir-
Fuel Oils for Pump Irrigation
403
ing local dealers and consumers is inferior to the quality on which
buyers have insisted in the past.
While the farmers of Arizona were installing engines designed
to burn tops, it was not foreseen that a method would be found for
converting California tops into gasoline, and that the supply would
be required for that purpose.
At present, only one company in Texas is shipping gas oil to
Arizona. This oil is proving satisfactory to the users in the Casa
Grande Valley and in the Sulphur Spring Valley. Its gravity is 42°
B. and its flash point about 110° F. The present price is 10^^ cents
at Ranger, Texas. The freight to Tucson is 4.5 cents per gallon and
the rate to Casa Grande is 5.1 cents. If additional refiners can be
interested in the Arizona market, the Texas oils may prove to be a
more reliable supply than the California oils. It is essential to keep
both supplies available.
The Whitewater Cooperative Co. at Hlfrida, Arizona, purchased
a carload of Ranger, Texas, gas oil of 38° B. gravity, in the belief
that this oil would be of the same quality as 38° California tops. None
of the engines in the vicinity could burn the oil and much of it is still
unsold. Texas oils should be 4° B. higher in gravity than California
oils in order to have the same volatility. This rule is quite general and
is important; it should be followed by purchasers of North Texas oils.
The relation of gas oil suitable for electric-ignition engines to the
other petroleum fuel oils is illustrated by the accompanying chart
showing the refining process at an Oklahoma refinery. The processes
at other refineries are similar in principle but differ in details.
Crude naphtha
(Cut at 46*B.)
Kerosene stock
(Cut at 37''B.)
Crude ) Heavy gas oil
(Cut at 32''B.)
Lubricating stock
(End of distillation)
Residuum
Loss
Gravity
°B.
Percent
of crude.
53.5
14.4
40.6
17.0
35.0
18.0
30.1
19.5
16.5
28.0
3.1
100.0
404 BuLiJ-TiN 92
In the abnve pmccss, the crude dI! is first separated into five parts.
As heat is a]-)pHcd, the crude naphtlia is distilled first. Wlicti the grav-
it\- of the distillate i.s down to 4A- D.. the vahes in the piping are
changetl and the distillate is run into the crude kerosene stock tank.
When the gravity is down to 3>7° W., the distillate is ''cut" to tanks
holding heavy gas oil. (This is not the ga.s oil ,or tops, that is familiar
to pump irrigators throughout Arizona.) The crude naphtha i.s refined
again, yielding gasoline, and a residue which is piped to the kerosene
stock tanks. The kerosene stock is distilled again, yielding a distillate
which is treated with acid and becomes kerosene, and a residue which
is piped to the heav}- gas oil tanks.
It is the crude kerosene stock wdiich approximates California tops
in quality.
TWKNTV-SKVEN PLUS OIL
Considcralile California oil of a grade called ''27-plus" has been
brought into Arizona for use in semi-diesel engines. One sample of
27-plus found at Phoenix tested 32° B. The largest refiners, however,
have ceased to make this oil, and it is found to be an excellent oil for
crackino'. Also, the semi-diesel engines have not become popular on
account of their higher cost, their unsuitability for farm conditions.
and their need of close attention. Therefore, 27-plus is not an oil of
importance. Its present price f.o.b. Tucson is 15 cents per gallon. It
appears possible that a large supply of cheap gas oil of about 34° B.
is to be available in the North Texas field. This oil is approximately
equivalent to 27-plus from California. If it is probable that such a
supply will be available for many years, it will tend to increase the
use of semi-diesel engines, in which case those engines having com-
pression pressures of about 250 i)ounds per square inch should be
preferred to the ordinary semi-diesel engines having compression pres-
sures less than 200 pounds.
24 BAUMIv OIL
Oil of 24° B. was formerly sold under the trade name of Star
Fuel Oil ; it is now called Calol diesel engine oil. at least by one com-
pany. It is the ideal oil for engines of the diesel and Hvid, or Brons.
types, with the exce]ition of small Bmns engines, less than 20 horse-
power, for which c^as oil is used. \\'hilc such engines can burn heavier
oil for short periods of time, it is wiser to u.se 24° oil for steady opera-
Footnote — A.s this V.uUctin koi's to press, tli.ri- is iiicrc.isiris cvidoiife lli.il Arizona will have
to look to Tcxns for fuel oils for Ui,. foiiiiiiLr .v..,ir. Priros of pctrolouin oils in 'IVxas liMve bocn
uriMUy rcdurr.l. wliilc in Ciliforni:! iUrrr Iins lii-cn no .l.vriMso in prims.
FuKL Oils kor Pump Irrigation 405
tion. The price of this oil is about i^2.80 a barrel (42 gallons) at Cali-
lornia refineries and $4.20 a barrel at Arizona main line points.
boili;r fuel oil
In the refining of asphalt base oils, the greatest bulk of the crude
oil is left as boiler fuel oil after the more valuable constituents have
been removed. In Arizona, boiler fuel oil is used almost exclusively
as fuel for steam plants. It is tried occasionally in diesel and Brons
engines, but it is poor judgment to use this oil in any internal-combus-
tion engine. The gravity runs from 14° to 18° B. Its cost at the
present time is about $1.85 to $2.00 a barrel (42 gallons) at California
refineries, and $3.40 a barrel in Arizona.
Much boiler fuel oil has been shipped into .Vrizona from Texas
during the past two }ears, depending on the relative prices in Texas
and California.
Mexican oil is received at Galveston and reshipped. It will be an
important factor in steadying the price of Texas oils. Mexican crude
is heavy, usually about 14° B., and contains a very low percentage of
light oils.
One disadvantage to the purchaser in buying heavy oil is tiic <lil-
ficulty of handling it. A carload of 18'^ B. oil received recently at
Casa Grande was so viscous that it required 98 hours of pumping to
unload the oil, am! the cost of unloading was over $150. Had steam
for heating the oil been available, the cost could have been reduced.
TESTS
The qualities of petroleum oils for whicli tests are applied ordi-
narily are as follows :
1. Gravity 5. Solidifying point
2. Flash -point 6. Sulphur content
3. Burning point 7. Water and sand content
4. Boiling range 8. Thermal value
gravity
There are two scales in use for expressing gra\ity, the Baume
scale and the standard decimal scale. In the former the gravity of
pure water is taken at 10°, in the latter at unity, that is, 1.000. Gaso-
line in the Baume scale is about 56'' to 60°, in the decimal scale it is
about .750, showing that gasoline is about three- fourths as heavy as
water.
406 Bulletin 92
The gravity of oils is measured commonly on the Baume scale.
The formula for conversion is as follows:
140
Specific gravity ( decimal )=
ISO-j-Baume value
Specific gravity is obtained readily by means of a hydrometer, a
small instrument costing one or two dollars. Each farmer or com-
munity of farmers should own one. A hydrometer with range from
35° B. to 70° B. is recommended, since this range includes gas oils,
kerosene, and gasoline, and is found on one of the standard commer-
cial hydrometers.
While taking the specific gravity, the temperature of the oil
should be obtained also. A correction can be applied to reduce the
specific gravity to what it would be at 60° F., the standard tempera-
ture. Approximate rules for this correction are as follows :
For gasoline, allow 1° Baume for each 10° F.
For tops and similar oils of about 40° B., allow 1° Baume for
each 12° F.
For Calol diesel fuel oil and similar oils of about 25° B., allow
1° Baume for each 15° F,
The correction is to be added to the reading of the hydrometer if
the temperature of the oil is below 60° F. when tested, and subtracted
if the temperature is above 60° F.
There has been considerable condemnation of the specific gravity
test by some oil companies, on the ground that it does not show the
fitness of an oil for engine service. The test is of great value, how-
ever, and it is the easiest test to make, and should be used generally.
The ultimate and best test is the experience with an oil in actual
service. So long as oils come from the same field, as, for example,
the southern California field, then the average volatility, and the fitness
of a shipment are indicated usually by the specific gravity. That is, hav-
ing had experience with gas oils of various densities, a purchaser can
take the specific gravity (and perhaps the flash i:)oint) and then know
whether or not the oil is satisfactory. When oils come from an untried
field, then further tests are necessary, either the distillation test or the
test of actual service.
FLASH POINT
The flash point is the temperature at which vapor is given off in
such quantity that it flashes when exposed to an open flame. The
Fuel Oils for Pump Irrigation 407
flash point indicates the ease or difficulty of starting a cold engine. A
moderately low flash point, say below 115° F., is desirable for electric-
ignition engines.
Many different patterns of apparatus are in use to determine the
flash point, and the results obtained vary considerably. The Arizona
Agricultural Experiment Station uses the Elliott or New York State
tester, which is semiclosed.*
Large purchasers of oil, such as farmers' oil associations, should
own and use a flash-point tester. There is an advantage in using the
same type of testing apparatus as that used at the Experiment Station,
inasmuch as comparisons can then be made with Experiment Station
records.
BURNING POINT
The burning point is the temperature at which the "flash" be-
comes permanent. This point is obtained with the flash-point tester.
After the flash point has been obtained, the temperature is raised
further until the flash continues as a steady flame.
BOILING RANGE
The distillation or boiling-range test is made by heating the oil in
a small still, and noting the temperature at which the first drop and
successive fractions of the oil are carried over into the cup in which
the distilled oil is caught. The U. S. Bureau of Minesf recommends
that the temperature be noted for the first drop, and each successive
ten percent up to ninety percent, and also for ninety-five percent and
the dry point.
The American Petroleum Institute distinguishes between "dry
point" and "end point" in the following manner. The dry point is
usually stated to be the point at which the bottom of the distillation
flask becomes dry, and frequently this is indicated by a puff of smoke
leaving the bottom of the flask. The end point is determined by con-
tinuing the heating until the column of mercury (thermometer) reaches
a maximum and then starts to recede consistently. For light oils, the
end point, or maximum boiling temperature, can be obtained quite ac-
curately and consistently. For heavy oils, not much dependence can be
•In a recent private communication from the U. S. Bureau of Mines, the Tag closed
tester is recommended for oils having specified limits less than 150° F., and the Pensky-Mar-
tens closed tester for fuel oils flashing above 150° F. These instruments will be obtained and
tried by the Experiment Station at once.
■f Bureau of Mines Technical Paper 214, "Motor Gasoline; Properties, Laboratory Methoda
of Testing, and Practical Specifications."
408 Bulletin 92
placed on either the dry point or the end point, on account of the rapid
cracking which occurs at high distillation temperatures.
The distillation test is undoubtedly the best index of the suit-
ability of an oil as an engine fuel. It is difficult to make, requiring
considerable technique, and only the largest buyers of oil can be ex-
pected to provide themselves with apparatus. The Experiment Sta-
tion can make a limited number of tests for users within the State,
when conditions justify the expenditure of time. In the Station
laboratory a standard 100 c.c. Engler flask and electric heater are
used. The thermometer belonging with the apparatus as received has
an upper limit of 270° C. After some kerosenes had been run, another
thermometer with a limit of 350° C. was secured. It is found neces-
sary to provide the flask with asbestos insulation for oils heavier than
gasoline.
The boiling range usually distinguishes between straight refinery
gasoline and blends with casing-head gas or "cracked" gasoline.
SOLIDIFYING POINT
This is not of importance with ordinary light oils. Benzene,
from coke ovens, however, despite its high volatility, freezes at a rela-
tively high temperature, about 40° F.
With boiler fuel oil the solidifying point is important in the win-
ter season, as steam coils are required to give the oil sufficient fluidity
to flow in pipes.
SULPHUR CONTENT
Sulphur and sulphur compounds in oils are objectionable. Va-
rious tests for sulphur are in use in laboratories. One of the tests for
sulphur in aviation gasoline is the evaporation to dryness of 100 c.c.
of gasoline in a copper dish. The bottom of the dish must not be
colored gray or black.
The presence of sulphur leads to corrosion and pitting, particu-
larly of exhaust valves. Not over .20 percent should be allowed in
gas oil, or .7S percent in diesel engine oil.
WATER AND SAND CONTENT
Sand from the oil wells and water are seldom found in light oils,
but frequently in heavy oils. Obviously they are objectionable. They
are detected easily in light oils, both water and sediment sinking to
the bottom of a container. To make the separation in the case of boiler
fuel oils, a centrifuge has been much used. If the oil emulsion is quite
FcKL Oils for Pimt luRir.ATiox 409
viscous or if ,i;rcat accuracy is rccjuired, the water content .should be
determined by distillation. Kor this jmrpose 100 c. c. of the oil is
mixed with 100 c. c. of solvent, and the distillation is carried to a point
where the water in the receiving cup cannot be further increased.
Salt\- water is very corrosive in diesel engines.
THERMAL VALUE
The thermal or calorific value measures the theoretic power in
fuel, it is stated in British Thermal (heat) Units (B.T.U.) per
pound of fuel. Each B.T.U. is equivalent to 778 foot-pounds of work.
T!ie thermal value is determined in bomb calorimeters.
Coal varies so widely in quality that determinations of the calori-
fic value become almost a necessity. Petroleum oils, however, vary
but slightly. California fuel oils have about 19,000 B.T.U. per pound.
Although the calorific value per pound decreases with the density, this
is overbalanced by the fact that oils are bought by volume and the
weight of a unit of volume increases faster than the calorific value de-
creases. A gallon of gas oil has about 8 percent more potential power
than a gallon of gasoline.
OTHER TESTS
Additional tests that are applied to gasoline are color, odor, and
acidity. A test for acidity is to shake the residue after distillation
with distilled water and to add a little methyl orange. For heavy oils
tests are made for coke residue, free carbon, acid and alkaline content,
resin, paraffin, and asphaltum. For lubricating oils the viscosity is of
great importance, and is best made in an Engler viscosimeter.
California oils and most of the Texas and Oklahoma oils are of
the so-called asphalt base type. I'ennsylvania oils and much of the oil
from the mid-continent field are of the paraffin base type.
TESTS OF FUEL OILS AT THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERI-
MENT STATION
During the early years of the use of gas oil very few tests were
made, because the shipments were satisfactory to the users. Even the
low gravity gas oils contained sufficient gasoline to give low flash
points. Records of most of the early tests were not preserved. Since
1917 tests have been made on many oils, often at the request of the
local dealers or the users. Specific gravity and flash and burning-
point tests are listed in the accompanying table.
410
Bulletin 92
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FuKL Oils for Pump Irrigation 413
Most of the oils tested were what might be termed regular as to
color, odor, and other qualities. Occasionally a carload of freakish
oil is received, and usually such oils give much trouble. As- an ex-
ample, a sample of oil was received from Higley in June, 1919, which
had been shipped from the refinery as a "special fine oil". The oil had
a flash point of 71° F. and a specific gravity of 41° B., but it possessed
a strong odor suggestive of turpentine, and contained much flocculent
material which settled slowly after shaking, flaky particles sticking to
the sides of the bottle and more granular particles sinking to the bot-
tom. The rancher who submitted the sample stated that repeatedly
the feed-pump became clogged so tiiat the engine could not get any
oil, and a black deposit settled on the cylinder. He harl tried filtering,
but that "only held back the coarse stuft' and let the dissolved" matter
pass. The oil necessitated an undue amount of water with the charge,
but. strangely, the exhaust was not smoky. With such apparatus as was
available at the University at that time, a distillation test was run.
The oil began to boil at 167° F. but no distillate was caught until the
temperature reached 257° F., suggesting casing-head gas. At 347° F.
56 percent was distilled and at 446° F. 82 percent. Further heating
yielded only a few drops of thick oil. The residue, about 18 percent,
was almost black and contained solid particles. Upon mixing some
of this residue with acetone, most of the solids dissolved, indicating
asphalt. On examination twelve hours later, a thin coating resembling
vaseline was found on the bottom of the beaker. This was probably
paraffin. Upon mixing some of the residue with carbon bisulfid,
most of the solids dissolved, leaving a small amount that appeared to
be dirt. This oil may have been a product of cracking or it may have
been a light-gravity distillate that had decomposed in storage, to which
some improper heavy oil had been added so that it might be classified
as fuel oil in shipment.
Another freakish oil, received in Pima County in September,
1920, tested 42.5° B. The flash point was very low, less than 59° F.
But on distillation it was found to have a wide boiling rauQ^e with a
high end point, and in use it was very troublesome, causing engines
to smoke badly.
During: 1920 many oils have been tested for boiling range in the
standard Engler apparatus described above. These tests have been
made at atmospheric pressure of about 27.6 inches, which should
pause the samples to be somewhat more volatile than if tested at sea
414
Bulletin 92
level. Some selected boiling range curves are exhibited in figures 2
to 6.
In Fig. 2 are shown the boiling ranges of three gasolines. No
1 curve is for an aviation gasoline; No, 2 is for a sample from the
yard of the Standard Oil Co. at Tucson ; and No. 3 is for gasoline
from the Texas Oil Company's yard at Tucson. Commercial gasoline
has a boiling range of from 100° to 400° F., and about 50 percent is
distilled at a temperature of 250° F.
Tests of three samples of gas oil or tops are shown in Fig. 3.
No. 1 is high-grade gas oil, excellent for farm pumping plants and
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commercial gasolines in use principallj' as automobile fuel.
usable for low-speed tractors ; No. 2 is a low-grade tops which would
be usable in large stationary engines that are in good condition ; No. 3
is too low in volatility, and was found to be unfit for continuous serv-
ice, even in large engines that were specially designed to burn tops.
No. 1 and No. 2 of Fig. 3 are shown as dotted lines in Fig. 4
as a background for three curves showing the boiling ranges of
kerosenes. The Union kerosene is seen to be equivalent to a fair
Fuel Oils for Pump Irrigation
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The lowest curve represents the best of the three oiln. The oil began to distill at 250'' F.
and the distillation was 50 percent complete when the temperature reached 34.3'' F. Our^-e
No. 2 represents a gas oil, the volatility of which was near the lower limit for the ordinary
electric-ignition engines in common use thruout Arizona. No. 3 was an oil which was very
troublesome in use.
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Ko. 2 gas oils are shown (in dotted lines) for comparison. The kerosenes in the Tucson
market are approxiumtel.v ot the same volatility as a low-grade tops, or gas oil.
416
Bulletin 92
grade of gas oil, while the two other kerosenes are inferior to the low-
grade gas oil. Any one of these kerosenes would be improved for
engine service by the addition of from five to ten percent of gasoline.
Of the three kerosene samples only the Union kerosene was from
California. Both samples of gas oil were from California. It is ap-
parent that oils from the east must be from 2° to 5° B. higher in
gravity than the California oils in order to have equal volatility. This
characteristic is confirmed by other tests.
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Fig. '■>. The boilins ranges of iniscelliineous gas oils. No. 1 and No. 2 were' from
Ranger, Texas, and were quite satisfactory in use in-theCasft OraBde-VaHey iir-^-^20;.- No: ."?
anJ No. 4 were unsuitable lor electric-ignition engines. — Therer'ore;'-No. 2 can-be taken as a'
limiting line for fuel oils for eneines of that type. — — ■■ ■ — — ■ •■" ;"" ---•■-
-In Fig. 5 are sliown the results of four tests : No. 1 and." No. 2
samples were from the Imperial Refining Company, the oil being from
a refinery at Rano-cr, Texas; No. 3 was a sani])le of unsatisfactory
California gas oil; and , No.. 4 .was a. sample fnim the White Kagle
Fi'Ki. Ori.s FOR Pump Trrtcatton
417
Petruk'um Company's Au-usta, Kansas, rcfincTy. The Rant^cr oil is
said to be j^ivini,^ fair service at Casa C.rande. Tlie California tops
(Curve No. 3) was troublesome to the users. Only a sample of the
Kansas oil was received. On account of the low volatility the offer
<ti this oil was rejected l)y the local dealer. Doubtless the oil would
be ver\ troidilesonie to farmers. Coiuparing- the curve of the Kansas
oil witli .\o. 3 cin-ve of Im.u'. 3, the 3.=^"" P.. California t;as oil is shown
to have nuich hii^her volatility than the ?>7'' Kansas oil. despite its
lower gravity.
iMg. 6 shows the corresponding curves for a 2r-plus oil, a 24-
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Fia. fi. Tho lioilinu nnices of "iT-plus O'l, :24-ij1us oil, .tikI ;i gas oil that was niaile >ip to
till a special ordt-r from Elfrida, Arizona. The last named oil was found quite impossible to
use in the internul-cunibustion engines in the vicinity of Elfrida.
plus oil and a very low grade Texas gas oil. The first is in use at
some of the Tucson city pumping plants and the second is used in the
diesel enp-ines of the Tucson Gas. Electric Liyht and Power Co. The
third was found at bTfrida, a carload of it having been purchased
under a misapprehension : the cooperative company handling it was
practically out of the oil business, since none of their customers pur-
chased the oil but once.
418 llri.i.KTiN 92
A rough coiiipariscm between the Hght (jils may l)c noted as fol-
lows: 50 percent of the gasoline distills before the temperature of
250° F. is reached ; in the case of gas oils 50 percent distills below
temperatures of from 350^ F. to 410° F. and, fur the kerosenes found
in the Tucson market, the corresponding temperatures are 380° F. to
415° F.
A low initial boiling temperature indicates a low flash point, and
is a feature tending to make easier the starting of a cold engine. A
high end point indicates the presence of hydrocarbons lacking in vola-
tility. An oil with a high end jjoint is likely to leave unburned resi-
dues, wdiich interfere seriously with lubrication, especially so in worn
engines in w hich the compression pressures have been reduced.
SPECIFICATIONS
It is possible, from the above tests, together with a knowledge of
the action of the various tested oils in use, to formulate specifications
for gas oils. Such specifications must change necessarily from time
to time. The following are suggested as a basis for gas oil contracts
for the year 1921, They apply more directly to California oils. For
Texas and Oklahoma oils, some modifications are required, including
a higher Baume limit and a wider boiling range. Additional knowl-
edge of Texas oils will probably be obtained in 1021. Color and odor
are not specified, being of little importance in the case of gas oil, al-
though color deeper than light amber or an unusual odor should lead to
the tests indicated in the specifications.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR CALIFORNIA GAS OIL FOR PUMPING ENGINES OF THE'
FOUR-CYCLE ELECTRIC-IGNITION TYPE
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity shall be above 38° Baume.
Flash Point and Burning Point
The flash point .shall not be over 120° F. and the burning point
not over 150'^ F.
Acidity
The oil shall not contain a measurable quantity of acid, either
free (jr liberated during evaporation.
Volatility
When distilled in a standard 100 c.c. Engler flask. l)y the method
given in U. S. Bureau of Mines Technical Paper 214,
l'"rr.l. OlI.S I'OK I'lMP IkKICA'lION
419
1. The tenipfralurc, when 20 percent is distilled, shall nut be
over 373"' F.
2. The temperature, when 90 percent is distilled, shall not be
over 500'" 1\
vX The temperature, when 50 percent is distilled, shall not be
over 410' F., nor over the average of the temperatures for the 20
licrcent and the 90 percent points.
Foreign Substances
The oil shall mA contain any water or sand or paraffin wax or
free carbon, or any visiijle solid substance, and shall not contain over
.20 percent of sulphur.
The general requirements for gas oil, as compared with gasoline
and diesel engine fuel oil. are shown in the accompanying table.
Table II. mmitim; RKgfiRr:Mi:.\Ts for California fuel oils
Test
Color, above.
Odor
Acidity, not over.
Water, under.
Solid substances
Specilic gravity, above
Flash point, under
V^olatiUty:
20 percent point, undci
50 "
90 "
80
Asfaltum, under
Solidifying point, under
Gasoline
None
Sliglit
.Xone
Sulfur, under .1) percent
-Xone
.XiMlC
.^6" n.
2i,ir
X\in<:
Gas oil
Amber
Trace
.20 percent
None
None
3S° B.
120° F.
375° F.
400° F.
500° F.
Trace
Diesel oil
Trace
.75 percent
1 percent
None
23' B.
2U0° F.
660° F.
25 percent
32" F.
It is exceedinel\' important to contract for the year's supjdy dur-
ing the earl}- winter. Pumi) irrigators cannot afford to take any chances,
either as to shortage in the supply or as to cjuality or price. The con-
tract should be made before the groimd is seeded, even better, before
the ground is plowed. The farmer may contract with a responsible
local dealer, but the dealers or associations of farmers should contract
with oil refining companies. Contracts with jobbers are less depend-
able. Farmers' oil associations are advisable, since the}' eliminate one
])rofit. It is a good investment for a farmer to install a ,i000 or 5000-
gallon tank, sunk in the ground, near his pump-house, and to fill it in
420 Bulletin 92
the winter when work is slack. The winter is the dull season for the
refiners, oil stocks are accnmulatin^-, and lower prices can be obtained.
There is a belief prevalent in some comniunities that oil becomes
stratified in storage, the lighter oils rising to the top. To test this
question, ecjual parts of gasoline and kerosene were mixed and al-
lowed to stand twenty-four hours, when it was found that the upper
third, the middle and the lower third were of exactly the same gravity.
\\ hile unloading a car of j^as oil, six samples were taken and tested.
They were exactly the same except the last sami)le which represented
the last oil to be flrawn out. This was very slightly heavier than the
others. In another test, a hydrometer jar was half filled with gas oil,
and the remaining space was filled with gasoline very carefully so that
the line between the two oils was distinct. DilYusion proceeded slowlv,
but was quite comjjlete in two weeks. Several times when gas oil of
poor (]uality has been distributed, farmers have found it necessary U)
purchase gasoline to mix with the gas oil. in such cases the gasoline
should be ])iped to the bottom of the tank or some agitation may be
required.
THE OUTLOOK FOR PUAIP IRRIGATION
One purpose of this bulletin is to give a look ahead to pump irri-
gators and those contemplating new or enlarged pumping plants.
The reports of the U. S. Geological Survey show clearly that
consumption of petroleum oil is increasing much faster than supply.
Exports are decreasing; imports are increasing. In September, 1920,
consumption reached the high record figure of 48,670,000 barrels,
while the production stood still at 38,000,000 barrels. California is
the largest producing state and Oklahoma stands second. For the
Pacific states, it is stated in the Standard Oil Bulletin, the production
for 1920 will be 101,000,000 barrels and the consumption is estimated
at 110,000,000 barrels, the dift'erence being drawn from reserve stocks,
which were already very low at the beginning of the year.
It does not appear that fuel oils will be obtainable again at low
prices, at least for some years. Can irrigators continue to pav present
or increased prices? The cost of pumping depends, not only on the
cost of fuel oil, but also on the lift and on the general efficiency of the
plant. For the average individual ])umping ])lant. the cost, on a basis
of 80 acres under irrigation, in alfalfa or doublc-cro{)pe(l, with gas oil
at 18 cents a gallon, including fixed charges, is $18 per acre on a 40-
Fl"i:i. Dii.s i-(iK Ti'MP Ikr[(',.\T[on 421
foot lift and J^.>4 per aero on an SO-foi^t lift.''' The eost for cotton is
abont three-fourths of these amounts, and for sinj^le-croppcd land
about one-iialf of the amounts. These figures state the cost of the
])umped water and do not include the cost of distributing- and applying
the water.
It may be of value to compare these costs with the cost of water
under gravity systems. For the year ended October 1, 1920, the
charges on the Salt River project were $3.90 per acre for 3 acre-feet
and S4.90 per acre for 4 acre-feet. The corresponding figures for tiie
current water year are $6.40 and $7.40. including a special assessment.
To these figures should be added about $4 per acre to cover the interest
on the capital invested in the project. ( In the case oi the v^alt River
and other Reclamation Service projects this interest is remitted. )
It appears that pump irrigation, where the pumping lift (that is,
the depth to water level plus the drawdown) does not exceed 40 feet,
can compete measurably well with gravity irrigation. I'ndoubtedl)'
pump irrigation with low lift can continue without interru))tion through
a period of price depression in farm crops. P.ut where the i)umping
lift is much above 40 or .^0 f^et. it is apparent that there must be a
fairly wide margin of profit in farming to make pumping profitable
with the common type of plant. This statement nuist be modified
somewhat in the case of plants already in operation; for it may be
better to operate a high-lift |)lant to a limited extent through a period
of low prices, devoting the land to the higher-iiriced cro])S. than to
suffer the loss of the iu\'estment already niade. \\'\[h citrus fruit>.
grapes, melons, lettuce and some other crops, the value of which is
liigh, the cost of t!ie labor of production exceeds the cost of irrigation ;
the cost of fuel oil. therefore, may not be the controlling factor in the
case of crops of high value. With a wide margin of ])rofit in farming,
there is op])ortunity for inim|)ing on high lift. There is a personal
equation involved also: under the same controlling factors, some
farmers who arc thrifty and possess good business abilit}-. an 1 are not
hampered b}' lack of ca])ital, can show a profit where other farmers
fail.
ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ROWER
With gas oil at 18 cents a gallon, it is well to study the alternative
sources of power for pumping.
*The basis jiiiil niofliofl of ooiiipntiiis pnnipina: posts, and tlie .issiiniptions required, are
sliitc'l in ili'tiiil in Bill, 74 of this Station, and tliorefore arc not repeated liore.
422 Bulletin 92
Semi-diesel engines burn lower grades of fuel, the grade called
"27-plus" being well adapted to that type. The outlook for an abun-
dant supply of that grade of oil, however, is not encouraging, and the
cost is not much lower than that of gas oil, not enough lower to ofifset
the greater cost of the engines and of attendance.
Diesel engines are not built in small units. Large diesel engines
are preeminent for central power plants, and central plants have been
advised strongly for pump irrigation districts. Fuel oil for diesel
engines costs five-ninths as much as gas oil and the consumption per
unit of power is only one-half as much, but the losses in generator,
transformers, transmission line, and motors aggregate about one-third
of the power generated, and the additional investment in high-priced
engines, electrical equipment, and transmission line is so high that the
power economy of the central plant system is partly nullified. The
convenience and ease of operation of motor-driven pumps is an im-
portant argument for the central power plant, but the experience in
Arizona has been that the power goes off the line frequently, some-
times several times a day, and many transformers have been burned
out during the summer rainy (and electrical) season. From the stand-
point of fuel conservation and the public's interest therein, the diesel
engine central plants should be built wherever the irrigated district is
large enough to require 400 horsepower and is fairly compact in area.
For central plants, steam power cannot compete with diesel en-
gines. Engines of the Hvid or Brons type have not been tested l)y
the writer as to fuel economy and reliability, and no judgment can be
expressed. It is hopefl to investigate this type of engine in the near
future.
Another possibility of great promise is that of hydro-electric
power. Good water-power projects are not situated in close proximity
to the pumping districts of southern Arizona. The Sabino Canyon
project is the only one in Pima County that is known to be feasible.
There is no pl■o^•ed water-power project in Cochise County or Yuma
County. Tn central and northern Arizona there is much imdevelopcd
water power. Power will be developed in connection with the San
Carlos project, and one or two additional power plants can be built
in the Gila Canyon when the flow of water becomes equalized. Much
more development is possible on the Salt and \^erde rivers. In the
Grand Canyon of Arizona there is almost unlimited latent water power :
the length of a transmission line necessary to reach the Casa Grande-
Fuel Oils for Pump Irrtcation 423
Florence district is only 225 miles, and to reach the heart of the pump-
ing- district in Pima County 300 miles. At the present time the only
cheap electric power in Arizona is the hydro-electric power of the Salt
River Willey. It is believed that hydro-electric power in this State
will be increased s^reatly as soon as capital becomes available at a
moderate rate of interest.
CONCLUSIONS
SUPPLY
1. An adequate supply of gasoline and kerosene appears to be assured,
at least for a year. Long time forecasts aro impossible.
2. Engine distillate, gas oil, and twenty-seven-plus — the oils most
used for pump irrigation — are 1 c"ng withdrawn from the market
in California. A new source of supi)ly, of much promise, is the
north Texas and Oklahoma field.
3. Contracts for the year's oil supply should be made during the win-
ter by each dealer and by each farmer.
PRICK
1. The price of gasoline will fluctuate constantly with changes in the
demand and in the production.
2. Kerosene likewise will fluctuate in price, but it should be cheapened
somewhat by a reduction in the present freight rates.
3. Gas oil is likely to remain at about the present price level. Any
further increase is sure to curtail the volume of oil used in pump
irrigation, and this will tend to maintain a stable price.
4. The price of diesel engine fuel will always approximate that of
boiler fuel oil and will be considerably less than prices of the
lighter oils.
5. Steam power plants, using boiler fuel oil or coal, cannot furnish
power at a cost low enough for pump irrigation districts.
QUALITY
1. With increasing demand, the tendency is to force the quality
downward in gravity to the heaviest grades tliat tlie respective
engines can burn.
2. Fuel oils should be purchased with specifications. The specifica-
tions given on page 418 are recommended for California gas oils
for the present. Specifications for diesel fuel oil can be based on
the data in the table on page 410.
3. Heavy users of fuel oil should have testing equipment. The Agri-
cultural Experiment Station will continue to make tests for farmers
to a limited extent.
The University of Arizona
College of Agriculture
Thirty-First Annual
Report
of the
Agricultural Experiment Station
For the Year Ended June 30, 1920
This Report constitutes Part HI of the
Annual Report of the Board of Regents
of the University of Arizona, made in
conformity to Article 4483, Title 42, Re-
vised Statutes of Arizona, 1913.
Tucson, Arizona, December 31, 1920
The University of Arizona
College of Agriculture
Thirty-First Annual
Report
of the
Agricultural Experiment Station
For the Year Ended June 30, 1920
This Report constitutes Part 111 of the
Annual Report of the Board of Regents
of the University of Arizona, made in
conformity to Article 4483, Title 42, Re-
vised Statutes of Arizona, 1913.
Tucson, Arizona, December 31, 1920
REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY
Ex-Officio
His Excellency, The Governor of Arizona
The State Superintendent oe Public Instruction
Appointed by the Governor of the State
Epes Randolph, Chancellor Tucson
William Jennings Bryan, Jr., A.B., Treasurer Tucson
James G. Compton, Secretary Tucson
William Scarlett, A.B., B.D Phoenix
John H. Campbell, LL.M Tucson
Timothy A. Riordan Flagstaff
Edmund W. Wells Prescott
Louis D. Ricketts, Sc.D., LL.D Warren
RuFUS B. vox KleinSmii), A.M., Sc.D., J.D President of the University
Agricultural Experiment Station
D. W. Working, B.Sc, A.M Dean College of Agriculture, Director
^Robert H. Forbes, Ph.D Research Specialist
John T. Thornber, A.M Botanist
Albert E. Vinson, Ph.D Agricultural Chemist
Clifford N. Catlin, A.M Associate Agricultural Chemist
tHovvARD W. Estill, M.S Assistant Agricultural Chemist
S. W. Grifiin, M.S Assistant Agricultural Chemist
George E. P. Smith, B.S., C.E Irrigation Engineer
W. E. Code, B.S.C.E Assistant Irrigation Engineer
H. C. SchwalEn, B.S.M.E Assistant Irrigation Engineer
Walker E. Bryan, M.S Plant Breeder
E. H. PrEsslEy, B.S Assistant Plant Breeder
Richard H. Williams, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
tC U. PiCKRELL. B.S.A Extension Animal Flusbandman
E. B. Stanley, B.S Assistant Animal Husbandman
W.vLTER S. Cunningham, B.S Dairy Husbandman
R. N. Davis, B.S Assistant Dairy Husbandman
Charles T. Vorhies, Ph.D Entomologist
Franklin J. CridEr. M.S Horticulturist
A. F. KiNNisoN. B.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
b. W. Albert, B.S.A Assistant in Horticulture
George E. Thompson, B.S.A Agronomist
R. S. Hawkins, B.S.A Assistant Agronomist
S. P. Clark. B.S Assistant in Agronomy
Francis R. Kenney. B.S.A Poultry Husbandman
IN. L. Harris Extension Poultry Husbandman
Heber H. Gibson, A.M Professor of Agricultural Education
Ethel Stokes Secretary Agricultural Experiment Station
F. H. Simmons Foreman, Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station
C. T. Wood Foreman, Salt River Valley Experiment Farm
T. L. StaplEy Foreman, Tempe Date Orchard
Leslie Beaty. B.S Foreman, Prescott Dry-Farm
M. H. Woody Foreman, Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm
T. R. Reed Foreman, University Farm
*On leave.
tResigned.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Administration "I-^
The purpose of the College of Agriculture ^j^
The original idea "^25
The new idea •*26
The research idea ^26
The extension idea 427
The Experiment Station Farms ^'^
Changes in personnel |^
Resignations ^^
Appointments ^-^
Looking ahead ^^^
The Agricultural Experiment Station .430
The Extension Service 430
Publications ^^
Technical articles 431
Projects ^-^
Finances "+^3
Agricultural Chemistry 436
Adams fund work 436
The Tempe Drainage Ditch 437
Silt carried by the Gila River 437
Irrigation waters in Salt River Valley 437
Rules for the blending of pumped water with canal water under the
Salt River Valley project ....-_ 438
Character of the groundwaters immediately east of the Agua Fria River. .438
Agronomy 440
Projects 440
Continuation of studies at Prescott Dry-Farm 440
Continuation of studies at Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm 442
Legumes and their culture for southwest conditions 442
A study of the varieties and methods of cultivation of Indian
and the various sorghums 443
The cultivation and field management of Egyptian cotton 443
Cultivation and management of winter and spring grains, including
wheat, oats, and barley 444
Effect of dynamiting subsoil on field crops 445
Varietal and cultural tests of grain and cultural tests of grain and
forage crops and of grasses and miscellaneous crops 445
Cooperative crop experiments 446
A study of Indian agriculture 446
Seed certification work 446
Cotton improvement 447
Extension work 448
Miscellaneous work 448
Animal Husbandry 449
Work of the year 449
Investigation 450
Fattening range steers for market 450
Fleshing thin cows 451
Use of garbage for hogs 451
Two methods of maintaining sows 452
Alfalfa versus mixed rations for raising beef heifers 453
Botany 455
Losses of stock from poison plants 455
Study of Arizona grasses 456
Work at Flagstaff 456
Losses of stock from an unknown cause 457
Feeding experiment with rayless goldenrod 458
Notes on plant introduction work 459
PAGE
Dairy Husbandry ^^
Experiment with dairy cows 464
Milk substitutes for feeding calves 465
Entomology 468
Horticulture ^^
Citrus investigations jW
Dates 470
Olives 470
The walnut and pecan 471
Pruning studies 471
Water requirement studies 471
Horticultural plant introductions 473
Irish potatoes 473
Sweet potatoes 474
Miscellaneous 474
Irrigation Investigations 475
'^The fuel oil situation 475
Irrigation by flooding and the efficiency of irrigation 476
Silt content studies of Gila River water 476
Casa Grande Valley 476
San Simon Valley 477
San Pedro Valley 478
Sulphur Spring Valley 479
Yuma Mesa Experiment Station pumping plant 479
The Chippewa pump 479
Plant Breeding 480
Poultry Husbandry 483
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAC«
Fig. 1. Corn and cowpeas. This method of growing corn and covvpeas is
recommended for the valleys in the southern part of Arizona. (Salt
River Valley Experiment Farm, 1920) 441
Fig. 2. Wheat variety test. Early Baart wheat on right, Arizona No. 39 on
left, and Kanred in center, planted the same day and given the same
conditions. Note the early maturity of Early Baart and Arizona
No. 39 compared with Kanred. Early maturity is a desirable feature
for southern Arizona 44l
Fig. 3. Cooperative crop demonstration. Orange sorghum grown without
irrigation — yield eight tons silage per acre. Navajo County 444
Fig. 4. Four-year-old apple orchard near Sonoita, Arizona, being grown
without irrigation 472
Fig. 5. View in two-vear-old variety orchard. Salt River Valley Experiment
Station '. 472
Thirty-First Annual Report
ADMINISTRATION
D. W. WORKIXG
This report covers the first full year of service of the present
administrative head of the College of Agriculture and Agricultural
Experiment Station, and therefore furnishes occasion for a general
statement of purposes and accomplishments. Such a statement,
under appropriate headings, will appear in the following pages.
This report also gives opportunity for the Dean and Director to
acknowledge his obligations to the President of the University
for hearty and effective support and to his associates for the fine
spirit of cooperation they have manifested. It has been a pleasure
and it continues to be a source of satisfaction to work with men
and women who have so little need of leadership or direction. We
have worked together in frank recognition of the fact that we avt
partners in doing the special part of the work of the Univer.sitv
that has been intrusted to the College of Agriculture. We are in
the service of the State of Arizona in order that agriculture may
be advanced and that life in the country may be made more whole-
some. This is done by those who teach in college classroom as
well as by the men and women who with equal dignity and faith-
fulness carry the message of the College to the people of all pans
of the State.
T?IE PURPOSE OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
. THE ORIGINAL IDEA
As developed during a little more than a half century, the
American College of Agriculture is a unique institution. It is a,
college to teach college subjects according to college standards;
but it has a special command to "teach such branches of learnin.g-
as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts.". The words
just quoted are from the Act of Congress of July 2, 1862, donating
pubhc lands to the several states to "provide colleges for the benefit
of agriculture and the mechanic arts." The idea that the new kind
of college was to have a definitely industrial bent was emphasized
by the Act of August 30, 1890, which provided for "the more
complete endowment and support of colleges for the benefit of
426 TiiiRTY-FiRST Annual Report
agriculture and mechanic arts" established under the provisions of
the earlier act. In 1907 another Act of Congress provided additional
funds for "the more complete endowment and maintenance of
agricultural colleges now established." This amendment contained
a new item authorizing the colleges to "use a portion of this money
for providing courses for the special preparation of instructors fo'"
teaching the elements of agriculture and the mechanic arts."
THE NEW IDEA
Tlic new idea came as an afterthought. At this late date any
one might say that the first need was to prepare teachers. But
the colleges did prepare teachers, even before they had well learned
the art of teaching the students who flocked to the classrooms and
laboratories of the institutions of learning dedicated to the pro-
motion of the "liberal and practical education of the industrial
classes" in the various pursuits and professions. The work of
systematically preparing instructors to teach the elements of agri-
culture in common and high schools has only fairly begun. The
Arizona College of Agriculture gave the first systematic courses
for this purpose during the college year just ended. Rut it has
begun the work with the experience of other colleges as a guide ,
and there is good reason to believe that within a few years it will
be able to prepare enough teachers to supply at least the high
schools of the Stale with instructors in vocational agriculture.
THE RESEARCH IDEA
Before the colleges of agriculture had seriously thought ')t
their special opportunity and duty to train men to teach agricul-
ture, they became conscious of the fact that their own instruction
was based on a very inadequate foundation of definite agricultural
knowledge. It Avas realized that fundamental research should have
preceded the organization of a system o^ agricultural colleges.
Congress met the situation by passing the Act of March 2, 1887
'*('the Hatch Act), establishing "agricultural experiment stations
in connection with the agricultural colleges of the several states,
and appropriating $15,000 a year for the support of each." Nine-
teen years later this act was supplemented by another (the Adams
Act) appropriating an equal amount. Under these acts the Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, which forms an organic part of the
University of Arizona College of Agriculture, was organized and
continues to do its investigational work.
The Legislature of Arizona has liberally supplemented the
appropriations made by Congress, and the result has been that the
\
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 427
present Director of the Experiment Station was able to take up a
work well supported. The work done in the past has more than
justified the liberaHty of the State and is accepted as a promise of
continuintj generosity on the part of the State.
THE EXTENSION IDEA
When the Colleges of Agriculture seemed to be well organized
to teach their students and to do the research work necessary to
keep college teaching abreast of accumulating facts and principles,
it was keenly realized that the demands of agricultural people wer-i
not being met. In truth, the original purpose of the Act of 1862
was being accomplished only in part. Education was being pro-
moted ; high-grade research was in progress ; publications were
being sent to a limited number of people ; college and station men
were lecturing at farmers' institutes as opportunity offered; and.
on the whole, very valuable results were being accomplished. But
the colleges were not reaching their special constituency as effec-
tively as seemed desirable. Then came the agricultural extension
idea. This called for teaching by special methods wherever a
sufficient number of i)ersons might be found willing to receive
instruction ; it included the enlargement of the plan of giving
information and instruction by means of publications of a more
popular character than those previously issued by the colleges
and experiment stations ; it made necessary the organization of
special classes; the holding of meetings to discuss a few subjects
or even a single subject; and it led to a special adaptation of the
method of correspondence teaching. The special advantage of the
extension method is that it enables the College to reach a much
larger number of people than can be brought to its campus for the
more intensive instruction there given.
THE EXPERIMENT STATION FARMS
The Experiment Station conducts much of its investigational
work at its branch stations or farms. These are situated in several
typical regions of the State and enable our workers to make studies
with special application to various climatic and soil conditions, [n
the Salt River Valley, near Mesa and Tempe, the Salt River Valley
Experiment Farm and the Date Orchard give excellent opportunitv
to study the problems of our most important irrigated area; at
Yuma, the Date Orchard and Horticultural Station and the new-
tract on the Yuma Mesa enable us to study citrus and other fruits,
as well as vegetables and a few farm crops, under conditions of
extreme heat and aridity ; at the Prescott and Cochise dry-farms
428 Thirty-first Annual Report
we are able to make studies where conditions are fairly representa-
tive of the dry-farming areas of the State : and the University Farm
near Tucson serves the Experiment Station in many ways and
serves also as a demonstration farm for use in college teaching.
It is worthy of special note that the Fourth Legislature made
an appropriation for the purchase of additional land for the Yuma
Station and for special investigations of citrus fruits. The Station
was fortunate in securing a twenty-acre tract adjoining the Date
Orchard at Yuma. This has been leveled and otherwise improved,
and makes a very valuable addition to the old tract. A quarter-
section of mesa land, was set apart for our use by the Department of
the Interior. This has already been partially improved by the
installation of a pumping plant and pipe line, the planting of citrus
trees, and the construction of temporary buildings. The report
of the Department of Horticulture gives details regarding these
improvements.
CHANGES IN PERSONNEL
The College of Agriculture has been fortunate in being able
to retain the services of strong men for many years. Three heads
of Experiment Station departments have been connected with the
University from fifteen to twenty years. Three others have been
in service from five to seven years. Too much emphasis can nut
be placed on the importance of keeping high-class men. The State
of Arizona is to be congratulated on supporting a University policy
that enables the administrative officers of the University to secure
strong men and to keep them after they have learned Arizona con-
ditions so well as to be of maximum service to the State.
One reason why we are able to keep men of ability is found in
the fact that the Regents have pursued a liberal policy in regard t'>
salaries. Another reason is found in the opportunity Arizona gives
strong men to do their best. High-grade scientific men need free-
dom in their work and the kind of support that will give them
outlet for their energies and ambitions. They need tools and
materials to work with. So that the workers of the College of
Agriculture may continue to work most effectively, it is necessary
that the State pursue its established policy of providing liberal
financial support.
RESIGNATIONS
Notwithstanding the liberal policy of the Board of Regent.'--,
a number of valuable men have left us to accept positions offering
higher salaries. Most of the losses have been from the Extension
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 429
Service. Director E. P. Taylor resigned to accept an important
commercial position in Chicago, his service ending with the close
of the fiscal year, June 30, 1920. Mr. W. M. Cook, who had been
County Agent Leader for about three years, was chosen to succeed
Director Taylor July 1. Mr. Leland S. Parke, who had served
as Club Leader since 1915, resigned at the close of the year, as did
Miss Agnes A. Hunt, who had been Assistant Club Leader since
1917. Other resignations were effective as follows: August 31,
1919, H. W. Estill, Assistant Agricultural Chemist; October 31,
1919, W. W. Pickrell, County Agricultural Agent, Pima and Santa
Cruz counties; February 1, 1920, N. L. Harris, Extension Poultry
Husbandman; March 15, 1920, C. K. Wildermuth, County Agricul-
tural Agent, Pinal County, and C. U. Pickrell, Extension Specialist
in Animal Husbandry ; June 30, 1920, Mrs. Louise Sporleder Shel-
ley, Home Demonstration Agent, Cochise County.
appointments
On January 1, 1920, Mr. Heber H. Gibson was appointed
Professor of Agricultural Education to succeed Professor Homer
Derr, who had been employed jointly with the State Department
of Vocational Education. During the year, the Regents estab-
lished a Department of Plant Pathology in the College of Agricul-
ture and appointed Professor J. G. Brown of the Department of
Biology of the University to take charge of the new department on
July 1. Professor Brown will devote most of his time to Experi-
ment Station investigations of plant diseases, particularly those of
cotton and dates. Other appointments were as follows: July 1,
1919, E. H. Pressley, Assistant Plant Breeder; September 1, 1919,
S. W. Grifftn, Assistant Agricultural Chemist ; October 1, 1919, S. P.
Clark, Extension Agronomist; January 1, 1920, R. N. Davis, Assist
ant Dairy Husbandman; January 15, 1920, D. W. Albert, Assistant
in Horticulture; June 15, 1920, E. B. Stanley, Instructor in Animal
Husbandry.
In addition, Mr. M. H. Woody was appointed foreman of the
Cochise Dry-Farm to succeed Mr. F. H. Simmons, who was trans-
ferred to Yuma; and Mr. Leslie Beaty was oppointed foreman of
the Prescott Dry-Farm on March 15, 1920, to succeed Mr. T. F.
Willcox, whose resignation took effect on that date. On July 1,
1919, Mr. F. H. Simmons assumed the foremanship of the Yuma
Date Orchard and Horticultural Station to succeed Mr. D. C. AepM,
who had resigned as of June 30, 1919.
On May 1, 1920, Mr. J. R. Reed became foreman of th-.;
430 Thirty-first Annual Report
University Farm to succeed Mr. G. J. Darling whose resignation
was effective at that time.
LOOKING AHEAD
In a growing State a College of Agriculture needs to grow —
must enlarge its usefulness or fail to serve the State as it should.
It may be assumed that the college teaching of agriculture will be
taken care of in connection with providing for the support of uni-
versity teaching. It seems necessary to emphasize the special
needs of the Agricultural Experiment Station and the Agricultural
Extension Service.
THE agricultural experiment station
The Experiment vStation is a group of trained investigators
organized to do research work. They study problems fundamental
to the agriculture of the State. When well organized and suitably
equipped, they are able to be of great service. They discover new
facts; they study agricultural crops and practices; they investigate
diseases of plants and animals ; they search for new crops adapted
to special regions ; they even develop new varieties of plants and
test their adaptation to particular sections of the State; and they
serve as a source of information regarding agriculture for the
farmers of the State.
As the agriculture of the State becomes more varied, and as
new problems arise, it becomes necessary to provide additional re-
sources and employ additional men to meet the new demands.
The new department to investigate plant diseases is only one of
the several new departments needed. We have been giving atten-
tion to production problems. This is not enough. Attention
needs to be given to the problems of management. We need a
department of Farm Management. Attention needs to be given
to the problems of marketing. We need to study our own mar-
keting problems and practices. This means that early provision
should be made for a Department of Farm Marketing. When
these needs are appreciated, it is certain that the Legislature will
provide the necessary funds.
THE EXTENSION service
It is only within the past ten years that the Extension Service
has become the publicity agency of the College of Agriculture,
The disappearing custom was for the College and Experiment Sta-
tion to have more direct contacts with the farmers and their
problems. There were advantages in the old method. But the
Arizona Agricl'ltukal Expkkimknt Statidn 431
new method has its own s])ecial \ahie. The men and women who
give all or most of their time and effort to extension activities
know best how to reach the public with the message of the College
and Experiment Station. They know also the need of keeping in
close touch with the college and experiment station workers in
order to be sure of the soundness of their teaching. The Agricul-
tural Extension Service is the College of Agriculture and the
Agricultural Experiment Station teaching the people. In this State
the Extension Service needs to have increased financial support in
order to meet the pressing demands of the farm people for more
effective service.
PUBLICATIONS
While the number of publications has not been large, the
({uality has been high. Several of the bulletins were of exceptional
merit. Following is a list of numbers, titles, and authors. Tlie
number of copies of each publication is given in i)arenthesis.
Bulletin No. 89, "The Yuma Mesa," by A. K. Vinson, F. J. Crider, and G. E.
Thompson. August, 1919, (5C00).
Bulletin No. 90, "Growing Cotton in Arizona," bv G. E. Thompson and C. J.
Wood. December. 1919, (7000).
Thirtieth Annual Report, December 31, 1919. By the Station Staff, (2000).
Circular No. 27, "Chick Troubles," bv Francis R. Kcnney. September, 1919,
(3000).
Circular No. 28, "A Successful Grain and Cattle Farm in Southern Arizona,"
by R. W. Clothier. November, 1919, (3000).
Circular No. 29, "Culling the Non-Producing Hen," by FVancis R. Kenney.
November, 1919, (2C00).
Circular No. 30, "Corn as a Trap Crop for the Cotton Bolhvorm," by A. W.
Morrill. March, 1920, (6000). _ _
The demand for our publications is steadily increasing.
TKCHNICAIv ARTICLES
Rot of Date Fruit. J. G. Brown, "The Botanical Gazette," Vol. LXXIX, No. 6,
June, 1920.
Some Reforms Needed in Testing Concrete Pipe, G. E. P. Smith. "Concrete,"
Vol. 13, No. 5, p. 156, November, 1918.
Concrete Pipe Failures Caused bv Unequal Expansion in Shell, G. E. P. Smith,
"Engineering News-Record," Vol. 83, No. 3, July 17, 1919.
PROJECTS
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY
A. E. Vinson, C. N. Catun, H. W. Estill, S. W. Griffin
Alkali Soil Studies : Concomitant soil conditions that affect the toxicity of
black alkali, and means for the amelioration of the effects of alkali on so-'l
and plant (Adams fund).
The colloidal swelling of soils and the correlation of colloidal swelling to other
soil properties (Adams).
Chemical analyses: miscellaneous (Hatch fund).
Meteorological observations (Hatch).
Effect of weather conditions on processing and pasteurizing dates (State and
Hatch funds).
Reclamation of alkali land at the University Farm (State).
432 Thirty-first Annual Report
AGRONOMY
G. E. Thompson, R. S. Hawkins, S. P. Clark
Continuation of studies at the Prescott Dry-Farm (State).
Continuation of studies at the Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm: This project
and the preceding one include variety tests, rate and date of seeding tests,
method of planting tests, inoculation of legumes ; tests to determine whether
dry- farming to raise feed for stock is feasible (State).
Legumes : Variety and cultural tests to determine the worth of the various
legumes and varieties of legumes for Southwest conditions (State and
Hatch funds).
Corn and sorghums: Variety tests and cultural methods (State and Hatch
funds).
Cotton : Date of planting, irrigation tests, thinning methods, intercropping with
legumes (State and Hatch funds).
Winter and Spring Grains : Culture and management of winter and spring
grains, including wheat, oats, barley, and rye (State and Hatch funds).
Dynamiting: Effect of dynamiting subsoil on the succeeding field crops (State).
Grains, forage crops, and grasses, and miscellaneous crops : Varietal and cul-
tural tests (State).
Cooperative crop experiments : Seeds of various crops have been furnished
farmers in order to make comparative tests with each other and with the
varieties already being grown (State).
A Study of Indian agriculture (State).
Seed certification (State).
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
R. H. Williams, C. U. PickrEll, E. B. Stanley
Fattening range steers for market (State and Hatch).
Fleshing thin cows (State).
Use of garbage for hogs (State).
Study of two methods for maintaining sows (State).
The toxic properties of rayless goldenrod (In cooperation with the Botany
Department) (Hatch).
Two methods of raising Hereford heifers (State).
BOTANY
J. J. Thornber, J. G. Brown
Grass-like plants and miscellaneous forage plants, economic study of (Hatch).
Jujube fruits: Adaptability to the Southwest (Hatch and State).
Mulberries: A study with reference to fruit production (Hatch and State).
Pistach trees: Practicability of growing pistach trees in the Southwest (Hatcli
and State).
Poison range plants, economic study of (Hatch).
Range improvement through fencing, a study of (Hatch).
Resistant native stocks for grafting (Hatch and State).
Tamarisks: Their growth in alkaline soils (Hatch and State).
Trees and shrubs for ornamentation, an economic study of (Hatch).
The toxic properties of rayless goldenrod (In cooperation with Animal Hus-
bandry Department (Hatch)
DAIRY HUSBANDRY
W. S. Cunningham, R. N. Davis
Rations for dairy cows : A comparison of alfalfa hay, supplemented by wheat
bran, silage and cottonseed meal, with cane fodder supplemented by silage,
cottonseed meal and wheat bran (Hatch and State).
Milk substitutes for feeding calves (State).
ENTOMOLOGY
C. T. VORHIES
Rodent control: A study of grazing conditions (Adams).
Insect collection: Collecting and arrangement of economic insects (Hatch and
State).
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 433
HORTICULTURE
!•". J. Ckider, a. F. KiNNisox, D. W. Albert
Date : Culture and management of date orcliards with special reference to the
improvement of the yield and quality of fruit and the rooting of offshoots
(State).
Citrus investigations : Effect of cultural and environmental factors on tree
growth and fruit production (Hatch and State).
Olive : Effect of different methods of orchard management and pruning upon
the yield and size of the fruit; also sterility studies (Hatch).
Water requirements of fruits : As affected by pruning and special cultural
metliods (State and Hatch)
rruning; Effect of different methods of pruning upon the growth, productivity,
and the general welfare of trees (State and Hatch).
Walnut and pecan : Adaptation of cultivated varieties to propagation on native
Juglans and Hicoria stocks with a consideration of environmental factors
(State and Hatch).
Potato : Study of conditions affecting the production of potatoes in Arizona
(State and Hatch).
Sweet Potato: Study of cultural and storage methods (State and Hatch).
Spinach: Study of spinach as a market garden crop for southern An,:ona
(State).
Variety studies : Type and varietal adaptation of fruits, vegetables, shade trees,
shrubbery, flowers, and nursery stock (State).
IRRIGATION
G. E. P. Smitu, W. E. Code. H. C. Schwalen
A study of the relation of the evaporation rate to the duty of water and of the
factors controlling evaporation (Adams).
Pumping machinery : A study to determine fundamental facts relating to the
action and efficiency of various types (Adams).
Groundwater studies : Recharge, movements, losses, and rates of yield ; effects
of transpiration; relation of yield to artesian pressure (Adams and State).
PLANT BREEDING
W. E. Bryan, E. H. Pressley
Alfalfa: Breeding for yield and quality (Adams and State).
Bean: Biological analysis of genus Phascolus (Adams and State).
Wheat: (a) To produce a wheat w^hich will be productive and at the same
time maintain a high average of bread-making qualities under Arizona con-
ditions; (b) to make a biological analysis of the unit characters of wheat
varieties (Adams and State).
FINANCES
Table I following gives a complete statement of receipts and
disbursements for the College of Agriculture, including the Experi-
ment Station and the Agricultural Extension Service. It does not
include amounts spent by the Federal Department of Agriculture
in partial support of cooperative agricultural extension workers.
These items are shown in detail in the separate report of the
Extension Service. Table II shows receipts and expenditures for
the Agricultural Experiment Station as reported to the Director
of the Office of Experiment Stations of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Table III gives in detail the several appro-
priations by the State Legislature for the two years following the
year covered by this report.
434
Thirty-first Axxu.-^l Report
TABLE I. — SHOWING RECEIPTS FROM ALL SOURCES AND DISBURSEMENTS FOR
ALL PURPOSES ON ACCOUNT OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE FOR YEAR ENDED
JUNE 30. 1920
Fund
Balance
Receipts
Total
Disburse-
ments
Balance
College of Agriculture
$
$ 15,093.51
6.335.44
12,500.00
6,050.00
4,500.00
6,527.28
4,260.00
3,175.00
5,925.00
4,500.00
6,090.00
16,510.00
4,490.00
3,000.00
2,400.00
24,851.44
1 1 ,732.70
525 72
15.000.00
15,000.00
588.00
17.433.71
25.160.00
12,441.65
7,433.71
10,000.00
12,500.00
10,000.00
264,023.16
$ 15,093.51
6,335.44
12,500.00
6,050.00
4.500.00
6.527.28
4,260.00
3,175.00
5,925.00
4,500.00
6,090.00
16,510.00
4,490.00
3,000.00
2,400.00
24,851.44
12.738.93
1,116.01
15,000.00
15.000.00
588,00
17,433.71
25.160.00
15,948.51
7.433.71
10,000.00
12,500.00
10,000.00
269,126.54
$ 15,093.51
6,335.44
12,500.00
4,001.05
3,321.14
6,527.28
3.363.83
3,174.95
5,925.00
3,524.70
4,705.97
16,283.03
4,475.96
2,986.21
2,292.15
16,000.94
10,044.01
419.84
15,000.00
15,000.00
645.55
17,433.71
24.976.63
15.301.47
7.433.71
9,606.05
10,599.72
3.240.64
240,212.49
-
$
Morrill
Farm Improvement. . .
Printing
Improvement
Plant Introduction . . .
Tempe Date Palm Or-
chard Fund
Yuma Date Orchard
Mortiriiltnral Statin
2,048.95
1.178.86
*1.00
*17.90
896.17
.05
Dry- farming fund
Prescott Dry-farm
Fund
975.30
1,384.03
Salt River Valley
*4.59
* 16.74
* 19.69
226.97
Sulphur Spring Valley
Farm
Surface Water Inves-
tigation
14.04
13.79
Underflow Water In-
vestigation
107.85
Experiment Farm
j<,a.les
*241.44
1.006.23
590.29
8,850.50
University of Arizona
Farm Sales
Hatch Sales
2,694.92
696.17
Hatch . . -
Student Fees
t53.12
157.55
State Extension
183.37
County Extension ....
Cooperative Agricul-
3.506.86
647.04
Citrus Investigation . .
393.95
Date Palm Orchard
and Horticultural
Station Land and
Improvement Fund
1.900.28
Cochise County Wa-
Fund
6.759.36
Total
5,103.38
28,971,60
— 57.55
28,914.05
Grand Total .
$269,126.54
$269,126.54
•Returned to State Treasurer.
tReturned to University General Fund.
tOverdraft.
ArIZOX.X AGRICI'LTUR.M, ExPF.RI.MKXT ST.\llit.\
43;
TAT-.LK II.-
-siiowixG exi'i:rimi-xt statiox i:xpi:xdituri:s l;^■
SCHEDULES FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1920
i'rxr>> AND
Abstract
State
fund
Sales 1 Hatch Adams Total
fund ! fund fund
Salaries
$ 12,299.66
18,204.54
3,321.14
332.56
551.79
291.21
$ 1,492.92 $ 12,798.39 | .S 11,505.66 $ 38.096.63
Labor
1,958.27 280.35
296.35 20,739.51
Publications
Postage and station-
ery
50.00
233.59
3,371.14
153.11
150.79 870.05
Freight and express. .
Heat, light, water and
392.93 30.48
8.00 64.00
47.87 1,023.07
363.21
Chemicals and labora-
tory supplies
^ccds,plants,and sun-
dry supplies
99.33
398.40
51.05
275.38 374.71
159.36 5,3.39.59
.... 875.84
3,579.96
368.46
1,022.88
1,201.87
456.33
678.35
Feeding stuffs
Library
1,071.23
2.04 2.10 4.14
Tools, machinery.and
appliances
4,735.59
419.16
7.50
2,077.40
2,436.94
53.36
17,570.35
1,993.41
3,905.23
$ 73,171.14
1.473.71
3.60 226.99 1 6,439.89
Furniture and fixtures
Scientific apparatus
and specimens
220.00
12.55 135.55 787.26
109.09 736.53 - 853.12
4,445.50
1,196.44
38.45
2,704.90
; 6,522.90
1 raveling expenses . . .
Contingent expenses. .
Buildings and lands. . .
Balance
Returned to State
793.45
750 SO 5,177.63
1.40 93.21
73.68
711.22 21,060.15
1
1,993.41
Forward to 1920-21 .
9,546.67
1 13,451.90
$ 25,967.45
$ 15,000.00
$ 15,000.00 1 $128,508.59
TABLE III. — SHOWING STATE APPROPRIATIONS FOR TllE TWO-YEAR PERIOD
BEGINNING JULY 1, 1919
Fund
Maintenance
Improvements
University Farm Improvement
University Farm Maintenance
Dry-Farming Supervision
Printing
Citrus Investigation • • ■ •
Plant Introduction and Breeding Investigations
Prescott Dry-farm Maintenance
Prescott Dry-farm Improvement
Salt River Valley Experiment Farm
Sulphur Spring Valley Dry- farm
Tempe Date Orchard
Underflow Water Investigations
Surface Water Investigation
Yuma Date Palm Orchard Maintenance
Yuma Date Palm Orchard Improvement
College of Agriculture Extension
Cooperative Agricultural Extension
1919-20
$ 16,950.00
8,150.00
6,050.00
12,500.00
4,500.00
4,500.00
10,000.00
4,260.00
6,090.00
2,000.00
16,510 0'
4,490.00
3,175.00
2,400.00
3,000.00
5,925.00
12,500.00
18,000.00
7.433.71
148,433.71
1920-21
$ 16,950.00
8,150.00
2,250.00
12,500.00
4,500.00
4,500.00
5,000.00
4,260.{:!n
5,690.00
1,500.0(1
12,510.0(1
4.540.00
2,575.00
2,400.00
3,000.00
4,825.00
i8,"odo.6c'
10,000.00
$123,150.00
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY
A. E. Vixsox, C. N. Catlix, S. W. Griffin
A report of the work of the Department of Agricultural Chem-
istry for the first six months of the period covered by the Thirty-
first Annual Report was made in the Thirtieth Annual Report.
Consequently the present report covers the six months ended
June 30, 1920.
ADAMS FUND AVORK
Details in the technique of measuring the swelling coefficient
of dry soils when wetted have been given further study and
several minor improvements effected. The method is now ready
for publication.
The set of pot cultures with wheat in black alkaline soil,
previously reported as under way, has been completed. It seems
to show the point of tolerance for wheat at something over .2
percent of sodium carbonate in the type of soil used and under
the conditions of the experiment as described in the Thirtieth An-
nual Report. An interesting result of this experiment was that
healthier looking plants were obtained in pots containing .1 to
.15 percent of sodium carbonate than in those containing small
amounts of alkali. The soils with lower percentage of sodium car-
bonate were prepared by blending leached black alkaline soil of
the same texture as the other soils of the series with unleached
soil. The grain yields, however, were highest in the .05 percent
sodium carbonate soils. The heaviest grain yields were obtained
in soils containing .2 percent of sodium carbonate with sufficient
gypsum added to neutralize exactly the sodium carl)onate. Larger
amounts of gypsum did not increase the yield, but one-half and
one-quarter enough gypsum to neutralize the sodium carbonate
gave some increase over the untreated check. Other reagents
were used to neutralize the sodium carbonate, but no definite re-
sults were obtained. It was apparent that the series throughout
contained too few duplicates to give positive conclusions without
several repetitions of the experiment. Consequently the facilities
for culture work are now being increased to 240 pots.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
437
THE TEMPE DRAINAGE DITCH
The monthly sample of water from the Tempe Drainage Ditch
has been analyzed as usual and results are reported in Table IV.
The number of samples is too few to require further discussion of
the changes going on in the character of this water. The object
of the project and results to date are given in the Thirtieth Annual
Report.
.\r.LE IV. — MONTHLY VARIATION IN COMPOSITION OF WATER FROM TEMPK
drainage ditch, parts per 100,000
Total
Solids
Chlo-
rides as
NaCl
Hard-
ness
(perma-
nent)
CaSOl
Hardness
Alka-
Qualitative
Date
rary) >j„ pA,
CaCHCOr,), '^aot.U3
SO4
Ca
Mg.
Jan.
218.0
140.0
52.4
11.9
Str.
V. Str.
Str.
Mod.
Str.
Feb.
350.0
245.0
74.4
0.85
V. Str.
Str.
March
188.0
118.0
56.5
6.8
Mod.
Str.
Str.
Mod.
Str.
April
May
291.6
99.0
June
315.2
207.0 1 15.5 1 78.7
V.Str.
Str.
Str.
SILT CARRIED BY THE GILA RIVER
In cooperation with the Department of Irrigation Engineering,
over 1100 samples of water from the Gila River were analyzed for
silt content. The results are intended for use in studying the
probable rate of silling of the proposed San Carlos dam. Inci-
dental to the silt determinatiot|s, total soluble solids were deter-
mined in all samples'and chlorides in one complete set. These data
will be published later. Some additional assistance was required
in making these analyses, the expense of which was borne by the
Reclamation Service.
IRRIGATION WATERS IN SALT RIVER VALLEY
During the past year a large number of waters from the canals
and from drainage wells in the Salt River Valley Project have
been analyzed for the Salt River Valley Water Users' Association.
At that time it was proposed to blend the pumped waters with the
canal waters in such amounts that no harm could result to water
users being served with the blended waters. This department
was called upon to pass upon the quality of the blended waters,
which was agreed to only under condition that certain rules would
be adopted and administration of these rules delegated to an expert
appointed by the Regents of the University and attached to the
438 TiiiRTv-FiR?T Annual Rf.port
Department of Agricultural Chemistry. Although this arrange-
ment was never jnit into effect, due to a change in plans for the
reclamation of water-logged areas in the \'alley, the rules were
formulated after very careful consideration of the problem from
everv known angle and may possibly have some future value.
B'or that reason they are given here.
RULES FOR Till- BLKXUING OF PUMPED WATER WITH CANAL WATKR UNDEi^
THE SALT RIVER VALLEY PROJECT
I. The blended water delivered to irrigators may contain not more than 50
parts per 100,000 of chloride, estimated as sodium chloride, or not more
than 100 parts per 100,000 of total dissolved salts, unless in the opinion
of the University of Arizona Department of Agricultural Chemistry an
unusually large part of the dissolved salts is temporary liardness or bicar-
bonate of lime.
II. Black alkaline waters may not be blended m proportions that will give
the blended water a permanent black alkali content by the method of
analvsis used in the above named department.
III. Pumped water that shows by analysis at the time a lower content of
chlorides and total dissolved salts than the unblended water of the canal
into which it is pumped may be used in any quantity, provided the result-
ing water meets the standard of Rule II.
In formulating these rules the department rejects the erroneous popular
opinion that pumped water is inferior to gravity water of similar composition.
The limits set are much lower than those accepted by some other competent
authorities. Waters containing more than double the amount of chlorides and
solids permitted bv the above rules have been used successfully for centuries
in other arid countries. The department, however, has kept in mind the possi-
bility of future damage to valuable lands rather than the immediate profitable
use of waters of doubtful character. The waters permitted by the above rules
are of better quality than the usable portion of the natural flow of Salt River
before the floodwaters were impounded. The rules also insure water of con-
siderably better quality than the flow of the Gila River at Kelvin from
September, 1917, to July, 1918, with the exception of a few short periods of
flood. This is representative of water that has been used successfully for a
very long period at Florence. Black alkaline waters have been excluded on
the' ground that the natural flow of Salt River was rarely, if ever, black
alkaline and that black alkali, even in otherwise tolerable amounts, has a moi*e
or less deleterious physical effect on the soil.
CHARACTER OF THE GROUNDWATERS IMMEDIATELY
EAST OF THE AGUA FRIA RIVER
In April the department was asked to report on the qualit}'
of the groundwaters available by pumping immediately east of
the Agua Fria. Certain portions of the report prepared at the
time are of public interest, and conse([uently are made a part of
this report.
With continued operation of the Salt River Project, unaccompanied by
drainage, the groundwaters in the neighborhood of the Agua Fria and to the
eastward have risen till in places they now stand quite near the surface. This
lias resulted in rise of alkali, which becomes very strong in some localities and
would lead one to suspect strongly alkaline groundwaters. Analyses of water?
taken in this district several years ago showed the presence of considerable
alkali at that time. There has also existed a large body of rather alkaline water
to the cast and northeast of this district extending beneath and lieyond the
city of Phoenix. Surface wells along the Salt River Valley Canal in Range 2
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 439
East and the eastern part of Range 1 East show high percentage of dissolved
>alts and chlorides, averaging higher than we would recommend for irrigatmg
purposes, as irrigation is usually practiced in tliis country, but nevertheless usable
i.n well-drained lands if sufficient water were available for occasional leachings.
Certain wells in this area, notably those in Section 12, Range 1 East, Township 1
North, are so saltv that they should be excluded from the project if it becomes
necess'arv to drawany water from this area. It is possible, however, that deeper
wells may vield better water than the shallow surface wells, as may be indicated
by the project well in Section 12, Range 2 East, Township 1 North, which,
while not of verv good quality, is much better than the shallow wells to the
west. In all probability, the quality of the water pumped in this area will
vary greatly from time to time as various alkaline pockets are drained, some-
times showing improvement, at others becoming worse.
The waters west of the Agua Fria, beneath Range 2 North, Township 1
West, arc excellent in character almost without exception, so far as can be
judged by the analyses available. They are purer than tiic waters impounded
in Roosevelt Lake.' These waters probably are the groundwaters of the Agua
Fria River itself. To the north of the proposed project in Range 1 East, and
Townships 3 and 4 North, arc found some of the best irrigating waters of the
State; in fact the waters of this area arc ideal. They, too, arc probably the
tiroundwaters of the Agua Fria. A sample of the open flow of the river m
Section 27, Range 2 North, Township 1 West, shows practically the =- i •
composition as the groundwaters to the west. The water coming to the surface
in the slough, and suspected to be seepage from the area to the east, is identical
in character with the open flow of tiic river. The groundwater of the Agua
Fria shows its influence on the waters to some distance east of the river. The
zone of blending between the groundwaters of the Phoenix area and those ot
the Agua Fria appears to be in this region. The rise of the groundwater in the
Phoenix area has probably forced this zone westward and at the same time
brought the purer Agua Fria waters closer to the surface. As would be ex-
pected, the two types of groundwater drive wedges into one another so that a
serrated or ragged contact results. These wedges may be expected to shift
considerablv as will also the zone of blending, but the groundwaters of_ the
Agua Fria will proba1)lv always modify in large degree the average composition
of the waters of the western sections of Township 2 North, Range 1 East, in
which it is proposed to install the major part of the pumps of the project. It
is possible, also, that the shallow wells between the Salt River Project wells
and the river mav represent a thin, overlying sheet of the more alkaline water
to the eastward rather than a wedge of this water forced into tlie Agua Fria
underflow. In that case, deeper wells in Sections 6. 8. 17. and 19 will probably be
of qualitv equal to the project wells in Sections 9. 17. and 20. In general, it must
he noted that water developed in the northern half of the proposed project is
of better quality than that developed in tlie southern half. The water taken from
the canal in Section 1. Range 2 Nortli, Township 1 West, resembles the water
at Granite Reef rather than that at Joint Head. It may have come from the
north through some of the cross-cut canals, or be due to recent floodwaters at
Joint Head.
The influence of other developments in the Valley on the probable future
composition of the available water should also be considered. The lowering of
the water table in the Phoenix District is imperative and will gradually be
accomplislied by suitable means. This will check the westward movement of
the saltv uroundwater of that area and promote the eastward movement of the
Agua Fria groundwater. While the lift will be increased by such drainage,
♦he qualitv of waters developed under the western half of Range 1 East, Town-
ship 2 North, will be improved. Heavy pumping in the Litchton area will
lower the Agua Fria groundwater and tend to shift the zone of blending
westward, thus neutralizing to some degree the benefits of drainage in _ the
Phoenix area. If. however, the Agua Fria groundwater beneath Township 2
North. Raiicc 1 East, originates from the flow of the river, this effect will be
felt less strongly. Periods of flood in the Agua Fria will force the zone of
blending eastward while long periods of drouth will probably be marked by
the westward movement of the alkaline waters of the Phoenix area.
AGRONOMY
G. E. Thompson, R. S. Hawkins, S. P. Clark
The annual report of this department covering the work to
June 30, 1919 (with subsequent items), reported practically all of
the experiments with field crops for the growing season of 1919.
Consequently this report, which closes definitely with June 30,
1920, covers only six months of time. During this period all
the projects reported upon in the Thirtieth Annual Report have
been continued. With the close of this crop season, the project
dealing with the dynamiting of soils under dry-farming conditions
will have been completed. One new project, namely, a study of
Indian Agriculture, has been added to the work of the department.
During the year a small amount of laboratory equipment has been
purchased, the two most valuable items being a dynamometer,
used in connection with our teaching work in farm machinery, and
a very excellent camera for use in recording photographically the
results of experimental work with field crops.
Considerable improvements have been added to the various
experiment farms which materially aid in conducting the agro-
nomic work carried on there. Likewise, valuable equipment and
machinery as well as livestock have been added to these farms.
Particularly in the case of the Salt River Valley Experiment Farm
the work is made easier and more exact because of a better condi-
tion of the fields as a result of very careful leveling and improve-
ment of ditches.
PROJECTS
I. CONTINUATION OF STUDIES AT PRESCOTT DRY-FARM
The work of this farm has been continued without change
from the plans of the previous year. On March 1, Mr, Leslie
Beaty, a graduate of the Oregon Agricultural College and later a
county agent in New Mexico, succeeded Mr. T. F. Wilcox as fore-
man of the farm.
A cold wet spring forced us to plant a few weeks later than
is the ordinary custom, but a considerable supply of moisture was
stored in the ground ; and, with the exception of beans, which were
planted very late, excellent stands were secured. At the date
when this report closes (June 30), the field crops are in good con-
dition, although there has been practically no rain for the three
Arizona Ac.uicultural Expf.rimkxt Station
Ul
Pig. 1. c.iii ,, : '.-as. Tliis nu'lliod »i' i^ruwiuL; ccuii and i-owpras is
recomnien(U-d !ui- Uu- \ alley? in tlu' sontlic-iii pari of Ai-izona. (Salt Hivcr
Valley Experiment Farm. IDi'O.)
■ ■•' . ■s-^aKj^^^^-r-*-
Fig. 2. — Wheat variety test. Early Baart wheat on right, Arizona No. 39 on left.
and Kanred wheat In center, planted the same day and given the same conditions.
Note the early maturity of Early Baart and Arizona No. 39 compared with Kanred.
Early maturity Is a desirable feature for southern Arizona.
442 Thirty-first Annual Report
months previous. The farm promises to produce sufficient silage
to fill the silos on the farm and provide facilities for experimental
feeding of beef or other cattle.
In furthering the work of this farm, plans are being prepared
and work will soon begin on the construction of a general barn
whicli will cost api)roximately S2500.
11. continuation Ol' STUDIES AT SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY DRY-FARM
Due to the very dry winter of 1919-1920, small grains planted
in the fall of 1919 did not make profitable yields in the spring of
1920. From the farmers' standpoint, our experiments with Early
Baart wheat, ]\Iacaroni wheat, ]\Iarquis wheat, common six-row
barley, Abruzzi rye, and Red Texas oats would all be recorded as
failures. Two plantings of each of these crops were made, good
stands were secured, and the failure was due wholly to dry weather.
In the spring of 1920 the regular plantings of field crops such as
Mexican June corn, liickory King corn, Papago Sweet corn, milo,
hegari, Freed's sorghum, Red Amber sorghum, darso, and Tepary
beans were made. On June 30 all of the crops of the Experiment
Farm were in very i)oor condition, due to the extremely dry winte--,
spring, and early summer. Although Papago Sweet corn produced
a perfect stand, and, early in the spring, grew well until it reached
a height of approximately two feet, it practically ceased to grow at
this point and on June 30 is beginning to head out at a height of
two feet. From a practical standpoint this crop would not pay
for harvesting.
Darso sorghum planted in ]\Iarch and given as good conditions
as it was possible to give undei dry-farming methods, has failed to
germinate ; following the first rain in the month of July, the field
will be replanted to quicker maturing sorghums.
III. LEGUMES AND TllEiR CULTURE EOR SOUTHWEST CONDITIONS
Under this project plantings were made on the five farms of
the Experiment Station. The major part of these plantings, how-
ever, were made on the Salt River \'alley Farm near Mesa.
Several varieties of vetch were planted, the most profitable in this
particular season being bitter vetch. One acre was planted in the
fall of 1919 to garbanzas (chick peas). This crop made a reason-
ably good forage growth, reaching a height of approximately
twenty inches. I-Iowever, the yield of seed was comparatively
light, l)eing estimated at six or eight bushels per acre; because of
the light seed yield, this crop was harvested for hay during the
month of May.
Arizoxa Agricultural Expf.rimkxt Station 443
During the spring of 1920, velvet beans were planted in corn
and in kafir. Likewise, several plantings of cowpeas were made
in fields of Mexican June corn. In these experiments a part of thi;
legumes were pkinted without inoculation, while a part were
])lanted with inoculation. Whether or not there will be any dif-
ference in the final yields remains to be determined later in the
reason. As another portion of this project, cotton has been planted
by the ordinary method except that every third row has been
planted to cowpeas instead of cotton. Part of these cowpeas weri
inoculated before planting and the rest were planted without inocu-
lation. It is our intention to plow these cowpeas under about the
time they reach the flowering stage. This is a repetition of an
experiment carried last year. Last year there appeared to be no
practical difference between the cotton produced where cowpeas
were inoculated and where they were not inoculated. However,
another acre of cotton planted in the same manner, but without the
use of cowpeas, produced a little more cotton than either of the
])lantings indicated above.
On the Experiment Farms near Prescott, Cochise, and Yuma,
comparative plantings are being made with different varieties of
cowpeas and with a very few varieties of soy beans. However,
June 30 is too early in the season to report definitely concerning
the probable value of these crops.
IV. A STUDY OF TIIF VARIETIES AND MKTITODS OF CULTIVATION OF
IXDJ \N CORN AND TIIF VARIOUS SORGHUMS
This project having been reported in full for the growing
season of 1919, presents but little additional data by the close of
June, 1920; consequently there are no definite results to report.
Practically the same experiments have been outlined and started
as were carried in 1919.
v. THF CULTIVATION AND FIELD MANAGEMENT OF EGYPTIAN COTTON
This project will be carried almost entirely on the Salt River
Valley Experiment Farm near Mesa. However, observations in-
tended to support or verify our experiments will be made through
out the sections of the State where Egyptian cotton is grown. Our
experiments for the season of 1920 include date-of-planting tests,
ranging from March 1 to May 15; rate-of-thinning tests, ranging
from spacings of six inches apart in the row to spacings of eigh-
teen inches apart in the row ; methods of irrigation, varying from
the ordinary flooding method to irrigation in furrows, and from
the common method of watering early in the spring to the with-
444
Thirty-first Annual Report
holding of irrigation water as late in the spring as is possible
without severe stunting of the cotton plants. These experimeni-
also include work in connection with the controlling of the black
arm or angular leaf spot; experiments in topping cotton; and a
very complete set of experiments dealing with cotton fertilizers.
In this latter experiment barnyard manure applied at various rate-
is compared with cotton grown without fertilizers of any kind,
with cotton fertilized wath complete commercial fertilizer as ordi-
narily sold in the southern states, with cotton fertilized by the
application of cottonseed meal, with cotton fertilized by the appli-
cation of sodium nitrate, acid phosphate, and various combinations
of the above fertilizers. This fertilizer experiment is an exact
Fis
3. — Cooperative crop demonstratien. Orange sorghum grown without irriga-
tion— yield eight tons silage per acre. Navajo County.
duplication of the experiments carried in 1919, and, by the close
of the season of 1920 will, we believe, supply some very definite
information of value to the farmers of the Salt River Valley and
other cotton growing sections of the State.
VI. CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMCXT OF WINTER AND SPRING GRAINS,
INCLUDING WHEAT, OATS, AND BARLEY
These experiments were for the most part an exact duplication
of the experiments carried during the previous year. During the
winter and early spring small grain crops appeared exceedingly
promising. However, the moist conditions of early spring favored
the development of the various rust diseases, and, by harvest time,
Arizona Agricultural Exri:uiMi:.\T Siaiion 445
the wheats, not only of our own Experiment Farm, but of the
Salt River Valley in general, were more seriously affected by rust
than during any of the past eight or ten seasons. In this connec-
tion it was very noticeable that the variety of hard red winter
wheat named "Kanred" was decidedly more rust-resistant than any
other variety on the farm. Early Baart was severely injured by
rust, Sonora suffered considerably. Macaroni yields were reduced
by not less than ten percent, and the ordinary hard red winter
wheat of the Turkey variety, which matured very late, was so
severely damaged that it was not harvested.
In these experiments Abruzzi rye made very excellent growth
and produced approximately twenty-five bushels of reasonably
good quality grain.
Almost perfect control of stinking smut of wheat and covered
smut of barley was secured by means of treating seed with formalin
before planting.
VII. EFFF.CT OF DYNAMITING SUBSOIL ON FIELD CROPS
This project has been handled entirely on the Sulphur Spring-
Valley Dry-Farm. During the seasons 1918-1919 no diiTerences
were noted on the yields of sorghums planted on the dynamited
area compared to the same varieties planted on undynamited areas.
During the season 1920 this experiment will be carried just as in
previous years, but at the close of June, 1920, it promises to give
the same results as in previous seasons.
VIII. VARIDTAL AND CULTURAL TESTS OF GRAIN AND CULTURAL TESTS
OF GRAIN AND FORAGE CROPS AND OF GRASSES AND MISCELLANEOUS CROPS
Under this project, experiments with Napier grass were carrietl
a little farther than during the preceding year. Although an excel-
lent growth was secured, it seems doubtful that this crop will be
generally accepted by the farmers of this State. Our limited work
of the early season makes it appear that the crop will be more
difficult to handle and no more desirable than the varieties of
sorghums already grown commercially in the State.
Rhodes grass has been planted on the University Farm near
Tucson on extremely alkaline ground, and has made a satisfactory
growth and produced abundant and valuable pasturage. Likewise
the plantings of this grass made the previous year (on alkaline
ground) have produced a more thrifty and vigorous growth this
year than during the previous season. It seems likely that Rhodes
grass is worthy of more exhaustive trial and probably worthy of
446 Thirty-first Annual Report
general adoption by the farmers in need of pastvirage on alkaline
ground.
IX. cooPERATivr; crop experiments
Under this project the Department of Agronomy supplies to
certain picked farmers in all parts of the State limited quantities
of seed of the varieties of crops that we have reason to believe wiU
prove better than the crops already grown in their localities. The
farmers in turn agree to test these crops under the same conditions
as are given crops planted from local or home grown seed, and at
some time during the growing season the experiments are visited
by a representative of the Agronomy office and at the close of the
season comparative yields are reported. In handling this work,
cooperative tests have been carried with ninety farmers, and four
hundred fifty lots ol seed have been supplied to them. The work
includes tests with wheat, oats, barley, cotton, cowpeas, soy-bean?,
fieldpeas, sweet clover, millet, corn, sorghums, velvet beans, sun-
flowers, vetch, kudzu, and Napier grass. This project is supplying
very definite and valuable information concerning all parts of the
State, and is invaluable to us in answering letters and handling
general correspondence with farmers. It is our desire to increa:e
this work considerably during the next few years.
X. A STUDY OE INDIAN AGRICULTURE
This is a new project and one that promises to be of consider-
able importance to the dry-farming regions of this and surrounding
states. For a great many years, perhaps for centuries, the Indians
of Arizona have been able — largely under dry-farming conditions —
to grow the crops necessary to maintain themselves from year to
year. In the same localities where these Indians have lived indefi-
nitely, white settlers have repeatedly failed because of inability to
grow crops. It appears that a detailed and comprehensive study
of the crops grown by these Indians and the methods employed by
them in growing these crops should be of material assistance to us
in furthering the agriculture of our present day farmers.
XI. SHED CERTIFICATION WORK
There are certain areas in the State that, because of peculiar
climatic and soil conditions, because of special market conditions,
or because of local organizations, are particularly fitted to produce
and market special varieties of field crops. At the present time
the most notable instance of this character is the production and
marketing of Hairy Peruvian alfalfa seed from the Yuma Valley.
Arizoxa Agricultural F-xperiment Station 447
In furthering this work the Department of Agronomy in coopera-
tion with the Extension Service and the County Agent of Yuma
County, and in cooperation with the Yuma Ah"alla Seed Growers'
Association, has inspected all fields of the Yuma \^alley and deter-
mined whether or not they were of commercially pure Hairy Pe-
ruvian alfalfa. Seed produced from such fields as have been fouu'l
satisfactory has been handled under precautions which prevent the
mixing of seed, either in threshing or in cleaning, and has been
sold in sealed sacks bearing a certified tag showing that the seed
was produced from fields growing commercially pure Hairy Peru-
vian alfalfa. This work has added many thousands of dollars to
the sale price of alfalfa seed sold by Yuma Valley farmers and if
its good results are not destroyed by commercial companies, it can
and will be the basis of a thriving and permanent seed industry
in that locality. We are now planning to handle similar work
with other crops in other sections of the State.
COTTON IMPROVEMENT
In 1918 the cotton industry in the Yuma Valley was in an
unsatisfactory condition, due to the haphazard introduction of cot-
ton seed of different varieties by farmers and by seed houses.
Through the crossing of these varieties over a term of years, the
lint had deteriorated until it was very uneven in length and inferior
in quality.
In the spring of 1919, in order to improve the quality of the
lint and secure pure seed for general distribution, a small supplv
of excellent ]Mebane Triumph seed was imported from Lockhart,
Texas. This seed was furnished to a few picked farmers of the
valley who agreed to grow it under strict supervision of the
Agronomy office. These fields were rogued during the summer
and the crop ginned under special regulations in order to keep tl'.-
seed free from mixture. In the spring of 1920 there was seed suffi-
cient to plant 320 acres. Ten acres of this tract were rogued ic
maintain the purest seed possible and all of the cotton from this
320 acres will be ginned under strict supervision.
As a result of this work, we estimate that there will be avail-
able in the spring of 1921 enough good quality Triumph seed to
supply all farmers in Yuma Valley who desire such seed.
Similar work is now being started in Cochise and Graham
counties
448 Thirty-first Annual Report
EXTENSION WORK
Throughout the period covered by this report one-half of the
time of S. P. Clark has been given to extension work along agron-
omy lines. He has made many farm tours with county agents,
addVessed a considerable number of public meetings, distributed
bulletins and other publications dealing with farm crops, made per-
sonal visits to farms, written letters in answer to inquiries, etc.
In carrying out this work, visits have been made to every county
in the State, except one, and all county agents have been visited —
most of them several times. Nearly a week was spent in coopera-
tion with U. S. Government officials in roguing cotton which is
used as the basis of the pure-seed supply of the Salt River Valley.
Numerous timely articles dealing with farm crop subjects have
been furnished the public press.
MISCELLANEOUS WORK
In addition to the regular teaching work the members of the
department were called upon to handle extra classes for disabled
soldiers sent here by the Federal Board for Vocational Education.
Upon urgent request Bulletin 90, "Growing Cotton in Ari-
zona," was written and subsequently published.
Numerous samples of seeds were received for germination and
purity tests.
By actual count, slightly in excess of 600 letters were received
and answered during the six months covered by this report. Manv
'phone inquiries were answered and numerous office consultations
were held.
The department is now preparing for publication a bulletin
dealing with small grains, and several other papers of definite, but
less extensive, character.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
R. H. Williams, C. U. Pickrell, E. B. Stanley
Throughout the year just ended, feed has been unusually plen-
tiful on Arizona ranges and the rainfall has been heavy and well
distributed. Sheep have been profitable, for lambs and wool sold
for highest prices in the history of this State. The lamb crop was
larger than normal. Many of the early lambs sold for $10 in May
and early June. Wool reached 90 cents a pound for the early clip,
but fell to as low as 50 cents a pound by June 30,
The past year has been a very unsatisfactory one for cattle-
men, although the animals wintered unusually well. In March the
demand for range cattle weakened, and the situation gradually be-
came weaker, until purchasers who contracted cattle for May and
June delivery could not raise the money to move the stock.
Cotton raising has continued to be a prominent factor in the
agriculture of irrigated districts. Many alfalfa fields have been
plowed for this crop, and, as a result, less alfalfa has been available
for livestock. Not as many cattle were fed in the irrigated districts
the past year as formerly, owing to the high price of feeds and
animals. Those who fed cattle lost money because of a decline in
the market during March and April.
WORK OF THE YEAR
During the year a Hereford bull, Carlos Donald Second, and
a Hereford cow were added to the herd. These animals were pur-
chased from W. B. Mitchell, Marfa, Texas. More animals should
be provided, because it is found next to impossible to teach certain
courses without a representative selection of animals. The Poland
China, Rambouillet, and Hereford breeds should be built up and
improved. It is further recommended that registered draft horses
be available for class purposes.
During a portion of the year a specialist in the department
gave half his time to extension work in range livestock production.
The results were favorable, and it is believed, that more time should
be devoted to this work. Other work of an extension nature, such
as the judging of livestock at fairs, addressing meetings, corres-
pondence, and personal conferences with stockmen, has been done.
A number of articles have been published in periodicals during
the past year.
450 TniRTv-i-iRST Anxl'al Rnroiri'
INVESTIGATIOX
The investigations in animal hnsbandry (hiring- the past year
have been as follows :
1. Fattening range steers for market.
2. Fleshing thin cows.
3. Use of garbage for hogs.
4. Study of two methods for maintaining sows.
5. The toxic properties of rayless goldenrod. (In cooperation
with the Botany Department. See report of Botany De-
partment.)
6. Two methods of raising Hereford heifers.
FATTENING RANGE STEERS FOR MARKET
On the Salt River Valley Experiment Farm at j\Iesa, a feeding-
experiment with steers was conducted. The 36 steers were divided
into six separate lots and fed six different rations over a period of
77 davs. The experiment is reported in detail in Bulletin 91. The
main points in this test are summarized as follows :
Alfalfa Hay Versus Alfalfa Hay and Silage: The addition ot
silage to a ration of alfalfa hay made the steers gain more rapidly
at less cost and with greater profit. Alfalfa hay alone at the
present high prices is neither a balanced ration nor a cheap feed
for cattle, but silage makes a very good supplement to alfalfa hay.
Silage and Alialfa Hay Compared zvith Silage and Cottonseed
Meal; also Silage, Alfalfa Hay, and Cottonseed Meal: The results of
this test indicated that the cheapest gains were made with silage
and alfalfa hay, but the largest gains were made with silage, alfalia
hay, and cottonseed meal. Silage and cottonseed meal at the price?
charged did not give good results, for the steers in this lot gained
slowly and at a high cost. From a standpoint of rate of gains and
cost of production, silage and cottonseed meal made a better ration
than alfalfa hay alone.
Silage. Cottonseed Meal, and Alfafa Hay Versus Silage, Cotton-
seed Meal, and Ground Milo: Although the steers receiving silage,
cottonseed meal, and g-round milo maize finished earlier and wee
fatter and would dress out more as well as sell for more money,
yet from a standpoint of uniformity of gains, staying on feed, total
gains, and cost of gains, as well as profit making ability, the steers
receiving alfalfa instead of ground milo maize did best.
Silage, Cottonseed Meal, and Milo Versus Silage, Cottonseed
Meal, Milo, and Alfalfa Hay: Again it was noted that the addiiioi:
of alfalfa hay to a ration seems to have a beneficial effect. The
Arizona .Ac.ricii/i'i.-kai, Kxpkrimknt Station 451
steers receiving- an addition of alfalfa hay made larger, cheaper, and
more economical gains, finishing more rapidly for market and sold
for a higher price. One of the distinct differences in the animals
in these two groups was in the uniformity of gains and the good
appetities of the cattle receiving alfalfa, but those that did not re-
ceive alfalfa had two steers ofif feed and the gains of the lot were
variable.
The animals in the above tests were given all the roughage,
consisting of silage and alfalfa hay, that they would consume.
Those receiving cottonseed meal were given an average of 2.56
pounds per day and those receiving ground milo maize averaged
5.77 pounds per day. It will be noted that the amount of concen-
trates was held at a minimum.
FLESHING THIN COWS
On the Cochise Dry-Farm twenty-one old, thin, and weak
range cows were divided into three groups — one of them being
fed silage and cottonseed meal ; another silage, cottonseed meal,
and alfalfa hay; and a third silage and cottonseed meal, with a drv
pasture to run in. A maximum of three pounds of cottonseed meal
was fed daily and the cows were given all the silage, alfalfa hay,
and pasture they cared for.
Twelve weeks were required for the animals to take on suffi-
cient flesh to suit the butchers. The cows in Lot II, receiving
silage, cottonseed meal, and alfalfa hay, consumed an average of
60A2 pounds of silage, 2.83 pounds cottonseed meal, 2.64 pounds
alfalfa hay daily over the twelve weeks and gained an average of
2.99 pounds per day. The next best lot was the cows receiving
silage, cottonseed meal, and dry pasture. The animals, consum-
ing only a small amount of dry pasture, received the same amount
«f cottonseed meal, and 63.18 pounds of silage daily. The cows in
Lot 1 receiving an average of 66.86 pounds silage and 2.86 pounds
•f cottonseed meal, gained only 2.32 pounds daily. The results of
this test indicate that there is a great difference between the dii-
ferent range cows, the fatter and larger the animals the better, ou
eatering the feed lot.
USE OE GARBAGE FOR HOGS
On October 31, 1919, ten shoats averaging 100 pounds each
were purchased at $16 per hundred. The pigs were fed on gar-
bage at a cost of 40 cents a day over a period of 81 days. At the
end of this time the pigs were sold at 15 cents a pound, there being
•niy nine pigs, for one got sick, from some cause not considered
452
Thirty-first Annual Report
associated with the feed, and for this reason was taken out of the
experiment. The nine pigs weighed a total of 1770 pounds and
brought $265.50. The gain over cost of pigs and garbage amounted
to $73.10.
Beginning January 20, 1920, and ending May 4, 1920, a second
test was conducted. Eighteen pigs weighing a total of 1615 pounds,
or an average of 89.7 pounds, were selected. Six of the pigs died
from cholera the first week, the remaining 12 pigs were sold May 4,
and weighed a total of 2295 pounds. The pigs were on test 105
days and the cost of feed was estimated at $20 per month or $70
Table V gives the results of the two tests.
table v. detailed statement oe feeding tests with garbage
Number of days fed
Number of pigs in test
Average initial weight per pig
Average final weight per pig
Average gain per pig, pounds
Average daily gain per pig
Cost of pigs per hundred
^.filing price per hundred
Cost of hundred pounds gain
Average cost of garbage per pig. . . .
Total cost of garbage
Total cost of garbage and animals..
Total receipts from sale of pigs....
Gain over cost of pigs and garbage.
C^?in per pig
Test No. I
Test No. II
81
105
9
12
100
89.7
196.67
191.25
96.67
110.58
1.19
.97
$ 16.00
$ 15.00
$ 15.00
$ 16.00
$ 3.72
$ 5.74
$ 3.60
$ 5.83
$ 32.40
$ 70.00
$192.40
$242.15
$265.50
$367.20
$ 73.10
$125.05
$ 8.10
$ 10.42
According to Table V, gains were made at a cost of $3.72 per
hundred in the first test and $5.83 in the second. These are ex-
tremely cheap gains in spite of the fact that one-third of the pigs
in the second lot died. The pigs did well throughout the test and
gave every indication of thrift and satisfactory gains from the
feed given them. The supply of garbage at times was not suffi-
cient to make rapid gains. It is believed that it is good policy to
plan on giving hogs a small quantity of grain along with the
garbage, except where garbage is produced in large amounts and
can be secured at little cost.
TWO METHODS OE MAINTAINING SOWS
The five registred Duroc-Jersey gilts that were raised accord-
ing to two different methods have been under inspection for an-
other year. These gilts have been exchanged, with the exception
of No. 2 which still remains at the University Farm. Thus giUs
1 and 3 are now on the Schumaker farm, and 4 and 5 retained at
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station A66
tlie University. At the time the exchange was made, careful
measurements were taken of the pigs. It will make an interesting
study to continue this test and note the effect of the different en-
vin)iiment on the size, weight, and conformation of the animals,
as well as their fecundity and their qualities for raising pigs.
Shortly after the exchange, sow No. 3 farrowed a litter of thirteen
pigs, saving seven of them the first week, but apparently the sow
did not milk well and all the pigs died. This same sow was
bred shortly afterward but she aborted about May 25. She was
bred again shortly after this. Sow No. 1 has failed to get with
pigs. Sow No. 2 aborted fourteen pigs. These were the 1a»ge
fat sows, and .the results with them were not satisfactory from the
standpoint of carrying their pigs through the gestation period, or
raising a goodly portion of the litter.
In spite of the fact that sows Nos. 4 and 5 are small, thin, and
very inferior in appearance, they raise a larger number and per-
centage of pigs than the large fat sows. Sow No. 4 farrowed a
litter containing eleven pigs, and she raised four boars and three
sows. On the ninth of June sow No. 5 farrowed nine pigs, raising;
five sows and three boars. Apparently sow No. 4 was the only
one bred up till June 9. Further observations will be made during
the coming years.
alfalfa versus mixed rations for raising beef heifers
Alfalfa hay has been used extensively for feeding cattle in the
Southwest. Dairy cows as well as beef bred animals have been
raised on this feed with little or no other supplements and mam-
tained on alfalfa hay throughout their entire life.
Reports have reached us that alfalfa hay is not a satisfactory
ration for breeding stock. Some report that the animals fail to
reach normal size, and that there is a tendency to sterility, or bar-
renness, and that in some way the ration has been unsatisfactory.
The department planned a feeding test and studied the effects
of maintaining an animal on alfalfa hay. A registered Hereford
heifer, Great Coronis No. 756193, calved September 29, 1918, was
raised by allowing to nurse, and weaned at an early age, and
placed in a dry lot, being fed on alfalfa hay alone. This heifer has
been given nothing but alfalfa hay, which at times was poor in
quality, containing weeds and other feeds. She was bred to Beau
Carlos April 27, 1920.
Another heifer, Coronis Great 873919, was calved December
12, 1919. This heifer is a full sister^ of Great Coronis and was
454 Thirty-first Annual Report
used as a comparison for making a study of alfalfa hay as a fed
for raising and maintaining breeding stock. This heifer is to be
fed ia the ordinary way; she will be weaned at the same age as
the other one; fed on mixed rations and bred as near as possible :>i
the same age.
On June 30, 1920, both the heifers were looking well. Quite a
number of stockmen are interested in the outcome of the test.
BOTANY
J. J. Thornber, J. G. Brown
The rainfall for the year ended June 30, 1920, at Tucson.
Arizona, was 20.59 inches, or practically double the average annual
rainfall for this station. This is the heaviest rainfall that has been
recorded for Tucson for a similar twelve-month period during the
past 39 years. Of this rainfall, 10.24 inches, or nearly 50 percent,
fell during the summer rainy season, July to October inclusive;
and 9.18 inches, or 44.7 percent, during the winter rainy season.
November to April inclusive. October, December, April, May, and
June were the months of lightest precipitation, while for each of
the remaining months there was a minimum of one inch of rain,
and usually much more than this. The rainfall for July was 26.9
percent of the total for the year.
Naturally, this rainfall resulted in a heavy growth of forage on
the ranges during both the summer and fall of 1919 and the winter
and spring of 1919-1920. There was an abundance of feed on
almost all the ranges, except those badly overgrazed and trampled
out, and at the same time a smaller number of stock to graze, since
the herds had been much reduced during the two previous years
on account of severe droughts. Scarcely more than 70 percent of
the feed was eaten during the fall and winter and the plants
matured a heavy crop of seed for future growth. Stock, generally,
came through the winter in good shape, and the ranges were in
better condition than they had been for some years.
The heavy winter rainfall just noted brought about two con-
ditions. The feed on the ranges, which underwent natural curing
with the dry weather in October, was badly leached out and
weathered before spring. This was largely offset, however, by the
excellent spring growth which was ready for grazing by the raiddle
of March. The other condition was the heavy growth of poison
plants on the ranges, induced by early and continuous winter rain-
fall.
LOSSES OF STOCK FROM POISON PLANTS
Losses of stock from poison plants were quite general and
heavier than for some years past. On many ranges there was a
heavy growth of loco and larkspur plants before the grasses and
456 Thirty-first Annual, Report
similar forage plants were tall enough to be grazed. Naturally,
stock ate the succulent poison plant growth in preference to dry,
weathered grass stems. During this spring season, no less than
thirty complaints of stock being affected, or dying, from eating
poison plants were received from southern Arizona, and a con-
siderable number from central and northern Arizona. The follow-
ing were the more important of these poison plants ; spreading loco
(AragaUus nothoxus) ; Thurber's loco (Astragalus Thurheri) ; hairy
loco (Astragalus Bigelozvii) ; tall loco (Astragalus diphysus and
Astragalus diphysus MacDougali) ; purple loco (AragaUus Lamberti) ;
blue larkspur (Delphinium scaposum) ; prairie larkspur (Delphinium
campormn) ; and death camas (Zygadenus elegans).
At Patagonio, Elgin, and certain other localities, the loco poi-
soning was quite dift'erent from that ordinarily observed. Stock
would become weak in the back, break down, and to a great extent
lose the power of their hind legs. Stockmen call this "tottering
loco." The plant causing this disease is believed to be a smpJl
loco weed which grows low and spreads out on the ground. It is known
botanically as AragaUus nothoxus. Commonly it is abundant enough
in places to form a nearly continuous growth, particularly in de-
pressions on the prairies. This plant was more often reported by
stockmen during the past spring as causing loco among stock than
all the other varieties of loco in southern Arizona combined. Dr.
C. D. Marsh, the Government poison plant specialist, visited Ari-
zona during the latter part of March and April to study the
situation.
STUDY OF ARIZONA GRASSES
The writer devoted the major part of his time in Experiment
Station work for the year to a comprehensive study of the grasses
of the State. This work is concerned with the identification, di.s-
tribution, relative abundance, and economic value of our grasses
and forage plants. As far as possible, all the grasses in the State
growing wild, or without cultivation, are included in this study.
The grass flora of Arizona is relatively large and diversified and
includes a large number of Mexican and South American species.
A small amount of work remains to be done on this study before
the manuscript can be completed and submitted for publication.
WORK AT FLAGSTAFF
Beginning with the middle of July, the writer spent seven
weeks at Flagstaff, Arizona. Most of this time was given to in-
struction work in the University Summer School at the Flagstaff*
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 457
Normal. In addition to this, an economic study of the plants
growing in the vicinity of Flagstaff was begun. One hundred
species of grasses, including ten not heretofore recorded for -j?
State, were listed and studied, and much valuable information con-
cerning these plants was gathered. Trips were taken in nearly
every direction for distances of thirty to forty miles and large plant
collections were made. It is estimated that at least twenty-five
species were added to the flora of the State in this brief study. In
addition to this a study of the water plants in the lakes about
Flagstaff, poison range plants, ornamental trees, shrubs, and vines
of the city, and weeds was begun. It may be interesting to note
that the Canada Thistle (Cirsium arvcnse) was observed for the first
time growing in Arizona. This matter was referred to the County
Agricultural Agent for disposal.
LOSSES OF STOCK FROM AN UNKNOWN CAUSE
(This work with rayless goldenrod was done in cooperation with
Dr. R. H. Williams of the Animal Husbandry Department.)
For some years stockmen southwest of Tucson have com-
plained of losses on the ranges during the winter season. In a
specific case a rancher west of the Tucson Mountains lost 65 horses
and about 30 head of cattle from an unknown cause. These ani-
mals, with others, were grazed in three pastures, each separated
by several miles distance. Rayless goldenrod, or burro weed, was
the only plant growing in any abundance in all these pastures, and,
naturally, was believed to be the cause of the losses. In one
pasture, cattle had been kept until all the forage had been grazed
out, leaving only bushes of the rayless goldenrod. Stock had eaten
some of the fresh shoots of this plant as well as some of the woody
stems, both dry and green. In a second pasture, where some stock
were dying, there was a considerable growth of dry, rather coarse
grass, in addition to a small amount of annual growth and scattered
plants of the rayless goldenrod. Stock were eating this fresh an-
nual growth and the coarse grass just noted, but it was not observed
that they had eaten any of the rayless goldenrod. In a third pas-
ture, where the horses were kept, in addition to the usual growth
on the desert ranges, including rayless goldenrod, a scattering of
plants of the many-seeded saltbush (Atriplex poly car pa) was present.
This saltbush is regarded as good winter feed and is invariably
closely browsed when feed is short. No further losses of the stock
in these pastures resulted after the animals were given a change of
458 TiiiRTY-FiRST Annual Ricport
feed, a change of pasture, or turned out on the open range where
feed was fairly good.
The first indication of this disease in animals is lack of thrift".
They become gaunt, listless, separate from the herd, and lie down.
The horses appear fagged as if overridden and exhausted. The
disease seemed to exist in two forms. In the acute form the ani-
mals have some fever and die within a day or so, while in the
slower form they linger three to five days, losing flesh and becom-
ing weaker. A few hours before dying they tremble violently,
often fall down with the legs spread out, drop the head and neck,
and froth at the mouth. Some animals break down over the loins
and fall down with their hind legs sprawled out. The disease
attacks both sexes and all sizes, ages, and conditions of animals,
and very few of the affected ones recover.
The rayless goldenrod or burro weed (Bigcloivia coronopifolia) is
abundant over large areas on the desert ranges and valley lands in
southern x^rizona. It is less abundant on the prairies. It belongs
to the goldenrod group of the sunflower family and is a woody
shrub one to three feet tall. The leaves are skeleton-like, and
pinnately parted nearly to the mid-ribs. The flowers are golden
yellow, and borne mostly in terminal clusters in the summer and
fall. The whole plant is strongly resinous, with a pronounced
bitter odor, and stock rarely eat it except when driven by stress of
hunger. Sheep and goats, however, eat the blossoms and seed
heads and appear to relish them.
A shrub nearly related to this goldenrod grows throughout the
Gila Valley in Arizona and is known to stockmen as "jimmy weed.''
This plant is Bigcloivia hcterophyJla and is believed to be the cause
of the disease among stock known as "jimmies," losses from which,
though rarely heavy, occur each year. Bigeloivia IVrightii is still
another plant belonging to this group of rayless goldenrods. This
species grows in New Mexico and is known to cause losses among
stock during the fall and winter months.
FEEDING EXPERIMENT WITH RAYLESS GOLDENROD
To determine whether rayless goldenrod was the cause of the
losses of stock noted above, a quantity of the material, including
the woody stems, leaves, and herbaceous growth, was gathered,
dried carefully, and ground into a meal. This was fed to a mare
kept in a stall so that she could get no feed other than what was
given her. She was allowed all the water she would drink. To
maintain her on a barely living ration, she was fed daily one pound
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 459
of alfalfa hay, and one and two-thirds pounds each of rolled barley
and bran. She was also fed daily one and two-thirds pounds of
the rayless goldenrod meal, which was mixed with the bran and
rolled barley and bran and one pound of rayless goldenrod meal,
no change in the animal.
Following this, the proportion was changed to one pound A
rolled barley and bran and one pound of rayless goldenrod meal
of which she was fed five pounds daily, the alfalfa being continual
as usual. The mare refused to eat this mixture at first, but picked
out as best she could the rolled barley. Later she ate it, but some
of it was usually left in the box. This was cleaned out each day
and weighed back. There was still no noticeable change, but the
mare appeared very hungry.
After three weeks with the abOve feed, the mare was given
one pound of alfalfa hay twice daily and all the rayless goldenrod
meal she would eat, with no other feed. Less of the rayless golden-
rod meal was eaten with this ration than formerly and, later, a
small amount of bran was added. With this the mare was eating
daily about two pounds of rayless goldenrod meal, along with the
two pounds of alfalfa hay and the small amount of bran. Though
she disliked the goldenrod meal she ate it, but showed no symptoms
of poisoning. The experiment closed June 30, the mare having
eaten altogether about 150 pounds of the rayless goldenrod meal.
At this time she had completely shed her coat, which originally
was rough, and she looked sleek and glossy. She was also lively
and to all appearances in good health. During the experiment she
lost about five pounds in weight and her breath, urine, and faeces
smelled strongly of the rayless goldenrod.
Since but one animal was used in the experiment, the results
are not conclusive. There is no suggestion, however, that the large
amount of rayless goldenrod consumed was injurious to the mare.
It is possible that the alfalfa, bran, and barley helped her to throw
off the effects of any poison present.
NOTES ON PLANT INTRODUCTION WORK
No planting of note was done in the introduction gardens dur-
ing the year. This was due in part to a shortage of funds. A
considerable number of the plants in the garden have made good
growth and give promise to become valuable plant introductions
In December, 1919, upon invitation from Mr. Walter T. Swingle
of the Department of Agriculture, the writer made a trip to
460 Thirty-first Annual Report
Coachilla Valley, California, to study plant introduction work
there.
The Evergreen Tamarisk (7\imarix articxilaia) . In the spring of
1909, this department introduced the evergreen tamarisk from
Algiers. Along with cuttings of other tamarisks with which the
writer was experimenting, Dr. Trabut included six small cuttings
of the evergreen tamarisk. These were planted in the introduction
garden on the University grounds and in four years' time made a
growth of from 20 to 25 feet. During the cold winter of 1912-1913,
with a minimum temperature of 6 degrees Fahrenheit, these trees
were frozen nearly to the ground. They had been over-irrigated
and the wood was in an immature, sappy condition. Other trees
growing in the vicinity of the University with the wood well
matured, were not injured in the least by this freeze.
On account of its symmetry and rapid growth, the evergreen
tamarisk became almost immediately a favorite, and it has been
impossible to supply the demand for cuttings. At this time it is
being planted extensively in parts of southern California, southern
Arizona, and Texas. It is regarded as one of the most rapid-
growing trees in the Southwest. It grows readily from cuttings
which, curiously enough,, may be made and planted at almost any
season, though rooted trees, unless kept moist, do not transplant
well. It is not uncommon for plants to make a growth of si.-c
feet from cuttings in one season. Small trees set in clumps on
the University grounds have made growths of 12 to 18 feet ui
two years' time, and there are numerous examples of evergreen
tamarisks in the Coachilla Valley, four and five years old, that are
40 feet or more in height. A brief description of this tree is found
in Timely Hint 121 of this Station.
Arizona Cypress (Cupressus glabra). This is a smooth-barked
variety of the common Arizona cypress. It has made good growth
in the introduction garden and is very resistant to our conditions.
It grows quite erect, with ascending branches, and has light bluish
green foliage and smooth brown, or olive-green bark, which fails
off in flakes. Like other cypresses it grows readily from seeds.
Cupressus Goveniana is a native of California, and has rather
slender branches which are more or less spreading and drooping.
It appears well suited to southern Arizona conditions and grows
30 to 50 feet tall. Small plants have made a growth of seven 1o
nine feet in two years and are very ornamental.
Aleppo Pine (Finns halepcnsis) is a native of Syria and it is per-
haps the only pine that can endure the heat and aridity of southern
Arizona Ar.Kicii^TLKAi, lv\iM;ja.\ii..\ i w^iaiiox 461
Arizona. Young trees, three years from planting-, are six to eight
feet tall, while trees in the Salt River Valley six years old are
25 to 30 feet tall. This tree has a rather open, spreading habit of
growth and bears cones when five to six years old.
Cork Oak (Qnoxus suher). This is an important commercial
tree in Spain and is an attractive live oak, picturesque in appear-
ance, but of slow growth. Tlic jilants on the University grounds
are sturdy and healthy and appear well suited to conditions in
southern Arizona. They have made growths of four to five feet
in three years' time.
Willow-leaf Pittosporum (Pittospontm phillyracoidcs) is a grace-
ful, weeping evergreen with brown, slender twigs and smooth,
glossy, willow-like leaves. It is a native of vVustralia. It is slow
to become established, but makes good growth afterwards. It is
entirely hardy to our climatic conditions and thrives in both mesa
and valley soils. During the ten years it has been under observa-
tion, it has not suffered injury from heat or frost.
Mastac Tree (Pistacia lentiscitsj is a robust, spreading evergreen
shrub from the Mediterranean region and grows four to ten feet
high. The leaves are smooth and pinnately divided with six to ten
leaflets. During the 18 years' time it has been growing on the
campus it has never been injured with heat or frost. It thrives in
a variety of soils and is tolerant to considerable alkali. The seeds
are said to yield 20 percent by weight of oil.
feijoa SelloK'oua is a hardy evergreen shrub with spreading
branches and oval or oblong leaves which are one inch or more
long, green above and grayish-white beneath. It is a native of
Brazil and is said to grow well wherever the olive succeeds. In
five years' growth on the campus it has not been injured with heat
or frost. It blossoms in the spring, but as yet has not borne
fruit.
Yellow Jasmine (Jasminum hniiiilc). This is a tall, loose-grow-
ing evergreen shrub with spreading branches and is a native of
southern Asia. It grows rapidly and blossoms profusely in the
spring. The flowers are borne in clusters and are yellow^ and very
fragrant. The leaves are pinnately divided with five to seven
leaflets.
Jasminum primuUmtui is a low-growing, evergreen shrub from
China. The branches are spreading and recurved and often root
at the tips. The leaves are 3-divided, and the flowers are produced
early in the spring, and are yellow and fragrant. This plant en-
dures our summer heat and zero degrees Fahrenheit temperatur;^
462 Thirty-first Annual Report
without injury, and thrives in both valley and mesa soils. It can
be used to advantage as an undershrub in planting. It grows
readily from cuttings or by layering and has been under observa-
tion for ten years.
Solanum jasminoidcs is a clean, evergreen climber from Brazil.
It has smooth, glossy leaves and propagates readily by layering.
The flowers are white, very attractive, and borne in clusters, and
are produced in abundance from spring until late in the fall. It is
tolerant to our hot summer weather and has not been injured with
temperatures of 12 degrees Fahrenheit.
Common Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is an evergreen shrub,
with a pleasing aroma and spreading branches that grow three to
five feet tall. The leaves are narrow and rather thick, with the
edges recurved, and the flowers are light blue and appear during the
winter and spring seasons. This is an excellent bee plant and can
be propagated readily from cuttings. It is a native of the Mediter-
ranean region, is drought resistant, and grows well under our
conditions.
Golden bell (Forsythia suspensa) is an attractive shrub with
smooth, yellowish-brown, recurved stems. The leaves are smooth
and drop late in the fall. The plant is a native of China and pro-
duces a wealth of golden yellow flowers early in the spring before
the leaves appear.
Algerita (Berhcris trifoUata) is an evergreen shrub with thick,
tough, bluish-green and more or less spiny leaves. The stems are
reddish-brown and the flowers are yellow and borne in the spring.
It is a native of western Texas and very resistant to southwestern
conditions. The plant resembles generally our native Fremont'-s
barberry, but is perhaps more ornamental. The fruits are edible.
Common Jujube (Zizyphus sativa) is a small, deciduous, spiny
tree or large shrub from the Mediterranean region. It is of erect
growth and very attractive during the growing season with its
glossy foliage. The fruits are about the size and shape of an olive,
blackish when ripe, and produced in enormous quantity. Plants
have been under observation for 12 years and have endured with-
out injury the usual summer temperatures and winter temperatures
as low as six degrees Fahrenheit. On the University ground in
lime soil the growth was very unsatisfactory, but at the University
Farm with more or less alkali in the soil their growth has been
all that could be desired. These plants are regarded as entirely
hardy for growing under southern Arizona conditions and they
should prove a valuable secondary fruit for the home.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 463
Pistasch Tree (Pistacia vera) is a small, spreading, deciduous
tree also native of the Mediterranean region, which succeeds well
in southern Arizona valley soils. It bears the pistasch nuts of
commerce. Plants have been grown on the University grounds
and in the introduction garden at the University Farm for a period
of 12 years, during which time they have not been injured with
our usual summer temperature, nor with winter temperatures as
low as six degrees Fahrenheit. In the lime soils on the University
grounds the plants made poor growth, while in alkaline soil at the
University Farm their growth has been excellent. There are trees
of considerable size in the Government introduction garden at
Sacaton which have begun to bear nuts.
Chinese Pistasch (Pistacia chinensis). This is quite a rapid-grow
ing tree, with deciduous leaves and stout twigs. It is a native of
China, and grows to a height of 40 or 50 feet. The leaves arc
smooth, glossy, and pinnate with six to ten pairs of leaflets, and
become deep red in autumn. This tree is very resistant to our
heat and has not been injured with temperatures as low as zero
«legrees F. It grows best in valley soils and tolerates considerable
alkali.
DAIRY HUSBANDRY
W. S. Cunningham, R. N. Davis
The Department of Dairy Husbandry has been strengthened
by the addition of R. N. Davis, who joined the department January
1, 1920, with the title of Extension Dairy Specialist with the under-
standing that he give one-half of his time to the regular work of
the department. Mr. J. F. Burrows was appointed as fellow assist-
ant in the department July 1, 1919.
The Experiment Station activities of the department have been
confined entirely to the University Farm at Tucson, on account
of lack of facilities for dairy work at any of the outlying Station
farms. A herd of Holstein-Friesian and Jersey cattle is main-
tained at the University Farm for classroom and investigational
work. Daily records of milk are kept, and the milk is tested for
two consecutive days in each month. The records of the cows
for their last lactation are given in Table No. VI.
TABLE VI. YIELDS OE DAIRY COWS AT UNIVERSITY EARM 1919-1920
Name of Cow
Princess of Chewanbeck. . . .
Childeberte
I\f yrtle of Nogales
Arizona Butter Girl
Average for Jerseys
tJelle Liscomb De Kol 2nd. .
*Joseph!ne Arizona Maid. . .
Moensje Jesse Aspirante. . . .
Theresa Belle 3rd
Josephine Arizona Maid 2nd
^Madison Martha 2nd
*Miss Pell Peitertje
Johanna Madison Pauline. . .
Theresa Belle DeVries
Average for Holstein-
Friesians
Days dry
Days
Breed
before
in
calving
milk
Jersey
180
253
a
66
365
<(
35
53
365
365
337
Holstein
-Friesian
22
306
50
281
53
322
<
43
365
70
365
90
333
(
120
285
100
365
u
55
365
332
Yield in pounds
milk
5609.6
8442.2
6380.4
6331.8
6691.0
9375.7
11338.4
9977.4
9921.4
12679.6
14481.7
11700.9
13995.7
13063.3
11837.9
butter-
fat
240.6
510.8
277.1
371.1
349.9
302.8
309.2
295.1
312.8
359.7
405.4
389.5
388.0
404.9
351.9
Avg. %
butter-
fat
4.29
6.05
4.34
5.86
5.23
3.23
2.73
2.96
3.15
2.84
2.79
3.32
2.77
3.09
2.97
*Milking period not complete.
EXPERIMENT WITH DAIRY COWS
The raising of cotton having crowded out so much alfalfa
acreage, alfalfa hay has been scarce and high in price. It has been
impossible at times to secure alfalfa hay at prices the average dairy-
man could afford to pay. Most farms have cane or corn fodder and
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 465
-lover which can be used as roughage if supplemented by protein
)nccntrates.
An experiment was planned to determine whether chopped cane
fodder supplemented by cottonseed meal can satisfactorily replace
alfalfa hay in the ration. Two lots of cows were used, five cows in
each lot. One lot was fed alfalfa hay, cottonseed meal, bran, and
silage, while the other lot received cane fodder (chopped), wheat
bran, cottonseed meal, and silage. The rations used were as fol-
lows :
ration a r.\tion b
Alfalfa liav 15 pounds Cane fodder (chopped) 15 pounds
Silage 25 pounds Silage 25 pounds
Mixture: Mixture:
Wheat bran 5 i)arts Cottonseed meal 4 parts
Cottonseed meal 1 part Wheat bran 2 parts
The mixture of concentrates in each case was fed so that the
llolstein cows received one pound of concentrates to each five
pounds of milk produced daily, while the Jerseys received one
pound for each four pounds of milk.
This test was run for two periods, and at the end of the first
l)eriod the rations were reversed, so that the lot of cows receiving
Ration A during the first period received Ration B during the
second period, and vice versa.
This test was not continued for a long enough time to give
any conclusive data, but the results indicate that while alfalfa
hay as a roughage causes a larger milk production, cane fodder
can be used satisfactorily, if accompanied by three to four pound.!
of cottonseed meal to provide sufficient protein. More work will
be done along this line.
MILK SUBSTITUTES FOR FEEDING CALVES
On farms where the whole milk is sold and no separating is
done, many dairymen sell the calves, both bulls and heifers, as soon
after birth as a buyer can be found, and on some farms all grade
bull calves are killed at birth. This practice makes it necessary
for such farmers to replenish their milking herds from time to time
1jy the purchase of cows, thereby exposing the herds to possibh^
infectiqn by disease germs, and preventing any intelligent improve-
ment by breeding. Where there is a market for whole milk at a
good price, one cannot afford to raise grade calves on it, as the
value of the milk consumed up to five months of age is greater
than the value of the calves. An experiment was planned and
466 Thirty-First Annuai. Report
conducted to determine whether calves can be raised successfully
on substitutes for milk at a cost which would justify their rearing.
Four groups of calves were formed to test different methods of
feeding and dift'erent rations.
Group 1 was known as the whole-milk group, and the calves
in it were fed whole milk until they were two months of age, to
give them a good start. The milk was then gradually decreased
about one-half pound per day, and replaced by a home-mixed grain
gruel. The mixture of feeds used in the gruel was as follows :
Rolled barley 3 parts by weight
Ground milo maize, 3 parts by weight
Wheat Bran, 3 parts by weight
Alfalfa meal, 3 parts by weight
Oil meal, 1 part by weight
Bone meal, .2 part by weight
This feed mixture was run through a grinder to get it as fine as
possible and was used in the gruel at the rate of one part to seven
parts of warm water. Besides the gruel, they were given some ot
the dry-grain mixture and alfalfa hay.
The three calves in this group were kept on the test until they
were five months of age, at which time they were in excellent con-
dition and somewhat over-weight for their age. Considerable
difficulty was experienced in getting them to eat the gruel. They
were also troubled with scours.
Group 2 was known as the homemade grain milk-substitute
group. These calves w^ere fed whole milk for the first week or
ten days ; then a small amount of the homemade ration was addeil.
This consisted of:
8 parts corn meal
V/2 " alfalfa meal
1^ " wheat bran
y2 " oil meal
3^2 " blood meal
.2 " ground bone mea»
This was mixed in the proportion of one part of meal to seven
parts of water and fed at a temperature of 90 to 100 degrees
Fahrenheit. The milk was to be decreased and the grain gruel
increased, until, at the age of five weeks, they were to receive a
full ration of 18 to 20 ounces of the meal made into 10 to 11 pounds
of gruel ; but the calves were troubled with scours so much that
they were kept on a partial milk ration and were given less than
the allotted amount of gruel. This group did not thrive, as it
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 467
seemed the feed was too coarse to be digested well by the young
calves ; one of them had to be taken off the test entirely. They
were given what they would clean up of a dry mash of equal parts
of ground milo, rolled barley, wheat bran with alfalfa hay.
Group 3 was fed on a commercial feed known as Red Horn
Calf Meal. The calves in this group were given whole milk until
ten days of age, at wdiich time the calf meal was added gradually,
so that at about five weeks of age each calf would be on calf meal
exclusively. The directions of the manufacturers were followed
as to amounts and methods of feeding the meal. The calves of
this group were given the same dry grain mixture and alfalfa hay
as were fed to Group 2. No difficulty was experienced with this
group, and the results were satisfactory.
The calves in Grouj) 4 were fed whole milk for about ten days ;
then started gradually on Red Horn Calf Meal. After about forty
days, they were gradually shifted from the commercial calf meal
to the homemade meal given under the discussion of Group 2.
This has seemed the most practicable method of using substi-
tutes for milk, as the calves do better on the more finely ground
commercial meal until several weeks of age. Then they can safely
be shifted to the cheaper home-mixed ration. Unless one is able
to grind the home-mixed ration fine, it seems best to use the com-
mercial meal, as the young calf does not seem to be able to endure
any considerable amount of coarsely ground feeds.
This test will be repeated during the next fiscal year to get a
check on the data and to trv out some changes in the rations.
ENTOMOLOGY
C. T. VORHIES
The research time of this department during the year 1919-
1920 was cut in half by necessary teaching work, including the
regular courses in General Entomology, and also a new course in
Beekeeping for Federal Board students.
Work on the Adams Fund grazing range rodent project was
pushed as much as possible throughout the year, but with some
weather interference at the times free from class work. Trips
have been made to the Range Reserve each month of the year
with the exception of May, 1920. Unexpected difficulty developed
in securing live jackrabbits for the enclosure, coyotes taking them
from the traps before morning in some cases. Not until June, 1920,
were the necessary rabbits secured and the success of their installa-
tion in the enclosure is still problematical. Kangaroo rats on two
occasions were placed in the enclosure built for that purpose, but
in both cases have shortly disappeared in some undetermined
manner. Some excellent results on the life history of Dipodomys
spectahilis, the large kangaroo rat, were secured and it is hoped to
complete this phase of the work in the following year.
Some progress has been made in adding to the insect collec-
tions under the Hatch Fund, though assistance in arranging and
classifying the material is badly needed to further this work. Of
especial interest at this time is the collection of insects taken from
the Arizona wild cotton, Thiirbcria fhcspcsioidcs. A large number of
insect species has been reported as occurring more or less regularly
on this plant, some of which are of economic importance as poten-
tial pests of cultivated cotton. During the autumn of 1919 con-
siderable scouting work was done on Thnrheria in cooperation wicli
a representative of the Federal Horticultural Board, and in the
course of this work the collecting of Thnrheria insects was carried
on. It is planned to continue this collecting in connection with
certain experimental work on a specific form which is planned for
next year, the aim being to make this special cidlection complete
as soon as possible.
In order to carry on the beekeeping work on a teaching basis
it was necessary to add considerable equipment and to work pri-
marily for extracted rather than for comb honey. The season of
1920 thus far has been very favorable in the Tucson region, and
already sufficient honey nearly to })ay for the additional equip-
ment has been produced.
HORTICULTURE
F. 1. Cridkr. a. F. Kinxisox. D. W. Alhi-rt
Tliis report covers a short but very active pcricxl in the work
of the Department of Horticulture. While no final conclusions
have been reached regarding- the main projects under way, some
very interesting and valuable data have been obtained and good
progress made in the various lines of investigation. The work of
the department has been strengthened through the appointment of
D. W. Albert as Assistant Horticulturist.
CITRUS I X VHSTi v^ATlON S
During the past winter and sirring, preparations were made for
establishing an experimental citrus planting on the Yuma Mesa.
This made necessary the installation of an individual pumpin.^-
plant designed to lift water from the east main canal in the Yuma
Valley and deliver through a pipe line on the Mesa, 85 feet eleva-
tion. An Allis-Chalmers direct-connected pumping unit, consist-
ing of a 5-inch Type S, double suction pump and a 40-horsepower.
440 volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle, 6-pole motor, was installed; als(^ a red-
wood pipe line 10 inches in diameter and 1050 feet long with an
extension cement line 14 inches in diameter and 680 feet in length,
which was sufficient to deliver water to the northeast corner of the
160-acre experimental tract. From this point the water is carried
one-half mile through an open ditch to the citrus planting.
Other preparatory work consisted of the digging of a service
well (fitted with a 6-inch casing and a Myers No. 95>^ pump;,
building a corral, securing a team and other necessary equipment
for orchard work.
Water was turned on the orchard land on Ma}' 27, and on
June 2 the first planting of citrus was made. Five acres of Marsh
Seedless grapefruit were planted, the trees being set 23 x 23 feet
apart. One-year-old, bud-selected trees were used and the work
of setting very carefully done. Shallow basins were left around
the trees and water turned into them immediately after planting.
To prevent evaporation and sunburn, paper collars were placed
around the bodies of the trees, and the tops whitewashed.
Cooperative experiments with citrus growers to determine thi
effect of difi'erent cover-crops on the growth and production of
citrus trees point favorably to vetch as a winter crop and cow-
4/0 TiiiRTv-FiRST Annual Report
])oas as a summer crop in the Yuma Alesa citrus district. Other
citrus investigational work in progress and planned may be note«l
as follows :
(a) Determining the effect of winter cover-crops on the tem-
perature of citrus orchards as related to Salt River Valley condi-
tions.
(b) Studies in bud-selection as pertaining to the Washington
Navel orange and Marsh Seedless grapefruit.
(c) Study of the ad,-!i)tability of citrus stocks used in propa-
gation.
(d) "J""6 Drop" studies, as pertaining to the Washington
Navel orange.
(e) Variety studies.
DATES
A serious outbreak of scale (Parlatoria blanchardi) in both the
Tempe and Yuma date orchards made it necessary to defoliate the
palms preparatory to "torching" for the control of the insect. The
])alms were cut back in May, the entire foliage being removed
except a few leaves at the top which were shortened to about three
feet in length. This treatment will prevent a crop of fruit this
season ; also it will cause the postponement of important investi-
gational work in connection with the propagation of ofT-shoots.
It is worthy of record that the date has been a subject of study
in Arizona since 1895, when the first notes were taken at the old
vStation Farm west of Phoenix. Cumulative evidence since that
time proves that the date is a most valuable fruit crop for southern
Arizona ; that certain varieties are particularly resistant to unfav-
orable weather conditions during the ripening period ; and that the
j)lant will succeed and produce good crops on extremely alkaline
soil.
OLIVES
In self-sterility tests conducted with twenty-four varieties of
olives, interesting data were secured in that a majority of the
varieties proved self-sterile. The work will be continued for con-
firmation of results and an effort made to determine the best pol-
lenizers or planting combinations.
Three distinct methods of pruning being practiced at the Yuma
Date Orchard and Horticultural Station are producing marked
differences in tree growth. The trees should come into bearing
next year, which will add to the interest of the work.
Arizona Agricultural Expi:rimi:.\t Station 471
THE WALNUT AND PECAN
Nursery stock for propagating the walnut and pecan is being
produced with a view to top-grafting cultivated varieties of these
nuts on the Native Arizona walnut (Jiiglans major), which is found
in abundance in many parts of the State. The pecan is well
adapted to the warmer portions of the State, and, if practical to
top graft it onto the native walnut, will become a valuable com-
mercial fruit crop for this section. The walnut, Juglans regia, has
not proven well adapted to the warm, dry climate of the lower
altitudes of Arizona although it does particularly well at elevations
above three thousand feet.
PRUNING STUDIES
A project involving eight distinct methods of pruning has re-
cently been started with a view toward determining the best pruning
practices under Arizona conditions. A three-acre orchard is being
used for this work at the Salt River Valley Experiment Farm. The
trees were set during March, and consist of representative varieties
of orange, grapefruit, peach, apricot, plum, and apple. They are
being carefully trained during the present summer so as to develop
a perfect formation of scafifold limbs. Definite pruning practices
will be started during the coming winter at the normal period for
dormant pruning.
WATER REQUIREMENT STUDIES
In connection with investigations to determine the practica-
bility of fruit-growing in parts of the State having an average raiti-
fall of 16 to 20 inches, a four-acre fruit planting was set this spring
on the Prescott Dry-Farm. The orchard is composed of some of
the good commercial varieties of apple, peach, and cherry, with a
separate planting of both European and American varieties of
grapes. The trees have started into growth and, although severely
taxed by a prolonged drouth, it is believed that only a small per-
centage will fail to grow. Distinct cultural practices and methods
of pruning are being followed, tending toward moisture conser-
vation.
In line with these investigations, an experiment to determine
the actual water requirements of fruits has been planned and will
be started during the next fiscal year. The effect of pruning on the
moisture requirement of the trees wmU be a special feature of this
project.
In the same connection, studies are being made of the environ-
mental factors such as rainfall, humidity, elevation, topography.
472
TllIRT\-l-IK>T AXXUAL REPORT
4. — ^Four-year-old apple orchard near Sonoita, Arizona, being grown without
irrigation.
5. — View in two-year-old variety orchard, Salt River Valley Experiment
Station.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 473
and soil conditions in sections of the State that appear to offer
promise in the matter of "dry-farm" fruit growing. Striking evi-
dence of the adaptability of certain un-irrigated localities to fruit
was observed in Pima and Santa Cruz counties east of the Santa
Rita Range at an elevation of approximately 4500 feet. In places
where the soil is deep and fertile, the apple, peach, and grape do
well, making a strong, steady growth and bearing good crops. A
more detailed study will be made of this and other sections of the
State where the rainfall is relatively high.
IIORTICULTL'RAL PLANT INTRODUCTIONS
A rather large number of untried fruits, vegetables, and orna-
menial ])lants that show promise of being of economic value in
Arizona are being tested. Some oi these plants are being grown in
regular orchard form, such as the white sapote, jujube, feijoa,
and guava, while others are being held in the nursery row, mostly
in the introduction garden at Yuma, to observe their behavior.
The following is a list of plants imder investigation: Chayota cdulis,
Casimiroa cduUs, Jnhac chiensis, Morns alba, Jiibae atlantica, Persea
amcricana, Eriobotrya japonica, Psidium guajava, AcJiras capotci,
Hovenia dnlcis, ZizipUns jujnba, Musa sapient ium, Peiojoa superba,
Peijoa choiceana, Shcphcrdia argcntea, Citrnlhis vulgaris. Uclianthc-
mnm chavnaecistiis, Ananas sativus, Diospyros cbcnaster, Annona muri-
cata, Citrus sinensis, Achradelpha mammosa, Chrysophyllum cainito.
Citrus nobilis, Diospyros kaki, Brassica pckinensis, Annona squamosa,
Annona chcnuiolia, Mimusors zcyhcri. Aniygdalus dav.idiana, Aspara-
gus acutifolius, Trichosanthcs qninquangulata, DoUchos lablab, Tro-
paeolnm tuberosum, Arachis hypogaca. Citrus IVebberii, Cucmnis melo,
Garcinia iiiangoslana. Primus saliciiuj, Cucurbita Hcifolia, Aleurites
Fordii.
IRISH POTATOES
A striking instance of the unreliability of seed potatoes pro-
duced in warmer districts of the State and held in ordinary
storage, developed in a test at the Yuma Date Orchard and Hor-
ticultural Station during the present season. In a planting con-
sisting of six leading varieties, produced the previous spring, a
complete failure resulted. The potatoes were kept for a period of
six and one-half months from the date of harvest to planting,
spread out thinly under an open shed. Although a good stand
was secured, the plants were lacking in vigor, and tubers failed
to develop properly.
In comparative tests at the University Farm at Tucson, the
Peach Blow variety from seed produced in Coconino County gave
474 Thirty-first Annual RiJport
the highest yield and proved most resistant to spring frost. The
other varieties used were White Rose, BHss Triumph, Early Ohio,
Early Rose, and Irish Cobbler.
Fertilizer and spraying experiments in cooperation with potato
growers in Coconino County were started this spring, but on ac-
count of a failure of the potato crop, due to drought, reliable data
could not be obtained.
SWEET POTATOES
Storage tests with sweet potatoes are continuing satisfactorily.
An adobe house designed and constructed so as to embody the
principles of successful sweet potato storage is proving a cheap
and efficient means of storage. It is believed that final data will
be secured on the subject next year.
Interesting results are expected from a collection of forty
varieties of sweet potatoes being tested this season at the Yum-i
Date Orchard and Horticultural Station.
MISCELLANEOUS
In a large collection of strawberry varieties tested at the Yuma
Station the following showed distinctly superior qualities, con-
sidered from the standpoint of yield, quality, and resistance to heal :
Early Ozark, Klondyke, Gandy, and Arizona Everbearing.
Nurser} stocks of citrus, grapes, figs, and olives are being pro-
pagated with success at the Yuma Station.
The production of Bermuda onion seed has given evidence of
promise at the Yuma Station and will be made a subject of further
study.
Landscai)e gardening plans have been prepared for the Salt
River Valley Experiment Farm, and some ornamental plantings
were made during the past spring.
The orchard at the Cochise Dry-Farm has been considerably
enlarged, leading varieties of apple, peach, cherry, grape, curranv,
gooseberry, and blackberry being added. The trees were set during
March.
A new greenhouse designed by the Horticultural Department
is being l)uilt on the University campus. It will be of material
value in the handling of station and class work in horticulture.
Considerable time was required of the Horticulturist in the
general supervision of work on the Yuma Mesa, at the Tempe Date
Orchard, and at the Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station.
It was also necessary for the members of the horticultural staff to
spend a considerable portion of their time in extension work i;i
horticulture.
IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS
G. E. P. Smith. W. E. Codk. H. C. SciiwalEn
The Iirigatiou Department has functioned, as in the past, with
a wide range of duties, inchiding research, investigation, and much
extension service Avork. The personnel has remained unchanged
THE FUEL OIL SlITUATION
Pump irrigation in Ariz(jna, which has become of great im-
portance, has been based in large measure on the availability of
California i)etroleum oils of excellent character and at low cost.
In February, 1920, the fuel oil situation became critical. The price
of gas oil, or tops, the oil most used for individual farmers' pumping
engines, advanced over a hvmdred percent at the refineries, and
furthermore the supply seemed to have vanished, since it was mosi
difficult to get any refinery to make contracts for the season's sup-
ply. While the price advanced, the (juality depreciated. Shipments
of gas oil to at least three pump irrigation districts, lligley, Casa
Grande, and Tucson, were tested l)y this Department on request
and found t^ be unsuitable for the ordinary type of farm engine.
The oil could be burned in the engines only with the greatest diffi-
culty and with rapid deterioration of the engines. Strenuous pro-
tests by the farmers, based on the reports of the tests, resulted in
temporary improvement in the quality of shipments, but at inter-
vals throughout the year unsuitable oil has been received in the
Arizona pumping districts.
The Irrigation Department has been studying fuel oils for
])umping engines for several years, and has accumulated much data
on this subject. On account of the critical importance of the
matter at this time, particularly in the case of pumping plants
where the vertical lift exceeds fifty feet, a bulletin has been pre-
pared and is in press. The subject of the bulletin is "The Supply,
the Price, and the Quality of Fuel Oils for Pump Irrigation."
Fuel oils from the oil fields of north Texas have been tested
with a view to promoting the production by the Texas refineries
of an oil suitable for 4-cycle electric-ignition engines, and of
minimum possible cost.
476 Thirty-first Annual Report
JRRIGATION BY FLOODING AND THE EFFICIENCY OF
IRRIGATION
A monograph entitled "Irrigation by Flooding and the Effi-
ciency of Irrigation," based on the experience of this Departmen:
during the past fifteen years, was prepared and read at a conven-
tion of the Associated Concrete Pipe Manufacturers of Southern
California at Ocean Park, California, in September, 1920. The
purpose oi the monograph is to promote better judgment and
economy in grading land for irrigation, and economy in the use
of water, particularly limited and expensive irrigation water sup-
plies. Reprints are available for distribution by the Agricultural
Experiment v*^tation.
SILT CONTENT STUDIES OF GILA RIVER WATER
In 1917, silt studies of the waters of the Gila River were
initiated by the U. S. Indian Service, and over eleven hundred
samples of river water were collected. The samples were so
distributed as to show the silt content at six locations on the
main stream from Duncan to Kelvin, and at Clifton on the San
Francisco tributary. The period of sampling extended over nine
months. After correspondence with Federal officials, this Depart-
ment obtained possession of the samples in January, 1920. Since
then the samples have been analyzed for silt content and for soluble
solids, and the silt records at Winkleman have been combined with
the stream floAv records in such manner as to show the acre-feet of
silt each day that would have been deposited in the San Carlos
Reservoir if the reservoir had lH.'cn in use. The total amount ol
silt carried by the river in the period was 196.5 acre-feet, which
was 0.3 percent of the river discharge for the period.
A report on these studies has been prepared and a copy was
presented to the U. S. Reclamation Service, which is now for the
second time investigating the problems of storage, regulation, an 1
use of the Gila River waters.
CASA GRANDE VALLEY
Groundwater development increased at a greater rate this year
than during any previous year. The acreage under pump irriga-
tion, or partial pump irrigation, this year was 9600, as against 5200
for 1919. The amount of water pumped is estimated as in direct
proportion to the acreages, since there was little rain during the
growing season and the increase was planted to cotton. This crop
takes less water than alfalfa and on many ranches it replaced it.
The volume of water pumped is estimated at about 12,500 acre-
Arizona Agricultural Expkrimkxt Statiox 477
feet. This appears to be a high duty for the water, but it is made
so by including about 3000 acres of lands along the Gila and under
the Casa Grande Canal, which receive gravity water also.
Water level measurements were made on four dates, in March,
in May. in August, and in October. In the pumping district near
the Tweedy ranch there was a complete recovery from the pre-
ceding summer's pumping, and then followed a depression half a
foot greater than the previous one. The pumping district has been
extended south to the Lloyd Prouty ranch and with it also the
area of depression has increased. Along the Gila for two miles
back, the groundwater during May reached as high a level as has
been yet ol)served and receded in October to the usual minimum--
a fluctuation of about two feet.
The high price of gas oil (17 and 18 cents per gallon) and the
difficulty of getting a good grade,, have resulted in many of tiic
semi-diesel and Brons type engines being purchased. These en-
gines burn lower grade fuel oils known as 24 plus and 27 plus.
The 27 phis is best adapted to the semi-diesel, but even this grade
of oil is difficult to obtain. The Brons type engine burns the 24
plus oil readily, but no lower grade ought to be used because of
the increase of solid matter contained. The greater cost of these
engines offsets the lower price of the fuel oil.
Two plants using compressed air to raise the water have been
installed, and unusual claims made for them regarding efficiency.
At one of these plants the depth to water is 40 feet and at the other
95 feet. The efficiency of this method of lifting water has been
shown in the past as being very low. The Department plans to
make tests on these plants very soon.
The total rainfall and run-off have been normal. During the
vear 1920, 14,000 acre-feet passed Sasco. Of this flow 370 acre-feet
reached the Southern Pacific tracks at Eloy, but none reached the
tracks west of this ])oint. At Lirim there was a local run-of¥ of
1400 acre-feet. With the exception of the month of .Vugust it is
known that there was no run-oft' at iMaricopa. There were two
winter floods from the Santa Rosa Wash.
SAN SIMON VALLEY
The Fourth Legislature of the State of Arizona, in Chapter
153, Session Laws, 1919, provided for special investigations of
water supply and irrigation possibilities in the three great valleys
of Cochise County. The largest item of the appropriation was for
an experimental artesian well in the San Simon Valley, a smaller
item was for a diversion dam in the Sulphur Spring Valley, and
478 TiiiRTY-FiRST Annual Report
$10,000 was specified for more general investigations in the three
valleys of the county.
All water supplies, including the artesian waters, have their
origin in the rainfall and run-off, and since no run-oft' measurements
had been made in the San Simon Valley, the first effort was di-
rected toward studying the run-off, both in the trough of the valley
and at the mouths of the mountain canyons. Gaging stations were
installed on the San Simon Creek at San Simon and above the
Cienega, and at the mouths of Cave, East Turkey, and Wood
canyons.
Four reservoir, sites have been surveyed, three in the trough
of the valley and one in Round Valley. The Round Valley site li
situated between Cave and East Turkey creeks and at such an
elevation that water from both creeks can be diverted into it.
The artesian area which extends nearly to Bowie on the west
and for ten miles southeasterly from San Simon has been developed
extensively already. It has been studied tl^e past year to deter-
mine the possibilities of further development. The yields of wells
ctnd the artesian pressures have been measured and studied in their
relation to the depths and types of construction. Cross-section^
and piezometric lines have been drawn to determine the source and
movement of the artesian waters. Influences of various factors,
such as shutting oft" the flow in winter, are under investigation.
The possibilities of development of groundwater by i)umping
are being studied.
Owing to the great extent of arable land as compared with the
water supply, a soil survey has l^een made of an extensive area
reaching from Bowie to Portal. The survey was made coopera-
tively by this Department and the U. S. Bureau of S.oils.
A site for the State experimental artesian well was selected,
but owing to the high prices prevailing for well casing and well
drilling, it has been impossible to contract the drilling of the well
for a sum within the limit of the appropriation.
SAN PEDRO VALLEY
A cooperative agreement has been made with the U. S. Geo-
logical Survey for a joint study and publication of the geology and
water resources of the San Pedro A/"alley. Dr. Kirk Bryan of the
Geological Survey has been assigned to the Valley.
Gaging stations are being maintained at Hereford and Fair-
bank for the special purpose of determining the water supply
available at the proposed Charleston reservoir site. Silt samples,
also, are taken at intervals.
Akizoxa A(.Kicri/rLRAr< Iv\im;kimi;\ r Statkin 479
It is not considered feasible to continue the heading of the St.
David canal in its present location, Ijecause of the rapidly increasing
width of the river channel. The heading should be in the rock
gorge about two miles north of Fairbank. Three alternative loca-
tions were selected in the rock gorge, and surveys and test borings
have been made to determine the best site. Three test holes have
been drilled to depths of 41, 79, and 52 feet without reaching bed-
rock. The best location is opposite the isolated rock island near
the north end of the gorge. A diversion dam of the weir type is
now being designed.
SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY
Gaging stations were installed August 1, 191'', at the mouths
of Rucker, West Turke\ . and Rock creeks, and in ]\Iarch, 1920,
at the mouth of Post Creek. These stations and one on the Wiiile-
water at Douglas are being maintained.
Seepage losses on the creeks were measured to determini.- tlic
principal areas of recharge.
A project for a diversion dam on the Whitewater ai)out 18
miles north of Douglas was surveyed and designed. This site is
the present head of deep river cutting. The purpose of the dam
is three-fold, — to permit the diversion of flood flows, to preserve
the excellent grass pastures above the dam which will be under-
drained if the headward erosion continues, and to forestall the
necessity for many bridges on the main creek and its tributaries.
YUMA MEvSA EXPEROn< NT STATION PUMPING PLANT
The pumping plant and pipe line, the design of which was
noted in the last annual report, was installed in May, 1920. It
has provided the water supply for the citrus groves throughout the
summer. The plant is of the most reliable type possible for irriga-
tion service. The rates for power, however, are high and the cost
of the power for pumping for the irrigation season of 1920 has
been almost $50 per acre.
THE CHIPPEWA PUMP
A Chippewa double-acting deep-well pumj) of small size was
tested in the irrigation laboratory. The high eftlciency that was
expected was not found, but nevertheless the pump should be good
for many situations, particularly stock-watering Avells of small
diameter.
PLANT BREEDING
W. E. Bryan, E. H. Prkssley
The work of the Plant Breeding Department reported herein
extends from January 1, 1920, to July 1, 1920. During this period
the entire time of the department was taken up with the wheat
project. Work with alfalfa and beans was taken up later in the
calendar year.
In a milling and baking test which has been made with hybrid
wheats originated at this Station, one sort has given particularly
promising results. This wheat has been produced by crossing a
hard Macaroni wheat with the soft Sonora and six years of careful
selection. The following is the score of the breads produced from
these wheats as rendered by the Milling Department of the Kansas
State Agricultural College on the basis of 100 for perfect :
Soft parent 91.75
Hard Macaroni parent 91.50
Hybrid (lopoj 96-58
Kansas patent 94.16
These wheats were grown under irrigation in the Salt River Valle>-
under ordinary field conditions. The yield of this hybrid was 47
bushels per acre, which is about 5 bushels more per acre than that
of the hard parent.
The third generation of the bread wheat hybrids made origi-
nally in the spring of 1917 was grown in the screen garden on
the campus. Two lines of investigation have been carried out
with this material, viz : inheritance of grain texture in a cross be-
tween hard and soft wheats, and the inheritance of earliness in n
cross between early and late-maturing wheats. In making the
cross, a late-maturing wheat with hard, glassy grains was crossed
with an early maturing variety with soft grains. This combina-
tion made it possible for the two lines of work to be carried on
with the same material. The economic end sought in this work
is to produce a hard, early maturing wheat suitable for growth
under Arizona conditions. In order to understand the significance
of the present year's work, it will be necessary to make a study of
all the material which has accumulated since the initial cross.
In the spring of 1917, thirty-three flowers of the hard-grained
late variety (Turkey Red, 36-36) were pollinated with pollen from
the soft-grained early variety (Sonora. 35). Two of these proved
Arizona Agricultirai. Expkrimi-xt Station 481
to be ])iii-c' Turkey grains. All the thirty-one grains were as hard
as the liard parent, no signs of xenia being apparent. The texture
of the more than eight thousand seeds which grew on the 31Fi
plants was mostly of the diffuse type (soft), with a few grains
almost as hard as the grains of the hard parent; but the diffuse
grains of these first generation plants were distinctly harder than
the diffuse grains of the soft parent. No selections were made
in this generation on the basis of texture, the progeny of each F,
plant being planted separately. The main object in making the
cross was to study the segregation oi these two types of texture in
the second generation and to test them in the third and succeeding
generations. However, selections have been made and planted
for the purpose of testing the effect of the selection of hard and
soft grains from the first generation plants.
For the second plant generation studies, 4581 plants were
grown to maturity, and the classification of the grain of these
plants according to texture was as follows :
983 plants having all hard grains;
2285 plants having hard and soft grains;
1313 plants having all soft grains.
A more desirable classification would have resulted if it had
been possible definitely to separate the grains in the hard- and
soft-grained plants into the two types used, but this was impossible
on account of the almost insensible gradations in passing from one
extreme to the other. This classification gives the ratio 0.859:
1.995:1.1-16, which rather distantly approaches the 1:2:1 ratio. In
testing this classification in the third generation, the following
selections were grown :
Three hundred and six plants, grown from seeds of Fj plants
having all hard seeds, gave 301 plants having seeds all hard, and
5 plants having seeds all intermediate; 476 plants, grown from
seeds of F,, plants having all soft seeds, gave 476 plants all soft;
• 143 plants grown from hard seeds selected from F2 plants having
both hard and soft seeds gave :
131 plants having all hard seeds;
4 plants having all soft seeds ;
3 plants having hard and intermediate seeds ;
3 plants having hard and soft seeds;
1 plant having intermediate seeds ;
1 plant having soft and intermediate seeds.
Eighty-two plants grown from soft seeds selected from F.
plants having both hard and soft seeds gave:
482
TiiiRTv-FiRST Annual Report
47 plants having all soft seeds;
23 plants having soft and intermediate seeds ;
4 plants having hard and intermediate seeds;
3 plants having hard and soft seeds ;
1 plant having hard, soft, and intermediate seeds ;
3 plants having all hard seeds.
The seeds of the third generation seem to confirm the second
generation classification fairly well. The five plants with seeds
all intermediate probably indicate either an error in the classifica-
tion of the second generation or some environmental disturbance
in the growth of the intermediate plants, such as receiving more
water than the rest of the plants. The breaking up in the groups
planted from seeds selected from plants having both hard and soft
seeds is somewhat irregular, and the intermediates, as well as the
intermediates occurring in the hard class, require further testing
in at least another generation.
So far in this cross at least one thing is clear: the two types
of texture have segregated sharply in the second generation and
have maintained their identity. There is also a fair indication that
there is a single factor difference beteen the two types of texture.
Along with the study of grain texture, considerable attention
has been given to the question of inheritance of earliness in order
to produce an early maturing variety. In the fall of 1919, selec-
tions were made from the second generation plants that headed
during the heading period of the early parent.
Table VII shows the coefficient of heredity in the offspring of
34 of these earlv selections.
TABLIv VII. — COEFFICIENT OF HEREDITY (r)lN THE OEESPRINC. OE 34
liARIvY SELECTIONS
^ <
March
Mean Date of First Head of Offspring
April
28
29
30
31 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 1 10 1 |
28
29
30
31
1
2
3
4
1
II
II III II
II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
11 1 1 1 1 1
3 1 7 3|4|5 3|3 2| |2|33|
1
3|1 7 3|4|5 3|3|2| |2|34l
r = .4199 -f .0952
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 483
The offspring of 28 of the 34 selections had individual ranges
itf heading dates that were approximately the same as those of the
parents. The standard deviations from the mean heading dates
were of approximately the same size as those of the parents. These
facts, together with the fairly high coefficient of heredity and the
grain texture studies, indicate the possibility of producing early
races oi hard wheat which are suitable for the irrigated districts
of Arizona.
POULTRY HUSBANDRY
Francis R. Kenney,- N. L. Hakris
During the fall, several cockerels of breeds and varieties promi-
nent in Arizona were purchased for breeding purposes. These
cockerels are of known pedigree from high-producing strains, and
are to be used in founding high-laying strains from which males
can be secured to improve the flocks of Arizona.
A number of vocational students enrolled for work in poultry,
which greatly increased the incubation and brooding activities.
Two large brooder houses were erected and equipped with oil-
burning brooder stoves. These houses were designed to accommo-
date five hundred to one thousand chicks each, but it was soon
found that they would handle these chicks for not to exceed four
weeks.
An 1800-egg Mammoth incubator was also installed ; but the
results from it were not satisfactory, due to improper coal an<l
unsuitable location for operation.
Owing to the very limited housing and rearing facilities for
developing chicks, it was necessary to dispose of almost all the
young stock.
Considerable data were secured as to the advisability of an
intensive fattening period before marketing the early broilers and
the practicability under many conditions of caponizing the later
hatched cockerels.
The different climatic and environmental conditions in this
part of the Southwest and the lack of information as to suitable
buildings, feed, etc., make experimental work along these lines
imperative. From the results of this season's work, the great im-
portance of having a house that can be adjusted to care for the
484 TiiiRTv-FiRST Annual Rupokt
radical climatic chanoos. an abundnce of shade, and a plentifnl
supply of green feed the year around demand primary consideration
The correspondence course was inaugurated with an enroll-
ment of over a hundred to meet, in part, the needs of those unable
to leave their homes for such study.
The department and people of this State suffered a severe loss
bv the resignation of N. L. Harris, the Extension Specialist.
In making a survey of the field at the end of the fiscal year,
the legitimate demands on the Poultry Department are found to
l)e rapidly increasing and it is hoped that in the near future the
department may be enlarged, and a larger, better located, and bet-
ter equipped plant secured so as more adequately to meet these
needs.
The University of Arizona Collesre of Agriculture
Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 93
Steer> in Lot IV — April 2:,, Iff^l.
FEEDING COTTON SEED AND COTTON SEED
PRODUCTS TO RANGE STEERS
Bv E. B. Stanley
Tucson, Arizona, August, 1921
ORGANIZATION
BOARD or KKGENTS
Ex-Ofticio Members
HIS EXCELLKXCY, THOMAS E. CAMPBELL, Oovernor of Arizona rhocnix
HON. I;LSIE TOLES, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Phoenix
Appointed Members
EFKS RANDOLPH, Clianiellor Tucson
JAMES G. COMPTOX, Secretary Tucson
JOHN H. CAMPBELL, LL.M., Treasurer Tucson
AVILLIAM SCARLETT, A.B., B.D Phoenix
TIMOTHY A. RIORDAX Flagstaff
EDMUND W. WELLS Prescott
LoUJS D. RICKETTS, Sc.D., LL.D Warren
ESTHER W. HUDSON '. Tempe
RUFUS B. VON KLEINSMID, A.M., Sc.D., J.D President of the University
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
D. W. WORKING, B.Sc, A.M Dean College of Agriculture, Director
♦ROBERT H. FORBES, Ph.D Research Specialist
JOHN J. THORNBER, A.M Botanist
ALBERT E. VINSON, Ph.D Agricultural Chemist
GEORGE E. P. SMITH, B.S., C.E Irrigation Engineer
RICHARD H. WILLIAMS, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
WALTER S. CUNNINGHAM, B.S Dairy Husbandman
CHARLES T. VORHIES. Ph.D Entomologist
GEORGE E. THOMPSON, B.S.A Aiironomist
FRANKLIN J. CRIDER, M.S : Horticulturist
WALKER E. BRYAN, M.S Plant Breeder
JAMKS G. BROWN, M.S Plant Pathologist
R. B. THOMPSON, B.S.A Poultry Husbandman
CLIFFORD N. CATLIN, A.M Associate Agricultural Chemist
W. E. CODE, B.S. C.E Assistant Irrigation Engineer
A. F. KINNISON, B.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
R. S. HAWKINS, B.S.A Assistant Agronomist
E. H. PRESSLEY, B.S Assistant Plant Breeder
H. C. SCHWALEN, B.S.M.E Assistant Irrigation Engineer
H. B. STANLEY, B.S ,.Assistant Animal Husbandman
D. W. ALBERT, B.S Assistant in Horticidture
S. P. CLARK, B.S Assistant in Agronomy
K. N. DAVIS, B.S Assistant in Dairy Husbandry
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE
W. M. COOK, A.B Director
A. B. BALLANTY'NE, B.S Assistant in Club and County Agent Work
County Home Demonstration Agents
ALICE V. JOYCE State Leader
EDNA M. LADWIG, B.S. (South Counties) Tucson
FLOSSIE D. WILLS, B.S. (Maricopa) Phoenix
ROSA BOUTON, B.S., A.M. (North Counties) Prescott
GRACE RYAN (Southeast Counties) Douglas
County Agricultural Agents
W. M. COOK. A.M ; : State Leader
C. R. ADAMSON, B.S. (Cochise.... '. Willcox
F. A. CHISHOLM, B.S. (Coconino) Flagstaff
H. C. HEARD, B.S. (Maricopa) Phoenix
C. R. FILLERUP (Navajo and Apache) Snowflake
C. B. BROWN, B.S. ( Pima) Tucson
E. S. TURVILLE (Pinal) Cas.i Grande
M. M. WINSLOW, B.S.A. (Yuma). Yuma
C. U. PICKRELL, B.S.A. (Yavapai) Prescott
J. D. MORGAN, B.S. (Santa Cruz) Nogales
J. W. WRIGHT, B.S. (Graham) Safford
*0n leave.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction 485
Method and plan 485
Changes in feeds 487
Animals used 488
Costs 488
Summary 491
ILLUSTRATIONS
Steers in lot IV— April 26, 1921 Cover cut
Steers in lot I— April 26, 1921 487
Feeding Cotton Seed and Cotton Seed Products to
Range Steers
^3' E. B. Stanley
INTRODUCTION
The rapid development of the farming industry in Arizona during
the past ten years has heen made possible by the outlet afforded for
its products through feeding to livestock. A balancetl agricultural
policy demands a system of diversified farming in which livestock is
an essential factor in maintaining soil fertility and the transformation
of home grown feeds into a finished marketable product.
The advent of the cotton industry into Arizona and the conse-
quent widening between the market prices of cotton seed and cotton-
seed meal, together with a lack of experimental information regarding
the relative feeding values of these two feeds, prompted the Agricul-
tural Experiment Station to conduct a steer feeding test at the Salt
River Valley Experiment Farm during the winter and spring of 1921.
The purpose of the experiment herein reported was to ascertain
the relative values of whole cotton seed and cottonseed meal when
fed with a basal ration of alfalfa hay and corn silage for fattening
steers. It was further planned to make a comparison of corn silage
and cottonseed hulls when fed as the sole roughage supplemented
with cottonseed meal in fattening rations and also to test the results
of feeding cotton seed in a crushed form.
METHOD AND PLAN
The feeds which constituted the basal ration of the dift'erent lots
were the two staple crops grown in our farming sections and widely
recognized as leading roughage feeds, namely alfalfa hay and silage.
Cottonseed meal, whole cotton seed, crushed cotton seed, and cotton-
seed hulls were the supplementary feeds used. All the feeds were of
486 BuLLKTiN 93
good quality with the exception of the cottonseed meal, which showed
by direct analysis that it contained only 33.62 percent protein. The
chemical composition of the feeds used was determined by the Depart-
ment of Agricultural Chemistry as given in the following table:
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
Carbohydrates
Feed Water
Nitrogen
Ash
Protein
Crude Fiber
Free Extract
Fat
4.06
18.50
23.26
31.98
15.70
6.37
33.62
14.70
31.49
7.68
3.00
4.93
46.52
35.26
2.33
1.70
3.49
7.48
15.38
0.74
8.02
15.73
29.75
40.59
1.67
Cottonseed 6.50
Cottonseed meal 6.14
Cottonseed hulls 7.99
Corn silage 71.21
Alfalfa hay Z.7
The complete rations fed to the cattle were as follows: Lot I,
corn silage, alfalfa hay, and cottonseed meal; Lot H, corn silage,
alfalfa hay, and whole cotton seed; Lot III, corn silage, alfalfa, and
crushed cotton seed ; Lot IV, corn silage and cottonseed meal ; Lot V,
same as Lot I ; Lot VI, cotton seed hulls and cottonseed meal.
The comparisons are :
L Cottonseed meal with whole cotton seed. Lots I and V
with 11.
2. Corn silage with cottonseed hulls. Lots IV and VI.
3. Whole cotton seed with crushed cotton seed, Lots II
and III.
The cattle were divided into five lots of eight head each, care
being taken to make each lot as nearly uniform as possible in quality,
weight, and condition, and one lot of ten head in which were the smaller,
more timid animals culled from the entire number. The feed lots
in which the cattle were fed were alike in construction, each meas-
uring 48x60 feet with a feed manger 3 feet wide and Z6 feet long.
No shed or covering was needed as there were no heavy rains, and
the temperature during the test varied from 28° F. to 94° F.
The animals had free access to salt and water at all times.
Prior to the experiment proper, all the cattle were fed a liberal
ration of alfalfa hay and silage for a period of ten days in order to
get the animals to eating well before beginning the actual test.
Fkkding Cotton Skrd
487
The daily ration was given in two feeds, one at 8:00 a. m., and
the other at 4 :00 p. m. From the ontset, the animals receiving hay,
silage, and cottonseed hulls were given all of these feeds they would
consume.
The first week, all the steers in Lot I received 1 pound cotton-
seed meal per head daily; those in Lots II and III, 4 pounds cotton
seed ; and Lots IV and VI, 2 pounds cottonseed meal. The cotton-
seed meal was increased to 2^/2 pounds per head daily the second
week in Lot I ; the cotton seed to 6 pounds in Lots II and III ; and the
Steers in Lot I — April 2.3, 1921
cottonseed meal to 3^2 pounds in Lots IV and VI. After the third
week, the steers in Lot I were given 4 pounds of cottonseed meal and
those in Lots IV and VI received 5 pounds cotton seed meal ; while
the steers in Lots II and III received 8 pounds cotton seed. Lot V
received the same ration throughout the entire test as Lot I.
CHANGKS IN FEEDS
From January 26 to February 16, the silage fed was from the
Orange Cane sorghum. After this time the cattle were given corn
488 BuLLKTiN 93
silage but did not relish it as well as the sweeter sorghum silage pre-
viously used, but after a few days they were eating heartily of the
corn silage.
The animals in Lot II did not consume the 8-pound allowance
of whole cotton seed per head, and on March 16 it was reduced to 6
pounds. Beginning February 18, 6 pounds of crushed cotton seed
was fed to each steer in Lot III in place of the whole cotton seed.
After April 1 until the close of the test, the allowance of cottonseed
meal was increased 1 pound in Lots I, IV, V, and VI.
ANIMAIvS USED
Fifty head of common bred two year old range steers were pur-
chased from L. L. Bates at Prescott, Arizona, and shipped to the Salt
River Valley Experiment Farm January 15, 1921. In consequence
of the poor condition of the ranges during the past season, the animals
arrived at the farm in poor condition. They were a hardy, uniform
lot showing a predominance of Hereford breeding, and immediately
took to their liberal ration of alfalfa hay and silage.
COSTS
The animals cost $6.80 per hundred, which included shipping ex-
pense and cost of feed during the preliminary feeding period.
The prices charged for the feeds used in the experiment were as
follows: cottonseed meal $30 per ton; wdiole cotton seed $10 per ton;
alfalfa hay and corn silage at $24 and $8 per ton respectively; cotton
seed (crushed) at $12 per ton, and cottonseed hulls at $12 per ton.
In handling such a small number of steers as 50 head no charge was
made for labor nor any credit given for the manure, it being considered
that this by-product will pay for the labor of feeding.
The cattle in Lot I receiving a ration of alfalfa hay, silage and
cottonseed meal made an average daily gain of 2.71 pounds per
head, while it will be observed that Lot V receiving the same ration
gained 3.35 ])Ounds per head daily. The steers in Lot I were larger
and in better condition than the animals in all the other lots, which
accounts for the wide variation in the com]>arative results of Lots I
and \\ Two steers in Lot \^ which were undev size, made the average
initial weight per head of the animals in this lot less than the other
Feeding Cotton Seed 489
lots, but the condition of the animals in this lot was more nearly rep-
resentative of the entire number than was that of Lot I.
The cattle in Lot II made an average daily gain of 2.58 pounds,
or j7 pound less than the animals fed cottonseed meal in Lot V, and
.13 pound less than those fed cottonseed meal in Lot I. The better
condition of the steers in Lot I accounts for the small difference in
gains compared with Lot II, because the cotton seed fed steers natur-
ally took on a greater fill, due to their poorer condition.
Further comparisons of Lots II and V, receiving the cotton seed
and cottonseed meal, respectively, indicate that less feed was required
per 100 pounds in Lot V and at a cost difference of seven cents.
The steers receiving cottonseed meal in Lots I and V produced a
better finish and made a better gain and a higher dressing percentage,
averaging 56.85 per cent, as compared with I^ot II with 53.6 per cent.
Lot II receiving alfalfa hay, silage and whole cotton seed made an
average daily gain of 2.58 pounds per head. Lot III, receiving the
same ration, except that the seed was crushed, gained 2.41 pounds per
head daily. The cost and amount of feed required per 100 pounds
were practically equal in both lots.
The steers in Lot IV, fed silage and cottonseed meal, made an
average daily gain per head of 3.02 pounds as compared with Lot VI,
receiving cottonseed hulls and cottonseed meal, which made a daily
gain of 2.41 pounds per head. The silage fed steers gained .61 pound
more per head daily at a feed cost of only sixty-three cents more per
100 pounds gain, and gave a much smoother finish with only a small
difference in dressing percentage. The steers in Lot VI required 823.5
pounds cottonseed hulls to produce 100 pounds gain, which is one-
half the weight of silage consumed per 100 pounds gain in Lot IV.
This amount of silage and hulls cost $6.70 and $4.94 respectively at
current prices. The hull fed steers consumed 192 pounds of cotton-
seed meal per 100 pounds gain, or 36 pounds more than the silage fed
steers required per 100 pounds gain. Since the allowance of cotton-
seed meal was the same in Lots IV and VI, the difference in favor of
Lot IV must be attributed to the silage. During the last ten days of
the feeding period the hull fed steers became unthrifty and their
normal rate of gain decreased.
490
Bulletin 93
SUMMARY OF STEER FEEDING EXPERIMENT COMPARING COTTONSEED
MEAL AND WHOLE AND CRUSHED COTTON SEED BASED ON ONE AVERAGE
STEER JANUARY 26, 1921, TO APRIL 26, 1921
Lot number 1 2 3 4 5 6
•No. steers in lot 8 8 8 8 10 8
Hay Hay Hay Hay Cotton
F^ttpnincT ration frH ^'^^^^ ^'^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^'^^^^ ^''^^^ seed hulls
rattening ration lea. cotton whole Crushed Cotton Cotton Cotton
seed meal seed seed seed meal seed meal seed meal
Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
Av. initial weight 718.8 705.0 636.8 697.5 553.0 643.8
Av. final weight 963.0 937.5 854.0 969.5 854.8 860.8
Av. total gain 244.2 232.5 217.2 272.0 301.8 217.0
Av. daily gain 2.71 2,58 2.41 3.02 3.35 2.41
Average Daily Ration :
Alfalfa hay" 2.41 2.28 2.28 2.31 0.24
Silage 47.77 32.99 30.93 50.63 39.83 2.82
Cotton seed whole 6.24
Cotton seed crushed 5.54
Cotton seed meal 3.85 4.72 3.90 4.64
Cotton seed hulls 19.86
Feed required for lOO pounds
gain :
Alfalfa hay 88.6 88.8 95.0 68.9 10.1
Silage 1760.6 1277.2 1280.8 1675.4 1187.6 117.0
Cotton seed whole 241.6 51.0
Cotton seed crushed 178.5
Cotton seed meal 141.3 156.2 116.2 192.0
Cotton seed hulls 823.5
Cost 100 pounds gain $10.23 $ 7.39 $ 7.57 $ 9.04 $ 7.32 $ 8.41
Initial cost per head at
$6.80 cwt $48.88 $47.94 $43.30 $47.43 $37.60 $43.78
Feed cost per head 24.99 17.16 16.62 24.60 22.09 18.27
Interest at 8% .80 .80 .80 .80 .80 .80
Marketing expense 60 .60 .60 .60 .60 .60
Total cost per head 75.27 66.50 61.32 73.43 61.09 63.45
Selling price per cwt $ 7.00 $ 7.00 $ 7.00 $ 7.00 $ 7.00 $ 7.C»0
Returns per steer 62.02 60.38 55.00 62.44 55.05 55.44
Loss per steer 13.25 6.12 6.32 10.99 6.04 8.01
Necessary selling price 8.50 7.71 7.80 8.23 7.77 8.01
Necessary margin 1.70 .91 1.00 1.43 .97 1.21
Dressing percentage 56.9 53.6 55.6 56.4 56.8 55.5
Feeding Cotton Seed 491
SUMMARY
Cottonseed meal compared witli cotton seed gave nnifornily bet-
ter results as evidenced by the greater gain of the animals, their
smoother finish, and their higher dressing percentage.
When fed with a basal ration of alfalfa and silage to iwo-year-old
steers, 100 pounds of cottonseed meal are equal to 170 pounds of
whole cotton seed. Cotton seed at $17 per ton is equal to cottonseed
meal at $30 per ton. (The cottonseed meal was low grade, containing
only 33.62 percent protein, although it was purchased as choice meal.)
It was found that the use of cotton seed in a crushed form was
not warranted.
Corn silage when fed with cottonseed meal gave larger and more
uniform daily gains than did the ration of cottonseed hulls and cotton-
seetl meal. Cattle fed a ration of cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls
made good daily gains for the first 60 to 80 days, after which time
the gains began to diminish rapidly. If the roughage is silage instead
of hulls the meal may be fed for a longer period of time without ill
effects.
The lack of finish of the steers receiving cottonseed meal indicated
that it would have required a feeding period of 120 days to put them in
good marketable condition, and 150 days for those receiving cotton
seed, had they continued to make the same rate of gain.
The University of Arizona
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 94
The Mission Olive.
THE OLIVE IN ARIZONA
By F. J. Crider
Tucson, Arizona, January, 1922
ORGANIZATION
BOARD OF REGENTS
Ex-Offlcio Members
HIS EXOELLENOY, THOMAS E. CAMPBELL, Governor of Arizona Phoenix
HON. ELSIE TOLES, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Phoenix
Appointed Members
JOHN H. CAMPBELL, L'-.M., Charioeilor Tucson
JAMES G. COMPTON, Secretary :....Tucson
MOSE DRACHMA X, Treasurer Tucson
TIMOTHY A. RIORDAN _ Flagstaff
EDMUND W. WELLS Prescott
LOUIS D. RICKETTS, Sc.D., LL.D Warren
ESTMER W. HUDSON „ _ Tempe
DWIGHT B. HEARD Phoenix
DEAN FRANCIS C. LOCKWOOD, Ph.D _ Chairman, Executive Committee
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
D. W. WORKING, B.Sc, A.M Dean College of Agriculture
JOHN J. THORNBER, A.M Director Experiment Station, Botanist
•ROBERT H. FORBES, Ph.D Research Specialist
ALBERT E. VINSON, Ph.D Agricultural Chemist
GEORGE E. P. SMITH, B.S., C.E „ Irrigation Engineer
RICHARD H. WILLIAMS, Ph.D Animal HusbiindTnau
WALTER S. CUNNINGHAM, B.S Dairy Husbandman
CHARLES T. V^OKHIES, Ph.D Entomologisi
GEORGE E. THOMPSON, B.S. A Asronomis.
FRANKLIN J. CRIDER, M.S Horticulturist
WALKER E. BRYAN, M.S Plant Breeder
JAMES G. BROWN, M.S Plant Pathologist
R. B. THOMPSON, B.S.A Poultry Husbandman
CLIFFORD N. CATLIN, A.M Associate Agricultunl Chemist
W. E. CODE, B.S.C.E Assistant Irrieation Ensr'neer
A. F. KINNISON, B.S.A Assistant Hortioullurist
R. S. HAWKINS, B.S.A _ „ Assistant Agronomist
E. H. PRESSLEY, B.S Assistant Plant Breeder
H. C. SCHVVALEN, B.S.M.E Assistant Trriantion Knsrineer
E. B. STANLEY, B.S Assistant Animal Husbandman
D. W. ALBERT, B.S Assistant Horticulturist
S. P. CLARK, B.S As«i«tpnt Agronomist
R. N. DAVIS, B.S _ „ Assistant Dairj- Husbandman
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE
W. M. COOK, A.B _ _ Director and State Leader County Agricultural Agents
A. B. BALLANTYNE, B.S Assistant in CUh ;m.l Connrv a . f.,>t \\„rk
ALICE V. JOYCE State Leader of Home Demonstration Agents
County Home Demonstration Agents
EVALYN A. BENTLEY. B.S. (Pima and Santa Cruz) Tucson
FLOSSIE D. WILLS. B.S. (Maricopa) _ Phoenix
ROSA BOUTON, B.S., A.M. (North Counties). ..„ _ Prescott
GRACE RYAN (Southeast Counties) _ Douglas
County Agricultural Agents
O. E. ADAMSON, B.S. (Cochise) Willcox
F. A. CHISHOLM, B.S. (Coconino) Flagstaff
H. C. HEARD, B.S. (Maricopa) _ Phoenix
O. R. FILLERUP (Navajo and Apache) _ „ Snowflake
C. B. BROWN, B.S. (Pima) _ Tucson
E. S. TURVILLE (Pinal) _ Casa Grande
0. U. PICKRELL, B.S.A. (Yavapai) „ Prescott
A. Z. SMITH, B.S. (Santa Cruz)..._ Nogales
J. W. WRIGHT, B.S. (Graham) SafTord
W. F. GILPIN, B.S. (Greenlee) , .Duncan
"On leave.
CONTENTS
493
IntroduPtion - ~ ~ jg-
Characteristics of the Olive - - ^g^
Natural Requirements - - - "• ^gg
"«?t - ::::::z"~"~"::z:" 497
Cold :; tqn
Humidity — Topoprraphy — Soil ^^^
Olive Districts - - - ^gg
Propagation - - ~ 400
Hardwood Cuttings - - - — .gZ
Small Cuttings - ,r^„
Grafting Young Stock - g^jg
Top-Grafting - — • g^^
Planting - -««
Distance Apart for Planting „ - - - °"*
Planting the Tree - °"'
Trimming the Roots and Top - - °j;'^
Culture Rf>7
Tillage — Cover Cropping - - °"'
Fertilizing — Irrigation - - °^|
Pruning - - - "■" -oq
Pruning the Young Tree : - ""*
Pruning Bearing Trees _ - °t:^
Time to Prune _ - - °^3
Interplanting •- - ■' gj^
Ha'T?«t'"8: — " — :::z:::::::" 515
Grading g-ig
Age of Bearing and Yield -•• ,,,
Varieties ..._ - - - '-5).
Pickling Ripe Olives — - - °;°
Lye Process _ -- °%^
Specinl Consider.itions of the Lye Process ^^'
Pure-Water Process - ^ri
Green Pickles „ - - °;'
The Future Outlook "■^'^
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES
Plate T. The Mission, Razzn, nnd Maznnillo olives fslicrhtly less thar nr.tural size).... 518
Plate n. The Cavon, Rubra, and Corregiola olives (slightly less than natural size).... 519
Plate HI. The Rejralis. Columella, and Nevadillo olives (slightly less than natural size) blO
Plate rv. The Penduiina, Frautoia, Uvaria, and Atro Violacea olives (slightly less than
natural size) -- - 521
Plate V. The Morinella, Precox, Grossia, and Oblonga olives (slightly less than natural
size) - - 524
FIGURES
Fig. 1. View in eipht-vear-old olive orchard. Alfalfa cover crop Frontispiece
Fig. 2. Showina- fruiting habit of the olive. Flowers borne on wood of previous sea-
son's growth *Q*
Fig. 3. Old olive orchard top-grafted to more desirable varieties 4»o
Fig. 4. Tree of the Mission variety at the end of the second growing season 496
Fig. 5. Bundle of olive cuttines made from mature, large wood 4»9
Fig. 6. Types of small olive cuttinss, natural size ^""
Fig. 7. Small olive cuttings in propaeation box -■ -.— • ^01
Fig. 8. Method of preparing scions for bark graft; (a) ordinary scion, (b) scion
trimmed on back, exposing chlorophyll layer oOz
Fig, 9. Showing stock with scion inserted, and the completed graft o03
Fig. 10. Eieht-year-old olive orchard, showing good spacing 606
Fig. 11. Young tree properly cut back at time of planting - - o06
Fig. 12. Thinning of voung tree during first erowing season 5iO
Fig. 13. Final selection of framework branches. (Note distribution) -. 511
Fig. 14. Five-year-old olive orchard interplanted with Thompson seedless grapes. Owned
by B. F. Carper, Salt River Valley j — "^s^u \
THE OLIVE IN ARIZONA
^-y F. J. Crider
INTRODUCTION
Olive growing promises to become a very important industry in
Arizona. Vigorous commercial orchards in the Salt River Valley and
lesser plantings in other localities bear witness that the olive is per-
fectly at home in this State. The size and quality of the fruit compare
most favorably with the finest olives of the Mediterranean region, itt-
native habitat.
The purpose of this publication is to emphasize the best practices
in successful olive culture, based on investigations made by the Ari-
zona Experiment Station during the past twenty-six years. In addition
to the material contributed by the Station plantings in the preparation
of this bulletin, valuable data have been obtained from commercial
orchards in the Salt River Valley owned by the following: Gregg
Olive Company; Munson Brothers; Walter Wilson; B. F. Carper; T.
E. Bradshaw ; H. Leppla ; F. II. Redewill ; W. S. Perry; and E. L.
Graver.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OLIVE
The olive is an evergreen tree, attaining a height of thirty to thirty-
five feet when fully developed. Its symmetrical growth and beautiful
foliage make it very ornamental and worthy of a place in the home
grounds as well as in the commercial orchard. The better varieties
blossom rather late in the season compared with most deciduous fruits,
which is an advantage in minimizing danger from frost. Only one
of the seventeen varieties at Tucson was in bloom during the cold
spell of April 5, 1921, which caused great damage to fruit throughout
the country. The blooming season at Yuma begins about March 25
to 30, and in the Casa Grande and Salt River valleys about one week
later. Most olive varieties have the habit of bearing a heavy crop
one year and very little the next, but this can be largely overcome by
good culture, proper attention to plant food requirements, and regular
494
Bulletin 94
]»runing. The fruit of some varieties hangs on the trees all winter
if not gathered. The fruit of others falls easily and is likely to be
shaken off in picking.
The olive is adapted to extremely arid conditions, through special
leaf structure and a much ramified root system. Trees are known to
maintain themselves under extremely hot. dry conditions with a mean
Fig. 2. Showing fniilini; liiibil of the olive. Flowers borne on wood of previous
season's growtli.
annual rainfall of not more than four inches. In the Casa Grande and
Salt River valleys isolated trees are growing and producing small crops
without irrigation.
A peculiar growth is found on old trees in the form of enlarged
swellings or burls on the trunk, extending about a foot above the sur-
face of the ground, from which the roots radiate (Note the base of
TiiK Olivk in Arizona
495
the olil tree in foreground. Fig. 3). Another habit of the olive is that
of forming suckers around tlie base. If allowed to grow without
pruning, it (lc\-elops several trunks and persists in throwing out pro-
tecting sprouts.
The olive is generally considered a slow-growing tree; but under
favorable conditions its growth is quite rapid, as shown by five-year-
Fi{^. y,. 1 lij oiive o:'(*i:iii| top-uiaTtcd lo iiiurt
old trees at the Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station which
have reached a height of fifteen feet and a spread of twelve feet.
Figure 4 shows the growth of a Mission tree two years from planting
(Salt River Valley Farm). Olive trees attain great age, as is evidenced
by the old monarchs of the plant world growing in parts of Europe
and Asia.
496
BULLKTIN 94
NATURAL REQUIREMENTS
The olive is easily grown under favorable conditions, but it is
more exacting in its natural requirements than most fruits.
F'v'. 4. 'I'ree of the Mi-^ion vmiety at the end of the ■iccoml Krowiiig sfason.
IIlvAT
The olive reaches greatest perfection in our warm southern val-
leys. Its dense foliage protects the fruit against direct sunshine, and
summer temperatures of a hundred degrees or more arc conducive
to good growth and proper development of the fruit.
The Olive in Arizona 497
COLD
Well established olive trees withstand comparatively low tempera-
tures. Bearing trees at Tucson survived a temperature of 6 degrees
F. in 1913; but the outer foliage, buds, and young twigs were injured
and bore no fruit the next year. At the same time young trees were
frozen to the ground. It is inadvisable to attempt commercial plant-
ings where the temperature falls below 15 degrees F. The fruit is
injured with temperatures of 24 to 26 degrees F., but the crop is
usually harvested before temperatures as low as these begin. Light
frosts during blossoming do not injure the crop, but heavy frosts are
disastrous. Temperature is perhaps the most important factor • in
Arizona in successful olive culture.
HUMIDITY
Arizona is especially suited to olive growing on account of its dry
climate. The olive has never been able to accustom itself to high
atmospheric humidity. In humid climates it is often seriously affected
by insects and diseases, and the fruit is late in maturing. Rain at the
time of blossoming or ripening of the fruit is a disadvantage, but
rains seldom occur during these periods in Arizona.
TOPOGRAPHY
Olives succeed at various elevations in the State below 2500 feet.
However, the suitability of localities between 2000 and 2500 feet
elevation is largely dependent upon local topography. Often a high
mesa may be comparatively free from severe freezes, while nearby
valleys, on account of poor air drainage, are too cold for olives. The
writer has observed a locality having an elevation of 2400 feet where
olives are never injured by cold ; whereas a short distance away in a
narrow river valley all attempts to establish orchar is have met with
failure, because the trees were frosted. On high mesas and foothill
slopes the trees bear earlier than in rich valleys ; although in the latter
they grow more rapidly and attain larger size.
SOIL
The olive is a comparatively shallow-rooted tree, and draws heavily
upon the plant food of the surface soil. This does not permit the
inference, however, that it will succeed on shallow, barren soils.
498 Bulletin 94
The tree is very tenacious of iife and will live under such conditions,
but the growtji is slow and the yield of fruit limited.. Soil of good
fertility and physical character is required to produce high yields of
fine-qual'iy fruit. The trees do particularly well on calcareous soils.
If hardpan is present it must be broken by dynamite or a subsoil
plow to allow the roots to penetrate the better soil below.
OLIVE DISTRICTS
Ine natural requirements of the olive indicate that a large portion
of southern Arizona is well suited to this tree. The sections of the
State that stand out most prominently in this particular are the Salt
River Valley ; the Gila Valley, from Florence southwestward to Yuma ;
and the Colorado Valley, from Parker southward to Mexico. This
includes not only the river valleys proper but extensive areas of
adjacent mesa land, wherever water is available for irrigation. In
addition to these districts, there are smaller ones in the southern part
of the State where the olive will succeed.
PROPAGATION
Arizona has very wisely quarantined against olive stock from all
outside sources in order to prevent the introduction of serious insects
and diseases. This makes the propagation of the olive a subject of
extreme interest and suggests a study of the leading methods of prop-
agation.
HARDWOOD CUTTINGS
Large, mature branches one to two inches in diameter are used
for making hardwood cuttings, and the work is done during January
and February while the trees are dormant. The cuttings are made
twelve to fifteen inches in length, tied in bundles of fifty or one hun-
dred each, and buried horizontally to a depth of six to ten inches in
moist sand, preferably on the north side of a building, where they
are allowed to remain until spring (See Fig. 5). They are then
planted in nursery rows three and one-half feet apart and fifteen
inches distant in the rows. The soil should be packed well at the
base of the cuttings and only the tips left exposed. As an extra pre-
caution the tips may be coated with a film of melted grafting wax or
covered lightly with loose soil. Under favorable conditions the cut-
The Olive in Arizona
499
tings may be set in the nursery as soon as made. This method of
propagation is suited to the grower who wishes to produce his own
stock from old trees of known quaUties. *
During the first summer a number of sprouts form at the top of
FifT. 5. Bundle of olive cuttings made from mature, large wood.
the cuttings. These are allowed to grow to strengthen the root system
of the young plants. Just before growth begins the following spring,
however, all sprouts except the strongest one, which is trained into
the permanent tree, are removed. Such trees should be large enough
to transplant to the orchard by the end of the second growing season.
SMALL CUTTINGS
vSmall cuttings are made from young shoots, and the tips and lower
portions of the twigs are used. The cuttings are made four to six
inches long, and all the leaves removed except a few at the top (See
Fig. 6). They are set closely in boxes of clean sand with only the
leaves and tips exposed (See Fig. 7) and rooted under a lath shelter.
Roots form in four to six weeks, and in a few months the young plants
may be set in good soil in nursery rows, twelve inches apart in the
row and three and one-half feet between the rows. Such plants may
500
RULLETIN 94
Fig. «. Types of siiiull olive outtinss, iiatur;il size.
The Olive in Arizona
501
be carried through the first season in good soil in pots or widely
spaced in boxes. With good care these plants shonld he ready for
the orchard in two vears.
Small olive cuttitifrs in propajration box.
It is very important to take the small cuttings when the wood is
in proper condition (neither too hard nor too soft), otherwise, the
rooting will not be satisfactory. This is the most widely used method
of propagating the olive. A larger number of cuttings can be made
from a tree, and in addition, the plants have more symmetrical root
systems than those grown from hardwood cuttings.
502
Bulletin 94
V'^RAFTING YOUNG STOCK
Grafting young seedling stock is practiced by some nurserymen,
but this method of propagation does not carry advantages that recom-
mend its use by the general grower. The ordinary bark graft (sub-
sequently described under top-grafting) is largely used, the operation
being performed on seedling stock, about three or four inches above
the ground.
Fi- 8 Method of preparing scions for bark Kraft; (a) ordinary scion, (b) scion
"■ trimmed on back, exposing chlorophyll layer.
A discouraging feature experienced formerly in the growing of
seedling stock for grafting was the length of time required for olive
The Olive in Arizona
^03
seeds to germinate, since they often remained dormant a year or more.
However, this difficulty is overcome by clipping the ends of the seeds to
allow the penetration of moisture. (See Bulletin 268 Calif. Kxp.
Station).
TOP-GRAFTING
Sometimes it becomes necessary to top-graft old trees with more
desirable varieties, which is not difficult since the olive is quite amenable
Fig. 9. Showing stock with scion inserted, and the completed graft.
Lo such treatment. Top-grafting can be done most successfully in
spring by using the bark graft. Preparatory to grafting, the trees are
cut back to stubs four and one-half to five feet from the ground.
The bark is then split downward from the top about one and one-half
inches and the scion, cut with a long single bevel, is inserted (See Fig.
9, A). The method of preparing scions for the bark graft is shown
in Figure 8, one to four being used, depending on the size of the
504 Bulletin 94
stock. A greater percentage of grafts will set if the scions are pre-
pared as indicated in Fig. 8, B (the Biederman method) in which a
portion of the outer bark on the back is removed. In thus exposing a
larger surface of the green chlorophyll layer a better union is
secured. The grafts are bound firmly in place with strong cotton
twine and all exposed surfaces, including the top of stock and the
tips of scions, are covered with melted grafting wax to prevent
evaporation (See Fig. 9, B). Scions are made from mature, two to
three-year-old wood about one- fourth to three-eighths inch in diame-
ter. The wood should be cut late in winter and kept in a dormant
condition until used. This may be done by tying it into bundles which
are buried in cool, slightly moist sand on the north side of a building,
or placed in cold storage at a temperature of about 45 degrees F.
Experience has shown that ordinary grafting wax will melt and
run in southern Arizona during hot days. In a series of tests to find
a wax that would resist the heat of summer without melting or be-
coming brittle, paraffin having a melting point of 65 degrees C. was
found most satisfactory. This grade of paraffin is not common, on
the market, and parowax is suggested as a substitute. It is necessary
to boil down the parowax until it will remain firm at a temperature
of 115 degrees F.
PLANTING
Good results have been obtained by this Station from plantings
made in the winter and spring. However, better growth was obtained
by planting from the middle of February to the latter part of March,
just preceding the growing season. The temperature of the soil and
air is moderate at this season and well suited to the growth of newly
planted olive trees.
DIST.\NCE APART FOR PLANTING
The fact that the olive is long-lived, makes the distance apart for
planting a question of great importance. For the best development
of the tree and the finest quality fruit, there must be space enough
between the rows so that the branches will not touch, thus pemiitting
sunlight to reach the tree from all sides. A distance of thirty-five to
forty feet apart is good spacing for commercial planting. Figure 10
illustrates an orchard with the trees well spaced. The distance may
Thk Oliv]^ IX Arizona
505
be varied slightly in different soils, because the lighter soils do not
produce as strong growth as the heavier soils. Differences in the
growth of varieties influence the distance of planting ; for example,
the Manzanillo variety is much less vigorous than the Mission, and
consequently may be planted closer together.
Pl.ANTINC. TIlK TREF.
A wide, deep hole is necessary to insure sufficient loose soil for
strong, rapid root development. If hardpan exists it should be blasted.
The trees should be set two to three inches deeper than they grew in
i3;a:'
FiL'. 10. Kisht ye:irolri nlivp orfhard, showing eood spacing.
the nursery. After the soil is thoroughly settled, the tree will be at
the proper level. When the tree is set the roots are spread out hori-
zontally, with the tips pointing slightly downward, and soil is packed
around them by hand. Irrigation should follow inimerliately, which
will settle the soil about the roots in a way that is impossible to ac-
complish by packing. If not convenient to irrigate soon after plant-
ing, one or two bucketfuls of water should be poured arounrl the roots
of each tree during planting. The orchard should be cultivated in
order to form a loose soil mulch around the trees, as soon after plant-
ing as the condition of the ground will permit.
506
BULLKTIN 94
TRIMMING THE ROOTS AND TOP
It is particularly important that the roots and top of an olive tree
he cut back at the time of transplanting. The larger roots are trimmed
smoothly and shortened to a length of six to ten inches, and the smaller
rf)ot masses thinned. After the tree is set, the central leader or main
Fig. 11. Young tree iiroperly cut back at time of planting.
trunk is cut back to three feet from the ground and the branches
shortened to mere stubs. On account of their larger size and longer
life, olive trees are headed higher than ordinary fruit trees (See
Fig. 11).
The Ouve in Arizona ^^07
CULTURE
Because the olive can endure a great deal of neglect, one must not
infer that it will thrive and bear successful crops under improper or
careless methods of culture. A study of the olive orchards of the State
shows conclusively that the growth and yield of the trees and the
quality of the fruit are directly proportional to the character of the
cultural conditions.
TILLAGE
Tillage is important in maintaining the proper physical condition
of the soil, preserving moisture, and rendering plant food available.
At least once each year, preferably during winter when the trees are
less active, the orchard should be thoroughly plowed. If the soil
remains long unbroken, masses of feeding roots accumulate near the
surface, which will be injured when the plowing is done, thus dis-
turbing the growth of the trees more than if the work is done regularly.
The depth of plowing should be varied from year to year to avoid
the formation of a hard, impervious plow sole.
The orchard should be kept cleanly cultivated when the land is
not occupied by a cover crop. The principal direct benefits of culti-
vation are conservation of soil moisture, eradication of weeds, and
aeration of the soil. The soil should be stirred to a depth of four or
five inches every two or three weeks during summer.
CO\'ER CROPPING
Cover crops which supply plant food and humus have an important
place in the olive orchard. Although some of our valley soils are quite
fertile, the yields of most olive orchards could be increased and the
quality of the fruit improved by growing cover crops between the rows.
The method followed and the kinds of crops used depend a great deal
on the condition of the orchard. In some cases the growing of
winter legumes, such as common or hairy vetch, alfalfa, or sour clover
is satisfactory ; in others, summer cover crops, such as cowpeas, tepary
or soy beans are best; and in still others (if water is expensive) the
use of winter and summer cover crops is the best practice.
Alfalfa is sometimes grown for hay in the olive orchard. This
may be done while the trees are young, if the soil is fertile and a
cleanly cultivated strip is maintained along the tree rows; but the
508 Bulletin 94
practice is not desirable in bearing orchards, as the trees need all the
available plant food. Generally, alfalfa should not be grown in the
orcliard for more than two or three years or until the roots have pene-
trated to a sufficient depth in the subsoil to make possible better
aeration for the trees.
FERTILIZING
Olive orchards must be well supplied with plant food, otherwise
they will not produce maximum crops of large fruit, x^ccording to
analyses made by the Experiment Station chemists, most Arizona soils
contain an abundance of the essential elements of plant food, except
nitrogen, which can be supplied through the use of leguminous cover
crops and stable manure. Usually, if cover crops are grown and the
orchard is cultivated, first-class olives can be produced without using
artificial fertilizers.
IRRIGATION
The olive will remain alive with a very meagre supply of water,
but it will not bear fruit. Measured by the standard of common
fruits it requires approximately the same amount of water as the
deciduous fruits, and about one-half as much as the citrus fruits.
Unless careful attention is paid to the amount and time of irrigation,
the orchard will not respond with regular crops of first-class fruit.
There are three special periods when bearing orchards should be irri-
gated, based on the yearly life cycle of the tree. The first irrigation
should be in early spring before the trees come into blossom. The
application of water during blossoming often causes the flowers and
young fruit to drop. The second irrigation should be in the middle
of summer, while the fruit is in the growing stage, and the third one
in September, as the fruit is nearing maturity. The last irrigation
materially increases the size of the fruits and is an important matter
where the crop is grown for pickles. In the absence of winter rains
one or more irrigations are necessary during this season.
PRUNING
Unless young trees are properly trained, they will not form strong,
well-placed branches ; nor will bearing trees produce regular crops of
large, good-quality fruit if not carefully pruned.
The Olive in Arizona 509
The main objects for pruning olive trees are as follows :
(a) To develop a strong, well-shaped tree;
(b) To encourage regular growth of strong, productive wood;
(c) To eliminate weak, non-productive wood; and,
(d) To secure regular crops of large, uniform fruit.
PRUNING THE YOUNG TREE
The first three or four years an olive tree must be pruned so as
to develop a perfect framework of limbs. Numerous sprouts usually
appear on the tree the first summer ; when they are eight to ten inches
long they should be thinned to six or seven in number, distributed along
the trunk twelve to fifteen inches from the top (See Fig. 12). This
is ?. larger number than necessary for permanency, but if too little
growth is left, the tree will be slow in becoming established. On the
other hand, if all the sprouts are allowed to remain until the end of
summer, none will have developed into strong branches.
Winter pruning consists in reducing the branches to three or four
in number, three being preferable if properly distributed. The re-
maining branches will form a part of the permanent framework of
the tree, and should be well selected. They should be located so as
to form a well-balanced top, and spaced not closer than four to six
inches (See Fig. 13). If the branches have made proper growth,
they should be cut back fifteen to eighteen inches from the trunk.
During the following summer the trees should be gone over at
least two or three times. Frequently vertical shoots form on the
body of the tree or on the scaffold limbs, near the base. These should
be removed early because their further development would be at the
expense of useful branches.
The second winter after transplanting, the -shoots on the scaffold
branches should be thinned to allow two laterals on each limb as a
continuation of the main framework of the tree. Whether or not
these leaders are shortened at this time depends on their size. If stocky
and of an ascending habit, they should not be cut back; but if long
and slender, tending to droop or assume a vertical position, they should
be shortened.
The next summer the trees should be gone over two or three times
510
Bulletin 94
to remove water-sprouts and to prevent irregular growth. In some
cases the latter may be accomplished by removing a branch or sprout ;
in others by pinching out the top. More can be done towards properly
training a tree by frequent attention during the summer than by
heavy winter pruning.
Fig. 12. Thinnins of young tree during first growing season.
By the third winter the tree should have a framework of strong,
well-spaced branches, requiring very little subsequent pruning except
light thinning. However, if any of the branches are very tall they
should be shortened to properly located side branches; and if they
grow in the wrong direction, they should be removed. The aim should
be to develop a tree of round, wide-spreading form. Tall, upright-
The Ouvk in Arizona
511
growing tioes allow less exposure of the fruit-bearing surface than
open, \vule-si:!rea<ling trees, and the fruit of the former is more diffi-
cult to harvest.
The pruning of young olive trees may be briefly summarized as
follows :
Fig. 13. FiiKil ^^t■lec■tioIl of framework branches. (Note distribution).
(a) First Summer: Thin to six or seven well-selected shoots.
(b) First \\'inter: Remove all except three or four well-
placed branches and shorten to approx-
imately fifteen or eighteen inches.
(c) Second vSummer: Keep upright shoots removed and pinch
back shoots appearing on trunk.
512 Bulletin 94
(d) Second Winter: Thin side shoots on main branches, al-
lowing two strong laterals on each as a
continuation of the framework.
(e) Third Summer: Keep off water-sprouts; remove or pinch
back branches where necessary.
(f) Third Winter: Thin out top and shorten the over-vigorous
leaders.
PRUNING BEARING TREES
Bearing olive trees must be pruned carefully and regularly if
annual crops are to be secured and fruit of the proper size and quality
for the best grade of ripe olives produced. It is difficult to prescribe
definite methods of pruning trees of this age on account of the indi-
vidual differences in growth. Certain principles, however, are gen-
erally applicable. In most cases the trees send out strong vertical
branches, which if allowed to remain will bear very little fruit except
at the top. Ordinarily these branches are removed, but if the tree is
much exposed they may be cut back to side branches. The shortening
of top branches should be done with caution, as there is danger of the
tree-tops becoming too crowded. Sunlight and air are required for
the proper development of wood and fruit; consequently, the top of
the tree must be kept open. This does not mean that large openings
should be made at any point, but that the treatment should permit
the even distribution of dispersed sunlight throughout the tree. Fail-
ure in this will lessen the size and quality of the crop and cause the
fruit to be borne largely on the outer and upper parts of the tree,
whereas it should form on the inside as well.
A careful watch should be maintained for weak, diseased, and
injured parts, which must be removed in order that the space may be
occupied by vigorous, useful wood. Not infrequently such treatment,
together with thinning out crowded parts of the top, will be all the
pruning required.
It is not good practice to shear back the branches of olive trees
to mere stubs. This causes a thick, abnormal growth of side shoots,
excludes sunlight and weakens useful parts of the tree. In shorten-
ing a branch, the cut should be made just above a side shoot.
The Ouve in Arizona 513
time to prune
Olives should be pruned at least three times during the year, once
late in winter just preceding active growth and twice during the sum-
mer. Under no circumstances should a young orchard go through the
summer without being pruned, as the trees will assume improper
shapes ; and later efforts to correct them will retard development and
fruit bearing. It is also important that older orchards be pruned dur-
ing the summer, sometimes to the extent of removing fruiting branches.
When trees are heavily loaded it is better to thin out the weaker fruit-
laden branches than to have small, inferior fruit or run the risk of
the trees expending so much energy in developing the crop that they
will not bear the following year.
INTERPLANTING
The spaces between olive rows should be utilized in the growing
of other crops. It is possible to secure paying inter-crops without
injury to the trees until they are eight or ten years old, at which time
the orchard itself should yield profitable returns. Truck crops, early
bearing fruits such as the grape and peach, or field crops may be used
for this purpose. Although the growing of other crops in an olive
orchard is highly desirable, the trees must not be neglected for the
sake of the secondary crop. It is easily possible for an inter-crop to
rob the trees of moisture and plant food; however, the orchard can
be handled so that good returns may be secured from the inter-crop
without injuring the trees. Whatever crop is used, a cleanly cultivated
strip should be maintained along the tree rows, its width depending
upon the size of the trees.
The grape has proved a most satisfactory fruit for interplanting
with olives, because it comes into bearing early and the vines do not
hinder the full spread of the trees. Mr. B. F. Carper of the Salt
River Valley has used this combination very satisfactorily, having
secured from his five-year-old orchard a yield of one and one-third
tons of olives and one ton of grapes per acre. The peach and the
apricot have also been used very successfully as fillers where the
trees were pruned to prevent crowding the olives.
514
Bulletin 94
Fig. 14. Five-year-old olive orchard interplanted with Thompson seedless grapes,
by B. F. Carper, Salt River Valley.
Owned
HARVESTING
The proper time to harvest oHves for ripe pickles is when the oil
has completely formed in the fruit. Unless the fruit has reached this
stage of maturity when pickled, it will be largely devoid of the rich
nourishment and fine flavor which make the ripe pickled olive so
highly desirable. On the other hand, if the fruit remains on the tree
any length of time after reaching its full oil content, the quality is ser-
iously impaired.
In consideration of the market demand, color also plays an im-
portant part in deciding when olives may be harvested. The trade
prefers an olive that is black. Although the fruit of most varieties is
ripe when the skin becomes diffused with red, it must remain on the
tree longer to attain the desired color. Since the fruit ripens unevenly,
several pickings may be necessary. Ripeness may be further indicated
Thk Oliviv in Arizona 515
by the "feci" of the fruit, which is sHghtly soft to the touch when fully
mature. It is a common practice to test the ripeness by pressing out
the juice of the fruit and allowing it to stand for some minutes. If
minute globules of oil rise to the surface, the fruit is ready to be
gathered either for ripe pickles or oil.
The most important point to be observed in gathering olives for
pickling is to prevent their being bruised. If the fruit is even slightly
bruised its quality is seriously impaired, and the wav is open for bac-
terial growth and decay.
The best receptacles to use in picking olives are canvas bags, such
as are used for gathering oranges. When buckets are used, they should
be lined with cloth or burlap. The lug boxes used in carrying the fruit
from the orchard should not be filled more than one-half to two-thirds
full. If the fruit is to be kept for some time before processing, it
should be placed in a brine made by dissolving one pound of common
salt in five gallons of water. Handled in this way, olives may be
shipped great distances by truck or rail, as they will keep perfectly
for several weeks.
It is not necessary to exercise the same care in harvesting olives
for oil as for pickles. The olives may be pulled off the trees and
allowed to drop onto canvas. A wooden comb with teeth wide apart
is sometimes used for stripping the fruit from the trees. It is practi-
cable to ship oil olives in sacks, but if the distance is great the fruit
should be dried somewhat before shipment.
GRADING
Olives used for pickles must be carefully graded according to
size. This is necessary because uniformity in size adds to the attrac-
tiveness of the fruit, making it more salable than if the sizes are
mixed, and lessens the difficulties of processing. It is practically im-
possible to process all grades of olives together and obtain a uniform
product. Several types of machinery are used for grading olives, all
based on the variation in the shortest diameter of the fruit and having
a sixteenth of an inch as the unit of measurement. At least four
grades should be made, designated as follows :
516 Bulletin 94^
Extra Fancy : All fruit failing to pass through a 15/16-inch mesh ;
Fancy: All fruit passing through a 15/16-inch mesh but
failing to oass a 13/16-inch mesh;
Large: All fruit passing through a 13/16-inch mesh but
failing to pass an 11/16-inch mesh.
Small: All fruit passing through an 11 /16-inch mesh, luit
failing to pass a 9/16-inch mesh.
AGE OF BEARING AND YIELD
A small crop may be expected the fourth year from planting; and a
yield of approximately one to one and one-half tons per acre the fifth
year. After that the yields should increase from year to year until
the trees are in full bearing, when the average production per acre
should be not less than five to six tons. A yield of four and one-half
tons per acre was secured some years ago at the Station Farm west
of Phoenix ; this was from ten-year-old trees of the Columella variety
set forty feet apart. Tlie percentage of oil in the fruit as well as the
yield increases as the trees become older.
VARIETIES
Varieties of olives differ in size, color, quality, and other charac-
teristics. A large number of varieties are suitable for oil, a less number
for green pickles, and still fewer for ripe pickles. A good ripe-pickle
variety must be well colored, firm, and of good size.
A number of varieties have been tested by the Arizona Agricultural
Experiment Station. Some of these have meritorious qualities, but
none equals the Mission. Therefore, until a variety of large size
possessing the high qualities of the Mission is found, this old standard
sort must remain the leading commercial variety for ripe pickles. In
the meantime, the olive grower should use the best cultural practices
with the Mission variety, even resorting to thinning, in order to produce
fruit of large size.
Following is a list of the varieties growing on the University
Campus: Nevadillo, Regalis, Altro Violacea, Mission, Pendulina.
Uvaria, Oblonga, Precox, Morinello. Rubra, Cayon. Manzanillo,
Frautoia, Razza, Grossia, Correggiola, and Columella. The trees were
planted April 1, 1895, making them* about twenty-six years old. The
first winter after planting they were killed back to the ground but
The Olive; in Arizona 517
came out again the following year. The trees have succeeded re-
markably v^^ell considering the rather unfavorable soil conditions, and
have seldom failed to set good crops. Typical fruits of these varieties
are illustrated in Plates I, II, III, IV, and V.
A detailed description of the varieties tested by the Arizona Ex-
periment Station at Tucson is given below. The measurement of the
fruit was obtained by securing the average of a large number of
typical specimens.
mission
Fruit of medium size, 12 x 16-sixteenths of an inch, broadly oval,
tending slightly to conical, oblique, borne singly or in clusters, and of
excellent quality; flesh very firm and withstanding comparatively
rough handling; season of ripening from the latter part of October
to December, the fruit not dropping readily. Tree large, very vigor-
ous, hardy, blossoming from April 10 to 25, partly self-sterile. Self-
sterility is overcome by interplanting with other varieties, particularly
the Manzanillo which is often used for this purpose in Arizona. The
Mission is the leading variety for ripe pickles and oil.
RAZZA
Fruit of large size, 14 x 20-sixteenths inches, ovate, tending to
oblong, of inferior quality and dropping badly after maturity; season
of ripening from early October to the middle of November. Tree
hardy, large, vigorous, blossoming from April 5 to 20, self-sterile. This
variety does not make satisfactory ripe pickled olives, but may be used
for green pickled ones.
MANZANILLO
Fruit above medium size, slightly larger than that of the Mission,
14 X 18-sixteenths inches, from almost round to slightly oval, ripening
and coloring uniformly, and with very good flavor ; flesh less firm than
in the instance of Mission olives, and hence the fruit requires more
careful handling; season of ripening from the middle of October
to the middle of November. The fruit drops badly if the picking is
long delayed after maturity. Tree of medium size, less vigorous and
less hardy than the Mission; heavy annual bearer, and blossoming
about the same time as the Mission, April 10 to 25 ; self-fertile. This
is an excellent olive for ripe or green pickles, ranking next to the
Mission, and is the kind so extensively used for pimento olives.
518
BULLICTIN 94
RASZA
ljD»>-> 4,)^^^~^ A -^
Plate I. The Mission. Ra/.za, and Man/.anillo olives (slightly less than natural size).
Thk Olive ix Arizona
519
CAYOH
GCHHEGGICLA
Plate II. Tlic Cuvon, Rulmi, and Coircfiiola o'.ives (sliyhtly less than natural size).
520
Bulletin 94
Pl:ite III. The Kenalis, Columella, and Nevailillo olives (sil.uhtly less than natural size).
The Olive in Arizona
521
I'hite \y. 'I'he T. miuliiui. Fr;aitui;i, r\;iii;]. ::iil ,\)ro Viulncea olives (slightly less than
natural size).
522 Bulletin 94
REGALIS
Fruit of medium size, 12 x 16-sixteenths of an inch, broadly ovate;
ripening unevenly, the quality being rather inferior ; season middle of
November to the middle of December. Tree of medium size, tender
to frost, blossoming from April 20 to May 10. Makes fairly satis-
factory ripe olive pickles but is said to be of little value for oil.
COLUMELLA
Fruit of small to medium size, 12 x 15-sixteenths of an inch, round-
ish-ovate, tapering to a roundish point at the apex, with very rich
flavor and little bitterness ; season of ripening very late, from Decem-
ber to January, the fruit hanging on the tree until spring. Tree vig-
orous, hardy, prolific, blossoming from April 5 to 25. The season of
this olive is too late to warrant commercial plantings in Arizona.
NEVADILLO
Fruit of small to medium size, 11 x 15-sixteenths of an inch,
elongated-ovate, slightly pointed and somewhat resembling the Mission
olive; usually borne in clusters of three to five; season of ripening
from the middle of October to December. Tree large, vigorous, a
regular bearer, rather tender to frost, blossoming from April 10 to 25.
This variety does not make high quality pickled olives, but is said
to be very satisfactory for oil.
CAYON
Fruit of small to medium size, 12 x 14-sixteenths of an inch, ovate,
rounded at both ends ; season of ripening from the middle of Novem-
ber to the middle of December. Tree of medium size, with thick
growth of top, blossoming from April 10 to 25, self-fertile. This
variety has proved a shy bearer in Arizona.
RUBRA
Fruit of small size, 10 x 14-sixteenths of an inch, similar in shape
to that of the Mission ; flesh very soft when the fruit is ripe ; season
of ripening from November 1 to the middle of December. Tree of
medium size, hardy, slow growing, and only fairly productive, blossom-
ing from April 10 to 25. This variety cannot be recommended as a
ripe pickle olive.
CORREGGIOLA
Fruit of small size, 10 x 16-sixteenths of an inch, oblong, tapering
slightly towards the stem end. ripening unevenly from December to
The Olive; in Arizona 523
May, and hanging on the tree without shriveling. Tree very vigorous,
hardy, prohfic, tending to overbear in alternate years. The uneven-
ness of ripening and the exceedingly bitter quality of the fruit make
it undesirable as a pickle olive. This variety is considered well suited
for oil. '""^
PKNDULINA
Fruit of medium size, 11 x 1 5-sixteenths of an inch, variable and
often remaining small and undeveloped, oval, rounded at both ends,
and borne in clusters of two to five; season of ripening from the
middle of October to the middle of November. Tree vigorous, hardy,
prolific, blossoming from April 5 to 25, self- fertile. This fruit makes
fairly satisfactory ripe pickled olives but is considered better suited
^°^ ^^1- FR.XUT0IA
Fruit of medium to large size, 12 x 17-sixteenths inches, distinctly
ovate, regular, very slightly pointed at the apex; season of ripening
late, from the middle of November to the middle of December. Tree
large, vigorous, fairly prolific, slightly tender to frost, blossoming
from April 5 to 20.
^ UVARIA
Fruit of medium to large size, 12 x 17-sixteenths inches, ovate,
regularly rounded at both ends, and borne in clusters of three to
seven; season November, the fruit ripening uniformly; flesh quite
soft, and the pit large. Tree medium size, heavy bearer, rather tender
to frost, blossoming from April 15 to May 1, self-fertile. Desirable
for green pickled olives but too soft for satisfactory ripe pickled ones.
ATRO VIOLACEA
Fruit of small to medium size, 9 x 16-sixteenths of an inch, oblong,
slightly oblique and pointed at the apex, with the flesh soft and slightly
colored; season of ripening from the middle of October to December.
Tree vigorous (more so than the Mission), hardy, and a somewhat
irregular bearer, blossoming from April 10 to May 1, self-sterile. The
fruit is too soft for satisfactory ripe pickled olives, and is valuable
chiefly for oil.
^ MORINELLO
Fruit of small to medium size, 12 x 14-sixteenths of an inch, quite
regularly roundish-ovate; flesh rather heavy; season of ripening very
late, from November to April, the fruit ripening unevenly. Tree vig-
orous (about the same as the Mission), slightly tender to frost; a
524
Bullp:ttn 94
Plate V. The Moriiiello, I'recox, Grossia, ami Obloima olives (sliglitlx less (lian natural
size).
The Ouve in Arizona 525
heavy bearer in alternate years and blossoming from April 5 to 20.
On account of its unevenness in ripening this variety is not suitable for
either ripe or green pickled olives.
PRECOX
Fruit of small to medium size, 10 x 15-sixteenths of an inch, ovate,
tapering toward the stem end, ripening unevenly ; pit very large ; sea-
son of ripening from October 15 to December 1. Tree of medium size,
slow growing, hardy, a shy bearer, and blossoming from April 10 to
30. This variety has not proved satisfactory in Arizona.
GROSSIA
Fruit of medium size, 11 x 15-sixteeuths of an inch, ovate, rounded
at both ends, ripening unevenly; pit large; season of ripening from
November 10 to December 20. Tree vigorous, hardy, prolific, blossom-
ing from April 10 to 25. Not satisfactory for ripe or green pickled
olives ; distinctly an oil olive.
OBLONGA
Fruit of medium size, 10 x 18-sixteenths inches, oblong, larger at
the apex and narrow at the stem end, strongly oblique, ripening un-
evenly; season of ripening from the middle of October to the middle
of November. Tree upright, large, fairly heavy bearer, blossoming
late, from April 15 to May 5, self-fertile. The fruit makes very sat-
isfactory ripe or green pickled olives and is said to be very desirable
for oil.
PICKLING RIPE OLIVES
The main objects to be obtained in pickling olives are the removal
of the bitterness, the preservation of flavor, and the retention of firm-
ness. The bitter property of olives varies according to the variety,
stage of maturity, and character of the orchard soil. Consequently,
not any one method of procedure is applicable to all kinds of olives.
Successful processing is very largely a matter of experience, careful
observation, and good judgment, backed by proper cultural practices.
An orchard must be so handled as to produce fruit of good size, color,
and quality if a first-class product is to be secured. Although no set
rule can be laid down for making ripe pickled olives, certain principles
pertaining to the different methods employed are generally applicable.
They are given with the understanding that they must be modified
according to the condition of the fruit.
526 Bulletin 94
lye process
The olives are placed in the processing vat and covered v^ith a lye
solution, varying in strength from one to four ounces to the gallon of
water, according to the condition of the fruit. Two ounces of lye
to the gallon of water is most acceptable when the olives are in prime
condition for pickling. The olives are allowed to remain in the solution,
with frequent stirring, until the lye has penetrated almost to the pit,
which usually takes from eight to forty-eight hours, depending on
the condition of the fruit and the strength of the lye solution. Recent
tests in processing the Mission variety gave fifteen hours for two-
ounce, ten hours for three-ounce, and eight hours for four-ounce lye
solutions. The point of penetration is marked by a slight discolora-
tion of the flesh. The fruit should be examined frequently to prevent
too long or too short treatment. If the first treatment does not remove
all the bitterness, the operation should be repeated.
The lye is removed by rinsing and soaking the olives in fresh, pure
v.ater, which is changed twice daily. The washing is continued until
no trace of lye is present, this being determined by the taste or by the
use of red litmus paper. Sometimes the olives have a tendency to
soften, in which case it is necessary to soak the fruit in brine (four
ounces of salt to the gallon of water) before washing, until it has re-
gained its firmness. In extreme cases of softness, salt may be used with
the lye solution.
Immediately after soaking in the lye solution, the olives are given
a series of brine treatments. The strength of the brine is gradually
increased to prevent shriveling and wrinkling, and each treatment is
continued until the solution has penetrated to the pits. The first brine
is made of four ounces of salt to the gallon of water and allowed to
stand on the olives two to four days. It is then replaced by a brine
containing six ounces of salt to the gallon of water, which is left six
to eight days. This solution is in turn drawn off and the olives are
allowed to stand ten days to two weeks in a ten-ounce brine. Finally,
a fourteen-ounce brine is used in which the olives remain until canned.
The brine commonly used in canning is made of four ounces of
salt to the gallon of water. Where the olives are insufficiently colored,
the brine may be drawn off and the fruit exposed to the air until prop-
erly darkened, which often requires only a few hours.
The Olive in Arizona 527
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS OF THE LYE PROCESS
1. Use a good grade of lye of known strength.
2. Use pure water for soaking the oHves and for making the lye
and brine solutions.
3. Avoid the use of metal containers and prevent the olives from
coming in contact with anything that would impair their flavor, which
means that all vessels used in handling the fruit must be kept absolutely
clean.
4. Processing vats should be provided with the following: (a)
removable false bottoms and spigots to permit thorough drainage of
the fruit after each treatment; (b) close-fitting, floating covers to
exclude air, which spots the fruit; and (c) tight-fitting super-covers
to keep out dust and light.
5. Olives in the processing vats should not be more than two feet
deep.
6. The different treatments vary in length according to the variety,
maturity of the fruit, and locality, and must be determined by ex-
perimentation.
PURE-WATER PROCESS
The pure-water process consists simply in soaking the fruit in water
until the bitterness is extracted. The essentials in the use of this
method are chiefly changing the water frequently (twice daily), using
pure water, and keeping the soaking vats clean. The process requires
from thirty-five to sixty days, depending on the condition of the
fruit, and for this reason is not adaptable to commercial usage.
GREEN PICKLES
The essentials for making ordinary green pickled olives are the same
as those for making ripe pickled olives, including the lye and brine
treatments. The fruit is picked shortly after attaining full size, and
before it begins to color. In order to obtain a product similar in flavor
and appearance to the imported green olive, it is necessary to carry
the fruit through a fermentation process lasting several months. Briefly,
the process consists in placing the olives (after the bitterness has been
removed) in barrels with loosely fitting bungs, and keeping them cov-
ered with a ten-ounce brine until fermentation ceases, when they are
ready for the trade.
528 Bulletin 94
THE FUTURE OUTLOOK
The ideal climatic and soil conditions for olive culture found in
this State strongly indicate that Arizona will become one of the great
olive-producing centers of the world. This assertion is further sup-
ported by the fact that this State does not have the serious insects and
diseases that hinder certain phases of olive production in other coun-
tries. In the olive-growing districts of the Old World it is not possible
to make satisfactory ripe pickles on account of the destructive olive
fly; and in California, particularly within range of ocean influences,
the black scale is a serious menace to olive orchards. With our present
system, of quarantine, it is unlikely that these pests will become estab-
lished here.
The rather lengthy harvest period of the olive and the delightful
weather that prevails in southern Arizona at this season, together with
the fact that the fruit is not dit^cult to gather, makes it possible for
the grower (if he desires) to do much of the work of picking; also.
the crop is often sold on the trees. This materially reduces the casli
outlay incident to handling an olive orcharrl anrl adds to tlie attrac-
tiveness of olive growing as a business.
Arizona olives are unexcelled in quality, size, and attractiveness.
Moreover, the American people are beginning to appreciate the food
value of and to acquire a taste for pickled ripe olives, as is evidenced
by the demand for them on the local and eastern markets. Apparently
the greatest possibilities in this industry lie in the production of ripe
olives with oil as a major by-product. Our growers have an excellent
opportunity to build up a large, substantial industry in the field of olive
culture. A forward step in this direction would consist in the forma-
tion of efiicient co-operative growers' organizations which would insure
the output of a first-class, thoroughly standardized product. GDnser-
vative advertising and the employment of an experienced sales manager
would complete the general machinery for the profitable handling of a
much increased acreage.
The University of Arizona
COLLEGE OE AGRICULTURE
Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 95
View of nmmond Creek dam site, looking upstream.
THE COLORADO RIVER AND ARIZONA'S INTEREST
IN ITS iJEVELOPMENT
By G. E. p. Smith
Tucson, Arizona, Eebruary 25, 1922
ORGANIZATION
BOARD OF KEGENTS
Ex-Officio Members
HIS EXCELLENCY, THOMAS E. CAMl'UELL, Governor of Arizona Phoenix
HON. ELSIE TOLES, State Superintendent of Public instruction Phoenix
Appointed Members
JOHN H. CAMI'HKI.L. l,l..M.. CUiai.-'e iur Tucson
JAMES G. COMPTON, Secretary Tucson
MOSE DKACHMAN. iix-uisurfr. Tucson
TIMOTHY A. KIORDAN Jlagsteff
EDMUND W. WELLS Prescott
LOUIS D. RICKETTS, Sc.D., LL.D Warren
ESTMER W. HUDSON ». Tempe
DWIGHT B. HEAKij Phoenix
DEAN FRANCIS C. LOCKWOOD, Ph.D Chairman, Executive Oommitttt
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
D. W. WORKING, B.Sc, A.M Dean College of Agriculture
JOHN J. THoRNlfEK, AM Director Experiment Station, Botanist
•ROBERT H. FORBES, Ph.D : Research Specialist
ALBERT E. VINSON, Ph.D Agricultural Chemist
GEORGE E. P. SMITH, B.S., C.E Irrigation Engineer
RICHARD H. WILLIAMS, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
WALTER S. CUNNINGHAM, B.S Dairy Husbandman
CHARLES T. V'OKHIES, Ph.D Entomologist
GEORGE E. THOMPSON, B.S. A Af;ronomisi
FRANKLIN J. CRIDEK, M.S Horticulturist
WALKER E. BRYAN, M.S Plant Breeder
JAMES G. BROWN, M.S Plant Pathologist
ROYAL B. THOMPSON, B.S.A Poultry Husbandman
CLIFFORD N. CATLIN, A.M Associate Agricultural Chemist
WILLIAM E. CODE, B.S.C.E Assistant Irrigation Engineer
ALLEN F. KINNISON, B.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
RALPH S. HAWKINS, B.S.A Assistant Agronomist
ELIAS H. PRESSLKY, B.S ,. Assistant Plant Breeder
HAROLD C. SCHWALEN. B.S.M.E Assistant Irr. nation Engineer
ERNEST B. STANLEY, B.S Assistant Animal Husbandman
DAVID W. ALBERT, B.S Assistant Horticulturist
STANLEY P. CLARK, B.S Assistant Agronomist
RICHARD N. DAVIS, B.S Assistant Dairy Husbandman
Experimental Farm Foremen
C. J. WOOD Salt River Valley Farm, Mesa
T. L. STAPLEY Tempe Date-Palm Orchard, Tempe
LESLIE BEATY, B.S Yuma Valley and Mesa Farms, Yuma
CARL CLARK, B.S Prescott Dry-Farm, Prescott
F. G. GRAY' Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm, Cochise
J. R. REED University of Arizona Farm, Tucson
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE
W. M. COOK. A.B State Leader Countv Agrioultural Acents Director
A. B. BALLANTYNE, B.S Assistant in Cluh and Countv Affent Work
ALICE V. JOYCE State Leader of Home Demonstration Agents
County Home Demonstration Agents
EVALYN A. P.ENTLKV. B.S. (Pima and Santa Cruz) Tucson
FLOSSIE D. WILLS, B.S. (Maricopa) Phoenix
ROSA BOUTON, B.S., A.M. (North Counties) Prescott
GRACE RYAN (Southeast Counties) Dousrlas
ROBERTA SINCLAIR, B.S., M.A. (Yuma and Greenlee) Yuma
County Agricultural Agents
O. R. ADAMSON. B.S. (Cochisel Willcox
F. A. CHISHOLM. B.S. f Coconino) Flacstaff
H. C. HEARD. B.S. (Maricops) Phoenix
O. R. FILLERUP (N'avaio and Apache) Snowflake
O. B. BROWN. B.S. fPima) Tucson
E. S. TURVILLE ( Pinnl) Casn Grande
O. D. PICKRELL. B.S.A. (Yavapai) „ Prescott
A. Z. SMITH. B.S. fSmtn Criis'.* Nogales
J. W. WRIGHT, B.S. (Graham) Safford
W. F. GILPIN. B.S. rOreenloe) Duncan
J. E. MUNDELL, U.S.A. (Yuma) Y'uma
•On leave.
The Colorado River and Arizona's Interest
in its Development*
By G. E. P. Smith
It is nearly four hundred years since Spanish explorers discov-
ered the canyons of the Colorado River. During these centuries man-
kind has coped with many problems and has surmounted great obsta-
cles. But the six hundred mile stretch of canyon of the Colorado of
the West is still under nature's control. No stone has been turned to
impede the flow of water ; no revolving wheel converts the power of
the flood to useful purposes.
The development of the great river is a stupendous problem.
Not alone is the layman staggered by the difficulties involved .and
by the immensity of the stakes, but the engineer is challenged and is
struggling to conceive of the gigantic works that are required, — dams
of twice the height of the highest dam yet attempted, reservoirs
twelve to twenty times as large as the largest artificial reservoir in
the world, and power generation on a prodigious scale.
GEOGRAPHY AND IRRIGABLE LANDS
Before presenting the problems of the Colorado River it may be
helpful to review the geography of the region and to present a digest
of the character and extent of the water supply.
The drainage basin of the Colorado is shown in Fig. 1. It in-
cludes parts of seven states, — the southwestern part of Wyoming, the
western half of Colorado, the eastern half of Utah, a strip along the
west side of New Mexico, all of Arizona except the southeast corner,
the southeast part of Nevada, and the southeast edge of California, —
in all, 251,000 square miles. The watershed on the east side of the
basin is the Continental Divide, from the Mexican boundary line
almost to Yellowstone Park. All of the northern half of the basin,
and part of the southern half, consists of high, mountainous country,
on which there is a heavy annual precipitation.
Until a year ago that part of the stream system draining western
Colorado was called the Grand River. In the southeastern part of
•An address delivered at the Annual Farm and Home Week at Tucson, January 18, 1922.
It was voted by the audience that the address should be published, and in response to the
widespread demand for authentic information on the subject, the paper is included in the
kulletin series. — Publication Committee.
530 Bulletin 95
Utah that stream unites with the Green River, the head waters of
which are in Wyoming. Below the junction of the Grand and the
Green the stream was called the Colorado, A year ago, by Congres-
sional action, the name of the Grand was changed to Colorado; pre-
sumably geography and, ultimately, public usage will adopt the new
name for the upper river. The principal tributaries below the junc-
tion of the Green and the Grand are the San Juan, flowing westerly
from the northwest corner of New Mexico ; the Little Colorado, which
drains the north side of the Mogollon Rim in Arizona; and the Gila,
which drains the central and southern parts of Arizona.
In the upper basin, that is, the basin above the Grand Canyon,
there is a large area of land under cultivation, about 1,500,000 acres,
mostly on the headwaters and tributaries where diversions from the
streams are easily accomplished. The irrigation of the land, however,
requires comparatively little water, on account of the high altitude,
cold climate and short growing season, and part of the water applied
returns underground to the streams. An even greater area, now
idle, is susceptible of irrigation, part of it, however, at such high cost
as to make the projects of doubtful feasibility. Studies made by the
United States Reclamation Service indicate that the irrigated area in
the upper basin will be increased to 3,000,000 acres.
In the lower basin, below the Grand Canyon, the areas irrigated
in 1920 included 39,000 acres between Needles and Yuma, mostly on
the California side; 54,000 acres in the Yuma project; 415,000 acres
in the Imperial Valley; and 190,000 acres south of the international
boundary line,— a total of 698,000 acres. This total is almost exactly
double the acreage irrigated in 1913, showing the rapid rate of in-
crease in the use of water in the lower basin. The possible extension
of irrigation in the lower basin has not been determined fully, but
conservative estimates indicate that the following additional areas
can be brought under irrigation : — 260,000 acres between Needles and
Yuma, 150,000 acres of which is on the Arizona side; 76,000 acres
in the Yuma project; 400,000 acres in the Imperial and Coachella
valleys ; and 630,000 acres in Mexico.
WATER SUPPLY
Engineers have methods, of comparative accuracy, for measuring
the quantity of water flowing in rivers. The record of the flow, day
The Colorado River and Its Development
531
Fiff. 1. Map of drainage basin and river system of the Colorado River, The drainacre basia
is shown by the shaded line.
532 Bulletin 95
by day, month by month, shows the extent of the water supply and
its fluctuations, and furnishes a basis for the design of engineering
works. On the Colorado River and its tributaries, many gaging
stations, at carefully chosen locations, have been kept for varying
periods of time, some of the records extending over twenty-five years.
The records of stream flow at Yuma have been kept since January,
1902. The gaging station is below the mouth of the Gila River and
below the Yuma diversion dam, but above the head gates of the Im-
perial Canal. The average annual flow at the gaging station for the
period 1902-1920 was 17,300,000 acre-feet. Had the present irrigated
area been under irrigation throughout the period of the record, the
average annual flow would have been about 16,000,000 acre- feet.
The average flow at Boulder Canyon is practically the same amount,
since diversions and losses between Boulder Canyon and Yuma are
balanced by the inflow of tributaries.
Most of the water comes from the upper basin. At the junction
of the Grand and the Green, the average annual discharge of the
Grand is 6,900,000 acre-feet, and of the Green 5,500,000 acre-feet.
The Green and Grand and San Juan rivers together, though draining
less than two-fifths of the area of the Colorado basin, furnish 86
percent of the total water supply.
By far the greater part of the precipitation in Colorado and
Wyoming is in the form of snow. During the winter the snow
accumulates to great depths. The melting of the snow during the
spring months produces a long period of high water, the annual
flood, which lasts from two to three months and reaches its highest
point at Yuma usually in June. During the June flood of 1909, the
flow at Yuma reached 150,000 cubic feet per second. On June 27,
1921, all previous June records were broken by a flow of 186,000
cubic feet per second. The low water season begins in August and
lasts from three to seven months. The minimum flow at Yuma has
been below 4000 cubic feet per second during several low-water
seasons.
The Gila River drains an area of 57,000 square miles. While
the average annual discharge of the river is not great, it is very
variable. In 1916 the discharge of the river at its mouth was 4,500,-
000 acre- feet; in some other years the total has been less than 100,-
The C01.ORADO River and Its Development 533
000 acre-feet. Short-lived, "flashy" floods, greater than the highest
peak floods in the Colorado, occur at times. The flow on January 16,
1916, reached 220,000 cubic feet per second. It is fortunate that the
Gila floods do not come at the same time as the Colorado floods, in
May or June. Should they coincide, the menace to the Yuma and
Imperial valleys v^ould be intensified; the levees would be over-
whelmed.
RESERVOIR SITES
There are scores, hundreds, of storage sites in the middle and
upper parts of the Colorado basin. Many of them have been sur-
veyed, and at several of the sites the depth to bedrock has been as-
certained by diamond drilling. The Strawberry Valley site in Utah
and the Roosevelt site in Arizona and some small sites have been
occupied already. For the complete regulation and utilization of the
river, there are adequate natural opportunities; the real problem is
as to which is the best. A few of the largest and most promising
sites, those which are of greatest public interest, will be discussed.
The Dewey reservoir site is situated on the Grand River just
west of the Utah-Colorado line. Although one of the last to be dis-
covered, it is one of the best. It is the only site for a large reservoir
on the Grand River except the Kremmling, and that site is occupied
by a railroad. The bedrock at the Dewey site is only 44 feet below
the river bed, and the capacity with a dam only 215 feet high from
river bed to spillway is 2,300,000 acre-feet.
The Flaming Gorge site is on the Green River in Utah just
south of the Wyoming line. The greatest depth to bedrock is 73
feet, and a 215-foot dam will impound 3,120,000 acre-feet. The
width of the canyon is 200 feet. The Flaming Gorge and the Dewey
sites control the most important headwaters of the Colorado. Both
are excellent projects and should be under construction today.
Another excellent site is on the Yampa tributary, near Juniper
Mountain. The drainage area is small, but the stream flow approx-
imates 1,000,000 acre- feet of water per year. A 200- foot dam would
provide a capacity of 1,500,000 acre-feet. The depth to bedrock is
24 feet.
The Ouray reservoir site is on the Green River a hundred miles
below the Flaming Gorge site. This site is remarkable in that a dam
534 BuLi^TiN 95
only 210 feet high would impound 16,000,000 acre- feet of water.
The greatest depth to bedrock, a factor of great influence on the cost
of a dam, is 121 feet, and the canyon is not narrow. This site should
be held available by the Federal Government until it is absolutely
certain that the site is not needed in the general scheme for develop-
ment of the river. If the site is restored to entry, it will be seized at
once by the Denver and Salt Lake Railroad. The railway can be
built around the reservoir site.
A reservoir at the junction of the Green and the Grand has been
under consideration for many years. It would regulate partially
both streams. A dam 250 feet high would impound 7,450,000 acre-
feet. Borings were made to 120 feet without encountering bedrock.
It is unfortunate that the borings were not carried somewhat deeper.
An apparently excellent reservoir site exists on the San Juan
near Bluff, Utah, but its feasibility has not been established by test
holes to find bedrock. A dam 264 feet high would create a reservoir
of 2,600,000 acre-feet capacity. The accumulation of silt in this
reservoir would be very rapid.
The Glen Canyon, or Lee's Ferry, site outclasses all other pro-
posed sites in its gigantic possibilities. The maximum development
contemplates a dam 700 feet high, 450 feet long at the level of the
river, and 1400 feet long on top. The proposed slopes are one to six
downstream and one to four upstream, making the length of base up
and down stream over a mile. The capacity of the reservoir would
be over 50,000,000 acre-feet, and 86 percent of the entire water sup-
ply of the Colorado basin would be regulated completely. Over a
million continuous horsepower could be developed without sacrifice
of irrigation interests. Complete surveys of the reservoir site have
been made during the last few months. No test borings have been
made, and it is stated that the depth to bedrock is not a crucial matter
on account of the radical character of the dam contemplated. Test
borings should be made at once.
Excellent dam sites exist in Cataract Canyon and Marble Canyon.
The project for Marble Canyon provides for a power development of
1,300,000 horsepower, but the storage possibilities are small. This
will be the last of the major projects because of its magnitude and
high cost.
The Colorado River and Its Deveudpment 535
On the Little Colorado River, there is a dam site at Tolchaco,
where the entire flood flov^^ of that stream can be controlled by a dam
50 feet high.
The site at the mouth of Diamond Creek is of particular interest
to Arizona, on account of its favorable location and because it is con-
trolled by Arizona people. The site is only 16 miles from Peach
Springs, a station on the Santa Fe Railroad. It is a power project
only, there behig practically no storage. Present plans, subject to
modification, call for a dam 284 feet high, 324 feet above bedrock, to
the spillway crest, and the top of the structure would be 25 feet higher.
About 110,000 horsepower could be developed with the unregulated
flow of the river, but in case the flow is equalized by a project with
storage farther up the river, the ultimate power development may reach
600,000 horsepower. The canyon at this site is only 220 feet wide at
the water level, and the length of the dam at the top will be 600 feet,
about the same as the Roosevelt dam. The walls and foundation are
of granite. The main electric transmission line would extend through,
or near, Prescott, Phoenix, Mesa, Florence, and Tucson to Douglas,
with important laterals to Jerome, Ray, Globe, Clifton, Ajo, and Yuma.
The Boulder Canyon site is in a similar narrow canyon in granite
rock. The canyon walls are 300 feet apart. Here it is proposed to
build a solid concrete masonry dam 600 feet high, 735 feet above bed-
rock, to elevation 1300 feet above sea level. The capacity of the reser-
voir is 31,600,000 acre-feet, and the estimated cost of the dam alone is
$55,000,000. The great depth to bedrock is the main disadvantage of
this site. While the problems of carrying the foundation to so great
a depth and of passing the annual and occasional floods of the river
during the construction period strike terror to the heart of the en-
gineer, the task can be accomplished if adequate funds are provided.
The power development will be 700,000 continuous horsepower as long
as the irrigated area in the lower basin does not exceed 1,500,000
acres, and will decrease to 600,000 horsepower as the acreage increases
to 2,000,000 acres.
The last annual report of the United States Reclamation Service
states that an inspection of the lower river was made by boat by Homer
Hamhn, a noted engineer, in April, 1920, and that he reports that
536 Bulletin 95
there is no good dam site for a storage reservoir between Boulder
Canyon and Yuma.
THE THREE GREAT PROBLEMS
Three objects are sought in the development of the Colorado River.
They are : —
1. Storage for flood protection;
2. Storage to provide more water for the latter half of the
irrigation season and for dry years ; and,
3. Hydro-electric power.
The flood protection is the main incent-ive which is spurring many
agencies to action. The people of the Imperial Valley, for 16 years,
have been fighting a defensive battle against the Colorado, sometimes
gaining, sometimes losing, but in the main losing. They cannot hold out
for many more years. At least once every year, in June, and sometimes
at other seasons, the river threatens to change its course from the Gulf
of California to the Imperial Valley, as it did in 1905. The only protec-
tion at present is the system of levees, called respectively the first,
second, and third lines of defense. Frequently the floods break through
the first and second lines and reach the third line. Each year the river,
through silt deposition, builds up that part of the alluvial fan In front
o-f the levees, in some years as much as four feet, and each year the
levees must be raised an equal amount. Over one-quarter of a million
dollars is expended each year by the farmers of the Imperial Valley
in this work. The limit will be reached soon. Levees forty or fifty
feet high cannot be maintained.
The Yuma Valley, also, is protected by levees, but the danger
there does not increase. Arizona hopes to develop another great irri-
gated valley farther upstream at Parker, but much of the Parker Valley
is now subject to overflow and must be protected by an expensive sys-
tem of levees unless adequate regulation of the floodwaters is provided
by storage reservoirs. Regulation of the Green and the Grand will solve
the problem in large measure, but tributaries below the junction must
he given consideration. On one occasion a flood of 150,000 second-
feet measured at Bluff, Utah, was contributed by the San Juan, and
the Gila River floods likewise are a menace with which to reckon.
As for storage to equalize the supply for irrigation, the situation
is more critical than is commonly known. Despite the great excess of
The Color.\do River and Its Development 537
water which is wasted to the ocean each year, there is an actual short-
age during the latter part of the irrigation season in dry years. In
1915 the entire flow of the river was diverted into the Imperial Canal
at the end of August, and yet there was not enough water to meet the
demand. Since that time the acreage irrigated from the river has in-
creased 300,000 acres. If the natural flow next September is as low
as it was in 1915, there will be 300,000 acres of crops without any water
to bring them to maturity, and the financial loss and human suffering
will be appalling. Again, it is the Imperial Valley that is in danger,
for other projects have the advantage of location upstream. No fur-
ther expansion of irrigation use should be allowed until storage is pro-
vided ; it should be admitted that the natural flow is entirely appro-
priated. It does not seem practicable, however, to prevent continued
nppropriation and use of water in Utah and Colorado.
But how can storage be financed? The Imperial Valley is bur-
dened already with a heavy bonded indebtedness and is facing the
further problem of the AIl-American Canal, which is expected to cost
$30,000,000. The farmers cannot finance the river regulation which
they require and must have.
Now enters the third element of the great project — power. The
power possibilities are so great, and power is so valuable, that it is esti-
mated the sale of power will pay for the entire project. A few months
ago the proposal was to charge five percent of the cost of the storage
dam to irrigation, ten percent to flood protection, and eighty-five per-
cent to power. Now it is proposed to charge the entire cost to the
power privileges. About 4,000,000 horsepower can be developed in
Arizona at the four sites mentioned above.
Is there a market for so much power? Arizona can take about
100,000 horsepower to replace present steam plants. Cheap power will
permit of increased pump irrigation, the mining of lower grade ores,
and the electrification of our railways. We shall have factories where
our own raw materials can be fabricated, — cotton mills, copper and brass
foundries ; and the electrolytic refining of Arizona copper can be done
in our own State.- All city and house lighting will be done with hydro-
electric power, and any excess can be used for making nitrate fertilizers.
But other states, especially California, will compete for the power.
A great amount can be marketed in southern California now. It is
538 Bulletin 95
estimated that in fifteen years all possible hydro-electric development
in that State will have been accomplished, and California interests are
looking much farther ahead than that.
Nearly all of the power requirements of the mining industry in
Arizona are now supplied from petroleum fuel oil. The best opinions
regarding the future supply of fuel oil point to a diminution of the
supply and rapidly rising prices. It is essential that hydro-electric
power be developed to replace the failing oil supply.
PROPOSAL OF THB UNITED STATES RECLAMATION SERVICE
Engineers of the United States Reclamation Service have been
studymg the problem of the Colorado tor eight years, and have decided
quite definitely on what they believe should be the first project. The
Service has recommended to Congress that it should be a project of the
Federal Government, and the Secretary of the Interior stated publicly
at the Riverside and San Diego conventions in December, 1921, that,
because of the international and interstate character of the river,
the Federal Government is the only competent agency to construct the
great dam that must be built, and to control and operate its gates. He
is right, and Arizona should back to the limit federal ownership and
operation of the main river control project.
The Reclamation Service recommends that the dam be located in
Boulder Canyon on the boundary line between Arizona and Nevada.
On account of the peculiar situation, the west end of the dam would
rest on the Arizona side. A transmission line from that point to
Phoenix would be about 250 miles long, and a line to Los Angeles 277
miles in length. The proposed 600-foot dam provides for storage for
irrigation and for storage of silt for sixty years, and for 5,000,000
acre-feet capacity at the top to be used only for detention of high flood
crests, such as those of 1907, 1909, 1914, and 1920.
Last July, when Congress was committed to retrenchment, and it
seemed impossible to interest the East in this most necessary under-
taking, plans were made to contract the power privileges in advance to
municipalities and states or to other purchasers, and the purchasers
were to obtain the necessary funds through sale of bond issues. The
city of Los Angeles was ready to take all or as much of the power as
would be allowed to that city. Now, it is believed that there is a good
fighting chance to obtain the money through federal appropriation.
The Colorado River and Its Development 539
with ultimate return of the cost to the government by the sale of
power.
ALTERNATIVE PROPOSALS
Although crystallization of sentiment in favor of Boulder Can-
yon project has made considerable headway, still some widely divergent
views are being expressed, and it may not be impertinent to discuss
alternative proposals. It is contended that for many reasons the river
development should begin farther upstream. That the Boulder Canyon
site is the one nearest to the best market for power is a sound argu-
ment. Of the other arguments advanced for that site, some are not
valid, and the others may be met by the statement that extensive stor-
age in the upper basin can be followed advantageously, and will be, by
projects providing additional storage on the lower river. If the flood
hazard is removed or is greatly reduced by means of extensive storage
in Utah, the Boulder Canyon dam can be built at much less cost and
in fewer years. Further, if the river regulation is effected in the
upper basin, the power sites from Glen Canyon to Boulder Canyon
inclusive become much more valuable, since the water supply is equal-
ized, and because less reserve space is required for detention purposes.
The upper locations will be developed eventually ; why not now ?
From that standpoint, the Dewey site on the Grand River and the
Flaming Gorge site on the Green offer the best solution. Both dams
could be built at once, and the total cost would be only about $25,000,-
000. The Juniper Mountain reservoir would cost $4,000,000. These
sites are above the great silt-gathering area of the drainage basin.
The Flaming Gorge and Dewey reservoirs would provide ample late-
summer water supply for the lower basin for many years to come. The
Flaming Gorge reservoir would serve to reduce the spring floods on
the Green River one-third, and the Dewey reservoir would take the
peak off from the spring floods of the Grand. The Dewey reservoir
would be operated so as to be entirely empty at the beginning of the
flood period. Both dams could be completed in five years. It is
premised, however, that the construction of these dams would be fol-
lowed by that of one or more others farther downstream, — possibly
one on the San Juan or at Lee's Ferry, and either the Diamond Creek
dam or Boulder Canyon dam or both. The dams on the headwaters
should be built under the same theory of government as were the
540 Bulletin 95
thirty-three dams on the Ohio River, that is, to secure river regulation
and control, to make the stream manageable and utilizable. Navigation
is no more vital to the economic and social welfare of the group of
six states bordering the Ohio than is the taming and harnessing of the
Colorado to the welfare of the seven states along its course. In due
time, the Government might be reimbursed for the investment, for,
after the construction of large storage reservoirs in Arizona, the Utah
reservoirs would be of great value for power production.
The Diamond Creek project is capable of comparatively rapid
construction, and is quite likely to go ahead of the Boulder dam in
point of time. It would be a strictly Arizona enterprise, and free from
the entangling jurisdictions that are inevitable in the larger projects.
It does not in any way lessen the necessity for the Boulder dam or
some other dam which can provide storage and flood control.
Another proposal is to make the Lee's Ferry reservoir the first
major undertaking. On account of the type of dam planned, the ex-
tent of flooding in the river during construction would be immaterial.
This reservoir as planned would store 30 percent more water than
the Boulder Canyon reservoir, the production of power would be much
greater, and the cost would be less. However, on account of the
radical design and proposed methods of construction, the project should
be submitted to the best engineering talent in the world before it can
be right or wise to adopt it.
WATER RIGHTS
The Supreme Court of the United States has decided that in the
case of interstate streams in the arid region, neither the riparian
theory of water rights nor the priority of appropriation theory can
obtain, but that each State is entitled to benefits from the river, — to
substantial benefits. Presumably, the distribution of benefits must be
made by the federal court. But in the case of the Colorado River,
where there is water enough for all, there seems to be no necessity for
any litigation.
The states of the upper basin seem to fear that the construction
of large reservoirs will serve automatically to appropriate the waters
of the river for use in the lower basin, and that additional development
of irrigation in the upper states will be prevented. Oft-repeated asser-
tions of the United States Geological Survey and the United States
The Colorado Rive;r and Its Development 541
Reclamation Service that the water supply is ample and adequate for
all of the irrigable lands of both upper and lower basins have not
served to allay the fear. Another cause of alarm in Colorado is the
doubt as to whether that State will be allowed to divert 310,000 acre-
feet of water per year from the Colorado basin, through tunnels at
narrow places in the watershed, for use on the plains north and east
of Denver, as is desired.
The upper states therefore are demanding a guarantee of unre-
stricted irrigation development in the upper basin, before they will
lend their support, or consent, to a federal project in the canyon region.
The lower basin states are asking for an allotment of the water supply
among the seven states.
The wisdom of a perpetual guarantee or of an allotment of the
waters of the river is questionable. On no other river basin has
either been attempted. It is not possible to forsee conditions a hun-
dred years ahead, or even thirty years ahead. All irrigators who are
putting the water to beneficial use should be protected, but in prin-
ciple it may be exceedingly dangerous to reserve a valuable water
supply for a project which may prove to be of doubtful feasibility.
If an allotment of the water is attempted, most of the seven states
will advance extravagant claims to water. Some of the states most
involved have no adequate conception of the feasibility of their
projects, and no just allotment can be made without thorough surveys
of all proposed irrigation lands. It is unlikely that any allotment can
be proposed which will not be held up in some legislature for many
years, and meanwhile the ruin of the Imperial Valley may be ac-
complished.
There is no necessity for a distribution of the unused water rights
at this time. If the act to appropriate money for a Colorado River
project shall state as follows, "Provided, that nothing in this Act shall
be so construed as to afifect in any way the rights to the use of the
waters of the Colorado Basin of any state or any part of a state," then
the upper states cannot be affected adversely by the project.
The average annual discharge of the river into the Gulf of Cali-
fornia is 13,000,000 acre-feet. The projects of the upper basin are
such that probably no more than 3,000,000 acre-feet of water addi-
tional can be consumed in those projects, and the balance of 10,000,000
542 Bulletin 95
acre- feet is more than twice as much as the states of the lower basin
can use, — at least until a different economic order shall prevail.
Congress, through the Mondell act, has provided for a Colorado
River Commission, consisting of one representative from each of the
seven states, and one from the Federal Government. The Commis-
sion is now organized with Herbert Hoover as its chairman, repre-
senting the Federal Government. The purpose expressed in the
Mondell Act is the negotiation of a compact or agreement, providing
for an equitable division or apportionment of the water supply among
the seven states.
NAVIGABILITY
The existing treaty with Mexico declares the Colorado River to
be a navigable stream, and a federal court prohibited any action which
might interfere with its navigability. The diversion of water for
irrigation, therefore, is contrary to the treaty. As soon as diplomatic
relations with Mexico are re-established, steps should be taken to
amend the treaty in so far as it affects the Colorado. The river
should be declared to be an unnavigable stream.
Arizona's program
Arizona owns the Colorado River bed, or half of it, for 580 miles.
We do not own the water. We do not have unlimited millions of
wealth to invest in the Colorado enterprises, nor many votes in Con-
gress. We should endeavor to cooperate with our neighbor states.
When the seven states agree upon a plan of action, the extreme
urgency of the case will secure the appropriation needed.
With regard to some features of the project, Arizonans will ex-
press their opinions, but should not insist upon them. The immediate
construction of the storage dam and the height of dam and the type
of dam are far more vital to California than to us. Nothing can pre-
vent our obtaining all the power the State can use, both now, and for
fifty years to come. Our preferential rights to power are recognized.
Also, it is proposed to grant Arizona and Nevada each a free block
of power at Boulder site. Our concern must be to insure that there
shall be no monopoly of power by a single corporation, and that
every nook and corner of the State shall be able to receive power at
equitable rates.
We should pledge the State's honor to the states of the upper
The Colorado River and Its Development 543
basin that any construction of dams for the benefit of the lower basin
shall not prejudice in any way their equitable rights.
But, the irrigation of our lands we must insist on; the develop-
ment of the Parker project of 110,000 acres and of the Mohave Valley
of 27,000 acres, and of the Cibola Valley of 15,000 acres, and that
the right to double the acreage under irrigation at Yuma, as is con-
templated, shall not be denied. It will require at least two new
diversion dams similar to the Laguna dam, and they must be started
in time to be finished when the storage dam is finished. The great
river control dam and the power will be secured largely because Cali-
fornia is fighting with us. But for the irrigation of Arizona lands
we must fight alone. It does not follow necessarily that our lands
will be irrigated if the Boulder dam or Lee's Ferry dam is built. Pro-
vision for the Parker diversion dam should, if possible, be put into
the act which shall provide for the larger project. Be it said also,
that the Parker and Mohave projects do not have the usual influential
citizens and real estate boosters to present their claims. They are
still under the care of the United States Indian Service. Congress
passed an act for their opening to entry several years ago, and the
matter is now sleeping. There are only a few Indians, and they have
received allotments. It is the finest opportunity in the whole United
States to provide lands for former service men, not less than 3500 of
them. The State of Arizona has got to speak loudly for those projects.
Lastly, the high-line irrigation project — what of it? It has been
claimed that if the high dam is located in Boulder Canyon, water can
be turned into a canal on a high level, and led through the mountain
passes of Mohave County, across Bill Williams River, through the
Bouse Valley to Harrisburg Valley, and down the Centennial Wash to
the Gila River. The writer has studied all the available data, and is of
the opinion that the project is not feasible. Regardless of how desira-
ble it would be to bring under irrigation from the Colorado River an
extensive area of elevated desert land, yet it is better for the people
of Arizona to dream no vague dreams, and to concentrate all efforts
to obtain those developments which are practicable.
In the first place, the high-line project would require a dam 500
or 600 feet high to raise the water to the level of the canal. A great
reservoir of dead storage water would be created, for the water level
could never again be allowed to fall below the elevation of the canal.
544 Bulletin 95
Storage to regulate and equalize the water supply must be provided
by building the dam considerably higher than the canal level or by
means of another reservoir, preferably at Lee's Ferry. Probably there
would be two great dams required instead of one.
The high-line canal would be built along the rough mountain
sides of Mohave County, but no water could be taken through the
Sacramento Valley Pass or through any other pass to lands behind
the mountain range that borders the river, in that county.
Assuming an elevation of 1200 feet above sea level for the canal
at its head, the elevation in the vicinity of Bouse would be about 1050
feet, 120 feet lower than the proposed canal that is designed to irri-
gate the Bouse Valley from the Williams River. About 90,000 acres
in the Bouse Valley could be irrigated by pumping from the canal.
By boosting the water 350 feet by means of pumps, the water could
be led to Vicksburg, and then another boost of 500 feet would deliver
it into the Harrisburg Valley, or, perhaps it would be cheaper to
avoid the last-named lift by tunneling through the Little Harquahala
Mountains. It would be more feasible to leave the Little Harquahalas
and Coyote Mountain to the east of the canal, but even so, the pump-
ing lift would be impractical. The maximum area that could be
brought under such a high line system would be less than a million
acres, mostly in Yuma County.
As an alternative proposal, the water for the high-line canal might
be dropped at the high dam, generating power, and this power could
be used to lift the water from the river near Parker into a high-line
canal starting at that point. The electrical transmission losses would
be no larger in percentage than the seepage and evaporation losses
of water from the 260 miles of canal; and the investment would be
less. About one kilowatt would be required per acre irrigated for
the main lift to elevation 1060 at Parker, requiring an investment
of about $100 per acre for power equipment, while the cost of the
canal from the high dam to Parker would be more than twice as
much. The value of the power used on this one lift, per irrigated
acre, at one-half cent per kilowatt-hour, would be about $30 per
year. Neither proposition is feasible, at least not during the present
generation. An investment of over $300 per acre would be required.
The best raw valley land in Arizona cannot stand a construction charge
The Color/\do River and Its Deveeopment 545
for irrigation over $150 per acre.
There is one possibility for which plans and estimates should per-
haps be prepared. This is the possibility of pumping from the river
at or near Cocopah Point, near the head of Laguna Lake, on a lift of
about 350 feet, to a canal which would then run easterly on the north
side of the Lower Gila Valley, crossing the river near Sentinel, and
running thence on grade toward the southwest, covering about 250,000
acres of land. Power could be generated at Cocopah Point by means
of a low rock-fill dam, after river regulation has been secured farther
upstream. This project may be practicable twenty years hence.
THE GIEA RIVER SYSTEM
It seems to have been forgotten that the Gila tributary is a vital
element of the Colorado River, and that the study of Colorado River
problems must take cognizance of the necessity for river regulation
on the Gila. Be it remembered that it was the Gila River floods, five
of them, in the winter and spring of 1905, which were responsible
for the great disaster of that year, when in August the whole of the
river was diverted into Imperial Valley. Had it not been for the
continuous high water and repeated floods in the Gila, the narrow cut
from the temporary heading of the Imperial Canal could have been
closed easily. The Gila flood of January 22, 1916, was greater than
the highest recorded flood of the Colorado itself. River regulation
of the Gila River is absolutely necessary for the security of Yuma
and Imperial valleys.
About seven years ago when the Federal Government began a
comprehensive study of Colorado River problems, the Gila River
was included in the studies. The plans prepared by the United States
Reclamation Service at that time provided for regulation of the Gila
by means of a dam 225 feet high near Sentinel, Arizona. The reser-
voir was to be operated for stream regulation only, and would have
been of little service in reclaiming desert lands between Sentinel and
Yuma. In 1918 borings were made at the dam site by the Reclama-
tion Service, and it was ascertained that suitable foundations for a
storage dam do not exist; hence the Sentinel project was abandoned.
In 1920, the Reclamation Service made an extensive study of the
Gila River from source to mouth, examining all possible storage sites.
It was concluded that the best solution of water problems of the Gila
River is the construction of the San Carlos dam. The report of the
546 Bulletin 95
Engineer, Mr. C. C. Fisher, favors a dam 250 feet high above bedrock,
about 20 feet lower than the Roosevelt dam. Mr. Fisher finds that
the irrigation project should have an area of 148,000 acres. In Feb-
ruary, 1921, a board of engineers of the United States Reclamation
Service review^ed the Fisher report. The board recommends that the
dam to be first constructed be 200 feet in height, and that in the next
generation, thirty years hence, the height be raised to 250 feet. The
board states that such a project is entirely feasible, provided satis-
factory arrangements can be made with the Arizona Eastern Railroad,
the line of which passes through the reservoir site.
The San Carlos dam must be constructed. Furthermore, storage
must be provided on the Verde River. Additional storage is needed
on the Salt River, and with this additional storage will come 24,000
additional hydro-electric horsepower at the Horse Mesa dam. It
is hoped, too, that a feasible storage project on the Agua Fria can be
accomplished, and perhaps the Walnut Grove dam will be rebuilt at
some time. Each one of these projects will reduce materially the
flood crests of the lower Gila River.
Final
Arizona's program, therefore, should be: —
1. To encourage all development projects, both public and pri-
vate, on the Colorado River. In the case of publicly owned projects,
the State must receive a block of free power in lieu of taxes.
2. To demand that as much power be allotted to this State as
can be used by this State.
3. To demand that the federal project include a diversion dam
at Bull's Head Rock at the head of Mohave Valley and one at Gate-
head Rock at the head of the Parker Valley.
4. To demand that provision for river regulation on the Gila
River be included in the federal program.
In the above exposition of the Colorado River problems and pro-
posals, I have presented the case from the Arizona viewpoint. Ari-
zona's future is to a high degree wrapped up in the development of
the Colorado. The highest statesmanship is demanded at this time
that the latent wealth of this great natural resource may be wisely
and speedily secured and that this Commonwealth may share in its
benefits in the largest practicable measure.
The University of Arizona
College of Agriculture
Thirty-Second Annual
Report
of the
Agricultural Experiment Station
For the Year Ended June 30, 1921
This Report constitutes Part III of
the Annual Report of the Board of
Regents of the University of Ari-
zona, made in conformity to Article
4483, Title 42, Revised Statutes of
Arizona, 1913.
Tucson, Arizona, December 31, 1921
ORGANIZATION
BOARD OF REGENTS
Ex-Officio Members
His Excellency, Thomas E. Campbell, Governor of Arizona Phoenix
Hon. Elsie Toles, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Piioenix
Appointed Members
Epes Randolph, Chancellor Tucson
Estmer W. Hudson Tempe
James G. Compton, Secretary Tucson
John H. Campbell, LL.M., Treasurer Tucson
William Scarlett, A.B., B.D Phoenix
Timothy A. Riordan Flagstaff
Edmund Wells Prescott
Louis D. Ricketts, Sc.D., LL.D Warren
RUFUS B. von KleinSmid, A.M., D.Sc, J.D President of the University
D. W. Working, B.Sc, A.M Dean College of Agriculture, Director
*R. H. Forbes, Ph.D Research Specialist
John J. Thornber, A.M Botanist
Albert E. Vinson, Ph.D Agricultural Chemist
George E. P. Smith, B.S., C.E Irrigation Engineer
Richard H. Williams, Ph.D Animal Husbandman
Walter S. Cunningham, B.S Dairy Husbandman
Charles T. Vorhies, Ph.D Entomologist
Walker E. Bryan, M.S Plant Breeder
George E. Thompson, B.S.A Agronomist
Franklin J. Crider, M.S Horticulturist
James G. Brown, M.S Plant Pathologist
fFRANCls R. Kenney, B.S.A Poultry Husbandman
Royal B. Thompson, B.S.A Poultry Husbandman
fHEBER H. Gibson, A.M Professor of Agricultural Education
Clifford N. Catlin, A.M Associate Agricultural Chemist
William E. Code, B.S. C.E Assistant Irrigation Engineer
Allen F. Kinnison, P.S.A Assistant Horticulturist
Ralph S. Hawkins, B.S.A Assistant Agronomist
Harold C. Schwalen, B.S Assistant Irrigation Engineer
Elias H. Pressley, B.S Assistant Plant Breeder
Stanley P. Clark, B.S Assistant Agronomist
Richard N. Davis, B.S Assistant Dairy Husbandman
David W. Albert, B.S Assistant Horticulturist
Ernest B. Stanley, B.S Assistant Animal Husbandman
fSTUART W. Griffin, M.S Assistant Agricultural Chemist
fWlLLlAM E. Schneider, B.S Instructor in Animal Husbandry
Ethel N. Ikenberry, B.S Secretary College of Agriculture
fF. H. SlMMONS-Foreman, Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural Station
C. J. Wood Foreman, Salt River Valley Experiment Farm
T. L. Stafley.... Foreman, Tempe Date Orchard
Cakl Clark, B.S Foreman, Prescott Dry-Fai-m
M. H. Woody Foreman, Sulphur Spring Valley Dry Farm
Leslie Beaty B.S Foreman, Yuma Date Orchard and Horticultural
Station
J. R. Reed ....Foreman, University Farm
* On leave,
t Resigned.
Table of Contents
PAGE
Administration ^^'
Agricultural Extension Work ^48
The Agricultural Experiment Station 549
A New Department 550
Changes in Personnel 55U
Resignations 55_J.
Appointments and Promotions 551
Publications °^2
Technical Papers 55^
Projects ^^p
Finances ^oo
Agricultural Chemistry 557
Research
Swelling Coefficient of Dry Soils When Wetted 557
Alkali Studies ^^"^
Influences of Concomitant Conditions of the Toxicity of Black
Alkali ^^^
The Tempe Drainage Ditch 559
Prussic Acid Poisoning by Johnson Grass 561
Miscellaneous ^^^
Agronomy : ^ ^^^
Projects
Contiiiiaation of Studies at the Prescott Dry-Farm 563
A Continuation of Studies at the Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-
Farm 564
Legumes and Their Culture for Southwest Conditions 564
A Study of the Varieties and Methods of Cultivation of In-
dian Corn and the Various Sorghums 566
The Cultivation and Field Management of Egyptian Cotton 566
Cultivation and Management of Winter and Spring Grains, In-
cluding Wheat, Barley, Oats, and Rye 567
Effect on Field Crops of Dynamiting Subsoil 570
Varietal and Cultural Tests of Grain and Forage Crops and
of Grass and Miscellaneous Crops 570
Cooperative Crop Experiments 570
A Study of Indian Agriculture .' 570
Seed Certification Work 571
Extension Work 571
Publications 571
Miscellaneous 572
Animal Husbandry 573
Work of the Year 573
Feeding Cotton Seed to Range Steers 574
Feeding Cotton Seed to Pregnant Ewes 575
Botany : 576
Effects of Scant Rainfall 576
Character of Arizona Rainfall 577
Browse Pastures Versus Grass Pastureis 577
Instructional Duties 578
Preparation of Bulletins 579
Dairy Husbandry 580
Sudan Grass Hay Versus Alfalfa Hay for Dairy Cows 581
Green Alfalfa Versus Alfalfa Hay for Dairy Cows 581
Milk Substitutes for Feeding Calves 582
Entomology 583
Work on the Arizona Pink Bollworm 583
Wheat Injury Due to Hylemyia cilicrura ^ 583
Work with Bees 584
Miscellaneous 586
PAGE
Horticulture 587
Citrus Fruits - 587
New Plantings 587
The Effect of Fertilizers and Cover Crops on Tree Growth
and Yield 588
The Effect of Temperature and Humidity 589
Date Studies 589
Propagation of Offshoots 589
The Olive 590
Water Requirement Studies 591
Pruning Studies 591
The Walnut and Pecan 591
Irish Potatoes 592
Sweet Potatoes — 593
Variety Tests of Orchard Fruits 593
Varieties at the Salt River Valley Farm 593
Varieties at the Yuma Station 594
Variety Grape Vineyards 594
Bush Fruits : 594
New Fruits 595
Grape Analyses 595
Variety Tests of Beets 595
Irrigation Investigations 597
Groundwater Studies 597
Additional Water Supply for the University Campus 598
Fuel Oils for Pumpmg 599
Stream-Flow Measurements 599
Effects of the Transpiration of Trees on the Groundwater Supply... .599
Soil Surveys 600
Methods of Irrigation in Casa Grande Valley 600
Plant Breeding 601
Alfalfa 601
Cotton 601
Wheat 602
Inheritance of Earliness in Wheat 603
Plant Pathology 606
Work of the Department 606
Date Rot 606
Susceptibility of Various Dates to Date Rot. 609
Control 609
Cotton Black Arm and Angular Leaf-Spot 609
Miscellaneous Studies 610
Lettuce Rot 610
Field Crops 611
Orchard Trees 612
Small Fruits 613
Garden Vegetables 614
Ornamental Plants 614
Other Activities 615
Poultry Husbandry 616
Illustrations
Fi"- 1. Salt River Valley Farm: Foreman's house completed Septem-
ber, 1920 563
Fig. 2, Salt River Valley Farm: Field Peas as a green winter manure
crop 5^5
Fig. 3. Varietal tests of barley in the Yuma Valley; common six row
on left; beardless in the center; Mariot on right 569
Fig. 4. Salt River Valley Farm: Field tests with rye; Rozen rye on
left; Abruzzes rye on right 569
Fig. 5. Curves showing inheritance of earliness (as indicated by date
of appearance of first head) through four generations of a
cross between early (Sonora) wheat and a late (Red Turkey)
wheat 604
Fig. 6. Effects of date rot disease; note mummies still hanging to tree
and on ground 607
Fig. 7. Field of lettuce near Toltec, infected with bacterial rot 608
Fig. 8. Head of lettuce from the market, inoculated in the laboratory
with bacterial rot from diseased plants taken from field near
Toltec 610
Fig. 9. Trunk of peach tree killed by crown gall. Note the large gall
at base of trunk on the left side 612
Thirty-Second Annual Report^^^^
ADMINISTRATION ^»^''^' ^'''^*^
BOTANICAL
D. W. Working uardbn
The University year which ended June 30, 1921, represents
an important period in the life of the College of Agriculture.
In its teaching work the College has had the best year in its
history. More students of college grade were registered and
taught than in any previous year. The teaching has been
inspiring and effective. Students of agriculture have worked
diligently and have ranked high in scholarship in comparison
with their fellow-students of the other Colleges of the Uni-
versity. There is good reason for believing that the people
of the State have greater faith than ever before in agricul-
tural education as a preparation for the business of agriculture.
A summary of the registration of students in the College
of Agriculture for the ten-year period which ended with the
University year, June 30, 1921, shows in a general way the
growth of the educational work of the College on the Uni-
versity campus. The first column below gives the year; the
second, the total number of students enrolled. It is to be
noted that in 1919-20 the University admitted a considerable
number of students who were unable to comply with the
ordinary requirements. This was done to enable former service
men to secure vocational training. The result was that the
College of Agriculture enrolled 31 students of the subcollegiate
grade during that year. As it was found undesirable to con-
tinue the practice, during the year 1920-21 no students were
admitted who could not qualify for the regular college work;
and so the total registration for that year was 8 less than for
the previous year. Deducting the number of subcollegiate
students, the actual enrollment of students of college grade was
95 in 1919-20 ; and the increase for the following year was 23.
1911-12 38
1912-13 53
1913-14 38
1914-15 48
1915-16 62
1916-17 - 58
1917-18 31
1918-19 37
1919-20 126
1920-21 118
548 Thirty-second Annual Report
The irregularity of the increases shown above needs a few
words of explanation. The sharp decline in attendance for
1917-18 was clearly due to the World War. The slight increase
in the following year can be accounted for by the number of
students who returned to the University after being discharged
from the Army. In 1919-20 colleges and universities through-
out the country gained very largely in attendance. Our
own registration in the College of Agriculture showed an in-
crease of 340 percent. Part of this gain has already been
accounted for; and the remainder can be explained by the more
general recognition of the value of college training for men
entering the various agricultural pursuits, the more extended
knowledge of the character of the instruction offered, and the
increased population of the State.
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK
What has been said thus far relates to the campus teach-
ing of the College of Agriculture. Developments during the
past ten to fifteen years have made it necessary to distinguish
between the resident teaching and the extension of the agricul-
tural colleges. It has come about that a very large part of the
teaching efforts of the College of Agriculture are put forth
throughout the State ; and at the same time a smaller portion of
the teaching work is done within college classrooms and labora-
tories. This is as it should be. The people of the farming
communities recognize their need of instruction, and they as
frankly ask that the college extend its activities to every part
of the State where farmers and their families can come together
to receive instruction.
Practically every man and woman on the farms of Ari-
zona knows of the work of the County Agricultural Agents and
the Home Demonstration Agents who are working in the agri-
cultural counties of the State. Not all of them realize that
these men and women are members of the teaching faculty
of the College of Agriculture. Increasingly, however, the peo-
ple are becoming aware of the purpose of the College to teach
agriculture and home economics wherever country communi-
ties are willing to organize to receive instruction. So the work
of agricultural education is widening its field of influence; and
the instructors at the University and among the farms and
farm homes of the State are finding the people becoming more
responsive to intelligent instruction and readier to do their
share to make cooperative agricultural extension work more
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 549
genuinely cooperative and, therefore, more effective in promoting
profitable farming and more wholesome home and community-
life in the open country.
The report for the preceding year announced the appoint-
ment of Mr. W. M. Cook as Director of the Agricultural Ex-
tension Service of the College of Agriculture after he had served
two years as County Agent Leader. After a year of work as
Director, Mr. Cook has his organization well in hand, with the
hearty support of every member of the Extension Service. In
spite of many obstacles, the work is making real progress, and
seems to be better established in the interest of the people than
ever before.
THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
Primarily, this is a Report of the Agricultural Experiment
Station ; but it is proper in an administrative report to discuss
the Experiment Station as one of the divisions of the College
of Agriculture. The Station is an investigational and research
agency. It conducts experiments to test old knowledge in its
applications under new conditions; it plans other experiments
in its search for new facts; it studies old knowledge in relation
to new and different surroundings; and it publishes the results
of its investigations and studies in order that teachers of agri-
culture and farmers may make use of old facts and old mean-
ings and new meanings in the operations which we call agri-
culture— farming, fruit-growing, stock-raising, and all of the
various activities of the men and women whose business brings
them into contact with growing plants and breeding and caring
for animals.
In Arizona we have been used to a form of organization
which assumes that it is necessary that we have an Agricultural
Extension Director able to devote his full time to the adminis-
tration of agricultural extension work ; but we have not realized
that the work of the Agricultural Experiment Station needs to
be supervised by a Director able to give his full time to the
work of the Station. Our research work has been important
enough for a number of years to require the leadership of a
competent man able to give it his entire time and strength.
Not, however, until the present year was nearing its end had
the way become clear to provide for a Director of the Agricul-
tural Experiment Station who should be without other adminis-
trative or teaching duties.
550 Thirty-second Annual Report
The Dean and Director, who gives up his directorship in
order that the work of the Experiment Station may increase
in effectiveness, commends to the readers of this Report the
man who has been known to many of them for twenty years
or more as Professor J. J. Thornber. The work of the Experi-
ment Station should show almost immediate improvement under
his administration; for he has the good fortune to begin with
adequate preparation and the hearty support of all his
associates.
A NEW DEPARTMENT
With the development of the agriculture of Arizona, there
came the introduction of many plant diseases and an increase
of injury from native diseases of plants. For a number of
years it had been apparent that the Experiment Station needed
to give serious study to these diseases and methods of con-
trolling them. It was found possible to support the work
needed; and the Board of Regents authorized a Department of
Plant Pathology.
Effective July 1, 1920, Mr. J. G. Brown, who had been
Assistant Professor of Biology in the College of Letters, Arts,
and Sciences for a number of years, was made Professor of
Plant Pathology in the College of Agriculture, with the cor-
responding title of Plant Pathologist in the Experiment Station.
One year of work by the new department has more than justi-
fied the action of the Board.
CHANGES IN PERSONNEL
The strength of a college is due in part to the character
of the men and women who constitute its staff of workers ; and
in part it is due to the length of their service and the security
they feel in their positions. In the Thirty-First Annual Report
may be found two paragraphs which will gain in interest by
repetition here as follows:
"The College of Agriculture has been fortunate in being
able to retain the services of strong men for many years.
Three heads of Experiment Station departments have been
connected with the University from fifteen to twenty years.
Three others have been in service from five to seven years.
Too much emphasis can not be placed on the importance of
keeping high-class men. The State of Arizona is to be con-
gratulated on supporting a University policy that enables the
administrative officers of the University to secure strong men
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 551
and to keep them after they have learned Arizona conditions
so well as to be of the maximum service to the State.
"One reason why we are able to keep men of ability is
found in the fact that the Regents have pursued a liberal
policy in regard to salaries. Another reason is found in the
opportunity Arizona gives strong men to do their best. High-
grade scientific men need freedom in their work and the kind
of support that will give them outlet for their energies and
ambitions. They need tools and materials to work with. So
that the workers of the College of Agriculture may continue to
work most effectively, it is necessary that the State pursue
its established policy of providing liberal financial support."
Resignations
July 31, 1920: J. W. Longstreth, County Agricultural
Agent, Yuma County.
August 31, 1920: Mrs. Mary P. Lockwood, State Leader
of Home Demonstration Work.
August 31, 1920 : Francis R. Kenney, Poultry Husbandman.
August 31, 1920 : Stuart W. Griffin, Assistant Agricultural
Chemist.
December 31, 1920 : Nydia M. Acker, Home Demonstration
Agent, North Counties.
February 28, 1921 : Hazel Zimmerman, Home Demonstra-
tion Agent, South Counties.
March 31, 1921: F. H. Simmons, Foreman Yuma Date
Orchard and Horticultural Station.
June 30, 1921: H. H. Gibson, Professor of Agricultural
Education. On July 1, 1921, the Department of Agricultural
Education was transferred to the College of Letters, Arts, and
Sciences.
June 30, 1921: W. E. Schneider, Instructor in Animal
Husbandry.
Appointments and Promotions
July 1, 1920: J. G. Brown, Professor of Plant Pathology;
Plant Pathologist.
August 16, 1920: E. S. Turville, County Agricultural
Agent, Pinal County.
September 1, 1920: R. B. Thompson, Associate Professor
of Poultry Husbandry ; Poultry Husbandman.
September 1, 1920: Miss Grace Ryan, Home Demonstra-
tion Agent, Cochise and Pinal Counties.
552 Thirty-second Annual Report
September 16, 1920: M. M. Winslow, County Agricultural
Agent, Yuma County.
October 1, 1920: Miss Alice V. Joyce, State Leader of
Home Demonstration Work.
January 1, 1921: W. E. Schneider, Instructor in Animal
Husbandry.
March 1, 1921: A. B. Ballantyne, promoted from County
Agent Graham and Greenlee counties, to Assistant in Club and
County Agent Work.
April 1, 1921 : Leslie Beaty, transferred from foremanship
of Prescott Dry-Farm to foremanship of Yuma Date Orchard
and Horticultural Station.
May 1, 1921 : Carl Clark, Foreman Prescott Dry-Farm.
June 1, 1921: Miss Rosa Bouton, Home Demonstration
Agent, Apache, Coconino, and Navajo counties.
June 16, 1921 : Miss Edna Ladwig, Home Demonstration
Agent, Pima and Santa Cruz counties.
PUBLICATIONS
Bulletin No. 91, "Fattening Native Steers for Market: 1920," by R. H.
Williams, September 1920, (6000).
Bulletin No. 92, "The Supply, the Price, and the Quality of Fuel Oils,"^
by G. E. P. Smith, January 1921, (5000).
Thirty-First Annual Report, by the Station Staff, January 1921, (6000).
Circular No. 31, "Making Cheddar or American Cheese on the Farm," by
R. N. Davis, August 1920, (6000).
Circular No. 32, "Hog Cholera in Arizona," by R. H. Williams, November
1920, (6000).
Circular No. 33, "Hegari in Arizona," by G. E. Thompson, April 1921,
(5000).
Circular No. 34, "Sweet Clover in Arizona," by S. P. Clark, April 1921,
(5000).
Circular No. 35, "Sudan Grass in Arizona," by R. S. Hawkins, May 1921,
(6000).
Circular No. 36, "Rhodes Grass in Arizona," by S. P. Clark, May 1921,
(6000).
Circular No. 37, "The Production of Clean Milk," by R. N. Davis, May
1921, (6000).
Circular No. 38, "The Adobe Milkhouse," by C. B. Brown, June 1921,
(6000).
Circular No. 39, "Selecting Laying Hens," by R. B. Thompson, June 1921,
(6000).
TECHNICAL PAPERS
"Irrigation by Flooding: and the Efficiency of Irrigation." G E. P. Smith Publication-
of the Southern California Associated Pipe Manufacturers. September.
1920.
''Caesarian Operation on Lepua Al/oni and Notes on th° Young," C. T. Vorhies.
Journal of Mammalogy. Vol. 2. No. 2. May. 1921.
"The Changing Composition of Salton Sea Watrr." A. E. Vinson and S. W. Griffin..
Carnegie Institution of Washington. Year Book No. 19. 1920, page 76.
PROJECTS
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY
A. E. Vinson, C. N. Catlin
Alkali Investigations: Concomitant soil conditions that affect the toxicitv
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 553
of black alkali, and means for the amelioration of the effects of alkali
on soil and plant (Adams). „ ., , „
Study of colloidal swelling of dry soil when wetted: The colloidal swell-
ing of soils and the correlation of colloidal swelling to other sou
properties (Adams).
Gypsum treatment of black alkali land at the University Farm (State).
Irrigating waters and soils (Hatch).
Meteorological Observations (Hatch).
AGRONOMY
G. E. Thompson, R. S. Hawkins, S. P. Clark
Continuation of Studies at the Prescott Dry-Farm (State).
Continuation of Studies at the Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm (State):
This project and the preceding one include varietal tests, rate and
date of seeding tests, methods of planting tests, inoculation of legumes
— tests designed to determine whether dry-farming is feasible in the
particular localities indicated.
Varietal and cultural tests of legumes (Hatch) (State).
Varietal and cultural tests of corn and the various sorghums (Hatch)
(State).
Varietal and cultural tests with cotton (Hatch) (State).
Varietal and cultural tests with winter and spring grains (Hatch) (State).
Effect on field crops of dynamiting subsoil (State).
Varietal and cultural tests of grain, grass, and miscellaneous crops (State).
Cooperative crop experiments (State).
Study of Indian agriculture (State).
Alfalfa seed certification (State).
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
R. H. Williams, E. B. Stanley, W. E. Schneider
Feeding cottonseed products to range steers (Hatch) (State).
Feeding cottonseed to pregnant ewes (State).
Alfalfa hay alone as a ration for beef cows (State).
Two methods of raising and maintaining brood sows (State),
BOTANY
J. J. Thornber
An economic study of the grasses and grass-like plants of Arizona (Hatch).
Poison plants of our grazing ranges (Hatch).
Range improvement through fencing (Hatch).
Trees and shrubs for ornamental planting (Hatch) (State).
Study of jujube plants (Hatch) (State).
Study of pistasch trees {Pistacia vera) (Hatch) (State).
Study of species of mulberries (Hatch) (State).
Stxdy of tamarisks, particularly Tartuirix articulata (Hatch) (State).
DAIRY HUSBANDRY
W. S. Cunningham, R. N. Davis
Sudan grass versus alfalfa hay for dairy cows (Hatch) (State).
Green alfalfa versus alfalfa hay for dairy cattle (Hatch) (State).
Milk substitutes for feeding calves (Hatch Sales) (State).
ENTOMOLOGY
C. T. Vorhies
Study of range rodents with special reference to the kangaroo rat,
Dipodomys spectabilis (Adams).
Arizona (or Thurberia) boll-worm, Thurberiphaga catalina, life history
and relation to cultivated cotton (Adams).
Collection and preservation of Arizona insects, especially the economic
forms (Hatch) (State).
General observations of variable factors and conditions in bee-keeping,
honey plants, etc. (State).
554 Thirty-second Annual Report
HORTICULTURE
F. J. Crider, a, F. Kinnison, D. W. Albert
Dates: A study of the culture and management of date orchards with
special reference to propagation and to the improvement of fruit
(State).
Citrus fruits: A study of cultural practices including varietal tests, bud
selection studies, methods of pruning, propagation, soil improvement
by use of cover crops, time and method of planting, effect of stable
manure and commercial fertilizers; and a study of effect of tem-
perature and atmospheric humidity (Hatch) (State).
Olives: This project includes study of sterility, cultural practices such
as pruning, irrigation, etc. (Hatch) (State).
Pruning studies: Effect of different methods of pruning upon deciduous
fruits (Hatch).
Study of the water requirements of fruits (Hatch) (State).
Walnut and pecan studies: In this project special attention is given to
top grafting Juglans major with cultivated varieties (Hatch) (State).
Irish potato studies: Study of conditionb affecting the production of
potatoes in Arizona (Hatch) (State).
Sweet potato studies: A study of cultural and storage methods (Hatch)
(State).
Spinach: Varietal tests to determine what varieties are most satisfactory
as a market garden crop for southern Arizona (State).
Miscellaneous horticultural studies (Hatch) (State).
IRRIGATION
G. E. P. Smith, W. E. Code, H. C. Schwalen
Groundwater investigations: Principles of groundwater recharge, move-
ment, and escape or use, especially escape through transpiration
(Adams) (State).
Pumping Machinery: A study to determine fundamental facts relating to
the action and efficiency of various types (Adams).
Evaporation and duty of water (Adams).
Water supplies and irrigation in Cochise County (State).
PLANT BREEDING
W. E. Bryan, E. H. Pressley
Alfalfa: A study of heritable characters in pure lines of alfalfa (Adams)
(State).
Wheat: Factors controlling milling and baking qualities in wheat.
(Adams) (State).
Corn: Breeding a high yielding, heat resistant field corn (State).
Cotton: Selections within the Pima variety in order to improve the
variety in earliness, percentage of lint, yield, and form of plant.
Selections from the best short-staple upland varieties in order to
produce a suitable short-staple variety for those sections of the State
which seem best adapted to this sort of cotton. (Adams) (State).
Beans: The object of this project is to produce an edible field bean which
can be successfully grown as a summer crop. (Adams) (State).
PLANT PATHOLOGY
J. G. Brown
Date rot: This project consists of inoculation and spraying experiments.
(Adams).
Influence of alkali on the susceptibility of cotton to black arm and angular
leaf spot. (Adams) (State).
Influence of alkali on the susceptibility of cotton to Texas root rot.
(Adams) (State).
Miscellaneous plant disease studies (State).
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
555
FINANCES
Table I following shows receipts and expenditures for the
Agricultural Experiment Station as reported to the Director
of the Office of Experiment Stations of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture. Table II gives a complete statement
of receipts and disbursements for the College of Agriculture, in-
cluding the Experiment Station and the Agricultural Extension
Service. It does not include amounts spent by the Federal De-
partment of Agriculture in partial support of cooperative agri-
cultural extension workers. These items are shown in detail in
the separate report of the Extension Service.
table I. — showing experiment station expenditures by funds and
SCHEDULES FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30. 1921
Abstract
state
Fund
Sales
Fund
Hatch
Fund
Adams
Fund
Total
Salaries
$18,373.82
9,617.43
2,981.97
156.87
414.13
515.42
$ 267.71
6,432.14
$13,248.73
65.12
$14,328.84
$46,219.10
16,114.69
2,981.97
450 15
Labor
Publications
Postage and sta-
tionery
189.57
504.47
4.00
76.10
18.67
27.61
4.26
Freight and express
Heat, light, water,
and power
941.53
519 42
Chemicals and lab-
oratory supplies....
Seeds, plants, and
sundry supplies
Fertilizers
93.64
56.90
83.44
49.42
177.08
1,755.36
1,220.67
2,027.55
1,540.47
469.82
909.03
906.61
212.40
8,402.15
1,690.49
2,936.58
7.87
Feeding stuffs
Library
5.00
53.40
366.42
800.00
130.70
2.87
24.00
Tools, machinery and
appliances
1,111.47
82.80
2,042.08
348.60
Furniture and fix-
tures
Scientific apparatus
and specimens
78.16
444.58
Livestock
432.50
2,298.95
524.32
10,644.08
1,029.86
1,415.25
1,559.85
80.20
8,818.96
*1,987.53
2,647.75
Traveling expenses-
Contingent expenses
165.40
4,154.91
604.52
Buildings and lands.
Balance forward to
1921-22
85.31
236.00
19,784.35
*957.67
1
Totals
$53,187.20
$21,322.95
$15,000.00
$15,000.00
$104,510.15
* Overdraft.
556
Thirty-second Annual Report
TABLE IL— SHOWING RECEIPTS FROM ALL SOURCES AND DISBURSEMENTS
FOR ALL PURPOSES ON ACCOUNT OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE FOR
THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1921
K\ind
Balance
Receipts
Total
Disburse-
ments
Balance
College of Agricul-
$
$20,798.17
8,079.01
12,500.00
2,250.00
2,981.97
11,394.86
4,260.00
2,575.00
4,825.00
4,500.00
5,690.00
12,510.00
4,540.00
3,000.00
2,400.00
10,036.90
10,630.78
1,739.38
15,000.00
15,000.00
608.50
18,863.27
17,949.30
11,831.12
10,000.00
5,000.00
15,000.00
233,963.26
$20,798.17
8,079.01
12,500.00
4,298.95
2,981.97
11,394.86
5,156.17
2,575.05
4,825.00
5,475.30
7,074.03
12,736.97
4,554.04
3,013.79
2,507.85
18,887.40
13,325.70
2,435.55
15,000.00
15,000.00
550.95
18,863.27
17,949.30
12,478.16
10,000.00
5,393.95
1,900.28
21,759.36
261,515.08
$20,798.17
8,079.01
12,500.00
4,298.95
2,981.97
11,394.86
4,260.00
2,575.00
4,825.00
4,500.00
6,168.07
12,736.97
4,416.10
3,013.79
2,400.00
20,874.93
13,325.70
2,435.55
15,000.00
15,000.00
123.39
18,863.27
17,949.30
8,271.74
10,000.00
5,393.95
1,900.28
10,064.78
244,150.78
$
Morrill
Farm Improvement..
2,408.95
Plant Introduction-
Tempe Date Palm
Orchard Fund
Yuma Date Orchard
Horticultural
!«!fnfinn
*896.17
*.05
♦896.17
♦.05
Dry-Farming Fund..
Prescott Dry-Farm
Fund
*975.30
1,384.03
226.97
*14.04
13.79
*107.85
8,850.50
2,694.92
696.17
♦975.30
905.96
Salt River "Valley
Sulphur Spring
Valley Farm
(*14.04)
Surface Water
(123.90)
Underflow "Water
Investigation
♦107.85
Experiment Farm
Sales
tl,987.53
University of Ari-
zona Farm Sales....
TTntrh Sales
Hatch
Student Fees
t57.55
427.56
Stat^ T^^xtension
County Extension....
Cooperative Agri-
cultural Extension
647.04
4,206.42
Citrus Investigation
Date Palm Orchard
and Horticultural
Station Land and
Improvement Fund
Cochise "Water In-
vestigation Fund....
Total
393.95
1,900.28
6,759.36
27,609.37
—57.55
11,694.58
19,351.83
—1,987.53
27,551.82
17,364.30
Grand Total $261,515.08
$261,515.08
♦ Returned to State Treasurer,
t Overdraft.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY
A. E. Vinson, C. N. Catlin
The work of the Department of Agricultural Chemistry
during the year ended June 30, 1921, has been continued along
the lines of projects defined in former reports. This work is
divided into research, miscellaneous analytical work, and
teaching.
RESEARCH
SWELLING COEFFICIENTS OF DRY SOILS WHEN WETTED
The method of determining the swelling coefficient of dry
soils when wetted, which was originated in this department, wad
given further study; first to obtain satisfactory duplicate de-
terminations, and second, to compare the swelling coefficient with
other physical constants dependent on the texture of the soil. A
technical paper covering the details of the method and duplicate
determinations will be prepared by the department during the
coming year. The following table, however, is given here to
show the correlation between the swelling coefficient as deter-
mined by our method in the case of a few soils of widely vary-
ing texture and the mechanical analysis and moisture equivalent
of the same soils.
TABLE III — COMPARISON
OF SWELLING
CONSTANTS
COEFFICIENT WITH OTHER
Mechanical Analysis
Muck
Rillito
clay
U. of A.
sandy
loam
Maricopa
gravelly
loam
Calcar-
eous
gravellj
loam
Fine gravel 2-1 mm.
Coarse sand 1-.5 mm.
Medium sand .5-.25 mm.
Fine sand .25-.10 mm.
Very fine sand .1-.05 mm.
Silt .05-.005 mm.
Clay below .005 mm.
,4
L7
3.5
21.9
45.4
11.3
15.8
2.3
9.0
8.9
20.4
39.7
7.6
9.7
3.6
1.0
.4
19.7
19.6
25.7
30.3
1.2
7.6
6.2
7.5
21.5
55.1
16.1
16.2
18.8
25.5
10.6
6.0
Total
99.7
99.1
100.0
97.6
96.8
Loss on ignition
Moisture equivalent
Swelling coefficient
9.71
33.0
181.4
11.14
34.8
173.7
12.76
8.0
67.5
3.93
9.0
74.6
3.54
7.2
60.0
ALKALI STUDIES
Field studies of the treatment of black alkali soil with
gypsum have been continued at the University Farm. A good
stand of barley was obtained over the most alkaline portion of
558 Thirty-second Annual Report
the plot that had always been barren before gypsum treatment.
These studies, which extend over a period of years, have been put
in manuscript form and crop maps have been prepared for pub-
lication.
INFLUENCE OF CONCOMITANT CONDITIONS OF THE TOXICITY
OF BLACK ALKALI
The work has been in progress for several years as an
Adams fund project. In the pot culture phases of this in-
vestigation interesting and suggestive results have been ob-
tained with winter cultures of wheat and barley. Attempts
with summer cultures so far have failed almost entirely. In
1920, tepary beans and cotton were used, but neither proved of
value for pot cultures. This year milo, hegari, and Mexican
June com are being used. Corn is doing fairly well, but the
first planting of milo and hegari failed to come up or died im-
mediately in the same pots where wheat and barley had given
fair returns the previous winter. Even in the low concentra-
tion, .05 and .075 percent sodium carbonate, these sorghums
made very weak growths and were nearly destitute of chloro-
phyll. The pots have been replanted with the same sorghums.
Milo and hegari have behaved almost the same way on the
black alkali plots on the University Farm where barley made a
good winter growth. Check pots with sweet soil are giving
good growths with both of these sorghums. It is difficult to
find a crop suited to summer pot culture work with alkali under
the climatic conditions prevailing at Tucson. Rhodes grass,
however, on strong black alkali soil at the University Farm is
making a fine growth. It may prove of value for pot culture.
With winter cultures wheat proved much more resistant to
black alkali than barley, which is contrary to the generally
accepted belief. It may be a matter of variety, however, for
the wheat used was Sonora and the barley was ordinary six-
row. Six series of cultures were run with both wheat and bar-
ley in which the concentration of black alkali was the only
factor varied. Barley failed absolutely in .25 percent (by anal-
ysis of the natural soil) sodium carbonate, while wheat made
a slight growth. Barley made a very weak growth in .20 per-
cent sodium carbonate and wheat a fair growth. In weaker
alkali both wheat and barley made satisfactory growth for
experimental studies on soil of the University Farm type. Very
little difference was discernible in the weaker black alkali cul-
tures as judged from general appearance, but the grain yields
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 559
were reduced materially by .075 percent sodium carbonate.
The main purpose of this series of cultures was to determine the
percentage of alkali in this particular type of soil, but the ex-
periment was adapted to the study of the influence of other
conditions. With this percentage fixed and held constant
through the series, other conditions will be varied. Such
observations have been made on the influence of texture in
soils containing .2 of one percent and .15 of one percent of
sodium carbonate. A very strong black alkaline soil was se-
lected and mixed with sand and with clay in order to reduce the
alkalinity; then combinations of the two mixtures were made
so as to give one series of .2 of one percent and another of .15
of one percent sodium carbonate, the two series varying only
in texture. Sand greatly intensified the toxicity of the black
alkali, while clay (or muck in one series) largely neutralized
the effect of the alkali. Other similar series, in which the
original sodium carbonate is held constant but wholly or in
part neutralized by gypsum, aluminum sulphate, mineral and
organic acids, are planned. A few preliminary trials along
this line have shown some very interesting results which will
be carefully checked with larger series next winter.
THE TEMPE DRAINAGE DITCH
Monthly samples of water from the Tempe Drainage Ditch
have been collected and analyzed. The study has now extended
over a period of four years and shows interesting results. Since
January 1920, there has been very little change in the com-
position of the water. This may possibly be due to the long
period of drought through which we have just passed. Table
IV gives the composition of water for each month from July
1920, to July 1921.
560
Thirty-second Annual Report
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Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 561
The average monthly composition for the four years ended
January 1, 1921, was as follows :
1917 1918 1919 1920
Total solids 308 266 262 256
Chlorides 209 182 173 158
During the year 1920, the sample for April is missing. It
would appear that a marked and steady improvement in the
drainage from this very alkaline area is taking place. Further
discussion of this project will be found in the Twenty-Seventh,
Twenty-Eighth, Twenty-Ninth, Thirtieth, and Thirty-First
Annual Reports of this Station.
PRUSSIC ACID POISONING BY JOHNSON GRASS
In June, 1921, Mr. WiUiam H. Griffin of Cornville, Arizona,
reported to His Excellency, Thomas E. Campbell, Governor of
Arizona, the sudden death of three head of cattle and sent sam-
ples of the Johnson grass they had been eating. The letter and
samples were referred to this department. We had been called
upon previously to examine Johnson grass that was believed to
have caused the death of hogs; but the analyses were always
negative, although there was little doubt but that the hogs died
of prussic acid poisoning, and it had been shown in Bulletin No.
90, Part IV, 1905, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, that Johnson
grass did sometimes cause such poisoning. The samples in this
case contained surprisingly large amounts of prussic acid, but
no quantitative determination was made. The following descrip-
tion of the death of the animals is taken from Mr. Griffin's
letter :
"I have lost three head of cattle the last two months by eating this
grass. The first was a two-year-old steer that broke through the fence,
stayed in the pasture about one hour, then came back to the fence and
died in a few minutes. The next was a milk cow that came fresh in
the morning and stayed about the corral all day. We gave her a good handful
of the Johnson grass and she died in less than an hour. The last was a
milk cow that broke into the horse barn and got a small amount which
was left by the horses. I milked this cow at eight o'clock and she was
in good health. At a quarter to nine we heard her calling and before
nine she was dead, in less than an hour after eating the grass."
Since other cases of this kind are likely to occur, it is well
to call attention to the best known treatment of sorghum poison-
ing in cases where the animals are not beyond help. Glucose,
best known in the form of Karo corn syrup, greatly lessens
the toxic effect of prussic acid. It should be administered
freely. Milk sugar is also an antidote, and whole or skimmed
milk should be given freely. Animals that have just received
562 Thirty-second Annual Report
a good grain ration are much less susceptible to sorghum or
Johnson grass poisoning. Hay that is cured quickly is more
apt to retain dangerous amounts of prussic acid than hay that
is cured slowly. It is generally believed that the sorghums are
likely to be poisonous when the growth is stunted by drought.
Crawford in Bulletin 90, cited above, quotes a California cor-
respondent: "This plant is poisonous when grown on irrigated
as well as on non-irrigated lands, but especially so when grown
on irrigated lands, and the growth has become rank. It has
been shown that sorghums grown in Florida under humid con-
ditions also contain hydrocyanic or prussic acid. Great care
should be exercised in feeding Johnson grass or other sorghums,
especially after the sudden or mysterious death of any animal
that has had access to these forages."
MISCELLANEOUS
A large number of samples of irrigating water and of soil
for alkali have been analyzed during the year. The Chemist
made one visit to the Casa Grande Valley and in company with
County Agent Turville examined several alkaline districts. One
case in particular was of interest. The soil, which was wet and
sticky, even after a long dry period, was found to be heavily
impregnated with calcium and magnesium chlorides. The native
vegetation over this area was mostly saltbush.
Twenty-four samples of water from the Agua Fria River,
representing the daily flow from January 5 to February 13,
1920, with a few omissions, were analyzed. The samples were
all of excellent quality, although they carried a small amount
of black alkali.
A number of samples of feeds, guanos, manures, rocks,
insecticides, linseed oils, medicinal herbs, and other materials
were examined and reported on, although in only a few cases
were quantitative determinations made with this class of mate-
rials. One sample of so-called boiled oil which killed two valu-
able horses proved to be commercial rosin oil.
AGRONOMY
G. E. Thompson, R. S. Hawkins, S. P. Claek
During the period covered by this report, all the projects
discussed in the report of the previous year have been con-
tinued, and no new projects have been added. A small amount
of miscellaneous laboratory and office equipment has been pur-
chased but no items of great importance have been added.
On the various Experiment farms where agronomic work
is carried on, a number of improvements have been made. On
the Salt River Valley Farm a substantial brick cottage has
been built as a foreman's residence, and a large, well-constructed
brick barn has just been completed. This barn houses the work
stock of the farm, provides storage room for hay, and two seed
rooms, all of which will be of material advantage in handling
the work of the farm. On this farm considerable work has
been done in the leveling of land, thus making it possible to do
more accurate experimental work ; and about one thousand dollars
have been spent in improving and extending cement ditches.
Fig. 1. — Salt River Valley Farm: Foreman's house completed Septem-
ber. 1920.
On the Prescott Dry-Farm a good general barn and ma-
chinery shed has been built and plans have been prepared for
the construction of a new cottage for the farm foreman.
PROJECTS
I. CONTINUATION OF STUDIES AT THE PRESCOTT DRY-FARM
The work of this farm has been continued without any
change from the plans of the previous year. Mr. Leslie Beaty
564 Thirty-second Annual Report
resigned as foreman March 30 and was succeeded May 1 by
Mr. Carl Clark, a 1916 graduate of the University of Arizona
College of Agriculture.
The summer and fall of 1920 were unusually dry, and the
winter of 1920-21 and the spring of 1921 have likewise been
below normal in the amount of precipitation. Consequently,
we are starting the cropping season of 1921 under unfavorable
conditions. However, the ground has been carefully worked
and sufficient moisture has been stored to enable us to secure
good stands of all crops planted, and with a normal summer
rainfall we expect average returns for the present year.
Silage produced and stored in the fall of 1920 was not
used for stock feeding experiments because of the high price
of feeder cattle and the probability of low markets later. The
silage was sold to a neighboring rancher.
II. A CONTINUATION OF STUDIES AT THE SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY
DRY-FARM
The growing season of 1920 was the most severe one exper-
ienced in Sulphur Spring Valley since the establishment of the
Experiment Farm there. No grain yields of consequence were
secured from any of the plantings made in 1920, and not more
than 25 tons of silage were stored. Due to shortage of feed,
no stock feeding experiments were conducted in the winter of
1920-21. In 1920, even tepary beans failed to make a satis-
factory growth, which was the first failure of this crop recorded
in Sulphur Spring Valley.
Conditions in the spring of 1921 have not improved over
those of 1920. Dry-farm fields do not have sufficient moisture
to cause germination of newly planted crops, consequently only
those fields that are supplied with some irrigation water have
been planted.
III. LEGUMES AND THEIR CULTURE FOR SOUTHWEST CONDITIONS
As in the previous year, plantings under this project were
made on the five farms of the Experiment Station. These plant-
ings covered experiments with velvet beans, soybeans, tepary
beans, cowpeas, vetch, and a few miscellaneous crops. On the
Salt River Valley Farm purple vetch made a larger and more
satisfactory growth than any other variety, but it failed to
set a good crop of seed. Hairy vetch made a very satisfactory
growth and produced a considerable quantity of seed. Woolly-
podded vetch made the third largest growth and produced a
reasonable amount of seed. Bitter vetch, which in other years
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
565
has been quite promising, did not make as satisfactory a growth
as in 1920, although it yielded a good crop of seed. Bitter
vetch planted with barley competed with it to such an extent
that the barley crop was reduced materially.
t--^ -W
Fig. 2. — Salt River Valley Farm: Field peas as a green winter
manure crop.
Cowpeas planted in midsummer in Mexican June corn
made an excellent growth and can be relied upon to increase the
value of the corn crop for either silage or pasture.
Inoculation tests with cowpeas gave no conclusive results.
The vegetative growth of a number of varieties of soybeans
was satisfactory, but the beans produced were very poor in
quality, being shriveled and unmarketable. At the present
time we are cooperating with the United States Forage Crop
Office in making varietal tests of about twenty varieties of soy-
beans, and also in making tests with four of these varieties to
determine the best time for planting. Plantings have been made
at intervals of two weeks, beginning April 1, and continuing
until August 15. This test is preliminary to a more extensive
one for next year, which, we hope, will enable us to determine
the causes of previous failures with soybeans and perhaps will
give information that will finally lead to the successful handling
of this crop under southern Arizona conditions.
666 Thirty-second Annual Report
Velvet beans did not prove satisfactory, due largely to
the extreme difficulty in securing stands. Examination failed
to show nodules on the roots of the velvet beans and it is pos-
sible that inoculation will be necessary to produce satisfactory
growth.
Tepary beans proved a most excellent green manure crop
for the Salt River and Yuma valleys. These beans, planted at
the rate of one bushel to the acre, grew eighteen to twenty-four
inches high and the yield was estimated at twelve to fifteen tons
weight per acre.
IV. A STUDY OF THE VARIETIES AND METHODS OF CULTIVATION OF
INDIAN CORN AND THE VARIOUS SORGHUMS
Of the various sorghums tested in 1920 hegari proved the
most valuable from the standpoint of feed. Milo gave a slightly
larger yield of threshed grain, but, because of greater fodder
value, hegari is better liked by the average farmer. Feterita
proved considerably inferior to either milo or hegari, and
white milo proved a little inferior to ordinary dwarf yellow milo.
Sumac sorghum made an excellent silage crop, being
slightly superior in leafiriess to Orange sorghum, and because it
is lighter and more easily handled, it Is more satisfactory for
silage than either Gooseneck or Honeydrip; these two latter
varieties, however, will give larger tonnage.
Mexican June corn, or selections of it, proved superior to
other varieties of corn, particularly in the Salt River Valley.
v. THE CULTIVATION AND FIELD MANAGEMENT OF EGYPTIAN COTTON
This project has been carried almost entirely on the Salt
River Valley Farm near Mesa. In the fertilizer tests the fol-
lowing results were secured:
Yield in pounds
Treatment of seed cotton
per acre
Barnyard manure 5 tons 1076
Barnyard manure 10 tons 1005
Barnyard manure 10 tons and
acid phosphate 300 lbs 875
Acid phosphate 250 lbs 893
Acid phosphate 500 lbs. and
nitrate of soda 200 lbs 1225
Acid phosphate 500 lbs 964
Acid phosphate 500 lbs. and
cottonseed meal 450 lbs 1130
Nitrate of soda 200 lbs 820
Nitrate of soda 600 lbs 1124
Commercial cotton fertilizer 918
Cottonseed meal 700 lbs 856
Check — no treatment 981
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 567
THINNING AND TOPPING TESTS
Spacing of Yields in pounds
Date of plants in of seed cotton
topping row per acre
August 15 6 inches 904
Not topped 6 inches 949
August 15 12 inches 1195
Not topped 12 inches 1276
August 15 18 inches 1479
Not topped 18 inches 908
In the date of planting tests, cotton planted March 1 and
March 15, 1921, was frozen and killed, and, as in previous years,
it seemed that the best period for planting was during the last
ten days of March or the first ten days of April. In the spring
of 1921, cotton planted March 1 and 15 was seriously injured
by frost, but enough plants were left to give a moderately good
stand, and on June 30 the cotton of these plantings is showing a
considerable amount of bloom and is in good condition.
VI. CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF WINTER AND SPRING
GRAINS, INCLUDING WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, AND RYE
The major part of this work has been done on the Salt
River Valley Farm, although some experiments have been con-
ducted on the Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm. Yields for
1921 have not yet been obtained from the latter farm ; these will
not be very encouraging, due to extremely dry conditions during
the growing season. At the Salt River Valley Farm work with
wheat included fertility tests, rate of planting tests, and varietal
tests with the following results for the harvest season of 1921 :
FERTILITY TESTS
Pounds of threshed
Treatment wheat per acre
Manure, 5 tons per acre oika
Acid phosphate 200 lbs. per acre 2150
Acid phosphate 86 lbs. and
nitrate of soda 236 lbs. per acre 2804
No treatment -. 1974
RATE OF PLANTING TESTS
Pounds of threshed
Rate of seeding grain per acre
120 lbs. per acre 2200
105 lbs. per acre 1665
90 lbs. per acre 2260
75 lbs. per acre 2564
60 lbs. per acre 2002
45 lbs. per acre 1'721
568 Thirty-second Annuai^ Report
VARIETAL TESTS WITH WHEAT
Yield in pounds
Variety per acre
Early Baart 2002
Macaroni 1292
Kanred 962
Burbank's Super Wheat 919
Arizona 39 850
Lars Peterson 642
Turkey Red (Home grown seed) 641
Marquis 503
The barley experiments included varietal tests, barley
planted with vetch, and rotation and nurse crops as follows:
VARIETAL TESTS WITH BARLEY
Yield in pounds
Variety per acre
Beldi 2528
Mariot 2429
Common six row 2307
Tennessee Winter 1744
Beardless 1678
California 4000 1523
Michigan Winter 1137
ROTATION, NURSE CROP, AND PLANTING WITH VETCH
Yield in pounds
Method per acre
Barley alone 2102
Barley 40 lbs., bitter vetch 40 lbs 1890
Barley 40 lbs., sweet clover 25 lbs 1285
Barley following sorghums for silage 2232
Barley following tepary beans for green manure 2553
Two one-acre plots were planted to rye. One plot was
seeded with Abruzzes rye, which is a variety adapted to south-
ern conditions. This acre yielded 816 pounds of threshed grain.
The other plot was planted to Rosen rye, a variety bred in
Michigan and not adapted to southern Arizona; the yield of
this plot was but 153 pounds of threshed grain.
One and one-quarter acres of Texas Red oats were planted,
which yielded at the rate of 1856 pounds of threshed grain per
acre.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
569
Fig. 3. — Varietal tests of barley in the Yuma Valley ; common six row
on left; beardless in the center; Mariot on right.
Fig. 4. — Salt River Valley Farm: Field tests with rye; Rozen rye on
left; Abruzzes rye on right.
570 Thirty-second Annual Report
Beardless barley was sown in an alfalfa field which is to
be plowed later in the season. This very materially increased
the tonnage of hay obtained from this field. As a feed for
horses this mixture of fairly well-matured barley and alfalfa
has proved to be almost ideal.
VII. EFFECT ON FIELD CROPS OF DYNAMITING SUBSOIL
The results secured in 1920 with this project were the same
as in 1918 and 1919, namely, there was no appreciable difference
between crops grown in soil that was dynamited and in soil
that was not so treated.
VIII. VARIETAL AND CULTURAL TESTS OF GRAIN AND FORAGE
CROPS AND OF GRASSES AND MISCELLANEOUS CROPS
Under this project more extensive tests were made with
Rhodes grass than in previous years. One planting on ex-
tremely alkaline soil has withstood two winters and is now
starting the third summer with vigorous growth and a full
stand. Rhodes grass promises to be of considerable value as a
pasture crop on the alkaline soils of our lower valleys.
Napier grass gives a large yield, but because of its vigor-
ous growth the stalks soon become hard and woody which
renders them inferior for silage. This grass does not bear seed,
but is propagated from cuttings, which makes it less desirable
than the common varieties of sorghum.
IX. COOPERATIVE CROP EXPERIMENTS
This project enables us to distribute good seed to farmers
who will give it good cultural treatment; it also enables us to
test crops under different soil conditions and at various alti-
tudes. Under this project four hundred and fifty lots of seed
were supplied to farmers in various parts of Arizona during
the growing season of 1920. In the spring of 1921 more than
600 lots of seed were supplied to cooperators. In a majority
of cases cooperators have furnished satisfactory reports con-
cerning the adaptability of varieties, hardiness, yield, and
other data.
X. A STUDY OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE
In this project a detailed study has been made of the
conditions under which different tribes of Indians carry on
dry-farming operations. Considerable attention has been given
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 571
to the soil types selected by these Indians. Photographs have
been taken to illustrate the methods employed by the Indians
in preparing ground for field crops and for gardens, and field
notes have been taken to show the varieties used and the
methods of planting. The results of these investigations will
be published within the next year, and we believe this data will
be of interest and value to dry-farmers.
XI. SEED CERTIFICATION WORK
For more than two years the Agronomy Department has
cooperated with the County Agent of Yuma County in inspect-
ing fields of alfalfa and certifying as to the varieties grown
and their purity. This work has made it possible for the grow-
ers of alfalfa seed to market their product in such a way
that it has brought many thousand dollars more than would
have been possible without certification. This work was car-
ried long enough to prove its value, and then it was taken
over by the Yuma County Farm Bureau. The County Agent
and the Agronomy Department continue to act in an advisory
capacity.
EXTENSION WORK
Throughout the period covered by this report one-half of
the time of S. P. Clark has been given to extension work along
agronomy lines. This work has included writing newspaper
articles, dehvering lectures at institutes, farm bureaus and
other public meetings, judging field crops at county fairs,
visiting the various counties in the State, and making numerous
farm tours with county agricultural agents. A total of 7093
miles was traveled on the railroad and 2722 miles by automo-
bile. The head of the Department has also been called upon to
do some extension work of a similar nature.
PUBLICATIONS
During the fiscal year closed June 30, 1921, the following
publications have been prepared by the Agronomy Department :
experiment station circulars
Sweet Clover in Arizona.
Sudan Grass in Arizona.
Hegari in Arizona.
Rhodes Grass in Arizona.
mimeographed extension leaflets
Broomcorn in Arizona.
Tentative Agricultural Program for the Salt River Valley.
Green Manure Crops for Arizona Orchards.
The Pit Silo.
572 Thirty-second Annual Report
MISCELLANEOUS WORK
In addition to the Experiment Station work handled by
the Department of Agronomy, the members of the Department
have taught six classes in which were enrolled 123 students.
This Department has tested 22 samples of seed for germi-
nation and purity.
During this fiscal year 1200 letters were received and
answered. In addition, a large number of telephone calls con-
cerning crops and other matters were received and answered,
and a considerable number of office consultations were held.
The Association of Western Agronomists will hold their
annual meeting at Tucson, Arizona, in August, 1921. This
Department has in charge the matter of preparing a program
and planning for this meeting.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
R. H. WiLUAMS, E. B. Stanley, W. E. Schneider
The livestock industry in Arizona during the past year
has passed through one of the most critical stages of its history.
Losses among range cattle and sheep were large, owing to the
drought, and ttie calf and lamb crops were abnormally small.
A prevailing shortage of feed placed stockmen in circumstances
that made it necessary for them to ship their stock out of the
State to pastures in Kansas, Texas, and California. Heavy
losses of livestock during the periods of drought make it very
plain that stockmen should avail themselves of every oppor-
tunity to provide feed for such emergencies.
Due to the uncertainty of the livestock market, fewer cat-
tle were fed in the irrigated sections than during the previous
year. A few feeders were able to turn their steers at a small
profit, but for the most part, cattle feeding proved unprofitable,
due to a declining market. Normally, however, our livestock
will furnish a remunerative market, and in many cases the only
market, for our grains and roughages.
The serious setback to the cotton industry in the State
emphasizes the need of a well-defined system of diversified
farming. By using livestock to a greater extent on our farms
to consume homegrown feeds, the farmer and the stockman will
derive mutual benefit by a cooperation in their respective inter-
ests in livestock and crop production.
WORK OF THE YEAR
In the absence of Dr. R. H. Williams, who is taking his
sabbatical leave, the work of the department was carried on
by Mr. E. B. Stanley until January 1, at which time Mr. W. E.
Schneider was engaged to assist with the teaching and office
duties.
The major portion of the work carried on by the depart-
ment consisted in giving instruction to University classes in
animal husbandry. Aside from the regular routine of the office
and instructional duties, trips were made to various parts of
the State to give talks and livestock judging demonstrations
and to advise with stockmen on different livestock problems.
The department supervised livestock judging contests among the
high-school students at the State Fair and during University
574 Thirty-second Annual Report
Week. A creditable showing of University stock was made at
the State Fair, and assistance was given in the livestock judging
work there.
Two registered Poland-China gilts were added to the
swine herd during the past year. These animals were prize
winners at the Arizona State Fair, and were owned by Omer
McCullough of Mesa, Arizona. The limited number of ani-
mals at the University Farm does not provide a representative
selection of each breed, and thereby handicaps the teaching
and investigational work. The Hereford breed of cattle and
the Rambouillet breed of sheep should be further improved and
built up.
FEEDING COTTON SEED TO RANGE STEERS
Numerous inquiries from farmers and stockmen through-
out the State regarding the feeding value of cotton seed and
its products, together with a lack of experimental data on
feeding work in Arizona, prompted the department to conduct
a steer feeding experiment at the Salt River Valley Farm.
The purpose of the test was primarily to ascertain the relative
feeding values of cotton seed and cottonseed meal when fed
with a basal ration of alfalfa hay and silage. Fifty head of
common bred two-year-old range steers were used in the ex-
periment. They were divided into six separate lots and fed five
different rations for a period of ninety days. The results of
this test are specifically set forth in Bulletin 93. The follow-
ing is a brief summary of the results:
Cottonseed meal as compared with cotton seed gave uni-
formly better results as was evidenced by the greater gain,
smoother finish, and higher dressing percentage of the steers.
When a basal ration of alfalfa and silage is fed to two-
year-old steers, 100 pounds of cottonseed meal are equal to 170
pounds of whole cotton seed. Cotton seed at $17 per ton is
equal to cottonseed meal at $30 per ton. It was found that the
use of cotton seed in a crushed form was not warranted.
When fed with cottonseed meal, corn silage gave larger
and more uniform daily gains than did the ration of cottonseed
hulls and cottonseed meal. Cattle fed a ration of cottonseed
meal and cottonseed hulls made good daily gains for the first
60 to 80 days, after which time the gains began to diminish
rapidly. If the roughage is silage instead of hulls, the meal
may be fed for a longer period of time without ill effects.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 575
The lack of finish of the steers receiving cottonseed meal
indicated that it would have required a feeding period of 120
days to put them in good marketable condition, and 150 days
for those receiving cotton seed, had they continued to make
the same rate of gain.
FEEDING COTTON SEED TO PREGNANT EWES
Twenty head of pregnant ewes were fed a daily ration con-
sisting of 34 pound of cotton seed with a liberal allowance of
corn silage for a period of three weeks prior to lambing. Cow-
pea straw was available at all times, and the ewes had the
freedom of a scanty pasture along an enclosed ditch bank.
No scouring or other ill effects resulted. The ewes remained
in thrifty condition and raised healthy, vigorous lambs.
The Hereford heifer which is being maintained on an
exclusive ration of alfalfa hay, dropped a calf on February
11, 1921. Both animals are doing nicely with no indication of
any ill effects from the hay ration. It is planned to carry on
this test for several years to study the effect on the progeny of
the heifer of the continuous use of alfalfa hay as the sole feed.
The crop of wool produced this year is the largest that
has been sheared from the University flock, in point of indi-
vidual production. The Rambouillet ewes of all ages gave
an average fleece of 12.8 pounds, which is 22 percent more
than the average production of the Shropshire ewes; while the
Rambouillet rams yielded an average fleece of 15.2 pounds,
or 38 percent more than the Shropshire rams. Sheepmen
will be interested in following these records from year to year.
BOTANY
J. J. Thornber
The year ended June 30, 1921, was one of the driest in
the history of the stock-raising industry in Arizona, the
drought being especially severe in the southern half of the
State. The rainfall at Tucson, Arizona, for this twelve-month
period was 6.32 inches which is slightly more than one-half
the yearly average for this location. Of this amount, 4.38
inches or 69.3 percent fell during the summer growing season,
July to October inclusive, and 1.72 inches or 28.2 percent
during the winter and spring months, November to April in-
clusive. At Tucson no rain fell in May and but .22 inches in
June. Similar conditions prevailed generally throughout south-
ern Arizona. Rains varying from one to two or three inches in
depth fell in various parts of central and northern Arizona
late in the winter and spring months. Only at altitudes of
5500 feet and above, however, were these rains sufficiently
heavy to make possible a fair growth of the spring grasses
and similar plants. This growth was particularly good in the
country about Flagstaff and Williams. The precipitation for
the year came generally as showers which, though beneficial
to plant growth, were not lasting in their effects, since the
moisture did not penetrate to any considerable depth in the
soil and hence was soon dissipated by the dry winds.
EFFECTS OF SCANT RAINFALL
As a result of the scant rainfall noted above, growth on
the grazing ranges during the summer and fall of 1920 was
greatly reduced, being generally not more than twenty-five to
thirty-five percent of the average, while practically no growth
took place late in the winter and spring months, except as
already noted at the higher altitudes. It was to be expected,
therefore, that heavy losses of stock through starvation would
result on the ranges. In the southern and eastern parts of the
State in particular, with a shortage of both feed and water,
losses on many grazing ranges were heavy. It is stated that
in some instances as high as thirty-five to fifty percent of the
stock died and that many of the remaining animals were left
in an emaciated, half-starved condition.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 577
CHARACTER OF ARIZONA RAINFALL
The character of the rainfall for the two years just ended
is, in general, what stockmen should count upon and plan for
in the future, if their business is to be run on a moderately
safe basis — very heavy for one year and very light for the
following year or two years. In the proper sense of the term
we do not have in Arizona what may be called a "normal" rain-
fall. The rainfall for one year cannot be taken as any indi-
cation of what may be expected the next year. Years of aver-
age rainfall may be followed by dry years or wet years. The
rainfall at Tucson for the year ended June 30, 1920, was 20.54
inches or more than three times the amount for the twelve
months just closed. The former was the heaviest annual rain-
fall for this location during a perior of thirty-nine years, the
latter the lightest rainfall over a period of seventeen years.
Other years or seasons within the memory of Arizona stock-
men that were nearly or quite as dry as the one just ended,
with the usual heavy losses of stock from starvation, are as
follows: 1894-1895, with a rainfall at Tucson of 5.65 inches;
1899-1900, with a rainfall at Tucson of 7.42 inches ; 1901-1902,
with a rainfall at Tucson of 6.99 inches; and 1903-1904, with
a rainfall at Tucson of 6.26 inches.
BROWSE PASTURES VERSUS GRASS PASTURES
The present drought has taught some good lessons relative
to forage conservation during periods of abundant feed and to
the classes of grazing ranges that in the long run are most
desirable for general grazing purposes. Losses of stock were
relatively light and in addition the animals mostly came
through the year in fair condition on ranges having a growth
of browse plants along with the usual growth of grass and mis-
cellaneous herbs or weeds. This was noticed on ranges in
southern Arizona where such plants as scrub-oak, mesquite,
cat's-claw, mesquitilla or ramita (Calliandra), deer browse
(Cercocarpus), and bear grass (Nolina) were abundant; also
on grazing ranges in central and northern Arizona, in particu-
lar, those about Mayer, Prescott, Payson, and Grand Canyon,
where the growth of such shrubs and small trees as scrub-
oak, {Quercus turbinella), post-oak (Quercus utahensis) and
(Q. submollis), mulberry {Moms celtidifolia) , hackberry or
palo bianco (Celtis reticulata), Apache plume (Fallugm para-
doxa), cliff rose or quinine bush (Cowania Stansburiana) , deer
578 Thirty-second Annual Report
browse (Cercocarpus) , and service berry (Amelanchier) , was
often abundant and diversified. At Grand View on the rim
of Grand Canyon in June, 1921, cattle were looking well and
were subsisting almost entirely on the leaves and twigs of post
oak, cliff rose or quinine bush, deer browse, and two species of
service berry. Generally, these shrubs were closely browsed to
a height of six feet or as high as the animals could reach. Dur-
ing June and even as late as the middle of July the growth of
grasses on these ranges had scarcely started, nevertheless the
stock were in fair to good condition. Browse plants and shrubs
are deeper and more permanently rooted and hence can endure
dry weather better and continue growth longer during a
drought than grasses or other herbs. As stated in an earlier
report, under favorable conditions the pure grass, ranges very
likely give larger yields than the mixed forage ranges, i. e.,
those with a growth of browse and grass, but they do not give
as continuous a supply of feed throughout the year.
In marked contrast with the condition of stock on the
browse-grass grazing ranges was the pitiable condition of stock
on the prairie grass lands having little or no growth of browse
plants and on areas where drought or frost had retarded the
growth of browse. Not alone was the percentage of losses
heavy, but the animals that survived came through the year
generally in very poor shape. Even with the return of favor-
able rains, such animals must continue to be a liability for
months to come.
During the year a remarkably small number of instances
of losses of stock from poison plants have been reported. This
is not unusual during long droughty periods, since at such times
the poison plants make little or no growth.
INSTRUCTIONAL DUTIES
During the year just ended, as head of the Department of
Biology, the writer has found it necessary to give a larger pro-
portion of his time than heretofore to instruction in the de-
partment. This was due to the large increase in the number
of students in the department, to the writer's giving full time,
in the absence of an instructor, to instruction for one month
at the beginning of the regular school year at the University,
and one-half time during the remaining eight months. In ad-
dition to the above, the writer taught six weeks at the Uni-
versity Summer School, Flagstaff, Arizona.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 579
PREPARATION OF BULLETINS
The larger part of the writer's time in Experiment Station
work was spent in the preparation of a bulletin on the grasses
of Arizona. A small amount of work remains to be done on this
publication. Additional study has been made on the poison
plants of our grazing ranges. This applies in particular to the
loco weeds, larkspurs, death camas, and the whorled milkweed.
A bulletin on the cultivated ornamental shrubs of Arizona
is in process of completion. This treats of about one hundred
and twenty-five species and varieties of deciduous and ever-
green shrubs and includes a brief description of each one,
together with a discussion of the soil, temperature, altitude,
and cultural conditions best suited for its successful growth.
This work is being done in collaboration with Miss Ethel Pope,
an advanced student who has made a careful study of our
ornamental plants. It is planned to follow this publication
with a similar study of our ornamental trees and vines. The
work in ornamental plants has developed to its present impor-
tance through studies in plant introduction and ornamentation
both in the Experiment Station and the Department of Biology
in the University.
DAIRY HUSBANDRY
W. S. Cunningham, R. N. Davis
The outlook for dairying in Arizona is much brighter than
it was a year ago. The industry is reviving in the Salt River
Valley, where many dairy herds were disposed of in 1918, 1919,
and 1920, and it is expected that there will be a large increase
in the number of cows in that valley during the next year.
Dairying is also becoming a major industry in Cochise, Pima,
Pinal, Graham, Navajo, and Apache counties.
One Jersey cow, Aldan's Oxford Nora, and a Jersey bull,
Oxford Nora's Fox, have been added to the Jersey herd at the
University Farm. A well-bred Holsteirl-Friesian bull, Change-
ling Pontiac De Kol, owned by B. Coman of Phoenix, was loaned
temporarily to the University.
A number of the Holstein-Friesian cows on the University
Farm were tested officially for Advanced Registry during the
year. The following official records were made:
„ , , Milk Butterfat
Seven-day records Pounds Pounds
Theresa Belle 3rd., 236394 790.5 23.503
Madison Martha 2nd., 307782 698.0 16.613
Theresa Belle De Vries., 315926 554.8 15.916
Josephine Arizona Maid 2nd., 286131 511.6 14.166
Moensje Jess Aspirante 2nd., 453163 296.1 10.813
Thirty-day records
Theresa Belle 3rd., 236394 3262.6 99.027
Moensje Jess Aspirante 2nd., 453163 1273.3 44.750
Sixty-day record
Theresa Belle 3rd., 236394 6097.2 192.450
The above named Holsteins and one Jersey, Arizona's But-
ter Girl, No. 378677, are on semi-official test. The other cows
in the herd will be put on semi-official test during the present
year.
Daily records were kept of the milk yield of all the dairy
cows, and a two-day composite sample of milk was tested each
month to get an estimate of the fat production. This report
covers the period from July 1, 1920, to June 30, 1921, and does
not give the production for exact lactation periods. Some of the
cows were dry for a portion of the year. Table V. gives
the milk and butterfat production for the fiscal year.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
581
TABLE v.— YIELDS OF DAIRY
cows AT
university ]
FARM 1920-21
Breed
Days
dry
before
calving
Days
in
milk
Yield in pounds
Av. %
Name of Cow
Milk
Butter-
fat
butter-
fat
Childeberte
Jersey
«
«
39
23
31
52
53
92
126
107
105
330
342
365
334
342
365
313
230
272
365
365
260
365
178
301
7730:5
5838.0
7763.3
4125.5
6364.3
12200.2
20252.6
7166.5
10683.1
10175.6
8823.6
12602.7
10710.7
6980.5
11066.2
444.42
353.68
397.83
272.04
366.99
342.53
626.89
201.85
279.45
356.73
239.16
371.30
326.80
235.04
331.08
5.75
Arizona's Butter Girl
6.06
Arizona Gypsy Draconis
Aldan's Oxford Nora
5.12
6.59
Average for Jerseys
5.77
Josephine Arizona Maid
Theresa Belle 3rd.
Hol£
-Frie
itein
si an
<
(
1
1
t
<
1
<
2.86
3.09
Josephine Arizona Maid 2nd.
Madison Martha 2nd
2.82
2.62
Miss Pell Pietertje
3.51
Johanna Madison Pauline
Theresa Belle De Vries
2.71
2.95
Madison Hengervelt Martha..
Moensje Jess Arpisante 2nd.
Average for Holstein-
Friesians
3.05
3.37
2.99
SUDAN GRASS HAY VERSUS ALFALFA HAY FOR
DAIRY COWS
An experiment has been conducted to determine the value
of Sudan grass hay in the ration of dairy cows. In addition
to hay, silage and grain were fed in like manner to all the cows
on test. The rations were computed so that each cow received
at least the minimum amount of digestible nutrients required
Dy the Wolft'-Lehman feeding standard.
The ration containing alfalfa hay produced about eleven
percent more butterfat than the ration containing Sudan grass
hay. After all factors are taken into consideration, this test
would indicate that Sudan grass hay is worth less than three-
fourths the price of alfalfa hay as a feed for dairy cows. Full
data regarding this test will be published in a Timely Hint.
GREEN ALFALFA VERSUS ALFALFA HAY FOR DAIRY
COWS
In Arizona, soiling of alfalfa is practiced to a considerable
extent where pasturing is not possible. Many believe that cows
will not do as well on dry hay as on green feed, and that if
cows cannot be pastured, the forage should be cut and fed
green. While soiling is considered to be too expensive as a
general practice, the soiling of alfalfa may have some merit
under Arizona conditions, if labor is not too expensive. A
test has been started to secure data on the relative feeding
582 Thirty-second Annual Report
values of green alfalfa and alfalfa hay; to determine the rela-
tive amounts of feed obtained per acre by soiling and by mak-
ing hay ; and to determine, as far as possible, the relative econ-
omy of the tvi^o methods of feeding when production is con-
sidered.
MILK SUBSTITUTES FOR FEEDING CALVES
Three new calves have been added to this project, which
was described in the Thirty-First Annual Report. Two of these
calves are in Group 3, and are being fed a ration of commer-
cial calf meal ; the other calf is in Group 4 and is being fed com-
mercial calf meal plus homemade calf meal.
Some changes have been made in the methods, in that
Group 4 will be fed on commercial calf meal for two months
and on homemade meal for the following three months.
The homemade calf meal contains the following ingredients i
Commeal 3 parts
Wheat bran 2 parts
Linseed oil meal 1 part
Blood meal 1/2 part
Ground bone meal 1/5 part
Wheat middlings 3 parts
ENTOMOLOGY
C. T. VORHIES
During the fiscal year 1920-1921, the investigation work
of the life history of the banner-tailed kangaroo rat (Dipo-
domys spectabilis) has been completed. This work has been
carried as an Adams fund project. The life-history phase of
the investigation has been written up in co-authorship with Dr.
Walter P. Taylor of the United States Biological Survey and
will shortly appear as a joint publication of this Station and
the Bureau of Biological Survey, United States Department of
Agriculture.
WORK ON ARIZONA PINK BOLLWORM
In August, 1920, a new Adams fund project was inaugu-
rated. This is an investigation of a native insect which exists
on the Arizona wild cotton (Thurberia thespesioides) . In its
larval or grub stage this pest lives in and eats out the bolls of the
wild cotton to the number of several bolls for each larva. It
is, therefore, in fact a native bollworm, more destructive to
its normal host than the Arizona boll weevil. It has been
called the "Arizona pink bollworm" and may continue to be so
called, since it is distinctly pink in color. It should be kept
clearly in mind, however, that this is neither the ordinary boll-
worm nor the corn ear-worm, already infesting cultivated cot-
ton in Arizona; nor is it the same as the Egyptian pink boll-
worm, which dreaded pest does not yet occur in this State.
These two pink bollworms belong, in fact, to different families
of moths. The insect now under consideration does not occur
as yet on cultivated cotton anywhere, but must be recog-
nized as a potentially dangerous insect. The investigation
now under way is designed to determine whether the Arizona
pink bollworm is adaptable to cultivated cotton, and also
whether it is likely to become a dangerous pest of that crop.
We have already proved that this insect can live its entire lar-
val life in the bolls of Pima cotton.
WHEAT INJURY DUE TO HYLEMYIA CILICRURA
In December, 1920, samples of seed wheat, which had al-
most wholly failed to germinate in certain fields, were brought
in by Mr. F. L. Ginter of Safford, Arizona. The grains, recov-
ered from the soil of the affected fields, were found to be in-
fested and eaten out by numerous small fly larvae. From these
584 Thirty-second Annual Report
"maggots" there were reared in January a number of speci-
mens of small Diptera (true flies) resembling very small house
flies. Specimens sent to Washington were determined by a
specialist, Dr. J. M. Aldrich, to be Hylemyia cilicrura Rdi. This
is an insect occasionally reported as injurious in several other
states, and known under various common names, but usually
designated as the seed-corn maggot. It has been found infest-
ing turnips, radishes, seed-corn, roots of beets, planted seed
potatoes, beans (cotyledons and young shoots), and peas, but
only once previously in wheat. Available data seem to indicate
that damage most often occurs under conditions leading to de-
cay of the affected plants or seeds, the infestation being sec-
ondary and therefore of little consequence. There is no certain
evidence offered that seed grains are attacked while sound. In
the present case, however, there seems to be no good reason to
suppose that the seed wheat was in other than sound condition
when attacked. A sample of the grain used in seeding the
fields affected was clean and no insect eggs or other infestation
could be discovered, indicating that eggs or larvae were in the
soil, a conclusion verified by the available reports on the life
history.
WORK WITH BEES
A record of the 1920 season with the University bees pre-
sents points of some interest for this report. Throughout the
school year 1919-1920, thus extending into the 1920 season,
these bees were used for instruction in bee-keeping, and partly
for experimental reasons were divided into two small groups
of hives, one on the campus, well removed from mesquite and
cat's-claw in quantity, the other at the University Farm in
the bottom land of Rillito River, where these plants are plenti-
ful and within easy reach of the bees. The nine colonies were
large and flourishing before the end of March, and began early
in April to store some surplus honey from a wide variety of
wild flowers. Slow accumulation of surplus honey continued
until mesquite and cat's-claw (Prosopis velutina and Acacia
Greggii) began to blossom, about May 15 to 20, when the flow
increased. Mesquite proved to be practically without nectar,
though blooming profusely, with the result that the flow, which
at this time of year is generally mixed mesquite and cat's-claw
was nearly pure cat's-claw and of excellent color and flavor.
On May 29, the first extracting cleared out all of the mixed
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 585
wild-flower honey. During the next ten or fifteen days the
flow was nearly pure cat's-claw, and at the next extracting period
on June 15 and 16 the finest honey of the year was secured.
One colony had stored 81 pounds in this period.
This proved to be practically the close of the commercial
honey flow for the season. Normally the summer rainy season
brings on a second blooming of mesquite, but the 1920 rains
failed for July and were below normal for August, resulting
in complete failure of second bloom for this plant. The campus
colonies secured no surplus honey after the June extracting
and required feeding this spring (1921), a condition which was
even worse than was anticipated because of failure of winter
rains, and consequent lack of early flowers for spring upbuild-
ing. The bees at the University Farm had, close by, forty or
more acres of yellow bee-flower (Wislizenia refracta) on which
they concentrated, and from which they secured a surplus
of about thirty pounds per colony. This honey was light amber,
of rather inferior flavor, not to be compared with the cat's-claw
honey taken in June, and it was retained for feeding purposes.
Considering the area and the rank growth of the bee-flower
the yield was small. This plant is of interest in that it grows
on "black alkaline" soil — indeed is an alkali indicator. For in-
structional purposes comb-honey supers were carried on two
hives through the best of the flow.
Summarizing the results of the season, we find that the
nine colonies produced 968 pounds of extracted honey, and 127
sections of comb honey. The extracted honey was sold locally
at 20 and 221/2 cents per pound in 60-pound cans, the cat's-
claw moving readily at the higher price. The comb honey
graded and sold as follows: 43 one pound sections at 30
cents; 22 fancy at 35 cents; 11 extra fancy at 40 cents; and
the remainder graded as No. 2 and culls, sold at 25 and 20
cents. Actual sales averaged $21.50 per colony, omitting ac-
count of honey fed back to bees as well as a considerable
amount distributed to farm employees as a part of their labor
compensation.
The maximum production figures were 170 pounds ex-
tracted honey for colony No. 9 and 112 pounds of extracted
and 55 sections of comb honey for colony No. 1, both located
at the University Farm.
The autumn season was very dry. Desert broom (Bac-
586 Thirty-second Annual Report
charts sarathroides) and Bata mota {B. glutinosa) yielded but
little nectar though they were heavily worked, since other honey
flowers were scarce. These plants bloom at the end of October
and in early November, and in good years yield a fine flow for
filling the hives with winter stores.
A species of palo verde, of which there are many trees on
the University campus, blooms profusely in May and June and is
much worked by bees. It seems certain that a considerable pro-
portion of the first crop from the campus colonies was from this
so-called "Mexican palo-verde" or ''bagote" (Parkinsonia acu-
leata) ; the honey was of good quality, in no way inferior to
the rest of the mixed light amber honey of that period of the
year, and superior to some of the local honey of other apiaries
produced at the same time. This tree, where abundant, appears
to be a honey plant of no small importance; however, it is a
native of Mexico, and extends into Arizona only a little way
in the extreme southwestern part of the State, its natural
range ending about 40 miles southwest of Tucson.
MISCELLANEOUS
Considerable progress in systematizing the insect collection
has been made in the past year. The insect cases already pro-
vided are nearly filled and more will be purchased immediately.
No Station publications have been issued by this depart-
ment in the past fiscal year. A short technical article, "Caesa-
rian Operation on Lepus alleni and Notes on the Young," was
published in the Journal of Mammalogy, Vol. 2, No. 2, May 1921.
HORTICULTURE
F. J. Crider, a. F. Kinnison, D. W. Albert
For the past few years the Department of Horticulture
has concerned itself with the more fundamental phases of horti-
cultural investigation. An important part of this work has con-
sisted in establishing orchards and vineyards composed of the
leading adaptable varieties of fruit at all of the branch Experi-
ment Stations in the State. These plantings have now reached
the stage of development where they are beginning to yield
interesting and valuable data. The increasing number of in-
quiries for information based on sound experimental practices
shows the need for this work. The distinct natural advantages
for commercial fruit and vegetable culture found in Arizona
are coming more and more to be realized, as is manifested by
increased activities in these lines, carrying the compelling sug-
gestion that investigational work in horticulture must embrace
constantly broadening fields.
The progress made in the work on projects with the gen-
eral subjects under investigation during the fiscal year ended
June 30, 1921, is given below:
CITRUS FRUITS
NEW PLANTINGS
Five acres of oranges of the Washington Navel variety
were planted at Yuma Mesa Farm on August 4, making a total
of ten acres that was set during the summer of 1920. This
planting was enlarged on June 9, 1921, to include a collection
of twenty-eight different varieties. The trees were planted
"open rooted," and the temperature on the day they were set
reached a maximum of 106 degrees. In ten days from the
time of planting the trees had started into growth.
Following is a list of the varieties used: Eureka, Lisbon,
Rialto Seedless, and Villa Franca lemons; Marsh, Foster, and
Duncan grapefruits; Malta Blood, Valencia, Washington Navel,
Mediterranean Sweet, Navelencia, Ruby Blood, Lue Gim Gong,
and Satsuma oranges; Dancy Willow-Leaved, King and Al-
gerian tangarines; Mexican Sweet, Rangpur, Thornless, and
Bearss Seedless limes; Sampson Tangelo; and Cedrola.
The following varieties were planted at the Salt River Val-
ley Farm on April 29: Homasasses, Valencia, Thompson Im-
588 Thirty-second Annual Report
proved, Mediterranean Sweet, Ruby Blood, Joppa, and Lue Gim
Gong oranges; Tahiti lime; and Sampson tangelo.
THE EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS AND COVER CROPS ON TREE GROWTH
AND YIELD
Results secured during the past two years failed to show
any material difference in tree growth and yield as influenced
by the use of different kinds of commercial fertilizers. How-
ever, a very marked effect of the previous summer's cover crop
on the foliage of four-year-old grapefruit trees was observed
during the past fall and winter. Parts of the orchard where
cowpeas had been turned under showed a distinctly green color;
whereas the foliage of other parts of the orchard where no
cowpeas had been plowed under was decidedly yellowish in ap-
pearance. The experiment indicates that leguminous cover
crops have a beneficial effect on the growth of citrus trees, not
found in the use of stable manure or commercial fertilizers.
The orchard in which the test was conducted had been liberally
fertilized with stable manure annually, previous to the use of
the summer cover crops.
The excellent growth of leguminous cover crops on virgin
soil, between the rows of young citrus trees suggests the possi-
bility of building up and maintaining the fertility of orchard
soils on the Yuma Mesa without the use of more expensive fer-
tilizers. In view of the extremely light character of the soil
of this district, this is an important matter. Sour clover (Meli-
lotus indica), common vetch, and hairy vetch, planted on No-
vember 3, made a growth of twelve to eighteen inches by the
end of May. It might be noted further that the value of inocu-
lating leguminous orchard cover crops in this district was
clearly demonstrated by the remarkably greater growth of in-
oculated clovers and vetches as compared with the growth of
similar crops planted without treatment. The leguminous crops
that were not inoculated were an absolute failure.
An experiment was recently started on the Yuma Mesa
to determine whether there is any advantage in attempting to
build up orchard soils through the use of cover crops before
the trees are planted. As a first step in the operation, a sum-
mer cover crop of cowpeas was planted on June 21. This will
be followed by a winter legume crop.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 689
THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY
The purpose of this experiment, which is being conducted
in the Camel Back district of the Salt River Valley, is to de-
termine the effect of temperature and atmospheric humidity on
citrus trees, as reflected through intercultural practices. Stand-
ard meteorological instruments consisting of air and soil ther-
mographs, hydrographs, and atmometers have been placed in
two adjoining orchards, one with clean cultivation, and the
other with an alfalfa cover crop. Accumulated data at present
indicate a difference in both atmospheric and soil tempera-
tures of approximately five to six degrees F., the cover-cropped
orchard having the lower temperatures. Hydrographic records
show the atmospheric humidity to be approximately fifteen
percent higher in the orchard containing a cover crop ; whereas
the atmometer readings show a correspondingly lower percent-
age of evaporation.
DATE STUDIES
Progress on this project has been considerably retarded on
account of the necessity for "torching" in order to control an
outbreak of scale, Parlatoria blanchardi, which has occurred at
both the Tempe and Yuma stations during the past year. The
general condition of the orchard at Tempe, however, is quite
satisfactory, as the palms, since the beginning of warm weather,
have recovered very rapidly from the effect of the "torching" or
burning. The stronger trees have been allowed to carry from
two to three bunches of fruit. It might be noted that the
weaker trees failed to set fruit well, even when the flower
clusters were pollinated. The orchard at Yuma has not recov-
ered so rapidly from the treatment, and in fact several valuable
palms died during early spring. This orchard was "torched"
later in the summer than the Tempe orchard, giving the palms
less time to recuperate before winter, which may account for
the weakened condition of many of the palms.
PROPAGATION OF OFFSHOOTS
During the month of May eighty offshoots of the Deglet
Noor variety were taken from palms at the Yuma Station and
set directly in the field on the Yuma Mesa, in an effort to deter-
mine the practicability of this method of propagation where
590 Thirty-second Annual Report
large suckers are used. It is too early for the test to show
definite results, but the offshoots making the best growth thus
far are from the stronger type of parent trees.
Further work in propagating offshoots has consisted of
making four series of plantings, using clean sand as a rooting
medium, as follows :
(a) Planted in 12-inch earthen pots in the greenhouse;
(b) Planted in 12-inch earthen pots in the open ground;
(c) Planted directly to the greenhouse bench;
(d) Planted directly in the open ground.
The range of temperature to which the offshoots in the
greenhouse are exposed varies from 60 degrees F. at night to
120 degrees F. during the hottest portion of the day. At the
present time eight weeks from planting, a nunibei of the suck-
ers show evidence of rooting.
In connection with this phase of the date project, nine large
bearing palms of the Deglet Noor variety (weighing from 1500
to 3700 pounds) were transplanted to the Yuma Mesa, having
been transported a distance of nine miles from the date (Tchard
in the Valley.
THE OLIVE
Sterility studies have been conducted with the olive during
the past two years, seventeen varieties being available for the
test. The results obtained for the two seasons are somewhat
at variance, in that some varieties that indicated self-sterility
last spring showed an opposite tendency this year. The tests
will be continued for further confirmation of results.
During the blossoming period an attempt was made to de-
termine the effect of irrigation upon fruit setting, the work
being done at the Yuma Station. The data obtained indicate
that a less amount of fruit set on the trees that were watered
while in blossom than on those allowed to stand without irriga-
tion, but the results are not considered conclusive.
In tests to determine the effect of pruning upon the growth
of trees and the yield of fruit, a difference ii) fruit setting has
been observed in the case of five-year-old trees. Trees that
were pruned according to the "long" method have set a con*
siderably larger amount of fruit than those handled by the
"short" method; whereas unpruned trees of this age have a
still larger crop.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 591
WATER REQUIREMENT STUDIES
The purpose of this project is to further the development
of fruit growing in sections of the State having a comparatively
heavy rainfall. It is divided into the following special lines
of investigation :
To determine: (a) the actual water requirement of fruits;
(b) the effect of pruning on the water requirement of fruits;
(c) the effect of special cultural practices on the water require-
ment of fruits; (d) the environmental factors concerned with
plant growth.
Work on the phase of this project dealing directly with field
practice was started in the spring of 1920 at the Prescott Dry-
Farm, as outlined in last year's report. However, investiga-
tions relative to the actual water requirement of fruits were not
begun until February of this year. Because of early bearing
and adaptability to a wide range of territory, the peach and
grape were chosen for use in the experiment. The plants are
confined in waterproof cement tanks constructed and handled
so that the amount of water used by each plant can be accu-
rately determined. The pruning factor will be embodied in the
experiment as soon as the plants have reached the proper stage
of development.
PRUNING STUDIES
This project, conducted at the Salt River Valley Farm,
deals largely with deciduous fruits and involves eight distinct
methods of pruning. Two standard varieties of the peach,
apricot, plum, and apple are used in the experiment ; and it was
enlarged during the past spring to include the Thompson Seed-
less and Emperor varieties of grapes. In the case of the grape,
six different methods of pruning and training are being fol-
lowed. The fruit trees passed their formative stage of growth
last season and have been handled since that time according
to the several methods of pruning provided for in the outline
of the experiment. The work has not reached the point where
it can be expected to yield results.
THE WALNUT AND PECAN
Progress on this subject has consisted largely in top-
grafting commercial varieties of the walnut and pecan upon
native walnut stock. The work was started early in the spring,
as soon as the bark would slip, and is being continued at inter-
592 Thirty-second Annual Report
vals of two weeks throughout the summer with scion wood held
in a dormant state and with fresh wood when it becomes avail-
able. In addition to the work done at the University, a num-
ber of grafts have been made on native walnut trees in differ-
ent parts of the State, particularly at Prescott and in several
of the wooded canyons in the Santa Rita, Chiricahua, and Santa
Catalina mountains.
IRISH POTATOES
The most conspicuous work with Irish potatoes comprises
a comparative test of the ridge and the level methods of cul-
ture conducted at the Yuma Station. The main point of differ-
ence between these two methods lies in the fact that with the
former the seed potatoes were planted on rather high ridges
which prevented the irrigation water from coming in direct
contact with the tubers of the plants. In the level method of
culture the tubers formed on the level with or a little below
the irrigation water line.
The results of the test are summarized in Table VI.
TABLE VL — COMPARISON OF THE RIDGED AND THE LEVEL METHODS OF
CULTURE FOR IRISH POTATOES
RIDGE METHOD
Date of Yield Percent
Variety harvest acre basis culls
Peach Blow May 16 7602~lbs. 25
White Rose May 16 1504 " 12
Early Rose May 10 2457 " 48
LEVEL METHOD
~ Date of Yield Percent
Variety harvest acre basis culls
Peach Blow May 25 590fTbs^ ~ 25~
White Rose May 25 1428 " 15
Early Rose May 17 3730 " 30
It will be noted that the Peach Blow variety yielded 1701
pounds and the White Rose 75 pounds more per acre under the
ridge method of culture, while the Early Rose produced 1273
pounds less. However, the most important fact brought out
by the experiment, which holds true for all varieties used, is
that with the ridge method the crop matured earlier. This is a
valuable factor as viewed from the standpoint of marketing. In
the case of the Peach Blow and White Rose a difference of nine
days and in the case of the Early Rose a difference of seven
days in favor of the ridge method is shown.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 693"
A test similar to the above with a larger number of varie-
ties is being conducted at the University Farm under somewhat
different soil conditions, but the crops are not yet ready to har-
vest. Comparative tests with thirty varieties are also being
made at the University Farm, the Cochise Dry-Farm, and the
Prescott Dry-Farm.
SWEET POTATOES
Work with sweet potatoes has consisted largely in storage
tests. The adobe house, so designed as to embody the main
principles of successful sweet potato storage, has given most
gratifying results. A test conducted at the Salt River Valley
Farm during the past winter was entirely successful, the po-
tatoes keeping from November until April with a loss of only
two percent. A small lot was held over until June 16, at which
time the only sign of deterioration that could be detected was
a slight pithiness of the tubers. Cooking tests showed that the
potatoes still retained good quality. The Porto Rico variety
was used in making the test.
A shrinkage test with sweet potatoes in storage was made
at the University Farm with two varieties — the Porto Rico and
Nancy Hall. The potatoes were placed in storage during the
month of October, and on March 2, the Porto Rico variety
showed a loss in weight of 13.8 percent, and the Nancy Hall
of 15.1 percent. It was noted that the greatest shrinkage oc-
curred in the case of the smaller potatoes.
A test to determine the amount of sweet potatoes required
to produce plants to set an acre showed that 175 pounds is a
sufficient quantity where the potatoes are planted whole and the
plants set 18 inches apart in the row with 3V^ feet between the
rows. The Nancy Hall variety was used in making the test.
VARIETY TESTS OF ORCHARD FRUITS
VARIETIES AT THE SALT RIVER VALLEY FARM
The orchard at the Salt River Valley Farm, which contains
over four hundred varieties of deciduous fruits, is now in its
third growing season, and while the trees could not be expected
to set heavily, a number of varieties have borne satisfactory
crops. Had it not been for a severe freeze, occurring when the
blossoms of some varieties were very susceptible to injury,
there would have been comparatively heavy yields of all the stone
fruits.
594 Thirty-second Annual Report
The following varieties have ripened during the period cov-
ered by this report: Apricots — New Castle, Royal, Blenheim,
Hemiskirke, Cluster, Tilton, and Russian ; plums — Beauty, Shiro,
Excelsior, Santa Rosa, Simon, Climax, Eagle, Wild Goose, Gon-
zales, and Burbank ; peaches — Mayflower, Greensboro, Triumph,
Oklahoma Beauty, and Oklahoma Queen.
VARIETIES AT THE YUMA STATION
The orchard at the Yuma Station is now in its fifth year and
except in the case of some varieties of peaches, the trees should
produce good crops this season. The varieties that have
ripened during the period covered by this report are: New
Castle, Royal, Blenheim, Moorpark, and Hemiskirke apricots;
Climax, Gold, Burbank, Santa Rosa, and Gonzales plums; May-
flower peach; Wilder pear; and the Transcendent crab apple.
Detailed records of all the varieties of fruit are being kept.
It might be noted at this time that in a general comparison
of varieties the New Castle, Royal, and Blenheim apricots stand
out as distinctly commercial sorts where earliness is desired,
and the Hemiskirke where a later maturing variety is sought.
The Tilton and Russian varieties are not desirable for com-
mercial use. With respect to plums, the Shiro and Climax
varieties appear most favorable for market purposes — the for-
mer on account of its extreme earliness, fine flavor, and good
shipping quality, and the latter because of its attractive appear-
ance, excellent flavor, and fairly good keeping quality.
On account of severe freezes which occurred when the trees
were in blossom, no fruit was produced this year in the variety
orchards at the Prescott and the Cochise dry-farms.
VARIETY GRAPE VINEYARDS
Over one hundred varieties of grapes are in bearing this
season at the Salt River Valley and Yuma farms. The Thomp-
son Seedless, Persian 23, Kahlala, and Sweet Water varieties
ripened before the close of the period covered by this report.
BUSH FRUITS
The adaptability of bush fruits to different conditions found
in Arizona is being studied. The test includes currants, goose-
berries, blackberries, raspberries, and a number of other bush
fruits that are of less importance. A collection of the leading
varieties of these fruits planted at the Prescott Dry-Farm dur-
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 595
ing the past spring has not come into bearing. At the Uni-
versity Farm the Early Harvest blackberry proved an abundant
yielder; and in fact, it was the only one of a collection of ten
varieties that bore a satisfactory crop. The Gregg and Kansas
black cap raspberries bore fairly good crops, while the red
varieties set only a few scattering fruits.
NEW FRUITS
A number of little known fruits and nuts that appear prom-
ising under Arizona conditions are being tested in different
parts of the State. Among these are the jujube, Feijoa, loquat,
white sapote, Hovenia, medlar, pistach, guava, paw paw, and
avocado. The jujube and Feijoa have done well at the Yuma
and Salt River Valley farms and at the University Farm, the
former bearing fruit the second season from planting. The
white sapote was killed to the ground during winter at the
Salt River Valley Farm the second year from planting, but at
the Yuma Farm it has not been injured by cold. The avocado
stood the winter temperatures at both the Yuma and Salt River
Valley farms but died during the summer. It has been difficult
to get the loquat to succeed in summer under ordinary field
conditions.
GRAPE ANALYSES
Very interesting and valuable data are being obtained from
samples of grapes secured from different parts of the State and
tested for their sugar content. According to the Balling test,
about one-fourth of the crop in some vineyards in southern Ari-
zona had a sugar content of twenty percent on June 30, 1921.
It thus appears that grapes grown in southern Arizona mature
considerably earlier than the same varieties do when grown m
some other commercial grape centers.
VARIETY TEST OF BEETS
The results of a variety test with beets are given in Table
VII. Cooking tests showed the Basano to be of superior
quality, in point of flavor and texture, to the other varieties,
with the crimson Globe a close second.
596
Thirty-second Annual Report
TABLE VIL— VARIETY TEST OF BEETS (PLANTED NOVEMBER 4. 1920;
VESTED APRIL 4. 1921)
Shape
Roundish-
Basano oblate
Crimson Globe Globular
Early Crosby "
Eclipse "
Blood Turnip "
Long Blood Long
tapering'
Crimson Globe Globular
Early Flat Egyptian Flattened
Detroit Dark Red Globular
HAR-
Amount of
Percent
Yield (200
foliage
stand
ft. rows)
Medium
Small
96
106 lbs.
Large
Heavy
100
120 "
«
Medium
100
117 "
«
«
100
149 "
Medium
«
92
98 "
«
«
35
34 "
Large
Heavy
100
155 **
Medium
Medium
100
100 "
«
Heavy
95
99 "
IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS
G. E. P. Smith, W. E. Code, H. C. Schwalen
The last annual report of this department covered the
progress of investigations up to the end of the calendar year,
as had been the custom in former years. This report, there-
fore, covers the period from January 1 to June 30, 1921.
GROUNDWATER STUDIES
A survey of the water table in the Casa Grande Valley
was made in midwinter and another survey in June to deter-
mine the recovery from the severe pumping draught of 1920
and the subsequent depression due to the much lighter draught
of 1921. The fact that in the main pumping district there was
a residual loss in the supply at the beginning of the 1921 sea-
son is evidence that the rate of pumping in 1920 exceeded the
normal recharge and that the total water supply pumped in
1920 represented quite closely the capacity of the ground-
water supply. However, it has been proved by the well rec-
ords that there is an important gain or recharge due to irriga-
tion from the Florence Canal, and the recent completion of the
concrete diversion dam at the head of that canal, to replace
the temporary brush and gravel wing dams used heretofore,
will undoubtedly augment the groundwater recharge from this
source.
The extensive information concerning the groundwater
supply in the Casa Grande Valley that has been collected by
this department has been furnished the Land Classification
Board of the United States Geological Survey for its use.
A possible groundwater irrigation project of modest pro-
portions in the San Simon Valley is being studied. A contract
for a well for exploratory purposes in the vicinity of the Cien-
ega has been let, the location being the southeast corner of
Section 34, Township 15 South, Range 32 East, on State land.
The well is within the terrace which delimits the Recent valley
fill, and, besides showing the pressure conditions at considerable
depth, will furnish data for estimating the probable yield of
individual wells and the possible groundwater development by
pumping in that district.
The St. David-Benson artesian district has been studied
by means of a survey of the artesian wells, their locations,
pressures, and yields. Piezometric lines show conclusively that
598 Thirty-second Annual Report
the sources of the artesian waters are the lateral flows from the
sides of the valley and that the longitudinal movement in the
valley is quite negligible, except for the underflow in the Re-
cent deposits of the San Pedro flood plain. A similar study of
the Hereford artesian district has been begun.
Knowledge of the relation of groundwater supplies in the
valleys of southern Arizona to the various components of the
valley fills has been handicapped by the uncertainty regarding
geologic relationship of the valley fills. Occasionally some essen-
tial information becomes available. For example, a well just
completed in Section 28, on the Rillito bottomlands four miles
northeast of Tucson, has penetrated 192 feet into the older
valley fill, which is believed to be of Pliocene age. The well is
420 feet deep, and is the deepest in the Rillito Valley. The
older fill at this point is pinkish-gray clayey silt and is uniform
in character throughout the depth penetrated. It is much in-
durated, with calcareous cementation, and is quite impervious.
Outcrops of the formation have been known for many years to
exist close to the base of the Santa Catalina Mountains. The
corresponding formations in the San Pedro and San Simon
valleys form the artesian caps of those districts. Until recently
it has been held that the Rillito Valley fill to great depth was of
Pleistocene age.
ADDITIONAL WATER SUPPLY FOR THE UNIVERSITY
CAMPUS
For six years the University has been dependent upon a
single well situated in the basement of the Agriculture Build-
ing. It was imperative that an alternative supply be developed,
both to relieve the danger of water famine in case of a break-
down, and to increase the supply during the months of maxi-
mum demand. A site was selected near the east edge of the
campus and a well has been drilled to a depth of 320 feet. The
well has a concrete-lined pit to the water level with a station
room large enough for a pump and motor at that depth. Special
methods were used to insure the thorough development of the
well, and after completion a test indicated that the capactiy is
40 gallons a minute per foot of drawdown. A 2V2-inch motor-
driven pump of new design has been purchased, designed to de-
liver 400 gallons a minute on a lift of 130 feet. The pump,
though small, has a horizontally-split casing and single end
suction, and has a guarantee of 67 percent efficiency.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 599
FUEL OILS FOR PUMPING
The results of studies of fuel oils, both in the laboratory
and in use at pumping plants, have been published as Bulletin
92, under the title "The Supply, the Price, and the Quality
of Fuel Oils for Pump Irrigation." This bulletin has proved
to be of much value to fuel oil users in obtaining their supply
for this season, and has done much to improve the quality of
the fuel oils shipped into the State. Furthermore, it has di-
rected the attention of refining companies of the Oklahoma and
north Texas oil fields to this important market for moderately
heavy distillates, with the result that many of them are now
furnishing an excellent engine fuel oil, which they have named
"Arizona gas oil." The bulletin has assisted, also, in the set-
tlement of freight claims arising from confusion in the classi-
fication of distillation products.
Additional tests of fuel oils are being made from time to
time as samples are submitted. Two new flash-point testers
have been added to the equipment, a Tagliabue tester for light
fuel oils and a Pensky-Martens tester for heavy oils.
STREAM-FLOW MEASUREMENTS
The Irrigation Department is maintaining fourteen stream-
gaging stations in Cochise County, two in Pima County, and
several in Pinal County. The records of stream flow are ob-
tained with special reference to source, distribution in time, and
the seepage losses which go to recharge the groundwater
supplies.
EFFECTS OF THE TRANSPIRATION OF TREES ON THE
GROUNDWATER SUPPLY
Seven years ago it was suggested that the loss of water
through transpiration of trees constitutes the largest ground-
water loss in many valleys of southern Arizona. If, therefore,
the transpiration loss could be measured, it would provide a
means of estimating the groundwater supplies in such valleys
as the Santa Cruz and the San Pedro. In 1916, investigations to
determine the relation of tree transpiration to groundwater
were initiated at Redington, where exceptionally large and
uniform forests of mesquite and cottonwood exist. The inves-
tigations were interrupted by the war. They were again started
in February of this year and results of much value are being
obtained.
•600 Thirty-second Annual Report
Wells were dug in the midst of two forests, one of mesquite
and the other of cottonwood. The wells were equipped with
autographic water level recorders, the record sheets of which
are changed weekly. For several weeks the slight fluctuations
were found to correlate quite closely with barometric pressures
but after the growth of leaves the fluctuations became much
more pronounced, and the effects of transpiration produced a
daily cycle consisting of the transpiration drop by day and
the recharge curve at night. After the beginning of the sum-
mer rainy season, additional correlations were obtained, notably
those of light, temperature, and humidity.
SOIL SURVEYS
The soil surveys in the San Simon and San Pedro valleys,
begun in October, 1920, have been completed. The surveys were
conducted by the United States Bureau of Soils and the Irri-
gation Department jointly, each party furnishing one field man
and the field expenses being divided equally.
METHODS OF IRRIGATION IN CASA GRANDE VALLEY
Owing to the difficulty experienced by many farmers in
the Casa Grande Valley in the irrigation of alfalfa, considerable
time has been given to the problem of the best method of irri-
gation. On some farms the alfalfa lands have been laid out
along the contours, and are, therefore, terraces, usually of irreg-
ular shape. The borders are high and meander along the con-
tours, and the land is difficult to work with farm implements.
There does not seem to be any merit in this method of laying
out the lands for irrigation.
Tests of absorption were made on two ranches. The soil
moisture to depths of four to six feet was determined both
before and after irrigation, and the quantity of water applied
was measured. The distribution of the water over the land
was found to be quite uniform, much more so than was found
in similar tests in the Santa Cruz Valley described in 1913.*
It was demonstrated that on the McClellan loam it is prac-
ticable to run the water down the slope of the land in long
lands, and this method has important advantages over all
other methods. Adjustment of the velocity of the flow and of
the duration of the period of wetting can be made by varying
the length and width of lands and the head of water turned into
€ach land.
•Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, Twenty-Fourth Annual Report, page 283.
PLANT BREEDING
W. E. Bryan, E. H. Pressley
ALFALFA
Pure-line studies with alfalfa have been continued as out-
lined in the Thirtieth Annual Report of the Arizona Agricul-
tural Experiment Station. Owing to the cost of individual plant
cages, funds were available for the construction of only fifty.
Since this number of cages limited the pure-line studies to a
single variety, the Hairy Peruvian was chosen for the past sea-
son's work. This is one of the most important varieties of al-
falfa in the State. Notes were taken during the early blooming
stage on each of the caged plants as follows :
Stems : Size, color, upright or reclining, height, and extent of
branching.
Leaves : Size, hairiness, and extent of leafiness.
Flowers : Number of open clusters, color and distribution.
The cages were placed over the plants on May 15, 1921,
care being taken to remove the flowers which had already
opened. By June 4, a large number of flowers had appeared
on several of the plants; the cages were then removed from
the plants, and the flowers of each plant were hand pollinated
(selfed) by rolling each flower cluster between the thumb and
fingers. The cages were immediately replaced after each plant
was pollinated and the hands of the person were dipped in a
solution of mercury bichloride, 1 to 1000, and thoroughly dried
before beginning with the next plant. From observations made
on the amount of seed set on the plants under the cages, as
compared with that set on uncaged plants, it is evident that
caging interferes to some extent with seed setting. However,
there is considerable difference between the amounts of seed
set on different plants under the cages.
COTTON
There is a distinct need in Arizona for a premium staple
upland cotton which will mature a profitable crop in those re-
gions which have a growing season too short for the American-
Egyptian cotton. A cotton breeding project was therefore
planned and begun in the spring of 1921 for the purpose of
breeding up such a cotton. As foundation stock for this work
602 Thirty-second Annual Report
twelve short and long staple upland varieties have been im-
ported and planted in the vicinity of Tucson outside the quaran-
tine area.
Selection work is also being carried on with three strains
of Pima cotton for the purpose of reducing the amount of fuzz
on the seed. These three strains were obtained from the United
States Department of Agriculture through the courtesy of Dr.
T. H. Kearney.
WHEAT
As stated in previous annual reports of this department,
the object of the wheat project is to produce an early bread
wheat suitable for growth in the irrigated valleys of southern
Arizona. Early Baart is still our best bread wheat, although
the local millers speak of it as a soft wheat and claim that its
flour lacks the baking strength of the hard wheat flour of the
Middle West. Millers are, therefore, blending the hard wheats
of the Middle West with the locally grown Early Baart in the
milling of our best flours. The number of irrigations prob-
ably affects the quality of the flour produced to a greater ex-
tent than is generally recognized. Some varieties can stand
more irrigation than others and still produce grain of fair qual-
ity, and the Early Baart is probably the most tolerant to irriga-
tion of any bread wheat grown in the State. This is partly due
to hereditary qualities of the grain and partly due to
its early maturity. It matures about thirty days earlier than
the Red Turkey, thus saving one or two irrigations each season.
However, even the natural grain quality of the Early Baart has
been changed to such an extent by heavy, late irrigations that
its loaf volume as bread was smaller than that of the softest
wheat that had been irrigated more lightly. Thus at the Yuma
Horticultural Station in the spring of 1914 the grain of the
heavily irrigated Early Baart produced flour whose loaf vol-
ume was 1780 cubic centimeters, while the loaf volume of the
lightly irrigated Sonora was 1900 cubic centimeters, the same
quantity of flour being used in each case. It is apparent that
of the varieties of wheat which have a tendency to produce
hard grains, those maturing early, and therefore requiring less
irrigation, will have the best opportunity for developing the
hardest grains. In addition to requiring one or two fewer irri-
gations than late wheats, the early varieties are more likely to
escape insect and disease injury and also to give more time for
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 603
the succeeding summer crop. In the wheat breeding work at
this Station, an early maturing wheat has, therefore, been con-
sidered as important as one which produces hard grains. For
these reasons the hard, late maturing wheats of the wheat belt
have been crossed with the local soft early maturing wheats,
with the idea of combining hardness of grain and early maturity
in a high yielding bread wheat. The inheritance of grain tex-
ture of these crosses was presented in the Thirty-First Annual
Report of this Station. The inheritance of earliness through
four generations is briefly stated as follows:
INHERITANCE OF EARLINESS IN WHEAT
The Sonora-Turkey cross illustrates the manner of inheri-
tance of earliness (or lateness) in crosses between the early and
the late maturing varieties. In comparing the earliness of
these wheats, the date of appearance of the first head on each
plant has been used. The mean heading date of 92 pure Sonora
plants in the spring of 1918 was April 7, while that of 90 pure
Turkey plants, which were planted at the same time, was May
1. The mean heading date of SOF^ plants of the cross between
these two varieties the same season was April 18, which is al-
most exactly intermediate between the two mean parental head-
ing dates. The standard deviations of the heading dates of the
pure Sonora, pure Turkey, and their F^ plants were 1.403t
0.070, 2.055$0.103, and 2.128$0.254, respectively. Fig.
5A. presents curves showing the range of heading dates for
the parents (Sonora and Turkey) and their F^ plants. Thirty
families, containing altogether 4892 plants, were grown in the
Fg generation, and the range of heading dates of these second
generation plants covered a period of 36 days, which is three
days greater than the period between the date of appearance of
the earliest head on the early parent (Sonora) and that of the
latest head on the late parent (Turkey). Fig. 5B. shows
the range of heading dates of family No. 2 consisting of 275
plants, and also the range of heading dates for the original par-
ents for the same season. Only 66 of the F, plants headed as
early as the latest head on the early parent (Sonora), while
1435 F2 plants headed as late as the earliest head of the late
parent, leaving 3391 F2 intermediate plants with heading dates
on days when neither parent was heading. In making selec-
tions for later plantings, a plant was classified as early if its
^Signifies plus or minue.
604
Thirty-second Annual Report
heading date fell within or earlier than the range of the heading
dates of the early parent (Sonora), and late if within or later
than that of the late parent (Turkey), the remainder being
classified as intermediate. Ninety-eight F3 plants were grown
from seed of the early F2 plants of family No. 2, and the
mean heading date was March 27, while that of 143 plants of
the early parent (Sonora) was March 25. (See Fig. 5C.).
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Fig 5 — Curves showing: inheritance of earliness (as indicated by
date of appearance of first head) through four generations of
a cross between an early (Sonora) wheat and
a late (Red Turkey) wheat.
During the season of 1920-21, 173 F^ plants were grown from
seed of F3 early plants of family No. 2, and the range of head-
ing dates was five days narrower than that of the original early
parent (Sonora). (See Fig. 5D.). Intermediate selections
in both the Fj and F^ generations had ranges of heading dates
ARIZ0NA Agricultural Experiment Station 605
which were approximately the same as that of the F2 genera-
tion. Late selections were also made in planting the third and
fourth generations, and late races have been separated which
are as late as the late parent (Turkey). A large number of
true breeding intermediate races have also been separated, indi-
cating that it is possible to fix a race with any degree of inter-
mediacy with regard to earliness, provided a sufficiently large
number of F, plants are grown.
PLANT PATHOLOGY
J. G. Brown
Recent agricultural developments within the State have
emphasized the economic importance of plant diseases and have
correspondingly increased the demands made on the Agricul-
tural Experiment Station. Formerly, requests for assistance
in combating diseases of plants M^ere referred to the Station
Botanist, but in time the volume of work became so large that
it was necessary to establish a Department of Plant Pathology,
which was done July 1, 1920. Since the annual budget had al-
ready been prepared and adopted, the work of the new depart-
ment has been somewhat handicapped by the lack of funds for
purchasing needed instruments and apparatus.
WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT
The most pressing plant-disease problems have been taken
up in the form of projects; miscellaneous studies of infected
plants which have been sent in from various agricultural dis-
tricts of the State have been made; information has been pub-
lished from time to time in the forni of leaflets dealing with
diseases prevalent in the State and describing the latest methods
for controlling these diseases; a plant survey of the State has
been carried on in cooperation with the Federal Plant Disease
Survey.
DATE ROT
An important disease known as date rot confronts the
Arizona date grower. This rot is so extensive during unfavor-
able years that as high as 95 percent of the crop is damaged.
Processing the fruits saves a part of the crop if it is treated
in time, though the quality is impaired by the disease. Usually
before ripening has sufficiently progressed to warrant harvest-
ing, a large part of the crop falls to the ground.
Date rot is characterized by two main symptoms: very
small chocolate-brown spots appear on the fruit, finally coalesce,
And eventually cover one side. In other cases minute spots
having a watersoaked appearance, form, gradually enlarge, and
finally unite to make a blister. In the development of both
kinds of spots the protective layers of the fruit become rup-
tured, resulting in drying and mummification. The mummi-
iied fruit may remain hanging to the clusters or it may fall to
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
607
the ground. During the progress of the disease the browr^
spots take on a light cream color in the center. Both kinds of
spots occur on the leaflets, and the brown spots are found on
leaf petioles and the stalks and branches of flower and fruit
clusters, but blistering does not occur on these more woody
organs.
Fig. 6— Effects of date rot disease; note mummies still hanfenng to tree and on ground.
Laboratory cultures of tissues from diseased leaves and
fruits have produced several organisms including Macrosporium^
Alternaria, Helminthosporium, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Sterig-
matocystis, and a bacterium forming brown colonies on date
agar. Macrosporium, Alternaria, and Helminthosporium have
been shown by inoculations to be actively parasitic on the unripe
fruit. It is probable that these fungi break the protective
outer layers of the fruit and leaves, and thus open the way for
608
Thirty-second Annual Report
the attack of Aspergillus, Penicillium and other more or less
saprophytic organisms. Sterigmatocystis has appeared in a
very few cultures. Inoculations which will determine the na-
ture of the bacterium are under way.
Histological studies explain the symptoms observed in con-
nection with the date-rot disease. Cells at and near the surface
of an attacked spot develop a brown pigment. In the meantime,
the parasitic hyphae advance through and between the cells,
branching freely and becoming swollen where they lie in the
protoplasmic contents of the cells which they soon destroy.
The advance toward the center of the fruit is checked for a
time when the tannin layer of the date fruit is reached, but the
hyphae now spread more rapidly parallel with the surface of
the fruit, entirely destroying the parenchymatous tissue and
leaving a cavity under the cuticle and epiderm which fills with
air and results in the blistered appearance. By the time the
tannin layer is penetrated the blister is usually very large. As
previously stated, several infected spots may coalesce to form
one large spot. Lateral growth of the hyphae just beneath the
surface in some cases is rapid, resulting in an extensive brown-
ing of the fruit before blisters appear. After a blister has
w
■I /-s*-
. i ' - r. ,.^f^3rj^<--3
Pig. 7. — Field of lettuce near Toltec. infected with bacterial rot.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 609
formed, the surface soon cracks enough to permit drying of
the mesocarp beneath. Some of the hyphae in contact with
the tannin layer finally succeed in penetrating the tannin
cells in which they may actually be found embedded. Other
hyphae pass through natural breaks in the tannin layer and
the mycelium eventually reaches the endocarp.
SUSCEPTIBILITY OF VARIOUS DATES TO DATE ROT
No variety of date appears to be entirely immune to the
attack of date rot fungi so far as our Arizona orchards are con-
cerned. The Deglet Noor, the most valuable of the varieties
in cultivation here, is probably the most susceptible.
CONTROL
Owing to the torching of the date palms in the Yuma and
Tempe orchards for the eradication of scale, control measures
for date rot could not be undertaken during the season of 1920.
Fruit clusters sprayed this season with 4-4-40 Bordeaux mix-
ture have remained free from date rot fungi thus far.
COTTON BLACK ARM AND ANGULAR LEAF-SPOT
Black arm and angular leaf-spot were present in nearly
every field of Pima-Egyptian cotton in the State last season.
Injury to the crop included the usual stem lesions, destruction
of leaf tissue and leaves, boll spotting, premature ripening, and
fiber staining. Some fields were reported to be practically
ruined. The appearance of the disease in fields newly cleared
of mesquite added to the evidence that the casual organism,
Bacterium malvacearum, i's carried by the seed. Unfortunately,
cotton growers are slow to adopt the method of seed treatment
with sulphuric acid which, in the South, has proved to be an
efficient control.
Considerable areas of alkali land lie within the cotton
districts of Arizona and alkali is brought into fields in irriga-
tion water. The question has arisen as to whether alkali in-
fluences the susceptibility of cotton to the black arm organism.
Under a cotton project, this Department is attempting to answer
the question. Duplicate plots of Pima-Egyptian cotton have
been planted at Sahuarita on alkali-free soil and at Yuma on
alkali soil, with untreated seed, seed treated with concentrated
sulphuric acid, seed treated with sulphuric acid and then with
«10
Thirty-second Annual Report
hot water, seed treated with concentrated sulphuric acid and
then with mercuric chloride, seed treated with mercuric
chloride, and seed treated with formalin. The study should not
only afford information regarding the relation of alkali to
susceptibility of black arm and leaf spot in cotton, but also
facts bearing on the value of different disinfecting agents for
use in treating cotton seed.
MISCELLANEOUS STUDIES
LETTUCE ROT
A bad outbreak of bacterial rot of lettuce occurred at Casa
Grande and Toltec early in the spring of 1921. The disease
usually affected first the outer leaves of the head, causing a
brown discoloration of the fibrovascular bundles, then of the
entire leaves, and eventually turned the head into a dark wet,
slimy mass. One entire field of 60 acres near Toltec was lost.
Fig. 8. — Head of lettuce from the market, inoculated in the laboratory
with bacterial rot from diseased plants taken from field near Toltec.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 61]
Growers almost invariably attributed their losses to frost in-
jury, but laboratory studies revealed the presence of two bac-
teria which were capable of completely rotting healthy heads
of. lettuce. Inoculated heads were usually reduced to a black
liquid within two or three weeks. Studies are in progress to
determine the identity of the bacteria and the source of infec-
tion. Bacterial rot of lettuce has been reported from eastern
states and the infection there has been attributed to poorly
rotted manure used in fertilizing lettuce fields. In Arizona the
fields attacked consist of silt, and no manure of any kind has
ever been used.
Among other diseases determined in infected plants sent
in by county agents, farmers and others, or collected by the
Department, are the following :
FIELD CROPS
Alfalfa.
Leaf spot caused by Pseudopeziza medicaginis, from Salt
River and Yuma valleys.
White spot, physiological, from Yuma and Salt River
valleys.
Bacterial blight caused by Bacterium medicaginis, from
Salt River and Rillito valleys.
Girdle, cause unknown, from Yuma, Casa Grande and
Mesa.
Rust caused by Uromyces stiixitus, from Yuma, Casa
Grande, and Mesa.
Barley.
Leaf-spot caused by Helminthosporium sativum, from
Agua Caliente.
Covered smut caused by Ustilago hordei, from Mesa.
Cotton.
Sore shin caused by Rhizoctonia sp., from Salt River
and Santa Cruz valleys.
Wilt caused by Fv^arium vasinfectum, from St. David.
Black arm and angular leaf spot caused by Bacterium
mulvacearum, from Salt River and Santa Cruz valleys.
Root rot caused by Ozonium omnivorum, from Salt River
and Santa Cruz valleys.
Watermelon, Cantaloupe.
Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum lagenarum, from
St. David and Jerome Junction.
612
Potato.
Thirty-second Annual Report
Blackleg caused by Bacillus jjhijtophthorus, from St.
David.
Scab caused by Oospora scabies, from Santa Cruz Valley.
Rhizoctoniose caused by Rhizoctonia solani, from Santa
Cruz Valley.
Fig. 9.— Trunk of peach tree killed by crown gall. Note the large gall at
base of the trunk on the left side.
ORCHARD TREES
Apple
Die-back caused by Cytospora rubescens, from Apache
County.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 613
Fire blight caused by Bacillus amylovorus, from Ara-
vaipi Valley, St. David, Nogales.
Crown gall caused by Bacterium tumefaciens, from
Dewey.
Peach.
Bacterial leaf spot caused by Bacterium pruni, from
Tucson and Douglas.
Crown gall caused by Bacterium tumefaciens, from Casa
Grande, Yuma, Winkelman, Tucson.
Frost injury, from Tucson and Willcox.
Pear.
Black mold caused by AlterTiaria sp., from Tempe.
Fire blight caused by Bacillus amylovorus, from Oracle,
Phoenix, St. David.
Orange.
Die-back, from Yuma.
Date.
Leaf spot caused by Macrosporium and Alterruiria, from
Yuma and Tempe.
SMALL FRUITS
Gooseberry.
Powdery mildew caused by Sphaerotheca mors-uvae,
from Navajo County.
Grape.
Mildew caused by Plasmopara viticola, from Inspiration.
Grape rot, cause unknown, first reported last year. Un-
ripe fruits of white varieties become spotted with soft, broviTi-
ish, semi-translucent areas. Shrivelling and rotting begin
and the spots become bronzed, later turning to purple. Dry-
ing proceeds more rapidly on one side than the other so that
the outline of the seeds shows. Often the berry remains nor-
mally greon excepting for one sunken spot. The appearance
of the tissues in histological preparations strongly suggests
a parasite, but cultures made from surface-sterilized fruit
usually show no growth. A few have given a species of
Gloeosporium with spores much larger than those of any
species hitherto reported on the grape.
Crown gall caused by Bacterium tumefaciens, from sev-
eral localities. __
614 Thirty-second Annual Report
Raspberry.
Crown gall caused by Bacterium tumefacietis, from Je-
rome Junction.
Strawberry.
Leaf spot caused by Mycosphaerella fragariae, from Je-
rome Junction.
GARDEN VEGETABLES
Lettuce.
Bacterial rot caused by undetermined bacteria, from
Casa Grande, Toltec, Tucson.
Root knot caused by Heterodera radicicola, from
Thatcher.
Root rot caused by Ozonium omnivoTiim, from Thatcher.
Okra,
Root knot caused by Heterodera radicicola, from
Thatcher, accompanied by
Root rot caused by Ozonium omnivorum.
Spinach.
Rust caused by Puccinia subnitens, from Clemenceau.
Downy mildew, caused by Peronospora effusa, from
Tucson.
Tomato.
Wilt caused by Fv^arium sp., from Winkelman, and St.
David.
Wilt caused by Bacillus solanacearum, from Jerome and
Jerome Junction.
Blossom drop caused by unfavorable weather conditions,
from Dos Cabezas.
ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
Ash.
Phyllactinia leaf spot caused by Phyllactinia corylea,
from Tucson.
Oleander.
Gall caused by Bacterium savastanoi, from Tucson.
Pepper tree.
Hypertrophy and timber rot caused by Inonotus sp.,
from Tucson, Tempe, Florence.
Rose.
Crown gall caused by Bacterium tumefaciens, from
Tucson.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 615
Powdery mildew caused by Sphaerotheca pannosa,
from Bisbee.
Sympdragon.
Rust caused by Puccinia antirrhini, from greenhouse
in Tucson.
OTHER ACTIVITIES
During the year two scientific meetings were attended
without expense to the State, one at Chicago and the other
at El Paso. At the latter, two botanical papers were read.
Traveling within the State necessitated by date and cotton
projects and other studies amounted to about three thousand
miles.
At the time the Department was organized, a preliminary
paper was published on date rot. In addition to this, about
two thousand sheets on plant diseases of Arizona have been
issued for the use of the farmers of the State.
POULTRY HUSBANDRY
R. B. Thompson
The following projects were formally approved for
the Poultry Department on June 28, 1921:
Poultry Breeding
Poultry Breeding Contest
(Egg Laying Contest)
Date of Hatching
Chick Feeding and Brooding
Broiler Production.
Of these projects some work has already been done on
the Poultry Breeding Project. Desirable pullets were se-
lected in the fall of 1920 and trapnesting has been done
since that time. All chicks hatched have been pedigreed.
All other projects will be inaugurated as soon as the Poultry
Department is established in a larger and more desirable
location. The mortality of the brooding stock has been above
normal during this year due to the use of crowded tempo-
rary quarters.
In the Annual Report for the year ended June 30, 1920,
the 1800-egg incubator was reported as not having been, a
success on account of improper coal and poor conditions for
operation. The proper grade of coal was secured and the
incubator given a series of trials. By operating different
sections with different ventilation and moisture it was de-
termined that the incubator was entirely unsuited to this
climate.
Francis R. Kenney, head of the Poultry Department,
resigned effective August 31, 1920. Although a new head
of the Department was secured to take the work on Septem-
ber 1, the change made readjustment in the work necessary
and. therefore, the advancement of Experiment Station work
was but slight during this year. The head of the Depart-
ment has done instruction work in the College of Agriculture
and has been Poultry Specialist in the Extension Service and,
accordingly, has not been able to devote more than part time
to any one branch of the work. Definite plans for the fu-
ture development of the Department, which will be effective
with the inauguration of the new poultry plant and with the
addition of instruction and extension help, have been for-
mulated.
INDEX TO VOL. IX.
Bulletins 85-95
Annual Reports 1918-1921
Timely Hints for Farmers Nos. 136-139
Experiment Station Circulars 33-41
Indexed bv NELLE NESBITT, M. A.
Titles of Bulletins, of Experiment Station Circulars, and of Timely Hints for
Farmers are printed in capital letters. Scientific names are in italics. Num-
bers of Bulletins, of Experiment Station Circulars, of Timely Hints for
Farmers, and the dates of Annual Reports are printed in heavier type than
page numbers.
Acacia Gregs^ii (cat's-claw). 85: 42;
1921: 577, 584-585.
Achradelpha mammosa. 1920: 473.
Achras Sapota. 1920: 473.
Acker, Nydia M. 1921: 551.
Acuff, George. 1918: 335.
Adams Fund. 1918: 282-286, 346; 1919:
399-403, 404-405; 1920: 426, 431-
435, 436, 438; 1921: 553-556, 583.
Adamson, C. R. 1918: 281.
ADOBE MILKHOUSE TFIE. Cir. 38.
how to construct. Cir. 38.
tspecifications. Cir. 38.
Aepli, D. C. 1920: 429.
Agave Palmeri. 1919: 430.
Agricultural Experiment Station. 1919:
397-398; 1920: 430; 1921: 549-556.
financial statements. 1918: 285-286;
1919: 401-403; 1920: 433-435;
1921: 555-556.
projects. 1918: 282-285; 1919:399-401;
1920: 431-433; 1921: 552-554.
publications. 1918: 281-282, 299-300,
338, 340; 1919: 399; 1920: 431;
1921: 552, 586.
Agricultural Experiment Station Farms.
1918: 278-280; 1920: 427. (See
also Prescott Dry-Farm, Salt
River Valley Farm, Sulphur Spring
Valley Dry-Farm, Tempe Date
Orchard, University Farm, and
Yuma Date Orchard and Horti-
cultural Station).
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT
STATION REGULATIONS
UNDER ARIZONA UNIFORM
SEED LAW. Cir. 40.
duties and authority of enforcing
agent. Cir. 40.
exemptions to . Cir. 40.
inspection, sampling, and testing. Cir.
40.
label requirements. Cir. 40.
violations and prosecutions. Cir. 40.
Agricultural Extension Service. 1918:
285; 1919: 398, 402, 403; 1920:
427, 434. 435, 448; 1921: 548-549,
556.
Agricultural Mobilization Conference.
1918: 277.
Agricultural Products Corporation. 88:
212, 223.
Agriculture, Indian. 1920: 446; 1921:
570-571.
Agronomy Department. Cir. 40.
e.xperimental work. 1918: 287-296;
1919: 415-420; 1920: 440-448;
1921: 563-572.
projects. 1918: 284; 1919: 399-400;
1920: 432; 1921: 553.
Agua Fria River:
groundwaters east of. 1920: 438-439.
need of water storage on. 95: 546.
Alabama argillacea Hubn. (cotton leaf
worm). 87: 181-183.
Albert, D. W. 1920: 429, 433, 469-474;
1921: 554, 587-596.
Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis) :
suited to Southern Arizona conditions.
1920: 460-461.
Aleurites Fordii. 1920: 473.
Alfalfa:
as a cover crop. 89: 263; 94: 507;
1918: 308.
as a honey producing plant. 85: 42.
as host of cotton boll worm. 87: 176.
618
IxnKx TO XOll'mk IX
breeding. 1918: 318-320; 1919: 456-
457; 1921: 601.
diseases. 1921: 611.
fields:
poison baits for insect pests in. 1918:
335-338.
source of cotton square daubers. 87:
187-190: 1918: 337-338.
trap patcb for cotton square daub-
ers. 87: 189.
green, for dairy cows. 1921: 581-582.
hay:
as sole ration for beef lieifers. 1920:
453-454.
chemical composition of. 91 : 363 ;
93: 486; 1919: 411.
in feeding experiments. 91: 359-396-
93: 485-491; 1918: 330-333; 1919:
434-436: 1920: 450-451, 464-465;
1921: 581-582.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 21-25, 64.
price of. 85: 22; 91: 363; 93: 488;
1918: 332.
irrigation of. 88: 210, 220; 1921: 600.
meal, in home made calf meal. 1920:
465-467.
on Salt River Vallev Farm. 1918: 287,
294.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 262-263.
resistance of, to alkali. 1918: 342-345.
seed certification. 1920: 446-447;
1921: 571.
seed production. 85: 9.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
subject to root rot. 90: 274.
transpiration ratio of. 88: 208.
variety tests. 1918: 319-320.
alfalfa hopper (Stictoccphala fcstina
Say). 87: 189.
alfalfa seed chalcis fly. 85: 25.
Algae in water tanks:
copper sulphate treatment for. 1918:
299.
Algerita (Berhcris trifoliolata).
suited to Arizona conditions. 1920:
462.
Alkali :
effect of, on cement pipes. 86: 140
142, 170, 171.
in Tempe Drainage Ditch water. 1918:
346; 1919: 409-410; 1920: 437;
1921: 560.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 241-242.
rise of, on irrigated lands. 88: 216.
tolerance of cotton to. 1919: 408-409.
Alkali, black:
cfYect of, on grain yield. 1921: 558.
favorable to growth of potato scab or-
ganism. T. H. 136.
inlluence of concomitant conditions
on the toxicity of. 1921: 558.
influence of, on susceptibility of cot-
ton to black arm. 1921: 609-610.
neutralization of, by gypsum. 1918:
347-348; 1920: 436; 1921: 559.
resistance of crops to. 1918: 342-345.
sampling licld soils for. 1919: 405-
406.
studies. 1918: 346-348; 1919: 404-
409; 1920: 436; 1921: 557-559.
Alkali resisting plants :
asparagus. 1918: 343-344.
dates. 85: 11 ; 1918: 307.
jujube. 1920: 462.
Mastac tree. 1920: 461.
Rhodes grass. Cir. 36; 1920: 445;
1921: 558, 570.
Sudan grass. Cir. 35.
sweet clover. Cir. 34.
tepary beans. 1918: 342-345.
Alkali, white:
leaching. 1919: 406-407.
Allen cement pipe machine, the, 86: 86.
AUeniaria:
present in date rot. 1921: 607, 613.
Alteniaria sp.
causing black mold of pear tree. 1921:
613.
A inaniiitliiis J'aliiicri (careless weed or
bledo). 1919: 428-429.
Amelanchicr (service berry). 1921: 578.
American Petroleum Institute:
distillation test of fuel oils. 92: 407.
American Society for Testing Materials.
86: 96, 123.
Amygdahts Davidiana. 1920: 473.
.Inanas sativus. 1920: 473.
Andropogon cirrains. 1919: 430.
A. sacchavoidcs. 1919: 430.
Angular leaf spot, or black arm disease
of cotton. 90: 273; 1919: 418-419.
treatment of seed for. 90: 273; 1921:
609-610, 611.
Animal Husbandry:
experimental work in. 1918: 322-334;
1919: 421-426; 1920: 449-454,
1921: 573-575.
projects. 1918: 284: 1919: 400; 1920:
432; 1921: 553.
Annona cheriinolia. 1920: 473.
A. muricata. 1920: 473.
./. squamosa. 1920: 473.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
619
Ant, white, or termite:
injuring cotton. 87: 203.
Anthonomus '^randis Boli. (Mexican boll
weevil). 87: 173-175, 203-204.
A. grandis thnrbcriac Pierce. 87: 173,
203-204.
Anthracnose of cotton. 90: 274.
of melons. 1921: 611.
Apache plume (FaUugia paradoxa) :
as a browse plant. 1921: 577.
Aphidiiis testaccipes Cress. 87: 197-200.
Aphis (Aphis gossypii Glov.) :
effect of weather on. 87: 198.
enemies of. 87: 197-200.
in the Yuma Valley. 87: 198.
spraying for. 87: 200.
Aphis gossvpii Glov. (cotton or melon
aphis'). 87: 196-200.
Apples :
as a "dry-farm" crop. 1920: 473.
on Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
1918: 280; 1920: 474.
pruning studies. 1920: 471 ; 1921: 591.
water requirement studies. 1920: 471.
Apple trees :
diseases of. 1921: 612-613.
Appropriations:
for Experiment Station work. 1918:
285, 286; 1919: 402, 403; 1920:
434, 435; 1921: 555, 556.
Apricots:
at Salt River Valley Farm. 1918:
303; 1921: 594.
at Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
1918: 280.
at Yuma Date Orchard and Horticul-
tural Station. 1918: 304; 1921:
594.
in the Salt River Valley:
interplanting in olive orchards. 94:
513.
marketing. 85: 45, 47.
prices. 85: 45.
shipments of. 85: 46.
varieties. 85: 43.
yields. 85: 45.
pruning studies. 1920: 471 ; 1921: 591.
Arachis hypogaca. 1920: 473.
Aragallus Lambcrti (purple loco). 1920:
456.
A. nothoxus (spreading loco). 1920:
456.
Aristida purpurea. 1919. 430.
Arizona:
in drainage basin of Colorado River.
95: 529-531.
reservoir sites in. 95: 535.
Arizona Honey Exchange. 85: 42.
Arizona Orange Association. ..85: 48.
Arizona State Commission of Agricul-
ture and Horticulture. Cir. 40;
87: 173, 203-204; 1918: 339.
Arizona Uniform Seed Law. Cir. 40.
Arlington Valley. 85: 5, 8.
Armstrong, R. H. 1918: 335.
Arsenate of lead:
for poisoning cotton leaf worm. 87:
183.
Ash:
Phyllactinia leaf spot on. 1921: 614.
Asparagus :
resistance to alkali. 1918: 343-344.
Asparagus acufifoliits. 1920: 473.
Aspen:
American (Populus tremiiloidcs). T.H.
138.
large-toothed (P. grandidentata). T.H,
138.
Aspergillus :
present in date rot. 1921: 607.
Asphalt base type of fuel oils. 92: 409.
Associations:
Arizona Honey Exchange. 85: 42.
.'\rizona Orange. 85: 48.
Salt River Valley Cotton Growers'.
85: 35-36.
Salt River Valley Water Users'. 85:
8, 65, 67-68.
Union Melon Growers'. 85: 57.
United Produce Growers'. 85: 54, 56.
Astragalus Bigclowii (hairy loco). 1920:
456.
A. diHiysus (tall loco). 1920: 456.
A. diphvsus MacDougali (tall loco).
1920: 456.
A. thurberi (Thurber's loco). 1920:
456.
"Atomic Sulfur":
ineffective against red spider. 87: 202.
A triplex poly car pa (many-seeded salt-
bush). 1920: 457.
Atro Violacea olive, the. 94: 521, 523.
Avocado: 1921: 595.
affected by hot, dry weather. 1919:
441.
B
Baccharis gliitinosa (Bata mota). 1921:
586.
B. sarathroides. 1921: 586.
Bacillus amylovorus :
causing blight of apple and pear trees.
1921: 613.
620
Index to Volume IX
B. phytophthorus:
causing blackleg of potato. 1921: 612.
B. solanacearum:
causing tomato wilt. 1921: 614.
Backfill:
a cause of pipe failure. 86: 169, 170.
downward pressure of. 86: 131-133.
manner of making. 86: 103-104.
reinforcement of pipe to resist. 86:
95.
Bacterium malvacearum:
causing black arm and angular leaf
spot of cotton. 1921: 609, 611.
B. medicaginis:
causing blight of alfalfa. 1921: 611.
B. pruni:
causing leaf spot of peach. 1921: 613.
B. savastanoi:
causing gall of oleander. 1921: 614.
B. tumefaciens:
causing crown gall on peach, raspberry,
and rose. 1921; 613, 614.
"Bagote" or "Mexican palo-verde" (Par-
kinsonia aculeata) :
as a source of honey. 1921: 586.
Baits, poison, for insect pests. 87: 195;
1918: 335-338.
Ballantyne, A. B. 1921: 552.
Barley:
chemical composition of. 1919: 411.
cultivation and management of. 1919:
419; 1920: 444-445; 1921: 567-568.
diseases. 1920: 445; 1921: 611. ,
flour, analysis of. 1918: 345.
in the Salt River Vallev. 85: 18-21,
64.
middlings, in poison bait. 1918: 335-
338.
not affected by root rot. 90: 274.
on the Salt River Valley Farm. 1918:
287, 292-293; 1919: 419; 1920:
445.
on the Sulphur Spring Vallev Dry-
Farm. 1918: 280, 294; 1920: 442.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 261-262.
resistance to alkali. 1918: 342-345;
1921: 558.
rolled. 1918: 325; 1919: 433-436;
1920: 465-467.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
variety test. 1921: 565.
wild, sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Bartlett, O. C. 1918: 335.
Beans:
breeding. 1918: 317-318; 1919: 457.
in the Salt River Valley. 85: 11.
on the Salt River Valley Farm. 1918:
287, 290.
pests:
boll worm. 87: 176.
lesser corn stalk borer. 1918: 287.
red spider. 87: 201.
salt marsh caterpillar. 87: 183.
seed-corn maggot. 1921: 584.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
snap. 1918: 310.
tepary :
as a cover crop. 89: 247-249; 1919:
441.
as green manure. 1918: 295.
at Yuma Date Orchard and Horti-
cultural Station. 1918: 295.
cuhure of. 1921: 564.
on the Salt River Valley Farm.
1918: 290.
on the Sulphur Spring Valley Dry
Farm. 1918: 280, 294-295; 1920:
442.
profits from. 1918: 280.
resistance to alkali. 1918: 342-345.
varieties. 1918: 290; 1919: 457.
velvet :
as cover crop in citrus orchard.
1919: 441.
cuhure of. 1919: 417; 1920: 442;
1921: 565, 566.
on Sah River Vallev Farm. 1918:
287, 290; 1919: 417; 1920: 443.
on Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
1918: 294; 1919: 417; 1920: 443.
Bear grass (Nolina):
as a browse plant. 1921: 577.
Beatv, Leshe. 1920: 429, 440; 1921: 552.
563.
Bees:
at University Farm. 1918: 340; 1920:
468; 1921: 584-586.
Beetles injurious to cotton. 87: 203.
Beets:
infested by seed-corn maggot. 1921:
584.
variety test. 1921: 595-596.
Bcrberis Thmibergii. 1919: 431.
B. trifoliolata (Algerita). 1919: 431;
1920: 462.
Bermuda grass:
eradication by Sudan grass. Cir. 35.
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Bichloride of mercury:
treatment for angular leaf spot in cot-
ton. 90: 273; 1921: 610.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
621
Bigelozi'ia coronopifolia and B. Hartwcgi
(rayless golden-rod, or burro
weed). 1919: 428; 1920: 457-459.
B. heterophylla ("jimmy weed"). 1920:
458.
B. IVriglitii. 1920: 458.
Black arm disease of cotton, or angular
leaf spot. 90: 273; 1919: 418-419;
1921: 609-610.
treatment of seed for. 90: 273; 1921:
609-610, 611.
Blackberries:
at Prescott Dry-Farm. 1921: 594.
at Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
1920: 474.
at University Farm. 1921: 595.
injured by red spider. 87: 201.
Black leaf 40 (nicotine sulphate) :
in spray for cotton aphis. 87: 200.
in spray for cotton thrips. 87: 201.
Blackleg of potato. 1921: 612.
Black scurf:
organism causing (Rhizoctonia so-
lani). T. H. 136; 1921: 612.
treatment of seed potatoes for. T. H.
136.
Blaisdell, H. W. 89: 225, 226.
Blaisdell Orchard, the. 89: 226.
hgs in. 89: 260.
seedling date trees in. 89: 257.
soil. 89: 262-263.
weather records at. 89: 228- 230.
Blapstinus pimalis Casey:
injury to cotton seedlings. 87: 203;
1919: 438.
Blastophaga grossorum (fig wasp). 89:
259.
Bledo, or careless weed (Aniaratithus
palmeri). 1919: 428-429.
Blight:
bacterial, of alfalfa. 1921: 611.
fire, of apple and pear. 1921: 613.
Blood meal:
in milk substitute for feeding calves.
1920: 465-467; 1921: 582.
Blossom drop of tomato. 1921: 614.
Blue grass: F,
Canada. Cir. 40.
Kentucky. Cir. 40.
Bog-rush, or Juncaceae family of plants.
1919: 431-432.
Boll weevil, variety (Anthotiomns gratf-
dis thurberiae Pierce). 87: 173.
Mexican. (A. grandis Boh). 87: 173-
175, 203-204; 90: 274.
Boll worm:
"Arizona pink". 1921: 583.
cotton. (Chloridea obsoleta Hubn).
87: 175-178.
Egyptian pink. (Pectinophora gossy-
piella Saunders). 87: 178-180.
quarantine regulations against. 87:
203-204.
Bond, C. O. 1918: 281, 314-321; 1919:
398.
Bone meal:
in milk substitute for feeding calves.
1920: 465-467; 1921: 582.
Bordeaux mixture:
in date rot control. 1921: 609.
Botany:
experimental work in. 1918: 297-302;
1919: 427-432; 1920: 455-463;
1921: 576-579.
projects. 1918: 283-284; 1919: 400;
1920: 432; 1921: 553.
work at Flagstaff. 1920: 456-457.
Boulder Canyon:
average stream flow at . 95: 532.
reservoir site at. 95: 535, 538, 539,
540, 543.
Boutcloua bromoides (Spruce top
grama). 1919: 411.
B. curtipendula. (side-oats grama).
1919: 411.
B. eriopoda (woolly-foot). 1919:411.
B. Rothrockii. 1919: 411.
Bouton, Rosa. 1921: 552.
Bouvardia iriphylla. 1919: 431.
Bradshaw, T. E. 94: 493.
Bran, in poison bait. 87: 195.
Brassica pekinensis. 1920: 473.
BrickcUia Wrightii. 1919: 430.
Bridges, cement. 86: 157-161, 171.
Broccoli. 1918: 310.
Brome grass. Cir. 40.
Brown ,C. B. Cir. 38; 1921: 552.
Brown, J. G. T. H. 136; T. H. 138;
1918: 284; 1919: 400; 1920: 429,
431, 432, 455-463; 1921: 550, 551,
554, 606-615.
Browse pastures versus grass pastures.
1921: 577-578.
Brussels sprouts. 1918: 310.
Bryan, Dr. Kirk. 1920: 478.
Bryan, W. E. 1918: 282, 283, 314-321 ;
1919: 401, 456-462; 1920: 433, 480-
483; 1921: 554, 601-605.
Biicculatrix thurberiella Busck (cotton
leaf perforator). 87: 184-186.
Buckeye Valley. 85: 5, 8, 9.
622
Index to Volume IX
Buckwheat:
at Salt River Valley Farm. 1918:
293.
at Yuma Date Orchard and Horticul-
tural Station. 1918: 295.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
Bull thistle:
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Bunt, or stinking smut of wheat:
control of, by seed treatment. 1919:
419; 1920: 445.
Burdock:
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Bureau of Markets, United States De-
partment of Agriculture. 85: 41.
Burr grass:
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Burro weed, or rayless golden-rod (Bigc-
lozvia corttopifolia and B. Hart-
zvcsi). 1919: 428; 1920: 457 459.
Butter:
fat:
cost of production. 1918: 332; 1919:
435.
production at University Farm.
1918: 333; 1919: 433, 435; 1920:
464; 1921: 580-581.
MAKING ON THE ARIZONA
FARM. T. H. 137.
care of butter. T. H. 137.
care of churn. T. H. 137.
car^ of cream. T. H. 137.
churning. T. H. 137.
marketing. T. H. 137.
starters. T, H. 137.
production in Salt River Valley. 85:
26-29.
Cabbage :
Chinese. 1919: 442.
in the Tucson garden. 1918: 310.
Caisson wells. 1918: 352.
Calcium arsenate:
in spray for cotton leaf worm. 87:
183.
Calf meal, home-mixed. 1920: 465-467;
1921: 582.
California:
partly in Colorado River Basin. 95:
529-531.
Calliandra (mesquitilla or ramita). 1921:
577.
Calves :
milk substitutes for feeding. 1920:
465-467; 1921: 582.
Calycoseris IVrightii. 1919: 411.
Camas, c\ea.th( Zyadciius clegans):
poisoning range stock. 1918: 299;
1920: 456; 1921: 579.
Canada blue grass. Cir. 40.
Canadian thistle:
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Canker of cottonwood. 1918: 301-302;
T. H. 138.
Cantaloupes :
anthracnose of. 1921: 611.
in poison baits. 87: 195; 1918: 335-
338.
in Salt River Vallev. 85: 9, 10-11,
38-42.
acreage. 85: 38, 64.
marketing. 85: 41, 60-69.
packing. 85: 38-40.
prices. 85: 41.
shipments. 85: 40.
varieties. 85: 40.
yields. 85: 41.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 260.
Careless weed, or bledo (Amaranthiis
PaUncri) :
as a garden vegetable. 1919: 429.
poisoning range stock. 1919: 428-429.
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Carnegie Institution:
co-operation of, in range studies.
1918: 339; 1919: 437.
gift of, to Botanical Department.
1918: 302.
Carpcuirria calif ornica. 1919: 431.
Carper, B. F. 94: 493, 513-514.
Carrots. 1918: 310.
Casa Grande Valley:
development of irrigation in. 1920:
476-477.
olives in. 94: 494.
water supply. 1919: 447-450.
Casimiroa cdiilis. 1920: 473.
Castor beans:
as a temporary windbreak. 89: 232.
at Salt River Valley Farm. 1918: 293.
Cataract Canyon reservoir site. 95: 534.
Caterpillar, salt marsh (Estigmenc
acraca Dru). 87: 183-184.
Catlin, C. N. 89: 237; 1918: 285. 341-
350; 1919: 399, 404-414; 1920:
431, 436-439; 1921: 552-553, 557-
562.
Cat's-claw (Acacia Grcggii) :
as a browse plant. 1921: 577.
as a source of honey. 85: 42; 1921:
584-585.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
623
Cattle :
dairy, at University Farm. 1918: 330-
333] 1919: 433-436; 1920: 464-465;
1921: 580-583.
emergency forages for. 1918: 297-298,
324.
feeding experiments. 91: 359-396;
93: 485-491; 1918: 324, 330-333;
1920: 450-451; 1921: 574-575.
range, and poisoning of, on range.
1918: 297-298, 324; 1919: 421,
427-430; 1920: 455-459; 1921: 561,
576-578.
Cauliflower. 1918: 310.
Cayon olive, the. 94: 519, 522.
Ceanothus Greggii. 1919: 430.
C. thrysiHorus. 1919: 431.
Celtis reticulata (hackberry or palo
bianco). 1921: 577.
Cement pipe:
capacity tables. 86: 138-139.
curing. 86: 100-101.
effect of, on strength. 86: 127-131.
durability of. 1919: 452-453; 86: 140-
142.
effect of alkali on. 86: 140-142, 170,
171.
failures of. 86: 103-116; 1918: 354-
356.
hand-made, or hand tamped:
advantages. 86: 93.
cost. 86: 165-166.
durability. 86: 141.
in Arizona. 86: 71.
in California. 86: 71.
making. 86: 90-93.
mortar for. 86: 93, 97, 124.
qualities. 86: 168-169.
strength. 86: 124, 133, 169.
sweating. 86: 123.
laying. 86: 103-116, 169.
MACHIxNE-MADE FOR IRRIGA-
TION SYSTEMS AND OTHER
PURPOSES. 86: 70-171.
machines for making. 86: 77-90, 168.
methods of laying. 86: 104-107.
reinforcing. 86: 94-95, 99; 1918: 356.
structures, line. 86: 143-152.
systems. 86: 150. 163, 212.
testing. 86: 117-139; 1918: 355, 356.
Cement, quick setting. 86: 101.
Cement, Riverside. 86: 96.
Cercocarpus (deer browse). 1921: 577,
578.
C. paucidentattis. 1919: 430.
Chaetochloa sp. 1919: 411.
Chalcis fly, alfalfa seed. 85: 25.
Chard. 1918: 310.
Chayote. 1919: 442.
Chayota cdiilis. 1920: 473.
Cheese:
production in Salt River Valley. 85:
27-29.
Chemistry, Agricultural:
experimental work. 1918: 341-350;
1919: 404-414; 1920: 436-439;
1921: 557-562.
projects. 1918: 285; 1919: 399; 1920:
431; 1921: 552-553.
Cherries:
at Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
1920: 474.
Cherry, yellow flowered ground (Phy-
salis angulata var. Linkiana). 87:
183.
Chick peas (garbanzos). 1920: 442.
Chloridea obsolcta Hubn. (cotton boll
worm). 87: 175-178.
Chollas:
as forage. 1918: 297.
Chrysopas, or lace wing flies. 87: 197.
Chrysophyllum cainito. 1920: 473.
Cibola Valley, irrigation project in. 95:
543.
Circulars, Nos. 33 to 41, inclusive:
33. Hegari in Arizona.
34. Sweet Clover in Arizona.
35. Sudan Grass in Arizona.
36. Rhodes Grass in Arizona.
37. The Production of Clean Milk.
38. The Adobe Milkhouse.
39. Selecting Laying Hens.
40. Experiment Station Regulations
Under Arizona Uniform Seed
Law.
41. Poultry Breeding Contest.
Cirsium arvensc (Canada thistle). 1920:
457.
Citrnlhis vulgaris. 1920: 473.
Citrus fruits:
cultural methods, study of. 1918: 308;
1919: 440-441; 1920: 469-470;
1921: 587-588.
effect of temperature and humidity.
1921: 589.
in the Salt River Valley. 85: 9, 10,
43-49.
acreage. 85: 47-48, 64.
grading. 85: 48.
limitation to industry. 85: 49.
marketing. 85: 48.
varieties. 85: 48.
624
Index to Volume IX
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 246-257;
1919: 441; 1921: 588.
characteristics of fruit. 89: 249-254,
cover crops in orchard. 89: 246-249;
1919: 441.
fertiHzing. 89: 249.
nursery stock. 1920: 474.
plantings. 89: 246-249; 1921: 587.
varieties. 1921: 587-588.
Citrus nobilis. 1920: 473.
C. sinensis. 1920: 473.
C. Wcbberii. 1920: 473.
Clark, Carl. 1921: 552, 564.
Clark, S. P. Cir. 34; Cir. 36; 1920:
432, 440-448; 1921: 552, 553, 563-
572.
Clay:
effect of, on transpiration ratio. 88:
1921: 559.
Cliflf rose, or quinine bush (Cowania
Stansburiana) :
as a browse plant. 1921: 577, 578.
Climate :
effect of, on transpiration ratio. 88:
208.
of the Salt River Valley. 85: 9-11.
of the Yuma Mesa. 89: 227-233, 263.
Cloaca Maxima, a sewer of old Rome.
86: 140.
Clothier, R. W. 1920: 431.
Clover:
alsike. Cir. 40.
crimson. Cir, 40.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
sour (Melilotus indica) :
as a cover crop. Cir. 34; 94: 507;
1918: 308; 1921: 588.
SWEET, IN ARIZONA. Cir. 34.
annual white. Cir. 34.
biennian white. Cir. 34.
biennial yellow. Cir. 34.
Hubam. Cir. 34.
Coachella Valley:
irrigable lands in. 95: 530.
Coal oil spray for brown cotton bug.
87: 194.
Cocklebur :
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Code, State Water:
need for. 1918: 351-352.
passed. 1919: 451-452.
Code, W. E. 86: 75;1919: 401, 447-455;
1920: 433, 469-474; 1921: 554,
597-600.
CoUards. 1918: 310.
Colletotriclittin lagcncivuiu :
causing anthracnose of melons. 1921;
611.
CoUingwood, C. B. 89: 225, 235.
Collins, J. H. 85: 5-68; 1918: 282.
Colorado:
partly in the Colorado River Basin.
95: 529-530.
reservoir sites in. 95: 533, 534.
Colorado River Commission. 95: 542.
COLORADO RIVER, THE, AND
ARIZONA'S INTEREST IN
ITS DEVELOPMENT. 95: 529-
546.
Arizona's program. 95: 542-546.
geography and irrigable lands. 95:
529-530.
Gila River System. 95: 545-546.
navigabilitv of the Colorado River.
95: 542.
objects sought. 95: 536-538.
hydro-electric power. 95: 537-538.
storage for flood protection. 95: 536.
storage for irrigation. 95: 536-537.
proposed developments. 95: 538-540.
reservoir sites. 95: 533-536.
water rights. 95: 540-542.
water supply. 95: 530-533.
Colorado River water:
plant food in. 89: 239.
Colorado rubber plant, or pingue:
poisoning range sheep. 1918: 299.
Columella olive, the. 94: 520, 522.
Concrete:
linings for irrigation ditches. 88: 212.
pipe ,wet-poured. 86: 93-95.
Continental Rubber Plantation:
cement pipe making at. 86: 97, 98.
pipe line structure at. 86: 146-147.
pipe line system at. 86: 148-150; 1918:
354-355.
Cook, W. M. 1920: 429.
Co-operative selling in Salt River Val-
ley. 85: 17-18.
Copper sulphate treatment for algae in
water tanks. 1918: 299.
Cork Oak (Qiicrciis stiber):
suited to Arizona conditions. 1919:
431; 1920: 461.
Corn :
as trap crop for cotton boll worm.
87: 176.
bran:
in feeding hogs. 1918: 325.
in poison bait. 1918: 336.
ear worm. 87: 175-178.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
625
Indian, study of varieties and meth-
ods of culture. 1919: 418; 1920:
443; 1921: 566.
injured by corn stalk borer. 1918:
339-340.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 18-21.
Mexican June. 1918: 290-291, 294;
1919: 418; 1920: 442, 443; 1921:
566.
not subject to root rot. 90: 274.
on Prescott Dry-Farm. 1918: 293;
1919: 415-416.
on Salt River Project. 85: 64.
on Salt River Valley Farm. 1918:
287, 290-291; 1919: 418; 1920:
443.
on Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
1918: 294, 295; 1920: 442.
on University Farm. 1918: 296.
Papago sweet. 1919: 415; 1920: 442.
seed:
infested by seed-corn maggot. 1921:
584.
testing. Cir. 40.
transpiration ration of. 88: 208.
Cornmeal, in home-made calf meal.
1921: 582.
Corn salad. 1918: 310.
Corn stalk borer, larger (Diatraea zea-
colella). 1919: 438.
lesser (D. lineola). 1918: 287, 290,
339-340.
Correggiola olive, the. 94: 519, 522.
Corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride)
treatment of seed potatoes. T. H.
136.
Cost:
of butter production. 1918: 332;
1919: 435.
of cement irrigation ditches. 88: 212.
of cement pipe. 86: 164-167, 171.
of cotton seed and cotton seed meal.
1921: 574.
of ensilage. 91: 363; 93: 488.
of feeding hogs on garbage. 1920:
452.
of feeding yucca to cattle. 1918: 324.
of fuel oils. 92: 397-423.
of grain storage in Salt River Valley.
85: 14.
of irrigating on the Yuma Mesa. 89:
262.
of milk production. 1918: 332; 1919:
435.
of 100 pounds gain in fattening steers.
91: 372-384, 391-396; 93: 490.
of picking cotton. 85: 36.
of poison baits. 1918: ZZ7-ZZS.
of pump irrigation. 92: 397-423.
of spraying cotton for aphis. 87: 200.
of treating seed potatoes for scab and
black scurf. T. H. 136.
Cotton :
Arizona wild (Thurberia thespesioi-
dcs). 87: 173, 176; 1919: 437;
1920: 468; 1921: 583.
bug, brown (Euschistus impictiventris
Stal.). 87: 192-194.
methods of combating. 87: 194.
diseases:
anthracnose. 1921: 611.
black arm and angular leaf spot
90: 273; 1919: 418-419; 1921: 609-
610, 611.
root rot. 1921: 611.
sore shin. 1921: 611.
wilt. 1921: 611.
Egyptian. 85: 30-31, 35-37; 90: 265-
274.
cultivation and field management of.
1919: 418-419; 1920: 443-444:
1921: 566-567.
fertilizer tests. 1921: 566.
thinning and topping tests. 1921:
567.
GROWING IN ARIZONA. 90: 265-
274.
improvement. 1920: 447.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 9, 29-37.
acreage. 85: 29-31.
gins. 95: 16, 36.
marketing. 85: 2,7, 60-69.
oil mill. 85: 16.
picking. 85: 35-36.
Pima type. 85: 30-31, 35-37; 90:
265-274.
prices. 85: 35-37..
Yuma type. 85: 30-31, 35-37.
leaf perforator (Bucculatrix thurher-
iella Busck). 87: 184-186.
leaf worm. (Alabama argillacea
Hubn). 87: 181-183.
on Salt River Valley Farm. 1918:
279, 287, 293; 1920: 443-444:
1921: 566-567.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 261.
pests:
ant, white, or termite. 87: 203.
aphis. 87: 196-200.
Blapstinus pimalis. 87: 203; 1919:
438.
626
Index to Volume; IX
boll weevil :
Mexican. 87: 173-175.
native. 87: 173; 1919: 437.
boll worm. 87: 175-178.
Arizona pink. 1921: 583.
Egyptian pink. 87: 178-180.
bug, brown cotton. 87: 192-194.
cut worms. 87: 203.
grasshoppers. 87: 194-196; 1918:
337-33S.
leaf perforator, cotton. 87: 184-185.
leaf worm, cotton. 87: 181-183.
Myoclirous longtdus Lee. 87: 203.
quarantine regulations against. 87:
203-204.
salt marsh caterpillar. 87: 183-184.
Southwestern cotton stainer. 87:
190-192.
spider, red. 87: 201-202.
square daubers, cotton. 87: 186-
190; 1918: 337-338.
resistance to alkali. 1918: 342-345;
1919: 408-409.
seed:
AND COTTOX SEED PROD-
UCTS, FEEDING TO RANGE
CATTLE. 93: 485-491.
and seed cotton quarantine. 87:
203-204.
cake, for dairy cows. 1918: 330-
333.
chemical composition of. 93: 486.
feeding to pregnant ewes. 1921:
575.
feeding to range steers. 1921 : 574.
meal:
as fertilizer for cotton. 1920: 444.
chemical composition of. 91: 363;
93: 486; 1919: 411.
in rations for dairv cows. 1919:
434-436; 1920: 465.
in rations for fattening steers. 91:
359-396; 1920: 450-451.
testing. Cir. 40.
treatment for black arm. 90: 273;
1921: 609-610.
Cotton top (Panicum laciiaiithnni) :
cliemical composition of. 1919: 411.
Cottonwood:
attacked by canker. 1918: 301-302;
T. H. 138.
smooth-liark (Popntus acuminata).
T. H. 138.
western (P. Freinontii var. Wisliceni).
T. H. 138.
Cover crops:
alfalfa. 89: 263; 94: 507-508; 1918:
308.
cow peas. 89: 248-249; 1918: 308;
1919: 441 ; 1921: 588.
garbanzo. 1919: 441.
in citrus orchards. 89: 246, 247-249,
1921: 588.
in olive orchards. 94: 507-508.
sweet clover. Cir. 34.
tepary beans. 89: 247-249; 1919: 44i.
velvet beans. 1919: 441.
vetch, hairy. 94: 507; 1921: 588.
Cozvaiiia Stansbitriana (cliff rose or qui-
nine bush). 1921: 577, 578.
Cowpea hay:
chemical composition of. 1919: 411.
Cowpeas :
as cover crop. 89: 248-249; 1918:
308; 1919: 441; 1921: 588.
as green manure. 1918: 295.
culture. 1919: 417; 1920: 443; 1921:
565.
edible. 1918: 310.
interplanted in cotton field. 1919: 419.
on Salt River Vallev Farm. 1918:
287, 288-289; 1920: 443.
on Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
1918: 294, 295; 1920: 443.
on LIniversitv Farm. 1918: 296.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 263; 1921:
588.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
varietv tests. 1918: 288-289; 1919:
417.
Cows, dairy:
care of. Cir. 37.
diseased, milk from. Cir. 37.
feedina: experiments. 1918: 330-333;
1919: 433-436; 1920: 451, 464-465;
1921: 581-582.
vields at University Farm. 1918: 333 \
1919: 433-436; 1920: 464; 1921:
580-581.
Crab apple. 1921: 594.
Cream :
care of. Cir. 37.
for butter-making. T. H. 137.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 26-29.
Creameries in Salt River Valley. 85: 16.
Criddle mixture. 1918: 336.
Crider, F. J. 89: 225-263; 94: 493-528;
1918: 281, 282-283, 303-313; 1919:
400-401, 439-446; 1920: 431, 433,
469-474; 1921: 554, 587-596.
Crop experiments, co-operative. 1919:
420; 1920: 446; 1921: 570.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
627
Crops :
acreage on Salt River Project. 85: 64.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 9.
resistance of, to black alkali. 1918:
342-345.
Crown gall. 1918: 301.
of apple. 1921: 613.
of grape. 1921: 613.
of peach. 1921: 613.
of raspberry. 1921: 614.
of rose. 1921: 614.
Cucumbers. 1918: 310.
Ciicumis mclo. 1920: 473.
Cucurbita Hcifolia. 1920: 473.
Culverts :
cost of. 86: 167.
galvanized iron. 86: 160.
ingot iron. 86: 158-160.
reinforced concrete pipe for. 86: 95,
157-161, 171.
Cunninuham. W. S. T. H. 137 ; T. H.
139; 1918: 282, 283, 284. 322-334;
1919: 398. 400. 433-436; 1920:
432, 464-467; 1921: 553, 580-582.
Cupressus Benthami. 1919: 431.
C. glabra. 1919: 431; 1920: 460.
C. goveniana. 1919: 431; 1920: 460.
C. macrocarpa. 1919: 431.
Currants:
at frescott Dry-Farm. 1921: 594.
at Snlpliur Spring Vallev Dry-Farm.
1920: 474.
Cutworms. 87: 203; 1918: 339.
poison bait for. 1918: 337.
Cyperaceae or Sedge family of plants.
1919: 431-432.
Cypress, Arizona (Cuprcs.<;us glabra).
1919: 431.
suited to Arizona conditions. 1920:
460..
CYTOSPORA CANKER. A DISEASE
DESTRUCTIVE TO COTTON-
WOODS AND POPLARS. T. H.
138.
control of. T. H. 138.
Cytospora chrvsospeniia (Cvtospora
canker), t. H. 138; 1918: 301.
C. rubesccns, causing die-back of ap-
ple trees. 1921: 612.
fungus (Cvtospora chrysospcrma).
T. H. 138.
loss due to. T. H. 138.
susceptibility of different species and
varieties. T. H. 138.
symptoms of. T. H. 138.
Dairy :
barns and corrals. Cir. 37.
cows (see Cows, dairy).
industries in Salt River Vallev. 85:
16.
products in Salt River Valley. 85:
25-29.
cost of collecting. 85: 27.
importance! of. 85: 25.
marketing. 85 : 26.
prices. 85: 26-27.
returns from. 85: 26.
D;iiry Husbandry Department:
experimental work. 1918: 333\ 1919:
433-436; 1920: 464-467; 1921: 580-
. 582.
projects. 1919: 400; 1920: 432; 1921:
553.
Dairying in Arizona. 1921: 580.
Darling, G. J. 1918: 281 ; 1920: 430.
Darso:
ensilage from. 1919: 411.
on Prescott Dry Farm. 1918: 293;
1919: 416.
on Salt River Valley Farm. 1918:
287, 291.
Dasylirion JVlicclcri. 1919: 430.
Dates;
affected by humidity. 1919*: 439-440.
at Tempe Date Orchard. 1918: 304-
306, 307; 1919: 339-340; 1920:
470; 1921: 589-590.
at Yuma Date Orchard and Horticul-
tural Station. 1918: 304, 307-309;
1919: 339-340; 1920: 470; 1921:
589-590.
coml)ating scale in orchard. 1920: 470;
1921: 589.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 10, 11, 57-
59.
leaf spot of. 1921: 613.
marketing. 85: 59; 1918: 348-349.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 257.
packing. 85: 59.
price. 85: 59; 89: 257.
processing. 1918: 348-349.
profit in. 1918: 349.
propagation. 1918: 307, 309; 1919:
440; 1921: 589-590.
resistance to alkali. 85: 11 ; 1918: 307.
rot:
control of. 1921: 609.
organisms present in. 1921 : 607-608.
results of. 1921: 608-609.
628
Index to Volume IX
susceptibility of varieties to. 1921:
609.
symptoms of. 1921: 606-607.
studies. 1918: 304-309; 1919:439-440;
1920: 470; 1921: 589;590, 606-609
suited to Arizona conditions. 1920:
470.
"torching". 1920: 470; 1921: 589.
varieties. 85: 57; 1918: 304-307; 1919:
339-340.
yield. 1918: 305-307; 1919: 440.
Davis, R. N. Cir. 27; 1920: 429, 432,
464-467; 1921: 552, 533, 580-582.
Deer browse (Cercocarpus) :
as a browse plant. 1921: 577, 578.
Delphinium camporiim (prairie lark-
spur). 1920: 456.
D. scaposum (blue larkspur). 1920:
456.
Derr, Homer. 1920: 429.
Desert broom (Baccharis sarathroides) :
as a honey producing plant. 1921:
585-586.
Dewey reservoir site, the . 95: 533, 539.
Diamond Creek project. 95: 540.
Diamond Creek reservoir site. 95: 535,
539.
Diatraea Uncola (lesser corn-stalk
borer). 1918: 287, 290, 339-340.
D. zeacolella (larger corn-stalk borer).
1919: 438.
Die-back:
of apple trees. 1921: 612.
of orange trees. 1921: 613.
Diervillea florida. 1919: 431.
Diospyros ebenaster. 1920: 473.
D. Kaki. 1920: 473.
Dipodomys merriami (Merriam Kanga-
roo Rat). 1919: 437.
D. spectabilis (Large Kangaroo Rat).
1919: 437; 1920: 468.
Distillate:
"cracking". 92: 400, 402.
freight rate on. 92: 400-401.
reduction of standard. 92: 398.
tests. 92: 405-412.
Division boxes:
construction of. 86: 150-151.
subjected to high pressure. 86: 109.
Dodders:
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Dolichos lablab. 1920: 473.
Drought resistant plants:
hegari. Cir. 33.
olive. 94: 494.
Rhodes grass. Cir. 36.
rosemary. 1920: 462.
Sudan grass. Cir. 35.
Durham, Dr. Lon. 1919: 430.
Duryee-Cole cement pipe machine. 86:
90.
Dynamiting:
subsoiling by means of. 1918: 295;
1919: 419; 1920: 445; 1921: 570.
Dysdercus albidiventris Stal. (South-
western cotton stainer). 87: 190-
192.
E
Early Baart wheat:
breeding. 1918: 314-317; 1919: 458-
462; 1921: 602-603.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 18.
Egg plant. 1918: 310.
Blacagnus pungcns. 1919: 431.
Endive. 1918: 310.
Elephant grass:
chemical composition of. 1919: 411.
Enger, A. L. 86: 75.
Engines:
Brons. 92: 404, 422; 1920: 477.
diesel. 92: 422; 1920: 477.
Hvid. 92: 404, 422.
semi-diesel. 92: 404, 422.
Ensilage:
chemical composition of. 91: 363; 93:
486.
corn. 93: 486; 1918: 294; 1919: 411,
415-416.
darso. 1919: 411.
feeding. 91: 359-396; 93: 485-491;
1918: 2,2,{)-i2,Z; 1919: 433-436;
1920: 450-451, 464-465.
feterita. 1919: 411.
prices. 91: 363; 93; 488.
sorghum. 91: 363; 1918: 293; 1919:
411, 416, 418.
Entomology:
experimental work in. 1918: 335-338:
1919: 437-438; 1920: 468; 1921:
583-586.
projects. 1918: 284-285; 1919: 400:
1920: 432; 1921: 553.
Eragrostis liigens. 1919: 430.
Eriobotrya japonica. 1920: 473.
Esiigtnene acraea Dru (salt marsh cater-
pillar). 87: 183-184.
Estil, li. W. 1919: 399; 1920: 429, 431.
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus rudis):
as a windbreak. 89: 232-233.
Eupatonum arizonicum. 1919: 430.
Euschistiis impictiventris Stal. (brown
cotton bug). 87: 192-194.
Evaporating plant for dairy products.
85: 16.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
629
Fallugia paradoxa (Apache plume).
1921: 577.
Farm Improvement .-Vssociations in Salt
River Valley. 85: 17.
FATTENING NATIVE STEERS
FOR MARKET. 91: 359-396.
ammals used. 91: 360, 362, 391-396.
dressed percentage. 91: 385.
equipment. 91: 362-363.
feeds and feeding. 91: 363-367; 391-
393.
amount consumed. 91: 380-382.
gains from. 91: 382-384.
rations compared. 91: 369-378;
391-393.
financial statements. 91: 2)7'6.
gains in weight:
affected hy breed. 91: 391-393, 396.
cost of. 91: 370. 384, 394-396.
rate of. 91: 369-385; 394-396.
kinds of cattle to feed. 91: 386-38\
margin in cattle feeding. 91: 384.
shrinkage in fat jattle. 91: 388-390
supplemental test. 91: 391-393; 396
time required to finish. 91 : 384-385
FEEDING COTTON SEED AND
COTTON SEED PRODUCTS
TO RANGE STEERS. 93: 48S
491.
animals used. 93: 488.
changes in feed. 93: 487-488
costs. 93: 488-490.
plan of experiment. 93: 485-490.
results and summary. 93: 490-491.
Feeding rayless golden-rod. 1920: 458-
459.
Feeds :
chemical composition. 1919: 411.
Feijoa:
suited to Arizona conditions. 1919-
441; 1920: 473; 1921: 595.
Feijoa choiccana. 1920: 473.
F. Sellowiana. 1920: 461.
F. superba. 1920: 473.
Feltia anncxa Tr. 1918: Z2)7
Fertilizers:
effect of, on citrus trees. 1921: 588.
needed by Yuma Mesa soils. 89: 241.
tests of, on cotton land. 1919: 418.
Fertilizing:
citrus trees. 89: 247; 1921- 588
cotton. 90: 272-273; 1920: 444.
olive trees. 94: 508.
Fescues. Cir. 40.
Feterita:
ensilage from. 1919: 411.
on Prescott Dry-Farm. 1919: 416.
on Salt River Valley Farm 1918:
287, 291.
resistance to alkili. 1918: 342-345.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
Field crops on the Yuma Mesa. 89:
261-263.
Figs:
at the Salt River Valley Farm. 1918:
303.
in the Salt River Valley. 85: 10.
nursery stock at Yuma Station. 1920:
474.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 259-260.
Financial statement:
of Experiment Station funds. 1918:
285-286; 1919: 401-403; 1920-
433-435; 1921: 555-5.S6.
of steer feeding experiment. 91: 378.
Fisher, C. C. 95: 546.
Fish oil soap:
spray for cotton tlirips. 87: 201.
Flaming Gorge reservoir site. 95: 533,
539.
Flax. 1919: 419.
at Yuma Date Orchard and Horticul-
tural Station. 1918: 295.
on Salt River Valley Farm. 1918:
293.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
Flies:
lace wing, or chrysopas. 87: 197.
syrphus. 87: 197.
Florida nut grass:
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Flour:
baking tests. 1919: 459.
barlej', analysis of. 1918: 345.
production in Salt River Valley. 85:
19-20.
wheat, analvsis of. 1919: 461.
Flour mills. "85: 16, 20.
Flour pasle solution;
spray for red spiders. 87: 202.
Flowing Wells ditch:
inverted siphon in. 86: 163.
Flumes, underflow collecting. 86: 162.
Fodder:
chopped cane. 1920: 464-465.
hegari. Cir. 33.
sorghum varieties as. 1918: 291.
Forage growth on grazing range. 1918:
297, 322; 1919: 421, 427; 1920:
449, 455; 1921: 573, 576-578.
Forage plants:
bunch grasses. 1918: 298.
030
Index to Volume IX
chollas. 1918: 297.
garbanzos (chick peas). 1920: 442.
hegari. Cir. 33.
prickly pears. 1918: 297.
soapvveed, or palmilla, or Spanish dag-
ger (Yucca data). 1918: 298,
299-300; 324; 1919: 411.
sweet clover. Cir. 34.
Forbes, R. H. 1918: 280-281, 282, 296;
1919: 398.
Formaldehyde treatment of seed pota-
toes. T.H. 136.
Formalin treatment:
of barley seed for covered smut.
1920: 445.
of cotton seed for black arm. 1921
610.
of wheat for stinking smut. 1920
445.
Forsythia suspcnsa (golden bell). 1919
431; 1920: 462.
Fortier, Dr. Samuel. 86: 73.
Fouquiera splendcns. 1919: 430.
Fowler, B.A. 88: 212.
Frautoia olive, the. 94: 521, 523.
Freeman, G. F. 1919: 398, 401, 456-46Z
Freight rates:
on agricultural products. 85: 13.
on tuel oils. 92: 400-401.
Frost in Salt River Valley. 85: 10.
FUEL OILS FOR PUAIP IRRIGA-
TION, THE SUPPLY, THE
PRICE, AND THE QUALITY
OF. 92: 397-423; 1921: 599.
asphalt base type of. 92: 409.
boiler. 92: 398; 400, 405-409, 423.
"cracking". 92: 400, 402.
distillate. 92: 398-412.
for pumping plants. 92: 397-399.
gas oil or tops. 92: 400-420, 423;
1918: 304; 1920: 475, 477.
gasoline. 92: 398-414, 418.
kerosene. 92: 400, 401, 405-418.
paraffin base type of. 92: 409.
tests of:
at Agricultural Experiment Station.
92: 409-420.
boiling range. 92: 407-408.
burning point. 92: 407.
flash point. 92: 406-407.
gravity. 92: 405-406, 420.
sand content. 92: 408-409.
solidifying point. 92: 408.
sulphur content. 92: 408.
thermal value. 92: 409.
water content. 92: 408-409.
"twenty-four plus". 92: 404, 405-409,
423; 1920: 477.
"twqnty-seven plus". 92: 404, 405-
40y. 411, 412, 417, 423; 1920: 477
Funds (see Adams, Hatch, Sales, and
State Funds).
Fungi present in date rot. 1921 : 607-
608.
Fttsariiim sp.:
causing tomato wilt. 1921: 614.
Fiisarium vasinfcctum :
causing wilt of cotton plants. 1921:
611.
G
Gall:
crown (see crown gall).
of oleander. 1921: 614.
Garabanzo:
as cover crop. 1919: 441.
Garbage:
for feeding hogs. 1918: .325-328;
1919: 424-425; 1920: 451-452.
Garbanzos (chick peas). 1920: 442.
Garcinia mangostana. 1920: 473.
Garrya Wriglitii. 1919: 430.
Gas oil, or tops:
"cracking". 92: 400, 402.
distillation of. 92: 403-404.
freight rates on. 92: 400-401.
price of. 92: 403, 423; 1918: 354;
1920: 477.
quality of. 92: 402; 1918: 354; 1920:
477.
source of. 92: 403.
specifications. 92: 418-420.
supply. 92: 423.
tests. 92: 405-420.
Gasoline :
freight rates on. 92: 400-401.
price. 92: 423.
production by "cracking" lower oils.
92: 398, 400, 402.
quality. 92: 423.
reduction of standard of. 92: 398.
supplv. 92: 423.
tests.' 92: 405-414, 418.
Gate pits:
design for. 86: 143, 148.
destroyed by pressure. 86: 109;
1918: 355.
division and measuring. 86: 150-151,
171.
location of. 86: 143-144.
reinforcement of. 86: 110.
General Petroleum Company:
tests of fuel oil from. 92: 411-412;
416.
George, D. C. 1918: 285, 335; 1919:
398, 400.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
631
Gibson, Heber H. 1920: 429; 1921: 551.
Gila River:
drainage area of. 95: 532.
system. 95: 545-546.
water :
need for storage of. 1918: 351.
silt content studies. 1920: 437, 476.
Gilmore Petroleum Company:
tests of fuel oils from. 92: 412.
Girdle, of alfalfa. 1921: 611.
Glen Canyon or Lee's Ferry reservoir
site. 95: 534, 539, 540. 543.
Glendale :
cost of pipe line at. 86: 166.
sewer system at. 86: 72), 157.
specifications for laving pipe line at.
86: 106.
Glocosporiuin. 1921: 613.
Golden Bell (Forsythia suspcusa). 1919:
431; 1920: 462.
Golden-rod, rayless, or burro weed
(Bigelowia coronopifolia, and B.
Hartivegi) :
in feeding experiment. 1920: 457-459.
poisoning range stock. 1919: 428.
Gooseberry:
at Prescott Drv-Farm. 1921: 594.
at Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
1920: 474.
powdery mildew of. 1921: 613.
Grafting olives:
top. 94: 503-504.
young stock. 94: 502.
Grains: .^^,
affected bv black alkali. 1921: 558.
cultural tests. 1919: 419; 1920: 445-
446; 1921: 567-568.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 18-21.
irrigation of. 88: 220; 1921: 602.
marketing. 85: 19.
price fixing of. 85: 20.
varietv tests. 1919: 419; 1920: 445-
446; 1921: 568.
warehouses for. 85: 14.
winter and spring, cultivation and
management of. 1919: 419; 1920:
444-445; 1921: 567-568.
yields. 85: 18.
Grama:
analysis of. 1919: 411.
Grand River. 95: 530.
reservoir sites on. 95: 533, 534, 539,
540.
stream flow of. 95: 532.
Grapefruit:
cultural studies. 1919: 441; 1920:
469; 1921: 588.
in Salt River Valley:
grading. 85: 48.
limitations to industry. 85: 49.
marketing. 85: 48-49.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 255; 1921:
587.
Grape rot. 1921: 613.
Grapes:
as a "dry-farm" crop. 1920: 473.
at Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
1918: 280; 1920: 474.
diseases. 1921: 613.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 57.
interplanted in olive orchard. 94: 513-
514.
nursery stock at Yuma Station. 1920:
474.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 258-259.
sugar content of. 1921: 595.
varieties. 1921: 594.
water requirement studies. 1920: 471;
1921: 591.
Grasses:
and grass-like plants. 1919: 431-432;
1920: 456.
Bermuda. Cir. 40.
brome. Cir. 40.
burr. Cir. 40.
Canada blue. Cir. 40.
elephant. 1919: 411.
Florida nut. Cir. 40.
grama. 1919: 411.
Harding. 1919: 419.
Johnson. Cir. 40.
Kentucky blue. Cir. 40.
meadow oats, tall. Cir. 40.
Napier. 1919: 419; 1920: 440; 1921:
570.
orchard. Cir. 40.
Rhodes. Cir. 36; 1920: 445; 1921:
558, 570.
rye. Cir. 40.
Smilo. 1919: 419.
Sudan. Cir. 35,- 1918: 287, 294; 1919:
410-417; 1921: 581.
Grasshoppers (Schistoccrca shoshone
and S. vega) : _ .
differential (Melanoplus differ enttalts
Thos.) 87: 189, 194-196; 1918:
335-338. ^_
exterminating. 87: 195; 1918: 335-
338.
Grass lands:
injury to by rodents. 1918: 339.
Grass pastures, browse pastures versus.
1921: 577-578.
Graver, E. L. 94: 493.
Green manuring plants:
cow peas. 1918: 295.
sesbania. 89: 263.
632
Index to Volume IX
sweet clover. Cir. 34.
tepary beans. 1918: 295.
Green River:
reservoir sites on. 95: 533, 534.
stream flow of. 95: 532.
Gregg Olive Companj^ 94: 493.
Griffin ,S. W. 1919: 404-414; 1920: 429,
431, 436-439; 1921: 551, 552.
Grossia olive, the. 94: 524, 525.
Ground cherry, yellow flowered (Physa-
lis angulata var. Linkiana): 87:
183.
GROWING COTTON IN ARIZONA.
90: 265-275.
Guava. 1920: 473; 1921: 595.
Gypsum :
in treating alkaline soils 1918: 346-
348; 1920: 436; 1921: 559.
Hackberry, or palo bianco (Celtis reticu-
lata) :
as a browse plant. 1921: 577.
Hamlin, Homer. 95: 536.
Harding grass". 1919: 419.
Harris, N. L. 1920: 429, 483.
Hatch Funds. 1918: 282-286; 1919:
399-403; 1920: 426, 431-435, 468;
1921: 553-556.
Hawkins, R. S. Cir. 35; 1919: 399-400,
415-420; 1920: 432, 440-448; 1921:
552, 553, 563-572.
Hay (see also Alfalfa):
careless weed. 1919: 428-429.
cowpea. 1919: 411.
sweet clover. Cir. 34.
Heard, H. C. 1918: 281, 296.
Hegari :
at Prcscott Dry-Farm. 1919: 416.
at Yuma Date Orchard and Horticul-
tural Staion. 1918: 295.
cracked. 1919: 411.
culture. Cir. 33.
ground. 91: 359-396.
IN ARIZONA. Cir. 33.
on Salt River Farm. 1918: 287, 291.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
Helianthenium chamaecistus. 19Z0: 4/J.
Hehninlhosporiuni. 1921: 607.
H. sativum. 1921: 611.
Hemp, Indian. 1918: 296.
as host of pink boll worm. 87: 180.
Hensel, R. L. 1918: 339.
HENS, SELECTING LAYING. Cir
39.
Herbarium, the. 1918: 302.
Heterodera radicicola.
causing root knot of lettuce and okra.
1921: 614.
Ilctrropoiion contortus (tangle top).
1919: 411.
Hibiscus syriacui. 1919: 431.
Hilgard, Dr. 89: 235, 238.
Hill, George M. 89: 225, 247.
Hill Orchard, the:
weather records at. 89: 231.
Hippodamia com'ers.cns Guerin (lady-
birds). 87: 197.
Hodgson, W. O. 1918: 281.
Hogs:
feeding experiments. 1918: 325-328,
334;1919: 424-425; 1920: 451-453.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 50.
Plollyhock:
as host of pink boll worm. 87: 180.
Holmes, J. Garnet. 89: 225.
Holmquist, F. N. 86: 107.
Honey:
at University Farm. 1918: 340; 1920:
468; 1921: 584-586.
Exchange, Arizona. 85: 42.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 42-43.
Honey producing plants:
alfalfa. 85: 42.
Bata mota. 1921: 586.
cat's claw. 85: 42; 1921: 577, 584-
585.
desert broom. 1921: 586.
mcsquite. 85: 42; 1921: 584-585, 599-
600.
palo verde. 1921: 586.
Mexican, or "bagote". 1921: 586.
rosemary. 1920: 462.
sweet clover. Cir. 34.
yellow bee flower. 1921: 585.
Hoover, Herbert. 95: 542.
Hopperdozer. 87: 189, 196; 1918: 338.
Horse Mesa Dam. 95: 546.
Horses:
feeding on corn silage. 1918: 328-329.
Horticulture:
experimental work. 1918: 303-313;
1919: 439-446; 1920: 469-474;
1921: 587-596.
projects. 1918: 282-283; 1919: 400-
401;1920: 433; 1921: 554.
Hovcnia dulcis. 1920: 473; 1921: 595.
Hubam clover. Cir. 34.
Hunncniaiinia fumariaefolia. 1919: 431.
Hunt, Agnes A. 1919: 399; 1920: 429.
Hunter, Hester. 86: 75.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
633
Hydro-electric power:
at the Horse Mesa Dam. 95: 546.
from the Colorado River. 95: 537-538,
542.
possible sources of in Arizona. 92:
422.
Hylemyia cilicrura Rdi (seed-corn mag-
got). 1921: 583-584.
Hypertrophy of pepper tree. 1921: 614.
Ice box, for milk. Cir. 38.
Imperial Refining Company:
tests of fuel oil from. 92: 412, 416-
417.
Imperial Valley. 95: 530, 536.
Inonotiis sp.:
causing hypertrophy and timber rot of
pepper tree. 1921: 614.
INSECT PESTS OF INTEREST TO
ARIZONA COTTON GROW-
ERS. 87: 172-205. (See also
Cotton, pests of.)
Ipomoea Learn. 1919: 431.
/. mexicana. 1919: 431.
Irrigable lands of the Colorado River
Basin. 95: 529-530.
Irrigation:
affected by soils. 88: 216, 220.
affecting the water table. 88: 216.
by flooding. 1920: 476.
code, need of. 1918: 351-352.
cost of, on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 262.
development of, in Casa Grande Val-
ley. 1920: 476-477.
ditches:
cement pipe. 86: 73-75.
concrete lined. 88: 211-212.
open. 85: 74-75.
Engineering:
investigations. 1918: 351-358; 1919:
447-455; 1920: 475-479; 1921:
597-600.
projects. 1918: 282; 1919: 401;
1920: 433; 1921: 554.
from waters of Roosevelt Dam. 85:
5, 6, 8.
in Colorado River Basin. 95: 529-
546.
laying out fields for. 88: 220.
losses of water in. 86: 73-74; 88:
210-221.
methods in Casa Grande Valley. 1921:
600.
of alfalfa. 88: 210, 220; 1921: 600.
of cotton. 88: 210; 90: 270.
of milo maize. 88: 210.
of olive trees. 94: 505, 508.
of Rhodes grass. Cir. 36.
of Sudan grass. Cir. 35.
of wheat. 1921:601-603.
pump. 1918: 352-354.
systems. 86: 72>; 88: 223; 1918: 354-
356.
waters in Salt River Valley. 1920:
437-439.
WATER. USE AND WASTE Ot.
88: 207-224.
Japanese Kudzu vine (Pucraria hirsula).
1918: 300-301.
Jasminum humilc (vellow jasmine).
1920: 461.
/. prinntlinum. 1920: 461-462.
Jensen, C. A. 89: 244.
"Jimmy weed" (Bigelowia heterophylla):
poisoning range stock. 1920: 458.
Johnson grass:
causing prussic acid poisoning. 1921:
561.
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40
Johnson, S. B. 1918: 281, 282.
Joyce, Alice V. 1921: 552.
Jubaea atlantica. 1920: 473.
/. chinensis. 1920: 473.
Juglans major (native Arizona walnut).
1920: 471; 1921: 591-592
/. regia. 1920: 471.
Jujube, common (Zisyphus sativa) :
suited to Arizona conditions. 1919:
441; 1920: 462, 473; 1921: 595.
Juncaceae or Bog-rush family of plants.
1919: 431-432.
"June Drop". 1920: 470.
Juniper Mountain reservoir site. 95:
533, 539.
Jtiniperus phocnicaea. 1919: 431.
/. sabina. 1919: 431.
Kafir:
cultural studies. 1918: 287, 291, 293,
294, 295;1919: 416; 1920: 443.
seed testing Cir 40.
Kale. 1918: 293, 310.
Kangaroo rat. 1918: 339.
Large(Dipodomys spectabilis). 1919:
437; 1920: 468.
Merriam (D. Merriami). 1919: 437.
Kellar-Thomason cement pipe machine.
86: 88-90.
Kellogg Oil Company:
tests of fuel oil from. 92: 410.
634
Index to Volume IX
Kelton, F. C. 86: 75.
Kennev, Francis R. 1919: 399, 463;
1920: 431, 483-484; 1921: 551,
616.
Kentucky blue grass. Cir. 40.
Kerosene:
"cracking". 92: 400.
emulsion, spray for insect pests. 87:
194, 202.
freight rates on. 92: 400-401.
tests of. 92: 405-418.
Kibbev, Judge J. H. 88: 224.
Kinnison. A. F. 1918: 313; 1919: 399,
400, 439-446; 1920: 433, 469-474;
1921: 554, 578-596.
Kinsey, AI. E. 1918: 335.
Kohlrabi. 1918: 310.
Kudzu. 1918: 300-301 ; 1920: 446.
Kutter's formula. 86: 136, 170.
Ladwig, Edna. 1921: 552.
Lady Bird (Hipfodamia convcrgcns
Guerin) :
combating cotton aphis. 87: 197-200.
Lambsquarter :
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Land values in Salt River Vallev. 85:
13-14.
Larkspur:
blue (Delphiiiiitni scaposuiii). 1920:
456.
poisonous to cattle. 1918: 299; 1920:
455-456; 1921: 579.
prairie (D. cainporuin). 1920: 456.
Lauderdale, J. L. 87: 172, 173, 199;
1918: 335.
LAYLNG HENS, SELECTING. Cir.
39.
Leaf perforator, cotton. 87: 184-186.
Leaf spot:
angular, of cotton. 90: 273; 1921:
609-610, 611.
bacterial, of peach trees. 1921: 613.
of alfalfa. 1921: 611.
of barley. 1921: 611.
of date. 1921: 613.
of strawberry. 1921: 614.
Phyllactiiiia, of ash. 1921: 614.
Leaf worm, cotton (Alabama arqillacea
Hubn). 87: 181-183.
Leek. 1918: 310.
Lee's Ferrv, or Glen Canyon reservoir
site." 95: 534, 539, 540, 543.
Legumes :
as cover crops. 94: 507-508; 1918:
308; 1919: 440-441; 1921: 588-
589.
as green manure. 1918: 295.
at Salt River Valley Farm. 1918: 288-
290.
culture. 1919: 417-418; 1920: 442-
443; 1921: 564-566.
field studies. 1919: 420.
Lemons:
in poi.son bait. 87: 195; 1918: 335-
338.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 255-257;
1921: 587.
Leppla, 11. 94: 493.
Lettuce :
diseases. 1921: 610-611, 614.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 53-56..
marketing. 85: 54, 56, 60-69.
packing. 85: 55.
prices. 85: 56.
varieties. 85: 53-54.
Libdocedrus dcciirrcns. 1919: 431.
Lime, hydrated:
added to mortar. 86: 104.
for waterproofing cement pipe. 86:
102.
Limes:
at vSalt River Valley Farm. 1921:
588.
on the Vuma Alcsa. 1921: 587.
Lime sulphur, in spray for red spider.
87: 202.
Loco weeds:
destroying. 1919: 428.
hairv (Astragalus Bigeloimi). 1920:
456.
poisonous to range stock. 1918: 299;
1919: 428; 1920: 455-456; 1921:
579.
purple. (Aragallus Lambcrti). 1920:
456.
spreading (Aragallus nothoxus). 1920:
456.
tall (Astragalus diphysus and As-
tragalus diphysus MacDou^al'J.
1920: 456.
T h u r b e r's (Astragalus Thurbcri).
1920: 456.
London purple, in poison bait. 1918:
336.
Longstreth, J. W. 89: 225; 1921: 551.
Loquat. 1920: 595.
Lygus clisus lirspcrus Knight, and L. pra-
tcnsis var. oblincatus Say (cotton
square daubers). 87: 186-190;
1918: 337-338.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
635
M
MACHINE-MADE CEMENT PIPE
FOR IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
AND OTHER PURPOSES. 86:
70-171.
costs. 86: 164-168.
durability. 86: 140-^142.
manufacture. 86: 77-102.
other uses for. 86: 153-163.
bridges and culverts. 86: 157-161.
domestic supply lines. 86: 163.
drain tiles. 86: 161.
gates. 86: 162.
sewers. 86: 153-157.
underflow collecting flumes and in-
verted siphons. 86: 162.
pipe laying and pipe line failures. 86:
iq3-ii6.
pipe line structures:
gates. 86: 143.
risers. 86: 144-149.
special structures. 86: 150-152.
systems. 86: 150.
tests:
absorption. 86: 134-135.
external pressure. 86: 124-133.
internal friction. 86: 135-139.
internal pressure. 86: 117-124.
Macrosporiiim. present in date ror.
1921: 607, 613.
Maggot, seed-corn (H\lcm\ia cilicnira
Rdi). 1921: 583-584.
Manzanillo olive, the. 94: 517, 518.
Marble Canyon reservoir site. 95: 534.
MARKETING CONDITIONS IN
THE SALT RIVER VALLEY,
ARIZONA, A STUDY OF. 85:
5-69.
Market News Service, Bureau of Mar-
kets, United States Department of
Agriculture. 85: 41.
Markets, local and State, for Salt River
Valley products. 85: 60-62.
Marsh, C. D. 1920: 456.
Massey Company, reinforced concrete
pipe of. 86: 95.
Mastac Tree (Pistacia Icntiscus):
suited to Arizona conditions. 1920:
461.
McAvoy, I. 86: 155.
McClure, J. C. 86: 155.
McCracken cement pipe machine. 86:
72, 77-81.
McCracken machine-made cement pipe:
cost of. 86: 165.
mortar for. 86: 96.
tests of. 86: 122.
McOmie. A. M. 1918: 282.
Medlar, a new fruit. 1921: 595.
Mclanoplus diffcrciitialis (differential
grasshopper). 87: 189, 194-196;
1918: 335-338.
Mclilotiis alba (biennial white clover).
Cir. 34.
M. iiidica (sour clover). Cir. 40; 94:
507: 1918: 308; 1921: 588.
M. officinalis ( biennial yellow sweet
clover). Cir. 34.
Melons:
anthrancnose of. 1921: 611.
wilt affecting. 1918: 301.
Mcntsdia multiffora. 1919: 430.
MesctubryantJiemum arborcuui. 1919:
431.
Mesquite (Prosopis velutina) :
as a browse plant. 1921: 577.
as a honev producing plant. 85: 42;
1921: 584-585.
effects of the transpiration of, on
ground water. 1921: 599-600.
Mesquitilla, or ramita (Calliandra) :
as a browse plant. 1921: 577.
Mexico, treaty with, concerning Colo-
rado River. 95: 542.
Mildew:
downv, of spinach. 1921: 614.
of grape. 1921: 613.
powdery, of gooseberry. 1921: 613.
of rose. 1921: 615.
MILK, CLEAN. PRODUCTION OF.
Cir. 37.
cost of production. 1918: 332; 1919:
435.
-HOUSE, THE ADOBE. Cir. 38.
production at LTniversity Farm. 1918:
?,?>?>■, 1919: 433, 434-436; 1920:
464; 1921: 580-581.
substitutes for feeding calves. 1920:
465 466; 1921: .582.
Milkweed, whorled:
poisonous to range stock. 1921: 579.
iMillet, seed testing. Cir. 40.
Milo maize:
breeding. 1918: 320.
cracked. 1919: 411.
ground, in feeding experiments. 91:
359-396; 1920: 450.
in the Salt River Valley. 85: 18-21,
64.
irrigation of. 88: 210.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 261.
resistance to alkali. 1918: 342-345.
studies. 1918: 287, 291, 295, 320;
1919: 415, 416, 418; 1920: 442;
1921: 566.
636
Index to Volume IX
Mimusors zeyheri. 1920: 473.
Mission olives, the. 94: 505, 517, 518.
Mohave Valley irrigation project. 95:
543, 546.
Mold, black, of pear trees. 1921: 613.
Monarch cement pipe machine. 86: 84.
Mondell Act. 95: 542.
Morinello olive, the. 94: 523, 524.
Morrill, A. W. 87: 172-205; 1918: 284-
285, 335-338; 1919: 398, 399, 400;
1920: 431.
Morus alba. 1920: 473.
M. celtidifolia (mulberry). 1921: 577.
Muhlenhergia Vaseyana. 1919: 430.
Mulberry (Morns celtidifolia) :
as a browse plant. 1921: 577.
Munson Brothers. 94: 493.
Musa sapicntium. 1920: 473.
Mustard. 1918: 310.
Chinese. 1919: 442.
vi'ild, sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Mycosphacrella fragariae:
causing leaf spot of strawberry. 1921:
614.
Myochrous longulns Lee:
injury to cotton seedlings. 87: 203.
N
Napier grass. 1919: 419; 1920: 445;
1921: 570.
National cement pipe machine. 86: 82-
84, 99.
Nectarines. 1918: 280.
Nevada:
partlv in basin of Colorado River.
95: 529-531.
Nevadillo olive, the. 94: 520, 522.
Newell, Wilnion. 87: 173.
New Mexico:
partly in drainage basin of Colorado
River. 95: 529-531.
Nicotine sulphate (Black leaf 40):
spray for insect pests. 87: 200, 201.
Nolina (bear grass). 1921: 577.
Notholacna sinuata. 1919: 430.
Oak: ■ ^ .
cork (Quercus suber), suited to Ari-
zona conditions. 1919:431. 1920:
461.
post (Q. utahensis and Q. submolhs),
as browse plants. 1921: 577, 578.
scrub (Q. tiirbwella), as a browse
plant. 1921: 577.
Oats ■
culture of. 1918: 280, 287, 292. 294;
1919: 419; 1920: 442, 444-445;
1921: 567-568.
in Salt River Vallev. 85: 18-21, 64.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 261-262.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
wild, sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Oats grass, tall meadow. Cir. 40.
Oblonga olive, the. 94: 524, 525.
Oil meal, in home-mi.xed calf meal.
1920: 465-467; 1921: 582.
Okra. 1918: 310.
as host of pink boll worm. 87: 180.
diseases. 1921: 614.
Oleander, gall of. 1921: 614.
Olericulture. 1918: 310-311; 1919: 442-
445.
OLIVE, THE, IN ARIZONA. 94:
493-528.
characteristics of. 94: 493-495.
culture. 94: 507-508.
districts. 94: 498.
future outlook. 94: 528.
grading. 94: 515-516.
harvesting. 94: 514-515.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 19, 59, 64;
1918: 303.
irrigation. 1921: 590.
nursery stock. 1920: 474.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 258.
pickling. 85: 16; 94: 225-227.
planting. 94: 504-506.
propagation. 94: 498-504.
pruning. 94: 508-513; 1920: 470;
1921: 590.
requirements of. 94: 496-498.
self sterility tests. 1920: 470; 1921:
590.
varieties and vield. 94: 516-525.
Onions. 1918: 310.
Bermuda. 1920: 474.
Oospora scabies (potato scab fungus).
T. H. 136; 1921: 612.
Opuntia EngeUiianni. 1919: 430.
O. spinosior. 1920: 430.
Oranges:
culture. 1918: 308; 1919: 440-441;
1920: 469-470; 1921: 588.
diseases. 1920: 470; 1921: 613.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 47-49; 1921:
587-588.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 254-255;
1920.- 469; 1921: 587.
Orchard grass, seed tests. Cir. 40.
Ornamental gardening. 1918: 312;
1919: 445; 1921: 579.
Ouray reservoir site. 95: 533.
Ozoniiim omnivorum:
causing root rot. 1921: 611, 614.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
(iZ7
Pacific Petroleum Company:
test of fuel oil from. 92': 411.
Palmilla, or soapweed, or Spanish dagger
(Yucca data):
as emergency forage. 1918: 298, 299-
300, 324.
chemical composition of. 1919: 411.
Palo bianco, or hackberry (Celtis reticu-
lata) :
as a browse plant. 1921: 577.
Palo verde. 1921: 586.
"Mexican", or "bagote"' (Parkinsonia
aculeata). 1921: 586.
PaniciDii laciiaiithum (cotton top). 1919:
411.
Paraffin base type of fuel oils. 92: 409.
Pans green:
for poisoning insect pests. 87, 183,
195; 1918: 2,2,6-32,7.
Parke, Lcland S. 1920: 429.
Parker Vallcv irrigation project. 95:
543, 546; 1918: 351.
Parkinsonia aculeata ("Mexican palo
verde" or "bagote"). 1921: 586.
Parlatoria blanchardi (scale of date
palm). 1920: 470; 1921: 589.
Parsley. 1918: 310.
Parsnip. 1918: 310.
wild, or water hemlock :
poisoning range stock. 1918: 299.
Paschall, Arthur L. 1918: 281.
Pasture:
browse, versus grass. 1921: 577-578
Rhodes grass. Cir. 36.
Sudan grass. Cir. 35.
sweet clover. Cir. 34.
Paw paw. 1921: 595.
Peaches:
as a "dry-farm" crop. 1920: 473.
at Prescott Dry-Farm. 1920: 471.
at Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm
1918: 280; 1920: 474.
at the Yuma Station. 1921: 594.
diseases. 1921: 613.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 43-47; 1921
594.
interplanting in olive orchards. 94
513.
pruning studies. 1920: 471 ; 1921
591.
water requirement studies. 1920: 471;
1921: 591.
Peanuts :
as a cover crop. 89: 247-249; 1919:
441.
at University Farm. 1918: 296.
Pears :
at Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm
1918: 280.
at the Yuma Station. 1921- 594
diseases of. 1921: 613.
Peas:
field. 1918: 287, 289-290, 293; i921-
584.
infested by seed-corn maggot. 1921-
584.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
Pecans :
suited to Arizona conditions 1920-
471; 1921: 591-592.
Pectinophora gossypiella Saunders
(Egyptian pmk boll worm). 87-
178-180; 90: 274.
quarantine regulations against 87-
203-204.
Penduliiia olive, the. 94: 521, 523.
Penicilliu}}i:
present in date rot. 1921: 607.
Pentstcmoii antirrhinoides. 1919: 431
P.ccntranthifolius. 1919:431.
P. cordatus. 1919: 431.
P.heterophxllus. 1919:431
P.hybridus. 1919: 431.
P.spectabilis. 1919: 431
P. Torreyi. 1919: 431.
P. Wrightii. 1919: 431.
Peppers. 1918: 310.
Pepper tree:
hypertrophy and timber rot of. 1921-
614.
Peronospora effusa:
causing downy mildew of spinach
1921: 614.
Perry, W. S. 94: 493.
Persea americana. 1920: 473.
Personnel, Station staff. 1918: 280-281-
1919: 398-399; 1920: 428-430"
1921: 550-552.
Pests :
aphis. 87: 196-200.
boll weevil. 87: 173-175, 203-204; 90-
274.
boll worm:
"Arizona pink". 1921: 583.
cotton. 87: 175-178.
Egyptian pink. 87: 178-180, 203-
204; 90: 274.
brown cotton bug. 87: 192-194.
corn ear worm. 87: 175-178.
corn stalk borer, larger. 1919: 438
lesser. 1918: 287, 290, 339-340.
cotton leaf perforator. 87: 184-186.
cotton leaf worm. 87: 181-183.
cotton square dauber. 87: 186-190-
1918: 32,7.
638
Index to V'olume IX
grasshoppers. 87: 189, 194-196; 1918:
335-338
INSECTS, OF INTEREST TO COT-
TON GROWERS. 87: 172-205.
salt marsh caterpillar. 87: 183-184.
seed-corn maggot. 1921: 584.
Southwestern cotton stainer. 87: 190-
192.
spider, two-spotted. 87: 201-202.
Phyllactinia corylca :
causing leaf spot of ash. 1921: 614.
Phyllostachys qiiilioi. 1919: 431.
Physalis augiilata var. Liiikiana (yellow
flowered ground cherry). 87: 183.
Pickrell, C. U. 1920: 429, 432, 449-454.
Pine, Aleppo (Finns Iialepensis). 1920:
460-461.
Pingue, or Colorado rubber plant:
poisoning range sheep. 1918: 299.
Pinus Iialepensis (Aleppo pine). 1920:
460-461.
Pipe, cement (see cement pipe).
Pistach tree (Pistacia vera and P. chi-
li cnsis) :
suited to Arizona conditions. 1920:
463; 1921: 595.
Pistacia atlantica. 1919: 431.
P.chinensis. 1920: 463.
P.. lentiscus. (Mastac tree). 1920:
461.
P. vera. 1919: 431 ; 1920: 463.
Pittosporum phillyracoides (willow-leaf
pittosporum). 1920: 461.
Plant Breeding:
experimental work. 1918: 314-321 ;
1919: 456-462; 1920: 480-483;
1921: 601-605.
Federal Station at Sacaton. 85: 30-31.
projects. 1918: 283; 1919: 401: 1920:
433; 1921: 554.
plant diseases affecting:
alfalfa. 1918: 301; 1921: 611.
apple. 1921: 612-613.
ash. 1921: 614.
barlev. 1920: 445; 1921: 611.
cotton. 90: 273, 274; 1918: 301 : 1919:
418-419; 1921: 609-610, 611.
Cottonwood. 1918: 301.
date. 1921: 606-609; 613.
gooseberry. 1921: 613.
grape. 1921: 613.
lettuce. 1921: 610-611, 614.
melons. 1918: 301; 1921: 611.
okra. 1921: 614.
oleander. 1921: 614.
orange. 1920: 470; 1921: 613.
peach. 1921: 613.
pear. 1921:613.
peppers. 1918: 301.
pepi)er tree. 1921: 614.
poplar. 1918: 301.
potato. T. H. 136; 1921: 612.
raspberry. 1921: 614.
rose. 1921: 614-615.
snapdragon. 1921: 615.
spinach. 1921: 614.
strawbcrrv. 1921: 614.
tomato. 1921: 614.
Plant introduction. 1918: 300-301;
1919: 430-431, 441 ; 1920: 459-463,
473; 1921: 595.
Plant Pathology:
experimental work. 1921: 606-615.
projects. 1918: 284, 285; 1921: 554.
Plasm 0 para viticola:
causing mildew of grape. 1921: 613.
Plums. 1920: 471; 1921: 594.
Poison baits for insect pests. 87: 195;
1918: 335-338.
Poison plant investigations. 1918: 297-
299; 1919: 428-431; 1920: 455-
459; 1921: 579.
Pomegranate. 1918: 304.
Pomology. 1918: 303-309; 1919: 439-
441.
Poplars:
Carolina and Lombardv. 1918: 301-
302.
Carolina (Popnlus del to ides). T. H.
138.
Lombardy (P. nigra var italica).
T. H. 138.
narrow leaf (P. angustifolia). T. H.
138.
silver leaf (P. alba var. nivca). T. H.
138.
Populiis acuminata (smooth-bark cotton-
wood). T. H. 138.
P. alba var. nivea (silver leaf poplar).
T. H. 138.
P. angustifolia (narrow leaf poplar).
T. H. 138.
P. deltoidcs (Carolina poplar). T. H.
138.
P. Fremontii var. JVisliceiii (western
Cottonwood). T. H. 138.
P. Grandidentata (large-toothed as-
pen). T. H. 138.
p. Macdou'^ali ( MacDougal's cotton-
wood). T. H. 138.
P. nis,ra var. italica (Lombardy pop-
lar). T. H. 138.
P. treniuloides (American aspen).
T. H. 138.
Poppies:
chemical composition of. 1919: 411.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
639
Potatoes, Irish:
at University Farm. 1920: 473-474.
at the Yuma Station. 1920: 473-474.
cultural tests. 1918: 311; 1919: 442-
443 ■ 1921 : 592.
diseases.' T. H. 136; 1921: 612.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 9, 51-53.
on Prescott Dry Farm. 1918: 293.
seed:
infested by seed-corn maggot. 1921:
584.
production. 1920: 473.
TREATMEXT OF, FOR SCAB
AND BLACK SCURF. T. H.
136.
storage tests. 1918: 310-311; 1919:
443; 1920: 473.
transpiration ratio of plants. 88: 208.
variety tests. 1919: 442-443; 1920:
473; 1921: 593.
Potatoes, sweet:
amount to plant. 1921: 593.
commercial storage tests. 1919: 443-
444; 1920: 474; 1921: 593.
POULTRY BREEDING CONTEST.
Cir. 41.
Poultry Husbandry. 1919: 463; 1920:
483-484; 1921: 616.
projects. 1921: 616.
Precox olive, the. 94: 524, 525.
Prescott Dry Farm:
corn. 1918: 293; 1919: 416. 418;
1920: 443; 1921: 566.
fruit orchard. 1920: 471, 472; 1921:
594.
legumes. 1918: 293; 1919: 417-418.
420; 1920: 440, 442-443; 1921:
564-566.
potatoes. 1918: 293.
sorghums. 1918: 293; 1919: 416, 418;
1920: 443; 1921: 566.
Pressley, E. H. 1919: 456-462; 1920:
429, 433, 480-483; 1921: 554, 601-
605.
Prickly pears:
as forage. 1918: 297.
PRODUCTION OF CLEAN MILK,
THE. Cir. 37.
Prosopsis z'clutina (mesquite). 85: 42;
1921: 584-585. 599-600.
Pruniis salicina. 1920: 473.
Pseudopcziaa medicaginis :
causing leaf spot of alfalfa. 1921:
611.
Psidiiim gtiajava. 1920: 473.
Publications. 1918: 281-282, 299-300,
338, 340; 1919: 399; 1920: 431;
1921: 552-586.
Puccinia antirrhini, causing rust of snap-
dragon. 1921: 615.
P. subnitens, causing rust of spinach.
1921: 614.
Pttcraria Iiirsuta (Japanese Kudzu vine).
1918: 300-301.
Quarantine:
affecting seed cotton and cotton seed.
87: 203-204.
against olive stock. 94: 498.
Qucrcus subcr (cork oak). 1919: 431;
1920: 461.
Q. subinollis and Q. utahcnsis (post
oak). 1921: 577, 578.
Q. Tonmcxi. 1919: 430.
O. turbincUa (scrub oak). 1921: 577.
Quince. 1918: 303.
Quinine bush or cliff rose (Cowania
Stansburiana) :
as a browse plant. 1921: 577, 578.
R
Radishes. 1918: 310.
infested by seed-corn ma.ggot. 1921:
584.
Rag weed :
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Rainfall:
abundant. 1920: 449, 455.
Arizona, character of. 1921: 577.
scant. 1918: 297; 1919: 427; 1920:
442; 1921: 573, 576-577.
effects of. 1918: 297; 1921: 576.
Ramita, or mesquitilla (CaUiandra) :
as a browse plant. 1921: 577.
Range, the grazing:
combating rodents en. 1918: 339;
1919: 437; 1920: 468.
condition of. 1918: 297, 322; 1919:
421, 427; 1920: 449, 455; 1921:
573, 576-578.
poisoning of stock on. 1919: 429-430;
1920: 455-456.
Rape. Cir. 40, 1918: 293.
Raspberries. 1921: 594, 614.
Rat, Kangaroo. 1918: 3.v).
Large, or banner-tailed (Dipodoniys
spcctabilis). 1919: 437; 1920:
468 1921: 583.
• Merriam (D. mcrriaiiti). 1919: 437.
Razza olive, the. 94: 5 17, 5!S.
Redewill, F. H. 94: 493.
Red Horn Calf Meal. 1920: 467.
Red top. Cir. 40.
Reed, J. R. 1920: 429.
640
Index to Volume IX
Regalis olive, the. 94: 520, 522.
Rentals, in Salt River Valley. 85: 65.
Reservoir sites of the Colorado River
Basin. 95: 533-536, 539-540, 542-
546.
Rhisoctonia (black scurf organism).
T. H. 136.
R. solani, causing rhi;i:octoiiiose of po-
tato. 1921: 612.
R. sp., causing sore shin of cotton.
1921: 611.
RHODES GRASS IN ARIZONA.
Cir. 36.
culture. Cir. 36.
on University Farm. 1920: 445.
resistance to alkali. Cir. 36; 1920:
445; 1921: 558, 570.
Rhus coriophvUa. 1919: 4oG.
Rice. 1919: 419.
Richfield Oil Company:
tests of fuel oil iVom. 92: 410, 412.
Rillito River:
stream flow recurd.s. 1919: 450.
R'cacnts:
injury to naiivj grass lands. 1918:
33y.
study of. 1918: 33Q : 1919: 437: 1920:
468; 1921: 583.
Roosevelt Dam:
values of land under. 85: 13.
Root rot:
of alfalfa. 90: 274; 1918: 301.
of cotton. 90: 274; 1918: 301: 1921:
611.
of fruit trees. 1918: 301.
of lettuce. 1921': 614.
of okra. 1921: 6K.
Roselle, tested for Arizona conditions.
1919: 442.
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis):
as a source of honey. 1920: 462.
suited to Arizona conditions. 1920:
462.
Roses:
as host of red spider. 87: 201. 202.
crown gall of. 1921: 614.
powdery mildew of. 1921: 615.
Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary).
1920: 462.
Rubra olive, the. 94: 519, 522.
Russian thistle:
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 4C.
Rust:
of alfalfa. 1921: 611.
of snapdra.gon. 1921: 615.
of spinach. ]921: 614.
Rutabaga. 1918: 3)0.
Ryan, Grace. 1921: 551.
Rye:
at Salt River Valley Farm. 1918:
293.
at Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
1920: 442.
cultivation and management. 1919:
419; 1920: 444-445; 1921: 567-
568.
grass. Cir 40.
s
Sales Fund. 1918: 286; 1919: 402-403:
1920: 434-435; 1921: 556.
Salsify. 1918: 310.
Saltbush, many-seeded (A triplex poly-
car pa) :
as a browse plant. 1920: 457.
Salton Sea:
analysis of water. 1919: 413.
tufa from. 1919: 412, 414.
Salt River Project. 85: 5-11, 13.
acreage of crops. 85: 64.
Salt River Valley:
combating grasshoppers in. 1918:
335-338.
cotton growing in. 90: 265-275.
irrigation waters in. 1920: 437-439.
land values. 85: 13-14.
olives in. 94: 494.
STUDY OF MARKET CONDI-
TIONS IN, A. 85: 5-69.
Salt River Valley Farm:
afalfa. 1918: 287, 290, 318-320.
cotton. 1918: 279, 293; 1919: 418-
419; 1920: 443-444; 1921: 566-
567.
cropping, double. 1918: 287.
crops, miscellaneous. 1918: 287, 293.
grain and forage crops and grasses.
1919: 419; 1920: 445; 1921: 570.
grains, winter and spring. 1918: 287,
291-293; 1919: 419; 1920: 444-
445; 1921: 567-568.
Indian corn and sorghums. 1918:
287, 291, 320; 1919: 418; 1920:
443; 1921: 566.
legumes. 1918: 288-290; 1919: 417-
418; 1920: 442; 1921: 564-566.
lesser corn-stalk borer. 1918: 287.
orchard. 1918: 303; 1919: 439-440;
1920: 471-473: 1921: 593-594.
San Carlos Dam. 1918: 351; 92: 422;
95: 545-546.
Sand:
effect of, on toxicity of black alkali.
1921 : 559
in fuel oi'ls. 92: 408-409.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
641
mechanical analysis. 86: 97.
Yuma Mesa. 89: 235-245.
Sanders cement pipe machine. 86: 86-88.
San Juan River:
flood. 95: 536.
reservoir site on. 95: 534, 539.
San Pedro Valley water supply. 1920:
478-479.
San Simon Vallev water supply. 1919:
451; 1920: 477-478.
Santa Cruz River:
stream flow records. 1919: 450.
Santa Cruz Valley:
cotton growing in. 90: 265-275.
Sapote, white:
suited to Arizona conditions. 1919:
441; 1920: 473; 1921: 595.
Scab of potatoes. 1921: 612.
treatment for. T. H. 136.
Scale (Parlatoria hlanchardi):
infesting date trees. 1920: 470; 1921:
589.
Scarlett, William. 1918: 278-279.
Schenk cement pipe machine. 86: 82.
Schistocera shoshone (brown grasshop-
per). 87: 195.
S. vega (green grasshopper). 87: 195.
Schneider, W. E. 1921: 552, 553, 573-
575.
Schwalen, H. C. 86: 75; 1919: 447;
1920: 433, 475-479; 1921: 554,
597-600.
Scotch thistle:
sale of seed forbidden. Cir. 40.
Scrub oak (Qucrcus turbinella):
as a browse plant. 1921: 577.
Sedge, or Cyperaceae family of plants.
1919: 431-432.
Seed:
certification work. 1920: 446-447:
1921: 571.
corn maggot. 1921: 584.
Law, Uniform. Cir. 40.
mixtures, label re(4uirements. Cir. 40.
testing. Cir. 40.
Seeding, rate of:
cotton. 90: 266, 275.
Sudan grass. Cir. 35.
sweet clover. Cir. 34.
SELECTING LAYING HENS. Cir. 39.
Service berry (Amclanchier):
as a browse plant. 1921: 578.
Sesbania. 89: 263.
Sewer pipe:
causes of failure. 86: 169.
cement. 86: 94, 153-157, 171.
vitrified. 86: 155-156.
Sheep:
feeding experiments. 1919: 422-423;
1921: 575.
wool from. 1918: 329-330; 1920: 449.
yucca as emergency feed for. 1918:
324.
Shepherdia argentea. 1920: 473.
Sherman cement pipe machine. 86:
81-82.
Sherman, F. W. 86: 75.
Side-oats grama (Bonteloua curtipen-
dula). 1919: 411, 430.
Silage (see ensilage).
Simmons, F. H. 1918: 281; 1920: 429;
1921: 551.
Siphons, inverted, under rivers. 86: 95,
162-163.
Slip. joints, in cement pipe. 86: 109.
Smilo grass. 1919: 419.
Smith, G. E. P. 86: 70-171; 88: 207-
221; 92: 397-423; 95: 529-546;
1918: 282, 351-358; 1919: 399, 401,
447-455 ;1920: 431, 433, 475-479;
1921: 552, 554, 597-600.
Smut:
covered, of barlev. 1920: 445; 1921:
611.
stinking, of wheat. 1919: 417; 1920:
445.
Snapdragon, rust of. 1921: 615.
Sneezeweed, western :
poisoning range sheep. 1918: 299.
Soapweed, or palmilla, or Spanish dag-
ger (Yucca elata) :
as emergency forage. 1918: 298, 299-
300. 324.
chemical composition. 1919: 411.
Soils:
alkaline:
favorable to growth of potato scab
organism. T. H. 136.
reclaimed by leaching. 1919: 406-
407.
studies. 1918: 341-345; 1919: 404-
409; 1920: 436; 1921: 557-559.
dr}', swelling coefficient of, when
wetted. 1921: 557.
effect of, on irrigation. 88: 216, 220,
222.
effect of, on stand of cotton. 90: 268.
effect of, on transpiration ratio. 88:
208.
improvement:
by irrigation. 89: 262-263.
by sweet clover. Cir. 34.
inoculation of. Cir. 34.
of the Salt River Vallev. 85: 11.
of the Yuma Mesa. 89: 234-245.
642
Index to Volume IX
suitable for cotton. 90: 266.
for hegari. Cir. 33.
for olives. 94: 497.
for Rhodes grass. Cir. 36.
for Sudan grass. Cir. 35.
for sweet clover. Cir. 34.
surveys. 1921: 600.
Solanum jasminoidcs. 1920: 462.
Sophora japonica. 1919: 431.
"Sore shin" on cotton. 90: 268; 1918:
301; 1921: 611.
Sorghums:
at Prescott Dry-Farm. 1918: 293"
1919: 415-416.
at Salt River Vallev Farm. 1918: 287,
291.
at Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
1918: 294-295; 1919: 416; 1920:
442, 445.
at University Farm. 1918: 296.
at Yuma Date Orchard and Horticul-
tural Station. 1918: 295.
breeding. 1918: 320-321.
ensilage. 91: 363; 1918: 293; 1919:
411. 416. 418.
forage. 1918: 291, 295; 1920: 442.
grain. 1918: 293, 294, 295, 320-321;
1919: 418.
hegari. Cir. 33.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 64.
on dvnamited soil. 1918: 295; 1919:
419; 1920: 445; 1921: 570.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 262.
not affected by root rot. 90: 274.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
Sudan grass. Cir. 35.
transpiration ratio of. 88: 208.
varieties and methods of culture.
1919: 418; 1920: 443; 1921: 566.
varietv tests. 1918: 291, 293, 295;
1919: 416.
Southwestern cotton stainer (D\sdercus
albidkriitris Stal.). 87:^190-192.
Soy beans:
as cover crop. 94: 507.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
studies. 1918: 287, 288. 294, 296;
1919: 417; 1920: 443; 1921: 565.
unsuited to Arizona conditions. 1919:
418: 1921: 565.
Spanish dagger, or palmilla, or soap-
weed (Yucca data):
as emergency forage. 1918: 298, 299-
300. 324.
chemical composition of. 1919: 411.
Sparteum juiiccuni. 1919: 431.
Sphacrotbeca mors-nvac causing pow-
dery mildew of gooseberry. 1921 :
613'.
S.pantwsa causing powderv mildew of
rose. 1921: 615.
Spider, two-spotted red (Tetranychus bi-
maciilatus Harvey). 87: 201-202.
Spinach. 1918: 301.
as a market garden crop. 1918: 311-
312.
diseases. 1921: 614.
tests. 1918: 312; 1919: 444.
Spruce top grama (Bouteloua bro-
moidcs). 1919: 411.
Square daubers, cotton (Lygus elisus
lies penis Knight, and L. pratcnsis
var. oblincatus "Say). 87: 186-
190; 1918: 22,7.
Standard Oil Companv:
tests of fuel oil from. 92: 410-412,
414, 415.
Stanley, E. B. 93: 485-491: 1920: 429,
432, 449-454; 1921: 553, 573-575.
State Fund. 1918: 282-286; 1919: 399-
403; 1920: 431-435; 1921: 553-
556.
Staticc arborca. 1919: 431.
S.pscudarineria. 1919: 431.
STEERS, RANGE, FEEDING COT-
TON SEED AND COTTON
SEED PRODUCTS TO. 93:
485-491; 1921: 574.
Steris^niatocvstis, present in date rot.
1921: "607.
Stictocepliala festina Sav (alfalfa hop-
per). 87: 189.
Storage facilities in Salt River Valley.
85: 14-15.
Strawberries:
as host of red spider. 87: 201, 202.
variety test. 1920: 474.
Strawberrj- Vallev reservoir site. 95:
533.
Stream flow measurements. 1921: 599,
Colorado River. 95: 532.
Rillito River. 1919: 450.
Santa Cruz River. 1919: 450.
STUDY OF MARKETING CONDI-
TIONS IN THE SALT RIVER
VALLEY, A. 85: 5-68.
alfalfa. 85: 21-25.
cantaloupes. 85: 38-42.
climate. 85: 9-11.
cotton. 85: 29-38.
dairv products. 85: 25-29.
fruit. 85: 43-49.
general problems and difficulties. 85:
62-66.
general remedial measures. 85: 66-69.
geography and topographv. 85: 7-9.
grain. 85: 18-21.
honev. 85: 42-43.
Arizona x\gricultur.\l Experiment Station
643
industries allied with agriculture. 85:
15-18.
land values. 85: 13-14.
lettuce. 85: 53-56.
livestock. 85: 49-51.
miscellaneous. 85: 56-59.
outlets, present and future. 85: 59-62.
potatoes. 85: 51-53.
soil. 85: 11.
storage facilities. 85: 14-15.
transportation facilities. 85: 11-13.
SUDAN GRASS HAY VERSUS AL-
FALFA HAY FOR DAIRY
COWS. T. H. 139.
cost of production for feed and value
of milk over cost of feed. T. H.
139.
plan of test. T. H. 139.
rations. T. H. 139.
results of test. T. H. 139.
summarv of feeds used and fat pro-
duced. T. H. 139.
Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standard.
T. H. 139.
SUDAN GRASS IN ARIZONA. Cir.
35.
culture. Cir. 35.
hay, for dairy cows. 1921: 581.
on the Station Farms. 1918: 287, 293-
294; 1919: 416-417.
resemlilance of, to Johnson grass.
Cir. 35.
resistance to alkali. Cir. 35.
Sulphur:
in sprays for insect pests. 87: 202.
objection to, in fuel oils. 92: 408.
Sulphuric acid treatment for black arm.
1921: 609-610.
Sulphur Spring Valley Dry-Farm:
cotton. 1920: 443.
dvnamiting subsoil at. 1919: 419;
1920: 445; 1921: 570.
grains, winter and summer, 1918:
294; 1920: 442; 1921: 567-570.
Indian corn and sorghums. 1918:
294 . 295; 1919: 416-417, 418;
1920: 442. 443; 1921: 566.
legumes. 1918: 294-295; 1919: 417-
418; 1920: 442-443; 1921: 564-
565.
orchard. 1918: 280; 1920: 474.
Sunflowers. 1920: 446.
SUPPLY, THE PRICE, AND THE
QUALITY OF FUEL OILS
FOR PUMP IRRIGATION.
92: 397-423.
alternative sources of power. 92:
421-423.
freight rates. 92: 400-401.
fuel oils available. 92: 401-405.
price. 92: 399-400.
pump irrigation in Arizona. 92: 397-
399, 420-421.
specilications. 92: 418-420.
tests. 92: 405-409.
SWEET CLOVER IN ARIZONA.
Cir. 34.
culture. Cir. 34.
seed tests. Cir. 40.
Swingle. Walter T. 1920: 459-460.
Syri)iga chiiioisis sougeami. 1919: 431.
Tall meadow oats grass. Cir. 40.
Tamarisk, evergreen (Tamarix articu-
lata) :
as. a windbreak. 89: 233.
suited to Arizona conditions. 1920:
460.
Tamarix als,crica. 1919: -131.
T. articulata. 89: 233; 1920: 460.
T. parviflora purpurea. 1919: 431.
Tangarines. 1921: 587.
Tangelo. 1921: 587-588.
Tangle top (Hcteropogon contortus).
1919: 411.
Tavlor, E. P. 1919: 399; 1921: 583.
Taylor. Waher P. 1921: 583.
Tempe Cotton Exchange. 85: 31-35.
Tempe Date Orchard:
fruit at:
affected by weather. 1919: 439.
fungus spots on. 1919: 439.
souring of. 1919: 439.
varieties. 1918: 304-306.
yields. 1918: 305-306; 1919: 440.
propagation of plants 1918: 307;
1919: 440.
scale at. 1920: 470; 1921: 589.
soil. 1918: 307; 1919: 440.
Tempe Drainage Ditch:
lowering the water table. 1919: 406.
water, analvsis. 1918: 346; 1919: 410;
1920: 437; 1921: 559-561.
Temperatures:
effect of, on citrus trees. 1921: 589.
high, effect on cement pipe. 86: 101,
108-109, 115, 169.
in date propagating house. 1918: 309.
records, on Yuma Mesa. 89: 229-231.
suitable for olives. 94: 496-497.
Tenant farming in Salt River Valley.
85: 65.
Termite, or white ant. 87: 203.
Tetranychus bimaciilattis Harvey (two-
spotted red spider). 87: 201-202.
644
Index to Volume IX
Texas Oil Company:
tests of fuel oil from. 92: 410-412.
Thistles, noxious weeds:
Bull. Cir. 40.
Canadian (Cirsium arvense). Cir. 40;
1920: 457.
Russian. Cir. 40.
Scotch. Cir. 40.
Thomas-Hammond pipe machine. 86:
73, 84-86.
Thompson, G. E. Cir. 33; 89: 225-263;
90: 265-275; 1918: 281, 284, 287-
296; 1919: 399-400, 415-420; 1920:
431, 432, 440-448; 1921: 552, 563
572.
Thompson, R. B. Cir. 39; Cir. 41;
1921: 551, 552, 616.. e
Thornber, J. J. 1918: 282, 283-284, 297-
302; 1919: 400, 427-432; 1920:
432, 455-463; 1921: 553, 576-579.
Thrips arizonensis n. sp. Morgan (cotton
thrips). 87: 200-201.
Thrips, cotton (Thrips arizonensis n.
sp. Morgan) :
injury to cotton. 87: 200.
spray for. 87: 201.
Thiirberia thcspesioidcs (wild cotton).
87: 173, 176; 1919: 437; 1920:
468; 1921: 583.
Timber rot of pepper tree. 1921: 614.
Timely Hints for Farmers, Nos. 136-
139 inclusive:
No. 136. Treatment of Seed Potatoes
for Scab and Black Scurf.
No.l37. Butter-Making on the Ari-
zona Farm.
No. 138. Cytospora Canker, A Disease
Destructive to Cottonwoods and
Poplars.
No. 139. Sudan Grass Hay Versus
Alfalfa Hay for Dairy Cows.
Timothy:
seed tests. Cir. 40.
Tolchaco reservoir site. 95: 535.
Tomatoes:
attacked by boll worm. 87: 176.
diseases. 1918: 301; 1921: 614.
in the Tucson garden. 1918: 310.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 260.
variety tests. 1919: 444-445.
Tops (see gas oil).
Tractors on Arizona farms. 1918: 356-
358.
Transpiration:
as a factor in irrigation. 88: 207-
210.
effect of soil on. 88: 208.
of trees:
effects of, on ground water supply.
1921: 599-600.
rate of. 88: 208.
ratio, of plants. 88: 208.
Transportation for crops:
of Salt River Valley. 85: 11-13.
of the Yuma Mesa. 89: 227.
Trap crop for cotton boll worm. 87:
176.
Trap patch for cotton square daubers.
87: 189.
TREATMENT OF SEED POTA-
TOES FOR SCAB AND
BLACK SCURF. T. H. 136.
cost of treatment. T. H. 136.
formaldehyde treatment. T. H. 136,
mercuric chloride treatment. T. H.
136.
Trichosonthcs quinquangnlata. 1920:
473.
Triodia sp. 1919: 430.
Tropaeolutn tuberosum. 1920: 473.
Truck crops:
in olive orchards. 94: 513.
on the Yuma Mesa. 89: 260.
Tucson Farms Company:
concrete irrigation ditches. 88: 212.
concrete pipe. 86: 95.
Tufa, of the Salton Sea. 1919: 412, 414.
Turnips. 1918: 310.
mfested by seed-corn maggot. 1921:
584.
Turville, E. S. 1921: 551.
"Twentv-four plus" fuel oil:
price of. 92: 405; 1920: 477.
quality of. 92: 423.
tests of. 92: 405-409.
use of. 92: 404; 1920: 477.
"Twenty-seven plus" fuel oil:
engines burning. 1920: 477.
price. 92: 404.
supply of. 92: 404, 423.
tests. 92: 405-409. 411, 412, 417.
use of. 92: 404.
u
Ulmus pumila. 1919: 431.
Union Melon Growers' Association.
85: 57.
Union Oil Company. 92: 410, 412, 415.
United Produce Growers' Association of
Arizona. 85: 54.
United States Biological Survey:
co-operation of, in range studies.
1918: 339; 1919: 437; 1921: 583.
United States Bureau of Mines:
distillation test for fuel oils. 92: 407.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
645
United States Bureau of Soils. 1921:
600.
United States Department of Agricul-
ture:
Bureau of Markets of. 85: 41.
control of Pima cotton seed 85:
30-31.
Market News Service. 85: 41.
Plant Breeding Station at Sacaton.
85: 30-31.
United States Department of the Interior.
1919: 448.
United States Forage Crop Office. 1921:
565.
United States Forest Service:
co-operation in range studies. 1918:
339; 1919: 437.
United States Geological Survey. 95:
540-541.
United States Horticultural Board.
1920: 468.
United States Indian Service. 95: 543;
1919: 448.
United States Range Reserve:
Kangaroo Rat investigations on.
1919: 437.
United States Reclamation Service. 88:
216; 89: 225; 95: 530, 535, 540;
1918: 341, 342.
Colorado River Development. 95:
538-539.
Gila River, study of. 95: 545-546.
University Farm. 1918: 296.
bees. 1918: 340; 1920: 468; 1921:
584-586.
blackberries. 1921: 595.
cowpeas. 1918: 296.
dairy products. 1918: 333; 1919: 433-
436; 1920: 464; 1921: 580-581.
orchard. 1918: 303.
Rhodes grass. 1920: 445.
Uromyccs striatus, causing rust of al-
falfa. 1921: 611.
USE AND WASTE OF IRRIGATION
WATER. 88: 207-224.
efficiency of irrigation. 88: 221-224.
transpiration. 88: 207-210.
water losses. 88: 210-221.
Ustilago hordei, causing covered smut in
barley. 1921: 611.
Utah:
partly in Colorado River Basin. 95:
529-531.
reservoir sites in. 95: 533.
Uvaria olive, the. 94: 521, 523.
Vegetables for fall, spring, summer, and
winter gardens. 1918: 310.
Velvet beans:
culture for Southwest conditions.
1919: 417; 1920: 443; 1921: 566.
on Salt River Valley Farm. 1918:
287, 290.
on Sulphur Spring Valley Farm.
1918: 294.
Ventura Refining Company:
tests of fuel oil from. 92: 412.
Verde River:
need of water storage. 95: 546.
Verde Valley:
combating grasshoppers in. 1918: 335-
338.
Vetch:
at the Yuma Station. 1918: 295.
culture for Southwest conditions.
1919: 417; 1920: 442; 1921: 564.
hairy, as cover crop. 94: 507; 1921:
588.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
Viguera cordata. 1919: 430.
Vinson, A. E. 89: 225-263; 1918: 282,
285, 277-286, 341-350; 1919: 399,
404-414; 1920: 431, 436-439; 1921:
552-553, 557-562.
Violets, host of red spider. 87: 201-202.
Vorhies, Charles T. 1918: 282, 283, 339-
340; 1919: 400, 437-438; 1920:
432, 468; 1921: 552, 553, 583-586.
w
Walnut (JxigJans regia). 1920: 471.
Native Arizona (Juglans major). 1920:
471; 1921: 591-592.
Warehouses in Salt River Valley:
for grain. 85: 14.
for hay- 85: 15.
Wasp, fig (Blastophaga gvossorum). 89:
259.
Water :
Code. State. 1918: 351-352; 1919:
451-452.
duty of. 86: 74.
court decisions regarding. 88: 222-
223.
ground:
east of Agua Fria River. 1920:
438-439.
effect of pumping on. 1919: 447-
449.
effect of transpiration of trees on.
1921: 599-600.
646
Indkx to Volume IX
in Casa Grande Valley. 1919: 447-
450.
studies. 1921: 597-598.
hammer, in cement pipe lines. 86:
121, 124.
in fuel oils. 92: 408-409.
IRRIG.\TION, USE AND WASTE
OF. 88: 207-224; 1919: 453.
absorption of. 1921: 600.
in Salt River Valley. 1920: 437-439.
losses of. 88: 210-224.
preventing losses. 88: 224.
storage of. 95: 536, 545-546.
waste of. 88: 220-221.
of Colorado River. 89: 239.
of Salton Sea. 1919: 413.
requirement studies. 1920: 471-473;
1921: 591.
rights :
decisions of Supreme Court con-
cerning. 95: 540.
in Colorado River development. 95:
540-512.
in Gila River Valley. 1919: 452.
need of code regarding. 1918: 351-
352.
old, in Salt River Valley. 85: 8.
passing of code. 1919: '451-452.
storage :
for flood protection. 95: 536.
for irrigation. 95: 536, 545-546;
1918: 351.
supply:
for University campus. 1921: 598.
in 1918, .status of. 1918: 351.
of Casa Grande Valley. 1919: 447-
450.
of Cochise County. 1919: 451.
of Colorado River Basin. 95: 530-
533.
of Salt River Valley. 1920: 437-439.
rules for blending. 1920: 438.
table:
effect of irrigation on. 88: 216.
fluctuations in Casa Grande Valley.
1919: 447-449.
Water hemlock, or wild parsnip :
poisoning range stock. 1918: 299.
Watermelons:
anthracnose of. 1921: 611.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 9, 56,-57. 64.
Waterproofing cement pipe. 86: 102, 170.
Weather:
conditions. 1918: 297-298, 322 323:
1919: 421, 427: 1920: 442. 449,
455; 1921: 573, 576-578.
effect on cotton aphis. 87: 198.
effect on red spider. 87: 202.
records on Yuma Mesa. 89: 228-233.
Weeds :
noxious, sale of seed forbidden. Cir.
40.
wasteful of water. 88: 215.
Weevil, alfalfa. 87: 204.
Mexican cotton boll (Anthonomus
grandis Boh). 87: 173-175.
quarantine regulations against. 87:
203-204.
variety (A. grandis tliurbcriae). 87:
173.
Wells, artesian. 1919: 451.
caisson. 1918: 352.
shallow. 1919: 451.
Wheat :
baking tests. 1918: 316; 1919: 459;
1920: 480.
bran:
in home-mixed calf meal. 1920:
465-467; 1921: 582.
in poison baits. 87: 195; 1918: 335-
338.
in rations for dairy cows. 1920:
465.
breeding. 1918: 314-317,- 1919: 458-
461; 1920: 480-483; 1921: 602-
605.
chemical analysis. 1919: 460, 461.
culture and management. 1919: 419;
1^20: 444-445; 1921: 567-568.
Indian. 1919: 411.
injured bv seed-corn maggot. 1921:
583-584.
in Salt River Valley. 85: 18-21, 64.
irrigation affecting hardness of grairi
1921: 602-603.
milling tests. 1918: 316; 1919:_^460.
not affected by root rot. 90: 274.
on Salt River Valley Farm. 1918:
287, 291-292.
on Sulplnir Spring Valley Dry-Farm.
1918: 280, 294; 1920: 442.
resistance to black alkali. 1921: 558.
seed testing. Cir. 40.
White Eagle Petroleum Company:
tests of fuel oil from. 92: 412, 416.
White, Mrs. Bettie. 1918: 279.
White spot of alfalfa. 1921: 611.
Williams, R. H. 91: 359-396; 1918:
282, 284, 322-334; 1919: 400, 421-
426; 1920: 432. 449-454, 457;
1921: 552. 553. 573-575.
Wilt :
of cotton. 1921: 611.
of melons. 1918: 301
of tomato. 1921: 614.
Wilson, Walter. 94: 493.
Winslow. M. M. 1921: 552.
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
647
JJ'isli::e)iia refrocta (vellow bee flower).
1921: 585.
Wood. C. T. 90: 265-275: 1920: 431.
Wool :
marketin.s?. 1918: 329-330.
prices. 1920: 449.
Woolly-foot (Boutcloiia eriopoda):
chemical composition of. 1919: 411.
Workinjr. D. W. 1919: 397-403; 1920
425-435; 1921: 547-556.
Worms:
corn car. 87: 175-178.
cotton boll. 87: 175-178.
cotton leaf. 87: 181-183.
screen tomato. 87: 176.
Wyoming:
interest of in Colorado River develop-
ment. 95: 529-532.
Vampa River, reservoir site. 95: 533.
Vellow bee flower (Wislisenia refractaj:
as an alkali indicator. 1921 : 585.
as a source of hone}-. 1921: 585.
Yellow Jasmine (Jasiiiinuui liuinile).
1920: 461.
Yucca data ( soapweed, or palmilla, or
Spanish dat^er). 1918: 298, 299-
300, 324; 1919: 411.
Yuma Alfalfa Seed Growers' Associa-
tion. 1920: 447.
Yuma Date Orcliard and Horticultural
Station :
citrus fruits. 1918: 303: 1919: 440-
441; 1920: 469-470: 1921: 587-
588
dates. 1918: 304-309: 1919: 439-440:
1920: 470; 1921: 589-590.
; 1919:
592.
595.
312;
deciduous fruits. 1918: 303: 1921
594.
field crops. 1918: 295.
Irish potatoes. 1918: 310-311
442-443: 1920: 475; 1921:
miscellaneous. 1920: 474.
new fruits. 1919: 441 ; 1921:
oHves. 94: 495; 1920: 470.
ornamental gardening. 1918
1919: 445.
spinach. 1919: 444.
tomatoes. 1919: 444-445.
YUMA MESA, THE. 89: 225-
climate. 89: 227-233.
crops. 89: 246-263.
investigations. 1918: 341-342.
soils. 89: 234-245.
topography. 89: 226-227.
water supply. 1919: 454-455;
479.
Yuma Valley:
cotton aphis in. 87: 198-200.
estimated irrigable lands. 95:
right to increase irrigation. 95
vetches. 1919: 417.
-263.
1920:
530.
i: 543.
Zimmerman, Hazel. 1919: 399: 1921:
551.
Zisyphus jujube. 1920: 473.
Z. satk'a (common jujube). 1919:
441: 1920: 462, 473; 1921: 595.
Zoology :
experimental work. 1918: 399-400.
projects. 1918: 283.
Zys.adcnus elegans (death camas). 1918:
299; 1920: 456; 1921: 579.
New York B°<^"f,M,,^fi||iTfllinillill^^
3 5185 00259 8215
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