Full text of "Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Jamaica"

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BULLETIN

OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF AGKICULTURE.

EDITED BY

WILLIAM B'AWCETT, B.Sc, F.L.S.

Director of Public Oar dens and Plantations.

VjOTANlCAL.

> ♦ <

Vol. I.

•►>-•-♦--•<-

HOPE GARDENS, JAMAICA
1903.

Vol. I. JANUARY, 1903. Part 1.

BULLETIN

OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

X » <

EDITED BY

WILLIAM EAWCETT. B.Sc, E.L.S.

Director of Puhlic Gardens and Plantations,

CONTENTS:

Page.

Banana Soils : II.

Kola

Elementary Notes on Jamaica Plants VI.

Board of Agriculture

Panama Hats

P R I E-Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O .

KINGSTON, JAMAICA
HoFB Gakdeks.

1903.

/ ■ V

JAMAICA .
BXILT^ETIlSr

OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOdLTDRE.

Vol. I. JANUARY, 1903. Part 1.

THE BANANA SOILS OF JAMAICA.— II.*

By H. H. Cousins, M. A., F CS., Government Analytical and Agri-
cultural Chemist.

The first report on the results obtained at the Government Labora-
tory on the banana soils of Jamaica appeared in the Bulletin for October
1901. Since that time, a good many representative banana soils have
been analyzed and in 6 cases manurial experiments have been carried
out, from which the first season's results have now been obtained.
During the present season, nine series of manurial experiments on
bananas have been started, the results of which should serve as a valu-
able commentary on the deductions bdsed on the soil-analyses.

Following the plan adopted in the previous paper of considering the
soils according to the parishes, the results of analysis are here given
in this form.

I. ST. MAKY.

This, the chief banana parish of ihe Island, shall head the list.

Manurial experiments have been carried out on three distinct types
of soil in this parish, and arrangements are now complete for 6 dis-
tinct series of these experiments on the crop of 1903.

A. — Quebec Park —Hon. R P. Simmonds. A piece of level land ap-
parently rather below par, judging from the grade of fruit produced
— 7 and 8 hands — was selected

The piece known as Duthie's Level is almost surrounded with water-
courses and is liable on occasion to be flooded.

The analysis is as follows : —

SOIL A\ALYSIS.

Reference Number -55. Source Details — Experimental Plots. —

Duthie's Level, QiebecPark Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis

Stones

• ■•

Gravel

• • •

Sand

• ••

Fine Sand

«••

Silt

• .

Agricultural

f Fine Silt
Iciay

• ••

Clay

• ••

Combined water.

Orj/anic matter.

»••

Total

Retentive Power for water

• ••

6.09

Per Cent.

Nin

0.88

1.18

23.33

61.11
6.09

, Fine
'Earth.

Traces

7 41

100.00

Per Cent.

60.0

* Continued from Bnlletin of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, Oct., 1901,
VoL viii., page 146.

Chemicai. Analysis.

Soil passed through 3 m.m. Sieve dried at 100" C.)

Insoluble Matter

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid
fPotnsh
I Lime

■^ Phosphoric Acid
I Carbonic Acid as )
(^Tarrionate of Lime J

Combined Water and organic matter

Humus (soluble in Ammonia)

Nitrogen

Hygroscopic Moisture

Fertility Analysis.

66.51
33.49
0.957
1 360

0.080

1.155

9.630

2.019

0.204

8.00

Per Cent.

0.017

0.022

Available Potash

Available Phosphoric Acid...

Observations.

This soil consists almost entirely of fine sand and silt. It drains
readily and yet has a high absorptive power for water. The humus,
nitrogen and potash are hU above tlie normal. There is no lack of.
carbonate of lime The reserve of phosphoric acid is not very high
On the other hand, the available potash and phosphoric acid are so
high that I do not anticipate that commercial fertilizers will prove re-
munerative on this soil. In my opinion the grade of fruit obtainable
from this laud is limited by the seasons and the cultural management.
The maintenance of the humus is, of course, an important matter for
the future; otherwise commercial fertilisers should not be necessary
for a long time to come.

Manurial Experiments.
JSiue plots of variable size, distance of plants 10 x 10 feet.

Treatment.

No. of
Plants.

Cwts. per Acre.

JPlot.

Mixed
Phos-
phate.*

Sulphate

of
Ammonia.

Sulph.

of
Potash.

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

No Manure
Complete Manure
No Nitrogen
Double Nitrogen
No Phosphate
Double Phosphate
Treble Phusphate
No Potash
No Manure

117

152

109

105

113

• • •

5
5
5

• ••

• • •

• ••

i
i
i

h
h
i

• ••

Superphosphate 3 parts, Steamed Bone Flour 2 parts.

Applied August 1901, Treatment repeated Autumn of 1902.
" The manured plots of bananas have grown well, but show very
little difEeience in the plants, except slightly better in the "treble

phosphate" plot. The fruit already produced is the same as the piece
usually grows, viz. : large 7 and 8 hands."

Report from Hon. R. P. Simmonds.

The manurial results, so far, correspond with the deductions from
the analysis, viz. : that nitrogen, phosphate and potash are already pre-
sent in adequate amount in this soil. A second year's trial is now ou
hand, and if no appreciable results are then obtained, I propose to
try experiments on different modes of cultivation.

B. — Llanrumney.- Messrs. Kerr & Co. per Mr. L. B. Melville.
A level piece ef land closely similar to the Quebec land in character
was selected for the experiments. The bananas were established some-
what irregularly, and some were lifted and the plantation straightened
up, previous to the application of the manures.

Manurial Experiments.
6 plots of \ acre = 100 plants each.

Description

Cwts. per Acre.

No.

Mixed
Phosphate.

S. of
Ammonia.

S. of
Potash.

1
2
3
4
6
6

No Manure
Complete Manure
No Nitrogen
Double Nitrogen
No Phosphate
Double Manure

5
5
5

• ••

...

• • •

3
3

• ••

Manures applied Sept., 1901. repeated for 1902-3.

RESULTS.
May to August, 1902.

BtTNCHES.

1st.

Total 1st
Bunches
per acre.

Plot 1. No Manure
Plot 2, Complete Manure
Plot 2- No Nstrogen
Plot 4. Double Nitrogen
Plot 6. No Phosphate
Plot 6. Double Manure

3
S
3
6
1
3

6
5
7
3
2
2

4
6
2
6
2
4

38
39
37
43
14
26

These results are negative,
and records made of the results.

The experiment is being repeated
The analysis is as follows : —

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number— 63.

Source Details — Experimental Plots, Llanrumney.

Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Stones

Gravel

Sand

Fine Sand

Silt

Agricultural Fine Silt
Clay t Clay

Combined water |
Organic matter J

Total

Ketentive Power for water

•■•

{.53|

Per Cent.

Nil

0.31^

0.89 I

22.74 I

67.39 I Fine

2.53
Traces

6.14

Earth.

100.00
Per Cent.
68.0

Chemical Analysis.

(Soil pass through 3 m.m. Sieve dried at lOOS C.)

Insoluble Matter ... 43.141

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid 56.869

rPotash ... 0.607

Lime ... 18.402

-I Phosphoric Acid 0.120

I Carbonic Acid as ) „- onn

(^Carbonate of Lime J

Combined Water and organic matter 17 .650

Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 2.369

Nitrogen ... 0.198

Hygroscopic Moisture 6.539

Fertility Analysis.

Per Cent.
Available Potash ... 0.0060*

Available Phosphoric Acid ... 0.0238*

* Provisional number.

Observations.

This soil is closely similar to the Quebec soil in mechanical struc-
ture. It differ in possessing a large proportion of carbonate of lime.
All the factors determined are normal for a soil of good fertility. The
* available' potash is being re-determined. The available phosphoric
acid is equal to that of the Quebec soil and indicates a sufficiency of
this ingredient for all practical needs.

Clearly a soil in need of good management on general agricultural
lines rather than starving from lack of plant-food. Fertilisers are not
expected to prove remunerative under present conditions.

C. Koningsberg. Hon. Dr. Pringle, C.M.G.

To test the value of analysis as a guide to manuring, it was decided
to carry out an experiment on a soil which was analysed for Dr.
Pringle in 1901. The figures and an extract from the report are given.

The soil having been found deficient in phosphoric acid and carbonate of
dime basic slag was diagnosed as the best phosphate for a clay soil of
this nature. Drainage by contour trenches has been found to work
wonders on this land, and the proprietor has achieved gratifying results
iby an extension of this system on these impervious upland fields.

Fine
Earth.

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Beference Number — 5.

Source Details — Banana land of poor quality from a part of Konings-

berg. Hon. Dr. Pringle.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Per cent.

Stones ...

Gravel ... 0.26

Sand ... 0.94

Fine Sand ... 22.07

Silt ... 22 87

Agricultural J Fine Silt ... ., ^cf 24.11

Clay. tciay ... "-^^{17.45

Combined water, \ io qa

Organic matter. ) " ^^ ^^

Total 100.00

Per Cent.

Retentive Power for water ... 63.00

Chemical Analysis.

.(Soil passed through 3 m.m. Sieve dried at 100*^ C.)

Insoluble Matter ... 54.22

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid 45.88

f Potash 0.291

I Lime 0.244

•{ Phosphoric Acid 0.025

i Carbonate Abid as "j 1 2ft

[ Carbonate of Lime J '

Combined Water and organic matter 12.300

Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 3.150

Nitrogen 0.211

Hygroscopie Moisture 9.660

Fertility Analysis.

Per Cent.
Available Potash .. 0.033

Available Phosphoric Acid ... 0.015

Observations.

The carbonate of lime is low, the total phosphoric acid is very low
although an extraordinary proportion is in an available state. The
reserve of phosphoric acid is so low that I consider this soil should
receive regular applications of 5 to 7 cwt. per acre of basic slag.

This soil is naturally inferior to the soils from Quebec Park and
.Burlington where bananas are doing well.

Manurial Experiments.
8 Plots, each J acre.

Description.

Cwt. per Acre.

Plot.

Basic

[Nitrate of

Muriate of

Slag.

Soda.

Potash.

No Manure

„

Complete Manure

No Nitrogen

—

Double Nitrogen

No Phosphate

—

Double Phosphate

No Potash

Mixed Phosphate*

*3 parts superphosphate. 2 parts steamed Bone flour.;;j|^

The only nine hand bunches were on plot 4 " double nitrogen." The
majority of plots gave 7 hands. The neighbouring lands only 5 hands.
The absence of potash, and substitution of mixed phosphate for slag
on plots 7 and 8 reduced the grade 25 per cent.
It is deduced from this experiment that
6 cwt. slag

2 cwt. Nitrate of Soda (in two doses)
1 cwt. Potash per acre
should prove a remunerative dressing on this land.

D. Buck Piece, Orange Hill

E. Lambie Piece, Orange Hill.

F. Newrey

are three soils recently analysed for Dr. Pringle and the manurial ex-
periments suggested have been started. It is hoped that these experi-
ments will lead to a definite conclusion as to the possibility or other-
wise of using chemical manures to a profit on the St. Mary lands
which have been so long in cultivation as to show signs of exhaustion,

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number — 50.

Source Details — Buck Piece, Orange Hill. Hon. Dr. Pringle.

Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

J HYsicAii Analysis.

Stones ...

Gravel

Sand

Fine Sand

SUt
Agricultural f Fine Silt
Clay t ^^lay

Combined •vrater, \

Organic matter. J

. Per Cent.
Nil

Nin
0.28
30.22
59.21 I Fine

1 43/ ^■'^^ '^Eartb
\ Traces

8.86

Total

Betentive Power for water

100.00
Per Cent.
56.0

Chrmical Analysis,

(Soil passed through 3 m.m. Seive dried at lOO^C.)
Insoluble Matter
Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid
^Potash
I Lime

■{ Phosphoric Acid
( Carbouic ,^cid as 1

I^Carbonate^.of Liine J

Combined Water and organic matter

Humns (soluble in Ammonia)

Nitrogen

Hygroscopic Moisture

60.077

39.923

0.686

4.332

0.053

10.681

26.148
1.48(i
0.103
9.730

Fertility Analysis.
Available Potash
Available Phosphoric Acid

0.003
0.007

Observations.

The mechanical composition shows the close similarity between this
soil and the other two of the series, and the same relationship to til-
lage and drainage will be apparent The proportion of carbonate of
lime is quite marked in this case. This soil shows signs of exhaus-
tion. Both the total and available potash and phosphoric acid are below
par. The humus and nitrogen are also low for a banana s )il. Every
effort should be made to increase the humus by such methods as are
possible in the routine of cultivation I anticipate that the following
manure would improve the grade of fruit : —

4 cwt. Superphosphate "|

1^ cwt. Sulphate of Potosh Vper acre.

1^ cwt. Sulphate of Ammonia J

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number — 49

Source Details — Lambie Piece, Orange Hill, St Mary. Banana Land.

Hon. Dr. Priugle, M.G.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Stones

»••

<' ravel

• •ft

Sani

• ••

Fine Sand

• ••

Silt

...

Agricultural f Fine Silt

Clay 1 ^^lay

Moisture

• ••

• ••
. • .

Retentive Power for water

1.57

{

Per Cent.
Nil
Nil^
0.12 I
16.59 I
68.42 J^Fine

1.57 I Earth.
Traces |

Total

100.00
Per Cent.
58.00

Chemical Analysis.

(Soil pabsed through 3 m. m. Sieve dried tc 100° C.)
Insoluble Matter
Solube in Hydrochloric Acid
f Potash

I Lime ...

-{ Phosphoric Acid
I Carbonic Acid as |
(^Carbonate of Lime J
Humus (Soluble in Ammonia)
Nitrogen
Hygroscopic Moisture

Fertility Analysis.

Available Potash ...

Available Phosphoric Acid

63 250

36.750
830
3.748
0.168

5.846

2.283

0.138

16.680

Per Cent.

9.0058

0.0046

Observations.

This soil is closely similar to ' Newrey' and ' Buck Piece,' 0. Hill, in
meclianical composition and the same remarks apply in each case as to
cultivation and drainage. The total potash and phosphoric acid are
normal, the available supply, however, being decidedly below par.
Some degree of exhaustion is clearly indicated. The humus and
nitrogen are markedly higher than in the other two cases and are nor-
mal for a banana soil. I regard the maintenance and increase of the
standard of these constituents as vital to the banana producing value
of these lands. This soil contains a marked proportion of carbonate
of lime. I recommend a trial of

5 cwt. Superphosphate ■)

1 cwt. Sulphate of Ammonia > per acre.

1 cwt. Sulphate of Potash )

as likely to give an increase in the grade of bunch.

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number — 48.

Source Details — Newrey Piece, Newrey. Hon. Dr. Pringle.

Dejjth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Anai^ysis.

Agricultural
Clay

Stones
Gravel
Sand

Fine Sand
Silt
Fine Siit

/Fin

Moisture

).48|

Total

Betentive power for water

Per Cent.
Kil
0.22^
1 38 I
23 83 I Fine
63.79 )► Earth

0.48

Traces

10.33

100.00
Per Cent.
61.0

Chemical Analysis.

((Soil passed through 3 m. m. Sieve dried at 100« C.)

Insoluble matter ... 64.050

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid ... 26.970

f Potash .,. 0.960

I Lime ... 1.191

^ Phosphoric Acid ... 0.085

I Carbonic Acid as \ n oic

l^ Carbonate of Lime j "-^^^

Combined Water and organic matter 10.193

Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 1.146

Nitrogen 0.089

Hygroscopic Moisture ... 11.510

Fertility Analysis.

Per Cent.
Available Potash ... 0.004

Available Phosphoric Acid ... 0.013

Observations.

This soil is composed almost entirely of particles of medium fineness,
gravel and clay being practically absent, Its mechanical composition
is highly favoursble for cultivation and provides admirable conditions
for the root development of the banana. While retentive of moisture
the soil drains easily and would re-act readily to a sy stem of drainage
trenches. The total potash is normal, but the 'available' decidedly
below par and indicates the desirability of the use of potash manure.
The phosphoric acid reserve is low for a banana soil, but the available
supply is normal. The humus and nitrogen are both decidedly low and
every effort should be made to increase these. I conclude that Pen
manure and green dressings would be of decided benefit. I think
it likely that the Banana Trash ashes from the Railway Depot, con-
taining 6 . 86 per cent, of Potash, would be beneficial on this soil. I
would suggest as a general fertilizer—

3 cwt. Superphosphate "i

2 cwt. Sulphate of Ammonia Vper acre.

1 cwt. Sulpbate of Potash J

II. ST. CATHERINE.

Experiments on banana soils in the irrigation area of St. Catherine
have i dicated that these soils are possessed of very high natural fer-
tility and that the use of fertilisers is quite uncalled for.

A. — Rod ens. Mr. R. Hay.

A piece of land was selected on this property which appeared to be
■balow par and likely to respond to thn application of fertilisers.
The analysis of the soil gave the following results : —

SOIL ANALYSIS.
Reference Number — 5L
Source Details — E-odens Pen, St. Catherine.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Stones
Gravel
Sand

Fine Sand
Silt
Agricnltural f Fine Silt
Clay tClay

Combined water

Orgniic matter

'"}

.8l|

Total

Retentive power for water

Per Cent,

Nil

1.66^

8.67 I
40 44 I
43.77 I Fine

1.19 }► Earth'

0.62 I

3.66

100 00
Per Cent.
50.0

Chemical Analysis

(Soil passed through 3 m.m. Sieve dried at 100° C.)

Insolable Matter

71.059

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid

28.941

fPotash

0.445

Lime

1.573

- Phosphoric Acid ...

0.194

Carbonic Acid as }
[^Carbonate of Lime j

0.438

Combined Water and organic matter

7.090

Humus (soluble in Ammonia)

1.604

Nitrogen

0.152

Hygroscopic Moisture

3.800

Fertility Analysis.

Available Potash
Available Phosphoric Acid

Observations.

Per Cent.
O.Oll
0.072

This soil consists principally of fine, sandy particles, and has excel-
lent properties for the cultivation of bananas, being free-draining and
yet retaining a considerable amount of moisture. The humus is the
only factor that might be consideied at all low. All the other consti-
tuents determined indicate a state of present and reserve fertility of a
very high standard. The maintenance of the humus and skilled
management of water and cultural operations should suffice to produce
bananas from this soil for a series of years without recourse to chemi-
cal fertilisers. The available and total phosphoric acid are noteworthy^
There is an adequate proportion of carbonate of lime.

Plot.

2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Manurial Experiments.
8 plots, each J acre.

Description.

No Manure

Complete Manure

No Nitrogen

Double Nitrogen

No Phosphate

Double Phosphate

No Potash

Double Complete Manure

•••
••I

Cwt. per Acre.

Superphos-

Sulphate of

phate.

Ammonia.

—

Sulphate of
Potash.

1
1
1
1

Manures applied end of August, 1901.

At first, marked effects were observable on the young plants, but as
tbe season progressed tbey all fruited alike and Mr. Hay reports that
it was quite impossible to find any effects whatsoever upon the fruit
from any of the manures, all the plots being alike. The experiment
is being repe ited on the ratoons for the present season. These results,
so far, are in complete agreement with the deductions from the analyti-
cal data.

£.— Laurence field — Hon. J. AUwood, per Mr. Arnold Clodd.

A piece of banana land was selected on this property for a manurial
experiment and analysis. The analysis revealed a very high standard
of fertility and it was not surprising that the fertilisers failed to pro-
duce results.

Eight plots of I acre each were treated as at Ro-iens, except that
mixed phosphate, consisting of 3 parts of superphosphate incorporated
with 2 parts of steamed Bone Flour, was employed as a source of
phosphoric acid.

A second series of experiments on a piece of land in an apparently
poorer state is being carried out on the present seasons crop.
Appended is the analysis of the soil.

Eeference Number-

SOIL ANALYSIS.

-54. Source Details— Laurencefield, St. Catherine.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Per Cent.

Stones ... Nil

Gravel ... 2.75

Sand ... 11.27

Fine Sand ... 40.79

Silt ... 39.34 .Fine

Agricultural f Fine SUt ... 3 55/3.06 [Earth.

Clay \ Clay ... * ( 0.49

Combined water } ... 2 30

Organic matter / ... * J

Total 100.00

Per Cent.

'Betentive Pow.er for vwater ... 46.0

(vHEMiCAL Analysis.

.(Soil passed through 3 ra.ra. Sieve dried at lOOi* C.)

Insoluble Matter ... 78.540

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid 21 .460

fPotasti ... 0.392

j Lime .. 1.022

■{ Phosphoric Acid 0.218

Carbonic Acid as > q jj^

(^Carbonate of Lime J

Combined Water aud organic matter 5.520

Humus (^soluble in Ammonia) 3.610

Nitrogen ... 0.162

Hygroscopic Moisture 2.350

Fertility Analysis.

Per Cent.
Available Potash .. 0.053

Available Phosphoric Acid 0.064

Observations.

This soil corresponds closely to the soil from Rodens in mechanical
.composition. The fertility is beyond question. The available potash
and phosphoric acid are 6 times tlie normal. It is hardly like y that
even extravagant dressings of chemical fertilisers should produce any
marked results on this soil. The carbonate of lime might be higher.
A dressing of marl will probably be desirable in a year or two. The
.humus is high enough for present purposes.

III.— ST. ANN.

Euntly, Brown's Town. Mr. E. Q. Levy.

A well managed piece of newly planted banana plantation was here
used for manurial experiments. — 7 Plots of \ acre each weretrea'ed a»
follows : —

Description.

Cwt3. per Acre.

Piot.

Misled
Phosphate.

Sulph.
Ammonia.

Stilph.
Potash.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

No Manure
Complete Manure
No Nitrogen
Double Nitrogen
No Phosphate
Double Phosphate
Double Complete
No Potash

• ••

5
5
5

i'i

I
i

• ••

The results were uniformly bad. No marketable crops were obtained
during the year, The bananas, apparently, failed completely. Mr.
Levy being of opinion that a heavier dressing was required, the ex-
periment has been repeated this season, using 6 cwt. of phosphates.
3 cwt. of S. of ammonia and 2 cwt. S. of potash per acre as the nor-
mal manure for plot 2.

My own opinion is that the maaures were not concerned in the re-
sults obtained, but that the failure to grow bananas is due to other
causes than a deficiency of plant food

The coming season's results should serve to decide whether fertili-
zers alone can mend matters.

The analysis is as follows : —

Reference Number — 59.

Stones
Gravel
Sand

Fihe Sand
Silt
Agricultural f Fine Silt
Clay t Clay

Moisture

KetentiTe Power for water

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Source Details — Huntly. Depth of Sam-
ple — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis^

Per Cent.

Nil

2.74^

4.05 I

30.62 I „.
_» -n I ^ ine

f0.81 ^J^«'l»-

jo.

1.64

.83
.36

Total

100.00
Per Cent.
56.0

Chemical Analysis.

(Soil pasasd through 3 m.m. Sieve dried at 100° C.)

lusoluble Matter ... 18.170

Soluble in Hydr.. chloric Acid 81.830

f Potash .. 172

I Lime ... 0.254

^ Phos horic Acid 0.393

I Car onic Acid as ) . ^ .p..

(^Carbonate of Lime J

Combined Wa tr and organic matt r 25.340

Humus ( oluble in Ammonia) 3 . 625

Nitrogen ... 0.130

Hygrosco ic Moisture 5.660

Fertlity Analysis.

Per Cent.

Available Potash •>. . Oil

Available Phosphoric Acid u.007

Observations.

This is a specimen of the red soils derived from the limestone found
in this district and bears oat the fact that such soils are singularly-
destitute of carbonate of lime. In this case the amount is probably
adequate for cultural needs.

The total phosphoric acid is high, the available being below par.
The potash is not high. The humus and nitrogen appear to be nor-
mal for a good soil. It would seem that this soil should respond to a
phosphatic manure, either Basic Slag or preferably a mixture of super-
phosphate and steamed bone flour. The soil is light and free- drain-
ing. It is possible that the large amount of ferric iron in the soil may
affect not only the nutrition of plants but also the results of the
manures applied.

IV. ST. THOMAS-IN-THE-EAST.

The following analyses of soils from St. Thomas upon which bananas
are grown are here presented. As will be seen, these soils are light
medium loams of hi»h fertility. The potash appears deficient in
one case otherwise each of these soils is beyond reproach in all the ele-
ments of fertility. With a liberal rainfall no irrigation is necessary.
Hurricanes, which are peculiarly destructive in this part of the island,
have played sad havoc in past seasons, but during the past year the
.banana growers of St. Thomas have obtained splendid results.

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V. VERE.

"When the irrigation canal system is establishpd in Vera, it may
prove desirable for some of the estates to grow bananas as well as cane.
The analysis of the soil from Hillside estate, here given, is indicative
of the type of soil in this district which is s litable for the purpose,
provided the irrigation is well managed All grades of soil from tiis
light, fine silt to stiff clay are foun I in Vere and the lighter soils will
undoubtedly be f'und the best, adopted for bunana cultivation with ir-
rigation. The soils hitherto analysed from this district (14 samples of
soils and 12 subsoils) indicate a remarkably high standard of fertility.
We do not expect to j:et marked results from fertilisers on these soils;

SOIL ANALYSIS.
Beference Number— 62
Source Details — Hillside Estate, Vere.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Per Cent.

Stones • ••• Nil

Gravel ... 1121

Sand ... 0.60 I

Fine Sand ... 32.32 | xp'

Silt ... 54.72 Yl'^^^^

Agrciultural f Fine Silt ... BOsI*"^'^

Clay \ Clay ... • \ 1.41

Moisture ... 5.36_

Total 10 J. (10

Per Cent.
Retentive Power for water ... 54.0

Chemical Analysis.

(Soil passed through 3 m. m. Si ve dried at 100*^ C.)

Insoluble Matter ... 68.931

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid 31 . 069

fPotash ... 0.573

I Liiue ... 0.951

-{ Phosphoric Acid 0.168

I Carbonic Acid as \ q oqa

[^Carbonate of Lime J

Combined Water and organic matter 9 . 950

Hamus (suluble in Ammonia) 2.810

Nitrogen ... 0.165

Hygroscopic Moisture 5.66

Fertility Analysis.

Per Cent.

Available Potash ... 0.021

Available Phosphoric Acid 0.044

Observations.

This is a light soil consisting chiefly of fine sand and silt. Itsjfer-
tility is unimpeachable. This is a soil of 'very high quality. Irriga-
tion, well managed, should enable this soil to produce very laige crops-
for a series of years without manure. The carbonate of lime is low
and as a good grade of marl is obtainable in the locality, it would be
desirable to spread some from time to time, otherwise this soil is above
reproach.

Conolmion.

From the analysis of over 30 banana soils representing tlie chief
banana lands of the island, it has been ascertained that Jamaica pos-
sesses "very large areas of land of such exceptional fertility and adapta-
bility that this cultivation is assured for many years to come, without
any need for discounting profits by importing fertilisers from abroad.

The manurial experiments have, so far, borne out the analytical
data, and the conclusions drawn therefrom in a striking manner. Apart
from the professional interest that attaches to the successful use of
manures in experiments, it is certainly most gratifying to have de-
monstrated the fact that, for the most part, the banana industry of the
Island is still far from depending on imported aids to fertility.

In so far as soil conditions alone, apart from climate, water supply
and cultural management, are concerned, these results fortify the con-
clusion that by analysis it is now possible to give a practical opinion
upon a soil for banana cultivation. I desire to record my indebted-
ness to Messrs. H. S. Hammond and E. J. Wortley of the Govern-
ment Laboratory for their assistance in carrying out the laborious
operations involved in obtaining these results.

KOLA NUTS.

In answer to enquiries on the subject of Kola Nuts, and the pros-
pects for this product, the following letters have been received : —

Messrs. Gillespie Bros. & Co., London, to the Director Public Gardens and

Plantations, Jamaica.

With reference to the low range of prices now current for this
article, we have made enquiries from what we believe to be well in-
formed sources, and we understand that the chief cause of the decline
is the fact that France (formerly a large buyer here) now imports di-
rect from Africa in big parcels. In the second place many of the ad-
vertising manufacturers (cocoa, drinks, &c) both here and in the U.S.A.
are not pushing the article as they were a few years ago : and it does
not seom that Kola has 'caught on' in either countr}' to the same ex-
tent as in France. Our Brokers think there will always be a mode-
rate demand at about 2d to 3d., but former prices are a thing of the
past.

Messrs. Gillesjne Bros. & Co., Neio Torh, to Director, Public Gardens.

There is a regular demand for the dried in small quantities at from 4
cents to 6 cents per lb. The green should not be shipped, and the dried
not in lots of more than from 1 to 2 tons ; because for some years Africa
and the other West Indies have been sending all that was required in
this market. As a matter of fact the knowledge that unlimited sup-
plies are procurable has had the effect lo cheapen the article, and
there is no likelihood of a return to the profitable rates of four or five
years ago. There is no duty on the article in the United States.

Messrs. E. A. DePass & Co., London, to Director, Public Gardens.

The demand for Kola Nuts in London is a fair one, and the present
value is about 3^d to 4d. per lb. for good sound nuts, but the great
majority of those received from Jamaica are mouldy and in that con-
dition are almost valueless. It is true that some years ago, Kola

fetched a considerably higher price, but since then the supplies have
materially increased. The principal points however to impress upon
shippers from Jamaica is that nuts should be prepared in such a way
that they may arrive here absolutely sound.

Mr. J. R. Jackson reports as follows in a late number of the " Agri-
cultural News" : —

Of Kola Nuts at the iirst sale six barrels fresh Grenada sold at l^d.
per lb ,' fair, washed' West Indian realizing 3|d., and at the second
Bale 21 barrels of West Indian were disposed of at 3^d. to 3Jd. for
good quality, and l|d. for ' wormy'

ELEMENTARY NOTES ON JAMAICA PLANTS, VI.

8— Grasses.

By the Editor.

Guinea Grass.

Cut across a stem of Guinea Grass. Note where it is cut that tho
outline is rounded. The stems of all grasses, when cut through, have

a more or less rounded outline, whereas many sedges, — grass-like
plants growing on swampy sour soil, have a triangular section.

The leaf is composed of two parts, the lower part forming a sheath
round the stem or culm ; the upper part the blade, is very long and
narrow, with veins running parallel to one another. The margins of
the leaf-blade have a saw-like edge with minute sharp teeth pointing
upwards ; the surfaces also are rough with points all going in the
some direction. Between the blade and the sheath, on the in>ide, is a
projecting rim which exists more or less in all grasses ; it is called
the ligule, and its probable use is to assist the sheath in protecting the
tender stem. When the ligule is hairy, as it is here, it more easily
prevents rain from soaking down between the sheath and the culm.
The sheath is hairy, and it is split, one edge overlapping the other.

Cut across where the young leaves are wrapped round and it will
be seen that one hilf the blade is rolled round the culm, and that the
other half encircles it again. This method of folding of the young
leaf is spoken of as convolute.

Pull off the leaves with their sheaths, and notice that at intervals
along the culm there are thicker portions, — the nodes (which are
hairy), dividing the culm into joints or internodes.

Notice how this grass grows in tufts. Dig up a tuft, wash away the
soil, and see how the buds sprout from below the base and then grow
upwards. This shows how the tufts are formed, and how it is possi-
ble for it to spring up amongst bush.

The roots are thin, fibrous, and branching, spreading in every di-
rection all round.

Cut off the flowering part, any loose branching inflorescence of this
kind is called a panicle. The panicle in Guinea Grass is large, with
the lower branches whorled.

Break off a spikelet, one of the seed-like bodies, like fig. C. 1. in
Plate 8, and dissect it under a lens with needles. Note the stalk of

tiie spikelet, that it is rounded and has no angles — " filiform" At the
base cut off the short chaffy husk a, and then cut off b (See figs, in C),
these are technically called glumes. Then come two flowers, cut off
the lower one, and open it : the large husk is the third glume, and the
smaller which fits tightly like a lid, over the flower in the glume is
called a palea. There are three stamens only, sometimes none. The
flower at the top of the spikelet has also a glume and palea, both with
fine lines marked across them ; this flower has both stamens and pistil
and is called the fertile flower, as it yields the seed. Note that it is
rounded on one side, flat on the oiher, and that the styles are distinct
with plumose stigmas.

At the base of the ovary are two small bodies called " lodicules".
When the flower ia ready to open, these lodicules swell ap and force
open the glume and palea (C. 9, 10). Then the stalks or " filaments'
of the stamens grow very rapidly, carrying the anthers out beyond
the glumes into the air. While the anthers were still concealed with-
in the glumes, no pollen was discharged, but as soon as they are placed
outside the glumes by the growth of the filaments, each lobe of the
anther begins to split along a line running down it, and discharge
the pollen. The anther is balanced at one point at the end of the fila-
ment {versatile), so that it turns easily at every breath of wind which
carries off the pollen, and scatters it on the stigmas of other flowers
on the panicle.

Guinea Grass is one of our very tall grasses, often reaching from 6'
to 10 feet high.

Its botanical name is Panicum maximum.

Bahama Grass.

The stem of Bahama Grass is prostrate, creeping, with upright,
leafy flowering branches, 4 to 8 or 10 inches high. The roots spring
from the nodes of the creeping stem.

The blade of the leaf is short, flat, narrow, rough on both surfaces,
and the margin. In the young leaf it may be noticed that the two
halves of the blade are folded flat against one another (conduplicate).
The ligule is very short, but has long bristly hairs. The sheath is
split.

The spikelets (fig. B. 1) have no stalks as they have in Guinea Grass,
but are arranged in two rows along one side of a common flower-stalk.
There are generally four of these stalks radiating from the top of an
upright stem.

When the two lower empty glumes are removed from the base, a
small bristle will be observed, which looks like the stalk for another
flower which has not developed. The third glume and its palea en-
close a fertile flower with three stamens, and an ovary with two dis-
tinct styles and plumose stigmas. The figure B. 9 shows the two lo-
dicules opposite to the palea. In figure B. 4 the flower is older than the
rest, and the stalks or filaments of the stamens have lengthened so that
the anthers are now hanging quite outside the flower, and the pollen
will be dusted by the wind over the stigmas of other flowers near by.

Sugar Cane.

The spikelet of the Sugar Cane (fig. A.) appears at first sight to be
composed of one empty glume (A. 4), then a flowering glume (A. 5)

and a palea (A. 6) enclosing a perfect flower (A. 7) with three lodicules
(A. 9). But botanists who have paid special attention to the immense
family of Grasses, and have compared the spikelet with those of nearly-
allied species, consider that there are 3 glumes, and that what looks
like a third lodicule is really a very small palea.

A number of bristles spring from below the base of the spikelet.

The spikelets are arranged, two together, alternately on opposite
sides of the flower stalk (rachis), one of them with a stalk, the other

sessile.

The inflorescence is a large spreading panicle with the branches
more or less whorled.

The culm is erect, but sometimes falls over, and then roots at every
node There is one bud at every node, and the roots spring out all
round it. This is one method of propagation under natural conditions.

The sheaths of the leaves are often covered in the young state with
stinging hairs. The ligules are very short, edged with very short;
hairs. The blades are narrowed at the base, pointed at the ape x
rough.

Explanation of Plate.

A. Flowers of Sugar Cane.
Fig. 1. Spikelet.

Fig. 2. Do. with glumes partly spread.

Fig. 3. Do. do. widely spread.

Fig. 4. First glume.

Fig. 5. Second glume.

Fig. 6, Third glume.

Fig. 7. Pistil and stamens.

Fie. 8. Do. with one stamen removed, showing lodicules.

Fig. 9. Lodicules and palea.

B. Flowers of Bahama Grass.
Fig. 1. Spikelet.

Fig. 2. Glumes partly spread, showing rachilla a.

Fig. 3. Third glume and palea spread, showing anthers.

Fig. 4. Spikelet with pollen discharged from the anthers.

Fig. 5. Spikelet opened.

Fig. 6. Pistil and stamens.

Figs. 7, 8. Pistil with lodicules.

Fig, 9. Position of lodicules with reference to palea.

C. Flowers of Guinea Grass.
Fig. 1. Spikelet.

Figs. 2, 3, 4. Do. opened; a. first glume, b. second glume, c. third glume and
d. palea of staminate flower, e. glume and /. palea of terminal perfect
flower.

Fig. 5. First glume.

Fig. 6. Second do.

Fig. 7. Terminal flower.

Fig. 8. Staminate flower.

Fig. 9. Pistil, lodicules and palea.

Fig. 10. Lodicules.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Report of Meeting of Board, held on 16th December.

Board of Agriculture.
The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held
at Head Quarter House on Tuesday, 16th December, when there were
present : The Hon. the Colonial Secretary (Chairman), the Hon. the

Jam. Ic , 8.

Photo Process, Govt. Printg. Office.

Grassks.

Director of Public Gardens, the Government Chemist, His Grace the
Archbishop and the Hon, H. Cork.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed,

Mr. Fawcett mentioned that he had received a supply of cotton seed
from the U. States Department of Agriculture which had been for-
warded to Mr, Palache to be planted at the PrisonFarm, and also that
the expert of the Montpelier Cigar Factory had inspected the tobacco
grown and cured at Hope, and had expressed the opinion that the
quality could not be better.

Letters were read and discussed on the subject ef growing cotton
and the Board concluded that it would be advisable to arrange for an
experiment in planting on a moderate scale, before planters were ad-
vised to go into the cultivation.

A report was read from Mr. Cradwick on the disease among coco-
nuts in which he suggested that arrangements should be made for him
to devote a month to studying the disease in all parts of the Island.
The Board was however, of opinion that it was not desirable to detach
Mr, Cradwick in any way from his present work, and considered that
the object might be met by Mr. Cradwick arranging to carry on ex-
periments at Bowden and other selected spots. It was also decided to
publish an account of the disease, proposed method of treatment, &c.,
with a view to obtaining further information from planters.

A recommendation was made to the Board that efforts should be
made to stop the damage done to cocoa pods by Woodpeckers, by with-
drawing protection from these birds. The members decided against
interfering in this matter. It was agreed to make arrangements to
admit of Mr. T. J. Harris travelling in the country parts with a view
to acquainting himself with the methods of planters and settlers.

A letter was read from Mr. Fursdon apologisina: for his absence and
also requesting the Board to consider . dangi of the importation
of Foot and Mouth disease. The Board a^ d to recommend the Go-
vernment to impose an absolute quarant.. e on all cattle from the
United States.

Mr, Fawcett stated that the issue of the Bulletin of the Botanical
Department would cease with the present number, and a Bulletin of
the Department of Agriculture would be commenced in January. It
was agreed to increase its size to 24 pages,

PANAMA HATS.

In the Bulletin for October, 1902,* an account was given of the
native industry that has lately become of importance, namely, making
" Ippi-appa" hats from the native plant.

As there was some doubt whether the process used here for curing
the straw was identical with that in Ecuador and Colombia, informa-
tion was sought from H. B. M. Representatives in Bogota and Guayaquil.

Our thanks are due to them and also to those at Panama and Colon
for the courteous and ready manner in which they have afforded most
valuable information and assistance.

It will be noticed that lemon juice is used in the manufacture, and
probably this helps to make the straw whiter.

* Bulletin of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, Vol. IX., page 145,

H. B. M. A?nbassador at Bogota, to Director Public Gardens and

Plantations, Jar.iaica.

British Legation,
Bogota, October 30, 1902.

Sir, . ^

In answer to your enquiries regarding the hat industry, I must re-
fer you to His Majesty's Representative in Peru whose jurisdiction
extends to Ecuador, for information regarding the manufacture of
" Panama hats" in the latter Republic.

These hats are also made in Colombia, and I enclose a memorandum
with some details which may serve your purpose, but I regret I am
unable, owing to the unsettled state of the country, to procure the
samples of straw you want. Not that I think they would help you as
from the process mentioned in the memorandum of its preparation the
straw would deteriorate on the way to Kingston.

I would suggest, if this hat industry is to be introduced into Ja-
maica, the best plan would be to import an expert " boiler" and " hat-
ters" to properly teach the ar^.

I am.

Sir,
Your obedient Servant,

0. Mallett.

Information relating to the " Panama hat" industry in Colombia.

Panama hats are made in Colombia in the departments of Santan-
der (near Bucuramanga) Antioquia (near Aguadas, Southern Cauca
and Southern Tolima (Suaza district).

A traveller will take from ten days to three weeks to get from Bo-
gota to any of these places : it all depends on the state of the roads
and the time of the year. During the rainy season, some of the roads
become almost intransitable.

To day, an average Suaza hat cost there about $120. A fine one
poo to $400— a very fine one $600 to $800. Prices change weekly
according to the demand there may be. During the last eighteen
months steady weekly rise has taken place.

The Suaza hat is considered here very superior to the Ecuador hats.

The common fan-shaped palm, called by the natives "palmiche" is
the one used in the manufacture of these hats.

Young shoots, very uniform as to size are cut from the plant and
boiled to a certain stage. Thus they become a uniform light yellow
colour. When the proper boiling point has been reached they are
hung up to dry and all leaves quickly separated. This is done in-
side the house, where there is a draught but no sunlight. When the
leaves are nearly dry, they are split with a little Y shaped wooden
tool so that every good leaf is exactly the same size as another. Left
alone then to dry, as above, the leaves curl in at the edges and then
are ready for manufacture. The " straw" is carefully wrapped in clean
clothes, as the light and the dry atmosphere spoils them.

In the Suaza district hats are made on solid wooden blocks, two to
four persons (usually women) sitting opposite each other steadily at
work. An average hat is thus made between four women in a week's
time. A fine hat will take from three to six weeks' time. When

finished, the straw is carefully pared with a penknife, then with a
small hand-mise battered all over. Aft^r this, it must be well washed
with common yellow soap and lime juice, and left to dry out of the
sunlight

The climate influences greatly the manufacture of these hats. A
good hatter cannot make a good hat during the dry summer weather
or during the rainy season. Probably for this reason hats in certain
villages of the Suaza district are very superior to those made only a
few miles away.

To become a good hatter requires a very long training ; for this rea-
son the female children are set to work at very early age — usually
about ten years old —and require constant practice. Hatters work
every day steadily through all day taking hurried meals and often
continue work by candle light so as to have the hat ready by market
day. An hour, or two, wasted means to them the loss of the
market day and consequently the loss of ready money for their house-
hold purposes. They are thus obliged to work without losing, or
wasting any time. While at work, the women sing, or chat freely
with any visitor, but continue their work without interruption.

The process of boiling the culls appears to be an art in itself as only
few people are able to turn out good straw The boilers of straw sell
it at so much the pound according to the quality of the straw and the
ruling price of hats.

The paper dollar is svorth about one-half-penny.

H. B M. Consul, Guayaquil to Director Public Gardens and Planta-
tions, Jamaica.

British Consulate, Gruayaquil,

November 18th, 1902.
Dear Sir,
I have your letter of 15th ult. but have been delayed in answer-
ing it before, by domestic affliction.

Having now learned the Ecuadorian plan of preparing the toquilla
hat straw, I beg to describe it as follows : —

The young leaves are cut off, about two or three inches of stem be-
low the bottom of the leaf, whilst the green leaf is still folded up in
pleats, though almost or just ready to open.

Then three or more of the outer pleats of which the leaf is composed
afe torn off from the outer sides, (both sides) as these are at once too
tough to form proper stra v, and too green to whiten. In the same
manner, two or three of the pleats in the centre are taken away, as
are too fragile or tender to form good straw.

Then the two edges of the remaining pleats are removed six or
eight at a time, by slitting them with a needle, or better
still a bradawl, on either side irom about 6 or 8 inches from
the top, upwards : — the centre part of the pleat is then caught
hold of, and torn downwards to the stem, but never separating
it from such stem. When this has been done with all the
pleats. The outside edges or fringes so separated, are cut off
and the remaining pleats, with the stem, are wound up as in a ring, so
as to fit into a pot of boiling water. Thay are plunged into this, — and

as they are cold the temperature of the water is at once reduced. They
can be left in the wafer (but must be entirely covered by it) until this
again boils, — or even a little longer, — They are then taken out, well
shaken to get all water possible out of them, and hung up on a string
to dry. This must be done in the open air, and in the shade, —never
in the sun. After drying thus for say one day, they can be put in the
S'-.n to bleach more To get them still whiter, the juice of several
lemons may be mixed with the water in which they are boiled. In
the course of the drying of the straw, it curls up naturally, so that a
flat straw of ^ inch wide, becomes rounded and less than 1/16 inch.
I am sending to you to-day by bearer —

1. One leaf, just in state for gathering.

2. One leaf, (which had been rather over-ripe for gathering) with
the exterior pleats and the centre ones removed.

3. One leaf, as per No. 2, but with the edges or fringes of the
pleats separated, but hanging down, tied up, so as to show you what
has to be separated in this manner.

4. Oue ''Ocho de paja" prepared as above described in my presence,
dried &c It is not so white as it should be, because the leaf experi-
mented upon was rather over-ripe, and no lemon juice was used, I
also send you a few more plants which I hope may grow with you.

I may further mention that for using the straw, the two fringes or
outside edges of each straw, are again torn off. About three inches
from top, and two inches from bottom of straw are cut ufE, and the re-
mainder is the part used for making the hats.

I trust the above explanation may be found sufficiently clear, and
extensive for your requirements There are no expenses.

I have not yet obtained the sample of hats, in course of preparation.

Plants and samples go through the British Consul, Panama. Would
you like seeds of the C. palmata ?

Faithfully yours,

Alfred Cartwright.

H.B.M. Consul, Ouatjaquil, to Director, Public Gardens and Plantations,

Jamaica.

Guayaquil, Deer. 3rd, 1902.
Dear Sir,
I have lately received some seed cones of Carludovica palmata for
Bermudas, and thought you also might like some, so I send you a part
of them.

I am also forwarding a \ ackage of the young leaves just in the
proper state for preparing the straw, and which should arrive in good
state for you to practise the lesson I recently sent as to the modus
operandi in the preparation of it. I have not yet received the hat in
course of manufacture.

Faithfully yours,

Alfred Cartwright.
[Issued Jan. 22nd, 1903.]
Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam.

Vol. I. FEBRUARY, 1903. Part 2.

BULLETIN

OF THB

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

> » <

EDITED BY

WILLIAM PAWOETT, B.Sc, F.L.S.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS:

Page.

Health and Disease in Plants .25

Report on a Trip to Jamaica . 29

Cassava from Colombia . 35

A new method of treating Cereal Grains and Starchy Products 38

A cheap Dissecting Microscope . 40

(Soil Problems in Jamaica , 40

Board of Agriculture . 41

Ferns : Synoptical List— LYIII . 42

Additions and Contributious to the Department . 44

PRIG E -Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send I^ame and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
BopjB Gabdenb.

1903.

J A >l AICA

BULTjETIN

OF THK

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Vol. I. FEBRUARY, 1903. Part X,

HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PLANTS.*

By Prof. F. S. Earle.

A plant is in health when all its organs or parts are doing their pro-
per work, and the processes of growth and reproduction are going forward
in the natural and regular manner A diseased condition results when for
any reason an organ fails to thus perform its usual normal function. The
causes that induce disease are very numerous and are often obscure. For
convenience diseases may be grouped under three headings: (1) environ-
mental, (2) functional and (3^ parasitic.

Under environmental diseases are classed those disturbances of normal
growth caused by uncongenial surroundings, such as unfavourable soil con-
ditions, too much or too little water, the absence or over-abundance of
some of the food elements, or unsuitable soil t"mperatures ; unfavourable
atmospheric conditions caused by the pollution of the air with smoke or
gases ; or unfavourable position as to sunlight. Such unfavourable sur-
roundings often cause a slow and feeble, though perfectly normal, grcwth
that should not be confused with disease. It is starvation or semi-starva-
tion and not sickness. The so-called " scalding" of plants after unusually
heavy and protracted rains, the " tip burn" of lettuce and potatoes due to
exposure to bright sunshine and dry winds after periods of wet cloudy
weather, and the chlorosis or yellowing of the foliage of fruit trees on
alkali soils in the West may be mentioned as examples of this class of
diseases.

Functional diseases are due to abnormal activities within the plant
itself. These may be the excessive or insufficient formation of enzymes or
acids or other secretions, or the disturbance of nutritive or other chemical
processes. The dreaded peach yellows and the now destructive disease
known as " little peach " probably both belong here, though their true
nature is not yet fully understood. The " mosaic disease" of tobacco, and
the " yellow disease" of the china aster are examples of the abnormal pro-
duction of an enzyme or ferment. Diseases of this class are usually very
obscure, and few of them are as yet fully understood. Tn the case of the
" yellow disease" of the aster the trouble is caused by the failure
of the leaf to secrete sufficient diastase, the enzyme or ferment that
converts starch into soluble sugars. Starch is being constantly termed in
green leaves when they are exposed to sunlight, but it is onl)' after being

* Lecture given in the Autumn Course at the Museum, New York Botanical
Garden, ;;ept. 11, 1902. From Journal of The Neto Ycyrk Botanical Garden, Not.
1902,

acted on by diastase, and thus rendered soluble, that it can be taken up by
■the sap and used as food in the building up of new tissues. The failure to
secrete sufficient diastase thus causes a condition quite comparable to that
of severe indigestion in man or the higher animals.

By far the greater number of plant diseases are caused by the action of
parasites. The number of kinds of parasites that infest plants is very
great. Probably no plant of economic importance is free from thera, and
the more widely cultivated crops have to contend with a formidable num-
ber of parasitic foes. These may be either animal or vegetable, and they
belong to widely difiering groups. In the vegetable kingdom plant para-
sites are found among the slime moulds, the bacteria, the green algae, the
fungi, and a few even among the flowering plants. In the animal kingdom
they are less widely scattered, being found only among the nematode worms
the mites and the insects. It is in the great group of chlorophylless plants
called fungi that we find by far the greatest number of plant parasites.
The diseases known as smuts, rusts, mildews, leaf-spots and moulds are all
caused by fungus parasites, while many of the blights, rots, and wilts are
also due to them.

All parts of the plant are liable to be invaded bv parasites. Roots,
stems, leaves, flowers and fruits each have their special enemies. The sur-
face only may be the point ofattftck, or the parasite may burrow deeply
in the tissues. The nature of the injury caused will depend on the habit,
and structure of the host plant, on the point of attack, and on the character
of the parasite. In some cases it may be little more than the loss of a cer-
tain amount of food material,, the host and the parasite bting so adjusted
to each other that the latter liv^es with a minimum of inconvenience to the
former. Plants of wheat or oats infested by smut show very little incon-
venience from the presence of the mycelium of the former in their tissues.
It is only at maturity when, instead of ripened grain, we find the black
powdered masses of fungus spores that the extent of the injury is sus-
pected. Such cases, however, are rare. There are usually secondary com-
plications that do for more harm than the mere loss of food. Thus the coat-
ing of the surface of leaves by external growths of mildews and sooty moulds
shuts ofi the light from the chlorophyl bodies, partially preventing pho-
tosynthesis, the process of starch formation. The presence of internal
parasites often excites a morbid growth of the plant tissues causing galls,
knots or other deformities, or they may cause an excessive formation of
gums or resins. In other cases the parasites may multiply so greatly in
the tissues as to plug the ducts in the vascular bundles, shutting off the
ascending sap and thus causing the sudden wilting and death of the entire
top. The rotting of the roots may cause a similar wilting. A bacterial
parasite causes the fermenting of the sap in the soft cambium layer of pear
and apjjle trees causing the sudden death of considerable branches.

Different fungi have acquired the power of parasitism in different de-
grees. The true parasites like the rusts and smuts have the power of tak-
ing their nourishment directly from the living protoplasm of their hosts.
In most cases they do not kill the tissues in which they are embedded
though they may interfere seriously with their normal functions. Other
fungi that normally live on decaying vegetable matter have developed the
power under certain conditions of penetrating tissues that are still living.
These are called facultative parasites. They are not able as a rule to take
nourishment directly from the living protoplasm as do the true parasites,
but they push their hyphae into or between the living cells of the host,
And by the secretion of poisonous acids and enzymes kill them and render

their contents soluble, thus causing the actual destruction of the liviao-
tissue. Many of the species of fuagi that are normally strictly sapro*
phytic at times develop this power of killing and disintegrating livino"
tissues. Most of the timber rots so destructive to forest trees and to struc°
tural timbers, belong among these facultative parasites.

It is only after the cause of a disease is thoroughly understood that w e
can begin iatelligeatly to seek a remedy. The anaaal losses from plant
diseases are so great as to be beyond computation, but it is safe to say that
■they reach many millions of dollars for the State of New York alone.
Unfortunately, too, all of these losses come from what should be the
farmer's profits, for it costs the same to prepare the land, plant and harvest
the grain crop when the yield is half smut as it does when it is all clean
sound grain. The question of the prevention of plant diseases is thus one
of very great practical importaace. Vegetable pathology is one of tha
newest of the biological scienc .s. What we know of it has practically all
been learned during the past thirty years. I remember that when in
College during the seventies the only known remedies for plant diseases
were that sulphur sprinkled on rose bushes and grape vines would
to some extent, prevent mildew, and that soaking seed oats in a weak solu-
tion of copper sulphate would prevent smut in the following crop. At
least there was a popular impression that these were facts, but°no conolu-
sive experiments in regard to them had been recorded. Now the list of
preventable or partially preventable diseases is a very long one. The
number of remedial measures used is also considerable.

With the environmental diseases the obvious remedy is to correct the
unfavourable conditions. If the ground is too wet, drairi it. If too dry,
irrigate it, or cultivate so as to conserve moisture. If poor in plant f >od'
fertilize it. Or if a certain crop is not suited to the prevailing conditions
grow some other crop that will find them congenial. These I say are ob-
vious methods for preventing troubles of this kind and yet the problem is
by no means a simple one. In only too many cases we are unable to pre-
diet without actual trial whether or not a given crop will thrive under new
and untried surroundings.

Our knowledge of the functional diseases is not yet sufficient to permit
the suggestion of renedies. They must still, for the mjst part, be classed
as incurable. We may know, as in the case of the aster "yellow disease,"
that an insufficient s-^cretion of diastase prevents the assimilation of the
f.tarch grains but what cause prevents this normal secretion is as yet ua-
guessed and consequently is unpreventable. No group of diseases is more
urgently in need of further investigation than these.

It is in the controlling and preventing of parasitic diseases that modern
progress has been most marked. Remedial measures that may be em-
ployed against them can best be considered under the headings, hygiene,
topical applications, and heredity.

Under hygiene are included cultural methods that aid the plant in re-
sisting disease; the establishment of crop rotations so that plants
liable to the same diseases shall not follow each otner in the same field ;
the prevention of contagion by the destruction of diseased plants or parts
of plants, and methods of pruning and training whether for removing
diseased portions, as is often practised with pear blight and plum black '
knot, or for regulating exposure to sun and rain as in some methods of
training grape vines. A good example ot the effect of cultural methods
in controlling a disejse is furnished by the so-called "black rust" of
,cotton, which often causes serioiis losses on light sandy lands. Espari-

ments have conclusively shown that this disease can be prevented by-
incorporating vegetable matter in the soil and applying potash fertili-
zers. This so increases the vigour of the plant that the facultative para-
sites causing the disease are unable to gain a foothold. On the other
band, the injury to pear trees from blight can be much lessened by pre-
venting a too vigorous growth and securing the early ripening of the wood.
This can best be secured by witholding cultivation and nitrogenous
manures. In this case the disease germs only flourish in the soft rapidly
growing cambium and the hardening of the wood stops the spread of the
disease.

Topical applications may be made to the seed before planting, to the
growing plant in the form of fungicidal sprays, or in some cases to the
soil. Treatment of the seed is useful only in those cases where the source
of contagion is from spores that adhere to the seeds and are planted with
them. Thus in harvesting and threshing oats the spores from smutted
heads become dusted over the sound grains. It is almost or quite impossi-
ble to find seed for planting that is not more or less infested in this manner.
If such seed is soaked in hot water of the rigbt temperature or in certain
fungicidal solutions, as formalin or copper sulphate, the smut spoies will
be killed without injuring the vitality of the grain; and the crop from this
treated seed will be practically free from smut. Potato scab is a disease that
is usually disseminated by the planting of diseased tubers for seed. Where
once introduced in the soil it lives from year to year, so that seed treat-
ment is not always effective; but, if planted on clean land, even badly
scabbed seed potatoes will yield a clean crop if soaked in a weak solution
of corrosive sublimate.

The discovery that certain diseases can be prevented by sprinkling
plants with a solution of copper sulphate mixed with milk of lime marked
an important epoch in the treatment of plant diseases. This mixture,
known as Bordeaux mixture from the town in France uear which its use
was accidentally discovered, is now the standard remedy for a large class
of diseases. In the case of many orchard and garden crops, spraying with
Bordeaux mixture is as much a recognized part of proper culture as is the
tilling of the soil. As first used the mixture was simply spattered over
tbe leaves by means of a whisk broom. This method was unsatisfactory,
as it was slow and did not secure a sufficiently even distiibution of the
liquid. Thanks to American ingenuity and particularly to the efforts of
the late (J. V. Kiley, then chief entomologist, and of B. F. Galloway, now
chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of
Agriculture, suitable pumps and spraying nozzles were devised, by means of
which plants can be quickly and evenly covered with this or other liquids
in the form of a fine mist-like spray. Other compounds of copper have
also been found to have strong fungicidal properties, but none are so gener-
ally useful as the Bordeaux mixture. When properly made and applied, it
does not injure the foliage except of a few particularly delicate plants
and as it is not easily washed off by rains its effects are more lasting than
•with other fungicides. It is now the standard remedy for potato blij;ht
grape rot and mildew, apple scab, peach leaf curl, and a long list of simi-
lar diseases. It should always be remembered however that, except in the
case of a few external parasites, spraying is a preventive measure and not
a cure. Sprays cannot reach internal parasites when once established, but
by coating the surface they prevent the germination of spoies that find a
lodgement there and thus prevent infection. The importance of early
fiprayitig before a disease makes its appearance, and of thorough work in
jeacbing all exposed parts of the plant will be apparent from these facts.

The beneficial results from spraying have, in many cases, becD so great
-that, for a time, pathologists were inclined to think it a cure for all kinds
of diseases. It is now clearly realized that, notwithstanding its great use-
fulness, it has its limitations, that there are many diseases it cannot reach
and many others where it should not be relied on alone, but should be
used in connection with other remedial measures.

Soil treatment can be employed in comparatively few cases. Injections
of carbon disulphide are sometimes used for certain animal root parasites.
Spraying the ground along the row is recommended for the salerotiuia
wilt, a disease attacking garden vegetables in the Southern States. Sterili-
zing the soil in green-houses, by heating it with live steana from perfor-
ated pipes, is now practiced with great success in preventing injury from
nematodes and from various soil-inhabitinor fuas:i.

The great importance of heredity as a factor in controlling plant diseases
is only now beginning to be fully recognised. Individual plants, like in-
dividual men, vary in their ability to resist disease. Even in plants of the
same cultural variety, this difference in resisting power is often qaiie
marked. It has long been observed that some varieties are more resistant
than others. It is uow found that, like other qualities, this power of re-
sistance is inheritable, and that by carefully breeding from the most re-
sistant individuals, it is often possible to establish resistant strains or va-
rieties. This point was clearly brought out at the i-ecent Plant Breeders
Oonfereace ia this city. The case of resistant strains of cotton, described
by Mr, Orton, of the Department of Agriculture, was particularly interest-
ing. In a very few years he has been able to select strains of cotton,
practically immune to the wilt, a disease that has devastated large areas
in the Southern States. Spraying to prevent disease is at best an expen-
sive and exacting operation, aud cultivators will welcome the day, if it
shall ever come, when the breeding and selection of resistant varieties
.shall make it no longer necessary.

REPORT ON A TRIP TO JAMAICA.*

Pkof. F. S. Earle.

Dr. N. L. Britton, Dii-ector-in-Chief, New Fork Botanical Garden :

Sir,

In accordance with your directions I sailed for Jamaica on October I6th
reaching there on October 20th, and remaining until November 2Gth,
The trip was uudertaken on the invitation of the Hon. Wm. Fawcett,
Director of the Jamaica Public Gardens, for the purpose of investigating
certain diseases of logwood, cocoanuts and other economic plants. My
instructions were also to secure living specimens of tree ferns for the Con-
servatories, and to collect fungi and other cryptogams for the herbarium.
Thanks to the hearty co-operation of the Jamaica Government and of the
United Fruit Co , and to the invaluable aid given by Mr, Fawcett and his
associates, Mr. Wm. Harris and Mr, Wm, Cradwick the objects of the ex-
pedition were succpssfully accomplished. Forty-live specimens of tree
ferns representing fourteen or fifteen species were secured and forwarded

* By permission from the " Journal of the New York Botanical Garden,"
Jan. 1903.

to the Garden. Six hundred and thirty herbarium specimens v/ere taten
of which nearly five hundred are fungi, the remainder being lichens and
mosses with a few fresh water aJgae. These will be studied and lists pre-
pared as soon as other duties will permit. The following plant diseases
were observed. In a number of cases cultures were secured of the organisms
found in the diseased tissues and a more extended account will be prepared
when laboratory studies and inoculation experiments with these organisms
have been completed.

Logwood Boot Bot ; Cn some estates, especially toward the western end
of the island, logwood trees are dying in considerable numbers.

The diseased trees usually occur in groups, the infection spreading
slowly but in constantly widening circle. An examination of dying trees
shows the roots to be badly rotted. 'Jheir surface tissues are invaded by
a white fungus mycelium that is usually more abundantly developed in the
region between the bark and the wood. The disease seems to first attack
the small rootlets gradually spreading to the laiger roots and the crown
when the tree dies. In many cases seeming healthy trees near the border
of infested areas were found to have the roots on the side next the dying
trees badly diseased, while on the other side they were still perfectly
healthy. The fungus seems to be the mycelium of some of the Hymen-
omycetes. Numerous species of Polyporaceae and Thelephoraceae were
taken on logwood stumps and logs, but in no case could their connection
•with this root rot be satisfactorily proven. "Whatever the nature of the
fungus, leaving sfumps of trees that have died from this disease in the
Dcighbourhood of living trees is clearly dangerous. Dying trees should be
dug and the roots burned as soon as the disease can be detected. Where
it is confined to certain shall definite areas as is often the case, it would
be advisable to dig a trench three feet deep just outside of the diseased
area in order to prevent its spread underground to the roots of healthy
trees. On a few of the estates examined the disease was so widely
scattered that this method of treat > eut would not be practicable. Here
it would seem best to clear the infested tract entirely of logwood, market-
ing such as was sufficiently mature, and allowing the land to grow up in
pimento and limes, or reserving it for pasturage or cultivation. It should
be mentitned in this connection that pimento trees are said to die from a
similar root rot in some parts of the island. If this should prove to be
identical with the logwood root rot, pimento would not be available as an-
alternative crop.

This root rot seems to spread slowly. One old logwood chipper assured
me that trees had been dying for thirty five years on a spot that he pointed
out. This area does not now include over three or four acres. This would
indicate that by vigorous measures it could be controlled. The disease
was found on various kinds of soils and under moisture conditions varying
from dry rocky hill sides to the margin of swamps. In some cases the
diseased areas were on spots where the soil was rich and deep and the
moisture and drainage condition porfect. It was not observed on the
heavy clay lands toward the eastern end of the island but whether this
was due to the absence of infection or to the character of the soil could
not be determined.

" Bastard" Logwood : The logwood dye of commerce is extracted from
the heart wood of mature trees of Eaematoxylon Campechianum. In Jamaica
occasional trees are found in which little or no haematcxylin is found.
In its place is a fubstance yielding a dull yellowish green dye. Such
sticks are rejected by logwood buyers for they not only yield none of the
desired colouring material, but if mixed with the normal wood in any
quantity, do harm by spoiling the tint of the extract. Complaints have-

been reaching the Botanical Department of Jamaica, from certain quarters
for some time, that the amount of this so called bastard wood was increas-
ing. The cause of this lack of haematoxylin in certain trees was one of
the problems T was requested to investigate and consitlerable time was
given to it. The facts ascertained are as follows : * 1st, logwood is a varia-
ble plant showing marked differences in form, colour, and texture of leaf, time
of blooming, form and extent of the ribs on the trunk, colour of bark and
of especially in the colour and dye-producing quality of the heart wood.
Four well marked varieties are said to be recognized in Honduras aud three
are usually recognized in Jamaica, but there are many other intermediate
forms. 2nd. Bastard wood is not the result of disease or of any lack of
vigour. The trees producing it are perfectly healthy and normal. 3rd. It
is not the result of soil or climatic conditions since bastard anl normal
trees are found growing side by side under absolutely identical conditions.
4:th. It is not the result of immaturity. Aged trees may produce bastard
wood while in normal trees the heart wood as soon as formed contains a
good percentage of haematoxylin. These facts seems to point to heredity
as the probable cause of the trouble. That is that certain trees produce
only bastard wood because they grew from the seed of a bastard tree ; or
in other words that bastard logwood represents a variety of Haematoxylon
campechianum that normally produces little or no haematoxylin, just as
one Honduras variety has smaller, shorter, thinner and lighter coloured
leaves. Experiments now in progress at Hope Gardens, Jamaica, and at
the New York Botanical Garden with seedlings from the seed of bastard
and of normal trees should in time settle this question conclusively. In
any event it seems a matter of minor practical importance since apparently
not over one or two trees in a thousand are of the bastard variety. No
data was obtained to show whether or not the trouble was increasing as
claimed by some An inrirease could be readily accounted for by the fact
that on many estates a tree that is chipped iuio and found to be bastard
has been allowed to stand and produce continued crops of seed while the nor-
mal trees have been cut down on reaching maturity. A wise policy would
insure the prompt destruction of such trees whenever detected as they have
no value except for firewood, and should not be allowed tu produce seed.
It is unfortunate that there seems to be no constant difference in leaf or
trunk by which these bastard trees can be distinguished, that would allow
of their still earlier destruction.

Coco-nut Bud Disease : — Outbreaks of a serious disease of coco-nut trees
have occurred in Jamaica at various times. Some years ago the groves in
the neighborhood of Moutego Bayf were badly injured by it and the in-
dustry was completely destroyed on the Grand Caymau| Island, probably
by the same trouble. At present it is attracting but little attention al-
though numerous cases of it exist widely scattered over the western end
of the Island, a few being observed as far to the eastward as Port Antonio.
It was not observed to the east of a line between Port Antonio and King-
ston. One of the first symptoms of the disease is the dropping of the im-
mature nuts. In some cases the lower clusters hang on and reach matu-
rity but usually all fall off. The leaves droop a little, and become some-
what yellow. Often those that are just unfolding are seen to be dis-
torted and blackened on the e<lges. The young flower buds still envel-
oped in the spathe, rot, and finally the central leaf-bud rots and the entire

* I am under obligation to Dr. Emil Bucher, Superintendent of the West India
Chemical Works for much information in regard to Logwood.

t iSee Bulktm of the Botanical Departmenc, Jamaica, Sept., 181)1. p. 2
X See Bulletin of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, Feb., Ia89, p. 3.

top falls awav. Sucb trees are often pointed out by the planters as hav-
ing been struck by lightning. Others attribute the death of the tree to a
large borer said to work from the trunk up into the bud. In the numer-
ous cases examined death was not due to either of these causes. The head
of the tree was in all cases invaded by what seems to be a bacterial rot.
The organism developes in the sweet slimy coating found on all the young
protected origans. It eats into the sheathing bases of the petioles and at-
tacks the flowering sheaths. As the spathe grows, the surface becomes
cracked and the disease reaches the soft flower buds through these cracks.
Finally it reaches the " cabbage" or central growing point which it soon
reduces to a stinking rotten mass. The top now falls away sometimes
leaving a circle of the lower leaves that had matured before the tree was
attacked. These persist for a time but of course finally die also as the
tree has no power of branching or of producing a new growing point. The
means by which the contagion is conveyed from tree to tree oould not be
determined nor could any estimate be formed of the time elapsing between
infection and the death of the tree. Numerous cultures were secured and
the study of the disease will be continued.

At Port Antonio the petioles and midribs of the leaves of gome of the
diseased trees were found to he invaded by a parasite that caused the
browning and death of the tissues. This petioln disease was found on some
trees that did not as yet show signs of the bud trouble, Whether or not
the two troubles are caused by the same organism can only be determined
hy the further study of the cultures that were secured.

From our present imperfect knowledge of this disease it is impossible to
suggest a remedy. Remedial measures or rather successful preventive
measures would probably depend on the method by which the disease is
conveyed from tree to tree. This can only be determined by careful and
prolonged field htudy. The importance of the industry involved would
fullv justify the expenditure antl effort necessary to obtain a complete
understanding of this disease. The necessity for the destruction of the
contagion by the prompt cutting and burning of all infected trees is shown
by the marked tendency of the disease to spread from each centre of in-
fection.

It is claimed by some planters that a ce'-tain green skinned variety of
cocoanut is less liable to this disease than the reddish and yellowish kinds.
The facts observed seemed to support tliis view. If it is confirmed by
further obesrvations it will be a factor of the greatest importauco as it
would make possible the selecting of a resistant race of cocoanuts,

Coco-nut Wasting Disease : — In the Eastern part of the Islanl between
Morant Bay and Manchioneal, a disease occurs that can best be described
by the above name. The nuts slowly fall. The lower leaves droop and
fall prematurely, while the new leaves that are produced become success-
ively smaller and less vigorous. In the final stage the leaves are re-
duced to less than half the normal size and the few that remain stand
erect as a thin wisp at the apex of the bare stem which is seen to be ab-
ruptly tapered almost to a point. At length the tree dies, but the course
of the disease is always slow, and afi"ected trees may live for months or
perhaps years. In the trees examined a white scale insect was always
found at the base of the petioles and on the fruiting peduncles. The slow
loss of /^itality shown by these trees is a result that could be expected from
the presence of this class of insects in sufficient quantity but they did not
*:eem numerous enough to fully account for the serious effect on the tree.
In all the cases examined there was also a slow rotting of the sheathing
bases of the petioles and of the fruiting sheaths. The scale insects were

also observeii on some trees that did not as yet show recognizable symp-
toms of the disease Whether such symptoms would ultimately develop
can only be determined by observations continued through a considerable
period. Mr, Wm. Cradwick of the Jamaica Agricultural Department has
undertaken to make farther field studies and as specimens of the scale and
cultures from the diseased tissues have been secured it is hoped we may
ultimately gain a better understanding of this interesting but obscure
trouble.

If, as it seems probable, the scale is the first inciting cause of the disease
it should be possible to devise some remedial treatment. Owing to the
height of the trees and the method of growth, the scales being largely
sheltered by the fibrous sheathing bases of the leaves, the successfal ap.
plication of insecticides would be difficult but not necessarily impossible.
Mr. Cradwick will undertake some experiments on this line.

An interesting experiment has been tried on one of the plantations of
the United Fruit Co., in firing the dead leaves and fibres hanging on the
diseased trees. The flame kills all the fruits and open flowers and most
of the expanded leaves but the apical bud is not injured and new leaves
and flowers are soon developed. This seems like heroic treatment, but two
trees were pointed out that had been fired six months ago when they were
in advanced stages of the disease ; now they seem entirely recovered and
are putting on a new crop of fruit This firing of the trees has also been
suggested as a remedy for the bud disease. The chances for success
would seem to be much less in that case for the disease so soon becomes
deeply seated.

Coco-nut Trunk Borer : A few trees were observed where areas on the
trunk two or three feet or more in extent had been bored full of small
holes no larger than a knitting needle. Minute white larva were found
at the bottom of some of these burrows but noue were taken in onditioa
for identification. A rotting of the trunk soon follows these borings and
if the insect was abundant it would c luse considerable loss. It was only
observed in the grove and there only in a few trees.

Coco-nutTrunk Rot : Afew cases were observed when some slight injury
allowed the entrance of a rot that destroyed the entire centre of the trunk.
In one case an outer rind of less than half an inch of healtl\y wood re-
mained, a rotten liquid running out when this was cut through. Strange-
ly enough the top of this tree still seemed healthy and vigorous, but the
rot in the centre of the trunk had reached to within a few inches of the
base of the bud. Such cases seem to be very rare but they shew the im-
portance of avoiding unnecessary wounds of the trunk.

Banana Leaf Blight : On one locality at Stony Hill, north of Kingston
a serious banana disease was observed. It causes the browning of the vas-
. cular bundles in the veins and midrib ot the leaves. This is soon fol-
lowed by the blackening of the entire leaf blade and eventually by the
rotting of the leaf and petiole. It does not seem able to extend from the
petiole into the tissue of the stem. The terminal bud is not attacked
but continues t) push out fresh leaves. These soon become infected in
turn so that usually not more than three or four of the younger leaves
. are free from the disease. Infected plants are much stunted in growth
and do not bear fruit. In the small field where it was first observed fully
three-fourths of the plants were infected. The cent igion was in this case
probably introduced with the suckers that were used for planting as these
were said to have been taken trom some neglected patches in the
.neighbourhood, and a visit to these showed that they were also infected.

The disease evidently spreads slowly as it had not crossed a wid« hedge-
row separating this "infested field from one adjoining. It may never prove
troublesome, but the advisability of immediataly destroying all diseased
plants was strongly urged. If so destructive a disease should by any
chance become widely scattered the result would be truly disastrous.

Apparently it is due to abacterial parasite. Cultures were obtained and
it is hoped to study the disease further. No evidence was secured as to
the means by which it is conveyed to the fresh leaves or from plant to
plant. So far as ktown it is confined to this one locality which is at an
elevation of seme 1,200 feet and on red land. Such locations are not con-
sidered to be adapted to bananas, yet all uninfested plants were growing,
and fiuiting satisfactorily.

Orange Boot Grub: Orange growers, especially in the neighbourhood of
of Bog Walk, are much troubled by a grub that gnaws the bark of the
roots. Often the injury is sufficient to cause the death of the trees.
"Where the trees do not die, tlie growth ceases, the leaves turn yellow and
the crop fails. The grub is a footless larva probably that of Praepodes
vittata, one of the Curculionidae. (See Journal of Jamaica Agricultural
Society, January 18&8, p. 11.) From what 1 am told of the habits of this
insect it can best be destroyed when in the adult stage. The beetles are
said to gather in great numbers on the orange trees eating the foliage, if
such is the case, they could be destroyed by arseniacal sprays. They are
said to be clumsy flyeis, and to have the habit common to many of the
Curculionidae of falling to the ground when jarred or disturbed. This
should make it possible to catch them by jarring on to sheets as is done
with the peach curculio. The larvae could doubtless be killed in the
ground by injections of carbon di-sulphide, but whether this could be done
without injury to the tree and at an expense that would make it practi-
cable, can only be detei mined by carefully conducted experiments in the
field. Whether tobacco or other substances worked into the soil about the
tree would prevent the depositing of eggs, is [ erhaps worth trying. The
insect is thought to be a general feeder, and is not confined to the orange,
though it seems to be particularly partial to all citrus fruits. Some grow-
ers claim that they have suffered more when practising clean cultivation
than when weeds and bush are allowed to grow for part of the year the
roots of which may serve to divide the attention of the grub.

In this connection it may be noted that orange scale insects are not like-
ly to prove seriously troublesome for in the moisture regions at least they
are quickly destroyed by fungus parasites.

The orange rust mite occurs on the Island but it only seems troublesome
on certain wet heavy soils.

Cocoa Stem Conker : This trouble was only observed in the neighbour""
hood of Port Maria, but it probably occurs in other parts of the Island-
Slightly swollen areas occur on the trunk or larger branches. 'I he tissues
in the central part of the swellings soon die and the yellow perithecia of
some Nectiinaceous fun<;us develop on the baik. The swelling continues
to grow at ihe margin lill finally it often girdles and kills the tree. Keep-
ing the trunks and larger branches painted or sprayed with Bcirdeaux mix-
ture should be a complete protection from this disease. It would alsc des-
troy moss and lichens and keep the trunks in a clean, healthy condition.
Promptly cutting out ef the diseased areas and painting the cut surfaces
with sulphate of copper or sulphate of iron solution and then coating with-
tar or paint would piobnbly in most cases save trees that are already at-
tacked.

Cocoa Pod Bot : Examples of rotting cocoa pods were seen at various
places. Apparently more than one species of fungus is concerned in this
rotting. This point will be reported on later. This rotting is not attract-
ing much attention, but with the Criollo variety at low altitudes, it is
certainly very serious and under certain conditions it is liable to prove
destructive to other kinds. Whether or not the blasting of tlie young poda
is due to the growth of a fungus could not be certainly determined.
This blasting occasions a very considerable loss especially to the fall crop.

Cocoa Root Disease : There is trouble from the dying of cocoa trees on
certain areas. The roots examined all showed signs of having been gnawed
much as in the orange trouble, but in addition the injured were attacked
"by some fungus mycelium, Vv ant of time prevented a thorough investiga-
tion of this trouble.

Cassava Boot Bot : It was stated by some labourers that cassava roots
rotted if planted on land where logwood trees had died. A Cassava patch
was examined that had been planted on such lands. A number of unthrifty
plants were noted, and on digging them up the roots were found to be en-
veloped in a white mycelium and to be rapidly rotting. Dead logwood
stumps were near these diseased plants. This was on a rather light, up-
land, red soil that was well adapted to the growth of cassava. The con-
nection between the cassava rut and the logwood root rot could only be in-
ferred.

In conclusion I would say that this somewhat hasty reconnaissance dem-
strates the presence in Jamaica of a number of diseases of economic plants,
some at least of which are liable to prove destructive. The short time at my
disposal was not sufficient for a thorough study of any of these and the few
remedial and preventive measures suggested above are tentative only, and
are intended simply as the bases for field experiments. I would respect-
fully suggest to the Jamaica Government that the Agriciltural Department
can do no more useful or practical work than to provide for a furtherstudy
of these diseases.

"While thus emphasizing the great importance of requiring a full know-
ledge of such diseases as do occur, I feel like congratulating the planters
of Jamaica on the fact that these serious diseases seem to be so few. Most
countries with equally diversified crops have to contend with a much greater
number.

CASSAVA FROM COLOMBIA.

Analyses of [Seventeen Varieties introduced from Colombia and grown by
Mr. Kobert Thomson, at Half Way Tree, Jamaica.

By H. H. Cousins, M.A. (Oxon) F.C.S.Government and Agricultural

Chemist

Mr. Robert Thomson, formerly Superintendent of Publio Gardens in
Jamaica, has taken a leading part in urging the claims of Cassava as a food
product for and districts in the tropics as also a profitable source of starcli
and glucose for commercial purposes. At the instance of the Hon, Sydney
Olivier the Chairman of the Board of Agriculture, I was instructed to ar-
range with Mr. Thomson for the analysis of a unique collection of varie-
ties of Cassava brought by him from Colombia as a guide to tueir economic
value.

This has been done, and as the results show these Colombian varieties are
marked by a very high Starch content and are practically free from prus-
sio aciA. These varieties were grown at Half Way Tree on the Liguanea

|)lain, and it is possible that some varieties, as Mr. Thomson suggests
would succeed better in the hill?. It is hoped, so soon as stock of these
■varieties has been established, to conduct careful experiments as to the Ag-
ricultural yield and the content of Starch. It will also be of interest ta
note whether acclimatisation will cause an increase in the amount of prua-
fiic acid obtainable from the tubers.

A comparative test of these cassavas against our Creole stook of bitter
and sweet varieties is eminently desirable. Should these Colombian varie-
ties maintain their promising character, their introduction from the inte-
rior of Colombia by Mr. Thomson to the West Indies and the Indian Em-
pire must be regarded as a signal service.

The seventeen varieties were delivered on the afternoon of November
28th, in a perfectly fresh state, and were immediately prepared and
sampled for analysis. Determinations of moisture, total solids, starch and
hydrocyanic acid were made. The latter was determined by Carmody's ♦
method of soaking slices in water. The hydrocyanic acid was estimated
after 24 hours soaking and again after 48 hours in a fresh quantity of
water. The amounts so obtained were remarkably low, far below Car-
mody's minimum for sweet cassava grown in Trinadad. I anticipate as
possible that these Colombian varieties may develop a higher prussic
acid content when acclimatised to Jamaica. In their present state these
cassavas are practically non-poisonous, and the analytical data fully sup-
port the reputation for harmlessness which Mr. Thomson ascribes to
them as grown in Colombia.

Carmody's average for bitter cassava grown in Trinadad is 0.022 per
cent, and for sweet cassava 0-010 per cent, and of the latter, peeled for use
as a food product, 0-007 per cent, uf hydrocyanic acid. The average of these
seventeen Colombian varieties is only 0-001 7 or only ^of that in Trinadad
sweet cassava. Further experiments are in hand to test the distribution of the
poisonous hydrocyanic acid as between the inner and the outer portions of
the tubers. Carmody (loc. cit.) states that his experiments indicate that an
analytical difference can be drawn between "sweet" and "bitter" cassava by
the factthat in the former most of the hydrocyanic acid is derived from the
external portion, while in the latter the poison is uniformly distributed.
— As regards starch yield the variety Governor Hemming leads with 36.5
per cent., a very hi^h content closely followed by Cabesa Dura, Negrita,
Eelada andPaloma.

The three Pacho Varieties (2, 3 & 4) are the lowest in starch content with
'22.3 to 19.3 per cent, Mr. Thomson states that these varieties should do
well at a high elevation There is thus a variation of 90 per cent, iu the
starch content of these seventeen varieties. Given a high percentage of
starch and large agricultural productivity, the yield of starch in Jamaica
should be considerable.

The variation of moisture from 54 to 72 per cent, is also worthy of note,
as also the variation of 3.5 to 19 per cent, in solids other than starch.

It is hoped on a future occasion to supply data in which the composition
of the tubers shall be returnable as an agricultural yield per acre of food
or of commercial starch and glucose.

Appended are the analyses in which I was assisted by Messrs. Hammond
and Wortley.

An interesting Memorandum from Mr. Thomson follows :

In view of the importance of cassava both as a food product and a source
,of starch, arrangements have been made for a systematic trial of various

* Auaual Report Government Analyst Triaidid, 1931.

native varieties of cassava which are held in repute. Analysis and field
results will be published in this Bulletin when they are ready.

RESULTS OF ANALYSIS.
(in ordeu of Staroh-Content,)

No.

Name.

Ref,

No.

2!
16

Moisture

57.17

54 69

Starch.

Solids :

not
Starch.

6 33
9.99

Hydro cy.
aiiic Acid.

Governor Hemming (Noto-

seves)
Cabesa Dura

36.50
35.40

0.0018
0010

Ne<;rita

1.5

55 10

34 80

10.10

0.0019

Helada

55.41

34.30

10.29

0007

Paloma

57.78

34 20

7.92

0.0017

Blancita

54.22

33.80

11.98

0.0009

Pacho

59.61

33.33

7.06

0.0029

Cajon Amarilla

—

56.11

33 30

10.59

0.0030

Negrita

59.31

31.10

9.59

0.0010

Helada

56.93

29.90

13.17

0.0019

Negrita

61.43

27.70

10.87

0020

Cenaguera

67.21

25.00

7.79

0.0014

Montera

2,=!

71.42

-5 00

3.58

0.0(109

Negrita

60.57

23.90

15 53

0.0035

Pacho

58.57

22.30

19.13

0.0022

Pacho

•2

72.28

22.10

5.62

0.00 10

Pacho .

64.19
60 12

19.30
29.53

16. £0
13.6

0.0010

Average

0.0010

Memorandum.

By RoBKRT Thomson.
The varieties analysed were collected in various provinces of the Repub-
lic of Colombia last year by my son, under my instructions. These are
new to the West Indies. I resided many years in that Republic, and the
importance of this culture attracted my attention, consequent on the enor-
mous consumption of cassava as an article of human food — cooked in the
same way as Irish potatoes. Indeed some ot the varieties of Cassava, I
concluded, were equal in point ol flavour to that tuber. 1 was also struck
with the capacity of the plant to resist droughts. Poisonous varieties are
unknown to the people in the interior of Colombia, so that the people
there entertain no shadow of suspicion in this respect.

Only a f iw cuttings of each variety were introduced, and these were
planted only about a foot apart in nursery beds, with a view to subse-
quent propagation on a large scale. I now have cuttings enough to plant
about two acres. I regret I have been unable to establish experimental
plots of each variety with a view to test their respective productive capa-
city on the hot plains. Some of the varieties succeed best on the hills.

The result of the analyses of the 17 varieties is important. The leading
variety contains the extraordinary percentage of 36-50 of starch. Other
varieties closely approximate to this.

From plants systematically cultivated in the field here and planted con-
temporaneously with the Colombian varieties the return which I have ob-
tained is only 17 per cent. Doubtless by chemical analysis the yield would
be somewhat higher.

From the point of view of human and animal food the analysis is also
extremely important. As is stated by Mr. Cousins the poisonous bitter
cassava o-rown in Trinidad contains 0.022 per cent of hydrocyanic acid,
and the sweet 0.010 per cent. Thus the sweet actually contains nearly
half of the hydrocyanic acid of the bitter. The contrast in this respect
with the Colombian varieties is remarkable. Mr. Cousins says : — " The
averao-e obtained for these Colombian varieties is only 0.0017 or only |-
the amount contained in Trinidad Sweet Cassava."

The general result is that the Colombian varieties are par excellence
the varieties to be cultivated for animal food, as well as for starch
production.

A New Method of Treating Cereal Grains and

Starchy Products.

By Dr. A. P. Anderson.

The cereal graius including wheat, rice, barley, oats maize, and rye form
a most important part of the food of the human race. The chief value of
the cereal lies in the starch which they contain, which may amount to as
much as 5'-' to bO per cent of the weight of the dried kernels.

Starch occurs in plants in the form of globose, ovoid and oblong
bodies of rounded outlines, the exact shape assumed in any plant being,
more or less characteristic of the species. Almost any growing green
plant will be found to contain starch grains in all stages of formation
from the most minute to the maximum size. Those of the potato often
attain a diameter of a hundredth of an inch being visible to the naked
eve An examination of the granules with a maguification of a few
hundred diameters shows that they are constructed of concentric layers
or coats of alternating denser and watery layers, the centrum around which
the layers are arranged being of the latter character. The granule con-
tains from 15 to 22 per cent, of water when in an air-dry condition. In-
vestigation of these interesting bodies with reference to their formation
shows that they are really bailt up like crystals,, being in fact sphaero-
crystals.

Starch granules when intact are acted upon but slowly by chemicals
especially the digestive enzymes. Consequently starchy substances are
made more suitable for food by cooking or some method of treatment
by which the granules are broken up. When starch granules are warmed
in water they begin to swell at a temperature of 55° to Q>*)° C, and burst at
75° to 80° C, being converted into a uniformly translucent mass known
as starch paste in which the minute particles are suspended in the water,
,but are not dissolved.

It is well known that starch grains do not swell or break up to any great
extent when heated in an air-dry condition at a temperature employed in
breadmaking by ordinary methods. Although bread is one of the oldest
and most widely used food preparations yet it is by no means to be consid-
ered ae an economical use of starch since the granules in the centre of a
loaf are practically unchanged and therefore digestible only with great
diflSculty. The desired changes do ensue to some extent in the crust, but
in prevailing methods of preparation, the proportion of the whole amount
of starch present made available for rapid digestion, is very small.

As a result ot almost continuous work during the past year I have been
so fortunate as to develop a method by which, with the application of
heat to starch grains and to air-dry starch in many forms, the granules or
particles are expanded to many times their original dimensions, being
fractured into innumerable fragments during the process. As a result of
this treatment a grain of rice is expanded to eight or more times its ori-
ginal volume, while still retaining its original form. Other cereals ex-
hibit similar behaviour. The process is applicable to nearly all starchy
seeds and starcy substances, greatly increasing their nutritive availabilit7.
The products obtained are pleasant to the taste, and the process may be
varied to produce a great variety of flavours with any given cereal.
Furthermore, the material prepared in this manner is absolutely sterilized
and may be preserved or stored for long periods. I am led to hope from
the approval the products have met from food and chemical experts that
the process may prove of great economic and commercial value.

The experiments by which this method was developed were begun at
Clemson College, South Carolina, in the spring of 1901, but no results of
any direct bearing upon the process mentioned were obtained at that time.
Upon my removal to Columbia University in August, 190 i, time was af-
forded me to resume the investigations, and in the Laboratories of the
New York Botanical Grarden every facility was given me for the prosecu-
tion of the work. I am indebted to the latter institution for the use of a
chemical laboratory which was placed at my disposal and for a plentiful
supply of material of all kinds as well as for encouragement and helpful
suggestions from the members of the staff. Journal of the New York Bota-
nical Garden, May, 1902.

Dr. Alex. P. Anderson has resigned his position of curator of the herbari-
um of Columbia Univei-sity, and has taken up his duties as expert to the
syndicate now engaged in developing the new method of treating starchy
grains, etc , recently discovered by Dr. Anderson in the laboratories of the
Garden. Dr. Anderson is fitting up a special laboratory for the continu-
ance of his work at Minneapolis. {Journal, September, 1902).

'I he U. S. Patent Office has granted Dr. A. P. Anderson letters patent
No. 707892, dated August 26, li)02, upon the "Art of treating Starch
Material." The product resulting from the application of this methods to
seeds and other starch materials are highly porous bodies which though
greatly enlarged preserve the shape and appearance of the original, and
being readily acted upon by the digested juices form valuable and econo-
mic foods. The products are also readily emulsified by water and other
liquids and lend themselves to use in the arts for sizing, pasting, etc.
The method in question is essentially distinguished from other pro-
cesses by being based upon the explosive action of the liquid contained
in air dry starch, and the principal features of the invention are set forth
in the twelve claims of the inventor as allowed in the grant. Dr Ander-
son's invention is based upon studies made in the laboratories in the Garden

and he is now engaged in the perfection of machinery and apparatus by
■which the proilucts in question may be made in commercial quantities. —
Journal, November 1902.

A CHEAP DISSECTING MICROSCOPE.

The following description and drawing ot a cheap dissecting raicro-
scope is taken from Prof. J. B. Farmer's Introduction to Botany.

A hand-lens, with triplet combination, (costing about 3s. 6d.), can
easily be converted into a very usefnl dissecting microscope by raount-
ino- it in the way shown in the annexed fiuure. The bottle (B.) con-
tains shot in order to render it stable ; through the cork ptisses a stout
wire or knitting pin, W. On this a cork (C) slides stiffly. Through the
latter a second wire (W i) is passed, also sliding stiffly. The end is
turned up at right angles, and passes through the holes made in the
holder of the lens. In this holder is another cork (C i ) through which
the wire passes, and which serves to fix the lens firmly on the wire.

Thus you have a lens, mounted on a firm support, capable of being
turned in any direction and nearly as serviceable as elaborate dissect-
ing microscopes.

SOIL PROBLEMS IN JAMAICA.

By H. H. Cousins, M.A., F.U.S.

Government Analytical and Agricultural Chemist.

The Director of Public Gardens and Plantations in his report to the Go-
vernment on a recent visit to the United States, published in the {Supple-
ment to Jamaica Gazette, *' made a suggestion as to the adoption of one or
more of the methods of the Soil Survey as carried out by the Division
of Soils under Professor Milton Whitney in place of those at present being
employed by the Chemical Department in Jamaica.

I offer the lolbwing observations indicating that the problems awaiting
immediate solution in Jamaica are local and detailed rather than classifica-
tory and general, and that it is desirable for the present to pursue the
■work onSoils in Jamaica in a manner to meet these conditions.

* 15th January, 1903.

The United States Division of Soils sends us their publications, and
I have closely followed the work of Professor "Whitney and his staff.
Their last report and soil maps have just been received. The objects aimed
at in the American Soil Survey are quite different from those forced upon
us here by the special conditions of the Agriculture of the Island. The
American survey aims at a broad, general survey and classification of
soils on the lines of a practical land valuer, based primarily on local ex-
perience and records and other geological and mechanical data rather than
on crop returns and chemical analyses. It is instructive to note that the
area surveyed in 190ij was equal to that of Jamaica at an average cost of
8/ per square mile. This work i^ of necessity superficial and general, and
would have little critical bearing on the more pressing problems of culti-
vation in Jamaica,

I have acted on the conviction that the first object to aim at in a study of
Jamaica soils is that of arriving at the physical and chemical properties
affecting fertility and by the use of manurial experiments on the growing
crops to arrive at a basis for the practical interpretation of the results of
analysis. The report on the "Bauana Soils" which appeared in the first
number of this Bulletin represents the first fruits of this work. It has been
demonstrated that the chief Banana Soils in Jamaica are not in present
need of fertilisers and that the immediate problems of the industry are
those of general cultivation and not of manuring. T fail to see how
the American system of soil survey could have established this economic
fact.

The methods of analysis employed at the Government Laboratory are,
as regards conventions of sampling and solution, those of the Association
of British Agricultural Chemists. The methods of analysis are those of
the American Association, primarily based on the methods of Professor E.
W. Hilgard.

Over ninety analyses of Jamaica Soils have been completed during the
past year and a half, of which 30 are related to manurial experiments.

When the fundamental facts underlying the fertility of our chief agri-
cultural areas have been established and the planters placed in possession
of this information, it would undoubtedly be most advantageous to have
a soil survey for the preparation of such soil maps as are being prepared in
the United States by the Division of Soils.

I think it could be carried out at a cost of about £5,000 and would oc-
cupy 3 years.

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Report op Mketing.

The usual monthly meeting of the Board was held at Heid Quarter
House on Tuesday, loth January, at 9 o'clock .

Present : — The Hon. the Colonial Secretary, Chairman, the Hon. the
Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, the Government Chemist, His
Grace the Archbishop, the Hon. Henry Cork and Mr. C. A. Fursdon.

The Secretary read the Minutes of the last meeting which were con-
firmed.

The Chairman read minutes by Mr. Shore and Mr. Cousins on the repn-t
upon coco-nut disease, and also ,i circular which was t) be sent t) plan-
ters. After some discussion it was a;^reed to enlarge the circul ir up >u the
lines suggested by Mr. Cousins. The Director of Public Gardens was re-

quested to place before the Chairman a plan for putting several spots under
control and observation,, and to proceed with the same as soon as possible.

The Chairman read a letter from the Director of Public Gardens
making various suggestions with regard to the working of the In-
dustrial School. Mr. Fawcett was of opinion that better work might be
done if the boys cultivated garden plots around the School instead of going
into the Gardens for instruction. This suggestion however did not meet
with the approval ot the Board and the Chairman was asked to look thor-
oughly into the matter.

A report on the sample of Teak sent to the Eailway was read, indicating
that the sample sent was not of much value for Railway purposes. It
was agreed that another sample should be sent.

Mr. Cradwick wrote suggesting the growing of the Tokay variety of
grape. It was decided to adopt this suggestion.

In the matter of the carriage of plants from Hope to Kingston, it was
reported that Mr. Clark's contract had been cancelled and a new one en-
tered into with Mr. Bolton.

Mr. Cradwick reported upon work in Hanover and suggested the ap-
pointment of a local Instructor tor the parish. The whole subject of In-
structors was then considered and it was thought that with a view to pre-
venting over-lapping, Mr. Cradwick should be located in the west end of
the Island, leaving Mr. Young to attend to St. Ann, and Mr.Palache to Man-
chester. It was moved by Mr. Cork, seconded by Mr. Fursdon, and carried
that Mr. Fawcett be asked to look out for a suitable man to look after Upper
Clarendon and St, Catherine as well as Upper Trelawny and the Olster
Spring district and to report to the next meeting,

A letter was read from Prof, Milton Whitney recording- the failure of
an experiment to grow Sumatra tobacco in Bermuda.

Mr. Cousins submitted a report on the first term's work at the Agricul-
tural College, and also a list of applications for admittance. It was agreed
to approve the applications of Messrs. Hewitt and Nethersole and to admit
Messrs. Sharp and Lindo provisionally. Fees to be paid.

It was agreed to make known the fact that scholars from secondary
schools could attend the chemical demonstrations under Mr, Roberts on
payment of a charge for gas of 2|d. an hour per pupil. The Secretary
was instructed to inform the Chairman of the Schools' Commission of
this.

His Grace the Archbishop stated that he wished to bring the wh ole ag-
ricultural work under review to see what farther could be done in the way
of co-ordinating the work of the various agencies. The Board approved
of a further effort being made.

FERNS: SYNOPTICAL LIST,— LVIII.

Additions to Synoptical List, loith descrij^tions, of the Ferns and Fern-Allies of
Jamaica. By the late O. S. Jenmo.n, Supevintendent Botanical Gardens,
Demerara.

ASPLENIUM HaRRISI.

This very fragile, delicately thin little species belongs to the A. viride
group, from all which, however, it is characterised by several distin-
guishing features, but chiefly by its attenuation upwards into the naked
thread-like tail, proliferous at the end, a feature which not only marks it
from its Jamaican allies of the A. Trichomanes gioup, but also from tlie
nearer Andean allies. The buds at the end of the tail form new plants,

the tip of the fronds of which are again rhizophorous, and so go on making
new plants and forming more or less matted patches, as in A. rhizophorum.

Asplenium Harrisi (EuaspleniumJ, Jenm., n. sp. — Rootstcck little larger
ihan a piu's head, densely clothed with minute dark scales ; stipites tufted, thread-
ike, dark glossy brown, 1 to IJ inch long, often fiexuose, channelled ; frondu pin-
nate, semi-erect or prostate, 3 to 5 inches long, J to § inch wide ; rachis very
slender glossy, brown, channelled, sliglitly margined in the upper part, and extend-
ing its thread-like, naked tail 1 to 1| inch, gemmiferous, and rooting at the end,
pinnae bright, glossy, translucent, mpmbranous, naked, apart, spreading, both the
upper and lower gradually reduced, 2 to 3 lines long, rounded and crenate in the
upper and outer part, the base truncate, dimidiate frcm the infniior side being cut
away, the minute upper ones cuneate : veins fine, forke 1, flabellate, open, no mid-
veins, terminating within the margin : EOri medial oblique, ^ to 1 line in length,
occupying both the superior and infeiior veinlets ; involucres silverj, flat, eventu-
ally raised. Jamaica, Blue Mountain Peak, over 7,000 feet elevation, ccllected
and communicated by Mr. Wm. Harris, November, 1894.

Gardeners^ Chronicle, Janum-y 19th, 1895.

Asplenium Fawcetti.

This very interesting species, and beautiful addition to the Trichomanes
group of the genus in Jamaica, was gathered last November by Mr. Wm.
Harris, Superintendent of the Hill Gardens, and at bis request, is named
after his chief, the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations. Its dis-
tinguishing features are the numerous pincse (three doz. to five doz. on a
side), their dwindling to nearly, but not quite nothing at the apex of the
frond, the very fragile rachis and the markedly conspicuous, silver coloured
involucres. The rachis which is occasionally wavy, sometimes bears a bud
in the axis of a leaflet an inch or so short of the apex. The plant is widely
distinct from A. monanthemum, L., as well as the other species of the
group.

*Asj)lenium Fawcetti, Jenm., n. sp.— Root stocks clustered, very small, fibrous
the centre densely clothed with fine, attenuated castaneous scales, stipites in tufts,
semi-erect, slender, wiry but fragile, margined, castaneous or darker, ^ — 2 inches
long, fronds spreading, linear, and much narrowed to the apex, but without a
naked tail, a span to 1 foot long, six to eight lines wide, narrowed at the base,
thin, dark green, naked, rachis very slender, fragile, dark, glossy, channelled with
scarious margins , pinnse very numerous, sessile dwindling mostly to mere pin-dots
in the outer part of the fronds, and reduced to auricles at the base, rhomboidal and
subdimidiate, the superior base wide, but hardly auricled, the inferior base absent
4 to 5 lines long, 2 lines wide, spreading, contiguous, but not touching, broadly
rounded, and conspicuously bluntly toothed along th^ upper and round the outer
and inferior margins to where the base is cut away ; veins pinnate at an acute angle,
falling short in the teeth, three to a side, all simple, but the inferior one on the
superior base, which is once forked from below the middle , sori on both sides of
the mid-vein, two or three to a side, lateral on the veins, about one line long dis-
tant from the margin, and usually short of the base, involucres conspicuous,
bright, silvery.

Blue Mountain Peak, 7,300 ft alt., Jamaica.
— Gardeners' Chronicle, August 12th, 1899.

POLYPODIUM HaRRISII.

This highly interesting species comes in between Polypodium trifurcatum
and Enterosora Campbelli, all three havinu; a very close resemblance and
evident connection. In all, the sori are move or less sank, but extrude
when mature. In this and P. trifurcatum, they are in oval or round pits,

while in Enterosora they are immersed in slit-like linear aperatures and
are mucli longer, but extrude eventually. In both this and Enterosora the
venation is connected, forming a series of two or three meshes on each
side of the midrib, while in P. trifurcatum the branches are uniformly en-
tirely free. The venation quite conforms to some of tbe states of
Phymatodes, the costal series being narrow and unoccupied by either free
branches or sori. Mr. Wm. Harris, F.L.S.. the Superintendent of the Hill
Gardens, the discoverer of it, whose name it bears, writes me that : " It
is almost as rare as Enterosora, and like that plant, it grows on the high
limbs of large forest trees, so that it is a difficult matter to detect it from
the ground, and when detected, it is an exceedingly difficult matter to get
within reach of it." Possibly this exalted elevation on large trees, almost
beyond reach of sight, may be the reason, more than their rareness, of the
late discovery of Enterosora in Jamaica.

Polypodium Harrisii, Jenm, n. sp.-Roo+stock repent, fleshy, | to 1^ inch
long, ery densely clothed with pale fulvous, acuminate, linear-lanceolate, reticu-
lated, wavy scales: sfipites mostly clustered, wiry, freely clothed with rusty,
spreading, fine hairs, 2 to 4 inches long : fronds ligulate, 5 to 10 inches long, \ to
I inch wide, merely sinuate or uniformly shallowly lobate, the lobes broadly rounded
base and apex plain and tapering, the latter usually blunt ; margins fensely hairy
other parts glabrous an glossy; substance coriaceous and brittle: midrib and
veins on both sides covered in the parenchyma : surface wrinkled and striated
more especially the upper ; veins in groups, the lateral branches connected form-
ing two to thiee series of meshes of varying shape and form, th outer short vein-
lets sometimes free ISori oval or round, copious, in two series mostly, sometimes
in part three, on each side, one to each mesh, on a shorter nr longer spur arising
from the niddle of the ;irch, generally medial but occasionally terminal : sunk in
pits which are not raised on the upper side of the fronds. Near Mabess River,
Jamaica, 3,000 feet altitude.

Gardeners^ Chronicle, April 21st, 1900.

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE

DEPARTMENT.

Library (Serials).

Europe.

British Isles.

Annals of Botany, Vol. XVI. No LXIV, Dec. 1902. [Purchased.]

Botanical Magazine, Dec. [Purcha.'-ed.]

Bulletin Kew Gardens, App. 1. 1903. [Director.]

Chemist and Druggist, Nov. 15, 22, 29. Dec. 6, J 3, 20. [Editor.]

Colonial and Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Sept., Oct., Nov. [Col. Sec]

Garden, Nov. 15, 22, 29. Dec. 6, 13, 20. [Purchased.]

Gardeners' Chronicle, Nov. 15, 22, 29, Dec 6, 13, 20. [Purchased,]

Journal of Botany, Dec. [Purchased,]

Nature, Nov. 13, 20, 27- Dec. 4, 11 18. [Purchased.]

Pharmaceutical Journal, Nov. 15, 22, 29. Dec. 6, 13, 20.

R. Colonial Institute, Journal, Dec.

France.

Journal d' Agriculture Tropicale, No. 17. [Publishers.]

Sucrerie indigene et coloniale, Nov. 18, 25. Dec. 9, 16. [Editor.]

Belgium.

Suci^te d'Etudes Coloniales, No. 11, Nov. No. 12, Dec. [Editor.

Germany —

Beihefte zum Tropenpflanzer, Dec. [Editor.]

Botanische Staatsinstitute zu Hamburgh. Jahresherichfce 1901. [Director.]

Tropenpflanzer, Dec. [Editor.]

Switzerland —

Bulletin de I'Herbier Boissier, No. 12. [Oonservateur.]

Asia.

India.

Planting Opinion, Oct. 25. Nov. 1, 8, 15, 22, 29. [Editor.]

Straits and Federated Malay States.

Agricultural Bulletin, Vol. I., Nos. 12, 13. [Editor.]

Ceylon

Times of Ceylon. Oct. 29. Nov. 6, 12, 20, 27. Dec. 4 .[Editor,]

Java.

Proef station West Java No, 58. [Director ]

Japan.

Bulletin, Coll. of Agriculture, Vol. V. No. I. [Director.]

Australia

N. S. Wales.

Agri. Gazette, Oct., Nov. [Dept. of Agri.j

The following by J. H. Maiden : —

Useful Australiau Plants, No. 78, A White Gum (Eucalyptus h^mastoma,

Sm.) Reprint from Agri. Gaz. of N. S. Wales June 1902.
No. 79, A Grey Gum (E. punctata, D.C.) Reprint from Agri. Gaz. of N. S.
Wales, July 1902,

4. On Eucalyptus Baueriana, Schauer.

5. On E. calycogona, Turcz. Reprint from Procof Linn. Soc, of N. S. Wales
1902, Ft. 2, June 25.

On E. tereticornis, Sm. and E, rostrata, Schlect. Extract from Bull. Herb.

Boissier No. 7, 30 JunQ 1902. [Author.]
Report on Botanic Gardens and Domains for 1901. [Director,]

Queensland.

Queensland Agricultural Journal, Nov. [Sec. of, Agri.]
Queensland Sugar Journal, Oct., Nov. [Editor.]

Western Australia.

Journal of the Dept. of Agri., Oct. [Dept. of Agri.]

Africa.

Cape of Good Hope.

Agri. Journal, Nov. [Dept. of Agri.]

Natal.

Agri. .lournal and Mining Record, Oct, Nov. [Dept. of Agri,]
Central Africa.

C, African Times, Sept, 27, Oct. 4, 11, 18, 25. [Editor.]

West Indies.
Barbados.

Agri. Gazette, Dec. [Editor.]

Agricultural News, Dec. 6, 20. Jan. 3. "] rcommr. Imp.

Report of the Agricultural work for the Season between | ^ T)ent of Atjri
1900-1902 carried on under the direction of the Impe- S- „„f) a" „* p„, '
rial Dept. of Agri, for the W. Indies. By J. P. d'Al- | '^"a.]
buciuerque and J. R. Bovell. J ^ '■'

Jamaica.

Cornwall Herald. [Editor.]

Journal Jamaica Agri. Soc, Dec. [^ec]

The Presbyterian, Jan. [Editor.]

Trinidad —

Proc. of Agri. Society, 11 Nov. 1902. [Sec]

British North America.

Ontario —

Crop Bulletin 81, November Crop Report.

Montreal —

Pharmaceutical Journal, Nov. [Editor.]

Nova Scotia —

Provincial Govt. Crop Report, Nov. 1902. [Sec. of Agri.]

United States of America.

Publications of the U. S. Dept. of Agri. \I)irectors.~\
Scientific Bureaus 8^ Divisions

Bureau of Forestry : Bull. No, 37 The hardy Catalpa.
No. 36, The Woodsman's Handbook, Part I. By Henry Solon Graves.
Bull. No. 35, Eucalyptus cultivated in the United States. By Alfrd James
McClatchie.

Bureau of Plant Industry : Bull. o. 26 Spanish Almonds.

Division of Agrostology : Bull. No. 14 (Revised) Economic Grasses. By F.
Lauison-Scribner, No. 25 Field Work of the Division, of Agrostology . A
Review and Summary of the work done since the organization of the Divi-
sion, July 1, 1895. By Cornelius L. Shear. Prepared under the direc-
tion of F. Lamson-Scribner, Agrostologist.

List of Publications of the Office of Grass and Foliage Plant Investigations
and the Division of Agrostology. By W. J. Spillman, Agrostologist.

Experiment Station Record, Vol, XIV, No. 2 «fc 3.

Experiment Stations.

Arizona. 45 (Hints for Farmers).

Illinois. 73 (Comparison of Silage and Shock Corn for Calves.) 74 (Standard
Milk and Cream.) 75 (Standardization of Milk and Cream.) 76 (Alfalfa <iu
Illinois SoU.) 78 [Market Classes and grades of Cattle with suggestions
for interpreting market quotations.) 79 (The Corn Bill-bugs in Illinois.)
80 Field insecticide work against the San Jose Scale. 1899-1902.) 81
Forcing Tomatoes.)

Kansas, Fifteenth Annual Report, 1901 '02.

Louisiana. 65 (Analyses of Commercial Fertilizers and Paris Green.)
66 (Sugar Cane. Experiments in Cultivation.) 67 Broom Corn " How
to grow aud Cure it." 68 (Home-grown vs. Purchased seed.) 69 (Pecans.)
70 (Cane Borer (Diatraea Saccbaralis.) 71 (Report for 1901, by D. N.
Barrow, Asst. Dir.)

Maryland. 80 (Influence of Preservatives upon the Food Value ot Milk.)

New Hampshire. 4 (Effect of Acetylene Gas-light on Plant Growth).
(Cold Storage of Apples).

New York. 216 (Report of Analyses of Commercial Fertilizers for the
Spring and Fall of 1902.)

Virginia. 8 (On the production of Vinegar in Cellars). 9 (Orchard Studies.
— I. The fruit plantation. Pome Fruits.)

Wiscon&in. 97 (Licensed Commercial Feeding Stuffs, 1902.)
American Druggist and Pharmaceutical Record, Nov. 24, Dec. 8, 22.
American Journal of Pharmacy, Dec. [Editor,]
Botanical Gazette, Chicago, Nov. [Editor.]

Contr. from the Botanical Laboratory, Univ. Pensylvania, Vol. I, No. 1, 1893.
Oontr. from the Zoological Laboratory, Vol. II, Nos. 1 & 2.
Contr. from the Zoological Laboratory for the year 1900. Ditto for 1901.
Syllabus of Lectures on the Vertebrata. By Edward D. Cope [University
o*' Pensylvania.]
fCornell Nature- Study Bulletin, Nos. 1-9.

J Junior Naturalist Monthly, Vol. IV., 1901, Nos. 1, 2, 3 , Vol. IV., 1902,
] Nos. 4-1 ] ; Vol. V , 1902, Nos. 1, 2.

[^Teachers' Leaflets, Nos. 1-13. [J. Craig, Cornell University.]
Cotton & Farm Journal Dec. [Publishers.]

Forestry and Irrigation, Dec. Vol. VIII. No. 12. [Publishers.]
The Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer, Nov 29. Dec. 6, 13, 20, 27.

[Editor.]
The Philadelphia Commercial Museum what it is, and what it does. [Director ]
Thb Plant World, Oct. [Publishers.]
Torrey Club Bulletin, Nov., Dec. [Editor.]
Torrey Club Bulletin, Mar. 1888, Dec. 1889, July 1891, Mar. 1900, May 1902.

[Library, New York Bot. Card.]
On the Gametophyte of Selagiiella. By D. H. Campbell. From Anals of Bo-
tany, Vol. XVI, No. LXIII, Sept. 1902. [Author.]
Recent Investigations upon the embryo sac of Angiosperms. By D. H. Camp-
bell. Reprint from The American Naturalist, Vol. XXXVI, No. 4^0, Oct.
1902. [Author.]

Central America.
Boletin del Instituto Fisico-Geografico de Costa Rica, No. 21. [Director.]

Polynesia.
Hawaiian Planters' Monthly, Nov., Dec. [Editor.]

Seeds.

From Lady Blake, Hong Kong —

Passiflora sp. (Australia) Rhododendron indicum.

From Mr. V. E. Silvera, Oracabessa.
Thrinax argentea (Silver Thatch)

From Mr. J. C. Harvey. La Junta, Vera Cruz, Mexico.
Stemadenia bella.

From Herr Fed or Deininger, San Salvador, C, America.
Inga vera.

From Acting Curator Botanic Gardens, Aburi, Gold Coast.
Borassus aethiopicum.

From Mr. Alfred Gartwright British Consul, Ecuador.
Carludovica palmata.

From Supt. Botanic Gardens, Trinidad.
Theobroma bicolor.

From Mr. W. Cradwick.
Yampie.

Plants.

From Mr. Alfred Cartwright, British Consul, Ecuadar.

Carludovica palmata.
From Messrs. James Backhouse ^ Son, Ltd., The Nurseries, York.

Abutilon Schwartzii ; Acalypha Hamiltoni ; Anthurium, J- B. & Son's
strain ; Azalea rosseflora ; Bamboos in variety ; Calamus ciliaris ; Dracaena
rubra; Euonymus elegantissimus ; Ficus barbata ; F. falcata ; Gymuosta-

chyum, red ; Hibiscus Cooperi ; Vlicania pulverulenta ; Nepeta glee, va-
riegata ; Phyllanthus roseo-pictus ; Saiutpaulia ionantha ; Schisostylis
coccineus ; Sibthorpia europea aurea ; and the following varieties of
roses : Anna Marie de Montravel ; Baroness Kothschild ; Captain Christy ;
Captain Hayward ; Countess of Oxford; Crown Prince ; Ducher ; Duk&
of Edinburgh ; Duke of Teck ; Georges Fernet ; Hippolyte Jamain ; Jean
Liabaud ; La France ; Madame Eugene Resal ; Madatre Isaac Pierre ;
Magna Charta ; Merveille de Lyon ; Paul Neyron ; Pierre Notting ; Reine
du Midi ; Sanglant ; Senateur Vaisse ; Ulrich Brunner Fils ; White Pet.

From Director Royal Gardens, Kew —
Bulbils of Lilium sulphureum.

Irom Imperial Commissioner from Botanic Station, Antigua —
Black Antigua Pines.

Herbarium.
tVom Mr. Alfred Cartwright, British Consul, Ecuador.

Samples of "Straw" prepared from leaves of Carludovica palmata.

From Son. Geo. McGrath, Charlemont, Ewatton.
Specimen of Coco Plum.

From Prof. Dr. Urban, Berlin.
A Collection of 63 specimens.

Library (Books.)

Phycotheca Boreali — Americana. Fascicles XIX & XX and Fascicle C.
[Purchased.]

[Issued 14th February, 1903. j

Printed at the Govt. Printing O^c, Kingston, Jam.

Vol. I. MARCH, 1903. Part 3.

BULLETIN

OF IHB

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

> » <

EDITED BY

WILLIAM EAWCETT. B.Sc, F.L.S,

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS:

Page.

Economic uses of Coco-nut , 49

Cane Experiments in British Guiana . 50

Tables of Sugar Production . 51

Grass Oils . 53

International Conference on Plant Breeding and Hybridization 56

Board of Agriculture 68

Additions and Contributions . 69

PRIG E -Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA
Hops Gabdbns.

1903.

JAMAICA,

BXJLIjETIN

i>F THE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Vol. I. MARCH, 1903. Part 3.

ON THE NUTRITIVE VALUE AND SOME OF THE
ECONOMIC USES OF THE COCO-NUT.

By William J. Gies.

Few if any vegetable products furnish so many useful articles as the
coco-nut. It forms the chief food of the inhabitants of most tropical
coasts and islands, where the kernel is not only eaten in the ripe and un-
ripe conditions, but is also prepared and served in various ways, ft forms
an accessory part of the diet, and is found in many of the confections of
civilized man all over the globe. The milk is considered an agreeable
cooling beverage in the tropics, although it is diuretic in its effect, and
causes irritation of the mucous membrane of the bladder and urethra
when taken too freely. Immoderate use of the fruit is said to cause rheu-
matic and other diseases.

Experiments recently published in the Bulletin of the Torrey
Botanical Club by Professor Kirk wood and the writer, conducted
in part in this garden and with the co-operation of Dr. MacDouo-al
indicate that the nutritive value of the endosperm of the coco-nut
resides mainly in its high content of oil and moderate amount of
carbohydrate. Of the former the fresh endosperm contains 35-40 per cent. ;
of the latter, approximately 10 per cent. The amount of protsid is very
Blight, being little more than 3 per cent. The quantity of inorganic matter
is 1 per cent. The water amounts to nearly 50 per cent. The chief con-
stituent of the milk, aside from water (95 per cent.), is sugar, nearly all
of the solids being thus composed, as the very sweet taste amply testifies.
Various alcoholic beverages have been made from fermented coco-nut milk.

The endosperm is very agreeable to the taste, and with the exception of
the cellulose (3 per cent.), is readily digestible. Domestic animals eat it
eagerly, and the coco-nut-crab feeds on it almost exclusively. The resi-
due left over after the fat has been expressed from the " copra" is widely
used in Europe as food for cattle, also as fertilizer.

The use of coco-fat as a substitute for butter among the poorer classes
has been increasing, and it is frequently employed as a butter adulterant.
The tendency of coco-fat to rancidity is not as great as that of animal
fats, and for this reason " butters" made from it keep well, and hvae beea

recommended especially for military and naval ut-es. Eecent researches
show that " coco butter" is quite as agreeable to the taste, and as easily and
completely digested, as ordinary butter. Its heat of combustion is 9.066
small calories per gram.

" Coco-nut cream," a dietary product much used in the tropics, is made
by grating the endosperm and squeezing the fluid from the finely divided
material through cloth. In a warm climate the resultant mixture con-
tains much oil and is a very delicious accessory food. Besides the oil, the
"cream" contains chiefly carbohydrate and proteid.

Soaps made from coco-oil combine with, or hold an unusual amount of
water, while retaining special hardness, and are characterized by great
solubility in salt solution. The so-called " marine" or " salt-water soap"
has the property of dissolving as well in salt water as in fresh water.
The harder fats of the oil make excellent candles. Coco-nut oil and resin
melted together yield a mixture capable of being used with success in fill-
ing up the seams of boats and ships, and in tropical countries for covering
the corks of bottles as a protection against the depredations of the white ant.

The fibrous husk (coirj is widely used for the construction of ropes
brushes, bags, matting, etc. The hard shell is easily polished, and lends
itself to the formation of various utensils and ornaments. It also has a
high fuel value. The powdered shell and husk are occasionally used as
adulterants of ground spices.

The milk of the nut, as has already been pointed out, is strongly diu-
retic. The endosperm shares with milk the property of a taenicide, and
has been used as a vermifuge in India for many years, where it is regarded
as an excellent means of expelling the flat worm. The harder fats of
the oil are used as constituents for suppositories and related therapeutic
products. Medicinally the oil is employed repeatedly as a substitute
for lard, olive oil and cod-liver oil. It is also made the chief substance
by bulk in various salves and cold cream, pomade and similar cosmetic
preparations. In ointments and cerates it is especially valuable because
of its ready absorption when rubbed on the surface of the body, and on
account of its ability to hold an unusual amount of water or saline fluid.
It shows little tendency to produce chemical changes in substances with
which it may be associated. (Journal of the New Yorh Botanical Garden.)

SUGAR CANE EXPERIMENTS IN BRITISH

GUIANA.

We have received the Eeport of the Board of Agriculture of British
Guiana in which Professor J, B. Harrison, C M.G., gives the results of the
Co-operative Sugar Cane Experiments carried out during the crop year
1901-2.

"We quote from the Eeport :- -

" The Committee being impressed with the danger which underlies
" hasty deductions from agricultural experiments conducted over the crops
" of only one year, even when carried out on the relatively large scale these
" have been, refrain from making any observations on the results, and from
" drawing any deductions therefrom. The data are placed on record for
" comparison with those which may be obtained in later series of Experi-
" mente. The values of the data vary greatly. In the cases of D. 625 and
" the Sealy variety the areas were small and the number of Experiments
" reported were few.

Tte mean yields in tons of Commercial Sugar 'per acre reported, are as
follows : —

Order.

Variety.

Tons Sugar
per acre.

No. of
Experiments.

Acres.

D. 625

2.95

Sealy

2.49

D. 95

2.24

Bourbon

2.18

1,104

D. 145

2.17

White Transparent

2.03

380

D. 74

2.03

B. 147

1.99

283

D. 109

1.91

225

D. 78

1.39

These results should certainly encourage the Jamaica Board of Agri*
.cultui-e in the prosecution of their plans for a systematic trial of cane
varieties on all the chief sugar producing areas of the Island.

TABLES OF SUGAR PRODUCTION.

By the Hon .Francis Watts, Antigua.

These tables were prepared for the Imperial Department of Agriculture
by Mr. Watts and should be of value to Sugar Planters in Jamaica.

Table showing the Number of Tons of Cane and Gallons of Juice re-
quired TO Produce One Ton of Sugar under varying Conditions of
Manufacture and op Saccharine Richness of Juice.

Juices.
.Pounds of Cane Sugar per
Imperial Gallon of Juice
Total Solids
Purity
Specific Gravity 30—16.6

Case I.

Crushing by Mill per cent
Extraction per cent
Gallons juice per ton sugar
Tons cane per ton sugar

2.00

■J. 80

1.60

1.40

2.272

2.045

1.818

1.592

880/0

880 '0

880/0

1.0834

1.0748

1.0660

1.0574

1273

1414

1591

1818

8.21

9.05

10.10

11.44

Case I .

Crushing by Mill per cent
Extraction per cent
Gallons juice per ton sugar
Tons cane per ton sugar

Case III.

Crushing by MiU per cent
Extraction per cent
Gallons juice per ton sugar
Tons cane per ton sugar

70
88
1273
8.80

88
1414

9.69

70
88
1591
10.82

1818

12.26

60
83

1350
10.78

1499

11.99

1687

13.38

60
83
1927
15.16

CAhE IV.

Crushing by Mill per cent
Extraction per cent
Gallons juice per ton sugar
Tons cane per ton sugar

55
S-6
1350
11.87

55
83
1499
13.08

1687

14.60

i'3

1927

16.64

Case V.

Crushing by Miil per cent
Extraction per cent
Gallons juice per ton sugar
Tons cane per ton sugar

Case VI.

Crushing by Mill per cent
Extraction per cent
Gallons juice per ton sugar
Tons cane per ton sugar

60
78
1430
11.57

60
78
1595
12.75

1795

14.24

2061

16.14

55
78
1436
12.63

1595

13.91

1795

15.53

2051

17.60

Case VII.

Crushing by Miil per cent
Extraction per cent
Gallons juice per ton sugar
Tons cane per ton sugar

56
74
1514
13.31

1682

14.66

55
74
1892
16.86

2162

18.56

Case VIII.

Crushiag by Mill per cent 50

Extraction per cent 74

Gallons juice per ton sugar 1514

Tons cane per ton sugar 14.61

1682

16.10

1892

17.97

2162

20.36

Definitions.

Total Solids. The quantity of substance in solution in cane juice
including sugar and impurities.

Purity oe Co-efficient of Purity. The proportion of Cane sugar to
100 of Total Solids. Calculated by tlividing the Total Solids into the cane
sugar and multiplying by 100.

It has been assumed at 88 for the purposes of these calculations.

Crushing. The weight of juice expressed by the mill from 100 parts
by weight of canes.

Extraction. The amount of marketable sugar obtained from every 100
parte by weight of cane sugar in the juice.

Francis Watts.

Gallons of Juice per Ton of Cans for different Percentages of Crushing.

Sp. Gravity 1.0750.

Gallons of

Crushing
per cent.

juice perton
of cane.

Crushing
per cent.

juice per ton
of cane.

, :

100.0

135.4

102.1

137.5

104.2

139.6

106.3

141.7

108.4

143. «

110.4

145.9

112.5

147.9

114.6

15)

116.7

152.1

118.8

164.2

120.9

156.3

122.9

158.4

125

160.4

127.1

162.5

129.2

164.6

131.3

166.7

J—--

133.4

...

• ••

GRASS OILS.

By H. H. Cousins.
In view of the recent observations on the growth of the Andropogon
grasses at the Hope Experiment Station and of the yield of oiL obtainable,
it appears desirable to compare these results with those recorded of the
same products prepared in Trinidad by the Superintendent of ttie Bstanio
Gardens and subsequently investigated by the Hon. F. Watts in the
Government Laboratory, Antigua.

TKINIDAD OILS.

LEMONGSASS OILS.

The prices of this oil fluctuated during the last few months between
4|d. and 5|d. equal to 14:-50 to 17 marks per kilo purchase price, but the
article appears to be scarce in India, as large parcels were rarely offered.
We hear from Cochin that the yield of the harvest has been very
rsmall, and that in consequence the merchants are holding the goods back
,in order to obtain higher prices.

54:

The decline of the sugar industry in the West Indian islands appears
■io lead to this, that the lands and the labour set free by the reduced culti-
vation of sugar-cane are employed for other purposes ; and from a report
•which has reached us from a friendly quarter it would seem that it is in-
tended to take up there the cultivation of the Andropogon grasses. That
attempts to cultivate these grasses have already been made in Ihose islands-
is proved by the fact, that the Superintendent of the Botanical Gardens at
Trinidad, at a meeting in Barbados, produced among other essential oils,
also the oils of Andropogon Nardus var., and Andropogon ScJioenanthus,
which were subsequcLtly examined more in detail at the Government La-
boratory in Antigua.

The following results were obtained there : —

for the first oil :
a ||:|«' = 0-9084, aD = + o°l' ; aldehyde-content 15-5 per ceat. ;
saponification number 23, saponification number after acetylation 168*5,
corresponding to a total alcohol-content of about 53 per cent.;

for the other oil :
d 44:f° = 0-9315, aD = -f b°; aldebyde-content 48-2 per cent. ;
saponification number 31-1 ; saponification number after acetylation 69-6,
corresponding to 20-2 per cent. Cj o Hj g 0.

"Whereas the first of the two oils, apart from the low dextrogyration,-
approximately agrees wiih Ceylon citrocella oil (it does not dissolve in
10 volumes of 70 per cent, alcohol, but readily in the same volume of 80
per cent, alcohol), the other oil diffeis in its properties in a very marked
degree from palmarosa oil, with which, according to the mother plant, it
ehould be identical. But the oil cannot be considered as lemon. grass oil
because (even assuming that the aldehyde it contains is actually citral),
the aldehyde-content is too low ; it shows a certain amount of similarity
with a lemongrass oil from the same district (compare Eeport April 1902,
page 48), inat^niuch as it dissolves with great difficulty, and only makes
clear solutions with 94 per cent, alcohol. — From Schimmels Semi-annual
Keport as given in Agricultural News p. 20.

JAMAICA OILS.

Andropogon ScJioenanthus.

This the ordinary " fever grass" of Jamaica, grew strongly and furnished
an abundance of grass for cutting. Ihe results of distillation were, how-
ever, so disappointing that it was concluded that the cost of production
-per lb. of oil was far too high to enable this grass to compete with the
Andropogon Nardus of Ceylon as a source of Lemon-grass oil, quite apart
from the intrinsic value of the two products.

—Experiments were made to decide the best treatment of the grass before
being placed in the Still. Uncut grass gave a lower yield of oil and took
longer to distill than cut grass. It was found, however, that fine sub-
division in a closely set Chaff Cutter was, if anything, detrimental to the
yield of oil. The practical conclusion arrived at was that the grass should
be cut freeh as wanted and cut up into lengths of about 6 inches for dis-
tillation. The Laboratory Still took 36B)s of grass at each charge. The
yield of oil varied but little andiimounted to 1 cubic centimetre per fl>
of green grass. This equals a yield of 4ozs. per cwt.

The oil was of a bright golden yellow colour and gave the following
results : —

Specific Gravity fj-" 0-8897

Optical Activity — 1-0*V in 20 cm. tube

T = 29.5. C.

On distillation the following fractions were obtained : —

Temperature.

Per Cent.

Optical A.C-

tivity

215-225

— i-o»v

225-230

34:

08°V

230-240

1-0°V

Above 240

Comparing these results with those recorded for the Trinidad oil of
A. SchoenantJius, the following digerences are to be noted. — The specific
gravity of the Jamaica oil is markedly lower. Whereas the Trinidad
oil is dextro-rotatory, the Jamaica product is laevo-rotatory. The
Chemistry of this oil requires investigation and it is hoped that some
research Chemist may come forward to elucidate its composition.

Andropogon Nardus,

This grass is the one grown in Ceylon. It appeared lass vigorous
and hardy at Hope Gardens than the Creole grass. The results of dis-
tillation were nearly three times as great as with A. SchoenantJius. A
yield of 2-9 cubic centimetres oil per ft) of fresh grass was consistently
maintained. This equals 11-6 ozs. per cwt. of grass as against 4ozs.
from A. ScJioenanthus.

The following results were obtained : —

Specific Gravity 60<* F 0'893o

Optical Activity

60 °F
+ 17-0°V T=:29-5°C.

on distillation the following fractions were obtained : —

Temperature.
C.

195-217

217-225

225-235

Above 235

Per Cent.

6
40
50
24

As compared with the Trinidad oil the lower specific gravity and mark-
edly higher dextro-rotation are notable. The Boiling Point of Citronellol
is given in Watts' Dictionary as 210°— 220".

These oils have been sent to Messrs. Schimmel for their report, and it will
then be possible to form an opinion as to the commercial production of
Lemon grass oil in Jamaica. To the student of organic Chemistry these
oils present an attractive subject for investigation. The Island Chemiet
will be pleased to supply to any Chemist who would undertake the inves-
tigation, a reasonable quantity of oil for that purpose. So pressing are the
needs of our strictly technical work at the Government Laboratory, that it
is quite impossible for the Chemist and his Staff to undertake this inves-
tigation under present conditions.

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON PLANT
BREEDING AND HYBRIDIZATION.

Editorial From Expeimental Station Record.*

The second International Conference on Plant Breeding and Hybridiza-
tion, which was recently held in New York City, exceeded in attendance
and interest the previous meeting, held in London in 1899, and served to
show the large interest in the subject in tbis country. An extensive pro-
gramme of papers was presented, but only a portion of them were read.
These discussed the principles of plant breeding and their application, as
well as giving the results of years of work and observation in the produc-
tion and pre pagation of improved varieties of plants.

In the theoretical discussion of tbe papers there was an almost universal
acceptance of Mendel's law regarding the appearance of dominant and re-
cessive characters in the later generation of hybiids. This law, although
announced in 1865, has only recently been given wide publicity through
its publication in various journals (E. S. R., 13, p. 744). It was the con-
sensus of opinion that it is the best available working hypothesis for the
plant and animal breeder, and that it seems to stand the test of experience
to a remarkable degree. The methods of Mendel were commented upon,
and in a number of papers his conclusions were reaffirmed relative to the
necessity of large numbers of individuals in breeding experiments and the
continuation of the investigations through many generations, in order that
the results may be of permanent value. The futility of indiscriminate
crossings and the necessity of working with pure strains or races was
shown by abundant examples. A hybrid produced from a mixed ancestry
is very liable to be inferior to either or both of its parents, unless by a
long system of cultivation the characteristics of the parents have become
definitely fixed.

In all kinds of breeding experiments it is necessary to adopt an ideal
and adhere closely to it, rejecting for the time all secondary variations
that may appear. If these seem veiy promising, they can be cultivated
independently of the m^in investigation, but nothing should divert the
breeder from continuing to follow to its conclusion the line of experimen-
tation, which should be well formulated at the start. Once a hybrid is
established, then selection and cultivation enter into the problem of fixing
it. The selection requires keen discriminating powers, and is in many
ways more important than the act which produced the hybrid.

Another thought brought out quite prominently was the necessity for

* Vol. xiv, November, 1902.

'breeding to meet definite requirements. Changed seasonal, soil, and cli-
matic conditions will often render worthless what are otherwise promising
■varieties. It is believed to be impossible to originate a variety of plant
that is of universal value, and the transfer of valuable sorts to regions of
markedly different character was said to be usually followed by disap-
pointing results.

A high compliment was paid to the plant-breeding work that has been
(iarried on in this country. One of the foreign guests declared that greater
advance is being made along this line in the United States than in any
other country, the great range ot soil, climate, and necessities making such
work possible.

The value of such a meeting in arousing an interest in the subject of
plant breeding can hardly be estimated. The description of methods,
criticism of results, and the application of principles were given and taken
in a spirit of scientific earnestness, und the enthusiasm aroused will be
continued and exhibited in the wide extension of the work.

The systematic work which is being done in plant breeding, including the
study of principles governing it, is worthy of imitation in animal breeding*
The field is quite as attractive, as far as possibilities of useful results are
concerned. The breeding or selection of plants resistant to disease sug-
gests that something might be done with animals in producing strains
more vig 'reus or resistant to some of our troublesome diseases. In this
connection some recent experiments reported from Algeria in attempts to
combat Texas fever are interesting. In the search for some animal of the
bovine kind which was immune to Texas fever, it was found that both the
buffalo and zebu were naturally resistant to this disease. The buffalo
could not be crossed with the domestic cattle, and appeared to be for other
reasons less desirable than the zebu as a substitute for cattle. It was
found that the zebu crossed readily with different races of cattle, and that
all hybrids thus -obtained were perfectly immune to Texas fever. The
female hybrids bfttween the zebu and d anestic cattle were found to be
very fertile, while the males were well adapted to the production of beef
or to performing work of various kinds. The hybrids attained a weight
of about 360 kg. (792 lbs.) at an age of li years and the dressed weight
averaged about 62 per cent of the live weight. The large hump composed
of muscle and fat tissue and situated over the shoulders of the zebu largely
disappears in the hybrid. The bones are unusually small and of a delicate
nature. The meat is said to be of good quality. The milk of the zebu or
of the hybrid is claimed to be richer than that of the ordinary Arabian
cow. The zebu gives from 6 to 8 quarts per day, while hybrids yield
from 15 to 16 quarts. Three different races of z^^bushave been introduced
into Algeria, one from Madagascar, one from Cochin-China and a third
from India- The third, or Brahmin race, is the only one which proved
to be of economic importance and is the one from which the present zebus
and hybrids of Algeria have descendf^d.

Review of Papers

By Walter H. Evans, Ph. D.
Of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

An international conference on plant breeding and hybridization was
Ixeld in New York City, September 30 to October 2, 19 2, under the
auspices of the Horticultural Society of New York, with James Wood as
president and Leonard Barron, secretary. About SO delegates were
prsent, representing difiereut parts of the United States, Canada, England

West Indies, etc. A programme of more than 50 papers was presented,
a number being sent from Germany, Austria, France, Holland, and
England, All of the papers are to be published in full in the proceedings
of the New York Horticultural Society, which it is hoped will appear
early in the coming year. A brief account is here given of a number of
papers which were presented at the Conference.

Prof. W. Bateson, of Cambridge University, England, considered the
Practical Aspects of the New Discoveries in Hei-edity. He briefly re-
viewed Mendel's law of heredity, and pointed out some of the great
advances which have been made since the enunciation of that law. Tn
general it was stated that while great differences may exist in plants and
animals, hybrids in their first generation represent the characters of one
parent and not of both. The author believed that the time would soon
come when the fundamental principles of plant and animal breeding
•would be known, so that the breeder would be able to control his work
instead of depending upon chance results. For the practical man it is
impossible to always determine the characters which exist in the parent
plants. As an example, it is cited that green peas may be due to the
union of 2 green varieties, of yellow and green varieties, or of 2 yellows
all of which tends to complicate the special hereditary characteristics.
The frequent occurrence of bearded wheats in plats of beardless varieties
was mentioned, and their presence was attributed to the probable fact
that the beardless variety had been developed from a bearded form,
the plants still containing some of the germ cells of the bearded
ancestors. The predominance of the recessive germs resulted in the
appearance of bearded forms, and the presence and influence of recessive
germs can be eliminated only gradually. Species, according to the
author, are not to be considered necessarily fixed or of loug duration.
Crosses or, as the author called them, heterozygote forms do not usually
reproduce their kinds, but often result in reversion to ancestral types.
A number of examples were cited of reversions which have taken place
in the sweet pea, giant lavender, primulas, Andalusian fowls, etc., which
show that in a number of instances the forms are not readily fixed,
being the result of complex crosses that are for the rpost part infertile,

A paper by C. C. Hurst, entitled Notes on Mendel'.s Methods of Plant
Breeding, was read by the secretary. Mendel was apparently the first
to recognize the necessity of considering each single character on its
own merits. In selecting constant characters, he avoided confusion by
crossing only constant and fixed races of plants, each of which had been
the product of repeated self-fertilization. If plants are chosen for
crossing, the ancestry of which is unknown, the resulting offspring will
either be incomparable or incomprehensible. The writer cited his
experiments with orchids in which by choosing constant characters he
had almost entirely succeeded in eliminating the possibility of reversion.
It is stated tiiat some of the apparent exceptions to Mendel's results
are probably to be attributed to the crosbing of species which were
not constant in character. The consideration of differential characters
was briefly discussed, and it was stated that Mendel in his experiments
always chose his characters in pairs, so that they would be distinctly
differential and capable o± definite recognition in the offspring. The
more clearly defined the differences between the parental characters,
the more marked will be the single characters in the resulting offspring.
The fourth point in Mendel's method is said to be distinctly new, and
that is the crossing together only of dominant and rece>sive characters.
If one of the characters of the diff"erential pair is always distinctly
dominant over the other, the latter is known as the reces-sive character.

Knowledge of this fact serves to give uniformity to the first generation
and avoids the difficulty of continuing through subf-equent generations
breeding in which the results secured will not be uniform. The
necessity cf using large numbers of individuals was pointed out. In this
there w;.s great advance over Mendel's predecei^sors. After having
secured hybrids they should be carried through many generations.
Mendel in all cases carried his experimets to the third aud fourth
and in some cases to the fifth and sixth generations. Summing up
the methods of Mendel, the author states that hybridists who desire
to follow the footsteps of Mendel and help elucidate the problems of
inheritance will find it essential in their work to select parents pnssess-
ing characters which are at once single and constant differential and
dominant, and they must also take care to raise large numbers of
individuals through many generations. ,

A paper by Hugo de Viies, director ot the Botanical Gajdens Amster-
dam, Holland, discussed Artificial Atavism. Atavism was defined as
the occasional restoration of an old type in a compound cross. Crossing
is said to not only combine characters, but to separate them. Among
flowers as ordinarily listed in catalogues, there is usually the ordinary
wild color as well as a white term, with various intermediates. If a
cross be made between the white form and some of the intermediates,
the resultant hybrids will fall into types, some of which return to the
original color. The color variations and reversions produced by various
crossings were shown by illustrations of well-known varietie^^. It is
said to be possible to split up and produce new colors by crossing the
original or wild color with any of the white forms. The results obtained
usually follow the principles laid down in Mendel's law. A number of
instances were cited in which it is shown possible to produce atavism
artificially.

In commenting upon this paper, Professor Bateson stated that he
believed synthesis in plant breeding, although sometimes apparent is not
truly possible. A compound character consisting of 3 or more compo-
nents, he believes, can not be recomposed from its original forms.

Some suggestions for Plant Breeding were made in a paper by Max
Leichtlin, of Baden-Baden, Austria, which was read. In crossing plants
the author states that the selection of a suitable time for crossing is of first
importance. A warm, cloudy day offers the best conditions for about 60
per cent, of plants. For some a dry atmosphere is best as it more nearly
represents the conditions of their original habitat. Fertilization should
not be attempted before the stigmas are in proper condition. This can be
easily recognized after some practice. The pollen should be neither too
fresh nor over-ripe. After applying the pollen to the stigma in many
cases it will be found advantageous to cover the flower with a hand-
glass or some similar means for a day or two to give a higher temperature
than that of the surrounding air. The pollen of many plants, if in good
condition, can be kept in small glass vessels, well corked, for several days
without loosing its fecundating i ower. Whether fertilization is possible
or not can be easily ascertained by a microscopical examination of the
forms of pollen grains. If their forms are fairly constant the pollen will
do for fertilization, but if markedly different its use for this purpose is
impossible, The prepotency of sex was shown by the statement that iu
8 cases out of 10 the female parent has the greatest influence on the
progeny. The staminate parent usually controls the color of the
offspring, and in most cases the hybrid plants have larger flowers than
those possessed by either parent.

In the discussion following this paper a number of interesting facts
were brought out relative to the vitality of pollen. The president of the
society stated that the pollen of tomatoes would retain its vitality for
fully 6 months, as shown by the common practice of gathering pollen
during the late summer and fall months from plants grown out of doors,
for use in fertilizing tomatoes grown under glass during the winter.
According to another statement, grape pollen retains its vitality for fully
2 months, and the date palm for a year or more. Carnation pollen may
fhe kept in closely stoppered vials for several weeks, and may be shipped
from one part of the country to another. In preparing pollen for keeping
it should be thoroughly dried and placed in closely stoppered bottles.
For plants grown in moist climates the drying should be done in the
shade ; for those growing in arid regions, it may be more quickly dried in
the sun. It was stated that pollen of certain plants is commonly dis-
tributed through the West Indies on dry blotting paper inclosed in paste-
board boxes. In this way its vitality is retained for more than 3 weeks.

A paper giving some suggestions for the classification of Hybrids pre-
pared by E. I. Lynch, curator of the Botanic Garden, Cambridge, England
showed the desirability of the classification of all results, so that reference
can be had to previous work. A plan previously published by the author
in tho Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society of London, vol. 25, was
briefly outlined. Investigators often want to know what plants have been
found to respond in a certain way, or they may desire to reobserve from a
new point of view, or carry further results in which they may be interested.
This was cited to show the imjDortance of classifying all experimental re-
sults, and action of the conference along this line was recommended. The
writer requested that he be furnished with accounts of hybrids which at
first were nearly barren and afterwarfis became fertile ; also of hybrids
which are less fertile than either of their parents. He also asked that
suggestions be sent him regarding different systems of classification. In
general, he proposes the classification of hybrids based upon their beha-
viour, rather than upon the classification of natural orders, genera, or species.

The Principles of Plant Breeding were difecussed in a paper by Luther
Burbank, of Santa Kosa, California, The two influences or forces which
control plant and animal breeding are heredity and environment To
guide the interaction of these two forces is the sole object of the breeder,
whether of plants or of animals. A general knowledge of the relations
and affinities of plants is not sufficient for the successful plant breeder,
He must be a skillful biologist, and, having a definite plan, must be able
to correctly estimate the action of the inherent and external forces which
he would control. A plant breeder before attempting to make new
combinations should select with great care the individual plants which
seem best adapted to his purpose. This requii'es an exceedingly keen
perception of minute differences, great patience, and extreme care in
treating the organisms operated upon. This applies more particularly to
annuals or those plants generally produced by seed. In breeding perennials
the first deviations from the original form are often of an almost unap-
preciable degree. By careful and intelligent breeding, any peculiarity
may be made permanent, and there appears to be no limit to the improv-
ment of plants. Cultivation and care may help plants temporarily, but by
breeding, plants may be produced which will do better work in all places
and for all times.

W. A. Orton, of this Department, read a paper on the Breeding of

Disease-Resistant Varieties, in which a resume was given of work being

.carried on by the Bureau of Plant Industry. The wilt disease of

cotton, cowpeas, and watermelon was described and photographs and'
material shown. As a result of continued selection of resistant varieties,.
it was stated, Sea Island cotton is now grown in regions which had been
practically abandoned on account of the destruction caused by the wilt.
No varieties are wholly resistant, but a number of strains have been found
which are to a great degree able to resist the fungus. In general, upland
cotton seems less resistant to wilt than Sea Island, and Egyptian varie-
ties are more resistant than any of the others. The work so far has been
one of selection, since hybridization is not practicable, as it tends to
destroy the merchantable character of the fiber. Similar results in the
selection of cowpeas and watermelons were cited, and the author believes
that many other varieties of plants may yet be found that are resistant
to disease.

W. M. Hays, of the Minnesota Station, presented a paper on Breeding
for Intrinsic Qualities. He believed the value of plants and animals
annually produced in this country could be readily increased 10 per cent,
at an expense of less than 1 per cent. The greatest financial gains would
probably be secured by the improvement of a score of plants and about 4
species of animals. By carefully growing and testing many thousands of
individuals there will frequently be found some one individual of such
superior merit as to repay all expense. In any hybridization work a
good foundation stock must first be produced upon which to base the new
varieties. The importance of working with large numbers of individuals
and the value of correlated qualities were pointed out. Durino- the
progress of the work various side lines may enter, but these must be
held subordinate to the main idea which controls' the experiment. In
choosing varieties, often very perplexing problems arise. As a rule
crosses should be made between individuals which closely approximate the
ideal, and not between those which are too dissimilar. An illustration of
the value of using large numbers was given in the experiments in breed-
ing wheats. To begin with, 500 plants were examined for loundation
stock and tested from 3 to 5 years to see that they came to true seed. After
continuing the work this length of time, all were rejected but about 50,
which were given a fiel i trial. This work has been continued, large
numbers of individuals being constantly grown, and as a result 2 or 3
varieties have been found which are intrinsically of great value. In
wheat breeding the author thinks that an increased yield, irrespective of
distinguishing marks, should be the ideal sought,

A paper on the Correlation between Different Parts of the Plant in
Form, Color, and Other Characteristics was read l)y S. A, Beach, of the
New York State Station. By means of a number of specimens he showed
the correlation which exists between difi"erent parts of plants. By the
proper study of the correlation of form, color, vigor, etc, undesirable ma-
terial may be eliminated to a great degree while the seedlings are still
young. In this way much valuable time and space may be saved. Nu-
merous examples were cited in which this early elimination is possible.
Small foliage is said to be usually correlated with small fruit. The text-
ure of the leaf and of the fruit are believed to be correlated to some de-
gree. JJwarfed seedlings produce poor plants even when given good culti-
vation. Attention was called to the importance of considering groups of
characteristics. In the case of the peach there seems to be a direct re-
lation between the size of the foliage and the size of the fruit, and suffi-
cient evidence is believed to be at hand to show that size and color of fo-
liage and flowers may be depended upon in predicting the character of
fruit. Pale or light colored blossoms are usually associated with small
fruit in apples, while deep color is correlated with larger fruit. Pale

foliage in the raspberry is correlated with yellow or lighe colored fruit,
and dark fruit is obtained from plants having dark foliage and canes.
Eoses, caonas, and asters generally follow the same lines — pale colored
foliage indicating light colored flowers In comparing these factors, fully
matured leaves should always be examined and even then exceptions will
be noted. A correlation is said to exist between the color of the flowers
and the seeds of beans, between the color of the roots and stems and the
flowers of carnations, between the color of the seed coats and character of
plants of peas, etc. There is apparently some correlation between the
size of the different organs of plants and possibly between their size and
color, but as yet the evidence is not sufficient to formulate definitely.

0. F. Cook, of this Department, discussed Evolution under Domestica-
tion, claiuoing that it is not rational to attribute to environment all of the
changes found in plants and animals.

The Varying Tendency and Individual Prepotency in Garden Vege-
tables was tne subject of a paper by W. W. Tracy, of Detroit, Michigan.
The author's long experience has enabled him to examine an immense
number of specimens of different vegetables and note some of their peculi-
arities. These variations will frequently be apparent only from a careful
study of a great number of plants. It is stated that different plants of the
same natural order tend to vary ab'Ug parallel lines, and variations that
are frequently attributed to hybridization are due to ordinary variation.
Different natural orders of plants are differently affected by soil, climate,
etc. In some cases plants grown from seed from widely different regions
did not show any appreciable difference; in others, marked differences
may be noted in comparatively slight changes. An example was cited in
which a variety of watermelon was grown in Michigan aud in a Gulf
State, the seed being from the same source, and the progeny was so simi-
lar as to defy any detectable differences. The effect of cultural and cli-
matic influences is cumulative. This was illustrated by the simultaneous
occurrence in widely separated regions of bush forms of Lima beans,
sweet peas, etc. These plants ordinarily grow in climbing forms, but
bush forms suddenly appeared in different parts of the United States,
seeming to indicate that the influences had been simultaneously working
in different regions. Stock produced by an individual grower will vary
widely during different seasons. Seed from the same stock, equally well
grown under precisely the same conditions, show marked differences in
the tendency to adher-e to type in different seasons. Seeds from indi-
vidual pedigreed stock plants vary widely in their progeny, and the only
way to secure uniformity is to define an ideal, select carefully, and propa-
gate carefully, so as to secure a lineal descent of a single typical plant.

Dr. D. Morris, Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies,
read a paper on the Cross Fertilization of the Sugar Cane, in which he
described the experiments in the West Indies in the improvement of sugar
cane. The subjects for consideration are a greater tonnage of cane, a
greater yield of juice, a higher sugar content, and a cane immune to diseases.
More than 60 varieties of canes have been imported from all parts
erf the world and tested at the various West Indian stations Special at-
tention has been paid to bud variation, and a few examples have been
found, which were briefly described. Some of these are quite promising
as improvements over the older varieties, and so far they tend to come
true to color. Nearly all of the bud variations or sports which have been
under investigation originated from the ribbon or striped cane. Planting
from different parts of cane has not given results of any great value or im-
provement, and selection by analysis of the cane juice does not appear to
off'er, promise of definite results, nor has selection proved of value when

the richest canes have been taken indi/idually. Where the richest clump
in a field was tested there was some indication of value, and this is believed
to warrant further investigation. A description was given of attempts to
produce new varieties from seed. The fact that the sugar cane sometimes
produced fertile seed was established about 1887. At that time fungus
diseases had almost entirely destroyed many of the best varieties in Java
and in the "West Indies. A careful examination of the flowers, which ar©
very small and very numerous, showed that occasionally a few seed in a
panicle were produced, frequently only 2 or 3 being found in a panicle
containing many thousand flowers. In the author's experiments the
whole panicle was sown in boxes in the hope of the presence of some
fertile seed. On account of the minuteness of the flowers and the rarity
of the production of tertile seed, the ordinary method of cross fertilization
could not be adopted. Staminate plants were planted to the windward of
the pistillate ones, or in alternate rows. In another series the panicles
were covered with bags and later dusted with pollen-bearing plants of
known value. It was found that frequently the pollen was infertile, while
the pistillate flowers were fertile. The most valuable varieties so far ob-
tained through seed canes have followed the principal characteristics of
the staminate parent.

So far as the writer's observation has gone, the seed canes tiller more
extensively than the plants from the cane top. The Eibbon and White
Transparent varieties have proved the best for mother plants, the mother
plants governing the size, color, and to a considerable extent the sugar con-
tent of the cane. Purity of the juice has not been definitely determined
as due to either parent. As to the yield of sugar, the average for the island
of Barbados is said to be 1.7 tons per ao.re, while one variety shown by the
writer, designated as INo. 208, yields 3 tons of sugar per acre at Barbados,
and its value has been further attested on the islands of Trinidad, St.
Kitts, etc.

A paper on the Cytological Aspects of Hybrids, by W. A. Cannon, of
Columbia University, New York, showed that the relation between the
cytological and experimental studies could not be defiintely stated in the
present state of our knowledge on the subjects. A review was given of
Mendel's laws in the light of modern cytological studies. So far these
studies have been made on first-generation hybrids. It is said that the
normal division of sex nuclei leads to fertility in hybrids, but obnormal
division to sterility. Cytological studies on cotton and other hybrids, it is
claimed, show (1) a possible cause of sterility, (2) that variation in the
hybrid may or may not be associated with variation in spermatogenesis,
and (3) that chromosomes tend to retain their respective individualities^
as shown in many hybrids examined.

Improvement of Koses by Bud Selection was the subject of a paper by
L, C. Corbett, of this iJepartment, in which experiments were reported
which were undertaken to determine the relative value of blind and flower-
ing wood in rose production. It was shown that individual characteristics
of a branch were perpetuated from generation to generation in plants
asexually propagated, aud also that cumulative results are not to be ex-
pected by the selection of parts showing like tendencies through successive
generations. The flowering habit of plants produced from flowering wood
through five generations was in no way increased, nor was it diminished
when blind wood was employed in a like manner. From the commercial
side this has an important bearing, us it is more economical for the florist
to produce hie roses each season from blind wood.

Under the title of Improvement of Oats by Breeding, J. B. Norton, of
this Department, gave a description of the work recently undertaken in

the plant-breediug laboratory. This has included the selection and hybri-
dization of oats to secure rust resistance, hardiness, increased yield, to
prevent lodging, etc. As yet the results can not be definitely determined.

In experiments to increase the yield and hardiness of winter oats by se-
lection, sowings were made at different dates late into the autumn, and the
hardiness of the plants was tested by freezing out during the winter. It
was found that the farther south seed oats are produced, the earlier tbe
crop when sown at Washington; and there are apparently no varieties of
oats which come absolutely true to type description. In experiments in
crossing, only 5 to 10 per cent, of successful fertilizations were ordinarily
secured. If cool, moist days were chosen for pollination, better results
would be obtained, in some casei almost 100 per cent, of the pollinations
resulting in the production of fertile seed. The presence of natural crosses
was briefly commented upon, and it was stated that Rimpau in his work,
covering many years, observed only 4 or 5 cases. This seems to indicate
that oats are nearly always self -fertilized.

In commenting upon this paper, Director Saunders, of the Canada Ex-
perimental Farms, called attention to the Canadian work along the line of
oats breeding, which has been carried on for about 10 or 12 years, and
D. Gr. Fairchild referred to the work being conducted at the experiment
station at Svalof, Sweden, along similar lines.

The subject of breeding Florists' Flowers was treated in papers by E.
G. Hill, of Richmond, Indiana, C. W. Ward, of Queens, Long Island, and
A. Wintzer, of West Grove, Pennsylvania. In Mr. Hill's paper notes
were given on breeding experiments with roses, carnations, and geraniums.
Of many thousand hybrids produced, but few of desirable quality were
obtained. Not one in a thousand was said to in any way approximate to
the value of the ideal which was sought. When the great number of hy-
bridizers who are experimenting with roses is considered, the number of
valuable new sorts is very meager compared to the amount of labor ex-
pended. While rose fertilization is said to be very easy, the most im-
portant part of the work is in properly maturing the seed and propa-
gating it. A number of successtul hybrid roses were cited as being re-
cently introduced into the market. Somewhat similar results were report-
ed with carnations, in which out of thousands of seedlings grown every
year by hundieds of growers, only a few improved forms are annually ob-
tained. In experiments with chrysanthemums the best results have been
obtained, it was said, when only double forms were used for parent stocks.
The hybridizing of begonias was also commented upon, and the origin of a
number of the finest new varieties was indicated. Attention was called to
the fact that La France, claimed to be the parent of many new varieties, is
absolutely sterile in some countries.

The result of experiments in crossing pumpkins were described by L.
H. Bailey, of Cornell University, in a paper entitled A Medley of Pumpkins.
The author began a series of experiments in 1887, which was continued for
10 years, to determine the immediate effect of pollen on fruit. After a
number of years' investigation, no immediate effect of pollen could be re-
cognized on cucurbit fruits. The experiments were continued, however,
to see what would be the result of crossing 2 varieties of squash. These
Tarieties were hand pollinated, the seed saved, and in the third generation
the plants occupied between 8 and 10 acres. Of the product examined,
fully 1,500 forms were noted which did not resemble either parent in form
or shape. The plants seemed to be almost wholly self-sterile to their own
pollen. Ihe seed of one form, designated as Alpha, when planted, gave
110 distinct kinds of fruits and inumerable intermediates. The parent
stock of this experiment was pedigreed and usually came true to type, but

the progeny resulting from crossing was so variable as to give nearly as
many types as there were individuals. New characters continually appeared
in the second and third generations, and the confusion became so great
that the experi . ent was abandoned. Another experiment was described,
in which one of the small ornamental pear gourds was crossed with pollen
from the typical Connecticut pumpkin. From the seed secured, 39 plants
resulted and no two fruits were identical Nineteen forms were found that
were fairly well marked, and these were described as types. In all the
experiments seedlessness seemed to be a common trait of crossed cucurbits,
or if seed were produced they were ordinarily sterile. An attempt was
made to reciprocally cross Cucurhita pepo, C. maxima, and C. moschata.
Only 3 fruits were obtained, and thoso, species hybrids, were between C.
pepo and moschata. The progeny grown from these seed were more uni-
form in character than those obtained by crosses in the varieties of C. pepo.
Continuing this work through a number of generations, the moschata type
entirely disappeared and the plants were to all appearances G. pepo

Eesults of Hybridization and Plant Breeding in Cana<la was the title of
a paper presented by William Saunders, director of the Canada Experi-
mental Farms. He gave a brief resume of 40 years' work in Canada along
the line of production of new varieties of fruits, cereals, etc. His work
with wheat, oats, barley, and various fruits was described, the methods of
manipulation being given in considerable detail. Specimens wei-e exhi-
bited which showed the results of a number of the crosses. Among them
were crosses of Pyrus baccata with several varieties of Eussian apples,
of different species of barberry, of gooseberry and black currant, of
Pyvus mauUi and P. japonica, and of various cereals.

During an evening session a number of papers were presented which
were illustrated by specially preparcl lantern slides. The first of these
was by VV. B. Allwood, of Virginia Station, in which an account was given
of investigations in wine fermentation. The selection, propagation, and
uses of pure cultures of yeasts in wine and cider making, and in brewing
and distillins:, were considered and the different methods of elimination
and of cultivation described. Graphics were shown of the action of various
wine ferments upon grape must.

The second illustrated paper was by VV. Van Fleet, of Little Silver,
New Jersey, on Hybridizing Gladiolus Species. In growing Gladioli, only
summer-blooming varieties with good winter-keeping corms are desired in
this country. Hybrids of large flowered species seldom prove valuble in
the first generation but seem to improve in subsequent ones. Many species
hybrids have been produced but few have proved of intrinsic value. As a
rule, Gladioli do not grow well in clay. Sandy soil with an underlying of
peat, if kept well wet, is the best soil for their growth. A number of hy-
brids were exhibited, one of which (Princeps) was said to have a flower-
ing period of nearly 5 weeks, 4 or o of the huge flowers succeeding each
other until the entire spike has blossomel. This same phenomenon occurs
when flower stalks are cut and placed in water, if the water is frequently
changed. During 16 years of active hybridizing, in which a number of
species were used for breeding purposes andmoro than 150,000 seedlings
produced, many new commercial varieties would have been expected, and
although there were many promising novelties only 2, Princeps and Lord
Fairfax have been thought worthy of naming and commercial introduction.

The paper of C. W. Ward, of Queens, Long Island, on breeding Florists'
Flowers was also illustrated by lantern slides. He gave the results of 12
years' work in the hybridizing of carnations. His work has been confined
to 8 types of stock which were based on color differences. These have been

subjected to various crossings, and it was said that the staminate parent
showed its effect in the color of the progeny. If crossed upon another flower
of the same color the resultant plant would show reversion to prominent an-
cestral types. The writer claiii.s that when the commercial habit of the
carnation has been established any desired color can be bred into it. In
breeding carnations, if it is desired to heighten the color in no case should
purple or similar colors be used, as those colors tend to dull the color of
the progeny. The most difficult colors to fix in hybrid carnations are the
yellows and blues, and the variegated forms are almost impossible to fix.
Of 60,U00 seedlings grown to flowering, 36 have been considered of suffi-
cient merit to continue propagation, and of this number 16 have been in-
troduced to commerce. In the lantern slides accompanying this paper
were shown the parentage and progeny of many of the hybrids produced
by the writer.

N. E. Hansen, of the South Dakota Station, read a paper on the Breeding
of Native Northwestern Fruits. The praiiie regions of the Northwest re-
quire the breeding of new varieties of fruits, since all the Eastern varieties
so far tested have j -roved too tender. The writer has been extensively
engaged in originating new varieties and more than 100,000 seedlings have
been under investigation. To induce variation he preceded on Darwin's
theory that excess of food induces variation, and the writer believes that
selection and cultivation are the chief factors to be considered in his
reo-ion. His work with the sand cherry (Prunus hesseyi) was described at
considerable length. Of this promising fruit between 4,000 and 5.000
seedlings of the third generation are under investigation. The quality of
the wild fruit is known to be very variable, and this has been taken ad-
vantage of in his propagation work. He has at present 75 varieties bud-
ded upon plum stock. The results obtained so far have yielded a larger
and better flavored fruit. The sand cherry is said to cross readily with
many species of Prunus, and valuable hybrids may possibly be secured.
Experiments with raspberries, strawberries, currants, gooseberries, and
huckleberries were briefly reported, and promising crosses have been
obtained of all of them.

T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, gave the results of his investigations and
observations on the selection and hybridizing of grapes in a paper entitled
Advantages of Conjoint Selection and Hybridization and Limits of Use-
fulness in Hybridization among Grapes. The author claims that the
quality of grapes may be readily improved by increasing the vigor of the
vine. To secure better varieties of fruit recourse should be had to selection
and hybridization. Selection alone is considered too slow, and new flavors
and characteristics can be obtained only in a limited degree through bud
variation. On the other hand, indiscriminate crossing without selection
may prove injurious, and it is only when crossing is followed by careful
and continued selection that valuable results are obtained. The methods
of securing crosses were described and the statement made that any method
of crossing which is adapted to a genus of plants having many species will
be found adapted to other genera possessing numerous species. Among
the limits of crossing the author considered the possibility of double fe-
cundation, stating that were it possible it would aid very materially in hy-
bridizing so that in a single generation forms possessing several desirable
attributes could be obtained. In grape hybridizing, as well as with other
plants, so far as possible pure races alone should be used. Seasonal changes,
soils, and climates iofluence the character of hybrids. A hybrid adapted
to a given region in which it has exceedingly valuable characteristics may
utterly fail in other regions with different conditions. Special sorts of

grapes and other plants should be produced for special conditions, and no
attempt should be made to develop a variety that would be expected to
contain all the desirable qualities and adapted to all regions and climates.
A number of examples were cited of desirable parentage for new sorts for
special qualities, conditions, and regions. The parentage of a large number
of well-known varieties of cultivated grapes was traced at considerable
length.

C. E Saunders, of Ottawa, Canada, read a paper on the Variations in the
Second Generation of Berberis Hybrids. In this paper the results of ex-
periments in crossing Berberis thunbergi as a pistillate and B. vulgaris pur-
purea as a staminate parent, in which a large number of hybrids was
obtained, are described. Some of the hybrids were intermediate in the
size of the plant, and size shape, and color of the leaves, while in others
the different characters were widely divergent. As a result of his observa-
tions it was found that these hybrids tended to uniformity in the first ge-
neration and wide variation in the second and subsequent generations,
as shown by more than a thousand seedlings. In the first generation little
or no purple color was observed, but the color of the foliage came out
well in many specimens of the second generation. The leaves, thorns
habit of plant, &g,, varied widely in the later generations.

Bud Variation in the Strawberry Plant was the subject of a paper by
R. M. Kellogg, of Three Rivers Michigan. This is said to be very common
in the Strawberry Plant, and an account was given of 19 years' effort on
the part of the writer to produce more vigorous types of strawberry plants
by forcing grovi'th through the use of the fertilizers, by tillage and con-
tinued selection. The effect of the different kinds of fertilizers in culture
was shown, and an excess of nitrogen was used to stimulate vegetative
growth and thus induce variation. The individual peculiarities of plants
must be considered in producing new forms, and where valuable indivi-
dual characteristics appear, as shown by bud variations these should be
eagerly sought and propagated.

G. T. Powell, director of the Briarcliff School, New l^ork, gave the
results of 10 years' experiments in propagating bud variations of the Sutton
Beauty and Tompkins County King apple, his remarks being illustrated by
specimens of fruits.

H. C. Price, of the Iowa Station, read a paper on Hand Pollination
of Orchid Fruits. This is not diffcult, but ordinarily the results
obtained are very slow in development. The plan of cooperation
maintained by the Iowa Experiment Station with orchardists throughout
the State, in which pollen of known varieties is distributed, was described
The seedlings resulting from the hand pollination of fruits are grown and
carefully examined. In the cooperation it is, so far as possible, desired
that the orchardist should produce his own seedlings rather than send
them to the station, The effect of different kinds of emasculation of the
flowers was described. Low emasculation, in which all the flower but the
style was cut away, did not give as favourable results as high emasculation
in which only the corolla and anthers were removed. Studies on the time
for operation showed that the immediate transfer of pollen after the emas-
culation of flowers gave the best results. Pollen applied to the stigmas by
a camel's-hair brush gave slightly better results than where transferred by
the fingers. Pollen taken from the anthers just before the opening of the
flowers seems to be the most potent and gave the best results.

H. F. Roberts, of the Kansas Station, read a paper on Cereal Breeding
in Kansas, in which he briefly reviewed some of the efl'orts that have been
in corn and wheat breeding. In breeding wheat for growth in Kansas,
hardiness in winter, drought resistance, and inoreasod production are th«

points sought. In a variety of wheat seeming to possess extreme hardiness
a number of spikes appeared which showed a tendency toward the club-
wheat form. These heads, to the number of 61, were collected and are to
be studied during the coming season. Eleven of the heads were appa-
rently of exceedingly great productivity. The grain will be planted and
the results announced in due time. It is desired to secure a variety in
which the spikelets and heads are more completely filled. Experiments
in breeding macaroni wheats to secure greater drought resistance are also
under way, and a number of other experiments were briefly mentioned.

William Fawcett, director of Public Grardens, Jamaica, gave a brief
account of the plant-breeding work that is being conducted in Jamaica.
Naturally the investigations have been conducted on tropical plants. The
differences in the chara-ter of the different flower clusters of banana were
pointed out. The lower or earlier ones are usually all female, and the ovary
is twice the length of the rest of the style. Thos6 next are both male and
female, and the last ones to appear are all staminate. If the male flowers
be cut from a bunch it results in early ripening and in uniformity of fruit.
A number of attempts were made to artificially pollenize the banana, and
some seeds were set but they failed to germinate. Experiments were
reported in which the Smooth Cayenne and Ripley pineapples were crossed
The flowers of the pineapples are said to be almost wholly self-sterile.
Many seedlings have been obtained, most of which were intermediate be-
tween the parents, but as yet they have not developed valuable characteis.
Experiments with mangoes have not yet proved successful. The investi-
gations have shown that the Avocada, or alligator pear, may be budded
with success.

The remaining papers of the programme, read by title were as follows :
Notes on New Hybi'ids, J. H. Wilson ; Selection v. Hybridism, F. W. Bur-
bidge . Some Laws of Plant Breeding, H. J. Webber ; On Variation in
Plants, J. B. Norton ; Some Possibilities, C L. Allen ; Fertile Hybrids of
Teosinte and Maize, J. W. Harshberger; A Study of Grape Pollen and
What the Eesults Indicate, N. 0. Booth ; The Improvement of Corn by
Breeding, C. P. Hartley ; Improvement of Crops for Arid Regions and
Alkali Soils, T. H. Kearney ; Improvements of Cotton by Breeding. H. J.
Webber ; Practical Points from the Breeding of Strawberries and bush
Fruits, F. W. Card ; Crossing Species of Salix, S, W. Fletcher ; Notes on
Breeding Hardy Apples, J. Craig ; The Ever-bearing Strawberry, P. de
Yilmorin ; The Musk-melon, F. W. Rane ; Results in the Breeding of
Species of Ricinus, E. M. Wilcox ; On Orchid Hybrids, 0. Ames ; Hybrid
Beans, R. A. Emerson ; Hybrid Plums, F. A. Waugh ; Cross Breeding of
Cinchonas, H. H. Rusby ; Notes on Plant Breeding in California, E. J.
Wickson ; Plant Breeding in New Jersey, B. D. Halsted ; The Wild Hy-
brids of the North American Flora, D. George ; Plant Breeding Work in
Germany, J. C. Whitten; and Hybrids and Diseases, L. H. Pammel.

The afternoon session of October 2 was held at the New York Botanic
Garden, Bronx Park, where the delegates to the conference were enter-
tained as guests of the directors of the garden. On Friday an excursion
was given the delegates up the Hudson to Poughkeepsie, in the vicinity
of which a number of private estates were visited.

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The usual monthly meeting of the Board was held at Head Quarter
House on Tuesday 10th February, 1903 : Present, The Hon. the Colonial
Secretary (Chairman), the Hon. the Director of Public Gardens, and His
Grace the Archbishop.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed.

The iioard then proceeded to consider one or two points in connection
with the estimates that required alteration.

An application for admission into the Agricultural College from Mr.
B. Chase was considered. The Board desired that some evidence or edu-
cational qualifications should be ascertained by examination.

The admission of Mr. Carpenter was approved by the Board.

A letter was read from the Secretary of the Bath Agricultuial Society
requesting the services of Mr. Cradwickin connection with the Bath Show.
The Secretary was directed to write Mr. Parnther that the Board regretted
that as arrangements had been made for Mr. Cradwick's work in the west-
ern parishes, it was unable to send him, but would arrange for Mr. Thomp-
son, who had been assigned as Instructor in that Parish, to attend and
render what assistance he could.

The Chairman stated that it had been represented to him that there had
been an adulteration of bees'-wax, and that the matter had, athis suggestion
been taken up by the Beekeepers Association. The Archbishop also men-
tioned that he uuderstood gua-va jelly was also being adulterated and hoped
some enquiry would be made.

In regard to the proposed experiment in cotton growing, the chairman
expressed the opinion that it would be better to try an experiment at the
Prison Farm, and to set up there a gin. The Archbishop was anxious that
inducements should be offered to outsiders in the disirict to grow cotton
and bring in their crop for preparation at the Farm.

Mr. Fiiwcett handed in a memi.randum on an insect which had been sent
to him as causing injury to cocoa. Dr. Howard of Washington, to whom
specimens had been forwarded, had, however stated that it was a burrow-
ing wasp, probably living on the larvae of the " Fiddler Bug." It was
decided to publish this together with a careful description of the wasp.

A. letter was read from the Secretary of the Schools Commission stating
that steps had been taken to make known to the Schools that the arrange-
ments with regard to the teaching of Chemistry at the Laboratory.

A report by Mr. Cradwick on the Kendal Show together with observa-
tions by Messrs. Shore & Calder was considered.

The meeting then terminated.

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE

DEPARTMENT.

Library (Serials).

Europe.

British Isles.

Botanical Magazine, Jan. [Purchased,]

Chemist and Druggist.Dec. 27, Jan, 3, 10, 17. [Editor.]

Garden, Dec.27, Jan.3, 10, 17. [Purchased.]

Gardeners' Chronicle, Dec. 27, Jan. 3, I'J, 17. [Purchased,]

International Sugar Journal, Dec, Jan. [Editor.]

Journal, Board of Agriculture, England, Dec. [Sej. Board of Agriculture.]

Journal of Botany, Jan. [Purchased,]

Journal of the Society of Arts, Dec. 0, 1901. [Purchased.]

Journal, R- Colonial Institute, Jan.

Nature, Jan- 1, 8. [Purchased.]

Pharmaceutical Journal, Dec. 27, Jan. 3, 10, 17.

London Report, Jan. 10, 17,

Scottish Geographical Magazine, Mar. 1902. [Purchased.]

France.

Journal d' Agriculture Tropicale, No. 18. [Publishers.]
Sucrerie indigene etcoloniale,Dec. 25, Jan. 6, 13. [Editor.]

Germany.

Symbolae Antillanae seu Fuiidamenta Florae Indiae Occidentalis. II, 3.

[Purchased.]
Tropenpflanzer, Jan. (with Index for 1902.) [Editor.]

Belgium.

Bulletin du Jardin Botanique de I'Etat a Bruxelles, I., 1, 2 & 3.
Bulletin, Soci^t^ d'Etudes Coloniales, Jan. [Editor.]

Asia.

India.

Annual Report, Gardens of Udaip r, 1901-02. [Supt,]

Planting Opinion. Dec. 6, 13, 20. [Editor.]

Proc. Agri. & Hort. Soc. India, July— Sept. [Secretary.]

Ceylon.

Times of Ceylon, Dec. 10, 18, 24, 31. [Editor.]

Java.

Proefstation East Java. 43. [Director.]
„ West Java. 59. [Director.]

Australia.

N. S. Wales.

Agri. Gazette, Dec. [Dept. of Agri.]
Queensland.

Agri. Journal, Dec. [Sec. of Agri.]

Sugar Journal, Dec. [Editor.]

Victoria.

Journ. Dept. Agriculture, I, 1, 2 & 3. [Public Library of Victoria.]

Western Australia.

Journ. Dept. Agriculture, Nov. [Dept. of Agri.]

Africa.

Central Africa.

C. African Times, Nov. 1, 8, 15, 22, 29. [Editor.]

Natal.

Agri. Journal & Mining Record, Dec. , 19. [Dept. of Agri.]
Bulletin 2, Manures in the Natal Market, Season 1902,

West Indies.

Barbados.

Agri. Grzette, Jan. [Editor,]

Agricultural News, Jan. 17, 31. [Commr. Imp. Dept. of Agri.]
Jamaica.

Cornwall Herald. [Editor.]

Journal Jamaica Agri. Soc, Jan. [Sec]

Trinidad —

Bulletin, Botanical Dept., Jan. [Supt.]
Proc. of Agri Society, Dec. 9. [Sec ]

British North America.
Ontario —

Ann. Report, Ontario Pairs and Exhibitions for 1902.

Report Farmers' Institutes, J 901, ^Part II. Women's Dept. of Agri. In-
stitutes
BuUetin 125, Roup.

Ottawa.

Bulletin 41, Results obtained in 1902 from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder
Corn, Field Roots and Potatoes [Dept. of Agri.]

Toronto.

University of Toronto Studies; No. 2, Anatomy of Osmundaceae. No. 3
Observations on Blood Pressure. [Librarian.]

United States of America.

Publications of the U. S. Dept. of Agri. [Directors.~\
Scientific Bureaus ^ Divisions

Field Operations of Division of Soils, 1900, (Second Report) with Maps.
Experiment Station Record, Vol. XIII., 10, 11. Vol. XIV., 4.
Geological Survey of Louisiana, Report of 1902.
Yearbook of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1901.

fjxperiment Stations.

Alabama. 121. (Dairy Herd Record and Creamery Notes.)

California. 131. (Phylloxera of the Vine.) 132. (Feeding of Farm ani-
mals.) 133. (Tolerance of Alkali by various Cultures ) 134. (Report
on Vineyards in portions of Santa Clara Valley.) 135. (Potato-worm in
California.) 136. (Erinose tf the Vine.) 137. (Pickling ripe and green
Olives.)

Illinois. 79. (The Corn Bill-bugs in Illinois.) 80. (Methods and results
of field insecticide work against the San Jose Scale..) 81. (Forcing
Tomatoes.)

New York. 217. (Inspection of Feeding Stuffs.) 218. (Variety Test of
Strawberries.) 219. S me of the Compounds present in American Ched-
dar Cheese.)

Rhode Isl nd. 85. (Analyses of Commercial Fertilizers) 86 (Goose septi-
caemia) 87 (Fowl Typhoid) 88 (The Forests of Rhode Island) 89 (Com-
mercial Fertilizers).

Virginia. 8 (Observations on production of Vinegar in Cellars) 9 (Orchard
Studies. I. The Fruit Plantation. Pome Fruits.)

Nev Jersey. Additional Observai ions on Strand Flora. ByJ.^
W. Harshberger. Reprint. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Phila- \
delphia, Oct. 1902. }■ [Author.] '

Santo Domingo. The Queen of the Antilles. By J. W. (
Harshberger. J

American Druggist and Pharmaceutical Record, Jan. [Editor.]

American Journal of Pharmacy, Jan. [Editor.]

Chicago. Report of Director to Trustees 1900-1901. Field. Columbian
Museum.

Asters. Study of variation in the bracts, etc. By G. Shall. Reprint. American
Naturalist, XXXVI 422. [Author ]

Botanical Gazette, Chicago, Dec, Jan. [Editor.]

Iowa. Bulletin from Laboratories of Nat. Hist., State University. V 3.

Lloyd Library. Bulletin No. 4 References to Capillarity. Bulls. 3 it 5.
Mycoh gical Series, No. 1, The Genera of Gastromycetes. No. 2, The
Geastrae. Myoological Notes, Nos. 5 — 9. [Lloyd Library, Cin., Ohio.]

Coffee. Extensive information and statistics. [Gillespie Bros.. N.Y.]

Cotton and Farm Journal, Jan. [Publishers.]

Forestry and Irrigation, Jan. [Editor]

Cincinnati Soc. of Nat. Hist., Journ. XX, 1 & 2.

Missouii Botanical Garden. Thirteenth Re ort, 1902. [Director.]

Piperaceae, on the Development of. By Duncan S. Johnson. [Author.]

Louisiana Planter, Jan. 3, 10, 17, 24.

Plant World, Nov., Dec, Jan. [Publishers,]

St. Louis, Trans, of the Academy, X, 9-11, XL, 1-11, XII, 1-8. [Acad, of
Sci.]

Polynesia.
Hawaii. A.gri. Exp. Station Bull. No. 2. The Root Rot of Taro.

Library. (Books.)

Bailey (L.H.) Lessons with Plants. Suggestions for seeing and interpreting

some of the common forms of vegetation. Third edition. New York. 1902.

8vo. [Purchased.]
Bailey (L. H ) An Elementary Text Book for Schools. Fourth edition. New

York. 1901. 8vo. [Purchased.]
Bateson (W.) Mendel's Principles of Heredity. A Defence by W. Bateson.

With a Translation of Mendel's Original Papers on Hybridisation. Cambridge

1902. 8vo. [Purchased.]
Bower ^,F.O.) I'ractical Botany for Beginners. London. New York. 1895.

Svo. [Purchasec3.]
Leavitt (Robert Gieenleaf) Outlines of Botany for the High School, Labora-
tory, and Class-rooms (based on Gray's Le.ssons in Botany.)
Gray (Asa) Field, Forest and Garden Botany. A Simple Introduction to the

common plants of the U. S. east of the 100th meridian, both- wild and cultivated.

By A. Gray, revised and extended by L. H. Bailey, New York. 1895. 8 vo.

B.iuud with the pr ceding. [Purchased.]
Potter (M. C.) An Eleiuentary Text- Book of Agricultural Botany. Revised

and enlarged edition. Ijondon. 1902. Svo. [Purchased.]
Preuss (Dr. Paul) Le Cacao, sa culture, & sa preparation. Extract from

Bulletiu d' Etudes Coloiiiales, Belgium. Brussels. Paris. 1902. Svo. [Put-

ch sed.]
Underwood (Lucien Marcus) Moulds, Mildews, and Mushrooms. A guide tu
the systematic study of the Fungi and Mycetozoa and their literature. New
York, 1899. Svo. [Purchased.]

Seeds.

From Mr. T. W. Anderson.
Caeabanana (Louisiana)

trom Supt. Botanic Station, Belize
Mahogany.

Fiom Curator Botanic Gardens, Entehe, Uganda Protectorate,
Spathodea uilotica.

From Royal Gardens, Kew.

Ilex paragueusis, var. geuuina.

Fi om Senor Curios Dauphin, Seville, Spain.
Quercus Suber (Cork Oak)

Plants.
From Hon. J. W. Mitch-ll, Clarendon.

Eucalyptus rostrata.
From Mr W. J. Thompson, Supt, Parade Garden.

A Collection of Grape Vine cu'tings : — Gros Maroc : Bowood Muscat : Fos-
ter's Seedlings : Muscat Hamburg : Gros Oulma'i : Canon Hall Muscat :
Mrs Pince : Muscat of Alexandria: Black Hamburgh: Trebbiano :
Madiesfield Court : Black Alicante : Golden Hamburgh : Mrs. Pearson :
Black Alonukka : San Antonio : Gros Guillaume : Syrian: Alnwick Seed-
ling : Appley Towers.

[Issued 9th March, 1903.]
frinted at the Govt, rrinting Office, Kingston, Jam.

Vol. I. APRIL, 1903. Part 4.

BULLETIN

OV THB

DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULl'UfiE.

EDITED BT

WILLIAM PAWCETT, B.Sc, F.L.S,

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

» > »♦ • ■

CONTENTS:

Page.
Cocoa in Trinidad and Granada . 73

The Sugar-Cane Soils of Jamaica , 76

Additions and Contributions , 93

PRIG E— Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
Hobs Gaboskb.

1903.

JAMAICA.
BXJLLETIlSr

OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Vol. I. APRIL, 1903. Part 4.

COCOA IN TRINIDAD AND GRENADA.

Notes from Dr. Paul Preuss.

In 1884 Kamerun became a German Colony. For nine or ten years
Cocoa was planted only in a small way, but in 1896, a commencement
was made of Cocoa plantations on a large scale. The soil and climate
was all that could be wished, and the trees grew in a satisfactory manner,
but the cured Cocoa did not get as high a price as was hoped. Re-
searches were carried out, but with no satisfactory results. The surest
and the quickest way to arrive at a solution of the question was to go
and examine on the spot the methods of culture and preparation in
the West Indies and Central and South America, where it has been
longest cultivated and with the best results, to study there dif-
ferent species of Cocoa and their conditions of development, and to
import into the German Colonies those species which are the most pro-
fitable and the most suitable. With this aim Dr. Preuss was commis-
sioned to travel in Surinam, Trinidad, Grenada, Venezuela, Ecuador,
Nicaragua, Salvador, Guatemala and Mexico.

The account of his travels and the results of his mission are presented
in his Report entitled, " Expedition nach Central and Siid-Amerika,"
published in Berlin by the Kolonial Wirtschaftliches Komitee : the
second part of which has been translated into French, and published
by the Societe d' etudes coloniales de Belgique under the title " Le Cacao,
sa culture & sa preparation "

Notes from this valuable treatise will appear from time to time in
this Bulletin,

Shade. — The distance of the plants is generally 14 feet for the cocoa
trees and 28 feet for the shade trees. In many plantations the dis-
tances are 10 to 12 feet, but these are gradually being given up, and
planters are adopting 14 by 16, or 16 by 16 feet. The distance of
the shade trees from one another varies with that of the cocoa trees,
being in the proportion of one shade tree to two cocoa trees. Dr.
Preuss had long discussions with the Trinidad planters on the subject
of the shade being too dense, but they maintained that it was neces-
sary. As proof, they told him that cocoa trees ceased to yield when-
ever their shade trees were blown down. Moreover, they informed
him that tormerly when less shade trees were planted, the cocoa trees
dried up by the hundred in years of great drought. Dr, Preuss, in
his journey through the best cocoa districts of Trinidad, saw evidence
that the trees had suffered much from drought, and that a great nurn-
ber had died in spite of the thickness of the shade. What was said
then about the ruin by drought of entire cocoa plantations thatj,were

insufficiently shaded, appeared to be quite credible, and tbe distance
of 28 feet between the shade trees did not seem too small. The ex-
planation seems to lie in the amount of the rainiall, the average at
the Botanic Garden for 13 years being 68.19 inches. In other parts
of Trinidad, for instance at the plantation " La Eeunion," the ramfall
wasfor 1896, 107 inches, for 1897, 101 inches, and for 1898, 93.5 inches.
The absence of shade trees in Grenada astonishes anyone who has
seen the cocoa plantations in Trinidad so carefully shaded, and he asks
with surprise how it is possible in the same latitude ? The reason for
this difference does not, however, lie in the fact that Grenada is ex-
tremely mountainous, and that it has deep depressions, so that the
plantations are only exposed to the sun during a few hours in the day.
This cannot be the cause, for in the first place the most extensive and
the best plantations are not situated between steep hills, but on the
contrary in the most level part of the island, where they are fully ex-
posed to the sun. Besides, the morning and evening sun is not of
much importance, and there is no mountain in Grenada sufficiently
lofty to be able to protect cocoa plantations against the sun after 9
o'clock in the morning.

The principal reason is rather in the very large rainfall, in the sky
being much more overcast, and in the very great humidity of ihe air.
The resistance of the variety which is planted there, also counts for
something. A rainfall of less than 100 inches is a rarity in Grenada,
while it is the rule in Trinidad. In Grenada the annual rainfall is
about 120 inches. Thanks to this circumstance, the chief cause dis-
appears which leads the planters ot Trinidad to shade their plantations,
namely, the fear of seeing them perish through drought.

The absence of shade which the Grenada planters partially supply
by planting the trees very near one another, results in a different
method of working the estates.

The cocoa trees yield a crop much sooner without shade, if the hu-
midity is sufficient, than with shade. In Grenada a very fair crop is
obtained in the fourth year from planting, and a full crop in the fifth
year ; while in Trinidad the trees only commence to yield a full crop
after the tenth year.

It must be noted that trees not shaded become exhausted much
more rapidly than the oihers, above all when they are planted close;
a distance of 9 by 9 feet is not rare in Grenada. If it is desired to
preserve as long as possible the fertility of the trees, it is necessary to
manure and cultivate the soil, and this is done to the greatest extent
in Grenada, where manuring and tillage play a very important part.
This fact constitutes a great difference between the methods of culture
of Trinidad and Grenada.

The tilling is done by means of a four-pronged fork. No particular
care is taken to avoid destroying sometimes a root that comes to the
surface, but when this happens great trouble is taken to cut off the
torn ends clean in order to prevent decay. The results obtained are con-
siderable and far surpass those of the Trinidad plantations. In Gre-
nada they cultivate very intensively, and the soil is completely ex-
hausted at the end of a short time. The methods of culture in Trinidad
is on the contrary more extensive, and they do not manure much. If
manuring was given up in Grenada, the plantations would certainly

liave attained tlie maxinmm of their production at the end of 10 to 12
years, after which they would go down very rapidly. In Trinidad, on
the contrary, the trees only attain at the end of 10 years that degree
of development whqjj. full production commences, and they remain
then for a great number of years at this maximum without manuring.
Yield. — The following figures are quoted as a maximum crop in
Orenada. The Rev. Mr. Branch, of Good Hope, obtains in his planta-
tion of 16 acres, the soil of which is of medium fertility, and the situa-
"tion is in a hilly district, 4 to 5 lbs of cocoa a tree per annum. The
distance of the trees is 9 to 12 feet and less, the manuring is constant,
pruning is not practised except to lop off the suckers. The manure
consists of dung, leaves, and all sorts of vegetable matter, and care i«
taken to bury the manure. Mr. St. Q-eorge of the Boulogne estate
obtains on the best part of it, a valley of more than 10 acres, 27 cwt.
per acre or more than 6 lbs of cocoa a tree. He prunes the trees with
much care and intelligence. The distance of the trees is greater than
at Good Hope.

The following information relates to one of the best plantations in
Trinidad, namely, " La Tortuga" : —

4,019 trees, 20 years of ao:e, planted 12 by 12 feet yielded
10,300 lbs of cocoa = 2.5 lbs a tree.

1,250 trees, 17 years of age, planted 12 by 12 feet, yielded

4,450 lbs of cocoa = 3.5 lbs a tree.

2,382 trees, 10 years of age, planted 10 by 10 feet, yielded

5,400 lbs of cocoa = 2,3 lbs a tree.

1,080 trees, 25 years of age, planted 12 by 12 feet, yielded

3,600 lbs of cocoa = 3.3 lbs a tree.
918 trees, 10 to 12 years of age, planted 12 by 12 feet, yielded

3,150 lbs of cocoa = 3.4 lbs a tree.

2,770 trees 20 years of age, planted 12 by 12 feet, yielded

7,100 lbs of cocoa = 2.5 lbs a tree.

4,416 trees, 6 years of age, planted 12 by 14 feet, yielded

3,425 lbs of cocoa = 0.77 lbs a tree.

The average yield of a cocoa tree in Trinidad, is estimated in good

■plantations at 1 . 5 or 1 6 lb ; it is a little higher in Grenada. The price

of cocoa from Trinidad is, on the contrary, a little higher than that of

.cocoa from Grenada. The explanatioain Dr. t^reuss's opinion is to be

found in the variety cultivated. In Grenada the variety " Amelonado"

is principally planted, whilst in Trinidad "Forastero" is more grown.

Pruning. Great care is taken both in Trinidad and Grenada to

give the trees a good shape. An essential principle for this effect is

to cultivate them to maintain a low trunk, and the head in the form

of a crown, but so that one can always pass under the trees without

difficulty and without being obliged to bend too much, and so that all

the labour of cropping and cultivating can be easily carried, on.

All lengthing of the trunk is prevented, as well as every attempt to

iorm a second tier of branches.

In Trinidad the young cocoa-trees are allowed to grow until they
fork naturally. This happens when the trunk has attained a height
of .2^ to 5 feet. The number of branches in the whorl is 4 or 5. These
are reduced to 3 or 4, and only rarely are 5 allowed to grow. In the
varieties which have'much wood developed and a thick mantle of leaves

it is well to leave 4 or 5 branches for if only 3 are left, the weight of
each branch becomes too great, and the trunk is liable, during heavy
winds to divide into 3 parts from above downwards. In varieties with
feeble growth, only 3 branches are left in order to favour the develop-
ment of solid branches. The priming of trees takes places oftenest a
little after the crop in June or in January. Dr. Preuss does not like
the very heavy pruning practised in Trinidad. The ground is covered,
after the pruning, with a thick layer of branches and leaves. Such
treatment cannot be good for the trees. It results not in an increase,
but in a diminution of the yield, for the trees have to devote a great
part of their sap to form leaves again which are indispensable to them
to nourish them properly. The planters say that the cutting off of a
large number of leaves is of no importance since the trees re-cover
themselves very quickly with new leaves, but this fact shows the evils
of an exaggerated lopping since it has very little effect and the
force and energy which the tree employs to cover itself again with
leaves are lost to it, and the production of fruit is by so much lessened

It cannot be overlooked that the leaves have the same claim as the
roots to be considered organs of nutrition. The workpeople use a knife
to prune the trees, and when they cannot reach high enough, they
climb on the branches. They very rarely use a knife at the end of a
pole. Cutting branches an inch thick, a constant practice in Trinidad,
should be absolutely forbidden. Pruning should commence as soon as the
tree forks, and should be continued as often as possible, but always to a
slight extent only. The shoots ought naturally to be always cut off. In
large plantations it is difficult to spare a man to prune regularly and
frequently. Pruning is therefore only done once every 2 or 4 years, or
at the very outside once a year, and then heavily. Whilst a reasonable
pruning favours fruit bearing, it is nevertheless a question whether,
in place of pruning too severely it would not be preferable not to
prune at all, and be content with takmg away the dead wood. One
of the two planters in Grenada who obtain the largest crops, prunes
his trees very well, the other does not prune at all.

The trees attain sometimes, in Trinidad, considerable dimensions.
In the plantation " La Vega," Dr. Preuss states that he saw a tree
which had, at 6 inches from the ground, a circumference of 59 inches ;
and at a height of 40 inches a circumference of 45 inches; it was
25 years of age. Very old trees which no longer bear fruit, and
those which have been blown over, are renewed by allowing one of
the shoots which arise near the ground to develop and become a trunk,
while the old trunk is finally removed.

THE SUGAR-CANE SOILS OF JAMAICA.

By H. H. Cousins, M.A., (Oxon.) F.C.S., Government Analytical and

Agricultural Chemist.

PART I. E and S-CENTRAL. ^i '
At tlie present time there are some 200,000 acres of land in Jamaica
representing the areas of sugar estates still in operation. Out of the
large number of estates that formerly girdled the sea-board almost con-
tinuously and even flourished in the most inland districts, some 120
only, representing about 22,000 acres of effective cane-cultivation, now

remain. The northern estates have found a welcome salvation in the
banana industry, and sugar production in Jamaica is now localised in
certain special areas, chiefly in the western and south-central districts
of the Island. To have survived the fierce competition of bounties
and cartels, of modern sugar manufacture and skilled technical manage-
ment with the imperfect methods available in Jamaica, speaks volumes
for the intrinsic sugar-producing power of the soils ia these districts.

Some 31 soils and 23 subsoils specially selected as representative of
Jamaican sugar soils have been analysed in the Q-overnment Laboratory
during the past twelve months, and the results are here recorded with
certain observations thereon. In eleven cases manurial experiments
have been carried out on the present crop, and the results of three
series have been already obtained and are here recorded. Unfortunately
in four cases the serious drought has resulted in a loss of results on
this year's crop, and the experiments will have to be started again
with a hope of more favourable results in the future.

Taking the districts in approximately geographical sequence from
east to west, we must begin with the parish of

ST. THOMAS.
Plantain Garden River District.

The results of analysis of eight surface soils and a sequence of two
sub-soils to a depth of four feet as made in this Laboratory, were pub-
lished in "West Indian Bulletin, Vol. 3, pp. 64 and 65, and are here re-
produced for comparison with those from other districts of Jamaica.

Although not at present in sugar cultivation, these soils were for-
merly of high repute for the cultivation of sugar cane and it is proposed
to establish a central factory in this district. It will be noticed that the
soils consist of fine sand and silt with a lesser proportion of coarser
_and finer grades. The clay is moderate in amount.

These soils are of admirable texture for purposes of cultivation
and the efficient depth of soil is alone limited by the level of drainage
which it is found practicable to maintain. Banana cultivation on these
lands, apart from loss by hurricanes, has been a decided success and has
taught the value of deep drainage. The banana, owing to its marked
objection to stagnation of soil, has taught the agriculturists of Jamaica
to appreciate the great need for drainage in the management of
the majority of the most productive soils in the Island. In the event
of sugar cultivation recommencing in this fertile area, a due regard
for drainage should serve greatly to increase the output of these landsi
The Phosphoric Acid is unusually high, suggesting that the use of
Phosphatic manures would be quite uncalled for. Considering the
liberal and well distributed rainfall, it is more than doubtful whether
any treatment beyond good drainage and thorough tillage are required
to produce abundant crops. Indications of a low margin of available
potash are given in two cases (3 and 7). It is probable that the Seedling
Cane D. 95 would grow well and give a good yield on this land. Con-
sidering the frequency of * blows' in the district and the high losses
of bananas that seem to be inevitable over a period of years, it is to be
hoped that a well-considered project for a Central Sugar Factory may
shortly be realised to reap an assured success under the new auspices
(of a fair competition upon the abolition of the bounties.

•78

I. — Analyses of Soils from Plantain Oarden River, St. Thomas,

Chemical Analy

ses.

Solable In Hydrochloric
Acid.

Available

•rH

a H
o ®

S.2

Ih O

1— (

No.

i
1

•i-H

(X,

-2

Cl,

150

10.28

6.90

0.172

1.81

62.44

0.853

2.56

0.246

1.56

0.0128

0.0436

9.38

7.85

0.143

2.02

62.31

0.362

3.96

0.168

2.91

0.0099

0.024T

250

9.49

9.58

0.172

1.75

60.45

0.395

2.63

0.199

2.47

0.0047

0.0252

150

9.52

8.04

0.196

1.67

61.50

0.783

2.80

0.201

0.29

0.0117

0.0228

125

9.85

6.63

0.186

1.67

63.17

0.359

3.64

0.158

4.17

0.0081

0.0296

125

9.22

8.00

0.170

1.86

61.50

0.468

2.95

0.204

1.83

0.0088

0.0287

125

8.87

6.96

0.168

1.75

52.09

0.507

10.67

0.244

14.15

0.0042

0.0138

125

7.89

6.55

0.152

1.36

63.72

0.240

2.67

0.139

1.99

0.0106

0.0148

Mechanical Analyses,

!No,

2
8
i

•6

Surface

Subsoil

Surfacf
Subsoil

a
1—1

rd
P.

1-9

9-24

24-36

36-48

1-9

9-24

24-36

36-48

a
o

Nil

1.39

2.92

0.69

1.16

0.94

0.17

3.40

0.40

0.62

0.20

0.67

0.41

0.32

0.15

4.74
7.94
3.81
8.22
16,45
1.99
5.52
9.06
4.73
2.49
13.31
1.50
2.12
1.75

26.91
29,16
29.33
26.83
30.30
39.67
30.68
30.41
34.71
41.11
25.. S8
32.26
36.43
31.03

51.46
45.00
45.83
48.36
38.74
46.38
47.35
42.57
46.63
44.71
45.44
49.92
48.74
54.42

7.24
6.15
10.29
6.73
7.16
6.02
5.13
9.75
7.12
ft.23
7.35
7..i6
6.19
5,f9

1.81
1.55
1.30
1.26
1.19
traces
0.51
2.86
2.64
0.92
1.37
2.52
1.86
1.'78

6.45
7.28
8.75
7.44
6.22
6.15
7.41
4.96
4.55
4.34
6.48
5.83
5.34
5.38

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100,00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

<Dt-l

aj 5 *

54.5
52.0
53.0
52.0
56.0
51.0-
65.0'

Albion Estate.
By utilising the waters of the Yallahs river for irrigation, this estate
is enabled to grow excellent crops of cane on land that would otherwise
be almost valueless for any agricultural purpose. The owner, J.
Grinan, Esqr., has found that the use of fertilisers is profitable and he
recently demonstrated the possibilities of D. 95 on this soil by obtaining
32 tons of first sugar from 8 acres of thi^i seedling variety.

The analysis of the soil from the field selected for manurial
experiments gave the following results : —

SOIL ANALYSIS,
Reference Number — 81. Source Details — Surface Soil. Experi-
mental Plots. Albion Estate, St. Thomas.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.
Retentive Power for water — 47.0 per cent.

Chemical Analysis.
(Soil passing through '6 m.m. Si ve dried at 100® C.)

Insolable Matter ... 71.120

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid 28.880

r Potash ... 0.339

I Lime ... 0.567

-{ Phosphoric Acid 0.387

arbonic Acid as 1 Trace

Carbonate of Lime j

Combined Water and organic matter 6 . 750

Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 1 . 430

Nitrogen ... 0.148

Hygroscopic Moisture 2.849

Fertility Analysis.
Available Potash ... .0013

Available Phosphoric Acid .043'J

This soil is of a very light nature and has little drougbt-resisting
power. On the other hand it is admirably fitted for irrigation.

The carbonate of lime is so small in amount as to be incapable of
exact estimation. This must undoubtedly affect the fertility of the
soil and limit the rate of nitrification that obtains.

The available potash is very low, while an appreciable reserve of this
material exists in the soil. The analysis indicates that phosphates —
qua phosphates — are superfluous additions ; that owing to the absence
of carbonate of lime the soil lacks available nitrogen and that nitro-
genous manures should therefore be operative ; further, that potash is
needed.

The results of the manurial experiments will be obtained shortly
and will be of interest as bearing on the interpretation of the analysis.
It is very likely that the addition of lime to this soil will yield marked
benefits by its indirect effect on the availability of nitrogen and potash,
and, as has often been proved in similar instances, that a dressing of
lime may prove the most profitable addition it is possible to provide.
Mr. Grinan reports remarkable effects from the manures and has de-
cided to model the treatment of the fields of the estate upon the results
of the experiments.

The details of the experiments are as follows : —

Canes- " Albion" St. Thomas--J. Orinan, Esq.
Applied to (1) D 96 Canes.

(2) Mont Blanc Canes.
Plots Tb of an acre.

Mixed Phos-

Sulphate of

phate.

Ammonia.

Potash.

per Acre.

3cwt.

1 cwt.

J cwt.

3 "

—

i "

3 «

2cwt.

i "

1 "

h "

6cwt.

1 "

h "

6 «

1 "

h "

6 " super.

1 "

i "

3 " slag

1 "

—

3 "

1 "

1 cwt.

6 «

2 "

1 "

Plot 1 No Manure
" 2 Compl te Manure
<' 3 No Nitrogen
«' 4 Double Nitrogen,
" 5 No Phosphate
« 6 Double Phosphate
" 7 Double Superphosphate
" 8 Double Slag
«' 9 No Potash
•' 10 Double Potash
'« 11 Duuble Complete
It is proposed next year to add special plots for testing the efficiency
of lime as deduced from the analytical data.

VERE.
A localisation of the sugar industry is the chief interest of the plains
of Vere, and this has been maintained, despite grave climatic disadvan-
tages and recurring periods of drought, by virtue of the very high quali-
ties which the soils of this sultry plain possess for the growth of the sugar
cane. When the newly executed irrigation works have been brought
into working contact with the land of the estates, security of crop
and a large increase of the average annual returns are self-evident.
Great variations in the structure of the soils of the Vere plain are
apparent. There is, on the whole, a tendency for the soils to become
heavier in texture the nearer the sea. But the gradations are by no
means uniform and great variations are found on the same estate and
even in the same field.

Appended are the results of a series of seven soils and their subsoils
representative of the heavier type of land in this District.

Chemical Analvses of Soils from Vere. Surface Soils depth 9 inches.

=3 .
S3 03

a a
O

'a
o
«

5b
W

a
3 .

S c3

■©"a

«! o

3
a

h-l

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid.

Available.

-♦^

O
0^

o
o

IS
o

2
3
4
6
6
7

9.72

14.32
10.10
10.55
10.12
11.73
11.29

4.37
6.60
6.57
7.25
7.37
8.78
7.80

0.146
0.172
0.123
0.162
0.147
0.196
0.178

1.14
2.20
1.29
1.47
1.44
2.44
2.50

65.34
65.33
65.04
65.43
64.32
62.20
62.94

0.247
0.078
0.042
0.044
0.048
0.062
0.067

4.300
1.870
1.170
1.470
1.230
1.130
1.170

0.257
0.277
0.134
0.150
0.158
0.135
0.081

7.320
0.750
0.270
0.480
0.200
0.200
0.280

0.016
0.023
0.007
0.011
0.004
0.006
0.009

0.122
0.126
0.019
0.017
0.021
0.026
0.016

Mechanical

Analyses.

to
O

•

35.73

Agricultural
Clay.

3
to
O

4-1

•

^•i-

Surface

1-9

Nil

4.51

13.62

23.85

14.94

2.98

4.37

100.00

54.0

Subsoil

9-36

2.78

5.23

24.58

38.93

17.47

6.23

4.78

100.00

Surface

1-9

0.35

1.69

15.81

38.85

24.16

12.54

2.60

100.00

59.0

Subsoil

9-36

0.75

1.59

15.18

45.03

19.12

11.45

6.88

100.00

Surface

1-9

0.13

1.27

18.14

41,98

24.83

7.08

6.57

100.00

66.0

Subsoil

9-36

0.39

0.86

9.06

50.39

18.52

14.77

6.01

100.00

Surface

1-9

0.38

0.57

19.81

39.31

21.72

10.96

7.25

100.00

66.5

Subsoil

9-36

0.78

0.35

6.14

32.56

27.43

25.18

7.56

100.00

Surface

1-9

0.17

0.47

11 44

50.48

12.55

17.52

7.37

100.00

66.0

Subsoil

9-36

((

0.17

0.48

12.83

48.00

18.38

11.15

8.99

100.00

Surface

1-9

3.98

6.97

11.04

43.78

16.17

9.28

8.78

100.00

70.0

Subsoil

(•

0.78

1.06

10.96

39.93

19.89

18.19

9.23

100.00

Surface

1-9

0.43

0.55

10.60

42.12

16.92

21.58

7.80

100. 00

69.0

Subsoil

0.43

0.54

10.21

42.82

13.37

23.65

8.98

100.00

The agricultural clay varies from 18 to 36 per cent, in the surface
soils while in the subsoils it may rise to over 50 per cent. It need
hardly be stated that such soils would require great skill and care if
subjected to irrigation and are better calculated to fight the drought
on their merits with the assistance of deep drains and thorough culti-
vation. The natural retentive power of these soils is very great. The
Nitrogen is above the normal in every case, the Phosphoric Acid is
also so high that the need of Phosphatic manures is not indicated. In
two cases there seems a low amount of available Potash while the re-
serve supply is undoubtedly low. A trial of Potash on these soils
should be made. The proportion of Carbonate of Lime is adequate,
although Lime should produce benefits as regards the tilth obtainable.

Hillside Estate.
This represents the lighter type of soil to be met with on the upper
portions of the Yere Sugar area. Analysis of the surface soil and of
the subsoil to a depth of 3 feet are here given : —

SOIL ANALYSIS.
Eeference Number — 66.
Source Details — Soil from Hillside, Yere.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Agricultural
Clay.

Stones

Gravel

Sand

Fine Sand

Silt

I Fine Silt
tClay

Moisture

Per cent.

Nil

0.68"

2.02
32.66
53.89 ^ Fine

3.71 ~ "

0.47

6.57

Earth*

Total

Retentive Power for water

Chemical Analysis.
(Soil passing through 3 m.m. sieve dried at lOO** C.)
Insoluble Matter
Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid ...
rPotash
j Lime
■I Phosphoric Acid

Carbonic Acid as 1
(^Carbonate of Lime J
Combined Water and organic matter
Humns (soluble in Ammonia)
Nitrogen

Hygroscopic Moisture ...
Fertility Analysis.
Available Potash
Available Phosphoric Acid

100.00
54.0 Percent.

70.727

29,273

0.251

0.607

0.058

0.149

8 149
2.001
0.173
7.032

Per Cent.
0.0125
0.0210

SOIL ANALYSIS
Reference Number— 67.
Source Details — Soil from Hillsid
Depth of Sample — 9-24 inches.

Physical Analysis.
Stones
Gravel
Sand

Fine Sand
Silt
f Fine Silt
\ Clay
Moisture

Total ...

Vere. Subsoil A of 66.

Agricultural
Clay.

Per Cent
Nil
1.01^
1.00
45.84
44.69
1.76
trace
5 70

Fine
Earth;

100.00

SOIL ANALYSIS.
Reference Number — 68.

Source Details — Subsoil from Hillside, Vere. Subsoil B, of 66.
Depth of Sample — 24-36 inches.

Physical Analysis. Per Cent

Stones ... Nil

Gravel ... 0.56

Saud ... 2.72

Fine Sand ... 51.69

Silt .. 39.86

/Fine Silt ... 0.88

\ Clay ... trace

Moisture ... 4.43

Agricultural
Clay

Fine
Eartb^

Total

100.00

These soils consist almost entirely of fine sand and silt. They are-
possessed of low drought resisting powers and without irrigation are
Bubject to almost entire loss of crop when the Vere district is visited
by a prolonged drought.

On the other hand, it is probable that these lands will respond splen-
didly to irrigation and the problems attending successful management
prove of a simple nature. The reserve of Phosphoric Acid is not high.
Otaerwise this soil represents normal factors for a light soil of excel-
lent fertility and high crop-producing power.

Manurial Experiments have been started on this estate, but owing
to the exceptional drought the results have proved abortive. The ar-
rangements were as follows : —

Canes — " Hillside,' Vere. — Fred. M. Ellis, Esq.

10 Plots each
■jV Acre.

Basic Slag.

Nitrate of
Soda.

Muriate of
Potash.

ot 1 No Manure

,, 2 Complete Manure

3 cwt.

\\ cwt.

^cwt.

„ 3 No Nitrogen

3 „

2 "

„ 4 Double Nitrogen

3 „

H cwt.

2 "

„ 5 No PhoEphate

^ „

i»

„ 6 Double Phosphate

6 cwt.

H M

t -

,, 7 No Potash

3 „

H "

—

„ 8 Double Potash

3 „

H »

1 „

„ 9 „ Complete

6 „

3 „

1 „

„ 10 Lime, 10 cwt.

—

The soil of the experimental plots gave the following results on
analysis. I am forced to the conclusion that commercial fertilisers are
not likely to be profitable on this soil, and that large crops of cane
will be obtainable with irrigation without the use of manures.

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number — 62.

Source Details — Experimental Plots Hillside Estate, Vere.

Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Agricultural
Clay.

Stones

Gravel

Sand

Fine Sand

Silt
( Fine Silt
I Clay

Moisture

Retentive Power for water

Physical Analysis.

Per Cent.

1.12

0.50

32.32

54.72 )■

5.36

Fine

Earth.

Total

100.00
Per Cent.
54.0

Chemical Analysis.
(Soil passing through 3 m.m sieve dried at 100* C.)

Insoluble Matter ... 68.931

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid ... 31.069

rPotash ... 0.573

I Lime ,„ 0.951

-{ Phosphoric Acid ... 0.168

I Carbonic Acid as 1 ^ „_.

(^Carbonate of Lime J — ^"^^^

Combined Water and organic matter 9.950

Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 2.810

Nitrogen ... 0.155<

Hygroscopic Moisture ... 5.66

Fertility Analysis.

Per Cent .

Available Potash ... 0.021

Avail ible Phosphoric Acid ... 044

Amity Hall Estate.

Manurial Experiments have been conducted on this property, and
the results have just been recorded.
The Soil Analysis is as follows : —

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number — 60.

Source Details — Experimental Plots. * Middle Hutchings/ Amity Hall

Estate, Vere.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Per Cent.

Stones ... Nil

Gravel ... 0.17"!

Sand ... 0.45 1

Fine Sand ... 22.23 ! Fine

Silt ... 65.32 r Earth.

Agricultural^ f Fine Silt ^ nn ( 4.57

Clay. jClay '" j 1.40

Moisture ... 5.86^

Total ... 100.00

Per Cent.

Retentive Power for water ... 57.0

Chemical Analysis.

{Soil passing through 3 m.m. sieve dried at 100® 0.)

Insoluble Matter ... 61.930

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid ... 38.070

f Potash ... 0.573

I Lime ... 1.575

-^ Phosphoric Acid ... 0,139

Carbonic Acid as ) , o^-.

(^Carbonate of Lime J "• '

Combined Water and organic matter 11.176

Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 1.222

Nitrogen ... 0.163

Hygroscopic Moisture ... . 6.225

Fertility Analysis.

Per Cent.
Available Potash ... 0.0268

Available Phosphoric Acid ... 0.0579

The close similarity in the mechanical composition of this soil with
those from Hillside is at once apparent.

The chemical analysis indicates a fertility beyond reproach and no
results from commercial fertilisers should be obtainable under present
conditions of crop- production.

It may be possible that the greatly increased returns under irriga-
tion may make possible the profitable use of manures, but in my
opinion their application would not be justified for a long time to come.
The agricultural management of Amity Hall is excellent : deep and
thorough tillage have enabled the production of 33 tons of cane per
acre on this land in a year in which the rainfall was only 33 inches
with 18 inches of it in the month of June.

The results of the manurial experiments have now been obtained and
they bear out the deductions drawn from the analysis. I stated in a
note published in the Bulletin of the Botanical Department, April,
1902, p. 57, with reference to an estimate as to the cost of cane
cultivation in Vere, as follows : —

"The item of £500 for manuring canes (300 acres), is not in my
opinion justified. That it is not a prevalent agricultural practice is
proved by the fact that it represents ^ of the total value of fertilisers
at present being imported into Jamaica. That it is unnecessary, is
brought home to my conviction by recent analyses of Vere soils show-
ing an extraordinary standard of fertility. At present crops are
limited solely by the water supply. If fertilisers were used, the yield
per acre should be increased to such an extent as still further to re-
duce the cost of cane per acre. Ehminating this factor (fertilisers) the
cost of canes comes out at 5/2 per ton instead of 6/8, a figure in accord
with other data from this district which have have been submitted to

me.

The plan of the experiments is as follows: —

Canes — " Amity Rail Estate," Vere — E. W. Muirhead, Esqr.

10 Plots each ^ . g. Nitrate of Muriate of

iV Acre. . ^^'^ ^' Soda. Potash.

Plot 1 No Manure - -

„ 2 Complete Manure 3 cwt. 1| cwt. \ cwt.

„ 3 No Nitrogen 3 „ - | „

,, 4 Double Nitrogen 3 „ 3 cwt. | „

„ 5 No Phosphate - ^\ „ I ,,

„ 6 Double Phosphate 6 cwt. 1^ „ | „

„ 7 No Potash 3 „ 11 „

„ 8 Double Potash 3 „ l| „ 1 cwt.

,, 9 ., Complete 6 „ 3 „ 1 „

,, 10 Lime, 10 cwt. - - -
The Rainfall during the growth of the experimental crop of plant
cs"ipe8 was as follows : —

8$.

1901.

Rainfall. Amity Mall.

October

November

December

1902.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

4.75

1902.

1.20
3.17

August

September

October

2.88
1.20
3.34

0.73

NoTember

1.74

0.78

December

1.04

0.71

1903.

1.41

1.60

17.70

0.12

January
February

1.00

Total Rainfall

43.37

during growth of
crop, 17 months.

The plots were weighed on February 17 and 18 by Mr. W. J, Thomp-
son of the Department of Agriculture, and we quote as follows from his
report to the Director of Public Gardens : —

"The canes were planted out in the Autumn of 1901. There was
only 33 inches of rain in 1902, and of this nearly 18 inches fell in the
month of June There has only been one inch of rain this year up to
the present. The weight of the cane tops is less than it should be on
account of the drought in this district. The variety of cane grown
on these plots was the ' White Transparent,' the variety which has been
grown on this Estate for the last 100 years. Seedlings D. 95 and D. 102
are making good growth on this estate, and Mr Muirhead will send
samples to the Laboratory to be tested."

"The megass from two tons of canes weighed 11 cwt. 100 lbs. (re-
presenting a crushing 70.27 o/o.) Better results are obtained in Es-
tate practice."

The Amity Hall Mill is a very creditable specimen of a single
crushing mill. It is a 3 roller mill 3' 6" x 3' and requires a heavy
feed to obtain the best result. The thanks of the Board of Agricul-
ture are due to the owners of the estate and to E. W. Muirhead, Esq.
and his assistants for all the pains they have taken in carrying out the
experiments and the efficient manner in which they enabled the crop
.returns to be estimated.

The results recorded were as follows; —

Difference by

Plot.

Descripton.

Tons per Acre.

Manuring.

Tons, Canes

Canes,

Tops.

Produce.
36.88

per acre.

No Manure

33.75

3 13

Complete Manure

34 87

3.0U

37.87

+ 1.12

No Nitrogen

40.25

3.25

43.50

+ 6.50

Double Nitrogen

32.37

2.67

35.04

— 1.38

No Phosphate ...

31.00

2.75

33.75

— 2.75

Double Phosphate

31.50

3.25

34.75

— 2.25

No Potash

33.50

2.67

36.17

— 0.25

Double Potash

37.00

2.75

39.76

+ 3.26

Double Complete

25.00

2.37

27.37

— 8.75

Lime

32 72

2.75

35.47

— 1.03

Aver-

••♦

33.20

2.85

36.05

— 0.55

age

The'^ sample of juice from the mixed canes of the 10 plots as ex-
pressed by the estate mill gave the following results —

Analysis of Juice.

Juice by Mill ... 70 . 27 per cent.

Brix ... 20.30
Specific gravity 30-17.5 C .. 1 . 0807

Sucrose lbs. per gallon ... 1.8963

Glucose " ... 0.0825

Non-Sugars " ... 0.2142

Purity ... 86,47

Glucose Ratio ... 4.35

It will be noticed that the average returns from the 9 manured plots
are practically identical with that from the unmanured plots. The
small difference of half a ton per acre in favour of the unmanured plot
is less than the inevitable error involved in an agricultural experiment
of this sort. These results indicate that manures are not profitable
on this soil under the conditions obtaining during the crop season of
1902.

The ratoon results are to be recorded, and the Hon. J. W. Mitchell
has approved of a proposal for a manurial experiment on this estate
on a poorer soil under irrigation conditions so soon as the service of
water has been established.

MoNEYMusK Estate.

Experimental plots have been established at Carlisle, one of the four
estates grouped together under the proprietorship of the Hon. Col C.
J. Ward, C M G., and worked on central factory lines at Money Musk.
Unfortunately Carlisle lands suffered severely from the prevalent
drought and it was not considered practicable to weigh the returns.
A repetition of the experiment under more favourable conditions is
to be carried out

The plots were arranged as follows : —

Canes — " Monei/musk Ustaie," Vere — Isaac Fox, Esq.

10 Plots each tj • oi Nitrate of Muriate of

^VAcre. Basic Slag. g^^^ p^^^^j^^

Plot 1 No Manure - - - '

' 2 Complete Manure 3 cwt. \\ cwt. \ cwt.

' 3 No Nitrogen 3 " - | "

< 4 Double Nitrogen 3 " 3 cwt. | "

• 5 No Phosphate - 1^ " | "

' 6 Double Phosphate 6 " 1\ " | "

« 7 No Potash 3 " l| " | "

' 8 Double Potash 3 " l| "

' 9 " Complete 6 " 3 " 1 "

' 10 Lime, 10 cwt. - _

Samples of soil and subsoil were taken with the soil-auger from two sec-
tions of the field known as " Little Leicester" upon which the experiments
were to be carried out, and gave the following results on analysis.

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Eeference Number — 44 & 45.

Source Details -Surface Soils A & B from Experimental Plots, Car-
lisle Estate (Money Musk) Vere.

Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Stones
Gravel
Sand

Fine Sand
Silt
Agricultural f Fine Silt
Clay. t Clay

Moisture

Per Cent.

Nil

3.34

3.21

18.76

62.14

6.21

0.90

5-44

Per Cent.

Nil

2.42

4.39

24.89

51.81

10.13

0.44

5,92

Average.

Per Cent.

Nil

2.89

3.80

21.82

Fine

56.97 [Earth.
8.17 I
0.67 I

5. 68 J

Totalj

100.00

A. B.

Per Cent. Per Cent.

Retentive Power for water 58.0 56.0

Chemical Analysis.
(SoU passing through 3 m.m. Sieve dried at 100« C.)^

63.590

36.410

0.134

1.760

0.133

insoluble Matter 64.860

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid 35.140

r Potash 0.236

Lime 1.600

■\ Phosphoric Acid 0.213

Carbonic Acid as \ q ^qq

Carbonate of Lime J

Combined Water and organic matter 9. 100

Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 1.920

Nitrogen 136

Hygroscopic Moisture |5.440

Fertility Analysis.
AvaUable Potash 0.003 0.008

Available Phosphoric Acid . 077 . 064

Subsoils. — Physical Analysis.

0.330

10.150
1.960
0.141

5.920

100.00

Average.

Per Cent.

57.0

64.23

35.77
0.185
1.680
0.173

0.365

9.625
1.940
0.138
5.680

0.0055
0.0705

Average.

Depth-inches.

9-36 inches.

9-39 inches.

9-36 inches.

travel ...

Sand

Fine Sand

Silt

A griculturai f Fine Silt

Clay t Clay
Moisture •••

per cent.
0.77
1.70
11.07
72.76
6.90
trace
6.80

per cent.
1.52
0.50
12.82
72.72
6.24
trace
6.29

per cent.
1.15
1.10
11.44
72.74
6.57
trace
6.54

100.00

The surface soil consists of about 75 per cent, of fine sand and silt
with 8 to 10 per cent of agricultural clay. On the whole a more re-
tentive soil than those just described from the two neighbouring es ates.
The chemical analysis indicates a high standard of total and available
Phosphoric Acid, with a moderate reserve of Potash and a Heci^iedly
low present supply in an available form. The Carbonate of Lime is
ample. The Humus also is up to a good standari.

An obvious deduction is that Potash salts should be of value while
Phospliates are quite superfluous. The addition of Nitrogen might be
profitable under irrigation, otherwise a limited rainfall wuuld probably
render them non-productive. As regards irrigation it is satisfactory
to note the fact that the subsoil is lighter and more permeable ihan
the surface soil. Stagnation of this land should never occur provided
due attention to the use of water and a thorough system of drainage
trenches be maintained.

ST. CATHERINE.

Large areas of land are available for cane cultivation in this district
but at present the banana dominates the irrigable areas of cultivation.
Specimens of these soils have been reported on by Mr. Francis Watts
in the Journal of the Agricultural Society for 1899, and by the writer
in a recent report on " Banana Soils." The lighter soils of St. Cathe-
rine possess an exceedingly high standard of available fertility, ren-
dering the use of fertilisers absolutely inoperative Two sugar estates
of importance are still active in this Parish and there have been schemes
mooted recently for the establishment of a central factory at Spanish
Town to be fed by the two lines of railway from the surrounding
areas. Agriculturally the project is above reproach. The soil is there,
the water is there, capital, organisation and business acumen are alone
needed to establish the enterprise.

Experiments on fertilisers are being conducted in this district on
Caymanas Estate and will be reported on in due course. It has been
shown that the returns from this estate bear comparison with those
from any other in the island. A high class grocery sugar is produced
here on Demerara lines. The scheme of the experiments is as follows :

Canes — " Caymanas," St. Catherine -J Cameron, Etq.

Mixed Phos- Sulphate of Sulphate of
phate, per Ammonia Potash
Acre. per Acre. per Acre.

11 Plots each I Acre.

Plot 1 No Manure — — —

" 2 Complete Manure 3 cwt. 1 cwt. ^ '•

" 3 No Nitrogen 3 •' — | "

'• 4 Double Nitrogen 3 " 2 cwt. ^ "

*« 5 No Phosphate — 1 •' ^ "

" 6 Double Phosphate 6 " 1 " | "

" 7 Double Superphosphate 6 " super. 1 " | "

" 8 Double Slag 6 " slag 1 " | •'

" 9 No Potash 3 " 1 " —

" 10 Double Potash 3 " 1 " 1 cwt,

" 11 Double Complete 6 " 2 .' 1 "
Analyses of soils from Worthy Park Estate, the Hon. J. Y. Calder,

are in prospect but are not yet complete. A magnificent stretch of

level land here bursts upoa the eye on emerging from the moun-
tains and the possibilities of this estate with sugar in a healthy state
of normal prices should be most gratifying to the owner.

ST. ELIZABETH.
Experiments and analyses of soil have been made at Holland Estate
in this Parish, representing a large area of level alluvial deposit on the
banks of the Black Eiver. Formerly the property of the Gladstone
family, Holland is now in the hands of an enterprising jJroprietor ever
ready to experiment and to learn. "We predict considerable develop-
ments for this estate in the near future.

The soil consists chiefly of silt with about equal quantities of fine
sand and agricultural clay and is somewhat heavy and retentive, becom-
ing close and sticky in wet weather. Owing to the small fall of level,
drainage requires the careful use of deep trenches and accurate grading
to make the best use of the fall available. It is noticeable that the
clay diminishes with the depth of the subsoil, and that the natural
drainage improves therewith. The chemical analysis indicates a good
standard of fertility. Given good aeration and suitable cultural con-
ditions the soil should be capable of giving very large returns without
assistance.

SOIL ANALYSIS.
Reference Number — 58.

Source Details — Experimental Plots. Holland Estate, St. Elizabeth.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Soil. Subsoil. Subsoil.

A. B.

9 inches 9-24 in. 24-36 in.

Per Cent.

Per Cent

Stones Nil

Nil

Gravel 1.05

2.47

1.89

Sand 0.84

0.43

2.32

Fine Sand 12.92

23.34

14.01

Silt 66.75

63.76

71.79

Agricultural f Fine Silt , , a^. f 2 . 14
Clay. I Clay "'"^ 19.71

-Hlf.

3 62{»-j0

Moisture 6.59

5.16

6.37

Total 100.00

100.00

Per Cent.

Retentive power for water

•••

60.0

Chemical Analysis.

(Soil passing through 3 m.m. Sieve dried at 100'

'C.)

Insoluble Matter

49.690

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid

50.310

f Potash ...

0.481

j Lime
■{ Phosphoric Acid ...

O.506

0.151

Carbonic Acid as \
(^Carbonate of Lime J

0.288

Combined Water and organic matter

16.680

Humus (soluble in Ammon:

ia)

3.779

Nitrogen

• ••

0.165

Hygroscopic Moisture

«•»

7.056

Fertility Analysis.
Available Potash ... ... 0.0182

Available Phosphoric Acid ... 0.0091

The results obtained in tlie experiments indicate that a complete
manure was productive of a profit of £10 per acre— the value of 20
tons of cane. This is quite eclipsed, however, by the still greater re-
sults of deep drainage and special tillage operations.

The gross yields of cane per acre from this estate are remarkable
and are here recorded to show that Jamaica soils can produce crops of
cane that challenge comparison with any other soils of the West Indies.

The arrangement of the manurial plots was as follows : —

Canes — '' Holland Estate" St. Elizabeth — M. E. M. Farquharson, Esq'
12 Plots each -d • ai Nitrate of Muriate of

VVAcre. Basic Slag. g^^^ p^^^l^^

Plot 1 No Manure _ _

„ 2 Complete Manure 3 cwt. 1| cwt | owt.

„ 3 No Nitrogen 3 „ - ^ „

„ 4 Double Nitrogen 3 „ 3 cwt. | „

„ 5 No Phosphate - 1^ „ I »

,, 6 Double Phosphate 6 cwt. l| ,, ^ „

„ 7 No Potash 3 „ 1^ „

„ 8 Double Potash 3 „ 1^ „ 1 cwt.

„ 9 No Manure - - -

„ 10 Cowpeas - - -

„ 11 Lime, 10 cwt. - - -

„ 12 Pen Manure. - - -

The canes were planted on Oct. 29, 1901, and were reaped on
February 17, 1903 — 16 months old. The rainfall during the growth of
the crop was 86.45 inches The drainage trenches were from 14" — 27"
in depth, while the main drainage gut is 26 to 35 inches deep.

Mr. Cradwick of the Agricultural Department supervised the weigh-
ing of the experiments and reported the weights of cane and tops as
also the crushing with the estate mills An average sample of the
juice from the experimental canes was reserved for analysis.

■»

70l=89UB0 UO'J X

•

'^ O O O O O C' o o o -
:+i lO 00 ■* ^ _- jq C5 ^5 00 r-i

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02 —1

Cane».

Tons

per

Acre.

b»go'nt^eqaot-t>.rtio

: : :'-(05os©iNoo-*Tt<oo

■* t^ c-] »o «o cc r^ b, 00 oi

■-I r-l tH <M r-l

Produce,

Tons per

Acre.

: : : r-j CO 00 o ^ CO 00 »o -* -*

' O (M CO t^ 00 F-J OS oi — ' CO
^ <M rH ,-( :r^ N T-,

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oTbT oo" n" co" (n oT o" o" lo" cT CO th"

I— i-^iH T-Hr-ii— (r-(r- Ir—

Juice,
gallons
per acre
86° F.

oooooosi-ioot^eoooiot--*

CO (T^t- O lO^OO^lO t>;^00 -"^^OS '-^vCO

most^ot^b-QOO-^-^cq— 'lo

tJ< --0 o ><i* 00 CO m o t^ ■* 00 c:" o
coiMcOTftTtf'-feocoeOincO'"*-*

(Mr^-^lMiaOrH-^OOCOO^lMOC

rH — rHTiHOCO'*T)<CCOO'<i*lOM

t,oi?^ — os'^TfioOrHt^eoooo

t>.OOr-l(Mt-OCOCOl^-<*COCO

moOiH05iococ5— '-*nc<itj*co

TjtCOTjiO<»lOT(<iOK5t>.iatOiiO

Cost
per acre.

COi-(Tj(C^-*C^:Oi-li-iC<»

•

O
GD

No Manure
No Manure
No Manure
Complete
No Nitrogen
Double Nitrogen .
No Phosphate
Double I'hosphate
No Pottsh
Double Potash
Cowpeas
Lime ^ ton
I'en Manure

•

eS
<1

t-l

c3 ■

cd
o
u
cu

« a,

o A ^

O O T*
tiCCOPH II
<A ^ CO

o3 ,^

O ?1

00 "v-i

s
1=1

o
»— I

o
O

L CO iH F^ CO
O e8

CO g -w

& « fe
^CO r- ■ -*»

A neighbouring plot of the estates canes planted a fortnight before
those on the experimental plots, and in receipt of 95.65 inches of rain
during the growth of the crop, was reaped at the same time and gave
a yield of 87 9 tons cane and 110.01 tons of * produce/ i.e, canes and
tops per acre. Double crushing with a water and steam mill working
tandem gave an expression of 74.85 o/o of juice of the following com-
position.

Juice Analysis.

Brix (corrected)

18.9

S G. f§c.

1 0746

Total solids lbs, per gallon

2.030

Sucrose " "

1.7817

Glucose " "

0.0847

Non Sugar " "

0.1636

Quotient of Purity

87.77

Glucose Ratio

4.75

In so far as it is possible to draw deductions from a single year's
results it would appear that Lime and Potash are capable of marked
results on this soil, while nitrogen fails to produce the effect naturally
to be expected of it. It is noteworthy, and I believe almost a record
in W. Indian Sugar experiments, that every manured plot in this series
shows an increase by manuring.

These experiments are to be repeated with additional trials of Lime
in various combinations. The proprietor will give the plots the same
system of cultivation and the same grade of drainage as that on the
other portion of the land cultivated on the estates lines. The thanks
of the Board are due to Mr Farquharson for the great care and trouble
he has taken in carrying out these experiments.

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE

DEPARTMENT.

Library (Serials).

Europe.

British Isles.

Annals of Botany, Vol. XVII, No. LXV. (Purchased.!

Board of Agri. Leaflets, Nos. 61, 74, 76, 76, 77, 78. [Secretary.]

Botauical Magazine, Feb. [Purchased.]

Chemist and Druggist, Jan. 24, 31, Feb, 7, 14. [Editor.]

Colonial and Diplomatic & Consular Reports, Nov., Dec, Jan. [Col. Sec]

Statistical Abstract, 1887 to 1901.

Garden, Jan. 24, 31, Feb. 7, 3 4. [Purchased.]

Gardeners' Chronicle, Jan. 24, 31, Feb. 7, 14. [Purchased,]

International Sugar Journal, Feb. [Editor.]

London Report, Jan. 24. 31.

Nature, Jan- 22, 29, Feb. 5, 12. [Purchased.]

Our Western Empire, Feb. 16. [Publishers.]

Pharmaceutical Journal, Jan. 24, 31. Feb, 7. 14.

R. Colonial Institute Journal, Fob.

France.

Journal d' Agriculture Tropicale, No. 19. [Publishers.]
Sucrerie indigene et coloniale, Jan. 20, 27, Feb. 3, 10. [Editor.]

Italy.

Intomo ad un nuovo tipo di Licheni a tallo oonidifero chevivono Bulla vite
finora ritenuti per Funghi. Ricerche di G. Briosi e R. Fameti. Extract.
Atti del B. Instituto Botanico delV Universitk di Pavia.
Sopra una grave malattia che Deturpa I frutti del Limone in Sicilia. Nota
preliminare di G. Briosi e R. Farnetti, Extract. Atti dol B. Insiituto
Botanico dell'Universitd di Pavia, (Director.)

Germany.

Tropenpflanzer, Feb. [Editor.]

Verhandlunjen des Kolonial-Wirtschaftlichen Komitees, Berlin, Jan. 22.
No. 1. [Committee.]

Asia.

India.

Planting Opinion. Jan. 3, 10, 17. 24. [Editor.]

Report on operations of the Dept. of Land Records and Agriculture, Madras
Presidency, 1901-1902. [Govt. Botanist.]

Straits and Federated Malay States.

Agricultural Bulletin, Vol. I, No. 14. [Editor.]

Ceylon.

Timesof Ceylon, Jan. 7, 15, 21, 29. [Editor.]
Tropical Agriculturist, Jan.

Java.

Proefstation East Java. 44. [Director.]
„ West Java. 60. [Director.]

Australia.

N. S. Wales.

Agri. Gazette, Jan. [Dept. of Agri.]

Queensland.

Agri. Journal, Jan. [Sec. of Agri.]
Sugar Journal, Jan. [Editor.]

Western Australia.

Journ. Dept. Agriculture, Dec. [Dept. of Agri.]

Africa.

Cape of Good Hope.

Agri. Journal, Nov. [Dept. of Agri.]

Natal.

Agri. Journar«fe Mining Record, Jan. 9, 23. [Dept. of Agri.]

Central Africa.

C. African Times, Dec. 13, 20, 27. [Editor.]

West Indies.

Barbados.

Agri. News. Feb. 14, 28.

Pamphlet Series No 21 . — Cottnn & Onion Industries in the W. I,
Dominica, Report on the Phys^sal and Chemical Analysis of the Soils.
Montserrat, Report on Experiment Stations, 1901-02. [Commr. Imp. Dept
of Agri.]

Jamaica —

Church Notes, Feb. 27. [Editor.]

Cornwall Herald. [Editor.]

Journal Jamaica Agri. Soc, Vol. VI, 1902, Feb. 1903. [Sec]

Trinidad—

Proc, Agri. Society, Jan. 13. [Sec]

8t. Lucia —

Report on the Botanic Station, Agri. School & Exp. Station, and Cocoa and
other Experiment Plots. 19U1-2. [Curator.]

British North America.

Ottawa —

BuU. No. 41, Central Exp. Farm. [Dept. of Agri.]

Montreal —

Pharmaceutical Journal, Jan. [Editor.]

United States of America.

Publications of the U. S. Dept. of Agri. \_Directors.~\

Scientific Bureaus 8f Divisions.

Maine Agri. Exp. Station, Seventeenth Report, 1901.

Experiment Stations.

Illinois. 82. (Methods of Corn Breeding.)

Kansas. 115. (The exact calculation of Balanced Rations.)

Michigan. 203. (Analysis of some of the Commercial Feeding Stuffs of

Michigan.)
New Hampshire. 94 (Remedies for Fleas). 95 (How to grow a Forest from

Seed.)
New York. 220. (Two unusual troubles of Apple foliage.) 221 (Potato
spraying Experiments in 1902). 222 (Report of Analyses of Paris Green
and other iusecticidea in 1902.) 223 & 224 (Investigations concerning the
Self- fertility of the Grape, 1900-1902.) 226 (Control of Rusty Spot in
Cheese Factories.)
Oklahoma. 56 (Bermuda Grass.) 56 (Garden Vegetables.)

American Botanist, Jan.

American Druggist and Pharmaceutical Record, Feb. [Editor.]

American Journal of Pharmacy, Feb. [Editor.]

Botanical Garden, New York, Feb. [Director.]

Botanical Gazette, Chicago, Feb. [Editor.]

Cincinnati Soc. of Nat. Hist., Journ. XX, 3.

Contr. from the Dept. of Botany, Columbia University, Nos. 176-200. [Di-
rector.]

Cultures of Uredineae in 1900 & 1901. By J. C. Arthur. Re-"^
print. Journ. of Mycology, Vol. S, June 1902.

Culture of Uredineae in 1902. By J. C, Arthur. Reprint.
Botanical Gazette, Vol. XXXV, Jan. 1903.

New Species of Uredineae — II. By J, C. Arthur. Reprint. )■ [Author.]
Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 34 April, 1902.

The ^cidium as a device to restore vigour to the Fungus. By
J. C. Arthur. Extract. Proc. Soc. for Promotion of Agri.
Science. Distributed Feb. 1903.

Florida Agriculturist, Feb . 4,

Forestry «&; Irrigation, Feb. [Editor.]

Louisiana Planter, Jan. 31, Feb. 4, 7, 14, 21, 28.

Mendel's Law of Heredity. By W. E. Castle. Reprint. Proc.'Amer. Acad,
of AHs & Scis. XXXVIIL, 18. [Author.]

Notes on Negro Albinism. By W. E. Castle. Reprint. Sciencey N.S. XVII.
419 pp. 75-76, Jan. 9, 1903. [Author.]

The Heredity of Sex. By W. E. Castle. Reprint, Bnll. Museum of Com-
parative Zoology of Harvard Coll. XL. 4- [Author.]
Stassfurt Industry. [German Kali Works.]

Torrey Club Bulletin, Jan. [Editor.]

Mass, Horti. Society : Trans. 1897, Pt. III. Being the List of Accessiona
to the Library during the year ; 1902, Pt. I. ; Schedule of Prizes for the
year 1903.

Central A.mertca.
Boletin del Institute Fisico-Geographico de Costa Rica, No. 22. [Director.]

South America.

Boletim da Agricultura, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Nos. 9, 10 & 11. [Sec. of Agri.]

Polynesia.

Hawaiian Planters' Monthly, Jan. [Editor.]

Library. (Boolis.)

<^off (E. S.) Principles of Plant Culture. An Elementary Treatise for Begin-
ners in Agriculture and Horticulture. Second Edition, Revised. Madison,
Wis. 1899. 8 vo. [Purchased]

MacDougal (Dr. D. T.) Elementary Plant Physiology. London, New York, Bom-
bay, 1902. 8 vo. [Purchased.]

Seeds.

From Imp. Dept. af Agriculture, Barbados.
Hybrid Statice (from Teneriffe.)

IVom Technological Museum, Sydney, N. S. Wales.
Ster.ulia diversifolia (Kurrajong) : Syncarpia laurifolia.

From Curator, Botanic Gardens, Lagos.
Coreopsis guineensis.

From Botanical Dept. Trinidad.
Large Guava.

From Mr. C. J. Brown, Lemon City Florida.
Carissa arduina.

Plants.

From U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Wushington, D. G.

Sweet Potatoes, the following varieties :-- Belmont Yam : Southern Queen
Nancy Hall : jYellow Jersey : Yellow Spanish . Pierson : Van Nest Red :
Red Spanish : Red Jersey : Red Bermuda.

From Messrs. Beasoner Bros. Oneco, Florida
Psidium lucidum.

From Mr. W. J. Thompson, Supt., Parade Garden.
Begonia Gloire de Lorraine.

Herbarium.

From Mons. Eugene Autran, Rerbier Boissier, Switzerland.
A Collection of 41 specimens.

[Issued 3rd April, 1903.]

Frinied at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam.

Vol. I. MAY, 1903. Part 5-

BULLETIN

OF THB

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE.

> » <

EDITED BY

WILLIAM FAWCETT. B.Sc, F.L.S.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS:

Page.

The Sugar Cane Soils of Jamaica — II.

Board of Agriculture

109

Directions for planting Cotton

110

Bird Seed

111

Dead wood in Forest Trees

lib

Coco-Nut Butter

114

Varieties of Grape Vines for trial in Jamaica

115

Ferns : Synoptical List— LIX.

lib

Additions and Contributions

117

PRIG E-Threepence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA

HOPB 6ABDBN8.

1903.

JAMAICA.
BULTjBTIISr

OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTDRE.

Vol. I. MAY, 1903. Part 5.

THE SUGAR-CANE SOILS OF JAMAICA.— II.

By H. H. Cousins, M.A., (Oxon.) F.C.S., Government Analytical and

Agricultural Chemist.

PART II. WEST and N— WESTERN.

WESTMORELAND.

Three soils from the Westmoreland sugar district are here presented.
In one case, manurial experiments have been carried out, and the re-
sults will shortly be available.

The two soils A and B are samples of sugar lands that have been
long in cultivation, and are locally considered to be somewhat ex-
hausted.

SOIL ANALYSIS.
Reference Number— 83.

Source Details — Surface Soil Westmoreland A.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Chemical Analysis.

(Soil passed through 3 m.m. sieve dried at 100" O.)
Insoluble Matter
Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid
f Potash
I Lime

-( Phosphoric Acid
I Carbonic Acid as \

Per Cent.

61.506

38.494

0.288

1.157

.318

1.958

(^Carbonate of Lime

Combined Water and organic matter 11.390

Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 3.021

Nitrogen ... 0.236

Hygroscopic Moisture ... 5.263

Fertility Analysis.

Available Potash ... 0.0034

Available Phosphoric Aciil ... 0317

Retentive power for water ... 60.0

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Re erence Number — 82.

Source Details — Surface Soil, Westraorelund B.

Depth of Sample — 9 inches,

Chemical Analysis, Per Cent.
(Soil passed through 3 m.m. sieve dried at 100*^ C.)

Insoluble Matter ... 61.093

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid ... 38,907

f Potash ..." 0.073

j Lime ... 1.188

■^ Phosphoric Acid ... 0.323

Carbonic Acid as 1 , gy,^

Carbonate of Lime J '"

Combined Water and organic matter 1 1 . 590

Humus (soluble in A.mmonia) 3.415

Nitrogen ... 0.234

Hygroscopic .Moisture ... 6.044

Fertility Analysis.
A vail able Potash ... . 0054

Available Phosphoric Acid ... 0.0150

Retentive Power for water ... 56.0

These two soils are botli above reproach as regards all the factors
here recorded with the exception of the available Potash which is de-
cidedly below par in each case. I have advised the Attorney to try
the effect of Potash on this cultivation. As regards the main ele-
ments of fertility it must be regarded as a soil of high quality. The
local difficulties of management arise chiefly from drainage. Some of
the Westmoreland planters have succeeded in growing canes in low-
lying lands subject to prolonged flooding with great success by a heroic
system of trenches.

Mount- Eagle Estate.
The owner of this estate is the pioneer in this parish in the growth
and trial of seedling canes. Some varieties tesied here have given
most promising indications of improvement over the old varieties.
Mtmurial experiments have been c irried out during the pust season.
The results are not yet ready but it would appear that Nitrogen exerts
an appreciable effect on this soil The analysis is here set forth.

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number— 70.

Source Details — Soil from Cane Experimental Plots. Mount Eagle,

Westmoreland. E. R. Burgess, Esq.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Per Cent.
Stones ... .Nil

Gravel ... 4 65")

Sand ... 1.74 I

Fine Sand ... 24.70 | Fine

Silt ... 55.29 )> Earth.

Agricultural f Fine Silt ... 4.76

Clay. \ Clay ... trace

Combined water )
Organic matter |

8.86

'a"

Total ... 100.00

Per Cent.
Retentive Power for water ... 54.0

Chemical Analysis.

(Soil passed through 3 m.m. sieve dried at 100® 0.)

Insoluble Matter ... 54.465

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid ... 45.535

f Potash ... 0.373

I Lime ... 1.091

■^ Phosphoric Acid ... 0,244

Carbonic Acid as I .

[^Carbonate of Lime J "* ^"^^^

Combined Water and organic matter 14.736

Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 3.698

Nitrogen . 0.253

Hygroscopic Moisture ... 9.721

Fertility Analysis.
Available Potash ... 0.0090

Available Phosphoric Acid ... 0.0156

This soil is composed principally of silt and fine sand, and is simi-
lar, as regards grades, to the lighter soils of the Vere plain.

All the factors determined in the chemical analysis are normal and
some of them decidedly above the normal for a soil of high fertility.
The nitrogen and phosphoric acid are particularly high, while the hu-
mus, for a tropical soil, must be regarded as rich.

The available potash is normal, while the phosphoric acid more than
satisfies the standard we have laid down.

This would be a splendid soil for bananas, should it ever be desira-
ble to grow them here.

ST. JAMES.

Analyses of four soils with their subsoils were submitted by Joseph
Shore, Esq., of Cinnamon Hill Estate, where manurial experiments
have been carried out during the past year.

The season has been disastrous for these calcareous soils owing to
the prolonged drought. Mr. Shore was not surprised to find that the
manures had in all cases depressed the yield, since this has been the
past experience on these estates during a period of drought. The de-
tails of analysis of the four soils are as follows : —

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number — 73.

Source Details — Surface Soil A. Cinnamon Hill. St. James, Lono--

breath Piece let Ratoons — {3anes healthy. Experi-
mental Plots.

Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis. Per Cent.

Stones ... Nil

Gravel ... 4.44

Sand ... 3.32

Fine Sand ... 23.25

Silt ... 59.17 y Fine

Agricultural J Fine Silt ... „ oof 1-15 ~

Clay. tciay ... ^-^^j 2 13

Moisture ... 6,54

Earth.

Total 100.00

Per Cent.
Retentive Power for water .*• 65

100

Chemical Analysis.

(Soil passed through 3 m.m. Sieve dried at 100« C.)
Insoluble Matter ^ ...

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid...
rPotash
I Lime

^ Phosphoric Acid
I Carbonic Acid as \
I Carbonate of Lime J
Combined Water and organic matter
Humus (soluble in Ammonia)
Nitrogen

Hygroscopic Moisture ...
Fertility Analysis *
Available Potash
Available Phosphoric Acid

Per Cent.

33.100
66.900

0.182
27.560

0.751

46.960

18.498
2.825
0.146
6.998

0212
0.0485

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number — 77.

Source Details — Subsoil A., Cinnamon Hill, St. James.

Depth of Sample — 36 inches

Physical Analysis.

Stones
Gravel
Sand

Fine Sand
Silt
Agricultural f Fine Silt
Clay. t Clay

Moisture

4.66

Per Cent.
Nil
14.72-
3.47
20.33
64.15 )► Fine
f 1.60 I Earth.
1 3.06
2.67

Total

100.00

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number — 74.

Source Details — Surface Soil B. Cinnamon Hill, St. James, Long-
breath piece. Places where canes turn white and
die out.

Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Stones
Gravel)
Sand

Fine Sand
Silt
Agricultural f Fine Silt
Clay. I Clay

Moisture

Per Cent.

Nil

24.16

18.37

29.34

24.69

1.22

0.33

1.89

Fine
Earth.

Total

Retentive power for water .„

Chemical Analysis.
(Soil passed through 3 m.m. Sieve dried at 100** C)
Insoluble Matter

100.00
Per Cent.
66.0

5.535

'Solubility in 1 percent, Citric Acid after neutralization of carbonates with Citric Acid.

101

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid

rPotash ... ...

94.465
0.111

Lime

49 910

-i( Phosphoric Acid ...

0.571

Carbonic Acid as 1
(^Carbonate of Lime J
Combined Water and organic matter

85.290
2.274

Humus (soluble in Amuioiiia)

Nitrogen

Hygroscopic Moisture

Fertility Analysis.*

1.306

0.093
1.926

Available Potash

0.0116

Available Phosphoric Acid

0.0225

SOIL ANALYSIS

Reference Number — 78.

Source Details — Subsoil B. Cinnamon Hill, St. James.

Physical Analysis.

Per Cent.

Stones

Nil

Gravel ..•

15.891

Saud ...

3.82

Fine Sand

18 96

Silt

56.93 '

Agricultural / Fine Silt

Clay t ^-lay

Moisture ...

0.8|?-»^
( trace

4.60

Fine
Earth.

Total

100.00

SOIL ANALYSIS.
Reference Number — 75.
Source Details —Surface Soil Cinnamon Hill, St. James. Double

Piece — old canes — steep Hillside typical of C. Hill

lands.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Per Cent.

Stones

• • •

NiP

Gravel

• ••

39.07

Sand

...

9.03

Fine Sand

•••

16.15

Fine

Silt

• • •

25.46 f Earth

Asfricultural f Fine Silt
Clay. t Clay

>■••

1.83

■ * •

2.16

Moisture

• ••

6. 30 J

Total

100.00
Per Cent.

Retentive Power for water

• • •

60.0

Chemical Analysis.

(Soil passed through 2 m.m. Sieve dried at 100® C.)

Insoluble Matter

• ••

24.290

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid

• ••

75.710

'►otash

• • •

0.126

Lime

« «•

29.787

-^ Phosphoric Acid

• ••

0.743

Carbonic Acid as
^Carbonate of Lime

• ••

49.338

* Solubility in 1 per cent. Citric Acid after neutralization of carbonates with Citric Acid,

102

Combined Water and organic matter
Humus (soluble in Ammonia)
Nitrogen
Hygroscopic Moisture

Fertility Analysis*
Available Potash
Available Phosphoric Acid

11.576
2.859
0.209
6.724

.0340
.0215

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number — 79.

Source Details— Subsoil C. Cinnamon Hill, St. James.

Depth of Sample — 36 inches.

Physical Analysis.

Agricultural
Clay.

Stones

Gravel

Sand

Fine Sand

Silt
f Fine Silt
iClay

Moisture

Per Cent.

Nil
11.38"!

4.81 I
30.73 I Fine
43.75 l-Earth.

2.73

0.28

6. 32 J

Total

100.00

SOIL ANALYSIS.
Reference Number — 76.

Source Details — Surface Soil D., Cinnamon Hill, St. James. 'Belly-
full.' Plants. Near landslip.
Depth of Sample — 9 incht s.

Physical Analysis.

, Stones

Gravel
Sand

Fine Sand
Silt

Agricultural ( Fine Silt
Clay. t Clay

Moisture

Per Cent

Nil
34.03^

4.43
22.15
26

2.98

7.89

42 i.^^"®
*Q /^ Earth.

Total

100.00
Per Cent.
65.0

Retentive Power for water ...

Chemical Analysis.
Soil passed through 3 m.m. Seive dried at IOC* C.
Insoluble Matter
Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid
(^Potash
I Lime
Phosphoric Acid
Carbonic Acid as )
Carbonate of Lime J
Combined Water and organic matter
Humus (soluble in Ammonia)
Nitrogen ...

Hygroscopic Moisture

Fertility Analysis,*

Available Potash
Available Phosphoric Acid

* Solubility in 1 per cent. Citric Acid after neutralifiation of carbonates with Citric Acid.

33.493

66.507
0.285

22.582
0.723

35.610

8.148
0.315
8.566

0.0106
0.0370

103

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number — 80.

Source Details —Subsoil D. Cinnamon Hill, St. James.

Physical Analysis.

Stones
Gravel
Sand

Fine Sand
Silt
Agricultural f Pine Silt
Clay. t Clay

Moisture

Per Cent.

Nil^

7.22

3.83

25.31

Fine

56 81

'Earth.

1.36

0.46

5.01

Total 100.00

Generalisations on the agricultural features of Jamaica, summing
up conditions all over the island under one broad estimate are absurdly
impossible. Agriculturally this island represents about six different
countries, and what is true of one may be entirely wrong in another.
These soils from St. James and the outcome of recent experiments on
cane varieties and on manuring serve to emphasize this point.

Consisting of about 50 per cent of carbonate of lime, the Cinnamon
Hill >oils present a condition of moderate granulation and are light,
free draining, and yet fairly retentive. Tcie proportion of pliosiihoric
acid is extraordinary, some eight times the normal content of a fertile
soil. The potash is about normal. In the good soils the nitrogen and
humus are high. It is not surprising that in a seasonable year such
soils should give good yields of cane of excellent sugar-producing
quality. Owing to the small rainfall in this district, crops are fre-
quently discounted, and only a part of the natural productivity of the
soil is realized. Irrigation on these lands should have marked success,
and it is to be hoped that the water at present solely employed for
power in grinding the canes may under a central factory scheme be
utilized for irrigating the lands. Some such combination is necessary
if these estates are to produce regular returns of remunerative crops.

Soil A.

This is the land upon which manurial experiments have been car-
ried out. Mr. Shore's report shows that the manures depressed the
yield and resulted in loss owing to the drought. He states that this
has been the experience on these estates in the past. The available
potash and phosphoric acid are not strictly comparable with those in
the other analyses in this series The neutralization of the large pro-
portion of carbonates in these soils as a preliminary to the action of
the usual 1 per cent, citric acid solvent has given us figures that are
approximately comparative on this particular series, but are in all pro-
bability too high in comparison with normal soils on account of the
solvent action of the neutral citrate of Lime. An investigation on this
matter is in progress.

On the analyses here presented, it is not reasonable to expect that
fertilizers could be profitably used. Even more markedly than in the
case of the Vere soils previously reported on, " the water supply do-
minates the crop" and not the limit of plant food in the soil.

104

REPORT ON MANURE EXPERIMENT AT CINNAMON HILL.

The canes experimented on were old ratoons cut in January 1902.
The land was well forked in June and the manures applied early in
July, 1902. The canes were again cut in February, 1903, with the
following results. Each plot was one-tenth of an acre in area.

Cwts. per acre.

53 i

Lbs. per plot.

Plot.

•

Superphos-

Sulph.

-a-a

Bad

Canes

phate.

Ammonia.

s o

^ 5

a,
o

1. No Manure

No Manure

25.29

3,370

1,236

1,060

2. Complete

1/2

24.06

3,000

1,330

1,060

3. No Nitrogen

1/2

16.46

2,430

633

615

4. Double Nitro-

1/2

11.22

1,475

380

660

gen

5. No Phosphate

1/2

11.83

1,595

340

720

6. Double Phos-
phate

7. Mixed Phos-

1/2

9.09

1,325

349

360

6 mixed

1/2

15.93

2,265

685

620

phate

8. Slag

6 slag

1/2

17.00

2,500

805

500

9. No Potash

6 super.

21.36

2,835

1,186

765

10. Double Potash

23.04

3,432

1,000

730

11. Double Com-

22.12

3,370

980

625

plete

12. No Manure

No manure
Totals

26.22

3,800

990

1,085

« • •

• • •

31,397

9,915

8,810

It will be thus seen that the two plots not manured turned out the
best, which was the experience on these estates in dry years.

The juice of the non-manured canes stood 8° Baum^, and of the
manured 7°, by the estates' test. This low test is due to a fall of 14
inches of rain in the last week of 1902 after a long period of drought
but it is noticeable that the manured canes shew worse than the
others in density of juice also. There were many suckers among the
canes (weighed along with the bad canes) and the proportion was much
greater than usual owing to the conditions mentioned before. The
rainfall was : —

February
March

1902

2.05
1 07

April

May

June

3.25
0.20
2.70

July

August

September

October

0.50
0.60
1.05
4.62

November

((

3.35

December

((

14.31

January 1903

0.65

(all in the last week)

34.35 for the twelve months.

105

The long drought, scorched the tops of the most forward canes and
thus helped to increase the weight of bad canes which are used for
rum making.

I propose to continue the experiment for another year, just loosen-
ing the soil and cleaning, so as to shew what effect the manures may-
have on ratoons the second year. The experience so far has been that
the manure shews better the year after the drought.

The gallons juice obtained were 1737 from 14 tons canes, which
gives a mill extraction of 58 o/o, the average extraction so far for the
crop being 55 o/o, the usual extraction from same mill in ordinary

years being 60 o/o.

Joseph Shore.
20th Feby., 1903.

Analysis

of Juice.

Manured.

Unmanured

Brix (corrected)

17.15

17.80

Specific Gravity y^^g

1.0669

1.0697

Sucrose lbs. per gallon

1.5003

1.6046

Glucose

0.029

0.028

Non Sugars "

0.2937

0.271

Quotient of Purity

82.28

84.27

Glucose Ratio

1.93

1.74

It will be seen that the analyses support Mr. Shore's statement that
the juice of the manured canes, owing to the peculiar conditions ob-
taining, is markedly inferior to that from the unmanured canes.

Soil B.
This represents certain patches of soil where the canes turn white
and die out Analysis shows that this soil differs greatly from
soil A. Over 9i per cent of it is soluble in acid of which the bulk
consists of carbonate of lime The humus and nitrogen are greatly
less, and the 'available' results less than one half those recorded for A
This soil is unsuited for cane cultivation on account of the great ex.-
cess of carbonate of lime, the coarse granulation and defective water-
retaining power, the deficiency of humus and the low standard of gen-
eral fertility. I doubt whether it would be profitable to attempt a
forced cultivation by extravagant use of organic manures, considering
the relative cheapness of good land in the island. Such soil under
present conditions is most profitably left to nature.

Soil a

This soil selected as typical of Cinnamon Hill lands, is coarser in
grain than A but presents very similar characteristics, and the chemi-
cal data are in fairly close correspondence. Clearly a soil of high fer-
tility and only requiring a water supply to produce large yields.

Soil D.
This soil is again very similar to the last. The available potash
must be considered the weakest factor in the elements of ferti-
lity here recorded. This must be accepted as a soil of high natural
fertility, with a great reserve of plant food.

106

TRELAWNY.

As representative of this important sugar parish, famous for the
quality of its rum, arrangements have been made for experiments
at Vale E-oyal, with the co-operation of Mr. Hoskins, attorney to the
Hon H. Sewell.

The soil from the experimental plots gave the following results on
analysis : —

SOIL ANALYSIS.
Reference Number — 61.

Source Details — Experimental Plots, Vale Royal Estate, Trelawny.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

PnysicAL Analysis.

Per Cent.
Stones ... Nil

Gravel ... 2.15

Sand ... 5.96

Fine Sand ... 11.65 [ Fine

Silt ... 66.54 r Earth.

Agricultural f Fine Slit ... p. p-f 1.13

6.67

Clay. IClay ... "'"' { 5!54

Moisture ... 7.03

Total ... 100.00

Per Cent.
Retentive power for water ... 56.0

Chemical Analysis.
(Soil passed through 3 m.m. Sieve dried at 100^ C.

Insoluble Matter ... 38.002

Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid ... 61.998

rPotash ... 0.372

I Lime ... 2.044

'{ Phosphoric Acid >.. 0.653

j Carbonic Acid as ) „ f.Q„

t Carbonate of Lime j •" '^^"^

Combined Water and organic matter 21.510

Humus (soluble in Ammonia) 4.227

Nitrogen ... 0.248

Hygroscopic Moisture 7.562

Fertility Analysis.

Per Cent.
Available Potash „. 0.0024

Available Phosphoric Acid ... 0.0226

The mechanical analysis shows that the soil is fairly stiff, consist-
ing chiefly of silt with an appreciable amount of clay. Such a soil
would respond to deep cultivation and be benefited by efl&cient drain-
age. All the chemical factors are satisfactory, with one exception.
The phosphoric acid is enormous ; the nitrogen and humus unusually
high for a tropical soil. The carbonate of lime is abundantly present.
The available phosphoric acid indicates that manures providing this
ingredient are not likely to be required. On the other hand the
available potash is so low that I conclude the otherwise extraordinary
standard of fertility presented by this soil may be limited and ren-
dered inoperative through a lack of potash. The experiments with
manures should throw light on this point. The following scheme has
been carried out : -

lot

Canes— "Vale Royal," Trelawny — E. S. Hoskins, Esq.

12 Plots each yW ^^re.

» yj

Mixed Phos-

Sulphate of

phate.

Ammonia.

Potash.

Plot 1 No Manure

" 2 Complete Manure

3 cwt.

1 cwt.

« 3 No Nitrogen

3 "

—

i "

" 4 Double Nitrogen

3 «

2 cwt.

i "

" 5 No Phosphate

—

1 "

i "

« 6 Double Phosphate

6 "

] "

h "

" 7 Double Super.

6 " super.

1 "

* "

« 8 Double Slag

6 " slag

1 "

i "

« 9 No Potash

3 cwt.

1 "

—

•' 10 Double Potash

3 "

1 "

1 cwt.

« 11 Double Complete :

Manure 6 "

2 "

1 «

« 12 No Manure

ST. ANN'S.

We are able to give a report on the soil from one sugar estate in
this parish. Mr. A. J. Webb, of Llandovery,^ who is taking great in-
terest in the experiments, reports that this soil is not considered the
best grade on the estate. It is low-lying land, but little above sea-
level. The soil is fairly fine in grain, but light, porous and friable.
The chemical analysis indicates a standard above normal in all res-
pects except that of available potash, which appears to be slightly be-
low par. Long-continued cane cultivation may have reduced this con-
stituent to a lower standard. The experiments should throw light on
this matter.

Judging from the analysis it is not to be expected that phosphates
will prove profitable. I am doubtful whether nitrogen as sulphate of
ammonia will have paid its cost, although it would appear probable
that potash should alfect the yield of crop.

The following table gives the scheme of experiments that have been
carried out on the current crop : —

Canes " Llandovery" St. Ann's^A. J. Webb, Esq.

Mixed Phos- Sulphate of Sulphate of
phate. Ammonia. Potash.

12 Plots each yV Acre.
Plot 1 No Mamxre
" 2 Complete
" 3 No Nitrogen
*• 4 Double Nitrogen
" 5 No Phosphate
" 6 Double Phosphate
" 7 Double Super.
" 8 Double Slag
" 9 No Potash
" 10 Double Potash
" 11 Double Complete
" 12 No Manure

3 owt.

1 cwt.

^ cwt.

3 "

1 n

3 "

2 cwt.

1 "

—

1 "

6 "

1 "

i "

6 super.

1 (<

:. u

6 slag

1 "

3 cwt.

1 "

—

3 "

1 "

1 owt.

6 "

2 "

1 "

108

SOIL ANALYSIS.

Reference Number — 65.

Source Details— Soil from Cane Experiment Plots, Llandovery,

Ann. A. J. Webb, Esq.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

Physical Analysis.

St.

Stones

Gravel ...

Sand

Fine Sand
Silt
Agricultural f Fine Silt
Clay ( Clay

Combined water, \
Organic matter J

Total

Retentive power for water

Chemical Analysis.
(Soil passed through 3 m.m. Sieve dried at lOOS C.)
Insoluble Matter
Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid
C Potash
I Lime

U Phosphoric Acid
I Carbonic Acid as 1
(^Carbonate of Lime J
Combined Water and organic matter
Humu5 (soluble in Ammonia)
Nitrogen
Hygroscopic Moisture

Fertility Analysis.

Available Polash
Available Phosphoric Acid

Per Cent.
Nii^
2.32 I
6.91 j
40.42 j
40.53 ;- Fine
2.49 Earth.
0.61

6.72

100.00
Per Cent.
56.0

61.686

38.314

0.284

3.731

0.154

5.285

11.
3

181
313

0.249
7.204

Per Cent.
0.0072
0.0356

Conclusions.

1. Jamaica must be divided up into districts and each considered as
an agricultural entity on its merits.

2. There are large areas of land in Jamaica upon which sugar cane
can be cultivated successfully, and which are not at present in ade-
quate cultivation.

3. Sugar cane cultivation has survived on some 120 estates owing
to the extraordinary fertility of the soils and the natural advantages
of certain districts for sugar production.

4. The sugar-cane is successfully grown in Jamaica on soils varying
from light, gravelly sands to stiff clays ; on soils consisting of 50 per
cent of chalk, as well as on lands in which this ingredient is almost
absent.

5. Irrigation and climatic conditions affect the results obtained to
an extraordinary degree. An increase of the irrigable area under su-
gar cane is higly desirable.

6. All the sugar soils herein reported on, upon which the cultiva-
tion is normally successful, present on the whole a very high
standard of fertility. The proportion of phosphoric acid is particu-

109

larly high. Potash is the constituent of which there is the lowest re-
serve and the smallest available supply.

7. Unless crops far in excess of those at present obtained are made
possible by irrigation and more thorousrh cultiuation, it would appear
probable that in the majority of cases these Jamaica sugar soils would
not repay any outlay in artificial fertilisers. In the majority of cases,
good farming should suffice to maintain a high standard of crop re-
turns over a period of years without any necessity for spending money
on imported fertilisers.

I must, in conclusion, record thanks for the valuable co-operation
of the managers of the various estates where soil analysis has been
checked by manurial experiments. These, repeat<^d on successive crops
and modified as circumstances may suggest, should enable a reliable
generalisation as to the manurial requirements of these several soils
and districts to be made and to add greatly to the value of soil analy-
sis as a guide to special local requirements. The chemical analyses
were chiefly carried out by Mr. H. S, Hammond ; the physical analy-
ses by the writer with the assistance of Mr. E. J. Wortley.

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The usual monthly meeting of the Board was held at Head Quarter
House on Tuesday, 10th March. Present — The Hon. the Colonial
Secretary (Chairman), the Hon. the Director of Public Gardens, the
Island Chemist, His Grace the Archbishop, and Messrs. Fursdon and
Shore.
The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
A letter was read from the Colonial Secretary enclosing a commu-
nication from Dr. Morris upon the subject of the representation of the
West Indies at the Canadian Exhibition. After some discussion it
was agreed to adopt Dr. Morris's suggestions so far as the sending of
exhibits was concerned. It was thought that the best plan would be
to a-k Mr. Barclay to work up the exhibits under the direction of Mr.
Fawcett. The Board was of opinion that the products of the Colony
should be regularly represented at the four chief Exhibitions as a
means of stimulating trade with Canada.

Reports were read from the Island Chemist upon : —

(i.) the Laboratory equipment, stating that the acetylene gas
plant was now working satisfactorily and might be considered
a thorough success, that the work of the Laboratory was being
kept back by the insufficient water supply ;
(ii.) the agricultural experiments, reporting progress in the mat-
ter of the sugar experiments;
(iii.) the educational work, submitting a syllabus of the examina-
tion upon which the Agricultural Scholarships are to be award-
ed. It was agreed to forward this to the Schools Commission
for any observations, and tc publish it upon its receiving the ap-
proval of the Commission;
(iv.) the Laboratory Apprentice Scheme, stating that two appli-
cants had been chosen from a large number and recommending
the appointment of tv o other apprentices. This was agreed to.
Ameraorandum re the supposed attacking of orange trees by ants writ-

ten by Entomologist of the Imperial Department of Agriculture, was
read, together with observations by the Hon.T. H. Sharp. Mr. Fawcett
was requested to write to Mr. Panton asking him to look into the
matter.

The Quarterly Report of Mr. Buttenshaw, the Lecturer in Agricul-
ture, was read.

Mr. Cradwick's itinerary was submitted and approved.

Mr. Cradwick wrote asking to be supplied with certain tools. Mr.
Fawcett was asked to supply, as far as possible, from the store and to
send in an estima e for the rest.

A report on the work of the Mico students at Hope Gardens by Mr.
T. J. Harris was read. The Secretary was instructed to send a copy
to the Mico Board of Directors.

Mr. Fawcett reported that he had received from America a number
of new varieties of sweet potatoes.

It was also reported that the Government had made arrangements
with Mr. "West whereby he should be allowed the free occupation of
Superintendent's quarters at Cinchona and land for the purpose of
making experiments in bee-keeping, especially in the way of introdu-
cing new honey- producing flowers. Mr. West would also give in-
struction to the Hope apprentices in bee-keeping.

The Chairman read a letter from Mr. Capern of Bristol requesting
the Government to grant him facilities for growing bird seed in J a-
maica. The Board expressed its willingness to grow the seeds either
at Hope or at the Prison Farm.

The Report on the amalgamation of the agricultural agencies drawn
up by the Chairman, the Archbishop, and Mr. Barclay, was read. Its
adoption was moved by Mr. Shore, seconded by Mr. Fursdon and
carried.

The meeting then terminated.

DIRECTIONS FOR PLANTING COTTON.

By T. J. Harris, Agricultural Instructor at Hope Experiment

Station

No attempt should be made to cultivate cotton in districts where the
wet and dry seasons are not well defined, as perpetually damp weather
is apt to cause the plants to grow to an immense size and yield but
little cotton ; and this invariably of an inferior quality.

Almost any soil, with the exceptions of clay and sand, will do, pro-
vided the drainage is good ; light and rather poor soil should be
ploughed and harrowed before planting, rich soil to be left undis-
turbed except that a fork's width is broken up on each side of the line.

Sea-Island Cotton should be planted in rows four feet apart and one
foot apart in the rows, every alternate plant to be cut out after the first
crop and again after the second crop ; the third growing and ripen-
ing at four feet apart each w ay.

Egyptian Cotton is a larger growing plant and should be set out at
two feet apart in lows four feet apart, cutting out every other plant
after the first crop.

From six to eight seeds should be sown in each hole and covered
about an inch ; these will germinate in four to seven days, and when

Ill

about eight inches high the seedlings should be thinned out to the
three strongest, and later two of these are to be removed, leaving the
strongest one. In thinning do not pull them up but cut them off with
a knife close to the ground ; or the roots of the remaining one may be
disturbed.

If, when sowing, the soil is dry it is advisable'to pour some water
into the hole, drawing down just a little of the surrounding dry soil
with the fingers before putting the seeds in.

The time of sowing depends largely on the "seasons"; about a
month or six weeks before the fall rams set in is a good time, say dur-
ing August if the " seasons" fall in October and November ; the idea
is to have the plants up to a fair size so that they may make the bast
use of the rains when they come; the pods ripening in the dry weather

that follows.

Weeds should be kept down by constant hoeing whenever dry wea-
ther permits of this being done, more especially during the first period
of growth and the time of ripening; the loss of soil moisture is thus
reduced to a minimum, it occurring only through the cotton plants ;
and which is perhaps as important, burrs and other seeds are pre-
vented from adhering to the lint.

The plants during the ripening season, should be looked over every
four or live days and all open pods relieved of their load of cotton;
this must be carefully sunned for a day or two b fore gi ining and
packing.

BIRD SEED.

Mr. Capern of Bristol has sent out birdseed of various kinds for ex-
periment in Jamaica. Application for small quantities for trial may
be addressed to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations. King-
ston P.O. The following notes will sufficiently indicate the nature of
the plants and their requirements.

Hemp {Cannabis saliva) is cultivated either for hemp fibre, or for
the narcutics, bhang, ganja and cimrras ; the seed is a bye-product.

It is cultivated for fibre in European countries, and in India only
in the inner valleys of the Himala\a between 4,000 and 7,000 feet.
Rich moist soil, thoroughly cultivated, is requisite for a yield of fibre.

When the plant is to be used to produce fibre, it is grown close ; but
if for seed only, it is recommended to dibble 2 or 3 seeds at distances
every way of 4 or 5 feet. When the seedlings are 3 or 4 inches high
the weakest should be pulled up, leaving only one plant.

The male an . female flowers are produced on separate plants, and
the fibre of the male, plant is of superior quality. About 13 weeks
after sowing, the flowers on the male plants fade, and the leaves turn
yellow and the stems whitish. Each of the male plants is then up-
rooted singly and carefully so as not to injure the fibre of the stem.
The female plants require a month longer to ripen their seed, but by
that time tha fibre has become coarse and of little value.

Sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) grow best in light, rich, calcareous
soils well supplied with moisture, and without any shade from trees.

The seeds are sown 1 inch deep in rows, 18 inches apart, and 30
inches asunder in the rows, thus giving about 11,000 plants to the

112

acre. The quantity of seed required per acre is from 4 to 6 lbs.
Weeds must be kept down, and the soil kept loose and friable for a
depth of 3 or 4 inches. The inferior flower-heads should be removed
leaving only 4 or 5 on the principal stem, yielding about 4,000 seeds.
The large seeded Russian Sunflower produces only a single head, and
is less esteemed for oil.

When the seeds are ripe, in 4 or 5 months from time of sowing, the
plants are taken up by the root, and allowed to dry thoroughly The
heads are then removed, placed face downward on a floor and beaten.
The seeds are spread out thinly to dry. Great care is taken to prevent
fermentation either in the heads or in the pile of seeds. The average
yield is put down at 50 bushels of seed per acre.

Canary grass (Phalaria Canariensis) is grown for its seeds which
form one of the best kind-^ of food for many sorts of small cage-birds.
The soil must be friable, and fairly rich. Cultivation should be carried
on where there is not much cover for grain-feeding birds. One-third
bushel of seed suffices for an acre. It is recommended to dibble in
the seed at distances of 6 inches every way.

The following letter from Mr. F. Capern contains useful informa-
tion.

Mr. T. Capern to the Honourable the Colonial Secretary.

Lewnis Head, Bristol, Feb. 26th, 1903.

Sir — I beg to thank you for your cable of February 23rd, in which
your Government offer to experiment on seeds for me, and for which
please accept my very best thanks.

I am sending out per Messrs. Elder Dempster & Co.'s s.s. Port
Morant one sack of canary seed, one sack of grey sunflower seed, and
one sack of hemp seed. The agents of Messrs. Elder, Dempster & Co.
will deliver to your order. I should be glad if the following experi-
ments could be made, but in conjunction with the experiment, the cost
of production should be kept in detail, as of course if it cannot be pro-
duced so cheaply in Jamaica as in Spain or Morocco, it would militate
very much against it. I should like one acre of canary seed to be
sown: this must be planted the same way as wheat, and also harvested
and thrashed. If possible as dry a climate as you have here should
be found, but I need not tell you it should be in close proximity to
a railway is also a sine qua non. But I do not know if you have
cheap cartage from the interior to the wharves.

Sunflower seed — I have sent you two kinds, gray and white. This
seed is grown in Russia and is sown like kidney beans If you have
much wind they would have to be staked, probably you would use
bamboo.

Hemp seed— -Of course your Agricultural Society would know how to
manage this. There are two products, the seed and the hemp ; I only
want the seed. I ne d not again say that in each case the cost of pro-
duction should be minutely kept. I intended to come out to Jamaica
myself, but am prevented, and my son will come instead and will give
me reports, as if I think I can grow different seeds I shall certainly
come over and attend to things myself. A very large trade in bird
seed is do le here. England imports 160,000 bags of Canary seed and
a very large quantity of hemp and sunflower seeds, besides others
which I have not mentioned.

113

DEAD WOOD IN FOREST TREES.

It is frequently said that we have more insect and fungoid pests to
contend against now than was the case a comparatively few years ago.
How far this is correct is open to question. But, supposing it to be
true, there is no doubt about the blame resting on our own shoulders
In every direction, including some of the best managed estates, we see
quantities of dfad branches and dead trees which are absolutely teeming
with fungi, and are therefore a standmg menace to all surrounding
trees, the fungi on them only waiting for a favourable opportunity to
attack fresh subjects, working destruction possibly slowly, but none the
less surely. We have pointed this danger out to more than one tree-
lover and planter, and the answer is, almost invariably : " Oh, I think
dead trees (or dead branches) very picturesque, and I would not have
tbem removed and burnt on any account ; and, after all, the danger
can only be very remote." In the case o' Oak-trees, we have heard it
said that it is bad forestry to cut the dead limbs out of the trees. But
why ? We should like to know the reason why Oak-trees, more than
others, resent the dead wood being removed.

In our opinion the cause of death or decay in so many comparatively
young trees, is in great part due to permitting so much dead wood to
remain. Not only is it worse than useless, for its beauty is at least
open to doubt, whereas its danger is absolutely certain, for it swarms
with fungi and with insect foes, which immediately enter a fresh tree
whenever a branch is broken or a limb cut ofi. and so the enemy goes
on working destruction without a check. Not only should dead trees
be promptly cut down and removed to the woodyard, but also all dead
or dying limbs, taking care, of course, to paint tne wound over at once
with a good coat of tar, thus preventing any fungi entering. If left
only for a day or two, the enemy has very likely entered the tree, and
it is then little good painting the wound afterward. If tree lovers
would remember this and act upon it, injury to our trees would be
greatly reduced, and the beauty of the countryside improved.

The question of how to prune forest tr^es is not so well understood
everywhere as it ought to be. This is proved by seeing limbs sawn off
sometimes a foot or more from the trunk or main branches. The con-
sequence is that the portion left decays back into the tree itself, giving
a free entry to all foes, and als j to wet, the certain parent of decay.
On the other hand, if the branch is cut off close to the trunk, and the
edge of the wound pared round with a sharp knife or with a chisel, and
followed up with a coating of tar at once, the tree quickly begins to
cover the wound with new bark, and in a few years it is quite covered
up — that is, of course, if the tree is healthy and in vigorous growth.—
(Journal Royal Horticultural Society, England)

,114

COCO-NUT BUTTER.

By John R. Jackson.

Amongst the many new vegetable products, good, bad and indifferent,
that are frequently being introduced for • trading purposes, Coco-nut
butter has recently attracted some attention. * In May last it was re-
ferred to in the Journal of the Society of Arts as follows " The manu-
facture of Coco-nut butter is an industry of some importance in the City
of Mannheim. The Mannheim factory ia said to be the only one of
any importance in Germany ; it has an output of about 10 tons of bat^^
ter a day. The product is sold under the name of * Palmin,' a regis-
tered trade name, or coco-nut butter. It is manufactured from the
kernels of Coco-nuts, and is used as a substitute for butter and lard in
cooking. As sold it is generally white in colour, almost tasteless, melts
at about 80 "^ Fahr., and is of the consistency of mutton or beef-tallow.
When de&ired by retail customers who are bakers, confectioners, &c.,
the product is coloured to resemble ordinary butter. When furnished
to dealers it is unlawful to colour it. The proprietors of the factory at
Mannheim claim that an analysis of their product shows it to contain
more than ninety per cent, of vegetable fat with but a slight trace of
water ; while ordinary batter contains about 85 per cent, of fat, and
nearly 15 per cent, of water. It is stated that the substance does not
become rancid easily, that it will keep for three or four months in a
cool room, and that it is much more wholesome and easily digested than
the ordinary fats used for baking and cooking. For these reasons the
product has met with considerable favour in German hospitals and other
institutions, and for use in army camps. Coco-nut butter is generally
put up in square packages, wrapped in parchment-paper, a small
proportion being sold in tin cans, which are hermetically sealed for
shipment in hot weather. It is sold at one price throughout Germany,
namely, about 8d. per pound, or about half the price of ordinary butter.
The kernel of the Coco-nut is imported in thoroughly dried strips,
forming the Copra of commerce. It is subjected to various refining
processes, by which all the. free acids and other substances are separated,
leaving only the vegetable fat. In the latter stages of the manufacture
the product resembles ordinary butter recently churned. It is placed
in machines similar to the separators used in creameries, in which the
water and other foreign substances are separated by centrifugal force.
In the manufacture ot Coco-nut butter a by-product, consisting of free
acids and other substances, is obtained, and sold to soap manufac-
turers."

Later on, namely, in June of the present year, the British Consul at
Marseilles, reporting on the trade of his consular district for 19U0, says
a new fatty substance for consumption in the United Kingdom, to take
the place of butter, is being put on the British market. It is called
vegetaline, and is nothing else than the oil extracted from Copra, refined,
with all smell and taste neutralised by a patented process. It becomes
sweet, like lard, and is intended to compete with margarine, and on the
breakfast-table as a substitute for butter. A local factory has been at
work for the past five years, and an effort was to be made to get hold
of the British market through a Liverpool firm.

* It ia made in Kingatou by Mr. F. W. Stockhauaen, 59 East Street.

116

A new light, however, has been put on this statement that the so-
called Coco-nut butter is a product alone of Germany, by a letter com-
municated to the Journal of the Society of Arts in the early part of
August, from an English firm having their works at Silvertown, in
which it is stated that the product was originally invented and manu-
factured in this country, and this, indeed, at Silvertown, and so large
has the trade now become, that a second factory by the same firm has
been established at Liverpool. It is pointed out that in this particular
industry our continental rivals have failed to secure the lead, and that
the output of the two English factories is believed to be greater than
that of all other makers put together.

Coco-nut butter in English trade is known as " Nucoline," while
Coco-nut suet is called " Vejsu." The first appears in store lists, and is
quoted at a price lower than cooking butter, for which it is said to be
preferable. It is remarkable that this product is reported to have be-
come much in demand amongst vegetarians, Jews, Mahoramedans,who
prefer vegetable to animal fats, either on account of their guaranteed
purity, economy, or by reason of their religious faith.

There is one thing certain, that if the fresh oil is always used and
not expressed from very stale Copra, a wholesome oil is thus guaran-
teed, and moreover, considering the enormous quantities of Coco-nuts
that are always arriving, both for the sake of the oil as well as for the
fibrous husk or coir, there is no fear of a failure in the supply of ma-
terial. The Gardeners' Chronicle.

VARIETIES OF GRAPE VINES FOR TRIAL

IN JAMAICA.

Mr. T. V. Munson read an interesting and useful paper on the selec-
tion and hybridising of grapes at the International ( onference at ^ ew
York last October (See Bulletin, March, page 66). In response to a re-
quest from the Director, he has very kindly sent several varieties of
Vines, see '* Additions and Contributions," page 120. In the letter be-
low he states that the highest price given for grapes is during winter.

From T. V. Munson ^ Sons, Denison, Texas, to Director of Public

Gardens and Plantations.

February 23rd, 1903.

"W e take much pleasure in sending you by express, a collection of
grapes we deem best for trial, in Jamaica, both European and American
varieties, including several of our own production.

In exchange for these, in addition to herbarium specimens sent a few
years ago, I shall thank you heartily for two or three ounces of ripe seed
of the Vitis carihaea, native of Jamaica, of the next fruitage that
ripens.

Fine grapes sell at the highest price in our large cities during winter.
Then the Malaga grapes from Spain packed in cork-dust, are in all our
city markets, and sell at 20 to 30 and 40 cts. a pound. The demand
would continue up to June.

We send rooted vines, as we have no cuttings at this season that
would probably root well. Our vines are entirely exempt from Phyl-
loxera, and other serious maladies.

116

FERNS : SYNOPTICAL LIST LIX.

Additions to Synoptical List, icith descriptions, of the Ferns and tern-
Allies of Jamaica. By the late G- S Jenman, Superintendent, Bo-
tanical Gardens, Demerara.*

Trichomanes solitarum, Jenm.—Eoot stock thread-like, freely repent,
sinuated, tomentose, and much branched ; fronds dark, dull green,
abundant, scattered; stipites I-I2 line lono-, rusty like the rootstock ;
blade finely striated, 3 or 4 lines long, 1-4 lines wide, the bate cuneate,
or subcordate, barren ones lanceolate or suborbicular entire, indented
or sometimes cleft; fertile, often bat-like, the sides spreading and in-
cised, deeply cleft and open at the top, with 1-4 stipitate, entirely free
sori in the cleft, sunk within or much protiuded; midrib evanescent
above the base, veins fine, close, flabellate, forked ; involucres urn-
shaped, with rounded club-like lips.— Grard. Chron., Nov. 17. 1894.

Jamaica and Gienada.— The barren fronds of this might easily be
taken f < r those of T. setiferum T. or apodum, the species being of like
small size, but the fertile fronds of each are quite different, many in
this resembling a pair of spreading incised wings, with the free sorus
extended or not, neck and head — as of a water-bird when flying — in
the deep cleft between. Occasionally a fertile frond is linear.

Adiantvm dissimvlalnm, Jenm. — Stipites erect, f 1^ ft. 1., black,
polished ; fronds erect, 1-1^ ft, 1., 5-10 in. w., bipinnate, firmly char-
taceous, neked, dark green, consisting of a long central pirnate portion
and two to three basal, much smaller, spreading, pinnate branches ;
rachis and costae like the stipites ; leaflets apart or contiguous, sessik,
deltoid-rhomboidal on the central branch, varying to oblong or ovate-
oblong in the inferior ones of the lower branches, the terminal elon-
gated ; veins free, fine, close, flabellate, repeatedly forked; margins
dentate when barren ; sori C( ntinuous around all but the basal and in-
terior margins. — Gard. Chron., Dec. 1st 1894.

Jamaica, Bull Head. Clarendon, 8,000 ft. alt., collected by Mr. Hart.
Resembling in general habit A Kendalii, but with different shaped
pinnules, firmer texture, striated surface, and difierent arrangement of
the sori.

A. littorale, Jenm. n. sp. — Stripes tufted, polished, ebeneous, or dark
chestnut, slender, 5-10 in. 1. ; fronds tripinnate, ^-1 ft. 1., nearly as w.
papyraceous-herbaceous, clear green, naked, rachis slender, polished ;
pinngo spreading lower largest and most compound, upper simply pin-
nate, all parts freely petiolate ; segments deciduous \-l in. b. and d.
varying from rhomboidal to flabellate-cuneate, the outer margin usually
rounded and freely incised, the incisions deeper in the barren fronds,
pedicels hairlike 1-1^ li. 1. articulated at the top; veins free, flabellate,
fine and close, repeatedly forked ; sori oblong or subreniform, varying
in length as the lobes of the margin vary in width.

Jamaica.— Very abundant on the rocky cliffs of the coast, in some
places within wash of the sea spray. The freely and deeply incised
margins gives this s close resemblance to Capillus veneris, from which
it is however clearly distinguished by the articulation of the segments,
which are almost as deciduous us those of fragile. It is generally a

* From Bulletin of Miscellaneous Iiformation, Botanical Department, Trinidad.

Il7

wnaller plant than tenerum, which in general habit it resembles, the
segment larger and much more deeply cut, the incisions being from
1-3 li. d. In my Jamaica Fern Flora, on a false identification of a spe-
cimen received, I accepted this with great doubt as " A. emarginatum,
Bory Wild," an Eastern species, with round even-edged leaflets, merely
notched here and there and bearing no resemblance to the large deeply
incised leaflets of this. — Porto Rico.

Pteris regia, Jenm. — Stipites stout, erect, freely aculeated, 4-5 ft.
1., brown, the base palaceous; fronds subdeltoid, tripartite, quadri-pin-
natifid, 5-6 ft. 1. and w.. the lateral lower divisioES large.- 1 and more
compound, chartaceous, naked, light green, the vascular parts light
brown and glabrous, the rachis sparsely piickly at the bace ; largest
central pinnae 1^-2^ ft, 1., 6-8 in. w., pinnules connected, with an open
rounded sinus or entirely disconnected and contiguous or twice or thrice
their own width apart, 3-4 in. 1. ^-1 1 in. w. terrate-acuminate, entire
or the liirger cut in part or wholly, usually only in the centie on onem-
both sides, into oblique acute serrate-pointed lobes 2 li. w., and ^-f in.
1. with an acute or broadly open rounded sinus between ; veins fine
areolae 1-2 serial with free corked or s mple exteiicr brarches, costa
arch incomplete falling short of the outer rib ; sori continuous, or inter-
rupted in the sinus reaching the serratures of the outer part of the seg-
ments. — Gard. Chron. 12th Jan. 1895.

Jamaica; 3,000-4,000 ft. alt., in woods in the Eastern paiishes
The fronds are of a bright, light colour, resembling those of aculeata
of which it may possibly prove to be the maximum state when fully
known, though the material of this at present known, while suggesting
does not confirm this conjecture.

ADDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE

DEPARTMENT.

Library (Serials).

Europe.

British Isles.

Bee-Keeper, Feb. Mar. [Editor.]

Board of Agri. Leaflets, Nos. 79, 80 and 81. [Secretary.]

Botanical Magazine, Mar. [Purchased,]

British Cotton (irowiug Association, Coirespondence, &c.No. 2. [Secretary.]

Bulletin, Kew Gardens, App. II. [Director.]

Chemist and Druggist, Feb, 21, 28, Mar. 7, 1^. [Editor.]

Colonial and Diplomatic & Consular Reports, Jan, Feb, 5lar. [Cnl. Sec]

Garden, Feb. 21, 28, Mar. 7, 14. [Purchased.]

Gardeners' Chronicle, Feb. il 28, Mar. 7, 14. [Purchased.]

International Sugar Journal, Mar. [Editor.]

Journal of Botany, Mar. [Purchased.]

Journal R. Hort. Soc, XXVII, 2 & 3. Report of the Council, 1902 ; Ar

rangements for 1903.
Journal, R. Colonial Institute, Pt. IV, Vol XXXIV.
Nature, Jan. 15, Feb. 19 26, Mar. o, 12. [Purchased.]
Pharmaceutical Journal, Feb, 21, 28, Mar. 7, 14.

France.

Journal d' Agriculture Tropicale, No. 18. [Publishers.]

Revue des Cultures Colouiale.'*, No. 118. [Editor.]

Suorerie indigene et coloniale, Feb. 17, 24, Mar. 3, 10. [Editor.]

138

Germany.

Bericht xiber die Tatigkeit der K. k. landw-chemischen Versuchsstation und
der mit ihr vereinigten K. k. landw-bakterioloyischen und Pflanzen-
Bcbutzstation in Wien, im Jahre 1902. [Director.]

Belgium.

Soci^t^ d'Etudes Coloniales No. 2 Feb. [Editor.]

Hungary.

Les Stations Royales Hongroises Agro-Chimiques. Extrait d I'ouvrage inti-
tule le service des Stations Agronomiques Hongroises [Director.]

Asia,

India.

Planting Opinion. Jan. 31. Feb. 7, 14, 21. [Editor.]

Proc. of United Planter's Association of Southern India, 1902. [Secy.]

Ceylon.

Times of Ceylon, Feb. 5, 12, 19, 26. [Editor.]

Java.

Proefstation West Java, No. 61 . [Director.]

Australia.

Queendand.

Agri. Journal, Feb. [Sec. of Agri.]
Sugar Journal, Feb. [Editor.]

Western Australia.

Journal Dept. Agriculture, Jan. [Dept. of Agri.]

Africa.
Cape of Good Mope.

Agri. Journal, Feb. [Dept. of Agri.]

Natal.

Agri. Journal & Mining Record, Feb. 6, 20, [Dept. of Agri.]

Central Africa.

C. African Times, Dec. 6, Jan. 3, 10, 17, 24, 31. [Editor.]

M auritius.

Station Agronomique, Bull. 7 Les Borers de la Canne a Sucre. Insecticides
et Fungicides. [Director.]

West Indies.
Barbados.

Agri. News. Mar. 14, 28.

Information relating to Cotton Cultivation in the

West Indies.
Leaflet Series, No. 7— Hints and Information in

regard to Cassava Poisoning. _„

Sugar Cane Experiments in the Leeward Islands: — [ Uept. of Agri.]
Report on the Experiments at Antigua and i
.^t. Kitts, Pts. I & II. 1

West Indian Bulletin, Vol. Ill, No. 4. J

Jamaica —

Cornwall Herald. [Editor.]

Journal Jamaica Agri. Soc, Mar. [Sec]

Montserrat.

Report on the Expeiiment Stations, 1901-02. [Agricultural Instructor.]

[Commr. Imp.

119

British North America.

Ontario.

Report of the Entomological Society, 1902. [Dept. of Agri.]

Ottawa —

Report, Botanical Club of Canada 1902-1903, and other pamphlets. TDr A
H. MacKay.] ^

Toronto

Cassava as a competitor of Maize in the production of Starch and allied pro-
ducts. By Geo. Archbold. [Author & G. Campbell Arnott.]

Montreal —

Pharmaceutical Journal, Feb, [Editor.]

United States of America.
Publications of the U. 8. Dept. of Agri. \_Directors.'\

Scientific Bureaus ^ Divisions.

Report of the Forester for 1902. By Gifford Pinchot. From AnnualBeports
Dept. of Agri.

Experiment Stations.

Alabama, 122, (Grazing and Feeding Experiments with pigs.)

Florida, 63, (Diagrams for packing Citrus Fruits.)
64, (Texas Cattle Fever and Salt -Sick.)

Hatch, 86, (Orchard Treatment for the San Jose Scale. One year's experi-
ments in Massachusetts.)

Illinois, 83, (Feeds supplementary to Corn for fattening steers.)

84, Dairy Conditions and suggestions for their improvement.)

Kansas, 116, (Destroying Prairie-dogs and Pocket-gophera.)

Louisiana, 73, (Analyses of Cummercial Fertilizers and Paris Green.)

South Dakota, 75, (Treatment of Smuts and Rusts) ; 77, (Macaroni Wheat.)

Texas, 65, (The Tomato.)

Virginia, 129, (Orchard Studies — II. The Fruit Plantation — Stoue Fruits.)

130, (Orchard Studies— III. Notes on some of the more important
varieties of Apples.)
American Druggist and Pharmaceutical Record, Mar. [Editor.]
American Journal of Pharmacy, Mar. [Editor.]
Cornell University Agri. Exp, Station Bulletins, Nos. 76, 93, 119,120, 122, 124,

120, 128, 129, 134 to 145 inclusive, 157, 160, 167, 183 to 209 inclusive.
Foreign Commercial Guide, India, Part I., Section II. [Phila. Commereia

Museum.]
Forestry & Irrigation, Mar. [Editor.]
Louisiana Planter, Feb. 28, Mar. 7, 14, 21. [Editor.]
Mycological Notes. By C. G. Lloyd. [Author.]
New York Botanical Garden Journal, Mar. [Director.]
Plant World, Feb,, Mar. [Editor.]
Report of Committee on School Gardens and Children's Herbariums of Mass.

Horti. Soc, 1902,
Sugar Cane Culture [German Kali Works,]
Torrey Club Bulletin, Feb. [Editor.]
University of Pennsylvania, Catalogue 1902-1903. The Provost's Report, 1902.

Central America.
La Gaceta, Diario OfiBlcial, San Jose, Mar. 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14. [Editor.]

Polynesia.
H^wiiaii Plautera' Monthly, Feb, [Bditor]

120

Seeds.

From Messrs. Dammann 8^ Co., Naples.

Acacia dealbata; Chrysanthemum coronarium lu'eum plenum.

From Major W. Wright, Hideote, Campden, Gloe.

Seeds trom N. Queensland ; — Sterculia quadrifolia : Bothi Bail ; Terminalia
macro carpa ; Erythrina vespertilis : Lueuraa sericea ; Boerhaavia diffusa;
Ebnona Wardiana.

trom Lady Blake, Hong Kong.
Tallow Tree - White Bauhinia.,

Plants.

From Mr. T V. Mnnson, Denison, Texas.

Grape Vines, the following varieties — Blondin : Brilliant Calabrian Cap-
tain : Carman : Cloota : Faher szages ; Fern Munson : Flame Tokay :
Herbmont : Herman Jaegar : Kiowa: Manito; Perle of Anvers : R. W.
Munson ; Shala : Violet Chasselas : Xenta.

[Issued 15th May, 1903.]

,1^

Vol. II.

JUNE & JULY, 1903.

Parts 6 &:?.

BULLETIN

OV XHB

DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

> » <

BDITBD BY

WILLIAM PAWCETT, B.Sc, F.L.S

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS:

Page.

Cocoa — II.

121

Shade for Coffee and Cocoa

124

Notes on Phosphate Manures

127

Jamaica Cassava

130

Board of Agriculture

134, 160

Four recently described Ferns from Jamaica

136

Cuban uses of the Royal Palm

138

Irrigation

140

Local Deposits of Bat Guano

144

Some Local refuse Manures

147

Historical Notes on Economic Plants in Jamaica -

-V. Tea. 150

An early Jamaica Botanist

155

Methods of Corn Breeding

156

Cinchona Culture in India and Java

159

Citrus Fruit Culture

161

PRIOE-Sixpence.

A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Addreaa to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
Hops GA^DSNg.

1903.

JAMAICA

BXJLTjBTIISr

(IF THK

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Yol. I. JUNE and JULY, 1903. Parts 6 & 7.

COCOA II.*

Notes from ]jr Paul Preuss.

Shade Trees.

Tlie two trees which are employed generally in Trinidad to give
shade are the " Anauco" {Erythrina Amasisa or E. micropteryx)
for the hilly regions, and the "Bucare," [E glauca or E. um-
brosa) for the low plains. The two kinds are known by the com-
mon designation of " Immortels." Trials have also been made of
other trees, as, for example Sand-box {Hura crepitans) and Bread-fruit
{Artocarpus incisa) but without great success The Immortels have
the property, injurious in shade trees, of shedding their leaves in
periods of drought, and of remaining stripped or with only a few leaves
during the time of the greatest heat. If, besides this, they draw much
moisture from the soil, it is not astonishing that the cocoa trees suffer
from drought.

Shade trees should always be full of leaf at least in countries as dry
as Trinidad, or the cocoa trees die immediately in consequence of too
great heat and drought. In regions where this is not the case, as for
example in the Cameroons where the rain is much more abundant, the
fall of the leaves and the strongest exposure to the sun which results,
can only act in a salutary manner, for the consequence is that a more
abundant flowering is induced. It is the same for coffee and Viuiilla.
Mr. Hart recommends as shade trees, the Guango [Pithecolobium 8aman)
which ought to be planted 50 to 60 feet apart. Dr. Preuss saw it so
employed as a shade tree in Venezuela both for coffee and cocoa ; they
were not old, and acted very well, f r their shade is light, and the
foliage remains throughout the year ; they grow very quickly and the
leaves close up at night, thanks to which the formation of dew during
the night is very active. However in a plantation of coffee where the
trees had become too old, they visibly overpowered the coffee shrubs,
and reduced their yield considerably. The rapid growth and the gi-
gantic dimensions of the Guango prevents Dr. Preuss from recom-
mending it as a shade tree for plantations. For, if they are given the
proper distance from the first, the cocoa trees planted in the interval
remain too long without shi^de ; and if they are planted from the com-

*Continued from Bulletin for April, pages 73-76.

. 122

mencement as close as the species of Erythrina, some of them have to
be removed later, which causes much damage to the cocoa trees. Dr.
Preuss saw several Quangos growing in a large sugar plantation in Su-
rinam but the Manager told him that it was solely because no shrubs
nor bad weeds could grow under them.

The property which many leguminosse possess, in consequence of
their symbiosis with a fungus, of accumulating nitrogen in tubercles
which decay at the end of the period of growth and enrich the soil
with nitrogen, belongs probably also to thelmmortels and the Quango
&c., although the fungus acts principally in soils pour in nitrogen, and
such soils are not usually met with in cocoa plantations. These shade
trees will not in every case take nitrogen from the soil, because they
possess in a high degree the power of borrowing it from the atmosphere.
For this reason they take very little nourishment from the cocoa trees.
It is necessary as far as possible to choose shade trees from amongst the
leguminosse. If this rule has been followed everywhere in the New
World without the planters having understood the reason, it is a
proof in favour of the truth of the theory, and of the aptitude for ob-
servation of the planters.

Cocoa in Venezuela.

Cocoa is the most renowned of the products of Venezuela. It is
known commercially as Caracas Cocoa, because Caracas was formerly
the centre of the trade. At the present time Puerto Cabello, and es-
pecially La Guayra have withdrawn the trade to themselves. There
are no large plantations in the vicinity of Caracas. The finest and
the most numerous plantations are situated near the coast in the States
of Carabobi', Guyman Blanc and Lara. The part of the coast between
La Guayra and Puerto Cabello is particularly famous. There are
i5ituated the valleys of erosion of the coast Cordilleras, abundantly
wateied, generally narrow, and separated one from another by high
chains of mountains, and in these valleys are found the best cocoa plan-
tations. The soil is composed principally of products of disintegration
of micaceous schist and gneiss, mixed with an abundant quantity of
humus carried down by w ater from the forests situated in the upper
part of the mountains.

The high walls of the valleys protect them against wind. The
streams contain abundance of water during the whole year, Ihe soil
is of extraordinary fertility; nevertheless the portions that can be culti-
vated are lelatively su)all, — they comprise, even when the}^ attain a
high figurt', only some hundreds of acres. Immediately beside the
black soil of the \ alley, occupied b}' the cocoa plantations, rise the
mountains precipitous and entirely barren, poorly furnished with
agaves, cacti and stunted bushes, at the foot of which the cocoa planter
finds the red earth with which he colours his cocoa.

Here is the celebrated region of Chuao, of which the cocoa was for-
-merly reputed the best in Venezuela, indeed even in the whole world,
but which has had to yield the tirst place to new plantations. Another
centre of cocoa is at San Felipe, which produces cocoa beans with very
thin shell of excellent quality. The cocoa of the coast near E.io Chico
is also appreciated. At the south of the lake of Valencia, the region
of Guigue on the plateau of Valencia is j^articularly known. Ifc is

123

fiituated 1,480 feet above sea level, but the CrioUo cocoa nevertheless
develops there very well. There is even a small plantatioQ at 3,280 feet
above sea level. Cocoa is cultivated also in the valley of Tuy. and
near Los Teques there are well developed trees at an elevation of 3,120
feet. At these altitudes however only the most hardy species and at
the same time the least valuable can be cultivated ; while on the coast
ihe finest species, but the most sensitive of the Griollo furnish the cele-
brated " cacao de la costa."

Two varieties of cocoa are in reality distinguished : first, the CrioUo
Cocoa, and secoDdly the Trinitario or Oarupano Cocoa. The Criollo
represents the best, and the Carupano the least good quality. The
differences of prices are extremely marked, — more so than between
the different species of cocoa of every other country. In 1898, the
prices varied, even in Venezuela, from 57 marks per 50 kilos for the
lowest priced Carupano to 134 marks for the best Criollo ; in 1897
the prices went from 41 to 131 marks. It is only Criollo which is per-
fectly pure that fetches the highest price ; it loses in value as soon as
it is mixed with Carupano.

More precise observations are necessary in order to decide whether
the distinction between Criollo on the one hand, and Trinitario or Caru-
pano on the other, constitutes a simple variety, or whether they are
distinct species. The two kinds appear in commerce mostly separated,
iilthough Criollo is rarely pure. The word Criollo is not, to my
knowledge, in use as a commercial designation ; it is rather the Chuao
^f which the reputation is universal, which lends its name to the good
Criollo. Even the plantation of Chuao produces actually only 500
fanegas as a maximum p3r year. The Criollo, called also " Cacao
Dulce," consists of several sub-varieties : (1) Criollo proper, of which
the fruits are dark red-brown and the fresh beans a bright violet ; (2)
"Criollo amarillo" of which the fruits have a yellow shell and the
beans are white. Between these two varieties there is a third, of
which the fruits are red or yellow, called " Criollo Mestizo," but which
are very rare.

The Trinitario or Carupano cocoa is divided into a series of sub-
varieties, under names about which the planters are not unanimous.
This is easily explained, because it is not possible to trace the precise
limits between the different classes, and because all the varieties inter-
-cross. The distinction, on the contrary, between the Criollo and the
Trinitario is quite pronounced.

In spite of numerous transitions certain types can be established in
the Carupano or Trinitario. The following may be mentioned : (1)
Angoleta ; {'i) Cundearaor, which is divided into Cundeamor proper,
with red shell, and Cundeamor amarillo with yellow shell; (3) Ca-
rupano proper and its sub-varieties, such as Carupano grande and Ca-
rupano mestizo ; its fruit is generally red, mixed more or less with
yellow; (4) Carupano parcho, of which the fruit is greenish yellow,
or of parchment colour ; (5) Carupano taparito, yellow, or brown yel-
low ; (()) Sumbito, red or yellow fruits, short, stout, and rather smooth ;
(7) Trinitario amargo, or "Cojon deToro" [Calabacillo] fruits red or
red-brown, quite smooth, rounded or terminating in a short point.

From the p jint of view of quality of these different types, it is gene-
rally admitted that the fruits long, strongly furrowed and very rough

. 124

as for example, these of Acgoleta and of Cundearaor furnish the best
cocoa and that the smooth fruits of " Cojon de Toro" yield the worst.
Every planter knows the character of the last ; nevertheless trees of
this bad variety are found in all the plantations of Criollo.

The Criollo tree is readily recognised by its feeble growth, its sparse-
foliage, and its small leaves. The fruits are of medium size, somewhat
strongly furrowed and rough, somewhat massive and very rarely sym-
metrical. The typical fruit of Criollo has an oblique point of moderate
length, which is always directed downwards. In general the fruits-
have a deformed appearance. They have no constriction at the base.
The shell is relatively thin, and of a consistence less strong than that
of the variety Carupano. According to the tint of the fruit, they dis-
tinguish Criollo proper with deep red shell, Criollo amarillo with
yellow shell and Criollo mestizo with yellow and red shell. The Criollo'
proper constitutes the Criollo jD«r excellence. It represents 99 per cent
of the Criollo of Venezuela. The interior of the fresh bean is bright
violet. The Criollo amarillo has beans which are quite white. In
spite of the striking characteristic the planters do not distinguish it
from Criollo proper ; and most of them did not even know that they
had cocoa with white beans in their plantations. They have never
cultivated the two varieties separately. Dr. Preuss was not able to find
out how the cured beans of the white variety differ from those of the
violet variety, if, indeed, there is any difference. The form of the
beans in the fresh state was the same in the two varieties; the taste
of the white beans appeared to be sweeter and less bitter than i hose of
the bright violet beans.

{To he continued.)

THE QUESTION OF SHADE FOR COFFEE

AND COCOA.

Prof. 0. F. Cook, Special Agent for Tropical Agriculture in the
United States Department of Agriculture, wrote a very interesting
Bulletin a short time ago on " Shade in Coffee Culture."*

The subject is discussed under the following headings: — I. The
direct effects of shade, (a) Natural habitat of coffee, (b) Effect of shade
on yield, (c) Effect of shade on quality. II. The indirect effects of
shade, (a) Protection against drought, (b) Protection against erosion,
(c) Shelter from winds, (d) Fallen leaves as fertilizer, (e) Nitrification
through shade, (f) Shade and fungus diseases. III. The effects of un-
wonted exposure, (a) The use of volunteer seedlings, (b) Overshadinw-,
(c) Removal of shade, (d) Shade and the coffee leaf miner. IV.
Methods of applying shade. V. Lit*t of coffee shade trees.

The natural habitat of species of coffee is the somewhat open, par-
tially weeded country which borders the many disconnected forest areas
of Africa where partial shade is a very general natural condition of
fiuch species. But most of the plants growing under such conditions
are not assisted by deficiency of light, but will thrive much better and

♦Bulletin, No. 25, Division of Botany, 1901.

125

iDecome more vis^orous and productive when the competition of the
masses of other vegetation is removed.

That sunlight is necessary for the processes of plant assimilation,
that the sugar content of vegetable tissues depends upon access to
H^ht, and that sugar is the material from which most of the alkaloids
and other plant substances are elaborated, are well-known facts indi-
cating the necessity of light for a maximum of functional activity.
Even those who advocate the use of shade admit that the yield is dimin-
ished, though the existence of compensating advantages is maintained.
In Java the largest trees are described as growing without shade on
terraced, carefully cultivated mountain sides with the slopes grassed
over to prevent washing. The coffee is planted 25 feet apart, and
permitted to grow to its full height — sometimes reaching 30 or 40 feet.
These giant trees bear each a crop which, when cured, weighs 6 or 7
pounds.

The production without shade of the most valuable grades of coffee
show that the claim that shade is a necessity to the production of coffee
of good quality cannot be admitted.

However untenable may be the position of those who argue that
shade is directly beneficial to the coffee tree, the possibility is not ex-
cluded that shade in coffee plantations may often be indirectly benefi-
cial by conserving soil moisture, keeping down the growth of weeds
and grass, preventing erosion, protecting the coffee trees from the vio-
lence of the wind, and other ways.

Prof. Cook's general conclusions are, that there is no basis in reason
or in observed fact for the belief that shade is a general necessity for
the coffee plant, even when grown at low elevations. On the contrary
it is extremely probable that the beneficial effects resulting from
shade are quite apart from the shadow cast upon the coffee tree.

The beneficial effects connected with shade arise from the protec-
tion afforded against drought, erosion and winds. The planting of
shade trees for these purposes is accordingly determined by local con-
ditions of climate and soil, and furnishes no reason for the general
planting of shade trees.

In regions not affected by injurious climatic extremes the planting
of shade trees is justified from the cultural stamlpoint only by the
increased fertility imparted to the soil by means of the nitrogen-fixing
root tubercles of leguminous species. This view has not been made the
subject of experimental demonstration, but it seems to accord with all
the facts thus far ascertained.

The benefits of leguminous fertilizing are quit? apart from the shad-
ing of the coffee, and under suitable cultural conditions are also to be
secured from shrubs and herbs belonging to the same natural family.

The relative utility and availability of the various shade trees and
soiling crops is a subject of vast importance in coffee culture and in
other agricultural industries of the tropics..

The combinations of such cultures as coffee and cocoa with legumin-
ous trees and plants of maximum cultural and commercial value
afford many complex, scientific, and practical problems bearing upon
the rise of mixed farming in the tropics and are thus worthy of seriou*
experimental attention.

These conclusions of Prof Cook are of the greatest interest in Ja-

' 126

maica, and aie deserving of the most careful consideration, not only in
connection with the coffee and cocoa industries, but with other agri-
cultural plants in cases where the ground is only partly covered.

The Blue Mountain Coffee grown from about the elevation of
2,500 ft, upwards gets the highest price in the market, and it is pro-
duced without any shade. At about 2,600 ft. according as the ground
•lopes to various points of the compass, and at all lower bltitudes shade
is considered necessary. The tree that is used universally in the Blue
Mountains is the West Indian Cedar* The principal reason given
for using this particular species is that it dr^ps its leaves during the
winter months when coffee requires all the sun it can get, and shade
would be injurious. These months are just those that are the dry
months of the year. IShade therefore is not necessary at these lower
altitudes of the Blue Mountains for the purpose of maintaining a moist
atmosphere or for the retention of moisture in the soil.

Now, although the temperature in the shade is mnch less than that
in the sun. Prof. Cook has given samples of coffee doing well in Porto
Eico at sea level without shade.

It appears iherefore that it is the soil that requires shading from the
sun, and not the coffee shrub. The temperature of the ground through
which the coffee roots penetrate varies with elevation above sea-level,
and with amount of shade ; and when we come down from the higher
coffee fields to an altitude of 2,500 ft. the ttmperature of the soilthere^
and at lower levels, is possibly greater than the roots of the coffee, or
the microbes in the soil, can bear.

At the Agricultural Conference in Barbados in 1901 in the discus-
sion on Mr. Watts' paper on "The treatment of soils in 'orchard' culti-
Tation in the tropics,"! the writer of these notes said that "the ex-
posure of the soil to the direct rays of the sun causes great injury boih
to the soil and the crops growing thereon," and this is the point in the
whole subject to which attention should be directed.

It is known that in a general sense the soil is prepared for plant use
by the action of microbes, particularly in the upper layers of the soil.
These microbes are enabled to carry on their important work only
whilst certain conditions of moisture, air, and tempt rature are suitable.
If the temperature for instance is too high, the microbes cannot act,
the consequence being that a sufiicient quantity of material is not ab-
sorbed by the plants, and the crops produced by the plant are small in
quantity

Mulching which is so beneficial in preventing escape of moisture from
the soil, is also of the greatest benefit in shading the soil and so avow-
ing the microbes to prepare it for the use of the plant. Mulching
certainly does not add ritrogen to the soil as leguminous trees do, but
neither does it rob the soil of other necessary ingredients which shade
trees of any kind actually do.

On large estates the difficulty of obtaining large quantities of material
for mulching would be great, and probably the best plan to adopt Wduld
be to grow some deep rooting leguminous herb, suoh as alfalfa, in
spaces between the cocoa, coffee, or orange trees, and to cut it down

*Cedrela odorata.

t West Indian Bulletin, Vol. II, 190J, page 96.

127

for mulching when about to flower. In this way there would 'only
be the preliminary expense of establishing the herbaceous perennial,
and the small expense afterwards of cutting it down. Quantities of
valuable food material would thus be brought up from the subsoil, and
deposited in the mulch on the surface to decay for the benefit of the
cocoa, coffee, or other plant.

NOTES ON PHOSPHATE MANURES.

H. H. Cousins.

Apart from the material question of cost, I have always advocated
that planters would be well-advised to avoid the complete fertiliser
and the special manure of commerce and to purchase the special ingre-
dients required at current market rates. ^.^^

Our experience in the purchase of fertilisers for the Manurial Ex-
periments of the Board of Agriculture indicate that there is a saving
of quite 25 o/o in cost, apart from the special advant;iges arising from
adjusting a manurial mixture to the needs of particular soils and crops.

My chief objection to the ordinary ' complete' manure of commerce
lies in the fact that there are three types of phosphatic fertilisers, each
peculiarly suited to a particular type of soil. It is quite possible to
use each of these forms of phosphoric acid without any reasonable pro-
bability of any benefit and a possibility of a depression in the result-
ing crop. For example : Basic Slag is frequently absolutely inopera-
tive on calcareous soils, while superphosphate may result in detriment
to the crop if applied to soils deficient in Carbonate of Lime. Again
there are some soils, representing the lighter lands of our fertile allu-
vial tracts in Jamaica, where Basic Slag would be inoperative, super-
phosphate injurious and an intermediate or mixed phosphate be the
form best adopted to the nature of the soil.

To use a " complete manure," containing in the majority of cases
acid phosphates, indiscrimiuately on all our Jamaica soils is, to my
mind, a chemical absurdity.

Before purchasing manures, planters would do well to consult
the chemist and avoid paying too high a price and the possibility of
getting an unsuitable mixture.

On many soils in Jamaica Phosphates are quite unnecessary.
Analyses show that most of our good land is very rich indeed in this
ingredient and that when exhaustion takes place in course of time, fer-
tilisers supplying Nitrogen and Potash only should suffice to maintain
the standard of fertility in these cases.

Appended ai-e some data as to phosphatic fertilisers recently im-
ported into Jamaica which may serve to guide planters as to a w ise
selection.

• us

Phosphate Fertilisers,

Basic

Slag. A.

Per cent.

Basic
Slag. B.

Basic Super-
phosphate.

Per cent.

Mixed
Phosphate.

Per cent.

Per cent

Total Phosphoric

Acid
Equal to Phosphate

of Lime

16.34
35 67

17.29
37.74

13.89
30.32

18.51
40.41

Citrate Soluble
Phosphoric Acid
Equal to 1 hosphate

of Lime
Percentage soluble .

9 17

20.01
56.1

13.52

•29.50
78.2

11.9

25.97
85.6

13.84

30.22

74.8

Water Soluble
Phosphoric Acid
Equal to I'hosphate
of Lime

nil
nil

3.77
8.24

£3 3

minute

trace

3.35
7.31

Citrate Insoluble.
PhosiDhoric Acid
Equal to Phosphate

of Lime

7.17
18.66

1.99
4.35

4 67
10.19

Cost per Ton deli-
vered in Kingston

£3 1

£4

Observations.

For cLy soils deficient in Lime and all of the strong retentive lands
which may need Phosphates — Basic Slag— is the best form. It is ad-
visable to ai pl}^ it alone and early It must not be mixed with
manure containing ammonia Dose 2 to 20 cvvt. per acre according to
the crop and the object in view. Its action sjDreads over at least two
years.

No. 1 is a Basic Slag purchased shrewdly as to price but really a
dear or inferior article owing to low standard of phosphates and very
poor Solubility (56 o/o.) This was bought by a banana planter for use
on a stiff soil deficient in available Phosphoric Acid. For 2s. per ton
more he might have obtained No. 2 Siag as used by the Board of
Agriculture.

This was Albert's Slag of high grade in fineness showing 2 per cent
more Phosphate and a solubility ne .rly 50 per cent greater than that
of No. 1. In buying Basic Slag a guarantee of "fineness" should be

12i)

obtained of at least 80 per cent. For Jamaica the highest grade is
really the cheapest owing to the cost of freight (IBs. per ton).

Basic Superphosphate.

This is a patented article which has just been placed on the market-
It is by no means a novelty and the Patent rights must be doubtful
since we happen to know of a firm who prepared the identical article
some years ago and give it up as unsati-^factory in practice.

The name of the article is not in its favour since it is not 'Basic'
and is not * Superphosphate.' It is prepared by treating Superphos-
phate with Lime ; thereby distroying the special value of the super-
phosphate—its solubility in water — and producing a product that we
are convinced is of necessity more expensive than other forms of re-
vei'ted phosphate ai d is by no means a Basic Phosphate with the special
chemical advantages of Basic Slag. A large banana planter was in-
duced to buy a large quantity of this article under the impression that
it was similar to and better than Basic Slag. I estimate a loss to the
purchaser of about £200 on this transaction and mention this case to
convince planters that the opinion of the Chemist in such matters is
freely available and may avoid the purchase of the wrong manure at
the wrong price.

Superphosphate is undoubtedly the b( st phosphate for use on medium
to light soils containing adequate Carbonate of Lime. A contract with
a firm in Glasgow has just been made per the Crown Agents for a
grade of 30 per cent, soluble phosphate f.o.b. Bristol in double bags
at £2 lOs. Od. per ton This firm's quotations were the most favour-
able of a 1 rge number who were asked to quote prices for delivery
in April of chemical manures for the Experiments of the Board.

Mixed Phosphate (No. 4) is an intimate mixture of 3 parts super-
phosphate and 2 parts steamed bone flour and is especially suitable for
the majority of light, alivuial soils and those deficient in Carbonate
of Lime

Its value compared with Basic Superphosphate shows that, for the
same price in Jamaica, we obtain \ more phosphate, ^more citrate so-
luble phosphate and over 7o/o of water soluble phosphate in addition,
in ' mixed phosphate' as compared with the consignment of Basic
Superphosphate quoted. Steamed Bone Flour to contain 65o/o of
Phosphates and 2o/o Nitrogen was purchased for the Department at
£4 f.ob. in 1901, at £4 10s. in 1902 and at £4 14s. for the current
month

I recomend the use of mixed Phosphate rather than Steamed Bone
flour alone. Banana planters should find this mixture with \ part
Sulphate of Ammonia a useful top dressing on soils in need of manu-
rial assistance. In some cases the Ammonia should be supplemented
with an equal quantity ef 9oo/o Sulphate of Potash and the mixture
applied at the rate of 4 to 8 cwt per acre.

•130
JAMAICA CASSAVA.

Anahjsis of selected local varieties.

By H. H. Cousins M. A. (Oxon), F. C. S.
Government Analytical and Agricultural Chemist.

In view of the interest which is now being taken in cassava as a"
commercial source of starch and glucose, it appeared desirable to an-
alyse some typical varieties of the cassava generally grown by the
peasantry of the island. A collection of representative varieties was
made by Mr, Cradwick of the Agricultural Department and planted at
Hope in January, 1902. These represent the most valued sorts grown
by the peasantry in the Alligator Pond district where Cassava is an
important staple.

After fifteen months growth, samples were sent to the Laboratory
for analysis and are here reported on.

The Hon. T. H. Sharp, who has taken an active part for some years
in advancing the cassava industry, submitted a collection of seven
varieties grown on his property ' Inverness' in the South East of
Clarendon, and these have been analysed and the results are here re-
corded.

The tubers represented the entire produce of average hills and were
truly extraordinary. The yield of cassava in this district must be
enormous. The cost of production is also exceedingly low owing to the
fact that the cassava has not to compete against weeds and the culti-
vation necessary to grow the crop of the simplest and easiest character.

Given a water supply, this district should produce cassava in enor*
mous quantity at the lowest possible cost and the success of a starch
factory be assured. Some of the varieties grown at Hope appear to be
identical with the Inverness Bitter Cassava. It is to be noted that
the ' Brown Stick' which leads in starch and sugar content in the
Hope Series is also first in the Inverness Series, while the Clarendon
tubers contain about 9 per cent, more starch than those grown in the
Liguanea plain at Hope. This supports the statement of many prac-
tical men that cassava varies a good deal in quality in Jamaica depen-
dent upon the soil and conditions under which it is grown.

The analyses were made on the entire tuber, unpeeled. Tbe whole
of each sample was first pass through a slicing machine, then carefully
sampled and a smaller portion pulped from which the sample for ana-
lysis was prepared. In the analysis of cassava it is imperative to avoid
keeping the tubers since decomposition rapidly sets in. It is clear
that a cassava factory umst be in close touch with the centre of pro-
duction and that it would not be practicable to send cassava from long:
distances owing to this fact.

The tables of analyses of the two Series are here set out.

181

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per cent.

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133

To indicate the relative starch value of Creole varieties and the new
Colombian varieties recently reported on (Bull . Vol. I p. 37) the aver-
age of the six varieties grown at Hope is compared with that of the
best six of the Colombian varieties.

Grown under very similar conditions of soil and climate there is a
decided advantage in favour of the Colombian Cassavas, both as regards
starch, glucose and total solids. The ' Brown Stick' is practically on
an equality with ' Governor Hemming' (the best Colombian variety)
as regards starch but contains ten times as mucb Prussic Acid.

We have not yet obtained data as to the agricultural yields of these
varieties. Clearly the relative value of the sweet and the bitter as a
source of starch lies entirely in the yield per acre and not in the in-
trinsic superiority of the best ' bitter' over the best ' sweet' in starch
content,

As an article of food, of course, the Colombian non-poisonous Cas-
sava is beyond all question of rivalry.

Hydrocyanic Acid in Cassavas grown at Hope.

Name.

Cortex
o/o

Peeled

Tuber

o/o

Hydrocyanic Acid.

No.

Cortex
o/o

Interior

o/o

Total

o/o

1
2
3
4

Bobby Hanson
Brown Stick
White Top
Rodney

Black Bunch of

Keys
Wliite Bunch of

Keys

19.0
15.0
19.1
11.4
13.6
13.6

81.0
85.0
80.9
88.6
86.4
86.4

0.026
0.020
0.' 26
0.02ti
0.037
0.<30

0.010
0.015
0.021
0.017
0.014
0.^7

0.014
0.019
0.019
0.018
0.719
0.. VJ

Average

15.3

20.0

84.7

0.028

0.016

'■.018

Trii
13

lidad Average
Sweet Cassava

80.0

0.032

0.008

0.013

Trir

lidad Average
Bitter Cassava

• ••

...

0.021

0.023

...

All the varieties grown at Hope are Bitter, the variety " Bobby
Hanson" having the lowest proportion of Prussic acid j*^

The results of the estimanon of the Frussic acid in the cortex and
the inner portion of the tubers are given in the foregoing table.

For seven days a nearly uniform production of Prussic acid took
place when the sliced tubers 'were placed in water. The water was

134

poured off every day, the prussic acid estimated, and a fresh supply of
water was added. Finally Hydrochloric acid was used and this eliminated
ihe whole of the prussic acid. We have now ascertained that the total
Prussic acid can be estimated in one operation by treating the cassava
with Hydrochloric acid and distilling in steam. This will greatly
facilitate the operation of determining Prussic acid.

Our results, so far, appear to confirm Professor Carmody's statement
that an analytical difi'erence can be drawn between sweet and bitter
cassava based on the fact that in the bitter the poison is uniformly
distributed in the whole tuber, while in sweet cassava most of the
poison is contained in the peel. Further experiments are in progress
and we have been promised the assistance of Mr. J. T, Palache in ob-
taining further supplies of sweet cassavas for analysis and experiment.
So far we have not examined a Jamaican sweet cassava that can be
called * sweet' or non-poisonous to the same degree as the Colombian
varieties.

Hvdrocyan-c Acid from Cassavas. (Inverness.)

No.

Name.

Description;

Total Hydrocyanic Acid
fer Cent,

nt of To-
irocyanic
I Cortex.

In
Cortex.

0.004
0.004
0.004
0.005
0.004
0.008
0.004

Interior.

0.01:i
0.009
0.010
0.021
0.025
0.038
0.022

TotaJ.

ty w H

S '-3 'o

2
3
4
5

Commander
Cotton Tree
Luana

Brown Stick
Long Leaf White
Long Leaf Brown
Silver Stick

Sweet,
Sweet
Sweet
Bitter
Bitter
Bitter
Bitter

0.017
0.013
0.014
0.026
0.029
0.046
0.026

24
31
29
19
14
17
15

This table shows that the amount of Prussic Acid in the cortex of
both Bitter and Sweet Varieties varies but little. The Bitter Cassa-
vas, however, contain a decidedly higher proportion of the poison in
the inner portion. Carmody's rule would have enabled anyone to
identify JN'os 1, 2 and 3 as Sweet Cassavas and to conclude that the
remaining four varieties were Bitter. Some recent analyses, however,
convince me that in Jamaica the gradation between ' sweet' and 'bitter*
varieties is by no means marked, since varieties intermediate between
the two types exist.

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The ususal monthly meeting of the Board was held at Head Quarter
House on Tuesday, 21st April at 9 o'clock. Present : The Hon. the
•Colonial Secretary, (Chairman), The Hon. the Director of Public Gar-
dens the Government Chemist, Mr. C. E. DeMercado, Mr. J. Shore
iind Mr. C. A. Fursdon.

The Minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed.

The following letters were dealt with ; —

135

(1.) from Dr. Morris, enclosing copies of a pamphlet on Cassava-
poisoning ;

(2) from the British Museum, conveying thanks for the

Bulletin ;

(3) from Mr. Guy S. Ewen, suggesting that drain-tiles

should be manufactured at the Penitentiary. It was
pointed out that experience in Jamaica and other parts ot
the West Indies had shown that drain-tiles were unsuited
to the climatic conditions on account of silting up in the
heavy rains. The Secretary was instructed to reply that the
matter would receive further consideration by the Board ;

(4) from Mr. Johns of Mandeville School, making enquiries as

to the A gricultural College. It was agreed to refer this
letter to the Chemist.

In connection with the School Grarden Scheme, it was decided to lay
^ut such a garden at Hope and to improve on tVe plan as might be
found necessary

Mr. Thompson's report for the week ending 1 1th April was con-
sidered. On the suggestion of Mr. deMercado it was agreed that the
travelling Instructors should be directed to inquire into the matter of
the supposed damage to cocoa by rat-bats.

The syllabus for the examination for Scholarships at the Agricultural
College was returned by the Schools Commission with suggestions.
These had been considered by Mr. Cousins who thought it would be
necessary to hold the examination this Summer in order that Students
could be admitted in October. It was decided to make arrangements
and advertise accordingly.

The Secretary was directed to circulate among the members the re-
port on the work of the College for the term.

A report by the Chemist on the Laboratory apprentices was ap-
proved.

The Board approved of the publication by the Chemist of the results
of the manurial experiments 1902-03. It was agreed that the matter
of the crop map should be further discussed by the Chairman and
Mr. Cousins.

The Director of Public Gardens reported that a certain amount of
the cotton seed presented to the Colony had been distributed but that
u good deal still remained, vir was agreed to advertise this.

The Board proceeded to discuss various schemes for the promotion of
agriculture.

The meeting then terminated.

The usual monthly meeting of the Board was held at Head Quarter
House on Tuesday, 12th May 1903, at 9 o'clock. Present: The Hon, the
Colonial Secretary (Chairman), His Grace the Archbishop, the Hon. the
Director of Pub ic Gardens, the Government Chemist, the Hon. H.
Cork, and Messrs. C. A. T. Fursdon, C E. de Mercado, J. Shore and
John Barclay, the Secretary.

The Minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed.

The Instructors' reports which had been circulated, were considered
and approved

A letter from His Excellency the Governor was read askino- the

.136

Board to make an enquiry into the state of the Horse-breeding Indus-
try with a view to improving it. The Board was in favour of some
action being taken, and Mr. de Mercado and Mr. Cousins were asked
to confer together on the subject, and make a draft report to come up-
before next meeting.

A memorandum from the Director of Public Gardens stated in reply
to the Chairman's enquiry that the first crop of tobacco had been sold,
last year's was still to sell, and the present crop was still in prepara-
tion. A tender for last year's crop was considered.

A letter from Dr. Neish on exhaustion of banana land, was directed
to be circulated among the Board, and come up at next meeting with
their remarks.

A letter from Mr. Cradwick stating that he had been asked by in-
tending planters of banana and cocoa on a large scale in the western
parts of the island, to visit their lands to give advice, and asking if he
was at liberty to do so. He was authorised to do so if it did not interfere
with his itinerary.

Mr. Hewitt, a pupil at the Chemical Laboratory, asked the Board
to help him to get on to a banana plantation so as to utilize his vacation
for getting some practical experience. Mr. Cork was requested to
give him a trial.

Mr. Cousins said that Mr. T. H. Sharp was eager to try some ex
periments with cassava at his property " Inverness," to discover the
best period from planting to taking up the roots, so as to get the max-
imum starch, and asked for a small grant of £10 to further this. It
was decided that as tests for the same purpose were to be carried
through at the t^rison Farm they would endeavour to co-operate with
Mr. Sharp there, and make the necessary tests for him.

A report on the Prison Farm from Mr. Palache showed satisfactory
work being done, good practical results, and a profit on the working

60 far.

On the motion of Mr. Cork it was resolved to see if the blood at
present wasted at the slaughter bouse could not be dried and utilized
as a fertilizer, if the quantity was enough.

Mr. Olivier moved that the Board express their appreciation of Mr^
Buttenshaw's services as Secretary for the period he had acted. Mr,
de Mercado seconded and this was directed to be minuted.

FOUR RECENTLY DESURIBED FERNS FROM

JAMAICA.

By Lucien Marci s Underwood, Ph. D.
Professor of liotany, Columbia University, New York.

In preparing a monograph of the ferns of all North America, we
have had occasion to compare various Jamaican ferns with the types of
species to which they have been referred and have found that in several
cases they differ specifically. For example, one of the moonworts
which is quite widely distributed in the region just above Cinchona
was referred by Mr. Jenman to Botrychium ternattim. B. ternatum
was described in 1784 from Japan, and is a very different plant from
the one growing in Jamaica and from the various species from other
countries which have been referred to it. The Jamaican plant therefore

137

a^equired a new name and we have called it B. Jenmani. In a similar
way the Jamaican plant which Mr. Jenman referred to B. Virginainurrtj
is very distinct from that species which is very common in the north-
.ern United States and appears occasionally in the southern States as
far as Florida. It has a very marked biological character of retaining
its leaf of one season (and sometimes an earlier leaf also) until the
maturity of the sporophyll of the succeeding season For this reason
we have named it B. dichronum. Two spBcies of Dancea also require
new names as noted in our recent revision of that genus.

The original descriptions of these four species are quoted below :

Botrychium Jenmani, TJnderw. Fern Bull. 8 : 59. 1900.

Root fleshy, from a short axis I-2cm. long ; sterile lamina separa-
"ting at a height of l-2cm. and usually at or below the surface of the
ground ; leaf stalf 2.5-4cm. ilong, flesh coloured or pinkish ; lamina
3-12cm. wide, 2.5-9cm. high, composed of a central bipinnatifid por-
-tion, and two similar but smaller lateral ones which take their origin
alternately at distances varying from 5-15mm. ; lower lateral division,
the larger with 4-6 lateral pinnules, each composed of 3-5 oval seg-
ments with finely crenate margins ; venation indistinct except in
younger laminae : sporophylls 12-2 2cm. long, including the rather
compact mostly tripinnate panicle.

This species is comparatively common above Cinchoaa growing
among bushes and along trails.

Botrychium dichronum, Underw. Bull. Torrey Club, 30 : 45. 1903.

A moderately tall plant, allied to B. Virginianum, with sessile ster-
ile lamina and presistent leaf of the preceding year. Roots fleshy :
stem 15-20cm. long, smooth : sterile lamina broadly triangular, 20cm.
wide, 15cm. long, tripinnatifid with about five pairs of nearly opposite
gradually diminishing pinnae, the lowermost with longer pinnules on the
outer side and inclined forward at an angle ; pinnules 8-10 on each
side of a winged rachis, alternate, cut nearly to the midrib into 6-10
segments set at an angle of 4")° with the rachis, the lower ones slightly
narrowed at the base, and 3-5 toothed at the apex, all gradually
simpler towards the apex of the lamina : panicle triangular, spreading,
3cm. or more long on a slender stalk 4cm. or more long, 2-3 pinnate.

This plant is quite frequent in the region above Cinchona and
Morce's Gap extending up on John Crow Peak and Blue Mountain.

A fine series of specimens is in the Herbarium of the Department of
Public Gardens, Jamaica. Since seeing the plant in the field we find
it attains a larger size than the original description indicates.

Danaea Jamaicensis, Underw. Bull. Torrey Club, 29 : 675. 1902,

A low, coarse plant with acuminate sterile pinnae and narrow
pointed pinnae on the sporophylls Rootstock unknown; stipes pale,
18-24cm. long, with 2-4 nodes; sterile leaves with a terminal and
11-12 pairs of pinnae, about 2cra. apart except the lowest pair which
is smaller, 10-14cm. long, 1.7-1. 9cm. wide, tapering rather abruptly
into a slender deeply serrate acuminate point; veins mostly forked, the
intercostal spaces about 12-14 to 1 cm. (maasured above the furcations) ;
sporophylls with about 8-12 pairs of pinnae, about 2 cm apart, short-
stalked, 5-7cm. long, 5-7nim. wide, obtuse at base and tapering at
.apex ; rachis somewhat alate above.

This appears to be the species confused by Jenmxi with D. std'

1^8

nopht/Ua witli ■whicli it has little in common, while both the Kew spe-
cimens enumerated above are placed under 1). Moritziana. D. Morit-
siana is from C olumbia and has the pinnae of the sterile leaf quite
different in shape, tapering toward the cuneate base and much more
gradually toward the apex; intercostal spaces 16-17 to 1 cm.

Danaea Jenmani, Underw. Bull. Torrey Club, 29 : 677. 1902.

Rootstock (as far as known) horizontal, rather stout; stipes brown
scurfy, those of sterile )eaf 10-11 cm, long, usually with one node; pin-
nae 7-9 pai) s, opposite, 2-3cm. apart, obtuse at base with a short pedicel,
4.5-6cm. long by 1.8cm. wide, abruptly short-pointed, the margin
more or less serrulate at the apex ; rachis scurfy, more or less alate ;
veins mostly forked, the intercostal spaces about 12 to 1 cm above the
furcations ; basil and terminal pairs of pinnae shorter than the others;
sporophylls with about 11 pairs of pinnae, 5-8mm. apart, 3 cm. longy
5mm. wide, mostly blunt and short-stalked.

This is the species called D. alata by Jenman, and although he caller
it " frequent" in Jamaica it appears to be very rare in collections. We
have found it to be frequent near Mabess River.

CUBAN USES OF THE ROYAL PALM.

By William Palmer.

The royal palm {Oreodoxa regia) is a widely distributed tree
throughout Cuba, and it is truly the tropical feature of the landscape.
In the former more highly cultivated areas they largely occupy the^
hedgerows, thus being arranged in double rows along the roadways,
end in single rows along the dividing lines. 1 his arrangement is
largely accidental, cultivation compelling the absence of the young^
plants from the fields, and the hedgerows offering a secluded habitat until
they are ttrong enough to need no shelter. In other places the fre-
quent fires have destroyed the trees on the higher areas, so that one
sees them oftenest along the banks ot the wa' ercourses. The tree is a
noble one, tnd occurs everywhere except among the pines of the
mountains. To the simple Cubans living remote from modern civili-
zation, it furnishes many of his necei-sities, most of which perhaps are
contained in tue following list.

Posts. — Trees are felled and alb wed to lie for a considerable time
before they are cut ixto lengths and split.

Fences. — These are made of strips of the wood tied upright to cross-
pieces and close together^ so that chickens cannot get through.

Column*. — 'Ihey are used as the main supports of a house, ihe upper
portion of the trunk being used.

Boards. — When the interior of a felled tree is rotted, it can readily
be split and the pieces trimmed to the required length and width,
which is necessarily narrow.

Coffee mortars. — Most palms are somewhat swollen at about one-
third of their length from the ground: this is cut out for at out the
height of a table, the wider eno is hollowed out, tnd with a pestle of
similar or different wood, forms a mortar and pestle which is used to
crush the roasted coffee beans. When not in use, the hollow may
h^ Id the family supply of beans and it is always handy to support the
iamily wash-tub a shallow broad article made often ol the same wood.-

139

House icalls. — The basal part of the leaf stalk is a broad long woody-
portion which clasps the trunk for its whole length and whose lower
end leaves a narrow horizontal scar where it was attached to the trunk.
These fall with the leaf, and are dampened and flattened by weights.
Bundles of these leaf bases are an article of sule in places where the
palms are scarce, and they may be seen piled up in stores for sale.
They are trimmed and tied to the framework of the house. They are
placed in two rows, the side of one overlapping another and the lower
ends of the upper row overlapping the lower row. They also serve to
cover anything, and not unfrequently are used as tables.

Rain, Coats. — One rainy afternoon several Cubans came to our camp
dressed in coats made of the green (freshly fallen) stalk. A hole had
been cut out of the centre through which the head was thrust, and the
two halves bent so as to cover the front and back. A string torn o£E
the edge of the same piece was used to tie it round the waist, the
whole making a peculiar but efficient coat of mail.

Boxes and Baskets. — With a sharp knife which all Cubans carry, a
few minutes suffices to make one of these leaf bases into a receptacle
capable of holding water, vegetables, or similar things. Cuban tobacco
is always bound up and shipped from the plantation in a large bundle
wrapped in the bases of the leaf stalks.

Thatch. — All Cuban houses outside of the towns have their roofs
covered thickly with thatch made from the long leaves of the palm.
It is usually cut intj two or three parts, and tied to the pole rafters
with palm leaf string.

String and Rope. — Either split parts of the leaf base or the division
of the leaf are used, either twisted or not. No nails are used in the
construction of the houses — the poles, thatch and siding being tied on.

Canes. — A strip of the wood worked round and polished, makes a
presentable cane.

Brooms. — The flower stalk and its divisions is a large affair. With
the berries off, it is bound about its centre, and the numerous small
twigs are ready for work. It is a common article of every Cuban
house, and the earth, floors and surroundings are kept well swept.

Chicken and Fig Feed. — The bunches of berries are carefully cut off
and lowered by a palm leaf rope to the ground, and then laid across
the chicken or pig pen to be eaten as desired.

Paper. '-The inside layer of the base of the leaf stalk is very fine
aod white, and is used for writing purposes,

Jf^ine. — This is made from the berries when in a green state. A
gun-shot fired into a bunch of fruit is sure to res i; It in a shower of
juice. Woodpeckers are fond of this and will tap the berries or the
base of the fresh leaf stalk and sip the juice.

Nest of Woodpeckers.— 'The large Cuban woodpecker always excav-
ates a large hole about two-thirds up the trunk of a live tree, and rears
its young in the cavity.

Jiood. — When a tree is felled, the mass of embryo leaves are cut out
forming a lump about 18 inches long by 6-8 inches in diameter, of
beautilul creamy whiteness.

Without the royal palm the people of Cuba would be poor indeed.
With the coco-nut, banana, sweet potato and palm, they are able to
exist comfortably with a mild climate. — {Plant World.)

140

IRRIGATION.

ByF.H. Newell*

While methods of conserving and conducting water have been im-
proved under the stimulus of modern invention, the application of
water to the soil has been left to experience gained largely by accident
and through failure. There is great need of long-continued systematic
study and acquisition of knowledge concerning the actual effect which
the water has upon the soil and upon the plants. We can see the ulti-
mate result, but have only a vague conception of the steps by which
this result is produced.

Most of the farmers practising irrigation in the United States use
quantities of water far in excess of those theoretically demanded or
actually beneficial to the crops. This is in line with the general prodi-
gality of pioneer life, and with the habits of shiftlessness so easily ac-
quired where an abundant supply of water can be had. It is so much
easier to open the ditches and let the water flow freely than it is to
guard and guide each tiny rill, that for economy of time and labour,
if not from actual indolence, the irrigator is apt to let the water go its
own way.

It is sometimes stated that irrigation is a lazy man's way of culti-
vation. The reverse is the case wherever the best results are obtained.
Irrigation, properly conducted, means intensive farming and applica-
tion of water with great care, followed by thorough cultivation of the
moistened soil.

Different plants require different amounts of water. Some are
satisfied with a very little. Others require a great deal, and cannot
do without it. Still others are relatively indifferent as to whether
much or little water is applied; they have the habit of adjusting
themselves to circumstances. Each crop therefore has different needs,
and the practice of irrigation must vary accordingly.

It is not merely the character of the plant which has to be consi-
dered, but also the quality of the soil. Certain soils receive and trans-
mit water with great rapidity, — such, for example, as sand and gravel.
Others, like clay, take water slowly and hold it with great tenacity.
Thus the manner and time of irrigating certain plants will vary accord-
ing to the ability of the soil to hold and supply water as needed. If
the moisture escapes rapidly, as from sand, the plant after a few days
is not able to receive enough and begins to droop. On the other hand
if the soil is very compact and the water is held from escaping, the soil
may become water-logged, air cannot penetrate the interstices, and the
plant suffers from drowning.

There is still another factor in the production of crops which must

be considered besides sunshine, soil, and water. This is the low order

of vegetable Kfe known as nitrifying organisms. These, in the presence

of air and moisture, manufacture food for the plant and are its servants

£n preparing material upon which it*'thrives. A certain amount of

*JFrom " Irrigation in Unitei States", by F. H. N"ewell, Hydraulic Engiaear and
Chief of the . .ision of Hydrography of the U. S. Geological Survey Depirtiueat.

141

water is needed for these nitrif \ ing organisms, but, on the other hand,
too much water stagnates and destroys them. Thus it is that there is
a very delicate adjustment to be preserved in respect to the amount of
moisture in order to procure the best results. These conditions the
successful irrigator learns by experiment and failure, and unconsciously
follows certain rules which he is usually unable to put into words.

There has been very little progress in the practice of irrigation from
the methods of ancient times. This is due largely to the fact that the
men who are now bringing new lands under ditch have for the most part
received their training as farmers in humid regions, and find it difficult
to unlearn many of the facts which they regard as fundamental, and
to reverse the habits of half a lifetime. They hesitate to adopt the
methods of the Indians and Mexicans, despising these as crude or
childish. Nevertheless these primitive peoples have, through the expe-
rience of generations, acquired certain ways which are worthy of study,
particularly in the direction of using the smallest possible amount of
water in oases on the desert. When they have plenty of water, the
Mexicans use it wastef ully ; but where the amount is extremely limited,
some of them, particularly the agricultural Indians of the South-west,
have acquired the art of utilising every drop. Even the drippings
from the family water jar are arranged to fall upon a growing plant,
and the moist spots are carefully guarded for the growing of corn or
beans.

The amount of water required for raising crops varies according to
soil and other conditions. The plant itself needs a certain minimum
supply in order to receive and assimilate its food and to keep up trans-
piration. A far larger quantity is required to saturate the surround-
ing soil to such a degree that the vitalising processes can continue.
The soil is constantly losing water by evaporation and by seepage, so
that the amount which the plant takes from it is relatively smaUJ
Nevertheless, the moisture must be maintained within narrow limits
in order to produce the most favourable conditions of plant growth.

Experiments have been made to determine exactly how much water is
needed in order to keep the soil in proper condition for plants of different
character. Among the most important investigations are those by
Professor F. H. King, who has found by direct measurement that from
300 to 500 pounds of water are required for each pound of dry mat-
ter produced ; in other words, for each ton of hay raised upon an acre,
300 to 500 tons of water must be furnished either by rainfall or by
artificial means.

Water covering an acre 1 inch in depth weighs about 113 tons, and
to produce one ton of hay the depth of water required is approximately
from 3 to 5 inches. It is necessary to furnish at least this amount,
and sometimes several times as much, in order to produce a crop.
The actual amount used in producing 5 tons of barley hay to the acre
has been about 20 inches in depth. Much depends upon the permea-
bility of the soil, and its ability to hold water.

The quantity of water used in irrigation is usually stated in one of
two ways— either (1) in terms of depth of water on the surface, or
(2) in quantities of flowing water through the irrigating season. The
first method is preferable, since it is susceptible of mora definite con-
sideration, and is also more convenient for comparison with figures for

142

rainfall, which are given in inches of depth. In the humid regions
rainfall is usually from 3 to 4 inches per month during the crop
season. In the arid region, where the sunlight is more continuous and
the evaporation greater, there should be, for the ordinary crops at least
enough water during the growing season to cover the ground from 4
to 6 inches in depth each month. Carefully tilled orchards have been
maintained on far less. In Arizona, where the crop season is longest,
being practically continuous throughout the year, twice as much water
is needed as in Montana, where the crop season is short and the evapo-
ration is less.

The second method of stating the quantities necessary for irrigation
is of convenience when considering a stream upon which there is no
storage. It is frequently estimated that one cubic foot per second, or
second-foot, flowing through an irrigating season of ninety days, will
irrigate 100 acres. One second-foot will cover an acre nearly 2 feet
deep during twenty-four hours, and in ninety days it will cover 180 acres
1 foot in depth, or 100 acres to a depth of 1*8 foot, or 21-6 inches. This
is equivalent to a depth of water of a little over 7 inches per month.
In several of the States, laws or regulations have been made to the effect
that in apportioning water not less than 66f acres shall be allowed to
the second-foot of continuous flow. This is extremely liberal, and
permits extravagant use of water.

"When the ground is first irrigated, enormous quantities of water
must sometimes be used in order to saturate the subsoil. It has fre-
quently happened that, during the first year or two, a quantity of
water which would cover the ground to a depth of 20 to 10 feet has been
turned upon the surface. Frequently for several years an amount
equal to a depth of 5 feet or more per annum is thus employed.
Gradually, however, the dry soil is filled, and, as stated in another
place, the water table is raised nearer the surface, less and less water
being needed.

The farmers, being accustomed to the use of large quantities of
water, often find it exceedingly difficult to get along with less, and
continue to use excessive amounts, often to their own disadvantage.
They are actuated in part by the consideration that, having paid for
the use of the water, they are entitled to a certain quantity, and fear
that if they do not take all of this, their claim to it may be disputed.
Some of them actually waste water to their own detriment from the
mistaken belief that in so doing they are establishing a perpetual right
to certain quantities.

With the gradual development of the country, and the bringing of
more and more land under ditches, the need for water increases, and
equity demands that no irrigator shall take more than he can put to
beneficial use. Flowing water must be considered as a common fund,
subject to beneficial use by individuals according to orderly rules, each
man taking only the amount he can employ to advantage. Under any
other theory full development of arid regions is impossible.

It is instructive in this connection to know what is the least amount
of water which has been used with success. To learn this, it is necces-
sary to go to south California, where the supply of water is least,
relative to the demand made upon it, and the economy is correspond-
ingly greatest. Successive years of deficient rainfall in California

4rom 1897 to 1900, while working mmy hardships, served to prove
ihat with careful cultivation, crops, orchards, and vineyards could be
maintained on a very small amount of water. In some cases an
amount not exceeding 6 inches in depth of irrigation water was applied
durino- the year, this being conducted directly to the plants, and the
ground kept caref ally tilled and free from weeds. ^

During these times of drought some fruits, as, for example, grapes,
apples, olives, peaches, and apricots, were riised without irrigation,
but a most thorough cultivation was practised. Some fruitgrowers
insist that, in the case of grapes, for example, the quality is better
when raised without artificially applying water, although the quantity
is less. It has been stated that in raisin-making there is less contrast
than might be expected bet A^een the irrigated and non-irrigated vine-
yards, for although the yield of grapes raised by wataring is far heavier
yet after drying the difference is not so marked. Whmt and barley,
also, according to some farmers, make a better hay when cultivated dry,
but the weight is less Shade trees, sueh, for example, as the
eucalyptus or Australian blue-gum, ths catalpa. mulberry, and acacia,
grow without water artificially applied, but do no; reach the extraordi-
nary development that they do when near irrigating ditches. It is
almost useless to attempt to raise the citrus fruits without plenty of
water.

The quantity of water necessary to irrigate an acre, as estimated
by various water companies in southern California, ranges from 1
miner's inch to 5 acres, to 1 miner's inch to 10 acres, the miner's inch
in this connection being defined as a quantity equalling 12,960 t^allons
in twenty-four hours, or almost exactly 0.02 second-foot, this being the
amount which has been delivered under a 4-inch head measured from
the centre of the opening. Under this assumption 1 second-foot
should irrigate from 250 to 500 acres. This is on the basis of deliver-
ing the water in pipes or cemented channels in the immediate vicinity
of the trees or vines to be irrigated.

If it is assumed that 1 miner's inch is allowei for 10 acres, or 1
second-foot for 500 acres, this quantity of water flowing from May to
October inclusive, will cover the ground to a depth of a little over
seven-tenths of a foot, or 8.8 inches, a quantity which, with the care
and cultivation usually employed, has been found to be sufficient for
some orchards. Mr. W. Irving, Chief Engineer of the Gage Canal,
Riverside, California, states that for the year ending September 30,
1899, water ranging in depth from 1.78 to 2.48 feet was used in addi-
tion to tha rainfall of 47 foot. This was less than the usual quantity
economy being enforced hj shortage of supply.

The metiod of applying water governs to a large extent the
amount used. In the case of lucerne, flooding is usually practised ;
with small grains in most parts of the West the water is run in fur-
rows ; while in the case ot orchards the water is sometimes applied
directly to each tree. In this case a little earth basin, aboat 6 feet or
more across and 6 inches deep, is formed around each tree and partially
filled with water; The better way, however, is that of running water
in furrows, four or five of these iteing ploughed between each two
rows of trees. The water is applied very slowly, several days being

144

spent in watering 5 acres, and when dry the ground is thoroughly^
cultivated.

The annual charges for water by the acre in southern California,
■where this economy of water is practised, have been es low as $d, and
from this rising to $6 or more per acre. In ihe case of the San Diego
Flume Company, it is stated that water was sold for $600, per miner's
inch, with an annual charge or rental of $60, 1 miner's inch being-
considered sufficient for from 10 to 20 acres. The annual charge for
water, taking the arid region as a whole, has averaged by States from
60 cents to §2.00 per acre, or $1.25 (5s. 2^d.) per acre for the entire
country.

The conditions in southern Cttlifornia, while they may be con-
eidered as exceptional, yet indicate the limiting or ideal conditions of
eccnomical use of water. For good farming in other parts of the arid
region, 12 inches of water in depth during the crop season should be
sufficient, except in the case of lucerne and other forms of forage
which are cut a number (f limes, when at least from 4 inches to 6-
inches should usually be given to a cutting. As previously stated the
character of the soil, the temperat^^re, and the wind movement intro-
duce so many conditions that breed statements of this kind are merely
suggestive and not to be followtd as rules.

Irrigation is usually carried on during the daytime, and it is un^
usual lor water to be applied during the night, other than to arrange
the head gttes and allow the water to flow to certain portions of the
field. In times of Ecai city, however, when water can be had only at
certain hours, night irrigation must be carried on, and the water care-
fully applied, with as much skill as possible in the darkness. Night
irrigation, although possessing disadvantages, has many advocates.
The air being cooler, excessive evaporation is checked, there is less loss
and consequently more economy in use and the plants are not so sud-
denly chilled as during the heat of the day when cold water is run
upon the fields; and the proportional amount cf water received during
the night is often greater than during the daytime, and the charge of
cost is correspondingly less; so that, for economy in various directions
night irrigation is sometimes preferred.

LOCAL DEPOSITS OF BAT GUANO.

By H. H. Cousins, M.A., F.C.S., Government Analytical and
i Agricultural Chemist.

It has long been tnown that there are in Jamaica corsiderable ac-
cumulations of Bat Guano in caves and other sheltered places where
these animals congregate. A good deal has been used in the past
upon various estates in the island, and recently some commercial en-
quiry has arisen as to the possibility of an export trade in this mate-
rial with the United States.

Some 35 difi^erent samples of ' Cave Earth' and 'Bat Guano' have
been analysed at various times at the Government Laboratory by*
Messrs. Bowrey, Watts and the writer.

145

These results are here tabulated.to indicate the great variations that
occur in the manurial value of Bat Guano, dependent upon the condi-
tions under which it has been produced.

Analyses of Jamaica Bat Guanos.

Organic

No.

Analyst.

Moisture.

Matter.

60
O

S-l

-(J

Phosph
Acid.

Potash.

Bowrey

30.9

12.8

2.3

0.7

• • •

23.0

29.8

3.5

0.8

« • o

33.6

39.9

5.3

0.5

«>■•

4 to 8

• • •

0.9 to 7.4

• • •

17.4

57.1

5.5

4.4

• • »

((

42.8

28.2

2.1

8.5

1.3

((

19.9

72.3

9.3

2.8

1 3

19.6

57.9

10.5

5.7

1.7

20.1

43.3

7.6

10.1

1.5

((

8.6

38.9

2.6

13.8

0.9

41.0

18.6

2.3

11.2

• ■ •

((

45.9

39.6

7,6

3.5

• • •

((

37.3

15 6

• • •

9.8

• • •

((

48.9

35.0

...

4.8

• • •

45.2

30.2

7.7

• • •

((

45.2

21.9

• • •

8.0

•-• •

33.3

21.0

...

9.6

• • •

48.3

46.6

8.9

2.2

0.8

35 6

48,7

5.2

2.8

1.9

26.0

42.9

2.6

7.7

1.6

61.9

27.3

1.4

1.9

0.3

Watts

28.4

43.9

4.9

5.6

4.7

((

27.3

28.7

2.9

4.8

2.1

((

18,6

20.6

1.2

7.5

1.1

Cousins

* • •

• • •

0.2

10.2

• • •

((

• • •

. . •

2.L

0.9

• • •

((

35.8

47.6

7.6

5.1

1.4

35.0

53.3

8.8

2.2

0.5

24.5

39.1

5.6

2.3

35.4

18.0

1.1

2.3

0.4

36.1

23.3

1.3
4.5

4,0
5.3

0.6

Average

• • •

30.9

33.4

1.3

Sample No. 11 represents the dried excrement of insectivorous bats
of recent origin. This is marked by a high percentage of Nitrogen.
Such a material should be worth about £6 per ton at current prices.

The commercial value of this product is chiefly based upon the con-

. 146

-tent of nitrogen and this can bnW attain a high standard where the
.deposit is protected from the action of rain and of excessive moisture.
Samples below 2 ^ of Nitrogen could scarcely be handled economically
in Jamaica for local sale. For export a minimum of at least 6 9^ of
Nitrogen would be necessary to cover expenses and make the sales re-
munerative to the owner of the deposit

Sample 29 represents a deposit that has been freely washed by rain.
It contains no more nitrogen than an average Jamaica soil, while the
Phosphoric Acid is not sufficiently high to warrant its use as a source
«f Phosphates. No. 31 (from St. Thomas) represents a large deposit of
high class Bat-guano that has been found to be an excellent fertiliser
for sugar cane. This was valued at £4 per ton to the buyer allowing
for 25 Yo latitude.

Samples 32-35 are the successive layers of a large cave deposit in St.
Catherine of which No. 32 is the upper and richer layer. The amount
of moisture in these deposits is, for export, excessive and should be re-
duced to 10 ^ by drying the material in the sun. A saving of 25 96
in the bulk of the material could then be effected. Owners of caves
are warned not to base their calculations upon the analysis of the top-
layer only, since a gradational loss in nitrogenous materials is to be
expected as the deeper layers of the deposit are drawn upon. In the
case mentioned above the owner decided not to ship the deposit but to
seek a local market for it.

Bat-Guano is, as the average figures show, a fairly well balanced
manure. The better samples are principally nitrogenous in character.
Considering the richness of many Jamaican soils in Phosphoric Acid, a
good grade of Bat-Gruano should prove an excellent fertiliser for Sugar
Cane or Bananas ; on some soils it would be well to fortify it with Potash
salts. In valuing a Bat Guano, I would suggest 9s. for each per cent.
.of Nitr 'gen per ton, 3s. for each per cent of Phosphoric Acid and 4s.
for each per cent, of Potash per ton.

Thus sample 32 would be valued as follows :

Nitrogen 8-8 per cent at 9s. = 79s. Od

Phosphoric Acid 2-2 per cent at 3s. = 6s. 6d.

Potash 5 per cent at 4s. ^ 2s.

Total 87s. 6d

The "aveiagt" of all the samples iiives the following valuation
Nitrogen 4*5 per cent ut Ws. = 4Us. 6d.

Phosphoric Acid 5'3 per cent ut 3s. = 16s.

Potash 1-3 per cent at 4s. = 5s.

Value per Ton 61s. 6d

This estimate is based upon the current unit values of fertilisers deli-
vered free ai Kingston. I have deducted 25 per cent from the valua-^
tion of the Nitrogen to allow for 'latitude' or variability in the samples
and for the inert properties of some of the nitrogenous constituents.
These values represent what, in my opinion, a planter would be
justified in paying for a Bat-Guano for use on his estate.

147

SOME LOCAL REFUSE MANURES.

By H. H. Cousins, M.A„ F.C.S.

In an agricultural community it behoves everyone to seek a useful
application for any refuse materials capable of increasing the fertility
of the soil. Some examples of such products that have been recently
referred to the Government Laboratory for an opinion as to their value
are here given : —

(1) Pond Mud.

This represents the mud cleared out of a pond on a sugar estate in
Trelawny. On analysis it gave the following results : —

Per Cent.
Moisture ... 5.81

Combined water and organic matter 15 . 72

Carbonate of Lime ... 1 . 18

Phosphoric Acid ... 1.60

Equal to Phosphate of Lime 3 . 49

Potash ... 0.09

Nitrogen ... 0.30

This mud is rich in Phosphates, deficient in Potash and fairly rich,
in Nitrogen. It should be of benefit to the soil on the estate if spread
and worked in. The benefits arising from its use would be due as
much to its mechanical properties as to its chemical composition.

(2) Banana trash ash.

Large quantities of Banana trash are collected at certain centres on
the Pi-ailway where Bananas are unloaded. A sample of the ashes ob-
tained by burning the accumulated heaps of this trash gave the follow-
ing results on analysis : —

Per cent.
Potash ... 6*86

Phosphoric Acid ... 3"23

equal to Phosphate of Lime ... 7 07

The estimated value of this is about £2 per ton. There are some
floils in the island markedly deficient in Potash, to which this ash
should be of the greatest benefit. As an illustration of such a soil, an
analysis is here given of a property in Portland where Bananas have
failed entirely.

The analysis indicates a soil of excellent quality in all respects ex-
cept that of Potash which is decidely below the normal.

Soil Analysis.

Reference Number — 64.

-Source Details — Surface Soil from a property in Portland where Ba-
nanas have entirely failed.
Depth of Sample — 9 inches.

- 148

PhY!

5ICAL Analysis

Per Cent.

stones

Nil

Gravel

2. 21-)

Sand

5.15

Fine Sand

30.54 Fine

Silt

51.07 ^Earth#

Agricultural f Fine Silt
Clay. t ^lay

1 21/ ^-^5

Moisture

9.82^

Total

100.00

Per Cent.

Retentive Power for water

• ••

64.0*»*

Chemical Analysis.

(Soil passed through 3 m.m, sieve dried at lOOo C.)
Insoluble Matter
Soluble in Hydrochloric Acid ...
(^Potash
! Lime
Phosphoric Acid
Carbonic Acid as ")
j^Carbonate of Lime J
Combined Water and organic matter
Humus (soluble in A.mmonia)
Nitrogen
Hygroscopic Moisture ...

28 470

71 . 530***
0.175*
U.782**
1.138****

1.250**

19.710***
5.290***
0.369***

10.670***

Fertility Analysis.

Available Potash
Available Phosphoric Acid

Observations.

0.006*
0.035****

This soil consists almost entirely of silt and fine sand, witli just a*
trace of clay. It is free-draining, and yet has a high absorptive power
for water. In all these respects an excellent soil.

The Chemical Analysis shows an enormous proportion of Phosphoric
Acid, of which a large amount is available for present use. The Ni-
trogen and Humus are both high, indicating a very rich condition of
soil. The Carbonate of Lime is adequate. The Potash is rather low
and the Available Potash so low that I conclude that this factor limits
the productive capacity of a soil that is otherwise in a state of exceed-
ingly high potential fertility.

I recommend a trial of

(1) Banana Trash Ash from Railway, 1 ton per acre.

(2) Wood ashes, 2 tons per acre.

(3) Sulphate of Potash, 2 cwt. per acre.

(3) Sheep Manure.
In England Sheep manure is rarely collected in bulk, since the sheep
are fed at large over grass lands or folded over the roots. In the

♦Below normal. ♦♦Normal. ♦♦♦High. ****Very high.

149

•tropics sheep are housed or sheltered and considerable accumulations of
sheep manure are thus brought about.

If carefully managed, this manure is of high fertilising quality and
is rightly appreciated by sugar-planters for use on exhausted soils.

An analysis of a sample from a pen in Westmoreland is given as an
illustration of the relative value of this material.

^Analysis and Report on a sample of Sheep Manure from Westmoreland.
" This sample contains . —

Moisture ... 29.86 per cent.

Organic matter ... *56-58 "

Sand and Clay ... 4-45

Mineral Salts ... 9-11

containing —

(1) Phosphoric Acid ... 1*11 ) .,
equal to Phosphate of Lime ... 2*41 J

(2) Water soluble Potash ... 1-06 "

(3) ^containing Nitrogen ... 2.71 \ <<
equal to Ammonia ... 3'29 J

Approximate weight per Bushel 36 lbs.
Mechanical condition— Fairly dry and friable.
J. value it as follows : —

Nitrogen 2-71 </o @ 12s. ... 32s. 4d.

Phosphoric Acid (soluable) I'll ^ @ 2/9 38. Od.

Poiash 1-06 </o Q 5s. ... 5s. 3d.

40s. 7d.

This manure is therefore worth 40s. 7d, per English ton or roughly
8d. per bushel of 36 lbs. at current value for fertilizers. (1901)"

(4) The Kingston City refme.

A large accumulation of the miscellaneous refuse of Kingston has
been localised through the institution of a Deposit Ground.

An analysis was recently made at the request of His Worship the
Mayor and a valuation at current fertiliser rates has been made. I
estimate that it is worth about 12s. per ton f. o. r. Kingston. This
leaves, of course, but a small margin for the cost of handling. This
deposit could only be economically used within a limited range of
Kingston, and would only be of commerial advantage upon an ex-
hausted soil or a hungry soil under irrigation conditions.

Report on Analysis of Sample City Refuse from Deposit Ground.

The samples were taken with a soil-auger and mixed, 20 per cent,
.consisted of coarse stones and refuse of no manurial value. The resi-
,dual 80 per cent, gave the following results : —

Per cent.
Moisture ... 5.15

Volatile and organic matter 16.10*

Mineral matter ... 78.75**

Total ... 110.00

' 150

Yalue per ioni.

1. *Containing Nitrogen ... 0.735 "I y,g

Equal to Ammonia 0.893 J '

2. **Containing Phosphoric Acid 2.447) g.

Equal to Phosphate of Lime 5.351 J

3. Potash ... 0.360 1/6
Lime ... 5.643

Total value per ton of fine portions 17/

Estimated value F.O.R. Kingston = 12/ per ton.

HISTORICAL NOTES ON ECONOMIC PLANTS Ilf

JAMAICA.

V. Tea.

The China Tea tree seems to have been first introduced into Jamaica
in the year 1771 by a Mr. Baker under the name of the Bohea Tea
Tree (Black Tea, Thea Bohea). At that time, and for long after, it
•was erroneously supposed that Green Tea was the product of another
species, Thea viri'iis, and a plant of this was brought to the Island by
the first Island Botanist, Dr. Thomas Clarke in 1775, and planted in
the first Government Botanic Garden at Enfield, near the present
Gordon Town. From these two plants, others were propagated for Mr.
W alien's g^den at Cold Spring, and for Mr. Hinton East's garden
adjoining Enfield. Both plants are mentioned by Dr. Broughton in
his "Hortus Eastensis" as growing in Mr East's Garden in 1793.

Dr. James Macfadyen, in 1837, states in his flora of Jsimaica that —

"The tea plant was introduced into the garden at Coldspring by the
late M. Wallen, Esq. The house had for many years fallen into decay
and the garden was neglected and allowed to grow up into weeds.
Notwithstanding this, on clearing the land, for the purpose of planting
it in coifee, about two years ago, the Tea trees were found to have
survived, and young plants to have grown up. They are now in a
very thriving condition, flowering and perfecting their seeds; and a
supply of young plants may at any time be procured."

Mr. John MacLean, the late owner of Cold Spring showed the pre-
sent Director of Public Gardens in the year 1887 Tea trees in Wallen's
old garden, which after Dr. Macfadyen's time had again been overgrown
and completely covered with bush, until disinterred by Mr. MacLean.
Their condition shuwed that at thai elevation they had come to stay,
and were perfectly able to hold their own against, native vegetation.

Kew Gardens, an establishment which has done so much for the
Colonies in introducing new plants and affording scientific information
on cultural products, sent out plants of Assam Tea as early as 1849-50
to Mr. Nathaniel Wilson, Island Botanist, at the Bath Garden.

Mr. Robt. Thomson in his Annual Report for 1868, says :

" A Ward case of Assam Tea, containing upward of six hundred
plants arrived in excellent condition from India, via the Colonial
Office."

Again in 1869, " Assam Tea.— Owing to the dry seasons in the
early part of the year these plants were retained in pots, so that their

151

progress has been considerably delayed. Half an acre containing
eight hundred plants, was planted out in August at a height of a little
over four thousand feet at the Cinchona Plantation. The propagation
of this plant from cuttings will be carried on during 1870 in order to
increase the area cultivated to two acres."

Further, " The eight hundred plants of tea planted out in August
1869, at the Cinchona Plantation are in a vigorous state of health, in-
deed they are quite equal in this respect to the finest coffee plants of
the same age 1 have witnessed anywhere.

*' The plants now range from three to five feet in height, have re-
cently blossomed freely, and have a good crop of seeds set, from which
they can be propagated to a large extent in a few months. There are
several distinct varieties among these plants, which like the Cinchona^
may be turned to account by selecting and adapting them to the altered
circumstances of climate. The necessary conditions of altitude, soil
and continuous moisture for the successful cultivation of this great
staple commodity, are obtainable over a vast extent of the hilly dis-
tricts, and, considering the favourable geographical position of Ja-
maica together with the desirability of introducing new products, I
would submit to the favourable consideration of the Government the
advisability of establishing an experimental plantation of ten acres."
(Eeport, 1870-1871.)

In 1872-73 experiments in making tea were made :
"The eight hundred plants of this valuable variety of Tea that were
planted at the Cinchona Plantation four years ago have grown with
great luxuriance, and have already become naturalized, consequently
the plant can be increased to any extent. Samples of Tea of superior
quality have been manipulated by a Coolie who had been employed in
the Assam Plantations."

Again in 1878-74, we find : '" Several lbs. of the !Assam variety of
this plant were prepared by a Coolie who had some knowledge of the
process; these samples proved of tair quality. More skilled manipula-
tion is, however, necessary to produce Tea of good quality. This plant
could now be propagated to any extent, and it grows with the greatest
luxuriance."

In 1874-75, "Fair samples of the Assam variety of Tea have been
manipulated. No plant in the island grows with more luxuriance and
facility than this, and I see no reason why it could not be extensively
grown. For example, Jamaica has maintained her position in the
markets of the world with regard to Coffee, notwithstanding the al-
most universal competition. Many thousands of acres of land on the
slopes of the Blue Mountain Range are admirably adapted to this pro-
duct, and this land is quite unsuited for Coffee culture owing to its
being too humid. The value of the Tea exported from Calcutta to
Europe has increased in ten years fi'om a quarter of a million to two
millions of pounds sterling."

In a '* Report on the Jamaica Collection of Products at the Inter-
national Exhibition at Philadelphia, 1876", Mr. Thomson writes: — •
"J he Judges at the Exhibition considered the Tea of good quality and
accordingly awarded a medal for same."

In December, 1883, Dr. Morris, at that time Director of -Public

^152

•Gardens and Plantations, addressed a letter on this subject to Govern-
ment, as follows : —

" The small plantation of Tea, established at aa elevation of 5,300
feet near the Latimer fields of the Government Cinchona Plantations,
is in a thriving state as regards the growth of the plants, many of
which are from 9 feet to 12 feet high. With the exception of some
email samples of Tea prepared for exhibition purposes — one of which
obtained a Gold Medal at Philadelphia in 1876 — no attempt has
hitherto been made to utilize these Tea plants. Both in the Annual
Reports and in other publications issued by this Department attention
has been called to the existence of this experimental Tea plantation ;
and seed has been distributed from time to time amongst private
planters in the hope of drawing their attention to the facilities which
the Island offers for a Tea industry. So far, however, nothing has been
done with Tea in Jamaica by private parties, beyond planting a few
trees in gardens for ornanoental purposes But with the influx of
planters from Ceylon, possessing practical acquaintance with the cul-
tivation and curing of Tea, I am hopeful a start will soon be made to
prepare Tea, if only, as in the early days in Ceylon, to supply local de-
mand.

As mentioned in my late paper, read before the Royal Colonial In-
stitute, I estimated that with indentured coolie labour and an expe-
rienced planter from Ceylon and India, Tea might be grown in the
West Indies and placed in the market at a cost not exceeding 7^d or
8d. per pound. At the present time very inferior Chinese Tea is sold
in Jamaica at 4s. 6d. to 5s. per pound. Hence there is here a very
good opening for a Tea industry.

The plants at present in Jamaica were received through the Royal
Gardens in 1868, and their existence here indicates with what foresight
and intelligence these Gardens have contributed to the furtherance of
colonial interests, and to laying the foundation of local industries."

To this letter Sir Joseph Hooker, Director of Kew Gardens, replied
through the Colonial Office as follows :— " It appears from a letter of
Sir Joseph Rogers that in 1868 Assam Tea plants were forwarded
from Kew to Jamaica. The variety most in favour at present in
India is what is called the Assam hybrid, and I think that the
introduction of this into Jamaica is probably the best step to aim at.
Tea seed is generally regarded as difficult of transmission, inasmuch as,
like most oily seeds, it rapidly loses its vitality. In the course of last
year, however, the Lebong Tea Company forwarded to the Royal Gar-
dens a box of seed in excellent order which germinated freely.
Application has, therefore, been made to this Company for its good
offices in meeting the request of the Jamaica Government, and I now
transmit copies of letters received from the Secretary showing what
has been done in the matter. From these seeds, when they arrive, as
a matter of precaution, a supply of plants will also be raised to be for-
warded to Jamaica as well as the remainder of the seed."

In his Annual Report for 1883-84, Dr. Morris draws attention to
its economic value as an industrial plant for Jamaica, and recommends
it to the serious and thoughtful attention of planters. He continues
.as follows : —

" Several samples of an excellent Tea have lately been prepared at the

153

Government Cinchona Plantations, one of wliich was lately seat to the
New Orleans Exhibition. The process of manufacturing Tea is cer-
tainly one that requires care and judgment ; but men who can prepare
and cure the celebrated Blue Mountain Coffee of Jamaica, should find
little difficulty in learning the details of Tea curing. The a i vantages
as regards Tea are that, no sun is absolutely required and no water.
The Tea plant is most hardy : it will grow in tiae old soils of aban-
doned coffee fields, as proved in Ceylon, and it will tnrive in Jamaica
at all elevations, from about 80 feet to nearly 6,000 feet. To secure
the best results it is advisable to plant Tea in moist, warm and some-
what sheltered districts."

Two consignments of Hybrid Tea seeds were received from the
Royal Gardens, Kew, in 1885, and some 3,000 plants were raised and
■planted out in two places.

Samples of Tea were forwarded in 1886 to the Indian and Colonial
Exhibition.

From 1885 to 1888 seeds and plants were supplied from time to
time for trial on an estate near Portland Gap ; the plants grew and
.multiplied, but nothing was done on a commercial scale.

In the Reports on the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London,
'1886, Mr. A. G, Stanton, the Tea Expert, writes at considerable
length on the exhibits of Tea, and speaks as follows of the exhibit
irom this island which was prepared under the direction of Mr Hart,
now Superintendent of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Trinidad : — " The
four samples exhibited in the Jamaica Court are from the Botanical
'Gardens. They are delicate in flavour, and of good quality, and show
knowledge of manufacture and careful preparation, although the co-
lour of the dry leaf is rather too grey. Pekoe Souchong is the only
kind represented."

In 1887 the present Director sent samples to Kew to get the opinion
of Tea Brokers and to test the merits of an evaporator for drying the
Tea. The following was published in the Bulletin for March, 1888 : —

" Tea. — The evaporator has been tried in the manufacture of Tea at
Cinchona. Three samples were sent to Kew with the view of testing
whether the machine dried Tea was superior to that cured on iron over
a fire. A sample of the latter was labeled No. I, the samples of the ma-
chine Tea were called Nos. 2 & 3. These samples were sent to Eng-
land, unfortunately, in mustard tins, which impaired their value con-
siderably, and this is what the Brokers refer to in their letter and
report subjoined : —

A. G. Stanton, Esq., t§ Royal Gardens, Kew.

3, Rood Lane London, E.C., 21st December, 1887.

I duly received your letter of the 29th instant, together with the
three samples of Jamaica Tea.

As I have i;iven in the enclosed Report a prett}'' full statement of
the various characteristics of the samples, I will only here add that
the liquors of all are very serviceable for the London Market ; the
samples are all slightly impared, No. 1 baing especially so.

I shall always be happy to report upon any samples and to do what-

'154

6ver I may be able in the way of assisting intending Planters witb-
liny information or suggestions which they may require.

Believe me, &c.

(Signed) A. G. Stakton.

Messrs. Wilson and Stnnion to Royal Gardens, Kew.

13 Rood Lane, London, E C, 31st December. 1887.
"We beg to hand you our characters and valuations of Packages o£
Tea per mail from Jamaica : —
Sample. Species and Character. Yalue per lb,

No. 1 Unassorted Tea ... ... f 1 t

The dry leaf is well rolled but is much too grey in colour,
and wanting in tip ; somewhat uneven and inclined to
be dusty.'

The liquor is fairly dark and full with some flavour.

The infused leaf is regular and of a fairly bright colour.

No. 2 Unassorted Tea ... ... 12

The dry leaf is good colour but is too crinkley, and has

not been properly rolled.
The liquor is dark and full, and of a nice flavour.
The infused leaf is regular and of a fairly bright colour.

No. 3 Broken Orange Pekoe ... ... 1 S''

Dry leaf is good colour, and with a few tips ; but is

rather open, ragged and too uneven.
The liquor is dark, full, and of good flavour.
The infused leaf is bright and regular.

General The above Teas are chiefly valuable in the London Mar-
ket on account of their liquors, the manipulation of
the dry leaf being faulty. We prefer the samples
marked JSTos. 2 and 3, the leaf being better in colour ;
and liquors of finer quality and flavour. No. 1 is too
soft in liquor and resembles China Tea, Nos. 2 and 3
being more like Ceylon Tea.
All the samples have a peculiar smell, and taste of some
substance quite foreign to Tea ; for this defect we have
made due allowance in our Keport.
The leaf of No. 1 is quite liwp instead of being crisp, the
sample has probably been damaged in transit.

(Sgd.) Gow. Wilson and Stanton."

A few years ago seeds and plants were supplied to the Hon. H. Cox
who has planted out about 60 acres at Ramble, St Ann. He has also
obtained the latest Machinery, and has turned out Tea of excellent
quality.

During last May, Mr. C. Royal Dawson, a well known Tea-planter
from the Wynaad, India, visited Jamaica, and saw the Tea growing
in St. Ann and also in the Blue Mountains. He writes to the Di-
rector as follows;

" I have formed a very favourable impression of my visit. The Tea
in the Blue Mountains, in spite of abandonment and neglect, proves
beyond a doubt that it can hold its own. Both varieties, Assam and
China, looked most luxuriant, but the latter, notwithstanding, is not
the right sort for producing flushes. The Assam is decidedly the best
for the island, and on the Blue Mountains at from 3,000 to 6,000 feet
should pay well to cultivate. All valleys in the Blue Mountain range
ought, in my opinion, to grow as good Tea as Coffee."

155

AN EARLY JAMAICA BOTANIST.

Arthur BROuaHTON — a son of the Eev. Thomas Broughton (1704-
1774), prebendary of Salisbury and vicar of Bedminster near Bristol
a miscellaneous writer of some merit - took the degree of doctor of
medicine at Edinburgh in 1779. He was elected a physician to the
Bristol Infirmary in May, 1780. He published anonymously a volume
of brief diagnoses of British plants. In the December of 1783 he
came to Jamaica, intending to return to Bristol, as he received formal
leave of absence from the Infirmary. In 1786 his post was filled up,
his successor being appointed for a year only on the understanding
that if Broughton returned he would resume his office. He died at
Kingston on May 29th 1796 : the Dictionary of National Biography,
misled by some remarks uf Wiles, suggests 1803 as the year of his
death.

His name is preserved in the genus of orchids named Broughtonia
by Robert Brown.

Nothing is known of his life in Jamaica, Unfortunately there is
not in the Library of the Institute any daily paper of the exact time
of his death, which is, however, briefly recorded in the " Columbian
Magazine."

He apparently practised medicine here, and devoted his leisure to
botany. The garden, the plants of which he catalogued, at first
the property of Hinton East, then of the public, is still known
as Gardens House; it is situated just above Gordon Town. Brough-
ton's name is not recorded amongst the members of the Kino--
ston Medical Society, which (the Jamaica Almanac for 1795 tells
us) was instituted on the 4th of September, 1794, by the medi-
cal members of the Jamaica Humane Society and otuer medical
gentlemen in Kingston in consequence of a malignant fever which
raged in 1793 and 1794 and baffled the power of medicine for many
months.

The following is a list of Broughton's works : —

1. Dissertatio medica inauguralis de vermibus intestinorura.

Edinburgii, 1779, 8vo.

2. Enchiridion botanicura, complectens characteres genericos et spe-

cificos plantarum per insulas Britannicas sponte nascentium, ex
Linna3o aliisque desumptos. Londini, 1782. 8vo.

3. Hortus Eastensis or a catalogue of exotic plants in the garden of

Hinton East Esq., in the mountains of Liguanea in the island
of Jamaica. ^ , To which are added their English names, &c.

Kingston, Jamaica, 1792, 4to.
The same. A Catalogue of the more valuable and rare plants ia
the Botanic Garden in the mountains of Liguanea in Jamaica,

ist. Jago de la Vega, 1794. 4to,
The same. New ed. [by James Wiles]. Jamaica, 1806. 4to.
The " Hortus Eastensis" was reprinted by Bryan Edwards ii his
** History of the AVest Indies." With the exception of this reprint,
none of Broughton's works is in the Library of the Institute of Ja-
maica.

F. C.

156

METHODS OF CORN BREEDING.

x\t the Association ot American Agricultural Colleges and Experi-
ment Stations last October, Dr. Hopkins of the Illinois Experiment
Station read a paper on this subject which was of special interest.

Some experiments have been made in Jamaica by Mr, Palache, one
of the Instructors of the Agricultural Society and by Mr. Barclay,
the Secretary , in the selection for seed of the finest ears and the
largest grains, but nothing has been done on the lines indicated by
Dr. Hopkins, — selection by examination of the grain.

He points out a grain of corn is not uniform all through, that there
are three distinct parts which may be readily observed by cutting the
grain across with a penknife, and that these parts differ in their chemi-
cal composition and their value as food for either man or stock.

These three parts are :

(1) The dark coloured and rather hard and horny layer lying next

the hull principally in the edges and towards the tip end
of the grain.

(2) The white starchy-looking part near the crown end of the grain.

(3) The germ which occupies the central part of the grain toward

the tip end.
The illustration-* shows two grains cut across :

I r A has more of the horny part in proportion to starch and also a
larger germ than B.

The horny layer which usually constitutes about 65 per cent, of the
corn grain contains a large proportion of the total protein in the grain.

The white, starchy part constitutes about 20 per cent, of the whole
grain, and contains a small proportion of the total protein. The germ
constitutes only about 10 per cent, of the corn grain ; but, while it is
rich in protein, it also contains more than 85 per cent, of the total oil
content of the whole grain, the remainder of the oil being distributed
in all of the other parts.

By keeping in mind that the horny layer is large in proportion and
also quite rich in protein, and that the germ, although rather small
in proportion is very rich in protein, so that these two parts contain a
very large proportion of the total protein in the corn grain, it will be
readily seen that by selecting ears whose grains contain more than
the average proportion of germ and horny layer we are really select-
ing ears which are above the average in their protein content. As a
matter of fact, the method is even more simple than this, because the
•white starchy part is approximately the complement of, and varies in-
versely as, the sum of the other constituents ; and tu pick out seed
corn of high protein content it is only necessary to select those ears

*Clich6 lent by Dr. Morris, Commissioner __Imperial Department of Agriculture.

157

whose grains show a relatively small proportion of the white, starchy
part surrounding the germ.

All the grains of corn in any one ear are almost identical in their
chemical composition, so that the whole ear may be judged by one grain.

There is a wide variation in the chemical composition of different
ears even in the same patch of corn, so that it is quite possible to alter
the character of the crop year by year, by selecting on simple inspec-
tion so as to increase, as may be desired, either the starch or the protein.

For a satisfactory breerting plot, about 20 to 40 selected seed ears
are required. If the breeder desires to make only physical improve-
ment then he should select, say 40 of the most nearly perfect ears
which it is possible to pick out. If it is desired to improve the com-
position or quality of the corn as well as the physical properties, then
at least 200 perf^ ct ears should be selected, and from these 200 ears
the 40 ears wh^ch are most suitable as seed for the particular kind of
corn which it is desired to breed should be selected.

The 40 selected seed ears are planted in 40 separate parallel rows,
one ear to a row, consequently the breeding plot should be at least 40
corn rows wide and long enough to require about three-fourths of an
ear to plant a row. It is well to shell the remainder of the corn from
all of the 40 ears, mix it together, and use it to plant a border several
rows wide entirely around the breeding plot, to protect it, especially
from foreign pollen.

The very best ears of seed corn are planted in the centre rows of the
"breeding plot, the remainder of the ears being planted in approxi-
mately uniform gradation to either side, so that the least, desirable
ears among the 40 are planted in the outside rows ; and in the final
selection of the best field rows from which the next year's seed ears
are to be taken, some preference is given to the rows near the centre
of the plot.

Dr. Hopkins recommends that every alternate row of corn in the
breeding plot be completely detasseled before the pollen matures and
that all the seed corn to be taken from the plot be selected from these
20 detasseled rows. This method absolutely prohibits self-pollination
or close-pollination of the future seed. By self-pollination is meant
the transfer of pollen from the male flower of a given plant to the fe-
male flower of the same plant ; and by close pollination is meant the
transfer of pollen from the male flower of one plant to the female
flower of another plant in the same row, both of which grew from
kernels from the same seed ear.

The transfer of pollen from one plant to another plant which grew
from kernels from a different seed ear, is termed cross pollination.

It is also recomended that in the 20 rows of corn which are not de-
tasseled, no plant which appear imperfect, dwarfed, immature, barren,
or otherwise undesirable, should be allowed to mature pollen. Detas-
seling is accomplished by going over the rows two or three times and
carefully pulling out the tassels as they appear.

Occasionally an entire row is detasseled because of the general in-
leriority of the row as a whole.

As the corn approaches maturity it is time to begin at the real be-
ginning in the selection of seed corn; that is with the whole corn,
crop and the whole corn plant, as it stands in the field.

i58

f The first selection is then made of seed corn from the field rows (eacti
of which is the progeny of a separate single ear) on the basis of perfor-
mance record. Each of the twenty detasseled rows is carefully exa-
mined. Some of them are discarded for seed purposes by simple
inspection, and with some rows this decision may be made early in the
growing season ; because, when each fi<-ld row is planted from a sepa-
rate individual ear, that row has an individuality which in many cases
is very marked. It may show very imperfect germination (in the
most careful work the germinating power of each ear is ascertained
before planting), it may be of slow growth, produce small weak plants,
or numerous barren stalks. The plants may be tall and slender or
very thick and short. In one row the ears may be borne high on the
stalks, while in the adjoining row they may average one or two feet
nearer the ground. One row may yield more than twice as much corn,
as an adjoining row on the same kind of soil. As a matter of fact
when one begins to breed corn by the row system (one seed ear to each
row), he is usually surprised to find that the plants in some rows are
so very different from those in others.

No seed corn is taken from a row which produces a large proportion
of imperfect plants, barren stalks, small ear or a low yield, even though
a few apparently good seed ears might be found in the crop which that
row yields.

The points to be consi<^ered in the selection of the field rows, and
finally in the individual plants from which seed ears may be taken should
include the per cent, of " stand" of plants, the height and physiv'^al pro-
portions of the plant, the character and amount of foliage, the position
of the ear on the stalk, the length and size of the ear shank, the per
cent of ear-bearing plants, the time of maturity, the total yield of the
row, the average weight of the ears, and the number of good seed ears
which the row produces.

Some of these points can be detera^ined by inspection, some require
actual counts and measurements or weights.

The corn from each of the detasseled rows which have not been re-
jected by inspection is now harvested. First, all of the ears on a row
which appear to be good ears and which are borne on ood plants in a
good position and with good ear shanks and husks are harvested,
placed in a bag with the number of the row, and finally weighed to-
gether with the remainder of the crop from the sauie row. The total
weight of ear corn which the row yields is the primary factor in de-
terminir g the 10 best rows from which all of the 200 ears for the next
year's selection must be taken ; and yet no corn breeder should follow
even this rule absolutely or blindly. If it should happen that one of
these Un best yielding rows, although slightly higher in jaeld, is
nevertheless plainly inferior to some other row in the number of good
ears produced, the row selection should be changed accordingly. Yield
is of first importance, but it should not exclude all other points It
is more practical and profitable to produce 99 pounds of good .ears than
100 pounds of nubbins, Other things being equal, or nearly so, pre-
ference is also given to the rows nearest the centre of the field.

In the final selection of the 40 seed ears as many as possible of the
ten best field rows should be represented, slight advantages in chemi-
cal composition are frequently sacrificed fur the sake of haviug such a

159

large representation, because of the possible future evil effects of too
close in-breeding.

Each lot of 20 ears (more or less) from each of the ten best rows and
Anally each single ear of the 40 seed ears ultimately selected is kept
labeled, and permanent records are made of the number and the des-
cription of the ear, the compositiou of the graia, performance record
of the row, &c., so that as tho breeding is continued aa absolute pedi-
gree is established, oa the female side, for every ear of corn which may
be produced from this seed so long as the records are made aad pre-
served. It is known also that there is good breeding oa the male side
although the exact individual pedigrees of the males cannot be knowa
And recorded.

CINCHONA CULTURE IN INDIA AND JAVA.

Professor Yerne, who was sent by the French Minister oi Instruc-
tion to investigate the cinchona culture, mentions the following in-
teresting facts in his report : The Indian plantations are found about
27° north latitude, 3,600 feet high, in a territory having temperature
ranging between 28° and 85° F. The mechanical labour is performed
by the natives, who receive from ^I to ^1.70 per month, without food
according to age and sex The favorite species of cinchona is the
C. ledgeriana. The plants are raised on mossy ground, sheltered from
the winds one side by a hill and on the other side by thickets of bam-
boo, the young shoots being particularly susceptible to sudden changes
^f temperature By the third year after planting, the tree is suflB.-
ciently grown to permit the removal of bark, which grows on again
within three years without recourse to mossing operation. The same
■system is in vogue in Java, where, however, the variety of cinchona
is not the English C. ledgeriana (Howard's), but the C. ledgeriana
of Moen, the latter being found to yield 9 per cent, of quinine ; or, if
only the trunk bark about a metre above the ground is chosen, it
yields 14 per cent, of quinine. On the other hand, the English Cj
ledgeriana assays on an average 4 per cent. In Java the cultivation
of the latter variety is abdudoned ; while 0. succirubra planting ia
diminishing. In both the English and Javanese plantation a very large
source of profit is the manufacture of quinine on the spot from small
and defective pieces of birk, unfit for shipment. Particularly striking
is the method of quinine extraction as practised in Java, it simply con-
sisting of treating the powdered bark with a 5 per cent, solution of
caustic soda, heated to 50° C, throwing this mechanically agitated
mass into a reservoir containing Java petroleum of specific gravity
•999, removing the petrolic solution of alkaloids by mechanical de-
Tices into a warm reservoir, into which is poured water acidulated
with sulphuric acid. This watery layer is removed, evaporated and
from the concentrated solution the quinine sulphate separates by crys-
tallization, which it is not necessary to recrystallize, since it contains
only one-half of 1 per cent, of cinchonine. Of such quinine 50,000
kilogrammes are exported annuall}' to the United States. The special
reason of the success of this quinine manufacture is due to the ex-
ceedingly clever mechanical devices used in the extraction. — (Am.
Journ. Fharm.)

160

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held at Head-
quarter House on 16th June last at 9 o'clock. The members present
•were Hon. W. Fawcett (Chairman), Hon. T. H. Sharp, Messrs C. A.
T. Fursdon, H. H. Cousins, J. W. Middleton and J. Barclay (Sec-
retary).

The Secretary read letters from His Excellency the Govern er ap-
pointing (1) Hon. W. Faweett to act as Chairman of the Board in the
rocm ot the Colonial Secretary, Bon. Sydney Olivier, (2) Hon. T. H.
Sharp to act as a member of the Board during the leave of absence
granted to the Archbishop of the West Indies, (3) Mr. J. W. Middle-
ton, to act as a member of the Board during the absence from the
colony of Mr. C. E. deMercado, (4) Mr. T. L. Eoxburgh, Acting
Colonial Secretary, to act as a member of the Board in the absence on
leave of Hon. S. Olivier.

A letter was read from ihe Hon. J. V. Calder, stating that he could
not attend the meetings so <^arly as 9 a.m.

Sorse-Breedwg. — Mr. Cousins submitted a minute with regard to
the horse-breeding industry, in which he stated that he had sent out
circulars to 70 gtntlemen whose opinions and views were desirable
to obtain. Only a portion of the replies had yet been received, but
he hoped to be able to present a report at the next meeting of the
Board.

Educational. — The question of a successor to Mr. Buttenshaw was
discussed and Mr. Cousins was asked to report on the matter.

Mr. Cousins submitted a minute relative to agriculture in the ele-
mentary schools, asking if the Board would consider the possibility of
improving the standard of school gardens throughout the Island.

A Committee consisting of the Acting Chairman and Messrs. Mid-
dleton and Cousins was appointed to consider and report.

Eccperiment Station. — A minute from Mr. Faweett on the tobacco
crop at Hope was submitted, giving an account of income and ex-
penditure which was considered satisfactory.

Travelling Instructors. — Three reports and an itinerary from Mr»
W. J. Thompson, Travelling Instructor, were submitted. These re-
ported meetings at Above Rocks. Mount Fletcher (Port Royal Moun-
tains) Water Mount, Old House, and Point Hill districts in the St.
Dorothy district of St. Catherine. Be had also visited Somerset, Ce-
dar Yalley, Dallas Castle and Linstead, the visit to the last-named
place being to report on orange trees in the district.

Two reports from Mr. Cradwick were submitted giving particulars
of the spraying of coco- nuts for disease in the Content district of Han-
over, end of visits to Montego Bay, John's Hall, Lotten, Chatham,
Adelphi, Western Favel, Maiden, Springfield, Ginger Hill, Miles
Town, Balaclava, (where he started a local Agricultural Society),-
Eopewell, Jericho, Green Island, Lances Bay, St Simons, Richmond,
Kendal Grains, Fiamstead, Guerney Mount, Pondside, Brownsville,
Cascade, Maryland, and Askenish. He reported favourably on dis-
tricts of Maiden and Springfield in St. James, as containing splendid
land for cocoa, but none was growir.g, and the large district of Ginger

161

Hill, in St. Elizabeth, as a splendid district for bananas and cocoa, but
neither was grown there so far.

Banana Lands. — A memorandum on the exhaustion of potash on
banana lands was submitted, wiih a minute from Mr. Cousins on the
subject, which was offered for publication in the Agricultural Society's
Journal.

Woodpeckers. — A letter from the Acting Colonial Secretary with
regard to Woodpeckers was read, in which it was stated that His Ex-
cellency the Governor in Privy Council had considered the question of
removing these birds from the list of protected birds, and decided that
they should not be removed.

Prison Farm. — A letter from Mr. J. T. Palache was read asking if
he could be permitted to take representatives of the Branch Agricul-
tural Societies in Manchester, to see the cultivation at the Prison
Farm, and if these could get free passes on the Railway.

It was decided to consider the matter of offering reduced fares to
approved parties of six members of branch societies generally for the
purpose named.

Bees Wax. — A minute from Mr. Cousins was read reporting that he
had analyzed samples of bees wax taken by the Constabulary all over
the Island, and these were all found to be genuine.

The meeting adjourned to 14th July.

CITRUS FRUIT CULTURE.

By J. VV. Mills. *
Working-over old Orchards.

In every fruit district the introduction of inferior varieties neces-
sarily causes much loss to growers, as it is expensive to replant or to
work over old orchards. This is the price that horticulturists willingly
pay for new and improved varieties. The orange-growers of southern
California have experimented with almost every known variety, and
have been compelled to abandon a number that once were popular.
The heaviest loss incurred was because of the iuferior Australian Navel
which proceeded the Washington Navel and suificiently resembles it
in growth to have been sold in numbers of cases for that far better
variety. In recent years many trees of Australian Navel, Mediter-
ranean Sweet, and seedlings have been rebudded to the Washington
Navel and its improved types.

While it is easy to perform the operation of budding, it requires
special knowledge and skill to get the new tree-top rightly started and
through the first season. Even an old orange tree will take buds in
the main branches or trunk, and will produce a luxuriant growth from
the buds the first year, if properly managed. But if such trees lose
their lops after the first summer's growth, they are usually worthless
or are not profitable for years. In such cases it is better to take out
the trees and plant young budded trees from the nursery.

* University of California, Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 138.

'162

The Method of Re-huading Trees. — Old Mediterranean Sweets are
:among the most difficult of citrus tiees to re-bud, and very poor re-
sults will be obtained if thev are handled by ordinary methods. Mr.
B. L. Koethen and Mr. 0. D. Wilheit, of Riverside, have been,
very successful in buddinj3^-over all kinds of old citrus trees, including
Mediterranean Sweets. They trim out all branches that are not used
to insert buds into, and then thin out the remaining branches above
•where the buds are inserted. This is done earl}^ in the spring, and at
the time of budding. The removal of surplus limbs directs' the entire
flow of sap into the branches containing the buds, which results in
their healing-over quickly and becoming well united. Up:)n the re-
moval of the tops of the trees, the buds start at once. All saw cuts
are covered with some material that will exclude the air, usually
grafting wax, though Mr. Koethen has experimented with thin putty
and finds it much cheaper, more durable, and not injurious to the tree.
After the tops are removed, the trees should be whitewashed to prevent
bunburn.

Value of " Cured" Buds. — The best success comes from using " cured"
buds these are buds that have been cut from the tree and kept in damp
sand or moss for a few weeks before using. When treated in this way
they become tougher, and when inserted into a tree that has freely-
flowing sap they absorb it more readily. When buds are well cured,
and not allowed to become either too wet or too dry, they are not easily
injured in handling. The delicate germ is very brittle when the scion
IS first cut from the tree, and the slightest touch will sometimes destro}' it.

Placing the Bud. — The incision which is to receive the bud is made
by running the knife down the side of the branch or trunk of the tree.
The cross cut is made at the lower end of the incision instead of at
the top, as is the usual method, and slants upward. By giving the
knife a slight twist before removing it from the last cut, the two
corners are turned out, which, with the upward slant, forms an open-
ing, into which the bud slips easily. Narrow strips of waxed cloth are
then wrapped around the limb, completely covering the inserted bud
and the incisions. The insertion of the buds from below gives better
protection from rain and dew.

When to remove the Bands. — These waxed bands are allowed to re-
main on the buds for from four to six weeks, according to the weather.
During such a season as the spring of 1901, which was cool and damp,
citrus trees make very little growth. Under these circumstances the
waxed bands should remain a longer time. The bands were removed
from the buds after four weeks (the usual period) in a number of cases
in the Pomona Yalley in 1901, and they generally died, but in the same
year when the bands were allowed to remain on the buds for six weeks
the result was satisfactory.

Removal of the Tops. — There are three usual methods of removing
the tops after budding: (1) the removal of the entire top at the time
of taking the bands from the buds; (2) the removal of all branches
but one, which is left to draw sap : and (3) the girdling of the limbs
above the buds while still retaining the entire top for one year.

When the first method is practised and proper protection is given
to the buds and young top during the first year, better results seem to
be obtained than by any other way. The new top receives the entire

tiourisliment afforded by tlie tree ; with frequent pinching-back of the
new branches, the wood can be hardened and better matured before
winter, and the leaves become thick and heavy, affording much frost-
protection

The second practice of leaving a side branch on the tree to "draw sap"
is a safe method, and will sometimes save a tree if the buds fail to
grow ; but when budding is skillfully done there is no need of leaving
side branches.

Girdling the branches above the buds after they have healed over
and the bands have been removed, while leaving the tops on until
after the first winter, is not practised widely, but has some ardent ad-
Tocates. The top when thus left continues to draw enough sap to keep
alive ,. and to ripen a crop of early and poor fruit. The removal of
such a top after the buds have made one year's growth is sometimes
difficult without injuring the new head The chief advantage for this
method is that the old top forms a covering for the new head, obviat-
ing the necessity of wrapping it for protection against frost. Trees
handled in this way have made a better record than adjoining trees
that had the tops cut off at the time when the bands- were removed from
the buds and were left unprotected during the first winter. . .

The old-time method of cutting off the entire top of a tree so as to
bud upon sucker s is now considered a poor way, as a year of time is
thereby lost.

Pruning and Shaping tkees.

The tendency of young trees of Washington Navel and some other
■varieties to assume a drooping habit when making a vigorous growth is
due to the fact that the soft shoots are unable to support the weight of
the large, heavy leaves. Mr. Reed writes : "It cannot be expected
that the soft, succulent shoots will grow upright when they are weighed
down with the great fat leaves that vigorous young Navel trees always
produce, but if they are pinched back they will so 'n begin to straigh-
•ten up. If this method is followed, a Washington Navel tree can be
made symmetrical and upright, I make it a point to visit every one of
my young trees several times during the season and pinch back shoots."

Even trees that have been long in bearing will be benefited by
pinching back every branch that takes too vigorous an upward growth.
This pinching process is especially necessary with trees from one to five
years old.

Pruning Bearing Trees. — The advantage of an upright tree over a
drooping one is considerable when it becomes loaded with fruit. The
crop is borne with less breakage of limbs, and not so much fruit is
injured with the winds. After they are in full bearing, there seems to
1)8 no pruning that will promote the healtta of the trees or improve the
crop, other than cutting out limbs that project abruptly from the side,
or those that make a sudden skyward growth, and the constant trim-
ming out of dead or stunted wood that is found on the inside of the
trees.

If too close, the branches of a tree should be thinned out from the
inside until the sunlight has had free access. This does not make any
noticeable difference in the appearance of the tree, but makes it bear
iruit on the inside. Such fruit is safe from sunburn and frost, and

' 164

packs as " fancy" grade. By eai ly atiention to pruning, the trees need
never be allowed to grow too close in the centre.

Renewal of Tops. — There are some groves of old orange trees that
do not respond to the best treatment that the owners can give them.
Under such circumsti^nces, the most effective wBy to stimulate new life
and vigour is sometimes to remove the entire top, leaving enough of each
of the main limbs to distribute equally the suckers that will afterward
make the new top of the tree. If the tops are only thinned out and
but partially cut back, there will be a proportionate amount of feeble
growth and a corresponding lack of productiveness. An old orange tree
will rapidly produce a new top, even when cut back to a mere stump.
It is soon in a condition to bear again at its full capacity. When the
roots are healthy and the soil is properly cultivated and fertilized, the
orange tree appears able so produce several generations of tops on one
stock. But it will generally be found that the trouble with old, non-
productive trees lies in the root-system, or in the management of soil,
or in both. Thorough investigation of roots and soil should be made
before any severe cutting or pruning of the top is resorted to.

Except as noted in preceding paragraphs, all trees should be trained
low for protection against fro-t, heat, and wind, and to aid the gather-
ing of fruit. Heavily-laden branches are generally propped to pre-
vent breaking down, as the loss from dropping and splitting is so
great that the trees cannot be safely lightened by thinning of fruit
•when small.

CULTIVATION AND IRRIGATION.

During the past seven years the substation grove has been ploughed
deeply at least twice north and south one year, and twice east and
west the next. Every year the plough turns up masses of fibrous roots
that grow ju*t below the reach of the cultivator teeth, in the strip of
land between the trees in the rows running in the direction of the last
ploughing. These roots grow from five to twelve inches below the sur-
face during the winter and spring when the soil is kept moist by rains.
Their presence shows the upward tendency of tiie feeding roots of
orange trees when left to grow naturally under favourable conditions.

The extent to which the root-systems of orange trees can be in-
fluenced by orchard treatment seems to be very limited.

Ihe detp-rooting tendency of the sour orange is observable in both
light and heavy soils, while the roots of the sweet orange, and in a
lesser degree those of the pomelo grow near the surface in all kinds of
soil during the seasons of their most rapid growth, and the only way
in which they can be forced toalower depth is to plough deeply and ap-
ply irrigation water as low as practicable. As orchardists cannot with
present facilities afford to plough deeper than ten or twelve inches, the
fibrous roots will mostly be found just below that depth. Even after
trees become old and well established their fibrous roots continually
seek the surface soil, unless deep ploughing and deep irrigation are per-
sistent ly practised. One orchard near Fomona, which has been ploughed
deeply from the time it was planted and irrigated in deep furrows,
bore lour and a half boxes of fruit per tree at the age of eleven years.
An adjoining orchard that was never ploughed, but was cultivated fre-
quently and irrigated in furrows made with a "bull-tongue" attach-

165

Tjnent, produced but three and a half boxes of poorer oranges at the
same age. The former orchard is budded on sour stock, which, as
heretofore shown, roots deeplj', and it received a liberal amount of fer-
tilizers ; while the latter orchard is budded on the shallow-rootiug
sweet-stock, and received but a moderate amount of fertilizers. The
more productive of these two orchards evidently has the better root-
system ; it has also been ploughed deeply and irrigated in deep furrows
— therefore it never shows the need of water before the regular irri-
gation date comes around. On the other hand, the less productive or-
chard, which is on surface-rooting stock and has received much shal-
lower culture and watering, shows signs of drought before each irri-
gation date. In the case of orchards on the same stock, the value of
deep ploughing and deep irrigation is also very marked.

Ihe So-Called " Hardpan." — The orange tree is a native of tropical
forests, where it obtains warm soil and abundant moisture within
easy reach. Its successful culture in countries like California,
which lack summer rains and moisture-laden atmosphere, is necessarily
to some degree artificial and a notable triumph of modern horticulture.
In order to achieve the highest results, it becomes more and more es-
sential that the grower shall keep the soil in the most perfect condi-
tion, shall apply all needed water and plant-food in sufficient but not
in excessive amounts, and shall pay especial attention to keeping the
feeding roots as low as practicable and to preventing the formation of
what is called "hard-pan," but is only the well-known " plough -sole,"
aggravated by shallow irrigation.

** Hardpan," some growers say, appears now where it was never be-
fore known. The fibrous roots of orange trees run along its surface,
and thus are subject to every vicissitude. It often happens that what
orchardists call '' hardpan" is only the firm layer of soil caused by uni-
form cultivation, or ploughing, wnether deep or shallow. The depth to
which soil is stirred should vary from year to year; eight inches,
twelve inches, ten inches, fourteen inches, and then eight inches again,
would put an end to much of the present outcry against "hardpan."
Cultivator teeth should also be kept sharp and should be "set down" to
various depths so as to prevent the formation of " plough-sole" of any
description, and to assist in breaking up that which former neglect has
caused.

Yery few orange groves have been planted upon true "hardpan,"
and if so planted have seldom succeeded. Only a few trees, such as
our native oaks, are capable of thrusting roots through the iron-like
layer of natural subsoil that is properly termed " hardpan." When
found to exist, it should be deemed sufficient to debar citrus culture,
unless so thin that, by boring or blasting, the root-system can be
established in good soil below the " hardpan," or when it is so consti-
tuted that when kept irrigated the roots will penetrate it.

An instance of the latter occurred at Riverside, where Mr. Reed
planted a few trees on a terrace bordering on an arroyo, and found
what was reported as true " hardpan" near the surface. The trees re-
ceived " an abundance of water over the whole area for a year," and it
was then found that the roots had penetrated it to a considerable dis-
tance.

'166

The term ''irrigation hardpan" is quite generally used in the
orange-growing district to describe the condition of some small areas
in orchards where irrigation and subsequent culture have been care-
less, or where sufficient attention has not been paid to the difference of
treatment required by lighter and heavier soils.

Of course very sandy soils can be handled sooner after irrigation
than can heavier soils and when a sandy piece of land containing
areas of heavy soil is cultivated as soon after irrigation as the sandiest
part will permit, trouble may be expected with the so-called " irriga-
tion hardpan," by the puddling of the subsoil, partly directly by the
plough, partly by the soaking in of claywater.

Value of proper CulUvation. — It is usual for orchardists to put in a
subsoil plough to help in breaking up the heav}' spots of what is called
" irrigation hardpan." But this difficulty can easily be overcome
without using a subsoil plough, as was shown by the experience of Mr.
"W. J. C(»x, of Glendora, Los Angeles County, who found that "irri-
gation hardpan" was forming in a part of his orange grove. He irri-
gated a few trees that were within reach of ihe domestic water-supply
and followed this up at the proper time with thorough cultivation.
After each irrigation he cultivated a little deeper. As a result of
deep irrigation and cultivation, the soil took in water as readily as
ever and the trees regained their vigorous appearance. He simply
used a chisel-tooth cultivator and plenty of water.

A somewhat different, case was that of Mrs. McKenzie of Riverside,
whose orange grove failed to be profitable, though apparently well
irrio-ated. This orcha d had been cultivated to the same depth until
a hard, clav "plough-sole" had been formed. The stratum of hard sub-
soil was several inches thick and contained a number of large surface
roots. She wrote to the Californian Experiment Station, sending
samples of soil for examination. It was found thas the plough -sole
prevented the irrigation water from reaching the deeper roots, and
she was advised to plough the entire orchard, roots and all, as deep as
the plough would go. This was done, much to the alarm of many
growers, and great numbers of orange roots of all sizes were turned to
the surface. Following further advice, she irrigated and cultivated
the ground deeply, and the following season she harvested the largest
crop ever taken from this grove.

The Glondora grove, to which allusion has been made, had had
deep cultivation from the beginning, and the roots were mainly below
the so-called hardpan. The McKenzie grove had many roots in the
hard " plough-sole" so thatthe only remedy was to destroy these useless
roots and force the growth of new and deeper ones, at the same time
giving the irrigation water a chance to penetrate. This rather drastic
root-pruning was necessary, and if the (ilendora grove had been culti-
vated to a uniform depth a few more seasons, deeper ploughing and the
destruction of the surface roots would have become inevitable there
also. The breaking-up of all hard layers of soil caused by improper
cultivation or careless use of water is of the first importance to the
health and profit of an orchard.

Eec/iless Deep Cultivation. — After Mrs. McKenzie's experiment at
Riverside, previously ^mentioned, subsoilers of different forms were
used, and the idea soon became common among growers that the-

167

deeper a plough could be run, the better would be the results that \\ ould
follow. The injurious results of such practice can not be estimated
without careful study of the root-systems of orange trees on various
stocks and soils. A number of bearing citrus groves were so much
injured by the reckless use of s-ubsoil ploughs that the leaves of the-
trees actually wilted down immediately after the operation. In these
cases, the sharp-cuUing plough was run close to and on all sides o^ the
trees. When trees over ten years of age, which have been subjected
to uniform shallow ploughing and irrigation, are submitted to such
treatment, they probably lose at one blow not less than seventy-five
per cent, of their active roots. The shock is such that it would take-
several J ears of careful treatment to restore the trees.

Practical Notes on Deep Cultivation and Irrigation. — It is almost
always more economical to use a sub soiler or plough where " irrigation
hard pan" has been formed than it is to use the large amount of water
necessary to soften it, but according to the best practice the deepening
of cultivation should be gradual, and the implement should never run
deeper than fifteen inches. One must rem^ mber that the re;illy serious
loss in sudden deep cultivation comes from the destruction of thousands'
of fibrous roots that grow from the hundreds of laterals branching'
from the large main roots.

If a plough is run to a depth of one foot, in three furrows, between the
rows, and water percolates slowly for a long time through these fur-
rows, no need can arise for a subsoiler. "Irrigation hardpan" within,
reach of the plough simply shows, as hasbpen said, that too shallow and
too uniform cultivation has been practiced. In that case the entire-
surface should be thoroughly broken up, and irrigation in deep fur-
rows after this will restore the proper conditions.

Experience also shows that when the water is slowly run in deep-
furrows for a long time and the greater part of the surface is kept dry
and is deeply cultivated, better results are obtained than when the
basin or block method, or even the shallow-furrow plan is used, even
though they are followed by deep cultivation. When the water is ap-
plied below the first foot of soil, and the soil above is kept compara-
tively dry, there is nothing to attract the roots to the surface ; and when
the water is thus applied, a team can be driven along the dry strips of
of land between the furrows, and with a harrow or other appliance the
dry soil can be dragged into the wet furrows, to lessen the evaporation,
immediately after the irrigation water is turned off. By any other
system, it is absolutely necessary to wait at least twelve hours, and
sometimes much longer, before a team can be driven over the ground.
Then, too, when a soil irrigated by these more wasteful methods has
been cultivated, it is still moist near the top, and is soon filled with a
mass of new roots so close to the surface that they must be destroyed.

Waste from Evaporation of Water. Water applied to the soil sinks
and spreads. Some of it is being taken up by the still dry soil under-
neath and at the sides long after the last drop is visible. fSome of it
too, is being drawn back to the surface, and thence evaporated into
the warm air. Irrigation after sundown has some distinct advantages
if the water can be handled. Sub-irrigation upon soils adapted to its
use is the ideal system of applying water, and greatly lessens Avaste.
Orange roots will not enter a pipe-line unless it is full of water all the

'168

iime. If the pipe is on a grade and open at bottom and top so that
.air passes thi-ough it, there will never be trouble from orange roots.
Valves, once thought necessary, are not now used. The high cost of
the present sub-irrigation systems places them beyond the reach of
most orange-growers.

Spread of Water from Deep lurrows. — The diagrams show the ex-
tent to which water from fairly deep furrows penetrates the sandy soil
and the heavy loam of the substation. A moment's study of them
will convince any one that the only way in which to lessen waste in
surface irrigation is to let the water flow slowly through as deep and
narrow furrows as practicable, thus making a larger cross-section of
wet soil, even narrower at the surface than in the chart, and checking
the evaporation by filling the furrow with dry earth and by cultiva-
tion at the earliest moment.

Examining these suggestive diagrams of soil saturation, let us first
call attention to the three showing the spread and descent of water
on the heavier soil. Here it has spread much more slowly and to a
less extent than in the case of the adjacent sandy land. Even after
two days run of water (of twelve hours each) and seventy-two hours
turther delay, the total sectional area of saturation is hardly more
than half as great, covering about sixteen square feet, as against about
thirty square feet on the lighter, more porous soil. A still deeper and
narrower water channel is highly desirable on this heavier soil. In-
stead of eight inches, it might well be sixteen or eighteen, which
would make the cross-section No. 3 nearly a foot deeper, and narrower
on the surface.

The cross-section on the sandy soil show that the eight-inch furrow
is practically sufficient to carry the water well down into the soil. A
deeper, narrower channel even here will result in economy in the use
of water, a smaller flow producing as large an area of saturation with
less surface. These two sets of illustrations of the results of irrigation
in furrows on different soils, under conditions otherwise practically
identical, explain and enforce the entire argument respecting deep irri-
gation set forth in this bulletin, and long and earnestly recommended
by Professor Hilgard.

[Issued 1st July, 1903.]

Vol. I.

AUGUST, 1903.

Part 8.

BULLETIN

OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

> ♦ <

EDITED BY

WILLIAM PAWCETT. B.Sc, F.L.S.

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

CONTENTS:
Cocoa — III.

Page.
169

Soil Temperature

171

Cane Yarieties at Cinnamon Hill

174

An Insect Pest of Sweet Potatoes

175

Cultivation of Rice in the United States

175

The story of the Papaw

181

Contagious Skin Diseases of the Horse

189

PRICE -Threepence.

A Copy will be sup^^.ed free t- ai^" ^esi^ent in Jamaica, who will send Name and
Address to the Director of i:'ij..iic Ga. aens and Plantatio js, Kingston P.O.

KINGSTON, JAMAICA
Hope Gardens.

1903.

JAMAICA.

BULTjBTIISr

OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Vol. I. AUGUST, 1903. Part 8.

COCOA III.

Notes from Dr. Paul Preuss
Cocoa in Venezuela*

The characteristic mark of Criollo cocoa is found in tbe bean, which
in the frf sh state looks round and swollen. The transverse section
therefore is elliptical or nearly circular. The tint of the bean is much
paler than in Trinitario and varies even to pure white. The taste is
not, even in fresh grains, of a disagreable bitterness, it is still less so
in the dry beans.

The fermentation of the Criollo beans is accomplished in one day.
At Guigue, the beans are allowed to ferment for two days, they are
then exposed for some hours to the sun and finally they are submitted
to a new fermentation lasting one day. The tint of tbe dry bean is a
light brown. The arcma and the taste are excellent. The break is
extremely friable. When a few dry beans are squeezed in the hand
they give out a particular sharp rattling sound, not heard in the Tri-
nitaro which produces rather a strong cracking sound.

The Criollo of Venezuela preserves its characters well ; at any rate
it is the case in the variety with red fruits. It does not show any
tendency to deteriorate from proximity to the Trinitario. In places
where these two varieties grow together, it is stated that the fruits of
certain classes of Trinitario acquire a resemblance to those of the Cri-
ollo, but the Criollo, according to Dr. P mess's observations, never ap-
propriate the characters of the Trinitario.

Plantations of pure Criollo cocoa are not very extensive anywhere.
As a general rule all the varieties are planted anyhow together.
Plantations of pure Carupano are equally rare. Well-informed
planters have long since ascertained that the Carupano dimiuishes the

Continued from Bulletin for June and July, page 121 — 124,

170

value of their plantations, and they make an effort to get rid of it,
hut it is difficult on account of the delicacy and the feeble growth of
the CrioUo. When, for example, a tree dies in a plantation, whether
from old age or from some malady, it is extremely difficult, if not im-
possible, in a plantation of pure CrioUo, and absolutely impossible in a
plantation of pure Carupano. to raise a young tree of CrioUo in place
of that which has perished. The young tree is stifled by the large trees
that surround it. On the contrary, a young Carupano will develop
well, thanks to its greater vital force. So that if planters do not
wish to have empty spaces in their plantations, they are obliged to fiU
them with Trinitario the value of which is less. In this way they are
continually depreciating the old plantations (Chuao). This is the
reason for the lowering of the quality of Caracas cocoa of which there
is frequent complaint.

New plantations of CrioUo call for much more careful shading, more
thorough maintenance, and a more abundant irrigation than those of
Trinitario. It is calculated that it takes 3 years longer to get a full
crop of CrioUo than of Trinitario. On the other hand, the product
obtained in the first case is much more precious, and fetches as much
as double the price of the other, the preparation of which latter, be-
sides, is longer and more difficult ; add to this, that the Trinitario re-
quires more space than the feebly developed CrioUo, and therefore less
trees are planted to the acre of Trinitario than of CrioUo. All these
considerations ought to be weighed when enquiries are made as to
what variety should be planted by preference.

Trinitario or Carupano is distinguished from CrioUo by a more pro-
nounced development, its trunk is shorter, its foliage is thicker, its
leaves are larger and it yields more and sooner.

A certain number of varieties are distinguished of which the names
have been given before, according to the size, the form and the colour
of the fruits, according to the form and taste of the beans, as well as
according to the tint of the inside of the beans. At the head of all
the varieties is the Angoleta, of which the fruits are regular, generally
deeply furrowed and very rough, terminating in a somewhat long
point. The shell of the fruit is thick. The beans are large and plump.
This variety is considered very good. In the second place comes the
Cundeamor, of which the fruits are red or yellow with deep and long
furrows, very rough, terminating in a long point, often curved and
narrowed at the base. The tint of the fresh bean is, in the two varie-
ties, bright violet but still much darker than in CrioUo. The beans
of the Cundeamor are as large and plump, scarcely bitter, and fermen-
tation takes place relatively quickly. The denomination Cundeamor
comes from the name given a wild fruit called " Cerasee" in Jamaica
(Momordica) of which the form offers some resemblance to this variety
of cocoa.

Then come in order of quality the numerous varieties called simply
" Carupano," of which some have their shells and relatively large
grains (carupano grande mejor), and the others with thick sheU and
flatter beans. Their form approaches rather that of an egg, but they
have however a visible point. The colour of the bean is bright violet.
The Sambito of which the fruits are very large, massive, rather smooth

171

ftnd terminated by only a short point, has only rarely large plump
beans ; they are bitter and of a bright violet colour. The worst is a
variety of which the fruits are deep red, bright, smooth, with thick
shell, rounded at the two ends and massive, of which the beans are
very flat, of a deep violet colour and very bitter. It is called " Tri-
nitario Amergo" or " Cojon de Toro," fermentation for this variety
ought to last 8 days, and even then its taste is still bitter and acrid.

SOIL TEMPERATURE.

Reference was made in last bulletin (page 126) to the temperature
of the soil. Prof. F. H King in his " Text Book of the Physics
of Agriculture," which everyone interested in agriculture should pos-
sess, has a chapter on the subject, from which the following notes are
taken.

Importance. In temperate climates subject to frost, growth will not
begin, with most cultivated crops, until the soil has attained a temper-
ature of 45° to 48° F. and it does not take place most vigorously until
after it has reached 68° to 70° F. Neither do the nitre germs begin,
the formation of nitric acid from humus until a temperature above
41° F. has been reached and its greatest activity is not attained until
the soil temperature has risen to 98° F.

Germination. The soil temperatures at which the seeds of most
cultivated crops germinate best, lie between 70° and 100° F. with an
average of about 85° F. The best soil temperature for germination
of corn (maize) and squash is 93°, for melon 99 '^. The more quickly
seeds are permitted to germinate after they are placed in the soil
the higher will be the per cent, of seeds growing, and, as a
rule, the more vigorous will the plants be. Indeed seeds of low
vitality placed in too cold a soil often fail to germinate at all. It is
found that, when corn germinates in 3 days at a temperature of 65 3°
F,, it requires 11 days when the soil was as low as 51° F.

Root Pressure. The power which sends the soil moisture into the
roots of plants and up into the leaves is osmotic pressure, developed by
the warmth of the soil, and unless the soil temperature is sufficiently
high, plants may wilt. Pumpkin and tobacco plants wilt badly,
even at night with an abundance of moisture, as soon as the soil tem-
perature falls much below 55° F., the moisture not rising fast enough
to compensate for even the slow evaporation during the night.

Formation of Nitrates. The nitrates in the soil do not develop until
the temperature has risen above 41° F. ; the action of the germs is ex-
tremely feeble at 54° and they do not attain their maximum activity
until a soil temperature of 98° has been reached ; but if the earth be-
comes as warm as 113° F. then the action is nearly stopped, it being
as weak as at 54°.

Inflmnce of colour. The colour of a soil, especially when dry, so
that the rate of evaporation from its surface is small, has a marked in-
;fluence on the temperature, eveu at considerable depths. The darkest

172

soil, whether black or brown, was more than a degree warmer than the'
light soil at four inches deep.

Influence of Topography. The degree of inclination of the land sur-
face and the direction of the slope, whether facing east, west, north
or south, may exert a marked influence upon the temperature of the
soil and particularly upon its diurnal range. The temperature of a
stiff red clay soil, upon a level plateau, and upon a south exposure
sloping about 18°, was found in the surface three feet to make a dif-
ference in temperature of from a little more than 3° F., in the sur-
face foot, to a little less in the second and third feet.

Influence of chemical changes. When heavy dressings of farmyard
manure are ploughed in, and when heavy crops are turned under for
green manure, the fermentation which is set up in these materials re-
sults in a measure of heat which warms the soil in the same way that
a manure heap heats when fermenting. Indeed all the steps in the for-
mation of nitrates in the soil result in the evolution of some heat.

Influence (f rains. Heavy rains which fall upon a field and penetrate
the soil may exert very marked effects upon its temperature on ac-
count of the relatively high specific heat of the water as compared
with that of the soil.

If the atmosphere is warmer than the deeper soil, and if rains fall
which result in heavy percolation, a large amount of heat is conveyed
rapidly and deeply into the soil with the water and the temperature of
the ground, two to four feet below the surface, may thus be very ma-
terially raised.

Influence of evaporation. There is no factor, except the direct sun-
shine and the direct radiation of heat away from the earth into space,
which exerts so strong an influence on the temperature of the soil as
the evaporation of moisture from its surface ; and the chief reason why
an undrained clay soil is colder than one well drained is the cooling
effect associated with the larger evaporation of soil moisture.

To evaporate a pound of water from the surface of a square foot of
soil, by means of the heat contained in the soil, makes it imperative
that 966.6 heat units be expended to do the work and this, if with-
drawn from a cubit foot of saturated clay soil, would lower its tem-
perature some 10.3° F.

The difference in temperature shown by the wet and dry bulb ther-
mometers measures, in one way, the cooling effect of evaporation ; the
wet bulb often reading as much as 15 or even 20 degrees lower than
the dry one, under otherwise identical conditions.

173

Table showing the influence of rapid evaporation upon the temperature

of the soil.

Date.

Time.

Condition of
weather.

Temp. (;f
air.

Te-Tip. of

drained

soil.

Temp, of

undrained

soil.

April 24 1

3.30 to
4.p.m.

Cloudy, with
brisk east
wind

160.5° F.

66.5° F.

•

54.00° F.

12.50°F.

April 25 1

3. to 3.30
p.m.

Cloudy, with
brisk east
wind

Ui.O

70.0

58.00

12.00

April 26 1

1.30 to
2p.m.

Cloudy, rain
iill the fore-
noon

U5.O

50.0

44.00

6.00

AprU27 \

1.30 to
2p.m.

Cloudy and
sunshine,
windS.W.
brisk

}^53.0

55.0

50.75

4.25

April 28 1

7 to 8.30
a.m.

Cloudy and
sunshine,
wind N.W.
brisk.

^45.0
J

47.0

44.50

2.50

In the table above are given the observed differences in temperature
of a well drained sandy loam and an adjacent black marsh soil, not
well drained, the observations being taken simultaneously and the
differences in temperature being due largly to differences in the rate
of evaporation in the two cases.

Influence of thorough preparation of the seed-bed. It follows from
what has been said in previous paragraphs, that the practice of
thoroughly preparing the seed-bed before sowing or planting must
have the eSect of decreasing the capillary rise of cold water from be-
low and its loss by evaporation from the soil. This then would tend
to concentrate the sun's heat in the seed-bed itself,^ first by lessening its
rate of conduction downward, and second by diminishing its loss, by
lessening the evaporation. In tbe spring, then, early and thorough
preparation of the seed-bed tends to make the seed-bed warmer : it di-
minishes the loss of soil moisture ; it increases the formation of ni-
trates, thus making the soil richer; it hastens and makes stronger the
germination and it enables one or more crops of weeds to be destroyed
before the crop is up in the way of cultivation. Hence there is much
to gain and little to lose in the thorough preparation of the seed-bed
before planting.

Control by underdraining. When land naturally too wet for tillage
early in the spring has been thoroughly underdrained, the soil is
brought into fit condition for seeding much earlier than would be pos-

174

Bible without this improvement, and one of the great points gained is
the warming of the soil to a greater depth, on account of the removal
of the water and the lessening of the loss of heat by evaporation.

CANE VARIETIES AT CINNAMON HILL.

St. James.

Mr. Shore has recorded the yields of cane from the Cane Varieties
grown at Cinnamon Hill as ratoons, the canes were irrigated and gave
five times the average yield of the non-irrigable lands of the estate
which suffered severely from the unprecedented drought. D. 116,
D. 51 and D. 102 have done well as ratoons. These experiments in-
dicate that some of the seedlings are decidedly superior to the estate
canes under irrigation conditions.

It is hoped that the proposed central factory project may be carried
through and an extension of the irrigable lands be made possible.

H. H. Cousins.

REPORT ON EXPERIMENT CANES AT CINNAMON HILL,-

AS FIRST RATOONS.

Name.

Tons per acre

Tons per i

1902.

1903.

D. 51

62.

55.9

D.116

62.

49.

D.102

42.5

47.1

Otaheite

41.

43.5

Canaan

70.5

43.4

D.275

43.5

43.2

D.103

32.3

42.

D.343

49.3

37.3

C. Queen

42.3

35.8

D.119

52.

34.

D. 80

25.8

31.

D. 95

37.

30.5

D115

47.2

29.5

D.128

33.

29.1

D.117

35.6

28.1

D.109

45.

24.

B.147

34.

22.6

Red Rosem.

32.5

21.7

These canes were cut as plants on 21st August, 1902, and again as^
first ratoons on 15th June, 1903, only ten months old.

This could not be helped as the estate's crop was finished and some
alterations were to be made in the works later.

The juice stood only 6.6 Baume average ; owing largely to a fall of
16.25 inches of rain in May — an exceptional fall for this district.
The rainfall for the ten months was 47.53 ins. but was unequally dis-
tributed, the first four months of 1903 being very dry. Irrigation was
used during that time, so that the growth was kept up.

The extraction of juice by mill was 67o/o, against 65o/o lasti^

175

year ; and the average extraction from estate's canes for the crop was
57o/o, by the same mill.

The return from the small area of ordinary canes that could be
spared water was 25 tons per acre. This shows the value of irrigation
in a dry year such as 1902-03 was, when the average return per acre
from non-irrigated canes was 9 tons.

D.102, 103, 80 and Otaheite have done better as First Ratoons than
as Plants.

Joseph Shore.
18/6/03.

AN INSECT PEST OF SWEET POTATOES.

Gruh. Mr. Cradwick, Travelling Instructor, sent to the Director of
Public Gardens for identification and remedy a sweet potato, which
was destroyed for purposes of food by the holes made through it by a
small maggot-like whitish grub, about a quarter of an inch long.
The grub has no feet but is able to bore its way through the potato.
The portions of the potato next the borings become black and dis-
coloured, and even the untouched parts are said to be without taste
and to be refused by pigs.

Perfect Insect. The potato was kept for some time until the grubs
had passed through the quiescent or pupal stage, and developed into
the perfect insect, the sweet potato weevil. It is one of the snout-beet-
les, about a quarter of an inch long, of a bluish-black colour, brownish
in the middle, with long, blackish snout or beak. It is known to ento-
mologists as Cylas formicarius.

Remedy. As the infested potatoes are useless as food, there need be
no hesitatation about burning tbem at once, as well as all the rubbish
on the ground which may harbour more ( f the insects. Destruction
by fire prevents the multiplication of the insects, and future attacks
may be less severe.

In order to give no opportunity for later development of these pests,
it is well to plani the ground with some other crop, such as corn or
cane, which are not affected by the maggot.

CULTIVATION OF RICE IN THE UNITED

STATES.*

By Leslie Harrison.
It can be stated that rice cannot be grown without irrigation, and for
all practical purposes that statement will hold true ; for while it is
true that " Providence" rice has been grown in the past, and is grown
yet, it is also true that rice grown without the artificial application of
water has comparatively small commercial value in the rice industry
of the southern States.

The methods of cultivation and irrigation are widely different in
the two great rice districts of the country ; for excepting the fact that
the resultant crop is the same, and that both are grown by means of
irrigation, there are few points of likeness. For example, Carolina
rice-growing is historically the oldest in the country, and its present

* Forestry and Irrigatiou. July, 1903.

176

metliods show almost the same primitive conditions which have charac-
terized rice cultivation from its first Asiatic beginnings. Louisiana
and Texas, on the other hand, whose industry has more than taken the
place that was once occupied by South Carolina and Georgia, make use
of the most improved methods, with expensive modern machinery for
harvesting and threshing, and are now engaged in irrigation works of
great magnitude.

E-ice growing is not by any means a new venture in this country.
In 1694 a storm-tossed Spanish vessel put into Charleston harbor,
where it lay for some time to undergo necessary repairs During this
stay the captain of the vessel gave to one of the citizens of the town
a handful of rough rice. From this one handful, through careful
seeding and cultivation, developed the notable Carolina rice, now
world famous. For a long time Georgia and the Carolinas furnished
the principal part of the rice crop of the country, and for a number of
years preceding the civil war these states produced 105,000,000
pounds of cleaned rice annually. At the present time the annual
yield is about 50,000,000 pounds.

Louisiana now produces more than half of the rice raised in this
country, the annual output amounting to some 20(>,0'i0,000 pounds.
The history of her rice industry dates back to the exiled Acadians —
French settlers from Nova Scotia — who in the last half of the eighteenth
century began the raising of "Providence" rice : but providential rain
was not to be depended on, and fat years were invariably followed by
lean ones, so that irrigation came to be more and more desirable, until
now the systems of Louisiana are among the most elaborate and valu-
able in the country.

Irrigation of Rice in the Caeolinas and Georgia.

The rice industry of the Atlantic coast is confined to tidewater areas
from Cape Fear to the Florida boundary of Georgia In this area
there are about 80,000 acres on which rice might be grown, but as a
matter of fact, only about half of this is cultivated. The water supply
is entirely from coastal rivers, and the plantations must lie far enough
above salt water to avoid its bad effects on the fields. This limits the
cultivation to a strip lying not more than 30 miles fri m the coast, and
seldom less than 15. In a few cases where the river water is brackish
at certain seasons, storage reservoirs are provided to offset these con-
ditions ; and where the water is always too salt or the lands are above
tidewater, the planter must depend on water taken from inland
streams, lakes or reservoirs.

Almost all the irrigation in the Carolinas and Georgia is of a simple
nature. When reservoirs are required a small stream is dammed, so
that the w ater backs up to form a reservoir, while the land below is
irrigated by direct flow Irom the dam through suitable ditches or
canals.

In the case of irrigation from ti ie water banks or levees are thrown
up, and these are pierced by "trunks," or long boxes made of heavy
timber and closed by a sort of gate at each end. 1 hese trunks are
placed at hh approximately mean distance between the limits of high
and low tides, so that the water of high tide will flow through them
on to the fields to be flooded, or so that the flood water may be turned

177

off at the time of low tide. The gate at either end of the trunk is so
arranged as to act as a valve, the pressure of the water against it serv-
ing to keep it shut unless it is held open by a lever provided for that
purpose and worked from the top of the retaining bank or levee.
Water flowing in at a time of high tide can be retained on the field
for as long a time as is desirable, for when the tide drops, the water
inside of the levee is held by the automatic closing of the inner gate.
In the same manner, when it is desired to drain the field, the inner
gate is held permanently open, while the outer one closes when the
tide is up, thus preventing any inflow.

Drainage forms an essential part of rice culture, being absolutely
necessary at the time of harvesting. Undertiling is of advantage in
the Atlantic coastal fields only when the water is supplied from reser-
voirs or lakes. The rivers carry too much sediment during the freshet
season to make a system of under-drainage successful, as the tiles
would soon become clogged ; yet the slopes are for the most part fit
for good drainage with but little grading. A system of low dikes and
small ditches through the field accomplishes the desired results of
equable application and depth of water, with rapid run-off when a
draining of the field is desired.

Rice is a shallow feeder. Its mass of roots spreads out just below
the surface, and none of them strike down to any great depth. On
this account all ploughing is shallow, generally not more than 3 or 4
inches deep, though a greater depth might be advantageous as giving
more p' ant food. In some places the ground is so stiff that it is
flooded before ploughing. Afterwards it is put in condition by disc
harrow and roller.

On lands flooded by rivers which carry rich sediment fertility is
easily assured, but in many instances, and particularly in the growing
of upland rice, fertilizer is needed, and this should be of a high grade
to give best results, as cheap fertilizer is a false economy. Naturally
the fertilizer varies in different localities ; but cotton-seed meal, blood
and bone, and other well known mixtures are used, most of them con-
taining a good percentage of potash.

In planting great care must be exercised in the selection of the
seed rice, in order that it may be free from the voluntet-r "red" rice
and from weed seeds. Uuiforin kernels are also desirable, as a uni-
form crop will permit of a higher polish than kernels that vary. The
seed is sown in March and April, and early sowing has many advan-
tages, though some crops are put in as late as June, with varieties
which mature quickly. The time of sowing also differs in different
sections, and is affected by the weather and to some degree by the mi-
grations of birds, which work havoc on the crop, either when planted
or in the fall when the grain is in the "milk" stage. The grain is
planted either in drills or in hoed trenches and dropped by hand.
The drilled method insures an even stand, which is a matter of some
importance. It may be even planted broadcast and harrowed in or it
may be planted in hills. Some planters recommend the latter method,
as it ensures easy cultivation and a more effective campaign against
weeds.

After planting, the next important step is flooding, and this is done
soon after the seed is sown, sometimes on the same day. Seed that is

178

not to be covered is clayed before planting by stirring it in clayed
water, so that the flooding will not float it. Flooding serves several
purposes. It protects the grain from the birds and causes quick ger-
mination. This water is left on the field several days, or until the
seed is well sprouted. It is then drained off and no more water is ap-
plied until the plants are well up and the fields show considerable green.
Then a " stretch" flow is turned on tor a few more days, until the plants
are about six inches high, affording nourishment to the rice and im-
peding or destroying weed growths. When the plants have attained
a sufficient growth under the stretch flow the water is gradually low-
ered to an average depth of a few inches, and remains on the field for
a period of from two weeks to a month, the duration depending on
local soil conditions. Then the dry growth follows for about a month
and a half, and during this time the crop is cultivated with horse or
hand hoes ; weeds and volunteer rice are removed, and in some
cases an intermediate flooding is made to protect the plants from
grubs. When the plants begin to joint the harvest flow is turned on
and this is kept almost touching the rice heads until their bending tells
that the grain is ripe. The field is then drained for harvest

The quantit)'- of water required for irrigation is not looked into, but
it is probable that here, as in many other places, the fault of over-irri-
gation is a common one. The supply from tidal streams is almost
unlimited, and the whole question of water rights is never brought up
as there are none.

Harvesting machinery is not used, the grain being cut with hand
hook or sickle. The beds in the field are narrow and usually small, to
permit of complete drainage, and this would entail much breaking
down of the grain and subsequent waste if a harvester were used. The
grain is cut before it is dead ripe, or while the lower eighth of the head
is still "in the milk," for if cutting is delayed until the head is quite
ripe, there is much loss from the shelling out in handling. A high
stubble is left, on which the grain cures for a day or two, when it ia
placed in shocks after being put up in straw-bound sheaves. As soon
as possible, in order to avoid loss from storms, the grain is taken to the
threshing-houses. These are permanent structures, one on each plan-
tation, built on the bank of a stream or tidal canal, where tugs and
lighters can get the rice to take it to market. The milling is a com-
plicated process for, after threshing, the rice or "paddy" still has twa
coverings - a coarse outer husk and a thin close skin. These are taken
off by special processes, and the different products — bran, flour, grain,
and chaff — separated. In addition to this, the commercial article is
always polished to give the grain the smooth, pearly appearance, which
artificially enhances its market value, but detracts from the real food
value.

Irkigation of Eice in Louisiana and Texas.

The rice of the Gulf States is now grown mainly on the uplands,-
and does not depend on tidal irrigation. With the use of modem
methods and machinery, tlie industry has developed into a leading one
in these two states, while it has declined in the Carolinas and
Greorgia.

During the last fifty years, however, rice production in the United

179

States has grown but little, and only the present time sees any great
advance in production over the crop in 1850, for the decline in the
Atlantic States has offset the advance in the Grulf States. It is possi-
ble that the former may adopt some of the methods of use in the latter
and thus regain the prestige held before the civil war, but until they
do so they cannot easily compete with improved machinery at home or
cheap labour abroad. The production could and should be doubled, as^
we now produce less than half of the rice consumed in this country,
and the use of rice as a staple article of food is constantly increasing.

Acadian success with Providence rice, intermittent as crops were,
showed that, with proper methods of cultivation and irrigation,
Louisiana was particularly fitted for this crop. At first, the only at-
tempt at irrigation was the raising of levees above the rice fields ta
reserve some of the heavy rainfall, instead of allowing it to waste into-
the bayous. When water was needed to flood the fields, the levees
were cut and the water allowed to flow on the plants, but in dry
seasons this method of irrigation was worthless, and something more
dependable had to be devised. Later it was discovered that upland
soil was especially suited to the growing of rice, good crops being ob-
tained in wet seasons, and it became only a matter of getting water tO'
them when large areas could be cultivated and the industry could fur-
nish a profitable commercial venture, worthy of the enlistment of
capital.

The introduction of the steam -pump furnished the impetus which
was needed. After some failures with pumps of wrong type or limited
capacity, large centrifugal pumps were introduced to raise the water
from bayous to canals From these canals the water was pumped di-
rectly on the fields, and the problem was practically solved.

Yet there were a number of local conditions which made irrigation
very different from what it was elsewhere. For example, it might be
said that the only point of similarity between the Louisiana rice canal
and the irrigation canal of the western States is that both are filled
with water for the purpose of irrigation. Beyond that the comparisons
are contrasts, to use a Hibernianism. For instance, water flows in the
western ditch and stands at a level in the rice canal ; the source of
supply in the west is above the fields to be irrigated, and below it in
Louisiana ; the canal of the west is dug below the surface of the land
through which it passes, while the rice canal is built up on the surface
of the ground, and on the highest ground to be had ; the western
canal holds water poorly, losing much through seepage through the
soil, and the levees of the rice canal are impervious.

The proper construction of the§e levees, however, is of prime impor-
tance. The surface of the ground upon which the levees are to rest
must be absolutely clour of all vegetation, and must then be ploughed
and pulverized, so that the earth embankment placed above will make
a good " joint." To aid in this, deep furrows are ploughed in the
foundation earth, and the levee banks are built up firmly and of good
material. This has to be done to prevent devastating breaks, as some
of the canals are so large that they appear to be rivers of no inconsid-
erable size. Indeed, it is proposed to navigate some of them with
lighters and barges for ihe transportation of "paddy" from the
threshers to the mills which turn out the finished product. For

180

-examples of the great size of these canals, we have the Eagle Lake
Rice Irrigation canal, 17 miles long and 200 feet wide ; The Trespa-
lacios canal, 4| miles long and 200 feet wide, and the Treadway canal,
25 miles long and 220 feet wide. Another canal, now under construc-
tion, will be 56 miles long and 175 feet wide.

Owing to the fact that these canals are practically on a level and
have no current in many cases, they are subject to obstruction through
the o-rowth of water weeds, and these constitute a serious menace to
the usefulness of the smaller ditches, unless the growths are removed.

The water in these canals all has to be pumped, and in most cases
from bayous which are below the sea-level, on to lands which lie as
hio-h as 70 feet above. For such a raise it is necessary in most places
to have several lifts, the first one being from the bayou or stream, and
the others at intermediate points along the canal. The pumps are of
two types only, both suction pumps, however — the centrifugal and
rotary. The former is the more popular, as it does not need direct
connection with the propelling machinery, being run by belt or rope
transmission. The rotary pumps, when properly established, should
be more efficient than the centrifugal, and as they are run much mOre
slowly, there is less wear and tear ; but the increased cost of installa-
tion, owing to the necessity for permanent and strong foundations,
limits their use. Boilers and engines are of varied patterns, but any
that are good will serve the purpose.

Fuel is of three kinds- coal, wood and oil. Of these, coal is the
most expensive and oil the cheapest and most convenient to handle.
Wood can be had near at hand, as most of the bayous are in heavily
wooded districts ; but the cost of labour brings the price above that of
fuel oil, which is delivered from the nearby Texas oil fields at a low
rate. In Texas particularly, where much of the irrigation is from
artesian wells, crude oil is the most important factor in the fuel and
power question.

From the canals the water is distributed over the fields through
measuring flumes, and is held at different levels in the sloping field by
means of low levees, over which the water may flow until all the levels
are flooded. Planters are now making these levees in the fields very
flat and with gradual slopes, so that they interfere but little with the
cultivable surface of the ground and allow the passage of the reaper
and binder for harvesting. Since the water rises to the tops of these
field levees, almost an average crop of rice is raised on thera, and the
fact that they can be cultivated and harvested makes it possible to
keep out the weeds and red rice.

The application of water to the crop differs in some particulars from
irrigation on the Atlantic coast. In the first place, the Louisiana
farmers depend on early rains to start the crop, and need no flooding
to protect the grain from birds, since the reed-bird orbob-o-link is not
the pest in Louisiana and Texas that it is in the Carolinas and Georgia.
The first growth of the crop, or until the plants are from six to ten
inches high, is made without artificial application of water, but after
that the fields are kept flooded until within ten days of harvest time,
when the levees are cut, and the water drains off rapidly by means of
ditches provided for that purpose, leaving the ground dry enough to
permit the use of the reaper and binder. As the harvesting machinery

181

is similar to that used elsewhere for wheat, so also is the threshing'
outfit. Mills are large and form an industry by themselves, not being
in any way connected with the separate plantations, as is the case in
the Carolinas.

Several things will have to be done before the rice industry of
Louisiana and Texas will be placed on as good a basis as that of the
Atlantic seaboard in the matter of water supply. At present magni-
ficent operations are going on, and great ventures are being pushed
forward under state and national sanction. At present in many locali-
ties the bayou supplies are being overdrawn, that many acres have had
to be abandoned on account of Inck of water, and in some instances
brackish water has backed up from the sea because the bayou supplies
have been so depleted. There seems to be no recognition of water
rights on some of these supply streams and bayous, and as a conse-
quence there are too many pumping plants on some, all of them being
supplied in dry seasons. In Texas where artesian irrigation is used to
a greater extent, the flow can be readily measured, the duty of water
calculated, and only enough ground planted to be sufficiently irrigated ;
but development for the present threatens to be too rapid for present
institutions to keep pace with it, and some radical departures will have
to be made to secure all water needed and to protect users in their
rights to that water.

THE STORY OF THE PAP AW.

By F. B. Kilmer.*

" The slim papaya ripens its yellow fruit for thee." — Bryant.

Grant Allen tells us that no plant can be properly understood apart
from its native place. Therefore we begin our study of the Carica
Papaya in its tropical home.

The Carica Papaya is accredited as indigenous in Central America.
Observations and correspondence lead me lo conclude that it has be-
come acclimated in the hot regions of three continents. The zone of
most abundant growth seems to lie between the isothermal lines of 77°
wherever soil and rainfall are favourable. It is grown by cultivation
north and south of these lines. (The papaw is seen as far north as
Jacksonville, Fla., and in Southern California).

In these tropical lands, where every tree or plant has its peculiar
legends and myths, the views of the natives upon plant life are con-
sidered unscientific and valueless, but I have found that, when stripped
of the terms of superstition, some of their observations, compared with
our scientific knowledge, are not far apart. Their app;;rent veneration
for trees and plants is based upon intimate association wherein
they have come to a knowledge that plants eat, drink, marry, propa-
gate, care for their offspring, and bestow blessings or curses upon all
living things, including man. This is about all that anybody can
know about them.

Many trees are famous in these lands, none more so than the papaw.-
Conflicting stories as to its powers and properties are due somewhat

•Reprinted from the " American Journal of Pharmacy."

182

largely to tlie fact that different species or variations in species
possessing varying characteristics, are found in these localities.

Quite universal is the knowledge of the unique property that has
given to this tree its world-wide fame, viz. : the power of its milky
i'uice to soften and dissolve tough meat. The statement has passed
current in our journals that the emanations from this tree will dissolve
and digest albumin, and that it is the custom of natives to hang meat
and chickens in the branches of a tree to render them tender and edible.
The natives often go further than this : they state that if male animals
browse under the papaw tree; they thereby become emasculated. If
we compare this statement with the alleged property of the roots as a
generative tonic, we shall have a marvellous combination of an aphro-
disiac and an anaphrodisiac in the same plant.

It is needless to urge that such stories are exaggerations of the
pepsin-like properties of the fruit.

The native uses of the papaw are numerous and varied. The bark
is used in the manufacture of ropes ; the fruit is edible, and according
to local conditions, may be sweet, refreshing and agreeable, or in other
localities it is sickly, sweet «nd insipid. The fruits find a large con-
sumption by the natives, and are considered very nutritious.

At the corner of a sugar-cane field where the ragged canes bend
over in a wild green, brown and yellow tangle, there will be standing
a papaw tree, and if the time of the papaw tree has quite come, be-
neath the tree will be assembled a halt dozen negroes.

The ripe fruit is eaten as we eat melons. Salt enhances the flavour
and some users add sugar. The melons must be perfectly ripe when
eaten raw, as the green fruit contains a strongly marked acrid prin-
ciple. The colour of the ripe fruit is more or less that of our very yel-
low musk-melon. The sweetness of its resinous, pulpy, juice clings to
the tongue and remains prevalent for some hours'.

The natives enjoy the flavour, while the stranger has to acquire the
liking. Excellent, preserves are made of the ripe fruit, which, for this
purpose, is boiled down in sugar and candied (like citron).

At the sugar-houses slices of the papaw are often seen seething in
hot sj'rup. The slices of melon combined with some acid fruit is made
into native tarts, which artieles correspond more or less to what we
call " pies." The fruit is also stewed and served on the table. The
green fruit is made into plain and spiced pickles, which are highly
^fisteemed.

The fruit, just before ripening, is peeled and sliced, macerated in
cold water, with frequent changes of water for some hours ; the then
macerated fruit is dropped into boilin