^/./Iv
K^
' .**/s!.^l
" ■J''-^-
^.V:
''t-j^^:
BULLETIN
OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT B.Sc, F.L.S.
Director of Public Gardens and Planiatione.
'^E^ VORfc
Vol. IV. sotanjcal
Garden.
HOPE GARDENS, JAMAICA
1906.
Il^OEX.
-'3RARY
'^EW YORK
(BOTANICAL
OAROEN.
Page
Acrostichum aureum, excelsum,
lomarioides ... 62
African Rubber ... 278
Agricultural Conference 306
" "Don'ts" 96, 119, 142, 192,
215
" Instructors, Conference
on ... 238
" Scholarship 1 19
Agriculture in Bermuda 205
of Porto Rico I05
AUouya ... 178
Analyses, Banana Soils 25
Ben Oil ... 114
" Camphor leaves 136
" Cassavas ... 75
" Lemon-grass Oil 106
Soil for Camphor 135
Arrowroot ... 239
" Consumption of at the
Public Institutions ... 307
Arsenate of Lead, admitted duty
free ... 216, 283
" " for Caterpillars 10
Ashby, Mr., appointment of, as
Fermentation Chemist '307
Assam Rubber: ... 274
collection ... 275
distance in planting 276
effect of soil, &c., on yield 274
in Algiers ... 274
in Jamaica ... 277
locality ... 274
planting ... 276
preparation of the rubber 278
propagation ... 276
source ... 274
tapping ... 275
value ... 275
when to tap ... 276
yield ... 274
Attacus jorulla ... 121
Bamber, M. Kelway, on Camphor
in Ceylon ... 129
Banana in Bermuda ... 207
" soils of St. Mary and St.
Catherine ... 25
St. Catherine —
RioMagno... 26
Riversdale ... 31
St. Mary—
Hampstead 26
Highgate ... 28,30,32
Oracabessa 29
Port Maria... 30
Barkley, Sir Henry, on Coco de nier 92
Barrett, O. W., on the Lleren 178
" " on the Tanier 180
Bastard Logwood ... 122
Ben Oil, Analysis of ... 114
" " Nature and Commercial
Uses of ... 113
Beet root ... 218
Page
Bermuda, Agriculture in... 205
Bananas ... 20/
Lily Bulbs ... 205
Onions ... 206
Oranges ... 206
Potatoes ... 206
Tobacco ... 206
Black-leg disease of Cattle 151
cause ... 152
hygienic ... 153
symptoms ... 152
treatment ... 1 52
preventive or prophylactic 153
Blake, Sir Henry, on Camphor in
Ceylon ... 177
Board of Agriculture 22, 46, 63, 95,
llS, 142, 166, 191, 214, 23S, 283, 305
Boehmeria nivea ... 286
" tenacissima ... 286
Bordeaux mixture ... 157
Botrychium Underwoodianum 202
Brazilian Coffee Legislation 127. 176
Bread-fruit tree, Introduction of, to
Jamaica ... 44
Brown-rot disease of Cocoa pods II
Brown, S. W., Resignation of 240
Bucher, Dr. E., on Logwood Disease 79
Buck, Sir E. C, on Turmeric 164
Bud- rot disease of the Coco-nut 156
Cabbages ... 218
Cacao cultivation in Ceylon 236
Calathea AUouya ... 178
Camphor in Ceylon ... 129, 177, 232
analysis of soil and leaves 135,
136
Blumea balsamifera 130
botany ... 130
characters ... 140
Cinnamomum Camphora 130
cultivation ... 131
distillation of Camphor 137,
139, i;7
130
177
130
232
140
136
131
134
140
130
141, 177
116
219
233
75
Dryobalanops Camphora
elevation
exports
market value ... 130, 177
oil
preparation of the Camphor
propagation
soils for
sublimation experiments
uses
yield ... 137,
Camphor tree weevil
Carrots
Cartwright, Consul, on export of
Kapok from Guayaquil
Cassava Analysis of
" land in Clarendon, Inspection
of ... 240, 283
" Remedy for Caterpillars on 10
'■ Trials, III. ... 7^
" yields of ... 76
n.
Page
Page
Castilloa Rubber : 97, 145, 166, 172, 253
age at which trees may be
tapped ... 146,260
as shade for cocoa 256
best districts in Jamaica 255
climate and situation 147, 254
coagulating the latex 99, 150, 262
cost of collecting the rubber 263
culture ... 259
Darien Castilloa 254
Darien ' Caucho' 254
decrease of milk with in-
crease of altitude 254
distance in planting 149, 257
flow of sap 146, 254
habitat ... 146,253
' hule bianco,' ' Colorado'
' negro,' ' tunu' 253
in Ceylon ... 257
in Darien ... 255
in Isthmus of Panama 255
in Tobago ... 257
in Venezuela ... 256
in Mexico ... 146
propagation ... 148, 255
resins in rubber... 260
seeds ... 148, 255
shade for Castilloa 255
study of ... 166
tapping 149, 174, 261
washing the latex 150, 262
yield 146, 262
Castilloa Tunu ... 253
Caterpillars on Cotton, Cassava, &c.
Remedy for ... 10
Cattle in Porto Rico ... no
CearaRubba: ... 267
age at which the trees may
be tapped 269
analysis of rubber 271
best districts in Jamaica 269
climate ... 267
collecting the rubber 270
cost of collecting 271
distance in planting 270
in Brazil ... 268
in Ceylon ... 270
in German colonies 269
in Hawaii ... 269
in India ... 271
in Nicaragua ... 268
locality ... 267
number of trees per acre 271
planting ... 269
profit ... 271
propagation ... 269
soil ... 267
yield ... 271
Ceylon, Camphor in ... 129,177,232
" Grass Oils in ... lOO
Chalmers, F. V., on Tobacco of
Jamaica ... 59.283,307
China Grass ... 286
Citronella Oil ... 100
Citrus decumana ... 36
" Fruits, Cultivation and Market-
ing of ... 49
" " in Porto Rico ill
Cocoa Diseases, II. ... 11
Coco de mer ... 87
Coco-nut, bud-rot disease 95, 156
Double ... 87
" in Porto Rico ... 113
" Selection of Seed 63, 176
Coffee cultivation in Brazil 234
" Porto Rico 108
" Legislation in Brazil 127, 176
" Trust, proposed 177
Colletotrichura gossypii, var.
barbadense ... 'jy
Colocasia ... 181
Colombian Scrap Rubber 271
Commercial Agent in London 63, 95,
118, 143, 167
Congo Rubber ... 278
Corn, Analysis of ... 7
" Notes on Imported and Native,
and Analysis ... 6
" production and consumption 304
Cotton, Application of Paris Green
to ... 141
" Disease ... yj
" in Porto Rico ... 112
" Remedy for Caterpillars on 10
" Seed, Sea Island, for 1906 127
Cousins, H. H., on Cassava Trials 73
" " " Ginep as a Stock
Food ... 8
" " " Imported and
Native Corn ... 6
Cox, Hon. H. E., on Tea I
Cucumbers ... 219
Cultivation and marketing of Citrus
Fruits ... 49
Curcuma longa ... 163
Dalrymple, W. H., on Black-leg
disease ... 151
Date Palm, The culture of 208
climatic requirements 2o8
fungoid disease of 214
in Jamaica ... 213
in the United States 211
irrigation ... 210
planting and cultivation 209
pollination ... 210
yield ... 211
Dioscorea spp. ... 3
Diseased Plants, and Insect Pests :
How to forward ... 85
Disease Cocoa ... n
" Cotton ... ■]■]
" Coco-nut ... 95, 156
Distillers' Course ... 240
Divi-divi ... 121, 122, 124
"Don'ts," Agricultural ... 96,119,142,
192, 215
Earle, Prof., on Logwood Disease 78
Early Oranges ... 81
Economic Products, Seasons and
Prices for, in Kingston 66
Edwards, J. W., on Logwood
Disease ... 80
m.
Page
Fawcett, W., on Early Oranges
Fern, New name for a Jamaican
" New species of Botrychium
" New species of Polypodium
Fertilizer, Tobacco Dust as a
Fibre Machines ... 300,
Ficus elastica
Forests and Rivers
Formalin, the use of, for preserving
fruit
Forsteronia floribunda ...
Freeman, W. G., Review of book on
Para Rubber
Fruit, New Method of keeping,
by use of Formalin
Fruits: Seasons and Prices for, in
Kingston
Funtumia elastica ... 171,
age at which seed is pro-
duced ... 171,
age at which tree may be
tapped ... r7l,
as shade for Cocoa 171,
attacked by caterpillars
best districts in Jamaica
154
66
264
264
264
265
267
265
coagulating the milk 171, 265
collecting and pre-
paring the rubber 265
destruction of Ire forests 266
distance apart forplanting 171
elevation for
171, 265
habitat
171, 264
in Trinidad
264
in Western Africa
171, 264
pruning
265
seeds
171
situation for
171. 265
soil
171, 265
value
266
Garcinia Mangostana ... 203
Garden Eggs ... 220
Gillespie Bros. & Co., on Jamaica
Ginger ... l65
Ginep, Analysis of ... 8
" as a Stock Food ... 8
Ginger, Jamaican ... 166
Grabham, M., on Silk Worms I2I
Grape Fruit and Shaddocks, Notes on 36
Graphiola phoenicis ... 214
Grass Oils in Ceylon ... 100
Grubs, beetles, &c., To destroy 217
Hard and Soft-wooded plants.
Planting of ... 16I
Harris, W., Notes on Rubber-pro-
ducing plants 241
" " Seasons and Prices for
Fruits, Vegetables, &c.
in Kingston markets 66
" " on the cultivation of
vegetables ... 217, 305
" " on Yams ... 3
Hart. Mrs. Ernest, on Ramie and its
possibilities ... 296
Hevea brasiliensis ... 169,241
Page
Hides and Skins ... 123
Hilipuselegans ... 116
Historical Notes on Economic
Plants: Tea ... I
Hope Gardens, Appointment of Asst.
" " Superintendent 191, 239,
284
" " Description of 33
Plan of ... 34
Howard, Dr. L. O., on Weevil
attacking Camphor trees 116
Insecticide, Tobacco Dust as an 178
Insect Pests ... 116
" " How to forward 85
Instructors, Agricultural, Conference 238
" for School Gardens 306
Ire ... 264
Jamaica Ginger ... 166
" Rubber ... 279
collection of milk 279
locality ... 279
preparation of the rubber 280
propagation ... 280
source ... 279
value ... 280
yield ... 279
Kapok ... 233
Keeping fruit, by use of Formalin 154
Kidney beans ... 221
Kohl Rabi ... 221
Lagos Silk Rubber: See Funtumia
elastica ... 171,264
Landolphia florida, Heudelotii,
Kirkii, Mannii, Owariensis, Peter-
siana ... 278,279
La Zacualpa Rubber Plantation : 145
Castilloa lactiflua 146
Castilloa elastica 148
cleansing the rubber 1 50
coagulating — native
Indian method 150
labour ... 147
latex ... 149
location of the Plantation 147
planting ... 148
tapping methods 149
washing the rubber 150
Leather, Manufacture of, in
Jamaica ... 121, 123
Lemon Grass Oil ... 102
" ■' " from Montserrat 105
Lettuce ... 221
Levy, H. Q., on Cultivation and
Marketing of Citrus Fruits 49
Lewkowitsch, Dr. J., on Ben Oil 113
Lily Bulbs in Bermuda ... 205
Lleren: A rare root crop 178
Lodoicea sechellarun ... 89
Logwood : Disease, Cultivation 78, 122
" Root Rot ... 78
Lucas, George L., on Tobacco Dust
as Fertilizer and Insecticide 178
II.
Page
Castilloa Rubber : 97, 145, 166, 172, 253
age at which trees may be
tapped ... 146, 260
as shade for cocoa 256
best districts in Jamaica 255
climate and situation 147, 254
coagulating the latex 99, 150, 262
cost of collecting the rubber 263
culture
259
Darien Castilloa
254
Darien ' Caucho'
254
decrease of milk with
in-
crease of altitude
254
distance in planting
149. 257
How of sap
146, 254
habitat
146, 253
'hule bianco,' 'Colorado'
' negro,' ' tunu'
253
in Ceylon
257
in Darien
255
in Isthmus of Panama
255
in Tobago
257
in Venezuela
256
in Mexico
146
propagation
148, 255
resins in rubber...
260
seeds
148, 255
shade for Castilloa
255
study of
166
tapping 149,
174
261
washing the latex
150
262
yield
146
262
Castilloa Tunu
253
Caterpillars on Cotton, Cassava,
&c.
Remedy for
10
Cattle in Porto Rico
no
CearaRubba:
267
age at which the trees
■nay
be tapped
269
analysis of rubber
271
best districts in Jamaica
269
climate
267
collecting the rubber
270
cost of collecting
271
distance in planting
270
in Brazil
268
in Ceylon
270
in German colonies
269
in Hawaii
269
in India
271
in Nicaragua
268
locality
267
number of trees per acre
271
planting
269
profit
271
propagation
269
soil
267
yield
271
Ceylon, Camphor in ... 129,
17;
232
" Grass Oils in
100
Chalmers, F. V., on Tobacco of
Jamaica ... 59, 283
307
China Grass
286
Citronella Oil
100
Citrus decumana
36
" Fruits, Cultivation and Market-
ing of
49
in Porto Rico
in
Page
Cocoa Diseases, II.
Coco de mer
Coco-nut, bud-rot disease
" Double
" in Porto Rico ...
" Selection of Seed
Coffee cultivation in Brazil
" ■' Porto Rico 108
" Legislation in Brazil 127, 176
" Trust, proposed 177
Colletotrichum gossypii, var.
barbadense ... ^^
Colocasia ... 181
Colombian Scrap Rubber 271
Commercial Agent in London 63, 95,
n8, 143, 167
Congo Rubber ... 278
Corn, Analysis of ... 7
" Notes on Imported and Native,
and Analysis ... 6
" production and consumption 204
Cotton, Application of Paris Green
to ... 141
" Disease ... ^1
" in Porto Rico ... 112
" Remedy for Caterpillars on 10
" Seed, Sea Island, for 1906 127
Cousins, H. H., on Cassava Trials Tl
" " " Ginep as a Stock
Food ... 8
" " " Imported and
Native Corn ... 6
Cox, Hon. H. E., on Tea I
Cucumbers ... 219
Cultivation and marketing of Citrus
Fruits ... 49
Curcuma longa ... 163
Dalrymple, W. H., on Black-leg
disease ... 151
Date Palm, The culture of 208
climatic requirements 2o8
fungoid disease of 214
in Jamaica ... 213
in the United States 211
irrigation ... 210
planting and cultivation 209
pollination ... 210
yield ... 211
Dioscorea spp. ... 3
Diseased Plants, and Insect Pests :
How to forward ... 85
Disease Cocoa ... n
" Cotton ... yj
" Coco-nut ... 95, 156
Distillers' Course ... 240
Divi-divi ... 121, 122, 124
" Don'ts," Agricultural ... 96,119,142,
192, 215
Earle, Prof., on Logwood Disease 78
Early Oranges ... 81
Economic Products, Seasons and
Prices for, in Kingston 66
Edwards, J. W., on Logwood
Disease ... 80
m.
Page
Fawcett, W., on Early Oranges
Fern, New name for a Jamaican
" New species of Botrycliium
■■ New species of Polypodium
Fertilizer, Tobacco Dust as a
Fibre Macliines ... 300, 304
Ficus elastica ... 274
Forests and Rivers ... 188
Formalin, the use of, for preserving
fruit ... 154
Forsteronia floribunda ... 279
Freeman, W. G., Review of book on
Para Rubber ... 169
Fruit, New Method of keeping,
by use of Formalin ... 1 54
Fruits: Seasons and Prices for, in
Kingston ... 56
Funtumia elastica ... 171, 264
age at which seed is pro-
duced ... 171,264
age at which tree may be
tapped ... r7l, 264
as shade for Cocoa 171, 265
attacked by caterpillars
best districts in Jamaica
coagulating the milk 171,
collecting and pre-
paring the rubber
destruction of Ire forests
distance apart for planting
267
265
265
265
266
171
265
elevation for 171,
habitat ... 171,264
in Trinidad ... 264
in Western Africa 171, 264
pruning ... 265
seeds ... 171
situation for ... 171, 265
soil ... 171,265
value ... 265
Garcinia Mangostana ... 203
Garden Eggs ... 220
Gillespie Bros. & Co., on Jamaica
Ginger ... 166
Ginep, Analysis of ... 8
" as a Stock Food ... 8
Ginger, Jamaican ... 166
Grabham, M., on Silk Worms 121
Grape Fruit and Shaddocks, Notes on 36
Graphiola phoenicis ... 2 14
Grass Oils in Ceylon ... lOO
Grubs, beetles, &c., To destroy 217
Hard and Soft-wooded plants.
Planting of ... 161
Harris, W., Notes on Rubber-pro-
ducing plants 241
" " Seasons and Prices for
Fruits, Vegetables, &c.
in Kingston markets 65
" " on the cultivation of
vegetables ... 217, 305
" " on Yams ... 3
Hart, Mrs. Ernest, on Ramie and its
possibilities ... 296
Hevea brasiliensis ... 169, 241
Page
Hides and Skins ... 123
Hilipus elegans ... 1 16
Historical Notes on Economic
Plants : Tea ... I
Hope Gardens, Appointment of Asst.
" " Superintendent 191, 239,
284
" " Description of 33
Plan of ... 34
Howard, Dr. L. O., on Weevil
attacking Camphor trees 116
Insecticide, Tobacco Dust as an 178
Insect Pests ... 116
" " How to forward 85
Instructors, Agricultural, Conference 238
" for School Gardens 306
Ire ... 264
Jamaica Ginger ... 166
Rubber ... 279
collection of milk 279
locality ... 279
preparation of the rubber 280
propagation ... 280
source ... 279
value ... 280
yield ... 279
Kapok ... 233
Keeping fruit, by use of Formalin 154
Kidney beans ... 221
Kohl Rabi ... 221
Lagos Silk Rubber: See Funtumia
elastica ... 171, 264
Landolphia fiorida, Heudelotii,
Kirkii, Mannii, Owariensis, Peter-
siana ... 278,279
La Zacualpa Rubber Plantation : 145
Castilloa lactiflua 146
Castilloa elastica 148
cleansing the rubber 150
coagulating — native
Indian method 150
labour ... 147
latex ... 149
location of the Plantation 147
planting ... 148
tapping methods 149
washing the rubber 1 50
Leather, Manufacture of, in
Jamaica ... 121, 123
Lemon Grass Oil ... 102
" " " from Montserrat 105
Lettuce ... 221
Levy, H. Q., on Cultivation and
Marketing of Citrus Fruits 49
Lewkowitsch, Dr. J., on Ben Oil I13
Lily Bulbs in Bermuda ... 205
Lleren: A rare root crop 178
Lodoicea sechellarun ... 89
Logwood : Disease, Cultivation 78, 122
Root Rot ... 78
Lucas, George L., on Tobacco Dust
as Fertilizer and Insecticide 178
VI.
Page
Page
Taylor, Sir William, on Rubber in
the Federated Malay States
Tea
Teversham, T. F., Resignation of
Thompson, W. J., on Planting of
Hard and Soft-wooded plants
Tillman, Dr. H., on Early Oranges
Tobacco Dust as Fertilizer and
Insecticide
" experiment under shade
" for the Navy
" of Bermuda
" " Jamaica
" " Porto Rico
Tomatoes
Turmeric :
character and value
merce
cultivation
curcumin
food
haldi
medicine
preparation of the root-stock
Turnips
233
I
96
161
83
i;s
284
58, 307
206
58, 200. 283, 307
109
229
163
m com-
164
163
165
165
163
165
163
230
207
Vanilla statistics
Vegetables, Notes on cultivation
of ... 217,305
" Seasons and Prices for, in
Kingston ... 68
Virgen Rubber ._ 271
age at which crops may be
obtained ... 272
elevations for, in Colombia 272
" " in Jamaica 273
propagation ... 272
value of ... 272
Ward, Swinburne, on Coco de mer 89,
93
Water Melons . . . 230
Watson. Dr. Forbes, on Ramie 289, 292
Watts, Hon. F. on Lemon-grass Oil 105
Weevil attacking Camphor trees I16
Wildman. M. E. de, on Lagos Silk
Rubber ... 171
Worn-out Soils, Renovation of 193
Wortley, E. J., Analyses of Imported
and Native Corn 7
" Appointment as Lec-
turer in Agricultural Science 144
Wright, Herbert, on Cacao cultiva-
tion in Ceylon 236
" on Grass Oils 100
" on Para Rubber 169, 241
Xanthosoma
Yams, Notes on
181
Zacualpa : See La Zacualpa Rubber
Plantation ... 145
BULLETIN
DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Vol. IV.
JANUARY, 1906.
Part 1
EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S..
Director of Public Gardens atid Plantations.
CONTENTS:
Page.
Notes on Economic Plants : Yll
I
Yams
3
Notes on Imported and Native Corn
6
Ginep as a Stock Food ...
8
Palmyra Palm
8
Rust Mite of the Orange
9
Remedy for Caterpillars on Cotton, Cassava
L, etc.
10
Cocoa Diseases n.
II
Value of Mulching II. ...
13
The Talipot Palm
19
The Future of Rubber ...
20
Board of Agriculture ...
22
PRIG E— Threepence.
A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send name and
address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plautatious, Kingatoii P.O.
KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
Hope Gardens.
1906.
JAMAICA.
LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BULLETIN 7-„--
OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUPtE.
Vol. IV. JANUARY, 1906. Part 1.
HISTORICAL NOTES ON ECONOMIC PLANTS IN
JAMAICA.
VI. — Tea (continued.)
An article on tea appeared in the Bulletin for June and July,
1903.
In order to bring the subject up to date the following para-
graphs by Hon. H. E. Cox are reprinted from Jamaica in 1905.
" There are at present only two tea plantations in the western
hemisphere ; one at Summerville, South Carolina, U.S.A., and the
other at Ramble in St. Ann, Jamaica.
"Varieties of the tea plant were introduced into Jamaica in 1868,
and were planted in the public gardens on the Blue Mountains,
some 4,900 feet above sea-level, where they grew well. Some
twenty years later a plantation of about 13 acres was formed in
the neighbourhood of the gardens at Cinchona, but the cultivation
was discontinued, and although the bushes are still growing well,
it has not yet been resumed. In 1896 the plantation at Ramble
in St. Ann was commenced. Its progress at first was very slow,
every step having to be tested by experiment. The soil being
different to that at Cinchona, the rainfall less than at that place,
and the elevation only 1,600 feet above sea-level, it was necessary
to commence by trying whether the plant would grow under the
altered conditions sufficiently well to make it worth while to incur
the great initial expense of forming a plantation. This test was
made with 250 plants and a packet of seed from the Cinchona
gardens. The result being favourable, the cultivation was
extended as plants or seed could be procured ; but the quantity
not being large, for several years only a small acreage could be
planted. Of course, seed could have been imported, but it was
decided not to do so for two reasons ; firstly, that the tea grown
might be homogeneous in character, and secondly, for fear of
importing certain enemies of the plant with the seed. Latterly
the cultivation has expanded more rapidly, seed being obtained
from the plants first put in ; there are now from 80 to 90 acres
with plants of various ages.
" After demonstrating that the plant would grow in St. Ann, it
was necessary to experiment in manufacturing the tea from the
leaf to judge whether its quality would justify a heavy expenditure
on machinery for curing it. This test having been passed,
machinery was procured and tea prepared for market, the first
occasion being at the Thickets Show, in August, 1903. Since that
time additional and improved machinery has been set up, and
with the experience gained by practice in the manufacture, a good
class of tea is being turned out.
" Tea is essentially a factory crop; it requires a large initial
outlay for buildings and machinery ; and there must be a consider-
able expenditure for keeping the ground clean while the plants are
growing, about five years. In Jamaica this item constitutes a
serious handicap on the planter, as compared with India, where
the rate of wages is very much lower. For these reasons, tea cultiva-
tion requires a much longer period of waiting, before it can be
remunerative, than some other cultivations, such as the banana ;
but on the other hand, it is not subject to any great risk from
hurricanes, and it is a crop with many advantages for the settler
who lives within reach of a factory. He can grow the plant in
his provision ground without stopping his other cultivation, and
when the plants are large enough he will have at the factory at
all times a market for his leaf."
The Gleaner Newspaper published an interview with Sir D.
Morris, Commissioner for the Imperial Department of Agriculture,
in the course of which reference was made to Mr. Cox's tea planta-
tion, as follows : —
" Amongst the newer industries, I am glad to find that the Hon.
H. E. Cox has extended his tea cultivation at Ramble, St. Ann, to
90 acres. This area is beautifully kept and the trees are in
excellent health. The quality of the tea has greatly improved
since my last visit to Jamaica, and when the new machinery which
Mr. Cox has imported is in full working order, the tea of the
coming season should all be of first-class quality. The tea is
entirely made by machinery, and does not come in contact with
the hands of the working people during the process of manufacture.
This is the only tea cultivation in the West Indies and the
prospects for the industry are very favourable."
YAMS.
By W. Harris, F.L.S., Superintendent of Hope Gardens.
As far as I am able to gather the cultivated yams of Jamaica
may all be referred to four species of Dioscorea, viz. : —
D. sativa, Linn.. D. alata, Linn., D. cayennensis, Lam., and D.
trifida, Linn., all climbing plants belonging to the order Dios-
coreaccea, and cultivated in the tropics.
It is exceedingly difficult to get good botanical specimens of
these cultivated plants, but from enquiries made amongst cultiva-
tors, and by carefully comparing the information thus gained with
the published descriptions of cultivated species of Dioscorea, I have
arrived at the determinations here given. If ever the numerous
recognised varieties are critically examined, it is possible that
some of those now included D. sativa, and D. alata will be referred
to other species.
Dioscorea sativa, Linn. " Negro Yam. "
Stem cylindrical, not winged, more or less prickly ; leaves heart-
shaped, roundish, gradually tapering into a sharp point.
Tuber large, of a dark colour externally, but the end white and
bitter when boiled if not perfectly ripe. This yam is of a dirty
white colour when cooked, and is soft, but is considered a good
yam.
The Negro Yam is always cut before it is quite ripe, otherwise
a very small " head" for planting would be obtained. It is a hardy
yam and is the best kind for cold districts in the hills.
Varieties. — " Man Yam." A larger yam and better flavoured than
the " Negro." Tuber oblong, of nearly the same diameter through-
out its length. This is allowed to ripen before being cut.
" Litcea Yam." This is a longer yam than either the " Negro"
or the " Man." In flavour it is considered superior to the " Negro"
but inferior to the " Man." Tuber about the same thickness
throughout its length. This yam is largely cultivated in the
western parishes (Hanover, &c.), and is shipped in considerable
quantities from the port of Lucea (hence its name) to Kingston,
also to Cuba. It is a first-rate yam.
" Mozclla," or " Bitter Yam." Very like the "Lucea," but of a
purplish colour underneath the skin, and with a bitter taste when
cooked, even when carefully cured.
The stems of this variety climb to a great height, reaching the
top of the highest tree if they happen to get hold of the branches.
Dioscorea alata, Linn. "White Yam."
India. Stems sharply angled, winged ; leaves heart-shaped,
roundish, or pointed, variable in size and shape, often very large.
Tuber very large as a rule, white.
Varieties: — "Guinea Yam." One of the larges white yams.
Skin smooth ; tuber soft when cooked, flavour good. Like the
" Mozella Yam," the stems climb to a great height.
"Moonshine Yam." Skin of a purple colour. A good white
yam.
" Snake Yam." Tubers club-shaped; growing to a length of 3
or 4 feet, and 8 or 9 inches in circumference. Not grown to any
extent, being of poor quality.
"Silver Yam." A dry, floury yam, one of the best of the white
yams.
" Bull-head Hard Yam." A rough coated, hairy yam, the shape
of the tubers supposed to have some resemblance to a bull's head.
It is a hard yam when cooked, but of good flavour.
"Two-sister's Hard Yam." Somewhat similar to the "Bull-
head." Called " Two-sisters" because each " head" produces two
tubers.
" Bear-and-drop Hard-head." Produces a large number of small
tubers which are joined together in a mass by fibrous roots. When
handled, however, they drop asunder. The tubers are very watery
when cooked, and this is altogether a useless sort, and not
cultivated.
" Bragging Tom Yam." Said to be the largest white yam grown.
Tubers measuring 3 to 4 feet in length, and 18 inches in diameter,
have been grown. It is very scarce, but was formerly cultivated
with much care. Large pits were dug, filled with rotten manure,
and covered with soil and the " heads" planted. In addition to
being a very large yam, it is considered one of the best when
carefully cultivated.
"Pucka Yam." A large, round sort, and so soft that in cooking
it must be steamed, not boiled. A good yam.
" Bullet-tree Pucka Yam." A large, round yam like the " Pucka,"
but the surface of the tuber is curiously pitted, the indentations
being of a considerable size.
"Flour Yam." A soft floury yam. One of the best.
"Barbados Yam." A large yam, but clammy when cooked, and
not considered a first-class kind. In some districts, however, it is
of fair quality and is much liked.
DISCOREA CAYENNENSIS, Lam. "Yellow Yam." " Afou Yam."
Stems cylindrical, sparsely prickly below ; leaves heart-shaped,
roundish, pointed, 7 nerved, about 3i inches long by 3 inches
broad, quite glabrous, papery in texture ; flower spikes usually in
pairs, produced from the axils of the leaf stalks. Tuber large,
often branched, of a sulphur-yellow colour. If the tubers are
allowed to become exposed during growth they are very bitter
when cooked. Those grown in good open soils are fairly dry and
mealy, but tubers grown in heavy, damp soils are clammy in
texture when boiled, and anything but palatable. At best it is a
heavy, coarse yam, but is grown extensively and is a general
favourite amongst the working classes. It thrives best in hot dis-
tricts, but it is a hardy yam and is not so readily affected by
unfavourable climatic conditions as the more delicate white yams.
It can be had at almost any time of the year, as tubers are cut
from the growing plants often twice, the hills are moulded up again
and fresh tubers are produced. There do not appear to be any
named varieties of this plant.
DIOSCOREA TRIFIDA Linn. "Indian Yam." "\ampee" "Ciish-
Cusli." Stem angular, slightly winged; leaves 3-lobed ; tuber
cylindrical, about 6 inches long. Each plant produces several
tubers.
This is quite the nicest of all yams for table. The tubers boiled
or roasted, and eaten with good butter, are delicious. They have
a " nutty" flavour not noticeable in other yams.
DIOSCOREA BULBIFERA, Linn. "Acorn Yam." "Bulb-bearing
Yam." East Indies. Naturalised in West Indies.
Stem sub-cylindrical ; leaves heart-shaped, ovate, pointed ; tuber
somewhat globose.
This plant produces numbers of rather large bulbils on its
stems ; these are of a light brown colour, about 3 inches long,
oval roundish, or flat on one side. They may be planted to pro-
pagate the plant. The tubers are rarely eaten, but a good starch
is obtained from them.
Cultivation.
There is no crop so generally grown in the West Indies as
that of yam of one kind or another. In Jamaica, yams may be
seen from near the coast up to 4,000 feet altitude, and they seem
to thrive everywhere.
Tubecs grown in good open soils are naturally superior to those
grown in damp, heavy clayey soils, but certain varieties are suited
to the soils of certam districts, and as this is a crop on which the
small cultivator largely depends for his food supply, he grows
only those varieties that he knows from his own experience, and
that of his neighbours, will produce good crops in the land that
he cultivates.
The main crop of yams is planted from January to end of March,
but planting is continued to July.
The " Negro" and " Indian" yams are planted first, and they
take from five to seven months to produce edible tubers ; the
" Afou" or " yellow yam" is planted next, and it takes about seven
months ; the " White Yams" are planted last, and they take ten to
twelve months to arrive at maturity. The length of time varies
according to altitude and climate. In the mountains, from the
time of planting to the time of lifting the ripe " heads" occupies
twelve months.
The first tubers of "Negro Yam" and its varieties, and the
" Afou" are cut during the growth of the plants, but the " White
Yams" are allowed to finish their growth and ripen before being
cut. When the tubers are all cut, the base of the vine, with the
fibrous roots is carefully moulded up, and left undisturbed for a
period of five or six months, or longer, during which time the
" head" is formed. When the stems and leaves turn yellow and
begin to decay, the "head" is ripe. The heads, as a rule, are
lifted, and kept perfectly dry till required for planting. Shoots
are produced by these in the same way as produced by potatoes
that are kept for seed. Generally, the heads are planted whole,
but occasionally a head is composed of two or three small tubers,
and these are separated and planted, two of these small heads
being placed in a hill instead of one strong one.
Preparing the hills. The cultivator with his hoe digs the ground
on an area of about four feet by three ; he thoroughly pulverizes
this and picks out all stones, roots, &c., and draws the soil into a
mound. The hills are usually 6 feet apart, and when all are pre-
pared, he proceeds to plants his "heads." With his hand he
makes an opening in the centre of the hill or mound of earth, and
carefully plants his " seed," generally one strong head to each hill.
As soon as planting is finished, he puts a stout bamboo pole or
stake firmly in the ground, one to each plant, as a support for the
vines to twine on, and he slants these in one direction up the hill
(yams are generally grown on the hill-sides in Jamaica). He care-
fully watches his plants, moulding the hills, and training the
young vines in the way that they should grow.
When the tubers are fit for cutting they are used principally by
the grower and his family, but any surplus stock is disposed of.
His wife takes them to the nearest local market and either sells
them, or barters them for plantains, " new sugar," or any other
product not grown or prepared in her own district, or she carries
them to Kingston market, and with the proceeds purchases such
necessaries as she may require.
Catch crops are always grown between yam hills ; these may
be corn, peas, ochro, pumpkins, melons, cucumbers, or other quick
growing crops.
A curious fact in connection with the twining habit of yams
may be noted here. As far as I am aware, the stems of all the
cultivated species, with one exception, twine to the right, that is
from the west, by the south to the east. The exception is the
Indian yam, or Cush-Cush, it twines to the left, that is from the
west, by the north to the east.
NOTES ON IMPORTEDAND NATIVE COR"^ .
By H. H. Cousins, M.A., Agricultural Chemist.
Analyses of seven samples of imported American corn as sold
in Jamaica have been made to ascertain the average composition
of the imported article in comparison with well-cured native corn.
The average of the seven samples, which show little variation, in-
dicates a content of 9"4 per cent, of albuminoids as against I2*4 in a
fair sample of country corn based upon a content of 12 '/, moisture.
These figures clearly bring out the fact that our tropical corn is
richer in flesh-producing material than the imported corn grown
in the United States and is therefore superior as a food for horses.
These analyses are the work of Mr. E. J. Wortley, Assistant
Chemist, and are a continuation of the analyses already published
in this Bulletin, Vol. III. Oct., 1905, p. 214.
•ajnistotn
)/o zi Biseq
nospiouranq^V
C3
S5
o/o ejqi J
■n/o iB^
U5
CO
lO
CO
CO
1(1
■ajtnsTO^\[
o
CO
CO
00
CO
CO ■*
•<as-9XM
X
fe
s
fe
5
CO
00
00
o
spiouicnnmv
00
05
00
00
00
cs
O)
Ol
1— 1
•neSoj^i^ IB'jox
^
•*
rH
tX
•*
rM
2
CO
CI
•qsy
CO
s
O
o
^3
CO
CI
CO
^
-^
—
^
—
fH
1-H
-'
—
o
u
■a
o
3
O
D
a
o
c
p
o
C3
!>
o
o
a
9
O
O
o
»5
GINEP AS A STOCK FOOD.
By H. H. Cousins, M.A., Agricultural Chemist.
My attention was called to the practical value of the fruit of
ginep (Melicocca bijuga) for feeding sheep by Mr. Facey of
Montego Bay —
Analyses have been made in the Laboratory with the following
results : —
GINEP.
Skin 227 % Seed 317 '1, Pulp 45-6 1
Ripe Fruit.
Dried at 100- C.
•
3
00
a
SO
CO
0
•=.(5
rsxi
£
3
to
'0
•i
0
0=^
.5 to
"5"
£
£
'o
J3
-4J
O
d
IS
o
"o"
fei
<.
^
•A
tq
'^
^
<
H
<
l£<
E
Seed
54-71
1-22
•84
6 22
•63
5-09
2-69
1-86
11-56
M7
11-21
Seeii, skin & pulp .
80-52
-53
.32
1-97
•25
2.1
2 67
1-64
1011
1 28
10-77
The seed is fairly rich in albuminoids and may fairly be regarded
as a concentrated food-stuff that should be valuable as an addition
to grass and green fodder.
THE PALMYRA PALM.
Sir J. E. Tennant in his work on " Ceylon," speaks as follows
of the Palmyra Palm (Borassus flabelliformis).
" The palmyra is an invaluable palm, and one of the most
beautiful of the family. It grows in such profusion over the
north of Ceylon, and especially in the peninsula of Jaffna, as to
form extensive forests, whence its timber is exported for rafters
to all parts of the island, as well as to the opposite coast of India,
where, though the palmyra grows luxuriantly, its wood, from local
causes, is too soft and perishable to be used for any purpose
requiring strength and durability, qualities which, in the palmyra
of Ceylon, are pre-eminent. To the inhabitants of the northern
provinces this invaluable tree is of the same importance as the
coco-nut palm is to the natives of the south. Its fruits yields them
food and oil ; its juice " palm wine" and sugar ; its stem is the
chief material of their builings ; and its leaves, besides serving as
roofs to their dwellings and fences to their farms, supply them
with matting and baskets, with head-dresses and fans, and serve
as a substitute for paper for their deeds and writings, and for the
sacred books, which contain the traditions of their faith. It has
been said with truth that a native of Jaffna, if he be contented
with ordinary doors and mud walls, may build an entire house (as
he wants neither nails nor iron work), with walls, roof, and cover-
ing from the Palmyra palm. From this same tree he may draw
his wine, make his oil, kindle his fire, carry his water, store his
food, cook his repast, and sweeten it, if he pleases ; in fact, he
does so live from day to day dependent on his palmyra alone.
Multitudes so live, and it may be safely asserted that this tree
alone furnishes one-fourth the means of sustenance for the
population of the northern provinces."
THE RUST MITE OF THE ORANGE.
The mite* which causes the rust of the orange, lives on all
citrus plants. It is very small, only o^q of an inch in length.
The eggs hatch in four or five days, and within seven to ten days
the young mites undergo a moult. The period of moulting, or
casting the skin, lasts two days, and eggs are probably laid in a
few days after the moult.
The mites feed on the essential oil of the leaves and fruit, and
move from one part of the plant to another as the conditions
favour them.
EFFECTS OF ATTACK.
On the leaves each puncture of the mites causes a minute pimple,
and if the mites are abundant, the leaf surface loses its gloss, and
has a tarnished dusty appearance. The leaves do not drop off,
but there is a loss of vitality, and the growth of the plant is to
some extent checked.
If the fniit is severely attacked, it does not attain its full size.
The skin shrinks and toughens, preserving the fruit from injury
and decay, so that it carries better, keeps longer, and is superior
in flavour to bright fruit.
REMEDIES.
In applying remedies, the life history must be remembered ; and
that while it is comparatively easy to kill the adult mites, it is
very difficult to kill the eggs and the young mites while they are
protected by the old skin during the moulting stage. Either the
remedy must be sufficient to kill eggs and young as well as adults,
or it must be repeated at intervals.
Whale Oil Soap. — Whale oil soap solution, made by dissolving
one pound of the soap in ten gallons of water, is effectual in
killing all the adults, and a large percentage of moulting mites
and eggs. Applications should be made by a spray pump, and be
repeated several times at intervals of a few days.
One pound to five gallons of water in still more effectual but
while not injuring the leaves, may cause the blossoms to fall off"
if applied when the plant is in flower.
Sulphur. — Finely powdered flower of sulphur kills both adult
and young mites, but does not affect the eggs. It may be dusted
on the plant, or applied in water by spraying, — putting two or
three ounces of sulphur to one gallon of water. If scale-insects
* H. G. Hubbard in Ann. Rep. U. S. Dept. of Agri. 188i, page
361.
10
are troublesome, the sulphur in the same proportions can be used
with kerosene emulsion, so that both the mites and the scale-
insects are attacked by each application.
REMEDY FOR CATERPILLARS ON COTTON,
CASSAVA, &c.
Paris Green has been recommended in the Bulletin* as a dry
application for the Cotton Worm, and it is believed that under all
ordinary conditions the method recommended is the simplest,
cheapest and most effective.
But wrhere six or seven hundred acres of cotton are planted out
in fields of from lOO to 300 acres as a new cultivation with large
numbers of wild cotton plants growing all through the neighbour-
hood the opportunity for the cotton worm to increase and multiply
is at once made use of, and when rain falls every afternoon,
washing off the Paris Green, the resultant plague of cotton worms
causes very extensive destruction, and a new remedy has to be
found to deal with any such emergency.
It is believed that such remedy is arsenate of lead applied by
means of a knapsack spray pump. It does not wash off easily, and
does not injure young foliage as excess of Paris Green does.
It is useful for the destniction of any caterpillar or worm that
injures by eating, e.g. the cassava caterpillar, and should be kept
ready in stock for any emergency that may arise.
Prof. Fernald of Massachusetts Agricultural College recom-
mends! the following recipe : —
Arsenate of Lead.
4 oz. arsenate of soda (50 % strength).
II oz. acetate of lead.
150 gallons water.
" Put the arsenate of soda in 2 quarts of water in a wooden pail,
and the acetate of lead in four quarts of water in another wooden
pail. When both are dissolved, mix with the rest of the water.
Warm water in the pails will hasten the process."
The proportion of water may vary, the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture
(Bull. 41, Div. Entom.) recommends less than half the water.
If fungus also attacks the leaf, as it did cotton in Vere lately,
mix with Bordeaux mixturej: as follows : — •
"Prepare the arsenate of lead as above, but instead of adding
the arsenate of soda and acetate of lead, when dissolved, to the
water, mix the two together well, then add one-third of this to 50
gallons of Bordeaux mixture".
Arsenate of lead is put on the market in a very convenient form
under the name of Bowker's Disparene & Swift's Arsenate of Lead.
The latter can be purchased in Kingston.
•Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Jamaica, II. July 1904, page 159;
III. Sept. 1905, page 203.
t Bulletin No. 96. Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College, May 1904.
J Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Jamaica, III. March 1905, page 61.
II
COCOA DISEASES. II.
In the December Bulletin (page 270) an account was given of a
disease of Cocoa pods in which the darkening of the pod is
accompanied by white mould on the outside.
Mr. Hart in a paper on " Some Fungi of the Cacao Tree* states
that in Trinidad "the disease was observed to be most prevalent
in places where the atmosphere was humid and where the pods
had been allowed to rot beneath the trees."
Mr. Albert Howard, formerly the expert in fungoid diseases to
the Imperial Department of Agriculture, recommends, f besides
the remedies mentioned last month, " Reduction of shade. Where
cacao is grown under shade as in Trinidad, and where this dis-
ease is prevalent, it would be advisable to diminish the number
of shade trees and to prune the cacao trees as much as possible, so
as to considerably reduce the humidity of the atmosphere. In this
way conditions could be adjusted so as to be unfavourable to the
development and spread of the fungus while not interfering with
the growth of the cacao tree."
Another disease has been noticed as occurring in Jamaica, that
known as the " brown rot" disease of the pod. J This was deter-
mined here, and confirmed by reference to the Commissioner of
the Imperial Department of Agriculture. It is described in the
paper by Mr. Howard as follows —
" When cacao pods are attacked by this disease, a circular
brown patch makes its appearance which gradually extends all over
the pod and causes complete destruction of the rind and its con-
tents. The time taken in the destruction of a pod varies somewhat
according to its ripeness, but usually falls between six and ten
days from the appearance of a diseased spot visible to the naked
eye. This appearance must not be confused with the rusty or
" mahogany" pods which result from " thrips" when the whole of
the outside of the pods takes on a rusty colour but when the rind
is not diseased.** The definite brown patches in question gene-
rally commence either at the insertion of the stalk or at the free
end of the pod, but they may occur at other points, especially
where the rind has been injured or where the pod comes in contact
with a branch. These diseased pods are particularly numerous
near the '" breaking-grounds" where the beans are extracted by
the pickers. If one of these attacked pods is carefully examined
it will be found that the brown area is rotten and that the decay
extends to and spreads round the shell of the pod to a much
greater distance than would be supposed from a surface examina-
tion. The disease soon spreads to the " beans" which are speedily
attacked and destroyed by a greyish fungus mycelium which grows
* W. Indian Bulletin Vol. I. pp. 4l>2-7 with plate,
t W. Indian Bulletin Vol. II. p. 198.
j Diplodia cacaoicoia.
** The rusty colour of the pods attacked by "thrips" is caused by the formation of a
cork layer, below thn epidermis, which cuts ofE all the cells above it. These cut off cells
consequently dry up and turn brown. The cork layer is really a new epidermis layer
formed on account of the numerous perforations made in the original epidermal cells
by the " thrips."
12
with enormous rapidity in tlie mucilage surrounding the seeds, and
eventually dries up the whole contents of the fruit, and gives to it
a curious sour smell.
" When the diseased patch on the rind is about the size of a
penny piece, small circular mounds, about the size of a pin's head,
can be seen about the centre of the brown area on the rind from
which a greyish white powdery dust is expelled which turns black
in a short time. This dust is composed of elliptical dark brown
one-septate spores. The small mounds into which the surface of
the pod is raised are found to be due to the fructifications of a
fungus in which the above spores are formed which rupture the
epidermis and liberate the spores through a small circular opening.
Remedial Measures.
"It is obvious when we consider the character of this disease
that no steps can be taken, with any hope of success, to arrest the
spread of the fungus when once it has gained access to a pod — in
other words, there is no ' cure' for the disease. Preventive measures
alone are possible, and these must be directed towards the des-
truction of everything in the plantations which harbours the fungus
with a view of preventing further infection by means of spores.
The following treatment is suggested for dealing with the disease.
" I. As a general rule care should be taken not to allow the pods
to get too ripe, as the fungus seems most liable to attack pods in
this condition. Again, ripe pods, showing small brown discoloured
areas, should be picked at once so as to save the beans if possible.
" 2. All husks or shells left after the beans have been extracted,
should be buried as soon as possible under the trees, and, if the
buried heaps are large, lime should be added to hasten decay and
prevent local souring of the soil. There are two obvious reasons
why this expense in burying pods should be incurred. First, there
is the advantage to the soil in supplying humus, and secondly,
the fungus is deprived of a substratum on which it thrives and
produces countless millions of spores which may infect living pods.
The "breaking-grounds" should be moved from time to time so as
to give as many trees as possible the benefit of this manuring.
Recently, while making a tour through the island of Grenada, I
was very forcibly impressed by the general absence of this disease
in plantations where the pods were systematically buried, and also
by its presence on estates and small holdings where this practice
had not yet been adopted. Indications are not wanting, however,
that cacao planters are realising the importance of this step, both
from the point of view of the enrichment of the soil and the preven-
tion of disease.
" 3. All badly diseased pods on the trees where the fungus has
reached the beans, and all old husks on the ground which have
turned black and become covered with the sooty spores of the
fungus, should either be buried away from the cacao trees or else
burnt.
13
" 4- All dead cacao trees, old prunings and branches should be
periodically collected and burnt, and the ashes which are rich in
potash, spread under the trees. This proceeding is necessary
because the fungus lives on dead cacao wood and will thus be able
to infect healthy pods."
VALUE OF MULCHING, II.
The value of mulching has been recognised in Jamaica for some
years, and in the December Bulletin an account was given of exact
experiments that had been carried out in Dominica under the
general superintendence of Hon. Dr. F. Watts, showing that
mulching cocoa with leaves and grass during a period of three
years gave a greater increase in crop than various manures.
The report of the Annual General Meeting of the United
Planters' Association of Southern India held last August, has just
been received, and it is instructive to note that the coffee planters
there appear to think they may have been using too much artificial
manure during the past 20 years, and that they are just beginning
to recognise the value of mulching.
The following are extracts from the very interesting report of
the meeting : —
Mr. a. F. Martin : — Dr. Lehmann has told us that the general
practice in several countries is that the amount of manure to be
put on a field is calculated by first of all determining how much
of the soil constituents the crop has removed from the ground ;
but in coffee we have not only to consider what amount has been
removed by the crop, but we have to consider the general health
of the tree. I would like to know if it would not be necessary to
give other manures and a greater quantity than has actually been
removed by the crop ?
Dr. Lehmann : — In other countries, as a general principle, the
manure is added in proportion to the soil constituents removed by
the crop. It is absolutely impossible, however, to keep a book
account of that kind. But as a general principle, it has been
recommended by certain German chemists, and the results they
have obtained are certainly satisfactory. In regard to the coffee
tree, there is absolutely nothing to show that the coffee tree will
differ from other crops. The coffee tree will yield in proportion
to its vigour. It cannot yield a crop if it is not in a vigorous
condition ; unless it is injured to such an extent as to put forth a
special effort to repi'oduce its species before it dies, as, for
example, in a badly bored tree. But these are abnormal conditions.
Under normal conditions, a coffee tree will produce an amount of
crop to a certain extent proportionate to the vigour and health of
the tree. Perhaps you may have a number of examples which
appear to contradict this, for the principle is only generally
applicable. If we return to the soil the same amount of plant
14
food we have removed from it, the amount of plant food will
remain stationary. Mr. Hughes in his attempt to arrive at a
similar basis for Ceylon has taken into account the leaves that
drop off and the pulp and everything else. All these are returned
to the soil. Therefore they do not require to enter into the
calculation. But I do not recommend a reduction in manures. I
only recommend, and that most emphatically, the necessity for
experimenting with manures. I do not wish to lay before you
any facts and figures for reducing your bill in manuring. I only
wish to enlist your sympathies in the matter of experimenting, and
in order to do so I have pointed out that there may be a possibility
of reducing such a very important matter as the manure account.
In order to convince you that there may be a possibility of reduc-
ing that expenditure, I have quoted facts and figures which have
led me to think that there is such a possibility. I don't want to
interfere with the present manuring problem. We are not in a
position to do so, but we are in a position to realise that we must
have information on the matter, that our present system of
manuring is not necessarily accurate or the best or the right
thing to do.
Mr. Harris : — I should like to mention in connection with
what Dr. Lehmann said about the matter of experimental plots,
that what he stated is perfectly correct and that the average for
the past 4 years show that the manured plots have yielded the
smallest crops. But it is rather interesting to notice that during
the last year of the experiment the no-manured plots show a
decided tendency to decrease ; which rather points to the fact that
they might have fed on manure previously received.
Dr. Lehmann : — That is just what I have been wishing to
impress upon the meeting. Probably we have over-manured the
plots in the past. If we had done so, we must know it ; because,
of the manure that we put into the soil, although a certain propor-
tion of it remains there, a certain proportion is lost. The experi-
ments which I have made in regard to the after effects of poonac
on Ragi have conclusively indicated that there is very little
manurial effect of poonacs left in the soil after one year. Our
principal manures have been bone and poonac. Bone contains
a certain amount of nitrogen. Its principal constituent is
phosphoric acid. If we take as a basis the experience of other
countries, we may say that phosphoric acid will remain in the soil ;
but the nitrogen, which is the most expensive constituent, will
undoubtedly be lost sooner or later. If we have applied manures
which have given nitrogen for four years, then we have been
applying very much, too much of it. The nitrogen that is
applied in the poonacs will certainly not last longer than four
years.
Mr. DANVERS : — The nitrogen in bone, will it not last longer ?
Dr. Lehmann : — I might say that in the experiments I have just
told you about there was apparently no after effect either from the
IS
poonac or the bone. As regards the availability of bone meal
Dr. Kellner's experiments conducted in Japan are probably the
most valuable to us. He found that bone meal was, under the
conditions which existed in his experiments, much more available
than the results of Wagner, Maerker and other German investiga-
tors indicated. Kellner found bone meal about as available as
Basic Slag, and in that case the after effect is of course relatively
small for if the principal part of the fertilizer is used the first year
there is not much left of it for the second and third years. What
I saw on Mr. Sprott's estate seems to indicate that Kellner's results
obtained in Japan are more likely to apply to India than Wagner's
experiments made in Germany. Mr. Sprott had put out what ap-
peared to me very coarse bone meal to one of his fields about 10
months before I visited his estate. This bone meal was left on the
surface and only covered by the leaves which gradually dropped
from the shade trees and coffee bushes. All we could find of this
bone meal was a splinter a little over an inch long and a little less
than half an inch thick, and this crumbled to powder when rubbed
between the fingers. You will agree with me, I am sure, that this
indicates that under the conditions existing on Mr. Sprott's estate,
bone meal decomposes very quickly. Possibly the reason for this
is that the bone meal is surrounded by decomposing organic
matter, and that the carbonic acid produced helps to dissolve the
bone.
Mr. DANVERS : — I think the solubility of Mr. Sprott's bone
manure is largely due to the nature of the plots to which it was
applied. I am still digging up bones in my estate that were put
out 9 or 10 or even 25 years or more years ago.
I would like to ask Dr. Lehmann whether he has had any oppor-
tunity of ascertaining if there is any difference in quality, judged
by analyses, between coffee from these manured and unmanured
experimental plots ; whether there has been any deterioration in
the unmanured coffee or improvement in the manured ?
Dr. Lehmann : — I have not had an opportunity of determining
the specific gravity of the coffee from these plots. I shall do so,
with Mr. Harris and Mr. Denne's permission, in future. But as
there has been no difference in the average quantity of coffee pro-
duced apparently manures have had no effect on these plots ; and
I do not know whether it will be reasonable to expect that manures
had an effect on the quality if they had no effect on the quantity.
In regard to the matter of bone manure, I am very much interested
in what Mr. Danvers has told us. It seems to confirm the idea I
have given you just now in regard to the reason why Mr. Sprott's
results are different from those obtained in Europe. In the expe-
riments made in Europe with bones in pot-cultures, the soil in the
pots is comparatively poor in organic matter. Although Mr. C.
Danver's estate soil contains more organic matter than is used in pot
culture it does not contain as much organic matter as there is, or
was, on the surface of Mr. Sprott's estates. I may here mention
another idea I have ; that is, that the organic matter on the surface
i6
soil is one of the most essential things we have to consider in the
matter of coffee growing. We hear of the deterioration of coffee,
and have several indications that that deterioration is due to a
diminution of the organic matter in the soil. I think it behoves
us to be most careful in regard to this organic matter. In these
tropical climates organic matter decomposes very very quickly.
There are indications, I believe, that coffee is able to assimilate
directly organic matter which is on the surface. As a rule, plant
roots are not able to do so. Organic matter in the soil acts only
on the mechanical condition of the soil with crops like wheat,
barley and oats. But in the case of coffee we are dealing with a
plant about which we know very little, and the fact that there is a
great cluster of very thick white rootlets going through organic
matter on Mr. Sprott's estate seems to me to indicate that probably
or possibly, coffee roots may be surrounded with that network of
mycelium, which Dr. Butler has found to exist on the roots of tea
plants. I cannot speak with any degree of certainty about it.
But it appears to me, that the thickness of the white-tipped coffee
roots that I have seen is larger than is generally the case ; and
from the fact that these roots are found in such large numbers on
the surface and from the fact that they are of such large diameter
I conclude that there is a possibility that these roots are able to
make use directly of the organic matter which is on the surface,
and that they do not only make use of this organic matter but may
very possibly require it ; and to my mind, at any rate, there is a
very hopeful indication that coffee may be improved in quality in
the future. I may mention here, too, that all the mulching experi-
ments which have been carried out in Mysore have, so far as I
know, been very successful indeed. I remember one patch of very
poor coffee on a heavy clay soil, in an otherwise nice piece of
coffee, which I advised the manager to mulch heavily. The next
year when I saw that patch, I could not distinguish it from the
surrounding coffee. I think Mr. Harris will bear me out that on
his estate the mulching that has been done has been effective.
The effect of a mulch is two-fold ; it supplies organic matter to
the surface when it decomposes and it prevents the nasty disagre-
able caking on the soil which is so deleterious to coffee.
MR. SPROTT : — I should be obliged if Dr. Lehmann could tell us
what manure had been put to these experimental plots previous to
their being taken up for experiments, and also if he could tell us
the amount of manure which he put to the manured portions of it.
I do not know if Mr. Harris could tell us that. I ask him because
I have been very much of Dr. Lehman's opinion, after having had
very many conversations with him on the subject. I think we
have been very much over-manuring and have wasted a great deal.
I am trying now putting smaller doses of manure, for I think there
is a possibility of our having over-manured. I am watching very
carefully whether coffee deteriorates in any way by lessening the
manure. So far, I can only say it has not ; and I think that
spreading our manure in smaller quantities over an area will bring
in beneficial results. I can also strongly bear out what Dr. Lehmann
17
said about mulching. I have tried it on several bare patches of
ground. It has done far more good than a heavy dose of manure.
Mr. DanVERS : — I have some patches to which manuring year
after year has done no good ; but mulching has done good to
them.
The Honble. MR. HODGSON : — I have been very much interested
in what Dr. Lehmann has told us today. Whenever he comes to
our Session, he has a great deal to say to us of very great value.
Very important is the problem to us of the psssibility of reducing
the cost of manure. I believe that Dr. Lehmann is on the right
track in this matter, for I have noticed for some years past that
a great many estates have necessarily been obliged to reduce
the cost of manuring as a matter of economy. The price of coffee
having gone down, they simply have no money for heavy manu-
ring, and curiously enough, concurrently with the reduction
in the quantity of manure applied, there has been in many cases
an increase even in the crop returns. That is a remarkable thing.
It rather bears out what Mr. Harris and Mr. Sprott have told us
about the two plots of unmanured lands yielding larger crop aver-
ages. But then there are two accounts to be considered in work-
ing out profits, the Revenue and the Capital account , and both
these have to be kept in view. Along with the Revenue account
the condition of the estate, whether it has deteriorated or not, must
be taken into consideration in working out profits.
If this were not done, it would be quite possible to show a good
profit in the Revenue account which in reality has been taken out
of Capital, that is to say by sweating the trees, and this might
even be kept up for two or three years. It is therefore very neces-
sary, as Dr. Lehmann always impresses upon us, to be very care-
ful as to our facts in drawing conclusions from experiments.
Mr. DanvERS : — I think what you say bears out what Dr. Leh-
mann recommends, viz., the carrying out of these experiments for
a long series of years. In four years the yield of crops may not
have reduced but the estate may have deteriorated.
Dr. Lehmann : — The reason why I am very cautious in the
matter of even hinting at the fact that the manure might possibly
be reduced, is, that I know from bitter experience how difficult it is
for an estate that has run down to pick up again. It is frightful
expenditure and trouble to get an estate into a good bearing con-
dition. If it has once been allowed to run down, it is very diffi-
cult for it to pick up again.
Mr. Harris-.— Mr. Sprott asked me if I could supply him with
certain information regarding my plots. I should be delighted to
do so. But it is difficult to go back in memory to ten years. If he is
interested in the matter I will try and have the information collected
for him from my records. As regards the plots there are ten diff-
erent plots ; with the exception of the two unmanured plots, the rest
of them are all manured, and have been manured for the last four
years, with different mixtures. The object of the experiments is
i8
to determine which is the most satisfactory manner in which we
could apply phosphoric acid.
Dr. Lehmann : — I think there are two objects ; one to find out
in what particular constituents the soil was lacking, because if we
apply nitrogenous manure to a soil which is already rich in
nitrogen but poor in potash, nitrogenous manure will give us no
result. But if we apply potash, it will give good results in such land ;
so that the whole plan of experiments was to find out first of all
in what particular constituents that soil was lacking, whether
potash or phosphoric acid, nitrogen or lime. In addition to that
Mr. Harris' plot was particularly deficient in phosphoric acid, and
he had been recommended to apply phosphoric acid over and over
again. It had been previously manured with basic slag. It was
desired to find out whether bone or superphosphates would give
better results. That was applied on this estate, because Mr.
Harris' estate is not particularly rich in iron. On some estates
there was, to my mind, a suspicion that superphosphates would
not act properly, because it would be transformed into phosphate
of iron, whicn is, according to recognised dogmas of agricultural
chemists, valueless. However, it was in their experiments in
connection with soil to find out whether it was rich in organic
matter, they found that phosphate of iron is valuable. It is a
notion that phosphate of iron is valueless because it is insoluble.
Whether such is the case we do not know. We have to fight shy
of these notions and suggestions and suppositions. We must
experiment and try to find out what really is the truth.
Mr. DANVERS : — I suppose it will be difficult to find any estate
in India which has not been manured for 20 years.
Dr. Lehmann : — I saw an estate 20 years old. It was in a
magnificient condition, had an exceptionally rich soil, and was in
a favoured locality. An estate like that will do very well to
experiment with very small doses of manure
Mr. Harris : — May I ask Mr. Sprott to what extent he has
reduced the application of manure, roughly speaking .'
Mr. Sprott : — Speaking from memory, we used to put out as
much as 7 to 8 cwts. of bone and poonac. I have put out 5 cwts.
bones and poonac or fish in one portion of the estate every year
for some eight years, and it has steadily improved, previous to
that the chief manure I used was cattle and fish manure. Fish
manure I have put as much as 7 to 10 cwts. per acre. The manure
I have put out for the last 20 years has all been on the surface.
I have put out this year in February I cwt. refined saltpetre to
some portions of the estate without anything else at present. 1
am now going to back it up with 3 cwt. of fish manure or bones
and poonac, thus making 4 cwts. for the year; on other portions I
have put 2 cwt. of crude saltpetre, and it will get 3 cwt. bones and
poonac or fish later.
Dr. Lehmann : — In good poonac we already apply all the
phosphoric acid that is removed. If there is a mistake — I don't
19
know that there is a mistake — in manuring, it is that we have
been putting out too much bone. There is five times the amount
of potash removed that there is of phosphoric acid, and we have
applied no potash. We have applied bone and poonac. Bone
contains 23 per cent, of phosphoric acid. In 2 cwt. of bone we
have 20 times as much phosphoric acid as we really require. It
is a very large amount of phosphoric acid that has been applied
to the estate in proportion to the potash and nitrogen. Potash
has been particularly disregarded in former years, and now they
may apply very much potash.
THE TALIPOT PALM.
The famous Talipot Palm (Corypha umbraculifera) is a native
of Ceylon and the Malabar Coast. In Ceylon it is rather common
in the moist region up to 2,000 feet altitude.
It has an erect, straight, cylindrical trunk 30 to over 80 feet
high. The measurements of a specimen that flowered at Peradeniya,
Ceylon, were as follows : — Height of stem 84 feet, of flower
panicle 21 feet, total 105 feet; girth at 3 feet from the ground
round the persistent bases of the leaves 13 ft. y inches, at 21 feet
from the ground 8 feet 3 inches ; age about 40 years. The tree
dies after once flowering and fruiting.
The trunk is surmounted by a crown of gigantic fan-like leaves.
These leaves have prickly stalks 5 to lo feet long, and when
fully expanded form a nearly complete circle of 8 to 16 feet in
diameter, and composed of 80 to 100 radiating segments, joined
together and plaited like a fan till near the extremity, where they
separate and form a fringe of double points.
The leaves are made into fans, mats, and umbrellas, and are
used for writing on. They are also largely employed for thatch-
ing. "The leaf being dried is very strong and limber, and most
wonderfully made for man's convenience to carry along with them ;
for though this leaf be thus broad (enough to cover 15 or 20 men)
when it is open, it will fold close like a lady's fan, and then it is
no bigger than a man's arm ; it is wonderfully light." (Knox.)
A bread is made of the pounded soft interior of the trunk. The
seeds have the hardness of ivory, and are known as Bazarbatu
nuts ; they are used as beads in Ceylon, and largely in the
manufacture of buttons in Europe. The young fruit pounded is
used for stupefying fish.
Visitors to the old Botanic Garden at Bath a few years ago will
remember the fine specimen that existed there. It fruited in 1902,
and then died.
A supply of seeds was obtained and plants raised from these
may now be had from Hope Gardens.
The Talipot is not suited for small gardens, but where space can
be spared for it on a lawn it will grow into a noble tree.
20
THE FUTURE OF RUBBER.
(From a Special Corrcsp07ide)it in "Madras Mail, llth October.")
We may be certain that present prices are enabling the Ameri-
can Rubber gatherers to exploit very out-of-the-way districts, in-
volving heavy transport charges ; and yet the increase in output is
not serious, the rise in exchange no doubt taking away much of the
benefit from the enhanced price. So that it looks likely that, if
Brazilian exchange is maintained at its present level, a compara-
tively moderate drop in prices would render it unprofitable to work
much of the country that is now being tapped, in which case a
really serious drop would be deferred for an uncertain number of
years. Supposing, however, that the continual planting up of
Rubber in the East finally brings this about, and there is a struggle
ending in the survival of the fittest, the only possible result can be
the knocking out of wild rubbers and the transference of the indus-
try into the hands of the planter, who could, if necessary control
output.
This is looking far ahead indeed, but both in cinchona and tea
the maintenance of some control over output is recognised, and as
the rubber supply will eventually be chiefly in British hands, the
possibility of such a control, if ever required is evident. It is use-
less at present, to attempt careful estimates of rubber production.
In Ceylon, apparently all tea land under some 2,000 ft., and much
other land, is going into rubber, but what will it do and what the
yield will be is another question. Mr. Burgess holds the view that
the Straits must eventually excel Ceylon in production on account
of the fine land that is being opened in the former country. But
against this is the great accessibility of all the Ceylon districts,
and transport is a very important point after leaving the sea. No
doubt the more sanguine estimates of yield will not be realized,
and I hear that the large trees at Peradeniya, which Mr. Wright
expected would give some I2lb. of rubber each per annum under
the latest method of tapping, have stopped their flow of latex to a
great extent. I am satisfied with the, to me, unavoidable conclu-
sion that a good class of rubber, under suitable conditions, will
yield large profits for many years to come.
MR. BURGESS' VIEW.
Mr. Burgess, the Straits expert, states that Eastern plantation
rubber is found not to be as resilient or of such recuperative power
as the wild product (Amazon Para). This is hardly surprising,
seeing that, practically. Eastern rubber is all from young trees,
whilst the American is from picked forest giants ! The same
reason may, perhaps, partly account for the fact that some Eastern
rubber at any rate has shown signs of not keeping after a couple
of years, though Mr. Burgess is inclined to think that the acetic
acid or formalin used for coagulation has produced this effect.
This is a matter for the chemist and experience to decide ; I cer-
tainly have samples of rubber, taken in India four years ago,
21
which are practically as sound as they were at first and no coagu-
lant was used.
WHICH IS THE BEST SPECIES TO GROW ?
Para is first and the rest nowhere with most planters,
especially in Ceylon. The Castilloa at Peradeniya are not impos-
ing trees for their age, and Mr. Wright's experience of this variety
does not seem very favourable. The trees milk fairly well, but
are apt to die within the year. Another keen planter, with
Castilloa growing at 1,000 feet found it almost impossible to get
the latex to coagulate. In S. India, however, these difificulties do
not occur. It takes a very large amount of ill-treatment to even
affect the health of a Castilloa at 3,500 feet and the latex
coagulates without special difficulty. Generally speaking the
Castilloa prefers a drier climate than that which Para revels in,
and also does better at a fair distance above sea-level. Ceara is
being tried here and there, planters being encouraged by the
copious flow of milk from the old trees which survive from plant-
ings of twenty years ago and more. These certainly produce
excellent rubber nearly if not quite equal to Para in appearance
when carefully prepared, and the tree grows on very poor soil and
at a considerable elevation. It also does not demand a heavy
rainfall, though like all rubbers it thrives best with a good allow-
ance of moisture. Ficus elastica is certainly not a tree to plant
amongst coffee or near anything valuable, if one may judge from
the Peradeniya trees. These completely occupy a large area with
their roots, and are now showing signs of decay. As, however, I
understand they are getting on for 50 years old, there would be
time to extract a fortune out of them if they contained it ; some
quicker-yielding trees,however,are preferable. Funtumia trees grow
well in S. India at 3,000 feet or so ; at Peradeniya it is found that
they are so eaten by caterpillars that nothing can be done with
them. I would certainly give the award, as a general thing, to
Para. It is as far as I have seen, decidely the hardiest of all. It
resists ill treatment wonderfully and is practically unaffected, as
far as I can see, by excess of rain or severe drought ; whilst it is
a useful shade for coffee for a good term of years. In South India
I have given measurements of growth at 3,500 feet and I may
mention that I have plants 6 feet high from seed planted at stake,
amongst coffee, in 1904. Taking the opinion that " it does not
pay to tap trees at over 3,000 feet," what does this mean ? We
must remember that the nature of the forest tapping, where trees
are scattered and where, we are told, trees of 2 feet girth would not
be noticed as worth tapping and only the widely scattered giants,
giving 5lb. or more rubber, are selected. At over 3,000 feet these
giants would be comparatively rare and take much finding, but
plantation conditions would make all the difference. At 3,500
feet the trees on a plantation would be at just the same distance
apart as at 1,000 feet or 2,000 feet. They would perhaps require
another year to make equal growth, but this would not prevent
their paying handsomely.
22
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES.
The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was
held on Tuesday 1 2th December, present : Hon. H. Clarence Bourne,
Colonial Secretary, Chairman, the Director of Public Gardens,
the Island Chemist, the Superintending Inspector of Schools, His
Grace the Archbishop, Mr. G. D. Murray and the Secretary.
The following letters from the Colonial Secretary were sub-
mitted : —
1. re W. I. Agricultural Conference intimating that the propo-
sal for holding the Agricuhural Conference in Jamaica
next year had been definitely abandoned owing to insu-
perable difficulties in transport.
2. Sending copy of letter from Imperial Institute re Cotton
Cultivation and asking the Board to comply with the re-
quest made that the Imperial Institute should be kept in-
formed of the progress of cotton cultivation in the Colo-
nies and that reports or special information should be
regularly forwarded. Also asking that the Board might
consider it desirable to send additions to the standard
collection of cotton referred to.
This was directed to be circulated.
3. Asking whether the Board of Agriculture could arrange for
the syllabus in connection with the proposal to confer the
Jamaica Scholarship on Agricultural Students.
With reference to the last letter, His Grace the Archbishop said
that a Committee of the Schools Commission consisting of the
Chief Justice and Mr. Capper had considered the various matters
involved and had made a report, a precis of which he read. He
suggested that the matter might wait over a month until this report
had been considered and adopted by the Commission at its first
meeting and sent to the Governor.
After discussion it was accordingly resolved to hold over con-
sideration of the matter until next meeting.
(The Chairman here left the meeting as he had to attend a meet-
ing of the Privy Council and he asked the Director of Public
Gardens to take the Chair.)
The Secretary submitted letters on the subject of Jamaica
Tobacco and Mr. Chalmers' experiment in blending with Virginia
Tobacco for use in the Navy, which were directed to be circulated.
The Secretary read letter from Mr. Robert Thomson suggesting
that a report he had made on agriculture in the parish of Man-
chester with special reference to packing of oranges might be
published in the Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture.
It was pointed out that this report had been made to Mr. Haggart
and published in the newspapers, but had not been sent either to
23
the Board of Agriculture or to the Agricultural Society as it ought
to have been.
The Secretary was directed to reply to Mr. Thomson and say that
if the report was sent to the Board, it would consider whether it
should be published.
The Secretary submitted a letter from the Rev. J. F. Gartshore,
Secretary Hanover Agricultural Society, thanking the Board for
the services of Mr. Cradwick.
This was directed to be circulated.
The Secretary submitted two letters from the Honourable J. V.
Calder acknowledging receipt of the copy of Mr. Olivier's minute
re the Locked Still matter, with memo by the chairman to whom
it had been submitted.
These were directed to be circulated.
The following reports by the Chemist were submitted : —
1. Application of A. A. Forbes to give his son a second year's
course as an agricultural student without a scholarship
and without fees. This was allowed on the recommen-
dation of Dr. Cousins.
2. Application from C. A. Liddell for admission as an agri-
cultural student on the usual terms. This was approved.
The following reports of the Director of Public Gardens were
submitted : —
1. Hope Experiment Station.
2. Reports from Mr. Cradwick and letter re drainage experi-
ment.
These were directed to be circulated.
A report from the Secretary re Cotton Gins and Baler was
submitted and directed to be circulated.
The following papers in circulation since last meeting not yet
submitted to the Board, were now submitted, as follows : —
Letters from the Colonial Secretary forwarding letter from Hon.
T. H. Sharp asking for the appointment of an Entomologist in
Jamaica, with comments by members of the Board.
His Grace the Archbishop moved "That the Board of Agricul-
ture is satisfied of the fact that the successful development of
various industries in Jamaica will largely depend upon the advice
and guidance of a competent Entomologist and therefore earnestly
recommend the Government to make provision for the appoint-
ment of such an officer at the earliest possible opportunity."
Mr. Capper seconded and this was unanimously agreed to.
The Secretary was instructed to forward the resolution to the
Colonial Secretary as the unanimous opinion of the Board.
Memorandum on the Standardization of Jamaica Rum, with
comments by the Board.
After discussion it was agreed that the most judicious course
would be first to have a meeting of representative sugar planters
to talk over the matter. The papers were referred back to Dr.
Cousins to make further suggestions as to communicating with
sugar planters.
24
The following papers which had been circulated were submitted
for final consideration : —
Chemist's Reports : —
1. Research in Tropical Medecine by Capt. Wanhill, R.A.M.C.
2. Training of Distillers at the Laboratory.
3. Distribution of Cane Tops.
Reports Director of Public Gardens : —
J. Experiment Station.
2. Mr. Cradwick.
Letters re Jamaica Tobacco from I. Sir D. Morris, 2. Mr. F. V.
Chalmers, 3. The Imperial Institute, with members' comments on
the last, which were read.
The Director of Public Gardens read a paragraph which had
appeared in the Jamaica " Daily Telegraph', reporting on the
sailors' opinion in the Navy of tobacco issued to them for trial ;
they objected to the pipe tobacco but were well pleased with the
cigarette tobacco.
Papers re Mr. Nolan and Jamaica Rum, with the Chemist's
comments on same urging a standard of 200 parts of Ether.
This standard was approved of.
[Issued 10th January, 1906.]
Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kinysion, Jam.
BULLETIN
OF THB
DEPARTMENT OF AGMCULTimE.
Vol. IV.
FEBRUARY, 1906.
Part 2
EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S.,
Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.
COI^TENTS:
Some Banana Soils
Hope Gardens
Grape Fruit and Shaddocks
The Breadfruit Tree
Board of Agriculture ...
Page.
25
33
36
44
46
P R I 0 E— Threepence.
A Copy wiD be supplied free to any Besident in Jamaica, who will send name and
address to the Director if Pal>lic Girleus aid PUatibiotn, Kiugitou P.O.
KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
Hope Gardbns.
1906.
JAMAICA.
NEW VOR''^
B XT L. T J E T 1 1^ eoTANicAb
GARDEN.
OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF A(iRICULTURE.
Vol. IV. FEBRUARY, 1906. Part 2.
SOME BANANA SOILS OF ST. MARY AND
UPPER ST CATHERINE.
By H. H. Cousins, M.A., Government Chemist.
At the suggestion of the writer, the Board of Agriculture ar-
ranged that Mr. Cradwick should take a number of soil samples
from typical cultivations of the smaller planters in St. Mary for
partial Analysis in the Laboratory, so that advice might be given
as to the need of drainage, humus, or lime in each case ; our pre-
vious Analyses and experiments having indicated that the banana
soils of St. Mary are not in present need of commercial fertilizers,
but require special attention to drainage and humus and in some
cases lime, it appeared desirable that a good number of typical
soils should be examined to this end.
Mr. Cradwick made a special visit to St. Mary * and early in
1905 sent in 51 examples of soil to the Laboratory, with observa-
tions as to the conditions he noticed in each case.
Unfortunately several of the samples were labelled with perish-
able labels and only 39 samples were capable of being identified.
These have been examined as to
A. Mechanical condition.
B. Percentage of Lime as Carbonate.
C. Percentage of Humus, soluble in Ammonia, and the results
cr. are here given. Mr. Cradwick's original observations being quoted
'— in each case.
C<1 » Mr. Cradwick's Keport will be found in Bulletia Oct, 19C5, page 220. Editor, BuUctin.
26
A.— Rio MAGNO— St. Catherine:
[" Soil from the bank near River, Bananas poor, cocoa very
poor."]
No. I — Surface Soil.
Sample lost.
No. 2 — Subsoil.
Lime as carbonate ... Abundance
Humus ... I- 28/
Mechanical condition ... Clay, loam
Observations.
From a previous sample examined in the Laboratory from the
same source, it was found that this soil was variable, some pat-
ches being very good soil for bananas and others below par in
hvmius and general fertility.
The soil does not lack lime.
No. 3 — Surface soil.
[" Near Immortelle nursery, between house and river, poor
bananas, cocoa worse".]
Lime as carbonate ... Abundance
Humus ... 2.23^0
Mechanical condition ... Clay, loam
Observations.
This soil does not lack lime and the humus is fairly good.
The soil is inclined to be heavy and drainage is probably the
factor required to ensure a good and vigorous growth of bananas
and cocoa.
The subsoil sample was lost,, but there are indications, that the
subsoil here is impervious and that deep drains would be neces-
sary to enable the cocoa roots to penetrate and develop.
No. 5 — Surface soil.
[" From corner near cow-pen, good bananas and good cocoa."]
Lime as carbonate ... I ■25/;
Humus ... 4- 16/^
Mechanical condition ... Stiff clay
Observations.
The humus in this case is very high and despite the stiff na-
ture of the soil, the results of the cultivation are reported as satis-
factoiT-
If well drained, this soil should be of very high fertility.
There is abundance of lime and an unusual amount of humus.
Hampstead— St. Mary.
No. 7 — Surface soil. (Missing).
No. S— Subsoil of No. 7.
["Just inside gate — a spot where nothing has thriven, the pro-
prietor says it is improving from the application of banana trash."]
Lime as carbonate ... Abundance
Humus ... 0.36;
Mechanical condition ... Clayey marl
27
Observations.
This soil is almost devoid of humus and one that would absorb
an enormous amount of vegetable matter without greatly improving
its nature.
It is doubtful whether soils of this type can be profitably culti-
vated for bananas.
No. 9 — Surface soil.
["Near by cotton tree — everything thrives here, but I think more
drainage would improve the bearing of cocoa.
Bananas very fine and very large cocoa pods on some trees
grown from seedlings from Hope Gardens."]
Lime as carbonate ... Abundance
Humus ... 4-4'7o
Mechanical condition — Stiff soil, inclined to clay
Observations.
This soil is very rich in humus and contains an abundance of
lime.
Mr. Cradwick's suggestion as to deeper drainage can be confi-
dently supported.
This soil is worth handling on intensive lines of cultivation and
has a large reserve of banana-producing power to draw upon.
The contrast between this soil and the previous one is very
striking.
No. II — Surface soil.
[" From spot where bananas give good bunches but do not finish
up well. Cocoa does not grow in spite of being near a big
guango."]
Lime as carbonate ... Abundance
Humus ... 3-37%
Mechanical condition ... Heavy clay
No. 12 — Subsoil of above.
[" This land wants more drainage."]
Observations.
This soil only needs deep drainage to produce excellent results.
The humus is well up to standard. In my opinion this soil
would repay the cost of deeper drainage and intensive cultiva-
tion.
No. 13 — Surface soil.
[" One of the spots I suggested as no use wrestling with, better
plant some good trees and grass on it."]
Lime as carbonate ... Very high
Humus ... 4 -4/0
Mechanical condition ... Clayey loam
Observations.
This soil is so rich in humus that if adequate drainage is prac-
ticable, it should grow good fruit.
A trial should be given of this before abandoning the land to
grass.
28
No. 15 — Surface soil.
["Spot where the Laboratory has been experimenting with
manures."]
["Very poor and 'shotty,' has improved with manure but still
looks pretty bad. The bananas look spotty and thriftless, do not
bear, and have a lot of little round galls or warts on them.
The manure has grown about the finest Spanish needle I have
ever seen."]
Lime as carbonate ... Excessive
Humus ... 0.95/
Mechanical composition Clay marl
Observations.
This soil is quite unsuited for bananas by nature, and in my
opinion will not repay the heavy applications of vegetable refuse
and manure that would be required to enable it to produce good
fruit.
No. 17. — Surface soil.
[" ' Pasture Piece,' a field of young cocoa, about 3 years old, most
of which are growing nicely. The land has some drains, but they
are not systematic, and I recommend, in order to make a success
of this field, that contour drains at intervals of not more than 24
feet should be put in."]
Lime as carbonate Abundance
Humus ... 4- 25/'
Mechanical condition— Stiff clay with similar
subsoil.
Observations.
A first class soil, but demanding deep drainage. Unless this is
attended to the cocoa will probably fail after a few years.
HiGHGATE, St. Mary.
No. 21. — Surface soil.
["'John's Piece,' where cocoa is growing well. More drainage
would improve the bearing. Fine bananas were growing on this
land, but shelter trees would be useful both for bananas and
cocoa."]
Lime as carbonate ... 1-25^
Humus ... 2.57
Mechanical condition — Stiff — inclined to
clay, with similar subsoil.
Observations.
Drainage is clearly essential. The humus is good, but might
be higher to advantage. The soil does not lack lime.
29
No. 23. — Surface Soil.
["Bananas and cocoa, 2 years old, nearly all look poorly. This
sample is not taken from the worst spots, which I have advised to
be thrown up and planted in trees and grass to provide manure
for the better land from which the sample was taken."]
Lime as carbonate ... I-O^
Humus ... 3-2j?
Mechanical condition — Stiff clay with similar
subsoil.
Observations.
With drainage this soil should grow good bananas. The hu-
mus in this sample is higher than in the previous one reported
upon (No. 21).
Oracabessa a. St. Mary.
No. 25. — Surface soil.
[" Very mixed cultivation of good bananas, cocoa, coffee and
coco-nuts. Bananas are very fair as ratoons, but late, and the
proprietor says are late every year. Well-drained land, but not
forked since the prize-holding contest of three years ago."]
Lime as carbonate ... 2.75/^
Humus ... 2.84/
Mechanical condition — Stiff, inclined to clay.
Observations.
This land is in good heart, but would give better results with
more tillage. This land should be forked thoroughly and a sup-
ply of green manure secured, so as to maintain the standard of
humus.
No. 27. — Surface soil.
[" From heavy flat, near house, bananas grow well here, but are
also late. I have suggested that bananas on this land should be
replanted oftener and particular attention be paid to drainage.
Trash, which is very easy to obtain, should be applied as heavily
as possible, and the land receive a dressing of lime."]
Lime as carbonate ... 2.25^
Humus ... 3-39^
Mechanical condition — Stiff, inclined to clay.
Ooscrvations.
The analysis shows that this soil contains abundance of lime.
The addition recommended by Mr. Cradwick might prove of
advantage in making the soil more friable, but it would tend to a
somewhat rapid loss of humus.
Drainage and tillage are obviously the chief requirements.
The present standard of humus is quite good for an average
banana soil.
30
Oracabessa, B.
No. 29. — Surface soil.
["Bananas planted July, 1904. Drained and in good health,
but in many spots the bananas are coming on very slowly."]
Lime as carbonate ... I ■25/^
Humus ... 3-39%
Mechanical condition — Stiff soil, with very
stiff clay subsoil.
Ohscrvatioiis.
The indications are that more drainage would remedy the de-
fect noted by Mr. Cradwick.
The lime and humus are quite satisfactory.
HIGHGATE B.
No. 31. — Surface soil.
Lime as carbonate ... 2.5^
Humus ... 3-0/o
Mechanical condition — Stiff clay.
No. 33. — Surface Soil.
Lime as carbonate ... l-0/(
Humus ... 2.32/^
Mechanical condition — Medium clay.
Observations.
No. 31 is a good soil for bananas if well drained.
No. 32 is somewhat deficient in humus.
There is no deficiency of lime. Drainage is the chief factor to
be considered in the cultivation of these soils.
No. I'^.^-Surface Soil.
["A fair sample of many 'gall spots' which appear in the
midst of very good land, fruit is both small and late.
A manure that would increase the size of bunches and bring in
the fruit earlier is much needed"].
Lime as carbonate ... 3-0^
Humus ... I- 84/$
Mechanical condition — Light soil of medium texture.
Observations.
The humus in this soil is below par, and it is very doubtful
whether any manure other than farmyard manure would do much
good.
Galls are often a temptation to the use of extravagant manur-
ing that the crop cannot pay for and in many cases are best left
alone.
Port Maria.
No. 37. — Surface soil.
[" From cocoa walk near house. I have suggested as a first step,
systematic drainage, forking right through the land, manuring
with trash or any kind of manure available, together with Lime
and the replanting of the bananas.
31
The cocoa here was badly damaged by the hurricane."]
Lime as carbonate ... 1-62^
Humus ... 2.86/^
Mechanical condition — Very stiff clay with
impervious sub-soil.
Observations.
All Mr. Cradwick's proposals, with the exception of the use
of lime, are fully supported from the Laboratory observations.
This is a very heavy soil and would be benefited by deep
drainage and tillage and the humus could be increased to advan-
tage.
PORT Maria — B.
No. 39 40. — Surface and Subsoil.
[" From a spot where bananas practically go to nothing, it is
drained very irregularly to a depth not exceeding 18 inches."]
Lime as carbonate ... Considerable.
Humus ... 3-07%
Mechanical Condition — Stiff clay with light
coloured clay marl, sub-soil.
Observations.
This soil cannot be expected to grow good fruit without a really
deep and efficient system of drainage.
Considering the amount of chalk in the soil, the Humus must
be considered good.
This is a type of soil on which bananas grow with difficulty
and if all the land were similar to this, it would be expensive to
work and the results probably disappointing.
RIVERSDALE.
No. 41 & 42. — Surface and Sub-soil.
["From Banana Walk, Eastern slope — Bananas four years old,
good stems but damaged by winds.
Land wants draining and cultivating only."]
Lime as carbonate ... 0-6l^
Humus ... 1-55^
Mechanical condition — Red soil, stiff clayey
loam, with similar sub-soil.
Observations.
This soil is deficient in Humus and a heavy covering of refuse
manure should prove beneficial.
Drainage is obviously necessary. The soil is capable of great
improvement.
32
No. 43 & 44. — Surface soil and Sub-soil.
I" From flat near house ; Bananas not so good. Land wants
draining and manuring."]
Lime as carbonate .. Nil.
Humus ... 0.89%
Meclianical condition — Clay loam, with
similar sub-soil
Observations.
This soil is entirely deficient in chalk, and should be treated
with half a ton of lime each year. The humus is so low, that
bananas cannot be expected to grow.
Heroic measures are required to improve this serious deficiency.
Drainage is also imperative. As compared with the^previous soil,
this presents far greater diflRculties in converting it into good
banana land.
HiGHGATE C.
No. 47. — Surface soil.
[" From Orange River field about the centre where cocoa trees
look well.''].
Lime as carbonate ... I -87/0
Humus ... 5-09%
Mechanical condition — Stiff clay soil.
Observations.
A soil with a splendid standard of Humus and containing
abundance of chalk. Retentive and demanding drainage.
No. 48. — Surface soil.
["Higher up the same field where the cocoa looks middling"].
Lime as carbonate ... 1-87/
Humus ... 3-11^
Mechanical condition — Stiff loam.
Observation.
This soil only has f as much humus as the previous sample and
this would account for the trees not doing quite so well.
No. 49. — Surface soil.
[" Top of the same field, cocoa trees poor, much exposed to
wind or rain.
There the trees require a good wind-brake to protect them.
I would suggest as an experiment that the proprietor should
drain a small section of this land to an extent that might even
seem extravagant"].
Lime as carbonate ... 1-75^
Humus ... 2.56^
Mechanical condition — Stiff clay.
33
Observations.
A comparison of the three last soils will illustrate how in the
tropics, the upper area of hills in cultivation get washed and poor
in Humus, while a progressive enrichment is found in the lower
levels. All these soils indicate the desirability of drainage.
They do not need lime. The humus of the upper portion is so
much less in amount than that of the lower, that it is not surpris-
ing that the cocoa should be poor, apart from the exposure to
wind which Mr. Cradwick has pointed out. Any drainage works
would have to be carried out at a carefully adjusted gradient and
the washings carefully replaced on the soil. Every effort should
be directed towards reducing loss of fertility in the upper area.
Conclusions.
These soils indicate that the original idea upon which the work
was based is sound, viz : —
That in most cases the needs of the banana soils in St, Mary
and the neighbouring districts are not chemical fertilizers, but
rather —
(i) Drainage
(ii) Humus
and in some cases
(iii) Lime.
Mr. Cradwick is to be congratulated upon the way in which his
advice has been generally supported by the conclusions derived
from the subsequent examination of the soils in the Laboratory, as
is here evident and it is hoped that this work may be extended in
the future so that a large number of the smaller cultivators may
be advised as to the practical treatment of the soils on their
holdings.
HOPE GARDENS.
The cultivated area at the Hope Gardens contains not only an
ornamental garden but also an Experiment and Teaching Station.
The first beginning of an Experiment Station at Hope was in
1874 under Mr. Robert Thomson. The Government came into
possession of 200 acres of land there in 1873, and determined to
transfer the new varieties of Sugar Cane, received from the Botanic
Gardens of Mauritius and Martinique and planted in the small garden
at Castleton, to the ample area at Hope. Nearly 18 acres were
put under Cane in 1874, and 5 more in 1875, and during the same
year 10 acres were planted in Teak. A small nursery was also
formed. In 1885, Sir D. Morris, at that time Director, proposed
that the land round the nursery should be made into a public park
at a cost of £5,000, though he thought a Botanic Garden could not
be carried on without a system of reservoirs for the storage of
water. However, Governor Sir Henry Norman decided that, as
there were no conveniences at that time for people travelling
cheaply from Kingston, there should be no outlay except grad-
ually in forming a Garden.
34
In 1897 the Government transferred the present Director with
Office and Herbarium from Cinchona to Hope, with the intention
of malcing it tlie central botanical establishment of the island.
Since that time the Garden has gradually been formed and ex-
tended.*
The following plants are grown for experimental purposes, and
also for use in teaching agricultural principles, and the best
methods of dealing with these tropical crops : — Sugar Cane, Cocoa,
Coffee, Tobacco, Banana, Rubber, Nutmeg, Citrus, Grape Vine,
Pine Apple, Cassava, Sweet Potatoes, &c.
Practical instruction is given in the Garden to apprentices, to
boys from the Industrial School, to Students at Training Colleges,
to Elementary School Teachers in their vacation, to Agricultural
Students, and to Planters themselves.
There are about 8 acres under Sugar Cane of several varieties
which are being tested by the Agricultural Chemist and distribu-
ted to Planters. Seedlings are grown from seed and are tested as
they mature.
Forastero and Criollo Cocoa are grown, and experiments are
being made as to the effect of shade trees, and as to the difference
in growth, and yield of crop, when planted close and at wider
distances apart.
Coffee of several kinds may be seen : — Arabian or common
Coffee, Liberian, Abbeokuta, Highland Coffee of Sierra Leone
(stenophylla), Maragogipe, Golden Drop, &c.
Tobacco is under cultivation, and the leaf is cured in the to-
bacco house close by. The apprentices are instructed in all the
details of cultivation, and the technique of curing the leaf for
cigar tobacco. A quarter of an acre of Sumatra seed tobacco is
grown under the shade of cheese cloth. This tobacco yields a
very high-class leaf for the outside wrapper of cigars.
A collection has been established of twenty-three varieties of
Banana from various parts of the world, chiefly obtained through
the kindness of the Director of Kew Gardens and the Commis-
sioner of the Imperial Department of Agriculture.
Budded Citrus plants have been planted out for comparison,
both of varieties that have proved successful in Florida and Cali-
fornia, and also of native seedling trees. Attempts are being
made to get a variety of Orange which will bear fruit when the
highest prices are obtained in English and American markets.
Pine Apples of several varieties are grown, and experiments
are being made in cross-fertilising different varieties, with the
object, for instance, of getting a pine with the flavour of the Rip-
ley, the fine appearance of the Smooth Cayenne, and the good
carrying qualities of the Red Spanish.
Rubber plants of various kinds are grown : — Para, Castilloa,
Ceara, Lagos silk rubber, Landolphia, &c.
* ^ee Guide to Hope Gardens by Walter Jekyll. Published by MeBsre. Aston Gardner
&■ C"., Kingston. Price, One Shilling.
35
There are 28 varieties of Cassava collected from different parts
of Jamaica, 10 from Porto Rico, and 30 from Colombia. These
68 varieties are being tested as to weight of tubers per acre, and
percentage of starch. The starch is said to be better for laund-
ries and for dressing Manchester goods than that produced by
any other plant. It is claimed also that Cassava yields more
starch per acre than ony other plant.
Similar tests, besides value as food, are also carried out with
reference to Sweet Potatoes, — 2^ varieties from Jamaica, 12 from
Barbados, and 9 from the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C.
Results of tests of plants are published from time to time in the
Bulletin and Annual Reports.
A plan of the cultivated portions of the Government grounds is
given, so that visitors may readily find any particular kind of
economic plant grown there for experimental or teaching purposes.
The following is an Index to the numbers on the plan : —
1. Lemon Grass.
27. Assistant Superintendent's Quar-
2. Cassava.
ters.
3. Pine Apples.
28. Canes.
4. Yam Beans.
29. Bananas.
5. Tobacco and Cassava.
30. Navel Oranges and Sweet Potatoes
6. Citrus Grove and Cassava.
31. tChus-khus Grass.
7. Bananas and Mangoes.
32. Pergola with Climbers.
8. Tanias, Cassava and Sweet Potatoes.
33. Crotons, &c.
9. Cassava.
34. Director's Residence.
10a. Tobacco.
35. Economic Plants.
10b. Sumatra Tobacco under
Shade
36 & 37 Vanilla, Cocoa, &c.
Cloth.
38 Orchid Walk.
11. School Garden.
39. Pergola with Climbers.
1 2 Plantation of Cananga an
d Para
40. Lawn
Rubber.
41. Road to Castilloa Rubber.
13. Cassava.
42. Rockery with Lace Bark plants
14. Cassava.
and Succulents, and, beyond^
15. Ippi-appa.
Honduras Logwood.
16. Seedling Canes.
43. Lawn with Date Palms,
17. Cocoa.
44. Director's Office.
]8. Cassava.
45. Lawn bordered with Oleanders
19. Canes (Seedling).
and Carob Bean plants.
20 Ippi-appa.
46a. Nursery.
21. Canes.
46b. Plant Houses.
22. Cassava.
47. Vanilla.
23. Tobacco House.
48. Rose Garden.
24. Cassava.
49. Water Works Conduit.
25. Sweet Potatoes.
50. New Nursery.
26. Seedling Canes.
36
GRAPE FRUIT AND SHADDOCKS.
The following popular notes on varieties of grape fruit and
shaddocks, by Sir Daniel Morris, K.C.M.G., D.Sc, D.C.L., appeared
in Garden and Forest, an American horticultural journal published
at New York, April 22, 1896. Recently applications for information
in regard to the respective merits of grape fruits and shaddocks
were received from the Board of Agriculture in the Bahamas and
other sources, and with the view of placing the facts on record in
an accessible form, they were reprinted in the pages of the West
Indian Bulletin* and are now reproduced here : —
During my recent visit to New York I was much interested to
notice the considerable demand that existed there for grape fruit,t
from the West Indies. It appears to be very strongly recommended
by the medical faculty for its refreshing and tonic properties, and,
in consequence, the use of it has become an important feature in
the diet in American cities. The fruit I saw in New York called
grape fruit consisted of various sorts and qualities, and there is
little doubt that much confusion exists as to what is really grape
fruit as distinct from the allied citrus fruits passing under such
names as Pumelow^, Shaddock, Forbidden fruit, Paradise fruit and
others. The chief characteristics of all these fruits, distinguish-
ing them from the different varieties of the orange, are associated
with the size and colour. They are all, or nearly all, larger than
the largest orange, and they are uniformly of a pale-yellow colour.
In texture the rind may be smooth or even polished. It is seldom
rough, nearly always firm and not very thick. The pulp is pale
yellow or greenish-white, sometimes pink or crimson. The vesi-
cles of the pulp (juice bags) are more distinct than in the orange ;
very juicy, somewhat sweetish with a distinct, but agreeable, bit-
ter flavour. The pith surrounding the segments possesses more
of the bitter then the pulp, but is less agreeable, and on that ac-
count is never eaten. In shape these fruits vary a good deal.
Some are quite globular, others somewhat flattened at the top and
tapering below, forming a pear-shaped body. Even in the globu-
lar fruits the top is more or less flattened. There are none, I be-
lieve, pointed at both ends.
Having indicated the general characters of this class of citrus
fruits, I may venture on a brief sketch of their origin and history.
It is agreed by all authorities that these fruits are quite distinct
from the other groups of the orange family, such as the true
oranges and the citrons. They have, therefore, been kept apart
and ranged under the Giant Citrus, Citrus decumana. In this species
the tree is 12 to 18 feet high, with a flat crown and spreading
branches, usually with no spines. The leaves are elliptic-rounded
at both ends, emarginate (that is, with a notch at the apex) and
crenulate (having the edge marked with small depressions) ;
* From West Indian Bulletin, VI., 1905, page 284.
t It is so called because the fruits grow in clusters like n bunch of grapes.
X It is invariably spelled Pomelo in the Unitad States.
37
the under side of the leaf is softly hairy, with the wings broad,
• Granulated as in the leaves, and bordered with fine hairs. The
flowers are in clusters of from three to nine, large, white, and fra-
grant. The fruit is either globose or pear-shaped, forming many
seedling varieties without distinct names. This is supposed to be
a native of the islands of the Pacific, whence it had been brought
to southern China, Japan, and India. It was introduced to the
West Indies, according to Macfayden, from China by Captain
Shaddock, whose name has since been given to it. The term
shaddock may be correctly applied to any of the larger members
of the giant citrus, and is equivalent to the French pompelmouse,
which is another form of the Dutch pomplemoes. The word po-
melow, so widely used in India and Ceylon, is supposed to be a
contraction of ' pomum melo,' the melon apple. The largest " pu-
melows' in India are said to reach ' 2 feet in circumference and
weigh 10 to 20 lb.' The best sort, according to Bonavia, is 'the
thin-skinned, red pumelow of the Bombay market.' This is of a
globose shape, juicy, and ' of the colour of raw beef internally.'
There are, however, numerous grades in size, some being almost
as small as oranges. In India the varieties do not appear to have
recognised names. Elsewhere the smaller fruits have been vari-
ously called Paradise apples. Forbidden fruit, and Grape fruit.
As regards the proper classification of the West Indian varieties,
I cannot do better than record that put forth by Dr. James Mac-
fayden, the learned author of the Flora of Jamaica, which, however,
he never lived to carry into more than one volume and part of
another. Referring to the large-fruited sorts, he states : ' There
are two varieties of shaddock. In the variety a. maliformis, the
the fruit is globose, with the pulp of a pale-pink colour, approach-
ing to a very light yellow. In the variety b. pyriforniis the fruit is
more or less pear-shaped, and the pulp is of crimson colour, more
or less intense. The second of these varieties is the more esteemed,
being sweet and juicy and having only in a slight and palatable
degree the acridity which abounds in the first. . I may remark that
I have always found the pear-shaped variety good, whereas it is
seldom the case with the round-shaped fruit. There cannot be a
doubt but that, if budding, as is done in China, were more gene-
rally practised, instead of trusting to propagation by seed, the fruit
would be much improved.'
The smaller pumelows or shaddocks are ranged by Macfayden
under a distinct species, which he calls Citrus paradisi. The tree
is described as 30 feet high, of handsome appearance, with sub-
erect branches and sharp at the apex. The leaves are oval,
rounded, and smooth on both sides. The flowers have linear
petals and the stamens are twenty-five in number. The differences
between this and C. dcciifiiaua appear to consist in the more erect
habit of the plant, in the rounded (not emarginate) leaves, and in
the linear-rounded (not oblong-obtuse) petals. With regard to the
fruit he remarks : 'There are also two varieties of this species :
var. a. pyrifonnis, Barbados Grape fruit ; var. h. maliformis, For-
38
bidden fruit. Tlie pear-shaped variety, as the shaddock, possesses
most of the sweet principle, and is, on the whole a preferable
fruit.' This classification was made by Macfayden nearly sixty
years ago, therefore long before these fruits were so widely dis-
tributed as now in other parts of tropical America. He was so
accurate and sl^ilful an observer that, as far as the new world
fruits are concerned, we cannot very well improve upon it. It is
doubtful whether the small- fruited sorts he places under C. paradisi
really deserve specific rank, but that point does not affect the main
question with which we started, namely — what are the differences,
if any, existing between the shaddock and the grape fruit ? In
summing up the results of the investigation, we may say that all
the larger-fruited sorts may be called indifferently either pumelows
or shaddocks. These are merely the eastern and western names
for the same thing, and are perfectly interchangeable. No dis-
tinction appears ever to have been made between them.
There are two well-marked varieties, one being globose, with the
flesh of a pale-pink colour, and the other pear-shaped, usually with
a deep-pink or crimson pulp. As regards the small fruited sorts,
these, according to Macfayden may be either globose, when they
are called forbidden fruit, or pear-shaped, when grape fruit is the
older name. The name forbidden fruit (from a fancied connexion
with the Garden of Eden) is tolerably old in the West Indies.
Tussac, in the Flores dcs Antilles, published in 1824, gives a good
figure of the typical shaddock, which he translates into the French
Chadcc. In Vol. Ill, pp. 73-74, he states: ' J'ai eu occasion d' ob-
server a la Jamaique, dans le jardin botanique d'East, une espece
de Chadec dont les fruits, qui n'excedent pas en grosseur une belle
orange sont disposes en grappes : les Anglais de la Jamaique don-
nent a ce fruit le nom de " Forbidden-fruit," fruit defendu, ou
smaller shaddock.' Later on he refers to the same fruit in the
following words : ' C'est une assiette de dessert tres distinguee et
fort saine' (p. 74). In the case of the forbidden fruit and grape
fruit they are exactly reversed. As usually happens, when a name
has become familiar in commerce, it is eventually applied in a
much wider sense than the original one. Thus, the term grape
fruit has become so general that any moderately large fruit pro-
vided the skin is pale-yellow, thin and smooth, and the pulp of a
delicate flavour, is designated by it. The fruit commonly called
grape-fruit in New York is really the forbidden fruit of the West
Indies. The true grape fruit is pear-shaped, and according to Mac-
fayden, when obtainable at its best, is preferable to the forbidden
fruit. The fruit shipped from the Bahamas as grape fruit is usual-
ly round with a polished yellow skin of a silky texture and very
heavy. This is probably one of the best of its class, and quite
equal to Macfadyen's pear-shaped variety. Next comes some ex-
cellent fruit from Jamaica, no doubt that already referred to by
Tussac under the name of forbidden fruit, a smaller shaddock.
According to the New York estimation, this would be almost a
typical grape fruit, supplying ' une assiette de dessert tres distin-
guee et fort saine.'
39
Further information on the pumelow was contributed by Sir
Daniel Morris to the Gardeners' Clironidc, 1896. Vol. II., p. 616, as
follows : —
I have been asked more than once lately whether there is no
fruit, yet unknown to most English palates, which might be in-
troduced into this country, and form a pleasant article of food.
As there seems to be some general interest in the subject, your
readers may, perhaps, like to hear of some fruits which have come
under my notice.
The pumelow of India, one of the giant members of the orange
tribe, is well known to people who have lived in the East. Some
very large specimens have been known to attain a circumference
of more than two feet, and to weigh from 15 to 20lbs. Generally
pumelows are not held in high esteem in India and Ceylon, except
by those who have lived long there, and know how to select the
best sort by their size and colour. The best Bombay pumelows
are said to be exceptionally good. They have a pink pulp of a
juicy character, sweet in flavour, with a slight but agreeable bitter
taste. The first pumelows were brought to the West Indies by Cap-
tain Shaddock about 150 years ago. Since that time the fruit has
always been known in that part of the world as the shaddock, in
compliment to the person who introduced it. Owing to circum-
stances of soil and climate, and to the raising of plants almost
exclusively by seed, many varieties have sprung up that have be-
come recognized by distinct names. Of the larger fruits, the
pumelow or shaddock proper, there are two well marked forms ;
the first is the apple-shaped shaddock, usually with a whitish or
a pale pink pulp, the other is a pear-shaped fruit, with a pink,
and sometimes a deep crimson pulp. Both these are large fruits,
weighing from 3 to 6 lbs. in weight ; they have the characteristic
pale yellow skin, and inside there is a white pithy layer more or
less thick ; then comes the pulp with the vesicles or juice bags
very prominent — indeed the latter are so distinct that they can be
easily separated the one from the other. The bitter flavour
is very marked in the inferior sorts, in some instances it becomes
quite acrid. The best sorts have a sweetish flavour and only a
slight taste of bitter, of the smaller fruits, to which Macfadyen has
given the name of Paradise fruits, there are in the West Indies two
well marked forms. The apple shaped fruits are known as for-
bidden fruit, while the pear shaped sorts are known as Barbados
grape fruit. Both these are vei'y attractive looking fruits ; they
have a pale yellow skin usually very thin, are soft and silky to
the touch, while the pulp is sweet and refreshing. The slightly
bitter flavour is regarded as giving them tonic properties of great
value in dyspepsia and allied ailments.
During the last fifteen years the paradise fruits, or more cor-
rectly grape fruit, have been in great demand in the United States.
They have been very strongly recommended by the medical
faculty, and in consequence their use has become an important
feature in the diet of a large number of the American people.
40
The consumption of them has increased by leaps and bounds, and
every year for the past few years it has more than doubled. A
few days ago (says Garden and Forest) 2 barrels of small-sized
grape fruit realized the extraordinary price of £5 each in New
York ; and 7 barrels of similar fruit were sold in Philadelphia for
£5 los. each. Such fruit would retail at more than $1.00 a piece
This is probably the highest price ever paid for specimens of the
orange tribe. It shows very clearly how keen is the demand for grape
fruit, and what importance is attached to it as a refreshing and
healthful adjunct to the food supply of the United States. At one
time there was a better mai'ket for grape fruit — or, rather forbid-
den fruit, as it was called — in the United Kingdom than in Ame-
rica, but the tables are now turned. America especially
since the destructive frosts in Florida, has now absorbed
almost the whole supply from the West Indies. Sooner
or later, however, English people will realise the special merits of
the grape fruit and a demand will arise for it, to the possible ad-
vantage of those West India Islands which are in a position to
supply it. It would be well, therefore, for the people in that part
of the world to establish small orchards of grape fruit trees of the
best quality, and to be prepared to ship the fruit in such condition
that they may get the best price for it. This would be one way
of alleviating, to some extent, the depression under which they
are now suffering, owing to the unremunerative character of the
sugar industry.
The following, containing further notes on grape fruits and
shaddocks, was contributed by Sir Daniel Morris to Chambers'
Journal of January 30, 1 897.
Under the title of 'paradise fruits," Dr. Macfadyen, many years
ago, described some interesting members of the orange family.
Their origin was not clearly traced, but there was little doubt that
they had been produced by seed variation in the West Indies.
Their nearest relations were the common shaddocks or pumelows
{Citrus deciimana). These are well known as the largest of the
citrus fruits ; some fine specimens have weighed as much as 20lbs.,
and measured 2 feet in circumference. According to Alphonse
de Candolle, ' shaddocks and pumelows are probably natives of
the islands east of the Malay Archipelago.' They were found in a
wild state by Seemann and others in the Fiji Islands and the
Friendly Islands, so there is little doubt of their Polynesian origin.
They are now distributed in most tropical countries, but, except in
a few localities, they are not so highly esteemed, for instance, as
the best oranges. Usually the skin is thick and pithy, and the
pulp bitter, and there is little or no demand for them in commerce.
The paradise fruits, on the other hand, are in great demand, and
they are regarded as the most refreshing and wholesome of any
of the citrus family. Recently in New York, some of the latter
were retailed at almost fabulous prices, and the demand increases
every year. The paradise fruits, while they fall specifically under
Citrus decumana, or the giant Citrus, have many points of merit,
not the least of which, is the keen preference shown for them by
41
the people of the United States. They are quite distinct from the
true oranges, citrons, and other groups of the orange family.
The typical fruits of Citrus dcciimana are those known in India
as pumelows (a contraction of poinnm melo, the melon apple) called
by the French Pompelmouse or Pamplemouse, and by the Spanish
and Dutch Pompelmoos. As these fruits were first introduced to
the West Indies by Captain Shaddock, in that part of the world
they have always borne his name. Pumelows and shaddocks are
only the old and new world names for the same fruit. Some-
times it is stated that the largest fruits are called shaddocks and
the next in size pumelows. There is no authority for this distinc-
tion. In this place, I shall quote pumelows and shaddocks indif-
ferently as convenient popular names for all the largest fruits of
the typical Citrus dccumana. A preference may unconsciously be
given to the use of the word shaddock, but only because it is the
most familiar name in the West Indies. As regards the varieties
of these fruits existing in different parts of the world, they are for
the most part distinguished by the locality where they are grown
rather than by any character they may possess. For instance, in
India the best pumelow, according to Bonavia, is the thin-skinned,
red pumelow of Bombay. This is a perfectly globose fruit, very
juicy, and whh the pulp of a rosy-red colour. The botanical
characters of Citrus dccumana are perhaps more marked than in any
other species. The tree is larger, and both the young shoots and
under side of the leaves are covered more or less with soft down.
No other species of citrus has the latter characteristic. The tree
may be as high as 20 feet, with a flat crown and many spreading
branches. Usually there are no spines. The leaves are distinctly
rounded at both ends, with a notch at the apex ; the edges are
uneven or wavy, owing to the presence of a number of small de-
pressions ; the stalk or petiole is furnished with two broad wings,
also wavy, and bordered with fine hairs. The flowers are somewhat
like those of the orange, but larger, and are both white and fra-
grant ; they are usually in clusters of three to nine. The fruit is
spherical or pear-shaped, very large, sometimes even as large as a
man's head, and very heavy. The juice is always slightly acid,
while the rind in the common sorts is remarkably thick, with a
bitter inner membrane. The vesicles containing the juice are
very prominent, and arranged transversely ; in the orange they
are hardly discernible.
Pumelows or shaddocks differ from other citrus fruits in size ;
they are invariably larger than the largest orange and, in addi-
tion, are compact and very heavy. In colour, they are pale-yellow,
almost like lemons, but they differ from the lemon in having
usually a smoother skin. The flesh is pale-yellow or greenish-
white ; in some sorts there is a tendency to pink or crimson, as in
the so-called 'blood-oranges.' The pink-fleshed shaddocks, if
otherwise acceptable, are more esteemed than the white-fleshed.
They are said to be sweeter and more juicy, and have only in a
slight and palatable degree the peculiar flavour of the ordinary
42
shaddocks. Macfayden, sixty years ago, stated that he always
found the pear-shaped shaddocks better than the spherical sorts.
His experience is not invariably endorsed at the present time.
Some of the spherical fruits are of a very delicate flavour, and, as
already mentioned, the best of the Indian sorts are not only spheri-
cal, but have also a pink flesh.
So far, I have described the fruits of the typical Citrus dcciimaua
only. When we come to the smaller fruits, we find that both in
the tree yielding them, as well as in the fruits themselves, there
are certain distinguishing features which show they are rightly
separated by Macfadyen, although we cannot go so far as he has
done in assigning the plant producing them specific rank. Mac-
fadyen grouped the smaller fruits under Citrus paradisi, thus ex-
pressing his appreciation of them by designating them the fruits
of Paradise. He distinguished two varieties, to which he gave
the names of forbidden fruits and the Barbados grape fruit. He
described the tree as of handsome appearance, about 30ft. in height,
with branches sub-erect and sharp at the apex. It will be noticed
that in the shaddock the tree was 20 feet high, with a flat crown
and spreading branches. The leaves are oval, rounded, and
smooth on both sides. The flowers have linear instead of oblong
petals, and the stamens are twenty-five to twenty-six in number
instead of thirty to thirty-five. The fruits, as in the shaddocks, are
either spherical or pear shaped. To the pear shaped fruits
were assigned the name of grape fruit, because they usually
grow in clusters ; while the spherical fruits were called for-
bidden fruit from a fancied connexion with the Garden of Eden.
This classification was made by Macfadyen nearly sixty years ago
therefore long before these fruits were so widely distributed, as
now, in various parts of tropical America. The forbidden fruit
was known to Tussac in 1824, who called it 'Fruit Defendu, or
smaller shaddock.' Later he refers to the same fruit in the fol-
lowing words : ' C'est une assiette de desert tres distinguee et fort
saine.' With the exception of the shape, forbidden fruits and
grape fruits are very much alike, but they are both superior to any
shaddock or pumelow — the fruits of Citrus dccuiiiana — ^ while the
smaller and more delicate fruits bear the distinctive name of para-
dise fruits. Of these the grape fruit is the one now so highly
esteemed in the United States. The Penny Cyclopcvdia had adopted
a similar classification even in 1837. It is stated :' When these
fruits arrive at their greatest size, they are called pompelloes or
pompelmousses ; when at the smallest, they form the forbidden
fruit of the English markets. Another small variety, with the
fruit growing in clusters, is what the West Indians call grape
fruit.'
The grape fruit is not a shaddock nor a pumelow. It is quite
a distinct fruit, and possesses exceptional merits ; at its best, it
differs from the shaddock as much as a fine apple from a common
crab.
43
We may be sure that such keen-witted men as the fruit mer-
chants of New York would not give high prices for grape fruit
unless it were in great demand and thoroughly appreciated by
people able to pay for a choice and delicate article. It is esti-
mated that there were received in the United States last year
grape fruit of the value of about £20,000. The demand for it is
quite of recent date, but it is increasing so rapidly that in a few
years the grape fruit will be one of the most valuable of the citrus
fruits in the New World.
There are doubtless, many inferior sorts of grape fruit. In fact
in the West Indies the plants have been allowed to run almost
wild. No care has been taken to select the best varieties, or ta
bud and graft them, so as to keep them uniformly at a high stan-
dard. Garden and Forest, the leading horticultural journal in
America, very wisely advises that, wherever the fruit is grown, it
should be borne in mind that the highest success will only come
with the use of the best varieties. There is no need to grow the
thick-skinned and bitter sorts, and those with a dry, cottony pulp,
while there are varieties both of the apple-shaped and pear-
shaped fruits with a silky skin, full of juice and of a most delight-
ful flavour, with just enough bitter to give it piquancy and sug-
gest its valuable tonic qualities,
Mr. C. B. Hewitt gives the following account of the grape fruit : —
At one time it was not thought much of in Florida, being only eaten
by the old Floridians as a spring tonic, to drive away malaria.
As soon as its great medicinal qualities were recognized, the doc-
tors began to recommend it for indigestion, and also as an appe-
tizer. The majority of people who eat this fruit do not like it at
first, and many have not tried to like it, on account of the bitter-
ness of the pithy membrane dividing the pulp. The correct
way to eat this interesting fruit is to remove carefully this
lining and to eat only the pulp. Some people prefer to cut
the fruit open through the middle, take away the seeds, and
then sprinkle a little sugar over the cut surface, and work it
in with a spoon. Then let it stand for a little time, or overnight
and eat before meals.' ' There is nothing,' continues this writer,
'in the fruit line yet discovered that possesses the medicinal quali-
ties of the grape fruit. The demand for it will increase from year
to year, and take up all the fruit that will be grown for the next
twenty years. As many as 6,000 fruits are said to have been
gathered from a single tree. This was an exceptionally fine spe-
cimen. It was described as 49 feet in height and 30 feet across
its widest branches. It was thirty-four years old.' There are
many varieties of grape fruit, some seedless, or with an occasional
seed only.
The grape fruit is in such great demand in America chiefly be-
cause it has been so highly recommended by the medical faculty
for its valuable dietetic and tonic qualities. It is also very re-
freshing, and is regarded as a specific for dyspepsia. The Ameri-
cans are large fruit-eaters, and seldom begin or end a meal with-
44
out fruit of some kind. To supply them witli bananas alone,
there arrived from the West Indies during the year 1895, 185 car-
goes of this fruit, comprising nearly 17,000,000 bunches, of the
value of over £5,000,000 sterling. Jamaica furnished the larger
share of this immense shipment of tropical fruit; and that island
is becoming quite prosperous in spite of the great depression that
has overtaken all the sugar-producing countries in that part of the
world. Hitherto, Florida has supplied a good deal of the grape
fruit for the American market, but since the disastrous effects of
the 'freeze' of last yeai% the Florida plantations have been almost
destroyed. Much English capital invested in fruit growing in
that state has been lost, and many of our young countrymen set-
tled there have suffered a severe reverse of fortune. Even where
the groves are not quite destroyed, it will take years of toil and
expenditure to bring them back to their former condition. For
some time, at least, the chief supplies of grape fruit must therefore
be drawn from the West Indies. The people in that part of the
world would do well to establish trees of the best varieties, and
take advantage of the opportunity to participate in what promises
to be a steady and remunerative industry.
THE BREAD-FRUIT TREE.
Stephen Fuller, the writer of the following letter (one of the
last he wrote in his official capacity), was agent for Jamatca in
London for no less than thirty years — from 1765 to May I795>
when he was succeeded by Robert Sewell.
He belonged to a well-known Jamaica family founded by
Colonel Thomas Fuller, a soldier of fortune, who, coming out un-
der Venables in 1655, became a member of the Council. Other
members of the family sat in the House of Assembly during the
eighteenth century.
The Council and the Assembly at that period considered it de-
sirable that, their agent should have a seat in the House of Com-
mons, and when Sewell succeeded Fuller they raised the salary
from £500 to £1,000 with that end in view.
Fuller represented Jamaica in the House of Commons during
the early part of the struggle which led to the abolition of the
Slave Trade, and was an out and out supporter of the planters'
views, publishing various Reports on the subject by direction of
the Assembly.
The bread-fruit trees referred to had been brought to Jamaica,
from Otaheite, by Admiral Bligh, in 1 791 ; for which Bligh re-
ceived a vote of one thousand guineas from the House of Assem-
bly of Jamaica, and the gold medal of the Society of Arts of
London. The letter appears in the manuscript letter-book of the
Agent of Jamaica for 1794-1801, in the Library of the Institute of
Jamaica.
F. C.
45
London, 31st March, 1 795.
HoNBLE. Gentlemen
It is with singular pleasure I have heard that there are many of
the breadfruit trees, now in fruit, and many more in blossom in
our island. As we owe the blessing of this introduction entirely
to the King, I arti sure you will think as I do that he has a peculiar
right to the primities, the fruits first produced from those trees.
I know nothing that would give his Majesty greater pleasure, and
if it was accompanied with a proper compliment from the Legis-
lative body, it would make the present still more acceptable.
The manner I would wish it to be sent in, if you think proper,
is this, to send ten or twelve in number of the fruit, in a large jarr,
covered with strong rum, well corked, bound with leather and
pitch and resin melted upon the cork. And I would wish it to be
directed to the Chairman of the Custom House, with a letter to
him by the same ship (tho' I will signify to him that he may
expect such a present), setting forth the reason of sending
it to him, in order that it may not be overhaled by the
searchers, who will be sure to do it some injury or
other : and if you will give orders for it to be delivered to
me, I will take care to get a capital flint glass vase for it, properly
inscribed and to put some proof spirits instead of the rum and
present it myself. His Majesty knows me, and has been pleased
to express great satisfaction at the method I took two or three
years ago to enrich his garden at Kew with a great number of Ja-
maica plants more than had been introduced there in twenty years
before. I will consult Sir Joseph Banks upon it, and we will en-
deavour to make it an agreeable present, equally honourable to the
maker and the receiver. I have been many years in persuit of
this object, even since Captain Cooke's returned from his first
voyage to Otaheite ; old Beeston Long and myself being the two
first persons that subscribed our names to a paper drawn by my-
self promising a reward to the first person that should bring the
Breadfruit tree to the Island of Jamaica ; but all our endeavours
proved abortive, till His Majesty most nobly undertook it,
strenously persevered in it after one failure, and at last accom-
plished it. His Majesty is a true friend to the colonies. I am of
opinion we owe more to him than is generally known in regard to
the defeat of the absurd attempt of abolishing the slave trade,
which I think we shall hear no more of, even in the H. of Com-
mons after the next general election. Till then, you will. I hope
to live to see a considerable increase of negroes in our Island, and
every one of them with two or three breadfruit trees in his own
garden. They will then see who are their friends.
I have the honour to be, Honble. Gentlemen,
Your most obliged and obedient servant,
Stephen Fuller.
The Honble.
The Committee of Correspondence.
46
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was
held at Headquarter House, on Tuesday, l6th January, 1906, at
11.15 a.m. Present: — Hon. H. Clarence Bourne, Colonial Secre-
tary, Chairman ; the Director of Public Gardens, the Superintend-
ing Inspector of Schools, the Island Chemist, His Grace the Arch-
bishop, Messrs. C. E. deMercado, J. W. Middleton, G. D. Murray
and the Secretary.
The Secretary submitted the following letters from the Colonial
Secretary's Office : —
I. Contagious Diseases Animals Bill. — Re Contagious Diseases
Animals Bill, stating that it was not proposed to introduce the
proposed bill at the next session of the Legislative Council.
The Secretary read a minute saying that when he was attending
a meeting of the local Agricultural Society at Appleton, one small
penkeeper said that he had lost 10 cows and one bull in two weeks
and that the carcases had been allowed to lie and rot. He sug-
gested that a description of a few of the most contagious diseases
among animals might be published throughout the island, that it
might be made compulsory to report to the police the outbreak of
any such diseases and the Ijurning of carcases ought also to be
made compulsory.
(The Chairman here left the meeting to attend a meeting of the
Privy Council and the Director of Public Gardens was asked to
take the Chair.)
After discussion Mr. Middleton moved that members of the
Board should meet members of the Board of Management of the
Agricultural Society at the latter's meeting the next day and dis-
cuss the whole matter of legislation regarding contagious diseases
among animals so as to get something practical settled as soon
as possible.
This was agreed to.
2. Coco-init Disease. — Letter from Mr. G. P. Dewar, Harmony
Hall, Duncans, asking if the Government could not introduce
some law to make it compulsory for the owners of diseased coco-
nut trees to cut them down and burn them, as the disease was
prevalent in Hanover where he was in charge of a valuable pro-
perty, and seemed to be gradually spreading without anything
being done to prevent it.
The Secretary was instructed to reply first that the matter had
been referred to the Director of Public Gardens, who had replied
that the same bud-rot disease had been dealt with in the Bulletin,
in which was stated the result of experiments laid down by him
and carried out by Mr. Cradwick, that the disease could be pre-
vented by spraying with Bordeaux mixture ; and secondly that the
Board would arrange for Mr. Cradwick to give a demonstration at
Lucea. On the suggestion of the Archbishop it was resolved
47
that the Director of Public Gardens should publish a leaflet em-
bodying what was known concerning this disease.
3. Sivcctstiiff Factory. — Letter from Mr. Edward Redsue, British
Colombia, suggesting that a big sweetstuff factory should be
started in Jamaica for the production of Jamaica Rum Lime
Tablets and other Rum flavoured Sweetmeats.
The Secretary was instructed to ask the authority of the Gover-
nor to have this letter published in the newspapers for the infor-
mation of all whom it might concern.
4. Jamaica Scholarship. — Letter from Schools Commission re Ja-
maica Scholarship. Mr. Cousins' memo re proposed alteration in
Jamaica Scholarship with criticisms of the Superintending In-
spector of Schools and the Archbishop were also read.
After discussion the Archbishop moved that —
" In the opinion of the Board of Agriculture it is undesirable to
allocate the Jamaica Scholarship every third year for agriculture,
that a more efficient stimulus of general agricultural education
might be effected on the following lines as indicated more fully in
the correspondence, each of the Scholarships to be available an-
nually : —
1. The restriction of the Jamaica Scholarship to as low a point
as is consistent with making it really available for the purposes
of various classes of students.
2. The appropriation of the remainder of the available money
for an Agricultural Scholarship tenable for two or three years at
an Agricultural College abroad to be awarded upon the Diploma
Examination of the Board of Agriculture." This was unanimous-
ly agreed to.
School Chart. — His Grace the Archbishop brought forward a mat-
ter which had been discussed at the Board before and which had
been in hand for nearly two years. This was a list of "Agri-
cultural Dont's" prepared by Mr. E. J. Wortley in conjunction
with Messrs. Hicks and MacFarlane, to form a chart to be hung
up in schools and be repeated over twice a week by scholars.
The Secretary was instructed to get copies of this typed and sent
to each member of the Board who were asked to make any sug-
gestions.
Mr. S. Olivier. — A letter of acknowledgement from Mr. Sydney
Olivier re the Locked Still matter was directed to be circulated.
Cotton. — A letter from Mr. G. Musgrove, Jackson, Mississippi,
in reply to the Secretary's letter sending him a sample of cotton
was submitted and directed to be circulated.
Reports. — The following reports from the Chemist were sub-
mitted :
1. Agricultural Scholarships Examination.
2. Report work of Agricultural Students for Michaelmas
Term.
3. Report on Banana Soils of St. Mary.
4. Progress Report Distillers Experiments.
48
5- Appointment of two assistants, Sugar Department.
These were directed to be circulated.
The Director of Public Gardens submitted Reports as follows : —
1. Experiment Station.
2. Instructors.
3. Letter from India re varieties of bananas.
These were directed to be circulated.
The following papers which had been circulated, but not yet
submitted to the Board, were submitted : —
1. Memo re proposed alteration in Jamaica Scholarship.
2. Report of Committee appointed to investigate the Cotton
Caterpillar Pest in Jamaica. It was resolved to publish this re-
port in the form of a special 'Bulletin.'
3. Publications on ' Bud-rot Disease of Coco-nut Palms' and
forwarding diseased plants and insect pests, both sent by the Im-
perial Department of Agriculture, Barbados.
[Issued 17th February, 1906.
Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston,, Jam.
BULLETIN
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Vol. IV.
MARCH, 1906.
Part 3.
KDITKI) BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S.,
Director of Public Gardens and Flaittatioris.
CONTENTS:
Cultivation and Marketing of Citrus Fruits
Tobacco of Jamaica : IV
A new name for a Jamaican Fern
Selection of Seed : Coco-Nuts
Board of Agriculture ...
Season and Prices for Fruits &c.
Page.
49
58
62
63
63
66
PRIG E— Threepence.
A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send name and
address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.
KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
Hope Gardens.
1906.
JAMAICA.
LIBRARY
BULLETIN Bor'lN.rAL
OF THE
OARDEN.
DEPARTMEXT OF A(iPiICULTUJiE.
Vol. IV. MARCH, 1906. Part 3.
CULTIVATION AND MARKETING OF CITRUS
FRUITS.
By H. Q. Levy.
An Address delivered at the Auniicd Meeting of Elementary School
Teachers Jor Agricultural Instruction, January, 1906.
The subject set down against my name on the Syllabus, is "The
Cultivation and Marketing of Citrus Fruits." Some may well ask
why it is that I persistently advocate the cultivation of Citrus
fruit year after year when we cannot dispose of those we already
have growing wild about the different parts of the Island. My
answer would be, as I have often repeated, because by cultivating
standard varieties we would have a ready-made market for all the
fruit we could grow ; secondly, we would have a more even grade
of fruit that would better stand shipment, and thirdly, by having
the trees in grove form we could handle them quicker and more
carefully than by the present system. I advise, time and again,
the planting of the improved varieties of oranges and grape fruit
as I firmly believe that there will always be a market for them if
shipped in a proper manner and given every chance of their ar-
riving at their destination in a good condition ; on the other hand,
I have always said that at no distant day we will have no sale for
our wild oranges except when the foreign markets are bare of sup-
plies. Now this is a subject well forth considering, for it means
bread and butter to many of us. Are we going to waste time until
we are elbowed out of the market altogether ? or are we going to
set about planting improved varieties and so gradually capture a
portion of the market that is ready waiting for us ? Do not be
UD discouraged by the number of failures that have taken place in the
S past, for if you enquire into each one you will be sure to find that
"" in every case the parties were doomed to failure from the very
,__, commencement. Citrus culture needs careful study and a special
<:
50
knowledge of the requirements of the tree to ensure its success,
so that at the outset when men who knew nothing of the cultiva-
tion or principles to be followed, launched out by planting 30 or
40 acres of oranges and grape fruit, were simply tempting Provi-
dence.
Now it is not my intention or desire that any of you should go
away from this Lecture Hall believing that by taking up citrus
culture you are going to make your immediate fortunes, or that even
if you follow my instructions implicitly there will be no failure ;
these things I cannot promise, but this I will say, that it is my firm
belief that all those who embark in citrus culture on a small scale
at first, and follow out my instructions will in the years to come
find they have in their small groves quite as profitable an invest-
ment as any other product they may grow, and one that is espe-
cially suited to the man of small means.
For all practical purposes, in dealing with citrus plants this
afternoon, although there are endless varieties, we need only take
into consideration for commercial purpose, two of the species,
the " Sweet Orange" and the Pomelo, or as we call it in Jamaica,
" Grape Fruit," and as the cultivation and treatment of both are
similar, I will treat them under one head, which will both save
time and prevent any undue confusion in your minds.
In the first place I would particularly warn you against the
great mistake most people have made in starting on too large a
scale, a quarter of an acre you will find will be quite large enough
an area for a start, extending your cultivation as you gain expe-
rience and your means allow. A universal mistake that nine-
tenths of the men in Jamaica make, whether in Commerce or Agri-
culture, is, taking on more than they can manage. Always bear
this in mind, that whereas the right amount of money spent on
just sufficient cultivation, may bring you in a handsome profit, the
same amount spent on twice the acreage or undertaking, is sure to
land you in serious losses and make you disgusted with that special
industry.
In starting a citrus grove the first thing to be considered is suit-
able land, and this is a great point if you desire to meet with suc-
cess. In every case a gentle slope will be found to give much
better results than very level land, heavy clays should be avoided,
a soil of limestone formation such as the red soils of St. Ann and
Manchester, do admirably for oranges and grape fruit, and you
might say constitute the natural home of the orange in Jamaica.
The ideal location for a grove will be found on soils that are inter-
spersed whh limestone rock, but yet having plenty of deep soil
around them ; it will not be so easy to cultivate but will be found
in the long run to give better results. A rich sandy loam is also
good, but you will find that this description of soil, being found
nearer the sea coast, is accompanied by a very dry and hot at-
mosphere, the fruit takes longer to mature and the colour will
not be so good when it ripens.
Having chosen the spot for your grove you must set about pro-
pagating plants to stock it. For this purpose I would advise your
51
-starting a small nursery, as it is better to grow your own plants
than purchase them from other parties, it will be found cheaper,
more interesting, and when the planting time arrives, you may cull
out all the bad ones, only planting those with good fibrous roots
and well-developed stocks.
I will not go into the method of forming a nursery, as I under-
stand that is part of the course which you are now undergoing in
the section of field work. But I must tell you this, under any
circumstances use only grape fruit stock for budding on, and at
all times use budded trees in preference to seedlings for your
groves, and you are sure to get the same quality and kind of fruit
as the description from which you took your bud-wood. But if you
grow seedlings and allow them to become permanent trees you are
sure to get the majority of them bearing very indifferent fruit,
and of uncertain shipping qualities. Grape fruit is an exception
to this rule, so long as you procure your seeds from trees that are
far removed from any other variety of citrus plants, but even then
the fruits from which you take the seeds, although looking fine
and a desirable sort, may have been hybridized by some inferior
one in that particular section.
Having started your nursery, the plants doing well, and near
ready to be transplanted, that is, when they have reached a height
of about two or three feet, it is best to turn your attention to the
land chosen for your grove. It should be cleaned and lined out, —
for oranges 20-25 feet apart, and for grape fruit 25-30 feet, the
rows running parallel and square to each other ; at each stake dig
a hole 2 feet in diameter and about the same depth, say one month
before planting ; leave it open until just the day before so that the
sun may get a fair play on the soil in the bottom of the hole. In
filling in a hole put the top soil at the bottom and fill in with the
surrounding top soil scraped from around the hole, using the earth
from the bottom of the hole to replace any such soil taken away
from the adjacent land. The tree should be planted on a hill
somewhat resembling that used for planting yams but not quite so
high and somewhat more rounded over the top, this will enable
your plant to be placed about 6 inches higher than the surround-
ing soil. In taking up the plants from the nursery be careful to
preserve every small root, do not take up more than you can plant
immediately and never expose, even for a moment, the roots to the
direct rays of the sun or to high winds ; the ends of the longer
roots should be cut back a few inches, also the tap root, the head
of the plant must have its share of trimming and all the leaves
cut away three-quarter of their area, as by so doing you equalize
to a certain extent the shock to the plant that you have caused by
disturbing the roots. Arriving with your plant at the side of the
hill, use your hand to make a hole in the centre of it, large enough
to take in all the roots when laid out in their original position :
stand the plant upright, then put in some earth and firm it well
around the tap root, leaving no air spaces, as this would be sure
52
to cause the death of the plant or stunt its growth : pour in some
water and put in more earth, firming it again, continue putting
earth and water alternately until the soil is level with the highest
root; that highest root should now be about 6 inches higher than
the surrounding soil. As the earth settles, so will the tree, until
it takes up a permanent position with the top root just exposed to
the air. Citrus plants should never be planted deep, better to have
them six inches too high than half an inch too deep ; de-
fective planting has been the cause of more failures than all others
put together, as by planting too deep you will find it make no
growth and be a fitting subject to all the diseases to which the
citrus family is subject, and these are many, especially when
planted under unfavourable conditions. It will be well to spread
some dry grass or trash of any kind all over the hill until you are
certain that the tiees have taken root, say in about four weeks, as
by so doing you ;onserve the moisture in the soil ; if no rain, you
must water at lea ;t once a week until the first growth after plant-
ing has fairly ripened, this stage is reached when the new leaves
turn to a dark green.
As it would be very expensive to keep the land clean for a
number of years where only citrus plants are cultivated it is ad-
viiable to establish catch crops which would give some revenue and
at the same time not injure the trees in your grove. Fortunately
theie are many such crops that may be grown without detriment,
such as bananas, cocoes, yams, cassava, corn or peas. Try to
avoid planting sweet potatoes in any citrus grove, except you plant
only two rows down the centres and keep the vines from
spreading too near to the trees, the same applies to pumpkins.
I will now demonstrate to you the distances apart it would be
best to plant the plants I haye named so as to give you a maximum
yield and a minimum amount of damage to your citrus cultivation.
(l) Banana as catch crop until orange trees are 2 or 3 years
old, orange trees 20 ft. apart, bananas in the middle of the rows at
a distance of 8 ft. from one another : —
Oranges Bananas Oranges Bananas
X o X o
53
(2) Yams put in between the oranges at distances of 5 ft. then
another row of three yams at distances of 5 ft., and so on : —
Oranges Yams Oranges
X o o o X
(3) Cocoes put in like the yams, but one also in the middle of
each square, and so on : —
Oranges Cocoes Oranges
o o o X
o o
0 0 0
o o
(4) Corn and peas : the corn should be put in at distances of 4
feet apart, and the peas between the rows of corn : —
to
a a -r a
ri t. a «H rt f-i
- o § o to o
X o ^ o ^ o ) o X
(
o < o < o { o
<
o < o < o < o
54
Always keep your land clean and as soon as your trees start to
bear, remove all catch crops from the land except peas which you
may continue to grow for some time as this being a nitrogeneous
crop rather adds to the fertility of the soil than otherwise.
I should not pass this stage without giving you some advice as
to the varieties of oranges and grape fruit to plant. In the
citrus family we have a large number of species, and these are
again divided up into endless varieties. For instance 'ake the
sweet orange. Of the cultivated varieties we have under the
class called Navel : — Petersfield, Washington, Australian, Thom-
son's Improved, &c., and under ordinary or seeded varieties, St.
Michael, Valencia, Ruby, Homosassa, Parson Brown, Majorca,
Jaffa, Pineapple, Tardif, Rivers, Blood, &c., and a host of others
too numerous to mention ; then it is almost the same with grape
fruit ; the imported varieties include the following : — Marsh seed-
less. Triumph, Pernambuco, Royal, Walters, Duncan, &c., and in
Jamaica there are almost as many varieties as there are trees in
the island. But for our purpose we can bring the oranges down
to two or three varieties that are worth while cultivating. I
would advise your propagating in preference to all others the
Petersfield Navel as being the most vigorous grower and heaviest
cropper of them all ; the Washington and Thomson's Improved
Navel are also very good ; all Navels are classed as seedless
varieties. Of the seeded sorts you cannot get a better than the
Pineapple, for although it contains a very large number of seeds
it is a very strong grower and cropper, and is seldom attacked
by disease of any kind, and having a very tough skin, is one of
tlie best shippers I know of. Of grape fruit I should advise your
planting some selected Jamaica variety as the foreign sorts are
not to be compared with them either for flavour or texture. I
have tried all the oranges and grape fruit quoted, therefore I
speak from actual experience.
The citrus tree requires very little pruning except in the tim®
of its first growth after planting when all suckers below a heigh^
of two feet from the ground should be removed with a sharp knife
and covered with some paint, after that just prune up the limbs
that have a tendency to droop towards the ground, and any dry
branches ; more than this would not be necessary.
With manuring we have to be very careful, as the citrus are
very particular. Stable manure of any kind should never be used
except very old and well rotted, the same applies to that obtained
from the pig. Sheep manure is different, it can be used at once.
Ashes are good at all times. Remember all manures must be
applied in advance of the roots so that it may be thoroughly in-
corporated with the soil before the roots reach it, in which case it
will be of benefit to the tree, otherwise applied it will bring on
endless diseases of the root.
This brings us to the stage when I must say something as to the
diseases of the citrus. All are more or less caused from bad man-
agement, such as planting too deep first and foremost, the appli-
55
cation directly to the roots of rank manures, bad cultivation, and
a disease that I call "Greedy Choke Puppy" i,e., planting catch
crops right up to the trees, allowing pumpkin and bean vines to
grow all over them.
I will first deal with a disease known as " Foot Rot." It is first
observed by a yellowish gum exuding from the roots or the trunk
adjacent to them and when the bark is pealed off the wood imme-
diately under it will be found to be of a brownish colour in the
first stages, and later quite dead. This disease, if handled at
once can easily be cured ; first remove the soil from around the
root for about l8 inches, cutting away all diseased bark and wood
and applying white-wash, with a little coal tar added, to the cut
surfaces and allowing the hole to remain open until filled up by
the natural washing of the rains.
" Die Back" as its name denotes, is a dying back of new growths
and smaller branches. This is due to the application of highly ni-
trogeneous manures and also wet soil ; if these causes are removed
and some dry wood ashes applied to the root system the trees will
soon recover.
"Scale Insects" are more prevalent in densely shaded groves
and poorly fed trees. They exist under the most favourable con-
ditions and if not checked will eventually kill the tree. For these
pests soft soap emulsion is a good remedy, but it has to be re-
peated until you have eradicated the pests, and ever after keep a
watchful eye for the return, dosing them as soon as they make an
appearance.
What I have told you will be quite enough to give a fair start
and if you follow out my instructions as regards planting and
growing the catch crops I have mentioned, you will find at the
end of about four years you will have a nice grove that will be
capable of helping out your income and which has cost you almost
nothing as far as ready money is concerned
I hope I have not wearied you with this long string" of details,
but they are all quite necessary to entail success and must be
carefully followed.
Now there is the other part of my discourse which I will treat
as briefly as possible, and that is the marketing of citrus fruits.
The present system I think is an impossible one, and is bound to
bring ruin sooner or later to all concerned in it. I am sorry to
have to say it, but our ordinary labourer is far too careless an in-
dividual to be trusted to pick and handle oranges and grape fruit
all over a property as is now done. To get good work you must
personally supervise the picking, and this is not possible where you
have to employ dozens of hands scattered over a large area. In
a grove it is different as the trees are blocked together and you
can take row by row ; then the trees being of lower growth, most
of the fruits can be picked directly from the ground or from short
ladders, put in small canvas bags hung from the shoulder and these
56
when filled emptied into the field boxes, which in turn can be carted
to the packing house instead of the fruit being bulked in a cart as
is done at present. Citrus fruits should at all times be handled as
carefully as eggs ; in picking, if an orange should drop on the
ground destroy it at once, do not let that orange get in your pack
as it will be sure to rot and contaminate others. If possible clip
the oranges directly from the trees as by doing this the buds imme-
diately behind the oranges, which will form the growth for
the succeeding crop, are not destroyed as is done when a part of the
stem is picked from the tree along with the fruit. After pick-
ing, oranges should be placed in thin layers in the packinghouse,
remaining thus for at least four days before packing and grape
fruit at least a week ; by that time the skins have become tough and
all bruises are easily recognised. All fruits bearing these marks
should be discarded. The fruit is now ready for packing opera-
tions. First all fruit should be divided into three classes, brights or
fully ripe and clean, secondly, fully ripe but discoloured or russet,
and thirdly, greenish fruit ; then each of these grades must be
sized and packed separately. Now wrap in tisssue paper, if pos-
sible bearing the packer's Trade Mark, then pack in Standard
size boxes, each box holding according to the size of orange or
grape fruit the following number of fruit. The standard packs for
oranges are 96, II2, 126, 150, 176, 200, 216, 225, 250 ; smaller
oranges than these are generally classed as unmarketable. Grape
fruit are packed in the following sizes.
The method of placing oranges in the box to get them to hold
the exact quantity is illustrated by the following diagrams* : —
A B
1 Packing flfi totliebox: four layers,
alternating, as in A and B.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
A B
2 Packing 112 to the box : four
laj'ers, alternating, as in A and B.
0
o
0
0
o
c
0
0
0
f>
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
o
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
o
V
0
o
0
0
o
o
0
o
0
o
0
o
o
o
o
o
n
0
0
0
0
o
0
A B
H — Paclcing 126 to the box; firsf,
third and fifth layer as in A, and
second and fourth layer as in B.
A B
4 — Packing 1.50 to the box ; five
layers, alternating, as in A and H.
'See Bulletin of the Botanical Department, December, 1895, page 283.
57
o
o
0
o
0
o
o
0
o
o
o
o
0
o
0
o
0
0
0
o
o
o
0
0
o
o
o
0
0
o
o
0
o
0
0
A B
5— Packing 176 to the box ; first,
third and fifth layers as in A, and
second and fourth layers as in B.
o
o
o
0
o
o
0
o
0
o
o
o
o
o
o
0
0
0
o
o
o
0
o
0
0
o
o
o
0
o
0
0
0
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
A B
6— Packing 200 to the box ; five
layers, alternating, as in A and B.
o
o
o
0
0
o
o
0
o
o
o
o
0
o
0
0
0
o
o
o
0
o
o
o
0
0
o
0
o
o
0
0
o
o
0
0
o
o
o
o
a
0
0
o
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
o
o
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
o
o
0
o
o
0
0
o
0
0
o
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
o
0
o
o
o
0
A B
7— Packing 225 to the box : five
layers, alternating, as in A and B.
A B
8 — Packing 250 to the box ; five
uniform layers.
Always remember that neatness counts for much in putting up
oranges. After packing slightly above the edges of the box, this
is as it should be, in putting on the cover use gentle pressure dis-
tributed as even as possible over the whole surface to get the fruit
to settle down'; then nail on the cover with three straps, which
should go completely around the box ; neatly stencil your mark and
despatch. All this of course refers to the packing of boxes. With
barrels it is different. The oranges should be allowed to remain in
the house as before, and as it is unnecessary to size as with boxes,
this operation is saved. Neither is it advisable to wrap in tissue
paper ; ordinary straw paper being the kind adopted. It is not
generally known that it requires an expert to properly pack a
barrel of oranges, but nevertheless such is the case, and this is
how it should be done. First search the barrel well for any nails
that may be protruding inside through carelessness of the cooper,
then start by packing oranges around the outer edge of the bottom
of the barrel, using a slightly smaller size of orange for the first
row round than you intend to put in the middle part ; this will com-
pensate for the inside lining. Turn all the whorls of the paper
up for about four layers and see that as far as possible each layer
after the first one contains the same size oranges, as the object
should be to get each layer exactly level before starting another
one. Never use your thumb to push an orange in place ; you are
sure to injure it, but use all your fingers to give a gentle pressure
sideways to each orange ; when you come to the centre, if space
allows, put in three oranges at once and use the palm of your hand
to gently firm the three down into their place and so act as a
wedge against all the others ; continue each row like this until you
come to the last, which should just come level with the top of the
barrel. Place the heading on top of the oranges and give the
58
barrel a slight but sharp rocking motion to and from you, pressing
the top down with your elbows in the meantime ; on uncovering
you will find that the fruit has settled down just to the chine of
the barrel ; after heading up, stencil and despatch.
With these details I must bring my lecture to a close, but before
doing so, let me seriously impress on all of you, the desirability,
in fact the absolute necessity, of the better handling of our fruit.
An orange or grape fruit is not an India rubber ball, but a fragile
fruit, which if properly handled can be kept for months so long as
it is well ventilated, but if bruised at all will be decayed and un-
fit for anything after a few days, and in some instances, after a
few hours. Your obligations are not over when you have nailed
the heading down ; they continue until the fruit reaches the con-
sumer and he finds it the article you represent it to be. You call
the shopkeeper a dishonest and unscrupulous man who sells you an
article that is not up to that standard he represents it to be ; well
the same name applies to the packer who gets an order for good
marketable fruit, but instead puts up half rotten and unmarketable
stuff or handles the fruit carelessly and so jeopardises its keeping
qualities. Also remember that you are not only injuring your own
name by pursuing this dishonourable course, but that of your
country and its products in the markets abroad, and that if some
reformation is not immediately started these same markets will be
forever closed to all of us.
TOBACCO OF JAMAICA :— VI.*
32 S.S. 371
Colonial Secretary's Ofiice, 30th January 1906.
SIR,
I am directed to transmit herewith, to be laid before the Jamaica
AgriculturalSociety, for their information andforpublication should
the Board of Management so desire, a copy of a despatch from the-
Secretary of State for the Colonies, enclosing copy of correspon-
dence in regard to Mr. F. V. Chalmers' experiment of blending
Jamaica with Virginia tobacco for use in the Navy.
I have the honour to be,
Sir,
Your obedient Servant,
T. L. ROXBURGH, Asst. Col. Sec.
371 Downing Street, 30th October, 1905.
Governor Sir J. A. Swettenham, K.C.M.G., &c., &c., &c.
SIR,
With reference to my despatch No. 347 of the 6th inst., and to
previous correspondence, I have the honour to transmit to you for
your information, the accompanying copy of a letter from Mr. F.
V. Chalmers relative to the supply from Jamaica and other British
* Coatinued from Bulletin of tite Department oj Agriculture Dec. 1905 page 271.
59
Colonies of the tobacco required for His Majesty's Naval service,
together with copies of correspondence with the Admiralty on the
subject.
I have, etc.,
(Sgd.) Alfred Lyttelton,
13 Devonshire Square, Bishopsgate, E.C.,
20th September, 1905.
C. P. Lucas, Esq., C.B., Colonial Office.
SIR,
I have the honour to report to you the result of my interview
with you some time since, upon the introduction of Sir Alfred
Jones. I have been twice to the West Indies, Jamaica, and have
also reported upon growths from Barbados and St. Kitts to the
Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture. At the request of the Lords
of the Admiralty, I blended and manufactured 8,657 tins of tobacco
by way of experiment for the Navy, and I am pleased to tell you
that the production is second to none. Should this meet with the
approval of the seamen, it will give a great impetus to the West
Indian Tobacco Industry, and I see no reason in future, if proper
care and advice are given, why the whole of the tobacco for the
Navy should not be composed of tobacco grown in one or other of
the Colonies, entirely eliminating foreign growth. Such being
the case. Colonial tobacco would vie with American or any other
growth. In other kinds of tobacco, I have advised Jamaica to ex-
periment and the results are most gratifying, and I have reported
that in my opinion, with some small modifications the productions
should compete with Havana and Sumatra, and I am told the in-
crease in acreage this year is to be very considerable, but this ex-
periment will have to be watched most carefully and continu-
ously or there will sure to be delay, if not relapse.
I am, etc.,
(Sgd.) F. V. Chalmers.
33923-1905 Downing Street, 26th September, 1905.
The Secretary to the Admiralty,
Sir,
With reference to your letter of the 15th of December last, (V.
8192) relative to Mr. F. V. Chalmers' suggestion for the supply from
British Colonies of the tobacco required by His Majesty's Naval
service, I am directed by Mr. Secretary Lyttelton to acquaint you,
for the information of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty,
that he understands that 8,657 tins of West Indian tobacco have
been supplied by Mr. Chalmers for the Navy, by way of experi-
ment, and I am to state that Mr. Lyttelton would be glad to be
informed of the result of this experiment.
1 am,
(Sgd.) C. P. Lucas.
60
Admiralty, S.W., 2lst October, 1905.
The Under Secretary of State
for the Colonies, Downing Street,
Sir,
I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty
to acknowledge the receipt of Mr. Lucas' letter of the 26th ultimo,
No. 33923/1905, on the subject of the supply from British Colonies
of the Tobacco required for H. M. Naval service.
2. In reply, I am to acquaint you for the information of the Sec-
retary of State for the Colonies, that with the assistance of Mr.
Chalmers, the Admiralty obtained a supply (1,508 lb.) of Leaf To-
bacco from Jamaica, but, as it transpired that this tobacco by itself
was not suitable for pipe smoking and that there is not at the
present time any Colonial grown Tobacco suitable for blending
with it, arrangements were made for it to be blended and manu-
factured with a quantity of Virginia grown Tobacco, the proportion
being 1,508 lb. Jamaican to 5,075 lb. Virginian. This preparation
is now undergoing trial in the Fleet and my Lords will be happy
to communicate the general results of the experiment in due course.
3. As, however, more than 75 per cent, of the blend now under
trial is of American origin, it is evident that this test does not go
very far in the direction of substituting Colonial for Foreign grown
Tobacco, and it is doubtful whether such a step is practicable at
the present time. It is true that My Lords are informed that much
attention is being given to the cultivation of Tobacco in Victoria
and Rhodesia, and that it is hoped eventually to produce there a
type possessing the same qualities as that now grown in Virginia,
and therefore suitable for blending with West Indian Tobacco.
But planting in these. Colonies seems to be, as yet in the experi-
mental stage, whilst, so far as their Lordships are aware, supplies
even of Jamaica Tobacco, are not at present procurable in the
open market in any quantity.
4. In the event, therefore, of the present trial proving successful,
it must still be a matter for careful consideration whether any re-
liance can be placed upon obtaining regular and sufficient supplies
of Colonial grown Tobacbo at a reasonable price, and it would be
very helpful to their Lordships in dealing with this question if
they can be given fuller information with regard to the position
and prospects of the Tobacco planting industry in the Colonies
generally, and also as to whether the Secretary of State is pre-
paring to take any special action in regard to the promotion of
Tobacco cultivation which will be likely to assist the Admiralty in
obtaining adequate supply from Colonial sources.
I am, etc.,
(Sgd.) GEO. H. HOSTE, Pi. Sec.
The following paragraphs are taken from a letter of a corres-
pondent in Africa, who has had considerable experience in grow-
ing Sumatra tobacco in Sumatra. His notes will be of great
6l
interest to those who are engaged in the cultivation of this tobacco
in Jamaica : —
Many thanks for Bulletin of July, 1905, which I have read with
interest. I have further received your letter of the 1 2th October
and in reply to your query re fermentation.
A light coloured leaf in Sumatra tobacco by no means implies
want of fermentation. Most of the cigar manufacturers are under
the impression that fermentation darkens the leaf, which it does
of heavy tobacco, but a certain proportion of Deli leaf is very
light coloured (L. sorting mark) and sells at the highest price for
the American's in the Amsterdam market.
My experience is that a cigar manufacturer of course knows
whether a leaf suits him or what its faults are, but when they try
to find a reason or suggest a remedy for these faults, they are at
sea, because they have no experience as growers.
Twenty* tons is a good weight of Sumatra leaf to ferment ; less
would probably be insufficiently fermented, therefore this to-
bacco is not a poor man's business.
With regard to your Bulletin, which is of great interest to me,
you may like to have the following notes, but having no experience
of your climate or soil, of course they must be considered merely
in the light of Sumatra and African experience, and for this reason
may not be of great value.
Topping — I see you did not top apparently, but let the plants
flower. If 1 remember aright, this was done also in the Connecti-
cut Valley ; it was also tried in Deli about 1 897, but abandoned in
favour of the old plan of topi^ng, as it was found the leaf by not
topping was too papery to work, also the lengths were poor.
Age of plant when harvested — The quicker the growth the finer the
leaf of course. In Deli, lOO to 1 10 days, from date of sowing to
harvesting, is the rule.
Curing— Yonrs is the first attempt I have seen to grapple with
the problem of too rapid curing in the Bam ; a state of affairs which
seems to prevail everywhere I have tried Sumatra tobacco, except
in the very moist atmosphere of Sumatra itself.
Here we ran three streams in furrows through the C. Bams. day
and night while the tobacco was curing, also watered the floor
heavily, with however but little effect ; the dry bulb of Psychro-
meter still showed 10^ and 12 difference to the wet one, conse-
quently the leaf cured blotchy.
I should like to try the method of hanging the cloth round Bam
but should think it expensive. I note you partly sweated the leaf
on floor before hanging to turn it yellow. Perhaps in your cli-
mate this may do well, but in Deli we were specially warned
against this, as " green sweat" is said to give the leaf an acrid
flavour, impossible to eradicate by fermentation.
* A press of half a ton of Havana tobacco ferments well, and if part of this, say
90 lbs., be Sumatra, the latter is fern ented. Editor.
62
Fermentation — Your tobacco would appear to have followed the
lines of the American Sumatra leaf in the Washington bulletins
which perhaps suits that leaf, but it is quite different to a Deli
ferment.
For instance, you ran it up on first bulking to 125 F. 52 C. I
should have turned it at 40 once or twice, and then brought it
gradually up to 52" or higher, but of course all depends on how
the tobacco looks when turned.
Too rapid fermentation makes the leaf first tender then weak,
and an excessive rise in temperature may burn it altogether. Too
slow and you dry it out, so it's like fly fishing, cast too fine or too
coarse and you lose your fish.
It would seem the climate of Jamaica is very suitable for the
growth of a nice cigar leaf, and I trust that your experiments will
induce growers to take it up.
Our shade unfortunately was blown right away in a storm, so I
have no shade tobacco in Bam. The plants were about 3 feet
high, growing fast and gave every promise of being a fine leaf,
so I was sorry.
Perhaps later you would feel inclined to exchange samples of
our fermented leaf. I am just beginning fermentation now and
will be finished about March.
I find a good plan is to get a few bundles of Sumatra leaf to
keep by one as a standard.
A NEW NAME FOR A JAMAICAN FERN.*
By William R. Maxon.
In the first fascicle of Christensen's Index Filicum (1905), Acros-
tichum lomarioides, Jenman, a middle American species, is reduced
to A. aureum, L., supposed to be dispersed generally throughout
the tropics. In first proposing lomarioides, Jenman suggested that
A. aureum might prove an aggregate of several more or less closely
related species ; and arguing from analogous cases we judge this
to be likely. But at present we are concerned only with lomarioides,
described at length by Jenman ; this and aureum he held to be as
distinct as " any two closely allied species in any genus." Seve-
ral recent writers have not held to this opinion ; but from field
observation and the collection of adequate material we are quite
convinced that the two are, as Jenman has said, absolutely distinct,
and we shall try to prove this conclusively in a later paper.
Jenman's use of lomarioides for an American plant is, however,
invalidated by the earlier application of the same name to an East
Indian species, by Bory. In its stead we propose, with the same
type:
Acrostichum excelsum nom. nov.
Chrysodium lomarioides, Jenman, Timehri 4 : 314. 1885.
Acrostichum lomarioides, Jenman, Bull. Bot. Dept. Jamaica.
II. 5 : 154, 1898.
Not Bory, Belang. Voy. Bot. 2 : 21. pi. 2. 1833.
* Pioe. of The Biological Society of Washington. Vol. XVm. Oct. 17. 190
63
The type of Jenman's species is from British Guiana, but the
plant occurs also in Jamaica, Porto Rico, Florida, Mexico and
Guatemala.
SELECTION OF SEED : COCO-NUTS.
The coprah produced by i,000 Ceylon ordinary nuts is about
twice as much as that obtained from Seychelles nuts. This re-
sult has been obtained in tlie same soil, under tlie influence of the
same climate, and is entirely due to selection. It is to be hoped
that the discussion raised on the subject by the planters after their
having seen the nuts introduced from Ceylon may prove the be-
ginning of a careful selection of nuts for planting in Seychelles.
Many of them have already informed me that they have found on
their estates a few of their trees producing nuts similar to those
of Ceylon and that they intend keeping them for propagation.
It is probable that the trees which produce very small nuts have
less requirements than those which produce bigger nuts, and that
varieties which produce big nuts normally will bear smaller nuts
if they are starved out. But when one thinks of the very trifling
amount of plant food which is removed from the soil by coco-
nut cultivation, there seems to be no difficulty in supplying the
elements which are required to a greater extent by the big-nut
varieties. The planter must choose between having small nuts
without trouble and having double the crop by using proper me-
thods and selection. — Annual Colonial Report, 1904, Seychelles.
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Extracts from Minutes.
The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was
held on Tuesday, 13th February, at Headquarter House. Present :
the Director of Public Gardens, the Island Chemist, His Grace the
Archbishop, Messrs. C. A. T. Fursdon, C. E. deMercado, J. W.
Middleton, and the Secretary.
The Secretary read an apology for absence from the Chairman,
Hon. H. C. Bourne, intimating that there was a meeting of the
Privy Council which he had to attend at the same hour, and asking
that Mr. Fawcett might take the chair.
The Secretary read minutes of previous meeting which were
confirmed.
The Archbishop asked leave to bring up a matter he had men-
tioned at last meeting, viz. : the question of a Jamaica Agent in
London to protect and facilitate their commercial interests. The
same matter had been discussed some years before by the Mer-
chants' Exchange and such an appointment had been approved of,
the only objection being lack of money. Mr. Middleton in
support of the proposal, moved that a Committee be appointed.
The Chairman asked the Archbishop and Mr. Middleton to
form this Committee, and make a report to the Board on the
subject.
64
As the day and hour of the meeting of the Board so often clashed
with the meeting of the Privy Council, it was resolved to alter the
day to the Monday of the same week in the month, at the same hour.
The Secretary read the following letters from the Colonial Se-
cretary's Office :
I Authorising publication of Mr. Edward Redsue's letter
re Sweetmeat Factory.
In connection with this the Secretary said that sweetmeats were
now being made at the Barossa Creamery and the person doing so
had promised to experiment in the direction mentioned, namely
rum and lime juice tablets.
2. Sending copy of report of the Second International
Congress of Master Cotton Spinners & Manufacturers
Association.
This was directed to be circulated.
3. Reports from Mr. Nolan giving results of his work in the
United Kingdom.
With regard to the matter of the use of steam coils in Jamaica
pot-stills especially referred to the Board, the Secretary stated
that to save time he had sent the papers to the Chemist for his
opinion which he now presented. This was read together with a
list of the estates using steam coils.
It was resolved to advise the Government " that it was the
opinion of the Board that the contention that steam heat is in-
jurious cannot be maintained and that the erroneous impression
arises from a confusion of pot-stills heated with steam coils, and
continuous stills in which the liquor is brought into direct contact
with the live steam."
The Secretary was directed to forward this resolution to the
Government together with a copy of the Chemist's minute and
list of estates using steam coils and resuls of their crops, for the
information of Mr. Nolan.
4. Letter from the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture
for the West Indies sending copy letter to him from
Mr. F. V. Chalmers advising satisfactory results of a
blend of Jamaica Tobacco in that issued to the Navy.
The Secretary submitted Draft Contagious Diseases Animals
Bill as revised by a joint committee of the Board and the Agricul-
tural Society and said the draft had been submitted to the members
of the Committee and Penkeepers for further revision orsuggestions.
The Secretary submitted letter from Mr. E. A. dePass, London, to
the Chemist giving opinions re the commercial aspects of High
Ether Rum on the Continent.
This was directed to be circulated.
The following reports from the Chemist were submitted :
I. re Award of Scholarships reporting that of seven candi-
dates who had competed for three scholarships, only
one candidate, Mr. L. L. Carrington, attained a standard
of over half marks and recommending that he be
awarded a Scholarship and the other two be held in
abeyance.
65
This was agreed to.
2. Asking authority to publish the results of the Sugar
Experiment Station worlc for 1905 in the form of a
special report, which was granted.
3. Asking authority for the purchase of a steam-heated pan
from Mr. Lazarus, Kingston, at a price not to exceed
£15 to be charged to " Aherations" and New Plant for
Estates Distilleries on the estimates of the Sugar Ex-
periment Station.
This was granted.
The following reports from the Director of Public Gardens were
submitted : —
1. Report Hope Experiment Station.
2. " Instructors.
These were directed to be circulated.
The Secretary reported that Mr. Sharp advised safe receipt of
the Steam Gin and that it had been erected in the Ginnery at El-
tham and was in good working order ; also safe receipt of the
Baler from the railway workshop, also found in good order.
Owing to the heavy loss on cotton by his Company through cater-
pillars, Mr. Sharp said he would be unable to make an offer for
these at present.
The Secretary stated that although he had written several times
to Mr. Levy of Brown's Town to return the Hand Gin which he
had not been able to get in working order, it had not yet been
sent back. One Cotton Gin was in the hands of the Black River
Agricultural Society and one with Mr. Shore at Little River, and
one retained in the office.
The Secretary submitted a small book by Mr. E. J. Wortley en-
titled " Agricultural Practices and Morals" and which embodied a
list of the " Agricultural Don'ts" prepared for the Board for use
in Schools. The Board's approval of the Book was asked.
This was directed to be circulated.
The following papers which had been circulated, but had not
yet been before the Board were now submitted : —
1. Notes on School Gardens together with notes by Mr.
Cradwick and comments by members of the Board.
All these were directed to be returned to Mr. Williams.
2. Itinerary of Mr. Hirst, Instructor in St. Catherine.
The following papers which had been circulated were submitted
for final consideration : —
1. Agricultural Scholarships' Examination.
2. Report : Work of Agricultural Students for Michaelmas
Term.
3. Report on Banana Soils in St. Mary.
4. Progress Report Distillers Experiments.
5. Appointment of two assistants. Sugar Department.
6. Report Hope Experiment Station.
7. Report Mr. Cradwick.
8. Letter from India re Bananas.
9. Lettter from Mr. Sydney Olivier re Locked Still.
66
SEASONS AND PRICES FOR FRUITS, A^EGETABLES, AND OTHER ECONOMIC
PRODUCTS IN KINGSTON, JAMAICA.
Compiled ly Wm. Harris, F.L.S., Superintendent of Hope Gardens.
As there is a good deal of misapprehension with regard to the seasons for the
various crops grown in Jamaica, and the duration of the season for each crop, the
compiler visited the principal market in Kingston once a week fortwelve months for
the purpose of noting the various products offered for sale, and tlie prices charged
to consumers. These prices are at least one-third, and frequently tliree or four
times higher than the prices paid by the retail dealers to the growers of the
commodities enumerated. The prices noted for economic products such as ginger,
anatta, &c., were those paid by a large exporting firm to the producers.
It will be readily understood that the seasons vary somewhat according to
prevailing weather conditions, and the prices also vary according to supply and
demand.
Approximate Seasons for, and pi ices in Kingston, of fruits, vegetables and other
2>roducts
Common name. Botanical name. Seasons and prices in Kingston Market.
Fruits.
Banana
Blackberry
BilbeiTy
Cashew fruits
Cashew nuts
Coco-nuts — dry .
Coco-nuts —green
Cherimoya
Custard Apple
Ginep
Granadilla
Grape Fruit
Grapes — black
Grapes — white
Musa sapientum
Rubus janiaicen-
sis
Vaccinium meri
dionale
Anacardium
occidentale
Anacardium
occidentale
Cocos nucifera
Cocos nucifera
Anona Cheri-
molia
Anona reticulata
Melicocca bijuga
PassLflora macro-
carpa
Citrus decumana
Vitis vinifera
var.
Vitis vinifera
var.
Throughout the
dozen fingers.
June to Novembar — 4d
year — l^d. to 3d. per
to 9d. per quart.
Summer months — id. to Gd. per quart.
May to August — 3d. to 4d. per dozen.
INIay to September — lid. to 3d. per quart.
Throughout the year — 9d. to Is. per dozen.
Throughout the year — Is. to Is. 6d. per
dozen.
October to February — Id. to 3d. each.
Plentiful November to mid' He of February ;
scarce during remainder of the year — Is.
per dozen.
August and September — Jd. to IJd. per
buiich.
Throughout the year, but most plentiful
during the winter months — 3d. to 6d. each.
Scarce April to August — 10s. to 123. per
100 ; fair supply August to November —
8s. to ] Os. per 100 ; plentiful November
to end of March — 5s. to 10s. per 100.
Scarce and poor .January to March — Is. 6d.
per lb., none middle March to end of May ;
June to end of year fair supply — Is. to Is.
3d. per lb.
None in the early part of the year ; scarce
and poor April and May — 2s. per lb., June
to end of year fair supply — Is. 6d. to 28,
per lb
67
Common name.
Lime
Mango,
Numerous va-
rieties
Melon
Melon
Cantaloup
Melon — Musk
Melon — Water
Naseberry
Orange — Sweet
Orange — Tangier-
ine
Papaw
Pine-apple
Bull-head
Pine-apple
Ripley
Pine-apple
Sugar-loaf
Pindar-nut
Shaddock
Sour Sop
Botanical name.
Citrus medica,
var. acida
Mangifera indica
Seasons and prices in Kingston Market.
Cucurbita Melo
Cucumis Melo .
Cucurbita mos-
chata
Citrullus vulgaris
Achras Sapota
Citrus Auran-
tium
Citrus nobilis
Carica Papaya
Ananas sativa.
Ananas sativa,
var.
Ananas sativa,
var.
Arachis hypogsea
Citrus decumaua
Anona muricata
Scarce and green April to August — fairly
plentiful end of August to December;
plentiful December to March — Is. per 100.
The regular season for this fruit begins in
April and prices for No. 11 and other
favourite varieties are then 3d. per dozen.
The fruit is very plentiful from middle
of June to end of August, and prices drop
to Jd. per dozen. Frum October to May
the fruit is occasionally seen in the market,
and the price is Jd. to Id. each, according
to variety and quality.
Winter and spring months — 4id. to 9d.
each.
Plentiful during the spring, autumn and
winter months — Cd. to 9d. each.
Plentiful during winter and spring months ;
scarce and poor March to end of August —
6d. to 9d. each.
Throughout the year, but most plentiful
during the autumn and winter months —
Od. each.
Plentiful April to middle of June — 3d. per
dozen ; scarce middle of June to July,
■lid. to 6d. per dozen ; none July to
(October then fairly plentiful to Aprils
4id. to 6d. per dozen.
Scarce June to end of August — Ss. to 4s.
per 100; fairly plentiful September to
November — 3s. to 4s. per 100; plentiful
November, to end of May— 2s. to 3s. per
100.
Scarce during June ; none July and Aug-
ust ; fair supply September to November;
plentiful November to end of May — Od. per
dozen.
Throughout the year — Id. to 2d. each.
Rather scarce September to March — 5d. and
6d. each ; fair supply March to May —
4^d. to 6d. each plentiful May to end of
August — 2d. to 6d. each.
Same seasons as previous — 3d. to 6d. each
when plentiful ; 6d. to Is. each when
scarce.
Same seasons and prices as for Bull-head.
Throughout the year — 1 Jd — 2d. per quart.
Plentiful November to June, and to be had
all through the year — 6d. each.
Plentiful December to June — Id. to 2d.
each ; scarce in July — ;id. each ; none
August and September ; scarce in October
and November — 3d. each.
68
Common name.
Star-apple
Sweet Cup
Sweet Sop
Vegetables.
Akee
Avocado, or
Alligator Pear
Beans — French
Beans — Lima, or
Sugar
Beetroot
Breadfruit
Cabbage^native
grown
■ Calalu or
Spinach
Calalu, Jockatoe
(See also Indian
Kale)
Carrot
Chocho — White
and Green
Cocoes
Corn, Indian or
Maize — Green
Corn
Botanical name.
Chrysophyllum
Cainito
Passiflora mali-
formis
Anona squamosa
Blighia sapida
Persea gratissima
Phaseohis
vulgaris
Phaseolus
lunatus
Beta vulgaris
Artocarpus incisa
Brassica oleraceai
Amarantus vii'idis
A. gangeticus
A. spinosus
Phytolacca
octandra
DaucuB Carota
Sechium edule .
Xanthosoma
sagittaefolium
Zea Mays
Seasons and prices in Kingston Market.
Scarce during February— Is. per dozen. ;
plentiful March to beginning of June — 3d.
to 9d. per dozen ; scarce during latter part
of June — Is. per dozen ; none from early
part of July to February.
Throughout the year — IJd. to 3d. per dozen.
None from February to early part of June ;
fairly plentiful middle of June, and plenti-
ful July to September ; then a fair supply
to end of January — 3d. to 9d. per dozen.
Plentiful July to October — ^f d. per dozen ;
November to end of June not plentiful —
lid. to 2d. per dozen.
Season begins early part of July, and pears
are plentiful to end of September — Jd. to
lid. each; scarce from October to end of
April — Id. to 2d. each ; none during May
and June.
Throughout the year, but most plentiful
during the autumn and winter months — 2d.
per lb. when plentiful, to 6d. per lb. when
scarce.
Throughout the year — 4Jd. to 6d. per quart.
Throughout the year, but most plentiful and
best during winter and spring months — 9d.
to Is. per dozen.
Throughout the year ; most plentiful Decem-
ber to March — Id. to 2d. each.
Throughout the year ; best during winter and
spring months — 4id. to 9d. each, according
to size.
Throughout the year ; very plentiful during
and after the rainy seasons — Id. to IJd.
per bunch.
Throughout the year — Id. to l^d. per bunch.
Throughout the year ; best during winter
and spring months — IJd. to 3d. per bunch.
Throughout the year, most plentiful Novem-
ber to end of February — 3d. to 6d. per
dozen when plentiful, 6d. to Is. per dozen
when scarce.
Throughout the year, most plentiful Novem-
ber to March — 6d. to 9d. per dozen tubers.
June to August, and October to December —
6d. to 9d. per dozen cobs
69
Common name.
Botanical name.
Seasons and prices ia Kingston Market.
Corn, Indian, or
Maize — Sweet
Corn, or Sugar
Corn
Cucumber
Garden Egg
Gourd, Bottle, or
Sweet
Indian Kale,
Calalu, or
Spinach
Lettuce
Ochra
Parsley
Pea — English, or
Green
Pea — Black-eye
Pea — Gungo,
Congo, or
Pigeon — dry
Pea — Gungo,
Congo, or
Pigeon— green
Pea— Red
Kidney Bean,
■ Haricot Bean
Plantain
Potato — Irish
Potato — Sweet .
Pumpkin
Scallion
Zea Mays
Cucurais sativus
Solanum
Melongena
Lagenaria vul-
garis
Xanthosoma
atrovirens
Lactuca sativa .
Hibiscus
esculentus
Carum Petro-
seliuum
Pisum sativum
Vigna Catjang
Cajanua indicus .
Cajanus indicus
Spinach (See
Calalu, and
Indian Kale)
Tomato
Turnip
Phaseolus
vulgaris
Musa sapientum,
var. paradisiaca
Solanum tuber-
osum
Ipomoea Batatas
Cucurbita Pepo
Allium iistuloaum
Lycopersicum
eaculentum
Brassica Rapa
June to August, and October to December —
Gd. to 9d. per dozen cobs.
Throughout the year, small but plentiful —
(id. to Is. per dozen.
Throughout the year 9d. to Is. Cd. per
dozen
Throughout the year, but most plentiful
during the cool months of the year — 3d. to
6d. each.
Throughout the year — Is. to Is. 6d. perdozen
bunches.
Throughout the year — 6d. to Is. 6d. per
dozen heads.
Throughout the year — 2d. to 6d. per lb.
Throughout the year — Id. to l^d. per bunch.
During the winter and spring months, not
plentiful — 3d. to Gd. per dish
Throughout the year, but most plentiful
April to June, and October to December —
3d. to 6d. per quart.
Throughout the year — 3d. to Gd. per quart.
Throughout the year — 2jd. andSd. per quart.
Throughout the year, but most plentiful
March to June, and November to Decem-
ber— 4|d. to 6d. per quart.
Throughout the year — ^d. to Id. each finger.
During the winter and spring months — H to
2d. per lb.
Throughout the year — |d. to jd. per lb., or
4s. to 5s. per 100 lbs.
Throughout the year — 4^d. to Gd. each.
Throughout the year, but most plentiful
during the cool months — l^d. to 3d. per
bunch, according to size.
From February to July, plentiful and good
— 3d. to 4^d. per lb. ; from July to Febru-
ary, fair supply medium quality — 4§d to
Gd. per lb.
Throughout the year, but plentiful and good
during the winter and spring months — IJd
to 3d. per bunch.
70
Common name.
Botanical name.
Water Cress
Yam — Negro,
Lucea, &c.
Yam, White,
Guinea,
Barbados, &c.
Yam — Yellow or
Afou
Yampee, or
Indian Yam
Nasturtium offici-
nale
Dioscorea sativa
Dioscorea alata .
Dioscorea
cayennensis var.
rotunda
Dioscorea trifida
Seasons and prices in Kingston Market.
Throughout the year — Id. to 1 Jd. per bunch.
June to December — Ts. to 10s. per cwt.
January to May — 10s. to 12s. per cwt.
January to June, and August to end of year
— 8s, to 10s. per cwt.
Throughout the year, but most plentiful
during the autumn, winter and spring
months — 6d. to 2s. per dozen according to
size.
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS.
Common name.
Anatta
Bitterwood
Cocoa
Coffee (Fancy) *
Coffee (Fine)
Botanical name.
Bixa Orellana
Picraena excelsa
Theobroma
Cacao
Seasons and prices paid by Merchants to
Growers.
Coffea arabica
Coffea arabica
25s. to 30s. per 100 lbs.
end of May.
Crop from Dec. to
30s. to 3ts. per ton of 20 cwts., 6s. per ton
extra for free on board. From April to
October there was no demand and no trade.
32s. to 34s. per 100 lbs. in January with a gra-
, dual rise to 44s. per 100 lbs. in March when
the spring crop closed ; 40s. to 41s, per 100
lbs. for middle year crop — Middle of May to
end of July : 40s. to 44s. per 100 lbs. for
autumn crop, starting in September and
lasting to end of year.
36s. per 100 lbs. in January to May, and
34s. to 40s. in June when crop finished.
No business July to middle of October,
when new crop started at 36s. per 100 lbs.
dropping to 34s. in November and Decem-
ber.
33s. per 100 lbs. in January to June when
crop finished. No business July to middle
of September, when new crop started
in Manchester at 30s. per lOOlbs This price
was maintained to middle of October when
all crops started and the price advanced to
32s. dropping to SOs. again in middle of
November and remaining at that figure to
end of year.
* All the produce of Estates is sent direct to London or Liverpool.
Blue Mountain Coffee realises as high as 130s.
Cocoa gets 62s.
71
Common name.
Coifee (Ordinary)
Coffee (Good Or
dinary)
Botanical name.
Coffea arabica
Coffea arabica
Coffee (Parch-
ment)
Divi-divi
Fustic (roots)
Cofl'ea arabica
Fustic (trunks)
Cffisalpinia coria-
ria
Chlorophora
tinctoria
Chlorophora
tinctoria
Seasons and prices paid by Merchants to
Growers.
28s. to 30s. per 100 lbs. in January to end
of crop in June ; no business to begin-
ning of September when new crop started
in Manchester at 20s. per 100 lbs., this
price was advanced to 22s. during Sep-
tember and remained at that figure to
middle of October when all crops came in
and the price rose to 23s. and 24s. at the be-
ginning of November ; in the middle of No-
vember the price dropped to 22s. at which
figure it remained to the end of the year.
30s. per 100 lbs. at beginning of January
to end of crop in June. This grade of
coffee continued to appear after the end of
the crop in June to the opening of the new
crop in Manchester at the end of August
when the price dropped to 23s. per lOOlbs. ;
this price was maintained to beginning of
November when it rose to 26s. and re-
mained at this figure to the end of the
year.
20s. per cwt. (112 lbs.) at beginning of Janu-
ary rising to 21s by middle of the month,
and 24s. by end of the month. During
February to end of March the price
remained steady at 15s. per cwt., it then
rose to 16s. and remained at that figure to
middle of May when it went up to 24s. per
cwt. From middle of August to middle of
Oct. none was offered, then all crops came
in and the price started at 20s. per cwt. and
remained at that figure to end of the year.
5s. 3d. per cwt. for large quantities, sellers
finding their own bags ; 4s. 6d. per cwt. for
small quantities — January to June. In
December the prices paid were £5 per ton
for large quantities and £4 10s. per ton
for small quantities.
From January to middle of April 35s. per
ton (20 cwts.) and 6s. extra for free on
board ; during May and early part of June
39s. per ton ; June to beginning of August,
43s. ; August and September 48s. ; Octo-
ber to end of November 40s. and during
December 3(is. per ton.
From January to middle of April 48s. per
ton of 20 cwts., and 6s. extra for free on
board ; May to early part of June 523. ;
from middle of June to end of September,
568. ; from beginning of October to end of
November 48s. and during December 44s.
per ton.
72
Common name.
Botanical name.
Seasons and prices paid by Merchants to
Growers.
Ginger
Kola-nuts
Zingiber offici-
nale
Cola vera
Logwood (roots)
Logwood (trunks)
Orange, Sweet
Pimento
Pimento sticks
and clubs
Pine-apple
(Bullhead)
Pine-apple
(Eipleys)
SarsapariUa
Haematoxylon
campechianum
Haematoxylon
campechianum
Citrus Auran-
tium
Pimenta officina-
lis
Pimenta officina-
lis
Ananas sativa
var.
Ananas sativa
var.
Smilax papyra-
cea
January 2os. to 28s. per lOOlbs. ; in February
26s. to 28s. ; from February to end of
April, 28s. ; Ma}', 32s. to 34s. ; June, 36s ;
crop all reaped ; July, 32s.; August, 35s.
per lOOlbs. No trade after early part of
August to middle of December when crop
started at 24s. per I'lOlbs.
Crop starts in March. No trade before
June when 12s. Od. per lOOlbs. was paid
for fresh nuts. This price advanced to 15s.
per 100 lbs. by middle of June and dropped
to 8s. in July for cured nuts. It remain-
ed at 8s. to end of crop. The trees give
2 crops — Mar. to June, and Aug. to Nov.
From January to June 34s. per ton of 20
cwts., and Us. extra for free on board.
From middle of June to end of year 50s.
per ton. For local consumption at Chemi-
cal Works the price paid is equal to
shipping rates free on board.
48s. per ton (20 cwts.) at wharf, 6s. extra
for free on board, Jan. to middle of April;
52s. May and June ; 50s. to end of year.
10s. to lis. per 1,000 January and February ;
12s. 6d.— 133. March ; 14s. April ; 15s.,
May; 16s. to 18s., June — Crop over; 20s.
July and August. New crop started in
August with a demand for Canada ; 18s.
in beginning of September, ch'opping to
15s. by end of the month ; 12s. Gd. to 12s.
in October; and 12s. 6d. and 13s. during
November and December.
16s. to 1 8s. per 100 lbs. January to March;
18s. 6d. to 20s. March to beginning of
' May when the Southside crop comes in
and lasts to about end of June ; July 18s.
full crop in August, 18s. Od. ; September
18s. 6d. dropping to 1 4s. 6d. at end of
month ; October 13s. M to 168. 6d. ;
November 15s. 6d. : December 15s.
Sticks, J inch to IJ inch, diameter, 8s. to
10s. per 100.
Clubs, 3 inches to 0 inches, diameter, 4s. to
8s. per dozen. Both in good demand.
January to early part of March, 3s. per doz. ;
4s. in April ; 2s. to 3s. per doz. from April
to August. No trade from end of August.
During March, 4s. to 7s. per dozen ; April,
to end of June, 6s. per dozen, July, 5s, per
dozen, August, 4s. per dozen.
4d. to 4jd. per lb. from January to end of
August.
The real crop time is from January to end
of June.
[Issued 22nd March, 1906.]
Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam.
JAMAICA.
BXJLI.BTIN
OF THB NEW YORK
80TANJCAL
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ^^'^'^^^
Vol. IV. APRIL, 1906. Part 4,
CASSAVA TRIALS III.
Final results of test of 23 varieties.
By H. H. Cousins, M.A., Oxon., F.C.S., Island Chemist.
The results obtained in this series of trials at the Hope Experi-
ment Station of Cassavas at 12 and 1 5 months' growth have been
given in this Bulletin (1905 pp. 152-155 and 218-219) and the final
results of the tonnage and starch yield per acre after 21 months'
growth have now been obtained.
Tables are given showing the results of the final yield, the
comparative yields of tubers and of starch at 12, 15 and 21
months' growth, and finally of the increased yield of tubers and
of starch by prolonging growth from 1 2-1 5 months and 1 5 to 21
months respectively.
Best varieties for harvesting at 12 months.
' White Top' proved the best variety in these experiments with
a yield of 10.5 tons tubers containing 7,902lbs. starch per acre.
Next came 'Long Leaf Blue Bud' with 9.0 tons tubers followed
by 'Blue Top' with 8} tons per acre. 'Smalling' was fourth,
closely followed by 'Rodney' and ' Luana Sweet.'
Best varieties for harvesting at 15 months.
'White Top' fell off after 12 months' growth and is clearly a
variety that does not improve by a longer period of growth than
a year. At 15 months, ' Long Leaf Blue Bud' proved to be the
most prolific variety, yielding 15.4 tons of tubers with 4,955lbs.
starch per acre. ' Smalling,' ' MuUings' and ' Luana Bitter' fol-
lowed in the order named.
Best varieties at 21 months.
'Blu^e Top' is the champion cassava of this series having given
us 21.9 tons of tubers and over 7 tons of starch per acre (15,818
lbs). This result would have been considered fabulous previous
to this careful series of field trials, and it is claimed that we have
now proved that cassava can be grown without irrigation in the
plain of Liguanea in Jamaica to give a yield of starch greater
than has ever been recorded before of any starch-producing plant.
It is true that this crop has taken the plant practically two
years to produce, but when we remember the cheapness of \z.n&
74
and the low cost of cultivation involved in the prolonged period
of growth, it is abundantly clear that the cost of increasing the
starch yield from 3i to 7 tons per acre is out of all proportion to
the value of the increased product.
It would appear therefore, that the most economic production of
starch would be attained by the cultivation of such a variety as
'Blue Top' upon a biennial basis.
For quick returns 'White Top' would be the better variety and
in starting a starch factory it would be advisable to grow half the
cassava area as an annual and half as a biennial crop.
The variety ' Black Stick' has steadily improved during the
second year of growth and now holds second place in starch pro-
duction with the record percentage of 38.2 per cent, of starch in
the tubers and an indicated yield of nearly 7 tons starch per acre.
'Smalling,' although giving a bigger tonnage of tubers than 'Black
Stick' stands decidedly below that variety in starch yield. "Mai-
lings" comes fourth with a little less than 6 tons starch per acre,
while 'Long Leaf Blue Bud' that led at 15 months has not since
gained at all in yield of tubers and shows only a very small increase
in starch per acre as the result of the further 6 months' growth.
Clearly, this is a variety that is at its best at 15 months, and
one that it would not pay to grow as a 21 months cassava in com-
petition with the other varieties.
Percentage of starch in the tubers. — -At 12 months' ' Luana Sweet'
had the highest content of starch (35.2 per cent.), at 15 months,'
'Long Leaf Blue Bud' heads the list with 37.4 per cent., while at
12 months' growth this variety is very slightly inferior to 'Black
Stick,' which leads with 38.2 per cent, of starch in the tubers.
The recorded maximum starch content for a Jamaican Cassava
is 39.1 per cent, for the variety 'White Smooth Bitter' grown by
the Hon. T. H. Sharp at Inverness in Clarendon in 1903.
This variety as grown at Hope only attained a content of 35.5
per cent, of starch.
These experiments emphasize the fact that Cassava varieties are
so variable in their yield under different conditions of soil and
locality that it is most desirable to carry out careful tests of a
selected series before the best varieties for any given place and
purpose can be correctly ascertained.
Not only is there a great variation in the yield of tubers, but
also of starch content and period of growth.
Conclusions.
1. Under conditions obtaining at Hope and without irrigation a
yield of loi tons tubers at 12 months, of 15J tons at 15 months
and of nearly 22 tons tubers per acre at 21 months has been re-
corded.
2. The indicated yield of starch per acre has risen from 3i
tons at 12 months to 5| tons at 1 5 months, and 7\ tons starch at
21 months' growth.
3. This yield has been obtained at a cost of about £5 per acre
and it is abundantly clear that we can produce enormous crops of
75
cassava in Jamaica at a cost that should enable us entirely to
replace Potato starch in the British market.
4. Cassava can be grown to give a large yield upon a soil and
with a rainfall that would not give good crops of sugar cane
without irrigation. Large areas of land, at present producing
little or nothing, could be profitably used for the growth of cas-
sava for starch manufacture. This is an industry that can be
confidently recommended to capitalists and land owners as one of
the most promising means of increasing our exportable produce
without trenching upon land at present productive of other pay-
ing crops.
I desire to acknowledge the work of Mr. F. A. Thompson of
this Department in analysing the tubers and the careful way in
which the Superintendent at Hope Gardens recorded these results
in the field.
Cassava Trials III.
(Twenty-one varieties harvested after 21 months growth.)
2
.iH
1
2
'6
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
U
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Variety.
Tubere
Tons
per
acre.
Blue Top
Black Stick
Smalling
Mullinga
Long Leaf Blue Bud.
Duff House
Prize or Silver Stick.
White Smooth Bitter.
White Slick
Brown Stick
Black Bunch of Keys
White Top
Silver Stick
Bobby Hanson
Black Bitter Long Leaf
Blue Bud
White Bunch of Keys
Cotton Tree
Luaua Sweet
New Green
Rodney
Luana Bitter
21.9
18.0
19.3
18.0
15.4
15.4
12.9
12.9
11.6
11.6
11.6
11.6
10.3
10.3
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
11.6
10.3
9.6
o
61.9
68.3
59.2
64.4
55.9
60.2
5S.0
57.0
54.8
58.5
60.3
60.8
58. 3
56.1
65.3
67.6
55.5
61.3
64.4
65.9
64.9
38.1
41.7
40.8
35.6
44.1
39.8
42.0
43.0
45.2
41.5
39.7
39.2
41.7
40.9
44.7
42.4
44.5
38.7
35.6
34.1
35.1
1.8
1.6
0.9
1.1
1.0
1.4
1.5
1.1
1.8
1.3
1.4
0.9
1.4
1.1
33.2
38.2
32.0
32.8
38.0
36.4
36.9
34.3
37.3
34.2
34.1
33.5
37.1
35.5
Gain per
acre from
15 to 21
months.
1.0 37.4
1.5
0.9
1.5
1.3
1.7
1.5
36.9
36.7
35.1
26,4
28.3
29.7
15,818
16,433
13,883
13,277
13,187
12,632
10,666
9,920
9.742
8,927
8,894
8,753
8,574
8,197
7,567
7,466
7,221
7,102
6,895
6,547
6,425
2.1
2.5
6!9
5.1
0.6
O.2I
6,085
10,236
5,330
5,097
330
5,034
6,622
2,485
6,615
1,522
4,308
1,115
3,974
2,063
2,374
2,560
'562
38,08
384
Loss
1,261
Loss
76
Comparative yields at
different stages.
Variety.
Tons per acre. i Lbs. Starch per acr?.
No.
12
15
21 j 12
15
21
m'nths
m'nths
m'ntlisni'nths
i
m'nths
m'nths
]
Blae Top
8.25
14.2
21.9 15,636
9,733
15,818
2
Black Stick
6.5
6.5
18.0
4,878
5,197
15,433
3 1 Smallin^
7.5
11.1
19.3
5,494
8,553
13,883
4
MuUings
5.75
11.1
18.0
4,160
8,180
13,277
5
Long Leaf Blue Bud
9.0
15.4
15.4
6,552
12.857
13,187
6
Dnft" House
5.5
10.6
15.4
4,107
7,598
12,632
7
Prize or Silver Stick
3.5
5.1
12.9
2,634
4,044
10,666
8
White Smooth Bitter
3.25
9.4
12.9
2,460
7,435
9,920
9
White Stick
3.25
3.9
11.6
2,522
3,127
9,742
10
Brown Stick
3.25
11.6
11.6
2,384
7,405
8,927
11
Black Bunch of Keys
3.25
6.5
11.6
2,388
4,586
8,894
12
White Top
10.5
11.0
11.6
7,902
7,638
8,753
13
Silver Stick
3.5
6.5
10.3
2,744
4,000
8,574
14
Bobby Hanson
6.25
8.4
10.3
4,777
6,134
8,197
15
Black Bitter Long Leaf Blue Bud
6.01)
6.9
9.0
4,462
5 193
7,567
16
White Bunch of Keys
5.25
6.5
9.0
4,069
4,906
7,466
17
Cotton Tree
• •■
9.0
• >•
7,221
18
Luaua Sweet
6.75
8.1
9.0
5,322
6,540
7,102
19
New Green
5.25
6.5
11.6
3,192
3,086
6,895
20
Rodney
7.5
9.7
10.3
6,337
6,931
6,547
21
Luana Bitter
4.25
9.4
9.6
3,075
7,686
6,425
22
Mass Jack
4.25
5.1
...
3,091
3,243
...
23
Yellow Belly
3.5
3.2
...
2,321
1,921
...
INCREASE.
Variety.
Tons tubers per a.
lbs. starch per acre
No.
12-15
15-21
12-15
15-21
months.
months.
months.
months.
1
Blue Top
6.0
7.7
4,097
6,085
2
Black Stick
,,,
11.5
319
10,236
3
Smalling
3.6
8.2
3,059
5,330
4
MuUings
5.3
6.9
4,020
5,097
5
Long Leaf Blue Bud
6.4
...
4,955
330
6
Duft House
5.1
4.8
3,491
5,034
7
Prize or Silver Stick
1.6
7.8
1,410
6,6-22
8
White Smooth Bitter
6.1
3.5
4,975
2,i85
9
White Stick
0.6
7.7
605
6,615
10
Brown Stick
8.3
>•■
5,021
1,522
11
Black Bunch of Keys
3.2
5.1
2,198
4,308
12
White Top
0.5
0.6
264-1
Loss J
1,115
13
Silver Stick
3.0
3.8
1,850
3,974
14
Bobby Hanson
2.1
1.9
1,357
2,063
15
Black Bitter Long Leaf Blue Bud .
0.9
2.1
731
2,374
16
White Bunch of Keys
1.2
2.5
837
2,560
17
Cotton Tree
• ••
.*•
• ■•
...
18
Luana Sweet
0.3
0.9
1,218
562
19
New Green
1.2
5.1
106 1
Loss J
3,809
20
Rodney
2.2
0.6
1,594
384 1
Loss J
21
Luana Bitter
5.1
0.2
4,611
1,261
Loss
22
Mass Jack .
0.8
• ••
152
...
23
Yellow BeUy
0.3 1
Loss J
...
4001
Loss J
...
n
COTTON DISEASE.
From Commissioner, Imperial Department of Agriculture, to Director
of Public Gardens.
Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies,
Barbados, January 23, 1906.
My dear Fawcett,
I am in receipt of your letter of the 8th instant advising the
sending of some bolls from Mr. DeMercado's cotton in Vere ap-
parently attacked by anthracnose.
I enclose for your information a report prepared by Mr. Stock-
dale on the samples sent.
With kind wishes,
Very sincerely yours,
(Sgd.) D. MORRIS.
Imperial Commissioner,
The four cotton bolls forwarded by Mr. Fawcett from Mr. De
Mercado's estate in Vere are small and ill-shaped. Two of these
show the characteristic spots of anthracnose, from which spores of
Colletotrichum gossypii are given off. These spores appear to be of
a greater diameter than those described by Mr. Lewton-Brain (W.
I. B., Vol. v., p. 191) as Colletotrichum gossypii var. harhadcnse, and
I should be pleased if Mr. Fawcett could obtain further specimens,
so that this difference might be looked into more fully.
The spots of anthracnose on these two bolls were over-grown
with Fusarium which is probably saprophytic (West Indian Bulle-
tin. Vol. v., p. 178). The other two bolls show no signs of
anthracnose, but appear to have been dried up through some
purly physiological causes and have subsequently become covered
with Fusarium. I have seen many such examples in Barbados this
year, more frequently immediately after changes of weather when
the plant does not seem able to support or properly feed a large
number of bolls.
Suggested Remedial Measures — The fungus that causes the An-
thracnose spreads by means of spores which are disseminated by
wind and insects and is capable of growth on all parts of the
plant. If the area is badly attacked it would be advisable to
destroy all diseased plants and parts of plants and not to set
cotton in the infected area for a few years.
If a young crop of cotton is badly infected, spraying with Bor-
deaux mixture would probably prevent the germination of spores
and so prevent further infection of bolls. This must not be done
if any of the bolls are matured, as the solution of copper salts
would seriously discolour the lint and therefore reduce its value.
If the crop of cotton is advanced and the disease is doing serious
damage, experiments with dry fungicides might be conducted, say
78
with a mixture of sulphur and lime (the lime being in excess of
the sulphur).
This mixture can easily be made and can readily be applied.
The slowly-evolved gases, are readily soluble in water, forming a
solution which should be strong enough to kill the spores and
germinal tubes, but too weak to injure the leaves of the plant. I
have been unable to obtain any information respecting any ex-
periments that have been carried on either in America or the
West Indies with a view to obtaining a treatment for the pre-
vention of anthracnose of cotton, and therefore this makes it all
the more important that experiments should be started even on a
small scale, to obtain such information.
Another point in the treatment of this disease is very important
— this is the sterilization of cotton seed before planting. Spores
are held attached to the seed coat and these possibly produce the
disease in the cotyledons of seedlings. Further information on
the sterilization of cotton seed will be forthcoming before next
planting season as experiments are now in hand dealing with this
subject.
F. A. STOCKDALE, Mycologist.
LOGWOOD : DISEASE AND CULTIVATION.
In the fall of the year 1902 the Director of Public Gardens went
on special leave to the ;States. He was fortunate enough to in-
terest Dr. Britton, Director of the New York Botanical Garden, in
Jamaica, and on his return Dr. Britton allowed Prof. Earle to ac-
company him to study generally the plant diseases of the Island.
Prof. Earle made a report which was published in the Jamaica
Bulletin for February, 1903. , One of the diseases investigated was
the Logwood Root Rot, and the following is Prof. Earle's state-
ment about it. Recently letters have appeared in the " Gleaner"
from Dr. Bucher and Mr. J. W. Edwards on the subject, and it has
been thought well to call the attention of planters again to the
subject.
I. By Prof. Earle.
On some estates, especially toward the western end of the island,
logwood trees are dying in considerable numbers.
The diseased trees usually occur in groups, the infection spread-
ing slowly but in constantly widening circle. An examination of
dying trees shows the roots to be badly rotted. Their surface tis-
sues are invaded by a white fungus mycelium that is usually more
abundantly developed in the region between the bark and the
wood. The disease seems to attack first the small rootlets, grad-
ually spreading to the larger roots and the crown when the tree
dies. In many cases seeming heahhy trees near the border
of infested areas were found to have the roots on the side next the
dying trees badly diseased, while on the other side they were
still perfectly healthy. The fungus seems to be the mycelium of
some of the Hymenomycetes. Numerous species of Polyporaceae
79
and Thelophoraceae were taken on logwood stumps and logs,
but in no case could their connection with this root rot be satis-
factorily proven. Whatever the nature of the fungus, leaving
stumps of trees that have died from this disease in the neighbour-
hood of living trees is clearly dangerous. Dying trees should be
dug and the roots burned as soon as the disease can be detected.
Where it is confined to certain small definite areas as is often the
case, it would be advisable to dig a trench three feet deep just out-
side of the diseased area in order to prevent its spread under-
ground to the roots of healthy trees. On a few of the estates ex-
amined the disease was so widely scattered that this method of
treatment would not be practicable. Here it would seem best to
clear the infested tract entirely of logwood, marketing such as was
sufficiently mature, and allowing the land to grow up in pimento
and limes, or reserving it for pasturage or cultivation. It should
be mentioned in this connection that pimento trees are said to die
from a similar root rot in some parts of the island. If this should
prove to be identical with the logwood root rot, pimento would
not be available as an alternative crop.
This root rot seems to spread slowly. One old logwood chip-
per assured me that trees had been dying for thirty-five years on
a spot that he pointed out. This area does not now include over
three or four acres. This would indicate that by vigorous mea-
sures it could be controlled. The disease was found on various
kinds of soils and under moisture conditions varying from dry
rocky hill sides to the margin of swamps. In some cases the dis-
eased areas were on spots where the soil was rich and deep and
the moisture and drainage condition perfect. It was not observed
on the heavy clay lands towards the eastern end of the island but
whether this was due to the absence of infection or to the char-
acter of the soil could not be determined.
n. By Dr. e. Bucher.
In driving through Westmoreland one cannot but notice that the
logwood blight investigated some time ago by Prof. Earle of the
New York Botanical .Garden* is rapidly spreading. Too many
pastures look as if the logwood trees, young and old, had been
singed by fire from the top downwards. Prof. Earle pronounced
the blight to be a contagious root disease. If not attended to, it
will do serious damage to the logwood industry in that part of the
island.
Logwood growers will do well to remember the disastrous ex-
perience of European wine growers with phylloxera. That insect
pest appeared to be harmless enough at first, until it spread so
fast that it was hopeless to cope with it. The best vineyards of
France were laid bare. Those who had thought themselves to be
the wealthiest cultivators suddenly found themselves to be almost
* Now Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Cuba. Ediior.
80
beggars. Utter ruin was only averted by making a fresh start,
pulling out every vine stock and replanting the vineyards with the
hardier American plant.
A logwood grower who sees the disease appear on his property
owes it not only to himself but also to his neighbours to eradicate
the disease as it appears and prevent its spread. If any one doubts
that this can be done successfully let him pay a visit to that model
logwood property, Old Hope. There he will look in vain for a
dead logwood tree. Mr. J. W. Edwards, the attorney, will perhaps
be good enough to tell us by what means he has managed to keep
Old Hope free from the disease. We will be thankful to him if he
will give us the information.
m. By J. W. Edwards.
With reference to Dr. Bucher's letter, I am bound to admit that
the remarks about the logwood generally in Westmoreland are
only too correct.
I took Prof. Earle, when he was in the country three years ago,
to Old Hope.
The Professor went to considerable trouble to inspect the trees
at different positions on the property that showed signs of the
disease and after most minute investigation he pronounced it a
root disease that was highly contagious.
Acting on his advice I have from that time cut down and burnt
wherever practicable, any trees showing the slightest trace of the
disease, with satisfactory results.
As Dr. Bucher who is such an eminent authority on logwood,
thinks that Old Hope is in a fair state of cultivation, it may in-
terest logwood growers to show the system that has been pursued
at this property.
The growth of young saplings is encouraged every year with
the view of having rotation crops.
Saplings are grown thickly in order to induce the growth of long
straight trunks, but after a time the useless ones are thinned out
to give light and air to the most promising ones.
On no account are any saplings allowed to be trimmed of the
prickles which are evidently given them by nature to protect them
from stock, and when the trunks are sufficiently strong to resist
pressure from animals in rubbing against them, the prickles dis-
appear naturally, the trunks then presenting a nice clean smooth
bark.
If after the trunks are naturally cleaned off, it is thought that
too many limbs are thrown out some of the lower ones should be
cut off with an upward cut to prevent soakage by water.
The shippers are never allowed to rest their wood against other
trees, in order to preserve the bark from injury by chafing.
Another matter that receives attention is the killing of duck ants'
nests, which are so frequently seen on trees ; this is done by
arsenic sweetened with molasses, or sugar.
8i
EARLY ORANGES.
24th January, 1906.
The Governor directs* the publication, for general information,
of the following letter from the Director of Public Gardens and
Plantations, containing suggestions for promoting the earlier
ripening of oranges.
By command,
H. Clarence Bourne,
Colonial Secretary.
Department of Public Gardens and Plantations.
Hope Gardens, Kingston, P.O.,
1 2th January, 1906.
SIR,
I have the honour to acknowledge your letter No. IIOO2/13504,
dated 14th ultimo with reference to the controversy on the ship-
ment of unripe oranges, and asking nie to consider whether it is
feasible to cause oranges to ripen earlier.
2. There are two classes of oranges exported viz. : the fruit of
seedling trees, and that of budded trees, of which the number ex-
ported of the former is enormously in excess of the latter. The
problem therefore refers chiefly to the fruit of seedling trees.
3. Budding trees from early varieties can to some extent and
after a considerable time, bring in early fruit : these trees will also
be affected by any solution of the general problem.
4. To the peasantry, who own the vast majority of the trees, 1
would offer the following suggestions. Early fruit is encouraged
by:-
(1) removal of all fruit late in October or early in Novem-
ber,
(2) removal at the same time from the trees of all dead
wood, lichens, moss, and other growths, — this of course
should be also done throughout the year.
(3) opening up the main roots for a foot or 18 inches from
the stem, and removing the soil from them.
(4) application of lime on surface of ground from stem as
far as branches extend, — all the above work to be
finished during November.
(5) forking up the soil in December for a breadth of a foot
all around the tree just outside the extremities of the
root-system, and application of woodashes, bones and
a little well-rotted pen manure to it, or the equivalent
in commercial fertilisers.
(6) maintaining a mulch of grass, &c., from January until
the fruit is full and then removing it.
* Jamaica Gazette, 25th Januavj', 1906.
82
(7) irrigating, whenever possible, by using waste water, &c.,
during the same months that the mulch is used.
(8) thinning out the fruit by one half when they are about
the size of marbles.
5. I believe that these cultural operations would have a decided
effect in bringing in earlier fruit, and would be well worth the
expense.
I have, etc.,
W. Fawcett, Director.
The Hon. The Colonial Secretary.
The following letter on the same subject is reprinted from the
"Gleaner" of the I2th February.
The Director of Public Gardens and Plantations to the Editor of the
" Gleaner."
Hope Gardens, 9th February, 1906.
Sir,
Mr. T. H. Sharp's letter on producing early fruit in the orange
is interesting and suggestive.
His statement that '" the trees have two energies : the energy of
reproduction and the energy of growth" is correct, and the theory
and its practical applications have been treated at some length in
the Bulletin for February, 1904, in which it is shown that "a de-
crease in nutrition during the period of growth favours the develop-
ment of the reproductive parts while abridging the vegetative parts."
The consideration of this fact in the economy of plant life was
not omitted in the letter to the Colonial Secretary, but the method
suggested is that used by nature herself, checking or preventing
nutrition, rather than injuring and half-killing the tree, as Mr.
Sharp proposes, by " smashing the outer bark as well as the cam-
bium" of the trunk near the ground by blows from a mallet.
Under natural conditions plants undergo a decrease of nutrition
from various causes : two of these causes, — drought, and in some
plants, the fall of the leaf, e.g., in our " common cedar," are readily
recognized by every one as natural checks to growth.
The fall of the leaf prevents the chemical union of the mineral
constituents taken up by the roots with the carbon extracted from
the carbonic acid of the air, — which chemical change takes place
in the leaf, forming the food of the living organism.
The check by drought to the absorption of food materials by
the roots is much more serious, if it is thorough, and if it lasts
long enough.
In treating the orange we cannot cut off its leaves, but we can
interfere with the action of its roots. We cannot prevent rain
falling, but we can do something to prevent absorption by the
roots, and so imitate drought.
83
The removal of the soil from the roots was suggested for 12 to
1 8 inches from the stem ; if that is not sufficient to stop growth, I
would remove the soil to a greater extent, but then comes in the
question of expense and whether it would pay to do so.
Forking round the extremities of tlie root system was also sug-
gested ; this should be done in such a way that the roots would be
carefully cut baclc, so limiting root action.
These two methods of checking nutrition are not only effective
for that purpose, but they conduce to greater vigour.
Opening up the main portion of the roots near the stem aerates
and dries the soil all round, checks any tendency to foot-rot, and
prevents attacks there by grubs. Shortening back the roots leads
later on to extensive branching and development of the roots,
especially as the ground has been loosened in the direction of
growth.
I am, etc.,
W. Fawcett.
Dr. Tillman has kindly contributed the following account of the
methods adopted in his Orange Grove, which is a model for cul-
tivators.
Dr. Tillman to the Director of Public Gardens.
Camden Grove, Race Course, P.O. Jamaica,
lOth March, 1906.
Dear Sir,
In reply to yours of the 28th December, I beg to enclose here-
with, a/c sales of fruit sold in December ; and you will see that
the prices range from 8/ to 9/ per box. It cost 6/ to place a box
of oranges on the market, including everything— capital paying
prices for that time of year.
During August I got 15/ to 16/ ; September, 14/ and 14/3 ; Octo-
ber, 11/ to 12/, and November, 10/ to ll/. You must pardon my
not answering before, as I had to wait for the last a/c sales, and
they did not come to me until end of last month.
Re my efforts to obtain early fruit: Immediately after the
October seasons will permit, I pick off all fruit, say early in No-
vember, and start ploughing with two pony ploughs, up and down
each side of the intervals, between the trees ; making three cuts on
each side, about three inches deep — the first cut being made
directly under the extreme end of the outside of the lateral
branches. "■ •
The same cuts are made by the other plough, the other way of
the interval, so that the fine terminals of the surface roots are
sliced through on each of the four sides of the trees that is pruned.
The whole interval is not ploughed or close ploughed, for the
reason that I would not be able to do the whole 32 acres quickly
enough.
As soon as each interval has had three cuts made both sides, all
over the cultivation, then the ploughs are allowed to plough
84
thoroughly the whole field. The ploughing is so done that each
cut of the plough throws the earth towards the tree, so as to pro-
tect the cut ends of the roots with the fine dirt thrown by the next
cut. The ploughs have new soclvs every six days to ensure clean
and deep cutting when the above work is being done (ordinarily
only every fourteen days are they changed).
The trees are in the meantime gone over with a gang of women
under two headmen ; all infested leaves that are bad are cut off with
the scissors, and those with scale insect scrubbed by hand with
small pieces of bagging dipped in warm soap or kerosene emulsion
— branches also scrubbed.
All the inner branches and twigs that prevent light and air
from going freely through the tree, are pruned away to throw all
the energy for blossoming into the terminal branches. No water
is allowed near the trees for fully six weeks — that is, the whole
of November and part of December. Water is then applied, say
about the second week in December, and the trees thoroughly
flooded, the cultivator being passed over two days after, to save
the earth drying and cracking and conserving the moisture below
the surface.
Pruning roots and branches and cleaning the trees coupled with
the rest that the trees get for the six weeks while suffering for
want of water, compel a large number of the trees to commence
to blossom about three weeks after the first application of water,
and from then, each watering (three weeks apart), brings out more
blossoms ; so that blossoms first appear during the first week in
January. This year fully a thousand trees commenced to bloom
during the first ten days of January ; of course in the majority of
cases, only partially.
I have had quite a few trees that I picked fruit from as late as
the middle of November, bloom in January slightly, but of course
the trees that had been relieved of fruit earlier than November,
bloomed earlier and heavier.
This coming season I do not intend to pick any fruit in Novem-
ber ; so that I will have all fruit shipped by end of October. All
blossoms after the 15th March will be picked off so as to save the
trees carrying late fruit needlessly and thus ensuring an early
bloom next season.
The above method can only be adopted in the irrigated districts
of Vere and St. Catherine, as only with irrigation can the trees be
controlled in a great measure ; and as you are aware, there are
barely half a dozen groves altogether in the two parishes named ;
but I am certain that a great deal of good could be effected in
the hills where practically, all the fruit comes from, if the trees
were treated as you recommend them to be. Of course the trees
in the hills are entirely at the mercy of the seasonal rains and
would not, even with irrigation, bloom very early in the year owing
to the climatic conditions.
Even at the present time of writing, many of the wild trees are
loaded with over-ripe and unmarketable fruit, thus perpetuating a
lot of the mischief and compelling the sending away of immature
85
fruit in August and September, the trees not blossoming until
April ; in consequence, our fruit continues to have such a bad name
in the marl^et.
A very important fact also must not be lost sight of, and that is,
that the fruit grown in the lowlands only take from seven to seven
and a half months to mature, whereas fruit in the hills take from
eight to nine months.
Hoping the above will prove that not only can fruit be grown
in the irrigated lowlands, but what is more important still, that
groves established and properly cultivated, can be made to pro-
duce early ripe oranges to supply the best market. That would
give Jamaica an unrivalled position as a citrus fruit centre. Florida
California, and the Mediterranean, owing to the climatic conditions,
would never be able to supply mature fruit in the months of
August and September.
Cuban groves under go-ahead American management, with irri-
gation, would be our only competitors. I will with great pleasure
give all the facts and figures after the coming season to the public
as I feel sure there is a great future before the industry on these
lines.
Yours faithfully,
(Sgd.) Harry G. Tillman.
FORWAKDING DISEASED PLANTS AND INSECT
PESTS.*
Much disappointment has lately been experienced, both by the
sender and also by the receiver, through plants, supposed to be
diseased, and insect pests reaching the laboratories of the Impe-
rial Department of Agriculture in an unfit condition for scientific
examination. It is hoped that officers of the department and
others will carefully study and follow the suggestions that have
been given by the Department on former occasions. (See Agricul-
tural News, Vol. I, p. 243, and Vol. II, p. 235.) The chief reasons
for this state of things are one or more of the following : —
(l) The fragmentary nature of the material sent for investiga-
tion. (2) Lack of care in transmitting , the specimens arriving
shrivelled or dead or mouldy. (3) Absence of information as to
the conditions under which the plants grew.
It must be pointed out that a few fragments of a diseased plant
are of little use for investigation, and sufficient material should be
sent so that the primary cause of the trouble may be located.
In order that time and labour may not be wasted in the exami-
nation of unsuitable material, care must betaken in collecting and
packing specimens so that they may arrive at Barbados in good
condition. Fresh specimens of moist vegetable matter should not
be sent packed in boxes or in envelopes, but should be either
suitably dried and sent in a well-ventilated package or, preferably
* Repriuteil from the Agricultural News, Vol. IV., p. Sli6.
86
placed in spirit immediately after collection and forwarded in a
bottle or corked tube. Care must be taken with the strength of
the spirit used. A 30-per cent, spirit is quite sufficient to act as
a preservative, and this can easily be obtained by taking distilled
rum and adding two parts of water to one of the rum. If mate-
rial is sent in undiluted spirit or high wines, it becomes so hard
and brittle that examination is exceedingly difficult.
When leaves, buds, or twigs are attacked, the specimens should
show as many stages of the disease as possible. Detached leaves
alone are, as a rule, useless. If practicable, the root, after the soil
has been shaken off, should be sent, as in many instances, the
primary cause of the trouble is located there.
When fruits or herbaceous stems are attacked, pieces showing
all stages of the disease, should be placed in spirit as before.
When it is thought desirable to send very large specimens, such
as portions of branches, roots, or whole cacao pods, these should
be collected as late as possible before the mail steamer leaves and
sent in a well ventilated case.
Full particulars should also be forwarded, giving details of the
time of appearance of the disease, the damage done, the part at-
tacked, the nature of the soil, drainage, and also whether an ap-
parently similar kind of disease had been previously observed.
With regard to the forwarding of insects for examination, di-
rections have already been given in the Agricultural Nctvs (Vol. IV.
p. 168), but on account of the repeated disappointment resulting
from material being badly packed the following detailed instruc-
tions have been prepared :
Insect material for transmission must be packed in such a way
(l) that it will not be broken, bruised, or crushed, and (2) that it
will not be spoiled by the growth of moulds, mildew, or bacteria.
In considering the manner of forwarding insects, these may be
divided roughly into these three groups : (i) Larvae that is, grubs,
maggots, caterpillars, including borers, etc. (2) Hard insects,
such as beetles, bugs, grass-hoppers, crickets, bees and wasps.
(Scale insects may be included in this group.) (3) Frail insects,
such as butterflies, moths, flies, etc.
In packing for transportation the following rules apply to these
groups : —
Group I. — When sent alive, larvae should be packed with a
supply of the food plants on which they have been found feeding
or in the plant material they infest, in such way that they should
not be rattled about in the package or crushed by portions of the
food plant, etc. When not sent alive they should be preserved in
a tightly-corked tube or vial in diluted spirit or formalin.
Group II. — When sent alive these insects should be provided
with food, as for instance, in the case of lady-birds, leaves and
twigs infested with the plant lice or scale insects on which they
feed should be included and packed in such a way that they can-
not rattle about in the box. Footholds, such as crumpled pieces
of blotting paper, should be given the insects also. When not
sent alive insects of this group should be dried and wrapped loose
87
ly in soft tissue-paper, each insect in a separate paper, and then
packed in a strong box. In the case of scale insects, each infested
leaf and twig should be folded or wrapped in soft paper and
dried before being enclosed in a tight package. — -'
Group ///.—Insects of this group should be killed and handled
carefully to prevent injury, folded or wrapped in paper and
well dried before being packed. Butterflies, with their wings
folded together, may be folded in paper, moths may be wrapped
loosely in tissue paper, and flies may be included in layers of
tissue paper between cotton wool, in small boxes.
Full notes should accompany all insect specimens, stating the
nature of the damage done, the part of the plant attacked where
insects were found, and whether larva or adult does the damage ;
if the larva, a specimen of the adult should be included also, if
possible. Notes on their habits such as whether night feeder or
day feeder, where eggs are laid, etc., should in every case be added
so far as known.
Disappointment is most likely to resuh from (l) insufficient ma-
terial, (2) insufficient notes and information as to habits, etc., (3)
bad packing which allows specimens to be crushed or to decay in
transportation, and (4) from sending specimens so broken and
battered that it is impossible to identify them.
THE COCO DE MER, OR DOUBLE COCONUT.
Several " double coco-nuts" were received from the Commis-
sioner of the Seychelles Islands in 1896. There is one plant now
growing in the Hope Gardens close to the Casuarina tree on the
other side of the stream, and a plant also in Castleton Garden.
They grow very slowly, no stem being yet seen above ground ;
the height of the top of the largest leaf is loi feet. A nut which
failed to germinate may be seen on application at Hope Gardens,
and another at Castleton Garden.
The history and the structure of this palm are of such an
interesting nature that the following articles on it are reprinted.
I. By George V. Nash.*
In the Indian Ocean several hundreds of miles to the eastward
of Zanzibar, and about four degrees south of the equator, isa
group of islands known as the Seychelles. These were discovered
by the Portuguese as early as 1505 ; were occupied by the French
in 1743 ; seized by the British in 1794, and formally ceded to them
in 1814. Here at the time of the French occupation in 1743 was
discovered a beautiful palm, the fruit of which had been known
for many years, but the origin of which had been one of the
mysteries of those early times. As in those times mysteries al-
ways give rise to most fabulous tales, so was it with this unknown
fruit, which, on account of its obscurity, was accredited with most
♦Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, January, 1906, p. 7.
88
wonderful properties and given a worth far in excess of its intrin-
sic value. It was known as coco de mer, coco de Solomon, and
coco des Maldives, this last name being applied because so many
of these nuts had been found floating in the sea near the Maldive
Islands. It was averred by these ancient people that it was not a
product of the earth but of the sea, and the Malay and Chinese
sailors insisted that it grew on a tree deep in the water off the
coast of Sumatra, but that the tree instantly disappeared when
they dived down to see it. The negro priests were firm in the
belief that it grew near the island of Java, its branches protruding
above the water, and that here a monstrous bird had its home,
from which it made nightly sorties to the land, killing tigers, ele-
phants and other large animals ; they further asserted that ships
were attracted by the waves which surrounded the tree, an attrac-
tion from which there was no escape, and that the sailors fell an
easy prey to this voracious bird. One can well understand with
what care the poor superstitious sailors of the Indian Archipelago
must have avoided this spot.
Not only did these tales serve to bring the fruit into notice, but
its reputed value as an antidote to poisons made its acquisition
greatly to be desired by the princes of Hindostan, who, prone to
use such poisons on others, were constantly in fear of being made
victims themselves of some wily poisoner.
It is not strange that they were willing to pay large sums for
these mysterious objects which would protect them from their
enemies. They firmly believed that water which had been kept in
one of these was purified from all harm, and could be drunk with im-
punity, no matter how active may have been the poison placed in
the liquid. The sovereign of the Maldives was not long in turning
this to his own advantage as a means of increasing his wealth, for
he made it a matter of death for any one to have in his posses-
sion one of these nuts — all ^vere his property, which he disposed
of at a high price or used in making royal presents. But in 1743,
upon the discovery of rhe tree which bore these fruits, this value
and repute quickly subsided, for, so they must have reasoned,
where there is no mystery how can there be any virtue.
One of the earlier accounts of this palm occurs in a book of
voyages published in 1 776 in Paris.* A plate illustrating the
Seychelles themselves and several other plates depicting features
of the palm and its fruit are given. It is there stated that many
of these palms grow near the shore of the sea, most of the fruit of
such trees dropping into the sea and floating upon its surface.
The winds waft them, and the currents, the direction of which in
those parts is E.N.E., carry them to the shores of the Maldives,
the only part of the world where these fruits had been known
previous to the discovery of their origin on the Seychelles.
The palm grows upon three of the islands of the Seychelles,
occuring in all parts of them, the best trees growing in deep gorges.
One such gorge on the island of Praslin is known as the Ravine
* Voyage a la Nouvelle Guinee par M. Sonnerat. Paris. 1776.
89
of the Coco de Mer, and is said to be one of the most beautiful
spots in tropical climes, the trunks of these charming palms rising
to a height of ninety or a hundred feet and bearing aloft a crown
of magnificient fan-shaped leaves, often twenty feet long and ten
or twelve feet wide.
The many economic uses of this palm make it of exceeding
value to the natives of the Seychelles. The heart of the crown of
leaves is eaten as a vegetable, as is done with the cabbage palm.
The leaves, perhaps, are the most important, being used extensively
in house-building, not only for thatching, but also for making walls
and partitions; and the down of the young leaves is used in
filling mattresses and pillows. The nuts are made into utensils of
various kinds, and the young leaves furnish material for making
hats.
II.*
Oil the Double Cocoa-nut of the Seychelles (Lodoicea Sechellarum) "Sea
Cocoa-nut," "Double Coconut," " Coco de mer."
By Swinburne Ward, Esq., Civil Commissioner, communicated
by Sir W. J. Hooker, F.R.S., & L.S., &c.
This extraordinary specimen of the palm tribe, the largest and
most curious of all the many varied kinds scattered over all tropi-
cal regions, is found only in two small islands belonging to the
Seychelles group, " Praslin" and " Curieuse," which lie in juxta-
position between 4° and 5° of S. lat., and 55° and 56° E. long., —
nearly three hundred miles north-east of Madagascar, which,
though itself an island, may, from its immense size, be legitimately
considered the nearest mainland.
The name by which it is best known, that of " Coco de mer,"
was given to it by some French navigators who had picked up the
nut floating at sea, and being unable to ascertain anything respec-
ting the tree that produced it, supposed it to be the production of
some unknown submarine plant. It has often been found on the
coasts of Ceylon and the Maldive Islands, drifted thither by some
of the mysterious currents which perplex mariners all over the
Indian Ocean. The nuts attained in these countries to an almost
religious value, and were sold in India for fabulous prices. A
medicine was made of the kernel, which was said to possess res-
torative qualities much in request in those countries where poly-
gamy prevails.
It was not until the discovery of the Seychelles Islands by the
French in 1742 that authentic information was obtained respecting
the true nature of the tree, and the astonishment of those previ-
ously acquainted with the Coco de mer may well be imagined upon
their finding large forests entirely composed of this palm, growing
most luxuriantly upon a small and quite unhabited island, and
towering far above all ordinary tropical vegetation.
But little is even now known respecting the growth and peculi-
arities of this extraordinary palm, owing to the great length of
time it requires to arrive at maturity, and the consequent difficulty
*Joui'nal of the Linuean Society, VIII, 1865, p, 135
90
of obtaining accurate information with regard to its developments
The information gathered from the inhabitants is not of much
value , they are very unobservant, and the truth of their replies to
any questions that may be put to them can never be depended
upon.
The shortest period before the tree puts forth its buds is thirty
years, and one hundred years must elapse before it attains its full
growth. No one can tell how long it will last, or how old some
of the gigantic specimens may be. No nuts planted since the
British came into possession have arrived at their full growth.
One in the garden at Government House, planted fifteen years
ago, is still quite in its infancy, about sixteen feet in height, but
with no stem yet visible, the long leaves shooting from the earth
like the Traveller's Palm and much resembling them in shape,
only much larger. Nine months after the nut has been planted,-
supposing germination to have begun at once, the leaf sprouts
at an angle of 45° from the root; it is very closely folded,
with a smooth hard surface, terminating in a sharp point.
When about two feet above the surface it expands, and nine
months after another leaf follows, coming up the grooved surface
of the midrib of that which preceded it, and so on at intervals of
nine months, each succeeding leaf becoming larger in size. All
these leaves cluster together and support each other, no stem ap-
pearing above the ground. From the age of fifteen to twenty-five
the tree is in its greatest beauty, and the leaves at this period
much larger than they are subsequently. They consist of two
layers of fibres crossing each other at right angles, imbedded in a
thick stratum of parenchyma enclosed in a tough skin.
The stem of the full-grown tree, like that of all Palms, consists
of hard fibres imbedded in medullary substance enclosed in a hard
sheath, so hard that a good axe is required to cut it. It splits
readily, but is extremely durable. Unlike the Cocoa-nut trees,
which bend to every gentle gale and are never quite straight, the
Coco de mer trees are as upright as iron pillars, undisturbed in
their position by the heavy gales and violent storms so often oc-
curring in tropical regions.
At the age of thirty the tree first puts forth its blossoms. The
male and female trees are quite distinct ; and the female blossom
may be considered as the germ of the nut, as it offers nothing of
the appearance of what is generally regard as a blossom. The
female tree alone produces the nut, and it is twenty feet shorter
than the male tree, which frequently attains a height of one hun-
dred feet.
The male flower is an enormous catkin, about three feet in
length and three inches in diameter, of a reddish-brown colour,
and covered with rhomboidal valvate scales disposed spirally about
the stem, from the angles of which the stamens spring. Within
its circumference, at intervals corresponding to the apertures from
which the stamens shoot, are found little masses containing such
a succession of stamens in progressive stages of development that
the flowering is maintained for eight or ten years, each coming.
91
stamen thrusting off and replacing the one that preceded it. The
whole has a most disagreeable, oily odour, and if cut and put in
any accessible place, is greedily attacked by ants. It may be seen
in all stages upon the same tree — in full bloom, faded, and quite
decayed.
The female blossoms spring from a strong stem forming a regu-
lar zigzag, and are composed of three bracts three or four inches
in diameter. A gummy secretion exudes from the apex of these,
which secretion doubtless arrests and secures the pollen necessary
for their fecundation. The fruit stalk is supported by three very
strong bracts ; the outer one of these, the top of which is wedge-
shaped, penetrates the stalk of the leaf immediately above it, in
the under side of which nature has left a fissure accessible to it.
By this provision the stalk is enabled to support the weight of
fruit which hangs upon it, sometimes exceeding four hundred-
weight. Eleven nuts have been seen on one stalk, the probable
weight of each being about forty pounds. Such clusters are, how-
ever, very rare, and four or five may be taken as the average num-
ber on one stalk.
From fructification to full maturity a period of nearly ten
years elapses. The fruit attains its full size in about four years,
and is then soft, and full of a semi-transparent jelly-like substance
of an insipid, sweetish taste. The mesocarp is a leathery sub-
stance of a brownish-green colour, adhering to the shell. As the
nut ripens this gradually dries up into a white, horny kernel,
about half an inch in thickness, and of no use whatever, supposed
to be poisonous, but, probably, only quite indigestible. The nut
in its perfect state is about eighteen inches long, and of the same
breadth, something in the shape of a heart, with two separate com-
partments. It is enveloped, like the Coco-nut in a fibrous husk ;
but its texture is not nearly so thick or so strong, and it drops off
soon after the nut falls from the tree. The nuts, sawn in half, and
divested of the kernel, form excellent calabashes, and are uni-
versally used for baling boats. The entire nut is frequently used
as a water-keg, and holds three or four gallons of water. It has,
however, to be " caulked" in the centre, where germination takes
place, before it becomes completely watertight.
The arrangements provided by nature for the roots of both
male and female trees are of a most peculiar nature, quite distinct
from those provided for any other known tree. The base of the
trunk is of a bulbous form, and this bulb fits into a natural bowl,
or socket, about two and a half feet in diameter and eighteen
inches in depth, narrowing towards the bottom. This bowl is
pierced with hundreds of small oval holes about the size of a
thimble, with hollow tubes corresponding on the outside, through
which the roots penetrate the ground on all sides, never, however,
becoming attached to the bowl ; their partial elasticity affording
an almost imperceptible but very necessary " play" to the parent
stem when struggling against the force of violent gales.
This bowl is of the same substance as the shell of the nut, only
much thicker. As far as can be ascertained, it never rots or wears
92
out. It has been found quite perfect and entire in every respect
sixty years after the tree has been cut down. At Curieuse many
sockets are still remaining which are known to have belonged to
trees cut down by the first settlers on the island.
This curious arrangement renders it impossible that the trunk
could grow in a slanting position ; and there is no known instance
of its doing so, either on the flat, or on the steep sides of the
mountains, in both of which situations the tree thrives equally well.
The high price still fetched by the nuts will ultimately be the
cause of their complete extinction in these islands. The growth of
the palm is so very slow that no one can expect to reap where he
has sowed, and the people consequently never take the trouble to
plant any for the benefit of posterity. Not content too with dig-
ging up those nuts that have fallen and taken root they ruthlessly
destroy whole trees by cutting them down for the sake of
the nuts and the heart leaves, which latter are used for
making hats, fans and baskets. Many of the trees still standing
are quite spoilt by the practice of cutting out these centre or heart
leaves, leaving the tree shorn of its beauty, and with an untidy,
ragged appearance. Besides the ravages of man, fire is a terrible
enemy to these forests, a year seldom elapsing without there be-
ing sufferers by accidental conflagrations, especially those forests
situated at the nort-west end of Praslin, in which are now found
only such male trees that from their height overtopped the flames
that destroyed the females. At the south-east end of Praslin they
are more plentiful the dry season being in the south-east monsoon,
and as the forests are to windward, they are not exposed to much
danger from spreading fire.
No suggestions will induce proprietors to abandon their present
habit of wilfully destroying the trees for the sake of the nuts and
leaves, or to take some pains for the cultivation and reproduction
of this magnificient palm. Not many years will elapse before the
Coco de mer becomes in reality as rare as it was supposed to be
when first picked up at sea by the wondering mariners, and the
only relics left of its former magnificence will be the decaying
blackened stumps of the trees so wantonly destroyed, and the
curious sockets in which they stood for so many years.
Seycelles, April l6, 1863.
Ill*
Letters from SiR H. BARKLEY and SWINBURNE WARD, ESQ.,
relative to the Coco de Mer
Government House, Mauritius,
6th June, 1864.
Sir,
Having brought the resolution adopted by the Linnean Society,
on 3rd of March, relative to the destruction of the Sea Cocoa-nut
Tree in the Seychelles Islands, under the notice of the Civil Com-
missioner of that group, and called upon him to suggest officially
* Journal of Linaean Society, IX, IStJC, p. US.
93
what measures could be taken to ensure the preservation of the re-
maining trees, I have received the report of which I now beg to
enclose a copy.
The Society will be glad to learn that Mr. Ward did not find on
a visit of inspection, that that destruction had been carried so far
as had been represented to him, but that, on the contrary, one for-
rest of these palms in He Praslin is carefully preserved by its
owner, and still contains magnificent specimens.
As this island is almost entirely private property, the interfer-
ence of the Government would be difficult, except in the way of
exhortation and remonstrance ; but as He Curieuse, where a certain
number of trees are found, is still vested in the Crown, and used
for a purpose which renders it inaccessible to the public, I trust
there can be no danger under any circumstances of the extinction
of this most interesting species.
I am confident that whilst Mr. Ward remains in his present post
he will do all in his power to protect the existing trees, and to
secure the planting of others.
I remain, Sir,
Your obedient Servant,
Henry Barkley.
To George Bentham, Esq.,
President L.S., &c., &c.
Preservation of the Coco dc mer.
Civil Commissioner's Office,
Seychelles, May 17, 1864.
Sir,
I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter (No.
H. 890) of May 6th enclosing a communication from the Linnean
Society on the subject of the destruction of Coco de mer trees at
Praslin, and directing me to report, for the information of His
Excellency the Governor, upon the measures which ought to be
taken for the preservation of such of the Lodoicea trees as now
remain.
The paper on the Coco de Mer, to which the Linnean Society
alludes, was written a short time after my arrival ; but although I
had made a tour of inspection round the islands, including Praslin
and Curieuse, I had not then visited the district in which this palm
principally flourishes.
There is no doubt that the Coco de Mer has entirely disappeared
from many parts of the island of Praslin, where it formally
abounded — destroyed by accidental conflagrations, and ruthlessly
cut down to make room for manioc cultivation. The land in these
parts of Praslin, with a very small exception, is entirely in the
hands of private individuals, and no steps could have been taken
by Government with respect to preserving the trees.
94
I returned, on the 9th instant, from a visit to the more distant
islands of the group in the " Pleiad," which was placed at my dis-
posal by Colonel Playfair, and I took the opportunity during this
tour, of visiting the Lodoicea forest at Ause Marie Louise, on the
southern point of the island of Praslin — a small lovely valley
reaching to the sea-board, surrounded by lofty hills, the sides and
crests of which are covered with Lodoicea several hundred in
number.
This forest is in the property of a Mr. Campbell ; and I am glad
to be able to report that more care is taken of the trees here than
is the case in any other part of the island. They may be seen in
all stages of growth, from the sharp, sword-shaped spattie just
shooting from the ground, to palms one hundred and twenty feet
in height, long since arrived at maturity, and at whose age it is
impossible even to guess. None are actually planted by the pro-
prietor ; but he occasionally allows nuts to remain and take root
where they fall ; and as the trees are usually surrounded at the
base by thick undergrowth, many other nuts are overlooked by
the men employed to collect them, a certain amount of reproduc-
tion being thus ensured.
The leaves of the male trees alone are cut for the sake of the
material from which hats, fans, and baskets are made. Cutting
these leaves prevents the trees from giving any blossoms ; but the
male trees preponderate over the female, and these growing in al-
most inaccessible spots, which flower undisturbed, are quite suf-
ficient to fecundate all the female trees in the district. The
flowering process continues for years ; and the small blossoms
that spring from the huge catkin forming the basis, as it were, of
the flowers, are reproduced, apparently, ad iiifinitiim.
A comparatively small number of trees are found on Curieuse
Island, and these never attain the same size and perfection as
those at Praslin. Soon after my arrival, I gave directions to Mr.
Forbes, in charge of the lesser establishment, to keep up the sup-
ply by planting germinating nuts ; but he succeeded with but a
small proportion of those planted. Unfortunately, too, several
trees which were thriving in the vicinity of the cemetery were
accidentally burnt. I have directed him to plant all the germin-
ating nuts that he can find for the future, and to take all the care
he can of the trees now remaining.
When at Praslin, I selected a Coco de Mer with a perfect healthy
germ nearly a foot in length, which I forwarded to Sir William
Hooker, by the 'Nomo,' on the llth instant.
I have the honour to be. Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
Swinburne Ward,
Civil Commissioner.
The Honourable The Colonial Secretary,
Mauritius.
95
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES.
The monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held at
Headquarter House on Monday, the I2th March, at II. 15 a.m.
There were present : — The Hon. H. Clarence Bourne (Chairman) ;
Director of Public Gardens ; Superintending Inspector of Schools ;
Island Chemist ; His Grace the Archbishop of the West Indies ;
Messrs. J. W. Middleton, G. D. Murray and Jno. Barclay (Secre-
tary).
Commercial Agent.— The. Secretary read the report of the com-
mittee appointed in matter of a commercial agent for Jamaica in
London, the adoption of the report was unanimously agreed to.
The Chairman asked the Archbishop, Mr. Middleton and Mr.
Murray to form a deputation to wait on His Excellency and pre-
sent the report ; and the Secretary was instructed to write the Co-
lonial Secretary and ask when it would be convenient for the
Governor to receive the deputation.
Day of Meeting. — As Mr. Murray reported that he could not
attend the meetings of the Board if they were held on Mondays,
the Archbishop proposed that the meetings should be held on the
Wednesday of the same week of the month at 2 p.m., instead of
II. 15 a.m.
This was agreed to.
Contagious Diseases. — The Secretary reported that the committee
appointed had again revised the draft of the proposed Bill and it
had been sent on by the Agricultural Society to the Governor.
Cotton Gin. — The Secretary reported that he had received the
Hand Cotton Gin from Mr. Levy, that it had been sent to the
Railway workshop for repair and it would be stored in the office
for future use.
Diseased Coco-nuts. — A letter was read from the Colonial Secre-
tary informing the Board that Mr. G. P. Dewar had pointed out
that he especially desired to call attention to the need for owners
of blighted coco-nut trees to be compelled to cure or burn them, as
until they were made to do so their neighbours would suffer. He
said that when the trees showed any symptoms of unhealthiness
they were beyond remedy as the leading bud was rotten and de-
cayed, and that while spraying was good, eradication was better.
The Governor asked the views of the Board on Mr. Dewar's
proposal.
The Director of Public Gardens said that Mr. Dewar was wrong
in saying that when the trees showed signs of unhealthiness they
were beyond remedy, that bud-rot could be cured in its earlier
stages by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, which arrested the de-
cay. He had arranged for Mr. Cradwick to visit Lucea on the
19th May and Mr. Dewar could arrange to meet Mr. Cradwick
there.
The Secretary was directed to reply to the Colonial Secretary
to this effect.
96
Mr. Nolan's Work. — The Colonial Secretary also forwarded a
letter from Mr. Nolan, forwarding cutting from The Wine and Spirit
Gazette, and also a report of the case which he had instituted
under the Merchandise Act with a copy of a prosecution which
took place in Lanark under the Food and Drugs Act in which
the defendants were convicted.
These were directed to be circulated.
Resignation of Mr. Teversham. — A letter was also read from the
Colonial Secretary intimating the resignation of Mr. T. F. Tever-
sham as from the 28th February on account of ill-health.
The chairman stated that various alternative proposals were
before the Government and provisions had been made in the
estimates of £200 for carrying on the work.
Standardisation of Jamaica Rum. — The following papers which
had been circulated but had not yet been before the Board were
submitted :
With regard to the standardisation of Jamaica rum, the Director
of Public Gardens' minutes on the subject were read to the effect
that a standard of this kind was unnecessary and would be injurious
to our interests.
Of the members present Mr. Cousins, Mr. Murray, and the chair-
man were in favour of the proposed standardisation.
Mr. Fawcett was opposed to it and the Archbishop thought that
the facts as contained in the papers should be reported to the Go-
vernor to form his own opinion.
The Chemist was asked to make a summary of the arguments
in favour of his case to be sent first to Mr. Fawcett to state his
arguments against it, both then to be circulated among the mem-
bers of the Board.
Agricultural " Don'ts." — In reference to the above, these having
been revised by the Superintending Inspector of Schools with the
suggestion of the members of the Board before him, were ap-
proved. The Archbishop said that he hoped to get the Board of
Education to adopt them and have them hung up in the form of a
large chart for use in schools.
Report from Mr. Cousins on his visit to Trelawny and West-
moreland and Report Hope Experiment Station were also pre-
sented.
[Issued 12th April, 1906.]
Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam.
BULLETIN
DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE.
Vol. IV.
MAY, 1906.
Part 5.
EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S.,
Director of Public Gardens and Plantatioiis.
CONTENTS:
Page.
Notes on the " Castilloa" Rubber Tree
97
Coagulation of Castilloa Rubber
99
Grass Oils
100
Agriculture of Porto Rico
io6
1 Nature and commercial uses of Ben Oil
113
Snails and Slugs ...
115
Insect Pests
ii6
1 New Species of Fern
117
Board of Agriculture
1
Ii8
PRIG E— Threepence.
A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in .Jamaica, who will send name and
address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.
KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
Hope Gabdbnb.
1906.
JAMAICA.
BXJLI.ETIlSr ^^j^«^^«>'
NEW VOUK
OF THE ^OTaN/CaL
^ A Kotos
DEPARTMENT OF A(}RICULTURE.
Vol. IV. MAY, 1906. Part 5.
NOTES ON THE " CASTILLOA" RUBBER TREE.
By "A Forester," Bluefields, Nicaragua, Jan., T906.*
The roots of young plants of Castilloa clastica (the Central
American rubber tree) are well developed and branch a good
deal. They are very thickly clothed with root hairs at the tips.
These hairs are very fine and fragile and in transplanting young
seedlings great care should be taken not to injure them. I believe
that the condition of the roots of a tree makes more difference
with the amount of rubber it will give than the leaves. A tree
with small yield is generally healthy in the leaves, but has some
defect in the roots. Transplants are likely to have defective tap
roots and on this account blow over.
There are two distinct types of branches on the Castilloa tree —
temporary and permanent. All the branches for the first three or
four years are temporary. They grow alternately on different
sides and almost at right angles to the trunk. After some time
the temporary branch drops, when besides the scar which is left
will be found a small bud. This bud is either to the right or left
of the scar, but never above or below it. Whenever one such bud
on a tree grows to the right all the other buds do the same, and
vice versa. I have never found a tree with buds on both sides.
Such buds are the beginning of permanent branches. Only a
small number grow into branches, but any of them can be forced
by cutting through the bark to the wood, above the bud, and thus
severing the sieve tubes connecting the leaves and roots. These
permanent branches project upward at an angle of 45° or less.
Forced branches do not grow as fast as natural ones. The
permanent branch bears temporary branches of its own, and later
may bear other permanent branches.
This question of branching may prove important. Some
planters claim that trees that put out permanent branches early
grow faster and yield better than later branching trees. Others
* From the India Rubber World.
98
claim that branching is not good for the trees. I believe that
branched trees grow somewhat faster because they get a larger
leaf sm-face, but I do not think that this leaf surface affects the
amount of latex. Trees planted far apart branch moi'e freely and
earlier than those which are close together. There also seem to
be more branches on trees grown in the sun than in the shade.
It has been suggested that it would be well to grow branches on
the trees — by the forced method above described — in such manner
that the trees could be ascended by tappers without a ladder. The
fact that some temporary limbs turn permanent might be in-
vestigated, and perhaps a way could be found to make them turn
permanent at will, if desirable.
The CastiUoa is a fast growing tree. It appears to grow faster
between the ages of two and four. The leaf surface of the tree,
and consequently the amount of light it gets, has a great deal to
do with its growth. Shade grown trees are not nearly so large
at the same age as those grown in the sun. Some planters
believe that trees grown in at least partial shade yield more latex,
but if this is so, I do not believe that they yield enough more to
pay for the loss in growth, for under any ordinary conditions the
trees yield in proportion to their size. Monthly measurement of
a large number of CastiUoa trees shows that they grow on an
average of about \ inch per month in circumference. This varies,
however, the trees sometimes growing not at all for a month and
growing | inch or more the next month. An experiment in the
effect of tapping on growth did not show that it made any
difference.
The proper distance in planting depends a good deal on how
soon the plantation is to be tapped. Trees planted 10 x 10 feet
begin to crowd each other at about six years. If the plantation
is to be tapped at this age, or earlier, this is a good distance for
planting. When the trees get older, the poorer and weaker ones
can be bled out. The experiment of planting four trees in a hole
shows that it is possible for two, three, or even all four to grow
well and apparently not to hinder each other. If these trees continue
as they have begun, it seems to me that the way to grow the most
good trees on a given piece of land would be to stake the land at
a distance of 15 or 20 feet, and to plant a circle of 8 or ID trees
about each stake. Any trees grown in this way which did not
keep up to the others should be cut down, and by the time they
are ready to tap there should be three or four good trees in each
group. This method would avoid one trouble which has shown
itself where one tree was planted to a hole, and that is that when
the time for tapping came many of the trees were poor and stunted
and not worth anything. This irregularity of growth loses much
time and can be avoided where only the best trees are allowed to
grow.
Whatever the method of tapping employed for CastiUoa, the
healing of the cut requires to be considered. The general idea
has been that the cut must not be made too deep and this is true
to a certain extent. But it may also be made too shallow. Be-
99
tween the bark and the wood is the growing part of the tree, a
tissue called cambium. This part alone has the powers of form-
ing new bark and new wood. If a cut is made which does not go
into the cambium, the cut will not heal over with new material.
Of course, it will dry up and turn black, and in this way protect
the tissue under it, but the piece of bark taken out is gone for
good. On the other hand, a cut made just to the cambium will
heal quickly.
The Para rubber tree (Hevea) shows some important differences
in latex from the Castilloa. Of course all that I have noted on this
tree is done here in Nicaragua and it may behave differently in
Brasil or Ceylon. The first noticeable thing in cutting the Para
tree is the small yield. When a Castilloa is tapped, the cut is
immediately filled with latex, which runs in a small stream from the
lower end. The Hevca when first cut shows no latex. In a few
seconds it begins to appear in drops on the cut surface and after
3 to 5 minutes begins to drop from the end of the cut. The small
yield at the first tapping seems to be balanced by the fact that
more can be got by multiple tapping. In Ceylon, according to
report, the yield increases each day, but here I have noticed no
increased yield. I tapped one tree nine days in succession, and
though it yielded every day (a thing which Castilloa would not do)
the yield decreased instead of increasing. The Hevca tree will
not do here because there is too nuch labour involved in multiple
tapping. I think the trees here, if tapped rightly, would yield as
much as those in Ceylon, but as labour cost so much more, it
would not pay. I am confident from comparing yields printed in
The India Rubber World that Castilloa will yield as much with
four tapping operations a year as Hevea will with ten or twenty
when the trees are the same age.
COAGULATION OF CASTILLOA RUBBER.
Mr. S. W. Sinclair, Manhattan Plantation, Bluefields, Nicaragua, to
Director of Public Gardens.
Manhattan Plantation,
February 2nd 1906.
Dear Sir,
Your favour of June 23rd 1905 has just reached me.
Replying to your enquiry about the Sinclair Coagulator, beg to
say that it consists of a piece of board through which holes are
bored 2 ins. by 2 ins. (holes should be about i inch). Over this
board a sheet of absorbent paper is placed, (I enclose sample) ;
paper must be laid on the board wet, if put on dry, it will warp
and give an uneven sheet of rubber. Having the board and paper
laid on wet, now proceed to tack on the rim or frame, which should
be from l\ in. high to li in. and your box will be ready for coagu-
lating. As soon as the latex is brought in from the field, I add
four times its volume of water, then strain through a fine metal
sieve ; then I place the whole in a cone bottom tin tank to settle,
which takes about one hour. I then decant off the water until the
100
latex becomes as thick as when it came from the tree, then I pour
it in my boxes and the water that is in the latex, which can't be
decanted off, will pass through the absorbent paper in about 10
minutes leaving the rubber.
I then expose it to a heat of no degrees F. for 5 or 6 hours,
when the rubber can be lifted off the box.
A new sheet has to put on after being used 10 or 12 times.
The time of exposure to heat varies and it is hard to give a cor-
rect formula in this respect, but one soon learns by the feel of the
sheets, just when to take them from the boxes. I take them off as
soon as my fingers don't stick, when pressed against them.
I may mention here that this method is for Castilloa elastica.
The Hevea latex passes through the absorbent paper.
I am carrying on experiments now and expect soon to be able
to handle both kinds of latex.
Rubber coagulated on the above method becomes transparent
like Ceylon biscuits, and runs it a close second in price, we aim to
bring it up to par.
With respects, I am,
Yours sincerely,
S. W. Sinclair.
GRASS OILS.*
I. CiTRONELLA AND LEMON GRASS IN CEYLON.
By Herbert Wright, Controller of Experiment Station,
Ceylon.
(Paper read before the Ceylon Agricultural Board.)
The Citronella industry is far from being in a flourishing con-
dition in Ceylon, and many persons who in the old days found it
a profitable cultivation now declare it to be unremunerative. It is
common knowledge, however, that Citronella oil exported from
Java obtains a much higher price than that from Ceylon, and it
has been argued that, if the same price could be realised for the
oil exported from this island, it might once more become an in-
dustry worthy of serious consideration. Planters in the Straits
and the authorities of the bnperial Department of Agriculture for
the West Indies are taking up the subject in earnest, and residents
in this island are beginning to send in numerous enquiries as to
the possibilities with this product. The moment, therefore, seemed
opportune to present a few facts regarding Citronella and also
Lemon Grass, as results have been obtained at the Experiment
Station, Peradeniya, and in various parts of Ceylon.
CITRONELLA.
We will first consider Citronella oil. I have brought with me
a sample of one of the grasses from which the oil is obtained, and
also a quantity of pure oil fresh from the still. As you are pro-
bably not concerned with the exact botanical identity of Citronella
grass, i may dismiss that vexed question by saying that the speci-
For previous articles on Grass Oils, see Bulletins, March, lii03, p. 53: Dec. 190.S-
Feb. 1904, p. 43; Oct. 1904, p. iL'*; March, 1905, p. 49.
lOI
men as here presented is as near the wild "Mana" grass as it ean be,
and is by most botanists regarded as being a variety of the " Mana"
grass so common in many parts of this island. The cultivation
of Citronella has hitherto been confined to the Southern and South-
West Provinces, the Matara, Galle, and Hambantota districts being
well-known in connection with this product. Exactly why it has
been more or less limited to these localities it is difficult to say,
as the grass grows well in districts having an annual rainfall of
80 to 100 inches, and, as will be shown later, has been success-
fully cultivated at an elevation of 2,000 feet in the Central Pro-
vince. It is not easy to obtain reliable information as to the yield
per acre in these provinces, but it is usually estimated that about
36 bottles each containing li lb. of oil are obtainable per acre per
year. If such is the case it can be asserted that the Peradeniya
district, at an elevation of 2,000 feet, is as good as any part of
the Southern Province for this product. At Peradeniya one acre
of the Maha-pangiri variety gave in 1904 19,320^ lb. of grass,
from which 84 lb. of pure oil were obtained ; in 1905, the same
plot produced 5, 757! lb. of grass, which yielded 38 lb. of oil.
This one-acre plot gave in the second and third year from plant-
ing 122 lb. of oil or 61 lb. per year. From other plots in their first
year 60 lb. of oil were obtained per acre.
Value. — Messrs. Chas. P. Hayley & Co., of Galle, have offered
85 to 88 cents per lb. for the crude unfiltered oil. The yields I
have given you were obtained from a plot on the rocky hill-side
facing the Peradeniya Gardens, which was previously occu-
pied by Mana grass and Lantana, It is not a rich soil but a typi-
cal patna-like compound similar to what may be seen in many
parts of the Island. The results show that we can obtain a crop
of 60 lb. of oil per acre per year (210 to 250 lb. of grass giving
I lb. of oil), the oil realising from Rs. 51 to Rs. 53 per acre in
Galle. It must be admitted that this is not a very big return, but
it is about as much or even more than what is obtained on many
Citronella estates. The yearly expenditure for weeding, cutting,
transporting and distilling is probably about Rs. 20 to Rs. 30 per
acre, and if the good variety is cultivated it will require re-plant-
ing every third year at a cost of Rs. 3 per acre. In addition to
such current expenditure one must allow for clearing, for plants,
and the wear and tear of the machinery. It is obvious from these
remarks that Citronella cultivators are not rolling in profits, and
various points will require attention if the prospects of the in-
dustry are to be made brighter.
Points Requiring Attention. — The first and foremost is to
check the adulteration which has been practised, so that Ceylon
can obtain a better reputation and command a price equal to that
paid for the oil exported from Java. This matter is, as most of
you are aware, receiving the attention of Government, and it is not
necessary for us to make any remarks beyond pleading for a ces-
sation of adulteration, or exporting the adulterated article under
definite grades, so that buyers will know what they are purchasing.
Another point of practical importance is the complete condensa-
102
tion of the oil. Often the oil and water, as they pass into the re-
ceiver, are quite warm instead of being cold. The cold water
should enter the condensing chaniber at the end furthest from the
distilling chamber, so that the oil-vapour will meet a cooler atmo-
sphere the nearer it gets to the receiver. I find in practice that a
60 foot coil of piping, 3 to 4 inches in diameter, is sufficient to
effect perfect condensation, and it is the opinion of many that the
good yield of oil obtained at Peradeniya is partly due to the
completeness of the condensation which is obtained. There are
other points of importance which might be touched upon, but be-
yond advising the planting at definite distances, instead of at hap-
hazard, selecting the better variety and paying attention to the
seasons and the time of cutting, I propose to dismiss the subject
of Citronella. As most of you are aware, certain Citronella
planters have found relief in quite another way, namely, by taking
up the cultivation of Lemon grass in place of Citronella.
LEMON GRASS.
The main reasons which have led to this change are, first, that
Lemon grass oil is valued at 35 to 40 cents an ounce in Galle ;
and, secondly, the grass can be cuhivated and distilled in just the
same manner as Citronella. Of course, the demand is not an un-
limited one, and the price may be lowered if too much oil is placed
on the market. The Lemon grass is quite a different plant, but,
as you can see from this specimen, it is similar in many respects
to Citronella grass. It yields a valuable oil, a pure sample of
which I have placed on the table for your inspection. The prac-
tical details connected with Lemon grass cultivation are identical
with those of Citronella, and therefore need not be dealt with here.
The points to consider are the yield and value of the oil. I can-
not give you the figures of outsiders, but the results at the Experi-
ment Station are probably , similar to those obtained elsewhere.
At Peradeniya, at an elevation of l,600 feet, the grass can be cut
six months after planting, and from one plot, which was planted
in July, 1904, we obtained in December of that year 8,063 lb. of
grass yielding I3i lb. of oil per acre, the same plot cut in April of
this year gave 5,28 r lb. of grass and 13 lb. of oil per acre so that
the yield per acre in the first year has already been 26} lb. of oil.
This works out at 40 cents per ounce in Galle, at over Rs. 160 per
acre in the first year. You will remember that the Citronella may
give a gross return of Rs. 51 to Rs. 53 for the same period. The
ease with which these products are cultivated is remarkable. All
that is necessary is to make holes, mamoty wide and mamoty
deep, and plant young shoots in rainy weather. Nearly all the
plants will grow well, and the grass can usually be cut and
distilled six months after planting.
Constituents Removed.— In comparing the value of Lemon
grass as against Citronella, it is as well to bear in mind the effect
of cultivating these products on the soil. In each case the weight
of grass removed is considerable, and it is somewhat surprising
that crops so exhausting can be grown on relatively poor soils. In
order to emphasise this point I now quote the results of analyses
103
made by Mr. Bruce, which show that every 10,000 lb. of Lemon
grass contain about 65 lb. of potash, 12 lb. of nitrogen, 12 lb. of
lime, and 9 lb. of phosphoric acid. The same quantity of Citron-
ella grass removes less potash and lime but more nitrogen and
phosphoric acid. The weight of Citronella grass per acre is
usually much greater than that of Lemon grass, and is in most
cases the more exhausting of the two.
Sufficient has been said to show that we have in Lemon grass
and Citronella two products which can be regarded as catch crops
since they gave a return six months from planting ; the cultivation
is simple, the plants are very hardy and seem to be compairatively
free from disease. They can be grown on poor soils in a very
large part of this Island, and there is a fair demand for the oil.
It is proposed to publish the results in detail in the Magazine of
the Society, and to show by means of diagrams and photographs
the nature of the plants and also the machinery, used in these
industries, and it is therefore unnecessary for me to prolong my
remarks.
THE DISCUSSION.
H. E. the Governor : You mentioned that the cost was Rs.
30 an acre ?
Mr. Wright: That was for cutting the grass, transporting, and
distilling, and also weeding.
H. E. the Governor : Does anybody know about the range of
these grasses — the elevations at which they would grow .?
Mr. Wright : Hitherto they have been confined to the South-
ern Province ; and this is the first time, I believe, that we have
grown them at 2,000 feet elevation at Peradeniya.
H. E. the Governor : I have seen some plants growing very
freely at Nuwara Eliya, 6,000 feet elevation, apparently in Patana
land ?
Mr. Wright : Citronella grass, as is well-known, is a variety of
the Mana grass, which grows wild. Wherever Mana grows you
might undoubtedly grow Citronella grass.
H. E. the Governor : We might try it somewhere in the hill
country.
Mr. Wright mentioned the Horton Plains.
The Hon. Mr. J. FERGUSON enquired if Mr. Wright would
recommend planters who had Mana grass fields to try Lemon
grass or Citronella.
Mr.,WRIGHT thought there would be no objection provided the
planting was considered a part of the co-operative experiments
being carried on by the Department. Any particular product that
the authorities considered experimental they would help the
planters to grow, provided they gave the results in return.
The Hon. Mr. J. FERGUSON : Are co-operative experiments to
be introduced at different elevations ?
Mr. WRIGHT said that was a matter they wished to see brought
forward. They would carry out experiments and see if certain
plants would grow at every thousand feet elevation.
104
Mr. Ferguson remarked it would be well for the Society to get
planters to make co-operative experiments. As regarded eleva-
tion, Mr. Campbell mentioned to him that in the Himalayas at
7,000 feet elevation that grass grew.
H. E. the Governor : What I observed two days ago showed
that this grass will grow up to 7,000 feet ; we can try several
elevations. We have got at the present moment a certain number
of gentlemen in various parts of the Colony who are prepared to
assist us in experiments, and whose names are noted as being
affiliated for the purpose.
Variation in Yield at Certain Seasons.— Mr. Ferguson :
Mr. Wright might be able to give us details as regards crops in
relation to acreage.
Mr. Wright said that there was a great variation in the weight
of grass obtained at certain times of the year and in the weight
of the oil. In the case of Citronella, taking three seasons'
records it roughly worked out at I lb. of oil from 250 lbs. grass.
Oa the other hand from Lemon grass they roughly got I lb. of
oil from 5 00 lb. grass. Lemon grass, of course, was smaller.
He pointed out that at the end of the dry season they got more
oil from a given quantity of grass.
Soil Exhaustion and Rotation. — Dr. H. M. Fernando
remarked that it was well-known that Citronella grass exhausted
the soil to a great extent, would it therefore be advisable to plant
it as a catch crop among coco-nuts, etc.?
Mr. Wright explained that Citronella was very exhausting to
the soil if grown alone, but if it was associated with other products
the exhaustion was far from being at all dangerous to cultivation.
If at the end of two or three years they did not re-open land in
Citronella or Lemon grass but adopted a rotation crop, either of
crotalaria, or ground nuts, or even chillies — he had seen that
product used in the Southern Province — they would get better
results from the soil after that. Of course, if they did not grow
anything with coco-nuts or cocoa or rubber the land would lose
all the same by being allowed to remain exposed.
Mr. Ferguson pointed out that the gross return from Lemon
grass was given at Rs. 160 an acre, and Citronella Rs. 54. Was
there any particular reason for the difference .■'
Adulterated Oil.— Wr. Wright explained that in the old
days Citronella oil obtained a better price than Lemon grass oil.
The price was simply the result of the greater demand for the one
article than the other. They might be able to raise the price of
Citronella oil by exporting it under a Government guarantee of
purity. At the present time Citronella oil was simply adulterated.
H. E. the Governor : Am I to understand that the price
obtained for Citronella oil, at the present time, is the price of
adultei^ated Citronella oil exported from Ceylon ?
Mr. Wright : — It is the price of crude, unfiltered oil.
The Hon. Mr. W. H. JACKSON wished to know if any analysis
had been made of the waste grass after the oil had been expressed.
105
He had seen it used for stocking the still. It might be returned
to the soil.
Mr. Wright remarked that he, too, had seen it used as fuel and
also to feed cattle which seemed to relish it greatly. The only
thing that was lost by using it as fuel was the nitrogen. The
potash would be there and the lime. The ashes might be used on
the land.
Planting up Patanas.— The Hon. Mr. W. H. Jackson said
that if the grass grew like Mana they might try it on waste land
which, in places, grew nothing but Mana.
H. E. the Governor : That is what is proposed to do near
Hakgala — to grow it on Patana land.
Mr. WRIGHT: — I have already established places at Band-
arawela. Will that place answer ?
The Hon. Mr. W. H. JACKSON :— I think so. That is about the
barest place.
II. Lemon-Grass Oil from Montserrat*
A specimen of lemon-grass oil was forwarded to the Imperial
Institute in September, 1903, by the Hon. F. Watts, Government
Analytical and Agricultural Chemist to the Leeward Islands, with
the request that its commercial value might be ascertained.
In the letter accompanying the sample, analyses of this and
other West Indian lemon-grass oils were given, and the character-
istic partial solubility of these oils in alcohol was noted. No
information was given, however, regarding the exact botanical ori-
gin of the Montserrat oil, and as a knowledge of this point is of
some importance in placing such products on the market a request
was made for a herbarium specimen of the plant from which the
oil was distilled, in order that it might be identified ; at the same
time a larger sample of the oil was asked for. These supplement-
ary materials were received in January, 1904.
Identification of the Plant.
The herbarium specimen of the plant was submitted for exami-
nation to the Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, who identified
it as Andropogon nardiis, L. var genuinus, Hack, which is commonly
known as the true lemon-grass.
Chemical examination of the oil.
The oil was examined in the Scientific and Technical Depart-
ment of the Imperial Institute, and gave the following results :
The specimen measured about eight fluid ounces, and consisted
of clear, limpid, yellow liquid, with a pleasant lemon grass odour.
It dissolved to the extent of about 97 per cent, in 70 per cent,
alcohol, and on distillation about 25 per cent, of the oil was ob-
tained between l8o°-220° c, and 50 per cent., which was princi-
pally citral, between 220°-230'c.
The following table shows the analytical results obtained with
the Montserrat oil both at the Imperial Institute and in the West
* From Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, II.
io6
Indies, and for convenience of comparison the corresponding
figures for commercial lemon-grass oil distilled in India from
Andropogeu citratus.
Montserrat Lemon-
grass Oil.
East Indian
Imperial
Institute
Analysis.
Mr. Watts'
Analysis.
Lemon-grass
Oil.
Specific gravity at 15" c. ...
Angle of rotation in lOO
m.m. tube
Citral determined by the
sodium bi-sulphite method
0906
— 0 10'
74-6:^
0-886
— 0 126'
74-2/^
0-899 to 0903
-M°25 to 3°5'
70 to 7S7o
These results indicate that the Montserrat oil contains as large
a proportion of the valuable constituent citral as the East Indian
oil, and only differs from the latter product in being incompletely
soluble in 70 per cent, alcohol.
Lemon-grass is now principally employed as a source of citral,
and the commercial value of the oil depends principally upon the
amount of this constitutent contained in it.
Commercial valuation of the oil.
Specimens of the oil, accompanied by a statement of the results
of its chemical examination, virere submitted to dealers in essential
oils both in this country and on the Continent for commercial
valuation. The reports from these firms indicated that, although
in some cases there was a tendency to quote a low price (4jd. per
oz.) for this oil owing to its being incompletely soluble in alcohol,
yet the general opinion appeared to be that, if placed regularly
on the market in fair quantities, it would be worth from 5d. to 6d.
per ounce, which is about the price of good quality East Indian
oil at the present time.
These results indicate that Montserrat lemon grass oil, in spite
of its peculiar partial insolubility in alcohol, would probably find
a ready sale at remunerative prices in this country and on the
Continent.
AGRICULTURE OF PORTO RICO.*
Porto Rico is essentially an agricultural country. This follows,
as a natural result, the even climate, the cheap labour, and the
good market for the various products of the soil.
* From Register of Porto Rico for 1905, Compiled brj the Secretary of Porto Rico, December
1905.
107
Since the American occupation there has been a steady increase
in the acreage under cultivation, and, owing to the generally good
prices obtained in the fiscal year just passed a marked impetus
has been given to the raising of sugar, coffee, cattle, tobacco,
cotton, citrus fruits, pineapples, cocoanuts, &c.
Land suitable for agricultural purposes has increased at least
20 ^ in value during the past year, and hardly an acre of ground
within a radius of 15 miles of San Juan can now be purchased for
less than $100. In the country districts, within easy access of
the railroad or macadam roads, fairly good land will average $40
per acre ; and in the interior and in places remote from transporta-
tion, grazing land can still be purchased as low as $5 to $10
per acre.
Much credit is due to the United States Agricultural Experi-
ment Station for its practical demonstrations of what crops can
be grown to advantage in Porto Rico, and of the most modern
methods of cultivation. This information is made public by
bulletins issued by them from time to time.
There has been a marked increase in the importation of modern
agricultural implements, which admit of the cultivation of larger
tracts of land with little additional labour.
Fertilizer is also used much more extensively than in former
years, and in order to guarantee the quality of the same, the last
Legislative Assembly of Porto Rico passed an Act to regulate the
registration and inspection of commercial fertilizers, fertilizer
materials and chemicals in Porto Rico. This law makes it a
misdemeanour to sell for offer or sale in this island any fertilizer
or fertilizer material which does not conform to the formula given
on the tag attached to the package.
As a further incentive to agricultural pursuits, the Legislative
Assembly appropriated the sum of $10,000 for the development
of the fibre plants of the island, this sum to be expended under
the direction of the Governor in the purchase of fibre or other
product grown by planters on the island, the purchase and opera-
tion of machinery for the preparation of such products for market-
ing, or in such other ways as in his opinion will best tend to the
demonstration of the possibilities of growing and marketing such
products upon a remunerative basis to persons engaging in such
work.
In order to afi'ord every possible protection to coff'ee, cotton,
and citrus fruits, the last Legislature also passed a law to guard
against the importation of plant diseases or insects harmful to
plants. This law provides that no coffee tree or plant, or any
portion thereof, or the seeds of same (except roasted coffee for
domestic consumption), and no rooted citrus plants or cuttings,
and no cotton seed, seed cotton, cotton lint, loose or in bales shall
be brought into the island of Porto Rico from any state or
territory or other country whatsoever, without having attached
thereto in a prominent and conspicuous place, a certificate under
oath signed by a duly authorized state or government entomologist,
stating that such trees, plants, roots, seed hulls or seed, and any
io8
and all portions thereof are free from disease ; provided that in
the case of cotton seed, seed cotton, cotton seed hulls or cotton
lint, such certificate shall state in addition that the shipment
originated in a locality where, by actual inspection by said attest-
ing official or his agent, the Mexican Boll Weevil was not found
to exist.
Sugar has been grown in Porto Rico since 1548 and unquestion-
ably has now supplanted coffee as the chief source of the Island's
wealth.
For the fiscal year 1904-1905 there was exported (almost entirely
to the United States) 271,325,118 lbs. of an estimated value of
$11,925,804, as against 259,294,060 lbs. of an estimated value of
$8,690,814 for the fiscal year 1903-1904.
The good price obtained for last season's crop has boomed the
sugar industry of the Island and great activity is now being shown
in the opening up of new land, formally used only for grazing
purposes, in order to supply the growing capacities of the mills.
New centrals have been built, others are in course of construction
and all the old factories of any importance are installing modern
machinery.
The introduction of improved agricultural implements into the
island during the past few years, has permitted the more rapid
exploitation of great areas of land at a considerably less rate of
expense than was formerly possible. The use of fertilizer has
become more prevalent and has amply repaid those who have
made use of it.
The manufacture of sugar can be undertaken profitably only by
capitalists, and on a large scale with modern machinery. Sugar
land is easily worth $100 per acre and a sugar central will cost
approximately $1,000,000. A net profit of $75, to $100 is a fair
yield per acre.
COFFEE.
Coffee, which has always formed one of the three principal
staples of the island, is now attracting much interest in the
United States, and the tide of public opinion seems to have at
last turned in its favour. This is evidenced by the fact that
previous to the Spanish-American war but one-half of one per
cent, of the coffee crop of the island went to the United States,
while in the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1903, the States took
three per cent, of the crop, and in the fiscal year ending June 30th,
1905, they took nine per cent. This shows a steady increase in
the quanthy exported to the United States, and, as a convert to
Porto Rican coffee can never be induced to use anything else, it
is confidently expected that in the near future the coffee crop of
Porto Rico will again reach the high water mark of 60,000,000
pounds as in 1896, and will be almost entirely consumed in the
United States. Every effort is being made to create a market
there for the Porto Rican bean and the last Legislative Assembly
passed an Act providing for the establishment of a Commercial
Agency in the United States for the sale of coffee and other
products of Porto Rico. This agency is now open for business
109
at No. 91 Wall Street, New York City, and it is the duty of the
agent in charge to correspond with the coffee planters and dealers,
and other producers in Porto Rico, with a view of putting such
growers and producers in direct communication with purchasers
of such products and to promote in every way possible the
opportunity for growers and producers to market their products
directly with purchasers. All products consigned to the agency
will be disposed of to the best advantage and without charge to the
shipper other than for cost of transportation, storage, and actual
expenses incurred in marketing the same.
Coffee can be grown profitably on nearly all kinds of soils,
provided there is a good drainage. Virgin forest soil on the
mountain sides, however, is the best, and much of this land can
still be had for about $10 per acre. In order that the Porto Rican
coffee may command the highest prices it must be able to compete
with the fine grades of Java coffee. With this end in view the
Coffee Experiment Station is now experimenting with fine coffees
from all parts of the world. Samples of these and their breedings
will be sent to the United States markets, and after it has been
demonstrated which best suit the American taste, these selected
varieties will be recommended to the coffee growers and, if
possible, seeds or seedlings will be placed at their disposal.
Experiments are also under way to increase the production per
acre, which now averages about 250 pounds as against a far
larger output in other countries. Until quite recent years the
cultivation of coffee was conducted in a very primitive way, but
the cultivation now is conducted along up to date lines and seed
and nursery beds are found in the coffee districts where a few
years ago only volunteer plants were used.
TOBACCO.
The poor prices paid for ordinary leaf tobacco on the field
during the past two years, disheartened the farmers, and, in con-
sequence, the 1905 crop was a very small one. There was a good
demand this season and much higher prices were paid, and the
few fortunate farmers who had not exchanged their crops for
provisions or sold their field of tobacco before picking, made very
fair profits. It was a somewhat unusual occurrence for the bulk
of the profit to be made by the farmers, as they usually sell to
speculators, who, in turn, sell to the factories. The farmers have
been greatly encouraged by the rise in price and knowledge that
in future the factories will buy direct from them, and as a result
a large crop is being prepared for 1906.
The new system of picking the leaves for wrappers from the
standing plants and drying separately from the stalk, has given
very good results, and wrappers treated in this way have greatly
improved in quality and have brought a much better price.
Tobacco grown under cheese-cloth continues to give good results ;
this method of planting is gradually extending and proves very
profitable if carried out on a large scale.
The cuhivation and curing of leaf tobacco in Porto Rico is
still in a very crude state : the land is badly prepared and the
no
seed not judiciously selected ; for instance, some districts whose
speciality is fillers use the same seed as those that grow tobacco
for wrappers, and vice versa : there is no uniformity of leaves
among the plants, the seed principally used is mixed, and there-
fore, gives a variety of plants ; and finally, practically no fer-
tilizing is done, although an increase of from 25 to 30 per cent, can
be obtained by its careful application. It is worthy of note, how-
ever, that the stimulus of this year's good prices has made the
farmers more careful in the selection of seed, in cultivating and
in fertilizing.
The style of barn in which the drying is carried on (very little
curing being done by the farmers) is responsible for the spoiling
of half the tobacco brought in from the fields, they are usually
open at the sides and the tobacco is at the mercy of the wind and
rain. Very fine tobacco is often destroyed by careless handling
and improperly built barns, and tobacco which would be worth
$15 to $18 per quintal if properly dried, will not bring more than
$10 or $12 if carelessly handled. The barns should be so con-
structed that they may be immediately and tightly closed, or
opened for ventilation.
There is a great future for leaf tobacco in Porto Rico, especi-
ally for light wrappers, if modern methods are adopted, but it is
difhcult to persuade the average farmer to give up his old way of
doing things.
CATTLE.
Cattle raising in Porto Rico has always been a profitable busi-
ness, as there is a continual demand both for beef cattle and for
draught animals. Some few American mules and horses have
been imported for ploughing and other agricultural work, but,
while they accomplish more in a given time, they are more ex-
pensive to keep, as they require grain if used for heavy work.
Oxen, on the contrary, feed entirely on grass, and, although slow,
are steady workers and accomplish a great deal of work. Practi-
cally all the hauling to the towns in the Island which are not
connected by railroad, is done by bullock teams which draw im-
mense loads. While it is true that, owing to the increased area
which is being devoted to the raising of cane, the available pas-
turage has been greatly reduced, still there is plenty of land in
the interior of the Island suitable for cattle raising, which can be
bought for from five to ten dollars an acre. Prior to the American
occupation there was a large export trade to Cuba and adjacent
islands, but this has been gradually falling off, as is shown by the
fact that 13,110 cattle were exported during the fiscal year
1903-1904, while only 8,185 were exported during the fiscal year
1904-1905.
The native horses, though small in size, are tough and wiry, and
as they live exclusively on grass they are inexpensive to keep.
They make good coach and saddle horses and almost all the travel
from one part of the island to another is done either by coach or
on horseback.
Ill
The native mules, although small, make very satisfactory pack
animals, and are used extensively for the transportation of coffee
from the mountains to the shipping points.
All the livestock in Porto Rico has deteriorated greatly owing
to the continual in-breeding, but steps have been taken to improve
the breeds by crossing with good stock brought from the United
States.
CITRUS FRUITS.
It is estimated that there are 7,000 acres under cultivation at
this time in citrus fruits, of which about tSI. is planted in oranges,
257' in grape fruit (pomelo) and %% in lemons. This acreage is
continually increasing and there will be approximately 1,500
acres more planted during the next twelve months. Among the
varieties of oranges most commonly planted here are the Parson
Brown, Ruby, Washington Navel, Pineapple, Hart's Late, Val-
encia Late, Enterprise Seedless, Jaffa and the native : and among
the grapefruit are the Duncan, Walters, Bowen, Marsh Seedless
and Thomson Seedless. This acreage has all been set out in
citrus fruits since the American occupation, and although sufficient
time has not yet elapsed for the marketing of a full crop, yet
some shipments were made from these groves last winter which
reached New York in good condition and brought a fair price.
This has demonstrated that Porto Rican oranges, if intelligently
handled, have the necessary keeping qualities and will bring good
prices. In past years shipments were made of the native orange
gathered from trees scattered around, but they were shaken from
the trees, carried to the point from which shipment was made in
baskets on pack animals, and then packed promiscuously in boxes
and barrels without any attempt at sorting. Naturally this fruit
arrived at its destination in poor condition and required so much
re-handling and sorting that there was very little margin for
profit, and the Porto Rican orange acquired the reputation of being
a poor shipper. Now, however, that the oranges can be gathered
from the groves where they receive intelligent supervision from
the time they are picked until they are placed aboard the steamers,
it will take but little time to overcome any bad impressions that
may have been created.
The present rate of freight from Porto Rico to New York on a
box of oranges is about 28 cents, as compared with 35 cents
freight and 56 cents duty from Cuba, 98 cents freight from Cali-
'ornia, and 72 cents freight from Florida. This allows quite a
margin in favour of the native fruit as far as the question of
freight rate is concerned. While it is true that the two steamship
companies running between Porto Rico and New York do not at
this time provide adequate facilities for the shipping of fruit, yet
they have made every assurance that as soon as there is a suffi-
cient quantity of fruit to warrant it, they will undoubtedly meet
the situation.
A careful study of the conditions in Porto Rico would seem to
indicate that in order to obtain the best results, oranges and grape-
fruit should be budded on the native rough lemon stock. In a
112
majority of the groves the trees are set out 25 feet apart, making
about 70 trees to the acre. One advantage of this system is that
pineapples may be planted between the rows for the first two or
three years. The principal drawbacks with which the orange
growers here have to contend are the wind, scale and ants ; the
former may be overcome by a wind-break, and the scale and ants
can be kept within bounds by constant spraying and washing.
The Porto Rico citrus fruit proposition is an enticing one and
there is apparently little risk in the venture. It does not require
a large capital, as nursery trees of all kinds can be bought in
Porto Rico at $25.00 a hundred ; land, according to location, from
$20.00 to $100.00 per acre, and unlimited labour can be secured
at from 30 to 50 cents a day. There is absolutely no reason why
a grove that has received careful and intelligent cultivation should
not return to the grower a net profit of $200.00 per acre at the end
of the fifth year and a proportionately greater profit in the suc-
ceeding years.
PINEAPPLES.
Pineapple culture has been taken up largely by the orange
growers as a means of deriving some income while waiting for
their groves to come into bearing. When planted between the
rows of trees, about 4,000 pineapple plants can be set out to the
acre without interfering with the trees, and when planted by them-
selves from 8,000 to 10,000 pines can be set out to the acre. The
pines which appear to grow best in Porto Rico are the Red Spanish,
the Cabezona, the Pan de Azucar and the Smooth Cayenne. Red
Spanish is the favourite with the planter as it has shown good
keeping qualities and shipments have brought on an average of
$2.50 per crate, thus allowing a handsome profit to the grower.
The good returns from last season's crop has resulted in the plant-
ing of a greatly increased acreage and it is estimated that at least
4,000,000 plants have been set out this year.
The climate of Porto Rico seems to be peculiarly adapted to
the raising of pineapples and careful cultivation and a little fertil-
izer show a corresponding increase in the size of the fruit. Several
canning factories are now in operation and as a good supply of
fruit is now assured, more factories will soon be erected.
COTTON.
Forty years ago the cultivation of cotton in Porto Rico had de-
veloped into an important industry, the larger portion of the crop
being planted in the southern districts. From 1879 to 1903, how-
ever, the cultivation of cotton was practically abandoned. In
1903 interest in cotton was again revived and some few farmers
planted small tracts as an experiment. The quality of the fibre
obtained was so desirable that the acreage has been gradually in-
creased and it is estimated tliat there are now about 6,000 acres
under cultivation. The quality of the fibre of the crop of 1904 met
with favour both in the United States and in Europe, but this year
the fibre has been found to be very weak and inferior and the
planter has been discouraged by the low prices obtained. It is
claimed by the cotton experts on the island that the inferiority of
113
this year's crop is due to tiie fact that poor land was used for plant-
ing, that fertilizer was not used, that the cultivation was indifferent,
and that the cotton was picked before it had sufficiently matured.
Experiments have proved that a good quality of of Sea Island
cotton can be grown in Porto Rico which will average a yield of
1,200 to 1,700 pounds per acre. Suitable land can be procured
for about $40.00 per acre.
As yet neither the Boll Weevil nor other serious pests has made
its appearance. The caterpillars have done some inconsiderable
damage but they were quickly exterminated by the use of Paris
Green — they only attacked the leaves and generally left the bolls
uninjured.
COCO-NUTS.
Coco-nut trees are scattered all through the island but grow to
best advantage along the coast, and where these trees can be
found in any large number close to some shipping point the coco-
nuts can be handled quite profitably. There are some few groves
on the island now in full bearing and many more are being set
out. About fifty trees are planted to the acre and a good crop
can be gathered at the end of the seventh year with a correspond-
ing increase in the quantity of coco-nuts as the trees become older.
Coco-nut trees require very little care from the time they are
planted until they come into full bearing, and land suitable for the
growing of coco-nuts can be bought as low as $10.00 per acre,
but the price increases according to the proximity to a shipping
point.
THE NATURE AND COMMERCIAL USES OF
BEN OIL.*
[The first part of the article condenses the information published
in the Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Jamaica, Jan.,
1904, on MORINGA, then comes the following : — ]
A firm of oil manufacturers in Kingston, Jamaica, have recently
made an experiment to ascertain the cost of production of the oil.
They paid 8s. per cwt. for the seed, and found that the husks
constituted 40 per cent, and the decorticated seeds 60 per
cent. The seed when expressed warm, but not hot, yielded
about 12^ lbs. of oil per cwt. Their final result showed a cost of
£80 per ton for the oil. A sample of this oil was sent to England
for valuation, and a report was received which stated that " Oil of
Ben" was now superseded by an oil obtained from the head of the
sperm whale, and that the value of the sample submitted was
about equal to that of the best cotton seed oil.
In May, 1903, a small specimen of Ben oil was supplied to Dr.
J. Lewkowitsch from the Imperial Institute. A report on this
sample has been published in " The Analyst, 1903," vol. 28, p. 343,
from which the following extract is taken : — " The chief interest
in this oil depends on its low iodine value ; this explains why the
* From Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. II., 1904, pages 117-120. ■
114
oil is specially applicable for lubricating watch-springs and other
delicate machinery." The following constants were determined :
Specific gravity at I5°c. (water at 15'c. — l) 0' 91267
Iodine value ... ... 72' 2
Iodine value of the liquid fatty acids 97' 53
Refraction (butyro-refractometer) ... 500'
A sample of pods and seeds which were identified as those of
Moringa pterygospcrma has been received recently at the Imperial
Institute from Northern Nigeria. On e.xamination in the Scientific
and Technical Department, the seeds were found to contain 38
per cent, of a pale yellow oil which was almost odourless, and
possessed a bland agreeable taste. This oil (obtained by extrac-
tion with ether) consisted of a liquid and a solid portion which
were separated by filtration at 17 to iS^c. and separately examined.
The analytical constants of these two portions are given in the
following table : —
Liquid p rtions. Solid portions.
Specific gravity at I5"c. ...
Acid value
Free fatty acids (calculated as
oleic acid)
Saponification value
Ether value
Iodine value
Samples of the seed and of the oil were submitted to brokers
for valuation. They reported that in order to obtain trustworthy
commercial quotations, large samples of the oil would be neces-
sary for practical trials, and that if the results of these trials
proved satisfactory the oil would probably be able to compete for
edible and culinary purposes with American refined cotton seed
oil, which is at present worth about £22 per ton. The seeds were
valued at about £7 per ton delivered in London.
Another sample of Ben oil from Jamaica was received at the
Imperial Institute in December, 1903. It had a very slight,
pleasant odour, and an agreeable taste. On examination in the
Scientific and Technical Department it yielded the following re-
sults. When filtered at I7°c. it was found that 60 per cent, of the
material was liquid, whilst the remaining 40 per cent, consisted of
a nearly white solid fat. The liquid portions was clear, bright
and of a pale yellow colour. The constants of these two portions
were found to be as follows : —
0914
153
7-7%
189-2
I73'9
707
194-4
68-3
Liquid ]
portions.
Solid portions.
Specific gravity
09124
at
15'c,
, 08650 at ioo°c.
Acid value
8-7
7-2
Free fatty acids (cal-
culated as oleic acid)
4-4;^
3-6 r
Saponification value
196-3
1936
Ether value
1876
186.4
Iodine value
70-1
652
* Compared with water at lo'c.
115
From these accounts of Ben oil, it appears that although it would
not yield the extravagant profits expected in 1817, yet if it could
be produced at a sufficiently cheap rate it would be likely to find
a market for dietetic purposes, and possibly an opening might
be secured for the liquid portion of it as a lubricant for fine
machinery.
The cost of producing the oil as given by the firm of oil manu-
facturers at Kingston, Jamaica, appears very large ; it must be
pointed out, however, that the initial cost of the seed was very
considerable, the yield of oil was less than would be expected from
the fact that the decorticated seed contains from 35 to 38 percent,
of oil, and no allowance seems to have been made for the residual
cake which might be of value as a cattle food.
SNAILS AND SLUGS.*
NATURAL ENEMIES.
By far the greatest natural checks are birds, which not only eat
slugs, but are especially partial to snails, breaking their shells
against a stone and picking out the mollusc. Toads are great
devourers of slugs and small snails. Poultry and ducks eagerly
search for them. Centipedes attack slugs, and ants frequently
kill snails, but none of the foregoing save birds do any appreci-
ably good in keeping down an excess of these molluscan creatures.
PREVENTION AND REMEDIES.
The following may be mentioned as tending to prevent and
lessen the attacks of these pests : —
(i) Drainage, because dampness favours them.
(ii) Avoid long manure, or in fact any organic manure where
slugs are abundant in the soil. Employ artificials for a
time.
(iii) Dry dressings of some irritant to kill the pests, (a) Soot
and lime; (b) salt and lime; (c) lime and caustic ; soda
or to act mechanically, (d) powdered coke.
The lime must be in a very finely-divided state and quite fresh.
Two or three dressings must be given, the second some 15 to 30
minutes after the first. Lime and caustic soda is found to act
best — four parts of caustic soda to 96 of lime well mixed. Dry
dressings, except powdered coke, should be applied very early in
the morning.
(iv) "Rings" of slaked lime or fine ash soaked in kerosene may
be put round choice plants,
(v) Heaps of bran-mash or moist oatmeal or cornmeal may be
placed here and there. These baits attract the slugs,
which may then be easily collected,
(vi) Heavy applications of soot are best to keep of¥ snails,
which should be dealt with mainly by hand picking and
by trapping with cabbage leaves.
•Extract from Leaflet No. 132, of Board of Agriculture & Fisheries of England.
Ii6
(vii) Rows of peas, &c., are best protected either by spreading
cinders and lime along the rows, or by heavy dressings
of slaked lime,
(viii) Hedge bottoms, and rough herbage at the base of walls
should be cleaned out and the masses of hibernating
snails crushed,
(ix) Land that is thoroughly fouled with slugs should be
treated with gas-lime and in the winter deeply trenched,
(x) Ducks and poultry should be kept, as they greedily devour
both kinds of pests,
(xi) Birds should be encouraged. It is easier to keep them off
fruit than to suppress the snails and slugs which they
largely devour.
INSECT PESTS.
The following letter has been received from Dr. Howard, Chief
of the Bureau of Entomology of the U.S. D ;pt. of Agriculture.
This weevil was killing the Camphor trees at Cinchona, but has
not been noticed on any other trees. If it be a fact, as Dr.
Howard supposes, that this insect pest has been imported in some
way from Central America, it is an additional proof of the neces-
sity of stringent precautions against such importations by care-
ful fumigation.
Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief, of Bureau of Entomology, Dept. of Agri,
U.S.A., to Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Jamaica.
Washington, D.C.
December 2 1st, 1905.
Dear Mr. Fawcett,
I have received yours of the 7th instant, with specimens of
larva and beetle found attacking young camphor trees at the
Botanic Garden at Cinchona.
Mr. Schwarz reports that the weevil is Hilipus clegans, Guerin.
of the family Curculionidae. There are several hundred species
of this tropical or sub-tropical genus known from Central and
South America, including a few species from the West Indies.
Your species is not a native of the West Indies, but has been
manifestly imported during recent times from some part of Central
America where the insect is said to be quite abundant. Nothing
is known of the habits of any of the species, but since the genus
Hilipus is closely allied to our northern pine weevils it may be
inferred that they live under bark of various deciduous trees. I
am not able to give you any remedial measures, but any camphor
tree that shows the least sign of being affected by the weevil
should by all means be uprooted and burned.
Yours very truly,
L. O. Howard,
Chief of Bureau.
117
A NEW SPECIES OF FERN OF GENUS POLY-
PODIUM FROM JAMAICA.
By William R. MAXON, U. S. Nat. Museum, Washinton, D. C*
Among the ferns collected in Jamaica by the writer in 1904 is
a simple-leaved Polypodium which is distinct from the several re-
lated species of middle America. It may be known as POLYPODIUM
NESIOTICUM, new species.
Rhizome suberect, about I cm. long, densely clothed with close-
ly appressed imbricate lanceolate dull light-brown scales ; fronds
few, approximate, 15 to 22 cm. long ; stipe relatively very short
(I to 2 cm. long), densely beset with slender spreading rigid red-
dish hairs ; lamina (largest) 20 5 cm. long, 09 cm. broad, bright
green, firm, moderately thick, linear-lingulate, rather blunt at the
apex, attenuate and decurrent at the base, the under surface
sparsely hairy, the upper surface glabrate, the margins regularly
marked by broad shallow undulations, ciliate ; midvein apparent
on the under surface nearly throughout, on the under surface con-
cealed by the parenchyma except towards the base ; venation free,
the oblique veins for the most part alternately 3 to 5 times forked ;
sori round, either terminal or dorsal, wholly superficial, 2 to 4 to
each group of veins irregularly disposed in two or four interrupted
rows.
Jamaica — Founded upon a single specimen, U. S. National
Herbarium, No. 520,770 from the vicinity of Vinegar Hill, altitude
1200 meters ; William R. Maxon, No. 2773 ; June 23, 1904. Grow-
ing upon the trunk of a forest tree, ten feet from the ground.
The present species appears to be a very rare member of a
group of tropical American species represented in Jamaica by the
well known Polypodium trifiircatum. L. and by P. Faivccttii, Baker,t
and P. deiidricolum, Jenman+ the last apparently very close to the
Colombian P. /'(7r/c//«!<;«, Klotzsch.§ P. Faivccttii and P. deiidrico/iini
have been well distinguished by Jenman [| since their original
publication. P. ncsiotictim is very distinct from both, but for the
benefit of those who have not material of these rare species the
following notes may be of use.
P. Fawcetiii is correctly said by Jenman to be " infrequent at
4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude in damp forests on the trunks and
branches of trees." Two numbers (2723, 2760) were collected in
such situations by the writer in 1903 and 1904. It is character-
ized, briefly, by its dark villous slender conspicuously upright
rhizome, numerous closely set small, very narrow fronds, and al-
most simple veins, — the sori being borne in two rows near the
midvein, each upon a short spur given off by the otherwise simple
* Reprinted from SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS (QUARTEELY ISSUE)
Tolume 47. Published April 5, 1905.
^Jmirti. Bot. Srit. and For. 27 ; 270. 1889.
t Gai-A. Chron. HI. 16 ; 467. 1894.
§ Linnaea 20 ; 373. 1847. Illustrated by Kunze, Farreukr. 2; 41. pi. 117, f. 1.
1848-1851.
II Bull. Bot. Dcpl. Jamaica II 4 , 68-69. 1897.
Ii8
vein. In all these characters the plant contrasts strongly with P.
nesioticum.
P. dendricoluin appears to be a very rare species. Professor
Underwood states (in lift.) that it is "represented at Kew only by
a tracing of the type," the type being presumably in the Herbarium
of the Jamaican Botanical Department at [Hope Gardens] Kingston,
Jamaica.* There is, however, a single frond from the type specimen
preserved in the Jenman herbarium at New York, and this agrees
absolutely with two other numbers of Jamaican specimens, vis. : one
(without definite locality), collected by D. Watt in 1903; and another
from the slopes of Monkey Hill (above New Haven Gap), altitude
about 1,800 meters, Maxon, No. 2,736 ; both of which numbers are
represented in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden
and the U.S. National Herbarium. This species is somewhat more
closely related to P. nesioticum than is P. Fazvcettii. It is distin-
guished by its reduced stature (5 to 7 cm.), thicker texture, more
general villous covering, deeply scalloped (instead of undulate)
margins, simpler venation, and particularly (l)by having the mid-
vein covered on both surfaces by parenchyma, and (2) by what
Jenman calls " embossed respectacles," i.e., having the parenchy-
ma considerably raised (on the under surface) above the concealed
veins toward their extremities, thus imparting a marked rugose
effect to the under surface. The last character is sufficient in it-
self to distinguish P. dendricohim at sight.
The venation of P. nesioticum is peculiar and shows an approach
to that of P. trifurcatum. . .
BOARD OF~AGRICULTURE.
EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES.
The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was
held at Headquarter House on Wednesday, nth April, 1906, at 2
p.m., present : — The Hon. H. Clarence Bourne, in the chair, the
Director of Public Gardens, the Superintending Inspector of
Schools, His Grace the Archbishop, the Island Chemist, Messrs.
C. A. T. Fursdon, G. D. Murray and the Secretary.
Commercial Agent. — In the matter of a Commercial Agent to re-
present Jamaica in London, the Secretary reported that His Grace
the Archbishop, Mr. G. D. Murray and himself, (Mr. Middleton
being ill with fever), met His Excellency in the forenoon of the
day of the meeting, who, after discussing the matter, promised to
put it before the Privy Council.
The Secretary was directed to forward to the Colonial Secretary
the report of the Committee on the matter ; and letters from Mr.
A. R. Davey of London to the Archbishop which the latter
submitted in confidence.
Stwidardization of Rum.— The papers referring to the standardi-
zation of rum were put before the meeting, but as they had not
circulated round the Board, the Secretary was directed to send
them on.
* The type with Jenman"s name in liis own handwi-iting is in the Herbarium at
Hope Gardens. Editm- BvlMin of the Deparhncnt oj Am-iciiltiire.
119
A cutting from the Glasgow Herald forwarded by the Chemist,
pointing out the variation of the contents of ethers in Jamaica rum
and the necessity for a standard, was submitted.
Agricultural Don'ts. — A letter from the Superintending Inspector
of Schools to His Grace the Archbishop, referred to the Board, was
submitted, asking the Board if it could supply a copy of " Agricul-
tural Don'ts" Chart to every school in the island.
After discussion the Secretary was directed to write the Colonial
Secretary informing him that this Chart has been prepared at the
instance of, and was approved by the Board, that it had been
revised by and had the approval of the Superintending Inspector
of School, and asking His Excellency to approve of the cost of
such charts to be issued to all schools being placed on the
estimates either of the Agricultural or Education Department for
next year.
Letters from the Colonial Secretary's Office were submitted
among others on the following subjects : —
1 Salary of Superintendent of Field Experiments. — Re increase in
salary to Superintendent of Field Experiments, advising
that the Governor approved of the reduction of £30 of
the amount for "Distillery Materials for Estates" and of
the increase by £20 perannum of the salary of the Su-
perintendent of Field Experiments.
2 Resignation of Mr. Teversliam. — Re resignation of Mr. Tever-
sham.
Agrieultural Seholarship. — Forwarding copy of a Bill entitled
" The Scholarship Law, 1901, Amendment Law, 1906," His Grace
the Archbishop and the Superintending Inspector of Schools
thought it was not advisable to reduce the Scholarship below
£180 per annum which they thought the lowest figure that a
student could pay his way at Cambridge. Mr. Cousins, Mr.
Fursdon and Mr. Murray considered that £156 per annum was
under the circumstances sufficient. Mr. Fawcett thought that it
was not desirable that there should be any change in the Scholar-
ships, but that the examination for the Jamaica Scholarship
might be so arranged as to ensure the teaching in schools of the
principles of Agricultural Science and so encourage the students
to adopt agriculture as a profession. Under the circumstances
the Chairman agreed with the majority.
The Secretary read two letters he had received from the Secretary
of the Schools Commission as follows: — ■
(1) Examination for Agrieultural Scholarships. — In reply to the
report by the Island Chemist expressing regret at the
disappointing results of the recent examination for agri-
cultural scholarships at the Government Laboratory,
pointing out that it was no doubt clue to the existence of
an impression among students that learning in scientific
agriculture, as a profession, would not afford them as
good means of livelihood as the practice of one of the
learned professions.
(2) Cambridge Local Agricultural Section. — Transmitting copy of
120
letter from Dr. Cairns, Cambridge, in reply to one ad-
' dressed to him conveying suggestions by the Island
Chemist for the amendment of the second part of the
Agricultural Science Section of the Cambridge Senior Ex-
amination, intimating that the syllabus had been modified
in the direction suggested by Mr. Cousins ; also asking
Mr. Cousins if he had any further remarks to make on
the schedule. A copy was referred to the Chemist for
his remarks.
Cotton Gill. — The Secretary submitted an offer of Mr. Sharp of
£5 for the Cotton Gin now in his possession.
It was resolved not to accept the offer, and meantime to retain
ownership of the Gin of which Mr. Sharp had the use.
Mr. Cradwick in St. Mary. — The Secretary submitted a letter from
the Hon. R. P. Simmonds making application for the services of
Mr. Cradwick in connection with the St. Mary show to be held on
the 5th July, asking if he would be allowed to spend the first
week in June, and the week of the show in St. Mary.
After discussion it was agreed that Mr. Cradwick could spend
the first week in June and the week of the show in St. Mary, but
that ihe should return to his ordinary duties the day after the show.
Reports. — The following reports from the Director of Public Gar-
dens were submitted and directed to be circulated : —
1. Hope Experiment Station.
2. Instructors.
The following reports from the Chemist were submitted; —
1. Proposal as to distillers' course at the Laboratory. This
was approved of.
2. Report on successful working of new plant at Hampden
estate.
3. Distillery progress in Westmoreland.
4. Appropriation Accounts Government Laboratory and Sugar
Experiment Station for 1905-06.
5. Mr. Calder's enquiries as to Agricultural Students with
memo from Chemist. All these were directed to be
circulated.
The following papers, which have been circulated, were now
submitted for final consideration : —
1. Reports of two cases instituted under the Merchandise
Marks Act.
2. Letter from Mr. Nolan forwarding cutting from the Wine
and Spirit Gazette.
3. Report Hope Experiment Station.
4. Reports Mr. Cradwick.
5. Letter from Mr. J. B. Sutherland re apprenticeship of his
son at Hope Gardens.
The meeting then adjourned till l6th May at 2 p.m.
[Issued 14th May, 1906.]
Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam.
BULLETIN
OF THB
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Vol. IV. JUNE, 1906. Parte.
BDITBD BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, F.L.S.,
Director of Public Gardens and PlatUations.
CONTENTS:
PAGE.
.
Note on Silk Worms from Colombia
121
Report on the tanning materials and manufac-
ture of Leather in Jamaica
121
Statistics of tanning materials and leather for
Jamaica
124
Brazilian Coffee Legislation
127
Sea Island Cotton Seed for 1896
127
Camphor in Ceylon
129
Paris Green: Application to Cotton
141
Board of Agriculture
142
PRIG E— Threepence.
A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who wiU send name and
address to the Director of Pablic Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.
KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
Hope Gardens.
1906.
JAMAICA.
LIBRARY
OF THE NEW YOPK:
BOTAMCaI.
DEPARTMENT OF AGIRICULTURE. <^^^^^^-
Vol. IV. JUNE, 1906. Part 6.
NOTE ON SILK WORMS FROM COLOMBIA.
By M. GRABHAM, M.A., M.B.
Notes on Attacits joruUa* : — 250 young larvae received from M.
Patin, (Belgian Consul to Colombia) in June 1900. Eggs brought
by him from Sta. Fe de Bogota, Colombia. He stated that their
natural food was a species of Hippomane, as this food plant was
not obtainable here, the sandbox {Hura crepitans) and Plum
(Spo)idias purpurea) were used at his suggestion. Branches of the
trees were isolated in bags of mosquito netting and the larvae
placed on the leaves. They grew well in their early stages, but
in the final moults most of them refused to eat and died. It was
thought that this might have been due to the lack of moisture, M.
Patin said that in the Andes about Sta. Fe the moisture was in-
tense. The leaves were frequently sprayed but this had no effect.
Some larvae were kept in an insectarium and fed on freshly
gathered leaves ; these fared no better. About ten spun very
indifferent cocoons and about six moths developed — all of very
feeble vitality. A few eggs laid by these moths did not hatch.
Specimens of the moths were placed in the Museum of the Institute
of Jamaica ; and some were sent to the U.S. National Museum at
Washington for identification.
The common Wasp {Polista sp.) proved the most formidable
enemy, killing and devouring the caterpillars whenever they
approached too close to the netting.
REPORT ON THE TANNING MATERIALS AND
MANUFACTURE OF LEATHER IN JAMAICA.!
By M. NIERENSTEIN, Ph. D.
Plants.
The following plants yielding tanning materials are stated to
occur in the Island : Acacia Catechu, Bauhinia varicgata. I Caesalpinia
_Q coriaria (Divi Divi), Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove). Of
2 * The identification was made by Dr. Dyar of the U.S. National Museum.
tQuarterly Joiii-nal. The Inftitute of Commercial Research in the Tropics, Liverpool
' University. Vol. I, 2, April, 1906.
?0 Jylcacm,5wma(notA.C'afec?iM) occurs in Jamaica: it closely resembles 4. Catechu,s,ni
. has similar properties. Bauhinia variegata is generally known as the " Butterfly Tree."
;Z: Ei'-ifnr, Bidhtlii oj the I>(partinent of Agriculture, Jamaica
122
these " Divi-Divi" pods and the barks of the red and white man-
groves appear to be in regular use in the Colony.
There appears to be a small export trade in tanning materials ;
thus, in 1903,478 tons* of Divi-divi pods were exported, princi-
pally to Germany, France, and the United Kingdom, and in the same
period, 133 tons of bark were exported, part of which was pro-
bably bark for tanners' use. Comparison with Dominica, where
tannin-yielding plants, such as Cassia Jisliilaf C. Siameaf and
( TenninaUa Catappa),^ " are found, and with Mauritius, where
" Badamir bark" {Tcrminalia Catappa), and "Jamrose bark" {T.
Manriiania) occur, lends support to the supposition thai these
plants also occur in Jamaica.
Only about a year ago different Australian species of Eucalyp-
tus appeared on the European market, such as Eucalyptus occi-
dcntalis (Mallet Bark) and E. oleosa (Morrel Gum), containing 52 to
55 per cent, of tanning materials : the export of these new materi-
als has been a great success. I find that in the West Indies dif-
ferent kinds of Eucalyptus are to be found, especially E. punctata. I
It seems that the Logwood industry suffers in Jamaica through
the so-called "Bastard Logwood," which does not contain the dye
stuff, and according to F. S. Earle, late of the New York Botani-
cal Garden, who has been in Jamaica,§ " a wise policy would
ensure the prompt destruction of such trees whenever detected, as
they have no value except for firewood, and should not be allowed
to produce seeds." A. G. Perkin, and also the present writer have
found that there is a close relationship between the tannins and
colouring matters in the plants. The relation between the Divi-
divi and Algarobillal" plants containing 40 to 50 per cent, tan-
nins, with the logwood, makes it probable that the " Bastard
Logwood'' could find use as a tanning material.
A similar relationship Exists between Qucrcus tinctoria, from
which the dye stuff " Quercitron" is obtained, and some different
kinds of oak used for tanning, such as Qucrcus robur, Q. pciidunculata,
&c., 'where, 'with the increase of the tannins, the amount of colouring
matters becomes less. From the tanner's point of view the cultiva-
tion of Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove), which has been
mentioned as being found in Jamaica, should be very successful,
as it would be one of those very seldom obtainable exotic plants
which could be used for tanning light leather, and if produced on
a large scale could compete successfully with " Mangrove extract ;"
this substance, which is principally derived from the bark of a tree
found in the German Cameroons, produces only dark leathers.
* See figures in Bucceeding aiTicle. — Edibyr.
f These trees are all cultivut' d in Jamaica. — Tcrminalia Catappa is commonly
known as the "Almond" although it is very different from the almond of commerce.
There is ii native TerminaHa (viz. : T. hitifolia), called " Broad Leaf." Kditor.
X Species cultivated in Jamaica include Ji. Globulus (iu Blue iUts.) H. citriodora,
E. saligna, IS. robiista, E. rodrata. Editor.
§ See Bulletin, of tlie Department of Agncultme, Jamaica, Vol. I. Part 2, Feb. 1903,
pages SO, 31. Editor.
% Algarohilla is the name given to seed-pols of Prosopis ^!;/ffi)-oin7;a, a native of the
Argentine Kepublic, and P. i«Ii/Jo)u, native of Mexico, a:id mountiiiuous lands south
to Chile. Editor.
123
There is also a good opportnnity for introducing other plants
which contain tannins, and would grow successfully in those
one and a half million acres not cultivated at present. Of course
according to the reports of the Kew Botanical Gardens, the at-
tempts to introduce Gambler in the West Indies has not been a
success, but I have reason to believe that this is due to the sensi-
tiveness of the plant to climatic changes. Similar observations
have been made by M. Greshoff on Gambler of the Malay pen-
insula.
But greater success can be expected from the introduction of
" Quebracho Colorado." * Quebracho belongs to those trees which
would probably prosper there, and which are very important in the
tanning trade. 3,525 tons of Quebracho Extract were imported in
the years 1898-1902 from Argentina into the United Kingdom, and
about one quarter of the 11,786 tons, which have been imported to
Germany, were sent afterwards to British ports.
HIDES AND SKINS.
It seems that there is not much breeding of cattle, sheep, &c., done
in Jamaica, t which is rather astonishing, as the island seems to
have open waste pastures and plenty of Guinea and Scotch grass,
both well adapted for the feeding of cattle. As to the cattle of
Jamaica, Mr. B. M. Greaves, of Portmadoc, who recently visited
the island, writes to me, " I think I saw more Shorthorn cattle than
any other sort, and some of them were really good looking beasts."
The sheep seem to be of a similar build to the Welsh, and could
be used in this case for making "roller leather;" (this is used for
covering the wheels of cotton spinning machinery). There is a
good market for this kind of sheep skin in Great Britain.
G. M. Rummel, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. A. De-
partment of Agriculture, describes the Barbados sheep in the
Breeders' Gazette as follows : — " The skin is thicker over the upper
part of the ribs than in other parts of the body, and becomes
thicker towards the tail, the difference of the rump being quite
perceptible. Loose skin (not folds, however) may be seen on the
top of the neck." A leather tanned from a sheep's skin as des-
cribed is sure to have a market.
According to the reports of Messrs. P. C. Cork and J. M. Gibb,
V.S., the conditions of introducing and breeding sheep in Jamaica
are favourable.
LEATHER MANUFACTURE.
The Leather manufacture seems to be quite in its infancy.
There are in Jamaica only twenty-one tanneries, employing in all
fifty-five persons, and producing from twenty-eight to thirty-one
tons of leather per annum. There is, however, a large import trade
in raw and manufactured leather ; thus unwrought leather to the
value of £6,027, and leather manufactures valued at £66,999, were
imported in the year 1903-4.
* (Jmhrachia Lorentzii, growing chiefly in province o£ Corrientes, Argentine Repub-
lic. Editor.
j Th.? official statement by the Collector General gives the number of horned stock
as 107,694 in the year ended 31st March, l'JO.5. Editor.
124
CONCLUSIONS.
What has been stated above indicates that thei^e is a possibility
of developing the leather industries in Jamaica. The following
methods might be mentioned : —
I. To develop the cultivation of tanning trees and plants,
especially the White Mangrove. 2. To investigate the
question of the Bastard Logwood in respect to tanning
properties. 3. To introduce tannin-containing plants
from the other West Indian islands, and the Quebracho
Colorado. 4. To encourage the breeding of cattle and
sheep, and to try to introduce the Barbados sheep. 5.
To develop tannin extract works : it would be advisable to
try with primitive methods, similar to those used in South
America, and to develop them afterwards into more
modern methods. 6. To develop the present important
industry of leather manufacture.
Probably the Bastard Logwood would contain a tannin which
yields " bloom" on the leather.
I notice in the last number of the Collegium that the German
Consul in Freemantle (Australia), has been ordered by his Govern-
ment to collect the seeds of Eucalyptus occidentalis (Mallet Bark)
and E. oleosa (Morrel gum), mentioned in my paper, for the pur-
pose of introducing into Hereroland, western parts of West
Africa and inner parts of the Togo.
STATISTICS OF TANNING MATERIALS AND
LEATHER FOR JAMAICA.^^
EXPORTS OF TANNING MATERIALS.
Statement showing the export of Divi Divi and bark of all kinds
for the three years 1902 to 1905.
DIVI Divi.
Countries.
1902-3.
1903-4-
1904-5.
United Kingdom
Canada
Germany
France
Mexico
274,387 lbs.
44,646 "
7,000 "
45,800 lbs.
98,504 "
30,154 "
2,600 lbs.
2,050 "
84,137 "
59,403 "
United Kingdom
United States of
America
Bark of all kinds.
£1 I 0 1,782 lbs.
20,990 lbs. 3, SOD "
(Mangrove)
£20 6 0
29,472 lbs.
810 bags
*Supplied by the Hon. Collector General, Jamaica.
125
France £42 19 0 294,215
(i
213,362 lbs
Canada
18
,900 "
Holland
2
,240 "
Germany £lI2 0 0
Bermuda (Lace) £760
Imports of leather manufactured
AND UN\yROUGHT.
Imports 1903-4.
Leather manufactured, viz. : Boots and Shoes.
United Kingdom
£21,455
19
10
United States of America ...
35,587
10
II
Canada
134
2
4
Germany
220
I
10
Foreign States
7
5
2
Cuba
4
12
4
British West Indies
0
II
0
Austria
20
5
8
Hayti
0
II
0
£57,431
0
I
United Kingdom
219
13
6
£57,650
13
7
Leather, viz. : Other manufactures
unenumerated.
United Kingdom
£3,377
10
3
United States of America
994
14
3
Canada
5
12
9
Germany
39
0
I
France
27
2
3
£4,443
19
7
United Kingdom
22
15
6
£4,466
15
I
Saddlery and Harness
.
United Kingdom
£7,518
0
4
United States of America ...
1,653
12
9
Canada
21
15
10
Germany
19
IS
9
Cuba
3
6
0
£9,216
10
8
United Kingdom
I
0
0
United Kingdom
127
4
0
United States of America
4
17
6
£9,349
12
2
Leather Unwrought.
llnited Kingdom
£4,179
14
ID
United States of America ...
1,848
2
4
£6,027 17 2
126
Imports 1904
-5-
Leather manufactures, viz. :
Boots
and Shoes.
United Kingdom
£17.981 19 :
[0
United States of America
31,302 18
9
Canada
40 6
3
Germany
206 4
6
Hayti
0 16
6
British West Indies
48 9
II
Austria
121 4
4
British East Indies
5 8
9
Cuba
0 II
0
Foreign States
17 18
0
£49.725 17
10
United Kingdom
692 13
0
£50,418 10
10
Leather, other manufactures.
United Kingdom ^
£2,365 4
7
United States of America ...
470 5
0
Germany
58 17
6
Foreign States
0 17
7
£2,895 4
8
1 Kingdom
49 13
3
£2,944 17
II
Saddlery and H;
arness.
United Kingdom
£5,158 14
8
United States of America ...
912 5
8
Canada
19 5
0
Germany
4 19
0
Cuba
6 12
0
Bermuda
6 12
0
£6,108 8
4
United Kingdom
4 8
0
£6,112 16
4
Leather unwrought.
United Kingdom
£3,441 8
10
United States of America ...
2,111 2
0
Germany
5 II
10
Norway
0 2
2
£5,558 4
10
127
BRAZILIAN COFFEE LEGISLATION.
The "Times" says : — In our Fiiuvwiiil ami Commercial Supplement
for February 19 we published a letter from our Rio de Janeiro
correspondent describing the new law which empowers the Execu-
tive to regulate the trade in coffee, in agreement with the govern-
ments of the coffee States of the republic. On Monday Reuter re-
ceived a telegram from Rio de Janeiro to the effect that the Presi-
dents of the States of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Geraes, and St. Paulo
have signed an agreement with regard to the pricing of coffee,
and stipulating for a minimum price on the home markets of 55f.
to 65f. (gold) per sack of 60 kilogrammes of No. 7 grade coffee.
" The contracting parties also agree to take measures of a na-
ture to prevent the export of the inferior qualities of coffee, to
push advertising in Europe, and to reduce the acreage under culti-
vation. They finally authorize the State of St. Paulo to raise
a loan of £15,000,000."
SEA ISLAND COTTON SEED FOR 1896.
Hon. Sir D. Morris to Director of Public Gardens, Jamaica.
Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies,
Barbados, March 31, 1906.
Sir,
I have the honour to enclose, for your information, copies
of an extract from the "Agricuhural News" containing a state-
ment of the arrangements proposed to be adopted by this Depart-
ment for supplying specially selected and disinfected Sea Island
cotton seed during the coming planting season.
2. I also enclose a copy of an announcement which I have recom-
mended to appear in the Official Gazette and of a "Notice" in regard
to the conditions under which selected seed will be shipped by
this Department.
3. It is desirable, in order to maintain the high quality of the
West Indian product that, as far as possible, only the specially
selected d^nd disinfected st^A supplied by the Department should be
planted in these colonies. I trust you will do all you can to
encourage and advise planters in this direction. Recent prices
ranging from I7d. to 20d. per pound prove that by a systematic
selection of seed West Indian cotton is steadily attaining a higher
standard of quality than the average cotton produced in the Sea
Islands. During the last few weeks applications for West Indian
seed on a large scale have been received from Florida, Cuba, and
Porto Rico.
I have the honour to be.
Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
D. Morris,
Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies.
128
Enclosure.
[Reprinted from the A,s:ricultural Ncivs, Vol. V. p. 97.]
It is recognized that the most important matter requiring atten-
tion, in order to maintain the high quality of the Sea Island cotton
produced in the West Indies, is to plant seed obtained from
healthy plants that have given a good yield per acre, and that
have produced lint which has fetched the highest price during the
current season. The experience of a successful cotton grower
is : — The selection of seed is the one thing that cannot be over-
looked.
As it will be impossible to obtain further supplies of seed from
the Sea Islands, the West Indies have to depend on their own re-
sources. This is not a difficult matter, provided growers realize
the necessity of making the selection of seed a matter of the first
importance. They should be prepared to take some trouble in
making themselves acquainted with the subject, and in carrying
out for themselves the process of seed selection, or they should be
prepared to pay a reasonable price for selected seed. Seed of in-
ferior quality should not be planted on any account. The
difference in cost between good seed and inferior seed is a small
matter as compared with the difference in the price realized for
the crop.
The general lines on which cotton growers are recommended to
make a choice of cotton seed for planting during the coming
season are these : First, the plants from which it has been obtained
should be thoroughly healthy, and they should not have suffered
severely at any time from the cotton worm or other pests. The
next point is to ascertain that the plants are of good habit and are
prolific, yielding, on an average, say, not less than 200 lb. of lint
per acre. The third point, and perhaps the most important of all,
is that the plants have yielded lint that obtained the highest prices
during the current year.
As already stated, the Imperial Department of Agriculture has
undertaken a' series of experiments in seed selection that are likely
to prove of great value to the industry. These experiments are
intended to cover the careful selection of seed, on field results, for
immediate planting, as well as the systematic selection of im-
proved seed from individual plants, as described in the Agricultural
News (Vol. V, p. 38), for future years.
It has been abundantly proved by general experience both in
the Sea Islands and in the West Indies, that it is impossible to
obtain first-class cotton from inferior seed. In Egypt, also, the
importance of selecting good seed is fully recognized. Mr.
Foaden states : — 'Of all plants , cotton responds the most liberally,
as far as both yield and quality are concerned, to careful treat-
ment, and the sowing of good seed is the very first essential to the
production of good stapled cotton. However careful our land
may be prepared and manured, the production of superior cotton
from inferior and mixed seed is an impossibility.' Further, there
is the opinion of the British Cotton-growing Association, as fol-
129
lows : 'The bulk of the cotton from the West Indies is turning
out very well, but you must impress on all the growers the
necesssity for very careful selection of seed, and extreme care in
cultivation and handling, for unless Sea Island cotton is quite
right in all respects, it suffers severely in price.'
As announced in the columns of the Agricultural Neivs (Vol. V.
p. 89), the Imperial Department of Agriculture is prepared to
supply specially selected and disinfected cotton seed for plant-
ing during the months of May to August next, and to deliver the
seed at any port in the West Indies at the rate of five cents (2 Jd.)
per lb. Applications for such seed will be received by the prin-
cipal agricultural officers in each island, as follows : For An-
tigua and Montserrat, by the Hon. Francis Watts, C.M.G. ; for St.
Kitt's, Nevis, and Anguilla, by Mr. F. R. Shepherd ; for Barbados,
by Mr. J. R. Bovell, F.L. S., F.C.S. ; for St. Vincent, by Mr. W.N.
Sands. Applications from Jamaica, British Guiana, Trinidad, and
other colonies not mentioned above, may be forwarded direct to
the Imperial Commissioner of Agricultural, Head Office, Barbados.
All applications will be dealt with in the order in which they are
received.
In order to prevent disappointment in regard to the germina-
ting qualities Of the seed, it is recommended that immediately on
its arrival it be turned out of the bags or barrels, in which it is
packed, and spread out on a dry floor in order that any excess of
moisture may be removed. After the lapse of a day or two, the
seed may be replaced in the bags or barrels, and kept until it is
planted.
It is also recommended that about lOO seeds, taken from the
bulk, be sown in soil, or placed between folds of damp cloth, as
described in the Agricultural News (Vol. II, p. 153), in order to test
its germinating power. In the event of doubt arising as to the
condition of any selected cotton seed received from the Imperial
Department of Agriculture, a sample of not less than 100 seeds
should be forwarded within seven days from the date of the ar-
rival of the seed, to the agricultural officer through whom it was
ordered, in order that it may be carefully tested. It should be
borne in mind that the best results are likely to be obtained when
the selected cotton seed is sown within a period of one month
after it has been received.
CAMPHOR IN CEYLON.*'
By M. KELWAY BAMBER, Government Chemist, and J. C.
Willis, Director Royal Botanic Gardens.
The recent establishment by the Goverment of Japan of a
monopoly of the production and sale of camphor in Formosa has
attracted much attention to this product, and at the same time, by
raising the market price, has rendered it by no means unlikely
that this may prove to be a profitable cultivation in Ceylon. The
* From Circular, Koyal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon. Series l.~No 24, November, I'JOl
130
present circular is issued to lay before the planting public the
chief facts connected with this industry, and to describe the
methods of cultivation and preparation which have been found
best suited to Ceylon in the experiments so far tried with this tree.
The total export of camphor to Europe and America is perhaps
about 60,000 piculs annually, or 8,000,000 lb. The market value
of crude camphor in Europe is at present about 155 shillings per
cwt., or about is. 4id. per lb. Camphor was formerly used
chiefly as a drug and for the prevention of insect ravages in
clothing, &c., but of late years, in addition to these uses, it has
been largely employed in the manufacture of smokeless
powders and of celluloid. The tree also produces an oil — cam-
phor oil, — obtained with the camphor in the preparation of the
latter, and which is used in the manufacture of soaps and for
other purposes.
Botany.
Common, Formosa, Chinese, or Japanese camphor is the product
of Cinnamomum Camplwra, Nees, a tree occurring native along the
eastern side of Asia, from Cochin-China to Shanghai, and in the
islands from Hainan to South Japan ; its limits of latitudinal
range are from 10° to 34° N., but it is cultivated in Japan to
36° N. In the southern parts of its range it occurs chiefly in the
hills.
Two other forms of camphor are frequently met with, though
rarely exported to Europe. Barus, Bhimsaini, Borneo or Malay
camphor is the product of Dryobalaiwps Ciimphora, Colebr., a large
tree of the family Dipterocarpaces, occurring in the Islands of
Sumatra, Borneo, &c. This camphor is slightly heavier than
common camphor, and is highly prized by the natives of India
and China, who purchase the entire very small produce at fancy
prices, from 100 to 200 shillings per pound. A third form, Ngai, or
Blumea camphor, is prepared in S.E. China from Bliimea balsami-
fera, one of the family Compositae. In Ceylon the natives prepare
a small quantity of camphor from the roots of cinnamon, Ciniia-
momum zeylanicum, a plant nearly related to the true camphor.
In the remainder of this paper only the common camphor,
Cinnamomum Camphora, will be deal with.
In its native country the plant grows into a tree about 1 00 feet
high with a trunk 2 to 3 feet in diameter. It is evergreen, with
moderate sized laurel-like leaves, which when crushed smell
strongly of camphor. It may be well to mention in this con-
nection that the tree is very handsome when young and forms one
of the best ornamental trees for roadsides, parks compounds,
&c., in Ceylon.
The native habitat of the species is not widely extended, but it
has been successfully cultivated in Ceylon, India, Australia,
Florida, California, and elsewhere. It was introduced into Ceylon
by the Royal Botanic Gardens in 1852. In 1895 plants were
largely distributed fi-om Hakgala to many planters and others.
These were the result of seeds obtained in the autumn of 1893
from Japan. Mr. Nock, Superintendent of Hakgala, has collected
131
information about these trees, some 950 in all, and reports as fol-
lows : —
"During 1895 plants of camphor were distributed from Hakgala
to planters in various parts of the Island at elevations ranging
from 250 to 6,450 feet, with annual rainfalls varying from 54 in-
ches on 104 days to 2\^ inches on 212 days. Replies as to the
growth of the plants have been received from thirty localities,
and I think it is pretty well proved that under certain conditions
of soil and climate camphor will thrive at all elevations in Cey-
lon from about sea level to the highest mountains.
"It appears to thrive best in a well-drained deep sandy loam
in sheltered situations with a rainfall of 90 inches and over, and
dislikes poor or close, stiff, undrained soil. The growth is slow in
sterile soil, but, under favourable conditions, in good soil is
very rapid, the tree reaching a height of 18 to 20 feet in five
years, with a spread of branches of 8 to 12 feet and a sten. jf 6
to 7 inches in diameter. This compares very favourably with the
growth of the trees in their native habitat, where a tree 30 feet
high and 6 inches in diameter at ten years old is considered good.
The best five-year old tree (from planting) in Ceylon is at Veyan-
goda, at an elevation of about lOO feet with a rainfall of about
100 inches on 180 days. It is 25 feet high and growing luxuri-
antly. The next best are at Hakgala, where the largest is 20 feet
high, with a spread of 1 3 feet, and a stem-diameter of ^\ inches
at the ground.
"The habit of the trees in Ceylon in good soil is bushy, with a
tendency to throw up many stems. This is a point of importance,
as it shows that the tree will coppice well and stand frequent cut-
tings or prunings, and possibly even plucking of the flush as with
tea. In close, hard, undrained or stiff clayey soil the growth is
poor, and the habit stunted or dwarfed, and this is also the case
in exposed windblown situations.
" Of course tt is only in the experimental stage here yet, but
judging from my experience of it for some years, it is my opinion
that as a minor product it should be grown in the form of hedges,
planted at distances of 6 to 9 feet apart and 2 to 3 feet apart in
the row. The rows should run N.W. and S.E., or across the di-
rections of the prevailing winds, and the plants be allowed to grow
6 to 9 feet high. Planted in this way there would be ample room
for cultivation, and each row would shelter the other from the N.
E. and S.W. winds, besides forming a large surface for clipping.
As the young shoots appear to yield the most camphor, the crop
could be obtained by clipping the hedge with a pair of light shears,
and the expense would be very slight. The trees might also be
planted at 6 feet apart, and treated in the same way as tea bushes,
or they might be planted 12 feet apart, and trained as pyramids,
or again planted 4 feet apart and alternate plants coppiced in al-
ternate years."
PROPAGATION, CULTIVATION, &C.
Mr. Nock states : —
"Camphor plants are best and easily propagated from seeds.
132
The seeds do not keep well, and should be sown as soon as pos-
sible after ripening. They ripen in Japan, which at present is the
only important source of seed, in October and November, and
sliould be ordered some time in advance, so as to obtain them as
soon as they are ripe. I find it a good plan to soak the seed in
water for twenty-four to forty-eight hours before sowing, agitating
tlie water occasionally. The best seeds, being heavier, will sink
to the bottom, and these should be sown thinly by themselves ;
the lighter ones should be sown thickly, as only a small percent-
age will germinate
"The seeds should be sown in well-prepared beds of sandy
loam and leaf mould ; they should be sown from A to f inch deep,
making the bed firm, but not tight. The beds should be kept
shaded and just moist. Too much wet will cause the young seed-
lings to damp off, and if allowed to get too dry the germs will
quickly dry up and die.
" We have been most successful when the seed has been sown
in boxes (made of ^ inch wood) l8 by 13 by 3i inches, filled with
the kind of soil described above. The boxes are handy to lift
about, and can be easily protected from heavy rain and strong
sun. Sheds made after the style of the old cinchona seed sheds
answer well for standing the boxes in, and if made light and airy
would do well to sow the seeds in direct, but care should betaken
not to allow the young plants to be 'drawn.'
" We find it a good plan to prick out the seedling into supply
baskets as soon as they are large enough to handle comfortably,
or transplant them into beds, placing the plants 6 inches apart
every way, and keeping them shaded and watered until they
begin to grow, when they will bear the full light of the sun, but
will require to be freely watered in dry weather.
" When the plants are from 9 to 1 5 inches high they are at their
best for final planting, but if the weather is unsuitable they may
be kept in the nursery till they are 2 feet high, or until good
planting weather occurs viz., dull showery weather. In such
weather they require very little shading, and soon take hold of the
soil.
" Cuttings do not strike root readily, and only under certain
conditions will they be successful. If the prevailing weather
should be too dry they soon go off, and if too wet and cold they
decay before roots are formed. We have had batches of cuttings
with 70 per cent, beginning to callus over, and young shoots
forming, that have gone off after three or four days of rough wea-
ther— cold high winds and heavy rains — and others that have
gone the same way after a week of dry sunny weather. The
favourable conditions are equable heat, light, and moisture ; with
these, and wood for cuttings in a proper state, a large percentage
will strike root and make good plants.
"The nursery beds for seeds as well as cuttings should be made
in a well-drained situation, and as near water as possible. The
beds may be any length, and from 3 to 4 feet wide. The soil for
cuttings should be composed as follows : one part good sandy
133
loam, one part leaf mould, and one part clean sharp sand (to this
it would be beneficial to add a good sprinkling of powdered char-
coal), all thoroughly mixed. The soil should be 6 to 9 inches deep.
A layer of good sharp sand one inch thick should be laid on the
surface. As a protection against hot sun and heavy rains it would
be well to put a roof of thatch over the beds in the form of a shed
but it should be constructed with open sides to allow plenty of
light and air. A shed 4 feet wide, with a lean-to roof on stout
posts, open at the back and front, will be found a useful size.
The posts should be 6 feet high in front and 3 ft. 6 in. at the back.
The roof may be thatch, shingles, or other light material. If more
than one is required, a space 4 feet wide should be left between
the sheds to give room for watering, weeding, and general atten-
tion.
" The best material for cuttings is that from straight, healthy,
and well matured shoots of the current year's growth, not too soft
or too hard. If too hard they will not root readily, and if too soft
they will be liable to damp off. The cuttings may be of any size
from the thickness of a lead pencil to f inch in diameter. They
should be cut into lengths of from 6 to 9 inches. A clean cut
with a very sharp knife immediately below a joint to form the
base of the cutting is of the greatest importance. If the cut por-
tion is torn or jagged, or too far away from the joint, it is almost
certain to decay, though it may remain green for a long time.
"The operation for inserting the cuttings is best done by open-
ing a trench with a sharp spade so as to form a straight edge.
The prepared cuttings should be laid against this and the soil
pressed firmly round them. They should be placed in rows 9 to
12 inches apart and 3 inches apart in the rows, and at a sufficient
depth to leave only two or three buds above the surface.
"The sooner the cuttings are made and put in after being taken
from the trees the better. After the cuttings are put in, the beds
should be watered to settle the soil, and if in the open, they must
be carefully shaded and sunlight must be only gradually let in as
they become rooted and can bear it. If all goes well they should
be rooted in 2 to 3 months, but they will not be ready for planting
out for three or four months.
" Camphor may also be propagated by layers. The operation
of layering is very simple. The shoots should be bent down to
the soil. The branch at the bend should be cut half-way through,
then cutting upwards for about li to 2 inches, so as to form a
tongue. The cut portion must be kept apart by a slight twist, or
by placing a piece of brick or a small stone in the cleft. The
shoot should then be pegged down firmly into a groove made in
the soil for its reception and covered with soil. The end of the
shoot must be kept upright by tying it to a stick.
•' Another simple way is to split the branch at the bend where
it is to be laid in the ground, making the split about 2 inches
long, and keeping the cut parts open by inserting a piece of wood
or stone. Peg down well into the soil and stake. The ends
of the shoots should be cut back a few inches with a sharp knife."
134
It is thus evident that the plant will thrive almost anywhere in
the Island if the water supply be sufficient and the soil well
drained. The best method of treatment is probably to grow it as
hedges, which are easily managed and clipped. It may also be
planted along roads, jungle edges, &c.. but should never be mixed
with the tea, as the young leaves are very like those of tea, and a
twig or two of camphor will spoil a whole break of tea.
The following analyses of two soils at Hakgala — on one of
which (A) camphor does very well, on the other (B) only modera-
tely— will help to guide to the selection of suitable spots : —
CAMPHOR SOILS.
" Six samples of soil were received from Mr. Nock at Hakgala,
which represented the character of the soil and sub-soil, where
camphor trees grew well and only fairly well.
" 7/0. 7 /I, represents a section 15 inches deep between trees
showing the best growth, viz., 20 to 25 feet high and 12 to 15 feet
in diameter at five years and nine months from the time of plant-
ing. The surface soil here is about I foot deep. It is composed
of agglomerated particles of dark brown colour and yellow frag-
ments of decomposing gneiss. It is very rich in nitrogen and the
lower oxide of iron, has a fair amount of lime, but is deficient in
potash and phosphoric acid.
"No. 2 A, representing the upper 6 inches, is of a dark brownish
colour when dry, and is almost entirely composed of the agglo-
merated particles mentioned in No. I A and rootlets, &c. The
analysis shows it to contain the bulk of the nitrogen, and an ex-
cess of the lower oxide of iron, but it is deficient in potash and
phosphoric acid.
No. 3 A, represents the sub-soil at 15 inches deep or 3 inches
below the actual surface soil.' It is composed of yellow pieces of
decomposing light-coloured gneiss, more or less bound together
with a clayey matrix. It also contains a fair amount of nitrogen
and rather more phosphoric acid and potash than the surface soil,
and would be fairly easily penetrated by roots.
"No. I B. — This is taken from a section 15 inches deep, where
the camphor is only doing fairly well. The plants five years and
nine months old are from nine to ten ft. high and 6 to 8 ft in di-
ameter. It is more finely divided than No. I A, and is of a lighter
brown colour. Chemically, it is also somewhat poorer, though
containing a good amount of nitrogen. Lime and mineral plant
food generally may be considered deficient, especially potash, and
this no doubt accounts for the poorer growth of the camphor trees
in this part.
"No. 2 B, representing the top 6 inches, is a dark coloured loam,
somewhat richer in nitrogen and phosphoric acid than No. I B,
but is very poor in lime, magnesia, and potash.
No. 3 B, representing the sub-soil 15 inches from the surface, is
a yellow loam much more finely divided than No. 3 A, but other-
wise of somewhat similar composition. When wet it is of a re-
tentive clayey nature requiring drainage.
135
HAKGALA, NUWARA ELIYA
Analysis of soil (Camphor).
Mechanical Composition.
No. 1 A.
Per cent.
Fine soil passing 00 mesh
Fine soil passing 60 mesh
Medium passing 30 mesh
Coarse sand and small stones
20 00
15-00
7-00
58-00
100 00
Moisture
Organic matter and combined water
Oxide of iron and manganese
Oxide of iron and aluminum
Lime
Magnesia
Potash
Phosphoric acid
Sand and silicates
Chemical Com^position.
No. 1 A.
Per cent.
5 100
U-500
8-200
11-340
-140
-072
-030
•012
CO -GOO
100-000
Containing nitrogen
Equal to ammonia
Lower oxide of iron
-308
•374
Good
Mechanicdl Composititm.
No. 1 B.
Per cent.
Fine soil passing 90 mesh ... 25-00
Fine soil passing (50 mesh ... 23-00
Medium soil passing 30 mesh ... 8-50
Coarse sand and small stones ... 43 50
100-00
Chemical Composition.
Moisture
Organic matter and combined water
Oxide of iron and manganese
Oxide of iron and aluminum
Lime
Magnesia
Potash
Phosphoric acid ...
Sand and silicate.s ...
No. 2 A.
Per cent.
26-00
24-00
5-00
45-00
100 00
No. 2 A.
Per cent.
5-000
17.700
7-080
7-575
-124
•075
-Oil
-035
62-400
100 -OOO
•490
■595
Much
No. 2 B.
Per cent.
17-50
16-50
6-50
59 50
100-00
No. 3 A.
Per cent.
34-00
18-50
7 50
40 00
100 00
No. 3 A.
Per cent.
5 900
11.500
9.800
10 000
-050
-020
-061
.069
63 000
100 000
•182
-221
Fair
No. 3 B.
Per cent.
47-50
26-50
5-00
21-50
100-00
5-100 .
.. 5 100 .
.. 5-800
n-900 .
.. 15-500 .
.. 11-400
8-000 .
.. 8-200 .
.. 8-520
9-210
.. 8-050 .
.. 12-502
•080 ,
•060 .
•040
.070 .
-014 .
.046
-015 .
•007 .
-0.54
0.25 .
•069 .
.038
65-600
.. 63-000 .
.. 61 6110
100-000
100-000
100.000
•259
•371 ...
■128
■314 ..
•450 ...
■156
Fair ...
Much ...
Trace
136
Containing nitrogen
Equal to ammonia
Lower oxide of iron
" The ash of the camphor leaves was analyzed to determine the
constituents most required by their growth. The leaves con-
tained—
Per cent.
Water ... ... ... T4.32
Organic matter* ... ... 19-58
Ash ... ... ... 610
inooo
*Contaiiiinf» nitrogen \^^^ per cent.
Ei)U!il to ammonia 1 78 "
Comjwsitiim of Ash
Per cent.
Lime ... ... ... 32-90
Magnesia ... ... ... 6-48
Oxide of iron ... ... 2-00
Alumina - ... ... 3 11
Potash ... ... ... 14-86
Soda ... ... ... 4-21
Phosphoric acid ... ... 2-16
Sulpliuric acid ... ... 2^00
Sand and silica ... ... 1-20
Carbonic acid ... ... 26 "10
Carbon and undetermined ... ... 4-98
100 00
"The chief mineral ingredients required by the camphor plant
for the growth of leaves are lime and potash, an average yield of
prunings removing 196 lb. of lime and 87 lb. of potash, which
could be returned to the soil after the distilled wood had been
burned for fuel purposes.
'■ M. KELWAY BAMBER, F.C.S., &c."
PREPARATION OF THE CAMPHOR.
As soon as the plants have reached a fair size and formed stout
woody stems below — say in three years or less in very good
situations — they may be clipped. The simplest method will per-
haps be to use hedge shears, placing a long basket below the
hedge to catch the clippings. Only the leaves and young twigs
are required ; woody twigs yield little or no camphor.
In Japan, where however, they only use the wood of full-grown
trees as a source of camphor, the chips of wood are distilled in a
primitive-looking but effective still, with bamboo tubes (these have
the advantage that they can afterwards be split to remove any
camphor from them) and a wooden condenser with water running
over its lid. In Ceylon probably the best method will be to fix up
137
a small still of any good pattern with a glass condenser and
plentiful water supply, working it by means of steam from the
factory boiler. As the distillation is a somewhat uncertain opera-
tion, especially to the beginner, and as it is probable that more
efficient methods will be discovered, the details of the principal
experiments tried are given below. Material for these experi-
ments was obtained from the gardens at Peradeniya (l,6oo feet),
Hakgala (5, 600 feet), and Anuradhapura (300 feet).
CAMPHOR DISTILLATION.
The first distillations were from Il2lb. of prunings received
from Hakgala on the 28th June, 1900. These were conducted in
a large cask fitted with a metal cover leading to a metal condenser
which was cooled by a constant flow of water. Distillation was
effected by means of steam from a boiler, passing into the lower
part of the cask below a perforated iron plate. The prunings
were chopped up into fragments about I inch long, covered with
water, the top, connected with the condenser, luted on, and steam
turned on to gradually bring the water to the boil.
A strong pungent smell of camphor and eucalyptus came off as
soon as distillation commenced, which persisted for some time
even when the distillate was cooled to 50° F., a temperature below
that which could be obtained practically. The loss was mini-
mized by bringing the water to the boil very slowly, and only
admitting just suificient steam to keep it at the boiling tempera-
ture. It was found that the metal cover to the cask retained a good
proportion of the camphor, but it was not so pure as when con-
densed in a wooden box similar to that in use in China and Japan.
The purest camphor was obtained when the distillate was made
to pass through a long glass tube surrounded with a jacket of cold
(running) water, the crystals being deposited when the tempera-
ture of the glass did not exceed 50° C. or 122' F., a temperature
that could easily be maintained in a condensing apparatus up-
country at all times of the year. In the low-country a more rapid
flow of condensing water and a proportionately longer conden-
sing apparatus would be required to obtain the same results, as
the water is much warmer and the steam also is at a higher tem-
perature.
In all the experiments the camphor had almost entirely distilled
over during the first three hours, as several distillations conducted
for twelve hours and longer resulted in no better yield, and the
smell of the camphor under these circumstances was contaminated
with that of decomposition products from the nitrogenous matter,
&c., in the leaves and twigs. Three distillations could be made in
the same apparatus during the day.
The amount of steam required for the distillation even of large
quantities would be nominal, and would hardly be felt in an ordi-
nary boiler working in a tea factory.
YIELD OF CAMPHOR.
The first distillation from part of the prunings obtained from
Hakgala in June, 1900, only yielded -35 per cent., but this was
138
increased to '62 percent, by better regulation of the steam pressure
and the condensing water. Tlie camphor had a slight smell of
eucalyptus, and was not so strong as ordinary camphor. The
leaves were quite fresh when distilled.
Separate distillations were again made in August with fresh
leaves and twigs, and the green branches of about half inch to I
inch thick the former yielded "85 per cent, camphor, but the latter
a mere trace, both of camphor and oil.
7th September, igoo. — Three distillations of camphor leaves from
Peradeniya were made in the usual manner, the yield from the first
being I '10 per cent, of camphor and camphor oil. In the second
distillation, when the leaves had partly dried, l'06 per cent, of
camphor and oil was obtained, calculated on the fresh leaves. In
the third distillation the leaves had undergone partial decompo-
sition, the result of becoming heated to a temperature of 106" F.
The yield in this case was '68 per cent, camphor and "38 per cent.
of oil, so that it would appear advisable to distil the leaves as
fresh as posssible, as the oil is less valuable than the camphor.
gth October, igoo. — A sample of young camphor flush weighing
Ililb. plucked from two trees in Hakgala, one 8 feet in diameter
and 12 feet high, yielding 8 lb., and the other 5 feet in diameter
and 7 feet high, yielding 3^ lb. This was carefully distilled in a
copper retort over a lamp, and the vapour condensed in a glass
vessel. In the first four hours "63 per cent, of pure camphor was
obtained, which smelled only of pure camphor ; on further distil-
lation '08 per cent, more camphor was obtained, which did not
smell quite so pure. Heating by the direct llame beneath the ves-
sel appears to take longer in removing all the camphor than driving
it over with steam under slight pressure.
24th October, igoo. — A distillation of camphor clippings from
Hakgala yielded .77 per cent! camphor and '27 per cent. oil.
30th October, igoo. — A distillation of 12 lb. of camphor flush was
made in a copper vessel with a glass condenser, yielded "69 per
cent, camphor and "34 per cent, camphor oil. The trees were in
active growth when this flush was plucked.
gth January, igoi. — A camphor tree that had become slightly
cankered was received from Hakgala in separate parcels of leaves,
branches, stem, and roots. Several distillations of the leaves and
twigs were made both in the fresh state and when air-dried, some
of them being continued for twelve hours. The yield of camphor
and oil varied somewhat, but appeared to depend on the propor-
tion of leaves to twigs, the latter containing much less than the
former. A glass condenser was employed for all these distillations,
the camphor and oil being obtained quite pure.
The first experiment yielded '875 per cent, camphor and "986
per cent, oil, a far larger proportion of oil than in any previous
distillation of similar leaf.
A second distillation, which was continued at a low tempera-
ture for eleven hours, yielded I '08 per cent, pure camphor and
0'32 per cent. oil.
139
Five other distillations at intervals of some days with the air-
dried leaves gave the following yields : —
No. 1. — 2-310 per cent, camphor and -114 per cent, oil, ecpial to 1-02 per cent.
on fresh leaf.
No. 2. — 2-149 per cent, caniplior and oil, equal to -98 per cent, on fresh leaf.
No. 3. — 2-425 per cent, camphor and traces of oil, equal to 1 -C'5 per cent, on
fresh leaf.
No. 4. — 2-3 > per cent, camphor and traces of oil, eijual to 1-01 per cent, on
fresh leaf.
No. 5 — 2-08 I per cent, canqilior and traces of oil, equal to -90 per cent, on
fresh leaf.
From these figures it will be seen that air-drying the leaf before
distillation does not cause any appreciable loss of camphor,
though a certain amount of oil disappears, either by volatilization
or oxidation. The camphor obtained from the air-dried leaf also
had a somewhat purer smell than that from the fresh leaf, though
this latter was easily rendered pure by re-distillation with steam.
Three distillations were made of the branches and stem of the
camphor tree, but no appreciable quantity of camphor was ob-
tained from either, nor did the bark of the stem appear to contain
more than traces. The roots, however, contained an oil, 5lb. of
roots yielding i"22 per cent. This oil was located mainly in the
bark and in a thin layer of wood beneath it. It had only a slight
smell of camphor, and more resembled a mixture of aniseed and
peppermint.
On the 7th August, 1901, 5lb. of young flush was received from
Hakgala in a slightly heated condition. It was at once put into a
copper vessel with fifteen pints of water, and a glass dome luted
on, which was connected with a glass condenser. The water was
heated slowly from below, and a thermometer placed, so as to
register the temperature of the vapour 2 inches above the water
and camphor leaves.
At 50° C. (122° F.) crystals of camphor condensed on the glass
dome, which at 90° C. (194° F.) were carried back into the water
by the condensed steam. At 1 00 C. the steam and camphor
vapour was passing rapidly into the glass condenser, while the
leaves were covered with oily drops of camphor and oil. Distil-
lation at 100° C. was continued for two hours, when 4^ litres
(7"93 pints) of water containing camphor and oil had collected in
the condenser. This was then passed through a wet paper filter
to separate the camphor and oil from the water, 24'53 grams of
the mixture being obtained, equal to I "10 per cent. The oil was
separated from the camphor as much as possible, the yield of
each on the original flush being 755 per cent, pure camphor and
■345 per cent, camphor oil. Another distillation was made in the
same way of lolb. of coppice shoots one year old from a tree that
had been cut down. The yield of camphor from this was very
small, only "192 per cent, and shows that the first year's growth
from a tree cut down to the ground is practically valueless, but it
is probable that young flush from such coppiced trees would in-
crease in the camphor contents during the next and succeeding
years.
Further distillations were also made of the entire prunings
140
weighing 50lb. of a five year and nine months old tree of average
growth, the leaves (271b.) and branches (231b.) being distilled
separately, the former yielding 767 per cent, of pure camphor and
some oil, the latter only traces of oil, showing that the whole of
the camphor is practically in the leaves and not in the yomig
wood. The reason of this should be investigated, as it is from
old wood that the bulk of the camphor of commerce is obtained.
CHARACTERS.
The camphor obtained from all the above experiments has the
usual crystalline form, and is perfectly colourless unless
condensed in an iron vessel, when it is tinged with red from
the o.xidized iron. It floats on water, in which it is almost
insoluble, and small fragments rotate rapidly when floated
on this liquid. It burns with a yellow smoky flame, leav-
ing no residue, and volatilizes readily at the ordinary temperature.
It is easily soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform, and is preci-
pitated from the former in white fiocculent masses, when the solu-
tion is poured into water. It sublimes readily, and has an odour
of camphor, but not so powerful as ordinary camphor from old
wood. Its specific gravity is 987; it melts at 175° C, (347° F.)
and boils at 205° C. (400' F.). It dissolves readily in nitric acid,
with some development of heat, and immediate separation of the
solution into two layers, the upper of a red colour and the lower
pale yellow or colourless. The addition of water precipitates the
camphor as a white mass from the upper layer of the solution ap-
parently unchanged.
SUBLIMATION EXPERIMENTS.
These were conducted at varying temperatures and under
different conditions in order to try and obtainthe translucent state
common to commercial camphor. The most successful method
was by mixing the crude camphor with slaked lime in the pro p
tion of 40 to I, and subjecting this in a closed vessel to a low heat
for twelve hours, the heat being gradually increased up the sides
of the vessel in order to drive all the camphor into the upper por-
tion. Copper vessels are the best for the purpose, as glass is liable
to fracture from condensed moisture running down to the heated
sides.
Before sublimation can be effected it is essential that all the
camphor oil should be expressed from the camphor. The cam-
phor when first distilled appears to be practically free from oil,
but after standing some days oil gradually separates and sinks to
the bottom of the mass of crystals, and this appears to continue for
months. Filtration with the aid of a vacuum effects a partial
separation, but in practice on a large scale it would be best
effected by means of a centrifugal machine similar to that employed
for the separation of crystalline sugar from molasses.
OIL.
The oil obtained with the camphor from the leaves is of a clear
yellow colour, having a specific gravity at 80' F. of "9662. It con-
141
tains a certain amount of camphor in solution, wliich can be sepa-
rated to some extent by cooling to 10° C. It would therefore be
advisable to cool the mixture of camphor and oil, as much as pos-
sible, before submitting it to centrifugal expression.
The root oil, of which I '22 per cent, was obtained from the air-
dried roots, was almost colourless, and had no smell of camphor.
It consisted of a mixture of two oils, one lighter and one heavier
than water, the specific gravity of the mixed oils being ro58 at
80° F.
YIELD AND PROSPECTS.
The figures above given show that the yield varies a good deal,
but that on the average about '75 to I per cent, of camphor may
be expected from the young leaves and twigs, as well as a small
quantity of camphor oil, which also has a market value. Samples
of camphor mixed with the oil were valued lately at Rs. 126 per
cwt. If we assume that clippings will yield about I per cent, of
camphor and oil worth Re. I per lb., we should be well within the
mark. The cost of obtaining this should be about Rs. 53 per acre,
made up as follows: —
Rs. 0.
Pruning 1,210 trees and carrying t factory 57 0
Distilling, fuel, packing, &c. ... 16 0
53 U
/. c, camphor can be put on the market as cheaply as tea per
pound if the yield be at the rate of 177 lb. per acre (cost of tea
being estimated at 30 cents.) Now 177 lb. will be yielded by
17,700 lb. of clippings. In the case of bushes 6 feet apart this
means 14^ lbs per bush per annum, or about seven times the
weight of flush obtained from a prosperous tea bush. On the
other hand, the bushes are only half as many to the acre, and the
plucking is much coarser, so that this estimate is not unreason-
able, and the product is more valuable than tea. It seems not
unreasonable to expect that where a bush, with 36 square feet of
space to grow in, yields 12 to 15 lb., of clippings a year, the cul-
tivation will prove remunerative — not a bonanza, but yielding a
fair profit. In Hakgala Gardens this yield is exceeded, so far as
rough experiments show.
PARIS GREEN : APPLICATION TO COTTON.
Mr. Win. B. Scahrook to Director, Public Gardens and Plantations.*
James Island, South Carolina,
U. S. A., February 2lst, 1906.
My Dear Sir,
I remember the interest you took in the appliance used for ap-
plying Paris Green to the cotton plant for destrsying caterpillars.
I am now trespassing upon your time to give you some further in-
formation on this subject. Last summer there was introduced a
* For previous letter by \Vm. Se.ibrook on P.iris Green, see Bulletin July, 1904, page
159.
142
small kind of bellows, called a " powder gun," with long handles,
and the nozzle terminating in a little fixture like the sprinkling
nozzle of a watering pot. The Paris Green powder is put in a
receptacle in the bellows, the nozzle is put in the middle of the
cotton bush, a very slight convulsive movement of the bellows
handle — that is all. The little puff of powder that is blown out is
so slight that it is hardly possible to see it, pump it out until you
can see it, and you will be sure to burn up the cotton. It is the
simplest to operate of any contrivance yet devised ; is more effica-
cious in its deadly work on the worm, and the most convenient to
handle. When I wrote to Sir Daniel Morris about it, he immediately
asked to be put in communication with the manufacturers, looking
forward to obtaining a supply another season, should they be
needed. While instructing them to send him one of their catalo-
gues I took the liberty of instructing them to send one to you too.
I hope you will get it safely.*
My thoughts are full of pleasant memories of Jamaica — beauti-
ful Island — and of the pleasant acquaintances made, and friend-
ships enjoyed during my brief stay there. I remember with kind-
est interest Mr. Fursdon and Mr. Sharp, who were very kind to me.
Cjiye them my kindest regards, should you see them.
I am very sincerely and truly yours,
Wm. B. SEABROOK.
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES
The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was
held at Headciuarter House on Wednesday, l6th May. Present:
The Hon. H. Clarence Bourne, Colonial Secretary, in the chair, the
Director of Public Gardens, the Island Chemist, His Grace the
Archbishop, the Superintending Inspector of Schools, Messrs. C.
E. DeMercado, J. W. Middleton, G. D. Murray and the Secretary.
Standard for Jamaica Rum. — The Secretary read letter from the
Colonial Secretary's Office stating that the Governor was not pre-
pared at the present moment to prescribe a standard quantity of
ethers for Jamaica rum.
The Secretary also read a letter from the Secretary of the North-
side Sugar Planters Association stating that it was the opinion of
the Association that any law to standardise Jamaica Rum was un-
fortunate and likely to deal a stiff blow against the rum industry.
He also submitted the papers giving the Chemist's arguments in
favour of standardisation and the criticism of members of the Board.
He was directed to reply to Mr. Shore informing him of the Go-
vernor's decision regarding standardisation.
Agricultural Don' ts.— The Secretary read a letter re " Agricultural
Don'ts" from the Colonial Secretary, stating that when next year's
estimates were under consideration the amount required for print-
ing the charts of " Agricultural Don'ts" might be submitted for con-
*One of these iiowder guus is uow in u-e, aud can be seen at Hope Gardeos.
143
sideration under Agricultural Vote. Also letter from the Education
Department stating that the Board of Education was willing to re-
commend that the chart be placed in schools if the Board of Agri-
culture was willing to print it.
Commercial Agent in London. — The Secretary read a letter from
the Colonial Secretary on the matter of the appointment of a Com-
mercial Agent in London, stating that the Governor had consulted
the Privy Council on the matter and they had advised that the rule
laid down by Mr. Chamberlain when Secretary of State
should be followed, viz. : that such an Agent should be ap-
pointed and maintained by the commercial community in the
Colony and be entirely unconnected with the Government, though
there would be no objection to the Government making if neces-
sary, and the Legislative Council was willing, a small grant to some
such body as the Royal Jamaica Society of Agi-iculture and
Commerce if that Society were willing to take the matter
up, but on a previous occasion when this decision was intimated to
that Society, the Secretary replied that its funds were unable to
stand the expense and they desired the Government largely to in-
crease its suggested grant. This the Government was unable to
do. It remained for those interested to make some arrangements
whereby the funds necessary for carrying out their suggestion be
provided by those likely to profit most by the Agency.
Sugar Grant. — The Secretary submitted copy of Law 3 of 1906
entitled "A Law in aid of Law 45 of 1903" to give the Board of
Agriculture, with the sanction of the Privy Council, a wider dis-
cretion as to the expenditure of the £lO,000 therein mentioned, in
the interest of the sugar industry.
Demerara Rums. — The Secretary submitted a copy of the Official
Gazette of British Guiana, also an extract from the Demerara Ar-
gosy showing the variation in the contents of ethers in Demerara
Rums which ranged from 30"l to 1227.
Truck System. — The Secretary submitted a private letter, referred
by the Governor, where complaint was made of a practice found
prevailing on the writer's estate and others, of overseers supply-
ing bread, beef and pork to the labourers and stopping the cost of
it out of their wages when they were charged for more than they
got, and that they did not get work unless they agreed to pur-
chase these things. The writer suggested that there should be a
law here similar to the Truck Act in England to prevent this.
After discussion in which it was said that there were very few
estates where this practice would be carried on, it was resolved to
refer copies of the letters to the Westmoreland and Northside
Sugar Planters Associations for their remarks.
Cotton Seed. — ^The Secretary read letters from the Imperial De-
partment of Agriculture calling attention to the importance of using
the Department's selected and disinfected Sea Island Cotton seed.
It was stated that matter on the subject was being published in
the Bulletin and in the Agricultural Journal.
Leave for Mr. Cousins. — The Secretary submitted a letter from
the Colonial Secretary's Office stating that Mr. Cousins had ap-
144
plied for leave of absence for three months from the 23rd July-
next and proposed that the Assistant Chemist should act as Go-
vernment Chemist and manage the routine work of the office,
while the Fermentation Chemist should be placed in charge of
the Sugar Department and act for Mr. Cousins on the Board of
Agriculture, and asking him to ascertain from each member of
the Board whether there was any objection to the proposed ar-
rangements.
The Secretary stated that none of the members of the Board had
had any objection to offer and the Governor had accordingly
granted leave to Mr. Cousins.
Chemist's Reports. The Secretary submitted Reports of the Che-
mist as follows : —
1. Applications from Distillers to attend special Course. This
was referred to the Advisory Committee of Sugar Experiments.
2. Work of Agricultural Students for Easter Term. This was
directed to be circulated.
Director Puhlie Gardens' Reports. The following reports from the
Director of Public Gardens were submitted : —
1. Hope Experiment Station.
2. Instructors — Mr. Cradwick and Mr. Briscoe. These were di-
rected to be circulated.
Lecturer in Agricultural Science and Assistant Chemist. The fol-
lowing paper which had been circulated but had not yet been be-
fore the Board was submitted : —
'*'([!. Letter from Mr. Cousins recommending Mr. E. J. Wortley to
fill the appointment of Lecturer in Agricultural Science ; and stat-
ing that the best plan for filling the post of Assistant Chemist
would be to offer a salary of £220 rising to £240 by annual incre-
ments of £10 through the Crown Agents on a three years' agree-
ment, the funds to be provided as follows : —
Present salary of Assistant Chemist £150 to £200 by £10, salary
of Assistant in Sugar Laboratory (vacant) £70.
It was agreed that this latter recommedation should be adopted.
A letter was submitted from the Colonial Secretary intimating
that Mr. Wortley had been appointed in Mr. Teversham's place.
The following papers which had been circulated were now sub-
mittted for final consideration : —
1. Re Standardisation of Jamaica Rum.
2. Proposals as to Distillers' Course.
3. Report on the successful working of the high ether Instal-
lation at Hampden Estate.
4. Distillery Progress in Westmoreland.
5. Appropriation Accounts, Government Laboratory and Su-
gar Experiment Station for 1905-06.
6. Reports Instructors.
7. Report Hope Experiment Station.
[Issued 14th June, 1906.]
Printed at thu Govt. Printing Office, Kingstwi, Jam.
BULLETIN
OF THB
DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Vol. IV.
JULY, 1906.
Part 7.
EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S.,
Director of Public Gardens a^td Plantatiuin.
CONTENTS:
A Mexican Rubber Plantation
Black Leg
A method of keeping Fruit by use of Formalin
Coco-nut Bud Rot Disease
How to keep Mosquitoes from the House
Exporting Seed of Para Rubber
Acreage in Rubber ...
Planting hard and soft wooded plants ...
Turmeric
Jamaica Ginger
Study of Castilloa Rubber
Board of Agriculture
PRIG E— Threepence.
Page.
145
151
154
156
158
159
160
161
163
166
169
166
A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who wiU send name and
address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.
KINGSTON, JAMAICA ;
Hope Gardens.
1906.
JAMAICA.
B XJ Li Ij E T I N NEW VORK
OF THE
BOTANICAL
Garden.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Vol. IV. JULY, 1906. Part 7.
A MEXICAN RUBBER PLANTATION.*
We have received particulars about the fine La Zacualpa rubber
plantation in Mexico, of the Hidalgo Plantation Co., in an in-
teresting pamphlet entitled " Rubber : what it is and how it
grows," by the general manager of the company. This is the
second edition of the pamphlet, (which is illustrated from photo-
graphs), and in his foreword the author says : " Since the first
edition was issued, rubber has advanced in price, with every pros-
pect of its going higher, and the attention of the business world
is more than ever turned to this profitable industry. This book
is dedicated to the young people of our public and private schools,
with the hope that the matter it contains will be found interesting
as well as instructive."
The first part deals with rubber generally, but here we only
quote some particulars about La Zacualpa estate, which show how
a big rubber estate in Mexico is run, and give information of use
to planters of Castilloa elastica,
LA ZACUALPA RUBBER PLANTATION.
La Zacualpa rubber plantation is, without doubt, the foremost
of its kind in Mexico, and for depth of soil, requisite rainfall, sys-
tematic drainage and intelligent management has not its equal in
the world. It is situated between the towns of Huistla and Es-
cuintla, about 20 miles from the Pacific Ocean, and near the Pan-
American railroad which is to connect Tapachula with the Te-
huantepec railroad at San Geronimo. This road has already
reached Tonala, and will be pushed through to completion under
a most favourable concession from the Mexican Government. The
planted trees are easily accessible at all points by avenues run-
ning for miles ; seven of these have already been named, as fol-
lows : Harrison avenue, Van Court avenue, Alicia avenue, Butler
avenue, San Carlos avenue. La Reina avenue, Santa Helena ave-
nue. These are crossed by streets that are numbered, and the
• From "CeyloQ Observer."
146
visitor can ride for miles through groves of healthy rubber trees,
the branches of the older trees arching overhead. At the present
writing some 8,000 acres are planted.
CASTILLA LACTIFLUA.
In a letter received from Mr. O. F. Cook, of the Agricultural
Department, Washington, he says: "You will doubtless be in-
terested to know that I have recently described the Soconusco rub-
ber tree as a distinct species under the name Castilla lactiflua. The
Castilla of the Soconusco District of the State of Chiapas ("C. lac-
tiflua"), is peculiar in having the complemental inflorescence flat-
tened and with a broad mouth ; it is very similar to the primary,
except in the smaller size. The specific name alludes to the fact
that the milk of the tree flows freely when the bark is cut, so that
it can be collected in quantity and coagulated by improved
(creaming) methods, instead of the rubber being harvested
wholly or partly by pulling the 'scrap' (bunic/ia) from the gashes
in which it has dried."
The Department (or County) of Soconusco, in the state of Chia-
pas, one of the twenty-seven States forming the Republic of
Mexico, is the natural home of the Castilloa elastica, or Mexican
rubber tree, as is proven by the great number of wild rubber trees
which grow spontaneously in its forests. In their wild state they
grow tall and lank, reaching a height of over fifty feet and a dia-
meter of twelve to eighteen inches.
As far as known the trees are long-lived, and increase their
output of latex yearly until as many as twenty-five pounds of
crude rubber have been taken from a single tree. It is only within
a few years that attention has been called to the cultivation of
this tree. During the years 1889 and 1890 a grove of some 5,000
of these trees was planted on La Zacualpa, a plantation in the
above Department, which trees are now (1905) on an average,
eighteen inches in diameter and forty feet in height, and are
yielding about two and one-half pounds of rubber to the tree.
They stand about 400 to the acre, and are in prime condition.
These are the trees referred to by Mr. O. F. Cook, Bulletin 49, is-
sued by the United States Department of Agriculture, as follows :
" The planted trees at La Zacualpa abundantly demonstrate the
practicability of rubber culture."
The successful production of rubber and growth of these trees,
combined with their present healthy state, has proved the fact
that Castilloa elastica can be easily cultivated in its native habitat,
with large profits. Cultivated trees are raised from the seed, and
begin to yield milk during the sixth year from date of planting.
The trees have no natural enemies, as by reason of the quantity
of resin and albuminoids contained in the milk, they are not mo-
lested by worms, insects, birds or animals.
Owing to the successful conditions noted above, this plantation
has been extensively developed, and under the care of expert rub-
ber cultivators about 3,000,000 rubber trees are growing vigorously.
The cultivation of rubber is a new enterprise, calling for the most
147
careful study, and is a notable addition to the world's varied in-
dustries. Consequently, the questions of soil, rainfall and climatic
conditions must enter largely into the calculations of those con-
templating its future.
The rubber tree requires a rich loam soil ; warm, moist climate ;
low altitude ; a large and evenly distributed rainfall, and perfect
drainage. All these conditions exist in the Department of Soco-
nusco.
The rain record, taken daily by the British Vice-Consul, R. O.
Stevenson, has averaged l6o inches for many years past.
The plantation consists of 18,791 acres of land, of which 12,000
acres have been set apart as La Zacualpa Rubber Plantation and
are now being planted with rubber trees.
LABOUR.
The management is entrusted to one superintendent, two major-
domos, or sub-managers, and one corporal to every thirty men.
During the planting season about 300 men are employed, with ten
corporals. All the planting is done under the supervision of rod-
men who have formerly worked with engineers, and the lines out-
lining the planted squares and avenues between are run with
great care. At sunrise the plantation bell calls the labourers to
work, all assembling in the patio, or yard, in front of the mana-
ger's house. The major-domos receive their instructions from the
manager and communicate them to the corporals, who in turn di-
rect their men regarding the work of the day, and are responsible
for the performance of their respective duties. The bell, which
can be heard in all parts of the plantation, announces the noon
hour, and at I o'clock work is resumed, continuing till sunset.
Everything is done in the most systematic manner, and the plan-
tation is kept clean and in good order at all times. The supplies
needed are furnished from the company's store, and a large bake
oven is provided for the use of the labourers. Generally four or
five women do all the baking, and sell bread to those wishing to
buy.
THE LOCATION OF THE PLANTATION
is an ideal one, level for the most part, but sufficiently rolling for
good drainage, well watered, entirely free from stones and gravel,
and has the reputation all through that country of being a very
choice strip of rubber land. The elevation at no point exceeds
400 feet, and at some places is as low as lOO feet. La Zacualpa
Rubber Plantation is a most interesting place, and improvements
are constantly being made. A sawmill is in constant use, prepa-
ring timber for the construction of permanent houses for the na-
tive labourers and other buildings for the company's use. Excel-
lent tiles have been made from clay found on the plantation, and
are used in roofing buildings. The population of La Zacualpa to-
day, including men, women and children, is over 600. The same
plan has been carried out in the buildings for the labourers as
that used in the plantation proper, the buildings being situated on
plazas, or squares.
148
THE CASTILLOA ELASTICA TREE.
The Castilloa elastica, or Mexican rubber tree, is between five
and six years old when it blooms. Before blooming the tree sheds
its leaves. The blossoming season begins in January and con-
tinues until April. Clusters of small, whitish blossoms first put
forth, and three weeks later the tiny petals fall, leaving a little
green centre which gradually enlarges, and is filled with seed
points sticking fast to a round disc. The blossoms are as nu-
merous as the leaves, and each one has at least twenty seeds
about the size of an ordinary pea. When the blooming and
seeding time is over the trees put forth new leaves.
SEEDS.
The seeds are encased in a shell which is hard while green, but
it soon softens into a sticky substance like fish gelatine. The
first turning in the ripening process is to a sickly yellow, which
gradually changes to a bright red. As soon as the seeds are ripe,
with the first rains they begin to fall. This is a busy time on the
plantation. The seeds literally cover the ground underneath the
trees, and the labourers gather them into sacks and carry them to
the nurseries. There they are dumped into pails filled with water
and washed thoroughly to detach them from the discs and rid
them of the enveloping gelatine substance. When the seeds have
been ripe sixty days they will no longer germinate, and to get the
best results should be planted immediately after washing, which
is done to facilitate handling and prevent them from germinating
in the gelatine coating.
PLANTING.
There is some difference of opinion among planters as to the
best methods of planting, some advocating partial shade, and
again some would plant from a nursery previously formed, and
others with the seed at stake. Difference of local and climatic
conditions is no doubt the cause of this diversity of opinion, as
each section calls for different methods. The method adopted on
La Zacualpa, and that which has been productive of the best re-
sults in that locality, is the following : —
The land is first surveyed into squares of thirty-three acres
each, which includes avenues and roads twenty-four feet wide be-
tween them. The roads run in straight lines, and are cleared of
all trees and shrubs, thus making them available for the use of
the workmen and inspection of the plantation. The roads run-
ning north and south are called avenues, and those east and west
streets, the former being named and the latter being numbered. The
roads are now several miles long, and in order to facilitate trans-
portation of the labour to various parts of the plantation, the
Company is about to put in a small electric railroad. The land
is cleared by cutting down the forest and is then burnt off. Some
of the largest trees are left, and most of them escape the fire and
send out new foliage, which then acts as partial shade to the
young trees. After the burning the land is then staked out to
149
allow for 400 trees to the acre. A small mound of earth is made
at each stake, and the rubber seeds are imbedded therein.
The seed will germinate in from eight to fifteen days, and one
month from the time of planting the plant attains a height of
about eight inches, and its growth from this time on is rapid and
may roughly be put down as one foot per month. Our three-
years-old trees are over thirty feet high, and those of four years
about thirty-five feet. After the planting has been done, great
care is taken that the forest growth does not choke out the young
tree. This growth is kept down continually, thus giving the
young rubber tree a good start until it is able to take care of itself,
which it can do two years after planting, after which time it re-
quires very little attention.
TAPPING METHODS.
The native Indian method of tapping is as follows : — Before be-
ginning to tap, a place is selected on the tree, preferably on the
inclined side, and a hole made in the ground below, lined with a
wide green leaf. The tapper makes two incisions with his machete
at right angles, coming together in the centre. This is done to
ascertain where the milk runs best. Once decided, the tapper
makes a narrow incision at the point of convergence and impro-
vises a funnel of the same leaf used in lining the hole in the
ground. This acts as a conduit for the milk, which runs from the
tree in a steady stream into the hole until it coagulates along the
line of incision, when, if desired, it is scraped off twice or more
before the stream finally ceases. Very often the milk spurts out,
and one could not stand close to the tree where the machete is at
work without getting one's clothes spoiled. The rubber coagu-
lates where it falls on the clothes, and will not wash out ; only
a solvent will remove it.
The bark of the tree is not only cut once, but at least four or
five times, at intervals of two feet. The next year the angles
cross each other, giving the tree a peculiar criss-cross appearance.
Once the milk is flowing freely, the tapper leaves the tree and
goes to another, repeating the process already described. By the
above method a dozen trees are considered an average day's work.
When the milk ceases to flow the tapper returns and carefully
picks up the leaf in the hole and pours its contents into a large
gourd. This is naturally a crude and wasteful process. An un-
skilled tapper either gets all the milk on his own clothes or else
it runs round the tree and is lost. It is usual to begin tapping in
May and continue until December inclusive.
THE LATEX.
The latex, or milky juice of the bark of the rubber tree, is
quite distinct from the sap which circulates through the wood, and
contains from 32 to 44 per cent, of gum. Pure rubber milk is
white when it first runs from the tree, closely resembles that of
the cow ; but in the drying process it gradually oxidizes and turns
black.
150
COAGULATING — NATIVE INDIAN METHOD.
When the milk is brouglit in from the forest it is thinly spread
on the long, palm-shaped leaves of the oja blanca, which have first
been laid on the ground in the hot sun. Toward the stem, where
the milk lies thickest, it is necessary to stir it while drying; other-
wise it would coat over thickly on the outside and be full of the
residue fluid, bringing a lower price in consequence. When the
leaves are coated evenly, a quarter of an inch thick, they are piled
one above another and pressed hard enough to cause the rubber
strips to adhere closely. Then by a dexterous movement, the
tough leaves are pulled off and the thin layers are rolled into
slabs ready for packing.
CLEANSING THE RUBBER.
The slabs of dried rubber are packed in bales of 150 pounds
each, covered with the native-made matting, sewed up in sacks,
shipped per steamer to various countries and sold to the rubber
manufacturers. The first process in the manufacture of crude
rubber — necessary on account of its being prepared by the native
method— is to pass the slabs through large corrugated steel rollers,
water falling from a reservoir upon the rubber as it passes through.
This is repeated a number of times until all the dirt and foreign
matter is eliminated, and the rubber rolled into thin perforated
sheets having a rough surface. These sheets are from eight to
twelve feet long, and eighteen inches wide. They are then hung
in the dry room, where they remain until all the moisture has
evaporated. The rubber is then ready for the next process.
WASHING THE RUBBER.
By the methods now adopted the foreign matters are washed
out of the latex before coagulation takes place, thus producing a
very high grade of rubber from the Castilloa, having a marketable
value equal to that of Para.
Until now it was generally assumed that the Central American
rubber was of much inferior grade to that of Para. It has now
been proved, however, that the actual difference is very slight, if
there is any, and resolves itself into the question of preparing it
for the market at the time of tapping. During the past few
months the best qualities of some rubber from cultivated Castilloa
trees brought $1 .54 and $1.56 gold per pound on the London
market. This price was higher than that of best South American
Para sold at the same time. Mexican rubber from wild Castilloa
trees and shipped in the old way already referred to was quoted
at 60 and 65 cents per pound, or less than one-half the price ob-
tained for the same rubber prepared according to modern methods.
As it is necessary to treat the latex as soon as possible after it is
collected from the tree, receiving stations should be established
on a large plantation, such as La Zacualpa, so as to avoid the
transportation of the latex to any great distance.
151
BLACK-LEG."'
By W. H. Dalrymple, R.C.V.S.
From time to time the Veterinary Department receives requests
for information regarding "Black-leg," a disease quite fatal to
young cattle frequently in the best of condition, but which does
not appear to be recognized by many, and it is for the purpose of
supplying to our cattle owners something like accurate data on
the subject that the Station publishes this short bulletin at the
present time. We are not prepared to say that this disease is of
more frequent occurrence than heretofore in the State : but, on
account of the greater tendency on the part of our people to raise
and own animals of better breeding, and, in consequence,^ of
greater value, losses occurring in their stock may be receiving
more attention as to cause, with the result that the trouble is
being more frequently recognized rather than becoming more
frequent.
The value of young " scrub " cattle is relatively so inconsider-
able that when a few of them die on the farm little thought is
taken of the probable cause of death and, therefore, no investiga-
tion is made to endeavour to discover it. Black-leg may have been
at the bottom of many of such fatalities in the past, unrecognized,
and because of the proper sanitary measures not having been taken
to destroy infection in the bodies of the victims, the disease may,
no doubt, have become established in certain localities, laying the
foundation for the cases in the more valuable animals, and which,
because of their greater value, has caused owners to seek more
information regarding the fatal ailment. Fortunately, although
the disease is a very fatal one among young cattle, it can be almost
wholly prevented by vaccination. In fact, statistics recorded by
the National Department of Agriculture at Washington go to
show that out of 1,500,000 animals vaccinated, the loss reached
only about one-half of one per cent.
Besides being known as black-leg, the disease has other names,
such as black-quarter, quarter-ill, symptomatic anthrax, symp-
tomatic charbon, etc. To avoid confusion, however, we will
confine ourselves to the first name, black-leg. The use of the
terms, symptomatic anthrax and symptomatic charbon has led to
a good deal of misunderstanding and error in our State, so far
as this disease is concerned, because, having anthrax or charbon
as a part of the name, many have been led to think that the
disease was genuine anthrax or charbon. Some writers on
veterinary medicine use the terms, symptomatic anthrax and charbon
symptomatique (the French), because of its apparent resemblance
to the external appearance of that disease, especially a swelling
that is usually to be found in those parts of the body thickly
clothed with muscular tissue. But since bacteriology has as-
sumed the rank of a most import science, it has been found that
the two diseases are separate and distinct and produced by entirely
♦Bulletin No. 8E, March, 1906, of the Agii., E.xperimeDt Station of Louisiana.
152
different organisms or germs. So that, in reality, the one has nothing
at all to do with the other ; the only similarity of importance being
perhaps that both are rapid and fatal in their effect. For the in-
formation of our German settlers we may mention that this disease
is known in their language as " Rauschbrand."
CAUSE.
Black-leg is a rapidly fatal infectious disease of young cattle
and is caused by a spore-bearing organism, the Bacillus Chaiivoei-
Spring and fall are said to be the most favourable seasons for the
development of the ailment, and cattle between the ages of six
and eighteen months are the most liable to become affected, al-
though partial susceptibility seems to remain up to about four
years.
The manner of infection is by indirect contact with the germ on
infected soil, the organism gaining entrance to the body through
abrasions of the skin, and, perhaps, in rare cases, through the
mucuous membrane of the mouth and other parts of the alimen-
tary canal. The wounds or abrasions are generally quite minute
in size, but sufficiently deep to penetrate through the skin into
the tissues underneath. Punctured wounds, such as those received
from barbed wire fences or from stubbles or briers in pastures,
seem to be the most likely method of infection, and correspond
somewhat closely to the only manner in which the disease may
be produced artificially — viz., through injection of the virus hypo-
dermatically.
SYMPTOMS.
The disease is easy of recognition on account of the symptoms
being quite characteristic. It is characterized, first, by the symp-
toms of a more or less intense fever, and by the appearance of a
specific tumour, or swelling, upon the body, neck or upper part of
the limb above the knee and hock, causing stiffness or lameness.
This swelling is almost constantly found in the thick flesh or mus-
cles of the parts mentioned. It consists of a progressive inflam-
matory enlargement, of firm and uniform consistence, rapidly ex-
tending in area and depth, and later becoming insensitive, crepi-
tant and resonant, or in other words the swelling emits a crack-
ling sound when the hand is passed over it. This crepitant sourd
is due to the collection of gas in the affected flesh, and which is
produced by the germs of the disease. When the swelling is cut
into, a frothy, dark red fluid escapes, and the flesh of the swel-
ling is dark in colour, with the appearance of being mortified.
With few exceptions, the disease terminates fatally, death
usually occurring in from twelve to thirty-six hours after the first
appearance of the symptoms.
TREATMENT.
With regard to treatment, it may be said that curative (.-') agents
are of little or no avail — prevention being the only satisfactory
method of attacking the disease. This may be divided into the
following, viz., hygienic and preventive or protective.
153
Hygienic.
This aims at destroying or preventing the spread of infection
in all places where cattle are kept, and the second, to endeavour
to fortify the systems of susceptible animals against an invasion
of the black-leg germs.
Similar to anthrax (charbon) in this respect, black-leg infection
is largely spread from the dead animal through the medium of
carnivorous animals and birds (dogs, buzzards, etc.), or omnivo-
rous animals (hogs) attacking the carcasses and carrying the
germs broadcast, or the victim may be skinned for its hide, or in-
cisions made into the swellings to "doctor" the patient, and the
infection scattered from the cuts made in the swelling. These and
other processes naturally assist in disseminating the virus or poi-
son. In a circular on this disease, issued by the United States
Department of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C, thefollowingpara-
graph is italicized in order to give it emphasis: "It is, therefore,
of the utmost importance that cattle owners in the infected dis-
tricts be made to realize that an animal affected with black-leg
may be the cause of large subsequent losses from the same disease,
perhaps not immediately, but within a period of years to follow,
and it can not be recommended too urgently that they make every
effort to reduce the danger by taking adequate measures to des-
troy, as completely as possible, this source of renewed infection."
The best method of disposal is to cremate or burn the dead ani-
mal, and in order to ensure complete destruction of it, it should be
placed on a couple of logs, or over a trench, and plenty of dry
wood heaped around it. A few quarts of coal oil should then be
poured on, and fire set to it. It has been claimed that in some
parts of the State it is not possible to obtain sufficient wood for
the purpose of burning up the bodies of animals that have died
from infectious diseases, such, for example, as in certain parts of
southwest Louisiana. This section, however, has the advantage
of having oil in abundance, and an inexpensive and convenient
method is, first, to dig a trench of sufficient size, and placing in
the bottom of it a quantity of old sacking to act the part of a
"wick," then saturating the sacking by directing a pipe from a
barrel filled with oil into the trench. By regulating the flow of
oil, a continuous flame may be kept up until the carcass is com-
pletely consumed, and at a minimum of cost where such a method
can be conveniently undertaken.
It is important that the carcass be entirely destroyed. The
place, also, where the body has lain should be subjected either to
heat or it should be sprinkled with some powerful disinfectant,
such as crude carbolic acid, creolin, zenoleum,ilime, or other agent.
Unfortunately, there has as yet been no sure method found of
completely eradicating black-leg infection from a pasture.
Preventive or Prophylactic.
It is to the division of prevention which we term prophylactio,
combined, necessarily, with the hygienic, that we have to look for
the most gratifying results, which are to be found in preventive
154
vaccination of susceptible animals, and for which we are indebted
to the discovery of Arloing, Cornevin and Thomas, that animals
could be protected against black-leg by injecting them with more
or less virulent material obtained from the tumours of animals
that had died of the disease. The beneficial results of this treat-
ment may be appreciated by the reference made in our prelimi-
nary remarks concerning the record of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture. And, further, it may be mentioned that
during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, the Department dis-
tributed over 1,000,000 doses of black-leg vaccine, which were
used and reported upon by over 10,000 persons with highly satis-
factory results, the mortality reaching only 0.44 per cent.
Black leg vaccine is now a commercial commodity and may be
obtained from, or through, any of our large wholesale druggists, di-
rections accompanying the material, or it may also be had, free of
cost, by making application to Dr. A. D. Melvin, Chief of Bureau
of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C, and subscribing to certain stipulated condi-
tions.
In conclusion, it may be stated that, although sheep and goats,
as well as cattle, are susceptible to black-leg, they are rarely at-
tacked by it, the disease being most common and destructive in
the young bovine species.
NEW METHOD OF KEEPING FRUIT BYTHE USE
OF FORMALIN. ■
A good method of conserving fruit in as nearly as possible
its natural state has been largely sought after for a long
time, but whatever means have been employed, a perfect result
has not been obtained. One reason is the rapidity with which
fleshy fruits ferment and rot under the action — as Pasteur has de-
monstrated— of various organisms, fungi and bacteria. Taking
this view, and believing that if these micro-organisms could be
destroyed, the period during which the fruit can be kept in per-
fect condition might be considerably prolonged, the English agri-
cultural authorities have instituted a series of experiments under
the direction of the Jodrell Laboratory, Kew. These have been very
successful. The English Journal of the Board of Agriculture re-
viewed them in a recent number (No. 5, August, 1905, "Method of
preventing the rapid decay of ripe fruit.") This high authority
gives its fullest support to the scheme.
The method which has produced the best results is to immerse
the fruit in cold water containing 3 per cent, of trade solution of
formalin (40 per cent, of formaldehyde.)
There are two methods employed, accoi'ding as the fruit has a
soft pulp or is firm-fleshed, and whether it is eaten whole or not.
With the former class, to which cherries, strawberries, grapes, &c.,
belong, the fruit is plunged into the solution for ten minutes.
*From the Jimriial tV Agncvlture Pratviite, in Agrumltwal Gazette of 2f.S. Wales.
155
Then it is taken out and steeped for five minutes longer in cold
water, and is finally spread out on a metal strainer, or in any
other suitable place to allow it to drain and dry. In the second
case, when the fruit has a peel or skin which is not eaten, it is
subjected to the formalin solution only.
The Kew experiments were carried out on five kinds of fruit —
cherries, strawberries, gooseberries, pears, and grapes. These had
not been specially selected, but were bought in fruit-shops, and
in some cases from street vendors.
The following figures show the number of days during which
the fruit so treated remained perfectly sound, after an equal quan-
tity of each fruit, non treated, taken for comparison, had become
rotten : — cherries, 7 days ; strawberries, 4 ; gooseberries, 7 ; pears,
10; and grapes, 4. These results apply in every case to fruits
which were perfectly ripe at the time of treatment ; but if they
are subjected to the process before maturity, they keep just as
well, while the normal development and flavour undergoes no
more alteration than when the fruit is placed in a refrigerator.
It would have been interesting to know the length of time which
elapsed between the beginning and end of the experiment, in ad-
dition to the number of days during which the treated fruit re-
mained in good condition longer than the other. The practical
English people, having proved that this msthod of conservation is
excellent for their indigenous fruits, are hoping to see their mar-
kets supplied with several delicious varieties of tropical fruits,
which, under former conditions, has been impossible.
A minute examination of ripe fruit from the West Indies intend-
ed for the Colonial Produce Exhibition at the Crystal Palace,
clearly showed that the decomposition of the mangoes, for in-
stance, during the journey was entirely owing to mould and fer-
mentation caused by bacteria and fungi attacking the outer sur-
face, and not owing to a tendency of the fruit to decay or ripen
too quickly. A similar treatment could be profitably employed on
a number of tropical fruits which are imported in a good condition
(such as bananas), but which often have a dark and disagreeable
appearance, caused by an exterior fungus. Pears, apples, oranges,
citrons, &c., might all be treated with the same advantage.
In England great importance is attached to this new means of
conservation, which is at once very simple, inexpensive and ab-
solutely harmless. Several other preservatives have been tried,
but taking all conditions into consideration — ease of application,
smallness of cost, and perfect safety during its application — for-
malin comes easily first. It is easy to understand why the English,
who are the greatest importers of fruit from all parts of the world,
should be eager to discover a process for preserving as long as
possible its quality and appearance ; and it is because of their in-
contestable and official statements that we think it obligatory on
us to bring this new process under the notice of all producers,
merchants, and consumers, to whom the preservation of fruit is a
daily problem.
156
But although the use of the preservative is chiefly directed to-
wards the keeping of table fruit, it might be applied quite as ad-
vantageously to cider fruit. Many cider apples and pears, in
spite of the great resistance of their anatomical structure, as com-
pared with that of the garden varieties, have just as much need of
protection. The greatest enemy to cider apples intended to be
kept for a long time is rot. It originates in the same way as on
eating-apples, and there can be no doubt that the same treatment
will produce the same results on similar subjects. We repeat the
mode of procedure. Plunge for ten minutes in cold water con-
taining 3 per cent, of formalin. A tub or a cask cut in halves
will serve for the purpose of a bath. Take out the fruit, and drain
and dry on trays, then place in the storeroom as usual, putting on
one side for comparison a lot of the same species and weight
which have not been sterilised. The expense of this new method
of conservation is quite insignificant, and the profits must be very
high if the fruit will keep for some time in a perfect state as is
alleged ; and if the treatment can be as successfully carried out
with the more delicate garden fruits, it will become of immense
importance, and affect every species under the sun.
COCO-NUT BUD ROT DISEASE.
Coco-nut trees are often unproductive for various reasons, and
they die from diseases due to different causes. But for some years
it has been evident that a specific disease has been attacking these
trees independently of unsatisfactory or unhealthy conditions.
This is known now as the " bud-rot" disease, from its habit
of attacking those portions of the tree which are in the young,
immature, or bud stage.
The flowers, while still in a very immature stage of budding,
are most liable to attack ; but instances also occur where the "cab-
bage" is first attacked while the tree is in full bearing and shows
no sign of disease. As the " cabbage" is the vegetative bud of
the whole tree on which its life depends, the disease is fatal when
it reaches it.
The appearance of the flowers is well known. There are several
long branches, covered with numerous small flowers, which con-
tain pollen only, and a few larger knob-like flowers, which gra-
dually grow and become coco-nuts.
The flowers and branches are at first all enclosed in a sheath or
spathe, and in this condition the whole thing is commonly called
a "sword." The earliest appearance of the "sword" is as a small
protuberance just above the base of the leaf-stalk.
The disease is most liable to attack the tree when the " swords"
first bud out. If it attacks these when they first appear, the pro-
bability is that they rot away without growing much, and the tree
has the appearance of being sterile. Or, it may insinuate itself
at a later stage, and grow up amongst the flowers possibly even
without affecting the outer sheath. The effect is to cause the nuts
157
to drop at various stages, either when they first appear after push-
ing out from the sheath or even when they are nearly full-grown.
The disease extends from the flower bud along the stalk of the
adjacent leaf, causing it to turn a yellow colour, and spreads along
the stem itself, until finally it reaches the "cabbage" and kills the
tree.
Although bacteria have been found in great numbers in diseased
spots, it is not yet decided whether they constitute the disease it-
self, or whether they are only the accompaniment of another
disease.
But the practical point is that by means of experiments which
have now been carried on for some time, it has been shown that
this disease can be checked by two methods. One plan is to fire
the tree by putting a light to the fibrous material, the so-called
" strainer," at the base of the leaves during dry weather. The fii'e
burns the leaves, and scorches all the tender parts, killing the
disease.
Another plan is to spray the head thoroughly with Bordeaux
mixture. Several instances can be pointed- out where trees have
been sprayed, and are now healthy-looking and are holding their
nuts. It is advisable, however, to spray diseased trees every six
months, for say two years, as a prevention against its breaking
out again.
Firing a tree is the easier method, and there is no expense for
spray pump and for the Bordeaux mixture : but the leaves have
been burnt, and it will take about two years before any fruit is
obtained. If the average annual crop is worth 4s., this delay
means a loss of 8s. a tree.
The expense of the Bordeax mixture and its application is esti-
mated to cost about 2d. a tree, without counting the cost of the
spray pump.
The spray pump can be worked by two boys, one to climb the
tree, and point the nozzle at the end of the hose downwards all
round the head, while the other works the pump.
When the cabbage is rotten, or when a tree dies, it should be
cut down, and the head with its leaves should be thoroughly
burnt, otherwise it remains a source of infection to other trees, not
only in the neighbourhood, but probably for long distances round.
BORDEAUX MIXTURE.
Bordeaux mixture is best made according to the following for-
mula : —
Blue Stone (Copper Sulphate) 6 pounds
Unslacked Lime 4 pounds
Water 50 gallons
It requires careful mixing, or the ingredients will not combine
properly. Put 25 gallons of water into a barrel. Tie up 6 pounds
of copper sulphate in a piece of coarse sack, and hang this by a
stick laid across the top of the barrel so as to be just beneath the
surface of the water until it has slowly dissolved.
158
In another barrel slake 4 pounds of lime very slowly and care-
fully, at first only adding about a quart of water at a time, until a
perfectly smooth paste, free from grit is obtained. Add water to
make the whole 23 gallons, and wait until cool. Now pour both
together into a cask holding 50 gallons. The milk of lime should
be thoroughly stirred before pouring, and finally the mixture
should be well stirred for four or five minutes with a wooden pad-
dle.
If not perfect, the mixture is liable to injure the foliage, and in
order to test this, put the blade of a penknife into the mixture and
leave it for one or two minutes. If there is any deposit of copper
on the blade, showing a brownish colour, it is not safe to use it,
and more lime must be added until the knife is not discoloured.
HOW TO KEEP MOSQUITOES FROM THE
HOUSE.
The following rules for preventing the mosquito plague is
adapted from the United States Bulletin : —
1. Mosquitoes breed o>ily in water; usually standing water in
artificial places, not running streams.
2. Mosquitoes occur in the vicinity in which they breed. In-
vasions from long distances are exceptional.
3. The young mosquito or " wriggler" lives in water at least 10
or 12 days.
4. Although the wrigglers live in water, they iniisl come fre-
quently to the surface to breathe.
5. Kerosene oil on the surface of the water prevents the wriggler
from breathing.
6. Destroy the breeding places and you will destroy the
moscjuitoes.
7. Empty the water from all tubs, buckets, cans, flower pots,
vases, etc., once a week.
8. Fill in or drain all pools, ditches and various excavations,
such as post holes left unfilled, etc.
9. Change regularly all water needed in chicken-runs, yards,
etc.
10. Treat with kerosene oil all standing water which cannot be
screened or drained (l oz of oil (two tablespoonsful) will cover
15 square feet of surface). The oil does not affect the water for
use if the water is drawn from below.
11. Put wire netting over cisterns, wells and tanks of water
in every-day use.
12. Places in which it is undesirable to place oil, such as
watering troughs for stock, ponds, etc., can be kept free of the
wrigglers by putting in gold fish. The nymphs of dragon flies
and tadpoles of frogs also feed on the wrigglers.
13. See that the plumbing about the place is in perfect order.
Prevent leakage of pipes or clogging of eaves and gutters.
14. Inspect all cesspools and see that the covers are absolutely
tight.
159
IS- Clean away all weeds, grass and bushes about ditches,
ponds, and other possible breeding places, since these afford a
hiding place for the adult mosquitoes.
16. Clean up vacant lots and back yards of all cans, tins,
bottles and rubbish.
17. First do away with or treat all places where mosquitoes are
known to breed, and then begin to work on places where they
might breed. Remember that large quantities breed in wild
pines, hollows in trees and in banana leaves. Keep the vegeta-
tion low near the house.
18. As a citizen of your community you should feel a personal
responsiblity for the destruction of the mosquitoes in your district,
and seek to co-operate with your neighbours in the work of doing
away with breeding places. Inspect and treat with kerosene-oil,
gutters, culverts, ditches, man-holes, catch-basins, etc., along the
roadside. Man-hole covers should be screened.
19. Where oil is applied to standing water it must de distri-
buted evenly over the surface. Use a hand syringe, or, if the area
is great, a knapsack sprayer.
20. Houses should be cleared of all winged mosquitoes by the
burning of insect powder. The mosquitoes will fall to the floor,
and should be collected and burned.
21. Relief in any community or district depends entirely upon
the co-operation of the members of the community.
EXPORTING SEED OF PARA RUBBER.
By H. N. Ridley, M.A., F.L.S., Director of the Botanic Gar-
dens, Straits Settlements. *
As is well-known, the seed of the Para Rubber tree deterio-
rates very rapidly after it is ripe and soon loses its germinating
power, it is not always easy to send seed long distances without a
very large percentage of losses, at the same time the demand for
seed in distant parts of the world is very considerable, and a good
many experiments have been tried m the Botanic Gardens in
various methods of packing to ensure their arrival in good con-
dition. The reports received from the recipients of these seeds
have been remarkably good, as the following records will show :-
Of 7,500 seeds sent to Jamaica on August, 31st, were received on
25th October, and Mr. Fawcett writes : — "The 7,500 seeds sent
in biscuit-tins are all germinating very well and we shall scarcely
lose 500 of them." t
One hundred were sent in a similar manner to Calabar on the
date July, 6th and arrived on September, 20th. The Acting
Secretary writes in reply : — " The seeds were soaked in water for
* Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits and Federated Malay States. Vol. V., No. 1.,
Jan., 1906.
t Over 87 per cent, of the seed-^ sown gerninated, hut some of the seedliujjs %vere
constitutionally week and died, so that only 5,071 plants sui vived, or ahout (iS per cent,
of the seeds sown A War IImu case arrived with 2,h00 seeds, but only 18 plants were
raised out of the whole number. Direetar, Bulletin of the Agricultural Department
Jatnaioa,
i6o
two days on their arrival and were tlien planted with the upper
portion left above the soil. Ninety out of the hundred seeds
have already germinated (Nov. 7th.) and appear healthy young
plants.
To the Royal Gardens, Kew, 135 seeds were sent on July, 6th,
packed in charcoal, in a biscuit-tin. They arrived in a month,
and 123 germinated. On February, I2th, 1903, 20 seeds were
sent to Mr. J. C. Harvey, Vera Cruz, Mexico, who writes. May 19th,
1903, that " out of the 20 seeds of Hcvca hrasiliensis I have 14
young plants. They came up in a few days, and possibly a few
more may germinate, though three seeds were decayed." These
were all sent in biscuit tins. Those sent to Jamaica were packed
in slightly damped incinerator earth, but it was necessary to
replace the upper part of the packing with sawdust to reduce the
weight, as incinerator earth is very heavy and the box, a two-
pound tin, which contained 150 seeds would have been over par-
cel post weight.
The other tins were filled with damp charcoal finely powdered.
In packing, a certain amount of care is required in damping the
charcoal so as to get it eciually moistened all through, and not
either over wet or over dry. This is best done by damping the
charcoal thoroughly and then drying it in the sun constantly
stirring and turning it over, till it is uniformly slightly damped.
The incinerator earth which had been exposed to the elements
was damp when received and only wanted partial drying to fit it
for packing. Its v/eight is against its use, but both it and the
powdered charcoal have the great advantage of preventing any
attacks of mould or bacteria likely to cause decomposition.
Other experiments with powdered coir fibre, and coir dust, saw-
dust and variously prepared soils have been tried, but the results
do not seem to have ever been as successful. One experiment
was maae in putting the seeds in water for a month, and though
that might be effective for a fortnight or so, they had all perished
by the end of the month.
ACREAGE IN RUBBER.
Sir Frank Swettenham writes with regard to an article which
appeared in Tlic Standard of August 8 last : — The acreage planted
with Para rubber in the Straits and Malay States on January i
last was 30,000 acres, and in Ceylon 25,000 acres. Since that
date the total area planted in the Malay States does not amount
to 10,000 acres.
The United Planters' Association in the Malay States have taken
pains to go into this queston, and in their latest report they give
the following figures : Total acreage planted with rubber in the
Straits and Malay States 30,000 acres; Sumatra, 5,000 acres ; Java,
5,000 acres ; Ceylon, 25,000 acres ; India and Burma, 5,000 acres ;
total 70,000 acres. Allowing that all this is good, and will give the
i6i
good yield of 200 lb. per acre, the amount produced would be
14,000,000 lb. This acreage cannot, however, be all in full bear-
ing till the end of 191 1, and they calculate that no more than this
acreage can be in bearing till 191 1, because it is not yet planted.
The exports from Para for the last three years have remained
practically constant at about 30,000 tons, and the world's pro-
duction was, in 1898, as nearly as it can be ascertained, about
60,000 tons, or 134,000,000 lb. The present production is estimated
at 70,000 tons, or 156,000,000 lb., of which Asia can only produce
14,000,000 up to the year 191 1, What she can produce after that
date will depend upon the area planted and successfully cultivated
between now and 191 1. — Standard, Dec. 6.
PLANTING OF HARD AND SOFT WOODED
PLANTS.
By W. J. Thompson, F.R.H.S., Travelling Instructor.
In travelling about the country I am surprised to find how few
people seem to remember that hard and soft wooded plants need
totally different treatment to enable them to develop properly.
People go on planting young cocoa and orange plants just as they
plant banana suckers, with the result that most hard wooded trees
are not giving more than half the crop they should.
Two typical types of soft wooded plants are banana and cane ;
two typical types of hard wooded plants are cocoa and oranges.
The soft wooded plants, which consist chiefly of water, need
to have their bases covered with a considerable amount of damp
soil if they are to continue thriving. On the other hand, hard
wooded plants, consisting chiefly of wood, need just the reverse
condition to get them to grow as they should, viz., the base of the
plant must be kept level with the surrounding ground, so that it
can get enough sun, light and air.
It is most important that planters of all degrees should realize
the different requirements of the two different classes of plants.
In almost all cases where I am asked to inspect sickly plants and
trees of cocoa, &c., I find that most of the cases where the young
plants are not growing, or old plants are not fruiting, or dying
off, can be traced to the plants having been planted too deeply. I
have come across scores of cases where cocoa plants have had
their bases from 3 ins. to 12 ins. below the surface of the ground ;
and although when the bases of this class of plants are planted
too deeply, nature comes to the tree's assistance by young roots
being formed just below the surface of the ground, these surface
roots do not compensate for the loss of the natural upper roots of
the tree which have died off, or are in a half dead condition
through not getting enough light and air. With deep planting,
if the plant does not die after a few years, it does not give the
amount of fruit that a properly planted tree will do. Too much time
and care cannot be given to the planting of these hard wooded
plants to see that they are planted properly.
I62
In July last, in St. Catherine, I inspected about 20 cocoa trees —
old trees, about 12 feet high; only three of the trees had their
bases showing level with the surrounding ground ; and although
this is the season when we do not expect to see many cocoa pods
on the trees, one tree had 60 pods, the other two had from 40
to 50 pods each, while the rest of the 17 trees had not 60 pods
between them.
Within the last few months I have been paying a good deal of
attention to the question of shade for cocoa, but I have found that
in all cases, if the cocoa tree has been properly planted that the
trees gave good returns whether they were shaded or not ; but
where the tree had been planted too deeply, whether shaded or
not, the condition of the tree and the yield were not satisfactory.
In planting out hard wooded plants, intelligent workmen should
be employed, and it should be strongly impressed upon the work-
men which the base of the plant is and that when the soil has fi-
nally settled down, the base of the plant should be level with the
surrounding ground.
I observe that when the workmen are going to plant out seed or
young plants of cocoa after the soil has been cultivated, that they
are careful to make a kind of shallow basin, and when it comes
to planting the seeds or plants are placed from two to six
inches deep. This way of planting is wrong, and is responsi-
ble for such a large percentage of plants not giving satisfactory
results.
The way to prevent the plant from settling down too low after
planting is to leave the cultivated soil six inches higher than the
surrounding ground where the plant or seeds are to be planted.
As a rule if seeds are being planted, there is not so much risk
in putting them too deeply ; but even with seeds, after the soil has
been made somewhat fine, pare should be taken to see that they
are not planted more than an inch under the ground. I find that
it is when seedlings are planted out, that the greatest loss takes
place.
When transplanting the young cocoa plant from the bamboo
pots or beds, care should be taken to take off a little of the sur-
face soil till the base of the young plant is reached, and after
this is found, make a small hole in the raised soil and put the
young plant in the soil ; just deep enough for the base of the
plant to be on a level with the raised soil. It is better to place
the young plant an inch too high than half an inch too low. ^woaAHj
This may seem a small matter to some people, but I have looked
into the subject minutely, and to say that one-fourth of the young
plants planted out each year die, and that from the fruiting trees
we are not getting as much cocoa as we should by 40 per cent,
through the trees being planted too deeply, is making a very low
estimate of losses.
This deep planting of such plants as cocoa and oranges is a
most serious matter for the planter.
If all small, stunted cocoa trees, such as make a little growth in
the dry weather and die back in a wet season are examined, it will
163
be found, if the soil is taken away from the stem, that the base of
the plant is several inches below the surface of the ground. In
such cases I would strongly recommend that the plants be dug
out and thrown away ; they cannot be transplanted and would never
do any good if left to grow. The same advice applies to citrus
plants.
Unless care is taken to get these young plants properly planted,
good soil, manure, labour, etc. are all wasted, and those who will
look into the matter will find that all the cocoa trees that are giving
good returns, have their bases level with the surface, and those that
are not giving good returns or are in a half dead state will be
found with their bases several inches below the surface of the
ground.
The reason why these hard-wooded trees do not thrive when
planted too deeply in the soil, is because the base of the tree is
kept too damp and cold, the lower roots of the tree die off and the
few surface roots cannot support the tree. That Jamaica has the
climate and soil conditions suited for producing very fine cocoa
can be judged from the fact that we have cocoa trees in the Island
measuring 6o inches round the trunk two feet from the ground,
the trees being in a healthy condition and giving large crops of
pods each season. These trees are exposed to all the sun that
passes, and the bases stand level with the surrounding ground.
TURMERIC.
Turmeric * is extensively cultivated all over India for its roof
stocks, and is now found more or less wild in Jamaica, especially
in the western districts. It is the well-known haldi universally
used as a condiment with curry-stuffs and also as a dye, and is one
of the most profitable of crops in India. The dye-yielding rhi-
zome is harder and much richer in colour than the edible.
CULTIVATION.
The preparation of the soil necessary for turmeric is similar to
that for ginger, but lands intended for turmeric need not be
worked so fine. The usual planting time in India is about the 20th
of May. The plants spring up in about a fortnight. One or two
weedings are necessary, and care must be taken that the fields
are not inundated. After about a year and nine months turmeric is
lifted. When it is raised the first year, as is the practice in some
places, the produce is less in quantity and inferior in quality.
PREPARATION OF THE ROOT-STOCK.
Various systems are apparently practised for preparing the rhi-
zome for the market. Of Bengal it has been said : "After the
rhizomes have been dug out of the ground, they are freed from the
fibrous roots and cleaned. They are then put in earthen pots, the
mouths of which are to be carefully closed with earthen covers
* Curcuma longa, Linn. luformation from Dictionary of Economic Products of
India; and Bentley and Trimen's Medicinal Plants.
1 64
and cow-dung. These pots are then very carefully heated. The
turmeric is made to boil in its own juice, a process which gets rid
of the raw smell of turmeric. It is then dried in the sun, the dry-
ing taking nearly a week, during which the turmeric requires to
be covered in the night to protect it from dew. In some places
tumeric is boiled in water in which a little cow-dung is mixed."
Of the north-west provinces. Sir E. C. Buck says : — " When
dug up the roots are boiled and dried in the sun ; in this form
they are the turmeric sold in the Indian bazaars. When the
dye is to be used the roots are again boiled and powdered while
wet. A decoction is then made of this paste in water, in which
the cloth is well steeped, being subsequently dried in the shade.
In the Kumaon district the roots are soaked in lime-juice and
borax before being powdered instead of being boiled." Of the
Punjab, Mr. Baden Powell says the tubers are taken up in
November and dried partly by the action of fire and partly by
exposure to the sun. Of Coimbatore it is reported : — The roots
are carefully sized and separately boiled in a mixture of cow-dung
and water, dried and sent to market."
CHARACTER AND VALUE IN COMMERCE.
There are two sorts of turmeric seen in commerce — the round
and the long, but both are the produce of the same plant ; the cen-
tral rhizomes or root-stocks constituting the round, and the lateral
or secondary rhizomes (r?(foT5) the long ; the latter are the more
abundant. The former are roundish or somewhat ovate, usually
from about one inch and a half to two inches in length, and one
inch in diameter, pointed at one end, and marked externally with
annular ridges. They are often found cut into halves. The latter
are somewhat cylindrical, more or less curved, pointed at the two
extremities, frequently having on their sides one or more short
knobs or shoots, about the thickness of the little finger, two or
three inches long, and marked externally with annular ridges.
Both sorts are yellowish externally, very hard and firm, and when
broken having a waxy-resinous appearance, and an orange-yellow
or reddish-brown colour. The powder is orange yellow. Tur-
meric has an aromatic taste and odour somewhat resembling gin-
ger, but peculiar. When chewed it tinges the saliva yellow.
The following is a quotation from the Market Report published
in the Chemist and Druggist for 23rd September last : —
"Good Madras finger has been sold at from 17s. to 17s. 6d. per
cwt., being steady, and Cochin split bulbs are quoted at from
7s. 9d. to 8s. per cwt., according to quantity."
DYE.
A special form of turmeric is grown for this purpose, namely
a harder root, much richer in the dye principle than in the ordi"
nary condiment form.
The colour is only deposited in the rhizome with age, and
hence, in all probability, the above mentioned forms have
been obtained by a process of careful selection of stock
165
observed to produce the colour freely. It is of importance,
however, that the European merchant, in purchasing for dye
purposes, should see that he gets the hard dye-yielding form and
not the softer aromatic condition, which is used as a condi-
ment.
The rhizome is still largely used by the European dyers,
though the fluctuation in the trade may be viewed as due
to the development of the aniline industry. Professor Hummel
says of it :- "Notwithstanding the very fugitive character of the
colour it yields, it is still much used, especially by the wool and silk
dyers for the production of compound shades — olives, browns, &c.
It gives a bright yellow colour without the aid of a mordant, but
when mordants are used with it, it yields other colours not unlike
those obtainable from the yellow dye-woods. The colouring
matter of turmeric is one of the few for which cotton has naturally
a strong attraction."
Although turmeric is rich in colouring matter, its want of per-
manence is a hindrance to its application as a dye-material.
Some time back the use of turmeric was almost exclusively limit-
ed to printing and dying silks. It is now employed to a vast extent
in stuff-dying, forming an important constituent in certain compound
colours, especially the so-called " sour-browns. "
FOOD.
Turmeric forms one of the indispensable ingredients in curries,
and is used for colouring confections, etc.
MEDICINE.
Turmeric contains about one per cent, of a volatile oil, to which
its odour is due, some starch, a yellow colouring matter called
curciimiu, and other unimportant substances. The alkalies change
the colour of curcumin to reddish brown ; and boracic acid pro-
duces an orange tint ; hence paper tinged with tincture of tur-
meric is largely employed as a test of the presence of alkalies.
Turmeric is not now used as a remedial agent, but is introduced
into the pharmacopoeias as a test of the presence of alkalies. For
this purpose the British Pharmacopoeia directs unsized white paper
to be steeped in tincture of turmeric and dried by exposure to the
air. It is also occasionally employed in pharmacy in colouring
ointments and other preparations.
Used as a stimulant in native medicine in India : externally
applied in pains and bruises, and internally administered in dis-
orders of the blood. Its use as an external applicant in bruises,
&c., is perhaps its most frequent medicinal application. The
fresh juice is said to be an anthelmintic. A decoction of the
rhizome is applied to relieve catarrh and purulent opthalmia.
166
JAMAICAN GINGER."
According to Gillespie Bros. & Go's. New York Market Report
for March l6, ginger continues to be the principal factor in the
spice market. The continued upward movement of the European
market, and the situation in Jamaica as reported by cable, make
it almost impossible to attempt to predict what price Jamaica root
will reach, or even to name quotations, London has advanced
2s. per cwt. within the past fortnight, and buyers here have
advanced their offers let. per lb., but were unable to obtain any
ginger even at the advance. With the situation as it is to-day, it
is possible to obtain almost any price within reason for the small
parcels that are coming to hand. On to-day's market we quote
from 8c. to 8|c. per lb. for dark scraggy root, and from lOc. to
I lie. per lb. for the small white to bright bold ginger.
STUDY OF CASTILLOA RUBBER, t
On La Zacualpa plantation in Ghiapas, Southern Mexico,
there has been established a botanical station, the principal object
of which is to study the Gentral American rubber tree (Castilloa
elastica), its culture, and the preparation of commercial rubber
from this tree. On La Zacualpa and affiliated plantations there
are now planted over three million trees, and at least two addi-
tional million trees will be planted. In connection with the botanical
station, there is a laboratory for chemical and physiological inves-
tigation of the latex. A complete meteorological observatory
will soon be ready on La Zacualpa, and two meteorological substa-
tions, will be established in the mountains close by, where simul-
taneous observations will be made at the elevations of 2,000 and
3,500 feet. The main station is situated at 250 feet above the sea,
twelve miles from the Pacific Ocean, on the lowlands at the foot
of Sierra Madre, about sixty miles from the border of Guatemala.
The director of the station is Dr. Pehr Olsson-Seffer from Stanford
University.
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES
The usual Monthly Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was
held at Headquarter House on Wednesday, 13th June. Present :-
The Director of Public Gardens, the Island Chemist, His Grace
the Archbishop, the Superintending Inspector of Schools, Messrs.
C. A. T. Fursdon, C. E. DeMercado, J. W. Middleton, and the
Secretary.
Acting Chairman — The Secretary read letter from the Colonial
Secretary's Oifice intimating that the Governor had appointed Mr.
* Extract from the Agriciiltwral A'eios, April 14th, 1906.
tFrom Science, March 16. I:fl6. p, 439.
i67
T. L. Roxburgh, Acting Colonial Secretary, to act as a Member of
the Board, and as Chairman in the room of Mr. Bourne, Colonial
Secretary, who had been granted leave of absence from the 9th
inst. Mr Roxburgh then took the chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of the previous meeting which
were confirmed.
Commercial Agent in London — The Archbishop said as a mat-
ter arising out of the minutes he would like to ask the opinion of
the Board whether they should drop the matter of a Commercial-
Agent in London owing to the adverse reply of the Governor, or
whether they should go on with it, and if so what should be done.
He quoted from a lecture delivered at the Colonial Institute, what
South African Colonies were doing to find new markets for their
products. He believed that what His Excellency had quoted as
Mr. Chamberlain's decision against Crown Colonies having Agents
did not refer to Commercial Agents, but referred first to a political
agent and second to a man doing business on his own account,
but what we wanted was purely a Commercial Agent whose atten-
tion would be wholly devoted to the commercial interests of the
Colony. There was need in this Colony for Government support,
not only for the stimulus it would give the matter but for the status
it would give the Colony.
Mr. Middleton supported the idea of going on with the matter.
Mr. DeMercado said he supported the idea, but in this matter
almost everything would depend on the personality of the agent.
The Board unanimously agreed that the Committee already ap-
pointed to deal with the matter should take it up again, viz : the
Archbishop, Mr. Middleton and Mr. Murray.
Elder Dempster & Co. £500 & Instruetors — The Secretary read let-
ter from the Colonial Secretary's Office transmitting copy of a
despatch from the Secretary of State for the Colonies stating that
this Government would receive £500 a year to be paid by Messrs.
Elder, Dempster & Co. in lieu of their Instructors, provided the
money was devoted by the Government to the same purpose.
The Secretary submitted letter from the Colonial Secretary's
Office stating that the Governor had perused with interest the
report on the successful working of the High Ether Instalation
at Hampden Estate.
Labourers on Estates — The Secretary read letter from the Secre-
tary of the Northside Sugar Planters' Association in reply to his
letter, stating that with reference to the sale of beef, pork and bread
by overseers on sugar estates the practice did not prevail on the
northside estates as it was the general rule on them that particular
care be taken to pay the labourers in full, and no compulsion
was put on them to buy anything, and that it appeared the
present law was sufficient to meet such cases.
The Secretary stated that he had no reply from the Secretary
of the Westmoreland Sugar Planters' Association.
Mr. Cradwick & St. Mary Shoiv — A letter from the St. Mary Show
Committee was submitted stating that as rains prevented Mr. Crad-
wick from carrying out his programme for week ending June 9th
I68
they would ask the further concession of allowing him to be in
the parish for week ending 23rd June, besides week ending 30th
as at present arranged.
The Board agreed that if this could be carried out, without dis-
arranging Mr. Cradwick's itinerary materially, it might be done.
The following reports from the Director of Public Gardens
were submitted : —
1. Hope Experiment Station.
2. Instructors.
The following report from the Chemist was submitted : —
Candidates selected by the Advisory Committee to attend
Distillers' Course.
These were approved with the addition of Mr. F. L. Clark,
Richmond Estate, who was one of the first applicants but whose
name had been omitted in error from the list, the extra £lO grant
to be met from savings in the Sugar Experiment Station vote.
The following papers which had been circulated but had not
yet been before the Board were submitted : —
Resignation of Mr. Rudolf— Letler from C. S. O. for the information
of the Board re resignation of Mr. Rudolf.
The Secretary stated that the Report of the Board of Agriculture
and of the Chemist for the year ending 31st March, 1906, had not
been returned from circulation yet.
The following papers which had been circulated were now sub-
mitted for final consideration : —
1. Work of Agricultural Students for Easter Term.
2. Report Hope Experiment Station.
3. Reports by Mr. Cradwick and Mr. Briscoe.
The meeting then adjourned till Wednesday Ilthjuly, at2
p. m.
[Issued lllh July, 1906.]
Printed at the- Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam.
BULLETIN
OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTimE.
Vol. IV. AUGUST, 1906. Part 8.
EDITED BY /
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S.,
Director of Public Gardens aiid Plmitations.
CONTENTS:
•
PAGE.
Para Rubber
169
Lagos Silk Rubber ...
171
Notes on the "Castilloa" Rubber Tree — II
172
Planting Seed Coco-nuts — II
176
Brazilian Coffee
176
Camphor in Ceylon — II
177
Tobacco dust as a Fertilizer and Insecticide
178
The Lleren : a rare root crop
178
Tanier, the oldest crop
180
Ring Barking
182
Forests and Rivers ...
188
Board of Agriculture
191
PRIG E— Threepence.
A Copy will be supplied tree to any Resident in .Jamaica, who will send name and
address to the Director of Public GarJous and Plantations, Kingston P.O.
KINGSTON, JAMAICA ;
Hope Gardens.
1906.
JAMAICA.
BULLETIN LIBRARY
^ " •:
OF THE B-
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Vol. IV. AUGUST, 1906. Part 8.
PARA RUBBER.
Review by W. G. Freeman, in Botanisches Centralblatt.
Wright, Herbert, Hcvca braziUensis or Para Rubber. Its botany,
cultivation, chemistry and diseases. (A .M. and J. Ferguson,
Colombo. I06 and VII. pp. With 28 plates. 1905.)
The first plants of Para Rubber were received at Heneratgoda,
Ceylon, from Kew in 1875, having been raised from seed collected
by Mr. Wickham in the Ciringals of the Rio Tapajos. Propaga-
tion, first by cutting and later by seed, was carried on and now
there are some 40,000 acres of this plant in Ceylon whilst large
quantities of seed have been distributed to many parts of the
world. Although at first it iwas thought that Hcvca should be
planted in places but little above the sea-level it has been shown
that it will grow up to 2,000 feet and even higher in some districts of
the island. The laticiferous system is briefly described and the
functions of the latex discussed.
At Para itself there is a rain-fall of 80 to 120 inches and a mean
temperature of 75' to 8l"F., and although it is pointed out that these
conditions are not absolutely necessary for the cultivation of Para
rubber, many parts of the tropics possess them and in these areas
the industry promises to become as important as in Ceylon, the
Malay Peninsula and India.
The cultivation of the plant is dealt with in detail, and illustrated
by views of trees grown in various conditions, e.g., drained swampy
lands, rocky hillsides, &c. With wide planting coffee and cacao
can be grown with success amongst Hevea,^Nh.\\si as "catch crops"
for the first few years, Groundnuts {Arachis hypogaca), Cassava
{Manihot utilissima) and lemon grass {Andropogon) have given good
results.
A chapter is devoted to soils and manuring. Three chapters
treat fully of the important question of tapping. The harm done
by bad tapping by which the wood is injured is illustrated. Vari-
ous patterns of tapping instruments are described and illustrations
given of several ; GoUedge's knife, and Bowman's and Northway's
170
knives are spoken of as having given good results. The use of
scrapers of any kincf is deprecated on the ground that in practice
they tend to clog the freshly opened latex tubes. There are four
principal methods in vogue of tapping trees, (a) single oblique
lines, (b) V-shaped incisions, (c) single oblique cuts joined by a
vertical channel ; known as " half-herring-bone" when all the cuts
are on one side of the vertical line, and "full herring-bone" when
on both sides, (d) spiral curves. The advantages and disadvan-
tages of the various methods are discussed. Owing to the favour-
able results obtained, the last method has recently gained favour
in Ceylon and elsewhere. The main stem is practically the onlj^
part of the tree to be tapped and the greatest yields are obtained
from the lower portion, up to six feet from the ground level. Some
doubt appears to exist as to the quality of the latex obtained from
higher levels and contrary lesults are reported from different
localities. It is most important in practice to take advantage of
what is now generally known as the " wound response" which is
usually obvious within 24 to 48 hours after the first tapping. In
an experiment quoted the yield of latex obtained from the same
number of incisions, over approximately the same area on one tree,
increased from 61 cc. on the first tapping, to 449 cc. on the four-
teenth tapping, about two a half months later. Tapping every
day either for the whole of the rainy season or during alternate
months has given excellent results on a large scale on several
Ceylon estates. Trees to tap should, in Ceylon, be not less than
20 inches in circumference 3 feet from the ground and at least 4
to 6 years old. Such trees may be expected to yield I to 3 lb. of
dry rubber per tree up to their tenth year and much more in sub-
sequent years. Exceptionally well developed trees have given as
much as 12 to 25 lb. a year without shewing any ill effects or
signs of exhaustion.
The general physical and chemical properties of latex are
briefly touched upon and analyses quoted of that derived from the
plant under discussion. The production of rubber from latex is
fully discussed, and the various methods and machines employed
are described, as also the purification, vulcanisation and uses of
rubber.
The commercial varieties of Para rubber are enumerated, their
preparation described, and comparative chemical analyses given
of various kinds of plantation rubber from Ceylon and the Straits
Settlements.
The recently established value of the seeds of Hcvea hrasilicnsis
as a source of oil is pointed out, as also the possible use of the
residual cake as a feeding stuff. The methods of transporting
the seeds in a living condition are discussed ; the best results
appear to have been obtained by packing them in powdered char-
coal and sawdust in sealed tins. The use of Wardian cases is
however still the most satisfactory method. A chapter is devoted
to the diseases of the plant, and an appendix contains estimates
supplied by planters of the cost of planting rubber in Ceylon.
171
LAGOS SILK RUBBER.
The following notes on the Silk Rubber of Lagos are taken
from an article by M. E. De Wildman published in the Revue des
Cultures Coloniales, and translated in the Agricultural Bulletin of
the Straits and Federated Malay States, Vol. II., 4 April, 1903,
p. 136.
The plant is specially cultivated at present in Western Africa
in the Congo Free State and on the Cameroons, and is, according
to the author, the best rubber plant to cultivate in these regions,
and this is so for several reasons, it is easy to procure seed as the
plant is wild in this part of the world and one can be sure that
it will grow well as the soil and climate are naturally suitable for
it. The German Colonial reports show that Funtumias of the
same age as Castilloas are relatively more advanced, the Funtu-
mias give seed at the end of two years and a half, while the Cas-
tilloa fruits only at the end of from three and a half to four years.
If one compares the latex of the two, at the same age, one can see
that it is much mojre concentrated, less watery and sticky in Fun-
tumia than in Castilloa, and that it can give a return more quickly.
Castilloa, according to M. Koschny can only be milked when
eight years old. As to the rubber itself, that of Funtumia is as
good or better than that of Castilloa. The results of comparative
researches with Funtumia and Castilloa in West Africa are in
favour of the former.
The seed, sown freshly gathered, sprouts after about 15 days
and grows very rapidly, and the plants are readily transported. If
at first the stem bifurcates forming a bush, either a shoot is deve-
loped above the bifurcation, or one branch grows more strongly
than the other eventually forming the trunk. Among the advan-
tages of Funtumia one may mention that the latex flows more
easily and quickly than that of Castilloa or Ficus and the seeds
keep good for 6 weeks and even germinate after three months.
Nor is the Funtumia particular as to soil, it grows equally well in
lateritic or basaltic soils, in soils rich in humus or stony. As to
altitude, it has been noticed that it does best below 800 metres.
It is reckoned that in April, 1902, there were in the Cameroons
200,000 plants, exclusive of wild ones. The plan of planting
Funtumias in a lightly cleared forest as has been frequently done
is not recommended. They do not grow so well in shade as in
full sun when they are too week to resist the drying action of
sun and wind, they naturally should be protected, but when
they are strong enough to resist this'they develop better when fully
exposed to the sun, provided that the ground is damp enough.
From the experiments made in plantations in German territory
the Funtumias should be planted 6 metres apart.
The tree is one of the best shade trees for cocoa, but as it is
pyramidal in foim it will be necessary to plant close which is not
a disadvantage. It is also recommended to use the tree to grow
vanilla on as in ten years when the vanilla is dying out the rubber
trees will be ready for tapping. The latex is coagulated by boil-
172
ing, but this must be done gently and can only be done after the
addition of water. It is advisable also to stir the mass while boil-
ing slowly to prevent the formation of a porous mass in which por-
tions of uncoagulated latex may be included. After coagulation
the rubber must be carefully washed.
NOTES ON THE "CASTILLOA" RUBBER
TREE-II.*^
By "A. Forester," Bluefields, Nicaragua, February 1906.
What latex is to the tree is still a debatable question. I think
that it is simply a protection against insects and evaporation
whenever the tree is wounded. Anything striking against the out-
"side bark, if it hits hard enough, will bruise the inner bark so that
the latex flows. An examination of this place a day or two later
will show a thin coat of rubber entirely covering the bruise. Tro-
pical trees do not have the thick outer corky bark of northern
trees. Anything striking them is liable to bruise the inner bark.
This sheet of rubber forming would protect the bruise from too
much evaporation and from insect attacks. Leaf cutter ants do
not attack the leaves of Ccistilloa and cattle do not seem to be fond
of them, but I believe that this is not due to the latex but due to
the thick coat of epidermal hairs, a thing which few tropical trees
seem to possess. It is noticeable that ants do attack Hcvca which
has not a hairy leaf.
The study of the structure of the latex shows that it has two dis-
tinct parts — watery solutions and a solid substance in minute glo-
bules. The watery solutioi>s contain no rubber. They do contain
the substance which forms the residue of the black water, though
this substance is apparently changed by oxidation before becom-
ingblack water. They may also contain sugars and proteids, as
these substances are evidently there, but it is more than likely that
these substances are not in the original latex but come from some
other bark tissue than the "milk tubes."
The solid globules are principally rubber but they are said to
be surrounded by protoplasm and contain a nucleus. In that case
they would be cellular in their nature. As the tube in which they
are enclosed is already a cell, it would be a case of a cell within
a cell, which is rather rare in botany. At the same time they are
very small for cells. I have not been able to examine the structure
of the single globule, as my microscope is not powerful enough, but
I think that they are not cellular but are originally chromotophores
in which rubber has been stored. In that case they would be
forrsed in a similar manner to starch grains in a potato and other
roots. I believe that this is the case and that the substance in so-
lution, later forming the black water, bears the same relation to
rubber that sugar does to starch ; that is, they are similar forms of
♦From the India Rubber World. Continued from Bulletin for May.
173
carbohydrates which can be readily changed from one to the other
by the action of an enzyme, and when they are to be transported
from the soluble substance and, when stored, the solid substance.
This state of things seems to be the same in all latex bearing
plants, as all that I have examined contain this watery solution
and the solid globules, though the watery solution does not always
turn black and the solid globule is not always rubber, but some
times a sticky substance.
Dr. Weber asserted that the black water was due to oxidation
and he believed that rubber itself was an oxidation product. Latex
which is gathered and quickly corked up away from the air,
forms no black water. Black water gets blacker for longer stand-
ing in the air until about five days after gathering. Fresh black
water can immediately be turned to its deepest black by ammonia,
but ananonia will not affect black water five days old. I believe
that the action of ammonia is the same as the oxidation in the
air. Contact with metals will make black water blacker. Sugar
slowly takes the black colour away and latex which has not been
allowed to oxidize has water which resembles that formed by
sugar. I believe that sugar reduces it to its former state. I do not
see any reason to think that rubber itself is an oxidation product.
It is possible, but if so it can be further oxidized by the use of
nitric acid.
The problem of tapping has a great deal to with how the latex
is situated in the tree. According to most writers it is carried in
" milk tubes" which are in the bark and are arranged vertically. I
have not found any writers who seem to know what these milk
tubes are like — whether the latex runs up or down in them, or
what connection these milk tubes have with other parts of the
plant. When I first got here I tried a number of experiments,
trying to increase the flow of latex by multiple tapping, gradual
tapping, and so on, but all these failed. The reason for these
failures I now attribute to the shape and position of the latex
carrying tissue in the plant. This tissue, I believe, is the part
known as the bast fibre. Bast fibres are long fibrous threads,
tapering to a point on each end, having a thick, tough wall and in
most plants dead, and containing nothing in the cell cavity.
In the Castilloa, the microscope shows that the bast fibres have
a larger cell cavity than in most plants. It is reasonable to sup-
pose that they are in such cases alive and contain something. I
have seen no other tissues in the Castilloa bark which contain the
latex and therefore believe that these bast fibres do. The bast
fibres are arranged vertically and are probably only a few inches
long. Those I have examined in temporary branches were from
I to 3 inches, but they are probably longer in older parts of the
trees. The fibres are probably connected to each other by pits
but I have not been able to locate these connections. These pits
would not allow solid substances to pass from one fibre to another,
but would allow water and watery solutions.
The rubber being in solid globules is probably formed right in
the fibre itself. The fibres are not arranged in regular joints, as
174
was the opinion of Carlos Berger, but are irregularly arranged,
the tapering end of one fibre fitting between other fibres. When
the fibres are cut across by a tapping instrument their content is
ejected by bark pressure. Such a cut will take latex from the
tree only for a distance of 3 or 4 inches each side of the cut. This
shows that the latex does not run up and down the tree or from
one fibre to another. If no more cuts are made, the latex will not
be renewed in the cut fibre for some time (not entirely for about 3
months), although the surrounding fibres are full of latex. This
shows that all the latex from the tree cannot be taken from one
cut.
The distance apart that cuts should be made around the tree is
a disputed subject, and depends not only on the length of the bast
fibres and the way to get the most yield, but also on the amount of
injury done to the tree. If yield were the only consideration, one
foot would be a good distance and would give, I believe, the
maximum yield. Eighteen inches will give close to the maximum,
giving enough more latex from each cut to make up for the fewer
cuts. Both of these distances, however, are objectionable, because
a large number of cuts appears to detract from the healing powers
of the tree, and the more cuts, the greater the chances of the tree
being injured by the borer. Another point in the number of cuts
is the time and labour in making the cuts. Six cuts to a tree is
twice as much labour as 3 cuts, but if it does not give twice as
much rubber it would be cheaper to make 3 cuts and tap a larger
number of trees in a day.
The tapping is now being done with only 3 cuts per tree ; one
at the base, one at 5 feet from the ground, and one halfway
between these. Tapping above 5 feet necessitates the use of lad-
ders, and this would mean' more labour and would hardly pay
with young trees. I believe the making of 4 cuts, the top one 6
feet from the ground, would give enough more than 3 cuts to pay,
if it is not too great an injury to the tree.
The first signs of healing appear between one and two weeks
after the cut is made, and in two months at the latest the cut is
well healed. In time the old cut will fill with new material which
contains latex and can be tapped again if necessary. Another
strong reason why the tool should cut to the cambium is that not
only does the shallow cut miss cutting some " milk tubes" but it
misses a very large proportion of the tubes. The milk tubes are
formed by the cambium in layers. The ones closest to the outside
bark were formed when the tree was very young and small in cir-
cumference. At that time the patches of tubes were'close together.
Since then the same number of tubes had to spread out and cover
a circumference of, say 18 or 20 inches. The spaces between
these tubes are filled by medullary rays which run from the pith
outward through the wood to the outside bark. Therefore the out-
ermost layers contain very few milk tubes, the next more, and so
on, until the innermost layer has the most since it was formed
when the circumference was greatest. This is borne out in facts.
175
A much larger yield is actually obtained by cutting into the cam-
bium than by cutting almost into it.
Another thing to be avoided is cutting too deep. When a cut
goes through the cambium into the wood the healing commences
at the edges of the cut cambium, and has to spread slowly, making
new cambium before it can make new bark or wood. If too much
wood is exposed in this case it will often dry up before the cam-
bium can heal over and in that case it never heals. I have seen
an old machete cut with a half inch of wood exposed, with the
bark thoroughly healed all round it. I was told that it had been
that way without healing for two years.
As to the time to tap, there appears to be no reason why the
trees should not be tapped at any time during the rainy season. I
should imagine that the dryest season in March and April would
be a poor time, but I have not been here during that season. Rain
generally makes the milk rather watery and makes it flow more
freely, but I have never seen it so watery that it would not pay to
tap, except in a tree which had been recently tapped. Tapping in
heavy rain would not do, as it would wash the latex, which does
not flow into the cups and might fill up the cups and spill the
latex in them.
Temperature affects the flow of latex very noticeahly. The
yield of rubber is much greater in the early morning than at any
other time of the day, and always decreases toward noon and in-
creases toward night. This is not so noticeable on cool cloudy
days. It would probably not be so noticeable in a shady planta-
tion and for this reason some people have claimed that shade
grown trees yield more. I believe that the reason temperature af-
fects the flow is because a large amount of the water is evaporated
and the latex is more solid and does not flow so fi'eely.
Experiments of others have shown that young trees and younger
parts of old trees contain a large percentage of resin in their rub-
ber. I have made one observation which suggests a reason for
this. In cutting a temporary branch, or leaf stem, it is noticeable
that the latex comes very close to the outside bark and that there
appears to be a second ring of tubes in the inner bark. Micros-
copic examination of these parts shows a large number of collen-
dyma cells close to the outside bark. These cells are similar to
bast fibres, but the the thick part of the walls is not uniform. Col-
lenchyma cells are never formed by older trees except in their
young parts. I think it possible that these coUendyma cells carry
latex which is richer in resins than ordinary latex and which may
possibly be entirely resin. Of course these coUenchyma cells re-
main in the plant as it grows older but form a very small propor-
tion of its tissue at that time. It is possible that rubber or resin
may have some chemical relation to the cellulose of which the
thick walls of both coUenchyma and bast fibres are formed.
176
PLANTING SEED COCO-NUTS.-II.*
The following notes on the preparation of seed coco-nuts for
planting, from the Report of the Philippine Bureau of Agriculture,
are worth noting : —
"In preparing nuts for planting the best results have been ob-
tained in the following manner. The nuts are selected from trees
known to be good bearers, bearing not less than 150 nuts per
year, these uniform in size, brown in husk, rich in copra and fully
ripe. Fully 98 per cent, thus selected will germinate successfully.
After cutting they should be placed immediately in the nursery
provided (of course in the shade), on the ground — not hung on
poles as the native is said to do. Prior to placing in seed beds, a
bit of the husk should be chipped off on one side, it should then
be laid, cut side up, and left to germinate. Nine months usually
elapses before they are ready for planting. The nut when placed
on end, as is sometimes done, sends out a spindling plumule,
easily broken at Ithe point of protuberance, and at best never
gains the vigour of those germinated according to the method
given. Two thousand nine hundred and thirty-one trees have
been planted this year, most of them on ground that has been
ploughed and pulverized and put in the same condition as for a
corn crop. The result has been a marvellous growth, the trees
being more than twice as large as those left to themselves."
BRAZILLIAN COFFEE.
The "Times" correspondent Rio Janiero says : — t
EXCHANGE.
The downward course of exchange continued apace from I7f
on the 1st February last to I4{ f; on the 14th of this month. The
recent movement was little short of hysterical. Between Good
Friday and Easter Sunday, there was no reason to believe that
there would be any greater demand for bills this year than usual,
yet the Banco da Republica changed the bank rate fifteen times !
Every one of these changes is telegraphed up and down the coast
at enormous e.xpense, and yet the only difference between opening
and closing rates was 3% or three points — that is to say, the mar-
ket opened at four point's below the closing on the previous work-
ing day, and oscillated round I5d. at intervals of about 20 minutes
for no other visible reason than to jkeep the brokers running and
the cable busy. If the 15 millions for valorisation is borrowed
and remitted (a contingency not more improbable because it has
been repeatedly denied) the balloon will once more be filled with
gas, but otherwise the ballast thrown out by the Banco da Repub-
lica can only help for a little while, and we may soon rest again
* Fro a the Hawaiian Forester and Agriculturist, April, 1906.
t See Bulletin, Oct., 1905 p. 215 ; June, 190C, p. ISr.
177
on the hill of 1 2d., dangerously near the precipice over which we
fell in 1897.
THE PROPOSED COFFEE TRUST.
The coffee valorisation scheme continues stagnant, owing to the
refusal of President Alves to call a special Session of Congress.
Dr. Nilo was very well received at the capital of Minas, which ap-
pears to indicate that both the States of Minas and Rio are luke-
warm regarding the project. In Sao Paulo, on the other hand,
planters and politicians are highly indignant at the dilatory action
of the Federal Government, and a seditious spirit is commencing
to make itself felt. Valorisation or separation is now the motto
of the extreme faction, and the government is doubtless now bit-
terly repentant at having been induced to play with fire. The po-
sition is extremely difficult, and it will be very interesting to see
how the executive will set about reconciling the Paulistas until
November, when President Penna will have to shew his hand.
Daily entries of coffee are much larger than usual for the time
of year, and Rio already shows an increase of over 300,000 bags
in comparison with last year. It is quite possible that we may re-
ceive nearly ten thousand bags per diem until the end of the sea-
son. An optimistic estimate of only 3,500,000 bags for next sea-
son has been widely disseminated.
CAMPHOR IN CEYLON.-II.
An article on this subject was published in this Bulletin for
June, page 129. The following extract is from a speech of His
Excellency Sir Henry Blake a short time ago in Ceylon.
I want to read you the results of an experiment made by Mr.
Kelway Bamber from four camphor trees growing at Hakgala,
which, as you know, is 5,500 feet above sea-level. Camphor is
growing and growing well at Henaratgoda almost on sea-level.
Therefore, we may assume, it will grow over almost any part of
this Island. These four trees were of different sizes. They took
the prunings of six or eight inches, and these six or eight inches
gave at the rate of 47 lbs. of prunings per tree. They calculated
that each tree ;would bear pruning four times a year, and that
would give 188 lbs. of prunings per tree per annum. Planted 12
by 12, it would give 56,400 lbs. per acre per annum of fresh pru-
nings. Now Mr. Bamber distilled from the fresh prunings I ' 5
per cent, of camphor, and from that 56,400 at I ' 5 there would be
864 lbs. of camphor per acre. Then take the cost of planting,
etc., at R144, distilling, fuel and labour at R30, weeding per acre
R6, in all R180, ;and you get a net result of £74 4s. per acre.
That is calculating camphor at 2s. per lb., camphor being 3s. per
lb. at present. Taking half the weight of prunings, take even a
quarter and you get about £l8 per acre; and it seems to me this
additional product is worth considering."
178
TOBACCO DUST AS A FERTILIZER AND INSEC-
TICIDE.
By George loutrel Lucas.
The waste product of all the American tobacco factories, in the
form of stems stripped from the leaves in the manufacture of to-
bacco products, is saved and finely ground and forms a valuable
by-product in the shape of a fertilizer and insecticide.
Good unsoaked stems contains 2 to 3/^ of nitrogen and 6 to I0/{
of potash, and only a trace of phosphoric acid ; the nitrogen ex-
ists in both the nitrate and organic forms.
The potash occurs principally in the soluble form, and is free
from chlorides judging from analysis.
The stalks are richer in nitrogen than the stems ranging from 3
to 4% nitrogen, but are considered poorer in potash. Tobacco is
an exhausting crop, and the dust would prove an excellent ferti
lizer to apply to tobacco fields.
A ton of good tobacco stems should contain nitrogen equivalent
to 500 pounds of nitrate of soda and potash equivalent to the
amount contained in 200 pounds of sulphate of potash.
I have used hundreds of tons of tobacco dust in the past 20
years, and my faith in its fertilizing properties is unshaken, and
could I procure it in any quantity in Jamaica, I would take all
offering ; but it is unprofitable to use unless finely ground, be-
cause, being so bulky in the form of stems, it becomes too expen-
sive to haul and handle.
Tobacco dust is especially valuable as a fertilizer and insecti-
cide for pine-apples, and it is the only safe article that can be used
for dropping in the bud or heart of the plants ; my plan is to go
over the pine-apple fields after the suckers or slips have been
planted 4 or 5 weeks and drop about a good pinch or two tea-
spoonsful into the heart of each plant ; this acts as a splendid
stimulant and kills the mealy bug and discourages ants from
building their nests at the base of the 'plants, and whilst it will
not kill ants, it will eventually drive them away for the want of
mealy bugs to feed upon ; the potash and ammonia contained in
the dust will stimulate the plants and force them to make a vigo-
rous growth and keep them free from insects and in a healthy
condition.
THE LLEREN: A RARE ROOT CROP.^
By O. W. Barrett.
Though perhaps one of the oldest cultivated plants, Calaihea
Alloiiya is almost unknown outside of the West Indies ; it is occa-
sionally cultivated in Trinidad and several other of the British
Antilles but appears to attain its greatest development and popu-
larity in Porto Rico.
» From Plant World, Vol VII, No. 6, June 1904.
179
Taxonomically it stands in the Zingiberaceae near Phrynium.
In habit above ground it resembles the Turmerics (Curcuma) but
has the pseudo-stem of Amomum ; the subterranean habit is very
similar to that of some of the Phryniums. According to Grise-
bach, the flower is small, white, and borne in roundish heads, like
those of ginger — very unlike the large, fragrant, pale lilac, radical
flower of Calathea (Phryiiiiini) zcbrina.
The clumping habit of the family is exemplified in the slow-
spreading cluster of 10 to 25 loosely attached "heads," each of
which bears a false stem composed of 4 to 8 erect, sheathing
petioles. These " heads" may be considered as a kind of short
stem, some 2 to 3 inches long and about I inch in diameter, or as
a rhizome lying just beneath the surface of the soil and receiving
at its base the roots and tuber stipes. New shoots are produced
either from the tip of the " head" or from the side ; thus the indi-
vidual head is at least biennial while the clump is, of course,
perennial. Growth ceases at the end of the rainy season, about
December, and begins about April : the mat of dead leaves serves
to protect the succulent, truncate " heads" from the fierce winter's
sun.
The oblong-linear or linear-lanceolate leaf blade tapers abruptly
at the tip but runs very gradually at the base into the slender,
yellowish, channelled petiole. The strong veins, running at a
rather small angle with the mid-rib, especially near the base, give
the lamina a somewhat corrugated appearance ; and though the
petiole is always erect and rather stout, the mid-rib allows the long
blade to droop gracefully.
Strong clumps growing in rich, cool soil or in partial shade
attain a height of 3 or even 4 feet, the leaves from the central
heads being much taller than those from the outside of the clump.
By nature the Lleren is evidently a plant of the jungle and shaded
river banks. At present it does not lappear to grow wild any-
where in Porto Rico ; like the " Yautia" {Xanthosoina spp.), it seems
to have become through its hundreds of centuries of domestication
an utter slave to human husbandry. In ifact it rarely flowers and
never (?) produces seed; while it is not impossible to find natives
who will admit having seen the large " Yautia" (Xanthosma)
flowers, I have been uable to find one who remembered seeing
those of the Lleren.
The most important part of this interesting plant, however, is
the peculiar tuber-like bodies which are borne on slender roots
or stipes, from 3 to 6 inches beneath the soil surface. This
pseudo-tuber is oval or elliptic in shape, from I to 2 inches in
length, and covered with a thin smoothish cuticle of a pale yellow-
ish colour ; a few small rootlets are attached to the outer skin as
well as to the stipe. The fact that no " eyes" are present pre-
cludes its being termed a tuber, but the abruptness with which it
arises at the tip of the more or less specialized root which is not
continued within the starch body, mark it as the limit of a root
running tuberward. The centre of this body, to the extent of
about one-third of the entire content, is occupied by a translucent
i8o
portion of a firm and crisp but gelatinous nature ; the main por-
tion resembles the interior of the common potato but is finer-
grained and much more gummy. Though the glutinous character
disappears upon cooking, the crispness remains even after pro-
longed boiling.
The thin cuticle being removed after cooking, there appears a
delicious morsel, snow-white outside, semi-transparent in the
centre, which may be eaten as a side dish with butter, or, as many
prefer, as a relish with salt, like radishes ; it is also good in soups.
From December to May it is fairly common in the markets and is
also frequently sold, cooked but not peeled, in the streets in the
evening — a dozen or so tied in a bunch with the attached root-
stems, at I cent, per bunch ; they thus take the place of pea-nuts.
The flavour of the Lleren is difficult to describe — there is cer-
tainly a taste like sweet-corn, and something quite its own besides.
The surest thing about it is that if you try it once, you will again.
TANIER, THE OLDEST CROP."
By O. W. Barrett.
Of all the plants which made life possible to the wild men of
old Caribea, the handiest was undoubtedly the Tanier. It grew in
the loose alluvium along the forest streams and its tempting
tubers were continually in evidence to the savage ancestors of
the forefathers of the Arawaks. The idea of the goodness of
these roots once grasped, a few worthless plants pulled out from
among the edible ones, a sprouting tuber fragment purposely
trodden into the soil — and agriculture was begun.
There is very good reason, as Mr. O. F. Cook has shown,t for
believing that the cultivation of economic plants originated in
Tropical America ; and in many ways the Tanier appears to have
been cultivated longer than any other plant in this region.
Nearly all the cultivated plants of the world readily produce
seed ; but the Tanier, though flowering under favourable circum-
slances, has entirely lost its natural power to ripen seeds. Some
varieties of the yam, the sweet potato, and even of the banana
occasionally bear seeds in the home of the Tanier ; but many of
their varieties have been introduced from other regions and their
varieties are not so numerous in islands like Jamaica and Porto
Rico as those of the Tanier.
As a vegetable slave this remarkable old crop has been spared
the fate of most economics — exile from its own home ; for, strange
as it may seem, the Tanier still remains almost unknown outside
of Tropical America. Other food-plants have been carried to
the far corners of the earth ; others less easily propagated and
less productive, like the taro and the yam, have become staple
* From the Plant ]]'orld, October 1904.
■f "The American Origin of Agriculture," Populwr Science Monthly, October, 190S.
i8l
articles in all hot countries, Central America included. This ap-
parently paradoxical fact will undoubtedly be explained when the
history of agriculture is better known.
The family Araceae is one of the most interesting and impor-
tant in the realm of plants, the genus Colocasia alone includes
about fifty edible varieties (thetaros) and XantJwsoma (the taniers)
holds about the same number of kinds. Until recently the
taniers were confused with the taros, the usual local confusion
of names helping to perpetuate the error even amongst those who
must have known better. To be sure there is some similarity
between the two plants in their appearance above ground, but the
intrinsic characters of the leaves, flowers, and roots are very dis-
tinct.
Though its varieties have scores of names throughout Tropical
America, "' Yautia" is probably the oldest name of which we have
any record ; this was the general term applied by the aborigines
when the Spaniards arrived in Porto Rico, the island which, from
the first, was most famous for its agricultural advancement. And
in this island has the " Yautia" reached its highest development —
running here into some twenty distinct native varieties. About ten
kinds are grown in the Windward Islands ; northern South Ame-
rica has but very few ; Cuba and Hayti have half a dozen or less ;
and the few varieties of Central America appear coarse and un-
producttve in comparison with the Porto Rican sorts. Taya,
Tanier, or Cocoe are the common names in the British West In-
dies ; in Cuba and Santo Domingo both Taro und Tanier are in-
cluded under the name " Malanga ;" while in the Central American
republics it passes under almost as many names as there are In-
dian tribes.
Few plants yield a higher proportion of food material for the
weight of the entire plant than does the Tanier; in fact fully 75
percent, of the weight of some types is food. In the " Rollisa"
variety of Porto Rico the tubers comprise about 35 per cent, of
the weight of the living plant and the edible rootstock about 20
per cent, more ; the young leaves are also edible, closely resem-
bling spinach when boiled, but having more " body" and a richer
flavour. The central stem, or rhizome, of many varieties is com-
monly eaten by the poorer classes but contains some fibre and only
15 to 20 per cent, of starch.
The obovoid or roundish tuberous roots are borne just below
the surface of the soil, loosely attached at right angles to the cen-
tral stem. In cropping, the leaves are grasped in the hands and
the whole mass of tubers usually comes up with one good pull,
and a quick shake will detach most of them from the parent root.
Individual tubers weigh from a few ounces in some types to one
and one-half or even two pounds in the better sorts. Each plant
produces from two to four pounds, but since six thousand to ten
thousand plants can be grown on an acre the yield is six to twenty
tons of superior roots containing 20 per cent, to 30 per cent, of
starch and little fibrous matter. Five to ten tons of the rhizomes,
which may be utilized for feeding swine or for making starch,
l82
may be added to these figures. By removing tlie first tubers as
soon as ripe, by means of a " macliete" and allowing the plant to
remain in situ for six months longer, a second crop may be har-
vested ; by this method, called " castration" in Trinidad, it is esti-
mated that an acre of Tanier can be made to yield thirty tons of
tubers at one planting ; few crops can produce one half of this
amount.
Though preferring rich, moist loam, the Tanier is content with
almost any soil ; like its near relative, the Taro, or Elephant's
Ear, it revels in plenty of fresh water, but while the leaf develop-
ment may be greater in wet situations the tuber percentage suffers.
The leaves vary from pale green to deep mauve purple ; in some
sorts, like the " Palma," leaves three feet wide by four feet long
are common. A Tanier field in its prime is a beautiful sight.
Boiled, fried, or baked, the better kinds of Tanier are superior
to the Irish potato ; though most varieties are not so " mealy" they
are richer, firmer, and possess more distinct flavour. Most sorts
are pure white, but four are pinkish purple, and several are of
various shades of yellow. The roots keep fairly well after har-
vesting and would undoubtedly endure shipping to the Central
States.
And now that the days of popular prejudice against anything
new in the food line are dying out fortunately, we may expect to
see the rare and royal old Tanier soon entering the northern mar-
kets and rapidly gaining favour as one of the best of many good
things to come out of the Tropics. Twenty thousand years late
but it will win !
RING-BARKING.
By A. TATHAM, Australia.*
Seeing what a vast amount of ring-barking has been performed
in Australia in the past, it may seem somewhat of an anomaly to
describe the process now. This article, it is hoped, will be of use
to future operators, and tend to prevent, or at least lessen, some of
the annoyances and expense usually connected with it. Tne sub-
ject will be discussed under the following heads : —
Why does ring-barking kill a tree .''
How to ring-bark.
When to ring-bark.
Ring-barking compared with felling and burning-off.
WHY DOES RING-BARKING KILL A TREE .'
The only way to answer this question is to describe the struc-
ture and functions of the roots, stem, and leaves of a tree. A tree
cannot grow unless it gets moisture, as it is utterly incapable of
getting nourishment from the soil except in a soluble form. The
roots that perform this office are the very fine thread-like ones
♦Agricultural Journal of Victoria, IH. 9, 190.5, p. 642.
183
found at the ends of the large ones. They are composed of
elongated cells, the walls of which contain numerous thin spots
on their surface. So thin are these that water can pass through
them but absolutely nothing else, not the smallest particle of solid
material, except the root is in any way injured. These cells are
packed close together, and the thin spots in each coincide with
those of the adjacent one. There is no opening whatever in their
walls. So far, science has not actually proved exactly how mois-
ture ascends to the leaves of a tree. As many cells are found in
the stem that have such dense walls, it almost appears impossible
for moisture to penetrate them. And yet it is by these cells in
the stem that the sap ascends, the action being different to that of
the root cells. Whenever two liquids of different densities are
separated from each other by a membranous partition, it is na-
ture's law that the denser fluid v\?ill attract the lighter, until both
become the same density. This action is called endosmose. Now
the cells in the roots of trees contain reserve material, stored there
from the previous year's growth, and composed of mucilage and
protoplasm, which is far denser than water. When the soil gets
moist, the water in it is attracted through the cell walls to the
denser liquid in the cell. This action goes on from cell to cell
till it reaches the stem. Here capillary action starts. The sap
ascends to the leaves, through the wood cells of the vascular bun-
dles. These, in addition to other kinds of cells, form what is
known as the sap-wood. The action of the rising sap is very
rapid. As soon as it gets to the leaves it is elaborated and re-
verts again to the roots. The water taken up is largely evaporated
by the leaves ; the matter retained by them being the nourishment
obtained from the soil, plus the reserve material from the roots.
This at once causes a denseness of cell contents, that attracts the
thinner rising sap, and so the action goes on till want of moisture
in the soil prevents it. A tree, as is well known, is composed of
two kinds of wood — heart and sap. The heartwood is to all in-
tents and purposes dead, it takes no part in the life of the tree,
other than to support the crown. It is in the heart that decay first
sets in. It is possible for a tree to live for years with little or no
heartwood, as may be seen in the case of a hollow one. The
sapwood on the other hand, is the life of the tree, as by it the
sap ascends and descends.
Having now seen how sap rises in a tree, the next and most
important point is how does it come down, for it does come down,
otherwise tree stems would never increase in girth. The leaves
are the organs of nutrition, as well as respiration. The substance
sent up by the roots has been utilized to form new shoots and
leaves, in other words, height growth. As soon as warm weather
sets in, the leaves begin to collect material from the atmosphere,
mostly, carbon. Quite four-fifths of the carbon used in the struc-
ture of a tree is obtained in this way, the quantity used may be
guaged by the amount of charcoal left after the wood has been
burned. They also return to the atmosphere oxygen. The pro-
cess of respiration is carried on through minute cells, found chiefly
1 84
on the under side of the leaf, called stomata. During dull, cold,
or wet weather these cells are closed ; but on a bright warm day
they open, and the work of the tree growth is briskly carried on.
The leaves collect the gases from the atmosphere, digest the car-
bon dioxide with the moisture, and dilute plant food from the
roots, and pass it down along the branches and stem to them again.
As this substance passes down, it takes a totally different course
to the sap that came up. Instead of going down through the cells
in the wood, it descends between the stem and the bark, and, as
it does so, adheres to the stem, and gives birth to the cambium
layer which forms the annual ring, or a year's growth of new
wood. It is as well to remember this growth begins at the top of
the tree ; if it were not so, ring-barking would be work thrown
away. The roots of ithe tree are also supplied with nutrition,
which is stored in their cells, and is used the following season for
future height growth. Having seen now the uses of the different
parts of the tree and the system adopted by nature to keep life
going, it is not very difficult to understand why ring-barking kills
a tree. When a ring of bark is removed from the stem it severs,
so to speak, the connection between the leaves and the roots. The
downward flow of sap is voluminous, as well as rapid, and if only
a narrow strip of bark be removed the wound is soon healed over.
But let a broad band be taken, the sap, as a rule, cannot repair
damages and the drying influence of the atmosphere and sunlight
cause it to perish. But even this can be healed, if paper is wrapped
round the ringed portion, so as to exclude air and light. Now,
above the cut or ring, growth, still progresses. The root still send
up sap. The leaves still send it down, but it cannot pass back to
the roots. The roots are now isolated ; they are unable to get
nourishment for themselves, or to store up any for next season's
growth. Their cells are at last emptied of nutriment. They con-
tain only the material procured from the soil. Nature's law no
longer acts. Passing up moisture to the leaves ceases, and the
tree dies.
HOW TO RING BARK.
Although this operation is simplicity itself, still, unless care is
taken it will result in endless trouble, and unnecessary expense.
More especially in the case of young trees ; in fact, the younger
the tree the harder it is to kill, as a rule. Before describing the
manner of doing the work, it will be as well to explain some often
misquoted terms. Suckers are, strictly speaking, shoots that grow
from the roots only, not from the stem. Shoots grow from the
stem and branches. To ring bark properly, a band of bark
should be removed from round the stem of the tree of sufficient
width to prevent the possibility of the renewal of the bark. Not
less than 10 inches is advisable, and in the case of gum trees 15
inches is not too much, as they seem to possess greater recupera-
tive power than other trees. Great care should be taken that the
bark is entirely removed, and that the stem of the tree is cut into
as little as possible. It is advocated by some that to give a cut
185
into the stem tends to hasten the death of the tree; but it is not,
as a rule, an economical system. First, by cutting into the sap-
wood, the rise of sap is arrested ; not being able to get up to the
leaves, it causes a dense mass of shoots to grow below the cut.
These often take two stripping operations before the stump is
killed. Second — the cutting into the wood, especially in young
trees under 8 inches in diameter, causes them to be so weakened
that the first gale breaks them off. The result is double work
getting rid of the shoots, and also the fallen tree. It must be ad-
mitted that the tree-top often does die very quickly after this style
of work ; but as it is the roots that have to be killed, and as it
fails to do so, it cannot be recommended. "More haste less
speed," is very applicable to ring-barking. Where trees of. a large
size have to be operated on, say 2 feet and over in diameter, what
is often permissible, and, in fact, preferable, is to "chip-ring," i.e.
cut well into the sapwood ; the death of the tree is speedy, and
only in a few cases do shoots grow. The reasons for this are : A
large or old tree has fewer dormant buds existing on the lower
portion of the stem. The dormant buds are very numerous in
young trees, and lie under the bark. It is one of nature's provi-
sions to enable a tree to recover in case of accident. In aged trees
the germs of the buds may be buried by successive growths of
wood, and the bark is thicker, especially near the ground. Again,
an aged tree makes very little height, or circumference growth
annually. Its energy is chiefly concentrated on the production of
seed. This seed bearing is a severe tax on a tree, so much so,
that, after bearing a crop, it takes two or more years to recover
enough material to enable it to bear another. Therefore, when a
tree of this description is ringed, it is not in a state to bear the
shock, and a speedy death results. It often happens that an old
tree, in spite of chip-ringing, still continues to live. This is
caused by the existence of what is known as " internal bark."
When a tree has been severely wounded, and has renewed the
bark over the place, decay will often comrr.ence under the bark
on the wounded surface. The new bark will, so to speak, follow
the decay trying to cover it, and, although the external appear-
ance shows no indication of this and even after ringing it cannot
be perceived, a strip of bark exists that connects the top and bot-
tom of the cut. This is sufficient to upset all calculations, and if
not rectified will enable the tree to make a good recovery. The
only method is to fell a tree of this description. From the pre-
ceding remarks it may be gathered that in the case of young trees
full of vitality, ring-barking is best, as it does not prevent the sap
rising, and therefore enables the roots to exhaust themselves ; but
it allows no additional nourishment to return to them. In aged
trees chip-ringing is permissible, the tree does not possess vitality
or nutritive material enough to cope with the shock it receives.
WHEN TO RING-BARK.
This is undoubtedly the most important part of the operation.
There can be no question, that the time for doing it is when the
i86
sap is moving freely, so as to facilitate tlie removal of the bark.
But as often as not the operation is undertaken too early in the
season, the result being a dense growth of shoots, whereas if the
ringing is left over till spring has set in, a speedier death of the
tree is assured, few, if any, shoots are thrown, and most of the
shoots will die, when the crown dies. Nourishment for the roots
is only collected on warm, bright days, and it is highly probable
that the storage of reserve material only takes place towards the
end of summer. However, owing to climatic differences, no hard-
and-fast rule can be laid down, for in the northern portions of
Victoria, August might prove the best month ; south of Dividing
Range, September ; whilst at an elevation of 1,000 feet or over,
October.
RING-BARKING COMPARED WITH FELLING AND BURNING-OFF.
Both these systems have their advocates where small areas are
concerned, but where the acreage runs into hundreds, only one
is mentioned — ring-barking. Seeing the object in view is to des-
troy the timber, so as to allow sunlight into the soil, and so induce
a growth of sweet grass, naturally the cheapest and quickest
method is the one to be favoured.
Undoubtedly ring-barking is at first the cheapest, if not in the
long run ; but it is the slowest method. No good results can be
looked for under twelve to fourteen months, and probably no
really decent grazing can be expected under three years, unless a
fire has run through the area. By the time the last tree has fallen,
and the logs have been cleared up, can it be said to be a cheaper
method than direct felling .' Certainly the operation is spread
over a number of years, therefore the annual outlay, especially as
the necessary work can be done in slack seasons, is often so
slight, that it can almost be made to appear an inexpensive system.
Hence its adaptability to the requirements of the usual run of
graziers. It has many disadvantages ; the incessant accumulation
of rubbish by windfalls, and especially after a fire; the greater
danger of fire being carried from dead tree to dead tree, with the
least chance of stopping or preventing it ; the great harbour it
affords to rabbits, attracted by the grass and sheltered by the
decaying roots and logs, and the least chance of eradicating
them ; and the surprising growth of seedlings that takes place,
which, if not destroyed in the earliest stages of growth give end-
less trouble, and often lead to the abandoning of the area. On
the other hand, in some districts the resulting firewood has a not
insignificant market value, so much so, that instances are not want-
ing in which, after deducting all charges connected with ringing of
trees, and cutting of fuel, a balance has been left of ten shillings
and more per acre. The humus caused by ages of decayed vege-
tation, and the addition of the leaves and twigs of the rung
timber, must add materially to the value of the land, and though
at first is often detrimental to a sweet growth of grass, will
eventually cause a thick sward to form.
Felling and Bitniing-ofi. — As a rule, this is only practised on
small areas, its initial cost being far too heavy to suit most selec-
187
tors. Its chief advantage is that in twelve or fifteen months,
work can be accomplislied equal to ten years or more where ring-
barking is done. It has the further advantage of affording a
quick growth of sweet grass, especially if seed has been sown
broadcast over the ashes of the burn, as ought always to be done.
Its disadvantages are its first cost ; its destruction of what is often
a marketable commodity, the resulting firewood is too charred to
be acceptable for household purposes, and very little remains if
the work is properly done. The intense heat of the fire destroys
the humus layer, even burning into the soil in places. These
patches of burnt ground, especially where piling has taken place,
are often the cause of the introduction of one of the worst pests
to the grazier in the cooler and moist districts — the bracken fern.
Its spores are blown considerable distances by wind, and find the
best of material for germinating on when they strike a patch of
burnt earth or charcoal debris. Grass, on the other hand, avoids
the severely burnt patches. The burning-off is also a source of
great danger to neighbouring properties.
Ring-barking, prior to burning of the dense undergrowth, is a
good method where practicable. In districts like Gippsland, a lot
of rubbish is destroyed, including shoots from the trees. But it
may not always be possible to combine the two, the undergrowth
being too dense to permit of ringing till after the burn.
An argument is often put forward in favour of ring-barking, as
compared to felling or grubbing, and that is the loss of "goodness"
to the soil. It is maintained that a ringed tree returns something
to the soil, which is lost to it otherwise. Such a theory cannot
be accepted, except it be that the resulting decaying debris acts
as a top dressing, in other words, humus. If a tree can directly
return " goodness," then the object of ring-barking will fail. The
tree grows from the top downwards. The operation of ringing,
if successful, is as effectual in severing connection between head
and I'oot as felling would be. Even allowing the possibility of
such an action, its influence would be restricted to the roots and
the soil directly surrounding them. If any reason exists for the
better growth of grass near stumps or on sites previously occupied
by them, it may be put down to the influence of decayed vegeta-
ble matter, and the, so to speak, trenching operations, caused by
the roots of the tree having given the soil an upward lift as they
increased in size.
This article is written after a series of experiments, extending
over three years. The question, when to ring-bark, may not be
actually proved to satisfy all districts and species of trees. But
it is hoped that the remarks made, may, in addition to the expe-
riences gained by others, assist future operators and lessen the
often tedious work.
FORESTS AND RIVERS.*
At the recent meeting of the International Navigation Congress
at Milan, one of the questions taken into consideration was "the
influence which the destruction of forests and the desiccation of
marshes has upon the regime and discharge of rivers," and seven
papers bearing on the subject were read and discussed. Of these,
three were from Austria, and the others from Germany, France,
and Russia. The problem as to the effect of forests on the water
supply of rivers and on climate is of great social importance on
account of the agricuUural and commercial interests which are so
closely connected with the use of timber, and with the utilisation
of running water.
It is allowed by all the authors of these papers that, due to the
improvident way in which the forests have been dealt with, there
has been a marked change in the water supply of the neighbour-
ing rivers ; that where forests have been cut down brooks have
disappeared, and many small rivers that at one time were useful
as sources of power are so no longer for want of water ; that in
the larger rivers torrents have become more impetuous, and flood-
ing more frequent ; while, on the other hand, navigation suffers at
times for want of water.
The greatest harm has been done in the mountain districts,
where the steep slopes allow the rain-water to run off" too rapidly,
carrying away the surface soil and transporting pebbles and boul-
ders into the rivers, causing shoals, thus decreasing their capacity
to discharge the flood water.
The extent to which forests, both on the Continent and in
America, are being cut down and destroyed, and large areas of
land, which at one time were covered with primaeval forest, have
become barren wastes by fire or the lumberman's axe without any
attempt at re-afforestation, was one of the subjects dealt with in
the presidential address of Mr. J. C. Hawkshaw at the Institution
of Civil Engineers in 1902. Mr. Hawkshaw pointed out that,
notwithstanding the displacement of wood in building structures
by iron, yet large quantities of timber are still required, not only
for building purposes, but for temporary structures, such as coffer
dams and scaffolding ; pit props for mining ; sleepers required for
the railways, which, in this country, he estimated at an annual
value of 18 million pounds, and those required for renewals at
three-quarters of a million pounds ; while for the railway service
of the united States there are required 15 millions of acres of forest
land to maintain a supply of sleepers.
The question for consideration at the Congress was whether the
wholesale destruction of forest land for cultivation or for timber
supply is having any material effect on the rainfall and consequent
water supply ; and the effect of forest destruction on the rivers of
the country from which the trees are removed was also considered.
* From " Nature." Februari) 1, 1906,
i89
The physical conditions of forest land are that, owing to the
shelter from sun and wind, the atmosphere is generally colder
and damper than in the open country, and evaporation conse-
quently less. It is calculated that a hectare of forest land (2i
acres) gives off every day 37 cubic metres of oxygen and 37
metres of carbonic acid, leading to a great expenditure of heat ;
and that from every hectare of forest land sufficient heat is ab-
stracted to melt 316 cubic metres of ice. Ligneous plants also
withdraw from the ground and discharge as vapour more than
40,000 gallons of water per hectare per day, which causes a sen-
sible reduction of temperature. When clouds pass over a forest
they encounter a cool, damp atmosphere, the point of saturation
comes closer, and rain is caused. This condition of forest land
has been remarked on by aeronauts, who find that a balloon is
invariably affected, and drops when passing over forests.
The advantages claimed for forests with regard to water supply
are that the trees act as regulators of the rainfall ; that the aver-
age quantity of rain falling on land covered with forests is greater
than in the open ground to the extent of about one-sixth ; that it
holds up the water for a time and discharges it later on when
water is most required in river basins, the rain being held back by
the leaves of the trees and coming to the ground more gradually ;
the rain that falls on the surface is also taken up by the layer of
dead leaves on the ground, which permits of a gradual percola-
tion to the sub-soil. Observations show that in summer the ground
of the forest is damper than that of the adjacent cleared land,
and snow remains for a much longer period in forest land before
melting than in cleared land.
On the other hand, it has been contended by some of those who
have made a study of sylviculture that forests do not increase the
quantity of water flowing to the springs and rivers, but reduce it.
The numerous striking facts quoted do not bear out this conten-
tion, which is mainly based on the fact that the substratum water
stands at a lower level on forest land than in the adjacent cleared
ground. This fact is generally admitted to be the case at one
period of the year. As the result of many years' observations, it
has been found that the maximum level of underground water is
reached in May, that the water accumulates in the ground from
August to January ; and that the rivers are supplied by this re-
serve, and were it not for this accumulation many brooks and
river feeders would cease to fiow in summer.
Several very striking examples are given by the authors of the
papers as to the deleterious effects of cutting down forests', espe-
cially in hilly districts. In the commune of La Bruguiere, the
forests on the slopes of the Black Mountain were cut down ; the
consequence of this removal of the trees was that a brook which
ran at the foot, and the water from which was used for driving
some fulling mills, became so dried up in summer as no longer to
be of any use, while in winter the sudden floods caused very great
damage in the valley. The forests were re-planted, and as the
1 90
trees grew up the water coming to the brook was so regulated as
to serve its former useful purpose in driving the mills, and the
torrents in winter were moderated. Several other examples of a
similar character are given.
In Switzerland, amongst other examples is quoted one that
occurred in the canton of Berne, where, owing to the re-planting
of the mountain-side with fir trees, the water again appeared at
a spring which had ceased to flow. After a period the trees were
cut down and the land converted into pasturage, since when the
spring has almost disappeared only opening out at occasional in-
tervals.
In the Kazan district of Russia, once celebrated for its forests
of oaks and linden, which are now nearly all cut down, there were
formerly seventy water-mills constantly at work. Less than half
now can be worked, and even they only run half time, and are
idle in summer for want of water ; while in winter the little rivers
that worked these mills are converted into impetuous torrents,
breaking up the mill dams and doing other damage. These aban-
doned water-mills stand out as a striking proof of the conse-
quences of the destruction of forests.
In Sardinia, where the surface consists of plutonic rocks covered
with a thin layer of earth, all the streams have a rapid slope. The
woods, which occupied in 1870 an area of more than 2h million
acres, or about 43 per cent, of the whole surface of the island,
now are reduced to about one-sixteenth of this area. Since the
removal of the trees the floods in the rivers rise with a rapidity
and flow with a velocity never known before, and a great number
of bridges have been destroyed by the floods. The beds of the
channels have been raised in some places above the surface of the
land, owing to the detritus brought down in floods.
In Wisconsin, U.S.A., the settlers cut down the forests and con-
verted the land into tillage and pasture. During a period of about
seventy years nearly the whole of the forest land was thus cleared
with the result that, as the forest disappeared, the water in the
river became lower; finally thirty miles of the channel entirely
dried up, and many water-mills that were formerly worked by the
stream are now deserted and useless, owing to the want of water
to run them.
In Sicily, owing to the cutting down of the forests on a vast
scale in the province of Messina, the bed of the river has been
raised by the stones and earth carried down by the torrents so as
to stop all drainage from the land, and great damage has been
done by the floods. Several other examples are given to the same
effect where forests have been cleared in the same district, and
these are compared with other streams where the forests still exists
and their condition remains unaltered. In the former case, land-
slides from the mountains have become very frequent.
191
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES
The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was
held at Headquarter House on Wednesday, nth July, 1906.
Present : — The Hon. T. L. Roxburgh, Acting Colonial Secre-
tary in the chair ; the acting Director of Public Gardens, the
acting Isand Chemist ; the Superintending Inspector of Schools,
Messrs. C. A. T. Fursdon, J. W. Middleton, G. D. Murray and
the Secretary.
His Grace the Archbishop sent an apology for absence, as
he would be away in Trelawny and St. Ann for II or 12 days.
No Truck System— The Secretary submitted a letter from the West-
moreland Sugar Planters' Association with reference to the matter
of estates compelling labourers to purchase bread, beef and pork
from the estates, saying that the Association was not aware of any
estates doing so.
The Secretary was instructed to acknowledge receipt of the letter,
and he was also instructed to write the Colonial Secretary that
the Board had not been able to find out that the practice com-
plained of existed on more than the estate given.
Official Letters — The Secretary read the following letters from
the Colonial Secretary's office : —
1. Re Agricultural Instructors, that the suggestions of the Board
with regard to the Instructors, to be employed with the £500 from
Elder, Dempster & Co. would be conveyed to the Agricultural
Society.
2. Re Asst. Superintendent at Hope Gardens, that the Governor
has already approved of the employment of foreman Taylor tem-
porarily as Agricultural Instructor at the Experiment Station at a
salary of £lOO a year, and that the matter of permanently filling
the post of Asst. Superintendent would be considered with the
estimates for 1907-08 : and that His Excellency had authorised the
Director of Public Gardens to insert £150 as salary for the officer
to be selected.
Mr. Middleton moved that a committee be appointed to go more
thoroughly into the matter and report to the Board. This was
agreed to and Mr. Middleton and Mr. Fursdon were appointed.
3. Standard of /?;/;«.^Sending copy of minute by the Chemist
re standard quantity of ethers for Jamaica rum.
It was agreed that the Secretary should acknowledge receipt of
the letter, and say that the Board would allow the consideration
of this matter to lie over for a time.
4. School Gardens — Special grants to school gardens ; referring
minutes by the Superintending Inspector of Schools and the Di-
rector of Public Gardens on the matter.
The Secretary was instructed to reply that the Board would ap-
prove of the transfer of £30 under the allocation for model gardens
192
from the estimates of the Public Gardens to the amount on the
estimates of the Education Department for school gardens and
would approve of there being one vote in future for this purpose,
and that should be on the estimates of the Education Depart-
ment.
Course Postponed. — The Secretary submitted a letter from the
Island Chemist to the acting Chairman, stating that owing to the
recent heavy rains sugar crops were so baclvward that many dis-
tillers would not be able to attend the Distillers' Course as arranged ;
that he was convinced that the only way was to postpone the Course
to October 8th to 26th when Mr. Allan would be able to take part,
and if his (the Chemist's) leave commenced on July 5th he
would get back in time for the Course. As the matter was urgent
he asked the acting Chairman to approve, which had been done.
The Board approved of the action taken.
Reports Presented. — The following reports from the Chemist's De-
partment were submitted : —
1. Postponement of Distillers' Course.
2. Work of Agricultural Lecturer.
3. Suggestion by Mr. Cousins that he be permitted to visit various
centres in Great Britain and Germany in the interest of Jamaica
rum, to be on half pay for a fortnight, his travelling expenses from
London as a centre to be paid from the Laboratory allowance for
travelling, and asking that the Colonial Office in London be re-
quested to furnish him with introductions to the British Consuls at
Bremen and Hamburg.
It was agreed to inform the Colonial Secretary's Office of the
proposals and that the Board approved of them.
4. Proof of Chart of " Agricultural Dont's" for approval. With
some alterations in the type of printing, this was approved of.
Reports I and 2 were directed to be circulated.
The following reports from the Director of Public Gardens were
submitted : —
1. Hope Experiment Station.
2. Instructors.
These were directed to be circulated.
The meeting adjourned till Wednesday, 15th August at 2 p.m.
[Issued 4th Aug., 1906.]
Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingstmv, Jam.
BULLETIN
DEPARTMENT OF AGMCULTUBE.
Vol. IV.
SEPTEMBER, 1906.
Part 9.
EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, F.L.S.,
Director of Pvhlic Gardens (f>id Plantatiotts.
CONTENTS:
PAGE.
Renovation of Worn-out Soils
193
Tobacco from Jamaica — VII
200
A new Botrychium from Jamaica
201
The Mangosteen
203
Corn Production and Consumption
204
Agriculture in Bermuda
205
Vanilla Statistics ...
207
Culture of the Date Palm
208
Board of Agriculture
214
PRIG E— Threepence.
A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send name and
address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.
KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
Hope Gabdbns.
1906.
JAMAICA.
BULLETIN
OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF AURICULTURE.
LIBRARY
NEW VOK'K
nOTANJCAL
(JARUeN.
Vol. IV. SEPTEMBER, 1906. Part 9.
RENOVATION OF WORN-OUT SOILS."
By W. J. SPILLMAN.
There is a vast difference in the natural fertility of soils. Some
do not produce well from the start unless special attention is
given to making them productive ; others produce large crops for
a short time and then rapidly diminish in fertility ; while others,
known as strong soils, remain productive for many years without
attention to their fertility. But even the strongest soils will wear
out in time unless they are intelligently managed.
NATURE OF THE SOIL.
In order to understand the methods necessary for restoring worn-
out soils, let us consider what occurs in a fertile soil that is grow-
ing a large crop. Imagine a cubic inch of ordinary field soil
magnified into a cubic mile. It would then present very much the
appearance of a mass of rocks varying from the size of a pea to
masses several feet in diameter. Scattered among these rock
masses would be many pieces of decaying plant roots and other
organic matter, resembling rotting logs in a mass of stones and
gravel. The masses of organic matter would be found to contain
large quantities of water, and to somewhat resemble wet sponges
while every mass of rock would have a layer of water covering its
surface. The open spaces between the solid masses would be
filled with air.
If a crop were growing on this soil, its roots would be found
threading their way among the masses of rock and decaying roots
and pushing these aside by the pressure exerted by the growing
roots. From the surface of the growing root, near its tip, small
3 hollow threads (the root hairs) extend into the open spaces and
^ suck up the water covering the rock particles. The root hairs are
>- not open at the end ; they absorb the water through their walls.
^ The plant food is dissolved in this water, but is usually present in
X
->-i * Farmers' Bulletin No. 245, U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture.
194
exceedingly small quantities. While the plant is growing a con-
stant stream of water flows up through it and evaporates at its
leaves. For every pound of growth in dry matter made by the
plant, from 300 to 800 pounds of water flow up through it.
The plant food substances dissolved in the soil water may be
divided into two classes according to their ultimate source.
MINERAL PLANT FOOD.
Plants in their growth make use of thirteen chemical elements,
nine of which they secure directly from the soil. These are called
the mineral plant foods ; they are phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, sodium, iron, silicon, chlorin, and sulphur. We have
already seen that the soil consists mainly of small particles of
rock. The rock particles are of many kinds, but nearly all kinds
contain more or less potassium, calcium, phosphoric acid, &c.
Every year the soil water dissolves off a thin surface layer from
each particle. Plants appropriate this water and thus secure
mineral plant food.
Many generations of plants have thus been collecting their
small toll of food from the soil and storing it up in their tissues.
The amount of plant food made ready for plant use during
each growing season through the slow solution of the mineral par-
ticles of the soil is doubtless supplemented to a considerable
degree by the same kinds of materials set free from the organic
matter also found in the soil — that is, the mineral matter originally
secured from the dissolving minerals, but built into plants during
some former season, may again be used by other plants when the
old matter is given an opportunity to decay in the soil. These
foods derived directly from the mineral matter of the soil and in-
directly from it through the growth, death, decay, and return of
former crops are also supplemented in many cases by the ap-
plication of mineral matter in the form of commercial fertilizers.
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS.
In addition to the nine elements already mentioned, the growing
plant requires four other elements, as follows : hydrogen, which
it secures from water (water is a compound of hydrogen and oxy-
gen): oxygen, which it secures partly from water and partly from
the air ; carbon, which is secured from carbonic-acid gas in the
air ; and nitrogen.
Nitrogen is in many respects the most important of all the plant-
food elements. It is not found in appreciable quantities in the
rock particles of the soil. Ordinary plants depend for their
nitrogen entirely on decaying organic matter. As decay proceeds
nitrates are formed from the nitrogen contained in organic matter.
The nitrates are exceedingly soluble, and unless soon made use of
by growing crops they are washed out of the soil. Nitrogen is
therefore usually the first element to become exhausted in the soil_
Fortunately, there are certain species of bacteria that can use
atmospheric nitrogen, of which there is an inexhaustible supply.
One family of plants — the legumes — has learned to exchange work
195
with these bacteria, and these plants are thus easily supplied with
an abundance of nitrogen in a form which they can use. When
these nitrogen-fixing bacteria are present in a soil on which a le-
guminous crop is growing, the bacteria invade the roots of the
legume and live there. Their presence is usually made manifest
by swellings — the so-called tubercles — on the roots of thrifty plants
of clover, alfalfa, beans, peas, and other legumes. Nitrogen from
-the soil filters into the roots, where the bacteria appropriate
it, manufacture an abundance of nitrates, and give a portion to
the plant in exchange for starch. The tissues of leguminous plants
become very rich in nitrogenous compounds, and when they
decay in the soil they set free large amounts of nitrates for the use
of any crop which may be growing at the time.
The cultivation of leguminous crops is one of the most im-
portant and economical means of maintaining a supply of nitro-
genous plant food in the soil. Nitrates may, of course, be supplied
in commercial fertilizers ; but fertilizers containing nitrogen are
very expensive, and it usually pays better to supply nitrogen by
growing legumes or by the application of stable manure, which is
rich in nitrogen when properly handled. In good farm practice
both stable manure and leguminous crops are used as sources of
nitrogen.
SOIL MOISTURE AND HUMUS.
In order to produce a ton of dry hay on an acre of land it is
necessary that the growing grass should pump up from that acre
approximately 500 tons of water. In order to supply this enormous
quantity of water, the soil must not only be in condition to absorb
and hold water well, but it must be porous enough to permit water
to flow freely from soil grain to soil grain. The presence of large
quantities of deca5''ing organic matter (humus) adds enormously to
the water-holding capacity of the soil. One ton of humus will
absorb 2 tons of water and give it up readily to growing crops.
Not only that, but the shrinkage of the particles of decaying
organic matter and the consequent loosening of soil grains keep
the soil open and porous.
Furthermore, humus of good quality is exceedingly rich in
both nitrogen and mineral plant food. The maintenance of fertil-
ity may almost be said to consist in keeping the soil well supplied
with humus. The first step in renovating worn-out soils is to give
them an abundant supply of humus of good quality. Perhaps the
best source of humus is stable manure containing both the liquid
and the solid excrement, especially when the stock are fed with
rich nitrogenous foods. Even a poor quality of barn-yard manure,
which has had much of the plant food leached out of it, has con-
siderable value because of the humus it makes.
Another cheap and valuable source of humus, but one which
must be used understandingly, is crops grown to turn under as
manure. The legumes are especially valuable for this purpose
because of the nitrogen they contain, but other crops, such as corn
sown thickly, may sometimes be made to supply large quantities
196
of humus of fair quality. Crops thus used are called green
manures.
SOIL AIR.
A proper circulation of air in the soil is just as important as any
other factor of plant growth. Nearly half of the volume of ordi-
nary soils is occupied by air spaces. The air spaces in the soil
wind in and out between the soil particles, just as they do in a heap
of larger stones. If the layer of water on the surface of the soil
grains becomes so thick as to stop the air passages here and there
the soil is then too wet for most crops and needs drainage. Plants
have no special breathing organs, the oxygen required in their
breathing finding entrance all over the surface of the plant. Plant
roots must therefore be supplied with air, and hence the soil must
be porous enough to permit of free circulation of air. A good supply
of humus and proper tillage will accomplish this result in clay soils.
Sandy soils are usually too porous, needing humus to help them to
retain water.
Another reason why air must circulate freely in the soil is that
large quantities of oxygen are required to insure proper decay of
organic matter to supply plant food. Also, carbonic acid gas is
produced iby the decay of organic matter, and this must escape
easily to make room for the atmospheric oxygen needed in the soil.
The movement of air in the soil is frequently shown by the bub-
bles which appear at the surface of the soil just after a heavy rain.
As the water soaks into the soil it drives the air out, and bubbles
may be seen at the surface if water enough is present to form
them.
One of the most important objects of ploughing is to loosen up
the soil and mix fresh air with it.
SUBSTANCES THROWN OFF IN THE SOIL BY GROWING PLANTS.
Considerable evidence has been accumulated during recent years
to show that the cause of the failure of some soils to produce
satisfactory crops may be ascribed to unfavourable conditions pro-
duced in the soils by the plants themselves. It is thought that
during the growth of the plant certain unknown organic substances
are given off which, when they accumulate in the soil to any ex-
tent, are harmful to the further growth of plants of the kind that
produce them. It is possible that some of the benefits known to
arise from systematic crop rotation may be explained on this basis.
These harmful substances seem to be disposed of rapidly by cer-
tain soils, usually those in which organic matter is readily con-
verted into humus. Other soils, usually marked by a lack of the
brown carbonized organic matter, do not seem to possess this
property of removing harmful plant products to such a degree.
This idea is in accord with the common experience that dark-
coloured soils, well filled with organic matter, are usually very
productive.
In connection with the study of these poisonous organic pro-
ducts, it has been found that they may be destroyed or at least
197
rendered harmless in a variety of ways. Barn-yard manure or de-
caying organic matter, sucli as a green crop of cow-peas, turned
under has a very marked effect in freeing the soil from them.
Thorough and complete airing of the soil will often destroy or
overcome these poisonous substances. The beneficial effects of
ploughing and of thorough surface tillage are thus explained, in
part at least, on the basis of the thorough aeration secured. When
the same crop is not grown oftener than every three or four years
on the same land the injurious substances the crop throws off seem
to have time to disappear before the same crop is grown again ;
hence the benefit from crop rotation. When the soil is well sup-
plied with humus there is seldom any trouble from this source, and
the same crop may be grown year after year with good yields,
though continuous cultivation of the same crop may invite injury
from certain insects and fungous diseases which live over in the
soil or in the remains of the crop.
EFFECTS OF TILLAGE.
Improper methods of tillage add very greatly to the evil effects
that result from lack of humus. In many parts of the country the
land is ploughed only 3 or 4 inches deep. Below the ploughed
stratum the soil becomes sour, densely packed, and unfit for plant
roots. When such soils are ploughed deeply and this sour packed
subsoil is mixed with the upper portion, the growth of many crops
is greatly retarded. This has led many farmers to believe that
deep ploughing is ruinous. Some farmers have tried to remedy
the difficulty by subsoiling. The subsoil plough breaks up the
packed layer but does not throw it out on top. But while subsoil-
ing does break up the hard layer into chunks it does not pulverize
it or put humus into it. In most cases work done in subsoiling is
practically wasted, and it is doubtful if it ever pays. A much
better method is to plough a little deeper each year until a depth
of 8 or 10 inches is reached. This gives a deep layer of good
soil, particularly if the supply of humus is kept up.
When new soil, or that which has lain undisturbed for several
years, is broken up, it is always best to plough deep from the be-
ginning, for the deeper layers will be about as fertile as any, except
the top inch or two. It is wise too, never to plough the same depth
twice in succession. In general, autumn ploughing should be from
7 to 9 or 10 inches and spring ploughing from 5 to 7 inches deep.
There are special cases in which these rules do not apply, but their
discussion would take us too far from the purpose of this paper.
We plough the soil in order to loosen its texture and get air
into it ; also to turn under stubble, manure, &c., to make humus.
Killing weeds is another object accomplished by ploughing. After
a soil has been thoroughly pulverised to great depths, so that there
is no danger of turning up packed clay, the deeper the ploughing
the better the crops. But the cost also increases with depth so
that ordinarily it does not pay to plough more than about 10 inches
deep.
198
EFFECT OF PLOUGHING SOIL WHEN TOO WET OR TOO DRY.
Sandy soils are usually not injured by handling when wet ; but
the case is different with clay soils. A fair quality of brick can
be made from any heavy clay soil by working it thoroughly when
wet and then drying it in the sun. The effect produced by work-
ing wet clay soils is known as puddling. Irrigation ditches in the
west are puddled by first flooding them to make them muddy, and
then driving bands of sheep along in this mud. This makes the
bottom impervious to water and prevents loss from leakage. If a
clay soil is ploughed, or even harrowed, when too wet, it is more
or less puddled. In this condition it becomes cloddy and imper-
vious to air and water. Old roadways that have been thoroughly
puddled from traffic in all kinds of weather may be distinguished
in fields many years after they have been ploughed up and put
into cultivation.
The proper time to plough land is when it is just moist enough
to break up mellow, neither wet enough to leave a slick surface
where rubbed by the mouldboard nor dry enough to break up in
large clods ; or, as the southern farmer puts it, when the soil has a
good season in it. If continued rain follows wet ploughing, little
harm follows ; but hot, dry winds would soon leave only a mass of
unmanageable clods. In spring and midsummer ploughing, parti-
cularly, it is of the utmost importance to run the harrow immedia-
tely after the plough. This prevents the formation of clods.
TERRACING AND SOIL WASHING.
One of the most serious results that follow shallow ploughing,
at least in hilly regions, is the washing away of the soil in torren-
tial rains. When terraces are properly laid out they do prevent
washing, but they are a very expensive means of accomplishing
the end sought. They occupy land that ought to be in crops.
They seed the land with weeds. When improperly constructed,
and they usually are, they cause great ditches to be washed in the
hillsides. Besides this they cut the land up into small, irregular
patches and greatly increase the cost of tillage. There is a better
way of preventing washing in nearly all cases.
In the first place, where land has been ploughed only 3 or 4
inches deep for several years the subsoil becomes impervious to
water and can not absorb a heavy rainfall fast enough to prevent
its flowing over the surface. But when the land is ploughed
gradually deeper until a good depth of loose soil is obtained, and
particularly when an abundance of humus is supplied from grass
roots and stubble, or from green crops turned under, or, better
still, from barn-yard manure, the soil becomes so porus that the
heaviest rains cause little or no flowing of water on the surface.
IMPROVING THE SOIL.
We have seen that poverty in soil may be due to poor texture,
unfavourable structure, lack of humus, deficiencies in the amount,
form, or proportion of plant food, and to the presence of harmful
mineral or organic compounds. With the exception of nitrogen,
199
most soils, even those that are very poor, usually contain an
abundant supply of plant food, though sometimes other elements
are lacking or are present only in those forms that plants can not
use.
To increase fertility we must improve texture and add plant
food and humus. Tillage may do much to improve texture, but
tillage alone w^ill not sufifice. We must add humus. In doing so
we add plant food, and make the soil more permeable to air and
water.
INCREASING THE STOCK OF HUMUS.
There are three general methods of supplying humus to the soil.
The first and best is the addition of stable manure. When pro-
perly managed it adds large quantities of both plant food and
humus. But manure is not always available. When such is the
case, the best thing to do is to make it available. Raise more for-
age, keep more stock, and make more manure. But this takes time
and capital so that other means are sometimes necessary. When
stable manure is not to be had, we may plant crops for the pur-
pose of turning them under, thus adding large quantities of humus
at comparatively little cost. Ploughing under green crops is
called green manuring. Under certain conditions this is an
excellent practice.
STABLE MANURE.
Properly handled, stable manure is by all means the best remedy
for poverty of the soil. Very few farmers handle manure so as to
get even as much as half the possible value from it. There is
probably no greater waste in the world than in connection with
the handling of manure by the farmer. Five-eights of the plant
food in manure is found in the the liquid part of it. This is usually
all lost. Not only is this the case, but the solids are heaped beside
the stable, frequently under the eaves, where rains wash away
much of their value. Fermentation in these manure heaps also
sets free much of the nitrogen to escape into the air.
GREEN MANURES.
The practice of ploughing under green crops as manures is not
very general, and we do not know as much as we should like to
know of the value of this method. Some crops do not thrive when
sown on land into which a green crop has recently been ploughed.
This is particularly true of those crops that like a solid seed bed,
or which are sensitive to acids. When a heavy green crop is
ploughed under, it goes through a fermentation not unlike that
which occurs in a barrel of kraut, resulting in the formation of a
considerable amount of acid.
Alfalfa is particularly sensitive to acids, and it also requires a
compact seed bed. It is unwise, therefore, to green manure the
land just before sowing with alfalfa.
Generally speaking, when it is desirable to plough in a green
crop before fall-sown crops, it should be done a month or six
200
weeks before planting time, and the soil should be harrowed fre-
quently or otherwise compacted. A few good rains will wash out
most of the acids and aid in compacting the soil. The acids may
also be counteracted by adding lime.
COW-PEAS.
The cow-pea has been a boon to the farmers of the Southern
States, and its value is coming to be generally recognized. During
the past few years the demand for cow-pea seed has exceeded the
supply, and high prices have resulted.
It seldom pays to turn under a crop of cow-peas in the green
state. It is better practice to make hay of them, feed the hay,
and put the manure back on the land. As is the case with all
legumes, the roots of the cow-pea crop add a great deal of nitro-
gen to the soil, and have a marked effect on fertility. If a heavy
green crop of cow-peas is ploughed under in the autumn it is best
not to plant the land until the following spring.
SUMMARY.
We may sum up the matter briefly thus : To build up and main-
tain fertility in the soil, feed a large part of the crops and return
the manure to the land. If manure is not available, plough under
crops grown for the purpose. Plough deep (but do not subsoil).
Grow leguminous crops for the nitrogen they add to the soil.
TOBACCO FROM JAMAICA. VII. '•'
This sample of tobacco was sent to the Imperial Institute by the
Director of the Department of Public Gardens and Plantations of
Jamaica. It was grown experimentally under shade cloth during
the season 1904-1905 from Sumatra seed.
DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE.
The sample consisted of six leaves of the " wrapper" type of
cigar tobacco, showing a dull, olive-brown tint. The leaves were
of fair length, uniform in colour, thin and free from "stains" and
" burns." They were somewhat brittle when handled, but this was
probably due to their having been packed between sheets of card-
board, which had absorbed the moisture, rendering the leaves
abnormally dry.
When ignited the tobacco burned evenly and steadily, evolving
a fairly fragrant aroma and leaving a greyish-white ash.
As the sample was very small, it was impossible to submit it to
chemical examination. It was therefore sent to a firm of tobacco
experts to be tried for wrapping cigars and for the determination
of its commercial value. The experts' report on the tobacco was
as follows : —
"The tobacco is of very handsome appearance, thin in texture
and therefore highly productive as a ' wrapper' for tobacco ; in
use it is somewhat ' tender' and does not appear to have quite as
* From BuUetiii of The Imj/erial Institute, Vol. IV. No. 2.
201
much elasticity as Sumatra tobacco of similar texture [see note
under ' Description of Sample' as to probable reason of this
' tenderness"] ; the burning is very fair, and the flavour not unsatis-
factory.
Similar tobacco, well put up, would fetch on the English market
up to about 3s. per lb. for first lengths, say 2s. 3d. per lb. for the
second lengths, and from is. 3d. to is. 6d. per ft. for the third
lengths.
" We feel sure that the soil and climate which have produced
this tobacco are suitable for growing 'wrapper' tobacco equal to
most in the world, and if labour is plentiful and cheap and the
area of suitable ground large enough there is a chance in time of
this district of Jamaica becoming a serious competitor of Borneo,
Sumatra, and Java."
The experts also suggest that it might be worth while to carry
out a similar cultivation experiment in Jamaica with Java tobacco,
as this would probably yield a " wrapper" leaf which would be
stronger in texture and of even better flavour than the present
sample.
Tne results of the experts' trial of this tobacco show that it is of
good quality, and that if a similar quality can be placed on the
English market in quantity, it will probably realise remunerative
prices.
A NEW BOTRYCHIUM FROM JAMAICA.''
By WILLIAM RALPH MAXON.
The systematic status of the members of the group of Botrycliiiini
ternatum has been the subject of a good deal of comment within
the past ten years. Naturally there have developed legitimate
differences of individual judgment and interpretation ; and, while
in one or two instances the results offered have been such as to
suggest doubt that the author was in actual possession of some of
the forms under discussion, it is probably true that no two students
working with the same series of specimens would arrive at con-
clusions absolutely identical. It becomes often an exceedingly
difficult matter to decide whether a given series of plants — and too
often a small series — constitutes a sufficiently marked and coherent
assemblage to stand apart, specifically distinct, from an obviously
related form ; or, whether, on the other hand, it is to be regarded
as a mere local variation induced, it may be, by habitat.
Of the so-called species recently recognized,t several — and they
are, in the opinion of the writer, very few in number — do not ap-
pear to be valid species in the ordinary sense of the term : they
lack distinctive diagnostic characters and pass insensibly into
another form. And, it must be confessed, a study of the entire
* From the Bulletin of the Torrey J}otaii iftil Chih, .S2: 210-222, pi. G. 1905.
t Underwood, An index to the described speciis of Botrychiiim. Bull. Torrey Cluh 30,
42-55. Ja., 1903.
202
group must of necessity be more truly comparative and involve a
wider view than is usually to be required in most groups of pteri-
dophytes. But the fact remains, that there arc distinct groups, in-
habiting definitely restricted areas and comprising individuals in
close agreement in habital and foliage characters, which offer com-
paratively small but absolute differences from allied groups of in-
dividuals from other regions ; and it appears to the writer that,
unless reduction of the most sweeping sort is to be made, it is
undoubtedly the most logical proceeding to recognize these as
species and to designate them as binomials. The recognition of
svib-species implies or ought to imply the existence of specimens
snowing the transition from the typical form to the sub-specific
centre of variation. In two or possibly three instances among the
recently recognized " species" referred to above, such intermediates
seem to exist, and the writer hopes to discuss these later at greater
length ; but in the majority of cases intermediates (if existent at
all) have not found their way into herbaria, and the supposed
justification for the reduction practised by several American writers
appears to be contained in the fast disappearing fallacy that the
sum of the differences and not their constancy is the criterion for
specific segregation, — a logical pursuit of which principle would
lead by no very circuitous route to the treatment accorded the
group by Hooker and Baker.
The plant here to be described is not associable specifically
with any described form. It may very appropriately bear the
name of one whose studies must necessarily prove largely instru-
mental in a final elucidation of this perplexing group.
BOTRYCHIUM UNDERWOODIANUM sp. nov.
Plant of large stature (3 dm.), to be placed between B. Jciiiiiaiii
and B. dccompositum of the ternatum group. Roots copious, stout,
cordlike, corrugate above, fasciculate from a short (l-2 cm.) under-
ground prolongation of the axis : common stalk short (about 2
cm.), bud densely covered with a compact growth of silky hairs ;
sterile division short-petiolate (5-10 cm ), 12-20 cm. broad and
nearly as long, commonly pentagonal in shape, tripinnate, the basal
pinnules of the lowermost lateral divisions usually much elongated
and again deeply pinnatifid ; ultimate segments relatively very
large, bluntly obovate or broadly spatulate, the margins evenly
and finely crenate-dentate with an occasional shallow lobation ;
texture slight, lesembling that of B. obliquni ; venation manifest :
sporophyl about 30 cm. long ; panicle rather lax, about 8 cm. long,
bipinnate ; sporangia large, sessile.
Jamaica. — Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical
Garden, Jenman collection. Co-type in the U.S. National Herbarium
(no 521 103). Of the several specimens collected by Jenman only
one is fertile. Other Jamaican specimens are : Underwood i~g and
2620, Ma.voii 1573, and D. E. Watt{\J. S. N. M. 520982). all from the
vicinity of Cinchona, altitude about 1500 meters ; and two speci-
mens in the herbariam of Capt. John Donnell Smith, communicated
203
by Hart. The last, though indicated by Dr. Christ as represent-
ing a new species, were not described, presumably on account of
their immature condition.
The series at hand indicates that B. Undenvoodiauum is one of
the most distinct species in the tcniatiim group. As stated, it ap-
pears to be most nearly related to B. Jcnmaiii, Underw.* and B. de-
compositum Mart. & Gal.t From the former it differs conspicuously
in its greater size and more delicate texture ; and from the latter
imperfectly known species very noticeably in the following dis-
tinctive characters : (l) the peculiar shape and spacing of the seg-
ments, and (2) the wide divergence of the main divisions which
spread ordinarily at an angle of nearly or quite ninety degrees.
There is, moreover, in most specimens so pronounced a basiscopic
development of the first lateral division as to give a decided pen-
tagonal shape to the leaf, though this feature is not especially
noticeable in the type specimen.
{United States National Museum).
THE MANGOSTEEN.t
The species included in the genus Garcinia are a comparatively
small but valuable group of oriental tropical economic plants.
For, not only are the timbers furnished by the Garcinias well
adapted for building-construction and furniture, but some of the
tamarinds, the gamboge of commerce, as well as the much esteemed
mangosteen of Malaya are among the products yielded by them.
Of all these products, the luscious mangosteen, which, by univer-
tal consent, has been admitted to be the most delicious of oriental
fruits, is perhaps the best-known to the layman. In the sunny re-
gions of the Malayan sea-board where, for the major portion of the
year, sunshine and shower regularly alternate to result in a truly
marvellous equability of climate, the Garcinia Mangostana grows
to perfection. Its artificial cultivation in those regions as well as
on the friable loams of the evergreen forests that follow the courses
of the rivers of the Peninsula has always been attended with con-
siderable success. For, within the favoured localities of its limited
but indigenous distribution, few fruit-crops demand less attention
in cultivation ; while, after it survives the early stages of its growth,
no operations of a cultural nature, beyond manuring, require to be
done for the maintenance of the crop.
Well-grown seedlings would be at least a foot in height at the
close of the first year and bear from four to six leaves each. At the
commencement of the south-west monsoon, the seedlings should be
removed from the nursery beds and planted out in pits previously
prepared on the plantation. These pits are best excavated at dis-
tances of 20 ft. from one another, and should be located in open,
» Fera Bull. 8. 69. I'JOO. (Type from Jamaica),
t Mem Acad. Sci. Brux. 15': \h. nl. 1. 1S42. (Type from Mexico).
JFrom" T(uj Tropical Agricaltarid, March 1906.
204
well-draiaed loamy land. They should each be 3 ft. square and 3
ft. deep, and be filled in with surface soil, vegetable mould and
cattle droppings worked up to a friable and fine degree of tilth.
In planting, care should be taken to see that every transplant occu-
pies the centre of the pit in which it is put out ; for, the species
being a surface feeder, the fullest facility should be afforded it for
developing its feeding-roots evenly around it. The plants should
be shaded with light bamboo-and-grass tatties placed horizontally
over each and supported upon bamboo uprights 6 ft. high. This
shade should be given directly the transplants are put out and be
maintained for at least one year. The tatties may be removed
when there is rain as well as at night and in the cooler parts of
the day. The plants should also be copiously watered throughout
the warmer months of the year for at least two years after they
are put out.
The mangosteen plant has been known to bear fruit in the
fifth year from planting out or in the sixth from germination. At
this age it ordinarily attains to a height of 10 ft. and a basal
girth of I ft., and its conical crown, which is formed low on the
bole, casts a cover of about 10 ft. in diameter. The yield of
fruit varies with locality as well as care in manuring and general
cultivation ; but it usually is small and continues to be poor unti".
the plant reaches its tenth year. Again, the earlier fruits are
small and irregularly developed and contain very few pulpy seeds.
Thus, the number, size, shape and flavour of the fruits are improved
only with advancing years ; but, even in young crops, considerable
improvement could be effected by heavy periodic manuring and
watering. A healthy plant in its tenth year is capable of yielding
from two to three hundred mangosteens valued at from Rs. 3 to
Rs. 5 per hundred. An acre stocked with plants standing at dis-
tances of 20 ft. from one another would hold at least lOO plants.
And if, at the end of the tenth year, they yield, on an average, 200
fruits each, valued at the rate of Rs. 4 per hundred, the plantation
would yield an approximate income of Rs. 800. The species is
well adapted for cultivation in all localities with heavy rainfall, a
a loamy soil, and enjoying freedom from frost. It luxuriates in
bright and vigorous sunshine and demands plenty of light for its
most perfect development. The soil, however, should be moist
and well drained. It is best grown as a pure crop, unmixed with
species other than itself. — Madras Mail.
CORN PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION «
It is evident from the experience of the past few years of good
crops that the consumption of corn [maize] in the United States has
increased much more rapidly than the production. Indeed it may
be doubted whether there has been any enlargement in the corn
area during the past eight years. The statistics of the Agricultu-
ral Department show an area last year 14 millions greater than in
•From " Tlie Loumanu Planter and Sugar Manvifacturcr," Vol. XXX VII, Ko. 2.
205
1897. but the census of 1900 show conclusively that the figures
of the Agricultural Department were grossly inaccurate for at
least five years prior to and including those of 1900. In the past
eight years the population has increased 13 millions, or nearly 20
percent. The prevailing relatively high prices, therefore, seem to
be due to the fact that consumption has caught up with production
and consequently low prices for corn are not to be expected again
unless there is a large increase in the area devoted to producing
this crop.
An important factor affecting prices of corn in recent years has
been the changed method of marketing the crop. Farmers have
taken their time in disposing of their surplus. The policy has
prevailed generally of holding ample reserves through the year,
so as to provide for deficiences in case of crop failures. This
has prevented the accumulation of large stocks " in sight" which
always have a more depressing influence on prices than liberal
supplies in farmers' hands. The remarkable situation exists
to-day of an almost complete exhaustion of stocks of corn at
market centres, notwithstanding the fact that last year's crop was
the greatest on record. Under such conditions the farmer is in a
position to dictate the price, within a reasonable limit, and he is
likely to continue in that position. Speculators who have under-
taken to depress prices by short selling have not yet met with
any success. — Kansas City Star, May 21.
AGRICULTURE IN BERMUDA.
The following notes of interest are taken from the Report of the
Superintendent of the Public Garden, Bermuda for 1905 : —
Tomatoes. — " The opening up of new sources of supply has con-
tributed not a little to the low prices and a now somewhat limited
demand for Bermuda produce in New York ; indeed the once very
profitable tomato trade was brought to an end in 1900 by large
quantities being sent in early from the Southern States ; and now
that it has been proved possible to export from Cuba and Jamaica
excellent fruit from November to March and April, the year round
supply is complete : the resuscitation of this colony's lost tomato
trade is not, therefore anticipated. In 1871 the boxes of tomatoes
exported to New York numbered 115,868 valued at £13,718 ; in
1900, 146 were sent, valued at £ll."
Lily Bulbs. — " The lily bulb industry was, until quite recently,
in danger of being destroyed, through the dis^.ppointing results
obtained by American forcers from Bermuda bulbs ; many having
given up growing them. Happily some four or five of the larger
Bermudian growers realized the importance of selecting and care-
fully cultivating pure Harrisii stock, though, perhaps, somewhat
late in the day, for already a large proportion of the trade has been
diverted to Japan.
It may be assumed, however, that Bermuda growers will, by
careful attention to the requirements of the American and English
206
forcing trade, be able to secure the present prices for unmixed
Harrisii bulbs of £5 to £6 per lOOO for many years to come."
Onions. — "These comprise in value about three-fifths of the total
output of produce from Bermuda : during the year under review
400,138 boxes were shipped, valued at £62,454."
Potatoes. — "The figures for 1904 shew that the potato at any
rate pays for the labour expended upon it : 23,417 barrels were
imported from Canada and the United States, valued at £7,260 ;
assuming that one-fourth of these were sets for planting, the cost
would be about £1,815. Against these, 31,134 barrels were ex-
ported, valued at £23,805: shewing a yield of 5} barrels to one
planted and a balance in favour of the colony of £22,020. This
year 28,590 barrels were shipped yielding £21,214".
Tobacco. — Professor Dunstan states as follows : " It may be
pointed out that although 5d. per lb. is quoted for the sample of
Connecticut wrapper leaf it does not follow that it will ultimately
pay best to cultivate this variety. The Connecticut leaf is not
economical as a wrapper and for this reason is falling out of
favour with cigar manufacturers, and it may be taken as a gene-
ral rule that a ' filler ' of the Cuba type and a wrapper of the
Sumatra type, are what is principally in demand for the cigar
trade at the present time.
" Having regard to the fact that it would be useless to intro-
duce to Bermuda, as a new crop, anything that yielded less than
50 per cent, on the outlay it was decided by the Board to proceed
with a preliminary experiment in growing tobacco under tent
cloth on the lines practised in Florida and Connecticut as it was
seen by the reports of United States Department of Agriculture
that these tobaccos were being sold for from 6/ to 10/ per lb. The
writer had also seen bales of wrapper tobacco opened at Jamaica
which had cost 10/ per lb. A sum of £lOO was granted by the
Legislature for this experiment, which was commenced in April."
Oranges. — " The destruction of citrus trees in Bermuda by scale
insects is almost complete ; the extreme virulence with which these
parasites attack their host is almost beyond belief.
In view of the desirability of resuscitating the growing of oranges
in the colony, having regard more especially to their added value
during the tourist season, special efforts have been made to settle
the question as quickly as possible of whether it is possible to give
back to Bermuda her lost oranges.
As a result of close observation and of previous experience it
soon became evident that the solution lay in the selection of a
variety immune, or in some degree resistant to the scale insect.
It has come within the writer's experience among citrus trees in
Jamaica to observe that the " Navel" orange enjoyed almost com-
plete immunity from the attacks of scale insects, and moreover
was a very satisfactory all round fruit to grow.
And now, judging by the behaviour of this variety in the collec-
tion at the Public Garden, the statement may be recorded that it is
only a question of time, or rather of the rate at which they can be
207
propagated, when budded trees of this practically immune variety
will be available for distribution.
Twelve thousand Rough Lemon and Seville Orange stocks have
been raised from seed obtained from Jamaica ; these are now ready
for transplanting to the nursery rows where they will be budded
and prepared for distribution. Buds can be imported from Ame-
rica at a cost of $1.50 per lOO."
Bananas. — "The Canary Island banana (Musa Caveudishii)
thrives exceedingly in Bermuda, probably better than in any other
part of the world ; including that part of China which is its native
habitat.
Its doing so well here is another instance of the peculiar effect
of our uni(|ue climate upon certain plants.
There are in Bermuda probably not more than thirty acres
under bananas, planted and cultivated in a style that did very well
when there was plenty of land and some to waste, but which would
have to be replaced by more up-to-date methods if the banana
became an article of export. There is evidently a good demand for
Canary bananas in America, for the United Fruit Company, the
great collecting and distributing firm, sends as far as the Cana-
ries for them : and it is quite possible that if constant supplies
were forthcoming from Bermuda this firm would undertake to re-
ceive them at New York.
Planted ten feet by eight apart and given even less care than is
bestowed upon potatoes, an acre of bananas could be made to
yield in Bermuda quite 2,000 bunches per annum."
VANILLA STATISTICS.'^*
Mr. Hermann Mayer Senior, vanilla importer, gives the follow-
ing figures, which approximately represent the world's output of
vanilla during the seasons 1905-6: Burbon, 70 tons ; Seychelles,
45 tons ; Mauritius, 5 tons ; Comores, Mayotte, Madagascar, &c. 120
tons ; Guadeloupe, Java, Ceylon, and Fiji, 10 tons ; Mexico, 70, tons;
Tahiti, lOO tons— total, about 420 tons. Comparing the above
figures with 1904-5 it may be noted that the world's output was
larger by about forty tons. A British Consular report on Tahiti
states that the exports during 1905 amounted in value to £12,087
against £15,969 in 1904, £23,424 in 1903, and £47.417 i" ^902.
Last year the exports by weight amounted to I22{ tons against
I34i tons in 1904. The U. S. A. received 92 tons, France 25^-
tons, New Zealand i\ tons, and the United Kingdom 7| tons. No
steps have yet been taken to conserve this industry at Tahiti,
remarks the Consul, and as a consequence, the local price has
further fallen from the equivalent of is. oi^d. per lb. in 1904 to
I0| per lb. in 1905.
* From "The Chemist and llrihi<jid" June dO, 1906.
208
THE CULTURE OF THE DATE PALM.*
The date palm (Phavtix dactylifera) is cultivated principally in
Northern Africa and in the countries bordering on the Persian
Gulf. Its tall, straight trunk, covered with the scars of fallen leaf-
stalks, and surmounted with a tuft of feathery leaves attains a great
height — ^often of over 8o feet. It has the male and female flowers
on separate individuals, and in its natural state the female flowers
are pollinated by the wind. Each female tree produces from six
to twenty flower clusters, each of which gives rise to a bunch of
dates. The trees live to a great age and have been known to pro-
duce good crops up to 200 years of age. At the base of the stem
a number of suckers arise, and by these offshoots the tree should
be propagated, since the date palm is very liable to variation.
The average exports of dates from the Persian Gulf region for
the five years ended 1902 amounted, according to figures contained
in the Consular Report on the trade of the Persian Gulf for the
year 1903, to 167,301 cwt.
As will be seen from the following pages, many attempts, some
attended with considerable success, have been made to introduce
the cultivation of the date palm into different parts of the world
and to establish a date industry. Up to the present, so far as we
know, the only place out of Africa and the Persian Gulf region,
in which real success has been achieved, is in the island of St.
Helena. It appears likely, however that good results will be ob-
tained in certain districts of the south-west of the United States.
In the following short account of the culture of the date palm
free use has been made of three publications of the United States
Department of Agriculture, viz., a paper in the Yearbook for 1900,
entitled ' The Date Palm and its Culture,' and BiiUctin No. 53 of
the Bureau of Plant Industry, 'The Date Palm and its utilization
in the south-western States,' both by Mr. Walter T. Swingle ; and
Bulletin No. 54 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, 'Persian Gulf
Dates and their introduction into America,' by Mr. David G. Fair-
child.
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE DATE PALM.
The date palm requires above everything else, a plentiful sup-
ply of water for its roots, and a hot, dry atmosphere in which to
mature its fruits. There are many districts, including parts of the
West Indies, where the tree has grown well, but where it is doubt-
ful if good fruits will be obtained on account of the humidity of
the atmostphere. On the other hand, such climatic conditions as
are required by the date palm are known to exist in parts of the
United States, and it is upon this fact that the hopes for its suc-
cessful introduction as a new industry in that country are based.
It would appear advisable to state clearly the requirements of
the date as to climate and water supply.
Heat. — One of the principal requirements of the date is a high
temperature, especially when it is maturing its fruit. In the win-
* Fi-om the " West Indian Bulletin," Vol. V, 1904, p. 139.
209
ter they are able to withstand a fair amount of .cold ; but for the
ripening of the fruit a high temperature is absolutely necessary.
Swingle states : 'There is little hope of growing even early sorts
unless the mean temperature in the shade goes above 80° F. for at
least one month in summer, and the mean temperature of the fruit-
ing season, from May to October, is above 70' F. It is, further,
fairly certain that during the months when the fruit is developing,
viz., May to October, inclusive, the mean temperature must be
about 75" F., and during June, July, and August above 80° F., if
moderately late varieties of dates are to be brought to maturity.
In regions where late varieties of dates come to maturity, the mean
temperature for June, July, and August must be 90^ F. or there-
abouts.
Dry atmosphere. — In this case, again, while the date palm grows
fairly will in a moist climate, the fruit natures properly only in a
dry atmosphere. Consequently, dates are grown most successfully
in the hottest and driest regions.
Water supply. — Although the date delights in a dry, hot climate
it requires a constant, though not particularly abundant supply
of water at its roots. The subject of irrigatiion is therefore one
of primary importance to the date grower.
PLANTING AND CULTIVATION.
The Arabs of Mesopotamia plant only suckers ; these are seldom
over 6 feet long and generally with few roots. They are planted
with the growing bud only 2 or 3 inches above the surface of the
soil, and for the first month are watered every four days, and later
at longer intervals as the season may demand.
The French colonists give much more attention to the careful
planting of dates. They plant in regular rows, the arrangement
depending, as a rule, on some properly conceived system of irri-
gation. It is held by them that the palms should be placed at
distances of 30 feet, and in intervening spaces are usually oc-
cupied by garden crops.
It is found in the Sahara that one male ti'ee will provide suf-
ficient pollen for about 1 00 female trees, and the male and female
trees are accordingly planted in this proportion.
Little has been done in the way of working out the manurial
requirements of the date palm. The Arabs use what manure they
can obtain from their camels and goats. On the larger plantations
it has been found impossible to obtain a sufficiently large supply
of farmyard manure. There can be no doubt that a proper system
of green manuring, with such leguminous plants as alfalfa, horse
bean, cow-pea, and others, would be a great advantage. Neither
in Africa nor on the Persian Gulf does any such system appear to
be known.
As suubsidiary crops between the palms, in addition to garden
produce, cereals are frequently grown, but the yield is rarely good :
grape vines appear also to thrive well and produce good fruit.
Many fruit trees, including olives, seem to appreciate the shade
afforded by the date palms.
210
IRRIGATION.
In the Sahara, irrigation is practised by means of trenches,
where no crops are grown under the palms. These are excavated
alongside of tlie trees and occasionally filled with water. Where
barley or alfalfa is grown, the land is divided up into small beds
from 10 to 30 feet in diameter, which are surrounded by a raised
rim. The bed can then be flooded. On account of the alkalinity
of the soil, it is found especially necessary to provide a good
drainage system.
Mr. Fairchild gives the following account of the method of irri-
gation practised at Dassorah : —
' The method of planting is determined by the irrigation ditches,
which are large (often 3 feet by 3 feet) and cut the ground up
into small rectangular peninsulas, 10 to 15 feet by 20 to 30 feet
in size. On each peninsula two, or sometimes three, palms are
set. Often the peninsulas are much larger and hold from four to
five or even as high as ten palms. The size of these peninsulas
depends somewhat on the permeability of the soil and the height
to which the irrigation water rises in the ditches. On an average
100 palms are planted to a "djerib," which unit of measure is a
trifle less than an acre. '
'In order to prevent the waters receding too quickly from the
canals when the tide falls, dams of mud are built, and pipes, or
the hollow trunks of palms, are run through them, which permit
the water forced into the canals by the rising tide to flow away
slowly. The length of time during which the canals are filled
with water is more or less under the control of the proprietor, and
as the supply is practically unlimited, no tax of any kind is paid,
nor is any regulation necessary regarding its use.
' In short, the Bassorah date grower has only to see that his
ditches are kept in order, which is an easy matter where the soil
is as pure adobe as the clay of a brick-yard, and the back water
of the river will fill and empty them twice every 24 hours. The
conditions of this form of irrigation, which might be called a tidal
one, are quite ideal and so far as known are found on such a scale
no where else in the world. '
POLLINATION OF THE DATE PALM.
Male and female plants are produced in about equal numbers.
As has been stated, date palms are pollinated in the wild state by
wind, but where the trees are pollinated artificially, only one
male tree is required for every 1 00 females.
'The male flower cluster of the date consists of a stalk bearing
a considerable number of short twigs to which the flowers are
attached, the whole contained in a sheath, at first entirely closed,
but which finally ruptures, disclosing the flowers. The Arabs cut
the male flower clusters from the trees shortly before the flowers
have fully opened. The separate twigs to which are attached the
male flowers are from 4 to 6 inches long, and bear probably from
twenty to fifty male flowers, each containing six anthers full of
pollen. One of such twigs suffices to pollinate a whole female
211
flower cluster, and to bring about the development of a bunch of
dates.
' The female flowers, like the male, are borne inside of sheaths
which are at first entirely closed. Finally the sheath is split open
by the growth of the flowers within, and at this stage pollination
is accomplished. The two tips of the cracked-open sheath are
separated, and the cluster of female flowers pulled out. A twig
of male flowers is then inserted into the cluster of female flowers
and tied in place by a bit of palm leaf or with a string. This
completes the operation of pollination.
'The fruit cluster soon begins to grow rapidly, and in a few
weeks the piece of palm fibre or thread with which the male
flowers are held in place, is broken by the pressure of the grow-
ing fruit clusters.' *
YIELD, &C.
The age at which date palms commence to bear depends very
much upon the climate, the fertility of the soil, and the water sup-
ply. In Arizona, United States, it is stated by Swingle, trees have
been known to bear within four years of the planting of the seed.
It is, however, usually considered that trees do not yield paying
quantities of fruit till they are from six to eight years old.
In regard to the bearing of the date palm. Swingle writes :
' When date cultivation is practised scientifically, practically no
seedlings are grown, but instead orchards are started by planting
fairly large offshoots, which soon strike root, and which often
bear abundantly four or five years after being transplanted. How-
ever, in the large plantations made in Algeria by the French, it is
not considered advisable to allow the palms grown from offshoots
to bear fruit until six years after they are transplanted, and the
trees are not in full bearing until ten or eleven years after they
are plated.
' They continue bearing from this age, if well cared for until
they are 1 00 years or more old, a good tree producing an average
of from 100 tb. to 200 lb. of fruit a year, although some trees have
been known to produce as much as 400 lb. or 600 ft., when grown
in rich soil and abundantly irrigated.'
DATE CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES.
Efforts have been made to establish a date-growing industry in
various districts of the United States. There are portions of
Nevada, California, and Arizona, where it is thought the date
palm will thrive. In 1898, efforts were made to secure suckers of
the best kinds of dates from Algeria. With these was started a
special date garden in conjunction with the Arizona Agricultural
Experiment Station, where a very large number of varities of dates
has been gathered together, and an attempt is being made to estab-
lish the cultivation of the date in some of the irrigable areas of
the district.
• Bulletin No. 53, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Department of Agi-icuUure, pi.i, 2G-7.
212
In concluding his article, in the Yearbook ior 1900, Swingle says
' It has been shown that there is good ground for the hope that
enough dates to supply our markets may be produced within our
boundaries, thus retaining in this country nearly half a million
dollars now paid annually for foreign dates. It is even possible
that a still larger trade may be built up by producing the choicer
varieties suitable for serving as table fruit, such as the " Deglet
Noor," now so rare on our markets and so costly as to preclude its
being sold in any large quantities.
'The date palm has been shown to be adapted to special soil
conditions occurring only in a few areas of limited extent in the
south-west. It requires a long, extremely dry and hot summer in
order to mature its fruits properly, yet the roots demand a con-
stant supply of water. It is unable to endure severe cold in winter,
although more hardy than the orange tree. It is pre-eminently
suited for culture in irrigated areas in desert regions, and, fortu-
nately, is able to endure without injury large quantities of alkali
in the soil and in the water used for irrigating, conditions often
occurring in desert regions, and which prevent the growth of
most cultivated plants. There are many places in Arizona and
California where the culture of the date can be undertaken with a
good hope of success. Marketable dates of good quality have al-
ready been produced in considerable quantities in the Salt River
Valley, Arizona, and excellent fresh dates ripen every year at
Winters, in northern California.
'The Department of Agriculture and the University of Arizona
have undertaken in co-operation the establishment and mainte-
nance of a special date garden at Tempe, in the Salt River Valley,
Arizona, and in 1899-1900 about 420 young palms, comprising
about twenty-seven of the best known varieties, including the
famous " Deglet Noor," were imported by the Department from
the best date regions of the western Sahara and sent to this garden,
where they are now growing. Some three dozen plants of the
" Rhars" one of the best early dates for drying, were distributed
at the same time in California in co-operation with the University
of California.'
Three years later, in Bulletin No. 53 Swingle writes: —
' The collection of varieties at Co-operative Date Garden at
Tempe is by far the most complete in the world, since it com-
prises the best known varieties from the Algerian Sahara, from
Egypt, and from the regions about Bassorah and Maskat, where
most of the dates imported into America are produced, as well as a
large collection of varieties from the Pangh Ghur region in Balu-
chistan. Together with the seedlings that have originated in the
valley and the sorts growing at the experiment station farm at
Phoenix, there are something over ninety named varieties now
on trial in the Salt River Valley. It is very probable that some
of these will prove to be adapted for profitable culture in this
valley, even if the Deglet Noor can not mature.
213
'There are several seedling dates that have originated in the
Salt River Valley in Arizona, which promise to be valuable.
' In addition, there are several other seedling varieties of con-
siderable value which have already fruited in central Arizona,
some of which may prove adapted to culture on a large scale.
' Two of the varieties introduced from Egypt by the Department
of Agriculture in 1890 have been fruiting for some time at Phoenix,
Arizona. In 1900, one of the sorts, the Amreeyah, bore over 300
tbs., while another, the Seewah, bore over 200 fts. These dates
were packed in h ft. boxes, and Professor A. J. McClatchie writes
that they sold readily for 20c. a box wholesale and 2Sc. retail, and
there was a demand in the local market for ten times the quantity
that could be furnished. The Seewah, in particullar, is a very
promising date for culture in the Salt River Valley, in Professor
McClatchie's opinion, as it is fairly early and of excellent quality
' The choicest date that reaches America and Europe, the famous
Deglet Noor of the Algerian and Tunisian Sahara, is very sweet,
of exquisite flavour, and is adapted to serve as a dessert fruit ; it
sells formore than Smyrna figs, being the most expensive dried fruit
on our markets. The demand for these dates during the holidays
is nevertheless greater than the supply, and if they could be sold
somewhat cheaper, the consumption of this fruit would be enor-
mous.
' The Salton Basin or Colorado Desert, in south-eastern Cali-
fornia, recently put under irrigation, has a hotter and drier sum-
mer climate than the Algerian and Tunisian Sahara, where the
best grades of Deglet Noor dates are grown, and is, indeed, better
adapted to the culture of this fruit, since not only is the climate
more favourable but the soils are richer, and the irrigation water
is of better quality.
'The date palm will prove of equal value on the more alkaline
areas of other arid regions in the south-western States where the
winters are warm enough to permit it to grow. Most regions do
not have sufficient summer heat to mature the Deglet Noor date,
and other sorts which ripen earlier must be planted.
' It is very probable that the culture of the best second-class
dates, suitable for employment in confectionery and for household
uses, will prove a profitable industry in the Salt River Valley,
Arizona, and it is possible that the Deglet Noor variety may mature
there.'
DATE CULTURE IN JAMAICA.
The following extracts are from the Annual Report (1900-01),
of the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Jamaica : —
' Seventy-five date palms were received from Algiers in Novem-
ber 1899. They were in tubs, pots, and wicker baskets. To enable
them to recover from the effects of their long journey, and to get
acclimatized, they were placed in the nursery, looked after there,
and gradually exposed to the sun and hardened.
214
'In February and March 1901, sixty-nine of the plants were
planted in prepared holes on the lawn between the Director's office
and residence. The plants are placed 36 feet apart in rows which
are 27 feet asunder. Five of the original plants have died.
' A 4-inch water main runs along the side of the drive, parallel
with the palms, and connexions have been made with this by
means of J-inch galvanized pipes with brass cocks, and laid to
the root of each palm, so that each tree has its own supply of
water.
' Three suckers have been established, so that we have at present
seventy-three young trees.
FUNGOID DISEASE OF THE DATE PALM.
The only fungoid disease reported as attacking date pahns in
the West Indies is recorded from Antigua, Jamaica, and Trinidad.
The following description of the fungus is taken from Tubeuf
and Smith's Diseases of Plants' (p. 325) : —
' Graphiola phoeiiicis, Poit. This fungus is a parasite on leaves
of palms, e.g., Phaviix dactylifcra and Chanicrops humilis, in the open
in Italy and other Mediterranean countries, in hot-houses elsewhere.
The sporocarps make their appearance as little black protuber-
ances on both sides of the leaf. The mycelium forms a close
hyphal tissue, which encloses and kills parenchymatous cells, dis-
places the bundles of sclerenchyma and ruptures epidermis and
hypoderm. Deformation is, however, localized to these spots.'
The following is translated from Frank's Die Pilzparasitaren
Kraiikheitcn dcr Pflanzen (Breslau, 1 896, p. 1 27) :—
Graphiola phcenicis occurs on the leaves of the date palm both in
its natural habitat and in our houses. The fruit-bodies appear as
scattered, hard, dark swellings, about 1.5m. across, and which are
sometimes surrounded by a clearer border showing the part of the
leaf-tissue containing the mycelium of the fungus. E. Fischer
(Botaiiischc Zcitiing, 1 883) has sown spores of the fungus on date
palm leaves and has thus made successful infections. Other spe-
cies of this genus occur on other palms.
[This fungus can be kept in check by spraying with Bordeaux
mixture. Ed. Bull.]
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES.
The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was
held at Headquarter House on Wednesday, 15th August, 1906,
Present : — The Hon. T. L. Roxburgh, Acting Colonial Secretary,
Chairman, the Acting Director of Public Gardens, the Acting Isand
Chemist, the Superintending Inspector of Schools, His Grace the
215
Archbishop, of the West Indies, Messrs. C. A. T. Fursdon, J. W.
Middleton, G. D. Murray and the Secretary, John Barclay.
The Minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirnied.
The Secretary read the report of the Committee appointed to
go into the matter of the Assistant Superintendent at Hope
Gardens.
It was agreed to acknowledge receipt of the letter from the Go-
vernment, and to forward the recommendations of the Committee.
The Secretary reported that the Government Printing Office had
returned the draft of the " Agricultural Don'ts" chart to the Acting
Chemist with the remark that they could not carry out the recom-
mendations of the Board as they had not the type, and that to
save time he had replied that under the circumstances to simply
alter the type of the numbers would be sufficient.
The Secretary read a letter from the Westmoreland Sugar
Planters' Association acknowledging his letter with regard to the
truck system alleged to prevail on sugar estates in that parish.
The Secretary read letters from the Colonial Secretary's Office
as follows : —
T. Re the Island Chemist's visit abroad to gain information
with regard to the Rum Industry, stating that the
Governor had adopted the recommendations of the Board
and approved of the travelling expenses being charged,
as suggested, but pointing out that no estimate of the
amount required had been given and that his consent was
given strictly on the understanding that the Vote should
not be e.xceeded.
2- Copy of letter to the Superintending Inspector of Schools
stating that on the advice of the Board of Agri-
culture, the Governor had approved of the appropriation
of £30 of the item of £50 for " Model School Gardens in
Country Districts" on the Estimates for Agricultural Ser-
vices, in aid of the item on his estimates of £50 for School
Gardens, for the purpose of making grants for tools, and
that in future there should be one Vote on the Estimates,
and that should be on those of the Schools Department.
3. Re Board's Report for last year, stating that the paragraph
relative to the adoption of a legal standard of ether con-
tents in Jamaica Rum was incorrect and suggesting a
paragraph to be substituted.
The Secretary stated that the report had been prepared
by the Chairman (Mr. Bourne) and Mr. Cousins and thev
had in error included a matter which appeared in the
April minutes and therefore occurred this year, and he
had replied that the whole matter would be deleted from
last year's report.
This was approved of.
2I6
4. Papers re Swift's Arsenate of Lead, containing an applica-
tion from J. M. Crosswell& Co., for the admission of this
insecticide free of duty like Paris Green, with minutes
from the Collector General and the Island Chemist. The
Secretary reported that it would come slightly cheaper
than Paris Green, and it was resolved to recommend to the
Government that it be admitted free of duty.
The Secretary read letter from the Northside Sugar Planters
Association asking for a report on the working of the High Ether
Process at Hampden.
The Secretary was instructed to reply that the Board was not
in a position to give the information asked for until the return of
the Goverment Chemist from his leave of absence early in Octo-
ber.
The Secretary submitted letter from Mr. J. Briscoe, Superinten-
dent of the Parade Gardens, asking for an increase of salary.
The Board directed the Secretary to reply that they could not
recommend the increase asked for.
The Secretary submitted the following reports : —
From the Chemist on the work of the Students for mid-summer
term, which was directed to be circulated.
From the Acting Director of Public Gardens on the work of the
Experiment Station and the work of the Instructors. These were
directed to be circulated.
The meeting then adjourned till Wednesday, I2th September.
[Issued 1 0th Sept.., 1906.]
Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam.
JAMAICA.
LIB'
OF THE NEV
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Vol. IV. OCTOBER, 1906. Part 10.
NOTES ON THE CULTIVATION OF VEGETABLES.
By W. Harris, Superintendent of Hope Gardens.
In view of the existing demand for fresh vegetables on the
Isthmus of Panama, the following notes are published in the hope
that they will be useful to those who may feel inclined to venture
on the cultivation of any or all of the crops named.
Preparation of seed beds.
Select a level piece of ground in the open, but shelterd from
strong winds, where the soil is light and good. Mark off the
number of beds likely to be required. The beds should be 4 feet
wide with paths 18 inches wide between them. Having marked
off the beds with a peg at each corner, they should be thoroughly
dug up and the soil broken fine. Before sowing seeds the surface
of the beds should be raked over to remove all stones, hard lumps
of earth, etc. Seeds of very tender plants should be sown in
boxes.
TO DESTROY GRUBS, BEETLES, ETC.
When the ground is ready for sowing seeds, or for planting out
young seedlings, spread all over the surface a layer of dry grass,
banana trash or such like. The beetles, grubs, etc., collect under
the trash and after 3 or 4 days fire is set to it, and large numbers
of the pests are destroyed. A double purpose is thus served, as
the ashes of the burnt trash are very beneficial to the young
plants.
SOWING THE SEEDS.
Having prepared the seed bed, get a rod four feet long, lay thie
across the bed, and whilst holding it in position with one hand,
mark off the shallow drills with the forefinger, or a piece of stick
along the four foot rod. For coarse seeds such as beans to be
sown in long rows, a line should be stretched along the full lengtk
of the bed, and the drills opened out with the corner of a hoe. It
is better to sow all seeds in drills at the proper distance apart
2I8
the seedlings are easier to thin, and weeds can be pulled out with-
out destroying a number of the young plants.
Small seeds should only be covered very slightly with fine soil,
but the larger seeds may be covered to a depth of half an inch, or
an inch.
The best time to sow seeds and transplant young plants is
during showery weather.
BEET ROOT.
Sow the seed in drills where the crop is to grow, in a sandy,
open situation. Ground that has been manured for a previous
crop will not require to be again manured for beet. Allow a dis-
tance of 15 inches between the drills, and as soon as the young
plants are large enough to handle, thin them out to 9 inches apart
in the drills. The young plants taken out may be used to supply
vacancies, or to plant elsewhere, but these beets are never so good
as those which are not disturbed.
The seed should be soaked in luke-warm water for about twelve
hours before sowing, then taken out, allowed to drain, and sown
whilst still damp, and covered to a depth of I i or 2 inches.
Qiiaiility of Seed — The quantity of seed required to sow a row I
chain in length is l| ounces.
Varieties — The " turnip-rooted" varieties are best for culture here,
and the following are highly spoken of : — Carter's Early Crimson
Ball, Egyptian Turnip-rooted, Eclipse, Dewings Improved Blood Turnip,
Bassano, Landreth 's Very Early, and Early Blood-red Turnip.
Prices of seed — The price of English seed varies, according to the
variety, from 6d. to 2/ per ounce, and American seed from 10 to
20 cents per ounce.
CABBAGES.
A good soil, heavily manured is recjuisite for the production of
tender and succulent cabbages. They should occupy the coolest
and moistest situation in the garden as heat and drought are in-
jurious to them. The seed should be sown in beds of light, rich
soil, and as soon as the plants begin to crowd each other they
should be transplanted to their final positions. The distances
between the plants will depend on the size of the variety grown,
but, generally, 2 feet between the rows and 18 inches from plant
to plant will be sufficient. They should, whenever possible, be
planted out in moist weather, and in absence of rain should be
irrigated or watered regularly.
Quantity of seed — A quarter of an ounce of seed will produce
sufficient plants for 7 rows one chain in length.
Varieties — The following should be tried : — Carter's Early Heart-
well, Carter's Model, Carter's Little Pixie, Carter's Mammoth Beef-
hearted, Early Jersey Wakefield, Carter's Early Dn'arf Ulm Savoy,
Henderson's Charleston Wakefield, Henderson's Early Summer, Hen-
derson's Autumn King, Landreths All the Year Round, Bloomsdale
Early Dwarf Flat Dutch, Redland Early Drumhead.
Prices of seed — English, 4d. to l/6d. per ounce; American 25 to
50 cents per ounce, according to variety.
219
CARROTS.
Sow in the open where the crop is to grow. Carrots require a
good light soil which has been previously well dug and manured.
The seed is sown either broadcast on a bed, or in drills, but the
latter is the preferable method as the young plants can be thinned
more uniformly. A distance of 12 inches between the rows and
6 inches from plant to plant is generally allowed. The seedlings
are usually thinned twice ; the first thinning when they are quite
young, leaving a space of 3 inches between the plants in the row ;
a second thinning takes place when the roots are small but of
edible size, when every second plant should be pulled to allow the
requisite space between those that are left to grow.
Quantity of Seed. — The quantity of seed required to sow a drill
one chain in length, or a bed about 16 feet by 4 feet marked off
in drills, is one ounce. On account of the bristles on carrot seed
it is somewhat difficult to sow with regularity ; it is usual, therefore,
to mix the seed with fine sand or sifted dry earth and sow the
mi.xture.
Varieties. — The short-rooted kinds are worth a trial : — Early
Short Horn, Carter's Improved Early Horn, Carter's Summer Favourite,
Danvers' Early French Forcing, Early Scarlet Horn, Half-long Red,
Extra Early Forcing, Nantes.
Prices of seed. — English, 4d. to 1/6 per ounce ; American, 10 to
25 cents per ounce.
CUCUMBERS.
The American method of cultivation is to plant in hills about 4
feet apart each way, in rich sandy soil. The hills are previously
prepared by thoroughly mixing with the soil of each a good
shovelful of well rotted manure. The seeds are planted in the hill,
and three or four strong plants allowed to each. When the fruit
is in fit condition it is gathered whether required for use or not,
as if allowed to ripen it destroys the productiveness of the plants.
The plants should always have plenty of moisture regularly
supplied during growth.
In one or two counties in England, the soil and climate of which
seem unusually well adapted to the growth of cucumbers, large
quantities are grown in the open air for the London markets ; from
such sources there are said to be sent not less than 600 tons a
week during the cucumber season, and of these lOO tons have been
known to be sent to Convent Garden in a single day. The seed
is sown where the plants are intended to grow, two feet apart in
the rows, and the rows four feet asunder. They soon push into
active growth and cover the ground with vines, which spread in
all directions, and come into bearing. During their growth weed-
ing and thinning their superfluous shoots are well attended to, and
in the fruiting season, fruit from 10 to 12 inches in length green
and solid though sometimes unshapely, is continually being cut.
Seed required. — One ounce of seed will plant 50 hills. The seeds
should be soaked in luke-warm water for a few hours before
planting, and only those that sink to the bottom of the vessel
220
ought to be used ; the seeds that float on the surface of the wat-er
are often imperfect and would not grow.
Varieties. — Carter's Best of All, Stockwood, Improved Early White
Spine, Livingston 's Evergreen, Extra Early Green Prolific, NiehoVs
Medium Green, Long Green Turkey, Landreth's First, Landrcth's
Choice.
Prices of Seed. — English, 6d. to is. per packet; American 5 to
20 cents per packet, or 10 to 40 cents per ounce.
GARDEN EGGS.
Soil and Situation. — A good rich soil is necessary, plenty of
thoroughly rotted short stable or cattle manure should be dug in.
A sheltered position should be chosen, where abundance of water
can be given.
Sowing seed.— The seed is sown in nursery beds. About one
ounce of seed should give lOOO plants.
Planting. — The plants are set out at 3 feet apart in rows, the
rows being 5 feet apart. About 3,000 plants go to the acre.
Cultivation. — If well grown, large fruits are desired, only a
certain number should be allowed to each plant in proportion to
the strength and peculiar variety. The ends of the branches
should be pinched when the fruits are ripening. The varieties
differ in the length of time they take to ripen their fruit, from two
to six months. In a tropical climate like Jamaica, it is preferable
to grow those varieties which require the longest time, as the fruit
is larger and better flavoured. In temperate climates, on the other
hand, the " early" varieties are preferred.
Varieties, — The following are the chief varieties —
(1) Long Purple. — The fruit is from 6 to 8 inches long, and 2 to
3 inches in diameter. It is best in quality before it is fully grown.
Five or six months are necessary for its growth. There may be 8
or 10 fruits on a large healthy plant.
(2) Early Long Purple. — This is only an early variety of the
preceding, and the plant is not so strong nor so large.
(3) Round Purple. — The fruits are large and somewhat pear-
shaped. Not more than 3 or 4 should be left to grow on a plant.
(4) New York hnproved. — The fruit is like that of the Round
Purple, but the plant is smaller. Not more than 2 fruits should be
allowed to a single plant.
(5) Early Dwarf Purple. — This is an early variety. The plant is
low-growing and branching, and may carry 10 or 12 fruits. The
fruit is of a longer shape than the Round Purple, 3 or 4 inches
long and about 2 in diameter at the thick end.
(6) White China. — This is a very distinct variety, with long
slender white fruit.
(7) Landreth's Thornless Large Round Purple. — This is a variety
recommended by Messrs. Landreth.
Prices of seed. — American 30 to 60 cents per ounce ; French 3d.
to 1/ per ounce.
221
KIDNEY BEANS.
The cultivation of Kidney Beans (Red Peas) is well understood
here, as they form one of the principal crops grown by the
^peasantry, but they are grown as a field crop and the pods are
allowed to ripen on the plants. They should be grown in rows at
least 2 feet apart, and the plants 9 to 12 inches apart in the rows.
Quantity of Seed. — A little over half-a-pint of seed will plant a
row a chain in length.
Varieties. — Carter's White Advancer, Carter's Newington Wonder,
Monster long podded Negro, Improved Golden Wax, Flageolet Wax,
Henderson's Earliest Valentine, Cylinder Black Wax, Yosemite Mam-
moth Wax, Early Warwick, Early Molunvk.
Prices of Seed.— 'English ranges from lOd. to 2s. per quart;
American 25 to 60 cents per quart.
KOHL RABI.
This vegetable holds a place intermediate between the cabbage
and the turnip. It is very hardy and resists drought better than
the turnip.
Sow the seed thinly in a seed bed, and when the young plants
are a couple of inches high they should be transplanted into any
good, well-manured piece of ground, planting them about 9 inches
apart in the rows, and the latter 18 inches asunder. If the weather
be dry, water should be given till the plants take fresh root.
With the exception of weeding and stirring the ground
occasionally, no further cultivation is necessary.
LETTUCE.
The soil for lettuce should be well manured with good rotten
■manure. The seed should be sown in drills about 15 inches apart,
and as soon as young plants are large enough to handle they
should be thinned out to about 12 inches. The plants removed in
thinning should be transplanted at the usual distances and they
will be ready for pulling from two to three weeks after those left
in the seed drills. After transplanting it will be necessary to
water the plants for some days till they get established.
The surface of the soil between the rows should be kept stirred
during growth, and an occasional application of weak liquid
manure, when the plants begin to form heads, will be beneficial.
Quantity of seed required. — Half an ounce of seed will sow a drill
one chain in length.
Varieties.— Boston Market, Tennis Ball Black Seeded, All the Year
Round, Henderson's New York, Perfected Salamander, Big Boston, Vir-
ginia Solid Header, Largest of all, Yellow Seeded Butter, Golden Queen.
Price of seed.— American to to 30 cents per ounce.
MUSK MELONS.
Melons thrive best in a moderately enriched light soil ; the hills
should be from three to six feet apart each way, according to the
richness of the soil, if the soil is poor or sandy, plant at four feet.
Previous to planting, incorporate well with the soil in each hill a
couple of shovelsful of thoroughly rotted manure; plant twelve or
222
fifteen seeds in each hill, and when well up, thin out to three or'
four of the most promising. Pinch off the leading shoots as the'
growth becomes too luxuriant, and if the fruit sets too numerously
thin out when young, which will increase the size of those remain-
ing and cause them to ripen more quickly.
Quantity of seed. — One ounce for sixty hills.
Varieties. — Early Hackensack, T/ie Newport, Emerald Gem, Baltic
more or Acme, Extra Early Citron, South Jersey, Atlantie City, Extra
Early June.
Price of seed. — American, 10 to 30 cents per ounce.
MUSTARD AND CRESS.
No plants are more easy to grow than these ; they may be sown-
in any kind of soil, but preferably in a moist and shaded position,
with the certainty of having plants fit to cut in a couple of weeks.
Sow each broadcast in a bed, and rake lightly over.
Quantity of seed required, — One ounce of seed will sow a bed 16
feet by 4 feet.
Mustard Varieties. Finest White, Brown or Black, New Chinese.
Prices of seed, English, 3d. & 4d., per ounce or 1/3 per pint, except
New Chinese, which is 2/ per pint. American 5 cents per ounce or
40 cents, and $1 per lb.
Cress Varieties .- — Plain or Common Golden. — A delicious salad —
Carter's Cut and Q)me Again, Australian.
Prices of seed : — English, 3d. and 4d. per ounce ; American 10 to
15 cents per ounce.
OKRA.
Plant beginning of August, October, December and February to
keep a supply of young pods from October to May.
Okra is extensively grown, its young pods being used in soups
stews, etc. It thrives well in any moderately rich soil, the richer
the better. The seed should be planted about 3 feet apart in
rows where the plants are to remain.
Quantity of seed. — A couple of ounces of seed will plant a row
one chain in length.
Varieties. — White Velvet, Dwarf Prolific, Landrcth's Long Green,
Landreth's Long White.
Price of seed. — American, 10 cents per ounce.
ONIONS.
Onions succeed best in an open situation in a rich loam, rather
light than heavy. If the soil is too light, means must be taken to
make it firm. It should in the first place be dug and broken up
fine, to ensure an equal looseness throughout ; it should then be
trodden down with the feet in order to render the bed uniformly
compact.
Well-rotted stable manure, the sweepings of poultry and pigeon
houses, and bat manure are recommended. Sheep's dung, and
well decomposed night soil are likewise excellent.
Shallow drills about 12 inches apart should be drawn, and the
seeds sown thinly along the drills and very lightly covered with
223
fine soil, then the whole surface should be well trodden, and
smoothed with the back of a rake. The young onions should be
thinned to a distance of 3 inches when large enough to pull, and
the seedlings thus removed may be transplanted, if desired. Later
on a second thinning will be necessary, when every second plant
should be pulled, leaving a distance of 6 inches between the plants
in the drills.
Even to keep down weeds, deep hoeing is not advisable, as the
ground must be kept solid, but the soil between the drills should
be lightly hoed occasionally.
When the bulbs have attained their full size, the leaves are bent
down at the neck of the bulb by the back of a wooden rake. This
checks the flow of sap and causes the leaves to decay, and the
bulbs to ripen more quickly. When the leaves wither, the onions
are taken up and left lying for 3 or 4 days to dry in the sun, with
an occasional turning over; they are then fit for market.
PARSLEY.
Parsley likes a good but not too rich soil, in a somewhat shady
situation. The seed should be sown in drills 1 foot apart, and
covered with fine mould to the depth of half an inch. The seed
germinates very slowly, often taking several weeks, and the drills
should be frequently watered till the young plants are well above
the ground.
Qiianti:y of seed. — Half an ounce will sow a drill one chain in
length.
Varieties. Carter's Fertted-Ieaved, price 1/6 per ounce. Carter's
Perpetual, price 1/ per packet. Champion Moss-Curled, price 1/ per
ounce, Covent Garden Garnishing, price gd. per ounce. Double Curled,
price 4d. per ounce, Henderson's Emerald, price 10 cents per ounce.
PEAS. (English)
Sow from beginning of September to beginning of March, once
a fortnight, or once a month, to have peas for market from No-
vember to May.
Soil. — A good friable loam, in which there is plenty of lime, is
the best for peas. The soil should be dug to a good depth, and
left rather rough so that the rain water may not run off it, but pass
through the soil.
Manure. — Well-rotted stable manure should be applied in greater
or less quantity according as the soil is more or less poor, and it
should be dug in about a foot below the surface.
The ground having been prepared, the first thing to be done is
to mark the distances for the rows, and this will depend on the
heights of the varieties selected. Tall growing varieties require
to be planted not less than 7 or 8 feet apart, and in England they
are often planted at twice or thrice that distance apart, and other
low growing crops, such as turnips, etc., planted between the rows,
it having been abundantly proved that the further the rows are
placed apart, the better the yield and produce. As a rule, however,
the distance between the rows may be about the same as the
height to which the varieties usually grow.
224
Sowing the Seeds. — Having decided on the distances apart for the
rows, and marked them with pieces of stick, a line should be
stretched and drills made with a garden hoe, about 3 or 3i inches
deep, and about 6 inches wide, then the seeds should be sown, not
too thickly, but allowing room enough for them to grow, without
robbing each other of nourishment and moisture. When the seeds
have been sown, the soil taken out of the drills should be broken
fine with a rake if lumpy, and the peas covered with it, and lightly
trodden.
As soon as the plants have grown a few inches, a little earth
should be drawn by a hoe towards them, and this should be re-
peated as they advance. They should then be at once staked,
and as soon as the tendrils appear the sticks will be in readiness
for them to lay hold of. Small sticks may be used at first, but as
the plants advance in growth, taller, twiggy branches will be neces-
sary. Two rows of sticks are needed for each row of peas, one
on either side of the plants. In staking begin at one end of the
row, put the sticks firmly in the ground, and slant those on one
side slightly in the same direction in a line with the row, and if
those on the other side of the peas, are equally slanted in an op-
posite direction a kind of lattice work will be formed and will be
a good support for the plants.
If the weather be hot and dry, a thick layer of litter spread be-
tween the rows will be advantageous, by keeping the ground
moist and comparatively cool.
Quantity of seed. For a row of one chain in length if pints of
seed are required, making allowance for a proportion that either
will not come up at all, are so weakly as to be of no account.
Varieties. The varieties of the Pea are so numerous that a mere
list of the names would occupy several pages. From experiments
carried out at the Hill Garden, for productiveness, the following
can be recommended : — Carter's Balmoral Castle, Carter's Princess
Royal, Laxton's Alpha, Duke of Albany, Laxton's Prolific, Kentish In-
victa. Abundance, Carter's Telephone, Carter's Telegraph, Ne Plus Ultra,
Henderson's First of all, Horsford's Market Garden. Landreth's French
Canner.
Prices of seed. English, gd. to 2/6 per quart ; American, 25 to 80
cents per quart, according to variety.
PEPPERS.
They should be planted about 2^ feet apart in rows, and the
latter should be about 3 feet asunder in good mellow soil.
Quantity of seed. — Half an ounce of good seed should produce
sufficient plants for five rows of one chain each, planted at 2i feet
apart.
Varieties. County Fair. — Particularly sweet and mild, being
thicker in the flesh than any other sort and enormously produc-
tive. Seed, 10 cents per packet, 40 cents per ounce.
Cardinal. — Glossy bright red in colour ; five to six inches in
length, being about an inch broad at the base and tapering to a
point. Very sweet and thick fleshed. Seed, 5 cents per packet
40 cents per ounce.
225
Ruby King. — An exceedingly large and handsome pepper of mild
flavour ; the fruits of a bright ruby red. Seed 10 cents per packet,
25 cents per ounce.
Large Bell. — An early variety of mild flavour, a favourite for
pickling and for use in the natural state. Seed 5 cents per packet,
25 per ounce.
GoM'« £>flw«.— Of similar shape and size as Large Bell, but of
more delicate flavour ; colour yellow. Seed, 5 cents per packet,
25 cents per ounce.
POTATOES.
Plant from October to January to have new Potatoes ready for
market from end of December or beginning of January to April.
Soil. — Potatoes will grow in almost any kind of soil with good
cultivation, but a good friable loam, rather light than otherwise,
and free from stagnant water is the best. Good potatoes are pro-
duced in light sandy soil, but a liberal supply of manure is neces-
sary to ensure a heavy crop.
Manure. — The quantity and kind of manure to be employed
must depend on the nature of the soil, to a light sandy soil, a
liberal supply of thoroughly decomposed manure should be given,
but if the soil is of a heavy, damp nature, half rotted long manure
is best. In hot, dry soils, cow dung when it can be obtained, is
preferable, as it retains more moisture than stable manure, but it
should be well mixed with litter. Pig's dung is too powerful in
an unmixed state, but when mixed with about twice its own bulk
of earth it forms an excellent manure. Generally speaking, how-
ever, for the hills of Jamaica, farm-yard manure, that is the excre-
ments, both solid and liquid, of the various animals kept about a
place, mixed with litter and refuse and allowed to decompose, is
probably the best.
" Seed " or Sets. — There is some difference of opinion as to
whether the tubers should be planted whole or cut, but from experi-
ments made in the Gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at
Chiswick, London, it was found on the mean of two plantations
that the produce from cut sets exceeded that from whole tubers by
nearly one ton per acre. Good sized tubers are considered best
for sets. The eyes in the Potato are true buds, and it stands to
reason that good sound tubers with strong eyes or buds, will pro-
duce much more healthy and vigorous plants than small tubers
with comparatively weak eyes. This, also, has been proved by
actual experiment.
When good sized tubers are used for sets they may be cut in
halves passing the knife through from the bunch of eyes at the
top, and generally the halves may be divided again. One good
eye to each set is all that is really necessary, but it is safer to cut
the set so that it may have two eyes, as sometimes an eye is blind,
or so weak as to be unable to push.
The sets should not be planted for a few days after being cut,
but kept in a dry place, and some wood ashes or such like mate-
rial mixed with them to absorb the juice exuding from the fresh
cuts, and thus prevent decay setting in.
226
Modes of planting — For garden cultivation, or small patches of
ground, drawing drills with the hoe, if the soil is well pulverised,
or digging trenches are probably the best methods. I have no
doubt that drawing the earth into hills, as is done for Sweet
Potatoes, and planting a set in each hill would be an excellent
plan. By this means each plant could be moulded with fine soil
when needed, and the hills being above the level of the ground
would ensure good drainage, and it should always be borne in
mind that two of the main things necessary to ensure success in
the cultivation of the Potato are good drainage, and a good body
of pulverised soil. In heavy wet ground a good plan is to throw
the soil up in ridges. These are really raised beds about 4j feet
wide, with trenches l8 inches wide between them ; the soil taken
from the trenches is thoroughly broken up, and used for covering
the sets, and for moulding the plants later on. The trenches act
as so many drains during heavy rains and keep the ridges com-
paratively dry.
Some growers spread the manure on the ridges, or in the drills
or trenches just previous to planting and lay the sets on it; but
this is not considered a good plan, as later on the young tubers come
into direct contact with the manure which causes them to scab,
and as the manure is provided to afford nourishment to the fibrous
roots, not the tubers, it is a mistake to run the risk of spoiling the
appearance of a crop by adopting this method. For field cultiva-
tion I should recommend opening trenches or drills from end to
end of the ground, spread the manure evenly in the bottom
of the trenches, or on the tops of the ridges if that system
of cultivation is adopted, and cover it to the depth of a couple of
inches with fine soil, then lay the sets and cover up. If only a
garden, or small piece of ground is to be planted it will be better
if it is evenly manured and well dug over sometime previous to
planting, and when the season comes round the trenches can be
opened and the sets planted without any further manuring.
Dibbling in the sets is a system followed in England to a con-
siderable extent, but unless the soil has been well cultivated
previously it is not a system to be recommended here. The sets
are likely to be placed at unequal depths, and the chances are that
the eyes will be turned down in the holes instead of being placed
uppermost, and in performing the work the ground gets trodden
unnecessarily, the consequence being that if dry weather follows,
the soil cakes and the buds are unable to push through it, whereas
if rain follows immediately after planting, it collects in the holes
and as likely as not causes the sets to rot.
Distance apart. — The distance at which the sets should be placed
apart varies with the nature of the soil and vigour of the kind
grown ; in rich soils a greater distance should be allowed than in
poor soils. In general, the distances should be 2| to 3 feet
between the rows, and I2 to 15 inches between the sets in each
row, but as a rule, the greater the distances the better the yield.
Depth. — The depth to which the sets should be covered also
227
varies somewhat, but 4 to 5 inches in heavy, and 5 to 6 inches in
light soils are about the proper depths.
Subsequent culture. — This consists in keeping the ground free
from weeds, earthing up the plants as they advance in growth, and
keeping the soil stirred and fine, as the more it is pulverised, the
better, but taking care not to injure the young roots or tubers.
Lifting. When the tops are observed to wither from natural
decay the crop may be lifted, and this should not be delayed too
long, as if so, in this climate the new tubers are apt to vegetate.
Choose fine, but if possible cloudy weather as potatoes should be
exposed to light, and specially bright sunshine as little as possible.
Exposure to the sun causes the tubers to turn green, and it is well
known that the green parts of a potato contain a more or less
poisonous principle. After lifting, the potatoes should be stored
in a dry airy room or shed, but light should be excluded as much
as possible. Potatoes are too often exposed to the light, and when
such are cooked they are yellow in appearance and have a
decided bitterish flavour, whereas if kept in the dark till required
for cooking they would be white and floury.
Varieties. — The varieties of the Potato are exceedingly numerous,
but the kinds to be grown for shipping during the winter months
are those known as '' new potatoes" — the various kinds of Kidney
potato — Carter's First Crop. A re-selected stock of the earliest,
most prolific and best Kidney in cultivation. Price 5/ per peck
(14 lbs), per i cwt. or bushel 17/6.
Carter's Improved Early Ashleaf. — The first early White Kidney
Price 4/6 per peck (14 lbs), per i cwt. or bushel 14/.
Hyatt's Early Prolific Ashleaf. — This is the variety so largely
grown in Cornwall and Jersey as an early Potato for the English
markets, and it is probably the most certain early-cropping Kidney
in commerce. Price 2/6 per peck (14 lbs), per i cwt. or bushel
8/6.
Victor (Sharpe). Several seasons' trial have fully confirmed all
that has been said of the Victor Kidney Potato. It is proved to be
one of the earliest, most prolific, and best flavoured of all early
potatoes. Price 3/6 per peck (14 lbs), per i cwt., or bushel 12/.
Snowdrop. — Of sterling merit, both as to quality and produc-
tiveness. One of the handsomest Kidneys grown. Price 3 per
peck (14 lbs), per i cwt. or bushel, 10/6.
Early Norther. — This variety seems to do well everywhere. Its
table qualities cannot be excelled, cooking dry and floury, whether
baked or boiled. Price 70 cents per peck, $2.25 per bushel.
PUMPKINS.
Plant at same time as Squash, in hills 8 feet apart each way,
and only allow one plant to each hill.
Varieties. — Calhoun, Winter Lu.xury, Yellow Cashaw, Jonathan, Large
Cheese.
Price of seed. — American, 5 to 10 cents per packet.
228
RADISH.
The radish will succeed in any light, open soil, but rather a
shady spot should be selected. To grow them properly the ground
should be dug deeply, and the surface raked fine. The seed is
usually sown thinly broadcast in beds about four feet wide, and
the surface lightly raked over after sowing. In dry weather the
beds should be watered early in morning.
Quantity of seed required. — One and a half ounces of seed will
sow a bed l6 feet long by four feet wide.
Varieties. — Earliest Long Frame, Carter's Violet Freneh Breakfast,
Carter's Early White Turnip, Carter's Extra Early white-tipped
Scarlet, Mi.ved Turnip, Early Round Dark Red, Market Gardeners'
Early Long Scarlet.
Prices of seed. — English, from 4d. to 8d. per ounce ; American,
10 cents per ounce.
SPINACH.
By sowing at intervals of two or three weeks from beginning of
August till March, a succession of spinach is easily kept up from
about October till May. The soil for spinach should be deep and
rich, neither very stiff nor very light, and should be rather moist,
otherwise frequent waterings will be necessary. The seed should
be sown in drills about an inch deep, and IS to l8 inches apart,
and the plants should be thinned out to about 6 inches apart in
the rows. Beyond keeping the ground free from weeds, the soil
stirred occasionally, and watering frequently and copiously in
dry weather, no further cultivation is needed.
Quantity of Seed required. — To sow a drill one chain in length J
of an ounce of seed will be needed.
Varieties. — Carter's Market Favourite, The Carter, Bloonisdale
Spinach, Ever Ready, Prickly Seedcd-Curled, Round or Summer.
Prices of seed. — English, 3d. and 4d. per ounce ; American 10 to
15 cents per ounce.
SQUASH.
Plant in hills, prepared as for Melons, 4 feet apart each way
for the bush varieties, and 6 to 8 feet apart for the running sorts.
About 2 plants may be allowed to each hill. If very large fruit
is desired only two or three should be left on each plant, selecting
the best, and the branches should be cut off about two or three
leaves beyond the last fruit.
Quantity of seed. ^One ounce for 50 hills.
Varieties. — Bush kinds — Long Island, White Bush, Golden Custard
Bush, White Bush Scalloped, Yelloiv Bush Crookneck.
Running kinds — Landreth's White Turban, Henderson's Delicate
Winter Crookneck.
Price of seed. — American, 10 to 25 cents per ounce.
SWEET CORN.
Plant once a fortnight from beginning of August to beginning
of January to have young, tender corn from end of October to
April.
229
" All varieties of Sweet or Sugar Corn may be either sown in
rows four and one-half feet apart, and the seeds placed about
eight inches apart in the rows or planted in hills at distances of
three or four feet each way, according to the variety grown, or the
richness of the soil in which it is planted. The taller the variety,
or the richer the soil, the greater should be the distance apart.
Quantity of seed. — One quart of seed will plant 200 hills, or a
row 100 yards in length; 8 to lO quarts for an acre.
Varieties, Perry's Hybrid — An early twelve-rowed variety, grow-
ing only 4 to 5 feet high. Kernels white, large, sweet and very
tender. Price of seed, 25 cents per quart.
Moore's Early Concord. — Ears large and well-filled ; and unsur-
passed for richness and delicacy of flavour. Price of seed 25
cents per quart.
Stabler's Early. — A valuable second early corn, remarkably large
for so early a ripener. Yields an abundant crop, is desirable for
family use, and one of the most profitable for market or canning.
Price of seed, 25 cents per quart.
Squantum. — One of the sweetest varieties, and is largely used
for market and canning. It is a general favourite and is wonder-
fully productive. The Squantum is the variety used almost exclu-
sively at the famous Rhode Island clambakes, which is sufficient
evidence of its quality. Price of seed, 25 cents per quart.
Extra Early Minnesota. — Maturing for table in about seventy days
from germination. Ears well made out. Desirable in the family
garden and profitable to shippers. Price of seed 20 cents per
quart.
Early Landretli Market. — Cultivated on large areas and almost
exclusively by the market gardeners of Burlington County, New
Jersey. The edible grain is white and sweet. This variety will
mature ears for market in about eighty days from germination.
The stalk is leafy and grows to a height of 6 feet. A very profit-
able sort as a money maker. Plant in rows 4 feet apart, and
thin the planf, to two feet in the rows. Price of seeds 20 cents
per quart.
Landretli' s Sugar. — A remarkably .productive variety; two ears
on every stalk, often three, and sometimes four. The ear remains
long in milky condition for the table, the edible grain being pure
white and exceedingly sugary. Matures for market in about 82
days. This Sugar Corn will afford to growers more baskets of
marketable ears to the acre than any other variety in cultivation.
Plant at distances of 4A feet between the rows, and 3 feet from
plant to plant in the rows. Price of seed 27 cents per quart.
TOMATOES.
The seed should be sown in prepared beds or in boxes, and as
soon as the plants are a couple of inches high they should be
pricked off into another bed, a few inches apart, when they have
attained a height of about 6 inches they may be planted out. If
the seeds have not been sown too thickly the young plants may
be allowed to remain in the original bed or box till they are strong
230
enough to be transplanted at once to their permanent positions.
They like a light, sandy, well manured soil. They should be plant-
ed about three feet apart in rows which should be about four feet
asunder. A strong stake should be driven in at the root of each
to tie the plants to, and particular attention should be paid to
stopping the lateral growths to throw all the strength into the
main stem. The tomato is a gross feeder and should be liberally
supplied with rich mulching material, and irrigated freely till the
fruit begins to ripen, when they should be kept rather dry at the
roots.
Quantity of seed. — Half an ounce of seed will produce 750 plants.
Varirties.^These are so numerous that it is a somewhat difficult
matter to make a selection, the following however, are recommend-
ed : — Carter's Perfection (a winner of 38 first prizes at Horticultural
Shows), Carter's Dedham Favourite (a winner of 22 first prizes),
Carter's Market Favourite, Hare field Gem, Carter's Saudwhich Island
(specially recommended as being better suited for long journeys,
and rough handling than the general run of tomatoes). Ham Green
Favourite, Trophy, Acme, Chiswick Red, Duke of ^ork, Carter's Blen-
heim Orange, Tlic\ Mikado, Table Queen, Ponderosa, Trophy extra
selected. Early Bermuda, Early fersey. The Money Maker.
Prices of seed. — English seed ranges in price from 6d. to 36 per
packet ; American seed from 5 to 25 cents per packet, or from 30
to 60 cents per ounce.
TURNIPS.
The turnip succeeds best in light sandy soils. Stiff retentive
soils are ill adapted for the growth of good, well flavoured roots.
Land that has been well manured seldom fails to produce good
turnips, it is, therefore, well to see that the land has been properly
prepared for them before sowing the seed. Drills should be drawn
about 2 inches deep and 12 inches apart, and seeds sown thinly.
As soon as the young plants can be handled they should be
thinned to 3 inches apart, and later on a second thinning will be
necessary when every other one should be removed. The surface
of the soil between the rows should at all times be kept open and
free from weeds.
Quantity of seed — To sow a drill one chain in length half an
ounce of seed will be required.
Varieties — Carter's White Sivan's Egg, Carter's Jersey Lily. Carter's
Purple Top Straplcaf, Henderson's Golden Ball, Purple Top White
Globe, Early Snow Ball, Early White Milan.
Prices of seed — English ranges from 3d. to 6d. per ounce ;
American, usuallj' 10 cents per ounce, except for new varieties.
WATER-MELONS.
Cultivate as stated for Musk Melons, except that the hills should
be double the distance apart, and only one plant allowed to each
hill.
Quantity of seed — One ounce to 30 hills.
Varieties — Florida Favourite, Henderson's Green and Gold, Kolbs
^31
Gem (this variety is stated to be largly grown in the Southern
States for shipments to the northern markets), The Jones. Landretli's
Boss, Arkansas Traveller.
Price of seed — American, lo to 15 cents per ounce.
PACKING, &C.
The list here given, though a fairly comprehensive one, does
not include the names of all the vegetables that might be grown
for export, but if the kinds named, or a few of them at least
were grown and shipped, a start would be made and next year
a few more varieties might be included. I have been careful
to name only such things as can be raised quickly and with-
out much trouble, and at the same time such as are pretty
certain to meet with a ready sale at remunerative rates if put
on the market in good condition. I do not wish to be understood
to mean that one grower can successfully cultivate all the kinds
named ; soil, climate, water supply and other things will have to
be duly considered, and each grower will have to use his own
judgment in these matters. One man might try Tomatoes, Gar-
den Eggs, Sweet Corn, and Kidney Beans, another might try
Melons, Squashes and Cucumbers, &c. ; another Potatoes, Cab-
bages, Green Peas, Turnips, Carrots, and Beet-root ; another Salads
and so on. What I should like to impress on one and all, how-
ever, is, that the time for planting is near at hand and he who
would like to try and grow and ship vegetables during the coming
winter and spring must be up and doing. The seeds which are
named in this list may be obtained from Messrs. Jas. Carter and
Co.. 23 J and 2jS, Highholborn, London ; Messrs. Sutton and Sons,
Reading, England ; Messrs. Vibnorn-Andricux and Co., 4, Quai de la
Megisserie, Paris, France, and the American kinds from Messrs.
Peter Henderson and Co.. 35 and 37 Cortland t St., New York ; Messrs.
D. Landreth and Sons, 21 and 23 S. Sixth St., Philadelphia ; Messrs.
Atlee Burpee and Co.. 475 and 477 N. 5th St.. Philadelphia, Pa. A
remittance to cover cost of seeds and postage should accompany
orders to ensure prompt attention.
The only difificulty I apprehend in this matter is in the packing.
There is no doubt that vegetables of excellent quality can be
grown here, but careful means will have to be devised to get them
to the markets in the best possible condition. In the United
States there would appear to be a regulation-size box, crate, or
hamper for nearly every vegetable product grown there, and a
well recognised method of packing each product, and what we
need now is more precise information on these points. It might
be possible to procure samples of the various packages for the
guidance of intending shippers, who could either have similar
boxes, etc., made here, or import them as required if found
cheaper to do so. These, however, are matters of detail which
can be attended to whilst the crops are growing. The first thing
to be done, and that soon, is to decide on what is to be grown,
and get the seed in the ground.
232
CAMPHOR CULTIVATION/^
There has been much talk of late in Ceylon planting circles con-
cerning the possibility of camphor cultivation in that Island, and
many are anxious to learn whether operations are likely to prove
profitable, especially in view of the extreme scarcity and high
prices which now appear to be more or less permanent. Camphor
has been cultivated for experimental purposes in Ceylon and
India for a number of years, but not until quite recently has it
been successfully produced. So far as we can learn, the planter
has not the best methods of distillation at his disposal, and has
not been able to extract camphor in paying quantities. This is
well illustrated by the fact that nine months ago there were over
one hundred acres under the camphor plant in Ceylon, yet up to
the present not more than a ton of crude camphor has been
produced. Recently the Governor of Ceylon has been talking of
the potentialities of camphor culture and since then there has
been an unprecedented rush for seed. Concessions of land have
been granted in Ceylon, and planting will shortly commence on a
substantial scale : and as the climatic conditions are said to be
similar to those of Formosa, there seems every reason that the
experiment should ultimately be successful. It appears, however,
there is great difficulty in obtaining true camphor-seed from Japan,
as, naturally, the Japanese are prepared neither to assist the
planter nor to give away the secrets of their distillation. If it
were possible to get hold of a Japanese or Chinaman actually
engaged in the camphor industry, the difficulty might be cjuickly
solved, as the Ceylon planter has everything to learn regarding
distillation. In other words, he has a certain quantity of raw
material at hand, and is as yet unable to obtain an adeciuate yield
of the crude product. Mr. Kelway Bamber, the Ceylon Govern-
ment chemist, has been at work for some time at Peradeniya, and
has succeeded in perfecting an inexpensive still which it is hoped
will render the process an easy one. The profit at present prices
would be considerable, but a grower would probably have to take
a much lower price than the ruling quotation of 350s. per cwt.
The demand for camphor is only a limited one, but we believe the
danger of over-production in Ceylon is remote, and that planters
would be justified in going ahead.
Ever since the Japanese monoply was established some eight
years ago, the crude-camphor market has been more or less
starved or only supplied with extremely limited quantities. This,
of course, is not entirely the fault of the Japanese Government, as
they have encountered many difficulties in working their monoply
in Formosa. Labour-troubles, native rebellions, earthquakes, and
the late war have all contributed their quota in regard to diminished
shipments. One fact, however, stands out prominent since the
institution of the monoply — i.e., the refining of camphor in Europe
and the United States has dwindled to a mere shadow compared
" From " The Chenmt and Druggist" Aug., 18, 1 906, p, 30.S.
233
with what it was a decade ago ; and, in spite of official denials
to the contrary, the refining is gradually passing into Japanese
hands.
With the advent of extremely high prices undoubtedly the con-
sumption has fallen off considerably, and where possible the
public for certain disinfecting purposes have had to fall back
upon the less-esteemed naphthalin, in which a large business is
now done. This is, of course, only natural when it is considered
that the wholesale price of refined balls in large quantities in the
open market has been from 4s. to 4s. 3d. per lb. for over eighteen
months. It was thought that after the Russo-Japanese war there
would be a fall in price, but, on the contrary, the price rose to its
present quotation, and at the moment the position is regarded as
exceedingly firm. It must not be forgotten, however, that there
have been some exceedingly dull periods this year, and at times
the article has almost " gone a begging," the extreme prices
having frightened buyers.
RUBBER IN THE FEDERATED STATES.*'
In his annual report for the year 1905, Sir William Taylor,
K.C.M.G., the Resident General of the Federated Malay States,
states that the high price of rubber and the proved suitability of
land in those States for its cultivation have led to numerous appli-
cations for land in the four States, but more particularly in Se-
langor, where almost all the accessible land between the Klang
and the Selangor rivers has been taken up for rubber planting.
Large areas of land have been applied for and granted for the
purposes of this industry, and most of the large estates have been
converted into, or sold to, limited liability companies. Next to
the coast districts of Selangor, the Sungei Ujong district of the
Negri Sembilan appears to be the locality most in favour with
rubber prospectors.
According to Mr. Carruthers, the Director of Agriculture, the
area alienated for the planting of Para rubber is some 100,000
acres, of which about 38,000 acres has already been planted.
Most of the Para rubber trees of the age of five years or more have
been planted 200 to the acre; some estates have as many as 300
to the acre. The number of trees of all ages in the Federated
Malay States may perhaps be put at six to seven millions.
The rubber production of 1905 is estimated to have been
300,000 lbs.
KAPOK.t
According to H. M. Consul at Guayaquil (Mr. H. Cartwright)
kapok (the fibre of the silk cotton tree) is a new article of export
from that port. It has been enquired for from California, Liver-
pool and Belgium. The product is gathered from the districts
lying along the coast between Guayaquil and Manta, at Puna,
" From the " Board of Trade Journal." Aug, 2.^, 1906, p. 37H.
■ From tlie '-Board of Trade Journal," Auir, 16, ly06, p. 328.
234
Bahia de Caraques and many other places. The price paid varies
from I2S. to l8s. per quintal (lOO lbs.) uncleaned. The loss of
weight in cleaning is about 50 per cent., consisting of oily seeds,
parts of the pod and the inner core of the pod. There is no doubt,
says Mr. Cartwright, that a very large quantity of this could be
collected in the country, but for the fact that there is such a
scarcity of labour, and also that the people in some of the districts
where it is gathered find the manufacture of hats more remunera-
tive. The quantity of kapok exported is, so far, small — in iq02.
21 tons ; in 1903, 23 tons ; in 1904, 18 tons.
COFFEE CULTIVATION IN BRAZIL.'^
The coffee planters of Southern India, wishing to know exactly
how their industry stood in relation to that of Brazil, the Govern-^
ment of India in April, 1905, at the instance of the Government
of Madras, sent a Despatch to the India Office asking for informa-
tion regarding the Brazilian coffee industry. Very detailed ques-
tions were asked regarding labour and wages, cultivation, area,
soil and forests : the system of cultivation ; the type of trees ; the
raising of bye-producls, shade on estates, abandonment of old and
opening up of new estates, &c. ; crops and the curing of coffee ;
diseases, and pests ; finance, and cost of production ; climate, and
physical features of the coffee districts ; transport and duties.
This despatch was transferred through the Foreign Office to the
British Minister in Brazil, who distributed the lists of questions to
the various Consuls, in order that they might make personal
enquiry into the subject. The answers to these questions have
now been collected and issued as a white paper by the India
Office.
Transmitting the replies from the Consuls, the British Minister
in Brazil, in his Despatch dated the 6th February, 1906, says :
"The difficulty of obtaining trustworthy information of a statis-
tical nature in this country is sufficiently recognised to render all
explanation of the inability to furnish full and exhaustive reports
from the various Consular districts unnecessary, The enormous
area of the country, the difficulties of communication and the
expense of travelling preclude the possibility of acquiring minute
information which could only be obtained by a personal visit to
the numerous coffee planters scattered throughout a large portion
of Brazil, except by experts specially appointed for the purpose,
without other occupations to attend to and with considerable
funds at their disposal for travelling purposes."
RIO DE JANEIRO.
The British Consul-General at Rio de Janeiro writes of his
district : —
" Coffee planting is the principal industry of Brazil and coffee
is the principal article of export. The consumption of the world
is estimated at 16,000,000 bags, the bulk of which is produced in
» Fro'i. " Vie Tropical Agriculturist" July 15th, 1904, p.7i.
235
Brazil which yields some 9,000,000 to 15,000,000 bags. The
limited demand for the quantity produced caused a crisis in recent
years owing to bumper crops and over-production. Since then
there have been schemes to restrict production, but these have
only taken effect in the State of Sao Paulo, in which State alone
can any official statistics on this subject be obtained.
Sao Paulo is the principal coffee district.
LABOUR.
The conditions of labour are different in each locality. It may,
however, be calculated that men earn about $2 a day and women
$1 beside food. " Colonials " or those labourers established on
the estate receive land and a certain number of trees in lieu of
wages ; others have an interest in the crop. The labour is chiefly
Italian and negro, and is bad and scarce. Immigration is required,
but has been so badly treated that it is discouraged. Owing to
extravagance, the planters are mostly in difficulties and do not pay
wages when due, or the men are fleeced by the truck system. It
is possible for the labourers to live by the cultivation of their own
plots. The work on the estate takes some nine months of the
year.
Note. — I melries = 2s. 2'934d. formerly, now Is. 5d. say Re. I
cts. 6.
CULTIVATION.
It is only the principal coffee districts which are comprised in
the newspaper reports ; and there are large tracts of land
unplanted and suitable for coffee, and these lands are likely to
remain unplanted until the demand for coffee increases. It would
probably not be practicable to obtain land for coffee-planting
where restriction is in force, nor under the circumstances would it
be likely to be profitable. There are extensive railways through
the principal coffee districts, the rates vary but are high.
Old fazendas are abandoned and not cultivated, but coffee is
picked when the trees happen to yield. When the trees no longer
bear, the plantation is abandoned, and as the land is privately
owned it does not revert to Government, nor is it taxed. Coffee
trees yield berries up to 30 years. After bumper crops the next
crop or two is smaller. Land in Sao Paula in some districts pro-
duces 3 or 4 times as much as that in Rio de Janeiro. There does
not seem to be any extension of planting, and that planting is to
replace those trees that go out of bearing. There is not much
planted that has yet to come into bearing. Trees begin to bear'
three years after planting. In Rio the land is hilly, and in Sao
Paulo undulating and flat, with a red soil. There is some heavy
forest and much scrub, and the undergrowth is very thick, with
creepers, thorns and grass ; heavy timber is found in the forests.
SYSTEM.
The cost of production and placing at local railway stations
may be estimated at f4"3000 a bag of 60 kilos (or 132^ lbs.)
From " The Tropical Agiimdturist" July 15, 1906. p. 74.
236
THE CULTIVATION OF CACAO IN CEYLON''*
By Herbert Wright.
It is a matter of common knowledge that the value of the
Ceylon cacao has, during the last few years, fallen considerably,
and had it not been found that this product could be profitably
cultivated as a permanent intercrop with Para and Castilloa
rubber, the industry would in all probability have remained
stationary. While the value of Ceylon cacao has recently shown
a decline, that of many other countries has not done so, and
judging from the numerous local applications regarding the
varieties to be selected, the suitability of each kind in conjunction
with rubber and other matters, it appears necessary to consider
our position and see what improvements are possible. In the
Matale, Kurunegala, Dumbara and other districts the combined
cultivation — cacao and rubber — is rapidly extending, and seems
likely to prove a very remunerative one.
The output and value of cacao from Ceylon are obvious from a
consideration of the following supplied by the Principal Collector
•of Customs, Colombo : —
Year. Quantity. Total value. Value per cwt.
Cwt.
qr. lb.
Rs.
Rs.
cts.
1880
121
I 24
3,500
28
92
1885
7,466
I 22
298,657
40
00
1890
15,942
2 I
797,125
50
00
1892
19,176
3 2
1,342,373
70
00
1895
27,522
3 20
1,128,440
41
00
1900
33,696
3 T2
1,651,146
49
00
1905
69,431
0 0
2,433,556
35
04
The price of Rs. 70 per cwt. obtained in 1892, as against that of
Rs. 35 per cwt. in 1905, takes us back to the most vital consi-
deration i.e., the variety or quality of the cacao grown and
exported during these periods. Since the ravages of the disease
or diseases affecting the stems and pods first became prominent
in Ceylon, there has been a tendency to replace the old Criollo
or Caracas variety with the more prolific varieties of Forastero
and Amelonado, in the belief that the latter was not as liable to
the ravages of parasitic fungi. Now, however, the planters are
beginning to realise that all varieties of cacao at present cultivated
in Ceylon are liable to be affected by the same diseases, and
when the latter appear in the fluted and high stems of the
Forastero variety, are very difficult to effectively excise. There
has been, during the last two or three years, a distinct tendency
to plant the old Caracas type in preference to the Forastero ;
the change of variety can be shown to be one of the factors
responsible for the varying value placed upon the cacao exported
from Ceylon.
» From " The Jirojjical Agnculturist," July IB, 1906, p. 73,
237
During recent years the cultivation of shade trees for cacao
has also undergone considerable change, and whereas the original
plantations contained mixed species of forest types, or a prepon-
derance of Erytlirina nmbrosa, they are now giving way to Hcvca
brasilicnsis, Erytlirina litliosperma, Castilloa clastica, &c., : further-
more, the results of experiments indicate that the shade of
Erytlirina litliosperma need not be permanent throughout the whole
year, but may be treated so as to form a shade of varying intensity
according to the seasons.
In all the species mentioned above there is observable one
important and common agreement /.t'., they all change their foliage
annually and return large quantities of organic matter, in the form,
of leaves, to the soil. Methods of manuring have also changed
to some extent, during the period under consideration, and the
effect of the change in modes of cultivation can be shown to affect
the quantity or quality of the article produced. The Ceylon
methods of cultivation, particularly with regard to pruning, weed-
ing and manuring, are almost unique, and the differences obser-
vable in Surinam, Trinidad, Samoa, Cameroon, &c., provide
interesting material for our consideration.
In Ceylon the methods of fermenting, washing and curing are
often quite different and sometimes quite in contradiction to those
of other countries, and the effect of these processes on the
quality of the article is only too fully recognised. In the opinion
of many, the condition of the trees, whether they are free or
suffering from disease, is of importance in determining quality
and quantity.
It is therefore obvious that there are several factors which need
to be considered in connection with the present and the past con-
dition of the cacao industry in Ceylon.
The factor which is perhaps more responsible for the range in
value of the cured beans than any other is the variety of cacao
selected, and with this we will deal.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO TEACHERS ON
SCHOOL GARDENS.
In planning the School Garden, run the boundary lines to har-
monise with the lines of the School building and the road by
making them parallel or at right angles to them.
Draw a plan of the proposed Garden to scale, marking adjacent
buildings and roads, garden foot-paths and beds, and noting what
crops it is intended to cultivate.
This plan must be submitted in duplicate to the Superintending
Inspector of Schools, and approved by him and by the Director
of Public Gardens before a grant is made for the commencement
of the garden.
The first requisite is such a fence as will keep out pigs and goats
as well as the larger animals. The gate should be strongly made
and well hung.
238
In dry districts provision for watering or irrigating should be
.carefully considered.
The land will probably require at first much preparation by
tillage and manuring before it is fit to lay out as a School Garden,
but such preparation is of the highest educational value.
It should be thoroughly forked throughout first, removing stones
and stumps and burying weeds.
Then mark out the main path 6 ft. wide, and the side paths 3 ft.
wide, according to the directions given in the leaflet on School
Gardens. A good strong line 66 feet long is essential for this
work, and for lining out beds afterwards — such a line costs l/iod.
in Kingston.
It is recommended to put the whole ground at first under such
crops as corn, peas, yams, sweet potatoes. A preliminary plan
(in duplicate) of the ground under such crops should be submitted
with the main plan.
The plan given in the leaflet is merely suggestive and need not
be rigidly followed. The chief crops of the district should have
an important place in the scheme.
When the plans have been approved, they should be mounted
on a board, hung up in the school, and if necessary, carried out to
the Garden for reference when work is being done. They should
be strictly adhered to unless permission is first obtained from the
Superintending Inspector of Schools.
An estimate (in duplicate) of the expense for fencing and tools
should be sent to the Superintending Inspector of Schools with
the plans. In exceptional cases it may be necessary to hire labour
to remove stumps, plough up very hard land, or erect a fence ;
in such cases an estimate of expenditure should also be submitted.
The Agricultural Instructor of the district should be consulted
as to both plan and estimate, before they are submitted to the
Superintending Inspector of Schools.
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES.
The usual Monthly Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was
held at Headquarter House on Wednesday, 1 2th September,
1906, at 2 p.m. : Present : — The Hon. T. L. Roxburgh, Acting
Chairman, the Acting Director of Public Gardens, the Acting
Island Chemist, the Superintending Inspector of Schools, His
Grace the Archbishop, Messrs. C. A. T. Fursdon, J. W. Middleton
and the Secretary, John Barclay.
The Secretary read the minutes of the previous meeting which
were confirmed.
The Secretary read copy of letter from the Colonial Secretary
to the Jamaica Agricultural Society, forwarded for the information
of the Board of Agriculture, in which the Governor agreed to the
recommendation of the Conference on Agricukural Instructors,
with the exception that Mr. Cradwick and Mr. Briscoe, being
239
public officers, would not be under the control of the joint Com-
mittee of the two Boards. The Secretary also read letter from Mr.
Cradwick saying that his engagements already made would carry
him up to the 25th March 1907, and to interrupt these would cause
a great deal of inconvenience and dissatisfaction to the different
local Agricultural Societies and Show Committees, and as he would
be away from the district in connection with the Prize Holdings
Competition and the Teachers Course three months of this time,
he suggested that he should be allowed to remain in the western
district till the end of the financial year, and if a new Instructor
were appointed he could initiate him to his duties there during
the remaining period,
It was resolved to advise the Agricultural Society of the circum-
stances, and, in the absence of the joint Committee proposed but
which had not been appointed, and as Mr. Cradwick's duty was
so intimately connected with the Branches of the Agricultural
Society, to state that the Board thought it advisable for Mr. Crad-
wick to carry out his engagements in his present district to the 31st
March, and from 1st April next take up his new district, and to
ask their opinion on the matter.
The Secretary submitted resolutions from the Central Cornwall,
Santa Cruz, Appleton, Petersfield and Hanover Agricultural
Societies aski ig that Mr. Cradwick's services might be retained
for the western district.
The Secretary submitted letter referred from the Colonial Secre-
tary's Office regarding the supply of arrowroot to the General Peni-
tentiary which was usually obtained from St. Vincent at about
2^d. per lb., with a minute asking whether the arrowroot could
not be obtained at the same price or even a little over in Jamaica.
The Secretary was instructed to write the Collector-General to
ask what quantity of arrowroot was imported into Jamaica. The
Secretary reported that he had some time ago made enquiry
on the subject and had letters. He found then that although
arrowroot was not cultivated but grew in old cultivations from
ratoons, people usually would not sell under 6d. per quart which
worked out at about 4d. to 4id. per lb. and that he could not get
anybody to undertake it under 3 id., that even at that figure tkey
would require to know of a certain outlet before they would pre-
pare it in quantity. He was, however, again making enquiry.
The Secretary submitted a letter from the Hon. H. Cork, asking
whether the articles that have been published in the Journal of the
Agricultural Society and in the Bulletin of the Department of
Agriculture on Rubber could not be collected and published in
pamphlet form.
After discussion, Mr. Harris was asked to edit a pamphlet to
contain all the practical instruction as regards rubber growing
that was available up to date, and submit the pamphlet at next
meeting.
The Secretary submitted a letter from Mr. A. B. Lindo, Montego
Bay, making application for the post of Assistant Superintendent
at Hope Gardens.
240
The Secretary was instructed to forward same to the Govern-^
merit.
The Secretary submitted letter from Mr. W. M. N. Henry,
Enfield, asking the Board to supply seeds for his school garden.
He was directed to reply that the Board had no funds to supply
such.
The Secretary supplied the following reports ; —
From the Chemist : —
1. Arrangements for holding Distillers Course in October,
which were approved.
2. Examination of Students for Diploma in Agriculture asking
the Board to sanction a grant of £l0 to be paid, as usual,
as examiner's fee to Prof. d'Albuquerque out of the
amount provided on the Estimates for " Instruction in
Bookkeeping", etc., under the heading " Agricultural
Education."
This was authorised.
3. Resignation of Mr. S. W. Brown from the staff of the Sugar
Department, having been appointed Science Master at
Wolmer's School, as from the 1st September, also sug-
gesting that the vacancy be not filled until Mr. Cousins'
return.
This was agreed to.
From the Director of Public Gardens : —
1. Report Hope Experiment Station.
2. Mr. Cradwick's Report.
3. Mr. Briscoe's Report and Itinerary.
These were directed to be circulated.
The Secretary read letter which had just been handed in from
Messrs. Walcott, Robinson & Dunn, stating that the Directors of
the Amalgamated Products Co., Ltd., desired to obtain a fair, im-
partial and reliable report as to the quantity and portions of the
lands of their estate called ' Longville' in the parish of Clarendon
which were suitable for and could be cultivated in cassava on pro-
fitable and commercial lines, and asking if Mr. Cradwick could be
permitted to inspect the property and furnish such a report.
It was ageeed that the Secretary should write Mr. Cradwick and
ask him if possible to arrange to take an early opportunity to do
so, his expenses being paid by the Amalgamated Products Co.
The Meeting then adjourned till Wednesday, 17th October, at
2 p.m.
[Issued 6th Oct., 1906.]
Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingston, Jam.
BULLETIN
OP THE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE.
Vol. IV, NOVEMBER, 1906. Part 11.
EDITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, F.L.S.,
Director of Ptiblic Gardens and Plantations.
CONTENTS:
PAGE.
241
283
Notes on Rubber-producing Plants
Board of Agriculture
PRIG E— Threepence.
A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in Jamaica, who will send name and
address to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Kingston P.O.
KINGSTON, JAMAICA ;
HoPB Gardens.
1906.
JAMAICA.
BULTjETIN
LIBR
NEW ^
OF THK BOTAr
OARDtiN.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Vol. IV. NOVEMBEK, 1906. Part 11.
NOTES ON RUBBER PRODUCING PLANTS.
Compiled by W. HARRIS, F.L.S., Superintendent of Hope Gardens.
At the request of the Board of Agriculture the following in-
formation on rubber producing plants, much of which has already
appeared in various issues of the Bulletin, has been brought to-
gether in pamphlet form for the use of intending rubber planters
in Jamaica.
Rather copious quotations have been made from Mr. Herbert
Wright's valuable book on Para Rubber,* this being the most
recent work on the subject, a copy of which should be in the
possession of every grower of Para rubber.
It is impossible to say precisely at this stage of the industry
which kind of rubber tree will be found best suited in every
respect to the conditions that obtain here, but the indications
would appear to be in favour of Castilloa. Personally I am in-
clined to think that the Lagos Silk Rubber (Funtumia elastica)
will prove to be one of the best if not actually the best for many
of our districts. The young trees at Hope Gardens abound in
latex which flows freely and we know that the marketable rubber
is of very fine quality, and said to be superior to Castilloa.
PARA RUBBER.
(Hevea hrasiliensis).
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.
What is known as Para Rubber of commerce is obtained chiefly,
if not entirely, from the species known as Hevea hrasiliensis, a tree
indigenous to the vast region drained by the Amazon and its
tributaries, estimated to embrace a territory nearly two-thirds the
size of Europe. Para is in about south latitutde l°, but the
district of the same name extends over a vast forest region to the
south and west throughout which, and the enormous forests of
*" Bevea hrasiliensis or Para Riihher, its Bohmij, Oultiudtioa, C'hemistnj and Diseases,"
By Herbert Wright. "Jad edition Colombo, A. M. & J. Ferguson.
242
Central and Northern Brazil, the rubber trees are abundantly found.
The climate is remarkable for its uniformity of temperature,
usually not exceeding 87" F. at mid-day or below 74 ' at night.
The greatest heat recorded is 95 > and the mean for the year is
81". "The rainfall occurs principally during the months from
January to June, the maximum being in April when it reaches 15
inches. For the remaining six months of the year very little falls
but there are fine days in the wet season and occasional showers
in the dry." {Kcxi< Bull. 189B, p. 244.)
According to E. Ule, in his book dealing with rubber in the
Amazon district, ^the annual rainfall is usually between 80 and
120 inches, and the mean temperature between 76° and 81'.
Mr. H. A. Wickham states* : — The whole of the Hevea which
I procured for the government of India were the produce of large
grown trees in the forest covering the broad plateaus dividing the
Tapajos from the Madeira River. The soil of these well-drained,
wide-extending forest-covered table-lands is stiff, not remarkably
rich, but deep and uniform in character. The Hevea found grow-
ing in these unbroken forests rivals all but the largest of the trees
therein, attaining to a circumference of 10 feet to 12 feet in the
bole. These forest plains having all the character of wide-spread
table-lands occupy the space betwixt the great arterial river systems
of the Amazon, and present an escarped face, which follows at
greater or less distance and abuts steeply on the igapo or bagas,
/.('. the marginal river plains subject to inundation by the annual
rise of the great river. So thorough is the drainage of this high-
land that the people who annually penetrate into these forests for
the season's working of the rubber have to utilize certain lianas
(water-bearing vines) for their water supply, since none is to be
obtained by surface-well sinking, in spite of the heavy rainfall
during a great part of the year.
The Climate in Ceylon. In Ceylon, according to Mr. Herbert
Wright, an elevation of 2,000 feet in the Central Province, and
3,000 feet in the Uva Province [south-eastern] is considered to be
near the maximum, and a rainfall of 70 inches near the minimum
for the cultivation of this species ... It is being tried in districts
having 200 inches of rain per year and also in dry irrigable areas,
but reliable results cannot be obtained for many years.
Federated Malay States. In the Federated Malay States, Mr.
Wright says, there is no evidence of the highest elevation at
which Para Rubber will thrive. According to Carruthers the
growth of the Para rubber from sea-level up to 300 feet in the
Federated Malay States is better than at most places The
climate of the Federated Malay States is very uniform and can be
described in general terms as hot and moist. The annual rainfall
except in places close to the mountain ranges, is about 90 inches.
.... There is no well-marked dry season. Generally speaking
July is the driest month, but has seldom a less rainfall than 3i
* In Bull. No. 49. Rurcnu of Plant Industry. U. S. Dt-pt. of Agri.— " Tlie Cultwre of
the CentraJ America Ruhher Tree hy O.V. Coo\^. copion< extracts from which wcru pub-
lished in SuVctin nj Sept. of Agriculture for l'J04 and 1U05.
243
inches. The wettest season is from October to December, and
there is another wet season of slightly less degree during March
and April
The average maximum temperature occurring between noon and
3 p.m. is in the low-country just under 90°, and the average
minimum occurring before sunrise is just over 70°. The general
mean temperature is about 80'
Soil — The soil in which the trees grow in the forests on the
Amazon and its tributaries is deep and rich, mainly alluvial,
sometimes a stiff clay, sometimes a vegetable mould ; and it is
frequently inundated along the banks of the rivers. Young plants
however, are not often observed to grow actually within reach of
the tides.
For sake of comparison the following analyses of Para rubber
soil in Ceylon (from Mr. Herbert Wright), and a typical banana
soil from the parish of St. Mary are here given.
Rubber Soils at Henaratgoda
Soil under old rubber.
Per cent.
Coarse sand and small
stones 38-00
100-00
Chemical Analyses,
Insoluble matter 83-00
Moisture 1-20
Organic matter and
combined water 7-8
Potash 0-046
Lime O-040
Phosphoric acid 0-031
Carbonic acid as -(
Carbonate of lime J not determined
Humus (soluble in "(
ammonia) J do
Nitrogen 0-154
Available potash COOS
Available phosphoric
acid trace ... 0^0008
SUITABLE LOCALITIES IN JAMAICA.
It will be seen from the foregoing that there are many districts
in Jamaica suitable for the growth of Para rubber. Portions of St.
Andrew, St. Thomas-in-the East, the lower lands in Portland, St.
Mary, St. Ann, St. Catherine, Upper Clarendon, Manchester, St.
Elizabeth, Trelawny, St. James, Hanover and Westmoreland.
There are available districts in every agricultural parish in the
island, districts in which cocoa is or might be successfully culti-
vated.
" To secure land at the right elevation, with the requisite rain-
fall and proper soil, is the first consideration in connection with
the successful culture of the Para rubber tree. The elevations
most suitable are from sea-level up to i,200 or 1,300 feet. It will
grow at a higher elevation ; indeed there are reports of it growing
at over 2,000 feet ; but it would probably take longer to come to
Banana Soil
in St.
, Mary-
Jamaica.
Per cent.
Fine earth
Nil
100-00
42-93
6-96
8-38
-7453
17-22
■1223
26-92
-
2-5
-1161
0-0048
244
maturity than if it were planted at a lower elevation. A rainfall
of 80 in to 100 in. per annum is usually considered more suitable
than an excessive rainfall of 1 50 in. to 200 in." (R. Hoffman :
See Bulletin of Department of Agriculture, December, 1905, p. 263.)
CULTIVATION.
Propagation — The tree may be propagated by cuttings of the
green lateral twigs as soon as they begin to harden, and by seeds,
the latter method being the more expeditious.
Seeds soon lose their vitality on exposure to the atmosphere and
should therefore be planted as soon as possible after gathering.
We have found that a good method is to place the seeds on a
thin layer of sifted coco-nut refuse, or powdered charcoal or a
thick layer of sand in a shaded position, then cover them with
sacking which should be kept continually moist. The sacking is
removed every morning and all the seeds that have germinated
since the previous morning are picked out and potted in bamboo
pots.
Last year we received a consignment of 7,500 seeds by post
from Singapore, and owing to the careful way in which they were
packed for transport we were able to raise and distribute 68 / of
them.
Nurseries— The practice in Ceylon appears to be to plant the seed-
lings in nursery beds, and when nine to twelve months old, these
are cut back and the stumps are planted in the field. In Jamaica,
they are planted out in their permanent places, as soon as they are
a few inches high ; and our experience is that there is no check,
and they grow rapidly in favourable situations.
Planting Operations.
Distance — Various distances from 10' x 10' to 20' x 20' have
been tried in Ceylon, but Mr. Herbert Wright states that in
order to allow the plants to develop freely in circumference the
maximum distance should be allowed, as the desired length
of trunk is usually obtained even when the Para rubber tree
is grown in the open. From considerations of the condition
of trees from 2 to 20 years old, the following table is compiled
in order to show the probable number of Para rubber trees of
known age an estate can bear without interfering with the natural
growth of the plants : —
Total spread of
Number of trees.
Age of trees.
the branches in diameter.
per acre.
Four years old
12 feet
302
Six
15 "
193
Eight ■'
25 "
70
Ten
30 "
48
Twelve "
35 "
35
Fifteen "
40 "
27
Twenty "
40 "
27
This shows the approximate number of trees to the acre at
different ages without any interference of the branches of adjacent
trees with one another. There is, however, no objection to the
245
bra:iches of trees partially overlapping, and it is more than likely
that any excessive branch development will be kept back by pru-
ning or pollarding rather than by reducing the number of trees
below 200 to the acre.
i/o//w^— With regard to the preparation of the holes, Mr. Wright
recommends that they should be li x 2x 2 feet. The larger the
holes, the better for the plant. Good holing will give the plants
an excellent start ; the dribbling in of seeds in small holes is not to
be recommended. It is hardly necessary to point out that the
planting operations should be carried out when rain is plentiful.
As a mixed crop — Para rubber is much more likely to be grown
as a mixed crop with cocoa, bananas, &c., in Jamaica than as a
pure crop, at any rate for some time to come, and the question thus
arises as to the proper distance to plant amongst other crops.
Cocoa has been found to be the best and most profitable crop to
grow with rubber trees for the reason that the trees help each other.
The cocoa has a heavy fall ot leaf and thus manures and benefits
the rubber, and the rubber acts as a wind-break to the cocoa.
The successful and continued cuUivation of inter crops with
Para rubber mainly depends on the distance the plants are from
one another. The rapidly-growing surface roots of Para rubber
will ultimately take possession of the soil, and the inter crops of
tea, cocoa, or coffee cannot be expected to thrive except the rubber
plants are widely planted. The cultivation of tea under closely-
planted rubber is more or less of a catch crop ; but several estates
are known where the rubber is widely planted amongst tea and
both are bearing and doing well. Cocoa and coffee planted in the
middle of the lines will last for several years under rubber. The
roots of these plants do not as closely ramify the soil as those of
the crowded tea plants, though they will ultimately have to face
the struggle for existence with the roots of Para rubber and will
probably be choked out. Cocoa may be planted 10 to 20 feet
apart, and the amount of soil on good cocoa estates which is free
from roots is often very large and permits of the growth of other
trees on the same acreage. Cocoa under rubber will last much
longer than tea, and the protection by the Para rubber trees against
excessive exposure is no doubt greatly in favour of the two products
being grown together. The planting of both products on the same
soil is done in such a way as to allow free root areas for both
species during the first five years, many planting the cocoa and
rubber both twenty feet apart so that there will be approximately
100 rubber and 100 cocoa trees per acre.* Though the rubber
ultimately becomes the stronger component, it is surprising how
long both products can be successfully grown together. In the
cultivation of inter crops with Para rubber it is essential that
both products be planted at the same time, as the Para rubber
* But if it is intended to keep both crops growing permanently, it is suggested that
the cocoa and rubber be planted alternately at distances of 15 feet apar , so tliat there
will be approximately nearly lOi) cocoa and luO rubber trees to the acre. Editor, Bulletin,
of the Bepartiiient oj Agriculture, Jamaica .
246
tree is about as strong as the coconut palm in its root system and
quickly takes possession of the soil. (H. Wright in Para Rubber.)
Manuring. — "The Para rubber does not necessarily require a
soil with a high percentage of organic matter and mineral food as
was imagined by early investigators, although rubber grows well
on such soils. Under cultivation the trees can be made to grow
well on light sandy loams at the proper elevation in districts
having the necessary rainfall and temperature. So, given a fair
balance of plant food the Para rubber tree will flourish, as there
is not much drain on the soil by food material being permanently
removed — only the mineral matter and nitrogen taken away in the
rubber. Although the loss is small, yet it should be taken into
consideration after a number of years, and an attempt made to
replace the mineral matter and nitrogen. We do not at present
advance any opinion as to the effect of manuring on the yield of
latex in old trees, nor yet can we refer to any reliable results
which would allow us to put forward even an hypothesis. We
are at present of the opinion that manuring at the young stage
would help on the young plants and thus prove to be beneficial,
giving rise to good wood and large supplies of leafy material. We
would strongly recommend that the fallen leaves be buried with
lime or basic slag in trenches, or round the trees at a distance of
4 to 6 feet from the trunks ; this basic dressing will promote
nitrification and give rise to the more rapid decomposition of the
organic matter. Light forking is recommended to break up the
hard surface of the soil and so aerate it and allow penetration of
the rain and air."*
" Draining. — t It is erroneous to suppose that because Para
rubber is a forest cultivation draining is unnecessary. Draining
is as necessary for rubber trees as it is for any other product in
order to encourage the free circulation of air, water, and food
solutions throughout the soil, and to check wash on steep hillsides.
The distance of the drains from one another and their size must
depend upon the soil conditions. In swampy and boggy land,
little above the water level, the drains should be as wide and deep
as possible, either between each row of trees or in exceptional
cases around individual trees. Several areas in the low country
of Ceylon, consisting of bogs rich in organic matter, have been
converted into good rubber land by making drains two to three
feet wide and three to four feet deep, and heaping the earth in
the middle to form a dry soil on which the rubber plant can live
for a couple years. On hillsides the drains need be only about
one to one and a half feet deep. They should be made at right
angles to the slope in order to check the formation of gorges.
The distance of the drains from one another will vary according
to the slope and climatic conditions ; on flat land a distance of 60
to 70 feet seems sufficient, whereas on steep hillsides 20 to 30 feet
is not too close. . . .
* Circular R. But. Oanl , CeyVm, Vol. III., No- 6, p. 82.
t Para Kubber, by H. Wiight.
247
DISEASES.
"It is often relatively easy to successfully grow a small number
of plants in any particular district without their suffering from
the ravages of innumerable insects and fungi. But if the same
crop is grown on a large scale matters often take a different
turn There are already several insects and fungi which
live on the leaves of the Para rubber trees, but none of them are
very harmful. To a very limited extent the annual fall of leaf
that takes place on all Para rubber trees after they have passed
their second or third year is an advantage when dealing with leaf
pests, as the foliage can be easily and regularly collected and
burnt. . , .
"Fruit disease. — Para rubber planters in many parts of Ceylon
have occasionally been alarmed at the curious behaviour of certain
fruits ; some dry up and remain attached to the twigs, and others
of all ages fall to the ground without expelling the seeds. The
fall of the unexploded fruits is often due to wind, and there is no
parasitic fungus to be found in the tissues. It has been stated that
the fruits are subject to the attack of a parasitic fungus belonging
to the genus Nectria, and Carruthers reports having successfully
inoculated Para rubber fruits with this fungus, but was not certain
as to whether it attacked the fruits when on the tree or only when
they fell to the ground.
"Themosteffective way of fighting the fruit disease is to collect
all dried fruits which are on the trees and those which have fallen
to the ground and burn the lot on the spot. On the average
rubber estate there can be no real objection to burning such small
quantities of fruits as this treatment involves.
" Stem Disease. Fungus. — In his account of canker (Nectria) of
Para rubber, Carruthers points out that a parasite fungus occurs
on the stems and branches, which may prove fatal to the trees.
The area attacked by the fungus can be detected often by the
change of colour of the bark or by the exudation of the latex.
When, however, the fungus has got a firm hold of any local patch
of tissue, the latex tubes become quite empty and dry up, so that
it not only threatens the life of the tree, but also robs the planter
of the latex or rubber for which the tree is being cultivated. It is
necessary that all cankered areas should be excised and the tissue
burnt on the spot. All the discoloured areas should be removed,
even if the woody tissues below the cambium are permanently
damaged in the operation. In some cases it is true that the
cankered area is, by means of a layer of cork, prevented from
extending to other parts of the stem, but it is unwise to leave the
matter to chance.
" Root Disease. Fungus. — A root disease due to a fungus has
already been mentioned as occurring in the Straits and Ceylon
in association with white ants, but probably preceding them.
Patch has shown that the Ceylon fungus can spread underground
on roots of grasses, &c., and that it is a species of Polyporus
(Fomes semitostus). The hyphae are described as occurring on
the first six inches of the trunks as well as the roots. Any trees
248
so affected should be isolated by digging a deep trench round
them about a foot wide, as in the case of the root disease in tea,
and, if possible the diseased specimens should be uprooted and
burnt As Messrs. Ridley and Derry have pointed out,
this fungus, the mycelium of which is underground, is the worst
feature against close planting, as under such conditions it might
spread very rapidly. The uprooting of all dead stumps of trees
would appear to be necessary if this disease is to be kept in check_
PRUNING YOUNG TREES.
" The Para rubber naturally grows to a tall slender tree,
and it remains to be seen how by pruning or pollarding the young
plants an increase in circumference may be obtained at the
expense of the growth in height. Considering what has been
accomplished with tea, where plants ordinarily growing into fairly
stout trees over twenty feet high have been converted into small
bushes two to four feet in height, it would be idle to predict the
possibilities with Para rubber. The prevention of the unnecessary
growth in height may well form the subject of many experiments.
The plants can be prevented from growing into slender woody
structures by removing the terminal bud with a knife or thumb-
nail pruning, or, as is more commonly the case, by pruning the
terminal young leaves and the enclosed bud. If the central bud
is effectively and repeatedly removed, without doing considerable
damage, the stem cannot grow in height except by means of
lateral shoots ; these will subsequently require bud-pruning once
they have attained the required size At Heneratgoda the
trees which have forked at 7, 9 and II feet from the ground show
an increase of about 30 inches in thirty years or an average of one
inch per year, throughout a long and fairly reliable period. Young
trees which have been bud-pruned in the manner suggested above
show an increased rate of circumferential growth, and this means
the attainment to a tappable size at an earlier period." — (Herbert
Wright.)
TAPPING*.
"When one considers that the rate of growth of the Para
rubber tree in Ceylon is such that a circumference of 20 inches
cannot be attained much before the fourth, fifth or sixth year, it is
obvious that, under ordinary methods of cultivation, all ideas of
extracting rubber from trees under these ages should not be
encouraged ... If the tree has a circumference of much less than
20 inches, tapping cannot be recommended, because the available
tapping area is too small. The production of new tissue would
be a strain on the young plant, and the thin bark tissues would
probably be quickly cut away long before the desired quantity of
rubber had been obtained. . . .
The best Season to Tap. The Para rubber trees in Ceylon drop
their leaves in February or March, produce new leaves and flowers
after a leafless phase of a few days or a couple of weeks, and yield
ripe fruit in August and September. There is an active vegeta-
* H. Wright. Para llubber.
249
tive period from September to February, a short resting period in
February, and a floral and foliar condition from February to
September. The yield of latex should be most abundant when the
trees are leafless, as they cannot then lose much water by trans-
piration, and it is of interest to note that the experiments made by
Arden in 1902 seem to give support to this view. Arden states
that the yield from trees tapped when they were leafless was much
greater than from trees tapped when the leaves were beginning to
appear or when in full foliage. In Nicaragua the latex from other
rubber trees contains the highest percentage of caoutchouc during
the dry season. The possession of abundance of latex during the
dry season lends support to the theory of its function as a water
store during drought. In many parts of the tropics, however,
the leafless period occurs when the dryness and temperature of the
air are at the maximum, and the collecting of latex would, during
such a time, be limited to the very early part of the day and the
evening.
What part of the day to Tap. " The best flow of latex with the
minimum quantity of scrap rubber is obtained in the early morning
or evening on sunny days, but tapping may be clone further on
into the day, when the temperature is low and clouds and moisture
are abundant. In a district like Peradeniya the tapping may be
continued up to 8 or 9 a.m., and recommenced at 3 to 4 p.m. All-
night tapping is of course only possible when the artificial
lighting of estates is more perfect than at present. In the early
and late parts of the day the temperature is lower, the air usually
more moist, and there is less transpiration of water from the leaves ;
the combined effect of these factors is a better flow of latex dur-
ing such times. According to Ridley* the girth of the tree de-
creases during the day and increases towards evening, an obser-
vation which may throw some light on the theories regarding
tension of the laticiferous tissue and transpiration.
Frequency of Tapping. " The frequency of tapping varies con-
siderably, but it is by no means clearly proved that the tree will
not stand tapping every alternate day throughout the greater part
of the year. The fact that an interval of one day is sufficient for
the wound response to become obvious is of interest and import-
ance. It is perhaps not advisable to judge the eff'ect of very
frequent tapping from the results obtained in the Amazon districts,
as there the trees are usually very old and in many cases have
never been tapped before. Nevertheless, it is of interest to learn
that in those districts, the Para rubber tree is often tapped for 180
days continually without apparently doing very serious damage
to the trees."
Mr. R. Derry says : — " I consider the latex flows most freely
when the new leaves appear, which with most Hevea trees is about
March, and the advantage of tapping about that time is not so
much a question of actual yield as it is of the amount of bark
removed in the operation, which would be less at the best season.
* Annual Report of the Director, Botanic Gardens, Singapore.
250
There would also be another season commencing in September
with those trees then flowering. As with all trees, the ratio of
growth is variable at different periods, but taking the girth of
Hevea trees here, a 3-year old tree at 3 feet from the ground being
13-15 inches, and an l8-year old tree lOO inches: the annual
increment would average nearly 6 inches in circumference, and I
am sanguine that Hevea trees can be tapped in Malaya when 6
years old, if not earlier, when I estimate the girth at 24-30 inches
on good free soil*. Tapping should be commenced at the base of
the tree, working upwards to 6 or 8 feet if necessary, and if a tree
be operated on in a workmanlike manner, three annual tappings
could be executed before going over old incisions."
RUBBER YIELDS, t
Yields ill Ccylou. "The yield of rubber varies from 7 lb. per 400
trees in one tapping to a maximum of 25 lb. per tree in twelve
months' tapping. The first series of reliable yieldsj are those
obtained at Henaratgoda from 1888 to 1896. One tree at Henarat-
goda was lightly tapped every second year, and gave for nine
years an average annual yield of li lb. of dry rubber: —
27f oz. in 1888
42 oz. in 1890
45 oz. in 1892
51 oz. in 1894
48^ oz. in 1896
This tree was twelve years old when first tapped, and the annual
yield of I A lb. was from the 1 2th to the 20th year of the tree's life.
The method of tapping consisted of scraping off the rough outer
bark and making numerous V-shaped incisions to a height of
about five feet. The tree had a circumference of 50i inches and
was growing with other trees of nearly equal size, distanced 30
feet apart. Other experiments have been made at Henaratgoda
which indicated similar results by consecutive weekly tappings of
the trees.
Yields oil Estates. "To form an estimate of the yield to b®
obtained from large acreages of Para rubber trees of known ag^
is no easy task, and the best way to deal with this part of the
subject is to give only the results which have been obtained on
rubber estates in this island.
Matabele District. " In the Matabele District there are estates
where an average yield of | lb. of dry rubber per tree from 5,000
trees has been obtained in one month's tapping. The average
circumference of these trees was 35 inches a yard from the ground.
On another property a yield of 3! lb. of rubber per tree has been
obtained from 499 trees in seven months' tapping. Another
estate, in the same district, has obtained an average yield of 3i lb.
* In his rei ort to tlie India Office Close mentioned that Hevea trees of 6-8 inches
diamtter are tapped in Brazil,
t H. Wright, I ara Rubber.
j Dr. Trimen, Notes on Rubber Experiments.
251
of dry rubber per tree from 311 trees in one year, The age of
these trees varied from 10 to 15 years, and the trees varied in cir--
cumference from 30 to 70 inches at a yard from the ground.
These trees were tapped on the full herring-bone system ; the
tapping area covered half the tree and extended from the base to
a height of seven feet. The tapping was done very carefully, the
distance of seven feet being worked through in 240 days of con-
tinuous tapping. The yield from these particular trees will pro-
bably be increased by a change in the method of tapping and
tapping instruments during the current year. On a third Matabele
estate the Para rubber is inter-planted among cocoa the cocoa is
planted 12 by 12 feet, and the rubber through alternate lines of
cocoa, 24 by 12 feet. By the V method of tapping a yield of 3 lb.
of dry rubber from each of 10,000 trees is expected during the
present year, the trees being 8 to 15 years old. On this estate
several encouraging experiments in tapping from 6 feet upwards
to a height of 15 feet have been made, light ladders being used
for the purpose.
The Province of Uva. "The most successful results at high
elevations in Ceylon have probably been obtained in the Province
of Uva. On Passara Group estate, Passara, Para rubber is being
cultivated up to and over 3,000 feet above sea-level. The trees
are of various ages, and one specimen, 13 years old, measures 54
inches in circumference a yard from the ground, and 60 to 70 feet
in height, though growing at an elevation of about 2,600 feet.
Tapping is being carried on with promising results up to 2,8oo feet,
and from the trees at an elevation of 2,6oo feet, varying in age
from 7 to 13 years, an average yield of 2 lb. of dry rubber per
tree was obtained during 1905.
South Ceylon : Kahitara, Awbalangoda, Rayigam, &c. — "In the
South of Ceylon equally good and often better results have been
obtained. On one estate, 8,731 trees, having a minimum circum-
ference of twenty inches, gave in one year, an average of 1 . 72 lb.
of dry rubber per tree ... A section of another rubber property
in the South of Ceylon has given, from ll-year-old trees, the
average circumference of which is 30 inches only, no less than
5J lb. of dry rubber from each of 255 trees."'
COAGULATION.
"If* the pure latex is allowed to stand in a receptacle, it
finally coagulates and the caoutchouc globules with other sub-
stances float to the top, leaving a more or less clear liquid behind.
By the addition of chemical reagents or by subjecting the latex to
different temperatures coagulation may he hastened or retarded.
The coagulated substance after washing, pressing, and drying is
ultimately known as the rubber of commerce. In the production
of rubber from latex the planter may either take advantage of the
presence of coagulable constituents in the latex or adopt chemical
and mechanical means for the separation of the caoutchouc
globules from the rest of the latex . . .
* H. Wright, Para Kubber.
252
Smoking and Coagulation. — "The coagulation of the latex may
be hastened by exposing it to heat and the products of combustion
of a fire. The latex can be coagulated fractionally by such a
process, and the finished product, when properly manufactured, is
less liable to putrefaction than the rubber prepared by many other
methods. The smoke from burning palm nuts used in the Amazon
district, contains, among other substances, small quantities of
acetic acid, acetone, and creosote, The acetic acid is probably the
agent responsible for effecting the coagulation ; the other sub-
stances, particularly the creosote, are absorbed, the latter acting as
an antiseptic in preventing the rapid decomposition of the albu-
minoids present. In Brazil the latex is poured into a shallow
basin 6o cm. to I metre in diameter and 20 to 30 cm. deep, and
pieces of bark, dirt, &c., removed. A fire is then made of wood
and resinous substances, and is kept going either with green
branches of Miinusops data, or with palm nuts from Attalea excclsa,
and Maximiliana rcgia, these palms are usually grown in the Botanic
Gardens in various parts of the tropics, the latter species being
more commonly known as the " Cocurito " palm. A chatty, open
at both ends, is placed on the fire and the smoke allowed to issue
from the upper aperture. A paddle like implement is then dipped
into or covered with the latex, and held over the smoke until the
latter is coagulated. It is stated by Bonnechaux* that 8 litres of
latex are completely coagulated in about li hours by these means.
"The decomposition of the albuminous substances in the
rubber may be prevented by the addition of suitable antiseptic
reagents to the latex, when the rubber is prepared in other ways,
though quickness in drying or complete extraction of the moisture
from coagulated rubber is often sufficient to bring about the same
result. Dickson's apparatus is devised to meet many of these
requirements." — (Herbert Wright.)
"Samples of rubber prepared at Kuala Kangsar have been
reported on as equal to good Para (Brazilian) and would fetch
best Para prices. I have always found the latex to coagulate
readily with only the addition of a pinch of alum, and by placing
immediately in smoke, both putrefaction and mould are avoided.
If the rubber is sound, the market value depends on the state of
dryness in which it is received. What has been prepared at
Kuala K angsar has been kept smoked until shipped. A parcel
sent to London 3j years ago was reported to have lost 26i per
cent, in washing, and the manufacturers thought that if sent
home in bulk, the loss would reach 30 per cent. This, however, is
a question for the planter himself ; smoke has a chemical action
in the coagulation of latex from Hevea as well as saving decom-
position, and assists in gradually drying. To be as dry as possible
depends on the time the rubber has been kept smoked, and I am
of opinion that dry marketable rubber could not be prepared
under two months." — (R. Derry, Singapore).
* Jumelle.
253
ACREAGE IN RUBBER.
Sir Frank Swettenham, K.C.M.G., writes witli regard to an Article
whicli appeared in The Standard of August 8, last : — The acreage
planted with Para rubber in the Straits and Malay States on Janu-
ary I, last, was 30,000 acres, and in Ceylon, 25,000 acres. Since
that date the total area planted in the Malay States does not
amount to 10,000 acres.
The United Planters' Association in the Malay States have
taken pains to go into this question, and in their latest report they
give the following figures : Total acreage planted with rubber in
the Straits and Malay States 30,000 acres : Sumatra, 5,000 acres :
Java, 5,000 acres ; Ceylon, 25,000 acres ; India and Burma, 5,000
acres ; total 70,000 acres. Allowing that all this is good, and will
give the good yield of 200 lb. per acre, the amount produced
would be 14,000,000 lb. This acreage cannot, however, be all in
full bearing till the end of 191 1, and they calculate that no more
than this acreage can be in bearing till 191 1, because it is not yet
planted.
The exports from Para for the last three years have remained
practically constant at about 30,000 tons, and the world's produc-
tion was, in 1898, as nearly as it can be ascertained, about
60,000 tons, or 134,000,000 lb. The present production is esti-
mated at 70,000 tons or 156,000,0001b. of which Asia can only
produce 14,000,000 up to the year 1911, what she can produce
after that date will depend upon the area planted and successfully
cultivated between now and 1911. Standard, Dec. 6.
Information on Para rubber may be found in the Bulletin of
the Botanical Department, Jamaica, as follows : — 1894, pp. 99-
105 ; 1890, pp. 82-84 ; 1900, pp. 186-190. And in the Bulletin of
the Department of Agriculture as follows: — 1905, pp. 258-269;
1906, pp. 20-21, 159-160, 169-170, 233.
CASTILLOA OR CENTRAL AMERICAN RUBBER.
{CastiUod clastica.)
This tree grows in Central America from south of Mexico,
south-wards to the west coast of South America.
The tree has a variety of local names, the most important of
which are ' Hule' or ' Ule' and ' Caucho.'
Distinct from this plant is Castilloa Tumi, a tree also found in
Central America and sometimes confused with the true Central
American rubber tree which it closely resembles in appearance.
In an article in the Beihcfte zum Tropcnpftanzcr for July, 1901,
Mr. Th. F. Koschny, a planter of long experience in Costa Rica,
distinguishes the following varieties of 'Hule' trees:
Castilloa elastica :
' Hule bianco' White rubber tree
' Hule negro' Black rubber tree
' Hule Colorado' Red rubber tree
Castilloa Tunu :
' Hule tunu' Gutta percha.
254
The names of the three so-called varieties are given from the
.colour of the bark of the trees. 'Hule bianco' is described as the
only one worth cultivating, giving thick and abundant latex.
The tree is not shade-loving, being seldom found in forests, and
not easily injured by tapping. ' Hule negro' gives a watery latex,
and that of ' Hule Colorado' whilst good, is scanty.
The plants distributed from Kew and now under cultivation in
various tropical colonies, would be more correctly termed, accord-
ing to the place of their origin, Darien, " Castilloa" or Darien
" Caucho" trees. This would distinguish them from the Ule trees
of Mexico, British Honduras, and Nicaragua, and indicate their
history. (W. I. BiiUetiii, 1901, p. 350.)
CLIMATE AND SITUATION.
The study* of Castilloa furnishes evidence that with this tree
there is a relation between climate and rubber production, and
that this relation is the opposite of that commonly supposed to
exist. Practical experiments in Central America soon showed,
that Castilloa will not thrive in swamps or where the drainage is
deficient though the need of continuous humidity for Castilloa is
still insisted upon.
The total rainfall of a place affords but the slightest intimation
of its climate in relation to vegetation. A sudden, heavy shower
may wet the soil much less than the same amount of water
falling as a steady rain, and in the supply of water to plants the
.difference is even greater; the period during which the atmosphere
and soil are moist is of importance to them, but not the amount of
water which patters off their leaves or falls into the rain-gauge.
Humidity even to the point of saturation for six months may be
of no avail to plants unable to survive an e<iual period of drought.
The lowland forests of the west-coast districts of Guatemala
and southern Mexico, while composed in the main of the same
tropical elements as those of eastern Guatemala, yet showed a
striking deficiency of plants requiring continuous humidity.
Nevertheless wild Castilloa seems to have existed in the past as in
the present in far greater abundance, the wild product having
long been an article of export in quantity far more considerable
than from the eastern districts.
Freer flow of milk in drier ivgioiis. — A second contrary fact to the
popular supposition that rubber production is confined to continu-
ously humid climates was encountered when it was found that, in
spite of the greater dryness, the milk flows down from the rubber
trees of Soconusco with a freedom unknown in eastern Guatemala
where it merely oozes out into the gashes made by the " uleros."
Decrease of milk with altitude and continuous humidity. — That
rubber milk is obtained with greater freedom on the drier western
coast shows that continuous humidity is at least not indispensable,
but it does not prove that the larger production is due to the drier
climate. There may be, and probably are, differences in the trees
* Extracts from Bull. No, 49, Bureau of Plant luduBtiy, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.
255
of the two regions, though these have not been detected. But that
there is a climatic element even on the west coast is made plain
by the fact that as the coastal plain is left behind and the slopes
increase in altitude and humidity, the production of rubber
gradually declines. At an altitude of about i,8oo feet on the
Esmeralda coffee estate, only a few miles from La Zacualpa,
wild Castilloa trees apparently normal in other respects yielded
milk very sparingly, while at an elevation of 2,500 feet no milk
dropped from the cuts. Castilloa trees grew vigorously and
attained a diameter of 15 inches in twelve years at "Quien Sabe,"
in the coffee district above Tapachula. The trees grow naturally
up to 1,500 feet and beyond. Above 1,000 feet the rubber gatherers
do not e.xpect to find much rubber. Trees planted at an altitude
of 2,000 feet from seed brought from the coast do not yield
rubber.
Castilloa on the Isthmus of Panama. — The idea that the Castilloa
sent from the Isthmus of Panama to British India came from a
continuously humid district seems not to be justified by the state-
ments of Mr. Cross, who secured seeds and cuttings in the vicinity
of Colon. He says :
" The interior of the Darien forests would frighten most people.
The undergowth is composed of boundless thickets of a prickly
leaved species of BromcUa often 8 to 10 feet high, the ground
swarms with millions of ants, and the snakes raise themselves to
strike at any one who approaches. The Caucho tree grows not in
inundated lands or marshes, but in moist, undulating, or flat situa-
tions, often by the banks of streamlets and on hillsides and
summits where is any loose stones and a little soil. It is adapted
for the hottest parts of India, where the temperature does not fall
much below 74' F. The tree is of rapid growth, and attains to a
great size, and I am convinced that, when cultivated in India, it
will answer the most sanguine expectations that may have been
formed concerning it. I have been up the Chagres and Galun
rivers. I came out on the railway about 7 miles from Colon. I
go back to the same place (the village of Gatun), from which place
by the river the India-rubber forests are reached." — (Trans. Linn.
Soc, London 2d. ser. 2: 213.)
BEST DISTRICTS IN JAMAICA.
Where cocoa grows there also will Castilloa thrive. In Portland
a tree growing in dry limestone was, at 5 years of age, 18 feet in
height of clean stem before branching, and 15 to 18 inches in
diameter.
PROPAGATION.
The propagation of this rubber tree is most easily effected by
■seed, but the seeds must be sown as soon as they are ripe as they
very quickly lose their vitality. Cuttings can also be made.
SHADE FOR CASTILLOA.
"In good soil and in moist situations no shade at all is required
for the young tree, but otherwise it does want a certain amount of
256
shade for the first two or three years after planting. Too dense
shade, however, is not beneficial to it and plants set out in the
forest make very slow progress and develop into spindly trees."
(Capt. M. Short, in West Indian Bull., 1905, p. 139.)
"The Caslilloa is a fast growing tree. It appears to grow
faster between the ages of two and four. The leaf surface of the
tree, and consequently the amount of light it gets, has a great deal
to do with its growth. Shade grown trees are not nearly so large
at the same age as those grown in the sun. Some planters
believe that trees grown in at least partial shade yield more latex,
but if this is so, I do not believe that they yield enough more to
pay for the loss in growth, for under any ordinary conditions the
trees yield in proportion to their size. Monthly measurements of a
large number of Q75//7/ort trees show that they grow on an average
of about I inch per month in circumference. This varies, however,
the trees sometimes growing not at all for a month and growing
J inch or more the next month. An experiment in the effect of
tapping on growth did not show that it made any difference." —
(" A Forester in the " India Rubber World.")
AS A SHADE TREE FOR COCOA.
" I find that cocoa bears well under the shade of Castilloa. Nine
years ago I planted an acre of rubber and cocoa together — the
rubber at 24 feet apart, and the cocoa at 12 feet — and so far as I
have noticed there is very little, if any, difference in the bearing
of these cocoa trees and those under the shade of Bois Immortd.
On finding this I planted last year fifteen acres in the same
manner, and tliere is every reason to expect that in another eight,
or nine years they will give a gross return of about £50 per
acre. Coffee also bears well under Castilloa." — (Capt. Short, in
" Tropical Agriciillurisi," Aug. 28, 1900.)
As bearing on this phase of the subject, the following extracts
from an article by Mons. P. Cibot, in Vilbouchevitch's Journal
d' Agriculture Tropicalc, descriptive of cocoa cultivation in Venezuela
are likely to be of interest : —
"I have recently had the opportunity in Venezuela of visiting
one of the principal plantations which produce that cocoa, so
justly reputed, known as Caracas. I found opportunity there to
study also a plantation of Castilloa elastica used as a shade tree.
" General Fonseca, installed in the fertile Valley for some twenty
years, has gradually acquired the greater part of the plantations
laid out in it. He owns to day thirteen plantations, producing a
total of 480,000 lb. cocoa in 1903-4.
"Going over General Fonseca's plantations, I could not but
admire their beautiful appearance and the care taken with the
irrigation of the whole property ; but my attention was specially
drawn to the plantation of Castilloa elastica mentioned above.
"In 1895-6 about 8,000 plants were put out in places where
shade was wanted for the cocoa trees. These trees, aged eight to
nine years now, are a beautiful sight ; they have attained a height
of 36 to 45 feet, and have an average circumference of 33 inches.
257
" At about four or five years the Castilloas easily out-grow the
.cocoa trees and commence to give them a little shade. As they
plant up Castilloas on the property, they kill out the "Bucares"
or other shade trees, ring-barking them with the axe at about a
yard above the ground.
"The yield of Castilloa plantations is no longer to be doubted ;
the result obtained at Ocumare is a new proof, but the experiment
made by General Fonseca is specially remarkable as it shows that
the Castilloa can be grown among cocoa without in any way harm-
ing their production. Indeed, at Ocumare they have noticed no
diminution in the number of pods carried by the trees shaded by
Castilloa, nor any change in the quality of the bean."
In the Tropical Agriculturist for February, 1905, (p. 529) the
following extract is published from a letter from a planter at
Matabele, Ceylon, in which he sums up his experience in regard
to Castilloa and cocoa as follows : —
"I have very large Castilloas growing both along roads and
also scattered through cocoa, the latter of about fourteen years'
growth showing no evidence of prejudicial influence from the
Cas):illoas. My clearing of some 30 acres of Castilloas and cocoa
planted together six years ago so far supports the contention that
these two products may be grown together."
Captain Short says : — There is little doubt that the return per
acre would be greater from a plantation of cocoa and Castilloa
than from cocoa shaded by Bois Immortel.
" On Richmond estate there is an acre of cocoa twelve and a
half years old, planted 12 feet by 12 feet, shaded by Castilloas
and Bois Immortel. The rubbers are at 24 feet by 24 feet. The
Immortels are being gradually killed, many of them being already
dead.
The cocoa crop for 1903-4 from this field was 3 bags. This
would give a return per acre of from £22 lOs. to £25 3s. thus : —
3 bags cocoa (ft' £4 ••• £12
75 rubber trees f lb. each @ 3/6 per lb. 10
£22
"If the average yield were i lb. per tree, this would give a
return of £25 3s. per acre.
"The return from other cocoa fields of the same age, planted on
similar soil and shaded by Bois Immortel was 3i to 4^ bags per
acre. Taking the average of 4 bags this gives £16 per acre, so
that deducting the cost of the rubber extraction, the return from
the cocoa and rubber would be from £4 to £6 more.
"By applying some nitrogenous manure to supply the deficiency
in the soil arising from the absence of the Bois Immortel tree,
this figure would doubtless be increased. It is also probable that
the rubber could oe planted closer than 24 feet.
DISTANCE IN PLANTING.
The proper distance in planting depends a good deal on how
258
soon the plantation is to be tapped. Trees planted 10 x lO
feet begin to crowd each other out at about six years. If the
plantation is to be tapped at this age, or earlier, this is a good
distance for planting. When the trees get older, the poorer and
weaker ones can be bled out." (Bulletin, Department of Agrietilture,
Jamaica, 1906, p. 98).
Mr. Orde, who is managing the West India Rubber Syndicate,
in Tobago, has furnished the following information on young
Castilloas :
The Castilloas on Louis d'Or estate are still young. Planting
was begun in the autumn of 1898, and the oldest trees are six
years or thereabouts.
The larger number of the trees have been planted to stand
finally at a distance of 17 feet. Some fields are planted at 8^
feet by 8i feet, others at 8i feet by 17 feet, in the hope that a
yield might be obtained from the cultivation while young, by
tapping the intermediate trees before they grew large enough to
necessitate being cut out.
It has been found that a well-grown field, planted at 8A feet by
8A feet, cannot stand longer than about fave years without being
thinned out, as at that age the branches begin to interfere with
each other, and the tree tends to become thin and spindly.
Experiments were made in tapping some of these young trees,
averaging five to six years old, in 1904. Large numbers of them
were tapped as severely as possible with chisel and mallet. The
latex was in some cases taken wet and washed before coagulation
and in others it was allowed to dry on the tree, and picked off
afterwards as scrap.
There are some twenty to thirty trees on the estate, aged seven
years from seed, and experiments have also been made on these,
from which it appears that the yield increases fairly quickly as
the tree gets older.
Six of these trees were tapped, not severely, in March 1904,
and gave 12} oz. dry rubber. The same trees were tapped again
in September and gave 10 oz., or nearly i lb per tree in the two
tappings. These trees, however, were rather above the average
in growth for their age.
Trees planted at 8i feet by 8^ feet could not be left growing to
this size without injury to each other ; and if a field is planted
with the idea of getting rubber from the intermediate trees, as
soon as they get old enough to yield, and before it is necessary
to cut them out, it would seem that 8^ feet is too close a distance,
and that 12 feet would be about the most suitable distance. (West
India Bulletin, 1905, pp. 14O-141)
Professor O.F.Cook,* says: "As yet there have been no
experiments yielding any definite information on the above point,
but the recent trend of opinion among planters seems to be dis-
tinctly in the direction of closer planting. There has been a
Bulletin No. 4il, Bureau of Plant Industry, tJ. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
259
gradual decline from 20 feet and upward between trees to 12 feet
and under.
"The questions of shade and of distance between trees are closely
related and need to be considered together because several of the
arguments for shade can be met, wholly or partially by close
planting. The first of these is that of the greater expense
incidental to open culture. The frequency with which the land
requires to be cleaned, and the period of years during which it
would be necessary to continue such cleaning, depends largely
upon the amount of overhead shade present to discourage the
under-growth. Some planters on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec are
evidently taking advantage of this fact and are setting close with
the intention of removing alternate trees before they are large
enough to injure their neighbours by crowding ; and it is expected
that if they are " tapped to death" they can be made to yield
enough rubber to more than cover the expense of planting. At
least there seems to be no reason why, if the land is to be cleared
it should not be made to produce as much rubber as possible,
instead of being planted with useless trees for a purpose which can
be attained quite as fully by setting the rubber trees closer to-
gether.
There is danger, however, that any suggestion which promises
earlier returns from rubber culture will be over-done. The rubber
of very young trees is of low grade and expensive to collect ; also
it would be very poor policy to risk permanent injury from weak
spindling growth which overcrowding would undoubtedly cause.
More is likely to be lost than gained by trees standing at less
than 8 feet for even a few years. Better than uniform .close
planting would be to set the north and south rows farther apart
than the trees in the rows. With a given number of trees this
would secure the maximum of shade on the ground, because the
morning and afternoon sun would not shine down the rows. The
cleaning of the land or the cultivation of a catch crop or a shade
crop between the rows would also be facilitated. The distances
would depend on the size which the Castilloa trees were expected
to attain in any given locality, the rows from 12 to 20 feet apart,
the trees from 8 to 12 feet in the rows being fair average estimates.
CULTURE.
"In attempting* to plan a rational culture for Castilloa it will
be worse than useless to insist upon all or any of the cultural
measures which have been found desirable with coffee, cacao, or
other tropical crops. Castilloa is not cultivated for the pods
like cocoa, for the flowers like cloves, for the fruits like oranges,
nor for the seeds like coffee. The increase of the size of the trunk
and of the amount of milk contained in its inner bark are objects
of cultural solicitude."
" Open culture with relatively little cleaning at first would be
more practicable if the weeds and undergrowth cut down in the
* Extvacta iiom Bull. No. 49, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of AgrJculture.
260
dry season could be left spread over the ground. This would do
more to conserve the moisture of the soil than the same vegetation
alive, but the danger of fire will in most localities forbid the use
of this method of culture."
"With shade recognized as a means of influencing natural
conditions of soil or climate it becomes evident that each planter
will need to use his best judgment in determining what local
conditions require. In Costa Rica, Koschny advises the thinning
of the forest by the removal of two or three trees out of every five.
At La Zacualpa more are cut out. Some of the planters on the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec practice clean culture. No general
principles will determine which is best, because no one method is
applicable everywhere.
AGE AT WHICH TREES MAY BE TAPPED.*
"The earliest age at which Castilloa trees may be tapped with
safety and advantage has been stated all the way from four to
twelve years, while from eight to ten years is the conservative
estimate. At the same time it must be admitted that little in the
way of positive knowledge exists on this point, and careful
experiments may be necessary to determine whether, for example,
the taking of half a pound of rubber from each tree in the sixth
year will retard growth so as to diminish the yield of succeeding
years. As the trees approach maturity and have occupied most of
the available space, as much may be taken as will not weaken the
tree and shorten its life.
"The inferior quality of the rubber obtained from young trees
also lessens the inducement for tapping them. It has been known
for several years that the rubber and gutta-percha obtained from
young plants or from the leaves and twigs of the trees is different
from that yielded by the trunk of mature age, in that a smaller or
larger percentage of rubber is replaced by non-elastic, brittle, or
sticky substances commonly referred to as "resins." Dr. C. O.
Weber has recently published the following results of analyses of
samples of rubber from trees varying in age from two to eight
years :
Resins in rubber from trees. Per cent.
2 years old ... 42'33
3 do ... 3502
4 do ... 26-47
5 do ... 1818
7 do ... 11-59
8 do ... 7'2I
"The same writer also gives a table showing the varying
amount of resin in samples from different parts of the same tree :
Resin in rubber from— Per cent.
Trunk ... 2-61
Largest brancfies .. 377
Medium do ... 4'88
. Young do ... 5-86
Leaves ... 7'50
♦ Extracts from Bull. No. 49, U. S. Dept. of Agri.
26l
If these figures represent facts at all general, they lessen very
distinctly the prospects of any plans which contemplate the tap-
ping of very young trees, and it will be necessary to agree with
Dr. Weber that eight years is the minimum age at which a planta-
tion can be expected to furnish rubber for the market."
TAPPING.
The following* is a description of a method of tapping the trees
in the forests of Nicaragua :
When the collectors find an untapped tree in the forest they first
make a ladder out of the lianas or " vejucos" that hang from every
tree. This they do by tying short pieces of wood across them
with small lianas, many of which are as tough as cord. They then
proceed to score the bark with cuts which extend nearly round the
trees, like the letter \ , the point being downward. A cut like this
is made about every 3 feet all the way up the trunk. The milk
will all run out of the tree in about an hour after it is cut, and it is
collected into a large tin bottle made flat on one side and furnished
with straps to fasten on to a man's back. A decoction is made
from a liana {Caloiiyction spcciosum), and this, on being added to
the milk in the proportion of I pint to the gallon, coagulates it to
rubber, which is made into round, flat cakes. A large tree, 5 feet
in diameter, will yield, when first cut, about 20 gallons of milk,
each gallon of which makes 2A- pounds of rubber. I was told that
the tree recovers from the wounds and may be cut again after the
lapse of a few months ; but several I saw were killed through the
large harlequin beetle {Acrocinus longimanus) laying its eggs in the
cuts, and the grubs that are hatched boring great holes all through
the trunk. When these grubs are at work you canhear their rasp-
ing by standing at the bottom of the tree, and the wood dust
thrown out of their burrows accumulates in heaps on the ground
below.
That improved methods and tools are to be used for cultivated
trees is one of the points on which all the rubber planters agree,
but as yet none of the many improvements suggested has attained
any popularity, and it is at least doubtful whether any of the
devices brought forward at this time is to be looked upon as a
practical solution of the problem. Some inventors have worked
on the erroneous idea that the rubber comes from the sap, like
sugar from the maple, and have thus completely wasted their time.
An enumeration of some of the features essential for a good
tapping instrument may save further labour on wrong lines.
The cutting edge must be keen, and must therefore be easy to
sharpen. A thick or blunt edge bruises the wood and milk tubes,
and this interferes with the flow of milk.
There should be a means by which the depth of the cut can be
regulated, since it is important to cut deep enough to reach the
milk and yet not so deep as to reach into the wood, but axes and
chisels with shoulders to prevent too deep penetration are not
promising because the thickness of the outer bark is variable. The
* From Bull. No. 49, Bureau o£ Plant Industry.
262
shoulders also bruise the bark if the cutting is by blows. Bull.
No. 49, Bureau of Plant Industry.
*Mr. Hart states that "the invention of the new tool described by
Dr. Weber is a step in the right direction, and working on the same
lines we are now in possession of an instrument which allows still
more freedom to the operator and enables him to make a narrow,
deep, or broad channel at will, with ease and despatch."
Washing the latex — By the methods now adopted the foreign
matters are washed out of the latex before coagulation takes place,
thus producing a very high grade of rubber from the Castilloa,
having a marketable value equal to that of Para.
Until now it was generally assumed that the Central American
rubber was of much inferior grade to that of Para. It has now
been proved, however, that the actual difference is very slight, if
there is any, and resolves itself into the question of preparing it
for the market at the time of tapping. During the past few months
the best qualities of some rubber from cultivated Castilloa trees
brought $1.54 and $1.56 gold per pound in the London market.
This price was higher than that of best South American Para sold
at the same time.
Coagulating the latex — " The separation of rubber from the latex,
a process commonly called coagulation, is in a somewhat more
advanced state of investigation than the subject of tapping, if,
indeed, the recent experiments of Dr. Weber do not mean that a
final and satisfactory conclusion has been reached. Dr. Weber
finds that by the simple expedient of diluting the fresh latex of
Castilloa with five times its volume of boiling water and adding
8 ounces of formaldehyde to each barrel of the resulting fluid, all
the impurities to which the inferiority of Castilloa rubber are due
can be removed, since they will remain in solution, while after
twenty-four hours the clean rubber will be found in a " snow-white-
cake" which can be lifted off the top. Dr. Weber contends that
rubber prepared in this way is " absolutely free from solid im-
purities of any description either soluble or insoluble,
organic or inorganic," and that it is equal or superior to the finest
brands of Para rubber. Bull. No. 49, Bureau of Plant Industry.
Yield — "It may be said that at the present stage of this inquiry,
2 pounds per tree is looked upon as the reasonable maximum yield
to be expected from adult trees of twelve years and upward, grow-
ing under favourable natural conditions. This is the highest
estimate which is known to the writer as having been made by
reliable planters of intelligence and experience ; and some such
hold that the probabilities lie nearer to half a pound than to 2
pounds. It is appreciated that this estimate is much smaller than
many claims based on wild trees and that it is much larger than the
results reached on some of the earlier plantations would seem to
promise, The estimate is not, however, made as an average of all
published figures, but is reached rather by the elimination of un-
warranted expectations from one end of the series, and from the
* Bull. R. Botanic Gari£n£, Trinidad, 1905, p. 163.
Feb.
4, 19 trees gave
Mar.
19 do
Feb.
8, 16 do
Mar.
15 do
Feb.
17, 15 do
263
other of disappointments due to adverse local conditions.— 5h//.
No. 49, Bureau of Plant Indiislry.
Captain Short states : Tapping was carried on (at Richmond
estate) in February, 1904 with the following results :
Total yield Average per tree.
4 lb. 5 oz. 3M 02- dry rubber
3 " 10 " 3
4 " I " 4 "
2 " II " 2H "
5 " II " m "
April 27 do ... 3 " 0 " 3 "
These fifty trees gave an average yield of just under i lb. of dry
rubber in the two tappings.
The yield of latex varies greatly in trees of the same size and
age. Two trees out of these fifty gave 7i to 8^ cups of latex at
each tapping, the one tree yielding i lb. lO oz. of dry rubber in the
two tappings, the other I lb. 9 oz. Other trees tapped in the same
month gave I lb. in the two tappings and another gave | lb. in one
tapping. Trees of the same age and size gave less than half these
amounts. Why this should be I cannot say, and I believe no
explanation has yet been given to account for the difference in
the yield of latex. As far as my own observation goes, trees in
the open, or only partially shaded, appear to be better yielders, as
a rule, than those in' denser shade.
In comparing this tapping with that of 1 899, it appears that, at
nine years old, a tree on an average yields about one-half of what
a tree thirteen to fourteen years old does.
The results of the different tappings have led me to conclude
that from | lb. to I lb. of rubber per annum may be safely
reckoned on, as the average yield of a tree thirteen to fourteen
years old.
It is intended at the next tapping to use a ladder, and to tap
as far as possible up the stem. No doubt the total yield of rubber
would then be greater. It is also intended to tap a few trees con-
tinuously for twelve to fourteen days, or every second day for a
month, although it is very doubtful if the yield of latex would be
much increased by so doing, or that the extra yield so obtained
would compensate for the greater damage to the tree. In this
respect the Castilloa appears to differ from the Para, and the
experiments to be tried in 1905 will probably do something towards
settling the point.
The cost of collecting was 8d. to 9d. per lb., but this cost
would be reduced when tapping is carried on regularly and on a
larger scale. The rubber extracted from the nine-year old trees in
1899 to 1900 was valued at 3s. 9d. per lb., a good price at the time.
Information on Castilloa rubber may be found in the Bulletin
of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, as follows :— 1895, pp. 34-
38 ; 1898, p. 37 ; 1899, PP- 74-76, 85 ; 1900, pp. 2-7 ; 1901, p. 141-
And in the Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, as follows :
1904, pp. 101-103, 162-168, 188-192, 231-236, 257-260, 283-285;
1905, pp. 13-20, 43-46, 67-70. 84-85, 133-134- 156-158, I 81-183,
229-230, 233-243 ; 1906, pp. 97-100, 145-150, 172-175-
264
LAGOS SILK RUBBER OR IRE.
(Funtumia elastica.)
Locality. — A new rubber-yielding plant suddenly came into
notice in the colony of Lagos in 1894. This proved to be a
handsome tree, locally known as Ire, Ireh, or Ereh. It belongs to
the same natural order as the Landolphias. The particulars
respecting it were gradually accumulated at Kew. It was at first
known as Kickxia africana, but is now more correctly named
Funtumia elastica. It is widely distributed in West Africa from
Sierra Leone to the delta of the Niger, the island of Fernando Po,
and the Gaboon. It is believed that rubber was first obtained
from it on the Gold Coast in 1883. (Agricultural News, 1902, p.
185.)
Mr. J. H. Hart states : Plants put out in Trinidad at one of the
trial sections at St. Clair in July, 1898, averaged in January, 1901,
thirteen and a half feet in height, with a stem circumference of
seven inches Mr. Milieu of Tobago, who has been in the
native forests of this plant, reports it as being a large forest tree.
.... The St. Clair trees even at their present early age of three
years, bleed freely, but are not yet of sufficient size to base any
reliable estimates as to yield or value. . . . The rubber keeps
well and appears to stand near to good Para in value. A point
which will recommend it to some is the fact that although it
certainly grows faster under shade, it can make good growth when
fully exposed to the sun. — {W. I. Bull., 1901, p. 108.)
In Western Africa. — The following notes on the Silk Rubber of
Lagos are taken from an article by M. E. De Wildman published
in the Revue des Cultures Coloniales, and translated in the
Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits and Federated Malay States,
Vol. II., 4 April, 1903, p. 136.
"The plant is specially cultivated at present in Western Africa
in the Congo Free State and in the Cameroons, and is, according
to the author, the best rubber plant to cultivate in these regions,
and this is so for several reasons ; it is easy to procure seed as
the plant is wild in this part of the world and one can be sure that
it will grow well as the soil and climate are naturally suitable for
it. The German Colonial reports show that Funtumias of the
same age as Castilloas are relatively more advanced, the
Funtumias give seed at the end of two years and a half, while the
Castilloa fruits only at the end of from three and a half to four
years. If one compares the latex of the two, at the same age, one
can see that it is much more concentrated, less watery and sticky
in Funtumia than in Castilloa, and that it can give a return more
quickly. Castilloa, according to M. Koschny can only be milked
when eight years old. As to the rubber itself, that of Funtumia
is as good or better than that of Castilloa. The results of
comparative researches with Funtumia and Castilloa in West
Africa are in favour of the former."
" If at first the stem bifurcates forming a bush, either a shoot is
developed above the bifurcation, or one branch grows more
265
strongly than the other eventually forming the trunk. Among
the advantages of Funtumia one may mention tnat the latex flows
more easily and quickly than that of Castilloa or Ficus and the
seeds keep good for six week: and even germinate after three
months. Nor is the Funtumia particular as to soil, it grows equally
well in lateritic or basaltic soils rich in humus or stony. As to
altitude, it has been noticed that it does best below 800 metres
(2625 ft.) It is reckoned that in April, 1902, there were in the
Cameroons 200,000 plants, exclusive of wild ones. The plan of
planting Funtumias in a lightly cleared forest as has been frequently
done is not recommended. They do not grow so well in shade as
in full sun ; when they are too weak to resist the drying action of
sun and wind, they naturally should be protected, but when they
are strong enough to resist this, they develop better when fully
exposed to the sun, provided that the ground is damp enough.
From the experiments made in plantations in German territory
the Funtumias should be planted 6 meters [20 ft.] apart."
" The tree is one of the best shade trees for cocoa, but as it is
pyramidal in form it will be necessary to plant close which is not
a disadvantage."
Best Districts in Jamaica. Small ti-ees of this species are growing
at Hope Gardens and at Castleton. It will probably be found that
it will succeed best in the districts recommended for Para rubber.
Pruning. In Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago it is noticed that
the young trees if left to themselves are liable to assume a bushy
habit and are thus rendered less valuable for rubber-yielding
qualities. To correct this it is recommended that the trees be
pruned by gradually taking off all the lower branches and that
one central, clean stem be encouraged. In Lagos the tree attains
a height of 90 to lOO feet before branching, which makes it easy
for the collector to tap the trunk.
Collecting and preparing tlie rubber. "In tapping the trees the
bark is first cut in a vertical direction from the bottom to the top.
This single line is about i to f of an inch broad, and deep enough
to reach the inner bark. This forms the main groove. On each
side of this two series of oblique grooves, about two feet apart,
are cut, each running into the main groove. The side grooves
are made beginning at the top, and gradually reaching the base of
the tree. All the milk exuding from the lateral grooves will find
its way into the main groove and so ultimately reach the bottom,
where a vessel is placed to receive it. When sufficient milk has
accumulated it is then collected and made into rubber.
The methods adopted for coagulating the milk are at present
of two kinds, viz., " the cold process" and "the heat process."
The cold process is chiefly practised by the Fanti men introduced
from the Gold Coast. A cavity is excavated in the trunk of a
fallen tree so as to form a cistern of the capacity necessary for
holding the milk collected during several days. Into this the
rubber gatherers pour the milk, after straining it, from day to day,
until it is quite full. It is then covered with palm leaves and left
for 12 to 14 days and sometimes much longer, depending on the
266
season, until most of the watery portions have either evaporated
or sunk into the wood. After being kneaded and pressed together
the rubber thus obtained has a dark, brownish colour, with the
inner portions of a slightly lighter colour. Such rubber is known
locally as " silk rubber."
" The heat process is the one generally adopted by the natives
of Lagos. This is much simpler in working, as it disposes of all
the milk collected at the close of each day. After being strained
the milk is placed in a vessel and boiled. The rubber begins to
coagulate almost directly the heat is applied, and after the boiling
is over is removed in a somewhat sticky condition, owing to being
burnt, and of a blackish colour. It is pointed out that the heat
process, though simpler, impairs the quality of the rubber, and is
calculated to injure the industry. It is probable that if the heat
process were somewhat modified the results would not be so inju-
rious. An experiment was tried at the Botanic Station to coagu-
late the milk by heat, but not applied directly to it. The result
was much more satisfactory. The rubber came off of a milky
white colour, and after being pressed it was clean and firm
without being sticky." {BitU. R. Gardens, Kciv, 1895, pp. 245-246.)
Value of the rubber. "The (luestion of making West African
rubber more marketable is now exercising the minds of merchants
engaged in that trade. The rubber that comes from Para (South
America) fetches on the English market double the price of that
product from West Africa. The only reason for this is the different
method of curing the rubber when taken from the tree — a very
simple process . . . The difference between Para and African
rubber is similar to that between a loaf of bread just made up
into dough and a loaf that has been through the oven and been pro-
perly baked. In other words while the substance is the same, the
one is an imperfect article ; the other a finished one, so far as the
production of rubber is concerned." (Agricultural Neivs, 1904, p. 343.)
It appears that in Lagos, owing to the wholesale destruction of
the trees in the hinterland, a most promising and valuable industry
has been practically ruined. In 1894 the exports of rubber shipped
from the colony amounted to 5,867 lbs. valued at £324 6s. 4d. In
1895 these figures rose to no less than 5,069,576 lbs. of a total
sterling value of £269,893."
"There is, unhappily, reason to fear that the usual result may
follow this sudden discovery. Already there seem to be grounds
for the belief that, in so far as the term 'rubber industry' implies
the intelligent growth and cultivation of the plant for profit, it
conveys a false impression of the methods in vogue in the interior."
" Judicious tapping with due regard to the life of the tree, and
its future usefulness, is the exception ; rubber-bearing trees are
ruthlessly sacrificed by irresponsible seekers after wealth, and
dead trunks are becoming a too familiar feature in the landscape
of the productive districts. Sooner or later a purely destructive
policy of this kind must exhaust the richest country ; adventurers
will have to stray further afield, and the cost of transport will
26/
equal or exceed the value of the article." (Annual Report on Colony
of Lagos for 1895.) (Colonial Office Reports, No. 1 8 5, 1896.)
In 1897 the Governor of the colony sent Messrs. Leigh and
Dawodu of the Botanical Department [two natives of Lagos who
were trained at Hope Gardens, 1890-1893, and subsequently spent
a year at Kew] into the interior to report on the condition of the
rubber trees in the forests, and to give advice to the kings and
chiefs on the proper methods of tapping, and to induce them to
devote as much care and attention to the raising and cultivation of
this tree as they give to kola and oil palm.
Messrs. Leigh and Dawodu reported that the forests abounded
with Ire trees, but through over-tapping they were almost ruined
and rubber working had practically ceased. And they go on to
say "rubber collectors have now to go 15 or 16 days offlbadan
for rubber beyond the Protectorate of this colony. The countries
where active rubber working is going on, are Benin and Aboko
forests,"
In the Annual Report on Lagos for 1897 the following statement
occurs : — " As was anticipated, the falling off in the production of
rubber, due to the reckless way in which it was collected, has come
to pass, the amount shipped in 1897 being 4,458,327 lbs, as against
6,484,365 lbs, in 1896. It is early to talk pessimistically of ihe
'extinction of the industry,' inasmuch as the opening up of fresh
country to peaceful commerce cannot fail to revive the production.
At the same time the greed and guile of the small minority that
collects and adulterates rubber, coupled with the apathy of the large
majority that only looks on, must inevitably deal a severe blow
to the trade. Steps are, however, being taken to encourage the
native chiefs to have the rubber collected in a thrifty and system-
atic manner, which, it is hoped, will show good results in the near
future."
It would appear from the following that Funtumia is now being
largely planted in West Africa : — " From an interesting report
issued by the London Chamber of Commerce in June, 1905, we
gather that rubber planting in West Africa is progressing rapidly,
some 15,900 plants of Funtumia elastica having been planted at
Aburi in 1902, and reported in 1905 as twelve feet high."
"It is reported that caterpillars have been very destructive to the
rubber plants." (Bull. Botanical Department, Trinidad, July, 1906,
p. 74-)
Information on Lagos silk rubber may be found in the Bulletin
of the Department of Agriculture, 1906, pp. 171-172.
CEARA RUBBER.
(Manihot Glaziovii.)
Ceara or Manitoba rubber is produced by Manihot Glaziovii, a
tree related to the cassava, but attaining to a height of 30 to 50
feet.
Locality, Soil and Climate — "Ceara is a coast town of Brazil in
lat. 4° S., and the flat country which runs back to the hills is
268
described by Mr. Cross as manifestly possessing ' a very dry, arid
climate for a considerable part of the year. This is evident from
the fact that mandiocca and other crops require to be irrigated.
The rainy season is said to begin in November and end in May or
June ; torrents of rain are then reported to fall for several days in
succession, after which the weather moderates for a brief space.
According to some statements there are occasional years in which
hardly any rain falls. This assertion concurs with the aspect
presented by the country in general. The daily temperature on
board the ship ranged from 82° F., but inland in is often probably
90°. The localities traversed by me nowhere seemed to be
elevated more than 200 feet above the sea.' At Pacatuba, about
forty miles from Ceara, the actual place where the specimens were
obtained, ' the general forest was tolerably high, but the sparse
small foliage did not afford much shade from the fierce rays of the
sun. The soil was in places a sort of soft sandstone or gravel
which was bound up in the most extraordinary manner. Neither
grass nor weeds grew among this underwood, and there was an
entire absence of ferns, mosses, and other plants.' In another
place somewhat further from the coast, the traveller, shortly after
entering the bush-like forest, 'came on a large tract of land
covered by immense masses of grey granite, some of which might
be fifty tons or more in weight. These had been broken where
they lay, and were the result of a volcanic explosion. Rounded
masses of the same rock also cropped out in many places
Many good-sized rubber trees were growing in the spaces between
these granite masses . . . The situation was very dry, but no
doubt some seedlings had sprung up, which owing to numerous
thickets of shrubs, were not perceived.' (Joiinial of Botany, 1S80,
P- 323.)
United States Consul Furniss reported recently that vast forests
of this tree have just been discovered in the interior of the State
of Bahia. The area is said to be very large, but cannot be defined
as the region has not been fully explored. The attention called
to the first discovery, has led to further explorations, with the
result that from time to time comes notice of other sections where
like trees occur in profusion.
It is native to many parts of Brazil and when planted will grow
on the interior plains and highlands as well as close to the sea . .
It is also cultivated in many sections, large plantations having
been set out during the last few years in Sergipe, Bahia and other
States." (Bull. Dcpt. of Agri., Jamaica, 1905, p. 72.)
In Nicaragua — The cultivation of Ceara, or Manitoba rubber was
begun in Nicaragua about four years ago. The splendid condi-
tion of the plantings and the large yield and excellent quality of
the product taken in trial tappings, give promise of the success of
the enterprise. The Ceara rubber tree is a dry land plant, and
will not prosper in a wet soil. It is being planted in the districts
of La Pas and Momotombo (300 feet above sea level), where the
Momotombo mountain by driving the clouds to one side, protects
this section from the force of the tropical rains so that it is com-
269
paratively dry, receiving just about enough water to grow corn,
which is abundant for Ceara rubber. The soil is sandy, with an
admixture of a little clay, and very deep and level or slightly roll-
ing. The Nicaragua Rubber Co.'s plantation is the " San
Nicholas," on which are the oldest andiargest trees in this sec-
tion. Three-year-old trees on this plantation measure 26 inches
in girth 3 feet above the soil, and are more than 30 feet high.
Ceara rubber trees yielded latex at two years of age. Twenty-one
trees from fourteen to twenty-one months old, with an average age
of fourteen months, were tapped, and together gave Ji lb. of dry
rubber. A tree fifteen months old gave 3 oz. of rubber. However,
it is not intended to tap until the trees are four years old in order
not to retard the best development. It is expected that four-year-
old trees will produce I lb. of rubber each, and from that time the
product will augment rapidly. There are now in the district out-
side of native plantings, four American plantations of Manilwt
Glaziovii. on which are planted some 200,000 trees, while as many
more will be planted in another year. (IVork.'^')
" III Hawaii — It is considered unlikely that the climate of Hawaii
will prove suitable for the Para rubber tree ; for a similar reason,
it is doubtful whether the cultivation of Castilloa clastica should
be attempted on more than an experimental scale.
" The Ceara rubber (Manihot Glaziovii), on the other hand, finds
the climate of Hawaii quite suitable ; it makes rapid growth in
Hawaii, thriving from sea-level up to 2,500 feet. As this tree will
stand a moderate tapping at three years, comparatively early
returns may be obtained. A company has already planted
100.000 seeds of this species, and expects to have half a million
growing within another two years." (Agricultural News, 1905,
P- 393)-
In the German Colonies — " The German East Africa Plantations
Company of Lewa continues to extend its plantations of rubber
trees, Manihot Glaziovii, and at the end of 1902 they had reached
250,000 in number." [Agricultural News 1905, p. 7).
Best districts in Jamaica — Considering the character of the
country in which the Ceara rubber tree is a native, the most likely
districts in the island for its success in yielding rubber are the
Liguanea plain, Palisadoes, sea-coast parts of western St. Thomas-
in-the-East, southern portions of Clarendon and St. Catherine,
districts round Black River, and the country along the sea-coast
of St. James and Trelawny.
Propagation and Planting — " The seed-coat is of remarkable thick-
ness and very hard, and the natural process of germination
occupies a long period — it is said more than a year. All that is
necessary to hasten this, if desired, is to assist the seed-coat in
splitting. This is best effected by holding the seed firmly, and
rasping off with a file both edges at the radicular end.f It is best
not to file off the actual end, as it may thus easily happen that the
* Krom BwU Deyt. of Agn. Jamaica 1905, p. 269.
t This end IB to be reoognized externally by poseessiug at its side aflat two-lobed
appendage technically known as the caruncle.
2/0
radicle of the embryo may be injured, After this treatment,
properly performed, the young plant appears above ground in two
or three weeks. The seedlings require no particular attention.
They grow rapidly, and may be finally planted out at distances
of twenty feet. A peculiarity which they share with their close
relative the mandioc, is the possession of large tubers on the
spreading roots." — (Journal of Botany, l88, p. 324.)
"It can also be propagated by cuttings of about one foot in
length taken from the ends of strong shoots. In planting, each
cutting may be put in the ground to the depth of 6 inches. In
loose, sandy soil, or dry, gravelly wastes, if found to support any
kind of bush, plantations might be formed at little expense." —
{Cross.)
Collecting the Rubber, and y/VW—" According to Cross (Report
p. 14) this is an operation of a very simple description. On com-
mencing work, the collector takes with him a stout knife and a
handful of twigs to serve as a broom. Arriving at a tree, any
loose stones or dust is swept from the ground around the base,
and some large leaves are laid down to receive the droppings of
milk which trickle down. Some do not go to the trouble of
sweeping the ground or laying down leaves, for which reason the
milk adheres to sand, dust, decayed leaves, and other impurities.
The outer surface of the bark of the trunk is pared or sliced off
to a height of four or five feet. The milk then exudes and runs
down in many tortuous courses, some of it ultimately falling on
the ground. After several days the juice becomes dry and solid,
and is then pulled off in strings and rolled up in balls or put into
bags in loose masses. Only a thin paring should be taken off,
just deep enough to reach the milk vessels ; but this is not always
attended to. Nearly every tree has been cut through the bark,
and a slice taken off the wood. Decay then proceeds rapidly, and
many of the trunks are hollow. In this condition the trees must
yield far less milk, and many no doubt are broken over by the
wind or wither away. Collecting is carried on during the dry
season only, when rain seldom falls."
" In the Tropical Agriculturist for March, 1887, Mr. W. B. Lamont
furnished the following results of experiments carried on by him
in the districts of Henaratgoda and Mirigama :— "No satisfactory
result will follow any attempt to obtain produce before the tree
is at least four years old ; no system of cutting or piercing the
bark will give a satisfactory yield ; and it is only in the dry
season, when the tree is leafless, and the growth at a standstill,
that a satisfactory result can be obtained in the way of harvesting.
The plan of obtaining the rubber that my experiments led up to,
was, as soon as the leaves begin to fall, to remove the outer
bark in vertical strips of not more than two inches wide, and not
less than four inches apart. The tender inner bark thus exposed
to the sun breaks out in something like running sores, from which
the rubber slowly exudes and drips on the surface as fast as
discharged. In this process the strip of exposed bark is
destroyed, but a vigorous tree will close in the bared part in the
271
course of the year, if the width is not more than two inches.
Ceara rubber, planted at lOO trees per acre, will, after the second
year, require hardly any expense in cultivation. As for harvest-
ing, I collected 30 lbs. last January and February by one boy at
15 cents a day, or say 23 cents per lb., the local value being about
80 cents. Supposing each tree gave an average yield of I lb. per
annum, and allowing 30 cents for cultivation and collecting, 50
cents would remain as profit, or R50 per acre."
"Dr. Trimen, in his Report for 1893 (p. 13), remarks; — " Ceara
rubber has not taken any hold on planters here as a permanent
cultivation ; yet it might, I think, be worked at a profit by a
system of annual planting, and the sacrifice of successive crops of
trees when they reach ten or twelve years. About li lbs. of dry
rubber is at that age obtained from each tree." — {Kciv Bulletin,
1898, pp. 4, 6-7, 8.)
Analysis of rubber— " At the re(|uest of the Inspector-General of
Agriculture in India, I lb., of moulded Ceara rubber (in 17 pieces)
and I lb. of Ceara "Scrap" rubber were sent to the Agricultural
Chemist by the Government of India for analysis, and the result
is given as follows .' —
Report on the composition of two samples of Ceara rubber,
' Scrap' and ' Prepared,' sent by R. L. Proudlock, Esq., Govern-
ment Botanic Gardens and Parks, the Nilgiris, Ootacamund, 1 6th
September, 1902.
Water
Pure caoutchouc
Resins
Ash
Total
" The rubbers are of excellent quality as regards colour and
texture and the analysis shows a high amount of pure caoutchouc."
Bulletin of The Straits and Federated Malay States, October, 1903,
PP- 329-330.
Information on Ceara rubber may be found in the Bulletin of
the Botanical Department, Jamaica, as follows : — 1895, pp. 31-34 >
1897, pp. 242-243 ; 1898, pp. 37-38 ; 1899, p. 84. And in the
Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture as follows : — 1905 pp.
72-76, 269.
VIRGEN RUBBER, OR COLOMBIAN SCRAP RUBBER.
(Sapium sp.)
Mr. Robert Thomson, until lately one of Messrs Elder, Dempster
and Company's Agricultural Instructors in Jamaica, and formerly
of Bogota, Colombia, in 1888 wrote as follows concerning this
rubber : —
"This rubber is known in commerce as Colombia Virgen. It
has been exported chiefly to the United States, and next to the
Para rubber, it has realized the best prices in the market . . .
4 92
87-67
2-86
4-55
364
90 09
4-09
2-i8
100 00
100 00
272
" 1 have established in this country during the last five years a
plantation of this rubber, consisting of about 70,000 trees, this
being, I believe, as yet the only plantation made of this sort.
Under cultivation this tree thrives admirably, growing with great
rapidity, and averaging about five feet a year.
" Crops are obtainable in from six to eight years, but a tree five
years old yields as much as I pound of rubber. It is a large forest
tree, the trunks attaining six and seven feet in circumference.
Four arrotas (lOO lbs.) of rubber have been extracted from a
single tree, but the average yield is far less
" The important consideration as regards this species, apart
from its intrinsic value, is that it grows at great elevations on the
Colombian Andes, viz., at from 6,000 to 8,00o feet above the sea.
" Prior to the wholesale destruction of this tree (but few now
remain) by the rubber collectors, I explored, some five years ago,
the forests wherein it abounded in order to examine the soil,
climatic and other conditions affecting its growth. It may be
mentioned that its area of distribution has been peculiarly limited
to a small section of the Cordilleras some 1,500 miles from the
sea. The total quantity of rubber exported during the few years
the article existed could not have amounted to many hundred tons.
" It is very difficult to propagate the tree from cuttings, hence
I have had to resort, during my supervision of the plantation, to
propagation by seeds, which, moreover, were always procured
with much difficulty."
Messrs. Hecht, Levis, and Kahn, wrote in May, 1 890, to Royal
Gardens, Kew : —
" We beg to say that Colombian scrap rubber has been known
in the market for the last few years, and is of a very superior
quality indeed.
" It would be difficult to give you the exact average market
value, but it has varied during the last few years between 2/3 and
3/ per lb. At the present moment the value is about 2/1 id. to 3/."
(Bulletin of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, 1894, pp. 110 — III.)
In the Journal of the Jamaica Agricultural Society for May, -1906,
Mr. Thomson gives some further information with regard to
virgen rubber, as follows : —
"This is the only important species of rubber indigenous to the
cool bracing temperature of lofty tropical mountains. The other
important species grow in the hottest zones of the earth. Hence
to prospective planters settling in Jamaica the climatic conditions
involved are of the greatest consideration. The temperature on
the mountains is like a perennial English spring. As is well-
known. Englishmen flock to the island of Ceylon to settle on the
mountains ; there the mountain climate is duly appreciated. In
like manner the varied resources of our mountains are destined to
attract attention.
The elevation above the level of the sea at which the virgen
rubber was found growing in a state of nature, four degrees from
the equator, ranged from 5,000 to 7,500 feet
" From a cultural point of view, I have never in all my experi-
273
ence of tropical planting cultivated a tree that flourished like this
rubber tree. Every plant with its striking foliage and abounding
vigour grevir with great rapidity. In the course of a year the
plants attained a height of from six to eight and ten feet. In three
years the stems were five to six inches in diameter
"I remember having collected one lb. of rubber from a wild seed-
ling which was about five years old. Under the elaborate cultural
treatment to which the other species of rubber are now subjected,
there can be no doubt that when 50 to 60 feet high, in less than
10 years, not less than one pound per tree will result. And in a
few years subsequent thereto, double and treble this quantity per
annum.
" I have the pleasure to express my conviction that in certain
parts of the temperate climate of the parish of Manchester, with
its abundant humidity, and its peculiarly constituted soil, the
virgen rubber could be cultivated with great success. Sites should
be selected near the foot of the gentle rolling hills characteristic
of the district — a district capable of being turned to more impor-
tant account than any other in the island. Though this tree grows
freely on high ridges in its native habitat, far greater returns are
yielded by trees at the base of such ridges. There are thousands
of acres of land obtainable above an elevation of 2,700 feet emi-
nently fitted for this culture in Manchester.
" I have elsewhere pointed out that plants cultivated near the
equator at high altitudes (coffee for instance) are cultivated in
Jamaica under precisely similar climatic conditions at about 2,000
feet less altitude. Hence the altitude at which the virgen rubber
flourishes in Colombia from 4,500 to 7,500 feet, is equalized here
at an altitude of 2,000 feet less.
" As the virgen rubber is a gigantic tree, care must be taken to
plant it wide apart. The permanent distance might be 24 feet
asunder. In 10 or 12 years the trees would cover the ground.
Subsec|uently the trees would not expand materially, inasmuch as
tapping the trees would interrupt growth. Regular crops, I feel
sure, would result from the trees when eight years old, and of
course annually afterwards."
The rubber produced by another species of Sapium, native of
Brazil, is used for adulterating Hevea rubber, and even in some
cases to replace it altogether. It seems that the great demand has
led to the practice for some years past.
Dr. Huber, the author of the report, questions if the practice,
which he says has passed unnoticed for twenty years, can be
described as fraudulent. He considers that if the union makes no
difference to the manufacturer, then no harm is done ; and, on the
other hand, the knowledge is gained that the sources of supply are
greater than was formerly known, as the tree in question is plenti-
ful, and exists over a very wide area, and is known in the State
of Amazonas by the name of 'Taparu,' and in the neighbourhood
of Para as ' Murupita,' ' Seringa-Rana,' Sic."— (Agricultural News,
1905, p. 271).
274
information on Virgen rubber may be found in the Bulletin of
the Botanical Department, Jamaica, as follows: — 1894, p. IIO.
ASSAM RUBBER, RAMBONG.
(Ficiis elastica.)
Source — Assam Rubber* is obtained from large trees of Fkus
elastica. This fig tree generally germinates in the fork of another
tree, sending down immense aerial roots into the ground and from
the top of these (60 to 100 feet high) it throws out its branches.
Locality — It grows in the damp forests which clothe the base of
the Himalaya Mountains in Sikkim, and stretch away into Assam
and Burma.
Effect of Soil. &c. on Yield—" As the distance from the hills
increases, and the atmosphere in which the tree grows gets drier,
the quantity of rubber to be obtained from a tree decreases ; and
whilst it is stated by the men who fetch it from the hills, that
one tree is able to produce from 2 to 3 maunds (160 to 240 lbs.),
the men who gather ii from the forests at the foot of the hills, only
get from 20 to 30 seers (40 to 60 lbs.) per tree, and if far from the
hills, only half that quantity is obtained, especially if the ground
is gravelly or otherwise severely drained." G. Mann, Conservator of
Forests, Assam.
Yield— In Algiers, this tree thrives but does not form milk in
sufficient quantity to to make it a profitable source of rubber.
Continuous tapping for 6 months year after year, Mr. Mann affirms,
will kill the trees, and accordingly he urged either that tapping
should be restricted to three months a year (January, February, and
March), or that a regulation should be made prohibiting the
tapping of forests more frequently than once every three years.
Mr. Mann further gives instructive figures as to the value of the
rubber trees and their yield of caoutchouc. "Assuming that a
tree reaches its full size at fifty years without tapping, and would
after that, yield every third year, one maund of rubber, which
would be collected, manufactured, and delivered in Calcutta at 15
rupees per maund, and should realise the present price of good
rubber, viz., 35 rupees per maund, it would have a net profit of 20
rupees, per tree every third year. Besides this, one maund of
lac may be reckoned on from every tree per year, which, if collected
at its present rate, could be delivered in Calcutta at lO rupees per
maund, whilst it fetciies 15 to 20 rupees per maund there now,
which is a profit of 5 rupees at least per tree yearly.
"All these figures are the lowest, and the tapping the most
cautious ; still if the tree planted lives a second fifty years, which
it is sure to exceed, it produces 320 rupees for rubber and 250
rupees for lac, which is more than any two timber trees of fifty
years each, which might be grown in that time could equal."
Mr. Mann then deals with the two kinds of rubber manufactured
by the people of Assam, viz., one in irregular solid lumps or loaves
* The notes ou (his i-ubber in India are chiefly derived from the information given by
Watt's Dictionary nf Bcniiomic Products of India
275
about l6 to 20 oz., in weight, and the other in balls of rubber
threads each weighing I2 to l6 oz. The price paid (in 1869) for
the two kinds varied, he says, from 8 rupees to 12 rupees, but this
was paid for by pieces of Eri silk cloth of that value in exchange
for a maund of rubber. This fetched in Calcutta from 20 rupees
to 40 rupeees per maund, but Mr. Mann adds " if care were
bestowed on the manufacture, it beyond doubt would fetch much
higher prices." Messrs. Martin Ritchie & Co., however, purchased
their rubber only in the fluid state from the people who tapped the
trees. It was brought to them either in earthen pots or cane
baskets made water proof with a previous coating of rubber. This
coating of rubber, Mr. Mann states, was held to retain the sap in
its fluid state. He goes on to say that, rubber in this fluid state
was first purchased at 1-8 rupees per maund, but soon rose to 5
rupees for the best or thickest procured from the aerial roots, and
4 rupees for the next best procured from the lower part of the
stem, and 3 rupees for the worst supposed to come from the upper
branches of the tree and to have been mixed with the juice of
other species of Fig and water.
A full grown rubber tree of about 50 years old will yield at the
very lowest 10 lbs. of rubber, if very carefully tapped, and this
quantity may be expected about 16 times, which will be an equally
safe estimate for calculating the yield of a rubber tree. To be
quite on the safe side, calculate 10 trees per acre which would
give about I,600 lbs. of rubber from every acre. This, at the price
at which rubber was collected in the Darrang district and sold,
and deducting the expenditure incurred in collecting it, would give
a net profit of 54 rupees per 80 lbs., or l,o8o rupees per acre in
SO years, and if the rubber trees have a longer life, the yield may
be reckoned for their remaining years of life at the same, if not a
higher rate.
Colh'ctioit — Among forest trees and in regard to dimensions,
this is facile princeps and there is no other, not even the Banyan
that approaches it in dimensions and grandeur. Mr. C. Brownlow
points out that every portion below the head of the foster tree is
strictly root and incapable of throwing out a branch, and as the
head is rarely less than 60 to lOO feet high, it is no easy matter
to procure a branch. These cables and buttresses as they approach
the ground, throw out smaller and subsidiary rootlets of all thick-
nesses down to that of twine. If any of these be cut they die below,
but from above grow again downwards. It is only necessary to
see the tree to appreciate the fearful risk encountered by the gum
gatherers, who by no means confine their operations to the base, but
climb up as high as the roots extend, and higher along the hori-
zontal branches, chopping at intervals of every few inches, the
cuts answering as well for their foothold as for the sap to exude
from. Were the base of the tree alone tapped, the yield would be
very insignificant, especially in trees that have been frequently
tapped before. And as the trees occur very sparsely, and long
distances have to be gone over to meet them, it becomes an object
to get as much off at each cutting as possible. The trees must be
276
twice climbed, once to cut it, and a second time, after the gum has
dried (which talces a day or two) to gather it. This is done by
pulling off the tear which gathers below the wound, which brings
away with it all the gum that has exuded, and these tears have
only to be moulded together to agglutinate into a ball. The
quantity that can thus be collected at one cutting does not exceed
8 to 10 lbs. Of course no mercy is shown to the trees, all of which
suffer severely ; and many are killed outright. The damage they
sustain is apparent in the large cankers, and buttresses rotted off,
owing to the bark being unable to heal over the frequent wounds
they have received all round. The foliage is wanting in luxuriance
and dried branches and roots lying about testify to the injury in
health that the tree has sustained.
Mr. Mann specially insists on the following points being ob-
served : —
"(I) Fresh cuts to be made only in February, March and
April, and the trees to have rest for two years between
each tapping.
"(2) The cuts to be at least l8 inches apart, to penetrate into
the the bark only, not into the wood, and to be made
with an instrument more suitable than the ones at
present used. Mr. Mann prefers the German timber
scoring knife.
"(3) As far as possible, the milk to be collected in a fluid
state in narrow-mouthed rattan baskets, and to be
brought to central manufactories.
"(4) Endeavours to be made to convert the milk into a solid
state by a process of slow drying similar to that prac-
tised in Para.
"(5) Those varieties of caoutchouc which dry naturally on
the tree to be collected with care, and to be picked so as
to get rid of all impurities.
Planting — In his report for 1884, Mr. Mann gives the following
particulars : — "The present area under cultivation is fully stocked
containing 12,511 trees; they have been planted at 25 feet apart
in the lines, which latter are lOO feet apart ; this is double the
number of trees that was planted on an acre at the commencement.
The oldest trees are about 30 to 40 feet in height, and a few from
45 to 50 feet, but this cannot be put down as the average growth
of Finis elastica in ten years, since half this time and longer, these
plantations were entirely experimental, and everything had to be
learned, as, for instance, the first trees were all raised from cuttings,
which mode of propagation has been given up, since the trees
raised from seed have proved much hardier and faster growing,
and as to the planting of rubber seedlings high up in the forks
of other trees, this also has almost entirely been given up, because
such trees in most instances, did not make more than a few leaves
in the year, and it would, as a matter of course, be out of the
question to plant rubber trees where they would take a century to
become large enough for tapping, when such trees can be grown
in a different way in one-fourth of the time. On the other hand.
277
it has been found that trees planted on small mounds of earth, 3 to
4 feet in height grow very much better than if they are planted on
ordinary level ground, and this plan has therefore also been
adopted, although it adds considerably to the cost of making
these plantations, but the faster growth of the trees amply com-
pensates for the higher expenditure. The method of planting
adopted from the beginning has been to clear lines from east to
west through the forest for the young trees a hundred feet apart ;
the width of the lines is 40 feet, so that a broad strip of forest 60
feet wide is left standing between these lines to ensure the utmost
amount of moisture in the atmosphere for the young rubber trees.
At first the lines were only cleared 20 feet broad, but it was found
after a few years that these closed up very soon and thus retarded
the growth of the young trees by shutting out the requisite amount
of light. However, the widening of the lines also brought about
the faster growth of the scrub in them, besides that of the rubber
trees, and more money, time, and attention has in consequence to
be spent, especially in the rainy season, on those plantations, than
had at first been anticipated, but the greatest and most costly
difficulty that had to be overcome was the effectual protection of
rubber trees against deer, which during the first few years, con-
stantly bit off the young plants, and, where they were not entirely
ruined by this, they were so much injured and retarded in growth
that a considerable increase in expenditure on these plantations
had to be incurred on fencing to prevent it. But for the future this
expenditure will not be necessary, since it has been found that
saplings 10 feet and more in height can be transplanted without
difficulty and with perfect success, and if such saplings are tied
firmly to stakes, the deer can do little or no damage to them."
Assam Rubber in Jamaica — There are a number of these ti'ees in
various parts of Jamaica. Mr. W. M. Douet has extracted good
rubber from a tree at Sweet River, near Sav.-la-Mar, by making
V-shaped incisions with others leading into the lowest point. He
says: — " By making several incisions in the roots, branches, and
lower parts of the trunks I have extracted 2 lbs. from a tree at one
time. The juice runs very slowly and hardens on the tree ; I strip
it off and roll it into balls. The trees are large, 12 to 15 feet in
circumference and 50 to 60 feet high. They appear to be very
old. The late Mr. H. O. Vickers made some experiments in ex-
tracting the rubber from these trees, and found that he obtained
a greater flow at full moon, also during rainy weather .... The
average annual rainfall for the last ten years is 64 inches 17
parts."
Mr. M. S. Strickland also extracted good rubber from one of
these trees at Great Valley, Flint River. He wrote, " The manner
in which the rubber is taken is a rough one ; the trunk and
branches are cut with a machete, a small lump of clay is taken to
catch the milk as it drops, and formed into a ball. But the milk
can be taken by cutting the tree and allowing it to drop into a
calabash. . . . The tree here would not do for cocoa shade, as it
branches out 5 feet from the ground, and the branches are large
278
and low. The roots run a long distance, and are also very large-
The measurements are : girth of trunk, 1 6 feet; girth of nearest
branch to ground, 8 feet. I estimate the height of the tree to be
65 feet."
Mr. W. Harris made some experiments on three trees at Pleasant
Hill just below the Hill Garden. Incisions were made in the
bark of the trunks, branches and one large root, but nearly the
whole of the rubber was obtained from the trunk of the oldest tree.
When any part of the bark was punctured, the milk appeared
immediately, but the flow quickly ceased, though it could be pro-
longed by removing the milk as it flowed from the incision. Only
about one-fifth of a pint of milk was obtained each day for three
days from the three trees, making in all three-fifths of a pint.
The following method was adopted in preparing the rubber; the
milk was kept in the tins in which it had been collected until the
following day in each case. Through evaporation of the water, it
had become thick, but in order to hasten coagulation, boiling
water was added. The milk readily mixed with the water and
was easily removed from the tins. The whole was poured into
saucers and placed on the top of a cooking stove. The rubber
soon coagulated, was removed and pressed out into flat pieces.
This is a sufficient indication of the plan that might be adopted
on a large scale. The total amount of rubber thus obtained
amounted to 4 ounces, which shows that this rubber tree would
not be profitable at an elevation of 3,500 feet.
Preparation of the rubber in Assatn — Collins states that the prepara-
tion on a commercial scale is to pour the milk into large wooden
bins, 6 feet square, and partly filled with water, the caoutchouc
after a time floating on the top. The caoutchouc (being still
fluid) is then taken out and boiled over a slow fire in iron
pans, 4 to 6 feet in diameter, and 2 to 2i feet deep, 2 parts of
water being added to the caoutchouc, and the whole stirred
constantly. As soon as the caoutchouc coagulated into a mass it
was taken out with iron forks and pressed, and again boiled and
pressed, and then dried in the sun, and finally washed over with
lime.
Information on Assam rubber may be found in the Bulletin of
the Botanical Department, Jamaica, as follows : — 1894, pp. 105-109;
1895. PP- 55-56; 1901, pp. 139-141-
AFRICAN RUBBER.
(Landolphia spp.)
African rubber is furnished by several species of the genus
Landolphia, which are woody climbers, with stems 4 to 6 inches
in diameter. The best quality from the Zanzibar coast is derived
from Landolpliia Kirkii ; two other species, viz., L. florida (the chief
source of Mozambique rubber), and L. Petersiaua are also sources
of the East African supply.
On the West Coast L. owariciisis, which has a very wide distri-
bution, is the principal species furnishing Congo and Sierra Leone
279
rubbers. L. Jlorida, which occurs on the East coast, and L. Mannii
also afford part of the West African supply. (Kew Bulletin, 1892,
p. 68.)
Laiidolpliia Heudclotii, which produces a good quality of rubber,
is being largely planted in the French African possessions. Owing
to the climbing habit of the Landolphias it is not practicable to
cultivate them in regular plantations as they require the support
of trees, and when once tapped several years must elapse before
they will yield another crop, but it is well to remember that from
these, and similar plants, a very important rubber industry was
started at the Gold Coast in 1882 ; and although previous to that
year no rubber whatever was exported from that colony, it had
attained in 1893 to the annual value of £200,000.
I would suggest that plants of these climbers be established in
the forest lands belonging to the Crown, e.g., the Cockpit Country,
and in course of time they would probably become naturalized and
add to the value of such lands.
Information on Landolphias may be found in the Bulletin of
j.he Botanical Department, Jamaica, No. 10, p. 4.
JAMAICA RUBBER.
[Forsteronia floribtinda.)
This rubber is not yet known in commerce although attention
has been called to it in the Annual Reports, and in the Bulletin of
the Botanical Department.
Source— \\. is obtained from the stems of a climber known locally
as " Milk Withe" or " Rubber Withe" which are generally as thick
as a man's wrist, but I have seen great lianas in the Cockpit
Country in St. James with stems six inches or more in diameter for
a distance of 20 to 30 feet from the ground, then branching into
several stems and growing to the tops of trees over lOO feet in
height. Such stems on being slightly cut with a machete exuded
latex in the greatest profusion. The plant also grows over the
rocks fully exposed to the sun, or climbs over bushes.
Locality — The " Milk Withe" grows plentifully in the limestone
districts of the central and western parishes where the surface is
exceedingly rough and difficult to traverse on account of the sharp
and jagged edges of the hard crystalline limestone. The soil is
lodged in hollows of varying extent and depth between the pro-
jecting rocks.
Collection of Milk — When a cut is made through the bark of the
Milk Withe a milky juice flows out for about two minutes, but a
number of incisions are necessary before sufficient fluid is collected
to fill a four-ounce bottle. Care should be taken not to cut into
the bark deeper than is necessary so that the wound may soon be
healed by the formation of new bark.
Yield — Messrs. Silver, of Silvertown India Rubber Company,
reported on samples sent to them in 1888, that one quart of juice
yielded one pound of dry and washed caoutchouc, or about 22
ounces of ordinary crude caoutchouc, but the sample sent in 1890
28o
yielded only at the rate of two ounces per quart. Probably the
difference was due to collection in the former case during the dry
months and in the latter during the wet season. The value of the
rubber in 1890, was stated by Messrs. Silver to be 3 2d. per pound.
Preparation of the Rubber — The rubber coagulates simply on ex-
posure to a dry atmosphere, but from experiments made, it is pro-
bable that the method described under Assam Rubber as the one
used on a large scale would prove the most succesful.
Propagation — This plant may be propagated by seed or by cut-
tings.
Information on Jamaica Milk Withe may be found in the Bulletin
of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, as follows : — No. 10, pp.
2-3 ; No. 21. pp. 3-4 ; 1894, pp. IO9-IIO.
28l
INDEX.
Page.
Page.
African Rubber
2;8
in India
271
Assam Rubber:
274
in Nicaragua
268
collection
275
in the German colonies
269
distance in planting
276
locality
26;
effect of soil, S:c., on yield
274
number of trees per acre
271
in Algiers
274
planting
269
in Jamaica
277
profit
271
locality
274
propagation
269
planting
276
soil
267
preparation of the rubber
278
yield
271
propagation
276
Colombian Scrap Rubber
271
source
274
Congo Rubber
278
tapping
275
Ficus elastica
274
value
275
Forsteronia floribunda
279
when to tap
276
Funtumia elastica
264
yield
274
Hevea brasiliensis
241
Castjlloa elastica
253
Ire
264
Castilloa Rubber:
253
Jamaica Rubber :
279
age at which trees may be
collection of milk
279
be tapped
260
locality
279
as a shade for cocoa
256
preparation of the rubber
280
best districts in Jamaica
255
propagation
280
climate and situation
254
source
279
coagulating the latex
262
value
280
cost of collecting rubber
263
yield
279
culture
259
Lagos Silk Rubber:
264
Darien Castilloa
254
age at which seed is pro-
Darien " Caucho"
254
duced
264
decrease of milk with in-
age at which tree may be
crease of altitude
254
tapped
264
distance in planting
257
as shade for cocoa
265
flow of sap in dry regions
254
attacked by caterpillars
267
habitat
253
best districts in Jamaica
265
"hule bianco"
253
coagulating the milk
265
"hule Colorado"
253
collecting and preparing
"hule negro"
253
tlie rubber
265
"hule tunu"
253
destruction of Ire forests
266
in Ceylon
257
elevation for
265
in the Darien forests
255
habitat
264
in Tobago
257
in the Cameroons
264
in Venezuela
256
in the Congo Free State
264
on the Isthmus of Panama
255
in Lagos
266
propagation
255
in Trinidad
264
shade for Castilloa
255
in Western Africa
264
tapping
261
pruning
265
washing the latex
262
situation for
265
yield
262
soil
265
Castilloa Tunu
253
value
266
Ceara Rubber:
267
Landolphia florida
278
age at which trees may
Landolphia Heudelotii
279
be tapped
269
Landolphia Kirkii
278
analysis of rubber
271
Landolphia Mannii
279
best districts in Jamaica
269
Landolphia owariensis
278
climate
267
Landolphia Petersiana
278
collecting the rubber
270
Manitoba Rubber
267
cost of collecting
271
Manihot Glaziovii
267
distance in planting
270
Milk Withe
279
in Brazil
268
Mozambique Rubber
278
in Ceylon
270
' Murupite'
241
in Hawaii
269
282
Page.
Page.
Para Rubber :
241
rainfall
242
acreage in rubber
253
smoking and coagulation
252
analysis of banana soil in
soil, analysis of
243
Jamaica
2-13
tapping :
248
analysis of rubber soil in
age to tap
248, 250
Ceylon
243
frequency of tapping
249
as a mixed crop
245
season to tap
248
climate
241
size for tapping
248
climate in Ceylon
242
time to tap
249
climate in Federated
Yields in Ceylon
250
Malay States
242
Rambong
274
coagulation
251
Rubber at the Gold Coast
279
diseases:
247
Rubber of a species of
fruit disease
247
Sapium used for adulte-
root disease
247
rating Para Rubber
273
stem disease
247
Rubber Withe
279
distance in planting
244
Sapium
271
draining land
246
'Seringa-Rana'
273
habitat of
241
Sierra Leone Rubber
278
holing
245
' Taparu'
273
localities for in Jamaica
243
Virgen Rubber:
271
manuring
246
age at which crops may be
nurseries
244
obtained
272
planted with cocoa
245
elevations for in Colombia
272
planting operations
244
elevations for in Jamaica
273
propagation
244
propagation
272
pruning young trees
248
value of
272
283
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES
The usual Monthly Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was
held at Headquarter House on Wednesday, 17th October, 1906,
at 2 p.m. : Present : — The Hon. T.*L. Roxburgh, Acting Colonial
Secretary, Acting Chairman, the Director of Public Gardens, the
Acting Island Chemist, His Grace the Archbishop, Messrs. C. A.
T. Fursdon, J. W. Middleton and the Secretary.
The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
Rubber — Mr. Fawcett handed in the manuscript of the article on
rubber which Mr. Harris was asked to prepare. It was agreed
that this should be published as a Bulletin and that the Secretary
should write Mr. Harris thanking him for the trouble he had taken
in getting up the matter.
Mr. Cradwick — The Secretary read letter from Jamaica Agricul-
tural Society stating that they agreed to the recommedations of
the Board of Agriculture that Mr. Cradwick should remain in the
western district till the end of the financial year and carry through
his engagements till that date, but from 1st April it was expected
that he should take up his work in his new district ; that as His
Excellency had not approved of the recommendation of the Joint
Conference with regard to the control of the Instructors the Board
of Management took it that the control of the work remained as
before.
Loiigvillc Cassava Plaiitatiou — The Secretary reported that as
directed by the Board, Mr. Cradwick had visited Longville Cassava
Plantation and had made a report to the Amalgamated Products
Co. ; his expenses amounting to £2 2s. 3d. had been paid by the
Company.
Swift's Arsenate of Lead — The Secretary read letter from the
Colonial Secretary's Office stating that with the advice and consent
of the Privy Council the Governor had, under Section 8 of the
Tariff Law of 1899, agreed to admit Swift's Arsenate of Lead free.
Mr. Fawcett asked for a copy of the report that had been made
on the subject and the Secretary was directed to send him this.
Tobacco — The Secretary read letter referred from the Colonial
Secretary's Office from Granda Bros. & Co., Montreal, stating that
they were desirous of becoming better acquainted with the tobacco
grown here with the object of perhaps using same, and asking
that a few sample hands of tobacco suitable for wrappers be sent
to them by mail.
The Secretary was directed to publish this letter in the news-
papers and send a copy to Col. Kitchener.
The Director of Public Gardens stated that when he was in
London, he had met Mr. Chalmers, the Tobacco expert, who
stated that the blend of Jamaica and Virginia Tobacco which had
been used experimentally in the Navy would probably be found
suitable, and when the experiment was completed, they would
probably want as much as 500 quintals of the third quality at a
cheap rate.
284
The Secretary submitted letter from the Director of Public
Gardens asking whether the experiment of growing Sumatra
Tobacco under shade should be continued this year, and if so, a
special warrant for £25 to cover the expenditure would be required.
It was agreed not to continue the experiment.
Mr. Cradwick and Moiitpclicr Show — The Secretary read letter
from Montpelier Show Committee urging that Mr. Cradwick be
allowed to remain in that part of the Island until the end of the
financial year so that he could carry through matters in connection
with the Show.
The Secretary was directed to reply that it had already been
decided that Mr. Cradwick should carry through all his engage-
ments in that district up to the 31st March.
Free Postage — The Secretary read letter fiom Central Cornwall
Agricultural Society pointing out the inconvenience correspon-
dents with the Travelling Instructor had in having to prepay
postage to him.
The Secretary was directed to say that this same matter had
already been brought before the Governor when it was decided
that letters to all the Instructors as well as to the Agricultural
Society could not be granted free postage, but that letters to the
Director of Public Gardens and to the Secretary of the Board of
Agriculture were free.
Reports — The following reports from the Director of Public
Gardens were submitted : —
1. Hope Experiment Station.
2. Instructors.
These were directed to be circulated.
The following papers which had been circulated were now
submitted for final consideration : —
I. Report Hope Experiment Station.
2 Mr. Cradwick's Report for August.
3. Mr. Briscoe's Report and Itinerary.
There were no remarks on these reports and they were accord-
ingly passed.
Mr. Middleton brought up the matter of the report that had been
made by the Committee on the post of Assistant Superintendent
at Hope Gardens, and asked whether a reply was expected.
The Chairman said that he had no doubt that a reply would yet
be received.
School Gardens — The Archbishop said that he had received a
communication from Mr. Murray, Superintendent of Field Experi-
ments, with regard to school gardens which he thought contained
suggestions worthy of consideration and perhaps adoption ; he
asked that a Committee be appointed to consider these suggestions.
The following Committee was appointed : — Mr. Fawcett, Mr.
Capper, Mr. Middleton and the Archbishop.
The meeting then adjourned till Wednesday 14th Nov. at 2 p.m.
[Issued 16th Nov., J9u6.j
Printed at the Govt. Printing Office, Kingstoa., Jam.
BULLETIN
DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Vol. IV. DECEMBER, 1906. Part 12.
KUITED BY
WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.Sc, E.L.S.,
Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.
CONTENTS:
Page.
Ramie, Rhea, China Grass ... 285
Fibre Machine ... 304
Notes on Cultivation of Vegetables ... 305
Board of Agriculture ... 305
PRIG E— Threepence.
A Copy will be supplied free to any Resident in .Jamaica, who will send name and
address to the Director nf Public Gardens and Plantatiou-s, Kiugstou P.O.
KINGSTON, JAMAICA :
Hope Gasdbns.
1906.
.JiVlvrA.TCA.
BULT^ETIN"
OF THE
LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
GARIJEN.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
CD
CD
I
CO
Vol. IV.
DECEMBER, 1906.
Part 12.
RAMIE,
RHEA, CHINA GRASS.
BCEHMERIA NIVEA, Hook. & Arn.
CONTENTS.
Page.
^
Page.
Introductory —
Harvesting —
Description
... 285
Cutting the stems
... 290
Varieties
... 286
Retting
... 291
Introduction into Jamaica
... 2S6
Yield
... 292
Cultivation —
Future Prospects
... 292
Climate
... 286
Extracts from lecture at
Soil
... 287
Society of Arts
... 296.
Preparation of ground
... 287
Machinery for decorti-
Propagation and Planting
... 237
cating
■•• 304
Notes on Planting Ramie
... 288
Manure
... 289
About 13 years ago much interest was taken in the subject of
Ramie, and notes were published in the Bulletin* for the guidance
of planters ; now again some inquiries are being made, and as the
above-mentioned Bulletin is out of print, some of the notes are
here republished with the addition of the latest information in the
form of a lecture and discussion at the Society of Arts last March.
Later still Mr. Hubert J. Boeken has published a pamphlet dis-
cribing a new machine for decorticating Ramie stems, manufactured
by Boeken & Co., of Diiren, Germany and offered for sale at the
moderate price of £60.
Description — This plant belongs to the Nettle Family {Urticacece).
It grows to a height of from 4 to 8 feet. The leaves are alternate,
toothed, 3-nevved, broadly ovate, rough above, snow-white on the
under surface in one variety, greenish in another. The flowers
* Bulletin of t.^o Dotanioal Dc]nirtment, Jamaica, Marcli and April, 1S94.
286
are very small in clusters along a branched stalk, and both male
and female flowers occur on the same plant.
Varieties — Ramie is the Malay name for the variety native in
the Malay Archipelago, which is greenish on both sides of the
leaf. It has been cultivated in Assam for long periods, and is
there known as Rhea. This variety is distinguished by the name
tenacissima. The variety with the whitish under-side of the leaves
(nivea) is a native of China and has been conveniently designated
the Chinese White Nettle. The fibre prepared from it, and
imported into England, is known under the inappropriate name of
China Grass.
China grass fibre generally obtains double the price in London
of Rhea. Some writers state that the variety tenacissima produces
the strongest fibre.
Introduction into Jamaica — The white-leaved variety was intro-
duced into Jamaica in the year 1854 by Mr. Nathaniel Wilson,
Island Botanist, and was grown with great success in the Botanic
Garden at Bath. Plants were distributed from that centre as early
as the year 1855. In 1884, Sir D. Morris, at that time Director of
Public Gardens and Plantations, issued Instructions on the Cultiva-
tion of Ramie, and also discussed the subject in a Public Lecture at
the Jamaica Institute on " Native and other Fibre Plants." Shortly
after the delivery of this lecture, the late Hon. Dr. Phillippo deliver-
ed another Institute Lecture specially devoted to the subject of
Ramie, giving results of his own experiments as well as general
nformation on the whole subject. Dr. Phillippo had already in
1881 introduced the green-leaved variety into the Island from
Haiti. At this time and for 3 or 4 years subsequently, it was
confidently e.xpected that the Favier-Fremy process had solved
the difficulty of preparation of the fibre.
CULTIVATION.
Climate — The Malayan Ramie is essentially a native of an
equatorial insular climate, with an equable temperature all the year
round, and abundance of moisture. It has not succeeded well in
India, except in the south, where a company is growing it, because
in summer it is subjected to long-continued droughts and in winter
to cold weather. In Jamaica there are no great extremes of
temperature, and therefore wherever there is a sufficiency of fresh
water for the roots. Ramie will flourish. Even in localities where
the annual rainfall does not exceed 50 inches, it would succeed
with irrigation.
The Chinese White Nettle is a continental plant, and apparently
more accommodating as regards moisture and drought than the
Malayan variety. It has grown luxuriantly in Jamaica from sea
level up to 5,000 feet, and there is no reason to suppose that there
would be any difficulty in cultivating it at the highest elevations.
In America, it is said that the Chinese variety is the more success-
ful.
28;
Soil — This plant will grow in Jamaica in almost any soil except
stiff clay. It grows best in a rich sandy loam, which is 12 to
15 inches deep, with a free subsoil. It is important to have perfect
drainage, for it is intolerant of stagnant water.
Preparation of<iroiind — The more thoroughly the ground is tilled
before planting, the quicker will the roots penetrate the soil, and
the more satisfactory will be the result.
Propagation and Planting — Ramie is propagated with some diffi-
culty from seed, but easily by cuttings from the stem, and very
readily and quickly by division of the roots. The difficulties in the
way of obtaining a yield of seed, and afterwards in growing the
seedlings, as compared with the ease with which cuttings strike,
make it unnecessary to discuss propagation by seed.
To propagate by stem-cuttings, let the stembecome ripe, indicated
by its turning brown ; cut it into pieces, each containing 3 eyes
or buds, close below the lowest eye, and close above the topmost ;
then plant so that the middle eye is just at the surface. It is not
advisable to put these cuttings out at once into the open field, as
they require a moist soil and shading from the sun for 10 days,
t will be found better to grow them for some time in a nursery
ntil they have well-developed roots, then plant them out at
distances of 1 1 to 2 feet apart, in straight rows.
To propagate by division of roots is the best plan. It is better
done in showery weather. The roots should be cut so that there
are 5 or 6 eyes to each portion. Plant out in straight rows at
distances of I J to 2 feet apart. Some have recommended 4 feet
as a proper distance, but this plan necessitates extra expense in
weeding; and besides the fibre will be of better quality with close
planting which prevents branching. At distances of li feet there
is room for hoeing the weeds, until the plants are strong. If
the ground is shaded, as some recommend, then it is not so
important to plant close.
After some time every alternate row each way may be taken up
altogether, and transplanted in new ground so as to extend the
plantation.
A Chinese Treatise on Agriculture, says of this plant : " When
the tufts are strong enough, the earth round is dug, and new stocks
are detached and transplanted elsewhere. The principal stock
then grows more vigorously. At the end of 4 or 5 years, the old
stocks becoming excessively strong, they are divided and replanted
in other beds."
I^^Col. Hannay, in speaking of the cultivation of Rhea in Assam,
says : — " Between the cuttings, all that seems necessary is a fresh
opening up of the ground around the roots, which in a regular
plantation is best done by hoeing between the rows with a spade-
shaped hoe set in a long handle : the person, as he performs this,
going backwards, so as not to step over his work ; in fact nothing
can be more simple than the cultivation of this plant, all that is
reiuired being a loose rich soil, and protection to the crop by a
288
good strong fence. The roots throw up at least twelve shoots
when in full bearing ; should they increase, and the crops get
too thick, the roots require to be separated ; and by this means
the cultivation can be carried to any extent."
To put ii roots at I J feet apart requires nearly 20,000 roots per
acre. At 2 feet apart there are 10,890 plants to the acre.
Notes on Planting Ramie* — The plants as sent from the Gardens
are ready for planting without further preparation.
If the land is such that ploughs and cultivators can be used,
thoroughly plough up the whole of the land, then form beds five
feet wide, with walks between the beds eighteen inches wide, the
beds can be any reasonable length but intervals should be left for
the passage of carts, &c. ; raise the beds by taking soil from the
space left for walks and throwing it on the beds. This will in-
crease the depth of soil for the plants to grow in, and by lower-
ing the walks make them serve as drains, the depth of which would
be regulated by the rainfall of the district. If manual labour has
to be utilised, simply fork up the space to be used as the bed, leave
the walks hard, but the top soil can be shovelled off and put on
the beds in the same way, to form the walks and drains ; it must
be borne in mind that this is the best of the soil and will enrich
the beds.
The soil must be thoroughly pulverised, the plants can then be
planted by opening a hole with the hand just deep enough to cover
the plant about half-an-inch, not deeper ; cover the plants lightly
with the hand but do not press the soil or only very slightly, if the
weather is dry ; do not plant nearer the edge of the beds than six
inches, put the plants in nine inches apart, or if on very rich soil
a toot apart.
Keep the young plants quite free from weeds by hand weeding.
The plants put out at Hope treated as above, were weeded three
times the first year, and then the Ramie kept down the weeds itself
except on the paths.
Our reasons for planting in beds, clearing paths and intervals
is to obviate the necessity of walking between the plants, and so
trampling the soil round the roots, and making it hard and cakey,
which from experience has been found to be very detrimental to
the growth of the plant. In the beds planted at Hope the soil was
almost as loose and friable a year later as it was on the day the
beds were planted ; and if the crop were taken off then the only
thing requiring to be done is to hoe the paths, and perhaps pull
out a few climbing weeds which no plants can keep down without
assistance.
By planting as close as above described the plants shoot up
very rapidly with little or no tendency to branch.
The above may seem rather troublesome, but if the plants are
treated in this way the growth will be more than satisfactory and
* \V. I'railwick iu Uullct'oi, June, 18SI6.
289
it will be many years before the plant requires replanting, but if
carelessly dealt with, allowed to get weedy when young, trampled
on or between, the plant will soon become enfeebled and the
whole trouble of replanting will have to be gone through again in
a short time.
Manure* — " The exhaustive nature of the plant is shown by the
following analysis of dry ramie stems. The ramie stems were
found by Dr. T. K. Hornidge to contain, in 1 00 parts : —
Carbon ... 47 '28
Hydrogen ... 6 "26
Nitrogen ... 009
Oxygen ... 42 23
Ash ... 4' 14
100 GO
"The ash consists of: —
Potash ... 32 37 per cent. 1 48' 76 per cent.
Soda
Lime
Magnesia
Peroxide of iron . . .
Chloride of sodium
Phosphoric acid ...
Sulphuric acid ...
Carbonic acid
Silicic acid (with \
a little charcoal 6 60
and sand) J
1639
J of alkalies,
8 40
5 39
913
961
311
8 90
99 90
" It will be noticed that the alkalies contribute almost one-half,
and the phosphoric acid about one-tenth of the ash. If the weight
of dry stems obtained at one crop be taken at only 1,000 lbs. per
acre, this gives, with three crops in the year, a yield of about
3,000 lbs. of dry stems per acre per annum. The quantity of ash
in that quantity will amount, according to the foregoing analysis
to 124 lbs., and the quantity of alkalies subtracted from one acre
in the course of the year will be about 60 lbs., and of phosphoric
acid about 12 lbs. In England a crop of wheat is usually assumed
to subtract from the soil about 30 lbs. of alkalies, and 28 lbs. of
phosphoric acid ; and a crop of flax about 50 lbs. of alkalies,
and 24 lbs. of phosphoric acid. In comparison with these numbers
it seems that ramie requires a very large amount of alkalies,
especially of potash, more than either flax or wheat, whilst the
quantity of phosphoric acid is only one-half of that contained in a
crop of flax, owing to the large quantities of phosphoric acid con-
tained in the linseed.
•Forbes Watson.
290
"The large quantity of mineral matters contained in the ramie
stems explains the importance attached by the Chinese to the
careful manuring of the plant. This is a point which ought not
to be neglected ; and even if it should be difficult to provide suffi-
cient quantities of manure, the dry sticks after the separation of
the fibre, and all the refuse during its preparation, should be care-
fully collected, burnt, and the ashes returned to the soil. If this
is systematically done, there need be no fear that ramie as a crop
should prove very exhaustive to the soil, as the proportion of
valuable materal constituents taken away in the fibre itself is quite
small."
HARVESTING.
Cutting the Stems. — The stems should be cut before they turn
brown, and before they flower. Dr. Forbes Watson states in a
lecture before the Society of Arts : —
" One of my objects, in the experiments which I carried out in
Paris was to determine, as far as I could, the height to which the
plants should be grown in order to give the largest yield of fibre.
Some people say that the plant should be grown to the height of
6 feet ; some say they should not be more than 3 feet ; but the
results of my experiments, point to the fact that 3i to 4 feet is
about the right height to grow them. If the length is not more
than 2 feet, the fibre is very fine, but the chances are you get
waste, and not such a good per centage of fibre. In the long stems
the fibre is not so fine as in the medium ones ; in short, the medium
stems from 3 ft. to 4 ft. are about the right length to cut. This
has an important bearing upon the question of the number of
crops which can be obtained. It is clear that if you allow the
plant to grow 6 or 8 ft. high, you cannot expect to get as many
crops as when only 4 ft. Moreover, there is this characteristic ;
all these stalks which you see here are from the same plant,
that is to say, the shoots have come from the same root. Having
determined the proper length, the stems should be gathered
accordingly, only those being cut which have attained the right
height ; in this way a continuous crop may possibly be secured.
" We find that with China grass there is a great variety in
quality. These variations in quality give rise to the complaints
which are frequently made. If you grow it, however, a certain
standard length, it will be likely to produce it of a definite quality
and that is what is wanted for commercial purposes."
The following paragraphs are taken from a Report on Formosa
by Mr. Alex. Hosie, acting Consul at Tamsui, submitted in March,
1893 :—
"The workman seizes each stem 9 inches above ground between
the thumb and fingers of the right hand, snaps it over to the right
causing a fracture, lays hold of the stem below the fracture with
his left hand, pushes down and sideways the upper part of the
stem on the fracture to complete the division of the wood, inserts
the forefinger of the right hand in the fracture, which is now com-
291
pound, and draws it up between the peel on the left and the wood
and adhering peel on the right, removing on its way branchlets,
leaves, and tip. He then draws down the peel on the left with
his left hand to the root, where it is readily detached. In like
manner the peel and wood on the right are removed at the root, and
the wood, being but loosely attached, can be readily separated
from the peel. The whole operation is simplicity itself, and can
be conducted with the greatest rapidity. The result of repeated
timing is that 100 stems can be peeled without haste in fifteen
minutes, that is, at the rate of 400 an hour. The peeled stems and
the discarded leaves, &c., remain on the field as manure. . . .
" The next process is the removal of the cuticle and the bleach-
ing of the fibre. The ribbons are made up into loosely tied bundles
which are placed in a tub of cold water. When the workman is
about to remove the green cuticle from the fibre, he places on the
thumb of his right hand a wide copper ring, on which a small flat
piece of bamboo has been fixed, the piece of bamboo resting
against the face of the thumb. In the same hand he holds an iron
instrument like a shoe-horn, in such a position that he can grasp
anything between the piece of bamboo and the blunt inner edge of
the hand instrument. A bundle of the ribbons is then taken from
the tub and unfolded. Taking ribbon by ribbon from the bundle
with his left hand he grasps it about 6 inches from the wide or
butt end, — the cuticle or outside of the ribbon against the piece of
bamboo, — and scrapes it to the tip. After a couple of scrapings
the whole of the cuticle, with the exception of the 6 inches or so
at the butt, is removed, and when ten or a dozen ribbons have been
treated in this manner, the workman reverses them, and removes
the cuticle at the butt ends. The fibres, which remain in his left
hand, are hung out over bamboos in the sun to dry and bleach for
six hours, when they are white and ready to be packed into
bundles for market. One man can extract some 81bs. weight of
fibre in a day of ten hours, and an English acre of land yields
about 900lbs. of fibre."
Retting: — Mr. W. J. Hollier, who addressed the Jamaica public
in 1894 on the merits of a Ramie Decorticating machine invented
by S. B. Allison, recommended retting before passing through the
machine. This could be done simply by soaking in water, but the
process he stated, could be improved and hastened by using chemi-
cals. Retting is a process involving but a nominal outlay, no
technical knowledge, and but little care. It could be carried out
by each settler for himself.
If chemicals are used the following is the process : — A tank
or trough is required of six cubic yard capacity (i.e., about nine
feet long, six feet wide and three feet deep) lined with cement, or
made of pine-board, with a clay backing. This tank will hold
about 3,000 lbs. of green stems with the leaves on. Enough water
should be added to immerse the stems. To every 1,000 lbs of stems
should be added 5 lbs. of flour of sulphur, 5 lbs. caustic potash and
5 lbs. of good charcoal ; but if ashes from a furnace be added.
292
half the quantity of potash will suffice. The process of retting is
completed in from 4 to 8 days. The bundles when partially
opened and dried in stacks can be stored, and will keep for a
considerable time. The sun would be available for drying in the
greater part of Jamaica. The liquid which is over, mixed with
cattle, sheep or horse (not hog) manure, makes a most suitable
manure, and the leaves would make good paper stock. The cost
of chemicals is nominal.
Yield. — It is estimated that each cutting gives 20,000 lbs. of
green stems with leaves, or 5,000 lbs. of dry stalks, as the yield per
acre, and the minimum product from the dry stalks is 15 per cent,
that is 750 lbs. of raw merchantable fibre, or not ciuite 4 per cent,
of the living stem and leaves. In good soil and plenty of moisture,
five crops may be expected annually. The caution, however, must
be given that until the end of the first year at any rate when the
roots have at length penetrated the soil, a full crop can scarcely
be expected.
CONCLUSIONS IN 1875 WITH REGARD TO THE FUTURE
PROSPECTS OF RAMIE BY DR. FORBES WATSON.
" Ramie possesses qualities which will always make it a com-
paratively high-priced fibre, standing as it does between the vege-
table fibres, hemp and flax, ranging from £30 to £70 per ton, and
the usually much higher priced animal fibres, wool and silk, ranging
from £130 per ton upwards. It is only in com.petition with these
latter that ramie will have to rely on its cheapness; since, as regards
the other vegetable fibres, it has already been noticed that, at equal
or even superior prices it may yet in many cases be used with ad-
vantage instead of hemp and flax. The details supplied prove
however, that the prices of the raw material have in reality been
hitherto prohibitive. On any greater demand for it, the prices of
the raw fibre rose at once to £70 or £80 per ton, which corresponds
to £100 or £120 per ton of available fibre, exclusive of cost of
preparation. Prepared or combed fibre was usually sold at 2s. 6d.,
sometimes 3s. 6d. per lb., or £280 to £392 per ton, prices such as,
whh the exception of the best kind of Sea Island cotton and of
some superfine kinds of flax, which may almost be called fancy
varieties, no vegetable fibre commands. The combing wastes or
noils of ramie even now, find a ready sale at from £80 to £100 per
ton, a price which, with the present prices of rough China grass,
might make it remunerative to convert its whole quantity into
combing waste, if so be that this could be practically carried out.
Under such conditions, it is a striking acknowledgment of its value
that it should ever have been considered as having any chance at
all, and have come so near to actual success as it has done.
" In considering what range of prices would be sufficient to secure
a large demand for this material in the present state of the market,
several circumstances must be taken into account.
"It is important to bear in mind that, like all other fibres, ramie
exhibits remarkable differences of quality. In China, where alone
it is used for any fine purposes, a difference is even remarked
293
between the various layers of fibre on the same stem, the outside
layer close to the bark being stronger and rougher, whilst the inner
layer is glossier and finer, and more suitable for high-class fabrics.
It is also highly probable that, as in flax, the fibre at the base of the
stem is rougher than at the top. Well-marked differences arise
from the season of cultivation and the time of cutting. The first
crop of the plant is usually shorter and more woody and branched,
and yields inferior fibre to the second or third crop, which, in turn,
appear to differ from each other. It seems also certain that, like
jute, the early-cut stems yield a finer fibre, but in proportionably
small quantities, whilst in the perfectly ripe stems the fibre increases
in weight and strength, but diminishes in fineness and lustre. If
the ramie stems be worked up in their fresh state, and if the time
of cutting should have extended over four or six weeks, this in
itself would be sufficient to produce fibre of different qualities,
even from the same plantation.
"A diiiference in the soil or mode of cultivation is as sure to pro-
duce remarkable differences in the qualities of the fibre as it does
in the case of flax or jute. In the ramie stems obtained from
France, there was a proportion of strong branched knotty sticks,
more than half an inch in diameter at the bottom, whilst there was
also a considerable proportion of thin shoots, hardly a quarter of
an inch thick, and straight and smooth, although as high as the
former, and containing a much finer fibre. The difference arose
obviously from the former growing as central stems with a number
of lateral branches, while the latter grew as parallel shoots thrown
out from the same root — a difference which the mode of planting
and cultivation would produce.
" On the part of several correspondents who have long given their
attention to this fibre, it has been suggested that, for very fine
purposes, this plant should not be grown to a greater height than
three or four feet, the superior value of the fibre compensating for
the diminished out-turn per acre, although even the out-turn might
be increased or at least remain unchanged, if the smaller height
to which the plant is grown should allow of planting it closer to-
gether, or of obtaining more crops per annum than when the plant
is grown to its usual height of six or eight feet. The fibre from
the smaller stems is likely not only to be finer, but it is also likely
to suffer less loss in combing. Although the bark peeled off the
six to seven foot stems may be of the same length as the stems,
yet the fibres do not run the whole length. At each joint a certain
proportion of the fibres stops, so that along with the full length
fibre there is always a certain proportion of short length, which,
in scutching and combing, mostly run to tow. With stems of less
height, this difficulty is likely to be lessened.
" All these are differences in the natural properties of the fibre
itself, and independent of variations produced by a different mode
of preparation. The latter, which will be superadded to those in-
herent in the fibre as grown, will be hardly less considerable.
There is the difference between the fibre obtained from the green
294
stems and that from the dry stems. The subsequent chemical
treatment may result in a greater or less disaggregation of the
original fibre, and materially influence its character. On all these
grounds it appears that the ramie brought into the market will,
under any circumstances, even with the most perfect methods of
cultivation and preparation, manifest considerable differences in
its quality and property — differences greater than is the case with
other fibres. As before explained, it is quite likely, that even from
the same plantation, some of the produce may be remarkable for
strength, but deficient in fineness and gloss ; another portion, fine
and glossy, but less strong ; another, by its roughness and hairiness,
approaching wool in its character.
"Ultimately, this very range in the quality may prove an ad-
vantage; but first, in the experimental stage, it is a decided dis-
advantage ; and it can be easily shown that this is, in itself, a
sufficient reason why it is impossible to expect that ramie should,
from the first command such high prices as its good qualities are
likely to ensure to it, after its cultivation and preparation have
become more developed. A high price of necessity restricts the
application of the fibre to the very finest purposes. Now, it is the
invariable characteristic of high-class manufacture to require perfect
uniformity in the quality of the material used in it. Not only must
each bale of fibre used for fine purposes be as nearly as possible
uniform in its quality, but it is likewise necessary to ensure the
steady supply of other bales as uniform, and of the very same
quality. It is an established fact, that in the case of any inequality
in the material, the whole quantity will sink almost to the value of
the lowest quality contained in the mixture, and that no high-class
expensive machinery will ever be established, unless there are
grounds for expecting that the quality of the raw material will be
uniformly maintained. In any other case, the fibre can only be
used for rougher purposes, and worked on simpler machinery, in
which such variations in quality are of no moment.
" As before explained, there will be in the case of ramie even
greater difficulties than in the case of other fibres, in ensuring this
perfect equality in condition, as a considerable amount of variation
in the character of the fibre is unavoidably connected with
the very nature of the growth of the plant. It will require a perfect
knowledge of the nature of the plant, and of the fibre and its
working, and a perfect mutual understanding between the agri-
culturist growing it, the machinist cleaning it, and the manufacturer
spinning it. This can only be the slow result of time, and will only
have been attained when cultivation being more extended, the
trade conducted on a larger scale, it will be possible to carry out
a complete sub-division of the crop according to its various qualities,
and when the best practical uses of each quality will have been
ascertained. Moreover, in any case, even with the agricultural and
mechanical treatment, it is likely that only a certain part of the
crop will be suitable for fine uses, whilst a considerable proportion
will only be available for rougher purposes. So that, unless the
295
method of preparation allows of utilising this rougher portion of
the crop also, the remaining portion suitable for fine purposes will
always be disproportionately dear.
" It is clear, therefore, that a rapid development of the ramie trade
cannot be expected, until the bulk of the raw fibre can be supplied
at a price much below that which it will eventually attain when its
higher qualities have been more fully developed, and below that
which the finer portion of the crop is likely to command even now.
It may finally come to be applied to the manufacture of damask,
cambric, and lace, but for some years to come, even if its use for
such purposes should prove successful, it will have to be worked
up by manufacturers only gradually discovering its properties, and
on machinery with processes imitated from those used with other
fibres, and therefore not specially adapted to ramie. The con-
sumption of the fibre for fine purposes during that experimental
stage will be necessarily small, and restricted only to the best
qualities. No real outlet, therefore, will have been obtained for
ramie unless it be applied for purposes for which, in the opinion
of some of its sanguine advocates, it is far too good, such as for
cordage, as also for canvas, mixture with I'ough wools, lower kinds
of carpets, hangings, linings, certain kinds of linen, &c. It is also
to be remembered that only by becoming suitable for the manufac-
ture of comparatively cheap articles produced in large quantity, is
there any hope of its becoming a great staple. It it were able to
compete with only the Courtrai flax, and no cheaper fibres, how-
ever successful it might be in this respect, it would never develop
into a large trade.
" It will appear clearly from this discussion, that in all probability
the standard price of £50 per ton for machine-prepared ramie in
the London market, which was considered sufficiently low in 1870
to ensure its extensive introduction, is in the present condition of
the market too high to effect this object. Such a price of raw
material for fibre available for spinning would correspond, as
already calculated, to a price per ton of £75, with the addition of
the cost of chemicals, a price which would amount to rather more
than that of the finest variety of flax, which enter extensively into
the commerce of the country. If ramie with all the disadvantages
attending the introduction of a new staple, is to compete success-
fully with the fibres which already have possession of the market,
there must be some likelihood of obtaining steady supplies of the
rough fibre at prices which correspond more nearly with the prices
of the other vegetable fibres, such as flax and hemp, that is, at an
average price of (at the outside) from £30 to £40 per ton for the
better and from £20 to £25 per ton for the lower, qualities.
Even with such prices, the fibre freed from gum, and in a condition
similar to that of undressed flax, could not be prepared at less
than from £35 to £60 per ton, plus cost of chemicals. Considering
its superior qualities, however such a price would seem sufficiently
low to bring ramie into competition with flax and hemp, even
if the latter were somewhat cheaper. It has also to be considered
2Q6
that the limits of prices for ramie will, of course, always depend
on the state of the market with regard to fibres generally, and
that, at present, the values of all the fibres are much lower than
they were some years ago. With a recovery in the value of other
fibres, the limits of prices here indicated for ramie would have
to be proportionately increased."
"With regard to what is known in commerce as 'China grass,'
this is hand-cleaned fibre shipped usually from Chinese ports. It
arrives in this country in small parcels, the yearly importation
being only about 100 tons. It is nearly all taken up by continen-
tal buyers. Rhea is the term applied to machine-cleaned fibre,
generally in the form of ribbons or half cleaned stuff. The price
is much less than China grass, and in case of large shipments
would probably not exceed about £7 or £8 per ton. It is important
therefore for Ramie planters to aim at the production of ribbons
at cost not exceeding about £4 or £5 at the port of shipment.
Important elements in such production would be to plant Ramie
only in places where the soil and climate will allow of three or
four crops to be reaped per annum ; where labour is very cheap
and abundant, and where good facilities exist for transport and
shipment." (Kew Bulletin, November, 1889.)
In Ide & Christie's Monthly Circular, dated 15th November, 1906,
China Grass is quoted at 32s. to 35s. per cwt. ; and Rhea " none
here."
Extracts from Lecture* at Society of Arts.
"RAMIE AND ITS POSSIBILITIES."
By Mrs. Ernest Hart.
Fifteen, twenty years ago, numerous companies were formed
with large capitals, pledged to make ramie one of the great staple
textiles of the world, — -the mills of all of which are now silent,
and in most cases dismantled and turned to other uses.
The causes of this remarkable and almost universal failure in
Great Britain, are stated to have been want of raw material, im-
perfect methods of degumming which rotted the fibre, the diffi-
culties of manipulating the fibre in machines not specially con-
structed to deal with it, and the intractable behaviour of ramie
yarns in the loom. It should also be added that in many cases
the companies were promoted in a purely speculative spirit, and
the management was in the hands of those who did not aim by
patient investigation at overcoming the difficulties of ramie mani-
pulation in the factory, but were unfortunately too much interested
in the more exciting game of manipulating shares on the Stock
Exchange.
Promises of immense profits were made in the prospectuses,
charmin'g samples of fabrics were produced, quotations of shares
rose by leaps and bounds to high figures, but when orders were
placed the samples could not be reproduced in pieces, shares fell
* Jouraal of the Society of Arte, No. 2,78.5. Vol, LIV.
297
as rapidly as they had risen, and a spirit of despair settled down
on the ramie world of England and her dependencies. Factories
were closed, companies liquidated, plantations in India and else-
where were rooted up, and the whole subject was quietly disposed
of by manufacturers, in the statement " We have tried ramie and
nothing can be done with it." The loss of money, however,
rankled, and ramie became the bete noire, the skeleton in the cup-
board of British commerce.
But while British manufacturers simply gave up ramie, or a few
small spinning factories were carried on on an unprofitable basis
for a few years longer, steady progress was being made on the
Continent in the effort to overcome, by scientific methods, the
difficulties of degumming without injury to the fibre, and to ascer-
tain the correct principles and processes of spinning. A new use
was discovered for the fibre, which gave a great impetus to ramie
spinning : this was the use of ramie in the manufacture of gas
mantles. What was required was an absorbent netting which
would absorb the mineral salts and be afterwards burnt away,
leaving the least amount of a perfectly white ash behind. Egyptian
cotton had been used for this purpose, but gas mantle manu-
facturers found, in a webbing made of ramie yarns, a material
which suited their requirements exactly. This discovery led to
a great development of the existing ramie spinning mills of
Germany and France, and to the perfecting of their processes and
machinery.
The German mills then took up the manufacture of ramie
stockingette for underwear, of hosiery, and of knhted goods in
which the yarn used is mixed more or less with wool. In France
and in Switzerland the weaving of coarse linens for restaurants
has been carried on in a moderate degree, though the representa-
tive of Messieurs Favier in Paris told me that owing to the extra-
ordinary durability of these linens, made at one time by themselves,
they were boycotted by the buyers of the great French retail
houses, so that they consequently gave up weaving them, and con-
fined themselves to spinning. The making of plushes from ramie
has been also accomplished at Chemnitz; in Japan the blending
of ramie with silk has been successfully carried out ; in Holland
fishing nets are manufactured of ramie yarns, and both in Sweden
and in the United States stockingette for underwear is made on
frames, of imported yarns : in Germany and France ramie yarns
are used in a limited degree as weft on woollen or cotton yarns
to give brilliancy to fabrics ; and sail cloth for yachts has also
been made on a small scale.
I think I have mentioned what had been done in the use of ramie
in various textiles till I started with the avowed intention of
manufacturing pure ramie fabrics warp and weft ; the known diffi-
culty being to weave with a pure ramie warp, for though the fibre
is of surprising strength, the strongest yarn breaks at the knot
with the greatest facility, and it does not stand well the shock of
the loom at the opening of the shed.
298
As I am frequently asked what induced me to take up the
question of ramie weaving, and as my audience will expect an
answer to this enquiry, I will give a brief account of my own
work in weaving ramie.
As is well known, I was engaged for many years (and am still)
in encouraging Irish village industries by founding various in-
dustries and training workers. The weaving of hand-made linens
of beautiful colours in cottages was one of these. Looking round
always for new ideas, I noticed in the Colonial Exhibition of 1885
a case of ramie in which the fibre was shown in the raw state,
degummed, as silver, and as dyed yarns. I sought out the man in
charge of this exhibit, and asked if yarns could be supplied of this
brilliant, silky fibre, but I was told that the exhibit was only of
scientific interest, and that to make weaving yarns was not yet
practicable.
A few years later I read a notice in the papers that the difficulties
of ramie spinning had been overcome. I immediately wrote to
the factory mentioned, and obtained white yarns, which I used as
weft on linen warps, and one of the iirst things woven on our
looms was a piece of cloth for a waistcoat, which has figured in
many letters to the press, and which I know is still in wear. On
the closing down of this factory we bought up stocks of ramie
yarn, and continued weaving it in conjunction with unbleached
linen and exporting the cloth to India, where it obtained a high
reputation for its wearing qualities, and its stubborn resistance to
dhobie washing.
Stimulated by the assertion that it could not be done, I
determined in the summer of 1902 to attempt tte weaving of pure
ramie fabrics, warp and weft. 1 put up a small Swedish hand-loom
in a shed in my garden at Totteridge, and engaged an expert
hand-loom weaver — a Finn girl — to come and work as a sample
weaver. On this simple loom we got out our first samples, and
boldly submitted them to one of the first dress goods houses in
London. They were approved, and I was encouraged to go on.
A witch loom and a Domestic loom, with power-loom action
worked by the feet, were added to the plant, and while I designed
or copied patterns and pegged them on the witch, the weaver wove
them, and together we proved the point that ramie could be woven
in piece lengths, warp and weft.
The looms were then transferred to a weaving shed in a village
in Yorkshire, the number of hand looms was brought up to sixteen,
and they were placed under the direction of a manager, who
added to the most intimate knowledge of looms and weaving, a
rare sense of colour. Orders began to come in from good houses,
but they soon necessitated the use of broad-width power looms.
Another small mill was rented and fitted with ten power-looms,
gas engine and winding, beaming, and twisting machinery. Then
began the true difficulties of the undertaking, for we had to meet
and overcome the difficulties of weaving, in this inelastic fibre,
299
fine dress fabrics on broad-power looms, difficulties which in
England had vanquished those who had attempted the same before.
One by one, however, they were steadily overcome, and there is
now scarcely anything that we cannot weave in pure ramie, warp
and weft, from the lightest gossamer to cloth that has a brenking
of nearly 5 00 lbs. to the inch, from heavy tapestries to light dress
goods, from fancy upholstery repps to muslins. All the fabrics
here shown, are of pure ramie, warp and weft, and were woven at
our mills under my personal direction.
Again and again we were fairly beaten, the workers would not
stay to be so worried, the looms broke down under the strain put
on them, the winding of the yarns drove everybody silly ; but we
always began again, determined to succeed, and would not accept
failure.
Not the least of our difficulties were created by the yarn spinners.
To get weaving yarns spun for me I applied to the spinners of gas
mantle yarns, or of ramie thread, to worsted spinners, flax spinners,
and jute spinners. Numerous and costly experiments were made
in England, but none of the yarns were satisfactory, as the
spinners had not the proper plant on which to spin ramie yarns,
and were unwilling to put up the same, and they soon tired of
making experiments to reach the perfection of manufacture I
required. I then went to France ; but the yarns though beautiful
in appearance, were too brittle. I then went to Germany, and at
last found spinners willing to take any amount of trouble to do
what I required. " We do not care what trouble Mrs. Hart gives"
they wrote, " so long as we please her in the end." In England
the spirit of the replies to my requests, used to be in those early
days. "Well — it is the best we can do, and if you do not like it, you
must lump it." It is the scientific spirit of painstaking industry
which gives Germany her increasing commerce, in spite of
hampering tariffs ; it is the conservative spirit of anti-scientific
ignorance which loses Great Britain her commercial supremacy, in
spite of the benefits of free trade. In nothing is this more visible
than in the ramie industry ; once almost solely in the hands of
Great Britain, whose colonies could supply her with indefinite
supplies of raw material, and lost through over-reaching specula-
tion and lack of science, this industry passed to Germany, who
applied to the elucidation of its secrets and the perfection of its
methods, the science and patience lacking in this country.
To return to the story of our own work. Having now overcome
the technical difficulties, my next care was to place the goods on
the market, but though orders were placed by the best dress and
upholstery houses our plant, was then too small, our possible out-
put too limited, and our capital too narrow to do ourselves justice.
I had borne all the expense of the great experiment, and not being
a capitalist, this was only done at the cost of great personal
sacrifice. I was assured by business friends, and by willing pro-
moters, that it would be easy to find capital to enable me to
increase the plant, take advantage of the trade offered, and create
300
a sound industrial enterprise ; but English capital was shy ; it had
been hit too heavily in the past by ramie to believe in the genuine-
ness of a new ramie industrial undertaking : incredulity as to
ultimate success was expressed on all sides in such terms as " It is
absurd to think that Mrs. Hart can succeed where Lister failed."
" Oh, yes, Mrs. Hart will make samples as they all did, but she
will never make pieces," and so on, and the enormous sums of
money lost by the speaker or by his friends, were instanced as
proofs of the disastrous character of ran.ie undertakings.
But help came from another, a more confident and bolder
country than old England, namely, from America, and it was with
American capital that "A. M. Hart, Limited," was formed and the
enterprise was lifted from the experimental stage to that of a sound
commercial industry. English capitalists have since joined us,
but at a critical time it was due to the action and initiative of my
American co-director that the enterprise was firmly established on
a commercial basis. From that date we have gone forward with
no uncertain steps ; we have rented a large mill, have put up a
considerable amount of machinery, and are engaged in executing
orders and Government contracts, which are only an earnest of
what we expect and which we are prepared to carry out.
Everywhere I have tried to allay one bogey which has always
frightened the intended planter, namely, that it is necessary to
have a costly machine for decorticating the fibre in order to make
it marketable. So long as there are millions of people in this
world willing to work for 6d. a day or less, ramie is better, in such
countries, stripped and decorticated by hand than by any machine
that has been or will be invented. In India as in China, in West
Africa, in East Africa where native labour is abundant, and in the
West Indies, no decorticating machines are necessary; but in
Mexico, in the Straits Settlements, in the Southern States of
America, where labour is scarce and dear, and on the great rubber
lands where ramie would be a valuable catch-crop, decorticating
by machinery is essential.
A great many machines have been invented for this purpose
since the Indian Government in 1869 offered two prizes, one for
£5,000, and another for £2,000, for machinery or processes by
which the fibre could be prepared at such a cost per ton as would
render it easily marketable. This offer of prizes was renewed in
1877, for sums of £5,000 and £l,000. Various competitive trials
were made, and though small prizes were awarded, no machine
was found equal to the requirements of the Government, so some
years ago the chief of the Economic Department advised the
Indian Government to withdraw the competition.
This offer of the Indian Government to give prizes for decorti-
cating machines was unfortunate, as it led those who were
interested in ramie on a wrong tack : for it was more important to
ascertain the correct scientific principles of treating the fibre in
order to prepare it for manufacture, than to decorticate it by
machinery on the fields, particularly in India, where, owing to the
301
abundance of cheap labour, ramie can be better decorticated by
hand than by any machine. China does not ask for decorticating
machines, and the hand-stripped China grass — which is only ramie
stripped and debarked on the fields with Chinese care and labori-
ousness — will always command a higher price in the market than
any machine-decorticated fibre. Various machines claiming to do
all that is required are now on the market, and I have reason to
believe that a machine, the invention of a foreigner, which will be
introduced in the autumn of 1906* will give quite the best returns,
both in the matter of perfectly cleansing the fibre of the outside
brown pellicle and in the output it can produce per diem.
The difficulty of the whole proceeding will be understood by
those who are not ramie experts if I briefly describe the process.
Ramie stems, when grown to the height of about 8 or 9 feet, are,
when matured, cut down, and the outer bark is at once stripped
off. This outer bark, which can be easily stripped off, much in
the same way as a willow cane is whittled, is found to consist of
two layers, namely, a thin outer, closely adherent, brown pellicle,
and an inner, thicker, white, bast layer. It is this bast layer which
is composed of ramie fibre. When it is stripped from the woody
stem in the green state it is full of a sticky gum. The object is
now to free the bast layer as much as possible of its soluble gums
and of its outer brown pellicle.
This the Chinaman does by sitting in or near running water
while he rubs off the outer brown pellicle with a blunt bamboo
knife, and strips off the bast layer, washing away the soluble
gums at the same time. The long strips of fibre are then dried,
baled and exported, and obtain a price per ton in Europe out of all
proportion to the cost of cultivation and manipulation. In the
case where the ramie stems are decorticated by machinery, they
are sent, within three days of being gathered, to a central decorti-
cating station; or in large plantations to the mill on the estate.
The canes are first passed through corrugated iron rollers, which
break up the woody stem and pith, leaving long strips of the bark
more or less free from wood : these are then passed into a machine,
the principle of which is approximately, the same in all which have
been invented, namely that revolving steel blades pare off the outer
brown bark of the ribbons, very much in the same way as the
surface of a cloth is cut by a revolving cutting machine, and they
are finally brushed clean of all adhering particles of pellicle.
The disadvantages of machine decorticating are— the initial
expense of the machine ; the delay in bringing the stems down
from the plantations, so that some of the gums undergo fermenta-
tive changes ; the smallness of the output of most of the machines
in use, and the fact that after all the fibre is not so completely
cleaned of its brown pellicle as in the case of hand stripping, nor
are the fibres left in such a perfectly parallel condition, which is
essential to avoid waste in the subsequent processes of spinning.
I do not deny but that machines for decorticating are absolutely
* See paragraph below ou .Machinery, page 304. Editor.
302
necessary in some cases, particularly where ramie will be grown
on large plantations, and where labour is scarce and dear, but it
has been unwisely put forward by the Indian and other Govern-
ments, as an absolute necessity before the cultivation of ramie
had been entered upon on anything like a large scale.
I make bold, however, to say that though hand-stripped China
grass will always command the best price for the finest ramie
goods, yet for a large number of purposes it is not necessary to
deprive the ramie of its outer brown pellicle. The whole bark,
pellicle and bast layer, can be easily stripped off in long ribbons
by hand, or the process may be aided by passing the canes through
corrugated iron rollers to break up the wood and pith of the stems.
These ribbons, which are known in the trade as brown ramie or
rhea ribbons, must be thoroughly dried, and are then baled, and
exported : and by those who hold the secrets, these brown ramie
ribbons can be debarked and degummed at the same time, pro-
ducing a very useful Jilassc.
This statement, made by me in many letters to growers in remote
parts of the world, has given great hope and a considerable
stimulus to ramie growers, as they were holding back, unwilling
to plant on a large scale, waiting for the introduction of the long-
promised, perfect decorticating machine.
The next process in manufacture is to free the fibre from its
gum and to turn it into what is ca.\\ec\ Jilassc. The gums and
pectines which bind the ramie fibres together in the bast layer are
among the most irreducible and complicated in nature. Some of
them are easily soluble in water, others can be reduced by alkalies,
but some of them are more intractible, and the object of the investi-
gators and chemists who have studied the subject of degumming
ramie for the last 50 years has always been to recover the natural
white fibre, free of its gums, without injuring its strength or dis-
troying its brilliancy. To obtain this result numerous patents
have been taken out, and still more numerous processes are kept
secret. Some of the processes which were in use some years ago
resulted in rendering the fibre so fragile that the yards dissolved
in powder after the cloth is woven. Some of the processes still
in vogue, render the yarns brittle in the extreme ; but I may, never-
theless, say with confidence that the difficulty of degumming has
now been solved, and that there are those among us who can
teach, if they would, how to degum ramie without destroying its
strength or diminishing its brilliancy.
One of the great arts of the process is to keep the long fibres of
ramie intact and parallel so that very little tow is produced in
spinning. It is often stated that it would be well to degum the
fibre on the fields at the time of gathering and decorticating.
This assertion I always contravert as degumming is essentially a
scientific process, which must be watched over and directed by
scientific experts ; indeed every bale of ramie, and the product of
every single crop, must be carefully examined and specially
treated on its merits.
303
If ramie is to become, as we anticipate, one of the great textiles
of the world, it will be grown, like cotton or sugar or rice, in
plantations often widely separated, and frequently small in extent,
and the great thing is to teach the planter how to prepare the fibre
for export so that it may arrive at the mills in a sound condition,
and there is nothing that protects the fibre in the course of transit
as well as to be embedded in its own gum.
After degumming, the fibre is then subjected to various manu-
facturing processes to turn it into sliver, and from sliver it is spun
into yarn.
It is a strong commentary on the apathy of British manufacturers
that, whereas there is only one spinning mill in Great Britain at
present at work which treats ramie from the ungummed fibre to the
yam, there are several of large extent in Germany, France, and
Japan; yet it is in England where the best ramie machinery is
made, and these foreign mills come to England for their ramie-
spinning machinery. I have reason to believe that this
reproach to English industrial enterprise will be removed before
long ; and, inasmuch as I and my friends are doing our utmost to
stimulate the cultivation of ramie in British dependencies and
colonies, we are also aiming at, and are taking practical steps for,
making ramie-spinning a British industry.
In the discussion which followed Mr. Thomas Barraclough said
he thoroughly agreed with the bulk of what Mrs. Hart had said.
He somewhat differed from Mrs. Hart in her remarks with regard
to decorticating by hand labour. It was necessary that the fibre
should be degummed as much alike as possible. It was very in-
convenient to get a bale of ramie, one-half of which had been
properly decorticated by good hand labour, and the other only
half decorticated, owning to the fact probably that the work had
been done by children, as was the case in China. If the ramie had
a good deal of the outer pellicle left on it, it must be treated
specially before it was degummed, whereas good decorticated
ramie could be degummed straight away without any preliminary
treatment. It was very necessary, therefore, that ramie should be
decorticated equally. Hand labour was very good when it was
good, but it was irregular, and machines must, sooner or later,
take the place of hand labour. The Chinese decorticating was the
best in the world, due to the fact it was the custom all over
China, where ramie was grown, for the payment for decorticating to
be the perquisite of the wife and the children with which they
bought their clothes. Hence the diligence with which they worked.
There were two or three difficulties connected with the brown or
black ribbons which were sent to this country. A great mass of
stuff was sent over, on which freight had to be paid, which might
just as well be left in the fields where ramie was grown. As a
consequence the material had to undergo special treatment, and
even though he had known it to be bought for £13 a ton, it was
dear at the price. Mrs. Hart had said that the plants would last fo
304
twenty years. In his opinion the outside limit to the age of a ramie
plai.t was fourteen years, and probably twelve was nearer the
average. If the roots were too old the fibre was deteriorated, and
was worth considerably less for spinning purposes. But as Mrs.
Hart had said, the plants themselves provide so many means for
obtaining new plants that it was not a serious consideralion if the
twenty years were reduced to twelve. The industry had now been
put on a commercial basis. There was an immense demand for
ramie yarn, in fact, so great was the demand that the largest mill
in Germany was said not to be able to accept further orders for a
considerable time. Consequently, if there was an ever-growing
demand for the yarns in England and they could not be obtained
except by going to Germany and France, it seemed to him that
the English would be a very benighted people if they did not put
up some spinning mills and spin the yarn they required. He hoped
the excellent paper which Mrs. Hart had read would have a powerful
influence in that direction.
MACHINERY.
Mr. Hubert J. Boeken states in a pamphlet just lately published
thai he has for many years been engaged with machinery for all
kinds of textile fibres, and that in his last voyage to the West
Indies he succeeded in finding a machine which had been wanted
for so long, — one which could easily and economically decorticate
ramie. Mr. Jose Garcia Hernandez of Havana had been occupied
for l8 years with indefatigable perseverance in the construction of
a dccorticator. Mr. Boeken saw the little model machine of Mr.
Garcia, and at once recognised the possibilities of utilising the
principle of this machine. He constructed a larger machine on
this principle with the improvements suggested by his experience,
and named it the "Aquiles." This machine is now manufactured
by H. Boeken & Co., Diiren, Germany. The advantages which it
possesses over other inventions of the same kind according to Mr.
Boeken are the following : —
1. Simplicity of mechanical construction, as there are neither
scutching drum, nor knives, nor feeding chains.
2. Very feeble expenditure of motive power necessary ; a
child can put the machine in motion.
3. Continuous feeding of the machine.
4. Output considerable : 10,000 stalks an hour giving about
40 lbs. of Chinagrass an hour.
5. Facility of transport. The machine is not more difficult to
move than an ordinary sewing machine.
6. Moderate price which puts it within the reach of every
planter : £60.
7. Total weight 990 lbs.
FIBRE MACHINE.
Among the articles exhibited by the Jamaica Society of Arts in
Kingston on the 17th and 19th of February 1855, and subsequently
sent to the Paris Exhibition were fibres from the Jerusalem dagger.
305
Yucca a/oi folia, and from the plantain, Miisa paradisiaca, prepared
by a machine invented by a Mr. Clarke who was employed at the
General Penitentiary.
They were handed into the Society by the Rev. James Watson.
Information about this machine is desired by a correspondent.
NOTES ON THE CULTIVATION OF VEGETA-
BLES. II.
By W. Harris, F.L.S., Superintendent of Hope Gardens.
In the Bulletin for October will be found some Notes on Vege-
tables. A correspondent has now asked for information showing
the time required by each crop to arrive at maturity. This will
depend largely on soil, situation and the care bestowed on culti-
vation, but, speaking generally, the time required by each of the
crops named below is approximately as follows : —
Beet-root
Cabbages
Carrots
Cucumbers
Garden Eggs
Kidney Beans
Kohl Rabi
Lettuce
Musk Melons
Mustard and Cress
Okra
Onions
Parsley
Peas (English)
Peppers
Potatoes
Pumpkins
Radish
Spinach
Squash
Sweet corn
Tomatoes
Turnips
Water Melons
Three months
Three to four months
Three to four months
Two to three months
About five months
Six to eight weeks
Two to three months
Two months
Three months
Two to three weeks
Three months
Six to seven months
Three months
Three to four months, according
to variety grown
Two to three months
Three to four months
Three months
Six weeks
Two months
Two to three months
Three months
Three months
Two to three months
Three months.
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
EXTRACTS FROM MINUTES.
The usual monthly meeting of the Board of Agriculture was
held at Headquarter House on Wednesday 14th November, 1906,
at 2 p.m. ; present : Hon. H. Clarence Bourne, Chairman, the
Director of Public Gardens, the Island Chemist, the Superintending
Inspector of Schools, His Grace the Archbishop, Messrs. C. E,
deMercado, J. W. I\'iddleton and the Secretary John Barclay.
306
Rubber — The Secretary read letter from Mr. Harris acknowledg-
ing receipt of the vote of thanks from the Board for preparing the
manuscript on the subject of rubber.
Tobacco — The Secretary reported with regard to the samples of
leaf tobacco asked for by Messrs. Granda Bros. & Co., Montreal,
that he had received samples from Mr. Crowden of leaf grown at
Suttons, Clarendon, and had sent them on ; he understood also that
Col. Kitchener had sent samples.
School Gardens Committee — The Secretary read the report of the
Committee on School Gardens.
The Chairman asked if this was intended to supersede the in-
spection of Schools Gardens by the Inspector of Schools.
After discussion it was resolved, to alter the words "Inspector
or Superintendent" and insert "Instructor for School Gardens" as
the description and add a paragraph to the effect that this arrange-
ment was an additional effort and was not intended to interfere
with the inspection of School Gardens by Inspectors of Schools.
The Secretary was instructed to send the report to the Colonial
Secretary.
Book on Sclwol Gardens. — The Chemist asked whether arrange-
ments were made for the publication of Mr. Williams' book on
School Gardens in Jamaica.
The Secretary was instructed to write the Colonial Secretary
drawing his attention to the fact that a book on School Gardens is
being written by Mr. Williams at the request of the Board of
Agriculture and recommending that provision should be made on
the estimates for 1907-8 of the Printing Office for publication.
The Secretary submitted the following letter from the Colonial
Secretary's Office :
Agricultural Conference — I. Enclosing a copy of letter written
to the Director of Public Gardens, stating that the " Port
Kingston" would visit Barbados both on her outward and
homeward voyage in January next, without transgressing
contract time, in order that the members of the conference
might travel in her both ways and requesting him to send
in as soon as possible the programme of the Agricultural
Conference proceedings also requesting him to make
proper arrangements for the accommodation of the con-
ference.
In this conne.xion a letter was read from the Director of Public
Gardens asking for the approval of the re-appointment of the same
committee which had been appointed last year in connexion with
the Conference. This was approved.
It was reported that the Governme.it had arranged for free
Railway passes for the members of the Conference.
Assistant Chemist — 2. Intimating that the Secretary of State
ij^gfor the Colonies had selected Mr. Robert Sipimons, for
appointment on an engagement for not more than three
307
years from the date of his arrival, as Assistant Chemist,
in this Island, with salary at the rate of £200 a year
rising by annual increments of £lO to £220 a year.
Arroivroot — 3. Stating for the information of the Board that
about 4,650 pounds of arrowroot were annually consumed
at the General Penitentiary, District Prison and Reforma-
tory, and about 12,000 pounds at the Lunatic Asylum,
Lepers Home and the several Public Hospitals.
The Secretary stated that he had the matter in hand trying to
get a native supply.
Instructors — 4. Referring letter from the Upper Trelawny
Agricultural Society to the Chairman, expressing its
appreciation for Mr. Arnett's appointment as Agricultural
Instructor for the parish, but suggesting that instead of one
local Instructor to serve the parishes of St. Ann, Tre-
lawny, Eastern St. James and North Clarendon, it would
prove more workable, ensure more visits, secure greater
interest and more effective teaching to have, say three
Instructors at £l00 per annum, or four at £80 per annum.
The Secretary was instructed to reply that the Board did not
consider it expedient to make any alteration.
Toftacco— Forwarding copy of the Director of Public Gardens
on Tobacco, stating that he had seen Mr. Chalmers
several times in London and had gone to see Mr. Murray,
the Director of Victualling at the Admiralty, and also Mr.
Olivier at the Colonial Office with reference to using
Colonial Tobacco in the Navy, that it was probable that
the Admiralty would undertake to import and prepare
its own tobacco for the use of the sailors ; that the to-
bacco from Havana seed required blending with leaf of
the character of Virginian tobacco and that it was Mr.
Chalmers' opinion that the latter could be grown in the
West Indies, and that it was his intention to try it at
Hope Gardens this season.
6. Submitting correspondence with Mr. Ashby regarding his
appointment as Fermentation Chemist.
It was directed to be circulated, but was first to be returned to
the Colonial Secretary's Office to be sent to the Chemist for his
information.
The Chemist submitted the following reports : —
1. Report visit to the United Kingdom and Germany to
investigate the commercial aspect of Jamaica Rum.
2. Estimates for Government Laboratory, 1907-8.
3. Estimates for Sugar Experiment Station for 1907-8.
4. Proposed experiments for forcing early Oranges.
5. Report on Distillers' course.
As regards the estimates for the Government Laboratory for
1907-8 these asked the approval of the Board for alterations in
308
the items of the estimates, the proposals not involving any in-
crease in the total appropriation for the Government Laijoratory.
As regards the estimates for Sugar Experiment Station for 1907-8
these recommended that the estimates should remain unchanged
except for a slight re-arrangement under the heading " Personal
Emoluments."
These were agreed to.
The following reports from the Director of Public Gardens were
submitted : —
1. Hope Experiment Station.
2. Instructors.
These were directed to be circulated.
The following papers which had been circulated were now
submitted for final consideration : —
1. Report Hope Experiment Station.
2. Report Mr. Cradwick.
3. Report Mr. Briscoe.
[Issued 17th Dec, 1906.]
Priiited at the Govt. Printing Offiv, Kingstiw,, Jam.
New York Botanical Garden Library
iiiiliilililiiliiiiiiiililliiiliiiiiiiiiiiii
85 00259 6201
,.A\.'/-, '
f:?^i^.4%:i
■-^-i:
tfi.t:-.
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11