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OP 

COMPARATIVE    ZOOLOGY, 

AT  HARVARD  COLLEGE,  CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 


The  gift 


of  CksL     ^hAsu^ 


No.  ^f(J% 


BULLETIN 


ESSEX    INSTITUTE, 


VOLUME    XVII. 


1885. 


SALEM,  MASS. 
PRINTED    AT    THE    SALEM    PRESS, 
^1886. 


CONTENTS. 


Hugo  Ried's  Account  of  the  Indians  of  Los  Angeles  Co.,  Cal., 

with  notes  by  W.  J.  Hoffman,  M.  D.,         ....  1 

Opening    of   Hatteras    Inlet,    communicated    by  William    L. 

Wpjlcii, 37 

Through  which  inlet  did  the  English  Adventurers  of  1584  enter 
the  Sounds  of  North  Carolina,  also  some  changes  in  the 
coast  line  since  their  time,  communicated  by  William  L. 
Welch, 43 

On  the  Carapax  and  Sternum  of  Decapod  Crustacea,  by  How- 
ard Ayers, 49 

Annual  Meeting.  Monday,  May  18,  1885, 59 

Election  of  officers,  59 ;  retrospect  of  the  year,  61 ;  members, 
61 ;  field  meetings,  65  ;  geological  excursions,  66  ;  meetings, 
67;  lectures,  68;  library,  69;  horticultural,  81;  museum, 
82;  art  exhibition,  82;  excursion,  84;  financial,  80. 

Indian  Games,  by  Andrew  McFarland  Davis,         ...        89 

Ancient  and  Modern    Methods   of  Arrow   Release,   by   E.    S. 

Morse, 145 


(iii) 


BULLETIN 


ESSEIX:    IIsrSTITTJTE. 

Vol.  17.  Salem:  Jan.,  Feb.,  Mar.,  1885.        Nos.  1-3. 

HUGO  RIED'S  ACCOUNT  OF 
THE  INDIANS  OF  LOS  .\NGELES  CO.,  CALIFORNIA.' 


VSnTH  NOTES 
BY  W.  J.  nOFFM.lN,  M.  D. 


The  following  epistles  were  copied  by  the  writer  during 
the  summer  of  the  present  year,  1884,  from  the  original 
MSS.  in  possession  of  the  Hon.  A.  F.  Coronel,  of  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.,  to  whom  they  were  written  in  the  year 
1852  by  the  late  Hugo  Ried  from  the  San  Gabriel  Mission 
where  the  author  lived  at  that  time.  These  epistles  were 
intended  as  a  contributiou  to  "  A  History  of  the  Indians 
of  Los  Angeles  Co.,"  but  of  the  original  thirty-two  only 
twelve  refer  to  the  subject  in  detail,  the  remainder  con- 
sisting of  information  relating  to  the  establishment,  and 
decline,  of  the  Franciscan  Missions  in  California,  facts 
with  which  we  are  already  familiar  through  other  sources. 

Some  of  the  epistles  are  variously  signed  "Hugo  Ried," 
and  "  P.  Hugo  Ried,"  though  the  writer  could  not  ascer- 
tain which  was  correct.  The  author,  so  Mr.  Coronel 
states,  was  a  Scotchman  of  considerable  intelligence,  who, 
after  meeting  Avith  disappointment  in  an  affaire  de  coeur 
in  Sononi,  came  to  the  San  Gabriel  Mission,  married  an 
Indian  woman  of  the  tribe  located  there,  and  remained, 

(1) 


2  HUGO    RIED  S   ACCOUNT    OF   THE    INDIANS 

literally  cut  off  from  the  outside  world  until  the  day  of  his 
death. 

AVith  the  exception  of  a  few  preliminary  remarks,  not 
germane  to  the  subject  under  consideration,  the  epistles 
are  given  verbatim  et  literatim.  Unless  otherwise  stated, 
the  pronunciation  of  words,  and  letters,  is  in  accordance 
with  the  Spanish  language.  The  superior  figures  (as  ^) 
in  the  text  refer  to  the  notes  at  the  end  of  this  article. 
The  writer  is  responsible  for  all  remarks  in  brackets. 


The  following  are  the  rancherias  with  the  corresponding 
present  names  : 


Yang-na 

Sibag-na 

Isanthcog-na 

Sisit  cauog-na 

Sonag-na 

Acurag-na 

Azucsag-na 

Cucomog-na 

Pasinog-na 

Pimocag-na 

Awiz-na 

Chokishg-na 

Pimug-na 

Toybipet 

Hutucg-na 

Almp(iuig-ua 

Maug-ua 

Ilahamog-na 

Cabueg-na 

Pasecg-na 

Suang-na 

Pubug-ua 

Tibahag-na 

Chowig-na 

Nacuug-ua 

Kinkipar 


Los  Angeles 

San  Gabriel 

Mision  Vieja 

Pear  Orchard 

Mr.  White's  Place 

The  Presa 

Azuza 

Cucamonga 

Rancho  del  Chino 

Rancho  de  Ybarra 

La  Puenta 

laboueria 

Island  of  Santa  Catalina 

San  Jos6 

Santa  Ana  (Yorbas) 

Santa  Anita 

Rancho  Felis 

Rancho  Verdugos 

Cabuenga 

San  Fernando 

Suanga 

Alaraitos 

Serritos 

Palos  Verdes 

Carpenter's  farm 

Island  of  San  Clemente 


OF   LOS    ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA.  6 

Irup  and  S.iu  Bernardino,  etc.,  belonged  to  another 
distinct  tribe  possessing  a  language  not  at  all  understood 
by  the  above  lodges,  and  although  reduced  by  the  Spanish 
Missionaries  to  the  same  labor  and  religion,  they  never 
amalgamated  their  blood,  they  being  considered  as  much 
inferior,  and  named  /Sei'ranos  or  Mountaineers. 

The  captains  or  chiefs  of  each  lodge  took  its  name  fol- 
lowed by  ic,  with  sometimes  the  alteration  of  one  or  more 
final  letters.  For  instance,  the  chief  of  Azucsagna  was 
called  Azucsavic;  that  of  Sibagna,  Sibapic. 

The  title  of  a  chief's  eldest  sou  was  Tomedr;  of  his 
eldest  daughter,  Manisar. 

Suanga  was  the  most  populous  village. 

The  Cahuillas  were  named  by  the  Spanish  missionaries  ; 
thus  misnamed  as  a  tribal  name,  the  word  cahuilla  signi- 
fying master. 

LETTER    II. 

They  have  a  great  many  liquid  sounds  and  their  gut- 
turals are  even  softened  down  as  to  become  agreeable  to 
the  ear.  In  the  following  examples  i  has  the  sound  of  ee; 
u  of  00 ;  e  of  a  as  in  fare ;  a  of  a  as  in  father ;  ay  of  i; 
gn  as  in  French. 

Numerals. 2 

1  Pucu 

2  Wehe 

3  Pahe 

4  Watzu 

5  Mahar 

6  Babahe 

7  Watza  cavid 

8  "Wehez  watza 

9  Mahar  cavifi 

10  Wehez  mahar 

11  Wehez  mahar  coy  pucu  [coy-and] 

12  Wehez  mahar  coy  wehe 


HUGO   RIED'S   account   OF   THE   INDIANS 


20  Webez  wehez  maghar  [jr  and  h  combined]^ 

30  Pahez  wehez  maghar 

40  "Watzahez  wehez  maghar 

50  Mahares  wehez  maghar 
100  Wehez  wehez  mahares  wehez  mahar 
Once  Pucushe 

Twice  "Wehez 

Three  times  Pahez 

Four  times  Watzahez 

Five  times  Maharez 

Ten  times  Wehez  maharez 

There  is    ) 


There  are ) 

There  is  none    j 

There  are  none ! 

Yes 

No 

Presently 

Before 

To-day 

Yesterday 

To-morrow 

Here 

There 

Far  off 

I 

Thou 

He  or  she 

Man 

Woman 

Boy 

Black 

White 

Red 

Blue 

Yellow 

Green 

Sun 

Moon 

Stars  [sic'] 

Dog 

Coyote 

Bear 

Deer 


Woni 


Yahez 


Ehez 

Hay 

Wake 

Aunuco 

Mitema 

Poana 

Yamte 

Ycuaro 

Muro 

Poane 

Noma 

Oma 

Man6 

Woroyt 

Tocor 

Quits 

Yupiha 

Arawatay 

Quaoha 

Sacasca 

Payuhuwi 

Tacape 

Tamit 

Moar 

Zoot 

Wozi 

Ytur 

Uunar 

Zacat 


OF   LOS   ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA. 


To  hear,- 

1.  NoDim  nahacua, 

2.  0-a  nahacua, 
8.  Man6  nahacua, 

1.  Non  him  nahacua, 

2.  0-a  him  nahacua, 

3.  Mane  him  nahacua, 

1.  Nop  nom  nahacua, 

2.  0-pam  nahacua, 

3.  Maue-pom  nahacua, 

To  speak, 

1.  Non-im  sirauaj, 

2.  0-a  sirauaj, 

3.  Mane  sirauaj, 

1.  Non  him  sirauaj, 

2.  O-a  him  sirauaj, 

3.  Mane  him  sirauaj, 

1.  Nop  nom  sirauaj, 

2.  O-pam  sirauaj, 

3.  Mane  pom  sirauaj, 


Nahacua. 

I  hear. 

Thou  hearest. 

He  or  she  hears. 

I  heard. 

Thou  heardest. 

He  or  she  heard. 

I  shall  hear. 
Thou  Shalt  hear. 
He  or  she  shall  hear. 

-  Sirauaj. 

I  speak. 
Thou  speakest. 
He  or  she  speaks. 

I  spoke. 
Thou  spokest. 
He  or  she  spoke. 

I  shall  speak. 
Thou  shalt  speak. 
He  or  she  shall  speak. 


They  have  no  word  to  express  love,  but  terms  as  to  have 
affection  for  or  to  regard.  The  nearest  approach  to  ex- 
press the  idea  of  love  is  uisminoc. 

[Present  tense.] 


Sing. 

1.  Nonim  uisminoc. 

2.  O-a  uisminoc. 

3.  Man6  uisminoc. 

[Past  tense.] 

1.  Non  him  uisminoc. 

2.  O-a  him  uisminoc. 

3.  Mane  him  uisminoc. 

[Future  tense.] 

1.  No  que  im  uisminoc. 

2.  O-que-a  uisminoc. 

3.  Mane  que  uisminoc. 


HUGO   RIED'S   account    OF    THE   INDIANS 


LETTER   III. 

The  Santa  In6z  tongue  is  understood  by  the  Indians  of 
the  Purissima,  Santa  Barbara*  and  San  Buenaventura, 
with  this  difference,  that  the  two  latter  splutter  their 
words  a  little  more,  which  almost  seems  impossible ! 
The  I  is  used  in  this  tongue,  although  not  in  the  Gabrielino, 
which  is  strange.  The  only  word  in  the  Gabriel  tongue 
which  has  an  I  is  an  interjection,  dlala,  equal  to  Oho  ! 
The  Serranos  have  no  I  either,  in  use,  and  their  language 
is  as  easy  as  that  of  San  Gabriel. 

The  Serranos  generally  employ  a  <,  when  the  Gabriel- 
inos  would  use  an  r. 

LETTER   IV. 

Gabrielino. 

Father,  mother,  husband,  son,  daughter,  face,  hair,  ear, 
tongue,  mouth  and  friend,  are  words  never  used  without 
a  personal  pronoun,  as  : 

Father,  nach^  my  father,  ni  nack,  thy  father,  mo  nack, 
his  or  her  father,  a  nack. 

Husband  and  wife.  If  they  have  had  children,  instead  of 
saying  ni  asum,  my  husband,  they  often  say  ni  tdliaisum, 
which  may  be  translated  ^a?*^  of  my  body. 

All  brothers  older  than  the  speaker  are  styled  apa; 
ni  apa,  my  brother ;  all  younger,  by  apeitz;  ni  apeitz,  my 
younger  brother.  They  have  no  word  to  express  Indian. 
Tahat  signifies  people.  The  whites  are  termed  chichina- 
bro,  reasonable  beings. 

Face  and  eyes  are  expressed  by  the  same  word. 

Ear,  nanah;  the  leaves  of  a  tree  are  called  its  ears. 

Snow  and  ice  are  the  same.^ 

Tobagnar,  the  whole  earth ;  lahur,  a  portion  of  it,  a 
piece  of  land. 


OF   LOS    ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA.  7 

Caller,  forest.     No  word  to  signify  tree,  all  varieties 
have  their  special  names. 
Cabatcho,  good  looking. 
Zizu,  devil,  an  evil  spirit. 
Ayopu-cushna,  brother-in-law. 
Qua-o-aVj    God.     Held  in  great  reverence,  and  the  name 
was  seldom  pronounced  among  them.     They  gener- 
ally  used  the  term,   Y-yo-ha-riv-gnina,  that  which 
gives  us  life. 

LETTER    V. 

Government,  Laws  and  Punishment. 

The  government  of  the  people  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
chiefs,  each  captain  commanding  his  own  lodge.  The 
command  was  hereditary  in  a  family,  descending  from 
father  to  son,  and  from  brother  to  brother.  If  the  riglit 
line  of  descent  ran  out,  they  immediately  elected  one  of 
the  same  kin  nearest  in  blood.  Laws  in  general  were 
made  as  they  were  required,  with  the  exception  of  some 
few  standing  ones.  Robbery  and  thieving  were  unknown 
among  them,  and  murder,  which  was  of  rare  occurrence, 
was  punished  by  shooting  the  delinquent  with  arrows  until 
dead.  Incest  was  held  in  deep  abhorrence  and  punished 
with  death  ;  even  marriages  between  kinsfolk  were  not 
allowed.  The  manner  of  death  was  by  shooting  with 
arrows. 

All  prisoners  of  war  were  invariably  put  to  death,  after 
being  tormented  in  a  most  cruel  manner.  This  was  done 
in  presence  of  all  the  chiefs,  for  as  war  was  declared  and 
conducted  by  a  council  of  the  whole,  so  they  had  to  attend 
to  the  execution  of  enemies  in  common.  A  Avar  dance, 
on  such  an  occasion,  was  therefore  grand,  solemn  and 
maddening.^ 

If  a  quarrel  ensued  between  two  parties  the  chiefs  of 


8  HUGO    RIED'S   account    of   the   INDIANS 

the  lodge  took  cognizance  in  the  case  and  decided  accord- 
ing to  the  testimony  produced.  But  if  a  quarrel  resulted 
between  parties  of  distant  lodges,  each  cliief  heard  the 
witnesses  produced  by  his  own  people,  and  then  in  coun- 
cil with  the  chiefs  of  the  opposite  side  they  passed  sen- 
tence. Should  they  disagree,  another  chief,  impartial, 
was  called  in  who  heard  the  statements  made  by  the  two 
captains,  and  he  decided  alone.  There  was  no  appeal  from 
his  decision.  Whipping  was  never  resorted  to  as  a  pun- 
ishment, restitution  being  invariably  made  for  damages 
sustained,  in  money,  food  and  skins. 

If  a  woman  proved  unfaithful  to  her  husband  and  he 
caught  her  in  the  act,  he  had  a  right  to  put  her  to  death,  if 
he  chose,  without  any  interference  by  any  of  the  tribe. 
But  what  was  more  generally  practised,  he  informed  the 
paramour  he  was  at  liberty  to  keep  her,  and  then  he  took 
possession  of  the  other's  spouse.  The  exchange  was  ad- 
mitted as  legal  by  all  concerned,  and  the  paramour  would 
not  object. 

Although  they  counted  by  moons,  still  they  had  an- 
other mode  for  long  periods,  which  was  to  reckon  from 
the  time  the  sun  was  farthest  north,  till  he  was  at  his 
southern  extremity,  and  then  back  again.  Summer  was 
counted  from  the  time  frogs  were  first  heard  to  croak. 
This  was  used  to  count  war  scrapes  by,  and  under  the 
recollection  of  the  chief.  When  other  tribes  had  to  be 
chastised,  the  chief  sent  an  express  to  all  other  lodges. 
They  brought  up  from  children  a  number  of  males,  who 
were  taught  to  hear  long  stories  by  the  chief  and  to  repeat 
them  word  for  word.  In  this  manner  they  became  so 
perfect  as  to  be  able  to  recite  the  longest  oration  any  one 
could  produce. 

They  were  not  much  given  to  travel,  for  they  only  relate 
of  one  who  left  his  people  and  proceeded  north  till  he 


OF   LOS   ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA.  d 

Clime  to  the  laud  where  the  geese  breed.  And  even  he 
appears  to  have  possessed  that  property  ascribed  to  his 
race,  for  on  his  return  he  informed  them  of  having  fallen 
in  with  people  whose  ears  reached  down  to  the  hips ; 
others  of  a  small  stature  ;  and  finally  a  people  so  perfect 
that  they  would  lay  hold  of  a  rabl^it  or  other  animal,  put 
it  near  the  mouth,  draw  a  long  breath  and  then  throw  the 
rest  away ;  which  on  examination  was  nothing  but  excre- 
ment !  They  sucked  with  their  breath  the  essence  of  the 
food  and  so  lived  without  any  calls  of  nature. 

LETTER   VI. 

Food  and  Raiment. 
The  animal  food  used  by  the  Gabrielinos  consisted  of 
deer  meat,  young  coyotes,  squirrels,  badgers,  rats,  go- 
phers, skunks,  raccoons,  wild  cats,  the  small  crow,  black- 
birds and  hawks,  and  snakes,  with  the  exception  of  the 
rattlesnake.  A  few  eat  of  the  bear,  but  in  general  it  was 
rejected  on  superstitious  grounds.  The  large  locust  or 
grasshopper  was  a  favorite  morsel,  roasted  on  a  stick  at 
the  fire.  Fish,  whales,  seals,  sea-otter  and  shell-fish 
formed  the  principal  subsistence  of  the  immediate  coast 
range  lodges  and  Islanders.  Acorns,  after  being  divested 
of  the  shell,  were  dried  and  pounded  in  stone  mortars, 
put  into  filterers  of  willow  twigs  worked  into  a  conical 
form  and  raised  on  little  sand  mounds,  which  were  lined 
inside  with  two  inches  of  sand  ;  water  added  and  mixed 
up ;  tilled  up  again  and  again  with  more  water,  at  first 
hot,  then  cold,  until  all  the  bitter  principle  was  extracted  ; 
the  residue  was  then  collected  and  washed  free  of  any 
sandy  particles  it  might  contain  ;  on  settling,  the  water 
was  poured  off";  on  being  well  boiled  it  became  a  sort  of 
mush,  and  was  eaten  when  cold.  The  next  favorite  food 
was  the  kernel  of  a  species  of  plum  which  grows  in  the 

ESSEX    INST.    BULLKTIN,    VOL.    XVII.  2 


10  HUGO   RIED'8   account  OF   THE   INDIANS 

mountains  and  islands.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  moun- 
tain cherry,  although  it  partook  little  of  either,  having  a 
large  stone  -wrapped  in  liljre  and  possessing  little  pulp. 
This,  cooked,  formed  a  very  nutritious,  rich,  sweet  ali- 
ment and  looked  much  like  dry  frijoles.  Chia,  which  is 
a  small,  gray,  oblong  seed,  was  procured  from  a  plant 
apparently  of  the  thistle  kind,  having  a  number  of  seed 
vessels  on  a  straight  stalk,  one  above  the  other  like  sage. 
This  roasted  and  ground  made  a  meal  which  was  eaten, 
mixed  with  cold  water,  being  of  a  glutinous  consistence 
and  very  cooling.  Pepper  seeds  were  also  much  used, 
likewise  the  tender  tops  of  wild  sage.  Salt  was  used  spar- 
ingly, as  they  considered  it  having  a  tendency  to  turn 
the  hair  gray.  All  of  their  food  was  eaten  cold  or  nearly 
so. 

The  men  wore  no  clothing;  the  women  of  the  interior 
wore  a  short  waist  skirt  of  deer-skin,  while  those  of  the 
coast  had  otter-skin.  Covering  for  sleeping  consisted  of 
rabbit-skin  quilts.^  The  women  wore  ear-rings,  the  men 
passing  a  piece  of  cane  or  reed  through  the  ear  lobe. 
The  ear-rings  of  the  women  were  composed  of  four  long 
pieces  of  whale's  tooth  ground  smooth  and  round,  about 
eight  inches  in  length,  and  hung,  with  hawks'  feathers, 
from  a  ring  of  abalone  shell.  Their  necklaces  were  very 
large  and  heavy,  and  consisted  of  their  money  beads,  of 
beads  made  of  black  stone®  and  pieces  of  whales'  teeth, 
ground  round  and  pierced.  They  used  bracelets  of  very 
small  shell  beads  on  both  wrists. 

LETTER    VII. 

Marriages. 
Chiefs  or  captains  had    one,  two,   or  three  wives,  as 
their   inclinations    dictated.      Their   subjects    only    one. 
When  a  person  wished  to  marry,  and  had  selected  a  suit- 


OF    LOS    ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA.  11 

able  partner,  he  advertised  the  same  to  his  relations. 
On  the  day  appointed,  the  male  portion  of  the  lodge  and 
male  relations  living  at  other  lodges,  brought  in  their 
contributions  of  shell-bead  money,  generally  to  the  value 
of  twenty-five  cents  each.  The  contribution  read}'',  they 
proceeded  in  a  body  to  the  residence  of  the  bride  where  all 
of  her  relations  were  assembled.  The  money  was  then  di- 
vided equally  among  thera,  the  bride  receiving  nothing,  as 
it  was  a  purchase.  After  a  few  days,  the  l)ride's  female 
relations. returned  the  compliment  in  taking  to  the  bride- 
groom's dwelling  baskets  of  meal  made  of  Chia,  which 
was  distributed  among  his  male  relations.  These  prelim- 
inaries over,  a  day  was  fixed  for  the  ceremony,  which 
consisted  in  decking  out  the  bride  with  innumerable 
strings  of  beads,  paint  and  skins.  Being  ready,  she  was 
taken  up  in  the  arms  of  one  of  the  strongest  of  the  tribe 
who  carried  her,  dancing,  towards  her  sweetheart's  habi- 
tation, all  her  family  connections  dancing  around  and 
throwing  food  and  edible  seeds  at  her  feet  at  every  step, 
which  were  collected  by  the  spectators  as  best  they  could 
in  a  scramble.  The  relations  of  the  groom  came  and  met 
them,  taking  a^vay  the  bride  from  the  carrier  and  doing 
the  duty  themselves,  as  likewise  joining  in  the  ceremonious 
walking  dance.  On  arriving  at  the  bridegroom's  lodge, 
%vho  was  within  waiting,  the  bride  was  inducted  into  her 
new  residence,  placed  beside  her  husband,  and  baskets  of 
seeds  emptied  on  them  to  denote  blessing  and  plenty. 
These  were  likewise  scrambled  for  by  the  spectators,  who, 
in  gathering  up  all  of  the  "  seed  cake,"  departed,  leaving 
them  to  enjoy  their  honeymoon  according  to  usage.  The 
bride  never  visited  her  relations  from  that  day  forth,  but 
was  at  liberty  to  receive  their  visits. 

Should  the  husband  beat  the  wife  and  ill-treat  her,  she 
gave   advice   of  it  to  her  lodge,  when  her  relations  col- 


12  HUGO    RIED'S    account    of    the    INDIANS 

lectetl  all  the  money  which  had  been  paid  at  her  marriage, 
took  it  in  deputation  to  the  husband's  lodge,  left  it  with 
him  and  led  oflf  the  wife,  whom  they  married  immediately 
to  another. 

LETTER    VIII. 

Birth  and  Burial. 
Immediately  on  the  birth  of  a  child,  the  mother  and  in- 
fant were  purified,  in  the  following  manner :  In  the 
centre  of  a  hut  a  large  hole  was  dug,  and  an  immense  fire 
was  kindled  in  which  large  stones  were  heated  until  red- 
hot.  When  nothing  remained  but  hot  embers  and  the 
stones,  bundles  of  wild  tansy  were  heaped  on  the  same 
and  covered  all  over  with  earth,  with  the  exception  of  a 
small  chimney  or  aperture.  The  mother  had  then  to 
stand  over  the  aperture  with  her  child  wrapped  up  in  a 
mat,  flannel  fashion ;  water  was  then  poured  by  degrees 
in  at  the  opening  which  caused  immense  quantities  of  steam 
or  vapor,  causing  the  patient  to  hop  and  skip  a  little 
at  first  and  provoked  profuse  perspiration  afterwards. 
When  no  more  steam  was  procurable,  the  mother  and 
child  lay  down  on  the  heap,  covered  up,  until  the  steam- 
ing was  renewed  again.  Three  days  was  the  term  of 
purification,  morning  and  evening  being  the  times  of 
sweating.  No  food  was  allowed  the  mother  during  that 
time,  and  her  drink  (water)  was  warmed.  She  was  now 
allowed  to  eat  of  everything  at  discretion,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  animal  food,  which  was  debarred  her  for  two 
months.  Her  diet  at  length  complete,  three  pills  were 
prepared  of  the  size  of  a  musket  ball  composed  of  one 
part  of  meat  and  one  part  of  wild  tobacco.  These  swal- 
lowed, she  was  allowed  to  eat  meat ;  but  she  was  not  per- 
mitted to  share  her  husband's  bed  until  the  child  was  able 
to  run. 


OF   LOS    ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA.  13 

When  a  person  died  all  the  kin  collected  to  lament  and 
mourn  his  or  her  loss.  Each  one  had  his  own  peculiar 
mode  of  crying  or  howling,  and  one  could  be  as  easily 
distinguished  from  the  other,  as  one  song  from  another. 
After  lamenting  awhile,  a  mourning  dirge  was  sung  in  a 
very  low  tone,  accompanied  by  a  shrill  whistling  by  blow- 
ing into  deers'  bones.  Dancing  can  hardly  be  said  to  have 
formed  a  part  of  their  rites,  as  it  was  merely  a  monoto- 
nous action  of  the  foot  by  stamping  on  the  ground.  This 
WMS  continued  until  the  body  showed  signs  of  decay, 
when  it  was  wrapped  up  in  its  covering  with  the  hands 
across  the  breasts  and  tied  from  head  to  foot.  A  grave 
having  been  dug  in  their  burial  place,  the  body  was  in- 
terred according  to  the  means  of  the  family,  by  throwing 
in  seeds,  etc.^  If  deceased  was  the  head  of  a  family,  or  a 
favorite  son,  the  hut  was  set  fire  to,  in  which  he  died,  and 
all  of  his  goods  and  chattels  burned  with  it,  reserving 
only  some  article  with  which  to  make  a  feast  at  the  end  of 
twelve  months. 

LETTER    IX. 

Medicine  and  Diseases. 

Medicine  men^*^  were  esteemed  as  wizards  and  seers,  for 
they  not  only  cured  disease,  but  caused  disease  and  poi- 
soned people  ;  made  it  rain  Avhen  required  ;  consulted  the 
Great  Spirit  and  received  answers  ;  changed  themselves 
into  the  form  of  diverse  animals,  and  foretold  cominir 
events. 

The  medicine  man  collected  the  poison  used  for  dipping 
the  heads  of  arrows.  Fire  was  supposed  to  destroy  its 
hurtful  properties,  consequently  the  fiesh  of  animals  so 
killed  were  eaten  Avithout  any  misgivings.  The  Seers 
pretended  not  only  to  know  poisons  which  destroyed  life 
by  giving  it  internally,  but  also  others  which  the  simple 


14  HUGO    RIED'S    account   of   the   INDIANS 

touch  was  sufficient  to  produce  the  desired  eifect ;  and 
that  some  were  instantaneous,  and  that  others  required 
one,  two,  or  even  twelve  months  before  action  took  effect. 

Rheumatism  comprised  nearly  all  the  general  com- 
plaints. Syphilis"  was  unknown.  Toothache  seldom 
troubled  them.  Rheumatism  was  treated  by  applying 
a  string  of  blisters,  each  the  size  of  a  dime,  to  the  affected 
part.  The  fur  off  the  dry  stalks  of  nettles  was  used  for 
blistering;  this  was  rolled  up,  compressed,  and  applied 
with  saliva;  then  fire  was  applied,  when  it  burned  like 
punk ;  as  one  was  extinguished,  another  was  lit.  For 
lumbago,  they  drank  of  a  sweating  herb  and  lay  down  for 
twenty  or  thirty  hours  in  hot  ashes.  Fever  was  treated 
by  giving  a  large  bolus  of  wild  tobacco  mixed  with  lime 
(of  shells),  causing  vomiting,  besides  other  herbs  and 
manipulations  of  the  Seer. 

Local  inflammation  was  scarified  with  pieces  of  sharp 
flint  and  procuring  as  much  blood  as  possible  from  the  part. 
Paralysis,  stagnation  of  the  blood,  etc.,  was  treated  by 
whipping  the  part  or  limb,  with  bunches  of  nettles  for  an 
hour  or  two,  likewise  drinking  the  juice  of  thorn  apple 
which  caused  ebriety  for  two  or  three  days.  Decline  (of 
rare  occurrence)  was  treated  by  giving  the  cooked  meat 
of  the  nuid  turtle  for  a  period  of  time. 

Shell  lime  was  well  known,  but  none  made  from  lime- 
stone. For  an  emetic,  it  Avas  mixed  with  wild  tobacco 
and  taken  immediately  in  bolus,  but  in  a  more  agreeable 
form  it  was  pounded  up  and  formed  into  a  cake,  and  used 
in  fragments  as  required. 

Strangury  was  treated  by  sweating,  as  in  the  lying-in 
woman,  only  marsh  mallows  were  employed  instead  of 
tansy ;  then  a  large  bolus  of  chewed  tobacco  produced 
general  laxation  and  prostration  which  often  produced 
relief  at  once.       If  this  failed,  drawing  blood  by  sucking 


OF    LOS    ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA.  15 

the  abdomen  immediately  above  the  bladder  hardly  ever 
failed  to  give  relief.  This  operation  was  performed  with 
a  great  many  rites,  prior  to  the  suction,  such  as  smoking 
to  the  Great  Spirit,  pressure  and  frotation  [sic]  of  the  ab- 
domen with  the  hands,  and  a  song  at  the  end  of  every 
verse  concluded  with  the  words 

Non  im  mainoc,  ni  mainoc, 
Non  im  maiuoc,  ni  mainoc, 

Yobare ! 
"  I  do,  what  I  am  doing, 
I  do,  wliat  I  am  doing. 

Oh  Church ! " 

Bites  of  snakes  were  cured  by  the  application  of  ashes 
and  herbs  to  the  wound,  and  herbs  and  ashes  and  the  fine 
dust  found  at  the  bottom  of  ants'  nests  given  internally. 

Red  clay  was  sometimes  applied  to  the  hair,  covering 
it  all  over,  and  allowing  it  to  remain  for  twenty-four 
hours  when  it  was  washed  ofl',  to  prevent  the  hair  from 
splitting. 

Chilicotes  were  burnt  to  charcoal  and  applied  morning 
and  evening  to  cure  baldness. 

LETTER    X. 

Tradition. 
There  were  seven  brothers  Avho  married  seven  sisters  — 
according  to  their  respective  ages  —  who  lived  in  a  large 
hut  together.  The  husbands  went  daily  to  hunt  rabbits, 
and  the  wives  to  gather  flag-roots,  for  food.  The  hus- 
bands invariably  returned  first,  and  on  the  wives'  arrival 
reported  always  bad  luck  in  hunting,  with  the  exception 
of  the  youngest  brother  who  invariably  handed  his  wife  a 
rabbit.  Consequently  the  poor  women  fared  badly  in 
regard  to  animal  food.  Tliis  continued  as  a  daily  occur- 
rence for  a  length  of  time,  until  in  a  conference  held  by 


16  HUGO  ried's  account  of  the  Indians 

the  women  they  expressed  a  conviction  of  being  cheated 
by  their  husbands,  declaring  it  strange  that  with  the  sole 
exception  of  the  youngest  husband,  nothing  was  ever 
killed.  At  the  same  time  to  find  out  the  truth,  they 
agreed  that  the  youngest  should  remain  at  home  the  fol- 
lowing day  under  pretence  of  toothache  and  watch  the 
return  of  the  party.  Next  day  the  men  as  usual  took 
their  bows  and  arrows  and  set  forth.  The  six  sisters  then 
departed,  leaving  the  other  hidden  among  flags  and 
rushes  at  the  back  of  the  house,  in  such  a  position  as  to 
command  a  view  of  everything  transacted  within.  Sev- 
eral hours  before  sunset  the  hunting  party  returned  laden 
with  rabbits,  which  they  commenced  roasting  and  eating, 
with  the  exception  of  one  which  the  youngest  put  apart. 
The  others  called  him  a  fool,  telling  him  to  eat  the  rabbit, 
which,  however,  he  refused  to  do,  saying  he  esteemed  his 
wife  a  little  and  always  intended  to  reserve  one  for  her. 
"  More  fool  you,"  said  the  others,  "  we  care  more  for  our- 
selves than  for  them."  The  feast  concluded,  the  bones 
were  carefully  gathered  together  and  concealed  in  a  suit- 
able place  outside.  After  some  time,  the  youngest  wife 
arose  and  presented  herself  in  the  hut,  to  the  surprise  of 
the  males,  who  asked  her  where  she  came  from?  "I  have 
been  asleep  at  the  back  of  the  house,"  answered  she,  "and 
I  have  only  this  minute  awoke,  having  had  to  remain  be- 
hind from  toothache."  After  a  while  the  women  came 
home,  who  ran  to  their  sister  asking  for  her  health. 
They  soon  found  an  opportunity  to  leave  the  hut  and  learn 
the  results  of  the  espionage,  besides  visiting  the  place 
where  the  bones  were  deposited.  They  cried  very  much 
and  talked  over  what  they  should  do.  "  Let  us  turn  to 
water,"  said  the  eldest.  This  was  objected  to  by  all  the 
rest,  saying  that  their  husbands  would  then  drink  them, 
which  would  never  do.     The  second  proposed  that  they 


OF    LOS    ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA.  17 

should  turn  into  stones,  Avhich  was  likewise  rejected,  be- 
cause they  would  be  trod  upon.  The  third  wanted  them 
to  turn  into  trees;  rejected,  as  their  husbands  would  use 
them  for  firewood  ;  and  so  on  until  it  came  to  the  turn  of 
the  youngest,  who  proposed  they  should  change  them- 
selves into  stars ;  an  objection  was  made  on  the  ground 
that  their  husbands  would  always  see  them,  which  was  at 
length  overruled  from  the  circumstance  of  being  out  of 
reach.  They  accordingly  went  to  the  lagoon  where  they 
procured  flagroots,  and  making  an  engine  (flying  concern) 
out  of  reeds,  they  ascended  to  the  sky  and  located  them- 
selves as  the  seven  stars. 

Only  the  youngest  brother  appeared  to  be  vexed  at  the 
loss  of  his  wife,  and  sought  her  daily.  One  day,  having 
wandered  to  the  edge  of  the  lagoon,  his  wife  had  compas- 
sion on  him  and  spoke,  directing  his  attention  to  the  ma- 
chine they  had  made,  telling  him  to  ascend.  He  did  so, 
but  not  wishing  him  in  their  immediate  vicinity,  he  was 
placed  a  little  way  off. 

A  song  survives,  having  reference  to  the  seven  stars. 

LETTER   XI. 

Sports  and  Games. 
Few  games,  and  of  a  gambling  nature.  The  principal 
one  was  called  churchurki  (or  peon,  Spanish).  It  con- 
sists in  guessing  in  which  hand  a  small  piece  of  stick  was 
held  concealed,  by  one  of  the  four  persons  who  composed 
a  side  who  sat  opposite  to  each  other.  They  had  their 
singers  who  were  paid  by  the  victorious  party  at  the  end 
of  the  game.  Fifteen  pieces  of  stick  were  laid  on  each 
side,  as  counters,  and  a  person  named  as  umpire,  who, 
besides  keeping  account,  settled  the  de])ts  and  prevented 
cheating,  and  held  the  stakes.  Each  person  had  two 
pieces  of  wood,  one  black    and  one    white.     The  white 

ESSKX    INST.    UULI.KTIN,    VOL.    XVII.  3 


18  HUGO   REID'S    account    of   the    INDIANS 

alone  counted,  the  black  being  to  prevent  fraud,  as  they 
had  to  change  and  show  one  in  each  hand.  The  arms 
were  crossed  and  the  hands  hidden  in  the  lap ;  they  kept 
changing  the  pieces  from  one  hand  to  the  other.  Should 
they  fail  to  guess  right,  he  lost  his  peon,  and  counters 
allotted  to  the  others,  and  so  on  until  the  counters  were 
gone,  or  all  the  peons  killed,  when  the  others  had  a  trial. 
They  bet  almost  everything  they  possess.  The  umpire 
provided  the  line  and  was  paid  by  the  night. 

Another  game  called  charcharake  was  played  between 
two,  each  taking  a  turn  to  throw  with  the  points  down 
eight  pieces  of  split  reed,  eight  or  ten  inches  long  and 
black  one  side. 

Another  game,  called  hararicuai^  consisted  in  throwing 
rods  or  canes  of  the  length  of  a  lance,  at  a  ring  put  in 
motion,  and  see  who  could  insert  it.  The  ring  was  made 
of  Inickskin  with  a  twig  of  willow  inside,  and  four  inches 
in  diameter.     This  is  not  played  now.^-^ 

Football  was  played  by  children  and  by  those  swift  of 
foot.     Betting  was  indulged  in  by  the  spectators. 

LETTER    XII. 

Legend. 
In  Muhuvit,^^  which  lies  behind  the  hills  of  San  Fer- 
nando, a  woman  married  a  captain  of  Verdugas.  The 
woman  was  very  stingy  and  selfish,  and  when  the  people 
brought  them  roasted  rabbit,  she  devoured  it  alone  and 
never  invited  any  one  to  eat  with  her.  The  young  chiefs 
would  surround  her,  but  she  never  invited  any  of  them. 
They  returned  to  their  houses,  and  when  their  mothers 
in(|uired  if  they  had  partaken  of  the  feast,  said  no. 
Then  the  peojjle  got  angry  about  it,  and  asked  the  hus- 
band to  send  her  home  again  to  her  mother.  She,  by 
this  time,   had  a  daughter.     Old  men  spoke  with  him ; 


OF    LOS    ANCiELES    CO.,    CALIFOUNIA.  19 

do  what  you  like,  said  the  husband.  The  old  men  accord- 
ingly ordered  the  people  to  hunt  ral^bits  as  usual,  l)ut  to 
stuff  them,  before  roasting,  with  pieces  of  wet  buckskin, 
lizards,  and  other  unpalatable  reptiles.  They  did  so  be- 
fore giving  the  repast.  The  old  man  asked  of  the  chief, 
what  was  to  be  done  with  the  daughter,  whether  to  take 
her  away  or  not?  "Leave  her,"  said  he,  "to  die  with  her 
mother."  This  day,  however,  she  invited  her  spectators, 
for  on  taking  out  the  leg  of  a  toad,  she  inquired  what  it 
was?  "It  is  a  quail,"  she  was  answered.  "Eat  it  thou, 
then,"  said  she,  and  so  she  proceeded,  taking  out  strange 
substances  and  giving  them  away.  An  order  w^as  like- 
wise given  to  refuse  her  water,  and  being  very  lazy,  it 
was  presumed  she  would  not  go  to  the  spring.  The  re- 
past gave  her  great  thirst.  "  Give  me  water  !"  but  none 
was  procurable.  She  proceeded  from  hut  to  hut,  with 
like  success,  until  she  arrived  at  the  last,  where  a  large 
basket  of  urine  was  prepared  for  her;  she  nearly  finished 
it  at  three  sups,  only  leaving  a  little  for  her  daughter. 
This  occurred  every  day  ;  at  the  end  of  ten  days,  all  her 
hair  fell  out,  and  from  being  very  pretty,  she  became  old 
and  wrinkled.  Seeing  herself  in  such  a  state,  she  deter- 
mined to  return  to  her  father,  and  taking  her  daughter  in 
her  arms,  she  left ;  but  on  the  road,  she  repented,  having 
taken  her  daughter,  and  said,  "What  a  fool  I  am  to 
be  carrying  this  load,  as  if  they  liked  m6  so  much."  So 
she  threw  it  away.  After  going  some  little  distance  she 
looked  back  and  seeing  the  little  infant  stretch  out  its 
little  arms  to  her,  her  heart  softened,  and  she  exclaimed, 
"What  fault  has  it  committed?"  she  turned  back  and 
took  it  up  again.  She  went  on  and  on  until  she  got  so 
weak  she  could  go  no  farther ;  at  last  she  was  at  a  great 
rock,  when  she  took  the  child  by  the  heels  and  dashed 
its  brains  out,  the  blood  of  which  is  still  visible  at  this 
aay. 


20  HUGO    RIED'S   account    of   the    INDIANS 

Many  aflSrm  the  child  did  not  die  but  turned  into  a 
squirrel. 

Then  the  mother  went  on  alone  until  she  came  to  the 
place  where  her  mother  usually  kept  her  seeds  and  acorns, 
and  lay  down  with  the  Charnuca.  At  length  her  mother 
came  to  take  out  food,  and  on  putting  in  her  hand  gave  a 
loud  cry  and  jumped  back.  "Yes,  be  afraid  of  me," 
said  the  daughter,  "  after  all  the  injury  you  have  heaped 
on  me  by  marrying  me  to  a  man  who  did  not  care  for 
me."  The  mother  then  heard  the  story,  and  left  to  in- 
form the  father,  taking  him  out  of  the  hut  so  no  one  might 
hear  it. 

The  father  proceeded  with  his  wife  to  take  food  to  their 
daughter,  and  every  day  they  brought  her  the  same,  and 
herbs  to  drink  so  as  to  restore  her  to  health  and  purge  her 
of  the  filth  she  had  eaten  ;  also  to  restore  her  hair  and 
eyebrows,  which  she  had  lost,  they  applied  the  fat  or  oil 
of  the  hamisar,  a  black  berry.  In  three  moons  she  was 
well  again,  fat,  young  and  beautiful,  hair  nearly  equal  to  her 
father's  and  brother's,  which  reached  to  the  ground.  She 
was  commanded  then  by  her  father,  to  go  and  bathe  herself 
daily  in  her  brother's  bathing  place.  She  did  so,  and  the 
brother  from  seeing  the  water  when  he  came,  not  limpid 
as  usual,  suspected  something.  At  last  coming  one  day, 
shortly  after  the  other  had  done,  he  was  convinced,  and 
more  so  on  finding  a  hair  half  the  length  of  his  own. 
This  troubled  him  much,  that  others  were  bathing  in  his 
well,  and  he  became  sad.  At  last,  arriving  one  day,  he 
caught  her  in  the  bath,  and  saying,  "so  it  is  you  who  daily 
dirty  the  water  of  my  well,"  caught  her  by  the  leg  and 
threw  her  out ;  she  fell  back  and  he  beheld  her  nakedness. 
This  caused  her  so  great  grief  and  shame,  that  she  left 
and  proceeded  to  the  seashore  to  drown  herself.  She 
made  a  run  twice  to  throw  herself  into  the  sea  but  each 


OF    LOS   ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA.  21 

time  turned  liack,  but  the  third  [.sv'c]  time  :icconiplished  it. 
The  brother  returned  to  the  house  and  told  his  mother 
of  having  found  an  unknown  woman  in  his  bath  and  threw 
her  out  of  it  and  saw  her  nakedness.  The  father  and 
mother  left  the  hut  together,  and  on  seeking  their 
daughter  could  not  find  her.  "  She  has  gone  from 
shame,"  said  the  mother;  "Where  shall  we  find  her?" 
The  father  took  the  twig  of  a  willow,  made  a  ring  of  it, 
and  covered  it  with  buckskin ;  this  was  thrown  to  the 
north,  it  returned  again  ;  he  threw  it  to  the  south,  and 
the  same  result ;  he  then  threw  it  east ;  then  w^est,  the 
ring  following  all  the  turnings  and  windings  of  the  daugh- 
ter. The  father  followed  the  ring  until  it  came  to  the  sea- 
shore. "She  has  drowned  herself,"  said  he,  when  he  saw 
the  ring  enter  the  ocean.  He  returned,  debatino^  with 
himself  whether  it  was  better  to  punish  his  son  first,  or  the 
chief  of  Verdugas  ;  he  determined  on  the  former  first. 
On  arriving  home  he  told  his  wife  who  cried  bitterly, 
which  amazed  the  people  much.  Calling  together  all  of 
his  people,  he  told  them  they  must  take  his  son  with  them 
on  a  hunting  excursion  and  let  him  be  killed  by  wild 
beasts.  His  son  was  accordingly  decked  out  in  all  his 
ornaments  and  money  beads  and  told  to  go  with  the  people 
hunting,  when  they  were  to  stay  out  all  night.  He  went, 
and  they  slept  out,  and  the  next  morning  a  fire  was  kindled 
at  which  all  were  warming  themselves.  One  of  the  old 
Seers  had  brought  a  screech  owl  with  him,  hidden,  which 
was  no  other  than  the  father  of  the  boy,  which  he  let  out 
and  frightened  all  the  people  who  ran  ofi"  leaving  the  boy 
alone,  when  a  large  bird,  the  Ciiivot  (cry  cu,  nothing  of 
which,  save  its  shadow,  had  ever  been  seen),  said  to  bo 
the  boy's  f;ither  in  another  form,  came  and  took  him  up. 
Then  the  people  came  back  crying,  "the  Cwcot  has  carried 
oil'  the  chief's   son."      As  they  came  up,  the  bones  came 


22  HUGO  ried's  account  of  the  Indians 

tiiinblinir  clown  from  above.     The  bones  were  then  buried 
and  the  people  returned  to  their  huts. 

Shortly  afterwards,  the  chief  saw  some  one  coming  and 
went  to  meet  him  ;  "  Where  are  you  going,  where  are  you 
from  ?  "  "  From  Verduga."  "  Oh  !  "  said  the  chief,  "  How 
are  you  getting  on  there  ?  "  "  Very  well,  the  chief  is  get- 
ting another  wife,  and  a  great  feast  is  preparing."  "Be  it 
so,"  said  he,  "  they  have  laughed  much  at  me,  now  we 
shall  laugh  and  all  perish  together.  What  were  they  do- 
ing when  you  left  this  morning?"  "The  women  had  all 
gone  to  gather  prickly  pears."  Hearing  this,  he  went  to 
Avhere  the  women  were  gathered,  and  said,  "  What  are 
3^ou  gathering  so  many  prickly  pears  for  ? "  "  For  the 
feast,"  said  they,  "as  the  captain  is  to  be  married." 
"  Take  a  sieve,"  said  he  to  an  old  woman,  "and  fill  it  with 
tunas^*  and  sift  the  fine  thorns  into  my  eyes."  She  re- 
fused ;  he  insisted  and  the  others  told  her  to  do  as  com- 
manded. He  opened  his  eyes  wide  and  she  commenced, 
when  all  of  the  women  set  up  a  wail  at  once.  They 
were  blind.  He  burst  out  laughing  and  said,  "Now  I 
laugh,  it  is  my  turn  now."  He  left  them  and  went  to 
where  the  feast  was  prepared,  and  going  round  to  the  west 
side  changed  himself  into  a  huge  eagle  and  went,  low 
down,  to  where  the  feast  was.  On  seeing  an  eagle  come, 
they  cried  out,  "  Catch  it,  catch  it !"  with  the  exception  of 
an  old  woman  who  was  taking  care  of  her  grandchildren 
during  her  daughter's  absence,  who  immediately  covered 
the  children  with  a  blanket,  and  cried  out  to  the  people 
not  to  touch  the  eagle,  as  it  was  a  human  being  and  not  a 
bird.  The  people  only  called  her  an  old  liar,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  catch  it,  which  they  did.  "  Let  us  pull  its 
wings  off,"  said  they,  and  they  did  so.  Blood  gushed  out 
from  one  side  and  green  matter  from  the  other.  Fever 
and  bilious  vomiting  commenced  among  them,  and  killed 


OF   LOS    ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA.  23 

all  of  the  people  but  the  old  woman  and  her  two  grand- 
children. The  old  woman  had  to  bnry  the  dead  the  best 
way  she  could  and  to  burn  the  things.  The  eagle  soared 
up  above  and  never  more  was  heard  of. 

The  old  woman  brought  up  the  young  ones,  and  when 
old  enough,  she  constructed  a  bow  with  arrow  for  the  boy, 
and  a  batea  for  the  girl,  teaching  the  one  how  to  shoot 
and  the  other  to  clean  seed.  The  boy,  at  last,  killed  first 
a  lizard,  then  a  mouse,  then  a  gopher.  When  old  enough 
she  married  them,  but  shortly  after  the  girl  turned  out 
bad  ;  at  first  she  gave  the  old  woman  to  eat,  but  after- 
wards she  refused  to  give  her  any  meat  brought  by  the 
husband.  The  old  woman,  to  be  revenged,  took  an  awl 
made  of  deer's  bone  and  placing  it  where  the  other  sat, 
she  hurt  herself;  she  put  it  into  the  bath,  and  again  hurt 
herself.  When  her  husband  came  home  she  acquainted 
him,  saying,  "I  have  had  injury  done  me  twice,  and  know 
I  have  to  die  ;  at  any  time  you  are  out  in  the  hills  and  I 
die,  you  will  know  it  by  feeling  some  drops  of  water  fall- 
ing on  your  left  shoulder."  Not  long  after,  when  out  hunt- 
ing, he  felt  the  drops  as  he  had  been  told  he  would.  He 
threw  the  bow  and  arrows  away  and  hastened  home.  In 
the  meantime  the  old  woman  had  burned  and  buried  the 
body.  "AVhere  is  m}''  wife?"  "I  have  buried  her." 
"  Thou  hast  done  this  and  shalt  die  for  it ;  "  taking  up  a 
billet  of  W'Ood  to  knock  her  brains  out,  when  she  changed 
into  a  gopher  and  hid  in  the  ground.  The  husband  re- 
mained three  days  and  nights  by  his  wife's  grave.  On  the 
third  day  he  saw  a  small  whirlwind  arise  which  soon  gave 
out,  then  another  a  little  larger,  and  a  third,  still  larger, 
came  out  of  the  grave,  and  he  arose  and  followed  it. 
After  going  a  long  distance  he  perceived  footprints  on  the 
ground  where  it  passed  over.  "  This  is  my  wife's,"  said 
he,  and  he  followed  an  iinniense  distance,  and  a  voice  from 


24  HUGO    RIED'S    account    of   the   INDIANS 

the  whirlwind  addressed  him  and  said,  "  Return  to  your 
hut."  "No,"  said  he,  "I  intend  going  wnth  thee  for- 
ward." "That  cannot  be,"  said  the  spirit,  "for  I  am  not 
as  formerly.  I  am  dead  to  the  world,  and  you  cannot  go, 
for  no  human  being  can  go  where  I  am  going,  nor  can 
earthly  eyes  behold  our  figures  ;  therefore  return."  He 
w^ould  not.  "  Well ,"  said  the  voice,  "  how  can  I  take  thee, 
there  is  an  immense  sea  to  pass."  At  last  finding  him 
positive,  she  bound  him  to  her  waist  with  her  sash,  tell- 
ing him  to  hold  his  breath  as  they  went  through  the  air. 
They  arrived  at  last  in  the  land  of  spirits  where  he  could 
see  nothing  like  human  fonns,  and  only  heard  innumer- 
able voices,  exclaiming,  "  What  a  stench  of  something 
earthly,  you  must  have  brought  that."  The  wife  ac- 
knowledged she  had,  but  exculpated  herself  on  the  ground 
that  the  being  she  brought  w^as  a  superior  one,  being  not 
only  a  great  hunter,  but  could  do  anything.  "  Return 
him  to  the  earth  again,  take  him  away,"  exclaimed  the 
voices.  But  one  voice  at  length  said,  "  Let  us  try  him 
first  and  see  what  he  can  do."  He  was  ordered  to  climb 
a  pole  of  great  length,  and  bring  down  a  feather  from  the 
top.  He  felt  afraid  to  ascend,  but  his  wife  told  him  to 
try,  but  not  to  look  down  wiiile  doing  so.  He  accom- 
plished the  feat  and  there  was  great  applause,  when  the 
voices  cried  out  aijojyui-cushna — our  brother-in-law — is 
good  at  climbing.  He  was  then  given  a  long  hair  and  told 
to  split  it  from  end  to  end.  This  again  made  his  courage 
fail,  but  his  wife  told  him  to  do  it  and  to  have  faith.  He 
had  faith  in  her  word  and  the  hair  split  from  end  to  end 
with  ease.  "  Well  done,  our  brother-in-law,"  exclaimed 
the  voices.  He  was  told  to  make  a  map  of  the  constel- 
lation of  Ursus  Major  and  show  the  position  of  the  North 
star.  Ho  felt  great  fear  to  attempt  this  as  he  had  seen 
the  Seers  do  this  but  had  never  learned  it  himself.     His 


OF    LOS    ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNLV.  25 

wife  again  aided  him  and  he  came  out  triumphant.  They 
then  wanted  to  test  his  hunting  powers,  and  four  of  them 
were  dispatched  to  drive  the  deer  into  his  range.  He 
soon  heard  loud  cries  of  "  Brother-in-law,  there  go  the 
deer,"  but  no  deer  could  he  see.  The  spirits  ridiculed 
his  hunting.  Another  trial  Avas  made  with  the  same  re- 
sult. At  last  his  wife  told  him  he  would  be  given  a  third 
trial  and  that  he  must  kill  this  time.  "How  can  I  kill 
deer  if  there  be  none,"  he  said.  "Did  you  not  perceive 
black  beetles?"  said  his  wife.  "Yes."  "Well,  those  are 
deer ;  things  are  diflerent  here  to  what  they  are  on  earth, 
kill  them."  They  went  on  their  third  hunt,  and  hearing 
the  cry  of  "There  they  go,"  he  saw  black  beetles  coming 
on  the  sands.  He  drew  his  bow,  shot  at,  and  killed  one ; 
it  was  converted  immediately  into  a  fine,  fat  buck ;  this 
encouraged  him,  and  he  slew  right  and  left,  until  the 
spirits  told  him  to  desist.  The  game  was  carried  home, 
he  saw  the  deer  lifted  from  the  ground  and  carried  in 
the  air,  though  he  could  not  see  the  carriers,  although 
he  could  perceive  their  shadows.  Great  joy  was  mani- 
fested by  all  at  his  success.  "  Sister,"  said  the  other 
spirits  to  his  wife,  "no  one  has  ever  been  permitted  to 
return  to  earth,  as  thou  knowest,  but  as  our  brother-in- 
law  is  so  good  and  he  cannot  participate  in  our  company 
of  those  joys  and  pleasures  Ave  partake,  and  on  account  of 
the  gross  materials  of  which  he  is  formed,  out  of  compas- 
sion to  him,  return  again  to  earth."  And  addressing  him 
they  said,  "Brother-in-law,  return  again  to  the  earth  with 
thy  wife,  but  for  three  days  thou  art  not  permitted  to  co- 
habit with  her,  after  that  time  thou  art  free,  but  a  non- 
compliance will  1)0  attended  Avith  disappointment."  They 
left  the  spirit  realms  and  travelled  on  earth  toAvards  their 
home,  the  wife  still  invisible.  At  night  he  built  a  large 
fire  and  lay  down;  on  aAvakening  before  daylight   he  saw 

KSSKX    INST.    IILI.I.KTIX,    VOL.    XVII.  4 


2G  HUGO    REID'S   account    of   the    INDIANS 

his  wife  lying  ;it  a  short  distance.  They  travelled  the 
second  day  as  before  and  at  night  he  again  made  a  fire  ;  on 
awakening  he  again  beheld  her,  and  although  he  had  re- 
bellious thoughts,  still  he  restrained  himself,  for  he  thought 
that  only  one  day  more  and  he  should  triumph.  The 
third  day  also  jDassed  in  travel  and  on  awakening  that 
night  he  saw  his  Avife  more  distinctly  than  ever ;  love  for  her 
was  this  time  more  poAv^erful  than  reason  ;  the  three  days 
are  assuredly  expired  by  this  time,  and  he  crept  towards 
her.  He  laid  hold  of  the  figure  and  found  an  old  rotten 
trunk  of  a  tree  in  his  arms.  He  remained  a  sorrowi'ul 
wanderer  on  earth  till  his  death. 

Whenever  this  legend  was  to  be  told,  the  hearers  first 
bathed  and  washed  themselves,  then  came  to  listen. 

The  bird  Cuvvot  is  still  believed  in.  It  is  nocturnal  in 
its  habits,  never  seen,  but  sometimes  heard.  Its  cry  was 
simply  Cu.  It  is  said  that  a  man  was  once  carried  away 
by  it  from  the  Lodge  of  Yan  (Los  Angeles). 

Some  state  that  the  return  of  the  woman  to  life  after 
the  soul  had  fled,  could  not  have  happened.  It  being 
only  a  compassionate  ruse  to  get  the  husband  back  to 
earth,  to  return  again  at  a  proper  time  in  the  form  of  a 
celestial  being. 


NOTES. 


Refers  in  particular  to  the  sub-tribe  located  in  the  vicinity  of 
San  Gabriel,  usually  termed  Tobikliar,  and  known  as  the  Kizli 
of  former  investigators.  The  subdivisions  of  the  Kauvuya 
tribe  are  only  recognized  on  account  of  dialectic  diflerences. 
The  tribe  is  one  of  the  group  composing  the  Shoshouian  lin- 
guistic family,  and  formerly  extended  from  the  coast  to  the 
Colorado  river,  and  from  near  San  Piego,  northward  to  the 
San  Fernando  mountains.  Later,  the  tribe  was  divided  into 
the  tSerranos,  or  mountaineers  and  Fkujuanos,  or  lowlanders. 
Of  the  hitter  are  the  Tobikhar. 


OF   LOS    ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA.  27 

Tlio  laniiuage  is  still  spoken  b_v  a  mimber  of  people,  not- 
witli>;tandiiii?  statements  niaile  to  the  contrary.  The  words 
Cahuilla  and  Coaluiilla  should  be  abandoned,  as  they  are  liable 
to  cause  confusion  with  a  similar  name,  of  a  distinct  stock, 
in  Mexico.  The  word  Verdugos  also  occurs  as  Verdugas,  in 
Letter  XII. 
The  herds  of  cattle  and  horses  owned  by  the  Missions  were 
grazed  in  favorable  localities,  each  herd  being  under  the  con- 
trol of  a  chief  herder  and  the  neces.sary  number  of  assistants. 
The  chief  herder's  duty  was,  also,  to  have  every  animal 
branded,  a  record  of  which  was  kept  in  the  shape  of  a 
notched  stick,  or  Bali,  which  was  regularly  submitted  to  the 
major  dovio  of  the  Mission.  Fig.  1  represents  a  stick  of  this 
kind,  now  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Coronel  of  Los  Angeles. 

The  stick  is  about  twenty-four  inches  in  length,  and  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  thick  in  diameter,  each  way.  The  handle  has 
the  edges  bevelled  and  upon  each  of  the  four  faces  thus  pro- 
duced are  the  characters  I,  II,  X,  >• ,  signifying  respectively 
bull,  cow,  heifer  and  ox.  For  cattle,  the  end  opposite  the 
handle  is  notched,  thus  giving  the  rude  idea  of  horns.  For 
horses,  the  end  is  pointed,  in  imitation  of  the  sharp  ear  of  a 
horse.  When  the  stick  is  used  by  a  herder  of  horses,  the 
same  marks  are  used,  upon  the  handle,  as  for  cattle,  but  with 
the  signification,  in  order,  as  follows:  stallion,  mare,  colt, 
gelding.  Whenever  an  animal  is  branded,  a  notch  is  cut  into  the 
sharp  edge  of  the  proper  stick,  and  upon  the  line  of  the  char- 
acter on  the  handle  to  designate  the  sex  or  age  of  the  sub- 
ject. Thus  an  accurate  record  was  kept  of  nil  stock  handled, 
a  custom  and  method  vrhich  was  copied  by  the  Mexican 
herders  and  retained  until  a  few  years  ago. 

Notched  sticks  were  also  used  by  the  herders  and  laborers 
to  record  their  accounts  with  the  major  dome.  These  sticks 
were  nicely  worked  out  of  dogwood,  polished,  though  not 
quite  as  long  as  the  above.  Only  two  sides  were  used,  one 
bearing  the  character  IXI,  for  money,  and  a  simple  line  cut  cross- 
wise, for  work.  On  the  money  side  there  were  notches  for 
reals  and  long  cuts,  extending  across  the  stick,  for  dollars. 
Upon  the  opposite  side  notches  for  days  worked,  and  lines 
across  the  surface  for  weeks.  In  this  manner  credit  could  be 
given  on  the  "  money  side,"  and  there  was  always  exactness 
between  these  stick  records  and  those  kept  in  proper  form  by 
the  superiors. 

Other  records  were  also  examined  by  the  writer,  in  which 


28  HUGO   RIED's   account   of   the   INDIANS 

the  authors  had  recourse  to  paper;  at  the  top  of  the  sheet 
was  a  representation  of  the  brand  used,  and  beneath  the 
regular  number  of  short  and  long  lines,  denoting  the  decimal 
system  of  recording.  Sometimes  small  rings  were  inserted 
at  every  tenth  point,  instead  of  the  longer  vertical  stroke. 

When  a  rancheria  possessed  cattle  only,  there  was  no  neces- 
sity for  notching  the  end  of  the  stick  to  denote  "  cattle,"  as 
there  was  no  cause  for  error.  Consequently  the  sticks  were 
cut  off  transversely,  without  any  specific  pointing  or  notching. 
The  same  was  adopted,  also,  where  horses  were  owned,  ex- 
clusively. 

Tattooing  was  practised  and  nearly  all  of  the  older  mem- 
bers of  the  tribe  still  bear  faint  lines  upon  the  chin;  this  is 
noticeable  to  a  greater  extent  among  the  women  than  the  men. 
At  present,  personal  ornamentation  is  done  in  colors  only, 
applied  in  the  form  of  vertical  lines  upon  the  chin,  transverse 
bars  upon  the  cheeks,  or  both.  The  tattoo  design  worn  by  a 
laud-owner,  formerly  served  as  a  property  mark  by  being  cut 
or  painted,  upon  trees  or  posts  selected  to  indicate  the  boun- 
daries. These  marks  were  almost  equivalent  to  the  owner's 
uame,  and  were  known  to  the  remainder  of  the  tribe.  In 
this  respect  of  engraving  tattoo  marks  upon  the  bark 
of  trees,  there  is  great  resemblance  to  a  custom  prac- 
tised by  the  natives  of  New  Zealand,  where  the  facial  deco- 
rations of  a  dead  man  are  reproduced  upon  ti'ees  near  his 
grave ;  this  is  equal  to  an  autograph  and  can  be  readily  inter- 
preted by  a  native. 

Knotted  cords  were  used  by  some  of  these  Indians,  in  busi- 
ness transactions,  a  custom  adopted  after  their  northern 
neighbors,  the  Palonies, —  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Chemeliuevi, — 
so  called  by  the  Spanish  settlers,  on  account  of  wearing  the 
hair  cut  so  short  as  to  suggest  the  idea  of  "baldheadedncss." 
The  method  of  using  knotted  cords  was  in  the  following 
manner :  Each  year  the  Paloni  selected  a  certain  number  of 
their  tribe  to  visit  the  settlement  to  sell  native  blankets,  and 
every  one  who  sent  goods  provided  the  salesman  with  two 
cords,  twisted  out  of  the  hair  of  some  animal,  on  one  of 
which  a  knot  was  tied  for  every  real  received,  and  on  the 
other,  the  number  of  blankets  sold.  When  the  amount 
reached  one  dollar,  a  double  knot  was  made.  Upon  the  return 
of  the  agent,  each  person  would  select  his  own  cords,  count 
up  the  number  of  blankets  sold  and  the  amount  received  for 
the  goods,  lor  which  the  ^;eller  was  responsible. 


OF   LOS    ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNLV.  29 

3.  The  combination  of  the  letters  g  and  h  is  intended  to  represent 

the  sound  of  the  Spanish  j  in  mujer ;  ach,  German,  etc.,  now 
expressed  by  the  character  /.  In  the  MS.,  Mr.  Ried  wrote 
the  letter  g  over  the  h. 

4.  During  the  time  of  the  writer's  recent  investigations  among  the 

few  Indians  remaining  in  the  vicinity  of  Santa  Barbara,  he 
learned  the  tribal  designations  of  that  people,  which  they 
gave  as  Sioqtun'.  The  band  occupying  the  region  about  the 
Cathedral  Oaks,  was  known  as  the  Snmwitsh.  That  located 
nearer  the  coast,  at  the  Partera,  the  Saq'pili'.  All  town 
villages,  i.  e..  at  Santa  Barbara,  were  called  Mikique.  The 
Indians  formerly  living  in  Santa  Cruz  Island  (now  extinct) 
termed  themselves  Tsliiima.  (In  the  preceding  words,  the  q 
has  the  sound  of  ch,  in  German  nicht). 

5.  The  word,  at  the  present  time,  is  iu'at. 

6.  Three  forms  of  war- clubs  are  given  in  Figures  2,  3  and  4.     They 

are  all  made  of  extremely  hard,  heavy  wood,  and  in  some 
examples  there  is  evidence  of  an  attempt  at  ornamentation, 
done  in  lines  burnt  upon  the  surface,  no  doubt  with  a  metallic 
substance.  The  club  represented  in  Fig.  2,  measures  thirty- 
four  inches  in  length,  one  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter 
near  the  handle,  and  two  and  a  half  inches  at  the  opposite 
end;  Fig.  3  measures  eighteen  inches  in  length,  the  handle 
two  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter,  while  the  four-sided 
head,  four  inches  each  way,  is  armed  with  sharp  conical 
points  of  wood  projecting  nearly  an  inch  iibove  the  surface. 
These  projections  are  of  hard  wood,  and  are  secured  by  a 
socket,  into  which  the  pieces  were  driven  previous  to  point- 
ing. 

Fig.  4  is  of  the  same  length  as  the  preceding;  it  has  three 
sides,  each  face  measuring  four  inches  in  width,  with  just 
sufficient  handle  to  aflbrd  a  good  grasp. 

The  object  represented  in  Fig.  5  was  used  as  an  accompa- 
niment to  the  rattle,  in  dances.  Two  pieces  of  hard  wood 
twenty  inches  long,  each  two  inches  broad  and  a  little  more 
than  half  an  inch  thick,  are  secured  at  the  handle  with  thongs 
and  vegetable  gum,  allowing  the  ends  of  tlie  wooden  blades 
to  be  about  an  inch  apart.  This  is  shaken,  and  makes  a  noise 
resembling  clapping  of  hands.  Fig.  6  is  a  rattle,  made  by 
passing  a  wooden  haniUe  through  two  boards,  each  throe  and 
three-fourths  by  four  inches  in  width,  over  which  rawhide  is 
stretched  to  form  a  hollow  case.  Inside  of  this  are  seeds, 
and  small  stones.     The  top  is  ornamented  with  feathers. 

7.  Rabbits  were  killed  with  the  Mafcdna,  or  boomerang,  the  form  of 


30  HUGO    RIED's    account    of   the   INDIANS 

which  is  given  in  Fig.  7.  The  original  measures  two  feet 
in  lengtli  in  a  strnigiit  line,  one  and  one-fourth  inches  across 
at  the  handle  and  one  and  tiiree-fourtiis  inches  at  the  l)roadest 
part.  The  average  tliiclcness  is  about  tiiree-fourths  of  an 
inch.  The  weapon  is  made  of  hard  wood  (apparently  dog- 
wood, or  mesquite),  and  ornamented  with  various  markings 
which  are  burnt  upon  the  surface.  The  end  opposite  the 
handle  is  finished  so  as  to  imitate  the  head  of  what  appears  to 
be  a  snake. 

When  viewing  the  weapon  edgewise,  it  will  be  observed 
that  considerable  curve  exists,  but  it  is  not  known  that  these 
Indians  were  ever  acquainted  with  the  art  of  throwing  the 
Makdna  so  as  to  produce  the  strange  and  erratic  motions  pur- 
sued by  a  boomerang  at  the  hands  of  a  native  Australian. 

The  weapon  was  thrown  near  the  ground,  so  as  not  to  pass 
over  a  rabbit  while  it  was  running.  Its  general  form  seems 
similar  to  the  Zuiii  Kleani,  and  a  similar  weapon  used  by  the 
Moqui,  a  notice  of  which  was  first  published  by  the  writer 
in  the  Trans.  Anthrop.  Inst,  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
Vol.  IX,  p.  464. 
8.  The  black  beads  referred  to  are  made  of  dark,  greenish  black  ser- 
pentine, some  specimens  resembling  diorite,  excepting  as  to 
hardness.  They  vary  in  size ;  the  smallest  one  measuring  about 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  one-eighth  in  thickness, 
and  the  largest,  known  to  the  writer,  measures  seven-eighths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter  by  one  and  a  half  inches  in  length.  The 
perforation  in  this  specimen  is  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  presents  transverse  striae  caused  by  the  sand 
used  in  drilling. 

The  shell  beads  were  usually  made  of  Haliotis  and  Tivola. 
Shell  money-beads  were  flat,  and  about  one-third  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.  Other  beads  used  for  necklaces  were  cylindri- 
cal or  sub-cylindrical,  larger  in  the  middle  than  toward  either 
end.  Many  of  them,  found  in  graves,  present  the  same  style 
of  delicate  perforations  as  we  find  in  the  beads  from  Santa 
Cruz  Island.  The  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  tliese  narrow 
perforations  were  made  by  means  of  sea  lions'  whiskers  as 
drills,  and  extremely  fine  silicious  dust.  The  channels  are 
scarcely  large  enough  to  admit  a  good  sized  thread,  and  in 
several  beads  which  have  split  lengthwise  it  is  apparent  that 
drilling  was  done  from  both  ends,  as  the  perforations  cease  a 
short  distance  beyond  the  middle  of  the  bead,  thus  passing 
one  another,  perhaps  less  than  the  tenth  of  an  inch.  It  is 
evident,  from  the  appearance  of  other  unfinished  specimens- 


OF   LOS   ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA.  31 

that  the  boring  was  begun  by  using  a  stone  drill  —  of  which 
many  and  various  forms  occur — after  which  the  bristle  was 
applied.  The  chauuLls  are  slightly  conical  toward  the  outer 
end,  and  at  about  one-fourth  the  length  of  the  shell  there  is  a 
constriction  beyond  which  and  near  the  middle  of  the  bead, 
the  channel  again  becomes  wider,  assuming  an  elliptical 
form.  No  doubt  the  rapid  rotary  motion  of  a  flexible  drill 
would  cause  sufficient  divergence  to  produce  such  an  effect. 
In  addition  to  this,  delicate  transverse  strise  are  also  visible 
without  the  aid  of  a  lens.  A  body  was  recently  discovered 
on  Santa  Cruz  Island,  with  which  was  obtained  a  bunch  of 
these  bristles  carefully  wrapped  from  end  to  end.  Further- 
more, it  is  well  known  that  Chinamen  on  the  Pacific  coast 
purchase  all  the  bristles  of  the  sea  lion  that  can  be  obtained, 
paying  twenty-five  cents  apiece  therefor,  to  be  prepared  and 
sold  as  tooth-picks. 

Most  of  the  shells  required  for  use  were  obtained  at  the 
Santa  Catalina  Islands.  These,  as  well  as  the  islands  oppo- 
site Santa  Barbara,  are  fine  localities  for  Haliotis  shells  even 
at  this  time.  The  Serpentine,  used  in  making  beads,  ollas 
and  large  rings,  was  also  obtained  at  the  islands  first  named. 

Between  Los  Angeles  and  the  coast,  near  San  Pedro,  gravestones 
were  erected  to  the  memory  of  the  deceased,  or,  perhaps 
simply  to  identify  the  location  of  the  body,  so  that  his  friends 
might  come  to  ofler  food,  and  to  mourn.  Fig.  8  represents 
the  etchings  upon  a  pit-ce  of  sandstone  slab  obtained  from  the 
above  mentioned  locality.  On  account  of  the  fracture  of  the 
specimen,  and  the  loss  of,  perhaps,  important  parts,  only  a 
few  characters  are  visible,  but  these,  resembling  whales,  were 
evidently  carve«l  there  to  show  that  the  deceased  had  been  a 
fisherman  or  whale  hunter.  Such  a  custom  prevails  very 
extensively  among  the  Kiat6/amut  Innuit  of  southern 
Alaska.  There,  the  profession  of  a  man,  and  even  a  woman, 
is  carefully  recorded  upon  wooden  slabs. 

The  term  Shaman  is  more  appropriate  in  this  connection.  The 
Seer  was  an  individual  whose  profession  was  distinct  from 
that  of  the  Shaman.  With  some  tribes  there  are  Kain- 
makers,  etc.  During  the  performance  of  religious  or  profes- 
sional ceremonies,  the  Shaman  resorts  to  many  and  various 
utterances  and  movements  not  understood  by  the  unitiated. 
liattles,  small  dried  animals  or  skins,  curiously  shaped  veg- 
etable growths,  rare  sparkling  minerals  and  wrought  stones 
of  odd  forms,  are  employed  as  fetishes.  Among  the  last 
named  the  writer  found  both  oblong  and  pyriform  polished 


32  HUGO    EIED'S    account   of   the   INDIANS 

Stones,  such  as  have  hitherto  been  considered,  and  described, 
as  "  plummets,  plurab-bobs,  sinkers,  and  weights."  An  old 
Tobikhar  said  that  such  stones  would  require  too  much  time 
and  labor  to  be  used  only  to  cast  into  the  sea.  The  Indians 
terra  them  "  medicine  stones,"  and  consider  them  as  possess- 
ing medicinal  properties. 

That  the  Shaman  also  prepared  arrow-poison,  there  is  no 
doubt.  Nearly  all  of  the  tribes  between  the  Pacific  ocean  and 
the  Kocky  mountains  had  more  or  less  knowledge  of  plants, 
insects,  or  other  materials,  wliich  rendered  it  capable  of  pro- 
ducing septicaemia  in  any  person  or  animal  wounded  thereby. 
For  more  extended  information  by  the  present  writer,  re- 
specting the  methods  of  preparation,  and  the  tribes  by  whom 
used,  see  Bull.  Societe  d' Anthropologie  de  Paris,  Vol.  VI,  3rd 
Series,  1883,  p.  205,  et  seq. ;  Verhandl.  Berliner.  Gesell.  fur 
Anthrop.  Ethnol.  und  Uryesch.,  1880,  p.  91,  et  seq. 

1 1.  Although  the  author  says  that  siphylis  was  unknown,  there  is 

every  reason  to  suppose  that  this  disease  made  its  appear- 
ance among  the  coast  and  island  Indians  at  a  very  early  day. 
A  skull,  which  the  writer  obtained  at  Santa  Cruz  Island  — 
and  has  in  his  possession  still, —  shows  great  destruction 
over  the  left  parietal  bone,  beginning  at  the  temporal  bone 
and  extending  backward  and  upward,  so  as  to  embrace  the 
surface  of  nearly  the  lower  half  of  the  temporal,  while  on  the 
frontal  bone  the  erosion  extended  to  greater  depth,  taking  in 
part  of  the  external  portion  of  the  supra  orbital  ridge,  thence 
upward  for  about  one  inch  and  across  the  forehead  to  a  point 
above  the  middle  of  the  right  orbit.  In  the  middle  of  these 
eroded  areas  are  the  more  recent  deposits  of  bony  matter, 
forming,  what  may  have  been  a  healthy  reconstruction  of  the 
parts.  The  skull  is  an  extremely  interesting  one,  and  the 
only  specimen  of  this  kind  known  to  the  writer  to  have  been 
obtained  at  that  locality.  From  the  general  style  of  burial, 
and  the  primitive  forms  of  the  relics  obtained  from  the  grave, 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  body  was  not  of 
recent  years. 

12.  This  game  was  played  by  many  tribes  of  Indians,  and  was  called 

"  Chunkee  "  by  Adair,  who  observed  it  among  the  Muskoki. 
The  writer  saw  it  played  by  the  Coyotero  Apaches,  in  1871,  at 
Camp  Apache,  A.  T.,  and  an  extended  notice  of  the  subject 
was  printed  in  the  American  Naturalist,  1878,  Vol.  XII,  pp. 
478-481. 

The  Indians  at  Santa  Barbara  also  played  a  similar  game, 
using  a   barrel-shaped  stone  ring,  three  inches  in  diameter 


OF    LOS    ANGELES    CO.,    CALIFORNIA.  33 

and  four  in  length,  at  which  the  players  shot  arrows,  the  idea 
being  to  penetrate  the  liole  while  tlie  ring  was  in  motion. 
The  players  stood  upon  either  side  of  the  course. 

13.  Probably  the  country  of  the  Rlojaves,  the  tribal  name  of  which  is 

Anio/awi  or  Amo;^anii.  The  western  range  of  their  territory 
formerly  extended  along  the  northern  slope  of  the  San  Fer- 
nando range,  but  how  far  westward  is  not  known. 

14.  Tunas,  generally  known  as  prickly  pears,  are  the  edible  fruit  of 

several  varieties  of  Opuntia,  or  broad-leaved  cactus.  These 
were  sometimes  crushed  and  mixed  with  the  meal  of  seeds 
or  acorns.  Many  of  the  mortars  found  in  southern  California, 
are  merely  circular,  flat  stones,  having  a  slight  depression  on 
one  side  upon  which  the  pounding  was  done.  To  prevent  the 
scattering  of  seed,  a  funnel-shaped  basket  was  constructed, 
similar  to  those  used  for  carrying  fruit,  etc. ;  the  lower  apex 
was  cut  off  allowing  the  hole  to  be  nearly  as  large  as  the  stone 
mortar.  The  cut  edge  of  the  basket  was  then  temporarily  se- 
cured to  the  mortar  by  applying  a  thick  coating  of  l)itumen. 
The  basket  thus  served  as  a  hopper.  When  the  surface  of  a 
mortar  became  smooth  by  use,  it  was  again  roughened  by 
pecking  it  with  a  sharp  piece  of  quartz  or  chalcedony,  both 
of  which  are  abundant. 

ESSEX  INST.    BULLETIN,    VOL.    XVII.  5 


riof^^^a^.3e\. 


OPENING  OF  HATTERAS  INLET. 


COMMUNICATED  BY  WILLIAM  L.  WELCH. 


Hatteras  Inlet  is  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina,  be- 
tween Cape  Hatteras  and  Ocracoke  Inlet,  al)out  twelve 
miles  from  the  Cape,  southwest ;  and  fourteen  miles  north- 
east of  Ocracoke. 

It  is  mentioned  in  Blunt's  Coast  Pilot,  but  not  in  the 
Gazetteers,  or  Encyclopedias  :  it  is  surprising  that  no  ac- 
count of  this  Inlet  and  harbor  so  remarkable  in  itself,  and 
of  so  much  interest  in  the  late  war,  by  reason  of  the  Burn- 
side  Expedition  passing  through  it,  can  be  found  in  any 
of  these  books  of  reference. 

The  writer  was  stationed  at  Hatteras  Inlet  in  the  summer 
of  1864,  for  about  a  month,  and  was  then  told  by  one  of 
the  native  pilots  (Reuben  Quidley)  that  the  place  where  the 
inlet  is,  and  the  Avater  three  or  four  fathoms  deep,  used  to 
be  dry,  solid  land,  and  that  he  (Quidley)  had  often  walked 
over  it. 

When  in  Jan.,  1884,  the  writer  undertook  to  determine 
the  date  of  the  opening  or  cutting  through  of  this  Inlet,  he 
consulted  everything  attainable,  without  success,  and  as  a 
last  resort,  wTote  (Jan.  12th)  to  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  for  such  particulars  as  they  could  and 
would  communicate.  In  the  answer  to  this  (dated  Jan. 
21st)  the  information  was  received,  that  the  first  survey  of 
the  place  in  question,  w\as  made  in  1850,  and  the  results  were 
published  in  the  Coast  Survey  Reports  for  1851 — and  fur- 
ther 

(37) 


38  OPENING  OF  HATTERAS  INLET. 

"  No  mention  is  made  of  the  inlet  having  been  recently  formed.  I 
have  written  to  tlie  oflicer  who  made  this  survey  and  also  to  others 
who  from  their  age  and  interest  in  the  locality  would  be  likely  to 
know  something  of  it,  and  so  far  as  any  of  them  know,  the  inlet  has 
existed  from  remote  times.  Can  your  question  refer  to  Oregon  Inlet, 
at  Bodie's  Island,  considerably  higher  up  the  coast?  That  inlet  was 
formed  by  the  hurricane  of  Sept.  8,  1846." 

This  answer  was  not  satisfactory,  and  Jan.  25th,  a  commu- 
nication was  sent  to  Hon.  Thos.  J.  Jarvis,  Governor  of 
North  Carolina,  asking  the  same  questions,  and  giving  the 
result  of  the  enquiry  at  Washington,  as  set  forth  above. 
Jan.  28th  the  Governor  replies  : 

"  There  was  a  time  in  the  present  half  century  when  there  was  no 
Hatteras  Inlet.  It  was  cut  out  in  some  great  storm  within  that  time. 
I  cannot  to-day  give  you  the  exact  date,  but  will  do  so  soon." 

This  was  encouraging,  but  the  matter  lay  dormant  until 
a  letter  was  received  from  Gov.  Jarvis,  dated  April  14,  as 
follows : 

"After  considerable  delay,  I  have  at  last  got  upon  the  track  of  the 
information  you  desired  as  to  the  opening  of  Hatteras  Inlet.  It  took 
me  some  time  to  get  hold  of  a  man  who  could  fix  the  exact  time.  I 
have  inquired  of  many  and  most  of  them  like  myself  had  a  general  idea 
of  the  fact  that  it  was  cut  out  some  forty  years  ago." 

A  letter  dated  April  22d  was  next  received  from  Gov. 
Jarvis,  enclosing  one  from  Col.  Juo.  D.  AVhitford  of  New 
Berne,  N.  C,  to  the  Governor,  and  one  from  lledding  E.. 
Quidley,  Esq.,  of  Hatteras  Inlet  to  Col.  Whitford.  Col. 
Whitford's  letter  c(mtained  an  account  of  a  chart  in  his  pos- 
session dated  1738,  made  by  James  Wimble,  on  which  an 
inlet  is  shown  between  Ocracoke  Inlet  and  Cape  Hatteras  ; 
and  Mr.  Quidley's  letter  contained  an  account  of  the  cut- 
ting through  of  the  present  inlet  in  Sept.  1846. 

Here  was  a  starting-point,  and  the  next  step  was  to 
determine,  if  possible,  when  the  old  inlet  closed,  Avhere  it 


OPENING    OF    IIATTERAS    INLET.  39 

was  situated,  and  if  it  could  or  could  not  be  idcntitied  with 
the  present  inlet.  The  writer  in  the  meanwhile  had  sent 
a  letter  to  the  Secretary  of  "War,  asking  for,  and  had  re- 
ceived (through  the  Engineer  Department),  "Appendix  G 
of  the  Annual  lleport  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers  for  1876, 
containing  the  Annual  Report  upon  the  Improvement  of 

Rivers  and  Harbors  in North  Carolina."  In  this, 

the  report  of  S.  T.  Abert,  U.  S.  Civil  Eng.  to  Brig.  Gen. 
A.  A.  Humphreys,  Chief  of  Eng.  U.  S.  A.,  has  a  "Table 
showing  comparative  conditions  of  the  Inlets  on  the  coast 
of  Xorth  Carolina  at  diliercnt  dates,"  giving  with  others 
the  condition  of  Ilatteras  Inlet  as  shown  by  maps  of  Hariot 
1585,  Lawsou  1708,  Wimble  1738,  Mouziu  1775,  Atlantic 
Neptune  1780,  Lewis  1795,  and  U.  S.  Coast  Survey  1875. 
In  each  and  every  one  of  these  charts  or  maps,  Ilatteras 
Inlet  is  indicated  as  being  open,  and  the  table  shows  that 
the  Engineer  that  compiled  it,  understood,  and  intended 
to  convey  the  impression,  that  the  same  inlet  was  there 
in  1875  that  existed  in  1585  and  that  it  Avas  at  the  same 
place  on  the  coast. 

A  searoJi  by  the  writer  among  the  old  charts  in  possession 
of  the  Essex  Institute,  Salem,  Mass.,  was  the  means  of 
discovering  a  "Chart  of  the  Coast  of  America  from  Cape 
Hateras  to  Cape  Roman  from  the  actual  Surveys  of  Daniel 
Dunbiljin,  Esq."  This  chart  is  bound  with  others  in  "  The 
American  Pilot"  pul)lished  at  Boston  by  William  Norman, 
Book  and  Chart  seller,  an  edition  of  1794.  This  chart 
has  no  inlet  between  Cape  Ilatteras  and  Ocracoke,  and 
gives  4  fathom  of  water  on  bar  at  Ocracoke,  and  9  ft.  6 
in.  shoalest  water  on  bar  inside.  A  careful  perusal  of  the 
available  histories  of  North  Carolina  in  the  Boston  Public 
Library  was  made,  and  in  Vol.  2  of  Martin's  History  of 
North  Carolina,  page  184,  this  paragraph  occurs: 


40  OrENlNG    OF    IIATTERAS    INLET. 

"  1764.  A  chart  of  the  sea  coast  having  been  made  by  Daniel  Dun- 
bibbin,  was  this  year  published  by  his  widow,  to  whom  the  legislature 
allowed  a  small  premium." 

This  last  inforniutioii  seems  to  indicate  that  the  charts 
of  Mouzlu  1775,  Atlantic  Neptune  1780,  and  Lewis  1795 
(mentioned  before)  are,  as  regards  an  inlet  between  Cape 
Hatteras  and  Ocracoke  Inlet  entirely  wrong,  and  are  simply 
copies  of  Wimble's  or  some  other  older  chart.  The  letter 
of  Mr.  Qnidle}^  received  in  April  through  Col.  Whitford 
and  Gov.  Jarvis,  was  dated  at  Hatteras  Inlet,  N.  C,  Apr. 
7,  1884,  and  says: 

"I  will  say  in  regard  to  your  request,  that  Hatteras  Inlet  was  cut 
out  by  a  heavy  gale,  a  violent  storm  on  the  7th  of  Sept.,  at  night, 
184G.  The  first  vessel  that  passed  through  into  Pamlico  Sound,  was 
schooner  Asher  C.  Havens,  on  the  5th  day  of  Feb'y,  1847,  Capt.  David 
Barrett,  Commander :  I  was  pilot  of  said  schooner,  conducted  her 
through  all  safe.     No  other  vessel  had  ever  passed  through  the  Inlet. 

The  first  vessel  that  ever  crossed  over  the  bar  of  Hatteras  Inlet  was 
in  Jan.,  '47.  I  was  then  a  licensed  pilot  for  Ocracoke  Inlet,  got  on 
board  to  pilot  the  schooner  into  Ocracoke,  wind  came  ahead,  I  went 
into  Hatteras  Inlet  for  harbor,  stayed  all  night,  went  out  next  morn- 
ing and  went  into  Ocracoke.  I  cannot  give  any  correct  report  what 
time  the  first  vessel  passed  out,  it  was  not  long  after  the  first  passed 
through ;  the  second  vessel  passed  through  about  two  weeks  after  the 
first,  it  was  a  small  steamer  bound  through  Core  Sound,  I  piloted  it 
through." 

In  another  letter  to  the  Avriter  of  this,  Mr.  Quidley  says  : 

"I  was  licensed  to  pilot  at  Ocracoke  Inlet  in  1831 ;  I  then  lived  at 
Hatteras  and  when  I  piloted  a  vessel  in  at  Ocracoke,  which  very  often 
would  be  two,  three,  or  four  a  week,  and  walked  home  to  Hatteras, 
there  was  nothing  to  cause  me  or  any  one,  to  have  any  idea  that  there 
would  be  an  inlet  there,  sooner  than  any  other  part  of  the  beach; 
there  was  no  water  passed  over  the  place  except  in  those  heavy  east- 
erly gales,  when  as  a  general  thing  it  passes  over  nearly  all  our  beach 
from  Hatteras  to  Ocracoke.  The  day  the  inlet  was  cut  out,  there  were 
several  families  living  where  the  inlet  is  now,  they  had  no  more 
thought  of  seeing  an  inlet  there,  than  of  any  part  of  the  beach,  but 
to  their  great  surprise,  in  the  morning  thoy  saw  the  sea  and  sound 


OPENING   OF    HATTERAS   INLET.  41 

connected  together,  and  the  live  oaks  washing  up  by  the  roots  and 
tumbling  into  the  ocean.  I  was  well  acquainted  with  the  growth  of 
the  land  where  the  inlet  now  is,  I  lived  with  my  brother  where  the  in- 
let is  now.  I  have  worked  with  him  cutting  wood  and  chopping  yo- 
pon,  where  now,  I  have  no  doubt  there  is  three  or  four  fathoms  of 
water;  the  growth  was  live  oak  principally,  did  not  grow  tall,  but 
large  trunks  and  spreading  limbs.  I  had  an  old  uncle  lived  about 
where  the  inlet  is,  who  had  a  flue  fig  orchard,  and  many  peach  trees 
on  his  lot,  with  fine  potato  patch  and  garden." 

Again  he  writes  : 

"  Since  I  wrote  you  last,  I  have  conversed  with  the  two  oldest  men 
living  on  this  portion  of  the  Banks  (one  is  in  his  75th  year,  the  other 
in  his  72d),  both  born  and  raised  where  the  inlet  is  now. 

John  Austin,  the  eldest,  says  he  remembers  his  grandfather  very 
well;  he  says  he  has  heard  the  old  gentleman  say,  there  was  an  inlet 
about  six  miles  southwest  of  where  the  inlet  is  now;  he  states  that 
the  old  man  said  there  was  an  English  vessel,  a  ship,  ran  on  the  bar 
of  said  inlet,  and  was  lost,  and  the  wreck  sanded  up  and  the  beach 
made  down  to  it  and  finally  closed  up  the  inlet;  Mr.  Austin's  grand- 
father's name  was  Styron;  died  Mch.  7,  1825,  aged  86  yrs. 

The  other  man  I  talked  with  was  William  Ballance.  He  says  his 
father  died  in  182G,  GS  years  old ;  he  says  he  heard  his  father  say  that 
he  had  seen  a  piece  of  wreck  standing  up,  right  at,  or  near  the  place 
that  Austin  speaks  of  as  being  the  place  where  the  inlet  was,  and 
bad  been  told  by  older  people,  that  it  was  the  stern  post  of  the  ves- 
sel that  closed  up  the  inlet.  This  place  that  they  speak  of  is  about 
five  or  six  miles  from  this  inlet  we  have  now,  between  two  points 
known  now  as  '  Shingle  Creek'  and  '  Quake  Hammock. '  " 

In  a  letter  from  Mr.  Quidley  dated  Sept.  29,  1884,  he 
says  : 

"The  Shingle  Creek  is  about  5  miles  from  Hatteras  Inlet,  is  40  or 
50  yds.  wide,  makes  up  through  a  portion  of  marsh  and  a  low  growth 
of  woods  or  bushes  to  the  beach,  but  not  through  the  beach ;  and  a 
little  to  northeast  of  it  there  is  another  creek,  about  like  the  one  just 
named,  called  the  "  Old  Inlet  Creek,"  which  I  think  might  take  its 
name  from  being  somewhere  near  where  the  inlet  was.  The  "  Great 
Swash"  is  a  level  place  of  beach,  nothing  growing  on  it  but  some 
grass  or  sedge  next  to  the  sound  side,  and  extends  about  a  mile  to 
next  growth  of  woods  called  "Knole":  the  Quake  Hammock  is  a 
small  clump  of  woods  lying  between  Shingle  Creek  and  Great  Swash. 

I  cannot  give  tlie  exact  time  that  vessels  left  oflf  passing  through 

EaSEX  U^ST.    BULLJiTLN,    VOL.    XVU  G 


42  OPENING   OF   HATTERAS    INLET. 

Ocracoke.  I  was  one  of  the  first  Commissioners  of  Navigation  ap- 
pointed for  Hatteras  Inlet,  I  think  in  1852 ;  there  has  been  but  very 
little  passing  through  Ocracoke  Inlet  since  1855 ;  there  is  no  vessel 
passes  through  there  now  except  perchance,  that  a  vessel  goes  in 
case  of  distress  of  weather,  or  head  winds,  and  draws  light  draught 
of  water,  4  or  5  feet." 

To  sum  up  :  we  find  on  the  old  charts  of  the  coast  of 
North  Carolina  from  those  of  1585,  to  that  of  James  Wim- 
ble 1738,  an  inlet  indicated  between  Ocracoke  Inlet  and 
Cape  Hatteras  and  about  eight  miles  northeast  of  the  for- 
mer, known  as  Hatteras  Inlet,  which  from  the  evidence 
given  must  have  closed  near  the  middle  of  the  last  century  ; 
for  the  chart  of  Daniel  Dunbibbiu  was  published  by  his 
widow,  in  1764,  and  this  was  made  from  actual  surveys, 
and  it  has  no  inlet  betAveen  Ocracoke  Inlet  and  Cape  Hat- 
teras ;  and  we  must  conclude  that  all  charts  of  that  coast 
quoted  in  the  paper  above,  made  later  than  Dunbibbin's,  are 
faulty  in  the  matter  of  this  inlet,  and  are  simply  copies  of 
some  previous  chart.  We  also  conclude  that  the  claim  of 
the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey  authorities  that  the  present  inlet 
at  Hatteras  has  "existed  from  remote  times,  "  and  that  of 
Mr.  Abert,  that  this  present  inlet  is  identical  with  that 
of  1585  is  erroneous ;  for  the  evidence  given  cannot  be 
controverted  that  the  present  Hatteras  Inlet  was  opened 
by  the  great  gale  of  Sept.,  1846,  which  was  so  severe  on 
our  southern  coast. 

This  paper  and  its  conclusions  are  respectfully  referred 
to  the  U.  S.  authorities  and  the  publishers  of  Gazetteers 
and  Eucyclopa3dias  for  their  adoption. 


THROUGH  WHICH   INLET   DID    THE   ENGLISH  AD- 
VENTURERS OF  158  4  ENTER  THE   SOUNDS 
OF  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

ALSO 
SO^IE  CHANGES  IN  THE  COAST  LINE  SINCE  THEIR  TIME. 


COMMUNICATED  BY  WILLIAM  L.  WELCH. 


The  following  extracts  are  from  the  report  of  the  voy- 
age under  Amadas  and  Barlowe  (written  by  Barlowe) 
made  in  1584.  After  mentioning  their  arrival  upon  the 
coast,  they  say ; 

"  We  sailed  along  the  same  a  hundred  and  twenty  English  miles  be- 
fore we  could  find  any  entrance  or  river  issuing  into  the  sea.  The 
first  that  appeared  unto  us  we  entered,  though  not  without  some  dif- 
ficulty, and  cast  anchor  about  three  harquebus-shot  within  the  haven's 
mouth,  on  the  left  hand  of  the  same." 

"  This  land  lay  stretching  itself  to  the  west,  which  after  we  found  to 
be  but  an  island  of  twenty  miles  long,  and  not  over  six  miles  broad." 

They  speak  of  visits  of  the  Indians,  and  then  say 

"After  they  had  been  divers  times  aboard  the  ships,  myself  with  seven 
more  went  twenty  miles  into  the  river  that  runs  towards  the  city  of 
Skicoai<,  which  river  they  call  Occam;  and  the  evening  following,  we 
came  to  an  island,  which  they  call  Roanoak,  distant  from  the  harbor 
by  which  we  entered,  seven  ^agues;  and  at  the  north  end  thereof 
was  a  village  of  nine  houses."  "  Beyond  this  island  there  is  the  main 
land,  and  over,  against  this  Island,  falls  into  this  spacious  water,  the 
great  river  called  Occam  by  the  inhaiiitants,  on  which  stands  a  town 
called  Pomeiock,  and  six  days  journey  from  the  same  is  situate  their 
greatest  city  called  Skicoak."  "Into  this  river  falls  another  great 
river,  called  Cipo,  in  which  there  is  found  great  stores  of  muscles, 
in  which  there  are  pearls;  likewise  there  descendeth  into  this  Occam, 
another  river  called  Nomopam,  on  the  one  side  whereof  stands  a  great 
town  called  Chawanook."  "Towards  the  southwest,  four  days  jour- 
ney, is  situated  a  town  called  Sequotan,  which  is  the  southernmost 

(48) 


44  WHICH    INLET   DID    THEY   ENTEK  r 

town  of  Wingandacoa,  near  into  which,  six  and  twenty  years  past, 
there  was  a  ship  cast  away,  whereof  some  of  the  people  were  saved, 
and  those  were  white  people,  whom  the  country  people  preserved. 
And  after  ten  days  remaining  in  an  out  island  uninhabited,  called 
Wocokon,  they  with  help  of  some  of  the  dwellers  of  Sequotan,  fast- 
ened two  boats  of  the  country  together,  and  made  masts  unto  them, 
and  sails  of  their  shirts,  and  having  taken  into  them  such  victuals  as 
the  country  yielded,  they  departed,  after  they  had  remained  in  this 
out  island  three  weeks." 


This  report  was  accompanied  by  a  sketch  of  the  coast 
and  adjacent  country,  as  they  found  it,  extending  from 
perhaps  forty  miles  north  of  Roanoke  to  ten  miles  south 
of  it ;  it  has  five  inlets  drawn  on  it,  the  southern  one 
is  north  of  the  southern  end  of  Roanoke  Island,  the 
next  perhaps  five  miles  north  of  that ;  the  first  one 
north  of  Roanoke  Island,  and  also  north  of  an  island  ap- 
parently "Colliiigton's",  is  marked  "Trinity  Harbor'',  and 
there  are  two  north  of  this,  the  most  northern  one,  might 
be  "Old  Currituck  Inlet" ;  off  these  most  northern  inlets, 
are  anchored  the  two  ships  of  the  adventurers,  and  inside 
apparently  sailing  from  "Trinity  Harbor"  to  "Roanoke 
Island"  is  a  boat  with  one  square  sail,  full  of  men  ;  from  these, 
this  sketch  and  the  text  of  their  report,  the  writer  concludes 
that  tliey  entered  at  "'Trinity  Harbor,'"  north  of  Roanoke 
Island,  which  inlet  teas  about  ivliere  ''Caffey''  inlet  used 
to  be;  that  their  river  Occam  was  our  Albemarle  Sound  ; 
that  their  river  Nomopam  was  our  Chowan  ;  and  that  AVo- 
cokon,  our  Ocracoke,  was  to  them  an  unknown  place; 
that  is,  they  did  not  visit  it,  for  if  they  had,  it  would  be 
reasonable  to  suppose  their  sketch  of  the  coast  would  have 
included  it.  Bancroft  in  his  History  of  United  States  says 
they  entered  at  Wocokon  (our  Ocracoke)  but  it  is  simi)ly  an 
assertion,  and  can  not  be  proved.  Hawks'  History  of  North 
Carolina  gives  New  Inlet,  south  of  Roanoke  Island,  as  the 
place  of  entrance ;  and  that  the  Occam  was  a  part  of  the 


WHICH    INLET    DID    THEY    ENTER?  45 

sound  between  a  line  of  islands  parallel  to  the  coast,  one  of 
which  was  Roanoke ;  but,  as  New  Inlet  was  not  open  at 
that  time,  and  the  river  Nomopam,  on  which  stood  "Chawa- 
nook"  does  not  fall  into  Roanoke  Sound,  this  theory  fails. 
Mr.  AbertjU.  S.  Civil  Eng.  follows  Bancroft,  and  toprovide 
a  river  Occam,  he  connects  Alligator  River  with  long  Shoal 
River  making  one  long  river  of  them,  but  the  same  objec- 
tion afl'ects  his  river  as  that  of  Hawks' ;  he  also  fails  to 
convince  himself  that  Roanoke  Island  is  seven  leagues  only 
from  Ocracoke  Inlet ;  most  probably  his  mistake  arises 
from  confounding  Pomeiock,  a  town  on  Albemarle  Sound 
(at  or  near  Edenton)  with  Pomouik,  near  Secotan,  on  or 
near  Mattamuskeet  Lake  ;  other  authors  place  the  entrance 
of  Amadas  and  Barlowe  at  either  Ocracoke  or  Hatteras 
Inlet.  John  W.Moore,  in  his  history  of  North  Carolina, 
published  in  1880,  places  the  entrance  at  Trinit}^  Harbor 
^'nearly  ojyposite  Roanoke  Island" ;  this  last  is  the  nearest 
of  any  to  what  the  w^-iter  considers  the  facts,  but  as  the 
inlet  entered  was  seven  leagues  from  Roanoke  Island, 
Caffey  Inlet  was  in  all  probability  the  place  of  entrance. 

SOME  CHANGES  IN  THE  COAST  LINE  SINCE  1584. 

Mr.  Abert,  U.  S.  Civil  Eng.,  in  the  Table  of  Condition 
of  Inlets,  in  his  report  to  War  Dept.  in  1876,  saj^s  the  in- 
let known  as  Hatoraskin  1590,  New  in  1738,  Guntin  1775, 
Gant  in  1795,  is  the  same  as  that  known  on  U.  S.  C.  Sur- 
vey chart  of  1875  as  Oregon  :  in  this  he  is  evidently  mis- 
taken, if  we  may  rely  on  the  evidence  of  the  U.  S.  C.  Survey 
office,  that  Oregon  Inlet  was  opened  in  1846.  In  the  same 
table,  the  Ilattcras  Inlet  of  to-day  is  given  as  being  iden- 
tical with  that  of  1585  ;  but  the  evidence  of  R.  R.  Quidley 
and  other  residents  of  Hatteras,  must  be  taken  as  conclu- 
sive, that  the  present  Hatteras  Inlet  was  also  opened  in 
1846.     He  also  says  : 


46  CBLANGES   IN   THE    COAST   LINE. 

"  The  same  inlets  now  exist  between  the  outlying  islands,  and  the 
same  shoals  are  now  found  off  the  coast,  as  were  found  by  the  navi- 
gators of  1584.  The  beach,  banks,  barrier  reefs,  or  whatever  they 
may  be  called,  appear  to  have  been  much  wider  than  at  the  present 
time.  This  seems  to  have  been  notably  the  case  near  Cape  Hatteras. 
The  preservation  of  the  status  of  the  bars  at  the  inlets  for  so  many 
years  indicates  a  permanence  in  the  relation  of  the  forces  by  which 
they  are  maintained." 

Of  the  inlets  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  from  near 
Cape  Henry  to  Ocracoke  Inlet,  that  were  open  in  1585- 
90,  not  one,  except  Ocracoke,  is  open  to-day,  and  Ocra- 
coke is  of  little  use  to  navigation  :  there  was  no  inlet  be- 
tween tliose  near,  and  north  of  Roanoke  Island,  and  one 
which  appears  on  the  maps  as  being  at  Cape  Hatteras. 
The  date  of  closing  of  the  inlet  at  Cape  Hatteras  it  is  im- 
possible to  give,  but  that  there  was  one  admits  of  no  dis- 
pute ;  the  old  maps  give  it,  and  in  the  report  of  the  last 
voyage  made  by  John  White  in  1590,  appears  this  : 

"  On  the  twelfth,  in  the  morning  we  departed  from  thence,  and 
toward  night  we  came  to  an  anchor  at  the  northeast  end  of  the  island 
of  Croatoan,  by  reason  of  a  breach  which  we  perceived  to  lie  out  two 
or  three  leagues  into  the  sea;  here  we  rode  all  that  night."  "This 
breach  is  in  thirty -five  degrees  and  a  half,  and  lays  at  the  very  north- 
east point  of  Croatoan,  where  goes  a  fret  out  of  the  main  sea  into 
the  inner  waters  which  part  the  islands  and  the  main  land." 

As  was  the  course  in  those  days,  White  had  made  the 
West  Indies  first,  then  the  coast  of  Florida,  and  was  coast- 
ing along  towards  Roanoke  Island,  and  the  day  before  the 
event  chronicled  above  had  anchored  off  Cape  Lookout,  or 
near  Beaufort.  Croatoan  was  that  part  of  the  coast  lying 
northeast  and  southwest,  between  old  Hatteras  Inlet  and 
the  inlet  at  Cape  Hatteras. 

The  latitude  given  in  the  extract  above  would  place  the 
breach  and  fret  rather  north  of  the  present  Cape  Hatteras, 
but  an  error  of  15'  to  25'  in  those  days,  would  not  be  too 
much  to  suppose. 


CHANGES    IN    THE    COAST    LINE.  47 

The  trend  of  the  coast  to-day  from  Cape  Henry  to  within 
twenty-five  miles  of  Cape  Hatteras  is  southeast ;  for  the 
next  tweut^'-five  miles  it  is  nearly  due  south,  except  that, 
from  a  few  miles  north  of  the  Cape  it  is  a  little  to  the  west 
of  south.  The  old  maps  of  1585-90  give,  just  south  of 
Koanoko  Island,  a  coast  line  running  nearly  east,  and  so 
far,  that  the  extreme  point  was  far  east  of  Cape  Platteras, 
then  taking  a  southwest  direction  to  within  a  few  miles  of 
Cape  Hatteras ;  it  must  have  heen  on  this  point  that  White, 
in  his  last  voyage,  just  escaped  being  wrecked,  and  here 
also  were  hills,  designated  as  "  Kenrick's  ]\Iount"  :  some 
heavy  storm,  or  series  of  storms,  or  some  great  convulsion 
of  nature  has  entirely  carried  this  away,  and  perha})s  opened 
Loggerhead  and  New  Inlets.  Piatt  and  AVimble  shoals 
are,  perhaps,  all  there  is  left  of  this  large  extent  of  land. 

The  charts  of  Wimble  and  Dunbibbin,  both  give  Cape 
Hatteras  as  jutting  out  into  the  ocean  like  a  sharp  elbow, 
while  to-day,  the  cape  as  shown  by  the  U.  S.  Coast  Sur- 
vey charts  is  rounded  in  and  the  point  all  carried  away. 

These  changes,  noted  al)ove,  are  well  worthy  the  atten- 
tion of  the  U.  S  Coast  Survey  and  Engineer  Department, 
U.  S.  A. 


B  U  L  L  E  T I  N 


ESSEIX:     IIsrSTITTJTEl. 


Vol.  17.  Salem:  Apr.,  May,  June,  1885.        Nos.  4-6. 


ON  THE  CAKATAX  AND  STERNUM  OF  DECAPOD  CRUSTACEA.* 


BY  HOWARD  AYERS,  Ph.D.,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 


The  determination  of  the  homology  of  the  carapax  and 
sternum  among  the  Crustacea  is  rendered  difficult  by  the 
endless  variety  of  forms  assumed  by  their  constituent  parts, 
and  the  consequent  perplexing  differences  in  the  rehition 
of  these  parts  to  each. other.  Before  stating  the  conclu- 
sions and  arguments  in  favor  of  the  solution  at  which  I 
have  arrived  after  a  study  of  several  forms  chiefly  of  the 
Decapod  type,  it  may  conduce  to  clearness  to  give  in  a 
few  words,  the  main  facts  and  conclusions  of  the  previous 
writers  on  this  subject. 

Although  Huxley  (1)  is  the  latest  writer  who  expresses 
views  on  the  homologies  of  the  Crustacean  carapax,  he 
offers  no  new  explanation  but  adheres  to  the  old  conception 


into  a  carapax.  He  writes  (in  describing  Aslacus  flu- 
viatilis)  "The  carapace,  therefore,  corresponds  in  position 
with  the  terga  and  tergal  halves  of  the  pleura  of  all  the 
somites  which  are  thus  reflected  into  it,  and  the.se  somites 


•This  paper  was  prcp.iied  iu  the  Miis.  Conip.  Zoijl.,  uiuler  the  direction  of 
Prof.  W.  Faxon,  in  tlie  ollcgt-  year  ISS-i-SJ. 

ICSSKX   INST.    hULLKTIN,    VOL.    XVII.  7  (49) 


50  ON  THE  CAKAPAX  AND  STERNUM 

include  all,  without  exception,  from  the  last  thoracic  to 
the  ophthalmic.  *  *  *  "  At  the  sides  of  the  antennulary 
and  antennary  somites  the  rostral  prolongation  of  the  car- 
apace is  the  direct  continuation  outward  of  the  epimeraof 
these  somites,  and  there  is  nothing  to  be  compared  to  an 
apodeme,  but  the  sternum  of  the  ophthalmic  somite  after 
giving  oif  the  lamella  which  forms  the  inferomedian  ros- 
trum, is  prolonged  on  each  side  of  the  middle  line  back- 
wards and  outwards  into  a  free,  expanded,  thin,  calcified 
process  which  applies  itself  against  the  carapace  by  its 
upper  surface,  and  by  its  under  surface  gives  attachment 
to  the  anterior  gastric  muscles.  *  *  *  On  the  dorsal  sur- 
face there  is  no  indication  of  any  division  of  the  carapace 
into  terga  corresponding  with  the  sterna  of  the  somites, 
but  it  is  marked  by  a  well-defined  curved  groove.  *  *  *  " 
The  accompanying  diagram  explains  his  views  of  the  so- 
mite in  Astacus. 

Milne-Edwards (2)  considers  the  carapax  in  the  major- 
ity of  the  Decapods  to  consist  of  a  single    piece,  part  of 


Diagram  of  crustacean  segment;  ep,  epimerum;  es,  epistcrnum;  s,  sternum; 
t,  tergum. 


which  is  furnished  by  the  antennary  and  mandibulary  som- 
ites respectively.  This  author  states,  that  while  in  Squilla 
the  carapax  belongs  almost  entirely  to  the  antennary  seg- 
ment, in  Limnetis  on  the  other  hand,  it  pertains  chiefly 
to  the  mandibulary  somite.  Furthermore,  the  tergum  of 
the  antennulary  segment  is  entirely  wanting  in  the  Deca- 


OF   DECAPOD   CRUSTACEA.  51 

pods.  He  continues  (he.  cit.,  p.  233),  "J'ai  fiiit  voir,  dans 
un  autre  ecrit  que  le  carapace,  lors  meme  qu'elle  recouvre 
hi  totulite  du  thorax  aussi  hien  que  toute  \a  portion  cepha- 
lique  du  corps  doit  ctre  cousideree  comnie  une  portion  de 
la  tete  dont  une  portion  dusquelette  s'est  d6velopp6e  d'une 
maniere  excessif,  et  a  chevauche  en  avant  et  en  arrifere 
sur  les  parties  voisines  ;  j'ai  etabli  aussi  qu'elle  appartenait 
au  systeme  des  pieces  tergales,  et  qui  celles-ci  n'etaient 
fournies  ni  par  les  auneaux  ophthalmique  ou  antennulaire, 
ni  par  les  zoonites  cephaliques  posterieures.  II  me  parais- 
soit  probable  qu'elle  dependait  de  I'anueau  autennaire  ou 
de  I'anneau  mandibulaire,  c'est-a-dire  du  troisieme  ou  du 
quatrieme  anneau  de  hi  tete,  mais  qu'elle  ue  procedait  que 
d'lmseul  ces  zoonites.  Les  faits  dont  il  vient  d'etre  ques- 
tion permettent  de  rectifier  une  partie  de  ces  conclu- 
sions, et  d'arriver  a  une  approximation  plus  grande  de 
la  verite.  Eftectivement  I'arceau  cephulique  de  la  carapace 
des  Decapodes  me  semble  ne  pouvoir  etre  qu'une  depend- 
ence de  I'anneau  autennaire,  taut  a  raison  connexions  avec 
les  autres  pieces  du  squelette  tegumentaire,  qu'en  conse- 
quence de  I'origine  des  nerfs  dont  ses  parties  molles  sont 
pourvues,  puisque  ces  nerfs  proviennent  des  ganglions 
cerebroides  ou  sous-a^sophagiens,  taudis  que  les  nerfs 
appartenant  au  appendices  du  zoonite  suivant,  ou  anneau 
mandibulaire,  naissent  des  ganglions  post-cesophagiens. 
Mais  I'arceau  scapulaire  ou  posterieur  de  la  carapace  de  ces 
Crustaces  doit  pour  des  raisons  analogues,  etre  consid6r6 
comme  6tant  etranger  au  troisieme  zoonite  cephalique,  et 
comme  appartenant  a  I'anneau  mandibulaire.  La  carapace 
serait  done  un  organ  plus  complexe  que  je  ne  le  supposait 
d'abord,  et  serait  formee  par  deux  anneaux  tergaux,  depen- 
dant du  troisieme  et  du  quatrieme  anneaux  de  la  tete,  ar- 
ccaux  (jui  foiu'naient  (rime  iudc'i)cMHhince  pres(jue  complete 
chez    les  Paguriens  et  les  Thalassiues,  mais  ne  seraient 


52  ON  THE  CAKAPAX  AND  STERNUM 

represent^s  chcz  les  D6capocles  ordinaires  que  par  un  seal 
seo"ment  dorsal  du  k  I'ossification  diffuse  ou  fusion  des  ele- 
mentes  sclerodermique  de  toute  la  portion  du  squelette  teg- 
iimentaire  correspondant  a  ces  deux  arceaux.  Mais  chez 
les  Crustaces  inferieures,  la  carapace  ne  parait  avoir  d'or- 
dinaire  une  composition  plus  simple,  et  etre  form^etantot 
par  les  analogues  de  I'areeau  cephalique  seulement,  tantot 
par  les  representants  de  I'areeau  scapulaire.  Ainsi,  chez 
les  Squilles,  la  portion  cephalique  de  la  carapace  est  tres- 
devellopee  ;  mais  toute  la  portion  posterieure  au  scapulaire 
parS,it  manquer  completcment,  et  chez  les  Limnadies,  au 
contraire,  I'espece  de  coquille  bivalve,  qui  tient  lieu  d'une 
carapace  ordinaire,  me  parait  etre  due  au  developpement 
excessif  de  la  portion  scapulaire  seulement,  et  dependre 
de  I'aimeau  mandibulaire,  out  peut-etre  meme  de  I'un  des 
zoonites  suivant.  "  Owen  (3)  reflects  Milne-Edwards' 
views  throughout  as  quoted  above.  Dana  (4)  differs  from 
Milne-Edwards  in  that  he  considers  the  lateral  (ventral) 
plates  of  the  carapax  of  crabs  to  be  true  /erga  instead  of 
epimera  {he.  cit.,  p.  27).  He  infers  "that  the  epistome 
(or  its  anterior  part)  belongs  to  the  second,  or  to  the  sec- 
ond and  first  normal  segments,  that  is,  to  the  antennulary 
or  to  the  antennulary  and  ophthalmic  segments.  For  con- 
venience of  reference  I  have  compiled  the  following  table 
from  the  author's  statements  of  his  views  regarding  the 
number  of  segments  and  what  parts  of  each  enter  into  the 
composition  of  the  crab  carapax, 

1.  Ophthalmic  somite.  Parts  entirely  wanting;  appendages,  how- 
ever, present. 

2.  Antennulary  somite.  Sternum  present  (probal)ly  fused  with  the 
ophthalmic  sternum  into  one  piece) ;  the  other  parts  wanting;  appen- 
dages present. 

3.  Antennary  somite.  The  parts  (sternum,  tergum.  epislernal  plate) 
present. 

4.  Manilibulary  somite.  The  sternum,  epislernal  plates,  epimcral 
plates  and  tergum  present. 


or    DECAPOD    CRUSTACEA.  53 

Aftei- slating  in  a  very  clear  nuimier  the  facts  he  Jiad  established, 
the  author  draws  the  following  couclusious.  The  carapax  of  the  Bra- 
chyura  includes  : 

I.  The  first  and  second  normal  segments  represented  by  the  epistome, 

or  its  anterior  position,  and  the  inter-antennary  septum. 

II.  The  third  normal  segment,  represented  by  the  main  body  of  the 

carapax,  and  the  anterior  portion  of  the  prelabial  plate  or  pal- 
ate. 

III.  The  fourth  normal   or   mandibular  segment  i-epresented   by  the 

posterior  and  outer  part  of  the  prelabial  plate  and   the  ventral 
pieces  of  the  carapax. 

Concerninir  the  caiapax  of  the  Macroiira  the  author  again 
differs  from  ]\lihie-Ed\vards  in  designating  the  lateral  and 
posterior  plates  of  the  carapax  of  Astacus  mandibular  terga 
instead  of  epimcra.  After  a  careful  comparative  descrip- 
tion of  numerous  foi-ms  both  among  the  Macronra  and  the 
lower  Crustacea  {loc.  cit.,  pp.  32-37)  in  which  he  men- 
tions several  seemingly  adverse  cases,  the  author  concludes 
that  the  origin  of  the  carapax  and  the  disposition  of  its 
parts  are  essentially  the  same  throughout  the  class. 

From  the  foregoing  extracts  it  will  be  seen  that  Dana's 
views  are  in  advance  of  those  of  the  other  investigators, 
but  there  yet  remain  several  points  of  interest  on  which 
it  is  desirable  to  collect  further  evidence.  Both  Milne- 
Edwards  and  Dana  have  established  with  a  high  degree  of 
probability  the  origin  of  the  carai)ax  from  the  terga  of  the 
mandibulary  and  anteunary  somites,  but  neither  of  them 
succeeded  in  finding  a  conclusive  demonstration  of  the 
fact.  In  the  very  young  Squilla  the  thoracic  and  ab- 
dominal segments  of  tlie  body  may,  by  careful  dissection, 
1)0  removed  from  their  connection  with  the  carapax,  with- 
out disturl)ing  the  relation  of  the  parts  in  intimate  connex 
with  the  latter.  In  such  a  preparation  the  point  of  attach- 
ment will  be  seen  t(^  lie  immediately  behind  the  mandibu- 
lary sternum,  fig.  15,  z.  Since  both  the  op//t/ialmic  and 
the  antennulary  segments  are  entire  and  have  no  connection 


54  ON  THE  CARAPAX  AND  STERNUM 

with  the  carapax  it  follows  that  the  carapax  in  the  young 
Squilla  pertains  to  the  antennary  and  mandibulary  somite 
— to  these  and  these  only.  The  same  is  true  of  the  zoea 
oi  Porcellana.  The  relations  of  the  carapax  in  the  young 
stages  of  Cancer  and  Carcinus  could  not  be  made  out  ac- 
curately, owing  to  the  poor  state  of  preservation  of  the 
specimens  at  my  disposal.  Among  the  Brachyurathe  ter- 
gum  of  the  ophthalmic  somite  is,  present  as  a  distinct  plate 
beneath  the  carapax  and  may  be  exposed  by  cutting  away  the 
rostral  region  of  the  carapax,  or  it  may  sometimes  be  seen 
from  behind  (e.  g.,  Platyonychus,  Actceodes,  Scylla).  The 
antennulary  tergum,  on  the  other  hand,  seems  to  have  dis- 
appeared entirely. 

The  sternum  of  the  ophthalmic  somite,  considered  by 
Dana  to  be  wanting  among  the  Brachyura,  is  present,  as 
it  appears  to  me,  in  what  has  hitherto  been  considered  as 
a  portion  of  the  antennary  somite  and  designated  the  an- 
tennary septum  (compare  Huxley,  loc.  cit.,  p.  2^)6,  tig. 
76,  c).  In  Actcef'des,  figs.  4,  6  and  7,  the  sternum  of 
this  somite  is  a  distinct  cuneiform  body,  wedged  in  be- 
tween the  rostrum  and  the  antennary  sternum,  but  sep- 
arated from  both  by  sutures. 

Its  connection  is  more  intimate  with  the  antennary  ster- 
num than  with  the  rostrum.  The  basal  joints  of  the 
antennce  lie  in  contact  with  it,  since  it  helps  to  form  the 
iimer  angle  of  both  antennary  orbits.  Ihis  wedge- 
shaped  body  extends  backward  into  the  facial  region  and 
furnishes  the  calcareous  sockets  for  the  bases  of  the  eye- 
stalks  ;  but  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  orbital  region. 
This  latter  has  arisen  by  the  overgrowth  of  the  rostral 
region  {i.  e.,  forwards)  which  at  the  same  time  has  been 
forced  downward  into  the  facial  areti.  This  growth  is 
well  illustrated  in  the  scries  from  IJomarus,  thiough 
Lithodes,  Platyonychus,  /Scylla  and  Cancer,  to  Actoeodes. 


OF    DECAPOD    CRUSTACEA.  55 

In  Cancer,  tig.  3,  the  connection  of  the  ophthalmic 
with  the  antcnnuhiry  sternum  is  still  closer  and  the  former 
is  a  much  thinner  plate.  In  /Sci/IIa,  tig.  9,  the  rostrum  is 
hardly  in  contact  with  the  ophthalmic  sternum,  although 
it  is  hent  down  close  over  it.  The  suture  between  the 
ophthalmic  and  antennary  sterna  is  obliterated.  In  Plaly- 
onychusy  fig.  1,  the  fusion  between  the  two  sterna  is  com- 
plete. In  Palinui-us,  figs.  14  and  16,  Liihodes,  fig.  11, 
and  Homarus,  fig.  5,  the  rostrum  has  not  encroached  up- 
on the  ophthalmic  somite  and  the  sternum  sustains  its  nor- 
mal relations  to  the  apjiendages. 

Antennulary  sternum.  The  antennulary  sternum 
in  Actoeodes  is  an  elongated,  bar-shaped  plate  extending 
across  the  facial  area  immediately  below  the  antennae. 
The  antenuules  abut  upon  its  ends,  while  the  ophthalmic 
sternum  is  fused  to  its  upper  part  dividing  it  into  halves. 
The  figure  formed  by  these  two  plates  is  that  of  a  short- 
stemmed  T  inverted.  This  plate  forms  the  floor  of  the 
antennary  sockets.  The  suture  between  the  antennulary 
and  the  antennary  sterna  is  lenticular  in  form  and  occu- 
pied by  a  semicalcified  membrane. 

In  Cancel' f  fig.  3  and  Platyonychus,  fig.  1,  the  parts  in- 
cluded in  the  facial  area  are  much  less  distinct.  In  Scylla, 
fig.  9,  this  sternal  plate  lies  opposed  to  the  upper  margin 
(surface)  of  the  antennary  sternum,  in  the  form  of  a 
thin  calcareous  plate.  Its  relations  to  the  surroundin<y 
parts  are,  however,  the  same  as  in  Actoeodes.  In  Liihodes, 
fig.  11,  the  antennulary  sternum  resembles  in  all  respects 
the  ophthalmic,  and  consists  of  a  smooth,  scarcely  calci- 
fied membrane  stretched  between  the  antenuules.  In 
Palinurus,  figs.  14  and  16,  the  antennulary  sternum  is 
enormously  enlarged  and  projects  forward  in  the  form  of 
a  truncated  pyramid,  equivalent  to  the  "nasal  region"  of 
Milne-Edwards.       Owing    to    the    unusually    large    size 


56  ox  THE  CARAPAX  AND  STERNUM 

of  the  antennae,  the  antenniiles  have  their  insertion  at  the 
anterior  end  of  this  plate  instead  of  at  the  sides  as  would 
normally  be  the  case.  A  narrow  extension  of  the  main 
(fold)  plate  separates  the  basal  joint  of  the  appendages. 
In  Homarus  this  sternum  is  moderately  developed  and 
occupies  its  normal  position.  There  is  no  indication 
among  the  Macroura  or  the  Brachyura,  of  the  existence  of 
any  other  parts  of  the  typical  somite  in  either  of  these 
two  segments. 

Antennary  and  mandibulary  somites.  As  re- 
gards the  sterna  of  the  third  and  fourth  somites  in  Chlo- 
rodius  and  Scylla,  I  cannot  do  better  than  refer  to  Dana's 
admirable  description  (loc.  cit.,  pp.  24-28).  This  des- 
cription of  Chlorodius  will  apply  in  every  particular  to 
Actoeodes,  figs.  4,  6  and  7.  In  Cancer  and  Platyonichus 
the  facial  region  is  too  much  fused  to  admit  of  any  accur- 
ate distinction  of  the  parts.  In  JPalinurus  the  antennary 
sternum  is  greatly  enlarged  and  forms  the  lower  part  of 
the  nasal  projection.  At  its  upper  termination  it  furnishes 
the  basal  portion  of  the  antennuhiry  sockets  :  from  this 
point  it  spreads  out  rapidly  and  extends  entirely  across  the 
ventral  surface  of  the  body  forming  the  anterior,  lower 
one-third  of  the  boundary  of  each  antennary  socket.  The 
openings  of  the  green  glands  are  near  to  its  outer  angle, 
on  the  suture  separating  it  from  the  mandibulary  sternum. 
Its  connections  with  the  anterior  half  or  cephalic  portion 
of  the  carapax  are  very  distinct  and  in  the  form  of  a  beaded 
suture.  The  mandibular  sternum  is  separated  from  the 
episternal  pieces  by  a  short  suture,  these  latter  in  turn  are 
separated  from  the  epimerals  by  a  suture  passing  backward 
and  inward  toward  the  median  ventral  line.  In  Lithodes, 
figs.  11  and  13,  and  Homarus,  figs.  5  and  17,  the  epister- 
nals  and  epimerals  of  both  antennary  and  mandibulary 
somites    are    present    and    consequentlj'   one    is    able    to 


ox    DECAPOD    CRUSTACEA.  57 

trace  the  connection  of  the  two  portions  of  the  carapax 
with  comparative  ease.  The  episternals  and  epimerals  of 
the  antennary  segment  are  calcified.  The  former  appear 
on  either  side  of  the  epistome  or  sternum  as  an  oblong 
plate  extending  backward,  downward  and  outward  and 
also  furnish  the  upper  plate  of  the  entrance  to  the  gill- 
chamber.  The  epimcral  plate  is  folded  inward  close  upon 
the  episternum  of  either  side  and  is  only  to  be  seen  when 
the  edges  of  the  carapax  are  spread  apart.  The  episterna 
and  epimera  of  the  mandibular  segment  are  represented 
by  slightly  calcified  membranes  more  or  less  folded  upon 
themselves.  These  plates  are  related  to  the  mandibular 
sternum  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  stated  for  that  of  the 
corresponding  plates  of  the  preceding  segment.  In  Squilla 
the  antennary  sternum  is  especially  prominent  and  reaches 
backward  and  downward  in  the  form  of  a  half  cylinder, 
the  sides  of  which  are  formed  by  the  large  episternal 
plates.  The  carapax  is  almost  entirely  made  up  by  the 
antennar}^  tergnm,  and  the  antennary  somite  furnishes  fur- 
ther, fully  one-half  of  the  length  of  the  cephalo-thoracic 
region  of  the  body  of  this  crustacean.  The  statement  that 
the  terga  of  the  thoracic  somites  are  covered  by  the  ceph- 
alo-thoracic shield  is  not  strictly  true.  The  first  two  terga 
(counting  from  behind  forwards)  are  entire  and  free,  the 
third  is  united  by  a  membrane  to  the  posterior  edge  of  the 
cephalothorax.  The  remaining  terga  are  incomplete  and 
luiite  with  the  carapax  in  a  line  curving  from  the  point  of 
attachment  of  the  third,  outwards  and  forwards  on  cither 
side  of  the  median  dorsal  line  of  the  body  (fig.  21). 

Sternal  plates,  etc.  Milne-Edwards  considers  the 
small  calcareous  plates  found  at  the  base  of  the  thoracic 
appendages,  which  in  the  adult  state  are  more  or  less  fused 
with  the  sterna  u(  the  respective  segments,  to  be  the  ho- 
mologues  of  the  episternal  pieces  of  the  typical  arthropod 

KSSKX    INST.    lU'M.KTIN,    VOL.    XVII.  8 


58  ON  THE  CAKAPAX  AND  STERNUM 

somite.  From  embryological  evidence  it  appears  very 
probable  that  these  pieces  originate  as  simple  projections 
of  the  outer  posterior  angle  ot"  each  sternal  plate  and  that 
they  are  apparently  cut  oil' by  the  appearance  of  false  su- 
tures at  a  later  period  of  development.  The  figures  illus- 
trating this  point  (figs.  18,  19,  22)  hardly  need  any 
explanation  beyond  that  given  in  the  description  of  the 
plates.     A  comparison  of  figs.  18  and  22  is  conclusive. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

1.  Iluxley,  T.  H.    Anatomy  of  Invertebrated  Animals  (chapter  ou  Crustacea). 

London,  1878. 

2.  Milne-Edwards.    Observations  sur  le  Squelette  Tegumentaire  des  Crustaces 

Decapodes  et  siir  la  Morpliologie  de  ces  Animaux.  Ann.  Sci.  Natiirelles 
Ser.  3e,  T.  XVI,  pp.  221-291.  Pis.  8-U.  Paris,  1851.  Consult  also  Lemons 
sur  I'Anat.  et  la  Phys.,  etc.,  T.  10,  p.  212.    Paris,  1872. 

3.  Owen,  R.    Lectures  ou  the  Conipar.ative  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Inverte- 

brate Animals,  p.  301.    London,  1855. 

4.  D.ana,  James  D.    Homologiesof  the  Carapax  among  Crustacea.  U.S.  exploring 

expedition,]S38-'42,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  23-28, 32-35.  Atlas,  pi.  11,  fig.  9d  and  16,  fig. 
9c.  Philadelphia,  18.52.  Also  On  the  markings  of  the  carapax  of  Crabs. 
Anier.  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  2d  Ser.,  Vol.  XI,  p.  95.    (Jan.,  '51.) 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  II  AND  III. 

KEFERENCE  LETTERS. 

a      antennule  n      membranous  space 

a'     antenna  o       eye  or  orbit 

as     antennular  sternum  os     ophtlialmic  sternum 

a's    antennal  sternum  pg     processes  for  attachment  of  gastric 

a't    antennal  tergum  muscles 

a'<p  plates  of  antennal  tergum  r      rostrum 

ap     appendage  s       sternum 

e       epimeral  plate  sp     sternal  piece 

e'      epimeral  groove  t       tergum 

/        labrum  tht    thoracic  tergum 

g       plate  covering  green  gland  y       suture  between    mandibular    and 

g'      plate  between  antennule  and  car-  antennal  sternum 

ai)ax  X       .«uture  between  epimeral  and  tergal 
TO       mandibular  skeleton  plates  of  mandibular  segment 

mem  membrane  z      point  of  attachment  of  carapax  to 
ms     mandibular  sternum  body 

mt     mandibular  tergum 
mp     anterior     mandibular    epimeral 

plate. 

Fig.  1.    Ventral  view  of  carapax  of  an  immature  Platyonichus  ocellatus,  caustic 
soda,  acetic  acid  preparation;  natural  size. 
Fig.  2.    Ventral  view  of  the  earapax  of  Etiius  dentatus;  natural  size. 


ON    DECAPOD    CRUSTACEA.  59 

Fig.  3.  Carapaxof  Cancer  boreftlis  prepared  in  caustic  soda,  ventral  view  with 
the  fiont  slightly  inclined  forwards;  natural  size. 

Figs.  4,  6  and  7.  Carapax  ot  Actreodes  specie.^?  prepared  in  caustic  soda  and 
acetic  acid;  viewed  from  above,  below  and  in  front,  respectively. 

Fig.  5.  Front  view  of  the  carapax  of  Homarus  americanus  witli  the  appendages 
removed,  fresh  specimen,  natural  size. 

Fig.  8.  Ventral  view  of  the  connection  of  the  mandibular  episternum  with  the 
mandibular  epimeron  in  Scylla  tranquebarica;  natural  size. 

Fig.  9.  Carapax  of  Scylla  tranquebarica  itom  an  alcoholic  specimen;  natural 
size. 

Fig.  10.    Carapax  of  Chlorodius  floridanus,  alcoholic  specimen ;  enlarged . 

Figs.  11  and  13.  Front  and  ventro-lateral  views  of  the  carapax  oi  lAthodes  maia 
alcoholic  specimen;  natural  size. 

Fig.  12.  Basal  joints  of  right  antenna  of  Ilomarus  americanus  showing  the  posi- 
tion of  the  green  gland;  natural  size. 

Figs.  14,  IG  and  20.  Lateral,  frontal  and  ventral  views  of  the  carapax  of  Palinu- 
rus  prepared  in  caustic  soda;  natural  size. 

Fig.  15.  Ventral  view  of  young  Squilla,  tlie  thorax  and  abdomen  of  which  have 
been  removed  by  careful  dissection;  s  shows  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  thorax ; 
enlarged  ten  diameters. 

Fig.  17.  Lateral  view  of  carapax  of  Homarus  americanus,  caustic  soda  prepara- 
tion ;  natural  size. 

Fig.  18.  Sternum  of  megalops  of  Cancer  horealis,  showing  the  episternal  pieces 
as  projecting  angles  of  the  sternal  plates;  enlarged  ten  diameters. 

Fig.  19.    Sternum  of  zoea  of  Cancer;  eulai-ged  fifteen  diameters. 

Fig.  21.  Lateral  view  of  a  sagittal  section  of  cephalo-thoraeic  region  of  Squilla, 
caustic  soda  preparation;  natural  size. 

Fig.  22  Ventral  view  of  sternum  of  Cancer  horealis  (prepared  in  caustic  soda) 
showing  the  "episternal  pieces"  of  Milne-Edwards;  natural  size. 

Fig.  23.    Ventral  view  of  a  young  Pinnixa;  enlarged  ten  diameters. 


Annual  Meeting,  Monday,  May  18,  1885. 

The  annual  meeting  this  evening  at  7.30  o'clock.  The 
President  in  the  chair.  Records  of  the  last  annual 
meeting  read  and  approved. 

The  reports  of  the  Secretary,  Treasurer,  Auditor,  Li- 
brarian, Curators  and  Committees  were  read  and  duly 
accepted  and  ordered  to  be  placed  upon  tile. 

Mr.  T.  F.  Hunt,  chairman  of  the  committee  on  n(mii- 
nations,  reported  the  following  list  of  officers,  which  was 
duly  elected  ;  Messrs.  Israel  and  UniAM  having  been 
appointed  to  collect,  assort  and  count  the  votes. 


60  ANNUAL    MEETING,    MAY    18. 

PRESIDENT : 

HENRY  WHEATLAND. 

VICE-PRESIDENTS : 

Abnku  C.  Goodell,  Ju.  Daniel  B.  Hagar. 

Fredekick  W.  Putnam.  Robert  S.  Rantoul. 

SECRETARY :  TREASURER : 

George  M.  Whipple.  George  D.  Phippen. 

AUDITOR:  LIBRARIAN: 

Richard  C.  Manning.  "William  P.  Upuam. 


CURATORS : 


History— llEVRY  F.  Waters. 
j»/an?«scrj>«s— Willi AJi  P.  Upham. 
ArchcBology—VnET>EKiCK  W.  Putnam. 
Kumismatics—MATTHKW  A.  Stickney. 
Geology— BET'S  J  AMlti  F.  MCDANIEL. 


Jiotany-GKOviGE  D.  Phippen. 
Zoology— KDWAiiJi  S.  :Mokse. 
Horticulture- 
Music— Joshua  PinppEN,  Jr. 
Painting  cf  Sculpture— T.  F.  Hunt. 


Technology— Kv>\viii  C.  Bolles. 

COMMITTEES : 

Finance  .• 

The  President,  Chairman  ex  off. 

The  Treasurer,  ex  off. 

Geo.  R.  Emmerton.  David  Pingree. 

Henry  M.  Brooks. 

Library  .- 

Charles  W.  Palfray.  Henry  F.  King.  William  Neilson. 

William  D.  Northend.  Theodore  M.  Osborne. 

The  Librarian,  ex  off. 

Publication  .• 

Edward  S.  Atwood.  James  A.  Emmerton.  Edwin  C.  Bolles. 

Henry  F.  Waters.  B.  F.  McDaniel.  T.  F.  Hunt. 

Lecture  .- 
Robert  S.  Rantoul.  Frederick  W.  Putnam.  Asios  H.  Johnson. 

Fielder  Israel.  A.  L.  Huntington. 

Field  Meeting  .• 
The  Secretary,  Cliairman  ex  off. 
GEORGE  A.  Perkins,  Salem.  G.  D.  Phippen,  Salem. 

George  Cogswell,  Brad  lord.  Frank  K.  Kimball,  Salem. 

Francis  II.  Appleton,  Peabody,  Ehen  N.  Walton,  Salem. 

Nathaniel  A.  Horton,  Salem.  Winfield  S.  Xevins,  Salem. 

E.  S.  Morse,  Salem.  John  U.  Sears,  Salem. 


THE  KETKOSPECT  OF  THE  YEAK.  Gl 


THE  KETKOSPECT  OF  THE  YEAK 

compiled  from  the  scveial  reports  read  at  the  meeting 
and  remarks  of  the  members  in  relation  thereto,  presents 
the  work  of  tiie  Institute  in  the  various  departments  since 
the  last  annual  meeting. 

Members. — Changes  occur  in  the  list  of  our  associates 
by  the  addition  of  new  names  and  the  withdrawal  of  some 
by  resignation,  removal  from  the  county  or  vicinity,  or  by 
death.  We  have  received  notice  of  the  decease  of  nine- 
teen, during  the  year,  who  have  been  enrolled  on  our  list 
of  members. 

Francis  Gregory  Sanborn,  son  of  Eastman  and  ISIary 
Call  Lawrence  (Gregory)  Sanborn,  born  in  Andover, 
Mass.,  Jan.  18,  1838,  a  graduate  of  Phillips  Academy, 
Andover,  in  1858  ;  he  early  turned  his  attention  to  out- 
door studies,  becoming  especially  proficient  in  entomology 
and  conchology  ;  he  had  been  connected  with  the  jNIassa- 
chusetts  Board  of  Agriculture,  the  Bussey  Institution, 
the  Geological  Survey  of  Kentucky,  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, and  had  been  a  Curator  of  the  Worcester  Natural 
History  Society  ;  died  in  Providence  June  5,  1884.  Ad- 
mitted a  member  January  15,  1866. 

James  B.  Batcheller,  for  many  years  a  teacher  in  the 
public  schools  of  Salem  and  Marblehead,  and  for  eighteen 
years  a  member  of  the  School  Committee  in  his  native 
town.  He  was  son  of  Kev.  David  Batcheller  of  Worces- 
ter, a  methodist  clergyman,  and  Elizabeth  C.  Bowler,  of 
Marblehead,  in  which  town  he  was  born  June  25,  1814; 
a  graduate  of  Weslcyan  University  in  1845  ;  professor  of 
mathematics  in  Burlingt<m,  N.  J.  ;  died  in  jNlarblehcad, 
July  1,  1884.     Admitted  a  member  Sept.  8,  18G8. 


62  THE  RETROSPECT  OF  THE  YEAR. 

David  Brainerd  Brooks,  son  of  John  and  Harriet 
(Manning)  Brooks,  born  in  Salem,  Aug.  7,  1824,  died  in 
Salem,  July  9,  1884  ;  bookseller  and  stationer  in  Salem 
and  Boston.  Admitted  a  member  jNIarch  12,  1856.  He 
began  his  business  career  in  the  bookstore  of  John  P. 
Jewett,  subsequently  a  partner,  John  P.  Jewett  &  Co. 

William  Saunders,  a  well-known  and  distinguished 
veterinary  surgeon  for  many  years  in  Salem ;  his  practice 
extending  into  Boston  and  the  counties  of  Essex  and 
Middlesex;  son  of  AVilliam  and  Elizabeth  (Britchers) 
Samiders,  born  in  Helma,  Devonshire,  England,  Nov.  27, 
1817,  came  to  Salem  with  his  father  in  1830,  died  in  Sa- 
lem, July  23,  1884.  Elected  to  membership  March  12, 
1856. 

Alfred  Amos  Abbott,  son  of  Hon.  Amos  and  Esther 
Macke}^  (West)  Abbott,  born  in  Andover,  Mass.,  May 
30,  1820  ;  a  graduate  of  Union  College  in  1841 ;  lawyer  in 
Peabody  and  Salem;  for  several  years  District  Attorney 
and  the  clerk  of  the  courts  of  Essex  County  from  Sept. 
27,  1870,  to  his  decease.  Died  in  Peabody,  Oct.  27, 
1884.     Elected  to  membership  Dec.  30,  1867. 

William  H.  Palmer,  son  of  Asa  and  Mary  (Fletcher) 
Palmer,  born  in  New  Hampshire,  March  9,  1811 ;  trader 
in  Salem,  Mass. ;  died  Oct.  29,  1884.  Elected  to  mem- 
bership Feb.  4,  1863. 

Isaac  J.  Osbun,  son  of  Franklin  and  IMary  E. 
(Taylor)  Osbun,  born  in  Windsor,  Richland  county,  Ohio, 
May  19,  1850;  graduated  at  Granville  College,  Ohio, 
1872  ;  after  keeping  school  one  year  he  sailed  for  Europe 
and  spent  one  year  in  the  University  of  Tubingen  and 
the  next  year  iit  Heidelberg  where  he  studied  chemistry  and 
physics  under  the  famous  Robert  AVilhelm  Bunsen.     In 


THE  RETROSrECT  OF  THE  YEAR.  63 

1875  he  returned  to  this  country  ;  from  1876-83  was 
teacher  in  chemistry  and  physics  in  the  IMass.  State  Nor- 
mal School  in  Salem  ;  he  then  entered  upon  the  duties  of 
Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physics  in  Denison  University, 
Granville,  Ohio,  and  continued  his  labors  there  until  a 
few  weeks  previous  to  his  death  which  occurred  Dec.  8, 
1884.     Elected  to  membership  July  2,  1877. 

Esther  Clarke  Mack,  daughter  of  P^lisha  and  Harriet 
(Clarke)  Mack,  born  in  Worthington,  Mass.,  Sept.  25, 
1821.  The  family  returned  to  Salem  in  1827.  Died  in 
Salem,  Dec.  24,  1884.  Admitted  to  membership  Dec.  5, 
1882. 

Edavard  B.  Ames,  son  of  Burpee  and  Hannah  (Brown) 
Ames,  born  in  Salem,  March  4,  1815  ;  a  well  known  citi- 
zen, senior  member  of  the  firm  of  Ames  and  Melcher, 
painters  in  Salem,  having  been  in  business  upwards  of 
forty  years;  died  January  15,  1885.  Admitted  to  mem- 
bership March  29,  1854. 

Nathaniel  B.  Perkins,  son  of  Joseph  Perkins,  born  in 
Salem,  Oct.  3,  1813  ;  for  many  years  cashier  of  the  Mer- 
chants National  Bank,  Salem  ;  died  Feb.  8,  1885.  Ad- 
mitted to  membership  Dec.  14,  1853. 

Aaron  Goldthwaite,  son  of  Aaron  Goldthwaite,  ])orn 
in  Salem,  March  9,  1822 ;  of  the  well-known  firm  of 
Goldthwaite  &  Day,  carpenters  and  contractors  ;  died  in 
Salem,  Feb.  11,  1885.  Admitted  to  meml)ership  Feb. 
15,  1854. 

Lemuel  B.  Hatch,  the  well-known  coal  and  wood 
dealer,  for  more  than  forty  years  on  Derby  street ;  died 
March  1,  1885  ;  he  was  the  son  of  James  and  Opal  (Bon- 
ney)  Hatch;  born  in  Hanson,  Mass.,  Sept.  1,  1806. 
Admitted  to  membership  March  1,  18G9. 


04  THE    RETROSPECT    OF    THE    YEAR. 

Elizabeth  B.  Perkins,  daughter  of  Edward  B.  and 
Elizabeth  P.  (Barrett)  Perkuis,  born  in  Salem,  Jan.  1, 
1850,  died  April  8,  1885.  Admitted  to  membership 
March  21,  1881. 

George  Leeds,  sou  of  Benjamin  Bass  and  Sally  (Bab- 
cock)  Leeds  ;born  m  Boston,  Oct.  25,  1816  ;  fitted  for  col- 
lege at  Milton  Academy,  graduated  at  Amherst  College, 
1835,  Andover  Theological  School,  1839  ;  rector  of  Grace 
Church,  Utica,  N.  Y.  ;  St.  Peter's,  Salem;  St.  Peter's, 
Philadelphia,  and  Grace  Church,  Baltimore  ;  D.D.  Trinity 
College,  1861  ;  died,  in  Philadelphia,  of  apoplexy,  April 
16,  1885.     Admitted  to  membership  Feb.  28,  1855. 

John  Chapman  Towne,  son  of  Joseph  and  Lydia 
(Chapman)  Towne,  born  at  Salem,  June  16,  1834  ;  in 
early  life  a  printer  in  the  office  of  the  Salem  Register, 
afterwards,  for  many  years,  teller  in  the  Naumkeag  Na- 
tional Bank,  Salem ;  died  April  23,  1885.  Admitted  to 
membership  July  1,  1863. 

Leonard  Withington,  son  of  Joseph  Weeks  and  Eliz- 
abeth (White)  Withington,  born  in  Dorchester,  Mass., 
Aug.  9, 1789  ;  a  graduate  of  Yale  College,  1814  ;  ordained 
over  the  First  Church  in  Newbury,  Mass.,  Oct.  30,  1816, 
and  continued  the  active  pastor  of  that  church  42  years, 
when  he  became  senior  Pastor;  died  Apr.  22,  1885. 
Original  member. 

George  Pickman  Farrington,  the  oldest  druggist  in 
Salem,  son  of  William  and  Mary  (Ward)  Farrington, 
born  in  Salem,  Aug.  29,  1808;  died  April  29,  1885. 
Admitted  to  membership  June  9,  1864. 

Charles  Eugene  Fabens,  son  of  Charles  Henry  and 
Euphrasia  (Fabens)  Fabens,  born  in  Cayenne,  S.  A., 
March  27,  1845  ;  merchant  in  Salem  and  Boston,  residing: 


THE    RETROSPECT    OF    THE    YEAR.  t)5 

in  Salem,  where  he  died  Jan.    22,   1885.     Admitted  to 
membershiip  Feb.  20,  1871. 

Field  Meetings  have  been  attended  with  more  than 
usual  interest. 

The  first  on  Wednesday  June  18,  1884,  atTopsfield,  in 
commemoration  of  a  meeting  held  for  the  completion  of 
the  organization  of  the  Essex  County  Natural  History  So- 
ciety, fifty  years  ago,  in  that  town  ;  its  location  in  the  ge- 
ographical centre  of  the  county,  before  the  introduction 
of  railroads,  was  considered  a  very  suita})le  and  convenient 
place  for  the  holding  of  conventions  and  other  gatherings, 
possessing  a  general  county  interest.  The  morning  was 
passed  at  the  residence  of  Mr.  Thomas  W.  Peirce,  whose 
extensive  grounds,  fine  gardens  and  conservatories  were 
opened  to  the  visitors.  The  afternoon  session  in  the  Town 
Hall  was  largely  attended  ;  the  speakers  were  the  Presi- 
dent and  Messrs.  E.  S.  Morse,  John  Robinson,  B.  F.  Mc- 
Daniel,  S.  P.  Fowler  and  J.  J.  H.  Gregory.  The  progress 
made  in  Zoology,  Botany,  Geology  and  the  kindred 
branches  of  science  since  1834,  especially  with  reference  to 
the  increasing  attention  devoted  to  these  studies,  in  this 
county  was  fully  discussed.  Mr.  Fowler,  who  was  present 
at  the  meeting  fifty  years  since,  gave  an  account  of  the 
gathering  and  spoke  of  those  who  were  present,  all  of 
whom,  with  a  few  exceptions,  have  passed  away. 

Second  Meeting  at  Annisquam,  Gloucester,  Wednes- 
day, July  16,  1884.  The  morning  was  spent  at  the  sea- 
side Laboratory  of  Prof.  Alphcus  Hyatt  in  observing  the 
work  of  the  students,  also  in  visiting  the  beaches  and  other 
objects  of  interest.  At  the  afternoon  session  remarks  were 
oftered  by  the  president,  ^Messrs.  Kingsley  and  Hyatt  of 
the  Lal)oratory  giving  a  full  account  of  the  meth(jds  of 
instruction.     Mr.  James  S.  Jewett,  Hon.  Jonas  H.  French 

K.SSKX    INST.    BULLKTIN,    VOL.    XVII  9 


66  THE  RETROSPECT  OF  THE  YEAR. 

and  Hon.  James  Davis,  mentioned  interesting  incidents  in 
tlie  History  of  Annisquara.  Mr.  A.  C.  Perkins  of  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  and  N.  A.  Horton  of  Salem,  also  addressed 
the  meeting. 

Third,  at  Asbury  Grove,  Hamilton,  Thursday,  July  31, 
1884,  postponed  from  the  preceding  day  on  account  of  the 
weather.  In  the  forenoon  a  botanical  excursion  was  made 
to  Pleasant  Pond  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Sears.  At  the 
meeting  in  the  afternoon,  the  president  and  Messrs  J.  F. 
Almy,  John  H.  Sears,  George  D.  Phippen,  F.  AV.  Put- 
nam, B.  F.  McDaniel  and  N.  A.  Horton  were  the  speakers. 

Fourth,  at  old  Newbury  on  Thursday,  August  28,  1884. 
In  the  morning  the  party  went  to  Pkmi  Island  and  on  the 
return  visited  the  ethnological  collections  of  Mr.  Alfred 
Osgood,  also  several  of  the  old  houses  in  Newbury  and 
Newburyport.  The  afternoon  session  was  held  in  the  ves- 
try of  the  First  Church.  The  President  after  a  few  intro- 
ductory remarks  called  upon  Capt.  Luther  Dame  who  read 
a  paper  on  the  life  and  times  of  Sir  William  Pepperell, 
exhibiting  several  original  manuscripts  and  old  family 
relics ;  Alfred  Osgood  spoke  on  ethnology ;  Stephen  H. 
Phillips  took  for  his  subject,  the  early  settlers  of  Newbury  ; 
Rev.  B.  F.  McDaniel  spoke  on  the  mineralogy  of  Newbury  ; 
Rev.  Messrs.  F.  Israel  of  Salem,  and  George  Osgood  of 
Kensington,  N.  H.,  alluded  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Withington, 
for  nearly  seventy  years,  the  worthy  and  beloved  pastor 
of  this  church  and  this  people ;  Mr.  D.  B.  Hagar  made 
some  closing  remarks  and  offered  a  vote  of  thanks  for  fa- 
vors received. 

Two  Geological  Excursions,  a  sequel  to  the  Field 
Meetings,  have  taken  place  under  the  direction  of  Rev. 
B.  F.  McDaniel,  the  curator  of  this  department. 

First,  on  Monday,  Oct.  13, 1884,  to  the  famous  locality 


THE  RETROSrECT  OF  THE  YEAR.  G7 

in  Newbury  oldtown  popularly  kuown  as  "the  Devil's 
Den."  For  over  forty  years  it  has  been  visited  by  miner- 
alogists for  the  fine  specimens  that  have  made  it  famous 
allover  the  country,  and  still  the  supply  is  abundant.  Other 
openino^s  have  been  made  near  by,  the  most  noted  of  Avhich 
is  the  "Basin." 

Specimens  of  the  following  minerals,  some  of  them  very 
fine,  were  brought  home.  Noble  serpentine,  common 
serpentine,  retinalite,  wollastonite,  chrysolite,  massive 
garuet,  nemalite,  calcite,  chalybite  and  dolomite.  The 
nol)le  serpentine  and  wollastonite  are  easily  obtained, 
and  are  very  fine  at  the  "Den,"  Avhile  at  the  "Basin,"  the 
common  serpentine  and  retinalite  abound. 

Second,  on  Monday,  Nov.  10, 1884,  to  the  Quarry  near 
Lynntield  Centre.  A  stop  was  made  at  Ship  Rock  in  Pea- 
body,  after  which  the  drive  was  continued  to  Lynnfield. 
The  Quarry  was  reached  at  half-past  eleven  o'clock.  Ham- 
mers and  drills  were  soon  in  use  and  good  specimens  of 
brucite  and  serpentine  were  found  in  abundance.  An 
increased  interest  in  the  study  of  geology  has  been  awak- 
ened, and  the  result  will  probably  be  an  interesting  ad- 
dition to  the  already  large  collection  of  Essex  County 
Minerals  in  the  Museum. 

jSIeetings.  Regular  meetings  occur  on  the  first  and 
third  Monday  evenings  of  each  montli.  At  these  the  fol- 
lowing conmmnications  were  read  and  lectures  delivered  : 

From  E.  A.  Silshee,  talk  upon  "Criticism  of   Poetry," 
jSte2)hen   IT.    PhilUjjs,  "Witchcraft  not  exceptional  in 

Salem." 

Charles  A.  Benjamin,  "  On  an  adjacent  Peninsula." 
A.  O.  Ilobbs  of  Bridgeport,    Conn.,    lecture  "On  the 

History  of  Locks." 

William  G.  Barton  of  Salem,  essay  on  "Thoreau,  Fhigg 

and  Burrouirhs." 


68  THE  RETROSPECT  OF  THE  YEAR. 

Perdval  Loivell  of  Boston,  an  illustrated  lecture  "On 
Korea"  (a  native  Korean  was  present  on  the  stage,  in 
national  costume). 

Edivard  Atkinson  of  Boston,  a  familiar  talk  upon  the 
subject  "Lack  of  Gumption." 

John  II.  /Sears,  Flowering  of  plants,  December,  1884. 
W.  J.  Hoffman  of  Washington,  D.  C,  "Hugo  Ried's 
account  of  the  Indians  of  Los  Angeles,  California,  with 
notes  by  W.  J.  Hoffman." 

William  L.  Welch,  "Opening  of  Hatteras  Inlet." 

Oliver  Thayer,  "Early  recollections  of  the  upper  portion 
of  Essex  Street,  Salem." 

Robert  8.  Rantoul,  "Some  material  for  a  History  of  the 
iS'ame  and  Family  of  Rentoul,  Riutoul,  Rantoul." 

E,  P.  Crowell  of  Amherst,  "The  commission  of  the 
Captain  of  a  Salem  Privateer,  in  the  Revolutionary  war." 

In  addition  to  the  lectures  and  communications  present- 
ed at  the  meetings  the  following  lectures  have  been  de- 
livered in  the  rooms  of  the  Institute. 


Lectures.  Mrs.  /S'c7i?<??i«c/zer  of  Boston,  an  illustrated 
lecture  "On  the  Madonna  in  Art, "Tuesday,  Nov.  11,  1884. 

G.  D.  Hendrickson,  an  illustrated  lecture  "On  the  won- 
derland of  America,  the  Yellowstone  National  Park," 
Monday,  Dec.  8,  1884. 

Edward  8.  Morse,  six  lectures  on  Japan  and  the  Japa- 
nese, on  Wednesdays,  Dec.  17,  24,  31,  1884  and  Jan.  7, 
14,  21,  1885. 

Mrs.  Abby  8age  Richardson,  three  lectures  :  first  "Rob- 
ert and  Elizabeth  (Barrett)  Browning,"  Wednesday,  Apr. 
22,  1885  ;  second,  "Sir  Walter  Scott,"  Wednesday,  Apr. 
29  ;  third,  "The  modern  Spirit  of  Poetry,"  Wednesday, 
May  6. 


THE  KETROSrECT  OF  THE  YEAR.  69 

Library. — The  additions  to  the  Library  for  the  year 
(May,  1884,  to  May,  1885)  have  been  as  follows  : 

Bii  Donation. 

Folios 13 

Quartos, 2f;3 

Octavos, 1,531 

Duorlecimos , 543 

Sexdeeinios, 264 

Octodecimos, 6C 

Total  of  bound  volumes 2,f)S0 

Pamphlets  aud  serials •        .  ll.C.!5 

Total  of  donations, 14,315 

By  Exchange. 

Folios,          1 

Quartos, 10 

Octavos, 1S8 

Duodecimos, 15 

Total  of  bound  volumes 2U 

Pamphlets  and  serials, 2,483 

Total  of  exchanges,            2,6y7 

By  Purchase. 

Folios,          .       .       .       • 1 

Quartos,       .       .       - 5 

Octavos 117 

Duodecimos, 191 

Sexdecimos, •       .       .       .       .  60 

Octodecimos, 6 

Total  of  bound  volumes -       .       .       .  3»0 

Pamphlets,           7 

Total  of  purchases, •        .  387 

Total  of  donations 14,315 

Total  of  exchanges 2,697 

Total  of  purchases 3S7 

Total  of  additions,      .        .        .        .        • 17,399 


Of  the  total  number  of  pamphlets  and  serials,  5,072 
wore  pamphlets,  and  9,053  were  serials. 

The  donations  to  the  Library  for  the  year  have  been 
received  from  one  hundred  and  seventy  individuals  and 
forty-six  societies  aud  governmental  departments.     The 


70  THE  RETROSPECT  OF  THE  YEAR. 

exchanges  from  seven  individuals  and  from  one  hundred 
and  fifty-five  societies  and  incorporate  institutions,  of 
which  seventy-nine  are  foreign  ;  also  from  editors  and  pub- 
lishers. 

The  annual  examination  of  the  Library  has  been  made 
and  it  is  found  to  be  in  as  good  order  and  condition  as  our 
limited  resources  permit. 

The  accessions  have  been  more  numerous  than  for  many 
years.  Among  what  may  be  termed  the  customary  dona- 
tions may  be  classed  the  Congressiomd  Record,  documents, 
etc.,  from  E.  F.  Stone  representative  U.  S.  Congress; 
congressional  documents  from  the  Department  of  the  Inte- 
rior, and  others  from  the  various  departments  of  the  gov- 
ernment ;  Mass.  State  documents  from  the  General  Court 
Representatives  ;  agricultural  papers  from  the  secretary  of 
the  Mass.  Horticultural  Society ;  the  transactions  of  vari- 
ous societies;  besides  books  and  pamphlets  in  smaller  or 
larger  quantities  from  the  members  and  others,  a  list  of 
too  great  length  to  be  read  at  this  time. 

Among  special  donations  maybe  mentioned: — From 
Geo.  R.  Lord,  a  portion  of  the  library  of  the  late  Nathl. 
Lord,  amounting  to  470  vols.,  and  2,384  pamphlets; 
among  the  latter,  religious  periodicals  hold  a  prominent 
place.  From  the  library  of  the  late  William  Sutton, 
1,319  vols.,  and  1,558  pamphlets,  a  donation  very  valua- 
ble in  historical  works  and  state  documents.  A  collection 
of  pamphlets  from  the  estate  of  Robert  and  Elizabeth  R. 
Peele.  A  nearly  complete  file  of  the  Salem  Register  and 
1,039  numbers  of  religious  magazines  from  Chas.  M. 
Richardson.  Harper's  Magazine  and  other  periodicals  to 
the  number  of  289  from  Jas.  A.  Chamberlain.  From  the 
estate  of  INIrs.  Martha  P.  AValcott,  95  vols.,  and  665 
pamphlets,  including  periodicals.  67  volumes  of  scientific 
works  from  Mrs.  Wm.  S.  Cleveland.     From  Mrs.  M.  C. 


THE  RETROSTECT  OF  THE  YEAR.  71 

Farley,  48  vols.,  chiefly  state  and  government  documents. 
A  large  numl)er  of  religious  works  and  pamphlets  from 
Eev.  Hugh  Elder.  Some  very  valuable  school  books  from 
Miss  Elizabeth  Lauder.  From  Sam'l  Chamberlain,  besides 
volumes,  religious  and  educational  periodicals.  Thirty 
religious  works  from  Capt.  George  Upton.  From  Dr. 
William  Mack  an  addition  to  the  musical  library  as  well 
as  to  other  departments. 

The  Art  Library  is  constantly  receiving  very  valual^le 
accessions  of  volumes  and  periodicals. 

Our  most  excellent  and  efficient  Assistant  Librarian, 
whose  usefulness  we  all  recognize,  has  especially  called 
my  attention  to  the  pressing  necessity  of  more  room.  Al- 
most every  department  is  receiving  from  time  to  time, 
additions  of  more  or  less  magnitude,  and  all  are  crowded 
to  overflowing ;  there  is  scarcely  a  case  where  a  proper 
arrangement  of  volumes  or  pamphlets  can  be  made,  on  ac- 
count of  the  limited  room.  One  deep  shelf  has  three  rows 
of  books  ;  a  case  of  newspapers  has  the  space  in  the  centre 
occupied  with  books  piled  up  in  bulk,  and  no  access  to 
them  without  removing  the  tier  of  papers  in  front ;  one 
can  easily  imagine  the  labor  of  finding  a  specified  book  of 
that  lot. 

The  space  reserved  for  the  exchanges  of  foreign  socie- 
ties has  for  some  time  been  filled  to  repletion. 

A  portion  of  our  recent  donations  has  been  accommo- 
dated by  putting  up  temporary  shelves  in  the  ante-room 
occupied  by  the  historical  museum.  This,  however,  sep- 
arates them  from  other  books  of  the  same  class  in  the 
general  library.  Others  are  piled  in  bulk  on  the  gallery 
floor,  preventing  their  circulation  and  making  them  nearly 
inaccessible  for  reference. 

The  two  cases  at  the  rear  of  the  lower  hall  have  already 
double  rows  of  directories  on  nearly  every  shelf. 


72 


THE    RETROSPECT    OF    THE    TEAR. 


From  this  statement  of  facts  it  can  readily  be  seen 
how  urgent  is  the  need  of  greater  accommodations  and  ad- 
ditional shelf-room. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

Wm.  p.  Upham, 

Librarian. 


Donations  or  exchanges  have   been  received  from  the 
folio  wins: : 


Adams,  Miss  Hannah  C,  Beverly, 

Adelaide,  Royal  Society  of  South  Australia, 

Agassiz,  Alexander,  Cambridge, 

Albany,  N.  Y.,  State  Library, 

Alnwick,  Eng.,  Berwickshire  Naturalists'  Club, 

Altenburg,  Naturforschende  Geselischaft  des  Osterlandes 

American  Association  for  the  Advaucemeut  of  Science, 

American  Ornithologists'  Union, 

Amherst  College  Library,  

Anagnos,  M.,  South  Boston, 

Andovor  Theological  Seminary,  .... 

Andrews,  William  P., 

Archaeological  Institute  of  America, 

Archer,  Miss  Rebecca,  .        .        .     Newspapers 

Auckland,  N.  Z.,  Auckland  Institute,  ... 

Baltimore,  Md.,  Historical  Society,  ... 

Baltimore,  Md.,  Johns  Hopkins  University, 

Baltimore,  Md.,   Johns   Hopkins    University,  Library  of 

Historical  and  Political  Science, 
Baltimore,  Md.,  Peabody  Institute, 
Bamberg,  Naturforschende  Geselischaft,  . 
Bancroft,  Rev.  C.  F.  P.,  Andover, 
Batavia,  K.  Natuurkundige  Verceniging,  . 
Bayley,  Miss  Elizabeth  S.,  .... 

Bayley,  Miss  Harriet  K.,  Boston, 
Belfast,  Ireland,  Naturalists' Field  Club,    . 
Bell,  Charles  H.,  Exeter,  N.  H., 
Berkeley,  Cal.,  University  of  California,     . 
Berlin,  Geselischaft  Naturforschender  Freunde, 
Berlin,  Vercin  zur  Beforderung  des  Gartenbaues 
Bern,  Naturforschende  Gesellscliaft, 


Vols. 
11 


THE    KETROSPKCT    OF    THE    YEAR. 


73 


Blake,  Francis  E.,  Boston,  .... 

BoUes,  Rev.  E.  CD.D.,  .... 

Bonn,  Naturhistorisclier  Verciii, 

Bostou,  American  Academy  of  Arts  mid  Sciences 

Boston,  Appalachian  Mountain  Club, 

Boston  Board  of  Health, 

Boston,  Bostonian  Society,  .... 

Boston,  City  of,  

Boston  City  Hospital, 

Boston,  Massachusetts  General  Hospital, 

Boston,  Massachusetts  Historical  Society, 

Bostou,  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society,  . 

Boston,  Massachusetts  Medical  Society, 

Bostou,  Massachusetts   State  Board  of  Health,  Lunacy 

and  Charity, 

Boston,  Massachusetts  State  Library, 
Boston,  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers, 
Boston,  New  England  Historic,  Genealogical  Society, 
Boston  Overseers  of  the  Poor,  .... 

Bostou  Public  Library, 

Boston  Scientific  Society,  

Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,     .... 
Boylston,  E.  D.,  Amherst,  .... 

Bradlee,  Rev.  C.  D.,  Boston,  .... 

Bremen,  Naturwisseuschaftlicher  Verein, 
Bristol,  Eng.,  Naturalists'  Society, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Brooklyn  Library, 

Brown,  Henry  A.,  

Browne,  Albert  G Newspapers 

Brunswick,  Me.,  Bowdoin  College  Library, 

Bruxelles,  Soci6t6  Beige  de  Microscopic, 

Bryant,  James  S.,  Hartford,  Conn., 

Buenos  Aires,  Sociedad  Cientiflca  Argentina, 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Historical  Society, 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Young  Men's  Association, 

Caen,  Academic  des  Sciences,  Arts  et  Belles  Lettres, 

Calcutta,  Geological  Survey  of  India,  ... 

Cambridge,  Harvard  University  Library,  ... 

Cambridge,  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  . 

Cambridge,  Peab')dy  Museum  of  American  Archaeology 

and  Ethnology, 

Canada  Royal  Society, 

Cannon,  H.  W.,  Washington,  D.  C 

KSSEX    INSr.    BULLKTIX,    VOL.    XVII.  10 


Pani . 

1 

397 

2 

2 

2 

12 


4 
5 

3 

3 

19 

1 
1 
2 
2 
5 
117 
1 
1 
9 


<4  THE    liETROSPECT    OF    THE    YEAR. 

Vols.    Pan). 

Carpenter,  Kev.  C.  C,  Mt.  Vernon,  N.  II 1 

Cassel,  Vcrciu  I'iir  Nuturkunde, 1 

Cliamberluin,  James  A., 289 

Chamberlain,  Samuel, 12       335 

Champaign,  111.,  State  Laboratory  of  Natural  History,     .  1 

Cbever,  Miss  S.  A.,  Melrose,               1 

Chicago,  111.,  Historical  Society, 1          1 

Chicago,  111.,  Public  Library, 1 

Cincinnati,  0.,  Society  of  Natural  History,        ...  4 

Clarke,  Rev.  DeWitt  S.,               1 

Cleveland,  Mrs.  William  S., 67 

Cogswell,  George,  Bradford,               1          1 

Cole,  Mrs.  N.  D., Newspapers,  G4 

CoUett,  John,  Indianapolis,  Ind., 2 

Conant,  W.  P.,  Wasliington,  D.  C,  .         .     Newspapers,  2        08 

Coolidge,  tJonry  J.,  Boston, 1           8 

Copenhague,  Societe  Botanique, 5 

Cordoba,  Acadeniie  Nacional  de  Ciencias,          ...  3 

Courtenay,  William  A.,  Charleston,  S.  C,          ...  1 

Cowley,  Charles,  Lowell,              2 

Cox,  William  R.,  Washington,  D.  C,         .         •         .         .  3 

Crowell,  Rev.  E.  P.,  D.D.,  Amherst,          ....  1 

Crundeu,  F.  M.,  St.  Louis,  Mo 2 

Currier,  John  M.,  Castlelon,  V't., 1 

Cushing,  Thomas,  Boston, 1 

Cutter,  A.  E.  Charlestown, 1 

Danzig,  Naturforscliende  Gesellschaft,       ....  1 

Darmstadt,  Verein  fiir  Eidkunde, 1 

Davenport,  la..  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,           .         .  1 

Davis,  Charles  H.  S.,  Meriden,  Conn.,                ...  1 

Davis,  James,  Gloucester,           ......  1 

Davis,  II.  S.,  &  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,          ....  1 

Dennett,  W.  S.,  Saco,  Me., 1 

Denver,  Colorado  Scientilic  Society,          ....  1 

Dewing,  Miss  Mary  E.,                 1           2 

Donnell,  E.  J.,  New  York,N.  Y., 1 

Doolittle,  Miss  E.,  Troy,  N.  Y., 1 

Dresden,  Nalurwissenschaltliche  Gesellscliaft,  "  Isis,"     .  2 

Dublin,  Royal  Irish  Academy,             5 

Dublin,  Royal  Society,                  1        13 

Durkheim.  Pollichia,  Naturwisseuschaftlicher  Verein  der 

Rheinpfalz, 4 

Eaton,  Mrs.  C.  F., U        68 


THE    RETROSPECT    OF    THE    YEAR. 


Eddy,  Robert  H.,  Boston,  . 

Edinburgh.  Royal  Society, 

Elder,  Rev.  Hugh,         .... 

Ellery,  Harrison,  Chelsea, 

Emden,  Naturforscliende  Gesellschaft, 

Emmerlon,  James  A., 

Erfurt,  K.  Akademiegemeiuniltziger  Wissenschaften, 

Erlangen,  Physikalisch-medicinische  Societiit, 

Essex,  Eng.,  Essex  Field  Club,  .... 

Falmonth,Eng.,  Eoyal  Cornwall  Polytechnic  Society. 

Farley,  Misses,  .... 

Farley,  Mrs.  M.  C,      . 

Fewkes,  J.  Walter,  Cambridge, 

Folger,  William  C.,  Nantucket, 

Folsam,  A.  A.,  Boston, 

Folwell,  William  W.,  Minneapolis,  Minn., 

Foote  &  Horton, Newspapers 

Forbes,  S.  A.,  Champaign,  111., 

Francisco,  Miss  M.  A., 

Frankfurt,    Senckenbergische    Naturforschende    Gesell 

schaft, 

Freiburg,  Naturforschende  Gesellschaft, 

French,  A.  D.  Weld,  Boston, 

Frothingham,  T.  G.,  Boston, 

Garman,  Samuel,  Cambridge,      . 

Gen&ve,  L'Institut  National  Genevois, 

Giessen,  Oberhessische  Gesellschaft  liir  Natur.  u 

kunde, 

Good,  Peter  B.,  Plainfleld,  N.  J., 

Goodell,  Mrs.  A.  C,  Jr.,     . 

Gorlitz,  Naturforschende  Gesellschaft, 

Green,  Samuel  A.,  Boston, 

Greenough,  James  C,  Amherst, 

Guss,  A.  L.,  Wasliingtou,  I).  C, 

Guthrie,  Malcolm,  Liverpool,  Eng., 

Halifax,  Nova  Scotian  Institute  of  Natural  Science, 

Halle,  K.  Leopoldiniscli— Carolinische    deutsche    Akade 

mie  der  Naturforscher, 

Halle,    Naturwissenschaftlicher    Verein    fiir   SacUsen  u 

Thiiringen, 

Hamburg,  Naturwissenschaftlicher  Verein, 

Hamburg,  Verein   fiir   N;iturwissenschaniiclie   Unterhal 

tung,  ... 


Heil 


Newspapers 


Vols.    Pam. 

1 


20       225 
1 

1 
1         14 


1 
1 

52 

1 

18       580 

1 

2 

1 

1 

7 

1 


76 


THE    RETROSPECT    OF    THE    YEAR. 


Hamilton,  R.  I.,  Narragansett  Historical  Publishing  Com 

pany,  

Harlem,  Societfi  Hollanclaise  des  Sciences, 
Hartford,  Conn.,  Trinitj'  College, 
Hassam,  John  T.,  Boston, 

Hill  &  Nevins, 

Hitchcock,  E.,  Amherst,      .... 
Hobarton,  Royal  Society  of  Tasmania, 
Howard,  George  E.,  Lincoln,  Neb., 

Hunt,  T.  F., 

Huntoon,  D.  T.  V.,  Canton, 
Illinois  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Iowa  City,  la..  State  Historical  Society, 

Ipswich,  Town  of, 

Israel,  Rev.  Fielder, Newspapers, 

.James,  U.  P.,  Cincinnati,  O  ,       . 

Kato,  H.,  Toliio,  Japan,       .... 

Kimball,  Mrs.  James,  .... 

Kingsley,  J.  S.,  Maiden,       .... 

Kjobenhavn,  K.  D.  Videnskabernes  Selskab, 

Konigsberg,  Physikalisch-okonomische  Geselh 

Lander,  Miss  Elizabeth,       .... 

Langworthy,  Rev.  I.  P.,  Boston, 

Lansing,    Mich.,  Secretary  of  the   State   Boa 

culture,       

Lansing,  Mich.,  State  Agricultural  College, 
Lansing,  Mich.,  State  Library, 
Lausanne,  Societe  Vandoise  des  Sciences, 
Lawrence,  George  N.,  New  York,  N.  Y., 
Lawrence  Public  Library, 
Lawrence,  William,  "Washington,  D.  C, 

Lee,  F.  H.,  

Leeds,  Josiah  W.,  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Leeds,  Philosophical  and  Literary  Society, 
Le  Mans,    Soci6t6  d'Agriculturc   Sciences  et 

Sarthe, 

Liege,  Society  Royale  des  Sciences, 
Lincoln  Library  Trustees, 
Littlelield,  George  E.,  Boston, 
Locke,  Silas  M., 

London,  Eng.,  Conchological  Society, 
London,  Eng.,  Royal  Society, 
Lord,  George  R., 


chaft 


dof 


Arts 


Agri 


de  la 


45 


TllK    KKTUOSPECT    OF    THE    YEAR. 


77 


Vols.    Pain. 

Lovell,  W.  H.,  Worcester, 1 

Lowell,  Old  Residents'  Association,           ....  1 

Liinebiirnf,  Natnrwisscnschaftlicher  Veri-in,        ...  1 

Luxcnibonrii.  L'In.stitut  Koyal  Grand  Ducal,      ...  1 

L3'on,  L'Academie  dcs  Sciences,  Arts  ct  Belles  Lettres,    .  1 

Mack,  William,             46      210 

Madison,  Wis.,  State  Historical  Society,            ...  1           3 

Madrid,  Sociedad  Espaiiola  de  Historia  Natural,       .        .  4 

Manchester,  Ens.,  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,    .  2          3 

Manchester,  Rev.  L.  C,  Lowell, 75 

Manning,  Miss  Rebecca, 1 

Manning,  Robert, Newspapers,  72 

Marietta,  O.,  I\Iarietta  College, 7 

McDaniel,  Rev.  B.  F., 12         29 

Meek,  Henry  M., 2 

Melcher,  B.  Redford,  Saco,  Me., 1 

Meriam,H.  C, I 

Merrill,  William,  Jr.,  West  Newbury,         ....  1 

Mexico,  Museo  Nacional 1 

Milwaukee,  Wis.,  City  Pnblie  Museum,      ....  4 

Montreal,  Natural  History  Society, 1 

Morse,  E.  S., 221 

Miinster,  Westfalische  Provinzial  Verein,          ...  1 

Murdock,  J.  B.,  Philadelphia,  Pa., 1 

Nashville,  Tennessee  Historical  Society,  ....  1 

Neuchatel,  Soci6t6  des  Sciences  Naturelles,       ...  1 

Nevins,  W.  S., Newspapers, 

Newark,  New  Jersey  Historical  Society,             ...  1           3 

New  Haven,  Conn.,  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,          .  i 

Neiv  Haven,  Conn.,  N.  H.  Colony  Historical  Society,        .  2 

New  Haven,  Conn.,  Yale  College  Library,          ...  3 

New  York,  N.  Y.,  Academy  of  Sciences,             ...  2 

New  York,  N.  Y.,  American  Geographical  Society,           .  6 

New  York,  N.  Y.,  Astor  Library, 1 

New  York,  N.  Y.,  Cliamber  of  Commerce,         ...  1 

New  York,  N.  Y.,  Genealogical  and  Biographical  Society,  4 

New  York,  N.  Y.,  Linnaeau  Society,           ....  1 

New   Yoik,  N.  Y.,  Mercantile  Library  Association,           .  3 

New  York,  N.  Y.,  Microscopical  Society,           ...  4 

Nichols,  Andrew,  Jr.,  Dan  vers, 5 

Northampton,  Smith  College, 1 

Northend,  William  I)., 5         44 

Norwegian  North  Atlantic  Expedition,  Editorial  Commit- 
tee,        1 


3ls. 

I'am  . 

2 

1 

4 

50 

7 

1 

3 

270 

12 

3 

10 

1 

1 

2 

148 

78  THE  KETKOSPECT  OF  THE  YEAR. 


Nourse,  Miss  Dorcas  C, 

Noyes,  S.  B.,  Brooklyu,  N.  Y.,  

Oliver,  H.  K., 

Osgood,  John  C, Newspapers, 

Ottawa,  Geological  and  Natural  History  Survey, 

Packard,  A.  S.,  Providence,  R.  I., 

Page,  Miss  Annie  L.,  Danvers,  .        .     Newspapers, 

Palfray,  C.W.,  

Paris,  SociSte  d'Acclimatation, 

Paris,  Socifite  d'Anthropologie, 

Patch,  IraJ., 

Peaslee,  John  B.,  Cincinnati,  O., 

Peele,  Robert,  J  Estate  of  the  late,  .         .         . 

Peele,  Elizabeth  R.,     > 

Peet,  Rev,  S.  D.,  Clinton,  Wis., 6 

Peirce,  Henry  B.,  Boston, 8 

Perkins,  George  A.,             12 

Perley,  Sidney,  Boxford,              2 

Perry,  Rev.  William  Stevens,  Davenport,  la.,            .        .  1 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,       .         .  29 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  American  Philosophical  Society,          .  8 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvania,      .  3 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Library  Company,          ....  2 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Numismatic  and  Antiquarian  Society,  .  1 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Zoological  Society,        ....  2 

Phillips,  Henry,  Jr.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,       ....  2 

Phillips,  Stephen  H., 3 

Phillips,  Mrs.  Stephen  H., 7 

Pickering,  Miss  Mary  O.,            ...     Newspapers,  6        25 

Pool,  Wellington,  Wenhani, 3 

Porter,  Rev.  E.  G.,  Lexington,          .....  1 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  Vassar  Brothers'  Institute,             .  1 

Providence,  Rhode  Island  Historical  Society,  ...  1            1 

Providence,  R.  I.,  Public  Library, 9 

Putnam,  Rev.  A.  P.,  D.D.,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  .         .        .  3 

Putnam,  F.  W.,  Cambridge,               .         .     Newspapers,  20 

Putnam,  H.W., 61           33 

Rantoul,  R.  S., Newspapers,  30        197 

Reeve,  J.  T.,  Appletou,  Wis.,  .        .  Circular, 

Regensburg,  K.  Baierische  Botanische  Gesellschaft,       .  1 

Regensburg,  Naturwissenschaftlicher  Verein,          .        .  I 

Rice,  Franklin  P.,  Worcester, 1 

Richardson,  Charles  M.,     ....    Newspapers,  1       1039 

Richardson,  F.  P., 6 


THE    RKTHOSPRCT    OF    THE    YEAR. 


7i) 


Kichiiioiul,  Virginia  Historical  Society,    .... 
Kiga,  Naturlbrscheuder  Verein,         .... 

Koijiiison,  John, 

Kobinson,  Mrs.  Joiin, 

Sale,  Joliii,  Chelsea, 

Snleiii,  Peabody  Academy  of  Science,  Newspapers 

Sampson,  Davenport  &  Co.,  Boston,         ... 
San  Francisco,  California  Academy  of  Sciences,     . 
Sau  Francisco,  Cal.,  Mercantile  Library  Association, 
Sargent,  Charles  S.,  Brookliue,        .... 
Sawyer,  Sanniel  E.,  Gloucester,         .... 

Scudder,  S.  H.,  Cambridge, 

S'Gravenhage,   Nederlandsche  Entomologische  Vereen 

i?:in5? ."       .        . 

Shanghai,  China  Branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society, 

Sillars,  Walter  A.,  Dauvers, 

Smith,  George  Plumer,  Philadelphia,  Pa., 

Suell,  Miss  Annie  E.,  ....    Newspapers 

Springfield,  City  Library  Association, 

Springfield,  Mo.,  Drury  College,       .... 

Sticknev,  George  A.  D., 

St.  John,  New  Brunswick  Natural  History  Society, 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Academy  of  Science,         ... 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Historical  Society,    .... 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Public  School  Library, 
Stockholm,  Entomoiogiska  Foreningen,  . 

Stockiu,  A.  C,  Boston, 

Stone,  A.  R. Maps 

Stone,  E.  F.,  Washington,  D.  C, 

Stone,  Miss  Mary  H. 

Stone,  Robert, Newspapers 

Story,  Miss  E.  A., 

St.  Paul,  Minnesota  Historical  Society,    . 

St.  Pfilersbourg,  Academic  Impfiriale  des  Sciences, 

St.  Petersburg,  Imperial  Botanical  Garden, 

St.  Petersburg,  Societas  Entomologica  Rossica, 

Sutton,  William,  Estate  of  the  late, 

Sydney,  Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales,     . 

Tasmania  Government  Statistician, 

Taunton,  Eng.,  Somersetshire  Archaeological  and  Natu 

ral  History  Society, 

Taunton  Public  Library,  

Titus,  Rev.  Anson,  Amesl)ury, 


Vols. 


1319 

1 
1 


380 


U7 
30 

1 
1 
31 
2 
1 
1558 


80 


THK    RKTROSPECT    OF    THE    YEAR. 


Tokio,  Japan,  Tokio  Daigaku, 

Topeka,  Kau.,  State  Board  of  Aji:riculture, 

Topeka,  Kan.,  State  Historical  Society, 

Topeka,  Kan.,  Washburn  College, 

Toronto,  Canadian  lu.stitute, 

Tuckerinan,  L.  S., 

Unknown,  .... 

Upham,  William  P., 

Upsal,  Societu  Koyale  des  Sciences 

Upton,  George, 

Upton,  Winslow,  Providence,  R.  I, 

Urbano,  O.,  Central  Ohio  Scientific  Association 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 

U.  S.  Chief  of  Engineers, 

U.  S.  Chief  Signal  Office, 

U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey, 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

U.  S.  Department  of  the  Interior, 

U.  S.  Department  of  State, 

U.  S.  Fish  Commission, 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey,     . 

U.  S.  Life  Saving  Service, 

U.  S.  National  Museum, 

U.  S.  Naval  Observatory, 

U.  S.  Patent  Office, 

U.  S.  Postmaster  General, 

U.  S.  Treasury  Department, 

U.  S.  War  Department, 

Vose,  George  L.,  Boston,    . 

Wagner,  E.  C,  Girardville,  Pa., 

Walcott,  Mrs.  Martha  P.,  Estate  of  tiie  late. 

Waring,  George  E.,  Jr.,  Newport,  U.  I.,  . 

Washington,  D.  C,  Bureau  of  Ethnology, 

Washington,  D.  C,  Smithsonian  Institution, 

Waters,  J.  Linton, 

Waters,  Misses, 

Waters,  Stanley, 

Waterville,  Me.,  Colby  University, 

Watson,  S.  M.,  Portland,  Me.,     . 

Weston,  Charles  H., 

Wheatland,  Miss  M.  G., 

Whipple,  George  M., 

Whipple,  S.  K.,  Newburyport,    . 


Map.*- 


Vols. 
1 


THE    RETROSPECT    OF    THE    YEAR. 


«1 


Vols. 


Pam. 
13 


420 

2 

fi 

34 

1 

171 
2 


Whitcher,  Mary,  Sluikcr  Village,  N.  H.,    .... 
Whitney,  Mrs.  11.  M.,  Lawreuce,  .     Newspapers, 

Whittier,  Daniel  H.,  Boston,       ....       Chart, 

Whittredge,  Charles  E.,  

Wien,  K.  K.,  Zoologisch-botanische  Gesellschaft,  .         .  1 

Wien,  Verein  zur  Verbreitung  Naturwissenschaltlicher 

Kenntnisse, 1 

Wiesbaden,  Nassauischer  Verein, 1 

Wilder,  Marshall  P.,  Boston, 4 

Willson,  Rev.  E.  B., 21 

Wincliell,  N.  H.,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,        ....  2 

Winnipeg,  Manitoba  Historical  and  Scientific   Society, 

Winsor,  Justin,  Cambridge, 

Winthrop,  Robert  C,  Boston, 

Woods,  Mrs.  Kate  T., 2 

Worcester,  American  Antiquarian  Society, 

Wright,  Harrison,  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa.,       ....  3 

Wiirzburg,  Physikalisch-Medicinische  Gesellschaft,        .  1  2 

The  following  have  been  received  from  editors  or  publishers  :— 

Nature. 

Newton  Transcript. 

New  York  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce Journal. 

Our  Dumb  Animals. 

Peabody  Press. 

Quaritch's  Catalogue. 

Sailors'  Magazine  and  Seamen's 
Friend. 

Salem  Evening  News. 

Salem  Evening  Telegram. 

Salem  Gazette. 

Salem  Observer. 

Salem  Register. 


American  Journal  of  Science. 

Bay  State  Monthly. 

Cape  Ann  Bulletin. 

Chicago  Journal  of  Commerce. 

Danvers  Mirror. 

Essex  Co.  Statesman. 

Fireside  Favorite. 

Gardener's  Monthly  and  Horti- 
culturist. 

Groton  Landmark. 

Ipswich  Chronicle. 

Lawrence  American. 

Lynn  Bee. 

Manifesto,  The. 

Marblehead  Messenger. 

Musical  Herald. 

Musical  Record. 

Nation,  The. 

Naturalists'  Leisure  Hour  and 
Monthly  Bulletin. 


Turner's  Public  Spirit. 
Voice,  The. 

West  Newbury  Messenger. 
Zoologischer  Anzeiger. 


Horticultural.     The  Trustees  of  the  Essex  Agricult- 
ural Society  having  accepted,  for  the  second  time,  the  invi- 

E.SSEX  INST.    BULLKTIN,    VOL.   XVII.  1  1 


82  THE  KETKOSPECT  OF  THE  YEAR. 

tatioii  of  the  authorities  and  citizens  of  Salem  to  hold  their 
Amiual  Cattle  Show  and  Fair  at  the  "Willows"  in  Salem, 
Sept.  23  and  24,  1884,  the  Institute  deemed  it  advisable 
to  suspend  its  own  horticultural  exhibition  and  to  unite 
cordially  with  the  Trustees  of  the  Agricultural  Society  in 
making  their  undertaking  a  success. 

An  account  of  the  Exhibition  will  be  found  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Agricultural  Society  for  the  year  1884. 

Museum.  The  specimens  in  natural  history,  including 
those  in  archjeologjs which  have  been  received  during  the 
year  have  been  placed  on  deposit  with  the  Trustees  of  the 
Peabody  Academy  of  Science,  in  accordance  with  previous 
arrangements.  Those  of  an  historical  character,  or  which 
possess  an  artistic  interest,  have  been  placed  in  the  rooms, 
and  have  been  received  from  the  following  contributors  : 

The  Peabody  Academy  of  Science,  Tennessee  Historical  Society, 
Miss  Mary  O.  Piclcering,  Miss  E.  A.  Story,  Edvviu  N.  Peabody,  Dr.  Wra. 
Maclv,  Miss  C  Eoberts  of  Philadelphia,  Mr.  Nathan  Pierce,  Miss 
Lizzie  C  Ward  of  Boston  (this  donation  is  a  crayon  portrait  of  her 
brother,  Geu.  Fred  Ward  of  Salem,  who  was  killed  iu  China  iu  1861, 
having  risen  to  a  high  rank  in  the  Chinese  army;  the  portrait  is  neatly 
framed  and  now  hangs  in  the  western  ante-room  of  Phnnmer  Hall;) 
William  K.  Cloutman,  E.  S.  Bowditch,  K.  S.  Eantonl,  Geo.  JM.  Whip- 
ple, Geo.  L.  Ames,  W.  A.  Keazar,  Miss  M.  A.  Francisco,  E.  N.  Larra- 
bee,  T.  F.  Hunt,  B.  D.  Hill  and  Amos  Ilentield. 

The  ART  EXHIBITION  opeucd  on  Thursday,  j\Iay  15, 
1884,  and  closed  on  the  24th  iust.,  the  eighth  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Institute.  These  exhibitions  of  Essex 
County  work,  vary  in  interest  with  each  passing  year. 

The  collection  was  smaller  than  that  of  the  preceding, 
and  the  paintings  of  Benson,  Barry  and  Whitney  and  a 
few  others,  who  contributed  then,  were  missed  from  the 
screens  ;  however,  the  exhibition  was  quite  attractive  and 
many  of  the  sea  views  were  line  and  well  executed . 


THE  RETROSrECT  OF  THE  YEAR. 


83 


The  followinu;  is  the  list  of  contributors 


Miss  Mary  Allen. 
John  P.  Benson. 
Mrs.  C.  A.  Benjamin. 
Miss  Martha  O.  Barrett. 
Miss  M.  C.  BoUes. 
Mrs.  M.  A.  Bovie. 
Miss  M.  M.  Brooks. 
Miss  Anna  N.  Benjamin. 
Bates  &Brigham. 
ISIissM.  J.  Butler. 
Miss   Harriet  E.  Carlton,  Cam- 
bridge. 
Miss  Lizzie  Chever. 
Miss    C.   M.   Colcord,    Swamp- 

scott. 
Miss  Ida  Caller. 
Miss  A.  L.  ChadwicI:. 
Miss  E.  W.  Chadwick. 
Joseph  A.  Davis. 
Miss  Ellen  M.  Dole. 

"    Grace  G.  Dalton. 

"    Edith  Dalton. 

"    M.  E.  Dockham. 
Arthur  W.  Dow,  Ipswich. 
Kilby  W.  Elwell,  Gloucester. 
W.  B.  Eaton. 
Miss  Lizzie  J.  Emery. 

"    A.  Endicott. 

"    E.  W.  Fiske. 

"    C.  S.  Fiske. 

"    Elizabeth  B.  Gardner. 

"    Bessie  W.  Gardner. 

"    May  Gardner. 

"    Carrie  Goldthwaite. 

"    Grace  D.    Glidden,    Wen- 
ham. 
Sidney  P.  Guild,  Lynn. 
Mrs.  George  Harrington. 
IT.  B.  Harrington. 
Miss  Anna  Hyde. 

■'    Jennie  Hyde. 


Miss  A.  L.  Hobbs,  Haverhill. 

"    M.  L.  Hill. 

"    Lucy  B.  Hood. 

"    L.  D.  Harris. 
G.  W.  Harvey. 
Mrs.  S.  K.  Hart. 
Miss  Edith  Harlow. 
Arthur  Harlow. 
E.  D.  Harlow. 
Miss  Mabel  W.  Haskell. 

"    Anna    B.   Holdeu,    Provi- 
dence, R.  I. 
Mrs.  H.  F.  Jacobs. 
Miss  I.  S.  Jackson. 
Frank  R.  Kimball. 
Miss  S.  S.  Kimball. 

"    Mary  L.  King. 

"    Louisa  Lander. 
Mrs.  John  H.  Langmaid. 
E.  C.  Larrabee. 
Warren  Marston,  Gloucester. 
Mrs.  H.  N.  Mudge,  Marblehead. 
Ernest  Machado. 
Miss  McMullen. 
Miss  T.  R.  Nason, 

"    Martha  W.  Nichols. 

"    Northend. 
Mrs.  T.  M.  Osborne. 
Miss  H.  F.  Osborne. 

"    E.  T.  Oliver. 

"    Bessie  S.  Osgood. 

"    Edith  P.  Pickering. 

"    Abbie  G.  Pingree. 

"    M.  E.  Phippen. 

"    Helen  Philbrick. 

"    Anna  B.  Perkins. 

"    L.  Perkins. 
James  Powers. 
Miss  Lottie  Perkins. 

"    Minnie  Pond. 

"    A.  L.  Pior.sou. 


84 


THK    KETKOSPECT    OF    THE    YEAR. 


Miss  Elizaljeth  A.  Finnock. 

"    A.  P.  Pitman. 

"    A.  M.  Qiiiinby. 
C.  C.  Redmond. 
Beverly  Eantoul. 
Miss  Rautoul. 

"    Carrie  L.  Read. 

"    Lizzie  L.  Read. 
Mrs.  J.  H.  Roberts. 
Miss  M.  E.  Roberts. 

"    B.  P.  Smith. 

"    M.  T.  Smith. 

"    M.  Simonds. 
Mrs.  N.  G.  Simonds. 
Arthur  L.  Sanders. 
Miss  S.  E.  Smith. 


Mrs.  Joseph  Synionds. 
Miss  A.  C.  Syraonds. 

"    S.  Sweetser. 

"    M.  K.  Stevens. 
IMrs.  G.  L.  Streeter. 
Miss  Delia  Sheldon. 
Mrs.  S.  E.  Thayer. 
Miss  A.  S.  Tukey. 
Miss  I.  V.  Upton. 
Miss  L.  L.  A.  Very. 

"    Gertrude  M.  Very. 
Mrs.  S.  E.  Varney. 
Miss  F.  White. 
Charles  II.  Woodbury,  Lynn. 
Mrs.  K.  T.  Woods. 
Henry  Whipple. 


Excursion. — On  Wednesday,  May  21,  1884,  a  party  of 
lifty  members  and  friends  Ictt  Salem  on  an  excnrsion  to 
Maucli  Chunk,  Luray  Cave,  the  Natural  Bridge  in  Virginia 
and  Washington.  Vice  President  F.  W.  Putnam  was 
with  the  party,  and  while  at  the  Natural  Bridge  gave  a 
lecture  on  the  geology  of  that  vicinity,  stating  his  theory 
of  the  formation  of  the  bridge.  There  are  two  ways  by 
which  ravines  are  cut.  First,  like  that  of  Niagara  and  the 
cailons  of  Colorado  and  its  tributaries.  Secondly,  like 
that  of  caves.  The  limestone  of  this  region  is  probably 
lower  Silurian  and  the  strata  are  tilted  at  many  angles. 
Beginning  at  the  Lace  Water  Falls,  a  mile  above  the  bridge, 
the  strata  are  vertical.  They  here  begin  to  incline  more  and 
more  towards  the  horizontal,  which  position  is  reached  at 
the  bridge.  The  limestone  water,  percolating  through 
the  tissurcs  between  the  strata,  acts  l)oth  chemically  and 
mechanically  upon  them,  working  out  a  deeper  channel, 
and  at  the  same  time  depositing  incrusting  matter  as  it 
seeks  the  level  of  drainage.  This  ravine  was  once  a  vast 
cave,  the   bridge  being  the   only  remaining  relic  of  the 


THE  KETROSrECT  OF  THE  YEAR.  85 

roof.  Tliis  has  stood  heoaiise  its  limestone  is  more  crys- 
talline than  that  ahove  and  below  it.  It  is  lliiity  and  is 
probably  corniferous. 

Stalactites  and  stalagmites  are  formed  in  the  old  cham- 
bers of  the  caves  by  the  percolation  of  water  through  the 
fissures  in  the  rocks,  while  the  degradation  and  channeling 
are  going  on  in  the  new  chambers.  In  the  case  of  the 
Natural  Bridge,  this  action  went  on  faster  than  the  build- 
ing process,  hence  the  roof  became  too  thin  to  sustain  its 
weight  and  fell  in,  leaving  the  fragment  forming  the  bridge 
to  tell  the  story.  The  professor  then  told  the  company  of 
the  formati(m  of  caves  in  general,  many  of  which  he  has 
explored,  making  psirticular  mention  of  the  Mammoth 
cave  and  of  peculiar  formations  found  in  it. 

Rev.  B.  F.  McDaniel  explained  the  formation  of  tufa 
and  the  varieties  of  incrusting  minerals  in  caves.  Col. 
H.  C.  Parsons,  the  proprietor,  told  of  the  caves  in  the 
neighborhood.  Several  of  them  have  been  opened, 
but  not  thoroughly  explored.  Until  they  can  be  prop- 
erly opened  up,  he  deems  them  unsafe  for  amateur  ex- 
plorers. 

This  estate  of  Mr.  Parsons,  of  some  2,000  acres,  com- 
piises  a  horse-shoe  range  of  lofty,  wooded  hills,  enclosing 
the  basin  on  whose  slopes  lie  the  hotels  and  the  owner's 
residence.  The  Horse  Shoe  opens  towards  the  east  and 
conmiands  a  iriand  and  beautiful  view  of  the  Blue  Rid^e, 
forest-covered  and  mist-crowned,  rising  4,300  feet  above 
the  sea.  A  little  to  the  left  the  glint  of  broken  granite 
alone  shows  where  the  river  burst  through,  and  at  the 
right  the  crest  lowers  so  that  the  Peaks  of  Otter  may 
overlook. 


86  THE  RETROSrECT  OF  THE  YEAR. 

The  Grovelancl  Flower  Mission,  thirty-eight  in  number, 
ladies  and  gentlemen,  came  to  Salem  June  24  b}^  joint 
invitation  of  the  Peabody  Academy  of  Science  and  the 
Essex  Institute. 

They  were  entertained  by  the  two  societies  and  visited 
the  various  points  of  interest  in  and  about  Salem. 

Financial. — The  following  is  the  Treasurer's  Report  of 
the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  the  past  year  (condensed 
for  printing)  : 

RECEIPTS. 

Balance  of  last  year's  account $0  94 

Income  of  General  account, 

Assessments  of  members, $S11  00 

Publications, l^G  03 

Use  of  Hall,  Excursions,  etc., 218  35 

Bank  Dividend 20  00 

Return  State  tax, 8  91 

Salem  Athenreum,  portion  of  expense, 20(5  40 

1,460  99 

Income  of  Historical  Fund,            1'2  00 

"          "  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  Fund,             36  00 

"          "  Davis  Fund, 392  68 

"          "  Ditmore  Fund, 180  40 

"          "  Manuscript  Fund, 26  96 

"         "  Ladies'  Fair  Fund,        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  CO  00 

"          "  Derby  Fund, 17  30 

"  Howes  Fund, 1,430  00 

"          "  Story  Fund,             563  00 

2,718  34 

Bequest  of  Robert  Peelc  and  sister 2,000  00 

Income  from  the  same, 135  00 

2,135  00 

Balance  due  the  Treasurer, 117  52 


THE  KETROSrECT  OF  THE  YEAR.  87 


EXPENDITURES. 
I'aid  on  General  Account. 

Salaries, 1,882  00 

Publications, 807  07 

Fuel  and  Gas, 233  53 

Binding,  Printing,  Stationery,  etc., 119  37 

Uepairs,  expressage.  etc., 171  38 

Fire  Insurance  prem 122  50 

Salem  Athenreum,  as  per  agreement, 350  00 

3,085  85 

Paid  on  Ilistorical  account, 53  25 

"      "  Nat.  Hist,  account, 53  25 

lOG  50 

"      "  Ditmore  annuity, 110  00 

Paid  Legatee— Augustus  Story's  Estate,  .        .        .        .       5G3  00 

073 

Interest  Davis  fund,  funded  in  Savings  Bank,  ...         12  G8 

Interest  Manuscript  fund,  funded  in  Savings  Bank,  .        .         2G  96 

Interest  Derby  fund,  funded  in  Savings  Bank,  ...         17  30 

Deposit  Salem  Savings  Bank,  part  of  Robert  Peele  and  sister's 

legacy, 1,500  00 

1,55G  01 

Paid  note  at  Salem  National  Bank  and  Interest,         .        .        .       410  50        410  50 

$0,132  79 


The  invested  funds  are  now $47,3S9  51 

Examined  and  approved  by  the  Auditor,  May  18, 1SS5. 

The  secretary  in  concluding  his  report  says,  "In  addi- 
tion to  the  acciiinulations  of  former  years  which  it  has 
been  impossible  to  arrange  on  the  shelves  for  Avant  of 
room,  there  have  been  added  since  the  last  annual  meet- 
ing, many  books  and  a  great  collection  of  pamphlets, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  large  amount  of  printed  matter, 
such  as  circulars,  notices,  etc.  The  subject  of  increased 
accommodations  is,  it  is  true,  an  old  story,  but  as  donations 
continue  to  How  into  the  building  the  necessity  of  more 
shelf-room  forces  itself  on  the  attention  of  the  officers 
of  the  Institute  and  those  who  frequent  the  library.  The 
subject  is  again  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  directors 
in  the  hope  that  before  another  year  shall  have  passed, 
some  decided  action  in  this  direction  will  be  taken." 


jLi.ETiN  Essex  Inst. 


BULLETIN  Essex  Inst. 


BULLETIN 


ESSiBX:     IlNrSTITXJTE. 


Vol.  17.        Salem:  July,  Aug.,  Sept.,  1885.         Nos.  7-9. 


INDIAN  GAMES. 


BY  ANDREW  McFAULAND  DAVIS. 


"  There  are,"  says  Father  Breheuf  in  his  account  of 
%vhat  was  worthy  of  note  among  the  Hiirons  in  1636,^ 
"three  kinds  of  games  particularly  in  vogue  with  this  peo- 
ple ;  cross,  platter,  and  straw.  The  first  two  are,  they 
say,  supreme  for  the  health.  Does  not  that  excite  our 
pity?  Lo,  a  pof)r  sick  person,  whose  body  is  hot  with 
fever,  whose  soul  foresees  the  end  of  his  days,  and  a  mis- 
cral)le  sorcerer  orders  for  him  as  the  only  cooling  remedy, 
a  game  of  cross.  Sometimes  it  is  the  invalid  himself  who 
may  perhaps  have  dreamed  that  he  will  die  unless  the 
country  engages  in  a  game  of  cross  for  his  health.  Then, 
if  he  has  ever  so  little  credit,  you  will  see  those  wdio  can 
])est  play  at  cross  arrayed,  village  against  village,  in  a 
beautiful  field,  and  to  increase  the  excitement,  they  will 
wager  with  each  other  their  beaver  skins  and  their  neck- 
laces of  porcelain  beads." 

"  Sometimes  also  one  of  their  medicine  men  will  say 
that  the  whole  country  is  ill  and  that  a  game  of  cross  is 

1  Kelatioas  des  J(isuites,  Quebec,  1858,  p.  113. 
ESSEX   INST.    BULLETIN,    VOL.    XVII.  12  (89) 


90  INDIAN    GAMES. 

needed  for  its  cure.  It  is  not  necessary  to  say  more.  The 
iieAvs  incontinently  spreads  everywhere.  The  chiefs  in 
each  viUage  give  orders  that  all  the  youths  shall  do  their 
duty  in  this  respect,  otherwise  sonic  great  calamity  will 
overtake  the  country." 

LACROSSE. 

In  1007,  Nicolas  Perrot,  then  acting  as  agent  of  the 
French  government,  was  received  near  Saut  Sainte  Marie 
with  stately  courtesy  and  formal  ceremony  by  the  ^Sliamis, 
to  whom  he  was  deputed.  A  few  days  after  his  arrival, 
the  chief  of  that  nation  gave  him,  as  an  entertainment,  a 
game  of  lacrosse.^  "  More  than  two  thousand  persons 
assembled  in  a  great  plain  each  with  his  cross.  A  wooden 
ball  about  the  size  of  a  tennis  Ijall  was  tossed  in  the  air. 
From  that  moment  there  was  a  constant  movement  of  all 
these  crosses  which  made  a  noise  like  that  of  arms  which 
one  hears  during  a  battle.  Half  the  savages  tried  to  send 
the  ball  to  the  northwest  the  length  of  the  field,  the 
others  wished  to  make  it  go  to  the  southeast.  The  con- 
test which  lasted  for  a  half  hour  was  doubtful." 

In  1763,  an  army  of  confederate  nations,  inspired  by 
the  subtle  influence  of  Pontiac's  master  mind,  formed  the 
purpose  of  seizing  the  scattered  forts  held  by  the  English 
along  the  northwestern  frontier.  On  the  fourth  day  of 
June  of  that  year,  the  garrison  at  Fort  Michilimackinac, 
unconscious  of  their  impending  fate,  thoughtlessly  lolled 
at  the  foot  of  the  palisade  and  whiled  away  the  day  in 
watching  the  swaying  fortunes  of  a  game  of  ball  which 
was  being  played  by  some  Indians  in  front  of  the  stock- 
ade.    Alexander  Henry,  who  was  on  the  spot  at  the  time, 


^  Histoire  de  I'Am^rique  Scptentrionale  par  JM.  dc  I5acqueville  de  la  rotheiie, 
Paris,  172'2,  Vol.  ll,  124  et  seq. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  91 

8:13^3  that  the  game  played  by  these  Indians  was  "Baggati- 
way,  called  by  the  Canadians  h  jea  de  la  Crosse."^ 

Parkman*  conclndes  a  vivid  description  of  the  surprise 
and  massacre  of  the  garrison  at  Michiliraackinac,  based 
upon  authentic  facts,  as  follows:  "Rushing  and  striking, 
tripping  their  adversaries,  or  hurling  them  to  the  ground, 
they  pursued  the  animating  contest  ainid  the  laughter  and 
applause  of  the  spectators.  Suddenly,  from  the  midst  of 
the  multitude,  the  ball  soared  into  the  air  and,  descending 
in  a  wide  curve,  fell  near  the  pickets  of  the  fort.  This 
was  no  chance  stroke.  It  was  part  of  a  preconcerted 
scheme  to  insure  the  surprise  and  destruction  of  the  gar- 
rison. As  if  in  pursuit  of  the  ball,  the  players  turned 
and  came  rushing,  a  maddened  and  tumultuous  throno;, 
towards  the  gate.  In  a  moment  they  had  reached  it.  The 
amazed  English  had  no  time  to  think  or  act.  The  shrill 
cries  of  the  ball-players  were  changed  to  the  ferocious 
war-whoop.  The  warriors  snatched  from  the  squaws  the 
hatchets  which  the  latter,  with  this  design,  had  concealed 
beneath  their  blankets.  Some  of  the  Indians  assailed  the 
spectators  without,  while  others  rushed  into  the  fort,  and 
all  was  carnage  and  confusion." 

Thus  we  see  that  the  favorite  game  of  ball  of  the  North 
American  Indians,  known  to-day,  as  it  was  in  1636,  by  the 
name  of  "  lacrosse,"  was  potent  among  them  as  a  reme- 
dial exercise  or  superstitious  rite  to  cure  diseases  and 
avert  disaster ;  that  it  formed  part  of  stately  ceremonials 
which  were  intended  to  entertain  and  amuse  distinguished 
guests  ;  and  that  it  was  made  use  of  as  a  stratagem  of  war. 


»  Travels  and  Adventures  in  Canada,  etc..  by  Alexander  Henry,  New  York,  1809, 
p.  78;  Travels  througli  the  Inierior  parts  of  North  America,  by  Jonathan  Carver 
London,  1778,  p.  19.  The  Book  of  the  Indians,  by  Samuel  G.  Drake,  Boston,  1841, 
Book  V,  Ch.  Ill,  p.  52. 

<  The  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,  by  Francis  Parkman,  Boston,  1870.  Vol.  i.  p.  ;5:?0. 


92  INDIAN    GAMES. 

by  means  of  which  to  lull  the  suspicions  of  the  enemy  and 
to  gtiin  access  to  their  forts. 

The  descriptions  of  lacrosse  Avhich  have  been  transmitted 
to  us,  would  often  prove  unintelligible  to  one  who  had 
never  seen  the  game  played.  The  writers  of  the  accounts 
which  have  come  down  to  us  from  the  early  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century  were  men  w^hose  lives  were  spent 
among  the  scenes  which  they  described  and  they  had  but 
little  time,  and  few  opportunities  for  careful  writing.  The 
individual  records  though  somewhat  confused  enable  us 
easily  to  identify  the  game,  and  a  comparison  of  the 
different  accounts  shows  how  thoroughly  the  main  features 
of  the  game  have  been  preserved. 

Lacrosse  is  played  to-day  as  follows  :  The  number  of 
players  on  the  opposing  sides  should  be  equal.  Regular 
stations  are  assigned  in  the  rules  for  playing  the  game, 
for  twelve  on  each  side.  Goals,  each  consisting  of  two 
upright  posts  or  staffs,  generally  about  six  feet  apart  and 
of  equal  height,  are  })lanLed  at  each  end  of  the  field.  The 
length  of  the  field  and  its  bounds  are  determined  by  the 
character  of  the  ground  and  the  skill  of  the  players. 
The  effort  of  each  side  is  to  prevent  the  ball  from  passing 
through  the  goal  assigned  to  its  protection,  and  equally  to 
try  to  drive  it  through  the  opposite  goal.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances can  the  ball  be  touched  during  the  game, 
while  within  the  bounds,  l)y  the  hands  of  the  players. 
Each  player  has  a  racket,  the  length  of  which,  though  op- 
tional, is  ordinarily  from  four  to  five  feet.  One  end  of 
this  racket  or  bat  is  curved  like  a  shepherd's  crook,  and 
from  the  curved  end  a  thong  is  carried  across  to  a  point 
on  the  handle  about  midway  its  length.  In  the  space 
thus  enclosed  between  the  thong  and  tlie  handle,  which  at 
its  broadest  part  should  not  exceed  a  foot  in  width,  a  flat 
network  is  interposed.       This  forms  the  bat.     It  is  with 


INDIAN    GAMES.  93 

this  that  the  phi3"or  picks  up  aiitl  throws  the  ball  used 
in  the  game,  which  should  be  about  eight  or  nine  inches 
in  circumference.  The  ball  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the 
field  by  the  umpire,  and  when  the  game  is  called,  the  op- 
posing pla3'ers  strive  to  get  possession  of  it  with  their 
rackets.  The  play  consists  in  running  with  it  and  throw- 
ing it,  with  the  design  of  driving  it  between  the  adversary's 
goal  posts  ;  and  in  defensive  action,  the  purpose  of  which  is 
to  prevent  the  opponents  from  accomplishing  siinihir  de- 
signs on  their  part.  As  the  wind  or  the  sunlight  may 
favor  one  side  or  the  other  on  any  tiekl,  provision  is  gen- 
erally made  for  a  change  of  goals  during  the  match.  The 
stations  of  the  players  and  the  minor  rules  of  the  game 
are  unimportant  in  this  connection. 

The  oldest  attempt  at  a  detailed  description  of  the  game 
is  given  by  Nicolas  Perrot  who  from  16(32  to  1699  spent 
the  greater  part  of  his  time  as  coureur  de  bois,  trader,  or 
government  agent,  among  the  Indians  of  the  far  West. 
It  is  of  him  that  Abbe  Ferland  says,  "  Courageous  man, 
honest  writer  and  good  observer,  Perrot  lived  for  a  long- 
time among  the  Indians  of  the  West  who  were  very  much 
attached  to  him."  His  accounts  of  the  maimers  and  cus- 
toms of  the  North  American  Indians  have  been  liberally 
used  by  subsequent  writers  and  as  the  part  treating  of 
games  is  not  only  very  full  but  also  covers  a  very  early 
period  of  history,  it  is  doubly  interesting  for  purposes  of 
comparison  with  games  of  a  later  day.  Ile^  says,  "The 
savages  have  many  kinds  of  games  in  which  they  delight. 
Their  natural  fondness  for  them  is  so  great  that  they  will 
neglect  food  and  drink,  not  only  to  join  in  a  game  but 
even  to  look  at  one.     There  is  among  them  a  certain  game 


»  Memoire  8urles  Moeiirs,  Coustumes  et  Relligion  rtes  Sauvapes  de  rAiiieri<iue 
Septeutiiouale,  jtar  Nicolas  I'criol,  Leipzig  cl  I'aris,  1804,  |».  43,  el  stij. 


94  INDIAN    GAMES. 

of  cross  which  is  very  similar  to  our  tennis.  Their  cus- 
tom in  playing  it  is  to  match  tribe  against  tribe,  and  if 
the  numbers  are  not  equal  they  render  them  so  by  with- 
drawing some  of  the  men  from  the  stronger  side.  You 
see  them  all  armed  with  a  cross,  that  is  to  say  a  stick 
which  has  a  large  portion  at  the  bottom,  laced  like  a 
racket.  The  ball  with  which  they  play  is  of  wood  and  of 
nearly  the  shape  of  a  turkey's  egg.  The  goals  of  the 
game  are  fixed  in  an  open  field.  These  goals  face  to  the 
east  and  to  the  west,  to  the  north  and  to  the  south." 
Then  follows  a  somewhat  confused  description  of  the 
method  and  the  rules  of  the  contest  from  which  we  can 
infer  that  after  a  side  had  won  two  goals  they  changed 
sides  of  the  field  with  their  opponents,  and  that  two  out 
of  three,  or  three  out  of  five  goals  decided  the  game. 

Reading  Perrot's  description  in  connection  with  that 
given  by  de  la  Potherie  of  the  game  played  before  Perrot 
by  the  Miamis,  helps  ns  to  remove  the  confusion  of  the 
account.  Abbe  Ferland*^  describes  the  game.  He  was 
a  diligent  student  of  all  sources  of  authority  upon  these 
subjects  and  was  probably  familiar  with  the  modern 
2;ame.  His  account  of  the  Indinn  game  follows  that  of 
Perrot  so  closely  as  to  show  that  it  was  his  model.  It  is, 
however,  clear  and  distinct  in  its  details,  free  from  the 
confusion  which  attends  Perrot's  account  and  might  al- 
most serve  for  a  description  of  the  game  as  played  by  the 
Indians  to-day.  Perrot  was  a  frontier-man  and  failed  when 
he  undertook  to  describe  anything  that  required  careful 
and  exact  use  of  language.  We  can  only  interpret  him 
intelligently  by  combining  his  descriptions  with  those  of 
other  writers  and  applying  our  own  knowledge  of  the  game 
as  we   see  it  to-day.     He  is,  however,  more  intelligible 

fiCours  d'Hiotoire  du  Canada,  par  J.  B.  A.  Ferlaud,  Quebec,  1801,  Vol.  I,  p. 
l.ft. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  95 

when  he  gets  on  more  general  gronnd,  and  after  having 
disposed  of  the  technicalities  of  the  game,  he  proceeds: 
"  Men,  women,  boys  and  girls  are  received  on  the  sides 
whicii  they  make  up,  and  they  wager  between  themselves 
more  or  less  according  to  their  means." 
'  "  These  games  ordinarily  begin  after  the  melting  of  the 
ice  and  they  last  even  to  seed  time.  In  the  afternoon 
(me  sees  all  the  players  bedecked^  and  painted.  Each 
jjarty  has  its  leader  who  addresses  them,  announcing  to  his 
players  the  hour  fixed  for  opening  tiie  game.  The  jilayers 
assemble  in  a  crowd  in  the  middle  of  the  lield  and  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  two  sides,  having  the  ball  in  his  liands 
casts  it  into  the  air.  Each  one  then  tries  to  throw  it  to- 
Avards  the  side  where  he  ought  to  send  it.  If  it  falls  to 
the  earth,  the  player  tries  to  draw  it  to  him  with  his  cross. 
If  it  is  sent  outside  the  crowd,  then  the  most  active  play- 
ers, by  closely  pursuing  it,  distinguisii  themselves.  You 
hear  the  noise  which  they  make  striking  against  each 
other  and  warding  off  blows,  in  their  strife  to  send  the 
ball  in  the  desired  direction.  When  one  of  them  holds 
the  ball  between  his  feet,  it  is  for  him,  in  his  unwilling- 
ness to  let  it  go,  to  avoid  the  blows  which  his  adversaries 
incessantly  shower  down  upon  his  feet.  Should  he  hap- 
pen to  be  wounded  at  this  juncture,  he  ahme  is  responsil)le 
for  it.  It  has  happened  that  some  have  had  their  legs 
broken,  others  their  arms  and  some  have  been  killed. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  among  them  those  who  are  crip- 
pled for  life  and  who  could  only  be  at  such  a  game  by  an 


'  I  translate  apiffez,  "  bedecked,"  assuinini!:  from  the  context  that  the  author 
meant  to  writu  "attifez."  We  have,  el8eu'here,  accounts  which  show  that  ball- 
players, even  though  compelled  to  play  with  scant  clothing,  still  covered  them- 
selves with  their  ornaments.  J.  M.  Stanley  in  his  Portraits  of  North  American 
Indians,  Smitiisonian  AUscellaneous  Collections,  Wasliington.  1802,  Vol.  ii,  p.  i;{, 
Bay.s  that  tlie  "Creek"  Ijall-players  first  appear  on  the  ground  in  costume.  "  Dur- 
ing the  play  they  divest  themselves  of  all  their  ornaments  which  are  usually  dis- 
played on  thc:?c  occasions  for  the  purpose  of  betting  on  the  result  of  the  play.  " 


96  INDIAN    GAMES. 

act  of  shoer  obstinacy.  When  accidents  of  this  kind 
hiippcn,  the  unfortunate  withdraws  quietly  from  the  game 
if  he  can  do  so.  If  his  injury  will  not  permit  him,  his 
relations  carry  him  to  the  cabin  and  the  game  continues 
until  it  is  finished  as  if  nothing  had  happened." 

"When  the  sides  are  equal  the  players  will  occupy  an 
entire  afternoon  without  either  side  gaining  any  advan- 
tage ;  at  other  times  one  of  the  two  will  gain  the  two 
games  that  they  need  to  win.  In  this  game  you  would 
say  to  see  them  run  that  they  looked  like  two  parties 
who  wanted  to  fight.  This  exercise  contril)utes  much  to 
render  the  savages  alert  and  prepared  to  avoid  blows 
from  the  tomahawk  of  an  enemy,  when  they  find  them- 
selves in  a  combat.  Without  being  told  in  advance  that 
it  was  a  game,  one  might  truly  believe  that  they  fought 
in  open  country.  Whatever  accident  the  game  may  cause, 
tliey  attribute  it  to  the  chance  of  the  game  and  have  no 
ill  will  towards  each  other.  The  suifering  is  for  the 
wounded,  who  bear  it  contentedly  as  if  nothing  had  hap- 
pened, thus  making  it  appear  that  they  have  a  great  deal 
of  courage  and  are  men." 

"  The  side  that  wins  takes  whatever  has  been  put  up  on 
the  game  and  Avhatever  there  is  of  profit,  and  that  without 
any  dispute  on  the  part  of  the  others  when  it  is  a  question 
of  paying,  no  matter  what  the  kind  of  game.  Neverthe- 
less, if  some  person  who  is  not  in  the  game,  or  Avho  has 
not  bet  anything,  should  throw  the  ball  to  the  advan- 
taofe  of  one  side  or  the  other,  one  of  those  whom  the 
throw  would  not  help  would  attack  him,  demanding  if 
this  is  his  afiiiir  and  why  he  has  mixed  himself  with  it. 
They  often  come  to  quarrels  about  this  and  if  some  of  the 
chiefs  did  not  reconcile  them,  there  would  be  blood  shed 
and  perhaps  some  killed." 

Originally,  the  game  was  open  to  any  nunil)er  of  com- 


INDIAN    GAMES.  97 

petitors.  Accordino:  to  the  Kelation  of  1636,  "Village 
was  pitted  against  village,"  "  Tribe  was  matched  against 
tribe,"  says  Perrot.  The  number  engaged  in  the  game 
described  by  La  Potherie^  was  estimated  by  him  at  two 
thousand.  LaHontan'  says  that  "the  savages  commonly 
played  it  in  large  com[)anies  of  three  or  four  hundred  at 
a  time,"  while  Charlevoix"^  says  the  number  of  players 
was  v^ariabic  and  adds  "  for  instance  if  they  are  eighty," 
thus  showing  about  the  number  he  would  expect  to  find 
in  a  game.  When  Morgan"  speaks  of  six  or  eight  on  a 
side,  he  must  allude  to  a  later  period,  probably  after  the 
game  was  modified  by  the  whites  who  had  adopted  it 
among  their  amusements. ^- 

Our  earliest  accotmts  of  the  game  as  played  by  the  In- 
dians in  the  south  are  about  one  hundred  years  later  than 
the  corresponding  records  in  the  north.   Adair"  says  the 


8Vol.  II,  P.12G. 

'  Memoiies  de  L'Amciriqiie  SBptentrionale,  ou  la  Suite  ties  Voyages  de  Mr.  Le 
Baiou  <le  Lallontan,  Amsicnlam,  1705,  Vol.  ir,  p.  113. 

>"  Ilistoire  tie  la  Xouvellc  France.  Journal  d'un  Voyage,  etc.,  par  le  P.  do  Char- 
levoi-x,  Paris,  1744.  Vol.  ill,  p.  319. 

"  League  of  the  Iroquois,  by  Lewis  H.  Morgan,  Rochester,  18.51,  p.  294. 

"The  game  is  also  mentioned  in  An  Account  of  ttie  Remarkable  Occurrences 
in  the  Life  and  Travels  of  Col.  Jame."!  Smith  during  his  Captivity  with  the  Indians 
in  the  years  1755-17.V.).  Cincinnati,  1S70,  p.  78.  It  is  described  by  Col.  William  L. 
Stone  in  his  Lite  of  Brant,  Albany,  IStJu,  Vol.  II,  p.  448.  In  one  game  of  which  he 
speaks,  the  ball  was  started  by  a  young  and  beautiful  .squaw  wlio  was  elaborately 
dre^sed  for  tlie  occasion.  Nolwitll^landing  tlie  extent  and  value  of  Col.  Stone's 
contributions  to  the  literature  on'the  subject  of  tlie  North  American  Indians,  he 
makes  the  erroneous  stati-ment  that  "The  Six  Nations  had  adopted  from  the 
Whites  the  popular  game  of  ball  or  cricket."  See  p.  44.'),  same  volume,  c.f.  The 
Memoir  upon  tlie  late  War  in  Nortli  America,  n.i.'j-noO,  by  JI.  Poucliot,  translated 
and  edited  by  Franklin  B.  Hough,  Vol.  11,  p.  1U.7.  A  game  of  ball  is  also  described 
in  Historical  Collections  of  Georgia,  by  the  Rev.  George  White,  .3d  edition,  New 
Vork,  1855,  p.  670,  whicli  took  place  in  Walker  County,  Georgia,  between  Chatooga 
and  Chicamauga.  The  ball  was  thrown  up  at  the  centre.  The  bats  were  described 
as  curiously  carved  spoons.  If  the  ball  touched  the  ground  the  play  stopped  and  it 
was  thrown  up  again.  Rev.  J.  Owen  Dor.sey  in  a  piper  entitled  "Omaha  Soci- 
ology," printed  in  the  Third  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  etc., 
1881-1882,  Washington,  1884,  §230,  p.  330,  describes  the  game  amongst  the  Oniahas. 

•'The  History  of  the  American  Indians,  particularly  those  Nations  adjoining  to 
the  Mississippi,  etc.,  by  James  Adair,  London,  1775,  p.  399. 
ESSUX  INST.    BULLETIN,    VOL.    XVII  13 


98  INDIAN    GAMES. 

gamesters  are  eqiuil  in  iiiiml)er  and  speaks  of  "the  crowd  of 
players"  preventing  the  one  who  "catches  the  ball  from 
throwing  it  off  with  a  long  direction."  Bossu^*  says,  "they 
are  forty  on  each  side,"  while  Bartram^^  says,  "the  inhab- 
itants of  one  town  play  against  another  in  consequence  of 
a  challenge."  From  this  it  would  seem  that  among  those 
Indians,  as  at  the  North,  the  number  of  players  was  gov- 
erned only  by  the  circumstances  under  which  the  game 
was  played. 

The  ball,  originally  of  wood,'''  w^as  replaced  by  one  made 
of  deer  skin.  Adair  gives  the  following  description  of  its 
manufacture  :  "The  ball  is  made  of  a  piece  of  scraped  deer- 
skin, moistened,  and  stuffed  hard  with  deer's  hair,  and 
strongly  sewed  with  deer's  sinews."'^ 

According  to  Morgan  the  racket  has  undergone  a  similar 
change,  from  a  curved  wooden  head  to  the  curved  stick 
with  open  network,  but  we  have  seen  in  the  earliest  de- 
scription at  our  command,  that  in  the  days  of  Perrot  the 
cross  was  "laced  like  a  racket."'^ 

The  game  was  played  not  only  by  the  Indians  of  our 
Coast,  but  Powers'^  found  it  also  among  the  Californian  In- 
dians. He  describes  a  game  of  tennis  played  by  the  Pomo 
Indians  in  Russian  River  Vallc}^  of  which  he  had  heard 
nothing  among  the  northern  tribes.  "A  ball  is  rounded 
out  of  an  oak  knot  as  large  as  those  used  by  school  boys, 
and  it  is  propelled  by  a  racket  which  is  constructed  of  a 


"Travels  through  that  Part  of  North  America  formerly  called  Louisiana,  by  ]SIr. 
BosBu,  Captain  in  the  Fiench  Marines.  Translated  Irom  the  French  by  John  Rein- 
hold  Forster,  London,  1771,  Vol.  I,  p.  304. 

15 Travels  through  North  and  South  Carolina,  etc.,  by  William  Bartram,  Philadel- 
phia,  1791,  p.  508. 

i»La  Potherie,  Vol.  ii,  p.  126;  Perrot,  p.  44. 

"  p.  400. 

»8Lea}j;ue  of  the  Iroquois,  p.  298;  Perrot  p.  44. 

"Contributions  to  Nortli  American  Etlinology,  Vol.  ni,  p.  151.  Tribes  of  Cali- 
fornia by  Steplien  Powers;  The  same  game  is  described  among  the  Meewocs  in 
The  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States  by  H.  H.  Bancroft,  Vol.  i,  p.  393. 


INDIAN   GAMES.  99 

long  slender  stick,  bent  double  and  bound  together,  leav- 
ing a  circular  hoop  at  the  extremity,  across  which  is  woven 
a  coarse  meshwork  of  strings.  Such  an  implement  is  not 
strong  enough  for  batting  the  ball,  neither  do  they  bat  it, 
but  simply  shove  or  thrust  it  along  the  ground." 

Paul  Kane'-'*'  describes  a  game  played  among  the  Chi- 
nooks.  He  says  "They  also  take  great  delight  in  a  game 
with  a  ball  which  is  played  by  them  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Cree,  Chippewa  and  Sioux  Indians.  Two  poles  are 
erected  about  a  mile  apart,  and  the  company  is  divided 
into  two  bands  armed  with  sticks,  having  a  small  ring  or 
hoop  at  the  end  with  which  the  ball  is  picked  up  and 
thrown  to  a  great  distance,  each  party  striving  to  get  the 
ball  past  their  own  goal.  They  are  sometimes  a  hundred 
on  a  side,  and  their  play  is  kept  up  with  great  noise  and 
excitement.  At  this  play  they  bet  heavily  as  it  is  gener- 
ally played  between  tribes  or  villages." 

Domenech^^  writing  about  the  Indians  of  the  interior, 
calls  the  game  "cricket,"  and  says  the  players  were  cos- 
tumed as  follows  :  "Short  drawers,  or  rather  a  belt,  the 
])ody  being  tirst  daubed  over  with  a  layer  of  bright  colors  ; 
from  the  belt  (which  is  short  enough  to  leave  the  thighs 
free)  hangs  a  long  tail,  tied  up  at  the  extremity  with  long 
horse  hair ;  round  their  necks  is  a  necklace,  to  which  is 
attached  a  floating  mane,  dyed  red,  as  is  the  tail,  and  fall- 
ing in  the  way  of  a  dress  fringe  over  the  chest  and  shoulders. 
*  *  In  the  northwest,  in  the  costume  indispensable  to  the 
players,  feathers  are  sometimes  substituted  for  horse  hair." 
He  adds  "that  some  tribes  play  with  two  sticks"  and  that 
it  is  played  in  "winter  on  the  ice."  "The  ball  is  made  of 
wood  or  brick  covered  with  kid-skin  leather,  sometimes  of 

'"Wanderings  of  an  Artist  among  the  Indians  of  Nortii  America  by  Paul  Kane, 
p.  190;  H.  n.  Bancroft's  Native  Races,  Vol.  i,  p.  2U. 

2>  Seven  Years'  Residence  in  the  Great  Deserts  of  Xortli  America  by  tlic  Abb<S 
Km.  Doniene<-.h,  Vol.  U,  pp.  i'Ji,  l\)i. 


100  INDIAN    GAMES. 

leather  curiously  interwoven."     Schoolcr.aft  describes  the 
game  as  played  in  the  winter  on  the  ice.^^ 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  widest  difference  prevails  in 
the  estimate  of  the  distance  apart  at  which  the  goals  are 
set.  Henry,  in  his  account  of  the  game  at  Michilimackinac 
says  "they  are  at  a  considerable  distance  from  each  other, 
as  a  mile  or  more."  Charlevoix  places  the  goals  in  a  game 
with  eighty  players  at  "half  a  league  apart"  meaning  prob- 
ably half  a  mile.  LaHontan  estimates  the  distance  between 
the  goals  at  "five  or  six  hundred  paces."  Adair,^^  who  is 
an  intelligent  writer,  and  who  was  thoroughly  conversant 
with  the  habits  and  customs  of  the  Cherokees,  Choctaws, 
and  Chicasaws  estimates  the  length  of  the  field  at  "five 
hundred  yards,"  while  Romans^*  in  describing  the  goals 
uses  this  phrase  "they  fix  two  poles  across  each  other  at 
about  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  apart."  Bossu^^  speaks  as  if 
in  the  game  which  he  saw  played  there  was  but  a  single 
goal.  He  says  "They  agree  upon  a  mark  or  aim  about 
sixty  yards  off,  and  distinguished  by  two  great  poles,  be- 
tween which  the  ball  is  to  pass." 

The  goals  among  the  northern  Indians  were  single  posts 
at  the  ends  of  the  field.  It  is  among  the  southern  Indians 
that  we  first  hear  of  two  posts  being  raised  to  form  a  sort 
of  gate  through  or  over  which  the  ball  must  pass.  Adair 
says,  "they  fix  two  bending  poles  into  the  ground,  three 
yards  apart  below,  but  slanting  a  considerable  way  out- 
's Schoolcraft's  North  American  Iiuiians,  Vol  II,  p.  7s;  See  also  Ball-play  among 
the  Dacolas,  in  Philander  Prescott's  paper,  Ibid,  Vol.  iv,  p.  64. 

2'Henry,  p.  78;  Charlevoix  Vol.  iii,  p.  319;  Kane's  Wanderings,  p.  189;  LaUou- 
tan,  Vol.  II,  p.  11.3;  Adair,  p.  400. 

"♦A  concise  Natural  History  of  East  and  West  Florida,  by  Capt.  Bernard  Ro- 
mans, New  York,  1776,  p.  79. 

''^Vol.  I,  p.  304;  Similarly,  Pickett  (History  of  Alabama,  Vol.  I,  p.  92)  describes 
a  game  among  tlie  Creeks  in  whicli  there  was  but  one  goal,  consisting  of  two  poles 
erected  in  the  centre  of  the  Held  between  which  the  ball  must  pass  to  count  one. 
lie  cites  "Bartram,"  and  the  "  Narrative  of  a  Mission  to  the  Creek  Nation  by  Col. 
Marinus  WiUett,"  as  his  authorities.    Neither  of  theui  sustains  him  on  thi.-*  point. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  101 

wards.  The  party  tluit  happens  to  throw  the  ball  over 
these  counts  one  ;  but  if  it  be  thrown  underneath,  it  is 
cast  back  and  played  for  as  usual."  The  ball  is  to  be 
thrown  "through  the  lower  part"  of  the  two  poles  which 
are  fixed  across  each  other  at  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  apart,  according  to  Romans.  In  Bossu's  account  it  is 
"between"  the  two  great  poles  which  distinguish  the  mark 
or  aim,  that  "the  ball  is  to  pass."  On  the  other  hand, 
Bartram,  describing  what  he  saAV  in  North  Carolina,  speaks 
of  the  ball  "being  hurled  into  the  air,  midwaj'-  between  the 
two  high  pillars  which  are  the  goals,  and  the  party  who 
bears  ofi*  the  ball  to  their  pillar  wins  the  game." 

In  some  parts  of  the  south  each  player  had  two  rackets 
between  which  the  ball  was  caught.  For  this  purpose 
they  were  necessarily  shorter  than  the  cross  of  the  north- 
ern Indians.  Adair  says,  "The  ball  sticks  are  about  two 
feet  long,  the  lower  end  somewhat  resembling  the  palm  of 
a  hand,  and  which  are  worked  with  deer-skin  thongs.  Be- 
tween these  they  catch  the  ball,  and  throw  it  a  great  dis- 
tance. "^^ 

That  this  was  not  universal  thi-oughout  the  south  would 
appear  from  Bossu's  account  who  says,  "Every  one  has  a 
battledoor  in  his  hand  about  two  feet  and  a  half  long,  made 
very  nearly  in  the  form  of  ours,  of  walnut,  or  chestnut 
wood,  and  covered  with  roe-skins."  Bartram  also  says 
that  each  person  has  "a  racquet  or  hurl,  which  is  an  imple- 
ment of  a  very  curious  construction  somewhat  resembling 
a  ladle  or  little  hoop  net,  with  a  handle  near  three  feet  in 
length,  the  hoop  and  handle  of  wood  and  the  netting  of 
thongs  of  raw-liide  or  tendons  of  an  animal." 

Catlin-^  saw  the  game  played  by  the  Choctaws  on  their 

'«Adair,  p.  400;  A  Narrative  of  the  Military  Adventures  of  Colonel  Marinus  VVil- 
lett,  p.  109. 

'"Letters  and  Notes  on  the  Manners,  Customs  and  Condition  of  llie  Nortli  Amer- 
ican Indians,  by  George  Catlin,  Vol.  il,  p.  123  et  seq. 


102  INDIAN   GAMES. 

Western  Reservation.  They  used  two  rackets.  In  this 
game  the  old  men  acted  as  judizcs. 

The  game  was  ordinarily  started  by  tossing  the  ball  into 
the  air  in  the  centre  of  the  field.  This  act  is  represented 
by  Perrot  as  having  been  performed  by  one  of  the  leaders 
in  the  game,  but  it  is  more  in  accord  witb  the  spirit  in 
"which  the  game  was  played,  that  it  should  have  been  done 
by  some  outsider.  Bossu  says,  "An  old  man  stands  in  the 
middle  of  the  place  appropriated  to  the  play,  and  throws 
up  into  the  air  a  ball  of  roe-skins  rolled  about  each  other," 
while  Powers^^  says  that  among  the  Calitornian  Indians 
this  act  was  performed  by  a  squaw.  The  judges  started  the 
ball  among  the  Choctaws.^  Notwithstanding  the  differ- 
ences in  the  forms  of  the  goals,  their  distance  apart  and  the 
methods  of  play  disclosed  in  all  these  descriptions,  the 
game  can  only  be  regarded  as  the  same.  The  historians 
who  have  preserved  for  us  the  accounts  of  the  ancient 
southern  games  from  which  quotations  have  been  made, 
are  all  Englishmen  except  Bossu,  and  he  entered  the  coun- 
try not  by  the  way  of  Quebec  but  byway  of  New  Orleans. 
It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  we  do  not  find  in  use 
amongst  them  the  name  which  the  early  French  fathers 
and  traders  invariably  applied  to  the  game.  The  descrip- 
tion, however,  given  by  these  writers,  of  the  racket  used 
in  the  south,  corresponds  so  closely  with  the  crook  from 
which  the  game  took  the  name  hy  which  it  is  known,  that 
we  must  accept  the  game  as  a  modified  form  of  lacrosse. 
From  Maine  to  Florida,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, 
we  trace  a  knoAvledge  of  it.  We  have  found  it  in  use 
among  the  confederate  nations  of  the  north  and  of  the 
south  and  among  scattered  tribes  throughout  the  country. 

In  the  majority  of  instances  the  natural  instincts  of  those 

»6Contribulion8  to  North  American  Ethnology,  Vol.  ill,  p.  151. 
'"Catliu,  Vol.  11,  p.l'ij. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  103 

who  participated  in  the  strife  were  stimuUited  by  local 
pride.  The  reputation  of  their  tribe  or  their  village 
rested  upon  the  result.  Ardent  as  the  spirit  of  the  contest 
must  necessarily  have  been  under  such  circumstances, 
among  a  people  where  courage  and  physique  counted  for 
so  much,  their  intense  passion  for  gambling  intervened  to 
fan  into  fiercer  flames  the  spirits  ot  the  contesting  players 
and  to  inspire  them  to  more  earnest  etlorts.  Stakes,  often 
of  the  utmost  consequence  to  the  players  and  their  back- 
ers, were  wagered  upon  the  games.  A  reputation  for 
courage,  for  skill  and  for  endurance,  was  the  most  valua- 
ble possession  ot  the  Indian.  The  maintenance  of  this 
was  to  a  certain  extent  involved  in  each  game  that  he 
played.  Oftentimes  in  addition  to  this,  all  of  his  own  pos- 
sessions and  the  property  of  his  friends  and  neighbors  in 
the  form  of  skins  and  beads  were  staked  upon  the  result 
of  the  contest.  In  games  where  so  much  was  involved,. 
we  need  not  be  surprised  to  learn  from  Perrot  that  limbs 
were  occasionally  broken  and  that  sometimes  players  were 
even  killed.  In  the  notes  to  Perrot's  Memoir  it  is  stated 
that  some  anonymous  annotator  has  written  across  the 
n)argin  of  Perrot's  manuscript  at  this  point  :^  "  False,  nei- 
ther arms  nor  legs  are  broken,  nor  are  players  ever  killed." 
AVc  scarcely  need  the  corroboratory  statements  of  La  Po- 
therie"^  that  "  these  games  are  ordinarily  followed  by  bro- 
ken heads,  arms  and  legs,  and  often  people  are  killed  at 
them  ;"  and  also  of  Lallontan,*^  that  "they  tear  their  skins 
and  break  their  legs"  at  them,  to  satisfy  us  that  Perrot 
rather  than  his  critic  is  to  be  believed.  If  no  such  state- 
ments had  been  made,  we  should  infer  that  so  violent  a 
game,  on  which  stakes  of  such  vital  importance  were  placed, 
could  not  be  played  by  a  people  like  the  Indians,  except 
with  such  results. 

>o  Perrot,  Note  I,  Ch.  X,  p.  187.    »» Vol.  ii,  pp.  12U-127.    "Vol.  u,  p.  ns. 


104  INDIAN   GAMES. 

Notwithstanding  the  violence  of  the  game  and  the  deep 
interest  which  the  players  and  spectators  took  in  it,  the 
testimony  of  historians  is  nniform  to  the  effect  that  ac- 
cidental injuries  received  during  its  progress  produced 
no  ill  will.  We  have  seen  that  Perrot  states  that  if  any- 
one attempted  to  hold  the  ball  with  his  feet,  he  took  his 
chance  of  injury,  and  that  those  who  were  injured  retired 
quietly  from  the  field.  Adair  says,  "It  is  a  very  unusual 
thing  to  see  them  act  spitefully,  not  even  in  this  severe 
and  tempting  exercise."  Bossu  bears  testimony  to  the 
same  effect,  in  the  following  words :  "The  players  are 
never  displeased  ;  some  old  men,  who  assist  at  the  play, 
become  mediators,  and  determine  that  the  play  is  only 
intended  as  a  recreation,  and  not  as  an  opportunity  of 
quarrelling." 

Where  the  game  was  played  by  appointment  in  response 
to  a  challenge,  the  men  and  women  asseml)led  in  their 
best  ornaments,  and  danced  and  sang  during  the  day 
and  night  previous  to  that  of  the  appointed  day.  The 
players  supplicated  the  Great  Spirit  for  success.  Female 
relations  chanted  to  him  all  the  previous  night  and  the 
men  fasted  from  the  previous  night  till  the  game  was  over.^^ 
The  players  wore  but  little  in  the  way  of  covering.  Ro- 
mans speaks  of  them  as  being  "almost  naked,  painted  and 
ornamented  with  feathers  ;"  and  Bossu  says  they  were  "na- 
ked, painted  with  various  colours,  having  a  tyger  tail  fast- 
ened behind,  and  feathers  on  their  heads  and  arms." 

It  is  not  astonishing  that  a  game  which  called  for  such 
vigorous  exercise^*  and  which  taxed  the  strength,  agility 
and  endurance  of  the  players  to  such  a  degree,  should  be 
described  by  writers  in  terms  which  showed    that  they 

»«  Adair,  p.  401 ;  Bos.sii,  Vol.  I,  p.  304  ;  and  Willctl'.s  Narrative  p.  109. 

•♦  Ferlaud,  Vol.  I,  p.  134,  and  Major  C.  Swan  in  a  Keport  concerning  the  Creeks  in 
1791,  Schoolcrall,  Vol.  V,  p.  277,  assert  that  the  Whites  excel  the  Indians  at  this 
game. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  105 

looked  upon  it  rather  in  tiio  lii^lit  of  a  manly  contest  than 
as  an  amusement.  Xeveitheless  the  young  people  and 
the  women  often  took  part  in  it.  Perrot  tells  us  so,  and 
both  Romans  and  Bossu  say  that  after  the  men  were  through, 
the  women  usually  played  a  game,  the  bets  on  which  were 
generally  high.  Powers^represents  the  squaws  among  the 
Californian  Indians  as  joining  the  game. 

Dexterity  in  the  game  lay  in  the  skilful  use  of  the  rack- 
et ;  in  rapid  running ;  in  waylaying  an  adversary  when  he 
was  in  possession  of  the  ball ;  in  avoiding  members  of  the 
opposing  side  when  the  player  himself  was  running  with 
the  ball  for  the  goal,  and  in  adroitly  passing  the  ball  to 
one  of  the  same  side  when  surrounded  by  opponents.  To 
give  full  scope  to  skill  in  the  use  of  the  racket,  great 
stress  was  laid  upon  the  rule  that  the  ball  was  not  to  l^e 
touched  by  the  hand.  Perrot  says,  "  if  it  falls  to  the  earth 
he  tries  to  draw  it  to  him  with  his  cross."  Charlevoix  says, 
"Their  business  is  to  strike  the  ball  to  the  post  of  the  adverse 
party  without  letting  it  fall  to  the  ground  and  without 
touching  it  with  the  hand."  Adair  says,  "  They  are  not 
allowed  to  catch  it  with  their  hands." 

The  early  writers  were  struck  with  the  fact  that  the  char- 
acter of  the  exercise  in  this  game  was  fitted  to  develop 
the  young  warriors  for  the  war  path,  and  they  commented 
on  the  practice  that  they  thus  acquired  in  rapid  running 
and  iu  avoiding  blows  from  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of 
an  adversary. 

When  Ave  review  the  various  features  of  the  game  which 
its  chroniclers  have  thought  worthy  of  record,  we  can  but 
conclude  that  it  was  rather  a  contest  of  grave  importance 
to  the  players  than  a  mere  pastime,  nor  can  we  fail  to  ac- 
cept the  concurrent  testimony  as  to  the  widespread  terri- 


"  Contributions  to  North  American  Ethnology,  Vol.  in,  p.  151. 
KSSKX    INST.    BULLKTIX,    VOL.    XVII.  14 


lOf)  INDIAN    GAMES. 

tory  ill  which  it  was  domesticated,  as  additional  evidence 
of  the  extent  of  the  intercourse  which  prevailed  among 
the  native  tribes  of  this  country. 

PLATTEK    OR   DICE. 

The  second  in  the  list  of  games  given  by  Father  Bre- 
benf  is  that  which  he  calls  "platter."  Writers  who  des- 
cribe the  habits  of  the  Indians  at  the  north  have  much  to 
say  concerning  this  game.  According  to  Lescarbot,  Jac- 
ques Cartier  saw  it  played,  and  recorded  his  observations.^^ 

Sagard  Theodat  ^^  devotes  considerable  space  to  it. 
Both  Father  Brebeuf,  in  his  Relation  in  1636,  and  Father 
Lalemant,  in  his  Relation  in  1639,  give  long  accounts  of 
the  game,  the  causes  for  its  being  played,  the  excesses  in 
gamljling  to  wdiich  it  leads,  and  the  methods  which  pre- 
vail in  its  practice.  In  PerrotV^  work  there  is  a  good  de- 
scription of  the  game,  although  not  so  full  as  his  account 
of  lacrosse,  from  which  we  have  already  quoted.  La 
Potherie  and  Lallontan  barely  mention  it.  Lafitau^'  in 
his  searching  analysis  of  the  manuscripts  deposited  at  Que- 
bec, while  seeking  for  traces  of  his  theory  that  a  resem- 
blance existed  between  the  habits  of  the  Indians  and  those 
of  the  ancient  dwellers  in  eastern  Europe,  found  an  un- 
usual quantity  of  material  bearing  on  this  particular  topic, 
which  he  has  reproduced  in  his  book.  Charlevoix*",  in 
a  letter  dated  June  8,  1721,  says,  "As  I  was  returning 
through  a  quarter  of  the  Huron  village,  I  perceived  a  num- 
ber of  these  Indians,  who  seemed  much  heated  at  play.     I 

3«  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  Fiance  par  Marc  Lescarbot,  Nouvelle  Edition,  Paris 
186G,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  754. 

"  Histoire  du  Canada,  etc.,  par  Gabriel  Sagard  Theodat;  Nouvelle  Edition, 
Paris,  1806,  Vol.  I,  pp.  243-'244. 

s>  p.  50. 

3»  Mojurs  des  Sauvages  Amcriquaius,  etc.,  par  le  P.  Lafitau,  Paris,  17-i,  Vol. 
II,  p.  339. 

«»  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  260-1. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  107 

approached  them  and  found  that  the  sjame  they  were  play- 
ing at  was  what  they  called  the  game  of  platter.  This  is 
the  game  to  which  the  Indians  are  addicted  above  all 
others.  They  sometimes  lose  their  rest  and  in  some  de- 
gree their  very  senses  at  it.  They  stake  all  they  are  worth, 
and  several  of  them  have  been  known  to  continue  at  it  till 
they  have  stript  themselves  stark  naked  and  lost  all  their 
movables  in  their  cabin.  Some  have  been  known  to  stake 
their  liberty  for  a  certain  time.  This  circumstance  proves 
beyond  all  doubt  how  passionately  fond  they  are  of  it, 
there  being  no  people  in  the  world  more  jealous  of  their 
liberty  than  our  Indians." 

In  the  description  which  Charlevoix  then  gives,  he  has 
relied  partly  upon  personal  observations  and  also  to  some 
extent,  upon  acccmnts  which  were  at  that  time  in  manu- 
script in  Quebec  and  which  were  easily  accessible  to 
him.  He  was  himself  an  intelligent  observer  and  a  cul- 
tivated man.  His  history  and  his  letters,  although  not 
free  from  the  looseness  of  expression  which  pervades  con- 
temporaneous accounts  show  on  the  whole  the  disci- 
pline of  an  educated  mind.  We  learn  from  him  and  from 
the  authorities  heretofore  enumerated  that  two  players 
only  from  each  side  could  participate  in  this  game  at  any 
given  time  during  its  progress.  The  necessary  imple- 
ments were  a  bowl  and  a  number  of  dice  fashioned  some- 
what like  apricot  seeds,  and  colored  differently  upon  the 
upper  and  lower  sides.  Generally,  one  side  was  white 
and  the  other  black.  The  number  of  these  dice  was  gen- 
erally six.  There  was  no  tixed  rule  as  to  the  materials  of 
which  they  were  made  ;  sometimes  they  were  of  bone  ; 
sometimes  the  stones  of  fruits  were  used.  The  impor- 
tant point  was  that  the  centre  of  gravity  of  each  die 
should  be  so  placed,  that  when  it  was  throAvn  into  the 
air,  or  when   the  Ixnvl   in  which  it  was  placed,   was   \  io- 


108  INDIAN    GAMES, 

lently  twirled,  there  would  be  an  even  chance  as  to  which 
of  its  two  sides  the  die  would  settle  upon  when  it  lodged ; 
and  in  the  game  as  it  was  played  in  early  times  that  the 
Avhole  number  of  dice  used  should  be  uniform  in  the  col- 
oring of  the  sides,  each  die  having  the  different  sides 
of  different  colors.  The  dice  were  phiced  in  the  ])owl 
which  was  generally  of  wood,  between  the  two  players 
who  were  to  cast  them  in  behalf  of  their  respective  sides. 
These  casters  or  throwers  were  selected  by  each  side  and 
the  prevailing  motives  in  their  choice  were  generally 
based  upon  some  superstitious  belief  in  their  luck.  Per- 
haps this  one  had  dreamed  that  he  would  win.  Perhaps 
that  one  was  believed  to  possess  some  magic  power, 
or  some  secret  ointment  which  when  applied  to  the  dice 
would  cause  them  to  turn  up  favorably  for  his  side.*^  The 
spectators  were  generally  arranged  in  seats  along  the  sides 
of  the  cabin*^,  placed  in  tiers  so  that  each  person  could 
have  a  view  of  the  players.  They  were  in  more  senses 
than  one  deeph''  interested  in  the  game.  When  the  cast 
was  to  be  made  the  player  would  strike  the  bowl  upon  the 
ground  so  as  to  make  the  dice  jump  into  the  air*^  and 
would  then  twirl  the  bowl  rapid h^  around.  During  this 
process  and  until  it  stopped  its  revolutions  and  the  dice 
finally  settled,  the  players  addressed  the  dice  and  beat 
themselves  on  their  breasts.**  The  spectators  during  the 
same  period  filled  the  air  with  shouts  and  invoked  aid 
from  their  own  protecting  powers,  while  in  the  same 
breath  they  poured  forth  imprecations  on  those  of  their 
adversaries.  The  number  of  points  allected  the  length  of 
the  game  and  was  entirely  optional.     If  six  dice  were  used 


*i  Relations  des  Jesiiites,  Relation  en  I'Annee,  1G36,  p,  113, 
*"-  Ibiil,  Relation  en  l'Ann<5e,  1039,  p.  95. 
*3  Sagiird  Theodat,  Vol.  I.  p.  243. 
**  Shea's  Hennepin,  p.  300. 


INDIAN    GAMKS.  109 

and  all  came  up  of  the  same  color,  the  throw  counted 
five.*'*  If  five  of  them  were  of  the  same  color  it  counted 
one.  Any  lower  number  failed  to  count.  If  the  caster 
was  unsuccessful  he  gave  place  to  another,  but  so  long 
as  he  continued  to  win  his  side  would  retain  him  in  that 
position.*^ 

The  game  was  often  ushered  in  with  singing.  Like  la- 
crosse it  was  prescribed  as  a  remedy  for  sickness  or  in 
consequence  of  dreams,  and  the  sufferer  in  whose  behalf 
the  game  was  played  was  borne  to  the  cabin  in  which  it 
was  to  take  place.  Preliminary  fasting  and  continence 
were  observed,  and  every  efi()rt  made  that  superstition 
could  suggest  to  discover  who  would  be  the  lucky  thrower 
and  who  could  aid  the  caster  by  his  presence  at  the  con- 
test. Old  men,  unable  to  walk  thither,  were  brought  up 
on  the  shoulders  of  the  young  men  that  their  presence 
might  be  propitious  to  the  chances  of  the  game.*^  The 
excitement  which  attended  one  of  these  games  of  chance 
was  intense,  especially  Avhen  the  game  reached  a  critical 
point  and  some  particular  throw  was  likely  to  terminate 
it.  Charlevoix  says  the  games  often  lasted  for  five  or  six 
days^'*  and  oftentimes  the  spectators  concerned  in  the 
game,  "are  in  such  an  agitation  as  to  be  transported  out 
of  themselves  to  such  a  degree  that  they  quarrel  and  fight, 
which  never  happens  to  the  Hurons,  except  on  these  occa- 
sions or  when  they  are  drunk." 

Perhaps  rum  was  responsil)lc  also  for  these  quarrels  ; 
for  in  the  early  accounts  wc  are  told  that  losses  were  phil- 
osophically accepted.     Father    Brebeuf  tells  of   a  party 


<'  Amoti)?  the  Delawares  it  rcquircil  eiplit  counts  of  five  to  win.  History  of  tlie 
Mission  of  the  United  Bretliren  among  the  Indians,  etc.,  G.  H.  Losliiel.  Translated 
by  C.  I.  Latrobc.    Part  i,  Cli.  viii,  p.  IOC. 

<•  Charlevoix,  Vol.  in.  p.  201.  <' Jbid.  p.  202. 

*'Loi.kiel  (p.  lOr.)  saw  a  frame  between  two  Iroquois  towns  which  lasted  eight 
days.    Sacrifices  for  hick  were  oflereil  by  the  side.^  each  night. 


110  INDIAN    GAMES. 

who  had  lost  their  legghigs  at  one  of  these  games  and  Avho 
returned  to  their  village  in  three  feet  of  snow  as  cheertul 
in  appearance  as  if  they  had  won.  There  seems  to  have 
been  no  limit  to  which  they  would  not  go  in  their  stakes 
while  under  the  excitement  of  the  game.  Clothing,  wife, 
family  and  sometimes  the  personal  liberty  of  the  player 
himself  rested  in  the  hazard  of  the  die.*^ 

The  women  often  played  the  game  by  themselves,  though 
apparently  with  less  formality  than  characterized  the  great 
matches.  The  latter  frequently  assumed  the  same  local 
characteristics  that  we  have  seen  in  the  game  of  lacrosse, 
and  we  hear  of  village  being  pitted  against  village  as  a 
frequent  feature  of  the  game.^" 

Morgan^^  describes  a  game  played  by  the  Iroquois 
with  buttons  or  dice  made  of  elk-horn,  rounded  and  pol- 
ished and  blackened  on  one  side.  The  players  spread  a 
blanket  on  the  ground;  and  the  dice  were  tossed  with  the 
h:md  in  the  air  and  permitted  to  fall  on  the  blanket.  The 
counts  were  determined  as  in  the  game  of  platter  by  the 
color  of  the  sides  of  the  dice  which  were  exposed  when  they 
settled.     The  number  of  the  dice  was  eight. 

In  Perrot's'-  description  of  the  game  of  platter  he  al- 
ludes to  a  game,  played  with  eight  dice,  on  a  blanket  in 
precisely  this  way,  but  he  adds  that  it  was  practised  by 
women  and  girls.  La  Potherie^^  says  that  the  women 
sometimes  play  at  platter,  but  (n-dinarily  they  cast  the 
fruit  stones  with  the  hand  as  one  throws  dice. 

Under  the  name  of  "hubbub"  this  game  has  also  been 


"Chtirlevoix,  Vol.  in,  p.  261.  Le  Gniiid  Voyage  du  Pays  des  Hurons,  par  Ga- 
briel Siigard  Theodat,  Paris,  163-2,  Nouvelle  Edition,  Paris,  18(55,  p.  85;  llelations 
do  Jesiiites,  Relation  de  la  Nouvelle  France,  en  PAnn^e  1639,  pp.  95-96;  Lafitau, 
Vol.  II,  p.  341. 

r  I  Perrot.  p.  43;  Flistoirc  du  Canada,  par  F.  X.  Garneau.  Vol.  i,  p.  115. 
61  League  of  the  Iroquois,  p.  30i.    "  Perrot,  p.  50.    '^  La  Polherie,  Vol.  ill,  p.  23. 


INDIAX    OAMF.S.  Ill 

described  by  observers  anionir  the  Aheiuikis.  Ogilby^* 
says;  "Iluhliub  is  Hve  small  Bones  in  a  small  Tray;  the 
Bones  be  like  a  Die,  but  something  Hatter,  black  on  the 
one  side  and  white  on  the  other,  which  they  place  on 
the  Ground,  against  which  violently  thumping  the  Platter, 
the  Bones  mount,  changing  Colour  with  the  windy  whisking 
of  their  Hands  to  and  fro  ;  which  action  in  that  sport  they 
much  use,  smiting  themselves  on  the  Breasts  and  Thighs, 
crying  out  Hub  Hul)  Hub ;  they  may  be  heard  playing  at 
this  game  a  quarter  of  a  mile  off.  The  Bones  being  all 
black  or  white  make  a  double  Game  ;  if  three  of  one 
colour,  and  two  of  another,  then  they  afford  but  a  single 
game  ;  four  of  a  colour  and  one  differing  is  nothing.  So 
long  as  the  Man  wins  he  keeps  the  Tray,  but  if  he  lose 
the  next  Man  takes  it." 

There  is  but  little  said  about  this  game  in  the  south  by 
writers.  It  evidently  had  no  such  hold  there  as  among 
the  Hurons  and  the  tribes  along  the  Lakes.  Lawson^  saw 
it  played  in  North  Carolina  with  persimmon  stones  as 
dice.  While  this  fixes  the  fact  that  the  game  had  a  home 
among  the  southern  Indians,  the  way  in  which  it  has  been 
slighted  by  the  majority  of  writers  who  treat  of  that  sec- 
tion shows  that  it  was  not  a  favorite  game  there. 

To  what  shall  ^ve  ascribe  this?  Its  hold  upon  the  north- 
ern Indians  shows  that  it  was  peculiarly  ada[)ted  to  the 
temperament  of  the  natives,  and  we  should  naturally  ex- 
pect to  find  it  as  much  in  use  among  the  tribes  of  the 
south  as  with  those  of  the  north.  An  explanation  for 
this  may  possibly  be  found  in  the  difference  of  the  cli- 
mate. The  game  was  especially  adapted  for  the  winter, 
and  while  its  practice  was  evidently  not  exclusively  con- 


»*  America,  being  an  Accurate  Description  of  tlie  New  World,  etc.    Collected 
and  Translated  by  John  Ogilby.    London,  1G70.    Book  ii,  Ch.  ii,  p.  155. 
">  History  of  North  Carolina  by  John  Lawson,  London,  1718,   p.  176. 


112  INDIAN    GAMES. 

fined  to  that  season,  it  is  possible  that  its  greater  hold  upon 
the  affections  of  the  Indians  of  the  north  arose  from  their 
being  obliged  to  resort  to  in-door  amnscmcnts  during  the 
protracted  winters  in  that  region.  From  this  necessity 
the  southern  Indians  being  in  a  measure  exempt,  they 
continued  their  out-door  games  as  usual  and  never  became 
so  thoroughly  inftituated  with  this  game. 

Informal  contests  were  often  held  between  players,  in 
which  the  use  of  the  bowl  or  platter  was  dispensed  wath. 
The  dice  were  held  in  the  hand  and  then  tossed  in  the  air. 
They  were  allowed  to  fall  upon  some  prepared  surface, 
generally  a  deerskin  spread  for  the  purpose.  The  same 
rules  as  to  the  color  of  the  surfaces  of  the  dice  when  they 
settled  in  their  places  governed  the  count.  This  form  of 
the  game  is  sometimes  described  as  a  separate  game. 
Boucher^*'  calls  it  PaquessenJ'^  The  women  of  Oregon 
played  it  with  marked  beaver  teeth. ^^  Among  the  Twa- 
nas  it  was  played  with  beaver  or  muskrat  teeth. ^^  Pow- 
ers*'' saj^s  that  among  the  Nishinams,  a  tribe  living  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  between  the  Yuba  and  Cos- 
umnes  rivers,  "  a  game  of  dice  is  played  by  men  or  women, 
two,  three  or  four  together.  The  dice,  four  in  number, 
consist  of  two  acorns  split  lengthwise  into  halves,  with  the 
outsidos  scraped  and  painted  red  or  black.  They  are  shak- 
en in  the  hand  and  thrown  into  a  wide  flat  basket,  woven 
in  ornamental  patterns.     One  paint  and  three  whites,  or 


""True  and  Genuine  Description  of  New  France,  etc.,  by  Pierre  Bouclier,  Pnris, 
1644.  Transliited  under  title  "Canaduia  the  Seventeeutli  Century,"  Montreal,  188.J, 
p.  57. 

'^'Played  by  women  and  girls.  Sagard  Theodat,  Ilistoire  du  Canada,  Vol.  i,  p. 
244. 

*9Contribution8  to  North  American  Ethnology,  Vol.  I,  p.  20fl,  George  Gibfcs; 
H.  H.  Bancroft's  Native  Races,  Vol.  i,  p.  244;  The  Nortlivvest  Coast  by  James 
G.  Swan,  p.  158. 

''»  Bulletin,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Vol.  in.  No.  1,  April  5, 1877.    liev.  M.  Eels. 

•°  Contributions  to  North  American  Ethnology,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  ;J32. 


i 


TNDIAX    GAMES.  113 

vice  versa,  score  nothing  ;  two  of  each  score  one  ;  four  alike 
score  four.  The  thrower  keeps  on  throwing  until  he  makes 
a  blank  throw,  when  another  takes  the  dice.  When  all 
the  players  have  stood  their  turn,  the  one  who  has  scored 
the  most  takes  the  stakes." 

The  women  of  the  Yoknts,*^^  a  Californian  tribe  which 
lived  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley  near  Tulare  Lake,  had  a 
similar  game.  Each  die  was  half  a  large  acorn  or  walnut 
shell  filled  with  pitch  and  powdered  charcoal  and  inlaid 
with  bits  of  bright  colored  al^aloni  shell.  Four  squaws 
played  and  a  fifth  kept  tally  with  fifteen  sticks.  There 
were  eight  dice  and  they  scooped  them  up  with  their  hands 
and  dashed  them  into  the  basket,  counting  one  when  two 
or  five  fiat  surfaces  turned  up. 

Schoolcraft*^-  says  "one  of  the  principal  amusements  of 
a  sedentary  character  is  that  of  various  games,  success  in 
"which  depends  on  luck  in  numbers.  These  games,  to  which 
both  the  prairie  and  forest  tribes  are  addicted,  assume  the 
fascination  and  intensity  of  gambling  ;  and  the  most  valued 
articles  are  often  staked  upon  the  luck  of  a  throw.  For 
this  purpose  the  prairie  tribes  commonly  use  the  stones  of 
the  wild  plum  or  some  analogous  fruit,  upon  which  various 
devices  indicating  their  arithmetical  value  are  burned  in, 
or  engraved  and  colored,  so  as  at  a  glance  to  reveal  the 
character  of  the  pieces."  Among  the  Dacota  tribes  this  is 
known  by  a  term  which  is  translated  the  "game  of  plum 
stones."  He  gives  illustrations  of  the  devices  on  five  sets 
of  stones,  numbering  eight  each.  "To  play  this  game  a 
little  orifice  is  made  in  the  ground  and  a  skin  put  in  it ; 
often  it  is  also  pla3'ed  on  a  robe."*""  The  women  and  the 
young  men  play  this  game.     The  bowl  is  lifted  with  one 

«»  Contributions  to  North  American  Ethnology,  Vol.  m,  p.  377. 
«=  Schoolorall'H  Indian  Tribi-s,  Vol.  ii,  pp.  71,  72. 

•s  Domenccli.  Vol.  ii,  p.  191;  First  Annual  Report  of  lUiveau  of  Ethnolofry, 
Smithsonian,  I8M,  p.  lur,. 

ESSEX    IN.ST.    BUI.I.KTIK,    VOL.    XVIf.  15 


114  INDIAN    GAMES. 

hand  and  rudely  pushed  down  to  its  place.  The  plum 
stones  fly  over  several  times.  The  stake  is  first  put  up  by 
all  who  wish  to  play.  A  dozen  can  play  at  once  if  desirable. 
Schoolcraft^*  describes  still  another  form  of  the  game 
which  he  found  among  the  Chippewas,  in  which  thirteen 
pieces  or  dice  were  used.  Nine  of  them  were  of  bone  and 
were  fashioned  in  figures  typifying  fish,  serpents,  etc. 
One  side  of  each  was  painted  red  and  had  dots  burned  in 
with  a  hot  iron.  The  brass  pieces  were  circular  having  cue 
side  convex  and  the  other  concave.  The  convex  side 
was  bright,  the  concave  dark  or  dull.  The  red  pieces  were 
the  winning  pieces  and  each  had  an  arithmetical  value. 
Any  number  of  players  might  play.  A  wooden  bowl, 
curiously  carved  and  ornamented,  was  used.  This  form 
of  the  game  may  have  been  modified  by  contact  with  the 
whites.  It  seems  to  be  the  most  complex*'^  form  in  which 
the  game  appears.  The  fact  still  remains  however,  that 
in  some  form  or  other  we  find  the  game  in  use  across  the 
entire  breadth  of  the  continent.^" 

STRAW^    OR    INDIAN    CARDS. 

The  third  game  mentioned  by  Father  Brebeuf  was  that 
which  was  called  straw.  We  have  seen  that  the  first  of 
these  games  called  for  strength,  agilit^'and  endurance.  It 
was  as  free  from  elements  of  chance  as  any  human  contest 


««  Vol.  II,  p.  72. 

•*  See  .nlsoa  simpler  form  of  the  game  described  by  Philander  Prescott  among 
the  Dacotas.— Sclioolcraft,  Vol.  iv,  p.  64.  The  tendency  of  the  modern  Indian.s  to 
elaborate  the  game  maybe  traced  in  the  descri})tion  of  "Plumstone  shooting" 
given  in  "  Omaha  Sociology"  by  Rev.  J.  Owen  Dorscy.  Third  Annual  Report  of 
the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  Wash- 
ington, 1884,  p.  335. 

''"  Col.  James  Smith  describes  the  game  among  the  Wyandots.  xVn  Account  ot 
the  Remarkable  Occurrences  in  the  Life  and  Travels  of  Col.  James  Smith,  during 
his  Captivity  with  the  Indians  in  the  Years  1755-1759.  Cincinnati,  1870,  p,  46. 
Tanner  also  describes  it.  He  calls  it  Beg-gasah  or  dice.  Tanner's  Narrative,  New 
York,  1830,  p.  114. 


INDIAN    OAMES.  11') 

can  be.  The  victory  belonged  to  the  side  which  counted 
amongst  its  numbers  those  phiyers  who  were  the  fleetest 
runners,  the  most  skilful  throwers  and  the  most  adroit  dodg- 
ers. The  second  was  purely  a  game  of  chance.  If  hon- 
estly played  no  other  element  entered  into  its  composition. 
The  third  which  we  are  now  about  to  consider  Avas  much 
more  complicated  in  its  rules  than  either  of  theothers.  It 
closely  resembled  in  some  respects  several  of  our  modern 
gambling  games.  The  French  found  it  very  difficult  to 
comprehend  and  hence  the  accounts  of  it  which  they  have 
given  are  often  confused  and  perplexing.  Boucher"  says, 
"Our  French  people  have  not  yet  been  able  to  learn  to 
play  it  well ;  it  is  full  of  spirit  and  these  straws  are  to 
the  Indians  what  cards  are  to  us."  Latitau"^  after  quoting 
from  Boucher  says,  "Baron  de  la  Ilontan  also  made  out  of 
it  a  game  purely  of  the  mind  and  of  calculation,  in  which 
he  who  best  knows  how  to  add  and  subtract,  to  multiply 
and  divide  with  these  straws  will  surely  win.  To  do  this, 
use  and  practice  are  necessary,  for  these  savages  are  noth- 
ing less  than  good  calculators." 

"Sieur  Perrot,  who  was  a  celebrated  traveller,  and  that 
European  whom  the  savages  of  New  France  have  most 
honored,  left  a  description  of  this  game  in  his  manuscript 
Memorial.^  I  would  gladly  have  inserted  it  here  but  it  is 
so  obscure  that  it  is  nearly  unintelligible."  Charlevoix  ad- 
mits that  he  could  understand  nothing  of  the  game,  ex- 
cept as  played  by  two  persons  in  its  simplest  form  and 
adds  that  he  was  told  that  "  there  was  as  much  of  art  as 
of  chance  in  the  game  and  that  the  Indians  are  great  cheats 
at  it."«=' 


"p.  57.  MVol.  II,  p.  351. 

•»  Charlevoix,  Vol.  iii,  p.  319;  Fatlier  Tailhan  who  edited  Perrot  says  he  has 
not  been  any  more  successful  tlian  his  predecessors  and  the  game  of  straws  re- 
mains to  him  an  unsolved  enigma.     Perrot,  Notes  to  Ch.  X,  p.  18S. 


116  INDIAN    GAMES. 

Where  Lafitau  and  Charlevoix,  aided  by  opportunities 
to  investigate  the  game  itself,  have  failed,  it  Avould  seem  to 
be  useless  for  us  to  attempt.  Perrot  has  indeed  succeeded 
in  making  his  account  hopelessly  involved.  There  is 
however  much  information  to  be  derived  from  it  and  the 
obscure  points  are  after  all  unimportant  unless  one  should 
actually  wish  to  reproduce  the  game  in  practice.  In  that 
event  there  are  many  points  connected  with  the  counts 
which  Avould  prove  troublesome. 

To  play  the  game,  a  number  of  straws  or  reeds  uniform 
in  size  and  of  equal  length  were  required.  They  were 
generally  from  six  to  ten  inches  long.  The  number  used 
in  the  game  was  arbitrary.  Lawson  puts  it  at  fifty-one. 
Charlevoix  at  two  hundred  and  one.  The  only  essential 
points  were  that  the  numbers  should  be  odd  and  that  there 
should  be  enough  of  them  so  that  when  the  pilew^as  divid- 
ed into  two  parts,  a  glance  would  not  reveal  which  of  the 
two  divisions  contained  the  odd  number  of  straws.  In  its 
simplest  form,  the  game  consisted,  in  separating  the  heap 
of  straws  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  each  player  took, 
and  he  whose  pile  contained  the  odd  number  of  straws 
was  the  winner.  Before  the  division  was  made  the  straws 
were  subjected  to  a  manipulation,  somewhat  after  the  man- 
ner of  shufiling  cards.  They  were  then  placed  upon  the 
deer-skin  or  upon  whatever  other  article  was  selected  as  a 
surface  on  which  to  play.  The  player  Avho  was  to  make  the 
division  into  two  heaps,  with  many  contortions  of  the  body 
and  throwing  about  of  the  arms,  and  with  constant  utter- 
ances to  propitiate  his  good  luck,  would  make  a  division 
of  the  straws  with  a  pointed  bone  or  some  similar  instru- 
ment, himself  taking  one  of  the  divisions  while  his  adver- 
sary took  the  other.  They  would  then  rapidly  separate 
the  straws  into  parcels  numbering  ten  each  and  determine 
from  the  fractional  remainders,  who  had  the  odd  number. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  117 

The  speed  with  which  this  process  of  counting  was  car- 
ried on  was  always  a  source  of  wonder  to  the  lookers-on, 
and  the  fact  that  the  counting  was  done  by  tens  is  almost 
invariably  mentioned.  Between  two  people  betting  simply 
on  the  odd  number  no  further  rules  were  necessary.  To 
determine  which  had  the  heap  containing  the  odd  number, 
there  was  no  need  to  foot  up  the  total  nuinl)er  of  tens.  It 
was  to  be  settled  by  what  was  left  over  after  the  last  pile 
of  complete  tens  was  set  aside.  The  number  itself  miojht  be 
either  one,  three,  live,  seven  or  nine.  In  the  more  compli- 
cated form  of  the  game,  this  led  to  giving  difterent  values 
to  these  numbers,  the  nine  being  always  supreme  and  the 
one  on  which  the  highest  bets  were  wagered.  It  was  gen- 
erally understood  that  the  holder  of  this  numl^er  swept  the 
board  taking  all  bets  on  other  numbers  as  Avell  as  those  on 
the  nine.  It  was  easy  to  bet  beads  against  beads  and  skins 
against  skins,  in  a  simple  game  of  odd  or  even,  but  when 
the  element  of  different  values  for  different  combinations 
was  introduced,  some  medium  of  exchange  was  needed  to 
relieve  the  complications.  Stones  of  fruit  were  employed 
just  as  chips  or  counters  are  used  in  modern  gambling 
games,  and  a  regular  bank  was  practically  instituted. 
Each  player  took  a  certain  number  of  these  counters,  as 
the  equivalent  of  the  value  of  the  merchandise  which  he 
proposed  to  hazard  on  the  game,  whether  it  was  a  gun,  a 
blanket,  or  some  other  article.  Here  we  have  all  the 
machinery  of  a  regular  gambling  game  at  cards,  but  the 
resemblance  does  not  stop  here.  The  players  put  up  their 
bets  precisely  as  they  now  do  in  a  game  of  faro,  selecting 
their  favorite  number  and  tixing  the  amount,  measured  in 
the  standard  of  the  game,  which  they  wished  to  hazard. 
"  By  the  side  of  the  straws  which  are  on  the  ground  arc 
found  the  {grains)  counters,"  says  Perrot,  "  which  the 
players    have  bet  on  the  game."     In  another  place,  the 


118  INDIAN    GAMES. 

method  of  indicating  the  bets  is  stated  as  follows:  "he 
(meaning  apparently  the  one  who  has  bet)  is  also  obliged 
to  make  two  other  heaps.  In  one  he  Avill  place  live,  in  the 
other  seven  straws,  with  as  many  (grains)  countevs  as  he 
pleases."  These  phrases  may  fairly  be  interpreted  to  mean 
that  a  record  of  the  bets,  somewhat  of  the  same  style  as 
that  kept  with  conntcrs  upon  a  ftiro  table,  was  constantly 
before  the  players.  Complicated  rules  determined  when 
the  players  won  or  lost ;  when  the  bets  were  to  be  doubled 
and  when  thoy  were  to  abide  the  chance  of  another  count. 
Tlic  loser  at  the  game,  even  after  all  that  he  had  with  him 
was  gone,  w^as  sometimes  permitted  to  ccmtinue  the  game 
on  his  promise  to  pay.  If  ill  luck  still  pursued  him  the 
winner  could  refuse  him  credit  and  decline  to  play  for 
stakes  that  he  could  not  see. 

The  g.'imc  often  lasted  for  several  days,  one  after  an- 
other of  the  sides  relieving  his  comi-ades  at  the  play  until 
one  of  the  two  sides  had  lost  everything,  it  being,  says 
Pcrrot,'''"a  maxim  of  the  savages  not  to  quit  play  until 
one  side  or  the  other  had  lost  everything."  Those  who 
had  bet  at  the  game  had  the  right  to  substitute  any  person 
whom  they  pleased  to  play  for  them.  "Should  an}^  dis- 
pute arise  on  this  point,"  says  Perrot,  "between  the 
winners  and  the  losers,  the  disi)utants  backed  by  their  re- 
spective sides  would  probably  come  to  blows,  blood  would 
be  shed  and  the  whole  thing  would  be  very  ditHcult  to 
settle."  Cheating  often  took  place  at  this  game.  Its  ex- 
posure was  considered  praiseworthy  and  its  practice  de- 
nounced. If  doubts  were  expressed  as  to  the  accuracy  of 
a  count,  the  matter  was  peacefully  adjusted  by  a  re-count 
by  two  of  the  spectators. 

"  This  game  of  straw,"  says    Perrot,  from  whose  ac- 

'0  p.  I'J. 


I 


INDIAN    GAMES.  119 

count  wc  have  made  tlie  foregoing  digest,  "  is  ordinarily 
held  in  the  cabins  of  the  chiefs,  which  are  large,  and  are, 
so  to  speak,  the  Academy  of  the  Savages."  He  concludes 
his  account  with  the  statement  that  the  women  never  play 
it."  .  The  authority  on  this  game  whom  Ogilby  quotes 
slides  over  the  difficulties  of  the  description  with  the  state- 
ment that  "  many  other  whimsies  be  in  this  game  which 
would  be  too  long  to  commit  to  paper."  Abbe  Ferland"'- 
epitomizes  the  results  of  his  investigation  of  this  game 
as  follows  :  "  Memory,  calculation  and  quickness  of  eye- 
sight were  necessary  for  success." 

Like  the  game  of  dice  or  platter  it  was  essentially  a 
house  game,  and  like  platter  it  is  rarely  mentioned  by 
writers  who  describe  the  habits  of  Indians  in  the  south, 
Lawson  describes  it,  but  in  slightly  modified  form,  as  fol- 
lows :  "  Indian  Cards.  Their  chiefest  game  is  a  sort  of 
Arithmetick,  which  is  managed  by  a  parcel  of  small  split 
reeds,  the  thickness  of  a  small  Bent;  these  are  made  very 
nicely,  so  that  they  part,  and  are  tractable  in  their  hands. 
They  are  fifty-one  in  number,  their  length  about  seven 
inches  ;  when  they  play,  they  throw  part  of  them  to  their 
antagonist;  the  art  is,  to  discover,  ui)on  sight,  how  many 
you  have,  and  what  you  throw  to  him  that  plaj's  with  you. 
Some  are  so  expert  at  their  numbers,  that  they  will  tell 
ten  times  together,  what  they  throw  out  of  their  hands. 
Although  the  whole  play  is  carried  on  with  the  quickest 
motion  it  is  possible  to  use,  yet  some  are  so  expert  at  this 
Game,  as  to  win  great  Indian  Estates  by  this  Play.  A 
good  sett  of  these  reeds,  fit  to  play  withal  are  valued  and 
sold  for  a  dressed  doe-skin." 

A.    MY.    Chase'^    speaks    of  "  native    games    of   cards 

"Seealso  Shea's  Hennepin,  p.  300.  "  Vol.  I,  p.  134. 

"Overland  Monthly,  Vol.  ii,  p.  4.33,  Dorsey  fonnd  a  survival  of  Ihe  same  in 
use  among  the  Oinahas.  He  called  it  ••  stick  counting."  Third  Annual  Keport, 
Bureau  of  Kthnology,  p.  338. 


120  INDIAN    GAMES. 

iimong  the  Coquelles  and  Makneatanas,  the  pasteboards 
being  bundles  of  sticks."  He  furnishes  no  description  of 
the  games,  but  uses  the  same  phrase  which  was  applied  by 
Lawson  in  North  Carolina  and  by  Boucher  in  Canada. 

Frank  H.  Cushing^*  speaks  of  a  game  of  "  Cane-cards  " 
among  the  Zuui  which  he  says  "would  grace  the  most 
civilized  society  with  a  refined  source  of  amusement."  He 
was  not  able  fully  to  comprehend  it. 

In  the  list  of  games,  there  is  none  of  which  we  have 
any  detailed  account,  which  compares  with  straws  as 
played  by  the  northern  tri))es,  in  elaborateness  of  con- 
struction. The  unfortunate  confusion  which  prevails 
throughout  Perrot's  description  of  the  method  of  counting, 
and  the  way  in  which  the  point  was  shirked  l)y  all  other 
writers  on  the  subject,  prevents  any  attempt  at  analysis. 
So  far  as  we  can  see,  the  rules  were  arbitrary  and  not 
based  upon  any  calculations  of  the  laws  of  chance.  If 
some  other  detailed  account  of  the  game  should  be  discov- 
ered it  would  be  mterestiug  to  follow  up  this  question 
and  ascertain  how  far  the  different  combinations  which 
affected  the  counts  were  based  ui)on  a  theory  of  proba])ili- 
ties  and  how  far  they  were  arbitrary. 

It  will  of  course  be  noticed  that  the  game  described  by 
Lawson  was  relieved  from  much  of  this  complication. 
The  dexterity  required  to  make  a  throw  of  such  a  nature 
that  the  player  could  tell  exactly  the  number  of  reeds 
with  which  he  had  parted,  was  of  course  remarkable  aud 
naturally  called  forth  expressions  of  surprise.  But  there 
were  apparently  no  other  combinations  resting  upon  the 
thr5w  than  the  simple  guess  at  the  number  thrown.  Trav- 
ellers in  California  have  described  the  game  in  still  sim- 
pler form  in  which  we  see  hints   of  the  more    complex 

'«Tlic  Century,  Vol.  xxvi,  p.  3S.    My  Adventures  in  Zuui. 


INDIAN    OAMES.  121 

game.  Here  the  "  sticks"  were  thrown  in  the  air  and  an 
iraniediate  gness  was  made  whether  the  number  thrown 
was  odd  or  even.  An  umpire  kept  the  account  with 
other  sticks  and  on  this  connt  the  bets  were  adjusted.''^ 

Wherever  Ave  find  it  and  whatever  tlie  form  in  use, 
whether  simple  or  complicated,  like  games  of  lacrosse  and 
platter  the  occasion  of  its  play  was  but  an  excuse  for  in- 
dulgence in  the  inveterate  spirit  of  gambling  which  every- 
where prevailed. 

CHUNKEE    OK    HOOP    AND    POLE. 

Among  the  Indians  at  the  south,  observers  noted  and 
described  a  game  of  great  antiquity,  of  which  we  have  no 
record  during  historical  times  among  those  of  the  north, 
unless  we  should  classify  the  game  of  javelin  described  by 
Morgan"'^  as  a  modified  form  of  the  same  game.  The  gen- 
eral name  by  which  this  game  was  known  was  chunkee. 
AVlicn  Iberville  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  he 
despatched  a  party  to  explore  the  river.  The  officer  who 
kept  the  "Journal  do  la  fregate,  le  Marin"  was  one  of  that 
party  and  he  recorded  the  fact  that  the  Bayagoulas  and 
Mougoulachas  passed  the  greater  part  of  their  time  in 
playing  in  this  place  with  great  sticks  which  they  throw 
after  a  little  stone,  which  is  nearly  round  and  like  a  bul- 
let.'' Father  Gravier  descended  the  river  in  1700  and  at 
the  village  of  Iloumas  he  saw  a  "fine  level  square  where 
from  morning  to  night  there  are  young  men  who  exercise 


"Kotzebue,  A  Vojage  of  Discovery,  etc.  London.  1821.  Vol.  i,  p.  2S2  nnd  Vol. 
in,  p.  41,  note.  W.  H.  Emory,  U.  S.  and  Mexican  Boundary  Survey,  Vol.  i,  p.  ill, 
says  :  "  The  Yuraas  played  a  game  with  bticks  like  jackstrawa."  Stanley,  Smith- 
sonian MisccUaueous  Collections,  Vol.  ii,  p.  ."JS,  gives  among  his  "Portraits  of 
North  American  Indians,"  a  picture  of  a  game  whicli  he  describes  as  "  played  ex- 
clusively by  women.  They  hold  in  their  hands  twelve  sticks  about  six  inches  in 
length  which  they  drop  upon  a  rock.  The  sticks  that  fall  across  each  other  are 
counted  lor  game." 

'«  League  of  the  Iroquois,  p.  300.       '".Margry,  Decouvcrtes,  etc.,  Vol.  4,  p.  26L 

KSSIiX   INST.    UULLICTIN,    VUL.    XVII.  16 


122  INDIAN    GAMES. 

themselves  in  running  after  a  fiat  stone  wliicli  the}^  tlirow 
in  tlie  air  from  one  end  of  tlie  square  to  the  other,  and 
which  they  try  to  have  fall  on  two  cylinders  that  they  roll 
where  they  think  the  stone  will  fall. "^^  Adair  gives  the 
following  description  of  the  same  game :  "The  warriors 
have  another  favorite  game,  called  'chungke\  which,  with 
propriet}^  of  language  may  be  called  'Running  hard  labour.' 
They  have  near  their  state  house^"  a  square  piece  of  ground 
well  cleaned,  and  fine  sand  is  carefully  strewed  over  it, 
when  requisite,  to  promote  a  swifter  motion  to  what  they 
throw  along  the  surface.  Only  one  or  two  on  a  side  play 
at  this  ancient  game.  They  have  a  stone  about  two  fingers 
broad  at  the  edge  and  two  spans  round ;  each  party  has  a 
pole  of  about  eight  feet  long,  smooth,  and  tapering  at  each 
end,  the  points  fiat.  They  set  off  abreast  of  each  other  at 
six  yards  from  the  end  of  the  playground ;  then  one  of 
them  hurls  the  stone  on  its  edge,  in  as  direct  a  line  as  he 
can,  a  considerable  distance  toward  the  middle  of  the  other 
end  of  the  square.  When  they  have  run  a  few  yards,  each 
darts  his  pole  anointed  with  bears'  oil,  with  a  proper  force, 
as  near  as  he  can  guess  in  proportion  to  the  motion  of  the 
stone,  that  the  end  may  lie  close  to  the  stone.  When  this 
is  the  case,  the  person  counts  two  of  the  game,  and,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  nearness  of  the  poles  to  the  mark,  one  is 
counted,  unless  by  measuring,  both  are  found  to  be  at  an 
equal  distance  from  the  stone.  In  this  manner,  the  play- 
ers will  keep  running  most  part  of  the  day,  at  half  speed, 
under  the  violent  heat  of  the  sun,  staking  their  silver  or- 
naments, their  nose-,  finger-  and  ear-rings  ;  their  breast-, 
arm-  and  wrist-plates,  and  even  all  their  wearing  apparel, 
except  that  which  barely  covers  their  middle.      All  the 


'8  Shea's  Early  Voyages,  Albany,  18G1,  p.  143. 

'"  Consult  E.  G.  Squier.— AboriKiiiiil  Monuments  of  N.  Y.,  Smilhsonian  Contri- 
butious  to  Knowledge,  Vol.  II,  pp.  lo5-U  and  uote  p.  13(J. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  123 

American  Indians  are  much  addicted  to  this  game,  which 
to  us  appears  to  be  a  task  of  stupid  drudgery ;  it  seems, 
however,  to  be  of  early  origin,  when  their  forefathers  used 
diversions  as  simple  as  their  manners.  The  hurling  stones 
they  use  at  present  were  from  time  immemorial  rubbed 
smooth  on  the  rocks  and  with  prodigious  labor ;  and  they 
are  kept  with  the  strictest  religious  care,  from  one  genera- 
tion to  another,  and  are  exempted  from  being  buried  with 
the  dead.  They  belong  to  the  town  where  they  are 
used,  and  are  carefully  preserved."®*^ 

Lieut.  Timberlake^^  describes  the  game  as  he  saw  it 
played  among  the  Cherokees  where  it  Avas  known  by  the 
name  of  "Xettecawaw."  "Each  player  has  a  pole  about 
ten  feet  long,  with  several  marks  or  divisions.  One  of 
them  bowls  around  stone  with  one  flat  side,  and  the  other 
convex,  on  which  the  players  all  dart  their  poles  after  it, 
and  the  nearest  counts  according  to  the  vicinity  of  the  bowl 
to  the  marks  on  his  pole.  " 

Romans  saw  it  among  the  Choctaws.  He  says,  "The 
manner  of  phiying  the  game  is  thus  :  they  make  an  alley 
of  al)out  two  himdred  feet  in  length,  where  a  very  smooth 
clayey  ground  is  laid,  which  when  dry  is  very  hard  :  they 
play  two  together  having  each  a  straight  pole  about  fifteen 
feet  long ;  one  holds  a  stone  which  is  in  the  shape  of  u 
truck,  which  he  throws  before  him  over  this  alley,  and  the 
instant  of  its  departure,  they  set  off  and  run  ;  in  running 
the}'-  cast  their  poles  after  the  stone  ;  he  that  did  not  tiu-ow 
it  endeavors  to  hit  it;  the  other  strives  to  strike  the  pole 
of  his  antagonist  in  its  flight  so  as  to  prevent  the  pole  of 
his  opponent  hitting  the  stone.  If  the  first  should  strike 
the  stone  he  counts  one  for  it,  and  if  the  other  by   the 


s'See  also  Historical  Collections,  Louisiana  and  Florida.      B.  F.  French  [Vol. 

],  second  series,  p.  H.  New  York,  1875. 

s' Memoirs  of  Lieut.  Henry  Timberlake,  etc.,  London,  1765,  p.  77. 


124  INDIAN    GAMES. 

dexterity  of  his  cast  should  prevent  the  pole  of  his  oppo- 
nent hitting  the  stone,  he  counts  one,  but  should  both  miss 
their  aim  the  throw  is  renewed." 

Le  Page  du  Pratz^-  describes  the  game  as  practised 
among  the  Natchez.  He  calls  it  "Xe  Jeu  de  la  Ferche  which 
would  be  better  named  de  la  crosse."  Dumont  who  was 
stationed  at  Natchez  and  also  on  the  Yuzoo,  describes  the 
game  and  speaks  of  it  as  "La  Crosse.'*^ 

Adair  is  correct  when  he  speaks  of  the  antiquity  of  this 
game.  When  he  dwells  upon  the  fact  that  these  stones  are 
handed  down  from  generation  to  generation,  as  the  prop- 
erty of  the  village,  he  brings  these  tribes  close  to  the 
mound  dwellers.  Squier,^*  speaking  of  discoidal  stones, 
found  in  the  mounds,  says,  "It  is  known  that  among  the 
Indian  tribes  of  the  Ohio  and  along  the  Gulf,  such  stones 
were  in  common  use  in  certain  favorite  games."  Lucien 
Carr^^  describes  and  pictures  a  chuukce  stone  from  Ely 
Mound,  Va.  Lewis  and  Clarke^^  describe  the  game  as 
played  among  the  Mandans.  This  tribe  had  a  wooden 
platform  prepared  on  the  ground  between  two  of  their 
lodges.  Along  this  platform  the  stone  ring  was  rolled  and 
the  sticks  were  slid  along  the  floor  in  pursuit  of  it.  Catlin®^ 
describes  the  game  as  played  by  the  same  tribe.  They 
had  a  carefully  prepared  pavement  of  clay  on  which  they 
played.  The  "Tchunkee"  sticks  were  marked  with  bits  of 
leather  and  the  counts  of  the  game  were  affected  by  the 
position  of  the  leather  on  or  near  which  the  ring  lodged. 

82  Histoire  de  la  Louisiane,  Paris,  1758,  Vol.  ill,  p.  2. 

''5  Miinioires  Historiques  sur  la  Louisiane,  Paiis,  1753.  Vol.  i,  p.  202. 

"1  Ancient  Monuments  of  the  Mi.ssissippi  Valley,  p.  223. 

"Sloth  Annual  Report  Peahody  Museum,  p.  93.  See  alt>o  Schoolcraft't;  Indian 
tribes.  Vol.  i,  p.  83. 

scLewis  and  Clarke's  Expedition,  Phila.,  1814,  Vol.  i,  p.  143. 

»''  Vol.  I,  p.  132  et  seq.  Dorsey  describes  two  ibrnis  of  the  game  in  use  among 
theOmahas:  "  shooting  at  the  rolling  wheel"  and  ".stick  and  ring."  Third  An- 
nual Kei'ort,  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  pp.  335-336.  cf.  Travels  in  the  Interior  of 
America,  in  the  years  1809, 1810  and  1811,  by  John  Bradbury,  p.  12C. 


INDIAN    (JAMES.  125 

Tlie  Moj.ives  are  accustomed  to  phi}-  a  similar  game 
which  has  been  described  under  the  name  "  Hoop  and 
Pole".*^     A  simihir  game  was  played  by  the  Xavajoes.^ 

The  Yumas  played  a  game  with  two  poles  fifteen  feet 
long  and  a  ring  a  few  inches  in  diameter.^"  Kane^^  says 
that  the  Chualpays  at  FortColville  on  the  Columbia  "have 
a  game  which  they  call  'AlkoUock,'  which  requires  consid- 
erable skill.  A  smooth,  level  piece  of  ground  is  chosen, 
and  a  slight  barrier  of  a  couple  of  sticks  placed  length- 
wise is  laid  at  each  end  of  the  chosen  spot,  ])eing  irom 
forty  to  fifty  feet  apart  and  only  a  few  inches  high.  The 
two  players,  stripped  naked,  are  armed  with  a  very  slight 
spear,  about  three  feet  long,  and  finely  pointed  with  bone  ; 
one  of  them  takes  a  ring  made  of  bone  or  some  heavy 
Avood  and  Avound  with  cord.  The  ring  is  about  three 
inches  in  diameter,  on  the  inner  circumference  of  which 
are  fastened  six  beads  of  difierent  colors,  at  equal  dis- 
tances, to  each  of  which  a  separate  value  is  attached. 
The  ring  is  then  rolled  along  the  ground  to  one  of  the 
barriers  and  is  followed  at  the  distance  of  two  or  three 
yards  b}^  the  players,  and  as  the  ring  strikes  the  barrier 
and  is  falling  on  its  side,  the  spears  are  thrown,  so  that 
the  ring  may  fall  on  them.  If  any  one  of  the  spears 
should  be  covered  by  the  ring,  the  owner  counts  according 
to  the  colored  bead  on  it.  But  it  generally  hapi)ens  from 
the  dexterity  of  the  players  that  the  ring  covers  both 
spears  and  each  counts  according  to  the  color  of  the  beads 
above  his    spear.       They  then    play  towards    the    other 


«»  Lieut.  A.  W.  Whipple  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rep.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  114;  Harper's  M.ig.,  Vol. 
XVII,  p.46.{;  Domenecli,  Vol.  II,  p.  197;  H.  H.  Bancroft's  Native  Riices,  Vol.  I,  p. 
3'.t3,  p.  517  and  note  133.  The  Martial  Experiences  of  the  California  Volunteers  by 
Kdward  Carlsen.  Overland,  A'ol,  vii,  Xo.  41.  2nd  Series,  p.  494. 

*»  Major  E.  A.  Backus  in  Si-hoolcraft,  Vol.  iv,  p.  214. 

""  W.  n.  Emory,  U.  S.  and  Mexican  Boundary  Survey,  Vol.  I,  p.  111. 

'«  Kane's  Wanderings,  p.  310;  II.  U.  Baucrolt's  Xntive  Races,  Vol.  i,  p.  280. 


126  INDIAN    GAMES. 

barrier,  and  so  on  until  one  party  has  obtained  the  number 
agreed  upon  for  the  game." 

In  his  "Life  among  the  Apaches,"^-  Colonel  Cremony 
describes  the  hoop  and  pole  game  as  played  by  the  Ap- 
aches. With  them  the  pole  is  marked  with  divisions 
throughout  its  whole  length  and  these  divisions  are  stained 
different  colors.  The  object  of  the  game  is  to  make  the 
hoop  fall  upon  the  pole  as  near  the  butt  as  possible,  grad- 
uated values  being  applied  to  the  different  divisions  of  the 
pole.  The  women  are  not  permitted  to  approach  within 
a  hundred  yards  while  the  game  is  going  on."^ 

Those  who  have  described  this  game  in  the  various 
forms  in  which  it  has  been  presented  dwell  upon  the  fact 
that  it  taxed  the  strength,  activity  and  skill  of  the  play- 
ers. In  this  respect  it  rivalled  lacrosse.  In  geographi- 
cal range  the  territory  in  which  it  was  domesticated  was 
nearly  the  same. 

There  are  many,  doubtless,  who  would  decline  to  rec- 
ognize the  discoidal  stones  of  the  mounds  as  chunkee 
stones,  but  it  can  not  be  denied  that  the  "'^  nettecawavf'  of 
the  C/herokees^*,  the  "hoop  and  pole"  of  the  Mojaves 
and  Apaches'*^,  the  second  form  of  "  spear  and  ring"  de- 
scribed by  Domenech,""  the  "  alkollock"  of  the  Chualpays^^ 
and  the  chunkee  of  Romans  and  Adair  are  the  same 
game. 

"2  Life  among  the  Apaches,  by  John  C.  Cremony,  p.  302. 

9'  The  Hawaiians  were  accustomed  to  hurl  a  piece  of  liard  lava  along  narrow 
trenches  prepared  for  the  i)urp08e.  The  stone  which  was  called  Maika  closely 
resembled  a  chunkee  stone.  It  is  described  as  being  in  the  sliape  of  a  small 
wlieel  or  roller,  three  inches  in  diameter  and  an  inch  and  a  half  tliick,  very  smooth 
and  highly  polished.  This  game  appears  to  have  been  limited  to  a  contest  of 
skill  in  rolling  or  luirling  the  stone  itself.  Tlie  additional  interest  which  Avas 
given  by  luirling  tlie  spears  at  it  while  in  motion  was  wanting.  Narrative  of  the 
U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition  by  Cliarles  Wilkes,  London,  1S45,  Vol.  iv,  p.  .5."). 

>'*Timberlake,  p.  77. 

•f^  Whipple,  Pac.  R.  R.  Rep.,  Vol.  in,  p.  lU;  Cremony,  p.  302;  Harper's  Mag., 
Vol.  XVII,  p.  4C3. 

'»  Domeuech,  Vol.  ii,  p.  197.  •'  Kane's  Wanderings,  p.  310. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  127 

The  chiinge  from  the  discoidal  stone  to  the  ring;  the 
dilierent  materials  of  which  the  ring  is  made,  whether  of 
stoue,"^  of  bone,"^  of  wood/''*'  or  of  cord  ;^*'^  whether  wound 
with  cord^*'^  or  plain ;  the  different  lengths  of  the  spears 
varying  from  three  feet^°^'  to  ten  feet^'^*  and  even  reaching 
fifteen  feet  in  length  among  the  MojaveS  ;^'^  the  dilierent 
markings  of  the  spear^**^  and  the  ring  ;^*''  the  different  wa>s 
of  preparing  the  ground,  whether  tamping  Avith  clay,"^^  or 
flooring  with  timber,^*''' or  simply  removing  the  vegetation, ^^"^ 
—  all  these  minor  differences  are  of  little  consequence. 
The  striking  fact  remains  that  this  great  number  of  tribes, 
so  widely  separated,  all  played  a  game  in  which  the  prin- 
cipal requirements  were,  that  a  small  circular  disk  should 
be  rolled  rapidly  along  a  prepared  surface  and  that  pre- 
pared wooden  implements,  similar  to  spears,  should  be 
launched  at  the  disk  while  in  motion  or  just  at  the  time 
waien  it  stopped.  Like  lacrosse,  it  was  made  use  of  as 
an  opportunity  for  gambling,  but  owing  to  the  restriction 
of  the  ground  on  which  it  could  be  played,  the  number  of 
players  were  limited,  and  to  that  extent  the  interest  in  the 
contests  and  the  excitement  attendant  upon  them  were 
proportionally  reduced. 

OTHEK    ATHLETIC    GAMES. 

In  addition  to  the  games  of  lacrosse,  platter  or  dice, 
straws  and  chunkee,  there  were  other  games,  some  of  an 
athletic  nature,  some  purely  of  chance,  which  observers 
have  described,  some  of  which   are  mentioned   only   in 

»»  Lewis  and  Clarke,  Vol.  I,  p.  143;  Catlin,  Vol.  I,  p.  132. 

»»  Kane's  Wamieriiigs,  p.  310.  '"»  Creniony,  p.  302. 

>»'  Whipple,  Pac.  li.  R.  Rep.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  114.  "'Kane's  Waiideiirigs,  p.  310. 

>M  Ibid.  '«♦  Tiiiiberlake,  p.  77;  Creaiony,  p.  302. 

'»»  Whipple.  Pac.  R.  K.  llep.,  Vol.  ill,  p.  114. 

'"•Ciemony,  p. 302;  Doinenecli,  Vol.  ii,  p.  197;  Timberlake,  p.  77. 

»*"  Kane's  Wanderings,  p.  310.  ""  Catlin,  Vol.  i,  p.  132. 

"""Lewis  and  Clarke,  Vol.  i,  p.  143.  »"  Domenech,  V^ol.  ii,  p.  197. 


128  INDIAN    GAMES. 

limited  areas,  while  others,  like  the  games  above  men- 
tioned, were  played  by  Indians  scattered  over  a  wide  ter- 
ritory and  apparently  having  l)ut  little  in  common.  Some 
of  these  games  were  but  modified  forms  of  those  which 
have  been  already  described.  Such,  for  instance,  is  a  game 
of  ball  which  is  described  by  Lafitau^^  and  by  Charle- 
voix."^ This  closely  resembled  lacrosse  in  its  general 
methods  of  play,  bnt  as  no  rackets  were  used,  it  was  less 
dangerous  and  less  excitinjr.  Goals  Avere  erected  at  each 
end  of  the  field,  separated  by  live  hundred  paces  accord- 
ing to  Lafitau.  The  players  were  divided  into  sides. 
The  ball  was  tossed  into  the  air  in  the  centre  of  the  field. 
When  it  came  down  the  players  of  each  side  strove  to 
catch  it.  He  who  was  successful  ran  in  the  direction  of 
the  goal  which  he  wished  to  reach.  The  players  of  the 
opposide  side  pursued  him  and  did  what  the}'  could  to 
prevent  him  from  accomplishing  his  ()l)ject.  When  it 
was  evident  that  the  runner  could  gain  no  more  ground,  he 
would  pass  the  ball,  if  possible,  to  some  i)layer  upon  the 
same  side  and  his  success  in  accomplishing  this  was  de- 
pendent largely  upon  his  skill.  The  game  is  probably 
not  so  old  as  lacrosse,  for  the  ball  is  described  as  being 
larger  and  softer  than  the  one  used  in  lacrosse,  thus  indi- 
cating that  it  belonged  to  the  period  when  the  stuffed 
doer-skin  ball  was  used  in  that  game. 

Both  Duniont  and  Le  Page  du  Pratz  describe  this 
game  with  this  diflerence,"'^  that  the  ball,  according  to  their 
descriptions,  was  incessantly  tossed  in  the  air.  Romans 
says  that  this  game  was  played  among  the  women  ;  and 
Lafitau,  who  describes  it  separately,  adds  that  in  this  form 
it  was  only  played  by  girls.  He  also  says  that  the  Abena- 
kis  indulged  in  a  similar  game,  using  an  inflated  bladder 

I'lLafltau,  Vol.  II,  p.  353.        >'"  Cliarlevoix,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  31'.). 
"3  Diiraout,  Vol.  I,  p.  201;  Lcl'age,  Vol.  I,  p.  378. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  120 

for  a  ])all  ;  and  that  the  Florida  Indians  fixed  a  willow 
cage  upon  a  pole  in  such  a  way  that  it  could  revolve  and 
tried  to  hit  it  with  a  ball  so  as  to  make  it  turn  several 
times."* 

Joutel  in  his  historical  journal  describes  a  curious  game 
as  follows :  "  Taking  a  short  stick,  very  smooth  and 
greased  that  it  may  be  the  harder  to  hold  it  fast,  one  of 
the  elders  throws  it  as  far  as  he  can.  The  young  men 
run  after  it,  snatch  it  from  each  other,  and  at  last,  he  who 
remains  possessed  of  it  has  the  first  lot.""^ 

Football  is  found  at  the  north.  Ogilby"'^ says  :  "  Their 
goals  are  a  mile  long  placed  on  the  sands,  which  are  as 
even  as  a  board  ;  their  ball  is  no  bigger  than  a  hand  ball, 
which  sometimes  they  mount  in  the  air  with  their  naked 
feet,  sometimes  it  is  swayed  by  the  multitude,  sometimes 
also  it  is  two  days  before  they  get  a  goal,  then  they  mark 
the  ground  they  win,  and  I)egin  there  the  next  day.  Before 
they  come  to  this  sport  they  paint  themselves,  even  as 
when  they  go  to  war."  At  the  south  it  was  "  likewise 
a  favorite  manly  diversion  with  them.""' 

Certain  forms  of  ball-pla}^  which  were  neither  lacrosse 
nor  chunkee,  but  which  resembled  these  games  were  found 
in  difierent  localities.  Such  for  instance  is  the  game  which 
Catlin"**  saw  played  by  the  Sioux  women.  Two  balls  were 
connected  with  a  string  a  foot  and  a  half  long.  Each  woman 
was  armed  with  a  stick.  They  were  divided  into  equal  sides. 
Goals  were  erected  and  the  play  was  in  some  respects  like 
lacrosse.  Stakes  were  wagered  on  the  game.  This  game 
is  also  described  by  Domenech,"^  who  says  the  women 
wore  a  special  costume  which  left  the  limbs  free  and  that 

>i*  L:i(Uau,  Vol.  ii,  p.  358. 

"'■' Fieiicli's  Historical  Collections  of  Louisiana,  Vol.  i,  p.  188;  .Saiiford's  His- 
tory of  the  United  States  before  the  Revolution,  p.  clxxxii. 

»'"  Ogilby,  Book  II,  Chap,  ii,  p.  156.    See  also  Smith's  Narrative,  p.  77. 
1"  Bartraiu,  p.  509.  i>«  Vol.  il,  p.  146.  "'  Vol.U,  p.  196. 

ESSEX   INST.    BULLETIN    VOL.    XVII  17 


130  INDIAN    GAMES. 

the  game  was  "  unbecoming  and  indecent."  Powers^-" 
found  a  game  among  the  Nishinams,  on  the  western  slope 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  not  fiir  from  Sacramento,  which  in 
some  respects  also  resembled  lacrosse.  He  says  "  The 
^Ti'-kel '  is  the  only  really  robust  and  athletic  game  they 
use,  and  is  played  by  a  large  company  of  men  and  boys. 
The  piece^^^  is  made  of  raw-hide  or  nowadays  of  strong 
cloth,  and  is  shaped  like  a  small  dumb-bell.  It  is  laid  in 
the  centre  of  a  wide,  level  space  of  ground,  in  a  furrow, 
hollowed  out  a  few  inches  in  depth.  Two  parallel  lines 
are  drawn  equidistant  from  it,  a  few  paces  apart,  and 
along  these  lines  the  opposing  parties,  equal  in  strength, 
range  themselves.  Each  player  is  equipped  with  a  slight, 
strong  staff,  from  four  to  six  feet  long.  The  two  cham- 
pions of  the  party  take  their  stations  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  piece,  which  is  thrown  into  the  air,  caught  on  the  staff 
of  one  of  the  others,  and  hurled  by  him  in  the  direction 
of  his  antagonist's  goal.  With  this  send-off  there  ensues 
a  wild  chase  and  a  hustle,  pell-mell,  higgledy-piggledy, 
each  party  striving  to  bowl  the  piece  over  the  other's  goal. 
These  goals  are  several  hundred  yards  apart. 

In  an  article  in  the  Overland  Monthly,  ^"  A.  W.  Chase 
describes  a  game  in  vogue  among  the  Oregon  Indians 
which  he  says  was  identical  with  hockey,  as  follows  :  "Sides 
being  chosen,  each  endeavors  to  drive  a  hard  ball  of  pine 
wood  around  a  stake  and  in  different  directions  ;  stripped  to 
the  buff,  they  display  great  activity  and  strength,  whack- 
ing away  at  each  other's  shins,  if  they  are  in  the  way,  with 
a  refreshing  disregard  of  bruises.  The  squaws  assist  in  the 
performance  by  beating  drums  and  keeping  up  a  monoto- 
nous chant." 


""  Contributions  to  North  American  Ethnology.  Vol.  ill,  p.  333. 
>-'  Tlie  equivalent  in  the  ginne,  of  the  bail  in  lacrosse. 
'2'''  Vol.  II,  p.  433.    See  also  Smith's  Narrative,  p.  77 


INDIAN    GAMES.  131 

In  the  first  of  the  two  frames  of  "spcnr  and  ring,"  de- 
scribed by  Donienech,  ^'-■'  the  pla3^ers  are  divided  into  sides. 
The  stone  ring,  about  three  inches  in  diameter,  is  tixed 
upright  on  the  chosen  ground,  and  players  two  at  a  time, 
one  from  each  side,  endeavor  to  throw  their  spears  through 
the  ring.  The  spears  are  marked  along  their  length  with 
little  shields  or  l)its  of  leather,  and  the  count  is  aliected  by 
the  number  of  these  that  pass  through  the  ring.  He  also 
mentions  a  game^-*  among  the  Natchez  in  which  the  ring 
was  a  "  huge  stone"  and  the  spear  a  "stick  of  the  shape  of 
a  bat." 

If  we  classify  Domenech's  first  game  of  "spear  and 
ring  "  among  those  which  resemble  chunkee,  rather  than 
as  a  form  of  chunkee  itself,  we  shall  probably  be  com- 
pelled to  pursue  the  same  course  with  Morgan's  game  of 
"javelin"  to  which  we  have  already  alluded.^-''  In  this 
game  the  players  divided  into  sides.  Each  player  had  an 
agreed  number  of  javelins.  The  ring,  which  was  either 
a  hoop  or  made  solid  like  a  wheel  by  winding  with  splints, 
was  about  eight  inches  in  diameter.  The  players  on  one  side 
were  arranged  in  a  line  and  the  hoop  was  rolled  before 
them.  They  hurled  their  javelins.  The  count  of  the  game 
was  kept  by  a  forfeiture  of  javelins.  Such  as  hit  the  mark 
were  safe,  but  the  javelins  which  did  not  hit  were  passed 
to  the  players  of  the  other  side  who  then  had  an  opportunity 
to  throw  them  at  the  hoop  from  the  same  spot.  If  these 
players  were  successful  the  javelins  were  forfeited  and  laid 
out  of  the  play.  If,  however,  they  in  turn  failed  the  javelins 
were  returned  to  their  original  owners.  The  hoop  was 
then  rolled  by  the  other  side  and  the  process  continued 
until  one  of  the  sides  had  forfeited  all  their  javelins. 

'"  Vol.  II.  1)1).  107-8. 

"4  He  does  not  give  his  authority  for  this  game.    Ho  has  evidently  copied  in 
his  book  from  other  writers,  but  BeMojn  indlcuted  whether  his  descriptioiib  are 
baweil  upon  p<-Tsoii:il  observ.ilioii  ">r<|uoteil. 
"<*  League  of  the  Iroquois,  p.  :;00. 


132  INDIAN    GAMES. 


OTHER   GAMES    OF   CHANCE. 

There  was  diversity  in  the  forms  of  the  games  of  simple 
chance  as  well  as  in  the  athletic  games,  and  besides  those 
which  have  been  already  described,  the  Indians  on  the  Pa- 
cific Coast  had  a  great  variety  of  games,  or  forms  of  the  same 
game,  in  which,  in  addition  to  the  element  of  chance  in- 
volved in  determining  the  numbers  or  positions  of  certain 
sticks  or  counters,  there  was  also  an  opportunity  for  the 
player  who  was  manipulating  them  to  deceive  by  dexter- 
ous sleight  of  hand.  The  simplest  form  in  which  this  is 
found  is  guessing  in  which  hand  a  small  stone  or  bone  is 
held.  It  would  hardly  seem  that  this  artless  effort  could 
be  transformed  into  an  amusing  and  exciting  game  ;  j^et 
it  has  attracted  the  attention  of  all  travellers,  and  scarcely 
any  writer,  who  treats  of  the  habits  of  the  Pacific  coast  In- 
dian, fails  to  give  a  full  account  of  this  simple  game. 
Lewis  and  Clarke, '^^  when  writing  about  the  Indians  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  say  :  "The  games  are  of  two 
kinds.  In  the  first,  one  of  the  company  assumes  the  oflSce 
of  banker  and  plays  against  the  rest.  He  takes  a  small 
stone,  about  the  size  of  a  bean,  which  he  shifts  from  one 
hand  to  another  with  great  dexterity,  repeating  at  the 
same  time  a  song  adapted  to  the  game  and  which  serves 
to  divert  the  attention  of  the  company,  till  having  agreed 
on  the  stakes,  he  holds  out  his  hands,  and  the  antagonist 
wins  or  loses  as  he  succeeds  or  fails  at  guessing  in  which 
hand  the  stone  is.  After  the  banker  has  lost  his  money 
or  whenever  he  is  tired,  the  stone  is  transferred  to  another, 
who  in  turn  challenges  the  rest  of  the    company.^-'    In  the 


''"'Lewis  and  Clarke,  Vol.  II,  140;  and  also  II,  94. 

"'  See  also,  Adventures  on  the  Columbia  River,  by  Ross  Cox.  p.  l.")8;  The  Ore- 
gon Territory,  by  John  Dunn,  p.  93 ;  Four  Years  in  British  Columbia,  by  Command- 
er R.  O.  May  ne,  p.  ■27.1 ;  it  was  played  by  the  Comanches  In  Texas  with  a  bullet, 
Robert  S.  Neighbors  in  Schoolcralt,  Vol.  II,  p.  133;  by  the  Twanas  with  one  or 
two  boues,  Bulletin  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Vol.  Iii,  Ho.  1,  p.  Sil,  liev.  M.  Eels. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  133 

account  iriven  1)}'  George  Gibbs''^^  the  count  of  the  game 
among  the  tribes  of  western  Washington  and  northwest- 
ern Oregon,  was  kept  by  means  of  sticks.  Each  side 
took  live  or  ten  small  sticks,  one  of  which  was  passed  to 
the  winner  on  each  guess,  and  the  game  was  ended  when 
the  pile  of  one  side  was  exhausted.  According  to  him, 
"The  backers  of  the  party  manipulating  keep  up  a  con- 
stant drumming  with  sticks  on  their  paddles  which  lie 
before  them,  singingan  incantation  to  attract  good  fortune." 
Powers  describes  another  form  into  which  the  game  devel- 
oped among  the  Indians  of  central  California.  It  is 
"played  with  a  bit  of  wood  or  a  pebble  which  is  shaken 
in  the  hand,  and  then  the  hand  closed  upon  it.  The  oppo- 
nent guesses  which  finger  (a  thumb  is  a  finger  with  them) 
it  is  under  and  scores  one  if  he  hits,  or  the  other  scores 
if  he  misses.     They  keep  tally  with  eight  counters. "^^^ 

Schwatka,  in  his  recent  exploration  of  the  Yukon  found 
this  game  among  the  Chilkats.  It  was  called  la-Jtell.  Two 
bones  were  used.  One  was  the  king  and  one  the  queen. 
His  packers  gambled  in  guessing  at  the  bones  every  after- 
noon and  evening  after  reaching  camp.^"° 

The  simplicity  of  the  game  was  modified  by  the  intro- 
duction of  similar  articles  in  each  hand,  the  question  to  be 
decided  being  in  which  hand  one  of  them  having  a  speci- 
fied mark  should  be  found.  Kanc^^^  thus  describes  such 
a  game  among  the  Chinooks  :  "Their  games  are  few.  The 
one  most  generally  played  amongst  them  consists  in  hold- 
ing in  each  hand  a  small  stick,  the  thickness  of  a  ijfoose 
quill,  and  about  an  inch  and  one-half  in  length,  one  })lain, 
the  other  distinguished  by  a  little  thread  wound   round 


'"Contributions  to  North  American  EtlmoJoKy,  Vol.  i,  p.  200. 
'"  Contribntions  to  North  American  ElhmilnKj',  Vol.  iii.  \i\\.  .•?;{2-3. 
""Along  Al!isk:i'.-i  Great  lilver.    IJy  Fiiduiic  .Srlnvalka,  p.  71. 
'"  Kane's  Wandcrln;;s,  p.  lf'9. 


134  INDIAN    GAMES. 

it,  the  opposite  party  being  required  to  guess  in  which  hand 

the  marked  stick  is  to  be  found.      A  Chinook  will  play 

at  this  simple  game  for  days  and  nights  together,  until  he 

has  gambled  away  everything  he  possesses,  even  to  his 
wife>i^2 

Among  the  Utahs  this  form  of  the  game  was  common : 
'JA  row  of  players  consisting  of  five  or  six  or  a  dozen  men 
is  arranged  on  either  side  of  the  ten^  facing  each  other. 
Before  each  man  is  placed  a  bundle  of  small  twigs  or  sticks 
each  six  or  eight  inches  in  length  and  pointed  at  one  end. 
Every  tete-a-tete  couple  is  provided  with  two  cylindrical 
bone  dice  carefully  fashioned  and  highly  polished  which 
measure  about  two  inches  in  length  and  half  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter, one  being  white  and  the  other  black,  or  sometimes 
ornamented  with  a  black  band."  At  the  rear,  musicians 
were  seated  who  during  the  game  beat  upon  rude  drums. ^^'^ 
In  this  game  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  players  paired  off 
and  apparently  each  man  played  for  himself. 

Still  another  element  is  introduced  in  another  form  of 
the  game,  which  increases  the  opportunity  afforded  the  one 
who  manipulates  the  bones  for  dexterity.  This  form  of 
the  game  is  repeatedly  alluded  to  by  Powers.  While  relat- 
ing the  habits  and  customs  of  the  Gualala,  whose  homes 
were  near  Fort  Ross,  he  describes  what  he  calls  the  gam- 
bling game  of  "wi  and  tep^'  and  says  that  one  description 
with  slight  variations  will  answer  for  nearly  all  the  tribes  of 
central  and  southern  California.  After  describmg  the  mak- 
ing up  of  the  pool  of  stakes,  he  adds  :  "They  gamble  with 
four  cylinders  of  bone  about  tAvo  inches  long,  two  of  which 
are  plain,  and  two  marked  with  rings  and  strings  tied  round 
the  middle.     The  game  is  conducted  by  four  old  and  ex- 

>"  See  also,  Overland,  Vol.  ix,  p.  163,  Powers;  H.  H.  Bancroft's  Native  Races, 
Vol.  I,  i>.  24^1;  Clay  balls  are  sometimes  nsert,  Ibid,  Vol.  I,p..'?53;  Tlie  Northwest 
Coast,  James  G.  Swan,  p.  158;  Montana  as  it  is,  Granville  Stuart,  p.  71. 

"a  Edwin  R.  Barker  in  tlie  Ameiican  Naturalist,  June,  1S77,  Vol.  XI,  p.  051. 


INDIAN   GAMES.  135 

periencedmen,  frequentl}^  grey  heads,  two  for  each  party, 
squatting  on  their  knees  on  opposite  sides  of  the  fire.  They 
have  before  them  a  quantity  of  fine  dry  grass,  and  with 
their  hands  in  rapid  and  juggling  motions  before  and  be- 
hind them,  they  roll  up  each  piece  of  bone  in  a  little  ball 
and  the  opposite  party  presently  guess  in  which  hand  is 
the  marked  bone.  Generally  only  one  guesses  at  a  time, 
which  he  does  with,the  word  7ej9'  (marked  one),  and  'wi' 
(^plainonc).  If  he  guesses  right  for  both  players,  they 
simply  toss  the  bones  over  to  him  and  his  partner,  and 
nothing  is  scored  on  either  side.  If  he  guesses  right  for 
one  and  wrong  for  the  other,  the  one  for  whom  he  guessed 
right  is  'out',  but  his  partner  rolls  up  the  bones  for  an- 
other trial,  and  the  guesser  forfeits  to  them  one  of  his 
twelve  counters.  If  he  guesses  wrong  for  both,  they  still 
keep  on  and  he  forfeits  two  counters.  There  are  only 
twelve  counters  and  when  they  have  been  all  won  over  to 
one  side  or  the  other,  the  game  is  ended. "'^*  Sometimes 
the  same  game  was  played  without  going  through  the  for- 
mality of  wrapping  the  pieces  in  grass,  simply  shaking 
them  in  the  hands  as  a  preliminary  for  the  guessing. '^^ 

A  slightly  diflerent  method  prevails  among  the  Indians 
of  Washington  and  northwestern  Oregon.  Ten  disks  of 
hard  wood,  each  about  the  diameter  of  a  Mexican  dollar 
and  somewhat  thicker,  are  used.  "One  of  these  is  marked 
and  called  the  chief.  A  smooth  mat  is  spread  on  the 
ground,  at  the  ends  of  which  the  opposing  players  are 
seated,  their  friends  on  either  side,  who  are  provided  with 
the  requisites  for  a  noise  as  in  the  other  case.  The  party 
holding  the  disks  has  a  bundle  of  the  fibres  of  the  cedar 


1"  Powers  in  Contributions  to  Nortli   American  Ethnology,  Vol.iii,  x>\).  OO-l.l^; 
189-:m. 

"=  Contributions  to  Nortli  American  Ethnology,  Vol.  Ill,  332  ;  Altjcandcr  IJoss's 
Adveulures,  pp.  308,  30'J. 


136  INDIAN    GAMES. 

bark,  in  Avhich  be  envelops  tbcm,  and  after  rolbng  tbem 
about,  tears  the  bundle  into  two  parts,  his  opponent  guess- 
ing in  which  bundle  the  chief  lies."'^^  The  same  game  is 
described  by  Kane,  except  that  the  counters,  instead  of  be- 
ing wrapped  in  one  bundle  which  is  afterward  torn  in  two, 
are  originally  wrapped  in  two  bundles. ^^^ 

Still  another  complication  of  the  guessing  game  was  de- 
scribed by  Mayne.^^^  Blankets  were  spread  upon  the  ground 
on  which  sawdust  was  spread  about  an  inch  thick.  In 
this  was  placed  the  counter,  a  piece  of  bone  or  iron  about 
the  size  of  a  half  a  crown,  and  one  of  the  players  shuffled 
it  about,  the  others  in  turn  guessing  where  it  was. 

The  game  of  "moccasin"  was  but  a  modification  of  this 
game.  As  described  by  Philander  Prescott  three  mocca- 
sins were  used  in  this  game  by  the  Dacotas.  The  bone  or 
stick  was  slipped  from  one  to  another  of  the  moccasins 
by  the  manipulators,  and  the  others  had  to  guess  in  which 
moccasin  it  was  to  be  found.  Simple  as  this  description 
seems,  the  men  would  divide  into  sides,  playing  against 
each  other,  and  accompanying  the  game  with  singing. ^^ 

Among  the  Zunis,  the  guessing  game  was  exalted  to  the 
nature  of  a  sacred  festival.  Frank  H.  Gushing"^  gives  the 
following  account  of  its  practice.  "One  morning  the  two 
chief  priests  of  the  bow  climbed  to  the  top  of  the  houses, 
and  just  at  sunrise  called  out  a  'prayer  message'  from  the 
mount-environed  gods.  Eight  players  went  into  a  kli- 
ivi-tain  to  fast,  and  four  days  later  issued  forth,  bearing 
four  large  wooden  tubes,  a  ball  of  stone,  and  a  bundle  of 
thirty-six  counting  straws.     With  great  ceremony,  many 


'SO  Contributions  to  Nortli  American  Ethnology,  Gibbs,  Vol.  i,  p.  200. 
137 Kane's  Wanderings,  p.  189;  Swan's  Nortliwest  Coast,  p.  157;  Kels  iu  Bulletin 
U.  S.  G.  Surv.,  Vol.  Ill,  No,  1. 

i'"  Mayne's  British  Columbia,  [>•  275. 

"»  Schoolcniit,  Vol.  IV,  p.  (U;  Domenech,  Vol.  ii,  p.  192. 

''"The  Century,  Vol.  xxvi,  p.  37. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  137 

prayers  and  incantations,  the  tubes  were  deposited  on  two 
mock  mountains  of  sand,  either  side  of  the  'grand  plaza.' 
A  crowd  began  to  gather.  Larger  and  noisier  it  gi*ew, 
until  it  became  a  surging,  clamorous,  black  mass.  Grad- 
ually two  piles  of  fabrics,  — vessels,  silver  ornaments,  neck- 
laces, embroideries,  and  symbols  representing  horses, 
cattle  and  sheep —  grew  to  large  proportions.  Women 
gathered  on  the  roofs  around,  wildly  stretching  forth  arti- 
cles for  betting,  until  one  of  the  presiding  priests  called 
out  a  brief  message.  The  crowd  became  silent.  A  booth 
was  raised,  under  which  two  of  the  players  retired  ;  and 
when  it  was  removed  the  four  tubes  were  standing  on  the 
mound  of  sand.  A  song  and  dance  began.  One  by  one 
three  of  the  four  opposing  players  were  summoned  to 
guess  under  which  tube  the  ball  was  hidden.  At  each 
guess  the  cries  of  the  opposing  party  became  deafening, 
and  the  mock  struggles  approached  the  violence  of  com- 
bat. The  last  guesser  found  the  ball  ;  and  as  he  victo- 
riously carried  the  latter  and  the  tubes  across  to  his  own 
mound,  his  side  scored  ten.  The  pro.cess  was  repeated. 
The  second  guesser  found  the  ball ;  his  side"  scored  fifteen 
setting  the  others  back  five.  The  counts  numbered  one 
hundred  ;  but  so  complicated  were  the  winnings  and  los- 
ings on  both  sides, with  each  guess  of  either,  that  hour 
after  hour  the  game  went  on,  and  night  closed  in.  Fires 
were  built  in  the  plaza,  cigarettes  were  lighted,  but  still 
the  game  continued.  Noisier  and  noisier  grew  the  dan- 
cers ;  more  and  more  insulting  and  defiant  their  songs  and 
epithets  to  the  opposing  crowd,  until  they  fairly  gnashed 
their  teeth  at  one  another,  but  no  l)lows.  Day  dawned 
upon  the  still  uncertain  contest ;  nor  was  it  until  the  sun 
again  touched  the  western  horizon,  that  the  hoarse,  still 
defiant  voices  died  away,  and  the  victorious  party  l)orc  oil' 
their 'mountains  of  gifts  from  the  gods.  '" 

KSSEX    INSr.    BUI.I.KllN,    \t>L.    XVII.  18 


138  INDIAN    GAMES. 

The  picturesque  description  of  Gushing  brings  before 
our  eyes  the  guessing  game  in  its  highest  form  of  de- 
velopment. Among  the  tribes  of  the  East,  if  it  had  a  home 
at  all,  it  was  practised  in  such  an  inobtrusive  way  as  not 
to  attract  the  attention  of  writers  who  have  described 
their  habits  and  customs.  The  nearest  approach  to  it 
which  we  can  find  is  a  guessing  game  described  by  Henne- 
pin, as  follows  :  "They  take  kernels  of  Indian  corn  or 
something  of  the  kind,  then  they  put  some  in  one  hand, 
and  ask  how  many  there  are.     The  one  who  guesses  wins." 

Mackenzie^"  fell  in  with  some  Indians  near  the  Pacific 
coast  who  travelled  with  him  a  short  distance.  They 
carried  with  them  the  implements  for  gaml)ling.  Their 
game  was  different  from  the  guessing  games  which  have 
been  heretofore  described.  "There  were  two  players  and 
each  had  a  bundle  of  about  fifty  small  sticks  neatly  pol- 
ished, of  the  size  of  a  quill,  and  five  inches  long.  A  cer- 
tain number  of  their  sticks  had  red  lines  round  them  and 
as  many  of  these  as  one  of  the  players  might  find  con- 
venient were  curiously  rolled  up  in  dried  grass,  and  ac- 
cording to  the  judgment  of  his  antagonist  respecting 
their  number  and  marks  he  lost  or  won." 

The  same  game  was  seen  at  Queen  Charlotte  Islands  by 
Francis  Poole. "■^  He  says  there  were  in  this  game  from 
"forty  to  fifty  round  pins  or  pieces  of  wood,  five  inches 
long  by  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  painted  in  black  and 
blue  rings  and  beautifully  polished."  These  pins  were 
divided  into  two  heaps  under  cover  of  bark  fibre  and  the 
opposite  player  guessed  odd  or  even  for  one  of  the  })iles. 

CONTESTS    OF    SKILL. 

Lewis  and  Clarke"'  describe  a  game  among  the  Ore- 
iron  Indians  which  can  neither  be  called  an  athletic  jjame 

m  Alexander  Mac.l;ei)zie's  Voyages  in  1789  and  1793.  London,  1801,  p.  311. 
1*2  Queen  Chailotle  Jslamls,  a  uarralive,  etc.,  p.  325.  "'  Vol.  ii,  p.  140. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  139 

nor  a  game  of  chance,  but  which  seems  to  have  been  a 
simple  contest  of  skill.  "Two  pins  are  placed  on  the 
floor,  about  the  distance  of  a  foot  from  each  other,  and  a 
small  hole  made  behind  them.  The  players  then  go  about 
ten  feet  from  the  hole,  into  which  they  try  to  roll  a  small 
piece,  resembling  the  men  used  at  draughts ;  if  they 
succeed  in  putting  it  into  the  hole,  they  win  the  stake ;  if 
the  piece  rolls  between  the  pins,  but  does  not  go  into  the 
hole,  nothing  is  won  or  lost ;  but  the  wager  is  wholly  lost 
if  the  chequer  rolls  outside  the  pins." 

Morgan"^  describes  a  winter  contest  of  skill  among  the 
Iroquois,  which  he  calls  snow-snake.  The  so-called 
snakes  were  made  of  hickory.  They  were  from  five  to 
seven  feet  in  length,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness, 
tapering  from  an  inch  in  width  at  the  head  to  about  half 
an  inch  at  the  tail.  The  head  was  round,  turned  up 
(slightly  and  weighted  with  lead.  This  implement  was 
shot  along  the  snow  crust,  by  hand,  with  great  speed,  and 
a  point  in  the  game  was  gained  by  the  snake  which  ran  the 
greatest  distance.  When  there  w^ere  a  number  of  players 
divided  into  sides,  if  there  were  two,  three  or  more 
snakes  of  the  same  side  which  were  in  advance  of  the 
snakes  of  the  other  side,  all  such  counted.  Such  contests 
usually  took  place  between  tril)os  and  aroused  a  great 
degree  of  spirit  and  the  usual  amount  of  betting.  In  sim- 
pler form,  Sagard  Theodat  descril)cs  this  kind  of  amuse- 
ment. 

OTHER    AMUSEMENTS  OF    WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN. 

Under  the  name  of  "  Fuseaux"  La  Potherie^*"'  describes 
a  similar  winter  game  of  the  children.  He  further  says 
the  women  only  played  at  platter  or  dice.     The  children 

"*  League  ol'  the  Iroquois,  p.  303.  '■"  Vol.  in,  p.  24. 


140  INDIAN    GAMES. 

played  at  lacrosse,  seldom  at  platter.  We  have  seen  that 
the  women  in  some  parts  of  the  country  joined  in  the  la- 
crosse games.  Sometimes  they  played  it  by  themselves  and 
sometimes  they  plaj^ed  other  ball  games  which  closely  re- 
semble that  game.  Romans  describes  a  woman's  game 
in  which  they  tossed  up  a  ball  which  was  to  be  caught 
before  it  reached  the  ground ;  but  in  the  meantime  the 
one  who  tossed  it  had  to  pick  up  a  small  stick  from  the 
ground. 

The  women  of  the  Natchez^*''',  according  to  Le  Page  du 
Pratz,  played  with  three  pieces  of  cane,  each  eight  or 
nine  inches  long,  flat  on  one  side  and  convex  on  the  other 
Avith  engravings  on  the  convex  side.  Two  were  held  in 
the  open  palm  of  the  left  hand  and  the  third  was  dropped 
round  side  down  upon  the  ends  of  the  two,  so  that  all 
would  fall  to  the  ground.  If  two  convex  surfaces  came 
up  the  player  Avon.  He  also  says,  and  in  this  Romans 
concurs,  that  the  Avomeu  Avere  very  reluctant  to  be  seen 
Avhile  playing. 

Among  the  Natchez,  the  young  girls  played  ball  Avith 
a  deer-skin  ball  slutfed  with  Spanish  moss.  Other  than 
that  they  seemed  to  him  to  have  no  games.'"  The  young 
Choctaws,  according  to  Romans,  engaged  in  Avrestling,  run- 
ning, heaving  and  lifting  great  weights  and  playing  ball. 
Hennepin  says, "  the  children  play  Avith  boAvs  and  Avith 
two  sticks,  one  large  and  one  small.  They  hold  the  little 
one  in  the  left,  and  the  larger  one  in  the  right  hand,  then 
Avith  the  larger  one  they  make  the  smaller  one  ^y  up  in 
the  air,  and  another  runs  after  it,  and  throws  it  at  the  one 
Avho  sprang  it.  They  also  make  a  ball  of  flags  or  corn 
leaves,  which  they  throw  in  the  air  and  catch  on  the  end 
of  a  pointed  stick." 

"0  La  Page  du  Pratz,  Vol.  in,  p.  2;  Domenech,  Vol.  ii,  p.  192. 
i«'  Li^  Page  du  Pratz,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  2. 


INDIAN    GAMES.  141 

Powers"*^  descril)es  a  game  among  the  children  of  the 
Nishinams  which  consisted  in  tossing  hnnches  of  clover 
from  one  to  another,  and  another  in  which  the  boys  placed 
themselves  upon  three  bases  and  tossed  a  ball  across  from 
one  to  the  other.  Points  were  won  as  in  base  ball  by  run- 
ning bases,  if  possible,  without  being  put  out  by  the  one 
who  at  the  time  had  the  ball.  The  Choctaw^**  boys  made 
use  of  a  cane  stalk,  eight  or  nine  feet  in  length,  from 
which  the  obstructions  at  the  joints  had  been  removed, 
much  as  boys  use  what  is  called  a  putty  blower.  The  Zufii 
children  are  said  to  play  checkers  with  fragments  of  pcjt- 
tery  on  flat  stones. ^^ 

Kunning  matches,  swimming,  wrestling,  the  simple 
ball-games  which  are  hinted  at  rather  than  described, 
practice  in  archery  and  hurling  the  spear  or  javelin,  fur- 
nished the  Indian  youth  with  such  amusements  as  could 
be  derived  outside  the  contests  in  which  his  eiders  partic- 
ipated. Most  of  these  latter  were  so  simple  as  to  be 
easily  understood  by  the  very  young,  and  we  can  readily 
comprehend  how  deeply  the  vice  of  gambling  must  have 
been  instilled  in  their  minds,  when  they  saw  it  inaugu- 
rated with  such  solemn  ceremonials  and  participated  in 
with  such  furor  l)y  their  elders. 

Our  information  concerning  the  hal)its  of  the  Indians 
comes  from  a  variety  of  sources.  Some  of  it  is  of  very 
recent  date,  especially  that  which  deals  with  the  Indians 
of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  early  Relations  of  the  French 
Fathers  were  faithful,  and,  as  a  rule,  intelligent  records 
of  events  which  the  priests  themselves  witnessed.  The 
accounts  of  the  French  and  Indian  traders  and  travellers 


'•"  Contributions  to  Ncrtli  Anieiicon  Ethnology,  Vol.  ui  p,  331. 
'"  Romjins,  p.  7!);  Boesu,  Vol.  I,  p.  306. 
"wThc  Century,  Vol.  xxvi,  p.  28,  Cubhing. 


142  INDIAN    GAMES. 

are  neither  as  accurate  nor  as  reliable  as  those  contained 
in  the  Relations.  Some  of  these  authors  faithfully  re- 
corded what  they  saw ;  others  wrote  to  make  books. 
They  difier  widely  in  value  as  authorities  and  must  be 
judged  upon  their  individual  merits. 

Much  of  our  information  concerning  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  natives  of  the  Pacific  coast  is  derived  from 
the  publications  of  our  national  government.  The  re- 
ports which  are  collated  in  these  documents  are  from  a  great 
number  of  observers  and  are  not  uniform  in  character, 
but  many  of  them  have  great  value.  As  a  whole,  the 
work  was  well  done  and  in  a  scientific  manner. 

The  narration  of  the  difierent  games  tells  its  own  story. 
Lacrosse  is  found  throughout  the  country ;  platter  or 
dice  is  distributed  over  an  area  of  equal  extent ;  chun- 
kee  was  a  southern  and  \^estern  game ;  straws  a  north- 
ern game  with  traces  of  its  existence  in  the  west ;  the 
guessing  game  was  apparently  a  western  game.  Every- 
where, gambling  prevailed  to  the  most  shocking  extent. 

There  are  writers  who  seek  to  reduce  the  impressions 
of  the  extravagance  indulged  in  by  tlie  Indians  at  these 
games.  The  concurrence  of  testimony  is  to  the  eflect 
that  there  Avas  no  limit  to  which  they  would  not  go. 
Their  last  blanket  or  bead,  the  clothing  on  their  backs, 
their  wives  and  children,  their  own  liberty  were  sometimes 
hazarded  ;  and  if  the  chances  of  the  game  went  against 
them  the  penalty  was  paid  with  unflinching  firmness. 
The  delivery  of  the  wagered  wives,  Lescarbot  tells  us, 
was  not  always  accomplished  with  ease,  but  the  attempt 
would  be  faithfully  made  and  probabl}'  was  often  successful. 
Self-contained  as  these  people  ordinarily  were,  it  is  not  a 
matter  of  surprise  that  the  weaker  among  them  should  have 
been  led  to  these  lengths  of  extravagance,  under  the   high 


INDIAN   GAMES.  143 

pressure  of  excitement  Avhich  was  deliberately  maintained 
during  the  progress  of  their  games. ''^  From  one  end  of 
the  land  to  the  other  these  scenes  were  ushered  in  with 
ceremonies  calculated  to  increase  their  importance  and 
to  awaken  the  interest  of  the  spectators.  The  methods 
used  were  the  same  among  the  confederations  of  the  north 
and  of  the  south  ;  among  the  wandering  tribes  of  the 
interior ;  among  the  dwellers  in  the  Pueblos  ;  and  among 
the  slothful  natives  of  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  scene  described  by  Gushing,  where,  at  the  sum- 
mons of  the  "  prayer-message,"  the  Zuuis  gathered  upon 
the  house-tops  and  swarmed  in  the  Plaza,  to  hazard  their 
property,  amid  prayers  and  incantations,  upon  a  guess 
under  which  tube  the  ball  was  concealed,  is  widely  dif- 
ferent from  that  depicted  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  in  Canada, 
where  the  swarthy  Hurons  assembled  in  the  Council 
House  at  the  call  of  the  medicine  man  and  in  the  presence 
of  the  sick  man,  wagered  their  beads  and  skins,  upon  the 


1" The  following  extracts  will  illustrate  these  points:  They  will  bet  all  they 
have,  even  to  their  wives.  It  is  true,  however,  that  the  delivery  of  the  wagered 
women  is  not  easy.  They  mock  tlie  winners  and  point  their  lingers  at  them 
(Lescarbot,  Vol.  ill,  p.  754);  all  that  they  possess,  so  that  if  unfortunate,  as  some- 
times lias  happened,  they  return  home  as  uaked  as  your  hand  (Laleuiant  Kelation, 
1639);  their  goods,  their  wives,  their  children  (Ferland  Vol.  I,  p.  134);  some  have 
been  known  to  f-take  their  liljerty  for  a  time  (Cliarlevoix,  Vol.  Ill,  319);  have  been 
known  to  stake  tlieir  liberty  upon  the  issue  of  these  games,  offering  themselves  to 
their  opi)onents  in  case  they  get  beaten  (Catlin,  Vol.  i,  p.  132);  I  have  known  sev- 
eral of  them  to  gamble  tlieir  liljerty  away  (Lawson,  \).  17G);  a  Canadian  Indian  lost 
his  wife  and  family  to  a  Frenchman  (Sagard  Theodat,  Histoire  du  Canada  Vol.  i, 
p.  243);  they  wager  their  wives  (A.  Colquhon  Grant,  Journal  Royal  Geog.  Soc, 
London, Vol.  xxvii,  p.  299);  their  wives  and  children  (Irving's  Astoria,  Vol.  ii, 
p.  91);  their  liberty  (I'arkei's  Journal  of  an  Exploring  Tour,  pp.  249-:)0);  Dome- 
uech  has  never  known  men  to  bet  their  wives  (Vol.  ii,  )».  191);  women  betas  well 
as  men  (Komans,  p.79;  Am.  Naturalist,  Vol.  XI,  No.  G,  551);  Philander  Prescott 
(Schoolcraft,  Vol.  IV,  p.  (>4);  Gushing  (Century,  Vol.  xxvi,  p.  28);  the  liberty  of  a 
woman  wagered  by  herself  (Lalemant,  Relation  1639);  women  are  never  seen  to 
bet  (Lc  I'age  du  Pratz,  Vol.  ill,  p.  2;  Maync  Br.  Col.,  p.27<i);  rash  gambling  some- 
limes  f(dlc)wed  by  suiridc  (Koni.ms  p.7'.i;  lirebeuf.  Relation  1031;). 


144  INDIAN   GAMES. 

cast  of  the  dice.  It  differs  equally  from  the  scene  which 
travellers  have  brought  before  our  eyes,  of  the  Chinooks, 
beating  upon  their  paddles  and  moaning  forth  their  mo- 
notonous chants,  while  gathered  in  a  ring  about  the 
player,  who  with  dexterous  passes  and  strange  contor- 
tions manipulated  the  stone  and  thus  added  zest  to  the 
guess  which  was  to  determine  the  ownership  of  the  prop- 
erty staked  upon  the  game.  The  resemblances  in  these 
scenes  are,  however,  far  more  striking  than  the  differ- 
ences. Climate  and  topography  deterniine  the  one.  Race 
characteristics  are  to  be  found  in  the  other. 


ZH^^L: 


^,,,       BULLETIN 

ESSEX:   iisrsTiT-crTE. 


Vol.  17.       Salem:  Oct.,  Nov.,  Dec,  1885.       Nos.  10-12. 

ANCIEXT  AND  INIODERN  METHODS  OF  ARROW- 
RELEASE. 


RY  EDWAItD  S.  MORSE. 


AYhen  1  began  collecting  data  illustrating  the  various 
methods  of  releasing  the  arrow  from  the  bow  as  prac- 
ticed by  different  races,  I  was  animated  only  by  the  idlest 
curiosity.  It  soon  became  evident,  however,  that  some 
importance  might  attach  to  preserving  the  methods  of 
handling  a  weapon  which  is  rapidly  being  displaced  in 
all  parts  of  the  world  by  the  musket  and  ritie.  While 
tribes  still  survive  Avho  rely  entirely  on  this  most  ancient 
of  weapons,  using,  even  to  the  present  day,  stone-tipped 
arrows,  there  are  other  tribes  using  the  rifle  where  the 
bow  still  survives.  There  are,  however,  entire  tribes  and 
nations  Avho  have  but  recently,  or  within  late  historic 
times,  abandoned  the  bow  and  arrow,  its  survival  being 
seen  only  as  a  plaything  for  children. 

It  was  not  till  I  had  accumulated  (piite  a  collection  of 
sketches  and  other  memoranda  illustrating  the  methods  of 
arrow-release,  not  only  of  existing  but  of  ancient  races, 
as  shown  by  frescos  and  rock  sculpture,  that  I  realized 
that  even  so  trivial  an  art  as  that  of  releasing  the  arrow 

ESSEX    INST.    BUI.LKTIN,    VOL.    XVII  1!)  (145) 


146  ANCIENT    AND   MODERN   METHODS 

might  possibly  lead  to  interesting  results  in  tracing  the 
affinities  of  past  races. 

I  am  led  to  publish  the  data  thus  far  collected,  incom- 
plete as  they  are,  with  the  intention  of  using  the  paper 
in  the  form  of  a  circular  to  send  abroad,  with  the  hope 
of  securing  further  material  for  a  more  extended  memoir 
on  the  subject. 

My  interest  in  the  matter  was  lirst  aroused  by  having  a 
Japanese  friend  shoot  with  me.  Being  familiar  with  the 
usual  rules  of  shooting  as  practiced  for  centuries  by  the 
English  archers,  and  not  being  aware  of  more  than  one  way 
of  properly  handling  so  simple  and  primitive  a  weapon 
as  the  bow  and  arrow,  it  was  somewhat  surprising  to 
find  that  the  Japanese  practice  was  in  every  respect  to- 
tally unlike  ours.  To  illustrate:  in  the  English  practice, 
the  bow  must  be  grasped  with  the  firmness  of  a  smith's 
vice  ;  in  the  Japanese  practice,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  held 
as  lightly  as  possible ;  in  both  cases,  however,  it  is  held 
vertically,  but  in  the  English  method  the  arrow  rests  on 
the  left  of  the  bow,  while  in  the  Japanese  method  it  is 
placed  on  the  right.  In  the  English  practice  a  guard  of 
leather  must  be  worn  on  the  inner  and  lower  portion  of  the 
arm  to  receive  the  impact  of  the  string ;  in  the  Japanese 
practice  no  arm-guard  is  required,  as  by  a  curious  fling  or 
twirl  of  the  bow  hand,  coincident  with  the  release  of  the 
arrow,  the  bow  (which  is  nearly  circular  in  section)  re- 
volves in  the  hand,  so  that  the  string  brings  up  on  the 
outside  of  the  arm  where  the  impact  is  so  light  that  no 
protection  is  needed.  In  the  English  method  the  bow  is 
grasped  in  the  middle,  and  consequently  the  arrow  is  dis- 
charged from  a  point  equidistant  from  its  two  ends, 
while  the  Japanese  archer  grasps  the  bow  near  its  lower 
third  and  discharges  the  arrow  from  this  point.  This  al- 
together unique  method,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  probably 
arose  from   the   custom  of  the   archers    in  feudal  times 


OF    ARROW-RELEASE.  147 

shooting  in  a  kneeling  posture  from  behind  thiek  wooden 
shields  which  rested  on  the  ground.  While  all  these  feat- 
ures above  mentioned  arc  quite  unlike  in  the  two  peo- 
ples, these  dissimilarities  extend  to  the  method  of  drawing 
the  arrow  and  releasing  it.  In  the  English  method  the 
string  is  drawn  with  the  tips  of  the  first  three  fingers,  the 
arrow  being  lightly  held  between  the  first  and  second  fin- 
gers, the  release  being  effected  by  simply  straightening 
the  fingers  and  at  the  same  time  drawing  the  hand  back 
from  the  string ;  in  the  Japanese  method  of  release  the 
string  is  drawn  back  by  the  bent  thumb,  the  forefinger 
aiding  in  holding  the  thumb  down  on  the  string,  the 
arrow  being  held  in  the  crotch  at  the  junction  of  the 
thumb  and  finger. 

These  marked  and  important  points  of  difference  be- 
tween the  two  nations  in  the  use  of  a  weapon  so  simple 
and  having  the  same  parts, —  namely,  an  elastic  stick,  a 
simple  cord,  a  slender  barbed  shaft, —  and  used  by  the  two 
hands,  naturally  led  me  to  inquire  further  into  the  use  of 
the  bow  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  to  my  amaze- 
ment I  found  not  only  a  number  of  totally  distinct  meth- 
ods of  arrow-release  with  modifications,  or  sub-varieties, 
but  that  all  these  methods  had  been  in  vogue  from  early 
historic  times.  Even  the  simple  act  of  bracing  or  string- 
ing the  bow  varies  quite  as  profoundly  with  difitn-ent 
races. 

The  simplest  form  of  release  is  that  which  children  the 
world  over  naturally  adopt  in  first  using  the  bow  and 
arrow,  and  that  is  grasping  the  arrow  between  the  end  of 
the  straightened  tinnnl)  and  the  first  and  second  joints  of  the 
bent  forefinger.  I  say  naturally,  because  I  have  noticed 
that  American  as  well  as  Indian  and  Japanese  children  in- 
variably grasp  the  arrow  in  this  way  in  the  act  of  shooting. 
With  a  light  or  weak  bow,  such  a  release  is  the  simplest 


148 


ANCIENT    AND    MODERN    METHODS 


and  best ;  and  in  this  release  it  makes  but  little  difference 
upon  which  side  of  the  bow  the  arrow  rests,  provided  the 
bow  is  held  vertically.  This  release,  however,  prevents 
the  drawing  of  a  stiff  bow  unless  one  possesses  enormous 


Figs.  1  and  2.    Primaiy  release. 

strength  in  the  fingers.  Figs.  1  and  2  illustrate  this  re- 
lease. Arrows  used  in  this  release  are  usually  knobbed 
at  the  nock,  or  proximal  end  of  the  arrow,  for  conven- 


^^^^^^~ 


Fig.  3.    Knobbed  .arrow  from  Oregon. 


ience  of  holding ;  and  an  arrow  of  this  form  indicates  a 
release  of  this  or  of  a  similar  nature  (Fig.  3). 

The  Ainos  of  Yezo  practice  this  simple  release.  Their 
bow  is  short  and  highly  strung  Avhen  in  use,  and  an  arm- 


OF    ARROW-RELEASE.  149 

guard  is  not  required,  as  the  recoil  of  tlie  string,  from 
the  high  tension  of  the  bow,  is  arrested  before  striking  the 
arm.  Some  of  the  old  English  archers  also  avoided  the 
use  of  the  arm-guard  by  using  highly  strung  bows. 

It  is  recorded  that  the  Demerara  Indians  of  South 
America  practice  this  form  of  release ;  and  from  a  photo- 
graph of  a  Ute  Indian  in  my  possession  I  should  infer 
that  that  tribe  also  practiced  this  release.  Col.  James 
Stevenson  informs  me  that  when  the  Navajos  shoot  at 
prairie  dogs  they  use  this  release,  so  that  the  arrow  will 
not  penetrate  the  ground  if  it  misses  its  mark;  and  Mr. 
Daniel  S.  Hastings  informs  me  that  the  Chippewa  Indians 
sometimes  practice  this  release. 

I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  S.  J.  iNIixter  for  a  photograph 
which  he  made  for  me,  of  an  old  jNIicmac  Indian  in  the  act 
of  releasing  the  arrow  in  the  primary  way.  The  man  is 
one  of  the  oldest  Micmacs  in  the  Cascapedia  settlement  on 
the  north  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Chaleur  and  he  informed  Dr. 
Mixtcr  that  he  often  used  the  bow  when  a  boy,  and  prac- 
ticed the  release  as  represented.  He  also  said  that  the 
other  tribes  in  that  part  of  Canada  in  the  use  of  the  bow 
drew  the  arrow  in  the  same  way.  A  member  of  the  Pe- 
nobscot tribe  at  Moosehead  Lake  gave  me  the  primary 
release  as  that  practiced  by  the  tribe,  and  seemed  incred- 
ulous when  I  told  him  that  there  were  other  niethods  of 
draAving  the  arrow. 

This  primitive  method  of  releasing  the  arrow  I  shall 
designate  as  the  Primary  release. 

The  next  form  of  release  to  be  considered  is  one  which 
is  a  direct  outgrowth  from  the  primary  release.  This  re- 
lease consists  in  grasping  the  arrow  with  the  straightened 
thumb  and  bent  forefmgcr,  while  the  ends  of  the  second 
and  third  lingers  arc  brought  to  bear  on  the  strin^f  to  as- 


150 


ANCIENT    AND   MODERN   METHODS 


sist  in  drawing.  Figs.  4  and  5  illustrate  the  attitude  of  the 
hand  in  this  release.  Mr.  Paul  Mamegowena,  an  Ottawa 
Indian,  informs  me  that  his  tribe  practice  this  release,  and 
he  illustrated  the  method  to  me.  Through  the  courtesy 
of  Mr.  Frank  Hamilton  Gushing  I  was  enabled  to  make 
inquiries  of  a  number  of  Zuui  chiefs  in  regard  to  their 


Figs.  4  and  5.    Secondary  release. 

method,  and  the  release  practiced  by  them  differed  in  no 
respect  from  that  of  the  Ottawas. 

Mr.  Daniel  S.  Hastings,  formerly  civil  engineer  on  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad  writes  to  me  as  follows  regarding 
the  Chippewa  Indians  of  northern  Wisconsin  :  "  I  have 
watched  the  Indians  so  as  to  find  out  their  manner  of  draw- 
ing back  the  bow-string  and  releasing  the  arrow,  and  I 
find  they  all  agree  in  one  respect :  they  all  grasp  the  arrow 


OF   ARROW-KELEASE.  151 

between  the  thumb  and  forefinger.  Some  of  them  use  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  alone,  while  others  use  the  second, 
and  still  others  add  the  second  and  third  fingers  to  as- 
sist in  pulling  the  string  back,  and  let  the  string  slip  off 
the  ends  of  the  second  and  third  fingers  at  the  same  instant 
the  arrow  is  released  from  between  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger." This  release,  though  clearly  distinct  from  the 
primary  release,  is  an  advance  upon  it  in  the  added  as- 
sistance of  one  or  two  fingers  in  pulling  back  the  string ; 
and  the  description  given  by  Mr.  Hastings  is  confirmatory 
of  the  natural  relations  existing  between  the  two  releases. 
For  this  reason  it  will  be  designated  as  the  Secondary  re- 
lease. 

]\Ir.  La  Flcsche,  an  intelligent  Omaha,  showed  me  a 
release  practiced  by  his  people  which  diftcrs  sufiiciently 
from  the  secondary  release  to  warrant  its  recognition  as  a 
separate  form.  In  this  release  the  forefinger,  instead  of 
being  bent,  is  nearly  straight  with  its  tip,  as  well  as  the 
tips  of  the  second  and  third  fingers,  pressing  or  pulling  on 
the  string,  the  thumb,  as  in  the  primary  and  secondary 
release,  active  in  assisting  in  pinching  the  arrow  and 
pulling  it  back.  This  release  I  shall  call  the  Tertiary 
release.     (See  Figs.  6  and  7.) 

Lieut.  A.  W.  Vogdes,  U.  S.  A.,  has  informed  me  that 
the  Sioux,  Arapahoes,  and  Cheyenne  practice  the  tertiary 
release ;  and  Col.  James  Stephenson  has  noticed  this  re- 
lease practiced  not  only  by  the  two  latter  tribes  but 
by  the  Assinil)oins,  Comanches,  Crows,  Blackfeet,  and 
Navajos.  Mr.  La  Flesche  and  Lieut.  Vogdes  informed  me 
that  the  tribes  using  this  release  held  the  bow  nearly  hori- 
zontally. 

In  holding  the  bow  horizontally  the  release-hand  is  held 
with  the  palm  uppermost,  the  arrow,  of  course,  resting 
on  the  bow.     In  the  Zuni  and  Ottawa  practice,  the  bow 


152 


ANCIENT    AND    MODERN    METHODS 


being  held  vertically  or  nearly  so,  the  arrow  is  placed  at 
the  left  of  the  bow.  It  is  possi])le  that  originally  the  bow 
was  held  horizontally,  bnt  necessities  arising,  as  in  shoot- 
ing in  a  forest,  or  shooting  side  by  side  with  others  closely 
appressed,  the  bow  was  required  to  be  held  vertically. 
In  thus  turning  the  bow-hand  in  the  only  way  it  could  be 
turned  conveniently,  the  arrow  would  be  brought  to  the 
left  of  the  bow  vertical. 

As  will  be  shown  further  on,  the  position  of  the  arrow 


Figs.  0  and  7.    Tertiary  release. 

either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  of  the  bow  vertical  is  de- 
termined in  most  cases  by  the  method  of  release. 

In  the  primary  and  secondary  releases,  however,  it 
makes  but  little  diflerence  on  which  side  the  arrow  is 
placed  ;  and  some  tribes,  using  the  bow  vertical,  place  the 
arrow  to  the  right,  and  this  is  probably  a  quicker  way  of 
adjusting  the  arrow  when  shooting  rapidly.  Col.  James 
Stevenson  informs  me  that  Navajo  Indians  practice  thr'^e 
methods  of  release,  namely,  the  primary  release  already 


OF    ARROW-KELEASE.  153 

alludecl  to,  the  tertiary  release,  and  a  variety  of  the  INIed- 
itoraiieaii  release,  which  will  be  described  further  on. 

Durins:  the  recent  visit  of  the  Siamese  embassy  to  this 
country,  I  obtained  from  its  members  through  the  cour- 
tesy of  Mr.  Wilberforce  Wyke,  interpreter,  some  inter- 
esting facts  concerning  the  use  of  the  bow  in  Siam.  It 
was  curious  to  find  that  the  Siamese  practiced  the  tertiary 
release  ;  with  this  difference,  however,  that  one  finger  only 
is  used  on  the  string  instead  of  two.  j\[r.  Nai  Tuan  illus- 
trated the  method  to  me,  and  explained  that  little  use  was 
made  of  the  bow  and  arrow,  its  practice  l)eing  conlined  to 
the  shooting  of  small  birds  and  fishes. 

ISIajor  Snayh  of  the  embassy  told  me  that  poisoned  ar- 
rows were  also  used,  in  which  case  the  bow  was  held  hori- 
zontally, and  the  bow-hand  grasped  not  only  the  bow,  but 
a  grooved  l)()ard  iu  which  the  arrow  rested.  In  the  last 
centur}',  it  was  customary  for  the  Turkish  archer  to  use 
a  grooved  piece  of  horn  which  was  held  in  the  bow-hand 
directed  towards  the  string.  In  this  grooved  piece  the 
an-ow  ran,  and  by  this  contrivance  the  bow  could  be  drawn 
much  further  back,  even  to  the  extent  of  bringing  the 
head  of  the  arrow  four  or  five  inches  within  the  bow.  Ac- 
cording to  AVilkinson,  the  ancient  Kg3'ptians  were  familiar 
with  this  curious  adjunct  to  the  bow. 

E.  H.  Man,  Esq.,  in  his  work  on  the  Andaman  Island- 
ers,^ p.  141,  says  that  the  inhabitants  of  Great  Andaman 
"  place  the  arrow  in  position  between  the  thumb  and  top 
joint  of  the  forefinger,  and  draw  the  string  to  the  mouth 
with  the  middle  and  third  finger."  As  Mr.  Man  in  this 
description  does  not  speak  of  the  forefinger  as  bent  and 


>  On  the  Aboriginal  Inhabitants  of  the  Andaman  Islanrls.  By  Edward  Horace 
Man.  Reprinted  from  tlic  Journal  of  Ihe  AnthropolKgical  Institute  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland. 

ESSKX   INST.    IJULLKTIN,    VOL.    XVII  20 


154  ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   METHODS 

pressed  against  the  arrow,  the  release  practiced  by  these 
people  must  be  the  tertiary  release. 

We  have  thus  far  cousidered  three  methods  of  release, 
of  which  the  thumb  and  bent  forefinger  appressed  forms 
the  simplest  and  probably  one  of  the  earliest  forms  ;  and 
this  we  have  called  the  primary  release.  The  secondary 
release  differs  only  in  the  application  of  the  tips  of  the 
second  finger,  or  second  and  third  fingers,  to  the  string, 
and  must  be  regarded  as  a  development  of  the  primary 
release,  though  forming  a  distinct  methcxl.  The  third  re- 
lease diflers  in  the  position  of  the  forefinger,  which,  instead 
of  being  bent  and  pressed  against  the  arrow,  is  nearly 
straight,  its  tip,  as  well  as  the  tips  of  the  second  and  some- 
times that  of  the  third  finger,  engaging  the  string.  This 
constitutes  the  tertiary  release. 

We  come  now  to  consider  a  release  which  by  document- 
ary evidence  has  been  in  vogue  among  the  northern  Med- 
iterranean nations  for  centuries,  and  among  the  southern 
Mediterranean  nations  for  tens  of  centuries.  It  is  the 
oldest  release  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge.  It  is 
practiced  to-day  by  all  modern  English,  French,  and 
American  archers,  and  is  the  release  practiced  by  Euro- 
pean archers  of  the  Middle  Ages.  This  release  consists  in 
drawing  the  string  back  with  the  tips  of  the  first,  second, 
and  third  fingers,  the  balls  of  the  fingers  clinging  to  the 
string,  with  the  terminal  joints  of  the  fingers  slightly  flexed. 
The  arrow  is  lightly  held  between  the  first  and  second 
fingers,  the  thumb  straight  and  inactive. 

Since  this  release  has  been  practiced  by  the  IMcditerra- 
nean  nations  from  early  historic  times,  it  may  with  pro- 
priety be  called  the  Mediterranean  relea.se.  The  following 
figures  (Figs.  8  and  9)  illustrate  this  form  of  release. 

In  the  practice  of  this  release,  the  attrition  of  the  string 
on  the  fingers  is  so  severe  that  a  leather  glove  or  leather 


OF   ARROW-RELEASE. 


155 


finger-tips  are  worn,  though  some  archers  are  enabled  by 
long  service  to  shoot  with  their  lingers  unprotected. 
Roger  Ascham,  in  his  "  Toxophilus,"  written  in  1544, 
says :  "  A  shootinge  glove  is  chieflye  for  to  save  a  man's 
fingers  from  hurtinge,  that  he  may  be  able  to  beare  the 
sharpe  stringe  to  the  uttermoste  of  his  strengthe.  And 
when  a  man  shooteth,  the  might  of  his  shoote  lyeth  on 
the  foremost  finger,  and  on  the  ringman  ;  for  the  middle 


Figs.  8  and  9.    Mediterranean  release. 

finger  which  is  longest,  like  a  lubber,  starteth  back,  and 
beareth  no  weight  of  the  stringe  in  a  manner  at  all ; 
therefore  the  two  fingers  must  have  thicker  leather,  and  that 
must  have  thickest  of  all  whereon  a  man  lowseth  most, 
and  for  sure  lowsinge  the  foremost  finger  is  most  apt, 
because  it  holdeth  best,  and  for  that  purpose  nature  hath, 
as  a  man  would  say,  yocked  it  with  the  thoumbc." 

Hansard,  in  his  "  Book  of  Archery,"  states  that  the  Flem- 
ings use  the  first  and  second  fingers  only,  a  method  adopted 
by  some  English  bowmen.     This  FU'Uiing  variety  of  the 


156  ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   METHODS 

INIediteiTanean  release,  as  we  shall  soon  see,  was  probably 
the  usual  form  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Among  the  many 
curious  matters  of  interest  concerning  archery,  which  may 
be  found  in  Hansard's  book,  is  the  description  of  a  quaint 
l)lack-letter  volume  which  the  author  dug  out  in  the  Koyal 
Library  of  Paris.  This  volume  was  written  at  the  close 
of  the  thirteenth  or  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
It  is  entitled  "The  Book  of  King  Modus,"  and  is  a  treatise 
on  the  use  of  the  bow  in  hunting.  Among  other  matters 
is  a  chapter  of  "  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Archery ;"  and 
in  regard  to  the  release,  it  says  that  "you  draw  the  arrow 
with  three  fingers,  holding  the  nock  between  the  forefinger 
and  the  next  thereto." 

Associated  with  this  release  is  the  necessity  of  placing 
the  arrow  on  the  left  of  the  bow  held  vertically.  This 
position  is  necessitated  by  the  fact,  that  as  the  string  is 
pulled  back  the  friction  of  the  fingers  which  clutch  the 
arrow  tends  to  swing  the  arrow  to  the  right ;  at  the  same 
time  the  friction  of  the  fingers  on  the  string  causes  the 
string  to  rotate  somewhat  to  the  right,  and  this  tends  to 
displace  the  arrow. 

In  a  release  of  this  nature,  the  arrow  must  be  to  the  left 
of  the  bow  vertical ;  and  carved  figiu'cs,  manuscript  draw- 
ings, and  sculpture,  in  which  the  arrow  is  represented 
otherwise  in  connection  with  the  ^Mediterranean  release, 
must  be  incorrect.  This  release  is  unquestionably  an 
advance  on  the  others  thus  far  described,  as  it  enables 
the  drawing  of  a  stiifer  bow,  and  is  exceedingly  delicate 
and  smooth  at  the  instant  of  loosing  the  arrow. 

Mr.  John  Murdock,  who  accompanied  the  United 
States  Signal  Sui'vey  Expedition  to  the  nortliwcst  coast 
of  Alaska,  has  kindly  furnished  me  the  information  that 
the  Eskimo  of  Point  Barrow  practice  the  Mediterranean 
release,  using,  however,  only  the  first  and  second  fingers 
in  drawing  the  string.       I  am  also  indebted  to  ^Ir.  Mur- 


OF    ARROW-RELEASE.  157 

dock  for  calling  my  attention  to  two  other  references 
cenccrning  the  practice  of  archery  among  these  Arctic 
people. 

Mr.  Lndwig  Kunilien,  natnralist  of  the  Howgate  Polar 
Expedition,  says  of  the  Cumberland  Sound  Eskimo,  "In 
shooting  this  weapon  the  string  is  placed  on  the  tirst  joint 
of  the  first  and  middle  tingers  of  the  right  hand."  ^ 

The  Kranse  brothers  state  that  the  natives  of  East 
Cape,  Siberia,  do  not  hold  the  arrow  between  the  thumb 
and  tirst  tinger,  but  between  the  tirst  and  middle  fingers.^ 

Neither  of  these  descriptions  is  complete,  and  yet 
both  indicate  unmistakably  the  Mediterranean  release. 
It  was  somewhat  surprising  to  find  this  release  among  the 
tribes  of  Eskimo,  for  I  bad  supposed  that  the  arrow-re- 
lease of  this  people  would  be  either  in  the  form  of  the 
primary  or  secondary  release.  As  a  confirmation  of  this 
unlooked-for  method  of  shootins:  amonor  the  west-coast 


Fig.  10.    Point  Barrow  Eskimo  arrow,  half  size,  a,  end  view. 

Eskimo  at  least,  Mr.  Murdock  called  my  attention  to 
the  shape  of  the  nock  end  of  their  arrow,  which  was 
greatly  flattened  at  right  angles  to  the  nock,  so  that  it 
offered  greater  convenience  for  grasping  between  the  fin- 
gers. It  is  possible  also  that  this  peculiar  flattening  may 
have  something  to  do  with  the  flight  of  the  arrow.  This 
flattening  of  the  arrow  I  have  never  observed  before  ;  and 
an  arrow  of  this  shape  must  indicate  unmistakably  the 
method  of  release  employed,  for  in  no  other  form  of 
release  with  which  I  am  familiar  could  the  arrow  be  dis- 
charged.    Fig.  10  gives  the  appearance  of  this  arrow. 

»  Bulletin  of  the  U.  S.  K.ntion.il  Museum,  No.  1.5,  p.  37. 
'  Deutbcbe  gcograiihischc  Bliiltcr,  Vol.  I,  p.  33. 


158 


ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   METHODS 


If  Mr.  Man's  information  be  correct,  then  the  tribes 
inhabiting  the  Little  Andaman  practice  the  Mediterranean 
release.  In  his  work  on  the  Andaman  Islanders  before 
alluded  to,  the  author  says  (p.  141)  that  the  Jar'awa,  or 
the  tribes  which  inhabit  the  Little  Andaman  and  southern 
portions  of  the  Great  Andaman,  "adopt  the  plan  usual 
amons:  ourselves  of  holdings  the  nock  of  the  arrow  inside 
the  string  by  means  of  the  middle  joints  of  the  fore  and 


Figs.  11  and  12.    Mongolian  release. 

middle  fingers,  and  drawing  the  string  wnth  the  same  joints." 
While  the  four  releases  thus  far  described  may  be  con- 
sidered successive  modifications  of  each  other,  though  I 
do  not  mean  to  imply  that  they  are  so  necessarily,  the 
release  which  we  are  about  to  examine  is  an  entirely  in- 
dependent form,  having  no  relation  to  the  others.  In  this 
release  the  string  is  drawn  by  the  llexed  thumb  bent  over 


OF    ARROW-RELEASE. 


159 


the  string,  the  end  of  the  forefinger  assisting  in  holding 
the  thumb  in  tliis  position.  Figs.  11  and  12  iUustrate  this 
release.  The  arrow  is  held  at  the  junction  of  the  thumb 
and  forefinger,  the  base  of  the  finger  pressing  the  arrow 
against  the  bow.  For  this  reason  the  arrow  is  always 
placed  to  the  right  of  the  bow  vertical. 

This  release  is  characteristic  of  the  Asiatic  races,  such  as 
the  Manchu,  Chinese,  Korean,  Japanese,  Turk,  and  doubt- 
less other  cognate  peoples.  The  Persians  also  practice 
this  release,  which  they  probably  accjuired  from  Ihcir  prox- 
imity to,  and  association  (friendly  and  otherwise)  with, 
Asititic  people  of  past  times. 

As  this  release  is  practiced  almost  exclusively  by  Mon- 
golian nations,  it  may  be  called  the  Mongolian  release. 

In  this  release  the  thumb  is  protected 
by  a  guard  of  some  kind.  With  the 
Manchu,  Chinese,  and  Turk,  as  well  as 
with  the  Persian,  this  guard  consists  of 
a  thick  ring,  which  is  worn  near  the  base 
of  the  thumb.  The  thick  edge  of  the 
ring  is  brought  to  l)ear  upon  the  string  Chinese  thumb-ring, 
as  it  is  drawn  back,  and  at  the  same  time  the  string  is 
quickly  released  by  straightening  the 
thumb.  The  ring  may  be  made  of 
any  hard  material,  such  as  horn,  bone, 
ivory,  quartz,  agate,  or  jade.  These 
rings  are  often  very  expensive.  I  was 
shown  one  in  Canton  that  was  valued 
^.    ,,  at    three  hundred    dollars.     Fi":.   13 

Fir.  l-t.  _  O 

Chinese  thumb-ring  of  jiuie.  illustrates  au  ordinary  liom  ring  such 

in  section.  ^.^      n\      > 

as  the  Cantonese  use. 

Fig.   14  shows  a  Chinese  thum1)-riug  in  section,   made 

of  jade.      This  ring,  being  used  with  bows  having  thicker 

strings,  is  correspondingly  larger.  The  Korean  thumb-ring 

is  quite   unlike  that  used  by  the  Chinese,  as  will  l)e  seen 


Fig.  13. 


100 


ANCIENT    AND   MODERN   METHODS 


by  Fig.  15.  The  ring  is  thin,  and  from  its  shape  is  evi- 
dently used  to  protect  the  bail  of  the  thumb.  The  string 
is  not  engaged  by  the  edge  of  the  ring,  as  in  the  Chinese 


Fig.  15.    KoiCiin  thumb-ring. 


method,  but  rests  upon  the  side  of  the  ring.^    The  Japanese 
archer,  instead  of  using  a  thumb-ring,  is  provided  with  a 


Fig.  IG.    Japanese  nicher'6  glove  (portion  only  shown). 

glove  consisting  of  thumb  and  two  fingers.     The  wrist  of 
the  glove  is  firmly  bound  to  the  wrist  by  a  long  band, 

» I  was  told  by  a  Korean  ambassador  in  Tokio,  that  in  archery  the  Koreans  are 
taught  to  draw  the  arrow  with  either  hand,  but  considered  the  left  hand  most  effi- 
cient. In  illustrating  the  method  ot  release  he  drew  the  arrow  with  his  left  hand. 
The  bow  is  firmly  grat^ped,  and  an  arm-guard  is  worn. 


OF   ARROW-KELEASE.  161 

which  is  fastened  to  one  tlap,  passes  through  a  hole  in  the 
opposite  Ihip,  thus  enabling  it  to  be  pulled  up  like  a  noose, 
and  then  is  wound  tightly  about  the  wrist  several  times. 
The  thumb  of  the  glove  is  much  thickened,  and  is  very 
hard  and  stift*  (Fig.  16).  Its  operation  is  like  that  of  the 
Korean  thumb-ring. 

In  the  Korean  and  Japanese  practice  the  first  and  second 
fingers  assist  in  holding  the  thumb  bent  on  the  string, 
while  in  the  Manchu  release  only  the  first  finger  is  so 


Fig.  17.    Manchu. 

used,  the  other  three  fingers  being  inactive  and  closed. 
There  are  doubtless  other  modifications  of  this  release  ;  the 
essential  features  however  remain  the  same. 

A  young  Japanese  from  the  north  of  Japan,  in  illustrating 
to  me  his  method  of  release,  drew  the  string  back  with  the 
thumb  and  interlocked  forefinger  as  already  described,  and 
assisted  the  drawing  back  of  the  string  with  the  tips  of  the 
second  and  third  fingers,  as  shown  in  the  secondary  release. 

The  accompanying  figure  illustrates  the  attitude  of  the 
shaft  hand  of  a  Manchu  as  seen  from  above,  which  I 
sketchedfromaManchusoldier  at  Canton.  (Fig.  17.)  The 

ESSKX  INST.    BULLliTIN,    VOL,    XVU  21 


102  ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   METHODS 

Persians  and  Turks  use  the  thumb-ring  in  the  same  way. 
Fig.  18,  representing  the  Persian  thuml)-ring,  is  copied  from 
a  drawing  given  in  Meyrick's  "  Ancient  Armour."  Han- 
sard, referring  to  another  author,  says  that  "one  of  the  early 
Turkish  Sultans  occupied  his  leisure  in  manufacturing 
these  rings,"  distributing  them  as  presents  among  his  favor- 
ite pashas ;  and  adds  also  that  the  carnelian  thumb-rings 
may  be  easily  procured  in  the  Bazaars  of  Constantinople. 
Some  notes  in  regard  to  Persian  archery  may  be  found 
in  "  Hansard's  Book  of  Archery,"  p.  IM. 

The  "  Archers'  liegister  "  pul)lished  a  number  of  notes 
from  a  manuscript  copy  of  "  Anecdotes  of  Turkish  Archery 
procured  from  C(mstantinoplc  by  Sir  Robert  Ainslie,  and 
translated  by  his  interpreter,  at  the  request  of  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  Baronet,  1797,"  from  which  we  quote  : — 

"  The  bow,  instead  of  being  drawn  with 
three  fingers  on  the  string,  according  to 
our  mode,  was  drawn  l)y  the  right  thumb, 
with  the  arrow  placed  on  the  string  im- 
mediately above  it.  A  thumb-piece,  or 
guard  of  bone,  answering  the  purpose  of 
our  'tips,'  was  worn.  It  covered  the  ball 
of  the  thumb,  one  end  being  made  as  a 
Fig?^  ling  «^-iitl  passed  over  the  joint.     A  pro- 

persian  thumb-ring.  jecUug  touguc  in  the  iusidc  prevented 
the  string  slipping  oif  the  guard  into  the  angle  of  the 
thumb  formed  by  the  bent  joint.  The  inside  of  the  guard 
was  lined  with  leather.  A  curious  contrivance,  consist- 
ing of  a  horn-groove  several  inches  in  length,  fixed  on 
a  foundation  of  wood  attached  to  a  leather  strap  and 
buckle,  was  fastened  on  the  bow-hand.  The  groove  pro- 
jected inwards.  The  arrow  was  hiid  in  this  groove,  which 
rested  on  the  thumb,  and  was  rather  higher  on  the  outside, 
as  the  arrow  was  shot  on  the  right  side  of  the  bow,  on 
the  contrary  side  to  what  it  is  in  England." 


OF    ARROW-RELEASE. 


163 


There  are  doubtless  other  forms  of  release,  but  those 
already  given  probably  comprise  the  principal  and  most 
efficient  ones. 

At  Singapore  I  was  enabled  to  secure,  through  the  kind- 
ness of  D.  F.  A.  Hervey,  Esq.,  of  Malacca,  a  Malay  release 
of  the  Temiang  tribe,  originally  from  Sumatra.  The  bow 
was  held  in  an  horizontal  position  (a  hole  being  made  in 
the  centre  of  the  bow  through  which  the  arrow  passed), 
the  three  fingers  bent  over  the  string,  and  the  arrow  held 
between  the  first  and  second  fingers,  the  thumb  straiij^ht- 


Fig.  19.    Temiang  release. 


ened,  and  the  little  finger  partially  straightened  and  bear- 
ing against  the  string  as  in  the  figure  (Fig.  19).  This  was 
a  weak  release,  and  was  used  only  in  the  shooting  of  small 
game  and  fish.  An  entirely  difierent  form  of  release  is 
used  by  this  people  in  shooting  fire  at  the  spirit  of  sick- 
ness. The  bow  is  perforated  as  in  the  bow  above  men- 
tioned ;  the  arrow  has  a  shoulder  near  the  distal  end  which 
prevents  it  passing  through  the  hole,  and  the  nock  is  fas- 
tened to  the  string.  A  ball  of  inlhunmablc  material  is 
loosely  placed  on  the  end  of  tiie  arrow,  and  when  the  arrow 
is  released  it  is  suddenly  checked  by  its  shoulder  striking 


164  ANCIENT    AND   MODERN   METHODS 

the  bow  and  the  fire-ball  is  projected  into  the  air  by  its 
momentum.     The  release  in  this  act  is  shown  in  Fig.  20. 

The  first  finger  passes  above  the  string  and  under  the  ar- 
row, the  thnmb  being  straightened  and  the  arrow  grasped 
between  the  thumb  and  finger.  This  is  a  most  awkward  and 
inefficient  release  ;  and  as  the  descriptions  of  this  and  the 
previous  Malay  release  were  given  me  by  an  old  man, 
who  was  at  the  time  being  questioned  by  Mr.  Hervey  in 
the  interest  of  philology,  it  is  possible  that  the  releases  may 
have  been  incorrectly  described. 

The  releases  thus  far  given  comprise  those  forms  which 
have  been  studied  from  life. 

It  now  remains  for  us  to  examine  the  releases  of  ancient 


Fig.  20.    Temiang  release  when  shooting  at  spirit  of  sickness. 

peoples  which  are  made  known  to  us  through  illuminated 
manuscripts,  frescos,  rock  sculpture,  and  other  graphic 
methods.  From  the  conventional  way  in  which  many  of 
these  are  depicted,  great  difficulty  is  encountered  in  prop- 
erly interpreting  the  exact  method  of  release  intended. 
In  many  cases,  especially  in  certain  forms  of  the  ancient 
Egyptian,  as  shown  in  the  frescos,  and  early  Grecian,  as 
represented  on  their  decorative  vases,  it  is  well  nigh  im- 
possible to  recognize  any  mode  in  which  the  arrow  could 
be  drawn.     In  some  cases  the  release  might  be  intended 


OF   ARROW-RELEASE.  165 

to  represent  either  of  two  or  three  kinds.  That  many  re- 
leases are  represented  incorrectly  there  can  be  no  donbt. 
In  tignres  of  Eiryptian  archers,  the  hand  is  depicted  as 
daintily  pnlling  the  arrow  in  a  way  that  could  not  possibly 
accomplish  the  drawing  of  a  stiff  bow ;  and  that  the 
Egyptian  archer  used  a  stiff  boAV  is  seen  in  the  vigorous 
manner  in  which  he  is  represented  as  bracing  it  with  knee 
pressed  against  its  middle,  while  tying  the  cord  above. 

It  will  be  best,  however,  to  give  a  description  of  those 
releases  that  can  be  clearly  interpreted,  beginning  with  the 
Assyrian.  I  had  a  brief  opportunity  of  studying  the  won- 
derful collection  of  Assyrian  slabs  at  the  British  Museum, 
and  also  the  Assyrian  collections  at  the  Louvre.  In  the 
various  scenes  of  war  and  hunting  so  graphically  depicted, 
the  most  perfect  representations  of  archers  in  the  act  of 
drawing  the  bow  are  given. 

At  the  outset  I  met  with  a  very  curious  and  unaccount- 
able discrepancy  in  the  form  of  release  employed,  and  that 
was  when  tlie  archer  was  represented  with  iiis  right  side, 
or  shaft  hand,  toward  the  observer,  the  hand  was  with  few 
exceptions  in  the  attitude  of  the  primary  or  secondary 
release ;  whereas  if  the  archer  was  represented  with  his 
left  side,  or  bow  hand,  toward  the  observer,  the  release 
with  few  exceptions  represented  the  ^Mediterranean  re- 
lease. Or,  in  other  words,  as  one  faces  the  sculptured 
slab  the  archers,  who  are  represented  as  !^hooting  towards 
the  right,  show  with  few  exceptions  either  the  primary 
or  secondary  release,  while  those  shooting  towards  the 
left  are  with  few  exceptions  practicing  the  Mediterranean 
release  ! 

If  in  every  case  the  Assyrians  were  represented  on  the 
left,  as  one  faces  the  tablet,  fighting  the  enemy  on  the 
right,  then  one  might  assume  that  the  enemy  was  prac- 
ticing a  different  release.     In  au  Eg}  ptian  fresco,  for  ex- 


166  ANCIENT    AND   MODERN    METHODS 

ample,  where  Rameses  II.  is  depicted  in  his  chariot  fighting 
the  Arabs,  the  enemy  is  represented  as  practicing  a  differ- 
ent release.  While  in  many  cases  the  Assyrians  are  on 
the  left  of  the  picture,  in  other  cases  they  are  on  the 
right,  and  shooting  towards  the  left.  It  is  therefore  diffi- 
cult to  decide  which  release  was  practiced  by  them  ;  and 
all  the  more  so,  since,  with  very  few  exceptions,  the  re- 
leases are  perfect  representations  of  forms  practiced  to- 
day, which  have  already  been  described.  I  have  suspected 
that  in  one  or  two  cases  the  Mongolian  release  might  have 
been  intended,  though  in  no  case  is  the  thumb-ring  repre- 
sented, though  other  details  of  arm-guards,  bracelets,  etc., 
are  shown  with  great  minuteness. 

Taking  the  releases  as  they  are  represented  in  the  sculpt- 


Fig,  -21.    Assyrian. 

ures  without  regard  to  the  discrepancies  above  noted,  it 
is  an  extremely  interesting  fact  that  all  the  earlier  Assy- 
rian archers,  that  is,  of  the  time  of  Assurnazirpal,  or  884 
B.  C,  the  release  represented  is  the  primary  one,  as  shown 
in  Ficr.  21 :  while  in  the  archers  of  the  reign  of  Assurbar- 
nipal,  or  650  B.  C,  the  secondary  release  is  shown,  or  a 
variety  of  it,  in  which  the  tips  of  all  three  fingers  are  on 
the  string,  as  shown  in  Fig.  22.  Between  these  two  epochs 
the  sculptures  ranging  from  745-705  B.  C,  notably  a 
slab  representing  the  campaign  of  Sennacherib  showing 
assault  on  the  Kouyunjik  Palace,  both  the  primary  and 
secondary  releases  arc  represented.     If  any  reliance  can 


OF   ARROW-RELEASE. 


167 


be  placed  on  the  accunicy  of  these  figures,  an  interesting 
rehition  is  shown  in  the  development  of  the  secondary 
from  the  primary  release,  as  urged  in  the  first  part  of  this 
paper.     Possibly  a  proof  that  the  primary  release  is  iu- 


Fig.  22.    Assyrian. 

tended  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  the  arrows  are  represent- 
ed with  the  nock  end  bull)ous. 

On  tablets  in  the  British  ^Museum  of  this  intermediate 
age,  or  during  the  reign  of  Tiglath  Pileser,  is  the  first  rep- 
resentation of  an  archer  with  the  ri<i:ht  side  towards  the 


Fig.  23.    Assyii.'in. 

observer  practicing  the  Mediterranean  release:  and  on 
slabs  of  the  date  of  650  B.  C,  one  showing  Assurbarni- 
pal's  second  war  against  Ehim,  and  another  one  represent- 
ing the  siege  of  the  city  of  Al-ammu,  a  number  of  archers 
with  their  right  towards  the  observer  are  practicino-  the 
IMediterranean  release  (Fig.  23).  In  the  Mediterranean 
release,  which,  as  1  have  before  remarked,  is  represented, 


108 


ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   METHODS 


with  few  exceptions,  by  all  the  archers  having  the  bow- 
hand  toAvards  the  observer,  there  are  two  varieties  shown : 
one  in  which  three  finn:ers  are  on  the  strin^r,  and  another 


Fig.  24.    Assyrian. 


with  only  two  fingers  drawing  the  bow,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figures  (Figs.  24,  25).  The  Mediterra- 
nean release  occurs  in  Assyrian  sculpture  as  early  as  884 


25.    Assyrian. 

B.  C,  as  shown  on  a  marble  slab  in  the  British  INIuseum 
representing  the  siege  of  a  city  by  Assurnazirpal  (Fig. 
26).    A  curious  form  is  shown  in  Fig.  27,  showing  Assur- 


Fig.  26.    Assyrian. 

barnipal  in  a  chariot,  shooting  lions.  The  string  below 
is  concealed  by  the  archer's  arm.  The  secondary  release 
is  probably  intended. 


OF    ARROW-RKLEASE. 


169 


111  regard  to  the  bow-hand,  the  thumb  is  sometimes  rep- 
resented as  straiu:ht  and  guidin*^  the  arrow,  and  in  other 
cases  as  braced  inside  of  the  bow.  In  this  connection  it 
may  be  interesting  to  note  that  in  the  earliest  Assyrian 
bows  the  ends  of  the  bows  are  straight  and  blunt,  the 
nocks  being  a  simple  groove  and   the  string  being  tied 


Fig.  27.    Assyrian. 

whenever  the  bow  is  braced,  as  in  certain  modern  Indian 
and  Aino  practice.  Other  bows  are  shown  at  this  period 
with  a  nock  somewhat  oblique,  and  it  is  possible  that  the 
string  might  have  been  looped  and  slipped  into  tiic  notch, 
as  in  the  modern  English  bow. 

In  the  later  slabs,  that  is  650  B.C.,  the  ends  of  the  bow 
are  shown  al)ruptl3'  l)cnt,  the  bent  portion  in  some  cases 


Fig.  28.  Fig.  21).  Fijj,  30. 

being  carved  to  represent  a  bird's  head.  In  the  bracing 
of  this  bow  the  string  has  a  permanent  loop,  and  the  assist- 
ance of  a  second  person  is  required  to  slip  this  loop  over 
the  point  of  the  nock  while  the  archer  is  employed  in 
bending  the  bow,  Avhich  is  done  hy  drawing  the  ends  of 
the  bow  towards  him,  the  knee  at  the  same  time  l)eing 
pressed  in  the  middle  of  the  bow.   (Figs.  28,  29,  30.)  In 

ESSEX   INST.    BULLETIN,    VOL.    XVII  22 


170  ANCIENT    AND    MODERN    METHODS 

the  earlier  reign,  the  arrows  are  shown  with  hirger  nocks 
and  the  barbs,  long  and  narrow,  with  their  outer  edges  gen- 
erally parallel  to  the  shaft.  The  nock  end  of  the  arrow 
is  bulbous,  as  before  remarked;  and  if  this  is  correctly 
represented  it  would  settle  the  question  as  to  the  primary 
release  being  the  one  intended.  In  the  later  slabs,  the 
arrow  has  shorter  barbs,  with  the  feathers  taperjug  forward 
towards  the  point,  and  the  nock  end  of  the  arrow  is  not 
bulbous. 

A  more  careful  study  than  I  was  able  to  give  to  these 
sculptures  maj^  pr()b:i])ly  modify  the  general  statements 
here  made  concerning  the  variations  in  time  of  the  bow 
and  arrow. 

Concerning  the  practice  of  archery  among  the  ancient 
Eg_yptians,  Wilkinson  in  his  classical  work  mentions  only 
two  forms  of  release.  He  says  their  mode  of  drawing  the 
bow  was  either  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  or  with  the 
first  and  second  fingers.^  Rawlinson  makes  the  same  state- 
ment.^ These  two  forms  as  detined  by  these  authors 
would  be  the  primary  and  Mediterranean  releases. 

If  the  representations  of  the  drawings  and  frescos  in 
ancient  Egyptian  tombs,  as  given  by  Rosallini,  Lepsius, 
and  others,  are  to  be  relied  on,  then  the  ancient  Egyptians 
practiced  at  least  three,  and  possibly  four,  definite  and 
distinct  methods  of  release. 

That  many  of  the  releases  depicted  in  these  old  sculpt- 
ures and  frescos  are  conventional  simply,  there  can  be  no 
doubt ;  indeed,  some  of  the  releases  are  plainly  impossible, 
notably  that  form  which  shows  the  archer  daintily  draw- 
ing back  a  stifi' bow  with  the  extreme  tips  of  the  first  two 
fingers  and  thumb.    Again,  the  figure  of  Rameses  II.  (see 


Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Aucieut  Egyptians,  2ud  series,  Vol,  1.,  p.  307. 
'Hibloi-y  ol' Ancient  Egypt,  Vol.  I.,  p.  474. 


OF    AEROW-KELEASE. 


171 


Wilkinson,  Vol.  I.,  p.  307),  which  shows  the  bow  vertical 
while  the  shaft-hand  is  inverted,  that  is,  with  palm  upper- 
most, is  an  equally  impossible  attitude.  Other  releases 
identity  themselves  clearly  with  forms  already  described, 
and  with  slight  latitude  in  the  interpretation  of  the  con- 
ventional forms  we  may  identify  these  as  belonging  to 
known  types. 

The  earliest  releases  are  those  depicted  on  the  tombs  of 
Beni  Hassan  of  the  time  of  Usurtasen  L,  Avhich  according 


Fig.  31.    Early  Egyptian. 

to  the  conservative  chronology  of  Professor  Lepsius  dates 
2380  B.C.  Here  the  Mediterranean  release  is  unmistak- 
ably shown.  The  following  figure  (Fig.  31)  from  these 
tombs,  copied  from  Rosallini's  great  work,  indicates  this 
form  of  release  in  the  clearest  manner.  In  these  figures 
it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the  arrow  is  drawn  to  the 
ear,  and  also  that  the  archers  are  represented  as  shootin<' 
with  the  left  as  well  as  with  the  right  hand. 

Makingastride  of  over  a  thousandyears  and  coming  down 
to  the  time  of  Seti  I.  ( 1259  B.C.),  we  have  represented  a 
release  as  well  as  a  mode  of  drawing  the  arrow  al)ovo  and 


172 


ANCIENT   AND    MODERN    METHODS 


behind  the  ear,  which  recalls  in  the  action  of  the  arm  cer- 
tain forms  of  the  Mongolian  release.  (Fig.  32.)  It  is 
true  the  attitude  of  the  hand  might  be  interpreted  as  rep- 
resenting the  thumb  and  bent  forefinsrer  as  shown  in  the 


Egyptian.    Seti  I. 


primary  release,  but  the  free  and  vigorous  drawing  of  the 
bow  as  shown  in  the  figure  could  not  possibly  be  accom- 
plished in  the  primary  form  with  a  bow  of  any  strength. 
Furthermore,  the  attitude  assumed  by  the  Manchu  and 


Fig.  33.    Egyptian.    Kamescs  II. 

Japanese  archer  in  the  Mongolian  release  vividly  recalls 
this  picture  of  Seti.  Egyptologists  state  that  Seti  I.  was 
occupied  early  in  his  reign  with  wars  in  the  east  and  in  re- 
sisting the  incursions  of  Asiatic  tribes  ;  and  we  venture  to 


OF   ARROW-RELEASE. 


173 


offer  the  suggestion  that  during  these  wars  he  might  have 
acquired  tlie  more  vigorous  release  as  practiced  by  the 
Asiatics.^  Whatever  may  be  the  method  depicted  in  the 
drawing  of  Seti,  it  is  quite  unlike  the  releases  of  the  time 
of  Usurtasen,  and  equally  unlike  the  figures  of  Kameses 
II.,  which  are  so  often  portrayed. 

In  Figs.  33,  34,  copied  from  Rosallini,  the  thuml)  and 
the  forefinger  partially  bent  may  be  intended  to  represent 
the  primary  release,  as  in  no  other  way  could  be  inter- 
preted the  bent  forefinger  and  straightened  thumb  holding 


Fig.  34.    Egyptian.    Rameses  11. 

the  tip  of  the  arrow,  with  three  other  fingers  free  from  the 
string. 

In  the  British  Museum  are  casts  of  a  hunting  scene,  and 
also  of  battle  scenes  of  the  time  of  Rameses  II.,  in  which  the 
shaft -hand  of  the  archer  is  in  an  inverted  position.  This 
form  of  release  associated  with  a  vertical  bow  is  an  impos- 
sible one.  Either  the  hand  is  wrongly  drawn,  or  the  atti- 
tude of  the  bow  is  incorrectly  given.  The  only  explanation 
of  this  discrepancy  is  the  assumption  that  the  bow  was 


>  It  would  be  extremely  interesting  to  know  whether  any  object  answering  the 
purpose  of  a  thumb-ring  has  ever  been  found  among  the  relics  of  ancient  Egypt. 


174 


ANCIENT    AND    MODERN    METHODS 


Fig.  35.    Egyptian. 


really  held  in  an  horizontal  position,  and  the  release  prac- 
ticed was  the  one  I 
have  designated  as  the 
tertiary  release.  The 
Egyptian  artist,  igno- 
rant of  perspective 
drawing  and  utterly 
unable  to  represent  a 
bow  foreshortened,  has 
drawn  the  bow  in  a 
vertical  position.  As  a 
further  proof  of  this, 
we  find  that  the  tribes 
of  North  American  In- 
dians and  the  Siamese 
who  practice  the  terti- 
ary release  usually  hold 
the  bow  in  an  horizontal 
position.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  accompany- 
ing figures  Avill  make 
this  clear.  Fig.  35  is 
copied  from  the  cast  re- 
ferred to  in  the  British 
jNIuseum ;  Fig.  36, 
from  \yilkinson,Vol,  i., 
p.  307;  Fig.  37,  from 
Wilkinson,  Vol.  i.,  p. 
309.  Reginald  Stuart 
Poole,  Esq.,  of  the 
British    Musenm,    has 

kindly  sent  me  an  out- 
Fig.  37.    Egyptian.  jj^^^  ^^  ^j^^  ^^^^j,  ^^^^  ^^ 

the  ancient  Egyptian  arrow  which  shows  a  straight  and 


Fig.  36.    Egyptian. 


OF    ARROW-RELEASE. 


175 


cylindrical  shaft.  Figs.  38,  39,  40,  and  41  are  copied 
from  Rosallini.  Fig.  38  is  probably  intended  for  the  pri- 
mary, Fig.  39  the  tertiary  probably,  and  Figs.  40  and  41 
the  Mediterranean  form. 

Turning  now  to  the  practice  of  archery  among  the  an- 
cient Grecians,  we  sliould  expect  to  tind  among  tliese  peo- 


Fig.  38.    Efryptian. 

pie,  at  least,  the  most  distinct  and  truthful  delineations  of 
the  attitude  of  the  hand  in  shooting.  Hansard,  in  his  "Book 
of  Arciiery,"  p.  428,  says  of  the  ancient  Greek  archers, 
"Like  the  moderuTui-ks,  Persians, Tartars,  and  many  other 
Orientals,  they  drew  the  bow-string  with  their  thumb,  the 
arrow  being  retained  in  i)lace  by  the  forefinger.     Many 


Fig.  39.    Egyptian. 

sculptures  extant  in  public  and  private  collections,  es- 
pecially those  splendid  casts  from  the  Island  of  Egina 
now  in  the  British  Philosophical  and  Literary  Institution, 
represent  several  archers  drawing  the  bow-string  as  I  have 
described." 

A  study  of  a  number  of  ancient  Grecian  releases  as 
shown  in  rock  sculpture  and  on  decorated  vases  reveals 
only  one  release  that  might  possibly  be  intended  to  repre- 
sent the  Mongolian  method,  and  this  is  shown  on  a  Greek 


176 


ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   METHODS 


vase  (black  figures  ou  red)  figured  in  Auserlesene  Vaser- 
bilder.  With  this  exception  the  releases  thus  far  examined 
are  as  various,  and  many  of  them  quite  as  enigmatical,  as 
those  seen  among  the  ancient  Egyptians.  I  puzzled  for 
a  long  time  over   these    sculptures  from  the  temple    of 


Fif?.  40.    Egyptian. 

Athena  to  which  Mr.  Hansard  refers,  and  was  forced  to 
coine  to  the  conclusion  that,  despite  their  acknowledged  ac- 
curacy, the  release  was  an  impossible  one.  It  was  not  till 
sometime  after  that  T  learned  that  the  figures  had  been  care- 
fully restored  by  Thovaldseu,  and  the  restored  parts  com- 

\ 


Fig.  41.    Egyptian. 

prised  the  hands  and  arms,  as  well  as  the  extremities  of 
most  of  the  figures.  With  this  information  I  had  occasion 
to  hunt  up  a  history  of  these  figures,  and  found  the  follow- 
ing in  a  work  by  Eugene  Plon  entitled  "Thovaldsen  his  Life 
and  Works,"  republished  in  this  country  by  Roberts  Broth- 
ers. The  figures  were  restored  by  Thovaldsen  in  1816. 
Among  the  restored  i)arts  were  the  hands  of  the  archers. 
"  The  statues  were  in  Parian  marble,  and  he  used  so  much 


OF    ARKOW-RELEASE.  177 

care  in  matching  the  tints  of  the  new  })ieces  as  almost  to 
deceive  a  practiced  eye.  He  was  frequently  asked  by  vis- 
itors to  the  Atelier  whicii  were  the  restored  parts.  *I  can- 
not say,'  he  would  reply  hiughing;  'I  neglected  to  mark 
them,  and  I  no  longer  remember.  Find  them  out  for 
yourself  if  you  can'"  (p.  56).  Of  these  restorations, 
however,  it  is  possible  that  Mr.  Hansard  was  not  aware, 
though  if  he  had  ever  attempted  drawing  a  bow  in  the 
manner  represented  in  these  figures,  he  would  have  seen 
the  absurdity  as  well  as  the  impossibility  of  the  attitude; 
and,  furtliermore,  had  he  been  at  all  familiar  with  the 
Mongolian  release  he  would  have  seen  that  there  was 
reall}''  no  approach  to  the  form  as  employed  by  the  Man- 
chu,  Korean,  Japanese,  or  Turk.  The  following  figure 
(Fig.  42)  is  sketched  fiom  the  set  of  casts  in  the  Mu- 
seum of  Fine  Arts  in  Boston.     An  examination  of  these 


Fig.  42.    ThovaUlsen's  restoration  of  haml. 

figures  will  show  that  the  angle  made  by  the  shaft-liand  in 
relation  to  the  bow-hand  is  also  inaccurate.  A  release  that 
might  at  first  sight  suggest  the  Mongolian  form  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying  figure  (Fig.  43)  representing  an  Amazon 
archer,  which  is  painted  on  a  Greek  vase  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury B.C.  The  forefinger  seems  to  be  holding  the  end  of 
the  thumb,  l)ut  the  thumb  is  not  hooked  over  the  string  as 
it  ought  to  be.  If  the  hand  l)e  correctly  drawn  it  repre- 
sents quite  well  the  tertiary  release;  and  this  supposition 
is  borne  out  by  two  sculptures,  one  from  the  Temple  of 
Apollo  Epicurius  at  Piiigalia  (Fig.  44),  and  another  from 

KSSKX    INST.     BULLETIN,    VOL.    XVII  'J3 


178 


ANCIENT    AND   MODERN   METHODS 


Lycia,  Asia  Minor.  (Fig.  45.)  In  these  two  examples 
the  hand  seems  to  be  in  the  attitude  of  drawing  the  bow, 
with  the  fingers  partially  bent  on  the  string,  and  the  thumb 


Fig.  43.    Amazon  archer. 

assisting  in  holding  the  arrow ;  and  this  is  the  form  ot 
the  tertiary  release. 

The  earliest  Greek  release  that  I  have  seen  is  represented 


Fig.  44.    Phigalia. 

on  a  block  of  stone  sent  to  this  country  by  the  Assos  Ex- 
hibition, and  now  the  property  of  the  Boston  Museum  of 
Fine  Arts.     It  is  supposed  to  date  about  2200  B.  C. 


Fig.  45.    Lycia,  Asia  Minor. 


In  this  figure  the  hand  is  vigorously  grasping  the  string, 
with  the  first  and  second  fingers  abruptly  bent,  the  third 
and  fourth  fingers  apparently  having  been  broken  away. 
(Fig.  46.) 


OF    ARRO"\V-UELEASE.  179 

If  this  release  really  represent  a  permanent  form  of 
shooting,  then  this  form  should  have  been  designated  the 
primary  release  ;  but,  so  far  as  1  have  learned,  it  seems  to 
be  a  temporary  mode  resorted  to  onl}'  under  special  con- 
ditions. In  testing  the  stiffness  of  a  bow,  for  example, 
the  string  is  grasped  in  this  manner.  An  instance  of  this 
is  seen  on  one  of  the  Assyrian  slabs,  where  the  king  is 
represented  as  trying  a  bow.  I  was  informed  by  a  Zuui 
chief  that  when  shooting  in  a  great  hurry  the  string  was 
vigorously  clutched  by  three  or  four  fingers,  the  arrow 
being  held  against  the  first  finger  by  the  thumb. 

The  Ainos  on  the  west  coast  of  Yezo  also  informed  me 


V 


Fig.  40.    Assos. 


that  when  shooting  in  great  haste  the  string  was  clutched 
in  precisely  this  manner.  In  the  use  of  a  bow  of  any 
strength,  the  attrition  of  the  string  on  the  fingers  nuist  be 
very  severe  ;  and  only  a  hand  as  tough,  and  as  thoroughly 
calloused  as  the  paw  of  an  animal,  could  endure  the  fric- 
tion of  the  string  in  such  a  release.  For  convenience  of 
reference  this  form  may  be  referred  to  provisionally  as  the 
Archaic  release. 

In  abas-relief  in  marble  rci)rcscnting  Heraklcs  drawing 
a  bow,  a  figure  of  which  is  given  in  Ra3^et's  Monuments 
de  VArt  Antique,  it  is  rather  curious  that  the  hand  is  rep- 
resented as  clutching  the  string  in  the  vigorous  manner 
just  described.  The  date  of  this  work  is  put  down  as  the 
fourth  or  fifth  century  B.  C.     Doubts  have  been  expressed 


180 


ANCIENT   AND    MODERN   METHODS 


as  to  the  genuineness  of  this  work.  Dr.  Alfred  Emerson 
has  expressed  his  belief  in  the  "American  Journal  of 
Archreology,"  Vol.  i.,  p.  153,  that  the  work  is  a  modern 
fraud.  In  the  following  number  of  the  Journal  Mr. 
Furtwangler  defends  the  work,  but  would  place  it  not 
earlier  than  the  first  century  B.  C.     He  says  it  is  not  ar- 


Fig.  47.    Grecian. 

chaic,  but  archaistic.  Whether  the  work  be  genuine  or 
spurious  I  am  not  competent  to  judge.  I  may  venture  to 
say,  however,  that  the  attitude  of  the  shaft-hand  is  very 
inaccurate.  However  absurd  the  drawing  of  the  hand 
often  is  in  these  early  Greek  releases,  the  artists  have 
rarely  failed  to  adjust  the  arrow  correctly  in  relation  to 


Fig.  48.    Grecian. 

the  bend  of  the  bow  and  the  angle  made  by  the  string  in 
tension.  In  this  bas-relief  of  Heraklcs,  however,  the  at- 
titude of  shooting  is  one  of  which  no  artist  capable  of  mak- 
ing so  robust  and  correct  a  body  and  pose  would  be  guilty, 
and  it  certainly  lends  some  weight  to  the  supposition  of 
Dr.  Emerson  as  to  the  possible  character  of  the  work. 


OF    ARKOW-IIELEASE. 


181 


The  iiccoinpanying  figures  are  interesting  as  showing  the 
conventional  and  even  grotesque  ways  in  which  the  arrow 
release  is  often  represented  on  early  Grecian  vases.  Figs. 
47  and  48  are  copied  from  Weiner  Vorlaye  Blatter^  Series 
D,  Taf.  IX,  XII.  Fig.  47  shows  the  hand  reversed,  with 
the  thumb  below  instead  of  above.  It  is  possible  to  shoot 
an  arrow  in  this  way  but  hardly  probable  that  so  awkward 
and  unnatural  an  attitude  would  be  taken.  This  release 
is  intended  to  represent  the  tertiary  release.  Fig.  48  as 
drawn  is  an  impossible  release,  though  this  release  also 
may  be  intended  to  represent  the  tertiary  release,  the 
thumb  beinir  straiiiiit,  and  the  arrow  beins:  held  between 


Fig.  49.    Grecian.  Fig.  50.    Grecian. 

the  thumb  and  forefinger,  while  the  second  finger,  and  in 
Fig.  48  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  fingers  are  on  the 
string. 

In  Monuments  Inedits.,  Vol.  i.,  Plate  lt.,  is  figured  the 
famous  Chalcidian  or  Achilles  vase,  supposed  to  have  been 
made  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  Here 
the  archer  is  shown  left-handed.  Assuming  the  drawinjr 
to  be  correct,  the  release  represents  the  archaic  form 
(Fig.  49). 

Another  release  figured  in  the  same  volume,  Plate  xx., 
may  be  intended  to  represent  the  tertiary  release  (see 
Fig.  50).     On  Plate  l.,  \^)1.  ii.,  of  the  same  work  is  fig- 


182 


ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   METHODS 


ured  a  Grecian  vase  of  the  fourth  century  B.  C,  on  which 
are  depicted  two  releases  which  are  probably  the  tertiary 
form  (Fig  51).  Ou  Plate  xvrii.  of  the  same  volume  is 
fi^^ured  an  archaic  Etruscan  vase  on  which  a  curious  de- 


[Fig.  51.    Grecian. 

liueation  of  an  archer  is  given.  The  bow-hand  is  so  well 
drawn  that  one  is  almost  inclined  to  imagine  that  some 
mechanical  device  for  releasing  the  arrow  is  intended  by 
the  curious  representation  of  the  shaft-hand  (Fig.  52). 
Three  other  curious  releases  are  shown  in  Figs.  53,  54  and 


Fig.  52.    Etruscan. 

55,  the  latter  copied  from  a  Greek  vase  (black  figures  on 
red)  supposed  to  be  of  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  All  these, 
though  incorrectly  represented,  are  probably  intended  for 
the  tertiary  release.  Fig.  56  is  copied  from  a  figure  given 
in  Auserleseue  Vaserbilder,  representing  a  Greek  vase  of 


OF    ARROW-RELEASE. 


183 


the  sixth  century  B.  C  lu  this  the  archer's  hand  most 
certainly  suggests  the  Mongolian  release.  It  is  true  the 
thumb  is  not  bent  on  the  string,  but  it  is  bent  with  the 
second  and  presumably  the  tirst  linger  pressing  against  it. 
Concerning  ancient  Persian  releases,  only  two  have  fallen 


Fig.  63.    Grecian. 


Fig  54.    Grecian  (bas-relief). 


under  my  notice.  One  is  preserved  on  a  silver  cup  of  the 
Sassanid  Dynasty,  fifth  century  B.  C.  This  is  figured  m 
Monuments  Inedits.,  Vol.  iii.,  Plate  51.  In  this  figure 
the  ])ow  is  a  typical  ]\Ianchu.  The  release  is  unquestion- 
ably a  variety  of  the  INIongolian  release,  the  second  and 


Fig.  55.    Grecian. 


Fig.  30.    Grecian. 


third  fingers  aiding  the  thumb,  while  the  index  finger  is 
straight  and  inactive.  The  hand  has  attached  to  it  a 
curious  gear  of  leather,  apparently  held  by  a  band  al)out 
the  wrist.     Whether  this 


184  ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   METHODS 

guard  similar  to  that  used  by  the  Japanese  it  is  difficult 
to  determine.    (Fig.   57.) 

In  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal, 
Vol.  VII.,  Part  I.,  p.  258,  1883,  is  a  communication  from 
Major  General  A.  Cunningham,  entitled  "Relics  from 
Ancient  Persia  in  Gold,  Silver,  and  Copper."  These  ob- 
jects were  found  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Oxus.  Judg- 
ing from  the  coins,  the  author  regards  the  deposit  as  having 
been  made  not  later  than  180  or  200  years  B.  C.  Among 
the  relics  was  a  stone  cylinder,  upon  which  were  represented 
two  Persian  soldiers  capturing  two  Scythians.  The  rep- 
resentations of  the  hands  are  too  imperfect  for  one  to 
judge  with  any  precision  of  the  character  of  the  release  in- 


tended. The  attitude  of  the  hand  in  every  case,  however, 
suggests  the  Mongolian  release.  The  bow  is  short,  and 
of  a  form  similar  to  the  Manchu  bow  of  to-day.  It  is  in- 
teresting to  notice  that  the  Scythians  are  represented  as 
shooting  left-handed,  and  in  this  connection  to  recall  the 
advice  which  Plato  gives  in  regard  to  archery, — that  both 
hands  should  be  taught  to  draw  the  bow,  adding  that  the 
Scythians  draw  the  bow  with  either  hand. 

In  regard  to  Chinese  archery  in  ancient  times,  the  clas- 
sics of  China  abound  in  allusions  to  archery,  and  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  release  as  practiced  to-day  is 
identical  with  the  release  practiced  three  thousand  years 


OF   ARROW-RELEASE.  185 

airo.  The  Analects  of  Confucius,  the  Doctrine  of  the 
^Slcan,  and  other  ancient  writings  bear  ample  testimony  to 
the  hiirh  esteem  in  which  this  manly  art  was  held. 

In  the  Shi  King,  or  book  of  ancient  Chinese  poetry 
(translation  of  Legge) ,  the  following  allusions  refer  to  the 
use  of  the  thumb-ring,  which  was  also  called  a  thimble, 
and  also  apdn  chi,  or  finger  regulator. 

"  "With  archer's  thimble  at  his  girdle  hung." 

And  again, — 

"  Each  right  thumb  wore  the  metal  guard." 

Concerning   Japanese  archery  methods   in  past  times, 


Fig.  53.    Japanese. 

what  little  evidence  we  have  on  the  sul)ject  points  to  a 
Mongolian  form  of  release.  The  archers  have  always 
formed  a  favorite  study  for  the  Japanese  artist,  and  many 
details  of  the  bow  and  arrow  and  attitudes  of  the  archer 
may  be  got  from  old  paintings  and  drawings.  The  rep- 
resentations of  the  hand  in  shooting,  though  often  drawn 
conventionally,  are  easily  interpreted  as  releasing  the  ar- 
row after  the  Mongolian  method.  Fig.  58  is  copied  from 
a  vigorous  drawing,  showing  the  attitude  of  the  shaft- 
hand  in  the  attitude  of  release.  In  the  Shinto  temple  at 
jNliyajima  is  a  picture  over  two  hundred  years  old,  in 
which  the  archer's  hand  is  shown  in  the  attitude  of  the 

ESSKX    INST.    I5ULLI.11N,    VOL.    XVII  'Ji 


18G  ANCIENT    AND    MODERN    METHODS 

]\Iongolian  release.  A  picture  of  Tanniu,  painted  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  and  supposed  to  be  a  copy 
of  a  Chinese  subject  six  or  seven  hundred  years  old,  shows 
plainly  the  Mongolian  release.  In  a  picture  by  Keion, 
seven  hundred  years  old,  the  archer  is  represented  in  the 
act  of  wetting  with  his  tongue  the  tips  of  the  first  two 
fingers  of  his  hand  ;  and  this  certainly  suggests  the  Japa- 
nese form  of  the  Mongolian  release. 

Among  the  Emperor's  treasures  at  Nara  is  a  silver  ves- 
sel supposed  to  be  of  the  time  of  Tempei  Jingo  (765  A. 
D.),  upon  which  is  depicted  a  hunting-scene.  Here  the 
release,  if  correctly  depicted,  suggests  the  Mediterranean 
form.  The  bow  is  Mongoloid.  The  vessel  is  probably 
Persian  :  it  is  certainly  not  Japanese.  The  earliest  allu- 
sions to  Japanese  archery  are  contained  in  "Kojiki,  or 
Records  of  Ancient  Matters,"  of  which  its  translator,  Mr. 
Basil  Hall  Chamberlain,  says  :  "  It  is  the  earliest  authentic 
literary  product  of  that  large  division  of  the  human  race 
which  has  been  variously  denominated  Turanian,  Scythian, 
and  Altaic,  and  even  precedes  by  at  least  a  century  the 
most  ancient  extant  literary  compositions  of  non- Aryan 
India."  These- records  take  us  back  without  question  to 
the  7th  century  of  our  era.  In  this  work  allusion  is  made 
to  the  heavenly  feathered  arroio,  to  the  vegetable  ivax-tree 
bow  and  deer  boiv,  and  also  to  the  elboio  pad.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  understand  the  purpose  of  the  elbow  pad  in  arch- 
ery, assuming  the  same  practice  of  the  bow  in  ancient 
times  as  in  present  Japanese  methods.  It  is  difficult  to 
believe  that  a  pad  on  the  elbow  was  needed  to  protect 
that  part  from  the  feeble  impact  of  the  string.  If  the 
pad  WHS  a  sort  of  arm-guard  surrounding  the  elbow,  then 
one  might  surmise  the  use  of  a  highly  strung  bow  of  ]Mon- 
golian  form  held  firmly  and  not  permitted  to  rotate  as  in 
the  Japanese  style. 


OF    ARROW-RELEASE.  187 

The  peculiar  twist  given  the  l)ow  by  the  Japanese 
archer  is,  so  for  as  I  know,  unique  in  archery  practice. 
In  Siani,  a  bow  of  curious  construction  is  used  for  throw- 
ing clay  balls.  The  l)all  is  held  in  a  nettinir,  the  string 
of  the  bow  is  double,  the  bow-hand  has  the  thumb  braced 
vertically  against  the  inside  of  the  bow,  so  that  it  may 
not  interfere  with  the  flight  of  the  ball.  A  peculiar  twist 
is  given  the  bow,  so  that  the  ball  passes  free  from  it. 

I  know  of  no  record  to  show  that  the  Japanese  ever 
used  a  bow  of  this  nature ;  in  the  Emperor's  treasure- 
house  at  Nara,  however,  is  preserved  a  curious  bow  nearly 
a  thousand  years  old,  and  this  is  undoubtedly  a  bow  used 
for  throwing  clay  or  stone  balls.  Instead  of  a  netting  to 
hold  the  ball  there  is  a  perforated  leathern  piece.  This 
piece  is  adjusted  to  the  cord  a  third  way  down  the  bow, 
at  al)out  the  point  from  which  the  Japanese  archer  dis- 
charges the  arrow.  AA'hether  the  Japanese  archer  ac- 
quired ithis  curious  twirl  of  the  bow  to  protect  the  feathers 
from  rubbing  against  its  side,  or  to  escape  the  painful  im- 
pact of  the  string,  or,  which  is  not  improbable,  acquired 
this  novel  twist  from  using  the  Iwll-throwing  bow  it  is 
difficult  to  determine. 

In  regard  to  the  release  practiced  by  the  various  tril)es 
in  India,  I  have  no  information. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  the  lamented  James  Fergus- 
son,  I  was  permitted  to  examine  his  large  collection  of 
photographs  of  Indian  Temples ;  and  in  a  brief  examina- 
tion of  these  pictures  I  discovered  a  few  releases  in  the 
sculptures.  In  the  Peroor  Temple  near  Coimbatore,  an 
eight-armed  God  is  represented  as  holding  upright,  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  an 
arrow.  It  is  impossible  to  conjecture  the  form  of  release 
in  this  attitude  ;  though,  if  the  aiTow  were  carried  to  the 
string  in  this  position,  the  Mediterranean  release  would 
be  suggested. 


188  ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   METHODS 

On  the  southwest  face  of  the  temple  of  Halabeed,  My- 
sore, an  archer  is  shown  with  the  arrow  already  released  ; 
the  attitude  of  the  hand,  however,  suggests  the  Mediter- 
ranean form.  In  the  Valconda,  a  small,  ruined  temple 
near  Calamapoor,  archers  are  shown  having  the  tips  of  all 
the  fingers  on  the  string,  in  the  same  position  as  shown  in 
the  later  Assyrian  release ;  and  this  would  indicate  the 
secondary  release. 

These  data  are  altogether  too  few  and  vague  to  deter- 
mine the  form  or  forms  of  release  of  these  people. 

Concerning  ancient  methods  of  archery  in  America,  l)ut 
little  can  be  said.  Prol)ably  the  most  reliable  data  are  to 
be  found  in  the  few  Mexican  records  which  survived  the 
shocking  desecration  by  the  Catholic  Church  at  the  time 
of  the  Conquest.^ 

An  examination  of  the  plates  of  Kingsborough's" Mexi- 
can Antiquities"  reveals  a  number  of  hunters  and  warriors 
armed  with  bows  and  arrows.  The  figures  at  best  are 
somewhat  rudely  drawn  ;  those  that  are  in  action  have  the 
shaft-hand  so  poorly  drawn  that  in  most  cases  it  is  difii- 
cult  to  make  out  the  release.  In  the  few  drawings  in 
which  the  attitude  of  the  shaft-hand  is  clearly  shown,  the 
tertiary  release  is  probably  indicated. 

To  Mrs.  Zelia  Nuttall  Pinart  I  am  indel)ted  for  tracings 
of  archers  from  the  Ailas  Dnran,  Plate  i.,  and  Alap2')e 
Quinatzin  i,  Plate  iv.  These,  though  quite  as  ambiguous 
as  those  to  be  found  in  Kingsborough's,  can  only  l)e  inter* 
preted  as  representing  the  tertiary  release.     In  the  latter 

1  The  fiercely  intolerant  ppirit  of  the  representatives  of  the  church  is  well  il- 
lustrated by  the  language  of  a  letter  written  by  Zuniarraga,  the  chief  inquisitor  of 
Mexico,  to  the  Franciscan  chapter  at  Tolosa,  in  January,  1531.  The  words  are 
as  follows  :  "Very  reverend  Father,  be  it  known  to  you  that  we  are  very  busy  in  the 
work  of  converting  the  heatlien;  of  Mhoni.  by  the  grace  of  God,  upwards  of  one 
million  have  been  baptized  at  the  hands  of  the  brethren  of  the  order  of  our  Seraphic 
Father,  Saint  Francis;  live  hundred  temples  have  been  levelled  to  the  ground,  and 
more  than  twenty  thousanil  ligures  of  tlic  devils  they  worshipped  have  been  broken 
to  pieces  and  hun\QiX."—Examphi  of  Iconocliism  by  the  Conqiierors  of  Mexico,  by 
W.  U.  Holmes. 


OF   ARKOW'-RELEASE.  189 

work,  Plates  00  and  03  of  Vol.  ii.  show  apparently  a 
Mediterranean  release ;  and  were  there  no  other  reasons 
for  believing  that  these  people  practiced  the  tertiary  re- 
lease, it  might  be  assumed  that  the  Mediterranean  release 
was  also  practiced.  The  reasons  are,  first,  that  in  every 
case  the  arrow  is  pulled  to  the  breast  or  even  lower ; 
and,  second,  and  of  more  importance,  in  every  instance 
when  the  archer  is  shown  with  the  right  hand  toward  the 
observer,  the  arrow  is  below  the  bow-hand,  whereas  in 
every  case  when  the  archer  is  shown  with  the  left  hand 
towards  the  observer,  the  arrow  is  above  the  bow-hand. 
The  bow  is  represented  vertically,  as  in  all  rude  and  early 
figures  ;  but  the  artist,  not  being  able  to  represent  the  bow 
foreshortened  and  horizontal,  has  unconsciously  indicated 
the  attitude  of  the  tertiary  release  l)y  preserving  the  atti- 
tude of  the  bow  in  relation  to  the  hand. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Mediterranean  release  has  two 
forms,  in  one  of  which  three  fingers  are  brought  into 
action ;  in  the  other  only  two  fingers  are  so  used.  Eng- 
lish authorities  say  that  if  one  can  accustom  himself  to 
draw  the  bow  with  two  fingers,  a  better  release  is  the  re- 
sult. AVhile  the  difference  between  these  two  forms  seems 
slight,  as  indeed  it  is,  yet  the  practice  to-day  among  Eu- 
ropean and  American  archers  is  to  draw  with  three  fin- 
gers. It  was  evidently  not  so  universally  the  form  in 
Europe  a  few  centuries  ago;  for  at  this  time,  judging 
from  the  few  examples  we  have  seen,  the  archers  are  al- 
most always  depicted  drawing  with  two  fingers.  It  is 
true,  the  directions  in  the  works  of  these  early  times  as 
well  as  allusions  to  the  subject  state  that  three  fingers  on 
the  string  is  the  proper  method  of  release.  Yet  the  few 
sculptures,  ivory  carvings,  etchings,  manuscripts,  draw- 
ings, etc.,  to  which  we  have  had  access,  almost  invariably 
depict  the  two-fingered  release. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  kncjw  whether  the  bow  has 


100  ANCIENT    AND   MODERN   METHODS 

become  stifFer  in  later  years,  requiring  three  fingers  to  bend 
it,  or  whether  (as  more  probable)  the  fingers  have  become 
weaker,  thus  requiring  more  fingers  to  do  the  worlv. 

It  is  interesting  to  find  in  these  early  works  a  uni- 
formity in  the  method  of  release  employed,  and  that  the 
Saxon,  Norman,  Fleming,  French,  English,  Scandinavian, 
and  Italian  practiced  essentially  the  same  release. 

Hansard  says  (see  the  "Book  of  Archery,"  p.  77),  "All 
representations  of  archers  which  occur  in  illuminated 
manuscripts  of  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth 
centuries  —  and  I  have  examined  some  scores  of  them  — 
identify  the  ancient  with  the  modern  practice.  The  pen- 
and-ink  drawings  of  John  de  Rous,  a  bowman  as  well  as 
contemporary  biographer  of  that  Earl  of  Warwick  who, 
during  the  Wars  of  the  Red  and  White  Roses,  was  the 
setter  up  and  destroyer  of  many  kings,  will  furnish 
amusement  and  information  to  the  curious.  The  neces- 
sary slight  inclination  of  the  head  and  neck  — '  this  laying 
of  the  l)ody  in  the  bow,'  the  drawing  with  two  and  with 
three  fingers — are  there  correctly  delineated.  They 
may  be  lound  among  the  manuscripts  in  the  British 
Museum." 

According  to  Hansard,  Ascham  ordered  the  shooting- 
glove  to  be  made  with  three  fingers,  "and  when  Henry 
the  Fifth  harangued  his  troops  previous  to  the  battle  of 
Agincourt,  he  endeavoured  to  exasperate  their  minds  by 
dwelling  on  the  cruelties  in  store  for  them.  Addressing 
his  archers,  he  said  the  French  soldiers  had  sworn  to  am- 
putate their  three  first  fingers,  so  that  they  should  never 
more  be  able  to  slay  man  or  horse. "^ 


>  Meyiick,  in  his  famous  work  on  "Ancient  Aimoni"  (Vol.  I.,  p.  9),  in  speaking  of 
the  orijrin  of  the  bow  in  England,  saj-s  :  "  The  bow  as  a  weai>on  of  war  was  cer- 
tainly intiodm^ed  by  tlie  Xoinians;  tlic  Saxons,  like  the  Taheite  at  the  present 
day,  used  it  merely  for  killing  birds.  On  this  account,  in  the  speech  which  Henry 
of  fluntington  puts  into  the  Conqueror's  mouth  before  the  battle,  he  makes  him 
6tiguiati:«e  the  Saxon  as  '  a  nation  uot  even  having  arrows.' " 


OF    ArvKOW-RELEASE.  191 

The  earliest  figure  I  have  met  with,  illustrating  archery 
in  England,  was  copied  from  the  Saxon  manuscripts  in 
the  Cotton  Library.  These  manuscripts  are  of  the 
eighth  century.  If  the  wood-cut  contained  in  Strutt's 
"  Sports  and  Pastimes  "  is  correct,  then  tlie  attitude  of  the 
hands  shows  distinctly  the  three-fingered  Mediterranean 
release.  The  bow  is  short  and  thick,  and  has  a  double 
curve,  something  like  the  Roman  bow,  from  which  indeed 
it  might  naturally  have  been  derived.^ 

The  following  examples  have  come  under  my  notice  in 
a  very  hasty  and  imperfect  survey  of  the  field,  principally 
derived  from  books,  engravings,  and  ivory  carvings,  re- 
productions, etc.,  in  museums. 

The  celebrated  Bayeux  Tapestry,  a  copy  of  which 
may  be  seen  at  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  represents 
the  archers  in  the  attitude  of  the  two-fingered  Mediterra- 
nean release,  though  a  few  are  shown  using  three  fingers. 
Also  the  following  show  the  two-fingered  form  of  the  ]Med- 
iterranean  release  without  exception  :  a  fresco  in  Kumla 
Church,  Vestmanland  Co.,  Sweden,  1492  :  a  sculptured 
figure  in  Avood  liy  Alljrecht  Durer,  figured  in  Som- 
merard's  "Arts  of  the  Middle  Ages"  (5th  Series,  Plate 
XXVII.),  also  in  the  same  work  (10th  Series,  Plate  xxv.)  ; 
a  chess  piece  in  iv^ory  supposed  to  be  of  the  tenth  or 
eleventh  century;  in  Meyrick's  "Ancient  Armour"  (Plate 
VIII.,  Vol.  I.),  a  figure  of  a  Norman  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, on  the  doorway  of  the  Cathedral  of  Amiens,  a 
cast  of  Avhich  may  be  seen  at  the  Trt)cedero  Museum ; 
and,  finally,  in  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  are  a 
number  of  Florentine  engravings  of  the  early  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  these  in  every  case  represent  in  the 


>  It  may  be  well  to  state  licre  that  opportunity  has  not  pcrmittdl  an  examina- 
tion of  sources  for  early  Uo  nan  releases.  On  Tiajan'd  coluiuu  a  few  releases 
are  ebown,  and  these  arc  of  the  Mcditurraneau  form. 


192  ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   METHODS 

clciircst  manner  the  two-fingered  variety  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean release.  A  curious  form  of  the  Mediterranean 
release  is  shown  on  tlie  door  of  the  Church  of  the  Made- 
leine at  Vezelay,  a  cast  of  which  is  to  be  seen  at  Troce- 
dero  Museum.  In  this  release  the  archer  has  all  four 
lingers  on  the  string,  the  arrow  being  held  between  the 
second  and  third  fingers.  I  had  supposed  that  this  was  a 
mistake  of  the  artist,  as  indeed  it  may  have  been,  but  Col. 
James  Stevenson,  in  describing  to  me  the  methods  of  re- 
lease among  the  Navajo  Indians  of  North  America,  illus- 
trated a  release  identical  with  this  four-fingered  variety. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  all  the  re- 
leases thus  far  described  have  been  practiced  from  the 
earliest  historic  times.  Each  release  with  the  exception 
of  the  primary  release,  which  admits  of  no  variation,  has 
one  or  more  varieties.  The  secondary  release  may  have 
the  second  finger,  or  the  second  and  third  fingers  on  the 
string.  Some  forms  of  this  release  in  India  and  Assyria 
show  all  the  fingers  on  the  string  ;  it  is  hardly  probable, 
however,  that  these  are  correctly  represented.  The  terti- 
ary release  may  have  the  first  and  second,  or  the  first, 
second,  and  third  fingers  on  the  string.  The  Mediterranean 
release  may  be  effected  with  two  or  three  fingers,  and  in 
two  instances  all  the  fingers,  on  the  string.  The  Mongolian 
release  may  have  the  assistance  onl}'  of  the  first  finger  as  in 
the  Chinese  and  Manchu,  or  the  first  and  second  fingers  as 
in  the  Korean  and  Japanese,  —  or,  if  rightly  interpreted, 
the  early  Persian  form,  with  the  second  and  third  only 
aiding  the  thumb  ;  and  if  the  Mongolian  release  described 
on  page  161  be  an  established  form,  then  we  have  here  a 
mixture  of  Mongolian  and  secondary. 

The  persistence  of  a  release  in  a  people  is  well  illustrated 
in  the  case  of  the  Aino.      For  centuries  the  Ainos  have 


OF    ARROW-RELEASE.  193 

buttled  with  the  Japanese,  and  iiiu.st  have  been  mindful  of 
the  superior  archery  of  their  enemies  ;  indeed  on  all  hands, 
with  the  exception  possibly  of  the  Kamtschadals  at  the 
north,  the  Ainoshave  been  surrounded  by  races  practicing 
the  Monjiolian  release,  and  yet  have  adhered  to  their 
primitive  methods  of  shooting. 

The  releases  vary  in  their  efficiency  and  strength.  The 
two  strongest  and  perhaps  e(jually  powerful  releases  are 
the  Mediterranean  and  Mongolian  ;  and  it  is  interesting  to 
note  the  fact  that  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  human 
family  who  can  claim  a  history,  and  who  have  been  all 
dominant  in  the  affairs  of  mankind,  are  the  Mediterranean 
nations  and  the  Mongolians.  For  three  or  four  thousand 
years,  at  least,  each  stock  has  had  its  peculiar  arrow-re- 
lease, and  this  has  persisted  through  all  the  mutations  of 
time  to  the  present  day.  Language,  manners,  customs, 
religions  have  in  the  course  of  centuries  widely  separated 
these  two  great  divisions  into  nations.  Side  by  side  they 
have  lived ;  devastating  wars  and  wars  of  conquest  have 
marked  their  contact ;  and  yet  the  apparently  trivial  and 
simple  act  of  releasing  the  arrow  from  the  bow  has  re- 
mained unchanged.  At  the  present  moment  the  European 
and  Asiatic  archer,  shooting  now  only  for  sport,  practice 
each  the  release  which  characterized  their  remote  ancestors. 

Want  of  material  will  prevent  more  than  a  passing  ref- 
erence to  a  peculiar  practice  of  archery  which  iNIoselcy 
alludes  to  as  pedestrial  archery.  It  is  a  matter  of  com- 
mon record  that  in  widely  separated  parts  of  the  world,  as 
South  America,  China,  and  Africa,  the  archer  uses  his  feet 
in  drawing  the  bow.  In  an  "  Kssay  of  Archery"  by  Walter 
Michael  Moseley,  1792,  the  writer  says:  "It  is  recorded 
l)y  ancient  writers  that  the  Ethiopians  draw  the  bow  with 
the  feet;"  and  again,  Xenophon  speaking  of  the  Caducians 
says :  "  They  had  bows  which  were  three  cubits  long,  and 

KSSKX    INST.    UUI.LKTIN,    VOL.    XVU  25 


194  ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   METHODS 

arrows  two  cubits.  When  they  niMtle  use  of  these  weapons, 
they  placed  their  left  foot  on  the  bottom  of  the  how,  and 
by  that  method  they  drove  their  arrows  with  great  vio- 
lence,"   etc. 

It  is  recorded  of  the  Arabians  that  they  used  their  bows 
in  the  manner  above  alluded  to,  by  the  help  of  the  foot. 
The  release  in  these  cases  must  ho.  of  a  most  vigorous 
character ;  and  when  in  some  accounts  the  archer  is  rep- 
resented as  resting  on  his  back,  with  both  feet  bracing 
against  the  bow,  the  string  is  probably  clutched  with  both 
hands,  after  the  manner  I  have  provisionally  called  the 
archaic  release. 

In  the  following  classified  list  of  releases  and  the  peo- 
ple who  practice  them,  it  is  shown  in  a  general  way  that  the 
primary,  secondary,  and  tertiary  releases  are  practiced  by 
savage  races  to-day,  as  well  as  by  certain  civilized  races  of 
ancieut  times ;  while  the  Mediterranean  and  Mongolian  re- 
leases, though  originating  early  in  time,  have  always  char- 
acterized the  civilized  and  dominant  races.  The  exceptions 
to  this  generalization  are  curious  :  the  Little  Andaman 
islanders  practicing  the  Mediterranean  release,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Groat  Andaman  Island  practicing  the 
tertiary  release,  are  an  illustration.  The  fact  that  the  vari- 
ous groups  of  Eskimo  practicing  the  Mediterranean  release, 
and  so  far  as  I  know  being  the  only  people  who  have  de- 
signed a  distinct  form  of  arrow  for  this  method,  is  exceed- 
ingly curious.  Mr.  John  Murdock,  who  is  engaged  in  a 
careful  study  of  the  Eskimo,  has  expressed  to  me  a  sur- 
mise that  certain  arts  of  the  Eskimo  may  have  been  derived 
from  Greenland  through  Scandinavian  colonists ;  and  this 
might  explain  the  anomal}-. 

It  may  be  shown  that  in  tribes  in  which  the  bow  is  but 
little  used,  and  then  only  for  small  birds  and  game,  the 
release  is  weak  or  irregular.  The  data,  however,  are  alto- 
gether too  few  to  establish  any  conclusions  respecting  this. 


OF    AKROW-RELEASE. 


195 


CLASSIFIED  LIST  OF  TRIBES   AND   NATIONS 
REFERRED  TO  IN  THIS  PAPER. 


PunrARY  uia.i'.vsK. 


in:CENT. 

Savcifje. 

Ainos  of  Yezo.     . 
Demorara,  S.  A.      . 
Navajo,  N.  A.       . 
Chippewa,  N.  A. 
Micmac,  Canada. 
Penobscot,  N.  A.     . 
Ute,  N.  A.  ? 

Skcondaky  kelkase. 

Savage. 

Ottawa,  N.  A. 

Ziini,  N.  A.      _    . 

Chiiipewa,  N.  A.      . 
Tertlvry  release. 

Savage. 

Omaha,  N.  A.      . 

Sioux,  N.  A.    . 

Arapahoes,  N.  A. 

Cheyennes,  N.  A.     • 

Assiniboiiis,  N.  A. 

Comanclics,  N.  A.    . 

Crows,  N.  A.       . 

Bhickfeet. 

Navajos,  N.  A.     . 

Great  Andaman  Itilauder 
Civilized. 

Siamese 

Mediteuranean  release. 
Civilized. 

European  Nations.  ] 

Savage. 

Point  Barrow  Eskimo. 
Cumberland  Sound  Esiiimo. 
East  Cape  Siberia  Esiiimo. 
Little  Andaman  Islander. 


observed. 

pul)lished. 

reported. 


observed, 
photograph. 


observed, 
reported. 


observed, 
reported. 


published, 
observed. 


observed 
and  published. 


reported, 
published. 


196  ANCIENT   AND   MODERN   METHODS 


Mongolian  uelkask. 


Civilized. 

Mancliu  soldier,  China.       .        .  observed. 

Cantonese,  China.            ,        .  " 

Korean " 

Japanese.         ....  " 

Turks. published. 

Persians.           ....  '• 


Irrkgular  release. 


Temiangs,  Sumatra.  .        .      observed. 

ANCIENT. 


Primary  release. 

Civilized. 

Assyrian,  early. 

Egyptian. 

Grecian? 

Secondary  release. 

Civilized. 

Assyrian,  later. 

India? 
Tertiary  release. 

Civilized. 

Egyptian. 

Grecian. 

Mexican? 

Mediterranean  release. 

Civilized. 

Assyrian,  later. 

Egyptian,  early. 

Arabian. 

Indian. 

Eonian. 
Middle  Ages, 

English. 

French. 

Norman. 

Fleming. 

Saxon. 

Swede. 

Florentine. 


OF    ARROW-RELEASE.  11)7 


Mongolian  release. 

Civilized. 

Cliinese. 
Scythian. 
Persian. 
Egyptian. 
Greek.  ? 


AUCUAIC   KELEASE? 


Civilized. 

Ancient  Greek. 


It  is  hardl}'  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  importance 
of  a  more  systematic  study  of  the  methods  of  archery  and 
paraphernalia  of  the  archers  than  has  yet  been  done.  I 
would  point  out  the  necessity  of  observing  greater  care  in 
copying  drawings,  rock-inscriptions,  frescos,  bas-reliefs, 
etc.,  as  to  the  minor  details, —  such  as  the  position  of 
the  hand,  the  shape  and  character  of  the  ends  of  the  bow 
and  arrow,  and  the  shape  of  the  feathers  ;  also  the  possi- 
bility and  importance  of  identifying  among  ancient  ol)jects 
and  drawings  arm-guards,  thumb-rings,  arrow-rests,  etc. 
Travellers  and  explorers  ought  also  not  only  to  observe 
the  simple  fact  that  such  and  such  people  use  bows  and 
arrows,  but  they  should  accurately  record,  (1)  the  atti- 
tude of  the  shaft  hand;  (2)  whether  the  boAV  is  held 
vertically  or  horizontally;  (3)  whether  the  arrow  is  to 
the  right  or  to  the  left  of  the  bow  vertical ;  and  (4),  of 
which  no  comment  has  been  made  in  this  paper,  whether 
extra  arrows  are  held  in  the  bow-hand  or  shaft-hand.  The 
method  of  bracing  the  bow  is  of  importance  also. 

The  remarkable  persistence  of  certain  forms  of  arrow- 
release  among  various  nations  leads  me  to  believe,  that,  in 
identifying  the  affinities  of  past  races,  the  method  of  using 
the  bow  may  form  another  point  in  establishing  or  dis- 
proving relationships.  By  knowing  with  more  certainty 
the  character  and  limitation  of  the  forms  of  arrow-release, 


198    ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  METHODS  OF  ARROW-RELEASE. 

another  clew  may  be  got  as  to  the  date  and  nature  of  frag- 
ments of  sculpture  representing  the  hand.  The  peculiar 
attitude  of  the  archer  might  lead  to  the  interpretation  of 
armless  statues. 

The  author  would  be  very  grateful  for  any  information 
regarding  the  methods  of  arrow-release  of  tribes  and  peo- 
ples. Particularly  would  he  desire  the  release  as  practiced 
by  the  Veddahs  of  Ceylon,  the  Ilill  tribes  of  India,  the 
tribes  of  Africa,  South  America,  and  especially  the  Fue- 
gans.  Indeed,  any  information  regarding  the  methods 
of  arrow-release  in  any  part  of  the  world  would  be  accept- 
able. Such  material  in  the  shape  of  descriptions,  photo- 
graphs, drawings,  and  if  possil)le  specimens  of  bows  and 
arrows,  may  be  sent  to  the  author,  Peabody  Academy  of 
Science,  Salem,  Mass.,  U.S.A.,  for  which  full  credit  will 
be  given  in  a  future  publication  on  this  subject. 

In  addition  to  those  already  mentioned  in  these  pages 
to  whom  the  author  is  under  obligations,  he  would  men- 
tion Gen.  Charles  A.  Loring,  Mr.  Edward  Robinson,  Prof. 
Otis  T.  Mason,  Rev.  W.  C.  Winslow,  Mr.  T.  F.  Hunt, 
Dr.  W.  S.  Bigelow,  Prof.  John  Robinson,  Mr.  S.  R. 
Koeller,  and  Prof.  E.  F.  Fenollosa,  who  have  in  various 
ways  rendered  him  kind  assistance. 


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