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Bulletin

OF THE

Imperial Instit

,-'::iA

Edited by the Director

VOL. VII
1909

PUBLISHED IN QUARTERLY NUMBERS — TO BE OBTAINED FROM THE FOLLOWING AGENTS

London .

Australia and
New Zealand

Barbados . .
British Guiana
Ceylon . . .
East Africa

Protectorate
Hong Kong . .
India . . .

Malta . . .

JVatal . . .
South Africa .
Straits Settle-
ments . . .
Trinidad

Messrs. Eyre & Spottisvvoode, Ltd., East Harding Street, Fleet Street,

E.G., and 2, Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.
Messrs. G. Street & Go., Ltd., 30, Gornhill, E.G.
The Imperial Institute, South Kensington, S.W,
Messrs. Gordon & Gotch, Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, Perth, Welling-
ton, Auckland, Ghristchurch, Launceston, etc.
The Government Printer, Sydney, New South Wales.
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BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND
BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Vol. VII, 1909

CONTENTS

PAGE

The Imperial Institute — General Statement i

Scientific and Technical Department —

Recent Investigations —

Rubber of Sapium Jenmani from British Guiana ... ... i

Balata from British Guiana ... ... ... ... ... 7

Fibres from India ... ... ... ... ... ... 8

Cotton from the Gold Coast ... ... ... ... ... 14

Timbers from the Sudan ... ... ... ... ... 20

Some African Food Grains ... ... ... ... ... 145

Cotton from Southern and Northern Nigeria ... ... 154

Sisal Hemp from the East Africa, Uganda, and Nyasaland

Protectorates ... ... ... ... ... ... 160

Mauritius Hemp and " Likanga " fibre from Nyasaland ... 162

Rubber from Southern India ... ... ... ... ... 163

Recent discoveries of Graphite in British African Colonies... 166

Rubbers from Southern Nigeria 255

Rubber of i^V^^i" Fi?^^/// from the Gambia ... ... ... 260

" Vahea " Rubber from Seychelles ... ... ... ... 262

Goats' Hair and Mohair from Uganda ... ... ... 263

Tobaccos from Nyasaland ... ... . . . ' ' ' .V. ... 266

*' Ebony" from the East Africa Protectorate ... ... 269

Economic Products from Fiji ... ... ... ... 270

Chromite Ore from the Transvaal j;:rp^A.ji:o" ... ... 277

Laterites from the Central Provinces of India ... ... 278

Investigations in connection with the African Palm Oil

Industry 357

General Notices respecting Economic Products and their
Development — /"

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland ... ... ... 23

Indian Lac Industry ... ... ... ... ... ... 63

Utilisation of Waste Wood 73

Preparation of Mica Powder ... 80

Papua and its Economic Resources ... ... ... ... 84

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

PAGE

Occurrence and Utilisation of Tungsten Ores. Parts I

and II ... 170, 285

Peppermint Oil ... ^ 184

The Tussur Silkworm in India ... ... ... ... 193

Cocoa Cultivation in German Colonies ... ... ... 198

Iron Ores of the Crown Colonies and Protectorates of the
British Empire ... ... ... ... ... ... 295

Cultivation and Utilisation of the Soy Bean 308

Agricultural Work in Nyasaland ... ... ... ... 314

Recent Developments in the Seychelles ... ... ... 394

Vanadium ; its Occurrence, Preparation and Uses ... ... 401

General Notes —

Rubber Cultivation in Malaya, 91 ; Cotton Ordinances of the
Uganda and East Africa Protectorates, 92 ; Senecio latifolius
from Cape Colony, 93 ; The Constituents of East Indian Satin-
wood, 93 ; Sponges from Bermuda, 94 ; Soy Beans, 95 ; Utilisation
of Para Rubber Seed, 95 ; New Series of Selected Reports from
the Imperial Institute, 200 ; Report on the Work of the Imperial
Institute, 1908, 200; Para Rubber in Southern Nigeria, 200;
Silk Industry of Ceylon, 202 ; Agricultural Experiments in
Portuguese East Africa, 203 ; Sansevieria Tow from Sierra
Leone, 205 ; Sansevieria Fibre from the Sudan, 205 ; Synthetic
Rubber, 318; Agricultural Show in Southern Nigeria, 319;
Indigo from Nigeria, 319; Ylang-ylang Oil in the Philippines
320; The Pearl Fisheries of Mergui, Burma, 321 ; Carnotite
from South Australia, 322; Mineral Survey of Nyasaland, 323;
Mineral Survey of Northern Nigeria, 409 ; International Con-
gress of Tropical Agriculture and Colonial Development, 409 ;
Vegetable Waxes from Mexico, 410.

Eecent Reports from Agricultural and Technical Departments

in the Colonies and India

... 96, 205, 323,412

General Colonial and Indian Publications

... 119, 234, 346, 441

Notices of Recent Literature-

New Books

... 122, 238, 351, 444

New Journals

139, 248, 454

Library —

Recent Additions 140, 249, 353, 454

Index to Vol. VII ix-xvi

THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

OF THE

UNITED KINGDOM, THE COLONIES AND INDIA

The Imperial Institute was erected at South Kensington as
the National Memorial of the Jubilee of Queen Victoria, by
whom it was opened in May 1893.

The principal object of the Institute is to promote the utilisa-
tion of the commercial and industrial resources of the Empire
by arranging- comprehensive exhibitions of natural products,
especially of the Colonies and India, and providing for their
investigation and for the collection and dissemination of scientific,
technical and commercial information relating to them.

Until the end of 1902 the Imperial Institute was managed by
a Governing Body, of which H.R.H. the Prince of Wales (now
H.M. the King) was President, and an Executive Council,
including representatives of the Indian Empire and of all the
British Colonies and Dependencies. In 1900 the building
became the property of H.M. Government, by whom the
western portion and galleries were leased to the Governing Body
of the Imperial Institute, the greater part of the eastern and
central portions being assigned, subject to rights of usage, for
occupation by the University of London. In July 1902 an Act
of Parliament was passed transferring the management of the
Imperial Institute to the Board of Trade, assisted by an
Advisory Committee including representatives of the Colonies
and India, as well as of the Colonial and India Offices, the
Board of Agriculture, and the Board of Trade. This Act took
effect on January i, 1903.

On October i, 1907, in virtue of an arrangement made with
the Board of Trade and with the approval of the Secretary of
State for India, the management of the Imperial Institute was
transferred to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, subject to
the responsibility of the Board of Trade under the Act of 1902.
A Committee of Management of three members^ one nominated

ii Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

by each of the three Government Departments chiefly concerned,
has been appointed, and at present consists of the Right Hon.
Sir Cecil Clementi Smith, G.C.M.G. ; Sir Alfred Bateman,
K.C.M.G. ; and Colonel Duncan Pitcher (late Indian Army).

The first Director of the Imperial Institute was Sir Frederick
Augustus Abel, Bart., G.C.V.O., K.C.B., F.R.S., who held the office
until his death in the autumn of 1902. The present Director is
Professor Wyndham Dunstan, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., who was
appointed in 1903.

The staff of the Imperial Institute includes officers with
special qualifications in the sciences of chemistry, botany,
geology, mineralogy, and in certain branches of technology,
in their relation to agriculture and to the commercial utilisation
of economic products.

The following are the principal Departments of the Institute.

Colonial and Indian Collections. — The Collections of economic
products, etc., illustrative of the general and commercial re-
sources of the Colonies and India, are arranged, together with
other exhibits, on a geographical system in the public galleries
of the Imperial Institute.

The following British Colonies and Dependencies are repre-
sented by Collections —

Canada, Newfoundland ; Jamaica, Turks Islands, British
Honduras, British Guiana, Bahama Islands, Trinidad and
Tobago, Barbados, Windward Islands, Leeward Islands, Ber-
muda Islands; Falkland Islands; New South Wales, Victoria,
Queensland, Tasmania, South Australia, Western AustraHa, New
Zealand ; Fiji ; Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Transvaal, Orange
River Colony, Rhodesia, Nyasaland, St. Helena ; Gambia, Sierra
Leone, Gold Coast, Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria ; British
East Africa, Zanzibar and Pemba ; Uganda; Somaliland; the
Anglo-Egyptian Soudan; Malta; Cyprus; Ceylon; Hong
Kong ; Mauritius; Seychelles ; Straits Settlements and Federated
Malay States ; and India.

The Colonial and Indian Collections are open free to the
public daily, except on Sundays, Good Friday and Christmas
Day, from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. in summer, and from 10 a.m. to
4 p.m. in winter.

Special arrangements are made for the conduct of schools
and institutions desirous of visiting the Colonial and Indian
Collections for educational purposes.

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. iii

A stand has been opened in the centre of the main gallery
to facilitate the supply of general information and the distri-
bution of literature. Pamphlets, circulars, handbooks, etc., con-
taining information relating to the commerce, agriculture,
mining, and other industries of the principal British Colonies,
and also to emigration, are available for gratuitous distribution
or for sale. The publications of the Emigrants' Information
Office, established by the Colonial Office, may also be obtained.
The principal Colonial and Indian newspapers may be seen on
application. An officer of the Institute is in attendance at
this stand, which is in telephonic communication with the
Departments in the main building.

In 1908 the public galleries were visited by 110,189 persons,
and 10,196 Colonial and Indian publications were distributed.

A Report by the Director on the Work of the Imperial
Institute in 1906-7 has been presented to Parliament (Cd.
3729-48).

The Scientific and Technical Department. — The research labora-
tories of this Department, which occupy the second floor of the
Imperial Institute, were established in order to provide for the
investigation of new or little-known natural products from the
Colonies and India and of known products from new sources,
with a view to their utilisation in commerce, and also to provide
trustworthy scientific and technical advice on matters connected
with the agriculture, trade and industries of the Colonies and
India.

The work of this Department is chiefly initiated by the
Home and Colonial Governments and the Government of India.
Arrangements have been also made by the Foreign Office,
whereby British representatives abroad may transmit to the
Department for investigation such natural products of the
countries in which they are appointed to reside as are likely to
be of interest to British manufacturers and merchants.

Materials are first investigated in the research laboratories
of the Department, and are afterwards submitted to further
technical trials by manufacturers and other experts, and finally
are commercially valued.

Except under special circumstances investigations are not
undertaken for private individuals.

A Reference Sample Room is maintained in this Department,
in which are arranged samples of the principal materials which

iv Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

have been investigated and valued commercially during recent
years, and as to which full information is available.

The Scientific and Technical Department works in co-
operation with the Agricultural and Mines Departments in
the Colonies, whose operations it supplements by undertaking
such investigations and inquiries as are of a special scientific
and technical character connected with agricultural or mineral
development, as well as inquiries relating to the composition
and commercial value of products (vegetable and mineral) which
can be more efficiently conducted at home in communication
with merchants and manufacturers, with a view to the local
utilisation of these products or to their export.

A very large number of reports on these subjects have been
made to the Governments of the Colonies and India, a first
instalment of which has been printed in a volume of Technical
Reports and Scientific Papers, published in 1903, whilst a
selection of the later reports has been printed in the Bulletin
of the Imperial Institute.

Mineral Surveys, under the supervision of the Director of the
Imperial Institute, and conducted by Surveyors selected by him,
are in progress in Ceylon, Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria,
and Nyasaland, and preliminary arrangements of a similar
nature have been made in connection with British East Africa
and with the Anglo-Congolese Boundary Commission in Uganda.
All minerals found which are likely to be of commercial import-
ance are forwarded to the Imperial Institute, where they are
examined and their composition and commercial value
ascertained. Reports by the Director on the results of the
mineral exploration in Ceylon, Northern Nigeria, Southern
Nigeria, and Nyasaland have been printed in the Miscellaneous
Series of Colonial Reports.

In connection with the operations of the Agricultural
Departments in West Africa, and with a view to correlating
their work and that of the Imperial Institute, an Inspector
of Agriculture for British West Africa (Mr. G. C. Dudgeon) has
been appointed, who visits West Africa each year, and on his
return has his head-quarters at the Imperial Institute.

African Tropical Service Course.— A course of instruction in
certain specified subjects is now given at the Imperial
Institute to candidates selected by the Colonial Office for
administrative appointments in East and West Africa.

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. v

Instruction in the subject of tropical cultivation and products
in this course is given by members of the Staff of the Imperial
Institute.

Library and Reading-Rooms. — The library and reading-rooms
of the Imperial Institute contain a large collection of Colonial
and Indian works of reference, and are regularly supplied with
the more important official publications, and with many of the
principal newspapers and periodicals of the United Kingdom,
the Colonies and India.

The library and reading-rooms are on the principal floor, and
admittance to them is obtained through the entrance at the west
(Queen's Gate) end of the building. These rooms are available
for the use of Life Fellows of the Imperial Institute, and of other
persons properly introduced. Books and newspapers may be
consulted for special purposes by permission.

Colonial Conference Rooms. — Three rooms, specially decorated
and furnished, are reserved on the principal floor for use by
representatives of the Colonies for meetings and receptions.

The Cowasjee Jehanghier Hall. — The Bhownagree corridor and
rooms in connection with this Hall are in the occupation of
the Indian Section of the Imperial Institute, whilst the Hall
is available for lectures, meetings, etc.

The '* Bulletin of the Imperial Institute " is published quarterly,
price one shilling (annual subscription 4^-. ^d., including postage),
and may be purchased at the Imperial Institute or from Messrs.
Eyre and Spottiswoode, Ltd., East Harding Street, Fleet Street,
London, E.C., or from agents in the Colonies and India. The
Bulletin contains records of the principal investigations con-
ducted for the Colonies and India at the Imperial Institute, and
special articles chiefly relating to progress in tropical agriculture
and the industrial utilisation of raw materials (vegetable and
mineral). The Director will be glad to consider for publication
in the Bulletin any special articles on these subjects, which may
be submitted by oflicials connected with agricultural, geological,
mining or other technical departments in the Colonies and
India. Such articles should be sent to the sub-editor, Dr.
T. A. Henry, Imperial Institute, London, S.W.

vi Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

The following Societies have their head-quarters at the
Imperial Institute —

British Women's Emigration Association. — The British Women's
Emigration Association has been assigned an office on the
first floor, which is open daily from lO a.m. to 4 p.m., and
advice and information respecting emigration and prospects for
women in the Colonies may be obtained there free of charge.
This Association works in co-operation with the Emigrants'
Information Office in Westminster.

Colonial Nursing Association. — This Association has been
assigned an office on the first floor of the Imperial Institute.
Its principal object is the selection of trained hospital and
private nurses for service in the Crown Colonies and other
British Dependencies.

African Society. — This Society, which is concerned with the
discussion and publication of all matters connected with British
African Possessions, has been assigned an office on the
Mezzanine floor, and holds meetings for the discussion of
African questions. The Journal of the African Society is
published quarterly.

THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The Board of Trade.

Trustees.

The First Commissioner of His Majesty's Treasury.
The Secretary of State for the Colonies.
The Secretary of State for India.
The President of the Board of Trade.

Advisory Committee.

(Appointed under the provisions of the Imperial Institute
Transfer Act, 1902.)

Right Hon. Lord James of Here-] Appointed by

ford, G.C.V.O.

Right Hon. Lord Allerton.

Sir F. HopwooD, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.

Sir A. E. Bateman, K.C.M.G.

Sir H. Llewellyn Smith, K.C.B.

(One vacancy to be filled.)

Right Hon. Sir C. Clementi Smith, ^„ ^ ^ ^

^ P jyr Q [The Secretary of State for the

Sir C. P. Lucas, K.C.M.G., C.B. j Colonies.

Colonel Sir D. Barr, K. C.S.I. The Government of India.

Sir T. W. Holderness, K.C.S.I. ^ ^, ^

Col. D. G. Pitcher. ^ ^^ Secretary of State for India.

Sir Thomas Elliott, K.C.B. The Board of Agriculture.

Right Hon. Lord Strathcona and\The Government of the Dominion

Mount Royal, G.C.M.G. / of Canada.

Captain Muirhead Collins, |The Federal Government of the

C.M.G. / Commonwealth of Australia.

Hon. W. Hall Jones. The Government of New Zealand,

Hon. Sir W. Arbuckle, K.C.M.G. The Government of Natal

Managing Committee.

(jr.C.M.Cj. )

Sir A. E. Bateman, K.C.M.G. Nominated by the Board of Trade.

Col. D. G. Pitcher. Nominated by the India Office.

Director.
Wyndham R. Dunstan, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

STAFF,

Director's Office. — Secretary to the Director: Major E. J. Lugard,
D.S.O. Assistant : J. J. K. GaEENWAY, B. A. (Cantab). Clerk : C. L.
Hare, M.A. (Oxon.).

General OfBiCe.— Chief Clerk: L. L. Blacknell. Accountant and Store-
keeper: J. Lynas.

Library. — Officer-in-Charge : F. Henn.

Scientific and Technical Department. — Superintendent of Laboratories :
T. A. Henry, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S. Technical Superintendent:
H. Brown. Principal Assistant: E. Goulding, D.Sc. (Lond.),
F.C.S.

Special Assistants: H. H. ROBINSON, M.A. (Oxon.), F.C.S.; J. W.
Evans, D.Sc. F.G.S. ; B. E. Long, B.A. (Cantab.).

Senior Assistants: T. CROOK, A.R.C.S.L, F.G.S. ; A. E. ANDREWS;
S. J. Johnstone; R. G. Felly, A.LC. ; S. J. M. Auld, Ph.D.
(Wiirzburg), D.Sc. (Lond.) ; F. W. Barwick (Mercers' Company's
Research Fellow) ; S. S. Pickles, D.Sc. (Vict.).

Assistants : H. E. Watt, D.Sc. (Dunelm) ; J. R. Hill, B.A. (Cantab.) ;
W. O. R. Wynn ; V. M. Weil, B.Sc. (Lond.) ; N. C. Akers, A.LC. ;
G. M. Davies ; O. D. Roberts ; J. Shelton.

Mineral Surveys. — Ceylon : One vacancy. J. A. Daniel, B.A. (Cantab.).

Southern Nigeria : A. E. KiTSON, B.A. (Melbourne), F.G.S. ; E. O.
Thiele, B.Sc. (Melbourne), F.G.S.

Northern Nigeria: J. D. FALCONER, M.A., D.Sc. (Edin.), F.G.S.;
A. LoNGBOTTOM, B.A. (Cantab.).

Nyasaland: A. R. Andrew, M.Sc. (Birm.), F.G.S. ; T. E. G. Bailey,
B.A. (Cantab.), F.G.S.

Exhibition Galleries. — Colonial and Indian Collections. Technical
Superintendents: W. G. Freeman, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.L.S.; C. H.
NiCHOLLS, B.A. (Oxon.), F.L.S. ; S. E. Chandler, D.Sc. (Lond.),
F.L.S. ; H. Spooner.

Labour Staff,— Foreman : G. Bowden. Assista?it Foreman : J. Foster.

African Tropical Service Course.

Instructors in Tropical Cultivation : W. G. Freeman, B.Sc. (Lond ), F.L.S.
S. E. Chandler, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.L.S.

Instructors in Tropical Products : T. A. Henry, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S.;
H. Brown ; E. Goulding, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S.; J. W. Evans, D.Sc,
(Lond.), F.G.S. ; R, G. Pelly, A.LC, ; F. W. Barwick.

viii

BULLETIN

OF THE

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

1909. Vol. VII. No. I.

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
DEPARTMENT.

RECENT INVESTIGATIONS.

The following summaries have been prepared from a selection of
the Reports made by the Director of the Imperial Institute to
the Colonial and Indian Governments concerned.

RUBBER OF SAPIUM fENMANI FROM BRITISH

GUIANA.

It has been recognised for some time in British Guiana that
the indigenous Sapium trees, 5. fenmani^ Hemsl., furnish rubber
of good quality, but no analyses of the product have been
available. It appeared desirable therefore that authentic
specimens of the rubber of this tree should be collected for
chemical examination in order that its composition and value
could be definitely determined.

At the suggestion of the Imperial Institute this question
was taken up in British Guiana, and as a result two series of
specimens, including herbarium specimens of the trees and
authentic samples of the rubber obtained from them, were
received from the Acting Director of Science and Agriculture
at Georgetown, :^''*'"

A. The first series of specimens was collected by Mr. J. E.

2 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Beckett of the Agricultural Department, from trees growing
on Fort Island and in the neighbourhood of the Arraqua Creek
on the Lower Essequibo River.

Six samples of rubber, obtained from six different trees, were
submitted for examination. All the trees were described by
Mr. Beckett as Sapium Jenmani, and his determination has
been confirmed at Kew from the botanical specimens which he
furnished. One of the trees at Arraqua is described as a forest
giant seven feet in circumference three feet from the ground,
whilst the others were moderate-sized trees. In addition to
the specimens from the Lower Essequibo River, Mr. Beckett
also sent two balls of rubber collected in 1906 from Sapium
Jenmani trees in the Pomeroon district.

Description of Samples.

No. I. Five small "biscuits" of rubber weighing 65 grams,
and two pieces of" scrap" rubber weighing 140 grams.

The biscuits were light brown, whilst the scrap varied from
yellow to brown ; a little vegetable impurity was present. The
rubber exhibited fair elasticity and tenacity.

No. 2. Seven small biscuits weighing yy grams, and one piece
of scrap rubber weighing 55 grams.

Both biscuits and scrap rubber were very similar to No. i in
general appearance and properties, but were darker in colour
and the rubber was slightly sticky.

No. 3. Four small biscuits weighing 40 grams, and one piece
of scrap rubber weighing 45 grams.

They were very similar to No. i, but darker in colour.

No. 4. One very thin biscuit weighing 8 grams, and two
pieces of scrap rubber weighing 146 grams.

The biscuit consisted of rather weak brown rubber ; the scrap
rubber was similar to No. i, but a little darker in colour.

No. 5. Four small biscuits weighing 63 grams, and three
pieces of scrap rubber weighing 230 grams.

They were very similar to No. i, but inclined to be slightly
sticky.

No. 6. Eight small biscuits weighing 165 grams, and two
pieces of scrap rubber weighing 270 grams.

They were very similar to No. i, but darker in colour.

K\JBB1£.K :0¥ SaPIUM JENMANI PROM BRITISH GUIAN A. 3

Ball rubber.— Two balls weighing 21 1 grams, black externally
but white and moist within when freshly cut. The rubber
exhibited only fair elasticity and tenacity.

Samples i to 6 were all very similar in appearance and
properties, the only differences being a small variation in colour
and a slight stickiness in two of the specimens (Nos. 2 and 5).
The rubber was inclined to be weak and tore easily when
stretched.

Results of Examination.
Four of the specimens, Nos. i, 5, 6, and one of the balls, were
examined chemically for comparison, the " biscuits " being
analysed in the first three cases as representing the rubber
in its purest form. The following percentage results were
obtained : —

Samples as received.

Composition of dry rubber.

No. I.

No. 5.

No. 6.

Ball.

No. I.

No. 5.

No. 6.

Ball.

Moisture .....

2*3

6-8

19-2

—

Caoutchouc ....

85-1

86-4

837

72-2

87-1

87-9

89-8

89-3

Resin

3-5

3-4

2-8

3-6

4-2

Proteids

4-9

4-6

2'0

S-8

4-9

2-5

Insoluble matter . . .

4-2

3'5

1-5

3-2

4-3

3-6

1-6

4-0

Ash

1*33

o-8i

I -81

o'9S

1-38

0-82

1-99

i-i8

A consideration of these figures shows that the rubber is of
very good quality so far as chemical composition is concerned.
The percentages of caoutchouc are high, ranging from 87* i to
89*8 per cent, on the dry rubber, whilst the amounts of resin are
low. The figures for proteids are a little high in the case of
samples Nos. i, 5 and 6, but curiously enough the amount of
this constituent present in the ball rubber is only half that found
in the other specimens.

Commercial Values.
The specimens were submitted for valuation to brokers with
the following results : —

Per lb.
Scrap (Lace) rubber No. i . . , 2s. lod.

„ „ Nos. 2, 3, 4 and 5 . 2s. Zd.
No. 6 ... IS.
Ball rubber 2s. 6d.

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

The biscuits were rather small for separate commercial
valuation, but the different samples were very similar in
quality, and a price of 3^. 6d, per lb. was quoted for the
rubber in this form if in good condition. A few of the biscuits
were inclined to be sticky, and for this reason would realise
only about 2s. per lb. At the date of these valuations, fine
hard Para rubber from South America was quoted at 3^-. ^\d.
per lb. in London, and fine plantation Para at '^s. lid. to ^s. ^\d.
per lb.

B. A second collection of specimens was procured by Mr.
R. Ward, the Agricultural Superintendent in British Guiana,
from the North- West District of the Colony.

Description of Samples.

No. I. Three blocks of scrap rubber, together weighing
g\ lb., which were stated to have been prepared by Indians in
a district where Sapium Jenmani is plentiful, and were therefore
probably pure specimens of the rubber of this tree.

These consisted of flat blocks of rubber made up of aggre-
gated shreds, varying in colour from light to dark brown. The
rubber was fairly free from vegetable impurity, but was not very
strong.

No. 2. Two balls of rubber also collected by Indians, one
being a good specimen and the second highly sticky.

The former weighed 15 oz., and had been formed from thin
strips of rubber. It was fairly homogeneous, dark brown
externally, but white and moist within when freshly cut. The
rubber exhibited only fair elasticity and tenacity.

The second ball weighed 12 oz. It had evidently been over-
heated during preparation or subsequently.

No. 3. Eight samples of rubber obtained by Mr. Ward
from different specimens of Sapium Jenmani, found at Mount
Terminus, Barima River.

These specimens consisted of scrap rubber aggregated into
small cakes or sheets and closely resembled the lace rubber
collected by the Indians.

Botanical specimens of the trees which furnished the samples
of rubber were forwarded, and the identification of the trees
as Sapium Jenmani has been confirmed at Kew.

Rubber of Sapium Jenmani from British Guiana. 5

No. 4. A botanical specimen of a tree believed to be Sapium
paucinervium, Hemsl., was also forwarded and has been pro-
nounced at Kew to belong to that species. It is said to yield a
thin watery latex of no commercial value.

Results of Examination.

The specimens of lace and ball rubber collected by the Indians
and one of the samples collected by Mr. Ward have been
examined with the following percentage results : —

Samples as recei

'ed.

Composition of dry rubber.

Lace rubber

Ball rubber

Lace rubber

Ball rubber

Lace rubber

collected by

No. 6

collected by

No. 6

Indians.

tree.

Indians.

tree.

No. I.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. I.

No. 2.

No. 3.

Moisture . . .

2-6

8-4

I-I

—

Caoutchouc . .

87-3

80 -6

91-4

89-6

88 -o

92-4

Resin ....

2-4

2-0

2-5

2-6

2'0

Proteids . . .

4-4

4-2

2-8

4-5

4-6

2-8

Insoluble matter .

3 '3

4 '4

3 '4

4-8

Ash

123

I -04

0-68

1-26

1-13

0-69

A comparison of these figures with the results of the analyses
of the previous specimens shows that the two sets of rubbers
are very similar in composition. The rubber collected by Mr.
Ward (No. 6 tree) contains the highest percentage of caout-
chouc and the lowest percentage of resin in the series, whilst
the amount of proteid is much lower than in any of the samples
except the ball rubber of the previous set.

Commercial Values.

The specimens were submitted to brokers at the same time
as the series collected by Mr. Beckett. The lace rubber
collected by the Indians and also the specimens prepared by
Mr. Ward were valued at 2s. 4\d. per lb. in London, whilst
2s. ^d. per lb. was quoted for the ball rubber. The value of
the lace rubber is a little lower than the prices quoted for the
first set of specimens, probably owing to its darker colour.

C. Several specimens of the rubber of Sapium Jenmani were
shown at the International Rubber Exhibition held in London
last September and were afterwards transferred to the Imperial
Institute. One of the samples had been specially prepared by

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Sample as
received.
Per cent.

Composition

of dry rubber.

Per cent.

—

937

94*4

1-8

3-2

0-6

Mr. C. Wilgress Anderson of the Forestry Department, who
spent some time at the Imperial Institute last year studying
the questions of the collection and preparation of rubber.
This specimen has been examined chemically for comparison
with the samples already described.

The sample was labelled : — " No. i. Biscuits from latex of
Sapium Jenmani, Hemsl., prepared and exhibited by C. Wilgress
Anderson, Forestry Officer." It consisted of thin biscuits of very
fine pale amber rubber, excellently prepared, and in good
condition. The rubber exhibited very good elasticity and
tenacity.

The chemical examination gave the following results : —

Moisture
Caoutchouc
Resin
Proteids
Ash .

The rubber was valued at 4^. ^d. per lb. in London with fine
hard Para from South America quoted at 4^. '^\d. per lb. and
plantation Para biscuits at 4^-. A^d. to 4^-. i id. per lb. [./ .. '

This specimen of Sapiuni Jenmani rubber is much superior in
physical properties to the samples previously examined and the
analytical figures are also better.

Conclusions.

The results of the investigations show that so far as chemical
composition is concerned the rubber of Sapium Jemnani is of
good quality, and there is no doubt that if carefully prepared it
will realise satisfactory prices in the market. There is a little
variation in the amounts of resin, proteid and insoluble matter
present in the different samples collected by Mr. Beckett and
Mr. Ward, but the percentage of caoutchouc is fairly uniform
throughout, and in the case of No. 6 of the second series reaches
92*4 per cent. These specimens are generally inclined to be
rather weak and in some cases are slightly sticky, both of which
features tend to reduce the market value.

The biscuits prepared by Mr. Anderson were of excellent

Balata from British Guiana.

quality both as regards composition and physical properties,
comparing favourably with Para plantation biscuits in these
respects.

A preliminary series of tapping experiments on Sapiuni
Jenmani trees has been conducted in British Guiana by Mr.
Anderson, but no definite conclusions regarding yield can yet
be given. Nine trees averaging 57"6 inches in girth were tapped
four times during a period of sixteen days, and furnished an
average yield of 8*33 oz. of dry rubber per tree. The bark of
the trees is found to vary greatly in thickness, being very thin in
trees of small girth, and as much as three-quarters of an inch in
those of large size, so that considerable care has to be exercised
in tapping.

BALATA FROM BRITISH GUIANA.

Specimens of balata and of the latex of the " Bastard
Bullet" tree from British Guiana have been received at the
Imperial Institute for examination.

The balata was described as a very fine specimen of the
product derived from Mimusops Balata^ and was of guaranteed
purity. It consisted of a sheet of balata from |^ to f inch
thick, which was pale reddish-brown, free from impurities, and
evidently of very good quality.

It had the following percentage composition : —

Moisture
Gutta
Resin
Proteids
Ash .

The results of the analysis show that the balata is of very
good quality, the percentage of gutta being higher than that
usually found in commercial consignments of the product. It
was valued at 2s. 2\d. per lb. in London.

The latex of the " Bastard Bullet " tree was also examined in

Balata as
received.
Per cent.

Composition of

dry balata.

Per cent.

1-9

497

507

44-0

44-8

3-8

3*9

0-6

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

order to determine the nature of the material which it furnishes.
On heating the latex it gradually thickened, becoming semi-
solid, and on standing the mass slowly solidified. The product
thus obtained was a pink brittle substance, quite devoid of
tenacity, and evidently of very resinous character. The diluted
latex was readily coagulated by the addition of alcohol, and
a quantity of the material was prepared in this way for
examination.

The analysis of the dry substance gave the following results : —

Per cent.

Resin 70'6

Ash 67

The residue left after the extraction of the resin was a white
friable powder, quite unlike the gutta of true balata.

It is evident from these results that the product from the
Bastard Bullet tree is a resinous material differing widely in
composition and properties from true balata. In consequence,
the inclusion of the latex of this tree when collecting balata
should be avoided.

FIBRES FROM INDIA.

Several samples of fibres have been received recently from
India for examination. These include important rope-making
fibres, such as Sisal, Mauritius and Manila hemps, a fibre of the
jute class derived from a species of Urena, and the well-known
upholstery material, " kapok." A brief account of the results
of the examination and valuation of these products is given in
the following pages.

Samples of the fibre of Agave rigida, A. amerkana and
Fiircrcea species, prepared by hand from plants grown at the
Hindupur plantation, were forwarded in June 1907 by the
Director of Agriculture, Madras.

AGAVE RIGID A FROM MADRAS.

The Agave rigida fibre had been extracted from leaves ot
the age of six years, and consisted of well-prepared fibre of

Fibres from India.

good lustre, varying in colour from nearly white to pale buff,
and was of very good strength and 3 feet long.

On chemical examination it yielded the following results : —

Per cent

Moisture

9'o

Ash

1-5

a-Hydrolysis (loss) .

ii'S

iS-Hydrolysis (loss) .

14-6

Acid purification (loss)

2-0

Cellulose

73-0

The product was regarded by commercial experts as worth
£Z^-£'h'^ per ton (with Mexican " Sisal " at ;^34 per ton). It
was of excellent quality, but the value would have been
enhanced if the colour had been more even and nearly white.

AGAVE AMERICANA FROM MADRAS.

The Agave america7ia fibre, extracted from leaves of the age
of six years, was of uneven quality. One bundle consisted
principally of nearly white, lustrous fibre, which was fairly well
cleaned, whereas the rest of the fibre was somewhat gummy, of
poor lustre, and had a quantity of greenish pulp adhering to it.
The strength was uneven but mostly good, and the length
varied from 2 to 3 feet.

On chemical examination it gave the following results : —

Per cent.

Moisture

Ash

2"0

a-Hydrolysis (loss) .

. . i6-3

y8-Hydrolysis (loss) .

20-0

Acid purification (loss)

. . 3-8

Cellulose

77-0

The greenish colour and the gummy and pulpy nature of the
bulk of the sample were evidently due to insufficient washing.
The staple was rather short for a rope-making fibre, which
should be at least 3 feet in length. This fibre was obviously
inferior to the sample of Agave rigida. It was valued at £2^
to £2% per ton (with Mexican " Sisal " at ;^34 per ton).

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

FURCR^A SP. FROINI MADRAS.

The sample of Fiircrcea fibre, which was also extracted from
leaves of the age of six years, consisted of fairly well-cleaned
fibre, varying from buff to nearly white, of fair lustre, but a
little gummy and stiff. It was of uneven strength, and from 2
to 3 feet long.

On chemical examination it gave the following results : —

Per cent.
lO'O

i8-8

221

72-0

Moisture .

Ash .

a-Hydrolysis (loss)j .

^-Hydrolysis (loss) .

Acid purification (loss)

Cellulose .

This fibre would have been more valuable if it had been more
even in colour and less gummy. The length of staple was
poor for rope-making purposes. The loss on hydrolysis was
rather high, but otherwise the sample was superior to many of
the specimens of this fibre recently examined at the Imperial
Institute. The product was considered by commercial experts
to be worth £26 to £2"] per ton (with Mauritius hemp at £2\
to ;^30 per ton).

MANILA HEMP FROM KULLAR, MADRAS.

A sample of Manila hemp {Musa textilis), grown at the
Government Experimental Garden, Kullar, at an elevation of
1,300 feet, was forwarded by the Agri- Horticultural Society,
Teynampett, Madras, in July 1908. It consisted of well-prepared
fibre of pale buff colour and fair lustre, and was not so harsh as
ordinary Manila hemp, but rather resembled plantain or banana
fibre in general character.

The strength of the fibre was rather poor compared with that
of ordinary Manila hemp. The average length was 4 feet 3 inches.

The results of the chemical examination of this fibre are
compared below with those furnished by a standard sample of
Manila hemp and by a specimen of banana fibre from the East
Africa Protectorate. ^ *.

Fibres from India. . ii

Present

Standard

Banana fibre

sample.

Manila hemp

. from East

Africa
Protectorate.

Per cent.

Moisture . . . ' . .

11-3

IO-2

IO-8

Ash ....

3-5

I-I

3-4

a- Hydrolysis (loss) .

20*9

11-2

1 6-5

/3-Hydrolysis (loss) .

. 27-8

17-8

25-6

Acid Purification (loss) . .

■. • 5-0

3-8

Cellulose

70-5

78-6

73-0

From these figures it will be seen that the fibre was obviously
inferior to ordinary Manila hemp in chemical composition and
behaviour and more closely resembled banana fibre. It lost more
on hydrolysis, and contained a lower percentage of cellulose than
the standard sample of Manila hemp.

The fibre, being rather soft, was regarded as well adapted
for the manufacture of binder twine, and was valued at about
;^23 to ;^24 per ton (October 1908).

AGAVE FIBRE FROM ASSAM.

Two samples of Agave fibre from Assam, forwarded in October
1907 by the Officiating Reporter on Economic Products to the
Government of India, were of promising quality, but had not been
well cleaned. The fibre was uneven in colour, but fairly lustrous
and of very good strength. The length was mostly about four
feet, but some shorter fibre was present. The product, if properly
cleaned, would have been readily saleable and probably worth
about ;f 30 per ton in the London market.

AGAVE SISALANA FIBRE FROM THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS.

A sample of the fibre of Agave sisalana from Port Blair,
Andaman Islands, forwarded by the Officiating Reporter on
Economic Products in October 1908 consisted of buff-coloured
fibre, which had been well cleaned, but contained one or two stained
patches. The product was of fair lustre and good strength, and
had an average length of 4 feet.

On chemical examination it gave results which are compared
below with those furnished by a specimen of Sisal hemp frorn
the East Africa Protectorate. ;-, ',:i:f*v' , -iii fii J.o^ni:as:r;

12 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Present
sample.
Per cent.

Sisal hemp from
East Africa Protectorate.
Per cent.

117

II'I

3*5

14-0

II -2

i6'0

14-1

2-3

76-6

78-2

Moisture

Ash

a-Hydrolysis (loss)

/3- Hydrolysis (loss)

Acid Purification (loss)

Cellulose

It is evident from these figures that the sample from the
Andamans contained less cellulose and lost more on hydrolysis
and acid purification than the East African fibre. From a
consideration of the larger proportion of ash yielded by the former
specimen, it appeared that these unfavourable results were chiefly,
if not entirely, due to the presence of impurity.

An examination of the ash revealed the fact that it contained
a large proportion of sodium chloride, amounting to 2*9 per cent,
of the dry fibre. This fact accounts for the large losses observed
on hydrolysis and acid purification, and also for the comparatively
low percentage of cellulose, since the salt would be washed out
in each case in the process of estimation. The presence of this
large amount of salt suggests that the fibre had been washed in
sea-water.

If this impurity were not present, the fibre would be slightly
superior to the East African sample in chemical composition and
behaviour.

The product was regarded by commercial experts as worth
about ;^24 per ton (with Mexican " Sisal " at about ^25 per ton).

URENA FIBRE.

A sample of fibre, derived from a species of Urena, from
Nettigandi, was forwarded by the Officiating Reporter on
Economic Products in August 1907. The product consisted
of somewhat harsh, greyish fibre, which was gummy and in parts
woody, and of very fair but rather uneven strength.

The fibre had obviously been insufficiently retted, as it was
stiff and gummy, and the fibre had not separated properly. It
resembled the sample of " Aramina " fibre from Brazil previously
examined in the Scientific and Technical Department, and was,

Fibres from India. 13

like the " Aramina " fibre, decidedly harsher than jute (compare
this Bulletin^ 1903, 1. 24).

The fibre was regarded by experts as suitable for spinning and
useful for mixing with jute. There is little doubt that a softer
and much better product could be obtained by more careful
retting. It was recommended that attention should also be
directed to the length of the material. The present sample was
of very irregular length, some of it being of good length (about
6 feet) whilst the larger proportion was only 4 feet or less.

The fibre was regarded as worth £\2 \os. to £\i per ton
(with " medium " jute at i^ 15 to ;^ 17 per ton).

KAPOK FROM MADRAS.

This sample of kapok (the seed-floss of Eriodendron anfractu-
osum) was forwarded to the Imperial Institute in 1906 by the
Officiating Reporter on Economic Products to the Government
of India, in order that the product might be made known by
submitting it for valuation to brokers and merchants in this
country.

The sample consisted of about 133 pounds of kapok, which
had been obtained from the Tahsildar of Vriddhachalam, in the
South Arcot District of the Madras Presidency. It was stated
that kapok is available there at 3 rupees to 6 rupees 8 annas
per Madras maund of 25 pounds, which is equivalent to rgd.
to4'i6d. per pound, and that about 100 maunds, or over one ton,
is procurable in the one district.

The kapok was clean, but contained a quantity of seeds and
occasional fragments of the capsules. It was of an even, light
brown colour, very lustrous, resilient, and soft and silky. The
fibres were of poor strength (which is characteristic of kapok),
varied in length from 07 to I inch, and had an average diameter
of 0*0008 8 inch, with a variation from 0'OOo6 to 0'00i3 inch.
Microscopical examination showed that the fibres were very
smooth and transparent, and that some immature fibres were
present.

Compared with a standard sample of commercial Java kapok,
the Indian kapok was slightly darker in colour.

In order to draw commercial attention to this kapok from

14 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Madras, samples were submitted to brokers in London and to
merchants in Liverpool.

The brokers reported that the kapok was of very good and
desirable quality, and of good colour, but contained much seed.
They considered it to be much superior to ordinary Indian or
Ceylon varieties, and, in fact, fully equal to good Java kapok.
Such material, they stated, would be readily bought by manu-
facturers, but an exact valuation was difficult to give, as the
same description of floss had not been sold on the London
market for about two years. They were of opinion, however,
that it would be saleable at about 4^d. per pound in the con-
dition of the sample, i e. containing the seed, but if the kapok
were fairly free from seed, probably about 6d. per pound could
be obtained.

The Liverpool merchants reported favourably on the kapok,
but also referred to the presence of the seed as a drawback.
They stated that they were willing to buy kapok of this quality.

From the above opinions it would appear that this kapok
should be further cleaned before being shipped. The seed could
probably be shaken out of the floss by hand, and the material
would then probably find a satisfactory sale.

Indian kapok is well known on the London market, and the
present sample was considered superior, apart from the presence
of the seed, to the average Indian product.

Samples of the material have been placed on exhibition in the
Indian Collections of the Imperial Institute.

COTTON FROM THE GOLD COAST.

A NUMBER of samples of cotton have recently been received
from the Gold Coast for examination at the Imperial Institute,
and as some of these have been found to present points of
particular interest, a brief description of them is given in the
following pages.

Two samples of unginned cotton, grown at Labolabo, Gold
Coast, were forwarded to the Imperial Institute in 1907.

Sample i was stated to be a native Volta River variety, which

Cotton from the Gold Coast. 15

in 1905 yielded 158 lb. of ginned cotton per acre. The cotton
was clean and, on ginning, yielded 35 per cent, of lint, which was
soft, lustrous, of even cream colour, and generally free from stains.

The cotton was of normal strength, and generally from 1*0 to
1*4 inches in length. The diameter of the fibre ranged from
O'O0o6 to O'ooii inch; with an average of 0*00083 inch.

The seeds were rather large and long, dark brown in colour,
smooth, and furnished with spikes surrounded by a pale brown
down. Twenty per cent, of the seeds examined were withered
and would be useless for sowing.

The value of the ginned cotton was reported to be about
'j\d, per lb., with " middling " American at 6'6d. per lb.

This cotton was of excellent quality, and equal to that grown
from selected American seed ; it would be readily saleable.

The second sample was stated to be a hybrid, formed by
crossing American Upland with native Volta River cotton. In
1905 the plants of this variety yielded 306 lb. of lint per acre.

The sample was clean and, on ginning, yielded 38*5 per cent,
of lint, which was soft and fairly lustrous, but contained a
quantity of brown stained cotton.

The fibre was of normal strength, and from i*o to 1*4 inches
in length. The diameter of the fibres varied from 00005 to
O'OOII inch ; with an average of 0*00077 inch.

The seeds were of average size, dark brown in colour, and
generally smooth, with light brown tufts at the pointed ends. A
few seeds entirely covered with a brownish-white down were also
present in the sample. Sixty per cent, of the seeds examined
were withered and would be useless for sowing. There were
signs of the attack of insect pests, probably Dysdercus sp., but
no actual specimens were found in the sample.

The value of the ginned cotton was stated to be about 6\d.
per lb., with " middling " American at 6'6d. per lb.

This sample was considerably depreciated in value on account
of the presence of stained cotton, but apart from this defect the
cotton was of satisfactory quality.

These two cottons did not exhibit such great variation in
general characters as might have been expected from the state-
ment that one was a native cotton and the other a hybrid
between the native and an American Upland variety.

i6 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

The " hybrid " cotton was much stained, and on this account
its value was considerably depreciated. The apparently large
percentage of fibre obtained on ginning was accounted for by
the presence of a large proportion of withered seeds.

It was recommended that, if the two specimens were obtained
from plants grown under exactly similar conditions, the " hybrid "
cotton should be cultivated rather than the native variety, in
view of the much higher yield of lint per acre which the former
furnished. It was further pointed out that steps would have to
be taken to prevent the attacks of insect pests, as the stains
caused by the latter constituted a rather serious defect in the
hybrid cotton.

A third sample ot unginned cotton which was forwarded to
the Imperial Institute at a later date was stated to be " Black
Volta " cotton grown at Yeji, in the Northern Territory of the
Gold Coast. The cotton was probably a hybrid variety, and, on
ginning, it yielded 35 per cent, of lint, which was soft, lustrous,
and of rather deep cream colour with a quantity of yellowish-
brown stains.

It was uneven in strength, some portions being rather weak,
and the length and staple varied from i*o to 1*4 inches and the
diameter varied from 0*0005 to o*ooi2 inch ; with an average of
0*0007 3 inch.

Two forms of seeds were present in about equal proportions :

(a) Rather small, smooth, and dark brown in colour, with light
brown tufts at the pointed ends.

(d) Medium size, and closely covered with a light greyish-
brown down.

Forty per cent, of the seeds examined appeared to have been
attacked by insect pests, although no specimens of the latter
could be found.

The value of the ginned cotton was reported to be sW- to 6d.
per lb., with " middling " American at 6*43^. per lb.

The cotton was of distinctly promising quality, and would be
readily saleable in this country. It was similar in character to
to " improved " American Upland, but somewhat depreciated in
value by the presence of stained fibre. It was recommended
that greater care should be taken in cultivation and means
adopted to combat the ravages of insect pests.

Cotton from the Gold Coast.

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COTTO^ FROM THE GoLD CoAStv

Eleven samples of cotton and some specimens of cotton cloth
were forwarded by Mr. G. C. Dudgeon, Inspector of Agriculture
for British West Africa, from the Gold Coast in 1908. The
cottons have been examined, and their characters and value are
given in the accompanying tables (pp. 17, 18).

The specimens of cotton cloth, labelled No. i io(<:), consisted of

Number or mark of

sample

Description ....
Lint . ... . .

Seed

Strength ....
Length of fibres . .
Diameter of fibres .

Microscopical charac-
ters ,

Commercial value . ,
Remarks . . . . ,

No.

"Bi. G.C.III. Variety,
special."

Unginned cotton.

Soft, rather silky, and of
a pale cream colour,
with a quantity of
brown and yellow
stains. Yield, on gin-
ning, 31 per cent.
Fairly easily detached
from the seed.

Mixed, of medium size,
the larger proportion
were closely covered
with brown or green-
ish-brown down. A
few ■ smooth brown
seeds were present,
also some lightly
covered with a short
greyish-white down.
Sixty-five per cent, of
the seeds examined
were withered.

Rather poor.

I 'o to I '4 inches.

0*0005 to o'ooi2 inch ;
average, o'oooSi inch.

A considerable quantity
of immature fibres
were noticed.

About 45^. per lb.,
ginned (with "mid-
dling " American at
5-05^. per lb.).

If mature and free from
stains, the cotton
would be of excellent
quality, and equal to
a high grade of
American Upland, but
material of the quality
of this sample would
not be in any demand
although it might per-
haps find a market.
Some insects of Oj:y-
carenus sp. were
noticed in the sample.

No.

"B2. G.C.III. Variety,
Volta River."

Unginned cotton.

Rather harsh, of fair
lustre, and of an even
deep cream colour,
with a slight reddish
tinge. Yield on gin-
ning) 33 per cent. Very
easily detached from
the seed.

Of medium size, smooth,
and dark brown, with
light-brown tufts at
the pointed ends.
Thirty per cent, of the
seeds examined were
withered, and there
were signs of the
attack of insect pests.

Normal.

o'8 to I '4 inches.
0*0005 to o'ooii inch ;
average, o "00081 inch.
Generally fully mature.

Sd, to <,\d. per lb.,
ginned (with "mid-
dling " American at
5*05^. per lb.).

This cotton was of very
good quality, it was
harsher than ordinary
Upland cotton, and
almost approached in
character to a semi-
rough Peruvian cotton.
It would be readily
saleable.

No. 3.

"B3. G.C.III. Variety,
Native green seed."

Unginned cotton.

Soft, lustrous, and of a
deep cream colour.
Generally fairly free
from stains. Yield on
ginning, 35 per cent.
Fairly easily detached
from the seed.

Mixed, the larger pro-
portion were covered
with a green or green-
ish-brown down. Some
were covered with a
greyish-white down,
and a small proportion
were entirely smooth.
Forty per cent, of the
seeds examined were
withered.

Normal.

I "o to I '4 inches.
0*0005 to o'ooi2 inch ;
average, 0*00083 inch.
Generally fully mature.

About sd. per lb.,
ginned (with " mid-
dling " American at
5*05^. per lb.).

The cotton was of similar
type to the previous
sample (No. 2), but
rather less harsh and
somewhat inferior in
colour.

20 small patterns which had been woven in the Gold Coast from
native-grown cotton from Tamale, Northern Territories.

Herbarium specimens of the plant producing the native cotton,
No. iio{b), were identified at Kew as probably Gossypium
punctatum, Schum. et Thonn., but it was stated that the material
was insufficient for exact determination.

All these samples of cotton were of marketable quality

20 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

although some of them were badly stained, and would therefore
not meet with a ready demand. The cottons were generally
of very superior length and lustre, and, if free from stains,
would probably realise a higher value than ordinary American
Upland.

A large number of insects of Oxycarenus spp. were noticed in
the cotton, whilst some of the stains bore a strong resemblance
to those caused by the " Red Cotton Stainer " {Dysdercus sp.).

It would undoubtedly be well worth while to exercise special
care in the cultivation of these cottons, and to adopt some means
for the extermination of the pests which cause the stains.

Three further samples of Gold Coast cotton were received
from Mr. G. C. Dudgeon at a later date, and are described
on p. 19.

From the results of the foregoing examination, it is evident
that sample No. i (Bi) was inferior in many respects to the
remaining samples. It was rather badly stained, but apart from
this it was similar in character to the native " green-seed "
variety. The Volta River cotton (B2) was harsher than the
other two samples, and was also distinctly harsher than the
previous sample of Volta River cotton described on page 1 5.

TIMBERS FROM THE SUDAN.

The ten timbers now dealt with were forwarded for examina-
tion to the Imperial Institute in December 1906.

In the first instance they have been submitted for examination
to Mr. Herbert Stone, F.L.S., Expert Referee on Timbers to the
Imperial Institute, who reports that the series contains eight
distinctly useful woods, three of which are of considerable
beauty. Only one specimen (No. 9, Soymida roupalifolid) is,
however, likely to secure a footing in the European market in
competition with the timbers of commerce.

The following detailed report on the specimens has been
furnished : —

Tetrapleura nilotica (Golo name : Beshi) ; Leguminosse.

A heavy wood of rich reddish-brown colour and rather pretty

Timbers from the Sudan. . 21

figure, somewhat resembling mahogany. The sapwood is about
I J inches wide, and gradually passes into the heartwood ; the
outside of the log, under the bark, is nearly smooth, and the bast
thin and woody. The timber turns brown on weathering. The
wood is hard and solid, but brittle and cross grained. It is hard
to saw, planes moderately hard and very badly, turns hard and
moderately well, and polishes well. The surface is bright when
planed. Weight, 66 lb. per cubic foot. The wood is of doubtful
value for export.

Mimusops Schweinfurthii (Golo name : Bei) ; Sapotaceae.

A heavy, very hard, solid, fine-grained wood, of uniform dull-
brown colour. The sapwood is light brown and about 2\ inches
wide ; only a small proportion of heartwood is present. The
outside of the log, under the bark, is nearly smooth, with a thin
red bast. The wood is extremely hard to saw, planes very hard
but well, and turns hard but takes a good finish. The surface
is dull when planed. Weight, 66 lb. per cubic foot.

This is not an ornamental wood, but like the timber of most
species of Mimusops it would doubtless be very useful on account
of its strength and hardness.

Parkia filicoidea (Golo name : Lu) ; Leguminosae.

A light wood of poor bluish-white colour, patchy and stripy,
brittle and soft ; apparently a sapwood tree. The outside of the
log is striated at an angle, sometimes nearly half a right angle,
and the bast is thin. The wood saws very easily, planes with
difficulty and badly, being cross grained ; turns fairly well, but
takes a very poor finish when polished. Weight, 39! lb. per cubic
foot. , This is an inferior timber from any point of view, and
is of little value.

Khaya senegalensis (Golo name : Bele) ; Meliaceas.

A light-coloured mahogany, rather below the average in point
of colour, but of good figure. Better specimens may no doubt
be found. The sapwood is nearly white, about 2 inches wide,
and well defined from the heartwood ; the outside of the log is
finely striated. The wood turns brown on weathering. It saws
with a slight aroma, planes with difficulty and badly, being
cross grained, as are many mahoganies, but turns and polishes
well. Weight per cubic foot, 46 lb.

If this log is a picked sample, the wood will not realise more

22. Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

than 2 J^, per foot (superficial) at the docks in England. It is a
verydifferentwbod from one of the same botanical origin, which
was received recently at the Imperial Institute from Southern
Nigeria. (This Bu//etm i9oS,Q. I S2.)

Prosopis oblonga (Golo name : Ji) ; Leguminosae.

A wood of dull, golden-brown colour and good appearance,
very hard, solid, brittle and cross grained. The sapwood is
nearly white, about i inch wide, and sharply defined from the
heartwood. The outside of the log is finely striated at a con-
siderable angle, and covered with a stiff bast. The timber
weathers very dark red. The wood is hard to saw, planes with
difficulty and badly to a dull surface, turns hard but well, and
takes a good polish. Weight per cubic foot, 57 lb. The timber
is of doubtful value for export.

Erythrophleum guineense (Golo name : Bangi) ; Leguminosae.

A striking, if not beautiful, wood of dark-brown colour
striped with grey and buff, very hard and cross grained. It
weathers brown. The sapwood is about 2 inches wide, greyish-
white and well defined from the heartwood. The outside of the
log is finely striated and covered with thin, brittle, scaly bast.
The wood is hard to saw, aromatic, planes with great difficulty
and very badly, turns hard but fairly well, and takes a medium
polish. Weight per cubic foot, 62^ lb. This wood is scarcely
good enough for export. '

Maba abyssinica (Golo name : Shumo) ; Ebenaceae. The
specimen was badly worm-eaten.

An aromatic wood of poor colour, being patchy grey to white,
like persimmon-wood, and turning yellowish on weathering ; it
is brittle and cross grained. The outside of the log is nearly
smooth. This is apparently a sapwood tree, and it would be
interesting to know if ebony is produced in larger trees of this
species. The wood saws readily, planes with some difficulty
and badly, turns easily, but takes a very poor finish when polished.
Weight per cubic foot, 50 lb. This timber is of little or no
value.

Daniella tkurifera (Golo name : Bu or Boo) ; Leguminosae.

A light wood of poor appearance and stripy brown colour,
rather soft. The sapwood is about 2 J inches wide, white
striped with brown, and well defined from the heartwood. The

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 23

bark is brown to grey, about J inch thick, woody, scaling in
remotely isolated scales, which are sharply marked off in
vertical section. The wood saws readily, planes moderately
but badly, being cross grained, turns easily and fairly well, and
takes a medium polish. Weight per cubic foot, 52 J lb. This
wood is of no value for export.

Soymida roupalifolia (Golo name : Gumberti) ; Meliaceae.

A beautiful, rich red wood with many parallel dark lines, which
are very effective. It has a pleasant aroma and would answer
the same purposes as cedar or mahogany. The sapwood is
about I J inches wide, and is well, but not sharply, defined from
the heartwood. The surface is finely striated at an angle.
The wood is moderately hard, fine grained, and darkens on
weathering. It saws, turns and polishes readily, and planes
with difficulty but well. Weight per cubic foot, 57 lb. This
wood is worth exporting.

Orniosia laxiflora (Golo name : M'banga). A beautiful wood
of walnut colour and striking figure where curly ; hard, solid,
cross grained and aromatic. The sapwood is \ inch wide,
light yellow, and sharply defined from the heartwood. The
bark is about \ inch thick, nearly smooth, and of reddish-brown
colour, scaling in small fragments. The wood is hard to saw,
planes badly, turns hard but well, and polishes well. Weight
per cubic foot, 57! lb. This wood may possibly find a market
as a substitute for walnut.

Specimens of these timbers have been placed on exhibition
in the Sudan Court of the Imperial Institute.

GENERAL NOTICES RESPECTING ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT.

THE AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OF
NYASALAND.

The following account of recent agricultural developments in
Nyasaland has been summarised from a report submitted to
the Governor of the Protectorate by Mr. S. Simpson, who was
appointed Government Cotton Expert in the country in 1905.

Bulletin of the Imperl\l Institute.

Soil.

Very little work has been done so far in the investigation
of the soils of Nyasaland. There are, however, a few analyses
of Nyasaland soils available, one of which was made at the
Imperial Institute in 1899, and others have been placed at
Mr. Simpson's disposal by the Oceana Company, from whose
estates the soils analysed were taken. The sample analysed
at the Imperial Institute was from the Songani Estate, and
consisted of ferruginous sandy material evidently representing
for the most part the weathered debris of rocks. In the letter
advising the dispatch of this material from Nyasaland it was
stated that the coffee crop never suffers from drought where this
rock is present, and generally thrives where its fragments are
strewn about. This material consisted of ^^^r^-^^r^z^^/ (particles
above i mm. in size) -^t^, fine gravel (particles less than i mm.
and greater than 0*5 mm.) 26'2, and soil (passing through a 0*5
mm. sieve) 40*9 per cent.

The soil only was used for the analysis and gave the following
results, to which are added for convenience of comparison
similar analyses of Mysore coffee soils by Voelcker, and of
Coorg coffee soils by Massey : —

Mysore Coffee soils

Nyasa-
land

Coorg Coffee soils

(Voelcker).

soil.

(Massey).

Per

cent.

cent'

Moisture

3-66

6-68

6-22

7-02

7-42

Organic matter and com- \
bined water /

7-15

1375

13-30

8-03

3-70

4-30

3-97

4-84

Ferric oxide . . FcgOg

5*04

11-83

1 2 -02

8-62

4-20

3-82

500

3-42

Alumina .... AlgOg

20 '39

1 1 "53

13-81

18-9

5-40

6*22

6-19

6-13

Lime . . . . . CaO

0-20

0-32

0-63

0-86

0-99

0-83

I -00

Magnesia . . . MgO

0-28

o-io

0-30

0-29

0.21

0-30

0-26

0-35

Potash .... K2O

0-25

0-12

O-IO

0-23

0-62

0-75

058

0-68

Soda NagO

0-I2

0-15

0-09

0-26

0-38

0-34

0-30

0-41

Phosphoric anhydride \
P2O5/

0-13

0-02

O-IO

0-51

0-40

0-57

071

0-81

Sulpliuric anhydride SO3

0-03

—

0-40

0-08

0-12

0-2I

0-19

0-20

Carbon dioxide . CO2

0-21

0-30

0-19

0-24

Chlorine CI

—

0-02

0-03

0-09

o-o8

Silica and insoluble^
matter. . .SiOa&c.j

66-40

60-34

57-38

59-01

77-2

75-9

74-6

73-8

Nitrogen (as organic]

matter and ammonia) \

Nitrates . . . . NO3

0-032

0-20

0-02I

0-69

083

0-79

0-86

—

traces

—

Comparison of these results shows that this Nyasaland soil
has much the same composition as the coffee soils of Mysore

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 25

and Coorg in India, and that though it is rather poor in nitrogen
and lime it should be quite suitable for the cultivation of coffee.
(Compare Technical Reports and Scientific Papers, Imperial
Institute, 1903, I., p. 40.)

The results of the other analyses quoted are given in the
following table : —

Kampala Soils.

Loss on ignition
Insoluble matter
Lime

Potash

Phosphoric acid
Nitrogen

West,

Soil.

Dried at
100° C.

2-54

92-19
0*09
0-2I
0"0I
0-033

Subsoil.

Dried at
100° C.

I -60

94-01

0-31

o-i6
0*07
0-014

Middle.

Soil.

Dried at
100° C.

2-78

90-5
o-io
0-29
0*07

0-050

Subsoil.

Dried at
100° C.

2-51
89-90
016
0-30
0-06
0-036

East.

Soil.

Subsoil.

Dried at Dried at
100° C. j ioo° C.

2-71

88-30
0-32

o'43
009
0-057

3-02

85-23
0-42
0-50
o-ii
0056

Lilansri Soils.

Kaoinbi Danibo
Soils.

Block 41.

Block 31.

Block 12.

No. I.

Soil. 1 Subsoil.

Soil. Subsoil.

Soil.

Subsoil.

No. 2.

Dried at Dried at
100° C. 100° C.

Dried at , Dried at
100° C. 100° c.

Dried at
100° C.

Loss on ignition

4-00 472

3-89

4-55

9 '43

9-08

11-15

4-14

Insoluble matter

80-00 79-22

83-37

80-34

64-44

62-73

60-14

78-90

Lime

1-43 0-72

083

0-52

1-44

1-72

0-84

0-98

Potash

0-76 j 0-72

0-56

0-58

0-88

074

0-49

0-72

Phosphoric acid

0-30 0-29

0-22

0-17

0-28

0-24

0-19

0-36

Nitrogen

0-I27 0-093

o-ioo

0-078

0-145

O'lOI

02 26

0-084

It will be noted that the Kampala soils are very deficient in
lime, whilst the Lilangi soils are fairly rich in plant food, as are
also those from the Kaombi Dambo.

Climate,
The following table gives the rainfall at 22 stations in the
Protectorate during 1907-08 : —

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Wet Season Rainfall, 1907- 1 908.

No.

Station.

Port Herald . . .
Chiromo ....
Chikwawa ....

Neno

Mwendangombe . .
Blantyre Government
Kubula Hill (Blantyre)
Chipande ....
Fort Anderson . . .

Lukulesi

Zomba

Namadidi ....
Domasi Mission . .

Chikala

Liwonde ....

Ncheu

Fort Mlangeni . . .
Fort Johnston . . .

Dedza

Kawia

Mzimba

Karonga

Height

Total

Total No. of

above sea-level.

in inches.

wet days.

feet.

125

30-90

127

3478

—

46-15

3,800

55-08

3,000

46-17

—

49-83

3,000

37-45

2,462

84-77

100

2,800

37-53

2,948

60-86

114

2,600

62-00

lOI

3,000

53-95

—

50-63

I J 150

28-17

—

34-26

4,419

35-10

1,263

36-88

5,044

39-90

! 2,150

72-14

i —

30-98

i 1,260

42-42

Coffee.
Up to 1903 coffee was the staple crop of European planters
in the country, and has been the chief item of export, except in
1906 and 1907 when it was replaced by cotton. Very large
areas were under coffee formerly, often in situations which were
unsuitable both as regards climate and soil. A decline set in,
partly owing to the fall in price of the product, and partly as
the result of a severe drought in the Shire Highlands, and
about the same time interest in cotton cultivation was aroused,
with the result that there has been a considerable decrease in
coffee production. The figures of exports and of area under
coffee in recent years are given in the following table : —

Year.

Exports* of Coffee

Area under Coffee.

Quantity.

Value.

Average price
per lb.

Acres planted.

Acres in
bearing.

lb.

£,

1902 t

699,030

14,751

^d. and 6^.

10,713

7,041

1903

1,007,092

25,177

6^.

11,287

7,740

1904

714,555

17,869

6d.

8,867

8,234

1905

1,303,655

27,153

Sd.

4,880

4,580

1906

773,952

16,124

Sd.

5,273

3,238

1907

454,111

8,930

Sd.

5,565

3,290

1908

780,133

16,252

6,134

4,010

* The exports of any one year are the produce of the pi-eceding year' s work.
t The exports are for the annual period ending on March 31 of the year quoted.

The. Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 27

The following table shows the districts in which coffee planting

is chiefly located : —

Acres planted

Acres in bear-

Estimated crop to

in 1908.

ing in 1908.

March 31, 1909.
Tons.

West Shire .

800

480

51-5

Blantyre

. 4,102

2,747-5

311-5

Mlanje

. . 328

252

22-5

Zomba

222

193

14-0

Chikala

3-5

Upper Shir6

620-5

317-5

25-0

Cent. Angoniland

31-5

—

Total

. 6,134

4,010

428

Arabian coffee is the variety generally grown, and experience
shows that in Nyasaland it does best on light, free-working,
loamy soil, which should be well cultivated and trenched to
prevent scouring by heavy falls of rain. No shade trees are
necessary for coffee on the Highlands. The plants are usually
planted out at distances of 5 feet by 4 feet, giving about
2,178 per acre, and are placed so as to alternate with those in
the rows in front of and behind them. The crop must be kept
clear of weeds, and no catch crop is desirable, though if a catch
crop is taken it should be tobacco, not cotton.

For manurial purposes farmyard manure, residues from coffee-
pulping, tobacco scrap, etc., can be used. Occasional dressings
with lime are useful, and green manuring with ground nuts, or
the " cobwa " bean is advantageous.

During the dry season the plants must be pruned and the
soil forked over and its surface broken up, and kept in a loose
condition to conserve moisture. For sowing, only seeds selected
from the best trees should be utilised. No coffee is at present
grown on the lower levels, but it would be interesting to try
experiments with Liberian coffee there.

Tobacco.

Tobacco is a well-established product of the Protectorate, but
it was not till 1906 that serious attention was given to the crop ;
and at first the market for the tobacco was mainly South Africa,
but on the failure of that market attention was directed to the
possibility of producing tobacco suitable for export to this

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

country. Arrangements were made with a firm of tobacco
manufacturers in the United Kingdom to select an expert in
tobacco-growing to visit the country and give advice to planters.
The results have been so promising that the same firm has
opened a buying establishment at Limbe near Blantyre, equipped
with machinery for handling tobacco as received from planters.
This action has overcome the difficulty of finding a local market,
which told severely against the industry at first. Further, the
recent completion of the railway and the reduction of transport
rates, renders the export of tobacco as well as of all other
produce much more feasible than before. The production of
bright yellow leaf of such standard kinds as " Conqueror,"
" White Stem," " Orinoco " and " Hestor " has given good
results. Turkish and cigar tobaccos are also being experimented
with, but it is not yet possible to say that their cultivation will
be as successful as that of the bright yellow pipe tobaccos. The
figures of exports and of area under tobacco in recent years
are criven in the followincr table : —

Export

s * of tobacco.

Area under tobacco.

Year.

Quantity.

Value.

lb.

Acres.

I902t .

. 14,369

. 425 .

1903 .

. 17,764

296 .

441

1904 .

• 28,754

479 .

944

1905 .

. 56,826

947 .

421

1906 .

. 199,020

3,317 .

955

1907 .

. 413,216

6,888 .

2,330

1908 .

. 554,395

9,239 .

1,843

The following

table shows the

districts in

which tobacco

cultivation is chi(

ifly undertaken :—

District.

Area.

Estimated crop

Number of

Acres.

1909. Tons

curing barns.

West Shire .

Blantyre

1,256

283-5

Mlanje

175

Zomba

161

38-5

Chikala

Upper Shir^

8-5

West Nyasa

Tot

al .

1,843

400-5

119

* The export of any c

lie year is the crop of the

pj-eceding year.

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 29

Natives grow a little tobacco for their own use, but this
product is quite unsuitable for export. A number of native
estate labourers now understand how to handle the crop, and
this may lead eventually to the production of tobacco suitable
for export by the natives.

COTTON.

European Industry.

The following are the statistics concerning the European
cotton industry since its inception : —

1902 f

1903

1904

1905

1906

1907

1908

The following is a comparative statement of the area under
cotton in the different districts since the industry began : —

Exports.*

Acreage.

lb.

Small parcels

692

580

56,577

7,000

285,185

21,900

776,621

10,012

526,119

7,017

403,486

8,659

District

Acreage under Cultivation.

1902.

1903.

1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

1908.

Lower Shir6 . .
Ruo

West Shir6 . . .
Blantyre ....
Mlanj6 ....
Zomba \
Chikala / ■ • •
Upper Shir^ . .
South Nyasa .
Cent. Angoniland .
West Nyasa . .
North Nyasa . .

6
36

239

135

lOI

No reliable de-
tails available,
but it is esti-
mated that 7,000
acres were un-
der cotton.

414
2,452
3,627
11,729
743
1,297
1,638

500
1,911
2,797
2,352

470

176

1,693
2

lOI

415
1,700
1,616
1,392

453

1 133

(_ 200

1,108

ISO
2,527
1,702
i,86ii

225
1,127

Totals . . .

580

7,000

21,900

TO,OI2

7,017

8,659

The above statistics are interesting in that they show the full
history of the cotton-growing movement in Nyasaland, and
although this product has been cultivated for so short a time, it

* The export of any one year is from the preceding year s acreage.

t The exports are for the annual period ending on March 31 cf the year quoted.

30 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

headed the exports for 1905-6 and 1906-7, which augurs well
for the future.

Last year both coffee and tobacco were ahead of cotton, as
the. season was rather against the last-mentioned crop, both on
the Highlands, where the prolonged rains interfered with the
ripening, and on the lower levels, which were affected by a
drought in January. Thus the quality of the produce was not
up to the usual standard of Nyasaland cotton. The estimated
production for the year ending March 31, 1909, is approximately
350 tons of lint.

The acreage under cultivation has varied so considerably that
some explanation is needed. During the years 1904 and 1905
hundreds of acres were planted Vv^ith varieties of cotton altogether
unsuited to the prevailing climatic conditions, and gave very
disappointing yields. At that time planters had undertaken
to grow large areas before the requisite knowledge had been
acquired for the growth and management of this special crop.
Now the industry is firmly established, and the acreage devoted
to the cultivation of cotton is increasing.

The British Cotton Growing Association have taken a keen,
interest in the crop from the beginning, and the African Lakes
Corporation, Ltd., their local agents, are empowered to arrange
advances on crops, etc., and to help on the industry in every
possible way.

A Report on the Cotton Growing Industry in this country
was published by the Colonial Office in 1905 (African, No. 792).
It is a general guide to cotton cultivation in Nyasaland, and
affords information as to the varieties of cotton most suited to
the peculiarly varying conditions of soil and climate found in
the country.

Of the 8,659 acres under cotton in 1908, 3,200 were in the
Highlands, and 5,500 (approx.) on the lower levels. The crop
is being cultivated on 63 estates, and is, therefore, being thoroughly
tested.

Highlands. — The Egyptian varieties were tried here on a
large scale, but the results were disastrous, as the growing season
is too short unless under irrigation. Egyptian cotton is not
grown in the Highlands now. American Upland is the variety
recommended, and is being cultivated with commercial success.

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 31

The crop must be grown on the heavier soils in sheltered
positions, so that the short periods of cold weather which
sometimes occur in the growing season may do little harm.

The yield is still low, but is improving. In the United States
the average is 190 lb. per acre, but 400 and 500 lb. are common
on well-cultivated land. The A. L. Bruce Trust, the largest
growers of American cotton in Nyasaland, have announced the
last season's results, which are as follows : Magomero Estate has
under cotton 93 J acres, and 60 tons 1 1 cwts. have been shipped.
Average output per acre, 140 lb. approximately. The best
fields gave 180 lb., and the worst 127 J lb.

Lukulesi Estate has an estimated acreage under cotton of 300
acres. (Some fields had fibre planted 8 ft. apart between the
rows, and others had coffee still growing and bearing a crop.)
Total crop, 24J tons, which gives an approximate average of
180 lb. per acre.

The Blantyre and East Africa Co., Ltd., had small acreages
on various estates, and the manager has kindly furnished the
following figures and remarks : —

Estate.

Acres.

Total Seed
Cotton.

Seed Cotton
per Acre.

Remarks.

Mapasi

8,144

407

Low-lying, good appearance.

Sanford

2,375

407

Poor appearance, wind swept.

Lunzu

4,220

602

Manured and well-sheltered.

Mlombwa

4,503

225

Very poor return, early
planted.

Mbami

4,094

240

Poor.

Chiradzulu

3,1

14,235

384

Very wind-swept, suffered
from want of labour.

Namasi

7,631

448

Fair return.

The manager of the African Lakes Corporation has kindly
provided the following report on samples from this year's
crop : —

" We have received the small samples from first pickings at
Nchewe and Gotha, and are pleased to inform you that they
are considered by our brokers as about the best results from
American seed they have seen produced in Africa, and if
the bulk be as good in colour and staple it will be a highly

32 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

satisfactory result. The Gotha sample of American cotton,
planted November i8, 1907, and picked March 24, 1908, is
valued at jd. to 'j\d. per lb. ginned, and is described as of ' good
colour, staple I J ins.," strong, moderately fine.' The Nchewe
sample of American cotton, planted November 6, 1907, and
picked March 19, 1908, is valued at j\d. to j\d. per lb. ginned,
and is described as of 'good colour, staple i;^ to i| ins., strong
and fine.'"

More attention needs to be given to increasing the yield and
raising the quality of the produce by careful seed selection,
manuring, and good cultivation, as cotton is now well acclima-
tised. A rotation of crops must also be introduced.

Insect pests have not been so prevalent as at first, but no
efforts should be spared to keep the fields free from weeds, and
to look out for the presence of insects. The preventive and
remedial measures against pests of all kinds must be applied
regularly, and are to be looked upon as an important step in the
successful growth of cotton.

Sufficient care is not yet given to cleanliness of picking and
storing. All the cotton is ginned by the roller gin. Up to the
present it has been an expensive process, as \d. per lb. is
generally charged, but reduced prices will be charged in some
instances next season. It would be a great advantage if a saw
gin were available in Blantyre ; the poorer qualities could then
be more cheaply and expeditiously dealt with in the dry
season.

Baling is still a matter of difficulty. Some estates, owing to
difficulties of transport, are compelled to make the small bales
so much disliked by the trade, whilst other places are only
provided with hand-balers, which cannot bring the cotton to
the density required for it to be carried at reasonable freights.
For cotton baled to a density of at least 20 lb. per cubic foot,
the cost of transport from Blantyre to Liverpool is £a, i^s. 4^.
per ton.

Prices for the produce have been satisfactory; as much as
%\d. per lb. has been obtained for some lots, whilst the average
is \d. to \\d. above middling American.

It can now be confidently stated that the cotton industry is
on a sound commercial basis, and thoroughly established. A

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 33

yield of 112 lb. per acre will make a paying industry, and it has
been calculated that the cost of producing 112 lb. of cotton at
present prices is roughly equivalent to the value of 75 lb.

Lower Levels. — There are approximately 5,500 acres under
cotton on the lower levels, which is a much larger area than
that under cultivation in the Highlands, although it cannot be
said to have been as great a success.

The Egyptian varieties are most commonly grown, and
" Abassi " has proved the most suitable. The quality of the
produce has been excellent, and \\d. and \s. per lb. have been
obtained for choice lots, but the bulk of it is below " fully good
fair " Egyptian. This cotton appears to degenerate somewhat,
becoming harsh and shorter in staple.

There is little information available as to the yield per acre,
but 147 lb. have been obtained on a small acreage. The
general average, however, has been below 100 lb., and this has
been due entirely to climatic causes, which make the Egyptian
plant very susceptible to bacterial blight, against which no
methods at present known are of the least avail as a direct
remedy. Preventive methods only can be practised, and if
these are persisted in, it is hoped that the plant may become so
thoroughly acclimatised that it will be able to withstand the
very trying conditions which sometimes prevail in these districts.

The following account of the prevalent disease on the lower
levels by Prof Orton, Pathologist to the U.S.A. Department of
Agriculture, is very instructive. He says : " There is a bacterial
disease of cotton [Bacterium malvaceartim^ Erw. Sm.) which is
found to occur on different parts of the plant, producing various
symptoms and receiving various names, such as angular leaf-
spot, black-arm, boll-spot, etc., according to the point of attack.
We describe all these together.

" The earliest appearance of the disease is perhaps on the
leaves, where it produces what is commonly known as the
angular leaf-spot. These spots are at first a water-soaked
green, becoming black when older. They are angular in out-
line, one-eighth to one-fourth inch in diameter. They are
scattered over the leaf, but are more often numerous near the
large veins. When one of these veins is attacked the disease
rapidly extends its whole length. *'

34 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

" Infection of the petiole is less common, but sometimes occurs,
causing the leaf to turn yellow and fall off.

"Infection of the pedicel of the bolls is a common cause of
shedding and of failure to open. The bolls themselves are also
attacked, the points of infection being water-soaked at first and
then growing darker. This organism does not appear to be as
active a cause of boll-rot as the anthracnose fungus and several
bacteria which appear to follow it, and which very likely gain
entrance through the bacterial spot.

"Young plants in June are sometimes attacked on the main
stem, near the ground or higher up, where a canker is formed
which so weakens the stem that it is broken off later by winds
or during cultivation. It is later in the summer that most
damage occurs, when the disease attacks the fruit-bearing limbs.
The. spots on the limbs are dark — nearly black — and, though
not deep, so sap the vitality as to cause the shedding of all the
smaller bolls. In many cases, when the season is wet, infection
by anthracnose follows and adds to the injury.

" Egyptian cotton is peculiarly subject to this trouble — so
much so that its cultivation in the South-Eastern States
appears to be impracticable. There is considerable variation
in the resistance of different races of Sea Island cotton, Rivers,
for instance, being rather susceptible, while Centerville is nearly
immune.

"Remedial measures must be indirect. Resistant varieties can
be developed by selection. Diversification and rotation of crops
will tend to reduce the amount of infectious material remaining
on the land, and will lessen the disease. Black-arm is probably
carried through seed to some extent, and the selection of seed
from healthy bolls only will greatly aid in its control. It may
be expected that a reduction of the nitrogen and an increase in
the amount of potash in the fertiliser, by inducing development
of less succulent branches, will reduce the danger of infection."

It will thus be seen that stress is laid on indirect measures.
In Nysisaland, resistant varieties are being gradually developed,
and all seed before being sown is treated with corrosive sublimate
or formalin.

With the object of getting a good cotton more resistant to
the disease than Egyptian, some Brazilian seed was imported in

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 35

1906, and sent out to planters for experimental purposes. The
results obtained with this variety have so far proved very
satisfactory.

A perennial " kidney " cotton is being grown at Mpimbi ; it
yields only 60 to 70 lb. per acre, but as the expenses connected
with it are small it is likely to prove remunerative.

Experiments have been niade with " Allen " and " Peterkin "
long-stapled American Upland, and both promise extremely well.

The lighter soils have given the best results; the cottons
grown thereon are much less liable to disease, whilst those
cultivated on heavy rich soils are soon overcome with blight.
The Lisungwe valley has given consistently good results for the
past three years.

There are more facilities for ginning and baling on the lower
levels than in the Highlands, and transport is less expensive.
Well-baled cotton from Chiromo t6 Liverpool costs £^ ^s. M.
per ton. Cotton seed can also be exported from these dis-
tricts, and £7 i^s. per ton has been obtained for it on the home
market. The Highlands cannot export seed profitably at the
present transport rates. Labour is rather more expensive on
the lower levels, and there is a difficulty at present about
subsidiary crops, but sisal fibre and rubber are being gradually
planted.

If irrigation were adopted, cotton planted in March would
grow and ripen splendidly. Unless, however, the Government
initiates some scheme, irrigation on a reasonable scale will not
be attempted.

Cotton is being gradually acclimatised on the lower levels,
and in a short time the yield per acre should greatly exceed
that obtained in the Highlands, and the cotton will be of a
finer quality.

Quality of Nyasaland Cotton.

In July 1905 the Head of the Scientific Department at Zomba
forwarded 39 samples of cotton, grown in various parts of the
Protectorate, to the Imperial Institute for examination and
report. Each sample was fully reported on, and the results
were published as a supplement to the British Central Africa
Gazette of March 30, 1907.

36 , Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

The results of the examination of these samples led to the
following conclusions and reconimendations : —

" From the detailed results of the examination of this collec-
tion of cottons from British Central Africa it will be seen that,
although there is considerable variation in the samples, many
of the cottons are of excellent quality, and would certainly well
repay cultivation. It is, however, impossible to select any one
variety as being the most promising for general cultivation in
the Protectorate, as the samples of the same cotton grown in
different districts exhibit wide differences in quality.

"The chief defect is the uneven colour of many of the samples,
and it may be noted that in almost all these cases the staining
was evidently due to the presence of insect pests in the cotton.
It is, therefore, probable that greater care in cultivation, picking
and ginning the cotton, and adoption of preventive measures
against insect pests, would result in a considerable improvement
in the quality of these cottons."

General Cotton Experiments. — These experiments have
very kindly been conducted by planters in all parts of the
country, and only the seed has been provided.

Peruvian, Indian, Brazilian, and various kinds of American
cotton have thus been thoroughly tested under varying conditions
of soil and climate.

The Peruvian cotton has been an absolute failure in every
part of Nyasaland. The Indian varieties gave such poor results
that their cultivation has been abandoned. Two kinds of
Brazilian cotton were tried, one being a tree-cotton and the
other being grown as an annual. The former was not successful
and proved very susceptible to disease. The latter gave a small
crop in the Highlands and a good crop of high-class cotton on
the lowlands, and showed itself very capable of resisting disease.
A yield of 200 lb. of lint per acre was obtained. The cultivation
of this Brazilian variety is, therefore, being undertaken on a
large scale, and in the river districts it promises to displace
Egyptian varieties. ;

American varieties. — Six varieties were obtained, viz. " King,"
"Mascot," " Toole," " Sunflower," " Allen," and " Peterkin." As
there were only ten pounds of seed from each variety, and it did
not arrive until December 1906, in that season it was planted

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 37

in the Zomba gardens only. The heavy rains in March and
April did much damage to the cottons, so that seed of very
poor quality was obtained. However, this seed was distributed
for experimental purposes to planters in various parts of the
country. The Peterkin and Allen have given the best results,
and more seed is being imported by planters themselves for
extended trials.

Caravonica. — Some firms have imported this seed, and are
fairly satisfied with the promise of results, but as no crop has
yet been obtained, it is too early to say if its cultivation will
prove successful.

The experiments at Zomba were conducted on a small scale.
Two separate gardens were planted, one at the Likangala, 3
miles from Zomba, and the other at the Bwaila, 2 miles from
Zomba.

The soil at the Likangala is a black loam, whilst the Bwaila
is a medium loam, and both gardens have been under cultivation
for many years without manure.

The cultivation was good, but no manure was applied in
1906-7. The gardens are much too near Zomba Mountain,
and the rainfall is too heavy for cotton to be a success either
in yield or quality. The March and April rains particularly
do much damage at ripening time, and for this reason cotton
experiments in the future are to be carried on further away on
the Mlanje Road, where the rainfall is not so heavy, especially in
the ripening season.

Native Cotton Industry.

The native cotton-growing industry was started at the end of
1903, when two tons of Egyptian cotton seed were given out to
natives in the Upper Shire, South Nyasa, Zomba, West Shire
and Marimba districts. The results from this seed are shown in
the 1905 returns given below. When the seed was distributed,
it was pointed out to the natives that by growing small patches
round their villages, they could procure the money necessary for
the payment of their annual hut tax, and for the purchase of
calico and other articles they may require. Each succeeding
year, seed has been distributed through the Residents of the
different Districts, and they have worked hard to interest the

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

natives in the new product. Progress has been slow, and will
continue so until agricultural development generally is thoroughly
taken in hand.

The native production of seed cotton has been as follows : —

District.

Lower Shire . .
Ruo

West Shire . . .

Blantyre ....

Mlanje ....

Zomba ....

Chikala ....

Upper Shire . .

South Nyasa .

Central Angoniland

Marimba

West Nyasa . .

Mombera

North Nyasa . .

Totals

1905.

370

1,680

54,004

4,563

1906.

lb.
58,240
3,075
730

64,352
5,893
6,897

9,322

60,617 150,629

lb.
24,988

222

484

34,822

53,539
11,308
24,030

24,248'

73,641

1908.

lb.
20,317

200

249
236

70
17,103

2,333
6,619

7,668

54,795

Estimated crop

to March 31,

1909.

200 tons

18 tons

4 cwts.

12 to 15 tons

i ton
16 tons

6 tons
10 tons

10 cwts.

6 tons

269I tons

It should be noted that quantities are upto March 31 of each
year, and, therefore, seed distributed in November 1908 will not
give a crop until after the year ending March 31, 1909.

The 1908 season was a bad one for cotton, the drought
affecting most seriously those districts where native production
is the heaviest. A famine appeared imminent, and cultivators
applied the whole of their energies to the production of food
crops, with the result that cotton was sadly neglected.

The Residents appeared to have lost interest in cotton growing
to some extent, and as native production at present entirely
depends on their taking the matter up with keenness, that also
has had a retrograde effect on the quantity grown.

However, changes for the better have taken place. Residents
know that cotton growing has become an established and paying
industry among European planters, and increased efforts are
therefore being made to encourage the growth of such a profit-
able crop as cotton, especially as it is easily adapted to native
methods of cultivation.

In the Lower Shir6 district nearly 2,000 natives have cotton
gardens this year,^ but the area of each is only from one-tenth
to one-fifth of an acre in extent, and until about half to one acre

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 39

is taken up, the return will keep low. Still, this year the native
cotton crop will be the largest yet produced.

As an educational influence, small cotton gardens have been
instituted at Port Herald, Chikwawa, Ncheu, Fort Johnston,
Dedza, Dowa, Lilongwe, Mzimba, Ngara, and Karonga. These
are from half to one acre in size, and under the direct charge of
the various Residents. The cost of working them is small, and
natives are thus enabled to see something of cotton growing as
it ought to be carried out. American seed is planted in the
Highland gardens, and Egyptian on the lower levels.

Pamphlets in the vernacular on cotton growing have been
widely distributed, with the result that buyers report that the
produce is delivered in a much cleaner condition than formerly,
although much yet remains to be done.

The British Cotton Growing Association have throughout
taken a keen interest in Nyasaland, and their agents, the
African Lakes Corporation, are empowered to buy all native
cotton offered for sale. The price given is one penny per lb.
for seed cotton south of Fort Johnston, and \d. per lb. in other
places. The British Central Africa Co. also buy at several places,
whilst planters generally purchase any cotton brought into them.

In some cases the growers have had to carry the product 50
miles before being able to dispose of it, but as buying centres
have been largely increased this hardship is now rarely met
with. Generally the purchasers have to take the seed cotton
long distances to be ginned, which entails great expense. Small
ginneries should be erected in the best native cotton districts in
order to effect a saving on the transport of seed, and these would
also facilitate the distribution of seed for the following season's
planting. The ideal condition of things would be for the natives
to deliver their cotton at some such ginnery, and at the same
time to take away the seed required by them for the next crop.
The Residents would not have the trouble of distributing large
quantities of seed if this course were adopted, and the natives
would very soon become accustomed to the system.

The seed distributed to the natives is bought locally from
planters and is to some extent acclimatised. For the last two
years, £^ per ton had to be paid for it, but the seed being given
out for next season's planting has been bought at £2 per ton

40 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Seed is becoming very plentiful, especially in the Highlands,
where it is hardly profitable to export it. Some firms, with
plantations conveniently situated on the Shire, prefer to export
their seed than sell it at £2 per ton in the country.

Last year a number of bags of seed were given to the Govern-
ment by the agent of the British Cotton Growing Association,
and these were distributed in the Lower Shire District, and this
year the same firm are giving free of charge the seed from the
best lots of cotton dealt with in their Chiromo ginnery. This is
also for the same district, where the quantity of seed required
is so large that the vote for this purpose would not allow of it
being purchased from planters.

The demand for seed is gradually growing, and the native
cotton industry can now be said to be firmly established. The
total-amount of cotton seed required by native growers for the
next planting season is approximately 10 tons of American and
27 tons of Egyptian. " Abassi " is the variety of Egyptian
which is given out to the natives.

The British Central Africa Co. distributed seed amongst the
villages on their Upper Shire estate last season, and the results
were so satisfactory that the experiment will be repeated. On
this estate, a " kidney " cotton is chiefly grown and gives fair
results. This is a perennial cotton lasting six or seven years
with an annual pruning, and as the produce is of good quality,
this variety would appeal more strongly to the native mind than
the annual cottons at present cultivated. If this cotton were
gradually introduced amongst native cultivators under adequate
supervision, it would not be necessary for them to plant fresh
seed yearly, and their cotton gardens would be enlarged con-
siderably in consequence. The results of the examination at
the Imperial Institute of samples of cotton from Nyasaland are
given in this Bulletin (1904, 2. Zj) and in "British Cotton
Cultivation" [Cd. 3997, 1908].

fibres.
There are many useful indigenous fibres in Nyasaland, the
most important being " Bowstring Hemp " {Sansevieria),
"Denje" {Sida rhombifolia\ "Nzonogwe" {Triumfetia rhom^
boidea\ and " Buaze " {Securidaca longepedunculatd).

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 41

None of them has yet been cultivated (see also p. 62)
and it is very doubtful if any of them would prove remu-
nerative, owing to their slow growth and the heavy transport
charges. The most suitable one to experiment with is Sansevieria
Kirkii, which yields a fibre of excellent quality.

Jute {Corchorus olitoriiis) has been tried but has not proved
a success, and owing to its low price could not possibly be
profitable in this country.

Ramie {Boehmeria nived) has also ,been tried but was a
failure, and its cultivation is altogether unsuited to the climatic
conditions of Nyasaland. Irrigation made little difference to
the yield.

The best fibres for cultivation in Nyasaland are Sisal Hemp
{Agave rigzda, var. sisalana) and Mauritius Hemp {Furcrcea
gtgantea)^ and the following acreages under these fibres are at
present being cultivated.

Acres in bearing.

5oi

53i

Both these fibres grow extremely well, and their cultivation
is rapidly extending. Sisal' hemp grown in Nyasaland has been
valued at from ;^30 to ;^35 per ton and Mauritius hemp at
£2^. Some difficulty is being experienced with reference to
machinery for treating the crop, but that will gradually be over-
come. Both crops are free from insect pests and diseases, and
their cultivation is recommended as being safe and an excellent
standby on large estates, as the crop can be reaped when no
other work is available for the regular labour supply.

Four or five hundred acres must be planted to justify large
expenditure on machinery. There is plenty of land and cheap
labour, and the fibre industry is therefore making a promising
start under splendid conditions, and the next few years will see
a much larger acreage devoted to the cultivation of both Sisal
and Mauritius hemps.

District.

Acres planted

Ruo .

. 60

West Shire .

Blantyre

. 156

Mlanje

Zomba

Upper Shire

Totals

. 327

Bulletin of the Impemal Institute.

The results of the examination at the Imperial Institute of
various fibres from Nyasaland are given in this Bulletin (1904, 2.
84 ; 1905, 3. 23 ; 1907, 5. 374 ;. 1908, 6. 19).

RUBBER.

Rubber planting has made considerable progress in the Pro-
tectorate during the last three years. In 1902 the area devoted
to this purpose amounted to 202 acres, and in 1905 it had only
increased to 239 acres; since then, however, development has
been rapid, and in 1908 there were 2,419 acres under rubber.
Ceara trees have been planted on the largest scale, as being
most suited to the local conditions, and occupy 2,244 acres out
of the total of 2,419. Fifty acres of these trees are now yielding
rubber in the Mlanje district and ten acres in the Blantyre
district. 124 acres of Para trees, 50 of Castilloa and i of
Funtumia have also been planted experimentally. In addition,
steps have been taken on two estates to preserve and propagate
the indigenous Landolphia vines, and to tap them by improved
methods.

The following table gives the acreage under rubber in each
district on March 31, 1908 : —

District.

Variety.

Acres planted.

Lower Shire

Ceara

West Shire

do.

52J

Blantyre .

do.

965i

Castilloa

Landolphia

Large acreage

Mlanje

Ceara

Zomba

do.

637

Chikala

do.

280

Upper Shire

do.

124

West Nyasa

Funtumia

Ceara

Castilloa

Para

124

))

Landolphia

Large acreage

North Nyasa

. * Ceara

100

Total

2,419

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 43

Most of the rubber exported from Nyasaland is collected by
natives from Landolphia vines growing wild in the West Nyasa
District. The exports in 1908 amounted to 16,119 lb., of which
1,120 lb. were collected from one of the estates where Landolphia
vines are preserved, 112 lb. were obtained from cultivated Ceara
trees, whilst 568 lb. were derived from other territories.

Landolphia Rubber. — The most important indigenous rubber
vine is Landolphia Kirkii, and this is being cultivated on two
estates. The seeds are planted in bamboo baskets, 4 or 5 in
each, kept in the nursery under shade for a year, and then
transplanted in the forest. The cultivation entails considerable
expense, as it is 12 to 15 years before any return can be
expected. It is suggested that planters should preserve the
vines found growing by the streams on their estates.

Ceara Rubber {Manihot Glaziovii). — ^This tree grows very
rapidly in all parts of the Protectorate, and many of the aban-
doned coffee gardens are being planted up with it. The planting
is purely experimental, and results from only two estates are
obtainable.

The African Lakes Corporation kept statistics from a group
of 18 trees on the Chitikali Estate, Mlanje. The trees were of
various ages, and had received practically no attention before
the tapping experiments were commenced. The full herring-
bone system was adopted, and a Bowman-Northway No. II
Patent Tapping Knife used. Great care was exercised so as
not to cut through the cambium, and drip-tins, with a few drops
of ammonia solution in the water, were used to prevent the latex
coagulating too quickly. The mixture of water and latex was
poured into coagulating bowls, and in the afternoon of the same
day the biscuits were rolled on a table, and constantly washed
with clear water. The wet biscuits were then placed on a wire
frame and left to dry in a well-ventilated shed from which
sunlight was practically excluded.

The samples were sent home and were valued at 4^-. \od. per
lb. The 18 trees were tapped about every other day for a
month, then allowed to rest a month, and so on. After 9
months the trees showed no ill effects through excessive tapping
except where the cambium had been incised.

These 18 trees were tapped 62 times from November 21,

44 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

1906, to September 6, 1907, and the yield of wet rubber was as
follows : —

From November 21 to December 22

From January 30 to February 28

From April 3 to May 3

From June 1 1 to July 4

From August 9 to September 6 .

56^ oz. wet rubber.

40f

55f n

44i
281 oz. wet rubber.

This yield is approximately equal to 140 oz. of dry rubber, or
8 oz. per tree.

The Nyasa Industrial Mission, Likabula, Blantyre, have also
conducted experiments, but in this case the trees were tapped
by being pricked with the point of a knife in numberless places.

Four of the best trees, 10 years old, were tapped 5 days in
succession in order to determine the amount of rubber which
they would furnish. The whole of the trunk and larger branches
was tapped, and the yield obtained was 2 oz. of dry rubber per
tree per day, or 10 oz. from each. The cost of collecting this
2 J lb. of rubber was put at 2s. 6d. Usually about J oz. of rubber
is taken per tree per day, which is roughly i lb. for 8 months'
tapping.

Young trees 4 to 6 years old have been tapped, and from the
same area on a young tree as much latex as from a similar area
on an older tree has been obtained, and there appears to be no
difference in quality.

It has yet to be proved whether the Ceara tree will repay
cultivation in Nyasaland. The planting is costing very little,
and some planters are taking a catch crop of cotton which
covers the expenses of keeping the land clear for some time.
Others, again, are planting up patches of ground that cannot be
used for other purposes, whilst the major part of the Ceara is
being put in old coffee gardens, which are gradually going out
of cultivation.

The cheap labour may allow it to be cultivated at a profit,
but meanwhile the results of further experiments will be awaited
with great interest. .-.,,^;7

Para Rubber {Hevea brasiliensis). — The African Lakes Cor-

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 45

poration imported a number of Para plants in 1906. In January
1907 the trees were only 5 feet high, but some of them grew
5 feet in the next seven months, which is regarded as very
satisfactory. In January 1907 a further consignment of plants
was received by the Corporation, which now has 124 acres under
Para in West Nyasa.

This district is probably the best in the country for the Para
tree, and the experiment is being watched with great interest.
The climatic conditions of the greater part of Nyasaland are
very dissimilar to those regions where Para thrives well, and
it is extremely doubtful if its cultivation can be carried on
successfully except in the Lake Districts.

Castilloa Rubber {Castilloa elasticd). — Twenty-five acres of this
tree are being tried by the African Lakes Corporation in West
Nyasa. The trees were planted in 1906, but the rate of growth
has not been so satisfactory as that of the Para. Twenty-five
acres were also planted in the Blantyre District some years ago ;
the trees have made good growth, but tapping has not com-
menced, so it is yet too early to tell if its cultivation will prove
a success.

Funtmnia elastica. — A number of seeds have lately been
received from Uganda, and the nursery plants look well. Fun-
tumia latifolia is indigenous to the country, so there is some
likelihood that F. elastica will do well.

The results of the examination at the Imperial Institute of
two samples of Landolphia rubber from Nyasaland are given in
this Bulletin (1904, 2. 83).

CHILLIES.
The exports of chillies from Nyasaland for the past 5 years
have been as follows : —

Year.

Crop exported

to March 31.

Acreage under
cultivation.

Valued at.

1904

i 0.
. 66,350

725

£i,o(>A

1905

. _ 79423

■627

.1,323

1906

22,280

161

338

1907

. 6,336

147

105

1908 .

• 32,419

168

540

The districts at present planting chillies are given below.

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

District.

Acres
planted.

Estimated crop to

March 31, 1909.

Tons.

West Shire . .

2 .

—

Blantyre

5 .

. .. 1 ■

Mlanje

. 30 .

• 7

Zomba

• 35 •

. 4

Upper Shire .

. 8/ . ' .

• . 13

West Nyasa .

9 •

. 5

Totals .

. i68 .

. . 291

The area under this crop fluctuates very much, but it is a good
secondary product, especially where there is ample labour at
picking time, as this operation is tedious and expensive. This
crop is free from pests. The market for the product is limited^
although there is a steady demand for the Nyasaland kind.

TEA.

The following statistics show the gradual increase of the area
devoted to tea : — . ,

Acres
Year. planted.

1902 12

1903 127

Acres
Year, planted.

1904 260

1905 260

Acres
Year, planted.

1906 395

1907 445

Acres
Year, planted.

1908 516

All the area under tea, with the exception of 3 acres, is in the
Mlanje district, and there are 53 acres in bearing, with an esti-
mated yield of 9J tons. The best district is on the south-
eastern slopes of Mlanje Mountain, where the rainfall averages
70 to 100 inches per annum, and is fairly well distributed.

The plant grows well, is free from disease and insect pests,,
and thousands of acres are available for its cultivation in the
most favourable district, so that tea is expected to prove an
important addition to the agricultural industries in the future.
Owing to the difficulty of importing seed, the older trees have
been kept entirely for seed purposes.

A small quantity of the produce is consumed locally, but an
export trade will no doubt gradually spring up, as good reports
on samples have been received from buying centres.

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 47

The results of examination at the Imperial Institute of samples
of tea from Nyasaland are given in this Bulletin (1904, 2. 80).

WHEAT AND OTHER CEREALS.

The area under wheat for the past seven years has been as
follows : —

Year.

Acres.

Year.

Acres.

Year.

Acres.

Year.

Acres

1902

9oi

1904

1906

1908

102

1903

201J

1905

227

1907

63i

The districts where wheat is at present cultivated are shown
below : — ' .

Acreage under Estimated crop to

District. cultivation. March 31, 1909.

Blantyre . . . .2

Upper Shire . . .50

Cent. Angoniland . . 26

North Nyasa . . .24

Totals . . .102

Tons.
16

'^7

The cultivation of wheat has not been very successful, owing
chiefly to persistent attacks of rust, but this difficulty is obviated
when planting is done in the cold, dry season only, and under
irrigation. All the product is used locally.

Oats and Barley. — Small plots of these have been tried with
similar results, although the produce is not so valuable as wheat.

Maize. — No maize is grown at present for export purposes by
Europeans. On one estate it is grown under contract, and
if specially low rates of transport were quoted, it would be
tried on the home markets. Native-grown maize can be bought
for 285-. per ton.

Rice. — Very little rice is grown by Europeans, and its cultiva-
tion will not increase, as the native product is very cheap and
plentiful.

SUGAR.

Small patches of sugar-cane are grown by natives in various
parts of Nyasaland, but, except in one instance, European
planters have not attempted the crop, as the cost of transport
is prohibitive for export purposes, although an increasing local

48 BDLLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE.

demand needs to be met. Twenty acres only are cultivated
near Zomba under irrigation, and a small plant is utilised for
the extraction of the sugar, which meets with a ready sale
locally, as do also the bye-products. The area is likely to be
increased, as the crop has proved profitable.

VARIOUS CROPS.

Turmeric. — This is grown successfully on one estate, and the
prepared product has realised good prices on the home market.
There is a small local demand. The method of preparation is
so tedious that this crop is not likely to become popular.

Ginger. — The ginger plot in the Botanical Gardens has done
well, and a large number of plants have been raised from the
two received from Kew in 190 1. Plants are now available for
distribution, and there is every hope that the cultivation of this
product will prove a success, as well-prepared ginger brings
very satisfactory prices on the home market (compare this
Bulletin, 1904, 2. ^^6).

Cocoa.. — This has been tried for some years, but the climate
does not suit It. One tree bears fruit in the Mlanje District.
Thirty young plants have lately been received from Kew, and
some of these are being tried in West Nyasa, where it is thought
the climate may be suitable.

Vegetables. — Most common vegetables such as potatoes,
cabbages, carrots, peas, tomatoes, cauliflowers, etc., thrive well,
and natives grow them for sale in the European centres.
Planters as a rule cultivate a small garden at very little cost,
and the produce considerably cheapens the cost of living.

Fruits. — The climate is very favourable to the growth of
mangoes, pineapples, bananas, peaches, strawberries, grenadillas,
papaws, pomegranates, guavas, loquats, avocado pears, etc., and
when sugar is produced cheaply, fruit preservation for local
demands could be undertaken.

LIVE STOCK.

European Industry.

The following table gives the numbers and kinds of live stock
owned by planters, etc., during the last few years : —

The Agricultural Resources o^ Nyasaland. 49

Horses.

Mules.

Donkeys.

Buffaloes.

Cattle.

■ ' ■ -.

Sheep.

Goats.

Pigs.

1902

—

1 —

3,297

795

906

—

1903

—

103

3,556

893

852

1904

162

1 I3 - ,

^5»395

1,346

1,574

1905

• 170

i 23

6,557

2,335

1,470

325

, 1906

1 , 12'

6,932

2,154

1,326

314

1907

190

i 8

9,170

2,415

.969

466

: 1908

155

h —

10,653'

2,010

1,060

426

The table given below shows the distribution of live stock
throughout the various districts on March 31, 1908. ' . '

District.

Horses.

Mules.

Donkeys.

Cattle.

Sheep. ,

Goats.

Pigs.

Lower Shire . .

— 1 I

173

Ruo

7 ' —

123

—

V^est Shire . .

—

— ; '■7.

197

185

Blantyre . . .

I 41

3,891

590

327

162

Mlanje . . . .

— ■

' - : -'3 ■

557

132

Zomba ....

— I

1,634

191

—

Chikala ...

— r

Upper Shire . .

I 17

873

265

South Nyasa . .

— 1 — 4

432

257

Cent. Angoniland

Ir923

364

165

Marimba . .

I 8

205

—

West Nyasa . .

—

— 2

—

Mombera . . .

—

— 8

146

North Nyasa . .

—

I 40

426

—

Totals . .

II 155

10,653

2,010

1,060

426

Live stock generally throughout Nyasaland has not, up to the
present time, received the attention it deserves, although changes
for the better in this respect are rapidly taking place.

Horses do not do well, as " horse sickness " is present, and it
is only with difficulty that these animals can be kept in health.
A few, however, are doing good service, and such animals are
worth from ;^40 to £60 each. The Somali and Basuto ponies
are considered the most suitable. Mules do well, and for general
purposes are very useful animals. It would be worth the atten-
tion of settlers to start breeding mules, as a demand for them is
certain to arise. Donkeys thrive, and they are found particularly
valuable on the numerous mission stations scattered through-
out the Protectorate. Good white donkeys have been imported
from Zanzibar and Aden, and these make excellent beasts for
dding short distances. Buffaloes have been a failure, and
camels could not be expected to prosper under the prevailing
climatic conditions.

Most European planters now keep cattle, but until quite

50 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

recently little care was bestowed on their breeding and manage-
ment. This is a great mistake, as cattle are extremely profitable
in themselves, and the expenses in connection with rearing them
in Nyasaland are reduced to a minimum. Suitable grazing can
be found in the " bush " and on the " dambos " met with in
every district. These " dambos " are marshy places which are
useless for cultivation, and therefore provide ample food for
cattle in the dry season. The cattle are housed at night in
primitive " kraals," but these are being displaced by brick
buildings partly roofed in, so that plenty of air is available,
whilst good shelter is provided in the rains.

Oxen are used for transport purposes, but in only two or
three places are they used for the cultivation of the soil. The
hoe is practically the only implement used for cultivation
throughout the Protectorate, so the soil cannot be well prepared
for the growth of any crop.

The local market for cattle is very limited, and they are
valued at about £^ per head. Numbers are taken down to
Umtali for slaughtering purposes. Southern Rhodesia now
allows cattle from Nyasaland to enter on the same terms as
those from N.E. Rhodesia; this means six weeks' quarantine
on arrival, but as there is a good and certain market at greatly
enhanced prices, it is a profitable undertaking to take down a
large herd.

The native animal is small, but crosses well with imported
stock, and Indian crosses are scattered throughout the
country from bulls imported years ago. Shorthorns were also
imported and made excellent crosses with Nyasaland cattle,
and quite recently this serviceable breed has been brought in by
prominent planters, so that the size and quality of the cattle
are being gradually improved. These Shorthorn crosses make
splendid trek oxen.

Still more cattle should be imported, for, besides Shorthorns,
both Herefords and Devons would cross well with the native
cattle. The health of cattle is excellent, but imported stock
needs special care and attention. The crosses, however, are
treated like the native animals, and cause no trouble or anxiety.

Lucerne and paspalum grass should be grown for imported
stock, and also a constant supply of green maize.

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 51

The greatest enemy to successful cattle raising is the tsetse
fly {G. niorsitans). The areas where this pest is found are
being carefully studied and mapped out by the Medical De-
partment, so that losses from this source can be reduced to a
minimum by taking ordinary precautions.

So far as is at present known, the Lower Shire District is
free from tsetse. In two places in the Ruo District the fly has
been found, but the Shire valley from Chiromo to the Murchison
Falls above Chikwawa has been declared free.

In Blantyre District, tsetse is known to exist only near Matope
on the Shire, whilst Zomba and Mlanje District have a big
tsetse belt along the Palombo Plain ; in fact, the fly is found up
to within a few miles of Zomba. In the West Shire District it
is found along the Shire, whilst the Upper Shire District is very
badly infested with it.

South Nyasa has much tsetse round Lake Pamalombe, and
on the Livilezi and Bwanje, but it is free for some distance
round Fort Johnston, and also along the east shore of Lake
Nyasa as far as Fort Maguire. On the west shore of the Lake,
however, it is found ; Central Angoniland is free except on the
low levels adjoining Lake Nyasa. Marimba contains tsetse
belts, especially along the Lake shore, and it also occurs in West
Nyasa. Mombera is free, and North Nyasa may be considered
practically free, as only in the extreme south of that district have
a few been found.

The tsetse fly appears to keep within well-defined limits,
although during the dry season it has a tendency to range
further afield. That the fly does extend its range is shown by
the fact that at Liwonde cattle were formerly kept, and this is
now impracticable, whilst good grazing near Domira Bay cannot
now be utilised because, within the last few years, the fly has
put in an appearance.

Sheep are kept only for the table and local sale. The wool
carried by the native sheep is small in quantity and of very
poor quality. Some sheep have been imported, and crossing
increases the size but has had little effect upon the production
of wool. On the high plateaux it would be possible to keep
long-woolled sheep, and a reasonable growth of wool might be
expected. The Nyasaland sheep is small, prolific, and of the

52 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

usual fat-tailed variety found throughout Africa. Goats receive
very little attention from Europeans. The Nyasaland goat is
prolific, and surplus stock finds ready buyers amongst the
natives. Pigs are plentiful, and they cross well with imported
animals, so that some planters cure home-fed ham and bacon.
Imported fowls, turkeys, ducks, and geese are common, and
thrive well under the new conditions.

There is great need for a Government Stock Farm, so that
good animals could be placed about the country to improve the
quality of the live stock in the hands of Europeans and natives,
and thus help forward an important industry full of promise.

Native Industry.

Large herds of cattle were originally in the hands of natives,
especially in Central Angoniland, Mombera, and North Nyasa,
but disease and war thinned them very considerably. Latterly
also buyers from the South bought up large quantities for next
to nothing, but this procedure was stopped some years ago.

The Angoni and Wankonde are the pastoral tribes of the
country, and always take charge of European cattle. The Yaos
take little interest in animals. However, with security to property
firmly established, increased attention is being given to animals
by all the tribes, and natives are beginning to see that the
possession of them is the means of wealth, so that the keeping
of sheep, goats and pigs is increasing in all villages free from
the tsetse fly. The following figures give the number of live
stock returned as owned by natives for some years back, but
it must be kept in mind that it is only lately that the best live
stock districts have been brought under control : —

Year.

Cattle.

Sheep.

Goats.

Pigs.

1905

. 20,198

9,370

36,710

2,575

1906

22,271

9,412

28,912

3,113

190;

39,709

12,282

77,542

1,711

1908

40,996

14,744

92,033 "^V.

•'^19,515

There is an excellent market for all surplus sheep and goats,
and large numbers are sold annually in the native markets. The
native live stock industry needs encouragement, and efforts

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 53

should be made to improve the standard of every kind of
animal.

The following table shows the numbers owned by natives in
each district on March 31, 1908 : — :

District. Cattle.

Lower Shire i —

Rup 150

West Shire 179

Blantyre 130

Mlanje ' —

Zomba ........! 10

Chikala j —

Upper Shire I 885

South Nyasa ! 63

Central Angoniland , . . . j 860

Marimba 7^4

West Nyasa 2,000

Mombera j 22,000

North Nyasa ....... 13.955

Total I 40,996

Sheep.

150

400

1,771

180
70

169
86
5,788*

270

411
Not yet

500
4,000

949

14,744

Goats.

2,500
390

7,057
550
850

1,247
315

29,039'
4,200

24,511

counted

1,500

18,500

1,374

92,033

Pigs.

1,500

4,094

450

11,492*
330
1,500*

19,515

* Approximate.

Native cattle are worth from ;^3 to £4 each, sheep ^s. to Ss.
each, and goats from ^s. to 5^'. Native fowls are very plentiful,
and sell at the rate of 5 for one shilling, whilst eggs are 4 to 6
a penny. Prices are rather higher near Blantyre and Zomba.

NATIVE AGRICULTURE.

Native agriculture is very primitive, and consists chiefly in
growing sufficient food-stuffs with the least expenditure of
energy and trouble. Women do most of the field work.

Maize is the most important of the crops grown, and it is the
chief food of the people. Millet, cassava, various kinds of beans,
groundnuts, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, etc., are also largely
cultivated, while a poor kind of banana is a common fruit.
Sugar-cane is becoming fairly common, and most villages
produce a small patch of coarse tobacco which is dried and
smoked or made into snuff. The natives are very improvident,
make no provision for contingencies, and all surplus maize is
made into beer, scarcely sufficient being kept for seed purposes.
The grain is stored in large circular baskets made of bamboo,
and raised two or three feet from the ground. These are called

54 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

"nkhokhwes," and are a prominent feature of every village.
Practically no interest has yet been taken in native agriculture,
although rice and cotton have been encouraged to a small
extent, but more than anything yet attempted needs to be
done.

Revenue must be made before it can be collected, and it
would be preferable to strengthen the natives' hold upon the
land by encouraging them to improve and extend their crops
than that thousands should annually go for work outside the
Protectorate. The export of labour upsets village life com-
pletely, and retards the natural increase of population ; besides,
it must always be borne in mind that the native is the most
valuable asset Nyasaland possesses, and everything should be
done to help him to develop the natural resources of his own
country, and this can only be done through agriculture.

The various missions teach their pupils to grow European
vegetables, so that an increasing supply is obtainable. The
Blantyre Mission particularly is giving some agricultural training,
and a patch of ground must be cultivated by each student in a
certain year. All crops generally cultivated by Europeans are
being taken up, which gives an excellent training to the boys,
and other missions would be well advised to follow a similar
ourse.

An officer of the Agricultural Department should be detailed
to work amongst the natives of one or more districts each year
to encourage them to grow exportable crops, plant valuable
timber trees, give attention to the cultivation of the soil and
manuring, and so stop to some extent the deplorable waste of
timber by getting the natives to carry out a simple rotation of
crops.

The principles of irrigation could also be taught, and this would
be valuable to those living near streams and rivers.

Fruits like mangoes, peaches, oranges, pineapples, etc., would
thus become scattered about the Protectorate, as well as most
common vegetables, and would prove a boon to the natives.

The native may be indifferent to new ideas and methods, but
with the railway an accomplished fact, and transport by wagons
increasing, it will become more and more difficult for him to
obtain the casual work of carrying loads which he loves so dearly.

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 55

He must therefore of necessity turn his attention very seriously
to the cultivation of the soil.

Rice. — Rice, has been cultivated for a long time by Coast
Arabs settled at Kota Kota, so that when supplies were needed
to feed native and Indian troops, the Marimba District was
chosen to raise this product, which up to 1895 had been imported
from Bombay. The scheme worked well, and all the rice
required by the Protectorate is now grown by natives. It cannot
be exported, as freight charges are much too high for such a
product, and there is even now some difficulty in finding a
market for the quantity grown. Large areas on the shores of
Lake Nyasa are admirably adapted for rice growing, especially
in the Marimba District, where there is a large expanse of marshy
ground unsuitable for other crops. Rice cultivation is therefore
a great boon to the inhabitants of that district. Other districts
have also taken up its cultivation, notably West Nyasa, Central
Angoniland, and North Nyasa, each of them in the neighbour-
hood of Lake Nyasa.

Increased production is not encouraged, although it is a crop
the native understands and likes to grow. Other districts
cultivate small quantities for home consumption and the local
market.

The estimated production for 1908 is 880 tons, 500 of which
are from Marimba, and 120 each from West and South Nyasa.
Rice transported by the Government to Zomba is sold at
£^ per ton.

Maize. — Thousands of tons of maize are grown annually. A
little was exported in 1905 and 1906, but the cost of transport
proved too high. With the cheaper rates now ruling, exportation
is to be tried once more, and it should be successful, as an ample
supply of maize can be bought in the Highlands at thirty
shillings per ton.

Groundnuts. — This leguminous crop should be encouraged
in every part of the Protectorate. It is one of the best rotation
crops, grows well on worn-out soils, and provides a good food
for the people. It prefers a light soil, and thrives both in the
Highlands and on the lower levels. The usual native method of
agriculture is to cut down trees in enormous numbers annually
to make gardens in which they grow maize for a year or two,

56 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. '^^

and then move on to fresh ground and repeat the extremely
wasteful process. This pernicious system can only be altered by
fostering the cultivation of crops like groundnuts and introducing
a simple rotation of crops. . This would be very advantageous
to the natives themselves, more particularly in thickly populated
districts where new land is becoming scarcer yearly. .. ■ 'j-

France and Germany take the bulk of the groundnuts ex-
ported from this country, the Lower Shire District being the
chief producer for export purposes, the cost of transport being
too great from the outlying parts of the Protectorate, although
in times of enhanced prices a much bigger area could be drawn
upon for supplies.

Oil seeds.— The exports of oil seeds go chiefly to France and
Germany, and consist almost entirely of castor oil seed. Thi$
plant grows well near most native villages, and the industry is
capable of great extension provided a constant demand is main-
tained. The exports were 14,109 lb. in 1907, and 19,917 lb. in
1908. : V. :

Beeswax. — This is collected in fairly large quantities and
exported chiefly to the United Kingdom. The exports fell from
11 6,640 lb. in 1906 to 6y,y6() lb. in 1907, and 47,267 lb. in 1908.
For information as to the quality and value of Nyasaland bees-
wax see this Bulletin (1904, 2. 85). • '■■■'-

. ' .':■:■ I '■:: ^'- ■■[..'.-:.■''[.' niOT' t:^i'-

WOODS AND FORESTS.

The following notes on the " Woods and Forests " of Nyasaland
have been prepared by Mr. J. M. Purves, Acting Supt. of the
Forestry and Botanic Department. - - '-'^. ' .•/.•'.' ■

Owing to the wasteful methods employed in native agriculture,
the land in the neighbourhood of thickly- populated districts is
getting cleared of trees of all descriptions. This is especially
noticeable in Central Angoniland and also near Blantyre, where
firewood costs five shillings a cartload.

Near the centres of European population, tree planting should*
be given every encouragement. At present the expense of
p^lanting and maintaining a timber or firewood plantation is
comparatively small, since cheap labour is available. Moreover,
the value of an estate with good forest will increase yearly.

The. Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 5 7

In a country like Nyasaland, however, the cultivation of
indigenous species can only prove remunerative under very
limited conditions, as the growth throughout the Protectorate
consists chiefly of small slow-growing hardwoods and shrubs.
Economic afforestation will therefore depend largely upon the
planting of useful quick-growing exotics which have proved to
be suited to the climate and other conditions. For the produc-
tion of good firewood fairly quick-growing hardwoods are
required. The most suitable trees for this purpose are the
eucalypts ; Melia Azedarach (known locally as " Pride of
India ") ; Acacias (wattles), such as Acacia pycnantha, A. decur-
rens, and A. melanoxylon ; and the indigenous "Charcoal tree"
{Trema brdcteolata). For the production of timber for building
purposes, etc., the following species may be planted in the High-
lands, viz. Eucalyptus paniculata ; E. rostrata ; E. saligna ; E.
longi folia ; E. citriodora ; Cupressus funebris ; C. seinpervirens ;
Juniperus virginiana ; A raucaria excelsa ; Cedrela odorata ;
Albizzia fastigiata ; Mbawa ; and th^Mlanje Cypress, the latter
being most suitable for the higher elevations.

Throughout the Protectorate there are large tracts of well-
timbered land, but forests containing timber of large dimensions
are few, being confined chiefly to the mountain valleys and
ravines. There are valuable Cypress forests found on the
plateaux and higher slopes of Mlanje Mountain, and valuable
hardwood trees of large dimensions are occasionally met with,
but these are mostly confined to the banks of streams and rivers
at an elevation varying from 1,500 to 3,500 ft.

The most important of these hardwoods is the "Mbawa" or'
African Mahogany {Khaya senegalensis), a tree often attaining
enormous dimensions, and producing excellent timber for furni-
ture and general cabinet making. " Mwenya " {Adina micro-
cephala) is another large-sized tree found sparsely scattered along
the banks of streams and rivers. The timber produced by this
tree is extremely hard and durable, and is seldom if ever attacked
by white ants or borers. li j./i /. ^i

The various other hardwoods which are known to yield useful
timber, and which are found sparsely scattered throughout the
country up to about 3,500 ft, are as follows : —

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Vernacular Name.

Botanical Name.

Mpingu

Diospyros sp. {Ebony).

Mlombwa

Pterocarpus angolensis.

Mpini

Terminalia serecia.

Mwabvi

Erythrophloent guineense.

Msopa

Bride Ha ^nicrantha.

Msuku

Uapaca Kirkiana.

Mpindimbi

Vitex sp.

Nabukwi

Cordia abyssinica.

Mnyowe

Eugenia cordata.

Balisa

Pterocarpus sp.

Njale

Artocarpus sp.

Nkundi

Parkia filicoidea.

Maula

Parinarium Mobola,

Mkalati

Burkea sp.

Bwemba

Ta^narindtis indica.

Matowo

Donibeya spectabilis.

Chikwani

Albizzia fastigiata.

Kweranyani

Piptadenia Buchanani.

Of the various species of Acacia commonly met with on the
plains at an elevation of from 2,000 to 2,500 ft. the most important
are Acacia arabica^ Acacia Farnesiana and Acacia Suma. The
bark and seed-pods of Acacia arabica and Acacia Suma contain a
high percentage of tannin, and are therefore useful for tanning
purposes. The round yellow flower heads oi Acacia Farnesiana
constitute the Cassie flowers used in European perfumery.
These three species of acacia also yield soluble gums of the
"arabic" type.

The Tamarind {Tamarindus indica^ and Baobab {Adansonia
digitatd) are often seen on the plains up to an elevation of
about 2,500 ft.

Mjombo {Brachystegia sp.), Nangwesu {Brachystegia longifolia)
and Mchenga {Brachystegia spicaefonnis) are all medium-sized
trees commonly met with throughout the Shire Highlands up
to 5,000 ft, from the fibrous bark of which the natives make
bark-cloth and strong bark-rope.

Mvunguti {Kigelia pinnatd), a tree from 15 to 30 ft. high, is
fairly common throughout the Protectorate ; it is known to
Europeans as the " Sausage tree," owing to its fruit somewhat

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 59

resembling a huge sausage. The seeds are roasted and eaten by
natives in times of scarcity.

In hilly country a very conspicuous tree is Mpevu {Treina
bracteolafd), a low spreading evergreen, better known to
Europeans as the " Charcoal tree," and which affords excellent
shade. It is an exceedingly fast grower, but the wood is soft and
light, and therefore of little use except for fuel.

Of the several species of Ficus indigenous to the country the
following are commonly met with : Mkuyu {Fiais sycomorus),
Mpumbe {Ficus sp.), and Mchere {Ficus sp.).

Mkuyu is a medium-sized tree usually met with on the lower
slopes of the hills and on the banks of streams. The fruit is
about the size of a crab-apple, reddish in colour when ripe, and
is borne in clusters on the old wood.

Mpumbe is a large spreading tree mostly found near streams,
with fruit about the size of the ordinary fig of commerce.

Mchere is a low spreading tree with small leaves, occasionally
met with on high ground. The fruit of this species is very
small, being only about the size of a pea.

The only coniferous trees indigenous to the country are
Widdringtonia Whytei (Mlanje Cy y^^q^s), Po do carpus milanfianus
(Yellow-wood of South Africa), and Juniperus procera (Uganda
Juniper). Of these the Mlanje Cypress is the most valuable,
the timber being of excellent quality, durable, and impervious to
white ants. It is found only on the higher slopes and plateaux
of the Mlanje mountain, where it is fairly abundant at an eleva-
tion varying from 4,000 to 7,000 ft. above sea level. The tree
grows to a large size, and the timber is extensively used by the
Public Works Department for building and various purposes.
From the wood of the Mlanje Cypress a thin, dark-coloured oil
is obtained by destructive distillation. This oil, which has been
locally designated " Mlanje tar," is a valuable wood preservative
against white ants. Podocarpus uiilanjianus is found sparsely
scattered on the mountain plateaux at an altitude of from 4,000
to 7,000 ft. Juniperus procera is rare, a few specimens only
having been seen on the Nyika plateau.

A report on the working qualities of a number of Nyasaland
timbers was printed in this Bulletin (1905, 3. 18).

In certain localities palms are fairly abundant, the following

6o Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

species having so far been described as indigenous to the
country : Borassus flabellifer var. yEthiopum, Hyphcene crinata,
Raphia vinifera, Phoenix reclinata and Elceis guineensis. Bor-
assus and Hyphaene are plentiful on the banks of the Lower
Shire river near Chiromo, and in the vicinity of Lake Nyasa.
The Hyphaene is also occasionally met with on the. upland
plains at an elevation of about 2,500 ft. The fermented juice
of the Hyphaene Palm, which is very intoxicating, is much
relished by the natives. The Raphia Palm is chiefly found
growing near streams at an elevation varying from 2000 to
2,500 ft. The Phoenix, or Wild Date Palm, is usually found
growing in clumps in the swamps on the plains at an elevation
of about 2,500 ft. ; it is also frequently seen near streams on the
slopes of the mountains up to about 4,000 ft. above sea level.

The African Oil Palm {Elceis guineensis)^ which is the source
of the palm oil of commerce, one of the most important articles
of export from West Africa, is found on the north-west shore
of Lake Nyasa.

In certain parts of the Protectorate bamboos {Oxytenanthera
sp.) are abundant. Another species of bamboo, with stems
attaining a height of from 20 to 40 ft. and about 4 inches in
diameter, is occasionally met with on the lower slopes of the
hills at an elevation of about 3,000 ft. The useful yellow and
green striped bamboo [Bambusa vulgaris), which is said to be a
native of Ceylon, has been introduced into the country, and is
now growing well in various parts of the Protectorate.

Of the several species of rubber-yielding Landolphias which
are found on the banks of streams and rivers, and in the moister
patches of forests at various elevations up to 3,000 ft, the most
valuable is Landolphia Kirkii, which produces the best rubber.

The Landolphias have been tapped in a careless manner by
natives in the past, and healthy old vines are now rarely seen.
Young vines, however, are fairly abundant, as the ruthless
methods of tapping employed by the natives do not kill the
plant outright, but only the stem or vine, the roots of which
continue to throw up young shoots.

\ The native method of tapping the Landolphia is simple,
though somewhat tedious, and is as follows : —
; A slice of bark, some 2 or 3 inches long, is taken off with

The Agricultural Resources of Nyasaland. 6r

a knife and as the latex exudes fronn the cut, it is wiped
off with the fingers and rubbed on the arm of the operator,
where it coagulates almost immediately. The thin film of
rubber is then peeled off the arm and forms the nucleus of a
ball of rubber. This is applied to each new cut, and, being
turned with a rotary motion, the coagulated latex is wound
off like silk from a cocoon.

When all the rubber has been extracted from a vine, the
native naturally turns his attention to its roots, from which he
procures what is known as root-rubber. The method of collect-
ing rubber from the roots of the Landolphia is as follows : —

The soil is dug away from the base of the vine and the root
system thus exposed to view. Only the larger-sized roots are
selected, and, when these have been cut off, the remaining
rootlets of the vine are covered over again with soil. The bark
is then removed from the selected roots, and after being well
saturated with water, it is pounded into a soft mass. This
mass of pounded root-bark is now placed in a large native
pot, which has been half filled with water and placed on a
large" fire beforehand. The boiling process usually lasts about
an hour or so, but the native knows when boiling operations
should cease by simply lifting out of the pot, occasionally, a
cupful of the boiling liquid and pouring it into a bucket of
cold water. When sufficiently boiled, the. rubber suspended
in the boiling liquid at once coagulates when placed in cold
water, and little particles of rubber may be seen floating on
the surface. When this stage in the process has been reached,
the pot is immediately removed from the fire, and the whole
of its contents poured into a bucket of cold water. The small
particles of coagulated rubber, which almost immediately appear
floating on the surface of the cool water, are carefully collected
and at once washed in the nearest stream. After having been
thoroughly washed, the rubber is dipped in hot water so as
to make it soft and pliable, in which state it is more easily
kneaded into the usual form of a ball. •:;::.:! vi

The collecting of rubber from the roots of Landolphias is
now prohibited in the Protectorate, as it was found that the
mutilation of the roots of the vine by native collectors invariably
killed the plant outright. ,;;:;."; o'l YKrnjT';

62 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

It is comparatively easy to distinguish between the rubber
obtained from the roots of the Landolphias and the rubber
obtained from the vine when offered for sale by natives, as
the former is always kneaded into the form of a ball, whereas
the rubber from the stem of the plant is wound into balls.

The genus Strophanthus is represented by 3 species,
namely, Strophanthus Kombe, Strophanthus ecaudatus, and
Strophanthus Courmonti ; of these the first is the most import-
ant, and large quantities of its seed are yearly exported to
Europe for use in medicine. Strophanthus Kombe is rarely
met with at a greater altitude than 1,500 ft., and is abundant
in that part of the Chikwawa district known as Chief William's
country. Strophanthus Courmonti ascends to a higher altitude,
being very common on the banks of the Palombe river at
an elevation of about 2,500 ft. For further information on
strophanthus seed, see this Bulletin (1908, 6. 399).

Of the many fibre-yielding plants commonly met with, the
Sansevierias, which produce the well-known Bowstring hemp
of commerce, are the most important ; Sansevieria Kirkii is
abundant on the dry slopes of the hills in certain localities
up to about 3,000 ft. above sea-level. Fibre of good quality,
which is used by the natives for various purposes, is also
obtained from Denje {Sida rhombifolid), Buaze {Securidaca
longepedunculata), Nzonogwe {Triumfetta rhomboidea\ and
Lichopwa {Pousolsia hypoleucd)^ these plants being very common
throughout the country.

The genus Indigofera, represented by about a score of
species, is extremely common, being found up to an elevation
of about 6,000 ft. The indigenous species include Indigofera
arrecta, which has been proved to be the richest source of
indigo dye.

A large variety of exotic timiber trees has been planted in
the Botanic Gardens at Zomba during the past ten years, and
among those which have done well so far the following may
be mentioned : —

Common Name. Botanical Name.

White Ironbark . . . Eucalypttis paniculata.
Woolly Butt .... „ longifolia,

Murray Red Gum . . „ rostrata.

Indian Lac Industry.

Common Name.

Citron-scented Gum
Gully Ash
Flooded Gum .
Red Gum
True Mahogany
West India Cedar
East Indian Walnut
Silky Oak
Mimosa-leaved Jacaranda
Red Sandal Wood .
Pycnantha Wattle .
Pencil Cedar
Norfolk Island Pine
Kauri Pine
American Arbor-vitae
Chinese Arbor-vitas
Weeping Cypress
Monterey „
Nutkaensis „
Upright
Twisted

Botanical Name.

Eucalyptus citriodora.
„ Smithii.

„ saligna.

„ tereticornis.

Swietenia Mahagoni.
Cedrela odorata.
Albizzia Lebbek.
Grevillea robusta.
Jacaranda mirnoscefolia.
Adenanthera pavonina.
Acacia pycnantha.
Juniperus virginiana.
Araucaria ex eels a.
Dam^nara australis.
Thuya occidentalis.

„ orientalis.
Cupressus funebris.

„ macrocarpa,

„ nutkatensis.

„ sempervirens.

torulosa.

The trees chiefly used by the Forestry Department for
afforestation purposes are Eucalyptus paniculata, E. longifolia,
E. rostrata, E. saligna, Mlanje Cypress, and Mbawa, or African
Mahogany.

Nearly all the native timbers mentioned above can be seen
in the Nyasaland Court of the Imperial Institute, and a special
catalogue of the exhibits is now available. These include all
the materials of importance which are mentioned in Mr.
Simpson's report.

INDIAN LAC INDUSTRY.

The high price which prevailed in Europe and the United
States for shellac and other lac products during the greater
part of 1906 stimulated interest in this product, especially in

64 Bulletin of the Impef;ial Institute.

India, which is the chief centre of production, and led to
some attention being directed to the cultivation of the lac
insect and to suggestions for better methods of collecting the
resin and preparing it for the market. Concurrently with this
movement in India and the other countries producing shellac,
attempts have been made to discover substitutes for the resin
in those industries in which it is still an indispensable article,
and a certain number of " substitutes for shellac," and even
so-called " synthetic " or " artificial " shellacs have been placed
on the market during the last year or two. It may be explained
that by a " shellac substitute " is meant a product which, though
totally different from shellac, will answer to a certain extent
the same purposes, whereas by " synthetic " or " artificial ''
shellac is meant a product identical with shellac, but manu-
factured from other materials without the intervention of any
vegetable or animal agency, such as comes into operation in
the natural production of the resin. As a concrete example it
may be mentioned that ordinary rosin is used as a "substitute"
for shellac in making cheap spirit varnishes, but since rosin is
totally different in composition, it cannot be regarded as an
'' artificial " shellac, and its difference therefrom is made mani-
fest in practice by the inferior quality of varnishes made with
rosin as compared with those prepared with shellac. It seems
necessary to lay some stress on this difference between a
*' substitute " and a true " synthetic " or "artificial " product, since
it is not always clearly recognised even in technical journals.

The publication in the first issue of the new periodical, Indian
Forest RecordSy of a note on the lac insect, its life history,
propagation and collection, by Mr. E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S".,
Imperial Forest Zoologist to the Government of India, is
symptomatic of the interest taken recently in the production
of lac, and from that publication much of the information given
in this article has been taken.

In former times it was lac dye, a red colouring-matter
obtained as a by-product in the preparation of the resin, rather
than lac resin itself, which was of commercial interest. This
material was introduced into Europe as a substitute for cochi-
neal, and at the beginning of the century the exports of lac
dye from India were frdm five to six times more valuable than

Indian Lac Industry. 65

those of the resin, but whilst in 1905-6 the total exports of lac
from India were valued at Rs. 3,31,39,786, the export of lac dye
has ceased entirely. Probably the earliest account by a European
of the method of preparing the resin in India was that given
by van Linschoten towards the end of the sixteenth century,
and it is of interest to record that the method described by that
author differs but little from that in vogue at the present day.
It is somewhat curious that very few attempts appear to
have been made to acclimatise the lac insect for commercial
purposes in other countries than those in which it occurs in
the East Indies. A variety of lac insect is found in Mada-
gascar, but the resin it produces is quite different from true
lac, and this material does not appear in commerce.

Formation of Lac Resin.

Lac is a resinous incrustation excreted by Tachardia lacca,
Kerr., a scale insect belonging to the family Coccidece^ which
occurs widely distributed throughout India.

The life history of the insect varies somewhat in different
parts of India with climatic conditions. Usually there are two
life cycles in the course of the year, but in Madras, Mysore and
Burma there are three.

The larvae swarm upon the trees which serve as hosts about
the first week in July, and again in the first week of December,
or it may be as late as January. The newly-hatched insects
are about one-fortieth of an inch in length, elliptical in shape,
and of a red or orange colour. Countless numbers swarm upon
the young twigs of the trees and give the branches a reddish
appearance. They do not all hatch out at the same time,
but continue to develop for at least a month after the appear-
ance of the first batch. As soon as they are hatched the larvae
move towards the soft portions of the young twigs, which they
puncture in order to absorb the plant sap. This, after passing
through the body of the insect, during which it undergoes
modification, is given out as an excretion at the posterior end
of the body. Were the insect solitary, the excretion would
take the form of a small dome-shaped mass, but being
gregarious, the various scales coalesce until the branches on

66 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

which they are borne become covered with the excretion. In
the meantime, gradual development of the insects takes place
in the resinous incrustation in which they have become im-
bedded, and some two or three months after swarming the
female insects are fertilised.

Each female produces, it is estimated, as many as one thousand
eggs, which lie in a bright red fluid within the body of the
parent. As the eggs near maturity the parent insect dies and
the young larvae hatch out. The red fluid in which the eggs
are suspended is the source of the lac dye, and is more plentiful in
lac which contains insects than in that from which the larvae have
escaped, since part of it is consumed by the developing insects.
A peculiarity of the second brood of the year is that the males
are winged, a provision, it has been suggested, for securing the
impregnation of females on trees where males are scarce. In a
wild state the lac insect is probably spread from tree to tree by
the agency of other insects, or by birds, or, possibly, by wind.
Over eighty different species of plants have been observed serving
as hosts for the lac insect in India. The following seem to be
the most important : Butea frondosa^ Cajanus indicus, Ficus
l>engalensis, F. religiosa^ F. Rumphii, Zizyphus jujuba^ and
Schleichera trijuga. The lac is said to vary to some extent ac-
cording to the tree on which it has been produced. The Kusam
{Schleichera trijuga) yields the finest lac, known to the trade as
" nagali," and the Dhak {Butea frondosa) the second in quality,
known as " baisaki " or " kathi," according to the month in which
it is gathered. Although a certain amount of injury is done to
the trees by the lac insect, it is only on rare occasions and in the
cases of certain species that death results from the attacks.
The insect itself has a number of enemies ; birds and monkeys
prey on it, ants eat the sweet excretion and occasionally destroy
the insects by biting off the respiratory organs, and the cater-
pillars of a moth {Emblemma amabilis) bore through the cells
and eat the red substance of the insects' bodies.

Collection of lac.
The usual method of collection consists in breaking ofl* twigs
bearing resinous incrustations known as "brood lac" about

Indian Lac Industry. 67

fifteen days before the swarming period is due. A few of these
twigs are lightly wrapped up in grass and placed on one side for
propagating purposes. Subsequently these are tied on to
branches of unaffected trees, where swarming takes place and
the life cycle already described is repeated. Owing to the
former value of the lac-dye the harvesting of the crop was
regulated to suit its production ; hence the native method of
removing the lac before swarming takes place. This practice
involves the death of an enormous number of insects, and now
that the lac-dye has been replaced by aniline dyes and is of no
commercial value there is no necessity to continue this method
of collecting. It appears, however, that the swarming of the
larvae from the lac does not remove all the colouring matter
from the incrustations, and the washing process to free the resin
from the dye will have to be undertaken under any circumstances.

Improvements in lac cultivation.

With regard to the cultivation of lac Mr. Stebbing suggests
the formation of regular areas of coppice, either from seeds or
cuttings, of suitable host trees, and that these should be worked
on a definite rotation. Experiments are required to determine
which trees are best suited to this purpose in different localities.
The formation of lac preserves in the forests is a departure
strongly recommended.

To increase the production of lac in order to meet the growing
demand, the introduction of the lac insect to areas where it is
at present unknown is recommended. It has been found that
groves or forests are by no means essential to the successful
cultivation of lac ; scattered trees of the right species growing
in hedge-rows, scrub, jungle, or waste-lands serving the purpose
of host equally well. The chief points requiring attention when
importing " brood lac " for purposes of cultivation are : —

(I) " Brood lac " should be taken only from trees of the same
species as, or from species which have a harder wood than, those
growing in the district into which the importation is made and
upon which the insect is to be propagated.

(II) The branches containing the lac brood must be picked
at such a time as to ensure (i) that the larvae will not swarm

68 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

whilst still en route, (2) that the brood lac is not so immature
that the branches containing it will dry up, thus killing the
females before their eggs are mature and ready to hatch into
larvae.

Preparation of lac.

In the factory, resin-encrusted branches (stick lac) as removed
from the trees are beaten with mallets, or in some of the more
up-to-date factories are passed through rollers driven by
machinery. The product is thereby separated into three
portions : (i) fragments of twigs and branches used as fuel, (2)
fine dust consisting of a mixture of minute fragments of lac
with dirt, this is usually sold to local makers of bangles and
toys, and (3) granular lac constituting the " seed lac " of
commerce.

The seed lac is washed by repeatedly stirring it in water to
remove the colouring matter which formerly constituted lac-dye,
but is now a waste product, and after being thoroughly dried by
exposure to sun and air is ground to a uniform granular powder.

This purified product is then ready for conversion into shellac.
For this purpose it is mixed with a small amount of orpiment
(yellow arsenic) and a small quantity of ordinary rosin is added,
the former renders the finished product opaque, and imparts a
pale straw colour ; the rosin lowers the melting-point and a
certain proportion (2 to 5 per cent.) is said to be necessary in
the manufacture of shellac, but the necessary quantity appears
to be often much exceeded with fraudulent intent.

The intimate mixture of lac, orpiment and rosin is placed in
a long, narrow bag, made of American drill, ten to twelve feet in
length by about two inches in diameter. The bag is then fixed
at one end, while the other end is gradually twisted up, at the
same time being held near an open coke or charcoal fire.

The resin melted by the heat of the fire oozes slowly through
the bag and falls on the floor, which is usually covered with the
smooth sheaths of plantain leaves, or in some cases with smooth
tiles, so that the resin does not become contaminated with dirt or
.soil. Each lump of lac resin, whilst still soft, is then placed on
a plantain stem held at an angle of 60° with the horizon. To it
is attached a ribbon of fibre prepared from the coco-nut palm,

Indian Lac Industry;^ ■•• 69

and by pulling this out the lump of resin is gradually stretched
in all directions to a thin sheet, which is then detached from the
plantain stem and further stretched to its full extent by a work-
man. The finished sheets are slowly cooled and finally broken
up into small pieces to form ordinary shellac. In the best-
equipped factories plantain stems have been replaced by zinc
tubes heated by steam.

The finished product is graded mainly according to colour
into " fine orange," " superfine," " livery," " native leaf," etc., and
each factory usually adds to these designations its own brands
Only the best qualities of lac resin are made into shellac ;
inferior grades being used to form " button-lac," which is produced
by dropping the melted lac from the bags on to a smooth surface,
and moulding the lumps into circular masses about ij inches in
diameter. More highly coloured samples are formed into thick,
dark-red sheets known as " garnet-lac." After the melting and
squeezing processes are complete the bags are washed to recover
the adherent resin, and from this inferior grades of lac are
manufactured, made up into circular slabs about four inches in
diameter and one inch in thickness. These inferior grades are
sold to makers of sealing-wax, bangles, etc.

Uses of lac. • : ■ - '

Shellac is the most important and largely applied of all the
resins with, perhaps, the exception of colophony. Its most
interesting use in India is as a method of decorating articles
of wood, metal, and even pottery, which are then known as lac
wares. These should be carefully distinguished from the lacquered
goods largely produced in Europe and America, in which the
lacquer is merely a liquid varnish applied to metallic objects,
mainly with the object of preserving them from the action of
the atmosphere ; and from the true lacquer wares of Burma,
China and Japan, where the varnish used is purely of vegetable
origin and is applied in a liquid form. In the production of
Indian lac wares, shellac, suitably coloured, is applied in a solid
form, mainly with a view to ornamentation.

The following is a brief description of the method of producing
some of the simpler turned lac wares as practised in India.

70 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

The article to be decorated is first polished with pottery dust,
and is then coated repeatedly with a mixture of glue and pottery
dust, being polished after each coating with a palm-leaf stalk.
In this way all imperfections in the articles are filled up and a
uniform surface produced. The workman then presses against
the article as it revolves on the lathe a stick of coloured lac,
previously prepared by melting together shellac and the required
colouring matter in suitable proportions. The heat generated
by the friction melts the lac, which adheres to the object, which
is then polished by holding against it a rag soaked in linseed
oil. In this way plain lac articles are produced. For the pro-
duction of what are known as " cloud " lac wares, the article,
first coated with yellow lac by the method described, is caused
to revolve on the lathe whilst the operator applies to it with a
trembling motion a stick of red or orange-coloured lac, so that
the object is touched interruptedly, producing numerous irregu-
larly shaped spots of different sizes. By next using a stick of
black lac of large flat shape and soft texture, black borders are
ingeniously placed round the orange-coloured spots, and finally
the interspaces are filled up in the same manner with a soft
white lac. This represents the simplest type of cloud work, and
any number of colours may be applied and various modifications
can be introduced such as the " watered " cloud pattern, obtained
by putting a mixture of oil and water on the surface of the
first coat. A third type of lac turning is that known as " fire-
work," in which, after the object has been polished with pottery
dust, it is coated with a paste of finely divided tin in glue, either
uniformly or in a cloud pattern. Above this, red or yellow lac is
then applied uniformly, so that the article becomes of a rich
fiery or golden colour, and is finally polished on the lathe by
holding a shell against it, so that the lac becomes thoroughly
melted and, when cooled, is more transparent than in the types
already described. A still more complex type is that known as
" pattern " work, of which there are two classes. In the one a
" firework " pattern is polished with a mixture of fine brick-dust
and mustard oil, and then patterns such as floral designs or
hunting scenes are worked on the surface by scraping off lines
or patches and then applying a soft flat stick of lac of suitable
colour as the object revolves on the lathe, by which means the

Indian Lac Industry. 71

scraped portions only receive the new colour. After the applica-
tion of each new colour the object is polished with linseed oil,
and a suitably scraped surface then prepared for the application
of the next colour, and so on until every outline and detail has
been worked in. In the other modification of pattern work,
which may be described as " detached " pattern work, uniform
coats, of each colour which is to appear in the final pattern, are
applied to the article in turn by the method already described,
the usual order being yellow, brown, red, and finally black. As
the article then revolves on the lathe, a fine chisel or style is
pressed against it, lightly or heavily as may be required, to
bring out the necessary colours by exposing the layers beneath
the surface. In this way, upon a black ground conventional
foliage in green, and flowers in red with veins and shadings in
yellow are obtained.

These are only a few of the simpler methods of lac ornament-
ation, and by a combination of these with painting very elaborate
wares are produced. Lac is also very largely used in India in
the metal industries for the production of imitation enamelled and
inlaid wares. For this purpose the article, suitably polished, is
made red hot, sprinkled with powdered sal-ammoniac, and then
rubbed over with pure tin. When cold, it is engraved with a
suitable design and again placed in the fire. Whilst still hot,
sticks of coloured lac are applied to the portions which are to be
tinted, and when cold the article is placed on the lathe and ashes
mixed with ground pottery or brick-dust are sprinkled on the
surface, and rubbed in by holding it between leaves of the date-
palm as it revolves. The superfluous lac is finally removed by
polishing with a mixture of ground emery and linseed oil.
Formerly the pigments employed were mainly of mineral or
vegetable origin, such as yellow-orpiment (arsenic sulphide),
red-vermilion (mercuric sulphide), blue (indigo), black (charcoal
made from the shell of the bottle gourd), but recently lacs
coloured with aniline dyes have been introduced. Another
common use of lac in India is for the manufacture of bracelets
and bangles used by nearly all native women. These are made
of a mixture of inferior lac with clay, and decorated on the
surface with better qualities of lac.

Illustrative of the Indian lac industry an exhibit comprising

^2 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute

specimens of stick-lac, seed-lac, garnet-lac, button-lac and shellac,
with various by-products of shellac manufacture, has been
arranged in the Indian galleries of the Imperial Institute. In the
Indian pavilion are shown numerous examples of the various
types of lac-ware and metal objects with lac ornamentation.

In Europe and America the most important use of shellac is
in the manufacture of spirit varnishes and polishes, the latter
being generally known as " French polishes," the application of
which is too well known to need detailed description. For such
preparations shellac is too brittle to be used alone, and it is
softened by the addition to the varnish or polish of small
quantities of sandarac, Canada balsam, Venetian turpentine or
similar materials. In addition, for the production of so-called
staining varnishes, coloured resins such as dragon's blood, or
dyes soluble in spirit are added in sufficient quantity to give
the desired tint. Shellac is also occasionally added in small
quantities to oil and turpentine varnishes.

Less important uses are the manufacture of sealing-wax, in
which shellac is an important ingredient, the colour required
being obtained by the addition of mineral pigments, and shellac
cement, which is merely a concentrated solution of shellac in
spirits of wine. Shellac is also employed as a stiffening material
for the felt used in hats, and is at present an indispensable
material for stiffening crape. It is also sometimes employed in
place of elemi for the manufacture of printers' ink, and is used in
Dr. Albert's process of sun-printing, the plate to be used for
printing being covered with shellac and the pattern stamped on
it by means of ammonia solution, which by dissolving the shellac
leaves a tracing which can be etched by the application of acids.
It is also an almost constant ingredient in lithographic inks.

Trade in lac.

As stated already, the principal producing country is India,
but small quantities are also obtained from Indo-China, Siam,
Sumatra, the Moluccas, and other parts of the East Indies.

The exports of the various kinds of lac resin, including stick-
lac, seed-lac, and lac-dye, from India during the last five years
have been as follows:— \\,^^, .^:,i ,,, -miyvxir.

Utilisation of Waste Wood.

Year.

Quantity.
Cwts.

Value,

1903-4 .

229,237

1,786,647

1904-5 .

228,979

1,988,201

1905-6 .

263,441

2,068,103

I9C6-7 .

254,088

2,247>433

1907-8 .

340,008

2,584,725

The principal importing countries in order of importance are
the United Kingdom, United States of America, Germany and
France. The values of the different kinds of lac resin on the
London market in March 1907 and 1908 were as follows: —

Variety.

Orange, ist marks .

1908.

Shillings
per cwt.

140-155

1909.

Shillings
^er cwt,

lOO-IIO

„ 2nd, good to fine

II5-I35

80-90

„ fair .

102-105

71-72

„ livery

90-97/6

58-64

Garnet, free

II5-I25

65-70

Button, 1st

120-127

85-90

2nd

1 07/6- II 5

70-80

„ 3rd and 4th

85-105

40-60

Seed-lac

100-130

60-100

Stick-lac (Siam)

115-120

Nominal

UTILISATION OF WASTE WOOD.

Inquiries are from time to time received at the Imperial
Institute from firms engaged in working forest concessions in
British possessions as to the possibility of utilising waste wood
produced in the ordinary timber-working operations. It has
been thought desirable, therefore, to compile a short article on
this subject with a view to affording general information as to
the possibilities in this direction. i^'i viH.

Apart from its use for structural purposes there are two
main ways in which wood can be utilised at present, viz. in the
manufacture of wood pulp for paper-making, and by destructive
distillation for the production of wood spirit, Stockholm tar and

74 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

wood charcoal. For these purposes the cheaper woods are avail-
able, and for destructive distillation especially the waste products
of the various timber industries are suitable. A full account of
the wood-pulp industry has already been given in this Bulletin
(1905, 3. 262), so reference need only be made here to other
methods of utilising wood of little value and waste wood products.
Much of the wood refuse generally available, such as shavings,
sawdust, chips, spent dye and tan woods, etc., is at present used
as fuel, its value for this purpose being a few shillings per ton.
In considering the disposal of such material it is important to
ascertain whether local conditions will permit of the disposal of
the products of distillation at a higher rate than would be
obtained fof the raw material as fuel. Indeed, in undeveloped
communities where wood spirit, tar and charcoal are not sale-
able in large quantities, the destructive distillation of wood refuse
is not likely to be remunerative or even feasible.

From air-dried wood about one-third of its weight of charcoal
can as a rule be obtained, this having an average value of from
ijs. to 22^". per ton in districts where coal is not readily obtain-
able. Thus, from one ton of air-dried wood refuse, containing
from 20 to 25 per cent, of water, and consequently worth from
4$". to 5^., the value of the charcoal would be about 6^. In most
countries there is little difficulty in disposing of the charcoal, as
its uses are numerous. Besides being largely employed in the
manufacture of iron and steel and in the extraction of other
metals, such as copper and tin, it can be used in sugar refineries
for filtration and for various domestic purposes. Special uses
for the " small " charcoal obtained by distilling wood refuse are
found in the manufacture of certain kinds of " smokeless " fuels,
calcium carbide, and for packing cold storage chambers.

Wood refuse can be carbonised more rapidly and at a lower
final temperature than blocks of wood, a temperature of only
300° C. being adequate. One result of this is that the pyro-
ligneous acid obtained in the distillate is of good quality, and
fairly readily purified to yield acetic acid. Wood refuse is also
more readily dried by exposure to the air, and does not require
to be stored for a year or two before its content of water is
reduced to from 20 to 25 per cent, which gives the best results,
as is the case with blocks of freshly-cut wood.

Utilisation of Waste Wood. 75

Destructive Distillation of Wood.

In the destructive distillation of wood the blocks or refuse
are heated in a suitable vessel provided with a small aperture
fitted with a pipe. In modern practice the carbonising vessel is
generally a cylindrical wrought-iron retort built into brick-work
in a horizontal position. The retorts are of an average size of
3 metres long by i metre in diameter, and are made to hold
anything up to about 4 tons of wood (a quarter of a " cord ").
They are generally set up in "batteries" of two, and heated by
the same fire from below. The naked flame is not allowed to
impinge directly on the iron retorts, which are heated only by
the hot furnace gases, this result being obtained by utilising
iron or brick shields or arches. Before the application of heat
all the orifices and connections are plugged with clay. The
batteries of retorts are set up in rows, and the exit of each
retort is connected with a worm condenser made of copper, and
cooled externally by means of running water.

When the wood to be distilled is sawdust or scraps of very
small size, such as spent tanning materials, dye woods, etc., it is
generally advisable to have the plant arranged in a special
manner owing to the necessity of having the wood quite dry.
This result is frequently obtained by building the retorts in such
a manner that the hot gases from the one distillation are used
to dry the wood refuse ready packed in another retort. The
retorts are also sometimes made on a rotary system to facilitate
even drying, and thus prevent unequal carbonisation.

A special form of kiln is said to be adopted on many of the
large wood-distillation plants in Sweden, capable of treating
wood in all conditions — sodden forest timbers, saw-mill waste
and ordinary air-dried logs. The general arrangement of the
furnace is in the form of a long tunnel through which pass
open steel cars, on which the wood is vertically stacked. The
cars are taken through the furnace at an average rate of 22
per diem for perfectly wet wood, and about 36 per diem for
air-dried timber. Uncondensed gases from the distillation are
returned to the furnace and burnt, thus practically dispensing
with the addition of any further fuel.

On the application of heat to the retort the substance of the
wood is charred with the formation of volatile products, which

y6 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

are driven off. Those which are condensable are liquefied again
in the condensers, and collected in suitable receivers.

Products of Distillatton.

Although the process of distillation is practically identical
whatever the kind of wood employed, the products obtained are
different according to whether " hard " or " soft " wood is used.

Products from Hard Wood. — Most of the wood distilled
is hard, such as beech, birch, maple, etc., and is practically free
from resinous constituents. Four chief products are obtained,
viz. (i) an inflammable gas, which escapes from the condenser,
and should, if possible, be returned to the fire to aid in heating
the retorts ; (2) a watery liquid known as " pyroligneous acid " ;
(3) wood tar, which is condensed with the pyroligneous acid ;
and (4) charcoal, which remains behind in the retorts.

The tar itself may be used as the fuel to create the heat
necessary for distillation, and in this case it is sprayed with a
jet of steam and used in a similar manner to " oil fuel." In this
manner the use of coal as fuel may be avoided completely.

The charcoal is allowed to cool for a day or two, either before
removal or in specially-devised "cooling chambers" out of
contact with the air, or else it is drenched with water immediately
after extraction from the retorts to prevent its spontaneous
combustion in the air and consequent loss.

Purification of the Products. — The tar and the reddish-brown
pyroligneous acid are run off together into large settling vats,
where separation is effected by the tar collecting at the bottom.
Each is then distilled separately. As the tar and the pyro-
ligneous acid are to a certain extent mutually soluble, the residue
from the latter contains a quantity of tar, and the distillate from
the former is distinctly acid in character. If the tar is to be
utilised as fuel the acid is removed by passing the acid tar
downwards over "bafflers," where it is met by an upward
current of steam or vapours from the stills, to which the
pyroligneous acid is given up. The chief products obtained by
distilling the wood tar (which is itself an article of commerce)
are light and heavy wood oils, wood creosote and the well-known
product wood pitch, which is left behind in the stills, ^ir, -A 1,

Utilisation of Waste Wood. tj

In the most modern treatment of the pyroligneous acid an
arrangement of plant known as the " three-still " system is
adopted. In the first and largest still the crude acid is heated,
whereby the volatile acetic acid and " wood spirit " are driven
off, and most of the dissolved tar is left behind. The outlet pipe
carries the vapours into the second still, and passes them through
a thin cream of lime and water. This absorbs the acetic acid
with the production of calcium acetate, but does not affect the
wood spirit, which passes on and is treated afresh in the third
still in order to remove the last traces of acetic acid. In this
manner the distillate eventually obtained is free from acid, and
by suitable rectification can be made to yield pure methyl
alcohol, commercial wood spirit and wood naphtha. The thin
paste of calcium acetate remaining in the stills is run out and
concentrated in large iron pans until it contains about 84 per
cent, of " acetate of lime." This is the product which comes on
the market as " grey acetate of lime."

Application of the Products. — The uses of charcoal have been
enumerated above. Most of the acetate of lime is subjected to
dry distillation, and is thus converted into acetone and calcium
carbonate (chalk). The increasing consumption of acetone in
chemical industries has rendered this process one of consider-
able importance. Besides being a useful solvent for varnish
resins, acetone is largely used in the manufacture of smokeless
explosives and celluloid articles, and its use will very probably
be greatly extended in the near future. The present price of
acetone is about £to per ton, and it takes about 40 tons of
wood to produce i ton of acetone. The by-products in
the distillation, the so-called " acetone oils," are also useful as
^' paint removers." Their formation is due to the presence in
the pyroligneous acid of organic acids higher than acetic acid.
Pure acetic acid is also prepared from the acetate of lime by
distiUing it with sulphuric acid.

Wood alcohol is used very largely for technical purposes. It
is a useful solvent, and is widely applied for producing form-
aldehyde, for "denaturing" ordinary alcohol, and in the coal-
tar dye industry.

Products from Soft Wood. — When "soft" woods, i.e.
resinous woods, such as those obtained from the various pines,

78 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

are destructively distilled, the substances obtained are as follows :
(i) inflammable gas ; (2) light oils ; (3) pyroligneous acid ; (4) tar ;
(5) charcoal. The pyroligneous acid so manufactured is inferior in
quality to that afforded by hard woods. The principal fraction
is the " light oil," which is usually collected in two portions, of
which the lower boiling one is a kind of crude turpentine oil.
This is a dark red oil of unpleasant odour, but after suitable
treatment and fractionation it yields a nearly colourless spirit of
characteristic odour, which is used as a substitute for ordinary
turpentine oil. (Compare this Bulletin, 1906, 4. 215.) The
best yields of products in this process are obtained from the
heart wood.

Steam Distillation of Wood.

Besides the method of destructive distillation described above,
a process of distillation with steam is gradually finding extended
use for obtaining valuable products from waste pine wood.
This process only occasions the separation of volatile products
(turpentine oil) already pre-existent in the wood.

Pine-tree stumps, saw-mill waste, and sometimes pine timber
itself, are cut into chips and placed in a vertical retort fitted
with a steam injection pipe. Through this pipe saturated
or superheated steam is blown in, and turpentine oil, which is
readily volatilised, passes out of the retort and collects with
the water in a receiver, where it may be readily separated.

The residual wood, after drying a short time in the air, is
suitable for fuel. The crude turpentine is rectified from a copper
still, and yields a slightly yellow spirit of an agreeable odour
which is readily saleable at a price slightly below that of ordinary
turpentine oil.

Electrical Process for the Distillation of Wood,
It is stated that a new electric process has been evolved
recently in British Columbia for the utilisation of waste wood,
and that the process combines destructive distillation with a
primary distillation of the free turpentine oil contained in the
wood. An experimental plant has been set up at Vancouver,
B.C., where waste fir wood is obtainable from local saw-mills,
and the electricity from water-power at a low cost.

Utilisation of Waste Wood. jg

The wood is filled into oblong cans constructed to fit into
special retorts, the brickwork of which is permeated with
wrought-iron strips, through which passes a current of no volts.
The temperature of the vessel, as measured by direct-reading
pyrometers, rises from 75° C. at the start to 130° C, when
turpentine oil begins to volatilise. The current is then shut
off, radiation from the brickwork sufficing to complete the dis-
tillation. By the time the temperature of the can has risen to
150° C. on the outside and 205° C. in the interior, the turpentine
oil has been nearly all removed. It is collected by condensation
with cold water as in the ordinary process. The rosin contained
in the wood melts and runs down to the bottom of the vessel
and out through perforations, and is collected in the bottom of
the retort.

The can containing the wood is now removed from the
turpentine oil retort into an adjoining still, where the heating
is continued and the wood residuum is destructively distilled as
previously described. In this way the fresh set of products,
charcoal, wood-tar, etc., is obtained quite separate from the
turpentine oil and rosin of the first distillation.

It is stated that by this process the following yields are
obtained per 1000 lb. of wood from British Columbia coast fir : —

Turpentine oil .

67 galls

Rosin

. i68-o lb.

Tar oil

5-1 galls.

Tar .

. 68-olb.

Charcoal .

. 323-0 lb.

The charcoal obtained is said to be of good quality, tough',
and suitable for special purposes.

Owing to the absence of cheap supplies of raw material, wood
distillation is not widely practised in the United Kingdom, but
the distillation of sawdust, scrap-wood, spent tan and similar
materials is carried on to a small extent.

♦ In many of the Colonies and Dependencies large tracts of
forest exist frequently containing trees of little value as timber,
and these might well be used in this way, where the products of
distillation, and especially the charcoal, are marketable locally*

8o Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

In Canada wood distillation is greatly on the increase owing to
developments in the consumption of charcoal.

In Natal attention has been directed recently to the possi-
bility of using wattle timber for destructive distillation after
the valuable tanning bark has been removed. At present this
timber is used for pit props and in other ways, but the demand
for it is said to be much below the supply.

Wood distillation has been undertaken recently in Victoria,
Australia, and a large works has been opened near Warburton,
drawing its supplies from the forests of Gippsland.

In India also there would appear to be a possibility of extend-
ing this industry. Owing to the religious prejudices of the
natives it is necessary to use only wood charcoal in the refining
of sugar intended for native consumption. This and the
common practice of covering" go-downs " with tar-impregnated
felt opens out in India a market for two of the chief products of
wood distillation.

PREPARATION OF MICA POWDER.

During recent years there has been an increasing scope for
the use of scrap mica, in a ground condition, for the manufacture
of lustrous wall-papers, heavy lubricants, mica bronzes and
paints, explosive absorbents, etc. When used for these purposes
the mica requires to be finely ground, especially for wall-paper,
for which purpose it is necessary to have the powder so fine that
it will all pass through a sieve having i6o meshes to the linear
inch. In some cases the powder used is even finer than this,
and will pass a 200-mesh sieve.

When reduced to this degree of fineness muscovite mica yields
a soft and almost impalpable powder which feels quite smooth
when handled, and spreads out in a fine lustrous film when
rubbed on the hand. Muscovite appears to be the best variety
of mica for use in this way, as the dust obtained from it is stated*
to possess superior brilliancy.

The production of mica dust seems, so far, to have been con-
fined very largely to the United States, where much progress

Preparation of Mica Powder. 8i

has been made lately in methods of grinding, and where
numerous mills have been erected for the purpose of producing
mica powder from scrap muscovite.

Inquiries at the Imperial Institute have disclosed the fact
that consumers of ground mica in this country experience some
difficulty in securing satisfactory supplies. Further, there is a
large amount of unused scrap muscovite in India, where it is
permitted to accumulate at *the mines, owing partly to the fact
that the mine owners have been unaware of the important
applications of mica powder, and partly to the fact that methods
of grinding are kept secret by the American firms who prepare
the material for the market. If the necessary machinery could
be installed, there is no doubt that the muscovite mine owners
of India would find it profitable to use up their scrap mica in
the production of mica powder for the European and other
markets.

The operation of grinding mica to a fine powder is a difficult
one to carry out owing to the fact that the mineral has a single
perfect cleavage, and the cleavage laminae are very smooth,
tough and elastic. The operation involved in the grinding
process is necessarily one of tearing and battering rather than
mere crushing.

In view of the scarcity of information as to the methods
adopted in such work, it will be useful to enumerate here a
few data on this subject which have been recorded in recent
publications.

METHODS OF GRINDING.

The methods adopted in Canada in grinding mica are referred
to briefly in Cirkel's Mica, its Occurrence, Exploitation and Uses.
This author remarks that the processes are usually kept secret,
though in some cases they appear to be very simple, old-
fashioned buhrstones being used for the purpose of grinding
the mineral. The scrap mica, free from rust or gangue, is
bought at from 8 to lo dollars a ton. The process adopted
by one company in Ontario is described as follows : " The mica
is first roughly screened, and then cleaned before entering the
grinder, which is a sheet-iron cylinder, 9 feet long by 30
inches in diameter, punched in rows and set at an incline of

82 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

ih inches in its length. As the machine slowly revolves,
loose pieces of steel enclosed in the cylinder pulverise the mica
until fine enough to drop through the holes, which are -j^- of
an inch in diameter. It is then sized and graded in trommels
from flakes down to the finest powder, the finest screens being of
silk. The plant is operated by water power on the Gananoque
river."

It appears also that an extensive factory has been established
in Denver, Colorado, where crushed micas of the poorer grades
are manufactured to be used as lubricants for railroad purposes.
The process employed at the Denver factory is described as
follows : " The mica comes to the factory in carloads just as it
is taken from the mine. It is fed by boys into two machines
which cut it into fragments about half-an-inch square. By a
system of pneumatic tubes the mica so cut is delivered to the
atomising machines which grind it into powder. Each machine
consists of two steel shafts 3 feet long, with a series of
spirally arranged beaters of gun-metal, which revolve in a close
case. These machines make from 5000 to 7000 revolutions per
minute. The fingers on one shaft run between the fingers on
the other, so that when the material is passed through the
pneumatic tubes from the feeding machine to the atomisers at
a velocity of 15,000 feet a minute, the work of atomising is
instantaneous.

" The mica, now reduced to minute particles, continues its
course at the same velocity through another set of pneumatic
tubes to the sizing bins. Here the current is so retarded by a
special mechanism that it causes the material to settle, accord-
ing to its fineness, in the various compartments, of which there
are six. Compartments containing the graded mica powder rest
upon hoppers or bins immediately over the mixing pans. Into
the latter the several grades of mica powder are drawn and, by
means of mechanical mixers with which the pans are provided,
treated with the proper percentage of oils and other ingredients.

" Directly over the hoppers are located the oil tanks, which
supply the mixers by a pipe running down the outside of the
hopper, at the end of which is a faucet.

" At one end of the bins is the 'dust arrester': a cylindrical
machine 4 feet in diameter and 10 feet high. Any of the

Preparation of Mica Powder. 83

material too light and fine to settle is driven into this machine
by air currents, and is drawn off as needed. It is claimed for
this concern that it can pulverise about 5 tons in a day of 10
hours, and that it turns out an excellent lubricant."

In North Carolina and elsewhere in the United States a
number of mills have been erected recently for the grinding of
mica. It is claimed that the methods adopted in these mills are
new, and their nature is kept secret ; but the following informa-
tion is given regarding a grinding mill in use in Mitchell County
in the Mineral Resources of the United States^ 1906 : —

" Both steam and water power, or a combination of the two
when the water supply is insufficient, are employed. The mica
is first shaken thoroughly in rocker washing tubs, by which the
dirt is removed. The grinding is accomplished by soft-wood
beaters through which large spikes are driven with the ends
projecting on all sides. These beaters have an elliptical cross
section and are from 30 to 36 inches in diameter, and from 6 to
10 inches thick. They revolve horizontally in large wooden
tubs, and are so arranged that they can slip up and down
vertically with their shaft when they become clogged in any
position by an excess of mica. The tub is of suitable size for
the beater to revolve in, and is from 30 to 36 inches high. The
scrap mica is placed in the tub with water and the beater set
in motion. As the latter revolves the steel spikes beat and
tear the mica. It requires about 12 hours to grind a charge,
which often becomes steaming hot towards the end of the
operation. Water is added as needed. From the grinding
tubs the mica, now in the form of a mush, is washed into
settling vats, where, after 8 to 12 hours, the water is decanted.
The mica mush is then spread on cloth-covered drying tables,
beneath the surface of which heat is supplied by steam pipes
or in other ways. After 8 to 10 hours the mass has become
dry, and is removed from the tables on the cloth in the form of
cakes or lumps. The latter are crushed and beaten apart in
disintegrators or pulverisers, and the ground material is sized
off in hoppers or screens by bolting through silk sizing mesh."

"A charge consists of from 400 to 500 lb. of scrap, according
to the size of the grinder. From three-fourths to four- fifths
of this is returned to the grinder from the sizing screens as

84 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

over size and is ground with the next charge. The beaters are
run at from 250 to 300 revolutions per minute. At one mill it
was said that a larger percentage of 160-mesh ground mica was
obtained than of any one of the other sizes separated — that is
10-, 60-, 8o- or lOO-mesh, the sizes commonly separated at the
mills. Different sizes down to ' bran mica ' can be separated
whenever ordered."

The same authority states further that formerly, in North
Carolina, scrap mica was ground by means of buhrstones, which
were revolved over a tub on which the stone rested. The
ground mica was continually washed down into the tub and
passed out through small holes in the side of the tub.

The price quoted for ground mica c.i.f. New York has for some
time been steady, and ranges from 45 to 75 dollars per short
ton (2000 lb.), according to quality; the price of scrap mica
ranges from 10 to 15 dollars per short ton. Scrap mica, which
is obtained as a waste product in the preparation of sheet mica,
fetches a much better price than mica which is mined directly
in a scrap condition, owing to its greater degree of purity.
Prices paid at the mines for scrap mica depend, of course, to
a large extent on transport facilities and proximity to markets.

PAPUA AND ITS ECONOMIC RESOURCES.

New Guinea, the large island off the northernmost point
of Queensland, is divided into three parts. These, with adjacent
islets, constitute the following territories : —

1. Dutch New Guinea, estimated area 151,789 square miles,

the western half.

2. German New Guinea, or Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, estimated

area 70,000 square miles, the north-eastern quarter.

3. Papua, formerly British New Guinea, estimated area

90,540 square miles, the south-eastern quarter.

Papua was annexed by the Government of Queensland to

the Empire on April 4, 1883, and became a Territory of the

Commonwealth of Australia on November 16, 1905. Recent

information is contained in the Handlwok of the Territory of

Papua and its Economic Resources. 85

Papua, compiled by Mr. Staniforth Smith, Director of Agri-
culture, and issued by the Government Printer, Melbourne,
Australia [C. 8717], and in the recent report by the Commissioner,
from which the following information is mostly taken.

The total area of Papua, 90,540 square miles, is made up of
^J^J^^ square miles mainland of the island and 2,754 square
miles in adjacent islets numbering about 200. The size of
the country can be most readily gauged by comparison.
Papua just exceeds Great Britain in area, and is the largest
British insular Possession in the tropics, and far larger than all
the British West India islands put together, 12,079 square miles.

Papua has a characteristically tropical climate. Broadly
regarded, the year is divided into two seasons, viz. that of the
south-east trades, extending from May to November, and that
of the north-west monsoon, from December to April. On the
coast, the force of the south-east wind when at its height is
considerable, but inland it is light. The north-west monsoon,
unlike the south-east trades, does not blow steadily, but comes
in sudden squalls, often accompanied with rain. The south-east
is the drier of the two seasons ; in some districts, notably that
of the central strip of coastline near Port Moresby, between
Hall Sound and Hood's Peninsula, it is conspicuously so. At
Samarai, near the eastern end of the Territory, and at Daru,
near the western end, the rainfall is fairly evenly distributed
throughout the year, and the same applies to most of the country
except the central strip of coastline. During the year 1906, at
Port Moresby the mean monthly temperature ranged from 72*9°
in July to 83 "4° in February, and the total rainfall for the year
was only 35711 inches. At Samarai the mean monthly
temperature ranged from 75*5° in August to 82*6° in February,
and the total rainfall for the year was 92 '145 inches. At Daru
the mean monthly temperature ranged from 75*6° in August to
82*9° in February, and the total rainfall for the year was 137' 180
inches.

,The western part of Papua is for 300 miles along the coast
generally low and swampy, mangroves and sago-palm being
prominent features of these swamps. Inland there is limestone
country. The Fly River, the largest of all the rivers, rises in
German New Guinea, and after passing through the eastern

86 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

part of Dutch New Guinea, enters the western part of Papua,
and has from the German boundary to its mouth on the Gulf of
Papua a length of 620 miles ; this river is navigable by steam
launch for 500 miles, and tidal for 200 miles. The Purari, the
second river in size, also rises in Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, and
after entering Papua flows through a sandstone country, and
ultimately debouches into the Gulf of Papua, being navigable
by steam launch for 120 miles. Tow^ards the east the country
becomes more mountainous, sandstone and other sedimentary
formations predominating, but there are igneous outcrops
such as Mount Yule, upwards of 10,000 feet in height. The
central chain of mountains is schistose, and attains its greatest
altitudes in the Owen Stanley Range, the highest points of
which are Mount Victoria, 13,200 feet, Mount Scratchley, the
Wharton Range, and Mount Albert Edward, the latter approxi-
mately the same height as Mount Victoria. Igneous mountains
continue the chain to the eastern end of the island. Several
islets off the eastern capes are volcanic.

There are many excellent harbours, which v^^ill prove of great
value in developing the industries of the country, and four are
ports of entry. The westernmost port of entry is Daru, a small
island off the mouth of the Fly River. Proceeding eastward
across the Gulf of Papua, the next port of entry is Port
Moresby, distant 270 miles from Daru. The third is Samarai,
and the fourth Bonagai in Woodlark Island.

The values of the exports for the year ended June 30, 1906,
were : gold ^^58,496, copra ;^9,3I5, beche-de-mer £3,027, sandal-
wood ;^2,522, pearls ;^2,478, rubber ;^I,I45, coffee ;^9i5, turtle-
shell ^^568, pearl-shell ;^267, green snail-shell ;^234. The total
exports were valued at ;^8o,290. To this must be added about
7,250 ounces of gold, valued at ;^27,ooo, which the owners took
with them and sold, principally in Queensland, when on a visit
to Australia, and of which there is no Customs record.

Papua is easily reached by steamer from Australia. Two
subsidised mail steamers leave Sydney every month, reaching
Papua vid the Solomon Islands, and calling at Woodlark
Island, Samarai, Port Moresby and Hall Sound every other
trip, arid from that point run on to Cairns in Queensland. The
vessels then double back, reaching Sydney by the same route

Papua and its Economic Resources. Sy

reversed. This gives the Territory a monthly service with
Cairns. Besides these regular services there are several un-
subsidised vessels running between Australia and Papua.

Port Moresby, the seat of government, is situated in a central
position on the Gulf of Papua, and has about 60 white and 1,600
native inhabitants. The places next in importance are Samarai,
which is an island 60 acres in area, and Daru.

The total white population of Papua is 828, comprising 669
men, 128 women, and 31 children. Divided according to avoca-
tions they are: miners 180, missionaries 124, storekeepers and
traders 50, Government officials and employes 49, planters,
mariners and miscellaneous, 295.

No census of natives exists, as much of the interior is
unexplored, but it is estimated that there are between 400,000
and 500,000 natives. The only education they receive is
imparted by the missionaries, some of whom combine with
religious instruction industrial as well as scholastic education,
with the best results. The young natives show aptitude in
technical subjects such as house- and boat-building, sawmilling,
wood-working and planting. The fact that the natives possess
the faculty for readily acquiring technical knowledge will be of
great value to white settlers who desire to embark in industries
suitable to the country. At present there are about 5,oco
indentured Papuans working satisfactorily, principally in mining
operations and pack-carrying, both arduous employments. The
carrying of loads 40 lb. in weight long distances to the gold-
fields is especially distasteful to them. It is evident, therefore,
that if large numbers of natives in the past have voluntarily
undertaken such tasks, they will much more readily accept-
service for plantation work, as they are accustomed to agricul-'
tural pursuits, and prefer clearing scrub and planting to any
other work. The Papuan quickly learns to line, hole, plant and
shade young trees, if under watchful supervision.

Planters can obtain economic plants from the Government
nurseries at cost price. Experiment and demonstration plots
are being established in the coastal districts, one for dry country
plants such as cotton, sisal hemp, and tobacco at Rigo, and one
for other lowland plants in the more rainy country on the Kempi:
Welch River. And it is proposed to establish a hill experiment''

88 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

station at 2,400 feet at Warirata on the high tableland of the
Astrolabe Range inland from Port Moresby for tea, coffee, cocoa,
cardamoms, cinchona, and other plants that require a high
elevation. The soil there is friable and of a rich brown colour,
and is derived from decomposed basalt, of which rock the
Astrolabe Range chiefly consists. The Sogeri coffee and
rubber plantation on the Astrolabe tableland has the same
fertile soil. Papua has many kinds of soil, deep alluvial, volcanic,
clay, light and heavy loam, sandy and calcareous. There is flat
land for ploughed crops, and sloping or steep naturally well-
drained mountain land for mountain crops. The Land Laws
are exceptionally liberal, and enable settlers to obtain long
leases of rich agricultural land on exceedingly easy terms.
Well-grassed pastoral land is also obtainable for stock. At
present the number of stock in Papua is very small, viz. goats
800, cattle 779, horses and mules 205, sheep 60. Good land is
available for settlement, chiefly for planting purposes, on the
Astrolabe plateau and from the St. Joseph River, west of Port
Moresby, to the Maiwara and Sagarai valleys near Milne Bay.
Some suitable localities are near the coast, while others are
accessible by water-carriage up rivers or creeks. The most
reliable and lucrative planting industries are Para rubber and
coconuts. Intending planters who propose acquiring land near
the coast are advised to plant a good area with one, if not
both, of these valuable trees. During the first half of the
year 50,000 acres of land were taken up for plantation purposes.
Papua possesses an immense area of easily accessible virgin
forest and scrubland lying along a great portion of its 3,000
miles of coast line, as well as equally good land, though at
present less accessible, in the interior. The ten Government
nurseries in different places between the extreme west and
the extreme east of the territory, contain 230,000 young Para
rubber trees available for planters. About 12 miles up the
Vailala River, above the sago belt, and therefore not on
swampy ground, there is heavily-timbered land suitable for
planting rubber. This, however, is only one of several such
localities. The rubber at present annually exported is derived
from an indigenous tree, Fzcus Rigo, and from indigenous rubber
vines.

Papua and its Economic Resources. 89

East of the main range are 4 of the 6 proclaimed gold-
fields. The Gira and Aikora goldfield, in the Northern Division,
is about 900 square miles in extent, the general formation being
diorite and slate. There were 55 miners working on the field
during the year ended June 30, 1906, and the estimated output
of gold was 6,000 ounces. Osmiridium occurs between the
Gira River and the Owen Stanley Range. The Yodda goldfield
is situated 100 miles east of the Gira, and the number of miners
working on it during the year was 48, and the output 6,000
ounces. Owing to the remoteness of these goldfields, difficulties
of transport are great, and fares and cost of living so high as to
render profits small as compared with the amount of gold won.
These difficulties, it is hoped, will be largely removed by the
gradual substitution of pack-mules for the human carriage ot
supplies at present necessary owing to the absence of good
bridle tracks through the mountain forests. Until the cost of
living has been reduced and greater facilities are available,
alluvial miners are not advised to go to Papua unless possessed
of at least ;^ioo. The Keveri goldfield includes Mount
Suckling, and the number of miners working there was 5, and
the output 552 ounces. The Milne Bay goldfield is near the
eastern extremity of the island, and the number of miners was
18, and the output 1,000 ounces.

Indications of gold-bearing country have also been found at
various places along the south coast and on the Fly River.

Many of the rivers of Papua have been declared open to
dredging for gold. Some undoubtedly contain a considerable
amount of alluvial gold, which the miners at present are unable
to reach, through the absence of bucket or suction dredges.
Whether the river bottoms are suitable for dredging operations
can only be satisfactorily settled by thorough investigation by
an expert. The waters declared open for dredging for gold are
the Gira River, Mambare River, and Kumusi River in the
Northern Division, the Musa River in the North-eastern Division,
the creeks running into Hall Sound and Galley Reach in the
Central Division, the Jones River and Thompson's Creek in the
Eastern Division, and the streams of Woodlark Island, Sud-est
Island, and Misima Island.

All the gold discovered up to the present on the mainland is

90 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

alluvial. Paying auriferous reefs or lodes have, so far, only been
found on Woodlark Island.

Copper occurs in the Astrolabe mineral field, which has an
area of about i,000 square miles, and extends from the coast at
Port Moresby to 27 miles inland, and was proclaimed on
December 21, 1906. Up to June 1907 two prospecting claims
had been granted of 160 acres each, and 15 prospecting
areas aggregating 1,000 acres. At present it would be premature
to express any definite opinion as to the extent of the deposits.
The prospects are most encouraging, and the percentage of
copper in the ore is high, 26 to 30 per cent. It has now been
definitely proved that besides carbonates and red and black
oxides of copper, sulphides exist along the whole length of the
field, and this important fact practically assures the permanence
of the field.

The Islets. Off the eastern capes, at no great distance, lie the
largest of the 200 or so islets forming part of the Territory.

1. D'Entrecasteaux group are nearest to the eastern capes, 1

and are mountainous. The volcanic Goodenough Island
is 8,000 feet in height.

2. Trobriand group, farther off, are low coral islets, Kiriwina

being the largest.

3. Woodlark Island, the farthest from the mainland, is

particularly noteworthy, as it is the most productive of all
the six proclaimed goldfields, and the only one possessing
paying auriferous reefs. The total white population
during the year ended June 30, 1906, was 125. Five
companies were working the three goldmining centres.
By crushing and cyaniding 8,919 ounces of gold, valued
at ;^28,323, and 1,608 ounces of alluvial gold, valued at
;^5,226, were obtained, an increase of 1,789 ounces as
compared with the previous year.

4. Louisiades group, south of the three preceding groups, are

the oldest of the six goldfields, having been proclaimed in
1889. At first 400 miners were at work on the alluvial
deposits of Misima or St. Aignan's Island, but last year
the total white population was only 16. Sud-est Island
belongs to this group. X \v\A \^{^{'.v\\t .

The coral islets and reefs, both those which do and those

General Notes.

which do not belong to the above groups, are of economic
importance owing to their marine resources, particularly beche-

j de-mer, pearls, pearl-shell, turtle-shell, green snail-shell, and

j sponges.

GENERAL NOTES.

Rubber Cultivation in Malaya. — The following information illus-
trating the development of rubber planting in Malaya is taken from
a recent report by the Director of Agriculture in the Federated Malay
States.

The growth of the rubber industry in the Federated Malay States
during the last ten years has been exceedingly rapid, owing to the
fact that the climate has been found very suitable for the cultivation
of the Para rubber tree. In 1897 there were only 345 acres devoted
to rubber; in 1902 the area under rubber had increased to 7,239 acres,
and in 1907 it reached the large total of 126,235 acres. These figures
relate to the Federated Malay States only, and do not include the rubber
plantations in the Straits Settlements and Johore, which have shown a
similar development and now amount to 52,992 acres.

The following table gives the acreage devoted to rubber and also
the number of trees in the different provinces of the Federated Malay
States and Straits Settlements in 1906 and 1907 : —

Acreage.

Number of trees.

fSelangor . . .

Federated J Perak ....

Malay States\ Negri Sembilan .

iPahang ....

1906.
44,821
29,612
10,663
483

1907.

61,552

46,167

17,656

860

1906.
5,477,390
3,990,462
1,196,150

81,000

1907.
9,648,093
6,648,957
3.165,388

166,590

Total for the Federated Malay
States

85,579 j 126,235

10,745,002

19,629,028

Straits /Malacca . . .
Settlements \ Province Wellesley
Johore

28,784
4,738
4,362

36,946

5,920

10,126

472,056
615,940
492,906

6,019,940

767,276

1,142,196

Total for the Straits Settle-
ments and Johore ....

37,884

52,992

1,580,902

7,929,412

Grand total for British Malaya

123,463

179,227

12,325,904

27,558,440

It will be seen from these figures that the area under rubber in
Malaya increased by 55,764 acres, or about 46 per cent., during 1907,
whilst the number of trees more than doubled, owing to the fact that a
large acreage was planted closer than before.

The total exports of dry rubber from Malaya increased by 144 per
cent, during 1907, the figures being 1,017 tons compared with 417 tons

92 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

in the previous year. The greater part of this rubber was of course
produced in the Federated Malay States, which furnished 885 tons in
1907 as against 439 tons in 1906.

The average yield of dry rubber per tree tapped ranged in 1907 from
I lb. 7 J oz. in Selangor to 2 lb. 7 oz. in Negri Sembilan, the average for
the whole peninsula being i lb. 12 oz., which is exactly the same figure
as was recorded in 1906. This result is considered very satisfactory, as
the number of trees tapped for the first time in 1907 greatly exceeded
the number which had been previously tapped, especially in Selangor.

It is interesting to note that the whole of the plantations are stated
to be in a healthy and vigorous condition.

Cotton Ordinances of the Uganda and East Africa Protectorates. —

In order to maintain or improve the quality of the cotton grown
in the Uganda and East Africa Protectorates, and to prevent the
cultivation of inferior varieties and the exportation of inferior cotton,
the following Ordinance has been enacted recently in both countries.
(The words printed in italics occur in the Uganda Ordinance only,
whilst those within square brackets occur only in that of the East Africa
Protectorate.)

" I. These Ordinances may be cited as 'The Uganda Cotton
Ordinance, 1908,' and 'The East Africa Cotton Ordinance, 1908,*
respectively.

"2. The Governor may make rules for maintaining or improving
the quality of cotton in the Protectorate or to be exported from the
Protectorate either in reference to the distribution and use of seed
or to the inspection of seed, crops, cotton unginned or ginned, or
ginneries or factories, and may prohibit the use [and importation]
of seeds of any particular kind, or specify any particular kind or kinds
of seed as the only kind or kinds to be used, and may prohibit the
use or exportation of cotton of inferior quality, or of any particular
kind, or specify any particular kind or kinds as the only kind which may
be used or exported, and may prohibit [or regulate] any method of
sowing, collecting, ginning, [baling] or otherwise preparing cotton and
generally for the purposes of this Ordinance, and may apply all or any
of such Rules to any Province, District, or place in the Protectorate,
and may make, special Rules in regard to any particular Province,
District or place, [and may require the destruction of any diseased
cotton on the lands with or without compensation to the owner or
owners thereof].

" 3. The power to make Rules shall include a power to fix reasonable
fees and charges.

" 4. The Governor may fix such penalties for the breach, or attempted
breach, or non-observance of any Rule as he may think proper, not
exceeding imprisonment, with or without hard labour, for a term of
one month, or a fine of 1000 rupees, or both, and where no penalty
is imposed by the Rules, the breach, or attempted breach, or non-

General Notes. 93

observance of any Rule shall be punishable to the extent aforesaid,
and may provide that any seed, cotton or implement in respect of
which a breach or attempted breach or non-observance of any Rule
has been committed may be confiscated or otherwise dealt with, with
or without compensation."

Senecio latifolius from Cape Colony. — On account of their alleged
poisonous effects upon cattle, a number of plants are being investigated
in the Scientific and Technical Department of the Imperial Institute at
the request of the Government of the Cape Colony. Among these is
Senecio latifolius (N. O. Compositse), a plant of common occurrence in
South Africa. Two small supplies of the plant were received, one repre-
senting the plant before flowering and the other after flowering. From
these materials two new crystalline alkaloids have been isolated. The
quantity of these substances present amounts to 1*20 per cent, in the
plant before flowering and to 0*49 per cent, in the plant "after flower-
ing." A description of the properties and chemical composition of
these alkaloids has been communicated by Dr. H. E. Watt, of the
Scientific and Technical Department of the Imperial Institute, to the
Chemical Society of London.

The two alkaloids, for which the names senecifoline and senecifolidine
are proposed, are of particular interest in being obtained from a plant
belonging to the N. O. Compositae — an order containing very few
species yielding substances of an alkaloidal character. The formulae
^18^27^8^ and C18H25O7N have been assigned to senecifoline and
senecifolidine respectively, so that they differ in composition by a
molecule of water. A number of the principal salts of both alkaloids
have been prepared. Senecifoline on treatment with alkalis decomposes,
yielding a new dibasic acid of the formula CjoH^gOg, which it is pro-
posed to name senecifolic acid, and a new base C8H1JO2N, for which
the name senecifolinine is suggested. Hence it appears that this
alkaloid decomposes in a manner analogous to atropine, which, when
treated with barium hydroxide, decomposes into atropic acid and
tropine.

The pharmacology of senecifoline and senecifolidine is being studied
by Prof. A. R. Cushny, F.R.S., who has already found that the former
is poisonous to animals.

The Constituents of East Indian Satinwood. — East Indian satin-
wood (Chloroxylon swietenia) is employed in this country as an orna-
mental wood as well as for other purposes, and is obtained from India
and Ceylon. The wood has been stated frequently to possess irritant
properties, and was alleged to be partly responsible for an outbreak of
dermatitis among workmen employed at a sawmill in Scotland some
years ago.

An investigation of the constituents of the wood has been made at
the Imperial Institute, and the results have been recently communicated

94 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

to the Chemical Society by Dr. Auld, of the Scientific and Technical
Department.

The wood contains a considerable amount of calcium oxalate, a
peculiar protein compound, two inert resins, a yellowish brown fixed oil,
and a small quantity of an alkaloid. The oil does not appear to exert
any irritant action on the skin.

The alkaloid has been isolated and examined in some detail. It has
the formula Ci8Hii03N(OCH3)4, melts at i82°-i83° C, is laevo
rotatory, and crystallises in well-defined prisms. As it cannot be identi-
fied with any known substance the alkaloid has been given the name
chloroxylonine.

Chloroxylonine, although a weak base, forms well-defined crystalline
salts. The physiological action of the alkaloid is at present being fully
investigated by Prof. Cash of Aberdeen University, and there seems to be
no doubt that under certain conditions it is capable of producing dermatitis
similar in character to that caused by the wood itself. Some samples
of East Indian satinwood examined contained little or none of this
alkaloid, and the dermatitis produced by the wood does not appear from
industrial experience to be a constant feature.

Sponges from Bermuda. — These sponges were forwarded to the
Imperial Institute by the Colonial Secretary in Bermuda, with a request
for a report on their quality and commercial value.

On examination it was found that the sponges were of two kinds.

Type A was identified at the Natural History Section of the British
Museum as Spongia offLcinalis^ var. tubulifera.

The sponges were ragged in appearance and of irregular shape, vary-
ing in size from 2 J" x 3" x 2" to 5" x 3 J" x 7". They were very soft,
and of dirty dark-brown colour, but were free from inclusions of mineral
matter. These sponges are not of high commercial value, as the shape
is not good and the fibre is weak and easily lacerated. They would
only be suitable for rough household or stable use, or for cleaning
slates. Commercial experts valued the specimens at about one shilling
per lb.

Type B was identified at the Natural History Museum as Spongia
officinalis^ var. dura^ Hyatt. These sponges are known in commerce as
the "Hard Head." Specimen No. 12 in this group approximates to
Spongia officinalis, var. corlosia, in appearance, being lighter in colour
and softer. The latter variety is known commercially as the " Yellow "
sponge, and it is stated that it is not possible to distinguish some of the
varieties of " Hard Head " from those of the " Yellow " sponge. The
specimens were roughly globular in shape, moderately soft, and varied
in colour from dark brown to yellowish-orange with reddish stains ; they
were free from visible inclusions of mineral matter. The size of these
sponges varied between 3" x 3" x 2f " and 5" x 5" x 4".

The commercial value of this type of sponge is good, though the
texture is rather firm and inelastic. The specimens were valued by

General Notes. 95

commercial experts at two shillings per lb., though it was considered
that they might possibly realise 2s. 6d. per lb. in this country.

Soy Beans. — These beans, which are the seeds of Glycine soja (Soja
hispida\ have long been grown on a very extensive scale in China and
Japan where they are used as food and also as a source of oil and
bean-cake. The oil is pressed in the Far East by rather primitive
methods, and some years ago firms of oil-seed crushers in this country
found that it was worth while to import Chinese bean cake into this
country, extract a portion of the remaining oil and use the residue,
which is highly nutritious, for the preparation of feeding cakes for
cattle. The Soy bean oil proved to be suitable for many manufactur-
ing purposes and a demand for it sprang up with great rapidity, and
to meet this, large supplies of Soy beans were imported, chiefly from
Manchuria, and at the present time it is estimated that about 200,000
tons of these beans have been contracted for already this year.

The Soy bean is cultivated on a considerable scale in India and many
British Colonies, but mostly only for local use as a feeding stuff or as a
green manure, and there appears to be no large supply available for
export from British sources at the present time. In view of the large
demand referred to above and now met by supplies from foreign
countries it would be worth while to extend cultivation in those parts
of the empire in which the plant is already grown and found to do well.
It is proposed to publish in the next number of the Bulletin a detailed
account of the cultivation of the Soy bean and its preparation for the
market, but at present it may be mentioned that the plant will grow
fairly well wherever maize can be grown and that, like many other
leguminous plants, it has the property of enriching in nitrogen the soil
in which it is grown, so that it is particularly suitable for cultivation
in rotation with maize and similar crops.

In many colonies, therefore, and especially in West, East and South
Africa, the planting of this crop would appear to be worth an extended
trial.

Utilisation of Para Rubber Seed. — Attention has been directed
already in this Bulletin (1903, 1. 156, and 1904, 2. 22) to Para rubber
seed as a source of a drying oil. The seed has a thin shell which
forms about 58 per cent, of the whole. This shell contains a small
amount of oil which for practical purposes may be neglected. The
kernels contain about 42 per cent, of oil, which when exposed to
the air " dries " in the course of a few days, yielding a clear trans-
parent film. It generally resembles linseed oil in properties, and like
the latter could probably be used in the manufacture of paints and
varnishes, rubber substitutes, oil cloth, soft soaps, and similar products.
A small consignment of the kernels (decorticated seed) was received
recently in this country from Ceylon, and the oil expressed therefrom
has been sold at the rate of 21 shillings per cwt. to a manufacturing

96 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

firm in this country for trial on a small commercial scale. Analyses
of the ''cake" left after the extraction of the oil, were made at
the Imperial Institute in 1903, and these showed that it had about
the same " nutrient value " as linseed cake. Up to the present
practically all the supplies of Para rubber seed available have been used
for planting purposes, and consequently feeding trials with press cake
prepared from the kernels have not been carried out, but such
experiments will need to be undertaken before the cake can be
marketed as a feeding-stuff. Owing to the great extension of Para
rubber planting in Ceylon, Malaya, and elsewhere in recent years,
large supplies of this seed will be obtainable as a by-product in the
near future, and these can probably be put to remunerative use as
a source of drying oil and feeding cake.

It is probable that it will prove more remunerative to export the
seeds or the kernels (/. e. the shelled seeds) to this country than to
express the oil locally, since it will probably be easier to find a market
for the press-cake in Europe than in the countries in which the seed
is produced. Further, the cost of packages for the transport of the
oil would doubtless prove to be high in the tropics. Before exporting
kernels great care should be taken to see that they are thoroughly dry,
so as to avoid deterioration during transit.

The Imperial Institute will be glad to receive any further information
or inquiries relating to the utilisation of these seeds.

RECENT REPORTS FROM AGRICULTURAL AND

TECHNICAL DEPARTMENTS IN THE

COLONIES AND INDIA.

In this Section of the Bulletin a Summary is given of the Chief
Contents of general interest, of Reports and other publications received
at the Imperial Institute from Agricultural and Technical Departments,
n the Colonies and India.

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
Reports on the Finance, Administration, and Condition of the Sudan,
1907.— Besides the improvement of the Red Sea pearl shell fishery,
it is hoped to undertake intensive cultivation of oysters by collecting
seed oysters from six to nine months old, keeping these for a year or
so in " live-boxes " in shallow water and then transporting them to new
positions for further growth. Pearls are stated to be extremely rare in
the Red Sea oysters. Both "edible" and "shell" species of turtle
occur, but only local use is made of the former, and it is doubtful
whether enough of either kind occurs for export trade. The Director

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 97

of Agriculture and Lands states that Egyptian cotton seems to be
gaining ground, especially in the White Nile Province. An experiment
was made with American cotton at Zeidal, but this was unsuccessful.
A small disinfecting chamber is being constructed at Port Sudan for
the treatment of imported cotton seed. An experiment in indigo
cultivation was tried in Berber Province, but the product obtained was
of poor quality. At the Central Experiment Farm trials with cotton
and wheat have been carried on, mainly with a view to determining the
relation of these crops to irrigation. Small crops of ground nuts,
sesame, and maize were grown with more or less success, but beans,
foenugrec, and grass failed. Mention has been made already in this
Bulletin (1908, 6. 425) of some of the work done by the Woods and
Forest Department during the year, especially with reference to gum
and rubber. In addition the reports on the various Provinces contain
notes on recent economic developments which have taken place locally.

Rhodesia.

Agricultural Journal^ 1908, 6. No. i. — Growing wheat (describes the
selection of soil and precautions to be taken in growing wheat in
Rhodesia) — Notes on tobacco culture (describes more particularly the
method of preparing seed-beds) — Cotton in N.E. Rhodesia (mentions
that "Abassi" and " Afiffi " cottons have done well in N.E. Rhodesia
at an altitude of 1,300 feet, and that Caravonica tree cotton is being
tried) — Locust plagues in South Africa (discusses factors accountable
for the occurrence of these plagues and methods of destroying the
insects. — 1908, 6. No. 2 : Chutica cotton estate (describes the varieties
grown ; the main crop is Egyptian cotton, though experiments are being
made with improved American sorts and " Caravonica ") — Trees to plant
(a list of exotic trees suitable for planting in Rhodesia) — Soil formations
on the Gwibi, Tataguro, and Mazoe Valleys — Ramie — Pedigree cattle
in Mashonaland — Exportation of citrus fruit (a report by a London firm
on a small experimental consignment of fruit sent from Rhodesia).

Transvaal.

Mines Departme7it — Report of the Geological Survey for the year 1907. ,
— The Director reviews the work of the year. He claims to have estab-
lished the existence of the Stormberg Series in the Transvaal and
Rhodesia, making the following correlations : —

Transvaal. Rhodesia. Cape Colony.

Bushveld Amygdaloid . | Tuli Amygdaloid Volcanic Group

'^ I Batoka basalts ^

Bushveld Sandstone Series ^ S^'"''°'° Series 1 Cave Sandstone

43 <U

Forest Sandstones J Red Beds

In the " Geology of the Central Portion of the Potchefstroom District "

98 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

representatives of the Witwatersrand, Ventersdorp (Vaal River),
Potchefstroom (Transvaal), and Karroo systems and various igneous
rocks are described. The economic minerals include gold in Witwaters-
rand conglomerates and the Black Reef, and copper in a dark-green
amygdaloidal intrusive rock described as a diorite, in which blebs of
bornite occur that resemble the amygdales. Sandstones in the Karroo
beds furnish a useful building stone near Wildebeestpan. A dense black
chert occurring in the passage beds from the Dolomite to the Pretoria
Series is worked near Machavie station for the lining of tube mills. In
the " Geology of the Haenertsburg gold fields and the adjoining portion
of Secoecoeniland, east of the Lulu Mountains," the formation of this
district which lies between Lydenburg, Pietersburg, and Leydsdorp, and
includes portions of the Olifants and Steel port rivers, is described. It
is formed mainly of the Potchefstroom (Transvaal) System. At the
base overlying the older granite is the Black Reef, forming the Strydpoort
and Drakenberg ranges and dipping — in the former to the south and in
the latter to the south-west — under the dolomite, which is again covered
by the Pretoria Series. This has been strongly metamorphosed by the
Bushveld Plutonic Series, supposed to have been intruded between it
and the Waterberg which has now been removed. The rocks of the
Plutonic Series are mainly norites and hypersthenites. The latter are
interbedded with important reefs of chromite, and copper is some-
times found in the rocks. Other economic minerals are gold, which
occurs in conglomerates in the Black Reef and the alluvium derived
from them, and krokydolite (crocidolite) or blue asbestos which is
met with in ferruginous quartzites slates near the base of the Pretoria
Series.

*' On the south-western portion of the Rustenburg District, between
Tafelkopf and Rustenburg." — The rocks described consist of beds of
the Pretoria Series, which forms part of the Potchefstroom (or Transvaal)
System. They consist of quartzites, shales and contemporaneous and
intrusive igneous rocks, which dip northwards under the Bushveld
Plutonic Series, by which they are metamorphosed.

" The Geology of the gold-bearing district of Blaauwbank, west-north-
west of Krugersdorp." — The auriferous beds occur in shales and
quartzites in the lower part of the Pretoria Series, close below the lava
flow usually referred to as " vesicular diabase," which is, it appears, a
hornblende basalt. They are sometimes interbedded and sometimes
intersect the stratification, and are, therefore, intermediate between the
true interbedded reefs of the Lydenburg District and those at Scheer-
poort, west of Pretoria, which always cut across the bedding planes.
They seem to hold out a good prospect of success for private enterprise
on a modest scale, especially if a more reliable water supply can be
obtained.

The report on the " Geology of the neighbourhood of Rustenburg "
deals with the area bounded on the north and west by the Elands river,
on the east by the Sterkstroom and thfe Crocodile, and on the south by

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 99

the Magaliesberg escarpment. The rocks comprise the Pretoria Series
and the norite and red granite of the Bushveld Plutonic Series. Beds
of chromite and magnetite occur in the norite, the former being
associated with rocks consisting almost entirely of enstatite.

The " Report on a preliminary examination of the Cassiterite
Deposits of Zaaiplaats and some of the neighbouring farms of the
Waterberg District " states that these deposits occur in the mountains
of red granite between the Magalakwin (Magalaquene) and Sterk
Rivers, 22 miles west-north-west of Pietpotgietersrust, near the point
where granite is covered on the west by the felsites of the Lower
Waterberg Series. The mineral occurs in pipes of altered granite
several feet in diameter, which are at first vertical and then become
almost horizontal. They are found mainly in the coarser granite, which
dips at a low angle to the westward under a finer granite where the
mineral occurs in shoots also dipping to the westward, sometimes with
the granite, sometimes at a much greater angle.

Other contents are a summary of a traverse m the north-western
Zoutpansburg District, already noticed in this Bulletifi (1908, 6. 427),
and "The Geology of Rustenburg and the surrounding District" (a
brief explanation of Sheet 4 of the Geological survey on a scale of
about 3 : 440,000, or about "432" to the mile).

Annals of the Transvaal Museum^ 1908, August. — A list of the
" Ticks " of South Africa, with descriptions and keys to all the forms
known, a bibliography, and a list of animals which act as hosts.

Agricultural Journal^ 1909, 7. No. 26. — Economical use of water for
irrigation — Notes from the chemical laboratories (mentions the examin-
ation of a sample of Eucalyptus oil distilled in the Transvaal, and
determinations of the feeding values of varieties of mealies) — Hints on
the feeding of farm animals (discusses the nutrient values of some
Transvaal feeding stuffs) — Mildews of the grape-vine — European
apple-tree fungus — Ramie cultivation — Cotton cultivation (deals more
especially with seed selection) — Fruit drying — Export of oranges from
the Transvaal — The proper season for felling trees — Tobacco experi-
ment stations (an illustrated article describing work done recently at
these stations) — Characters of the Nicotianse and their classification
— The conservation of soil moisture.

Natal.

Agricultural Journal^ 1908, 11. No. 10. — Natal's progress in 1907 (a
summary of agricultural statistics for the year) — Local bone dust (an
analysis of a sample prepared locally is given) — Land drainage — Crown
forests. Conservation report for July and August — Market reports,
associations reports, etc. 1908, 11. No. 11 : The maize situation (states
that the export of maize during the year has been so considerable as to
cause a shortage in the colony itself) — ^Grading bark (the question of
grading wattle bark before export is under consideration by planters) —

loo Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Maize harvesting machinery (a descriptive account of modern machinery
for the purpose)— The Soy bean (descriptive account of the cultivation
and uses of the Soy bean)— The cultivation of vanilla (suggests this as
a possible new industry for Natal)— A new winter grass, Phalaris
commutaia^The. caustic soda and sulphur dip (further opinions on
use of this dip as a remedy for scab in sheep) — Conservation report on
Crown forests for September and October— Market reports, etc.

Cape of Good Hope.

Agricultural Journal, 1908, 33. No. 4. — South African bee-keeping
(the conclusion of a monograph on the subject) — Weather conditions
of South Africa (a lecture on the meteorological work so far done
in South Africa) — Agricultural soils of Cape Colony, a continuation of
the results of the survey now in hand — Melon aphis (an illustrated
descriptive account of this insect {Aphis gossypii, Glov.), which does
great damage to cucurbitaceous plants in the colony ; with suggestions
for its destruction) — Utilisation of seaweed for manurial purposes and in
other industries (an account of the composition of the principal seaweeds
used as manures and of the methods of using them) — Conservation of
soil moisture. 1908, 33. No. 5 : Citrus fruit in England (a report by
the Trades Commissioner, London, on consignments of oranges and
naartjes, sent recently to this country from Cape Colony)— Irrigation
in the Nuy Valley (an account of the new irrigation scheme started in
September last) — Pears and pear blight — Notes on ostrich parasites —
Agricultural soils of Cape Colony (a continuation of the results of the
survey now in hand) — Maize stalk borer {Sesamia fused) — Mealie hay
(gives analyses) — Cutworms (discusses their life history and remedial
measures against them) — Registration and purchase of fertilisers (an
explanation of the new Act relating to the sale of fertilisers, etc., in the
colony) — Composition of salt from some colonial salt pans. 1908, 33.
No. 6 : Irrigation by pumping in Griqualand West — Land irrigation
projects (a reprint of a Government notice stating the terms and con-
ditions on which engineering assistance may be obtained by farmers for
the preparation of surveys, plans and estimates for irrigation works) —
Sulphur as a pest remedy (a summary of information regarding the
characters of sulphur suitable for use for treatment of oidium on vines,
scab on sheep, and scale in orchards) — The Potteberg farms in the
Heidelberg District — Agricultural soils of Cape Colony (continued
from previous numbers) — Raisin-making (a description of varieties
and their methods of preparation) — The Seabury cattle-spraying
machine at work (a description of experiments with the machine) —
Experiments with ostriches (deals with the time required for the growth
of long and short feathers, and the character of the feathers produced in
mal-formed or injured sockets) — Inspection of fruit for export (describes
the regulations issued by the Government in connection with the
Inspection of fruit, to be carried out at the Cape Town docks).

Agricultural and Technical Departments, ioi

Mauritius.

Annual Report of the Forest and Gardens Department^ 1907- —
During the year a firing trial was made with indigenous green timber in
comparison with the standard timber (" filao " wood, derived from
Casuarina equtsetifolia) of the colony, and it was found that the former
had a steam-raising power approximately equal to three-quarters of
that of " filao " wood. The trials made with cottons show that this plant
cannot be grown successfully on a commercial scale in the islands.
The plantation of several kinds of rubbers, notably Para]and Castilloa, has
been commenced, and attention is also being paid to the planting of
various species of Pinus, Eucalyptus, etc. The report concludes with
an appendix dealing with the fungus flora of the island.

India.

Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture^ Botanical Series^ 1908,
2. No. 5. — Studies in root parasitism, Part IV — The haustorium of
Cansjera Rheedii. Ento7nological Series^ 1908, 2. No. 6 : "The Cotton
Leaf Borer." A descriptive account of this pest, which has affected
more especially the exotic cottons introduced into India. Its life-history
is described, and its habits, and remedial and preventive measures
against it are suggested.

Bulletin of the Agricultural Research histitute^ Fusa, 1908. No.
9. — Report on coco-nut palm disease in Travancore.

Agricultural Journal, 1908, 3. No. 4. — Management of experiment
stations in India — Reaping machines for wheat in the Punjab — Some
fibre plants of Upper Burma (deals with Hibiscus cannabinus, H.
furcatus, Urena lobata, Bauhinia racemosa, Agave Vera Cruz, Dendro-
calamus strictus, Corypha umbraculifera, Borassus flabillifer, all of which
are worked more or less as sources of fibre, in addition to coir made
from the envelope of the coconut) — Transplanting of rice in
Chhatisgarh — Rice cultivation in Lower Burma — Cultivation of tapioca
in Travancore — Improvement of sericiculture in Bengal (details the
efforts made by the Bengal Silk Committee to stamp out silk-worm
disease) — Note on the growing of tobacco in India for the European
market — Comparative test between an iron and wooden sugar-cane mill
(the iron mill was found to be more rapid and efficient, but yielded
a darker-coloured jaggery) — Flax in Behar (recent experiments in
retting have given a yield of 22 per cent, of fibre and 5 to 6 per cent,
of tow calculated on the dry straw) — Application of the methods of dry
farming to the agriculture of semi-arid tracts in India (experiments on
the Campbell system of dry-farming are to be tried in the Ahmednagar
District lying in the semi-arid tracts of the Bombay presidency) — The
food of the people in times of scarcity. Upper Burma (the products eaten
include the roots of Borassus flabellifer, and of Cocos nucifer and the
young shoots of the common bamboo {Dendrocalamus strictus) of Upper

I02 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Burma, as well as the kernel of the nut of Buchanania glabra) — Peas
and beans grown in Burma.

Journal Department of Agriculture^ Bengal^ 1908, 2. No. 2. — The
new Agricultural College (an account of the opening ceremony of the
new college at Sabaur near Bhagalpur) — Report on hydraulic experiments
in Bengal (an account of irrigation experiments made at the various experi-
ment farms and stations in the province) — Present position of agricul-
tural research work in Bengal — Soil analysis (describes methods of
collecting samples and discusses the value of soil analysis) — Kiushiu
paddy (states that this Japanese variety has given promising results in
Bengal) — Manures (discusses the manurial value and trade in bones in
the province) — Single plant selection in plant breeding — Cold storage
of seed cocoons (states that experiments in storing cocoons at 40° Fah.
to retard " cutting-out " have proved unsuccessful, as the moths eventu-
ally " cut out " unevenly, and looked weak and the eggs had become
reddish, probably due to excessive cold. The experiments are to be
continued) — Sugar industry of Bengal and its possibilities — Agricultural
shows in Bengal — Paddy and jute in rotation with sweet potatoes (gives
a summary of the returns obtained) — Cigarette factory at Monghyr
(describes this factory, recently started, which employs about 300 to 400
labourers).

Bulletin No. 16, Department of Agriculture, Eastern Bengal and
Assam. A Few Sijnple Agricultural Improvements. 2nd Edition, i()o2>.
— Attention is called to the following improvements in agriculture which
have been proved to be practicable, profitable, and within the means of
the peasants, (i) The use of bone meal and saltpetre as manure for
transplanted winter rice, (ii) The use of green manuring for transplanted
winter rice, (iii) The use of oil-cake (castor or mustard) as manure,
(iv) The proper conservation of cattle-dung and urine for use as
manure, (v) The introduction of the Nainital and Patna varieties of
potato, (vi) The use of the iron mill for crushing sugar-cane, (vii) The
employment of shallow iron pans for boiling sugar-cane juice for jaggery.
(viii) The cultivation of sorghum as a fodder plant.

Report on Tea Culture in Eastern Bengal and Assam, 1907. — Gives
statistics as to area under tea and the production of this food-stuff, and
mentions the work done by the Scientific Department of the Tea
Association, principally on " tea soils," " fermentation of tea," and the
diseases known as " red-rust " and " mosquito blight."

Report on the Operations of the Department of Agriculture, Madras
Presidency, for the official year 1907-8.— Experiments on the improve-
ment of cotton cultivation have been carried out at Nandyal, Koil-
patti and Hagari. The results at Koilpatti are particularly gratifying,
the "karunganni" cotton comparing favourably with machine-ginned
Broach. Sugar-cane trials in Godavari and South Arcot have been so
successful that the cultivation of the new varieties is extending rapidly,
and many applications for cane sets have been received from Malabar
from persons desirous of commencing sugar-cane growing. Improve.

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 103

ments in rice cultivation have been attempted on all the wet-land farms.
Experiments on Agave cultivation are being carried out at Hindupur
with the object of establishing a cottage fibre industry. The introduc-
tion of ground nuts has met with much success, and numerous requests
are being received for seed. Experiments on pepper cultivation have
been carried out at Taliparamba Agricultural Station, but results cannot
be expected for some years.

Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture^ Bombay Presidency^
for the year 1907-8. — Great success has attended the introduction
of Broach cotton into the Dharwar district, the cultivation of this
variety being of much greater advantage to the grower than that of
the locally grown Kumpta cotton. A number of cotton hybrids
on the Surat Farm have shown great lack of stability, but never-
theless the results demonstrate that an improvement in certain varieties
can be secured by judicious hybridisation. A report is given on the
cultivation of cotton in Sind (see this Bulletin^ 1908, 6. 418). Exotic
varieties of the ground nut have been introduced into the Satara
District, and have proved to be much superior to the indigenous kind
in yield, early maturity, and commercial value. Experiments are
recorded which have been undertaken with the object of reclaiming
salt (or "kalar") land and which promise to be very successful.
Trials with a power sugar-cane crusher have given favourable indica-
tions of the possibility of reducing the cost of the crushing process
which is now effected by roller mills worked by bullocks. Manurial
experiments have been continued for several years and have shown
that ammonium sulphate applied as a top-dressing to sugar-cane gives
better results than any other artificial manure. An important discovery
has been made of a cheap and effective way of preventing the ravages
of the potato-boring insect.

Department of Agriculture, Ce?ttral Provinces and Berar. Report o?i
the Agricultural Stations in the Central Provinces for the year 1907-8,
ending June 30, 1908. — An account is given of the work carried out at
the Agricultural Stations at Nagpur, Hoshangabad, Raipur and Akola,
and at the Telinkheri Seed Farm. The results of manurial and rotation
experiments are recorded, and reference is made to the trials with various
crops, including cotton, jute, sunn hemp, sorghum, rice, maize, ground-
nuts, "tur" (Cajanus indicus\ wheat, linseed, sesame and sugar-cane.
Efforts are being made to obtain rust-resisting varieties of wheat and
wilt-resisting varieties of " tur." The trials made with jute are of
considerable interest, and it has been found that few crops respond
better than jute to intensive cultivation such as is possible in well-
irrigated tracts. Special experiments have been carried out at Akola
with the object of ascertaining the relative value of the crops of different
varieties of cotton. The "jari" cotton, which is generally grown in
the Central Provinces, is a coarse, short-stapled cotton consisting of
a mixture of several varieties, and is exported chiefly to Japan and
Germany for mixing with wool in the manufacture of coarse woollen

104 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

fabrics. The best cultivators in Berar have found that in the mixed
"jari" cotton the " kativilayti " form {Gossypium neglectum, var. roseum,
and G. negleclutn, var. Cutchicd), grows vigorously, gives a large yield,
suffers less than other varieties from the peculiarities of the climate, and
in spite of its coarseness is readily saleable at a good price. They
therefore select the large fluffy bolls of this variety for seed, with the
result that the percentage of the coarser types in the "jari" cotton is
gradually increasing at the expense of the finer.

Department of Agriculture, Ce?itral Provinces and Berar. Varieties
of Potatoes grown in the Central Provinces, 1908. — An account is given
of the varieties of potatoes cultivated in the Central Provinces, the
districts in which they are grown, the methods of cultivating and
harvesting the crop and of storing the seed-potatoes, the quantity
produced per acre, and the commercial value of the product. Reference
is made to the diseases and pests attacking the crop, and the remedial
methods suitable for each case are briefly indicated.

Varieties of Wheat grown in the Central Provinces and Berar. Pub-
lished by the Department of Agriculture, Central Provinces and Berar.
— Classifies and describes the numerous varieties of wheat that are grown
in these localities. It is illustrated by figures of some of the different
wheats, and by a map showing the proportion of cultivated area devoted
to wheat in the different districts and the nature of the wheat grown.

Report on the Cawnpore Agricultural Station in the United Provinces
for the year ending June 30, 1907. — An account is given of a series of
manurial experiments with maize, wheat, cotton and potatoes, including
the effect of cattle manure, artificial manures, " neem " cake {Melia
azadirachta), cotton refuse, and green manuring. Investigations have
been made of the types and characters of certain crops, namely, the
opium poppy, American and native cotton, rice and maize, and their
possible improvement by selection. The problem of the occurrence of
rust on wheat has been carefully studied, and experiments have been
undertaken with the object of securing rust-resisting varieties by means
of selection.

Report on the Operatiofis of the Department of Agriculture, Punjab,
for the year ending June 30, 1908.— At the Lyallpur Agricultural Station,
an inquiry has been made on the subject of the Punjab wheats with
a view to the selection of the best types for growing. Work on similar
lines is being started with cotton, and specimens of all the indigenous
cottons of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province are being
collected. These specimens will be surveyed and classified, and a
choice will be made of varieties suitable for experiments on selection
and hybridisation. Trials are being carried out with "Dharwar"
American cotton and Egyptian varieties. It has been proved that jute
can be grown in the Punjab, provided that an adequate supply of water
is available, but there are certain difficulties in connection with the
retting process which must be overcome before the crop is grown on
an extensive scale. 1 -, ^^„^ .

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 105

Another agricultural station is being established in the Jullundur
district, the special objects of which will be the study of well problems,
sugar-cane cultivation, and other questions particularly connected with
this important agricultural region. Experiments with wheat and cotton
at the Sargodha Seed Farm gave unsatisfactory results owing to unfavour-
able meteorological conditions. A large area in the Jhelum Colony
was sown with " Dharwar " cotton, but owing to inadequate preparation
of the land and a series of climatic and other misfortunes, only a small
crop was produced. Better results, however, were obtained in the
Lyallpur District. Trials with Egyptian cotton were made at Rajanpur,
South-West Punjab, but owing chiefly to the late ripening of the crop,
only a small quantity of lint was produced, and that of poor quality.
Demonstrations have been given to the colonists on the Chenab Canal
of the utility and economy of mechanical reapers, and machines have
been purchased by many planters in the Lyallpur District. In view of
the scarcity of labour, this step of popularising agricultural machinery
is regarded as of great importance. An effort is being made to establish
sericiculture in the Punjab, and it has been decided to undertake
experiments in the Gurdaspur district, the Simla Hill States, and at
Changa Manga. Arrangements are being made to secure the services
of experienced Kashmir silk-growers as instructors in the care and
treatment of silkworms.

Department of Agriculture^ Mysore State. Eighth Atmual Report of
the Agricultural Che7nist for the year 1906-7. — An account is given of
work on sugar-cane cultivation, including the effect of draining the
land, the influence of stunted growth on the composition of the cane,
and the influence of variety on deterioration of the cane after reaching
maturity. A comparative study of Hadi's process of preparing sugar
with the ordinary method has shown that the latter process is in no
way inferior but generally decidedly superior to Hadi's method. The
results of a series of manurial pot-culture experiments are recorded.
Analyses are given of a large number of so-called '* famine foods." An
investigation has been made of the conditions of soil moisture with
special reference to the depth of the sub-soil water at various points on
the farm.

Progress Report of the lutperial Forest College^ Dehra Dun., for 1907-
8. — A record of the number of students and their attendances,
particulars of the college courses and the results of the examinations,
together with a statement of the revenue and expenditure and other
details.

Indian Forest Mei7ioirs : Forest Zoology Series, 1908, 1. Part I. —
On some undescribed Scolytidse of economic importance from the
Indian Region I. The species described are as follows : — Sphcerotrypes
siwalikensis, which is an inhabitant of the Sal {Shorea robusta) tree belt
of the United Provinces, and attacks the bark of sickly standing or
newly-felled trees. S. coimbatorensis, which infests Aftogeissus latifolia
in the Coimbatore district. S. assamensis. which attacks Sal trees in

io6 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Assam and Eastern Bengal. S. querci^ found in the Moruoak (Quercus
dilatata) in tracts of Kumaun. Polygraphus major, infests the blue pine
{Pinus excelsa) and the deodar {Cedrus deodara). P. himalayensis,
found attacking Pinus iongifolia, in the North-Western Himalayas.
P. j?nnor, which infests the blue pine and spruce {Pkea inorinda) in
the North-Western Himalayas. P. Trenchi, which inhabits the forests
of Ptnus Gerardiana in the north of Zhob and close to the south
Afghanistan frontier. Polygraphus longifolia, infests the blue pine
forests of the North-Western Himalayas. Dryocetes Hewetti, attacks
the Moru oak in Kumaun. D. bengalensis, occurs in the Sdl forests of
Goalpara in Eastern Assam. Chemistry Series, 1908, 1. i. A note on
the analysis of cutch and the preparation of pure catechin (describes a
new method involving the use of wood spirit as an extractive agent
for the separation of catechin from cutch, and advocates the separation
of catechin as a preliminary to the estimation of tannin in cutch).

Indian Forest Records, 1908, 1. Part 3. — Pterocarpus dalbergioides,
Roxb. Andaman Padouk (giving an account of the habit, distribution
and reproductive power of the tree with information regarding the uses
of the timber, and steps taken to form plantations near Port Blair).
A further note on the Chilgosa bark-boring beetles of Zhob — A note
on the present position and future prospects of the cutch trade in
Burma (discusses the reasons given, {a) small demand, and {b) com-
petition of mangrove cutch, for the serious falling off in exports of
cutch from India since 1894-5) — A note on the manufacture of Ngai
camphor from Blumea balsainifera.

Report on the Government Botanical Gardejis, Saharanpur and
Mussoorie, for the year ending March 31, 1908. — One of the most
important branches of work carried on in these gardens is the acclima-
tisation of fruit trees, and reports are given of the progress made with
Arabian dates, persimmons, Achras Sapota (" the Sapodilla plum "), and
the Mammee apple. Large numbers of seeds and plants have been
distributed from the Saharanpur Garden, including a considerable
quantity of strawberry, agave and ornamental plants, and vegetable
and flower seeds.

Records of the Geological Survey, 1908, 36. Part 4. — Contains articles
on pseudo-fucoids (tracks) from the cretaceous rocks of Fort Munro
and the Vindhyan series ; jadeite in the Kachin hills. Upper Burma
(stated to be produced by a paramorphic change in an albite-nepheline
rock) ; and the Wetchok-Yedwet Pegu outcrop, Magwe District, Upper
Burma, where the strata form a dome, and the locality is believed to be
suitable for prospecting operations for oil. There are also papers on a
group of manganates comprising hollandite, psilomelane and coronadite ;
and on wolfram in the Nagpur district, Central Provinces. Short notes
are furnished on alum from Mormugao, Portuguese territory, corundum
from the N.W. Khasi hills, and on minor points of stratigraphy and
palaeontology.

Sketch of the Mineral Resources of India, — A brief account of the

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 107

geology of India, with special reference to the rocks containing economic
minerals, followed by a description of the past and present position of
mineral industries in India, and a discussion of the possibility of future
developments. Details are given of the value of the output of the
principal minerals from 1902-6 inclusive.

The chief mineral products are then considered in turn : (i) carbon
and its compounds; (2) ores of the following metals: aluminium (in
the form of bauxite, which is a variety of laterite), antimony, arsenic,
chromium, copper, gold, iron (important deposits of iron ores have been
found recently in the Raipur district of the Central Provinces and the
Mayurbhanj State), lead, manganese, molybdenum, titanium, tungsten
and zinc ; (3) minerals employed in various industries : alum, borax,
building materials, clays, sulphates of iron and copper, corundum, glass-
making materials, gypsum, magnesite, mica, phosphates, mineral paints,
mineral waters, salt, sodium carbonate and sulphate, potassium nitrate and
chloride, steatite and sulphur ; (4) gemstones : agate, beryl, chryso-
beryl, diamonds, garnet, jadeite, ruby, sapphire, spinel, tourmaline,
zircon. The publication concludes with particulars of the conditions
on which mining concessions are granted, and a list of the publications
in the Memoirs and Records of the Geological Survey of India that deal
with economic products.

General Report on the Operations of the Survey of India administered
under the Government of India during i()o6-']. — This publication gives
an account of the distribution of the field-parties and the operations
which they carried out, including trigonometrical surveys, astronomical
and magnetic observations, topographical, forest, cadastral and traverse,
and cantonment surveys. It is well illustrated with maps and charts.

Indian Trade Journal^ 1908, 11. No. 138. — Distillation of turpentine
(describing briefly a new process of distilling waste pine wood for the
production of turpentine oil — an electrical method of heating being
used, which is said to permit of better regulation of the temperature of
distillation than is possible by older methods). 1908, 11. No. 139 :
Commercial possibilities of tapioca (describes the preparation of tapioca
flour, and mentions the efforts now being made to extend the cultivation
of cassava in India, and refers to the possible use of the plant as a source
of tapioca, starch and spirit). 1908, 11. No. 142 : Manufacture of
castor meal (this feeding material is being made in India by mixing
the finely ground shelled seeds with water, running the " cream " so
formed into boiling water, whereby the soluble albumen is coagulated,
straining, and drying the residue on steam-heated plates. The granular
powder so formed is then pressed and yields (i) a pale neutral castor
oil of good quality and (2) a cake suitable for use as a feeding material.
It should be mentioned that the objection to the use of castor cake as
a feeding stuff is the presence of a poisonous phytalbumose, and pre-
sumably the latter is coagulated and rendered inert in the above process).
1908, 11. No. 143 : Indian paper industry (points out that there is an
opening for a paper mill in Assam, where suitable sites are met with

io8 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

and where wood for pulp manufacture is obtainable in large quantity).
1908, 11. No. 145 : Rug-making in India (describes the processes
used in making Indian rugs, which are sold chiefly in the U.S.A.).

Ceylon.

Circulars and Agricultural Journal^ 1 908, 4. No. 8. — A stem disease
of the coco-nut palm (already described in this Bulletin^ 1908, 6. 205).

Tropical Agriculturist^ 1908, 31. No. 4. — Ceara rubber in the dry
zone of Ceylon (states that Ceara trees are doing well at the experiment
station at Maha-iluppalama in non-irrigated soil)— Miscellaneous econo-
mic plants (the first of a series of articles on economic plants : this one
deals with Aberia species) — Pineapple culture. Part IV : The water
hyacinth (points out that this troublesome weed has been introduced
into Ceylon as an ornamental plant and suggests that it should be
destroyed wherever it is found) — Bee notes (describes the four species
found in Ceylon, points out that only one of these, Apis indica, can be
cultivated as a hive bee, and gives a few notes on keeping bees) — Fish
insects — Literajture of Economic Botany (gives bibliographies for Land-
olphia^ Manihot^ Marsdenia, Mascarenhasia, Para7?teria, Parthenium and
Sapium, etc.) — Paddy cultivation — Board of Agriculture, Progress
Report 41 (describes the results of various planting experiments
undertaken and indicates what work is in progress). Supplement:
Weeding in Para rubber cultivation — Planting in Java and Sumatra —
British New Guinea as a planting country.

1908, 31. No. 5. — Hevea brasiliensis (a critical review of the results
obtained in germination experiments by M. Vernet in Annam) — Bread-
fruits of the tropics (illustrated descriptions of the fruits of various
Artocarpus species) — Miscellaneous economic products (this article in
the series deals with the economic products of Bassia sp. especially
Bassia latifolia, B. longifolia and B. butyraced) — Sumatra tobacco (a
short history of the growth of the industry, reprinted from the Straits
Times) — Propagation of tobacco in Cuba (the first part of a descriptive
account of this industry) — Literature of economic botany and agricul-
ture. Part 35 (deals with sisal hemp, sorghum, star anise, starch,
strophanthus, styrax, sugar cane, sunflower, sweet potato, tanning
materials, etc.) — ^Chillie-growing in Natal (considered as a catch crop in
tea plantations). 1908, 31. No. 6 : The "avocado " pear {Persea gratis-
j/;;za)— Eri-silk culture — Rural agriculture in Ceylon and how it might
be improved— Literature of Economic Botany and Agriculture (tea,
telfairia, terminalia, thevetia, timbers, tobacco, toluifera, tomato, tonka
bean, treculia, tristania, turf, turmeric, vanilla, vegetables, vigna, ville-
bunea, vine, voandzeia, walking-sticks, weeds, willow, ximenia, xylia,
yams, ylang-ylang and zacaton are subjects dealt with in this part)—
Ceylon Agricultural Society (Progress Report No. 42).

Adfninistration Reports^ 1907- — This contains, inter alia, reports by
the Director and other Scientific Officers of the Botanical Gardens for

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 109

the year. The Entomologist states that there has been a rapid and
serious increase of the " red palm weevil," following upon the destruc-
tive cyclone that devastated the coco-nut palm estates in the Batticola
district in March. A local board has been established to take measures
for the eradication of the pest. The " Universal " ant-killer has been
tried during the year for the destruction of mound-building termites and
the nests of true ants. The action of the machine depends essentially
on the pumping of a mixture of carbon dioxide, sulphurous anhydride,
and arsenic vapours into the nests. The experimental silk farm at
Peradeniya Junction, after a two years' trial, has been closed temporarily
as the returns did not justify its upkeep. The establishment was
designed for the Eri-silk worm, which feeds on the castor-oil plant, but
the land in the vicinity proved unsuitable for the cultivation of this
plant. The report of the Mycologist refers to the coco-nut stem
bleeding disease (this Bulletin^ 1908, 6. 205) as the most serious
fungoid disease met with during 1907. Other diseases noted are one
affecting the bark of cinnamon trees and two leaf diseases of the same
plant. Cases of "die back," "root disease" and "canker" have been
noted in Para rubber trees. The " low country tea root disease " has
been traced to Ustulina vulgaris. The Curator of the Botanic Gardens
mentions the following economic plants as having been introduced
experimentally : Lombiri rubber (from Madagascar), Manitoba rubber
(from Kew Gardens), Bauhinia reticulata (from the Gold Coast),
Copernicia cerifera (from Brazil), HymencBa Courbaril (from Hawaii),
Manihot "Von Piauhy " (from Berlin), etc. In the Henaratgoda
Garden experiments on the cultivation of betel-nut palm, Funtumia
elastica^ and guttapercha are in progress. At the Experiment
Station, Peradeniya, the Superintendent states that the tea plot has
been much improved by more careful plucking. The lemon grass and
citronella plots are being investigated with a view to forming uniform
plots containing only one species or variety, and no more distillation of
oil will be attempted until this has been done. Tabular statements of
the results of manurial and spraying experiments with cocoa are given,
but conclusive results are not yet deducible. At the Maha-iluppalama
station experiments on cotton, chillies, tobacco. Para rubber, Castilloa
rubber, cocoa, etc., were made. The cotton was unsuccessful mainly
as the result of heavy rains, as was also the case with chillies. Para
rubber does not do so well as in the low country, but Ceara rubber
grows well and tapping experiments on the Ceara trees will be made
shortly. Cocoa is also doing well at this station.

Mineral Survey. — This is being conducted by two Surveyors selected
by the Director of the Imperial Institute. Field observations are made
by the Surveyors, who transmit periodical reports to the Imperial
Institute, where also the economic minerals collected by them are
examined mineralogically and chemically, and their commercial value,
if any, determined.

The mineral survey resumed its work at the beginning of 1907 with

no Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Mr. J. Parsons, B.Sc, as Principal Surveyor in succession to Dr. A. K.
Coomaraswamy ; and Mr. J. A. Daniel as Assistant-Surveyor. A large
number of localities were visited during the year for the purpose of
examining mineral deposits. Graphite was investigated at Godamukka,
near Amugoda, where the mineral occurs in pockets and not in veins.
At Pangala, in the Hinidum pattu, where new pits have been sunk
recently, graphite of good quality has been found in veins. At Diviture
graphite mining has been abandoned in consequence of the mineral
being mixed with a large amount of wollastonite and other impurities.
Mica mining in Ceylon showed a considerable revival during 1907.
Phlogopite is the variety of mica obtained ; it occurs in veins associated
with crystalline limestone. Excavations at Nahanawella have proved
that the veins occupy strike joints in the gneiss parallel to a band
of crystalline limestone. These veins swell into lenticular pockets at
intervals, and it is in these pockets that mica occurs in large plates
of commercial value. Mica is being mined on a comparatively large
scale at Hanguranketa.

Thorianite was found in small quantities at various new localities.
There was a large fall in the export of this mineral during 1907, this
being no doubt due to the approaching exhaustion of the superficial
deposits. Monazite was found in practically all the alluvial deposits in
the Galle district and in Uva, the concentrates from Elpitiya being
particularly rich. The corundum locality at Batugamana in Uva was
inspected and the material was found to be impure.

An occurrence of moonstone was examined at Ambalangoda in the
Southern Province, where the presence of this rare gem had been
reported during 1906. The moonstone occurs embedded in kaolin,
from which it is separated by washing in baskets, as in ordinary
gemming operations. Gold was met with among the gravels at various
places, but only in traces.

The report gives a summary of the results of the investigations at
the Imperial Institute on Ceylon minerals collected during 1905-6, and
concludes with a useful list of minerals known to occur in Ceylon.

Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States.

Agricultural Bulletin, 1908, 7. No. 11.— A root disease of Para rubber
trees (describes a fungus commonly found attacking the roots of Para
rubber trees from fifteen to thirty months old in these countries. The
fungus has not been identified as yet, but the symptoms of the disease
are described, and to prevent its spread, isolation of affected trees is
recommended) — Further report on the extermination of rats in rice-
fields (an account of the results obtained by the use of carbon disulphide)
—Packing Para rubber seed for export (describes the method of packing
in burnt rice husk as adopted at the Singapore Botanic Gardens)— The
Agricultural Exhibition at Medan, Sumatra. 1908, 7. No. 12 : Analysis
of soils in the Botanic Gardens, Singapore — Notes on the nutrition of

Agricultural and Tfxhnical Departments, hi

plants — Lalang grass as a paper-making material (a report showing that
this grass compares favourably with Esparto grass as a paper-making
material) — A new ordinance to prevent the introduction of pests into
the Colony (a reprint of the Destructive Pests Ordinance of 1908).
1909, 8. No. I : The treatment of acid soils for rubber and other
cultivations (suggests trials with crude phosphate as a method of
neutralising free acid in soils) — The copra industry (describes this
industry as carried on in the East Indies) — Virus remedies against rats
(calls the attention of estate owners to this new method of destroying
rats) — Two Manicoba rubbers (descriptions of Manihot dichotoma and
M. piauhyensts, of which seeds have been obtained for trial in Singa-
pore)— Commelina nudiflora (this plant has, as the result of some
misunderstanding, been recommended in the lay press for destroying
weeds, and has been spoken of as a "weed-eating plant." It is de-
scribed and shown not to possess any of the remarkable properties
recently attributed to it) — The composition of the milk of the dairy
cow and buffalo in the Malay Peninsula (controverts the general belief
that the milk of the local Siamese and Indian or cross-bred Indian and
Siamese cows is of poor quality, and states that this idea is due partly
to the unusual colour of the milk, and partly to the fact that sophistication
of this milk before sale is very common).

Australia.
. Western Australia.

Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture for the year ending
June 1908. — Mentions the efforts being made to improve the production
of wheat, and the proposal to engage a wheat expert to undertake the
breeding of a more productive wheat suitable for cultivation in West
Australia. Systematic search for phosphate deposits has resulted in the
discovery of phosphatic rock in certain of the islands of the Recherche
Archipelago, and of cave phosphate near the Moose River, whilst
other deposits have been located recently near Dandarragan. Similarly
several occurrences of gypsum, suitable for local agric^iltural use,
have been observed. The work done during the year at the State
Experiment Farms is outlined.

Journal of the Department of Agriculture^ 1908, 17. Part 2. — Tree
planting and forest preservation — Root rot fungus — The cultivation
and treatment of orange trees — A fibre plant (Marsdenia leichhardtiana)
(describes the kapok-like material obtained from the fruit). 1908, 17.
Part 3 : Deposits of phosphates in the Midland Districts (a description
of the deposits at Cowala near the Moore River ; samples examined by
the Government Analyst were found to contain from 41 to 45-9 per
cent, of calcium phosphate) — Gypsum deposits near Pingelly (analyses
of samples show that this material contains 307 to 47*6 per cent, of
gypsum, and is suitable for dressing land in the vicinity).

1908, 17. Part 4. — Wheat breeding (a series of notes on the hard

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

" poulard " and " robed " wheats, and on methods adopted in breeding
improved wheats)— MiUing properties of wheat (directs attention to the
need for experiment in the direction of producing improved m.illing
wheats in Australia)— Notes on grasses— Natural grasses from Port
Hedland — Fibre crops (a resume of information on flax and New
Zealand hemp) — Colonial wines at the Franco-British Exhibition (jury's
report) — Our gum trees (a summary of information on the Eucalypts)
— Sandy soils (a discussion of the properties of these soils) — Development
of the North- West (discusses a proposal to establish experimental
stations) — Variable types of lucerne. — Lime, the essential (points out
that a certain proportion of lime in a soil is necessary to its maintenance
in good condition). 1908, 17. Part 5 : Namban Creek phosphatic
deposits — Trypanosomiasis and other diseases in camels (the results of
an investigation into various diseases occurring in camels imported from
India to West Australia) — Wheat exhibits and judging by points
(remarks on some difficulties experienced in judging wheat samples at
shows, and giving scales for judging standing crops and grain). 1908,
17. Part 6 : Contains the annual report of the Department of Agricul-
ture for 1907-8, and reports for the same period by the Government
Pathologist on (i) Diseases of animals and meat inspection in West
Australia, and (2) Trypanosomiasis and other diseases in camels —
Namban Creek phosphates (a report by the Government Analyst
indicating that these are likely to be of value for agricultural
purposes, though too low in grade to be suitable for the manufacture
of superphosphate).

Queensland.

Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture and Stock for
1907-8. — This report, which occupies 180 foolscap pages, deals, as
might be expected, with a great variety of matter, and it is only possible
to refer to a few subjects of special interest here.

In 1908 the Entomologist to the N. S. Wales Government was
commissioned jointly by the Governments of N. S. Wales, Victoria,
Queensland, and South Australia to make inquiries in the principal
fruit-growing countries of the world as to the methods adopted in
combating insect pests. In addition to accumulating information on
this subject, the commissioner also paid attention to the various
agricultural industries carried on in the countries visited, and a resume
of this information is given in the report, reference being made to honey
production in Hawaii, tobacco and cotton in the United States, sugar
in Barbados, etc. In the report of the Agricultural Chemist a table of
analyses of wheats grown in various districts of Queensland is given, and
milling and baking trials of these wheats are to be made. A number of
analyses of fodders grown in Queensland are also printed. The Tobacco
Expert reports that the crop was all disposed of at good prices, viz. ']\d.
per lb. for pipe tobacco, and \Q\d. per lb. for cigar tobacco. The

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 113

Instructor in Tropical Agriculture mentions that cotton is doing well in
the Charters Towers District, and that considerable progress is being
made in planting sisal hemp, especially in the Cairns District, and that
attention is also being paid to rubber and vanilla. The report concludes
with statistical information regarding the pastoral and agricultural
industries of the Colony.

Agricultural Journal, 1908, 21. No. 4. — Raisin-making (a short
description of the method of converting grapes into raisins) — Silkworms
and how to rear them (gives details of methods and descriptions of
appliances) — Cigar leaf (describes the cultivation of cigar tobacco) — ■
Tanning hog skins. 1908, 21. No. 5 : Silkworms and how to rear
them, No. 3 (deals with the tussur silkworm {Ajtfherea mylitta), the
" muga " {A. assa?na) and the " eri " [Attacus ricini) — Sisal fibre decorti-
cator (an illustrated description of a new machine sold in India for this
purpose) — Chilli culture (from Bulleti?i, No. 67, of the Mexico College
of Agriculture) — Calabash pipes (suggests the cultivation of the calabash
gourd in Queensland). 1908, 21. No. 6: "Silos" (a description of
different types) — Dry farming in semi-arid districts (a description
of the Campbell system) — Jerusalem maize — " Bunt," or " stinking
smut," of wheat (a reprint of the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletin on this subject) — Cabbage aphis (suggests various
'* washes ^^ for the destruction of this pest) — Contributions to the flora
of Queensland — Destruction of rats in cane-fields — A new cane-cutting
machine.

Mining Journal, 1908, 9. No. 100. — Croydon, Stanhills and Ethe-
ridge Fields (description by the Government geologist) — The Mount
Molloy Railway — Notes on cyanide treatment of gold ores — Dawson
coal for production of suction gas. 1908, 9. No. loi : Mineral statistics
of Queensland and other States — -Tin-dredging in the Stanthorpe district.
1908, 9. No. 102 : The Oaks goldfield on the Copperfield river, about
80° 40' south and 144° 5' east, thirty miles south from Einasleigh —
Heavy discharge of gas from an oil-boring at Roma.

Victoria.

Journal of the Department of Agriculture, 1908, 6. No. 10. — Fifth
progress report on viticulture in Europe (deals with viticulture and olive-
growing in the districts of Granada, Montilla and Manzanares in Spain) —
Insect pests in foreign lands (eighth progress report, dealing with India) —
Stock eating clippings from gardens (points out the dangers of this, since
many plants cultivated in gardens are poisonous — Vine apoplexy — A
new fodder plant (''chou moellier," said to be drought resistant and
suitable for feeding stock in summer and winter) — Proclaimed plants
(describes Californian stinkweed, Gilia squarrosa) — Recent development
in wheat -breeding — Improvement in dairy herds — Growing of fodder
crops (describes demonstration work with maize, etc., on dairy farms) —
Apple export trade with the United Kingdom and Germany in 1908 (a

14 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

critical review) — A home-made seed-drill — Vine canes as fodder. 1908,
6. No. 1 1 : Prospects of an export trade in honey (report by a special com-
missioner on agriculture as practised in the United Kingdom, Germany
and the United States, and dealing with the possibility of exporting
Victorian honey to these countries) — Export apple trade to Germany (a
series of adverse comments by a Hamburg firm on recent shipments of
apples from Victoria) — Merino rams — Cow peas — Culture of permanent
pastures — Proclaimed plants of Victoria (thorn apple {Datura Stramo-
niian) : gives information as to methods of eradicating it) — Fifth progress
report on viticulture in Europe (deals with wine production in the district
of Navarra in Spain). 1908, 6. No. 1 2 : Fifth progress report on viticulture
in Europe (continued from the previous number ; this portion deals with
the districts of Rioja and Aragon) — Arsenate of lead spray for apple-
root borer — Silos and silage — Proclaimed plants of Victoria (deals with
the "Guildford," or "onion" grass {Romulea cruciata)) — "Toowoomba
canary-grass " {Fhalaris commutatd) — A new vegetable pest : the tomato
weevil {Desiantha novica^ Lea).

New South Wales.

Agricultural Gazette, 1908, 19. Pt. 10. — Practical notes on forestry
suitable for New South Wales — Note on Argemone viexicana, advocating
the extermination of this plant as a noxious weed — Indian cane as a
fodder plant — Fertility of teosinte seed grown at Belindigarbar Experi-
ment Farm (this plant does not mature seed in New South Wales as
a rule, and supplies of seed have had to be obtained from hotter coun-
tries, but a sample of which 78 per cent, germinated has been raised
recently at Belindigarbar) — Useful Australian plants : Eriachne obtusa,
R. Br. var. glabrata (suggested as a possible fodder plant) — Analysis of
soils from the Eden district — Report by fruit expert on land lying
between Gosford and Mangrove river (the varieties of fruit suitable for
cultivation in particular districts of this area are indicated) — Fhalaris
commutata (gives an account of some cultivation experiments with this
grass which seems to have given very good results, and to stand both
drought and frost well) — Local market for linseed (calls the attention
of planters to the bounty now offered for the production of linseed, and
to the fact that oil mills crushing linseed have been started in the
Colony — Paspalum dilatatu7n and clover (advocates joint cultivation of
these fodders). 1908, 19. Pt. 11 : Electricity and agriculture (describes
preparation of nitrogenous manures by electrical methods) — Amsinckia
echitiata (a weed which is spreading in some districts of the Colony) —
Sultanas on phylloxera-resistant stocks (mentions that " Thomson's seed-
less grape " has been grafted on stocks resistant to phylloxera with some
success at Howlong Viticultural Station, but so far the crops from such
grafts have been rather erratic)— Useful Australian plants (deals with
Sporolobus actinocladus, the seeds of which are used by Australian
natives as food) — A new suspected poison-plant (a Dianella sp.) — Yanco

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 115

Irrigation Farm — Market for New South Wales honey in Great Britain
(correspondence with the Agent-General for New South Wales in
London as to this) — The co-operative marketing of Citrus fruits —
Injurious effects of wild tobacco-plant (refers to the poisoning of cattle
by tree tobacco {Nicotiana suaveolens)^ and the eradication of this
is recommended. 1908, 19. Pt. 12 : Practical notes on forestry suit-
able for New South Wales. Pt. xix : The figs — Notes on varieties
of fruit grown at various departmental orchards (a short description of
each fruit is given, with notes as to the time of ripening, etc.) — Grass-
hoppers (destruction of the young grasshoppers with petroleum emulsion
is recommended) — Useful Australian plants (deals with Sporolobus
pulchellus^ R. Br., which is stated to be a useful fodder plant) — Another
bad weed for New South Wales (refers to the " spotted golden thistle,"
Scolymus maculatus)).

Royal Commission of Inquiry on Forestry. Final Report, Part I. —
Contains, inter alia, notes on the principal commercial timbers of the
State (cf. this Bulletin, 1905, 3. 119), estimates of the timber still avail-
able, recommendations of the Commission regarding (i) increase of forest
dues, (2) revocations from existing forest reserves, (3) proposed additional
reservations, and (4) afforestation and reafforestation, with a list of
exotic timber trees, which should be introduced. Suggestions are also
made as to the main provisions of a new Forestry Act, the first being
the formation of a State Forestry Department, the organisation of which
is outlined. Attention is also directed to the necessity for the provision
of education in forestry.

South Australia.

Journal of the Department of Agriculture, 1908, 12. No. 4. — The Cape
tulip (describes experiments made on cattle with Cape tulip {Homeria
sp.)). The results leave no doubt as to the toxic character of the plants,
and experiments are now being made as to the possibility of eradicating
them in those districts of South Australia in which they have become
established) — The Wheat Commission (a progress report by the Royal
Commission on the marketing of wheat, recommending, inter alia,
experimental bulk shipping of wheat during 1909, better and cheaper
transport and arrangements for more rapid and general publication of
wheat prices in the Colony) — Fruit-drying in California (details the
methods in use of preparing raisins, dried peaches, dried apricots, etc.).
1908, 12. No. 5 : " Turnip " and " mustard " (illustrated descriptions
of these weeds are given) — Wheat crop (the official crop forecast for
1908-9 is 19,974,746 bushels, equal to a yield of 11*56 bushels per acre)
— National Fruit-growers' Conference (a resutnk of the discussions on
the various subjects considered).

. Review of Mining Operations for half-year ended June 30, 1908.
No. 8. — Contains particulars of miners' rights in South Australia, mining
statistics for the half-year, and brief particulars of mines.

ii6 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

New Zealand.

MtJies Record, 1908, 11. No. 11. — Contains articles on the Coro-
mandel goldfield, Cape Colville Peninsula, North Island ; Gold deposits
in Central Otago, Middle Island ; and maps of New Zealand, showing
the principal mineral localities. 1908, 11. No. 12 : Gold deposits in
Central Otago (continued from the previous number) — Auriferous black
sands of California. 1908, 12. No. i : The mineral industry of New
Zealand — Quartz mining in New Zealand during the year 1907 —
Alluvial mining in New Zealand during the year 1907 — Lessening the
cost of hydraulic mining, with design of Paddock dredge for conveying
stones back from the face. 1908, 12. No. 2 : Gold-dredging in New
Zealand for the year 1907 — The State coal-mines — Gold deposits in
Central Otago (continued from 1908, 11. No. 12) — Mud and gas blow-
out at Waimata, Gisborne — Gold-bearing rocks in Victoria — Testing
deep alluvial leads at Waipori, Otago — The Tairua goldfield, Thames
County.

British Guiana.

Journal of the Board of Agriculture, 1908, 2. No. 2. — Paper from rice
straw — Pruning of Sapium, Funtumia and Hevea (directions are given
for the systematic pruning of these rubber plants) — New uses of molasses
(suggests molasses as a remedy for ticks in cattle) — Bordeaux mixture (a
resume of information as to the preparation and uses of this insecticide,
taken mainly from a recent report of the Woburn Experimental Fruit
Farm).

Varieties of Sugar-cane and Manurial Experiments in British Guiana.
— A reprint of a paper by Prof. Harrison.

West Indies.

Imperial Department of Agriculture, — Pamphlet, No. 55. " Millions "
and Mosquitos. — A resume of information on the habits of the fish
known in Barbados as " Millions," its relation to mosquitos, and a
description of the manner in which it can be transported. It is
generally believed that the freedom of Barbados from the Anopheles
Mosquito, which acts as a host for malaria, is due to the fact that the
small fish known as " Millions " destroys the eggs, larvae and pupae of
this insect. This observation has aroused much interest in malarial
countries, and it is to supply information to such countries on the
subject that the present pamphlet has been printed.

Trinidad.

Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, 1908. No. 59. — Cycas circi-
nalis (seeds of this plant were found to contain 30 per cent, of starch,
but as the plant is slow growing, it is not considered likely to be of
economic importance as a source of starch)— Rubber notes— The old

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 117

nutmeg trees — A record of the coco-nut and other palms (a reprint
of an article from the Edinburgh Magazine of 1795) — Alsomitra
sarcophylla — Packing of non-dryable seeds (a description of precau-
tions to be taken in transporting Hevea, Castilloa, nutmeg, olive, and
other seeds) — A " bug-worm " in cocoa — A seedless form of grape-
fruit— A beede, destructive to the cocoa-tree (this has been identified as
Eithoea quadricornis) — On the cement-producing materials of Naparima,
Trinidad — Shade for cocoa.

1908. No. 60. — Two new by-products of sugar-cane manufacture
(refers to paper manufacture from cane " megass " and to a wax obtained
in the clarification of cane juice) — Timber trees (recommends the
planting of waste spaces in the island with Cedar {Cedrela odorata) and
Cordia gerascanthus) — Caterpillars — Froghoppers (suggests " light
traps " and spraying with petroleum emulsion as possible means of
eradicating this insect pest) — Tobago as a field for cotton cultivation
(advocates the extension of Sea Island cotton cultivation in Tobago)
— Musa textilis (suggests this fibre plant as possibly suitable for cultiva-
tion in Tobago, where labour is cheap) — Hints on planting Castilloa
elastica. Extra number. — An essay on the cultivation and curing of
vanilla.

Herbarium List, Botanical Departmefit. — A list of specimens in the
Trinidad Herbarium, so far as these have been classified and arranged.
The number of specimens is estimated at about 30,000.

St. Vincent.

Reports on the Botanic Stations, etc. — Experiments with cocoa, nutmeg
and Castilloa elastica were continued. The Castilloa trees were badly
attacked by scale insects, and the pest also did much damage to the
citrus and other fruit trees. Pigeon peas are being tried as a fodder
plant and to improve land on which cotton is to be grown. The cotton
industry shows continued progess, the area under this crop in 1907-08
being 3,200 acres as against 1,533 in 1906-7. Seed selection and
disinfection experiments were continued. The cocoa industry continues
to develop, and a new impetus to sugar-cane cultivation has been given
by the opening up of land in the Carib country.

Dominica.

Report on the Botanic Station, Experiment Plots, etc. — In 1907 citrate
of lime was exported to the extent of 2,388 cwt., as compared with 728
cwt. in 1906, the first year in which any was exported. The cost of
drying the citrate is a serious drawback to the industry at present.
The manurial experiments on cocoa, started in 1900, are still in progress.
The results so far obtained indicate that organic manures and liberal
mulchings give the best results, and where such manures are not
obtainable, nitrogenous and phosphatic manures may be applied with
advantage. Phosphate is best given as the basic phosphate, and

ii8 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

nitrogen in the form of cotton-seed meal, dried blood, or, in the absence
of these, as ammonium sulphate.

Leeward Islands.

Report on Experiments conducted at Antigua and St. Kitts. Part I :
Experiments with varieties of sugar-cane. Part II : Manurial Experi-
ments.

Montserrat.

Reports on Botanic Stations and Experimental Plots, 1907-8. — Deals,
inter alia, (i) with experiments on the effect of planting cotton at
different distances apart; the results so far obtained show that close
planting (5 feet x i foot 6 inches) gives the best yield, (2) cotton seed
selection, (3) cultivation experiments with lemon grass, cassava, ground
nuts, etc. With West Indian lemon grass {Andropogon citratus) a total
yield of 49,230 lb. per acre was obtained in three reapings ; the product
of -the first reaping gave the equivalent of 450 oz. of oil per acre and
that of the third of 828 oz. per acre. In two reapings of Cochin lemon
grass {A ndropogon Jlexuosus) 26,514 lb. of grass per acre were obtained.

Jamaica.

Board of Agriculture. Second Report of the Sugar Experiment
Stations. — Deals with the work accomplished during the years 1906
and 1907. This comprised manurial experiments, investigations of the
growth of different cane varieties on estates and at the central station,
work on the distillation of rum both at the Government laboratory and
on estates, and the study of the nature of the fermentation, which occurs
in the preparation of Jamaica rum. A course of lectures on fermentation
in relation to Jamaica rum is also reprinted.

Canada.

Department of Mines. Report on a portion of the main coast of British
Columbia and adjacent islands. — The country described lies between
49° and 50° 15' north latitude. The rocks are mainly of igneous
origin. The oldest, believed to be of Devonian or Carboniferous age,
are of considerable economic importance, as nearly all the important
mineral deposits of the region are found along their contact with
granitoid intrusions belonging to the Upper Jurassic period. The
eroded surface of these rocks is covered by sedimentary rocks of
Cretaceous and Tertiary age with plant remains. The economic
minerals include important deposits of magnetite and copper ore, with
good values in gold and silver. A description is given of the mining
resources of different districts. Abundant water power is available. A
map on a scale of four miles to one inch is included in the report.

Department of Mines, Geological Survey Branch. Report on a portion

General Colonial and Indian Publications. 119

of Conrad a?id Whitehorse Mining Districts, Yukon. — After dealing with
the climate and topography of the district, which lies between 60° and
6o'35° N. and between 135° 30' and 136° W., the principal mining claims
are described, and the work that has been done on them. The minerals
include argentiferous galena, native silver, argentite, pyrargyrite and other
ores of lead, silver, copper, zinc and antimony — quartz containing free
gold and tellurides has also been discovered — Anthracite coal of Lower
Cretaceous age has also been found, including a seam 18 ft. thick
containing nearly 70 per cent, of fixed carbon and 22 per cent, of ash.
The geological formations include the following schists believed to be
of prae-Ordovician age — the Lower Cache Creek series, containing
quartzites, slates, thin limestones and altered dolerites, either Upper
Devonian or Lower Carboniferous, and a limestone which might be Car-
boniferous. These are all intruded by Jurassic granites, which are overlaid
by intrusive and volcanic rocks and sediments known as the Windy
Arm series which may be Jurassic or Cretaceous. They are succeeded
by the Tutshi series which appears from its fossils to be Lower
Cretaceous. It consists of tuffs, sandstones, and conglomerates some
3,000 ft. thick at least. The map is on the scale of 2 miles to the
inch, and continued at every 250 feet.

GENERAL COLONIAL AND INDIAN PUBLICATIONS.

In the following paragraphs a summary is give?i of the more important
contents of the Chief Colo7iial and Indian periodical publications received
recently at the Imperial histitute^ in so far as these relate to agriculture
and to economic products and are likely to be of ge7ieral interest.

East-Africa Protectorate.

Colonial Report^ A?inual, No. 592. — States that as the soil on the
site at Nairobi, originally selected for the experimental farm, has
proved to be variable in quality and uneven in depth, the farm has been
moved to a new situation at Kabete, about six miles from Nairobi.
The former farm is being used as a veterinary, bacteriological, and
entomological station. Notes are given as to the work done during the
year at the experimental farms at Kibos, Meritini and Naivasha.

Southern Nigeria.

Governjnent Gazette y 1908, No. 79. — Contains the "Agricultural
Bulletin " for the quarter ending September 30, 1908. In this is
reprinted a report by the Imperial Institute on samples of jute from
Southern Nigeria, with notes as to the cultivation of these, by the
Acting Conservator of Forests. There is also a short article giving

I20 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

hints on the cultivation of cucumbers and other European vegetables
in Southern Nigeria, and a summary of correspondence, which has
taken place recently on the desirability of cultivating certain varieties
of oil-palm. Some further information on the varieties of oil-palm
occurring in the Eastern Province is given in a quarterly report on the
Ikot-Ekpene district. From this it appears that three kinds are
recognised by the natives ; these are called by the Efiks and Ibibios,
" asogejub " (soft shell palm-nut), " akporrojub " (hard shell palm-nut),
and "affrak jub" (white palm nut). The three kinds show well-
marked botanical differences, and are frequently found together under
the same conditions of soil, climate, etc.

Gold Coast.

Governmefit Gazette^ 1908, No. loi. — The supplement contains a
report on the work done in the Botanical and Agricultural Department
during the year. Economic plants and seeds were distributed in very
large quantities, thus from the Aburi Gardens alone 39,630 plants and
about 2)\ millions of seeds, principally of cocoa, West-African rubber
and Para rubber, were sent out. Experiments on the grafting of
Theobroma pentgaona on "forastero" cocoa are being continued and the
grafts so far made are doing well; these experiments are being extended
to the grafting of T. cacao, var. ocumare, on " forastero " cocoa. Camphor
and cinnamon are also being cultivated experimentally, and are doing
well. At Tarkwa station, Para, West-African, Ceara, and Central
American rubbers are being tried as well as cinnamon, camphor, ginger,
and divi-divi, and small plantations of the same plants have been formed
at the Coomassie station. Two acres have been planted with three
varieties of cotton at the new station at Asuantsi. Among experiments
carried out during the year may be mentioned the determination of the
yields of palm-oil from the fruits of the different forms of oil-palm
recognised in the Colony. These are as follows : the numbers indicate
the percentage of palm-oil obtained, "Abe-tuntum" (137), "Abe-pa"
(ii-2), "Abe-dam" (11-2), "Abobo-be" (19-3), "Abe-fita" (15),
"Abubu-be" (25), "Adi-be" (28), "Abe-ohene" (15). From the
results it would appear to be desirable to encourage the cultivation of
the " Adi-be " and " Abubu-be " varieties which give the best yields of
palm-oil ; but information is still required as to the yield of fruits from
the several forms of oil-palm, and the yield of kernels, since these are
important factors in selecting forms for cultivation.

Sierra Leone.

Colonial Report: Annual, No. 588. Report for 1907. — Mention
is made of the attention now being paid to encouraging the cultivation
of rubber and fibres, and to improving the preparation of ginger.
The recent improvement in prices obtained for ginger has led to the

General Colonial and Indian Publications. 121

extension of this crop from the Colony itself to the Ronietta district
of the Protectorate. The fibres under experimental cultivation are
'*okra," "kowe" and "ramie." The report concludes with a list of
the economic investigations conducted for the Colony at the Imperial
Institute during the year.

Seychelles.

Government Gazette, 1908, No. 64. — Contains the estimates of
revenue and expenditure for 1909. In presenting these to the Legis-
lative Council, H.E. the Governor drew attention to the prosperous
condition of the Seychelles, and to the increase in industrial develop-
ments in recent years. Agriculturists are somewhat concerned at the
spread of several insect pests, particularly a " scale insect," which affects
lime and coffee bushes. The Government has undertaken to import
sprayers and insecticides, to sell these at cost price, and to lend the
services of men trained to use these remedies to private planters. The
vanilla crop in 1909 is expected to be very short. It is estimated that
500 tons of mangrove bark and a similar quantity of cinnamon bark
will have been exported during the year 1908 (compare this Bulletin,
1908, 6. 107, 319). The production of rum, another new industry,
amounted to 18,000 litres during 1908. The possibilities of promoting
deep-sea fishing and fish-curing are also being considered.

India.

Indian Forester, 1908, 34. No. 11. — Forest research in India (a
statement of the needs of forest research in India and of the organisa-
tion of the new Imperial Forest Research Institute) — Fire protection
on the ticket-patrol system (a description of this system as now worked
in Allapilli teak forests of the South Chanda Division) — Cardamon
cultivation in South Mysore — The danger of the formation of pure
forests in India (commenting on an article on this subject in a previous
number, attention is more particularly directed to the damage which
may be done by insects in the coniferous forests of India). 1908, 34.
No. 12 : Proceedings of a conference on fire conservancy — Sandal-
wood at low elevations (gives further evidence in favour of the view
that well-scented wood can be grown at low elevations) — A Philippine
substitute for lignum vitae (this refers to the timber of the Mancono tree
{Xanthostemon verdugonianus), which, according to the Philippine Bureau
of Forestry, will answer the same purposes as lignum vitas, the supplies
of which are now much depleted).

Australia.

Ojjjcial Year-Book of the Commonwealth, No. i, 1908. — This con-
tains, inter alia, short statements of the history, growth, and present
position of the pastoral, agricultural, forest, fishery, mining and manu-

122 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

facturing industries of the Commonwealth. Though these statements
are of necessity very much condensed they afford useful information
regarding the resources of the Commonwealth.

Trinidad and Tobago.

Colonial Report. Annual, No. 587. Report for 1907-8.— It is
mentioned that the output of manjak during 1907 was 2,114 tons.
Development work in petroleum is still proceeding, new areas having
been opened up at Guapo and in the neighbourhood of the Pitch Lake
(compare this Bulletin, 1903, 1. 51; 1904, 2. 176). An expert from
the United States Department of Agriculture has been engaged to study
cocoa diseases, and a Committee is considering the question of the
sufficiency of the present legislation in regard to plant protection. The
question of re-organising the present technical departments of the
Colony, and merging these into one agricultural department with
additional staff, is being considered.

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE.

New Books.

The Forests and Forest Flora of the Cape of Good Hope.
By Thomas R. Sim, F.L.S., F.R.H.S. Published under the authority
of the Government of the Cape of Good Hope. Pp. vii. + 362, with
160 plates. (Aberdeen: Taylor & Henderson, 1907.)

In reviewing a recently published work on Forestry in a previous
number of this Bulletin (1907, 5. 194), reference was made to the
establishment by the Government of Cape Colony of a school of
forestry for the training of future officers of the Forestry Department of
that and sister colonies of South Africa. Such action was regarded as
evidence of the practical appreciation by, at any rate, one Colonial
Government, of the supreme importance of the conservation and
extension of the forest resources of the State. The same Government,
in providing for the publication of the splendid work which forms the
subject of the present notice, has again proved the genuineness of its
interest.

It may be safely said that this volume will prove the basis of scientific
forestry in Cape Colony for many years to come. In his preface the
author states that the work was commenced with the object of supplying
what was undoubtedly one of the greatest needs of the Cape Forestry
Service, viz. a scientific flora which would allow of the certain identifica-
tion of the trees and plants dealt with. It seems almost incredible that,
during the hundred years that forest conservancy at the Cape has been
carried on under British rule, the officers have been provided with

New Books. 123

nothing beyond the bare names of the trees which were to be con-
served or sold. While admitting the remarkable rule-of-thumb know-
ledge of the flora which is almost invariably acquired by a working
forest staff, the disadvantages of such a method and the necessity for
an exact knowledge are evident. In planning the work the author was
inevitably confronted with the difficulty encountered in compiling a
flora which does not aim at being a complete record and description of
all plants found within a certain area, viz. that of deciding which plants
should be included for treatment and which excluded. The compromise
effected has been that of including all the reserved species of timber
and all ligneous forest species four feet high and over, whether timber
trees, scrub bushes or forest weeds; while the generally unimportant
forest scrub of the non-forest regions has been less exhaustively dealt
with. In the great majority of cases the descriptions have been made
from personal observations of actual living specimens of the trees them-
selves, or of fresh botanical specimens, dried herbarium material being
referred to in only a few instances.

But the book is much more than a descriptive flora, pure and simple.
The First Part, occupying nearly one hundred pages, comprises a general
study of the forests of Cape Colony and of the factors influencing them,
and may be regarded as constituting the natural complement of the
well-known survey work of Dr. Bolus on the non-forestal flora of the
Colony. At the present day the forests of the Cape cover no more
than an almost negligible fraction of the country, viz. 0*21 per cent, of
the total area. But, nevertheless, over 600 square miles of true forest
have been demarcated, with twice that area of less closely forested
reserves and scrub country, the total capital value of the forest wealth
of the Colony being estimated at ;£4,ooo,ooo. Practically the whole
of the forests are crown property, and their administration and pro-
tection are provided for by a Forest staff of 120 officers and men. The
present area of forest land, however, represents but a small proportion
of that previously existing, and at the Cape, as elsewhere, the diminution
has resulted from the wasteful methods of cutting practised heretofore,
and the absence of organised protection from forest fires. In addition
to these causes, two special factors have seriously handicapped the
natural regeneration of the forests, viz. the ruthless employment by the
natives of incredible numbers of young saplings to supply the framework
of their wattle-and-mud huts, and the inherent want of aggressive power
on the part of the species forming the high forest.

The fact that the character of the vegetation of a country is regulated
to a very large extent by the physical geography of the area is perhaps
more patent in Cape Colony than in most countries. The high range
of mountains parallel to the east coast and about too miles inland —
known in the Cape as the Drakensberg, Stormberg, and Zuurberg —
divides that part of South Africa physically and botanically into two
regions : an eastern region including most of the east portion of Cape
Colony and the whole of the Transkeian Territories and Natal ; and an

124 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

elevated trans montane region, which may be said to include the whole
of the catchment area of the Orange River and all its tributaries above
Hopetown. On the south coast a similar division is effected by the
mountain chains. These latter extend from north of Port Elizabeth
to the neighbourhood of Cape Town and then northwards at a distance
of from five to seventy miles of the sea, dividing this part of the Colony
into a south-eastern region and a transmontane Karroo region. A
perusal of the author's preliminary chapters shows that the divisions of
the Colony for forestry administration — the Conservancies — have been
based, consciously or unconsciously, upon these phytographical regions.
The Eastern Region constitutes practically two forest conservancies,
viz. the Eastern Conservancy in Cape Colony proper, and the Trans-
keian Conservancy including the native territories lying eastward
towards Natal.

In their main forestal features these conservancies closely resemble
one another, the differences being mainly those of detail. They com-
prise valuable mountain high forests, which in every case occupy the
steep seaward slope of the mountains, and extend in a tortuous but
almost uninterrupted belt for a distance of about seventy miles, there
being besides many outlying belts and spurs. The timber trees are
almost all slow-growing evergreens producing hard-grained timber, the
most important being Black Iron-wood i^Olea laurifolia)^ Assegai
{Curtisia faginea), White Pear {Apodytes dimidiata)^ White Iron-wood
{Toddalia la?iceolata), Red Els {Citnonia capensis), and Lemon- wood
(Xymalos monospora\ but this region also produces the famous soft
Yellow-wood of the Cape, which yields more material for commercial
purposes than all other Cape timbers combined. Common Yellow-wood
{Fodocarpus elongatd) is the prominent feature of the lower slopes of the
Amatola forests, while in the upper parts the true Yellow-wood {Fodo-
carpus Thunbergii) is the more important.

The remaining two conservancies, viz. the Midland and Western, lie
for the most part in the South-Western botanical region. They differ
much in composition, the Western, although of enormous extent, being
now almost devoid of indigenous forest but extensively used for reforest-
ing and afforesting. This district, however, is the home of the famous
Clanwilliam Cedar ( Widdringtonia juniperoides)^ allied to the now
almost equally famous Mlanji Cedar of Nyasaland ( W. Whytei), and
formerly much used for house building purposes in Cape Town and
elsewhere. These trees are found over an area of approximately sixty
square miles in the Clanwilliam mountains about 120 miles north of
Cape Town, where they occur singly or in small clumps.

The Midland Conservancy contains a large tract of splendid forest
country about one hundred miles long by ten miles broad, which, from
its position between the sea and the mountains, enjoys the advantage,
rare in South Africa, of a sufficient and evenly distributed rainfall. The
composition of the forest is the same as that of the Eastern Conservancy
with certain notable exceptions, the most important being the presence

New Books. 125

of the valuable Black Stinkwood {Ocotea bullaid) which was worked to
such a large extent at the beginning of the last century, and also Vlier
{Nuxia floribunda). The two Yellow-woods, however, form the greater
part of the forest stock.

In his remarks on the economic composition of the forests the author
points out that the marketable value of the actual timber of a forest is
by no means always a measure of the real monetary value of the forest.
He instances the enormous expense which is to be avoided by carefully
conserving the gnarled, crooked scrub-growth which has seized and
fixed the coastal sand-dunes ; and the actual value of the thorn-scrub
for fuel purposes, a value which can be permanently maintained and
even increased by efficient conservation and supervision of cutting out.

Space does not permit of more than mention of the chapters on
"Factors affecting Forest Growth," "Distribution of Species/' "Pro-
tection and Exploitation of Forests," "Afforestation," and the vivid
account of the causes which have brought about the phenomenal
reduction in the forest area of the Colony.

The author's remarks on the economic importance of Cape timbers
are of great value. An export of timber from the Cape arose very early
in the history of the Colony, the first shipments taking place soon after
the occupation by the Netherlands East India Company. The wood
was used for shipbuilding, and the trade was maintained for a short
time after the final British occupation of the country, when the easily
accessible forests became worked out and the export ceased. The
economic value of Cape timbers is relatively little known outside the
Colony, owing to the fact that at the present day it is in no way
desirable to foster a regular export trade, since all indigenous timber
can be disposed of locally, leaving material to the annual value of
;^3oo,ooo to be provided from abroad. The timbers, however, have
been the subject of several reports, the most important being that
carried out under the direction of the Imperial Institute {Imperial
Listitute Technical Reports and Scientific Papers^ i903> P- 268).

Comparatively little locally grown timber is employed for house-
building purposes, owing to the facility with which cheap, ready-prepared
timber can be obtained from abroad. But large quantities of sleepers
are annually required by the railway department, and supplies are
obtained from the Government sleeper factory at Knysna. Yellow-wood
is practically the only Cape timber used for this purpose. The second
and most important demand upon local timbers is a very special one,
viz. for wagon building. Timber of great strength and toughness is
required for this purpose, and the local timbers, notably Stinkwood
{Ocotea bullata)^ Ironwood {Olea laurifolia\ Assegai {Curtis ia faginea)^
White Pear {Apodytes dimidiata\ and Red Els {Cunonia capensis) have
been proved to be unrivalled as wagon- wood. Mining timber forms a
considerable part of the output of the forests, and goes chiefly to the
Transvaal. It is of two kinds, viz. hardwood for stamp-guides, machine
frames and bearings, and yellow-wood for props, shores and sleepers.

126 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

It is interesting to note that with Cape Box (of which there are two
kinds, Buxus Macowani and Gonioma Kamassi), mining timber forms
the only timber now exported from the Colony.

Part II. of the work is concerned with the botanical aspect of the
question. The author has followed Bentham and Hooker's classification
and gives a clear Synoptical Index based upon this system. Further,
an admirable artificial Key to the Genera has been provided which
should prove of great value in the work of identification. Little need
be said with regard to the actual systematic descriptions. They are at
once clear, concise and readable. A noteworthy feature is the inclusion
of full detail regarding the economic value of all useful species, and the
text is replete with evidences of the personal acquaintance of the author
with the subject of his remarks.

Not the least important part of this book is the valuable series of
drawings illustrating no fewer than 312 species and including all the
reserved species and most of the unreserved species. The drawings,
which are the work of the author, are remarkably clear in detail, and
include sketches of important dissections and essential floral characters.
The volume thus has the somewhat rare advantage of being illustrated
by a professed botanist, whose first aim would be accuracy in details of
botanical importance. A large-scale Forest Map of Cape Colony closes
the volume.

Traite d'Exploitation Commerciale des Bois. By Alphonse
Mathey. (Paris : Lucian Laveur. Tome premier 1906 ; tome deuxieme
1908.)

Mathey's work on the commercial application of forest produce
occupies much the same position in French forest literature as does
Gayer's Forstbenutzung in that of Germany. It will be readily under-
stood that since the forests of the two countries concerned are closely
similar from the phytological point of view, works dealing with the
utilisation of their produce must be essentially the same. But while it
thus follows that much of the same ground must be traversed in the
two books, there is little justification for the idea expressed in a recent
review of the French work that the latter is but the Forstbenutzung
minus the chapters on minor forest produce. Gayer's work is essenti-
ally a textbook for the forester and woodman, while that of Mathey is
more comprehensive in its purview, dealing not only with the aspects
of the subject of importance to the forester but also with those con-
cerning the wood-merchant and consumer. There is probably little of
important interest to any of these specialists that does not find a place
in the volumes under notice.

The book consists of two volumes, the second being much larger
than the first. The opening chapters of the first volume give an
account of the constitution and properties of wood from the botanical,
physical and chemical aspects, Gayer's well-known figures of represent-
ative timbers being employed as illustrations. The subsequent chapters

New Books. 127

form one of the most important features of the book. They give an
account of the defects and diseases of timber and their causes, so far
as known, but the special value of this section lies in the admirable
series of coloured plates which portray the appearance of diseased
material and the fungi responsible for the injury. The value of the
illustrations, however, would have been considerably increased, from
the student's point of view, had the scale of the drawings been indicated
in each case. The important question of the transport of timber from
the forest is considered at great length in this volume, which also
contains an account of the various means adopted for preserving timber
by chemical and other processes.

The whole of the second volume is occupied with a survey of the
methods of preparing timber and the almost innumerable uses to which
it is put. The exhaustive character of this volume may be gauged
from the fact that the subjects mentioned are treated of in no less
than upwards of 800 pages. The question of the establishment of
saw-mills and the conversion of timber is considered in detail, and
the usefulness of these chapters is much enhanced by an account of
American methods, which have reached such a high state of perfection.
The machinery employed in this important branch of the timber trade
is well illustrated with types of machinery, but although the book is
admittedly concerned with the French industry almost entirely, it is
surprising to find no mention of certain well-known British machines
and appliances. It may be noted that the band-saw, so largely used in
American saw-mills, is claimed as a French invention. The volume
concludes with a description of the resin and turpentine industries, and
of the methods employed in the manufacture of tar and pitch.

Forest Entomology. By A. T. Gillanders, F.E.S., Woods Manager
to His Grace the Duke of Northumberland, K.G. Pp. xxii. + 422, with
351 illustrations. (London and Edinburgh : W. Blackwood and Sons,
1908.)

Forest Entomology is the study of insects injurious to trees, and is
not to -be taken as synonymous with the wider subject, entomology
of the forest, which would include in addition a great many insects
that are harmless and useless from a forestry point of view. The forest
entomologist devotes attention primarily to the life histories of injurious
insects in order to decide at which stage — egg, larva, pupa — remedial
measures can best be applied.

Mr. Gillanders' volume, besides being serviceable as a handbook for
the forester, forms a textbook for students in agricultural and other
colleges, and conveys to English readers the results of the author's own
observations, and some of the contents of the best German and other
entomological literature.

Each chapter deals with a group of insects, the first with Eriophyidae
or gall-mites. These exceedingly small animals allied to insects, in-
visible except under a strong lens, can only be recognised in the forest

128 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

from the injuries they cause, leaf-inhabiting gall-mites causing swellings
(galls) on the leaves, and bud-inhabiting gall-mites producing swollen
deformed buds. Coleoptera or beetles, the next order, are most
destructive, and include ground beetles, flying beetles, carrion beetles,
weevils and wood-boring beetles. Perforations in the wood of dead
tress and worm-eaten furniture are due to wood-boring beetle larvae,
some of which are known as death-watches. Bark-boring beetles hide
under the bark of trees, and may be classified in three divisions, those
which only bore into the bark, those which bore through the bark and
tunnel on the surface of the wood, and those which bore deep into the
wood. Their tunnelling operations cause characteristic markings on
the bark and wood. Different species prefer different parts of the same
tree. A Scots pine tree may have Fityogenes bide?itatus on the top
twigs, Hylasies palliaius on the branches, Hylurgiis piniperda on the
stem, and Hylastes ater on the roots.

To the next order, Hymenoptera, belong wood wasps and sawflies,
the larv^ of the former being wood-borers and of the latter leaf-eaters ;
and many of the insects which produce oak-galls, including the
oak-apple, rich in tannin, and the marble-gall.

Lepidoptera include moths, the larvae of which are wood-borers or
leaf-eaters. One of the latter, appearing in large numbers in certain
years, strips the pedunculate oak of its leaves, leaving the sessile oak
immune. Aphididae, or green fly, cause blight not only on crops but
also on hardwood trees. -Psyllidae and Cicadidae are often mistaken
for them. Diptera include flies, midges and gnats which, so far as yet
known, do not do much damage to trees.

A bibliography of each group of insects is given. Concluding
chapters are devoted to beneficial insects, or flower-fertilisers, refuse-
destroyers and insects parasitic upon injurious insects, for example
ichneumon flies parasitic upon wood-boring larvae, to hints on the col-
lection, preparation and mounting of insect specimens, and to insecticides
and general remedies, and a list of trees, indicating the insects attacking
each tree. The book is well printed and has an index, and the illustra-
tions are appropriate and clear.

On the Plantation, Cultivation, and Curing of Para Indian
Rubber {Hevea- brasiliensis), with an Account of its Introduction
FROM the West to the Eastern Tropics. By H. A. Wickham.
Pp. 78, with illustrations. (London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner
& Co., Ltd., 1908.)

To Mr. H. A. Wickham belongs the distinction of having collected
in Brazil and transported to Kew in 1876 the seeds of the Para rubber
tree from which the vast majority of the trees now planted in the East
are descended. In this book Mr. Wickham briefly re-tells the story of
the manner in which the seeds were procured, and also reprints a report
on the cultivation of the Para tree which he made to the India Office
in 1 90 1. The main portion of the book is devoted to a consideration

New Books. 129

of the best methods of planting and tapping the trees and of preparing
the rubber. The author is not much in sympathy with the methods of
cultivation which have been generally adopted in the East. The close
planting of Para trees, 100 to 200 to the acre, tends in his opinion to
produce "scaffold-poles" rather than large well-formed trees such as
occur in the South American forests and from which the finest rubber
is obtained. He claims that Hevea brastliensis, being naturally a large
forest tree, should be grown under forest conditions, and therefore re-
commends that only forty trees to the acre should be planted. Mr.
Wickham also criticises the modern methods of tapping, which involve
removal of the bark, and expresses his conviction that the best method
of preparing the rubber is the smoking process employed by the natives
in Brazil. He has devised an apparatus, suitable for use on plantations,
for preparing the rubber in this way. The book is chiefly interesting
as a statement of the personal views of one who was intimately con-
nected with the events which resulted in the introduction of the Para
rubber tree to the East, and thus laid the foundation of the present
important industry.

My Tour in Eastern Rubber Lands. By Herbert Wright,
Assoc. R.C.S.,F.L.S. Pp. 76, with illustrations. (London: Maclaren
and Sons, 1908.)

This small volume consists of a series of articles which were con-
tributed to the India-Rubber Journal by the author during a recent
visit to the East, and are now reprinted in book form. In the course
of his journey Mr. Wright visited Ceylon, Malaya, Java, and Sumatra,
in order to study the latest developments in rubber planting, and his
general observations and impressions are recorded in this book. No
attempt was made to deal systematically with the subject of rubber
cultivation, but interesting information is given regarding the progress
of the industry in the above countries, and many points which are at
present agitating the minds of planters receive notice.

Hevea Brasiliensis or Para Rubber in the Malay Peninsula :
Notes and Figures in Connection with the Cultivation of Para
Rubber. By W. F. C. Asimont. Pp. 64. (London : L. Upcott Gill.)

The aim of this book is to supply a trustworthy estimate of the
average cost of opening up and maintaining rubber plantations in the
Malay Peninsula. The author, whilst admitting that the cost must
vary considerably in different localities, is of opinion that most of the
estimates of expenses given to the public are much too low, and as an
alternative he supplies a detailed statement of the cost of opening an
estate of 4,000 acres based upon his own experiences. This statement,
which occupies half the book, gives both the estimated total expendi-
ture and receipts up to the end of the tenth year. The book is
intended for the information of persons in this country who are
interested in rubber cultivation.

130 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Die Analyse des Kautschuks, der Guttapercha, Balata und

IHRER ZUSATZE MIT EiNSCHLUSS DER ChEMIE DER GeNANNTEN

Stoffe. By Dr. Rudolf Ditmar. Pp. viii. + 288, with 42 illustra-
tions and 4 plates. (Wien und Leipzig : A. Hartleben's Verlag^
1909.)

Much attention has been devoted by technical chemists during the
last few years to the elucidation of the difficulties which arise in
connection with the chemical and physical examination of rubber,,
and, as a result, some progress has been made towards placing the
analysis of rubber on a more scientific basis. The results obtained by
different workers in this field have appeared from time to time in the
various technical journals devoted to rubber, but since the publication
in 1902 of The Chemistry of Rubber^ by the late Dr. C. O. Weber,,
no connected account of recent developments has been available.
The volume now under notice is therefore a welcome addition to
the literature on the subject, as it furnishes in convenient form an
excellent resume of the methods which have been proposed for the
examination of crude and manufactured rubber. The author. Dr.
Rudolf Ditmar, is well known as one of the leading authorities in
Germany on the technology of rubber, and has himself done much to
advance oar knowledge of the subject.

The book opens with a general account of rubber (pp. 1-66), gutta-
percha (pp. 67-78), and balata (pp. 79-89), which serves as an intro-
duction to the analytical portion of the work. These chapters give
a useful summary of information regarding the three products, dealing
concisely with the chief commercial varieties of rubber and gutta-
percha, the composition and properties of latex, the methods of coagu-
lation, the physical and chemical properties of the products, their
derivatives, constitution and synthesis. The various substances, organic
and inorganic, employed in rubber manufacture are dealt with at some
length (pp. 90-151), their characters being described and methods
given for determining their purity.

The remainder of the book (pp. 152-281) is devoted principally to
an account of the methods at present employed for the examination of
raw and manufactured rubber, with short chapters referring to gutta-
percha and balata. The process recommended by the author for the
chemical examination of raw rubber is fully described, and also those
proposed by Schneider, Fendler, Jacobsen, and Bourne. Particulars
are also given regarding the methods which have been introduced for
the direct estimation of the caoutchouc in rubber, viz. the nitrosite
process, due to the work of Harries, Fendler, and Alexander, and the
tetrabromide process of Budde, which has been modified by Fendler
and Kuhn. The chemical examination of manufactured rubber is
similarly treated. The final chapter (pp. 238-281) describes the
physical tests usually employed for rubber, and also deals with its
microscopical examination, the latter section being illustrated by a
number of plates.

New Books. 131

The book furnishes a good account of the present position of rubber
analysis, and should prove useful to all interested in the subject.

De Looistoffen : Botanisch-chemische monographic der tanniden
bewerkt in het laboratorium van het Koloniaal Museum te Haarlem,
By Dr. J. Dekker. Pp. vi. + 241. (Amsterdam : J. H. Bussy, 1908.)

This book on tanning materials is divided into two parts. The first
includes (i) a bibliography, which gives a chronological list of all the
important papers and books published on tanning materials since 1754,
(2) the botany of tanning materials, a summary, arranged under natural
orders, of all product^ known to be used in tanning, or which have
been stated to contain tannin, and (3) the physiology of tannin, in
which the part played by this substance in the life processes of plants,
is discussed.

In the second part the chemistry of tannin, the analysis of tanning-
materials, and, lastly, a short account of the industrial application of
these products is given.

The book contains an enormous amount of information, and its
compilation is a tribute to Dr. Dekker's industry in literary research.
The work is essentially a reference book for that comparatively small
part of the public interested in the technical investigation of tanning
materials, or more generally in the scientific side of the exploitation,
of natural vegetable products, and as such is likely to be usefuU

La Canfora Italiana. By Italo Giglioli. Pp. 292. (Roma r
Tipografia Nazionale di Giovanni Bertero e C, 1908.)

This volume, published under the direction of the Italian Ministry
of Agriculture and Commerce, has been compiled with the object of
encouraging the cultivation of the camphor laurel in that country.

The author is of opinion that this plant could be grown successfully
throughout the Mediterranean Region and particularly in those districts
in which the various Citrus species are cultivated at present. The tree
was introduced into various parts of Italy early in the nineteenth century^
and has done well on the whole, though it rarely bears fruit. Estimations-
of the amount of camphor obtained from the leaves of the tree, as growrr
near Naples, gave on the average about 07 per cent, from young leaves-
and about 1-25 per cent, from old leaves. These yields are similar ta
those obtained recently in Ceylon.

The book gives a very complete summary of the whole question of
camphor cultivation and production, and concludes with a full biblio-
graphy of the subject.

The Future of Cacao Planting. By Harold Hamel Smith..
Pp. xiii. + 95. (London: Tropical Life Publishing Co., 1908.)

Mr. H. H. Smith, in discussing the future of cacao or cocoa planting^,
has confined his attention principally to the West Indies, where cocoa
is now one of the most important industries. Although not actually
native to the West Indies, the plant has succeeded so well in suitable

132 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

localities that cocoa is now by far the chief export from Trinidad and
Grenada, and occupies also an important position amongst the exports
of Jamaica, Dominica and St. Lucia.

During the recent years of agricultural and consequent financial
depression in some parts of the West Indies, the cocoa industry has
been one of the redeeming features, and on the whole the cocoa
planters have enjoyed a considerable measure of prosperity, whilst
during the season 1907 they reaped the advantage of phenomenally
high prices.

Experience, however, has proved that periods of prosperity in
tropical agriculture are often the times when it is most important to
look ahead and to take precautions for safeguarding the future of an
industry. At the same time, it is often most difficult to encourage
foresight then, because their very prosperity causes cultivators to be
if not actually careless of, at any rate optimistic as to, the future.

Nothing but a useful purpose can be served, therefore, by the
publication in this cheap and readily accessible form of the lecture
given at the Colonial Fruit Show of the Royal Horticultural Society
in June 1908. The author recognises that West Indian planters are
taking more thought for the welfare of their crops, and sums up the
principal objects to which attention should be devoted, as the proper
use of manures, prompt treatment of pests, the use of grafted stock,
adoption of vacuum driers, reduction of shade trees, and the increase
of mixed plantations. Most of these are not new ideas to place before
the cocoa planter, and the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the
West Indies has during the past ten years done much to demonstrate
practically the advantage of some of the measures advocated. The
(experiments carried out under Dr. Francis Watts's charge at Dominica
in manuring cocoa (see this Bulletin^ 1906, 4. 351), and the work
of the Department in combating insect and fungoid diseases, and the
labours of the travelling agricultural instructors are good instances,
although not referred to by the author. Several of his suggestions,
too, are put forward only in outline, and some statements are expressed
in curious phraseology. Thus, after stating the well-recognised fact
that diseases are often induced by trees being in poor condition he
advocates (p. 7) that "potash in good quantity should be supplied to
assist the circulation constituting the life and strength of the tree."
The sweet potato does not " fix " nitrogen in the sense implied by
its conjunction with woolly pyrol (not wooUey pyrol as written) and
peas on p. 8. The following page has a sentence the meaning of
which is obscure : " It is well to bear in mind that green dressing
from leguminous plants is antagonistic to fungoid diseases which rise
from the soil and attack the graminea growing in the same field."
There are various other points to which exception might be taken,
and it is doubtful whether on one of the main suggestions made, the
use of grafted plants, the great additional expense would be justified
in any but exceptional circumstances.

New Books. 133

The book has an introduction by Sir Daniel Morris, K.C.M.G.,
then Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies, and several of
the contributions to the discussion are thoroughly sound and practical.

To planters who regard their future seriously the book should serve
as a stimulant, and be none the less useful in causing them to think
over their methods even if they find finally they are not prepared in
all cases to endorse the author's recommendations.

ENCYCLOPiEDiA OF AGRICULTURE. Edited by C. E. Green and
D. Young. Vol. iii. Kainit to Zelkova. Pp. viii. + 6;^^. (Edinburgh
and London: W. Green & Sons, 1908.)

The first two volumes of this Encyclopaedia were noticed previously in
this Bulletin (1908, 6. 220). The present volume completes the work.
It contains articles on the various subjects of importance to the agricul-
turist and gives valuable and interesting information on the topics dealt
with, which are too numerous to be referred to here. The different
breeds of sheep, cattle and horses are described, and illustrated by
numerous photographic reproductions.

Geology of the Goldfields of British Guiana. By J. B.
Harrison, with Historical, Geographical and other Chapters by
F. Fowler and C. W. Anderson. Pp. 320. (London : Dulau & Co.,
1908.)

This book opens with a brief note on the history of gold mining
in the Colony, and continues with a few chapters giving a resume of
the physical geography and general geology of the area as far as these
are at present known. A number of longer chapters are devoted to
a description of the petrography of the various types of rocks met
with in the Colony. This account of the petrography of British
Guiana possesses considerable interest owing to the fact that Prof.
Harrison has worked long and carefully at this subject, particularly on
the chemical side. The description of the rocks is accompanied by a
considerable number of detailed analyses with calculated mineralogical
compositions. The author makes a concession to North American ideas
by naming the rocks analysed according to the modern American system
of classification. Kedebocase, Yellowstonose, Mariposose, Mazarunose
and other names of similarly imposing character are given to rocks which
are merely ordinary granites, etc.

The general field geology of the Colony is described in several
chapters dealing with the rock exposures seen along the courses of
the creeks and rivers. The field observations have been to a large
extent limited to stream and river courses, and it is from the beds of
these that Prof. Harrison has obtained most of his specimens. He
points out that the general surface of the country is " almost invariably
covered by heavy forest growths upon great thicknesses of clay and
sandy clays, the result of the decomposition of the rocks in siiu^
which more or less completely hide the geological structure of the

134 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

country. . . . But during the very dry seasons the beds of the rivers
become exposed over large areas, and their courses give excellent
natural sections along which the structure of the districts can be
readily studied. The scour of the river has removed the softer decom-
posing portion of the rocks, and excellent representative specimens of
them can be easily obtained."

A chapter is given to each of the following subjects : " Quartz Vein
and Mineralised Masses ; " " The Placer Deposits ; " " The Origin of
the Placer Gold of Guiana ; " " The Diamantiferous Areas ; " " The
Soils of the Auriferous Districts."

There is an interesting note confirming the results obtained by Dr.
Lungwitz, who has proved that gold occurs in the wood of certain trees
growing on the " laterites." It is shown that the ash from the wood of
these trees contains varying amounts of gold, that from the upper
portion of a trunk yielding in one case as much as 28 grains per ton.

Prof. Harrison's use of the word " laterite " is wider than is either
usual or desirable. The exact sense in which it is used is not defined,
but the weathering products included under it appear to be in all cases
ferruginous and siliceous clays. The two analyses of these so-called
^'laterites" show 5176 and 6o' 10 per cent, of silica, with 24-55 ^^^
20*55 P^^ cent, of alumina respectively. These can scarcely be laterites
in the modern sense of the word, which should be restricted to that
product of weathering in hot moist climates, which contains free
aluminium hydroxide. The analyses of laterites proper usually show
excess of alumina with silica as a subordinate constituent, though a
considerable amount of iron and titanium oxides may be present.

The book concludes with notes on transport facilities, hints to miners
and prospectors, and a general account of the mining regulations of the
Colony. It contains numerous well-printed and useful illustrations,
including a number of photo-micrographs of rock sections which, in a
future edition of the book, it w^ould be well worth while to describe
more fully in the text.

There are one or two misprints which have not been included in
the "Errata." "Tchmaks," on page 103, is evidently intended for
*' Tschermak's," and " Anvergnose," at the bottom of page 51, should
probably be Auvergnose.

The book gives, on the whole, an excellent account of the geology
of the goldfields of British Guiana, but it may be suggested to Prof.
Harrison that in preparing future editions a general index, and a sketch
map showing in rough outlines the localities described, should, if
possible, be added.

Soils : Their Formation, Properties, Composition and Rela-
tions TO Climate and Plant Growth in the Humid and Arid
Regions. By E. W. Hilgard, Ph.D., LL.D. Pp. xxvii. 4- 593.
(London and New York: Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1907.)

This textbook on soils, by one of the best known American

New Books. 135

authorities on the subject, is one of the most interesting and compre-
hensive that has hitherto been written. As indicated by its sub-title, it
deals with soils in practically every aspect.

Fully considered, the study of soils is one which involves a wide
knowledge of the sciences. Physics, chemistry and biology in their
numerous branches are all requisitioned by those who would understand
the many and complex processes which take place in the soil ; whilst,
in dealing with the composition and origin of soils, a knowledge of
stratigraphy, petrology and mineralogy is essential.

It is, therefore, perhaps too much to expect that a book on soils,
written by one individual and not corrected by specialists in the various
sciences concerned, should be free from errors. On page 26 it is stated
that aluminium " does not apparently perform any direct function in
plant nutrition, and is absent from their ash, except in the case of some
of the lower plants (horsetails and ferns)." It may be pointed out in
this connection that in 1903, Mr. H. G. Smith, in a communication to
the Royal Society of New South Wales, showed that aluminium
succinate was an essential constituent of Orites excelsa (N.O. Pro-
teaceae). He gave analyses which showed high percentages of alumina
in the dry ash of the plant, the amount in one case being 79*61
per cent.

Dr. Hilgard evidently thinks that geologists are too particular in their
definitions. He includes such various structures as foliation, bedding,
and jointing, under the general name of " cleavage." Thus slates,
schists, gneisses, sandstones and basalts are all referred to as possessing
this structure (page 3). The statement that gneiss has slaty cleavage
(page 51) is an example of the very erratic manner in which the author
uses a well-established geological term.

The assertion on page 29 that calcite and dolomite are not found in
the older rocks is perhaps a more serious error. The statement that
" calcite can in all cases be recognised by its crystalline form under the
microscope, even when the substance containing it has been pulverised
in a mortar " (page 39), will not be credited by any one who has had
much experience in microscopical petrology, though Dr. Hilgard appears
to think that every farmer will be able to identify calcite very readily in
this way. It is probable that the farmer, to a greater extent than the
ordinary geological student, will find a little knowledge of microscopical
characters a dangerous weapon to use, and it is advisable that he should
not attach much certainty to its indications.

Considering the comparative abundance of apatite as a constituent of
many residual soils derived from basic volcanic rocks, it might have
been expected to find a place among Dr. Hilgard's '' major soil-forming
minerals," especially as he includes under this head such minerals as
chlorite, talc, siderite, zeolites, etc. These latter minerals would be
better placed under " minor soil ingredients," since they are less
abundant in soils generally than certain other minerals of which the
author makes no mention.

136 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

These and other minor defects in this book do not seriously detract
from its value as a whole. It contains very few misprints.

Practical Coal Mining. By leading experts'in mining and engineer-
ing, under the editorship of W. S. Boulton, B.Sc. Divisional Volume
6. Pp. vii. + 332. (London: The Gresham Publishing Co., 1909.)

The present volume forms the final instalment of this useful publica-
tion. It contains the greater portion of Section XV. on Mine Surveying,
by Mr. L. H. Cooke, lecturer on that subject at the Royal School of
Mines. He treats at some length the subject of triangulation, giving
full directions for the measurement of bases. He also describes
observations for azimuth and latitude. Detailed information is afforded
on traversing and offsetting both below and above ground, and there are
useful chapters on the subjects of levelling and the correlation of
underground surveys with one another and with those on the surface.
Mr. Cooke has throughout given special attention to details which,
though of the greatest practical importance, are usually ignored in text-
books. Great care has been taken to bring the section up to date, and
the illustrations are clear and effective. This contribution should also
prove useful to those interested in metalliferous mining, in which
accurate surveying is of even greater importance than in coal mining.

The sixteenth section is by S. Warren Price, lecturer on mining at
University College, Cardiff, who writes on the preparation of coal for
the market. He describes the circulation of mine wagons at the
surface — weighing, emptying, screening, dry-cleaning and loading. He
is well equipped for the task, and has spared no pains to acquire the
particulars of the most recent and effective methods, both at home and
abroad. The section is illustrated by detailed diagrams and plans.

Another equally important contribution is devoted to the subjects of
coking and the recovery of by-products by W. Galloway, past Professor
of Mining at University College, Cardiff, in which the latest German
developments are described.

An interesting section by H. Stanley Jevons and David Evans deals
with the economics of coal, in which the subject of supply and demand
is illustrated by diagrams applied both to the price of coal and the
rate of wages. The final chapter deals with the marketing of coal,
and the volume concludes with an index of the whole work.

These handsome volumes will form a valuable addition to the
libraries of those interested in coal mining. Their chief defect is the
failure to give an adequate account of the industry beyond these shores.
References to foreign methods are, it is true, furnished in many cases,
but there is practically no attempt to inform the reader as to the extent
and quality of foreign and Colonial products and the work that is being
done, so that he is left almost entirely in the dark as to the competition
the home coal industry already experiences in foreign markets and,
more important still, the probable development of this competition in
the immediate future.

New Books. 137

The Mineral Resources of the Philippine Islands, with a
Statement of the Production of Commercial Mineral Pro-
ducts DURING THE Year 1907. By W. D. Smith, Chief of the
Division of Geology and Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila. Pp. 39,
with six plates and two maps. (Manila : Bureau of Printing, 1908.)

The chief mineral products, which have been mined, or which afford
promise of successful working, are coal (stated to be inferior in most
cases to Australian coal), limestone, building stone, manganese, gold,
silver, copper and iron. It is estimated that 4,545 short tons of coal
and 4,540 ounces of gold were produced in 1907. The output of all
other minerals was quite unimportant.

Specifications for Decorators' Work. By F. Scott Mitchell.
Pp. 135, including an index. (London : The Trade Papers Publishing
Co., 1908.)

The present volume is the fifth of The Decorator series of practical
handbooks, and is intended to serve as a guide to architects, engineers,
and others who employ decorators in the course of their business.

The greater part of the book is composed of specifications for all
kinds of decorators' work, the more important points being briefly
discussed.

A chapter is devoted to the explanation and definition of the various
terms and materials employed. These explanations and definitions are
in some cases very brief, and in others are not stated in clear enough
terms to make them of much value.

Chapters on Paper-making. Vol. v. By Clayton Beadle. Pp.
vii. + 182. (London: Crosby, Lockwood and Son, 1908.) Reference
to the first four volumes of this work has been made in previous
numbers of this Bulletin (1904, 2. 212; 1906, 4. 74; and 1908,
6. 217).

The present volume deals with the theory and practice of " beating,"
i.e. the process of mechanical reduction and sub-division carried out
with the object of converting the chemical pulp into a suitable con-
dition for making the web or sheet. The work is essentially practical ;
it describes the various beating machines, and gives an account of the
power consumed in the "breaking in," "beating" and " refining " of
various materials. The figures recorded are the results of actual tests
carried out by paper-makers and engineers. Practical paper-makers
will probably find the book very useful, as there is not at present any
other work available which covers the same ground.

Mexican Year Book, 1908. Comprising historical, statistical and
fiscal information. First year of publication. Pp. xxxviii. -I- 1,034.
(London: McCorquodale & Co., Ltd., 1908.)

A brief description of the physical characters of the country and of
its population is followed by an interesting historical summary, and a

138 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

sketch of the constitution and details of the diplomatic relations of the
republic.

The present condition of Mexico and the developments that are
taking place are explained in recent messages to Congress of the
venerable president, Porfirio Diaz.

Details are given of the banks and banking system, and statistics of
the foreign trade. Under the heading of transportation and communi-
cations particulars will be found of the railways and steamship lines,
postal system and telegraphs. Full information is also given with
regard to the agricultural, mining and manufacturing industries. The
metallic wealth of Mexico includes gold, silver, copper and lead, anti-
mony, iron, mercury and zinc. The different states and territories are
described in turn, and the book concludes with an appendix, in which
further information is afforded on a variety of subjects. There are a
large number of excellent maps.

Heaton's Annual. The Commercial Handbook of Canada and
Boards of Trade Register. Fourth Edition. Pp. 384. (Toronto :
Heaton's Agency, 1908.)

The book is intended to be a useful work of reference for business
men not only in Canada but in all countries which trade with Canada.

In the section on transportation and shipping useful hints are given
as to methods of securing and transacting business in Canada, the
customs ports are catalogued, those with warehouse accommodation
being specially indicated, and particulars are afforded of the steamship
lines and also the railways of the Dominion. In this connection also
we find the Canadian Customs Act, the Customs tariff and index to the
latter, the Customs regulations and specimens of special approved
forms. Amongst other features too numerous to mention we might
refer to the useful section entitled, "Boards of Trade Register and
Gazetteer," which affords information as to railway and telegraph
facilities, hotels, population, and industries of places containing more
than 400 inhabitants. This is followed by a list of " Opportunities in
Canada," arranged under names of towns, with references to local people
to whom application for further information can be made.

Von der Heydt's Kolonial-Handbuch. Jahrbuch der deutschen
Kolonial- und uebersee- Unternehmungen. Herausgegeben von F.
Mensch und J. Hellmann. Pp. 264. (Berlin : Verlag fiir Borsen und
Finanzliteratur, A.G., 1908.)

The handbook gives lists of the principal imports and exports of the
German Colonies and Protectorate, and particulars of the chief German
banks and commercial, transport, mining and planting undertakings,
both in the German Colonies and in other tropical countries. Brief
references are also made to the organisation and work of the Colonial
Museum in Berlin and the Colonial Economic Committee, which has
done so much since its foundation in 1896 to. promote economic

New Journals. 139

development in German oversea possessions. The handbook should
prove useful to those having commercial relations with the countries
mentioned.

The Libraries of London. A guide for students. By R. A. Rye,
Goldsmiths' Librarian, University of London. Pp. 90. (London :
University of London, 1908.)

This handbook to the libraries of the London area has been com-
piled, in the first instance, as a guide for the use of students of London
University, but it will no doubt fulfil a much wider purpose than that.
The libraries are grouped into three classes, " General," " Special," and
" Connected with educational institutions," and in the paragraph allotted
to each, information is given as to the conditions under which the library
may be used and a short summary of the kinds of books provided.

To those engaged in carrying on technical, commercial and other
work involving literary research in London, this guide should be of
great value.

New Journals.

Travel and Exploration. (London : Wetherby & Co.)
The first part of this new monthly illustrated magazine, having for its
object the stim.ulation of interest in geographical exploration, was issued
in January of this year. The first number contains a series of articles
on travel^ in new or little-known countries, by well-known authorities.
Thus, Lieut. Trolle gives a short account of the recent Danish Greenland
Expedition, Miss Edith Durham writes on her experiences as a traveller
in the Balkans, and Mr. L. C Bernacchi records his observations in
the course of a journey into the forests of Peru. The veteran traveller,
Sir Clements R. Markham, contributes " the Nasumonians : a call to
Exploration," at the conclusion of which he points out that a journal
such as this should serve the useful function of showing officials and
others residing in or near little-known countries how to take advantage
of their opportunities for geographical work. A useful and interesting
sectioii of the journal is that devoted to describing expeditions projected,
or in progress, and in the present number reference is made to Lieut.
Boyd Alexander's proposed expedition to investigate the fauna of the
West African islands, Principe, San Thome and Annobon, and to
ascend and explore, zoologically, Kamerun Peak in the German Colony
of the Kamerun. Reference is also made to the journeys of Dr. Stein
of the Indian Education Department, and of Dr. Sven Hedin in Central
Asia, to Dr. Longstaffs proposed expedition to the Karakoram
Himalayas, and to the projected exploration of the mountainous interior
of Dutch New Guinea, which will be in charge of Mr. W. Goodfellow.

It seems likely that the interest of this first number of Travel mid
Exploratio7i will be maintained in future issues, since contributions
have been promised already by a large number of well-known writers
■and travellers.

140 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Leather. Technical and Practical. Editor, M. C. Lamb,
F.C.S. A monthly Journal for all engaged in the leather industries.
(London : The Leather Trades Publishing Co.)

The appearance of this journal is one of several indications that
leather manufacturers in this country are beginning to realise the im-
portance of applying scientific methods in this industry, since the
policy outlined in the introductory article of this first number includes
as its principal feature the publication of original articles by experts in
every branch of leather manufacture, and disclaims any intention of
dealing with the purely commercial matters already adequately dealt
with in existing journals concerned with the leather trade.

To the first number Prof. Procter contributes an article on "Some
unsolved problems in leather chemistry," in which attention is directed
to the necessity for the discovery of a satisfactory method of identifying
the source of a tanning extract, and of detecting wood pulp liquors
("pine wood extract") added to such materials, and to other equally
interesting problems. Other articles are those on "The quahty of
sole leather," by R, A. Earp, B.Sc. ; "Chrome liquors and their
application," by S. A. Gaunt; and "Notes on liming hides for sole
leathers," by L. J. van Gijn, to mention only a few which contain
features of special interest.

The second number will contain, inter alia, articles on " The chemist
in the tannery," by Dr. Gordon Parker; "A new instrument for tanners'
use," by M. C. Lamb ; and " The practical interpretation of a tanning
analysis," by I. M. Porter. The curious /^r;;m/ of the journal — its size
is ir X 5*75 inches — is accounted for by the statement that "it has
been chosen with a view to convenience for the pocket," though the size
is not quite that generally regarded as suited to that end.

LIBRARY. -RECENT ADDITIONS.

Books, etc., exclusive of periodical Government Publicatio7is, presented to the
Library of the Imperial Institute since October 25, 1908. The
names of donors are printed in italics.

India.

Flora of the Bombay Presidency. Vol. ii..

Part V. Araceoe to Graminese . . By Theodore Cooke, C.I. E.^

LL.D., etc.
{The Secretary of State fot
India.)
Australia.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of

Queensland. Vol. xxi. . . . {The Secretary.)

Library.— Recent Additions.

141

Queensland Geographical Journal.

xxiii., 1907-1908
History of Adelaide and Vicinity

Vol.

Cafiada.

Sir William E. Logan and the Geological
Survey of Canada . . . .

The Proceedings and Transactions of
the Nova Scotia Institute of Science,
Halifax, Nova Scotia. Vol. xi.. Parts 3
and 4. Vol. xii.. Part i . . .

Documentary History of Education in
Upper Canada. Vol. xxvi., 1874-1875 .

Opportunities in Canada, 1909

Journal of the Mining Society of Nova
Scotia. Vol. xii. Being the Trans-
actions of the Society during the year
1907-1908 ......

(T/ie Secretary.)
Edited by J. J. Pascoe.
{The Agefit General for
South Australia.)

By Dr. Robert Bell, F.R.S
{The Author.)

{The Secretary.)

By J. George Hodgins,
I.S.O., M.A., LL.D.

( The Minister of Education. )
{Messrs. Heaton^s Agency^

{The Secretary^

South Africa.

The Guide to South Africa for the Use
of Tourists, Sportsmen, Invalids and
Settlers for 1908-1909

Some Observations on the probable effect
of the Closer Union of South Africa
upon Agriculture ....

The Bawenda of the Spelonken

West Indies.
Montserrat ; The Land of the Lime

Varieties of Sugar-Canes and Manurial
Experiments in British Guiana .

Edited by A. Samler Brown
and G. Gordon Brown.

{The Union Castle Mail
SteafHship Co., Ltd.)

An address by Mr. F. B.
Smith, Director of Agri-
culture, Transvaal.

{The Author.)

By R. Wessman.

{The Editor of the ''African
World.'')

{ The Secretary of State for
the Colonies^

By Prof. J. B. Harrison,

C.M.G., M.A., etc.
{The Author)

142 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

The Grenada Directory, Handbook, and

Almanac for the year 1909 . . . {The Crown Agents for the

Colonies.)
The Trinidad and Tobago Year-book,

1909 : . {The Government Printer.}

Ceylon.

Ferguson's Ceylon Handbook and Direc-
tory, 1 908-1 909 ..... {The Crown Agents for the

Colonies.)

Bf'itish North Borneo.

The Tidong Dialects of Borneo . . By M. W. H. Beech, M.A.

{Delegates of the Oxford
University Press.)

United Kingdom.

Guide to Sowerby's Models of British
Fungi in the Department of Botany,

British Museum (Natural History) . {The Trustees of the Bi'itish

Aluseum.)

Synopsis of the British Basidiomycetes :
A Descriptive Catalogue of the Draw-
ings and Specimens in the Department

of Botany, British Museum . . -By Worthington George

Smith, F.L.S.
( Tlu Trustees of the British
Museum.)

Livingstone College : Annual Report and
Statement of Accounts for the year
1907-1908 {The Secretary.)

Fifth Report of the University of Leeds,

1907-1908 {The Secretary.)

Official Catalogue of the Royal United

Service Museum, Whitehall, S.W. . {The Secretary.)

The Leeds Incorporated Chamber of
Commerce ; Fifty-Eighth Annual Re-
port, 1908 {The Secretary.)

Egypt.

Memoires presentes a I'lnstitut Egyptien,

Tome V. Fasc. Ill {Tnstitut ligyptien.)

Russia.

Proceedings of the Anglo-Russian Literary
Society, October, November, and
December 1908 . . . . {The Hon. Secretary.)

Library. — Recent Additions.

143

Brazil.
Political and Economic Maps of Brazil

Miscellaneous.

Relation of Wind to
Coastal Drift Sands

Topography of

Messrs. W. Weddel and Company's
(Twenty-first Annual) Review of the
Frozen Meat Trade, 1908 .

Paper Mills Directory, 1909 .

Chemical Manufacturers' Directory, 1 909 .

{Le Direcieur de la Mission
Bresilienne.)

By Pehr Olsson Seffer.
{The Author)

{Messrs. W. Weddel &' Co.)
{The Editor.)
{The Editor.)

BULLETIN

OF THE

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

1909. Vol. VII. No. 2.

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
DEPARTMENT.

RECENT INVESTIGATIONS.

The follo'wi7ig summaries have been prepared from a selection of
the Reports made by the Director of the Imperial Institute to
the Colonial and Indian Governinents concerned.

SOME AFRICAN FOOD GRAINS.

During the last two or three years a considerable number of
food grains have been sent to the Imperial Institute from the
African Colonies and Protectorates for examination. Some of
them, such as maize, were forwarded to ascertain their
value in this country with a view to possible export, whilst others
were sent so that their composition and food value might be
determined, these two factors being important matters in
deciding whether or not natives should be recommended to
extend the cultivation of a particular grain for their own use.
The results of the examination of the most interesting of the
food grains received in this way are given below.

,. ' MAIZE. • r •

Reference has been made already in this Bulletin (1908, 6.
263) to the recent development in the export of this grain from

146 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Southern Nigeria. As is generally the case in exporting grain
from tropical countries great difficulty has been experienced by
maize exporters in the Colony in preventing the partial destruc-
tion of the stored grain by weevils, and much of the West
African maize which has so far reached this country has been
damaged in this way.

Apart from this difficulty, which can doubtless be largely
avoided by proper treatment of the grain before storage and by
organised arrangements for the destruction of weevil (see this
Bulletin, loc. cii.), it seems likely that exports of maize could be
largely increased from Southern Nigeria, since the local " white
maize " is of fine quality and its production is well understood
by native cultivators. The samples mentioned below have been
received from various districts in the Colony, and represent some
of the principal types of maize grown.

Judging from the results of examination of the samples sent
to the Imperial Institute, the most urgent need of the maize
industry in the Colony at present is the organisation of pre-
ventive measures against weevil and the systematic elimination
of the inferior varieties of maize, so that a supply of a clean
product of a good type may be relied on.

A sample of maize, stated to be the white variety grown in the
usual way near Benin City, was received in January 1908.

A valuation was requested, although it was pointed out that
the price of maize in Benin City is higher than in England, so
that no export is likely to be possible at present from the
neighbourhood of Benin.

The sample weighed about 7 lb. and consisted of small, plump
but slightly shrivelled maize of pale colour. It was rather dirty
and weevilly, and had a slightly mouldy odour.

The maize was submitted to experts, who reported that it was
distinctly inferior to average consignments of the West African
maize which reach this country. They stated that it possessed
rather unusual characters, the grain being apparently over-dry
and lacking in mellowness, and resembled in type River Plate
maize rather than West African.

It was valued in Liverpool at 5^. 4^. to 5^-. 6d. per 100 lb.
(January 1908).

Three samples of maize from Agege were forwarded to the

Some African Food Grains. 147

Imperial Institute at the instance of the Council of the
Agricultural Union, Lagos, who desired to be informed as to
their quality and value, and also as to the kind of maize chiefly
required in this market.

No. I consisted of small- and medium-grained maize of pale
colour, clean and free from mould, but containing a few weevils
and a number of weevilled grains. This maize was valued by
experts at 26s. per quarter of 480 lb. c. i. f. (January 1908).

No. 2 consisted of pale grains, rather larger than No. i, but
less plump. The sample was dusty owing to the attacks of
weevils, of which it contained a fair number, but otherwise it was
fairly clean.

No. 3 consisted of bright, yellow, medium-sized grains, mostly
rather shrivelled and dusty, owing to the presence of weevils,
although it was not so badly attacked as No. 2.

Nos. 2 and 3 were stated to be of about equal value, say 25^-.
per 480 lb. c. i. f (January 1908), but owing to the presence of
weevils these specimens would be only fit for grinding. The
experts reported that when American maize is damp and out of
condition there is a special demand for these grades of maize.

With reference to the inquiry as to the kind of maize in
greatest demand in this country, it was pointed out that all
varieties of maize find a ready sale in the United Kingdom,
those most in demand being " American mixed prime,*'
" Cinquantina " and "Yellow La Plata."

Three samples from the Ifon, Asaba and Idah districts of
Southern Nigeria were received in May 1908.

That from the Ifon district consisted of small cobs of white
maize showing an occasional yellow grain. The grains were in
fair condition and almost free from weevils. This maize was
valued in London at 2ys. per quarter of 480 lb. (July 1908).

The sample from the Asaba district consisted of medium-
sized cobs of bright yellow maize. A few weevils were present.
The value of this maize was 2ys. per quarter of 480 lb. (July
1908).

The sample from the Idah district was of mixed character. It
contained (i) short cobs of white maize, (2) longer cobs of white
maize containing more or less purple grain, and (3) medium
cobs containing more or less pale yellow grain. All the cobs

148 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

were in the unhusked state, and rather more than half of them
showed slight damage by weevils. The maize was valued at
2^8. per quarter of 480 lb. (July 1908).

A sample from the Warri district was also received at the
Imperial Institute in May 1908. It consisted of a mixture of
medium and short cobs, the grain of each being partly bright
yellow and partly pale yellow in colour. The sample was
attacked by weevils. This maize was valued at 2^s. per quarter
of 480 lb. (July 1908).

A sample from the Ishan district was also received about the
same time. It consisted of short thick cobs of grain, partly
yellow and partly white in most cases, but a few of the cobs
consisted almost entirely of yellow grains, and others were
mostly white. The sample showed only slight signs of attack
by weevils. The maize was valued at 26s. per quarter of 480 lb.
(July 1908).

The maize imported to the United Kingdom is used mainly
as a food for poultry and cattle and for the manufacture of
alcohol.

GUINEA CORN.

Two samples of this food grain, derived from So7'gkum
-TJulgare, grown in the Ilorin Province of Northern Nigeria,
were forwarded to the Imperial Institute in July 1907.

They consisted of (i) "red Guinea corn" in good condition,
very few of the grains being weevilled, and (2) " white Guinea
corn " in fair condition, about 5 per cent, of the grains having
been attacked by weevils.

Samples of the two grains were submitted to commercial
experts, who reported that the white Guinea corn (" white dari ")
was a fair sample, and although not so good as the best grains
from Smyrna or Syria, it would compete with them. They
stated that it was superior to Indian dari, and valued it at 26s.
per 480 lb. in this country (Nov. 1907).

The red Guinea corn (" red dari ") was stated to be superior to
Indian red dari, and was valued at 24^-. per 480 lb. (Nov. 1907).

It seems unlikely, however, that these grains can be exported
to the United Kingdom at a profit since the Commercial Intelli-
gence Officer for Nigeria estimates that they would cost about

Some African Food Grains. 149

£7 17s. od. per ton delivered in this country if bought for
export at the rates now prevailing for them in local markets.

RICE.

A sample of this grain, also from the Ilorin Province and
received along with the Guinea corn referred to above, con-
sisted of large, partially cleaned, rather dark-coloured grains. It
was valued at 9^. 6d. per cwt, quay terms (Nov. 1907), and con-
sidered to be about equal to average Bengal rice. It is estimated,
however, that the local price of rice is as yet too high to permit
of export.

MILLET FROM SOUTHERN NIGERIA.

Samples of grey and brown millets from Southern Nigeria
were forwarded for examination to the Imperial Institute in
March 1908.

The former consisted of small rounded grains, which had been
slightly attacked by weevils. The grains were grey in colour
and resembled "Bulrush millet" in appearance.

The brown millet consisted of fair-sized, yellowish-brown
grains, which had been much attacked by weevils.

The results of the analysis of the grey millet are given in the
following table, to which have been added for comparison the
figures showing the composition of "Bulrush millet" {Pennisetum
typhoideuin) and of Italian millet {Setaria italicd). '

Grey

Bulrush

Italian

Millet.

Per cetit.

Per cent.

Moisture

11-2

11*3

IO'2

Ash ... .

1-9

2-0

1-2

Fat ... .

4-0

3'3

2-9

Fibre ....

1*2

1-5

Albuminoids (nitrogen x

6-25). . . .

8-2

1 0-4

IO-8

Starch, etc. (by difference)

;3-4

71-5

73'4

Nutrient value

90-8

89-5

91-0

„ ratio

I : IQ-Q

1:7-6

I :7-4

It will be seen from these figures that the grey millet from
Nigeria contains a lower percentage of albuminoids than either

ISO

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

the bulrush or Italian millet,
not chemically examined.

The Nisferian brown millet was

Commercial value.

Both millets were submitted to commercial experts, who
valued the "brown" (without analysis) at about 20j. and the
" grey " at 22s. per 480 lb. c. i. f. London, equivalent to £\ 13^ ^d.
and £^ 2s. Sd. per ton respectively (July 1908). They pointed out,
however, that it is difficult to arrive at the true commercial value
of millet from small samples, and stated that if it is desired to
obtain a correct valuation they would strongly advise the ship-
ment of a small quantity (say 50 bags) of each quality.

In connection with the prices quoted for these millets in the
London market, it may be pointed out that the Commercial
Intelligence Officer of Southern Nigeria stated that the local
retail price of the grain in Nigeria was equivalent to £^ 10s. od.
per ton, and that £;^ per ton would have to be added for freight.
Unless millet can be produced at a much cheaper rate for large
quantities it is clear that it could not be exported profitably to
this country under present conditions.

"TAMBA" millet from northern NIGERIA.

This sample of " Tamba " millet from Northern Nigeria was
collected by the Inspector of Agriculture for British West Africa
during the season 1906-07.

It consisted of very small, round, reddish-brown seeds, having
thin, hard coats and a starchy interior.

A chemical examination gave the following results :— ^

Pe7' cent.

Moisture

12-8

Ash

2-2

Fat

1-3

Fibre

3*4

Nitrogen (total)

0-85

Albuminoids (nitrogen x 6*25)

5*3

Starch, etc. (by difference)

75 -o

Nutrient value ...

.: r:<. 83-2

ratio ...

.• I : 14-5

Some African Food Grains. 151

The results of the examination show that this " Tamba " millet
contains a small proportion of albuminoids, and it would there-
fore be of low value as a food-stuff. It would probably be
saleable in this country as a cattle food, at a price of about
£4 los. per ton c. i. f.

The botanical source of the " Tamba " millet has not yet been
ascertained. The plant is grown between crops of Sorghum
(guinea corn) and Pennisetum, and the grain is collected and
used for the manufacture of an intoxicant called " tamba."

" BOLU " GRAIN FROM UGANDA.

This sample of " Bolu " grain, derived from Eleusine coracafta,
was forwarded for examination to the Imperial Institute by
the Officer-in-Charge of the Botanical, Forestry and Scientific
Department at Entebbe in May 1908.

It consisted of small, round, reddish-brown grains, of which
100 weighed a quarter of a gram or about 4 grains avoirdupois.
A few of the grains had straw-coloured husks adhering to them,
and some brownish-black ones were also present.

A chemical examination of the product gave the following
results : —

Per cent.

Moisture ....

Ash

Fat . . . .
Fibre .....

Albuminoids (nitrogen x 6-25)
Starch, etc. (by difference)

14-0
2-8
II
3-0
6-2

72-9

Nutrient value
ratio

. 82
1:12

A sample of the grain was submitted to commercial experts,
who reported that its value in the London market would be
about £4 los. to £^ per ton c. i. f. delivered weights (Oct. 1908).
They classed it as a small millet, which would be used for
feeding purposes.

"BAMBARRA GROUNDNUTS" FROM NORTHERN NIGERIA.

The " Bambarra groundnuts," now dealt with, were received
at the Imperial Institute with other specimens collected in

152

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Northern Nigeria by the Inspector of Agriculture for West
Africa during the season 1906-7.

The sample consisted of pale buff-coloured seeds with black
spots round the hilum (a few purple spotted or wholly black
beans were also present). . The seeds were nearly spherical and
about two-fifths of an inch in diameter, with a smooth surface.
They are contained in small pods, each of which holds one
seed.

The following results were obtained : —

Per cent.

Moisture

Ash

Fat

Fibre

Albuminoids (nitrogen x 6-25) .
Starch, etc. (by difference) .

13-1

2'4

6-2

3-9

160

58-4

Nutrient value ....
ratio ....

88-5
I :4'5

The analysis shows that the constituents are present in very
suitable proportions for feeding purposes, and that the seeds
would be a useful feeding-stuff for cattle if used in addition to a
well-proportioned diet of the usual type. They would not, how-
ever, serve as a substitute for leguminous seeds, cotton-cake, etc.,
which, on account of the excessive proportion of albuminoids
they contain, are purchased to mix with foods deficient in this
respect, and so bring the mixed diet up to the right standard.

Samples of the seeds, together with the analytical data quoted
above, were submitted for valuation to a firm of manufacturers
of food-stuffs for cattle. The firm stated that they had had no
experience of the actual feeding value of the article, and could
not find that the seeds had ever been used in this country.

The product was said to be somewhat high in moisture and to
contain a rather small percentage of albuminoids, this being con-
siderably less than in undecorticated cotton-cake (j^^/. 154). On
these grounds they did not consider the seeds would be of very
high commercial value as a feeding-stuff for cattle, and would
not in any way compare with beans, peas or lentils. It is unlikely,
therefore, that these beans could be sold in this country at a rate

Some African Food Grains. 153

which would be remunerative to exporters in N. Nigeria. At
the same time they are a useful food-stuff, and it might be worth
while to encourage natives to grow them for their own use. The
plant from which they are obtained, Voandzeia subterranea,
belongs to the Leguminosae, and in common with most plants
of this order has the property of enriching the soil in which it is
grown, in nitrogen. The cultivation of " Bambarra groundnuts "
should not be encouraged in localities where the more valuable
leguminous crops, such as the true " groundnut " and the " soy
bean," do well.

SEEDS OF HIBISCUS SABDARIFFA FROM NORTHERN NIGERIA.

Seeds of Hibiscus Sabdariffa were included in a collection of
products forwarded to the Imperial Institute by the Forestry
Officer in Northern Nigeria in 1906.

The sample consisted of small seeds, about \ inch by \ inch,
which were dark greyish-brown, hard, with rather thick coats
and small yellow endosperm. They had a faint musk-like
odour. Many of the seeds had been attacked by some small
insects, which had bored through the seed-coat and eaten the
endosperm ; many dead and a few live weevils were also found
in the sample.

A portion, consisting of unattacked seeds, was selected for
chemical examination, and gave the following results : —

Per cent.

7*4

Moisture
Ash

5-0

rcontaining 397 per cent,
(phosphoric acid, P2O5.

Fat ... . 19-8

Crude fibre . . • I5"5

Albuminoids (nitrogen x

6-25) . . . . 26-8
Other nitrogenous sub

stances . . . trace
Carbohydrates and other
non- nitrogenous sub-
stances (by difference) 25*2

Nutrient value ji -//sfc'j . . 97'54
ratio :oVI. L' • i : '2''^

154

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

In the following table these results are compared with those
given by other feeding materials for cattle, namely, linseed-cake
and cotton-seed cake.

Moisture
per cent.

Ash
per cent.

Albumin-
oids
per cent.

Fibre
per cent.

Fat
per cent.

Carbo-
hydrates
per cent.

Nutrient
value.

H.SabdariffasQQds
Linseed cake \

new process /

Linseed cake |

old process/

Cotton-seed cake \

new process/

7 '4

9 '4
IO-8
ii"i

5-0

5 '4

6-1

26-8
35-6
28-6

38-5

7-1
6-7
9-8

19-8

io'6
8-8

252

35 -o
38-3
257

97-5
87-8

91-3
84-4

It will be noticed that the nutrient value of the Hibiscus
seeds is somewhat higher than that of the other products, and
this is due to the large percentage of fat they contain. The
seeds are, however, poorer in albuminoids than linseed-cake or
cotton-seed cake, and contain little or no starch. An approxi-
mate estimation of the sugars present indicated about 7 per
cent, of these constituents, but an accurate determination was
exceedingly difficult owing to the mucilaginous nature of the
seeds. The bulk of the carbohydrate material appears to con-
sist of substances of a pectous or gummy nature. The amount
of indigestible matter or crude fibre present is particularly large,
and on account of this fact and the hard nature of the seed-coat,
the value of the material as a feeding-stuff for cattle is considerably
diminished.

The plant yielding these seeds is cultivated mainly in the
northern provinces of the Protectorate for the sake of its fruits,
which are eaten as a vegetable, whilst the seeds are ground into
a coarse meal and used as food by the natives. In view of the
large amount of indigestible matter present in the seeds, increased
production of this grain as a food-stuff is not advisable.

COTTON FROM SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN
NIGERIA.

A number of cottons have been forwarded recently to the
Imperial Institute from Southern and Northern Nigeria, and

Cotton from Southern and Northern Nigeria. 155

have been examined, and their value ascertained by sub-
mitting them to commercial experts. As most of these samples
are of interest, a brief description of their properties and value is
given in the following pages.

SOUTHERN NIGERIA.

Six samples of cotton, collected by the Inspector of Agricul-
ture for British West Africa, were received. The chief results
obtained in the examination of these are given in the table on
page 156.

A sample of seed which accompanied these specimens was
labelled " No. 25. Cotton seed from Agege." It was apparently
mixed, about 50 per cent, being small, smooth, and dark brown
in colour, with light-brown tufts at the pointed ends. The
remainder was of medium size and closely covered with a
short, brown or greenish-brown down. About 30 per cent, of the
seed was found to be withered and useless for sowing.

From the results of the examination of these samples, it is
evident that they were of satisfactory quality, and, with the
exception of No. 19, Bateson's Hybrid (native green seed ? x
Richmond $), they all compared favourably with standard com-
mercial samples of similar varieties. If the hybrid, No. 19,
could be grown free from stains, it would probably prove very
remunerative, as it possessed good length and lustre.

The rough native varieties, particularly samples Nos. 21 and
24, approached somewhat to Peruvian cotton in quality, and
might possibly be utilised for mixing with wool in the manu-
facture of " union " yarns.

A further series of seven samples of unginned cotton from
Southern Nigeria was forwarded by the Inspector of Agriculture
for West Africa iniQoS, and the results of their examination are
given on page 157.

With the exception of the specimen marked "A5," these
cottons were not of very good quality for spinning. The staple
was generally very uneven ; so that although the samples were
nominally valued at a few points below the current price of
" middling " American cotton, it is not likely that such cottons
would be in great demand in this country, although they might
possibly find a market. Sample "A5 " was distinctly superior

156

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

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Cotton from Southern and Northern Nigeria. 157

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158 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

to the other specimens, and was considered to be of satisfactory
quality.

A small sample of cotton, partly ginned and partly unginned,
was forwarded during the present year by the Colonial Secretary
at Lagos. It was rather harsh and " woolly," non-lustrous, of
a deep cream colour with a brownish tinge, and generally free
from stains. The yield on ginning was 35 per cent. ; the lint
was easily detachable from the seed.

The seeds were of medium size, smooth, and dark reddish-
brown, with greenish-brown tufts at the pointed ends. Eighteen
per cent, of the seed examined was withered, but there were
no signs of the attack of insect pests. The fibre was of normal
strength, and ro to 1-4 inches long; the diameter varied from
o*coo5 to 0"OOi2 inch, with an average of o*ooo86 inch. On
microscopic examination, the cotton was observed to be coarse,
but generally fully mature. The ginned product was regarded
as probably worth about yd. per lb., with " good " rough Peruvian
at 7'T^d. per lb. This cotton was of good quality. Owing to
its rough character, it might possibly find a market as a sub-
stitute for rough Peruvian cotton, for the purpose of mixing
with wool. The sample was somewhat darker in colour than
a standard sample of rough Peruvian cotton with which it was
compared, but, apart from this difference, it exhibited similar
characters.

NORTHERN NIGERIA.

A sample of cotton, grown in the Shonga district, was
forwarded by the Inspector of Agriculture for West Africa in
1907. It was sent in both the ginned and unginned condition,
and probably represented the native " green-seed " variety. The
lint was clean, rather harsh, fairly lustrous, but uneven in colour,
varying from almost white to pale reddish-brown, with some
dark brown stained portions. Yield on ginning 30*5 per cent. ;
it was fairly easily detachable from the seed.

The seeds were rather large, and closely covered with a light
brown or greenish-brown down. Forty-six per cent, of the seed
examined was withered, and would be useless for sowing. The
strength of the cotton was generally normal, but some portions
were rather weak. The fibres varied in length from ro to 1-4

Cotton from Southern and Northern Nigeria. 159

inches, and in diameter from o*ooo6 to O'OOii inch ; the average
being 0-00084 inch. A small quantity of immature fibre was
present. The cotton was regarded by commercial experts as
worth about yd, per lb. (ginned), with " good fair " moderately
rough Peruvian at \Q\d. per lb.

The cotton showed signs of the attacks of insect pests, and a
few specimens of Oxycarenus sp. (Jtyalinipennis'^^ were found in
the sample. There were also some stains similar to those caused
by insects of Dysdercus sp. (cotton stainer).

The cotton was similar in appearance to a low quality of
brown Egyptian, but was much rougher and inferior in colour.
It might, perhaps, be utilised as a substitute for Peruvian cotton.

During the present year, a sample of cotton from the Mada
Country, Nassarawa, was received. The product was unginned,
and of a " kidney " variety. The cotton was rather harsh, of fair
lustre, of an even deep cream colour, and entirely free from
stains. Yield on ginning, 30 per cent. Yield of lint per 100
seeds, 4*84 grams. The lint was easily detachable from the
seed. The seeds were united in clusters of 5 to 9, and were
generally smooth and dark brown, but a small proportion was
yellowish-brown. About 10 per cent, of the seed examined
was withered. The cotton was of rather irregular strength,
some portions being weak. The length varied from vo to 1*3
inches, and the diameter from 0'OOo6 to 0*0012 inch, with an
average of 000085 inch. On microscopic examination, the
cotton appeared to be coarse and irregular, and some immature
fibres were noticed. The ginned cotton was valued at about
6^. per lb., with "fair" Pernambuco at 5*53<^. per lb., and "good
fair " moderately rough Peruvian at 6'^od. per lb.

The cotton had been picked at rather too early a date, and
consequently a small amount of immature fibre was present.
Apart from this defect, the material was of good quality, and
would be readily saleable as a rough-stapled cotton similar
to Brazilian or Peruvian.

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

^ "^..V.S.iSXL HEMP FROM THE EAST AFRICA, UGANDA
ONa.MUu ^^^ NYASALAND PROTECTORATES.

East Africa Protectorate.

A SAMPLE of Sisal hemp recently received from the East Africa
Protectorate consisted of well-cleaned fibre, nearly white, very
lustrous, of excellent quality and good strength, and about
5 feet long.

On chemical examination it gave the following results : —

Per cent.

Moisture

iri

Ash

a-Hydrolysis (loss) .

II -2

^-Hydrolysis (loss) .

H'l

Acid purification (loss)

2-3

Cellulose

. . 78-2

This Sisal hemp closely resembled a sample from German
East Africa previously examined at the Imperial Institute, but
was rather longer and not quite so white.

The fibre was submitted to commercial experts, who stated
that it was identical with that produced in German East
Africa during the last three or four years. They reported
that fibre equal in quality to the sample submitted would find a
ready market in London at ^29 per ton, with Mexican Sisal at
£2\ per ton.

Uganda Protectorate.

This sample was grown in the Botanic Gardens at Entebbe,
and consisted of white fibre, of fair lustre, very well cleaned, of
rather uneven strength, and about 4 feet 9 inches long.

The result of its chemical examination are compared below
with those of the sample from East Africa referred to above.

Moisture

Present
sample.
Per cent.

7'9

Ash ... .

a-Hydrolysis (loss)

9-2

/3-Hydrolysis (loss)

. II-3

Acid purification (loss)

Cellulose .

80-3

East Africa
Sisal.
Per cent.
Ill

1 1-2

I4-I

2*3
78-2

Sisal Hemp from E. Africa, Uganda and Nyasaland. i6i

These results show that this Sisal fibre from Uganda was very
similar in composition and behaviour to the samples from Nyasa-
land and East Africa. It was rich in cellulose and suffered
comparatively little loss on boiling with dilute alkali, so that it
should prove very durable.

This fibre from Uganda was of the same character as the Sisal
hemp prepared in East Africa, but was of rather less regular
strength. It was of excellent quality, and was regarded as
readily saleable at £2'j-£2Z per ton (with best Mexican Sisal
at £2^ per ton).

Nyasaland Protectorate,

A sample of fibre, labelled " British Central Africa Sisal Hemp
{Agave rigida var. sisalana)^ grown in the Government Experi-
mental Gardens, Zomba," consisted of nearly white fibre, of
good lustre, well cleaned, of excellent strength, and from 4 feet
to 4 feet 6 inches long.

On chemical examination, it gave results which are compared
below with those furnished by the foregoing sample from East
Africa.

Present

sample.

Per cent.

Sisal hemp from

East Africa.

Per cent.

Moisture .

9'2

II-I

Ash .

O'S

i-o

a-Hydrolysis (loss) .

8-6

11-2

/3- Hydrolysis (loss) .

iri

14-1

Acid purification (loss)

0-35

Cellulose .

. 80-9

78-2

These results show that in chemical composition and behaviour
this Nyasaland fibre was superior to that from East Africa
with which it was compared, as it lost less on hydrolysis
and acid purification, and contained more cellulose. It was
shorter, however, and somewhat finer. Its commercial value
was regarded as about equal to that of Mexican Sisal.

i62 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

MAURITIUS HEMP AND ^'LIKANGA" FIBRE FROM
NYASALAND.

Four samples of Mauritius hemp and a specimen of "Likanga"
fibre have been received recently from Nyasaland and are
described below.

No. I, Mauritius hemp, grown in the Shire Highlands of
Nyasaland, consisted of nearly white, fine fibre, of fair lustre,
but contained a considerable quantity of tangled fibre or tow,
and was of poor strength. The length varied from 7 feet
6 inches to 8 feet 4 inches.

The product was regarded as worth about ;^20 per ton with
"good fair" Mauritius hemp at £21 to £21 \os. per ton. It
was extremely towy, and its value was consequently depreciated.
If properly cleaned, the fibre would be worth £21 \os. per
ton.

No. 2, "grown under similar circumstances to No. i, and more
carefully prepared under European supervision," consisted of
very pale buff-coloured fibre. It was superior to the others,
as it was not so fine, was better cleaned, and did not contain
fine tangled fibres. The strength was rather uneven, but
somewhat better than that of the others. The length varied
from 4 to 5 feet.

The fibre was valued at about ;^20 \os. per ton, with "good
fair" Mauritius hemp at £21 to ;^2i \os. per ton. This was the
best of the four samples, and was of very fair quality.

No. 3, "grown on the Lower River," was a fine fibre, well
prepared, but inferior in colour and lustre to the other three
samples. It was of poor strength, and about 5 feet long.

The product was considered to be worth about ;^20 per ton,
with "good fair" Mauritius hemp at ;^2i to £21 10s. per ton.

No. 4, " grown on the Lower River," was a specimen of nearly
white, fine fibre, of good lustre and well cleaned, and about 4
feet long. The strength was uneven, and, on the whole, poor.

The product was valued at about £\g per ton, with "good
fair" Mauritius hemp at £21 to ;^2i \os. per ton.

" Likanga " fibre from Portuguese territory consisted of white,
very lustrous, fine fibre, resembling that derived from leaves of

Rubber from Southern India.

163

Sansevieria sp. It was of poor and uneven strength, and
about 3 feet long. If of better strength, fibre similar to this
sample would probably realise ;^20 to £2^ per ton in London.

RUBBER FROM SOUTHERN INDIA.

A NUMBER of rubbers prepared from Ceara, Castilloa, and
Para trees growing in the Government Experimental Gardens
at Kullar and Burliar in the Nilgiri Hills, have been examined
recently at the Imperial Institute, with the following results : —

Ceara Rubber {Manihot Glaziovii).

This rubber was prepared at Kullar, and bore the following
label :—

" No. I. Ceara rubber from trees planted in the Government
Experimental Garden, Kullar (1,300 feet), Nilgiris, in April
1902 ; collected February 1908." It weighed 9 oz., and con-
sisted of six biscuits of pale amber rubber, clean and well
prepared. The physical properties of the rubber were very good.

The results of the chemical examination were as follows : —

Moisture .
Caoutchouc
Resin
Proteid
Ash .

Soluble caoutchouc 76*5 per cent.

Sample as
received.
Per cent.

2-8

8o-2

6-2

9-5

i'3

Composition of

dry rubber.

Per cent.

82-5*

6-4
9-8
1-3

insoluble caoutchouc 6'o per cent.

The rubber was valued at 5^". 6d. per lb. in London. For
comparison with this and the following valuations it may be
stated that on the same date fine hard Para from South America
was quoted at 5^. \d. per lb., and plantation Para biscuits at
^s. 2id. to 5j. gd. per lb.

This Ceara rubber is of very good quality, although the

i64 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

percentages of resin and proteid are rather high. The biscuits
varied somewhat in colour, and it would be an advantage if they
could be obtained more uniform in this respect.

Castilloa Rubber {Castilloa elasticd).

Two specimens of this rubber were submitted, one from
Kullar and the other from Burliar.

The sample from Kullar was labelled as follows : — " No. 2.
Castilloa rubber from trees planted in the Government Experi-
mental Garden, Kullar (1,300 feet), Nilgiris, in April 1902;
collected June 1908." It weighed 6 J oz., and consisted of a
rough sheet of dark brown rubber, containing a fair amount of
vegetable impurity. The rubber was rather soft, slightly sticky
and weak.

A chemical examination gave the following results : —

Moisture .

Sample as
received.
Per cent.

1-5

Composition of

dry rubber.

Per cent.

Caoutchouc

. 627

63-6 .

Resin

. 32-0

32-5

Proteid .

0-9

Insoluble matter

2-9

3-0

Ash .

2*29

2-4

ibber was valued at ^s.

2d. to 3^. A,d.

per lb. in London

This rubber is of inferior quality, owing to the large percentage
of resin present. The trees from which the sample was obtained
were, however, only six years old, and it is probable that the
quality of the rubber will improve as the trees become older.

The specimen from Burliar bore the following label : —
" No. 3. Castilloa rubber from the Government Experimental
Garden, Burliar (2,400 feet), Nilgiris, February 1908." It weighed
5f oz., and consisted of rough sheets of rubber varying in colour
from light to dark brown, and containing traces of vegetable
impurity. This rubber was much stronger than the preceding
specimen from Kullar. On analysis it gave the following
figures : —

Rubber from Southern India.

:65

Moisture .

Sample as

received.

Per cent.

0-2

Composition of

dry rubber.

Per cent.

Caoutchouc

. 86-1

86-2

Resin

. 12-8

I2'9

Proteid .

O'S

0-5

Ash.

0-4

The rubber was valued at 35". 6d. to 3^-. Zd. per lb. in London.

This sample of Castilloa rubber from Burliar is much superior
in composition and physical properties to the specimen from
Kullar. No information was furnished regarding the age of the
trees from which the rubber was obtained.

Para Rubber {Hevea brasiliensis).

Specimens of Para rubber were received from both Kullar
and Burliar.

The sample from Kullar was labelled as follows : — " No. 4.
Para rubber from trees planted in the Government Experimental
Garden, Kullar (1,300 feet), Nilgiris, in April 1902 ; collected
June 1908." It weighed 7| oz. and consisted of two large
biscuits of dark brown rubber, containing traces of vegetable
impurity. The rubber was rather deficient in strength.

The results of the chemical examination are given in the
following table : —

Moisture .

Caoutchouc

Resin

Proteid

Ash

* Soluble caoutchouc 88*8 per cent. ; insoluble caoutchouc 4*0 per cent.

The rubber was valued at 5^-. to 5^. 2d. per lb. in London.

This rubber is very satisfactory in composition but the biscuits
are dark coloured and contain specks of vegetable impurity.
The value of the rubber would be enhanced if it were lighter
in colour.

Sample as
received.
Per cent.

Composition of

dry rubben

Per cent.

. 0-8

—

. 92*0

92-8*

. 2-6

2'6

. 3'0

3-0

. 1-6

The specimen of Para rubber from Burliar was labelled as

i66 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

follows: — "No. 5. Para rubber from the Government Experi-
mental Gardens, Burliar (2,400 feet), Nilgiris. Trees planted
November 1898; rubber collected November 1907." It weighed
17 J oz. and consisted of two biscuits and three long narrow
strips of rubber, rather uneven in colour, and containing traces
of vegetable impurity. The rubber was in good condition and
possessed fair strength. It had the following composition : —

Sample as Composition of
received. dry rubber.

Per cent. Per cent.

Moisture . . . .0-4

Caoutchouc

Resin

. 37 37

. o'5 0-5

; insoluble caoutchouc i '9 per cent.

Proteids
Ash .

Soluble caoutchouc 90 per cent

91-5 91*9*

3'9 3*9

The rubber was valued at 5^. \d, to 5^-. 5*3?'. per lb.

This sample of Para rubber was much lighter in colour than
the preceding specimen, but like the latter it contained minute
vegetable fragments which should be removed from the latex by
straining. The rubber was very satisfactory in composition.

RECENT DISCOVERIES OF GRAPHITE IN
BRITISH AFRICAN COLONIES.

Numerous occurrences of graphite and graphite-bearing
rocks have been reported recently from African Colonies, and
in many cases specimens have been forwarded for report to the
Imperial Institute.

The mineral usually occurs in the ancient crystalline rocks,
either as a constituent of the rock itself or in veins. In the
former case the material is of no commercial value till it has
been separated by washing or other mechanical means in the
manner described in this Bulletin (1906, 4. 353, and 1907, 5. 70).

East Africa Protectorate.
In September 1907 some specimens of graphite gneiss from
the right bank of the Tsavo river, five miles below the Tsavo

Recent Discoveries of Graphite. 167

station on the Uganda Railway, were received. The deposit
was associated with carbonate of copper. It appeared to be of
no commercial value as a source of graphite. Specimens of
quartzite containing flakes of graphite have also been found
on the line of the railway in this Protectorate.

Uganda.

A specimen from Bukunga in the District of Mugema on the
slopes of Ruwenzori, four miles south-west from Entebbe, Toro
Province, was received in October 1905. It consisted of dull
greyish black graphitic schist containing disseminated flakes of
graphite. The percentage of carbon amounted to 167 only.
Specimens forwarded to the Imperial Institute in December of
the same year from the hilly country near Kitana's Camp, half-
way between Hoima and Butiaba, Unyoro Province, were
roughly cylindrical in form, about 6 inches long and 2 inches
in diameter, having been shaped and polished by hand. They
contained 31 '2 per cent, of carbon and 6'4 per cent, of volatile
matter other than water.

In August of 1905 a sample of kaolin, containing patches of
graphite, from a pit near the village of Ajali, north of the Diangbi
Hills, Nimule, Nile Province, was received. The graphite did
not appear to be present in sufficient amount to be of commercial
value.

Another specimen forwarded from Uganda in September 1905
was simply stated to .come from Ruwenzori. It does not appear
whether it was from the locality already mentioned. It con-
sisted of graphitic schist and contained only 32'68 per cent, of
carbon.

In January 1906 two further specimens were received. One of
these was stated to come from an altitude of 7,000 feet on
Ruwenzori and the other from Unyoro. They consisted of
graphitic schist and were of no intrinsic economic value.

Nyasaland.

In August 1906 the Mineral Survey in operation in the Pro-
tectorate in connection with the Imperial Institute, observed
near Njobvualema Camp, in the north-west of the Upper Shird
District, seven different parallel bands of graphitic gneiss, in

1 68 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

which the graphite was interfoliated in large flakes with the other
minerals of the rock. A number of samples were forwarded to
the Imperial Institute and proved to contain from 70-6 to 91*6
per cent, of carbon. A sample was submitted to a firm of
mineral brokers, who reported that in its then state it was of
little value, but that if carefully cleaned it would probably yield
flake graphite worth about ;^40 per ton. A commercial firm
made a similar report.

In February 1908 a specimen from a deposit near the M'koma
Mission in the Angoniland District was received. It consisted
of practically pure graphite, mainly in the form of coarse flakes
up to 2 inches in length. The only impurity was a ferruginous
film occurring on or in some of the flakes. A firm of graphite
brokers to whom the specimen was submitted stated that they
had seen nothing approaching it in quality from Africa. They
described it as soft and flaky and classed it as " ordinary lump
of superior quality," worth from £'^^2 to ;^34 per ton. A firm of
manufacturers stated that it closely resembled good Ceylon
graphite. Steps are being taken to work this deposit.

Rhodesia.

A quartz schist from North-eastern Rhodesia containing a
small amount of graphite was examined at the Imperial Institute
in 1905, but the mineral was found to be present in too small
amount to be worth extracting. It was suggested, however, that
it might be taken as an indication of the occurrences of workable
deposits in the neighbourhood. Specimens of graphite were also
collected by Mr. L. A. Wallace in North-east Rhodesia and
presented to the Imperial Institute in 1905. The graphite in
these is combined with a considerable amount of schistose
material, and would have no commercial value unless it were
concentrated.

In November 1907 a parcel of graphite from the same region
-was received. It was of a lustrous black colour and possessed a
coarsely crystalline structure resembling that of Ceylon graphite.
An average sample was found to contain 7957 percent, of car-
bon and 16-85 per cent, of ash, representing mainly felspathic
material, which would detract seriously from the value of the
mineral. A clean piece of graphite picked out from the rest of

Recent Discoveries of Graphite. 169

the parcel contained 99*33 per cent, of carbon and only 0*65 per
cent, of ash, thus comparing favourably with the best graphite
from Ceylon and Canada.

Natal.

In August 1907 a sample of graphite was received from
Greytown. It was stated to form part of a deposit 6 feet thick.
It proved on examination to contain finely-divided graphite
disseminated through non-graphitic material. It yielded only
31*35 per cent, of fixed carbon.

Another sample of similar character received in January 1908
was found to contain only 24*3 per cent, of carbon.

A specimen of compact fissile slaty graphite from a mine near
Ladysmith was received in March 1908. A firm of graphite
brokers to whom it was submitted stated that it would have
no commercial value in this country but might be employed
locally.

Northern Nigeria.

Soft graphitic schist is also found in Northern Nigeria, where
it is known as Baki-n-Koli or Black Antimony. The non-
graphitic constituents have been apparently decomposed by
the action of the weather. On analysis it proved to contain
only 5 '34 of carbon and is of no economic value.

Graphitic schist has also been reported from the Sudan and
Cape Colony, and the mineral is no doubt widely distributed
through the ancient crystalline rocks of Africa. Valuable
graphite in large flakes is, however, of rare occurrence.

70 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

GENERAL NOTICES RESPECTING ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF
TUNGSTEN ORES.

Part I.

During recent years a number of new uses have been found
for the comparatively little-known metal tungsten, and as large
deposits of its ores occur in several British Colonies, it has
been thought advisable to publish in this Bulletin a resume
of the information available on the subject.

ores of tungsten.

The ores of commercial importance are wolframite, hiibnerite
and scheelite. The first of these, commonly spoken of as
wolfram, is a tungstate of iron and manganese. It varies in
colour from dark grey to brownish black, has a submetallic
to resinous lustre, specific gravity from 7*2 to 7*5 and hardness
5 to 5-5. The mineral crystallises in the monoclinic system,
is very brittle and has an uneven fracture. Hiibnerite is a
variety of wolframite, in which nearly all the iron is replaced
by manganese. It usually occurs in bladed forms and varies
in colour from brownish red to black.

Scheelite is a tungstate of calcium, and contains, when pure,
80*6 per cent, of tungstic oxide, WO3. It is a yellowish white
heavy mineral, has a vitreous lustre and varies in hardness from
4'5 to 5*0, and in specific gravity from 5 '6 to 6'i. The mineral
crystallises in the tetragonal system, but is usually found
massive. When heated before a blow-pipe it fuses with difficulty
to a semi-transparent glass.

In addition to the three foregoing minerals, there are others
containing large amounts of tungsten, but so far as is known
large deposits of these are nowhere available. Three of them
may perhaps be briefly described.

Cupro-tungstite is tungstate of copper. It possesses a highly
vitreous lustre, gives a greenish grey or yellow streak, and varies
in hardness from 4*5 to 5.

Occurrence and Utilisation of Tungsten Ores. 171

Stolzite is tungstate of lead. It varies in colour from green
to yellowish grey and brown, possesses a resinous sub-adaman-
tine lustre, an uneven fracture and a colourless streak. The
hardness varies from 27 to 3, and specific gravity from 7*8 to 8*1.

Tungstite or tungstic ochre is a trioxide of tungsten, and is
probably a decomposition product of wolframite. It is a pul-
verulent earthy mineral of a bright yellow to yellowish green
colour.

Tungsten, like tin, with which it is often associated, is usually
found as a product of a late phase of granitic activity. It may
occur in a pegmatoid or normal vein in the adjoining rock.
This may be a granite which has been converted into a greisen
or similar product ; or a limestone or other sedimentary deposit.

DISTRIBUTION.
EUROPE.

United Kingdom. — The greater quantity of the tungsten ore
at present produced in this country is obtained in Cornwall as a
by-product in tin-working. Deposits which were formerly
neglected on account of the difficulty of separating tinstone and
wolfram, have now been rendered available by the use of
electro-magnetic processes for separating the two minerals.
Large heaps of wolframite discarded by earlier workers have
been found.

Scheelite has been worked at Carrock Fells, Troutbeck,
and wolframite occurs at Lochfells and Godolphin's Ball.
These three localities are all in Cumberland.

In Ireland wolframite has been found associated with cassi-
terite in the auriferous sands of the Ballinvalley stream, Croghan
Kinshela, co. Wicklow. In certain specimens gold occurred in
thin threads throughout the wolfram. Tungsten ore is also
said to have been found in Rona Island in the Hebrides.

Portugal. — Some of the most important deposits are situated
at Panasqueria, in the province of Beira Baixa, and cover an
area of about 1,000 hectares ; the deposits are divided into the
Panasqueria and Cabeco Piao groups. In the former wolframite
occurs, associated with cassiterite, iron oxide and pyrites,
mispickel and mica, chiefly in the Cambrian rocks, in quartz
veins, which vary in thickness from 4 inches to nearly 2

172 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

feet. It is noteworthy that these deposits occur nearly in the
centre of a sedimentary deposit, about seven miles from any
exposures of igneous rocks ; whereas in Spain and Portugal
the mineral usually occurs either in igneous rocks or at the
contact of these and sedimentary rocks. The beds are nearly
horizontal, dipping 5° to 10° to the south. These deposits
have been worked to some extent in the last ten years, and
about 600 tons of concentrated ore exported. On the north
slope of the Panasqueria Sierra about fifteen quartz beds have
been located, but only four have been worked to any extent ;
about 30,000 square metres of these beds have been stoped out
and 25,000 tons of ore treated.

In the Cabeco Piao group the mode of occurrence is similar
to that mentioned above, with the exception that the beds here
dip 35° to the north. About ten beds have been proved, and in
four of these about 60,000 square metres have been laid bare.
The yield of wolfram, containing 68 to 71 per cent, of tungstic
oxide, averages 25 kilogrammes per square metre. It has been
estimated that with the employment of modern methods of
concentration these mines could produce 1,500 to 2,000 tons of
wolframite per annum at a cost of ;^i7-;^20 per ton.

Tungsten ores also occur with tinstone at Vianna do Castello,
Braga, Braganza, Guarda, Vizeu, Villa Real and Castello Branco.

Spain. — Tungsten ore is frequently found in the quartz veins
of granitic origin and in alluvial gravel in Caceres, Cordoba,
Salamanca, Corufia, Orense and Pontevedra. The working of the
deposits is very irregular, being largely in the hands of peasants.
The only deposits regularly worked are those of Montoro in
Cordoba and San Finx in Galicia. At Lousame, Coruna ; and
Carbia, Pontevedra, veins of wolfram and cassiterite are mined
and the minerals separated magnetically, the production being
about 15-20 tons per month. Small quantities of wolfram are
won from the alluvium of Salamanca.

La Sopresa mine in Las Cabezas mountains, Cordoba province,
employs 200 men. The ore consists of both wolframite and
scheelite, and occurs at the contact of the Cambrian slates and
the granite. The minerals occur in white quartz veins, which pass
without interruption from the slate to the granite. The deposits
are worked by open cuts, and the ore, after sorting and cobbing,

Occurrence and Utilisation of Tungsten Ores. 173

is calcined in a small kiln and then crushed and washed. The
concentrates from the wolframite carry from 68 to 74 per cent.,
and those from the scheelite contain 69 to 80 per cent, of
tungstic oxide.

Germany. — The chief mines producing tungsten ore are situated
in the Erzgebirge. The deposits occur at the junction of the
Upper Devonian rocks, and the Carboniferous limestone, in
bands of greisen. In the Altenberg mine wolfram is found in
small fissures associated with cassiterite, haematite and quartz.

Norway. — It was reported that during 1905 a deposit yielding
wolframite was worked near Egersund, but nothing further
appears to have been published regarding it.

SOUTH AFRICA.

Cape Colony. — Tungsten ore has been found near the boundaries
of the Cape and Stellenbosch districts. A specimen from
Malmesbury showed a fair amount of tungsten, whilst one from
Helderberg contained only a small quantity of the mineral.

Transvaal. — Wolframite has been found in some of the tin-
bearing pipes and chutes at Groenvlei in the Waterberg district.

Rhodesia. — Small quantities of wolfram and scheelite have
been produced from time to time, the total production of
Southern Rhodesia up to the year 1908 being valued at ;^9,78o.
Scheelite is said to occur in promising quantities, a recently
prospected vein showing quartz and scheelite iq alternate
bands over a width of 15 feet. The outcrop was traced for a
distance of 1,200 feet along the surface, and is stated to be about
six miles from the railway.

At Essexvale, near Bulawayo, wolframite is obtained from
the Richardson mine, where it occurs associated with scheelite,
chlorite, quartz, tourmaline, etc., as an impregnation in a fine-
grained granite. The production of picked ore from this mine
was 17 tons in 1906, and 12 tons in 1907. On the Gatuma side
of the Hartley district near the Umswege River is situated the
Scheelite King mine. The ore here is scheelite, and occurs in
a quartz reef in a schistose granite. About 38 tons of picked
ore were produced in 1907.

174 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

ASIA.

htdia. — Little or no tungsten ore has been produced so far
in India, but important deposits have been discovered recently.
In the Central Provinces wolframite has been found in the
Nagpur district at Agargaon, a village lying on the south bank
of the Kanhan river, about seven miles south-east of Maunda.
According to a recent report the ore occurs in parallel stringers
of quartz in a belt of mica-schist which, as exposed, is about 60
feet wide and traverses the country with a strike N. 65° E.
and a dip of 85° N. This belt can be traced along the
strike into the adjacent village of Palegaon to the south-
west, and into the bed of the Kanhan river to the north-east,
where it disappears under the drift of the high north bank : but
it is stated that the belt reappears in the village of Lohara.
The only portion of the belt in which wolframite has actually
been located is that at Agargaon, where the ore has been proved
by a series of pits and trenches for a distance of 1,350 feet. An
analysis of the unconcentrated ore showed 42 per cent, of
tungstic oxide, and a panned concentrate contained 66 per cent.
of oxide. The large extent of this deposit, and the apparent
ease with which it can be worked, should render it of com-
mercial importance.

Tungsten ore has been discovered in a " placer " deposit north
of Therawih, in the Tenasserim district, Burma, on the banks of
the Great Tenasserim river, and the deposits have been traced
for several hundred yards along the banks of three streams. A
further deposit has been located which covers an area of about
17,600 square yards ; here the tungsten-yielding alluvium is
several feet thick, and is close to the surface. It is stated that
the ore can be concentrated easily, and contains only a trace of
tin, and that the alluvium would yield about 45 pounds of
tungsten ore per ton of gravel washed. As the deposits are
close to a water route to the sea, transport costs should be low.
Wolfram has also been found in the Hazaribagh district, Bengal.

Federated Malay States. — Wolframite and scheelite have been
found in many localities in Perak, and doubtless a number of
these might be profitably worked. Scheelite has been reported
from the Kuala Kangsar district in fair quantity. Small

Occurrence and Utilisation of Tungsten Ores. 175

quantities of wolframite have been exported from Chumor,
Batang Padang and Ulu Gofeng. The Government Geologist
reports that scheelite occurs, probably in considerable quantities,
at the Stope Mine at Raub, Bukit Argas. It is stated that a
small plant for electrically separating and concentrating tungsten
ore has been installed at Ipoh.

Siam. — It is reported that a European company is working a
lode of tungsten ore at Koh Samui, an island on the east coast
of the Malay Peninsula, and belonging to Siam.

Tonkin. — Wolframite has been recorded associated with cas-
siterite, of which there are extensive deposits in the province of
Cao Bang, lying in a high valley on the side of the Pia-Ouac
mountain in the N'Guyen-Binn district. A granulitic formation
along the crest of the mountains contains the mineralised
" stockwerk " of cassiterite, accompanied by wolfram and quartz.
Small quantities of wolfram and gold have been found in the
deposits of the upper valley. Details as to the yield of wolfram
are not available, nor do the deposits seem to be worked for this
mineral.

AUSTRALASIA.

New South Wales. — Tungsten ores occur in many localities
in this State, the more important being situated in the tin-bearing
region to the north. The ores occur associated with cassiterite,
bismuth ores and molybdenite in quartz veins, and also as
impregnations in metalliferous greisens. Both wolframite and
scheelite are now produced in fairly large quantities, and the
comparatively rare mineral stolzite (tungstate of lead) occurs in a
finely-crystallised form near Peelwood, and also at the Broken
Hill Mines.

The bulk of the ore obtained in New South Wales is pro-
duced in the New England division. The most prominent
rock is granite, which has intruded into the claystones of the
Carboniferous period, and appears to be responsible for the
elevation of the land. As is often the case elsewhere, these
outcrops of intrusive granite are indications of mineral wealth
for here diamonds, gold, silver, tin, lead, zinc, wolfram,
molybdenite, and bismuth occur in paying quantities.

One occurrence, which is probably typical, has been fully

176 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

described {Mining Journal, 1905, Aug. 12, 170). The area
examined occupies about 16 square miles, and is situated about
5 miles north of Torrington, and 24 miles north-west of Deep-
water. It consists for the most part of an elevated plateau of
granite, though in places the claystones remain.

It is at the junction of these rocks that the most important
finds of ore have been made. The ore often occurs associated
with quartzose rock in pegmatite dykes. A typical one of these
is 12 feet wide, has been worked to a depth of 75 feet, and
yields an ore giving 8 per cent, of wolframite, a fair amount of
bismuth, together with monazite, fluorspar and beryl. Some of
the wolframite slugs obtained are of great size, one weighing
300 pounds. A true lode formation occurs where the slate has
been fissured, and when this lode is of a quartzose nature the
wolframite is usually disseminated through the lode. The ore
often occurs in large crystals when the lode is composed of
crystalline quartz. The method of concentration employed in
this locality is generally as follows : —

As the wolframite occurs with paying quantities of bismuth
ore, both must be saved, and so wet crushing and concentration
are employed. At present two methods of crushing are in
vogue : {a) the stamp battery ; {b) Gates rolls. In the battery
treatment the ore, which carries 6 to 10 per cent, of tungstic
oxide, is broken to 3-inch size by hand and mechanically fed to
the stamps, which are fitted with 10, mesh screens. The pulp
from the boxes goes direct to a Wilfley table, and the first
product from this is ready for export. The middle product
from the table goes to a 4-foot Frue vanner, where it is further
concentrated to market grade, whilst the tailings, which repre-
sent a considerable loss of wolfram, go to settling tanks, but are
not further treated.

The mine employing the Gates rolls treats an ore carry-
ing about \\ per cent, of wolframite ; after being broken to
I -inch size by a stonebreaker, it passes over a picking table to
the Gates rolls, where it is crushed to pass a y^ in. trommel, the
over-size going to the jigs, and the under-size to hydraulic
classifiers. The spigot products then go to Wilfley tables, and
the overflow to a settling tank, and thence to a 6-foot Frue
vanner, whilst the middle product from the tables is sent to a

Occurrence and Utilisation of Tungsten Ores. 177

second Frue vanner. The dressed ore contains 60 to 65 per
cent, of tungstic oxide.

The greater proportion of the scheelite produced is obtained in
the Hillgrove district, where it occurs associated with stibnite
(sulphide of antimony) in an auriferous quartz reef in the gneissic
granite, near the contact of the latter with the slates of the
locality.

The Mole Tableland contains numerous deposits of wolframite.
The chief geological features are an acid granite boss, intrusive
in slates of Carboniferous age, the minerals occurring along the
contact of igneous and sedimentary rocks. At the Gulf, 26 miles
north of Emmaville, wolframite occurs, often associated with
monazite and bismuth ore, in fissures and in long twisted in-
clined pipes. This deposit employs about 60 miners, and
satisfactory returns are said to be obtained. A number of other
occurrences are known in this district.

In the Deepwater division at Torrington a large concentrating
works is in operation, and during 1907 produced wolframite
to the value of ;^ 15,187. Concentrates valued at ;^2,400 were
produced at Minera, near Torrington. The deposits at Ruby,
in the Wilson's Downfall division, yielded wolframite to the
value of ;^403 in 1907, and 3 tons of scheelite were obtained
from the Nundle division.

In the Wagga-Wagga division, Mitchell County, wolframite
occurs in the Pulletop district in considerable quantities
associated with tinstone. The ores occur in quartz lodes inter-
secting granite rocks, and also in the alluvia in the vicinity
of Pulletop Creek. Owing to the difficulty experienced in
separating tin and wolfram, the mines were abandoned many
years ago ; but during 1906 small parcels of ore were exported.
During 1907 wolframite was reported to have been mined at
Tallabong, on Urambie East Holding, 35 miles north-east from
Eubalong.

Queensland. — For several years past this State has held a
prominent position as a producer of high-grade tungsten ore ;
but until quite recently mining has been carried on in a
somewhat desultory fashion by individual miners, though
now, in certain districts, the industry is established on a more
permanent basis.

78 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Wolframite is the ore chiefly worked, although scheelite is
also obtained in small quantity. The former is obtained mainly
from the Herberton and Hodgkinson districts, but the ore
occurs, and has been worked, though to a less extent, in many
other localities. According to an estimate by the Government
Geologist, the wolfram-bearing country of the Herberton (Walsh
and Tinaroo) and Hodgkinson fields alone covers an area of
3,500 square miles.

In the Herberton district, the Neville mine at Koorboora is
one of the most important. Here the ore occurs in an irregular
lode, which is reached by shafts. The ore at the lower depth
has proved inferior to that obtained on the higher ground, but
payable ore can be obtained below the 200-feet level.

During 1907 the crude material mined, yielded on the average
2'y per cent, of wolframite, equivalent to a value of about
5^-. yd. per ton of crude product worked.

In the Hodgkinson field, Wolfram Camp is an important
centre. It is situated about 14 miles north-west from Dimbulah,
and the claims are mostly held by one company, which is
developing the deposits and introducing modern methods of
mining and concentration. The ore occurs in quartz lodes
traversing granitic rocks,and with it is associated molybdenite
and bismuth ore in paying quantities. The shafts at two of
the most important mines in this district have been sunk on
their respective lodes to a distance of 300 feet, and it has been
found that the ore, although more friable, is richer than that
obtained nearer the surface. The plant employed includes
a rock-breaker, Cornish rolls, Krupp table and Frue vanner.

Bamford, situated about 4 miles north of Petford, in the same
district, contains important deposits, but these are as yet but
little developed. The deepest shaft (200 feet) on this field has
shown that the ore is better at this level than on the surface.
Here, as at Wolfram Camp, nearly all the claims produce
tungsten, molybdenum and bismuth ores in paying quantities.
The Mount Carbine deposits, situated about 22 miles north-west
from Mount MoUoy, are being developed by the company, which
is predominant at Wolfram Camp. Much development work
has been done, including 2,000 feet of tunnelling, and large
reserves of wolfram-bearing quartz lodes, varying in width from

Occurrence and Utilisation of Tungsten Ores. 179

6 inches to 6 feet, have been exposed. During 1907 lodes of
tungsten ore were also worked at Eight Mile Camp, Fossilbrook,.
and promising finds are also reported from the Upper Lynd
River and near the head of Fossilbrook Creek. Casual mining
for tungsten ore is carried on at Emuford, the Tate, Nettles
Creek, Mt. Pom Pom (near Mt. Molloy) and McLeod's River
(beyond Mt. Carbine), all in this district.

In the Cook and Cape York Peninsula there is a large gold,
tungsten- and tin-bearing area extending from Cooktown south-
wards for a distance of 90 miles through mountainous coastal
scrub-lands over the watershed of the Annan and Bloomfield
rivers to Mt. Windsor.

A small mineral field, 13 square miles in area, was proclaimed
in 1907 and named Bowden. This field is situated on the Pascoe
River, about 32 miles north-east from the Mein telegraph station.
In 1907 about 25 tons of wolframite were produced and conveyed
30 miles overland to Lloyd's Bay, being shipped thence to Cook-
town. About 3j tons of ore were also produced in Noble
Island.

A wolframite lode, which has been worked to a small extent,
occurs on the side of the gorge of Oaky Creek, near Waverley,
in the Kangaroo Hills. A cut in the hillside showed a massive
body of quartz, 3 to 4 feet wide, splashed through with felspar
and wolframite in lumps up to 2 inches across. A shaft 60 feet
in depth showed a large and regular ore body. Wolfram is also
produced near Running River in this area.

Formerly small quantities of ore were obtained from the
Rosedale district, Bundaberg, and a number of shafts varying
in depth from 20 to 60 feet have been sunk.

A number of wolframite mines have been opened up at OUera
Creek, about 50 miles north of Townsville, and varying quantities
of the ore have been produced, but the mines are now stated to
be abandoned.

The Lancewood tinfield on Elizabeth Creek, in the Etheridge
Gold Field area, produced about 15 tons of ore in 1906. At
Butcher's Gully, 6 miles north-east of Coolgarra, wolfram occurs
associated with monazite. Scheelite has been mined successfully
near Parada, on the Chillagoe Railway.

South Australia. — In the north-western district of the northern

i8o Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

territory, about seven miles south-east of Wandi, a deposit of
tungsten ore occurs, at Brock's Wolfram mine, as a lenticular
pipe containing massive wolframite associated with scheelite,
copper pyrites and quartz, the country rocks being indurated
argillaceous sandstone and slate. The deposit, which occurs at
the bottom of a hill, has been trenched and sunk on from the
outcrops to a depth of 30 feet, and the ore body here does
not appear to have suffered any diminution in size compared
with that visible at the top of the shaft. This deposit is stated
to be remarkable on account of the richness and size of the
lenticular mass of ore, which is probably the largest yet found in
Australia.

Wolframite has also been found in small veins in this locality
and also in a diorite and metamorphosed sandstone near
Irwin's copper show.

Western Australia. — In this State wolframite is found in few
localities, but scheelite occurs in varying quantities both in the
gold-bearing quartz reefs and the alluvial gold workings. From
the absence of recorded production of the minerals it would
appear that in many cases their presence has been overlooked.
It is stated that attempts to recover the tungsten ores by
concentration have only been made at Ravensthorpe, in the
Phillips River goldfield. Early in 1907 a parcel of rock from a
mine in this district on treatment yielded 5 ozs. 6 dwts. of gold
and 22 cwt of concentrates, the latter assaying 66'2 per cent, of
tungstic acid.

In the north-west division of this State scheelite has been
found in a lode at the Ard Patric Mine at Mosquito Creek.
The ore occurs in bunches in the auriferous quartz reef. Two
samples assayed in the laboratory of the Geological Survey
showed 50-9 and 45-1 per cent, of tungstic oxide, and one
specimen contained a small quantity of gold. Scheelite also
occurs in the quartz at the Welcome Gold mine in the Cue
district.

In the south-west division scheelite has been reported to occur
in large pieces in quartz in the ranges near Geraldton, and also
in the West River district.

In the central division the same mineral has been found at
Frazer's mine, Southern Cross; Lindsay's mine, Coolgardie;

Occurrence and Utilisation of Tungsten Ores. i8i

Brown Hill Extended and Hannan's Reward, Kalgoorlie ; Oaks
Gold mine, Pingin ; and Sons of Erin mine, Higginsville.

Victoria. — Both wolframite and scheelite are known to occur
in this State, but neither appears to have been worked to any
appreciable extent. Wolframite occurs in quartz reefs traversing
metamorphic rocks at Maldon near Chiltern ; and in the north-
eastern district on the Buckwong River. Alluvial wolframite
has been found in the Upper Yarra district, Nicholson River and
Boggy Creek, near Bairnsdale, Central Gippsland, and other
localities.

Scheelite has been found in quartz reefs at Raldon, in the
Casterfield district at Rodney, Mount Cudgewa and Boggy Creek.

Both wolfram and scheelite occur in alluvium near Marysville,
about 50 miles from Melbourne, and small quantities have been
exported.

Tasmania. — In past years the bulk of the tungsten ore
exported from this Colony has been obtained from the Shepherd
and Murphy and All Nations mines, in the Middlesex dis-
trict, and the claims on Ben Lomond, Cornwall County. The
deposits of the Middlesex district have been examined and fully
described by Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees, from whose report the
following details have been obtained. The mineral field as a
whole consists of Silurian strata (sandstone) overlaid with
Tertiary basalt, and penetrated by quartz porphyry of Devonian
age. The Shepherd and Murphy lodes occur in metamorphosed
limestone and sandstone (or quartzite) and carry cassiterite,
wolframite, bismuthite and a small quantity of molybdenite. The
claims comprise an area of about 320 acres, and are situated
about' 12 miles from Wilmot, the mine itself being on the
northern slope of a hill-spur descending to Bismuth Creek. The
country on the north, west and south of the mine is Tertiary
basalt, but the Silurian quartzite is exposed at the mine itself
and across the creek. On the hill-spur, seven parallel lodes
have been discovered and more or less explored by means of
cross cuts and drives. The lodes, though small, are persistent
and rich, and, as no serious faulting is noticeable, they will
probably extend far beyond this location. Lode No. 6 is
almost vertical, and averages 22 inches in width, and is the
one upon which most work has been done. The minerals of

i82 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

importance found are wolframite, cassiterite, and bismuthite,
together with a gangue of quartz carrying fluorite, calcite,
wollastonite, etc. The concentrates carry about 33 per cent,
each of cassiterite and wolframite, and these, at an estimated
value of i^ioo per ton, would be equal to a value of £'^ per ton
of crude ore extracted.

The plant for the treatment of the ore is being improved, and
when completed will include 10 head of stamps, two Wilfley
tables, two Frue vanners and possibly a magnetic separator. An
additional water supply is being obtained by the construction of
a race from Weaning Paddock Creek, five and a half miles away.
The All Nations Wolfram mine adjoins the preceding, the lode
occurring in the quartzite and carrying amorphous wolframite, a
little gold, minute quantities of molybdenite, but no tin. In the
quartz porphyry, however, on the same property, cassiterite and
wolframite occur disseminated. Several lodes occur, one of
which varies from six inches to a foot in width, and has been
prospected by an open cut, about 12 chains in length, along
its course. Combed quartz crystals, many of which attain a
circumference of 14 inches, comprise the gangue, which can
easily be separated from the wolframite. Bulk shipments of the
ore show 66 to 71 per cent, of tungstic oxide, the ore not being
accompanied by any deleterious minerals. A selvage which
occurs on the hanging walls, and averages from one to three inches
in width, was found to contain bismuth carbonate, and an assay
by the Government analyst showed bismuth 4'8 per cent., with
gold 1 1 dwts. per ton and silver 4 dwts. per ton. It would appear
that little development has been done on this property, and that
the mineral exported has been obtained by sluicing the loose
parts of the lode. There is plenty of timber suitable for mining
purposes in the immediate neighbourhood, and the water difficulty
could be overcome in a manner similar to that employed in the
Shepherd and Murphy mine.

On the south coast of King Island a deposit of scheelite has
been located recently. The lode is said to be 12 to 20
feet wide and to have well-defined walls and 200 feet of backs,
and to also carry molybdenum, bismuth and tantalum. There
is plenty of wood and water close to the deposit, and a port for
shipment within half-a-mile.

Occurrence AND Utilisation of Tungsten Ores. 183

New Zealand. — Both scheelite and wolframite occur in the
Dominion, but, so far, the greater quantity of the tungsten ore
produced has been scheehte.

The most important deposits of this mineral are situated at
Macrae's Flat in Central Otago, whence the first shipments were
made in 1891 ; but the low price then prevailing, and the
difficulty of concentrating the ore, caused the abandonment
of the enterprise. The scheelite-yielding lode was, however,
worked for the gold which it contained — about 18 dwts. per ton —
and further development led to the discovery of richer lodes of
scheelite which could be exported after hand picking. The
bulk of the ore in the lode, however, could only be dressed by
the aid of machinery, and the experience of the pioneers of this
mine, in this respect, may be of interest. The plant consisted
of a rock breaker, a 5 ft. Huntingdon roll mill, with range of
copper plates, driven by water power, and a shaking table. This
last proved to be too slow, and had to be replaced by a 6 ft. Frue
vanner, which dressed the ore to 72 per cent, tungstic acid, with
very little loss in slimes. Owing to the heavy wear on the
crushing plant, an attempt was made to use instead a lo-stamp
battery and a Woodbury vanner (in addition to the Frue
vanner), but the loss in slimes was found to be excessive although
a sizer was employed. The new plant employed on a recently
acquired property consists of a coarse rock breaker, Blake
Marsden fine crusher, Huntingdon roll mill and Wilfley
concentrator.

The lode of Macrae's Flat runs for several miles in a country
rock of schist, and is peculiar in the fact that it does not cut the
laminations of the schist, but in its folds has all the character-
istics of a true fissure lode. There are frequently rolls in the
floor and roof of the reef containing pure scheelite. The lodes
vary in size from two to six or eight feet, and all carry gold in
varying proportions. At Mount Judah, Glenorchy, Otago, a
scheelite lode was opened up some years ago, and the mineral
exported. The Glenorchy Scheelite Syndicate operating in this
locality have proved by means of trenches that the ore occurs
over a considerable area, and have installed machinery for
treating it. Near the head of Lake Wakatipu, scheelite occurs in
irregular masses in a quartz lode traversing crystalline schists.

i84 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

At the Alta Mine, Bendigo, Central Otago, scheelite occurs
disseminated in small bunches in the gold-bearing quartz.
Tungsten ore is also found in Otago at Burnt Creek, Lammerlaw
Ranges, Waipori; Barewood ; Saddle Hill, Green Island; Stony
Creek Antimony mine, and is known to occur in the alluvial
drifts of Stewart Island, associated with tin, but does not seem
to have been worked there.

The following are analyses of New Zealand scheelite, examined
recently in the Colonial Laboratory : —

Source.

Tungstic Oxide
WO3

per cent.

Equivalent to
Scheelite

per cent.

Bucklerburn, Glenorchy .

38-44

47-66

Precipice Creek

60-50

75-02

Twelve mile Oxburn

53-30

65-97

Pine Valley Marlborough

375

4-65

Lammerlaw Range .

( To be contim

73-00

90-52

PEPPERMINT OIL.

Inquiries are from time to time received from some of the
temperate and sub-tropical Colonies regarding the possibility of
cultivating peppermint for the production of peppermint oil.
As it seems probable that this industry might be introduced
with advantage in certain of the Colonies, the following short
summary of information on the cultivation of the plant and the
preparation of the oil as carried on in various countries is printed.

This oil is chiefly produced in the United States of America,
Japan, France and the United Kingdom, and in small quantities
also in Germany, Italy and Russia. The first two countries are,
however, by far the largest producers. . ;:(,ijiot|'

In North America and Europe the plants grown for the
distillation of peppermint oil are varieties of Mentha piperita.
The Japanese oil is the product of Mentha arvensis. Of Mentha
piperita there are two varieties, one known as " black mint" {^Mentha
piperita, v^x. vulgaris) ^xidi the other as "white mint" {Mentha
piperita^ ydiV. officinalis). Of these the "black mint" is the

Peppermint Oil. 185

hardier and gives the larger yield of oil ; "white mint" gives a
smaller yield of oil, which, however, is of finer quality.

Cultivation in the United States.

In the United States, peppermint is cultivated in the States of
New York and Indiana, but principally in Michigan.

The industry is most profitable on reclaimed marsh land,
although it is also undertaken in the uplands. In Michigan
this land has been reclaimed by draining, ploughing and
cultivating. The swampy vegetation having been thus subdued,
the decayed vegetable matter produces a black soil adapted to
peppermint cultivation.

Formerly the plant was grown exclusively on the uplands in
Michigan, but it is a very exhausting crop, and only two crops
can be obtained in succession from such land. After the second
harvest the land is ploughed and a rotation of clover, corn, etc.,
is practised for five years before peppermint is again planted.
On reclaimed land, on the contrary, the herb can be grown
continuously for six or seven years, the land being ploughed
up after each harvest and the runners turned under to form a
new growth for the succeeding year.

The soil is prepared in the autumn, and early in spring it is
harrowed, and marked with furrows about three feet apart.
The roots used for planting are from one-eighth to a quarter of
an inch thick, and one to three feet long, and are planted in the
furrow so as to form a continuous line. An expert workman
can plant about an acre in a day.

In about two weeks the young plants appear above ground,
and the land is then carefully hoed and cultivated at intervals
until July and August, when the plants have usually sent out so
many runners as to make further cultivation difficult. Horse
cultivators are used, but the weeds have to be pulled up by
hand.

Cold and wet weather, or very dry periods, have an unfavour-
able effect on the crops. Insects (grasshoppers, crickets, etc.)
and cutworms are occasionally troublesome. If very moist
weather occurs towards the latter part of the season, a " rust "
is apt to attack the plants, and causes the foliage to drop off
leaving the stems almost bare. It is necessary that the land be

i86 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

kept free from weeds, as any strong-smelling weeds collected
with the peppermint crop may seriously injure the quality of
the oil obtained.

Harvesting and Distillation.

The first crop of mint is harvested in the latter part of
August, when the plants are in full flower, and the gathering
continues until about the middle of September. The stills are
worked night and day until all the mint is disposed of. The
first crop is usually cut with scythes, as mowing machines do
not work well in soft cultivated land. Succeeding crops are cut
with mowing machines or sweep-rake reapers. The highest
yield and the best quality of oil are obtained from the first year's
crop. Sometimes, if the weather conditions are favourable, a
second cutting is made. The yield of oil from peppermint, even
from the same field, sometimes varies very much, the condition
of the atmosphere at the time of reaping appearing to exert an
influence on it ; and it is said that mint cut after a warm and
humid night will yield more oil than that cut after a cool dry
night.

After the plants are cut they are usually placed in wind-rows
until they are sufficiently dried, but are not allowed to become
so dry as to permit the leaves to fall off, and are then taken to
the distillery. Some growers believe that if the plants are
allowed to dry there is a loss of oil, and so have their plants
taken to the distillery in the green state. After drying, the
distillation should take place as soon as possible.

About 330 lb. of dried peppermint is required to produce
I lb. of oil, and the yield of oil per acre ranges from 12 to
50 lb.

Various forms of stills are in use. They all consist of (i) a
boiler for generating steam, (2) a pair of circular wooden vats,
(3) a condenser, and (4) a receiver. Two wooden vats are used
in order that they may be filled and emptied alternately. These
vats are about 6 ft. high and 5 ft. in diameter, with tight-fitting
removable covers and loose perforated false bottoms. A steam
pipe is led from the boiler into the bottom of each vat, so that
steam passes through the perforated false bottom to the charge.

The plants are thrown into the vats, and closely packed by

Peppermint Oil. 187

men trampling on them, and when the vat is one-third full the
packing is assisted by turning in a small supply of steam, which
softens the plants. When the vat is filled the cover is replaced
and secured, and a full head of steam turned on. In the largest
distilleries the vats have a capacity of from 2,000 to 3,000 lb. of
dried plants each.

The condenser consists of a series of block-tin pipes, either
immersed in tanks of cold water or placed so that cold water
can be kept running over them. The condenser pipe is con-
nected with the top of the distilling vat. The condensed steam,
together with the oil, flows into a metallic receiver, in which the
oil, being lighter than the water, rises to the top and can be
drawn off. A strong iron hoop is placed about the loose false
bottom of each vat, and two pairs of stout chains, which meet at
the top in a pair of rings, are attached to it. After the charge
has been distilled, the rings are connected to the hook of a crane
and by means of this arrangement the charge is withdrawn.

Large tanks are used for storing the oil, and cans holding 20
lb. each are employed for shipping, three of these cans being
placed in a wooden case.

The peppermint hay which remains after distillation is used
as a fertiliser, or is fed to stock.

The value of the peppermint oil produced in the United
States is at present about 6s. to 6s. 3^. for ordinary kinds, and
Ss. lod. to gs. per lb. for special brands.

The exports of peppermint oil from the United States in recent
years (July 1st to June 30th in each case) have been as follows: —

Year . .

1903-04

1904-05

1905-06

1906-07

1907-08

Quantity .

19-17 tons

16 '5 tons

33*1 tons

65*9 tons

63*2 tons

Value . .

• ;^25,985

;^28,346

;^42,97i

^103,975

;^74,49i

Production in the United Kingdom.

In the Journal of the Board of Agriculture for August of
last year (1908, 16. No. 5) some interesting particulars are
contributed on the mint-growing industry in this country.

The total area under cultivation is estimated to be between
500 and 1,000 acres. Two varieties of mint are grown, viz. black
mint, so called from its dark green foliage, and white mint ; but
as the former yields twice as much oil as the latter, it has at the

i88 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

present time almost superseded it. Mint is said to grow best at
a height of not more than 200 feet, and the districts chiefly
concerned in the production are Ewell, Cheam, Carshalton, and
Mitcham. It is also grown in smaller quantities in certain parts
of Sussex, Kent, Hertfordshire, and Lincolnshire.

Cultivation.

Mint requires a good, light, warm soil, such as a deep rich
loam on gravel, but it also thrives well on a chalky subsoil. It
is grown from roots, not from seeds. After the land has been
prepared by ploughing and manuring in the winter, the plants
are dibbled in, in May, in rows 12 to 15 inches wide, and from
12 to 18 inches apart.

A mint plantation lasts from four to five years, the best results
being. given in the second year, after which it deteriorates. After
the fourth or fifth year the plantations are broken up, and the
same land is not used again for mint growing for some years.

Harvesting and Distilling.

The plants are cut by hand with a hook about the beginning
of September, when a red rust or " snuff" appears on the leaves.
After they have been allowed to dry on the ground for some
time, they are packed in Russian mats and carried to the
distillery, where they are distilled with water in copper stills
for about six hours. The mixed vapours from the stills are
condensed in water-cooled coils of metal pipe.

From the mixture of oil and water, which collects in the
separator, the water is run off from below, and the oil remaining
is cleared by passing it through filter paper, and is packed in
glass bottles for sale.

Cost of Production.

The cost of mint growing in this country is considerable, and
is estimated at about £2Q per acre. The usual price for plants
is from js. to \os. per bushel, and about 10 or 12 bushels are
required to plant an acre. Planting out costs about ^os., and
cutting from 20s. to 30^-. per acre. Mats cost gd. each, and the
cost of distilling is about £1 for 20 mats.

For distilling, a building with two copper stills and the other

Peppermint Oil. 189

necessary apparatus will cost from i^i,200 to ;^i,50o. An acre
will produce from 20 to 60 mats of plants, yielding from 8 to 25
lb. of oil. The price of the oil varies according to the season,
being in an average season about 2^s. per lb.

Production in Japan.

A detailed account of the industry as carried on in Japan was
published by N. Inouye in Messrs. Schimmel & Co.'s semi-
annual Report for November 1908, from which the following
summary is taken : —

The cultivation of peppermint in Japan dates from very early
times, but the practice of distilling the herb for oil and of
separating the menthol is a comparatively modern development.
Some oil was exported in 1873, but the first export statistics
date from 1880. Until 1882 only the crude oil was exported;
it was not until 1886 that menthol was separated and ex-
ported on a large scale, and the great extension of the industry
dates from 1893.

As already indicated, the Japanese peppermint plant is
different from that grown in Europe and the United States, and,
following Holmes' suggestion, Malinvaud's name, Mentha arven-
si's, var. piperascens^ is that generally adopted for it. According
to the Japanese agriculturist, Nagasaki, four varieties of the
Japanese plant are cultivated. These are as follows : —

(i) '' Akaiitaru" (aka = red, maru = round), with round
leaves, reddish-violet stem and slightly violet flowers. This
variety yields the largest quantity of oil, containing the highest
proportion of menthol, and is consequently that most sought
after by cultivators.

(2) '^ Aoinaru'' (ao = green, maru = round), having round
leaves and green stems.

(3) " Akayanagi" (aka = red, yanagi = willow), having a
willow-like leaf, blue stem and white flowers. This gives a
low percentage of oil. ^.-.-j; ,^ ; } ;;jo«!r/ln oitK-i tub ni jriit oi?J

(4) '''■ Aoyanagil' also with willow-like leaves and white flowers.
This resembles the wild plant.

Although the industry is carried on more or less in most parts
of Japan, the four following districts are the chief centres : — -
Yamagata Ken, in the northern part of the mainland ; Oka-

190 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

yama Ken and Hiroshima Ken, both in the south-west of the
mainland, and Hokkaido Chou, in the island of Yezo. In
Yamagata Ken the industry ranks next to silk and rice in
importance. The exports of oil from this district at one time
accounted for 90 per cent, of the total output of Japan, but this
ratio is not maintained at the present time, owing to rapid
development in other districts. Thus, in 1904 the area under
peppermint in Okayama Ken was 3,408 acres, as against 1,237
acres in the previous year. Similarly in Hokkaido Chou, the
area rose from 24*5 acres in 1901 to 189 acres in 1902. Later
statistics than these are not available.

Cultivation.

The plant may be grown continuously for from four to seven
years, but it deteriorates in this period, and it is considered
advisable to cultivate for three years and then either to renew
the plants or to practice a rotation with some leguminous crop.
The runners are put in either in spring (April to May), or, more
commonly, in autumn (October and November).

The Akamaru variety is preferred for planting, but it is
impossible to keep out other varieties. The old runners are
rejected, and only the younger, more succulent ones taken.
These are cut into pieces, four to five inches long, and after the
ground has been ploughed, are planted in furrows 14 to 18
inches apart. Special attention is paid to manuring the soil
and weeding the fields. About 6,000 lb. of roots are required
to plant one acre.

Harvesting and Distillation.
The herb may be harvested twice each season, first towards
the end of July and again towards the end of October, though
in certain districts, e.g. Okayama Ken and Hiroshima Ken, it is
harvested three times a year. The second harvest is larger than
the first in the ratio of about 5 : 3, and also better, as the plants
being in blossom at the time give a higher yield of oil, which is
also richer in menthol. A dry day should be selected for
cutting, and the best hours are said to be from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m.
After cutting, the herb is spread out to dry, otherwise fer-
mentation is set up and a loss of oil results. It is afterwards

Peppermint Oil. 191

bundled. Several bundles are tied together to form a " string,"
and these "strings " are then hung in a storehouse to dry further.
In summer the complete drying requires 10 days, and in the
autumn about 30 days. The average yield of dry herb from
one acre is 3,000 lb. from the first cutting and 5,000 lb. from the
second, the latter, moreover, always fetching a higher price than
the first.

The stills in use a few years ago consisted of a hemispherical
cast-iron boiler containing water, and with a broad rim, on which
was placed a large wooden cask having a perforated bottom. In
the top of the cask a conical-shaped iron vessel was placed and
filled with cold water, to act as a condenser. Under the boiler a
fire was built, and the steam as it was generated passed through
the perforated bottom of the cask containing the herb. The
vapours were condensed on the lower surface of the conical
condenser, to the lowest part of which was attached a receptacle
to receive the condensed mixture of water and oil. This ran
through a pipe passing through the side of the cask into a
receiver outside, in which the oil and the water separated, the
water being returned to the boiler.

In the improved stills introduced in recent years, the boilers
for generating steam are made of copper, and have broad rims,
to which the lower edges of the casks are luted by means of
plaited straw, and the conical-shaped condensers have been
replaced by water-cooled pipe condensers.

The distilleries are usually erected on the banks of streams, in
order to ensure a ready and plentiful supply of water for
condensing purposes.

The older form of still had a capacity of about 125 lb. of dry
herb, and with them four distillations could be conducted in one
day in summer, and three per day later in the year. The newer
form of still holds about 208 lb. of dry herb, and the boiler has
a capacity of about 60 gallons of water.

The dry summer herb yields about i per cent, of oil, and that
gathered in the autumn about i-6per cent. After the distilla-
tion the herb is removed from the still by means of a rake, and
is either used as manure or dried for fuel.

The oil, after being separated from the water, is packed in
square tin cans holding about four gallons. As thus obtained it

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

is known as " torioroshi," and contains a large quantity of

menthol. Some of the small distillers sell the oil in this

condition, but in most cases it is further treated for the

separation of the menthol.

Separation of the Menthol.

For this process the oil is run into square tin cans, provided
with an outlet pipe for drainage. The cans are placed in an ice
box, packed with a mixture of ice or snow and salt, and allowed
to remain there for three days, during which time much of the
menthol crystallises out. The outlet pipes are then opened, and
the liquid portion is allowed to drain into an empty vessel.
After two days the tins are removed from the refrigerator,
placed on a rack in a sloping position, and allowed to drain for
three days longer at the room temperature. The crude menthol
from a number of cans is melted by steam heat, strained through
muslin into zinc vessels, from which it is again run into square
tins and re-crystallised by cooling, the draining process being
again repeated.

The oil is exported in tin cans holding about four gallons.
The menthol is shipped in clean dry tins, lined with paper, and
holding about 5 lb., and ten of these are placed in one case.

The Japanese peppermint oil is richer in menthol than the
European and American oils, and therefore superior for the
manufacture of menthol ; but on account of its strong odour
and bitter taste it is inferior as a flavouring agent.

The chief Japanese ports for peppermint oil and menthol are
Yokohama and Kobe, but small quantities are also sent out
from Osaka and Nagasaki. The principal importing countries
are China (Hongkong, for re-shipment to European and other
countries), the United States, Germany and the United Kingdom.
The amounts exported, together with the value for years 1903-
1907, are given in the following table : —

Year.

Menthol.

Peppermint Oil.

Total value of
Menthol and

Quantity.

Value.

■

Peppermint Oil.

1903 •

1904 .

1905 .

1906 .

1907 .

Tons.

457

85-8

99
57
39

83,792

113,617

81,424

52,799
34,500

£
28,918
58,224
50,183
37,922
29,900

112,710

171,841

131,607

90,721

64,400

The Tussur Silkworm in India.

193

Japanese dementholised peppermint oil is at present worth
about 4s. gd. to 5^. per lb. in London.

The American, English and Japanese oils differ considerably
in properties and composition, and the average constants for
each class of oil are summarised in the following table : —

Japanese

English.

New York
State.

Michigan
State.

Japanese
Normal Oil.

from which

Menthol has

been removed.

Specific gravity .

0*900 to 0*910

0*91 to 0*92

0*905 to 0*913

0*895 to 0*900

0*895 to 0*905

Optical rotation .
Menthol (free) .

- 22° to - 3f

5o%to6o%

- 25° to - 33°

- 18° to - 29°

- 30° to - 42°

- 20° to - 35°

40 to 45 %

43 to 50%

65 to 85 %

34 to 44 %

Menthol (as esters)

3% to 14%

8 to 14%

4-3 to 8*5%

3 to 6%

6 to II %

Menthol (total) .

58% to 66%

so to 60%

48 to 58 X

70 to 91 X

43 to 50%

Solubility in
alcohol

(

Not sol. in 70 %,

Soluble in 4 to

Soluble in 3 to

Not always

sol. in h vol.

5 parts, 70%

5 parts, 70 %

soluble in

or more of 90 %

alcohol

70 X alcohol

(

alcohol

THE TUSSUR SILKWORM IN INDIA.

Some attention is at present being given in several British
Colonies and Dependencies to the production of wild and culti-
vated silks. This is notably the case in Uganda {Bulletin of the
Imperial Institute^ 1907, 5. 438), British East Africa and Ceylon
(this Bulletin, p. 202), whilst in India, steps are being taken to
improve the methods of tussur silkworm rearing. This last-
mentioned industry is of considerable interest, and a short
account of it, and especially of the improvements introduced
recently, is given below.

In addition to the mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori, there
are several varieties of silk-moths, the larvae of which are
capable of producing silk in sufficient quantity and of such a
quality as to be of considerable commercial value. When such
silkworms are found in a wild state, the silk produced by them
is known as "wild silk." In some cases it is possible to hatch
such worms and rear them under artificial conditions, when the
silk produced is much superior in quality to the wild variety,
owing to its being preserved in one unbroken length and not
disturbed by the worm during its emergence from the cocoon.

The silkworms generally referred to as " wild " belong, for the
most part, to the family Saturniidce, whereas the domestic or

194 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

mulberry-feeding silkworms belong to the family Bombycidce.
Some genera of the Saturniidce, however, have been domesticated,
and of these perhaps the one of greatest commercial importance
is that from which tussur, or tasar, silk is obtained.

The cocoon of the Indian tussur silkworm is attached to the
food-plant by a strong silken stem, generally about three inches
in length, and which terminates at the other end from the
cocoon in a strong loop by which it is securely fastened to the
branch, so that there is little danger of it becoming loose and
falling to the ground. The cocoons are hard and compact in
structure, and contain a large amount of coarse, strong, buff-
coloured silk. They have a considerable value both for reeling
and spinning, and are largely used in the manufacture of plush
and other silk fabrics.

The Indian tussur moth was formerly generally known as
Anthercea mylitta, but Sir George Watt, in The Commercial
Products of India, refers to it as Ayithercea paphia, Linn. Chinese
tussur silk is the product of a related insect, A. pernyi, so that
the Chinese tussur silk is distinct from that of India. When
full grown, the tussur worm is about four inches in length and
of a pale green colour, and has twelve joints, each marked with
reddish spots and a reddish-yellow band, which runs along either
side.

The tussur silkworm occurs in a wild state in many parts of
India, but its chief habitat may be described as the region having
the Ganges as its northern and the Godavari as its southern
boundary, with the coast ranges from Midnapur in Orissa to
Ramgar in Hyderabad as its south-eastern, and the Narbuda
river and the Kaimur mountains as its north-western boundary.
The insect crosses these limitations to a certain extent, being
met with on the north of the Ganges, along the foot of the
Himalaya from Nepal to Sikkim, in Assam and in the Khasia
hills, and in many parts of Bengal. It is also found south of
the Godavari and in the mountains of the Madras Presidency.
Beyond the region defined above, however, it can only be said
to occur to a small extent and in a degenerate condition, and
outside that area, with the exception of a small corner of the
North- West Provinces at Mirzapur, the cocoons are not even
collected. The name "tussur," or "tasar," has unfortunately

The Tussur Silkworm in India. 195

been applied in India to all fawn-coloured indigenous silks, and
at Mirzapur, a mixed cotton and silk fabric bears that name. It
is extremely doubtful, therefore, if the tussur worm proper occurs
anywhere beyond the regions and places mentioned, and it is
incorrect to regard it as being met with throughout the entire
peninsula of India. It nowhere occurs on the Himalaya proper,
and is never found above 4,000 feet in altitude. It is rarely, if
ever, recorded on the alluvial plains, except where these are
limited and confined by hilly undulations.

A large number of plants are reported as furnishing a satis-
factory food for the tussur silkworm. Sir George Watt gives
the following list, but suggests that it is by no rieans complete.
Anogeissus latifolia^ Wall. ; Bassia latifolia, Roxb. ; Bauhinia
variegata^ Linn. ; Bombax malabaricum^ D.C. ; Careya arborea,
Roxb. ; Carissa Carandas, Linn. ; Celastrus paniculata^ Will. ;
Chloroxylon Swietenia^ D.C. ; Dodoncea viscosa^ Linn. ; Etigenia
Jambolana, Lam. ; Ficus Benjamina^ Linn. ; F, religiosa, Linn. ;
F. retusa, Linn. ; Lagerstrcemia indica, Linn. ; L. parviflora^
Hook ; Ricinus communis^ Linn. ; Shorea robusta^ Goertn. ;
Tectona grandis^ Linn.; Terminalia Arjuna, Bedd. ; T. belerica,
Roxb. ; T. Catappa, Linn. ; T. tomentosa, W. and A. ; Zizyphus
Jujuba^ Lam.

Of these plants, Lagerstrcemia indica and L, parviflora, Shorea
robusta, Terminalia tomentosa and Zizyphus Jujuba are probably
the most successful food -stuffs.

Rearing of the Worm.

Although the tussur silkworm is found in a wild state in
India, the Indian tussur silk of commerce is obtained from
worms which have been reared in a state of semi-domestication.
This is effected by growing suitable food-plants and attaching
to them wild cocoons collected from the jungle. Moths emerge
from these cocoons, eggs are laid almost immediately, and the
worms, on hatching, commence to feed on the plants provided.
The worms moult their skins five times, at intervals of from 5
to 8 days, and commence to spin cocoons in about 36 to 40
days after hatching. The first crop of cocoons is usually reserved
for the production of eggs. The wild cocoons are collected in
the early part of the hot season, generally about March, and the

196 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

moths of the second generation emerge about August. The
eggs they lay are used for rearing the main crop of cocoons in
the latter part of the rainy season. Generally speaking, the
cocoons of the second generation do not produce moths until
the rainy season, but much depends upon the conditions of
warmth and moisture that obtain. During the time the cater-
pillars are feeding on the trees in the open, heavy rain is almost
of daily occurrence, and the experiments that have been made
show that without this frequent watering the caterpillars will not
thrive.

: The insects are subject to the attacks of various enemies and
diseases ; the moths, while still hanging to the cocoons, are said
to be liable to the attacks of bats, rats and ants, and the cater-
pillars often fall a prey to toads, snakes, rats, wasps, ants and
the hemipterous insect Canthecona furcellata. They also perish
in large numbers from the attack of a dipterous insect, Masicera
grandis. Little seems to have been ascertained about the diseases
to which tussur silkworms are subject, but some of the diseases
which affect the mulberry silkworm, notably " grasserie," are
found also to affect the tussur worms. It is said to be no
uncommon occurrence for the whole of a crop to die off, leaving
the rearers without any return whatever for the time and labour
expended.

From time to time, the Bengal Government have endeavoured
to foster the rearing of the tussur silkworm, but in spite of this
the industry has gradually declined in the province. Sir George
Watt has ascribed this decline to the successful supply, by China,
of a cocoon suitable for the same purposes as tussur, and to the
cheaper manufactures of Europe. Recently, however, the Bengal
Department of Agriculture decided to inaugurate tussur silk-
worm rearing experiments on model farms, and an account of the
results obtained is given by the Deputy Director of Agriculture,
Bengal, in a recent issue of the Indian Agriculturist.

The important tussur districts of the province are Singhbhum,
Manbhum, Birbhum, Southal Parganas, Bankura, Hazaribagh,
Ranchi and the Mowbhanj Estate. Singhbhum is the most
important, and it was decided to open the first farm in this
district at Chaibassa. The climate there is dry, and November,
December and January are cool months. The hot season sets

The Tussur Silkworm in India. 197

in early in March and continues until the end of June ; the
maximum temperature (in April, May and June) is 90° to 100°,
while the temperature for December and January is about 52°
to 64°. In 1906,40 acres of land were taken up one mile outside
Chaibassa and the first farm was laid out, the necessary buildings
being erected and young "asan" or *' saj " trees {Terminalid
tomentosa) planted 10 inches apart all over the area.

In commencing experiments on the model farms, the Govern-
ment were desirous of ascertaining whether the decline in the
tussur silk industry was due (i) to neglect on the part of the
rearers, or (2) to some inherent defect in the methods used.

Formerly the rearers collected a new supply of seed-cocoons
every third or fourth year, but it is stated that for the last 10
years they have kept the same strain of seed-cocoons in hand
without renewing the stock from wild seed, with the result that
deterioration has set in, the stock has become diseased, and the
cocoons produced are generally small and of inferior quality.

The Government propose to gather the large wild tussur
cocoons, called " muga," from the jungle, allow the moths to
emerge and lay their eggs, and afterwards issue the domesticated
seed to rearers. It is hoped that by these means the stock will
be strengthened and the decline arrested.

The work which is being carried on at the experimental farm
during the present year includes the distribution of one-year
domesticated seed, and the comparison of genuine wild tussur-
cocoons with the one-year and two-year domesticated cocoons.
It is also proposed to rear a variety of tussur silkworm known as
" laryas " ; this is said to be a distinct type, but the only differ-
ence appears to be in the length of the peduncle or stock of the
cocoon. The moths emerge from the " laryas " cocoons in July,
go through one life cycle and form cocoons in November and
December.

Other experiments to be carried out include the planting of
Terniinalia tomentosa (" asan ") and T. Arjuna ("arjun") in the
nursery, the comparison of the weights of cocoons, and also the
estimation of the proportions of silk and waste obtained from
each class of cocoons.

''ji

iqS Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

COCOA CULTIVATION IN GERMAN
COLONIES.

The rapid development of the German Colonies during the
last few years is well illustrated by the advances made in agri-
culture and especially in the cultivation of cotton, sisal hemp,
rubber and cocoa. The cotton industry has been referred to in
previous articles in this Bulletin (1907, 5. 425 ; 1908, 6. 420), and
the progress in Sisal hemp cultivation has also been recorded
(1907, 6. 28 and 422 ; 1908, 6. 212).

The cultivation of cocoa in the German Colonies has extended
with remarkable rapidity, and an account of the industry has
been given in a recent number of the Gordian (1909, 14. 2,412).

In the Cameroons, the industry is chiefly in the hands of
European companies. Owing to the attacks of a bark-boring
beetle, measures were adopted with the object of arresting the
damage, and good results were achieved. Areas infested with
such pests were manured with superphosphate and potassium
chloride, with the result that largely increased yields of cocoa
were obtained.

The earlier attempts of the natives to grow cocoa resulted in
failure, owing chiefly to the natural aversion of the people from
innovations. Moreover, the Cameroon negro is not so well
qualified for agricultural work as is, for example, the native of
the Gold Coast. The consequence was that the plantations
were abandoned and afterwards became choked with weeds.
Some improvement has now been brought about by the efforts
of the Government officials in instructing the natives, distribut-
ing seed and young plants, and directing the operations ; par-
ticularly gratifying advances have been made in the Victoria
district and in Bodiman. Recently, attention has been directed
more especially to the exercise of increased care in preparation
in order to produce a cocoa of consistently good quality.

In 1907-8, 18,961 acres were under cocoa, the number of trees
amounting to 2,768,351, of which those on 12,532 acres were in
bearing. The crop amounted in 1906 to 1,174 tons and the
value of the export to ;^57,230. In 1907 the crop increased
to 1,587 tons, and in 1908 was still larger; the exports in the
latter year attained the value of ;^ 147,000.

Cocoa Cultivation in the German Colonies. 199

The cocoa industry has also made remarkable progress in
Togoland, and the natives are taking an increased interest in it.
The cultivation is almost entirely confined to the Misahohe
district. Experiments in the Atakpame district have shown
definitely that this region is unsuited for cocoa growing. The
Government are doing a great deal to foster the industry in the
interests of the natives, and have distributed seed and young
plants. There is only one European undertaking engaged in
cocoa planting, and this has 222 acres under cultivation ; the
yield from this plantation amounted to 1,951 lb. in 1906, and
6,172 lb. in 1907. The exports of cocoa have increased from
year to year as follows : In 1904, 209 cwts. of value ^436 i6s. ;
in 1905, 258 cwts. of value ;^475 iSs.; in 1906, 564 cwts.
of value ^^1,078 i6s.; and in 1907, 1,028 cwts. of value
;^2,496 gs.

An account of the earlier efforts to establish a cocoa-growing
industry in Samoa has already been published in this Bulletin
(1904, 2. 53). The cultivation is extending from year to year
and is in a very promising condition. In 1907-8, 3,508 acres
were under cocoa ; 684,032 trees were growing, of which 280,990
were in bearing. Although unfavourable weather was ex-
perienced in the autumn of 1907, the exports nevertheless rose
from 90 to 117 tons. The exports for 1908 were expected to
show a still further increase. The cocoa trees have hitherto
been free from disease and appear strong and healthy. The
planting companies consider that an average yield of 450 lb. per
acre can be obtained from the older plantations. Both the
" CrioUo " and " Forastero " trees have proved satisfactory.

Since the cocoa industry demands special agricultural work
for which the natives of Samoa are not well fitted, it has been
considered necessary to have recourse to imported labour, and
in January 1908 more than 1,000 Chinese coolies were employed
on the plantations. The Chinese work, on the whole, well and
carefully, and are skilled in the finer branches of agriculture
such as are involved in cocoa cultivation. Unfortunately,
however, the coolies who have hitherto reached Samoa are not of
the best type, but it is hoped that a better class will be forth-
coming. Owing to complaints which have appeared in the
Chinese newspapers, the Chinese Government have been urged

200 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

to prohibit the exportation, and a Chinese commissioner has
been sent to Samoa to inquire into the labour conditions.

In German New Guinea the cocoa industry is still in its
infancy. In the year 1907-8, 404 acres were under cultivation.
The plantations contained 78,945 trees, of which only 2,975 were
then in bearing. The exports in 1907-8 amounted to 1,025 lb.
There are many difficulties to be overcome, such as the occur-
rence and spread of the deep-rooted and tenacious alang-alang
grass and the attack of insect pests. In spite of these draw-
backs, however, vigorous efforts are being made to establish the
industry securely.

GENERAL NOTES.

New Series of Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute.— In

1903 a volume of Technical Reports and Scientific Papers was issued by
the Imperial Institute, containing the principal reports on raw materials
and commercial products which had, up to that date, been investigated
in the Scientific and Technical Department.

It has now been decided to issue a selection of the similar reports
which have been made since 1903. These will be published as a series
of parliamentary papers, edited by the Director of the Imperial Insti-
tute. The first of these, dealing with fibres, has been published (Cd.
4588, 1909). It contains reports and general information on wool,
mohair, cultivated and wild silks, flax, ramie, jute and jute substitutes
and other textile fibres, cordage fibres, flosses or silk cottons, paper-
making materials and other fibrous products. The reports deal with
fibrous materials from the following countries : Cyprus, Sudan, Somali-
land, East Africa Protectorate, Uganda, Nyasaland, Rhodesia, Trans-
vaal, Orange River Colony, Natal, Cape of Good Hope, Gambia,
Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Southern Nigeria, Northern Nigeria, St.
Helena, Seychelles, India, Ceylon, Straits Settlements, South Australia,
Jamaica and various, foreign countries.

Report on the Work of the Imperial Institute, 1908.— This report
has now been presented to Parliament and issued. [Cd. 4448-10].

Para Rubber in Southern Nigeria. — In view of the possible extension
of rubber plantations in Southern Nigeria, Mr. N. C. McLeod, the
Deputy Conservator of Forests in the colony, was recently deputed to
visit the Federated Malay States and the Straits Settlements in order to
study the methods there employed for the cultivation of the Para rubber
tree {Hevea brasiliensis), and for the collection and preparation of its

General Notes. 201

rubber. The report which Mr. McLeod has submitted to the Southern
Nigeria Government gives a resume of the information which he collected,
and also contains some particulars regarding the suitability of Southern
Nigeria for the cultivation of the Para tree which are of general
interest.

The Para tree was introduced into Lagos in 1895, when a number of
trees were raised from seed in the gardens at Ebute Metta. At the end
of 1907, the average girth of six of these trees, taken three feet from the
ground, was 31 inches, the largest tree being 45 inches in circumference.
In 1902 twenty-five Para trees were planted at the Olokemeji Gardens
(Western Province), and their average girth at the end of 1907 was just
over 12 inches, the largest tree measuring 17 inches in circumference.
At the Calabar Gardens (Eastern Province) there are also a number of
well-grown trees about six years old.

Since 1905 a large number of Para seeds have been imported from
the Straits Settlements for trial in the three provinces. In the Western
Province the Forest Department has established two small experimental
plantations of 26 and 10 acres at Agege and Mamu respectively, whilst
at Sapele, in the Central Province, Messrs. Miller Brothers have a planta-
tion of nearly 200 acres under Para. In the Eastern Province also a
large number of Para plants have been raised and distributed.

The results of these experimental trials show that for the first two or
three years the seedlings suffer considerably from drought during the
dry season. In 1907, for example, the loss from this cause at Sapele
and Agege was about 30 per cent., but at Mamu it was less than 10 per
cent. After that period, however, the trees survive the dry season with
comparative safety, and compare favourably in rate of growth with those
in other countries, such as India and Ceylon, which have a marked dry
season.

With reference to the general suitability of Southern Nigeria for the
cultivation of the Para tree it is pointed out that the colony includes a
dry and a wet zone, the line of demarcation between which is approxi-
mately 6° 1 5' north latitude. Places to the north of this line have a
rainfall of less than 76 inches per annum, whilst those to the south have
more than that amount. Thus at ten places in the dry zone the annual
rainfall varies from 40-92 to 747 inches, with an average of 53'i6
inches, whilst at eight places in the wet zone the figures range from
87 '08 to 25 1 "49 inches with an average of 128-67 inches. In the dry
zone the average range of temperature is normally between 95° F. and
54° F. ; in the wet zone the daily maximum during December to March
is 88° F. and the minimum during May to August is 73° F.

It is evident from these records that there are many places in the wet
zone of Southern Nigeria which have an annual rainfall practically equal
to that of the Federated Malay States, although the distribution through-
out the year is not so even. The range of temperature is also very
similar to that of Malaya and the soil is quite as rich. It seems probable,
therefore, that the Para tree could be successfully cultivated in parts of

202 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

the wet zone of Southern Nigeria, and Mr. McLeod suggests that the
formation of plantations of the trees should be encouraged in suitable
localities where they would not interfere with the palm-oil industry.

Silk Industry of Ceylon. — Sericicultural experiments were started at
Peradeniya in 1902, and an account of the work was published in this
Bulletin (1903, 1. 204). The progress of the industry has been recorded
in the Ceylon Administration Reports and may be summarised as
follows : —

In 1903 experiments were made with mulberry silk {Boifibyx Mori\
and 30,000 mulberry trees {Morus alba) were distributed throughout
the island. Silkworm eggs were imported from Italy. The worms
developed unevenly and rendered the result somewhat unsatisfactory,
but some silk of good quality was obtained.

In 1904 further experiments were not undertaken owing to the
absence of the Government Entomologist.

In 1905 serious consideration was given to the establishment of a
local silk industry. An experimental silk farm was started at Peradeniya
by the Ceylon Agricultural Society in order that proper methods of
cultivation could be demonstrated to the villagers, and men could be
trained to give them the necessary instruction. " Eri " silk was
specially recommended because castor-oil plants, on which the worms
feed, are readily available in Ceylon, and also because the moths can
be allowed to escape instead of being killed, the latter being offensive
to the religious susceptibilities of the Buddhists. The difficulties which
were anticipated were (i) to induce the natives to cultivate on a
sufficiently large scale to render the industry profitable to them, (2) to
ensure that the worms would be properly treated, and (3) to arrange
for the collection of the cocoons. It was decided that itinerant
instructors should be appointed to teach the natives.

In 1906 silk cocoons (both Bombyx and "Eri") were brought in
amounting to a total of 600 lb. It was found that the work had been
carried out on too small a scale to be profitable to the natives, and that
the cocoons produced showed evidence of carelessness or ignorance in
the treatment of the silkworms.

In 1907 the experimental farm at Peradeniya was temporarily closed
as the results did not warrant the cost of maintenance. The failure
was due to the unsuitability of the soil of the farm for the growth of
the castor-oil plant, and the apathy exhibited by the natives for whose
benefit the experiment was undertaken. Mulberry trees have now been
planted, however, and it is hoped that in a few years they will be
sufficiently advanced to warrant the re-opening of the farm for the
cultivation of the more valuable mulberry silkworm.

A sample of pierced Eri silk cocoons was forwarded for examination
to the Imperial Institute by the Secretary of the Ceylon Agricultural
Society in 1907.

The cocoons varied in length from 1-5 to 2-5 inches and were about

General Notes. 203

075 inch in diameter. The weight of single pierced cocoons varied
from o'3 to 0*57 gram.

The sample contained 28 per cent, of deep reddish-brown cocoons,
the remainder being white. The silk obtained from the white cocoons
was usually of normal strength, whereas that from the red variety was
weak. The diameter of the double fibre varied from 0*0012 to cooiS
inch, with an average of 0-0014 inch, whilst that of the single filaments
ranged from o*ooo6 to 0*0008 inch, with an average of 0*00071 inch.

The cocoons were of satisfactory quality and could readily be carded
and spun for the manufacture of " waste " or " spun " silk.

" Eri " cocoons occur promiscuously in two colours, brick red and
white. Great difficulty is experienced in bleaching and dyeing the red
cocoons, and it was therefore recommended that these should be
eliminated by selection of seed during about six successive rearings.
The value of the silk would be considerably enhanced if the cocoons
were obtained uniformly white.

The silk from these " Eri " cocoons could be utilised for mixing with
Indian or Chinese Tussur silk, but the market value of the cocoons
would vary considerably according to the demand for wild silk fabrics.
The value of the sample submitted was stated by experts to be at that
time about is. per lb. in this country. Cocoons of this type are, how-
ever, used principally on the Continent, and are in considerable demand,
but owing to the small quantity sent for examination samples could not
be submitted to European manufacturers. It was suggested that a
larger sample of a few pounds of the cocoons, preferably of the white
variety, should be forwarded so that further inquiries could be made,
and the commercial possibilities of the cocoons definitely determined.

In accordance with this suggestion, a further quantity of the white
cocoons was forwarded. They were submitted for valuation to a silk
expert, who confirmed the opinion already expressed that it would be
inadvisable to encourage efforts to wind or reel "Eri" cocoons, but that
they could be carded and spun. He stated that woven cloths of great
strength and durability could be made from yarns spun from " Eri " silk,
and that if the cocoons could be sent over in sufficient quantities there
would be a good demand for them by the spun-silk manufacturers of
this country. He valued these white cocoons at about i^. 6d. per lb.

Agricultural Experiments in Portuguese East Africa. — It is proposed
to establish eventually in the territory of the Mozambique Company
three experimental stations at which the agricultural possibilities of the
country can be investigated systematically. The first of these stations
was opened last year in the low country, about 22 miles from Beira and
near to the Beira-Mashonaland railway. The station is named " Zimbiti "
after the native name of the most characteristic tree (^Androstachys
Johnsoni^ Train) of the district.

The clearing of the land for cultivation was unfortunately delayed
until November 1907, and consequently sowing was late, and this

204 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

adversely affected the growth and yield of the crops, but in spite of
this some interesting results were obtained.

Cotton. — Twenty varieties of cotton were tried. All the plots were
attacked by caterpillars and "cotton aphis," but these were easily
suppressed by spraying with "Paris green" and "petroleum emulsion "
respectively. At a later stage "grasshoppers " proved troublesome and
" cotton stainers " appeared in each plot as soon as the bolls were ripe.

The twenty cotton varieties tried included four groups, viz. " improved
American upland," "American upland," "Egyptian" and "Sea island."
Of these, the first two groups gave the best yields, indicating that it
would probably pay better to grow "improved American upland"
cottons in Mozambique, than the " Egyptian " and " Sea island " sorts,
which have so far been in favour. It is considered that a yield of
200 kilos per hectare of "ordinary American upland" cotton and of
170 kilos per hectare of "improved American upland" are required
respectively to be remunerative, and these yields were exceeded in
three cases in these experiments. The quality of the cotton obtained
from- the " upland " kinds was in all cases stated to be as good as that
obtained from the same varieties grown in the United States, whilst
that obtained from the " Egyptian " sorts was notably inferior to the
Egyptian cotton of commerce.

Maize. — Eleven well-known varieties of maize were tried. A good
deal of damage was done to this crop by caterpillars and grasshoppers.
The former were eventually got rid of by spraying with " Paris green,"
but this was not an effective remedy against the grasshoppers. Trouble
was also experienced with a stem-boring insect, against which ordinary
insecticides were of no avail. The yields of grain obtained were on the
whole unsatisfactory, only three varieties yielding over 1,200 kilos per
hectare, which is regarded as a fair average yield in South Africa and
Rhodesia.

Tobacco. — Seed of 32 varieties of tobacco was sown, but of these
only 27 furnished seedlmgs fit for transplanting, and leaf suitable for
curing was obtained from 22 of the plots. The yield of cured leaf
varied from 16 kilos to 464 kilos per hectare, the average being 225.
All the leaf harvested was " flue cured " to produce " bright yellow "
tobacco, and samples of the products obtained have been submitted to
experts for trial.

Other Crops. — In addition to the three principal crops alluded to
above, plots of sunflower, groundnuts, sesame and castor oil were also
grown, but, owing to late planting and lack of rain at the proper season,
poor results were secured in all these cases. Experiments are also in
progress with a view to determining the relative rates of growth of
" transplanted " and " non-transplanted " Ceara rubber trees. Seeds of
the Para rubber tree {Hevea brasiliensis) and of Mascarenhasia elastica
were also sown, and a large number of plants of each raised.

Throughout the year careful records were kept of those varieties of
each crop experimented with, which were unusually prolific or exhibited

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 205

disease-resistant or other desirable qualities, and supplies of seed were
secured from such plants for future propagation. The foregoing
summary of the results obtained at the Zimbiti station during the
season 1907-8 is printed by the courtesy of the Companhia de
Mogambique.

Sansevieria Tow from Sierra Leone. — A specimen of waste material
obtained in the preparation of the fibre of Sansevieria guineensis in
Sierra Leone was forwarded for report to the Imperial Institute. The
material consisted of short, tangled, fine fibre of very uneven quality,
some portions being pulpy, matted and of a buff colour, whilst other
parts were well cleaned and nearly white. The fibre was weak, of short
and irregular length, and was regarded by commercial experts as worth
about ^io-;^i2 per ton (December 1907).

Sansevieria Fibre from the Sudan. — A small sample of Sansevieria
fibre grown at Bor on the Bahr-el-Gebel, Sudan, and forwarded to the
Imperial Institute for examination, had been fairly well cleaned, was
nearly white and of fair strength, but was of poor lustre and rather
tangled. Most of the fibre was about four feet long, but some was only
about two feet. The fibre was of a useful character, and, if of regular
length (about four feet) and not tangled, would probably be worth about
^30 per ton (March 1908).

RECENT REPORTS FROM AGRICULTURAL AND

TECHNICAL DEPARTMENTS IN THE

COLONIES AND INDIA.

In this Section of the Bulletin a Suinntary is given of the Chief
Contents of general interest^ of Reports and other publications received at
the Imperial Institute from Agricultural and Technical Departments^ in
the Colonies and India.

Cyprus.

Cyprus Journal, 1909. , No. 12. — Athalassa plantation and con-
servation of rainfall (gives statistics of rainfall, showing that tree
planting has had the effect of checking loss of rain water) — An insect
which attacks tobacco (a description of Lassioderma Serricome, which
destroys dry tobacco under storage) — Cotton notes (gives the yields
obtained in experiments with " Sea island," " Culpepper's big-boll " and
" Allen's long-staple " cottons at Nicosia, showing that this year the
first-named kind has given the best results) — Importation of iron
ploughs (states that 100 of the new ploughs devised by the Director
of Agriculture have now been sold in the island. Results of ploughing

2o6 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

trials show that the new plough is far more efficient than the native
plough hitherto used (compare this Bulletin^ 1908, 6. 424).

East Africa Protectorate.
Aiinual Report^ DeparUnent of Agriculture^ 1907-8. — Contains reports
by the Director and the heads of the various divisions into which the
work of the department is grouped, viz. veterinary, economic plants
and stock farms. There is a tendency on the part of the natives to
substitute maize for sorghum as a food-crop, and the question is under
consideration as to whether maize could be exported profitably from
the Protectorate, but the Director is of opinion that freights are too high to
permit of competition with other maize-producing countries. Beans of
various kinds are suggested as a crop worth consideration for export,
and machinery for harvesting beans is being introduced experimentally
by the Department. The *' Gluyas " wheat tried first two years ago has
proved to be rust resistant so far, and samples have been favourably
reported on for milling purposes. Cotton is being taken up readily
on the coast-lands and elsewhere. The results so far obtained
indicate that Mit-afifi and Abassi varieties give the best results, and
the latter is most in favour. The Sisal hemp industry has received
a check by the imposition of a heavy export duty on Sisal bulbils in
German East Africa. The exploitation of the native Sansevieria (see
this Bulletin, 1906, 4. 189) is being undertaken by several syndicates,
and with the improved decorticating machinery now in operation it
is hoped that this industry will prove profitable. Extension of Ceara
rubber planting is still going on, and attempts are being made by
the Department to obtain seed of the new varieties of Manihot recently
made known for trial. Much damage has been caused in coco-nut
plantations by a beetle {Oryctes, sp.), but investigations made by the
entomologist show that it breeds mainly in dead or dying trees, and it
is suggested that the destruction of these by fire will probably prove a
satisfactory remedy.

Uganda Protectorate.

Botanical and Scientific Department. Annual Report, 1906-7. —
Contains notes on the cultivation experiments with rubber, cocoa,
cotton, citronella grass and other products now being tried in the
Protectorate, with extracts from reports by the Imperial Institute on
timbers (this Bulletin, 1908, 6. 227), cocoa, and " Kafumbo " fibre. The
report also contains tables of rainfall, barometric pressure, etc., as
determined at various meteorological stations in the Protectorate.

Botanical Forestry and Scientific Department Report, 1907-8. —
Contains notes on the experimental cultivation of rubber, cocoa, coffee,
lemon grass, cotton, tobacco, wheat, mangoes and bananas, and a
summary of the results of investigations at the Imperial Institute on
"Murundo" root (this Bulletin, 1908, 6. 209), pycnanthus seed and

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 207

mace {ibid.^ p. 377; "busana" and Terminalia velutina barks (z/^/^.,
1907, 6. 355), tanned skins, carapa nuts {ibid.^ 1908, 6. 362), beeswax,
native silk, " nongo " gum, etc., is given.

Rhodesia.

Agricultural Jourfial^ 1909, 6. No. 3. — Maintenance of fertility in
Rhodesian soils — Tree raising and planting — Ficus elastica : Assam
rubber or " gutta rambong" (states that this rubber tree is doing well in
Rhodesia) — Hay-making — The " lantana " flowering shrub (warns
planters that this plant should not be allowed to spread on estates)
— Cereal experiments : Premier estate (results of experiments with
various kinds of wheat, barley, oats, etc.) — District reports — Summer
pruning of deciduous fruit trees — The camphor tree — Lucerne growing
in Rhodesia. 1909, 6. No. 4: Wheat under irrigation — Mashonaland
farms and co-operation — Onion growing — Cutworms at Buluwayo —
Dalbergia Sissoo (states that this tree has made excellent growth in
the Experimental Nursery, Salisbury) — Notes, etc.

Transvaal.

Report of Government Laboratories, 1907-8. — The total number of
specimens examined was 9,050. These were for the most part samples
of waters, foods, bacteriological products, etc., submitted in connection
with legal, medico-legal or similar cases. Among natural products of
economic interest examined, were a sample of chromite, containing 6 5 '5
per cent, of chromium sesquioxide and a haematitic iron ore, which was
unusually rich in phosphorus.

Annual Report, Depart7?ient of Agriculture, 1907-8. — The Agrostol-
ogist and Botanist reports that much attention has been given during
the year to the production of pure maize grain for sowing purposes with
a view to meeting the increased demand for such seed from farmers.
Experiments have also been tried with Mauritius and Virginian ground-
nuts, of which the latter gave the better yield. It is proposed to under-
take-vigorously the eradication of burrweed. The Plant Pathologist
mentions that as potato "root rot" {Nectria solani) has now been
shown to be parasitic and not saprophytic, as was formerly supposed,
the Transvaal Government has taken steps to prevent the importation
of infected " seed potatoes." In this Division experiments in producing
a "rust-proof" wheat are also in progress. At the Tzaneen Estate,
Zoutpansberg, tobacco, cotton. Sisal hemp, castor-oil seed, teosinte, tea
and other economic plants are being cultivated experimentally. The
results so far obtained indicate that "American upland" cotton will
probably do well there, and that a good quality of cigar tobacco can be
grown. Para and Ceara rubbers are also stated to do well. The
" Division of Entomology " had, as usual, to undertake a campaign
against locusts, which proved very successful on the whole, in spite of a
curious disinclination on the part of some of the agricultural community

2o8 Bulletin of the Imperl\l Institute.

to afford assistance to the Department in this work. An expert on
co-operative work, who has had experience in Denmark, has been
secured for the Transvaal, and is at present engaged in preliminary
educational work on this subject among the farmers.

Farmers' Bulletins. — No. 2 : Notes on tobacco ; No. 10: How to produce
^^ bright" tobacco ; No. 27 : Tobacco transplanting ; No. 28 : The breeding
and selection of tobacco. — These are pamphlets prepared by the Govern-
ment tobacco expert with a view to affording information to farmers in
the Transvaal on various phases of tobacco cultivation.

Agricultu7'al /our?tal, 1909, 7. No. 27. — The botanical characters of
the maize plant — Cost of production of maize in the Standerton district
— The strawberry (a description of the method of cultivation usually
followed) — Construction of modern silos — The food of plants — Manurial
experiments with potatoes — Notes from the chemical laboratories (gives,
inter alia^ the composition of a number of samples of the bat guano
occasionally met with in caves in the Transvaal) — Climatic requirements
of the maize crop — Notes on determination of plants of economic
interest (a list of plants, including fodder grasses, oil seeds, etc.,
identified by the botanical section of the Department during the year
1907-8) — Maize "smut" or "brand" (description given and remedial
measures suggested) — " Peach freckle " or " black spot " (a description
of Cladosporium carpophilum, which has caused much damage to
peaches and nectarines during the past season) — Notes on co-operative
experiments (gives a resume of the information arrived at as the result
of the co-operative trials with a large variety of crops carried out,
especially since 1905) — Wheat growing in the Transvaal — Cotton by-
products (calls attention to the use of cotton seed as a source of oil
and feeding-cake — Mendelism in maize — Phylloxera-resistant vines for
the Transvaal — Onion culture in the Transvaal — Charcoal making
(describes the methods practised in Europe) — Central tobacco ware-
house, Pretoria (describes the plan of building and methods of work to
be adopted in the new central warehouse for handling and packing
tobacco which is to be built by the Transvaal Government at Pretoria)
— Tobacco experiment stations (refers to the work in progress at
Rustenburg and Barberton) — The "root louse" of grape vines (gives
the life history and measures for combating this pest) — The brown
locust campaign, 1908-9.

Orange River Colony.

Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, 1907- — Contains a
series of notes on the soils and waters of arid countries, with special
reference to their alkalinity. At the Tweespruit experimental farm
experiments are being conducted with varieties of maize, flax and other
products. Both at Tweespruit and Grootvlei experiment farms " Cango "
maize seems to have given the best results, especially in withstanding
drought. Experiments are also being made at Grootvlei farm with

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 209

soy beans, cow peas, teff grass, velvet beans, teosinte, salt bush and
other crops. Soy bean, it is stated, promises to be of value both for
feeding purposes and for green manuring. The Forestry Section has
introduced during the year a number of exotic trees for acclimatisa-
tion purposes, especially species of Fmus, Jumperus, Fraxinus and
Eucalyptus^ and experiments are in progress in various parts of the
colony to determine the best sylvicultural treatment for different trees
under local conditions. From the Agronomist's report it appears that
the cultivation of lucerne as a feeding-stuff is becoming popular in
the colony, and "sainfoin" and "hairy" and "winter" vetches are
being recommended as supplementary leguminous crops for feeding
cattle in winter and early spring respectively. A small tobacco experi-
ment station has been established at Schoeman's Drift, and about
twenty varieties are under trial. The Department has issued recently
a special Bulletin (No. 16) dealing with the cultivation of lucerne.

Mines Department — Annual Report for the Statistical Year ending
June 30, 1908. — The Surveyor-General reviews the progress of the
mining industry for the year. The bulk of the mineral output of
the colony is diamonds, so that the late general crisis in the diamond
trade has caused a lull in mining activity in the colony. Despite this,
the value of the diamonds won was as much as ;^i, 069,942 as against
;^i, 2 22, 202 for the previous year, and this fall in value is to be accounted
for solely by the drop in the average value of the carat from 6oj-. 6\d, to
\2S. id. The crisis has served to demonstrate the general instability of
the diamond trade. The Surveyor-General seems to think that before
long it may be necessary for the combined Governments of South
Africa to intervene and regulate the production of the stones.

Coal and salt, which are the only two minerals mined in the colony,
both show satisfactory increases compared with the previous year —
;^i45,373 as against ^139,674 in the case of coal, ^^32,000 as against
;£i3,66o in the case of salt.

Prospecting throughout was not so vigorous as in the previous year ;
promising results were obtained in the Boshof district (diamonds) and
in the Vredefort district (copper). Boring in search of petroleum has
revealed oil-soaked strata and oil oozes, but so far nothing payable.
The existence of low-grade gold ores is noted, and it is hoped that the
present-day reduction of working costs to 14^. per ton should enable
some of these to be opened up soon.

Labour, owing chiefly to the restriction in mining activity, was
plentiful at the diamond mines, but the coal mines were at times
short-handed. The death-rate among workers is higher than previously,
but still compares favourably with other countries. Detailed accounts
are given of the various diamond and coal mines operating.

Natal.

Agricultural Journal, 1908, 11. No. 12. — The rainfall in Natal — The
fibre industry (advocates the extension of aloe-fibre cultivation) —

2IO Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Irrigation in Natal — Sugar-cane cultivation — Notes on manuring —
Export of wattle bark (a report of proceedings of a meeting called to
consider the question of grading wattle bark before export) — Reports
of agricultural meetings, experiment farms, etc. 1909, 12. No. i : The
maize crop (mentions that the increase in area planted this year is
about 1 6 '2 per cent.) — Export of apples (information is given as to the
varieties exported from America and Australia, and the methods of
packing, etc., adopted) — Carbon disulphide (discusses the use of this
insecticide for destroying weevils, white ants, etc.) — Crown forests
(conservation report). 1909, 12. No. 2 : Maize values and exporta-
tions — Maize stover — Fish guano (a description of the method of
manufacture and particulars of the average composition are given) —
Lucerne on sand-reclaimed areas (an account of some experiments
made recently near Durban) — A much neglected manure (calls attention
to iron as an important constituent of soil) — Rice cultivation— Some
common bag-worms and basket-worms (deals especially with "Gibson's
wattle bag-worm," against which spraying with "Paris green" or lead
arsenate is recommended) — Maize for the manufacture of alcohol
(gives a brief description of the preparation of alcohol from maize as
carried on in the United States).

Cape of Good Hope.

Agricultural Journal^ 1909, 34. No. i. — A new fodder grass, Phalaris
comniutata (gives an analysis of the grass) — The relative feeding value
of certain farm foods (gives the average cost and composition of a
number of common feeding-stuffs) — Muskus grass and its feeding
value — Increased yields obtainable through additional cultivation of
the soil (gives the results of a number of trials on lands cultivated to
different extents : all the results show increased yields for increased
working) — .\ plea for sunflower cultivation (recommends the cultivation
of this crop on cheap land for the sake of the oil and oil-cake obtain-
able from the seeds) — The agricultural soils of Cape Colony. 1909, 34.
No. 2 : Sherry making (a description of the manufacture of sherry
wine as carried on at Jerez) — Yellowing of citrus trees (an orchard at
Blaauwkrans in which the trees showed "yellowing " was examined and
found not to be infected with root rot. The trouble appears to be due
in this case to gradual impoverishment of soil, and a suitable manure is
suggested for trial)— The erosion of the Veld— The agricultural soils of
Cape Colony — The Boer hunting-dog — Caterpillar pest in trees —
Manuring wheat in the Western Province. 1Q09, 34. No. 3 : Ostrich
dipping apparatus — Manuring wheat in the Long-Kloof (a statement of
the cost of manuring in various ways and of the profits (or losses)
realised) — Agricultural soils of Cape Colony — Experimental tobacco
growing at Port St. John's, Pondoland (various American tobaccos are
being grown experimentally) — Artesian well sinking and its uses in
general — Citrus fruit export trade, 1908 season (a statement of the trade
in citrus fruit from the Cape Colony to the United Kingdom in 1908,

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 211

with a report on experimental consignments of oranges, "naartjes"
and lemons) — Seed for experimental purposes (gives particulars of the
cereal and other seeds available for distribution to farmers for experi-
mental purposes for the 1909 season). 1909, 34. No. 4: Turkish
tobacco experiments in Cape Colony (a detailed account of the cultivation
of Turkish tobacco ; the initial experiments have given good results.
In 1906 3,000 lb. were produced and sold at an average rate of i^. dd,
per lb., whilst in 1907 the production rose to 13,000 lb., and the price
realised, to \s. iid. per lb. In 1908 the area under Turkish tobacco
was 70 acres, and the estimated crop 35,000 lb.) — Forestry and
climatic influences — Mealie culture in its relation to stock-farming —
Manuring oats in the Western Province and in Long-Kloof (statements
of the profits or losses accruing in two series of manuring experiments)
— The "tok-tokje" {Psafnmodes sp.) as a grain pest — AnthercEa
tyrrhea — The agricultural soils of Cape Colony, Part V, etc.

Mauritius.

Station Agronomtque, Bulletin No. 18. — Selection des Cannes des
graines et leur amelioration (a reprint of a lecture delivered at Flacq,
by M. Boname, on the improvement of seedling sugar canes).

India.

Memoirs of the Depart?nent of Agriculture. — Entomological Series^
1908, Vol. 2. No. 7 ; Notes on Indian Scale Insects (Coccidas). — Gives
descriptions and life histories, so far as these are known, of the principal
scale insects of India, and concludes with a short summary of their
relationship to economic plants. From this it appears that this group
of insects does but little damage in India, that elaborate measures such
as those taken in the United States to check the spread of certain
species are not required, and that there is at present no indication that
the group will ever attain in India the importance it and its allies do in
some other countries.

Agricultural Journal^ 1909, 4. Part i. — The furlough wanderings of
a Director of Agriculture (the first instalment of an article by the
Director of Agriculture in Burma, describing visits paid to Egypt,
Germany and the United Kingdom ; this portion gives a description of
the agricultural work in progress at Rothamstead) — Experimental work
on fibres in India (a report on the work carried on by the fibre expert
for Eastern Bengal and Assam during 1907-8) — Indirect benefits of
irrigation not generally recognised — Wells in the Gangetic alluvium —
The agricultural classes in Madras and how to approach them — New
implements on the Mirpurkhas farm (a small workshop has been started
at this farm where improved types of plough, thresher and water-lift are
being manufactured ; illustrations of these are printed in the original)
— The manurial earth of the Kistna delta (gives the composition of
this earth as collected from the sites of disused houses and cattle-sheds,

212 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

and from tanks and irrigation canals. It is essentially soil rich in
potash and phosphoric acid, and is largely employed by the natives for
enriching rice-lands) — Tata sericulture farm at Bangalore (a short
account of the work done at this farm, which was established in 1893
under the management of a Japanese silk expert) — Research work on
indigo (a critical review of Mr. Bloxam's book on this subject,
published recently: see this Bulletin, 1908, 6. 325) — Notes (mainly
from other publications) and reviews of books.

Bulletin, No. 1 3 : Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. — Sugar-cane
at the Partabgarh Experi7nental Station. — A preliminary study has
been made of the composition of the juice of some characteristic
varieties of sugar-cane of the United Provinces. The difficulty of
obtaining the juices of even composition and maturity rendered the
results inconclusive as to the value of any particular crop. It is sug-
gested that much more attention will have to be paid in future to the
particular conditions of growth and their influence on the factors which
determine the yield and concentration of the juice. All the juices
examined contained a comparatively large proportion of invert sugar,
and it is therefore considered necessary that a careful study should be
made of the changes which occur during the refining of one or two
of the chief varieties of sugar-cane.

Report of the Agricultural Department, Bengal, for the year ending June
30, 1908. — Seed of a variety of rice (fine "aus " paddy) from the Central
Provinces was distributed throughout Bengal, but in most cases a good
crop was not produced owing to the failure of the monsoon. In some
localities, however, satisfactory results were obtained, indicating that this
variety will grow well in many parts of the province when the rains are
seasonable. Accounts are given of the jute experiments at the
Burdwan and Cuttack agricultural stations and of the flax experiments
at Dhooria, which have already been recorded in this Bulletin (1908, 6.
292, 401). At the Fraserganj Experiment Station, several kinds of
vegetables, sunflower, sugar-cane and tobacco were grown with good
results. Rubber {Ficus elastica), coco-nut, plantain and other trees,
planted on the highest parts of the island, made satisfactory progress,
but the coco-nut trees were attacked by the rhinoceros beetle. " Dhar-
war " and "Buri" cottons were grown with success in Angul and some
parts of Balasore. Groundnuts have given very promising results,
especially in Orissa, where the soil is poor. Trials were made with
several varieties of mustard in different districts, but failed in every
case owing to lack of moisture. Considerable attention is being paid
to sericiculture, and 60 acres have been planted with mulberry trees.
Research work on indigo has been continued under the auspices of
the Bihar Indigo Planters' Association (compare this Bulletin, 1908,
6. 325).

Quarterly Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Bengal, 1908-9,
2. No. 3. — Tasar silk cocoon rearing at the Chaibassa Tasar farm in
Bengal — Maize (a note as to the cultivation and manuring of maize in

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 213

Bengal) — Juar and fodder crops in Bengal (recommends juar as a fodder
crop, and gives the out-turns per acre of five varieties grown experi-
mentally at Siripur) — A note on economy in the use of canal water in
Orissa — Fruit culture ; the mangoes of Bhagalpur (descriptions of the
varieties grown) — The coconut palm (a short monograph) — Electricity
in agriculture (notes on recent experiments in the cultivation of plants
in presence of high-tension electric discharges) — Improvement of
Indian agriculture.

Potato cultivation^ Bulletin, No. 21. — Agricultural Series, Agricultural
Department, Eastern Bengal and Assam. — At the present time, the
cultivation of potatoes in this province is mainly confined to the Khasi
Hills and the Rangpur District. It is suggested that this crop should
be grown more extensively, and the " char " lands, formed by the larger
rivers, are considered particularly suitable. The Nainital and Darjeel-
ing varieties are specially recommended for trial, and information is
given with reference to cultivation and harvesting.

Department of Agriculture, Madras — Scientific Reports of the Agri-
cultural Stations for 1907-8 (published separately) : — Bellary Station, —
This station was established for the investigation of the defects in
the local cotton and the means of remedying them. The work now
reported on includes experiments on the improvement of the cotton
by seed selection and careful cultivation, a comparison of some
other Indian varieties with the native cotton, trials of certain varieties
of sorghum and a series of manurial experiments.

Hagari Station. — The purposes for which this station was founded
were the determination of the most economical method of utilising the
water existing in the sandy beds of many Indian rivers, and the most
profitable methods of applying canal water to black cotton soil. The
present report is chiefly concerned with the latter problem, and gives
an account of experiments with rice and cotton under irrigation.
Trials with Egyptian cotton were not successful as, owing to the
unfavourable nature of the season, the bolls did not open properly.

Samalkota Station.— This station was established for the study of
the- sugar-cane disease and its remedial treatment. The work of the
past year was concerned chiefly with the trial of different varieties
of sugar-cane with respect to their yield, quality and resistance to
the disease {Colletotrichum falcatum) under the conditions of the
Godavari delta. Experiments were also made with reference to the
questions of manuring, irrigation and planting. An investigation is
in progress as to the best method of transplanting rice, and a number
of spacing experiments are recorded. Jute trials have been carried out
in comparison with the native fibres (^Hibiscus cannabinus and Croto-
laria Juncea). Experiments have also been made with groundnuts,
cow peas, cotton and other crops.

Koilpatti Station. — The station is partly on black cotton soil and
partly on a red, gritty loam. The following work has been carried out
on the black soil area. A series of rotation experiments has been

.214 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

commenced in order to ascertain the frequency with which cotton
can be grown profitably on the same land. A study of the local pulse
crops has been undertaken. The cotton of the district consists of two
varieties, which are usually mixed together, viz. "Uppam" {Gossypium
herbaceum) and "Karunganni" i^G. obtusifolium). The former plant
produces short, harsh, white cotton, whilst the latter yields a much
finer and longer staple of a pale cream colour. These two cotton
plants have been studied separately, and experiments have been carried
out with the object of effecting their improvement by means of
selection and hybridisation. Comparative trials have been made with
varieties of "cumbu" {Fefinisetum. spicatuni), the chief food-grain
of the district. Other work done has included experiments on the
relative advantages of different methods of conserving cattle manure,
the comparative value of deep and shallow ploughing, the introduction
of drill-sowing, the spacing of cotton plants, manuring, and the culti-
vation of exotic cottons. The principal work on the red soil has
consisted in efforts to improve the land by manuring, and a demon-
stration has been given of the value of the ridge and furrow system
of irrigation, which has given an increased yield in the case of " ragi "
{Eleusine coracand).

Palur Station. — The objects for which this station was established
are the study of groundnut cultivation and the introduction of improved
varieties of sugar-cane into the district. The work described in the
present report includes experiments to ascertain the best cereal to grow
as a mixed crop with groundnuts, trials of different varieties of ground-
nuts, and the cultivation of " cholam " {Andropogon Sorghum) and
varieties of indigo. The effect of various manures on the growth of
groundnuts, rice and sugar-cane has also been studied.

Taliparamba Station. — This station was founded for work on pepper
growing. A description is given of the usual method of pepper culti-
vation. Investigations are in progress on the effect of the seasons, on
the setting of the pepper, the varieties and strains of pepper, the need
for standards and shade, the cultivation and method of propagation,
and the effect of manures on the crop. Trials have also been made
with rice, sugar-cane, jute {Corchorus capsularis), Bimlipatam jute
{Hibiscus cannabinus), sunn hemp {Crotolaria juncea), and various
grasses.

Particulars of a New Plough suitable for ^Z^^— Leaflet, No. 3 of
1908, of the Department of Agriculture, Bombay. — A slight modi-
fication of the native wooden plough of Egypt is described, which
has been found to be very useful on the Mirpurkhas Farm.

The " Gassibiah,'' or Scraper for Levelling Zand— 'Lea.fiet No. 8 of
1908, of the Department of Agriculture, Bombay.— An implement
is described which is of special value and importance for the pre-
paration of irrigated land, since it is essential for uniform watering
that the fields should be quite level.

Annual Report on the Experimental Work of the Daulatpur Re-

(

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 215

claiiiation Station {Thar and Parkar District^ Sinct) for the year
1907-8. — The chief objects of this station are (i) to demonstrate a
practical method of bringing alkab', or " kalar," land into cultivation,
(2) to demonstrate the value of intensive farming by adopting rotations
and raising the standard of cultivation, and (3) to encourage the growth
of Egyptian cotton. It has been shown that "kalar" land can be
reclaimed by simply washing the alkaU either into drains or into the
deeper layers of the soil. This is effected by growing rice or Fanicum,
or by keeping the land covered with water to a depth of three or
four inches. Work on these lines has already made fair progress.

An?iual Report on the Experimental Work of the Mirpurkhas Agri-
cultural Station {Thar a7id Parkar District^ Sind) for the year
T 907-8. — The Mirpurkhas Agricultural Station was established in 1904
as the head-quarters of the Agricultural Department in Sind. It is
intended to serve as a centre for the distribution of seed, and for
demonstration experiments on the cultivation of Egyptian and
American cotton. A further object of the station is to effect the
improvement of cultivation on alkali lands under perennial irrigation.
The results of experiments with Egyptian cotton in 1907 were not very
satisfactory, and it has been concluded that, on account of the water
supply, only the Jamrao district is suitable for these varieties.
American cotton gave better results, and is being tried on a larger
scale. Pigeon peas, Sorghum and wheat also gave promising results.
Jute does not seem to succeed in this district owing to the alkaline
nature of the soil, but sunn hemp and flax are found to grow
satisfactorily-

Report on the Department of Agriculture i7i the Central Provinces
for the year 1907-8 (compare this Bulletin^ 1908, 6. 203, and this
vol. 103). — The experiments undertaken to test the rust-resistant quali-
ties of a large number of varieties of wheat have been continued, but
definite results have not been obtained, as the season was unfavourable
to rust. The four varieties of cotton, commonly grown together under
the name of " jari," have been separated and planted in different plots.
The results so far obtained indicate that G. neglectum, var. malvensis,
has the longest staple and is the most profitable to grow, although
the yield and the proportion of lint to seed are somewhat smaller
than those of the coarser varieties. Trials with " buri " cotton, an
American form imported from the Southern Parganas of Bengal, have
been continued, and this variety promises to be a valuable crop.
Jute has been grown with success on irrigated land at the Telinkheri
Farm.

Report on the Administration of the Department of Agriculture of the
United Provinces of Agra and Oudhfor the year ending June 30, 1908. —
Considerable attention has been devoted to arboriculture, and trees have
been planted at the roadsides throughout a length of 182 miles, special
consideration being given to the selection of suitable trees for the par-
ticular districts. Acclimatised American cottons have been grown with

2i6 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

success by many planters, especially in Aligarh. A scheme of horti-
cultural education has been put into operation which, it is hoped, will
become of great value to the country. A new central station for the
Himalayan districts has been established at Douglasdale, near Naini
Tal, and trials are being made there of a large number of new strains
of potato.

Revieiv of Forest Administration in British India for the year
1906-7. — A review of the constitution, administration and manage-
ment of the State Forests, including an account of the output and
export of forest produce and details of revenue and expenditure.
Reference is made to the results of certain sylvicultural experiments,
of which the following may be mentioned. In the United Provinces,
the hardy Catalpa has been found suitable for growth on the bare
hill-sides facing south, on which but few indigenous species thrive,
and Acacia dealbata has been found to be of value as a tree of rapid
growth for supplementing the fuel supply of hill-stations. In the
Punjab, eucalyptus trees have been grown with success in certain
districts but, in general, the climate appears to be too cold for them ;
it is possible, however, that a species may be found which can with-
stand these conditions. In Burma, Para rubber trees have been
successfully grown in the Mergui Plantation, and the camphor laurel
has produced encouraging results at Bhamo and Momeik. The results
obtained in the sandal-wood plantations of North Chanda, Central
Provinces, show that the introduction of this tree can never be of more
than experimental interest. In Madras, camphor, rubber, and mahogany
trees, and certain Californian pines have been introduced and appear
very promising. In Bombay, attention has been especially devoted to
rubber trees, and the experiments have given varying results. The
principal exports of forest produce during 1906-7 were as follows :
rubber, 224 tons; lac, 13,464 tons; teak, 44,202 tons. In each case
the quantity was rather less than that exported in 1905-6, but the total
value was greater owing to higher prices being realised.

Indian Forest Memoirs: Cheinistry Series^ Vol. I, Part II. A note
on the fnanufacture of pure shellac. — One of the chief difficulties
experienced in the manufacture of shellac is the removal of the red
colouring matter (lac dye) from the stick lac as collected. At present
this is accomplished by a tedious washing process with water. In
this paper it is shown that wood spirit dissolves the lac resin but
not the dye, and it is suggested that this solvent should be employed
for the extraction of the pure resin from the crude seed lac. It is
urged that this process would be more economical than that now.
used, and, inter alia, it is suggested that the process of stretching the
lac resin to form shellac as now practised is a waste of labour, since
most of the industries in which the resin is used could equally well
employ it in powder or granules, which would be less expensive ta
produce (see this Bulletin, T909, 7. 63).

Forest Pamphlet, No. 4 : Forest Economy Series, No. i. — Lac and

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 217

lac cultivation. A reprint of a lecture delivered at the Imperial Forest
College, describing the cultivation of lac, the cost of working, the special
difficulties met with by the lac cultivator, and making a number of
suggestions for the improvement of the industry. No. 5. Sylvicultural
Series^ No. i. Notes on Sal {Shorea robusta) in Bengal.

Progress Report on Forest Administration in the Punjab for
1907-8. — Attention is being given to Pinus pinaster for the afforesta-
tion of bare hill-sides in Bashahr. In Simla, trials are being made
with species of Eucalyptus from Tasmania, and also with fruit trees.
The deodars planted in Kangra about 40 or 50 years ago are dying,
and the extension of these trees will therefore be discontinued.
Tapping experiments are being carried out in Kangra with the
object of ascertaining the yield of oleo-resin from pine trees tapped
to death, and the time which it takes to kill them. The amount of
timber collected during the year was 6,163,217 cubic feet, as compared
with 4,621,535 cubic feet in 1906-7.

Progress Report of Forest Ad??iinistration in Coorg for 1907-8. —
A new scheme has been drawn up for working the Ghat forests since
the old system, under which purchasers were allowed to select and fell
the trees they required, was unsatisfactory and would eventually lead to
the removal of all the best trees, and the consequent deterioration of
the forests. Experiments have been carried out with Pterocarpus
Marsupium, Dalbergia latifolia^ and sandal and teak trees. The
revenue returns for the year are the highest on record.

Progress Report of Forest Administration in the Andamans for 1907-8.
— Mangroves have been sown in Brigade Creek Reserve, and promise
satisfactory results. A large area has been planted with "padouk"
{Pterocarpus indicus), which yields a useful timber. Experiments have
been made with Hevea brasiliensis (the Para rubber tree) ; the trees
planted in 1905 are 15 feet high and very healthy, and the planta-
tions now contain 3,123 plants. Plants of Afzelia palembanica, a tree
which furnishes a valuable timber, have been planted in alternate rows
with mahogany {Swietenia Mahagoni); the plantation contains 1,105 of
the former plants, and 222 seedlings of the latter, which were obtained
from a pound of seed sown in January 1907.

Records of the Geological Survey of India, 1908, Vol. 37, Part 1.
General Report of the Geological Survey of India for the year 1907, by
the Director of the Survey. — Contains details of new work in that year.
The Palana coal field in the Bikaner State is now considered to be of
Lutetian (Eocene) age, and it is believed that in the case of most of
the post-Gondwana coal fields of India the balance of probabifity is in
favour of their belonging to this period, and that there are many
doubtful features in the evidence adduced for the existence of Creta-
ceous and of post-Nummultic coal. Diamond drilling was carried out
in the copper-bearing belt in Singhbhum ; the most favourable results
were obtained in the Kodomdiha drill hole. Some account is given of
an attempt to work the placer gold on the Namma in the Northern

21 8 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Shan States by means of steam dredgers, which was unsuccessful on
account of the hardness of the alluvium. Information is also afforded
with regard to the manganese ore of Southern India, the petroleum of
Burmah, the salt deposits of Rajputana, the ancient silver lead mines
of Bawdwin in the Northern Shan States, the tin of the Mergui district
and tungsten of the Nagpur district.

The Mineral Production of India during 1907, also by the Director of
the Geological Survey, contains statistics which show an increase in
value of minerals for which approximately full returns are available from
;£6,3i2,82i to ;2^7, 07 1,868. There were decreases in gold; mica;
jadeite ; graphite ; tin ore ; diamonds ; magnesite and amber. The
output of gold from the Dharwar area in Peninsular India and from
dredging on the Irrawaddy has, however, increased. At the same time
the value of the output of coal has increased by ;£"697,684, and that of
manganese ore by ;^i54,562. The total output of coal now amounts
to 11,147,339 tons, and that of manganese ore to 898,345 tons. The
output of coal did not, however, keep pace with the demand; the
imports increased and the exports diminished. The value of the output
of salt, saltpetre, ruby, sapphire and spinel and of iron ore has also
increased. A company was floated in July with the object of producing
iron and steel on a large scale near Kalimati on the Bengal Nagpur
Railway.

Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India^ 1909J Vol. 34, Part 4, deals
with the geology of the Persian Gulf and the adjoining portions of
Persia and Arabia. Amongst the older formations are the Hatah
Series of crystalline schists (? Archaean), and the 'Oman Series consist-
ing mainly of limestones, and ranging from the Carboniferous to the
Triassic period. These extend from Musandam Island in the straits
of Hormuz to the neighbourhood of Ras el Hadd. They are covered
apparently conformably by the Basic Igneous Series of 'Oman, consist-
ing of intrusive sheets, which are well seen at Muscat. These are
overlaid unconformably by hippurite-bearing Cretaceous limestones
which form a broad belt through the Persian plateau, and are also met
with near Ras el Hadd, and on the south-eastern coast of Arabia.

On Hormuz and other islands to the westward, and on the neigh-
bouring coast of Persia, we find representatives of the Hormuz Series
which may be Upper Cretaceous or Eocene. They consist of acid
lavas and tuffs, and thick beds of salt and gypsum with anhydrite,
haematite, iron pyrites, sulphur and dolomite as well as occasional shales,
sandstones and carbonaceous limestones.

These beds are overlaid by Eocene beds with nummulites which form
important deposits in Persia and 'Oman. The nummulitic limestone
of the Island of Bahrain is of a different type containing much siliceous
material. These are succeeded by limestones of Oligocene and early
Miocene age. The Ears Series which follows, and is also of Miocene
age, consists of marls, clays and sandstones with limestones and inter-
bedded gypsum, and is the most widely extended formation of Southern

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 219

Persia and the Gulf region. These beds are overlaid unconformably
by the unfossiliferous Baktiyari-beds consisting of grits and conglomerates.
The freshwater beds of Sur, in South-east 'Oman, are also of late
Tertiary age. Quaternary deposits are represented by miliolite or
foraminiferal ooHte, usually of aeolian origin, "littoral concrete,"
upraised coral, blown sands and various forms of alluvium.

Indications of the existence of asphalt or petroleum deposits are
found in a broad belt extending along the valley of the Euphrates and
Tigris, down the Persian Gulf into Baluchistan. Bituminous material
has been found in the Fars beds in Southern Persia, which are exposed
in a low anticlinal flexure, and in the nummulitic limestone of the
Island of Bahrain under similar conditions. It is probable that the
petroleum that once existed has long been lost, but at Bahrain there are
some 150 tons of good asphalt available for local purposes (see this
Bulletin^ 1903? 1- 116).

Sulphur is found at Khamir and Bostanah near Lingah, disseminated
through decomposed rhyolite belonging to the Hormuz Series. It has
been worked in a desultory fashion, but the deposit is too poor to be
of much commercial importance. Iron occurs in the Basic Igneous
Series of 'Oman and the Hormuz Series. The red ochre of the latter
is extensively worked and exported to India as a pigment. Gypsum is
mainly obtained from the Fars Series, but it is also found throughout
the Hormuz Series and occurs in recent deposits from the leaching out
of older rocks. Salt is widely scattered through the Hormuz Series in
almost unlimited quantity.

Indian Museum. Annual Report of the Industrial Section^ 1907-8. —
In the laboratory attached to this section 340 samples were examined
during the year, including oils and oil seeds, dyes and tanning materials,
drugs, food-stuffs, minerals, fibres, gums, resins, etc., and the results of
some of the more important of these are quoted. A list of the chief
economic products added to the Economic Court during the year is
also printed.

Indian Trade Jour?ial, 1909, 12. No. 148. — States, inter alia, that the
Department of Agriculture in Bombay has for some years been dis-
tributing foreign groundnuts for sowing purposes, since these yield
better and mature earlier, and so escape the " ticca " disease. This
action has been so successful that the indigenous kind has almost dis-
appeared from the Satara district, and further distribution of seed there
has become unnecessary. 1909, 12. No. 153 : Cotton oil factory (men-
tions that the extraction of cotton-seed oil is likely to be undertaken in
several places in India, the oil being used as a raw material for the manu-
facture of butter substitutes, and the cotton-seed cake as a manure or
feeding-cake). 1909, 12. No. 154 : Grain elevators (calls the attention of
Indian engineers to the fact that there is some prospect of the adoption
of grain elevators in the Indian wheat trade, and notes several problems
connected with their construction. 1909, 12. No. 156 : Glass industry
in Northern India (describes the working of two factories established

220 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

recently at Amballa and Rajpur). 1909, 12. No. 157 : Cotton cake
(a discussion of the possible local demand as a feeding-stuff for cattle
used in transporting seed cotton to ginning centres, and as a manure for
cotton lands, etc.

Techfiical and Industrial Instruction in Be?igal, 1 888-1 908 (Part I
of Special Report). — This contains a summary of the discussions and
proposals of the last twenty years with reference to technical and
industrial education in Bengal. An account is given of the existing
institutions for technical and for industrial instruction. Consideration
is devoted to the question of apprenticeship in railway and other work-
shops and the distribution of technical scholarships. Recommendations
are made for the establishment of an engineering college, a technological
institute and a central school of design, and suggestions are put forward
with reference to affiliated technical institutions and industrial schools.

Review of the Industrial Position and Prospects in Bengal in 1908,
with Special Reference to the Industrial Survey of 1890 (Part II of
Special Report). — A general review is given of the manufacturing
industries of Bengal, including those connected with textiles, pottery
and earthenware, mat- and basket-making, curing and tanning of leather,
iron and steel work, work in brass, bell-metal and other alloys, manu-
facture of chemicals, dyeing and printing, paper-making, and other
manufactures. The mining industries (coal, mica, and other minerals)
are also reported on. The position of the industrial arts is indicated,
including gold and silver work, ivory carving, metal inlaying (Bidri
work), clay modelling, ornamental glass work, carving in wood and
stone, lac work, and lace-making. The only industries dealing with
economic products considered are those relating to lac, tobacco, oils
and alkalis.

This work brings up to date a report on the arts and industries of
Bengal, published in 1890. The proposals then put forward are con-
sidered, and recommendations are made with reference to the future
development of the arts and industries.

The following figures indicate the remarkable industrial expansion
which has taken place in Bengal during the last twenty years. The
jute mills have increased from 12 to 42, and the cotton mills from 6 to
13. The coal output has increased from less than 2,000,000 to more than
10,000,000 tons, and the mica output from under 100 to over 1,000
tons. The greater part of this advance is due to European capital and
enterprise, but a movement is now in progress for the utilisation of
Indian capital under native management.

Survey of the Industries and Resources of Eastern Bengal a?td Assam
for 1907-8. — This report is the outcome of an endeavour to ascer-
tain the present condition of the native industries of the Province with
the object of enabling the Government to decide on practical measures
to be taken to encourage and develop them. The survey has been
conducted on similar lines to that recently completed for Bengal (see
above). The report is divided into two parts,the first giving an account

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 221

of the various industries and the possibilities of their extension, the
second containing suggestions as to the measures which might be
adopted by the Government to encourage native enterprise. The
assistance of the Government is recommended in connection with the
industries which appear to offer the best prospects, namely, the tanning
of leather and manufacture of leather goods, the manufacture of sugar,
the establishment of a power mill for spinning and weaving cotton and
another for weaving silk, the manufacture of tobacco, and the establish-
ment of a match factory, a paper mill and a lac factory. It is also
suggested that inquiries should be made in order to ascertain the
desirability of introducing the following industries on a commercial
scale : The manufacture of enamelled ware, aluminium ware, glass, and
glazed and painted pottery. Other industries are also mentioned which
appear worthy of consideration.

Ceylon.

Tropical Agriculturist, 1909, 32. No. i. — Contains the following
articles of special interest, in addition to numerous abstracts and trans-
lations : Coco-nuts in the dry zone of Ceylon (pointing out that the
coco-nut palm does fairly well in northern Ceylon, and that compara-
tively little water is required for its cultivation) — The coco-nut palm —
The fermentation of cocoa (a reprint of an article from the report of the
Porto-Rico Experiment Station for 1907) — The improvement of cattle
in Ceylon — The literature of tropical economic botany and agriculture
(Second series. Part I) deals with Acacia, Agave, Aleurites and Andro-
pogon among other subjects — A tea pest : the " lantana bug " — The
future of cotton-growing in Ceylon, etc. 1909, 32. No. 2 : Agriculture in
Ceylon and its improvement — Loans to native agriculturists — Agricul-
ture in the North-Central Province (a discussion of problems connected
with the improvement of agriculture in Ceylon) — Cotton cultivation in
the Kurunegala District (as the result of five years' work in this district,
it is stated that the Egyptian variety gives the best yield and "Sea
Island " the poorest, but as the latter fetches higher prices, it is the
most remunerative to grow, and since 1905 that variety only has been
grown. The yield obtained has varied from 80 to no lb. of lint per
acre in different years, and the product realised from \od. to \s.
per lb.). 1909, 32. No. 3 : Clean weeding on tea and rubber estates
(a reprint of instructions issued to managers of estates in Java, pointing
out the disadvantages of " clean weeding " in tea and rubber estates) —
Burying v. burning of tea prunings (a series of letters dealing with this
question).

Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States.

Annual Departmental Reports. Straits Settlements, 1907. — The

Director of Gardens reports that the demand for plants and seeds of

economic interest from the Botanic Gardens at Singapore was larger

than usual. The products principally in request were seeds of Para

222 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

rubber, the oil palm, groundnut, and coco-nut palm. Large supplies
of ramie, sansevieria, Manila hemp, Mauritius hemp, camphor,
citronella, lemon grass, and other economic plants were also disposed
of. Most of these seeds and plants were sold to the Federated Malay
States and Johore, but considerable quantities were also exported to
Lagos, British New Guinea, Southern Nigeria, and the Caroline
Islands. A report on rubber tapping experiments in the Economic
Gardens is in preparation, and will be issued shortly. At the Penang
Botanic Gardens arrangements have been made for the maintenance
of a small lot of fruit trees and other economic plants.

The Conservator of Forests reports that the area of reserved forests
at the end of 1907 formed 10 "93 per cent, of the total area of the four
provinces.

Agricultural Bulletin, 1909, 8. No. 2. — Report on the Interna-
tional Rubber and Allied Trades' Exhibition held in London (by the
Malayan Commissioner). No. 3. Ternies gestroi (discusses methods
for eradicating this pest on rubber plantations) — Root disease (discusses
two -fungoid root diseases affecting Para rubber and Crotalaria, and
points out the importance of ascertaining, as soon as possible, whether
or not Para rubber is immune to the root disease affecting Crotalaria —
Catch crops (discusses tapioca, indigo, citronella grass and Musa textilis
as catch crops for rubber plantations) — Sesamum cultivation in Krian,
Perak.

West Australia.

Journal of the Departfnent of Agriculture^ 1909, 18. Part I. — Con-
tains the following articles of general interest. A new fibre (mentions
that fabrics made from a mixture of wool and a marine fibre have
been exhibited at Sydney. The marine fibre appears to be Fosidonia
australis, recently examined at the Imperial Institute: see this Bulletin^
1907, 5. 300) — Adaptation of plants to environment — Potato bac-
teriosus (a description of the disease is given, with suggestions for its
treatment) — Exhibition of colonial wines (describes some of the
exhibits of colonial wines at the Brewers' Exhibition held recently in
London. 1909, 18. Part II : Soil bacteria — The possibilities of the
Moodiarrup District — Potatoes attacked by disease — Dry-farming in
semi-arid districts. 1909, 18. Part III : The Mexican poppy,
Argefnone Mexicana (the plant is described and figured with a view
to famiharising farmers with it, so that they may take steps to eradicate
it in any district in which it appears) — The agricultural industry (an
address by Professor Lowrie dealing with some of the most important
problems interesting West Australian farmers at the present time) —
Pure milk (deals with " pasteurisation " and other methods occasionally
used to ensure the delivery of milk in good condition) — Dry-farming
(deals more especially with the conservation of soil-moisture in dry
districts)— Ostrich-farming (a resume of information on the subject) —
"■ Bitter-pit " in apples — " Die-back " in fruit trees. — Jute cultivation (a

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 223

note on experimental jute cultivation at various places in West
Australia) — Soil subjugation in the Eastern States ; treatment of dry
areas.

South Australia.

Journal of the Departvient of Agriculture^ 1909? 12. No. 6. — Milling
properties of wheats (the results of tests with high and low grade
wheats show that the former give both a higher yield and a better
quality of flour) — "Turnip" and "Mustard" weeds — Toowoomba
Canary Grass (points out that the grass commonly called Phalaris
commutata has not yet been identified with certainty, and according to
Professor Hackel may be a new species, intermediate between P.
nodosa and P. arundinacea) — The Apple crop. 1909, 12. No. 7 :
Agricultural experiments for 1908-9 (gives results of experiments on
manures for wheats, tests with varieties of wheat and oats, hay tests and
experiments in " dry-farming." The last-mentioned were carried out
with wheats at Hammond, where the rainfall is from 10 to 14 inches
per annum. The yields varied from 12 to 23 bushels per acre.
The experiments are to be extended to three other " dry " districts) —
Insect pests and their foes (part of the fourth progress report by a
special commissioner deputed to investigate work on insect pests in
Europe and elsewhere; this portion deals with Cyprus and Egypt) —
"Dry Bible" (a disease affecting horses, and similar to the " Lam-
ziekte" of South Africa, for which bone meal is recommended as a
remedy). 1909, 12. No. 8 : Roseworthy Agricultural College (Harvest
Report for 1908) — The wool "clip" — The agricultural bureau of South
Australia (a historical resume of its work since its inception in 1887 is
given) — Plants reputed poisonous (mentions Solanum esuriale, supposed
to have caused the death of sheep near the Murray River; and the
" white wood tree," believed to have caused poisoning symptoms in
horses. The last-mentioned plant has been identified as Atalaya henii-
glauca^ but nothing appears to be known as to its toxicity).

Queensland.

Agricultural Journal^ 1909, 22. No. i. — Arrowroot growing in
Queensland (descriptions of the cultivation, preparation and production
of arrowroot) — Wheats at the State Farm, Roma — Pineapple growing
in Florida — The "pulque maguey" of Mexico (description of Agava
atrovirens, from which the Mexican fermented liquor, "pulque," is
prepared). 1909, 22. No. 2 : Lucerne-growing (advocates an exten-
sion of lucerne cultivation, especially by dairy farmers in Queensland)
— Crops at Hermitage State Farm, season 1908 (describes results and
experiments with " sixty day oats," " Kubanka " wheat (a Russian
macaroni wheat), canary seed, Pratt's " Comeback " wheat, wheat No.
52, and potatoes; of these it is suggested that canary seed is a good
adjunct to wheat) — Grapes for export — Cork waste (a description of
the cork industry of S. Europe a propos of the use of cork waste as a

224 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

packing material for grapes)- Nematode Root Gall. 1909, 22. No. 3 :
State Farm, Roma (an account of experiments with winter cereals
carried out at the farm during 1908)— Farm crops as food for stock
(discusses the value of the principal grasses, etc., used as feeding-stuffs) —
Rotation of crops— Cotton-growing (deals with the precautions to be
observed in picking the crop) — Contributions to the flora of British
New Guinea. 1909, 22. No. 4: Roma State Farm— Wheat grow-
ing on the coast lands— Contributions to the flora of Queensland
(a description of the Solanaceous plant, Lycium afrum) — Coco-nut

culture.

Department of Mines, Queensland Geological Survey, Cloncurry Copper
Mining District.-— ThQ district lies due south of the Gulf of Carpentaria,
Cloncurry itself being 20° 43' S. and 140° 30' E. It will soon be
connected by railway with the east coast by way of Richmond.

The older rocks consist of gneiss, schists, shales, and limestones, as
well as quartz rock, which is considered to be the result of segregation or
igneous intrusion. The limestone appears to be of Silurian age. These
rocks are penetrated by granite porphyries and other igneous rocks and
covered by sandstones, shales and limestones of Upper Cretaceous age.
The copper deposits follow the bedding planes of the older strata, but
enriched deposits are met with at the outcrops. Important deposits of
iron ore also occur. Part II contains particulars of the different mining
properties. It is furnished with a geological sketch map on a scale of
18 miles to the inch.

Victoria.

Report of the Department of Agriculture, 1905-7. — This report
occupies 206 pages, and covers a wide range of subjects of which it is
possible to refer to comparatively few here. The Vegetable Pathologist
reports that the most important feature of the year's operations was the
attention paid to the wheat crop, especially in testing the rust-resisting
qualities of various breeds of wheat. Rusts were found on wattle trees
in the form of large galls, which seriously interfere with the natural
growth of the trees. It is recommended that these should be removed
whenever seen, and burnt. For rust on fruit trees spraying with
" Bordeaux mixture " is recommended. A considerable amount of
attention has also been given to potato diseases, such as " potato scab."
As a preventive of this, treatment of seed potatoes with a solution of
2*5 oz. of corrosive sublimate in 15 gallons of water for two hours
before planting is recommended.

In the Field Branch, arrangements have been made in 26 districts
for the carrying out by farmers of wheat cultivation experiments, with
a view to securing higher yields per acre of this grain than are at present
obtained in Victoria, and as at present arranged the experiments will
be continued during seven years. Attention is being directed to the
effects of various manures and combinations of manures on wheat.
Similar arrangements have also been made for experiments with other

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 225

crops, such as oats, fodder grasses, leguminous plants, potatoes, etc.
An account is also given of the work done at the Wyuna irrigation farm,
the Heytesbury Grass tree country reclamation works and the various
experimental farms. The report closes with a section contributed by
the Inspector of Foods for export, dealing with the export of meat, fruit,
etc., during the period reviewed.

Journal of the Depart77ient of Agriculture^ 1909, 7. Part L — Valencia
raisins or lexias (describes the preparation of this product as practised
in Spain) — Vine prunings as fodder (gives analyses of prunings of vines)
— Spring-sown rape — The problem of our unproductive lands— Pro-
claimed plants of Victoria (the European dodder is described and
illustrated) — Naphthalene treatment for cut-worms — Experimental work
at Longerenong Agricultural College — Nitrogen and nitragin— Progres-
sive farming. 1909, 7. Part II: The orange in Eastern Spain— Viti-
culture in the Levante (describes the cultivation of the grape and the
preparation as carried on in this district of Spain)— Nhill farm competi-
tion, 1908 (a report on the results) — Proclaimed plants of Victoria (this
part deals with the common "bindweed" {Convolvulus arvensis\ of
which an illustrated description is given) — Diseases of farm animals
(this part of this series of articles deal with poisoning by such plants as
Ho77ieria li7ieata or H. colli7ia, Za77iia Frazerii or Z. Dyerii^ Coriaria
ruscifolia or C. thyTnifolia, Euphorbia Dru77ii7iondii^ also by "nightshade"
or "belladonna," "stinkwort," "yellow rash lily," castor-oil ^Xd^Vit, Lathyrus
sativus, etc. : the experience of stock keepers with several of these plants
is recorded). 1909, 7. Part III : The "algarrobo" or carob-tree (a de-
scription of the cultivation of this tree, which yields the well-known locust
pod, as carried on in Spain, is given) — Experimental wheat fields, 1908-9
— Bud variation in the Corinth currant vine — Toowoomba canary grass
(mentions that the food value generally attributed to this is much
exaggerated) — Zante currants grafted on resistant stocks — Rape as a
catch crop — Diseases of farm animals (this portion deals with " forage
poisoning," especially with ensilage in the case of working horses, and
with fodders attacked by fungoid pests of various kinds, etc.) — Pro-
gressive farming : No. 2, Dean's Marsh (the second of a series of
articles showing the results secured by the application of suitable
agricultural methods to poor lands) — The " stinking smut " of wheat (a
description of the fungus and suggestions for treatment are given) —
Irrigation in Eastern Spain.

New South Wales.

Report of the Department of Agriculture^ 1907-8. — This is the first
report issued by the Department of Agriculture since it was separated
from the Department of Mines in virtue of an Act passed by the Legis-
lative Assembly in November 1907. In the first portion of the report
the Under-Secretary of Agriculture reviews the work done, and the
present position of the agricultural colleges, experiment farms, etc.,
under the control of the Department. The necessity for further con-

226 Bulletin of the Imperl\l Institute.

siderable additions to the expert staff of the Department is emphasised
and various suggestions for the improvement of agricultural education
are made. The remainder of the report is occupied by statements of
accounts and by reports from the various technical sections. The
chemist mentions that the laboratory is now provided with two wheat-
testing mills, and so much attention is being given throughout the
State to wheat improvement that it has been impossible during the year
to keep pace with the samples submitted for trial. A systematic soil
survey of the State is also suggested, particularly of the lands it is pro-
posed to throw open for closer settlement. Experiments are in progress
at Moree on the use of nitric acid for neutralising soil rendered alka-
line by the use of alkaline bore water for irrigation. Attention is directed
to the necessity for a systematic examination of the suspected poison-
ous plants of the State, with a view to determining which are actually
poisonous to stock.

The remainder of the report is occupied by the sectional reports of
the experts in charge of dairying, viticulture, experiment farms, etc. Of
these, perhaps that of most general interest is the one on wheat
experiments, which details the work done at the various farms in
breeding new varieties of wheat better suited to the conditions prevailing
in New South Wales than those now generally grown. Two smut-
resistant wheats, produced by the Department, have been supplied to
farmers for cultivation this year, and arrangements have been made for
the trial by farmers of several new wheats bred by the Department, with
a view to ascertaining whether their special qualities are retained when
the wheats are grown under ordinary farming conditions.

Agricultural Gazette^ 1909? ^' No. i. — Hawkesbury Agricultural
College and Experimental Farm — Feeding of pigs (discusses the
relative values of peas, clovers, pea-nuts and rape) — Conservation of
-fodder — Silos and silage — Useful Australian plants (this article deals-
with Sporobolus Virginicus^ Kunth, which is recommended as a fodder
grass for cultivation in saline soils) — A useful Australian grass (a
description of Phragmites communis^ which is recommended ' for
growth on river-banks as a protection against erosion) — The black
soil of the north-western plains. 1909, 20. No. 2 : Army remounts
(a reprint of information as to the type of horses required for army
purposes) — Some plants which cause inflammation of the skin
(describes Rhus radicans^ R. diversiloba^ R. metopiuvi, R. vermxy
R. verm'a/era, and R. Cotinus) — Artificial incubation — Farmers' experi-
ments— Bird protection and destruction in New South Wales — Pre-
servative action of boric acid in butter — Harvesting wheat and barley —
Haymaking — Silos and silage — Utilisation of waste water from butter '
factories — The onion — ControlHng the "black" oat pest— Orchard
notes. 1909, 20. No. 3. Creating a new province (a description of the
irrigation scheme which is being carried into effect in the district
between Narrandera, Hay and Gunbar under State control) — Barley—
" Brown rot " (refers to the sudden outbreak of this disease in many

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 227

orchards last year ; the burning of diseased fruit, branches, etc., is
recommended, and the spraying of the trees with " Bordeaux mixture ").
The Banded Pumpkin Beetle {^Aulacophora oliverei) (this is found in
the colony as a pest attacking apples, and was particularly troublesome
last season) — Milk standards ; composition of Australian cows' milk —
Useful Australian plants: No. loi, Spofolobus Benihami {?,\iggQS>tQd as
a valuable fodder plant for cultivation in the drier parts of the State) —
" Black spot " in oranges (spraying with alkaline copper mixtures is
recommended as a remedy) — The conservation of soil moisture — The
prickly pear ; its utilisation (a resume of recent information on proposals
for the utilisation of this material). 1909, 20. No. 4 : The Went-
worth irrigation area — The McCormick maize harvester (illustrated) —
Useful Australian plants: No. 102 (this part deals with Leptochloa
decipiens, Stapf, about which it is suggested information as to feeding
value should be obtained) — List of fertilisers in New South Wales (the
list gives particulars as to composition and manurial value) — Rabbit
destruction (recommends carbon disulphide for destruction of these
animals in large burrows, and phosphorus paste as a poison) — The con-
servation of soil moisture — District notes (a short account of work in
progress at experimental farms, etc., in the colony).

New Zealand.

Department of Agriculture. — Chemistry Division, Report for 1908.
— Details the work done during the year. It has been observed that
the percentage of moisture in New Zealand butter has increased
steadily in recent years, and consequently a stringent supervision of
butter for export has been organised by the Government, with the result
that a considerable increase in the number of samples of butter
examined by the division has occurred. The average moisture found
during 1907-8 was 12*2 per cent, as against 11*7 in 1906-7, and
io'3 in 1902-3. A number of the poisonous plants of New Zealand
are under investigation, and reports on the physiological action of tutin,
the active constituent of the " tutu " plant are published, which leave
no doubt that this glucoside is the cause of the toxicity of the plant.
From " pukatea " bark {Laurelia Nov CE-Zealan dice), two crystalline alka-
loids have been obtained, one of which, pukateine, has been fairly well
characterised and ascertained to possess toxic properties when ad-
ministered in the form of its soluble salts. The remainder of the
report is chiefly occupied with an account of work done in connection
with the Act regulating the sale of fertilisers, and in stating the results
obtained in cultivation and manurial experiments in various districts of
the Dominion, in the course of which a large number of analyses of soils
are given.

British Guiana.

Journal of the Board of Agriculture, 1909, 2. No. 3. — The tapping of
Sapium Jemnani (describes briefly the results of some preliminary

228 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

tapping experiments) — Sugar-cane in the colony (a summary of the
official report on the subject) — " Witch broom " disease of cacao (repro-
duced from Le Recueil des Trav. bot Neerlandais^ I907j 4) — UtiUsing
colonial fruit (a series of recipes for making conserves with various
tropical fruits).

West Indies.

Reports o?i Botanic Station^ Experiment Plots and Agricultural
Education for Antigua, 1907-8. — A number of experiments have been
made on the distillation of lemon grass {Cymbopogon citratus), the
average yield of oil obtained, being four fluid oz. from 100 lb. of
grass. From Cochin lemon grass (C citratus\ which is being grown
experimentally, the average yield was 2*3 fluid oz. per 100 lb., and
from citronella grass 2-53 fluid oz. per 100 lb. of grass. Distillation
experiments with camphor and bay-leaves were also made. During the
year under review 2,508 acres were planted with cotton, and from this
area 189,3181b. of lint has been shipped. Considerable trouble was
experienced with insect pests attacking cotton, particularly the " flower-
bud maggot," which was determined by Dr. E. P. Felt to be a new
species of the genus Contarinia, and it is proposed to call it C. gossypii.
A full account of this pest has been published already in the Agricultural
News (vol. 7. p. 154). The " cotton worm " and the " leaf-blister mite"
also caused some trouble to planters. Experiments with various food
plants, such as cassava, sweet potatoes and yams were carried on at
Skerrett's Station as well as with groundnuts and green manures, including
the soy bean, lablab, pigeon pea, etc. Special attention is being paid at
this station to the selection of cotton seed for planting purposes. Three
groups of seed selected in 1906, and known as 7,s,205, 7,s,2o6 and
7,s, 207, gave, on trial this year 1,195, 1,360, and 1,210 lb. of seed-cotton
per acre respectively, and it is hoped that the high yield given by
7,s,2o6 may be found to be a constant characteristic of this cotton. An
interesting experiment was made with "clean" and "fuzzy" cotton
seed. Five hundred seeds of each variety were sown, and the seed
from the resulting plants collected, when it was found that from the
clean seeds 87 per cent, of clean seeds were recovered, and from the
fuzzy seeds 93*4 per cent, of fuzzy seeds were obtained. These results
are of special interest in emphasising the need for seed selection. At
the Scott's Hill station experiments on the cultivation of lemon grass
are being continued.

Report on the Experiment Station, Tortola, Virgin Islatids, 1907-8. —
Experiments with cotton indicate that, as a rule, planting in May or
June gives the best results. The yields of seed-cotton per acre varied
from 138-141 lb. per acre in the case of a plot attacked by "worms "
and "leaf-blister mite" through 291 lb. on "poor and gravelly soil" to
570 lb. Experiments with cocoa, Liberian coffee, pine-apples, cassava,
seedling sugar-canes and limes were continued, and experiments with
English potatoes, tobacco and onions were tried. The first of these

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 229

three was a complete failure, but the other two gave promising results.
The cotton industry made great progress during the year, 32,500 lb. of
lint being shipped, as against 10,177 lb. in the previous year. A small
experimental shipment of cocoa was made and realised a good price in
London.

Report on the Botanic Statioft, Agricultural Instruction and Experiment
Plots, Grenada, 1907-8. — The two principal crops grown on the island
are cocoa and nutmegs, and owing to the low prices prevailing for nut-
megs there is a tendency to replace this spice by cocoa. Experimental
work is directed mainly to the improvement of cocoa cultivation, and
with that end in view manuring trials have been in progress for some
time at the botanic station, and also on various cocoa estates, by
arrangement with the owners of these. Attention is also being given to
the cultivation of rubber, especially the Para variety, and to " Sea
Island " cotton. The latter has been shown to do well in certain
districts near the coast.

West hidian Bulletin, 1909, 9. No. 4. — The timbers of Jamaica (short
descriptions are given of the more important timber trees of the island,
and their uses are indicated) — The timbers of Dominica (a list of the
chief timbers with botanical identifications of the trees and notes as to
the uses of the various woods) — The Aleyrodidce of Barbados — Fungus
diseases of coco-nuts in the West Indies (describes " root disease,"
" bud rot " and " leaf disease," and suggests remedial measures against
them). — Millions and mosquitos (see this volume, p. 116).

Imperial Department of Agriculture, Pamphlet Series. — No. 56, Seed-
ling and other canes in the Leeward Islands, 1907-8; No. 57, Manurial
experiments with sugar-cane in the Leeward Islands, 1907-8; No. 58,
Insect pests of cacao ; No. 59, Seedling canes and manurial experiments
at Barbados, 1906-8. The pamphlets issued by the Department in
this series are intended for the use of planters in the West Indies, and
give in simple language resiwies of information on the subjects of which
they treat. In pamphlet No. 58, referred to above, ''cacao thrips" and
the "cacao beetle" are dealt with, descriptions of the insects and
remedial and preventive measures against them being given. There
are also brief references to other less important cocoa pests, such as
the " aphis," " mealy bugs," " scale insects, " root-borers," etc. The
pamphlet concludes with a useful description of " spraying " apparatus
and recipes for insecticides, useful as remedies against the pests referred
to above.

Bahamas.

Bulletin of the Agricultural Department, 1908, Nos. 10, 11, 12. —
Mentions that supplies of seed corn are being obtained from Cuba, and
will be available for planting in March 1909, and that a large stock of
rubber-vine slips is ready for distribution. A short account is also
given of some results of trials with pea-nuts at the experiment station,

230 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

and attention is directed to the necessity of proper working of the soil
and the selection of good seed in cultivating the crop.

Canada.

Experimental Farms Reports, 1907-8. — These include reports by
the Director and the chief officers-in-charge of the various sections of
work. The volume occupies about 400 pages, and deals with a great
variety of matters, of which only a few can be referred to here. Work
connected with the selection and improvement of wheat occupies a
prominent place in most of the reports. The Director points out that
during the year a beginning was made with agricultural experiment
work at Fort Vermilion, on the Peace River in North Alberta, where
crops of various cereals, etc., were grown and samples submitted to the
Central Experimental Farm for report. The season was cold and
unpromising, so that the results obtained were, on the whole, poor.
Samples of well-ripened wheat and barley were, however, obtained
from .settlers in the district. This work is being continued. A promi-
nent feature of experimental work in agriculture in Canada is the
extent to which co-operation by farmers is secured ; thus in the year
under review 45,565 farmers received from the Central Experiment
Station packets of improved seed for cultivation, and undertook to
report to the Central Station their experience with the material sup-
plied to them. In this way it is possible to rapidly increase supplies of
improved seed, and at the same time to determine its suitability, or
otherwise, to various soils and climates. In the report of the chemist
the results of an investigation into the composition of wheat as influ-
enced by environment are given, and some preliminary results of work
on the changes in composition which take place during the growth and
ripening of potatoes. Among more routine work may be mentioned
the analyses of various feeding-stuffs having molasses as a basis, in one
of which peat was used as an absorbent for the molasses, and in
another exhausted beet pulp. Some curious products proposed for use
as manure were : cotton factory waste, which contained nitrogen 1-32,
phosphoric acid 0*45, and potash 1-52 per cent.; grape refuse, con-
taining nitrogen 077, phosphoric acid 0*20, and potash 0*36 per cent. ;
and " flue deposit " and " dust from wheat elevators," the former being
a curious deposit, rich in potash and phosphoric acid, which forms in
the flues of the furnaces in which elevator dust is burned when the
dust contains "smut" {i.e. spores of "hard smut" or "bunt" of
wheat). A considerable amount of work has also been done during
the year on the influence of various fungicides, such as formaldehyde;
copper sulphate, etc., on the vitality of seed wheat.

Department of Agriculture, Canada. Bulletin No. 61. — Results
obtained in 1908 on the Dominion Experimental Farms from trial
plots of grain, fodder corn, field roots, and potatoes. During the last
fourteen years experiments have been conducted on uniform trial plots
at each of seven experimental stations in the Dominion, with the object

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 231

of gaining information as to the most productive and earliest ripening
varieties of the chief cereals, root crops, and potatoes. The seed used
in all cases was the same to begin with, and the time of sowing has, as
far as possible, been the same in each instance. The present Bulletin
gives (i) average yield for last five years, (2) average number of days
required to mature and (3) yield in 1908, for the varieties tried.

Ontario.

Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture^ i9o7) Vol. I. — This
volume opens with the report on the Agricultural College and Experi-
mental Farm. Apart from the educational work done, the teaching staff
is also continuously engaged in experimental agricultural work and in
advisory work connected with agriculture ; thus the lecturer in physics
has, during the year, devoted much attention to drainage surveying. In
the first place, series of articles were contributed to various agricultural
journals drawing the attention of farmers to the importance of drainage
work ; then courses of training were instituted ; and, lastly, advice was
freely given to farmers desirous of undertaking drainage operations on
their land. The professor of botany deals with the various weeds, poison-
ous and otherwise, which have been submitted to him during the year for
identification and advice as to their extermination ; and in this depart-
ment investigations into weed impurities in imported seeds have been
carried on. In the Entomological and Zoological Section perhaps the
work of most general interest recorded is that on the use of prussic
acid as an insecticide. The chemical and geological branches are
responsible for a great deal of routine investigation work, including
in that recorded, analyses of well and other waters for farmers, ex-
perimental work on manures suitable for sugar beets, the question of
utilising refuse from tomato canneries as manure, the testing of wheats
for milling and baking, the exact determination of the ash constituents
of cereals, and many other matters. Not less important is the work
accomplished in the other branches included in the scope of the
college, such as veterinary science, animal and plant industry, econo-
mics,' bacteriology, horticulture, applied mechanics in its relation to
agriculture, and nature study.

The second part of the report deals with the operations of the
" Ontario Agricultural and Experimental Union " during the year.
This union exists mainly with a view to promoting co-operative
agricultural experiments by farmers under the general supervision of
experts in agriculture. The later portions are occupied by reports
from " Dairymen's Associations and Dairy Schools," " Agricultural
Societies," " Horticultural Societies," and by the Bureau of Industries
on " Agricultural Statistics."

Vol. II contains reports of the following associations for the year
1907 — {a) the Fruit Growers' Association of Ontario, including the
papers read at the annual convention, {b) of the various fruit experi-
ment farms, with an appendix giving lists of fruits recommended for

232 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

cultivation in different parts of the Province, (c) of the Ontario Vegetable
Growers' Association, with an account of the proceedings and papers
read at the third annual meeting, (d) of the Bee-keepers' Association,
(e) of the Entomological Society, (/) of the Farmers' Institutes of the
Province, and (g) of the Women's Institutes of Ontario.

Annua/ Report of the Department of Agriculture^ 1907- — Contains
reports by the Deputy-Commissioner of Agriculture, the Chief of the
Bureau of Statistics, Superintendent of Fairs and Institutes, Super-
intendent of Dairying, Chief of Weeds and Game branch, Bacteriologist,
and the Provincial Health Officer, giving accounts of the operations of
their respective branches throughout the year.

British Columbia.

Geological Swvey. Preliminary Report on a part of the Similkameefi
District, British Columbia. The area described is a strip eight miles
wide running south from a point about eight miles north of Princeton
on the junction of the Olter and the Similkameen Rivers to the
International Boundary. The more northern portion has been surveyed
in detail on a scale of two inches to the mile, with contours at every
hundred feet.

The oldest rocks are a metamorphic series. To the south they consist
of micaceous and hornblende schists with bands of crystaUine limestone,
while further north there are soft green spotted and chloritic schists,
probably of volcanic origin, with smaller bands of graphitic and talc
schists, the latter being frequently mineralised and traversed by quartz
veins. In the southern portion of the Copper Mountain district some
of the ore bodies are associated with limestone, quartzites and argillites.
Into these are intruded granitoid rocks described as granodiorites and
monzonites, the latter forming the country rock at Copper Mountain.
These are overlaid in the south-west of the area by Lower Cretaceous
sandstones and shales dipping at a steep angle. A period of great
disturbance was followed by the deposition of the Oligocene Lignite
Formation, which occupies a basin of which Princeton is the centre.
This was succeeded by a prolonged period of volcanic activity, during
which the greater part of the country south of Princeton was covered by
volcanic rocks.

The ores are mainly found in veins in the crystalline schists or
plutonic intrusives near the junction of the Roche or Similkameen and
Pasayton Rivers, and in Copper Mountain further north, on the east of
the Similkameen. The minerals include gold, bornite, tetrahedrite,
native copper, and copper and iron pyrites. The lignite deposits appear
to contain some useful seams. In boring, 35 feet 7 inches were passed
in a depth of 90 feet, the thickest seam measuring over 18 feet.

A brief visit was subsequently made to the mineral tract north-west
of Princeton, running from the Tulameen River northward to the

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 233

Coldwater River. The country consists of metamorphosed sediments
penetrated by peridotite (with pyroxenite) and granite, and succeeded
by volcanic rocks earlier than those already described. Placers have
been worked for gold and platinum. These are being gradually
exhausted, but the production from lode mining is likely to increase.
Silver, copper, zinc and molybdenum are also found. Most of the
claims have been located in the metamorphic rocks.

Qiiebec.

No. 1028. Report on a recent discovery of Gold near Lake Megantic,
Quebec. — The locality is situated at Marsboro, about 71° W. longitude to
the west of Lake Megantic, and not far from the United States frontier.
Megantic, on the other side of the lake, is on the Canadian Pacific Rail-
way. The rocks are micaceous slates of Ordovician (" Cambrosilurian ")
age traversed by dykes of a fine grained slightly porphyritic granite, striking
N. 60° E. with the country. The gold is found in reticulated veins of
quartz in these dykes ; copper pyrites, pyrite and galena are also met with.
The dykes are probably connected with the granite boss known as
Big Megantic Mountain, which lies to the south-west. Copper is found
to the east of the lake.

JVova Scotia.

Department of Mines. Sunwtary Report o?t Exploration ift Nova
Scotia^ 1907- — Gives an account of visits to numerous localites in Nova
Scotia where developmental mining work is going on. At Londonderry
a deposit of haematite has been discovered on the west side of the
Great Village river; the body of ore is 18 to 20 feet wide in one
place where it has been opened up in a cross cut. An important
deposit of haematite occurs among the Silurian rocks of Meiklefield
in Pictou county, and is being worked. It contains 40 to 50 per cent,
of iron, but is high in silica. Large quantities of siliceous haematite
occur among these Pictou Silurian rocks, and will no doubt be used as
a source of iron in the future. Exploration among the bituminous
shales of Antigonish county has been renewed ; it is hoped that these
may prove rich enough in bituminous matter for utilisation as a source
of oil. Copper ore (chalcopyrite) has been found in several new
localities, but the development hitherto made does not seem to
promise persistent deposits.

Report of the Department of Mines for the year ended September 30,
1908. The coal raised during the year was 6,299,282 tons (gross), an
increase of 568,622 tons over the previous year, all the coal-producing
counties contributing to this increase. The development work and
output of each mine are described in detail.

The production of gold amounted to 11,990 oz. — 3,016 oz. less
than the previous year, and the lowest since 1881. This represents
59,797 tons of rock crushed, and an average yield of 4*02 dwts. per ton.
Arsenic, in addition to gold, is extracted by one concern. Iron ore to

234 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

the amount of 30,575 tons, copper ore, 1,200 tons, and auriferous
stibnite and gypsum were raised in small quantities.

An important discovery of tungsten ore, scheelite, has been made in the
western part of the Moose River Gold District. It occurs with quartz
and a little mispickel, in veins consisting of a series of lenses, varying
in composition from pure quartz to pure scheelite and pure mispickel,
and mixtures of the three in all proportions. An average sample of the
tungsten ore, admixed with quartz gangue, gave the following percentage
results on analysis : —

Silica, 29-29; tungstic acid (WO3), 44"io; lime, 1270; arsenic, 3-43;
sulphur, 1-46; oxides of iron and alumina, 770.

It is estimated that most of the veins will average from 30 to 50 per
cent, of scheelite.

Statistics of the mineral production for the years 1906-7 and
1907-8 are given.

GENERAL COLONIAL AND INDIAN PUBLICATIONS.

In the following paragraphs a summary is given of the more important
contents of the Chief Colofiial and Indian periodical ptiblications received
rece?itly at the Imperial Institute, in so far as these relate to agriculture
and to economic products and are likely to be of general ifiterest.

Uganda Protectorate.

Colonial Reports — Miscellaneous^ No. 57. — A report by the Governor
on a tour through the Eastern Province. This deals mainly with the
condition of the people in the districts passed through, but the following
matters of importance in connection with economic products are men-
tioned among others. There is a plantation at Kilele in charge of a
European, where Para rubber, cotton and cocoa are being tried. Near
Iganga, in Busoga, a great abundance of " Mvuli " trees occurs, and the
question of erecting a saw-mill in that district is being considered. It
is suggested that cocoa and coffee will probably do well in the valleys
of the Bagishu country. Experimental patches of cotton have been
established at the camps along the roads in the Bakedi country, and
these are doing well, and appear to have impressed the natives, since
the latter are asking for large supplies of cotton seed in this region, and
it is expected that there will be a large production of cotton in that
district in the near future.

Official Gazette, 1909, 2. No. 19. — Contains a report on an inspection
of some of the cotton districts of Bulemezi, showing that the plantations
there are in fair condition, though some of them have been rather badly
damaged by hail and subsequent attacks of the cotton aphis. No. 21
has a short note on a beetle pest at present attacking coffee in the
country, and suggesting the destruction of all affected fruit to prevent

General Colonial and Indian Publications. 235

the spread of the pest. No. 22 : In this is printed the quarterly report
on the Government tobacco plantations at Kampala, from which it
appears that the lower lying plots are suffering to some extent from
disease, but that the *' Turkish," " Cuban," and " Zimmer Spanish "
tobaccos planted on the higher lands are doing well, and are likely to
give good results. No. 24 contains a report on the Busoga Cotton Seed
farm, indicating that the soil and situation of the farm are well adapted
for cotton, and that insect pests have been practically overcome. During
last year a fungoid disease appeared in Uganda, attacking the leaves of
coffee bushes. It has been examined at Kew, and proved to be a new
fungus — ColletotrichuDi Coffece. Bordeaux mixture has proved effective
in arresting the spread of the disease, and cultivators are being urgently
advised to use this remedy. No. 25 : A considerable amount of attention
has been paid by the Agricultural Department to the improvement of
the beeswax industry during the last few years, and it is now recorded
that well-prepared wax of excellent quality is being made and sold to
traders in various districts. No. 26 contains, apart from official
notices, etc., the following articles of general interest. Sleeping sickness
(a memorandum by the Sleeping Sickness Commission of the Royal
Society, announcing a partial confirmation of Dr. Kleine's statement
that the "tsetse" fly, Glossina palpalis^ is capable of infecting a healthy
animal with trypanosomes, as long as 53 days after the fly has itself fed
on an animal suffering from trypanosome disease. The importance of
this observation, if it can be fully substantiated, as affecting measures
for stamping out trypanosome diseases, is emphasised) — Cotton industry
(calls attention to the fact that in Uganda there is a complete absence
of definite seasons, and consequently it seems likely that instead of
growing cotton according to the rules adopted elsewhere, it would be
better to sow small quantities of cotton seed continuously throughout
the year, and this method is now being recommended to the native
cultivators) — Insect pests of cotton (a short memorandum by the
Government entomologist, giving brief accounts of the habits of the
chief insect pests affecting cotton, and describing the remedies to be
used against them) — Report on an outbreak of disease among cattle on
the Namukekera Estate (a memorandum by the Sleeping Sickness
Commission, caUing attention more particularly to the need for
determining what insect serves as a host for Trypa7iosoma Dimorphon.

Nyasaland.

Government Gazette, 1909, 16. No. 3. — Contains supplement No. i
of 1909, entitled "Agricultural Impressions of the American Cotton
Crop," an article by the Director of Agriculture, which has been
published already in this Bulletin (1908, 6. 404).

Swaziland.

Colonial Reports, Annual, No. 596. — It is mentioned that the general
character of the native cultivation of the land is very poor, and that in

236 Bulletin of the Imperl\l Institute.

particular fresh seed of maize and Kaffir corn is badly required in order
to improve the quality of the grain produced. The Assistant-Commis-
sioner at Hlatikulu reports that in that district tobacco and sweet
potatoes are being grown by Europeans in addition to the usual crops
such as mealies (maize), ground beans, Kaffir corn, etc. Some attention
is also being paid to forestry, and up to date 35,500 seedlings, mainly
of eucalyptus and black wattle, have been planted out under Govern-
ment auspices, but of these only about 10,000 have survived recent
hailstorms and severe frosts. In the Peak District the experimental
cultivation of cotton is giving good results. The exports of the country
in 1907-8 were valued at ;£63, 148, and were made up mainly of
tinstone (;^49,568), fine gold (^13,203), and raw cotton ^353.
Tinstone is obtained in the Mbabane District and gold mainly in
Mbabane and the Peak Districts.

Northern Nigeria.

Colonial Reports, Annual, No. 594. — In the section relating to
" economics " the Governor of the Protectorate mentions that the staff
of the Forestry Department has been mainly engaged during the
year in work on the Lokoja Reserve, where nearly 100 acres have been
cleared and planted with rubber trees, viz. Funiumia elastica, Castilloa
elastica and Hevea brasiliensis, and a further 30,000 seedlings are stated
to be ready for planting next year. Rubber plantations have also been
started in Bassa Province and at Zungeru. Experiments in the cultiva-
tion of Manila and Sumatra tobaccos are being made at Lokoja.
Reference is made to the extensive area occupied by shea trees in
Bida and Zaria in the Upper Benue valley, and it is hoped that with
the opening of the Baro-Kano railway the seeds of this tree will be
collected and exported on a considerable scale. This new means of
transport will, it is considered also, materially improve the prospects of
the tin-mining industry in Bauchi Province. Among exports from
Northern Nigeria which passed through Idah station during 1907 were
cotton (^4,37i)» groundnuts {p£i4,4i3)» gum (^4,775), Palm kernels
(^22,609), rubber (^91,074), shea nuts (;£"4i,364), shea butter
(^i>759X tin (^13,832), capsicums (^^2,292), sesame seed (^'2,203),
and ivory {£']S2). Complete trade returns are not available, as these
are included with those of Southern Nigeria, but the foregoing figures
give an idea of the value of exports via the Niger. It is believed,
however, that exports of such staple products as groundnuts,
capsicums, shea nuts, etc., are on the increase.

Southern Nigeria.

Annual Reports, 1907. — The Commercial Intelligence Officer, report-
ing on the trade of the colony, points out that there was a considerable
increase both in the quantity and value of exports, principally of palm
oil and palm kernels, though cotton, cotton seed, mahogany, cocoa and
skins and hides also showed increases, whilst rubber and maize showed

General Colonial and Indl\n Publications. 237

a decline. The fall in rubber exports is stated to be due to restriction
of tapping in the Western Province. The groundnuts exported from
Southern Nigeria are at present almost wholly the produce of Northern
Nigeria, but with a view to extending production in the former colony,
the services of two expert cultivators of groundnuts from the Gambia
were secured by the Government to demonstrate methods of cultivating
this oil seed during 1908, and supplies of good seed are also being
obtained from the Gambia.

The Acting-Conservator of Forests' report commences with a series
of observations made by the forest officers in the Western, Central and
Eastern Provinces during the year. Particulars are then given of work
done in the various plantations and reserves in connection with forest
regeneration. In the Central Province there were, at the end of the
previous year, 1,050 plantations, containing 758,000 Funtui7na elastica
trees, and in 1907 no less than 579 new plantations, containing 234,878
of these rubber trees, were opened in addition to many private plantations
in the hands of natives and European trading firms. Considerable
extensions in plantations were also made in the two other provinces.
In the way of " minor forest produce" 6,384 lb. of camwood and 323
tons of ebony, all from the Eastern Province, 4,708 packages of
"piassava," mainly from the Eastern Province, and 52,819 lb. of copal,
chiefly from the Central province, were exported. Experiments in
the cultivation of various kinds of cotton, as well as with rice, jute,
guinea corn and groundnuts were made at Olokemeji, and in most
cases gave good results.

Govern?jient Gazette^ 1909, 4. No. 11. — Contains reprints of a series
of reports by the Imperial Institute on rubber, maize, dika nuts,
tobacco, okwen seeds and cotton, and an article giving hints on the
cultivation of peas, potatoes and melons at Ibadan. An experiment in
the cultivation of " Lagos white maize " was made at Olokemeji, using
120 lb. of ammonium sulphate and 26 lb. of potassium chloride per
acre as manure. A yield of 2,238 lb. of shelled maize per acre was
obtained as against 1,259 lb. in the case of an unmanured plot. The
cost in the first case was £2 45". lod., and in the second jQi 8i-. 10^.
1909, 4. No. 12 contains a report by the Commercial Intelligence
Officer on the cultivation of maize, cotton, etc. in the German colony of
Togoland.

Commonwealth of Australia.

Papua, Annual Report for 1907-8. — The Director of Agriculture
states that up to the present six government plantations, occupy-
ing in all 269 acres, have been formed. Of this area 184 acres
are planted with coco-nuts and 85 with Para rubber. The ordinance
compelling natives to plant coco-nut palms for their own use has led to
350,000 acres being occupied by this plant, which is one of the most
important sources of native food supply. Sago palms are thickly dis-
tributed in the Gulf and Western Divisions, and are used as sources of

238 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

sago employed as food by the natives. It is suggested that an export
trade in this product might be created without difficulty, as many of the
sago palm areas are readily accessible from the chief waterways. Special
attention is being given to sisal hemp at the Rigo Nursery and Experi-
ment Stations, and during the year under review 230,000 sisal hemp
plants were sold to settlers. The experimental cultivation of tobacco,
cotton, banana fibre and other economic products is also being under-
taken. In private plantations under European control rubber, coco-
nuts, sisal hemp and coffee are the chief products so far grown, though
attention is also being given to bowstring hemp, cotton, vanilla, tea,
cocoa, tapioca, cinnamon and tobacco.

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE.

New Books.

Eighth Report of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm.
By the Duke of Bedford, K.G., and Spencer U. Pickering, F.R.S.
Second impression, revised. Pp. 127. Ninth Report. By the Duke
of Bedford, K.G., F.R.S., and Spencer U. Pickering, M.A., F.R.S.
Pp. 95, with appendix. (London : The Amalgamated Press, Ltd.,
1908.)

The first of the two reports under notice deals exclusively with
investigations into the nature and action of fungicides and insecticides.
The most important work is that in connection with the well-known
fungicide, Bordeaux mixture, the chemical relations of which have been
very fully investigated. The results obtained are of considerable
practical importance, and it is desirable to refer to them in some
detail.

It has been found that when lime is added to a solution of copper
sulphate as many as six different substances may be present in the
Bordeaux mixture so formed. That present in the mixture made
in the ordinary way — by adding excess of milk of lime to copper
sulphate — is a basic double sulphate of copper and calcium. It is
known that the fungicidal properties of the mixture are due, in all
probability, to the action of pure copper sulphate, and the re-formation
of this substance has been shown to be brought about by the action of
the carbon dioxide of the air on the basic sulphates, forming sulphates
and carbonates of the metals. Before the basic sulphate of copper can
be attacked, however, the calcium salt must be decomposed, whence it
follows that a certain interval of time must elapse before the mixture
commences its action as a fungicide. The authors claim to enable this
obvious disadvantage to be overcome ; for it is pointed out that, if just
sufficient lime is used to precipitate all the copper, no basic calcium
sulphate is formed, and thus the copper salt is acted upon at once by
the carbon dioxide. There is a further advantage in the use of the

New Books. 239

reduced quantity of lime, inasmuch as the basic copper sulphate precipi-
tated is a less basic compound than that in ordinary Bordeaux mixture,
and liberates 2*5 times as much copper sulphate by the subsequent
action of the air. It follows that a mixture as efficient as that prepared
on the usual formula may be obtained while using only two-fifths of the
quantity of the relatively expensive material copper sulphate. The net
result of the investigation would appear to be the discovery of a more
economical formula, the use of which has the further advantage of
eliminating the latent period of action.

The report further contains the results of investigations into the
nature of emulsions. This research has resulted in the suggestion of
a class of emulsifiers, which may be used instead of soap in the pre-
paration of insecticides. Soap is unsatisfactory on account of the
tendency of the emulsions produced to become de-emulsified. The
agents recommended are the basic sulphates of copper, iron and some
other metals.

The Ninth Report is one which will probably attract a large amount
of attention and form the subject of much criticism at the hands of the
practical fruit grower. For the authors have again ventured to
demonstrate that, in the light of actual experiment, one of the most
strongly held articles of horticultural belief must be regarded as
fundamentally wrong. The subject dealt with is that of the planting of
fruit trees. The methods of "good practice" in this operation are
well known : it is rigorously insisted upon that the tree should be
placed in a large hole, the roots spread out separately in their natural
position, and all injury to them carefully avoided ; further, when arranged
in position, fine earth should be carefully sifted in among the roots ; and,
after the hole has been filled in, the soil should be firmly trodden down.

The report would indicate that the generally accepted method,
so far from being correct, is precisely such as to afford the least
satisfactory results. This conclusion is based upon experimental
evidence which appears to be of a very convincing character. Extend-
ing over a period of ten years, several hundred trials have been made
with over 2,000 trees planted in seventeen different localities in eight
different counties : " the weight of evidence thus accumulated should
be overwhelming, especially when . . . direct experimental evidence in
favour of orthodox methods is absolutely nil." The history of the
experiments is very interesting, and adds much to their impartial
character. In arranging at Woburn an object-lesson in tree-planting, a
number of apple trees were planted in orthodox fashion with the
intention of demonstrating the results of good planting ; while others,
intentionally planted in defiance of all canons of good practice, were to
afford evidence that bad planting must result in unsatisfactory growth.
The results, however, showed that the trees carelessly planted did better
than the trees planted in accordance with accepted ideas. The
experiments were then repeated on the extensive and varied scale
indicated above.

240 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

The final conclusions to be drawn from the experiments are that
what is usually held to constitute bad practice in tree-planting is not
only not deleterious to the trees, but generally results in a certain
amount of good. The immediate aim in planting is the abundant
formation of new fibrous roots, since the old fibrous roots are
inevitably rendered useless during the operation. The most potent
factor in this new root production is the closeness of contact between
the roots and the soil ; and to effect this the tree should be thoroughly,
even violently, rammed into the soil. The style of planting which
aims at avoiding all injury to the roots should not be regarded as good
practice ; for, in young trees, the finer rootlets may be removed with
advantage, and the cutting back of the larger roots for a short distance
results in benefit to the tree. Nor is it necessary to spread the roots
out in the hole, for they may be bunched together without any harmful
results. The practical man, however, will find comfort in the fact that,
if he is asked to believe orthodox methods are essentially wrong, one
item of recognised bad practice may be stricdy so regarded, since it has
been experimentally proved that the burying of the young tree too
deeply in the soil is to be sedulously avoided.

An appendix to the report consists of a series of scientific papers on
agricultural questions by one of the authors, reprinted from the Journal
of Agricultural Scie7ice.

La Production du Coton en Egypte. By Frangois Charles Roux.
Pp. viii. + 410. (Paris: Librairie Armand Colin, 1908.)

This work is divided into three parts. The first gives a historical
account of cotton cultivation in Egypt from the earliest times, the
second describes the climatic and other conditions existing in Egypt and
the methods employed in cotton cultivation, and the third discusses the
commercial aspects of the industry and the quantities of cotton and
cotton seed exported.

In an appendix to the volume is printed the report of the Com-
mission appointed in March 1908, by the Khedivial Agricultural
Society, to study the causes of the diminution in the yield of cotton per
feddan during recent years. The production steadily fell from an
average of 5*55 kantars during the three years 1895-7, to an average
of 4*28 kantars. in 1904-6. After considering the subject from
all points of view, the Commission concludes that the decrease in
yield is due to a combination of several causes, including the
deterioration of the soil, unsuitable irrigation and rotations, lack of
efficient drainage, deterioration of the plant, the ravages of insect pests,
and insufficient manuring, but that in the absence of statistics and
accurate scientific observations, it is not possible to state the proportion
in which each of these factors has contributed to the result. Recom-
mendations are made with a view of effecting the removal or mitigation
of these adverse conditions.

A second appendix gives a list of the Egyptian ginning factories.

New Cooks. 241

numbering loo, and the approximate annual output of each. A useful
bibliography is also provided.

The book contains a full and valuable account of the Egyptian cotton
industry, and will doubtless be of great assistance to those undertaking
the cultivation of Egyptian varieties in the Colonies or elsewhere, as
well as to those desiring general information on the subject.

Plantes a Parfums. By Paul Hubert. Pp. xii. + 610, with 172
illustrations. (Paris: H Dunod and E. Pinat, 1909.)

This book gives a general account of the source, preparation,
characteristics and appHcations of the principal substances of vegetable
origin which are used in perfumery.

In the first part of the work a short chapter is devoted to the
chemistry of the subject, a description is given of the methods and
machinery employed in the extraction of perfumes, and reference is
made to the utilisation of the products in the manufacture of various
essences, pomades, soaps, dentifrices and other preparations.

The second part deals with the raw materials, namely, roots, barks,
woods, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds, from which perfumes are
obtained. In the case of each product, the geographical distribution
of the plant and the composition of the odoriferous principle are given,
together with industrial and commercial details and remarks on
sophistication and adulteration. An account is also given of gum resins
and balsams, including benzoin, guaiacum, myrrh, olibanum, opoponax,
styrax, and Peru and Tolu balsams.

In the third part of the volume useful information is given with
reference to the French Colonies, including lists of the Official Services
and Colonial Departments, and of the Chambers of Commerce and
Agriculture, the addresses of the various societies founded for the
advancement of the Colonies, and lists of journals and reviews of
Colonial importance. Bearing in mind the special requirements of
those interested in perfumes and essences, the addresses are given
of importers of raw materials, of distillers and manufacturers of
perfumes, and of firms supplying the various materials and sundries
employed in the perfume industry.

The work is copiously illustrated and should prove of service to all
interested in perfumery, and especially to those engaged in, or proposing
to embark on, the perfume industries of the French Colonies.

The Fertilisation of Tea. By George A. Cowie, M.A., B.Sc.
Pp. 68. (London : Bale, Sons and Danielsson, Ltd.)

This book gives an account of the cultivation of the tea plant, based
chiefly on the work of Dr. Harold Mann and Mr. Kelway Bamber.

After referring to the different varieties of the plant, the climate and
soil best suited to its growth, and the methods of pruning, the author
proceeds to discuss its nutritive requirements. It is stated that the
recorded results of the analysis of tea leaves show that the principal

242 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

substances withdrawn by them from the soil are nitrogen, potash and
phosphoric acid. It is pointed out, however, that the composition of a
crop cannot be regarded as a sufficient guide to the appropriate manure
to be applied, but that the composition of the soil and the assimilating
power of the plant must also be taken into consideration. The principal
manures are reviewed, including stable manure, tea prunings and
artificial fertilisers. Among nitrogenous manures, the relative values of
ammonium sulphate, sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate are discussed.
With regard to potash manures, it is stated that potash exerts a marked
influence on the formation of tannin and is of great importance in the
production of high-grade teas ; the comparative advantages to be gained
from the use of potassium sulphate, chloride and nitrate, and kainit are
considered. The application of phosphatic manures, such as super-
phosphate, basic slag and crushed bones, is also dealt with. Several
pages are devoted to the question of green manuring, with special
reference to the suitability of Crotalaria striata^ Albizzta, dadaps and
groundnuts for the purpose. The work concludes with a series of
hints on the methods of applying manures to the tea plant, and an
account of some manurial experiments carried out in Ceylon on the
Pitakande Estate during 1 898-1 904. The book should prove very
useful to tea-planters.

The Cultivation and Preparation of Para Rubber. By
W. H. Johnson, F.L.S. Second edition. Pp. xii. + 178^ with 32
illustrations. (London: Crosby Lockwood and Son, 1909.)

Since this book was first issued in 1904 many changes have been
made in the methods employed in the cultivation and preparation
of Para rubber, and the demand for a second edition has afforded the
author an opportunity to rewrite and enlarge the volume so as to
include the recent developments. The book has been increased in
size from 99 to 178 pages and is in every respect a marked improve-
ment on the previous edition. It furnishes within convenient compass
a summary of information regarding the entire operations involved in
the establishment and maintenance of plantations of Para trees, with
estimates of the cost in Ceylon and Malaya ; the methods of tapping ;
and the preparation and marketing of the rubber. Attention is also
directed to the catch-crops which are most suitable for cultivation on
rubber plantations during the first few years, and to the value of the
seeds of the Para tree as a source of oil. The chapter dealing with
the various pests, insect and fungoid, which attack the Para tree has
been considerably extended and the collected information should prove
of service to the planter. Methods of combating the different pests
are given, as well as particulars regarding the composition of the usual
insecticides and fungicides. Chapters have been added on " Soils and
Manures," and on the " Production and Consumption of Rubber," as
affected by the rapid extension of plantations in the Far East. The
author estimates that the yield of rubber from cultivated trees in 1920

New Books. 243

will amount to at least 66,000 tons, a figure equal to the present total
production.

The information throughout has been carefully revised and brought
up to date, and the opinions of authorities in Ceylon and Malaya are
freely quoted. The illustrations include a number of useful diagrarns
showing model arrangements for an estate rubber factory, and also
representations of the tapping tools and machines which are at present
employed.

Wax Craft. By T. W. Cowan. Pp. 172, including index and
numerous illustrations. (London : Sampson Low, Marston & Co., 1908.)

This small book deals with the history, production, properties and
applications in various arts and crafts of beeswax; it also describes
briefly other waxes of animal, vegetable or mineral origin which are
occasionally used as adulterants of beeswax.

The book is well arranged, and contains in a convenient form a large
amount of useful information.

The Ore Deposits of South Africa. Part I. Base Metals. By
J.P.Johnson. Pp.61. (London: Crosby Lockwood and Son, 1908.)

This book gives a readable account of the distribution of the ores of
base metals in South Africa. It opens with a brief but clear and up-to-
date introduction on ore-genesis. Then follows a description of the
ores, those of each metal forming the subject of a separate chapter.
The metals dealt with in this way are nickel, copper, cobalt, tin, molyb-
denum, tungsten, lead, mercury, antimony and iron. The chapters are
subdivided according to localities, and in each case the character of the
ore and its mode of occurrence are briefly described.

The last chapter consists of hints to prospectors, including a brief
account of the commoner metalliferous minerals of economic value and
the tests by which they can be identified. It is unfortunate that the
author has contented himself with such a brief account of this part of
the subject, especially as he is evidently well qualified by reason of his
extensive experience in South African mining fields to treat it in a more
comprehensive manner.

The utility of the chapters dealing with the distribution of ores would
be considerably enhanced by a fuller statement as to the comparative
values of the different ores and the relative importance of the localities
concerned.

Occasional errors and misprints are noticeable; the formula for
cassiterite is given as SnO (p. 56), and in the statement on p. 53, that
garnierite is mixed extensively in New Caledonia, " mixed extensively "
should probably be read "mined extensively." The book is well printed
on good paper, and can be recommended to those who wish to become
acquainted with the extent of South African metalliferous mineral
resources excepting gold.

Mineral Resources of Canada. This book was published by the
Canadian Mining Journal to celebrate the visit of the British and

244 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Continental Mining Engineers and Metallurgists to Canada in 1908.
It contains a list of the economic minerals of Canada, statistics of
mineral production and particulars of the position of the industry in
each province. It is accompanied by a map of Canada on a scale of
100 miles to the inch, and coloured plates of minerals, which are in
many cases very effective.

The Handbook of Nyasaland. Comprising Historical, Statistical
and General Information concerning the Nyasaland Protectorate.
Pp. xi. + 292. (Zomba: The Government Printer, 1908.)

This handbook, of which the present is the first edition, is compiled
on the usual lines, and great care seems to have been taken in preparing
it, to include all the data that a settler or a visitor to the country is likely
to need.

In addition to the usual political, administrative and other general
information, special sections dealing with the topography, geology and
minerals, woods and forests, agriculture, mining, communications, etc.,
of the Protectorate are given. Of these the section on " woods and
forests" has been printed already in this Bulletin (1909, 7. 56-63), as
has also the greater part of the information given regarding live stock
{ibid. p. 48) and agriculture {ibid. p. 23). Mention may be made of
the " Notes " on tobacco cultivation and curing, with special reference
to the conditions prevailing in the Protectorate, which are published for
the first time in this handbook. These should prove useful to planters
engaged in this industry, which appears to be making rapid progress
in Nyasaland. The handbook is well illustrated with typical forest,
planting, and other scenes, illustrating life in the Protectorate.

The Far East Revisited. By A. Gorton Angier, with a preface by
Sir Robert Hart, Bart, G.C.M.G. Pp. xii. + 364. (London: Witherby
& Co , 1908.)

This book consists of a series of letters contributed by Mr. Angier to
journals, during a tour in the Far East. Its value at the moment lies
mainly in the fact that the author has visited many of the places he now
deals with on previous occasions, and is therefore in the fortunate
position of being able to indicate the changes which have occurred, and
the effects of these changes. From this point of view his discussion of
the increasing competition of other East Indian ports with Singapore
for the transit trade, more especially of the products of the Dutch East
Indies, his description of the altered conditions in the Philippines as a
result of their occupation by the United States, and his notes on the
Chinese Government's attempts to suppress the opium trade, are
particularly interesting. Incidentally a good deal of useful information
regarding the economic products of the various countries visited is
given, and in this connection reference may be made more particularly
to tobacco cultivation in Borneo, the iron ore and coal deposits of
Borneo, petroleum production in the Dutch East Indies, and so on.

New Books. 245

About two-thirds of the whole volume is devoted to China, Korea and
Japan, and the author has a great deal to say that is interesting
regarding the spread of education, developments in transport facilities
and similar matters, especially in China.

The book is written in a style which holds the reader's attention
without effort, and in view of the special interests which have centred
recently in the Far East it will no doubt secure a considerable public.
It is well printed and illustrated, and nearly free from misprints.

Neuseeland nach seiner Geschichte und seiner Natur, sowie

DER MATERIELLEN UND INTELLEKTUELLEN EnTWICKLUNG. InaUgural

Dissertation for the degree of doctor of philosophy in the University of
Bonn. By M. F. Blassneck. Pp. viii. + 139, with map and statistical
diagrams. (Bonn : Bonner Kunstdruckerei, Arthur Broch, 1908.)

This is an account of the history, material resources and educational
and social progress of the Dominion of New Zealand, the information
having been derived from numerous authorities cited in the biblio-
graphy and consulted at the libraries of the British Museum, Royal
Geographical Society and the New Zealand Government Offices in
London. The author does not appear to have visited New Zealand, or
to have examined specimens of all the economic products about which
he writes, although most of them are to be seen in London. Under
the circumstances, it would not be reasonable for English readers to
expect to meet with anything here, which is not to be found in other
publications. For the description of the physical geography and
geology, the writings of von Haast (a native of Bonn), Hutton, Hector,
von Lendenfeld, Hochstetter and others were consulted, and for the
flora, chiefly those of Hooker, Colenso, Kirk and Cheeseman. The
fauna and climate are briefly dealt with, as are also minerals, animal
products, and vegetable economic products, the latter including New
Zealand hemp, kauri resin, timbers and cultivated crops.

Nomenclature of South Australia. By Rodney Cockburn.
Reprinted from The Register^ The Adelaide Observer and The Evening
Journal. Pp. 150. (Adelaide: W. K. Thomas & Co., Printers,
Grenfell Street, 1908.)

This volume gives the meaning and origin of place-names of South
Australia, enumerating islands, capes, bays, harbours, valleys, rivers,
creeks, lakes, plains, mountains, counties, towns, streets and bridges,
bearing descriptive names given by natives and settlers, or the names of
explorers, governors and others. Many of the names are of interest in
connection with the history of the State, and each can be readily referred
to, as the arrangement is alphabetical and there is an index.

Les Touareg du Sud-Est L'Air. By Lieutenant C. Jean. Pp.
353. (Paris: Emile Larose, 1909.)

This book is intended, not as a literary effort, but rather as a plain
record of impressions received by a French military officer during the

246 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

course of an official journey of exploration. The main object of the
author has been to deal with the origin, present position and history of
the Touaregs, a tribe of great interest now inhabiting Air, a region
practically unknown in this country. The book, however, should appeal
to a wider circle of readers than to anthropologists, for a large pro-
portion of its pages is concerned with an account of French colonial
expansion in the southern Sahara, and with a discussion of the
importance of Air in the future development of French possessions in
that part of the world.

Air may be described as a mountainous oasis in the south-eastern
Sahara, some 300 miles north of Northern Nigeria, and about 700 miles
south-east of Tripoli. The capital is Agadiz, which forms an important
centre for the great caravan routes between Tripoli and Nigeria. The
inhabitants of the country during the fourth century were Hausas, whose
power was strengthened from time to time by the immigration of tribes
from the east and north. Among these tribes were the Touareg peoples,
who came from the mountainous districts of north Africa during the
eighth century. At the present day only one of the Touareg tribes
remains, viz. the Kel-Oui, the others having left the country as a result
of internal dissensions. The Touareg population amounts to 3,000
adult males.

The author has dealt very fully with the social organisation, customs
and manners of this people, but space does not permit of following his
remarks in detail.

The sections devoted to the trade and resources of the country are of
much interest. Air is essentially a country of traders, and Agadiz
flourishes as a centre of caravan routes. The greater part of the caravan
trade is in connection with the transport of salt from Fachi and Bilma
to the Hausa country, and of leather, ivory and ostrich feathers from
Northern Nigeria to North Africa. Owing to the aridity of the country,
practically no cultivation exists except in the deepest valleys and in
sheltered gardens, where almost negligible quantities of millet, sorghum
and maize are raised. The principal indigenous plants are the date
and Doum palms, a species of Tamarindus, and several species of
Acacia, the seeds of which are largely used as fodder for the camels.
Grasses are very scarce, a fact which is responsible for the usually poor
condition of the horses. The principal wealth of the people lies in their
camels, cattle, goats, sheep and horses, these possessions, together with
salt, being exchanged with the traders for cereals, pulses, tobacco, dyes,
cotton, and other necessaries of life. The industries are few, the only
one of importance being the manufacture of matting and mats from the
leaves of the Doum palm. This material is largely used by the caravan
traders as a bale-covering, especially for the transport of Bilma salt,
and the industry is said to be relatively remunerative. A small amount
of pottery is also made.

The book is illustrated with numerous photographs, and provided
with an original large-scale sketch map of the Air country.

New Books. 247

Le Pays Mossi. By Lucien Marc. Pp. viii. + 187. (Paris: Emile
Larose, 1909.)

In this volume the author has attempted to bring together all
available information relating to the Mossi and the country they
inhabit. He has drawn upon all sources for his material, from the
legendary accounts to be found in the records of early Portuguese
traders to the travel-books of the most recent explorers. A con-
tinuous residence of five years in the region in question has enabled
him in large measure to account for the conflicting statements which
have been made with regard to the Mossi peoples and their country,
and to add much information which is published for the first time.

The Mossi country, which may be roughly described as the central
portion of the Niger basin, is situated immediately to the north of the
Gold Coast and Togoland. The total area is approximately 80,000
square kilometres, and the inhabitants, a negro people remarkable
for their industry, cheerful disposition and courtesy to strangers,
number over three millions. The author describes the geographical
features and climate of the country, giving the results of a series of
observations on the variations in the rainfall in different parts of the
Niger basin. The density of the population is treated of at some
length, and special reference has been made to the distribution of the
different tribes and to their social and political organisation.

In dealing with the agricultural resources of the country the author
has given a very interesting account of the flora based upon cecological
considerations. The region is characterised by immense plains clothed
with vegetation of a savannah type. In the dry season the plains
present the appearance of barren wastes, which are covered during the
rains with a luxuriant plant-growth largely composed of giant grasses.
At all times, however, the aspect is one of unbroken monotony, and the
author repeatedly emphasises the resemblance to the Bahr-el-Ghazal in
both general and botanical features.

The natives are essentially an agricultural people, and it is estimated
that over 60,000 square kilometres are under cultivation. In the
southern districts a regular system of manuring is carried out. The
principal crops raised are sorghum, millet, and maize : the sorghum
is of two varieties, a white variety used for making bread, and a red
variety used in the manufacture of beer and for feeding cattle. Rice
is grown on a small scale, but is used as food only by the better class
of natives. A large number of legumes are cultivated, and the
principal oil-seeds are the shea-butter nut, groundnut, and sesame.
Other plants regularly cultivated are cotton, indigo, Hibiscus canna-
hinus (as a source of fibre) and tobacco. Experimental gardens have
been established at all important posts since the effective French
occupation, and the work already accomplished appears to be of
considerable promise.

The author concludes that, with its large industrious population of
agriculturists, the Mossi country has every prospect of a prosperous future.

248 Bulletin of the ImperL'^l Institute.

Sciences biologiques et Colonisation. E de Wildemann. Pp.
38. (Bruxelles: Maison d'edition, Castaigne, 1909.) In this brochure
M. de Wildemann discusses the application of the biological sciences
in " the development of the natural resources of extra-European pos-
sessions," for it is in this restricted and unusual sense that he employs
the word " colonisation."

He first of all emphasises the necessity for scientific work in con-
nection with the development of tropical colonies, particularly in
agriculture, and quotes British, German, French, and other authorities
to show that this fact is being increasingly recognised by the chief
colonising powers.

The greater part of the pamphlet is, ho\yever, taken up with
advocating the development of teaching institutions, in which officials
and others, before proceeding to take up appointments in tropical
possessions, would receive during a definite period systematic instruction,
which would include a course in tropical agriculture.

He gives a resume of the courses of instruction in " colonial
subjects " now available in the German universities and high schools,
etc., and refers briefly to the colonial schools existing in France,
Belgium and Holland, mainly with a view to pointing out the lack
of any unity of plan in instruction of this kind as at present given.
The pamphlet will no doubt direct attention to these important
subjects, but it would have served the purpose better if a more complete
account had been given of the work already dene in these two
directions in the principal colonising countries, and if the author had
made definite suggestions as to how, in his opinion, the methods of
work peculiar to each country could be developed or improved to fulfil
the objects he has in view.

So far as Belgium is concerned, M. de Wildemann advocates a
certain amount of instruction in colonial matters in all the schools
of the country, and the establishment of a few institutions in which
persons proceeding to the colonies could receive instruction in such
subjects as will be of special importance to them in colonial life.
In this course of instruction it is suggested that biological science
and its application, e.g. in agriculture, should occupy an important
part.

New Journal.
Bulletin of the Sleeping Sickness Bureau. (Royal Society,
Burlington House, London, W., 1908.) The first number of this
publication was issued in October of last year, and new numbers have-
been published monthly since that date. The first Bulletin deals with
the chemo-therapy of sleeping sickness and gives a summary of the
information available regarding the treatment of the disease in man by
various drugs, the tendency shown by trypanosomes to accommodate
themselves to these drugs, and other cognate matters. In the second
part the diagnosis of sleeping sickness in the human subject, the

Library. — Recent Additions.

249

methods by which the disease is transmitted, and the incubation period
in man are discussed. The third Bulletin gives a full account of
Glossina palpalis^ the insect generally regarded as the means by which
the disease is communicated to human beings and animals, the
distribution, life history, and habits, etc., of the insect being fully
discussed. An account is also given of the preventive measures
possible against the spread of the disease, with notes as to the success
or failure, which has attended these where tried. The fourth number
gives summaries of the results contained in a number of papers
published recently on various phases of the disease and its treatment,
and these are continued in Bulletin No. 5, which, however, also gives
summaries of information on the development of trypanosomes in
"tsetse flies," "methods of transmission," etc. These Bulletins and
other publications on the same subject may be obtained on application
to the Director of the Sleeping Sickness Bureau at the address given
above.

LIBRARY.— RECENT ADDITIONS.

Books J etc,^ exclusive of periodical Government Puhlicatiojis^ presented to the
Library of the Imperial Institute since February 15, 1909. The
names of donors are printed in italics.

India,
"The Times of India" Directory for

1909-

The Asylum Press Almanack and Direc-
tory of Madras and South India,
including Burma, 1909.

The Imperial Gazetteer of India (new
edition). Vol. xxv. Index. Vol. xxvi.
Atlas.

Thacker's Indian Directory for 1909

Australia.
Nomenclature of South Australia

Sands' Sydney, Suburban and Country

Commercial Directory for 1909
Walch's Tasmanian Almanack for 1909.

Forty-fifth Annual Report of the Welling-
ton Chamber of Commerce
Rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula, N.Z. .

( The Secretary of State for
I?tdia.)

By Rodney Cockburn.
{Messrs. W. K. Thomas &-
Co.)

{Messrs. John Sands, Ltd.).
{The Agent General for
Tasma7iia.)

{The Secretary.)
By Professor Sollas, F.R.S.
{The High Commissioner for
New Zealand.)

250 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Canada.
Documentary History of Education in
Upper Canada (Ontario), Vol. xxvii.,

1875-1876 By J- George Hodgins,

I.S.O., M.A., LL.D.
{The Hon. the Minister of
Education,)
Graphite Concentration . . . . By H. P. H. Brumell.

{The Author)
Journal of the Mining Society of Nova
Scotia. Vol. xiii. Being the Trans-
actions of the Society during the year
1908-1909 ...... {The Secretary)

The Nitrogen Compounds in Rain and

Snow By Frank T. Shutt, M.A.,

F.LC.
The Mineral Constituents of the Ottawa

River Water, 1907 By Frank T. Shutt, M.A.,

and A. Gordon Spencer,
M.Sc.
{The Royal Society of
Canada.)
Thirty-ninth Annual Report of the Royal

Bank of Canada, 1908 . . . {The General Manager.)

South Africa.
The Transvaal and its Mines. (The

Encyclopedic History of the Transvaal.) Edited by L. V. Praagh.

{The Agent General)
Transactions and Proceedings of the
Geological Society of South Africa,
Vols. X. and xi. .... {The Secretary)

Investigations into the Physical Composi-
tion of some Cape Colony Soils . . By Charles F. Juritz, M.A.,.

D.Sc, F.LC.
{The Author)
Cape of Good Hope Civil Service List,

1909 {The Colonial Secretary.)

The Ore Deposits of South Africa, with
. a chapter on Hints to Prospectors.
Part I, Base Metals . . . . By J. P. Johnson.

{Messrs. Crosby Lockwood 6^
Son)
The Handbook of Nyasaland, comprising
Historical, Statistical, and General In-
formation concerning the Nyasaland
Protectorate, 1909 . . . . {The Government Secretary.)

Library. — Recent Additions. 251

Wesf hidies.
An Almanack for 1909, with a Guide to

the Bahamas, Customs Tariff, Directory,

etc. ....... {The Colonial Secretary^

The Handbook of Jamaica for 1909 . {The Crown Agents for the

Colonies?)

Straits Settleme?its.
Report of the Singapore Chamber of , •;

Commerce and Exchange for the year
1908 ....... {The Secretary.^

Gibraltar,
The Gibraltar Directory for 1909 . . {The Colonial Secretary)

Ceylon.
Note on Dr. Otto Stapf s Nomenclature of *
" Cymbopogon Nardus," Rendle, and
C. Confertiflorus, Stapf . . . By J. F. Jowitt.

{The Author)

United Kingdom.
Newspaper Press Directory, 1909 . . {Messrs. C. Mitchell ^^ Co. ^
Proceedings of the Royal Society of

Edinburgh, Vol. xxix. Parts 2, 3,

and 4. ...... {The Secretary.)

Return of the Trade of Swansea Harbour . •

for the year ending 31st December,

1908 . . . . . . . {The Trustees.)

Metropolitan Borough of Battersea :

Annual Report of the Council for the

year ended 31st March, 1908. With

Appendices {The Town Clerk)

The Stock Exchange Official Intelligence,

19-09 {The Secretary)

Paper Makers' Directory, 1909 . . {Messrs. Marchant Singer

6- Co)
Proceedings of the Anglo-Russian Literary

Society for February, March and April,

1909 {The Hon. Secretary.)

Catalogue of the Roman Pottery in the ?'

British Museum, 1908.
Supplementary Catalogue of Sanskrit,

Prakrit, and Pali Books in the British

Museum, 1892-1906 . . . . {The Trustees of the British

Museum)
Report of the National Physical Labora-
tory for the year 1908.

252

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Collected Researches of the National
Physical Laboratory, Part V. 1909

Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England, Vol. 69, 1908 .

A Few Notes on Varnishes and Fossil
Resins ......

The Houblon Family : Its Story and
Times. (In two volumes) .

Germany.
Jahresbericht der Deutschen Gerberschule
zu Freiberg, No. 20 .

Italy.

Pel Quarto Anno di Vita Relazione del
Presidente Senatore Giacomo de Mar-
tino e Programma di Lavoro (1909) .

La Canfora Italiana ....

Japan.
Annual Report for the year 1908 and
Minutes of the Annual General Meet-
ing, 1909, of the Yokohama Foreign
Board of Trade

Portuguese East Africa.
Delagoa Directory, 1909. A Year-book
of information regarding the port and
town of Louren90 Marques

Madagascar.

Notes Biologiques sur la Vegetation du
Nord-Ouest de Madagascar. — Les Ascle-
piadees. (Extract from "Annales du
Musee Colonial de Marseille.")

Le Genere Plectaneia de Madagascar.
(Extract from "Annales du Musee
Colonial de Marseille.")

Les Baobabs du Nord-Ouest de Mada-
gascar. (Extract from "Annales du
Musee Colonial de Marseille.") .

{The Director.)

{The Secretary.)

By R. Ingham Clark, F. L.S.,
F.R.G.S.

{Messrs. Pratt 6^ Lambert^

By Lady Alice Archer

Houblon.
{Ernest A. Wallis Budge,

Esq., Af.A., Litt.D.,

F.S.A.)

{The Di7-ector.)

{Instituto C 0 Ionia le Italiano. )
By Professor Italo Giglioli.
{The Author.)

{The Secretary^

{Messrs. A. W.Bayly d^ Co.)

By MM. H. Jumelle and H.

Perrier de la Bathie.
{M. H. Jumelle.)

Library.— Recent Additions. 253

United States.
Report of the Michigan Academy of

Sciences, 1894 to 1908.
Publications of the Michigan Political

Science Association, Vol. ii., No. 8.

Vol. iii., No. 8. Vol. iv., Nos. i, 3, 4,

and 6. Vol. v., Nos. 2, 3, and 4.

Vol. vi., No. I.
Geological Survey of Michigan, Vol. v.,

1881-1893; Vol. 7, 1896-1900; Vol.

viii.. Part 3 on Marl; Vol. ix., 1903-

1904.
Report of the State Board of the Geological

Survey of Michigan, 1903 to 1906.
Geological Report on Bay County . . {The Director of the Uni-
versity of Michigan.)

BULLETIN

OF THE

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

1909. Vol. VII. No. 3. .

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
DEPARTMENT.

RECENT INVESTIGATIONS.

The following summaries have been prepared from a selection of
the Reports made by the DirectSr of the Imperial Institute to
the Colonial and Indian Governments concerned.

RUBBERS FROM SOUTHERN NIGERIA.

The following specimens of rubber from Southern Nigeria
have been examined recently at the Imperial Institute : —

FUNTUMIA ELASTICA RUBBER.

Three specimens of this rubber, prepared in biscuit form, were
forwarded by the Provincial Forest Officer at Benin City for
comparative examination.

"A. Biscuit rubber made from F. elastica, under supervision
of A. H. Unwin, Provincial Forest Officer, Benin City." Weight,
I lb.

The specimen consisted of rough sheets of rubber, varying in
colour from light to dark brown, clean, and well prepared. . The
rubber exhibited good elasticity and tenacity. ...

256

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

An analysis of the rubber showed it to have the following

composition

Moisture .
Caoutchouc
Resin
Proteids .
Ash .

Rubber as
received.

Composition of
dry rubber.

Per cent.

Per cettt

1-6

—

87-9

89-4

8-5

S'6

1-6

0-4

0'4

The rubber was valued at 3^-. 2d. to 3^-. ^d. per lb. in
this country, with fine hard Para rubber at 4^. 6d. per lb.,
and Benin lump rubber at 2s. to 2s. id. per lb. on the same
date.

"B. Biscuit rubber made from F.elastica^ by Igodaro, Deputy
Forest Ranger, Benin City." Weight, i lb.

Sheets of rubber similar to sample A, but rougher and darker
in colour.

The rubber had the following composition : —

Rubber as
received.

Composition of
dry rubber.

Per cetit.

Per cent.

Moisture .

—

Caoutchouc

8r6

87-9

Resin

8-3

8-9

Proteids .

2-3

2-4

Insoluble matter

0-8

Ash .

0*40

0-43

The specimen was valued at 3^-. to 35-. 2d. per lb. in this
country, with fine hard Para at 4^. 6</. per lb., and Benin lump
rubber at 2s. to 2s. id. per lb.

" C. Biscuit rubber made from F. elastica by the natives, and
sold by them to the Factory, Benin City." Weight, I J lb.

Coarse sheet rubber, of uneven thickness, dark colour, and
not thoroughly dried. The rubber was a little weaker than the
other samples.

The results of the chemical examination were as follows : —

Rubbers from Southern Nigeria. 257

Rubber as Composition of

received. dry rubber.

Per cent.

Moisture .

8-4

—

Caoutchouc

. 787

85-8

Resin

8-3

9*1

Proteids .

2-8

3'i

Insoluble matter

2'0

Ash .

0-63

0-69

The rubber was valued at 2s. Zd. to 2s. gd. per lb. in this
country, with fine hard Para at 4s. 6d. per lb., and Benin lump
rubber at 2s. to 2s. id. per lb.

The results of the investigation show that these three samples
of Funtumia rubber are of very fair quality, and it is evident
that if prepared in this form the rubber will realise much higher
prices than ordinary Benin Lump rubber.

Sample A, prepared under the supervision of the Forest
Officer, was the best of the series, both as regards chemical
composition and appearance, but was closely followed by B.
Sample C, prepared by the natives, contained a larger amount
ofproteid and insoluble matter than the other two specimens,
and the percentage of caoutchouc is correspondingly reduced ;
it was also much rougher in appearance and had not been dried
so thoroughly. For these reasons its value is a little lower than
that of the other samples.

The preparation of Funtumia rubber in the form of sheets is
a great improvement on the usual native methods, and should
be encouraged as far as possible.

BENIN LUMP RUBBER.

Two specimens of this rubber have been examined : —

(i) "161 B." Weight, 8i lb.

The sample consisted of two large lumps and one thick
■"biscuit" of rubber, which were dark coloured and dirty ex-
ternally, but white, porous and very moist within. The rubber
was soft and had a very disagreeable odour ; its physical
properties were, however, fairly good.

A chemical examination gave the following results : —

258 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Moisture .
Caoutchouc
Resin
Proteids .
Insoluble matter

Ash

Rubber as
received.

Composition of
dry rubber.

Per cent.

22-3

—

63-8

82-1

6-%

5-1

e-e

2-0

2-6

0-63 0-82

The rubber was valued at is. lod. to is. wd. per lb. in this
country, with fine hard Para quoted at 3^-. "^hd. per lb.

This sample is an average specimen of ordinary " Benin
Lump" rubber.

(2) " 161 C. Ugege tree and vine rubber." Weight, 7 lb.

The sample consisted of three large and three small lumps,
which were all dark coloured and dirty externally. Some of
the lumps were fairly dry throughout, whereas others were white
and very moist internally. The rubber was rather weak and
" dead " ; it had a very unpleasant odour.

The results of the chemical examination are given in the
following table : —

- ■ - ■ Rubber as Composition of

received. dry rubber.

Per cent. Per cent.

Moisture ... . 6*5 —

Caoutchouc . 58*9 630

Resin .... 197 2ri

Proteids .... 7-2 77

Insoluble matter . 77 8-2

Ash ..... 1-57 1-68

The rubber was valued at is. 6d. per lb. in this country, with
fine hard Para quoted at 3^-. ^^d, per lb.

This is a sample of ordinary "dead" Benin Lump rubber,
containing a large percentage ojf resin.

" UBABIKPAN " RUBBER {CLITANDRA ELASTICA).

The specimen, which weighed 5| lb., bore the following
label:—

" No. 2. ' Ubabikpan ' rubber from Clitandrd elasticar'

Rubbers from Southern Nigeria. 259

It consisted of 18 "biscuits" of rubber ranging from 3 to 6
inches in diameter, and from f to ij inch in thickness. The
biscuits, which were covered with mould on arrival, varied from
brown to black externally, and many of them were white and
moist within when freshly cut. The rubber was free from
stickiness, and exhibited good elasticity and tenacity.

The composition of the rubber was found to be as follows : —

Moisture .
Caoutchouc
Resin
Proteids .
Insoluble matter

Ash

Rubber as
received.

Composition of
dry rubber, ■

Per cent.

5-2

—

857

90-4

3-8

4-0

3-0

3-2

2-3

2*4

0*40 0*42

The rubber was valued at 2s, M, to 2s. lod. per lb. in this
country, with fine hard Para quoted at 3^. ^^d. per lb.

The results of the chemical examination are very satisfactory,
the percentages of resin and proteids being low. The rubber
would be improved in quality if the "biscuits" were made
thinner and were more thoroughly dried.

RUBBER OF THE "MARODi" VINE.

The specimen was labelled " Rubber from * Marodi.' A. H.
Unwin, No. 269" ; and weighed 5f oz. It was a thick, rough
biscuit of brown rubber, about 6 inches in diameter, and from f
to J inch thick. The rubber was dry, well prepared, and
exhibited very satisfactory physical properties.

A chemical examination furnished the following results : —

Moisture . , j.-,;- .. .j,

Caoutchouc . >-.;}:>;: i,!
Resin ....
Proteids . ..>.u^-,%\ \r,

Insoluble matter .

Ash . . . ; : ^iJ/.; 0-63 0-69

Rubber as
received #

Composition of
dry rubber.

Per cent.

2 "4 ::.-i

f-../, ■ — ' ■

^'^'Z ■

. . 8o-8

5-2

5-3

9'3

9-5

4*3

4*4 V

26o Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

The sample was valued at 2s. 6d. per lb. in this country with
fine hard Para from South America quoted at ^s. id. per lb.

This " Marodi " rubber is of very fair quality, and consign-
ments of similar character would be readily saleable. The per-
centage of proteids is rather high, and the amount of caoutchouc
is correspondingly reduced.

The Forest Officer stated that botanical specimens of the
" Marodi " vine had been forwarded to Kew for determination,
but it appears that they arrived in such bad condition that
identification was impossible.

RUBBER OF FICUS VOGELII FROM THE GAMBIA.

The results of a previous examination at the Imperial
Institute of a sample of the rubber of Ficiis Vogelii, Miq.,
from the Gambia, showed that the product was of resinous
nature, but that it might be suitable for certain technical pur-
poses. Larger specimens were, therefore, requested in order
that manufacturing trials might be made, and as a result the
samples dealt with in this report were forwarded for further
examination.

Description of Samples.

No. I. From the Kommbo district. Weight, 15 lb.

The sample consisted of two large balls of pale brown scrap
rubber, which contained a fair amount of vegetable impurity.
The rubber was slightly moist in places and obviously very
resinous ; its elasticity and tenacity were poor.

No. 2. From the Bathurst district. Weight 81 lb.

This consisted of a number of thick cakes of rubber, which
were very dark externally, but slightly moist and reddish-brown
within. The rubber obviously contained a large amount of
resin and exhibited poor elasticity and tenacity.

Results of Examination,

The results of the chemical examination of the rubbers are
given in the following table : —

Rubber of Ficus Vogelii from the Gambia. 26:

Samples as received.

Composition

of dry rubber.

No. I.
Per cent.

4 '4
58-0

33-8

I '4
2-4

No. 2.
Per cent.

7 '3
61 -2

29-5

1-2

0-8

1 No. I.
Per cent.

' 6o-6

; 35-4

1-5
2-5

No. 2.
Per cent.

Caoutchouc

I "4
0-9

Proteids .... ....

Insoluble matter

Ash

0-5

I "3

0-6

I '4

It will be seen from these figures that the two specimens are
similar in composition, but No. 2 is slightly superior in quality to
No. I.

Technical Trials.

The two samples of rubber were submitted to rubber manu-
facturers for technical trial and commercial valuation, with the
following results : —

One firm reported that after a careful examination they found
that the rubber from the Bathurst district (No. 2) is somewhat
better than that from the Kommbo district (No. i). The loss
on washing was 6*2 per cent, in the case of the former, and 7*1
per cent, in the latter. They valued the washed rubber from
No. 2 at \s. \\d. per lb., and that from No. i at is. yd. per lb.,
with fine hard Para rubber quoted at 2s. gd. per lb. (Nov. 1908).

A firm of cable manufacturers reported that this rubber could
not be employed for their purposes, but might be useful in other
branches of the industry. They stated that the rubber is very
sticky in working and possesses very little elasticity or resilience ;
the, stickiness, moreover, increases as the rubber is worked.

Conclusions.
These two samples of Ficus Vogelit rubber correspond fairly
closely in composition with the previous specimen forwarded
from the Gambia to the Imperial Institute. It is evident that
the rubber is of very resinous character, the three samples
examined containing 29*9, 35-4 and 31*8 per cent., respectively,
of this constituent, but the results of the manufacturers' trials
show that the product could be utilised for certain technical pur-
poses, and that if well prepared it will realise a very fair price in

262

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

the market. The tree, therefore, appears to deserve attention
in those countries where it is sufficiently abundant to furnish
commercial supplies of rubber.

VAHEA RUBBER FROM SEYCHELLES.

Two specimens of rubber derived from a species of Landolphia
(Vahea) have been examined at the Imperial Institute. The
plant, which is a vine, was introduced into Seychelles from
Madagascar, and is stated to grow luxuriantly, but the cost of
preparing the rubber in a clean form is practically prohibitive.
The results of the investigation will, however, be of interest.

"No. I. Vahea rubber obtained by pounding the bark."
Weight, 12 oz.

An irregularly-shaped piece of dark-brown rubber, resembling
scrap rubber in appearance, and containing a considerable
quantity of bark. The rubber exhibited good elasticity and
tenacity. The results of the chemical examination were as
follows : —

Moisture
Caoutchouc .
Resin
Proteids
Insoluble matter

Ash

Rubber as
received.

Composition of
dry rubber.

Per cent.

2-2

—

. 817

83-5

. 5-2

5*3

1-8

. 9-1

9*4

I-I

I'l

The value of the rubber was given as probably about 3^-. per
lb. in London, with fine hard Para quoted at 4$-. yd. per lb.

This rubber is of good quality, the only defect being the
large amount of vegetable impurity present in it owing to the
method of preparation.

" No. 2. Vahea rubber obtained by tapping." Weight, i oz.

A small biscuit of clean brown rubber, the physical properties
of which were very satisfactory.

Goats' Hair and Mohair from Uganda. 263
The composition of the rubber was as follows : —

Moisture . .

Caoutchouc . • .

Resin . . . • .

Proteids , ; .

Insoluble matter . .

Ash . . '. . . • 0'3 0-3

The specimen was valued at about 4^. to 4^. 3</. per lb. in
London, with fine hard Para quoted at 4^-. yd. per lb.

The rubber prepared in this form is of much better quality
than No. I, owing to the absence of vegetable impurities, and
would realise a higher price. The results of the analysis are
very satisfactory, but it is noteworthy that the percentage of resin
is considerably higher than in No. I.

Rubber as
received.

Composition of
dry rubber.

Per cent.

Percent. .

■ 3-2

—

88-0

90-9 '.

7-9 •

0-8

0-3

04 ••

GOATS' HAIR AND MOHAIR FROM UGANDA.

goats' hair.

A SAMPLE of goats' hair was received from Uganda for ex-
amination in August 1908. The material consisted of small,
somewhat matted locks of straight hair, which were generally
black but occasionally tinted reddish-brown towards the tips.
The hair was lustrous, strong and wiry, generally from 3 to
9 inches in length and from 00015 to 0*0045 inch in diameter,
with an average diameter of 0*0027 inch.

Goats' hair is used as a substitute for horse hair in the manu-
facture of hair-cloth for upholstery, and also as curled hair for
stuffing purposes. For the former purpose the longest hairs only
are utilised, whilst the short fibres are made into curled hair. '

A sample of the hair was submitted to commercial experts,
who reported that the market value of the material was from 4^d.
to 4^d. per lb., delivered in this country (December 1908).

The hair appeared to be a much better type than Afghan and
other goats' hair which comes into the United Kingdom, and it

264 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

somewhat resembled an inferior kind of mohair. Material of
this quality would meet with a fair demand. It was suggested
that a trial shipment of the hair should be sent for sale in order
to test the market.

In continuation of this inquiry, two further samples of goats'
hair were forwarded in January 1909, which were described as
having been clipped from native long-haired goats.

No. I consisted of small, somewhat matted locks of straight
hair, generally yellowish-white in colour, but occasionally of a
light reddish-brown tint towards the tips. The hair was strong
and fairly lustrous, from 4 to 10 inches in length, and from.
O'OOi/ toO"0035 inch in diameter, with an average of 0*0022 inch.
The hair was submitted to commercial experts, who valued it at
4d. to 4id. per lb. (April 1909). Apart from the difference in
colour, this sample was generally similar to the previous one
from Uganda, but was rather finer and somewhat less wiry.

No. 2 consisted chiefly of yellowish-white hair, with a small
proportion of brown and black hair. The material was not very,
lustrous, but was strong and wiry. The length varied from 3 to
6 inches, and the diameter from 0'0020 to 0*0047 inch, with an
average of 0*0033 inch. The hair was rather short and therefore
less valuable than sample No. i, being regarded by experts as
worth $^d. to 4^. per lb. (April 1909). Probably, however, if
equal in length to sample No. i, it would have been more
valuable than the latter, as its wiry nature renders it specially
suitable for the manufacture of hair-cloth and curled hair.

Goats' hair similar to the present samples would probably be
readily saleable in England, and it was again recommended that
trial consignments should be forwarded for sale.

MOHAIR.

Three samples of mohair were received from Uganda in
January 1909. , . —

Nos. I and 2 consisted of the fleeces of pure-bred female
Angora goats, imported from America, representing approxi-
mately eight months' growth of hair, whilst No. 3 consisted of the
fleece of a second-cross male Angora goat, about one year old.

No. I. This mohair was rather dirty, but when scoured was
found to be generally of a satisfactory pale cream to white

Goats' Hair and Mohair from Uganda. 265

colour, though occasionally somewhat yellowish at the tips. It
was lustrous and of good strength. The length of the fibres
varied from 6 to 8 inches, and their diameter from 0*0009 to
0*0019 inch, with an average of 0-0013 inch. These measure-
ments do not differ greatly from those of a standard Turkish
mohair with which the sample was compared. The material
was submitted to commercial experts, who valued it at 9^. to
g^d. per lb. (April 1909). It was of fair average quality, and
would be quite saleable in this country. Hair of a full year's
growth, however, would have been of greater length and
therefore more valuable.

No. 2. This sample closely resembled No. i. It was of
about the same length, but slightly finer, the diameter being
from 0*0008 to 0*0019 inch, with an average of 0*0011 inch.
The commercial value of this mohair was from ghd. to ibd.
per lb. (April 1909).

No. 3. This mohair was somewhat discoloured, but on
scouring, proved to be of an even pale cream colour. It was
not very lustrous, but was of good strength. The length varied
from 2. to 8 inches, and the diameter from 0*0007 to 0*0022 inch,
with an average of 0*0013 i^ich. Some much coarser fibres,
about 0*0040 inch in diameter, were also present. The com-
mercial experts valued this hair at 6^d. to yd. per lb. (April
1909). It was distinctly inferior to samples Nos. i and 2, being
shorter and generally not so fine, and containing a quantity of
very coarse hair.

From the examination of these samples it is evident that
mohair of very promising quality can be produced in Uganda,
but it' is certain that unusual care will have to be taken in
breeding the Angora goats in order to establish and maintain
a satisfactory flock.

It should be specially noted that the value of mohair increases
with the length, and therefore, whenever possible, it should be
allowed to grow for a full year before being clipped. This
course is sometimes impracticable on account of an inherent
tendency of cross-bred Angoras to shed their hair periodically,
but as the breed becomes purer this tendency will lessen, and it
will then be possible to obtain mohair of the maximum yearly
growth. >,o* J,, .

266 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Mohair should be of good lustre and fine silky quality.
These characters can only be attained by always breeding from
the best goats, and by fresh importation from time to time of
the finest blood that can be obtained.

At the time of the valuation of these three samples from
Uganda, standard mohairs were quoted at the following prices :
Turkish "average" I4j^. per lb.; Cape "firsts" iij^. per lb.;
Cape " winter " g^d. per lb.

There appears to be little doubt that mohair such as the
present samples would be readily saleable in this country, and
it was pointed out that it would be advisable to arrange, if
possible, for a trial shipment to be made.

Further information on the subject of mohair and its production
will be found in this Bulletin (1906, 4. 150).

TOBACCOS FROM NYASALAND. ; ' :

Some account has been given already in this Bulletin
(1909, 7. 27), of the success, which has attended the experiments
on the production of " barn-cured " pipe tobaccos in Nydsaland.
Samples of these tobaccos have been received recently at the
Imperial Institute for examination and valuation, and the results
of this work are now published for general information.

The five tobaccos dealt with in this report were received from
the Acting Head of the Agricultural, Forestry and Botanical
Department of Nyasaland in September 1908.

No3. I, 2 and 3 were stated to have been grown on the
Mikalongwe Estate, Midima; No. 4 was grown on the Makungwa
Estate, Cholo; whilst No. 12 was obtained from the Chitakali
Estate, Mlanje.

' DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES.

No,\. ''Bright leaf tobaccor— Two "hands" of pale orange-
yellow tobacco of uniformly thin texture. The leaves were on
the average 22 inches in length and 11 inches wide at the
broadest part.

No. 2. ''Mahogany leaf tobacco r — A single hand of tobacco
having the characteristic " mahogany " colour, viz., pale yellow
to bright orange-brown. The average length of the leaves was

Tobaccos from Nyasaland. 267

from 22 to 23 inches, and the width at the broadest part 8 to 9
inches.

No, 3. "Dark leaf tobacco r — Two hands of tobacco varying in
colour from drab-yellow to rather dull-brown. The average
length of the leaves was about 17 inches and the width at the
broadest part 7 J inches. .

No, 4. ^^ Bright tobacco." — Two hands of bright tobacco similar
in appearance to sample No. i, but the leaves were rather
smaller and also somewhat lighter in colour. The average length
was 17 inches and the width at the broadest part 6 J to 7 inches.

No. 12. "Bright Virgi?tia tobacco'' — A single hand of bright
tobacco somewhat similar to No. 4. The average length was
17 inches and the width at the broadest part 8 to 9 inches.

All the samples burned fairly well and gave off a smoke of
pleasant aroma, which, however, differs slightly from that of
American tobaccos of similar types, and recalls to a certain
extent the aroma characteristic of South African tobaccos
(so-called " Boer " tobaccos). Of the five samples No. i burned
most freely and "held fire " for the longest time. Nos. 4 and 12
burned less freely and the smoke from these was the least
pleasant of the series. No. 3 was but little superior in burning
quality to Nos. 4 and 12.

RESULTS OF ANALYSES.
Nos. I, 3 and 12 were selected for analysis and gave the
following results, expressed as percentages of the material as
received.

No. I.

No. 3. No. 12

Moisture .

9-9

8-9 d>'^ .

Total alkaloids ("

Nicotine") .

I -2

2*2 15

Total nitrogen .

1*3

2-2 1-5

Ash

•

I4;4

8-1 87

Percentages of
chief constituents, of ash.

Potash, KgO .

30-0

22-8 32-6

Lime, CaO

•

17-4

36-3 26-8

Magnesia, MgO

9-3 8-8

Chlorine, CI

0-4

2-2 0-3

Sulphuric anhydride, SO3 . .

1-9

37 2-2

26S Bulletin of the Imperl\l Institute.

The results show that on the whole these tobaccos are of satis-
factory composition. The percentage of moisture is somewhat
low, but this is inevitable in small samples transported without
the special precautions taken in exporting tobacco on the large
scale. The amount of " nicotine " is in all three cases noticeably
small and lower than the average found in American tobaccos of
similar type, though smaller amounts than those found for these
Nyasaland tobaccos have been recorded frequently for commer-
cial tobaccos. The total nitrogen is also satisfactorily low. The
amount of ash in No. i is normal, but the quantities found for
Nos. 3 and 12 are below the average.

In examining the ash from these tobaccos attention was paid
only to those constituents, which are recognised as of prime im-
portance in their influence on the burning quality of tobacco.
Briefly stated the effects of these are now generally believed to
be as follows : Potash is advantageous ; lime is without influence
except when present in excess, when it is deleterious ; magnesia
is slightly deleterious ; and sulphuric anhydride and chlorine
exert a marked deleterious action. It must be understood, how-
ever, that the composition of the organic matter of the tobacco
has also considerable influence on the burning quality, so that
the latter is the resultant of many influences, which cannot all be
taken into account.

The results of the ash analyses of these Nyasaland tobaccos
show that they are all moderately high in potash and low in
those constituents which exert a deleterious action, and this is
particularly the case with No. i, which, as indicated above, burns
most freely and holds fire the best of the series.

COMMERCIAL VALUATION.

Samples of the five tobaccos were submitted to two firms of
tobacco-manufacturers for commercial valuation. The first firm
reported that the tobaccos, so far as appearance went, compared
favourably with similar types of American tobaccos, but that the
flavour was different and this would lower the commercial value,
unless the flavour proved on trial to be popular.

The second firm valued the samples as follows : No. i at gd
per lb.. No. 2 at gd. per lb.. No. 3 at yd. per lb.. No. 4 at 5^. per
Jb., and No. 12 at 6d. per lb., though they stated that with small

''Ebony" from the East Africa Protectorate. 269

samples these prices could only be regarded as approximate and
that bulk consignments of like quality might realise ^d. per lb.
more or less than these values.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.
The examination of these Nyasaland tobaccos indicates that
they are of particularly promising quality and that a considerable
measure of success has been achieved in the solution of the diffi-
cult problem of producing, in a new country, so far as tobacco
production is concerned, types of tobacco similar to those in
demand in Europe. The appearance of the tobacco, which is a
very important matter, is regarded as satisfactory by the firms
consulted. The characteristic aroma and flavour produced when
these tobaccos are burned, which are slightly different from those
of similar American tobaccos, will probably prove the chief diffi-
culty in the way of finding an extended market for them in
Europe.

"EBONY" FROM THE EAST AFRICA
PROTECTORATE.

The " ebony " dealt with in this report was forwarded to the
Imperial Institute from the East Africa Protectorate in January
1909.

It was stated to have been cut from a tree, which was rather
above the average size of the trees occurring in the district round
Mombasa. It was a roughly-squared piece of timber, about 30
inches long, 13 inches wide, and 5 inches thick, which consisted
principally of heartwood, dark brown to black in colour, with a
layer of white sapwood at the sides not more than half-an-inch
wide. There was a rather prominent split at the centre of each
end. The wood was very hard and heavy.

The timber was submitted to experts, who reported that it
was a good specimen of " African Blackwood," and that wood of
similar character would be readily saleable. Logs for export
should be 3 feet or more in length, and about 8 to 16 inches in
diameter including the sapwood. Such timber, if fresh, sound,
and generally well grown, should realise from £6 to £y per ton
in London.

270 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

There is a fluctuating demand for smaller and more defective
wood, but the price for this is sometimes as low as £2 \qs. per
ton, and it is advisable for exporters to confine their attention
to the larger and better class wood.

Herbarium specimens of the tree yielding this timber were
forwarded to Kew from the Protectorate, and have been identified
as Dalbergia melanoxylon^ Guill et Perr.

Information received subsequently from the acting Chief
Conservator of Forests shows that this tree is plentiful in the
open scrub country of the Coastal districts of the Protectorate,
so that the timber is available in large quantities for export.

ECONOMIC PRODUCTS FROM FIJI.

A number of mineral and vegetable products have been
received recently at the Imperial Institute from Fiji for ex-
amination and valuation. Brief reference has been made already
in this Bulletin (1908, 6. 443) to the agricultural experiments in
progress in this Colony, and several of the products now reported
on are the outcome of these experiments. Some of these
materials were exhibited at the Franco-British Exhibition last
year, and samples of all of them are now shown in the Fiji
Court of the Imperial Institute.

^ COCOA.

Cocoas grown on two different estates were received.

Desa-iption of Samples.

A. " Cocoa from Lami." The beans were rather variable in
size, and some were shrivelled ; the husks were of dull brick-red
colour due to " claying."

B. " Cocoa from Levuka." The beans were variable in size,
and many were shrivelled. The husks were pale to reddish-
brown in colour, and were not " clayed."

Commercial Valuation. , .,^^^ ^ ^^ :

The cocoas were submitted to commercial experts for valuation
with the following results :—

Sample A. One firm reported that this cocoa had a dark

Economic Products from Fiji. 271

*' break " and a poor flavour ; they valued it at about 54r. to
5 5 J", per cwt. in London (May 1909).

A firm of manufacturers considered that this sample had been
spoilt in preparation, being apparently too highly fermented.
They described it as having a very dark break and a poor
flavour, and valued it at S2s. per cwt. (May 1909).

Sample B. This cocoa was described as having a rather dull
red, thin skin and a good palish break. It was valued at from
yos. to 72s. per cwt. in London (May 1909).

These valuations indicate that sample A is a distinctly inferior
cocoa, and would realise low prices on the market, whereas
sample B is of very good quality, and would fetch almost the
same price as superior Trinidad, Caracas, or high-class Ceylon
cocoa.

CASSAVA STARCH.

The material received consisted of clean white starch, free
from visible impurity and without noticeable odour or taste.
An analysis gave the following results : —

Per cent.

Starch 84-8

Moisture .... . . I4'9

Ash . . 0-2

The prp,dugt ,is, ,therefore, of high purity.

Commercial Valuation.

Cassava starch is not yet well known in this country, and
the present specimen was, therefore, submitted to experts in
various branches of industry in which raw starch is used, in order
to determine its utility and value as a substitute for the better-
known starches in common use. The following information has
been obtained regarding the suitability of the starch for various
manufacturing purposes. ,-,^, j,.,,

Laundry purposes. — The experts consulted on this point state
that they have already tried cassava starch on several occasions
for laundry work, and found that it did not compare well with
the rice starch now in general use. A test made with the present
sample from Fiji confirmed their opinion.

Glucose manufacture. — Cassava starch is quite suitably (PJ^ fWs

2/2 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

purpose, but in this country it would have to compete with low-
grade sago and tapioca flours and with maize. The former
contain 60 to 70 per cent, of starch, and realise £^ to £6 per ton,
so that clean cassava starch is not likely to be worth more than
£^ per ton for the manufacture of glucose. If this Fiji cassava
starch could be placed on the market at this price, a firm of
glucose manufacturers offered to take a trial consignment of 50
to 100 tons.

Sizing Yarn. — As the result of comparative tests with cassava
and potato starches as sizes for cotton yarns, it was stated that the
former would not be a good substitute for potato starch, but that
it could probably be used in place of sago. The Fiji starch
being of good colour and yielding a viscous paste with water,
would probably be very useful for dressing or finishing fabrics.

General purposes. — A firm of brokers stated that there was
at one time a good demand for cassava starch in Manchester
and Liverpool at £\^ to ;^I5 per ton, and they were of opinion
that this Fiji product would at present fetch about that price as
a manufacturing starch if placed on the market in quantity.

GROUND-NUTS.

The sample consisted of large ground-nuts, some of which
contained two kernels and others only one. Those containing
two varied in length from V2 to vZ inch, and those with one
from o*8 to ri inch. The kernels were from o-6 to vo inch
in length, and formed 75 per cent, of the total weight of the
nuts. On extraction with solvents 49* i per cent, of oil was
obtained from the kernels. This represents a good average
yield of oil, and compares well with that given by the ground-
nuts of commerce.

The sample was too small for satisfactory valuation, but it is
probable that the kernels would fetch about the normal price
for decorticated ground-nuts of good quality, viz. £\^ to £\^
per ton in London.

CASTOR-OIL SEED.
Three varieties of these seeds were received : —
I. " Fiji castor-oil beans, Mexican variety." These were
small, dark-brown and mottled.

Economic Products from Fiji. 273

2. " Fiji castor-oil beans, Mexican variety." These were large
white seeds, mottled with dark brown.

3. " Fiji castor-oil beans, Hawaiian variety." These were
medium-sized dark brown mottled seeds, similar to No. i, but
larger.

The percentage of oil in each variety was determined with the
following results : —

Variety No. i No. 2 No. 3

Pel' cent. Per cent. Per cent.

Yield of oil . . 47*4 49-6 48-5

These percentages agree with the average figures recorded for ,
castor-oil seed, which usually contains from 46 to 53 per cent, of
oil. The slightly greater yield from the larger seeds (Nos. 2
and 3) is no doubt due to the fact that in these cases the
proportion of kernel to husk is greater.

Castor-oil seed as represented by these samples would probably
realise from £(^ to £g \os. per ton in London.

FIBRES.

Ramie.

The samples consisted of four bundles of scraped ramie
ribbons, which were labelled respectively, '^ Boehmeria nivea,
grade I," ^^ Boehmeria nivea, grade II," '' Boehmeria te)iacissima,
grade I," and " Boehmej^ia tenacissima, grade 11." There were
also two bundles of degummed fibre labelled "Ramie fibre,
B. nivea " and " Ramie fibre, tenacissima." Each sample
weighed about 2 ounces.

The specimens were all clean and well prepared, but those
marked "Grade II" were somewhat inferior in these respects
to those marked " Grade I." Compared with ramie fibre from
Fiji previously examined at the Imperial Institute (see this
Bulletin, 1908, 6. 389), the present samples were longer, varying
generally from 4 feet to 5 feet, and the ribbons were much
broader, being half-an-inch or more in breadth, whereas the
previous samples consisted of very narrow ribbons.

Although somewhat different in appearance from both hand-
scraped China grass and the ramie ribbons from Fiji previously
examined, the present samples were nevertheless of good quality,

2/4 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

and would probably approximate in value to hand-scraped China
grass, which was quoted in London at £21 to £2J per ton in
December 1908.

Aloe Fibre.

The sample weighed 7 ounces and consisted of light buff-
coloured fibre, of excellent lustre, perfectly cleaned and prepared,
and of very good length (about eight feet).

It was quite similar to Mauritius hemp from Fiji previously
examined at the Imperial Institute (see this Bulletin, 1908, 6.
388), but was longer and a little coarser. The latter character-
istic was probably due to the greater age of the leaves from
which the fibre was prepared.

The fibre was valued at about £^\ per ton, as compared with
good average Mauritius hemp at ;^22 io.$". per ton.

DAMMAR A VITIENSIS RESIN.

The resin as received consisted of a large mass of uniformly
yellowish-brown material, which was opaque throughout but
showed occasional semi-translucent streaks. It had a slight
odour recalling that of turpentine oil and contained, here and
there throughout the mass, small pieces of reddish-coloured
bark.

Results of Analysis.
The resin furnished the following results on examination : —

Ash ...... o"o6 per cent.

Melting point * . . . . 110° to 115° C.

Acid value f . . . 157

The resin was partially soluble in turpentine oil or benzene,
and completely soluble in a mixture of turpentine oil and
alcohol, but was almost insoluble in ether, chloroform or alcohol
alone.

The foregoing results are of interest as showing that this
resin somewhat resembles the Manila and Macassar copals of
commerce, especially in its range of solubility. Manila copal is

■'^ Determined on the powdered resin in a capillary tube,
t Milligrams of potassium hydroxide per gram of resin.

Economic Products from Fiji. 275

stated to be derived from Daimnara orientalis {Agathis loranthi-
folia), of which D. vitiensis (A. vitiensis), the source of the
present sample, is a near relative.

Comrnercial Valuation.

A portion of the resin was submitted to a firm of varnish-
makers, who reported that it partly resembled Manila copal, and
that its commercial value when scraped and cleaned would be
from 30J. to 35^-. per cwt, unless the bulk of the resin obtainable
differed in colour from this sample. In view of these results
this material may conveniently be known as " Fiji Copal."

It is essential that resins of this type should be carefully
prepared before shipment. Copal resins are usually broken up,
cleaned and graded before export, unless, like Sierra Leone
copal, they are obtained naturally in clean " tears." In the case
of this Fiji copal the masses should be broken up into roughly
cubical pieces of about i inch to i J inch side. Each piece should
be examined, and any bits of bark or other impurity removed
and rejected. Similarly, any pieces of resin which differ
markedly in colour from the bulk should be removed and dealt
with separately. The pieces of resin from the outside of the
original mass should either be placed together and sold as a
separate lot, or, if mixed with the rest, should first have the
original external surface scraped, to present a fresh, clean
surface. Any " small " or " dust " resin formed in the process
should be placed together and sold separately.

MINERALS.

Copper Ore.

The specimen received was a mixed sulphide copper ore,

containing a certain amount of siliceous impurity. An analysis

of a carefully prepared and representative sample of the ore

gave the following results : —

Copper .... 40-30 per cent.

Gold . . . . 2 oz. 16 dwts. per ton.

Silver . . . . 3 oz. 11 dwts. per ton.

Copper ore containing 40 per cent, of the metal would realise,
at the present time, about ^^"19 per ton c. i. f. at United Kingdom

2/6

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

ports, whilst the amount of gold found in the above analysis
would be worth, after extraction, ;^io i/j. <^d. per ton of ore.
The silver present would add little to the value of the ore.

The specimen represents a comparatively rich ore, but no
information is at present available as to the locality from which
it was obtained or the extent of the deposit, so that nothing
can be said as to the economic importance of this material.

Marl.

Two minerals, described as " soapstones," were forwarded for
examination from Fiji in 1907.

The samples, which weighed about i lb. each, were labelled as
follows : —

" A. Soapstone, Fiji. Surface, Government Office Yard."
"B. Soapstone, Fiji, 6 feet below surface, Suva."

The two samples were similar in appearance and character.
They were not soapstones, but may both be classed as marls.
They consisted of volcanic dust containing felspar, hornblende,
magnetite, and mica, together with a considerable quantity of
the remains of calcareous and siliceous organisms; some un-
broken foraminifera occurred in both samples.

Chemical examination of the samples gave the following
results : —

'A."

"B."

Per cent.

Ferric oxide

Fe,03

5-40

7*54

Alumina

AI2O3

12-08

16-49

Lime .

CaO

19-24

1277

Magnesia

MgO

6-95

578

Potash . .

K2O

1-23

1-64

Soda . .

Na20

1-23

2-72

Nickel oxide

NiO

trace

Silica .

SiO^

30-41

38-56

Phosphoric acid .

P2O5

trace

Loss on ignition .

H2O + CO2

23-28

14-32

The results of these analyses warrant the classification of
these products as marls. They could be used as pozzuolana
for the production of hydraulic cement, as a considerable

Chromite Ore from the Transvaal 277

amount of calcium carbonate is present in each. After burning
like ordinary limestone and mixing with water " A " " sets " like
hydraulic lime, but "B" shows only slight hydraulicity under
this treatment, due probably to deficiency in lime, and good
results should be obtained by calcining the earth represented by
" B," and then mixing with an equal quantity of slaked lime.

The materials would be of little value for manurial purposes,
but might be used with advantage for " marling " and " claying "
sandy soils, which are not naturally retentive of water or where
such treatment is otherwise desirable. Used thus in large
quantities some benefit would doubtless also accrue from the
small amount of potash present in the earths.

CHROMITE ORE FROM THE TRANSVAAL.

This ore was forwarded to the Imperial Institute by the
Government of the Transvaal in September of last year, and was
stated to have been obtained near Jachtlust. The material
consisted chiefly of chromite, with some impurity in the form of
pyroxene and felspar. Three out of the four lumps constituting
the sample contained only a small amount of impurity, partly
pyroxene and partly felspar, and had a specific gravity of about
4*35. The fourth lump had a specific gravity of about 4*10 and
contained a considerable amount of impurity, which was nearly
all pyroxene.

As the sample contained two qualities of ore these were
separately analysed, and gave the following results : —

1st quality.

2nd quality.

Per cent.

Pir cent.

Chromium sesquioxide

Cr^Og

• 47-0

38-4

Ferrous oxide

FeO

. 23-99

21-5

The first quality ore is a marketable product, and would have a
value in this country of about £1 ^s. per ton, c. i. f (March 1909).
The second quality ore would probably be saleable, but its value
would be only about £2 \os. per ton, c. i. f , which is the current
rate for an ore containing 40 per cent, of chromium sesquioxide.

2/8 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

LATERITES FROM THE CENTRAL PROVINCES
OF INDIA.

The investigation of the laterite deposits of India was com-
menced by the Geological Survey of India in 1903, and, as
some of the specimens collected during 1903-04 were found to
contain high percentages of free alumina, proposals were made
to the Government of India (i) that certain promising deposits
of laterite, which were being quarried for road metal, should be
protected ; (2) that the information obtained up to that date
should be published for the information of those likely to under-
take more detailed prospecting operations ; and (3) that large
specimens should be sent to the Imperial Institute for report
and for exhibition.

The Government of India having sanctioned these proposals in
December 1904, small consignments of the most promising
exposures of laterites were collected, and the first instalment of
these was forwarded to the Imperial Institute in February 1905.

The observations of the Geological Survey had shown that
an enormous quantity of highly aluminous laterites would be
obtainable by simple quarrying in parts of the Central Provinces.

It was thought that if the extraction of alumina from this
laterite could be carried out on the spot, the purified oxide would
command a price which would meet transport charges either for
export or for the manufacture of aluminium or its compounds in
India.

Description of Samples.

Before describing the specimens received, it should be ex-
plained that some ambiguity at present attaches to the use of the
term laterite, and it is necessary to explain the sense in which
it is used in this report.

At one time laterite was used to designate any accumulation
of ferruginous weathering products found in tropical countries.
This wide and somewhat indefinite application of the term, which
is still adhered to in some quarters, frequently means that
ordinary clays, sands, and gravels, rich in iron oxide, are spoken
of as " laterites."

Investigators, who have paid special attention to this subject,

Laterites from the Central Provinces of India. 279

have, however, in recent years tended more and more to restrict
the name laterite to weathering products characterised by the
presence of free aluminium hydroxide, and it is in this sense
that the term is used in this report. Laterite, as thus defined
when rich in aluminium hydroxide, resembles the "bauxite"
of commerce.

Specimen No. i. Wri. — Warjhori, 2 miles S.S.W. of Rupjhar,
Baihir tahsil, Balaghat District, Central Provinces. This specimen
consisted of a large block of laterite weighing over one hundred-
weight. Its colour varied from whitish or light yellow to red,
the distribution of the more ferruginous material giving it a
mottled appearance. Cellular cavities occurred, some of which
contained colourless crystals.

No. 2. Rjp. — \\ mile E.N.E. of Rupjhar, Baihir tahsil, Balaghat
District, Central Provinces. This consisted of a large block of
laterite weighing over one hundredweight. It had a mottled
appearance, and varied in colour from light yellow to dull red.
Minute crystals of various other minerals were present.

No. 3. Rjp. — \\ mile E.N.E. of Rupjhar, Baihir tahsil, Balaghat
District, Central Provinces. A block of laterite weighing about
half a hundredweight. Most of the material was of very light
colour, compact, and had a distinctly pisolitic structure. Small
crystals of other minerals were present.

No. 4. Wrj. — Warjhori, 2 miles S.S.W. of Rupjhar, Baihir
tahsil, Balaghat District, Central Provinces. A lump of laterite
weighing about 20 lb. It was light yellow with dark-red fer-
ruginous segregations. The specimen was fairly compact and
amorphous, but showed colourless crystals in the cavities of the
mineral.

No. 5. Smr. — West side of scarp, north of Samnapur, Baihir
tahsil, Balaghat District, Central Provinces. Consisted of a block
of laterite weighing about 40 lb. It was minutely pisolitic and
of a light terra-cotta colour.

No. 6. Smr. — West side of scarp, north of Samnapur, Baihir
tahsil, Balaghat District, Central Provinces. A block of laterite
weighing about 20 lb. It was compact and of nearly uniform
terra-cotta colour.

These samples have been examined ift the Scientific and
Technical Department, and have furnished the following results.

28o

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

No attempt has been made to estimate traces of rare elements^
which are generally present in residual minerals of this
description.

Aluminium oxide, AlgOg
Ferric oxide, FegOs . •
Manganous oxide, MnO
Magnesium oxide, MgO
Titanium oxide, Ti02
Silicia, SiOo . . .

Potash, K2O . . .
Soda, NagO . . .
Combined water, HgO
Moisture ....

No. I.

No. 2.

Per cent.
53-52
10-58

o-6i

6'22

1-83

0-30

0-89

24-04

0-91

Per cent.
56-63

5*34
trace

7-02
2-65
0-I2
0-39
27-14
0-86

No.

Per cent.

58-83

2-70

10-24
0-58
0-12
0-13

26-80
0-40

Per cent.

54-95

7-00

trace

13-76
0-37
0-06
0-36

22-76
I-I4

Per cent.

54-12

4-06

trace

0-33
11-82

1-54
0*07
0-14
26-87
0-65

No. 6.

Per cent.
52-1.4

7-55
trace

11-66
060
0-13
0-21

27-09
0-71

The analyses of these laterites show percentages of alumina
varying from 52 to nearly 59, calculated on the samples as
received. By calcination the water would be driven off and the
percentages of alumina would then be increased to the following
figures : —

No. I. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6.

AI2O3 71-2 jZ'6 808 72-2 747 72-2

Previous analyses of laterites from the Balaghat District are
referred to in the Records of the Geological Survey of India,
Vol. xxxii, page 179. The following figures may be quoted for
comparison with the preceding table : —

Aluminium oxide, ALO3
Ferric oxide, FcgOs •
Calcium oxide, CaO .
Magnesium oxide, MgO
Titanium oxide, TiOg
Silica, Si02
Water, H2O . .

A noteworthy feature of all these analyses is the comparatively
large amount of titanic oxide found.

These laterites compare very favourably with the " bauxites "

Rupjhar,
Balaghat
District.

Samnapur,
Balaghat
District.

Per cent.

5 1 -62

54-20

. . 5-52

4-02

5-25

—

7-51

12-21

0-05

1-55

. . - 30-72

27-93

Laterites from the Central Provinces of India. 281

placed on the English market. A series of specimens of the
"bauxites" of commerce, received recently at the Imperial
Institute, were found to have the following approximate
compositions : —

AI2O3.

FeoOs.

Si02.

TiOs.

Combined
water.

Moisture.

Irish bauxite from Co.

Antrim

Gibbsite from Arkansas .
White bauxite from the

South of France . . .
Red bauxite from the South

of France

9
9
3

6
2

4
2

21
28

5
5

In the Indian laterites the percentage of silica is low in
comparison with the above figures. This feature is of great
advantage in the extraction of alumina by Bayer's process, as
will be shown later in this report.

The chemical properties of the laterites may be stated, briefly,
as follows. The powdered material is readily attacked by dilute
sulphuric acid, leaving a residue containing most of the silica
and part of the titanium oxide. As the solution contains the
greater part of the iron, this method could not be utilised for the
manufacture of aluminium sulphate. The finely-ground mineral
is also readily attacked by a solution of caustic soda or potash.
The insoluble residue in this case contains the whole of the
ferric and titanic oxides. After calcination the mineral is still
soluble in caustic alkali, though not quite so readily.

The commercial method of extracting alumina from " bauxite "
for the ultimate manufacture of aluminium formerly consisted
in calcining it with a mixture of caustic soda and sodium car-
bonate. The melted mass, when extracted with water, gave a
solution of sodium aluminate from which the alumina was
precipitated by passing in a current of carbon dioxide.

C. J. Bayer's modification of the process (Eng. Pat. 10,093,
July 13, 1887) consisted in the precipitation of aluminium
hydroxide without carbonating the lye. The solution of sodium
aluminate formed by extracting the above-mentioned "melt"
with water is very unstable, and, if simply agitated or allowed to
stand, aluminium hydroxide separates and the separation con-

282 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

tinues until the proportion of AI2O3 to NagO is 1:6. If the pro-
portion of AI2O3 to NagO in the original solution is 1:2 a
permanent solution is obtained, and precipitation does not take
place unless precipitated aluminium hydroxide is introduced, or
formed by passing in a little carbon dioxide, when the action
proceeds until the i :6 stage is reached.

On a commercial scale the precipitation is carried out in a
series of iron cylinders each provided with a number of helical
blades for agitating the liquid. The top of the first cylinder is
connected by a pipe with the bottom of the next, and so on.
In starting the operation aluminium hydroxide is placed in the
first cylinder, and the sodium aluminate solution is passed
through in a constant stream.

A further advance was made by C. J. Bayer (Eng. Pat. 5296,
March 17, 1892) by utilising the mother liquor containing i
molecule of AI2O3 to 6 molecules of NagO from the process
above described, for the direct solution of the alumina in
" bauxite." The mother liquor is concentrated to about "jj" to
88° Tw., fresh quantities of finely-ground bauxite are introduced
and the liquid is then heated to about 160° to 170° C. in closed
vessels, the pressure developed being 3 .to 4 atmospheres. The
materials are used in such proportions as to produce a solution
containing i molecule of alumina to about 1*8 of sodium oxide.
The solution is then treated as before in the precipitating tanks.

When silica is present in the " bauxite " the lyes gradually
become exhausted, and numerous patents have been taken out
for processes designed'to eliminate silica, or prevent its solution.
Many of these appear to be of doubtful utility. Bayer's method
consisted in carbonating the lye, and recrystallising the sodium
carbonate formed, which was then rendered caustic again in the
usual manner.

Aluminium hydroxide, prepared by the process described, is
often known as "crystalline" hydrated alumina, and is in a
condition in which it can easily be filtered and washed. These
two operations are generally carried out in centrifugal machines.

For the manufacture of aluminium by the electro-metallurgical
process, complete dehydration of the hydroxide is necessary,
and for this purpose several special furnaces have been devised
for calcining the hydrated alumina at high temperature.

Laterites from the Central Provinces of India. 283

One used by the Soci^td Metallurgique Frangaise (Fr. Pat.
364,736, March 29, 1906) consists of a series of ovens divided
into horizontal chambers, which are worked in succession. The
principle on which the ovens are constructed is that the hydrated
alumina, which is spread out in thin layers, remains stationary,
while the zone of combustion is progressively moved forward as
the contents of each chamber become completely calcined. The
furnaces are fired with gas.

In applying any of these processes to the Indian laterites many
of the details would have to be worked out experimentally on
the spot.

An electro-metallurgical process of obtaining pure alumina
for the manufacture of aluminium has been patented by C. M.
Hall, Niagara Falls, U.S.A., English Patent 14,572, August 14,
1900. In this process the " bauxite " is mixed with a small pro-
portion of carbon, and is then calcined. Sufficient carbon is
afterwards added to bring the proportion up to 8 or 10 percent. ;
a quantity of aluminium powder is also added in stated proportion
to the ferric oxide, silica and titanic acid present in the ore.
The mixture is charged into an electric furnace and kept at an
intense heat for a considerable time in order that the impurities
(iron, silica and titanium) may be reduced and form an alloy
with a small proportion of aluminium which, sinking to the
bottom, can be removed.

' In a second patent (C. M. Hall, Niagara P^alls, U.S.A., Eng.
Pat. 2,260, January 28, 1902) aluminium is not employed, but
if the " bauxite " is deficient in ferric oxide, sufficient iron is
added to alloy with the silicon and titanium. The mixture is
heated below the point of fusion, allowed to cool, and the parti-
ally purified alumina broken and reheated till it fuses. The two
operations are conducted simultaneously in one furnace consist-
ing of an inner and an outer chamber. The process was reported
to have been carried out successfully with a current of 7,200
amperes at 50 volts.

A similar process (French Patent 344,549, July 4, 1904) has
been adopted by the Societe • Anon. Electro-Metallurgique, in
which pure alumina is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture
of ferro-chromium by utilising bauxite as a flux in place of lime.
The slag so obtained is said to consist of nearly pure alumina.

284 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Commercial Valuation,

Specimens of the laterites, with the results of their analysis,
were submitted to commercial experts, who reported that the
mineral in general is of satisfactory quality for the manufacture
of aluminous compounds such as sulphate of aluminium, alum,
etc. It was stated, however, that such material could not be
sold in this country at a price which would be remunerative after
paying freight, unless very low rates could be obtained. No. 3
was said to be the most suitable quality for the manufacture of
aluminous compounds.

The value of " bauxite " suitable for the manufacture of alum-
inous compounds is about 22s, to 23^. per ton delivered to
United Kingdom ports. The price obtainable for manufactured
alumina in this country varies from ;^I2 to ;^38 per ton, depend-
ing on its purity, and to some extent on its physical condition.

The figures giving the composition of the six laterites have
also been submitted to manufacturers of aluminium both in this
country and on the Continent.

The British firm state that in their opinion the value of these
laterites does not approach that of the best French " bauxites "
or even that of many of the American " bauxites " used for the
extraction of pure alumina. Although the percentages of silica
are low, this advantage is more than counterbalanced by the
very large amounts of titanic acid which the samples contain.
The percentages of alumina are also lower than the average
figures of French bauxites. These considerations lead them to
the conclusion that the extraction of alumina from the Indian
bauxites will be much more expensive than from those generally
used for this purpose. They also state that so far as they are
aware all the " hydrate of alumina " placed on the market in this
country is made by Bayer's process.

Conclusions.

These reports confirm Sir T. Holland's opinion that " in any
case'the low value of ' bauxite ' at European and American ports
would not cover the cost of mining and transport to Europe
from any part of India removed from the coast."

There appears, however, to be no great obstacle to the

Occurrence and Utilisation of Tungsten Ores. 285

adoption of Bayer's process for extracting alumina in India,
and, as the above quotation shows, the manufactured product if
of good quality would probably fetch a price which would be
remunerative to exporters. The waste of alkali should be small
with laterites of a quality equal to the present samples, and the
only other necessary material would be lime for reconverting
the sodium carbonate into caustic soda.

See also Records of the Geological Survey of India (1909, 37.
213)-

GENERAL NOTICES RESPECTING ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF
TUNGSTEN ORES.

Distribution. Part II.

Continued from page 184.

AMERICA.

Canada. — So far, this Dominion has not figured among the
producers of tungsten ores ; but scheelite, wolframite, and
hiibnerite of good quality have been reported from a number of
localities.

Hiibnerite has been found near Emerald, Inverness Co.,
Nova Scotia, associated with small quantities of chalcopyrite,
irregularly distributed through a vein of greyish-white quartz,
which occurs in Pre- Cambrian gneissic rock. The vein varies
from two to three feet in width. Scheelite has been recorded
in a quartz lead, cutting the main auriferous vein at the Ballou
mine, Molega district. Queen's County, associated with pyrite
and arsenopyrite. At the Moose river gold mines, Cariboo
district, Halifax Co., the same mineral has been found associ-
ated with arsenopyrite in quartz veins, which cut the gold-
bearing slate whin of the locality. So far six veins have been
located, and about two tons of ore carrying 44 per cent, ot
tungstic oxide has been produced. The area is being explored

286 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

by means of pits. Near Waverley scheelite has been found in
quartz associated with arsenopyrite and chlorite. In Lunenberg
Co., near Lake Ramsay, scheelite occurs associated with tin and
other minerals in quartz veins in a biotite granite country
rock. A deposit of wolframite has been located at North-east
Margaree, Cape Breton, in a ravine. The vein has been traced
across the ravine and. up the mountain for a distance of over
200 feet. Short tunnels driven into the mountain to intercept
the vein have shown that the distribution of the ore is irregular.

Near the township of Marlowe, Beauce Co., Quebec, scheelite
and meymacite (hydrated tungstic oxide) have been found associ-
ated with zinc blende, specular iron, pyrrhotite, galena, copper
and iron pyrites, in quartz veins which intersect the Cambrian
slates of the district. These veins were at one time worked for
silver.

Small quantities of scheelite have been found at Hardscrabbe
Creek, Cariboo district, British Columbia. The mineral occurs
here in the highly altered country rock in quartz " stringers,"
which vary from one to four inches in thickness, together with
a little galena and a decomposition product of iron pyrites.
A shaft about 30 feet deep has been sunk in the rock, and
masses of scheelite weighing up to 50 pounds have been met
with. The Meteor mine. Springer Creek, near Slocan, also
yields a little scheelite, which occurs together with gold and
silver in quartz, as lenses varying from two to three inches in
thickness and from one to three feet in length. Tungsten ores
are found in the Kootenay district, associated with gold, in
quartz veins which occur in granite or related igneous rocks.
At the Kootenay Belle mine, ten miles east of Salmo, the
quartz veins, which vary from 6 to 18 inches in width, are rich
in tungsten ores, chiefly tungstite. The ore from the higher
workings is free from sulphur. The Porto Rico mine, a few
miles north of Ymir, when worked some years ago was said to
yield considerable quantities of tungsten ore as a by-product
of the concentrating tables. Small quantities of scheelite are
obtained from the Granite-Poorman mine, five miles west of
Nelson. Hiibnerite has been found in the Cathedral Mountains,
inear the head of Ashnola river, Yale district.
■; Scheelite is also found as srnall, yellovy^ish water- worn nodules

OCCURR5:NCf> AND UTILISATION OF TUNGSTEN ORES. 28/

in the sluice boxes of the placer gold mines on Highet Creek,
a rem<>t^ tributary of the Stewart in the Duncan Creek district,
Yukon, and as a heavy white sand accompanying the gold
extracted at Dublin Gulch, on Haggert Creek, a tributary of
the Mc. Questen.

Analyses of typical Canadian tungsten ores are given in the
following table : —

Tungstic
oxide.
WO3

Manganpus
oxide.
MnO

Ferrous
oxide.
FeO

Lime.
CaO

Silica.
Si(.)2

Nova Scotia —

Wolframite from N. E. Margaree
- Hlibernite from Emerald . . .

Scheelite from Ballou mine,
Molega . . . ■ , . . . .

Percent.
66-32
74-^8

79-01

Per cent.
12,-02
2273

Percent.

I2-0

0-47

Percent.
0-02
19-80

Percent.
6-25
1-33

o-ii

Quebec—

Scheelite from Marlowe . .

79-90

19-37

0-29

Ontario —
Wolframite from Chiefs Island .

73*45

15-35

9-05^

—

0"20

Further details and geological sketch maps illustrating the
occurrence of tungsten ores in Canada will be found in the
Report on the Tungsten Ores of Canada, published by the Dept.
of Mines (Ottawa, 1909).

United States,- — A large number of deposits of tungsten ore
are known in the United States, many having been worked to a
fairly large extent. The most irnportant are those in Arizona,
Nevada, and„ Colorado, whilst those of Idaho, Montana, New
Mexico, Oregon, South Dakota and Washington have been
worked to a small extent. In Connecticut are located the more
important deposits of the Eastern States, though a sniall amount
is raised in" North Carolina. The deposits in the little Dragoon
Mountains, Conchise County, Arizona, have been thoroughly
prospected, by means of pits and open cuts along the ridge,
in whose gulches placer tungsten ore has been found. The
mode of occurrence, is stated tp; vary ; the two chief forms are
(i) ores consisting marnly of hlibnerite, found in aplite veinlets
and crystalline quartz occupying fissures in the granite country
rock; (2) .wolframite and hiibnerite, due , to, alteration of
the encasing. walL rock, and fl:4nking the vein itself on, one
or both sides. Scheelite-. is pcdasionally found, with the
hubnerite in small ..seeitiis. The ore; is not evenly distributed

2SS Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

throughout the lode, but occurs in bunches and streaks, thus
leaving much of the vein almost free from tungsten minerals.
Masses of hiibnerite, weighing from a few pounds up to four
tons, have been obtained. Most of the ore, which is easily con-
centrated, has been obtained by placer working and only a
small quantity from the veins. Tungsten ore has also been
mined in the Arivaca district, Pima Co., and seams of wolframite
2 to 6 inches in thickness have been found about 60 miles
south of Hackberry, Mohave County.

Colorado State held the premier position in the United States
in 1907 as a producer of tungsten ore, with an output of 1146
short tons. The most important deposits occur in Boulder,
Gilpin, Lake, Ouray, and San Juan Counties. At Nederland
and Sugar Loaf in Boulder Co. the ore, after concentration to
one tenth of its original weight, contains 60 to 68 per cent, of
tungstic oxide.

California ranked second in the United States as a producer
of tungsten ores in 1907. The chief centres are in San Ber-
nardino County. In the Stringer district, scheelite occurs at the
Sidney mine, about 6 miles south west of Randsburg, in thin
veins, which have been proved to a depth of 200 feet. A small
quantity of the mineral is produced in the Amalie district and
is reported to occur at Kelso on the Salt Lake Railroad. An
important deposit occurs at Atolia, about 4J miles south east of
Johannesburg, where a fair amount of development work has
been done.

The principal deposits of Nevada are situated in the foothills
on the western slope of the Snake mountains, about 12 miles
south of Osceola. This area is somewhat handicapped by
transportation difficulties, and but little ore has been produced.
The latter is chiefly hiibnerite and occurs, in masses up to 16
inches in thickness, in quartz veins, which have been traced
for a considerable distance. It is stated that the ore crushes
readily and can be concentrated by jigging.

In the Black Hills in the vicinity of Lead, are located the
two important deposits of South Dakota. Wolframite occurs
in an impure siliceous dolomite, which passes almost into a
quartzite, in flat horizontal irregular masses varying in thickness
up to 2 feet and covering considerable areas. Occasionally

Occurrence and Utilisation of Tungsten Ores. 289

the tungsten ores form a rim round the outer edge of a siliceous
ore shoot, extending inwards and upwards so as to form a thin
cap. The ore is usually associated with a little quartz and
occasionally large crystals of barytes.

Wolframite is also found in Stevens County, Washington,
near Deer Trail and at Roselle Camp. The ore is stated to
concentrate readily and yield a product containing almost 68
per cent, of tungstic oxide.

Tungsten ores, chiefly scheelite together with a small amount
of wolframite, occur and have been worked near Long Hill,
Fairfax County, Connecticut. They are found near the contact
of diorite and hornblende gneiss with intercalated beds of
crystalline limestone. The occasional presence of pyrite causes
some difficulty in obtaining clean concentrates.

Tungsten minerals have also been found at Neihart, Montana ;
near Murray, Shoshone County, Idaho and Virtue district. Baker
County, Oregon. An occurrence of hiibnerite and scheelite with
pyrite and lead minerals in a vein cutting limestone is recorded
from New Mexico.

Pe7'u, — Tungsten ores have been found in an old gold working
at Julcani Hill about twenty miles from Lircay, the capital of
Angaraes, in the Department of Huancavelica. Both wolfram-
ite and hiibnerite are found, and the ore assays 75 per cent,
tungstic oxide, 10 to 20 per cent, ferric oxide and 4 to 15 per
cent, manganese oxide. The deposit consists of two nearly
vertical veins connected by a mass of mineralised veinlets and
the ore occurs as lenses, about 5 feet wide, united by small
stringers. It is also found as flat blocks about 4 inches wide,
and sometimes as flat crystals scattered in the ferruginous quartz
and accompanied by native gold and iron pyrites.

Brazil. — Tungsten ore occurs near Port Alegre, South Brazil.
One vein, which is about 12 inches thick and has been traced for
over a mile, yields a clean massive ore assaying over 70 per cent,
of tungstic oxide.

Bolivia. — About 45 tons of tungsten ore per month were
exported from Oruro during the first nine months of 1907, the
ore averaging from 65 to 70 percent, of tungstic oxide. There
is stated to be an abundant supply, but the deposits lie far from
a railway.

290

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Argentina. — Wolframite occurs in the southern part of the
Sierra de Cordoba in quartz in a granite and gneiss country
rock. The ore is associated with pyrites, molybdenite, limonite,
etc.

Chili. — Wolframite occurs at the Llanuro mine near Santiago.

Philippines. — Tungsten ore is reported to occur, associated with
cassiterite north-west of Negros.

STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION.

The following table gives the production of tungsten ores, as
far as this can be ascertained, for the period 1905-7. Statistics
for some producing countries are not available.

1905.

Quantity.
Statute
Tons.

Value.

1906.

Quantity.
Statute
Tons.

Value.

Quantity.
Statute
Tons.

Value.

Europe.

United Kingdom

Portugal . . .

Spain . . . .

Germany . .

Austria . . . ,

France . . . ,

Italy . . . ,

Africa.

Rhodesia (wolframite) . .

,, (scheelite) . . .

Asia.

Federated Malay States . .

Dutch East Indies . . .
Indo-China ......

Siam . . .■ . . '; .

Australasia.

New South Wales —

Scheelite . . . .' .

' • V/olframite . . - . . .
Queensland (scheelite) . .
,, (wolframite) .
. . South Australia (wolfra-
mite). . . . . . .

Tasmania (wolframite) . .

New Zealand (scheelite) .

America.

United" States of America .

Bolivia . . . . . . .

Argentina

172

284

368

138
86^-

4
,409

32
28

716
66

11,357
20,455
6,655
2,613
4,188
2,373

10,122

7,361

330

99,873

3,379
2,371
1,848

55,170

271

561

413

[35
24*

109
132

4i
768

102
20

829
290

19,775
45,437
8,949
4,692
4,634
1,918
1,000

:,5o8

2,520

7,647

9,057

347

64,136

6,981
1,465
3,407

71,636

322J
599

61
43
59
16

38*

[25*

196
207

2i
615

4.1
137

1,458
392
415

41,044
75,207

7,783
8,506
5,628
7,098
608

1,149
4,312

11,960.

23,781

26,235

320

89,767

11,451

4,411

15,486

182,761
5,936

Tin and wolfram ores.

Occurrence and Utilisation of Tungsten Ores. 291

METHODS OF CONCENTRATING TUNGSTEN ORES.

It is not possible to deal in detail in the present article with
the methods employed for the concentration of tungsten ores,
but mention has been made of the processes employed, in New
South Wales (p. 176), and New Zealand (p. 183).

The concentration presents many difficulties, one of which is
that wolfram tends to break longer on two cleavages than on
the third, and thus to produce tabular fragments. As the
principle of hydraulic concentration depends on differences in
the ratio of surface to weight in the minerals treated, it follows
that if a fragment of wolframite is eight times as long as it is
thick, its settling ratio becomes as low as that of a cubical
fragment of quartz, thus making clean separation by hydraulic
means difficult. \ .

Magnetic separation has been erhployed successfully in a
number of cases, and is stated to work well in separating
sulphide minerals from hiibnerite, but not from scheelite. The
separation of tin oxide from wolframite is dealt with in a paper
by Treloar and Johnson [Trans. Inst. Min. and Met, 1907-08, 17.
137), and a full account of the method employed in treating the
tin-tungsten-copper ore at the Glitters United Mines, Cornwall,
has also been published iloc. cit., 1905-06, 15. 2).

COMMERCIAL VALUE OF TUNGSTEN ORES.

The price obtainable for tungsten ore does not depend solely
on the percentage of the metal present, but is affected also by
the quantities of impurities, such as phosphorus and sulphur,
present.

Information as to the actual basis of purchase is not readily
obtainable, but it is stated that the phosphorus and sulphur
should not much exceed 0*25 and o*oi per cent, respectively.
The following table of values, said to have been paid by a con-
centrating mill in Colorado in May 1907, serves to indicate how
the value per unit of tungstic oxide increases with the percent-
age of the latter present in the concentrates : — - -■ - -

292 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Trice

Price

Tungstic oxide.

per ton.

Tungstic oxide.

per ton.

Per cent.

£ s. d.

Per cent.

£ s. d.

3 •

2 I 8

3; 10 0

5 .

476

58 6 8

9 II 8

83 6 8

20 . 20 16 8 60 . 118 15 o

At the present time tungsten ores containing over 60 per cent,
of tungstic oxide are quoted at 27 s. per unit per cent, per ton.
Thus an ore carrying 62 per cent, of the oxide should be
worth £^i i^s. per ton.

MANUFACTURE OF METALLIC TUNGSTEN.

The ore is used mainly as a source of metallic tungsten, and
the following is an outline of the method employed for the pro-
duction of the metal. After being concentrated to as high a
grade as possible the ore is finely ground, mixed with dry
sodium carbonate and heated to convert it into sodium tungstate.
If the operation has been properly conducted, the extraction of
the tungsten is complete ; special care is needed if cassiterite or
silica be present in order that no soluble compounds of these
minerals be formed. The sodium tungstate is now dissolved in
water, thus freeing it from the associated ferric oxide, tin oxide,
manganese oxide, silica and alumina. Acid is now added to
the solution to precipitate the tungstic oxide, which is then
washed until free from salts. Losses may occur at this stage if
hydrated tungstic oxide has been formed, as this is soluble in
water and is washed out with the salts. The oxide is then dried,
mixed with carbonaceous material and fired in crucibles. The
average composition of the metallic tungsten powder so produced
is as follows : —

Tungsten, 97*82 per cent. Calcium, 0-67 per cent.

Iron, 0'54 „ Sulphur,

Silicon, 0-49 „ Phosphorus,

Carbon, 0*34 „ Tin,

nil.

Tungsten for use in the steel industry is also employed in the
form of ferro-tungsten alloys, containing varying proportions of
the metal. These are prepared by smelting mixtures of iron and

Occurrence and Utilisation of Tungsten Ores. 293

tungsten ores in electrical furnaces. The following table gives
analyses of typical ferro- tungsten alloys as used in the manufac-
ture of tuns^sten steel. . ,

Tungsten W

Iron Fe

Chromium Cr

Carbon C

Silicon Si
Phosphorus P

Sulphur S

Per cent.

Percent.

60 '92

83-90

78-80

84-30

28-38

12-10

10-90

14-90 1

2-36

—

o-o8

Not

determined.

3-30

3-20

0-72

0-56

0-50

1-87

—

o-io

0-005

■~~

o-ii

0-03

Per cent.

85-79

13-50

0*12

o'6o

0-06
0-003

0-03

properties of tungsten.
Tungsten is a bright, grey metal having a specific gravity of
19-13, which is nearly equal to that of gold. It does not
oxidise in air, but when heated to redness in oxygen or steam
is readily converted into the trioxide. The metal is infusible,
except in the electric arc, and its melting-point has been
determined recently to be 3080° C. Its hardness varies from
5-4 to 6-0.

UTILISATION OF TUNGSTEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS.
One of the most important new applications of tungsten lies
in its use in the manufacture of hard steels. The addition of a
small quantity of tungsten toughens steel plate and renders it
less liable to fracture. This property renders tungsten steel
specially suitable for the manufacture of armour plate, projectiles
and firearms. This steel is also utilised for the manufacture of
high-speed tools with great advantage, since such tools retain
their temper even when worked red hot. Tool steels of this
type have approximately the following quantities, per cent., of
hardening constituents : tungsten, 8-50 ; chromium, 4-C0 ; carbon
i'25. It has also been used for specially stiff car springs. Per-
manent magnets made of tungsten steel retain their magnetis-
ation longer than those made of ordinary steel. Certain
tungsten-chromium steels possess the property of being "self-
hardening " in air, and therefore require no " tempering " after
forging. Such steels are said to contain tungsten, 2*40 to 344;
chromium, O'O to 6*00 ; carbon, 0*40 to 2*19 ; silicon, 0-21 to 3*00

^94 Bulletin gf the Imperial Institute.^^ '

per cent. A nickel-tungsten steel is said to cut like a serni^
hard steel, and after sudden quenching at 850° C. has a very,
high tensile strength and elastic limit, and shows medium elong-r
ation^ reduction of area and resistance to shock. The chief
characteristic of tungsten steels is that they possess a tensile
strength and elastic limit which within certain limits become
higher in proportion as the percentage of tungsten increases!
Their elongation, reduction of area and resistance to shock
diminish proportionately, whilst the hardness increases some-
what rapidly with the percentage of tungsten. For further
information on the properties of such steels, the following
articles should be consulted : "Alloys of Iron and Tungsten,"
by R. A. Hadfield (yjoumal of the Iron and Steel Institute^ .1904,
p. 14); "Quaternary Steels," by Leon Guillet {ibid.y 1906, p. i);
"Carbon-Tungsten. Steels" {ibid., 1907, p. 291); ". F'unction. of
Chromium and Tungsten in. High Speed Tool Steel," by C. A.
Edwards (2^/^., 1908, p. 104), . -. .. ,.;. ,.: . .. .^..

An alloy, which is said to combine lightness with strength
and resistance to oxidation, is manufactured from tungsten,
aluminium, and copper, and finds application for propellers,
automobile parts, etc.

Another interesting use of tungsten, but one which does not
demand a large supply of the metal, is in the manufacture
of filaments for electric glow lamps already described in this
Bulletin (1906, 4. 256). Considerable improvements have been
made recently in the manufacture of the tungsten lamp, and it
is novy claimed that it has an efficiency of i to i'2 watts per
candle power. Tungsten has also been used as an alloy with
lead for the manufacture of bullets.

The salts of tungsten find a limited use in certain industries.
Sodium tungstate is used in rendering wood and sometimes
•certain textile fabrics non-inflammable, and is also employed as
a mordant for silk and wool. In the ceramic industry salts of
tungsten are employed as colouring agents, and a bronze
powder, produced by fusing sodium tungstate and tin, is some-
times used as a decorator's pigment. i;['j-no: J

:-: tungste;n ores at the imperial institute., ..
^specimens of tungsten ore from the following countries' are

Iron Ores OF the Crown Colonies, etc. 2

shown in the respective courts in the Exhibition Galleries of the
Imperial Institute : —

Queensland, ' . - ^
Wolfram in quartz .
,,, . -, with tinstone

South Australia.
Wolfram .,,

New South Wales. ' ' ■
Wolfram and quartz* .
Scheelite and stibnite .

Scheelite ; ' . ' .
Wolfram . . .
J)

Tasmania,

Wolfram in quartz
Wolfram .

„ and iron pyrites

Federated Malay States.
Wolfram

Herberton, Herberton district.

Oakey Creek . „ . . „

Coolgara

Watsonville „ „

Eureka Creek „

Roper River, North Territory.

Hogue's Creek, Co. Gough.

■Hillgrove.

Baker's Creek, near Armidale. '

Near Armidale. ' - ' '

Glen Innes. ' . "

New England. ' ' '

Crown Land, Blue Tier.
Lottah. . . , •■ ;: ■. ■ ^ . --
Lottah. : ■ - .' ; . . ..^ . .

Chumor, Batang Padang Perak.

IRON ORES OF THE CROWN COLONIES" AND
PROTECTORATES OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. "

As a result of the operations of the Mineral Surveys conducted
in association with the Imperial Institute in Ceylon, Southern
Nigeria, Northern Nigeria, and Nyasaland, and of the examina-
tion of a large number of samples of iron ores from other Crown
Colonies and Protectorates, a considerable amount of informa-
tion has been accumulated at the Imperial Institute regarding
the iron ore deposits of these parts of the empire. As informa-
tion on this subject is only obtainable with difficulty at present,

296 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

it has been considered desirable to prepare a short summary
of what is known, for publication in this Bulletin, The data,
though unfortunately very incomplete, especially as regards
precise information regarding the extent of the deposits, are
sufficient to show that iron ores, often of good quality, are
widely distributed in these localities, and are likely to form
assets of considerable value to those parts of the empire in the
future.

AFRICA.

The iron ores of the African Colonies and Protectorates have
been formed in a number of different ways. In some cases they
are ferruginous segregations of igneous rocks rich in magnesia,
such as norite or hypersthene-pyroxene-granulite, which are apt
to show banded structure. The iron occurs in layers made up
largely of magnetite (sometimes oxidised to haematite), ilmenite
or chromite.

Iron oxides also occur associated with quartz in ancient sedi-
mentary rocks, which are probably in most cases of pre-Cambrian
age. They are usually referred to as haematite or magnetic
schists.

The metal is also widely distributed in the form of ferruginous
clays formed by the decomposition of igneous rocks.

Up to the present the occurrence of laterite, in which not only
the alkalis and alkaline earths, but also the silica, have been re-
moved, leaving only the hydroxides of aluminium and iron, has
not been verified, though such deposits are of considerable extent
in Ind'ia and have been described from French Guiana and other
localities. They will no doubt be met with eventually in British
African territory.

Hydroxides of iron may be deposited from solutions in the
form of a soft yellow ooze, which is collected by the natives from
streams or standing water. Similar ferruginous precipitates
may in the course of time be consolidated into beds of limonite
and hsematite, which are sometimes of wide extent and may
be of considerable geological age. They may, however, be in
some cases rendered valueless by subsequent silicification from,
the action of water charged with silica or the alkaline silicates.

Finally, a considerable amount of iron ore is found in river

Iron Ores of the Crown Colonies, etc. 297

sands in the form of magnetite and ilmenite, but the presence of
titanium in the latter prevents at present the employment of
such material on a large scale for iron smelting on account of
the infusible character of the slag formed, unless the ilmenite be
first separated by a magnetic process. Iron of good quality
may, however, be obtained from these sands in native furnaces.

Sierra Leone and Gambia.

Hydrated iron oxides derived from the decomposition of
crystalline rocks are found in a number of localities in Sierra
Leone. Like many ores of this character, they are rich in
ilmenite, and will not for that reason find a market in the United
Kingdom. Among other localities may be mentioned Tombo
in the Waterloo district ; the Gooma and Charlotte rivers ; the
western side of Bathurst Mountain, a sample from which,
examined at the Imperial Institute, contained nearly 50 per
cent, of metallic iron, 3*28 per cent, of chromium oxide, and
nearly 18 per cent, of titanium oxide; the site formerly occu-
pied by the Botanic Gardens, Freetown, where small veins of ore
were found containing from 40 to 47*49 per cent, of metallic iron,
accompanied by 10 per cent, of titanium oxide ; and the neigh-
bourhood of Hastings, where the ore also contained a large
amount of titanium.

Deposits described as lateritic in character, which probably
yield iron ore of similar type, are said to be the principal
formation in Gambia.

Gold Coast Colony.
Iron ore, referred to as clay ironstone, is found east of the
River Volta, where it is smelted by the natives at Dagomba,
Pampamba, Buem, Kotokori, Gurma, and Mossi. The prevail-
ing rocks in these localities are stated to be sandstone and shale,
which no doubt overlie a platform of crystalline rocks.

Northern Nigeria.

The investigations of the Mineral Survey carried out in

Northern Nigeria in connection with the Imperial Institute have

shown that iron ore is widely distributed in this Protectorate,

especially in the provinces of Kabba, Ilorin, and Borgu, on the

298 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

right bank of the Niger; Kontagora, Nupe, Nassarawa and
Bassa, on the left bank ; Muri and Yola, on the Benue and
Zaria ; and Bauchi and Bornu, in the centre and north-east. Iron
ores from most of these localities have been collected by officers
of the Survey and sent to the Imperial Institute for examination,
and the data given below regarding the composition of these
ores have been obtained in the course of this work.

In the south of Kabba at Okuruku, Atuka, Anamu (Anom),
Bangedde, and other localities, magnetite and, occasionally,
haematite, occur with quartz, and sometimes hornblende or
hypersthene in the form of schistose rocks, which are apparently
of igneous origin. Most of these are too siliceous to be smelted
in their present condition, but they would make valuable ores if
concentrated by electro-magnetic processes and briquetted. In
the same area there is a considerable amount of secondary
hydrated ores, gothite or limonite, which are worked by the
natives. They are excellent in quality, the content of metallic
iron varying from 54 per cent, at Jakura to 56 per cent, at Akwi
and Ojerami. These localities are within 30 miles of the Niger
and in the case of the two latter are separated from it by flat
country over which a light railway could be easily made.

The upper portion of Mount Patti in the north of the province,
close to the right bank of the Niger above Lokoja, is almost
entirely composed of hydrated iron oxide in horizontal stratifica-
tion to a depth of a hundred feet. The summit is several miles
in extent, and about a thousand feet above the level of the river.
Many of the neighbouring hills are capped with a similar deposit.
It passes downward into less valuable silicified material and
sandy beds. Still higher up the river in the neighbourhood of
Baro is Mount Gidde, which is of similar formation.

Ferruginous sedimentary beds are also found in the north of
Ilorin, and at Share limonite pebbles were collected containing
43-31 per cent, of iron. In Kontagora, thirty miles north-east of
the town of the same name, is a deposit of iron-stone, consist-
ing of minute round grains and resembling oolite, which has
given rise to a large native industry at Mahorro and other
towns to the south-east. In the same province, in a deep gully
between Patti and Songwo, deposits of red and yellow ochre
have been found, the former containing as much as 53-58 per

Iron Ores of the Crown Colonies, etc.

299

cent, of metallic iron. At Rabba, in Nupe, argillaceous limonite,
containing 44*94 per cent, of iron, has been obtained.

Ferruginous deposits are widely extended in Nassarawa. The
Gwari country, in the north-west of the province, to the east of
Abuja, is rich in magnetite ; while in the Koro and Jaba coun-
tries, to the north of the province, much iron is made from con-
cretionary limonite and other decomposition products. A porous
ore from between Aribi and Gantam was found to contain 5673
per cent, of metallic iron. A similar ore from Kao contained
56-47 per cent, of iron, but the presence of 0*3 per cent, of phos-
phorus would prevent its use for steel unless a basic process were
employed. Further south, between the town of Nassarawa and
Ruza, granular magnetite occurs containing 69-48 per cent, of
metallic iron.

The iron ores of Bassa are found in the north of the province,
where they occur as local enrichments in the ferruginous sand-
stone formation and are somewhat sporadic in their distribution.
A sample from Assadam yielded 47-3 per cent, of metallic
iron.

The principal deposits of the province of Muri occur in the
Mumuye country on the boundary with Yola. Magnetite is
abundant, and the extensive alluvial deposits yield material for
the native manufacture of iron, which finds its way at least as
far as the Kam country to the south.

Black sand, containing magnetite and ilmenite, is found in the
southern tributaries of the Benue, such as the Tarabba and
Donga, but the high proportion which the ilmenite bears to the
magnetite renders even the best unsuitable, at least at present,
for working except by the native processes, 'and in only a few
cases would it be worth concentrating by magnetic methods.
In Yola iron is worked not only in the Mumuye country on the
western boundary, but also by the Verre " pagans " in the hills
south of the town of Yola. . *

At Panguru, in the east of Bauchi, ferruginous concretions
sometimes oolitic in appearance, are found in the surface alluvium,
and are used in the manufacture of iron. The best ore contains
56-3 per cent, of metallic iron, and would form excellent material
for the manufacture of pig iron to be used in making steel by
the acid process. Further information regarding the iron ores of

300 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Northern Nigeria is given in Professor Dunstan's Reports on the
Work of the Mineral Survey of Northern Nigeria [Cd. 1875,
1906], [Cd. 3914, 1908], and [Cd. 3915, 1908].

Southern Nigeria.

The iron ore deposits of Southern Nigeria are not so extensive
as those in Northern Nigeria. The most valuable appear to
occur in the north-west of Oyo in Lagos Province in the
neighbourhood of the provinces of Ilorin and Kabba of Northern
Nigeria. Here iron ore occurs in granite rocks and crystalline
schists. Smelting is carried on at Ijegun Bede and other places,
where magnetite is met with in granites and mica schists. Iron
has also been worked in the neighbourhood of Iseyin and Odo
Ogun, west of Oyo. Iron-bearing rocks of a similar character
are- also found elsewhere in the same region, where deposits
derived from the decomposition of the original iron ore will also
probably be met with.

Argillaceous iron ore has been found in the Atakpo river,
Asaba district, and near Meko, where also large quantities of
low-grade pisolitic iron ores occur.

British Somaliland,

Iron appears to be present to a considerable amount in the
form of magnetite, disseminated through basic igneous rocks
or in lenses. Nodules of limonite and red haematite occur in
sandstones of Eocene age, and recent deposits are stated to
contain magnetite.

The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.

In the Bahr-el-Ghazel Province deposits of limonite iron ore
occur as cappings to the hills. They are concretionary and often
pisolitic. A sample of the material employed by the Jurs for iron
-smelting has been examined at the Imperial Institute. It con-
tained 58-98 per cent, of ferric oxide, corresponding to 4i'29 per
cent, of metallic iron, 1278 per cent of alumina, 12-95 peJ* cent,
of silica, and 12*20 per cent, of water. There was also about
2 per cent, of carbonate of calcium. Sulphur was entirely absent,

Iron Ores of the Crown Colonies, etc. 301

and there was only 005 per cent, of phosphoric anhydride. The
specimen includes a considerable amount of quartz, and the
deposit may represent the result of the decomposition in situ
of crystalline rocks. Similar material containing a smaller
proportion of quartz would form a valuable iron ore.

Uganda.

In the country between Entebbe and Masaka, north-west of
the Victoria Nyanza, horizontal beds of ironstone frequently
form a capping to the hills, and are sometimes exposed also at
lower levels, as at Entebbe itself, where a bed of ironstone forms
a low cliff along the lake shore. The rock varies from a pisolitic
ironstone to a ferruginous breccia composed of angular or
sub-angular fragments of quartzite cemented by oxide of iron.
Three miles north of Masaka a bed of ironstone is exposed in
a gully as a cliff 30 feet high. Specimens of magnetite were
brought by Sir Harry Johnston from Budolo Hill, Masawa ;
Nagarive Hill, Bukedi; and Jinja, Busoga ; and of ironstone
(chiefly limonite) from the Central Province (Bukonge and
Jinja, Busoga), Bugaya Islands, Buvuma, Kavirondo, Ankole
and Unyoro {Geog. Jour.^ vol. xix. p. 43).

A specimen of the iron ore, which is smelted by the natives at
Masindi, the principal town of Eastern Unyoro, was forwarded
to the Imperial Institute for examination, and was found to
contain 46*50 per cent, of metallic iron, 8*5 1 per cent, of silica,
0*69 per cent, of phosphorus, and 0*05 per cent, of sulphur. The
low percentage of iron and the high content of phosphorus,
depreciate the ore for European purposes, but would not detract
seriously from its value for smelting by native methods. In
connection with this inquiry, a simple type of furnace suitable
for smelting iron ore, and probably more efficient than that now
in use by the natives in Uganda, was devised at the Imperial
Institute.

East Africa Protectorate.

Between Mombasa and Jombo ironstone nodules occur in the
Jurassic shales. In the Kitui district there is a cellular ironstone
produced by the decomposition of iron-bearing gneiss. In the

302 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Mumoni Mountains a toarse pegmatite containing large crystals
of magnetite is very common.

The Wanyara Hills consist of banded ironstone presumably
similar to the magnetite schists of the Transvaal The iron ore
often occurs in thick seams. The whole of the Samia district is
rich in iron. Iron removed in solution is ultimately precipitated
among the loose rubble forming an ironstone breccia, which is
very common in North and South Kavirondo. An account of
an ironstone of good quality found near Voi, on the Uganda
Railway, has been given already in this Bulletin (1907,6. 241).

Nj/asaland.

. In the Nyasaland Protectorate ores of iron are disseminated
throughout almost the whole country. Formerly the natives
obtained iron for their spears and implements from these
scattered deposits, and the ruins of their smelting furnaces, as
well as their abandoned slag-heaps, are still visible. None of
these deposits, however, is at present being worked. The
following is a summary of the observations of the Mineral
Survey of Nyasaland, conducted in connection with the Imperial
Institute, on the distribution of iron ore in that country.
; Magnetite and hcEmatiie deposits of inetamorphic origin. —
They occur as seams among the foliated gneisses. In most cases
these seams are thin and separate, giving rise to a magnetite-
haematite gneiss: sometimes they are much thicker, in one
extreme case as much as 20 yards in thickness. The dyke-like
outcrop alone of one such deposit near Mangui Hill, was
estimated in 1906 to contain 53,000 tons of ironstone.

The ore consists of an admixture of the oxides, magnetite and
haematite, in varying proportions ; titanium is always present,
usually in small amounts, though often it becomes excessive;
phosphorus .is present in very varying amounts; sulphur is
usually insignificant in quantity.

Hcematite Deposits of Karroo age. — These are interbedded
with shales. They consist of thin bedded layers, usually
lenticular in shape. As far as is yet known, the beds are
so thin and so widely separated that it is unlikely they will
prove of importance as a source of iron ore.

Iron Ores of the Crown Colonies, etc. 303

The mineral of these beds consists for the most part of
haematite ; phosphorus is present to a considerable extent ;
sulphur and titanium are absent, or nearly so.

Superficial Limonite deposits, — On the banks and slopes of the
more sluggish streams flowing over the higher plateaux, there
occur superficial deposits of an iron rock, consisting of gravel,
sand and earthy mould, cemented together by limonite. The
thickness of these deposits is not very great, but owing to the
large lateral extent, a considerable tonnage must be available.

The amount of quartz in these ores varies a good deal, but
must always be fairly high. Titanium is present, but phosphorus
and sulphur are not excessive.

Ferruginous river-sands. — These consist of magnetite associ-
ated with ilmenite ; they are of slight extent only, and the
amount of titanium present is usually excessive.

Many of the ores described above would produce good
pig-iron, though in some cases the phosphorus present would
interfere with the manufacture of steel.

It is to be noted that lime suitable for fluxing and coal suit-
able for fuel occur in the Protectorate, although at a distance
from each other and from the iron-ore deposits. In a few
localities there are deposits of associated carbonates of lime,
iron, and manganese which would be suitable for fluxes, and
be specially valuable on account of their associated manganese.

The isolated position of Nyasaland and the consequent
transport difficulties preclude the possibility of these iron ores,
or of iron and steel made from them being exported to countries
outside Africa under present conditions. The local needs of
the -country are at present scanty, and are more cheaply sup-
plied by iron implements imported from the United Kingdom.
In the future, however, there is little doubt that these ores will
be largely utilised to supply the requirements of Nyasaland and
the adjoining territories.

Results of analyses made at the Imperial Institute are
appended of several of these Nyasaland iron ores.

Further information on the iron ores of Nyasaland is given
in this Bulletin (1904, 2. 75 ; 1906, 4. iii, 113), and in Professor
Dunstan's Reports on the Work of the Mineral Survey of
Nyasaland for 1906-7 and 1907-8.

304

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Iron Ores.

Ferric Oxide . . . Fe203 . .
Ferrous Oxide . . FeO . .

Silica Si02 • •

Titanic Oxide . . . Ti02 . •
Phosphoric Oxide . P2O5 . .

Sulphur S

Loss on ignition . . H2O+CO2

Lime CaO . .

Magnesia .... MgO . .

Alumina AI2O3 . .

Manganous Oxide . MnO . .

70-30
24*16
0-24

1-24

I '47
o-o8
0*67
o'70
I-I3

87-90
8-98
0-72

0-59

o-o6
1-09
o"55
0-38

67-84

24-84

2-01

1-83

0-055

0-57
2-o8

0-14

98-88

0-I2
0-69

tr.
0-35

tr.

75-59
23-59

0-2I

tr.
tr.

0-32

34-29
23-13
6-70
23-64

75-23

tr.
11-86

tr.

0-57

tr.

10-02

2-12

42-76
tr.

33-74
0-44
0-43
tr.

tr.

63-19

tr.
9-35
3-05
0-31

tr.

loc-iS

100-27

100-47

100-04

99-71

99-80

Equivalent of Iron . . . Fe
Equivalent of Phosphorus P

68 -o

0'20

68-52 66-80 69-3
0-26 0-024 —

71*26

o-i8

0-25

— ! 44*23

Rhodesia.

Iron ore is found in large amount near Lealui in the sand, far
from any rock outcrops. To the south-east of Lealui, in the
Matotela country, every valley and stream contains a deposit of
soft red haematite, which is dug from canoes in two to four feet
of water.

Many of the rocks in North-Eastern Rhodesia are ferruginous
and haematite, magnetite and titaniferous iron ores are known
to occur. Analyses of a number of these have been given already
in this Bulletin (1904, 2. 74). Deposits of auriferous pyrites are
also met with, and these, if treated by pyritic smelting, would
yield large quantities of iron oxide as a by-product.

In the neighbourhood of the Victoria Falls, heaps of ancient
slag shew the localities where iron smelting was formerly
carried on.

Ferruginous sandstone has been found at Mliro and no doubt
occurs in many other localities.

In Southern Rhodesia banded ironstone is met with among
the strongly-folded "Eparchaean" rocks. It is believed by
Mennell {Geology of Southern Rhodesia, 1904, p. 11) to represent
fine-grained sediment silicified and highly charged with ferrugin-
ous material. He states that it is indistinguishable from the
" magnetic quartzites " (" Calico Rock ") of the Hospital Hill
series in the Lower Division of the Witwatersrand system.

Iron Ores of the Crown Colonies, etc. 305

Specimens of haematite have also been received at the Imperial
Institute from Southern Rhodesia.

In Matabeleland the banded ironstone is auriferous.

the west indies.

No information has been received of the occurrence of ferrug-
inous deposits of any commercial value in British Honduras.

Iron ore has been recorded from a number of localities in
Jamaica, occurring in some cases as veins of haematite. Magnet-
ite sand is found on the coast. There is no evidence, however,
that any ferruginous deposits of importance exist {Mem. Geol. Sur.
U.K. Rep. Geol. Jamaica, 1869, pp. 36, 125 and 174). A similar
state of things appears to prevail in Trinidad {Mem. Geol. Sur,
U.K. Rep. Geol. Trinidad^ i860, pp. 91, 132, 133).

No definite information exists as to the occurrence of iron ore
in the other islands, though small specimens of haematite
(specular iron ore) have been received.

British Guiana.

In British Guiana extensive superficial ferruginous deposits
are formed by the decomposition of basic rocks described as
gabbros.

Where the argillaceous material has been washed out limonite
is obtained ; sometimes in the form of pisolite grains, sometimes
as the cement of siliceous sands, or as the principal constituent
of an impure deposit of iron ore. In some localities masses of
concretionary ironstone form boulders which may be more than
a ton in weight. In others the surface of the ground is covered
with layers of ironstone, or beds of coarse ironstone gravels and
conglomerates. The larger boulders consist of " ruddy cindery-
looking " masses with numerous small cavities. These ferrugin-
ous deposits are often auriferous.

Black sands occur, containing ilmenite and magnetite. The
proportion borne by the latter to the former is less in the sand
than in the rock, because the magnetite resists oxidation less.
These sands, like other ferruginous deposits in the Colony, are
often auriferous ; some of the gold is included in the ilmenite,
and concentrates, which contain no visible gold may yield as
much as 5 dwts. per ton. {Report on the Geology of the Essequibo.

3o6 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute

Potaro, Konawaraik and Demerara Rivers, Georgetown, Deme-
rara, 1900, and Report on the Petrography of the Cuyuni and
Magaruni Districts, Georgetown, Demerara, 1905.)

ATLANTIC ISLANDS.

In St. Helena, botryoidal nodules of limonite are stated to be
met with in large quantities on the plains at Horse Pasture and
other localities, and impure siliceous iron ore near Shipwood, but
there is no reason to suppose that any of these deposits are of
commercial importance.

There seems to be no available information on the subject
from Ascension, the Falkland islands or Tristan d'Acunha.

MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS.

There is no record of the occurrence of any appreciable
amount of iron ore from Gibraltar, Malta, Gozo or Cyprus, though
iron pyrites occur in considerable quantities in the last-named
island. Compare this Bulletin, 1906, 4. 208.

COLONIES OF THE INDIAN OCEAN.

Ceylon.

The only deposits containing a considerable amount of iron
are surface decomposition products. These have been noted at
Ampitiya and Hanguranketa and numerous points in the region
round Nuwara Eliya, Badulla and Bandarawela. They form the
material for the local iron smelting industry, which still lingers
in the Colony, but are too irregular in distribution and inconsider-
able in amount to b6 of any importance for export. In the
absence of coal it would be impracticable to manufacture iron
and steel by European methods, though it is possible that it
might be found practicable to carry on electric smelting on a
small scale (see Professor Dunstan's Report on the Results of the
Mineral Survey in Ceylon, Col. Rep. Misc. [Cd. 2341, 1905], p. 8).
Haematite ore, from a point two and a half miles from Nuwara
Eliya on the road to Ambawella Central Province contained 50*6 -
per cent, of metallic iron, 9-14 per cent, of silica, 0'02 percent, of
phosphorus and no sulphur {ibid. p. 31). A sample of impure
limonite from Gonamatawa Estate, near Bandarawela, Uva Pro-
vince, contained 48*1 per cent, of metallic iron, 072 per cent, of

Iron Ores of the Crown Colonies, etc. 307

silica and 0*42 per cent, of phosphorus, and one from Ella, near
Sri Pada Kota, Nuwara Eliya, Central Province, contained 55*6
per cent, of iron, 2*3 per cent, of silica and 0*92 per cent, of
phosphorus {ibid. Cd. [3190, 1906], p. 14).

Mauritius.
Basic rocks containing a considerable amount of magnetite
occur and also ferruginous deposits resembling laterite, but there
is apparently nothing that could be considered at the present
time a valuable iron ore.

Seychelles.

Lateritic deposits occur containing a fair amount of iron, which
in one case rises to 20-3 per cent, of metallic iron accompanied
by 27*2 per cent, of alumina, 16*3 per cent, of silica and 4*2 per
cent, of titanium oxide. Richer deposits no doubt occur, but it
seems improbable that there is much iron ore that it would pay
to export.

British North Borneo and Sarawak.

Important deposits of limonite are found in British North
Borneo, at Tagoho Hill, thirty-five miles south of the manganese
deposit at Taritipan. The percentage of metallic iron is believed
not to exceed 56 per cent. The amount is stated to be at least
twenty-five million tons. Coal is also found in this territory.

Concretions of clay ironstone occur in the coal-bearing strata
of Labuan and other localities.

Iron ores are widely distributed in Sarawak. They consist
partly of magnetite and partly of argillaceous " slaggy " ironstone.
They are met with in the alluvial deposits and are stated to be
in the nature of lateritic decomposed products. The richest ore
reported occurs in the district of Ridjang, where it is stated to
contain from 60 to 80 per cent, of iron oxide. In Brunei they
occur in the basin of the river Barram. In Sabah they are
widely distributed in the Tertiary beds occurring near Kudat in
the Bay of Marudd, also on most of the hills near the river
Labuk between Tunder batu and Punguh and near Pinunguh
on the river Kinabatangan in the coal districts.

3o8 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Iron sand occurs in the alluvial deposits and is said to consist
of a mixture of chrome iron ore and magnetite.

The metal was formerly smelted throughout Borneo {Borneo,
its Geology and Mineral Resources. By Dr. Theodor Posevitz,
translated by Dr. F. H. Hatch, 1892, p. 430).

Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States.

Extensive ferruginous deposits occur which are locally known
as " laterite." These are well seen in Taiping, but are of frequent
occurrence in other districts, where they are in general use as
road metal. They are dark red or nearly black and consist of
iron oxides sometimes with an admixture of shale and sandstone.
In structure they may be either compact or cellular, resembling
a scoriaceous basalt. They often occur in the soil or in
weathered shale or sandstone. At Pondok Tanjong and on the
road to Selama, they form more or less regular seams inter-
stratified with the bedding which dips at a high angle. The
deposits are attributed to deposition by solutions of carbonate
of iron, though in some cases they may, it is thought, be due
to alteration in situ. Some of the tin -bearing pipes in the
limestones consist largely of hydrated iron oxide (J. B.
Scrivenor, Prel. Rep, Geology of the Neighbourhood of Taiping^
Selangor, 1903, pp. 7, 10, and Geologist's Report of Progress,
September 1903 to January 1907, Kuala Lumpur 1907, p. 38).

There is no information as to the occurrence of iron ore in any
of the Crown colonies of the Pacific Ocean.

CULTIVATION AND UTILISATION OF THE
SOY BEAN.

During the present year an important commercial develop-
ment has taken place between this country and Manchuria with
reference to the soy bean, the seed of Glycine Soja {Sofa hispida).
A short note on this subject has already appeared in this Bulletin
(this vol., p. 95).

The soy bean is a leguminous plant which grows abundantly
in China, and especially in Manchuria, where the seeds form an

Cultivation and Utilisation of the Soy Bean. 309

important article of diet and are highly appreciated on account
of their valuable nutritive properties. The occupation of North
Manchuria by Russian troops during the Russo-Japanese war
created a large demand for provisions, whereby agriculture was
stimulated and considerable expansion took place. After the
close of the war and the withdrawal of the troops, the local
demand naturally declined and it became necessary to find an
outlet for the crops in foreign markets. From 1906 to 1908,
much of the staple produce of North Manchuria was exported to
Japan through Vladivostok, but in 1908 the trade suffered
owing to the depression in Japan, and towards the end of that
year beans and wheat began to be exported on a large scale to
Europe. Enormous quantities of soy beans are now being im-
ported into the United Kingdom and the Continent.

The first large cargo of soy beans consigned to the United
Kingdom arrived in Hull on the 2nd of March, 1909, and
amounted to 5,200 tons. It is stated that before June contracts
had been made for the delivery of no less than 200,000 tons.
The beans are said to arrive at their destination in perfect
condition in spite of the great distance they have to be carried.
They are classified into three grades : No. i, shipped at Dalny ;
No. 2, shipped at Vladivostok ; and No. 3, shipped at Hankow.
The value of grade No. I is about £6 8^. per ton gross, c.i.f.
European port direct, whilst the values of Nos. 2 and 3 are
equal and about £6 6s. per ton gross, these prices being, of
course, subject to the fluctuations of the market. The greater
part, if not the whole, of the soy beans imported into this
country is purchased by the proprietors of oil-mills, who crush
the- product and thus obtain a quantity of oil, amounting to
about 10 per cent, by weight of the seed, and a residual oil-cake
which has proved to be a valuable cattle-food.

Cultivation.
The soy bean grows most satisfactorily on soils of medium
texture containing fair quantities of potash, lime and phosphoric
acid. It is said that good results have been obtained on com-
paratively light soils and that an abundant crop is sometimes
produced on land too poor for clover. In South Carolina, good
results have been obtained on sandy, limestone or marly soils,

3IO Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

and also on drained swamp or peaty lands. If the soil is lacking
in potash or phosphoric acid these constituents should be
supplied in the form of artificial manure. It is not necessary to
apply nitrogenous manures, since the soy bean, like other
leguminous crops, has the property of extracting nitrogen from
the air and thus enriching the soil in which it is grown.

With regard to climate, the soy bean requires about the same
temperature as maize. The plant is very resistant to drought,
can endure slight frosts, and is capable of withstanding excess of
moisture ; in this last respect, it is said to surpass cowpeas or
even maize.

The cultivation of the soy bean is carried out in much the
same way as that of ordinary field beans. The soil should be
well tilled and left smooth and free from clods. The seed is
best sown in drills from two to three feet apart, the exact
distance depending on the texture of the soil. The amount of
seed required is about one-half to three-quarters of a bushel per
acre, enough being sown to give on the average five or six
plants per foot in the row. After sowing, the land must be kept
fairly free from weeds and the surface soil must be occasionally
broken up. The pods are usually harvested before they are
quite ripe, as otherwise they are liable to burst on drying, a
loss of seed being thus occasioned. The plants may be pulled
by hand or cut with a scythe ; they are collected into small
heaps in order to facilitate drying. When dry, the seed can be
readily separated by means of an ordinary threshing machine.

Under ordinary circumstances, a yield of 25 to 40 bushels per
acre is obtained, but under specially favourable circumstances
the crop may be considerably larger.

Glycine Soja is not only of value to cultivators for the sake
of its seeds, but it can also be grown for green forage, for
ensilage, for hay or as a pasture plant. Reference has
already been made to the special value the plant possesses due
to its ability to restore impoverished soil by affording it a supply
of nitrogen (compare also this Bulletin, 1906, 4, 123). An
account of the utilisation of the soy bean plant for these
various purposes is given in "The Soy Bean as a Forage
Crop," Farmers' Bulletin, No. 58, United States Department
of Agriculture (1899). It has been found that the earlier

Cultivation and Utilisation of the Sov Bean. 311

varieties are best for seed crops and the later varieties for
hay, forage and ensilage.

Composition of the Seeds.
Although there are several varieties of the soy bean,
differing in the size, shape and colour of the seeds, there
does not appear to be any definite and constant difference in
the chemical composition of the latter. The following analyses
indicate the usual composition of fresh or air-dry soy beans.
No. I gives the results obtained by Professor A. H. Church
{Food Grains of India, p. 143) with a sample of the beans
grown in India. The figures recorded under No. 2, also
quoted by Professor Church, were deduced by Dr. Forbes
Watson from eight analyses of unhusked soy beans, four of
the samples being of Chinese origin, and from two analyses of
the husked beans. The results under No. 3 are the averages
obtained with several different varieties of soy bean grown in
the United States of America, and are taken from the Farmers'
Bulletin, to which reference has already been made.

No. I.

. 2.

No. 3.

Per cent.
II-O

35-3
26-0
18-9

4-2
4-6

With husk.

Husked.

Water

Per cent.

9-1
40-4

15-8
5-2
4-4

Per cent.
IO-3
43*6
21 0

15-5
4 '4
5-2

Per cent.

IO-8
340
28-9
16-9

Carbohydrates

Fat

Fibre ....

4 -8

Ash

The value of the beans as a food is evident from the large
amounts of albuminoids and fat they contain. It has been
stated by Japanese authorities that the product does not con-
tain any sugar or starch, and for this reason the bean has
been as a basis for foods recommended for persons suffering
from diabetes.

Utilisation of the Seeds.
Reference to the utilisation of the soy bean and especially to
its use for the preparation of certain foods in Japan has
already been made in this Bulletin (1907, 5, 86). In the United

312 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Kingdom, as stated previously, the seeds are mainly employed
as a source of oil, an oil-cake being obtained as a bye-product.

The oil possesses an agreeable taste and odour, and is largely
used by the Chinese for edible purposes. It belongs to the class
of semi-drying oils, that is to say, it has properties intermediate
between those of the drying oils, such as linseed oil, and the
non-drying oils, such as almond and olive oils. On exposure to
the air, a thin skin is gradually formed on the surface. It
resembles cotton-seed oil in many respects, but is of a more pro-
nounced drying character, as is indicated by its higher iodine
value. The oil consists mainly of the glycerides of palmitic,
oleic and linolic acids. The physical and chemical constants,
which have been recorded for soy-bean oil are given below, the
corresponding figures for cotton-seed oil being added for com-
parison.

Specific gravity at 15° C.
Saponification value .
Iodine value ...
Ilehner value . . , ,

Soy-bean oil. Cotton-seed oil.

0*9240- 0*9270 I 0*9220- 0-9260

190*6 -192*9

121*3 -124*0
95*5

191*0 -196*5
loi -116
95 '9 - 96-2

The oil is chiefly used in this country for the manufacture of
soap, and is very well suited for this purpose. It is quoted in
the London market at ;^2i 5^. per ton (September, 1909), with
crude cotton-seed oil at ^^23 to ;^23 5^*. per ton.

The oil-cake left after the expression of the oil is hard and
heavy, and resembles linseed cake, but is lighter in colour, and
has a characteristic taste recalling that of peas. The nutritive
value of this product is approximately equal to that of decorti-
cated cotton-seed cake. The average composition is as follows :
Albuminoids, 41 per cent. ; oil, 6 per cent. ; carbohydrates, 30 per
cent. ; moisture, 12 per cent. ; fibre, 5 per cent.; mineral constit-
uents, 6 per cent.

Feeding trials with this cake in comparison with decorticated
cotton cake have been carried out at the Cumberland and West-
moreland Farm School at Newton Rigg, and also at the Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester. At the former institution it
was found that the cows, when fed with soy-bean cake, gave

Cultivation and Utilisation of the Soy Bean. 313

rather more milk than when fed with cotton cake ; but the
difference was so small that it may be considered that the two
cakes are equal in this respect. The proportion of fat in the
milk was the same in each case. During the trial the cows gained
in weight, the soy-bean cake causing a slightly larger increase
than the cotton cake. The soy-bean cake used in these experi-
ments contained 6'0 per cent, of oil and 44-4 per cent, of albumi-
noids, whilst the cotton cake contained 13-1 per cent, of oil and
39*9 P^'^ cent, of albuminoids.

The experiment at Cirencester showed that the yield of milk
was but little affected by the kind of cake used. The percentage
of fat in the milk was slightly higher with the soy-bean cake than
with the cotton cake. The butter produced from the milk of
the cows fed with soy-bean cake was quickly obtained on churn-
ing, but was softer, and of a paler colour and somewhat inferior
flavour to that from the milk produced by the cows fed with
cotton cake. The soy-bean cake used in these trials contained
6 per cent, of oil and 40 per cent, of albuminoids, and cost
£6 los. per ton, whilst the decorticated cotton cake contained
8 per cent, of oil and 34 per cent, of albuminoids, and cost
£y 10s. per ton.

In the experiments at Cirencester no difference was observed
in the effect of the two cakes on the cows with regard to their
laxative or constipative action. It may be mentioned, however,
that certain cases have recently been brought to the notice of
the Imperial Institute in which it was stated that the soy-bean
cake when fed to cows produced a " scouring " or laxative effect.
It seems not unlikely, however, that these symptoms may have
been caused by the use of an ill-proportioned diet. Owing to
its excessive richness in albuminoids, soy-bean cake should be
used with the same precautions as are observed in the case of
decorticated cotton cake, which is said to be unsuited to calves
and lambs, and when used for adult stock should be mixed with
about an equal weight of some cereal product, such as maize,
barley meal, wheat meal, or American flour.

In view of the importance of the trade in soy beans, it has
been considered desirable that attempts should be made to grow
the product in other countries than China. The Imperial
Institute has already brought the matter to the notice of the

314 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Governments of several British Dependencies, and experiments
are now in progress in the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the East
Africa Protectorate and the Gambia. An effort is also being
made to stimulate the cultivation of the soy bean in India.

It is stated that considerable additional areas are available for
cultivation in Manchuria.

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN NYASALAND

In February last a Department of Agriculture and Forestry
was constituted in the Nyasaland Protectorate, and the Director
of that Department, Mr. J. Stewart McCall, has just issued a
report on agricultural and sylvicultural work in the Protectorate
during the year 1908-09. The following is a summary of the
chief contents of that report. In a previous number of this
Bulletin (1909, 7. 23) an account was published of recent agricul-
tural developments in Nyasaland, based on a report made by
Mr. S. Simpson, and for fuller information on most of the
matters referred to below, reference should be made to that
article.

The Department having been organised so recently it was not
possible to give any results from the experimental work, which
has been undertaken already, and the first portion of the report
deals mainly with the general condition of agriculture through-
out the country during the year. Attention is directed to the
fact that nearly all produce has to be transported by native
carriers, and the cost of this precludes the cultivation for export
of cereals such as maize, millet, wheat and rice, all of which grow
well in Nyasaland.

One of the most important crops is cotton, which is still gain-
ing in popularity both with European settlers and natives.
The yield per acre is still low, but this is increasing. It is
pointed out that greater care should be exercised in selecting
sites for cotton plantations, and particularly in avoiding situations
where the crop is likely to be exposed to cold. On the lower
Shir6 river it has been found inadvisable to sow cotton so early
in the season as November, and sowing in January or February
is coming into vogue in this locality. The attention of planters

Agricultural Work in Nyasaland. 315

is directed to the necessity of labelling bales of cotton correctly,
as there is reason to believe that some Nyasaland-American
cotton has been sold in Manchester as Nyasaland- Egyptian, and
if this frequently occurs it will cause dissatisfaction with the
Nyasaland product in European markets. It is considered that
the surest method of popularising cotton as a crop with the
natives would be to undertake the breeding of acclimatised seed
on one or more Government farms, with a view to producing
seed which would give a yield of over 100 lb. of cotton lint per
acre. A secondary object of such farms would be the training
of native instructors, who would subsequently be sent into
suitable areas to give instruction in cotton-growing to native
farmers.

Coffee, which was at one time the chief crop in Nyasaland,
but has declined in recent years, is stated to be regaining
popularity. From his inspection of several estates the Director
is of opinion that coffee is always likely to be a light cropper in
the Protectorate, except where it is grown under the best
conditions. It requires a light soil and a good rainfall, and
consequently in Nyasaland, which has a changeable climate, the
yield is always liable to fluctuate, being heavy on light soil in a
wet year and better on clay soil in a dry year. It is suggested
that the most profitable method of growing coffee will be to
plant the bushes sufficiently wide to allow of inter-planting of
young bushes between the rows in the fifth or sixth year. When
these young trees are one year old, the old ones should be
removed, and the new ones relied on for a crop. On strong land
it is possible to sucker old trees for one or two years before
uprooting them.

It is considered that a few years hence there should be a con-
siderable export of cultivated rubber from the Protectorate.
The climate is on the whole too dry for Para or Castilloa rubber,
and Ceara rubber has been most extensively planted. The
Director states that many of the trees have been planted too
closely, and that a space of 1 5 x 1 5 ft. to 20 x 20 ft. should be
allowed for each tree, depending on the fertility of the land
planted. Exhausted coffee gardens are not regarded as suitable
for planting with Ceara rubber, as the latter requires a fairly rich
soil.

3i6 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

A full account was given in the previous article {loc. cit) of the
promising tobacco industry of the Protectorate. In the year under
review many planters put too large an area under tobacco, with
the result that too large a crop was obtained to be dealt with in
the curing barns at present available, and much of the tobacco
was, therefore, lost in the fields.

A certain amount of damage was done to the chief crops by
insect pests. The usual cotton pests were in evidence, notably
the boll-worm, cotton stainer, the green fly, and various cut-
worms. Anthracnose and angular leaf-spot were also found in
this crop to a small extent. The " coffee thrip " {Thysanoptera)
did considerable damage in the Blantyre district, and in the
lighter soils many trees were killed by attacks of the " coffee
borer." With tobacco the only trouble experienced was "- mildew "
on the heavier soils and " leaf-spotting " caused by heavy showers
of rain.

The Chief Forest Officer gives particulars of the work done
at the various nurseries and plantations under his control. A
piece of ground adjoining the Bwaila forest nursery has been
formed into an arboretum and planted out with a large number
of different species of trees, especially Eucalypts, Acacias and
Albizzias. Pinus pinaster d^nd P inus pinea diVQ 3\so being tried
on the Zomba plateau, at an elevation of 5,000 feet. A large
number of plants, including 1 50,000 Mlanje cypress and 80,000
Eucalypts, were raised in the Zomba nurseries during the year.
At Blantyre 15,000 Eucalypts and 8,000 African mahogany were
raised in the nursery and planted out along the banks of the
Mudi.

A considerable number of economic plants are under experi-
mental cultivation in the Bwaila Experimental Garden near
Zomba. The Sisal and Mauritius hemp plots made good pro-
gress, but jute was a failure, owing to adverse climatic conditions.
A small plot was planted with leaf-cuttings of the indigenous
Sansevieria Kirkii in January 1908. About 20 per cent, of the
cuttings did not take root, but those which did so now vary in
height from a few inches to three feet.

A series of tapping experiments on the trees in the Ceara
rubber plantation has been commenced. These trees were
planted in December 1906, and have made satisfactory progress.

Agricultural Work in Nyasaland. 317

Seeds of Manihot pimihyensis and M. dichotoma have been
received during the year, and in part distributed to planters in
various parts of the Protectorate. Those sown at Zomba ger-
minated badly, and only 20 plants of the first and 50 of the
second species named have been raised there. Two living plants
of M. dichotoma, received from Kew Gardens in November
1907, have grown rapidly, and in April of the present year were
10 feet high.

A plot of coffee was formed about 3 years ago, half of which
has been irrigated artificially with a view to finding out whether
under such treatment the bushes would bear more regularly than
is generally the case in Nyasaland. Definite results are not yet
available, but the irrigated plants are said to have made better
growth than those grown without irrigation.

An experiment has been commenced in breeding a more
prolific type of cotton than is now available in the country, and
for this purpose 2 acres were planted this year with American
Upland Cotton, which is now being generally grown in the
country. Allen's and Griffin's " long staple " cottons were also
tried, and made good growth. These varieties are said to be
doing well on several estates where they have been tried for the
first time this season. Other products under trial in the Experi-
mental Garden are Para, Castilloa, Funtumia and Landolphia
Kirkii rubbers, tea, camphor, croton seed, lemon grass, ground-
nuts, various leguminous plants (to be used as forage or green
manures) and fruit trees of various kinds.

The report concludes with lists of (i) plants and seeds received
and distributed during the year, and (2) products sent to the
Imperial Institute for exhibition in the Nyasaland Court.

Appended to the report is a series of schedules giving meteor-
ological data for the year. Meteorological returns for the
Protectorate are published monthly in the Nyasaland Gazette y
and readers interested in these may be referred to that publica-
tion, which can be seen on application at the Central Stand in
the Exhibition Galleries of the Imperial Institute.

3i8 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

GENERAL NOTES.

Synthetic Rubber.— The following letter on this subject, from Prof.
Dunstan, was published in the hidia Rubber Journal of the 28th
June last :

" Sir, — As the report in the Lidia Rubber Journal of the remarks
on synthetic rubber made by me at the dinner of the Federated
Malay States seems to imply that my views on this subject have
changed since my address to the British Association in 1906, I think it
desirable to point out that this is in no sense the case.

"Nothing I said at York in 1906 is contrary to the opinion I expressed
at the dinner, that the rubber planting industry has little to fear for many
years to come from synthetic rubber. Whether synthetic rubber will
ever be able to compete successfully with natural rubber is an economic
question which no one can answer with certainty at this stage of affairs,
but the references in my address sum up the facts as they stand to-day,
and the. probabilities as regards the future. It will be well to reproduce
what I did say in 1906 {Bulleti?t of the Imperial Institute^ 1906, 4. 325).

" ' Moreover, it cannot be doubted that chemical science will sooner
or later be able to take a definite step towards the production of rubber
by artificial means.

" ' The production of caoutchouc by chemical means has, indeed,
virtually been accomplished in its formation from isoprene.

" 'The exact nature of this change has still to be determined. When
this has been done it will only remain to cheapen the cost of production
to make the manufacture of synthetic rubber a purely practical problem.
I should be the last to discourage the great extension of rubber planting
which is now taking place. It is warranted by the present demand for
the material. It has also to be remembered that the actual cost of
producing cultivated raw rubber, which is at present about one shilling
per pound, will probably be reduced, and the market price of rubber
may eventually be so considerably lowered that, as with quinine, the
synthetic production could not be profitably carried on. That is a
question which involves many factors at present unknown, and only
time can decide. Chemists may, however, confidently predict that
before the British Association again meets at York, the chemical
synthesis of rubber will be a fully accomplished fact.'

" Speaking as I was to a scientific audience, my remarks could hardly
have been misunderstood, but elsewhere they have been misconstrued.
My prediction as regards the synthesis of rubber referred, of course, to
a complete knowledge, in the chemical sense, of its synthesis, not to its
successful commercial production in competition with natural rubber.

" The lower the cost of natural production is reduced the less likely is
it that synthetic rubber will be able to compete with it, and, as I said at
the dinner, I do not believe that the cost of production has yet reached

General Notes. 319

its minimum. Whilst it would be rash to assert that this competition
is an impossibility, it is clear that we are not within measurable distance
of such a possibility at the present time.

" I have no doubt that chemistry will succeed in producing rubber
identical in all respects with natural rubber. The only possible doubt
can be whether this operation can be performed, sufficiently cheaply, on
a large scale.

" I am, etc., Wyndham R. Dunstan."

Agricultural Show in Southern Nigeria. — An agricultural show will
be held at Calabar, Southern Nigeria, from the 25th to the 27th of
November next. The exhibits will be arranged in the following sections :
A, Forest and Plantation Produce; B, Foodstuffs, Vegetables and
Fruit ; C, Live Stock, including Poultry ; D, Implements and Machinery ;
E, Miscellaneous ; F, Preparation of Produce and Manufactures.

In section D the General Committee invite more especially exhibits
of hand machines for shelling maize, hand cotton gins, rubber tapping
knives, pruning knives, shears for detaching cocoa pods, etc. In this
section a gold medal will be awarded for a light springless hand-cart
with a minimum wheel diameter of 3 feet, and which can be easily
drawn with a maximum load of 5 cwt. on light, unmetalled and
comparatively heavily graded roads. The hand-cart should be built in
sections or be collapsible, to facilitate transport by canoe, and must be
cheap. The prize cart will probably be adopted and standardised by
the Southern Nigeria Government. Exhibits should be sent to the
Secretary, Agricultural Show, Calabar, Southern Nigeria, from whom also
further information can be obtained.

Indigo from Nigeria. — In 1908 the Imperial Institute received
from the Inspector of Agriculture for British West Africa a quantity
of indigo prepared by the natives of Kontagora Province. Subse-
quently a small consignment of the plant, used as a source of indigo
at Oshogbo, in Southern Nigeria, was also received. Both these
products have been examined for the Imperial Institute by Prof. A. G.
Perkin, F.R.S., who has communicated a paper on the subject to the
Society of Chemical Industry, which is printed in the Society's Journal
(1909, 27. April 15th).

From this it appears that the Southern Nigeria plant yielding indigo
is Lonchocarpus cyanesce?is, identical with the "Gara" plant of Sierra
Leone already described as a source of indigo in thisBul/etin(igo'j,5. 129).
The dried plant as received contained o'6^ per cent, of indigotin, a
quantity identical with that found in a sample of the same plant from
Sierra Leone {/oc. cit.).

The lump indigo from Northern Nigeria proved on examination to
contain about 21-5 per cent, of indigotin, the actual blue dyestuff of
indigo, so that it is of poor quality in comparison with the indigo of

320 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

India or Java, which may contain up to 80 per cent, of indigotin. The
material is, however, of interest, since it represents a fairly successful
attempt to extract indigo from the plant previous to dyeing, whereas in
most parts of West Africa the indigo-bearing plant itself is used in the
dyeing operation.

Examination of fragments of leaves and other vegetable debris con-
tained in this indigo from Northern Nigeria showed that it also was
probably prepared from Lonchocarpus cyanescens, which would appear,
therefore, to be the principal source of the indigo used by natives in
West Africa.

Ylang-Ylang Oil in the Philippines. — The Philippine Journal
of Science (1908, 3. No. 2) contains a resume of information on the
important ylang-ylang oil industry of that American colony, and also
gives the results of an examination made by Dr. Bacon, of the Philippine
Bureau of Science, of typical samples of the oil. It appears that in
general the distillers do not own groves of ylang-ylang trees, but have to
buy their supplies of flowers from native growers and brokers, and much
care is. needed in effecting these purchases, since adulteration of the
flowers with twigs, damaged and decayed flowers, water, etc., is common,
and these additions all tend to depreciate the quality of the oil obtained.
In Manila the best flowers are usually obtained in May and June, but
in a late season the gathering may be considerably retarded. Large
numbers of ylang-ylang trees occur in the various provinces in some of
which at present no oil is distilled. For the further development of the
industry in the provinces the installation of good distilling apparatus
and the introduction of better methods of distillation are necessary.

The distillers of ylang-ylang oil are supposed to possess trade secrets,
but Dr. Bacon states that a skilful operator, who thoroughly understands
the distillation of essential oils, would soon discover the special treat-
ment required in the case of this oil. The errors it is most important
to avoid are (i) the wrong choice of fractions of distillate, (2) overheat-
ing the flowers, and (3) obtaining too much resin in the oil. To obviate
these the oil must be distilled with clean steam, and the flowers placed in
the still in such a manner as to avoid their being cut into channels by
the steam. The quantity of oil taken should be only a fraction of the
total amount in the flowers. For i lb. of first quality oil, on an average
400 lb. of flowers are required, and after this quantity of first grade oil
has been obtained a fraction of second grade oil, which may be almost
equal in volume to the first, may be collected. The still, which is
usually lined with block tin or nickel, is then thoroughly cleaned out and
steamed before the introduction of another lot of flowers. The oil is
separated from the condensed water (which is used again in future
distillations), and after being clarified is packed in air-tight, dark-
coloured bottles, well stoppered and paraffined to keep out air.

At present the oil is largely bought and sold on the judgment of
dealers, the determining factor being the odour. Naturally there is

General Notes. 321

much prejudice and uncertainty in such methods, and recognising the
desirability of introducing definite chemical tests, Dr. Bacon has
examined a large number of samples of both first and second grade
oils. Their physical constants and the amounts of ester present were
studied comparatively, and as a result the following regularities were
observed : —

(i) The ester number of first grade oils is usually 100 or more,
whereas that of the second grade oil rarely rises above 80. (2) The
refractive index of the former class of oil is usually low, rarely rising
above no = i"49o at 30°, whereas that of the latter approaches i"5oo.
(3) The optical rotation of the first grade oils (generally between - 32°
and - 45°) is usually much lower than that of the second grade, which
is generally - 60° or over.

The use of ripe yellow flowers only for distillation is of great import-
ance for the preparation of good oil. The results of experiments
indicate that 200 lb. of such flowers will give i lb. of a better quality
oil than 400 lb. of the class of poor mixed flowers now often used.

On the commercial side it is pointed out that the oil is classified into
first and second grades, the latter consisting in properly distilled oil of
the Later fractions. Under present conditions it is necessary in order to
secure good prices to establish a brand, and once a recognised position
has been secured in the market every care should be taken that the oil
produced is of uniformly good quality.

The Pearl Fisheries of Mergui, Burma. — The Mergui district is
situated at the end of the long and narrow strip of land which
forms the southern part of the province of Burma. The country is
mountainous and almost entirely covered by forests ; deposits of tin,
copper, iron, manganese and coal are known to occur, but save for
some operations carried out in the tin deposits of Malawun, none of
these minerals is worked as yet. At present the prosperity of the
district depends mainly on the exploitation of the beds of pearl oysters,
which are situated amongst the islands bordering Mergui. Up to the
year 1892 the fishing was entirely free, the inhabitants of the islands,
the Selungs or Salons, obtaining the oysters in a primitive fashion
by diving without apparatus. The results attained even under these
conditions indicated an abundance of shells. Later on the local
administration assumed charge of the fishery, and the archipelago was
divided into five lots, for the working of which tenders were received
each year. The methods of fishing were improved, and the yield
increased considerably. In 1900 the system of tenders, which had
not realised expectations, was replaced by a tax of 400 rupees per year
for every diving apparatus in use. Some years later, experts, appointed
by the Government of India, examined the waters of the archipelago
and of the neighbouring islands. The conclusions set forth in their
report confirmed the value and importance of the pearling grounds, of
which only a small part is at present worked. The shallows where

322 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

ordinary diving is possible are almost exhausted, but this is not likely to
happen in the channels, where the considerable depth assures satisfactory
reproduction of the oysters, beside which the cessation of fishing
during the south-west monsoon leaves sufficient time for recovery.
The oyster-beds situated near the Moskos islands and near the port of
Tavoy have scarcely been touched, their distance from Mergui, which
is the principal market for the shells, and the short duration of the
fishing season, owing to rough seas and rapid currents there, having
kept the fishers away. The southern part of the Mergui archipelago is
also still neglected ; the pearl oyster appears to be abundant there, but
the fishing localities have not been studied so far.

The exploitation of the Mergui fisheries and those of the neighbour-
ing waters is therefore only in the initial stage, but it seems destined to
develop largely before long. The experts recommended the establishment
of an experiment and breeding station. The pearl oysters of Mergui,
Pteria manopiera and Margaritifera maxima^ differ from the Ceylon
oyster, Margaritifera vulgaris^ and do not live under the same con-
ditions (see this Bulletin^ iQ^Sj 3. 125). In Ceylon the oyster is found
in shallow and well-sheltered waters, whilst in Mergui it lives at greater
depths, and is exposed to rapid currents. The Mergui oyster also is
reproduced less readily. The Mergui pearls are stated to be above the
average in size and in appearance. Their value is sometimes as high
as ;^3oo, some found in 1904 were worth ;£ 1,000, whilst two pearls
obtained in 1907 were valued at ;£^3,2oo. Mergui mother-of-pearl shell
is of the best quality, and is annually exported to the extent of about
80 tons.

Carnotite from South Australia. — During 1906 a mineral deposit
containing uranium and vanadium was discovered at a locality since
named Radium Hill, situated 24 miles S.E. of Olary in South Australia.
The material of the deposit roused considerable interest on account of
its radio-active character, and much difficulty has been experienced in
ascertaining its mineral and chemical composition. A large specimen
was received recently at the Imperial Institute, with a request that it
should be examined and valued. The scientific investigation was
undertaken by Messrs. T. Crook and G. S. Blake of the Scientific and
Technical Department, and the results obtained have been embodied
in a paper entitled, " Carnotite and an associated mineral complex
from South Australia," which was read recently at a meeting of the
Mineralogical Society of London. The following is a summary of the
results described in the paper.

The radio-active lodestuff is a mineral complex, consisting of an
intimate admixture of ilmenite, magnetite, rutile, carnotite and a
mineral which is possibly tscheffkinite. The predominant constituent
is ilmenite.

Carnotite occurs sparingly in cracks and cavities in the general mass
of the material, partly as a yellow powder and partly in the form of

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 323

tabular crystals and platy aggregates, belonging to the orthorhombic
system. The physical characters, taken in conjunction with the chemical
composition, indicate that carnotite is a definite mineral, belonging to
the uranite group, and that it may be regarded as the vanadium
analogue of autunite.

The carnotite of Colorado, though not so definite in its crystalline
condition as the Australian mineral, contains tabular crystals and platy
aggregates, which are orthorhombic in symmetry ; and it is probable that
these are mineralogically identical with those of the Australian carnotite.

The supposed new minerals " davidite " and " sefstromite " seem to
be identical with the mineral complex described in this paper. They
appear to consist essentially of an admixture of ilmenite, magnetite and
rutile ; and the small proportion of uranium, vanadium and rare earths
present should apparently be attributed to microscopic impregnations
of carnotite, and a mineral of uncertain identity, which may be
provisionally identified as tscheffkinite.

Mineral Survey of Nyasaland. — A report by the Director of the
Imperial Institute, on the results achieved by this Survey during the
season 1907-08, has just been issued as a parliamentary paper in the
Miscellaneous Series of Colonial Reports.

It gives a summary of the field observations recorded by the
surveyors and the results of the examination at the Imperial Institute
of the large number of economic minerals collected. The principal
products dealt with are coals from the extensive deposits located by the
Survey in North Nyasa, limestones, sands containing monazite, tinstone,
and occasionally traces of gold, and miscellaneous minerals such as
graphite and strontianite.

RECENT REPORTS FROM AGRICULTURAL AND

TECHNICAL DEPARTMENTS IN THE

COLONIES AND INDIA.

In this Section of the Bulletin a Summary is given of the Chief
Contents of general interest^ of Reports and other publications received
at the Imperial Institute from Agricultural and Technical Departments^
in the Colonies and India.

Cyprus.

Cyprus Journal, 1909. No. 13. — Sericulture in Cyprus (mentions
that a sericultural station has been established at the offices of the
Agricultural Department in Nicosia, where silkworm eggs are being
hatched out and the worms reared on modern lines) — Ground-nut
(gives a brief description of the cultivation and uses of this nut)— The

324 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

preparation of raisins — Agricultural co-operation — Cotton planting (gives
hints for planting in the coming season) — An insect which attacks
carobs (describes Myelois ceradonia, and means for combating it), etc.
No. 14. — Planting of fruit trees (gives instructions as to the methods
to be adopted in planting fruit trees — The origin of the olive tree —
Fruit packing — The new Cyprus plough (an illustrated description of
this plough is given).

Annual Report by the Director of Agriculture^ 1908-09. — During the
year further experiments were made with Sea Island, Allen's long
staple and Culpepper's big boll cottons. Of these the freshly imported
seed of two varieties of Sea Island cotton failed, but a third variety
imported in 1907 gave a yield of 490 okes per donum, whilst the
Culpepper's big boll cotton gave 245 and the Allen's long staple 186.
Experiments with the same varieties are being continued this year, and
also with Caravonica cotton. In consultation with the Imperial Insti-
tute 2051 lb. of origanum oil was sold during the year at 35. 3^. per lb.,
which is the best price hitherto obtained for the whole crop. This year
an attempt is to be made to place colourless origanum oil and carvacrol
on the market (compare this Bulletin^ 1906, 4. 296 ; 1908, 6. 208).

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.

Central Economic Boards Secretary s Report for 1908. — Commercial
enterprise in the Sudan is at present mainly associated with agricultural
development and the utilisation of forest products, but to the north ot
Khartoum progress in agriculture depends mainly on the increase of
artificial irrigation. Capital could not readily be found for this under
the conditions prevailing last year, and consequently the attention of
the Board was directed to a greater extent to the rainy districts of the
south. The construction of the Nile-Red Sea Railway has put an
entirely different complexion on the possibilities of the Southern Sudan
by rendering it more accessible to trade. For the time being rain-
grown cereals, oil seeds and forest products have supplanted irrigation-
grown cotton in interest; but it is clearly recognised that cotton
cultivation is of vital importance to the Sudan, although its rapid
development cannot be realised immediately.

The large expansion of export trade within a comparatively short
time, although satisfactory in itself, has a somewhat precarious founda-
tion, being largely based on the Tokar cotton crop, which is unreliable,
and on the Kordofan gum crop, which is liable to fluctuations both in
quantity and price.

The cultivation of sesame is being extended, and exports are rapidly
increasing. It is a matter for satisfaction that the Sudan can produce
very large quantities of this commodity, in view of the practically
unlimited demand in Europe for this and other oil seeds.

Experimental plantations of rubber on the White Nile, although in
their early stages, are satisfactory up to date. The following kinds

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 325

of rubber are being tried: ("earn, Tara, Funtumia and Cr^'ptostcf^a
grandiflora.

The values of exports of Sudan produce during the year 1908 were
as follows. The figures in brackets are those for 1907 for comparison.
Gum, ^Ki75,269 (^1^54,592); dura, /:K57,.v;3 (/^^'24,4Ii) ;
cotton, ginned, ^E4o, 880 (;{^K44,oo2) ; cotton, unginned, /^IC39,782
(;f £52,007); ivory, ;^K39.5oi (^^^40,304) ; dates, £^2,'S^\^
(;f E20,86o) ; sesame, ;^E25,o29 (;f £19,736). Total exports,

^^515,938 (^£449,329).

There has been a large and continuous increase in the export of gum
from the Sudan, a large proportion of which is now shipped from I*ort
Sudan instead of passing through Alexandria, so that exports of Sudan
gum 7)ia Egypt have shown decreases during the last year or two.

The following information is taken from the monthly reports of the
Secretary to the Central Economic Board, which have been issued
during the present year.

In January 1 909 dura of the Gassabi class from the Sudan was sold
in Cairo at the rate of 105 to 115 piastres per sack of 150 kg. There
appears to be a fair market for white dura of this quality in Cairo, but
** Faterita dura " is not liked. Cultivators are therefore being strongly
impressed with the desirability of growing, wherever circumstances
permit, white and yellow duras of a superior quality instead of the
common Faterita. Duras of the Gassabi, Hegari, Safra and other
superior qualities arc practically certain of finding a market, if not in
Egypt, at any rate in Aden and the Red Sea ports. The demand in
Egypt and Dongola for dura from JJerber and White Nile continued,
and large quantities have been sent down this year vU\ Haifa to
Egypt.

An experiment in cotton growing was made recently by a sheikh at
Monagil in Kassala Province with Egyptian seed supplied by the
Government. The plants developed well, and the iirst pickings of
cotton were of good quality.

Two samples of Egyptian cotton from Bor and Kio were examined
by the Agricultural Department, and pronounced to be well-grown
cotton of fair length and strong.

A small experiment is to be made at Bor in the extraction of Sanse-
vieria guineensis fibre. Samples of this fibre from the Sudan have been
favourably reported on in Ixjndon, well-prepared fibre being valued at
;£^3o per ton. The Deccan hemp plant, Hibiscus cannabinus^ has been
grown on the Government farm, Khartoum North. It ai)pears that this
plant can be grown easily and cheaply, and its fibre should be of use
locally for rope-making.

A consignment of orange trees from Malta and Jaffa was being sent
in November last to Merowe in Dongola Province, where the trees were
to be planted for experimental purposes. The vines from "Castel
Perrimi Brindisi," which were planted in Dongola in February 1908,
are reported to be fruiting well. ' -

326 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

An interesting experiment is being carried out in the local manu-
facture of "zeers " and other porous vessels by potters from Keneh in
Upper Egypt, who have established themselves at Khartoum North.
These men are now engaged in carrying out an experimental contract
with the Government, and have succeeded in producing satisfactory
" zeers " at about one-third the price of those imported from Keneh.
There is a considerable opening in Khartoum and Omdurman for an
enterprise of this kind, and it is hoped that in course of time other
potters will migrate to these places, and that local inhabitants will
learn the trade. There is also a good opening for the manufacture
of earthenware drain-pipes, flower-pots, etc. These have been turned
out with success, but the skilled labour at the disposal of the present
manufacturers is so limited that it is impossible to produce any of
these articles in sufficient quantity to meet the demand.

Rhodesia.

Agricultural Journal^ 1909, 6- No, 5, contains, inter alia, (i) ^ short
article describing the cultivation of flax; (2) a note on Sesbania punc-
tata, a leguminous plant found recently in the Matopos, which bears
large quantities of nitrogen-forming nodules on its roots, and which it
is thought would be specially suitable for use as a green manure ; and
(3) a short description of the cultivation of the plantain.

Natal.

Agricultural Journal, 1909, 12. No. 4. — A neglected factor in maize
production (calls attention to the desirability of making germinating
trials with seed before sowing) — The manuring of tea — Sugar-cane
cultivation (an account of recent progress in Zululand) — Notes on
diseases of the potato plant in Natal (gives descriptions, and suggests
remedial measures against the principal fungoid diseases) — Tobacco
growing in Natal. No. 5. — The manuring of tea (continued from the
previous number) — Weenen phosphates — Germination of seed mealies
(deals with methods of testing the germinating power) — Natal wool on
the English market (gives the views of wool-brokers and assessors in
the United Kingdom on the relative values of Natal and Australian
wools, with a number of suggestions for the improvement of the former)
— Progress Report of the Division of Forestry and Agriculture for
April.

Cape of Good Hope.

Report of the Conservator of Forests, 1 908. — Gives particulars of the
working of the Government forests. The number of forest fires and
the area burnt were less than usual during the year. Damage is still
being done by the " Borer " beetle, especially at Kluitjes Kraal and in
the sleeper plantation at Knol Vlei. The natural reproduction of
exotic trees, such as Eucalyptus diver sicolor and the Aleppo, Cluster and
Canary pines, is said to be good. Wattle plantations, especially Acacia

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 327

decurrens^ are being formed wherever land is available in the West. An
experiment was made in planting drift sands with Marram and other
grasses, and this gives promise of success. A number of timbers,
including "black wattle," "blue gum" and "rostrata gum," are being
tried for paving-blocks at East London.

Agricultural Journal^ iQOQj 34. No. 5. — "Gum" troubles of orange
and other citrus trees (an abstract of a recent Bulletin published by
the Californian State University on " gum " diseases of Citrus trees) —
Vinegar and its manufacture in Cape Colony (describes more especially
the manufacture of vinegar from wine) — Experiments with ostriches,
No. IX. : The terminology of ostrich feathers (explains the meaning of
the various technical terms used in connection with the description of
ostrich feathers, gives a full account of the plumage at various stages,
and describes the points which determine their commercial value —
" White heads " in wheat (describes and gives a method of treatment
for this fungoid disease) — Agricultural soils of Cape Colony (deals
with the alkaline soils found in various districts of the Cape of Good
Hope, and gives numerous analyses of these). No. 6. — Poisoned bait
for fruit fly (recommends a solution of three pounds of sugar and four
ounces of lead arsenate in five gallons of water for spraying trees infected
with fruit fly) — The chemistry of some vegetable products of South
Africa (an address to the Cape Chemical Society on this subject) —
Irrigation development in the Cape Colony — The agricultural soils of
Cape Colony (continued from the previous number). This portion
deals with the physical composition of these soils.

India.

Quarterly Journal^ Department of Agriculture, Bengal^ 1909? 2.
No. 4. — Sugar and sugar-cane experiments in Bengal (gives the results
of experiments on the application of various manures, the cultivation
of several varieties of cane, and the effects of different methods of
planting) — Effects of salts on soils — Diseases and pests (gives a de-
scription of the insect pests affecting young rice plants in the Nadia
district of Bengal).

Report of the Agricultural Department^ Eastern Bengal and Assatn,
for the year 1907-08. — Attempts were made to grow some of the
finer varieties of cotton at Baikantapur Farm on the low hills of South
Sylhet. " King's Improved," " Caravonica " and " Spence " cottons
failed completely, but " Dharwar " and " Buri " varieties gave fairly
good crops. The cultivation of jute in the Province has extended and
good results have been obtained. Efforts are being made to improve
the quality of the potatoes by the introduction of Nainital and Dar-
jeeling varieties. Attempts to grow wheat in the plains of Assam
resulted in total failure. The orange trees of the Khasi Hills have
been attacked by blight, with the result that the crop of fruit is much
reduced. The Imperial Mycologist is investigating the nature of the

328 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

disease and remedial measures have been adopted. An endeavour is
being made to revive the silkworm-rearing industry. The report of the
fibre expert, published as an appendix, contains a record of experi-
ments in jute-growing and references to the cultivation of flax and Sida,
both of which have yielded promising results.

Annual Report of the Agricultural Stations in Eastern Bengal and
Assam for the year' ending June 30, 1908. — Dacca Agricultural Station. —
The Station was not acquired until the latter end of 1906, and the
work done has therefore been chiefly restricted to reclaiming land
under jungle and to levelling and laying out the experimental areas.
No systematic experiments could be undertaken, but small trials were
made with wheat, barley, oats, grain, potatoes and flax, and these gave
inconclusive results.

Rangpur Agricultural Station. — The experiments conducted at this
Station were chiefly concerned with tobacco cultivation, and included
the growing of wrapper leaf under shade and in the open, the growing
of leaf suitable for fillers, and the production of Turkish tobacco suit-
able for cigarettes. The Rangpur Farm lies outside the true tobacco
belt, and its soil is more retentive of moisture than the typical soil of
the district. For these reasons it has been decided that in future the
experimental work on tobacco shall be carried out at a new Station at
Burirhat, about five miles to the north of Rangpur town.

Burirhat Agricultural Station. — As stated above, this Station has
just been established for experimental work on tobacco. The opera-
tions during the year under report consisted chiefly of clearing the
jungle, levelling and road-making, but some small experiments were
made with Sumatra and Turkish tobaccos.

Rajshahi Agricultural Station. — An experiment was made on the
cultivation of a fine variety of " aus " rice in comparison with the local
variety. The latter gave the better results, but the experiment is to be
repeated. A trial of Dacca sugar-cane in contrast with the local
" Khagri " variety showed that the former was superior, both in respect
of juiciness and sugar-content. Muzaffarnagar wheat and the hard red
wheat of the Rajshahi District were grown in contiguous fields; the
local variety gave a larger crop both of grain and straw, but the pro-
ducts of both kinds realised the same price in the local market.
Manurial experiments were made with sugar-cane and wheat. An
experiment on potato cultivation was very successful, and indicated
that, with proper treatment and suitable soil, potatoes could be profit-
ably grown in the Rajshahi District, and that although irrigation would
increase the yield it was by no means indispensable. Experiments
were also made with certain fibre plants, viz. jute, Malachra capitata,
and Sida.

Jorhat Agricultural Station. — The work done at this Station consisted
chiefly of sugar-cane experiments carried out with the object of ascer-
taining the best varieties to grow and the most profitable amounts of
manure to apply. Nine varieties of sugar-cane were tested, and it was

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 329

found that, of these, "striped Mauritius" was much the best of the
first-year plants in respect of weight of cane, richness of juice and total
sugar-content. The " khari " variety came second as a first-year plant
but as ratoon cane was far superior to " striped Mauritius " and the
other varieties. It is pointed out, however, that the experiments were
somewhat vitiated by the fact that the soil of the farm was of very
uneven fertility.

Shillong Fruit Experiment Station. — Various fruit trees, including
apple, pear, plum, peach, cherry, apricot, almond, walnut and fig
trees, are being grown at this Station, but generally they either fail to
set fruit or most of the fruit falls before ripening. This is partly due
to the high winds which prevail from February to April and the heavy
rainfall during the monsoon season. Strawberries, asparagus, rhubarb
and sweet potatoes can be grown very profitably. Sericicultural experi-
ments were carried out with great success and the silk produced was
very favourably regarded by experts.

Upper Shillong Agricultural Station. — The principal crop dealt with
was potatoes, and sixteen varieties were compared. The largest yield
was given by " King of Potatoes," and this had the further advantage of
freedom from disease. Other varieties which gave good results were
"Nainital," " Khasi round," "Eldorado," "King Edward VII" and
" Farm Magnum Bonum." In order to check disease, experiments in
spraying with Bordeaux mixture were made on the farm and also on
several demonstration plots selected in the fields of the ryots in neigh-
bouring villages. In all cases the areas so treated gave an increased
yield.

Wahjain Agricultural Station. — Excellent results have been obtained
at this Station with Andropogon nardus, L. As a result of three
distillations, 1,127 fluid ounces of the volatile oil were obtained, part
of which was sold at 4^. per ounce. At this price, the whole quantity
would be worth ;^i8 15^. 8^., whilst the cost of manufacture, including
the collection of the grass, was only ;£"8 175. 4^. Trials are being
made with cocoa, coffee, camphor, cinnamon, pine-apples. Natal oranges
and other products, and are making satisfactory progress.

Report on the Cawnpore Agricultural Station in the United Provinces
for the year ending June 30, 1908. — The work recorded in this Report
includes a series of manurial experiments, investigations into the types
and characters of certain crops, namely, opium-poppy, cotton, wheat,
barley and linseed, and their possible improvement by selection, and
also the results of some rotation trials.

Report on the Operations of the Department of Agriculture^ Burma,
for the year ending June 30, 1908. — Experiments were carried out at
the Agricultural Station, Himawbi, to ascertain whether the rice lands
of Lower Burma can be made to produce a crop during the winter
season. Wheat, sorghum, maize, gram, peas and beans, Sunn hemp,
jute and Egyptian cottons were grown. Peas and beans with gram
gave some promise of success, but in the other cases the experiments

330 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

were attended with failure. In consequence of a complaint of the
Burma Chamber of Commerce that Arakan rice was becoming more
and more unsuited to the European market owing to its tendency to
absorb moisture, seed of suitable moisture-resisting varieties was dis-
tributed to cultivators in the Akyab District. Very successful results
were obtained and the crop met with the approval both of the growers
and the millers. Efforts to develop the cultivation of ground-nuts in the
dry zone of Upper Burma led to the production of a crop which was
twice as large as that of the previous year. A survey of the Burmese
cottons is being made at Mandalay. Barley promises to do well in the
Chin Hills. Tea and coffee have been fairly successful, especially in
districts of the northern wet zone.

Forest Pamphlet^ No. 7, Forest Economy Series^ No. 2. — Andaman
fnarble wood or zebra wood, JDiospyros kurzii, Hiern. This is the
first of a series of publications which will deal with the more important
Indian timbers not at present known to commerce. The pubUcations
will contain information likely to be useful to timber merchants and
others interested in the utilisation of Indian timbers. In this instance
the distribution, method of occurrence, and size of timber available are
given with a detailed description of the wood, notes of its working
qualities, its weight, strength, seasoning qualities and commercial value.
The wood is recommended for cabinet work, walking sticks, picture
frames, and similar articles.

Progress Report on Arboriculture in the Punjab for the Triennial
Period, 1905-06 to 1907-08. — An account is given of the progress
made in planting trees in avenues, groves and plantations. With regard
to avenues, there were only 11,334 miles in 1899, whereas, in 1908, no
less than 14,362 miles were being maintained. The rate of planting
has been accelerated during the period covered by the Report owing
to the opening up of new railways, roads and canals, and to special
encouragement given by the Government. The Province still contains
thousands of miles suitable for planting, so that much work remains
to be done. The arboricultural operations have unfortunately been
attended by a large proportion of failures, and it is considered that
better results would be obtained by concentrating the work on limited
areas at a time and by adopting improved methods of treatment and
more highly trained supervision.

Progress Report on Forest Administration in the N.-W. Frontier
Province for 1907-08. — The total forest area in 1907-08 amounted
to 369 square miles, of which 236 square miles consisted of reserved
forests under the direct control of the Department. The total yield of
timber was 664,000 cubic feet, and that of fuel 306,000 cubic feet.
Experiments on artificial reproduction have not proved very successful,
and the results are not considered to justify the expenditure involved.
It has, therefore, been decided to devote less attention to this work, but
rather to encourage natural reproduction by means of cultural operations.
Podophyllum Emodi plants are being cultivated in nurseries in Kagan

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 331

and are making good progress, although the rhizomes are not yet fit for
export ; a nursery which has been started in the Dungagali Range is
fairly successful.

Administration Report of the Forest Circles in the Botubay Presidency^
including Sind, for the year 1907-08. — The total forest area at the end
of the year amounted to 15,100 square miles. The yield of timber
was about five million cubic feet. During an inspection of the forests
in Satara it was observed that there was a large amount of prickly pear
on the hills which had been allowed to spread as a cover to the ground.
Means are now being taken to eradicate this undesirable plant.
" Anjan " {Hardwickia binata) has seeded itself profusely in Khandesh
Ind Nasik and a promising crop of seedlings has been obtained. It
has been noticed that there are few, very few "hirda" {Terminalia
chebula) seedHngs or saplings in the " hirda " forests of the ghauts, and
it is thought that this scarcity may possibly be due to the annual
collection of the seeds. In order to test this point, areas of from 5 to
25 acres have been selected in Satara, Nasik, Nagar and Poona, and
every " hirda " tree and seedling in each has been counted and registered ;
myrabolans are not to be collected here for five years, and the result
will be recorded annually. In the Central Circle it has been discovered
that Lantana^ which is usually regarded as a pest, forms an excellent
host to sandalwood trees, and instructions have therefore been issued
that this bush is not to be eradicated in places in which the rainfall is
not too great for sandalwood to succeed. Experiments are being carried
out with the object of ascertaining the best way to extend sandalwood
in Lantana areas. Rubber planting trials have been made in several
districts and have given particularly satisfactory results in South Thana,
where Para, Ceara, Castilloa and Ficus elastica have been grown with
success. The last-mentioned plant has been found to thrive remarkably
well, and its cultivation is being extended. Experiments in the Kanara
district have not given very favourable results, and it is considered that
the conditions in this district are not well adapted to rubber cultivation
on a commercial scale.

Reports on the Forest Administration in Burma for the year 1907-
08 {with Government of India s Review). — The total area of reserved
forests at the close of the year was 22,858 square miles, whilst the area
of unclassed forests was estimated to be 107,597 miles. An enquiry
was made in the Kachin Hills into the possibility of selecting particular
areas as a protection for the head-waters of streams. Protective
measures were taken against fire over an area of 7,526 square miles,
and, although the season was very dry, the results were satisfactory.
The Mergui rubber plantation has given very good results. Para
rubber of excellent quality has been produced (cf. this Bulletin^ i907)
5. 371), and experiments are being made with Dichdpsis Gutta, Willugh-
beia firma, Castilloa elastica, Funtumia elastica, Mimusops balata and
Ficus elastica. An attempt has been made to introduce Pterocarpus
dalbergoides into Burma; seed was obtained from the Andamans and

332 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

germinated satisfactorily. Cinnamoinum Camphora seed was sown in the
Northern and Southern Circles. The number of teak trees girdled was
101,521, and the quantity of teak obtained, 225,662 tons. Of other
timbers 310,830 tons were collected, as well as 274,165 tons of fuel.

Records of the Geological Suri'ey, 1908,37, Part II. — Contains papers
on (t) the Tertiary and Quaternary Freshwater Deposits of Baluchistan
and Sind, with notices of new vertebrates; (2) on the geology and
mineral resources of the Rajpipla State north of Bombay, where
the economic minerals include carnelian and agate, lateritic iron ore,
ochres and bauxite ; (3) on three new manganese minerals from Nagpur
and Vizagapatam districts, vredenburgite, highly magnetic with the
composition, 3Mn304,2Fe203, sitaparite 9Mn203,4Fe203,Mn02,3CaO
and juddite, a strongly pleochroic manganiferous amphibole; and
(4) on laterites from the Central Provinces as a source of alumina,
which gives the results of investigations conducted at the Imperial
Institute. See this Bulletin^ p. 278, 1909, 37. Part III. — The southern
part of the Gwegyo Hills, including the Payagyigon Ngashandaung
oilfield. (The oil-bearing Yenangyaungian Beds of the Pegu Group
[Miocene, marine fossils] are overlaid unconformably by the fluviatile
Irrawadi sandstones [Pliocene]. It is considered that the oil is present
in too small amount to pay to work) — The silver-lead mines of Bawd-
win, Northern Shan States (the metalliferous deposits are formed by
the replacement of ancient felspathic grits. They were formerly worked
by the Chinese. The galena contains from 63 to 104 ounces of silver
to the ton of lead. Zinc and copper ores are also present. Prospects
are considered favourable) — Recent accounts of the Mud volcanoes
of the Arakan Coast, Burma.

Indian Trade Journal^ 1909, 13. No. 166, contains a statement on
the present condition of the Indian wheat trade, and the possibility
of still further extending the demand for Indian wheat in the United
Kingdom. No. 172. — Jute substitutes (refers more particularly to the
fibre obtained from Urena lobata, which has been frequently suggested
as a substitute for jute, which it closely resembles in properties).
]S[o. 173.— Cotton oil mills in India (discusses generally {a) the sup-
plies of cotton seed available in India and {b) the possible markets
for the products with special reference to the selection of sites for
cotton oil mills). No. 1 74. — Soy bean (gives descriptions of the known
races of soy bean, with a number of analyses and the results of
experiments on its cultivation in India: compare this Bulletin, 1909,
7, 311). No. 177. — The salt deposits of Lonar lake (gives a descrip-
tion of the lake and analyses of the salt taken at various points) — The
utilisation of eucalyptus leaves (gives a description of the method of
preparing an extract from these leaves which is used as a preventive
of incrustation of boilers).

Monograph on Paper-Making and Papier Mache in the Punjab,
1907-08. — The manufacture of papier mache articles in the Punjab
is rapidly declining, and during the last twenty years the beautiful

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 333

work of the old school has been almost entirely replaced by inferior
productions. At one time the so-called papier mache goods were
actually made from paper pulp and were beautifully decorated with
some definite scheme of colour and design. At a later date the old
patterns were still maintained, but the cost of manufacture was reduced
by using a foundation of wood and coating it with a thin layer of pulp.
At the present time tht papier mache of the Punjab is merely a particular
kind of painted and varnished woodwork.

An interesting account is given of the history of paper-making in the
Punjab. It is supposed that the art was introduced by the Moslems
in the tenth century. The industry attained its greatest importance
in 1 88 1-2, but has since rapidly declined on account of the general
extension of paper-making in the jails of the Province, which intro-
duced unfair competition, and the establishment in India of modern
paper-mills. The present condition of the industry is reviewed and
descriptions are given of the raw material used, the processes employed,
the quaUties of paper produced, the prices of the different qualities,
and the profits obtained. With regard to the future of the industry,
it is asserted that the indigenous industry will disappear in a few years
and will be replaced by paper-mills worked on European lines. A
difficulty has arisen with regard to the choice of a suitable raw material
for the profitable and extensive manufacture of paper in an Indian
mill. Rice straw, bamboo, Broussotietia papyri/era and Sunn hemp
{Crotalart'a Juncea), have all been suggested, but none of them has
proved entirely satisfactory. The raw materials most largely employed
at the present time are "munj " {Saccharum Sara) and "bhabar" grass
{Ischaemum angustifolium)^ but these have to be collected over wide
and distant areas and the freight is apt to be prohibitive. It is suggested,
however, that " megass " (the refuse of the sugar-cane) might perhaps
fulfil the requirements, whilst the employment of this product would
at the same time give encouragement to the Indian sugar industry.

Ceylon.

Circulars and Agricultural Journal of the Royal Botanic Gardens,
1909, 4. No. 20. — Some beautiful flowering trees of the tropics : their
utility and hygienic effects (describes a number of ornamental trees
suitable for planting in the tropics and gives notes where possible of
any economic products they yield). No. 21. — A bark disease of Hevea,
tea, etc. — A detailed description is given of the occurrence of Corticium
iavanicum^ Zimm. on Para rubber and tea.

Tropical Agriculturist, 1909, 32. No. 4.— The new Manihots (brief
descriptions are given of M. dichotoma, M, heptaphylla and M.
piauhyensis, and of the methods of planting and tapping these trees) —
Attalea Cohune (a description of the Cohune palm^andjits occurrence
in Honduras. It is stated that a machine capable of decorticating the
nuts is now available, and that consequently the oil-yielding kernels

334 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

are likely to be placed on the market. For further information on
the kernels, see this Bulletin^ 1903* !• xxv) — Cotton cultivation, its
extension in Ceylon (gives a resume of the history of cotton cultivation
in the Island and recommends that of Egyptian cotton, the methods
to be pursued being described in detail) — Literature of economic
botany and agriculture (this section contains entries relating to Attalea^
avocado, balata, bamboos, Bassia^ betel pepper, Blighia^ Blumea,
Brazil nut, bread fruit, Broswium, Brucea and Buiyrospermuni) —
Notes on the application of manure to tea (describes a simple method
of ensuring an even distribution of manure in tea-gardens). No. 5. —
The new rubbers (gives an account of the introduction of Manihot
dichotoma into Ceylon and notes on the cultivation of this species) —
Experiments in tapping Ceara rubber trees (describes the results of
experiments carried out in Hawaii) — New fibres for paper (states that
paper-making materials are becoming scarce and recommends the culti-
vation of bamboos and annual grasses, such as Ischaetnum angustifoliwn^
for this purpose) — On the introduction of a predaceous beetle, Clerus
formicarius^ to combat the " shot-hole borer " of tea — Literature of
economic botany and agriculture (Cacao ; general and cultivation, are
dealt with in this section) — Ceylon Agricultural Society ; Progress Re-
port No. 44 (describes the work done during the year, which includes
investigations of kekune nuts, " eri " silk cocoons and tobacco). No. 6. —
Green manuring on rubber estates — New fibres for paper. Part II.
Banana — The Papaw or Tree Melon — Transplanting of " paddy " —
Miscellanea, chiefly pathological — Entomological notes (describes the
black-headed " coco-nut caterpillar," the " tobacco stem borer," the
"paddy bug" and other pests noticed recently in Ceylon, and in most
cases suggests suitable remedial measures against them — Literature
of economic botany and agriculture (this portion gives references to
articles on Cacao, Calophyllum, Calotropis, camphor, etc.) — Heredity —
The cultivation of the almond tree (gives a detailed description of the
cultivation as carried on in Spain and elsewhere). 1909, 33, No.
I. — Tacky rubber (a review of Spence's work on this subject is
given with some further observations confirming the view that
tackiness in rubber is probably due to the action of bacteria or fungi)
— Botanical facts for rubber planters (a non-technical description
is given of the functions of the principal organs of trees, with a view
to explaining the conditions under which the tapping of rubber trees
should be carried on) — New fibres for paper. Part III (describes
a number of annual plants yielding fibres suitable for paper manu-
facture)— Entomological notes (describes (i) branches of camphor
affected by a small beetle akin to the " shot-hole borer " of tea, (2)
cotton plants attacked {a) by the "pink bollworm," Gelechia gossypieila,
{b) by a small bug, Oxycarenus laetus^ and {c) by Helopeltis antonii;
(3) tea seedlings killed by a variety of " eel-worm." For the last-
mentioned pest it is recommended that affected plants should be
destroyed at once and the soil treated with a heavy dressing of either

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 335

quicklime or "vaporite" and the ground left fallow for at least nine
months) — Miscellanea, chiefly pathological (deals mainly with some
of the pathological effects, which may follow the tapping of rubber
trees) — The cause of infertility in soils (a resume of recent informa-
tion)— Literature of economic botany and agriculture (this section
contains entries relating to cardamoms, cassava, cassia, castor oil,
casuarina, chena, chillies, cinchona, and cinnamon) — Heredity —
Ceylon Agricultural Society. Report for 1908-09 (Progress report on
the experiment station at Peradeniya) — Supplement. The coco-nut
stem disease — The new tapping system. This journal also contains
a large number of reprints and abstracts of articles on economic
products from other periodicals.

Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States.

Agricultural Bulletin 1909, 8. No. 4. — Clean weeding versus
Tephrosia (gives an account of some experiments made with Tephrosia
purpurea as a means of preventing the growth of weeds in rubber
plantations) — Estate marks on plantation rubbers (refers to the dis-
cussion on the branding of plantation rubbers, which has recently taken
place in technical journals, and advocates the extension of the system
of branding each sheet, block or biscuit of rubber produced) — A
cricket attacking young tapioca and rubber (gives a description of
Brachytrupes achatinus, and suggests carbon disulphide vapour as a
means for destroying these insects. No. 5. — The Land Laws and
Land Administration of the Federated Malay States (describes the
conditions under which land can be obtained and held in the States,
and gives particulars of the areas available for agricultural purposes in
the four states and the present condition of means of communication
in each of them. Estimates are also given of the cost and probable
profits of a I, coo-acre Para rubber plantation and of a 500-acre coco-nut
plantation, and of the cost of planting out 1,000 acres of jungle land
with sugar-cane) — Trang pepper (a description of this variety of pepper,
which is distinguished by having an unusually short fruiting season) —
Variation in the flower of the black pepper — Dyera costulata (points
out that there must be many thousands of trees of this species in the
forests of the Malay peninsula, which are suitable for tapping for
the production of "gutta jelutong") (this Bulletin^ 1903* 1- 65).
No. 6. — Ferns and their cultivation — List of ferns cultivated in
the Botanic Gardens, Singapore — Reward for the best method of
exterminating Termes Gestroi in plantations (a prize of ;£^5,ooo is
offered by the Government of the Straits Settlements and Federated
Malay States, together with the Planters' Association of Malaya, for the
discovery of a method of exterminating white ants, especially in rubber
plantations). No. 7. — A new fungus pest on Para rubber (describes
a hitherto unknown bark fungus, apparently allied to the genus
Cucurbitaria, for which spraying with Bordeaux mixture is recom-

336 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

mended) — Improvements in the manufacture of gambler (describes
a modern process for preparing this tanning extract in us'e in Sumatra).
No. 8. — Camphor (gives a short account of the cultivation of camphor
trees and some experiments on the distillation of camphor carried out
recently at Kuala Lumpur. In these experiments it was found that the
leaves yielded i per cent, of camphor and camphor oil, small twigs 0*22
per cent., large twigs and wood 0*66 per cent, and roots 1-2 per cent.)
— A lepidopterous pest of coco-nuts (a reprint of a Bulletin issued by
the Federated Malay States Department of Agriculture describing
Brachartona catoxantha, which defoliates coco-nut trees. Petroleum
emulsion sprayed on the trees has been found to be an effective remedy
against this pest) — Note on ipecacuanha cultivation — Shorea leprosula
(an illustrated description of this timber tree).

Western Australia.

Journal of the Department of Agriculture^ 1909, 18. Part 4. — Fibre,
congress at Sourabaya in 1910. Gram, Cicer arietinwti (suggested as
a suitable fodder plant for cultivation in the drier districts on sandy
or loamy soil) — Trapping fruit flies (recommends kerosene placed in
shallow tins to be hung in the trees as a trap) — Cereal cultivation
in West Australia (a summary of information on the present position
of cereal cultivation, prepared for the information of the French
Government) — The Fertiliser Act (gives statistics of the imports of
various manures during 1908) — Citrus fruit stock (giving a resume
of experiences in South Africa, Florida, and West Australia with
" rough lemon " and other " stocks " for citrus fruits) — Fruit fly,
Trypeta musae (this fly, which is stated to be common in New South
Wales, has been found recently in a consignment of oranges received
at Fremantle from that Colony) — T-bar roller and pulveriser (a
description of a new pulveriser for soil) — Carbon disulphide (a descrip-
tion of the use of this chemical as an insecticide) — Ostrich farming —
Native fodder plants (in this article Opercularia vaginata is suggested
as a useful fodder, especially as it grows well in dry and barren
situations — Fish guano (a description of the method of manufacture
and a statement of the average composition) — Abortion of plants (this
disease, which affects mostly tomato and Cape gooseberry plants, has
been prevalent in West Australia during the season. It is recommended
that affected plants should be cut "hard back," when they occasionally
bear a late crop, but no certain remedy has so far been discovered) —
The "pea nut" (a description of the method of cultivation is given
with a view to the extension of the cultivation in Western Australia.
Part 5 — How to clear "Bush" — Fruit-drying for beginners (describes
in detail the methods and appliances in use for preparing raisins, dried
plums, prunes, etc.) — Beneficial parasites (describes a number of
insects used in combatting injurious pests of plants, and describes some
of the work done recently in Western Australia in the introduction of

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 337

such insects) — Water conservation (a report by a Special Commissioner
on methods of water conservation adopted in the Eastern states of
Australia).

Department of Mines. Report on the Northa7npton Mineral Field.,
1908. This extends along the coast from the Irwin River (lat. 29*15 S.)
to the north of the Murchison River (lat. 27-40 S.), a distance of no
miles with a width up to 30 miles. Lead, copper and zinc ores occur
in lodes in old crystalline rocks striking south-east and north-west, and
traversed by diabase dykes usually with a north-north-east strike. The
different mines are described, but few of these are now at work, though
the deposits are believed to be valuable. Capital is required for
winding and pumping machinery and ore-dressing plant.

Report on the Kanowna Mines, July 1908. — The Kanowna district
lies north-east of Kalgoorlie, and comprises crystalline and sedimentary
rocks of Archean age with dykes and sills or flows of igneous rocks, as
well as auriferous quartz veins; old sedimentary strata of unknown
age and Tertiary and Quaternary deposits, including deep leads and
superficial alluvium, which are both auriferous.

Report on the Mines of the Yilgarn Goldfield {including Southern
Cross) situated in the southern portions of the State, latitude 31° S. and
longitude 119° E. The gold comes mainly from lode formations
associated with dioritic rocks surrounded by later granitic rocks.
Copper and iron deposits also occur.

The geology of the auriferous deposits in the neighbourhood of
Southern Cross was described in Bulletin No. 17 of the Geological
Survey in 1904.

Geological Survey. Bulletin No. 31. 1908. Part I : The Bonnie-
vale and Kuanalling Districts, Coolgardie Goldfield. — This district
lies to the north and north-east of Coolgardie. The country consists
of foliated and massive greenstones, and of granites, in both of which
auriferous quartz reefs are met with. Of special interest are the cement
deposits filling an old river channel and consisting of rounded and
subangular fragments of quartz cemented by ferruginous silicates of
alumina. Payable gold is mainly found in the cementing material.
Part II: The Black Range District, East Murchison Goldfield. — This
is some 400 miles north-east of Perth. The auriferous belt consists
of the usual greenstone rocks capped by laterite, the result of their
decomposition in situ. Haematite quartz lodes are met with which
are regarded as highly-altered bands of the greenstone. They are more
or less auriferous, but mining is confined to quartz reefs of the usual
type. The alluvial deposits have also been worked.

Bulletin No. 34, 1908. Report upon the Auriferous deposits of
Barrambie and Errolls {Cue District) and Gum Creek {Nannine
District), in the Murchison Goldfield, also Wiluna {Lawlers District),
in the East Murchison Goldfield. — These districts are characterised by
chloritic schist of comparatively acid character. Besides auriferous
quartz reefs there are zones of crushed rock, known locally as lodes,

338 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

which run parallel to the reefs, and carry gold as well as bunches of
auriferous stibnite (sulphide of antimony).

South Australia.

Journal of the Department of Agriculture^ iQOQ) 12. No. 9. — The
raisin trade abroad (gives a resume of information regarding the Spanish
and Smyrna raisin trades) — Insect pests and their foes (sixth progress
report by the Special Commissioner appointed to consider methods of
combatting insect pests as carried on in foreign countries). No. 10. —
Franco-British Exhibition (a description of the South Australian
exhibits) — Analyses of fertilisers (gives the composition of a number
of fertilisers now being sold in South Australia) — Advisory Board of
Agriculture (gives an account of the proceedings at a meeting held
April 14) — Wattle-growing on poor land (a paper read at the Con
ference of South-Eastern Branches of the Agricultural Bureau,
recommending the cultivation of Acacia pycnantha on poor land un-
suitable for natural grasses. The probable return from such plantations
was discussed and the most economical method of working them).
No. II. — Cultivation of the potato (describes the results obtained at
the Experimental Farms, Murray Bridge and Stirling West, during
1908, with seed potatoes imported from the United Kingdom) —
Roseworthy Agricultural College (a reprint of the third report on the
permanent experiment field).

A Review of Mining Operations in the State of South Australia
during the half-year ended December ^istj 1908. Contains, in addition
to the usual information, notes on the Cambrian phosphate deposits in
continuation of those already published in the Record of Mines.

Queensland.

Agricultural Journal^ 1909, 22. Part 5. — Maize culture (a general
article on the subject, discussing the selection of seed, cultivation,
harvesting and uses, with suggestions as to the points which should
be taken into consideration in judging maize crops) — Analyses of
fertilisers (gives the composition of some of the principal fertilisers sold
in Queensland). Part 6. — Cultivation of the potato (the first part of a
general article on this subject) — Cassava (a description of the cultiva-
tion of cassava and the method of preparing flour from it) — Manila
hemp machine (describes a machine recently invented for the extraction
of this fibre).

Queensland Gover?iment Mining Journal, 1909, April. — Contains a
review of the Mining Industry in 1908 and a geological reconnaissance-
of the Cooktown Coalfield of Trias-Jura age.

Papua,

Report for the year ended 2i^th June, 1908. Department of Mines. —
The only goldfields at present of any importance are those of Murua,

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 339

on Woodlark Island, and the Yodda and Gira Rivers, on the north-east
of the mainland. There are no signs of expansion except in the case
of the Waria field, a northern extension of the Gira field. The lower
reaches of the Waria River, are, however, in German territory. The
Louisiade, Milne Bay and Keveri fields are apparently worked out.

Indentured native labour is employed on the workings, which are all
alluvial. Nothing has been done in the way of dredging, though
dredging claims have been taken up on the Mambare and Gira Rivers
and Tamata Creek. The total output of gold in 1907-08 was 14,557
ounces.

The Astrolabe mineral field near Port Moresby contains valuable
copper lodes. The ore is at present exported, the total for the year
amounting to 87J tons. It is hoped, however, that smelters will be
erected, so that it may be treated locally. The copper belt is from four to
five miles inland, and runs for about seventeen miles in a north-western
direction. The country consists of altered shales and slates with
indurated sandstones, overlaid by volcanic rocks. It is proposed to
make a small Government grant towards the expenses of exploring
parties. Particulars of recent agricultural and other developments
in Papua were given in this Bulletin (1909, 7. 84 and 237).

Victoria.

Journal of the Department of Agriculture^ 1909, 7, Part 4. — Some
facts concerning maize (describes the work done by the field branch of
the Department of Agriculture, with a view to improving and extending
the cultivation of maize in Victoria) — Improved methods of maize-
growing for milk production — The nitrogen of yeast and its bearing on
the making of full-bodied dry wines (recommends the addition of am-
monium phosphate to wines in which yeast has ceased to grow in order
to induce further fermentation) — Proclaimed hedge-plants — Report of
Wheat Improvement Committee (describes the results so far obtained in
breeding hybrids suitable for cultivation in Victoria) — Experiments
relating to " rust " and " smut " resistance (describes the work done at
several experiment stations in testing the resistance of various wheats to
these fungoid diseases) — CatalGna (a description of wine production in
this district of Spain, with notes on other agricultural products, such as
the cork oak, Barcelona nut, carob bean, and chick pea grown in the
district). Part 5. — Wheat Improvement Committee (two articles on the
factors which determine the economic value of varieties of wheat. In
the first, the influence of various conditions on the yield of wheat is
discussed ; and in the second, an account is given of the results of the
field experiments with various wheats carried out at the Dookie Agri-
cultural College during the season 1908-09) — The non-germination of
certain sorts of barley (it is shown that the irregular germination of
barley is due in some cases, at least, to the prevention of the entry of
water and oxygen required by the embryo due to the paleae being un-

340 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

usually water-resistant, and experiments are in progress with a view to
devising a method of either stripping the paleae or treating the barley
with chemicals, such as manganese sulphate, in order to stimulate germi-
nation)— Development of the tobacco industry (the acreage under to-
bacco has risen from 103 in 1901-02, to 345 in 1907-08, and the tobacco
produced from 345 cwt. to 1,767 cwt. Both pipe and cigar tobaccos
are grown) — Profitable dairying on small farms — Yield of reconstituted
vineyard at the viticultural college, Rutherglen — A rabbit-proof flood-
gate— Cataldna (a description of the wine industry in this district of
Spain). Part 6. — Harvesting lucerne for seed and hay — Cider-making
(gives a statement of the composition of the juice of a large number of
Victorian apples, describes the method of testing apples for cider-mak-
ing, and gives a full account of the method of manufacture) — Wheat
Improvement Committee (deals with the diseases and pests of cereals,
discusses the efficiency of various fungicides, and gives an account of
certain " bunt-resistant " species of wheat produced in Australia) —
Delayed germination of certain sorts of barley (a continuation of the
article in the previous number, in which it is shown that the delayed
germination may be due to after-ripening since the germinating power
of the barley increases after being kept for several months) — Cataluna
(a description of the wine industry of Llansa) — An unrecorded poison
plant (states that the common red pimpernel, Anagallis arvensts, has
been found to be poisonous to sheep) — Manurial value of battery sand
(states that battery and cyanide " tailings " from gold mines might be
useful as manures on stiff clays. Analyses are given, showing that these
" tailings " are deficient in nitrogen, but contain about as much phos-
phoric acid and potassium hydroxide as good soils).

New South Wales.

Agricultural Gazette, 1909, 20, Part 5. — So-called fruit flies that are
not fruit flies (describes a number of flies which attack damaged tomatoes
and other fruit) — Useful Australian plants (this number deals with
Leptochloa subdigitata, Trin., which is recommended as a fodder grass)
— Tableland pasture grasses and fodder plants (describes the laying
down and preservation of pastures) — Farmers' experiments (describes
the organisation of the agricultural experiments to be carried out by
farmers with State co-operation) — Cultural methods for wheat-growing
in dry districts (directs attention more particularly to methods of mois-
ture conservation in soil — Treatment for " smut " in wheat (describes an
efficient method for treating seed wheat with copper sulphate. Part 6.
— Co-operation for wheat-growers (points out the advantages attending
co-operative marketing of wheat on the part of farmers) — Notes on the
wheats competing for prizes at the Royal Agricultural Show, 1909 (gives
results of milling tests, notes on yield, etc., and [points out that as
regards milling properties, the wheats on the whole show a distinct im-
provement over those of previous years ; the macaroni wheats, on the

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 341

other hand, were not quite so good as in previous years) — Farmers'
experiments at Tenterfield — Progress Report on experiments with fer-
tilisers for wheat for hay — Field experiments at Bathurst Experimental
farm, 1908 — Irrigation — Clean milk, its production and management —
Composition of various silage crops (gives results of analysis of silage
prepared from corn, clover, soy bean, field-pea, millet, rye, etc., in New
South Wales).

New Zealand.

Depart77ient of Agriculture — Division of biology and horticulture —
Report for 1908. Bulletin^ No. 13. The Gum-tree Scale. — This
Bulletin was first issued in 1905, but since that time considerable atten-
tion has been paid to the study of this destructive scale insect, and its
spread in the Dominion has been satisfactorily controlled, so that it is
now considered desirable to re-issue the Bulletin in an extended form.
The insect, Eriococcus coriaceus, first made its appearance in New Zealand
about eight years ago, in the Blue Gum plantations at Timaru, whence
it spread rapidly. As a remedy the Division of Biology introduced
three species of lady-birds (parasitic on scale insects). Of these
Rhizobius ventralis alone throve well, and was distributed on a large scale
from central breeding stations. This action has been so successful that
the scale insect has practically disappeared in the neighbourhood of
Timaru, and its spread has been effectively checked throughout the
whole effected area. No. 14. — Diseases of turnips — A description of the
diseases affecting turnip crops in New Zealand during 1907. No. 20. —
Eelworms — The principal species of these pests, which have proved
troublesome in New Zealand are (i) the "stem eelworm," Tylenchus
devastatrix, (2) the "cucumber or tomato eelworm," Heterodera radici-
cola, (3) the "beet eelworm," H. schachi, and (4) the "ear-cockle"
T. tritici. A short description of each is given, and remedial measures
are suggested. No. 21. — Parasitic'plants — A description of the common
" broom-rape " is given, with a list of the plants on which it is parasitic.
No. 22, Fruit flies. A resume of recent information on these pests is
given. No. 25. — Bacterial diseases of plants — The methods by which
plants become infected by such diseases are first discussed, followed by
short descriptions of the more important of these diseases, special
attention being given to " pear blight," " walnut blight," " brown rot of
potatoes," "potato wet rot," "cucumber wilt " and " cabbage rot," all of
which are either known to occur, or are suspected of occurring, in the
Dominion.

Leaflets for farmers^ No. 78. — Diseases of field crops and forage
plants. No. 79. — Sand-binding grasses.

Leaflets for gardeners and fruit-growers . No. 26. — Cicada and other
species (gives a short description of C. singulata, and suggests spraying
the affected trees with tar-water as a remedy ; No. 2 7, Cineraria and
chrysanthemum fly; No. 29, New Zealand peach moth; No. 33, Ver-

342 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

rucosis of lemon and other citrus trees ; No. 34, Two fungus diseases of
gooseberry (describes "gooseberry rust" and gooseberry mildew ") ;
No. 51, "Cherry leaf scorch"; No. 52, Pelargonium spot. In each of
these leaflets a brief description of the disease or pest dealt with is
given, and an account of remedial measures, which have proved effective
against them.

Mines Record^ 1908, December. — Contains articles on (i) gold at
Waihi, (2) the Bendigo goldfield, Victoria, (3) deep-lead alluvial mining in
Victoria, (4) the gold and mineral deposits of Central Otago (continued).
1909, January — Gold-dredging in New Zealand during 1908 — the
Hauraki goldfields during 1908 — Quartz and scheelite mining in Otago —
the geology of the Mikonui Subdivision North Westland (continued in
February), — the Bendigo gold mines — the geology of the Hauraki
goldfields — Gold-mining in the Philippines. 1909, February — The
potentialities of New Zealand as a mining country — New Zealand geology
(continued in March) — Current-pumps of the Clutha River. 1909,
March — Distribution of minerals on the Pacific littoral.

British Guiana.

Administration Reports^ 1907-08. — Contains the following reports
relating to agricultural and technical matters. The Government
Botanist states that large numbers of rubber plants were sold for plant-
ing purposes during the year: these included 44,398 Para plants, 2,475
Castilloa, and smaller numbers oiFuntumia elastica and Sapium Jenmani.
In the Report of the Board of Agriculture, it is mentioned that the
areas under rice and coco-nuts continue to increase, whilst that under
coffee shows a slight decrease, and cocoa is still somewhat below the
area for 1905-06. Experiments in the cultivation of Sea Island,
Egyptian and Caravonica cottons were continued, and the increased
interest in rubber planting is shown by the demand for plants from the
Botanic Gardens and the Onderneeming School. Experiments with
seedling sugar-canes have been continued at the experimental fields, and
it is mentioned that the areas under new canes steadily increased, the
most popular canes being D625 and 208B. These two varieties and
D145 have maintained their superiority to "Bourbon" cane, as sugar-
producers, during the season. The Director of the Department of
Science and Agriculture mentions that an experimental Station for
rubber has been established at Issorora on the Aruka river and planted
with Para, Funtumia and Sapium Jenmani trees. The analyses made
at the Government Laboratory during the year amounted to 3,636, and
were for the most part of a routine character, the most interesting being
a series of subsoil waters from the Experimental Fields and the Onder-
neeming School. These were all alkaline in reaction, due to the pre-
sence of calcium and magnesium carbonates and of sodium carbonate,
and a double carbonate of sodium and magnesium.

Journal of the Board of Agriculture, 1909, 2. No. 4. — The treatment

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 343

of weeds in permanent crops (a discussion of the various methods
available for the treatment of weeds in the Tropics) — Strength of local
woods (a reprint of an article on the results of the determination of the
mechanical constants of a number of the timbers of Dutch Guiana) —
Board of Agriculture (notes are given of the proceedings at a meeting
held on February 11, when a resolution specifying the conditions under
which sugar-canes or cuttings might be imported from Java, Australia,
Fiji, Brazil, or the West Indies was passed. The conditions are given
in detail in the original, and include inspection of the imports for pests
and diseases by the Government Botanist).

West Indies.

Imperial Department of Agriculture. Sugar Cane Experiffients in
the Leeward Islands. — Report on experiments conducted at Antigua
and St. Kitts in the season 1907-08. Part I : Experiments with varieties
of sugar cane. Part II : Manurial experiments.

Agricultural News, 1909, 8. No. 187. — Contains in addition to
reprints and abstracts of papers from other journals, articles on (i) dis-
infection of cotton-seed (a solution of corrosive sublimate is recom-
mended ; (2) methods of destroying " scale " insects (by the use of
fungi parasitic on them) ; and (3) ground-nut trials in the West
Indies.

Trinidad.

Bulletin of Agricultural Information, 1909, No. 61, New Series. —
This is the first issue of this Bulletin in its new form. The matter is
arranged under the heads of sugar, cacao, coco-nuts, other fruits,
general forestry, rubber, cereals and starches, cotton and other fibres,
soils, manures, plant diseases, entomological, live stock and poultry,
agricultural instruction and miscellaneous. Under each head, notes
on points of local interest and extracts from other journals are
arranged. No. 62. — Honduras mahogany (gives a detailed account
of the methods to be followed in raising this tree from seed) — The
maintenance of soil fertility — The natural regeneration of worn-out
cocoa soils — Table of soil temperatures in cocoa cultivation — Analysis
of wild pines (this material is said to have given good results as a
mulch in cocoa plantations. The ash contains 26*6 per cent, potash,
4'7 per cent, phosphoric anhydride, and 12 '6 per cent, lime; the
organic matter contains 0*42 per cent, of total nitrogen) — The Bulletin
also contains numerous notes on economic matters of local interest.

Jamaica,

Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, New Series, 1909, 1. No. i.
— ^This Bulletin was first issued in April 1887, and was continued as a
monthly publication, at first as the Bulletin of the Botanical Depart-
ment, and later as the Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, until

344 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

March 1908. In future it will be edited by the Director of Agriculture
and Island Chemist, and issued half-yearly. The present number con-
tains the following papers — The nitrogen cycle and soil organisms
(gives a resume of recent work on this subject, with special reference to
conditions obtaining in Jamaica) — The timbers of Jamaica (describes
the principal timbers of the Island, and gives lists of those suitable for
various specified purposes) — Yeasts in Jamaica rum distilleries — Mani-
toba rubber (gives descriptions of M. dichotoma and M. piauhyensis,
seeds of which were received from Kew in November 1908, and have
been planted at Hope and Castleton gardens) — Mangoes for export
(describes some preliminary experiments on the cultivation of mangoes
for export from Jamaica, with descriptions of suitable varieties) — The
industrial prospects of cassava starch (gives particulars of the yield, cost
of production, methods of manufacture, and commercial value) —
Jamaica rum (a description of the various types produced) — Experiment
station notes (describes recent work with seedling sugar-canes, bananas,
cocoa, various rubbers, Citrus fruits, and vanilla). No. 2. — Important
bacteria in Jamaica soils — Rat virus in Jamaica — Indian cattle in
Jamaica — Some recent results of experiments with seedHng canes —
Ginger (a short description of the method of cultivation and pre-
paration).

Bahamas.
Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, 1909, 4. No. i. — Contains
the Curator's Report to the Board of Agriculture for 1908. From this
it appears that the principal item of export from this island is sisal
hemp, which was valued at ;^46,469 last year. The area under this
crop has nearly doubled during the last five years. The export of pine-
apples decreased in value by ;£^i2,793, mainly due to short crops
following the protracted droughts of 1906 and 1907. Large supplies
of "red Spanish pineapple" slips have been distributed to growers
with a view to increasing and improving the stock. Considerable
attention is also being given to the planting of Sea Island cotton. Of
the numerous investigations in progress at the Experimental Station the
most interesting are the manurial experiments with onions and pine-
apples, cultivation trials with varieties of cassava, and trials with fibre-
cleaning machines. The manurial experiments with pineapples, so far
as they have gone, indicate that a good supply of potash is essential to
the development and proper fruiting of the plant, and it is recommended
that this be applied in the form of potassium sulphate, and mixed
manures suitable for the ordinary red land of the Bahamas and for
scrub land are suggested. No. 2. — Contains notes on the cultivation
of common vegetables suitable for export to the United States of
America.

Canada.

Department of Agriculture. Report of the Veterinary Director- General
and Live Stock Commissioner for the two years ending March 31, 1908.

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 345

— Contains inter alia reports on investigations of " Pictou cattle disease "
and " loco poisoning." The former is common in certain parts of
Nova Scotia, and is believed to be due to the ingestion of " rag wort "
{Senecio Jacobaed) by the animals affected. It appears probable that
sheep are not affected by this weed, and for the eradication of the latter
it is suggested that sheep should be pastured on land infested with it.
" Loco " poisoning has been known to exist in certain districts in
Western Canada for some years past, and the disease is now being
carefully studied at the Lethbridge Quarantine Station. A description
of the disease as observed in various districts is given in this report,
and it is pointed out that wherever it occurs to any extent " loco " weed
is present in the pastures.

Report of the Select Standing Committee on Agriculture and Colonisa-
tion^ 1907-08. — Contains minutes of evidence given by various witnesses
on the following subjects, before the Committee. Canadian tobacco
products, improvement of rural conditions, development of the dairy
industry, the fertile northland (see this Bulletin, 1908, 6. 444), progress
with agricultural experiments, chemical research in Canadian agriculture,
stock-feeding experiments, fruit culture, etc.

Geological Siirvey. — A large number of geological maps have been
issued recently, especially for areas in the Province of Nova Scotia;
in these the scale is one inch to the mile. There are in addition a
number of maps on a larger scale, showing the outcrop of the auriferous
saddle reefs. A map, on the scale of two miles to the inch, of portions
of Hastings, Haliburton, and Peterborough counties in the Province of
Ontario has also been issued. There are two versions of the Shushwap
Sheet, British Columbia, on a scale of four miles to an inch. In one
of these the hills and valleys are shown by shading and contours, and
the economic minerals and direction of the glacial striae are indicated
in red ; in the other, the geological formations are indicated in colours.

The Superintendent of Mines of the Province of Quebec has also
issued maps of the Lake Chibogomo Region ; North Pontiac ; and the
gold-mining region of Lake Megantic, in which the geology of the
country is indicated.

Department of Mines. Geological Survey Branch. The Geology
and Mineral Resources of New Brunswick. — The following formations
occur: — Prsecambrian (in part igneous), Cambrian (including Etche-
minian), Ordovician (Cambro-silurian), Silurian, Devonian, Carboni-
ferous, Trias and intrusive rocks. The superficial deposits consist of
boulder clay, marine sands, raised beaches and alluvium shell, marls,
and peat.

The iron ores include magnetite, haematite and limonite. The presence
of a high percentage of silica and a considerable amount of phosphorus
usually diminishes the value of the ore, which is distinctly manganiferous.
Copper is widely disseminated in the southern part of the province,
but does not appear to have been worked at a profit. Nickeliferous
pyrrhotite occurs on the margin of a gabbro intrusion near St. Stephen.

346 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

The percentage of nickel is, however, under 2 per cent. Sulphide of
antimony has been mined from time to time. Argentiferous galena is
met with, but the deposits appear to be unimportant. Gold is known
to occur, but no auriferous deposits of any importance have been found,
though the Cambrian rocks are thrown into folds similar to those of the
auriferous reefs of the same age in Nova Scotia. Manganese was at one
time mined with success.

Coal occurs in thin seams, and is worked on a comparatively small
scale. A vein of albertite, a variety of asphalt, was formerly mined,
but is now exhausted. Bituminous shale is met with in considerable
amount, and was mined until the low price of petroleum rendered it
unprofitable. Oil has been tapped by boring, but sufficient has not up
to the present been obtained to pay expenses. Graphite has been
found in numerous localities, and a considerable amount was at one
time exported. Peat occurs in large bogs, and successful attempts have
been made to compress it into briquettes. There are numerous
exposures of limestone, some of it highly bituminous. The quarrying,
calcining and exportation of gypsum is one of the leading industries
of the Province. Other economic products are diatomaceous earth,
salt, ochre, clays, and building stone.

GENERAL COLONIAL AND INDIAN PUBLICATIONS.

In the following paragraphs a summary is given of the more important
contents of the chief Colonial and Indian periodical publications received
recently at the Imperial Institute, in so far as these relate to agriculture
or to econoinic products and are likely to be of general interest.

Uganda Protectorate.

Government Gazette, 1909, 2. No. 27. — The supplement to this
number contains a list of the principal " biting flies " and " ticks " of
Uganda with special reference to the propagation of disease. No. 28
contains a report by the Imperial Institute on a sample of plant ashes
proposed for use as a tobacco manure, and a note on the " pitted
scale insect" which attacks orange and lemon trees. Spraying with
kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap is recommended as a remedy. A
resume of information on recent developments of the beeswax industry
in the various provinces of the Protectorate is also given. No. 29
contains reports by the Cotton Inspector on the prospects of cotton
cultivation in the Busoga and Bukedi Districts, and a short descrip-
tion of the habits of the beetle now attacking coffee plantations in
the Protectorate. It is recommended that all berries attacked by
the beetle should be destroyed in order to prevent its further spread.
No. 30 gives a list of identifications of all the "biting flies" of Uganda

General Colonial and Indian Publications. 347

so far received by the Sleeping Sickness Commission. A short descrip-
tion of the cocoa-fruit fly {Trypeta^ sp.) is also published, and it is
suggested that all pods harbouring the maggots should be destroyed by
burning or burial, and that where the insect is present in considerable
quantities, the soil at the bases of the trees should be raked over to
a depth of two inches, and the puparia found, destroyed. Colonel
Sir David Bruce also pubHshes in this number a description of the
'' Muhinyo " disease now attacking the population of Ankole. The
disease is identified with "Malta fever," and is attributed to
the consumption of milk from animals infected by Micrococcus
fnelttensis, and as a preventive it is recommended that raw milk and
insufficiently cooked flesh from cows or goats should not be consumed.
No. 31. — The supplement contains an account of a journey by road
from British East Africa to Uganda with cattle undertaken recently in
connection with the investigations into cattle diseases by the Sleeping
Sickness Commission of the Royal Society. From the observations
made on this journey it appears that Glossina palpalis^ the host of
sleeping sickness, is found on at least one stream crossing the road
between Kissumu and Jinja, and probably exists on other streams
having forest or bush along the banks, and it is recommended that such
streams should be cleared for at least 100 yards on either side of the
road. G. morsitans and G. pallidipes^ which carry trypanosome diseases
of domestic animals, were absent — Cultivation of Cavalla tobacco at
the Government tobacco plantations, Kampala (gives a full account
of the methods of cultivation and preparation of this tobacco which it
is believed will give good results in Uganda. No. 32. — The supplement
contains a report by the Government Entomologist on a tour in Bule-
mezi. In this area coffee is affected to a limited extent by a " scale "
insect, cotton by cotton " stainers " and to a very slight extent by
bollworms.

Nyasaland.
Government Gazette^ 1909, 16. No. 5. — Two supplements are issued
with this number giving agricultural returns for the year ending March
3i^t, 1909, for {a) estates under European control, and {b) native
plantations. No. 6. — With this is issued a special supplement
entitled "Green Manuring in the Tropics," which gives a resume of
information on the principles underlying green manuring ; the reasons
why green manuring is desirable, the effects of green manure on rubber,
the plants which should be used for the purpose, and the precautions
which must be observed.

Southern Nigeria.

Government Gazette^ 1909? 4. No. 2i^. — Rough notes on oil palms
(gives descriptions of some of the varieties of oil palm found in
Southern Nigeria and notes on the yield of fruits and of oil obtained
from the latter) — Notes on the identification of the different varieties

348 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

of oil palms (states that three varieties of oil palm may now be regarded
as established, and gives the native names for these in various parts
of Southern Nigeria) — Report on ground-nut experiments at Oyo,
Oshogbo, and Olokemeji (gives the results of a series of cultivation
experiments with Gambia, and with native ground-nuts at the places
named. The best yields were obtained at Oyo, and the poorest at
Oshogbo) — The Gazette also contains reprints of a number of reports
made by the Imperial Institute on economic products received from
Southern Nigeria. No. 41. — Preliminary Report on a visit made to a
Para rubber plantation at Orugbo, Jebu — A preliminary report on
insects affecting maize (it is pointed out that two classes of insect
attack maize in this country, (i) grain weevils, Calandra oryzae, and
C. granariUj (2) lepidopterous larvae. These are described and a
series of recommendations for remedial measures is suggested).

Gold Coast Colony.

Government Gazette^ 1909, No. 22. — Contains an account of the
Agricultural Show held at Coomassie in December 1908, with a list
of the classes of exhibits shown, which included "live stock, agricul-
tural products for local consumption, agricultural and economic
products for export, timber, machinery, photographs, school exhibits,
and exhibits by European firms." No. 23 contains the fourth report of
the Inspector of Agriculture for West Africa on the Agricultural and
Forest Products of the Gold Coast and Ashanti. In this reference is
made to several insect pests found attacking cocoa in the Colony, and
spraying with kerosene soap emulsion is recommended as a remedy,
though it is pointed out that these pests require detailed study before
any measures can be recommended with certainty of their success — A
description of the methods in use in preparing palm oil in Krobo is
given, and measurements of the fruits of five varieties of oil palm found
in the Colony. From the latter it appears that the Abe-bobe variety
shows the best relative proportions of pericarp (from which palm oil is
obtained), and kernel (yielding palm kernel oil). Information is also
given regarding recent developments in cotton and rubber production
in the Colony. No. 25 contains the trade report for 1908, which shows
increases in exports of cocoa, copra, ivory, timber and palm oil, and
decreases in gold, cotton, copal, palm kernels and rubber. The
total value of exports was ;^2,525,i7i, as against ;^2,64i,674 in
1907.

Gambia.

Colonial Report^ Annual. No. 609. — In the section of this Report
for 1908 dealing with agricultural industries, short descriptions are
given of a number of the medicinal roots and herbs commonly used by
the natives. In the year under review there were decreases in the
exports of ground-nuts and rubber, the former due to a short crop

General Colonial and Indian Publications. 349

and the latter to more stringent prohibition of export of rubber from
adjoining French territory.

St. Helena.

Colonial Report^ Annual Series^ No. 597, 1908. — Gives a description
of the progress of the New Zealand flax industry established recently
under Government auspices in St. Helena. As the result of the first
year's work 1056*5 tons of leaves were milled and produced 119*5 tons
of fibre and 36 tons of tow, which were sold for ^^3,090, the cost of
production being ^£'2,845. It is not considered likely that the cultiva-
tion of the aloe {Furcroea giga?itea) for the production of fibre will be
remunerative in the island.

Seychelles.

Colonial Reports^ No. 606. — The total value of exports in 1908,
exclusive of specie, was Rs. 1,489,125 as, compared with Rs. 2,230,520
in 1907, and Rs. 794,681 in 1906. The principal decline was in
vanilla, which from nearly Rs. 1,000,000 in 1907, fell to Rs. 264,485,
in 1908. The list of exports shows that several of the new industries
referred to already in this Bulletin (1908, 6. 107) are making con-
siderable progress ; thus the export of mangrove bark during the year
amounted to 692 tons, that of cinnamon bark, of which the export com-
menced in the year under review, amounted to 1,202 tons, and of
essential oils to 1,458 litres.

India.

Statement exhibiting the Moral and Material Progress and Condition
of India during the year 1907-08. — This Annual Statement is prepared
from a large number of official reports dealing with various phases of
Indian life and progress, including commerce, industry, agriculture,
administration, revenue and taxation, education, public works, etc. In
the present issue certain new features have been introduced. Two
chapters have been added, one dealing with the condition of the people,
and the other with the work of the Scientific Departments of the Indian
Government. A useful bibliography of Indian official reports is
appended.

Federated Malay States.

Supplement to the Selangor Government Gazette, July i6th, 1909. —
Contains the Resident-General's Report for 1908. From this it
appears that the year was not a prosperous one for the mining industry
owing to the low prices prevailing for tin. The total export of tin pro-
ducts amounted to 854,064 piculs (i picul= 133J lb.), of which 147,608
piculs were in the form of block tin and 706,456 piculs in the form of
tin ore ; the total output of gold amounted to 16,000 ozs. The geolo-
gist has ascertained that the tungsten mineral scheelite (this Bulletin,
1909, 7. 170) occurs in the old Raub Hole, the Stope, Bukit Malacca
and Bukit Koman Mines.

350 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

It is estimated that the agricultural acreage of the Federated Malay
States now amounts to 319,722 acres, excluding land under rice and
horticultural products. Of this total 118,697 acres is under coco-nuts,
168,048 acres under rubber, 8,431 acres under coffee, and the residue
under other products, principally tapioca. Some trouble was experi-
enced during the year in rubber plantations owing to the ravages of
white ants and to the attacks of a fungoid disease due to Fomes semi-
tostus. The average yield of rubber per tree for the whole peninsula is
estimated at i lb. 1575 oz., but in Negri Sembilan, where the trees
are older than in most other parts, the average yield was 3 lb. 2*25 oz.
per tree. In Parit Buntar eight 17-year-old trees, which were tapped
every other day, gave an average yield of 28*5 lb. of dry rubber. In
some of the newer estates in the Klang district of Selangor, coffee has
been planted among the young rubber trees, but it is not expected that
there will be much development in coffee planting. Experiments are
in progress in the planting of Manigoba rubbers, camphor trees, and
a number of fibre-producing plants. Experiments on the eradication
of "lalang" grass by spraying with sodium arsenite solutions were
unsuccessful.

The Forest Department has carefully examined the proposed reserve
at Mentas in the Rumpin district of Pahang, and found it to be rich in
Borneo camphor trees {Dryobalanops Camphord). In the Rantau Pan-
jang reserve in Selangor, the area under gutta-percha was surveyed in
part and divided into twelve blocks of 80 acres each. Throughout
this area gutta-percha trees are planted in lines 33 x 33 ft. In the
Trolak reserve 2,254 acres have been cleared with a view to planting
gutta-percha trees. Tapping experiments with gutta-percha trees in the
Taipang water reserve showed a yield of 26*5 lb. of clean gutta from
seventeen trees.

In the Institute of Medical Research, chemical, pharmacological, and
histological investigations of various samples of rice in connection with
the causation of beri-beri have been carried on, and at the instance of
the Opium Commission analyses of "chandu" and "chandu dross"
from opium have been made.

Weihaiwei.

Colonial Reports^ Annual^ No. 605. — In the Report for '1908 it is
mentioned that the exports of ground-nuts during the year was con-
siderable, and that the villagers are beginning to pay more attention to
this crop than to ordinary cereals. In 1905 a horticulturist was
appointed to superintend the growing of fruit in this territory, and the
results of the experiments in this direction made during the last four
years show that fruit culture can be successfully undertaken, and a
pamphlet in Chinese giving clear instructions on this subject has been
issued. Considerable progress with afforestation has also been made,
the trees selected being mainly firs and acacias.

New Books.

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE. ONTARio

New Books.

Mission Scientifique au Dahomey. By Henry Hubert. Pp. 568,
with 86 text figures, maps and diagrams, 49 reproductions of photo-
graphs and geological map, scale i : 1,250,000. (Paris : Emile Larose,
1908.)

The author of this voluminous report was the leader of a scientific
expedition to Dahomey during the years 1904-06. The principal
object of the expedition was the study of the geological formations and
the mineral resources of Dahomey, and the method of work was the
same as that adopted by the mineral surveyors sent out by the Imperial
Institute to various Crown Colonies. The large areas to be surveyed
in a limited time prevented detailed work, but a general idea of the
structure and contents of the country was formed by making a sort of
geological triangulation. The Colony was divided by cross traverses into
a number of polygonal areas, and frequent journeys into the interiors of
the polygons served to verify the similarity or dissimilarity of the interior
and the periphery.

The Report is divided into three parts. The first deals with the
general topography and the physical geography of Dahomey, and
includes a valuable description of the geological action of the atmo-
sphere and of superficial waters upon sedimentary and crystalline rocks
in the tropics. The formation of the superficial ferruginous con-
glomerate or "laterite," so common in tropical Africa, is discussed at
length, and the author somewhat rashly concludes that it is practically
always the result of decomposition in situ of the underlying rocks, and
that it is rarely formed on the surface of loose accumulations. The
domes, turtlebacks and heaps of boulders, characteristic of granitic
regions, are simply the cores of unweathered rock, from which the
superficial decomposition products have been removed.

The second part deals with descriptive geology, and might have
been much shortened with advantage. The over-detailed description of
inaccessible regions is always fatiguing to the general reader, who is
content in such cases with a brief summary of results. The greater
part of Dahomey was found to consist of metamorphic and eruptive
rocks. Eocene deposits occur in the coastal belt and sandstones of
unknown age in the valley of the Niger. The minerals most important
to the natives are the oxides of iron and of silicon. The superficial
Hmonites and ferruginous accumulations are the common source of
iron for native use, while chalcedony, agate and jasper are dug in
Atacora and at Kirtachi, and utilised for personal decoration throughout
the Western Soudan. (Compare "Lantana Stone," Colonial Reports.
No. 32, p. 10.) Apart from iron ores which, though widely distributed,
occur only in small quantities, no trace of gold, tinstone or other
valuable minerals was found during the course of the expedition.

352 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Kamerun. By Emil Sembritzki, Principal of the Imperial Govern-
ment School at Victoria. Pp. iv. + 254, with illustrations and a map.
(Berlin: Wilhelm Siisseroff, 1909.)

A historical account is given of the acquisition of the Cameroons by
the Germans and of the exploration and subjugation of the country. A
chapter is devoted to the work of the principal explorers and governors
of the Colony. A sketch is given of the geography of the coast regions,
the contour of the country, and the water system. Other chapters deal
with the climate, the flora and fauna, the native races, the missions and
schools, the military and naval protective forces, the administration of
justice, and statistics of various kinds. The export trade of the Colony
is illustrated by reference to the values of the articles exported in 1905,
which were approximately as follows : rubber, ;£^ 193, 500; palm kernels,
^83,200; cocoa, ;^64,o5o; ivory, ^60,200; palm oil, ;£39,7oo;
timber, ;£7,ooo ; kola nuts, ^1,700; curiosities, ;^i,ooo; dye woods,
;^5oo; copal resin, ;^4oo ; cereals, ;^i5o; mangrove bark, £s° >
skins and hides, ^£50 ; and small quantities of tobacco and coffee. A
list is given of the plantations in the Cameroons under European
control, together with the approximate area of each. The total area
amounts to 191,642 acres.

The book is well illustrated, and contains numerous quotations from
the writings of other authors on the subject of the Cameroons.

Der Niger-BenuE. a historical and geographical description of the
natural connection of the North Cameroons with the coast. By Hugo
Marquardsen. Pp. 85, with illustrations, a map and two tables. (Berlin :
Wilhelm Siisseroif, 1909.)

Information on the Niger and Benue rivers has hitherto been difficult
to procure, as the literature is much scattered, and portions of it cannot
be obtained even in the largest libraries. In order to supply this need
the present work has been prepared with the hope that it will prove of
service not only to travellers but also to all those interested in the
country, and afford them a means of gaining an acquaintance with the
subject in the shortest possible space of time.

After a historical account of the discovery and exploration of the
country watered by the Niger and Benue, the courses of the two rivers
are traced, and descriptions are given of the natives inhabiting these
regions, the flora and fauna, and the principal towns and villages on
the banks.

A useful bibliography is appended.

Staatssekretar Dernburg in Britisch- und Deutsch-Sud- .
Afrika. By Dr. Oscar Bongard. 2nd Edition. Pp. iv. + 149, with
32 illustrations. (Berlin: Wilhelm Siisseroff, 1909.)

A detailed account of the tour of Herr Dernburg, Secretary of State
for the German Colonies, through the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the
Transvaal, Rhodesia and German South- West Africa.

Library.— Recent Additions. 353

Bamboos for Papermaking. By R. W. Sindall. Pp. 60, with two
plates. (London : Marchant Singer & Co., 1909.) In 1903 the author
of this pamphlet visited Burma on behalf of the Government of India
for the purpose of investigating the possibility of utilising the bamboo
for papermaking. The results of this enquiry were published in 1906
as an official report on " The Manufacture of Paper and Paper Pulp in
Burma." A supply of bamboo was forwarded from Burma in 1908 for
technical trials, and the results of this work, together with the opinions
of papermakers and printers, are incorporated in the present publication.

An account is given of the bamboo plant, its propagation and its
cultivation. If the stems are cut every third year, the growth of the
bamboos will be permanent, and a yield of fifteen tons per acre will be
obtained, or an annual average of five tons. The stems yield about
45 per cent, of air-dry pulp, equivalent to 2-25 tons per acre. Calculat-
ing from these data, it is shown that for a mill making 300 tons of pulp
per week, the required bamboo area would be 14,000 acres or roughly
20 square miles. Specially selected air-dry bamboo would cost about
I2S. 3^. per ton, and hence the cost of raw material for one ton of
finished pulp would be ;^i Ss. 6d. A mill erected within reasonable
distance of the bamboo area could produce a ton of unbleached pulp, by
the soda process, for about £$ los., which would yield a fair margin
of profit.

The pulp furnishes a good, strong paper which is particularly suitable
for lithographic printing. The properties of the paper are fully described.
A list is given of the plant required for a mill with an output of 200 tons
of unbleached pulp per week, and it is stated that such a mill and its
equipment could be erected at a total cost of about ^36,000.

The pamphlet is printed on bamboo paper.

LIBRARY. -RECENT ADDITIONS.

Books, eU.y exclusive of periodical Government Publications, presented to the
Library of the Imperial Institute since May 27, 1909. The names
' of donors are printed in italics.

INDIA.

Report of the Committee of the Bengal
Chamber of Commerce for the year
1908 . . . . . . . {^The Secretary^

Proceedings of the Madras Chamber of

Commerce for 1908 .... {The Secretary.)

Report of the Burma Chamber of Com-
merce for the year T908. With
Appendices {The Secretary.)

Report of the Karachi Chamber of Com-
merce for the year 1908 . . . {The Secretary)

354

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Report of the Bombay Chamber of Com-
merce for the year 1908 . . . {The Secretary.)

Calcutta University Calendar, 1909, Parts

i, ii, and iii {The Registrar ^f

CEYLON.

The Ceylon Manual for the year 1909
Ceylon in 1903: describing the progress
of the Island since 1803

( The Colonial Secretary, )

By J. Ferguson, C.M.G.
{The Publishers.)

AUSTRALIA.

Thirty-ninth Annual Report of the Council
of the South Australian Chamber of
Manufactures (Incorporated) for the
year 1908 ......

Handbook of South Australia : Progress
and Resources .....

Fifty-ninth Annual Report of the Adelaide
(South Australia) Chamber of Com-
merce, Incorporated, 1908-09

Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
Society of Australasia, South Australian
Branch, Session 1907-08. Vol. x.

{The Secretary.)

By D. J. Gordon.
{The Agent General^

{The Secretary.)

{The Secretary }j

NEW ZEALAND.

New Zealand University Calendar,

1909-10 {The Registrar)

CANADA.

Fruit Farming on the " Dry Belt" of British
Columbia : the why and the wherefore.
With foreword by the Duke of Argyll,
K.T., and notes by the Agent-General
for British Columbia ....

Canadian Industrial Blue Book for 1909.

Petroleums and Coals compared in their
Nature, Mode of occurrence, and Origin
(Part of Vol. xii of the "Journal of
the Canadian Mining Institute ") .

By J. S. Redmayne, M A.
{The Author.)

{The High Commissioner for
Canada.)

By E. Coste.
{The Author.)

Annual Calendar for the Session 1909-10,
with Pass Lists for Session 1908-09 of
the McGill University, Montreal . . {The Registrar.)

Library. — Recent Additions. 355

NEWFOUNDLAND.

Year Book of Newfoundland, 1909 . . {The Colonial Secretary.)

SOUTH AFRICA.

Annual Reports of the Johannesburg

Chamber of Trade for 1903-09 . . {The Secretary.)

Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce :

Commercial Year Book, 1909 . . {The Secretary.)
Transvaal University College Calendar,

1909 ....... {The Secretary.)

The Minerals of Southern Africa . . By C.Wilson-Moore, F.G.S.,

F.R.G.S., and W. H.
Carrington-Wilmer.
( Transvaal Chamber of
Mines.)

UNITED KINGDOM.

Bamboos for Papermaking . . . By R. W. Sindall, F.C.S.

{The Author.)
The FertiHsation of Tea . . . . By G. A. Cowie, M.A.

B.Sc.
Agriculture in the Tropics . . . By J. C. Willis, M.A., Sc.D.

{The Publishers.)
The Pocket Guide to the West Indies . By A. E. Aspinall.

{The Publishers.)
Australian Life in Town and Country . By A. C. Buley.

{The Publishers^
The Tourist's India . . . . By E. Reynolds - Ball,

F.R.G.S., F.R.C.I.
{The Publishers.)
A Naturalist in the Guianas . . . By E. Andre, F.R.G.S.,

F.Z.S., M.S.A.
{The Publishers.)
Reports of the National Fruit and Cider
Institute, Long-Ashton, for the years

1907 and 1908 {The Director.)

Transactions of the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society of Scotland. Fifth
Series. Vol xxi, 1909 . . . {The Secretary.)
The Influence of Environment on the
Composition of Wheat. (Reprinted
from the "Journal of the Society of

Chemical Industry ") . . . .By F. T. Shutt, M.A., F.I.C

{The Author?)
Fifty-ninth Annual Report of the Incor-
porated Chamber of Commerce of
Liverpool, 1909 {The Secretary.)

356 Bulletin of the Imperlvl Institute.

Livingstone College Year Book for 1909 {The Secretary^

PORTUGAL.

Associa9ao Commercial do Porto : Rela-

torio da Direcgao no anno de 1908 . {The Secretary)

BELGIUM.

Sciences Biologiques et Colonisation . By E. de Wildeman.

( The Author.)

NORWAY.

Norges Eksportkalender, 1909 . . {Trade Intelligence Bureau

of Norway.)

FRANCE.

Les Veg^taux Utiles de I'Afrique Tropi-
cale Frangaise. Vol. i. Fascicules i.

to V By A. Chevalier.

{The Publishers.)

BULLETIN

OF THE

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

1909. Vol. VII. No. 4.

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
DEPARTMENT.

EECENT INVESTIGATIONS.

The followmg summary has been prepared from a selection of
the Reports made by the Director of the Imperial Institute to
the Colonial Governments concerned.

INVESTIGATIONS IN CONNECTION WITH THE
AFRICAN PALM OIL INDUSTRY.

The African oil palm, Elceis guineensis, is the source of a
number of economic products. West African natives employ
the leaves in constructing huts, the very young leaves (palm
cabbage) as a vegetable, and the palm wine extracted from the
growing bud of the tree as a beverage. The leaves yield an
excellent fibre, but up to the present no economical method of
extracting this has been devised (see this Bulletin, 1903,1. 21,
and 1907, 5. 118). In international commerce the only oil-palm
products of importance are palm oil and palm kernels, both of
which are extracted from the fruits of the tree. The great
importance of the palm-oil industry may be gauged from the
facts that the imports of crude palm oil to the United Kingdom
for 1908 were valued at ;^i, 599,266. In spite of the magnitude of

B B

358 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

this industry it has long been recognised that the extraction of
the oil, which is carried on entirely by natives in West Africa, is
managed in a very primitive and wasteful fashion. From time
to time attention has been directed by investigators to the
necessity of remedying this state of things, and in particular a
considerable amount of attention has been devoted to the
possibility of introducing machinery for the extraction of the
oil, but so far these efforts have met with very little success. It
is in many ways unfortunate that this should be the case, since
the industry as at present worked often paralyses attempts to
introduce new industries in the districts in which it is carried on,
whereas if the extraction of palm oil were organised on modern
lines much of the manual labour now absorbed in it would be
rendered available for agricultural and other work.

In this country some attention has been given during the
last year or two to this subject as the result of inquiries
emanating from importers of palm oil and palm kernels in
Liverpool, and on the initiative of the Director of the Imperial
Institute, systematic investigations have been made in the
British West African Colonies by the Inspector of Agriculture
in West Africa and by Officers attached to the local Forestry
and Agricultural Departments. These inquiries have been
directed mainly to the following points, (i) the extent to
which the areas occupied by the oil palm in West Africa are
at present being worked for palm oil and palm kernels, (2) the
relative values, as sources of these two products, of the several
varieties of oil palm now known to exist, (3) the distribution of
these varieties in the diflerent Colonies and Protectorates of
British West Africa, and (4) the extent to which machinery is
now being used in West Africa for the extraction of palm oil
and kernels. As a result of these investigations a great deal of
new information has been obtained and a large number of
samples of palm fruits, nuts, kernels and oil have been sent
to the Imperial Institute for examination, mainly with a view to
determining whether the fruits of any one variety of oil palm
exhibit such advantages in yield of oil or in ease of extraction as
to warrant the plantation of that variety in preference to others.

The new data thus obtained have been utilised in the
preparation of this article. A full discussion of the botanical

African Palm Oil Industry. 359

relationships of the several varieties of oil palm has been pub-
lished recently in the Kew Bulletin, 1909, 33 and 161, and similar
information has also appeared in a series of articles by M. Adam
published in L Agriculture pratique des Pays chauds {igo%, 8. 381,
and succeeding issues), and consequently this side of the subject
need not be fully considered in the present instance.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE OIL PALM.

The oil palm is indigenous to West Africa, and occurs in
the coast belt almost continuously from the French colony of
Senegal to the Portuguese colony of Angola, or approximately
from 16° N. lat. to 10° S. lat., but is found in greatest abundance
from Sierra Leone to the Cameroons. Inland it penetrates to
great distances, and is found as far in the interior as the great
lakes and less frequently right across the continent and in the
islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. Dense forests of oil palms are,
however, only found in the coastal region, and in West Africa
it does not occur thickly much beyond 200 miles from the coast.
The commercial supplies of palm oil are obtained mainly from
Southern Nigeria, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast Colony, Dahomey,
the French Congo, the Cameroons, Togoland and Angola, whilst
there have been in recent years small exports of palm kernels
from the island of Pemba on the east coast and of palm oil from
German East Africa, where oil palms occur in abundance along
the shores of Lake Tanganyika, but owing to lack of transport
facilities are not much worked for export.

In addition to these African sources the oil palm also occurs
in Brazil, Guiana, the West Indies and Mexico. It has been
introduced in the Federated Malay States, Borneo, Java, the
Philippine Islands and other islands of the Pacific, and from
time to time small quantities of oil and kernels have been ex-
ported from several of these countries, but at the present time
none of them contributes important amounts to the commercial
supply of these products.

Inquiries received recently at the Imperial Institute indicate
that the question of cultivating the oil palm is being considered
by planters, particularly in the Federated Malay States and in
certain of the Pacific Islands. In forming such plantations it

360 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

should be remembered that there are enormous areas covered by
the oil palm in West Africa the greater part of which, according
to competent authorities, are as yet almost unworked. It is
possible, however, that such plantations in suitable localities
having a plentiful supply of cheap and intelligent labour, capable
of using machinery for the extraction of oil and kernels, might
be remunerative, but at present no definite data are available
on this subject.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE.
The full-grown oil palm may attain a height of about sixty
feet, and consists of a stem covered throughout its length with
the bases of dead leaves, and bearing at the apex a crown of
large, pinnate leaves, each of which may be fifteen feet in length
with leaflets two or three feet long. The tree is very slow grow-
ing, and from measurements made in the Agege district of
Southern Nigeria reaches a height of six to nine inches in three
years, twelve to eighteen inches in four or five years, eight feet in
ten years, and thirteen to fourteen feet in fifteen years, and it is
estimated that it attains its full height of sixty feet in about one
hundred and twenty years. The fruits are borne in large bunches
termed " heads " or " hands," which are small and numerous
when the tree first begins to bear (this varies from the fourth
to the eighth year according to climatic conditions, etc.), but
decrease in number and increase in size in the next few years ; thus
in Southern Nigeria, according to Thompson, as many as thirty
" heads " may be formed at first, decreasing to anything between
two and twelve as the tree ages. The fruits are usually from one
to one and a half inches in length, and three-quarters to one
inch in diameter and are roughly egg-shaped, the narrower end
being the apex. The colour and size depend on the variety of
oil palm, but usually the fruits are reddish brown or orange in
tint. The fruit is botanically a drupe, and consists of three well-
marked portions. Outside is a layer varying in thickness and
composed of a soft fibrous pulp (pericarp), carrying from fifty-five
to sixty-five percent, (see table of analyses, p. 368) of an orange-
coloured, semi-solid fat, which when extracted constitutes the
palm oil of commerce. Inside this pulp is the palm nut (endo-
carp), consisting of a hard woody shell, which may vary consider-

African Palm Oil Industry. 361

ably in thickness, enclosing usually a single palm kernel, though
sometimes two or even three are present ; the kernel is the second
useful product of the palm fruit ; it is dark reddish brown or
almost black externally, and internally consists of a rather hard,
white " flesh " loaded with oil, which when extracted constitutes
the " palm-kernel oil " of commerce.

The tree will apparently grow on most soils which are cap-
able of holding a fair quantity of moisture, but it is only on rich
moist soils and in districts having a fairly high rainfall (50 to 70
inches on the average) that it gives good yields of fruit. Thus,
in a recent article on the oil palm in Southern Nigeria (^Southern
Nigeria Gazette^ 1908, No. 10, Suppl.), it is pointed out that the
common variety is confined to the moist belts of country, and is
most plentiful on the native farms and in the evergreen forests
of the Niger Delta and some of the littoral districts of the Eastern
province, where a heavy annual rainfall is experienced. In the
hinterland of Southern Nigeria, where the rainfall is deficient
the distribution of the tree follows the evergreen belts of the
forest skirting the large streams. It is conspicuously absent
from the impoverished grass-covered soils on which the fan palm
typically occurs, indicating that a dry climate and poor soil do
not suit it.

CULTIVATION OF THE OIL PALM.

In most parts of West Africa the tree is not regularly culti-
vated, the natives depending entirely on wild untended forests
for their supplies of palm fruits, but in some districts, for ex-
ample, in the Krobo district of the Gold Coast and in the
Camayenne district of French Guinea, a good deal of care is
expended by the natives on the groves of palm trees. As a
rule, however, all that is done is to collect seedlings from the
forest and to plant these on newly-farmed lands or in areas in
which the trees have been destroyed by fire or in other ways.
Generally these seedlings are not even spaced out at regular
intervals, and the only care taken of them consists in cutting
away the undergrowth so that it may not interfere with the
development of the young plants. For transplanting in this
way seedlings from two to three feet high should be selected,
and the planting out should be done in the rainy season.

362 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

M. Adam {loc. at.) recommends that a space of from twenty to
twenty-six feet should be left between each plant, or more than
this where a catch crop of maize or cassava is to be taken off
the land as well. In Southern Nigeria it is often found that in
areas, cleared for farming, large numbers of palms subsequently
spring up in the course of a year or two, and these are often
thinned out or transplanted all over the farm. In some
districts of the Western province of Southern Nigeria a few
of the leaves are removed each year from the crowns of the
trees, by which means the yield of fruit is said to be increased
by from twenty-five to fifty per cent. The native practice of
tapping the tree for palm wine often leads to its destruction,
and in French Guinea and Dahomey decrees have been issued
forbidding this practice and also the cutting down of palm
trees.

The oil palm is attacked by a considerable number of insect
and fungoid pests. The leaves are frequently covered by lichens
and are also attacked by a species of " rust," but the tree does
not seem to suffer as the result of these growths. A borer,
Rhyncophorus phcenicis, akin to the " coconut-palm borer,"
attacks the young shoots by boring into them to lay its eggs,
and this, together with the damage caused by the larvae feeding
on the young leaves and succulent tissues, frequently causes the
death of the tree. In Dahomey the trees are attacked by a
species of Oryctes and also by Aspidiotiis destructor, but these
do not appear to cause much damage.

Bush fires are also destructive to the palm trees, especially to
the young seedlings.

varieties of the oil palm.

In 185 1 Welwitsch described two varieties of oil palm, which
he named Elceis microsperma and Elceis macrospenna, and since
that date practically nothing was done in the way of differenti-
ating the oil palms of West Africa until 1902, when Preuss
published the results of his investigations of the varieties occur- ,
ring in the Cameroons (Der Tropenpflanzer, 1902, 454), although
the occurrence of three varieties in the Gold Coast was noted
in 1889 in a report on "Economic Agriculture on the Gold
Coast" {Papers relating to her Majesty's Colonial Possessions

African Palm Oil Industry.

363

No. no, Gold Coast [C. 5987-40]). Since then numerous
investigations on this subject have been made in the British,
French and German West African possessions.

From an economic standpoint perhaps the most important
fact established is the existence in all these countries of a
variety yielding fruits containing thin- or soft-shelled nuts (endo-
carp), with a thick layer of oily pulp (pericarp). The import-
ance of this arises from the fact that throughout West Africa
the palm nuts are almost invariably cracked singly by hand,
and since hundreds of thousands of tons of palm kernels are
exported every year the expenditure of labour in cracking these
nuts would be materially reduced if thin- or soft-shelled nuts
were available in large quantities in place of the common
thick-shelled variety.

In the following paragraphs an account of the palm-oil
industry in some of the more important producing colonies in
West Africa is given, together with such information as is
available regarding the varieties known, and their relative
economic values as sources of palm oil and kernels.

SENEGAL AND FRENCH SUDAN.
The oil palm is abundant in these French territories, but the
total area worked for the production of palm oil and palm
kernels is small, and no definite information is yet available as
to the varieties which occur. Adam is of opinion {loc. cit., p. 475)
that the differences in leaves and general habit of the oil palms
in these territories are merely due to climatic influences. The
following table shows the exports of palm oil and kernels from
Sexiegal in recent years : —

Palm oil* .
Palm kernels

1905.

[906.

Tons.
888

353
6,504

Tons. I £
No returns
1,027 I 8,022

1907.

Tons. 1 {,

No returns

1,406 I 13,295

* These and other statistics relating to French Colonies are calculated from data given in
S talis tiques du Comjnerce des Colonies Franfaises."

GAMBIA.
Little attention has been paid so far to the production of
palm oil and palm kernels in this Colony, and the oil does not

3^4

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

even seem to be extracted locally to any considerable extent by
the natives for use as a cooking fat. Only one variety of the
oil palm is known to exist, and that is most abundant in the
Kommbo and Fogni provinces. No exports of palm oil and
only small exports of palm kernels have been recorded in recent
years, as the following table shows : —

Palm Kernels.

1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

1908.

Tons

179
1,132

227
1,612

256

2,122

342
3,657

391

3,488

SIERRA LEONE.

The oil palm is very abundant in this Colony and the hinter-
land, so much so that in many parts, particularly in the Sherbro
and Panguma districts, the population is insufficient to work
the palms fully. Only one variety of palm occurs, and that is
of the ordinary type having thick-shelled nuts. As is generally
the case, the fruits even on the same tree show considerable
variation, but the Inspector of Agriculture for West Africa, who
has made careful investigations on this point, states that although
different names are given by the natives to the fruit at different
stages of growth, he was unable to find any evidence of the
existence of more than one variety of palm, and this yielded a
fruit having a thick-shelled nut and a thin pulp. It is stated
that in Sierra Leone no machinery is used by natives for the
preparation of palm oil or palm kernels. The industry has
shown considerable expansion since transport facilities were
improved by the opening of the railway at the end of 1905.
The exports of palm oil and kernels from the Colony in recent
years are shown in the following table : —

1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Palm oil . .

Galls.
241,131

16,245

Galls.
266,012

18,524

Galls.

375,573

27,744

Galls.
615,997

£
51,154

Palm kernels

Tons.
25,101

203,731

Tons.
28,154

£.
269,355

Tons.
30,373

330,427

Tons. 1 £
34,942 447,801

African Palm Oil Industry.

365

FRENCH GUINEA.

Oil palms are of common occurrence in the low-lying parts
near the coast, but are only found in small isolated clumps in
the mountainous districts. A considerable trade in palm oil
and palm kernels exists, and the oil palms available are not
fully worked owing to lack of labour (Adam, loc. cit., 1908,
p. 282). Only one variety is well known in this region, but a
second, distinguished by bearing large fruits of a distinctly
yellow tint, is said to exist in Upper Guinea (Adam, loc. cit,
p. 475). The exports from French Guinea of palm oil and palm
kernels have been as follows in recent years : —

1905.

1906.

1907.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Palm oil

Tons.
22

364

Tons.
84

£>
1,382

Tons.
105

£.
1,717

Palm kernels

2,765

22,479

2,884

23,444

3,636

29,553

IVORY COAST.

The oil palm is widely distributed in the Ivory Coast, and is
at present only utilised in the more accessible districts, namely
on the edges of the forests and round the lagoons.

The varieties available are given by Adam {loc. cit.) on the
authority of Joly and of Maillard, as follows : —

1. " CerMi" or " ade srany This has elongated fruits with a
thick pulp containing few fibres. The nuts are hard-shelled, but
less resistant than those of No. 8 (see below).

2, '' Legble-au-fou." This yields a palm oil of a pale colour,
which, like that from No. i, is much used by the natives near
Dabou as a cooking fat. The palm oil from the fruits of this
variety is often extracted by exposure of the fruits to the sun
during 15 days in shallow pits dug in the ground (see p. 385).

The fruits from these give a low yield of
poor oil, regarded by the natives as inferior
to that prepared from Nos. i and 2.

}The oils from these, according to the
natives, produce violent headache when
eaten.

3. '' Legble-thiam''

4. '' Legble-brr"

366

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

7. ''AgboueV or ''Ade-quoz.'' This has a globular fruit, with
a thick fibrous pulp and a thick-shelled nut. It yields less oil
than No. i.

8. "Aquoi-sranr The fruits of this are slightly elongated,
have a thick pulp showing a medium development of fibre,
and contain nuts with very hard shells.

9. 'Ade se" or "male palm." Occurs near Bingerville, and
does not bear fruit.

10. '' Brabra galou!' This is a fetish palm found near
Jacqueville.

M. Adam points out {loc. cit.^ p. 474) that the descriptions
of these varieties so far given are too general to permit of their
identification with the varieties recorded in other parts of West
Africa.

The following table shows the amounts and values of palm
oil and kernels exported from the Ivory Coast in recent years : —

Palm oil . .
Palm kernels

1905.

Tons.
3,229
3,119

45' 873
22,084

1906.

Tons.
4,780
3,166

68,876
21,872

1907.

Tons.
5,572
3,298

22,869

GOLD COAST COLONY.

According to a recent report by Mr. A. E. Evans, Travelling
Instructor in Agriculture in the Gold Coast, the oil palm is
widely distributed in that Colony, but is most abundant in
the Eastern and Central Provinces. A number of varieties
of oil palm falling into three main groups have been recorded
by the Agricultural Department. The following brief description
of these may be given : —

Group I. — Fruits large ; colour
of pericarps varies
from yellowish
white to blackish

red ; nuts hard.

" Abe-pa "

" Abe-dam "

" Abe-tuntum "

" Abe-fita " or " Abe-fufu

"Adi-be"

" Abubu-be."

Of these the " Abe-pa " variety is said to be the most abundant
and is widely distributed all over the Colony. The " Abe-dam "

African Palm Oil Industry. 367

variety is very similar and also abundant ; the " Abe-tuntum "
fruits are nearly black in colour ; the " Abe-fita " variety is very
scarce ; it bears large fruits with pericarps, which are white with
large dark red splotches, and yields hard nuts ; the oil from this
variety is of a characteristic pale canary colour, and differs
slightly from the oils of other varieties examined in having a
low "iodine value," viz. 44*5, the usual value being approxi-
mately from 55 to 60. "Adi-be" is said to be scarce and to
bear long fruits, with small hard nuts and very fleshy pericarps
yielding 28 per cent, of oil when extracted by native methods.
" Abubu-be " is also scarce ; its fruits resemble those of " Abe-
tuntum," but yield 25 per cent, of oil, whilst the fibre in the
pericarps is said to be very short.

Group 2. — Fruits small ; very fleshy
pericarps, with thin soft-
shelled nuts.

Abobo-be.'

This is the soft-shelled oil palm of the Gold Coast Colony.
It is found in the Eastern and Central Provinces, but is not
abundant. The shell of the nut can be readily cracked with
the teeth.

Group 3. — Fruits large ; pericarps
brick red ; nuts hard ;
leaflets joined together
at base.

"Abe-ohene" or
King Palm.

The " Abe-ohene " or " King Palm " is exceedingly scarce,
and has the same characteristics as the " King Palm " of
Southern Nigeria {i. e. the leaflets are joined together at the
base), with which it is probably identical. For more detailed
descriptions of these Gold Coast varieties see the Kew Bulletin^
1909, p. 38. ...

It is impossible as yet to correlate all these Gold Coast kinds
with the varieties noted in other parts of West Africa, but the
" Abobo-be " variety has fruits of medium size with thick
pericarps and thin-shelled nuts, which resemble those of the
" Lisomb^ " variety of the Cameroons (p. 372), and from com-
parison of the two made at the Imperial Institute there can be
little doubt that this variety is the same as the " Lisomb^." Mr.

368

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

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African Palm Oil Industry. 369

Evans has stated {loc. cit. and Kew Bulletin, loc. at., p. 39) that " the
form known as " Abobo-be " in this Colony somewhat resembles
that described by Dr. Preuss in the Cameroons as * Lisomb^/
but I am inclined to think it must be a different species, as the
' Abobo-be ' in this Colony is smaller than the other varieties,
but has a much thicker fleshy pulp ; the * Lisomb6 ' of the
Cameroons is said to be a much larger fruit, and Dr. Preuss
states that the average weight of the * Lisombd ' fruit (arrived
at from measurements of the contents of thirteen bunches) was
10*24 grammes, whereas the average weight of ' Abobo-be ' is
only 6'25 grammes."

Reference to the table of analyses of the Cameroons varieties
(see p. 372) taken from Dr. Preuss' article {Der Tropenpflanzer,
1902, 6. 465) shows that the *' Lisombe " fruits vary in weight from
5-45 to lO'O grammes, so that the supposed difference referred
to by Mr. Evans appears to be based on a misinterpretation
of Dr. Preuss' results. In addition to the varieties described
above, the Director of Agriculture in the Gold Coast transmitted
to the Imperial Institute early in the present year a small
sample of a ''seedless" oil-palm fruit. This appears to be
identical with the '* Votchi " of Dahomey, but nothing is yet
known as to the extent of its occurrence in the Colony.

Samples of the fruits, nuts, kernels and oils obtained from a
number of these Gold Coast varieties of oil palm have been
examined at the Imperial Institute, and the results are given
in the tables on pp. 368 and 370.

Practical trials of the fruits of five of these varieties have been
made in the Gold Coast by Mr. Evans, using ordinary native
methods of extraction, and these have given the results
quoted on p. 370, to which are added, for comparison, the actual
percentages of palm oil present in the fruits, as deduced from
the analytical results obtained at the Imperial Institute.

Conclusions.

From the tabulated results {loc. cit.) it is obvious that " Abobo-
be " is superior to all the other Gold Coast varieties, with the
exception of the " seedless " kind, in yield of palm oil, and at
the same time gives a high yield of kernels, and further, the

370

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

shells being thin, the nuts are' easier to crack. It should be
noted, however, that the nuts, and consequently the kernels, are
much smaller than those of the other varieties, and although
less force is required to crack the nuts, a much larger number
must be cracked to obtain the same weight of kernels than is
the case with nuts from some of the other kinds of palm fruits.
Little or no attention has been given to this point previously,
and it would be interesting to know whether a larger amount of
kernels could be obtained from the thin-shelled varieties than
from the thick-shelled kinds in a given time with the same amount
of labour. From the dimensions, appearance and composition

Variety.

Palm oil in whole

fruits as received

at the Imperial

Institute

(calculated).

Yield of palm
oil obtained by
native methods.

Kernels In fruits

as received at

the Imperial

Institute.

Approximate
thickness of
shells of nuts.

. TAbe-pa . ,
^ Abe-dam .
s 4 Abe-tuntum .
2 Abe-fita . .
^ 1^ Abubu-be . .

per cent.

17
31

per cent.
1 1 -2
11-2

137

per cent.
22
15

inch.

0-I5
0-13

0-I5
0-17
o-o8

&, /Abobo-be . .
§ I" Seedless" .
6

44
76

19-2

38-5

0-05

^ r Cross between "j
1 \ Abe-dam and ]■
-g. [Abobo-be J

—

o-io

* See footnote to previous table as regards nuts in this variety.

of the " Abobo-be " fruits there can be no doubt that they are
identical with the " Lisombe " and " A-sog-e-jub " fruits of the
Cameroons (p. 372) and Southern Nigeria (p. 376) respectively.
Of the other varieties there is not very much to choose between
the " supposed cross between Abobo-be and Abe-dam " and
" Abubu-be," all of which give fair yields of oil and kernels, but
have shells of a thickness intermediate between the typical thin-'
shelled variety "Abobo-be" and the typical thick-shelled
variety, " Abe-pa."

"Abe-dam," "Abe-pa" and "Abe-tuntum" are all poor
varieties and differ but little in yield of oil and kernels, and

African Palm Oil Industry. 371

it is rather difficult to see how they can be differentiated,
since although the colour and shape of the fruits vary it
seems that these characteristics are too uncertain to be
of much value (Thompson, Southern Nigeria Gazette, 1909,
No. 38, Suppl. XXV.). "Abe-fita" is also a poor variety, and
has nuts with thick shells. It is interesting, as it yields a pale-
coloured oil slightly different from the others in chemical com-
position, but as it is rare it is unlikely to be of any special value.
The so-called " seedless " variety yields a large amount of palm
oil, but it is rare, and it is not known whether it can be grown
from the small seeds, which some of the fruits contain. It
appears to resemble the " Votchi " variety from Dahomey (p. 375).
Comparison with the other tables of analyses (see pp. 372, 375,
377) shows that in most cases the average weights of fruits from
the Gold Coast are smaller than those of similar varieties
from Southern Nigeria and the Cameroons, presumably owing
to less favourable conditions of growth. This is especially
noticeable when the fruits of the " Abobo-be " variety of the
Gold Coast (weighing from 3*45 to 6'^ grammes) are compared
with the fruits of the corresponding thin-shelled sort, " A-sog-e-
jub," from Southern Nigeria (weighing \2'6 grammes). The
weights of the Gold Coast fruits approximate to those of the
corresponding Togoland varieties (p. 375).

Gold Coast Palm Oils.

Samples of the palm oils prepared in the Gold Coast Colony
by the usual native methods from fruits of some of the varieties
described above have been examined also at the Imperial
Institute. With the exception of the " Abe-fita " oil (which is
of pale yellow colour and has a low iodine value), the chemical
composition of the oils derived from the different varieties of
fruits has been found to be the same. The similar investigations
of Togoland oils made by Fendler {Arbeiten aus dem Pharma-
zeutischen Inst., Berlin, vol. i., p. 194) led to the same result.

The exports of palm oil and palm kernels from the Gold
Coast Colony in recent years are given in the following
table :—

372

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

1906.

1907.

1908.

Palm oil . . .

Galls.
2,143,118

£
125,008

Galls.
1,867,945

119,468

Galls.
2,255,371

129,535

Palm kernels . .

Tons.

9,355

80,834

Tons.

9,753

£
101,822

Tons.
8,956

77,821

THE CAMEROONS.
The palm-oil industry in this German colony was investigated
by Preuss in 1902 {Der Tropenpflanzer, 1902, 6. 454), and it was
in the course of this work that the existence of an oil palm
yielding a fruit containing a thin-shelled nut was first definitely
observed. This variety is known as " Lisomb^ " (Bakwili
language), and is possibly identical with the similar varieties
yielding thin-shelled nuts now known in Angola (see p. 381),
Southern Nigeria (see p. 376), the Gold Coast Colony (see
p. 367) and elsewhere. The " Lisombe " palm is said to occur
fairly commonly at Duala and at Bakoko. A comparison of
the " Lisombe " fruits with those of the ordinary palm fruits of
the Cameroons is given in the following table, due to Strunk
(quoted by Fendler, loc. cit.) : —

Palm Fruits from the Cameroons.

Average weight of one fruit, grammes . .
No. of fruits in a " head "

Percentage Composition of Fruit :

Pulp

Nuts

Kernels

Shells

Percentage Composition of Pulp {pericarp) .

Oil (palm oil)

Moisture and fibrous residue . .

Percentage Composition of Kernels :

Oil (palm-kernel oil)

Moisture and residue

"Lisomb6 variety.'

Fruits

with

small

kernels.

5 -45
1,430

71 -o
29-0
9 '54
19-45

46 "o
54 -o

49 "2
50-8

Large
fruits,
fully
ripe.

10 'OO
273

71 "O

29-0

12-5
i6-5

62-5
37 '5

48-9
5i'i

Large
fruits.

7-4
1,340

64-5
25-5
17-27
18-23

60-5

39 '5

49*2
50-8

Ordinary variety.

Average
sized

head of
fruit.

6-6

1,650

37-5
62-5

14-58
47-92

60-3
39-8

48-9
51-1

Large

head of

large

fruit.

10-24
2,323

32-03
67-96
15-82
52-14

54-6
45*4

49-13
50-87

Owing to the obvious superiority of the " Lisombd " variety,
as regards yields of pulp and palm oil, attempts were made
to propagate it from seed, which was sown in the Botanical

African Palm Oil Industry.

373

Gardens at Victoria in the Cameroons in 1902. Some of the
trees so raised bore fruit in 1906. These fruits were examined
with the following results (Strunk, Tropenpflanzer, 1906, 10.

637) :—

Number of Tree.

Average weight of
one fruit.

Pulp.

Nuts.

No. I

No. 2

No. 3

No. 4

No. 5

Grammes,
7-48

15-09
976

10-04
9-04

Per cent.
78

34
39
23
68

Per cent.
22
66
61

It is clear from these results that the " Lisombe " variety cannot
be depended on to grow true to seed, since of the five sets of
fruit from different trees examined, only Nos. i and 5 resembled
the original " Lisombe " fruits in giving high yields of pulp.
These results in part support the statement made by natives that
they did not plant " Lisombe " seeds, as the trees which sprang
from them resembled the ordinary variety. The experiment shows,
however, that it may be possible to obtain a good variety by careful
seed selection, but this will be tedious as the palms do not bear
fruit for several years after sowing. Since the publication of
the results of Preuss' experiments, Strunk {Der Tropenpflanzer,
1906, 10. 637) has examined oil palms in different parts of the
Cameroons, and finds that there are other kinds, apparently
known to natives as " Mbi6 " and " Avell^" intermediate in
character between the " ordinary " and " Lisombe " varieties,
and has noted a third sort bearing the native name, " Ns^gel^n,"
of which one sample was even superior to the "Lisombe" of
Victoria in percentage of pulp, and therefore in yield of palm
oil. The descriptions of these varieties are not detailed enough
to permit of their classification.

The exports of palm oil and kernels from the Cameroons
during recent years are given in the following table : — *

1905.

1906.

1907.

Tons.

Palm oil 2,555

Palm kernels j 9,358

£
39,041
81,908

Tons.

•2,935

10,274

45,580
99,864

Tons. £
3,503 65,298
12,977 140,331

* These data are calculated from figures given in Von der Heydfs '^ /Colonial Hand-
buch,'' 1908 and 1909.

C C

374 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

TOGOLAND.

Information relating to the oil palm in this German Colony
has been published by the Governor (quoted by Fendler in
Arbeiten aus dem Ph. Inst, Berlin, 1904, vol. i., p. 189) and by
Dr. Griiner, who has described the varieties occurring in the
Misahohe district {Der Tropenpflanzer, 1904, 8. 283). The
names of the varieties are as follows : —

1. ""Der The common or typical form also known in
Misahohe as "Ede" or " Deti."

2. '■'■ De-de-bakuir This has thin-shelled nuts, and is also
known in Misahohe as " Dechla " (or " Deula " when the fruits are
very large). This variety is said to require much moisture, and
in dry climates to yield fruit resembling that of the ordinary
oil palm. It is said to occur throughout Togoland to the extent
of about 25 per cent, of the oil palm forests, though according
to Griiner it forms only from 3 to 10 per cent, of the palm groves
of Misahohe.

3. " Se-de" probably identical with the " Sedde " of Misahohe,
which is said to have greenish fruit yielding only a small
quantity of oil, which is used for medicinal purposes by the
natives.

4. " Afa-der The fetish palm ; known as " Klude " or
"Agode" in Misahohe. It is said to be rare in the Misahohe
district, and the calyx segments are thick, red, fleshy and oily,
whilst the small fruits often have no nuts. This variety is easily
recognised by the fused pinnae of the leaves.

Details of the composition of the fruits of the above varieties
are given in the table on p. 375 (Fendler, loc. cit.).

From this table it is evident that the " De-de-bakui " or
" Dechla," the variety yielding a thin-shelled nut, is somewhat
superior in yield of pulp and kernels to the other kinds, and is
said to resemble the " Lisombe " of the Cameroons by the
Governor of Togoland, although Fendler contests this point,
apparently on the ground of the smaller weight of the fruit and
of the general percentage composition. It is evident from the
analytical data given that all the samples had dried considerably
during transit. Sufficient notice does not appear to have been
taken of this point by various investigators. It is evident that

African Palm Oil Industry.

375

Palm Fruits from Togoland.

Average weight of one fruit, grammes.

Percentage Composition of the Fruits:

Oily pulp

Nuts

Kernels

Shells of nuts ......

Percentage Composition of Pulp :

Oil

Moisture

Fibrous residue

Percentage Composition of Kernels :

Oil

Moisture

Residue

Di.

Ordinary
variety.

4-17

24-4
756
21 o
546

66-5

5 3
28-2

437

8-2

48-1

Di-di-bakui.

Thin-shelled
nut.

365
26-9

73-1
24-4

487

58-5

35-8

49-1

6-5

44 '4

Se-di.

Green fruit.

5 "20

25 "O

75 'o
18-5

56-5

592

6-9

33-9

49-2

5 9

44 '9

A/a-dL

Fetish palm.

5-15

231
769

15-6
61-3

62-9

5-6

61 -3

45 '5

6-5

48-0

the results yielded by dry fruits will differ — often considerably —
from those obtained with fruits in a fresh and moist condition.

The following table shows the exports of palm oil and kernels
from Togoland in recent years.

1905.*

1906.*

1907.1

Palm oil

Palm kernels

Tons.

515

3,149

7,424
29,797

Tons.

461

3,380

£
8,900

33,485

Tons.

983

4,277

* Calculated from data in Von der Heydt's ^'^ Kolonial Handbuch" 1908 and 1909.
t Board 0/ 'I rade Journal, 1909, 64. 473-

DAHOMEY.

According to Adam {loc. cit.) the oil palm is abundant near
the coast, and is found inland to a distance of about 300 miles.
The soil is poor in the interior and the trees do not do well
there. Five varieties are known, of which the first four appear
to be identical with those of Togoland and bear similar native
names thus, (i) " De," common variety, (2) " Kiss^de " or " Sede,"
with greenish fruits, (3) " D^gbakou," thin-shelled variety, (4)
" Fade " or " Agoude/' the fetish palm, and (5) " Votchi," in which
there is merely a felt of fibres in place of a nut, whilst the kernel
is either small or absent. This seems to be identical with the
" seedless " kind recorded from the Gold Coast (see page 369).

3/6

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

As in the Cameroons the natives of Dahomey state that plants
raised from the thin-shelled variety (" D^gbakou ") do not
come true to seed. Some of the Dahomey natives, however,
according to Adam, take the contrary view. No analyses of
fruits of these Dahomey varieties appear to have been made.
The exports in recent years of oil and kernels from Dahomey
are shown in the following table : —

1906.

Palm oil
Palm kernels

Tons.

5,548

17,204

95,833
157,319

Tons.

6,277

18,528

£
108,427
169,510

Tons.

7,613

18,151

£
137,088
186,923

NORTHERN NIGERIA.

Comparatively little information is available regarding the
distribution of the oil palm in this Protectorate. Palm oil and
palm kernels are produced for local use, but owing to the
distance from the coast only small quantities are exported
through Southern Nigeria, the export returns being included
with those for the latter colony.

SOUTHERN NIGERIA.

Several varieties of oil palm have been observed in Southern
Nigeria, and the fruits from those occurring in the Central,
Eastern and Western Provinces have been examined recently
at the Imperial Institute. According to Thompson three varieties
are known {Southern Nigeria Gazette, Suppl., 1909, 4. p. xxiv.).
The following descriptions may be given : —

No. I. This bears the following native names : " Ope-arunfo "
(Yoruba dialect), " A-sog-e-jub " or " Osok-Eyop " (Efik dialect),
"Osuku" or "Au-su-ku" (Ibo dialect), " Ivioronmila " (Benin
dialect), " Eduege-Eyop " (Ibibio dialect). A thin-shelled variety
found in all three provinces, but the proportion in which it
occurs varies greatly, rising from 0*2 per cent, in the Western
Province to 30 per cent, in the Eastern Province. It is said to
give a larger yield of better oil than any of the others found in
Southern Nigeria.

No. 2. This is the typical or ordinary oil palm of the country.

African Palm Oil Industry.

377

.2 o

8> S

^^.

M 0 ■<*• ro t^

I I CI I I

«n CO p

0 *M «

1 I ^

•;: 1 1

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I I n I

ro t~N p

H b V^ o o

I i

2 o

I I I I I

I I

I I ■°

I I i I I I

I I

O O I oo

(ilz;

O O O 00 f<l

b b V o o b b M ' I I

!» fj S3 c o

I I

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b b 't^oo

I I

B2^

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P P
Vo o

pa. I I

I I -H I I I

378 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

and bears the following native names : " Ope-pankora " (Yoruba
dialect), " Ak-por-ro-jub " or " Okporo Eyop " (Efik dialect),
"Ok-po-ruk-pu" (Ibo dialect), "Udin" (Benin dialect), and "Ikrok
Eyop " (Ibibio dialect). It forms about 60 per cent, of the oil
palms in the Eastern Province.

No. 3. This appears to be similar to the " King or Fetish
Palm" found in other parts of West Africa, since, like it, the
leaflets are in many cases joined together. It is known by
the following names: "Ope-Ifa" (Yoruba dialect), " Ogiedi "
or " Ogedudin " (Benin dialect), " Af-fia-ko-jub " or " Afia-Okpo-
Eyop" (Efik dialect), or "Ojina" or "0-ju-ku" (Ibo dialect),
and "Efiako-Eyop" (Ibibio dialect). It is common near Lagos
in the sandy country near the seashore and the lagoons, and
is regarded as sacred by the Yorubas ; the nuts are used by
native medicine men for casting lots.

In the table on p. 377 are given the results obtained by the
examination at the Imperial Institute of fruits, nuts and kernels
of varieties from the Central, Eastern and. Western Provinces.

From the data given in this table the factors of principal
importance to the palm-oil industry may be obtained respecting
each variety of fruit, viz. palm-oil content, palm-kernel content
and approximate thickness of shells of nuts (see table on p. 379).
As noted already in connection with the analyses of fruits from
the Gold Coast, the moisture content of the palm fruits as
received at the Imperial Institute from Southern Nigeria may
differ considerably from that present in the fresh fruits as used
by the natives for preparing palm oil, so that the oil content
given in the table on p. 379 does not necessarily represent that
of the fresh moist fruits.

Conclusions.
These results show that " Ope-pankora " fruits from the
Western Province are medium-sized, irregularly- shaped fruits
of the common thick-shelled variety, and are evidently a poor
variety giving low yields of oil and kernels. Of the three kinds
sent from the Central Province all have evidently dried en route,
and the results are therefore only approximate and of less value
than results from fruits in a natural moist state would have been.
The " Ivioronmila " fruits were in somewhat poor condition, and
very irregular in size and weight ; they had mostly thick-shelled

African Palm Oil Industry.

379

nuts and a thin pulp, although some of the smaller fruits had
somewhat thin-shelled nuts. Thompson {loc. cit.) classes this
as a thin-shelled kind ; this is evidently not true of all the
sample sent to the Imperial Institute. The sample of " Ogiedi "
fruits contained two kinds, (i) elongated fruits of curious shape
with thick pulp and thin-shelled nuts (resembling those of

Variety.

Palm oil in fruits as

received at the

Imperial Institute

(calculated).

Kernels in fruits as

received at the
Imperial Institute.

Approximate
thickness of
nut shells.

Ope-pankora. \
Western Province. J * '

Per cent.
19

Inches.
O'lO

Udin. \
Central Province, j * *

0-20

Ak-por-ro-jub or ^
Ok-po-ruk-pu. 1- . .
Eastern Province, j

moist, ii'O
dry, iO"5

0-15

Ivioronmila. \
Central Province. /

nuts from small

fruit, 0-05 ; large

fruit, o"20

A-sog-e-jub or ^
Au-su-ku, y . .
Eastern Province. J

moist, 9'o
dry, 7-0

o-o6

Ogiedi. \
Central Province. J

0-07*
o-i5t

Af-fia-ko-jub or \
O-ju-ku, y . .
Eastern Province. J

moist, 1 1 "5
dry, 7*8

o'o8

* Small sample of broken shells received from S. Nigeria.

t Shells of nuts extracted from fruits received from S. Nigeria.

" Abobo-be," p. 367, or " Lisombe," p. 372), (2) fruits with thin
pulp and thick-shelled nuts; no nuts could be found showing
the four eyes, which is said to be characteristic of this variety
{Kew Bulletin, 1909, 49), but a small sample of " Ope-ifa " palm
fruits from Abuleoja examined contained some nuts with four
and even five eyes. It would be interesting to know whether

38o

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

the mixed nature of these samples of" Ivioronmila " and " Ogiedi"
fruits and nuts is due to natural variation or accidental admix-
ture of different varieties during collection. The " Udin " fruits
were very similar in appearance to the larger fruits of the
" Ivioronmila " variety, and do not differ appreciably from these
in yield of oil and kernels.

Of the varieties from the Eastern Province the " A-sog-e-jub"
or " Au-su-ku " fruits gave the best yield of oil of any of the
Southern Nigerian varieties so far examined. The nuts are
thin-shelled and yield fair-sized kernels, although the yield of
kernels as calculated on the weight of fruit taken is not larger
than those of the " Lisombd " and " Abobo-be " varieties, though
the fruits are larger, probably owing to more favourable condi-
tions of growth. There can be no doubt that " Abobo-be,"
" Lisombe " and " A-sog-e-jub " are all of the same type. The
" Af-fia-ko-jub" or King Palm fruits furnish the same amount of
kernels, but a better yield of oil than the typical thick-shelled
" Ak-por-ro-jub." The latter resembles in general character the
typical thick-shelled " Abe-pa " and " Abe-dam " varieties of the
Gold Coast.

Palm oils from Southern Nigeria.

A number of these on examination proved to be quite similar
in composition to palm oil of commerce, and, as in the case of
all the Gold Coast kinds except " Abe-fita " oil, no difference
in composition could be detected between palm oils from the
different varieties of fruits.

Exports of Palm oil from the Southern Nigeria Protectorate
{including the former Colony of Lagos).

1906.

1907.

1908.

Palm oil

Galls.
16,032,571

1,001,648

Galls.
18,332.531

1,313,960*

Galls.
17,757,187

Palm kernels . . .

Tons.
"3.347

1,193.939

Tons.
133,630

1,658,292!

Tons.
136,601

* Including ;^48,ooo from N. Nigeria.

t Including ;^22,6o9 from N. Nigeria.

The exports in 1907 were distributed among the three
provinces as follows : —

African Palm Oil Industry.

381

1907.

Palm oil.

Palm kernels.

Western Province

Central Province

Eastern Province

Galls.
3,848,739
3,594,335

10,889,457

Tons.
57,505
29,331
46,794

Angola.

The following four varieties of oil palm have been described
by Almeida as occurring in this Portuguese colony.

1. Varieties with thick- shelled nuts.

{a) " Dihoho," distinguished by having a thin oily pulp.
{b) " Dihusue," which furnishes a pale-coloured oil.

2. Varieties with thin-shelled nuts.

{a) " Disomb^" probably identical with the " Lisombe " of
the Cameroons (see p. 372.)

{F) " Difumbe." This somewhat resembles the " seedless "
kind found in the Gold Coast (p. 369) and Dahomey (p. 375), as
the shell of the nut is reduced to a translucent yellow horny
membrane and the kernel is small and soft. This variety is of
rare occurrence. No information is available as to the composi-
tion of the fruits.

In 1906 and 1907 respectively, palm oil to the value of ;f 2,019
and £2f)jZ was exported from Angola.

CONGO.

Scarcely any information is available relating to the oil-palm
industry in this part of West Africa.

In 1897 the Congo State exported 4,725 tons of palm kernels
valued at ^48,008, whilst the following table shows the exports
from the French Congo : —

1906.

1907.

Palm oil

Tons.
89

435

1,339
4,019

Tons. £.
103 1,69s

not quoted.

Palm kernels

382 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

classification of varieties.

In the foregoing paragraphs a large number of varieties of oil
palms have been referred to, distinguished mainly by differences
in the fruits, and it becomes of interest to ascertain whether the
similar varieties which occur in different countries are identical,
but unfortunately data sufficient for the expression of a definite
opinion on this point in most cases do not exist at present. A
number of provisional classifications have, however, been pro-
posed, and it may be convenient to group these together for
purposes of reference.

System suggested by Mr, Evans (see p. 366).

Group I. — Fruits large ; colour of pericarp varies from yellowish

white to blackish red, nuts hard.
Group II. — Fruits small, very fleshy pericarps, thin- or soft-
shelled nuts.*
Group III. — Fruits large, pericarps brick red, nuts hard, leaflets
joined together at base.
This system does not definitely provide for the so-called
"seedless" kinds which had not been recorded in the Gold
Coast when this system was proposed.

System suggested by M. Adam {loc. cit.^ p. 472).

Group I. — Typical or ordinary palm with hard-shelled nuts.

Group II. — Fruits with a green tinge, such as the " Dihusue" of

Angola, " Kissede " of Dahomey and " Sedde " of

Togoland. These also have thick-shelled nuts, and

would be included in Evans' Group I.

Group III. — Fruits with thin-shelled nuts, identical with Evans'

Group II.
Group IV. — So-called " seedless " fruits such as those recorded
from Angola (p. 381), Togoland (p. 374), Dahomey
(p. 375), and the Gold Coast Colony (p. 369).
Group V. — Leaves with fused leaflets, including the " Fetish or
King Palm" and identical with Evans' Group III.

* The examination at the Imperial Institute of varieties from Southern
Nigeria shows that fruits of the variety containing thin-shelled nuts are not
necessarily smaller than those of the other groups. See " A-sog-e-jub "
variety in table of analyses (p. 377).

African Palm Oil Industry. 383

System adopted by Kew {loc. cit.).

Group I. — The typical form, named by Welwitsch Elceis
guineensis, var. macrosperma. This group includes
fruits having hard or thick shells, and is identical
with Evans' Group I, except that the Kew authori-
ties suggest that the " White Oil Palm " of the Gold
Coast bearing the native name " Abe-fita," and which
has very characteristically coloured fruits, many
represent a distinct variety. This group includes
Adam's Groups I and II.
Group II. — King Palm, distinguished by the fused leaflets.
This is identical with Evans' Group III and Adam's
Group V.
Group III. — Thin-shelled variety. This is identical with Wel-
witsch's Elceis guineensis, var. microsperma, and with
Group II attributed to Evans (see above). It is
suggested that the so-called " seedless " kinds may
be variants from this group type.

System suggested by Mr. Thompson {loc. cit.).

Group I. — The typical form, with thick- or hard-shelled nuts.
Group II. — The King Palm, with fused leaflets. Chevalier's

name Elceis Thompsonii is adopted for this group.
Group III . — The thin-shelled form. EIceIs guineensis, var. micro-

sperma.
It will be seen that Thompson's grouping is practically
identical with that adopted at Kew, with the exception that no
reservations are made regarding the position of the " Abe-fita "
variety of the Gold Coast or the so-called " seedless " forms,
though Thompson states that the colour of the nuts (.? fruits)
and of the oils obtained from them are trivial, variable and
unreliable characters on which to found a system of classifica-
tion, so that presumably he would definitely include " Abe-fita "
in his Group I and the "seedless " varieties in his Group III.

System due to Dr. Soskin {Beihefte zum Tropenpfanzer^ 1909,
10. No. 6).

This is practically identical with Thompson's system outlined
above.

384 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

preparation of palm oil.
As already stated the preparation of palm oil as practised by
the natives throughout West Africa is managed in a crude and
wasteful manner. As an example of this, an experiment made
by Preuss in the Cameroons in the extraction of palm oil by
the native method may be quoted. In this case it was found
that 133 lb. of fruits actually containing 30 lb. of palm oil
yielded in practice S'SS lb., equivalent to a loss of more than
two-thirds of the oil. Such a loss implies that a native in
preparing a ton of palm oil has to gather and work 1,370
bunches of fruits of average size instead of the 405 bundles
which would be required to produce one ton of oil if thoroughly
efficient methods were in use. A sample of the fibrous residue
obtained in the native preparation of oil in Lagos was examined
at the Imperial Institute with the following results, which show
that even in districts where the best native methods are em-
ployed much waste of oil takes place.

Per cent.

Moisture . . . .• . . 6*2
Oil 29-0

The oil extracted from this residue by light petroleum was
hard, possessed an unpleasant smell and dark colour, and con-
sisted chiefly of free fatty acids. The bulky nature of the
fibrous residue and the comparatively small quantity of oil
present, together with its nature, render it certain that the residue
could not be profitably exported for oil extraction in Europe,
as has sometimes been proposed. The residue is used as fuel by
the natives, and is sold for about \d. per lb. in Lagos.

Numerous descriptions of the processes used in various parts of
West Africa for the preparation of palm oil have been published
at various times, and it is scarcely worth while to repeat these
here. It is perhaps sufficient to say that the process depends
generally on the fermentation of the heads or bunches in order
to loosen the fruits, with possibly further fermentation of
the fruits, in order to soften the pulp, and subsequent boiling
of the fruit in water to cause the oil to separate from the pulp.
The processes actually in use mostly depend on this principle,
but show great variation in detail. The following account of a

African Palm Oil Industry. 385

process used in the Gold Coast Colony in which the fruit is not
boiled in water has been given recently by the, Inspector of
Agriculture for West Africa.

"After the bunches have been allowed to stand for a few
days the fruits are chopped out and piled in heaps on a paved
or cemented basin having a diameter of about eight feet
and a slightly depressed rim about two feet in width running
completely round, and in one place a small well connected with
the bottom of the basin by a wooden tube. The heap of fruit
is covered with leaves and left for five or six days, during
which period fermentation takes place and the mass becomes
hot. At the end of that time the heap is uncovered, and five or
six people proceed to pound the mass with poles for several
hours. After this treatment the mass is again covered up, left
for two days, and the pounding again repeated, followed by a
further fermentation for two days and a further pounding.
From the time of the first pounding oil begins to flow through
the tube into the well, and as the latter fills up it is emptied by
means of small calabashes. When no more oil flows the nuts
are picked out of the mass of pulp, and the latter is collected,
boiled in water in order to cause a little more oil to separate, and
is finally squeezed in a primitive press. The nuts are dried in the
sun so that the kernel may shrink and be readily detachable
from the shell. The nuts are cracked singly by hand, each nut
being placed on a stone and struck with a second stone. It is
stated that an industrious native can prepare about four pounds
of kernels per day in this way, the shells being afterwards
picked by hand."

Machinery for the Preparation of Palm oil.
Following on the investigations of Preuss and others in
German West African Colonies, and with a view to avoiding the
waste of labour and the loss of oil involved in the native processes,
the German Government in 1904 offered prizes for the invention
of portable machinery which could be used for preparing palm
oil. As a result the firm of F. Haake, in Berlin, devised a set
of three machines, which under official trials in Germany
appeared to give fairly satisfactory results. The set of
machinery consists of the following pieces, (i) a "depulper " for

386 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

removing the oily fibrous pulp from the fruit, (2) a press designed
to express oil from the separated pulp, and (3) a centrifugal nut-
cracking machine. Each unit is made small and readily
transportable. The depulper consists of a shaft carrying
triangular metal blades mounted obliquely on it. The shaft
rotates inside a cylinder, which itself rotates in. the same direc-
tion but at a different speed. It is stated that one man can
work this machine and remove the pulp from 4*4 lb. of fruit in
five minutes. The press can be worked either by hand or
hydraulic power, and as the oil is semi-solid it has been found
advantageous to heat the pulp and the press before working. In
an actual trial 22 lb. of fruit yielded 14*85 lb. of nuts in the
depulper, and from the pulp thus prepared 2*2 lb. of palm oil
was expressed, corresponding to a yield of about five-sixths of
the oil present. The third unit of the set, the nut-cracking
machine, works centrifugally, the nuts being projected from a
rapidly-rotating holder against iron plates. It is stated that the
nut-cracker will deal with 506 lb. of nuts per hour. The set of
machinery recommended for export to West Africa consists of
five depulpers, a press and a nut-cracker, and costs ^165 or
;^i85 according as a hand or hydraulic oil press is supplied.
Sets of these machines are said to have been supplied to Togo-
land and the Cameroons, but no detailed information is
available as to the success which has attended this enterprise.
The Haake machinery provides for the whole process of
preparing palm oil and palm kernels, but a number of other
machines have been introduced to deal with different parts of
the process. Of these perhaps the best known is the nut-crack-
ing machine of Miller Bros, of Liverpool, which works on the
same principle as that of Haake and Co. The only published
results of trials with this machine are those made by the
Agricultural Department of the Gold Coast Colony some years
ago, when it was found that the saving in the cost of labour in
treating 2,050 lb. of nuts was about 4r5 per cent, although 19
per cent, of the nuts escaped cracking and had to be picked out
and re-treated. This machine has been re-modcUed recently,
and the new pattern is on exhibition in the West African Section
of the Public Galleries of the Imperial Institute.

From information received at the Imperial Institute from

African Palm Oil Industry. 387

commercial firms in this country, the machine gives good results
not only with palm nuts but with other similar products such
as shea nuts, etc.

Other nut-crackers suitable for palm nuts are the Gunnel
{Kew Bulletin, 1891, 192), Crellin and the Gwira machines.
In the last mentioned the nuts are sorted by the machine
into sizes, and are then passed between grooved rollers, which
crack them. Trials of this machine at the Agricultural
Department of the Gold Coast did not give good results
owing to the failure of the machine to sort the nuts pro-
perly, so that in one experiment about 70 per cent, of the nuts
escaped cracking. It is thought possible, however, that this
machine may be" modified so as to work more satisfactorily.

The Crellin nut-cracking machine, also obtainable from Miller
Bros, of Liverpool, has been introduced recently. A machine
of this type is shown in the West African Section of the
Public Galleries of the Imperial Institute, and a description of
it will be given in a future number of this Bulletin.

The " Fanti " palm-oil machine, recently devised by Mr.
Gwina of the Gold Coast, is designed to meet the needs of the
small producer. It consists of knives mounted on a shaft, which
can be rotated by hand inside a cylinder holding the fruits, so
that the pulp is sliced off and the oil extracted from it by means
of boiling water poured into the cylinder. With this machine it
is stated that twenty-five gallons of oil can be obtained in six
to eight hours.

The "Paulmier" machine for the extraction of oil from palm
fruits was exhibited at the Marseilles Exhibition in 1906, and is
the subject of French, British and German patents. It consists
of a cylindrical press weighing in all 2,150 lb., and composed of
seven parts, the heaviest of which weighs 675 lb. This machine
is said to be capable of treating 1 10 lb. of palm fruits at a time,
and can be worked either by hand or by power. When worked
by hand, trials show that 1,102 lb. of fruits can be treated by
four men in ten hours, giving a yield of 220 to 242 lb. of palm
oil. In using it the fruits are first boiled for a short time in
water, and are then pressed in a cylinder surrounded by a
steam coil, and yield in this way 14 to 16 per cent, of oil. The
residue of fibrous matter and nuts is removed from the press

388 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

and treated in the "difibreur" to separate the nuts from fibrous
matter, the latter being again pressed, when it yields a further
6 to 8 per cent, of oil. The cost of the installation is about ;^I04.

A machine for extraction of oil and nuts from palm fruit
has recently been patented in the United Kingdom by S. C.
Phillips of Lagos. It consists of a cylindrical vessel, which is
roughened or corrugated on its interior surface and contains a
shaft bearing arms. Above the cylinder is a water reservoir
with apparatus for regulating the flow of water into the cylinder.
The fruits are agitated with water in the cylinder by rotating
the shaft. The nuts and fibrous residue are ejected through
a hole in the side of the cylinder, whilst the water and oil pass
through a filter at the bottom, into a tank underneath the
apparatus. The apparatus seems to be somewhat similar to
the Haake " depulper," but is supposed to not only " depulp "
the fruits but to separate the oil. No details of the behaviour of
this machine in practice are yet available.

So far most of the machines described have proved too
expensive for adoption by natives, and as yet European firms
have shown no tendency to engage in this industry. So long as
the latter remains wholly in native hands, it is unlikely that
machinery will come into extensive use unless very much
cheaper forms are devised.

NATURE AND USES OF PALM OIL.
Palm oil as prepared by natives from freshly-cut fruit for
their own use in cooking is described as a pleasant-smelling and
yellow-coloured fat, which is sometimes eaten and relished by
Europeans residing in West Africa, but owing to the fact that
less care is taken in the preparation of the large quantities of oil
required for export, together with the length of time which
elapses during transport, it is generally very rancid when it
reaches the European market ; it also contains some water
together with other impurities such as sand, the presence of
which may be accidental or due to its addition as an adulterant^
while red clay, banana flour, etc., are also said to be used for
purposes of adulteration. As a rule the oil is examined when
it reaches this country ; if the water and sand together exceed
2 per cent, an allowance for "dirt" is made by the seller.

African Palm Oil Industry. 389

According to its source the oil varies in consistence from that of
butter (Lagos oils) to that of tallow (Congo oils) ; whilst the
colour of the various grades also ranges from orange-yellow
(Lagos oils) to dirty dark red (Congo oils), or even grey and
brown (Saltpond and Dixcove oils), owing to local differences in
methods of preparation and other factors. Little or nothing is
known of the nature of the colouring matter; it is not destroyed
in the saponification of the oil by means of lime or alkalis, but
is removed by acid saponification ; it is slowly bleached on
exposure to air, and, technically, bleaching is effected either
by passing air through the oil heated to 1 50° C, or by means
of bichromate of potash and hydrochloric acid.

Palm oil consists chiefly of palmitin and olein together with
small quantities of stearin and other constituents. The following
table gives the range of the principal chemical and physical
constants of the palm oil of commerce : —

Specific gravity at — °C. . 0'9209-o-9245

Solidifying point . . . 31-39'' C.

Melting point . . . 27-42*5° C. according to age

and origin of sample

Saponification value . . i96*3-205'5

Iodine value . . . 53~57'4

Reichert-Meissl value . . 0'86-r87

Hehner value . . . 94*2-97

Solidifying point of fatty Varies from 35-8 to 46-4° C,
acids usually 44*5 to 45*0° C.

A- large number of samples of palm oil derived from the
different varieties of fruits occurring in the Gold Coast and in
the Central Province of Southern Nigeria have been examined
recently at the Imperial Institute ; these have yielded results
agreeing closely with the figures already published, and show
that the variety of tree from which the oil is derived does not
generally have any marked influence upon the chemical nature
of the oil produced. The only exception to this is the " Abe-
fita" variety of the Gold Coast, which yields a pale yellow-
coloured oil with a somewhat lower iodine value than the
normal, viz. 44-45 instead of 53-57 per cent.

D D

390

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Palm oil is very largely employed in the manufacture of soaps
and candles, while large quantities are also used in the tin-plate
industry, where the heated iron plates are covered with palm oil
to prevent oxidation before they are dipped in the molten tin.

PALM KERNELS.

Palm kernels are largely exported to Europe, where they are
used for the production of oil by the usual processes of expression
in hydraulic presses or extraction by solvents {e.g, light petroleum
or carbon disulphide). Palm-kernel oil is prepared on a small
scale in West Africa by the natives, for their own use, by crude
methods resembling those employed for the preparation of
palm oil, but such oil is not exported.

In connection with the inquiries relating to the varieties of
oil palm in West Africa now proceeding, a number of samples
of kernels derived from the different varieties of trees in the
Gold Coast Colony and the Central Province of Southern
Nigeria have been examined recently at the Imperial Institute.
The amounts of oil occurring in the kernels of seven different
varieties only varied from 51 to 57 per cent, (calculated on the
dry kernels), whilst the examination of twenty-two commercial
samples of kernels by Nordlinger {^Zeits, angew. Chemie. 1895,
[i], 19) showed that the content of oil varied from 467 to 52*5
per cent. It will be seen, therefore, that kernels from different
sources and varieties differ but little in their yield of oil.
Palm-kernel oil is a white solid fat, which somewhat readily
turns rancid ; it has the following range of chemical and
physical constants : —

Specific gravity at — ^-^C.

15-5

Solidifying point .
Melting point
Saponification value .
Iodine value
Reichert-Meissl value .
Hehner value
Solidifying point of fatty acids

0-9119

0-8731

23-24° C.

23-30° C.

242-4-254-8

IO-3-I7-5

5-0-6-8

91-1

20-0-25-5° C.

African Palm Oil Industry. 391

general conclusions.
Reference was made at the beginning of this article to the
fact that the investigations which have led to the results now
recorded were initiated with a view to ascertaining the precise
position of the West African palm-oil industry at the present
day, and the possibility of introducing more modern methods
of exploiting the oil-palm forests. The principal points
ascertained may be summarised thus : —

1. There is an abundant supply of palm fruits, and large

areas of oil-palm forest still exist almost untouched.
There is consequently no fear in the immediate future
of a failure in the supply of palm oil and palm kernels
even if the crude and wasteful native processes of ex-
ploitation are persisted in.

2. Palm-oil and palm kernels are still extracted mainly by

native methods, and the machinery now available for
these purposes seems to have been adopted on a very
small scale only, as far as British West Africa is con-
cerned.

3. Several varieties of oil palm occur in most of the British

West African Colonies which produce palm oil, and of
these the varieties yielding thin-shelled nuts present
distinct advantages, in higher yields of palm oil and palm
kernels, over those yielding thick-shelled nuts.

There are two directions in which improvement of the palm-
oil industry may be looked for in the future, viz. the introduc-
tion of machinery for the extraction of palm oil and palm
kernels, and the gradual replacement of the ordinary oil palm
by varieties giving higher yields of palm oil and kernels.

Introduction of machinery. — It has been pointed out already
that most of the machinery so far introduced is too expensive
for use by natives, and that so long as the industry remains in
native hands it is unlikely that machinery will be largely intro-
duced. The natural remedy for this state of things, so far as
British West Africa is concerned, would appear to be the
installation of central palm-oil factories under either Govern-
ment or private European control. The actual collection of
the palm fruits would still be carried on by natives, who should

392 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

be encouraged to sell the fruits to the central factory in their
district. This system of central factories has been found to
work well for ginning cotton in West Africa, and experiments
are in progress for its adoption for cocoa fermentation in the
Gold Coast. The same plan has been found to answer well in
other countries for such products as tobacco, sugar beet, sugar
cane, coarse textile fibres and other materials. The principal
difference between the products so far dealt with in this manner
and palm fruits is that the former are agricultural materials
while the latter is a forest product. In the case of agricultural
materials it can generally be arranged that these will be grown
in the neighbourhood of the central factory, and the site of the
latter is selected with that end in view. This is not so easy to
arrange as a rule in the case of forest products, but as regards
palm oil the trees yielding it occur in dense masses over large
areas, and it should be easy so to place central factories as to
avoid transport of the collected palm fruits over considerable
distances. With the development of good roads suitable for
wheeled transport and the extension of railways this method of
working would be rendered still easier. The advantages of such
a system would be a great saving in labour, the avoidance of
waste such as goes on at present in the manufacture of palm oil,
and lastly the preparation of a much better quality of palm oil
than is at present put on the market.

In such colonies as Sierra Leone, where the cost of labour is
relatively high, the introduction of machinery would obviate a
serious obstacle to the extension of palm oil production.

The gradual replaLement of the common oil palm, by better varieties.
— This matter presents great difficulties. In the first place there
are enormous areas of oil palms still untouched, and in the areas at
present worked large quantities of palm fruits are left ungathered.
From the point of view even of increased production there is
therefore no need to form plantations. At the same time, as
has been indicated already, a certain amount of re-planting is
done by natives in a haphazard fashion, and there seems to be
no reason why this re-planting should not be done with the best
kinds. It is, however, not at all easy to decide which are the
best varieties. The Abobo-be of the Gold Coast and the
i\-sog-e-jub of the Central Province of Southern Nigeria have been

African Palm Oil Industry. 393

shown in the present investigation to give high yields of oil
and a good yield of thin-shelled nuts, which can be easily
shelled. It should be noted, however, that the kernels from
thin-shelled nuts are as a rule smaller than from thick-shelled
nuts, so that to get the same yield of kernels more nuts have to
be cracked. The saving in labour may not in practice prove,
therefore, to be quite so large as has been generally supposed.
The " seedless " kind of the Gold Coast is, as Dr. Soskin points
out, almost ideal as a source of palm oil, since it merely
requires pressing in an ordinary oil-press to give a far higher
yield of palm oil than is obtainable from any other palm fruit.

These desirable varieties cannot, however, yet be recommended
for general planting for the following reasons. It is not at all
certain that they can be raised true to seed in a new district, and
the small experiment made with Lisombe nuts at the Victoria
Gardens in the Cameroons to some extent supports this view.
Further, it is not known what the yield of these good varieties is in
comparison with the ordinary oil palm. It is quite possible that
they come into bearing later and give a smaller yield of " heads"
of fruit. These and other points must be settled by experi-
mental plantations before any recommendations can be safely
made regarding the encouragement of these kinds for re-planting
in preference to the ordinary oil palm. It would seem to be
advisable therefore to form experimental plantations of these
kinds at a number of places in each colony, and more especially
in Southern Nigeria, Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast Colony,
so that data may be obtained (i) as to the possibility of raising
these varieties of oil palm without deterioration in new localities,
and (2) as to their actual value in yield per acre of palm oil and
kernels. In all cases similar plantations of the ordinary oil
palm should be formed in the same districts, so that strictly
comparable information regarding these may be obtained. In
such plantations experiments in crossing varieties might also be
carried out. Between the rows of oil palms maize might be
grown as a catch crop as suggested by Adam {loc. cit.).

The Inspector of Agriculture for West Africa has suggested
recently that such plantations of oil palms might be formed
and separated from each other by plantations of Funtumia
elastica, the latter being utilised for the carrying out of tapping

394 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

and other experiments, which are much needed. This plan
would have the obvious advantage of enabling series of observa-
tions to be carried out on two very important West African
industries with the minimum expense for the necessary European
supervision. The plantations would have the further advantage
of serving to educate natives in two important branches of
planting work, and with this end in view the plantations should
be worked on modern lines, palm oil and palm kernels being
extracted by machinery, and the refuse being returned to the
plantations as manure. Similarly the rubber plantations could
be utilised for instructing natives in methods of tapping trees
and preparing rubber.

GENERAL NOTICES RESPECTING ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE SEYCHELLES.

A COPY of the annual report of the Curator of the Botanic
Station and Crown lands in the Seychelles, for 1908, has been
supplied to the Imperial Institute by the Colonial Office, and
from it the following summary of the progress of agri-
cultural and other work in these Islands has been prepared.
For further information on some of the subjects dealt with,
previous articles should be consulted (this Bulletin, 1904, 2. 30,
269; 1908, 6. 107, 319; this vol., p. 262, 349).

COCONUT INDUSTRY.

The total exports of coconut products, including nuts, copra,
coconut oil and soap, have grown steadily since 1905, but
whereas the premier position in that year was taken by coco-
nut oil, this product was replaced by copra as the principal
export in 1907, and this was still maintained in 1908, though in
this year the export of oil showed a considerable increase over
that of the previous year. The reason for this is, that the
production of copra is more remunerative than the manufacture
of coconut oil. If this rearrangement of exports is carried

Recent Developments in the Seychelles. 395

too far the Curator points out that the local soap industry
may be in some danger of not obtaining a sufficient supply
of coconut oil, but he is of opinion that the local demand
for " poonac " (the residue left after expressing the oil from
copra) as a feeding stuff for cattle and poultry, coupled with
the utilisation of damaged "copra" for the manufacture of
oil, will prove sufficient safeguards against local soap-makers
being deprived of this raw material. Coconut palms suffer in
the Seychelles, as elsewhere, from the attacks of insect pests and
from fungoid diseases, and the difficulty in effectively coping
with these is increased by the fact that many of the palms have
been badly cultivated, owing to greater attention having been
given to vanilla until recently. The two groups of pests occur
in association, so that it is not always easy to decide, which
causes the initial damage. The chief insects affecting the palms
are three species of beetle — Melitomma insulare, Calandra stig-
maticoLlis and the Rhinoceros beetle {Oryctes sp.). The two
former are boring insects and cause an outflow of sweet sap from
the tissues they attack, and this then forms a breeding-ground
for fungi of various kinds. It appears therefore to be of greatest
importance to destroy the boring beetles, and the estate owners
seem to be fully alive to the necessity of this. The "stem-
bleeding disease," to the occurrence of which in Ceylon reference
has been made already (this Bulletin, 1908,6. 205), is also found
in Seychelles, where, as in Ceylon, it appears to have been in
existence, almost disregarded, for many years.

VANILLA.

The crop of this spice in 1908 amounted to only 2475 tons as
against 66'5 tons in the previous year. The decline is due to
the weakening of the plants after the heavy yield of the previous
year. The best of the Seychelles vanilla is stated to be sold in
France, where the market for the finer kinds is said to be better
than in the United Kingdom. There is no improvement in the
price of vanilla to be recorded, the competition with
artificial vanillin being more severe than ever. Attempts are,
however, being made to lower the cost of cultivation of vanilla,
and with that end in view experiments in manuring, etc., have

396 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

been in progress since 1905. These have shown that the appli-
cation of ground limestone (coral) leads to the production of
more pods, no less than 26 per vine being obtained from each of
two series of vines so treated in 1908. The use of nitrate of
soda as a manure is advantageous, and tends to keep the plants
producing pods over a longer period. Larger crops were
obtained from plants grown in a mixture of fern roots and soil
than with those planted in ordinary soil, this improvement being
due apparently to the richness of the fern roots in lime. Shaded
plants appear to do better than those freely exposed to the sun.
Comparative analyses of the ash from two vines, one grown with-
out manure and the other with the application of a " complete
manure" (coral, sodium nitrate, guano and kainite), indicated
that the most important manurial constituents for vanilla are
lime, soda and phosphates ; potash and magnesia being less
important. The effect of each of these components is now
being studied separately.

VOLATILE OILS.

This industry is also making progress ; a new still of 1,000
litres capacity was started in West Mahe, and two more of like
size will be erected this year. The climate of Seychelles appears
to be well suited to the cultivation of plants yielding leaves used
for distillation ; thus the clove tree only fruits in the Islands once
in three or four years, but it produces an abundance of leaves,
which may be used for the distillation of clove-leaf oil.
Similarly lemon grass in Seychelles gives twice as much oil as
in Reunion, and the " ylang-ylang " tree flowers within a year
after planting as against three years required in less humid
climates.

It has been found more profitable to export cinnamon bark
as such, than to distil oil from it in the Seychelles, but this may
not be the case when the wild plants now used as a source of
bark become exhausted and recourse must be had to cultivation.
Reference has been made already to the " light " character of the
cinnamon-bark oil so far produced in the Seychelles (this
Bulletin, 1908, 6. iii), and which accounts for the low price
this article brings on the market. Experiments have been made

Recent Developments in the Seychelles. 397

locally to discover the cause of this, but no definite conclusions
have been arrived at. At present most of the Seychelles cinna-
mon bark harvested, is taken from the stems of large wild trees
and fetches low prices of id. to \\d. or 2.d, per lb. Attempts
have been made to produce "quills" of bark, after the plan
adopted in Ceylon, and these have been sold in London at ^d.
to 6d. per lb. This and other branches of the spice and volatile
oil industry, the Curator thinks, might be encouraged as
domestic industries for women and children. Cinnamon-leaf oil
from the Seychelles, examined at the Imperial Institute, proved
to be of fair quality and worth about 2d. per ounce, but this price
appears to be unremunerative to the distillers. Clove-leaf oil, on
the other hand, of which a yield of i per cent, is obtained in
practice, is likely to pay better. Seychelles clove-leaf oil,
examined at the Imperial Institute, proved to be of very good
quality and worth 4^. ^d. to 4^-. 6d. per lb. (this Bulletin, loc. cii.).
The clove tree ^grows well in the red " laterite " soil of the
Seychelles, and it is recommended that it should be planted
more extensively, 3 or 4 feet apart, in hedges for regular clipping
of the mature leaves with shears.

Vetiver grass is recommended for cultivation on a large scale,
and experiments are being made in the distillation of oil from
the roots. Other plants at present under trial for the production
of volatile oils are basil {Ocimum dasilzcum), caLvdamoms, Vitex
trifolia, Bigarade orange, ylang-ylang and camphor, and samples
of oils from some of these have been received at the Imperial
Institute for examination (this Bulletin, loc. cit.) and have given
promising results.

RUBBER.

The report alludes to the examination at the Imperial Institute
during the year, of three rubbers prepared from Para trees, under
five years old. These gave the following percentage results cal-
culated on the dry rubbers : — *

* These rubbers as received at the Imperial Institute contained an excessive
a7nount of moisture, and though otherwise of satisfactory composition were
defective in physical properties. This defect was due no doubt in part to their
being collected from young trees, and in part to the large amounts of moisture
they contained.

398

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Caoutchouc
Resin
Protein
Insoluble matter

No. I.

No. 2.

No. 3

93'9

94-1

93-6

2-8

2-3

3-1

2'I

2*3

3'i

I'2

I '3

0-2

Ash

o*i

0-3

O'l

Of these No. i was from trees of about 17 inches girth, grown
at Praslin in marshy ground near the sea; No. 2, from trees 16
inches in girth, grown in " lateritic " soil on hillsides at 200 to
400 feet elevation, near Victoria ; and No. 3, from trees of 14
inches girth, growing in the same type of soil at 1,000 feet
elevation, near Cascade.

Tapping experiments have given more promising results
than in former years : thus a group of 19 Para rubber trees
from' 4 to 6 years old, and measuring on the average 1 5 inches
in circumference gave the following results in the course of 17
consecutive days' tapping : —

1st day 113 CCS.*

7th day 293 CCS.

13th day 340 CCS.

2nd „ 153 „

8th „ 287 „

14th „ 342 „

3rd „ 161 „

9th „ 273 „

15th „ 338 „

4th „ 221 „

loth „ 307 „ t

i6th „ 381 „

5 th „ 216 „

nth „ 290 „

17th „ 429 „ t

6th „ 226 „

1 2th „ 301 „

* Equal to nearly 6 ccs. per tree.

t Equal to \6 ccs. per tree.

X Equal to about 22 ccs. per tree.

After 46 days' tapping the best trees, Nos. 2 and 14 (of 19
inches girth), were still producing 37 and 36 ccs. of latex respect-
ively per diem, whilst the smallest trees, Nos. 7, 8, and 19 (of
13 inches girth), were only giving 2 ccs. each. The conclusion is
drawn that trees ought not to be tapped till they are 1 5 inches
in girth at 3 feet from the ground. It is pointed out that in the
course of 60 days' tapping, trees 19 inches in circumference gave
I lb. of clean rubber, whilst the same quantity was only obtained
from trees below 15 inches girth in 150 days. It is also men-
tioned that in using the double spiral system of tapping not more
than 2 inches width of bark per annum should be removed,
and that consequently it is advisable not to tap trees much
under 18 inches girth by this method. Trees of this size are.

Recent Developments in the Seychelles. 399

however, large enough to allow 60 days' tapping each year for
4 years before the whole bark is removed. This is sufficient time
to permit of bark being renewed for subsequent tapping. A
large number of measurements of Para rubber trees grown in
various districts are also recorded. Allusion is made to the
examination of Seychelles "Vahea" rubber at the Imperial
Institute, of which details have been published already (this Bul-
letin^ 1909, 7. 262). This rubber vine is being propagated in
several parts of the Islands, but a large number of the young
plants have been destroyed by " scale insects," though it thrives,
in spite of these attacks, at high elevations, and when grown in
friable soil alongside rivers. These insects also attack Para
rubber trees, but in that case confine their attention to the leaves,
whereas they attack the leaves and young shoots and even the
stems of Landolphia, Castilloa, and Funtumia species.

DISTILLATION OF RUM.

The rum distillery erected during 1907 began work in 1908.
Some difficulty was experienced in getting supplies of sugar-
canes and in educating workmen to avoid loss of alcohol by
acetic fermentation. Both these troubles have been overcome
now, and the industry has been fairly started. It is hoped that
this will provide an outlet for sugar-cane, since the cultivation of
this product is well known to most of the inhabitants, and is
profitable when properly carried on. The local sale for rum, it
is estimated, should be enough to keep the distillery at work
during six months of the year, and if no export trade is devel-
oped, the machinery might, it is thought, be devoted during the
rest of the year to the preparation of citrate of lime and distilled
lime oil.

SUBSIDIARY INDUSTRIES.
The manufacture of citrate of lime has been taken up by
several planters, but no output will be available for export until
more trees come into bearing in about three years' time.
Bigarade {rmts {Citrus limonellus), it is pointed out, yield juice as
rich in citric acid as lime juice, and might also be used in
making citrate of lime. The manufacture of banana flour is in

400 Bulletin OF the Imperial Institute.

abeyance, owing to excessive freight charges and the high cost
of suitable packing materials. The preparation of coconut coir
is being tried, and Sisal planting has been started on two
estates.

On the outlying islands the collection of mangrove bark for
export is being slowly established. The fishing industry there
is not making much progress owing to scarcity of skilled labour. A
Committee has inquired recently into the position of this industry
and has made a number of recommendations for its improvement,
which are now under consideration. A special chapter on the
"Destruction of Insect Pests" is included in the report. This
deals more particularly with a variety of black ant ( Technomyrmex
Albipes) which has increased markedly in recent years. It lives
in symbiosis with two scale insects {Mytilaspis and Lecanium\
which together with " snowblight " {Icerya Seychellaruni) do great
damage especially to lime trees. It is not thought that insects
parasitic on these insect pests will be sufficient to eradicate them,
and consequently in addition to encouraging " parasitism" of this
kind, spraying with soda-rosin solution is recommended. To
assist in this work the Government has imported spraying appa-
ratus, and labourers have been taught to use these, and the services
of these trained men are being placed at the disposal of planters
to teach their estate labourers the spraying of trees. Attention
is also directed to the necessity of cutting away all dead or dying
tissue, and burning this so that it may not become a centre of
further infection.

The report concludes with a chapter on " Deforestation," in
which it is pointed out that owing to the hilly formation of the
islands comprising the Seychelles group, a serious loss is suffered
every year through erosion and the washing away of the surface
soil. This loss could be partly obviated by the re-afforestation
of the summits of the hills in those islands in which they have
become deforested, and by better methods of cultivating the slopes.
The latter are at present largely utilised for the cultivation of
manioc (cassava). In digging out the roots, for which this crop
is grown, the soil is loosened and broken up, and so brought into
a state in which it is easily washed away by heavy rain. It
is at present impossible to restrict the growing of manioc, since
this is one of the principal food crops of the population. The

Vanadium. Occurrence, Preparation and Uses. 401

Curator is, however, of opinion that these slopes might be afifor
ested with Albizzia moluccana trees, in the shade of which coffee,
cocoa, beans and other " edible " crops could be grown.v^ i^

crops coula be growi^.

omtakiq

VANADIUM. ITS OCCURRENCE, PREPARATION
AND USES.

vanadium minerals.

The recognition of the valuable properties imparted to steel by
the addition of a minute amount of vanadium, and the numerous
other purposes to which the metal and its compounds may be
applied, has given rise to an increasing demand for its ores.

There are few substances which are so widespread and so
varied in their mode of occurrence as vanadium, though it is
rarely found in such amount as to be worked at a profit.

The ores most commonly met with are the vanadates, which
are usually reddish or brownish in colour unless they contain a
considerable amount of copper, when they may be more or less
greenish. Vanadium also occasionally occurs in silicates which
assume a green tint from the presence of the trioxide, and
recently important deposits have been discovered in which the
metal is present as sulphide.

The best-known mineral containing vanadium is vanadinite, a
chloro-vanadate of lead with the formula 9PbO,3V205,PbCl2
containing theoretically 19*4 per cent, of vanadium pentoxide,
(V2D5), equivalent to 10-9 per cent, of metallic vanadium. It
occurs in prismatic hexagonal crystals analogous to those of
pyromorphite and mimetite, which have the same formula ex-
cept that phosphorus and arsenic respectively are substituted
for vanadium. The crystals have usually rounded faces, so
that they are more or less barrel-shaped. The terminations
are frequently hollow. The mineral sometimes occurs in
globular aggregates and sometimes as a simple incrustation.
It is usually red in colour, but is occasionally straw yellow
or deep brown. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves easily
in dilute nitric acid. If, however, it be treated with the strong

402 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

acid, a coating of yellow vanadic oxide (VgOg) forms, which
is a characteristic test for vanadates.

Descloizite is a hydrous vanadate of lead and zinc with the type
formula 4PbO,V205,H20, in which lead is partly replaced by zinc,
and in most cases by a little copper. It contains about 22 per
cent, of vanadium pentoxide, equal to 12-5 per cent, of the metal.
It usually occurs in short prismatic or pyramidal orthorhombic
crystals, but may form a thin crystalline crust on wulfenite, quartz
or ferruginous clay. It also occurs as a pseudomorph after
vanadinite. In colour it varies between different shades of
red and brown, and may even be black. The streak may be
red or yellow. Eiisynchite {araeoxen) and dechenite do not
appear to differ essentially from descloizite. Cupro-descloizite
and ramirite are varieties containing from 6*5 to 11 per cent,
of copper oxide.

In another lead vanadate, brackebuschite 3PbO,V205,H20
from the State of Cordova in Argentina, the lead has been
partially replaced by iron, manganese and a little zinc. It con-
tains about 14 per cent, of vanadium. The colour is black, but
the streak yellow. Mottramite, from Mottram St. Andrew's in
Cheshire, which is similar in colour and streak, has the approxi-
mate composition 5PbO,5CuO,4V205,4H20, and contains about
10 per cent, of the metal. Psittacinite, which like vanadinite
and descloizite is widely distributed, has the composition
9PbO,9CuO,4V205, with a variable amount of water. It is grey-
green in colour and contains 9*5 to 13 per cent, of vanadium.
Chileite, found in a silver mine in Chile, is a brownish mineral of
similar composition, containing about 7-5 per cent, of vanadium.

There are a few vanadates that contain no lead, such as
volborthite^ an olive-green vanadate of copper from the Urals and
Perm in Russia, which has the composition 6CuO,V205,9H20,
with a certain amount of the copper replaced by calcium and
barium. It contains about 8 per cent, of vanadium. Turanitey
another Russian mineral, has the composition 5CuO,V205,2H20,
representing nearly 19 per cent, of vanadium. Calcio-volborthite,
from Thuringia, 4CuO,V205,H20, with calcium partly replacing
the copper, is green or grey in colour.

An allied mineral with the formula 3CaO,3CuO,2V205,2H20
is found in Tjuja-Majun, south-east of Andishan, in the Ferghana

Vanadium. Occurrence, Preparation and Uses. 403

district of Turkestan. It is known as Turkestan volborthite.
Pucherite, a vanadate of bismuth, BigOg.VgO^, occurs in Saxony,
crystallising in small orthorhombic crystals ^and containing
theoretically 16 per cent, of vanadium. The colour is reddish
brown, and the streak yellow. It is soluble in hydrochloric acid
with evolution of chlorine to a deep red solution, which eventu-
ally becomes green and deposits a yellow basic chloride. The
hydrated pentoxide, VgOgjHgO, containing 50-5 per cent, of vana-
dium has also been described in Russia under the name of
Alaite,

Vanadiolite, a dark-green vanadate of calcium with nearly 25
per cent, of vanadium and I5'5 per cent, of silica, is found near
Lake Baikal in Siberia. Arde7inite is a brown vanadosilicate
of manganese and alumina, 8MnO,4Al203,V2^5>^Si02,5H20,
containing 3 per cent, of vanadium. It receives its name from its
occurrence in the Ardennes of Luxemburg.

Vanadium also occurs, probably in the form of the trioxide,
as an original constituent, in the rock-forming minerals : mica,
augite and hornblende. One variety of biotite-mica was found
to contain rather more than 0*07 of vanadium. With the micas
may be classed roscoelite.d, clove-brown or greenish-brown vana-
diferous muscovite of secondary origin, which may contain 16
per cent, of vanadium. Lavrovite is an augite, coloured green by
vanadium, found near Lake Baikal in Eastern Siberia.

One of the most interesting vanadium minerals is carnotite,
which is bright yellow in colour and has the composition
2U203,K20,V205,3H20 (Friedel and Cumenge), containing about
20 per cent, of the metal. The potash is, however, largely re-
placed by other bases. This mineral derives its chief importance,
however, from the presence of uranium and radium. Compare
this Bulletin, p. 322, Ferghanite, a new mineral recently described
from Tjuja-Majun mentioned above, and containing vanadium,
uranium and lithium, is apparently allied to carnotite.

The most remarkable source of vanadium is patronite, a dark
green sulphide of the metal with the approximate composition VS^
or VgSg, representing about 30 per cent, of vanadium. Sulvanite,
a sulpho-vanadate of copper from South Australia, occupies an
intermediate position between the vanadates and patronite, and
a similar mineral is also found at Tjuja-Majun.

404 Bulletin of the Imperla.l Institute.

Distribution.

Vanadium is widely distributed, though in very small amount,
among the igneous rocks and crystalline schists, especially
those of more basic character, and is sometimes associated with
chromium in serpentine. It is supposed to occur in those rocks
mainly as a constituent of hornblende, augite and the micas. It
also appears as an incrustation on Vesuvian lava. It is often
associated with titanium, and like that element it is usually
concentrated in the course of the lateritisation or kaolinisation
of igneous rocks. It has accordingly been found in bauxite
and clay in France, Italy and New South Wales, and will no
doubt be discovered under similar conditions in many other
localities. In these rocks it is probably present as a hydroxide
or silicate. It is also met with in emery, an impure oxide of
aluminium, and in cryolite, a fluoride of aluminium and sodium.

The frequent' occurrence of vanadium in iron ores, especially
pisolitic limonites, may have a similar origin. It has been
extracted from the iron slags of Taberg in Sweden and else-
where. In these ferruginous deposits, also, it is accompanied
by titanium. It has been -found, too, in rutile (titanium dioxide),
from more than one locality, and should be looked for in the
ilmenite (titanate of iron) of river and sea sands. When it occurs
in hydrous phosphate of iron it may replace a portion of the
phosphorus. It has been detected in argillaceous limestones,
and may occur in the form of an incrustation on the surface
of limestones, where they have been dissolved by atmospheric
action.

Important deposits of vanadium are found in mineral veins,
where the insoluble lead vanadates have been precipitated by
lead ores from a solution of the soluble vanadates of the alkalis
or possibly of the pentoxide itself

A deposit of this description occurs in Wanlock Head Mine
in Dumfries, Scotland. Other European localities for vanadium,
which are probably of a similar character, are distributed through
Ireland, Spain (where it has been worked on a comparatively
large scale), Portugal, Baden, Bavaria, Karinthia, Sweden and
the Urals. Vein deposits of vanadium ores also appear to occur
in the United States in Arizona, New Mexico, California and

Vanadium. ^OccuRRENCE, Preparation and Uses. 405

Montana, and the oxide has been found as an incrustation on
the native copper of Lake Superior.

When the gold ores from the Mammoth Gold xMines in Pinal
County, Arizona, are milled the vanadium ore is collected in the
riffles or is concentrated in frue-vanners.

At Talcuna in the Province of Coquimbo, Chile, vanadium
occurs in the form of a yellow earth between veins of copper ore,
and to the north-west of Cordova, in the Department of Cruz del
Eje, it is met with in veins containing more than 5-5 per cent, of
the metal.

The vanadium minerals at Broken Hill in North-West Rhodesia
were found in the bone breccia of a cave in a kopje at the top of
a lode composed mainly of oxidised lead and zinc ores. Other
vanadium deposits occur in German South- West Africa. Vana-
dium is also met with in the form of carnotite in a vein near
Olary in South Australia. The rutile associated with it is also
vanadiferous. See this Bulletin {loc, at.).

Vanadium minerals (in most cases vanadates) frequently occur
in arenaceous and other sedimentary rocks associated with the
ores of copper or other metals.

Mottramite occurs as a thin incrustation on the Keuper sand-
stone at Alderley Edge and Mottram St. Andrew's, Cheshire,
and other localities. Sometimes it is black and velvety, consist-
ing of minute crystals black in reflected light but yellow and
translucent in minute particles. The deposits at Harmer Hill,
near Shrewsbury, are probably of a similar character. Vanadium
occurs with similar associations in the Permian sandstones of
Perm and south-western Russia, as well as in the cupriferous
sandstones of Corocoro in Bolivia, which are now believed to be
of Cretaceous age.

The most important deposits of this description at present
known are those of Newmire, San Miguel County, Colorado,
where a bed nine feet thick of sandstone has a greenish tint due
to the presence of roscoelite disseminated in fine grains. The
rock averages more than 2 per cent, of metallic vanadium.
At Placerville, seven miles north-west of Newmire, is a similar
deposit containing a little carnotite, the ore of uranium, radium
and vanadium already alluded to, which is almost absent at
Newmire.

E £

4o6 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

On the other hand, carnotite is the prevailing mineral in the
similar deposits of Cedar, San Miguel County, and those in the
La Plata sandstone of Jurassic age, at La Sal Creek, Montrose
County, and in a bed of silicified wood in the Dakota sandstone,
of Cretaceous age, at Coal Creek fourteen miles east of M eeker,
Rio Blanco County. These are all in Colorado, but the deposits
extend into Utah. The vanadiferous arenaceous beds appear to
owe their content of vanadium to infiltration subsequent to the
original deposit of the rock as sediment.

The association of vanadium with uranium is not confined to
carnotite and ferghanite, for it also occurs in pitchblende, which
consists mainly of oxide of uranium.

Closely analogous to these occurrences is the presence of
vanadium in the Kupferschiefer of Mansfield in Prussian
Saxony, where also its presence is probably due to infiltration.
The immediate cause of its precipitation is believed to be the
reducing action of the organic matter of the fish whose remains
are found in this bed.

The frequent presence of vanadium in carbonaceous material
is probably due to the same cause.

The most important deposit of this character is that of Minas-
ragra, Cerro de Pasco, Peru. Here a carbonaceous deposit
occurs interstratified with Cretaceous sandstones traversed by
igneous dykes. The lower portion consists of asphaltic material
rich in sulphur and poor in hydrogen, containing 2 or 3 per
cent, of vanadium, while the upper is almost pure patronite.
Between the two is a layer of intermediate composition. A
somewhat similar carbonaceous deposit has been found in
Utah.

A lignite near San Rafael in the Province of Mendoza of
Argentina yields on combustion 0*63 per cent, of ash, which
contains more than 21 per cent, of vanadium. The ash of a
lignite from Yauli in Peru contains a similar amount.

Vanadium has also been detected in the ash of coal or oil
shales from Scotland, Belgium, Burmah, New South Wales and
New Zealand. In some cases, at least, it is probably present in
the form of a sulphide allied to patronite. It has also been
found in the ash of peat from North Carolina, and in that
obtained by the incineration of living plants.

Vanadium. Occurrence, Preparation and Uses. 407

METHODS OF EXTRACTION.

Where vanadium is to be utilised in the manufacture of
vanadium steel, an alloy of iron and vanadium containing from
25 to 52 per cent, of the latter, is the product which is usually
placed on the market. Metallic aluminium is commonly
employed in its production. The material sold for other
purposes is ammonium vanadate.

One of the most successful methods of treating the vanadate
ores is to fuse them with bisulphate of soda or " nitre cake," a
by-product of the manufacture of nitric acid. A quantity of
bisulphate equal to twice the weight of the ore to be treated
is just melted in a closed caldron and the pulverised ore is
added. The two are then well mixed, when an effervescence
may occur from the presence of carbonate in the ore. The melt
cools to a citron yellow mass, which absorbs water and becomes
greenish in colour. It is broken up into fragments less than
an inch in diameter and dissolved in hot water, leaving behind
silica and lead sulphate. Copper, silver and arsenic are pre-
cipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen and then iron, aluminium
and chromium by ammonia and more sulphuretted hydrogen.
A red solution of sulphovanadate of sodium is obtained which
slowly precipitates sulphide of vanadium. The subsequent
treatment depends on the product required.

In the case of roscoelite a simpler procedure has been adopted.
The ore is ground fine, mixed with common salt and roasted.
The sodium vanadate and vanadium chloride formed are leached
out and precipitated by ferrous sulphate as ferric vanadate,
which is smelted in the electric arc, and a ferrovanadium con-
taining from 25*5 to 27-5 per cent, of vanadium, and less than
2 per cent, of impurity is obtained.

In the case of bauxite the vanadium could no doubt be
separated in the course of the treatment for the production of
aluminium or its salts.

USES OF VANADIUM.
The most important application of vanadium is in the prepara-
tion of vanadium steel, for the addition of only a quarter per cent

4o8 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

of vanadium gives a high tensile strength and range of elasticity.
This alloy is employed mainly in motor vehicles.

Whereas the tensile strength of ordinary steel is 27 tons per
square inch, that of steel containing only 0*25 per cent, of
vanadium is 34*8. In the same way the limit of elasticity is
increased by this small addition of vanadium from 16 to 28'5
tons per square inch. The vanadium is also said to rid the
steel of the last traces of oxygen and promote a homogeneous
distribution of the carbon contents. By the addition of
chromium as well as vanadium still better results are obtained.
The malleability of vanadium steel can be considerably increased
by annealing.

A steel containing 12 percent, of nickel and 0*5 per cent, of
vanadium is said to have a much higher breaking stress and
limit of elasticity than good chromium steel. The addition
of vanadium to aluminium-bronze and brass also appears to
promise well, and other alloys have been experimented on, with
encouraging results.

The only difficulty is the insufficient supply and consequent
high price of vanadium, the present quotation for ferro-vanadium
being about twenty-two shillings per pound of vanadium in
the alloy.

Vanadium oxides are used to a limited extent for colouring
pottery and glass, and the pentoxide provides a useful substitute
for gold bronze as an ornamental surface covering.

Numerous applications of the metal are connected with the
ease with which its less oxidised compounds take up oxygen,
and the higher oxides and their salts are reduced. The pent-
oxide has been employed as a photographic developer and
to increase the rapidity of oxidation of explosives. In the
" contact " method of manufacture of sulphuric acid it can be
used as a carrier of oxygen instead of platinum. It has also been
used for the production of dyes, especially black, by its action in
oxidising aniline compounds. A very small amount is sufficient
in this case, as it acts as a carrier of atmospheric oxygen.

There have been a number of applications in the province of

pharmacology. Mixed with sodium chlorate, vanadium salts

have been prescribed for syphilis. Vanadyl phosphate can be

mployed as a disinfectant like potassium permanganate, and

General Notes. 409

the pentoxide or its salts are said to be useful as intestinal
antiseptics ; it has also been found effective in the destruction
of the Koch tubercular bacillus, and the treatment of certain
epidemics of horses and bullocks.

Finally may be mentioned the use of vanadium pentoxide as
a reagent in quantitative organic analysis.

GENERAL NOTES.

Mineral Survey of Northern Nigeria.— A report by the Director of

the Imperial Institute on the work of this Survey in 1906-7 has just
been issued, in the Miscellaneous Series of Colonial Reports (Cd. 4719).
It gives, a summary of the field observations made by the Surveyors
during the year, and the results of the examination, in the Scientific and
Technical Department of the Imperial Institute, of the minerals col-
lected. These include iron ores, limestones, concentrates containing
rare earth minerals, and a silver lead-ore. A short account of the native
salt industry of the Bornu Province is also given, with information as to
the composition of the salts produced.

International Congress of Tropical Agriculture and Colonial
Development. — An International Congress of Tropical Agriculture and
Colonial Development was held in Paris in 1905, and at the close of
that Congress an International Association, with its head-quarters in
Paris, was founded, having for its principal object the organisation of
such Congresses in the future. It is proposed by the International
Association to hold a second Congress at Brussels in May 19 10. The
local arrangements at Brussels will be made in co-operation with the
Belgian Association for the study of Tropical Agriculture. The Inter-
national Botanical Congress will also meet at Brussels at the same time,
and, will take part in the proceedings. Representatives have been
appointed in Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the United States and
elsewhere, and local committees are in process of formation in those
countries to make arrangements for the reading of papers and other
matters. A committee is being formed to obtain papers for the Con-
gress from British workers in Tropical Agriculture and others interested
in the subject.

The programme of the Congress includes the study of all questions
concerning Tropical Agriculture and Colonial Development, and its
work will be divided into the following sections : —

I. Economic Botany.
II. Forestry.
III. Utilisation of Agricultural and Forest Products.

4IO Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

IV. Economic Entomology.

V. Economic Zoology, including the care and breeding of stock.
VI. Tropical and Colonial Hygiene, especially as this affects the
settler in new countries.
VII. Economics of Agriculture and Forestry.
VIII. Agricultural Engineering.

The Congress will provide unique opportunities for the consideration
and discussion of problems connected with Agriculture, Forestry, etc.,
and it is hoped that those interested in these subjects in the British
Possessions will attend the Congress and contribute to the discussions.

The subscription for Associate Members of the International Associa-
tion is fixed at 15 francs per annum, and they have the privilege of
attending the Brussels Congress and receiving copies of all its publi-
cations, on payment of an additional 10 francs. The subscription to
the Brussels Congress for non-members of the International Association
is 15 francs, for those who desire to receive copies of the Congress
publications, and 10 francs for those who do not. Further information
may be obtained on application to the Imperial Institute, where the
British Committee has its head-quarters; or to the Secretary, at the
Central Bureau of the International Association, 34, Rue HameUn XVI®,
Paris.

Vegetable Waxes from Mexico. — In a previous number of this
Bulletin (1906, 4. 300), a report was published giving the results of the
examination and commercial valuation of a " berry wax " from Cape
Colony, in which it was shown that if this material could be produced
in quantity, it would realise good prices in London. Since that date,
the collection of the wax has been organised in Cape Colony, and consign-
ments of the product have been sold in this country at satisfactory
prices.

In this connection, it is of interest to note that a similar wax has been
prepared recently in Mexico from the fruits of Afyrica Jalapensis, a near
relative of the South African plants, Myrica querdfolia, M. cordifolia, M.
luciniata and M. serrata, from the fruits of one or more of which the Cape
berry wax is probably obtained. The following information regarding
the new Mexican wax is taken from a statement recently forwarded to
the Director of the Imperial Institute, by Dr. Olsson-Seffer, Commis-
sioner for the investigation of economic products in Mexico.

The tree yielding this wax is known locally as " arbol de la cera "
and occurs, sometimes in dense thickets covering considerable areas, in
Vera Cruz, from Jalapa in the South to Tulancingo and Hausteca
in the North.

The wax is collected by Indians, and sold in Mexico City, where it
is used for the preparation of candles.

It occurs as a greenish-white layer on the outer surface of the fruit of
the plant, and is extracted by boiling the fruit in water, when the wax

General Notes. 411

melts, floats to the top and can be skimmed off. It is refined by
re-melting and straining.

On examination, the refined wax gave the following results, to which
the corresponding figures, obtained for Cape berry wax at the Imperial
Institute, are added for comparison.

Mexican wax.

Cape wax

Saponification value

214-5*

2II-I*

Iodine value, per cent.

2-38

I -06

Acid value .

4-07*

4-09*

Melting point

43-2° c.

40-5" c.

Specific gravity at 99° C.

0-8763

0-8741

* Milligrams of potassium hydroxide per gram of wax.

It will be seen that the two products possess very similar properties.
Opinions as to the industrial value of the Mexican wax, obtained in
Germany and the United States, indicated that it would be suitable for
the manufacture of candles and soap. It is stated that a small factory,
capable of producing about 500 lb. of this wax per day, is now being
erected in Mexico.

Dr. O Isson-Seffer has also supplied a statement regarding a second
Mexican product, viz. "Candelilla wax," which occurs as an excretion
covering all parts, with the exception of the roots, of Euphorbia anti-
syphilitica^ a plant found in great quantities over large areas in the
desert-like districts of Northern Mexico, where it often occurs along
with the " Guayule" rubber plant (this Bulletin^ 1906, 4. 114), but in
far greater proportion than the latter.

The wax is extracted by boiling the whole plant in water, and is
refined by re-melting and straining. So prepared, it is dark-yellow in
colour, but may be bleached to pale-yellow or even white. The amount
of wax yielded by the plant varies, according to the experiments so far
made, between 3-7 and 5-2 per cent, of its dry weight.

On analysis the wax gave the following results : —

Saponification value

104-108*

Iodine value, per cent. .

5-23

Acid value ....

0-032*

Melting point . . .

77-4° C.

Specific gravity at 15° C .

o'9473

* Milligram'?, of potassium hydroxide per gram ofivax.

Previous analyses by Sanders (Anal. Inst. Med. Nac. Mexico, 1905,
7. 498) gave similar results. Trials with the wax indicate that it will
be a suitable substitute for Carnauba wax, and it is stated that its
production on a commercial scale in Mexico has been undertaken.

412 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

RECENT REPORTS FROM AGRICULTURAL AND

TECHNICAL DEPARTMENTS IN THE

COLONIES AND INDIA.

Cyprus.

Cyprus Journal, 1909, No. 15. — The pistachio-tree (a note stating
that this tree does well in Cyprus) — The Smyrna fig (the introduction
of this fig-tree into Cyprus is recommended) — How to pack grapes —
Agricultural co-operation — Raisin preparation — Origanum oil (it is
stated that the quantity of oil distilled this year amounts to 1,772 lb.,
which is less than usual, owing to the destruction of a large quantity of
stored origanum plant by fire) — Cotton seed oil (a note advocating the
preparation of cotton seed oil in the Island, and its use in the small
soap-making factories).

East Africa Protectorate.

Report on the Forests of British East Africa. By D. E. Hutchins.
— It is estimated that there are about two million acres of timber forests
in the Protectorate, and that of this all but six per cent, is extra-tropical,
occurring in the highlands at an elevation of over 5,500 feet. In this
latter portion no concessions for private working have yet been given.
In the coast forest, the most important trees are mangroves and m'huhu
{Brachylosna sp.), which is said to bear a close resemblance to the san-
dalwood of Southern India. The chief value of the forest, at the present
time, is in the supply of firewood to the Uganda railway and the steam-
boats, and it is suggested that in place of using seasoned wood as fuel,
the wood might with advantage be converted into charcoal briquettes,
so enhancing its fuel value and decreasing its bulk, besides affording
valuable by-products such as creosote, acetone, wood spirit, etc. Black
wattle is being planted to a considerable extent, since this grows quickly
and yields timber suitable for fuel, and the suggestion is made that if
the blue gum. Eucalyptus globulus, is found to do well in East Africa,
it would probably prove a cheaper source of fuel than wattle. The
development of an export trade in timber is at present impeded by
high freights on the Uganda railway, export duty at the coast, and import
duties in South Africa, which the author thinks should be the natural
market for East African timber. It is suggested that the freight
charges should be reduced for native timber to a farthing per ton-mile,
and that in order to encourage the local use of native timber for building
purposes, increased imposts should be levied on imported timber and

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 413

corrugated iron. At many points, much forest has been destroyed by
fire, and by the primitive cuhivation methods of the natives. The
timbers found include yellow wood, derived from Podocarpus sp., sug-
gested as suitable for sleepers and house-building ; cedar wood, /uniperus
procera, which could be used for sleepers, house-building, cabinet-mak-
ing and lead pencils ; Ibean camphor, suggested as a substitute for teak ;
olive-wood, regarded as suitable for firewood and second-quality
sleepers, and iron wood for house-beams, sleepers and furniture. In
addition, there are several hard woods, some of them of great beauty
and suited to various uses. A certain amount of planting has been
done already, and it is suggested that teak should be planted on the
coast, and black wattle and eucalyptus in the highlands.

There are two appendices, the one giving an account of conifers of
South Mexico and Central America, suitable for planting in the high-
lands of equatorial Africa, and the other an alphabetical list of foreign
trees suitable for planting in the equatorial highlands of Africa.

A comprehensive scheme for the organisation of a Forest Department
on modern lines in East Africa is suggested.

Articles on timbers and other forest products of the East African
Protectorate have been published in this Bulletin already (rubber, 1903,
1. 68, 70 ; 1904, 2. 153, 221 ; 1905, 3. 146 ; timbers, 1906, 4. 15 ; 1909,
7, 269).

Agricultural Journal, 1909, 2. Part 1. — Manures and manuring —
Yellow wood, Fodocarpus milanjinana, Rendle (gives an account of the
occurrence of this tree in East Africa ; the methods to be adopted
in forming plantations, and describes the timber) — Notes on
wool — Report on progress of cotton-growing at the coast — Report
on a visit to India and Ceylon (gives an account of the chief
planting industries of these two countries) — Sheep management in
British East Africa — Reports from the Imperial Institute on castor-
oil seed and tea from the East Africa Protectorate — Part 2. Map
reading — Mules and mule-breeding — Grading stock and its com-
parison with other countries — Imported fruit trees — Economical
permanent farm buildings — Sisal planting in German East Africa (an
illustrated account of this industry, describing the soils utilised, the
preparation of the land, the methods of planting, the cutting of the
leaves, the organisation of factories and the labour conditions) — Soil —
Prospects of sugar-cane growing in British East Africa — Kikuyu Calendar
(describes the organisation of agricultural work throughout the year by
natives) — Directions for forwarding diseased plants and insect pests —
" Broom corn " (a report on samples of broom corn, furnished by dealers
in New York).

Rhodesia.
Agricultural Journal, 1909, 6. No. 6. — Maize growing — Fruit fly
injury to citrus fruits (recommends spraying with arsenate of lead) —
Tsetse fly— Forestry in Rhodesia (gives a list of forest trees, which are

414 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

found to do well in the Matoppos. These include various species of
Callitris^ Eucalyptus^ Pinus and Juniperus) — The erosion of soil.
1909, 7. No. I. — Exportation of maize (it is mentioned that an arrange-
ment has been made for the shipment of 10,000 bags of maize to
London. It will consist of one grade '* Rhodesian flat white ") —
Government aid in fencing — Wells and bore holes in Rhodesia (a report
on the prospects of obtaining subterranean water supplies) — The cost
of agricultural operations in Rhodesia, particularly as applied to maize
— The mines as a market (describes the crops required for native diet)
— A criticism of Rhodesian maize (points out that while the quality of
maize grown in the country is equal to any produced in South Africa,
the general average is seriously lowered by the high percentage of ill-
formed and ill-nourished grains, usually found in commercial samples
placed on local markets. Lack of uniformity is mainly due to the
growing of unfixed strains such as *' Salisbury white," " Salisbury white "
crossed with " Boone County," and an impure strain of " Hickory
King." This can be remedied by starting with pure seed or by fixing a
desirable type, and then carefully selecting seed by rejecting all cobs
which do not conform to the desired standard. The maize should also
be better cleaned before being bagged, and for this purpose it is
suggested that winnowing machines should be adopted) — The Nurseries
Ordinance, 1909 (a reprint of the Ordinance with detailed explanations
of its various sections).

Transvaal.

Depart7nent of Agriculture^ Farmers' Bulletins. — These consist mainly
of reprints from the Journal of the Department of Agriculture. The
following Bulletins of special interest have been issued recently. No.
1. 3rd Edition. — Maize foods (describing various methods of preparing
maize and its products for food). No. 4. — Smut in wheat, barley and
oats, and how to prevent it). No. 8. — Propagation of trees from seed.
No. 12. — Anthracnose of the grape. No. 15. — The Peanut (gives a
general account of the cultivation and harvesting of this crop). No.
16. — The meaning and value of the chemical analysis of soils. No. 22. —
The Campbell system of dry land farming. No. 23. — Citrus fruit rot.
No. 24. — Potato rot, Nectria solani. No. 25. — The New York apple-
tree canker. No. 30. — A list of the ticks of South Africa with descrip-
tions and keys. No. 39. — The measurement of water in streams and
furrows. No. 40. — Agricultural education in America. No. 44.—
Charcoal making. No. 47.— Ramie cultivation. No. 48.— Importance
of seed selection in cotton cultivation. Nos. 49, 50. — Grape mildew.
No. 52. — Conservation of soil moisture. No. 55. — Maize studies.
No. 56.— Maize "smut" or "brand." No. 57.— " Peach freckle" or
"black spot." No. 58. — The "root louse" of grape vines. No. 60. —
The " termites " of the Transvaal and methods to be used against them.
No. 64. — Varieties and breeds of maize for the Transvaal. No. 71. —
Tobacco seed-beds (an illustrated pamphlet describing the old method

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 415

of preparing tobacco seed-beds which is still practised in some districts
and in contrast with this the modern method, which should be em
ployed in growing better types of tobacco). No. 81. — Notes on Govern-
ment tobacco exhibits (gives descriptions of the tobaccos, from the
various tobacco experiment stations of the Transvaal Government,
which were exhibited at the Agricultural Show in 1908, with illustrations
of these and views of demonstration plots and tobacco workrooms).

Agricultural Journal^ 1909, 7. No. 28. — Varieties and breeds of
maize for the Transvaal — Manurial experiments with maize — The
destruction of " witchweed " by chemical means (spraying with a three
per cent, solution of copper sulphate has been found effective in destroy-
ing this weed in maize crops) — " Black scab "or " warty disease " of the
potato (a description of this disease, which is now prevalent in certain
parts of Europe, is given, so that importers of seed potatoes may be on
their guard against it) — The judging of seed maize (an illustrated
account of the desirable characters to be sought for in selecting maize
for seed purposes — Poisoning with the Kaffir " Gift-boom " (gives a
description of this well-known poison plant, Acokanthera venenata) —
Suspected poisoning of poultry by Cotyledon orbiculata (two cases of
the poisoning of poultry by this plant are recorded) — The Cape
" Dubbeltje-Doorn " (this weed, Emex centropodium, which is native to
the coastal region of Cape Colony and Natal, has now spread to the
interior, and has been found near Pretoria and in abundance near
Christiania) — Instructions on osier-growing and preparing, for the basket-
maker — Silkworm culture in the Transvaal — Some insect pests of last
season — The "Redwing Locust" campaign of 1908-09 — Supply of
fruit trees from Government nurseries — Some notes on the Brands
Ordinance and its regulations — Transvaal tobacco seed-beds (describes
and illustrates the methods which should be pursued in forming
tobacco seed-beds in the Transvaal) — Preparing tobacco lands. No.
29. — A National College of Agriculture for the Transvaal — Prickly pear
and the spineless cactus for stock food (a resume of information on this
subject, showing that prickly pear is a useful though low-grade form of
stock food, that the difficulty of using it is due to the presence of spines,
and that the supposed spineless varieties introduced into South Africa,
though not altogether spineless, are better than the native varieties for
stock food. Since prickly pear is greedily eaten by stock, it is thought
unlikely that it will ever become a pest in South Africa) — The education
of the young farmer — Farming in the Zoutpansberg district — Stock
diseases carried by flies — Artificial manures or fertilisers — Notes from
the chemical laboratories (these include analyses of (i) Transvaal soils,
(2) samples from phosphatic desposits, (3) kraal manure, (4) velvet bean
meal, (5) Kaffir corn, and (6) nodules from the roots of the silver wattle.
The air-dried nodules contain 476 per cent, of nitrogen, which is
greater than that recorded in any part of any plant, except perhaps a
few leguminous seeds) — The planting and cultivation of the maize
cob — Notes from the economic herbarium — Notes on various oil and

4i6 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

fibre-producing plants (refers to castor oil beans, sunflower seed, cotton
seed, soy bean, linseed, sunflower fibre, and hemp) — Insects injurious
to stored grain (deals with the granary weevil, the rice weevil, and
the grain moth, and gives preventive measures against these) — The
potato tuber moth — " Woolly aphis " or " American apple blight " and
the " Australian bug " — Notes on termites (gives an account of some
preliminary tests made on the preservation of wood against the attacks
of termites, from which it appears that arsenical mixtures are effective) —
Insect pests of fruit trees (describes certain of those prevalent in the
Transvaal and gives formulae for " sprays " for treating them) — The
principles of dry farming.

Mines Department, Geological Survey Memoir^ No. 4. — The Geology
of the Waterberg Tin-field, 1909. The geology of the region is
described and is illustrated by a map on a scale of about 7 J miles to
the inch. The rocks shown include in ascending order the older
granite : the Transvaal system (Black Reef, Dolomite and Pretoria
series) ; the norite and red granite belonging to the Bushveld plutonic
rocks; the Waterberg system ; and the Karroo system. The Tinstone
deposits occur either in the Red Granite or in the Lower Division of the
Waterberg system. They are usually at no great distance from the line
of contact between the Red Granite and the Lower Waterberg, and
sometimes at the actual contact itself. In the Red Granite they occur
ia) in the form of roughly cylindrical elongated pipes consisting of
granite which has suffered a greater or less degree of alteration. In
small pipes the tinstone is uniformly distributed, in larger pipes it is
concentrated towards the periphery especially on the foot wall side ;
{b) associated with irregular bodies of altered granite following a definite
" horizon " or zone in the granite ; {c) irregular disseminations in slightly
altered granite ; {d) impregnations along well-defined lines of fissure ; {e)
associated with pegmatite or quartz veins. In the felsites, shales and
quartzites of the Waterberg system the tinstone occurs {a) in lodes and
more or less definite lines of fissure, and small veins, {b) as irregular
patches and pockets, often connected with fissures or determined by the
stratification. The economic aspects are also dealt with.

Natal.

Agricultural Journal^ 1909, 12. No. 6. — Seeding grass lands — Irriga-
tion, past, present and future — Extermination of the "maize-stalk
borer" — Locust destruction (report for the season 1908-9). 1909, 13.
No. I : Alcohol for industrial purposes — Apiculture (notes for begin-
ners). No. 2. : Ostrich farming — The maize congestion — Tea in Natal —
Handling grain for export (a discussion of the relative advantages of
exporting in bulk or in sacks) — A mealie-husking peg (describes a simple
apparatus for removing the grain from mealie cobs).

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 417

Cape of Good Hope.

Agricultural Journal, 1909, 35. No. i.— Dry land farming (water
storage and irrigation in America compared with South African con-
ditions)— Analyses of colonial salt (gives analyses of twelve samples of
salt from various South African salt-pans)— Nitrate of soda or sulphate
of ammonia (calls attention to the utility of ammonium sulphate
as a manure, and gives directions for its application to various crops —
The making of charcoal—" Dry-rot " of the potato (gives a detailed
account of the disease and the best methods of preventing its spread) —
The dried fruit and raisin industry — Agricultural Zoology for South
African students (the first of a series of lectures delivered at the South
African College — R elative rust resistance and yield of varieties of wheat,
oats and barley (an account of experiments carried out at the Robertson
Experimental Station and at Langeberg near Durbanville — Manurial
experiments with lucerne — Registered commercial fertilisers (gives a
list of fertilisers registered for sale during the year and the average
composition of each) — The wine industry of Cape Colony — "Prune
rust" (gives a description of the disease and suggests spraying with
lime-sulphur wash as a remedy). No. 2. — The manuring of fruit trees
and vines (discusses manurial requirements of such trees, gives the
average composition of the principal manures in use, and suggests
suitable mixtures and the proportions in which these should be applied)
— Agricultural Zoology for South African students, Part II (continued
from the previous number) — South African trade with the Continent of
Europe (a report by the Trades Commissioner, on a recent visit to
Hamburg : gives particulars of the various exports such as fruit, maize,
oats, wattle bark, everlasting flowers, berry wax, calabash bowls, dried
fruits, hides and skins, and wines from Cape Colony which are likely
to find a market in Hamburg) — Spraying for "apple scab" or "black
spot " (gives particulars of experiments on spraying for this disease with
" Bordeaux Mixture " which has given fairly good results) — Aids to
irrigation — Pumping and irrigation — Preparing wool for market. No. 3.
— Bechuanaland from the irrigation standpoint (a reconnaissance
survey) — Seed for experimental purposes (gives a list of the seeds
available for distribution during the present season by the Department
of Agriculture for experimental purposes. Information regarding the
cultivation of the various crops from these seeds is also given) —
The ostrich industry (discusses the possibility of improving the standard
of veldt-grown feathers) — Lucerne cultivation (the manuring of lucerne)
— Manurial experiments with barley.

Thirteenth Annual Report of the Geological Commission, 1908. —
Contains (i) Report on the Geology of parts of Prieska, Hay, Britstown,
Carnarvon and Victoria West. The work done in 1899 is revised.
Banded iron-stone (magnetite-quartz-schist, apparently similar to that
met with in Nigeria) is found to be associated with basic granulites,
which are believed to be of volcanic origin. The granite and gneiss

41 8 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

are now shown to be intermediate in age between the Kheis series and
the Ventersdorp system. The following succession is given : —

/ Beaufort series
Karoo system . . J Ecca series

' Dwyka series
Waterberg system . Matsap series.

Transvaal system
Ventersdorp system <

/ r Middle Griquatown

\ Griquatown series <(= Ongeluk) beds
\ [Lower Griquatown beds

/ Campbell Rand series
N Black Reef series

Kheis series

Pniel series
Zoetlief series
Kaaien beds
Marydale beds

(2) T/ie Ki7?iberlite and allied pipes a7id fissures in Pries ka, Britstown^
Victoria West and Carnarvon. The material in these rocks is either
identical with the " blue ground " of the diamond pipes or is an allied
rock. Diamonds are said to have been found. The included masses
of granulite and eclogite are also described. (3) Notes on a Journey
to Knysna. Describes the melilite basalt of Spiegel River, the Uiten-
hage Cretaceous beds of Brenton and the lignite-bearing Knysna beds
of tertiary age ; and (4) The Tygerberg Anticline in Prince Albert. The
Director furnishes evidence that the ridge of Witteberg beds known as
the Tygerberg is a normal anticline, and not the northern end of a
recumbent extension of the Sand River Mountain anticline, as con-
tended by Dr. Sandberg.

Mauritius.

Station Agronomique. Report for 1 908. — The production of cane- sugar
during the year amounted to 197,000 tons, and it is estimated that a loss
of 29,000 tons was experienced owing to a cyclone, which occurred
towards the end of February. A large number of samples of soils in
Mauritius have been examined for manganese, and this element has
been found widely distributed in small quantities. Two samples of
castor-oil seed grown in Mauritius were found to contain respectively
45 7 and 45 per cent, of oil. A number of other oil-seeds indigenous
to the Island have been examined, notably sesame, linseed, curcas, ben
seed, candle-nut, Mexican poppy, the seeds of Pongamia glabra^ Ter-
minalia catappa^ kapok, Calophyllum inophyllum^ and Bombax edulis,
and the quantities of oil contained in these are recorded. A large
number of analyses of rice, sweet potatoes and cassava, grown in
Mauritius, are also given. The last portion of the report deals with
the relative richness of the various seedling sugar-canes now under
cultivation in the Island.

Mutual control of Sugar Factories. — A return giving particulars of the
working of a number of the sugar factories in the Island during 1906-

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 419

1907 and 1907-1908, and showing more particularly the yields of
sucrose furnished by the canes used, and the amount of sugar actually
obtained in working

India.

Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture. Botanical series, 1 909, 2.
No. 7.— The varietal characters of Indian wheats (the characters con-
sidered are (i) presence and absence of awns, (2) chaff, (3) grain, (4)
straw, (5) leaf, (6) date of ripening (7) rust resistance, (8) structure of
the ear. On the basis of the results of this study the wheats of the
Punjaub are classified and described, and in a fifth chapter the quality of
Indian wheat is discussed, in the course of which the results of analyses
and of milling and baking tests of flours, made from Indian wheat, are
given. No. 8. — The mulberry disease caused by Coryneum mori in
Kashmir, with notes on other mulberry diseases (descriptions of the
diseases are given and remedial measures against them are suggested).

The System Water, Calcium Carbonate, Carbonic Acid. — A scientific
investigation of the solubility of calcium carbonate in solutions of
carbonic acid carried out with the object of gaining knowledge with
regard to the concentration of lime in the aqueous solution in the soil.
Since the solubility of soils and rocks is much greater in the presence
of carbonic acid than in pure water, carbonic acid has been regarded of
importance as a natural solvent of plant food, especially phosphates, in
the soil. It was found, however, that on treating a number of soils
with water, calcium carbonate and carbonic acid in such proportions as
occur naturally, the solubiHty of the phosphate was in no case increased,
but was generally somewhat diminished.

Agricultural Journal, 1909, 4. Part 2. — *' Eri " or " castor " silk (gives
an account of the life history of the " eri " silkworm, methods of rearing
it and of utilising the silk) — The management of Experiment Stations
in India (a series of three articles by the Director of Agriculture for the
United Provinces and the Deputy-Director of Agriculture for Madras
on the organisation of experiment station work) — Sugar growing and
manufacture in North India — Improvements in paddy cultivation on
the Court of Wards' Home Farm at Sivagiri, Tinnevelly district, Madras
(the points dealt with are the ploughing of the land, green manuring,
the possibility of restricted irrigation, transportation of seedlings, the
introduction of new varieties, seed selection and dry cultivation. The
results of trials of different varieties at the farm are given and particulars
of the yield obtained and the cost of production) — The Agricultural
Section of the Nagpur Exhibition (a description of the exhibits) — Drill
sowing and inter-cultivation of the black cotton soils of Tinnevelly —
Pineapple industry in India — The rearing of edible frogs — Sida fibre
as a substitute for jute — Cotton cultivation in Madras — Cultivation
of wild rhea {Villebrunea integrifolia) — Cultivation of maize in the
Pakokku district, Burma — Sericulture in Jammu — American cotton
cultivation in India. Part 3. — The furlough wanderings of a Director of

420 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Agriculture (this portion deals with agricultural work at Cambridge) —
The advantages of irrigation when the supply is used for "rabi" or
cold-weather irrigation — Board of Agriculture (gives an account of the
work done at the fifth annual meeting) — The cultivation of shellac, as
an agricultural product (points out that there is a considerable field in
India for the cultivation of lac on otherwise unproductive trees, and
that this work might be largely taken up in agricultural areas) — The
management of experiment stations in India — "Heart damage" of
baled jute (a review by the fibre expert of a report made recently on
" heart damage " of baled jute) — Rice cultivation in low-lying land in
Burma — " Thrips " in tea (gives a short description of the insect, the
injury done by it, and the methods of treatment. For the latter pur-
pose spraying with "rosin compound " has been found to answer best)
— Cultivation of " Broach cotton " at Dharwar — Peat (gives analyses
of two samples of peat collected at Ootacamund with a view to the
determination of their manurial value) — Cultivation of tree cotton —
Government Agricultural Stations (a series of suggestions for the
guidance of managers of these stations, prepared by the Deputy-Director
of Agriculture in the Central Provinces).

Department of Agriculture ^ Bengal. Leaflet No. 5. of 1906. Short
Note on Cotton for the use of Cultivators. — Cultivators are advised not
to grow exotic cottons but to turn their attention to " Buri Kapas " and
the acclimatised Dharwar cotton, which have already proved successful.
These varieties give good yields of long-stapled cotton of a readily
saleable quality. Instructions are given with reference to methods of
cultivation. Leaflet No. 6 of igo6. Simple Instructions for the De-
struction of Insects attacking Jute. — Directions are given for making a
bag which can be drawn over the plants to catch caterpillars. The
insects thus collected may be destroyed by placing them in a mixture
of kerosene and water. Instructions are also given for the preparation
of kerosene emulsion for syringing the plants.

Quarterly Journal^ 1909, 3. No. i.— Potatoes (describes the varieties
grown in Bengal and the methods of cultivating and manuring these) —
Soils (describes the geological formation of the soils of Bengal and adds
a note on the collection of samples of soil) — Sorghum (calls attention
to the toxicity of young sorghum (see this Bulletin^ 1906, 4. 333), sug-
gests precautions to be observed in allowing stock to feed on this
material, and recommends the inhalation of ammonia as an antidote in
poisoning by this plant) — Artificial manures — Tanks for irrigation —
The Bengal sugar industry in the eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries — Agricultural aphorisms of Bengal.

Department of Agriculture^ Madras. Scientific Report of the Nandyal
Agricultural Station for 1907-8. — Experiments were made with
" Northerns " and " Koomptas " cottons in order to test their relative
yields and values. Unfortunately, in consequence of a somewhat
abnormal season, the results were inconclusive, but seed was carefully
selected from the best plants of each variety for sowing in the following

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 42

season. A study was also made of early and late varieties of sorghum.
Rotation experiments are being carried out which include cotton,
sorghum and indigo.

Department of Agriculture, Bombay. Annual Report on the Experimental
Work of the Sural Agricultural Station for the year 1907-8. Plant breed-
ing and selection experiments are being conducted at this Station with
cotton, sorghum, and "tur" {Cajanus i?tdicus). A study of the hybrid-
isation of cotton has been commenced and is being carried out on
Mendelian lines. Trials have also been made on the cultivation of
several exotic varieties of cotton. Experiments have been continued
with ground-nuts and have shown that Mozambique, Senegal and
Pondicherry are the best varieties to cultivate under irrigation. Other
work included irrigation, manurial, and tillage experiments, and an
investigation into the variation of moisture in the black cotton soil of
the Surat Farm at different depths and under varying meteorological
conditions.

Annual Reports on the Experimental Work of the Dharivar Agri-
cultural Station for the year 1907-8. — Several experiments have been
made with the object of comparing Broach cotton with the local
Kumpta and Dharwar-American varieties, of determining the most
favourable time for sowing it, and of ascertaining the effect of acclimat-
isation. The results show that under normal conditions the Broach
cotton gives a better yield than the Kumpta variety, and that it is best
sown early in August. Acclimatised seed does not give a lower yield
per acre than new seed, but the percentage on ginning appears to be
considerably reduced. The quality and value of the product, however,
is much improved by acclimatisation. Numerous experiments have
been carried out with exotic varieties of cotton, including American,
Egyptian, Indo-China and tree cottons, and the results are recorded.
Trials have also been made with jute, linseed, ramie, sorghum, millets,
wheat, potatoes, canaigre {Rumex hymenosepalus), ground-nuts and other
crops. Plant-breeding and selection experiments are being carried out
with the same crops and on the same lines as at the Surat Station.
Other work included manurial, cultural and disease-preventive experi-
ments, investigations into the variations in the percentages of lint given
by the principal commercial types of Indian cotton gn ginning, and
trials of various new implements.

Annual Report of Industrial Section, Indian Museum, 1908-9. —
Gives a summary of the results of analytical work carried out in the
Laboratory of the section during the year. This includes a series of
analyses of Assam rubber, crude lac, Indian dammar resins, various oil-
seeds, tanning materials, fibres, foodstuffs and drugs. A list of new
products added to the Economic Court is also given.

Collections for the Indian Museum and the Imperial Institute, Report
and Program7fie, 1909. — Details the work done in the Office of the
Reporter on Economic Products to the Government of India during
1908-9 and records the present position of the investigations in progress

F F

422 . Bulletin OF THE Imperial Institute.

at' the Imperial Institute and in India in connection with that Office.
A list of the economic products to be collected for purposes of investiga-
tion in 1909-10 is also printed.

Agricultural Ledger^ 1908, No. i. — Salvadora oleoides (gives an account
of the solid white fat obtained from the seeds of this plant, which occurs
in Northern India especially in the Punjab, Baluchistan, Sind, and Bom-
bay. The fat is used as a protective coating in the " resist " method of
dyeing and would probably be suitable for soap and candle manufacture).
1908, No. 2. — Dyes from Flowers. Gives a summary of the informa-
tion available regarding Thespesia La?npas^ Hibiscus sabdariffa, and
other plants yielding flowers used in native dyeing in India. This
number contains reprints of reports supplied by the Imperial Institute
on the tinctorial constituents of the flowers of Thespesia Lainpas and
Hibiscus sabdariffa. 1908-9, No. 3. — Pwe-Nyet (black wax of Burma)
and Indian Dammars. The black wax of Burma is produced by a
small bee, Trigona Iceviceps {Melipona IcBviceps), and probably other
species, which collect the material mainly from the various Indian
dammar trees such as Hopea, Shorea, Vateria, etc. Four specimens of
this material proved on examination to consist mainly of matter soluble
in ether. Comparative examination of a number of the Indian
dammars show that these resins possess constants somewhat similar
to those of the resinous portions of "pwe-nyet." Analyses of some
Indian dammars and the commercial possibilities of these have been
dealt with fully in this Bulleti?i (1904, 2. 23, and 1905, 3. 322). This
so-called " black wax of Burma " seems to be quite similar to the
resinous waxes produced by bees in various parts of Africa, a number of
which have been examined at the Imperial Institute. 1908-9, No. 4 —
Urena lobata. A review of existing information on the fibre obtained
from this plant and its possible utilisation as a jute substitute (see this
Bulletin 1903, 1. xxiv.; 1905, 3. 262; 1907, 5. 9, 10; 1908, 6. 134,

135)-

Second Report of the hidigenous Drugs Co7?imittee. — Twelve drugs
were selected for report. Details of the results of therapeutical experi-
ments carried out with these are given and the reports furnished by the
various members of the Committee on each are reprinted. It is
concluded that .the resin of Podophyllum. Emodi is a useful cholagogue
purgative and quite equal in value to the American resin derived from
P. peltatum. This conclusion confirms the chemical work carried out
at the Imperial Institute on this resin and the therapeutical and
physiological experiments made with it in this country by Drs. Mac-
kenzie and Dixon (see Technical Reports and Scientific Papers of the
Imperial Institute^ iq^Sj P3,rt 2, pages i and 19). Alstonia scholaris
did not give encouraging results as. a substitute for quinine. Picrorhizd
kurroa gave inconclusive results as an antiperiodic. Adhatoda vasica
Was found useful in asthma and bronchitis in some cases. Calotropis
procera and C. gigantea were found useful in mild cases of dysentery.
IpO}noea hederacea was found to be a useful purgative and substitute

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 423

for jalap. Andrographis pa?iiculata was found to be of some value
in dysentery and in mild cases of malarial fever. Rheum Emodi was
found to be unsatisfactory as a purgative. Cassia ?nontana proved quite
unsatisfactory as a substitute for senna.

Noie on the Production of Tea in India in the year 1908. — The areas
under tea cultivation during 1908 were as follows : Eastern Bengal
and Assam, 433j29o acres; Bengal, 53,905 acres; Northern India
(United Provinces and Panjab), 17,479 acres; Southern India (Madras
and Travancore), 41,729 acres; Burma, 1,724 acres ; making a total of
548,127 acres. The total production of tea in 1908 amounted to
247,018,653 lb., distributed as follows: Eastern Bengal and Assam,
211,547,490 lb.; Bengal, 14,993,590 lb.; Northern India, 3,447.365
lb. ; Southern India, 17,030,208 lb. The figures for Burma are not
included, since the product is used there almost entirely for the manu-
facture of wet pickled tea ("letpet ") which is employed as a condiment.
Since 1885, the total area devoted to tea cultivation has increased 93
per cent, whilst the increase in production has been 245 per cent. The
total exports for the year 1908-9 amounted to 235,089,126 lb., of which
177,268,931 lb. were consigned to the United Kingdom.

Forty-seventh Annual Report of the Governme?it Ci?icho?ia Plantation
and Factory in Bengal for the year 1908-9. — During the year under
report, the plantations at Mungpoo and Munsong contained 2,958,704
cinchona plants, of which 2,299,483 were Cinchona Ledgeriana, 247,018
were C. succirubra, and the remainder were " hybrids." The total
quantity of bark collected amounted to 451,768 lb., of which 403,396
lb. were "Ledger" bark. The factory dealt with 938,800 lb. of bark
and produced 36,619 lb. 5 J oz. of quinine sulphate, an increase ot
9,055 lb. 5 J oz. on the output for the year 1907-8. Imported Java
bark yielded 671 per cent, of quinine sulphate, and the plantation bark
gave 3*59 per cent, as compared with 2*9 per cent, in 1907-8.

Lidian Forest Memoirs, Vol. I. No. i. Indian Woods and their Uses. —
This publication contains a summary of all the available information on
the uses of the chief Indian woods. The number of species dealt with
amounts to 554, but there are many other woods, the value of which for
specific purposes is at present unknown. Some of the latter are of little
or no importance, but there are many which when better known will be
recognised as of considerable utility and value. The work is divided into
two parts ; in the first part the woods are arranged in 34 classes accord-
ing to the purposes for which they are employed, whilst in the Second
part they are arranged alphabetically under their botanical names, and
the natural order, vernacular names, habitat, description of the tree
and of the wood, weight of the wood per cubic foot and its chief uses
are recorded in each case. Woods used for fuel, charcoal manufacture
and similar purposes are not included. The memoir has been very
carefully compiled, and is provided with a general index of the manu-
tures and uses for which the timbers are employed as well as indexes to
their English and trade names and to their vernacular names. The work

424 Bulletin of the Imperl\l Institute.

is of great value, and will doubtless prove exceedingly useful to all
persons requiring information with reference to the characters and uses
of the Indian timbers.

Report on the Forest Administration of the Central Provinces for the
year 1907-08. — At the end of the year the total area of the State
Forests in the Central Provinces amounted to 22,002 square miles.
Attempts were made in the Northern Circle to reproduce teak {Tectona
grandis), "saj " {Terminalia toj?ientosa) and " mahua " {Bassia latifolia)
from seed, but although in some cases the seed germinated well, the
seedlings were killed by the subsequent drought and the results as a
whole were unsatisfactory. The endeavour to increase the quantity of
lac by rearing the insect on selected trees was continued, but the
meteorological conditions were unfavourable. Experiments are in pro-
gress in the Southern Circle on the cultivation of teak, sandal and
other trees. In the Berar Circle, experimental teak sowings have been
made with the object of ascertaining the best way of increasing the
growing stock in the mixed teak forests and of fiUing up the blank
places. The amount of timber and fuel collected during the year
amounted to 6,306,211 cubic feet in the Northern Circle, 10,566,696
cubic feet in the Southern Circle, and 7,319,188 cubic feet in the Berar
Circle, making a total of 24,192,095 cubic feet.

Progress Report of Forest Administration in Baluchistan for 1907-08. —
The area of the reserved forests in Baluchistan amounts to 280 square
miles. During the year 23,518 cubic feet of timber and 395,438 cubic
feet of fuel were collected. Various experiments have been made with
the object of introducing fodder and forest plants, but the results
obtained were not very encouraging, as success was achieved in only two
cases, viz. with the grass, Paspalum dilatum^ and with " chil " (Pinus
longifolia). Careful attention is being given to artificial reproduction
and the results obtained during the year are recorded.

Annual Progress Report of Forest Administration in the Western and
Eastern Circles of the United Provinces for the forest year 1907-08. —
The total forest area in the United Provinces on June 30, 1908,
amounted to 8,469,091 acres or about 13,233 square miles, comprising
1,285,001 acres in the Western Circle, 1,379,487 acres in the Eastern
Circle, and 5,804,603 acres of District Protected Forests. The total
quantity of timber and fuel collected was 17,487,781 cubic feet, of which
7,869,980 cubic feet were obtained in the Western Circle, 7,983,700 in
the Eastern Circle, and 1,634,101 in the District Circle. Experiments
in the Western Circle were interfered with by the drought, which killed
most of the seedlings of exotic trees which had been planted. Seed-
lings of Eucalyptus globulus and Acacia decurrens^ however, succeeded
at moderate elevations in the Naini Tal Division. Attempts to cultivate
lac in the Siwalik Division have shown that the climate is unsuitable
owing to the extremes of temperature which are experienced. An
experiment to ascertain the relative amounts of oleo-resin obtained from
**chir" trees {Pinus longifolia) when tapped (i) by vertical channels.

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 425

and (2) by diagonal channels, has shown that the latter method gives
nearly 20 per cent, more oleo-resin than the former, but has the disad-
vantage that the product tends to flow over the edge of the incision and
thus be wasted. The year under report was exceptionally trying, since
drought and famine were prevalent. The Forest Department rendered
considerable relief by opening the Government Forests to the people
for the free collection of edible products and grass, and also by arrang-
ing for a supply of fodder to the famine districts.

Records of the Geological Survey of India, 1909, 37. Part 4.— Gypsum
deposits in the Hamirpur District, United Provinces (these occur in the
older alluvium. They are of no commercial importance)— The geology
of portions of Kashmir, including the Galabgarh (Kuri) Pass (where
the Protoretepora beds overlie rocks with Lower Gondwana plants), the
Vihi District and Lidar Valley.

Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. The Manganese-Ore
Deposits of India, 1909, 37. Parts 1-4.— This is a complete text-book of
Indian manganese. Part 1 includes a synopsis of the entire work and
an exhaustive account of the mineralogy of manganese minerals. Part 2
describes the geology of the rocks in which Indian manganese occurs
and the mode of origin of the deposits. Part 3 deals with the history
of manganese mining in India, the economic aspects of the industry,
the methods of mining and quarrying the ores and the applications of
manganese. The possibility of the manufacture of ferro-manganese in
India on a commercial scale is considered. Finally, Part 4 will contain
a descriptive account of the various Indian deposits.

Department of Mines. Report of the Chief Ifispector of Mines in
India for 1908. — This report deals with the administration of the Indian
Mines Act. Brief statistics are given of the mineral output, but they do
not claim to be complete. The Report deals mainly with accidents.
The appendices contain statistics of these and of the number of persons
employed, as well as lists of the holders of mining certificates and of
the coal mines worked under the India Mines Act, 1901, which does
not, however, extend to the gold mines of Mysore.

Indian Trade Journal, 1909, 14. No. 182. — Indian manganese (gives
an account of the present position of the Indian manganese industry, and
points out that it would be advantageous to smelt these ores in India,
so that the material could be exported in the form of manganese alloys
in place of crude maganese ore). 1909, 15. No. 186. — Composition of
Indian rice (a resume of information giving analyses of Indian rice from
various districts).

Ceylon.
Tropical AgricuUurist, 1909, 33. No. 2. — The Loranthus parasite
(mentions that a species of Loranthus has recently appeared as a
parasite on tea at Nuwara Eliya and that it also attacks Acacia sp. It is
pointed out, however, that the parasite reproduces slowly, and the plant
itself is conspicuous, so that its attack on tea is not likely to become

426 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

serious. It is recommended that wherever the parasite is seen it should
be cut out together with a considerable portion of the branch of the
host plant) — New fibres for paper, Part IV (continued from the previous
number (this Bulletin^ p. 334). In this part the factors, other than
amount of cellulose, which govern the use of materials for paper-making
are discussed) — The tree tomato (gives a description of this plant,
Cyphomandra betacea^ which was introduced into Ceylon through
Hakgala Gardens in 1882 and is now grown in the Nuwara Eliya
district for the local market. An illustration of the plant is repro-
duced)— The cultivation and preparation of ginger (a reprint of a
memorandum supplied by the Imperial Institute) — Entomological notes
(the "eelworm" referred to in the previous number (this Bulletin, p.
334) has now been identified as the common " root-knob " eelworm,
Heterodera radicicola. The " spotted locust " is reported to be defoliat-
ing "dadap" and cinchona trees in the Rattota district. It is
recommended that the deposited eggs should be carefully sought for,
and at these points the soil should be dug up to a depth of 1 2 inches
and treated with quicklime. The "fringed nettle-grub," Natada
nararia, has been found at Elkaduwa in a plot of ten acres occupied
by tea. Other pests noted are a longicorn beetle, found on the stems
of dead or dying Para rubber trees, a " white snail," which eats the
young shoots of rubber plants, and a " bag worm " attacking camphor
plants) — Miscellanea, chiefly pathological (deals mainly with the preven-
tion of fungoid attacks on tea and other seedlings in the nursery. The
question as to whether rubber in Hevea brasiliensis is a waste product
of plant metabolism is also discussed) — Notes on beekeeping — Litera-
ture of economic botany and agriculture (this section deals with citronella,
citrus fruits and coca) — The Supplei7ient to this number contains articles
on tobacco cultivation in Ceylon, etc. No. 3. — Account of manurial trials
on young rubber trees — The Brazil nut — The spices of the Tropics, their
distribution, cultivation and uses — Entomological notes (it is mentioned
that seeds of Manihot piauhyensis are being attacked in nurseries by a
species of ant, Myrmicaria brunnea, and it is suggested that the addition
of two ounces of " vaporite " per square yard of soil should prevent their
attack) — Miscellanea, chiefly pathological — Literature of economic
botany and agriculture (this portion includes coconuts, general and culti-
vation, coir, copra, oil, and desiccated coconut) — Ceylon Agricultural
Society. Minutes of a meeting held on June 8, 1909, and Progress
Report, No. 45. No. 4. — A twisted Hevea stem — Turnera elegans (re-
commended as a horticultural plant for the Tropics) — Insects associated
with the cotton plant in Ceylon (these are the *' pink bollworm," the
" hairy bollworm," the " dusty cotton stainer," the " Ceylonese cotton
stainer," Oxycarenus lugubris^ the "large cotton stainers," the "black bug,"
the " filamentous mealy bug," Hemichionaspis aspidistroe, Helopeltis
antonii^ Calluicratides ra7?ia, Zeuzera coffecE, the " cotton leaf roller,"
Eupterote geminata, Gracilaria sp., Psiloptera festuosa^ Geocoris tricolor^
and flower beetles. A general article on insects attacking cotton, includ-

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 427

ing some of the above, was published in this Bulletin^ i9o7j 5. 140) — A
" ripe rot " of mangoes — Literature of economic botany and agriculture
(this section contains entries relating to coffee, copaiba, Copernicia, and
Costus) — A new cotton from the Solomon Islands (the native name of
this is "mamara." It is a perennial variety and is said to yield a silky
fibre similar to Caravonica, No. 2) — New diseases of rubber (an address
delivered by the Government Mycologist to the Kelani Valley Planters'
Association, describing the pink disease of Hevea, the " die-back "
disease, etc.).

Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States.

Agricultural Bulletin, 1909, 8. No. 9. — Contains reports by the
Director of Agriculture, the Government Mycologist, Government
Entomologist, Inspector of Coconut Plantations, and the Superin-
tendent of Experimental Stations in the Federated Malay States for the
year 1908. The contents of these have been referred to already briefly
(this Bulletin, 1909, 7. 350) — Agri-horticultural Show, 1909 (a reprint
of a speech delivered by the Governor at the annual Agricultural-Horti-
cultural Show at Penang in August last) — The Palmetum in the Botanic
Gardens, Singapore. No. 10. — Rubber cultivation on so-called peat
soil (in many parts of the Malay Peninsula, especially near large tidal
rivers, so-called peat soil consisting of dead timber roots and decayed
leaves to a depth sometimes of as much as 20 feet is found, usually
overlying a greasy blue clay, apparently mainly old mangrove mud. It
has been found by experiment, that typically xerophytic plants such as
sisal hemp {Agave sisaland) do well on such soils, whilst a typical
hygrophyte such as Para rubber soon dies. The cause of this difference
is that although these so-called peaty soils are very wet, they contain an
excess of humic acid, which is poisonous to all plants not^ specially
adapted to growth in such soils, and consequently Para rubber, which
requires plenty of clean water, is quite unsuited for cultivation in such
land)— Cotton in Baram, Sarawak (a reprint of a report by the Imperial
Institute on a sample of cotton grown in this territory) — The cultivated
Crotalaria (it is pointed out that the plant cultivated as C. striata in
the Malay Peninsula for green manuring purposes has not the same
habit as the wild C. striata of the Malay Peninsula. It is suggested
that it may be C. striata var. acutifolia described by Dr. Trimen as
occurring in Ceylon near Kandy, but as it shows slight differences,
especially in the form of the leaves, the new name C. striata var. rohusta
is applied to it).

Geologist's Annual Beport for 1908.— In this report the Government
Geologist for the Federated Malay States gives details of the work done
during the year.

A specimen of the supposed diamond-bearing " blue ground " from
Borneo was examined and found to be a blue clay, presenting no
remarkable features. A trial boring at Bagan Datoh, in Perak, was

428 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

made for the purpose of securing a supply of artesian water. At a
depth of 150 feet, water rose to within three feet of the surface, but
unfortunately it proved to be brackish. Lignite has been found in thin
beds at Siputeh, but the occurrence is of no commercial importance.
Another occurrence of lignite in Selangor is being investigated by the
Mines Department. A small deposit of scheelite was discovered at
Salak North, Perak. The interesting deposit of tinstone, known as the
^'Lahat pipe," has been worked to a depth of 314 feet, but work
on this as well as that at Ayer Dangsang, was suspended during the
year owing to the low price of tinstone and a breakdown of the plant.
At four mines on the Kledang Range, behind Menglembu, Kinta, tin ore
is being worked in granite. The granite is traversed by veins consist-
ing of tinstone and tourmaline, accompanied sometimes by pyrite and
white mica and sometimes by fluorspar. The veins are in some cases
very thin, but numerous ; in others they are fewer in number, but
thicker. Where much stone has been crushed, good results have been
obtained ; and the Geologist expresses the opinion that these tinstone-
bearing granites of the Kledang Range give some promise of becoming
large lode-mining concerns.

Hong Kong.

Botanical and Forestry Depart7iient. Report for 1 908. — The economic
work referred to includes the following : — The planting of the Tytam and
Pokpilam reservoir catchments with pine was continued and the
re-planting of areas felled during the year was carried out on Mount
Kellet and near Aberdeen, while 400 acres of the Harbour Belt were
also sown. An area of about 300 acres in the Shingmun stream valley
was sown broadcoast with pine seeds in anticipation of future planting.
Bulbils of Sisal hemp were sown in exposed situations at the Govern-
ment Nursery at Kang Hau in 1904, but their growth, though rapid at
first, soon fell off, and the leaves are not expected to reach a size
suitable for the production of marketable fibre for another five years.
The following products have been selected for commercial investigation
in communication with the Imperial Institute : — China root, galangal
root, abutilon fibre, ramie, apricot kernels, and melon seeds.

Western Australia.

Journal of the Departjnent of Agriculture, 1909, 18. Part 6. — Franco-
British Exhibition (an illustrated description of the Western Australian
Court at this Exhibition is given)— Mixed farming in Western
Australia — In the North- West (a report by the Stock Inspector on a
recent journey through the country west of Cambridge Gulf) — Sprouted
seed, potatoes (trials by the Queensland Agricultural College show that
potatoes sprouted before planting come up more evenly and give

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 429

better returns than seed potatoes sown before sprouting) — Potato
cultivation at Grassmere — Phosphatic guano deposits (mentions that
deposits of phosphates have been found at Yanchep). Part 7. —
Lands on the Midland railway (a report by the 1 )irector of Agriculture
on the country near Moora and Yatheroo) — Tropical cultivation
(mentions the appointment of a special Commissioner of Tropical Cul-
tivation to inquire into the possibilities of the North-Western portions
of the State) — The FertiHser Act (gives the results of analyses of a
large number of commercial fertilisers) — Clovers — Beneficial insects
(mentions that parasitised Lecanium and "red scale" have been
introduced experimentally, and details the attempts so far made to
ensure a supply of parasites for distribution. Parasites for " Cabbage
Aphis " and " cutworms " and a ladybird from Ceylon have also been
introduced) — Value of seaweed (describes the use of seaweed as a
"mulch" and as a manure). Part 8. — Wheat export (describes the
arrangements made to facilitate the handling of wheat at the port of
Fremantle in the coming season) — Breeding of Angora goats--
Production of lucerne — Sheep on wheat farms— Garden notes for
September. Part 9.— Report on Permanent Pasture Grasses —Methods
of destroying rabbits (gives' descriptions of methods of preparing the
various poisons now in use) — " Potato blight " precautions (gives
directions for the disinfection of seed potatoes and recommends a solu-
tion of formalin for this purpose) — The greening of potatoes (describes
a series of experiments, the results of which show that it is advantageous
to expose potatoes to light for some weeks before planting until the
skins assume a dark green colour) — Wheat export trade (describes
the new facilities recently introduced at Fremantle for the handling of
wheat.

The Amiual Reports of the Governvmit Geologist for 1888-89 and
1890. Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 32 (1908). Part 1. — Notes on the
geology of the Greenbushes Tinfield (with special reference to the deep
leads). Describes important deposits of tin and tantalum. There is a
coloured map of the field. Part 2.— Report upon Mount Malcolm
Copper Mines, Eulaminna, Mount Margaret Goldfield. Part 3. —
Report upon Fraser's Gold Mine, Southern Cross, Yilgaru Goldfield.

Bulletin No. 35 (1909).— Geological report on the gold and copper
deposits of the Phillips River Goldfield. The rocks include the Ravens-
thorpe series of metamorphic schists, granites and greenstones and the
Kundip series, which is probably of Tertiary age. The mines are
described in detail.

Department of Mines. Report on the Waverley or Siberia District, 1 909.
Describes the gold mines and deposits of magnesite, serpentine-
asbestos (karystiolite or chrysotile) and cobalt ore. Report on the
Northampton Mineral Field, 1909. Formerly an important field,
worked for copper and lead. Zinc also occurs. Progress of Mining
in the Districts between Leonora and Wiluna, 1909. Geological sketch
and descriptions of the mines. '

430 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

South Australia.

Journal of the Department of Agriculture, 1909, 12. No. 12. —
Roseworthy Agricultural College. Report on the permanent ex-
perimental field. Seasons 1907-08, 1908-09 — Arsenate of lead
(describes the preparation of this material and its use as a spray) —
Notes on Panicum crus-galli (describes the cultivation and use of this
grass as fodder). 1909, 13. No. i. — The produce export depot (gives
an account of the additions lately made to this depot for the utilisation
of the by-products of the slaughter-house by converting them into
manure, tallow, and poultry meat-meal) — Agricultural statistics 1908-
09 (gives, inter alia, the yields of wheat per acre obtained in the various
districts of the State as compared with those of the two previous years)
— Use of fertilisers in South Africa. Third Report on the permanent
experiment field. Seasons 1907-08 and 1908-09 at the Roseworthy
Agricultural College. No. 2. — Experimental Farm on Eyre Peninsula
(gives a description of the situation and varieties of soil at the proposed
experimental farm on Eyre peninsula) — " Irish " potato blight (gives a
description of this disease and of means of prevention. The disease has
now appeared in all the States of the. Commonwealth) — Spraying
potatoes for " Irish " blight (an illustrated description of the methods
used at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station for spraying
potatoes with " Bordeaux mixture." Particulars are given of the results
obtained and of the cost of spraying) — Conference of Ministers of
Agriculture (gives the resolutions agreed to at the Conference held at
Melbourne in August last. These principally relate to the inspection
of imports of fruits, vegetables and plants and to preventive measures
against the spread of insect and fungoid pests) — The Wheat Commission
(a reprint of the progress and final reports of a Wheat Commission,
appointed in January 1908 to inquire into the conditions under which
South Australian wheat is marketed. The recommendations made are
mainly of a commercial character and refer to such matters as the bulk
shipment of grain, the improvement of means of transport and reduction
of freight rates, but it is also suggested that the work undertaken by
the Department of Agriculture for the improvement of wheat by cross
fertilisation and selection, especially with a view to the increase of its
flour ** strength," should be prosecuted vigorously.

Queensland.
Agricultural Journal, 1909, 23. Part. 1. — Cultivation of the potato —
Cultivation of sweet potatoes — The cultivation of arid lands. Contri-
butions to the flora of Queensland — Destruction of orchard pests — Shed
for curing cigar tobacco leaf (gives designs for a modern curing shed to
be built of wood and corrugated iron)— Prospects of cotton-growing in
Queensland — Stem grubs in tobacco (recommends spraying with lead
arsenate for their destruction). Part 2.-:-Fertilisers for various crops

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 431

(gives a list of compound fertilisers, which have been found useful for
various crops in Australia) — Dry-farming principles (gives a description
of dry-farming as carried out in the State of Wyoming, based on inform-
ation supplied by farmers in that district) — How to make cotton-growing
pay in sandy soils (a description of the methods followed at the
Tuskegee Agricultural Experiment Station, U.S.A.) — Seed drills (calls
the attention of makers of agricultural machinery to certain improve-
ments required in seed drills for use in Australia) — Banana cultivation
— Control of " San Jose scale " — Use of acetylene gas refuse as manure
— The potato disease (a description of Phytophthora infestans^ with an
account of the symptoms of the disease and preventive measures. Part
3. — Rice growing (gives an account of this industry as carried on in the
Logan district) — Potash, a manure for orchards, vineyards and gardens
(emphasises the importance of a sufficient supply of potash in the
soil) — Contributions to the flora of Queensland and British New Guinea
— Fruit-growing in Queensland — The cultivation and uses of the
Rosella, Hibiscus Sabdariffa (deals mainly with the production of
the fruit and its utilisation in various ways) — Principles of pruning
as applied to specific plants (this article deals with the pruning
of apples, pears and peaches) — The preparation of raisins — New
plums (gives a description of eight new Burbank varieties) — Jadoo
fibre.

Report of the Government Statistician on Agricultural and Pastoral
Statistics for 1908. Gives full particulars of the various crops obtained
•during the year. From this it appears that the acreage under cotton
.rose from 300 in 1907 to 540 in 1908, and the production from
109,294 lb. in 1907 to 117,521 lb. in 1908. The chief seat of
cultivation is in the Moreton division, followed by Rockingham, and
the Claremont district of the Central division. In the last district the
cotton grown is mostly of the Caravonica variety. The production of
arrowroot amounted to 2,820 tons, and there was a considerable increase
in the area under tobacco from 459 acres in 1907 to 669 acres in 1908,
Ihe production in the former year being 2,442 cwt. and 5,389 cwt. in
1908.

Geological Survey Office. Department of Mines. Sketch map of the
Herberton and Chillagoe Gold Fields. The more important portion
lies between 17° and i7°3o south latitude (scale about 6 miles to the
inch).

Victoria.

Journal of the Department of Agriculture, 1909, 7. Part 7.— Maize as
!fodder (from experimental trials of a number of varieties of maize in
various parts of this State it appears that the " Hickory King " has on
the whole given the best results, though in a few cases better yields
-were obtained from " Sibley " and " Eclipse," and good results were also
obtained in some cases with Sidney and Victorian " flat reds ")— The

432 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

"Northern Spy" apple — A fungus-like appearance on imported and
exported apple trees (in August 1908 a large number of i-year old
stocks of the " Northern Spy " apple were exported to the Transvaal
from Victoria, and on arrival at their destination were destroyed by the
Department of Agriculture on the ground that they were infected with
" apple-tree canker," hhctria dUissima, The Government Pathologist
of Victoria has now observed a similar fungus-like growth in a consign-
ment of young apple trees imported to Victoria from Great Britain. On
investigation, however, this growth proves to be merely an excessive
development of corky tissue near the lenticels, and he suggests that in
the Transvaal this development of harmless tissue may have been mis-
taken for apple-tree canker)— Report on " bitter pit " of the apple
(gives a short history of this apple disease and describes its symptoms
and distribution. It is pointed out that practically nothing is yet known
as to its real cause, and that consequently no satisfactory means of
coping with it can be suggested) — Sherry, its making and rearing.
Part 8. — Recent progress and development of agricultural produce in
Victoria — Problems in irrigation and development (these are
papers -contributed to the Seventh Convention of the Victoria Chamber
of Agriculture, held in July 1909) — Storage experiments with Mildura
grapes — Dumelow's seedling apple— Sherry, its making and rearing
(continued from the previous number) — Progress of agriculture in the
State schools of the Sale district (gives an account of the agricultural
subjects taught in the science course taken in these schools). Part 9.
— The Lady Talbot Milk Institute (the first report of the Board of
Management of this Institution, which was established with a view to
supplying milk of good quality in Melbourne) — Caulfield Model
Dairy Farm (gives an account of the management of this farm from
which the supply of milk of the Talbot Institute referred to above is
derived) — The marketing of eggs — Spring management of bees —
Prickly pear, a pest or a fodder plant (the evidence for and against the
use of this material as a fodder plant is discussed, and it is concluded
that since the fodder value even of the spineless varieties of cactus
is very low, the growth of these plants should not be encouraged.
Further it is pointed out that as the prickly cactus is proclaimed
in Victoria it is illegal to encourage its growth, and that there is
no justification for any relaxation of this proclamation) — Sherry, its
making and rearing (a continuation of the articles on the manufacture
of sherry wine in Spain) — Treatment of orchard pests — The Victoria
potato industry (in connection with (i) the outbreak of " Irish " blight in
New Zealand in 1904, (2) the reports of a potato disease in Tasmania,
during the past two seasons, and (3) the announcement that blight has
made its appearance in Queensland in May of this year, special
attention is now being given to the potato crop in Victoria with a view
to preventing the introduction of this disease on any considerable scale
into that State. A full description of the disease is given, with advice,
as to the steps to be taken to eradicate it). -v '■

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 433

New South Wales.

Agricultural Gazette^ 1909, 20. No. 7. — Broom millet (gives a detailed
account of the cultivation of this plant and the preparation from it of
coarse fibre suitable for the manufacture of brooms) — Tableland pasture
grasses and fodder plants (describes a number of the better known
pasture grasses, mentions the conditions under which they grow, and in
a few cases gives analyses) — Rhodes grass (gives a resume of experi-
ences with this grass, Chloris gayana, in New South Wales and elsewhere)
— Hawkesbury Agricultural College and Experimental Farm (a contin-
uation of former articles on the feeding of pigs) — Is millet fatal to
rabbits ? (mentions that several acres of Hungarian millet at Tomingley
were severely attacked by rabbits soon after the plants appeared above
the ground, and that very soon after rabbits disappeared from the locality
altogether. It is suggested that the millet may contain cyanogenetic
substances, and that the rabbits were poisoned by the prussic acid Hber-
ated from these (compare this Bulletin, 1903, 1. 14, and Brit. Assoc.
Reports, 1906, 522) — Candied peel (describes in detail the process of
preparing candied peel from orange and lemon rinds) — Glen Innes
orchard — Farmers' experiments (gives a description of experiments
carried out by farmers on the south coast with forage plants, grasses and
potatoes) — Trial of Argentine wheats (gives the results of milling tests
of six varieties of wheat imported from the Argentine and grown in New
South Wales during 1906, 1907, and 1908. All six proved to be very
liable to " rust," and none of them is superior to varieties already available
in the State) — Argentine lucerne seed — Adulterated chaff — Inoculation
and lime as factors in growing lucerne — The Pilliga scrub (describes
this area and the efforts now being made by the Department of Lands to
settle it. It is considered that it would be suitable for the cultivation of
wheat and the breeding of sheep) — Ekpwe maize (this is the well-known
" white maize " of Lagos. It has been tried experimentally in New South
Wales during two seasons, and on the whole has not given good results)
— Maize and weevils (mentions the maize produced at Tumut, which is
stated to be immune from attack by weevils. It is suggested that this
immunity is due to the fact that Tumut lies at an altitude of 900 feet
above sea level, and other maizes grown at similar altitudes are being
tested as to their weevil resisting powers. No. 8. — Trials of American
sorghums (gives illustrated descriptions of thirteen varieties of sorghum
obtained from Texas and which have been grown experimentally at three
of the experiment farms in New South Wales)— Investigation of " bunt "
in wheat (gives a programme of experiments to be carried out during
the coming year on the action of certain fungicides on this pest) —
Chemical notes (gives analyses and notes on the use of peanut and bean
cakes) — Bleached wheat— The Nyngan experiment farm soils— Ploughs,
their " setting," and special features— The potato (a general account of
cultivation and varieties, with preventive measures against the various
potato diseases) — New varieties of maize for trial — Useful Australian

434 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

plants. No. 104, Amphtpogon strictus var. setifer. An illustrated de-
scription of this grass, which is recommended as a fodder plant. No. 9. —
Some practical notes on Forestry, suitable for New South Wales. No.
20, Willows and poplars (gives a bibliography and notes on the economic
uses of various willows) — A fibre plant (gives a description of " Uganda
hemp," Asclepias semilunata, which has been grown experimentally at
several Government farms in New South Wales) — Locusts in Australia
and other countries (gives descriptions of the various plague locusts and
notes as to the occurrence of these in Australia, and of damage done
by them) — Entomological notes (deals with an undetermined moth-
caterpillar attacking '' Planters' friend," a butterfly which attacks
" Uganda hemp," a proclamation issued recently by the Victoria Gov-
ernment against the introduction of fruit pests, the attack of oats by
" wireworms " in Tasmania, etc.) — Tomato culture — Cowpeas at the
Grafton experiment farm (five varieties were tried. Of these the best
yields were obtained from " black " cowpeas, the next from " white " and
the poorest from " clay-coloured " : the earliest variety proved to be
"new era," which is especially suited to cold or short season districts) —
The " potato blight " (records the occurrence of this " blight " in potatoes
imported from Tasmania, and that it has been found in a crop grown in
the Kyogle district of New South Wales, raised from seed potatoes
grown in Tasmania. Instructions for treating the disease are given) —
Orchard notes — Diseases of banana plants.

Department of Mines, Geological Survey. Mifieral Resources, No. 6. —
The copper mining industry and the distribution of copper ores in New
South Wales, 1908. After a historical summary, an account is given
of the commercial ores of copper and the methods of treatment. The
most important copper mines in different parts of the world are then
described, and finally, a detailed register is furnished of the mines
and other occurrences of the metal in New South Wales, illustrated
with a special map.

Tasmania.
Department of Mines, Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 4. — The Lisle
Goldfield. Describes physical conditions, geology and mining opera-
tions. No. 5. — Gunn's plains. Alma and other mining fields, North-
West Coast, 1909. The geology is described in some detail. Sedimen-
tary rocks of prae-Cambrian, Cambrian, and Ordovician age occur as
well as igneous rocks. The different mines and lodes are dealt with in
turn. No. 6. — The Tin Fields of North Dundee, 1909. Describes
the geology of the field, the nature and origin of the ore deposits, and
gives particulars of the operations which are being carried on, with maps
and sections.

New Zealand.

Geological Survey. The geology of the Mikonui Subdivision, con-
stituting the south-west portion of the North Westland Division. — The

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 435

formations present are the Arakura series consisting of crystalline
schists ; the Greenland series of grauwackes and argillites, believed to
be of Carboniferous age ; the Koiterangi series, correlated with the Grey
and Buller coal measures, which are of late Cretaceous or Tertiary age ;
Upper Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene and Recent. Serpentine also
occurs in sill-like sheets in the Arakura series. The quartz and pyrite
veins in the last-mentioned series contain little of value ; nor as a rule do
those of the Greenland series, but a vein outcropping in Mine Creek gave
over an ounce of gold per ton, and an appreciable amount of silver and
lead. Tremolite asbestos and talc are also found. The building and
ornamental stones include grauwacke, serpentine, granite and limestone ;
coal occurs in the Koiterangi series.

British Guiana.
Journal of the Board of Agriculture, 1909, 3. No. i. — Rubber in the
North-western district (gives an account of the experiments which have
been carried out in the cultivation of Hevea braslliensts, Sapium
Jenmafii, Castilloa elastica, and Funtumia elastica. Of these it appears
that the two last named have not done well, but Hevea brasiliensis has
made satisfactory growth, and Sapium Jen77iani it is thought may prove
to be a keen rival to Hevea in the Colony, since it grows well in the
North-western district, is fairly resistant to disease and produces a high
class rubber (see this Bulletin, 1909, 7. i), but it has yet to be ascertained
how it compares in yield with Para rubber. It is suggested that for
the present rubber cultivators should form mixed plantations of Hevea
and Sapium) — The rationale of rubber tapping (an abstract of a paper
published in Der Tropenpflanzer) — Reports on Sapium rubber (a
reprint from this Bulletin, 1909, 7. i) — A caterpillar pest of coconuts
(this has been identified as Brassolis sophorae ; a short account of its
life-history is given, and systematic destruction of the "nests" formed
by the caterpillar is recommended) — Board of Agriculture (gives an
account of the proceedings at a meeting held on Wednesday, May
1 2th, when Professor J. B, Harrison gave a short statement of the
present position of rubber cultivation in the Colony, and of the acreage
under various crops in 1908-09. From this it appears that rice, coco-
nuts, cocoa, coffee and rubber all show increases in area. On sugar
estates of more than 20 acres area, the best yield of sugar was obtained
from cane D 625, which furnished 2*08 tons per acre, and was grown
on 26 estates. Bourbon was also grown on the same number of
estates, and yielded 179 tons per acre, and D 109, grown on 27
estates, gave 1-51 tons per acre. The yield of cotton during the year
appears to have been unsatisfactory. Experiments with West African
guinea corn show that this presents no advantages over the local kinds)
— Visits to the country districts (gives notes on observations made by the
Director and other officers of the Department during visits to various
parts of the Colony in the last quarter.

436 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

West Indies.

Bulletifi 1909, 10. No. i. — The "flower bud maggot "of cotton,
Contarinia gossypii (gives a description of this insect, which has done
much damage to cotton in Antigua since 1907. It attacks the flower
buds of cotton, and causes so much injury to these that they fall while
quite young. No satisfactory remedy against it has yet been discovered,
but the picking off of infected buds, the use of " vaporite " and the
destruction of wild cotton and privet in the neighbourhood of planta-
tions are suggested for trial, and it is recommended that the surface
soil should be kept dry and as free from weeds as possible) — The
composition of i\ntigua and St. Kitts molasses— The passing of the
" Bourbon " cane in Antigua (a comparison of the " Bourbon sugar-
cane " with the " white transparent " and other varieties at Barbados) —
The soils of Nevis — Cotton selection in the Leeward Islands, 1907-
1908— The growth of leguminous crops and soil inoculation. No. 2. —
Central factories (discusses the desirability of introducing central
factories for the manufacture of cane-sugar in Barbados) — The under-
ground system of the sugar-cane — Observations on the effects of storage
on cotton-seed (describes the changes which occur on storage, and
points out that the germinating power tends to decrease even when
the seeds are stored under conditions of extreme dryness) — Eucalyptus
in the West Indies (gives an account of the eucalyptus planting so far
done in various islands of the West Indies, and the present condition
of these trees) — Observations on molasses (shows that the " froth
fermentation '' of molasses is not due to the action of organisms, but to
the decomposition of gummy matters formed by the action of lime on
glucose. A number of suggestions are made with a view to the pre-
vention of " souring " in molasses) — The packing for transportation of
sugar-canes for planting — Distribution of economic plants from West
Indian Botanic Stations (gives statistics of the plants distributed in
recent years) — The cotton industry in the West Indies (gives an
account of cotton cultivation in the various islands in recent years, with
information as to the yields obtained, the prevention of insect and
fungoid pests, and other matters) — The estimation of water in molasses—^
The treatment of soils in orchard cultivation in the West Indies — The
" Scarabee " and the sweet potato (gives an account of experiments
with various insecticides for the destruction of this insect, Cryptoryiichus
Baiatce, both in the laboratory and in the field. Notes on the " sweet
potato moth " and the " red spider " which also attack this crop are
given, and remedial measures against these are suggested).

Agricultural News, 1909J 8. No. 192 — Annual pests of cotton —
Bud rot of cocoanut palms — Sugarmeal for stock (gives an analysis of
this product, which consists of rice bran, waste sugar and crushed
cotton seed, and has been introduced recently for feeding purposes in
Barbados) — The " sweet potato weevil " (gives a description of this
insect, and suggests digging the potatoes as soon as they are ready as

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 437

a remedy against it. Experiments also show that increase of the pest
may be to some extent prevented by growing potato slips in the nursery
and transplanting them, instead of taking them from the ordinary field)
— Fungus notes.

Imperial, Department of Agriculture, Pamphlet Series (The following
new numbers have been issued in this series. Compare this Bulletin,
p. 229). — No. 60: Cotton gins. How to erect and work them (it has
been found that in the recent expansion of cotton cultivation in the
West Indies gins have had to be erected by persons without previous
experience of this class of machinery, and this pamphlet, which has been
prepared for use in such cases, gives detailed instructions for the
levelling and adjustment of the various parts, and notes regarding their
working). — No. 61 : The grafting of cacao (gives instructions and
recommendations for grafting cocoa, based on the results of successful
experiments carried out at the Botanic Station at Dominica. It is
hoped that the adoption of the practice of grafting cocoa, in place of
propagation from seed, will result in an improvement in the quantity
and quality of cocoa crops, since in this way the maintenance of
improved varieties can be secured).

St. Lucia.

Reports on the Botanic Station, Agricultural School and Experimental
Plots, 1908-9. — In the experiment plots the cultivation of seedling
canes, limes, oranges, groundnuts, mangoes, cabbages, cocoa. Sea
Island cotton and Para rubber was continued on the lines adopted in
previous years. It was found that of "rosin wash," kerosene emulsion,
kerosene emulsion with whale-oil soap, and rosin and whale-oil soap
compound, used as sprays for " thrips " on cocoa, the first-named gave
the best results.

Ja^naica.

Report of the Department of Agriculture, 1908-9. — Gives a detailed
account of the economic and other work in progress at the four public
gardens in charge of the Department. From the nurseries at these the
principal demand seems to be for tobacco, cocoa, Sisal hemp and
rubber plants. Special attention is in future to be given at some of
these gardens to the experimental cultivation of good types of cocoa.
The agricultural experiments in progress include further trials with
Jamaica seedling sugar canes, coffee, bananas, citrus trees, mangoes,
pine-apples, cocoa, cassava, tobacco, date-palms, grape-vines and
rubber. As regards coffee and bananas, none of the exotic varieties
tried has given as good results as the local kinds. Experience with
tobacco shows that this is not a suitable crop for the large planter, since
the cost of production of good-class tobacco is high and the market is
readily glutted. No variety of rubber tree yet tried in Jamaica has
given results good enough to warrant its plantation on a large scale.

G G

438 . Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Similarly cotton is regarded as an unsuitable crop for Jamaica. Experi-
ments with vanilla have also given poor results. A large number of
analyses were made during the year in the Departmental laboratory,
mostly of a routine description. A number of distillation experiments
with camphor were made, and the stems were found to yield 0*23 per
cent, of camphor oil, and 0*28 per cent, of camphor. Lantana leaves
gave o'2 per cent, of a volatile oil, which is still under investigation.

Baha7nas.

Bulletin of the Depart?nent of Agriculture^ 1909, 4. No. 3. — The
Annual Agricultural Exhibition, which should have been held in
February last, has been postponed till March next owing to the damage
done to crops by the hurricanes of September and October last —
Report on a visit to the " out " Islands (the Curator of the Department
of Agriculture gives a resume of information on the crops in Harbour,
Eleuthera, Exuma, Cat, Rum Cay, Watling's and Long Islands. The
principal crops are maize, kaffir corn, sweet potatoes, onions, tomatoes
and oranges. In Long Island the cultivation of Cuban tobacco is
being tried. It is stated that Sisal hemp, which is at present cleaned
by hand, is being better prepared than formerly. The Sea Island cotton
industry, which was severely affected by last year's hurricanes, is being
taken up again in Exuma and Long Islands. The pine-apple crops
decreased in recent years owing to degeneracy of stock, and new Cuban
stock has been imported and distributed to the principal growers) —
Manurial experiments in cotton cultivation (a resume of the results of
trials made at the Experimental Station with various manures The
best yields were obtained by the use of dried blood and bone, but fair
results were also obtained with sheep manure and cotton-seed meal) —
The Bulletin also contains reports of the Boards of Agriculture at
Nicoll's Town and San Salvador.

Canada.

Department of Mines, Mines Branch, Report on the Tungsten Ores of
Ca?iada, — The Report opens with a general statement on tungsten and
its uses, the principal tungsten ores, their geological occurrence, methods
of concentration and statistics of production and trade. This is
followed by an account of the occurrences of tungsten ores in Nova
Scotia, Quebec, Ontario, British Columbia and Yukon Territory. After
considering the whole of the data on record regarding the occurrence of
these ores in Canada it is concluded that although many new sources of
these minerals have been revealed, the quantity available in most cases
is insignificant and in others the grade of ore obtained is very low, but
it is pointed out that these observations are of economic interest, since
they indicate the probability of the discovery in the future of richer and
larger deposits. In fact, since the present investigation was concluded
scheelite deposits of a promising character have been found in Halifax

Agricultural and Technical Departments. 439

County, Nova Scotia. A useful bibliography of literature relating to
Canadian tungsten deposits is appended to the Report. For detailed
information on the tungsten deposits of Canada and other countries see
this Bulleti7i^ 1909, 7. 170, 285.

Report on the Chrome Iron Ore Deposits in the Eastern Toivnships
Province of Quebec. — The chrome iron ore of Canada occurs mainly in
the serpentine rocks of Cambrian age in the Eastern Townships of
Canada, which are the source of Canadian asbestos (karystiolite or
chrysotile). Nearly all the productive mines of chrome iron ore are
located in this region, more especially in the township of Coleraine.

The surface indications are of a varied character. In some cases the
serpentine is discoloured and has a ferruginous aspect with a dark gossan-
like appearance similar to the outcrops of the nickel copper deposits
of Sudbury. Occasionally the mineral with its metallic lustre may
be seen on the surface of the rock. Fragments are also sometimes
found in the soil. When in situ the ore occurs in irregular masses
and pockets, which may measure as much as 50 or even 100 feet
across, but do not appear to have any definite relation to each
other. In places there is an intimate mixture of serpentine and
chromite, resulting in a considerable amount of low-grade ore. Some-
times the actual chromite, the " crude," occurs in mass in a nearly pure
condition; sometimes a mixture containing from 10 to 60 per cent, of
chromite is obtained, which may constitute from 20 to 65 per cent, of
the total rock mined. Material containing over 45 per cent, of chrome
oxide is usually sold without concentrating.

The present method of treatment includes crushing by a rock breaker
and stamps, and separation by means of Wilfley tables. The average
cost of milling amounts to about 155. dd. per ton. Particulars are given
of the principal chrome mines of Canada, as well as details of the
distribution of chromium ores throughout the world and statistics of the
production of the metal. A considerable amount of information is also
furnished on the methods of determining the percentage of chromium in
ores, on the metallurgy of chromium steel and other alloys, and on the
processes by which the different chemicals containing chromium are
prepared and their applications in the arts.

Investigation of the Peat Bogs and Peat Industry of Canada, during
the Season 1908-9.— A list is given of the plants of which the peat is
composed, and individual bogs are described with analyses of the dried
material. Some account is also furnished of the methods of preparing
peat for use, and the present state of the industry in Canada. The maps
are in most cases on a scale of five inches to the mile.

Report on the Exatnination of some Iron Ore Deposits in the District
of Thunder Bay and Rainy River.— The ores described are mainly low-
grade magnetite. Titaniferous magnetite, haematite and pyrrhotite also
occur. The opinion is expressed that these deposits will be of great
importance when the price of iron has risen sufficiently to render their
working profitable. vv:...'

440 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Report on the Iron Ore deposits of Nova Scotia^ Part I. — Describes
the iron ores, their mode of occurrence and distribution with numerous
plates, maps and plans.

Report on the Investigation of an Electric Shaft Furnace^ Domnarf^et,
Sweden, etc, — Descriptions of an electric furnace for smelting iron, and of
methods of manufacturing carbon electrodes. Coke to the amount of
27 per cent, of the iron produced, is required as against 95 per cent, in the
ordinary blast furnace, and there is a net saving of about six shillings a ton.

Summary Report of the Mines Branch for the nine months ending
December 315/, 1908, containing preliminary reports on a number of
subjects which have been or will be dealt with in special memoranda.

Report on the Mining and Metallurgical Industries of Canada, 1907-8.
— Divided into two parts, the first dealing with the mining and metallurgi-
cal industries, the second with structural materials. The information in
each is arranged according to provinces and territories. Details are
given of the individual mines or operations. Illustrated with plates,
maps and plans.

Annual Report of the Mineral Production of Canada during the
Calendar Year 1908. — Contains the final statistics of the mineral
output of Canada during the year.

Geological Survey Branch. Preliminary Report on Gowganda
Mining Division. — The Gowganda district is here described at greater
length than in the publication of the Ontario Bureau of Mines noticed
below. A preliminary geological map on the scale of one inch to the
mile accompanies the report.

Summary Report of the Geological Survey Branch of the Department
of Mifies for the Calendar Year 1908. — Contains brief particulars of the
operations of the branch and the results obtained.

Ontario.

Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Mines, 1907, 16. Parts
I and 2. — Contains a statistical review and reports on oil and gas
in Kent County, the Iron Ranges east of Lake Nipigon, iron pyrites in
Ontario, the Larda Lake district, the gold deposits of Lake Abitibi, and
the Grenville-Hastings unconformity. Bound up with this volume, of
which it forms Part 2, is the third edition of the Report on the Cobalt-
Nickel Arsenides and. Silver deposits of Temiskatning.

Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Mines, 1908, 17. —
Contains mineral statistics of the Province and reports on the geology
of the Thunder Bay, Algoma boundary, the Iron Ranges east of Lake
Nipigon and the iron and steel industry of Ontario. The report is fully
illustrated with maps, diagrams and reproductions from photographs.

Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Mines, 1908, 18.
Part 2. — This report deals with (i) the Gowganda and Miller Lakes
silver area, (2) the South Lorrain silver area. In both districts the
rocks are Huronian, Laurentian and Keewatin, and contain promising
veins of native silver and smaltite (diarsenide of cobalt)

General Colonial and Indian Publications. 441

GENERAL COLONIAL AND INDIAN PUBLICATIONS.

In the following paragraphs a summary is given of the fnore important
contents of the chief Colonial a7id Indian periodical pub licatio7is received
rece7itly at the Imperial Institute, in so far as these relate to agriculture
or to economic products and are likely to be of general interest.

Malta.
Colonial Reports, Annual, 1908, No. 610.— In the portion relating to
agricultural industries it is stated that the area under cotton was 823
acres and the total yield i73>883 lb., i.e. an average of 211 lb. per acre
compared with 245 lb. in the preceding year. The average price
obtained was z^\d. per lb.; the total amount exported was 13,906 lb.,
which went to Italy. Experiments have been made during the year
with two varieties of potato imported from the United Kingdom, which
seem to have given good results.

Uganda Protectorate.

Official Gazette^ 1909, 2. No. 35. — Contains a list of the "biting flies "
and ticks received by the Sleeping Sickness Commission during the first
fortnight in August of the present year, and a report on the second tapping
experiments with Para rubber in the Botanic Gardens at Hoima (gives
particulars of the trees tapped and the yields obtained by various
methods of tapping). No. 36 : Coffee pests. In continuation of the
previous note (this Bulletin, 1909, 7. 346), it is mentioned that in
addition to the coffee beetle there is a coffee fly prevalent in the Uganda
plantations. This has not yet been identified, but it is suggested, as a
means of preventing its spread, that coffee beans should be cleaned and
roasted on the plantations, and that seed for planting should only be
issued from gardens known to be free from both the fly and the
beetle.

The Sleeping Sickness Commission of the Royal Society reports on
an outbreak of disease among cattle at Kabulamuliro, Buganda. The
disease appears to be due to a trypanosome of the dimorphon type, and
suggestions are made for the prevention of such outbreaks in the future.

No. 37 : Tobacco culture experiments in Kampala during 1908 and
1909. Much trouble has been experienced, due to hailstorms. The
first crop consisting of wrapper, filler, pipe and cigarette tobaccos was
destroyed by a hailstorm on 15th August, 1908, the second suffered in
the same way, and hailstones in January, February and March of this
year ruined all unreaped tobacco. Cavalla tobacco suffers less from
hail than other varieties, and similarly is less subject to attack by mildew.
A small quantity of Cavalla tobacco has been obtained in these experi-
ments, and is now under examination at the Imperial Institute. The
Gazette also contains a reprint of instructions, supplied by the Imperial
Institute for the sorting, grading and packing of Turkish tobacco.

442 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Colonial Reports. Miscellaneous, No. 62. — Report on the introduction
and establishment of the Cotton Industry in the Uganda Protectorate —
A report by the'Governor, Sir H. Hesketh Bell, K.C M.G., recapitulating
the history of exotic cotton cultivation in the Protectorate, the steps
taken by the Government to ensure the production of a uniform quality,
the organisation of buying centres and means of transport, and statistics
of production. The exports of cotton were valued at ;£^236 in 1904-5,
rose steadily to ^49,690 in 1907-8, and showed a slight decline in
value to ;^4i,2 23 in 1908-9.

South Africa.

Colonial Reports, Miscellaneous, No. 61. — Report on Agriculture and
Viticulture in South Africa. — This contains two reports, the first made
to the Colonial Office on agriculture and viticulture in South Africa
and the second on viticulture in South Africa, addressed to the Premier
of Cape Colony. Both reports are by Lord Blyth, who was invited by
the Government of Cape Colony to visit South Africa in the beginning
of the present year for the purpose of reporting on viticulture and the
wine industry in that Colony. The first report deals with a number of
questions affecting agriculture in Cape Colony, the Orange River
Colony, the Transvaal, and Natal, such as the extension of irrigation,
the improvement of transport and the promotion of better cultivation
by the provision of agricultural instruction through Universities,
Technical Colleges and Experimental Farms. A resume is then given
of the present position of several special branches of agriculture, such as
dairies and creameries, silkworm industry, bee-keeping, tobacco culture,
ostrich farming, the cultivation of cereals and especially of maize, and a
brief reference is made to the cultivation of rubber and wattle bark in
Natal. It is thought that the export of fresh and preserved fruit will
in the future become one of the most valuable assets of South Africa
and the export of fresh and dried grapes (raisins) is suggested as one
branch of this industry which might be especially developed. The
necessity of cheapening oversea communication, especially with other
parts of the Empire, is emphasised.

In the second report attention is directed to the serious position of
the wine industry of Cape Colony, owing to over-production. It is
mentioned that the policy of forming central co-operative wineries is no
doubt satisfactory, since it permits of the production of wine of good
average quality, but that owing to inherent defects of this system it is
not Hkely that wines of the highest types can be produced under it.
Experience in other wine-producing countries, such as France and Italy,
shows that the bulk of the wine produced is consumed in the country
itself, only a small proportion being exported, and it is suggested that a
similar condition of things will have to be resorted to in Cape Colony.
Various suggestions are made for increasing the consumption of the
natural (/. e. unfortified) wines of the Colony in South Africa, but there

General Colonial and Indian Publications. 443

appears to be little hope of a large export trade to Europe under present
conditions, when wine of excellent quality is being produced at low
prices in so many European countries. It is considered possible,
however, that a small export of some of the best Cape wines and Cape
brandies to this country might be started.

It is also suggested that it might be more profitable for agriculturists
not only in South Africa but also in other grape-growing countries to
devote attention to the growing of grapes for export in their natural
state, or preserved as raisins, rather than to the production of grapes for
wine manufacture.

Southern Nigeria.

Government Gazette^ i909> 4. No. 53. — Contains a portion of the
half-yearly report by the Provincial Forest Officer, Eastern province.
From this it appears that a large quantity of soft shell oil palm seed has
been distributed for planting. Similar action has been taken with
regard to Para rubber seed with a view to the creation of nurseries by
forest guards. The Para rubber trees in the garden extension at
Calabar are stated to be growing well. No. 57. — Contains a reprint of
the Governor's Address, in presenting to the Legislative Council the
estimates of revenue and expenditure for the year 191 o. In the course
of this address it is mentioned that the export trade in cultivated
products has been entirely created since 1900, and in some cases has
increased very rapidly : thus 452,000 lb. of cocoa were exported in
1900, and in 1908, 3,060,000 lb. The exports of cotton in 1900
were 24,000 lb., in 1909 to the end of August, 4,388,000 lb. In 1900, 40
tons of maize were exported and in 1908 15,518 tons. Owing
to the increasing importance of agriculture a Department of
Agriculture for the Colony is being organised. With this number of
the Gazette is issued a copy of rule 10 of 1909, which deals with the
issue of licences for the tapping of rubber, limits tapping to the period
May I to October 3 1 in each year, forbids the tapping of trees of less
than 24 inches girth at height of 4 feet from the ground, and prescribes
the method (half herring bone) to be used in tapping rubber trees.

Northern Nigeria.
The Northern Nigeria Gazette, 1909, 10. No. 7.— Contains a
reprint of the third annual report on Northern Nigeria by the Inspector
of Agriculture for British West Africa.

Gold Coast Colony.
Colonial Reports, An?iual, 1908, No. 613.— The quantity of cocoa
exported rose from 20,956,400 lb. in 1907 to 28,545,910 lb. in 1908,
but the increase in value was only 5 per cent, owing to the low prices
prevailing in the home market. On the other hand, the exports of
rubber fell from 3,549,548 lb. to 1,773,248 lb. The cultivation of kola

444 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

has so far been principally in the hands of natives, but European
planters have now commenced to grow this product, and plantations
have been formed at Aburi and Tarkwaby the Agricultural Department.
Experiments are also being made in order to test the relative utility of
the several varieties of the oil palm. The report concludes with a list
of samples of products examined recently at the Imperial Institute for
the Gold Coast Colony.

Sierra Leone.

Colonial Reports^ Anfiual^ 1908, No. 6ti. — In the section relating
to agriculture, particulars are given of recent developments at Kennema,
where a nursery for rubber and cocoa has been established. Kola
plantations have been formed at the instance of the Government by
native chiefs at Mano and Moyamba. In the Ronietta district the
trade in copal has revived somewhat, owing to more careful supervision
in the methods of tapping. Experiments in brickmaking with local
clay are about to be made at Koinadugu, and pottery manufacture is
being taught at the Bo school. The report contains a list of products
examined for the Colony recently at the Imperial Institute.

Federated Malay States.

Supplement to the Perak Government Gazette^ 1909, August 6. — This
contains the reports of the Geologist, Conservator of Forests, Director
of Agriculture, and Institute of Medical Research, to the contents of
which brief reference has been made already in this Bulletin^ i909>
7. 350, and 427.

Turks and Caicos Islands.

Colonial Reports^ Annual^ 1908, No. 612. — The staple industry of
these Islands is the manufacture of salt. During the year the weather
was favourable to salt production, and a crop of 1,749,000 bushels was
gathered and large shipments were made to the United States. In
September a violent hurricane broke over the Islands and destroyed
more than 1,000,000 bushels of salt, and caused great destruction in the
Sisal plantations and the sponge fisheries. A special relief fund was
opened, the greater part of which was expended in aiding salt-pond
owners to recommence work, and the opportunity has been taken of
thoroughly renovating and modernising the salt-ponds.

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE.

New Books.

Text-Book of Egyptian Agriculture. Vol. I. Edited by G. P.
Foaden and F. Fletcher. Issued by the Ministry of Education, Egypt.
Pp. 320, (Cairo: National Printing Department, 1908.)

New Books. 445

The main principles underlying agricultural practice are the same for
large areas of the world, but the actual practice varies greatly, having to
be adapted to different local conditions. Most of the world's more
important agricultural text-books have been written with direct reference
to the conditions prevailing in the north temperate zone, and such text-
books, although the principles they enunciate are sound, may be of
little use as guides to practical men in countries differing markedly in
climatic and other conditions. Especially is this the case for a country
such as Egypt ; subtropical in temperature, having only a very low rain-
fall, and dependent on irrigation for the greater portion of the water
necessary for its crops. To meet this want the editors have brought
together articles on various important topics, contributed by the authors
indicated below, most of whom are, or have been, members of the staff
of the School of Agriculture at Ghizeh.

The result is a good account of agriculture as practised in Egypt,
with descriptions, frequently illustrated, of special usages, implements,
etc. In the first three chapters, on atmosphere, climate and the soil,
Mr. A. Linton discusses these matters with special reference to the
peculiar conditions prevailing in Egypt. The statement on p. 59 that
" every living root, while it is taking in food, is also active in giving
out waste products of the plant cells or excrements " expresses a
view that has scarcely yet met with the general acceptance here
implied.

Farm Implements, by Mr. J. Wright, affords a great deal of useful
information. Mr. Lang-Anderson contributes the sections on Irrigation
and Drainage, the implements of irrigation and Land Reclamation.
These are thoroughly practical and interesting.

Almost one-third of the volume is devoted to Manures, by Messrs.
Foaden and G. Burns. The chief natural manures — Nile mud, animal
excreta, " coufri " (a nitrogenous manure which " really consists of the
remains of ancient villages, mixed with debris and organic matter of
various kinds ") " tafla " (a nitrate-bearing blue clay, found in desert hills
in the southern provinces), sewage, etc. — are fully described. Analyses
of them are given, and the methods of obtaining and using them
detailed. Information regarding the principal artificial manures in use
is also summarised.

On the whole the book is one which should be of great value to the
practical agriculturist in Egypt, for it treats of the theory of his subject
with direct reference to Egyptian methods and conditions. It will be
of interest also to others who wish to learn something of agricultural
practice in a country possessing conditions so different, in some respects,
from those usually regarded as normal.

Agriculture in the Tropics: An Elementary Treatise. By
J. C. Willis, M.A., Sc.D. Pp. xviii -f 222. (Cambridge: At the
University Press, 1909.)

Works on tropical agriculture are very scarce in English, and for that

44^ Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

reason the present volume is welcome, as indicating the development
of a greater interest in this important subject.

The author divides his subject matter into four parts, viz. " The
preliminaries to agriculture," "The principal cultivations of the
Tropics," "Agriculture in the Tropics," and "Agricultural organisa-
tion and policy." On all these matters Dr. Willis is an acknowledged
authority, and his discussion of them in this book affords evidence of
the close attention he has paid to these questions, and of his wide
practical experience of tropical agriculture.

The only portion of the book to which exception may be taken as a
whole is Part II., in which an attempt is made in too limited a space to
discuss the chief products cultivated in the tropics. The idea under-
lying this section is good, but the method of treatment adopted is
unsatisfactory. To illustrate this point more detailed reference may
perhaps be made to the chapter on ''Tobacco, Opium, Hemp." Of
this about two pages are given to tobacco. The only methods of
cultivation and preparation described relate to cigar tobacco, though it
is nowhere distinctly pointed out that this is the case. The necessity
for compression leads to the insertion of such a statement as tobacco
soils must contain " plenty of lime, potash and decaying organic matter,"
which is true only in a very limited sense, since tobacco is generally
acknowledged not to do well in calcareous soils. Again, no distinction
is drawn between "curing" and "fermenting." It would surely have
been more useful to have indicated briefly the main types or groups of
tobacco required in commerce, to have pointed out that each of these
requires different modes of spacing and cultivation and different
methods of preparation, and to have discussed the principles upon
which these differences depend. It is submitted that such a method
of treatment would have been far more useful to "the student, the
administrator or the traveller," for whose use the author states the
book is more especially compiled. Part II. also gives evidence of
having been hastily compiled, and without due reference to recognised
authorities. Thus under " Dyestuffs and tanning substances " logwood
is dismissed as a " dyestuff of more or less local importance," oblivious
of the fact that it is almost the only natural dyestuff which is still
indispensable in dyehouses, and in which a very large trade exists.
Thirteen lines are given to "tanning substances," beginning with the
inaccurate statement that " perhaps the most important of these is the
cutch of Bombay." Indian cutch is used but little, if at all, in tanning,
and in any case the trade in it is far less important than in such tropical
tanning materials as quebracho wood and myrabolans, which are not
even mentioned.

There is also a certain looseness of expression evident in some
portions of this section, which is apt to be misleading. Thus the non-
expert would almost certainly conclude from the statement on p. io6,
"until lately obtained entirely from the wild plants of Peru, etc., the
drug (coca leaves) is now largely got from the cultivated plants of

New Books. 447

Ceylon, Java and elsewhere," that the production of coca leaves in
Ceylon is important in quantity^ compared with the output from Peru
and Java, which is not the case.

A notable omission is the failure to mention under camphor,
pp. 1 30-1 3 1, that this material has been made synthetically on a
commercial scale, and that consequently the extensive cultivation of the
camphor-tree should not be undertaken without consideration.

The other three parts of the book are much more satisfactory. They
discuss in an authoritative manner the deficiencies of native agriculture
and give sound advice as to the methods to be followed in improving
it, the necessity for demonstrations by means of field experiments, and
for the exercise of patience in dealing with the innate conservatism of
the native cultivator. Dr. Willis lays special stress in this connection
on the importance of the existence, side by side, of estates worked
under European supervision, and native farms. The volume is well
printed and illustrated, and is provided with a useful index. With the
reservations made already as regards Part II., the book may be regarded
as giving a useful account of tropical agriculture and of the chief
difficulties likely to beset those who undertake planting in the tropics,
or who are entrusted with the government of tropical countries in which
agriculture plays an important part.

For a Cambridge graduate, Dr. Willis writes a curiously disconnected
style, which often degenerates into a kind of conversational slang. He
would be well advised to pay attention to this point in revising the next
edition of this book, which we hope will soon be called for.

Le Cacaoyer dans l'Ouest Africain. Par M. Auguste Chevalier.
Pp. 245, with 9 illustrations. (Paris : A. Challamel, 1908.)

This work forms the fourth volume of the series entitled " Les
vegetaux utiles de I'Afrique tropicale fran^aise," now being published
under the general editorship of MM. Perrier and Roume.

The book is divided into four parts, of which the second, occupying
about two-thirds of the whole, is devoted to the cocoa industry of San
Thome. In the third part, covering about 40 pages, cocoa cultivation
in the chief British, German, French and Belgian Colonies of West
Africa is discussed, and lastly, in the fourth part attention is directed
to the steps which should be taken to encourage cocoa cultivation in
French West Africa. The total cocoa production of West Africa is put
by Dr. Chevalier at 38,700 tons, of which 23,000 tons is obtained from
San Thome and other Portuguese Colonies, 11,000 tons from the Gold
Coast and other British Colonies, 3,000 tons from Spanish West Africa,
1,200 tons from the Cameroons and other German West African
possessions, and only 100 tons from French West Africa. The relatively
unimportant part taken by the French Colonies in this industry is
curious in view of the fact that trials of cocoa cultivation were made,
especially in the Gaboon, long before this culture was seriously attempted
in either British or German West Africa. The reason for this is not at

448 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

all clear, since large tracts, suitable as regards soil, climate, means of
transport and labour supply, exist, according to the author, in many
parts of French West Africa.

Perhaps the most interesting parts of the volume are those relating to
San Thome, the Gold Coast and the Cameroons. In San Thome the
cocoa industry is almost wholly in the hands of Europeans. Cultivation
is carried on, on large estates under European supervision and with
native labour imported from the hinterland of Angola. Dr. Chevalier
gives a detailed account of the method of recruiting this labour, and of
its exploitation in San Thome. He points out that the labour conditions
appear to be very onerous for a tropical country, and draws attention to
the high death-rate prevailing among the native workers, though he also
mentions that some of the estate owners in the Island are grappling
seriously with the labour difficulty, and are doing something to ameliorate
the condition of the native workers.

The cocoa estates in San Thome appear to be exceedingly well
organised ; indeed, so carefully are the plantations worked, that Dr.
Chevalier says they bear comparison in this respect with the cultivation
of cereals as carried on in Europe. There is, however, room for
improvement in the variety of cocoa grown, and in the method of
fermentation, and it is considered that much good would result from
the establishment by the cocoa-planting community of a research station
similar to those maintained in the Dutch East Indies for sugar, tobacco,
cinchona and other products.

The Gold Coast cocoa industry presents a notable contrast to that of
San Thome. It was started, according to Dr. Chevalier, by a native of
Accra about 1879, ^"d has from the beginning been a purely native
industry, sedulously fostered by the Government, which has freely
supplied seed and instruction in cultivation, and has even marketed the
produce of the natives when difficulties have been experienced in selling
this through the ordinary channels (see this Bulletin^ 19075 5. 361).
Needless to say the Gold Coast cocoa industry is not so far advanced
as that of San Thome, but it is now securely established, and no effort
is being spared to instruct native farmers in better methods of cultivating
cocoa and preparing it for the market.

The Cameroons affords an interesting mixture of the two systems.
Most of the cocoa there is produced on large estates in European
occupation, but some is also grown on native farms. The industry has
encountered special difficulties in this German Colony, partly owing to
various diseases affecting the trees, and partly owing to peculiar qualities
of the bean produced. These difficulties appear, however, to have been
surmounted recently, and cocoa of fair quality has been shipped from
the Cameroons to Hamburg in recent years.

This book differs from many of the text-books relating to tropical
agriculture and tropical products which have been published in recent
years, in being written by an expert, who has brought to bear on the
subject in hand a mind trained in methods of scientific investigation.

New Books. 449

Consequently, every fact likely to be of importance in the improvement
of cocoa cultivation and preparation is stated, and there is never any
attempt to draw deductions which the facts do not warrant. This
peculiarity makes the book quite unsuitable to those who require in a
text-book definite rules for their guidance in all contingencies, but to
the planter or the Agricultural Officer in the Tropics who realises that
every branch of tropical agriculture is still purely experimental, the
book will be invaluable as a guide to planting cocoa.

Its greatest defects are common to books in French ; it has no index,
and is provided with only a meagre table of contents.

Wood Products : Distillates and Extracts. By P. Dumesny
and J. Noyes. Translated from the French by Donald Grant. Pp. xvi.
+ 314, with 107 illustrations and 59 tables. (London : Scott,
Greenwood & Son, 1908.)

This volume is divided into two main parts, dealing with wood
distillation and the manufacture of tanning extracts respectively. After
a short description of the usual products obtained by the distillation of
wood, the authors pass on to an account of the principal methods of
carbonisation, paying special attention to the working up of the
pyroligneous acid. Very little attention is given, however, to the
distillation of waste wood, a process which is of great importance,
and for which special plant is required. (Compare this Bulletin,
1909, 7. 73.)

A full account is given of the acetic acid industry, the manufacture of
acetic acid of all grades and strengths being described, together with
the preparation of the commercial acetates, such as those of iron,
chromium and aluminium, which are used as mordants in dyeing.

The fourth chapter is devoted to the secondary products of wood
distillation, and contains short descriptions of the utilisation of acetone,
methyl alcohol and acetic acid for the manufacture of chloroform,
methyl nitrate, ethyl and amyl acetates. The further treatment of wood
tar for the preparation of " creosote " is also gone into.

Part I is completed with a chapter on the analytical methods used in
the industrial chemistry of wood, and a useful appendix on the de-
structive distillation of olive oil " residuals." These consist essentially of
the olive kernel and the " marc " left after extracting the oil under
pressure. The charcoal obtained in this way is said to be hard and of
fine quality, the other products of distillation being ammoniacal liquor,
tar and a rich illuminating gas.

In the second part of the book " the manufacture and testing of tan-
wood extracts and their utilisation in modern tanneries " is dealt with.
More than half of this part is devoted to the treatment of chestnut
wood. This is inevitable in a book of French origin, since the manu-
facture of this extract is an important industry in France and Corsica,
but from the point of view of the British and Colonial reader, it largely
discounts the value of this part of the book, since in the United

450 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Kingdom and the British Colonies the manufacture of other extracts are
far more important.

Full descriptions are given of many types of extractors and evaporators,
but insufficient attention seems to be paid to the construction of modern
vacuum evaporators built on the " spray " principle. An excellent
chapter is given showing the organisation of a model extract factory, the
capital required and the calculation of cost prices of products made. This
summary should prove very useful to manufacturers of tanning extracts.

Short descriptions are given of the manufacture and use of oak wood,
quebracho wood, and sumac extracts, and of most other common tanning
extracts. The book is completed with an account of the methods of
analysing tanning materials, but the now discarded " bell-filter method "
is described for the estimation of non-tannin matter. The translator
should have seen that this section was brought up to date, as the new
" shake " method had been officially adopted by the International
Association of Leather Trades Chemists nearly ten months before his
preface was written.

Taken altogether, the volume will no doubt prove very useful to
extract manufacturers both in this country and in the Colonies and in
India. It is thoroughly technical in its detail, and is well supplied with
illustrations of plant. It cannot, however, fulfil the need for a book
conceived on similar lines but written from the point of view of the
extract maker in this country and the Colonies.

Foods : Their Composition and Analysis. By Alexander
Wynter Blyth and Meredith Wynter Blyth. Sixth edition. Pp.
XXV. + 619. (London: Charles Griffin & Co., Ltd., 1909.)

The authors of this standard hand-book on food analysis have taken
considerable trouble in bringing this, the sixth edition, completely up
to date.

The chapter dealing with the use of the spectroscope and the de-
tection of colouring matters has been largely re-written, and, as stated
in the preface, the portions relating to the identification of alcohols,
the detection of coconut oil in butter, and the bacteriological examina-
tion of water have received special attention. In each of the cases
mentioned a good deal of new matter has been interpolated, and the
most recent methods of analysis are described. Apart from these
sections there are no very striking alterations, and the book retains its
old character, which has made it popular with analysts.

There are still, however, several additions and amplifications which
might be made. The sections dealing with the cereals need over-
hauling. Nothing is said, for example, of the precise methods adopted
in the estimation of gluten and gliadin in wheat, nor is any description
given of the " facing " of rice or its detection.

Taken altogether the treatise preserves its previous high standard,
and remains a reliable and useful handbook for analysts practically
engaged in the examination of foods.

New Books. 451

Aids to the Analysis of Food and Drugs. By C. G. Moor,
M.A. (Cantab.), F.I.C., and W. Partridge, F.I.C. Third edition.
Pp. viii. + 249. (London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, 1909.)

This small book was first issued in 1895 by the late Mr. Pearmain,
with one of the present authors as co-author. For this issue it has been
brought up to date and largely re-written. The book is intended to give
in a concise form information regarding the commoner foods and drugs,
the methods to be adopted in their examination, and the standards to
which they should conform. It is of course primarily intended for the uSe
of analysts and students engaged in the examination of foods and drugs,
but many of the materials dealt with are produced in large quantities in
various parts of the Empire, and for that reason the book is likely to
be of interest to planters and merchants interested in such products
as tea, coffee, cocoa, starches, cereals, spices, saffron, oil-seeds and
oils, ipecacuanha, etc. It gives the " analytical constants " usually
determined for these food stuffs and drugs and in most cases
analyses of typical samples, quoted from trustworthy authorities. Not
infrequently an analytical statement supplied by an expert to a dealer is
unintelligible to the latter, owing to his lack of knowledge as to the
precise meaning and importance of the data given. In such cases a
book of this kind is useful for reference purposes, and this volume may
be recommended for such a purpose since it contains a great deal of
useful information in small compass. The information given is generally
trustworthy, but here and there, there are slips which require emenda-
tion ; thus on page 120 there is a statement implying that all gingers
except African are scraped. This is not the case, as unscraped Cochin
gingers are occasionally sold in this country.

The Ore Deposits of South Africa. By J. P. Johnson. Part
II. The Witwatersrand and Pilgrimsrest Goldfields and similar occur-
rences. Pp. 51. (London: Crosby Lock wood & Son, 1909.)

This is the second of a series of three volumes dealing briefly with
the ore deposits of South Africa, and intended, according to the author's
preface, " to be of service to prospectors, students and others, possessed
of an elementary knowledge of geology and some mining experience."
Part I, dealing with the ore deposits of the " Base Metals," has already
appeared and been reviewed in a former Bulletin (1909, 7. 243). The
present volume is concerned with a description of the goldfields of
South Africa.

The famous Witwatersrand Goldfield, the ore of which is an auriferous
conglomerate, is described, and the origin of the gold discussed. The
auriferous conglomerates of the Klerksdorp District and various other
less important occurrences are also dealt with. A clear and interesting
account is given of the controversy with regard to the origin of the gold
in these conglomerates. The author states the cases of the two rival
theories, viz. the " impregnation " theory as advocated by Hatch and
Corstophine, and the " detrital " theory as advocated by Gregory. He

452 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

admits that the evidence provided by the conglomerates themselves on
the whole gives strong support to the " detrital " theory, but in spite of
this he cannot feel certain that this theory is correct. He concludes
that ** whether the gold is detrital or was introduced subsequently
together with the pyrite and interstitial silica, is uncertain."

In the latter part of the book an account is given of the Pilgrimsrest
Goldfield and others in which the ore is of a similar character. In
these cases the author states that " the mode of occurrence is remark-
ably similar to that in the Witwatersrand conglomerates, and, since the
gold in this instance is obviously not detrital, supplies a much stronger
argument in favour of the impregnation explanation of the presence of
the gold in the Witwatersrand conglomerates, than any that has been
brought forward by writers on the subject."

The book concludes with a chapter in which the Witwatersrand and
Pilgrimsrest ore occurrences are compared with some of the other
famous gold deposits of the world.

Like its predecessor, with which it is uniform, this volume is well
printed on good paper. It is excellently illustrated with maps and
sections, and can be recommended to any one who requires a brief
and clearly-written account of the gold-bearing deposits of South Africa.

The Mineral Resources of Newfoundland. By J. P. Howley,
F.G.S. Pp. 19. (St. John's, 1909.)

This is a brief but useful account of the minerals of economic value
of Newfoundland. The rocks of the island are mainly of pre-Cambrian
and Palaeozoic age with much plutonic and metamorphic material, and
the author states that " almost every known metallic substance has
been found in the country." So far, copper and iron have been the
most important mineral products. The haematite deposits of Bell
Island, including their extension beneath the sea, are estimated to
contain 3,635,543,360 tons. Chromite, pyrite, nickel, antimony, lead,
manganese, gold and silver occur in workable quantities. There
are three areas in which coal seams are known, and a considerable
portion of the pamphlet is devoted to a description of the deposits.
Slate of excellent quality, building and ornamental stones, barytes, talc,
and petroleum are among the valuable minerals of the country.

Report upon the Petroliferous Region situated on the
North-West Coast of Newfoundland. By J. P. Howley, F.G.S.
Pp. 15. (St. John's : Chronicle Job Print, 1909.)

Petroleum is being obtained from wells on either side of Parson's
Pond, a large salt-water lagoon situated some thirty miles north of
Bonne Bay. It is probable that the oil-field extends a considerable
distance along the coast. The product is of superior quality, consisting
mainly of illuminating and lubricating oils, with a fair amount of solid
paraffin. The oil-bearing beds comprise a series of sandstones, shales
and thin-bedded limestones arranged in a succession of isoclinal folds.
In age they appear to correspond with the Quebec Group of the

New Books. 453

Ordovician. In some of the shales graptolites are abundant, and
the author beheves that these were the chief source of the
petroleum.

Petroleums and Coals compared in their Nature, Mode of
Occurrence and Origin. By E. Coste, E.M. Pp. 29. (Toronto :
Canadian Mining Institute, 1909.)

This is a vigorous attack on the ordinary view that petroleum and the
allied hydrocarbons are usually the result of the decomposition of
organic matter. The author accordingly brings forward a number of
arguments in support of the theory, which has found favour in some
quarters, that all petroleum is of inorganic origin. Some of these
are open to objection, but considerable ability is displayed in the
discussion of the evidence bearing on the question. The practical
effect of the paper will, hbwever, be to encourage prospectors to bore in
areas where the rocks are of igneous origin, and where experience
tells us there is little prospect of meeting with hydrocarbons, except in
amounts too small to be of any commercial importance.

India : A Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Hima-
laya Mountains and Tibet. By Colonel S. G. Burrard, R.E., F.R.S.,
and H. H. Hayden, B.A , F.G.S. Part IV. The Geology of the Hima-
laya. Pp. vi. -f 102, with numerous maps and sections, including a
geological map on a scale of 100 miles to the inch. (Supt. Gov.
Printing, Calcutta, 1908.)

The rocks of the foot-hills of the Himalayas are first described under
the title of the Sub-Himalayan Zone. They include the Sirmur and the
Siwalik series, which are of Upper Tertiary age. This is followed by
a valuable discussion on the dynamics of the dislocations that have
taken place on the southern margin of the mountains. The Himalayan
zone and its ancient " Purana " deposits, which are believed to be of
pre-Cambrian age, are then dealt with. Finally, a full description is
given of the Northern or Tibetan zone, with its great series of fossil-
iferous rocks extending from Cambrian to Eocene times.

An interesting account is given of the geological history of the Hima-
layas, and of the theories, which have been advanced to account for the
present surface features of the region. The work closes with a brief
notice of the principal economic products of mineral origin.

The Rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula, New Zealand. By
Professor Sollas, F.R.S., with an introduction and descriptive notes by
Alexander McKay, F.G.S., in 2 vols. Pp. 289 and 215. (Wellington,
N.Z. : Govt. Printer.)

The Colville Peninsula forms the north-eastern extremity of North
Island. It contains important auriferous deposits ; and during the past
forty years numerous reports have been issued dealing with its mineral
resources. These contain frequent references to the rocks, which are
mainly of volcanic origin, and considerable confusion has arisen from

h h

454 Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

the different systems of nomenclature which have been employed. It
was therefore arranged that a typical series of specimens — 406 in all —
should be transmitted to Professor Sollas to be identified and named.
Subsequently 94 specimens from other parts of New Zealand were also
placed before Professor Sollas for the same purpose. The results of his
examination are contained in the present volume. The descriptions by
Professor Sollas, which will be of considerable interest to petrologists,
are supplemented by an account of the geology of the area, and the
mode of occurrence of the specimens by Mr. McKay. The text is
illustrated by handsome photographs of views and thin sections, the
latter being excellently reproduced, and by a coloured geological map
of the Peninsula.

New Journal.

L'Agronomie Tropicale. (Organe mensuel de la Soci^td d'etudes
d'Agriculture Tropicale. Brussels.)

The first number of this new Belgian periodical, devoted to tropical
agriculture, was published towards the end of January in the present
year, and eight numbers have been issued so far. Each part is divided
into two sections, the first comprising original articles, and the second
devoted apparently to summaries of information from other journals,
abstracts, reviews, and notes on matters of general interest connected
with tropical agriculture.

As is to be expected a good deal of space is devoted to giving in-
formation regarding agricultural work in the Belgian Congo, and in the
numbers under notice there are papers on cattle-raising, rubber, native
cultivation and experimental plantations under European supervision,
and similar matters, as they affect that country. There are also useful
general articles on the present position of cotton production, the
classification of cotton-yielding plants, the production of tanning
materials, rubber vines in Africa and palm sugar.

The journal is well printed on good paper, and promises to be a
useful addition to the small number of periodicals dealing with tropical
agriculture now published.

LIBRARY.— RECENT ADDITIONS.

Books, etc., exclusive of periodical Government Publications, presented to the
Library of the Imperial Institute since September 17, 1909. The
names of donors are printed in italics.

INDIA.

Indian Insect Life. A Manual of the

Insects of the Plains . . . . By A. Maxwell-Lefroy, M. A.,

F.E.S., F.Z.S.
{The Agricultural Research
Institute^ Fusa.)

Library. — Recent Additions.

455

The Industrial Organisation of an Indian
Province

CEYLON.

Report of the Ceylon Chamber of Com-
merce (Incorporated) for the half-year
ended June 30, 1909 ....

AUSTRALIA.

Perth Chamber of Commerce : Nine-
teenth Annual Report for the year
ended June 30, 1909 ....

Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
Society of Queensland. Vol. xxii.
Part i

Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
Society of Australasia : South Australian
Branch. Vol. viii. 1904-5 to 1905-
06; Vol. ix. 1906-07 . . . .

Transactions, Proceedings, and Reports
of the Royal Society of South Australia
(Incorporated). Vols. xvi. [Part iii], to
xxxii. With Index to Vols, i to xxiv.

The Useful Native Plants of Australia
(including Tasmania.)

By Theodore Morison.
{The Publisher.)

{The Secretary.)

{The Secretary.)
{The Secretary.)

{The Secretary.)

{The Council.)

By J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.,
F.C.S.

{The Technological Museum
of New South Wales)

NEW ZEALAND.

Report of the Proceedings of the Confer-
ence of Chambers of Commerce of New
Zealand held in Wellington on April 1 3,
14, and 15, 1909 .... {The Secretary.)

Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.
Vol. xli. 1908

Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute,

1908-09, Parts i and ii . . . {The Secretary.)

SOUTH AFRICA.

Bushman Paintings.
Tongue. With a
Balfour

Copies by M. Helen
preface by Henry

The Union of South Africa

{A gent- General for the

Transvaal.)
By the Hon. R. N. Brand.
{The Publishers.)

H H a

456

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE.

The Souvenir of the Nairobi (Roosevelt)

Week {The Publishers)

MALTA.

A History of Malta during the period of
the French and British Occupations,
1 789-98-1815. Edited, with introduc-
tion and notes, by J. H. Rose, Litt.D.

(Cantab.) By the late William Hard-
man.
{Mrs. Hardmufi.)

BRITISH HONDURAS.

British Honduras and its Resources . By Wilfred Collet, C.M.G.

{The West India Co7nmittee.)

UNITED KINGDOM.

Proceedings of the Anglo-Russian Literary

Society for May, June, and July, 1909 .
Redruth School of Mines, Cornwall : Syl-
labus for 1909-10 ....
Proceedings of the Royal Society of

Edinburgh, Session 1908-09. Vol.

xxix. Parts vi, vii, and viii .
Transactions of the Institution of Mining

and Metallurgy. Vol. xviii. 1908-09 .
University College Calendar, Session

1909-10 ......

Transactions of the Institution of Naval

Architects, 1909. Vol. li .
Ninth Annual Report of the West of

Scotland Agricultural College. 1908-09
Calendar of Letter Books of the City of

London at the Guildhall. Letter Book

I. Circa a.d. 1400-22

The Incorporated Accountants' Year-
book, 1909-10 . . . .

Pitman's Where to Look : An easy guide
to books of reference ....

The Map of Africa by Treaty. Third
Edition, in three volumes and a collec-
tion of maps. Revised and completed to

{The Secretary.)
{The Secretary.)

{The Secretary)
{The Secretary.)
{The Provost.)
{The Secretary.)
{The Secretary.)

Edited by R. R. Sharpe,
D.C.L.

{The Town Clerk.)

{The Secretary.)
{The Publishers.)

Library. — Recent Additions. 457

the end of 1908 by R. W. Brant and

H. L. Sherwood By the late Sir E. Hertslet,

K.C.B.
{The Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs.
Geological Literature added to the Geo-
logical Society's Library during the
year 1908 {The Secretary.)

FRANCE.

Les Colonies Frangaises : Notice publiee
par le " Comite National des Exposi-
tions Coloniales " . . . . {Le Secretaire General.)
Nouvelles Observations sur les Baobabs

de Madagascar
Les Landolphia et les Mascarenhasia a

Caoutchouc du nord de I'Analalava . By H. Jumelle and H,

Perrier de la Bathie.
{The Authors)

ITALY.

Camera di Commercio di Torino : Sta-
tistica della Industrie del Distretto
Camerale. Vol. i . . . . {The President)

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

VOL. VII, 1909

INDEX

Botanical names, Zoological names and Titles of Books reviewed, are printed in italics.

PAGE

116
203
92
269
166

Africa, East, British, Colonial Report

East, Portuguese, agricultural experiments in
East, Protectorate, Cotton Ordinance
„ „ ," ebony "from

„ „ , graphite in

„ „ , recent reports from agricultural and technical

departments ... ... ... ... ... 206,412

East, sisal hemp from ... ... ... ... ... 160

South, Colonial Report ...
Africa., Souths ore deposits
African food grains

African palm oil industry, investigations in connection with
Agave A mericana fibre from Madras
„ fibre from Assam
„ rigida fibre from M adras ...
„ j/j-^/i^Wia: fibre from the Andaman Islands ...
Agricultural experiments in Portuguese East Africa

„ resources of Nyasaland

Agriculture., Egyptian., Text-book of

„ ., Encyclopcedia of

Agriculture in Nyasaland
Agriculture in the Tropics

Agriculture (tropical) and Colonial development. International Congress
Agronomic (Z') Tropicale
Alkaloids from. Senecio latifolius ... ...

Aloe fibre from Fiji

Analyse des Kautschuks., etc.

Andaman Islands, Agave sisalana fibre from

Angola, palm oil industry in

Assam, Agave fibre from

Australia, Official Year-book of the Commonwealth

„ , South, carnotite from ...
Australia., Souths Nomenclature ...
Australia, South, recent reports from agricultural and technical

departments ... ... ••• ii5» 223, 338, 430

„ , Western, recent reports from agricultural and technical

departments 111,222,336,428

Bahamas, recent reports from agricultural and technical departments

229, 344, 438

442
243,451
M5
357
9

II
8

II
203

23
444
133
314
445
409

454
93

274

130
II
381
II
121
322
245

Balata from British Guiana

Bamboos for Paper-making

" Bastard Bullet," composition of latex from

Beeswax from Nyasaland

353

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Benin lump rubber from Southern Nigeria

Bermuda, sponges from

Bois^ Traitd d^ Exploitation Comjnerciale des

British New Guinea, economic resources ...

British und Deutsch-Sud-Afrika Staatssekretdr Dernburg ift

Burma, Pearl Fisheries of Mergui

Cacao Planting, The Future of ...
Cacaoyer {Le) dans L Quest Africain
Cameroons, palm oil industry in ...
Canada, Mineral Resources of ...

„ , recent reports from agricultural and

ments
Canfora Italiana, La
Cape Colony, Senecio latifolius from
Ccipe Colville Penijtsula, New Zealand, Rocks of ...
Cape of Good Hope, recent reports from agricultural and technical

departments ... ... ... ... loo, 210, 326,

Cape of Good Hope, The Fo7-ests and Forest Flora of the
Carnotite from South Australia
Cassava starch from Fiji

257

94
126

84
352
321

131

447
372

243
technical depart-

118,230,344,438

131

453

from

agricultural and

occurrence

Castor oil seed from Fiji
Cattle rearing in Nyasaland
Cereals in Nyasaland ...
Ceylon, mineral survey .

„ , recent reports
ments

„ , silk industry of ,
Chillies from Nyasaland
Chloroxylon swietenia timber, constituents
Chromite ore from the Transvaal
Climate of Nyasaland ...

Clitandra elastica rubber from Southern Nigeria
Coal Mining, Practical ...
Coals and Petroleums compared in their Nature, mode of

and origin
Cocoa cultivation in German colonies
Cocoa from Fiji

„ in Nyasaland
Coconut industry in the Seychelles
Coffee in Nyasaland
Columbia (British), recent reports from agricultural and

departments
Congo, palm oil industry in
Congress (International) of Tropical Agriculture and

Development
Copal from Fiji
Copper ore from Fiji
Colon, La Production du, en Egypte
Cotton from Nigeria

,, ,, the Gold Coast

,, in Nyasaland

,, Ordinance of the East Africa Protectorate

,, ,, of Uganda

Cyprus, recent reports from agricultural and technical departments

205,

Dahomey, Mission scientifique au

,, , Palm oil industry in
Dammara vitiensis x^swi ixovci Y\y\.
Daniella thurifera timber from the Sudan

417
122
322
271
272
48

109

technical depart-

108, 221, 333, 425

202

277

25
258
136

technical

Colonial

453

198

270

394
26

232
381

409

275
275
240

154
14
29

92
92

323, 412

••• 351

... 375

... 274

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

PAGE

Decorator^ work, Specifications for ... ... ... ... 137

Distillation (destructive) of wood ... ... ... ... 75

Dominica, recent reports from agricultural and technical departments 1 17

" Ebony " from the East Africa Protectorate ... ... ... 269

Egypte, La Production du Coton en ... ... ... ... 240

Egyptian agriculture, Text-book of ... ... ... ... 44^

ElcEis guineensis, distribution, cultivation and utilisation in West

Africa ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 357

Eleusine coracanagx2\v\.{xoxi\.\ig?cci^?i. ... ... ... ... 151

Encyclopcedia of Agriculture ... ... ... ... • • • 1 35

Entomology, Forest ... ... ... ... ... ... 127

Eriodendron anfractuosujn ^oss frova. M2i^x2iS ... ... ... 13

Erythrophleum guineense timbQr hovci ihQ S\id2in ... ... ... 22

Far East Revisited {The) ... ... ... ... ... 244

Federated Malay States, Government Gazette ... ... ... 444

,, ,, „ , recent reports from agricultural and technical

... 110,221, 335,349, 427

departments...
Fertilisation {the) of Tea
Fibres from Fiji

,, ,, India

,, in Nyasaland
Ficus Vogelii, rubber of, from the Gambia
Fiji, economic products from
Food a?id Drugs, Aids to the analysis of ...

„ Grains, some African
Foods : their composition and analysis
Forest Entomology
Forests in British East Africa

,, of Nyasaland ...
Funtumia elastica rubber from Southern Nigeria
/^«r^r^^ fibre from Madras

Gambia, Colonial Report
„ , palm oil industry in

241

273
8

40
260
270
451
145
45a
127
412

56
255

... 348

... 363

. . . 26a

119, 234, 346,441

91, 200, 318,409

their develop-

23, 170, 285,

x\i\i\i^x oi Ficus Vog elii fxom
General Colonial and Indian Publications

,, Notes

„ Notices respecting economic products and

ment ... ... ... ... ... 23, 170, 2«5, 394

German Colonies, cocoa cultivation in ... ... ... ... 198

Ginger in Nyasaland ... ... ... ... ... ... 48

G/y<://?^ j<?/"(«, cultivation and utilisation ... ... ... ... 3^8

-„ „ seeds ... ... ... ... ... .•• 95

Goats' hair from Uganda ... ... ... ••. ••• 263

Gold Coast Colony, Colonial Report and Government Gazette 120, 348, 443

„ „ „ , cotton from ... ... ... ... H

„ „ „ , palm oil industry in ... ... ... ... 300

Goldfields of British Guiana, Geology of ... ... ... ... I33

Graphite, recent discoveries of, in British African Colonies ... ... 166

Ground-nuts (Bambarra) from Northern Nigeria ... ... ... I5*

„ from Fiji ... ... ... .•• ••• ••• 272

„ in Nyasaland ... ... •-. .-. ••. 55

Guiana (British), balata from ... ... ... .-. ••• 7

Guiana {British), Geology of the Goldfields of ... ... ... I33

Guiana (British), recent reports from agricultural and technical depart-
ments 116,227,342,435

Guiana (British), rubber of 5«^zV//«/(f«w^?/?/ from ... ... i

Guinea corn from Northern Nigeria ... ... ... ••. ^^

(French), palm oil industry in .., ...... .... ••• 36S

Xll

Bulletin" OF the Imperial Institute;

Heaton^s An7tual ... ... ... ... ... ... 138

Hevea Brasilie7tsis or Para Rubber in the Malay Peninsula ... ... 129

J/ibiscus Sabdari^a seeds from Northern Nigeria. ... ... ... 153

Hong Kong, recent reports from agricultural and technical departments 428

Imperial Institute, General Statement

„ „ , Report on the work of the

„ ?5 ? New series of selected Reports from the

India: a sketch of the geography and geology of the Bifnalaya Moun-
tains and Tibet
India, fibres from

„ , laterites from the Central Provinces

„ , mineral resources

„ , recent reports from agricultural and technical departments

loi, 121, 211,327, 349,419

1
200
200

453

278

106

„ (Southern), rubbers from ...
„ , the Tussur silkworm in
Indian (East) satinwood constituents
,, lac industry
„ wheats, characters of
Jndigo from Nigeria ...
Insect pests in the Seychelles
Iron ores of the Crown Colonies and

Empire
Ivory coast, palm oil industry in

Protectorates of the

395, 399:
British

163

193

419

319
400

295
365

Jamaica, recent reports from agricultural and technical depart-
ments ... 118,343,437

Xamerun

Kapok from Madras

Kautschuks, etc. ^ Die Analyse des ... ...

Khaya senegalensis timber from the Sudan
Kolonial-Haiidbuch., VonderHeydfs

Lac industry of India

Laterites from the Central Provinces of India

Leather^ Technical and Practical

Leeward Islands, recent reports from agricultural and

partments...
Libraries of London., The
Library, recent additions ... ... ...

'^ Likanga " fibre from Nyasaland
London., The Libraries of
Looistoffen, De

tech

Maba abyssinica timber from \}ne ^owdvin ... ... ... ... 22

Madras, fibres from ... ... ... ... ... ... 8, 13

Maize from Southern Nigeria ... ... ... ... ... 145

„ in Nyasaland ... ... ... ... ... 47,55

J, „ Rhodesia ... ... ... ... ... ... 414

Malay Peninsula^ Hevea Brasiliensis or Para Rubber in the ... 1 29

Malaya, rubber cultivation in ... ... ... ... ... 91

Malta, Colonial Report ... ... ... ,.. ... ... 441

Manila hemp from Madras ... ... ... ... ... 10

Marl from Plji ... ... ... ... ... ... 276

**^ Marodi " vine rubber from Southern Nigeria ... ... ... 259

Mauritius hemp from Nyasaland ... ... ... ... 162

„ , oil seeds from ... ... ... ... ... 418

„ , recent reports from agricultural and technical depart-
ments ... ... ... ... ... ... 101,211,418

352
13

130
21

138

278
140

nical de-

... 118

••• 139

40, 249, 353, 454

... 162

... 139

... 131

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. xiii

Mergui, Burma, the pearl fisheries of ... ... ... ... 321

Mexican Year-book, 1908 ... ... ... ... ... 137

Mexico, vegetable waxes from ... ... ... ... ... 410

Mica powder, preparation ... ... ... ... ... go

Millet from Southern Nigeria ... ... ... ... ... 149

Mimusops Balata, Balata from ... ... ... ... . . 7

„ ^^Z/w^zw/z^rMzV timber from the Sudan ... ... ... 21

Mineral Resources of Canada ... ... ... ... ... 243

Mineral survey of Northern Nigeria ... ... ... ... 409

Minerals from Fiji ... ... ... ... ... ... 275

Mohair from Uganda ... ... ... ... ... ... 263

Montserrat, recent reports from agricultural and technical departments 1 18

Mossi, Les Pays ... ... ... ... ... ... 247

Musa textilis fihxQ irom M3idiY2iS ... ... ... ... 10.

J/yr/<:<2 sp., wax from fruits of ... ... ... ... ... 410

Natal, graphite in ... ... ... ... ... ... 169'

,, , recent reports from agricultural and technical depart-
ments ... ... ... ... ... 99, 209, 326, 416-

Neuseeland nach seiner Geschichte und seiner Natur, sowie der materi-

ellen und intellektiiellen Entwicklung ... ... ... 245

New journals ... ... ... ... ... 138,248,454

New South Wales, recent reports from agricultural and technical

departments ... ... ... ... 114,225,340,433,

New Zealand, recent reports from agricultural and technical

departments ... ... ... ... 116,227,341,434

Newfoundland, Report upon the petroliferous region situated on the

North-West Coast ... ... ... ... ... ... 452:

Newfoundland, The Mifteral Resources of ... ... ... 452:

Niger-Benue, Der ... ... ... ... ... ... 352

Nigeria, cotton from ... ... ... ... ... ... 154

„ , food grains from ... ... 145,148,149,150,151,153

„ , indigo from ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^9-

„ (Northern), Colonial Report and Government Gazette 236, 443.

„ „ , graphite in ... ... ... ... ... 169

„ „ , mineral survey ... ... ... ... 4^9

„ „ , palm oil industry in ... ... ... ... 37^

„ (Southern), agricultural show in ... ... ... ••.3^9

„ , Annual Reports and Government Gazette 1 19,236,347,443
„ , palm oil industry in ... ... ... ... 37^

„ „ , Para rubber in ... ... ... ... 200

„ „ , rubbers from ... ... ... ••. 255

Notices of recent literature .. ... ... 122,238,351,444

Nova Scotia, recent reports from agricultural and technical depart-
ments ... ... ... .'. ... ••• ••• 233

Nyasaland, agricultural resources ... ... •.• ••• 23

„ , agricultural work in ... ... ... •■• 3H

„ , Government Gazette ... ... ••• 235, 347

„ , graphite in ... ... ... ••• ••• ^^7

„ , Mauritius hemp and " Likanga" fibre from ... ... 102

„ , mineral survey ... ... ••• ••• ••• 323-

„ , sisal hemp from ... ... ••• ••• ••• ^^^

Nyasaland, The Hand-book of ... ... ••• ••• ••• ^44

Nyasaland, tobaccos from ... ... ••• ••• •• 2°"

Oil seeds from Mauritius ... ... ••• ••• ••• ^ ,

„ „ Nyasaland ... ••• •••. . ••• ••• 5°^

Oil-palm cultivation, description, distribution and varieties ... ... 357

„ fruits from West Africa, description and composition ... 357'

Oil palms, classification of varieties ... ••• ••• ••• 3o2

Oils (volatile) in the Seychelles ... ... : i.^v > w fi" > .t./iVi- 390-

xiv Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

PAGE

Ontario, recent reports from agricultural and technical departments 231, 440
Orange River Colony, recent reports from agricultural and technical

departments ... ... ... ... ... ... 208

Ore deposits of South Africa ... ... ... ... 243,451

Ormosia laxiflora timber from the Sudan ... ... ... ... 23

Palm kernels ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 390

„ „ from West Africa, characters and composition ... ... 390

Palm oil industry (African) ... ... ... ... ... 357

„ „ , methods for improvement of ... ... .. 391

„ , machinery for the preparation of ... ... ... 385

„ , nature and uses ... ... ... ... ... 388

„ , preparation ... ... ... ... ... ... 384

Palm oils from West Africa, characters and composition ... ... 389

Papermaki?ig^ Bamboos for ... ... ... ... •••353

„ ^Chapters on ... ... ... ... ... 137

Papua and its economic resources ... ... ... ... 84

„ , Annual Report for 1907-8 ... ... ... 237,338

Para rubber in Southern Nigeria... ... ... ... ... 200

„ seed, utilisation ... ... ... ... ... 95

Para Rubber^ The Cultivation and Preparation of ... ... ... 242

Parkia filicoidea timber from the Sudan ... ... ... ... 21

Pearl fisheries of Mergui, Burma... ... ... ... ... 321

Peppermint oil... ... ... ... ... ... ... 184

Petroleums and Coals compared in their Nature., ?node of occurrence and

origin ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 453

Petroliferous region situated on the North- West Coast of Newfoundland 452

Philippine Islands., The Mineral Resources ... ... ... 137

Philippine Islands, ylang-ylang oil in the ... ... ... ... 320

Plantes a Parfums ... ... ... ... ... ... 241

/^rc^j^/Zj- 6'/5/^«j^« timber from the Sudan ... ... ... ... 22

Quebec, recent reports from agricultural and technical departments ... 233
Queensland, recent reports from agricultural and technical depart-
ments ... ... ... ... ... 112,223,338,430

Ramie from Fiji ... ... ... ... ... ... 273

Reports from agricultural and technical departments in the Colonies

and India... ... ... ... ... 96,205,323,412

Kes'm of Dammara vitiensis from Fiyi ... ... ... ... 274

Rhodesia, graphite in ... ... ... ... ... ... 168

„ , recent reports from agricultural and technical depart-
ments ... ... ... ... ... 97, 207, 326, 413

Rice from Northern Nigeria ... ... ... ... ... 149

Rocks (the) of Cape Colville Peninsula, New Zealand ... ... 453

Rubber cultivation in Malaya ... ... ... ... ... 91

„ from Southern India ... ... ... ... ... 163

„ in Nyasaland ... ... ... ... ... ... 42

„ in the Seychelles ... ... ... ... ... 397

Rubber Lands (Eastern), My Tour in ... ... ... ... 129

Kuhher of Picus F<?^^/zV from the Gambia ... ... ... 260

„ of Sapium Jenmani from British Guiana, composition and

value ... ... ... ... ... ... ... I

„ (Para) in Southern Nigeria ... ... ... ... 200

Rubber {Par a). On the Plantatio?i, Cultivation and Ctirittg of ... 128

„ {Para), The Cultivation and Preparation of ... ... 242

Rubber (synthetic) ... ... ... ... ... ... 318

Rubbers from Southern Nigeria ... ... ... ... ... 255

Rum, distillation in the Seychelles ... ... ... ... 399

St. Helena, Colonial Report ... ... ... ... ... 349

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. xv

PAUK

St. Lucia, recent reports from agricultural and technical departments 437
St. Vincent, recent reports from agricultural and technical depart-
ments ... ... ... ... ... ,,, ... 117

Sansevieria fibre from the Sudan ... ... ... ... 205

„ tow from Sierra Leone ... ... ... 205

Sapzum /enmani, rubber from British Gmanii ... ... ... i

Saskatchewan, recent reports from agricultural and technical depart-

ments

232

Satinwood (East Indian), constituents ... ... ... ... 93

■Sciences Biologiques et Colonisation ... ... ... ... 248

Scientific and Technical Department, recent investigations i, 145, 255, 357

Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute. New series ... ... 200

■Senecio latif alius ^2^2XQii^'s> oi ... ... ... ... ... 93

„ „ from Cape Colony ... ... ... ... 93

Senegal, palm oil industry in ... ... ... ... ... 363

Seychelles, Colonial Report and Government Gazette ... 121, 349
„ , recent developments in the planting of coconut, vanilla,

rubber, and other products in the ... ... ... 397

„ , Vahea rubber from ... ... ... ... ... 262

Shellac manufacture in India ... ... ... ... ... 68

Sierra Leone, Colonial Report ... ... ... ... 120,444

„ , palm oil industry in .;. ... ... ... 364

„ , Sansevieria tow from ... ... ... — 205

Silk industry of Ceylon ... ... ... ... ... ... 202

Silkworm (tussur) in India ... ... ... ... ... 193

Sisal hemp from the East Africa, Uganda, and Nyasaland Pro-
tectorates ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 160

Sleeping Sickness Bureau, Bullefi?t of the... ... ... ... 248

Soils from Nyasaland ... ... ... ... ... ... 24

Soils, their For7nation, Properties, Compositio7i and Relation to Climate

and Plant Growth in Humid and Arid Regions ... ... 134

^^'<2 >^/j;^zV/<:?, cultivation and utilisation ... ... ... ... 308

„ „ seeds ... ... ... ... ... ... 95

Soy bean cakes ... ... ... ... ... ... 313

„ „ , cultivation and utilisation ... ... ... ... 308

„ „ oil ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 312

,, beans ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 95

Soymida roupalifolia timber irovci ihe ^\xd.2.xi ... ... 20,23

Sponges from Bermuda ... ... ... ... ■•. 94

Starch (cassava) from Fiji .. ... .. ... ••. 271

Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States, recent reports from

agricultural and technical departments ... no, 221, 335, 427

Sudan (French), palm oil industry in ... ... ... ... 3^3

„ , recent reports from agricultural and technical departments 96, 324

„' , Sansevieria fibre from ... ... ... ... ••• 205

„ , timbers from the ... ... ... ... ••• 20

Sugar in Nyasaland ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• 47

Swaziland, Colonial Report ... ... ... ••• ••. 235

Tamba millet from Northern Nigeria ... ... ••• ..• 150

Tasmania, recent reports from agricultural and technical departments 434

Tea in Nyasaland ... ... ... .•• .•• ••• 4^

Tea, The Fertilisation of ... ... ... ..• ...241

Tetrapieura nilotica tivc^er irovci \}!\e '^MdOin ... ... ••• 20

Timbers from the Sudan... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ^o

Tobacco in Nyasaland ... ... ... .-. ••• ••• 27

Tobaccos from Nyasaland ... ... ••• ••• ••• 266

Tobago, Colonial Report ... ••• ... ••• ••• ^^^

Togoland, palm oil industry in ... .. ... ••• ••• 374

Touareg du Sud-est L Air {Les) ... ... ••• ••• 245

Transvaal, chromite ore from ... ... .-• ••• ••• '^^^

139

122

ii6,

343

170,

285

444

193

151
92

263
167

234,

346,

441

xvi Bulletin of the Imperl\l Institute.

PAGE

Transvaal, recent reports from agricultural and technical departments

97, 207, 414
Travel and Exploration
Trinidad, Colonial Report

„ , recent reports from agricultural and technical

ments
Tungsten ores, occurrence and utilisation ...
Turks and Caicos Islands, Colonial Report
Turmeric in Nyasaland
Tussur silkworm in India

Uganda, " Bolu " grain from

,, , Cotton Ordinance

„ , goats' hair and mohair from

„ , graphite from

,, Protectorate, Colonial Report and Official Gazette

„ „ , recent reports from agricultural and technical

departments ... ... ... ... 206

„ , sisal hemp from ... ... ... ... ... 160

C/>r«« fibre from Nettigandi ... ... ... ... ... 12

Utilisation of waste wood ... ... ... ... ... 73

Vahea rubber from Seychelles ... ... ... ... ... 262

Vanadium, its occurrence, preparation and uses ... ... ... 401

„ minerals ... ... ... ... ... ... 401

Vanilla in the Seychelles ... ... ... ... •••395

Victoria, recent reports from agricultural and technical departments

113,224,339,431
Voandzeia subterranea%ximsixova.^or\}c\^XT\.V.\%t.x\2, ... ... 151

Wax Craft 243

Waxes (vegetable) from Mexico ... ... ... ... .... 410

Weihaiwei, Colonial Report ... ... ... ... ... 350

West Indies, recent reports from agricultural and technical depart-
ments ... ... ... ... ... 116,228,343,436

Wheat cultivation in Nyasaland ... ... ... ... ... 47

Wheats (Indian), characters of ... ... ... ... ... 419

Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm. Eighth and Ninth Reports ... 238

Wood Products., Distillates and Extracts ... ... ... 449

Wood (waste), utilisation of ... ... ... ... ... 73

Woods of Nyasaland ... ... ... ... ... ... 5^

Ylang-ylang oil in the Phihppines ... ... ... ... 320

ONfARIQ

B8
V.7

Bulletin (imperial Institute
(Great Britain))
Bulletin

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